Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 
 in 2008 with funding from 
 
 Microsoft Corporation 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/cyclopdiaofeduOOkiddrich 
 
THE 
 
 CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION: 
 
 A 
 / DICTIONARY OF INFORMATION 
 
 FOR THE USE OF 
 
 TEACHERS, SCHOOL OFFICERS, PARENTS, AM) OTHERS. 
 
 EDITED BY 
 
 HENRY KIDDLE, 
 
 Superintendent of Public Schools, New York City, 
 AND 
 
 ALEXANDER J. SCHEM, 
 
 Superintendent of Public Schools, New York Ci 
 
 Sv 
 
 NEW YORK: E. STEIGER. 
 
 LONDON: TRUBNER & CO. 
 
 1877. 
 

 Copyright. 18T6. by E. Steiger. 
 
 
 E. Stejoer, N. Y. 
 
I 
 
 PREFACE. P(0U^J 
 
 The work here offered to the public is the first cyclopaedia of education in the English 
 language, although the need of such a work has long been felt. Cyclopaedias, both general and 
 special, are rapidly increasing in number, not only in countries in which the English language is 
 spoken, but wherever, under the influence of advancing civilization, literature flourishes, and the 
 cultivation of science and art lias enlarged the boundaries of human knowledge. Information 
 scattered through a multitude of volumes is usually inaccessible to those by whom it is most 
 needed ; and, consequently, the most important results of study and research arc often of no avail 
 to those whose special office it is to apply them to a practical purpose. Hence, the need of works 
 that present in a condensed form, and so as readily to be referred to, all the important facts in the 
 various departments of human knowledge : and. consequently, we find that it is fast becoming the 
 habit of the educated classes every-where to consult such works. In view of the large number of 
 special cyclopaedias in other departments of knowledge, and more especially of the excellenl cyclo- 
 paedias of education which ( Jermany lias pi issessei I fi >r many years, it is quite surprising that a branch 
 of knowledge so extensively valued and studied as education, should have continued, in this country 
 and in England, for so long a time without its special cyclopaedia. Accordingly, the first announce- 
 ment of this work was. on all sides, greeted with the most earnest expressions of approbation and 
 welcome. 
 
 The value of a work of this kind must, of course, depend on the plan which forms its ground- 
 work, and the accuracy and fullness with which the plan is carried out. To both of these points 
 the editors have given their undeviating attention, striving to leave nothing to be desired in 
 either respect. 
 
 The plan of the work has been constructed after a careful examination, not only of all the 
 cyclopaedias and general histories of education which have thus far appeared, lint of the principal 
 cyclopaedias, both general and special, which have been published in English or in other 
 languages. Of course, the editors did not contemplate, for a moment, the task of undertaking a 
 work of the magnitude of Schmid's great German encyclopaedia of education, which was com- 
 menced in 1859, and of which the last (Hth) volume is not yet completed, although a revised and 
 enlarged edition has already been issued of the first volume. Their design was to prepare 
 a work which, while comprehensive and complete within its scope, would lie of moderate 
 size, and woidd be completed within a reasonable time — a work which, while useful to all. would, 
 like the dictionary, be upon every teacher's desk, to be consulted whenever oeeasion might require, 
 thus affording information and practical aid at every exigency of his daily* labors. Such a work, 
 it was thought, would not only supply valuable information, but would stimulate the study of 
 pedagogy, still very widely neglected because of the want of a. brief but comprehensive embodiment 
 of the whole subject. 
 
 In accordance with these views, the editors now present, a little more than two years after the 
 first announcement of the work, a single volume of nearly '.mil pages, in which they have endeavored 
 to treat, in alphabetical order, of all the subjects, which they have deemed to come within the 
 limits of their plan, embracing the following general topics : (1) Tkeo ry 0/ Education and In- 
 struction (pedagogy and didactics), including a consideration of the principles of education, in each of 
 its departments, with practical suggestions as to the best methods of applying them, both in training 
 and instruction. In this connection, it will be found that every subject ordinarily embraced in the 
 school or college curriculum has been carefully treated in its relation to practical education, 
 special attention having been given to the department of language, both the classical and the im- 
 portant modern languages being separately considered. (2) School Economy, including the organ- 
 
 541951 
 
ization and management of schools, also discipline and class teaching. (3) The Administration of 
 Schools and Sellout Systems — embracing supervision, examinations, school hygiene, school architect- 
 ure, co-education of the sexes, etc. (4) Governmental Policy in regard to Education — including 
 such subjects as state education, compulsory attendance laws, the secular and denominational 
 systems, etc. (5) The History of Education, giving an account of the most noted plans and 
 methods of instruction and school organization that have been proposed, or that are now in vocue, 
 as well as the history of the school system of every state and territory in the Union, and of every 
 important country in the world. Much of the matter under this section is entirely new, and will 
 be found to be of great interest, (fi) Biographical Sketches of distinguished educationists, 
 educators, and others who have been celebrated for their efforts as promoters or benefactors of 
 educational progress or enterprise. (7) Statistical and other information in regard to (a) schools 
 and other institutions of learning of different countries, states, cities (in the United States, of those 
 having a population of 1(10.11(10 and upward), and religious denominations (the latter treated with 
 considerable fullness) ; (b) different kinds of schools, as public schools, private schools, parochial 
 schools, academies and high schools, kindergartens, colleges and universities. Every important 
 college or university in the United States has been described in a separate article ; and special 
 articles also inserted on the gnat universities in England, the latter articles having been written 
 in that country. I lonsiderable care has also been taken to show what has been done, during the 
 last few years, for female education, and more particularly for the higher education of women 
 (especially in this country and in Great Britain). (8) Educational Literature, which is constantly 
 brought to the notice of the reader in connection with the various articles. As the immense mass 
 of material to be condensed within the compass of a single volume has necessitated the greatest 
 possible brevity, references are made throughout to standard works on educational science, as well 
 as to statistical works affording more detailed information. It is believed that this will prove one 
 of the most valuable features of the work. (9) The main work is followed by an Analytical 
 Index, in which reference is made to the principal topics of all the longer articles, as well as to 
 the pages on which the more important subjects are treated incidentally. 
 
 Of course, the editors of a cyclopaedia cannot lie expected to carry out their plan without 
 the support of an adequate corps of able contributors. However extensive their own information 
 may be in relation to the general subject, there must always be many topics to the details of which 
 specialists have devoted a much more minute study, and of which, therefore, their knowlcge must 
 be more comprehensive and exact. The list of special contributors which follows this preface will 
 show to what extent the editors have succeeded in securing the co-operation of distinguished 
 educators and writers in the preparation of this work. Most of the names presented will be at 
 once recognized as those of persons of well-established reputation for successful experience in 
 their respective spheres of effort. The editors deem themselves singularly fortunate in securing to 
 so large an extent the aid and co-operation of the state and city superintendents throughout this 
 country, the articles on the school systems having been prepared by them or under their direction, 
 or compiled from the latest and most accurate information officially supplied by them. The 
 articles on the different classes of professional, scientific, and denominational schools and colleges 
 have, in the main, been written by persons professionally conversant with those institutions, 
 and thus afford an amount and kind of information very difficult to obtain, but often of great 
 value to students and educators. 
 
 It is proper to say that the announcement of this work has met with a most earnest and 
 encouraging response from educators in Great Britain, and that the editors have received most 
 prompt and valuable assistance, as well as cordial co-operation, from that source, so as to enable 
 them to carry out their intention to make the usefulness of the ( 'yclopa>dia co-extensive with the 
 English-speaking race. It is, however, a cause of deep regret to the editors that a long illness. 
 terminating in death, deprived them of the cooperation of one of the ablest and most highly 
 esteemed English educators, the late Joseph Payne, who not only was among the first to afford 
 encouragement to this work when proposed, but promptly engaged to contribute a number of 
 important articles. 
 
 As a work of reference for information in regard to American institutions for higher 
 education, the Cyclopaedia will, it is hoped, prove eminently satisfactory. Great pains has 
 been taken to secure the fullest and most accurate information respecting the colleges and 
 
universities of this couutry; for which purpose, every article of this description has been submitted. 
 in proof, to the president of the institution described, and, with but very few exceptions, has 
 received the benefit of his revision. 
 
 The editors also acknowledge their indebtedness for the very full information, in regard to 
 the educational work of the various religious denominations of the United States and Great 
 Britain, which they have received from distinguished members of those denominations. Very 
 much of this information could have been obtained by no other means than by along official 
 connection with the educational boards of the churches, and. to a considerable extent, is now- 
 supplied exclusively by this work. 
 
 To all the contributors the thanks of the editors are due for a support without which the 
 work could not have been completed — at any rate, could not have possessed the value which may. 
 with considerable confidence, be attributed to it : and certainly could not have earned the approval 
 which it may justly be expected to receive. The editors, also, take occasion to express their 
 obligations to the man}' friends who, though not special contributors, have afforded valuable aid 
 in the revision of special articles, in giving important advice, or in affording needed information. 
 
 [n these few remarks, the editors have briefly stated the object they have striven to attain, 
 and some of the instrumentalities of which they have availed themselves ; but they are by no 
 means so presumptuous as to suppose they have produced a work without fault or blemish. The 
 Cyclopaedia, it must be borne in mind, is but a pioneer, opening out. it is to be hoped, a wide 
 path for further literary and professional effort in the same direction. It will, doubtless, share 
 the fate of all books of its class, in which the habitual reader, as well as the scrutinizing critic, by 
 the side of that which elicits his approval, meets with statements that are capable of improvement 
 or that require collection. In every future edition of the work, pains will be taken to correct what 
 is faulty and to improve what is imperfect ; and any assistance which those who appreciate the 
 aim of the work may be able to render to that end. will be gratefully acknowledged. 
 
 The progress of education in all the countries of the world is now so rapid and so manifold. 
 that every reader of this Cydopcedia will, after the lapse of a short time, feel the need of a 
 systematic continuation of large classes of articles. States and cities add. from year to year, to 
 their educational history: new names of educators and educational writers constantly loom up; new- 
 educational laws are enacted ; and new courses of studies are proposed and tried. 'I he discussion 
 of the great educational questions of the day continues with increasing earnestness, and no year 
 passes without producing educational works which, in one respect or another, excel those 
 previously issued. The editors and the publisher of the Cydopcedia are now maturing, and. in due 
 course of time, will announce, an annual publication, or Supplement to the Cydopcedia of Educa- 
 tion, in which will be collected such new information as may appear to them to be of most value. 
 and in which, they hope, to establish a kind of central organ for all who are anxious to co- 
 operate in that grandest aim of the human race — the proper education of the rising generation. 
 New York, March 17th, 1877. 
 
A LIST OP THE PRINCIPAL 
 
 CONTRIBUTORS TO THE CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Prof. E. B. Andrews, Ijuicaster, O. 
 
 Hun. Ems A. Apgah, Supt. Public lnstruc- 
 tiuii, New Jersey. 
 New Jersey. 
 Prof. Tn. Apeel, Franklin and Marshall Col- 
 lege, Lancaster, Pa. 
 
 Keforined Churches (m part). 
 Eev. John G. Baird, Asst, .Sec. Board of Edu- 
 cation. Connecticut. 
 
 Wm. I (LAND Boi RNE, New York. 
 
 Si'tnu. Samuel W. 
 Prof. B. I'. I!ii\\.\e. Boston University. 
 
 Eev. Dr. R. L. Breck. Chancellor Central Uni- 
 versity, Richmond, Ky. 
 Presbyterians (in part). 
 
 Hon. Dan. 1>. BRiGGS,Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Michigan. 
 
 Michigan. 
 
 Henry B. Buckham, A. M., Principal State 
 Normal School. Buffalo. N. Y. 
 Buffalo. 
 
 Norman A. Calkins, Asst. Supt. Schools, New- 
 York. 
 
 Color. 
 Number, 
 
 Numeral Frame. 
 
 M. P. t Avert. A. M., Rhinebeck, N. Y. 
 
 New York (State). 
 
 Henry Chettle, M. A., late Fellow of Exeter 
 College, Oxford University, England. 
 Oxford University. 
 
 Hon. Edward CoNANT.Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Vermont. 
 
 Hon. J. C. Corbin, late Supt. Public Instruc- 
 tion. Arkansas. 
 
 Rev. Dr. E. T. Corwin, Millstone, N. J. 
 
 Reformed Churches in part . 
 George H. Curtis, Prof, of M iisic, New York. 
 
 Music, 
 
 Sillgillg-Sri 1m. 
 
 Voice, Culture of the. 
 
 Rev. Dr. S. S. CVtting, Cor. Sec. Baptist Edu- 
 cational Society. Brooklyn, \. V. 
 
 Baptists. 
 Prof. E. II. Day, Normal College, New York. 
 
 Geology, 
 
 Mineralogy, 
 
 Hon. W. 
 City. 
 
 Supt. Schools, Jersey 
 
 James Donaldson, LL. D., Rector of the High 
 School of Edinburgh, and Editor of the Edu- 
 cational Seas. 
 
 Education (Theory of), 
 
 England (in part). 
 
 Instruction, 
 
 Memory, 
 
 Science, The Teai -hlnji of (part I.), 
 
 senses, Kducal ion el the. 
 
 Dr. A. Douai, Irvington, N. J. 
 Developing Method (in part), 
 liar. Cultivation of.— an L other articles. 
 
 Prof. W. E. Griffis, late of the Imperial Col- 
 lege, Tokio, Japan. 
 
 Miss .Mary Gurney, of the Women's Education 
 Union, London, England. 
 
 W oineli. Higher education of. 
 Hon. 11. M. Hale. Supt. Public Inst ruction. 
 Colorado. 
 
 Colorado (in part). 
 
 Prof. Wm. G. Hammond. Law Department Iowa 
 State University, Iowa City. 
 
 Law Schools. 
 Thomas F. Harrison. Asst. Supt. of Schools. 
 New York. 
 
 Geography. 
 Dr. E. 0. Haven. Chancellor Syracuse Univer- 
 sity, Syracuse, N. Y. 
 Methodists (in part). 
 J. W. Hawes, New York. 
 
 College (in part). 
 Harvard University, 
 
 Yale College, —and other articles on American 
 colleges and universities. 
 Rev. TV. TV. Hicks, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Florida. 
 
 Florida (in part), 
 lion. T. TV. Higginson, Newport. 1!. 1. 
 
 Rhode Island. 
 
 Prof. Chari.es T. Himes. Dickinson College, 
 ( 'ailisle. Pa. 
 Chemistry. 
 Dr. Fred. Hoffmann, New York. 
 
 Pharmaceutical Schools. 
 
 Hon. Henry Hon k. Dep. Supt. Public In- 
 struction, Pennsylvania. 
 Pennsylvania, 
 
 Thomas Hunter, A. M.. President Normal Col- 
 lege, New York. 
 
 Teachers' Seminaries. 
 
 Rev. Dr. I. F. Hirst, Pres. Drew Theological 
 Seminary, Madison, N. J. 
 
 Rev. Dr. E. T. Jeffers, Pres. Westminster Col- 
 lege, New Wilmington, Pa. 
 
 'reshyterkuis 
 
 part i. 
 
Prof. D. P. Kidder, Drew Theological Semina- 
 ry, Madison. N.J. 
 Sunday-Schools, 
 
 Theological Schools. ^ 
 
 Albert Klamroth, late Commissioner of Com- 
 mon Schools, New York. 
 
 Rev. Prof. K. '■■ Klose, Moravian Theological 
 Seminary, Bethlehem, Pa. 
 
 W. H.Larrabee, New York. 
 
 Franc kc, A. II.,— :m,l ullirr biographical articles. 
 
 Dr. Edwin Leigh, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 Illiteracy, 
 Phonetics. 
 
 E. M. Leverson, Ph. D., Denver, Col. 
 
 Social Economy, 
 Dr. J. Berrien Limisi.ey. Nashville, Tenn. 
 
 Nashville University, 
 
 Presbyterians (m put). 
 ■I. M. Logan, Princ. Springfield School, Pitts- 
 burgh, Pa. 
 
 Pittsburgh. 
 \V. MacDonald, High School of Edinburgh, 
 Scotland. 
 
 England (in part , 
 Ireland in part). 
 
 Wilson MacDonald, Artist, New York. 
 
 Art-Education. 
 Hon. .1. M. McKenzie, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Nebraska. 
 
 Nebraska (in part . 
 Hon. J. M. McKleroy, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Alabama. 
 
 Alabama in part 
 Prof. Francis A. March, Lafayette College, 
 Easton, Pa. 
 
 Anglo-Saxon, 
 Belles-Lettres, 
 Classics, Christian, 
 English, the Study or, 
 Lafayette College, 
 Orthography. 
 Prof. J. M. 0. Mkiki.ejohn, University of St. 
 Andrews, Scotland. 
 
 Thomas Mi 
 College, I 
 
 Fellow of Queens' 
 ,nd . 
 
 Prof. 0. W. Morris, late of the Deaf and Dumb 
 [nst., New York. 
 
 Deaf-Mutes in part. 
 Prof. Edward Olney, University of Michigan. 
 
 Algebra, 
 Arithmetic, 
 
 Mathematics. 
 
 S. S. Packard, of Packard Business College, 
 New York. 
 
 Hook-keeping, 
 Business Colleges. 
 
 Hon. John D. Philbrick, Supt. Schools, Bos- 
 ton, Mass. 
 Boston. 
 Hon. T. L. Pickard, Supt. Schools. < !hicago, 111. 
 
 Chicago. 
 Prof. A. Rausohexbusch, Theol. Seminary, 
 Rochester, N. Y. 
 Mennonltes. 
 Hon. Andrew J. Rickoff, Supt. Schools. I 'levc- 
 land. 0. 
 
 Cleveland. 
 
 Prof. I. P. Roberts, Cornell University. Ithaca. 
 
 N. Y. 
 
 Agricultural Colleges. 
 C. C. Rounds, Princ. State Normal School. Ear- 
 
 niington, Me. 
 
 Win. H. Ruffner, LL. D., Supt, Public In- 
 struction, Virginia. 
 Virginia. 
 
 Prof. Ciiari.es A. Sciilegel, Normal < 'ollegc, 
 
 New York. 
 
 Mager, Karl. 
 Prof. David B. Scott, College of the City of 
 
 New York. 
 
 New York, College of the City of, 
 
 Oral Instruction, 
 
 Rhetoric. 
 Edward Seguin, M. D., New York. 
 
 Thermometry, Educational. 
 Hon. R. D. Shannon, Supt, Public Instruction, 
 Missouri. 
 
 Missouri. 
 Hon. .1. W. Simonds, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 Hon. .1. II. Smart, Supt. Public Instruction, 
 Indiana. 
 
 Indiana in part . 
 
 Prof. W u.tkr Smith, State Director, Art Edu- 
 cation, Mass. 
 Drawing. 
 William L. Stone, Jr., New York. 
 
 Stone, William L. 
 
 Don. John SwETT.late Supt. Public Instruction, 
 ( Jalifornia. 
 
 California, 
 
 San Francisco (in part:. 
 
 Rev. Dr. I. N. Tarbox, Cor. Sec. Amer. Educ. 
 Society. Boston, Mass. 
 
 Congregat ionalists. 
 
 Rev. Dr. II. A. Thompson, Pres. Otterbein Uni- 
 versity, 'Westerville, 0. 
 
 r nlted Brethren in Christ. 
 I). L. Thompson. I'lainfield. N. J. 
 Genius, 
 
 l.ncke, John.- ami ..Hi. r articles. 
 
 J. S. Thornton, B. A., University College 
 School, London, England. 
 
 King's College London . 
 London, University of, 
 Murray. Lindley, 
 
 Owens College Manchester, England), 
 Preceptors, College of, 
 Rousseau, 
 
 University College London). 
 William Ii. Wait, Supt. New York Institution 
 for the Blind. 
 
 Blind, Education of the in part;. 
 
 S Walker, University College School. London, 
 England. 
 
 \\ ,,i king Men's College Louden). 
 
 II. L. Wavland, Editor of The National Bap- 
 tist, Philadelphia. 
 
 Wavland, Francis. 
 
 Rev. Dr. J. P. Weston, Pres. Dean Academy, 
 Franklin, Mass. 
 
 fjniversalists. 
 Prof. J. H. Worman, Norwich, N. Y. 
 Hebrews, 
 Plato, 
 
 Koine,— and other articles. 
 It. M. Wyckoff, M. D.. Brooklyn, N. Y. 
 
 Medical Schools in part . 
 
 V. Zinsser, M. D., New York. 
 
 Medical Schools (in parti. 
 
ABACUS Kir. n St,;, a slab or board), a piece 
 of school apparatus, used to facilitate the teach- 
 ing of children to count, and perform other sim- 
 ple arithmetical operations. Various forms of 
 the abacus arc employed as counting or adding 
 machines. Such a contrivance was much used 
 among the ancients: and in China, quite long 
 and difficult computations are performed by 
 means of such an instrument, called swan-pan. 
 (See Numeral Frame.) 
 
 ABBOT, Benjamin, LL. D., distinguished 
 for his long connection with Phillips Academy, 
 Exeter, V II.. of which institution he was the 
 
 per 
 
 d of fifty 
 
 from 17*8 
 
 Everett. Of: it in 
 ABBOTT, Rev. 
 ,'inan, teacher, and 
 ell, Me., in L803. 
 ollege m 1820. II. 
 S and natural phi 
 
 of the M. 
 
 principal 
 
 to 1838. He was a graduateof Harvard t 'ollege. 
 He died at Exeter in 1849, at the advanced age 
 of 86 years. Edward Everett delivered one of 
 his graceful and elegant speeches on the occasion 
 of the retirement of l>r. Abbot from the prin- 
 cipalship of Phillips Exeter Academy. — See 
 and Speeches. 
 
 . Jacob, a distinguished cler- 
 luthor, was bom af I fallo- 
 n:l graduated at Bowdoin 
 ivas professor of niathemat- 
 isophy in Amherst College 
 md afterwards took charge 
 : school tor girls, in Boston. 
 In connection with education, he is chiefly noted 
 for his numerous books for the young, among 
 which may be particularly mentioned the Unlit* 
 
 Books, the Franc a Stories,th Em -Story 
 
 Books, Science for the Pi in 17'. 71 cher. 
 
 A full catalogue of his publications embraces 
 about 200 titles. Be has also edited many other 
 e lucational works, and compiled a series of read- 
 ing books. His brothers, Rev. Gorham 1>. and 
 Rev. John S. I '.. are also noted for their labors 
 in the field of educational and literary effort. 
 
 ABC, the first three letters of the English 
 alphabet, often used to denote the alphabet itself: 
 as, "To learn A I! (' is fell fco be extremely irk- 
 some by the infant." Taylor [See Alphabet.) 
 A-B-C BOOX, a primer, or little book used 
 to learn the alphabet and its simplest combina- 
 tions, with the most rudimental lessons in read- 
 
 A-B-C METHOD. See Alphabet Method. 
 
 ABECEDARIAN. This word, formed from 
 the names of the first four letters of the alpha- 
 bet, is generally used to denote a pupil who has 
 not advanced beyond the most elementary stage 
 of school or book education, that is, who is 
 learning A B C, or the alphabet. The name 
 has been sometimes applied to one engaged in 
 teaching the alphabet. (See Reading, and Word 
 Method.) 
 
 1 
 
 A-B-C S~H.OOTER.S(Germ. ATiC-Schutsen), 
 pupils of those scholastic vagrants who, during 
 a certain period of the middle ages, and even 
 later, used to wander through many parts of ( Ger- 
 many, giving instruction to such pupils as they 
 could pick up, who accompanied them in their 
 journeyings. These itinerant teachers were called 
 Bacchants, from their disorderly lives and their 
 disposition to indulge in wild revels. Their 
 pupils were of ten obliged to purloin food, fowls, 
 etc., to supply their masters' wants, and hence 
 were called, partly in derision of their elementary 
 knowledge, A-B-C Shooters — shunt, in their 
 aarlance, being the slang word for steal. — See 
 -k'HMiD, Encyclopadie; and Barn aed, American 
 Journal of Education, vol. v. 
 
 ABELARD, or Abailard, Pierre, one of 
 the most famous teachers of philosophy and 
 theology in the middle ae.es. was born in 
 Nantes, in 1079, died April 21st, 1142, at St. 
 Marcel, near ( lhalons sur Saone. A pupil of 
 William of Chainpeaux in philosophy, and of 
 Anselm of Laon in theology, he became the 
 dreaded and hated rival of both, as they found 
 themselves entirely ei lip.-cd by the cosmopolitan 
 reputation of their pupil, w" 
 warded in the I hi i-tian wm 
 all living teacher.-. '1 he tr. 
 for his pupil Heloise, wh< 
 closed to him the higher ei 
 and drove him into the austi 
 of monastic life; but his tl 
 sophical writings continued to keep the < Christian 
 world in a high state of excitement. His opin- 
 ions were repeatedly condemned by councils 
 and synods as heretical, but he always preferred 
 submission to the sentence of the Church rather 
 than open defiance. His influence on the schools 
 of the middle ages was, without doubt, greater 
 than that of any of his contemporaries, tie in- 
 troduced dialectics into theology, and thus, as 
 Cousin says, "contributed more than any other 
 to the f. undation of s. holasticism." 
 
 A complete edition of the works of Abelard 
 was published by Cousin (2 vols.. Paris, 1849— 
 1859), containing also valuable notes by the 
 editor. Among the best biographical works on 
 Abelard are those by Remusat (Abelard, 2 vols., 
 Paris, 1845), and Wilkens (Peter Abalard, 
 (idttingen. 1855). — See also Schmidt, Geschichte 
 der Padagogik. 
 
 ABERCROMBIE, John, M. D., was 
 born at Aberdeen, in 1781, and died in 1844. 
 In his profession as a physician he rose to great 
 eminence, and was widely distinguished for bis 
 writings on medical subjects. In connection 
 with education, he is noted for his Inquiries con- 
 
 tune was re- 
 
 1 of his love 
 had seduced, 
 .al dignities, 
 id retirement 
 d and philo- 
 
ABIXUDOX COU.WiK 
 
 earning the Intellectual Pou 
 ophy of the Moral Feelin 
 possess great merit, and hi 
 sively used as school text 
 edited and adapted to the- , 
 
 The Philos- 
 
 c two works 
 
 quite exten- 
 
 'I hey were 
 
 •hiii ils in this 
 
 ABINGDON COLLEGE, at Abingdon, 111. 
 
 founded in April. l>OH. The mm, her of student 
 in the institution in is;:, was about L80. It 
 has an endowment of $20,000. The collegi 
 building is a handsome edifice well supplied with 
 modern furniture and appliances. 'I here an 
 
 al i 1000 volumes in the library, besides which 
 
 the institution has a museum and laboratory. 
 'I li ■ names of its successive presidents are Patrick 
 
 Murphy..]. W. Butler,! hral Pirkey. The 
 
 annual tuition fee i.-. fr >-o to .-';::'. 
 
 ABSENTEEISM is opposed to regularity'in 
 
 the attendance of pupils belonging to a scl I; 
 
 that is. the number of school sessions from which 
 a pupil was absent, a- compare 1 with the numb i 
 
 period, gives the absenteeism oi tne i>u]>ii tor 
 
 that period 'Hi- avi rage daily attendant E 
 
 pupils divided by the average daily enrollment- 
 the "average number belonging" shows the per- 
 centage of attendance ; and this subtracted from 
 LOO gives, of course, the percentage "i' absentee- 
 ism. Within certain limits, this is a criterion 
 of efficiency of management ami instruction. 
 
 Class teachers who interest their pupils ni s- 
 
 sarily secure a more regular attendance than 
 those who fail in this respect : ami principals of 
 
 scl Is who keep a careful watch over all the 
 
 pupils belonging to their schools, strictly and 
 uniformly enforcing wholesome rules of disci- 
 pline, and carefully notifying parents of the ab- 
 sence of their children, inquiring into the cause 
 of the Mine, and admonishing both parents and 
 pupils of the need of strict regularity, will, of 
 course, succeed best in this regard. Where the 
 basis for computing the degree of absenteeism is 
 the average enrollment, and where regularity of 
 attendance is made a test of efficient manage- 
 ment, teachers will be more careful to keep the 
 number of pupils on the rolls as little as possible 
 above the average attendance. Hence, to render 
 this test reliable, a uniform rule should lie follow- 
 ed in the discharging of pupils for non attend- 
 ance. Such a rule has ben adopted in many 
 cities of the Union, any pupil's name being in- 
 variably dropped from the roll after a certain 
 number of days of absence, however caused. 
 This is based on the principle that irregularity of 
 attendance being at school one day, one week, 
 
 or one month, and absent the next is not only of 
 
 no profit to the pupil concerned, but a positive 
 
 injury to the other pupils, and is a serious hin- 
 drance and embarrassment to the teacher in the 
 management of the school. To some extent ab- 
 senteeism thus computed may indicate al-o the 
 
 prevailing tone of the community in regard to 
 education the degree of appreciation of the 
 
 as inducing parents to sacrifice their own personal 
 
 advantage, in the employment of their childre 
 
 ployrr 
 
 lattel 
 
 to the interests of thelatter.in enjoying- the bet 
 fits of school instruction. 
 
 ■■Absenteeism'' is also technically applied to a 
 total neglect of school attendance by a part of the 
 school population of any place. This is exhibited 
 by a comparison of the average attendance of 
 pupils with the census of children of school age. 
 
 ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE. These 
 terms have a very important application in many 
 
 only conceived as belonging to particular objects 
 or substances. 'I hits, if we speak of a man. a horse, 
 a tree, etc.. we use abstract or general ideas; 
 for we are not thinking of any particular object 
 of the class, but only of the assemblage of qual- 
 ities or characteristics that especially belong to 
 all the members of the class. But when we 
 mention such names as ( icero. Washington John 
 Smith, etc., we have in our mind a conception of 
 the characteristics that served to distinguish those 
 persons from all other men. 'I hus.thc expression 
 five pounds represents a concrete idea ; the word 
 five, an abstract one. 
 
 The immature minds of young children em- 
 ploy to a great extent concrete ideas, and hence 
 the instruction addressed especially to them 
 should deal principally with these. As the mind 
 advances, it becomes more and more occupied 
 
 with abstract conceptions, which constitute the 
 material for till the higher forms of thought and 
 
 ACADEMY Kir. \UmV''' or '- u "' , '/ 1 "''") was 
 originally the name of a pleasure ground near 
 Athens, and was said to be so called after Aca- 
 ilemus. a local hero at the time of the Trojan 
 war. Its shady walks became a favorite resort 
 for Plato : and. as he was accustomed to lecture 
 here to his pupils and friends, the school of phi- 
 losophers which was founded by him was called 
 the Academic School, or merely the Academy. 
 In the history of ancient philosophy, three dif- 
 ferent academies are distinguished, the Old Acad- 
 emy, formed by the immediate followers of 
 Plato, the Middle Academy, founded, about 244, 
 by Arcesilaus, and the New Academy, whose 
 founder was Carneades, about Kid B. C. Some- 
 
 Antiochus are calle 
 the Fifth Academ 
 
 rth 
 
 
 Hones. During the 
 
 lie ages, the term was but little used for 
 •arned institutions; but, after the revival of 
 lassical studies in the L5th century, it again be- 
 anie frequent. In a widerscnse.it was some- 
 imes applied to higher institutions of 
 a general. Gradually, however its use 
 nost countries, restricted to special schools, as 
 
ACADEMY 
 
 ACCOMPLISHMENTS 
 
 academies of mining, of commerce, of forestry, i ami tlicir influence on other educi 
 of fine arts. and. especially, of music. In Fug- tutions has been considerable. 'II 
 land and the United States, the national high franraisc is the highest authority 
 
 'I In 
 
 the Naval Aea lemv at [ '..rtsni. .utli. ami the French 
 
 Royal Military Academy at Woolwich; and the et bellta 
 
 United States, the Military Academy at Wesl its atte 
 
 Point, and the Naval Academy at Annapolis. French 
 
 In the United States, the name has also been Spain, 
 
 assume 1 by a large number of secondary schools countrit 
 
 common ami higher bra 
 
 
 they arc. in nearly all c 
 
 ses, private institutions, 
 
 independent of any cont 
 
 rol bystate boards, their 
 
 courses or' instruction vvi 
 
 lely differ ran- from 
 
 
 to the highest classes of 
 
 grammar and high schi 
 
 ols. They arc usually 
 
 
 ^hools. 
 
 The nam-' - m ny 
 
 3 also employed to des- 
 
 ^emetttTof science i 
 
 ,'l arl Someof these 
 
 
 
 others have been Foun 
 
 "1 bv the stale. '1 h • 
 
 first academy of this ki 
 
 ill was th ■ Museum of 
 
 Alexandria, in Egypt, 
 Ptolemy Soter. After 
 
 vhich was founded by 
 
 us mo 1 1 the .lews, to- 
 
 ward the cl >f the first 
 
 eentury ot the I Ihristian 
 
 caliphs established acad 
 
 ». laic. th-. Arabian 
 
 resilience, to show their l 
 
 iteresl in the promotion 
 
 of science. Efforts to i 
 
 stablish 1 hristian acad- 
 
 emies of this kind wer 
 
 ma le by Gregory the 
 
 Great and Charlemagne, 
 
 but both failed, It was 
 
 not until the mi Idle of tl 
 
 ■fifteenth century, that 
 
 associations of this kind 
 
 were formed in Italy for 
 
 the purpose of fostering 
 
 the fr levelopment of 
 
 science and art, in oppos 
 
 tion to the rigid conser- 
 
 vatism of the monastic ! 
 
 i.l ecclesiastica] scl Is. 
 
 They gave special attent 
 
 on to the cultivation of 
 
 the Italian language am 
 
 literature. It wases- 
 
 peciallythe Accademia t 
 
 eUa Orusca, founded at 
 
 Florence by the poet 
 
 Jrazaani, to which the 
 
 Italian language is inde 
 
 iteil for its purification 
 
 ami (levelopment. Front Italy. these institutions 
 spread to the other countries of Europe : and. as 
 they became the centers of literary activity, they 
 exercised everv-where a prominent influence 
 upon the intellectual progress of the several 
 countries, and, especially, upon the improvement 
 and regulation of the native tongue. Prominent 
 among these academies, was the Academic fran- 
 paise, instituted, in L635, by Cardinal Riche- 
 lieu. In 17!)a, it was united with three other 
 French academies into the Institut national, 
 the name of which was changed by Louis XVI 
 into Institut de France. The Institute con- 
 sisted then of four academies: (1) l'Academie\ 
 frangaise, ('-') VAcademie des inscriptions et 
 belles left res, (3) VAcademie des sciences, (A) 
 VAcademie des beaux arts. A fifth academy. 
 VAcademie des sciences morales et poliHques, 
 was added in 1832. These academies are among 
 the most important of the kind in the world, 
 
 tonal msti- 
 
 ■ Aeademie 
 ipon every- 
 !• rench lan- 
 tion of the 
 nseriptions 
 
 ■ eh] MS i 
 
 Like the 
 
 ■ capitals of 
 and other 
 
 •at national 
 •e and art; 
 
 effected in 
 iteil States. 
 i orrespond- 
 iem es have 
 inn,. Eng- 
 lemyofarts 
 
 F68) and a 
 
 academy of 
 
 at Dublin (founded i.'i 1782).- In the United 
 States of America there are also a number of 
 learned societies to which the name academy, 
 in the sense used on the continent of Europe, 
 
 the. -I.Wc; 
 
 Academy of 
 
 led in 1780), 
 
 of Natural 
 a 1818). the 
 5 (established 
 ' Design, at 
 
 lit tl . le,,,/- 
 Academy of 
 jo ss, March 
 [ihia. Brook- 
 , the princi- 
 yofkusic. 
 lis term, as 
 
 ACCOMPLISHMENTS. T 
 
 contrasted with culture, refers to those educa- 
 tional acquirements which fit a person for certain 
 special activities, while culture has r< icience to 
 the general improvement of the character or 
 
 mental faculties. Bence the expressi external 
 
 accomplish- 
 mges, music, 
 olved in this 
 if display, or 
 .awaken ad- 
 he Spectator 
 le graces of 
 
 drawing, painting, dancing, 
 application of the term, is t 
 the ability to please, or the 
 
 dress and 
 Accom 
 tttal, as 
 
 her purely intellec- 
 .r partly or wholly 
 
 formerly, sidered as indispensable accomplish- 
 ments; but of these, at the present time, rowing 
 seems to take precedence, as contributing to a 
 healthy development of the physical system. 
 
4 ACCOMPLISHMENTS 
 
 In many classes of schools, particularly in 
 private seminaries, the acquisition of certain orna- 
 mental accomplishments constitutes the chief end 
 of education. Were these accomplishments based 
 on a solid culture of the intellectual and moral 
 nature, they would be very proper and desirable; 
 but being merely showy and superficial, they 
 constitute a perversion of the true end of edtt- 
 
 vate i 
 esty ? 
 
 would 
 
 ADAMS 
 
 circumstances and in the time proposed, be ac- 
 complished so as to give the pupils who are to 
 pursue it, a thorough knowledge of the subject, 
 as well as the ability to apply it to some prac- 
 tical purpose. The peculiar talent, or bent of 
 mind, of children should be regarded, in the at- 
 tempt to bestow upon them ornamental ac- 
 complishments, such as music and. drawing, ex- 
 cept such elementary portions of these arts as arc 
 within the capacity of all. and which constitute, 
 
 woidd 
 
 would spring from purity of heart. I he folly 
 and wrong of giving this exclusive attention to 
 mere accomplishments have very frequently been 
 a subject of satirical invective. Says Sydney 
 Smith : "A woman of accomplishments may 
 entertain those who have the pleasure of knowing 
 her for half an hour with ".Teat brilliancy ; but a 
 mind full of ideas, and with that elastic spring 
 which the love of knowledge only can convey, is 
 a perpetual source of exhilaration and amuse- 
 ment to all that come within its reach. Therefore, 
 instead of hanging tli • understanding of a woman 
 upon walls, or hearing it vibrate upon strings, 
 instea 1 of se ing it in clouds.or hearing it in the 
 wind, we would make it the first spring and or- 
 nament of society, by enriching it with attain- 
 ments, upon which alone such power depends." 
 Goldsmith also inveighed severely against this 
 practice in his time. -'Another passion," he 
 says, " which the present age is apt to run into 
 is, to make children learn all things, the lan- 
 guages, the sciences, music the exercises, and 
 painting. Thus the child soon becomes a talker 
 in all, but a master in none. He thus acquires 
 a superficial fondness for everything, and only 
 shows his ignorance, when he attempts to exhibit 
 his skill." The tendency of the present time, in 
 what is called fashionable education, is equally 
 subject to the same unfavorable criticism. Ac- 
 complishments, in the first stages of education. 
 are to be regarded as secondary to the solid im- 
 provement of the mind. Those rudimentary at- 
 tainments which constitute the 1 lasis of all school 
 education, and are indispensable to any further 
 progress, namely, reading, spelling, writing, and 
 arithmetic, must of course be made; to which 
 should be added the ability to use one's own lan- 
 guage, in speaking and writing, with tolerable 
 ease and propriety. A common-school educa- 
 tion should give great prominence to these, as 
 not only constituting the acquirements most 
 generally needed for success in life, but as placing 
 in the hands of the pupils the keys to future 
 progress in learning. 
 
 Accomplishment, being derived from the 
 French accomplir,to finish or complete, may be 
 contrasted with smattering, a mere superficial 
 acquirement of some of the prominent or nidi - 
 mental parts of any subject. No educational 
 scheme should admit of the study of any branch 
 of knowledge which cannot, under the given 
 
 ACQUISITION. The acquisition oi knowl- 
 edge must be, to a certain extent, the scope of 
 every process of teaching. Sometimes it is the 
 primary object ; but, in the earlier stages of edu- 
 cation, it is generally secondary, the educative 
 value of the process taking precedence of the prac- 
 tical importance of the knowledge communicated. 
 The acquisition of new ideas must always, more 
 or less, improve the mind by affording additional 
 material for the exercise of its various faculties; 
 but. in education, what particular faculties are 
 concerned in the study of any subject or branch 
 of knowledge, is a matter of paramount im- 
 portance, and therefore should never be lost 
 sight of by the teacher. Where this is disre- 
 garded, instruction is apt to degenerate into mere 
 rote-teaching; and the teacher will often rest 
 satisfied when his pupil can repeat the formula: 
 of knowledge, without evincing the acquisition 
 of new ideas.on which alone the improvement of 
 the mind depends. 
 
 ACROAMATIC METHOD (Gr. Upoaua- 
 tikoc to be heard, designed for hearing only), a 
 
 name originally applied to tin t ri b " ung 
 
 of Aristotle and other Greek philosophers, to 
 designate such as were confined to their imme- 
 diate hearers, and not committed to writing. 
 Later, the term has been applied to a system of 
 instruction in which the teacher speaks and the 
 pupil only listens. A method of this kind, of 
 course, presupposes scholars of a certain maturity 
 (jf age and of considerable progress in intellectual 
 culture. It forms the basis of the lecture system. 
 (See Lecture.) 
 
 ADAM, Alexander, LL. D., was born in 
 Scotland, in 17-11, and died in L809. He at- 
 tained a high distinction as a teacher while I lector 
 of the High School at Edinburgh (1768—1808). 
 He was also the author of several educational 
 
 text-1 ks, among which his Roman Antiquities 
 
 (1791) has been very extensively used in this 
 country and in < ireat Rritain. 
 
 ADAMS, John, Hi. D., was born in Can- 
 terbury, Ct., in 1772, and died in Jacksonville, 
 111., in 1863. lie was noted both as a teacher 
 and a philanthropist. After graduating at Vale 
 College, in 1795, he taught the academy in 
 his native town, and subsequently other schools, 
 till, in 1810, he became principal of I'hillips 
 Academy, \ndo\er. Mass.. in which position he 
 continued for twenty-three years. In 1833, he 
 removed to Illinois, and was very active in effed 
 ing improvements in the school system of that 
 
ADRIAN COLLEGE 
 
 State. His labors in connection with various 
 benevolent institutions in both States, were mi- 
 
 id ability with which he devoted himseJl to the 
 
 ADRIAN COLLEGE, at Adrian, Mich., 
 as founded in L859, by the Methodists. The 
 amber of students is' about 200, males and 
 imales, about one fourth of whom belong to the 
 tlleoiate department It has a classical and 
 rientific course of instruction, a school of theol- 
 ry, a school oi music, and a normal class. Its 
 ,i|,s of instructors numbers twelve, and it has 
 ie endowed professorship. The number of 
 ilumes in its library is about L000; its endow- 
 
 ,ent isS ,000. Rev. G. B McElroy, D.D., is 
 
 ie president of the Institution (1876). The 
 
 lition fee is very small. 
 
 ADU1jT3, Schools for. The proper time 
 i obtain instruction is during the periods of 
 
 .ESTHETIC CULTURE 5 
 
 and girls to the 16th or L8th year of age. Sev- 
 eral states made attendance at these schools ob- 
 ligatory for all boys and girls who had left the 
 
 elementary scl I and not entered any higher 
 
 school. Special attention has been given to 
 
 school- of this da.-.- ill Austria « h. re the u'ov- 
 
 chanics, special classes or schools were organized 
 in which particularly instruction in drawing 
 wa.s given. The attendance at these schools is 
 always voluntary ; inmost of them the scholars 
 have to pay moderate fees: instruction is gen- 
 erally given on Sunday mornings, and, in most 
 schools, is confined to writing, arithmetic, and 
 drawing. In some of the German states, espe- 
 
 :,,r the 
 .Is for 
 Schools 
 
 tioii of tli • sehi 
 sible. (See Si 
 hood and you 
 
 bonis' instruction in the studies of a higher 
 
 ADVENTISTS. 'I his is the name of ,-c\. ral 
 ganizations of American Christians, the dis- 
 
 ,,-, i ; , secondadvent ol Chrisi and thi endo) the 
 
 aim..- v ... ■.., ■■■ o;..!i-,iii,.^ illiteracy (see Ii.ut- 
 erai the number of adults whose education, 
 duringthe proper age, has either been entire- 
 ly insufficient, or who find themselves on en- 
 tering lite, without the requisite amount of 
 
 information specially i ded in their several 
 
 avocations i. uainsasgi a1 as ever, and is even 
 likely to increase as the standard of popular 
 
 education l imes more elevated. Systematic 
 
 reading, instruction by private teachers, and, 
 mo,., recently, popular lectures, are among the 
 nrincinal aaencies for sunplementina the de- 
 
 was provided for. As the school age, in the 
 German states, only extended to the 14th year, a 
 Sunday school was specially provided for boys j 
 
 ot thisilenominal 
 
 mwereformi i 
 
 vain lost wholly 
 
 independent, and 
 
 had fewer chi 
 
 rch boards for 
 
 |nZ|atop 
 
 the United Sta 
 
 e-. '1 he great- 
 nion has been 
 
 ma It by the Sevi 
 
 nli Day Adven 
 
 ists. Thesnb- 
 
 i . of i lui ation . 
 
 
 o of a denomi- 
 
 ii itional -< boo] w 
 
 is broui la to i 
 
 •e attention of 
 
 the members ot 
 
 this denomini 
 
 lion by Elder 
 
 .lames White, and 
 
 wife, in the early part of 1872. 
 
 The matte- was 
 
 referred to a 
 
 General t om- 
 
 inittce. who, dui 
 Of March, 1,-7 1 a 
 
 5*?«u 
 
 r and autumn 
 this enterprise. 
 1. On the Kith 
 
 3 formed, under 
 
 corporation of 
 
 school edifice, 
 n four and five 
 
 Annual t 
 
 i.i. 1875, art. 
 
 Idventists; also 
 
 "their Origin, Pr 
 
 Iventists; a b 
 gress,and Pr 
 
 •ie/ sketch ■ r~ 
 nciples (Battle 
 
 Creek. 1874). 
 
 
 
 AESTHETIC 
 
 CULTURE. 
 
 See Esthetic 
 
 ( JuLTURE. 
 
 
 
6 AFFECTATION 
 
 AFFECTATION, as opposed to what is real. 
 genuine, and natural, is carefully to be guarded 
 against in the education of the young.' In certain 
 peculiarities of character, there is a pronenesB to 
 the formation oi habits of affectation in manners 
 and speech. This tendency, however, rarely 
 shows itself at an earlj age. Children generally 
 yield to their natural impulses, and do not as- 
 sume or feign what they do not feel, or, to use a 
 common expression. " put on aire." Their mode 
 of training, however, may tend to this, partic- 
 ularly if they are forced to assume an unnatural 
 mode of expression in phraseology or pronuncia- 
 tion, in the attempt to make them excessively pre- 
 cise in such matters. Sonic styles of reading and 
 elocution may lead to this characteristic; and 
 hence the importance of adopting methods that, 
 in all respects, correspond to the prevailing usage. 
 Certainly, nothing can be more disgusting than 
 the forced imitation of peculiar and unnatural 
 models of conceived propriety of speech and 
 manners, which we sometimes find to prevail 
 among the pupils of certain schools, or the "min- 
 cing airs" which are often assumed by those, both 
 male and female, but particularly the latter, who 
 affect to belong to the best society, and hence ar- 
 rogate to themselves a superior degree of refine- 
 ment. The standard of the educator should lie. 
 in every respect, that ei 
 beauty that belong to w 
 tendency to the contrar 
 promptly and sternly 
 •' Plain and rough nat 
 better than an artificial 
 studie I ways of being 
 of an accomplishment, 
 havior, coming short of the utmost graceiulne-:- 
 often scapes observation ; but affectation in any 
 part of our carriage, is lighting up a candle to 
 our defects, and never fails to make us to be 
 taken notice of. either as wanting sense or want- 
 ing sincerity."— .See Locke, Thoughts concern- 
 ing Educ ition. 
 
 AGASSIZ, Louis John Rudolph. This 
 eminent naturalist and teacher was born at 
 Motiers. near Neufchatel, in Switzerland, May 
 28., L807,and died at Cambridge, Mass., Dec.14., 
 1873. His ancestors were Huguenots, driver 
 from France by the revocation of the edict ol 
 Vint -. I lis father was th ■ pastor of a protest 
 ant parish; his mother, the daughter of a phy 
 sician. ruder the latter he received his first 
 
 e lucati ill the age of eleven, when he wai 
 
 sent to the gymnasium at Bienne, where he i ■ 
 
 ilieity. and 
 tural ; and every 
 pupils, should be 
 I. Locke says: 
 
 to itself, is much 
 fulness and such 
 med. 'I he want 
 
 professor of zoology and geology in the Lawrence 
 Scientific School. Yhcn just established, lie com- 
 menced his duties in L848, and settled per- 
 
 Natural History on IVnikc.-e I.-Iund in lsT.'l. 
 was almost the last act of hi.- life. 'I he means tor 
 founding this school were furnished by Mr. John 
 Anderson, a generous and public spirited citizen 
 of New York, who not only devoted for this ob- 
 ject the island of lVnike.-c. but the sum of 
 $50,000, as a permanent endowment Agassiz 
 had long advocated the > .-tablishment of such 
 a school for the special instruction of teachers 
 in marine zoology ; and during the Bummer of 
 1873, he devoted his time ami energies to this 
 institution, being present at every exercise and 
 lecture, and the constant companion of the 
 students. His chief publications were llrrh-r- 
 ches aurles Poissons Fossiles, 1833—1844; 
 ttudes stir As glaciers, L840; System* gla- 
 ciaire, 1847, and Contributions to die Natural 
 History of the United States. Though chiefly 
 eminent as a naturalist, and particularly in the 
 department of ichthyology, he was an accom- 
 plished linguist, being versed in six languages. 
 II, read Klato and Aristotle in the original, 
 wrote several works in eleganf I at in. and was 
 a good Hebraist. French and German were 
 to him vernacular tongues, and he could speak 
 and wine ih> English language with ease and 
 correctness, lie was a natural teacher, fond 
 of giving instruction, patient and sympathetic, 
 overflowing with an earnest love for his sub- 
 I rt.nnd having a n ind replete with stores of 
 information. His voice, look, and manner at 
 
 once gained theattenti f his pupils : and the 
 
 clearness oi bis explanations as well as the fluen- 
 cy of hi- delivery gave interest to every subject 
 upon which he .-poke. Hi- skill in ready graphic 
 delineations with chalk and blackboard was 
 astonishing, and greatly contributed to the 
 effectiveness of his teaching. Few have ever 
 made BUCh rich additions to the stores of science, 
 or have been more zealous in diffusing the bene- 
 fits of knowledge among mankind. His ex- 
 ample as a teacher has been of very great value, 
 since his system was to teach from natural ob- 
 jects rather than from books. — to enable the 
 pupil to ai quire an experience of his own before 
 presenting to his mind the results of the ex- 
 perience and observation of others. His own 
 assumed title "Louis Agassiz — Teacher," was 
 
 the one of whii h he Beei 1 to be mosi | roud . 
 
 and all teacher- should ch rish tl sample 
 
 1 1 irg a 
 
 ularly 
 
 Cubed States, being invited to deliver a course 
 of lectures at the Lowell Institute, in Boston. 
 The next year.be accepted the appointment ol 
 
 turning-point stands forth so conspicuously, that, 
 teachers at all times have chosen it as a broad 
 
line of demarcation, into whatever number of 
 periods they have thought it proper to divide 
 human life. This turning-point in life is the 
 
 Age.) Of course, instruction at such an age 
 must be limited to the must elementary rudi- 
 ments, such as reading, writing, and arithmetic 
 
 has, I >. 
 
 cati f the young man or woman for the 
 
 elude 1. Up tn this time, the e lucation of man 
 is conducted by others, chiefly parents and 
 teachers; henceforward, he is expected to edu- 
 cate himself, and to assume the education of 
 oth :rs. 
 
 During the period of life when man is depend- 
 ent upon" others for his education, three different 
 
 broadly distinguish ■ 1. chillhool. Inn- 
 hood or girihood,and youth. Th se are marked, in 
 the physical development of the body, by the 
 shedding of teeth, the entrance of puberty, and 
 the setting in .if virility. The process of mental 
 development in th ■- ■ three ages i- as different a ; 
 the physical basis ; and accordingly .each of them 
 demands a peculiar pedagogical ami didactical 
 treatment. 
 
 Childhood, which embraces the first seven 
 years of life, is characterized by the rapid growth 
 and development nf the organs (if the holy. At. 
 the age of seven a child weighs aboul six tinus 
 as much as at its birth, and it has attain; 1 on • 
 half of the stature, and about one third op. one 
 fourth of the weight of the grown man. '1 he miu 1 
 
 ement in elementary education. 
 
 il embraces the ti 
 
 froi) 
 
 completed growth of the brain, and by the first 
 onsciousness of sexual difference. Toys and 
 girls long for the free and frequent exercise of 
 their muscular systems. At the beginning of this 
 age, girls like to take an active part in the plays 
 of the boys ; but they soon show a prefi P Qce lor 
 more quiet occupations and less publicity : wliile. 
 on the other hand, boys manifesl an increased 
 
 (he prime duties of the educators of this age. to 
 
 hep the development of the natural desires and 
 
 ■] nations of the two sexes within the right 
 hatiiH'ls. 'I lie minds of boys and girls afford 
 many proofs of independent thought and 
 activity. The company of adults is not sought 
 
 opportunities for a vigorous and manifol 1 dt 
 ment. Themindmust be pres -rve 1 from de 
 weakening, or over exciting infill mc S, an 
 be kepi open for anything that is eondu 
 the development of its faculties; and, ii 
 not to become sated and confused, it must 
 to distinguish what is important from t 
 important. As the child is thoroughly dep 
 upon its educator and unable to direct it 
 exertions, it should be male to understt 
 
 will to thai of its'educatora can be follov 
 
 only evil t sequences. It should, theref 
 
 taught obedience.but not obedience throug 
 for fear has a repressive inn t nee upo 
 development of the m i it J faculties, 1 
 obedience sprinsrina from t mfidence i 
 
 - give more evidence, th 
 
 ft, befor 
 
 !, Of 
 
 m thought, and perse 
 
 eranee, 
 
 and 
 
 
 h which 
 
 they 
 
 most strongly endowec 1 
 
 ; each ( 
 
 did 
 
 ay, foreboding to som 
 eer. It is of great im] 
 
 
 that 
 
 or should not only ui 
 
 dcr.stan. 
 
 the 
 
 this age, systematic teaching by a professional 
 teacher begins. Legislation in regard to the 
 school age differs considerably in different 
 countries. In some, children are sent to the pub- 
 lic schools when they are four years of age; in 
 others, not until they arc seven. (See School 
 
 peculiar to this age slums itself at the same time 
 in the growth of imagination, which awakens in 
 the boy a lively interest in all that is great and 
 extraordinary in history. On many questions 
 relating to the education proper for this age, 
 educators still differ. Prominent among these 
 
8 AGItH'OLA 
 
 questions, are, whether the two sexes should be 
 educated separately or conjointly, to what extent 
 the -■ ■ c ae of instruction should be pre- 
 scribe 1 for both, whether special studies should be 
 begun al this age, or whether the entire course 
 should I.- . . l • 1 i - . j t . . i > M :ill the children of a 
 school. (See Co-edooation oi the Sexbs.) 
 
 The .._ of youth extends from the beginning 
 of puberty to the complete development of sexu 
 ality or from the fourteenth to about the twenty- 
 first year of age. At this time the growth of 
 the body is completed ; young men and women 
 become aware uf their .— i •■-t-i:t1 duties of life and oi 
 
 the difference in t areers upon which they are 
 
 respectively to enter. The tin t study is draw- 
 ing to its dose : the entrance into active- lift- is at 
 haml. Anion" the lower classes of society, this 
 transition occurs .-it the beginning of this age; 
 ami the only increase of knowledge that is access- 
 ible to most persons of theseclasses must be de- 
 rive 1 from eve g - bools public le ton -. and 
 
 rea lin._<: while th'.- ■ ol' the wealthier .1..-- - an I 
 all who wish to tit themselves for any of the 
 
 learned professions, nmv enter upon the S] ial 
 
 studiesot those professions, or finish the general 
 studies of the precedi igage Toward thecloseof 
 
 thisperio 1 it ai li i the] ti ins foi itei 
 
 ing public life are completed or an actual entrance 
 into life begins -■ - E 
 
 Schleiermacher, Er ■ '.ngs ire, edited by 
 
 Platz B . Er ■ » is- und Unterrichts- 
 Jehre : Herbart, Umriss padagogischer Vor- 
 lesungen. 
 
 AGRICOLA, Rodolphus, an eminent edu- 
 catorof the middle aercs. wasli.ini in August I I !3 
 
 or I i 12 at Baflo. mar Groningen, in Holland. 
 
 His original name was Huysmann, which, after 
 the cast. en ..I his time, h • cx.-haii-...- I •■••> a l-Hui 
 
 name. Aft.-r his native pr rv in e Ft ■■ Ian I he 
 
 t] ,f Louvain Paris and Pi n u-a ; 
 
 and aftei returning to his oative country, distin- 
 
 mii-h.- I him- It ...i-.-atlv l-v i in m he in- ill • .-;n ly 
 
 of Greek into the i ntries nortl e Alps. 
 
 In 1 I--:, he accepted an invitation IV his 
 
 friend, Bishop Dalberg of Worms, and deliv- 
 ered lectures alternately at Heidelberg and at 
 Worms. He died in Heidelberg. Oct. 28., I 185, 
 
 His works, which are not very in reus, an 
 
 written in Latin. His |.rin.-i|.:.l uml- /' /»<• » 
 /i,u if ill.-' '■ i attacks ih • --h'.laslic philosophy 
 oftheage Ln an educational point of view, his 
 epi-i],- to |:.,ii.iri..nn- i.. \ntwerp, the so .■all,-! 
 EpUtoln de formando studio, is of special im- 
 portance. At the time oi its publication, it was 
 regarded as a compendium oi the pedagogics 
 views of. the German humanists. Its prime ob 
 jc.-t was to;, Ivise bis friend as to the continua 
 tionof In—in li 8. Agricola recommended philos 
 
 ophy, by which h rm he underst I also ethia 
 
 and physics, and, in gi neral, the entire range oi 
 natural s tience, as the stu ly most des n in : hi 
 
 friends attention; he represents it as tl Ij 
 
 road to true knowledge and perfeel felicitj 
 
 while tl ther sciences could procure y 
 
 doubtful happiness. The Latin language « 
 
 A<;i:ii'ri/n'RAL <'oij.i-:<;ks 
 
 >r this study, 
 ays to i, -pro- 
 man. Three 
 study: (l)To 
 
 in. I I 
 
 ,m what had been learned. The first 
 
 ,-d I iy application, the s.-, I was the 
 
 emory, the third could only be ac- 
 practice. While the works left by 
 milil alone not suffice to assign to him 
 
 second to none but bis friend Reuchlin. His 
 
 letters to Ih-uchliu. to Alexander lli-mus an ex- 
 cellent educator, who founded the famous school 
 
 -I, a echo 
 
 Reformers; Geiger, in AUgemeine Deutsche 
 Biographi'e, t, 11 — L56 ; Trebling, Vita et 
 ... vita Rudotpki Agricolcs (Groningen, 1830); 
 Hallam's Literature of Europe. 
 AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES. It is 
 
 '.. enance the interest of all moneys derived from 
 
 -,. the sa'e of the aforesaid scrip or lands." It 
 
 /- was further required that "the leading object" 
 
 v of tin-.-,- collies -.-h..nl I he. without excluding 
 
 is other - i- niili.- and c].i--i.-al -nidi, s and includ- 
 
 ,1 i, „hi.i, x ten.-, to teach such branches of 
 
 ,. learning as are related to agriculture and the 
 
 is mechanic arts, in order to promote the liberal 
 
 d and practical education of the itidu-in.il classes, 
 
 I- ill the Several pursuits and plofe.-sions ot lite." 
 
 s- .lustiu''s" u!,'r'iii.'sen'at"r''fr.iin Wrmont Of 
 
 •s all laws enacted, either state or national, for 
 
 ,f the advancement of higher education, i e has 
 
 lv The ori-'iiiat'oi'- nnd\in'i'uersof this law. -huilded 
 
 7, better ihan they knew." The tabulated state- 
 
 a liient below, while it shows a vast amount ac- 
 
 us complished in a short space of time, cannot, of 
 
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGES !> 
 
 necessity, give more than a faint idea of what increased population shall furnish a demand for 
 
 has been ill me in aihanciii", agricultural ••< I n- the |ir...luets of the soil at prices suttieieutlv re- 
 catii.M in the single direction of a systematic ' Mnmcrative to induce many trained and educated 
 
 Congress. For as soon as the act had become a 
 law. numerous energetic and far-seeing nun 
 brought the matter prominently before the 
 
 has been, to arouse thon 
 
 classes tO a sense of tin 
 
 These earoesl and conti 
 developed latent talents, a 
 
 if students, so fart 
 
 neiits of the insti 
 ,-li,,n, 715 are la I 
 istruction in milita 
 f board -usuaJlv i 
 
 fertilizers. Up ti 
 of Lansing, Midi.. 
 
 colic 
 
 ■es 1 
 
 ive been oiwa 
 
 then 
 
 
 n parts nt 
 
 lean 
 
 
 ts are relate 1 
 
 meel 
 
 
 arts." Thed 
 
 gress 
 
 did 
 
 not furnish et 
 
 tin, 
 
 up ! 
 
 ml man thesi 
 
 but i 
 
 at*', 
 
 rdedthe meai 
 
 the all of which 
 
 Com- ing in iron 
 
 fully planers, tun 
 
 ..us'; and other n 
 
 •ll with 
 
 •s. and 
 
 <1 work. W'c 
 
 hardly 
 
 iient 
 
 leges 
 
 anil 
 
 ceive of the grand and important position these ies : and several of them furnish facilities for i 
 institutions are to occupy when the wants of an ' struction in chemistry not excelled in any otl 
 
10 
 
 A(iRiru/ruRAL <'oi.u-:<;ks 
 
 iii-iniiii 
 
 ical, 12 
 are aire 
 of these 
 most of 
 
 drawing is, moreover, required in several of the 
 bra iches related to agriculture. Free-band 
 drawing as yet, has not been largely introduced. 
 Some t.-u collet-shave larjy collections of mod- 
 els of farm implements and machinery ; engrav- 
 ings, photographs, charts, and drawings; to- 
 gether with numerous specimens of grains, 
 grasses, anil other plants : [fruluiriral ami niiin-i - 
 alugical specimens: collections "f insects and 
 skeletons of domestic and pther annual.-.: all 
 constituting what might be called an agricult- 
 ural museum, though usually 1 kept in separate 
 rooms for the sake of convenience. Ten of these 
 institutions offer one or more prizes for good 
 scholarship; six report, through their leading 
 officer, that the effect of offering such priz s 
 appears to be "good;" six consider it "bad; :l 
 two, " doubtful ;" one, " that it depends on cir- 
 cumstances;" on,', that it i-.--.-i healthy stimu- 
 lant to be carefully use I ;" and i '-non con 
 
 stat." At least twelve appear to have kepi care- 
 ful accounts of far.n r.-.-.-ipts and expenditures : 
 but since we have no reports of the amount of 
 increase in the valuations of farm-stork, imple- 
 ments, etc., it is impossible to say whether the 
 farms are worked at a profit or a loss. The 
 total gross receipts of twelve farms reporte I. for 
 1.-7 1.' arc S'-.l.liJ'.i.iKl. or an average of So 3 10 - I 
 per farm. The total expenditures for experi- 
 ments, during the same year, on eight of these 
 farms, are $8,143.26. This indicates that farm 
 experiments are not. as yet, carri I on to any 
 great extent ; and the reason for this is, doubt- 
 less, a lack of means rather than of disposition. 
 Every professor of agriculture fully appreciates 
 
 ich are thorough-breds, 
 :t breeds. 'I he horses 
 . only •'■ of which are 
 al inimli. i of sheep is 
 ,nte bloods of various 
 id 500, including about 
 presenting nearly all of 
 
 M[ 
 
 trating 
 
 and ski 
 
 affording, not only the means for ill 
 the subjects taught.but actual experiei 
 11 in those processes which require tl 
 anient, eve. and hand, a-- well as the 
 
 idiency of the C'ongrcs- 
 
 f which these ilistilll- 
 
 called in ipiestion : indeed.it lias been held that 
 the function of government should be strictly 
 
 the benefit, not only to 
 as well of extended and systemati 
 experiments. They are. indee 1 
 costly auxiliaries to the class- 
 There is a constantly increasing 
 ward using the farm and its apj 
 less of profit or loss, in order to 
 trate the principles of aerii-nll lire 
 
 emment to Edui 
 
 >f students, by n 
 than th • long-establishe I a 
 occupying » ith them the fi 
 tiou. in an important sen 
 not the rivals of the older c 
 uates, to only a limited exfe 
 professions. They becomi 
 in ehanics. architects. Till 
 an 1 brain. They become I 
 of labor, and thus precise!) 
 
 •s. and are 
 if higher i 
 
 tenth, 
 fairly 
 
 •duea- 
 
 leges I- . 
 a res "i 
 den, 29 a 
 of native 
 
 an I 58 ' ! 
 
 we find 
 
 aer.-s to i 
 certainly 
 is taught 
 distinctiv 
 of study. 
 
 .in he loimded." lht 
 
 rail the best and 
 
 isses.' TJ s the 
 
 iblican institutions 
 ids of Washington 
 
.UiRH'ri/ITR.W, C(tl. I.KCKS 
 
 fully justify this principle: "In proportion as 
 the structure of a government gives force to 
 public opinion, it is essential that public opinion 
 shod I be enlightened." 
 
 i . • qf & dy.—Ths full course oi four 
 years in agriculture comprises the following sub- 
 jects: I) te cases, a few are omitted or a feu* 
 
 added ; but those mentioned will serve to show 
 what studies are now generally considered appli- 
 cable and necessary in this course - I algebra; 
 (2) solid, plane, and analytical geometry, trigo- 
 nometry, and the calculus ; (3) rhetoric and 
 composition, declamation and English literature ; 
 (4) drawing, free-hand and linear: (5) surveying 
 andmapping : (6) book-keeping, especially applied 
 to farm accounts; (7) botany, general andagricult- 
 ural ; (8) horticulture, floriculture, and general, 
 market, and landscape gardening; (9) history, 
 which may comprise one or more of the follow- 
 ing: American, English, Roman, French, agricult- 
 ural, and history of civilization ; (10) physiology. 
 hygiene, and comparative anatomy. (11) zo- 
 ology and entomology ; (12) veterinary anatomy, 
 physiology, medicine, and surgery; (13) chem- 
 istry, general and agricultural ; (14) French and 
 German, usually 'extending through not less 
 than two or three terms (when both languages 
 
 to agriculture : (18) strength and preservation of 
 materials: (19) rural architecture. The subjects 
 treated of under the head of applied or practical 
 agriculture w ith slight changes—are as follows : 
 (f) stock bre ling, inclu ling 'the laws of likeness 
 or similarity, variation and atavism; the influence 
 on the subsequent progeny of the dam, by the 
 first fruitful connection, in-and-in and miscel- 
 laneous breeding, the government of sex. the 
 relative influence of sire and dam on the prog- 
 eny, pedigrees and their value, the history. for, na- 
 tion, and characteristics of breeds and families; 
 ('-'i the selection, breeding, feeding, anil general 
 management of domestic animals, each species 
 and race being treated of separately ; (3) annual 
 nutrition; (4; the education, shoeing, driving, 
 and care of the horse: (5) drains, — their material 
 and construction, and the effect of drainage on 
 health, soil, climate and plant-: 6) soils, -their 
 classification, character, mechanical division, and 
 
 and light on the fertility of the soil and the 
 growth of plants; (15) the care, cultivation, and 
 use of natural and artificial forests; (16) fields, 
 
 — then number, shape, and size; (17) fences. 
 
 — their material, construction, and durability ; 
 (18) farm yards aud buddings; (l'J) water priv- 
 
 ileges: (20) farm accounts ; (21) the manufact- 
 ure, preservation, and application of farm ma- 
 nures; (22) the rotation of crops ; (23) farm ma- 
 chinery and tools; 24) rural law. The subjects 
 of instruction, as far as possible, are illustrated 
 by diagrams, cuts, and models. The lectures 
 
 farms and herds. The lectures anil practice 
 usually extend through at least one year. The 
 foregoing statement shows conclusively that then- 
 has been an earnest, systematic and successful 
 effort to promote the education of the rural clas- 
 ses ; and it may be truthfully said, that, within 
 the last ten years, no other department of educa- 
 tion has made an equal degree of advancement. 
 The first agricultural school in Kurope was 
 founded, in 1804, by Fellenberg, at llofwyl in 
 Switzerland. It flourished for more than 30 
 years under the excellent dirci tioi, of Wehrli. 
 and educated nearly 3,000 pupil,. 'I he success of 
 llofwyl led to the establishment of other schools 
 Of the same character: and. at present, such 
 schools are found in every country of Europe. 
 They are very numerous in Germany and Aus- 
 Lria, and are divided into two classes. — a lower, 
 , ailed .1. /,.,•'. ,-,./- '. . intended chiefly to give 
 practical instruction in agriculture, and a higher, 
 called L ll „l,rirtl l sr/,„flss.-l l „le. in which the 
 
 laij M u nil.-, us I, oil;.. i. ^ . .. 
 
 among the schools of a high) 
 Ho In in, cstal,h.-hed in 
 
 roppd.-l, 
 Altenbur 
 
 have beet 
 lin. Halle 
 
 and Jena 
 
 Mi 
 
 a'.'iova'l !'\J,"i','ultui'al (' .'il'lege ' at '('hcncestei '■ 
 founded in 1849; and in Scotland, the Uni- 
 vcr.-ity of Edinburgh has a chair of agriculture, 
 and special lectures are given in a college at 
 Aberdeen. Ireland has two agricultural schools 
 of a higher grade. — one at Templemoyle, founded 
 in 1827; and the other at Glasnevin, founded 
 in ls.'is. France has three higher agricultural 
 schools and one school of forestry. In Italy, 
 there arc two agricultural school; „f a higher 
 - ra le. at Milan' and Portici. Russia, beside 
 
 riculture and Fore-try at Xev 
 id an \ e lemv of Agriculturi 
 it Petrovskoi. " Sec Loebe. Di 
 
 a full statement of the location, condition, re- 
 sources, etc., of all the agricultural colleges and 
 departments in the United States. 
 
AGRICULTURAL UOLLKHE? 
 
 Arkansas Fayetteville . 
 
 Alabama . Auburn 
 
 California Oakland 
 
 Connecticut New Haven.. 
 
 Newark 
 
 Indiana 
 Kansas . 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusi tt - 
 
 Michigan . . 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Nebraska 
 Nevada . . . 
 
 i hainpaigu 
 
 Manhattan . 
 Lexington . 
 
 Near Hyattsville 
 
 [Boston 
 
 ( Amherst 
 
 Lansing 
 
 Minneapolis .... 
 
 Oxford 
 
 Columbia. 
 Lincoln . . . 
 Elko 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania . 
 Rhode Island. . 
 
 New Brunswick. 
 
 Ithaca 
 
 Chapel Hill 
 
 Corvallis 
 
 State College. 
 
 Providence. 
 
 South Carolina Orangeburg 
 Tennessee Kuoxville ... 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Bryan 
 
 Burlington — 
 
 { Hampton 
 
 ( Blacksburgh . 
 
 West. Virginia. . Morgantown . . . 
 
 Virginia . 
 
 Wisconsin . 
 
 Made 
 
 Univ. of Minn., 1868.... 
 Univ. of Mississippi ... 
 
 Univ. of Mo.. 1K4U 
 
 Igr College, organized 
 
 1-711 
 
 Agr Toll, ol Ni l,r.is]..i 
 June IsTJ 
 
 Prep. Department 
 
 Dartmouth Coll.— N. H. 
 Coll. of Agr. \ Wech. 
 
 Rutgers College, 177n... 
 Cornell University, 1868 
 Univ. ol North Carolina 
 Ohio Agr. \- .Meih (',.]- 
 
 C aflin I mi rsily .Stale i 
 I Agr. Coll.. A Mich. Ins. | 
 
 Ten,,. Agr. Coll., is,;'.,.. 
 [Agr. ,A Mech. Coll. of] 
 
 SAgr.j 
 
 Mei'-.jl'. | 
 
 College. 1872 
 
 Wist Virginia I 
 Univ. of Wiscon 
 
 N.P.Gates, A. M.. i2. . . 
 Rev. I. F. Tichenor 
 
 Wm.H I-.irn. II. A.M 
 
 K. < \ I ■!-. mull, h |i 
 
 Ji in i Gregory, LL.D. 
 \ ^ »i Shortridge," A 
 
 No, yet organized.)'' 
 Rev. C.F. Allen. D.D..51I 
 
 W. II Parker, 4'.i 
 
 John n Runkle, Ph. D., 
 
 II. ii 
 
 W. S. (lark. LL. D., 50.. 
 T. C. Abbot. LL. I) 
 
 W.W.Folwell. M. A.. 4:1. 
 1 Rl - I S Waddl I. lc II.. 
 I chancellor 
 
 Ii head. 1. 1.. D .lis ... 
 
 S.R. Thompson Dean, 12 
 j Ii. I; Sessions, Prim 
 
 Rev. Asa D. Smith, D.D. 
 
 LL. D 
 
 (Rev. W. H. Campbell 
 ] D.D 
 
 A. H. White. 1,1.. D.,43., 
 [Not yi t ■ 
 
 Edward Orton, A. II. . 
 
 B. L. Arnold. A. M..38.. 
 Jas. Calder. D. D., 50... 
 
 I 1;, \ . I ' • loibinsiiu. 11 
 
 | D., LL.D 
 
 Rei I Ii . \ M . M.I' 
 
 I Rev. T w Hum, s s i 
 
 I D., 'in 
 
 Not yet organized. 
 
 M.D.Buckham, \.M .. I: 
 
 trong, 86 — 
 
 C I.. C. Minor. M. \. 
 
 1.1. 1'.. 39 
 
 I Key. .!. II Twombly. D. 
 
 I I ' . is 
 
 Ph. B. 
 
 15 
 
 :;44 
 
 15 
 
 88 
 
 
 312 
 
 
 230 
 
 
 250 
 
 123 
 
 407 
 
 
 56 
 
 80 
 
 '-" 
 
 o 
 
 113 
 
 37 
 
 115 
 
 
 56 
 
 77 
 
 ,0,1 
 
 123 
 
 156 
 
 11 
 
 255 
 
 
 491 
 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 18 
 
 
 479 
 
 71 
 
 188 
 
 352 
 
 512 
 
 
 155 
 
 52 
 
 148 
 
 30 
 
 292 
 
 23 
 
 91 
 
 
 
 ■Jim 
 
 12 
 
 222 
 
 
 345 
 
ACKKVI.TrUAI. COI.I.IKJKS 
 
 2 E 
 
 V 
 
 1 
 
 ■° 
 
 li 
 
 IK 
 
 s 
 
 i ^s 
 
 ■* s 
 
 
 
 I 
 
 
 I 
 
 1 
 
 i 
 
 | I 
 
 jjj 
 
 sT 
 
 E 
 S 
 
 1 
 
 l! 
 
 S-o 
 = E 
 
 111 
 111 
 
 £■■§1 
 
 js 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 2E«C 
 
 n 
 ill 
 
 IS 
 
 1 s 
 
 jl 
 
 I 
 
 •o 
 
 z 
 
 1 
 \ 
 
 S 
 
 I 
 8 
 
 i 
 
 H 
 
 s 5 
 
 age 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L14 
 
 83 
 
 10—15 cts 
 
 $130,000 
 
 $180,001 
 
 
 
 $25,001 
 
 $10,000 
 
 $145,000 
 
 80 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 l 
 
 li 
 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 8cts 
 
 
 $253,001 
 
 Q 
 
 $22,000 
 
 $20,000 
 
 $100,000 
 
 86 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 41 
 
 
 18 
 
 L 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 $120,001 
 
 « 
 
 f.'lO.I tc 
 
 53,000 
 
 $o.oo( 
 
 $2,500. Farn 
 
 71 
 7( 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 L15 
 
 79 
 
 12', OtB 
 
 $819,001 
 
 $319,001 
 
 | 25.000 a. | 
 \ $75,000) 
 
 $40,000 to 
 $48,000 
 
 $27,710 
 
 $05,000 
 
 ,-.oi 
 
 ;!.' 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 20 
 
 21 
 
 11C 
 
 
 
 7—10 eta 
 
 $371,000 
 
 $212,238 
 
 
 
 
 $20,001 
 
 $210,000 
 
 146 
 
 s 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 
 
 
 211 
 
 L16 
 
 84 
 
 9 cts 
 
 $500,000 
 
 
 31.321 a. 
 
 $3.).000 
 
 $32,000 
 
 $60,000 
 
 20 
 
 li 
 
 li 
 
 6 
 
 151 
 
 30( 
 
 90 
 
 
 
 
 $ h;.-..iiiii 
 
 $1('..">. 
 
 o 
 
 $18,000 
 
 $9,900 
 
 $250,000 
 
 400 
 
 
 I'- 
 
 1 
 
 151 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 LIS 
 
 8 
 
 10 cts 
 
 $134,001 
 
 $134,000 
 
 o 
 
 $13,000 
 
 $8,001 
 
 $180,000 
 
 370 
 
 - 
 
 ll) 
 
 1 
 
 l". r 
 
 75 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 
 $12,801 
 
 
 
 
 $12,800 
 
 $11.0111 
 
 $100,0110 
 
 28." 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 35 
 
 :,■ 
 
 
 
 116 
 
 
 15 cts 
 
 $450, 
 
 $170,000 
 
 
 
 $23,000 
 
 $8,501 
 
 $250,000 
 
 383 
 
 5 
 
 2 
 
 ly, 
 
 40 
 
 l 
 
 20 
 
 L 
 
 
 
 10 cts 
 
 $531,377 
 
 $231,377 
 
 f 165,154 a. I 
 , $495,463) 
 
 variable 
 
 $10,196 
 
 $231,407 
 
 151 
 
 8 
 
 
 6 
 
 301 
 
 1 
 
 60 
 
 114 
 
 69 
 
 15 cts 
 
 $256,037 
 
 $256,037 
 
 1 11", .17 1 &.1 
 i $945,770) 
 
 $34,698 
 
 $10,699 
 
 $147,713 
 
 114 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 l 
 
 
 
 ° 
 
 
 L16 
 
 87 
 
 12 cts 
 
 
 $54,749 
 
 1 200. a i 
 
 | $325,000) 
 
 $63,467 
 
 $5,471 
 
 $2,250. Stock 
 
 641 
 
 5 
 
 21 
 
 5 
 
 251 
 
 
 30 
 
 L15 
 
 
 
 10—13 cts 
 
 
 
 
 ( 90,000 a. 1 
 
 \ $300.000 ) 
 
 
 
 
 
 293 
 
 , 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 21 
 
 1 
 
 Lll 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 $397,325 
 
 &116.000 
 
 
 
 $6,960 
 
 $40,000 
 
 95 
 
 -£- 
 
 
 
 
 
 L17 
 
 40 
 
 15 cts 
 
 $1,261,099 
 
 -r.nl. :w 
 
 ( 400,000 a.) 
 
 ( $2,000,000) 
 
 $107,500 
 
 $40,000 
 
 Farm .v Stool 
 $56,000 
 
 121 
 
 10 
 
 6 
 
 1 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 60 
 
 L 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 
 90,000 a. 
 
 $6,600 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 114 
 
 
 10—18 cts 
 
 - 
 
 $305,267 
 $50,000 
 
 
 
 $32,923 
 
 $30,000 
 
 $532,000 
 
 25 17 
 
 12 
 
 ii 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 ° 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 5—10 cts 
 
 $396,000 
 
 ?2<;v.im9 
 
 ° 
 
 $26,500 
 
 $22,572 
 
 $125,000 
 
 260 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 
 20 
 
 L16 
 
 14 
 
 
 
 $122,626 
 
 
 
 $19,000 
 
 $8,130 
 
 $180,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1U 
 
 89 
 
 5— Sets 
 
 $125,000 
 
 $05,000 
 
 o 
 
 $40,000 
 
 $10,329 
 
 $209,500 
 
 185 
 
 is 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 1 
 
 10 
 
 
 7—18 cts 
 
 $210,000 
 
 $190,000 
 
 
 
 
 120.629 
 
 $38,950 
 
 11H0 
 
 5 
 
 
 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 30 
 
 * 
 
 
 Jo cts 
 
 $220,833 
 
 
 ( 62,403 a.) 
 { $65,503 J 
 
 $65,781 
 
 $16,148 
 
 
 150 
 
 6 
 
 ' 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 ,10 
 
 80 
 
11 
 
 AIIN 
 
 AHN, Johann Franz, a German teacher, I 
 noted for his method of teaching foreign lan- 
 guages, was born in 1796, and died in 1 865. I [e 
 gave instruction for many years in the Real- 
 xrhitl.' at Neuss. and published several manuals 
 for teaching the German and other languages ; 
 but his chief work was his Practiced MeOod/or 
 the rapid and easy Learning of the French 
 Language ( PraktiscJier Lehrgang zur schnel 
 leu und kichten Erlernung der framSsischen 
 Sprache). This work, between 1834 and 1875, 
 passed through L90 editions, He wa al o the 
 author of several works in general literature. His 
 elementary books on the study of foreign lan- 
 guages have been translated into all id i languagt 
 of the civilized world, and have every where found 
 an immense circulation. The fame thus ai quired 
 by Aim's method of studying foreign languagi - 
 has led to numerous imitations, not a fem ol 
 which are utterly unworthy of the jusi reputa- 
 tion of the original author. The raetho I of Aim 
 was. to a large extent, founded on 1 1 1- - work- of Pr 
 Seidenst I'eker. and ei mil lines both the cnahtii al 
 and the synthetical method. The principle on 
 which it is based is, that the mole of learning 
 a foreign language should, as closely as possible, 
 corresoond to the manner in which a child 
 
 AINSWORTH, Robert, an English tea. Inl- 
 and scholar of considerable eminence, was born 
 in 1660, and died in 171.'!. He taught private 
 schools for some years, but having Boon obtained 
 a competency, he was enabled to relinquish the 
 business of teaching. From 171 ! to 1 736, he was 
 
 engage 1 in compiling the Lit in dietio y which 
 
 has in a le him famous. This work was extensively 
 use 1 iii schools both in England and in the I baited 
 States, but has for some years been superseded 
 by works of greater accuracy. 
 
 ALABAMA, one of the southern states of 
 the American Union, was originally a part of 
 Georgia, except the south-western portion, which 
 belonged to Florida. It was set off from ( leorgia, 
 in 1798, as a portion of the Territory of Missis- 
 sippi. From 1817 to 1819, it was known as the 
 Territory of Alabama, in the latter year, being 
 admitted into the Union as a state. Its area is 
 50,722 sq. m. ; and its population, in 1870, was 
 996,992, of whom ;V21,.'!St were whites; -1 7.".,:". 1 II. 
 colored persons; and 98, Indians. 
 
 Educational ffisfory.— The first constitution 
 of the state declared that "schools and the means 
 of education should be forever encouraged," and 
 
 grants received for this purpose from the general 
 government, and fie seminary lands for a "state 
 university for the promotion of the arts, litera- 
 ture, and science." Attempts were made, in 
 1823,and al va ious times thereafter, to organize 
 an effi n nl putlioschool system: but little was 
 accomplished til! 1854, when a general system 
 was established under which, according to the 
 
 all the southern I 
 
 ALABAMA 
 
 of the New England states ; was the superior, 
 in the school room, of even Massachusetts; and 
 was almost the peer of New York and Pennsyl- 
 vania." In 185(i, county superintendents were 
 
 I ages of 5 and 21 years should be educated free 
 of charge ; and in accordance with its provisions, 
 a new system was adopted the Eame year, which 
 placed the schools under the supervision and 
 control of a board of education, and gave to 
 county superintendents much of the power be- 
 
 es. In 1871 
 
 trustees, all elected by the people. 1 he state 
 board of education was abolished, its duties be- 
 ing discharged by the legislature, which, in the 
 words of the law, "shall designate, in advance, 
 such days as they may deem best (during the 
 session of the general assembly) for the consider- 
 ation of measures relating to the educational in- 
 terests of the state; on which days the state 
 superintendent shall be entitled to a seat in the 
 house then considering educational measures, 
 and shall have, and may exercise. all of the rights 
 and privileges of a member of such house, but 
 have no vote." In 1872, -3, and -4, various 
 changes were made in the school law; but the 
 new constitution of the state, which took effect 
 December 6., 1875, supersedes all laws previous- 
 ly passed, and confirms that portion of the act 
 proposed in 1871, which relates to the admin- 
 istration of the schools. 
 
 State Superintendent*. — The office of state 
 superintendent was first filled by General W. F. 
 Perry, his title being Superintendent of Educa- 
 cation. He was elected by the legislature in 
 Kil. His successor, in 1S.">4. was (i. H. l>u Yah 
 who died in office, his successor beh gJ. H.Taylor, 
 who was appointed to fill the vacancy in L865. 
 John Ryan was elected to the office in 1866,and 
 served till 1867, when the effice was merged in 
 
 thai of state comptroller, its duties being per- 
 formed l.v M. A. Cliisliolin. from November, 
 1867, to July, 1868. In that year, the title of 
 the office was changed to that of Superintendent 
 of Public Instruction, N. I!. Cloud being the 
 first incumbent. His successors were. I. llodg 
 
15 
 
 son (1870—72); J. H". .Speed (1872—4); and 
 .1. \i. McKleroy (1874 to the present time). On 
 the expiration of the term of the present incum- 
 bent, the "title of the office will again be, accord- 
 ing to the new constitution, Superintendent of 
 
 ■v/N/. 
 
 snde 
 
 all. 
 
 a ■! itail • 1 repoi 
 he con lition of 
 
 du 
 
 sare elect ■ 1 bien 
 iesare. to see tl 
 
 ele 
 
 uentary English 
 
 will make it torn- yt 
 ■i>pk'. Discharging a: 
 
 superintendent and s 
 
 es shall be taught, is 
 maintained in each school-district — townships 
 and school-districts being co-extensive ; to visit 
 the schools once a year ; to pay teachers ; to hold 
 teachers' institutes ; and to take charge of all 
 school moneys, and disburse them according to 
 law. ('.mull/ directors, two in number, are 
 chosen at the same time, and for the same term, 
 as the county superintendent. With him, they 
 constitute a county board for the examining and 
 licensing of teachers and maintaining a general 
 oversight of the schools and school property. 
 Three township trustees are elected biennially 
 
 who have the immediate control of these] Is. 
 
 subject to supervision by the i ounty superintend- 
 ent. In several of the cities, special school laws 
 are in force, by which the immediate manage- 
 ment of the schools is entrusted to city boards of 
 commissioners, subject either to the supervision 
 of the county superintendent, or of city super- 
 intendents. Four grades of schools are compre- 
 hended in tl Deration of the law — primary. 
 
 interme li.it.'. grammar, and liijh schools. In the 
 first, spelling, rea ling, and theelements of arith- 
 metic and of geography are taught; in the 
 second, these studies are continued, with the ad- 
 dition of grammar and writing; in the third, 
 etymology, composition, history, and elocution 
 arcadde I ; and in the fourth, the higher branches 
 
 conn i to schools of this grade are pursued. 
 
 The school fund is composed of " the income 
 from the 16th section trust fund, the surplus 
 revenue fund, until it is called for by the I'nitcd 
 States government:" the proceeds of " all lands 
 or oth t property given by individuals or ap- 
 propriated by the state for educational purposes, 
 and all estates of deceased persons who die with- 
 out leaving a will or heir;" "an annual poll tax, 
 not to exceed one dollar and fifty cents on each 
 poll ;" with such other moneys. " to be not less 
 than $100,000 per annum, as the general as- 
 
 sembly shall provide by taxation or otherwise." 
 It is, also, made the duty of the assembly to 
 increase, from time to time, the public-school 
 fund, as the condition of the treasury and the 
 resources of the state will admit." In addition 
 to this, each county inav raise, by annual taxa- 
 tion, an amount not exceeding in cuts on each 
 
 SI f taxable property. Ninetj six percent 
 
 of the money raised or appropriated must be 
 used for the payment of teachers unless other- 
 wise directed by a vote of two-thirds of each 
 branch of the legislature. Schools for whites and 
 
 blacks must be separate. Sectarian or denomina- 
 tional scl Isarenol entitled to any share of the 
 
 l abli ■! 1 money. 'I he school age is from 7 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts in the state, in ls7~>. was 1,696, 
 tlir aiva of each bring six miles square except in 
 the case of fractional townships In each of these 
 districts, there must be, at least, one school for 
 each race, white and colored. 'I he school reve- 
 
 liitncst on Pith section fund 1146,983.32 
 
 " the surplus revenue 
 
 fund 53,526.94 
 
 One-fifth of the state revenue of 
 
 the previous year 209,887.44 
 
 Poll-tax collected hi I ; ■' : ll, -I 
 
 " 1875 73,555.30 
 
 Total J564.439.66 
 
 This state has received from the Peabody fund, 
 since ISllS, 8,">'.l, rial). The amount received in 
 1875 was $4,300. (See Peabody Fund.) 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 Poll-tax disbursed by superintend- 
 ents $73,555.30 
 
 Apportioned to counties and 
 
 cities 476,332.29 
 
 Apportioned to normal schools. .. lo.ooo.oo 
 Incidental expenses 2,550.(10 
 
 Total $562,437.59 
 
 The other principal items of scJiool statistics 
 are the following : 
 
 No. of children of school age : white, 233,733 
 colored, 172,537 
 
 Total 406,270 
 
 No. of children enrolled: white, 91, 202 
 
 colored, 54,595 
 
 Total 145,797 
 
 Average attendance: white, 67,024 
 
 colored, 43,229 
 
 Total 110,253 
 
 No. of teachers: white, male, 1,669 
 
 " female, 1,006 
 
 colored, male, 1.002 
 
 female, 284 
 
 Total 3,961 
 
 Average monthly salary, white teachers :?'jc...ii> 
 
 " " " colored " 827.87 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Three state normal 
 schools are in existence, the expenditure for 
 which, during the year 1S7.">. was Slniiiin. The 
 first, at Florence, organized in 1*7:1, is designed 
 for the education of white teachers of both sexes. 
 
16 ALAE 
 
 It has a library and apparatus valued at 88,000, 
 besides the building-, which are estimated at 
 
 $30, I; and. in L875, reported 1 teachers and 
 
 126 pupils. The State Normal School and Uni- 
 versity, at Marion, and the Normal School, at 
 Huntsville, are neither of them so extensive as 
 that at Florence. They are intended for the 
 education of colored teachers. The former, in 
 1875, had 3 teachers and 70 pupils ; the latter. 
 and 84 pupils. This institution is 
 designe I to b com.' a university for the colored 
 population of the state. Besides these state nor- 
 mal institutions, there are four schools of the 
 same gra le under the control of the American 
 Missionary Association, and one conducted by 
 the Methodists having an aggregate, in tin' state, 
 of 659 pupils en It n irm J instruction. 
 
 T .. '. rs instil i i v. ire held, during the 
 year We. in six counties, an 1 their organization 
 
 iting to more than $100,000. Students 
 mired to pursue a three years' elementary 
 . after which they are permitted to choose 
 s — that of scientific agriculture. 
 
 istry of farm processes, the methods of improving 
 
 toil.-, etc. These arc accompanied by lesions in 
 practical agriculture throughout the course. Mili- 
 tary training is given, but only to the extent of 
 improving the health and bearing of the stu- 
 i ,,; i cholarships, two in number, are pro- 
 
 vided for each county in the state. The course 
 of study covers four years. '1 he number of in- 
 structors in all the departments, in 1875, was 7; 
 the number of students, 50, in the regular course, 
 and 5 in the snceial. Law is taueht in departments 
 
 the people at the places of meeting, leads to the 
 
 belief that their permanent establishment is only 
 a question of time. 
 
 Se :ondary Instruction. — There are 218 pub- 
 lic high schools in operation in the stale. 3 of 
 which are for c A a i 1, the remainder, for white 
 pupils. The course of study prescribed for these 
 
 institutions has a already stated. A number, if 
 
 high schools and academies are scattered through 
 the state, which occupy a position intermedial ■ 
 between the primary schools and colli ge La s 
 rate stat i itics in regard to hi tn at however, dif- 
 ficult to procure. In Talladega ( 'olleee. the wor.c 
 has thu far b i tirdv p, ...i ay. the colle- 
 
 classes i,.,i having b n for I. In L875, 
 
 otal of 247 students in 
 all the departments. It is conducted by the 
 American Missionary Association for the beticiit 
 of the colored people. 
 
 Superior Instruction.— There are several in- 
 stitutions of this grade in the state, the most 
 important of which are enumerated in the fol- 
 low in r li 1 : 
 
 ' -11 ;: 
 
 Marion 
 
 . treeusboro 
 
 S n .i bile 
 
 1813 
 
 1836 M. Epi9.S. 
 
 1838 B.C. 
 
 1820 Non-sect. 
 
 Univ. of Alabama. 
 
 To the above list, nuisi be added 9 institutions 
 which afford opportunities for the higher edu- 
 cation of women. In addition to the studies 
 usually pursued in such institutions special at- 
 tention is given to the ornamental branch - 
 The number of instructors in these institutions, 
 
 Professional' and Scientific Instruction. - 
 The Agricultural and Mechanical College of Ala- 
 bama was established al Auburn by an act of the 
 legislature, its endowment being the proceeds of 
 the land grant made by Congress for the benefit 
 of agriculture and the mechanic arts. The 
 
 amount thus derived was $2] 8,000, to which was 
 added all the property of East Alabama I lollege, 
 
 to some extent, in Howard College; medicine, 
 in the Southern University, and in the Medical 
 College of Alabama, at Mobile. This last in- 
 stitution provides a two years' course of study, 
 and, in 1875, had 9 n structors and 50 students. 
 S/„;-i ,' l,,striirtinn.- '1 he Alabama Institution 
 lor the Deaf, Dumb, and I lind was founded in 
 
 ] ui-Mied are mathematics and the ordinary hn- 
 i li.-h branches. Instruction is also given in agri- 
 i ultnre and gardening. In 1S75. there were 
 4 instructors and 52 pupils. In the department 
 for the blind there were, in the same year, 2 in- 
 structors and 10 pupils. 
 
 ALABAMA, University of, at Tuscaloosa, 
 was chartered in 1820, but not organized till 
 liS31. At the commencement of the civil war 
 it was in a prosperous condition, but was burned 
 by a federal force during the war. It was rebuilt 
 ii'i L868, and is now in a flourishing condition. 
 The value of its grounds, buildings, apparatus, 
 etc.. is estimated at Sl.O.IIIIO: and it has an en- 
 dowment of t?:!(,0.0i;0. Its library contains 5.0110 
 volumes. In 1874, the number of instructors 
 was 9, and of collegiate students 7(1. 'the aca- 
 demic department en i braces eight courses of St Uily, 
 open to the selection of the students: (1) Latin 
 language and literature; (2) Creek language and 
 literature; (31 English language and literature; 
 
 sional education embraces a school of law, and 
 a school of civil engineering. All the students, 
 except those specially inlirm. arc subjected to 
 military diill. A special military school affords in- 
 struction in military science and art. in military 
 law, and in elementary tactics. The president of 
 the institution is Carlos O. Schmidt, LI., lb, 
 elected in 1874. 
 
ALBION" COLLEGE 
 
 ALBION COLLEGE, at Albion, Mich., was 
 chartered as a college in 1861, by members of 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church. The number 
 
 of students is about 200, males and females. It 
 lias a preparatory, elassieal. and scientific coins.- 
 of instruction. Its endowment fund is $200,000. 
 Its library contains about 12UIKI volumes. Rev. 
 6. B. Jocelyn, D. D., is the president of the 
 
 ALCOTT, Amos Bronson, an American 
 elucator, was born in 1799. Be first gained 
 distinction by teaching an infant school, for 
 
 which ctnplovin nt he evinee 1 a singular aptitude 
 and tact. He remove 1 to Boston in 1828, v.h i i 
 he manifested the same skill in teaching young 
 children, at the Masonic Temple. His metho Is 
 however, were in advance of public •>]iini<>.i. and 
 were disapproved. On the invitation of .lames 
 P. Greaves, of London, the co-laborer of Pesta- 
 loz/.i in Switzerland, in educational reform. Mr. 
 Al.-..rr. in L842,wen1 to England; but the death 
 ,,i \l,.i,i aves, which occurred before his arrival, 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL 
 
 17 
 
 English friends to establish a new community 
 at Harvard. Mass.; but the enterprise was soon 
 abandoned. Mr. Alcott has since written several 
 w..rks, one of which, Concord Days, was pub- 
 lished in 1872. See E. P. PBABony, Record of 
 School (Boston, L834), and Conversation onthe 
 .V,«oe/x(li„ston. m:sih. 
 
 ALCOTT, William Alexander, M. D., 
 cousin of the preceding, noted for his zeal and 
 >u.v ■" as a coinini Hi-school teacher, and his lite- 
 long efforts in behalf of popular education, was 
 born in Wolcott, Ct., in 1798, and died at 
 Auburndale, Mass. in 1859. He had only an 
 elementary edu ation ; and, f >r ever J years, he 
 taught in 'the district schools of his native State, 
 distinguished for his reinaikaM • earnest', - an 1 
 the many reforms which he labored lo in.io in o 
 into the imperfect school management a. id in- 
 struction of his time. He afterwards studied 
 medicine; but his chief labors wet d vo ed to 
 Mi i i-i i i of education, co-operating with Gallau- 
 det, Woodbridge and oth ts in the end avor to 
 bring about m ich-n led t ■: irms in the public 
 schools of the State Subseqn tly.hei i I 
 himself with Wilhan, ( '. Woodbri Ige, and as- 
 sisted him in the compilation of hi- school j i-- 
 rapines, and also in editing tli • .1 . e k, 
 
 rials of Education, lie also edited several juve- 
 nile periodicals. His newspaper contributions 
 were very numerous, and quite effective on ac- 
 count of their race and pirited style. An 
 article which he publi '< I o , th, ' '■■.istnictiint of 
 School-Houses gained him a premium from the 
 American Institute of Instruction. His labors 
 as a lecturer on hygiene, practical teaching, and 
 kindred subjects were severe and unintermitting. 
 He is said to have visited more than 20,000 
 schools, in many of which he delivered lectures 
 
 His writings are very numerous; end son I 
 
 them were widely popular. The most noted are : 
 Confessions of a Schoolmaster, The House I 
 Live in, The Young Man's Guide, The Young 
 
 Woman's Guide, The Young Housekeeper, etc., 
 etc. ]>r. Alcott was a genuine philanthropist, 
 though extreme and somewhat eccentric in many 
 of his views. As one of the pioneers in the 
 cause of common-school education and reform in 
 practical teaching, his labors were of incalculable 
 value. 
 
 ALCUIN (Lat. Fhicas Albums ,1A-«,W,-), 
 a distinguished English scholar, ecclesiastic, and 
 reviver of learning, was bom in Yorkshire 
 about To.'!, and died in Mil. He was educated 
 at York under the direction of Archbishop 
 Egbert, and was subsequently dire, tor of the 
 seminary in that city. Keturnin^ from Koine. 
 whither he had gone by direction of the English 
 king, he met the emperor Charlemagne at 
 Parma, and was induced by that monarch to 
 take up his residence at the French court, and 
 bee, nne the 1-. v. 1 1 preceptor. Accordingly, at 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, he gave instruction, for some 
 
 could boast in that and the following ages. I he 
 
 universities of Paris, Tours, Sois s, and many 
 
 others were either founded by him ot greatly 
 benefited by his zeal in their behalf, and the 
 favor which he procured for them from < harle- 
 niagne. In 796, he was appointed abbot of St, 
 Martin's at Tours, where he opened a school which 
 acquired greai celebrity. Here he continued 
 teaching tie hi death. Alcuin was probably 
 th ■ in. e ; i a d man a d Ihe mosl dli strious 
 te:u h r of Ins agi ; an i his lal ors wi re very im- 
 portant in giving an impetus to the revival of 
 learning, after the into le ual n hi of the DariJ 
 Ages. He left many epistles, poems, and treat- 
 ises upon theological and historical .-id j s, all 
 written in Latin, and no.ed for 'le . '. . , . end 
 purity of their style. The Lif ofAlcu Leben 
 Akuiris) by Prof. Lorenz, of Halle 1829 has 
 been translated into English (ls.':T bv Suit. - Sec 
 Mb,r„,c,;,e Deutsche Jii.Himphic ait. Mai,,. 
 
 ALEXANDRIAN uCHOOL, a name vari- 
 ously applied, but chiefly designating (I I a school 
 of philosophers at Alexandria in Egypt, which 
 is chiefly noted foi the development of Neoplato- 
 nism, and its efforts to harmonize oriental theol- 
 ogy with Greek dialectics; (2) a e hool of 
 Christian theologians in the same Oty. which 
 aimed at harmonizing Pagan philosophy with 
 Christian theology. The city of Alexandria be- 
 came, soon after' the death of Alexander the 
 Great, by whom it had been founded, a chief 
 seat of science and li. irature. The time during 
 which the tea hers and sidiools of Alexandria 
 enjoyed a world-wide reputation, is called the 
 Alexandrian Age,&nA is divid ■! into two pe- 
 riods, the former embracing the time of the 
 Ptolemies, and extending from 323 to 30 B. ('., 
 
 1 the second embracing the time of the Ro- 
 - g from 30 B. C to 640 A. D. 
 poetry, mathematics, and th 
 sciences were all taught in the Alexandrian 
 School ; and among the most illustrious teachers 
 
18 ALFRED THE GREAT 
 
 were Amnionius, Plotinus. Hierocles, Proclus, 
 Apollonius (poet), Galen (physician), Euclid 
 (mathematician), Eratosthenes (astronomer), Ptol- 
 emy (geographer). When Christianity began to 
 
 gain a firm footing, it was found necessary to de- 
 vote to the instruction of the catechumens special 
 care, in order to fortify them against the attacks 
 upon Christianity by the pagan philosophers. The 
 catechists not only gave to the candidates for 
 admission into the Christian Church element 
 ary instruction, but also delivered learned lectures 
 on Christianity, and combined with it instruction 
 in philosophy. Tin audi, from its original character, 
 the school continued to be called the catechetical 
 school of Alexandria, it was in its subsequent 
 development something very different from a 
 catechetical school, and may rather be regarded 
 as the first theological faculty, or school of scien- 
 tific theology, in the Christian Church. In op- 
 position to the pagan philosophers, the teachers 
 of the Christian schools chiefly undertook to 
 show that Christianity is the only true philos- 
 ophy, and alone can lead to the true gnosis, or 
 knowledge. As the first teacher of the Christian 
 theological school, Pantaenus (about 180) is men- 
 tioned, who was followed by Clement. Origen, 
 Heraclas, I >ionysius, Pierius, Theognostes, Sera- 
 pion, Peter Martyr. The last famous teacher of 
 the school was Didymus the Blind (335 to 395), 
 who, being Mind from boyhood, had learned read- 
 ing, writing, geometry, etc., by means of brass 
 letters and figures, and was equally distinguished 
 for his piety and extent of knowledge. The method 
 of teaching used in this, as well as in the other 
 schools of that age, was the Pythagorean. The 
 teacher explained, and the pupil listened in 
 silence, though he was permitted to ask questions. 
 Every teacher taught in his own house, there be- 
 ing no public school buildings. The teachers did 
 not receive a fixed salary, but the pupils made 
 them presents. Origen is reported to have de- 
 clined all presents. He supported himself on a 
 daily stipend of four oboli, which he received for 
 copying the manuscripts of ancient classics. — See 
 M.utki:. Histoire de liimlf d'Alexandrie (2 vols., 
 2d ed.. Paris. 184(1— 1S44); Bakthei.emy St.- 
 Hilaire, J)e ler,,/,- d 1 A/r.r, ,,„ trie (Paris, L845); 
 Simon, Histoire de VecoleaAlexa He (2 vols.. 
 Paris, 1844—18 
 tique de I' 
 
 U'esl 
 
 
 \ \( 
 
 
 . Par 
 
 
 CE, / 
 
 ' Srln 
 lalle, 
 
 a qum 
 1824); 
 
 e rloni 
 
 *• i 
 
 Mr j 
 
 !Z 
 
 .■a, 
 
 .-/,„ /,/, 
 
 floruit cote 
 !)•■ sehola ■ 
 (Stettin. L8 
 lichen Philosophie, vol. i,p. 419 
 
 ALFRED THE GREAT, k 
 Saxons and virtually ruler of all England, holds 
 the same prominent position in the history of 
 education in England, which Charlemagne occu- 
 pies in France and Germany. He was born in 
 849, succeeded his brother Ethelred as king of the 
 West Saxons in 871, and died in 901. After 
 having thoroughly humbled the Danish invaders 
 and secured the independence of England, he 
 gave his whole attention to internal reforms, and 
 specially to the promotion of education. Al- 
 
 ALGEBRA 
 
 though he is said to have been twelve years of 
 age, before he was taught the alphabet, and 
 although his health was always feeble, he showed 
 a thirst for knowledge which is almost without 
 parallel in the history of European princes. 
 He gave eight hours every day to religious- 
 exercises and to study. He translated nu- 
 | merous works from Latin into Saxon, as Bede's 
 , History of England, Boethius' De Consola- 
 tione Pkilosophiae, and the Liber Pastoralis 
 Curat' of Gregory the Great. He invited dis- 
 tinguished scholars to his court from all coun- 
 tries, among whom Wernfried, Plegmund, and 
 Athelstan of Mercia, Grimbald of France, the 
 Irishman John Scotus Erigena, and the monk 
 Asser of Wales are the most famous. A large 
 number of schools were founded and suitably 
 organized. The convents became, more generally 
 than had been the case before, nurseries of 
 science. All the public officers were required to 
 learn to read and write; and Alfred declared 
 that the children of every freeman without ex- 
 ception should be able to read and write, and 
 should be instructed in the Latin language. A 
 j complete list of his works is given in the h'm'i/- 
 \chpcedia Britannica, art. Alfred. — See Stoi^ 
 bebo, Leben Alfred desGrossen, (Minister, 1815); 
 Weiss, Geschichte Alfred des Grossen (Schafi- 
 hausen, 1852); Fbbeman, Old English Ms/on, 
 and History of the Norman Conquest. 
 
 ALFRED UNIVERSITY, at Alfred, X. 
 Y., was founded in 1857, by the Seventh Day 
 Baptists. The number of students in the pre- 
 paratory department (in 1874) was 293, males 
 ! and females, and in the collegiate department 
 114. of whom 42 were females. It has a clas- 
 | sical and a collegiate course of instruction. Its 
 endowment is $70,000; the number of volumes 
 ! in its library is about 3500. Rev. J. Allen is 
 the president. Its tuition fee is small. 
 
 ALGEBRA (Arab, aijabr, reduction of 
 ' parts to a whole). For a general consideration of 
 | the purposes for which this study should be pur- 
 j sued, and its proper place and relative proportion 
 of time in the curriculum, the reader is referred 
 to the article Mathematics. It is the purpose of 
 this article to indicate some of the principles to 
 be kept in view, and the methods to be pursued 
 in teaching algebra. 
 
 Tin- l.itiTut Xiilittiiui. — While this notation 
 is not peculiar to algebra, but is the char- 
 acteristic language of mathematics, the student 
 usually encounters it for the first time when 
 i he enters upon this study. Xo satisfactory 
 progress can be made in any of the higher 
 branches of mathematics, as Ceneral Geometry, 
 Calculus, Mechanics, Astronomy, etc.. without 
 
 a g 1 knowledge of the literal notation. By 
 
 far the larger part of the difficulty which the 
 ordinary student finds in his study of algebra 
 proper — the science of the equation — and 
 in his more advanced study of mathematics, 
 grows out of an imperfect knowledge of the 
 notation. These are facts well known to all ex- 
 perienced teachers. Nevertheless, it is no unfre- 
 quent thing to hear a teacher say of a pupil : 
 
" He is quite good in algebra, but cannot get 
 along very well with literal examples!" Nothing 
 could be more absurd. It comes from mistaking 
 the importance and fundamental character of 
 this notation. It isof the first importance that, 
 at the outset, a clear conception be gained of 
 the nature of this notation, and that, in all the 
 course, no method nor language be used which 
 will do violence to these principles. Thus, that the 
 letters a. b, x, y. etc., as used in mathematics, rep- 
 resent pure number, or quantity, is to be amply 
 illustrated in the tirst lessons, and care is to be 
 taken that no vicious conception insinuate itself. 
 To say that, as 5 apples and 6 apples make 1 1 
 apples, so 5a and f„, make lla, is to teach 
 error. If this comparison teaches anything, it 
 is that the letter a in 5a, 6a, and Lla, simply 
 gives to the numbers 5, (>. and 1L a concrete 
 significance, as does the word apples in the 
 tirst instance ; but this is erroneous. The true 
 conception of the use of u. to represent a num- 
 ber, may be given in this way : As 5 times 7 
 and 6 times 7 make 1 1 times 7. so ."> times any 
 number and 6 times the same number make 11 
 times that number. Now. let a represent any 
 number whatever ; then 5 times a and (i times a 
 make 11 times <t. The two thoughts to be im- 
 
 as to tne vaiue oi tne divisor mat is 
 i it is a question as to the degree. He 
 we wish to affirm is that 'la.r' — 2b- 
 
 19 
 
 as to the value of the divisor that is involved; 
 what 
 -2bxy is the 
 highest common </iris<»- of these polynomials. 
 with respect to x. 
 
 In oriier that the pupil may get an adequate 
 conception of the nature of the literal notation, 
 it is well to keep prominently before his mind 
 the fact that the fundamental operations of ad- 
 dition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, 
 whether of integers or fractions, the various trans- 
 formations and reductions of fractions, as well as 
 involution and evolution, are exactly the same as 
 the corresponding ones with whi.-h'he is already 
 
 represents some liuiu- 
 ial what number it is, 
 same number in all 
 
 preset are. that tl 
 ber.and that it is 
 so long as it repres 
 cases in the same problem. Again, the genius 
 of the literal notation requires that no concep- 
 tion be taken of a letter as a representative of 
 number, which is not equally applicable to frac- 
 tional and integral numbers. Thus we may not 
 say that a fraction which has a numerator n and a 
 denominator b. represents a of the 6 equal parts of 
 a quantity, or number, as we affirm that | repre- 
 sents 3 of the 4 equal parts : for this conception 
 of a fraction requires that the denominator be 
 integral ; otherwise, if b represent a mixed num- 
 ber, as 4<j, we have the absurdity of attempting 
 to conceive a quantity as divided into 4| equal 
 parts. The only conception of a fraction, suf- 
 ficiently broad to comport with the nature of the 
 literal notation, is that it is an indicated oper- 
 ation in division : and all operations in fractions 
 should be demonstrated from this definition. 
 
 So also to read a:" 1 , "a; to the mth power.'' when 
 m is not necessarily an integer, is to violate this 
 fundamental characteristic i if the notation. In like 
 maimer, to use the expressions greatest common 
 divisiir. and l?n.<t rmiimoii inu/ti/iU: when literal 
 quantities are under consideration, is an absurd- 
 ity, and moreover fails to give any indication of 
 
 the idea which shouli 
 we cannot affirm tha 
 common divisor of 
 — 2b<.ry- and 4a b 
 since ax — by is a divi 
 whether 2ax*— 2bxy 
 
 cxalll].: 
 
 rof these polynomials. and 
 i greater or less than ax — 
 by cannot be affirmed unless the relative values 
 of the letters are known. To illustrate. 2ax 2 
 — 2bxy=2x [ax— by). Now suppose <7=500, 
 4=10, y=2, and x=- ! 1 ^; then ax — by=30, and 
 2ax ! — 2bxy=6. Moreover, it is not a question 
 
 familiar in arithmetic, except as thev are modi- 
 fied by the difference between the literal and the 
 Arabic notations. Thus, the pupil will be led 
 to observe that the ordersoi the Arabic notation 
 are analogous to the terms of a polynomial in the 
 Literal notation, and that the process of "carrying" 
 in the Arabic addition, etc., has no analogue in 
 the literal.. simply because there is no established 
 relation between the terms in the latter. Again. 
 he will see that, in both cases, addition is the 
 process of combining several quantities, so that 
 the result shall express the aggregate value in 
 the fewest terms consistent with the nutation. 
 This being the conception of addition, he will see 
 thai for the same reason that we say, in the Ara- 
 bic Dotation, that the sum of 8 and 7 is 5 and 10 
 (tif-teciii. instead of 8 and 7, we say, in the 
 literal notation, that the sum of oax and 6ax is 
 lleue. In fact.it is quite conceivable that the 
 pupil, who understands the common or Arabic 
 arithmetic, can master the literal arithmetic for 
 himself, after he has fairly learned the laws of 
 the new notation. 
 
 Positivt and Negative. — Although the signs -j- 
 and — . even as indicating the affections positive 
 and negative, are not confined to the literal nota- 
 tion, the pupil tirst comes to their regular use 
 in this connection, and finds this new element 
 of the notation one of his most vexatious 
 stumbling-blocks. Thus, that the sum of 5ay 
 and — 2ay should be Zay, and their difference 
 lay, and that "minus multiplied by minus 
 should give plus," as we are wont to say. often 
 seems absurd to the learner. Yet even here he 
 may be taught to find analogies in the teach- 
 ings of the common arithmetic, which will at 
 least partially remove the difficulty. When he 
 comes to understand, that attributing to numbers 
 the affection positive or negative gives to them 
 a sort of concrete significance, and allies them 
 in some son t,, denominate numbers, he may 
 at least see. that bay and 2ay do not neces- 
 sarily make lay : for. if one were feet and the 
 other yards, the sum would not be lay of either. 
 If, then, he conies to understand that the funda- 
 mental idea of this notation is, that the terms 
 positive and negative indicate simply such opposi- 
 tion in kind, in the numbers to which they are 
 
 applied, as makes one tend to destroy oi unter- 
 
 balance the other, he is prepared to see that the 
 sum of 5a.(/and — 2a y is 'Any ; since, when put 
 together, the — 2ay, by its opposition of nature. 
 
■-•II 
 
 destroys 2ay of the 5ay, The ordinary illustra- 
 tions in which forces acting in opposite directions, 
 motion in opposite directions, amounts of proper- 
 ty and of debts, etc., are characterized as positive 
 and negative, are helpful, n ma le to set in clearer 
 light the fact, thai this distinction is simply in 
 regard to the way in which the numbers are ap- 
 plied, and not really in regard to the numbers 
 themselves. 
 
 So, also, in multiplication, the tliree principles, 
 
 (1) that the product is like the multiplicand: 
 
 (2) that a multiplier must be conceive 1 as essen- 
 tially abstract when the operation is performed ; 
 and (3) that the sign of the multiplier shows 
 what is to be done with the product when 
 obtained, remove all the difficulty, and nuke it 
 seem no more absurd that "min is multiplied by 
 minus gives plus," than that "plus multiplied by 
 plus gives plus": in fact, exactly the same course 
 of argument is required to establish the one con- 
 clusion as to establish the other. When we ana- 
 lyze the operation which we call multiplying 
 4- a by + b, we say " + a taken 6 times gives 
 -f- ab. Now the sign -f before the multiplier 
 indicates that the product is to be taken ad- 
 ditively. that is, united to other quantities by its 
 own sign." So when we multiply — a by — b, 
 we say " — a multiplied by 6 (a mere number) 
 gives — ab (a product like the multiplicand). 
 But the — sign before the multiplier indicates 
 that this product is to be taken subtractively. 
 i. e. united with other quantities by asign op- 
 posite to its own." This, however, is not the pl.r-e 
 to develop the theory of positive and negative 
 quantities; our only purpose here is to show 
 that the whole grows out of a kind of concrete 
 or denominate significance which is thus put 
 upon the numbers, an 1 which hears some analogy 
 to familiar principles of n> n arithmetic. 
 
 Exponents. —One other feature of the mathe- 
 matical notation comes into prominence now for 
 the first time, ami needs to be clearly compre- 
 hended : it is the theory of exponents. Here, 
 as well as elsewhere, it is important to guard 
 against false impressions at the start. The idea 
 thai an exponent indicates a power is often so 
 
 afterwards rids himself of the impression. To 
 avoid this, it is well to have the pupil learn at 
 the outset that not all exponents indicate the 
 
 same thing; thus, while - e indicate powers, 
 
 "'ln'i- indicate roots, ml, i- r - of powers, and 
 
 'ill i irs still the reciprocals of the latter. Too much 
 pains can scarcely lie taken to strip this matter 
 of all obscurity, and allow no fog to gather 
 around it. Nothing in algebra gives the young 
 learner so much difficulty as radicals, and all be- 
 cause he is not thoroughly taught the notation. 
 Perhaps, but few, even of those who have at- 
 tained considerable proficiency in mathematics, 
 have really set clearly before their own minds the 
 
 fact that usedasanexp. u1 is not a fraction in 
 
 the same sense as in its or.linarv use, and hence 
 that the demonstration that \ ' \ as ei V eu con- 
 cerning common fractions, by no means proves 
 that the exponent \ equals the exponent ;. 
 
 Other principles hearing on this important sub- 
 ject will he i levelo] ied under the following head. 
 Methods of !>■ monstration. — It requires no 
 argument to convince any one that, in establish- 
 ing the working features, if we may so speak, of 
 ascieuce.it is important that they' he exhibited 
 as direct outgrowths of fundamental notions. 
 Thus, in giving a child his first conception of a 
 common fraction, no intelligent teacher would 
 use the conception of a fraction a- an indicated 
 
 roots of two numbers is ■ qual to the square runt 
 of their product, may be demonstrated thus: Let 
 ^/<<X </b=p, whence ab /■ ; and, extracting the 
 
 square root of each member we have x ,,/, p. 
 Hence \/« x \ 6 = \ ah. Now, this is concise 
 and mathematical!} elegant; but it gives the 
 pupil no insight whatever into "the reason why." 
 What is needed here is, that the pupil be en- 
 abled to see that this proposition grows out of 
 the nature of a square root as one of the two 
 equal factors of a number ; i. e., he needs to see 
 its connection with fundamental conceptions. 
 Thus s 'nil means that the product i/li is to be re- 
 solved into two equal factors, and that one of them 
 is to be taken. Now. if we res. live <i into two equal 
 factors, as \/a and ,/a, and b into two equal 
 factors, as x b and v 6, ab will be resolved into 
 four factors which can be arranged in two equal 
 groups, thus N a v 6 v a v 6. Hence x a v b is 
 the square root of ub because it is one of the two 
 equal factors into which ab can be conceived to 
 be resolved. In this manner, all operations in 
 radicals may be seen to be based upon the most 
 elementary principles of factoring. Again, as 
 another illustration of this vicious use of the 
 equation in demonstrating elementary theorems, 
 let us consider the common theorems concerning 
 the transformations of a proportion. As usually 
 demonstrated, by transforming the proportion 
 into an equation, and rice rerun, the real 
 reason why the proposed transformation does 
 not vitiate the proportion, is not brought to 
 light at all. For example, suppose we are to 
 prove that, If four quantities are in propor- 
 tion, they are in proportion by composition, 
 i e . ii a : b : : c : d, a : a -f 6 : : c : c | '/. 
 The common method is to pass from the given 
 proportion to the equation be = ud, then add 
 nc to each member, obtaining ac-\-bc =ac-f ad, 
 or c (a + b) = a (c + d), and then to 
 transform this equation into the proportion 
 a : a + b : : c : c -4- d. No doubt, this is concise 
 and elegant, but the real reason why the transfor- 
 mation does not destroy the proportion, viz.. that 
 both rutin* have been divided by the same num- 
 ber, is not even suggested by this demonstration. 
 On the other hand, let the following demonstra- 
 tion be used, and the pupil not only sees exactly 
 why the transformation does not destroy the 
 
proportion, but at every step has his attention 
 held closely to the fundamental characteristics of 
 a proportion. Let the ratio a:6ber; hence as 
 a proportion is an equality of ratios, the ratio 
 c : d is /•: and we have « -r- 6 ;= r, and c --■ d 
 r,ora br, and c dr. Substituting these 
 values of a and <■ in the terms of the proportion 
 which are changed l>y the transformation, we 
 have a-\- b br \ b. or b (r ■ 1), and e • d 
 = dr + d, or d{r + 1); whence we see that 
 
 by multiplying both consequents by r I (the 
 
 ratio f 1). which does not destroy th luality 
 
 ilii- 
 
 tl,n;| 
 
 positions con- 
 portion by one 
 ill cases clearly 
 
 reveals the reason why the proportion is not 
 destroyed. 
 
 This choice of a line of argument which shall 
 be applicable to an entire class of propositions 
 is of no slight importance in constructing a 
 mathematical course. It enables a student to 
 learn with greater facility and satisfaction the 
 demonstrations, and fixes them more firmly in 
 his memory: while it also gives broader and 
 more scientific views of truth, by thus classi- 
 fying, and bringing into one line of thought. 
 
 21 
 
 mar school, or. if in the country, never have other 
 
 3cl I advantages than those furnished by the 
 
 common or rural district school. Nevertheless, 
 many of these will receive much greater profit 
 from spending half a year, or a year, in obtaining 
 a knowledge of the elements of algebra 'and 
 even of geometry) than they usually do in study- 
 ing arithmetic. (See Arithmetic.) For this, 
 class the proper ranee of tonics is. a clear exno- 
 
 ressiorj 
 
 and 
 
 IS the 
 
 more 
 
 e theory of 
 
 est eoi 
 
 
 g one. 
 
 two, 
 
 Ho and 
 
 /"'"- 
 
 of radicals will 
 nature as growi 
 of factoring; / 
 
 affe, 
 volving one. and two unknow 
 second class i omprisi s what 
 school pupils. For this gi 
 
 led 
 
 'IIh. will be the case especially as rej 
 
 theory of exponents, positive i 
 
 t/itiiiiti/tt's. r.i</ir,i/s, fijiKilions innlr 
 icals, and simultaneous equations, i 
 those of the second decree. To tin 
 be added the artihmet and oeometi 
 
 •esses so nearly related to c,el 
 the mind of the learner, they 
 e perplexing than if absolutely 
 
 to the business rules of arithmetic. A wide 
 acquaintance with the results attained in our 
 1 1 i "_i 1 1 schools in all parts of the country, and an 
 
 years satisfy the writer that time spent in these 
 schools in attempts to master the theory of 
 indeterminate coefficients, the demonstration 
 of the binomial and logarithmic formulas, or 
 upon the hujh^r ,;,„,,/„,„.<. ,«•/«. etc.. is. if 
 
 Hell 
 
 Firs 
 
 who, 
 
 era,,, 
 
 *) It may be new to some that there is a simple 
 elementary Tueth.nl ..f proving the rule for differentiat- 
 ing a logarithm with-, it ivt'crci t.i series. This 
 
 method was discovered by Dr. Watson of the University 
 of Michigan and was first presented to the public in 
 Olsei's University Algebra in 1873. j hjipirilll 
 
 as above ma 
 course, are 
 dents; a sull 
 of algebraic 
 
 the student 
 
 variable, to 
 
 
 o enable 
 
 reciate the idea ol fun 
 
 Hi <■ and 
 
 ce the binomial fori 
 
 /,/,/. the 
 
 and Taylor's formula 
 
 which is 
 
•_"2 
 
 necessary in treating Sturm's throrpm.axul to ap- 
 preciate also the demonstration of that theorem; 
 indeterminate equations; a tolerably full prac- 
 tical treatment of the higher numerical equa- 
 tions; and the interpretation of equations; 
 adding, if may be, something upon interpolation 
 and series in general. 
 
 <V<isx-]-!f>iim Wiirh. — It is probably unneces- 
 sary to say, that a careful and thorough study of 
 text-books should lie the foundation of our class- 
 room work on thissubject; nevertheless, so much 
 
 is said, at the present ti in disparagement of 
 
 "hearing recitations" instead of "teaching," that it 
 may be well to remark that, if our schools succeed 
 in inspiring their pupils with a love of books, and 
 in teaching how to use them, they accomplish in 
 this a greater good than even in the mere knowl- 
 edge which they may impart. Books are the 
 great store house of knowledge, and he who has 
 the habit of using them intelligently has the key 
 to all human knowledge. But it is not to be 
 denied, that there is an important service to be 
 rendered bythe living teacher, albeit that service, 
 especially in this department, is not formal lec- 
 turing on the principles of the science. With 
 younger pupils, the true teacher will often pref- 
 ace a subject with a familiar talk designed to 
 prepare them for an intelligent study of the 
 lesson to be assigned, to awaken an interest in it. 
 or to enable them to surmount some particular 
 difficulty. For example, suppose a class of young 
 pupils are to have their first lesson in subtrac- 
 tion in algebra: a preliminary talk like the fol- 
 lowing will 1 xceedingly helpful, perhaps 
 
 necessary, tn an intelligent preparation of the les- 
 
 this idea clearly before the mind, the teacher will 
 proceed to the 1st principle. If — Zab be added 
 to lab how much of the "tab will it destroy? 
 1 1 [ere again we proceed from a fundamental con- 
 ception— the nature of quantities as positive and 
 
 negative, thus deducing the new from th ,1. 
 
 Repeat sueh illustrations of thi principle as may 
 
 have been given in addition It several buys aie 
 urging a sled forward bj 7. tb pounds, and the 
 strength of another boy amounting to 3ab 
 pounds is added, but exerted in an opposite 
 direction, what now is the sum of their efforts? 
 What kiud of a quantity do we call the '.in/,'! 
 [Negative.] Why? How much of the -\- lab 
 does — 3ab destroy when we add it? If then 
 we wish to destroy + ■inh from 4- ~iuh, how may 
 we do it ? Proceeding then to the 2d principle, 
 it may be asked, how much is 6 ay — 2 uy ? If 
 now we add -f- 2 ay to t> ay — 2 ay, which is 4uy, 
 what does it become? What does the + lay 
 destroy? What then is the effect of adding a 
 positive quantity? Such introductory elucida- 
 
 probal 
 Sueh 
 
 if this kind, either 
 •book is useless, or 
 ?onfuse each other, 
 ite in the very lan- 
 irablethat this Ian- 
 yh; pupil ufte 
 
 th • teacher must confine his illu 
 to the essential points on whii 
 based. In this case these are \ 1 ) 
 alive quantity destroys an 
 quantity; (2) Adding a positi 
 
 stroys <t» equal neg 
 
 the qua 
 
 iity; (3) As the 
 
 minuend is the sum 
 
 Of th,' . 
 
 ubtrahend and 
 
 remainder, if the sul 
 
 trahend i 
 
 s destroyed from 
 
 <i>il the minuend, thei 
 
 •maindei 
 
 is left. Now, in 
 
 what order shall the 
 
 • three ] 
 
 rinciples be pre- 
 
 sented? Doubtless the 
 given ; but in Buch an 
 
 bSud 
 
 ..utothesnhWt 
 
 as we are considering, it may be best to present 
 th ■ 3d first; since this is a truth already familiar, 
 and hence affords a connecting link with previous 
 know ledge. Moreover, this b 'in:.' already before 
 th ■ mind as a statement of what is to be done, 
 the 1st and 2d will follow in a natural order as 
 an answer to the question how the purpose is ac- 
 complished. To present the 3d principle, the 
 teacher mav place on the blackboard some sim- 
 
 Plee* pie in subtraction as: 
 
 las ii,. »iii the,, question the class thus: 
 ;,,. What is the 125 called? What the 71? 
 What the 51 ? How much more than 74 is 125? 
 If we add 71 and 25, what is the sum? Of what 
 then is the minuend composed? What is 51 f74? 
 If we destroy the 71. what remains? If in any 
 
 minuend, what will remain? Having brought 
 
 d all tl 
 
 to a constant review of them. So also it is his duty 
 to keep in prominence the outlines of the subject, 
 that the pupil may always know just where he is 
 at work and in what relation to other parts of the 
 
 leli 
 
 be 
 
 ted again and again, 
 ject.assoon as these c 
 they should be recite 
 
 preliminary aid from the teacher, save in special 
 eases. The first lesson will probably contain a 
 dozen or more definitions, with a proposition or 
 two; and the first work should be the recitation 
 of these by the pupils individually, without any 
 questions or suggestions from the teacher. 11 
 lustrations should also be required of the pupils ; 
 
'_';'. 
 
 but neither illustrations nor demonstrations 
 .should lie memorized, although great care should 
 be taken to secure a good style of expression, 
 modeled on that of the text. To this first re- 
 citation on a new subject all the class should give 
 the strictest attention ; and every point in it 
 should be brought out. at least once in the hear- 
 ing of every pupil. In the course of subs quent 
 recitations in the same general subject, iulivi.l- 
 
 the full consciousness of duty nobly done. The 
 fact is. all that he has said is useless, nay, worse 
 than useless. lie has simply intimated what 
 
 uals will be questioned 
 
 developed. For exam, 
 have been blOl 
 
 ,U ll 
 
 what algebra is will 
 illy to view" in this first 
 a pupil has stated and 
 ami has given his expla- 
 from the blackboard, the 
 y do you say you have 
 ly algebra? The answer 
 
 solved this problen 
 will be. Because I b 
 instrument with which to effect the solution. 
 Can you solve this problem without the use of 
 an equation? What do you call such a solution? 
 What is algebra? Again, suppose the solution 
 has involved the reduction of such an equation as 
 2.c— J = i (3./-— 1 ) -f i (x +1). Of course, in the 
 first place the pupil will solve the example and 
 
 Sol, 
 
 »llt 
 
 the teacher w 
 
 11 in 
 
 ike 
 
 mg 
 part 
 tion 
 
 certain d 
 cular st\ 
 Thus lu 
 
 s 
 
 ask 
 
 z 
 
 .' What 
 i these as 
 
 
 u- la 
 an. 
 
 
 I. lit i qua 
 
 ' ' 
 
 
 ral term 
 
 lo v 
 
 
 chai 
 
 giug the 
 
 fori 
 
 i of 
 
 trai 
 
 <ttinihiln 
 
 ii? 
 
 Sim 
 
 definition will be 
 
 1VVI 
 
 aim 
 
 I; lEiiver 
 
 
 il ii 
 
 •iples with this 
 actical connec- 
 vour first equa- 
 .| Do you look 
 
 equation, or as 
 •different forms 
 ration? What 
 3se processes of 
 ion? What is 
 y principle and 
 lin and again 
 t the great, and 
 oils of conduct- 
 
 lark- 
 
 principles, as given by tne pupil in 
 board in explanation ot his work. 'I he writer's 
 observation satisfies him that this most pernicious 
 practice is. as he has said, almost universal. Let 
 us illustrate the common practice, and then point 
 out the better way. The pupil has placed the 
 following work upon the board: 
 7. c _2M., +14=238 
 7. c _ 2s.r=224 
 ..■■— 4r=32 
 afi— 4..+4=36 
 x— 2= + 6 
 .r=2 ± 6=8, and— 4. 
 He is then called upon to explain his work. 
 Something like the following is what we hear in 
 the majority of our best schools: 
 
 "Given 7.C— 2H.r+14=238, to find the value 
 
 of X. 
 ••Transposing. 1 have 7r' — 28.r=224. 
 •■ Dividing by 7. ./■- — ir=32. 
 
 " Completing the square, a" — l.r-|-4=36. 
 " Extracting the square root, .r — 2=4-6. 
 " Transposing, ,r=2 + 6=8, and — 4." 
 
 And the pupil turns to his instructor in 
 
 nilv 
 
 .1 ll) 
 
 the work befo 
 
 a clear and or. 
 he takes even 
 since he is tos 
 
 .Is 
 
 tot 
 
 ihal 
 
 desl 
 
 ,I|..U1 
 
 knowi 
 quanti 
 one n 
 
 step di 
 like th 
 
 nation : " Given lafi — 28z | 14- 238, to find the 
 value of X. In order to do this, I wish so to trans- 
 form the equation that, in the end, X shall stand 
 alone, constituting one member of the i quation. 
 while a known quantity constitutes (he other 
 member. Hence 1 transpose the known quantity 
 11 to the second member. This I do by subtract- 
 ing 11 from each member, which may be done 
 
 of the member,... since, it I he same .piantity be 
 subtracted from equals, the remainders are equal. 
 1 thus obtain ".<■ — 28a-= 22-1. 1 now observe 
 that the first term of the first member contains 
 the square of X, while the second contains the lirst 
 power. I wish to obtain an equation which shall 
 contain only the first power of .r. In order to do 
 this. I make the first term a perfect power by 
 dividing each member of the equation by i, 
 which d...., not destroy the equality, since equals 
 
 divided bv equals -he equal quotients and I have 
 
 co-cfti- 
 
 po 
 
 statutes the hrst two terms ot i 
 
 binomial of which the square of 
 
 tit-lit of X, or 4. is the third term. 1 add 4 to this 
 
 member to make it a complete square, and also add 
 
 t to th • second member to preserve the equality 
 
 of the members, and have x — fcc-f4=36. Ex- 
 
 of .,•; but to preserve the equalit 
 
 the square root of the second member, obtaining 
 
 ond member by adding 2 to cadi member, which 
 does not destroy the equation, I have x 8, and 
 
 —4." If it is 'desired to abbreviate the expla- 
 nation, it is far better to make it simply an 
 outline of the reasons, than a mere statement 
 of the process. In this case, an outline of the 
 reasons may be given thus: The object is to 
 disengage x from its connections with other 
 
 known quantity. The first process is based upon 
 the principle that equals subtracted from equals 
 leave equal remainders; the second, upon the 
 
 *) '• Destroy the value of the equation." is an absurd 
 expression which we frequently hear. An equation is 
 not a quantity, and hen.-e has no value. The equality 
 of tin members is meant. 
 
24 
 
 ALGERIA 
 
 principle that equals divided by equals give equal 
 quotients," etc. Again, while it is admissible 
 when the purpose is to fix attention upon any 
 particular transformation, to omit the reasons for 
 some of those previously studied, it is far better 
 that these be omitted pro forma, than that 
 something which is not an exposition of reasons 
 be given. Thus, if the present purpose is to 
 secure drill in the theory of completing the 
 square, after having enunciated the problem, the 
 pupil may say: " I laving reduced the equation to 
 the form x - 4a;=32," etc., proceeding then to 
 give in full the explanation of the [process under 
 consi Ii ration, But it is well to allow no recita- 
 tion on such a subit t to pass without having at 
 
 least on mil explan; 
 to stu 1\ and recita 
 agent facility in r, hi 
 
 
 tion of practii al pro 
 
 different, and sos i 
 
 In these thes •' m i 
 shoul 1 be ma le the n 
 
 1 i suchca 
 
 after having given 
 the statement, thus f 
 on which he has ffi 
 
 ,1 „,-•,!,. ,„„,,„., impute 
 d be the pupils explanation. 
 
 I is th ■ important thine, ami 
 ain tiling in the cxplaniitiipn. 
 will be quite sufficient, if, 
 
 Ii ■ reasons for each step in 
 
 conclude bj 
 
 in] K. "Solving this equa- 
 
 and synop i • of top 
 ;ts class exercia i. t 
 better knowl ■ 1 reof t 
 theorem to be able t 
 than to give thewho 
 
 ■- are e\,ve. Ime.lv \ alu.-.l .!. • 
 irexample i. requires a far 
 
 . give the following outline 
 
 ■ in detail : (1) No i ha i i 
 
 in the variable whic 
 
 p does not cause some one 
 
 ALPHABET 
 
 ider to military, government. The popu- 
 lation according to the census of 1872 was 
 2,416,225, of whom 245,117 were Europeans 
 and their descendants; 34,574 native dews; the 
 remainder were Mohammedans. In n jard to re 
 lui.pu. . .': ;:;:; were < 'atholics. 6.006 Protestants, 
 39,812 (including those of European descent 
 Jews, and 14(1 had made no declaration. The 
 Catholics have an Archbishop and two Bish- 
 ops; the Protestants three Consistories, under 
 which both the Lutheran an.l Reformed I lunches 
 are placed, tn regard to public instruction, 
 Algeria constitutes a division, called the . [cademy 
 of Ali/rrin and headeil l>v a lector. 'I he number 
 of free public schools in L866 was 426, with 
 45,375 pupils; for secondary instruction there 
 are four colleges and one Lyceum (at Algiers, 
 Bona, Constantine, Philippeville, and Oran), the 
 secondary institution at 'llemcen, and the free 
 school at (Iran. A special system of instruction 
 has been arranged for the Mohammedan popu- 
 lation. It comprises the douar village or camp) 
 
 schools, the law SI I I- "■ 'I choolsoi 
 
 law and literature (medresas , the French Arabic 
 
 schools, and the French Arabic colleges. \Ln re, 
 
 the capital, has sp cial si hi 
 medicine. 'I he edui ational 
 try derives a sp cial inn i. 
 
 it 'illustrates the influence 
 
 teoWandof 
 . of tins coun- 
 the fact that 
 
 in the number of variations and permanences of 
 the signs of the functions: (2) So two consec- 
 utive functions can vanish for the same value 
 of the variable; (3) The vanishing of an inter- 
 mediate function cannot cause a change in the 
 number of variations and permanences; and 
 (4) The last function cannot vanish for any 
 value of the variable; and, as the first vanishes 
 every time the value of the variable pa ies 
 through a root of the equation, it by so doing 
 
 theref 
 Final! 
 
 tered 
 blackl 
 
 laws regulatiiiL' public iu,truetion in Algeria may 
 be found in (.khaki,. La Legislation ■!■ rlnstruc- 
 tion Primaire en France, torn, in., art. Algerie. 
 
 ALLEGHENY COLLEGE, at .Veadville, 
 I'a.. was founded in 1817, and is under the 
 dilution of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 The number of students in 1874- 5 seas 132, 
 more than one half of whom were pursuing the 
 collegiate course. It has classical, scientific, and 
 biblical departments, and is open to both sexes. 
 Its library contains about 12,000 volumes. Rev. 
 L.1I. I'.ugbee. It.lL.is the pr. sident of the faculty. 
 
 ALMA MATER I Lat.. lostering mother) is 
 a name affectionately given by students of colleges 
 and universities to the institution to which they 
 owe their education. 
 
 ALPHABET. The alphabet of any language 
 is the series of letters, arranged in thei ustomary 
 
 any I 
 
 Oliel 
 
 of d 
 
 lllllel 
 
 ok al 
 
 ALGERIA, a div 
 was formerly a Turki 
 1830 been in possess 
 boundariesare no! defi 
 the claims of the Fret 
 border. The territory 
 stimated at about 
 
 med alpha, beta. The letters in the English 
 ihabel have the same forms as those of the 
 itin language, which were borrowed from the 
 eek. The Latin alphabet, however, did not 
 ntain all the Creek letters. The letters of the 
 eek alphabet were borrowed from the 1'hceni- 
 m. which was that used by many of the old 
 ii., nations, and is of unknown origin. It 
 insisted of 22 signs, representing consonantal 
 unds. Into this alphabet the Greeks introduced 
 my modifications, and the changes made by 
 a Romans were also considerable. Its use 
 
 about I50,50.s are subject to the civil, and the in English presents many variations from 
 
ALPHABET METHOD 
 
 final condition in the Latin language. Thus. I | the i 
 
 and J, and 1' and \ 
 graphic variations, w 
 different sounds, dm 
 urirs. W \\;i< add. 
 ages. The twenty sh 
 been thus classiiied 
 
 instead of being merely the fori 
 
 : of each, so as to associate arbitrarily 
 with the name; or, in simultaneous 
 ruction, to exhibit the letters on sepa- 
 
 fromthe Phoenicians; (2) \. K. I. 0, Z, origin- 
 ally Phoenician, but changed by the Creeks; 
 (3) U (same as V), X. invented by the Greeks; 
 (-1) •'. K. Phoenician letters with changed value ; 
 (5) G, of Latin invention; ((i| V, introduced 
 
 alpha! iet are 
 its arc us- 1 
 (soft) and s, 
 /,'. x and /,'::. 
 
 by the same 
 and gin, s in 
 The vowels 
 [lustrated in 
 nentsof tb i 
 itations, the 
 >f Webster's 
 
 into balm fn 
 (-) d. V. grs 
 
 phic I 
 
 by doubling 
 
 The iniper 
 manifold : 
 
 r'(or \ 
 ictions 
 1) Di 
 
 to represent 
 
 ./ (soft) and , 
 
 (2) Different 
 
 letter ; as c ii 
 
 sound. 
 
 .sv'/and as, f 
 
 in if 
 
 are constant 1 
 the following 
 
 tab! ■ i 
 
 language an. 
 diacritical mi 
 Dictionary. 
 
 their 
 
 Lo„i 
 
 ii •• •• art 
 a o ». " all. 
 
 they 
 
 •■ do. rule, too 
 
 From this table it will be seen that the letter 
 a is used to represent seven different sounds; e,five 
 
 names given to ih • letters are not in conformity 
 with a uniform principle of designation. Thus. 
 the names of b, c, d, </, p, t, r. and z are be, ce, 
 de, ge, etc. ; while the names of /'. /. m, n, s, and 
 x are ef, el, em, en, etc, ; and the names of ,/. k, 
 arc J'/, kn. The heterogeneity of these names 
 and of their construction will be obvious. It is 
 important thai the teacher should take cogni- 
 zance of these gruiti 3 in giving elementary 
 
 instruction, as they dictate special methods of 
 presentation. (See Alphabet .Method.) 
 
 METHOD, 
 
 A-B-C 
 
 ■ be not .only 
 
 incentive to 
 
 Hi. ma ly 
 
 tentionoi the 
 
 „2L£fi 
 
 
 be taught by 
 
 child, its intelligence may be 
 ing the alphabet by this mi 
 forms, such as 1, O, X. S. \ 
 
 Bhowing theanalogy or similarity of their forms 
 
 portion of it is erased ; one half of it with 1, 
 used as a bar. forms D; two smaller D'sform B; 
 and so on. This method is very simple, and may 
 be made quite interesting by means of the black- 
 board. 
 
 The letters which closely resemble each other 
 in form, such as A and V, M and N, E and F. 
 and ( ' and <i. among capitals, and b and d, cand 
 e, p and q, and n and u, among small letters, 
 should be presented tooei her. so that their minute 
 
 will at 
 Of the i 
 
 , child's mind, will 
 eiidcr the instructio 
 
 |o ,v, i 
 
 uired to make 
 
 tiers so as to form short 
 A horizontal wooden bar 
 
 from curds, or froi 
 must be taught to 1 
 
 the letters, and to 
 spective names. Tl 
 very general, was to 
 and then, calling ui 
 the letters, one afte 
 
 and familiar i 
 
 with a handle, and a groove on the upper edge 
 in which to insert the cards, tonus a very useful 
 piece of apparatus for this purpose. Letter- 
 Blocks may also be used in a similar manner by 
 •ding to t Ins I both teacher and pupils. Thes i bloi ks are some- 
 icsofallthc times cut into sections so as to divide the letter 
 i-B-Cbooh into several parts, and the pupil is required to 
 .• that is. he adjust the parts so as to form the letter. Tins 
 ius forms of method affords both instruction and amusement. 
 em their re- to young children, and at the same time, gives 
 Ig this, once ] day to their natural impulse to activity. These 
 
 iwithl ks, various methods will be combined and others 
 
 to point to devised by every ingenious teacher. In some 
 ) pronounce ! schools a piece of apparatus, called the reading 
 
ALUMNEUM 
 
 frame, is used. This is constructed like a black- 
 board with horizontal grooves, in which the let- 
 ters can be placed so as to slide along to any 
 required position. By the use of assorted letters, 
 the teacher can construct any word or sentence, 
 building it up letter by letter, as types are set. 
 Many interesting exercises in reading and spelling 
 may be given by means of such an apparatus, the 
 children being required to construct words and 
 sentences themselves, iis well as to read those 
 formed by the teacher. The A IS V, Method of 
 teaching the elements of reading has now. quite 
 generally, been superseded by the Word Method. 
 — See Ookme, Early and Infatii School Edu- 
 cation, and Principles and Practice of Common 
 School Education,- Wickersham, MeOwds- of 
 Instruction. (See Word Method.) 
 
 ALUMNEUM, or Alunmat (Lat.. from 
 alere, to feed, to nourish), the name given in 
 Germany to an institution of learning which af- 
 fords to its pupils board. lodging, and instruc- 
 tion. The first institutions of this kind arose m 
 the middle ages in connection with the convents. 
 Among the most celebrated are those founded by 
 Maurice of Saxony, in tin' L 6th century, at Pforta 
 Meissen, and Grimma. When the pupils were 
 received and instructed gratuitously, they were 
 expected to perform various services for the 
 
 SCl land church, sueli as singing in the choir. 
 
 The pupils of these schools were called alumni. 
 (See Alumnus.) 
 
 ' Uumni (Lat., from alere, 
 
 ANALYSIS 
 
 from funds contributed for the purpose by 
 
 entitle instruction, and tht 
 are also a gallery of art. 
 history, containing about ! 
 an a-ironoiuical ol.scrvat 
 for physical training is \ 
 prises an extensive ami 
 
 <. besides 
 e for sci- 
 h. There 
 
 natural 
 tens, and 
 lartment 
 
 It com- 
 
 oroughly 
 
 - twenty- 
 endowed 
 
 - in Is74 
 
 contains 
 
 e of the 
 entific as 
 
 ALUMNUS 
 to feed, to mm 
 student who was 
 expense of a leai 
 generally 
 
 to a graduate of a college 
 or similar institution. The graduates of higher 
 seminaries or colleges for females are sometimes 
 called alumnae. 
 
 AMHERST COLLEGE, at Amherst, Mass., 
 is one of the chief seats of learning in the 
 United States. It was founded in L821 by the 
 Orthodox Congregationalists, especially for the 
 
 education of 
 its charter was 
 president was 1 
 in 1823 was 
 Humphrey, to 
 efforts the' coll, 
 continued in i 
 ceeded by the 
 on the resigns 
 
 the ministry ; hut 
 ill L825. Its lii-st 
 liah S. Moore, who 
 the Rev. lleman 
 ous and prudent 
 of its success. He 
 when he was suc- 
 llitcheock: and. 
 Iter, in 1854, the 
 .'illium A. Stearns. 
 
 was about 340. 'I he college 
 more than 30,000 volumes; 8 
 societies, about 10,000. 'I here 
 well as a classical course; also a postgraduate 
 course, established in I ST-I , in history and polit- 
 ical science, with especial reference to a "science 
 of statesmanship;' while any graduate may 
 arrange to pursue a course of study in any de- 
 partment additional to the college course. The 
 tuition fee is .Slid per annum. 
 
 ANALYSIS, Grammatical, or Senten- 
 tial. — By the analysis of a sentence is meant a 
 decomposition of it into its logical elements. 
 Every sentence must either lie a single proposi- 
 tion, or be composed of propositions more or 
 less intimately related: and every proposition 
 must contain a subjectsnA a predicate, the for- 
 
 latter. what wT- say of it. 'I he entire or logical 
 
 pendentlyof them. Grammar has been defined 
 as the -art of speaking and writing correctly," 
 or as the "practical science which teaches the 
 right use of language"; and for general pur- 
 poses this account is, perhaps, sufficiently ex- 
 plicit. It does not. however, truly distinguish 
 grammar from the other arts concerned in leach- 
 
 recipient of very large donations from private 
 and appropriations from the State 
 
 amounting to upward 
 
 funds a lint in the a 
 
 $650,000. Its charity I 
 education of clergy i iien ai 
 and its fund for free 
 
 $100, ). The names. 
 
 to the institution are I 
 to the extent of $240,01 
 cock, $175,1111(1; Samui 
 and a college church w; 
 
 follow a correspo 
 in its treatment 
 properly as to tin 
 
 g any 
 il.ject 
 
 stoaboutSTii.i : The .-pccial province of uram mar docs not cx- 
 
 uships is at least tend bey,, nd the construction of sentences; but 
 
 • principal donors it is quite obvious that to use language correctly, 
 
 illiain d. Walker, those principles and rules must be understood 
 
 Samuel A. Hitch- which underlie the proper method of combining 
 
 lliston. $150,000 : sentences so that they may constitute elegant and 
 
 cted a short time logical discourse. A person may be sufficiently 
 
ANALYSIS 
 
 27 
 
 familiar with grammatical rules to construct sen- laid for the intelligent study of all other gram- 
 
 tences with perfect correctness, but may so ar- matical terms and distinctions; and this being 
 
 range them as to express only nonsense : and the foundation, should, of course, be the first 
 
 such a person could scarcely be considered as un- thin;,' done. Those who oppose the analytical 
 
 derstandiiig the "right use of language." The method assert that words are the real elements of 
 
 iof grammar, a sentence, and that anv consideration of these 
 
 being the ] 
 
 it follows that the only subjei 
 
 inflectional tonus, and pronu 
 arrangement in sentences. A] 
 finitions and rules are founde 1 
 of the parts of a 
 therefore, these rel 
 It is with referenc 
 
 pi-oMIM 
 
 IS sh, 
 
 refore, an i 
 ■If. With 
 hat pieces 
 
 .han.-t 
 
 giving any definition of a sentence, is. therefore 
 
 clearly illogical ; yet this lias been the method of 
 
 many grammarians, words being explained and 
 
 parsed as if they had c " 
 
 It is in this that the dia 
 
 and graiiiiiiatie.il analys 
 
 fact, only different kit 
 
 based on precisely the 
 
 which the words stand 
 
 a sentence. 
 
 Parsing, as uniformly employed by gram- 
 marians, is a minute examination of the in- 
 dividual words of a sentence, with the view to 
 determine whether the rules of grammar, proper 
 
 ;<1 properties, 
 tion between parsing 
 in>i>t- Both are. in 
 of analysis, and are 
 e relations. — those in 
 each other as parts of 
 
 ysis. on tlie other liaml. ileal: 
 upon which those rules are 
 are common to all languages. 
 
 used, and which 
 Thus, in parsing. 
 the pupil is obliged to scrutinize all the inflec- 
 tional funis in which the words composing the 
 sentence are used ; and, in order to determine 
 whether they are proper or not, must not only 
 know the rules of syntax, but the relations of the 
 words to each other, so as to be able to apply 
 those rules. The relations are invariable in all 
 languages, but the rules which refer to the in- 
 flections are founded on particular usage, and 
 hence are in no two languages exactly alike. On 
 this account, since the </.■„, rul logically precedes 
 the special, the treatment of sentential analysis 
 should precede any exercises in parsing. Other- 
 wise, how, for example, could a pupil be required 
 to distinguish the cases of nouns and pronouns, 
 and the person and number of verbs, before be- 
 ing taught the rclat i. ms i if the words to each other'.' 
 I!\ means of the analytical method, when rightly 
 applied, the study of grammar is made clear. 
 Logical and easy, from the very beginning. The 
 pupil is first taught the nature ot the sentence, 
 its essential parts, and (heir relations to each 
 
 operation upon a few elementary or primary parts, 
 as the cylinder, piston, condenser, etc. ? Words 
 are not necessarily the real elements of a sen- 
 tence. These are the subject and predicate and 
 their adjuncts: and. unless these component parts 
 of the general structure be first observed, the 
 relations of the separate words cannot be under- 
 stood. Hence, we find that those writers who 
 have ignored a definite consideration of these 
 logical elements, have fallen into many errors 
 and inconsistencies. 
 
 The various systems of analysis in use differ 
 in no essential respect, the chief variation being 
 in the nomenclature employed to designate the 
 elements of the sentence. The name generally 
 applied to a proposition forming a part of a sen- 
 tence is ;■ clause, and any group of related words 
 not making a proposition is called a jihrusr. The 
 
 mollifying elements are by some called adjective 
 in advi rl ■ r/,ai rding as they perform the func- 
 tions of adjectives or adverbs. Instead oi the 
 
 £ 
 
 XS 111. 
 
 ,/V,,/ , 
 
 -how i 
 
 llv/.e 
 
 other, and 
 
 a simple character, lie is troubled with but 
 little phraseology : for all the terms that are es- 
 sential to the complete distinction and designa- 
 tion of the parts of a sentence are subject, verb 
 or predicate, object, attribute, and adjuncts. These 
 being defined, and the pupil taught how to dis- 
 tinguish them, a complete foundation has been 
 
 Iras animal is a more general term than 
 tied animal : henee./oNr/oofeafisamodi- 
 
 than man that is hum of a woman, or 
 
 •linn : the adjuncts, (hut is hunt of u Irani- 
 an and murlul being only descriptive, not modi- 
 fying. Appositional adjuncts only explain; 
 as: // . ' "" of mem all, in which the 
 
 phrase. //,. chieftain, etc., is only explanatory, or 
 appositional Adjuncts may be single words, 
 phrases or clauses: and one of the chief ad 
 vantages of sentential analysis is to show the 
 pupil that groups of words are often used so as 
 to perform the same office as single words. In 
 teaching this subject, a proper gradation of topics 
 should lie observed; and much caution exercised 
 to avoid the perplexing of the young pupil by 
 presenting to his mind distinctions too nice to be 
 
 discer I by his undeveloped powers of analysis. 
 
 Various methods have been devised in order to 
 
28 ANALYSIS 
 
 present to tl ye of the student the analyzed 
 
 sentence, so as to show clearly the relation of its 
 parts; ami. in the rudimcntal stages of the in- 
 struction, these are. without doubt, of consider- 
 able utility ; but they should not be carried so 
 far as to present to the student a confused mass 
 of loops, lines, curves, or disjointed phrases, far 
 more difficult to disentangle than to analyze, with- 
 out any such aid, the most involved sentence. 
 All such devices, it must be remembered, are 
 only auxiliaries to the mind's natural operations, 
 ami cannot at all supersede them. Neither 
 should the exercise ol analyzing sentences be al- 
 lowed to degenerate into the mei hanical applica- 
 tion of its most simple requirements. As the 
 student advances, he will be able to omit more 
 and more of the routine, until he reaches a stage 
 of progress, at which the general structure of 
 tin' sent em 'i ■ its component clauses and their re- 
 lations, will be all that he need observe or Stat !. 
 When judiciously ami rationally employed, sen- 
 tential analysis must engender a very important 
 quality of una I. .ml greatly conduce to clear 
 thinking, intelligent, critical r lading, and accurate, 
 
 tei ■ ' i a. - e VI in, Grammat; ■ I 
 
 Structure of IheEng Languac V V.. I 2); 
 (o.oi, n Brow \. Gr ■ n • r of En . \ish G ram- 
 
 with K i An ■ .- W ch, A t of 
 
 the Eng hS ■ .■'.■•..!■ ,sis of .■" ■ 
 English Language; Clark, Normal Gramm r 
 of the English Language; Cruttenden, Phi- 
 losophy of Sentential Language; March, Pars- 
 ing and Analysis; Andrews and Stoddard, 
 Latin Grammar. 
 
 ANALYSIS, Mathematical. See Math- 
 ematics. 
 
 ANALYTIC METHOD OF TEACH- 
 ING. This is the method used by the teach r 
 when he presents to bis pupils composite 
 truths or tacts, and by means of analysis 
 diow., the principles involved, or leads the 
 mind of the pupil to an analysis of them for 
 himself. In this way he teaches principle; 
 which the pupil is to apply to the elucida- 
 tion of many diverse problems. In the synthetic 
 method, the b ichei begins with principles, ex- 
 plains their m :aning, and -hows how they are to 
 be applied. 'I ha- suppose the pupil is to bo 
 taught how to a Id and subtract fractions. Ac- 
 
 ANDRE^E 
 
 or subtract fractions by finding a common de- 
 nominator. If the object of the instruction given 
 were, exclusively, to make the pupil expert in 
 adding and subtracting fractions, the synthetic 
 method would perhaps have some advantage over 
 the analytic: but. since an important pail of 
 tin.- object is to train the mind, the analytic meth- 
 od is greatly to be preferred; for (1) it stimu- 
 lates the mind to greater activity, (2) it teaches 
 it how to investigate for itself, and to discover 
 truth, and (3) it gives it a much clearer knowl- 
 edge of the fundamental principles involved in 
 the subject taught Whetter the analytic meth- 
 od should be employed ami to what extent, is 
 to be determined by a consideration of the nature 
 of the subject taught, and the degree of advance- 
 ment of the student. In the higher stages of 
 education, much time would be lost by rigorously 
 following this method: ami if. in the more 
 elementary stages, the pupils mind has been 
 thoroughly trained in this way, it will not be 
 uecessary to adhere to it when he comes to study 
 th hie' I rai 'Ik- \i every stage, and in every 
 branch oi in truction, however, there willbe oc- 
 casion for ill.' u.-c of both analysis ami synthesis: 
 and the skill and judgment of the teacher must 
 be exen isod. at every step, to determine which is 
 the appropriate method to be employed. — See 
 Palmer. The Teacher's Manual (Boston, 1840). 
 ANDEEJE, Johann Valentin, a German 
 cl rgyman and educator, was born at Ilcrreii- 
 berg, in Wurtemberg, in 1586, and died in 
 in tgart, in 1654. After tilling several eccle- 
 ii ii 1 positions in the Lutheran church of 
 his country, he became, in KiaO, Superintendent 
 General at Babenhausen, and in 1654 at Adal- 
 bert, lie was a stern and influential opponent 
 of the principles which the Luth e ran orthodoxy, 
 at that time, endeavored to carry out in edu- 
 cation. He denounced, in particular, the me- 
 chanical method of teaching Latin, which then 
 prevailed, as well as the equally mechanical 
 me bod oi catechetical instruction in the pub- 
 he schools; and he is know,,, in the history of 
 German education, by the reforms which he in- 
 trodu 1 in these studies. He insisted that no 
 orders should be given to Ihe pupils in a foreign 
 language that they should not be required to 
 line whirl, they did not understand. 
 
 and thai no explanations should begiven to them 
 
 exceeding their comprehension, or not enlisting 
 their interest. I lis views on pedagogical ami 
 didactical reform are fully developed in the 
 work UrinnUinr Christhiwr Descriptio (1619), 
 
 tract i 
 have 
 the n: 
 
 in th. 
 denominator, the 
 
 of redu 
 
 /',„/,,,„ 
 
 Zeitalter (Berlin, 1830); Bens 
 
 tions to a common denominator, and then to add I Deutsche Allgemeine Biographie, art. Andrea. 
 
ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 ANGLO-SAXON is the current name for 
 the mother-tongue of the modern English lan- 
 miaee. During the 5th and Bth centuries, tubes 
 
 in Latin and Greek. The uses of the modes 
 also a matter of ureal nicety. The body "I' 
 
 they commonly called Anqlise, or Engl 
 English,\>xA since the 17th centurj it hi 
 
 ivi-n of Alfred the Great, A. I >. B71 
 
 ,. as one or another 
 h the other vowels. It 
 ilofwracomestobe 
 
 ihi, 
 
 directed to classic 
 Saxon of the midi 
 guage was eultivati 
 for "the use of tin 
 of the time on reli 
 King Alfred and 1 
 pared < IreLi'ory's /' 
 of Orosius, the Ecc, 
 
 these were followe 
 
 ■ id the Kentish: and 
 middle, and the late; 
 ntion will lie mainly 
 ix.in. which is West 
 
 ll,<l,,n 
 
 the other early Teutonic nations, is accentual, 
 and marks off the lines hv alliteration. The art 
 of poetry was highly cultivated; the sedp, or 
 
 at 
 
 aching far back into heathen antiquity, 
 d and Odyssey of the North. There is 
 iodv of Christian poetry in similar verse 
 
 attained accuracy and ea.-e in following Latin 
 compositions, and a higher general cultivation 
 than any other Teutonic tongue of the time. 
 It is a very pure how Ocrniaii speech, closely 
 .,_.-_ .- .i. ■„.,. .:. ,o, q 1 Dutch, 'these 
 
 akin to the l'i 
 
 L( 
 
 til 
 
 Old Sax,,, 
 
 introducing us to a new world of thought and 
 manners, are to be gained as well from the 
 study of Anglo Saxon as of Latin or I Heck. It 
 
 elated, 
 the otl 
 
 to Scandinavian; and more remotely to Lath 
 Greek, Slavic, Sanskrit, and the other link 
 European or Aryan languages. The Angli 
 Saxon is to be classed with the older inflected i 
 
 i.sh forth 
 
 study of 
 essential 
 ledge of 
 ilace for 
 
 in which 
 ing it in 
 
 cleiisi ms growing out 'it dm, lvne, sin the stems. 
 The adjective is declined as in German, in a 
 definite and an indefinite declension, with two 
 numbers, three genders, and live eases. The 
 personal pronouns are also fully declined in 
 three numbers, having special forms for the dual 
 
 are two great classes of verbs, one of which 
 forms the past tense by reduplication, and the 
 other by composition with dide, did. In the 
 first class arc five conjugations, arranged accord- 
 ing to then- root vowels, and from these come 
 most of what are called the irregular verbs of 
 modern English; our regular verbs come from the 
 sixth conjugation. Our suffixes of derivation, 
 our prepositions, and conjunctions are also in 
 great part Anglo-Saxon. The syntax is of 
 course that of a highly inflected I . i i i - ■ ■ . ■ l: . ■ . Some 
 verbs govern an accusative, some a dative or in- 
 strumental, some a genitive, some two accusa- 
 tives, some an accusative and dative, and soon 
 
 The study of language 
 chief place in any com 
 scheme. It has two ere 
 
 ( educational 
 
 .:,-: 1 as the 
 study of the art of communication, (2) as the 
 study of the record of human thought. With- 
 oui the art of communication, man cannot live: 
 without access to the accumulated thought of the 
 race, any generation would be savages; without 
 an introduction to the emotions and ideals of 
 the greaf and noble which are embodied in lit- 
 erature, any generation would lap.se toward 
 moral idiocy. 
 
 Common Schools. — The Anglo-Saxon is no 
 longer spoken, and it would be hardly worth 
 while to learn to speak it; but in learning to 
 speak and write English we need to know much 
 of it. The power to speak well is founded on 
 familiarity with choice idioms and synonyms. 
 These are learned in connection with the history 
 of the formation and meanings of words, and 
 especially in English, of our Anglo-Saxon words. 
 
ANOLO-SAXOX 
 
 'ITiere are several school etymologies which afford 
 manuals of practice in the study and use of the 
 Anglo-Saxon elements of our speech, among 
 which may be mentioned : Hand-Booh of A ngto- 
 Saxon Root-Words (New York); Hand-Book of 
 Anglo-Saxon Derivatives (New York): Gibbs's 
 Teutonic Etymology (New Haven); Sargent's 
 School Manual of English Etymology (Phila.). 
 In these books the pupil is told the meanings of 
 ivrtain A nglo-Snxon words, prefixes, and sutiixes, 
 and of Knglish words which are derived from 
 them; and exercises are arranged in which to 
 acquire skill in the ready use of tliis knowledge. 
 They are intended for the Common School. 
 Haldeman's Affixes (Phila.) is a treasury of this 
 branch of learning. 
 
 In the High School or Academy, Anglo-Saxon 
 is to be read and studied not only as explanatory 
 of English, but for its own structure and liter- 
 ature, just as Latin, Greek, and German are 
 studied. Manuals for this study in its simplest 
 form contain brief grammars. -elections for read- 
 ing, notes, and vocabulary. — Such books are S. 
 M.Shi re's Anglo-Saxon Manual (N. Y.); Bar- 
 nes's Anglo-Sa on !>■ ectus London : Vernon's 
 Guide to the Anglo-Saxon Tongue (London); 
 Carpenter's Introduction to tin- study of the 
 Anglo-Saxon Language (Boston). Similar to 
 these, but containing more apparatus for a 
 comparative study of the language and philo- 
 logical notes, are March's Introduction to the 
 Anglo-Saxon Language (N. Y); Morris's Ele- 
 mentary Lessons in Historical English Oram- 
 imir, coiitainiinj Acciilriiiv ami Word Fiirina- 
 
 S'< irmal Schools, — There are no persons to whom 
 this study is more important, than to teachers of 
 Knglish grammar. The explanations of the forms 
 of words are all to be sought in it. The origin and 
 meaning of the possessive ending 's, of the plural 
 endings, of the endings for gender, of the tense 
 forms and other forms of the verb, the adverbial 
 endings, the prepositions, may at any time be de- 
 manded of the teacher. Pupils will a.sk him 
 whether John's hook is a contraction of John his 
 book; how comes geese to be the plural of goose, 
 and men the plural of man; how comes hull/ 
 to be the feminine of lord; how conies I have 
 lorn/ to express the perfect tense; what does the 
 to mean when you say to be, or not to be, that is 
 tin' i/iirs/ion, and so on without end. But such 
 questions cannot be answered without knowing j 
 Anglo-Saxon. It is the same with questions of 
 syntax. Almost all difficulties grow out of 
 Anglo-Saxon idioms, or find their solution in 
 the forms of that speech. Teachers who know 
 nothing of the history of the language puzzle 
 themselves infinitely with subtle reasonings to 
 prove that expressions must be parsed in one 
 way or another, when a glance at an Anglo- 
 Saxon grammar would settle the matter in a 
 moment. No teacher can safely pronounce on 
 any such mooted questions of our language with- 
 out knowing the Anglo-Saxon forms. So nor- 
 mal school ought to send out graduates from its 
 grammar department wholly ignorant of tliis 
 
 study. A lesson a day during the last school 
 term skillfully directed to the most frequent ex- 
 amples in which this knowledge comes into use. 
 would perhaps answer the most pressing necessi- 
 ties of the common school teacher. Twice that 
 time would be a meager allowance to lay the 
 foun-latii.il of the education of an accomplished 
 high-school teacher in this department for this 
 study may be used March's Comparative Gram- 
 mar of the Angle-Saxon Language (New York); 
 — this contains a full syntax': K. Morris's His- 
 torical <><,tli„,-s if English Accidence (London): 
 Hadley's Brief History of the English Lan- 
 i/iia,/,', in Webster's Dictionary (ISC.)). 
 
 Colleges and Universities. — The earliest im- 
 portant use of Anglo-Saxon in our schools was 
 that introduced by President Jefferson into the 
 University of Virginia, in 1825. He thought 
 that it was a rude form of colloquial Knglish dis- 
 guised by bad spelling, and that the whole gram- 
 matical system as given in the text-books was a 
 s- ries of •■ aberrations into which our great Anglo- 
 Saxon leader. Dr. Hickes, has been seduced by 
 too much regard to the structure of the I ■reek 
 and Latin languages.'' " Remove," he says," the 
 obstacles of uncouth spelling and unfamiliar 
 character, and there would be little more diffi- 
 culty in understanding an Anglo-Saxon writer 
 than Burns' poems." lie proposed to have text- 
 books prepared, in which the original Anglo- 
 Saxon should be accompanied by a parallel 
 column containing the same matter rcspclt into 
 modern Knglish or forms like the modern Kn- 
 glish. and by explanations of the meaning of 
 unusual words. 'Ihe.se he thought would be few. 
 so that the whole tongue might be mastered 
 with great ease and rapidity. These views of the 
 language are all wrong ; the best Anglo-Saxon 
 manuscripts are really spelt on a more careful 
 and more scientific system than our modern 
 Knglish. The language, really, is an inflected 
 language, like Latin and Greek, having its case- 
 endings and other inflective forms from the 
 same original as those .sister-speeches. Of course, 
 no one has carried out Mr. Jefferson's plan liter- 
 ally. One of its suggestions has, however, been 
 embodied in March's Introduction to Anglo- 
 Saxon (XewYork). An early division of 'the 
 prose is prepared in parallel pages of Anglo- 
 Saxon, and a sort of Knglish made by giving for 
 each Anglo-Saxon word the corresponding En- 
 glish word to which it has given rise, if there be 
 any, or a kindred Knglish word. The following 
 is a specimen: 
 
 Se leornere segeth : We cildru biddath the, 
 eala lareow. thaet thutaece ussprecan on I .dene 
 gereorde rihte. fortham ungelaerede we sindon. 
 and geweniniedlice we sprceath. 
 
 (The learner saith: Wechilder 1 bid= thee, O-lo 
 lore-master, that thou teach us /o-speak in Latin 
 i-renl • right, forthat i un-i-lered 6 we are, and 
 i-wemmedly " we speak.) 
 
 hiMren (Chaucer). 2pray. nlaunua^.' Ilnllhv, 11. 
 aua.-. . uulearueil Stratmauu). 6 corruptly, froii' 
 
ANGLO-SAXON 
 
 An extract from the poetry of Caedmon is 
 prepared in the same maimer. [twiUbeseen 
 that this affords an easy introduction to a gen- 
 eral knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary, 
 ami is a grateful means of enabling beginners 
 who wish only to nail in an off-hand fashion, to 
 get a fair knowledge of the contents of Anglo- 
 Saxon books, especially of simple prose, and 
 makes a "mul beginning for grammatical and 
 philological study. 
 
 There has been a great increase of Anglo-Saxon 
 study in our colleges within the last ten years. 
 From being almost unknown, and wholly unpro- 
 vided with any suitable apparatus, it has become 
 a common study, and a number of manuals have 
 been published for beginners in it, both in America 
 ami Europe. There is a difference of opinion 
 among our educators as to whether it should lie 
 studied early in the collegi urse ami in connec- 
 tion with Knglish simply, or later ami in connec- 
 tion with Latin. Greek.and German : whether it 
 should be mainly a literary study, for reading and 
 the vocabulary, or chiefly a grammatical and 
 philological study. The earliest' of the later text- 
 books announced for publication was a Cnipm;,- 
 tive Grammar by P. A. March, Prof, of the 
 English Language and Comparative Philology in 
 Lafayette Collegi'. This was primarily intended | 
 for the use of a Junior Class in college, who 
 have already studied Latin, Greek, French, I 
 and German, according to a progressive plan by 
 
 are good comparative grammarians within the 
 range of the above languages. It is the plan of 
 this grammar to compare the Anglo-Saxon with 
 Sanskrit. Creek. Latin, Gothic, Old Saxon. Old 
 Prisic, Icelandic, and Old High German. Gen- 
 eral principles of phonology, enough to cover 
 all the changes of sound, are first laid down, 
 and then parallel paradigms of the inflection 
 forms in these languages are given, and the 
 Anglo-Saxon explained under their guidance. A 
 comparative syntax is also given. The author 
 in this way introduces the student to the 
 methods of the modern science of language in 
 connection with the study of Anglo-Saxon, so 
 that our mother-tongue may share the honors 
 of this new science. This grammar was followed 
 by a Reader, which is prepared with notes 
 adapted to lead to and aid in the study of the 
 grammar. These books have teen since studied 
 at Lafayette College in the manner here sug- 
 gested. A class goes slowly on with the reader 
 and grammar together, studying, word byword, 
 letter by letter, the relations of the forms to 
 those of other languages, and the laws of change 
 which govern their history, and trying to ground 
 all in the laws of the mind and of the organs of 
 speech. Besides this grammatical study, how- 
 ever, the substance of the selections is carefully 
 studied, including choice extracts from the 
 Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and Beda giving the 
 noticeable events of history. Anglo-Saxon laws. 
 and extracts from the great poets. In method 
 
 AN.SELM 
 
 3J 
 
 and substance, as thorough and scientific study is 
 given in this way to a portion of the Anglo- 
 Saxon as can be given to Greek or Latin with 
 the ordinary college text-books. The study is 
 pursued in this way at several of the American 
 colleges. In others, rapid reading for literary 
 purposes prevails. The text -books used are 
 March's Grammar and Reader, as above, in 
 which are also bibliographical mates. and a sketch 
 
 of the literature: Shdtb's Anglo-Sa on Ma d; 
 
 Kt.icsTKiN's Anglo-Saxon Grammar\ New York); 
 
 Corsons Anglo-Sa nd Early English 
 
 (New York i ; Thorpe's Analecta Anglo-Saxonica 
 (London); Carpenter's Introduction to Anglo- 
 Saxon (Boston). 
 
 Nowhere else is this study pursued as in 
 America. It is almost wholly neglected in the 
 English universities. Nine German universities 
 announced lectures on it for the winter semester 
 
 Dictionaries of Anglo-Saxon are Boswortii's 
 (London); Ettmueli.kk's I.,:,;,,,,/ An./ln-x,,. .■,„,i- 
 cum (Quedlinburg & Leipsic, 1851), — an etymo- 
 logical dictionary. Other valuable works of 
 reference or for further reading are Thorpe's 
 Jlfinrii/J'. with translation, notes, and glos- 
 sary (London): Grein's Beowulf, with Ger- 
 man glossary (Cassel, 18(17); Heyne's Beovulf, 
 with German notes and glossary (Paderborn, 
 1873); Thorpe's Gospels (London); Bosworth's 
 Four Versions of the Gospels (London); E. 
 M btzner's Englische Grammalik (Berlin, I860 
 —65); C. P. Koch's Historische Grammalik 
 
 M.ussn 
 
 jlUchen Sj 
 s English 
 
 rach 
 La 
 
 Lit.-,;,/ 
 
 ire (New Y 
 
 .rk. 
 
 Writ.; 
 Literal 
 and B, 
 Grein's 
 (Cassel 
 
 S (London. 
 . i (London 
 
 l & 
 
 [Wi 
 
 ■:.„■/,/ 
 
 ,,/ist, 
 Brit. 
 
 W. M, 
 Poesit 
 
 INS Hi 
 
 bu, 
 
 1S7L' : Gri m'a Sprachschab. der an ; As, 
 
 schen Didder (Cassel & Gottingen, 1864 ; and 
 articles in Appleton's New American Cy- 
 clopaedia, and Johnson's New Universal Cy- 
 clopedia. 
 
 ANSELM, of Canterbury, a saint and 
 doctor of the Roman Catholic Church, is re- 
 garded as one of the founders of scholasticism. 
 (Sec Scholasticism.) He was born at Aosta, in 
 Piedmont, about 1033, entered, after a dissolute 
 youth, the Benedictine order in 1060, succeeded, 
 in 1 <><;:{. Linfranc as prior of the monastery of 
 Bee in Normandy, and. in 1079, became abbot. 
 lie was. iii L093, consecrated archbishop of Can- 
 terbury, and died in 1109. The school of Bee 
 became, through him, the most famous of the 
 age. He endeavored to show the entire harmony 
 between faith and science, and was the Br I to 
 develop what is called the ontological argument 
 to prove the existence of God. ' He was a de- 
 termined and effective opponent of the discipline 
 which at that time prevailed in the monasteries, 
 and which even allowed abbots to cudgel dis- 
 obedient monks. " A fine education," he once 
 
32 
 
 ANTlorn coi.l.KGK 
 
 replied to an abbot, who complained of the in- 
 efficiency of his educational efforts. " which edu- 
 cates ma i] to animals' Because they receive from 
 you no mark of love and kindness, they mistrust 
 you, suspect you of malignity and hatred, and 
 can only face you with lowered looks and averted 
 eyes." An edition of Ana Im - i omplete works, 
 also containing his life, by his friend and com- 
 panion Eadmer, was published, in 1711. m Ve- 
 nice (Ojient (hum. i. 'J vols.). — Sec Mu.iii.i b. An- 
 , .a,, I s.-hnii, ,, i Tub. Qaartalsi hrift, 
 L826, 1827); Hasse, Anselm von Canterbury 
 ('1 vols., 1843—1852; an abridged English trans- 
 lation by Tdrneb, London, I860); Ch. de Remu- 
 sat. St. Anselme de Cantorbery (Paris, 1852). 
 
 ANTIOCH COLLEGE, at Yellow Springs, 
 Green Co., Ohio, was incorporated in 1852. Its 
 buildings, which were erected at a cost of 
 $150,000, have a pleasant and healthful situa- 
 tion. This institution is designed to afford the 
 means of a useful education, at small expense, to 
 both sexes. Its charter forbids the teaching of 
 sectarian dogmas; but the instruction is given 
 in consonance with the spirit of liberal ( 'hris- 
 tianity. Its first president was Horace Mann 
 (1853 — 59). He was succeeded by Thomas 
 Hill, D. I). (1859—62), George W. Hosmer, 
 I). i>. (1866—72); and since then, the college has 
 been under the direction of Prof. Edward Orton 
 and Samuel ('. Derby, A. M., acting presidents. 
 Its endowment is upward of SI 20,0110. It has a 
 preparatory and collegiate department; and stu- 
 dents are p emitted to select any studies from its 
 curriculum which they are able to pursue with 
 advantage, a i 1 !■.■■■ ive a eertitieate for the same, 
 after passing a satisfactory examination. In this 
 respect, the institution affords the advantages of 
 a a lemies. Jt lias a musical institute 
 under the supervision of the faculty, and a li- 
 brary of fiiMIO volumes. The number of students 
 in 1874 was about loo. The co-education of the 
 nl in this institution. 
 The annual tuition fee is S37. 
 
 ANTIPATHY. This term, the opposite of 
 sympathy, denotes the instinctive dislike which 
 is felt towards sonic persons on account of cer- 
 tain pei uliarities of temperament, disposition, 
 manners, etc. The natural characteristics of dif- 
 ferent persons slum- remarkable diversities in 
 this n spect. Some seem to exert a kind of 
 magnetic influence, which attracts ,r.id engages 
 cullers an I In m-iii- of which they immediately 
 gain the goodwill and affection of those with 
 uii.nii ill a are brought into communication. 
 Others, on the contrary, appear to repel, as it 
 were, all who approach them, and are obliged, 
 therefore, to make special effort to secure the con 
 tidcnce and good-will of their associates. Frank- 
 ness and candor tend to inspire c infidi ace; while 
 an exhibition of reserve and shyness produces 
 aversion and distrust. Shy. secretive persons 
 -i i nc I- ecu I ..lb t-c. and are instinctively avoided. 
 They aaturally produce antipathy. Hatred is 
 engend ired in the mind towards those who com- 
 mit positive acts of injury, wrong, or crime; but 
 iln. i -. io be distinguished from antipathy, which 
 
 APHORISMS 
 
 is an instinctive dislike. Such a feeling is apt 
 to exist on a first acquaintance only, and is often 
 dismissed subsequently 'as a prejudice. No per- 
 son can succeed in teaching children, who pos- 
 sesses an unfortunate temperament or mental con- 
 stitution of this kind, and such a one should seek 
 other employment : since all real success in prac- 
 tical education, depending as it does upon in- 
 spiring the minds of pupils with love, esteem, and 
 confidence, must be founded upon the opposite 
 quality, sympathy. (See Sympathy.) 
 
 APHORISMS, Educational. The expres- 
 sion of general truths in the form of aphorisms 
 has some advantages over more extended state- 
 ments, particularly in their brevity, pithiness, 
 and point. The understanding grasps them 
 as the keys to practical rules, and as guides in 
 conduct ; and the memory more readily retains 
 them. It is not, however, to the uninformed, 
 untrained mind, that such expressions are of the 
 greatest use. but to those who. having already ac- 
 quired by experience and reflection a good store 
 of facts and ideas upon the subject treated, are 
 glad to find them concentrated, as it were, in 
 these small and convenient verbal repositories. 
 No subject is richer in such aphorisms than 
 education ; and to no one will their study and 
 acquisition prove more serviceable than to the 
 practical teacher, eager to avail himself of the 
 treasured experience of others. In these scintil- 
 lations of wisdom, struck out from the minds of 
 ancient and modern sages, philosophers, and edu- 
 cators, will be found an illumination sufficient per- 
 haps to guide the humble explorer in the field of 
 pedagogical lore, to the true path to professional 
 success, as well as to the temple of speculative 
 and practical truth. The few here given have 
 been selected not only for their appositeness. but 
 for their value as the exponents to correct educa- 
 tion and teaching. Their arrangement by topics 
 
 will not only serve to divesl the Uectively 
 
 of their t. igf i : : e er, bu1 tender them 
 
 value of aphorisms in general. I 'ol. ridgi remarks: 
 •• Exclusively of the abstract sciences, the lar- 
 gest and worthiest portion of our knowledge 
 consists of aphorisms : and the greatest and best 
 of men is but an aphorism." 
 
 I. Value of Education. 
 
 Man cannot propose a higher or holier object 
 for his study than education and all that per- 
 tains to education. — Plato. 
 
 Man becomes what he is principally by edu- 
 cation, which pertains to the whole of life. - -Plato. 
 
 Man becomes what he is I >y nature, habit, instruc- 
 tion: the last two together constitute education, and 
 must always accompany each other. -Aiustotle. 
 
 'I'le re i; within every mind a divine ideal, the 
 type after which he was created, the germs of a 
 perfect person ; and it is the office of education to 
 favor and direct these germs- — Kant. 
 
 Man is the product of his education. — 
 
 Helvetitjs. 
 
 A right-directed system of education is a moral 
 power iu the mind, second only to that creating 
 energy that formed and sustains in existence its 
 material frame-work. — A. R. Ceaio. 
 
APHORISMS 
 
 :;:: 
 
 Of all the men we meet with, nine parts out of 
 ten are what they are. good or evil, useful oi not, 
 by their education. L n 1.1 . 
 
 Education is to inspire the love of truth, as H, . 
 suprem rad ad to clarifj the \ ision of the 
 mi II ct to di i rii it. 11. Mann. 
 
 Education is tin- one living fountain which 
 must water every part of the social garden, or its 
 beauty withers, and fades away.— E. Evekett. 
 II. Scope of Education. 
 
 •The object of education is not external show 
 and splendor, but inward development. — Seneca. 
 
 A Rood education consists in giving to the body 
 and the soul all the perfection of which they are 
 
 Education can improve nature, but not com- 
 pletelj change it Aristotle. 
 
 The object of the science of education is to 
 render the mind the lit!- si possible instrument for 
 discovering, applying, or orj ying the laws under 
 which God has placed the univ, r, Y\ ui.wn 
 
 The first principle of human culture, the 
 foundation-stone of all but false, imaginary cul- 
 ture, is, that men must, befor i evei . other thing, 
 be trained to do sonnwh.il. Thus, and thus only, 
 the living force of a new man. can be awakened, 
 enkindled, and purified into victorious clear- 
 ness. C.AKLYLE. 
 
 The object of education ought to be to develop 
 in the individual all the perfection of which he is 
 capable.— Kant. 
 
 I call that education which embraces the cul- 
 ture of the whole man, with all his faculties — sub- 
 jecting hisseuses. his understanding, and his pas- 
 
 te p: 
 
 which tits a man to p rform jus 
 magnanimously, all the offices, bo 
 public, of peace and war.— Milton. 
 
 All true education is a growth; the mind is not 
 a mere capacity to be tilled like a granary ; it is a 
 power to be developed. — J. P. WlCKEESHAM. 
 
 The object of education is rather to form a per- 
 fect character, than to qualify for any particular 
 station or office. — A. Potter. 
 
 The educator should not so much form and 
 instill, as develop and call out. — Michaelis. 
 
 The school is a manufactory of humanity. — 
 Comentus. 
 III. Teacher and Pupil. 
 
 Nature without instruction is blind; instruc- 
 tion without nature is faulty; practice without 
 either of th'-m is imperfect. — Plutarch. 
 
 The fittest time for children to learn anything, 
 is when their minds are in tune, and well-dispos- 
 ed to it. — Locke. 
 
 Let the tutor make his pupil examine and 
 thoroughly sift every thing he reads, and lodge 
 nothing in his head upon simple authority and 
 upon l lust. —Montaigne. 
 
 Let the child learn what is appropriate for his 
 years, and not precociously what he ought to 
 learn afterwards. — Rousseau. 
 
 To ham is to proceed from something that is 
 known to the knowledge of si imething unknown. — 
 
 COMENIUS. 
 
 Perverseness in the pupil is often the effect of 
 frowardness in the teacher. — Locke. 
 
 The great skill of a teacher is to get and keep 
 the attention of his scholar ; whilst he has that, 
 he is sure to advance as fast as the learner's ability 
 will carry him.— Locke. 
 
 It is the teacher's character that determines the 
 character of the school; not what he does so 
 much as what he is. The maxim is a true one: 
 As is the teacher, so is the school I Cubbte. 
 
 Ti >i !, i -hould ob-, i'M tin I..11 .■„ in- rules: 
 
 - N re: tn deprivi a child of anything 
 without returning it. 
 
 3. Never to break a promise. 
 i. Never ti i i ivcrli ii ik a fault. 
 5. In all things, to set before the child an 
 example worthy of imitation. — "Wilderspin. 
 
 It matters not how learned the teacher's own 
 mind maybe, and how well replenished with 
 ideas, and how widely soever he sees them, there 
 is a power beyond this necessary, to produce 
 copies of these ideas on the minds of others. 
 
 A. R. Craig. 
 
 Those studies should be regarded as primary, 
 that teach young persons to know what tiny are 
 seeing, and to see what they otherwise would fail 
 to see. - .J. S. Blackte. 
 
 Long di-rourses and philosophical reasonings, 
 at best, amaze and confound, but do not instruct 
 children. — Locke. 
 
 It is as important Imw children learn, as what 
 they learn. Da. Mayo. 
 
 A skillful masti r who has a child placed under 
 his car. . w ill begin by sounding well the character 
 of his gi inn- and natural parts.— Quinthjan. 
 
 Rules should not be set before examples. 
 
 Actual intuition is better than demonstration.— 
 Comentus. 
 
 At first it is no gnat matter how much you 
 learn, but how well you learn it. — Erasmus. 
 
 Study is the bane oi childhood, the aliment of 
 youth, the indulgence of manhood, and the 
 restoration of age. — W. S. Lanhor. 
 
 A teacher ought to know of every thing much 
 more than the learner can be expected to acquire. 
 He must know things in a masterly way, curious- 
 ly, nicely, and m their reasons. — E. Everett. 
 
 The teacher should create an interest in study, 
 incite curiosity, promote inquiry, prompt investi- 
 gation, inspire self-confidence, give hints, make 
 suggestions, and tempt pupils on to try their 
 strength and test their skill. —J. P. Wickersham. 
 
 There is frequently more to be learned from the 
 unexpected questions of a child, than from the 
 discourse of men who talk in a road, according 
 to the notions they have borrowed, and the pre- 
 judices of their education. —Locke. 
 
 From every thing noble the mind receives 
 seeds, which are vivified by admonition and in- 
 struction, as a light breath kindles up the spark 
 in the ashes. — Seneca. 
 
 Curiosity in children is but an appetite after 
 knowledge ; and, therefore, ought tube encouraged 
 in them, not only as a sign, but as the great m 
 strument nature has provided to remove that 
 ignorance they were born with. — Locke. 
 
 Clearness oi' ideas must be cultivated by exer- 
 cising the intuition, and the pupil must be edu- 
 cated to independent activity in the use of his 
 own understanding. — Seneca. 
 
 Ideas before words ; principles before rules ; 
 the judgment before the memory ; incidental in- 
 formation befoi-e systematic ; reading before 
 spelling ; the sounds of the letters before their 
 names; and, on the whole, nature before art. 
 
 A R. Craig. 
 
34 
 
 The school should cautiously beware of making 
 sacrifice to the arrogant requirements of the 
 spirit of the age; which, when it takes a wrong 
 direction, promotes nonsense, and desires to study 
 by steam. — Stoy. 
 
 Arouse in the child the all-powerful sense of 
 
 the universe, and the man will raise himself above 
 
 the world ; the eternal over the changeable. - 
 
 Richter. 
 
 The process of enlightening the mind should 
 not be like lightning in the night, giving a 
 strong light for a moment, but only blinding by 
 it, and then leaving every thing dark again ; but 
 like daybreak, which renders every thing gradu- 
 ally light.— J. A. Fischer. 
 
 Human perfection is the grand aim of all well- 
 directed education: the teacher should have ever 
 present with him his ideal man whose perfections 
 he would realize in the children committed to 
 his care, as the sculptor would realize the pure 
 forms of his imagination on the rough marble that 
 
 lies unchiseled before him J. P. Wickersham. 
 
 IV. Training and Habit. 
 
 Train up a child in the way he should go, and 
 
 when he is old he will not depart from it. — 
 
 Solomon. 
 
 Training is developing according to an idea. — 
 ScHWABZ 
 
 No teaching or lecturing will suffice without 
 training or doing. — Stow. 
 
 You cannot by all the lecturing in the world 
 enable a man to make a shoe. —Dr. Johnson. 
 
 Nature develops all the human faculties by 
 practice, and their growth depends upon their 
 exi Tcise. — Pestalozzi. 
 
 The intellect is perfected not by knowledge, 
 but by activity. — Aristotle. 
 
 The end of' philosophy is not knowledge, but 
 the energy conversant about knowledge. — Aris- 
 totle. 
 
 The great thing to be minded in education is, 
 what habits you settle. — Locke. 
 
 Infinite good comes from good habits ; which 
 must result from the common influence of exam- 
 ple, intercourse, knowledge, and actual experience: 
 morality taught by good morals.— Plato. 
 
 It is habit which gives men the real possession 
 of the wisdom which they have acquired, and 
 gives enduring strength in it.— Pythagoras. 
 
 A man is not educated until he has the ability 
 to summon, on an emergency, his mental powers 
 in vigorous exercise, to effect his proposed ob- 
 ject. — D. Webster. 
 
 The great result of schooling is a mind with 
 just vision to discern, with free force to do; the 
 grand schoolmaster is Practice.— Garlyle. 
 
 Habit is a power which it is not left to our op- 
 tion to call into existence or not ; it is given to 
 us to use or abuse, but we cannot prevent its 
 working. — J. Currie. 
 
 The miml, nuiavssible aixl sul't, with ease 
 
 hlllMl.es Hint .'epi.S U'llUt she lieill'S Hllll 8eeS. 
 
 Ami tlmiueli lire's lnl.5Ti11t.l1 le.l.ls fast the clew 
 
 That, r.lneatii.ll eav. I., r lals.- ... I lie 
 
 V. Development of the Faculties. 
 All our knowledge originates with the senses, 
 proceeds thence to the understanding, and ends 
 with the reason, which is subordinate to no 
 higher authority in us, in working up intuitions, 
 and bringing them within the highest unity of 
 thought. — Kant. 
 
 The power of reflection, it is well known, is 
 the last of our intellectual faculties that unfolds 
 itself ; and, in by far the greater number of in- 
 dividuals, it never unfolds itself in any consider- 
 able degree. — D. Stewart. 
 
 Clearness of ideas must be cultivated by exer- 
 cising the intuition, and the pupil must be edu- 
 cated to independent activity in the use of his 
 own understanding. —NrEMEYER. 
 
 The laws which govern the growth and opera- 
 tions of the human mind are as definite, and as 
 general in their application, as those which ap- 
 ply to the material universe ; and a true system 
 of education must be based upon a knowledge 
 and application of these laws. — J. Henry. 
 
 Knowledge begins with perception by the 
 senses; and this is, by the power of conception, 
 impressed upon the 'memory. Then the under- 
 standing, by an induction from these single con- 
 ceptions, forms general truths, or ideas; and 
 lastly, certain knowledge arises from the result of 
 judgments upon what is thoroughly under- 
 stood. COMENTOS. 
 
 The mind may be as much drawn into a habit 
 of observation and reflection from a well-directed 
 lesson on a pin, as from the science of astron- 
 omy.— A. R. Ckaig. 
 
 During early childhood enough is done if 
 mental vivacity lie maintained. — I. Taylor. 
 
 The conceptive faculty is the earliest develop- 
 ed, and the first to reach its maturity; it more- 
 over supplies materials and a basis for every 
 other mental operation. — I. Taylor. 
 VI. Language. 
 
 Things and words should be studied together, 
 but things especially, as being the object both of 
 the understanding and of language. - Comenius. 
 
 He who has no knowledge ot things will not 
 be helped by a knowledge ot words. — Luther. 
 
 The signs of thought are so intimately asso- 
 ciated with thought itself, that the study of lan- 
 guage, in its highest form, is the study of the 
 processes of pure intellect.— E. Everett. 
 
 Speech and knowledge should proceed with 
 equal steps.— Comenius. 
 
 We cannot express in words the thousandth 
 part of what we actually think, but only a few 
 points of the rapid stream of thought, lrom the 
 crests of its highest waves. — Zsohokke. 
 
 Language is the sheath in which is kept the 
 sword of the mind ; the casket in which we pre- 
 serve our jewel ; the vessel in which we secure 
 our drink ;' the store-house where we lay up our 
 food.— Luther. 
 
 Thinking is aided by language, and, to a great 
 extent, is dependent upon it as its most efficient 
 instrument and auxiliary.— N. Porter. 
 VII. Self-Eduoation. 
 
 The primary principle of edi 
 termination of the pupil to sell 
 ing nothing for him which he 
 hims-lf. Sir W. Hamilton. 
 
 The peculiar importance of the education ot 
 childhood lies in the consideration, that it pre- 
 pares the way for the subsequent self-education 
 of manhood.— J. Currie. 
 
 Self-activity is the indispensable condition of 
 improvement ; and education is only education— 
 that is, accomplishes its purposes, only by afford- 
 ing objects and supplying materials to this spon- 
 
 s the de- 
 -the do- 
 to do for 
 
AITAKATCS 
 
 :;.. 
 
 exertion. Strictly speaking, every man 
 must educate himself. —Sir W. Hamilton. 
 
 The child learns in. .it by his fourth year, than 
 the philosopher at any subsequent period of his 
 life; he learns to affix an intelligible sign to every 
 outward object and inward emotion, by a gentle im- 
 pulse imparted by his lips to the air.— E. Everett. 
 
 If all the means of education which are scatter- 
 ed over the world, and if all the philosophers and 
 teachers of ancient and modern times, were to be 
 collected together, and made to bring their com- 
 bined efforts to bear upon an individual, all they 
 could do would be to afford the opportunity of 
 improvement. — Degerando. 
 
 VIII. Moral Education. 
 
 The best-trained head along with a corrupt 
 heart, is like a temple built over a den of rob- 
 bers. — Tegneb. 
 
 Head and heart constitute together the being 
 of man, and he who is sound iu one only is a 
 cripple. — Stoy. 
 
 It holds as a rule in mental as well as in moral 
 education, that the learner should be habituated 
 to what is right before he is exercised iu judging 
 what is wrong. — J. Curkie. 
 
 If you can get into children a love of credit, 
 and an apprehension of shame and disgrace, you 
 have put into them the true principle, which will 
 constantly work, and incline them to the right. 
 
 Locke. 
 
 Man may be said originally to be inclined to 
 all vices ; for he has desires and instincts which 
 influence him, although his reason impels him 
 in an opposite direction. — Kant. 
 
 In my opinion, the first lesson which should 
 quicken the understanding of the young, should 
 be intended to form their morals and their 
 perceptions; to teach them to know themselves, 
 to live well aud to die well.— Montaigne. 
 
 Direct teaching on moral ideas and principles 
 is an important part of instruction. —Hegel. 
 
 Faith in God is the source of all wisdom and 
 all blessings, aud is nature's road to the pure 
 education of man. — Pestalozzi 
 
 He that will have bis son have a respect for him 
 and his orders, must have a great i yerenci for his 
 son. "Maxima debetur pueris lvveiviitia ' !."■ ki 
 
 A properly conducted school is a sort of moral 
 gymnasium, preparatory to the great struggle on 
 the arena of life. — A. R. Craig. 
 
 Morality is in infancy founded on the authority j 
 of the parent, acting with the supp. irt of habit and j 
 association; what he commands is law; the virtue I 
 of childhood is summed up in obedience. — Currie. 
 
 In man, the ideal is older than the actual. The 
 loftly lies nearer the child than the debased. We. 
 measure time by the stirs, aud reckon by the 
 clock of the sun, before we do by the city clock. — 
 
 Rll'HTER. 
 
 Love awakeus love ; and a cold and heartless 
 education usually produces a pupil of the same 1 
 character. -J. A. Fischer 
 
 Children si 
 Erst pan tits I 
 
 IX. Discipline and Government. 
 
 Correct thy sou, and he shall give thee rest : 
 yea, be shall give delight unto thy soul. —Solomon. 
 
 He that spareth his rod hateth his son ; but he 
 that loveth him chastcneth him betimes. — Solo- 
 
 No father inflicts his severest punishment, un- 
 til he has tried all other means. — Seneca. 
 
 A principal point in education is discipline, 
 which is intended to break the .sell-will of chil- 
 dren, in order to the rooting out of (heir natural 
 low tendencies. —Hegel. 
 
 There is one, and but one fault, for which 
 children should be beaten ; and that is obstinacy 
 or rebellion. — Locke. 
 
 Beating is the worst, and, therefore, the last 
 means to be used in the correction of children.— 
 
 The shame of the whipping, and not the pain, 
 should be the greatest part of the punishment.— 
 Locke. 
 No frighted water-fowl, whose plumage the 
 bullet oi the sportsman has just grazed, dues 
 quicker bem ith thi surface, than a child's spirit 
 darts from your eye when you have filled it with 
 the sentiment oi fear. II Mann. 
 
 A school can be governed only by patient, en- 
 lightened, Christian love, the master principle of 
 our naturi - It softi i s thi fi rocity ol the savage; 
 
 it melts the felon in his o II. In tin mam int 
 
 of children it is the great source ot influence ; 
 and the teacher of youth, though bis mindbea 
 store-house oi know [i dge, is ignorant oJ the first 
 principle of his art, if be has not embraced this 
 as an elemental maxim. — E. Everett. 
 
 Angry feelings in a teacher beget angry feelings 
 in a pupil ; and if they are repeated day after day, 
 they will at last rise to obstinacy, to obduracy 
 and incorrigibleuess. — H. Mann. 
 
 The evil of corporal punishment is less than 
 
 the evil of insubordination or disobedience.— 
 
 H. Mann. 
 
 It is the teacher's duty to establish authority ; 
 
 peaceably, indeed, if he may, — forcibly if he 
 
 must.— D. P. Page. 
 
 There are usually easier avenues to the heart, 
 than that which is found through the integuments 
 of the body.— D. P. Page. 
 
 Several collections of educational aphorisms 
 maybe found in Barnard's American Journal 
 of Education (passim).— See also Woiii.farth, 
 Pedaaoaical ft i - -Casket Padaooais hes 
 
 Aphorisms and Suggestions, Ancient and 
 Modern. 
 
 APPARATUS, School.— The work of in- 
 struction in school is very greatly facilitated by 
 sufficient and appropriate apparatus, such as 
 blackboards, slates, globes, maps, charts, etc. 
 This is especially required in the teaching of 
 children in classes, as in common schools. By 
 this means, the sense of sight being addressed, 
 the impressions made are clearer and more du- 
 rable. Be ides, the concrete is made to take the 
 place of the abstract, by the use of suitable ap- 
 paratus : an 1. in ih" first stages oi education, the 
 former is almost exclusively to be employed since 
 abstract principles or truths arc not compre- 
 hended by the young mind, except upon a suffi- 
 ciently extensive basis of concrete facts. Thus, 
 by means of the numeral frame, the various rudi- 
 mental combinations of numbers are presented 
 to the mind of the young pupil, in connection 
 
APPARATUS 
 
 with actual ol 
 idea is given i 
 ab I ' "'i sta1 si 
 
 ,;x; 
 
 lellded 
 
 careful not to carry the use of such 
 apparatus beyond its proper limits: since the 
 pupil's mind is gradually n> be accustomed to 
 conceive clearly the truth of abstract propositions 
 
 without regard to their concrete applications. 
 
 Every stage or made of school instruction 
 must have its appropriate apparatus. Infant in- 
 struction requires a great number and variety of 
 simple apparatus [gifts] in order, by natural 
 methods, to aid the development of the child's 
 mind. (See Kindergarten.) The primary 
 school should be supplied with a numeral frame, 
 blackboards, slates, and pencils for the use of tin- 
 children, a box of forms, spelling and reading 
 charts, color charts, pictures of animals, etc.; and, 
 when element. try geography is taught, simple 
 maps and a small globe. For this purpose, one 
 
 APPORTIONMENT. See School Find. 
 
 ARABIAN SCHOOLS. The peninsula of 
 Arabia, situated between the Red Sea and the 
 Persian Gulf, has an area of L,218,798 square 
 
 pop, 
 
 ate, the Arabs have been of bi 
 
 te annals of education as we 
 sry. In former centuries, on 
 occupied, for a considerable 
 
 that 
 
 Bemisphere Globe) i 
 
 therekti if the pi 
 
 may be clearly shows 
 relief globe is also oi 
 
 Other ingenious an, 
 been devised to aid 
 school teacher, to wh 
 needed, lis the mor, 
 
 tion, the sise of any I 
 pas al, is, such as the 1 
 
 I, :c 3 less and le; 
 
 teaching of certain 
 arithmetic, mensurati 
 partments of naturs 
 poses, the cube-root 1 
 solids, a tellurian, an 
 value. Charts of \ 
 scarcely to be dispel 
 of natural science, ' 
 «ited apparatus is is, 
 the simpler it is the I 
 appliances will incitf 
 incut with those sin 
 
 (Hand 
 
 leans of it 
 
 , the globe 
 A simple 
 
 religion, the Arabs became a powerful 
 extending their political rule far beyon, 
 origisial borders. Large empires were f 
 
 arts kept pace iii their development with 
 crease of political power. The Arabian 
 Of the caliphate, and. later, those founded 
 Moors, in Spain, not only attained a 
 wide reputation, but, for a time, were g« 
 recognized as eclipsing all other literary 
 tions. The prosperity of these schools 
 
 icrally 
 nstitu- 
 
 ibjeets 
 loliiv.a 
 
 . Po 
 
 ■ such pur- 
 her geometrical 
 will be of great 
 
 mind into contact with the civilization of the 
 Greeks and the Syrians. The dynasty of the Ab- 
 bassides. which succeeded that of the ( hniniyadc? 
 in 7'ilS. wire still more instrumental in the pro- 
 
 Aral, 
 
 well 
 
 !;:;:';;: 
 
 1 forth 
 
 
 fully ll 
 
 e abili 
 
 y of the 
 
 
 
 self of al 
 
 the p„ 
 
 •pose ( 
 
 f Dlustrat 
 
 import 
 been n 
 Of app 
 the gli 
 
 int dip 
 
 „'. telh 
 
 i very rui 
 o illustra 
 
 iallv con- 
 narks more 
 , adroitness 
 esources for 
 
 >f the most 
 
 dence have 
 
 the Arabs became so proficient, that through the 
 middle ages they were regarded as the highest 
 authorities. Soon the Arabian schools were also 
 legal, led sis superior to all others in mathematics 
 and astronomy. A translation of Aristotle had 
 a far reaching influence upon the further develop- 
 ment of the Arabian mind. The teaching of Aris- 
 totle not only became the basis of Arabic philos- 
 ophy, but through the influence of the Arabian 
 schools, the study of this great I (reek philosopher 
 became popular among the .lews in Spain and, 
 subsequently, generally among the -lews and 
 « 'Iiri.-tian~ of I'.nrope. The highest prosperity 
 wa- attained by the Arabian Schools in Spain. 
 In the high schools of Cordova. Toledo. Sala- 
 
 \loll. 
 
 notions than to imparl correct ideas of the actual 
 
 facts. The latter musl be clearly -rasped by tlii- 
 Mi i ii d as facts before I heir illustration is al tempted 
 
 and - In 
 
 grammar ami rneiorie. i 
 were taught. In tln-.-e ,-eliool-. .b-ai-h. Moham- 
 medan, and Christian teachers worked liar li- 
 
 OUSly together. The students lived in college-, a ml. 
 
 from i i to ti had to pass examinations. The 
 
 tea, her- sometimes employed substitutes. In the 
 
ARCHAEOLOGY 
 
 lower schools, which were mostly connected with 
 mosques, the pupils often received their clothing 
 
 of Christian Kurope, who wi re anxious to acquaint 
 themselves with the Greek and Arabic literature 
 and the Aristotelian philosophy. Anion- the 
 many celebrated men wLo studied there, was the 
 learned Gerbert, who became pope under the 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 37 
 
 on thai subject is the Handbuch tier Arclueohgie 
 by K. 0. Mi em.br (3d edit., by Welcker, lircs- 
 lau, 1846). An English work on the subject is 
 Westropp's Handbook i f Ai ■> <lo u I ond., 
 
 th -Si- 
 
 ! I 1 I , I I ,. 
 
 'hristian Church, and chiefly of the earlj his- 
 iiv nt Christian worship. Works on biblical 
 rchaology have been written by De Wette, 
 
 close of the l»th century, the Arabian schools in 
 Spain began to decline, and the downfall of the 
 caliphate of Bagdad, in 1258, extinguished the 
 fameof their Asiatic schools. 
 
 In Arabia, at present, there is little education 
 
 th. 
 
 the Km-.. 
 luetic. In 
 which an 
 taught w 
 
 ments of distinguished families. There is no 
 public provision for the education of women. In 
 
 ARCHITECTURE. See Tim. Arts. 
 ARCHITECTURE, School. See School 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC, an independ- 
 ,t stateof South America, area 841,000 sq.m., 
 •.it we add the territory which is claimed l.v 
 
 .th ill.- Ai-entine Ucpuhiic; itn.l Chili. 1.(10(1.(100 
 
 ARCHAEOLOGY 
 an.l> u ;o . knowledge, 
 the science of antiquities 
 
 the 
 
 there are 
 • taught. 
 
 s several; 
 
 annualli 
 eign .'lei 
 
 belongs 
 
 is Ayres, and 
 
 try.' Thus the Indians in the United States and 
 the Celts in Greal Britain, have I. come the sub- 
 jects of profound archaeological research. — In 
 Germany the term is now more frequently used 
 to denote the science of the monuments which arc 
 
 left to US from ancient times, and especially from 
 Greek, Etruscan, and Latin antiquity. As the 
 ancient monuments contain a vast .. mount of in- 
 formation, not to be derived from classical litera- 
 ture, arch.,-!,!, i. v is regarded as an important 
 auxiliary to the science of classical philology. 
 
 was \\ inckc 
 
 ,-t la 
 
 a number of Protestant congregations and 
 schools To these a few native congi gations 
 have, been added by the Methodist missionaries 
 from the United States. 'I here is a marked 
 diff rence between the population of the towns, 
 and thai bi the country, The formerare gener- 
 ally civilized, and take a profound interest in 
 education; but the gtutclios, or the horsemen of 
 the plain, think but little of education and civili- 
 
 The territory of the Argentine Republic, after 
 being occupied by the Spaniards, formed a part 
 of the Viccrovalty of IVru till IT7C, when the 
 Vi.vrovaltv of La Plata was erected. The war 
 of independence againsl Spam began in L810, 
 and was successfullj ended in 1812. In L813, a 
 Soveivioi Assembly was convoked; and in 1817, 
 the independence oi the Dnited Provinces of 
 
 l.a Plata was formally declared. Like the other 
 republics of Spanish America, the country suf- 
 fered much from civil wars. From 1852 to I860, 
 
38 
 
 ARGENTINE REPUBLIC 
 
 Buenos Ayres was separated from tin nfedera- 
 
 tion of the other provinces, and formed an in- 
 dependent commonwealth. More recently, the 
 progressof thecountryhaa been greater and more 
 
 rapid than that of most of the other South 
 
 As early as 1605, tin- Jesuits established the 
 university of Cordova, which soon became the 
 literary center of all the territory lying in the 
 basin of the La Plata river. Of course, instruc- 
 tion during the 17th and 18th centuries was 
 entirely in the hands of the clergy, especially the 
 Jesuits ; and very little was done in the way of 
 primary instruction. After the expulsion of the 
 Jesuits, in L767, the university passed into the 
 hands ..f the Franciscans and '-.really declined. 
 
 the progress at first was very slow. The active 
 progress of education dates from the adoption of 
 the constitution of Sept. ls.;il, which still rules 
 : country. Among the first provisions, is one 
 
 on in every province 
 s an essential obliga- 
 nnient was given the 
 
 Midi 
 
 for securing prima] 
 of the republic, mi 
 tion. To the gene 
 power to dictate pi 
 education ; and a s 
 of public insti'uetii 
 ever, was the indifference of the people, that the 
 government, in order to carry out its plans of sec- 
 ondary education, was compelled no! only to 
 offer instruction, books, and all other necessaries 
 free, but also to pay the pupils for the trouble 
 of attending school an 1 studying their lessons. 
 The National College of Buenos Ayres was 
 founded shortly after the adoptionof the presenl 
 constitution. Scholarships, under the name of 
 cecas, were established, giving to the student a 
 monthly allowance of from ten to fifteen dollars 
 in gold. About the same time, three other pro- 
 vincial institutions, the College of the Uruguay 
 in the province of Kntre Bios, and the College 
 and the University of Cordova, were nationalized 
 and placed upon a similar basis. l"p to 1868, 
 there were establish- 1 five other similar institu- 
 tions in the provinces of Tucuman, Salta, < 'ata- 
 marca, San .1 nan. and Mendoza ; and. in 1868, 
 
 mal colleges, who is himself a 
 national government took ils 
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 new minister of public instruction. Dr. Nicolas 
 Avellaneda. in bis first report to the congreae 
 (1869), earnestly advocated sweeping reforms; 
 and the work of carrying out these reforms was 
 begun energetically, for the yea] 1 869,$] 15,000 
 was \oted for the purpose of encouraging pri- 
 
 proceeds among the various provi B in propor- 
 tion to the efforts which they themselves might 
 make. This law took effect' in January ]s7:i. 
 In \*~'l, primary instruction was given in Hiss 
 public and 5(i(j private schools. The children of 
 school age (0 to 15) numbered 468,987, while 
 the number of those attending schools was 
 ;i7,."i4!l. The number of teachers was, male 
 1558, female 1408. The expenditure for primary 
 instruction in the same year was $1,564,350. In 
 August 1871. the first national normal school 
 was established at Parana. It had, in 1872, 285 
 students and G professors. The first principal 
 of the school was Dr. Geo. A. Stearns. — The 
 only national university, at Cordova, was reor- 
 ganized, in 1870, by President Sarmiento, who 
 established a number of new chairs, and called 
 from Germany professors of chemistry, physics, 
 and botany.and from the United Slates a distin- 
 guished professor oi astr any. In 1872, the 
 
 university numbered 1 1 professors and 103 stu- 
 dents, 'l he university of Buenos Ayres is a 
 provincial institution. It was organized in lS'J'2 
 by Rivadavia, and was. at first. onlva law school; 
 but, owing to the zeal of its rector, Dr. Juan 
 
 thai nt French institutions; the museum has 
 been formally years under the direction of the 
 distinguished Ccrinan naturalist. Dr. Hurmeister. 
 — See Report of the Commissioner of Educa- 
 
 Peterm iNN.Dte sudamerikaiiischen Republiken 
 Argentina, Chile, Paraguay unci Uruguay in 
 1875 (Gotha, 1875). 
 
 ARISTOTLE, one of the most illustrious 
 teachers and philosophers of either ancient or 
 modern times, was born in 384 B.C. at Stagira, 
 a Civek colony of Macedonia, near the mouth 
 of the Strymon. From his birthplace he is 
 often called' the Stagirite." His father, Nicom- 
 
 aclnis. »;,, a distinguished phv-i. lan and friend 
 of the Macedonian king Amyntas II.; and from 
 I, ,n> \ii-o.tlc received the firsl instruction. Ilav- 
 
 gress for tl 
 
 the adiuinis 
 
 has done more for the pro 
 
 nci-s none moie 101 me pioinoiiou 01 eoueauoii 
 than any other statesman of South America. The 
 progress made since then is wonderful. The 
 
 his restless 
 
 ml 
 
 estrangement arose between them', owing chiefly 
 
 to the radical differences in their philosophical 
 and educational systems. While Plato was a 
 thorough idealist. Aristotle was just as fully a 
 
realist and the father of experimental science. I crippled should not bebrought up at all. Until 
 
 About 343 B.C., Aristotle was appointed by king, the fifth year of age, children should not be oc- 
 
 Philip of Macedon teacher of his son Alexan- cupied in hardlabor; on the other hand, how- 
 
 der, at that time thirteen years old. The history ever, they should not remain inactive, but have 
 
 of Alexander, who intellectually was no less prom- suitable exercises in plays adapted to their age. 
 
 inent a ig the kings of the ancient world During this time, as well as during the two fol- 
 
 than ;is a conqueror, testifies to the success of lowing years, education by means oi habit takes 
 
 Aristotle as a practical teach it Fora long time, place as i hil Iren obsi rve si liai thej subs quently 
 
 his preceptor : and after the conquest of Persia, of instruction begins in the 7th year of age and 
 
 he presented him with ■ i-ht hundred talents, or lasts to the 21st This time is divided into two 
 
 nearly a million of dollars. Later, however, the periods, the one extending fromtheTthyeartothe 
 
 friendly relations between Alexander and iris- ag< ofpuberty (aboutthel4thyear).theotherfrom 
 
 totle greatly suffered from the vicious habits «\ t lie 14th to the 21st. Kduraiioii l,v habit during 
 
 walked up and down while delivering his lecture 
 
 his school was called the [ii-rijinh'tir. Afte 
 haying taught in this way for thirteen years, 
 
 composed most of 
 ophy and 
 Demophih 
 
 on philos- 
 
 (1) that 
 C>) that 
 
 vine h. 
 fled to 
 If. ('.. 
 
 
 activity is evdai/u a happiness, both forthein- education certain instructional means, namely 
 dividual and for the state. This ,i l« . ., a is reading and writing gymnastics music, including 
 based on virtue, which is acquired by the perform- rhythmics and poetry, and occasionally also draw- 
 ance of moral actions. As man is a social being, ing The first and the last of thesi serve also 
 destined to live in society, the development of for the necessities of life; and care should, there- 
 life. Theobjectof thestate is to e-tabli-h the .-duration 1„. not infringed upon. The instruction 
 complete happin.-.-s ot' famili-s and communities, in draw i 1 1 -r . therefore, should be given in such a 
 and the pres avat ion ,,t th • >t. legends on an way as to enable the youthful mind to under- 
 educational system conformabl tothelawsand Maud and criticise the works of plastic art. 
 constitution.' Th- same , -duration will not pro- Gymnastics educate the youth in manliness, 
 duce the same virtues in diff rent persons; for and give to the body health and beauty. That 
 the formation of charactei in each person is de- which is properly athletic, and especially every 
 pendent on three different things, nature, habit, thing that leads to rudeness and ferocity, should 
 and instruction. It must be tin- aim of habit beavoided.a point oi view which the Spartans, 
 and instruction to develop the peculiar faculties in their otherwise excellent educational system, 
 which nature lias implanted in each indt\ idiial. somewhat lost sieht of. Before the age oi pu- 
 
 ln tl lueation of a child, as it is of the great- berty, only easy exercises si Id be practiced, and 
 
 est importance that its body be, from its birth, as all violent exertions that might impede natural 
 
 perfect as possible, care should be taken that the growth, should be avoided. Aim attaining the 
 
 parents be suitably matched, and that women age of puberty, boys may devote three years to 
 
 during their pregnancy receive substantial tool, other branches of instruction; then more ditii- 
 
 and be preserved as much as possible from men- cult exertions and privations may be practiced; 
 
 tal agitation. Children who at their birth are and during this time mental occupations should 
 
40 
 
 ARITIIMKTIC 
 
 receive less attention; for the activity of the mind 
 is impci ltd 1 > v tile exertion- "1 tin- liody, ami the 
 activity of the body ><y the exertion.^ ,.t the miiul. 
 Musical education deserves specia] attention on 
 account of its ethical iiilliieiiec. Music nunc than 
 any other art, is the art of imitation, and reflects 
 in the soul of the hearer, in a manner both at- 
 tractive an 1 instructive, the various affections 
 and emotions of the mind. The Doric melody is 
 specially n ommended, as keeping the right 
 mean between passionate excitement and woman- 
 ish weakness. The last class of subjects to be 
 taught in the instruction of youth, are those 
 which serve for theoretical purposes, or for the 
 acquisition of the so-called dianoetical virtues. 
 which are only to be found in the more intelligent 
 class of men. Thes i subjects arc the pure sciences, 
 as mathematics, dialectics, and philosophy. The 
 
 high is1 "I 
 oiny, is not 
 are too ine: 
 which politi 
 cational thei 
 theories of 
 free-born yo 
 theeducatio 
 
 of slave-. . 
 the moral : 
 slaves shoul 
 Among H 
 Nicom i i 
 views on ed 
 of Aristotle 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 treatment of this branch of instruction, — the dis- 
 sociation, to a great extent, of mental from writ- 
 ten arithmetic : whereas they should be b m- 
 
 bined as to constitute only different exercises of 
 
 the same subject. Quite within the memory of 
 some of our living educators, the text-books of 
 arithmetic generally in use were simply single 
 books of definitions, rules, and examples. Such 
 were (1st rauder's. Pike's, Dabols etc. These were 
 
 well 
 
 piael 
 
 of this subj 
 quite inadei 
 time, the i 
 being a tole 
 of the funda 
 denominate 
 
 knowledge,. 
 
 ilitical econ- 
 i- the young, as they 
 ■ net ions of life on 
 >e 1. — like the edu- 
 id other < ! reeks, the 
 exclusively refer to 
 ittention is paid to 
 
 >f Anstotle still extant, the 
 ami the /',,',7/e.s- contain his 
 
 O, edited by J. B. T. 
 the same, translated 
 L874); The Politics 
 
 . notes), by Richard 
 The Ethics, with Es- 
 
 Gbant, (Lond., 1874); 
 
 i iiin-!hi, from apt&fids, 
 uliers. This subject oc- 
 i the curriculum of all 
 unary and grammar, as 
 or disciplinary, as its 
 estimate, not less than 
 hue, for the first eight 
 :e, is given to the study 
 results are t ften 
 
 generally be claimed 
 ty with the processes 
 •onimon fractions, and 
 th a veiy imperfect 
 .cesses of decimal frac- 
 
 suceeeded i>v two classes ot text-books, — one, 
 called Mental Arithmetics, of which Colbum's is 
 a type; and the other, such as presented an at- 
 tempt to explain the reasons of the processes in- 
 volved m the different rules. Of the latter, 
 Adams's Ken- Arillimrlk affords a fair example. 
 Following these two lines, the science has been 
 practically divided into two : and so diverse are 
 these in their methods, that a pupil may be quite 
 expert in one. and almost entirely ignorant of 
 the other. If. in addition t.» this, the tact is con- 
 sidered that the text books in the course have 
 been multiplied until there ale now two books 
 in mental arithmetic, and three in written, in 
 several of the series in general use. the rea- 
 son for the length of time consumed on this sub- 
 ject in our public schools will be obvious. But 
 there is Btill another cause which operates with 
 i onsiderable force; that is. the cumbi ring of our 
 text-books with so many subjects that are utt< riv- 
 
 es a kl 
 
 ,//,,,/ 
 
 r/ee, 
 
 ds, or 
 
 the 
 
 duodecimals. It is indeed important that a 
 pupil should know how to reduce a fraction to 
 Its lowest terms: but no ordinary case requires 
 a knowledge of the process for finding the g. c. 
 ,/.. oor are we accustomed to use it." For the 
 process itself we have no use until we reach 
 higher algebra, and the demonstration of the 
 process is quite too intricate for the ordinary 
 pupil in elementary arithmetic. Again, no one 
 uses the processes of alligation alternate; and but 
 few indeed of the great mass of our school chil- 
 dren can comprehend the conditions which give 
 rise to much of our business arithmetic. It is 
 not intimated that such problems as those which 
 arise in stocks, arbitration of exchange, general 
 average, etc, should not have a place in an arith- 
 metical course, but only that they do not belong 
 in the course for the masses. There are other 
 topics, more elementary and re generally use- 
 ful, to which the time of these should lie given. 
 And lastly, on this topic, of wdiat conceivable. 
 use arc many of the examples which occupy so 
 much space in our books, and so much time in 
 the course? Take the following as specimens: 
 
 I bought a hat, coat, and vest, lei $34; the hat cost 
 I of the price of the coat, and the vest j of the price 
 of tie hat : what w ;is the cost ol each? 
 
 One-half ol A's money = $ of B's; and the interest 
 of i r,f A's and A of lis money, at I per cent for 
 
 
 'f In-, 
 
 ordinary bush 
 ing the usual 
 least, from a 
 
 ital gyi 
 
 However ap 
 
ARITHMETIC 41 
 
 plicable the principle involved in this maybe, bers be selected at first, as will cause difficulty 
 
 in education there is rcallv no need of it. If the in effecting the combinations. Thus, the in.,i 
 
 demands of actual life ai-e so meager, that we questions may be, "Mr. A had 300 sheep and 
 
 must make a large part of our discipline in lost 5 out of each hundred; how many did he 
 
 arithmetic coiiM.-t in unraveling such uianut'act- Ins.'.'" ■• What j .1 1 1 ■-• t -.. ■ may we use instead of '5 
 
 ured puzzles, is it not well to ask the question out of each hundred?'" "Mr. B had an or- 
 
 wlneh'\wll afford the needed .lis.i]. line l.v deal- them: how mau'v did he l'o,e T •• What phrase 
 
 ingwith the actual and useful, instead of wasting may we use instead of ' 6 per cent?'" To as- 
 time and strength on the purely fictitious? The sign as the first example, one like the following 
 arithmetics of to-day, however, are a great ad- would be a gross violation of this principle: 
 vance,in this respect, on those in use fifty years "Mr. A put out $759, on 7 per cent interest; 
 ago; but no editor of a text-hook on arithmetic what was the interest fora year?" After the 
 has vet felt at liberty to cut out entirely these principle to be taught is clearly seen, larger 
 
 ,ne» life tunn-h abundant , mire 'that the work be written. Bu1 thesame 
 
 ction; but these more ab- style of explanation should be preserved; and 
 
 ,t fall within the purview greal care should be taken to haw it seen that 
 
 rae, nor come within the the method of reasoning is the same in .-ill cases, 
 
 life makes upon the great To illustrate still farther: as, in practice, the 
 
 majority oi persons. There are a great number computer ordinarily uses the rate as the multiplier, 
 
 and variety of intricate questions which do act- the for f explanation, when the whole is given 
 
 uallv arise in dw-oiiutiii". neeotial.le paper. as ,, rally, should be adapted to this fact At first, 
 
 well as in the abstruse questions which insurance such an example as the first above will naturally 
 
 and annuities present ; but it is not the aim of be solved thus: "If Mr. A lost 5 sheep out of 
 
 our elementary courses to train pupils for such 100, out of 3 hundred he lost :: times 5, or L5 
 
 specialties; and when in any properly co-ordin- sheep." But before leaving such simple illustra- 
 
 their solution will tli -n neue in the r -ul.ir line ], M i,e- 1 out of |iu> i> I, mi,. .. .ill of the number. 
 
 of the application of g m tral principles, and the losing 5 out of iOO is losing .05 of the number, 
 
 student will nave acquired sufficient maturity to lieu, v. Mr. A lost .05 of 300 sheep, which is 
 
 comprehen I the busin ss, economic il. or political 1 ."> sheep." Thus in all c.i-es. the form of thought 
 
 relations which give risj to them. which will ordinarily be required in solving 
 
 117/.// should eontt 'ttte /•'/•■ course in arith- the problem, should be that taught in the intro- 
 
 ough unification of the processes of mental and is furnished by reduction. At first, the question, 
 
 written arithmetic. There is but one science of "How many ounces in 5 lb.?" will naturally be 
 
 duceth •impre"ioh m'; a • pupils mm 1 that there lb. there are 5 times 16 oz., or 80 oz." But in 
 are two species,the one intellectual and the other practice the 16 is ordinarily used a.s the multi- 
 mechanical, is an obstacle to his true progress, plier, and it is better that the introductory 
 
 pel 
 
 rusi 
 ai 
 
 ild 
 
 whole may be made perfectly h 
 basis upon which this is to h 
 principles should be discussed I 
 small numbers which can be < 
 mind, and which do not rende 
 labor of combination so great 
 attention, or divert it from tin 
 and that we should pass grad 
 the reasoning, to larger numbers 
 an 1 complex combinations, in 
 paper are necessary. The vat i, 
 ways the same in the mental (pi 
 metic an 1 in the written, penci 
 use 1 only when th ■ n.ui.l is 1" 
 
 the elements too numerous, to 
 cable to hold the whole in them 
 suppose the pupil to be enter 
 jei • of percentage. The first 
 what is meant by per cent. 
 
 borne 
 
 it. It shouli 
 ess men r,ly very little upon 
 tions. They use the pen 
 ost every computation. In 
 
 construetiim' our course in 
 
 ii order to this, is no exaggeration to say. that from eighty to 
 small numbers will be used, and the process will ninety per cent of the pupils disappear from 
 not require pencil and paper, nor will such nmn- these schools by the close of the seventh school 
 
42 
 
 ARITHMETIC 
 
 year : and not more than one in one hundred 
 takes a high school course. Since all pupils of 
 the common schools have need of the rudiments 
 
 alize, and thus to view truth in its relations, 
 as for the amount of mere arithmetical knowl- 
 edge which may be added to the pupil's stock. 
 
 is dee 
 object 
 
 elltireh 
 
 text-book 
 
 ioIs. The 
 
 supply the means of giving 
 
 in their seats, and re than 
 
 minds a dislike for study and 
 i disposition to expect that 
 do all the work, and thus 
 But whatever disposition may 
 \ry arithmetic, as usually un- 
 :i imperative demand that the 
 • for the masses should be so 
 nore important practical sub- 
 1 and mastered by a majority 
 
 necessary draft ii]i>> 
 teacher, renders tli 
 does not so readilj 
 them work to do 
 all. begets in their 
 self-exertion, and : 
 the teacher must 
 cam - them alone;, 
 be made of prime 
 
 derst 1. there is ai 
 
 course in arithiueti 
 arranged that the i 
 jects can he reachei 
 of our youth durinj 
 which they can spe 
 to effect this, three 
 (ha rigorous exc 
 
 topics present ■! an 
 
 — addin.- multiilvni-.ctc. tl, t ,.,-lier ,|,,es 
 
 consume so much tune that the great mas 
 the .moils will never advance beyond the mi 
 rudiments of the subject. The range of U 
 
 willV'th'e fundamental rules; common 
 decimal fractions; denominate numbers t 
 
 being taken to reject all obsolete or inn 
 denominations, and to give abundant exer 
 
 calculated to insure a definite conceptioi 
 
 the meaning of the denominations]; ,,,-rm, 
 
 lu.li 
 
 
 
 with partial payr, 
 
 ,„,'■■ If. after this 
 
 tended, 
 proport 
 
 is from 
 I .ere. of 
 ig how 
 
 which the 
 
 small,;-, Ih, 
 
 ssed is made 
 plied, and ,f 
 ■aer.thenum- 
 
 principles out of which they all grow 
 doped. In this method ..f treatment, the 
 iot find himself merely going over the 
 
 subjects through whichhe plodded in 
 his childhood hilt new ranges of thought 
 sentcd.at the same time that all the 
 md processes of the elementary arith- 
 
 l.lleh ful- 
 
 d in anv- 
 
 il have hi 
 le public 
 
 breadth and scope to the conceptions, and r 
 <lucing a disposition to systematize and gene 
 
 of the equation can be introduced : nevertheless, 
 enough can be given to enlarge very greatly the 
 student's power to examine new questions for 
 himself. By means of the equation, he maybe 
 taught the solution of such problems as the fol- 
 
ARITHMETIC 
 
 lowing, which would lie quite out of his reach ; principles by the pupil so that he can state 
 without this instrument : 
 
 To find "■'"'' ■■"'■'> /"'.</»"' 
 to discharge a given principt 
 
 To 
 has h 
 
 a fnu 
 
 be in 
 
 order 
 
 them in a general way. and 
 
 (3) a ca 
 
 in the ■■! 
 
 refill and con- 
 ass, in appli- 
 
 equal 
 
 '""■'- 
 
 of these general ends of ai 
 Becure the s nd, namely 
 
 •itlinicti. 
 
 al study. To 
 and accuracy 
 
 chaser shall receive 
 interest from that na 
 These and many 
 problems arc quite 
 simple equation, and i 
 tious to propose to a 
 knowledge of this in 
 
 the arithmetical processes under the few* 
 sible heads and showing their philosopl 
 pendence, the whole is put in the best i 
 form to be retaine 1 in the memory. I'lins, 
 seen that a sin-le principle rovers all the e 
 reduction, that another .-imple principle,-,, 
 the so called "problems in interest," thai 
 common intricate questions in discount ai 
 ily solved by the simple equation, etc.. th 
 cesses will not be the evanescent things 
 they have often been. 
 
 Principles I — to be kept u 
 
 while teaching arithmetic. - I. I li i ■ a 
 distinct and strongly marked general a 
 arithmetical study: .1 To master the ratio 
 the processes, and 2) To acquire facility! 
 
 ass. which the pupils >hould he required 
 with the utmost promptitude, and 
 ■feet accuracy. In respect to all mere 
 d combinations, a.s addition, subtraction, 
 ■ation. division, involution, evolution, 
 drills like the following "ill be of the 
 use and should be continued until the 
 tions can be made as rapidly as we would 
 ,- read the numbers: Teacher repeats 
 ie pupils follow in silence, making the 
 tions, "5+3-^2* +3, squared, -7-=-7> 
 larc root, etc." These oral drill- mav be 
 
 in.-.- 
 
 ...hi 
 
 which tion.a 
 andsh 
 
 ■tilled 
 
 e eall he 
 
 stand on 
 iking the 
 
 The means which secure one of tl 
 necessarily adapte 1 to secure th • 
 
 secure the first, for example, in i 
 dition, the steps are, learning to 
 how numbers are group id in the 
 learning how to make tin- addi 
 finally, by means of a knowledgi 
 tic digits taken two and two. lear 
 sum of any given numbers. Ii 
 latter process, the pupil needs t. 
 write units of a like order in tl 
 why we begin at the units' columi 
 •' carry one for every ten.' as th 
 But all this maybe known, an 
 make sorry work in practical add 
 to secure tl knowledge of the rati 
 
 needs to be clearly explained and 
 and then the pupil must be requii 
 whole, -overand pvei again, in li 
 Fortius purpose,' much class .In 
 board, in having each pupil sepai 
 
 he has before performed, wil 
 Pupils may be required to brii 
 
 sufficient time he given to explanation from th, 
 
 slates. These three things repeated in about th. 
 same way, (1) a clear preliminary explanatioi 
 of principles either given in the text-book 01 
 by the teacher, (2) a thorough mastery of thesi 
 
 ombina- 
 al value 
 
 guage the reason for each step. But 
 
 lis is secured, there will be found need 
 hill on examples to the answers of 
 innot have access, and which he must 
 1 solve at the moment. In this depart- 
 i valuable exercise may he given by 
 epuiiilswritt.il notes or papers indu. 
 
 he class stated, two general purposes — the theoret 
 
 .,,,.. (i... The sians of division. multiplication, et. . 
 
 . usrd with striit propriety in tins sp.vinen 
 
 an applied to the r.-snlt of all tie- 1 
 
 i parenthesis. Thi 
 ving 7, this square 
 
II 
 
 AIMTITMI-TTr 
 
 the practical — which must run parallel through 
 all good teaching in arithmetic, and that they 
 are generally to be attained by different means. 
 II. In order to realize the above, a careful 
 discrimination needs to be made between simply 
 telling how a thing is done, and telling why it is 
 i lone. Very much of what we read in our 
 
 4 is contained 
 [ 1 2 hds. 3 hds.. or 300 times. 
 32 tens 8 tens, or 80 times. 
 | 24 units 6 units, or 6 times. 
 '■'< units, no times. 
 
 L547 
 
 3s6 times. 
 
 text-books, and hear in class-rooms, under the with a remainder 3 
 
 name of nitnli/sis, in explanation of solutions, i: 
 
 nothingmore than a statement of the process i 
 
 telling how the particular example is wrought 
 
 This vice is still so prevalent as to need the secure the proper em 
 
 clearest exposition and the most radical treat- is coneerned solely ' 
 
 meiit. Indeed, it has become so general as to the breadth of discip 
 
 be mistaken by the masses for the thing it ; s ,„,t great; butt 
 
 purports to he :' and pupil and teacher frequently .„,, alnJost infinitely 
 
 seem to think that this parrot-like way of telling sei ,pe f,,r mental t 
 
 what has been done is really a logical < 
 
 of the principles involved. The foil 
 
 ample, clipped from a hook not now a 
 for popular favor, will serve to ilia- 
 
 III. There should, also, be a careful dis- 
 crimination between piweand applied arithme- 
 tic, in order that they may be so taught as to 
 secure the proper end of etch. Pure arithmetic 
 
 is e vmed solely with abstract numbers, and 
 
 the breadth of discipline to be secured by its study 
 
 lications of arithmetic 
 
 que 
 
 ed, and give a far wider 
 ig. In the latter, the 
 multiply, a«H. subtract. 
 
 -.Illll 7)3t;.3IIO()( 
 
 21352 Commencing the di- 
 
 34 
 
 vision, we find that 1 7 
 
 
 
 is contained in 36, 2 
 
 23 
 
 times. We place 2 in 
 
 17 
 
 the quotient, and sub- 
 
 
 
 tract 2> 17 from 36. 
 
 60 
 
 The remainder is 23. 
 
 51 
 
 
 9(1 
 
 quotient, and subtract 
 
 85 
 
 117 from 23. To the 
 
 
 
 remainder 6 we annex 
 
 50 
 
 one of the 0s, and find 
 
 31 
 
 that 17 is contained in 
 
 
 
 60, 3 times with 9 re- 
 
 16 
 
 mainder. We continue 
 
 this process, aim 
 
 sing to each remainder a new 
 
 figure of the di\ 
 
 idend, until we find a final re- 
 
 inainder 16. whie 
 
 h does not contain 1 7. but the 
 
 division by 17 m 
 
 iv be expressed by writing the 
 
 Compare this with the following: 
 
 Reasons for die Rule in Short Division. - 
 The divisor' is written at the left of the dividend, 
 simply that we may be able to see both at once 
 conveniently. 
 
 We begin at the highest order to divide, be- 
 cause by so doing we can put what remains after 
 each division into the next lower order and 
 divide it; and thus we get all that there is of 
 any order in the quotient as we go along. 
 
 We write the quotient figures under the Orders 
 from whose division they arise, because they are 
 of the same orders. 
 
 the commercial relations which give rise to the 
 problems of foreign exchange, or the circum- 
 stances out of which many of the problems in 
 regard to the value of stocks grow, would he per- 
 fectly preposterous. 
 
 IV. In teaching applied arithmetic, it is of 
 the first importance that the problems be such as 
 occur in actual life, and that in expressing them, 
 the Usual phraseology be employed. For example. 
 compare the following : 
 
 (i! What i- the present worth of »500 due 3 yr. 
 7 mo. 20 da. hence, al 6 per cent per annum? 
 
 (2) I have a 7 per cent note for $500, dated Feb. 6th, 
 Is:::, ami due -I til v lutti. Is7<i. Mr. Smith proposes to 
 buy it of me Sept. 18th. 1874, and to pay me such a 
 sum for it as shall enable him to realize lu per cent 
 per annum on hi- in\ e-tinent. What must he pay me? 
 In ether wcril-. what i- the present worth ef this note 
 Sept Isth, ls74'' 
 
 The first supposes a transaction which could 
 rarely, if ever, occur, and even disguises that. 
 Most pupils who have gone through discount in 
 
 l.-ked. 
 
 Wl 
 
 following i> an 
 1517 equals 
 and 3 units ; 
 
 teivst docs 
 would an- 
 i stood that, 
 r, we find 
 interest- 
 
 many times the the money is not on interest. M 
 
 dend, by finding ,„, such paper no notes not l» 
 
 I in the parts of j n the market. Again, the assumption seems to 
 
 ilts. | K . that the note — if even a note is suggested a1 
 
 1 by tin exampl . all is discounted at the time it is made. Thus, 
 
 1547 by 4. The j t is obvious that the first form is calculated 
 
 peration: to give the pupil quite erroneous impressions; 
 
 > tens, 24 units, whereas the second brings a real transaction into 
 full view. 
 
ARITHMETIC ARIZONA 45 
 
 V. From the beginning to the end of the course, in which the faculties chiefly exercised are obser- 
 
 it should be the aim to teach a few germinal prin- vation, or perception, and memory, and in which 
 
 ciplesand lead the pupil to apply them to as great the pupil is not c petenl toformidate thought, 
 
 ing taught him the names of the numbers u] 
 fourteen, will show bin the meaning of the wi 
 fourteen (four and ten); then he can be led to 
 on tn nineteen by himself No child oughf to 
 told how to count from fifteen to nineteen; i 
 after twenty, lie needs only (.1 be shown how 
 names of the decades, .-us twen-ty, thir-ty, for 
 and tif-tv are forme 1, to 1„, able to give the 1 
 himself:' nor does hen,', I tobel id howtocot 
 
 through more than one decade. In reference 
 the fundamental tables, it may be suggested t 
 no pupil should be furnishe 1 Willi an additi 
 subtraction, multiplication, or division table rea 
 made. Having been taughf the principle 
 which the table is constructed, be should be 
 .mired to make it for himself. As prelimmi 
 to practical addition and subtraction, the com 
 
 any number up to is (9+9) should be m; 
 perfectly familiar. Thus the ehild should ree< 
 nize 1 +4, and 'J (-3, as 5; L+5, '2 1. and \\ \ 
 is 6; etc; and this should be male the foua 
 tionof addition and subtraction. He should 
 ta11.4ht.that if he knows that :: • 1 7. he kno 
 by implication thai 23 I = 27, 33d 1 37, e 
 Passing iron,, he primary arithmetic, he shoi 
 be taughf common fractions by means of t 
 fewest principles an 1 rules consistent with 
 ability. Thus in multiplication and division, 
 multiply or l<> divi /■ i fra U m by u wfi 
 number, and To multiply or to divide a wh 
 number by a fraction, are all the cases needi 
 and these should be taught in strict conform 
 with practical principles. Thus, to multiply 
 
 whole number by a fraction is to take a fr~ 
 tional pari of the number; and to divide a ira 
 ber by a fraction is to tin 1 how many times 1 
 
 latter is contai 1 in the former. To cover 
 
 the forms of reduction of denominate numbe 
 nothing is needed but the principle or rule, that 
 pass from higher to lower denominations, we m 
 tiply by the number which it takes of the lov 
 to make one of the higher; and to pass from lov 
 to higher we divide by the same number. Thi 
 simple principles should be seen to cover 
 cases, those involving fractions as well as othe 
 
 In like manner, by a proper form of statemt 
 of examples, and an occasional suggestion 
 ■question, most of the separate rules usually giv 
 under percentage may be dispensed with. 
 dealing with the cases usually denominated y »/-, 
 lems in interest, a II that is needed isthefollowi 
 brief rule: Find the effect produced by usim 
 unit if lli,- number required, under iff gi% 
 circumstmio's, ,/»•/ co/,/yw/v this irith tht git 
 effect. This should be 'male to covei thei a 
 usually detailed under six or eight rule-, 
 
 VI. There tire three stages of mental dcveli 
 ment which should be carefully kept in view- 
 all elementary teaching : (1) Th irliest sto 
 
 ven first, and illustrated, demonstrated, or ap- 
 ied afterward. (See Analytic Metuod, and 
 eveloping Method.) 
 ARIZONA was organized as a territory 
 
 .f N( 
 
 the next year. I (her and n 
 
 was enacted. Nothing, howev 
 tancewas accomplished toward 
 of a system of common schoul 
 
 18 passed by 
 863, author 
 schools; and 
 
 I si 
 
 'ear, the governor s 
 ecu put in operatio 
 there was a sutticii 
 arger portion of i 
 
 satisfactory progress." In 1873, the total school 
 population between the ages of li and 21, was 
 reported as 1,660, of whom 836 were males, and 
 824 females. Of these there were only IS'.' at- 
 tending public and private schools, the former. 
 343. The whole amount paid for school pur- 
 poses was $11,060. In February, IsT.'S, the 
 
46 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 school law was amended, constituting the system 
 as it now exists. 
 
 School System. — The governor of the terri- 
 tory is ex officio superintendent of public in- 
 struction, and apportions the school fund among 
 the several counties, according to their respective 
 school population, consisting of children be- 
 tween the ages of six and twenty-one years. It 
 is made Ins duty to visit and inspect the schools 
 as often as once in each year. The probate 
 judges df the several counties are exofficio super- 
 
 Mi of a majority of a township, the 
 immissioner should sell the sixteenth 
 forty-aere tracts, to the highest bidder, 
 , of thi' purchase money 1 icing payable 
 
 i list a linn 
 commissi 
 
 the maintenance of schools, and a tax of 1"> cents 
 on $100 for the whole territory. The moneyis 
 divided in proportion to the school attendance. 
 Each district may levy additional taxes by a vote 
 of two thirds of the district. Education is made 
 
 compelled to send their children sixteen weeks 
 
 during the year to sonic school, when within two 
 miles of their residence, or have them instructed 
 at home. 
 
 Educational Condition.— The schools of Ari- 
 zona are all of a primary grade ; and teachers 
 receive from SI 00 to $125 a month, males and 
 females receiving an equal salary. According to 
 the report of Gen. Safford, of Dec. 21st. 1875. 
 there were in the territory 2,508 children be- 
 tween the ages of six and twenty-one, of whom 
 598 attended public schools. The receipts for 
 the preceding vear were 82K.7.V.).'J2, and the dis- 
 bursements were $24,151.96. 
 
 This report stated that, under the existing 
 school law, the free school system had been made 
 
 his hands to parties who would give satisfactory 
 notes to secure their payment with interest. The 
 practical operation of the lawwas as follows : A, 
 B, and ( ' purchased a sixteenth section, say Janu- 
 ary 1st; A and I! being security for C's notes 
 
 school commissioner, say rive hundred dollars, as 
 his first payment, and took his receipt. The same 
 day, they each borrowed five hundred dollars 
 from the school fund of the county, thereby vir- 
 
 wliieh every child in the territory might obtain 
 the rudiments of an e lueation. 
 
 ARKANSAS. This state was originally a 
 portion of the territory of Louisiana, purchased 
 from the French government in 1803. It re- 
 mained a part of that territory until 1812, when 
 Louisiana being a lmitt id as a state, it became a 
 part, of the Vlissouri territory, which was or- 
 
 when it was organized as a separate territory. It 
 was admi ted into the Union as a state in 1836. 
 Educa ional History. — The constitution of 
 1836 contained a declaration in favor of educa- 
 tion to the effect that " as knowledge and learn- 
 ing, generally diffuse 1 through the community, 
 are essential to the preservation of free govern- 
 ment," it should be the duty of the general as- 
 sembly to provide for the sale of lands donated 
 to the state by the general government for edu- 
 cational purposes, and to apply tin' money re- 
 ceived therefrom, to the establishment and sup- 
 port of schools. In accordance with this pro- 
 vision of the constitution, the legislature passed 
 
 of 
 
 the -eii --ion ,,i the state, payments were made 
 in confederate money, and purchasers of school 
 lands were not slow to complete their payments 
 in that currency at par. I hiring this period, the 
 state auditor was the chief executive school of- 
 ficer, and made his report to the governor. The 
 last school report, under the ancien regime,waa 
 made by William R. .Miller, state auditor, to 
 Governor Rector, who held office at the time of 
 the secession of the state. In its printed form, 
 it consisted of one leaf of a book about as large 
 as Webster's Spelling Hook, and states that there 
 were then but two public schools in the state. 
 Evidence from other sources shows that, by the 
 
 IlISS I 
 
 Ark; 
 
 ast rons conscipic 
 
 a state of civil war. a very large proportion of 
 the sixteenth-section and other school lands of 
 the state was squandered, without creating any 
 considerable permanent school fund. Of that 
 which was created, the sum of §8,000, the last 
 remnant, was invested in the purchase of medi- 
 cines for the confederate troops ; and the medi- 
 cines were lost on a steamer which was wrecked 
 on Brazos river, in Texas. 
 
 Two provisions of the Constitution of 1868 
 related to public schools. Section I. of Article VI. 
 provided that " The executive department of 
 this state shall consist of a governor, etc., and 
 a superintendent of public instruction, all of 
 whom shall hold their several offices for a term 
 of four years." Article.' XI. related to education, 
 and its several sections provided, ll) that the 
 general assembly should establish and maintain 
 a system of free schools for the gratuitous in- 
 struction of all persons between the ages of five 
 and twenty-one yea is ; (2) that the supervision 
 of such schools should be intrusted to a superin- 
 tendent of public instruction; (3) that a state 
 university should be established; (4) that a 
 
 acl I fund should be created from the sales of 
 
 ...t I lands escheats, estrays, grants, gifts, one 
 
 dollar capitation tax, etc.; (5) that no part of the 
 
school fund should be invested in the bonds of 
 any state, city, county, or town; (6) that the 
 distribution of the sehool fund should be limited 
 to such districts as had kept a achool for at least 
 three months in the year for which the distribu- 
 tion was made ; and that each child should 1 e re- 
 quired to attend school at least three years; (7) 
 that, in every district in which the .school fund 
 
 should be insufficient to support a scl I for at 
 
 least three months in the war. the general as- 
 sembly should provide by law for levying a tax ; 
 (8) that all lands, moneys, etc., held in the va- 
 rious counties for s 
 duced into the gem 
 the general assem 
 raise money by t; 
 houses. In additioi 
 of the article on Jii 
 money for school 
 treasury. ami obliga 
 the rate of six perc 
 This constitutio 
 1868; and, upon i 
 Deeding, an electioi 
 General Powell ( 'la 
 and Hon. Thomas S 
 instruction. On t 
 the first legisktuw 
 met, and. in due t 
 school law, which w 
 
 nd; and (9) that 
 ie empowered to 
 building school- 
 
 ivisions. a sect ion 
 
 $45,000 of outstanding notes, to the solicitor- 
 general for collection. In all, the claims of the 
 state for school lands sold and moneys loaned, 
 with accrued interest, amounted to about three 
 quarters of a million of dollars. The several 
 amounts of the school fund on hand at the be- 
 ginning and end of the period embraced in 
 Superintendent Smith's first biennial report, wire 
 
 Oct. 1, 1868. V. S. Currency. . . .$ 2,691.98 
 
 State Scrip 56,302.97 
 
 Total $58,954.95 
 
 Oct. 1, 1870. U. S. Currency . . . .*22,2nl .:!7 
 State Scrip 12,991.12 
 
 ie Kith day of March suc- 
 for state otlicers was held. 
 
 Total $35,192.49 
 
 During this period, the school revenues were 
 subject to depletion from three causes: (1) The 
 taxes on sixteenth-section lands were merged in- 
 to the general revenue of the state; (2) The 
 "fines, penalties, and forfeiture-." levied by the 
 various courts, wire loosely handled by the col- 
 lecting officers ; t.'b In many cases, the electors of 
 the various school districts refused to authorize 
 
 the levying of the local tax for school houses; 
 
 lib.- 
 
 constitution 
 enacted the 
 icatioiis. few 
 haraeter, has 
 
 ever si i 
 
 is la 
 
 lit of cir- 
 tell pi.li- 
 
 ! iii their 
 
 i his bien- 
 nd einbar- 
 uiized his 
 
 cult superintendents, one m each 
 rial districts of the state, whosi 
 several circuits were analogous 
 state superintendent, in supervi 
 ports, etc. A school trustee w 
 each school district, with the sain 
 already specified. The reports o 
 tees were made annually to tl 
 intendents, who transmitted tin 
 the state superintendent, to be 
 nial report. Under many diffictj 
 rassments, Superintendent Smit 
 department in August. 1868; and in December 
 
 were elected. In September, 1869, a special ses- 
 sion of the state board of education— composed 
 of the state and circuit superintendents — was 
 held. At this time the only free schools existing 
 in the state were a few for pci-sons of color, 
 established by the United States, through the 
 agency of the Freed men's liureau. The resources 
 of the school department consisted of (1) saline 
 lands, about 20,000 acres; (2) seminary lands, 
 about 1. (Mill acres; (.",) sixteenth-section lands, 
 about 841,000 acres. The original quantities of 
 these lands, which were donated by the United 
 States government for common school purposes. 
 were two sections, each of the first two classes, 
 and 928,000 acres of the third class. Of the 
 saline and seminary land funds, about $12,000 
 in specie, war-bonds, confederate money, etc., had 
 been transferred, after March (ith, 1861, to the 
 general revenue fund of the state ; and about 
 
 Notwithstanding all these obstacles, the school 
 system was able to present, in 1870, considerable 
 progress since the preceding year, as will be seen 
 from the following statistics : 
 
 Number of children of school age. 
 
 " " " attending scnoi 
 11 schools 
 
 " " teachers 
 
 " " teachers' institutes. . . 
 Amount of money paid teachers. 
 
 The whole number of school houses built prior 
 to 1868, was 632 ; in L869 and 1870, it was 657, 
 The apportionment of the state fund lor 1868 
 — 1869 was P77.919.94, and the district tax, 
 1215,348.79. In addition to these evidences of 
 
 1870 
 
 1869 
 
 180,274 
 
 nr./no 
 
 lilT.alls 
 
 07,412 
 
 2,537 
 
 1,489 
 
 2,302 
 
 1,335 
 
 41 
 
 12 
 
 $405,74* 
 
 J1nn,;;:i7 
 
 ilind 
 I dur 
 
 handsome buildings; erected for their accommo- 
 dation. 
 
 Superintendent Smith's second report, for the 
 
 districts had become deeply involved in debt, and 
 
 had levied exorbitant taxes to remove the in- 
 cumbrance; the depreciated paper was destroy- 
 ing the schools and driving the best teachers from 
 the state: and the circuit superintendents were 
 
 neglecting the schools. The following was the 
 
 condition of the school fund : 
 
 ..$14.-,lo.s| 
 .. 24,186.25 
 
 State Scrip.. 
 
 .Ml, Ml 1. 22 
 
 Total. 
 
48 
 
 ARKANSAS 
 
 The amount of money distributed since Oct. 1st, 
 1870, was as follows : 
 
 lTnit_'il Si.;! -s Cnneiicv . ..J :!:i,t;ss.o:i 
 State Scrip ." 454,407.76 
 
 To :il . -1 38,095.79 
 
 The balance on hand at the above date was 
 $39,876.75, of which nearly the whole was in 
 
 state scrip. The following general summary of 
 statistics shows a decrease m nearly every item 
 as compared with those of 1870 : 
 
 ls72 
 
 ARKANSAS UNIVERSITY 
 
 transferred to the secretary of state, "until othcr- 
 h ise i in Aided by law.' 
 
 mentary Jus/fur 
 
 mlv 
 
 if school age 
 
 l!.4.:;i I 
 
 I'm;.-:;; 
 ti!i,!i'J7 
 2,128 
 
 Almost the only encouraging feature of the 
 period covered by Superintendent Smith s second 
 report, was the opening of the Arkansas Iiidus- 
 
 and the only report which lie issued was for the 
 year ending September 30th, 1873. Prior to 
 this, tic- general assembly passed a new revenue 
 law, which was construed to repeal the provision 
 of the former law appropriating two mills on 
 the dollar out of the ordinary revenue of the 
 state for school purposes. This reduced the 
 amount of the semi-annual apportionment from 
 $210,000 to $55,000, all of which was in state 
 scrip, worth at the time about 35 per cent. The 
 same legislature abolished the office of circuit 
 superintendent, and substituted that of county 
 superintendent. It also limited the local tax to 
 a maximum of five mills ; and a decision of the 
 supreme court made even this tax payable in 
 state scrip. The following are the principal 
 items of the school statistics for the year 1873 : 
 
 A new constitution was adopted in 187 1. of which 
 the following are the chief provisions in regard 
 to education: — (I) Thai (he stale •■ shall ever 
 maintain a general, suitable, and efficient system 
 of free schools, whereby all persons in the state, 
 between theagesof six and twenty-one years, may 
 receive gratuitous instruction;" ('-') That no 
 school money or property shall be used for any 
 other purpose; (.'{) That the general assembly 
 shall provide for the support of common schools 
 by a tax, not to exceed the rate of two mills on 
 (he dollar, on the taxable property of the state; 
 
 Officers 08 may be provided for by the general 
 
 a sembly." Under this last provision, the duties 
 i upi'i Intendenl of public instruction were . 
 
 schools in the state at presenl i Nov. 1875) are 
 those of the city of Little Rock, which wire 
 opened September 1 3th, 1 875. 'I he sole n liance 
 of the mass of the citizens for educational advan- 
 tages is, therefore, upon private school.-,, of which 
 a large number were opened at the beginning 
 of the school year. No school report has been 
 
 is;;:, as the a 
 of ,ia!e have n 
 theschools imp 
 local oihi era are 
 Normal Insb 
 for the training 
 
 the se, 
 
 Tin chief provision 
 rs in the state is the 
 
 common schools, and the latter, those of the high 
 schools. Male applicants for admission are re- 
 quired to be L6 years of age. and females 14. A 
 training school is operated in connection with 
 this school. Besides this, Quitman College, in 
 Van Buren county, is a normal school for the 
 training of colored teachers. There is also a 
 state teachers a latum. 
 
 Sup r Instruction. — The most prominent 
 of the higher educational institutions of the state 
 are the Arkansas Industrial University, at 
 Fayetteville (q, v.), and St. John's College, at 
 little Rock (q. v.) : the latter of which is under 
 the control of the masonic fraternity. 
 
 Special Instruction.— The Arkansas Deaf- 
 Mute Institute and the Arkansas Institute for 
 the Education of the Blind, both ai i ittb- bock. 
 
 The former was i nrporated as a state institu- 
 tion in 1868. The latter, the same year, was re- 
 moved from Arkadelphia to Little Rock. The 
 financial embarrassments of the state have great- 
 ly impeded the progress and efficient operation 
 of these institutions. 
 
 Ijl in atio>ialJburnal,ete.- -The last educational 
 journal published in the state was the Arkansas 
 Join-mil nf hW/triifmii, which suspended publica- 
 tion in 1872 : and the only works on the schools 
 of the state are the three educational reports of 
 (he state superintendents. 
 
 While the present educational condition of 
 Arkansas is by no means cheering, it is not quite 
 hopeless. The decadence of the school system, 
 which a short time ago was so promising, is the 
 result of financial, political, and social evils ami 
 misfortunes that have alHictcd the' state from its 
 earliest history. .Many of these evils, however. 
 are already things of the past, of which only the 
 etl'eets remain. Under the presenl administra- 
 tion, much has been done towards developing the 
 natural resources of the state; and there is no 
 
 doubt that, in a few years, its educational pros- 
 
 ARKANSAS INDUSTRIAL UNIVER- 
 SITY, at Fayetteville. Arkansas, was provided 
 
ARMY SCHOOLS 
 
 for by an act of the state legislature in 1868, 
 but was not opened until January 22., 1872. 
 'Ph.' law regulating the institution provides for 
 :\2~ beneficiaries who are entitled to four years 
 free tuition. The value "t the grounds, build- 
 ings, etc. is $180,000. 'I'Im- buildings will accom- 
 modate four hundred students, and consist oi a 
 brick edifice five stories high, 21 t feel in length, 
 with a depth in the wings oi 122 feet, with five 
 large and .several small halls, ami thirty class- 
 rooms. The report of the university foi 1874 
 showed an atl radance of 321 students, hi its 
 various departments, under the instruction of 
 seven pi"! -- '!- ami three other instructors. I he 
 institution includesa preparatory and a normal 
 department, a college of engineering, and a college 
 of general science and literature. A. college of 
 agriculture and a college of natural science, with 
 a school of military science, and a school of coiu- 
 M) iree, are also piw ided for : and an experimental 
 farm for the agi [cultural college lias I >een secured. 
 The university library is as yet quite small. 
 Gen. Albert W. Bishop is the' president of the 
 institution. 
 
 ARMY SCHOOLS. Ski: Military Schools. 
 
 ARNDT, Ernst Moritz, a German patriot 
 andauthor, wasbi >rn 1 >ec. 26., I 769, at Schoritz on 
 Riigen, and died Jan. 29., 1860, at Bonn. He 
 was appointed, in 1805, professor at the university 
 of Greifswalde ; but he wrote violently against 
 Xapoleon and. therefore, fled, after the battle at 
 
 Jena, in 1806, to Sweden. In L8 19, he retur 1. 
 
 and henceforth took a prominent part in the na- 
 tional movement in Germany which led to the 
 wars of liberation (1813 to isle), and the over- 
 throw of the French rule in Germany. In 1818, 
 lie was appointed professor of history at the uni- 
 versity of Bonn; but, in the next year he was 
 retired in consequence of his liberal sentiments. 
 In 1840, he was re-instated by the new king 
 Frederick William IV. ; and, in 1848, he was 
 amernberof the National Assembly of Frankfort, 
 which attempted the reconstruction of a united 
 Germany. Arm It is chiefly famous in Germany 
 as one of the foremost promoters of patriotism. 
 One of his songs, Was ist </es T)rnl*cln-n J'/Ar- 
 land? was long regarded as the most popular 
 national hymn; but was superseded in popular 
 favor, during the Prance-German war, by Die 
 Waeht am Rhein. Some of Arndt's numerous 
 works are of a pedagogical character, the most 
 important of which is Fragments uber Menscken- 
 bildung (Altona, 1805), which explains the prin- 
 ciples of a rational education of man in accor- 
 dance with the dictates of his nature. In 
 opposition to the ideas of Rousseau, he insisted 
 that the essence of man must not be sought in 
 the sensuous nature of the isolated individual, 
 but in his spiritual part, and in his rela- 
 tions to parents, family, society, and his native 
 country. From this point of view. Arndt con- 
 tends, with Pestalozzi, that the mother shoidd be 
 the first teacher of the child, and that her in- 
 struction should proceed from the concrete. He 
 represents love, necessity, and freedom as the 
 three powers which co-operate in the education 
 
 of man. The work of these three great powers 
 
 special 
 
 his wc 
 
 weisung eines Fursten (Berlin, 1813). These 
 educational works of Arndt exercised far less in- 
 fluence upon the rising generation of Germany 
 than his fairy tales, ami especially his patriotic 
 songs, many of which are to be found in most 
 
 Herman reading-hooks and thus have contributed 
 very much toward shaping the German mind of 
 the nineteenth century. In his autobiography, 
 h'riiiiirrniiqii, mis ilfin t'iiixm-rrii Lrlu-n (l.eip- 
 sie. 2. ed.. 1840), Arndt treats fully of his own 
 education. Biographies of Arndt have been 
 written by Eogen Labes (I860), H. Rehbein and 
 R. Ceil (1861), and D. Schenkel (1866).— See 
 also G. Freytag, in Deutsche AUgemeine Bio- 
 graphie, art. Arndt. 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas, D. D., the illustrious 
 
 ('owes, in' the Isle of Wight." in 1 T'J.V He was 
 educated at Winchester College and Oxford 
 University, from the latter of which he obtained 
 a first -class degree in 1814. He attained his 
 greatest fame as head-master of Rugby School. 
 to which position he was elected in IS'JS, and in 
 which he continued till his death. In the course 
 of instruction of this school, he introduced many 
 improvements ; but it was the system of moral 
 teaching and training which he established, that 
 gave to him and to the school their greatest distinc- 
 tion. He preserved among the boys the highest 
 tone of moral and religious sentiment ; and. with 
 consummate tact, habituated them to the practice 
 of the principles which he taught, making him- 
 self both feared and loved. His chief reliance 
 was upon guiding the public opinion of the 
 school, as the most powerful element of control 
 in every community. For the practice of " fag- 
 ging" previously in vogue in the school, he insti- 
 tuted a .-ysiem'of iv^pou-ihle Mij.cn Won by the 
 
 boys, thus 
 
 exercise of those virtues which they had been 
 taught. Rugby, however, by no means occupied 
 all his time and attention." For some time he 
 held a place in the senate of the London Uni- 
 versity, and a short time before his death, ac- 
 cej.ted the appointment of Regius I'rofcssor of 
 Modern History at Oxford, where lie delivered 
 some introductory lectures. To this position he 
 intended to devote his whole energies, retiring 
 from Rugby; but his plans were frustrated by 
 his sudden death, in 1842. His greatest literary 
 
A KT-KDF CATION 
 
 work is the History of Rome, which he publish- The genius of Phidias and Praxiteles must havi 
 ed in three volumes (1838—1840 — 1842), owed its development to the results of many 
 brought down to the end of the Second Punic centuries of previous culture. The Parthenon 
 
 War. This work he did not live to complete 
 Bis miscellaneous writings are varied and numer- 
 ous. Dr. Arnold's purity and elevation of char- 
 acter, his conscientious zeal and wise efforts as a 
 practical educator, his learning and literary skill, 
 and the excellent example which he pn - nted m 
 all the relations of life, entitle him to be con- 
 sidered "one of the brightest ornaments of his 
 age." — See Stanley, Arnold's Idfe and Cor- 
 respondence (London, 1845) ; also Tom Brown's 
 School-Days at Rugby (London and Boston, 
 1857). 
 
 ARNOLD, Thomas Kerehever, an En- 
 
 glish clergy man, 
 
 born in 1800 and died 
 
 ctergyi 
 L853. lie is chiefly noted for Ins sc 
 uals for elementary instruction i 
 
 was the noblest achievement of the loftiest genius 
 making use of the agencies and results of the 
 most complete culture and education in art. We 
 have, however, no history of that education in 
 detail. Instruction in the art of design I , 
 was quite general at Athens and in some of the 
 otb i Grecian states ; and Aristotle, in his scheme 
 of education, attributes to it great importance as 
 a means of cultivating the sense of the beautiful. 
 The establishment of art -schools and schools of 
 design for the masses is, however, of modem 
 origin, and is due to a consideration, based upon 
 experience, of the great value of general artistic 
 skill in increasing the sources of national wealth. 
 
 French. ( Jerman 
 These book- lm 
 country as well 
 upon a thorouo 
 the peculiarities 
 Mr. Arnold al 
 
 id some otb ir languag - 
 extensively used in this 
 '. ■ i __• 1 . i r i 1 They are based 
 :n of practical drill in all 
 • language to be taught. 
 pared a series of school 
 
 classics, and published articles on various reli^ 
 ious and ecclesiastical questions. His manuals 
 for classical study are based on a system similar 
 to that of Ollendorff. 
 
 ART-EDUCATION. Every complete sys- 
 tem of education must provide for the cult- 
 ure of all the varied faculties of the human 
 mind, physical and intellectual, moral and spir- 
 itual, esthetic and emotional ; and must, be- 
 sides, supply the means necessaryfor thedevelop- 
 
 nt of those practical capacities upon which 
 
 the social and national progress of every civilized 
 lepends. Among the agencies required 
 , purpose, art-education claims profound 
 attention. The element of beauty, which exists 
 in the human mind, when made the 
 progn ave cultivation, and applied to the vari- 
 ous industries of sociaJ life, becomes a thing of 
 pecuniary as well as esthetic value. The train- 
 ing of the hand and eye, which is obtained by 
 drawing, is proved by experience to be of very 
 greal a [vantage to the operative in every branch 
 ,i indu ■> : indeed, in many occupations, draw- 
 in- is indispensable to success. But the value is 
 
 of the perception and conception of forms and 
 their combinations is added, leading to skill in 
 branch of art of the highest valu. 
 
 sss 
 
 skm. in its summary of the inquiry on profes- 
 sional education : '■Among all the branches of 
 instruction which, in different degrees, from the 
 highest to the lowest grade, can contribute to the 
 technical education of either sex. drawing, in all 
 its forms and applications, hits been almost unan- 
 imously regarded its the one which it is most 
 important to make common." Heretofore, in 
 the struggle and conflict of nations for suprema- 
 cy and power, it was believed they could depend 
 exclusively upon armed men and heavy guns ; 
 luil to-day the great nations of Europe rely on 
 
 - industrial education, ami the general culture of 
 
 - the people. The Worlds Fair held at London, in 
 
 - 1851, revealed plainly to England that she was 
 i far behind her great rival France in the produc- 
 l tion of articles 'requiring skilled labor and taste, 
 1 indeed, below all the other civilized nations ex- 
 l cept the United States. Convinced of her inferi- 
 s oiiiv. she went vigorously to work to give general 
 I in-t'rnctioii in the tine and industrial arts, by 
 
 establishing schools for special training, free of 
 cost, to those whom the science and art depart- 
 ment of the government had selected for art- 
 masters. Art-schools were founded for instruc- 
 
 tion in drawing, modeling, and design, in many 
 of the large cities .and towns throughout the king- 
 dom. The British official report for 1872 shows 
 that there were, at that time, in England 122 in- 
 dustrial art-sel Is; besides which there were 
 
 l!M.">l'.t children receiving instruction in draw- 
 ing in the -schools for the poor." Up to that 
 time, there had been established one well-ap- 
 verv manv departments of manufacturing ill- pointed art-school of 190 students for every 
 dustrv. "Art-education", says an eminent author- 1 210,000 of the population; so rapidly was 
 
 ity, •• embraces all those apj 
 of training by which the sei 
 portion is developed. It is 
 
 ethods struction in art 
 
 ugly ami what is beauti 
 
 ideas of form in drawing 
 
 other sorts on the written page." 
 
 Art culture among the ancients must have 
 been carried to the highest degree of p rfection 
 its is obvious on an inspection of Egyptian, As- 
 syrian, and more especially Grecian antiquities. 
 
 they could no loll 
 
 applied to industry provided 
 of 
 
 lown. At tin- Paris 
 ood in the first rank 
 u ssed someol 
 ried off the highest 
 tade by the English 
 ■ French. They saw 
 that prestige which 
 
 nedt 
 rely 
 
 had always placed them at the head ; and they. 
 
ART-EDUCATION 
 
 in turn began fo reconstruct, improve, and in 
 crease their art-schools. The commission ap- 
 pointed by the emperor Napoleon III., after (iu« 
 
 consideration, made an elaborate report, and tin 
 
 and Germany.the Pruss 
 and industry issued a ( 
 government and the peo 
 of Prance ; and it is o 
 theschoolsof Prussia.fi 
 the university. Nol o 
 and Germany, but in n 
 pean countries is this en 
 cation in progress. I In 
 all enlightene I nations, 
 
 vai incut and little effi 
 
 York, Massachusetts, an 
 enacted laws concerniri 
 
 1825. Samuel F. B. Morse was chosen to pre- 
 side over a new association, just then formed, 
 called the New Fork Drawing Association. 
 It \\a.- out of the small number of artists who 
 constituted this association, and who met three 
 times a week todraw fr casts, that the present 
 
 ircith 
 
 r calling 
 
 upon tl 
 
 mill 
 arh 
 
 Kujl.ni. 
 ill the "i 
 
 School t 
 
 . franc 
 
 i art-edi 
 alone i 
 
 little a 
 
 rt in 
 
 lii.sdirei t 
 
 on. \e\ 
 
 1 a fi 
 
 w other st 
 
 ites hav 
 
 g tin 
 
 teaching 
 
 of fret 
 
 hand drawing in the public schools, and m this 
 
 way have shown some appreciation of the great 
 importance of the subject. 
 
 During the first twenty-five years of the na- 
 tion. ,1 iiuTepeiideii.vc.f tlieYnited States, nothing 
 was accomplishc 1 in art e lucation. All teai hing 
 was confined to the few lessons that were given 
 by professional painters. Even at the com- 
 mencement of the present century, no sch o] ha 1 
 been established. In 1802, however, a proposi- 
 tion was made to found an institution for the 
 promotion .if the arts of drawing, painti ng, and 
 sculpture, in the city of New York, under the 
 name of The New Fork Academy of Fine Ar 
 ( in account of the want of public interest in th ■ 
 enterprise and the inactivity of th ■ -■ who start- 
 ed it. the charter for the academy was not ob- 
 tained until 1808. In 1st).,, the Pennsylvania 
 Academy of Fine Arts was founded atPhiladel- 
 phia by seventy-one citizens; and in Boston, in 
 1807, the Public Library and Department of 
 Fine Arts was established. These institutions 
 arc still in existence : but the New York Academy 
 
 only lasted till 1816. There is i vidence that 
 
 there were any schools of importance connected 
 with the first academies. The Few artistswho 
 belonged to them probably practiced drawing 
 from casts, and, it may be, Bometimes from life. 
 — Among the names of those who took an in- 
 terest in art-matters at the early date here refer- 
 red to. may be found Mime of the best men of the 
 time; and at their heal stool De Witt Clinton, 
 certainly the foremost man in the State of New 
 York. He was the president of the Academy. 
 and delivered an address upon the Fine Arts 
 when he retired from active participation in its 
 affairs. According to the venerable Thomas A. 
 CummingS, a veteran artist at this date (1876), 
 this address was probably the first ever delivered 
 in this country on that subject It islikelj thai 
 there were some artistic societies classes, or club-, 
 besides those mentioned, struggling into existence 
 in cities like Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, 
 Richmond, and Charleston, but of these we have 
 but little or no history. It is quite certain that, 
 up to 1816, no attempt had been made to in- 
 struct students anywhere in this country. In 
 
 1 among the 
 iation, on ac- 
 Trumbull, the 
 esidenl of the 
 Fine Arts, to 
 them. These 
 v and success- 
 Mid the young 
 
 I'l-niiibiill was 
 and according 
 
 lished on a fin 
 Academy qf De 
 1826, with twen 
 of eleven studen 
 
 ss estab- 
 
 Yittiwtttl 
 
 -. Morse delivered an ad- 
 ion of the new academy, 
 a new departure from 
 ,'s of the art-associations 
 been established. His 
 
 ie as that adopted and 
 is a bitter fend between 
 
 ademy 
 
 :n. and 
 
 til-able 
 
 i I ilia 
 
 ■ducatioi 
 
 Methoi 
 
 drawing 
 
 that 
 
 st class school for the edu- 
 i this account, the institu- 
 tnii to be a national one. 
 ii has kept pace with the 
 j of the country. 
 truction. — The modes of 
 s of art-schools are nearly 
 y were in the Old World 
 two hundred years ago; that is. in schools in 
 which pupils are trained tube professional artists. 
 After students have learned to draw from the 
 Hat, from lithographs, drawings, etchings, etc.. on 
 paper, they are required to draw from plaster 
 casts. — mostly figures and fragments of the 
 antique, statins, and busts. The teacher of draw- 
 ing very often selects for the student those casts 
 which are best suited to his taste, style, and abil- 
 ity. These casts are generally so arranged and 
 illuminated as to show strong contrasts of light 
 and shade; and each student is provided withan 
 old-fashioned drawing board, which is simply a 
 board, eel icrally about :ia 25 inches, with two 
 legs, resting upon the floor and thus support- 
 ing one cud. while the other end rests on the lap of 
 the student. A charcoal outline of the object to be 
 
52 
 
 ART-EDUCATION 
 
 drawn is first made. This being easily rubbed 
 off, tin' student is thus enabled to get the outline 
 with less trouble than would be possible with 
 crayons, which are onlj resorted to aftei a correct 
 outline has been obtained. Tin- iifi school, as 
 it is called, or more properly speaking, drawing 
 from the living form, is generaUj conducted in 
 the following manner. The model, 01 person who 
 is t«i stand, ui' /»»'. is placed generally under the 
 light, in whatever position may be chosen by the 
 
 position. A rest is then taken, and at will the 
 model again assumes precisely the same position 
 
 as before, and the drawing goes on until each 
 student has finished. 
 
 Art-SrhtHils in the Ohited'States. — The num- 
 ber of art-schools or institutions affording art- 
 instruction, in the United States, according to 
 the Report of the CJ. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation, for IsT Lis twenty-six; as shown in the 
 follow nig table. 
 
 Institutions affording Art-instruction in U. S. 
 
 Name 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 founded 
 
 School of Design of the 
 
 
 
 San Francisco Art-As- 
 
 
 
 
 San Francisco, Cal. 
 
 1873 
 
 Yale School of the Fine 
 
 
 
 "~ Arts 
 
 New Haven, Ct. 
 
 1864 
 
 Art-Schools of Chicago 
 
 
 
 Academy of Design . . 
 Illinois Industrial Univer- 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 1867 
 
 
 
 
 Urbana, 111. 
 
 1874 
 
 Schools of Art and Design 
 
 
 
 of Maryland Institute . 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 1848 
 
 Art-School 
 
 Baltimore, Md. 
 
 1874 
 
 Boston Art-Club 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 1855 
 
 Lowell School of Practical 
 
 
 
 - Design 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 1872 
 
 Mass. Inst, of Technology 
 
 1861 
 
 Mass. Normal Art-School 
 
 Boston, Mass. 
 
 1873 
 
 /"Worcester County Free 
 
 
 
 Institute of Industrial 
 
 
 
 Science. 
 
 Worcester, Mass. 
 
 1865 
 
 St. Louis trt-School St. Louis, Mo. 
 Manchester Art-Associa- 
 
 tion Manchester, N. H. 
 
 L872 
 
 1871 
 
 l!ri...Uw, Vrt-A— .M-iali-.ti Brooklyn, X. V. 
 
 1861 
 
 Cornell' University 
 
 Ithaca, X. Y. 
 
 1865 
 
 1 ladies' Art- Assoi iation 
 
 New York, N. Y. 
 
 1870 
 
 'National Academy of De- 
 
 
 
 sign 
 
 Xew York. X. V. 
 
 1820 
 
 The Palette Club 
 
 Xew York, X. Y. 
 
 1869 
 
 'CooperUnion Art-Schools, 
 
 
 
 1. Women's Art-Scl 
 
 Xew York, X. Y. 
 
 1855 
 
 s- 2. Free School of Art.. 
 
 Xew York, N. Y. 
 
 1857 
 
 College of Fine Arts of 
 
 
 
 Syracusi 1 
 
 Syracuse, N. Y. 
 
 1872 
 
 School of Design of tic 
 
 ' University of Cincinnat 
 
 
 
 Cincinnati. 0. 
 
 1869 
 
 Toledo University of Arts 
 
 
 
 and Trades 
 
 Toledo, 0. 
 
 1872 
 
 Franklin Institute Draw- 
 
 
 
 ing i llasses 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 1824 
 
 Art-Classes of the Penns. 
 
 
 Academy of Fine Arts. 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 1806 
 
 .Philadelphia School ot 
 
 
 
 Di -i ii tor Women ... 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa. 
 
 1S47 
 
 Pittsburg School of De 
 
 
 
 sign for Women 
 
 Pittsliurg, Pa. 
 
 1865 
 
 Of these institutions three are the great art- 
 schools at Philadelphia, Xew York, and New 
 
 Haven: namely, the Pennsylvania Academy 
 of the Fine Arts, the National Academy of 
 Design, and the Yale School of the Fine Arts. 
 Ten of these institutions are for the special 
 training of artists. Three others, the Boston 
 Irt-Cli the Palette Club, and the Ladies' 
 Art-Association, are voluntarj associations of 
 artists, with life-classes, etc., for their own im- 
 provement. 
 
 in some of these schools nearly every kind of 
 art-culture receives attention. — drawing from 
 the flat, from simple objects, easts, the antique, 
 .paintings, and from life; modeling in clay. wax. 
 and plaster; painting in oil and water colors; 
 architecture; and fresco painting. In others, the 
 instruction is given with special reference to the 
 practical application of science to art, to the edu- 
 cation of skilled artisans, to mechanics, manu- 
 facturers, etc. 
 
 The number of art-schools is so small, com- 
 pared with the number of inhabitants, that, in ' 
 fact, but very little national progress in art-cul- 
 ture can be expected. On account of the lack 
 of opportunities for studying painting and sculp- 
 ture, most students who have the means go to 
 Europe to obtain those facilities which are not to 
 be found in tlus country. According to the Re- 
 port above quoted, there are only -7 tirt-iimst ■mils 
 and arPcoHections, of colleges, etc.,in the United 
 State, nt these seven are in New York, six in 
 Ma.-.-. u In, -. i' two each in Connecticut and 
 Pennsylvania, and one each in Illinois. Indiana. 
 Louisiana, Maryland. Michigan, New Hampshire, 
 Ohio, Rhode Island, Vermont, and the District 
 of ( 'olunibia. The incomes of eight of these 
 institutions, in L874, were reported as amounting 
 in tie ,._ji -ate to about i?200,000; but of this. 
 $70,000 was reported as the income of the Cor- 
 coran Art Gallery, at Washington, which has an 
 
 endowment of SI ,(1(10,000. Kleveli of the twenty- 
 seven institutions above referred to are art-collec- 
 tions connected with colleges or universities, and 
 mosi of them are of recent foundation. — five 
 since L872. 
 
 Instruction in Drawing. — There is a growing 
 appreciation of the value of drawing a- a blanch 
 of common school instruction, and a much clearer 
 perception of the fact that to teach drawing sys- 
 tematically in the schools of the people is to lay 
 the foundation not only of national art-culture, 
 but of national progress in the industrial arts. 
 
 The 
 
 sit pi 
 
 e-ll\ 
 
 the] 
 
 educating thai cL 
 
 the future 
 nation. 
 
 city 
 
 agement ot drawing in 
 
 ill\ for the purpose of 
 tjiils who are to become 
 killed laborers and artisans of the 
 an illustration, we quote the words 
 of the Superintendent of Indiana : "Indiana, as 
 much as any slate in the Union, needs to look 
 after these interests, and needs to educate her 
 children for the work which must either be done 
 by them or by some more skillful class, imported 
 from al. mad lo supply their places. Her wood, 
 wool, minerals, and other rough materials are 
 
ART-EDUCATION 
 
 ARTS 
 
 53 
 
 carried away and manufactured 
 
 into tl "lii- 
 
 monest articles of daily use, and 
 
 are returned to 
 
 the stair as imported articles i 
 
 it an enormous 
 
 cost. . . . The skill of our nati 
 
 re workmen is 
 
 limited through want of training 
 
 .and our labor 
 
 is not, therefore, of the most pr 
 
 ofitable quality. 
 
 That our system of education is 
 
 in this point de 
 
 fective, and that it needs such i 
 
 inprovement as 
 
 shall look to the preparation 
 
 nt persons for 
 
 skillful labor, are no longer n 
 
 atters of ques- 
 
 tion." (See Report, L874 i He.t 
 
 
 mends that the statutes of tl 
 
 ie state be so 
 
 amended as to include draw ing 
 
 as t' th 
 
 common school branches of stu 
 
 dy. in Massa-' 
 
 chusetts, much has been done in t 
 
 bis direction, hi 
 
 compliance with the law of 1870. 
 
 which provided 
 
 
 
 town having more than 10,000 ti 
 
 [habitants shall, 
 
 annually make provision for giv 
 
 ing free instruc- 
 
 tion in industrial or mechani a) 
 
 drawing to per- 
 
 sons over tilt ten years of ag ■■' 
 
 Of the twenty- 
 
 three cities and towns of the 
 
 State, in 1874, 
 
 twenty ha 1 complie 1 with the sti 
 
 llllte. Ill 1871, 
 
 .,n the invitation of th i scl 1 
 
 committee, Mr. 
 
 Walter Smith, head-master of 
 
 the school Of 
 
 art in Leeds, England . took tl 
 
 le direction of 
 
 this branch of instruction in tl 
 
 le public schools 
 
 of Boston : and subsequently 
 
 
 State-Director of artreducation. 
 
 In I-;::. il, i 
 
 State Normal Art-School was 
 
 established at 
 
 Boston, under the direction of 
 
 Mr. Smith, for 
 
 the training of art-teachers, or 
 
 teachers of in- 
 
 dustrial drawing, which institute 
 
 m. in L874, had 
 
 12 instructors and 240 Btudents. 
 
 The results of 
 
 this system, so complete and i 
 
 iduiiral.le. have 
 
 thus far been eminently success 
 
 fill, ddie state 
 
 of Xe« York, following the exi 
 
 unpleof Massa- 
 
 whoso work consists in the production of forms, 
 would lie better trained iii this way. To the de- 
 signer of fabrics, drawing on flat surfaces is 
 the preferable practice ; but in nearly all other 
 cases, modeling affords the most efficient train- 
 ing. A set of objects classified ami graded, 
 
 from the simplest to the iii.i-t plicated forms. 
 
 as well as compositions for drawing and model- 
 ing purposes, is of great value in this instruction; 
 and, accompanying this, there should lie a com- 
 prehensive ti xt-liook or manual, eivmg directions 
 as to the modes of teaching, the arrangement of 
 rooms and studios, th- adjustment of lights, and 
 die placing of casts and model,; togetherwith a 
 mil description of the materials and instruments 
 needed at each stage and in each department of 
 the instruction. For valuable information and 
 suggestions in tins direction, see Art-Education, 
 by Prof. CO. Thompson.u] Report of Commis- 
 sioner of Education (1873). 
 
 Importance of Art-Education- 'I his country 
 can compete with foreign nations in the produc- 
 tion ,,f articles re,|iiiiin u taste and skilled labor 
 only by establishing schools for instruction in the 
 fine arts and in industrial art. so that the native 
 artisans may lie properly educated. Millions of 
 men, women, and children, m l.uroiie. arc at the 
 
 d St 
 
 trial drawing to be taught in all the common 
 schools of the state. (See Drawing.) 
 
 Mode of Establish,,, / Art-Schools.— The first 
 thing necessary for the establishment of art- 
 schools, or for the introduction of drawing, 
 modeling, and designing into schools already 
 established, is to obtain capable teachers, or art- 
 masters. These must be trained in the art in 
 normal schools ; or the officers of school-districts 
 may institute classes for this purpose. The 
 Cooper Institute, in the City of New- York, and 
 the Sri,,,,,! if Design,in Cincinnati, and some 
 others, have prepared a considerable nmnber 
 of excellent art-teachers. The state normal 
 schools have also done something in this direc- 
 tion, but have the facility and means, if properly 
 applied, to do very much more. The customary 
 mode of procedure in art-instruction has already 
 been explained; but the various methods of in- 
 struction in drawing will lie given in another 
 part of this work. (See Drawing.) Modeling 
 has not yet. become as prominent in industrial 
 artreducation as its importance demands. With- 
 out doubt, the modeling of real forms is much 
 more beneficial for the future artisan than the 
 representation of forms upon flat surfaces. It 
 
 will be readily perceived that the w 1-carver, 
 
 cabinet-maker, machinist, jeweler, and all others 
 
 ele.-i 
 
 rly show this necessit 
 
 . JLpj 
 
 ih skilled aiidnieehai 
 
 led, of the value of 
 
 -kill 
 
 si:: 
 
 The 
 
 Le of such articles imp 
 the same year, the 
 ed labor exported ir. 
 
 contrast presentsan 
 importance of art ,■, 
 ational wealth and p 
 
 !■.- articles upon 
 
 or had been ex- 
 
 ,835 : while the 
 
 as 8177,857,132. 
 
 ■ ot taste and 
 
 iee amounted to 
 
 to 3384,787,944. 
 
 tin' lesson as to 
 
 m its relation 
 
 v S. ,• Modern 
 
 Art-Education (Boston, !-;."• ; Official Report 
 
 of the Vienna Exposition (1873) ; Reports of 
 
 i: S. Commissioner of Education (1872, -3, -4.) 
 
 ARTISANS, Education of. See Tech- 
 
 ARTS, Liberal. The term arts, or liberal 
 
 arts, was, during the middle ages, applied to cer- 
 tain studies which constituted an essential pan 
 of a learne 1 , ducation. 'I he full course of study. 
 
 at that period, ( ml.raeed " the seven libera] arts," 
 three of which grammar, logic, and rhetoric- 
 composed what wascalled the /,;,■,„,„ , the triple 
 way to eloquence); and the remaining four- 
 constituted thequaarivium (the quadruple way). 
 The term /'■/, ulty of mis denoted, in the univer- 
 sities, those who devoted themselves to philos- 
 ophy and science, in contradistinotion to the 
 taenia of theology, of medicine, or of law. 
 Vast r (La.t.maaister was used to designate one 
 who taught the liberal arts ; and doctor, one win. 
 taught or practiced divinity, law, or medicine. 
 The first degree <,/>•<„/, is) of proficiency in the 
 arts, instituted, as it is said, by < Jregory IX. 
 
54 
 
 ASCI] AM 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 about the middle of the 13th century, was that 
 of bachelor (Lat. baccalaureus); and the second 
 
 l hat of ni'isi.'i-. which originally conferred the 
 
 <me or more of the liberal arts. This title, in the 
 colleges and universities <>t the United Stales, 
 England, and France, is now merely honorary. 
 (See 1)ki;i:i:i -.) 
 
 ASCHAM, Boger, a celebrated English 
 scholar and teacher, who flourished during the 
 
 power to control the succession of our ideas or 
 thoughts very much depends upon the habits 
 
 we may have firmed in cstablishine. these assoeia- 
 
 1.1, 
 
 became a college tutor, and was appointed to 
 Greek in the public schools. In l">4o. he 
 lished Toxophilus, or the School of Shoot 
 in which, as Dr. Johnson says. " he designed 
 only to teach the art of shooting, but to eiy 
 example of diction more natural and more t 
 English than was used by the common ui 
 
 of the learned languages to the la ly Elizal 
 afterwards ipieen. and continue 1 to perforin 
 service for two years. In 1553, he was appoi 
 Latin secretary to Queen Mary, and was co] 
 ued in the same office by Elizabeth, bef 
 
 acting as her tutor in Latin and Greek. 
 most noted work is " The Sdiolemaster, < 
 Plain and Perflte Way of teacJiina Chili 
 
 F.,st, 
 
 of Northern Wortiiies, vol.n.; Quick, Essays 
 on Educational Reformers (London, 1868.) The 
 last mentioned work contains an excellent sketch 
 of Ascham's method. 
 
 ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS. Bv this 
 
 are acquainted, so that they How 
 inintermitting logical stream. Ma- 
 il Sir Jami s Mackintosh, "His mind 
 lagazine, admirably arranged; every 
 here, and every thing was in its 
 judgments on men, on sects, 
 ftd been often and carefully tested 
 . and had then been committed, 
 proper receptacle, in the most 
 I most accurately constructed mem- 
 f human being ever possessed, It 
 
 been strange indeed, if you had 
 ything that was not to be found in 
 -e storehouse. The article which 
 
 . own proper compartment. In a 
 
 as brought down, unpacked and dis- 
 n.^ admirably expresses, of course in 
 legr if development, and partly as 
 
 a natural stitutioii of mind, the 
 
 [iialitv to beaimed at by the teacher, 
 i with the association of ideas. It 
 from this that the law by which 
 ■ permanently associated bj means 
 , should have a most important place 
 [deration of the teacher. Certain 
 knowledge require the special appli- 
 s law; suchas arithmetical tables, 
 
 para ligms, and all other things that, 
 gical relations, arc to be arbitrarily 
 
 ihe point to be gained in such 
 is to connect these ideas in the mind 
 ytliat one will instantly, and. as it 
 itically, suggest the other. The per- 
 
 sighl and hearing may both be 
 i play in accomplishing this. The 
 uiliMiu doubt, the strongest and the 
 « as Bon truly says, 
 
 tion. reelings 
 associated with 
 
 use of the blackboard and slate, par- 
 lie former; also the importance of 
 iloud from the printed page. (See 
 
 u. EnuCATiON, Memory, Mnemonics, 
 
 ASTRONOMY [< Jr. :„-7 r ,u:;i star, and n,/,.,, , 
 law), the science which treats of the heavenly 
 
 thoroughly virtuous character. This la 
 
 very important application in the in 
 training of the youno and in the eoiiera 
 tion of the mind. Here we are to con 
 various ways in which the law of as 
 operates. (See Faculties, Development 
 
 tion most interesting feature of the intellectual I 
 The ry of the period, and its cultivation in this < 
 
try has shed 
 scientific and 
 mediate result 
 ous as those oi 
 concedi 1 a p 
 
 ASTRONOMY 
 
 upon American short tin 
 alius. The im- own, as 
 
 ch an experience of their 
 iicin to pin-sue the study 
 ess. As soon as they have 
 
 surface of the earth by longiti 
 fixing the boundaries oi count 
 country, of accurately mappi 
 of navigating the ocean, of as 
 nitude and exact figure of the 
 habit, and determining its re 
 verse, certainly should not be 
 
 inarily. astro ny is a science 
 
 materials are observed facts ; 
 many other natural sciences it 
 facts, far from explaining tin 
 peculiar exercise of conceptio 
 reason, in order to inter froi 
 which they obscurely indicate. 
 observe the varying apparent 
 
 sun and moon, the phei ie 
 
 ti les. the progressions, station 
 tions of the planets, etc., we hi 
 ever accurate our observation! 
 a solution of the mysteries for 
 
 the effort. 
 ! prelimi- 
 
 in astroii- 
 
 elia o 
 e.g.t 
 
 to col 
 
 ition ..f their orbi 
 it motions: (.'!) 
 as equator, equii 
 
 ,.1 their 
 . of the 
 
 ;ject. the order of folveSti- 
 icthod. should be at first 
 is: ih because in this way 
 
 In teaching 
 gation -the ai 
 adopte 1. for n 
 we are able to impress upon the mind of the pupil 
 
 el-arer c inception- of fundamental facts, and (2 
 because he will thus form the habits of thought 
 which arc particularly neede I in the -tu.lv of this 
 science. We should in.-ist upon his observing for 
 himself all the more obvious phenomena, and 
 then stating, as fully and accurately as possible, 
 the result of his observations. It is astonishing 
 how many persons go through the world, filling 
 the measure of a lone' life, without casting any- 
 thing but an indifferent, unin. purine,, .,,7,1 un- 
 interested glance at thegloriesof the stellar firma- 
 ment. So it is also with children, before their at- 
 tention is attracted, and their interest aroused, to 
 observe the wonder- of the heavi ns. The teat hi r, 
 therefore should lead his pupil-, by qui sti ming 
 them, to notice some of the most ordinary phe- 
 nomena; a.- the rising and setting oi the sun and 
 tin- moon, the p| n . .. , , ,1, i. ... , ,|„. apparent 
 
 diurnal revoluti t the stare the positions and 
 
 apparent movements oi the larger and more con- 
 spicuous planets among the stars, the ebb and 
 flow of the tides, the solar and lunar eclipses, 
 etc. Finding, from such questioning, that they 
 have really been inattentive to what they might 
 readily have observed, the pupils will strive to see 
 these things for themselves, and will thus, in a 
 
 Job. 
 
 lid lead 1.1- mind to a clear idea of 
 of longitude and latitude on the surface 
 earth, we ask him to locate, that is. to 
 the location of, any point on the surface 
 ■Ie will soon be led to Derceive 
 
 uith. in 
 
 in the 
 
 dcclina- 
 
 part at least, be worked out. however rudely, for 
 
 the student from the data of observation: or lie 
 should be reijuired to work them out himself, 
 after being taught the principles and methods 
 involved. Thus, the teacher may begin with the 
 diameter of the earth, and show how this has 
 
56 
 
 ATHENBUM 
 
 been det< 
 from the 
 aature a 
 suneter i 
 then the 
 
 rmined; then the d 
 
 id use Of |..il..ll;i\: 
 
 the sun from its i 
 Bidereal year of tl 
 
 
 about 133 A. H. It 
 ry. and silso served sis 
 i, specially appointed 
 ruction in poetry and 
 this name is frequent- 
 lie- association or the 
 issociation meets. In 
 is used in designate 
 
 IS.) 
 
 constitute a pari of i 
 and apparatus should Solon.) They are. 
 i in gh ing the instruc- opposition to the 
 
 id Ne 
 
 nri:,. 
 
 hich 
 
 [ellas 
 which 
 
 .,1 1. . x 
 
 si 
 
 millet of education. 
 
 vii. rich and | r. 
 
 learn how to read : 
 1 1 as well as truai 
 
 
 he children of 
 
 . es In lllllsir. 
 
 ipations. If it 
 DStructed, the 
 in in his old 
 in Brsl one, 
 
 ... I ii i- 
 ,who 
 
 science. In tl 
 sphere will pn 
 The rehgioi 
 lie lust sigh) .. 
 Btudent should 
 
 any other scie 
 
 \ ■ will ■■! 
 
 youthful nun 
 the senses. |.i 
 fancy with I 
 power hi i bin 
 
 poems. Homers works were in almost 
 gel I; and.it is said, Alcibiades, on one 
 
 in. boxe 1 Ins t mliei s ears because he did 
 ml a copy of Homer in his school. The 
 I book oi the Iliad, which enumerates the 
 and princes who followed Agamemnon to 
 rojan war, and the allies of the Trojans, 
 ed the outline of the instruction in geog- 
 ,history,and genealogy. The grammatdst 
 aught the children the alphabet, the forma- 
 if Tetters into words, and reading; direct- 
 inn to |mv s | in in I attention t" long and 
 svllaliles. to e. .rivet accentuation, lllld to 
 
 ■nions |„o.inii.iiiiio„. When they had ac 
 I a sufficient knowledge of reading, instruc- 
 
 i.n 1i\-i:iiiIiv i .-In in h.nnl writing) and cal- 
 
 ,'to theAlhenmi, short hand writers. The 
 
 i were drawn by a stylus a sharp-pointed 
 
 n-,,„l,„,„ wax tali •-.ami eopied by 
 
ATLANTA UNIVERSITY ATTENDANCE 57 
 
 the lyre or cithara. Many learned also to play J by a law passed in 1874, it receives an annual 
 
 on tin' flute. The instruction in music was appropriation of $8000 from the State. Its 
 
 difficult, as the Greeks used a very .-. .nipli<-at.-<l library contains about 3000 volumes. In 1S74, 
 
 system of notation, Among the ancient Greeks, its corps of instructors numbered II: and the 
 
 however, music ■- ., had a much more com- whole number of students was 236 : in the pre- 
 
 prehensive significati bracing grammar, paratory department 46 ; in the collegiate, 18 ; 
 
 rhetoric, and poetics. The scl l-house (to StSa- to the theological class. 3; and in the normal 
 
 -:,.,/ ,... had benches for the boys, and a chair or courses, 169. The normal department ha.- sup- 
 pulpit i .. h I i For the teachi i I he teat hers of plied a large number of teachers for the schools 
 
 the ele ntarj schools enjoyed bul little repu- of the State. The president of the institution 
 
 tation in consequence of the small amount of is Edmund A. Ware. A.M. Its annual tuition 
 
 their knowledge and their severity toward their fee is $24 : but all pupils are required to work 
 
 pupils. The children of affluent parents were for the institution at least one hour a day. 
 
 educated in the higher branches of study, as ATLAS is the name applied to a collection of 
 
 well a- ti. lined by i. gulai bo lilj exercises in the maps, first thus used by Mercator in thesixteenth 
 
 t/ymnasia Ul the children were obliged to take century, the figure of Atlas, bearing the globe 
 
 part in the gymnastic exercises, in order that, by a on Ins shoulders, being on the title-page of his 
 
 for their duties a- citizen-, both in peace and war. was one of' the Titan-', who for the crime of at 
 
 At the heal of each gymnasium, wasthegymna- tempting to take heaven by storm was compelled 
 
 .-iarch.wlr.ua-,: | I by the citizens for the term to bear the vault oi the heavens. Somesuppose 
 
 of oneyear.and <vh .not only did not receiyeany thai by this myth is communicated the fact that 
 
 salary, but ha I to pay for the oil which was used a certain king, named Atlas labored to solve the 
 
 for tiie auoiui in at oi th i pupils The eyiima-i- astronomical problem of the -tarry universe. The 
 
 maintain order, di-cipljne. and c|eaulme-s. The was that of .Tedidiah \h.r-c in 1 77a. Vast nuni- 
 
 boys were required to attend at f these in- bers of this work were issued; and Blackwood's 
 
 stitutious for a term of two year- bul they were Magazint remarked, that, it had quite superseded 
 
 allowed to make their own selection. They all other works of the kirn! in this part of the 
 
 practiced in these institutions jumping, running, world. Many new editions of the work were 
 
 climbing, riding on horseback, driving chariots, subsequently published. That of Sidney E. 
 
 wrestling, throwing javelins and quoits, fencing, Morse in 1823 was widely noted ; and of thisan 
 
 and similar exercises. Speci , I attention was L iven edition with cerographie' map- afterward had a 
 
 toswimming, which all Athenian boys had to cerv extensive .-ale down to comparatively recent 
 
 learn. Every gymnasium had a hath which was times. Among the most important and valuable 
 
 closed at sunset, and which strangers, during atlases, apart from scl I geographies, at the 
 
 bathing hours, were forbidden to enter upon present time, may he mentioned Stieler's Hand- 
 
 ivnaltv of death. The private tutor -,./„,,,., i Atlas, issued from Justus Perthes's world- 
 
 of an Athenian family was generally a trust- renowned cartographical establishment a1 Gotha, 
 
 worthy slave, to whosecare children were com- under the editorial supervision of A. Petermann 
 
 mitted on attaining their sixth or seventh year, (completed in 1875 . These maps are noted for 
 
 lie wet with them to a„d from the scl 1 and their minute accuracy Blacksand Johnston's 
 
 gymnasium, and was rather their custodian than Atlases, published in Kirjland, atv ot ,iv:,i merit 
 
 their teacher. The lattei ■■ -. o, instructed and value. Von Spruner's Historico-Geogrqph- 
 
 them in grs nar mii-ie and other branches of i,-,,l . !//,/.-. and Menkes Orbit Antiqui Descriptio, 
 
 learning. The education of girls was almost ex- also deserve to he mentioned. Among astronom- 
 
 clusively left to their moth ax. and was generally ical atlases, those of R. A. Procter arc the most 
 
 much neglected. Orphan children, whose parents elaborate and correct. 
 
 had fallen in battle, were carefully educated in ATTENDANCE, School. This is an iin- 
 
 -SeeSi IIM1I.T. '-• -,/„e/,/. ,/,;■ /',,,/„ „„„/.. vol I ;' effectiveness of anv svsten'i of public education. 
 
 Wachsmuth, Helienisck, [UerthumsJeunde, vol, as showing what proportion' of the community 
 
 ii.; It. I. Schmidt, History of Education (N. V.. participates in its ben, tit-. Educational statistics 
 
 L842); Grvie, Histm-y of Greece,\ol.vm.(N.Y., are too imperfect and t leficient in uniformity 
 
 1859.) to render anv comparison Of different states and 
 
 ATLANTA U NIV ERSITY, at Atlanta, countries in this respect entirely reliable. The 
 
 Ga., was organized in 1869, is non-sectarian, and average attendance, accurately nputed, as 
 
 offers the advantages of education to either sex. compare 1 with the entire school population, can 
 without regard to race, color, or nationalitv. alone show in what derive the people of anv state 
 It was established in accordance with a plan or country participate ,',, the advantages of the 
 formed early in the history of the work of the education provided by the government, and, con- 
 American Missionary Association in the South, sequently, the need of measures designed to in- 
 the means being furnished by the Freedmen's duce or enforce school attendance. I he annual 
 Bureau and the state of Georgia, as well as by average attendance is usually found by adding 
 the Association. The value of its grounds, together the whole number of pupils present at 
 buildings, etc.. is estimated at $100,000; and I each session during the year, and dividing the 
 
58 
 
 ATTENDANCE 
 
 sum by the number of sessions. Of course, this 
 does not afford an Herniate basis for comparison 
 where the schools are kept open during different 
 periods of the year: since a school which has 
 been kept open 'all the year would, with the same 
 number of pupils, show no larger average attend- 
 ance than one kept open only one half the year. 
 To rectify this, the aggregate number of pupils 
 in attendance at all the sessions is often divided 
 by a fixed number, without regard to the actual 
 number of sessions. This method is sometime* 
 legally enjoined for the purpose of tin equitable 
 distribution of the school moneys. Obviously, 
 both the actual average and statute average are 
 needed to ascertain the true effectiveness of a 
 system of schools. The average attendance com- 
 pared with the " average number belonging'' is 
 useful as showing the temporary regularity or 
 irregularity of attendance, arising from various 
 local or incidental causes. (See Absenteeism.) 
 It is generally conceded that in the United States 
 — particularly in the Northern and Western 
 States — there are but few native children who 
 do not attend school some portion of the year, 
 or who have never attended any school during 
 their lives. It is chiefly among the foreign pop- 
 ulation, that the opportunities for school attend- 
 ance are neglected. 
 
 Table of School Attendance. 
 
 ton (see fie, 
 for 1874), 
 sachusetts, 
 
 Alabama 
 Arkansas . 
 California.. . . 
 Connecticut . 
 Delaware . 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Kansas . . 
 Kentucky . 
 Louisiana . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota . 
 Mississippi . . . 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshi 
 New Jersey . 
 New York'... 
 North Carotin 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 ivnn 1 i v a ni 
 Rhode Island 
 South Carolini 
 'l ennes see 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont .... 
 Virginia 
 Weal Virginia 
 Wisconsin.. . . 
 
 31.7 
 30.9 
 
 To.;, 
 74.fi 
 72.1 
 6S.1 
 
 ? 
 2G.5 
 
 6 i.i 
 
 49.2 
 
 100 
 
 47.5 
 44.8 
 3s.f) 
 26.8 
 15.9 
 
 57.8 
 63.7 
 62.2 
 
 !)S.2 
 59.9 
 i:s.:: 
 51.G 
 
 ,1 age. 
 
 of ;, and 1 a enrolled in the .», hool, in 1>7L'— 3 
 was, in Alabama, .'is : Delaware, 59; Florida, 
 42 ; Maine. 90 ; Maryland. (IT ; Mississippi, 70 ; 
 Missouri, 88 ; North Carolina, :"il ; South Caro- 
 lina. 4ti : Pdiode Island. !>l : Tennessee, 50; 
 Texas, 56 ; Virginia, 5] : West Virginia, (17. 
 
 In England and AVales, the average attendance 
 at the public schools, in 1873, was about 28 per 
 cent of the population of school age (between 
 3 and 13); and about 69 per cent of the total 
 enrollment; and, consequently, the enrollment 
 was about 41 per cent of the school population. 
 Under the compulsory education act in force in 
 that country, the school attendance had con- 
 siderably increased. (See England.) A careful 
 comparison of the census returns of different 
 countries shows that, on the average, the children 
 between the ages of 6 and 12 constitute about 
 17 per cent of the entire population. Comparing 
 this rate with the following percentages of school 
 attendance as compared with population, we may 
 ascertain approximatively the relative rate of 
 attendance in each country. In Saxony the 
 school attendance is about 20 per cent ; in Prus- 
 sia, 15 per cent; in Norway, 14 per cent; in 
 the Netherlands, 13; per cent; in Denmark, 13 
 icr cent ; in Scotland and Protestant Switzer- 
 
 P< 
 
 land, 
 Austrin 
 Ireland 
 in Era: 
 cent : ii 
 in Spaii 
 Mr. I 
 Schooli 
 remark- 
 
 in Belgium, 1 1 per cent ; in 
 
 W] 
 
 The above table is chiefly based on returns 
 rule to the Bureau of Education at Washing- 
 
 tendance than in many of the Sta1 
 of them the principal Northern ai 
 States — yet, so far as concerns our he 
 great mass of the population, we stall 
 level with some of the most backwan 
 
 per cent ; 
 . lj per 
 . 1 to US; 
 
 . I to TOO. 
 the Free 
 
 ui of the 
 it of Kng- 
 ore select 
 igularat- 
 
ATTENDANCE 
 
 slave states. I do not forget that our average 
 attendance is estimated upon a longer school year 
 than that in most of the states, but against this 
 
 fact may be set the later scl 1 age in the United 
 
 States: ami where allowance is made for every 
 difference which would tell in om favor, there 
 can be but one conclusion — that, in the work of 
 getting the masses into school, we are still far 
 behind a country in which absenteeism and irreg- 
 ularity of attendance are admitted, on all hands, 
 to be the must crying evils under which their 
 system labors." 
 
 ' There is considerable ilifferenee in the school 
 attendance in cities and in rural districts, greatly 
 m favor ,,f the former, owing to the difference in 
 
 ATTENTION 
 
 ATTENTION (from the Latin iendere, to 
 rain, implying a strained effort of the mind) is 
 
 subje 
 
 .through 
 s it were, 
 
 ml study 
 
 rural labors of their homes: and m the winter 
 they are often prevented from attending school 
 by the long distance, which they have to travel. 
 frequently over bad roads, in order to reach the 
 
 school. The following exhibits the attendance in 
 some of the large cities of the Union : 
 
 1 Per cent of 
 Per cent of I attendance 
 attendance 
 on populat. enrollment 
 
 li iltimore 
 
 Boston 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 Chicago 
 
 ( !incinnati 
 Cleveland . . . 
 
 Detroit 
 
 Jersey City . . 
 
 Newark 
 
 New York .. 
 
 Philadel a 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 Sin Francisco 
 
 The only 
 parison of 1 
 places is eiti 
 school population between certain ages. The 
 
 enrollment is not to be depended upon, 1 ause 
 
 it is not kept the same way in different places. 
 In some, it is greatly increased by including all 
 the children enrolled in any of the schools during 
 the year, many pupils being thus counted several 
 times. 
 
 The following table will permit a comparison 
 between the American and English cities in re- 
 spect to school attendance : 
 
 of any given class of facts or ideas, the student 
 learns to evolve new truths, or analytical!) to ex- 
 plain the intricacies of abstruse problem,-. When 
 the attention has become obedient to the will, 
 this branch of mental training is complete : and. 
 therefore, the aim of the educator should be to 
 instill habits of controlling the attention, and 
 rigidly preventing those of desultory, wayward 
 application, or listlessness This power of con- 
 tinuous attention is. without doubt, the most 
 valuable resull of intellectual training. To pro- 
 duce this result, ii is of the first importance to 
 interest the pupil, especially in the earlier stages 
 of instruction. Young minds have an intense 
 desire to know— not words merely, but tilings. 
 They have a strong craving for new ideas, and 
 
 117.4 
 
 le basis for a com- 
 
 lance of different 
 oiiulation or the 
 
 things with 
 
 ich may be 
 or the pur- 
 ine object, 
 ile. so as to 
 
 
 Date of 
 
 Number 
 enrolled 
 
 Per cent of 
 attendance 
 
 Liverpool. . . 
 
 Leeds 
 
 Bristol .... 
 
 Feb. 1st:. 
 Feb. L875 
 Feb. 1875 
 
 57,698 
 
 44.4:is 
 25,182 
 
 6L8 
 
 7(1.7 
 
 Newcastle j 
 onTyne \ 
 
 Tiiniiineliaiii 
 M he ster.. 
 
 Jan. 1875 
 
 17.444 
 
 69.6 
 
 Jnne 1875 
 Feb. 1675 
 
 51,334 
 
 67.6 
 
 117.1 
 
 The attention should not be exercised for 
 long periods of time. When the teacher per- 
 ceives that it is flagging, it is best to stop the 
 exercise: for all that is done while the child's 
 attention is relaxed, is worse than fruitless. 
 It is from an inattention to this truth that 
 children are often made incurably listless in 
 school. They are set at exercises which awaken 
 no interest in their minds, ami. consequently, ac- 
 quire ineradicable habits of siiju-i t'a lal. careless 
 attention. In all the subsequent .-ludie- ot the 
 pupil.it is essential that his interest be awakened 
 
 inch 
 
 d.l. 
 
 It will be thus seen that the average attendance. 
 
 as compared with the number enrolled, is better 
 in this country than in England. 
 
 In estimating the cttii iency of school systems. 
 the period of attendance is a very important ele- 
 ment to be considered. (See School Age, and 
 School Year.) 
 
 will, as a matter of duty, apply his mind to the 
 studies prescribed for him : ami this very appli- 
 cation, if earnest and diligent, will soon excite 
 the deepest interest in the subjects of study. 
 
 The dependence of memory upon attention is 
 well known to all who have observed, however 
 superficially, the operations of the mind: and the 
 
CO 
 
 AL'CCSTAXA COU.KCK 
 
 power to recall at will our mental impressic 
 
 and acquisitions is jx-ihaps directly in proporti 
 to the attention with which the association- hii 
 ing them together were formed. When tin 
 are feeble, loose, accidental, and formed wi 
 little volition, the mind will have but an imp 
 feci control of its thoughts, and will thus 
 wanting in the chief quality of a sound intell 
 tual character. 
 
 Attention requires a vigorous 
 brain, and. therefore, is, more or 
 
 upon the physical idition. 
 
 been exhausted by labor, either 
 
 possible; and the effort to give it is injurious, 
 because it induces still farther nervous pros- 
 tration. Neither should deep attention be 
 exerted or attempted immediately after a beartj 
 meal. The nervous energy is then directed to the 
 digestive functions, which active cerebration will 
 greatly disturb. Hence, the diet of a student 
 should be light, but nutritious. The brain should 
 also be supplied with thoroughly oxygenated 
 blood. No one can think well in an impure at- 
 mosphere, especially if it is contaminated by the 
 breathing of many persons. In this way, children 
 
 of the 
 dependent 
 1 this has 
 y or men- 
 is scarcely 
 
 AUGUSTINE 
 
 teachers and theologians, was born Nov. 13., 354. 
 at Tagaste. in Numidia.thc modern Algeria. His 
 father, Patricius, was a pagan; his mother, Mon- 
 ica, a fervid christian. He was sent' by bis 
 father to the famous school of Madaura, and 
 after the death of his father continued his studies 
 at Carthage. His life at this time was very licen- 
 tious; but he never forgot the pious instructions 
 which his mother had given him, nor the devo- 
 tional exercises to w hieh she had accustomed him. 
 Dissatisfied with the religious systems of the an- 
 cient Creeks and Romans, as 'well as with the 
 Jewish and Christian scriptures, he tried to find 
 rest for his mind in the Maniehean system. At 
 Rome, to which he went at the age. of 29, he 
 achieved great reputation as a teacher of elo- 
 quence. Six months later, he was called to Milan 
 as ateacher of rhetoric. Bis intercourse with Saint 
 Ambrose. w ho was then bishop of Milan, and the 
 
 oftei 
 
 is loss of health. They are 
 
 ts too small for the number 
 
 give close and c; 
 
 
 of instruction. 
 
 II, 
 
 ability, and the 
 
 
 be followed by 
 
 disas 
 
 spect has the 
 
 aph 
 
 in a sound bo 1\ 
 
 a 
 
 In 
 
 at to do it 
 
 rous results 
 
 ■ism, ■■ A sound mind 
 
 in, re forcible application 
 than to the exercise of attention. For what 
 contrast can be stronger than that presented by 
 the poor wretch whom disease has bereft of every 
 mental state but wandering thoughts or absolute 
 vacuity, and the man of sound health and a well- 
 trained mind, who is ready at will to concentrate 
 all his intellectual energies upon a given subject, 
 and to keep them steadily fixed upon it until the 
 object of his investigations has been attained! 
 
 (See Intellect, u. Km ■ ltiok.) 
 
 AUGUST ANA COLLEGE was founded a! 
 Paxton, 111., in 1863, by the Swedish Augustana 
 Synod of the Evangelical Lutheran Church. It 
 was removed to Hoik Island, 111., iii 1875, where 
 it has buildings. grounds, and apparatus estimated 
 
 at $50,000 in value. It has a library of 7 1 
 
 volumes, a faculty of seven professors and two 
 tutor-, and 1 1(1 student: 
 collegiate department, 
 college is to afford to yo 
 
 ,f who 
 
 cation at 
 per annuo 
 
 ow est pi 
 
 ige. Aft 
 
 ■leetedhl 
 
 .''sneee'-,;' 
 
 h of Vali 
 
 .an.lmnt 
 
 io till his 
 
 writer, s 
 
 oon fill.-. 
 
 and his 
 
 influence 
 the theo 
 
 ogica] s.l 
 
 ■al doe- 
 of the 
 Christian world proved to be greater than that 
 Of anyone who had preceded linn- 
 
 The most famous of all the numerous works of 
 \ noiist in,-, the Ctiiifi-ssiiiiHi, has also a great edu- 
 cational interest, as it contains the reflections of 
 one of the most distinguished scholars of the 
 I 'hristian church on his own education. He de- 
 monstrates, in the clearest light, the strong and 
 imperishable influence of maternal education 
 upon the whole after life of man : and from his 
 touching account of the tierce conflict between 
 the highest intellectual and philosop' ' 
 
 dlh 
 
 'ertullian in advocati 
 iagan authors from 
 'hristians. Especially i 
 f the •■ impious fables 
 
 professed 
 study of 
 i followed 
 lusion of 
 if young 
 e reading 
 
 gations. The l!ev. T. X. I lasselquist. I >.!>.. is the 
 
 president. (1876.) 
 
 AUGUSTINE, Saint (Lat. Aurelius Au- 
 gustinus), a celebrated doctor of the Latin 
 church, and one of the greatest of (hristian 
 
 many defenders. (See 
 
 lugustine have 
 
 I 'lim-l I \\ ( 'l.\ssles.l 
 
 By the establishment of a training institution for 
 candidates for the priesthood, \ugustine laid the 
 foundation of episcopal seminaries, and gave a 
 
AUSTIN COLLEGE 
 
 powerful impulse to the diffusion of theological 
 science among the clergy. He refused to ordain 
 any one as a pries! who had not been edu- 
 cated in his seminary. A number of his pupils 
 established similar institutions in their diocese.-.; 
 and- when the church of Jsorth Africa was dev- 
 astated by the incursions of the Vandal-, the 
 African bishop.-, established seminaries in manj 
 of the places where they found .1 1 sfuge. 
 Byhis work l> cateckizandis rudibus, Augustine 
 
 became the fatherof Christian catecl - Thi 
 
 work was compiled in compliance with the ap- 
 plication of a deacon of Carthage, by the name 
 
 AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES 
 
 til 
 
 palians form the dominant body as regards num- 
 ber. Next to these, are the Roman Catholics, 
 who constitute about 25 per cut of the total 
 
 population. The Methodists rank third. All 
 
 d and controlled bythestate.bu 
 to schools established by othe 
 they submit to certain regula 
 
 Of 
 
 QDulsorv. With regar 
 
 scholar, and I) ■ m 
 as the best teaehe 
 
 character. --See S 
 gogik, II. 59, sq.; 
 
 vol. 1.; The marks of St. Augustine, edited by 
 M. Dods (London, isT4— 6). Of the earlier 
 editions of his works, that by the Benedictines, 
 in 11 vols. (Paris. L679— 1700) is considered the 
 best. 
 
 AUSTIN COLLEGE, at Huntsville, Texas, 
 
 was founded in 1849, by Presbyterians. Its 
 
 f rounds, buildings, and apparatus are valued at 
 60,000. It has a library of 3000 volumes, and 
 a preparatory and classical department. The 
 number of students is about 90. The Kev. S. 
 M. Luckett, A. M., is the president. The annual 
 tuition fee is from $30 to Sail. 
 
 AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES. This 
 name is now commonly used to designate the 
 English colonies on the continent of Australia. as 
 well as the neighboring islands of Tasmania and 
 New Zealand. The following exhibits the area 
 and population of each of these colonies : 
 
 New South Wales 308,560 sq. m. 584,278 inhalj. 
 
 Victoria 88,451 " 807,756 " 
 
 Smith Australia . . . 3*0,602 " 204, ss:! " 
 
 Queensland Mix, 259 " ltio.iino - 
 
 West Australia .... 975,824 " 26,209 " 
 
 Northern Territory 526,531 " 200 
 
 Tasmania.... 26,215 " 105,000 " 
 
 New Zealand 106,259 " 299,500 " 
 
 Total ::, i>7T, 7(11 sq. m. 2,ls7,s2i; inliali. 
 
 55,000 
 15,500 ' 
 
 N»«ve B j^^ahun, 
 
 (hand Total 2,288,326 inhab. 
 
 The progress of most of these colonies, especial- 
 ly that of New South Wales, Victoria, and South 
 Australia, has been very rapid: and it maybe 
 safely inferred from their vast resources, as well 
 as from their rapid progress in the past, that 
 these colonies will, ere long, bold a prominent 
 place among the civilized countrii of the world. 
 Their national language isthe English. There is 
 no state church as in England, but the Episco- 
 
 iv and Melbourne, the former in 
 students, the latter with 122. A 
 v was more recently established at 
 'Zealand, and a fourth, in I ST.",. at 
 monthly periodical, devoted to 
 
 The Australian Handbook mid Almanaciat 
 L876 gives the following educational facts and 
 statistics for tin- several countries: 
 
 New South Wales. — The number of schools is 
 returned at 1 508, with 233 I teachers of both sexes, 
 and I 10,287 schokre.of whom 57,917areboys,and 
 52,370 girls. Under the council of education, 
 
 id 1 to the 
 
 trol of the 
 tools. The 
 
 5sr»" 
 
 St. Paul's 
 
 College 1. 
 
 and Dumb 
 of these ( 
 6154,220 ' 
 and 667,37 
 
 the Deaf 
 
 e support 
 ■ sum of 
 
 .eminent, 
 fees and 
 
 voluntary contributions. The number of Sunday 
 schools was 1,023, with an average attendance of 
 51,478, and 6,497 teachers. 
 
 Victoria. — Of day schools, including state 
 schools, private educational establishments, col- 
 leges, and grammar schools, there were. March. 
 31., 1ST:!, 1936, with an attendance of 160,743 
 scholars and 4,257 teachers. The common schools 
 numbered 1.04S. with 2.41 (i teachers, 73,s'J(i boys, 
 and 62,136 girls. The local receipts for the 
 maintenance of the schools, arising from tecs and 
 
 ikiim a total of OK 
 
 ate schools 
 
rollr, 
 
 Presl 
 
 The 
 and i 
 of sti 
 
 62 AUSTRALASIAN COLONIES Ai 
 
 numbered 881, with 11.024 male anil 13.595 educational purposes 
 female >elic >lars. and 52s male and 12 .'Hi female 
 teachers. The number of grammar schools and 
 
 if which 2 weiv Episcopalian, 3 
 
 Methodist, and 1 Roman Catholic. 
 
 ilier of masters in these colleges 
 
 chools was 77. the total number 
 
 52. Cnder the new educational 
 act, the instruction in the state schools is free, 
 secular, and compulsory. The governing power 
 is in the hands of a minister of education, assis- 
 ted by a secretary. Each school is under period- 
 ical inspection. The teachers are required to pass 
 an examination, and are paid byfixed salaries: but 
 theyalsn receive the fees. if the scholars. and have 
 a further allowance aecordiii". to tin- progress 
 made by the scholars under their charge. The 
 number of -Sunday schools was 1,381; Episeopa- 
 
 yterian 308, Wesleyan 324, I'rini- 
 
 : 7.:. Congregationalist 54. Bap- 
 Catholic 171; with 111,540 schol- 
 ars and 1 1 315 teachers. 
 
 South Australia. — The central board of 
 Education consists of 7 members; the officers 
 are .'! inspectors and a .secretary. The number 
 of licensed schools open at the close of 1874 was 
 320, with 17,426 enrolled pupils, and 315 
 teachers. 
 
 •U.l. - The legislative council ill 
 
 educational purposes in 1874 was £72,0110, the 
 local subscriptions were £3,116. The property 
 vested in the board was valued at £83,358. 
 
 Man 
 
 tist 
 
 Wei 
 
 elans 
 
 and assisted scl Is. The former are maintained 
 
 wholly at the cost of the colony, the latter are 
 private. 1 nit may receive a capitation grant on 
 submitting to government inspection for secular 
 
 results, and to the observance of a strict conscience 
 the tour hours of secular instruc- 
 I > v the Act. The elementary schools 
 are under the control and supervision of a central 
 board appointed by the governor, and the local 
 district boards electa I by the electors. Attendance 
 
 at scl I ni.iv be enforced My the local boards. 
 
 Dn the elementary schools, one hour a day is de- 
 voted, under the provisions of a conscience clause, 
 to reading the Bible or other religious books 
 approved by the board; but no catechism or 
 religious formulary of any kind can be u ed and 
 the Bible must be read, if at all, without note 
 or comment. In 1874, the number of national 
 and assisted schools was 85, with an average 
 attendance, of over 3,000. There is a Church of 
 England collegiate school in Perth, under the 
 patronage of the bishop. 
 
 (Jitcfiislmiil. — Education is free. The prop- 
 erty of the schools, and the land granted for 
 school purposes, are vested in a board of educa- 
 tion. Aid is granted to schools not established 
 by the board, on complying with certain regula- 
 tions. The state also assists in the establi.-l nt 
 
 of grammar schools, whenever a district raises a 
 sum for this purpose by subscription. In 1874, 
 there were 20!! primal \ scl Is. with 590 teach- 
 ers, and 29,012 scholars. There were also 62 
 private schools, with IIS teachers and 2,123 
 scholars. The parliamentary appropriation for 
 
 1874, 147. average attendance 7. '.170, scholars 
 enrolled 12,158, teachers 108 male and 1 Hi female, 
 besides 39 pupil teachers and paid monitors. 
 There are four schools of a higher grade. The 
 number of Sunday schools is 112, with 1,112 
 teachers and 1.0,0] 1 scholars. 
 
 In \. w Zealand, each province has its own 
 laws and regulations. To both national and de- 
 nominational schools, in Mime cases, state aid is 
 given ; in others, it is limited to national schools. 
 Dunedin has a university. In 1871, out of chil- 
 dren from 5 to 15 years of age, 59 in every 
 hundred could read and write, and 72 were at- 
 
 tending school. The increase in attendance fi 
 
 L872 to 1874 was very large. The number of 
 common schools, in L874, was 19 1. of colleges 
 and grammar schools I. and of private schools 
 182; total 680, having an attendance of 41,027 
 scholars, of whom 21,774 were males, and 19,253 
 females Of the entire attendance. 33,790 be- 
 longed to the common schools; 498, to the col- 
 leges and grammar schools; and 6,739, to private 
 schools. Besides these, there were 47 native 
 schools, with 68 teachers and 1.211 scholars. 
 
 AUSTRIA (Germ. Oesterreich or Oestreieh, 
 eastern empire), officially designated since 1868 
 as the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, has an 
 area of 240,381 sq. m., and a population, ac- 
 cording to the last census, in 1869. of 35.904,435. 
 The empire now consists of two main divisions, 
 Austria proper and Hungary, each of which has 
 the legislative and administrative control of its 
 own educational affairs. In this article we shall 
 treat only of Austria proper, called also Cis- 
 leifhania, because the small river Leitha con- 
 stitutes part of the frontier between it and Hun- 
 gary. For the rest, see Hungary. 
 
 Austria proper, or Oisleithania, consists of 
 14 provinces with an aggregate area of 1 1 5,925 
 sq. m.,and a population numbering, according to 
 the census of 1869, 20,217,531, and estimated at 
 the close of 1874 at 21,169,341. The provinces 
 formerly were either independent, or belonged to 
 different states, and they still are inhabited by 
 people of various nationalities. An official cen- 
 sus of the nationalities has not been taken since 
 1850 ; but their comparative strength is well 
 known, and the estimates made by writers on 
 this subject substantially agree. 'I he Ccrmans 
 number about 7,109,000, or 35,16 per cent; the 
 Czechs and Slovacks, 4,719,000, or 23,34 per 
 cent ; the Poles, 2,444,000,or 12.09 per cent ; the 
 Ruthenians, 2,585,000, or 12,80 per cent; the 
 Slovens or Winds. 1.196.200. or 5,92 per 
 cent; the Croats or Serbs. 522.400. or 2.5s per 
 cent : the Magyars. 1 7.700, or 0.09 percent : the 
 Italian.-. 588, i. or 2,91 percent ; the Rouma- 
 nians, 207.900, or 1,02 per cent; the Jews, 
 820,000, or 4,05 per cent. Two of the provinces. 
 
A ustria 
 
 Austria 
 
 Salzburg, are wholly Ger- 
 mans have a majority in 
 
 three or four teachers, who shi luldgive instruction 
 in the Latin language, geography, history, com- 
 
 csM Mi~lnne.,t. at iIlc seat 
 
 
 , was also 
 
 rlier. At- 
 
 nposeil upon 
 
 ami euar.lian.- who should tail to 
 
 ildren to school. All teachers were b 
 the text-books which the governi 
 
 'I'hesel i law «; lf . .-lii.-th the mil 
 
 population ; the Jews 
 Sox Cveks 2,27, tin 
 
 fori 
 
 eks ill. 
 
 lercent) and the United 
 :ent). The Koinan ( !ath- 
 lajority in every province, 
 and in every nationality. 
 
 i of Passim. < loun 
 >ress. In accordanci 
 cil of state propose 
 
 Un 
 
 Armenians (I 
 
 olic Church ; 
 
 except the I 
 
 excepl the Roumanian. 
 
 Until the government of Maria The 
 education was in a very backward stal 
 as 1770, thirty years after the accesi 
 empress to the throne, only 'J 1 p, 
 the children from the 5th to the li 
 age attended the public schools of . 
 Lower Austria, only L6 per cent: in 5 
 4 per cent. The large majority of tl 
 
 especially in tin untry, grew up w 
 
 instruction. The firsl impulse to the tl 
 
 ganizationof a publicscho 
 
 a memorial which the laV 
 
 Firniian.aililresseil to the i 
 
 with his suggestions, the a 
 
 the establishment of two 
 
 mittees tor the provinces of Upper ami Lower 
 
 Austria for the purpose of improving the methods 
 
 of teaching ami the administration of the schools. 
 
 committee was established May 19., 1770. tine 
 of the first acts of the committee was the estab- 
 lishmentof a model school at Vienna, in January, 
 1771 , ami of a model school fund. The influence 
 of these reforms was so satisfactory, that the 
 establishment of school committees, school funds, 
 and model schools in all the other provinces, 
 was either carried into effect, or at least begun. 
 The establishment of a court committee on stud- 
 ies (Studienhofamvmission), February 12., 1774, 
 which was to have the chief control of' all the edu- 
 cational affairs of the empire, was another re- 
 form of great importance. In December, 1774, 
 the first comprehensive school law was published. 
 It provided for the establishment, in connection 
 with every parish church, of a common trivial 
 school, in which religion. Ih'hlo hi-toty. ivadim.'. 
 writing, and the elements of arithmetic. >liould be 
 taught; for the establishment in each circle of at 
 least one principal-school (//icy/si 7/ »/'•>, with 
 
 reformatory schemes. He cut 
 
 sory laws the education of all 
 
 12 years of 
 school census t 
 churches were l 
 lishment of a 
 church which v 
 
 and. in 1 1 
 iken. 
 
 •ws. also, were ai first authorized, but si 
 anl commanded, to establish schools for ( 
 ion of their youth. Great prominence v 
 
 given, even 111 ] 
 ing of the (it 
 which was an 
 
 ing, mechanical work, am 
 mmended. Corporal pun 
 
 A ust i 
 
 prov 
 
 schools in common wit 
 reign of the emperor 
 tions were organized, 
 these associations were 
 boards of education. 
 studies [Studienrevisio 
 formed in 1795, under 
 
 pared a new 
 which was pi 
 long time tin: 
 Austria. Tl 
 associations ( 
 greatly restri 
 oftheCathol 
 
 ishment was limited 
 
 was to be provided 
 
 nentary schools. In 
 ircles into which the 
 ded, school commis- 
 
 dSmT During 1 the 
 
 
 lelegates chosen by 
 ted to the provincial 
 
 visory committee on 
 
 nperor Francis, pre- 
 
 r the public schools. 
 5, and formed for a 
 
 achersand teachers' 
 
64 
 
 which made attendance at the review course of 
 instruction compulsory until the close of the 
 15th year of age or the cud of apprenticeship. 
 In 1828, the government began to publish statis- 
 tical accounts of the progress of public educa- 
 tion, which, as appears from these accounts, con- 
 tinued to be steady in all the provinces of the 
 empire. A peculiar feature in the educational 
 history of Austria, at that time, was the more 
 general introduction of the vernacular languages 
 of the various nationalities into the public 
 schools, in place of the German, which thus far 
 had been too predominantly used even in some 
 districts not German. Among the first re- 
 sults of the revolution of 1S4H, which led 
 to the abdication of the emperor Ferdinand I., 
 and the accession of the emperor Francis. I oscph I.. 
 <trv of public 
 
 was the establishment of i 
 instruction, which in the same y ar published an 
 outline of the proposed reorganization of all the 
 Austrian schools. This outline established several 
 important principles: 11) The maintenance of a 
 public school was made obligatory for the com- 
 munities; (2) Instruction was everywhere to be 
 given in the mother- tongue of the pupils; and 
 (3) For the candidates of teachers who formerly 
 had received only a six months' instruction, a 
 special course of two or three years was arranged. 
 \\ liicli was gradually to be developed into a teach- 
 ers' seminary, fn 1849, Count Leo Thun was 
 
 schools). The subjects to be taught in the 
 former are religion, language, arithmetic, writing, 
 geometrical forms, the elements of natural science 
 and history, singing, and gymnastic exercises. 
 According to the number of teachers allowed. 
 it may have from one to seven classes. In the 
 Burgerschvle, moreover, composition, natural 
 science, geometry, book-keeping, and drawing are 
 taught. Schools of the latter class have, when com 
 plete, 8 classes, or if connected with a I r olkssckule 
 of 5 classes, only 3 classes. The communities 
 must establish a school whenever, in the circuit 
 of one hour's walk, 40 children are found who 
 attend a school at least half a German mile 
 distant. A second teacher is allowed when the 
 number of children exceeds 80; and another 
 for e\eiy additional HO. The school age lasts 
 from the <ith to the 14th year. There are special 
 school boards for the communities, districts, and 
 provinces. The number of Burgerschiden and 
 VoUcsschvlen in 1871, was L4.769, of which 6560 
 were German, 5746 Slavic. L080 Italian. 24 
 Eoumanic. 5 Magyar. 3 t J reck, and 1352 mixed. 
 The number of male teachers was 20,904; of 
 female teachers, 3,445. The attendance at school 
 was 941,497 boys and 878,193 girls. In two 
 provinces, the Tyrol and \bna\ in. the number of 
 children attending school exceeded that of the 
 
 ..nil 
 
 effect some 
 ne, and orga 
 
 partly of experienced educators who received the 
 title of school councilor (Sr/iulra/h), and partly 
 of administrative officers. But the chief aim of 
 this minister was the establishment of a far-reach- 
 ing control of the I 'atholic Church over the public 
 school system. Theconcordat between Austria and 
 the I'ope. which was concluded in August. Is.'i.'i, 
 provides that the entire instruction of the Cath- 
 olic youth, both in public and private schools, 
 must 1«- in accordance with the ( 'atholic religion; 
 that all the teachers in the Catholic schools are 
 placed under the superintendence of the church, 
 and that the bishops will propose to the govern- 
 ment fit persons for the office of school superin- 
 tendents. The disastrous issue of the war against 
 France and Italy led to the introduction of 
 several sweeping reforms, and the establishment 
 of a national representation, or Reichsraih, in 
 which the Liberal party impetuously demanded 
 the emancipation of the public schools from the 
 control of the church, and the abolition of the 
 concordat. The ministry of instruction, which 
 
 was looked it] by the Liberals its a tool of the 
 
 church was totally abolished: but the govern- 
 ment showed great reluctance in yielding to other 
 demands of the Liberals. A new organization 
 of the public school system was provided for by 
 the law of May 1 1.. L869. It substitutes for the 
 former Haupt- und Trivialschulen high and 
 common schools) a division into Vulkssrhtili-ii 
 I pie's schools' and I It* iy,;<r/, ulrit (citizens' 
 
 between 50 and 55; in < ■alieia. 20; in I lalinatia. 1 5; 
 and in the Hukovina, only I - percent The middle 
 schools, which prepare boys for the higher studies. 
 are either gymnasia, realsc!tools,OT n algymnasia. 
 The gymnasia prepare their pupils for the uni- 
 versities, the realschools for the higher technical 
 schools, and the realgymnasia for both. In 1870, 
 there were 97 gymnasia with 27,287 pupils. 24 
 realgymnasia with 3.210, and 50 realsuhools with 
 ]3,22!l pupils. Of univci-sitics there are 7: those of 
 Vienna, Gratz, Innspruck. Prague, Cracow, Lem- 
 berg. and I 'zernowitz. They all contain, like the 
 Herman universities. -I faculties, except Lemberg 
 and ( 'zernowitz. which have only 3. The number 
 of students, in the winter semester of 1874 — 5, 
 was. at Vienna 4,223, at Gratz 930,at Innspruck 
 633, al Prague 2,011, at Lemberg upwards of 
 1100, and at Cracow upwards of L,000. There 
 are seven technical high schools: 2 at Prague 
 ( 1 < ierman and 1 < izechic), and 1 each at Vienna. 
 Gratz, Brunn, Lemberg, Cracow, and, in all, aboul 
 270 professors and 3,000 pupils. Male teachers 
 seminaries were first established in accordance 
 with the new law of L869, in L870. Of these, 
 there were, in 1873. 40. with L45 principal and 
 207 assistant teachers, and 2.111 pupil.-, of whom 
 1,093 wee Germans, 530 Czech-. 215 Poles, 93 
 Ruthenians, 128 Croats or Servians, 95 Italians. 
 
 and 15 Roumanians. For the educati i femali 
 
 teachers, there are 21 seminaries, with L05 princi- 
 pal and 111 assistant teachers, and 1,667 pupils. 
 The number of special schools is very large, 
 embracing theological, medical, and industrial 
 s,ho..|s. schools for navigation, mining, agricul- 
 
AUTHORITY 
 
 ture, forestry* and the fine arts, together with 
 
 military institutions, institutions for the deaf ami 
 dumb, and the blind, orphan asylums, infant in- 
 stitutions (creches). 
 
 The most important educational periodicals 
 are -De)' Oesterreichisr/n- ,sW/»/We i.-ince 1.-51 1 
 and Zeitsckrift filr Sstreichisdlie Gymnasien 
 (since 1850). 
 
 A full .account of the history and statistics 
 of public education in Austria is given by Dr. 
 Ficker, in Soiimid's PMagog. Encyclopadie, vol. 
 v. p. 242—566. Sec also Helfert, System der 
 oslreich. Vblksschtde (Prague, 1861), a collection 
 of all the laws relating to the public school 
 system; Sciiiumkr. S/ul'isti/,- <(<-r L-hmiisttiltrn. 
 des Gstreidh. Kaiserstaates von L851 — 1857, 
 (Vienna, 1858). The latest official statistics 
 are annually published in the Shilistisrh? Julir- 
 buch, by the central statistical commission of 
 Vienna. 
 
 AUTHORITY (Lat. auctoritas), the right 
 
 the right is exercised ; sometimes also', in matters 
 pertaining to the intellect, the power to iutlu nee 
 or exact belief. In education, the term has espe- 
 cially this twofold application: (1) to the disci- 
 pline, or management of children ; |2) to th ir in- 
 struction. The primary authority, both in re- 
 spect to time and importanc i, to which the child 
 is subjected is that of the parent ; and for several 
 years no other can be exercised over it, except in 
 loco parentis. It is true, the state extends a pro- 
 tecting care over the child ; but only by an exer- 
 cise of its authority over the parents, requiring 
 them to perforin their proper duties as the nat- 
 ural guardians of their children. When the 
 parents neglect ot repudiate these duties or are 
 guilty of acts iu contravention of them, the Mate 
 interposes its authority, but not even then direct- 
 ly, upon the child, but only to place it under the 
 authority of those who will better care for its 
 interests, and perform for it the aatural duties 
 of its parents. The right exercise of parental 
 authority is, therefore, one of the most important 
 elements in the education of the child. (See 
 
 Parental Education.) If the child from its 
 earliest years has been accustomed to recognize 
 and submit to the authority of its parent 3, firmlj 
 but judiciously exercised, th ire \\ ill be, ordinari- 
 ly, but little (iiiticnlty.on the part of the teacher, 
 in making his authority effective The child, on 
 entering the school, feels for the first time thai 
 it is under an authority different from that of ii 5 
 parents, to which it has previously learned to 
 submit with unquestioning obedience. Its first 
 impulse is, perhaps, to refuse submission to this 
 
 new authority ; and the intlncn f the teacher 
 
 over the child will greatly depend upon the man- 
 ner in which obedience is enforced. (See Disci- 
 pline.) In the authority of the teacher, as well 
 as in that of the parents, two eh- nts are com- 
 bined, — one that attracts and encourages, aud 
 one that curbs and subdues. Without the former, 
 authority is arbitrary and violent: without the 
 latter, it is feeble and often powerless. In other 
 words, the authority that truly educates should 
 
 be founded not alone upon fear, but upon love 
 
 and esteem as well. The authority of the teacher 
 
 the teacher is in loco parentis : not. that he has 
 exactly the authority of the parent, but only so 
 far as it is not limited by the general usages of 
 society, or by special contracts. The conscien- 
 
 isdt 
 
 break a contract, or violate a most sacred trust ; 
 and. in cither case, his authority will be either 
 weakened or destroyed. 
 
 When schools arc controlled by boards of edu- 
 cation or boards of trustees, such constituted 
 authorities stand to the children in place of the 
 parents, in respect to school education ; and the 
 teachers become simply the agents of the school 
 board, and can only exercise an authority limited 
 by the rules of such board. The limit's of the 
 authority delegated to teachers by the appointing 
 power, vary considerably in different places, 
 some school boards reserving to themselves 
 certain powers or functions which others confer 
 upon the teacher. It is a matter of the utmost 
 importance that all persons concerned in the edu- 
 cation of the child should co-operate harmoni- 
 ously; since nothing tends so much to weaken 
 the force of authority in the mind of the child as 
 to notice a conflict among those under whose 
 control it is placed. Father and mother parenl 
 and teacher, tea' her and school board, should, at 
 any rate, as fai as the child is aware, agree ab- 
 solutely; sine 'the less children know of any differ- 
 ence of opinion between their custodians, the 
 more cheerfully will they respect and submit to 
 the priu. iple of authority in general. 
 
 Many cases will arise,both in the family and in 
 the school, in which children will refuse submis- 
 sion to the authority of their educators : and hence 
 the mode of enforcing authority becomes a mat- 
 ter of serious importance. Authority, of course, 
 implies a control of the will of those over whom 
 it is exercised; and the means by which this is 
 to be obtained will differ according to the dis- 
 position and habits of the child, and, to a con- 
 siderable extent, id.- 1 according to the character of 
 the educator himself . A violent, irascible, morose, 
 or capricious parent <r teacher will have a con- 
 stant conflict with the < hild.and will never be able 
 to establish his authority, to whatever extent, for 
 the time being, lie may compel a seeming obedi- 
 ence. Authority is thus described by an eminent 
 teacher:— "It is not mere legal form, nor the 
 instrumentalities for executing it, that constitutes 
 authority. It is a power in the individual him- 
 self, independent of :dl circumstances, and rising 
 in its own majesty above all mere conventionali- 
 ties. It is a power difficult to describe, but 
 which sends out its streams of influence along 
 the teacher's pathway. It exists in the man, de- 
 manding, securing, and retaining cheerful obedi- 
 ence." Authority'should not be exercised ius such; 
 
AlTllomTV 
 
 " the right-feeling parent." says Herbert Spencer, 
 "like the philanthropic legislator, will not rejoice 
 in coercion, but will rejoice in dispensing with 
 coercion. *' (See Moral Kiutatiox.) In this connec- 
 tion, arises the question of the propriety of corpo- 
 ral punishment to enforce authority in the family 
 or school. AH educators are agreed, thai the use 
 of physical force, if at all sanctioned, should be 
 only, as a dernier ressort, brought in when every 
 other mans of coercion has failed; some, how- 
 ever, condemn the "use of the rod" utterly. 
 Locke assents to it only in cases of extreme ob- 
 stinacy. " The teacher," says D. P. Page, " has 
 the right to establish authority by corporal in- 
 fliction J and thus to save the school and also 
 
 save himself It is his duty to establ h 
 
 au h ' i 3 . i i e :M\ . indee 1, if he may. — forcibly 
 
 if he lnu-t." (See CoRPORAL PUNISHMENT.) Ill 
 
 the ex ireiseof authority, both parent and teacher 
 should faithfully consider the influence they are 
 exerting over the future character of the child. 
 
 As Locke say.-, ■ I a ry man must sometime or 
 
 other be trusted to himself and his owi nduct ; 
 
 and that he is a good, a virtu in . and able man, 
 must be made so within." In the family ami 
 
 bc] I. as in the great world beyond, authority 
 
 should, as far as possible, be exercised without 
 being felt. Richter justly remarks. -Th- l»-i 
 rule in politics is said to be yx/.s tru/i t/,wr, -run- '; 
 it is also true in education." 
 
 The principle of authority has an important 
 application to the mental as well as the moral 
 education of children. In the earliest stages of 
 intellectual instruct ion. the child must receive 
 most of the information imparted to it on the 
 authority of its teacher; but modern principles 
 and methods require that, even from the first, as 
 far as possible, the child should learn for itself 
 by the exercise of its perceptive and conceptive 
 faculties, and not merely on the authority of its 
 teachers. .Much, however, must be imparted, 
 that is beyond the scope of the child's under- 
 standing and experience; and. consequently, 
 there will be a wide range for the operation of the 
 teacher's authority. It will, of course, be greater 
 or less in proportion to his personal influence in 
 other respects, and particularly in proportion to 
 the confidence felt by his pupils in his wisdom 
 and attainments. In some instances, as exem- 
 plified in the history of religious orders and 
 cued- and of the schools of philosophy and 
 science, the authority of eminent teachers has 
 often been so great as to exert an influence for 
 many centuries,, vcr thousands, or even millions. 
 
 much by authority, and failing to appeal suffi- 
 
 ei ;i,:\ to the reason and judgment of the pupil 
 is an error to be carefully avoided ; since it must 
 exert a disastrous influence upon the student's 
 habits of thought and acquisition. With all 
 due deference to the philosopher of Samos, who 
 
 was content to have his disciples depend upon 
 the Ipse dixit Pythagoras, his example cannot 
 be wisely imitated by the teachers of our time. 
 Every one must learn to form his own opinions, 
 carefully, dispassionately, after due investigation, 
 and a proper consideration for the conclusions 
 and experience of other minds ; but still they 
 must be his own. The teacher should infuse into 
 the minds of his pupils an intellectual independ- 
 ence. — not a skeptical questioning of every- 
 thing, but a thoughtful investigation of the why 
 and the ir/irrtfnn: a diligent balancing of the 
 weight of testimony, and a habit of inquiring 
 into the ultimate reasons of things, as far as they 
 can be adduced. This will impart coneentrathc- 
 aess and activity of mind, and call into exercise 
 the judgment and reflection upon whatever is 
 
 j presented to the attention, whether in study. 
 
 | readme, or conversation. The pupil thus in- 
 structed would soon realize the force and beauty 
 of that fine sentiment of Emerson: "I had 
 bette] peverseea I k than be warped by its 
 
 stronglj conde ed the prevalent i leof teach- 
 ing by authority. " Let the tutor," says he, 
 "make his pupil examine and thoroughly sift 
 every thing he reads, and lodge nothing in 
 his head upon simple authority and upon trust 
 .... Let him know that he does know." Rous- 
 seau also severely criticised the pedagogy of his 
 time, For basing the science of education on the 
 principle of authority. He demanded that the 
 pupil should not know anything merely because 
 it was told him by the teacher, but because he 
 
 underst 1 it. Be should not learn the science, 
 
 but discover it. "If." said he. " you give him 
 an authority instead of a reason, he will never 
 think independently, but will always be the foot- 
 ball of the opinions of others." This is an ex- 
 treme view, as every teacher of experience must 
 know. The authority of the teacher cannot be 
 eliminated in iutt Uectual education ; since to do so 
 would put the undeveloped understanding of the 
 pupil on an equality with the mature and devel- 
 oped intellect of the instructor; neither can its 
 just limits be definitely fixed. The disposition 
 to accept the statements ,,f the teacher as truths, 
 when not fully understood, should be cultivated. 
 
 Modesty is often as requisite and as tx dug in 
 
 thought as in morals. The great principle to be 
 kept iii mcw -and it is to the credit oi Rousseau 
 that he so clearly perceived, and so emphatically 
 
 enunciated it — is, that authority should uot have 
 its aim within itself, but that its object should be 
 to develop the faculties of the pupil, so that he 
 may fully understand as true ami right, what he 
 has received on the authority of the teacher. — 
 See Montaigne, Essais [Cotton's translation, 
 edited by W. ETazlitt) ; Locke, Thoughts <m 
 Education; RoussEAt . Emileou de V Education; 
 Heriikrt Si'knckr , Education: Intellectual, 
 Mural, and Physical. 
 
BACCHANTS 
 
 BACCHANTS (Lat Bacchantes) is a term 
 applied in mediaeval times to those university 
 students who had not yet finished their nrel 
 year's studies, and being taxed for drinking pur- 
 poses by the older students, were thus drawn 
 into revels and debauchery. Later, this name 
 was given to those idle, dissolute students who 
 traveled about the country, collecting money, 
 
 that rash and unfortunate nobleman was under 
 trial. Bacon, evidently from fear of the queen's 
 displeasure, spoke .severely against him. and was 
 instrumental in securing his conviction. This has 
 subjected him to much obloquy, as being guilty 
 of meanness and ingratitude. After the acces- 
 sion of .lames I.. Bacon rose rapidly in the royal 
 
 Sometimes they were at pamed by pupils, 
 
 whom they compelled to steal and beg tor them. 
 
 (See A 1! ( '-Suootkrs.) So numerous were these 
 itinerant scholars, that organizations of them 
 existed with constitutions and rituals; and some- 
 
 ->M" 
 
 in Germany and England down almost to the 
 
 present century. Burkard lingg .and Thomas 
 Platen were Bacchants, whose autobiographies in 
 Ceruiau are still extant. 
 
 BACHELOSlLat. /itw/.i»,v»s|, a .term ap- 
 plied t ie who has reached a certain grade in a 
 
 college or university education : as. /,',/. ■//,•/,,/■ nf 
 Arts (A. I:., or B.A.), Bachelor of Civil Law 
 (B.C.L.), Bach or >' D < m / (B. I'.i.ctc. The 
 
 was introduced into the I nivcrsity of Paris by 
 Pope Gregory IX.. in the L3th century, and ap- 
 plied as a title to those students wdio had passed 
 certain preliminary examinations, but were not 
 prepared lor admission into the rank of master. 
 teacher, or doctor. Afterwards, it was adopted 
 by other European universities, to indicate the 
 lowest academical honor, as it is now used both 
 in this country and in Europe. (See Arts, and 
 Dbg 
 
 BACON, Francis, Viscount St. Albans 
 and Karon Verulam, one of the, most illustrious 
 of English philosophers, was born in 1/mdon, 
 .Ian. 21., 1561, and died April !)., 1626. little is 
 known of his early education, but from the social 
 position of his father. Sir Nicholas Bacon, he 
 must have enjoyed the advantages of the best in- 
 struction that could have been obtained. He 
 was matriculated at Trinity College. Cambridge. 
 in 1573; and, after going abroad for a time, he 
 returned and commenced the study of tin 1 law 
 in 1580. He was soon called to the bar. and in 
 1590, his reputation was so great, that he was 
 made ''counsel extraordinary'' to Queen Eliza- 
 beth. He afterwards served in parliament, when 
 he showed so much spirit, that on receiving the 
 royal rebuke for a certain speech, which he had 
 delivered, he nobly replied, that "he spoke ill 
 discharge of his conscience, and his duty to Cod. 
 to the queen, and his country." As an orator. 
 he was much commended by his contemporaries. 
 Ben Jonson said that while he was speaking. 
 " the fear of every man that heard him was lest 
 he should make an end." The earl of Essex 
 had been his friend and benefactor ; but when 
 
 annum. In 1616, he was made lord high 
 chancellor, and, besides, received the ml- of 
 Baron Verulam; ami, in L621, he obtained the 
 additional til le of Viscount St. Albans. At this 
 time, he sto,,d upon the highest pinnacle of polit- 
 ical preferment and literary fame; for he hail 
 just published In- greatest work, the Novum 
 Organum. From this lofty position he suddenly 
 fell, accused and condemned of mkine. bribes 
 from those whose cases were before his court. 
 
 facts had b-,-ii,li-,-l,.-„l bvan investigation, were. 
 •■ I do plainly and ingenuously confess thai I am 
 guilty of corruption, and do renounce all detia.se. 
 
 ment in two days, and tin 
 
 remitted. lb- never nr 
 
 had so disgracefully lost.' 
 
 ary tvti 
 apolitk 
 a lnarki 
 
 all probi 
 not only 
 and got 
 neither 1 
 could be 
 
 ty. But 
 re such as 
 ions were 
 
 to be resisted, and serious dangers to be bra.ved." 
 His desire to keep up a grand establishment, to 
 make a brilliant figure in society by the princely 
 character of his entertainments, his equipage, and 
 all the other fascinations of luxury, caused ex- 
 penditures far beyond his means, which he 
 endeavored to meet by unlawful gains. His 
 philosophical views were in one sense entirely 
 consistent with his character. They were prac- 
 tical : they aimed to make science minister to the 
 worldly wants of mankind. The scholastic lcarn- 
 
 of new truth, that it might "mix like a living 
 spring with the stagnant waters." " Two words." 
 says Macaulay, ''form the key of the Baconian 
 doctrine — utility and progress. The ancient 
 philosophy disdained to be useful, and wa- < <>n- 
 tent to be stationary. It dealt largely in ill ies 
 
BACON 
 rfection, which were so sublime that 
 
 llial 
 
 jrta- 
 
 tiuns to the attainment i.t unattainable frames . 
 
 mind. It could not ideseend to the humb 
 
 office of ministering to the comfort of human bt 
 ings." Bacon held thai all knowledge must I 
 olitaiin'il by a careful and unprejudice 1 inductio 
 from facts.' Hence the importance of experiment 
 for without experiment man may indeed stumbl 
 on the discovery of truth, but by experiment ii 
 ventions are made. " Bacon," says Euno Fische 
 "is the philosopher, not simply of experiene 
 but of invention. I lis only endeavor is philosopl 
 ieally to comprehend and fortify the Enventi\ 
 
 telli'itual revolution was already in progress. 
 The Aristotelian philosophy so ealled, which was 
 indeed a p 'i-veisioii of Aristotle's teachings, and 
 
 the senseless attempt to employ the syllogism as 
 an instrument of discovery, had already disgusted 
 
 a large number of active minds, as being utterly 
 barren of fruit. As Macaulay remarks." Before 
 the birth of Bacon, the empire of the scholastic 
 philosophy ha 1 been shaken to its foundation. 
 
 had ceased to awe mankind." Bacon's mind was 
 so constituted as to sympathize at once with this 
 changed condition of things; and throwing the 
 
 weight of his vast intellect against the already tot- 
 tering fabric, he precipitated its fall. As Aristotle 
 
 analyzed the method of deductive reasoning, so 
 Bacon explained the principles and method of in- 
 
 <>i-r/,iiinii. for the discovery of truth and the im- 
 provement of the condition of humanity. The 
 full title of his great work is Xnnuii On/timim 
 sirr Indicia Vera de Tnterpretattone Natural 
 et Regno Hominis. {The New Orqanon or 
 True Directions concerning the Interpretation of 
 Nature and the Kingdom of Man.) The key to 
 
 BAHRDT 
 
 fails to remark in it something overlooked before." 
 In his essay on Education, Bacon refers all its 
 efficacy to custom, or habit: "Certainly custom 
 is most perfect when it beginneth in young years: 
 this we call education : which is, in effect, but an 
 early custom." But Bacon's contribution to edu- 
 cation does not consist in any particular precepts 
 concerning it or any special treatment of that sub- 
 ject; but in the general effect of his philosophical 
 views, in setting tree the human mind from errors 
 and prejudices, and placing it on the direct road 
 which leads to scientific truth. The best edition 
 of Bacon's works is that edited by Spedding, 
 Kllis. and Heath. vols. i. — xv. (London and Boston, 
 L858- L861). In this is contained the life of 
 Bacon by William Rawley, 1>I>.. his chaplain.— 
 See also' Macaulay's Essays, s. v. Bacon; Hep- 
 worth, Personal History of Lord Bacon (Lon- 
 don, 1859); Remusat, Bacon, sa vie et sou in- 
 Huena (Paris, L857); Euno Fischer, Francis 
 Bacon von Vemlam (2d edit., Leipsic, L875), 
 which has been translated into Knglish by John- 
 Oxenpord (London, 1857) ; American Journal 
 of Education, vol iv. (1829), passim. 
 
 BADEN. See German. 
 
 BAHRDT, Carl Friedrich, a German 
 professor and scholar, was born in 1741, and 
 died in 17!iL'. As professor of tl logy at 
 
 ssolute life 
 tf theology 
 bunded by 
 
 wiss canton 
 As be soon 
 
 the 
 
 the aphorisms of which it is composed: "Ma 
 
 do and understand so much, and SO much on] 
 
 as he has observed, in fact or in thought, of tl 
 
 course of nature ; beyond this he u 
 
 any thing nor can do any thing." 
 
 the publication of this work, he h 
 
 Tlie Advancement of Learning i 
 
 was the germ of Be Auomeniis 
 
 'v!o"s"o 
 
 
 
 i. which 
 
 grl 
 
 n'l, ,1 
 
 works. 
 
 
 stablish- 
 
 
 likew 
 
 published or proper I le- 
 an Instauratio Magna 
 ment not only of the tr 
 investigation but of scieni 
 
 work was the l-'.ss.n/s. originally published in llci 
 L597, but afterwards enlarged and improved. Idtet 
 Dugald Stewart has said of this work. " It may (177 
 be read from beginning to end in a few hours,, whit 
 md \'i after the twentieth reading, one seldom] but 
 
 <ewise unsuccessful, and the 
 in the brink of ruin, when 
 ly summoned before the 
 icrial Court Council) for 
 it in accord with any of the 
 mized in the empire, and, 
 irived of all his offices. The 
 eatmenl gained for him a 
 by. and from the Prussian 
 
 but in consequence of the 
 
 habits, he held this posi- 
 tion" time, and lost with it 
 all who knew him. Bahrdl 
 gifted men of his age. and 
 
 t of moral character, would 
 
 •n to great eminence, both 
 ter and a practical educator, 
 catioual periodicals, entitled 
 ■arisches < brrespondenz- und InieUigemblatt 
 5) and P&dagogisches Wochenblatt (1778), 
 h clearly indicate the rare talent of the editor, 
 neither of which survived the first year of 
 
 l.ded 
 
BALDWIN UNIVERSITY 
 
 its existence. The disrespecl which was generally 
 felt for Bahrdt, greatly injured the entire school 
 
 Of PhilauthropiniMs. Ilr puUidied an nuiol.joo.- 
 graphy, entitled Dr. i:,,hr,/l'.< his/,,,-, ■ ' - 
 '■ ' qpr 
 
 BALTIMORE 
 
 69 
 
 wick, L790),i 
 the informati 
 ments of thus 
 rich Bahrdt 
 
 ■ ives of the educational move- 
 ",. -See \A\^v..K„rlFried- 
 lit.. \. uMa.lt. 1870). 
 BALDWIN UNIVERSITY, at Berea, 
 Ohio, was established in ls4ti as Baldwin Insti- 
 tute.' for the education of both sexes, by the 
 North Ohio conference of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal church. Ten years afterward, it was char- 
 tered as a university under its present name. 
 Its design is to provide the means of a thorough 
 general education, or to afford to students a com- 
 plete scientific basis for the various industrial 
 pursuits. It has a scientific and a classical de- 
 partment, in each of which there tire preparatory 
 and collegiate classes. There is also a college of 
 pharmacy connected with the institution. It 
 received a valuable endowment in quarry land 
 from .John Baldwin, after whom it was named. 
 [tssuccessive presidents have been JohnWheeler, 
 D.D.,from I--""', to L871 ; W.D.Godman, D.D., 
 from 1st 1 to 1875; and A. Schuyler, LL. D., 
 from 1875. The number of students in the in- 
 stitution, in 1875—76, was 180. The tuition is 
 
 free. 
 
 BALTIMORE. The first attempt to pro- 
 vide the means of education for the lower classes 
 in this city was the establishment, in lsjd. of a 
 school on the Lancasterian system. In 1825, an 
 act was passed by the legislature, which author- 
 ized the establishment of public schools in Balti- 
 more, and empowered the corporate authorities 
 to levy a tax for their support. In L828,aboard 
 of six school commissioners was organized ; and. 
 the next year, three schools were opened, and 269 
 pupils enrolled. The first school-house wa i 
 erected in 1830, hired buildings having previously 
 been used, [n 1839, the number of pupils en- 
 rolled had increased to L.126; and the mayor 
 and city council requested the commissioners to 
 establish a high school. The request was promptly 
 complied with, and the school opened the same 
 year. This had the effect not only to raise the 
 grade, but to increase the efficiency, of the com- 
 mon schools; for, the next year 1840), there 
 were nine schools in operation, with 1 ,83 1 pupils. 
 Since that time the growth of the system has 
 been rapid. In 1874, there were L22 schools. 
 and the number of pupils enrolled was 29,108, of 
 whom there were 23,362 in average attendance. 
 The first superintendent of public instruction 
 was Rev. J. X. McJilton, who served for about 
 twenty years, acting, from L849tol866, as treas- 
 urer of the board as well as superintendent of 
 the schools. He was succeeded, Feb. L, L868, 
 by William R. Creery ; and alter his death. 
 May 1.. L875, the present incumbent, Prof. 
 Henry E. Shepherd, was elected to the position. 
 School Statis/i,:s. — For the year ending 
 Sept, 30., 1875, the following statistics were 
 reported : 
 
 Number i)f schools 12. j 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled t'.2.>'i 
 
 Average daily attendance '2 t, His 
 
 Number of teachers 706 
 
 Number el i itiis schools were open. 1(1 
 
 Amount paid for teachers' salaries - 126,719.75 
 
 do do for school buddings. K7,;.,:;.,s 
 
 do do lor books and stationery.. .. . ."> 1 ,7.">T.41> 
 
 do do for colored schools 15,496.78 
 
 do do for other expenses 25.601.1)2 
 
 Total expenditures $716,938.82 
 
 The school age is from 6 to 18 ; and the num- 
 ber of children in the city between those ages 
 
 School System,- The system consists of a 
 school board id' twenty members — one for each 
 ward of the city: a city superintendent, and as- 
 sistant superintendent: a city college: two female 
 high schools; a Saturday normal class: L9 male 
 and 20 female grammar schools ; 61 primary 
 schools: in evening schools, of which 4 are 
 colored ; and 1 1 daj schools for colored children. 
 
 The Commissioners of Public Schools, con- 
 stituting the sel [-board, are appointed by the 
 
 two branches of the city council assembled in 
 
 SShtschoX 
 
 letermine t heir sa la lies, to 
 
 ,f study and the 1 kstobe 
 
 i.l to make all needful reg- 
 
 Thestucliesp * ■ 
 
 <ied/orth primary schools 
 
 are spelling, definitii 
 
 ii of comi words, read- 
 
 ing, writing, geogn 
 arithmetic, drawing, 
 the ma ■ grammar a 
 
 hooh are spelling, etymol- 
 
 of Maryland nature 
 am studies are pres 
 
 j composition, orammar. 
 the 1 nited Mates, history 
 philosophy, arithmetic, al- 
 
 1C and .-ingle entry book- 
 maie grammar schools the 
 •ribed. except algebra and 
 
 Examination and Qualification of Teachers. 
 —Applicants for the situation of teachers in the 
 public sel Is must pass a written examination 
 
 before the committee On examinations of the 
 board. The regular time for such e xamin ations 
 i- the scon, I Saturday in November and May of 
 each year: and a certificate is given to each suc- 
 cessful candidate, showing the result and the 
 grade. The following are the studies for each 
 position and grade : 
 
 I p.,, a m situation in tl ity college or for prin- 
 cipal ,,i a female high school, the studies required to 
 
 II. I'm Vir-t a —Wants of a female high school, arith- 
 metic, algebra, geometry . history, natural philosophy, 
 chemistry, and mora! plnlnsnphv. 
 
 III. For any other situation in a female high school. 
 the studies which the candidate would be required n, 
 teach if appointed. 
 
 IV For principal and first assistant ol < 
 mar school, arithmetic, algebra, rtyiiml. 
 pbv. grammar, history, orthography, natural philos- 
 ophy, and music. 
 
70 BALTIMORE CITY COLLEGE 
 
 V. For 
 laminar 
 
 • IV, elvm 
 
 VI. For 
 
 nf a female 
 graphy, his- 
 ainl music. 
 
 i-' 1 1. ■jraiiiiii.ir. :u itlmi.-tic. orthography, modern 
 
 geography, and music. 
 
 In addition to these, all teachers must pass an ex- 
 amination in geometry and physiology helon- m™ 
 ing a ci rticate of any grade. 
 
 Two-thirds of the questions in each branch must be 
 answered in order to pass the candidate for any 
 grade. 
 
 No person is eligible to any position as teacher 
 in any of the schools under the following ages : 
 Professor in city college or principal of a 
 
 male grammar school 21 years. 
 
 l-'n-i as-istant in male grammar school 10 years. 
 
 Principal of female "rainmar school 20 years. 
 
 Pi ipal "I a primary school 20 years. 
 
 First assistant in female grammar school.. ..18 years. 
 
 Assistant in female high school is years. 
 
 Second assistant in grammar or primary 
 
 school 17 years. 
 
 lHilimtri.il Kiliiruliiui. Voluntary instruction 
 in the domestic and industrial branches of female 
 education is given by the teachers in several of 
 
 commenced at tin- request lit tin- president of the 
 
 BAPTISTS 
 
 A handsome and spacious edifice for the accom- 
 modation of this institution was completed in 
 1875. 
 
 BALTIMORE FEMALE COLLEGE, 
 at Baltimore, Md..was founded in 184,9, and was 
 under the control of the .Methodist Episcopal 
 
 Church Iron, t! 
 of the legislate! 
 a permanent co 
 composed of .Mi 
 
 byteriaiis. The 
 stitution is (18*3 
 LL.D., has been 
 
 its to,,, el:, i 
 
 from the State 
 
 stitute its chit 
 
 higher edueati, 
 
 and sent forth 
 
 occupying positions of responsibility in academies, 
 
 high schools, and colleges. 
 
 BAPTISTS, a denomination of Christians 
 distinguished by the denial of baptism to infants, 
 and by the restriction of that rite to those 
 who therein profess personal faith and regenera- 
 tion. They baptize by immersion only, and in the 
 form of their church-government are congrega- 
 tional. In England, they are known as General and 
 Particular, the former, which is by a few years 
 
 ate to 1868, when, by an act 
 e Hoard of Trustees became 
 ition : and the Board is now 
 iste, Episcopalians, and Pres- 
 nber of students in the in- 
 :.out LOO; NathanC. I '.rooks, 
 president of the College since 
 has an endowment of $2,500 
 aryland.but tuition fees con- 
 pport. While its course of 
 S been general, it lias trained 
 teachers, most of whom are 
 
 proved, as anor. tmg an aei-onipiisnineni oi great 
 practical value both in the home-circle and as a 
 means of support. 
 
 Training of Teachers. — The normal class, 
 established Sept. VI.. 1S7-I. is designed to afford 
 
 to newly appointed teachers of the city schools 
 instruction in the theory and practice of teach- 
 ing. It is under the supervision of the superin- 
 tendent of public instruction. The State Nor- 
 mal School is located at Baltimore, besides which 
 there is a normal school for the instruction of 
 colored teachers. (See M wiYLAxn.) 
 
 BALTIMORE CITY COLLEGE. Phis 
 
 r on the roll | 
 lumber of iu- 
 dmission must 
 
 pan 
 
 of the common scl 1 s 
 
 It was originally established a 
 
 Seh 
 
 iol, with -4 ( > pupils ; but h 
 
 thai 
 
 3i°,°i874?was lOoTand 
 
 as ( 'lose- < 'on 
 
 nunion an, 
 
 ( (pen - ( 'i ,,, 1 1 ii in i n ii i . 
 
 the larger part 
 
 of the den, 
 
 miiiation in England 
 
 being Ope,,-.', 
 
 uiniunioii. 
 
 Baptists came to this 
 
 country with 
 
 the first settlements. In Rhode 
 
 Island.' their c 
 
 lurches are 
 
 as old as the colony; 
 
 and before the 
 
 close of th, 
 
 seventeenth century 
 
 they had gatl 
 
 -red church 
 
 is in Boston, in the 
 
 neighborhood , 
 
 llh'elnuine 
 
 iced about the middle 
 
 Of the eights 
 
 Revolution, th 
 
 ith centurj 
 ly aresuppi 
 
 At the time of the 
 -ed to have had about 
 
 25,000 commu 
 
 
 1 876, they have more 
 
 
 The grea 
 
 t body are known by 
 
 the appellalioi 
 
 Baptists; 1, 
 
 sser bodies are known 
 
 as Free-Will, i 
 
 r lately as E 
 
 ree, Seventh-Day, Six 
 
 !,!t!!t 11 ' 1 t s fM-, 
 
 Old School 
 ion only of 
 
 All these lasl con- 
 
 those who bear the 
 
 generic name. 
 
 The Disci 
 
 iles, or Campbellites, 
 
 followers of i 
 secession, dist 
 
 JcMinder 1 
 
 nguished bj 
 
 ampbell, are a large 
 peculiar theological 
 
 views. In thi 
 by this the i 
 Close-Commui 
 
 country, t 
 ,,ei denom 
 
 ie Baptists, meaning 
 nation so called, arc- 
 is. believing thai no 
 
 baptism is regi 
 
 believer and b 
 
 lay which is 
 
 not the baptism of a 
 , and that a regular 
 ipation in the Lord's 
 
 
 (■strict thei 
 
 ■ communion to the 
 
 whether pupils of the public schools or not. may 
 be admitted on passing the required examination. 
 
 ise of the 
 
 sitv graduates: but that source hopelessly tailing 
 with the Restoration, the Baptists are found, 
 with other denominations, taking measures for 
 the education of a ministry by means strictly their 
 
71 
 
 own. The first resort was to private tuition, and 
 Mr. John Tombes, at one time preacher in the 
 Temple church, London., was the teacher of 
 young ministers. In L675andin L689, concerted 
 action was taken in 1 1n* denomination in this 
 direction. Kdwai'd Jewel] of lilistol, dving about 
 
 era. the Bristol College. W ith 
 the denomination several other 
 which according to the - Bapt is! 
 
 (Loud 
 
 7(i) were 
 
 The 
 
 the lap 
 known 
 the gr 
 college 
 
 Hand-Book for 1876 
 located in the followil 
 Leeds (founded at Hortoi 
 Rawdon 1859); Pontypool 
 gavenny, 1807, removed t< 
 Regents Park. London i fom 
 toBegents Park, 1856 . II 
 ed 1839) : Chilwell. near > 
 1797, removed to Chilwell. 
 lee,.. Metropolitan Tabernac 
 lsfdi: Llangollen, or No 
 L862); Manchester Baptist 
 tion (founded L866) ; The Easl End Training 
 Institute for Home and Foreign Missions, Lon- 
 don -founded 1-7:: . All these coll _■ ai ■ un- 
 derstood to lie for the education oi ministers 
 only. 
 
 hi the American colonies, the denomination 
 hail not grown to sufficient magnitude in the 
 seventeenth century to undertake ;m\ denomi- 
 national work in education. In the earlier veins 
 of the eighteenth century, appear their first 
 graduates from American colleges. Mown to 
 and including 1776, the number of their college- 
 bred ministers, so far as can now be ascertaine 1, 
 was 19, of whom, however, two were not gradu- 
 ates. They had an equal or larger numb it w hose 
 education was not greatly inferior to that of a 
 ■ illi - course. 
 
 Notices of attempts towards the education of 
 their ministry under denominational auspices, 
 appear early iu the history of the Philadelphia 
 Association, — the benefactions to Harvard Col- 
 lege of -Mr. Hollis, a London Baptist, having 
 been a stimulus in that direction. Similar in az- 
 ures were taken in 1755 in the Charleston As- 
 sociation. In 17-~a. was opened tin- Academj a 
 Hopewell. X. J., which was the cradle of Rhode 
 Island College, now Brown University, organized 
 in 1701. Academies had been opened and 
 sustained for many years by individual teaehers. 
 in tin' half century following the establishment 
 of Brown University, but no general movement 
 in the direction of education i 
 the time of the organization of 
 for the work of missions. In 
 education was embraced. To this date. I s I J — JO 
 must be referred efforts to establish theological 
 schools in Philadelphia and New York City, a! 
 Waterville, Maine, and at Hamilton, X. Y., and 
 the rise of several societies to give pecuniary aid 
 to young men preparing for the ministry. The 
 Philadelphia movement became merged in the 
 founding of Columbian College, Washington D. 
 
 C; the New York movement in tin' rise of the 
 institution at Hamilton, now known as Madison 
 University, but having in alliance with it a the- 
 ological seminary: and the Waterville movement 
 in the establishment of the college, now known 
 as Colt University. With the close of that de- 
 cade commenced the rapid establishment of col- 
 lego and universities under the auspices of the 
 
 denomination in all parts of the country. ( leorge- 
 town College, K\.. bears the date of 1829; 
 Denison University, Ohio, 1831 ; Shurtleff Col- 
 lege, 111., 1832; WaterForesI Coll i.N.C, 1834; 
 
 Franklin College, hid. 1834 ; Mercer University, 
 Ga., 1837; Richmond College. V,,.. L840; How- 
 ard College,, Ala.. 1843; Baylor University, 
 Texas, 1845 : Ciii\vr,it\ at Leu i-b,,rg. I"a.. 1.-47; 
 William Jewell < ollege, Mo., 1849; University 
 of Rochester. X. V.. 1>.".H : Mi>,i>,ippi College, 
 
 College 
 
 111.. Is.' 
 
 . Is.".:;: Kalaniaz ollege, Mich.. 
 
 iel College. Ky.. 1856; McMinnville 
 egon. 1858; University of Chicago. 
 Waco University, Texas, 186] ; ?as- 
 . X. Y„ L861 :' University of Des 
 a.i. 1865; La Grange College. Mo., 
 ird College. Xew Liberty, Ky.,1866; 
 
 laptist Colli Mo., 1869; California 
 
 il : Monongahela College. Pa., 1871 : 
 rn I'nncr.-itv. 'I'eiin.. L-74. Of the 
 
 char; 
 and i 
 of tl 
 
 isl year book of 1876, the total 
 opertj held by the Laptist colleges 
 
 This must be accepted as a proxi- 
 
 i it only, and is in part probably 
 
 Brown University has a rerj 
 
 rv oi 45,000 volumes, several have 
 
 9,000 to 12,000 volumes ; Brown 
 
 id till about 
 ■nomination 
 organizat ion 
 
 bers. however, are of uncertain significance, be- 
 cause in some cases protc-sional. and in many 
 cases preparatory students arc included. The 
 curriculum of these colleges \aiie- in 
 but corresponds in thai respeel with the vary- 
 ing character ot American colleges in general. 
 Some of them take rank with colleges of the 
 first class. 
 
 There are in the United States six Baptist 
 theological seminaries of the highest grade, be- 
 sides departments of theology in four or more 
 colleges. Of these seminaries. Hamilton was 
 founded in 1820, Newton in 1825, Rochester in 
 
7'2 
 
 i'.\i:n \ fin 
 
 1850, Southern in 1859, Chicago in 186*7, and 
 Crozer in 1868. In these seminaries, there were 
 in L875— 76, 362 students, of whom probably 
 about 300 were in the complete courses. These 
 courses designed for graduates of colleges, are as 
 high and as thorough as are known to theological 
 seminaries. 
 
 There are likewise in the United States about 
 forty academies, or institutions of thai grade 
 having other names, which aiv da>«ed asunder 
 Baptist auspices, holding property of the estimat- 
 
 she married the Rev. Rochemont Barbauld, with 
 whom she kept school for eleven years. Her 
 most noted educational publications aiv /•.'//•/;/ 
 Lessons for Children, Hymns in Prose, and 
 the pieces which she contributed for Evenings 'it 
 Home, published by her brother lh\ John Aikin. 
 
 Her miscellaneous writings are muni 
 varied. Mrs. l'arbaulds 1 ks fo 
 
 the protection and patronage of the American 
 Baptist Home Mission Society, at Washington. 
 Richmond, Raleigh, Columbia. Augu,ia. \a.li- 
 villc. and New Oilcans, for the education of 
 colored preachers and teachers. These institu- 
 tions, though in their infancy, are performing a 
 very important and successful service. 
 
 There have been three epochs of remarkable 
 character in the educational work of American 
 Baptists. The first, about the middle of the 
 18th century, had for its n nil the founding of 
 Hopewell Academy and Brown University. The 
 second, contemporaneous with the missionary 
 movement, and a part of the movement itself, 
 was the prolific source of all the later colleges 
 and seminaries. The third maybe referred to 
 the year 1870, when the first national educa- 
 tional convention of the Baptistswas held under 
 the auspices of the American Haptist Educational 
 Commission, in Brooklyn, N.Y. A remarkable 
 impulse was given by thi 
 founding and endowment 
 which purpose very large t 
 since been raise 1. From tl 
 ,,f educational questions ii 
 have been marked by a grea 
 and force, the mimberoi rti 
 seminaries has been increas 
 money for the endowment of 
 ing has become a simulta 
 effort. A second educatio 
 held in Philadelphia in 1872. In 1873, the 
 American Baptist Educational Commission re- 
 commended the celebration of the I'enle al "I 
 
 the nation by a common movement for the rais- 
 ing of funds for educational purposes, and that 
 work is now proceeding. 
 
 The Baptists have had many distinguished 
 educators, of whom, among the dead. Francis 
 W'a.ylanil and Horatio B. Ilackett may be named 
 
 shed by 
 
 compose 
 in read- 
 to effect 
 
 (Lor 
 J A Leg 
 
 w for Pi 
 
 he same lady also published 
 ■i Ladies (Lond., 1826), com- 
 piled from Mis. Ilarbauld's posthumous papers. 
 BARN ARD, Frederick AugustusPorter, 
 LL. II.. was born at Sheffield, Mass.. May 5., 
 
 was tutor there in 1830*, and. subsequently! 
 teacher ill the asylum for the deaf and dumb 
 at Hartford, and in that of New York. From 
 IsliT to 1848, he was professorof mathematics 
 and natural philosophy in the university of Ala- 
 bama, and afterward of chemistry and natural 
 history till L854,in which year he took orders in 
 the Protestant Episcopal church. Ee was pro- 
 
 1 chancellor 
 
 he resigned, in I860, 
 
 to observe the 
 
 idol, and in the 
 
 f money have 
 e. discussions 
 
 K t 1858tol86i 1 1 8 when he 6 
 
 i f breadth 
 
 u'taieeh^'.'f':!, °Kuf? L 
 
 fchera! Lngoi 
 and universal 
 
 same year was elect* I pn adi 
 
 Association for the Advancei 
 
 was one of th iginal mem 
 
 Academy of Sci -. p 
 
 iventioii was 
 
 1863 1 he was in charge ol 
 
 ISele 
 
 L864, which office It 
 1867 was one of the United 
 ers to the Paris exposition, 
 a member of various learne 
 
 (if, 
 
 cut space here for their enumeration. 
 BARBAULD, Anna Beetitia, an Ki 
 
 principal of an academy in l.anca>liiiv 
 g.reat pains in educating Ins children. 
 
 Iture (1854) ; History of the United States 
 ast Survey (1857); University Education 
 
BARNARD 
 
 (1858); Undulatory Theory of Light (1862) ; I 
 'Machinery and Processes of the Industrial Arts, 
 etc. (1868); and Metric System of Weights and 
 Measures (1871). 
 
 BARNARD, Henry, LL. D., was bom in 
 Hartford. <'t.. in lsll. He graduated limn Yale 
 College in L830 with honor, his course having 
 been marked by diligence and success in the 
 classics and an unusual devotion to English 
 literature. The next Ave years were devoted 
 chiefly to the study of the law, joined to a dili- 
 gent reading of the best English and cl a ss i cal 
 authors. During this period, he taught Bchool 
 for a time, and toward its close spent Borne 
 
 BASEDOW 
 
 ::; 
 
 anil, in 1 S."i(I, In- commenced I he | ml ilir.it inn of the 
 American journal of Education. From 1857 
 to 1859, he was chancellor of the university of 
 Wisconsin, and in 1865 6 president of St. 
 
 nnal schools. Ai 
 
 NationalEdue 
 
 foot through England 
 land, devoting his atte 
 condition of the peot 
 
 r,„, 
 
 ual, and moral condition of the people engaged 
 his attention, embracing the education of the 
 deaf and dumb, and the blind, the care of the 
 poor and insane, the reorganization of county 
 prisons, the establishment of public libraries, and 
 the completion of the geological survey of the 
 state. His great work was the originating and 
 securing the passage of an "Act to provide 
 for the better supervision of common schools," 
 
 which created a I rd of commissioners, whose 
 
 duty it was to investigate the condition of the 
 schools, and to endeavor to improve them by ad- 
 dresses, lectures, correspondence, the publication 
 of a journal, and the recommendation of appro- 
 
 and Mihlaru Sr/„„,U llsCl'l. 
 
 BASEDOW, Johann Bernhard, the found- 
 er of the Philanthropin, was born in Hamburg, 
 
 happy, owing to the excessive severity of his 
 father and the habitual melancholy of his 
 mother. While Still a boy. he ran away from 
 
 foolish tricks. In L741,hewent to the gymnasium 
 of Hamburg, where Reimarus, the famous author 
 of the WolfenbvMel Fragments, was among his 
 teachers. While there, be had to support him- 
 self by giving private lessons and writing occa- 
 sional poems; but a large portion of the money 
 which he earned was spent in debauchery, and 
 hisown studies were conducted without system 
 
 ,.r ih. 
 
 ular education in the United States,he was a] 
 
 pointed commissi t of public schools iii Rhod 
 
 Island, an office which he bad been instruments 
 in creating. In five years he organized an ej 
 cellent system of popular education, and on n 
 tiring from office, in consequence of ill healtl 
 in L849,he received the unanimous thanks of th 
 state legislature. During this period bepublishe 
 several volumes relating to the schools i 
 Rhode Island, and edited (1845 9) the Jam 
 
 Kro,'„ \-- .',.. I -V|',"he was principal' ,'f 7h 
 
 again editing the Com mm, S,-h,„il .limrinil. In 
 L855, he was chosen president of the American 
 Association for the Advancement of Education, 
 
 d wl 
 
 worked .nit for his pupils a new method of 
 studying languages, an account of which be has 
 given in ,i Latin dissertation, entitled " Deinusi- 
 taia <■/ optima honestioris juventutis erudiendw 
 methodo" (Kiel, 1752 . Berr von Quaalen, who 
 was much pleased with the results of Basedow's 
 
 el l|„ 
 
 ■al 
 
 , for '. h i was obliged, in 1761, 
 
 to remove to the gymnasium of Altona. Here, 
 
 two other li.-t, r..d..-; publications. I'bi/a/rthiaand 
 Methodical Instruction in both Natural and 
 Biblical Ri'/igion, involved hiin in a ■>. re con 
 troversy with several theologians, among other's 
 
u 
 
 BASEDOW 
 
 Senior Gbtze of Hamburg, and caused him and 
 his family to be excluded from the Communion. 
 Tu I 767, he conceived a comprehensive plan for a 
 radical reform of public c lucatiou. and soon suc- 
 ceeded in secnriii". the support of the Danish 
 minister Dernstorff, who relieved him from the 
 dut s of bis position, and granted him a salary 
 ot eight hundred tlialers. in 171)8, he pub- 
 lished the Address to the Philanthropists and 
 Men of Property, upon Schools and Studies, 
 andtheir Influence upon : Public Weal i Vor- 
 stellung an Menschenfn nd etc.) with the 
 plan of an elementary work on human knowl- 
 edge. He applied to many princes, governments, 
 ecclesiastical dignitaries, trccinasons lodges, and 
 other learned men and ■ societies, to aid him in 
 the publication of the elementary work which lie 
 proposed; and the success of these applications 
 was so great, that, in 1771 .contributions amount- 
 ing to more than Slll.iHMi had been received. As 
 the first part of the proposed Elementarwerk, 
 Basedow published, in L770, Methodenbuch (book 
 <>f iiirllnuls), of which a sec nd edition appeared 
 in 1771. and a third in 1773. The chapter on 
 Education of Princes, was omitted in the second 
 edition of the work, and having been revised 
 •• with a care worthy of the subject," it was pub- 
 lished in 1771, as a separate work, under the 
 title of AgaOwcrator. Prince Albert of Dessau 
 sent the author, in return for a copy of this 
 book, ion (balers; and the emperor Joseph 11., 
 a medal with his portrait. At the same time. 
 Basedow received from the ruling prince of Des- 
 sau Leopold Frederic Francis, a call to Dessau, 
 to earn in In- plan ot a large reformatory edu- 
 cational institution. Having, accordingly, re- 
 moved to Dessau, he published there, in 1771, 
 his long expected Elementarwerk, in 1 vols., 
 illustrated with one hundred plates, mostly en- 
 graved by ( 'boilow iecky. The object of this hook 
 is as Basedow himself remarks, (1) Elementary 
 instruction in the know-ledge of world and things ; 
 (2) An original method, f tded upon experience, 
 
 loss of thiic . vnm-a I knowledge; i-li Knowl- 
 edge of morals, the mind, and reasoning; (5) A 
 thorough and impressive method of instruction 
 in natural religion, with a perfectly impartial ac- 
 count of dogmatic arricle- of belief; and (6) A 
 knowledge of social duties, of commerce, etc 
 This work was translated into Latin l>\ Mangels- 
 dorf, and into French by I [uber. 
 
 The foundation of the educational institution 
 which became famous in history as the Philan- 
 "', rop \ i laid in Dessau, Dec. '-'7.. 177-1. 
 The prince of Dessau gave the building, a 
 garden, and $12,000. The object of the in- 
 stitution was to supply a model school in 
 which the principles of the Elementarwerk 
 could be applied to practical methods. Poor 
 pupils were received at reduced rates, under the 
 name of famulants. In 177A the number of 
 boarders was nine, and of famulants six. Many 
 of the prominent scholars and educators of the 
 tune, a K a nt . ( Ibeilin , Nicolai, and Zollicoffer. 
 took a prof d interest in this novel institution. 
 
 BATES COLLEGE 
 
 which, as Basedow promised, was to lie free from 
 sectarian bias and to be carried on without a re- 
 sori to corporal punishment ; gymnastic exercises 
 were to be afforded and the wink of learning was 
 to be made •■three tunes as short, and three 
 I ones as easy as it usually is. " The expectations 
 raised by Basedow's enthusiastic announcements 
 and promises were, however, not realized. As 
 early as Dec, 1771. Basedow was obliged to 
 transfer the supreme management of the institu- 
 tion to Campe, under whom the number of 
 pupils rose to 50. For a short time, Basedow 
 was again placed at the head of the institution; 
 but. in 1778, he had finally to leave it. In 1784, 
 the periodical of the Philanthropin, entitled Ped- 
 agogical Conversations (Die pddagogisclien re- 
 time, the institution declined rapidly, and was 
 soon entirely abandoned. The teachers, however, 
 were scattered through all parts of Germany, ap- 
 plying in various ways the principles of the 
 founder. Basedow devoted the last years of his 
 life to writing theological and educational works. 
 He died, July 25., 1790, ai Magdeburg. His last 
 words were, "I desire to be dissected for the 
 benefit of my fellow-men." Like Rousseau, 
 Basedow gave a powerful impulse to the discus- 
 sion of new educational theories : and he re- 
 sembled Rousseau, too, in being entirely unfitted 
 for a practical educator. There was much in 
 his method of teaching that appeared strange. 
 eccentric, and even farcical: but, on the other 
 hand, those who most severely criticise his defects, 
 readily acknowledge that his life-long labors in 
 behalf of education were not in vain. His pur- 
 pose was, without doubt, honest and unselfish. 
 Like Rousseau, he labored ardently, and with 
 consi lirable success, for the removal of many un- 
 natural restraints, which, at that time, were SO 
 common. Physical education, according to his 
 system, was attended to in a maimer unite original 
 at that time; and the favorite principle of Base- 
 dow that the scholars should learn with love, and 
 not with repugnance, had a most beneficent in- 
 fluence upon the practical methods of other 
 educational institutions. — Sec Radmeb, Ge- 
 schichte (ler Pddagogik, vol. n. (translated in 
 Barnard's German Educational Reformers); 
 Max Mui.i.ki; (grandson of Basedow! in Alh/f- 
 meine Deutsche Biographie, art. Basedow; 
 Meykii. Character und Schriften Basedow's 
 VI vols.. Hamburg, L791- L792); Quit k, Edu- 
 cational Reformers (London. 1868, and Cin- 
 cinnati. 1874). 
 
 BATES COLLEGE, at Lewiston. Mr., was 
 established in L863, by the Free Baptists, and 
 named in honor of Benjamin B. Bates of Boston, 
 who contributed S'jou.ooo to its endowment. It 
 has handsome grounds, three fine college build- 
 ings, and a president's residence. The value of 
 its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is about 
 $200,000. In 1874, it had a corps of 8 instruct- 
 ors, and KM) students in the different college 
 classes, of whom 3 were females. Nine different 
 schools and academies act as preparatory schools 
 for this college. There is here an endowed schol- 
 
BELGIUM 
 
 75 
 
 .arship for a lady student, supposed to be the first 
 instance of such an appropriation in any of the 
 
 college 
 
 scho 
 
 IV, 1 
 
 the abbot Benedict Biscop, in Wearmouth, he 
 devoted all his energies to the study of the Scrip- 
 tures, and occupied his spare time in learning, 
 
 in\\"'~uZJu\\'n?\\\;lnXnh m Mudy al,,l 
 
 t.-JI.-l.il..-. MndacuUircda 'All, IvmilallM, 1:1:11. -IS 
 
 )f J. 
 
 the children of those who have fallen in defcn.- 
 of their country, and always to those who at 
 indigent and meritorious. There is a professo 
 ship of mental and moral philosophy, name 
 after As, Reddington, I.I,. D., of Lewiston, wh 
 gave a large amount toward its endowmen 
 The ( lobb professorship of logic 
 evidence was named ii 
 of Lewiston, who contributed the chief portion 
 of the funds for its endowment. The various 
 libraries, — college, theological, and societies', con- 
 tain about 9.(100 volumes. The president of the 
 institution is (1876) Rev. 0. B. Cheney, D. D. 
 The annual tuition fee is $36. 
 
 BAVARIA. See Germany. 
 
 BAYLOR UNIVERSITY, at Independ- 
 ence, Tex., was founded in 1 Me by the Baptists. It 
 had. in 1874, a corps of 5 instructors, 2 endowed 
 professorships, 81 students, and a library of about 
 3.0011 volumes. It has a theological as well as a 
 collegiate department. The value of itsgrounds, 
 buildings, etc. is estimal 
 
 i : its endow- 
 ii. I !. I 'nine. 
 it. The an- 
 
 BEACH GROVE COLLEGE, at Bead 
 Grove, Tenn., was founded in L868. Itliad.it 
 1874, a corps of 5 instructors, and 106 students 
 in its preparatory, and 18 in its collegiate depart- 
 ment. Its -round., college buildings, and ap- 
 paratus are valued at $30,000. M. Parker, A 
 
 BEBIAN, Roch Ambroise Auguste, a 
 noted teacher of deaf-mutes, was born on the 
 island of Guadeloupe, in 1789, and died there in 
 1834, lie was godson of the abb- Sicard,so 
 celebrated for his efforts in behalf of the instruc- 
 tion of deaf-mutes, and undi r him was prepared 
 for the task which he afterwards assumed. After 
 the publication in 1817, of his Essai sur les 
 
 appointed a professor al the royal institution: 
 but the jealousy and opposition excited toward 
 him by his zeal for innovation and reform, com- 
 pelled him to resign, in 1825, after which he re- 
 turned to Guadeloupe. 1 1 i / - , historiq ■ rf< 
 
 emy. Bis other important publications are, Mima 
 graphie, I ■ ■ mimique , 1822) 
 
 and Manui '. (fenseign n pro iqw 1827 . 
 
 BEDE, or Beda, styled the venerable Bede 
 a celebrated Saxon ecclesiastic and scholar, and 
 the earliest English historian, was born in Dur 
 
 ot Ins method >,t teaching, n 
 but it consisted, without doub 
 students. There is no doub 
 an attractive delivery, and th 
 
 diction may be seen from 1 
 11 is st u, lies' were, by no means 
 
 . of lectures to the 
 that he possessed 
 
 ! excellence of his 
 
 is literary works. 
 , confined to theol- 
 
 from bis work on orthographj 
 arte metrica, Liber de schetm 
 scripturae, and De natura 
 
 -cieiice. as we see 
 and his works De 
 tis et tropis sacra, 
 rerum, the latter 
 
 treating uJ phv-de-,. a.stionom 
 
 ■ and gcogiapl.y. 
 
 History (f the English Nation, written in Latin 
 [Historia Eodesiastica Gentis Anglorum), was 
 translated into Anglo-vSaxon by King Alfred, 
 and is still the best authority for the period on 
 which it treats. Bede's complete works, as far 
 as extant, have been published by Dr. Giles 
 (London, 1843— 1844). A new English trans- 
 lation appeared in 1871.- See also Wriqht, Bio- 
 graphia Britannica Literaria, vol. i. (London. 
 
 BELGIUM, a kingdom of Europe, has an 
 area of 11,373 sq. m., and a population, in 1873, 
 of 5,253,821. Almost the entire population be- 
 longs nominally to the Roman Catholic Church. 
 The number of Protestants is variously estimated 
 
 while the Walloons h 
 incesof Liege (S9.6 
 N'amur (99.1 p. a), i 
 The country constitu 
 
 Hid the Walloon. an 
 fhe Flemings are 
 cent of the popula- 
 
 i sof BastFlan- 
 
 d population), Ant- 
 
 (88,8 p. a), West 
 rabant (56,1 p. c), 
 ajoritj in the prov- 
 
 linaull (95.8 p. c . 
 emburg 84.7 p. e.j. 
 pre.-, -ut kingdom of 
 
 literary ability. His biography, written by his 
 
 niil Cuthbert, says of him, that having been 
 ught by his relations, in his seventh year, to | 
 
 gundy, conjointly with which it was inherited by 
 the king's of Spain. The peace of Utrecht ( I 713) 
 gave it to Austria, from which, in I7'J4, it was 
 
76 
 
 conquered by the French. On Napoleon's abdi- 
 cation in 1*14. it was united with Holland, with 
 which it remained until 1830, -when • 
 revolution established its independence. The 
 first schools after tin- introduction of < Ihristian- 
 ilv were connected with convents and collegiate 
 churches, and some of them, as the schools of 
 Liege, Gemblours, Dornick, Ghent, etc., achieved 
 a high reputation. Elementary schools were 
 established in many places by the monastic order 
 
 schools of Kun.pe. and at one time was attended 
 by 6000 students. During the Dutch rule, a 
 thorough system of inspection, reports, and full 
 publicity, was instituted: a normal school was 
 established at Liege in 1817, and in L822 all per- 
 sons were forbidden to exercise the functions of 
 
 schools who were not authorized by a central 
 board of examination. <>n the other hand, how- 
 ever, the efforts of the Hutch governmenl to re- 
 press the use of the French language and the in- 
 fluence of the Roman Catholic Church, produced 
 
 an intense and general di— atidaction. mid 1 ame 
 
 one of tin' primary < an- ■- ot the revolution of 
 
 in every large city. Tn 1 Soil, this class of schools 
 was changed into secondary schools. The schools 
 are managed by the communal council, and the 
 
 ies of a normal school. They must receive a 
 certificate of qualification from a. board consist- 
 ing of a lav and a clerical member, the former 
 appointed by the state and the latter by the ec- 
 clesiastical authorities. The communal council 
 may suspend the teacher for three months, the 
 provincial inspector may. on consultation with 
 
 I S.",(l. 
 from 
 Dutel 
 
 Hutch government In the place of the strict 
 
 control of the entir lueational system by the 
 
 state, the most absolute freedom of instruction 
 was now introduced. The clergy founded a 
 number of schools, which remained under the 
 exclusive control of the church, while the Liberal 
 
 the communal council. dismiss linn. I lie inspec- 
 tion of primary schools is exercised both by the 
 state government and the ecclesiastical author- 
 ities. The king appoints a cantonal inspector 
 for each canton, and a provincial inspector for 
 each of the nine provinces. The cantonal in- 
 spector is appointed for the term of three years. 
 He must visit each school of his district at least 
 twice a year, and report to the provincial inspect- 
 or. The latter must visit each school at least 
 oncea year, and report to the minister of the in- 
 terior. All the provincial inspectors assemble 
 once a year as a central commission, under the. 
 presidency of the ministerof the interior. The 
 bishops also appoint cantonal and diocesan in- 
 spectors, and must once a year report to the 
 minister of the interior on the state of moral 
 and religious instruction. In the Protestant and 
 Jewish school., a delegate of the consistory super- 
 intends the religious instruction. The govern- 
 ment annually publish, s a li.-t of text books that 
 
 party 
 
 sun-mid in 
 
 scl 1 system. In 1836, a 
 
 colli] 
 
 ro'mise betweei 
 
 church and state was ar- 
 
 livci 
 
 mtlu 
 
 at. The cover 
 
 lav upon the st 
 
 iment "aye to the clergy an 
 ite schools, while the church 
 
 subji 
 
 •ted all its sell 
 
 >ols which r. iced support 
 
 from 
 
 fund 
 
 the . 
 
 .to the inspect 
 
 the government, or public 
 in of the state. Since 1865, 
 ion has been the subject of 
 
 a vei 
 
 y animated com 
 
 roversy between the liberal 
 
 and 
 
 he Catholic par 
 
 ies. The Liberals founded 
 Liffue de Vemeignemeni, 
 
 from 
 
 
 ncipating the state schools 
 the church. 
 ion is based on the law of 
 
 normal schools 
 school at Lierre, 
 
 There are. besid 
 
 This 
 
 lllest 
 
 division of the statel must have at least one public 
 elementary school, unless the instruction of all the 
 children is sufficiently provide! for to the satis- 
 faction of il vi riimcnt.in private, endowed, or 
 
 denominational scl Is. Tl lementary school 
 
 must be free to the | ', and may be made free 
 
 to all by vote of the communal council. The 
 I iri 1 1 1. 1 1 \ chool must give instruction in religion 
 and morals, in writing, in the mother-tongue of the 
 children (French or Flemish), and in arithmetic. 
 The law provides for a superior elementarj school 
 
 sections, one tol 
 
 responds to the 
 six years, and 
 
 onferences, generally occupying only 
 ml never more than three, are held 
 urine vacations. and conducted by the 
 
 dinl850. 
 
 Ies. The 
 
 ludes two 
 Inch cor- 
 ind is for 
 
 struetion. 
 amy. and 
 
 ice oi sec 
 
 inspectoi 
 
 of L850 
 
 an instruction 
 
 [conseil de peifectionnement), consisting of at 
 
BELGIUM 
 
 least 8 and not more than 10 members. The 
 highesl grade of instruction is that dispensed by 
 the univeisities. Of these, there are four. Two. 
 those of Ghent and Liege, belong to the state; 
 one, that of Louvain,to the bishops; and one. 
 that of Brussels, lo an a soriation of liberals. 
 Ghent, Liege, and Brussels have each four facul- 
 
 Iil-'.IL 
 
 77 
 
 studio 
 
 latter class has increased since L851 by 1 ,098, the 
 former only l.iv U'-l. 'I 'he schools for adults nuin- 
 lieivd l:i:i,!i:>7' pupils, !l.21!l more than in Isls. 
 being o.! 1 * per cent of the population. The 
 aggregate expenditures made for primary instruc- 
 tion, in 1874, were as follows: national govern- 
 
 nt. 6,643,415 francs: provinces l.X.MHl fr. ; 
 
 communes .->.m;3.:.61 fr. ; total 14.0!mi.;im; fr. 
 To what extent illiteracy still prevails may U- 
 
 ■"*"/" 
 
 ■vd to 
 
 rectors and 8 professors of the 
 1 fro n cadi faculty |, the schoi 
 some private individuals, lndu 
 is given in institutions of tlnvi 
 instruction, in the special schi 
 manufactures and mines, attai 
 vcrsity of Liege, in those of i 
 and of arts and manufactures, 
 University of Client, and in the superior in- 
 stitute of commerce at Antwerp; intermediate 
 instruction in the industrial departments at- 
 tached to all the athenaeums and high schools ; 
 primary instruction, in the industrial schools for 
 workmen. The latter are very numerous, lace- 
 making alone being taught in 586sehools. There 
 is a military school tor training otlicei-s of all 
 arms, regimental schools for the instruction of ig- 
 norant soldiers, ami a school for the education of 
 soldiers' children. There are '.' vetei inai yschools, 
 
 painting, sculpture, and architecture, a national 
 observatory, 2 schools for deaf-mutes, I for the 
 blind, 6 for orphans, and 3 for young criminals. 
 
 Education in Belgium is not compulsory, and 
 the number of children receiving no kind of in- 
 struction is still large. Of the 'conscripts there 
 were, in 1845,391 out of L000, who could neither 
 read nor write: in lsii.'i. .'{Il'_». 
 
 The salaries of primary teachers were fixed by 
 a law of 1863 as follows: (1) in schools with 
 more than 100 scholars, minimum salary 1,050 
 francs; (21 in scl Is with from 60 to 100 schol- 
 ars. 950 francs; (3) in schools with less than 
 60 scholars, 850 francs. The chief town of c\ 
 
 _-t that. 
 for th. 
 
 1,31 I 
 
 province has a special 
 i caisse de prevoyance 
 is required annually to 
 from his salary, and w 
 tions from the provini 
 individuals. Every t 
 
 bank for teachers 
 ,-ery teacher 
 xed amount 
 es contribu- 
 and private 
 who is sixty years 
 
 old and has served thirty years is entitle,! to a 
 life pension. The fidl pension of teachers is also 
 paid to their widows and to their orphans till the 
 latid have reached their L6th year. 
 
 Of the four universities of lielgium, the free 
 Catholic University of I/mvaiii had. in 187'-', 
 the largest number of students (901); the free 
 {liberal) University of Brussels had 583; the 
 State University at Liege 436, and the State 
 University of Ghent 210 ; the Royal Academy 
 of Fine Arts at Antwerp, 1576 students. The 
 Conservatory of Music at I Srussels was attended 
 by 675 pupils, that of Liege by 7 s '.). The number 
 of teachers in the primary schools, in 1*7 I. was 
 10,629, of whom 7,032 were laymen, and 3,597 
 members of religious orders and clerics. The 
 
 "ens . • - trots degres; Annuaire stati- 
 
 BELL, Andrew, 1*. D., a distinguished edu- 
 cationist, the author of the system of mutual 
 or monitorial instruction sometimes called the 
 Mm/nis si/sli-ni, was horn at St. Andrews, Scot- 
 land, in 1753, and died at Cheltenham. England, 
 in L832. lie was educated at the University 
 of St. Andrews, went to America, and after a 
 short residence there, returned and took orders in 
 the Episcopal Church. In 17*7, he embarked 
 for India, and on his arrival at Madras, was ap- 
 pointed chaplain to the English garrison, and also 
 superinb ndenl of the school then recently estab- 
 lished for the education of the orphan children 
 of I'.iitidi ,-oldi. r-. I " : i . . 1 1 1 . ■_ e|v,,i difficulty in 
 obtaining the as istance of competent teachers 
 in this arduous work, he resorted to the expedi- 
 ent of conducting the school by means of the 
 pupils themselves. This method was partly 
 suggested to his mind by his seeing, on one of 
 
 his i iimg rides, the children of a Malabar 
 
 school sitting on the ground and writing with 
 their fingers in sand. He immediately intro- 
 duced this method of teacliing the alphabet into 
 his school, and finding the ushers averse to the 
 innovation, gave the A B < '-class to a boy whom 
 he selected as especially lifted for the task. This 
 boy, whose name was John Frisken, and who 
 was probably the first monitor in English educa- 
 tion, was the son of a soldier, and then about 
 eight years old. The success of this lad induced 
 Dr. I Sell to extend the experiment. He appointed 
 
 other boys to teach the lower classes : and s 
 
 afterwards applied his system of monitors to tin- 
 whole school (1791). This was continued under 
 his superintendence till his return to Europe, in 
 L796. (See Monitorial System.) Vfb c hi 
 arrival in England, he drew up a full report of 
 his school, w Inch was published in London, in 
 L797. under the title of An Experiment in 
 Education, made at the Male Asylum, Madras; 
 
 
 h„ whit 
 
 ■„)„Prth, 
 
 Of the Master or Pur,„t. This pamphlet at- 
 tracted little attention, until, through the efforts 
 of Joseph Lancaster, the monitorial system of 
 instruction invented by him was introduced into 
 
78 
 
 BELL 
 
 the schools of the Dissenters. A controversy as 
 to the respective merits of the systems of Bell 
 and Lancaster then sprung up, the friends 
 and adherentsof each claiming for it not only 
 superiority in merit, but priority of invention. 
 The idea of mutual instruction was, however, 
 not new. Indeed, it is as old as Lycurgus ; and 
 Lancaster was too candid a man to claim an ab- 
 solute originality for his plan. In his first pam- 
 phlet, published in 1803, he says : " I ought not 
 to close my account without acknowledging the 
 obligations I lie under to Dr. Bell : I much re- 
 gret that I was not acquainted with the beauty 
 
 of his system till somewhat advaj I in mj 
 
 plan. If I had known it, it would have saved 
 me much trouble and some retrograde move- 
 ments." This controversy was as much sectarian 
 as educational, as the rival systems were favored, 
 the one by the I >isseiiters. and the other by \U • 
 Church of England. It. however, served a use- 
 fid purpose, in giving an impetus to the progress 
 of education. In 1811, a society, called the 
 Xn'i',1 m' Sifirt,/. was formed for the establish- 
 ment of schools in connection with the Church 
 of England, on Dr. Bell's plan; and I >r. Bell 
 was appointed to superintend the enterprise, a 
 duty which engrossed much of his time ami ef- 
 fort's until his death. By this means, the Madias 
 .system obtained an introduction not only in 
 England, but in Scotland and Ireland, as well 
 as in some parts of the United States. For the 
 purpose of bringing it to the notice of educators 
 on the continent. Dr. Bell made an extensive 
 tour, in the course of which he visited the schools 
 of I'cstalozzi and Fellenberg, with the former of 
 whom he was quite charmed, "lie has much 
 that is original, he remarked, " much that is ex- 
 cellent. If he had a course of study — if he 
 were to dismiss his masters, and adopt the 
 monitorial system and the principle of emu- 
 lation, he would be super-excellent." In the 
 mean time, the analogous system of I,ancastcr 
 had been carried into effect in numerous schools 
 cstabli.-heil l.\ .-in association of I >i-., i , i , j - ,-i\ I, 1 
 The British and For ign S '- Society; an I 
 much active rivalry existed between the two so- 
 cieties. (See Lancaster, Joseph.) During his life, 
 
 Dr. Bell received several lucrative offices in the 
 Church, from which he was enabled to amass a 
 large fortune. The whole of this, amounting to 
 £120,000, he bequeathed to various towns in his 
 native country for the endowment of schools. He 
 founded Madras College, at St. Andrews, and a 
 lectureship, at Edinburgh 1 'niversity, on the prin- 
 ciples of teaching, and on the monitorial system. 
 On his death.in 1832, he was buried in Westmin- 
 ster Abbey, the highest dignitaries of the Church 
 and many distinguished noblemen attending as 
 
 mourners. An elegant mo m marl ■ b 3 
 
 resting-place, with an inscription in which he is 
 characterized as the "Author of the Madras 
 System."— See Southet, Life of the Rev. An- 
 drew Bell, D.D. (Load., 1844); the Edinburgh 
 Review, vol. xxxnx; Leitch, Practical Educa- 
 tionists and their Systems of Teaching (Glas- 
 gow, 1876). 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES 
 
 BELLES-LETTRES is a French expres- 
 sion for polite literature, i. e., books and language 
 in so far as they are shaped by the idea of beau- 
 ty. It has been used in English to designate a 
 somewhat vague class of studies connected, more 
 or less nearly, with the mastery of literature on 
 its esthetic side. Some of the colleges in the 
 United States have had a professor of belles- 
 
 ttres. lb- has taught rhetoric and elocution 
 mainly: but poetry, drama, prose fiction, criti- 
 cism, classical philology, the humanities in gen- 
 eral, are all in his province. Blair's Rhetoric was 
 long widely used as a text-book in this branch ; 
 and several editions of it are still kept in print. 
 — Esthetics (the science of beauty) and philol- 
 ogy have, of late years, made great advance and 
 new text-books are needed to set forth modern 
 methods of studying literature and language, so 
 as to understand their beauties. The elements 
 of the study should be taught early. In the 
 kindergarten or other infant school, the children 
 should be taught to admire ami examine beau- 
 tiful objects, to notice the qualities which give 
 them beauty, to name the object- and the qual- 
 ities ; they should be told anecdotes in which 
 beautiful persons do beautiful acts, and the 
 words expressive of beauty should be spoken 
 with tones and gestures which may give them 
 lively associations and a permanent place in the 
 memory; passages of verse or rhythmical prose 
 in which beautiful thoughts arc fittingly ex- 
 pressed, and of which the teacher is fond, should 
 lie repeated till they are caught by the pupils. 
 Such passages may be among the noblest of our 
 literature. It is not necessary that they should 
 be wholly comprehended by the learners. They 
 may be regarded as music, producing compar- 
 atively vague intellectual processes, but quick- 
 ening powerfully the emotional element of es- 
 thetic culture. Language and literature should 
 lead the youth of cultured races to a more rapid 
 development than the natural growth of the 
 understanding. Beautiful and noble words thus 
 learned by heart will serve as molds in which 
 the expanding intellect may flow and form. This 
 early oral instruction may be happily aided by 
 learning to read in illustrated books, in which 
 beautiful pictures are made to interpret and en- 
 force the thought. Some of the magazines for 
 children afford such aid in a good form; such 
 as The Nursery (Boston); St. Nicholas (N.Y.). 
 ( hildrcn taught in this way will be ready to 
 pursue the study of belles-lettres when they 
 have learned to read with ease. The simplest 
 method used in our schools is the reading in 
 class of selections of characteristic works of the 
 most admired authors in our own and other 
 
 icon Authors (Boston ; '/'v/-/e,,/ ,v. ', ,/;,,,,,< /'rum 
 the best English Authors from the K'./A to the 
 [9th Century (Clarendon Press, Oxford!; most 
 
 series of School Headers have a cla.-s I hot' 
 
 literature, and some of them are well selected 
 
BELLES-LBTTEES 
 
 70 
 
 and arranged. The kind of beauty earliest appre- I 
 ciated is that of adventure. .Short stories please; 
 such as fables and parables. The style must be 
 simple, the movement rapid. Lyrics or orations [ 
 expressing tender or noble feelings come next. 
 The appreciation of epic and romantic narrative 
 will grow rapidly: minute delineation of char- 
 acter, the drama, and the modern novel will then 
 follow, and finally descriptions of works of art, 
 scenery, and nature. The liking for innate lan- 
 guage, figures of speech, rhythmical effects, and 
 other arts of style, generally 1 ds special culti- 
 vation to make it strong in young readers. 
 Whatever be the passages chosen to read, the 
 teacher aiming to give instruction in belles- 
 lettres will direct the attention of the class to 
 beautiful thoughts, figures, and expressions, and 
 will have them read with care and expression, 
 so as to bring out the thought and feeling 
 of each passage. He may also mention criti- 
 cisms which have been made on the passage, 
 tell of occasions on which it has been quoted or 
 imitated, quote similar passages in other authors 
 or the same author, and have parts committed I 
 to memory. In such studies, more is caught 
 than taught. The teacher must feel the beauties 
 and communicate the feeling by looks and tones. 
 Pupils who read with expression should also be 
 used to heighten ihe interest of the exercise. A 
 single good reader will often stimulate a whole 
 
 class. Comment and critici 
 
 sm should be mainly 
 
 used for pointing out beau 
 
 ies,and exciting ad- 
 
 miration for them. \ i : ■ 
 
 •iative rea |i ■ com- 
 
 ment, and memorizing may 
 
 thus be made a ile- 
 
 lightful introduction to lite 
 
 ature, leading natur- 
 
 ally to further study in twi 
 
 main directions, 
 
 the historical and ill i philosi 
 
 ihieal. The historical 
 
 is the easier in its beginnino 
 
 ( louraes of lectures 
 
 on the history ol literal ure 
 
 nd text booksgiving 
 
 materia] for In-: irical and 1 
 
 iographii al study in 
 
 connection with selections 
 
 i ii r i ling, are to 
 
 be had. ( Ilb\ eland's Com 
 
 .„■■',■ ! of English 
 
 Literature (N. Y.) include. 
 
 the most eminent 
 
 authors from Sir John Ma 
 
 uleville to Cowper. 
 
 The same author has publis 
 
 led similar works on 
 
 the Literature of thel9th C 
 
 ntery,andon Aimer- 
 
 icon Literature (X. Y.). Somewhat like them 
 are Shaw's History and Specimens of English 
 Literature (edition by Backus, N. Y.) ; and 
 Chambers's Manual of English Literature. 
 
 Larger works for the teacher and for reference 
 are Chambers's ( lyclopaidiaqf English Literature 
 (N. Y.); and Dcvckinck's i 'i/r/,,/„n/i,i of Amer- 
 ican Literature (Phila.); and indispensable to the 
 thorough teacher is Ai.i.ii;onf,'s Itiiiiimnrii <>f 
 Authors I Phila.), which is a great store house of 
 biography, bibliography, and criticism gleaned 
 from many sources, and quoted at length. With 
 these aids, the student of belles-lettres must be 
 led to point out how each successive beauty in 
 the passages which are read is related to the 
 character, education, and times of the author: 
 and by well-directed study he may acquire, in 
 time, clear ideas of the representative works of 
 literary art in the great eras of history, — first of 
 English history, then of the history of other 
 
 nations. This will require the reading of many 
 more hooks than can usually be read in school. 
 The teacher should, however, see that many are 
 read, This can best be done by requiring writ- 
 ten exeri tses of such a kind as to assure him of 
 the fact without taking much of his time. He 
 may have brief outlines of stories handed in, 
 as, of some of the Canierbx ry 71 -, oi thegist 
 of the critical views ol some author on a partic- 
 ular point, as Coleridge's in regard to Hamlet; or 
 
 Or he may ask for biograpl I facts on which 
 
 works of art are based ; as, what events in Mil- 
 Ion's life suggested passages in Parai it Lost 
 
 o,,^K!r,a'Xiiii!n^mital',^pmd,n.,o!!'!l.''to 
 
 be sure, what is to be expected of the young stu- 
 dents of belles-lettres; but they should use their 
 
 peiis freely, ill such a way as the authors they ad- 
 mire or their own powers may prompt. If they 
 show signs of talent, the teacher should encourage 
 them. The meters of the poets may easily be 
 im ita nd: and it is only by practice in production 
 thatth ■ el oi tyle are attained or thoroughly 
 
 under,! I. The student of belles-lettres will 
 
 soon learn that the I- nglish is only one among 
 many classic literatures. He will wish to become 
 
 acquai I with Homer, Virgil, and Dante as 
 
 well as with Milton: with Boccacio as well as 
 t lhaucer; Goethe as well as Shakes] eare I le will 
 wish to learn Greek, 1 atin. Italian I rench, Ger- 
 man. (See the articles on these and other lan- 
 guages.) No literature can be mastered without, 
 mastering the language in which d was original- 
 ly written; but much may be done by transla- 
 tions. Several text-books of such selected trans- 
 lations are available : Longfellow's J'orts and 
 Poetry of Europe (Phila.) ; Elton's Specimens 
 of Greek and Roman Poets (PhilaJ : Wright's 
 TheGolden Treasury of ancient Greek Poetry 
 
 (Oxford); Bamage's B tiful Thoughts from 
 
 Greek Authors; same from /.- tin Authors; from 
 German and Spanish; from Frenchand Italian 
 
 L Ion : Angel's French Literature (Phila.); 
 
 I Ieraed - Spanish Art and Literature (Phila.) ; 
 Botta's Universal Literature (Boston); and The 
 Hebrew Poetry in the English Bible. But in 
 order to render this historical study as valuable 
 as possible, it should be accompanied with the 
 critical study of literary works relating to the 
 principles of art. or the laws of beauty. Such 
 study requires a knowledge of descriptive rhet- 
 oric and prosody, and of the technical terms of 
 esthetic criticism ; so that the students may be 
 able to classify and name the facts which come 
 before them, and talk of them with perspicuity. 
 They should, for example, when set to study a 
 beautiful passage, recognize the rhetorical forms 
 which occur in it, such as similes, metaphors, 
 personification, etc ; if it is poetry, they .should 
 recognize the poetical forms, such as the meter, 
 with its management of the feet and caesuras, of 
 rhyme and alliteration ; they should be able to 
 
80 BELLES-LETTRES 
 
 apply the ideas of order, proportion, form, ex- 
 pression, and the like, to single beautiful pas- 
 sages, or to whole works of art. This presup- 
 poses the study of the science of beauty. (See 
 Esthetic Culture.) The most effective general 
 theory of the beautiful, for use in studj of this 
 kind, is that which looks to variety in unity to 
 explain all eminent beauty. Take, for example, 
 Shakespeare's Julius < 'cesar for study, t >n read- 
 ing the tirst scene, let the class point out the 
 variety (1) among the characters, as between 
 the tribune and the populace, between the loud 
 and the gentle tribune, between the simple car- 
 penter and the punning cobbler, and the like ; 
 (2) in the action, — the meeting, the haranguing, 
 the dispersing of the crowd : (3) in the mode of 
 thought, -now comic, now tragic, foolery and elo- 
 quence; (4) in the language, — part prose, part 
 verse, cobbler's puns, tribune's tropes, and the like. 
 Tin, -i :iil\ of \;iriVi\ ilir.'i-ts attention to all the 
 particulars of beauty, the elements by which the 
 sensibilities, always craving novelty, are kepi 
 pleasurably excited. After these elements have 
 been faithfully collected let the pupils seek for 
 the unity by which all this variety is made to 
 gratify the reason. Let them point out the central 
 thought in the play : give an outline of the plot 
 by which the thought is developed; and then 
 show how each scene is necessary to bring out 
 the thought, and bow each character, each event, 
 e.hli |.:irtieiilar beauty, is fitted for its place, and 
 contributes to the one end. Teachers may find 
 such an examination of Milton's I'uradise Lost, 
 in Addison's papers in the Sp tator. Topics 
 
 ..tli 
 
 rlieul:, 
 
 ty of la 
 
 is not all included in the study 
 of it as combined in connected discourse. In 
 single words, also, when we examine their ety- 
 mology and history, much poetry is to be found. 
 This is an interesting department of belles-lettres, 
 and the study of essays in it is a favorite one 
 witli most good teachers of language and liter- 
 ature. Among these, may be mentioned, Trench. 
 On the Study of Words; and Glossary of En* 
 qlish Wurds: and 1)k Vkre. Studies in English 
 (N.T., 1867). These hooks afford many hints 
 which the teacher may use to enliven the study 
 of literature Teachers should also be familiar 
 with critical essays on art, and introduce them 
 to the acquaintance of their pupils; these consti- 
 tute a part of belles-lettres. Such are Ruskin's 
 Lectures on Art, of -which selections have been 
 made foi reading (N. V.); Winckelmann's His- 
 tory of Ancient Art (Boston); Lessing's Laoc- 
 oon (Boston); Jameson's Sacred and Legendary 
 Art [Boston). To these may be added similar 
 
 I ks of criticism on literary art : such as those 
 
 of DeQi i\. ky. Lowell, Emerson; II ikt's Spen- 
 ser and the Fairy Queen (N. V.. 1847); Hud- 
 son's Shakespeare (lioston, 1*51 —('.); Whites 
 Shakespeare's Scholar (N. Y\,1854); Schlegel's 
 Lectures on Literature il'hila.). 
 
 BENEDICTINES 
 
 BELOIT COLLEGE, at Beloit. Wis., was 
 founded bv the < 'ongrcgationalists. in 1S45. In 
 L874, it had a corps of 11 instructors, L46 stu- 
 dents in the preparatory, and (i5 in the collegiate 
 department. and a library of about '.Mil Ml volumes. 
 Its productive funds amount to $120,000, and 
 the value of its "rounds. college buildings, and 
 apparatus, to $90,000. The president oi the in- 
 stitution is (1876) the Rev. A. L. Chapin, D.D. 
 
 BENEDICTINES, Schools of the. The 
 monastic order founded by St. Benedict of Nursia, 
 ,ii the I.. -inning of the 6th century, occupies a 
 prominent place in the early history of education 
 in Christian Europe. Parochial and communal 
 schools could not thrive well at a time when the 
 people tit large felt no desire for education, when 
 the number of teachers was so small, and when 
 the few schools that were established, in connec- 
 tion with the parish churches, had to suffer so 
 much from constant wars. The education offered 
 by the liene.lictine order was. at tirst. intended 
 only for boys who were to enter upon a monastic 
 life. According to the fundamental rule of the 
 order, the separation of the monk from the world 
 should begin as early as possible. Boys, called 
 pueri oblati, were a Imitted when only five years 
 of age. The di i lim wa strict. The rod was 
 used to punish offenses against punctuality and 
 order, and deficiencies in re. Stations; moreserioua 
 re sometimes punished bj the .-. ourge. 
 Latin was a prominent part of the instruction, 
 and almost exclusively the language of conversa- 
 tion. Reading, writing, and the singing of psalms 
 were the prominent subjects of instruction; but 
 the com -e.ilso included rhetoric, dialectics, arith- 
 metic, astronomy, geography, natural science, and 
 medicine. Special attention was given to history, 
 as is proved by the numerous annals and chron- 
 icles i.-Micl from the Benedictine convents. As 
 few schools outside of the Benedictine convents 
 could be found, -which offered equal opportunities 
 for the education of children, the monks were 
 soon requested to admit also boys not devoted to 
 monastic life. These applications came especially 
 from noble and wealthy- families, and were so 
 numerous that it was soon found necessary to 
 provide special rooms, and probably also special 
 courses oi instruction, for each class of boys 
 [sehuhi interiores and exteriores). — The in- 
 struction in the elementary branches was im- 
 parted b\ a teacher called scholaslicus ; in the 
 larger schools and for higher studies, learned 
 monks, called magistri, were appointed, under 
 whose direction other monks, called seniores, 
 acted as assistant teachers. — Many convents of 
 the Benedictine nuns had similar schools for 
 girls, though they were not so numerously at- 
 tended as those of the monks. Somel imes these 
 schools of the convents also admitted boys. 
 With the decay of the liene.lictine order these 
 schools declined. Convent education, after the 
 12th century, did not retain the ascendency 
 which it had formerly enjoyed; and where it was 
 still preferred, it passed to a large extent into the 
 hands of other monastic orders. (See Convent 
 Schools.) 
 
BBNGEL 
 
 8] 
 
 Among the most famous schools of the Bene- 
 dictines, were Monte Casi Bobbio, Rome, and 
 
 Fulda, Fritz 
 I'riim, Lora 
 burg, Korvei 
 In England, 
 
 .,,-. Hersfeld 
 i. Weissenbi 
 
 Mayei 
 y 'and 
 
 s| 
 
 y| 
 
 had a wide-sp 
 
 eadreputaUo 
 
 i. throu 
 
 
 heodore 
 
 ot' Tarsus ;v 
 
 double convi 
 which was fo 
 
 1 his compa 
 it of Wean 
 inded in 673 
 
 tte 
 
 111 
 
 Farrow, 
 
 to Egbert a, 
 pupils the Cf 
 Though the 
 
 i teachers the! 
 ie.) Vork.w 
 ,1 Adelbert, 
 lebrated Ale 
 
 it the beginni 
 
 'ilL.HV 
 
 
 
 ■;, 
 
 \i..ti.v) 
 ch the 
 Idle age, 
 
 
 theeducatioi 
 
 of Call 
 
 oli 
 
 
 was never rei 
 duct a numbe 
 
 overed, they 
 ■ of educatiot 
 
 tilleont 
 al insti 
 
 
 08. At 
 
 present (1876), they have a number of colleges 
 ami gymnasia in the United States, in Austria, 
 Switzerland, and several other countries. 
 
 BENEKE, Friedrich Eduard, an ingenious 
 German writer on the art of education, was born 
 
 at Berlin, Febr. 17.. 1798. 
 and philosophy at the uni\ 
 Berlin, and finally decide 
 wholly to philosophy in ord 
 
 Hestui 
 
 1 t,. d& 
 
 !,,!' 
 
 lleolo-y 
 
 die anil 
 himself 
 
 !.!,)', oi 
 
 "i'i'i 
 
 lose 11 ill V 
 
 at the university of Berlin in 1820, and, placing 
 himself wholly upon the standpoint of empiri- 
 cism and denyingthe possibility of a priori cogni- 
 tions, at once boldly attacked the system of Hegel 
 whoatthat time was all-powerful. The Prus- 
 sian government, in \XT1, deprived him of the 
 right of lecturing at thr university, because 
 as the minister of public worship, Alten- 
 stein, personally explained to him, a philosophy 
 which did not derive everything from the ab- 
 solute, could not lie recognized as a philosophy 
 at all. Beneke removed, in L824, to the university 
 of Gottingen, whence he returned, in 1*27, to 
 Berlin, where he was appointed after the death 
 of Hegel, in L832, extraordinary professor of 
 philosophy. He suddenly disappeared, March 1„ 
 L854, and a year later his corpse was found in the 
 canal at < 'harlottenlmrg. It has never been ascer- 
 tained whether he committed suicide, or whether 
 bis death was caused by an accident Most of 
 the numerous works of Beneke are< if a phili w iph- 
 ical character; as an educational writer, he 
 became first known, in 1835, by a work, entitled 
 Theory of Education and Instruction (Erzie- 
 hungs- und Unterrichtslehre), which made a 
 profound impression among teachers and friends 
 of education. The system of education pro- 
 posed by him is based exclusively on psychology, 
 and he claims for it the character of a wholly 
 empirical science. He found many enthusiastic 
 admirers, one of whom. Dressier (in llcrgang's 
 Realencyclopadie, i, p. 264), says of him: All 
 former achievements in the province of pedagogy 
 
 were surpassed by Beneke. Through him the 
 education of man has gained a character which 
 was formerly unknown — certainty of success. 
 Previous successes were accidental, but the psy- 
 chology of Beneke lias given lis a power over 
 
 published in L836, and entitled Our Uni- 
 ties and irli.tt they need, attracted great 
 
 BENEVOLENCE, good-wi 
 
 ceive a careful cultivation in tl 
 young. < Ihildren, in general. 
 benevolent. Their undevelopei 
 
 their sensibilities should, as much as possible, lie 
 aroused; they should not be subjected to harsh 
 or inconsiderate treatment, and thej should not 
 only read and hear stories that awaken their 
 
 sympathies, but should be made to observe ob- 
 
 well as all distrust that is not based upon indis- 
 putable iaets. The quarrels of children may for 
 this purpose become the means of wholesome 
 discipline in instruction ; sinee the disputants 
 themselves may be made to feel the desirability 
 of mutual forbearance, and their associates, by 
 being brought in to aid in reeoneiline them, may 
 be impressed with the beautiful character of the 
 peace-maker. In the treatment of the lower ani- 
 mals by children, thereis much occasionfor this 
 kind of training ; and the skillful teacher will not 
 fail to make use of the numerous incidents of 
 school life to impress tins virtue upon the child's 
 character. (See Moral Education.) 
 
 BENGEL, Jobann Albrecbt, a celebrated 
 (Jen, .an theologian and educatorin Wurtemberg, 
 was born in 1687, and died in 1752. He is 
 chiefly famous its a theological writer, being well 
 known as one of the most prominent representa- 
 tives of German pietism, lie was, from 1713 to 
 1741, a very successful teacher at a theological 
 seminary at Denkendorf, and while there intro- 
 duced many educational reforms. The course of 
 studies which he drew up for his school, in con- 
 cert with his colleagues, attracted great attention. 
 From an educational point of view, his writings 
 are valuable as illustrating the peculiar position 
 which pietism occupies in the history of German 
 
82 
 
 BENTLEY 
 
 pedagogy. His life was written by his son-in- 
 law. Oh. Burk. — See also Palmer, Evangelische 
 PadagogiJc. 
 
 BENTLEY, Richard, considered the best 
 classical scholar England lias ever produced, was 
 born at Oulton, in Yorkshire, in 1662, and 
 died at Cambridge in 1742. He was educated 
 at Cambridge University, but subsequently, while 
 tutor of the son of Dr. otillingneet, he pursued 
 his classical studies at Oxford. His most cele- 
 brated work was his Dissertation on the Epistles 
 of Phalaris,m which, in controversy with the 
 most eminent scholars and literary men of bis 
 time, he proved that the h'/>is//rx were spurious. 
 ■■This was. "says Holland, "the first great literary 
 war in England;" arid Bentley showed such pro- 
 found scholarship, acute criticism, and masterly 
 logic, that be not only vanquished his opponents, 
 but achieved for himself a reputation throughout 
 Europe. In 1700, he was appointed Master of 
 Trinity College, Cambridge, in which he con- 
 tinued till Ms death : but his arrogance and rapaci- 
 ty involved him in the most bitter and protracted 
 quarrels and lawsuits, and at one time came near 
 ignominiously depriving him of his position. He 
 published critical editions of many classical 
 authors, of great merit and value, among which 
 his Horace was the most elaborate and the most 
 popular. His edition of Milton's Paradise Lost 
 (1732) was, however, quite unworthy of his fame. 
 His edition of Homer he did not live to complete. 
 
 Bentlej didamost valuable service not only to 
 classical scholarship, but to historical criticism, 
 the latter of which he established on a new basis. 
 While as an official he was arbitrary, exacting, 
 and severe, in private life he was courteous and 
 amiable. — See T. H. .Monk, Life of Bentiexj 
 (1830); Hartley Coleridge, Lives of 'Northern 
 
 Worthies [edited by his brother. London, L852); 
 1>f. QtriNCEY, Essays on Philosophical Writers, 
 vol. n. (Boston, 1854 
 
 BEREA COLLEGE, at Berea, Ky., was 
 founded in 1858. [t supplies the means of edu- 
 cation to students, both white and colored.male 
 and female. In 1875. it had 14 instructors and 
 271 students; of the latter. 157 were males and 
 
 I I I females ; 12(5 white, and 145 colored. ( >f the 
 colored students. (J7 were females. It includes a 
 preparatory and a collegiate department. All 
 the female students are included in a ladies' de- 
 partment, under the special supervision of a lady 
 principal. No separate course of study is ar- 
 ranged for females, but both sexes recite together 
 whenever their studies are the same. There is 
 also a normal department with a special course 
 
 for teachers; also a commercial course. The 
 
 college is well sup]. lied with apparatus and has 
 
 a library of nearly 2,000 volumes. The college 
 
 buildiii'is are spacious and elegant, particularly 
 the Ladies' Hall, erected in L873. Rev. E. li. 
 Fairchild (1875) is the president of the institu- 
 tion. The annual tuition fee is $10. 
 
 BERNHARDI, August Ferdinand, one 
 of the most eminent schoolmen of Prussia in the 
 beginning of this century, was born in 1769, 
 
 in Berlin, and died m 1820. lie became a 
 
 BIBLE 
 
 teacher in the Friedrich Werder Oi/r, 
 Berlin, in 1791, and director - of the same in- 
 stitution in 1808. In the same year, he gave 
 Pestalozzi's method of teaching arithmetic a trial. 
 enlarged the exercises, and finally introduced 
 it into his school. His success as director of 
 the gymnasium was remarkable, the number of 
 
 for the publication of large w< 
 his essays and lectures have bet 
 the title of A view of the Or 
 Learned Schools. The progi 
 him in 1809, 1810,and 1811,g 
 
 principles of method, and on the Firsiprim iples 
 of discipline. In later essays, published from 
 1814 to 1816, he gave a fuller exposition of the 
 proper course of studies for a gymnasium; and 
 the ideas which he developed in regard to this 
 subject, haw gained for him the reputation of 
 being one of the best writers on the German 
 gymnasia. 
 
 BETHANY COLLEGE, at Bethany, W. 
 Va.. was established in 1841 by the Rev. Alex- 
 ander Campbell, the founder of the sect of Bap- 
 tists, called Disciples. This institution had. in 
 1873, a corps of 9 instructors, and L23 students 
 in the collegiate department. Its productive 
 funds amount to $60,000, and the value of the 
 college property, — grounds, buildings, etc.. is 
 estimated at $250,000. The president of the 
 college is (1876) W. lv. Pendleton. 
 
 BETHEL COLLEGE, at Russelville. Ky., 
 was founded by the Bethel Baptist Association 
 of South-western Kentucky, in L849, as a high 
 school; and. in 1856, it was chartered as a col- 
 lege. Its successive presidents have been B. T. 
 Bfewitt to 1861 ; Rev. Geo. Hunt, from 1863 to 
 1864; Prof. J. W. Rust, from L864 to 1868; 
 Noah K. Davis, from 1868 to 1873. The dis- 
 cipline of the college is now under the direction 
 of Ijeslie Waggener. as chairman of the faculty. 
 In the winter of 1861 — 2, the college buildings 
 were used as a hospital by the Confederate forces 
 lying at Bowling Green. The endowment funis 
 amount (1875) to $85,000, besides which it, has 
 a beneficiary fund of about $8,000, and its real 
 estate, iii addition to the college buildings and 
 grounds, is valued at $85,000. It contains 
 schools of Latin, Greek, mathematics, natural 
 science, English, mental science, biblical knowl- 
 ■!.; ml thecl: ; ;v,in which in 18''4— * th k 
 were about 350 students; of whom 97 were in 
 the collegiate department. The school of English 
 is very complete, affording to its students a 
 knowledge of the Anglo-Saxon language, as a 
 basis for a critical knowledge of KnglMi gram- 
 mar and literature. The tuition fee is $60 per 
 annum. 
 
 BIBLE (< Jr. Si.Ma, books), the sacred scrip- 
 tures of the Christians. All churches which 
 recognize Christ as their founder, whatever may 
 be their denomination, agree in regarding the 
 
Bible as the divinely inspired book which eon- 
 tains the tenets of ( 'hristian belief and of Chris- 
 tian ethics. TheBible is divided into two parts, 
 called the 01,1 and the New Testament. The 
 former is regarded as I writ, not only by 
 Christians, but also by the Jews. There is not 
 an entire agreement in regard to the number of 
 books constituting the Old Testament. Several 
 books are regarded by tin- Catholic Church as 
 belonging to, and partaking of, the inspired 
 character of the Scriptures, which Protestants 
 generally regard as a class of works highly 
 
 l.-etl 
 
 but 
 
 of di 
 
 ori-in 
 
 12*20. forbade laymen to read the Bible in the 
 vernacular language ; and. in modern times, the 
 efforts of the Bible societies have been repeatedly 
 condemned by the popes. In Protestant coun- 
 tries, the reading of the Bible has been a very 
 prominent agent in the development of public 
 education. The Bible having become, through 
 Luther and other Reformers of the sixteenth 
 centurjr.the principal book for the church and the 
 home-circle, the instruction of children in this 
 book continued for a long time to be the chief 
 object of popular education. Children were 
 taught to read in order that they might be able 
 
 Abyssinian 
 ■ books ac- 
 itestauts. a 
 Vow Testa- 
 
 same in the < latholic < !hurc 
 churches : but one I hristian I 
 Church, recognizes, in additii 
 eepted by both Catholics i 
 number of others as a part 
 ment. 
 
 Catholics and Protestants, though accepting the 
 same books as the sources of divine truth, differ 
 widely in the interpretation of their contents. 
 Most 'of the biblical Protestants regard the Bible 
 as the only source of Christian faith, and main- 
 tain that, whatever differences of opinion may 
 exist in regard to some particular doctrines, 
 the great fundamental truths of • ! hristianity are 
 set forth in it so clearly, as to supersede fully 
 the need of any other standard of faith. The 
 Catholic- Church, on the other hand, holds that 
 the Bible was not given by God to man to be the 
 only guide for the formation of his religions be- 
 lief, but that, for that purpose, an infallible 
 church was instituted, whose office it is to ex- 
 plain to the faithful the true meaning of the 
 Bible. 
 
 From the different position which these two 
 large denominations of Christians assume in re- 
 gard to the Bible, it follows that they must teach 
 a different way of using it. Thus, the Protestant 
 churches consider it a matter of prime import- 
 ance that every child should become acquainted 
 with the Bible as the only infallible source of the 
 pure word of God, and should learn, as soon as 
 possible, to read and understand it; while the 
 Catholic Church enjoins upon its members to 
 keep constantly in mind, in reading the Bible, 
 that only the infallible church possesses the key 
 to its true meaning. The Protestant churches 
 earnestly desire that the Bible should be placed m 
 the bauds of every Christian: and they have, 
 therefore, founded in all Protestant countries 
 Bible Societies, designed to carry out this object, 
 and thus have already fully succeeded in mak- 
 ing the Bible the most widely circulated book in 
 the world. The Catholic Church prefers the use 
 of annotated Bibles, or of selections from the 
 Bible, to that of the Scriptures without note and 
 comment. When, in the thirteenth century, the 
 Albigenses translated the Bible into their ver- 
 nacular languages, and referred their members to 
 the text of the Bible as contradicting the teach- 
 ings of the church, the synod of Toulouse, in 
 
 tures. in process of time, the relation of Bible 
 reading to other branches of education became 
 greatly modified; but. wherever public schools 
 still have a distinctively Protestant eharaeter. the 
 reading of the Bible is retained as a special 
 branch of instruction. Protestant educators dif- 
 fer in regard to the question, whether it is pief- 
 
 ed bv 
 
 ind, educators have gsnerally 
 ding to teachers not to re- 
 ile to be lead consecutively 
 to leave out those portions 
 ppropriate or too difficult for 
 
 agreed in r. 
 quire the e 
 by the pupi 
 which are ei 
 children. 
 
 The Catholic Church is opposed to the intro- 
 duction of the Bible without i note or comment 
 into schools, and substitutes for it the use oi bib- 
 lical histories and selections from the Bible. 
 Recent Catholic works on education express the 
 wish, that to the reading of suitable .selections 
 from the Bible greater prominence should be 
 given than has heretofore been the case. See 
 Rolpds & Pfister, Real-Snoyclopadie des l-.'r- 
 ziehungs- und VkterricTUswesens nach katho- 
 lischen Principien, art. Bibel 
 
 Bible Question.- In the United States, the pub- 
 lic schools are of an undenominational character, 
 Vicing intended to receive children of all kinds of 
 religious belief or unbelief. The quest ion whether 
 the reading of the Bible is to be retained in 
 the public schools, has been and still is the sub- 
 ject of animated discussion and agitation. The 
 decision of this question is mostly left to the 
 local boards of education, which may prescribe, 
 allow, or forbid the reading of the Bible. The 
 legislation of several of the states of the Union pro- 
 vides, however, that no ordinance shall be passed 
 by any local board of education forbidding the 
 use of the Bible. The majority of the Protes- 
 tant churches still favor the reading of the 
 Bible, though some of the most prominent cler- 
 gymen have, of late, taken the ground that it 
 would be unjust to request the children of ( ath- 
 olics, Jews, or Non-Christians to take part in re- 
 
si 
 
 BIBLE HISTORY 
 
 ligious exercises to which their parents object. 
 The < 'atholics ami .lews, together with all the op- 
 ponentsof < 'hristianity, generally demand the ex- 
 clusion of the llilile from the schools. In the 
 city of Cincinnati, a resolution by the board of 
 education forbidding the reading of the Bible in 
 the public schools, led, in L869, to a legal contest 
 which lasted four years. The superior court of 
 Cincinnati, in L870, decided against the board of 
 education; but the supreme court of Ohio, in 
 June L873, reversed this judgment, and sus- 
 tained the Cincinnati board of education. The 
 school board of Chicago, in L875, followed the 
 example of Cincinnati, and forbade the reading 
 of the Bible in the public schools. The question 
 has also In on vehemently agitated in the city of 
 New York. — See The Bible in the Public Schools; 
 Arguments in the cose of John 1>. Minor et al. 
 versus the Board of Education of the Oily of 
 C'iii'-iiiiiiili i-l ill. [Cincinnati, 1*70); Boci-.m;, 
 History of the Public School Society (N. Y.. 
 L870); Bobsb, Public Education in the City of 
 New York (New York, L869 : T. II. Huxley, 
 The School Boards, in Critiques and Addresses 
 
 1 1 Ion, and N. Y., L873); Gbimkb, Use of the 
 
 Bible in Common Education, in Amer. Annals 
 of Education, vol. in. (Is:::;), and The Bible as 
 ,i <'/<<.<.< 11,,,,/,: in .[,/,/rrsses (1831.) 
 
 BIBLE HISTORY, or Biblical History. 
 The connected history of the events narrated in 
 the Bible is in many schools, both Prote3tant and 
 Catholic, a part of the prescribed religious in- 
 struction. The method of teaching it greatly 
 varies according to the age of the scholars. 
 \\ hile children of the primary grade are taught 
 only the most notable events of sacred history. 
 
 in guage adapted to their age. more advanced 
 
 studeiitsare introduced into a full understanding 
 of the Bible. In the compilation of text-books 
 for this study, the authors have sometimes 
 endeavored togive the whole narrative asmuch 
 as possible in the words of the Bible, so as to 
 make the book, in fact, an abridgment of the 
 Bible. Others have deemed it better to pay less 
 attention to retaining the words of the Bible, 
 and to look, in the first place, to making the sub- 
 ject as interesting, attractive, and intelligible to 
 children as possible. < Jermany, where Biblical 
 history [Biblische Oeschichte) is generally adop- 
 ted as a part of the course of "instruction in 
 public schools of various grades, has a very ex- 
 tensive literature on the .subject, including many 
 manuals for teachers. Of scientific theology, 
 Bible history forms an essential part, and is di- 
 vided, like the Bible itself, into two sections, the 
 history of the Old, and the history of the Xew 
 Testament. It forms the connecting link between 
 exegetical and historical theology, explaining, on 
 the one hand, the contents of the Bible, and, on 
 the other hand, treating and elucidating them 
 the same as any other historical subject. 
 
 Bible history may also be viewed as a history 
 of the vi ilume containing the sacred writings of 
 the Christian church In this sense, it treats of 
 s composing the 
 the canon. The 
 
 the origin of the several 
 Bible, and of their collection i 
 
 BLACKBOARD 
 
 works treating of this subject are generally en- 
 titled Iiitriiiln, linns In the Bible; but a number 
 ol prominent theologians, rejecting this title as 
 
 of this class an ; Eta -. TM <■ icJii U der heil 
 Schriften des N. T. (1853, 3d, edit. 1860); Gue- 
 ricke, Gesammtgeschichte des X. T. I Leip.,1854); 
 Haneberg, Versuch einer Geschichle der bibli- 
 se/i, ,i Offenbarung (Ratisbon, L850). 
 
 BIRCH, as 
 rods or twigs w. 
 fiiction of corp 
 
 ' ot the tree ft'Olll which 
 
 erly obtained for the in- 
 shment, is often used a,- 
 denoting this species of punishment : and tin- 
 tree is frequently referred to in connection with 
 school-keeping in the olden time. Shakespeare 
 speaks of the "threatening twigs of lurch"; and 
 Shenstone, in The Schoolmislnss, thus refers 
 to the tree and its connection with school-man- 
 agement : 
 
 "Ami all ii 
 Which Lei 
 Wliilnm a ■ 
 Tl gh to. 
 
 tree, 
 
 stew, 
 
 ■ Jieat'loi 
 ur grew. 
 
 Doubtless, the toughness and elasticity of the 
 twigs of the birch made them, before the intro- 
 duction of the rattan. Very useful implements 
 for the purpose of school chastisement. (See 
 Corporal 1 'cnishment.J 
 
 BLACKBOARD, an important piece of 
 school apparatus now in use in all classes and 
 grades of schools. It is generally constructed of 
 wood, and is cither attached to the wall of the 
 room, or made to stand on an easel or revolve in 
 a frame. Instead of blackboards, wall slates are 
 now very frequently used, which, although much 
 more expensive, are to be preferred on account 
 of their durability. Sometimes, a portion of the 
 wall itself is painted black, or covered with 
 liquid slating, lot this purpose; and at the pres- 
 ent time a kind of slated cloth is manufactured, 
 which being attached to the wall answers every 
 purpose of a blackboard. 
 
 The blackboard for the use of the teacher in 
 giving his instruction or explanations to the 
 whole school or class, should, for the sake of con- 
 venience, be placed near his desk and in front of 
 the pupils. It is a great advantage also to have 
 sufficient blackboard surface to admit of its use 
 by all the pupils of a class, or by sections of it. 
 This is especially desirable in higher instruction; 
 but even in elementary district schools will be 
 found to be quite desirable. Some of the pupils 
 of a school can be employed in writing, drawing, 
 or working out arithmetical problems on the 
 blackboards, while others are engaged in oral rec- 
 itation. There is scarcely any branch of in- 
 struction, or any kind of teaching, from the ob- 
 ject lesson of the primary school to the lecture 
 of the college professor, in which the use of the 
 blackboard is not found to be almost indispen- 
 
BLAi !KBURN UNIVERSITY 
 
 sable. In teaching mathematics, it has an espe- 
 cial value. Scarcely a teacher, at the preseni 
 day. in t lie most remote country school bouse, 
 would think i if teaching arithmetic without a 
 blackboard. But it is a most important aid 
 aNo in teaching writing, drawing, geography, 
 
 so that they may be lifted out of the pauper class, 
 
 and be enabled to earn a respectable livelib 1. 
 
 There is a great diversity in the number of 
 
 mad,' ver 
 larly whei 
 In some st 
 
 useful in teaching 
 this subject may I 
 
 o 300 ; and in Egypt, I to 200. In 
 ss, the number of males among the 
 ids that of the females; and. in the 
 ites about one half of the blind are 
 ars of age. The proportion of those 
 to those who become so after birth is 
 
 effc 
 
 mathematics Mfli a- lojic meiapnv-'. -. ;,, m ,,l 
 and moral philosophy, etc. By this means the 
 divisions and subdivisions of the subject, with 
 their exact logical relations, arc pres inte 1 to the 
 mind through the rye. and a much stronger, 
 clearer and more durahlc impression i.s thus 
 made, for an excellent example of this kin 1 
 of teaching, see Mark Bopkiss, An OvMne 
 Study of Man (New York. L876). See also 
 W. A. A.lcott, Slate and Blackboard Ecercises; 
 Wickersham, School Economy (Philadelphia, 
 L868). 
 
 BLACKBURN UNIVERSITY, at ( larlin- 
 villc. III., was organized in L867, by the Presby- 
 terians. It has a preparatory, a collegiate, an 
 eclectic, a scientific, and a theological course, to 
 which both sexes are admitted on equal terms, 
 and receive the same honorary degrees on the 
 completion of the course pursued. There were, 
 in 1873, 257 students, of whom 111 belonged to 
 the preparatory and 1 16 to the e illegiate depart- 
 ment; and the corps of instructors numbered 13, 
 exclusive of 1 endowed professorships. The value 
 of its grounds, buildings, etc. is S'.IO.IKIO : and its 
 productive endowment $90,000. The president 
 of the institution is (1876) Rev. J. W. Barby, 
 D.I>. The annual tuition fee is $25. 
 
 BLIND, Education of the. The blind 
 constitute, in every country, a numerous class of 
 afflicted person- tor whom </■■ >■/,;/ /„..',•■<■ i,uh is 
 needed. Blindness, or los.- oi - i - 1 1 1 . is either con- 
 genital, or is caused by accident or di ea e oc 
 curring after birth. The statistics of different 
 countries show that the number of blind persons 
 in all ages has been quite large ; and. in modern 
 times, this has led to considerable effort with the 
 view to afford to these unfortunates the means 
 of education, not only for their mental improve- 
 ment, hit to train them to independent support. 
 
 led against the Moslem! 
 
 
 eminent, and afterward became the U,„i„l i„ali- 
 tution for th, Blind. I le subsequently founded 
 institutions for the blind at St. Petersburg and 
 at Berlin. About the same time, similar insti- 
 tutions were established in England and Scot- 
 land ; and. after the example of that at Berlin, 
 in many of the cities of Germany. There are 
 now 16 public institutions for the' blind in Eng- 
 land, the oldest of which is the School for the 
 Blind, in Liverpool, founded in 1791 : 4 in Scot- 
 land, of which the Asylum for Industrious 
 /.'//»</. in Edinburgh, was founded in I 7!U : and 
 4 in Ireland, the oldest being the Richmond 
 X„tin„„l InsHluti,,,,, in Dublin, founded in l-lli. 
 
 has 13 schools for the blind, besides the Hiis/tice 
 des Quinze -Vingts. There are between thirty 
 and forty institutions for the blind in Germany, 
 of which the oldest is that commenced at Berlin, 
 in 1806, by llaiiy. The Netherlands. Belgium, 
 and Switzerland have .similar institutions. In 
 
the Netherlands, they are supported entirely by 
 voluntary subscription. In Belgium, an asylum for 
 the blind is said to have been founded at Bruges 
 in 1305; but the first school was opened at Brus- 
 sels in 1833. In Spain, there are two institutions 
 for the blind, one at Madrid, and the other at 
 Barcelona. There are also institutions of the 
 kind in Italy, and a school for tin- instruction of 
 the blind at Bio Janeiro, commenced in 1854. 
 The first institution for the blind in the United 
 
 States — the Perkins Institution at Boston, was 
 chartered in 1829, but not opened till August, 
 1832. It was named after Col. Thomas H. 
 Perkins, who gave his mansion for its accom- 
 modation. It was under the direction of Dr. 
 Samuel (J. Howe until his death in L876. The 
 New York Institution for the Blind was opened 
 .March 15., 1832. The foil, .wing table of statis- 
 tics has been compiled from the Report of the 
 U. S. Bureau of Bducation for 1*7.1. 
 
 Institutions for the Blind in the United States. 
 
 
 
 
 
 g 
 
 
 us 
 
 ,|„ 
 
 A.-d 
 
 
 NAME. 
 
 LOCATION 
 
 if 
 
 1 SIJIJ 
 
 Control 
 State 
 
 i-ii. 
 
 40 
 
 2 
 
 J If 
 -Is. I 
 
 
 Inst, for Deaf anil Dumb, ami Blind. 
 
 Talladoira, Ala... . 
 
 fio.oiio 
 
 Inst, tor Edticatii.il of the Blind . - . Little Bock, Ark.. . 
 
 1859 
 
 
 107 
 
 13 
 
 7,703 
 
 30,1 
 
 Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind Oakland, Cal 
 
 
 
 84 
 
 3 
 
 36,001 
 
 B in. oi in 
 
 Georgia Academy fur the Blind Mien. (la. 
 
 1 B52 
 
 Corporation. 
 
 144 
 
 11 
 
 13,1 
 
 75, 1 
 
 Inst, for the Education of the Blind, .In. k-..iiyilh-, Ill 
 
 
 
 500 
 
 29 
 
 31.110(1 
 
 11,(1,000 
 
 ln-t. h.r the Education of the Blind Indianapolis In,! 
 
 
 
 521 
 
 25 
 
 32,601 
 
 525,000 
 
 
 1863 
 
 State . 
 
 317 
 
 2S 
 
 26,001 
 
 5110.(100 
 
 
 
 
 65 
 
 11 
 
 9,001 
 
 10,0011 
 
 
 
 
 358 
 
 20 
 
 19,380 
 
 lllO.DIIO 
 
 In-'t. t..r tin- Kdu.ati t the Blind Baton Boinr.'. La... 
 
 1-71 
 
 
 63 
 
 6 
 
 8,001 
 
 250,000 
 
 
 
 
 173 
 
 16 
 
 22,(1(1(1 
 
 255, ) 
 
 Inst.' for Colored Blind and Deaf-M. Baltimore.Md 
 
 1-7'.' 
 
 i ol poration. 
 
 18 
 
 7 
 
 1(1,000 
 
 211,0011 
 
 Perkins Inst, and Mass. Asylum Bo-t"ii. Ma- 
 
 
 . ,-] poration 
 
 
 48 
 
 30,000 
 
 354,716 
 
 ins), for Ileal and liuuil., aii.l Blind I'lint. Mel, . 
 
 1-,:; 
 
 Trustees 
 
 - 
 
 
 
 51,872 
 
 375,315 
 
 Inst, for Deaf and Dumb, and Blind Faribault, Minn 
 
 1 366 
 
 
 32 
 
 4 
 
 6,000 
 
 25,000 
 
 
 
 
 275 
 
 
 111,0111) 
 
 10,000 
 
 
 
 
 33H 
 
 23 
 
 21,001 
 
 200,001) 
 
 
 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 25,000 
 
 70,0011 
 
 X. V. In-lit .it i. >n tor tlie Blind \.-\i York. \. y. 
 
 
 i lot poration. 
 
 1,172 
 
 oo 
 
 62,501 
 
 324,51111 
 
 Inlt'to' i','li„ l !t..''i'iol"!h'' l.luil \' .dmul'il^o' 
 
 1837 
 
 State 
 
 loll 
 
 6 
 
 50 
 
 40,0110 
 
 60,785 
 
 50,000 
 
 5011,01)1) 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 3 
 
 '-', 
 
 
 Inst for lnstiic ti t the Blind Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 
 oi poration. 
 
 885 
 
 03 
 
 39,000 
 
 201 ,000 
 
 TeraSLe8fho n o1 KoTo'ind''''''' Na^'iilc^Tonn ' ' 
 
 
 
 175 
 
 1 
 
 15,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 so, 1100 
 
 Texas lu-titut.-tor the Bond ' \ustin, Tex.....".'. 
 
 L856 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 10,650 
 
 45,01)0 
 
 Inst, ioi DeafandD b , and Blind Staunton,Va ... 
 
 1S3!) - 
 
 State.] , 
 
 208 
 
 5 
 
 10,1101) 
 
 175,011(1 
 
 In-t. for [i.at and liuuil.. and B.liud Romney, W. Va. . . 
 
 1870 
 
 State.... 
 
 29 
 
 3 
 
 25 000 
 
 70.1)1(0 
 
 h-i, for Education ol the Blind . 
 
 Jaue-Mllc, Wis. 
 
 1850 
 
 State 
 
 230 
 
 21 
 
 83,000 
 
 85,000 
 
 From the above table it will be seen that there 
 are 29 institutions, either exclusively for the edu- 
 cation of the blind, or for that of the blind and the 
 deaf and dumb ; and that, since 1*32. when the 
 New York and Boston institutions went into 
 operation, about 7,500 blind persons have re- 
 
 thc branches which are usually taught, in the 
 common and high schools, to the seeing; the prin- 
 cipal difference being in the apparatus and meth- 
 ods of teaching employed. Instead of the black- 
 board, wall-maps, slate and pencil, and pen and 
 ink. there are employed topographical maps, em- 
 bossed books, slates with movable type to repre- 
 
 cal 
 
 in grounds, buili linos, etc.. hclonoiii". to ilicm. i- 
 
 re than 84,500,000. It is an interesting fact 
 
 also that 22 of these establishments are purely 
 state institutions. 
 
 Methods of Instruction.— An institution for 
 
 as blindness renders necessary. In the literary 
 
 department, the course of instruction includes 
 
 system.— also for the Now York system of alpha- 
 betic writing and musical notation. 
 
 The first efforts to instruct the blind found 
 expression in an attempt to teach them how to 
 read by means of the lingers. Many alphabets 
 in relief have been devised, but all may be in- 
 eluded in two classes: (1) Those composed of 
 lines, forming the ordinary capital or small let- 
 ter- in their original form, or in some modifica- 
 tion i if it ; (2) Those in which the letters are 
 formed of raised points, or dots, in no respect 
 resembling the ordinary letters, and called the 
 point alphabet. These can be both printed and 
 
written in a tangible form. The use of line let- 
 ter text-books in" classes is very limited, from the 
 fact that a classification according to reading 
 ability differs entirely from that based upon 
 mental capacity and attainments. For this 
 reason, the instruction in each of the depart- 
 ments is chiefly oral. 
 
 The instruction of the blind in music is of 
 paramount importance. It develops and refines 
 ih/ taste, promotes general culture, affords con- 
 stant and inexhaustible enjoyment, as well as 
 the means of respectable support. The musical 
 course of instruction comprises voice lessons, 
 part and chorus singing, lessons and practice in 
 piano and organ playing, and a thorough course 
 of teaching and training in the tuning of pianos. 
 Wind organists, t.'tiehets of the piano, and piano- 
 tuners may be found in all parts of the country. 
 ( toe of the best tuners employed by Steinway & 
 Sons, the celebrated pianoforte makers of Xew 
 York, is totally blind. Heretofore, this depart- 
 nient of instruction has been exclusively oral; 
 but there is now in press a piano instruction 
 book, in the New York- point system of musical 
 notation, by which the blind pupil may learn by 
 finger-reading from the printed or written page. 
 
 The importance of mechanical training, in 
 comparison with other branches of instruction, 
 in the education of the blind, is a matter of vital 
 interest. Some are of opinion that instruction 
 in trades is of the first importance; others give 
 it simplv a place co-ordinate with other depart- 
 ments of teaching: while still others attach the 
 chief importance to such branches as leal to 
 those employments in which skille 1 manual oper- 
 ations are required. The latter position cannot 
 lie maintained, since in all such operations the 
 guidance of the eye is more or less essential to 
 perfection and dexterity of manipulation; from 
 which fact it is obvious that purely mechanical 
 pursuits are not necessarily the best adapted to 
 those who are deprived of sight. This being so, 
 it is a great mistake to rest the education of the 
 young blind, and the prospects of their future 
 usefulness and welfare, exclusively upon such 
 employments. The true plan is to give manual 
 pursuits such a place in the scheme of education 
 as is required by the conditions which blindness 
 imposes. The training of the young blind in 
 one or more industrial occupations should be 
 rigidly enforced, not because such employments 
 furnish the only, the best, or the most available 
 means of future support, but because such train- 
 ing and discipline of the head and the hand in 
 work are necessary to the proper education of 
 every pupil. Thus, manual training is made the 
 means to an end, but not the end itself. Male 
 pupils are taught to make brooms, mats, mat- 
 tresses, and brushes; to put cane bottoms into 
 chairs: and to perform other handicraft labors. 
 Female pupils are taught to sew. knit, and cro- 
 chet, to use the sewing and knitting machine, 
 and to work a great variety of articles useful 
 and ornamental. 
 
 < locum in ml ,tml DixcijiUne. — From necessity, 
 the pupils board and lodge at the institution ; 
 
 and. consequently, the government is twofold : 
 
 (1) that of a large and well ordered family ; and 
 
 (2) that of a thoroughly organized school. The 
 rules are such only as are necessary to secure the 
 easy and effective performance of the many kinds 
 of work which are carried on in the different 
 
 blind in this country, except those of Boston 
 and Philadelphia. The institutions arc not de- 
 nominational, each pupil being permitted to at- 
 tend the particular church and Sunday school 
 which are chosen by parents, guardians, or 
 friends. Discipline is maintained in the Xew 
 York. Boston, and some other schools, entirely 
 by moral means, no recourse being ever had to 
 corporal punishment. 
 
 Systems of Printing and Notation. — Tangible 
 letters were first constructed in the 18th cent- 
 ury; afterward, the noted blind pianist. Theresa 
 von Paradis, of Vienna, represented musical 
 
 I"-"' 
 
 iffciv I 
 
 tor the best alpnabel and mi 
 
 for the blind. This alphabet 
 Roman capitals simplified, an 
 same as that used formerly in 
 stenographic alphabet, inventei 
 Bristol, England, is used in so 
 of that country. A few year, 
 alphabet was invented by Mr. F 
 duced into some of the Engli 
 
 sisted of lines, was invented by Mr. Moon. This 
 alphabet has been used in many schools. The al- 
 phabet forming the system of tangible point- 
 
 
 n r 
 
 m. 
 
 SeeReportsqf U.S. Commissioner of Education 
 
 for 1ST'.'. -,"..' and 1 ; Proceedings of the Asso- 
 ciation of American Instructors of the Blind 
 
 (W. B. Wait, for. Sec): also the publications 
 of the American Bible Society. anil of the Ameri- 
 can Printing-House for the Blind. 
 
KUx'HMAW 
 
 BLOCHMANN, Karl Justus, an emit 
 German educator and pupil of Pestalozzi, 
 founder and for many years the director i 
 celebrated educational institute, called after 
 Blochmann'sch s /■ tit, was bom in L786, 
 died in L855. He studied, from L805 to 1 
 at the university of Leipsic, theology and p 
 gogy, and at the same time endeavored to 
 quire a practical experience as a teacher. 
 I so 1 .), he went to Switzerland and became at 
 struct or in I'estalozzi's school, where he ivma 
 
 uln.l 
 
 own school in 182 I. which was tin 
 Vitzthum Gymnasium in L829 ; ani 
 from the Saxon <_i;i .\ . -ri iiiu-nt the 
 
 tion to his son-in-la 
 number of promine 
 princes, have receiv 
 
 thized with the liberal movements in rrot- 
 estant theology, Blochmann was firmly devoted 
 to the strictest orthodoxy. 
 
 BLUE -COAT SCHOOL. See Christ's 
 Hospital. 
 
 BOARD OF EDUCATION. See School 
 Board. 
 
 BOARDING-SCHOOL, a school in which 
 the pupils receive board and lodging as well as 
 instruction. Boarding-schools are generally the 
 propertj of private indh i luals ; but sometimes 
 they belong to associations or religi "is de- 
 nominations. Their manag i nent is independent 
 
 of any control by the state, [nsoi untries, 
 
 the governmenl does not allow anyone to keep 
 a boarding or any other private school, who 
 lines not bold a 1 icher's license ; in oth irs as in 
 
 the I'niteil Si.,: - th ■ .■--;,!.] l-ll nelit of private 
 
 of this kind i 
 extensive. 
 
 of tntS-ctili 
 
 .elief that th re they will l.e under Letter and 
 iioi-e constant educational influence than the 
 internal roof can afford them. 
 
 As boarding-schools are entirely independent 
 if public school boards, there is the greatesl 
 nissible variety in their courses of instruction. 
 Moreover, since the financial success of these in- 
 vitations depends u] the number of pupils 
 
 secured, the propi ietors generally find it necessary 
 mi only to receive pupils at any time of the 
 rear, bu1 to proi ide spei ial instruction for every 
 mpil, of what vi r grade "i capai itv. The inev- 
 1 ihle cons quence oi this is, that the classifi- 
 ation. in the majority oi these schools, is unsat- 
 sfactory. Ver; greal danger, moreover, arises 
 rom the fact thai a large number of children of 
 ■\ il habits are often received into such insti- 
 
 pleasant associations to which the children are 
 exposed, partly, because the course of study 
 appears to be insufficient. Even in large towns 
 and eities where there is no want of eood 
 
 sneh' pupil's than "p 
 
 aore successful mreforming 
 iblic-school teachers. The 
 
 greatness of the da 
 
 iger which an ass iciation 
 
 with children of thi. 
 
 class involves, for all the 
 
 pupils of the in.-titllt 
 
 ,n, cannot be overestimated, 
 
 and is certainly not 
 
 sufficiently appreciated by 
 
 many of those who 1 
 
 ave the charge of boarding- 
 
 schools. On the o 
 
 her hand, however, il has 
 
 l.ee,, strongly and ji 
 
 sth urged that instructors 
 
 of superior qualifj 
 
 aii'ons often find in this 
 
 class of sel Is an 
 
 excellent and, it may be, 
 
 the only opportunit 
 
 y of turning their peculiar 
 
 talents to the use 
 
 if mankind. Many of the 
 
 
 at ever lived, would never 
 
 
 -t their theories practically, 
 
 if they had not be 
 
 •ii at the head of private 
 
 boarding institution 
 
 The boarding-school un- 
 
 doubtedly offers toe 
 
 lneatioiial reformers a grand 
 
 field of usefulness, ai 
 
 • 1 tie re the public-school 
 
 system suffers in an 
 
 • particular place from the 
 
 incompetency of scl 
 
 ml boards, or the more, in 
 
 large cities, the Stan 
 
 lard of the public schools is 
 
 depressed, the more 
 
 tronglywil) the demand for 
 
 private and boardi 
 
 g schools make itself felt. 
 
 Nearly all boarding-s 
 
 tools also admit pupils who 
 
 attend only for inst 
 
 ■notion day-scholars); and 
 
 \en commonly they 
 
 also pro\ ide board for ehi'l- 
 
 dren of resident pan 
 
 Ufa [(lay-boarders). 
 
 BOLIVIA, a n 
 
 mblic of South America, 
 
 pupils for no other rea 
 
 ha m'ii" an ana of 500,880 sip m., and a population, 
 iii L865,of L,831,585, exclusive of aboul 250,000 
 savage Indians. The civilized population consists 
 of native whites, for the most part descendants of 
 
 the Spanish settlers, mestizos or ( 'holos (mixed 
 white and Indian), mnlattoes, zambos (mixed 
 Indian and negro), and Indians in a domesticated 
 
BOOK-KEEPING 
 
 state. About three-fourths of the total popula- | formation of Ponce's invention. His plan is 
 Hon is of Indian descent. Nearly the entire fully explained in his work, Reduction de las 
 
 population of tin intry belongs to the Roman leh-as y artes para ensefUir a hablar alos mudos 
 
 Catholic Church. The exercise of other relig- (Madrid, 1620), which was the firsl formal 
 
 ions ,len„n,u,ati„u> is „.,t prohibited : but un- treats .... /h" j.nm.-h >>f spe.-ial iiwtru.l , .... He 
 
 Bolivia. l',V a lt !- 1 Vn'ia'.7\v.n.r!'i,,l 'with'the all', t..a.l" use of a'l.lai'niai'ali .l"..il "t .'« I.'il-l.' was 
 Pope in L851,the Bolivian government promised almost exactly the same as the single-hand alpha- 
 to support missions am. mil; the savage tribes, bet now in use. Bonet was secretary to the 
 
 pagan and uncivilized. The national language patron, who had become deaf when only two 
 is the Spanish, but several Indian tribes, esp,- yea.- .,t a^. This young man was introduced 
 cially the Vymaras and the Quichuas, continue to prince Charles oi England during the visit of 
 t<, s.,eak their own language. the latter to Spain, in 1623; and it was stated 
 
 The territory of Bolivia, after its conquest by by Sir Kenelm Digby, one of the prince's escort, 
 the Spaniards, formed a part of the viceroyalty that he could not only understand an ordinary 
 of Peru till 1780, -wh 
 name of < narcas wit 
 La Plata. The declai 
 the establishment of t 
 pla.-e in 1 825. Since 
 almost without intern 
 
 The condition of e 
 satisfactory. There is 
 
 ew viceroyalty of 
 in 1, pendence and 
 lie of Bolivia took glisht 
 
 arkable distinctness. (See Deaf-Mutes.) 
 BONNYCASTLE, John, an eminent En- 
 ad rnathematician, and the author of 
 
 Cochab 
 of the. 
 named 
 theJes 
 with fa 
 an exce 
 is .lev. 
 are at 
 The su 
 Latin, 
 ethics, ; 
 ecclesia 
 a high : 
 
 ethics are 
 and Cochi 
 clusively. 
 school al I 
 
 - priests, but its pup 
 • tor any other rocati, 
 
 vsics. Dhilosophv floa 
 
 BOOK-KEEPING. 
 
 entire republic, there are 1 1 
 which 8 are colegios ■<■ tit ncic 
 pupils, and 16 col gios de art 
 schools). There were, in 1 B II 
 stitutions of a higher grade, wi 
 
 number of primary scl Is, p 
 
 aeeor.lin^to the latest reports. 
 
 21, I pupils. The scl 1-1,, 
 
 extent translations from th 
 Schmtd, RealrEneychp., art. .' 
 iu.iny. Description geografu • 
 distica <!<> Bolivia (2 vols., Pa 
 BONET, Juan Pablo, c 
 instructors of deaf-mutes, wa 
 in the latter part of the 16th . 
 Pedro I'on.v. a Spanish Bene 
 lived about fifty years befor 
 . method of teaching 1 
 is of an alphabet of 
 
 Bonet is attributed the credit of originating a I fact that the eumplete iv,,,r,l ,,t any transaction 
 similar method, since he could have had no in- ! requires at least two entries in the ledger — one 
 
 lanual signs, to that known as double entry, so called fr. 
 
BOOK-KEEPING 
 
 on the debit or debtor side of some account, and 
 one on the credit or creditor side of some other 
 account. The terms debit and credit (meaning 
 
 (li'litnr and creditor, and usually marked Dr. and 
 Or.) are, for the most part, used arbitrarily. 
 They are really significant only when applied to 
 personal accounts; but their uniform application 
 
 of gain or loss, must occur between the two 
 classes of accounts represented by cash and mer- 
 chandise — the one taking cognizance of measur- 
 ing financial worth, the other indicating its in- 
 crease or diminution. (The mere exchange of 
 one fixed value for another, such as the canceling 
 of a personal indebtedness by receiving or pav- 
 ing cash, should be called a liquidation rather 
 
 il ta 
 
 emati 
 
 of finance, and in the tests 
 rectness of the work at any 
 principles underlying the s 
 cinctlv stated thus: (li All 
 
 resources, 
 he money 
 
 of 
 
 concern, thus measured, less the sum of all its 
 liabilities, is its real or present worth; (3) All 
 increase or diminution in wealth conns from 
 one of two sources; namely, the receiving of 
 more or less for an article than its cost, or the 
 appreciation or depreciation of the value of an 
 article while in possession; It) The immediate 
 result of all gains or losses is the adding to, or 
 taking from, the net worth of the concern; 
 and, consequently, the net gain or net loss of 
 a business during any specified time must 
 agree with the increase or diminution of its 
 net worth for the same period. The foregoing 
 propositions may be said to be self-evident facts : 
 but they arc important facts nevertheless, and 
 such as any competent presentment of business 
 affairs must recognize and enforce; and this is 
 just what double-entry book-keeping does. 
 
 The science, or philosophy, of the system is 
 shown in the ledger, which, as before staled, con- 
 sists of accounts. An account is a collection of 
 homogeneous items pertaining to s e part of 
 
 the business, such as the receipt and disburse- 
 ment of money {cash), the purchase and sale of 
 
 ctiriing and liquidating of persona] indebted- 
 ness, etc. All accounts are alike in their struct- 
 ure, each having a title, more or less significant, 
 and two sides, with the items on one side exactly 
 opposite in effect to those on the other; and, 
 like plus and minus quantities, each canceling 
 the other to the extent of the lesser side, the 
 preponderance, or excess, of either side being the 
 true showing and significance of the account. 
 Thus, the debit or left hand side of the cash ac- 
 count contains the items of cash received; and 
 
 iiii; of goods, it has nothing to do with the prog- 
 ress of the business, having in it no element of 
 gain or loss.) The real transactions of the busi- 
 ness being, therefore, divided between these two 
 classes of accounts, we have in the one class — 
 such as merchandise — the indication or state- 
 ment of all the separate gains and losses which 
 have occurred, and in the other -such as cash — 
 the complete measure of the net resources, or 
 real wealth; the two together establishing the 
 satisfactory concurrence of cause and effect, or 
 assertion and proof. Thus, the accounts of as- 
 sertion or cause indicate a net gain or net loss, 
 while those of proof or effect Bhow correspond- 
 ingly increased or diminished net worth. 
 
 The peculiar methods or forms of recording 
 business affairs are so various — owing to the 
 great variety of manipulation or processes, as 
 also to the difference in tl stimates of a com- 
 petent record, that they cannot be pointed out. 
 The genera] conception of the purpose and 
 sphere of book-keeping, however, may be stated 
 as compassing such a record of affairs as will 
 enable the proprietor to know, at any time, the 
 extent of his wealth and of wdiat it consists. 
 Of course, if the real worth of a business man 
 can be ascertained at any time, the increase or 
 diminution between any two periods may readily 
 be obtained. 
 
 Book-keeping by the double-entry system has 
 been in vogue since the latter pari of the lath 
 century. It was originally practiced in Venice, 
 and is even now known as the Italian method. 
 The ti rst treatise on the subject was written by 
 Luea di Borgo, and published at Venice in 1495. 
 A (ierman treatise, written by .loliann Gottlieb, 
 
 was published at Nuremberg 
 and in England, in 1 
 lished a work on this 
 title .1 profitable Tn 
 good order of the b 
 
 ■M <»ld 
 
 ,/.-/. 
 
 17s:i 
 
 have prod u.vd: the difference .,r \akmce, when all 
 the facts are shown, being the preponderance of 
 production over cost, or of cost oyer production, as 
 the case may be — in other words the net gain or 
 net loss. All transactions which mark the prog- 
 ress of the business, having in them the element 
 
 The more modern publications upon this subject 
 arc very numerous ; and the most recent of them 
 
 provements in the system, some of which arc 
 rendered necessary in older to apply it to the 
 processes and methods of commercial transactions 
 at present in vogue. 
 
 Hook-keeping constitutes an important branch 
 of instruction in all commercial schools and busi- 
 
BOOK-MANUAL 
 
 ss colleges, in some of which it is pursued by 
 th sexes. It is also taught sometimes in con- 
 etion with arithmetic and penmanship, in the 
 
 struction, however, is often opposed on the 
 ground that it can only be acquired in connec- 
 tion with the actual practice of the counting- 
 room. The objection is not well founded; for 
 while it is obvious that no theoretical instruc- 
 tion, in this or any other art. can supersede the 
 necessity of actual practice, yet that instruction 
 performs an important function in laying the , 
 
 secpiently to be attained. In many business col- 
 leges, for the purpose of obviating this objection, 
 exercises are resorted to that nearly approximate 
 to the operations of actual business. Thus the 
 .students of certain colleges carry on business 
 correspondence with those of others situated in 
 different parts of the United States ; make and 
 receive formal consignments of merchandise, buy 
 and sell exchanges upon the different sections ot 
 the Union and Canada, and in this way learn the 
 business peculiarities of different places. Toinsure 
 
 who led I- tic p.idtionof bill-clerk and collector 
 
 to-day, i- : k-keeper to-morrow, shipper the 
 
 next day, etc. By tins diversity the exercises are 
 not only made more effective, but more interest- 
 ing and impressive. (See BUSINESS COLLEGES.) 
 
 BOOK-MANUAL, a scries of directions as 
 to the method in which the reading-book should 
 
 beheld by pupils when they are receiving class 
 instruction. Minute regulations for the distri- 
 bution of books to the pupils of a class as well 
 as for their proper manipulation while the lesson 
 is given, have been devised, and in some schools 
 arc strictly enforced. There is no doubt that a 
 regular and uniform method of this kind not 
 only saves the book from injury occasioned by 
 improper handling, but also contributes to the 
 formation, in the minds of the pupils, of a love 
 and habit of order and propriety, which they 
 will apply to other things. Indeed, it i> in con- 
 nection with the apparently unimportant and 
 trivial things that the teacher needs to exercise 
 the greatest care, if he would educate his pupils 
 in this direction ; since such things being of fre- 
 quent occurrence, habits are more readily formed 
 by the constant repetition which they require 
 than in any other way. The following minute 
 directions wire prepared, some years ago. for the 
 schools of New York ( 'ity, and were for many 
 years in use. They are still employed by many 
 teachers, those referring to book-monitors being 
 usually omitted ; since at the present time each 
 pupil of the class is generally supplied with a 
 book of his own. The distribution of books for 
 a given exercise is still often necessary. and hence 
 all the rules hold good : 
 
 I. The pupil should stand erect, his heels near to- 
 gether, toes turned out, and his face directed toward 
 th^ teacher. 
 
 . The I k-nionitnr should stand at the head of 
 
 class, with till' idle of lioohs to he distributed 
 
 iss his lift ;iiiii. \\ it li the hacks from him, and with 
 
 1. The I k- tor. w it li tie right hand, hands a 
 
 k to oa.-h | • 1 1 1 > : I in -i i— ion. win, should receive 
 
 i his riijht hand with the hack of the hook to the 
 and then p.i— it into the left hand, in which he 
 ild hold it with the hack upward, until a further 
 
 ,ce to the middle when the thiuiih ami little linger 
 made to press on the two opposite paces. If the 
 • is thus found, the pupil stands holding the hook 
 is left hand, and lets his right hand fall by his 
 
 near the upper corner of the page, while the forefinger 
 lifts the leaves to bring in view the number of the 
 page. If he finds he has not raised enough, the fore- 
 tinger and thumb hold those already raised while the 
 second finger lifts the leaves, and brings them within 
 the grasp of the thumb and linger. When the required 
 page is found, all the lingers are to he passed under 
 the leaves, and the whole turned at once. Should the 
 pupil, on the contrary, have opened too far, and be 
 places the righ' " 
 
 and page, and the leaves are 
 
 ie old. or so large as to make 
 il, the right hand may sustain 
 
 r: and then the right hand wi 
 
 book-monitor, who should receive it in In- ngb.1 hand. 
 and place it on his left arm. w,ih the back towards 
 
 the body. The 1 k- wnl thru be in the -t suitable 
 
 where, without being crowded, they should be placed 
 
 See Manual of Public School Society (New 
 York, 1840); Reportofthe Board of Education 
 of the City of New York (1855). 
 
 BORGI, Giovanni, called the " founder of 
 ragged schools," was born in Rome about 1735, 
 and died about 1802. He was a poor artisan, 
 who took a compassionate interest in vagrant 
 children. lie commenced his benevolent work 
 
 suitable building, in wliieh considerable numbers 
 could be accommodated and taught : thus estab- 
 lishing what was afterwards called in Scotland 
 and England a " ragged school." The institution 
 founded by Borgi was continued after his death, 
 and found an earnest patron in Pope Pius VII. 
 (See Ragged Schools.) 
 
92 
 
 BOSTON, the capital and metropolis of 
 Massachusetts, having a population, in 1*75, of 
 
 341,919. The origin of the public-sel 1 system 
 
 of Boston is found in the following order adopted 
 by the freemen of the town, on the 13th of April, 
 1635: "likewise it was then generally agreed 
 upon, that our brother Philemon Purmont shall 
 be entreated to become schoolmaster for the 
 teaching and nurturing of children with us." 
 The school thus set up lias been perpetuated to 
 the present day. and has long been known as the 
 Public Latin School, whose chief function, during 
 the_ whole period of its existence, has been the 
 fitting of boys for Harvard College. This was 
 
 tin ly public school in the town until 1682, 
 
 when it was voted, in town meeting, "that a 
 committee with the selectmen consider and 
 provide one or more free schools for the teach- 
 ing of children to write and cipher within this 
 town." Afterward, schools were established for 
 teaching reading and spelling. These reading and 
 
 writing school. |,; 1V .. 1 n gradually developed 
 
 intothepres atg mn r schools. Pupils were not 
 admitted to th ho Is until they were seven 
 
 years of age. Girls were not admitted i i the 
 
 hool until 1789 ; and,duri 
 forty years, they were permitted to attend only 
 half the year, from April to October. In 1*1*, 
 
 primarj scl Is -were established to tit pupils of 
 
 both sexes for the grammar schools, to which 
 children four years old and upward were ad- 
 mitted. In lSL'l. a school similar to the Herman 
 real school, and n one 1 the |- ngli.-h i : 
 "was instituted, with the design of furni-hiiiLf the 
 young men of this city, who are not in tend-.. 1 t i- 
 a collegiate course of study, and who have en- 
 joyed the usual advantages of the other public 
 schools, with the means of completing a good 
 English education." A normal school for modify- 
 ing female teachers for the public schools of the 
 city was established in 1*.VJ, in which a two 
 years' course of training was provided. The plan 
 of this school was soon modified by extending its 
 course of study to three years, and by including 
 in its curriculum all the branches usually taught 
 in high schoob. | u L872, this twofold' institu- 
 tion. «hieh bore the name of the Girls' High and 
 Normal School, was separated into two distinct 
 schools, a normal school for girls and a high 
 school for girls. By the annexation of adjacenl 
 municipalities, during the past eight years, five 
 mixed high schools have been added to the free 
 public schooLs for secondary instruction. Ele- 
 mentary evening schools, and day -el I. |',,. 
 
 newsboys and 1 thlaeks licensed' minor. i. weiv 
 
 established in 1868; an evening high school, in 
 1869; a school for deaf-mutes, in lM'.'l; evening 
 industrial .hawing schools, in 1*70: a kindergar- 
 ten, in 1*7(1.- 'I'll., public schools were originally, 
 and for more then a ceuturyanda half, managed 
 by the selectmen of the town, the clergy being 
 invited by them to visit the school., especially on 
 public occasions. From 1789, until the adoption 
 
 of the city charter, in 1822, they were controlled 
 
 by a board composed of the select n and twelve 
 
 committee men, annually elected in town meet- 
 
 ing. Under the charter, the selectmen were re- 
 
 pli d by the eight aldermen. From 1835 until 
 
 1855, the scl I board, called the Grammar 
 
 School Hoard, consisted of twenty-four com- 
 mittee men. two being elected annually by the 
 people in each ward, with the mayor and the 
 i')i -i. but of the common council, ex officio. I p 
 to this time, the primary schools had been under 
 the management of a board, appointed annually 
 by the Grammar School Hoard, consisting of one 
 member for cadi school or teacher, the "number 
 being at first 36, but increased finally to 190. 
 
 During the past twenty years, the scl 1 system 
 
 of public schools has been in charge of one board, 
 consisting originally of 74 members, ti being 
 elected in each ward by the people, to hold office 
 for three years, the mayor and president of the 
 common council being also members. By the 
 annexation of municipalities above mentioned, 
 the number of members was ultimately in- 
 creased to 1 16. 'I his board was discontinued at 
 the beginning of 1876; and. in its place, a 
 board was constituted cn.-i-tiug of the mayor, 
 and 24 members elected by the people on a 
 general ticket, to hold office for three years.- 
 
 'I he office of supei intendenl of scl ' 
 
 lished in 1851. 'I he first incumbent was Nathan 
 Bishop, who was succeeded by John D. Phil- 
 brick, who held the office for nearly 18 years, 
 retiring in 1*74. The old board did not fill the 
 vacancy: ami .Mr, I'hilbrick was re-elected to the 
 office by the new board in 1876. Under the new 
 system of supervision, the school board isauthor- 
 i/.ed to dee) a board of six supervisors. The follow- 
 ing persons were elected to this board: Lucretia 
 Crocker, George M. Folsom, Samuel W. Mason, 
 William Nichols, I : II i- Peterson, and Benjamin F. 
 
 Tweed. The sup. Til, ten, lent is,! ■" , i , mfcer 
 
 and the chairman. The princi] al duties assigned 
 the board of supervisors are those of examining 
 candidates for teachers, of examining the schools, 
 in detail, twice in each year, and of conducting the 
 annual examination of the pupils, in the different 
 grades of schools, who are candidates for grad- 
 uating diplomas. — Besides this board of super- 
 visor-, there is a general director of music, and 
 another of drawing, each having several assist- 
 ants. — For the purposes of supervision, the city 
 is divided into nine territorial divisions, each 
 division comprising from four to seven territorial 
 districts, and each district containing one gram- 
 mar school and several primary schools. The 
 master of the grammar school is the principal of 
 the district, having the supervision of all the 
 schools situated therein. There arc no primary 
 principals. Kadi division is under the charge of a 
 committee composed of three or five members of 
 the school board. There is also a standing com- 
 mittee in charge of the high schools. 
 
 School System. — Besides a normal school for 
 girls, with a course for study and training for 
 one year, to which pupils are admitted 
 passing a satisfactory examination in the usual 
 high-school studies, there are * high schools; 
 namely. 3 large central schools, the Latin and 
 i lie l.iigli-h high school for boys, and the girls' 
 
 
high school, and 5 others for both sexes, located 
 in recently annexed districts. These schools 
 (1876) contain 2,180 pupils, taught by 50 male 
 teachers and 48 females, whose annual salaries 
 amount to $180,251.33. There are 50 grammar 
 Bchools, with 23,971 pupils, taught by 96 male 
 teachers, and -"'11 females: the greater part of 
 these schools are unmixed. In the primary 
 grade, for children from 5 to > years of age. there 
 are 1 8,665 pupils, taught by 111 teachers. The 
 
 day and 
 e annual 
 and pri- 
 
 ug. These schools 
 lose annual salaries 
 hole number of reg- 
 
 whole number of pupils 
 evening schools is 49,41' 
 salaries of the teachers 
 mary schools amount b 
 cial schools are, 2 for lii 
 mutes. 1 kindergarten, 
 schools. 1 evening I igl 
 schools for industrial 
 are taught by 177 teach 
 amount to $42,824.64. 
 ularand special teachers employe 1 in the day and 
 evening schools is 1,296; and the whole amount 
 of their salaries is SI .21 7.do-..:rj : incidental ex- 
 penses, including salaries of olli.vr.-.. ,-C>o7.3r. t.r,:i; 
 total current expenses, SI ,724,373.61. The amount 
 
 expended during the year, besides this, forscl I- 
 
 houses and sites, was $356,669.7 I. The cost per 
 scholar for tuition, based on the average number 
 belonging to the day schools, is $26.30; for inci- 
 dentals, $10.55; total cost per scholar, $36.85. 
 Inl875,the whole number of school-houses owned 
 by the city was 144, which, with their sites, wire 
 valued at $8,500,000. The revenue for the sup- 
 port of the schools is derived exclusively from 
 an annual tax on all the personal and real prop- 
 erty in the city, which is levied by the city 
 council. There is no legal restriction to the 
 amount that may be levied for schools. The school 
 
 erected, by the city council: but the plans of the 
 buildings and the sites must be first approved 
 by the school board, who have the authority also 
 to determine the amount to be expended for the 
 salaries of teachers. Tuition isgratuitous in all 
 the schools: drawing-books, writing-boots, and 
 stationery are furnished gratuitously to all pu- 
 pils; and. to indigent children text-books arc 
 also furnished at the public expense. 
 
 Salaries. — The salary of the superintendent is 
 $4,500 : of members ot the board of supervisors, 
 $4,000 each ; of head-masters of high schools, 
 $4,000; of masters of grammar schools and mas- 
 ters in high schools, 83.200; submasters in gram- 
 mar and high schools, $2,600 : of ushers in gram- 
 mar and high schools. 82.000 : of head-assistants 
 (females) in grammar schools. $1 .loll; of assistants 
 (female) in high schools.'?! ,000 to $1,500; of assist- 
 ants (female) in grammar schools, and teachers in 
 primary schools, SsOO ; of supervisors of music 
 and drawing, $3,3110 each ; and their assistants, 
 $2,500. The city is divided into 14 truant dis- 
 tricts, each having a truant officer, with a salary 
 of $1,200. Habitual truants, pupils who have 
 absented themselves from school several tknes 
 without permission from their parents or teach- 
 ers, and absentees, legally described as " children 
 
 found in streets and public places, not attending 
 schools and not engaged in a lawful occupation. ' 
 are sentenced to a reformatory for one or two 
 years. This plan of dealing with truants dates 
 from 1850, and it has proved an efficient agencj 
 in promoting g 1 attendance at school Chil- 
 dren gmwii.g up without education or salutary 
 control, by reason of orphanage, or the neglect, 
 crime, drunkenness, or mher vice of parents, on 
 complaint of the truant officers, tna\ be sent to 
 an institution assigned by the city for the pur- 
 pose, where thej are boarded and educated. 
 
 Private Schools and other Institutions. — In 
 1874, the whole number of pupils in private tui- 
 
 colleges, with 19 instructors 
 scl 1 of pharmacy, with 3 
 
 udeiits: 2 scl Is ot deiitU- 
 
 I <ri 
 
 2UII student.-.; 1 museum of fine arts, value of 
 collections $100,000, value of buildings, etc., 
 SPIO.IIIMI; 1 museum of natural histoiv. limine 
 10 0(1(1 volume.*: value of collections. 8100.000, of 
 
 building. SI 3-. i; 1 I public libraries. -taC. 127 
 
 volumes. 232.900 pamphlets; value of buildings, 
 $1,026,700; Sundaj a tools, 15 7, with 4,450 teach- 
 ers, 43,540 scholars, and 83,700 volumes in lib- 
 raries. There are two conservatories of music, 
 and numerous smaller music schools. ( hie of the 
 most important educational institutions in Boston 
 is the Lowell Institut . established in L839 by 
 the munificence of John Lowell, to provide for 
 "regular courses of/ree public lectures upon the 
 most important branches of natural and moral 
 science, to be annually delivered in the city ol 
 Boston." The fund." in January, L873, was 
 $642,711.32; the expenses for 1872 were 
 $31 ,912.47, the number of tree lectures delivered 
 during the year being 264. Two drawing-schools, 
 and the school of industrial design in connection 
 with the .Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 
 are maintained by the fund. The Institute is 
 managed by one trustee, a kinsman of the 
 founder. No printed document or report has 
 ever been issued by the Institute. The Boston 
 City Free Public Library, which was opened hi 
 ls."»3, and is supported by taxation in the same 
 manner as the public schools, has six branches, 
 and contains 3(l('..2s7 volumes: the annual ex- 
 pense of maintaining it is about 8130,000. 
 
94 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE 
 
 BOSTON COLLEGE, at Boston, Mass.. 
 was founded in 1863 by the Fathers of the 
 Society of Jesus, by whom it is conducted. Its 
 object is to impart a religious, classical, and 
 scientific education. The course begins with a 
 " class of rudiments." and extending, in success- 
 ive years, through three " classes of grammar," a 
 "class of poetry," and a "class of rhetoric," into 
 a seventh year of philosophy and chemistry. As 
 in most of the colleges of this fraternity, classical 
 studies occupy a prominent place inallthe classes 
 of the entire course. In 1874, there was a corps 
 of 16 professors and other instructors, with 15 
 collegiate, and 143 preparatory students. The 
 value of its grounds, buildings, etc., is $200,000, 
 and it lias a library of about 4.1)00 volumes. 
 Rev. Robert Fulton: S. .1"., is (1876) the presi- 
 dent of the institution. The annual tuition fee 
 is $60. 
 
 BOSTON UNIVERSITY, at Boston. 
 Mass.. was founded by the munificence of Isaac 
 Rich, who bequeathed for that purpose the 
 
 freater pari of his estate, amounting to nearly 
 2,000,000. The first, however, to suggest and 
 advocate its establishment, was the late Lee 
 Claflin. father of a recent governor of Massa- 
 chusetts, whose views found an earnest supporter 
 in Jacob Sleeper. Hence, these three persons 
 are regarded as the founders of the institution, 
 although Mr. Rich was its most munificent 
 patron. Its charter was obtained from the legis- 
 lature of Massachusetts in 1 H(i!l. Its plan" of 
 organization is unique and comprehensive, in- 
 cluding (1) Preparatory Departments; (2) Col- 
 leges; (3) Professional Schools; and (4) School 
 of aU Sci s Schola Scholarum). The first 
 
 BOSTON UNIVERSITY 
 
 designed for students of the average proficiency 
 of graduates of the best American conservatories 
 of music ; and is the only institution of its 
 grade and kind in the United States. The 
 regular courses of instruction extend through 
 four years, and include (1) a course for vocal- 
 ists ; (2) a course for pianists ; (3) a course for 
 organists; (1) courses for orchestral performers. 
 .All these courses include the study of musical 
 theory, also the history and i sthetics of music. 
 
 L873 
 
 nchises to the 
 rged into its 
 
 llv 
 
 .,:'-, 
 
 supplementing the work of the professional 
 schools, is designed to be a universal, or non-pro- 
 fessional school of elective post -graduate studies, 
 with special degrees, scholarships, and fellow- 
 ships. 
 
 Of the colleges three have .'iliv.-i.lv been or- 
 ganized : (1) that of Liberal Arts, in 1873 ; (2) 
 that of Music, in 1872 ; (3) that of Agriculture, 
 supplied by the Massachusetts Agricultural Col- 
 lege, at Amherst, associated with the university 
 in lsT.l. This college has enjoyed a very hiirh rep- 
 utation since its organization in 1867; and by 
 the arrangement made with the Boston Univer- 
 sity, matriculants in the latter, who desire in- 
 struction in agriculture, horticulture, and related 
 branches, ciin receive it in the College, and on 
 completing the prescribed course,can receive their 
 degree from the University as well as from the 
 College. The CoUege of Liberal Arts answers 
 to what is called in - American universities 
 
 bachelor of arts, bachelor of philosophy, and 
 bachelor of science. The College of Music is 
 
 of medicine, iii IsT.'i : of oratory, in 1ST.'!. The 
 School of all Sciences was established in 1874. 
 
 Tlii' school of tl logy was formerly the Meth- 
 odist Kpiscopal Tlieoloe-ical Seminary of Boston, 
 which was organized in 1847. A school of fine 
 arts is projected. 
 
 A fundamental idea with those who organized 
 the university was. that a university should exist 
 not for one sex merely, hut equally for the two; 
 hence the most ultra principles of co-education 
 are carried out. Young men and young women 
 are welcomed to all the advantages of the insti- 
 tution on precisely the same conditions, -not 
 merely to the bench of the pupil, but also to the 
 chair of the professor. The trustees of the New 
 England Female Medical College, said to be the 
 oldest medical college for women in the world, 
 by a special act of the legislature, in I875,trans- 
 ferred all its properties 
 Boston University, and w 
 broader co-educative school of medicine. 
 
 1 "list-graduate students of this university, de- 
 siring to fit themselves for professorships of 
 Greek, Latin, modern languages, philosophy, 
 history, or art, enjoy special advantages. By 
 virtue of an arrangement, effected in 1875, with 
 the authorities of the National University at 
 Athens, and those of the Royal University at 
 Rome, any member of the School of till Sciences, 
 duly recommended, may pursue, without expense 
 for instruction, and for any number of years, 
 select or regular courses of study in any depart- 
 ment of said universities, enjoying all the rights 
 and privileges of university citizenship ; and 
 upon returning, and passing a satisfactory ex- 
 amination in the work accomplished, can receive 
 a degree from the Boston University. The 
 faculties of these two foreign universities are 
 
 thus co-operating faculties of the School of all 
 Sciences, which is designed (1) for the benefit of 
 bachelors-of arts, philosophy, or science, of what- 
 ttle or no direct refer- 
 
 illege, win 
 
 lifting th. 
 
 eel. 
 
 in this university: (2) to meet the wants of all 
 graduates in theology, law, medicine, or other 
 professional couise. who may wish to supplement 
 their professional culture by courses of study in 
 related sciences, arts, and professions. This school 
 is. thus, like the studium ,- nerale of the middle 
 ages, the crowning and unifying department of 
 
 Thus far, this comprehensive plan has been 
 successfully carried out ; and the institution has 
 
receiwd a large patronage and has accomplished 
 much work. In 1^,4 — 5, there were 745 stu- 
 dents belonging to the institution : of whom 268 
 were in the preparatory departments ; 81, in the 
 colleges ; and 396 in the Bchools. Of the entire 
 
 number in the colleges and .-el Is, 102 were 
 
 females. Its graduates from the schools of theol- 
 ogy, law. and medicine were more numerous 
 than those from the corresponding schools of 
 Harvard or Yale. Its financial condition is 
 
 it suffered in the great Uo-ton couth,,. ration of 
 1872. The final transfer of the Rich fund does 
 not take place till L882. The president of the 
 university is William P. Warren. S.T. 1 »., LI.. 1 >., 
 elected in 1873.— See Boston University Year 
 Books, edited by the university council, vols. i. 
 II, and in. 
 
 BOTANY |(.'r. hr6rr/. herb, plant), the sci- 
 ence of vegetable life treating of the elementary 
 composition, structure, habits, functions, anil 
 classification of plants, in which are included 
 herbs, shrubs, and trees. This is a branch of 
 that general descriptive, or empirical science, 
 called natural history ; being based upon the 
 facts of observation. The educative value of 
 botany, especially in the early stages of the 
 mind's development, is very considerable. — far 
 more so, indeed, than its usual place in the cur- 
 riculum of school education would indicate: 
 since it is generally superseded by subjects which 
 seem to be of more practical importance to the 
 pupil in his after life. In the more modern 
 systems of elementary education, both in this 
 country and in Europe, particularly in Germany, 
 the training of the perceptive faculties by the 
 systematic observation of objects holds a very 
 prominent place, indeed is considered the basis 
 of all sound mental culture: and among all the 
 objects of nature, none can claim precedence in 
 point of variety, beauty, ami interest, for this 
 purpose, over those of which botany treats. It 
 has been well said by a writer upon this subject, 
 "As the love and observation of flowers are 
 among the earliest phenomena of the mental life, 
 so should some correct knowledge of them be 
 among the earliest teachings." The facility with 
 which plants may be collected, handled, and ana- 
 lyzed, as well as their general attractiveness, 
 makes them peculiarly well adapted for object 
 teaching. Bugs and beetles are often quite re- 
 pulsive to a child, but where is the girl or boy 
 who is not pleased with the contemplation, or 
 the manipulation, of leaves and flowers? 
 
 For the purpose of this kind of instruction, 
 and as au introduction of the subject to young 
 minds, the chief point is to direct' the attention 
 of the child to the most obvious characteristics 
 of plants and of their parts, as leaves, stems. 
 roots, flow-el's, seeds, etc. They should be set at 
 once to collect specimens for themselves, and be 
 shown how (1 1 to observe them. ('_') how to state 
 and record the results of their observations, so 
 that they may acquire a knowledge of the words 
 used to express the characteristic peculiarities of 
 different objects. Here will be afforded a wide 
 
 VNY 95 
 
 range for the exercise of emu/iorotii-e observation, 
 in the perception of both resemblances and 
 differences, but particularly the latter. Ii is aoi 
 requisite, nay it would be injurious, to teach 
 anything of classification tit this stage; nor in- 
 deed is it necessary that the child should know 
 the name of any plant the whole or part of 
 which is under observation. Some prefer to 
 teach the names: since the child's mind has a 
 craving for the names of such objects as interest 
 
 plan can be 
 invented by 
 
 plest characteristics, as the parts of the leaf- 
 its blade, petioles, stipules: its venation, margin. 
 etc. The general appearance ot these ma v be at 
 first represented by pictures, but only to' enable 
 the learner to study the natural objects, which 
 he carefully observes, and writes the characters 
 in his schedule, attaching each specimen to it, as 
 a verification to the teacher of the accuracy of 
 his observation. (See Youmans's First Book of 
 Botany.) It will be easily seen that by a con- 
 tinuous application of this plan, the pupil will 
 acquire a considerable knowledge of the charac- 
 teristics of plants, as well as of the nomenclature 
 of the science ; and. moreover, that .at everj step 
 his observation, and his judgment too, will be 
 thoroughly exercised and trained, in order to be 
 able to describe the minute di.-tiiu-tioiis of form, 
 structure, color, etc.. that are subjected to hi- dis- 
 
 children in the empirical sciences should mainly 
 consist in exhibiting to them interesting objects 
 and phenomena : in allowing them to look, 
 handle, and ask questions; and in giving oppor- 
 tunity for the free exercise of their youthful 
 imaginations. A teacher may guide them in 
 their explorations of the neighborhood, direct 
 their observations, make inquiries, give explana- 
 tions, conduct experiments, call things by their 
 right names : but he must be careful to do it in 
 such a manner as not to check their play of 
 fancy or chill their flow of feeling.'' (See 
 WioKF.iisti wt's MrthiuU .//' liis/riir/iim.) But the 
 young pupil is not to be kept constantly at 
 mere observation, or the comparison of the form. 
 structure color, etc., of leaves, flowers, and other 
 parts of plants: his attention may be called to 
 the simple facts of vegetable physiology, .and thus 
 shown ••how plants grow'' and "how they be- 
 have," as well as w hat they are. The elementary 
 works of Prof. (-Jray, bearing the titles above 
 quoted (Hoic Plants Grow, and How Plants 
 Behave), anA \h. Hooker's CfiiloVs Book of Nat- 
 are, will be useful auxiliaries to the teacher for 
 
in; 
 
 this purpose. Such information as the circula- 
 tion of the sap, its use. the functions of the leaf, 
 the root, the flower, and the seed, communicated 
 in an appropriate style and explained by their 
 analogy with other things, familiar to the mind 
 of every child, will properly supplement the 
 knowledge gained by the pupil through his own 
 observations. The following description from 
 the Child's Book of Nature, wil] illustrate what 
 is meant by this : 
 
 "The bark is not all one thing. It is made 
 up of two parts ; or rather, we should say, there 
 are two barks. There is an outer bark and an 
 inner one. The outer bark has no life in it. 
 
 It is this outer bark that gives such a roughness 
 to the trunks of some trees, as the elm and the 
 oak. This outer bark is a coat for the tree. It 
 covers up the living parts so that they shall not 
 be injured. It does for the tree what our clothes 
 do for our bodies. It is not a perfectly tight 
 coat. It has little openings everywhere in it. It 
 would be bad for the tree to have this coat on it 
 tight, just as it would be bad for our bodies to 
 have an India-rubber covering close to thi skin." 
 
 In such a simple style as this, and with the 
 use of similar illustrations, much interest may 
 be awakened in the child's mind, its observing 
 and reasoning faculties quickened, ami a 
 love of natural objects infused, which independ- 
 ently of the practical use of the knowledge 
 gained, will constitute a mental culture of the 
 highest value and prove a life-long blessing to its 
 
 hi, 
 
 tion will have been laid. In this branch of study, 
 as in all other departments of natural history, 
 the 1 1 n 'lit a 1 processes to be successively performed 
 
 are: [1) Observation, with the view 1 ar 
 
 ison and analysis : •_'■ Classification; (3) Induc- 
 tion, or the discovery of principles, so as to em- 
 body the observed facts into a science ; and (4) 
 Application of the scientific principles to new 
 facts. The elementary exercises already described 
 conduct the pupil through the first stage only ; 
 but the scientific study does not begin until the 
 third, and is not completed till he has become 
 practiced in the fourth. The observation of 
 common characters in plants will necessarily 
 lead the mind of the pupil to perceive the 
 method and the value of classification : but such 
 exercises need not be very protracted, since it is 
 natural even to a child to generalize and classify. 
 He will soon be prepared for the methodical 
 study of systematic botany: and then very 
 properly may be supplied with a good text-book. 
 Hut the pupils must only use it as an auxiliary 
 or instrument, in the study of nature. Let them 
 
 still be ei uraged to colled s| Lmens.to notice 
 
 as fully and accurately as possible their peculiar- 
 ities, and to describe them by the proper terms. 
 Some simple means of drying and preserving 
 plants will he very serviceable, so that the school 
 at least may possess a tolerably complete her- 
 barium. Magnified and colored representations, 
 such as those supplied by Prang's Natural 
 
 History Series, and especially Henslow's Botan- 
 ical Charts, will prove a great aid in showing 
 clearly what the pupils fail to make out in the 
 actual specimens. For the purpose of analyzing 
 flowers, etc.. a small microscope will be needed; 
 one that can be so used as to leave both hands 
 free for the work of dissection, is greatly to be 
 preferred. This, with a sharp knife, forceps, 
 and large needles, fixed in handles, is all that will 
 be needed. Judgment should be exercised in 
 the selection of 'the flowers for analysis. The 
 simpler and more obvious, as the 'l'riiri/,r<r. 
 Rosacea , LeguminosOE, Ranu?iculacea>, Violacece, 
 and Labiatce, before such orders as the Com- 
 
 The artificial keys supplied in most text- 
 books should be used with judgment. Students 
 are veiy apt to become absorbed in the desire to 
 discover the names of plants by the use of these 
 devices, as if that were the end of the study. 
 But while there is no doubt that much progress 
 can be made by the verification of the order and 
 
 peculiarities of plants, and in their classification, 
 that he may be able to place them at once where 
 they belong, only using the key when he has 
 come across a specimen which belongs to some 
 order with which he is unacquainted. 
 
 'flic utility ot botany as a branch of school 
 study ha- been thoughtlessly called in question. 
 Its value as an educational agent has already 
 been sufficiently shown, and a brief consideration 
 of the relations of vegetable lib' to the most 
 important interests of society will sullice to 
 demonstrate its exceeding importanceasa branch 
 of knowledge. The agriculturi I ; greatly a1 
 fault who knows nothing of the principles of 
 vegetable physiology, who cannot distinguish the 
 properties and characteristics of the plants that 
 cover his domain — some the object of his most 
 tender care ami concern. others his greatest bane. 
 The florist and horticulturist are certainly un- 
 acquainted with their own arts, unless they are 
 proficient in a knowledge of the structure, 
 functions, and habits of plants: and the apoth- 
 ecary and physician have also an especial need 
 of similar information. The geographer and the 
 geologist : and indeed the scientist, in every de- 
 partment, needs to have a good acquaintance 
 with the vegetable kingdom. Says Prof. Hen- 
 trey: • In geography, that is, physical geography, 
 ll < retc natural history of pi. ml become;- a 
 
 ;.l.y.- 
 
 abstiact point of view, or for the purpose of 
 practical application; while the systematic classi- 
 fications, and the natural history of particular 
 species, become the only guide by which we can 
 attempt to trace back the existing conditions of 
 distribution towards their origin, and thus per- 
 
B0WPO1X COLLEGE 
 
 form the share due to botany : in the historical 
 connection of physical geography with geology, 
 of which it is properly only the statical part." 
 Moreover, to the clergyman, the lawyer, the 
 orator, and all who need to cultivate and employ 
 the art of persuasion, involvingas it does, too, 
 the art of elucidation, feu subjects present bo 
 wide a field for familiar and impressive illustra- 
 tions as the domain of plant-, rich not only in 
 those natural flowers which are pleasing to the 
 eye. hut also in those Bowers of speech, which 
 constitute the most attractive ornaments of 
 rhetoric and poetry. The traveler and explorer 
 in distant lands, who is a botanist, can find in 
 the flora of every region he visits, food for prof- 
 itable instruction and research ; and the rural 
 wayfarer, who has tied the bustle an I confusion 
 of city life for relief and rest, w ill, in a knowledge 
 of this science, never fail to realize. at every step 
 he takes, the most refreshing enjoyment. Surely 
 no stronger plea can beset up for any of the 
 branches of study which occupy so conspicuousa 
 place in the educational schemes of schools and 
 colleges, those alone excepted which n institute the 
 indispensable foundation of all mental improve- 
 ment—See Youmans, /■:■/,„■,,/„„„,/ <■/,,;,„< „f 
 Boftm»(N.T.,1870 . First Book > ' Botany (Ts 
 Y.. 1870), and Second Bool of Botany iN. Y„ 
 18T3) : Gray. How Plants Grow (N. . '.. L858 ; 
 F. A. P. Barnam>, Early Mental Training, and 
 Henfeet's lecture on the Educational Claims 
 of BotanicalS ien e, in Th Culture demanded 
 by Modern Life, edited by B. LYocmans(N. Y. 
 1867); Wickersham, Methods of Instruction 
 (Phil., L865 : Bow to Teach,a Manual of Meth- 
 ods (X. Y., 1873). 
 
 BOWDOIN COLLEGE, at Brunswick. 
 Maine, the oldest and most prominent literary 
 institution in the state, was chartered in 1794, 
 and organized in 181)2. It was named in honor 
 of Gov. dames Bowdoin of Massachusetts. The 
 government was vested in a board of trustees 
 and a board of overseers, which, in 1801 . elected 
 Joseph McKeen. 1). If. the first presided of the 
 College, lie was succeeded, in 1807, by Jesse 
 Appleton, D. D., who served till 1819, when 
 Hew William Allen was elected his successor. I 
 and continued in office till 1839, when he was 
 
 succeeded I iv Leonard W Is, I >. I >., who held 
 
 ollicetill ISliti. In lMiT. the Key. Samuel Harris, 
 
 ipplii 
 
 •hoi,, 
 
 lications: l':ii Philosophy, comprising psy- 
 chology, metaphysics, ethics, esthetics, and pol- 
 
 ' H tei including tin- I hem -\ of govern- 
 
 ited felloics,to reside at the college with all 
 rivileges of the same one or two years 
 
 r, without charge, enjoy me facilities for 
 
 s -till more advanced, with opportunities 
 aching in the line of their specialties. 
 
 attention is given to phys 
 -inn, being provided with 
 
 ■d upon phv.-iolo. deal and h\ 
 
 •al culture, a 
 
 the most ap- 
 are carefully 
 
 ith the view to develop the bodilypowers, 
 v, at the same time, subst rvienl to the 
 ine of the mind. Instruction is also afforded 
 itary science, and daily exercises in drill 
 
 en bv an officer of the army detailed for 
 lurpose. Since is;;!, these drill exercises 
 been optional, the student- electing be- 
 theni and the gymnasium. Medical 
 ig i- given through the Medical School of 
 
 apparatus is a 
 
 
 
 and it- pn 
 
 hi. ■in. 
 
 funds amount 
 
 o S | ;» t 
 
 000. 
 
 Th liege 
 
 and B0- 
 
 ciety libraries i 
 
 mtaini 
 
 bout 
 
 1,000 volun 
 
 
 roll of alumni 
 
 
 
 illustrious 
 
 iiames 
 
 Here, in 1825, 
 
 gradua 
 
 ed 11 
 
 nry W. Loi 
 
 del low 
 
 and Nathaniel 
 
 llawt 
 
 ionic 
 
 and subsc 
 
 inentlv 
 
 Franklin Pien 
 
 !, ( feo. 
 
 ',. < !hl 
 
 ever. John 1 
 
 . Hale 
 
 S.S. Prentiss. 
 
 nd Cal 
 
 vin E 
 
 Stowe. 'flu 
 
 mas ( !. 
 
 tJpham, D. D. 
 
 was p 
 
 ofessor of mental 
 
 philos- 
 
 ophy from 18 
 
 
 867 ■ 
 
 and H. W 
 
 Long- 
 
 fellow held till 
 
 positii 
 
 n of ] 
 
 irofessor of 
 
 nodeni 
 
 i-lm; 
 
 the present incumbent. The prevailing religious which 
 denomination is the < 'ongregationalist. Provision 
 is made in this institution for a scientific course 
 of study, distinct from the regular collegiate 
 course, during the last two years, and especiallj 
 embracing the modern languages, natural science, 
 engineering, mechanics, and drawing. There is 
 also a post-graduate course, which affords in- 
 struction in (1) Letters, comprising languages, 
 ancient and modern (including the oriental). 
 with the literature of each : philology, rhetoric, 
 logic, history, elocution, and the fine arts; (2) 
 Science, comprising higher mathematics, physics, 
 natural history, and chemistry, in their uses and 
 
 ■rally afforded to indigent students. 
 BOYS, Education of. In the education of 
 boys, the same general principles are to heap 
 plied as in that of girls : and. up to a certain age. 
 in their school education, the same arrangements 
 for discipline and instruction will answer. Edu- 
 cation, however, rightly considered, has I 
 
 object to aid and guide the develop nt of the 
 
 powers or faculties, both generic and specific 
 of the individuals who are subjected to its minis- 
 trations : and. consequently, its processes should 
 vary with the character of the faculties which 
 are to be developed. And this is by no means 
 the whole. Education is to be add n i 
 
the elements of character, — physical, mental, and 
 moral. There are propensities to restrain and 
 subdue as well as powers to bring out and direct. 
 There are tendencies to good to cultivate and en- 
 courage; and there are. from the first, those of an 
 opposite character to repress or extinguish. 
 There is not only the intelligence to be stimu- 
 lated and guided, there is the will to be subdued, 
 — to be made subject, not only to the authority 
 of the educator, but to the conscience of the edu- 
 cated. Doubtless, there are principles sufficiently 
 comprehensive to embrace all these considera- 
 tions, and to afford a safe foundation for prac- 
 tical methods and rules sufficiently minute to 
 reach every case, however peculiar or eccentric ; 
 but what we wish hen' especially to lay down, is 
 the important, fundamental law, thai education, 
 claiming to be scientific, and nut a, mere mechan- 
 ical empiricism, must take cognizance of all these 
 elements of human character, not only in then- 
 average condition and degree, but in those 
 marked diversities which constitute individual 
 character. (See Education.) According to this 
 principle, boys and girls can never properly be 
 subjected to precisely the same processes of edu- 
 cation, because their natures are very different, 
 — physically, mentally, ami morally. This fact 
 is, however, not necessarily in conflict with co- 
 education ; indeed, it may be an argument in 
 favor of it. Children of both sexes may be 
 trained in the same family, and instructed in the 
 same school or class; but the wise parent and 
 the skillful teacher will often have to make a 
 careful discrimination in his treatment of them 
 as boys or girls. 
 
 The ancients had very different educational 
 systems for the two sexes, for two reasons : (1) 
 because of I heir diverse natures, and ('_') because 
 of their different spheres of life. Nearly all 
 that we read of ancient education concerns boys; 
 but we are not to suppose, for this reason, that 
 the education of the girls was overlooked. That 
 of the boys was public, and was a matter of pub- 
 lic concern, for the welfare and the safety of the 
 state depended upon it ; but that of the girls 
 exclusively belonged to the social circle, and was, 
 therefore, strictly private. 
 
 In the I'l/riipipi/in of Xenophon, we have a 
 beautiful picture of the education of boys among 
 the Persians, fictitious in some particulars, with- 
 out doubt, but illustrative of ancient manners 
 and views as to the objects of such an edu- 
 cation. The public good was the exclusive 
 end of this system; and as the education of 
 the future citizens for their duties in peace 
 and war was the most important concern of 
 the state, this duty was not left to the parents, 
 by whom it might be neglected or improperly 
 performed, but was the subject of s] ial gov- 
 ernmental regulations. Boys were all brought 
 up in common, according to a uniform system, 
 which prescribed the kind of food, the' times 
 of eating, the nature and duration of physical 
 exercises, and the modes of punishment. By 
 a very plain and simple diet, the boys were 
 accustomed to strict temperance; and such 
 
 modes of bodily exercise were employed as would 
 inure them to the hardships and fatigues of war. 
 In their schools, the chief object was 'to teach the 
 pupils justice and virtue, with the view that it is 
 much easier to prevent the commission of crimes 
 by proper early education, than by severity 
 of punishment 'at a more advanced period of 
 life. 
 
 The Spartan system of educating boys re- 
 sembled that of the Persians as described by 
 Xenophon, except that it was deficient in some 
 of the finer moral elements ; and in its physical 
 characteristics was. perhaps, more severe. (See 
 Sparta.) For an account of the education of 
 boys among the Athenians, see Atiikxs. Among 
 the Romans, the education of boys was under 
 tie guidance of the father: though much of it, 
 particularly in its earliest stages, was under the 
 superintendence of the mother. She attended 
 not only to their physical wants, but took pains 
 to form their language, their ideas, their moral 
 sentiments, and their religious feelings. » If this 
 we have an example in Cornelia, the mother of 
 the I iracchi. Later, the boy was furnished with 
 a austos, or paedagogus, who sometimes in- 
 structed him in gymnastics, or accompanied him 
 to the exercises, or to the theatre, being responsible 
 for his safety. This office, in a Roman family, 
 was performed by one of the older slaves, and its 
 functions continued until the age of maul 1 was 
 
 reached. Some distinguished Romans, the elder 
 Cato for example, taught their own sons; but 
 usually teachers were especially employed to give 
 
 instruction in reading, writing, calculation, rhet- 
 oric, etc. A teacher of this kind was called 
 ludi magister. Youths were, for the space of a 
 year, exercised in arms in the Campus Martius, 
 and in swimming in the Tiber, [r^cr I.'omk.) The 
 most celebrated writer on the education of boys 
 among the Romans is Quintilian, whose great 
 work Tnstiivtiones Oratoris, although designed 
 to explain the education necessary for the com- 
 plete orator, yet treats likewise of the early 
 training and instruction of the boy. Thus he 
 says : " Many are opposed to the public schools, 
 for the reason that the children acquire bad 
 habits there, and also because the teacher can 
 bestow more attention upon one than upon 
 many ; but these objections against the good old 
 regulations are not valid, since there are also 
 many evils connected with private instruction; 
 and, moreover, if boys were not early rendered 
 effeminate, they would nol be so easily corrupted 
 in the public schools. The instruction in these 
 schools is to be preferred, especially for the fu- 
 ture orator, in order that he may accustom him- 
 self to the multitude, and be stimulated bvcom- 
 
 of his pupils, and to treat every one according 
 to his peculiar traits. Other Roman writers 
 treated of the education of youth. Varro wrote 
 Capys,aut de Kberis educandis, which, together 
 
 with most of this author's numerous treatises, 
 
BOYS 
 
 In modern times, most of the special treatises 
 on education refer particularly to the training 
 and instruction of boys. This is true of Mon- 
 taigne, Milton, and Locke. Thespecial education 
 of girls has engaged the attention of but few 
 writers. Very many, therefore, of the principles 
 
 and rules laid down are based upon the ] uliar 
 
 disposition and character of boys. Milton 8 defini- 
 tion of education is limited to the one sex, its 
 scope being"to tit a man to perform justly, skill- 
 fully, and magnanimously all tin- others. I ■■ »tli 
 private and public, of peace and war"; and his 
 various directions as to studies, physical exer- 
 cises, etc.. all have an exclusive application to 
 hoys, who lie says, among other things, " must be 
 also practiced in all the locks and gripes of 
 wrestling, wherein Englishmen were wont to 
 excel, as need may often be in fight to tug, to 
 
 grapple, and to close." Kellejng he part icllln I'l V 
 
 approves: " The exercise which 1 commend first, 
 is the exact use of their weapon, to guard, and 
 to strike safely with edge or point; this will 
 keep them healthy, nimble, strong, and well in 
 breath, is also the likeliest means to make them 
 grow large anil tall, and to inspire them with a 
 gallant and fearless courage, which beiii". t. 111- 
 pered with seasonable lectures and precepts to 
 them of true fortitude and patience, will turn 
 into a native and heroic valor, and make them 
 hate the cowardice of doing wrong." 
 
 .Most writers on education have recognized the 
 necessity of discriminating between the sexes in 
 education. " From the beginning of the eighth 
 year," says Schwarz, "the two sexes require, in 
 almost every respect, a different education. The 
 principal concern of boys are the studies of 
 school, alternating with bodily exercise. Their 
 amusements are. at an early age. of the more 
 active kind : chasing the butterfly, and scouring 
 the plain with other boys; at a later age, they 
 should engage in pedestrian excursions and hold 
 undertakings, and enjoy the cheerful company of 
 their equals; taking care, however, that their 
 playmates be of the proper character, and that 
 their hearts be cultivated for what is noble and 
 generous. This vigilant supervision should fol- 
 low them to the latter years of youth, and guard 
 them against all bad company. Their propensity 
 to imitate their older associates, which, among 
 other evil practices, so often leads to the early 
 habit of smoking, and the like, should be en- 
 listed on the side of what is good and praise- 
 worthy, by constantly managing their entire 
 education in accordance with sound principles." 
 The same writer also observes very justly : •• Al- 
 though boys should be chiefly educated by men. 
 and girls by women, the two sexes should unite 
 in the education of both boys and girls." The 
 boy requires the mild and gentle treatment of 
 the mother, in order that his sensibility may not 
 become callous : and. besides. he will always need 
 sonic intercourse with persons of the other sex, 
 both young and adult, as it is found in families, 
 because otherwise he will contract habits of 
 rudeness, without developing a susceptibility for 
 the finer feelings of humanity." 
 
 The requirements of modern civilization, as 
 well as the usages of modern social life, appear 
 
 to dictate a separate education for boys, after the 
 
 however, there is great difference of opin- 
 lanv. and particularly females themselves 
 n. ling to, the breaking down of all distinc- 
 
 d St 
 
 that, among private seminaries, this rule chieflj 
 prevails. Hoarding-schools, with arrangements 
 for gymnastic and other physical exercis and 
 a seh. ml military drill, are quite common; 
 while business and commercial colleges and 
 schools have b me very numerous. (See Bu- 
 siness Colleges.) These institutions aim to 
 give a training which will tit their pupils to till 
 
 honor and integrity 
 
 as will 
 
 ive them true man- 
 
 liness and Christia 
 
 
 ly. Some of these 
 
 institutions are opt 
 
 11 to gn 
 
 Is as well ; but just 
 
 as there are semim 
 
 
 colleges which are 
 
 for female, exclusi> 
 
 ire are likewise in- 
 
 stitutions especially 
 
 levoted 
 
 to the education of 
 
 boys. — See Mn,io\ 
 
 . 0/ a 
 
 lucaiion ; Schwarz, 
 
 Erzieh is ' 
 
 eipsic, 
 
 1 829 1 : Bousse iu 
 
 Emii.k. i /: . 
 
 a : 1 
 
 . 1. Schmidt, His- 
 
 tory of Ea 
 
 v y 
 
 1842); IIui.vun. 
 
 History of P dago. 
 
 v it line 
 
 mati. 1-74.1 
 
 BRAIDWOOD, 
 
 Thorns 
 
 is, a noted teacher 
 
 of deaf-mutes, was 
 
 born in 
 
 Scotland in 1715, 
 
 and died at Hackne 
 
 r, near I 
 
 union, in 1806. He 
 
 kept an establishn 
 
 •lit at 
 
 Dumbiedikes, near 
 
 f.'.r deaf-mutes in G 
 
 as the 
 
 inson pi 
 
 ir.-i regular school 
 ain. It is this in- 
 aised so highly, and 
 
 in which, as recorded by Boswcll, he gavi f 
 
 his sesquipedalia verba, to test the skill of the 
 pupils in articulation. (See Boswell's Life of 
 Johnson.) Subsequently, Braidwood kept a 
 
 school at Hackney, near London, in which he 
 continued till his death, and which was after- 
 ward maintained by his widow and grand-chil- 
 dren till 1816. He kept his methods of instruc- 
 tion secret as far as possible: but the chief fea- 
 ture of his system was articulation and reading 
 
 all 
 
 from the lip. The n 
 wise employed. An : 
 school was published 
 ton, the father of one 
 a work entitled Vox 
 1783). 
 
 BRAILLE, Louis, the inventor of a tan- 
 gible point system for the instruction of the 
 blind, was born near Paris in 1809, and died in 
 1852. He lost his sight at a very early age, and 
 
 like- 
 linburgh 
 
 . (,-, .,, oi B. 
 w- i s pupils, in 
 
 ///>/, ■(•/<! (London, 
 
100 
 
 Bli-AIX 
 
 was instructed in the institute for the blind at 
 Paris. He was highly distinguished for his in- 
 telligence, and the rapidity with which he ac- 
 coin|,li.,liri| himself in various branches of knowl- 
 edge, particularly music; and besides being a 
 skillful player upon several other instruments, 
 was reckoned among the best organists of his 
 time. At the age of eighteen, he bi sune a pro- 
 fessor in the Royal Institute: and while in that 
 
 positi about 1839), devised his method of 
 
 writing, based on the point system of M. < 'harles 
 Barbier, which he also applied to musical nota- 
 tion. L'- systeme Braille w,is introduced in most 
 of the continental schools. A new system of 
 tangible point writing and printing has, quite 
 recently, been devised by William I!. Wait, 
 superintendent of the Xew York institution for 
 the blind, in which the letters which occur 
 oftenest, such as e, a, and /. are represented by 
 the smallest number of points. — See Wait's 
 New York System of Tangible Musical Notation 
 and Point Writing and Printing (Xew York, 
 1873). 
 
 BRAIN, the principal organ of the nervous 
 system, and the fountain of nervous energy 
 to the whole body. It is the seat of conscious- 
 ness, feeling, and intellect, and also the recipient 
 of all impressions made on any part of the nerv- 
 ous system. The brain being the organ espe- 
 cially concerned in education, its hygiene is an 
 important subject for the attention of the 
 teacher. The development of this organ is very 
 rapid. The average weight of the brain in 
 adults is about 48 ounces, and this limit is gener- 
 ally attained at the age of thirteen years. Xo 
 organ is. from the time of birth, so regularly .'in. 1 
 so incessantly exercised as the brain. During 
 the period of infancy, nature herself superintends 
 this process: and unless her care is interfered 
 with through the ignorance, folly, or neglect of 
 the mother or nurse, it results in a healthy 
 growth and development. When the age of in- 
 fancy is passed, and the child is surrendered to 
 the educator, intelligence and skill may accom- 
 plish much benefit in regulating the cerebral de- 
 velopment; or a want of skill and intelligence 
 may do, and often does, very great injury. Ex- 
 ercise is the natural instrument by which all the 
 bodily organs are brought to a maturity of 
 growth and strength, and by which they are 
 kept in a condition of health. In applying this 
 principle, the teacher should see that the exercise 
 be proper, (1 ) as to its kind, (2) as to its degree, 
 (3) as to its direction ; and in all these respects, 
 that it is adapted to the age and peculiar phys- 
 ical condition of the cluld to be educated. The 
 same process will not answer for all. The teacher 
 who wishes to do good, whose aim is really to 
 educate, will study the external indications of 
 temperament, of bodily health and disease, and 
 also of cerebral structure; and will, as far as 
 possible, regulate his operations accordingly. The 
 brain is exercised both by thought and feeling ; 
 being the seat of various' faculties, both mental 
 and moral, its activities arc aroused by whatever 
 is addressed to the intellect, the conscience, the 
 
 emotions, or the propensities. " The first step," 
 says Combe. -towards establishing the regular 
 exercise of the brain, is to educate and train the 
 mental faculties in youth ; and the second is to 
 place the individual habitually in circumstances 
 demanding the discharge of useful and impor- 
 tant duties." The healthy development of the 
 brain maybe prevented (1) by wrong exercise. 
 (2) by being overtasked, (3) by bad physical con- 
 ditions, (4) by bad moral conditions. Over- 
 strained or too long continued attention, excess- 
 ive tasks from books, committed to memory 
 under the pressure of fear, long confinement in 
 close rooms, and hence the want of properly 
 oxygenated air, will impair the functions of the 
 brain, and lay the foundation, not only of future 
 disease, but perhaps of future imbecility. So. 
 too. when subjected to harsh discipline, to un- 
 kind treatment, to a moral atmosphere vitiated 
 by the irritability, ill-humor, and moroseness of 
 the parent or teacher, the brain of the child 
 loses even its natural or normal physical condi- 
 tion ; and its growth is necessarily morbid. (See 
 Physical Education.) 
 
 BRAZIL, an empire of South America, 
 having an area of 3,288,100 sq.m., and a popula- 
 tion, according to thecensusof 1872, of 9,700,187. 
 It is one of the most important states of the 
 world, being exceeded, in extent, only by the 
 Russian, British, and Chinese empire's, and by 
 the United States: while, in regard to popula- 
 tion, it ranks as the Kith state. The established 
 religion of the empire is the Roman Catholic; 
 but according to Art. 5. of the constitution, all 
 other religions arc tolerated, ' with their domestic 
 or private forms of worship, in buildings erected 
 for this purpose, but without the exterior form 
 of temples." Xo person can be persecuted for 
 religious acts or motives. The number of Prot- 
 estants is estimated at about 30,000. The ma- 
 jority of them arc Germans, who have about 
 I'll chin, hes and are united in a synod. Besides 
 the German Protestants, there are English and 
 French Protestant churches; and the Presbyteri- 
 ans of the United States have established a small 
 number of congregations among the native 
 Brazilian population. The national language is 
 the Portuguese. The number of German and 
 Swiss colonies was, in 1869, about 50, with 
 about 40,000 (ierman-speaking settlers. The 
 whites number probably one third of the popula- 
 tion, the remaining two-thirds being made up of 
 mixed races, civilized and savage Indians, and 
 Africans, which last form the most numerous 
 unmixed race in the empire. The number of 
 savage Indians is estimated at from 250,000 to 
 500,000. They are divided into a large number 
 of different tribes and speak many different 
 dialects, though all understand the tingoa geral, 
 which was formed by the priests, traders, and 
 slave-hunters, on the basis of the Tiijn-Guaraid 
 (language of the native tribes Tupiimd Ouarani.) 
 The Indians being found unprofitable as slaves, 
 recourse was had to the importation of negroes 
 from Africa. These were treated, until 1850 
 with almost unparalleled cruelty, though eman- 
 
eipation was always encouraged, and no man was 
 debarred by bis color from reaching any position 
 in church or state. A law, passed Sept. 28., 1*71. 
 
 '" Ih'.'ml was ,usc"',ve,v!l anil \]Zu y^Z'Lu ,,< 
 
 for the king of Portugal, in 15 lO.and from thai 
 
 ZIL 101 
 
 intention to introduce compulsorj instruction 
 
 and to establish two national normal scl Is, of 
 
 which there is as yet a great want, as the few 
 institutions of the kind existing in the piw inces 
 
 ran he regarded as (inly a small beginning of real 
 normal instruct ion. 
 
 ■'■ 
 
 cording to the constitution of 1824, public ele- 
 > mentary instruction is gratuitous, and placed 
 under the control of tin 1 state. Private schools, 
 like all others, are subject to the superintendence 
 of the state government. Public instruction is 
 graded, as in other countries, into primary, 
 secondary, and superior or scientific instruction. 
 Public instruction, like ecclesiastical affairs, be- 
 longs to the department of the minister of the 
 interior. Secondary and primary instruction, 
 are, however, chiefly regulated by the provincial 
 assemblies, and placed under the administra- 
 tion of the presidents of the provinces. As the 
 Brazilian provinces enjoy a nigh degree of self- 
 government, there is but little uniformity in the 
 organization, but generally the provinces have 
 modeled their schools after those of the capital. 
 As long as Brazil was a Portuguese colony. 
 little was done for public instruction; but Dom 
 Pedro I., as soon as he had ascended the throne, 
 showed great interest in the promotion of 
 public education, and established a number of 
 new schools. Still more was done by his son and 
 successor, Pedro II. (since 1831) : but the provi- 
 sions of the constitution of lsi'4 were never 
 fully carried out until 1851, when the two cham- 
 bers passed a law authorizing' the government 
 to reorganize the systems of higher instruction 
 throughout the empire, and those of secondary 
 and primary instruction in the capital. In ac- 
 cordance with this law. the minister of the inte- 
 rior, IViltviro de I 'onto Fcrraz, promulgated, 
 
 Feb. 1 I.. 1854, the organic provisions which had 
 been drafted by De Almeida Roza, and which 
 have remained the basis of everything that has 
 since been accomplished in I'.razil for the promo- 
 tion of public instruction. 
 
 Brazil litis, like Portugal, public schools of 
 v the first and second (higher) grade. The course 
 of instruction in the former embraces religion, 
 ethics, reading and writing, the elements of the 
 Portuguese grammar and of arithmetic, with 
 legal weights and measures. In the female schools. 
 instruction is also given in embroidery and other 
 kinds of needle-work. In the schools of the Bee 
 ond grade, the gospels are read and explained. 
 and instruction is given in biblical and universal 
 history, geography, especially that of Brazil, 
 .arithmetic, the elements of geometry and en- 
 gineering, drawing, music and gymnastics. The 
 number of schools is as yet entirely insufficient, 
 and as the salaries paid are generally very small, 
 there is a great want of competent teachers. 
 The country owes many important reforms to 
 the zealous minister of the interior, Correa de 
 Oliveira (1871—1875), who has announced his 
 
 cilors. Thei 
 
 he general 
 ors of the 
 tive coun- 
 
 11 belong to the city ot Rio de Janeiro. Pupils 
 are admitted into the public schools from the 5th 
 to the 15th year of age. The school hours are 
 mostly from 8 to 11 A. M., and 3 to 5i P. M. 
 The school-books, which must be approved by 
 the inspector general, are to a great extent trans- 
 lations from the French and the English; among 
 them is a translation of Peter Parley's Universal 
 History. The school is ope I everyday with 
 
 person appointed by the inspector general. The 
 five most successful scholars receive rewards, 
 
 consisting of books. The president of the com- 
 mittee makesa report on the examination to the 
 ins] lector general. 
 
 According to the report of the minister of 
 public instruction to the legislature for L872,the 
 number of public primary schools in the capital 
 was 111. with i'i.I 19 scholars, namely 3,900 boys 
 and 2,249 girls. The number of public primary 
 
 1 I 18 
 
 ad 
 
 The model secondary school of Brazil is the 
 Collegia de Pedro II. at Bio. which was organ- 
 ized in 1 Sfi4. It consists of 2 separate institu- 
 tions, one of which is a boarding and the other a 
 day school, each with its own rector. The num- 
 ber of students was 351; of whom 221 were day 
 scholars and 130 boarders. Besides this college, 
 
 
 in these institutions varies somewhat, but m 
 most of them the following subjects are taught : 
 Portuguese, Latin. French, English, natural phi- 
 losophy, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history, 
 geography, rhetoric, and poetry. The number 
 of public secondary institutions in the provinces 
 was 107, with 'J.'.MH scholars, namely 2,916boys, 
 and 78 girls. The number of private institutions 
 was 12.'!, with an attendance of .~>.ii-:i scholars. — 
 3,852 boys and 1,237 girls. The secondary 
 
Ill- 
 
 BRIDGMAN 
 
 institutions in the province are under the control 
 of the provincial administration, and there is on 
 that account a great lack of uniformity in their 
 courses of instruction and their entire admin- 
 istration. The government of Brazil intends, 
 however, to establish, as soon as practicable, state 
 colleges on a uniform plan. For the German 
 colonies in the province of Sao Paulo a "Ger- 
 man lyceum" has been established ; most of the 
 secondary schools resemble, however, the French 
 lyceums. 
 
 Brazil has as yet no university ; but only two 
 law faculties at Recife (Pemambuco) and Sao 
 Paulo, with an aggregate number of 542 students, 
 and two medical faculties at Kin de .Janeiro and 
 Bahia, with an aggregate number of 868 students. 
 The establishment of a complete university at 
 Rio de Janeiro is projected, and is urgently 
 recommended by the minister of public instruc- 
 tion in his annual reports to the legislature. 
 
 Theological faculties are connected with nearly 
 all the episcopal seminaries. Of other special 
 schools, there are at the capital a business college 
 (with 36 students in 1872), an institution for the 
 blind (with 111 pupilsi. an institution for deaf- 
 mutes (with l'.i pupils); the Central School (sci- 
 entific school), with which a military school is 
 connected, a naval school and a naval artillery 
 school, an academy of fine arts (with 187 stu- 
 dents), a conservatory of music (with 139 stu- 
 dents), and an imperial lyceum of arts and in- 
 dustry, belonging to the society for promoting 
 fine arts, a sort of polytechnic school (with 
 1. 233 Btudents). In the provinces, there are 
 several agricultural and industrial schools. 
 
 See Le Roy, in Schmid's Realencyclopadie, 
 vol. ix., pp. 869 — 920; Kiddeis and Fletcher, 
 Brazil and the Brazilians (8th edit., Boston 
 1866); Agassiz, A Journey in Brazil (1868), 
 Wacceis, I)hs Kiiix-rnich Bnisilien (Leipsic, 
 1871); Annualreports of the minister of public 
 instruction if Brazil to the legislature. 
 
 BRIDGMAN, Laura, a remarkable blind 
 deaf-mute, born at Hanover, N. H., in L 829, is 
 particularly noted as the subject of a very suc- 
 cessful course of training and instruction, by 
 means of which she was taught to read, write, 
 and converse with others, and enabled to acquire 
 a knowledge of many useful branches of learn- 
 ing, besides becoming highly accomplished in 
 music. She lost her sight and hearing at the 
 age of two years; and when about eight years 
 old, became an inmate of the Perkins in -lit in ion 
 for the blind in Boston, then under the care of Dr. 
 Samuel G. Howe, so noted for his benevolence and 
 devoted philanthropy. Finding that she possessed 
 a high degree of intelligence, lie resolved, despite 
 
 the many discouragements of the case, to attempt 
 
 her education. Through the sense of touch, he 
 first associated, by constant repetition, objects 
 with their names in relief letters, and when a 
 few of these were learned and the relation thor- 
 oughly established, he taught her to recognize 
 the separate letters com] losing each word, and 
 then to construct the words herself from the let- 
 ters. She was then taught the manual alphabet. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA 
 
 and its use in naming objects ; after wdiich, 
 through these channels of communication, she 
 learned the qualities, uses, and relations of ob- 
 jects, as well as their names. Subsequently, she 
 learned to write and to play upon the piano, in 
 which she became very .skillful, and acquired also 
 a dexterity in needle-work and in the perform- 
 ance of many household duties. Her moral and 
 religious education was more difficult; but this 
 also was successfully accomplished, so that, in 
 1873, Dr. Howe could say of her: " She enjoys 
 life quite as much as most persons do. She 
 reads whatever books she finds in raised print, but 
 especially the Bible. She makes much of her 
 own clothing ; and can run a sewing-machine. 
 She seems happiest when she can find some per- 
 son who knows the linger alphabet, and can sit 
 and gossip with her about acquaintances, the 
 news, and general matters. Her moral sense is 
 well developed." This case possesses peculiar 
 value in showing what can be accomplished by 
 a devoted teacher despite the greatest natural 
 obstacles to the acquisition of knowledge; and is 
 a most encouraging example of the result of 
 patience and address on the part of the educator. 
 — See Barnard's American Journal of Edu- 
 cation, vol. xi. s. v. Samuel Q. Howe. 
 
 BRITISH COLUMBIA, a province of the 
 Dominion of Canada, having an area of about 
 233,000 sq. m.. and a population, in 1871, of 
 8,576 whites, 462 negroes, and 1548 Chinese; 
 total, 10,586, exclusive of Indians, estimated at 
 35,000 to 40,000. It was created a distinct 
 colonial government by an act of parliament 
 passed -Vug. 2., L858. In 1806, Vancouver 
 Island was united with British Columbia under 
 one government ; and. in 1871, British Columbia 
 was admitted into the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 Although a common school ordinance was 
 passed in L869 and amended in 1870, the real 
 foundation of the educational system in this prov- 
 ince was the public school act of 1872. This 
 law is an adaptation of the Ontario act, and its 
 enactment was advised by the superintendent, 
 himself a teacher trained in the Toronto normal 
 school. Amendments were made to the first act 
 in 1873, and a further act was passed in 1874 
 The act provides for an annual grant of $40,000 
 as a public school fund, and for the appointment 
 by the government of six persons, to hold office 
 during its pleasure, as a board of education; also 
 of an experienced person to be superintendent of 
 education, who shall be ex officio chairman of the 
 board. School districts are established and 
 altered by the government, which also makes 
 grants for teachers' salaries, the erection and fur- 
 nishing of school-houses, and current expenses, 
 and establishes other schools, without a district, 
 \\ here needed. The board of education prescribes 
 a uniform scries of text-books to be used, and 
 provides for their supplj to the schools, makes 
 general regulations, examines teachers and grants 
 certificates, appoints teachers and fixes their 
 salaries, purchases and distributes school ap- 
 paratus, and may establish high schools. The 
 superintendent visits each school once a year, 
 
gives instruction, enforces the law, suspend 
 necessary, a teacher's li.-ense lill the meetil 
 
 ,YN 103 
 
 Is of their schools were burdened with a 
 
 "'lion of tl ost of instruction; w Idle, in the 
 
 utch colonies, tuition was entirely free. 'I'l.e 
 rsl school tax levied in Brooklyn [Breuckeleii] 
 
 ing, ami no 
 teacher. Tl 
 
 eall the aim: 
 
 ol-master, to take charg 
 a '- i i as court-met 
 e-digger, ami precentor i 
 ols were established wi 
 
 boarding-scl Is. Such schools are mi 
 
 three trustees, who are appointed by 
 ernor and hold office during his pleas 
 these officers appoint the teachers. Thi 
 
 uniler the board an- pai 1 on the follow 
 For an average attendance of fro,,, 
 
 and a half, the schools 
 
 scl Is appears to hav 
 
 a fourth scl 1 was 
 
 scl 1 wasestablisl 
 
 In all these schools 
 English and Dutcl 
 Bush-wick and Goth 
 the schools in Bn 
 
 led SI 
 .oUn 
 
 11(1 for the next (VI 
 
 w.-i-e supported on] 
 lition to the nun, 1» 
 
 choolNo.4. Anothe 
 
 Teachers whose schools arc far inland receivt 
 §10 a month more. 
 
 The estimated number of children of schoo! 
 age wa., in 1st I, aboui 2,240, of whom L.245 a1 
 tended school some portion of the vear; this was 
 
 acts, Brookly 
 
 when the tl'l 
 
 pop 
 
 one such school was, in 1875, in successful oper- 
 ation. The compulsory clause of the act did 
 not work successfully, its enforcement being op- 
 tional with the local authorities. The total ex- 
 penditure for the public schools for the vear was 
 $35,287, of which 822,219 was paid for teachers' 
 .salaries. An additional sum of $6,657 was ex- 
 pended by the superintendent in supplying books 
 and apparatus. There were 36 teachers in the 
 service. The establishment of high schools at 
 Victoria and New Westminster was advocated 
 by Superintendent John Jessop in 1875. Th ■ 
 risinecita of V m. line, has a school of a hkher 
 
 school was conducted up 
 monitorial system. Trior 
 of the scl Is inBrooklyi 
 
 
 lid form tin 
 irooklyn. 
 
 •hool districts. Who to; 
 1 of education of thi 
 
 Episcopal church. It was originally established 
 in 1862, but was closed in 1870, and re-opened 
 September 1874. — See Maui. inc. f'unada Edu- 
 cational Directory and Yearbook for 1876 
 (Toronto, 1876.) 
 
 BROOKLYN", capital of Kings county. New- 
 Fork, the third city, in population, in the [Jnited 
 .States. It is claimed for Brooklyn that, in 
 common with New York, it has the honor of 
 being the seat of the first free public schools 
 within the present territory of the United States, i 
 Education received an early attention in the 
 Puritan colonies of New England : but the pu- I 
 
 and giving their exclusive election to the com 
 
 tin the consolidation of the cities of Brooklyn 
 and Williamsburg, by an act of the legislature 
 passed April IT.. 1854, the composition of the 
 
 hoard was again changed. The law required the 
 common council to appoint such additional mem- 
 bers as the proportional increase of the inhabi- 
 tants might demand. In pursuance of this 
 provision, the number of members constituting 
 
104 
 
 BROOKLYN 
 
 the board was fixed at 15, of whom 13 should 
 reside in the Eastern District (Williamsburgh). 
 This number was sanctioned by a direct legis- 
 lative enactment in 1862. By a subsequent 
 enactment, in 1868, the members were divided 
 into three classes, huh ling office for one. two. and 
 three years, respectively ; and the mayor is now 
 required to nominate to the common council 15 
 members each year. and. if the same shall not be 
 confirmed within twenty days, lie may appoint 
 absolutely. In 1853, S. S. Randall was elected 
 city superintendent : bul he served only a short 
 time, being succeeded the same year by J. W. 
 Bulkley, who continued to hold' the office till 
 1873, when, in pursuance of a law passed that 
 year, lie was made associate superintendent, with 
 Thomas W. Field, who was elected superintend- 
 ent of public instruction. 
 
 School Statistics. — The growth of the system, 
 since 1854, has been steady and rapid. In 1855, 
 the number of schools was 30, with HI 2 teachers 
 and an average attendance of pupils of 13,380. 
 Ten years afterward, the number of schools was 
 38, the number of teachers 545, and the average 
 attendance 22,610; in 1874, the number of schools 
 increased to 49, the number of teachers to L,099, 
 and the average attendance to 10,193. The 
 following items are reported for the year 1875 : 
 
 ,121 
 
 Ki 
 
 till- Mil. 
 
 N were open 
 
 r-' salaries $i;?l ,ln-.l- 
 
 l.nililiiiL'* ;iTii,'.'L'.s..v.i 
 
 aii.l -t.itioiieiv . i;,i;l. ;.i,l 
 
 I schools.... 11,164.78 
 
 sxpenses 434,221.42 
 
 Total expenditure $1,493,339.58 
 
 School System. -The system consists of aboard 
 of education of 45 members, a superintendent of 
 public instruction an, I an associate superintendent. 
 The city is divided into 31 districts, containing 
 '■'• I ".raiimiar and intermediate school lniil, lines. 
 11 separate primary schools and tflolored schools; 
 
 making the total uumberof thedistrict scl Is 
 
 49; besides which there are 16 evening schools, 
 (2 for colored pupils), 1 evening high school, and 
 '.) corporate, or orphan asylum, scho ils. Most of 
 the grammar departments of the schools are for 
 both sexes. The school age is from 5 to 2] The 
 members of the board of education are appoint- 
 ed for three years by the common council, on 
 the nomination of the mayor, one-third of the 
 board retiring each year. The board elects the SU- 
 
 1 ks to l,e used therein, and makes all ne 
 
 regulations for the management of the same 
 has the power to purchase site-, and erect sc 
 houses with til. iseli! I it' t he common COUm 
 
 purchase text-books for use in the schools, at 
 
 sell or donate them to the pupils. Each St 
 is under the particular charge of a local con 
 tee of the board of education. 
 
 The curse of ins/ruction includes six grades 
 for the primary departments and six for the 
 grammar departments. The studies prescribed 
 for the former arc reading, spelling, arithmetic 
 as far as long division, elementary geography, 
 and writing; in the latter, in addition to these 
 studies. English grammar and composition, 
 higher geography and arithmetic, etymology, 
 the history of the L'nited States. astronomy, pen- 
 manship, drawing, and buck-keeping, together 
 with natural philosophy and algebra as optional 
 studies. ruder the direction of the local com- 
 
 This grade is, in fact, an academic course in all 
 respects except the study of Latin. Vocal music 
 is taught in all the grades. Each grade of study 
 occupies one half of the school year, or about 
 
 ■"'ii ths. There is no high school or college 
 
 connected with the system; but the board of 
 education has at its disposal 99 free scholarships 
 in colleges and seminaries for the benefit of pub- 
 lic-school pupils, the average value of each of 
 which is about $100. 
 
 Examination and Qualification of Teachers. 
 — The grade of scholarship of each teacher is 
 
 fixed by the superintendent, after examination 
 in one of the classes designated A. B, and C. 
 
 As most of the 
 
 ■ made from the 
 
 supplementary classes, the certificates graded B 
 or ('. are those usually granted at first. Those 
 of grade C license to teach any primary grade ; 
 those of B. any below the fourth grammar grade. 
 Certificates of the highest grade (A) are con- 
 ferred upon those only who have presented evi- 
 dence of superior efficiency as well as superior 
 
 No provision exists for the instruction of 
 teachers other than that afforded by the supple- 
 mentary classes of the grammar schools. 
 
 Private s, minaries and Schools. — The pri- 
 \ate educational institutions of Brooklyn are 
 very numerous, and many of them quite cele- 
 brated for their efficiency and high grade of 
 scholarship. The Packer Collegiate Institute, 
 incorporated in 1853, is a female seminary of 
 high reputation. It was named after William 
 S. Packer, from whose widow the institution 
 received a large endowment. It has a corps of 
 about 40 instructors, between 700 and 800 stu- 
 dents, and a library of nearly 5,000 volumes. It 
 has also a large number of free and endowed 
 scholarships, The Brooklyn Collegiate and 
 Polytechnic Institute, for males, was founded in 
 1854, with a capital stock subsequently in- 
 creased to $100,000. It is under the manage- 
 ment of a board of 17 trustees. In 1*74. it had 
 a corps ,.f .'ill instructors, and 605 Btudents, of 
 whom 136 were in the collegiate department. 
 The value of its grounds, buildings, and appa- 
 ratus was estimated at $164,000, and its receipts 
 from tuition fees amounted to about $63,000. 
 The Adelphi Academy, incorporated in 1869,is 
 also an institution of a high grade of efficiency. 
 In 1874, its corps of instructors numbered 29,. 
 and the whole number of students was 546. The 
 
nnilTKL ('OLI.KiiK 
 
 value of its grounds, buildings, etc. was SI CO.IHIO. win 
 and its annua] income from tuition fees was about Rev 
 $40,000. 'I'll' 1 institution is non-sectarian. For L87! 
 
 . and was succeeded by the 
 D. I>.. 1. 1.. I>. In January, 
 d bythe present incumbent, 
 
 Ih. ( 
 
 /./.,/' Broo&lun 
 
 3 vols 
 
 \.Y 
 
 l-hl 
 
 BROWN, Goold, 
 
 an ei 
 
 linen 
 
 A met 
 
 
 rian, was born 
 
 in l'i 
 
 ividei 
 
 ce, R. I 
 
 'Jl.a 
 
 id died at Lynn 
 
 Mass 
 
 in LI 
 
 57. Hi 
 
 teach 
 
 r for more than 
 
 twent 
 
 • Will 
 
 sin the 
 
 Nei 
 
 v York. II is 
 
 Insti 
 
 
 of. Em 
 
 r, nun 
 
 or (X. V.. L82 
 
 1), an 
 
 1 /•'/, 
 
 st Line. 
 
 English Grammar (N. Y.1823) lime beel re 
 
 extensively used in the schools of this country 
 than any other grammatical text-books. The 
 edition of these works with Kiddle's Analysis 
 of Sentences has still a very wide circulation. 
 Goold Brown's Grammar of English Gram- 
 
 sive and complete treatise on the subject ever 
 published. This work contains a very valuable 
 catalogue of works on English (irannnar. See 
 Kith edition with index, by Sami ex W. Berrun 
 (N. Y.. 1871). 
 
 BROWN UNIVERSITY, at Providence. 
 R.I. formerly called Rhode Island College, was 
 founded in 1 Tilt, through the instrumentality of 
 the association of Baptist churches at Philadel- 
 phia, and by the aid of certain prominent Bap- 
 
 tists of Newport. 
 1764, one of the pr< 
 into this liberal an 
 never be admitted 
 the contrary, all tin 
 
 liberty ot 
 
 ing shall, 
 that the i 
 not make 
 struction.' 
 fellows, hs 
 including 
 
 ination in the colony at the time of the cl 
 
 ter. The first president of the college was 
 Rev. James Manning, I). !>., who served 
 
 being occupied by the state militia, and by the 
 troops of Roehanilieiiu. The Rev. Jonathan 
 Maxcv. 1>. I>., was the second president, who 
 served from 1791 to L802, when he resigned.and 
 was succeeded by the Key. Asa Messer, D. I' .. 
 who held the position till 1826. During his in- 
 cumbency, in L804, the name of the institution 
 wiis changed to Brown University, in honor of 
 Nicholas Brown, from whom it had received the 
 most munificent donations. Dr. Messer wassuc- 
 ceeded in L827 by the Rev. Francis Waylimd, 
 D. I)., LL.D., who resigned in 1855, and was fol- 
 lowed by the Rev. Barnas Sears, D. D., LL. D., 
 
 i L6 acres. The value oi its grounds, 
 ind apparatus is estimated al 
 the amount of its productive funds, 
 cholarships, is stilted (1876) as 
 l'lie average amount of scholarship 
 
 hi to the classical and scientific 
 
 ] .1 IS, ■! | 
 
 for tin 
 
 AlTIII, 
 
 ie last 
 
 il and 
 
 I iv the 
 ■proof 
 
 aturai 
 
 fi issi irs 
 i her of 
 
 N the 
 
 llieco-t of tuition is ST.'i per annum. Among 
 the various forms of aid offend to students, there 
 are about LOO scholarships. There are 58 si holar 
 ships of $1000 each, the income of which is 
 given, under the direction of a committee ap- 
 pointed by the corporation, to meritorious stu- 
 dents needing pecuniary aid. 
 
 BUCHTEL COLLEGE, at Akron. Ohio, 
 was founded, in L872, by the FJnivi i ali I in 
 order to afford to Btudents of Loth sexes equal 
 opportunities for a thorough practical and liberal 
 education. The full curriculum embraces a eoin- 
 
 plet liege course of four years, a thorough 
 
 philosophical course of two veal's, a I ion mil course. 
 
 Re\ S. II. McCollester, A. M., is (1876) the 
 president of the institution. The annual tuition 
 fee is $30. 
 
106 
 
 BUFFALO 
 
 BUFFALO, a large and flourishing city in | 
 western .New York, having a population, ae- i 
 cording to the state census of 1875, ol L34.573. 
 
 Educatin,,-,/ IIki '■„-,/. 'I'k- first school-district 
 embraced the village of Buffalo, in which the 
 first school-house was built in L806. The first 
 
 for the purpose, probably, of rebuilding the 
 school-hous i, burne I, w ith the rest of the village, 
 in 1st;:. hi L822, .Millard Fillmore taught the 
 village school. At the time of the incorporation 
 of the city (1832), there were 6 districts, each 
 having one small school-house and one teacher. 
 In 1836 — 7. a law was passed authorizing the 
 appointment by the common council of a super- 
 intendent; from which event dates the beginning 
 of the school system. In 1838, the 7 school-dis- 
 tricts were divide 1 into L5, and a resolution was 
 adopted to establish a common school in each, 
 with departments according to its needs and 
 numbers, and a "Central School, where all the 
 higher branches necessary to a complete English 
 education could be pursued ;" and. in all these 
 schools, education was to b i entirely free. In 1839, 
 five new and commodious school-houses were 
 built. In ls.Vi-f, important changes were made 
 in the city charter, by which, and the ordinances 
 
 61 the citj i cil in pursuan f the same, the 
 
 system received its present organization. In 
 1873. Superintendent Lamed "endeavored to 
 secure the passage of a law creating a hoard of 
 education, to have the management of the 
 schools; hut the measure met "with but little 
 popular favor, and did not prevail. -The city 
 superintendents have been as follows: Under 
 election for one year by the common council. 
 ■ \V. Haskins, X. P. Sprague, and 0. G. Steele 
 
 ment of education ; and his duties are, to recom- 
 mend courses of study, to hire teachers, who are 
 subject to his directions; under direction of the 
 city council, to contract for ■• lots, houses, and 
 supplies," and to carry into effect all provisions 
 relating to education. — The course of study is 
 divided into ten grades, and embraces, besides 
 the common branches, drawing, composition, 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts is 35; of schools with one de- 
 partment. -14 : with two departments. 11 ; with 
 three. 17; of night .schools. 7. The principal 
 items of school statistics for the year ending 
 Dec. 31., 1876, are as follows : 
 
 Whole number of children enrolled (estimated) 40,000 
 
 Xo. "I pupils registered in .lay schools 23,000 
 
 No. of pupils registered in nighl schools 1,121 
 
 No. of teachers employed 420 
 
 Receipts from school fund... S77,.'i.">2.27 
 by tax 237,597.73 
 
 Of the 42 principals employed, 33 are males, 
 with salaries ranging from $550 to $1,450 ; and 
 9 are females, with salaries ranging from $550 
 to $800 Hie salaries of assistants range from 
 $400 to $650. The amount paid for salaries is 
 $275,000. 
 
 In the Central Scliool, the courses of study are 
 a shorter English course, requiring two years, 
 
 uccessively, during L837; Oliver G. Steele, L838 
 39, 15, and 51 ; Daniel Bowen, 1840, -46, 
 
 veil, 
 
 girls; and the number of teachers was 14, the 
 amount of whose salaries was $15,750. The state 
 normal school at Buffalo was opened in 1871. 
 The common council appropriated $45,000, 
 
 ■ 52 and 53 : under the new law, electing for 
 two years, Ephraim F. Cook, 1854— 5 and 1856 
 —7: Joseph Warren, 1858—9; Sandford B. 
 Hunt. L860— 61 ; John B. Sackett, L862 3; 
 Henry D. Garvin, L864 -5; John S. Posdick, 
 1866 7; Samuel Slade, L868— 9; Thomas Loth- 
 lop, is ( ii_7l ; Josephus X. Lamed, 1872—3; 
 William S. Rice. Is, fc — 5, and re-elected for the 
 term which expires Dec. 31., 1877. 
 
 School System.— By the charter of 1853—4, 
 the schools are under the control of the com- 
 mon council, and are free to all persons between 
 the ages of 5 and 20 years. Colored children 
 are admitted to any of the schools, but one 
 colored school mu-t be maintained. The cost of 
 
 property of school -districts; bul all oth 
 
 pen-.es ar ■ paid out oi the general fund 
 tax. The Central High School is entil 
 share in all appropriations to academies 
 the districts DarticiDatB in the annnrtfnnm 
 
 public seuoois. — i ne supermienaeni oj eaucation 
 
 elected on general city ticket for' two years. 
 
 He is the chief executive officer of the depart- 
 
 tor me erection oi a building, on a site com- 
 prising 5 acres, given for the purpose by Jesse 
 Ketchuin. for the nominal sum of $4,500. Pupils 
 are admitted, at 16 years of age. on the recom- 
 mendation of the local school officers, and after 
 passing an examination in the common English 
 branches. 
 
 Parochial Schools. — There are 15 parochial 
 schools for instruction in common branches, in 
 connection with the Roman Catholic church, 2 
 colleges, and several convenf and Sisters' schools. 
 
 In the first, during the year ending I 31., 
 
 1S7II. there were i.976 pupils, taught l>\ 9s teacli- 
 Canisius College is conducted by Jesuit 
 
 " by lay teachers: in 1 876, it had 
 St. Joseph's College is under the 
 -nan Brothers, with 3ti(> pupils. 
 ■ - The Buffalo Female Acad- 
 emy was organized in 1851. It is under the con- 
 trol ,,| a board ol trustees, and has a collegiate de- 
 partment, academic departments, and a primary 
 department. Other school.-, are, the lleathcote 
 school for hoys, and the Buffalo Classical School, 
 the latter a school of long standing. Besides 
 
 these, there are numerous other schools. Catholic 
 and Protestant, both for boys and for girls. 
 
BUGENHAGEN 
 
 BUGENHAGEN, Johann, one of the 
 leaders of the German reformation in the six- 
 teenth century, was born in I -is.">, atWollinin 
 Pomerania, and died in L558. Next to Melanch- 
 thon, he was them si prominent educator among 
 the fathers of German Protestantism. When 
 only Is years of a ■•■. he was plac I .-it the head 
 
 of the school of L'reptow, which s i became 
 
 si> famous thai it attracted scholars from various 
 countries of northern Europe. In 1517, he was 
 called by the abbot of Belouek to assume the 
 office of teacher of theology to his convent. 
 After joining the reformation, lie was for some 
 years professor at the university of Wittenberg : 
 butfrom 1536 until his death, histime waschiefly 
 devoted to carrying on the work of the Reforma- 
 tion in various countries. In connection with 
 every Protestant church, he endeavored to estab- 
 lish a Protestant school, and he is believed to 
 have thus done more for the spread of education 
 in Protestant Germany than even Luther him- 
 self. The church established by him in the 
 duchy of Brunswick served as a model fora large 
 number of others. The church constitution of 
 this duchy, drawn up by him in L528, provides 
 for the establishment of two Latin schools for 
 boys, each with three teachers, of two German 
 schools for boys, and four girls' schools. The in- 
 struction given in these schools consisted chiefly 
 in teaching th ■ catechism and singing; but in the 
 
 branch. The poor were to be aided as much as 
 possible to obtain admission into these schools, 
 and the heads of the parish were to exercise a 
 careful supervision over the education of all the 
 children. In the villages and towns, the sexton 
 was expected to give instruction to the lowest 
 To aid this work of teaching, [itigen- 
 
 classes, 
 
 ha: 
 
 lati 
 
 fed the Bible into Low Germ: 
 
 illowing the High German tra 
 
 BUREAU OF EDUCATION, National, 
 an office in the Department of the Interior of the 
 government of the United States, organized in 
 
 pursuance of an act of congress approved March 
 2., 1867. This office had its rise in the need, 
 long felt by leading educators, of some central 
 agency by which the general educational statistics 
 of the country could be collected, preserved, con- 
 densed, and properly arranged for distribution. 
 In February. ls(i(i, a m iiMii.il was presented to 
 the House' of Representatives, asking for the 
 establishment of a national bureau of e lucation. 
 This memorial emanated from he National \ 
 sociation of State and City School-Superintend- 
 ents, and enumerated the following as the means 
 by which the propose I bureau c iuI I promote the 
 interests of education : "(1) By securing greater 
 uniformity and accuracy in school statistics, and 
 so interpreting them that they may be more 
 
 !.il 
 
 suits of school-systems in different communities, 
 states, and countries, and determining their com- 
 parative value ; (3) By collecting the results of 
 all important experiments in new and special 
 
 BUREAU OP EDUCATION 107 
 
 methods of school instruction and management, 
 and making them the common property of school- 
 
 ading schools, improved plans of school-houses, 
 gether with modes of heating and ventilation, 
 
 a., information now obtained only by a few 
 raons and at great expense, but which is of the 
 ghest value to all intrusted with th,' manage- 
 cnt ,,f schools; (5) By aiding communities 
 .1 states in the organization oi school-systems 
 which mischievous .■nor.- shall be avoided,and 
 
 eluded ; (6) By the general diffusion of correct 
 ■as respecting the value of education asaquick- 
 er oi intellectual actw ities, as a moral renova 
 
 illiberty." Tl 
 
 has ace plished a vast amount of work. Be- 
 sides the five annua] reports, from 1870 to 1874, 
 it hasissued twenty-seven circulars of informa- 
 tion, containing important summaries of intelli- 
 ince i lating to the condition of education in 
 foreign countries, or upon other interesting e lu 
 
 The relation of the Bureau to the educational 
 authorities of the country, which are exclusively 
 under state control, is entirely ancillary . [ts office 
 is to aid by dispensing information, not to direct. 
 It has no power to demand information : 1ml is en- 
 tirely dependent upon the courtesy of the state 
 and city authorities and officials in affording proper 
 replies to its interrogatories. The extent of its 
 operations in gathering information will be ap- 
 parent from the following statement extracted 
 
BURGHER SCHOOL 
 
 to inquiries on school matters addressed to the 
 commissioner. The amount of intelligence con- 
 veyed. liy these means, with respeet to educational 
 systems, school laws, and important institutions, 
 such as has never previously been made gener- 
 
 108 BUREAU OP EDUCATION 
 
 from a recent " Statement." issued under the 
 authority of the Bureau itself : — 
 
 " The field for exploration it presents end . races 
 the thirty-seven states and eleven territories. To 
 make the exploration thorough, the bureau must 
 
 examine every school law. and mark whatever ally accessible in the I i 
 change or amendment maybe made, including certainly, as no single state, much less any single 
 the charters of city boards of education, with individual or private association, could have 
 their rules and ordinances. It must sift, for obtained, without an expenditure which it would 
 things deserving general attention, the reports of , have probably been either unable or unwilling to 
 every state-, county-, and city-superintendent of incur. 
 
 the public schools that may be sent to it, It While there is a very emphatic and general 
 must get at the work not only of the public high ' opposition in the United States to the establish 
 
 schools, but also of the private acade 
 special preparatory schools. It must look through 
 the annual catalogues and calendars of a long list 
 of colleges and universities; schools of divinity, 
 law. medicine, and science; reformatories, and 
 institutions for the training of the deaf ami dumb, 
 the blind, and the feeble-minded — selecting from 
 each what is worthy to be noted in the way of 
 either improvement or defect. And. besides all 
 this, it must keep its eyes wide open to ob- 
 serve the growth of libraries, museums, schools 
 of art or industry, and other aids to the proper 
 training of the people; must see what the edu- 
 cational journals say as to school-matters in their 
 several states ; must note what may be worth pre- 
 serving in the utterances at teachers' associations 
 and gatherings of scientific men ; and must keep 
 up. with reference to all these things, an incessant 
 correspondence witheverj portion of the country. 
 In fact, its correspondence reaches, more or less 
 directly, to the 48 states and territories, to 206 
 cities. 132 normal schools or departments, Ml 
 business colleges. 51 kindergarten, 1,455 acad- 
 emies, 103 schools especially engaged in prepar- 
 ing pupils for the colleges, 240 institutions for 
 the higher training of young wome 
 and universities. T.'i schools of science, ll.^of 
 theology, 37 of law, and 98 of medicine ; with 
 585 libraries, 26 art museums. 53 museums of 
 natural history, 41) institutions for the instruc- 
 tion of deaf-mutes. 2H for the blind, 9 for the 
 feeble-minded. 400 for orphans, and 45 for the 
 reformation of misguided vouth." 
 
 The diffusion of information by the Bureau 
 takes a wide range, embracing not only full and 
 statistical information in regard to the progress 
 and condition of education in the United States. 
 but as to the " ministries of instruction in the 
 several European states, as to the useful sugges- 
 tions in foreign educational reports and journals. 
 
 t ot any national system of education, or to 
 
 '■rring upon the general government the 
 
 to interfere in any way with the state 
 
 systems, there has nevertheless been generally 
 
 of the value of 
 s now constituted, 
 upply the Commis- 
 
 fested a ful 
 the Bureau of Edu 
 
 and a cordial disposi 
 sioner with the fulles 
 
 information, as well as with copies of all edu- 
 cational documents issued under state or city 
 authority. In bringing about this very desirable 
 state of things, of course, the manner in which 
 the affairs of the Bureau have been administered 
 has had much to do. It would be easy by an 
 injudicious course to bring about an antagonism 
 that would most effectually prevent any further 
 
 An educational library of probably unsur- 
 passed richness is another of the valuable fruits 
 of the work of the Bureau. This is, in part, 
 composed of choice collections bearing on the 
 history and art of education in this country and 
 abroad; in part, of the accumulations made in 
 the process of annual examination into the con- 
 dition of public-school instruction, the state ..1 
 colleges academics and colleges, ami the rise and work of 
 professional and special schools. This Iibrary.it 
 is said, for purposes of practical investigation, is 
 superior to any other educational library in exist- 
 ence, except, perhaps, the one at Vienna.' With its 
 vast accumulations from year to year, its value 
 as a librarv of reference is constantlv imivasiii". 
 -See Reports of U.S. Commissioner qfEfar 
 cation, 1870— t: also Ncdi ,1 Bureau of 
 
 /■;/,- 
 
 ll.sl, 
 
 iler the direction of the < 'ommissioner of Kdu- 
 tion i Washington. 1875). 
 BURGHER SCHOOL (tier. Burgerschule), 
 given to many public schools of a higher 
 
 ami as to the systems of training in the universi- grade in the towns of (iermanv. designed to e.l 
 ties, gymnasia, real-schools, schools of architec- | ueate the children of citizens for a practical busi 
 
 this intelligence is, (1) Bj d reports, each 
 
 giving abstracts of the various classes of instruc- 
 tion (such as primary, secondary, superior, pro- 
 fessional and special .wnli lists and statistics of 
 noticeable institutions and estimates of progress 
 or retrogression in various lines: (2) liy occasional 
 circulars of information [of which 27 have been 
 issued up to 1870) ; and (3) By written answers 
 
 3S life. Formerly, the course of 
 ■ town schools embraced the ancic 
 .1 the study of Latin, in partici 
 ently, even as late as the eightei 
 
 ;arded as the mo^t important oar 
 
 •nth century, 
 of the entile 
 
 course. In the last quarter of the eighteenth 
 century, a radical reform began gradually to be 
 effected. Teachers and school authorities invest] 
 gated the comparative usefulness of the different 
 branches of instruction for all those classes of 
 towns-people who did not follow one of the 
 
BURLINGTON UNIVERSITY 
 
 learned professions, and the conclusion generally 
 reached was, that natural science, geography, 
 
 history, and similar studies are of verj much 
 higher advantage to the future citizen, than a 
 knowledge of Latin. The organization of the 
 town schools was gradually changed, in accord- 
 ance with these principles: and. on .Ian.... l s 'i|. 
 the first B'wrgerselude was opened at Leipsie. 
 Since that time, a large number of flourishing 
 schools bearing this name have sprung up in the 
 large cities. In the further development of the 
 school system of Germany, the term, as a dis- 
 tinctive name, has to a great extent been dropped, 
 .and the schools formerly thus designated consti- 
 tute, under various names, the higher division 
 of the VbUcsscfadeii. The name /where Biir- 
 gerschide is identical with the more common 
 
 Realschule. [See Real Sc l, and Germany.) 
 
 BURLINGTON UNIVERSITY, it Bur- 
 lington, Iowa, was founded by the Baptists, in 
 
 of s professors and other instructors. The value 
 of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is about 
 $40,000; its endowment fund, about $20,000. 
 Prof. L. E. Worcester has been the president of 
 the institution since 1872. The annual tuition 
 fee is 842. 
 
 BUSBY, Richard, D. D., one of the most 
 noted of English pedagogues, was bom in Lutton, 
 Northamptonshire, in 1606, and died in L695. 
 II wa.- educated in the Westminster School 
 and Oxford University; and. in 1640, was ap- 
 pointed head-master of Westminster, in which 
 position he continued for more than fifty years. 
 h was here that he achieved his great fame a.s 
 the most successful school-master of his age, and 
 the most imperious one too, for his frequent and 
 excessive use of the rod or birch has made his 
 name proverbial. Within his school he was the 
 most arbitrary of despots; and it is said that 
 when the king entered his school-room, he would 
 not remove his hat. being unwilling that the boys 
 should deem any one his superior. When taxed 
 with the severity of his punishments, he pointed 
 to the many illustrious and learned men whom 
 he had educated in his school, among whom at 
 one time he could number no less than sixteen 
 bishops. Dr. South, one of the most eminent of 
 his pupils, was at first a very dull, obstinate, and 
 intractable scholar ; but Dr. Busby discerned his 
 latent genius, and used his utmost efforts to bring 
 it forth, in the doing of which the rod was by no 
 means spared, and the master lived to enjoy his 
 pupil's fame as one of the most brilliant pulpit 
 orators of his time. Dr. Busby's works as an 
 author were confined to some text-books, which 
 he compiled for the use of schools. 
 
 BUSINESS COLLEGES, as now existing 
 in the United States, are the product of individual 
 effort directed to the supplying of a public want. 
 As distinct institutions, they are the outgrowth 
 of the past thirty years, although schools and 
 private classes for instruction in the commercial 
 branches — particularly book-keeping and pen- 
 manship — have been in vogue for a much longer 
 time. Thirty years ago, most of this kind of in- 
 
 HCSIXKSS COI.I.KUKS 
 
 [09 
 
 struetion was given by a few private teachers in 
 the large cities w h< i ■_: . ■ i n-ral 1 v united the duties 
 of teacher with thoseoi public accountant), and 
 
 by itinerant professors who traveled h place to 
 
 place, teaching special classes for a limited num- 
 ber of lessons at low rates. I hi - teachers or 
 
 professo 
 
 
 •e otic 
 
 i authors 
 
 .school n 
 
 ethoi 
 
 -: and 
 
 bv eontil 
 
 the worl 
 edly ;ie 
 
 il'n',1 
 
 hi. li t 
 
 icn excel! 
 
 tin. prat 
 
 tic;,l 
 
 self-pi 
 
 Swasrea 
 
 respect, 
 
 hees 
 need 
 
 
 Sis, 
 
 
 
 
 
 in n Mire 
 
 libra 
 
 'l/;;/ 1 ; 
 
 
 
 7i,/; 
 
 "».'■'„'. , 
 
 
 
 Mill 
 
 
 iced the. 
 
 relations to the future business-man as those 
 which already existed between the medical, law. 
 and theological schools, and the members of those 
 various professions. 
 
 Among the pioneers in this work, may be 
 
 iiienii id R. M. Bartlett of Cincinnati, Peter 
 
 Duff of Pittsburgh, James Arlington Dennett 
 of New York, and George N. Comer of Boston. 
 As there was no unity of action among these 
 teachers and no means of measuring their indi- 
 vidual efforts, cither absolutely or relatively, it is 
 impossible to say what was the prescribed course 
 of stud\ adopted, or to what extent the various 
 schools made good the claim to their chosen title. 
 But the respect in which they were held by the 
 community, and the fact that they supplied in a 
 good measure preliminary training which had 
 
 heretofore been obtainable 
 
 fly in counting- 
 :hat thev deserved 
 
 tutly in 
 to 'the 
 
 capacity of the student, from three weeks to three 
 months: whereas, the reputable business colleges 
 of iii-il.n do not pretend to graduate their stu- 
 dents in less than from one to two j ears. These 
 facts alone must be accepted as evidence of a 
 substantial increase in the body of learning which 
 makes up the college course. Not only have 
 I the main studies, — book-keeping, penmanship, 
 and arithmetic, been materially enlarged and 
 intensified, but other not less important branches 
 have been added, the purpose and effect of this 
 being to give form and symmetry to the training, 
 and to meet the increased demand for broadly 
 educated accountants and clerks. Among the 
 branches which have been added are political 
 economy, including civil government : commercial 
 law : correspondence, embracing the elements of 
 English composition and practical grammar; pho- 
 nography and modern languages, particularly 
 German, French, and Spanish. Some institutions 
 
have also made a prominent feature of telegraphy. 
 But the feature which attracts must attention, 
 both from its novelty and its usefulness, per- 
 tains to the practical methods of applying in- 
 struction under the guise of real business opera- 
 tions. This plan .■mi. rare-, the organizing of the 
 advanced students into business communities, so 
 adjusted in their workings as to represent the 
 
 vane. I 
 the on 
 establi 
 brokei 
 porter 
 in his 
 all tou 
 
 iterests and 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 government. The American business schools. 
 
 ..n the other hand, having no public recognition, 
 except as the result of individual work— with no 
 
 is little doubt that, like 
 s, they will continue to 
 nand for faithful work, 
 as much a part of our 
 
 i L26 of which there were .",77 instructors, and 
 5,892 students, of whom 2,86' were females. 
 BUTTMANN, Philipp Karl, a German 
 rofessor of classical literature, was born at 
 rankfort on the .Main, in 1764 
 
 died in 
 studies 
 r a time 
 :ame, in 
 
 are carried on. .\swiii tie seen, tnis extended ol tne royal library 
 
 correspondence and c cation give the best at the Joackimstka, 
 
 opportunity for effective criticism an I discipline, librarian and memb. 
 
 and may be made as completely the rehearsal of He was also, IV 
 
 the future business man for his life-work, as is Spener'sche Zeitung, 
 
 the clinical practice of the medical college or the of three ' Ireek gram] 
 
 moot-court of the law school. ! for the gymnasia (G 
 
 The business colleges of America differ in lin. L792, 22d edit., 
 
 important respects from those of European eoun- i/nwimnH/,; Herlin. 
 
 The commercial colleges of (icnnanv had for many years : 
 
 tiles 
 
 and le 
 
 author 
 repared 
 
 govermn-nt patroiiag • air I Olivet,,,,,, an, I a;:,, to 
 supply not only well-trained clerks tortile civil 
 service, but educated sailors and scientific ship- 
 builders as well. The course of study covers 
 three years, and is dclinitely prescribed by the 
 
 I i.-r and Hesriod Berlin, 1-1- L825, Engl. 
 
 transl., 3d ed., London. IMC): Myikologus, a col- 
 lection of essavs on the legends of antiquity 
 (Berlin, 1828—1829), and editions of several 
 Greek and Latin < 
 
 CADET. See .Military Schools, and Xaval 
 Schools. 
 
 CADETS' COLLEGE, the name of a de- 
 partment of the Royal Military College at Sand- 
 
 hurst . 
 
 place the 
 
 Ml . .II, II 
 
 If. and I! 
 
 a sound 
 for the 
 
 ematics, geography, history the natural an. 
 perim intal sciences, and drawing Alter ,-\ 
 nation, the candidates are reported to the 
 
 who have the highest standing are admitted as 
 cadets as soon as vacancies occur in the college. 
 When admitted, they study for two yearsagreat 
 variety of subjects connected with military sci- 
 ence and practice ; and when the course is com- 
 pleted, the cadets are eligible to the reception of 
 commissions in the cavalry and infantry, a cer- 
 tain number of which are placed at the disposal 
 
 CALIFORNIA was a part of the territory 
 which was ceded to the United States at the 
 .-lose of the Mexican war. It was admitted into 
 the Union as a state Sept. 9., L850. 
 
 Educati il History. The Foundation of the. 
 
 School j -I. m ot i he stale was laid b\ the const i- 
 
 maiider in chief in the order of 
 
 proceeds to be derived from the 
 
 of the 
 
 and those 500,0011 acres of land, granted by Congress t 
 
states, for the purpose of internal tm 
 This measure was carried after a shi 
 and by one rote. The constitution a 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 and regulations for the government of the 
 .Is. The city boards of education are 
 
 ligious as well as to public schools. In L852 '■',. 
 Bon. Frank Soule drafl I and secured the pas- 
 sage of a more complete school law. which re- 
 mained in force until L855, when Hon. I). 1!. 
 Ashley secured the passage of a revised law 
 which contained stringent provisions against the 
 apportionment of public moneys for the support 
 of sectarian schools. This law was not materially 
 changed until 1864, when the state superintend- 
 ent secured the passage of important financial 
 amendments which more than doubled theschool 
 revenue. Among these provisions was the levy- 
 in- Ml a state tax of rive cents on the hundred 
 dollars. 
 
 A state normal school was organized in 1H62, 
 and was located in San Francisco. In 1866, "an 
 act to provide for a system of common schools." 
 drafted by the state superintendent, was passed 
 under the title of the Revised School Law. 
 This law remains, with a few unimportant 
 changes, on the statul ! boo! 3 at the present day. 
 In L869, the state university was established at 
 Berkeley, uearOakland. In 1874, the state tax 
 was increase I so as to yield a revenue of $7 
 per unit of the school census, — a revenue which, 
 in L875, amounted to 81,100,000. 
 
 The first public school was opened in San 
 Francisco, Dee., 1849, by 'John C. Pelton, after- 
 wards city superintendent of San Francisco. In 
 1866, the whole state attained to a, free-school 
 system, rate-bills being abolished bylaw, Pre- 
 vious to this time, most of the country schools 
 eked out their limited amount of school moneys 
 by monthly rates of tuition. The total amount 
 of money expended for public school purposes 
 
 fro 
 
 from II 
 from Is 
 to L86E 
 
 a list 
 
 Mar 
 
 1872; (6) Henry X. Bolander, from 1872 to 
 1876; (7) Ezra S. Carr, the present incumbent, 
 who entered upon his duties in ls7(i. 
 
 S/,,,'S,,> „,. The schools of the state are 
 
 spectively. The a unty boards q) examination 
 are com] iosed of the ntv superintendent, and 
 
 from 3 to 5 professional 'teach, i>. he], ling first 
 grade certificates, appointed bj thi countysuper- 
 intendent, for the term of two years, at a compen- 
 
 sat I $3 a day. and traveling expenses. 'I hey 
 
 are authorized to hold quarterly county examina- 
 tions, and to issue first, second, and third grade 
 certificates, valid for 3 yi irs 2 yean and I year, 
 respectively. The city boards of examination 
 are composed of the city superintendent and four 
 professional teachers. holdiii". educational diplo- 
 mas, and elected by the city board of education. 
 Their powers are similar to those of the state 
 and county boards. All boards of examination 
 must be composed exclusively of professional 
 
 chools must be kept 
 
 colored children at the opti f the local boards. 
 
 The daily school sessions must no: exceed six 
 hours, ami. for primary children under - years 
 of age, must not exceed I boui - I or district 
 school libraries, there is an allowance of Sella 
 year, out of the state apportionment, to be ex- 
 pended by the trustees. No sectarian or deno- 
 minational doctrines can be taught in the schools. 
 There is a compulsory education law, but no pro- 
 visions for properly enforcing it. 
 
 The school revenue consists of the annual in- 
 terest of the state school fund, invested in fi per 
 centand 7 percent bonds. This fund amounts 
 to 81,737,5110. and the annual interest to $97,560. 
 There is a state tax sufficient to raise ST for each 
 chilil between the ages of 5 and 17, as shown by 
 the last preceding school census, amounting, in 
 lo75, to $1,100,000; a county school tax a1 a 
 rate not less than SM oer unit of the sel 1 census: 
 
 public instruction, county superintendents, and 
 city superinten lents. all elected by popular vote. 
 The state board of education is composed of the 
 governor, the state superintendent, and six county 
 superintendents, all beii 
 
 I""' 
 
 members ex officii 
 
 liloriu series of text- 
 
 books, to issue life diplomas, to adopt a course of 
 studies for the schools of the' state, and to make 
 
 $1,115,000. Besides these, there is a district 
 school tax. submitted to local vote, for building 
 purposes, or for maintaining schools, not to ex- 
 ceed, in any one year. SI on each $100. 
 
 There is no supervision by school inspectors. 
 County superintendents are required to visit and 
 
112 
 
 CALIFORNIA 
 
 every school once a year, but this is 
 merely nominal. Each school district has a 
 board of three trustees; and incorporated cities 
 have special boards of education, as well as city 
 superintendents. 
 
 The salaries of teachers are as follows: Aver- 
 age monthly salary of male teachers $84.93; 
 of- female teachers. $68.01. 
 
 The conrsi' if iusl.-'ft,,,,, as prescribed bylaw 
 for the public schools, must include the follow- 
 ing branches of study : reading, writing, spilling, 
 arithmetic, grammar, geography, the hi-t iry of 
 the United States, physiology, natural history, 
 drawing, and music. There is a course of study 
 adopted by the state board of education ; but as 
 there is no way to enforce it, but little attention 
 is paid to it in the country districts. Each city 
 has its own special course. In San Francisco. 
 German and French are taught in a part of the 
 primary and grammar departments. The high 
 .schools have the usual course of study in order 
 to prepare pupils for admission to the state uni- 
 versity. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The total number of 
 school districts in the state is I 579. The number 
 of schools in each of the three grades is a.s 
 follows: state university, 1 : high schools, 14: 
 first-grade (grammar schools. s7~> ; second-grade 
 'intermediate) sel Is, 77(1 : third-grade (pri- 
 mary) schools, 545 ; total number of schools, 
 2,205. 
 
 Besides these, there are public evening schools 
 in San Francisco, free to men and boys,andkept 
 open 111 months in the year. These schools are 
 graded, with special classes in book-keeping and 
 drawing. The number of teachers, in L875,was 
 25; of pupils, 1,100. 
 
 The following are the principal items of the 
 school statistics for 1875 : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 130,9:10 
 
 Average daily attendance 78,027 
 
 Number of teachers, males 1,033 
 
 " " " females 1,000 
 
 Total receipts $3,390,359. 
 
 Total expenditures $2,0.21 I. 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The State Normal 
 School was organized hi L861, at San Francisco, 
 but in 1870 was removed to San Jose. The 
 
 building was erected at a cost of $250,000. 
 This school is open to both sexes, and is entirely 
 free. The number of students in 1875 was 240, 
 .mostly young women; the number of instructors 
 was 9. The annual cost of the school is about 
 $20,000. The total number of graduates, from 
 its foundation to 1876, was 378. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — There are 14 high 
 schools in the state, of which 2 are located in 
 San Francisco, one for girls, and one for boys. 
 There is one in each of the following cities : Oak- 
 land -.I. i. nto, Stockton. Los Angeles. San 
 
 Jose. Vallcjo. Petaluma, Grass Valley, Nevada, 
 Marysville, Santa Clara, and Santa Cruz. These 
 schools, which fit students for admission into the 
 state university, contain 1.500 pupils, taught by 
 13 teachers. Besides the high schools, there is a 
 large number of nourishing private schools, of 
 
 which some are for boys exclusively, others for 
 girls, and some for both sexes. 
 
 Denominational Schools. — The denominational 
 schools are epiite numerous and extensive. In 
 San Francisco, six Roman Catholic schools give 
 instruction to Hon boys and 850 girls; besides 
 which, the Presentation Convent School, for girls, 
 has 700 pupils and 'J'', teachers; and the Sacred 
 Heart Presentation Convent, 750 pupils and 26 
 teachers. The Acadt my of Notre Dame, at San 
 .lo-.'\ has 550 pupils and 30 teachers. Other 
 ( 'atholie schools in various parts of the state give 
 instruction to 1.3s.". pupils. The Protestant 
 .rts of f 
 
 schools in various parts of the state give instruc- 
 tion to about 1,500 pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The California State 
 University (q. v.) crowns the public school sys- 
 tem, being entirely free in all its departments. 
 ( Ither institutions of a similar grade are included 
 in the following list : 
 
 Kame 
 
 If 
 
 Religious 
 Deuomina- 
 
 Location 
 
 s..H 1 rT,l';!,,i..,r.iV-,'ir,' ;r .- 
 St. Mary's College 
 Santa Clara I ill 
 I'niv. Moond ( ill i 
 University ol 1 a 
 Univ. oi tin Pa. ifi. 
 
 1 - VI 
 
 llil 
 
 Vacaville 
 Santa Rosa 
 Santa Rosa 
 San Francisco 
 -.in Francisco 
 Santa Barbara 
 San Francisco 
 Simla Clara 
 - oi Francisco 
 
 Santa Clara 
 
 ipal institu- 
 te following : 
 it and Dumb 
 shed in I860, 
 Pacific Theo- 
 
 Special Instruction—^ 
 
 tions for special instruct n 
 The I lalifornia Institute fo 
 and the Blind, neai Bei b I 
 and supported by the sta 
 logical Seminary (Congregational), at Oakland; 
 the Theological Seminary, at San Francisco; the 
 School of Design, at San Francisco, organized in 
 1S73; besides which, there is the medical depart- 
 ment nt the I'liivcisity ,,f California, the .Medical 
 College of the Pacific, and the California College 
 of Pharmacy. 
 
 There is no state reform school, but the San 
 Francisco Industrial School serves the purpose of 
 one, as minors from other counties may be com- 
 mitted to its care on the payment of a stipulated. 
 sum. The school connected with this institution 
 is well graded and equipped, and the buildings 
 for the accommodation of its different depart- 
 ments are large and spacious. 
 
 Teachers' Associations. The first state teach- 
 ers' convention was held in San Francisco, in 
 Dec., 1854; the first teacher.-' institute met in San 
 Francisco, May. 1863, under the direction of 
 State Superintendent Moulder. The third state 
 institute, in 1863, gave a marked impulse to 
 educational interests. The l lalifornia State Edu- 
 cational Society was organized in 1863, with 
 John Swett as president. It admitted to mem- 
 bership only holders of state educational di- 
 plomas. This society for five years controlled 
 the California Teacher. In 1875, a state edu- 
 cational association was organized at Sau Jose. 
 
CALIFORNIA COLLEGE 
 
 Educational Literature. — The firs! educational 
 journal was the California Teacher, commenced 
 in July L863, published under the general control 
 of the State Educational Society and.edited, for 
 the tiivt four yearn bj John Swetf and ^amuel 
 
 nation by a state subscription. In i s 7.'i. it 
 was taken from the control of the society, and 
 became the organ of the state superintendent. 
 An educational newspaper, called the School- 
 master, com need in 1874, is published in Los 
 
 Angeles. There is no work treating of the 
 
 schools of the state. Thi ly historical sketch 
 
 of the progress of public education is to be 
 found in Superintended Swett's Biennial Re- 
 port for 1865—6; containing a summary of 
 legislation, and of the- state reports, from L849 
 to L866. 
 
 CALIFORNIA COLLEGE, at Vacaville, 
 Cal., was founded in L871, by the Baptists. It 
 
 i!i,-..|. 
 
 CALISTHENICS 113 
 
 medical colleges, nominally transferred to the 
 
 uniM't-sitv. the total number of students in De- 
 
 tessor I). ('.Oilman ..f Yale Colic 
 
 CALISTHENICS (Gr. 
 r.i , , . strength), a system of phy 
 tor females, designed to promote 
 gracefulness of movement; or, by 
 natural and harmonious .level..] 
 
 ts. I,a 
 
 i limn 
 
 I'lie \ .due of its grounds, buildings, etc is esti- 
 mated at !i?'2...0llii : and its lil.rarv eontains about 
 2,500 volumes. A. S. Worrell, A. M., is (1876) 
 the president of the institution. The cos! of 
 tuition per annum is about $50. 
 
 CALIFORNIA, University of, at Berke- 
 ley. 4 miles X. of ( lakland, was organized in L869, 
 and forms a pari of the public educational system 
 
 of the state. It is under th( ntrol of a board of 
 
 22 regents, of which the governor, lieutenant gov- 
 ernor, state superintendent . . public iustru.-ti.ni. 
 speaker of the assembly, president of the state 
 agricultural society, and president ..f tlie mediate 
 ics' institute of San Francisco are < .■ offi. ... mem- 
 bers. It is open to both sexes, young women be- 
 ing admitted on the same terms as young men. 
 Its endowment fund consists of the 150,000 
 acres of land granted by Congress in aid of agri- 
 cultural schools, and the 72 sections, comprising 
 46,080 acres, set apart for a " seminary fund " 
 from the public school lands. The 1 50,000 acres 
 were sold at an average price of St per acre, 
 yielding $600,000 ; the si miliary fund amounted 
 
 to $35,000, making a to1 Jol $635, I. Thestate 
 
 appropriated $300,000 for the erection of suit- 
 able buildings ; and the site of L60 acres of land. 
 on the hills at Berkeley, overlooking San Fran- 
 cisco, was given by the College of California, 
 which was merged in the university. The state 
 appropriates for current expenses $50,000 a 
 year in addition to the revenue of the endow- 
 ment fund. In L875, .lames Lick endowed the 
 university with $700,000, to be expended in 
 erecting and maintaining an observatory on Mt. 
 Hamilton, in the coast range. 90 miles south of 
 Berkeley. The departments, or colleges, fully 
 organized are the college of letters, or the classical 
 department, and the srimlific. school. Little has 
 been done as yet, towards organizing the iit/ririi/t- 
 ural college, or the eoltegps nfm iiim or mechanics. I 
 The college of medicine is in San Francisco, un- 
 der a separate faculty. It consists of the Toland | 
 
 girls; and, of course, the exercises employed re- 
 quire a less violent muscular action. These 
 exercises maj be practiced with or without ap- 
 paratus. The latter, which should be employed 
 first, consist in such movements as bring into 
 regular and systematic operation all parts of the 
 
 complicated, being in fact only such as are re- 
 quired in theordinar} i xercise of the limbs. Their 
 advantage over those required in the common 
 active sports of girls consists in their systematic 
 regulation so as to ensure an equal and regular 
 action of the muscles; while long continued 
 sports of any particular kind, such as trundling 
 
 Mild 
 
 well as task the muscles, or they will lose much 
 of their beneficial effect: since while the body 
 is exercised, the mind must be interested. The 
 simplest apparatus used consists of wands or 
 poles, dumb-bells, backboards, elastic bands with 
 handles, ligh! weights, etc. With such instru- 
 ments, a ureat variety of beneficial, graceful, and 
 
 lliarlv li. 
 
 whi 
 
 i.iil\ after the age of L2 or 1 I years 
 they should rarely.it ever.be resi.rt- 
 ■rous ailments to which female- are 
 ile are due n. the neglet t ..t proper 
 physical training, and may be prevented or cured 
 by a judicious employment of calistl enic ei 
 rises. .Many injurious practices, such as tight 
 lacing, are necessarily precluded by the regular 
 resort to such exercises. Ling, the celebrated 
 Swedish author of kinesipathy or the movement- 
 
114 
 
 CALISTHENICS 
 
 cure, has written very enthusiastically upon the 
 importance of free gymnastic exercises, as a 
 means of promoting health as well as of curing 
 disease. (See Die aUgemeinen Grunde der Gym- 
 nastik, published at Stockholm, in L840.) He 
 founded the Centra! Institute at Stockholm, 
 subsequently conducted by Prof. Branting. 
 Many excellent manuals giving full practical di- 
 rections to teachers, are now published. In social 
 life, dancing is one of the most attractive and 
 beneficial of calisthenic exercises, and were it dis- 
 sociated from the fashionable dissipation with 
 which it is too often allied, would meet with uni- 
 versal favor. Some of the most eminent teachers 
 of females have regarded this species of exercise 
 as the best even for schools. .Mrs. Willard says, 
 "The grace of motion must be learned chiefly 
 from instruction in dancing. Other advantages, 
 besides that of a graceful carriage, might be 
 derived from such instruction, if the lessons were 
 judiciously timed. Exercise is needful to the 
 health, and recreation to the cheerfulness and 
 contentment of youth. Female youth should 
 not be allowed to range unrestrained, to seek 
 amusement for themselves. If it were entirely 
 prohibited, they would be driven to seek it by 
 stealth ; which would lead them to many im- 
 proprieties of conduct, and would have a perni- 
 cious effect upon their general character, by in- 
 ducing a habit of treading forbidden patios. The 
 alternative that remains is to provide them with 
 proper recreation, which, after the confinement 
 of the day, they might enjoy under the eye of 
 their instructors. Dancing is exactly suited to 
 this purpose, as also to that of exercise ; for per- 
 haps in no way can so much healthy exercise be 
 taken in so short a time." Miss 0. E. Beecher, 
 in Educational Reminiscences, remarks, " When 
 physical education takes the proper place in our 
 schools, young girls will be trained in the class- 
 rooms to move heads, hands, and arms gracefully; 
 to sit, to stand, and to walk properly, and to pur- 
 sue calisthenic exercises for physical development 
 as a regular school duty as much as their studies. 
 And these exercises, set to music, will be sought 
 as the most agreeable of school duties." 
 
 In all such exercises, certain general rides and 
 directions arc to be kept steadily in view. They 
 should never be practiced immediately after 
 meals, nor very near the time of eating, as diges- 
 tion cannot be properly performed when the 
 system is in an exhausted condition. The best 
 time for exercise is early in the morning or to- 
 wards evening. Tn school, these exercises, being 
 of a moderate character, may come after the 
 mind is wearied witli protracted intellectual 
 work, for then they will prove a relief ; but in- 
 tellectual efforts cannot effectively be put forth 
 after the physical system has become jaded and 
 fatigued by protracted exercise. < lalisthenic 
 exercises should always be commenced and fin- 
 ished gently : indeed, all abrupt transitions from 
 gentle to violent exertions, or the contrary, 
 should be avoided. It is by moderate and pro- 
 longed or repeated exercise that the physical 
 organs are to be developed or improved, not by 
 
 CAMBRIDGE 
 
 violent and fitful efforts. The weaker organs 
 should receive the most attention, so that the 
 whole system may receive a harmonious develop- 
 ment. The dress should be light and easy ; aud 
 the department in which the exercises are taken 
 should be spacious, cool, and well-ventilated. All 
 such exercises require to be practiced with many 
 precautions, and with a due regard to the con- 
 dition of the individual. Teachers may be the 
 means of doing much injury by indiscriminately 
 requiring all their pupils to go through the same 
 amount of exercise. The effect upon every pupil 
 should be carefully watched ; and, in some cases, 
 flic advice of a careful physician should not be 
 dispensed with. See Catharine E. Beecher, 
 Physiology and Calisthenics (N T . Y„ 1856); and 
 EducaiionalReminiscences(N.Y.,1814:); Kings- 
 let, Health ,u<, I /•;,/„<■„/;„„ (I.ond. andN.Y., 
 1ST!) ; Watson, Manualqf Calisthenics (M.T., 
 isc, i) ; Tram,, '/'//.• Illustrated Family Gym- 
 nasium (X.Y., 1857); Dio Lewis, New Gym- 
 nastics (Boston. 1 st;2) ; Barxkt, The Gymnasium 
 at Home (N. T., In71). (See Gymnastics, and 
 
 CALISTHENIUM, a newly coined term, 
 applied to an apartment or hall in which calis- 
 thenic exercises are practiced ; formed after the 
 analogy of gymnasium. 
 
 CALLIGRAPHY. See Penmanship. 
 
 CAMBRIDGE, University of, one of the 
 oldest and most famous institutions of learning 
 in England. A school is said to have been 
 founded at Cambridge, by a party of monks, as 
 early as 1109; and, twenty years later. Alfred 
 of Beverley, the historian, lodged in the town, 
 and studied. The records of the university are 
 preserved in the Tower, and show the university 
 to have been in full operation in 1229. EdwardL, 
 in 1291, granted it the first formal charter of 
 privilegesT which was amplified by succeeding 
 sovereigns. Edward II. obtained the first papal 
 recognition of the university. Henry VI. founded 
 King's ( 'ollege : and his consort founded Queens', 
 which obtained a second patroness in the con- 
 sort of Edward IV. Henry VIII. consolidated 
 and enriched earlier foundations to form Trinity 
 ( 'ollcgc ; but, from 1257, the date of the found- 
 ing of St. Peter's College, private munificence 
 was, and still is, yet more active in endowing 
 the various foundations. A new era began with 
 Queen Elizabeth, in the 13th year of whose 
 reign, on the basis of existing charters, the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge was incorporated, under 
 the title of "the Chancellor. Masters, and Schol- 
 ars of the University of Cambridge." The uni- 
 versity is a federal' republic of 17 colleges (or, 
 with Cavendish College. 18), maintained solely 
 by the endowments of founders and benefactors. 
 Each college is a lesser republic, with its own 
 statutes, but is subject to university law. The 
 present statutes were confirmed, in 1858, by 
 Queen Victoria. The legislative and executive 
 bodies are composed of members of the colleges. 
 All masters of arts and doctors in divinity, law, 
 and physic, whose names are on the university- 
 register, have the right to vote in the senate. 
 
CAMUKIDUK 
 
 115 
 
 The electoral roll is a smaller body, consisting 
 of all who have resided, during the preceding 
 year, at the university, together with heads, 
 officers, and examiners ; and by it many of the 
 university officers are elected. The senate, in 
 1876, numbered 5,816; the electoral roll, 318. 
 Meetings of the senate [congregations) are held 
 fortnightly during terms, for conferring degrees 
 and transacting business. The council of the 
 senate consists of the chancellor, and vice-chan- 
 cellor, ex officio, and 16 other members of the 
 senate on the electoral roll, chosen by the latter 
 body. All resolutions for conferring degrees, etc. 
 (graces), must be sanctioned by the council be- 
 fore they are submitted to the senate. The ex- 
 ecutive consists of the chancellor, who is the head 
 of the university and non-resident (usually a 
 prince or a nobleman); the vice-chancellor, always 
 the head of a college, wielding the full powers of 
 the chancellor. ami, /ircj //-/»., a magistrate for the 
 university, the town, and the county ; the high 
 steward, the commissary, the *"<• riri. the as- 
 sessor, all exercising judicial functions ; the pub- 
 lic orator, who is the mouth-piece of the senate ; 
 the librarian; the registrary,forthe registration of 
 graces and the custody of records; two proctors 
 and two pro-proctors, who maintain discipline and 
 attend congregations to read graces and register 
 votes ; the university marshals (constables) : the 
 esquire bedells; and the university counsel, solic- 
 itor, moderators, and syndics, the last being 
 members of special committees for specific duties. 
 The university sends two members to parliament, 
 elected by the senate, — a privilege first granted 
 by James I. — There are 33 professors: of divinity, 
 four; of law, three; of physic, medicine, anatomy, 
 comparative anatomy, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, 
 Sanskrit, one each; of Arabic, mathematics, 
 astronomy, two each ; of natural experimental 
 philosophy, experimental physics, botany, geol- 
 ogy, mineralogy, chemistry, moral theology or 
 casuistry, modern history, political economy, 
 music, archaeology, fine arts, one each. The 
 oldest, the Margaret professorship of divinity, 
 dates from 1502. There are five regim profess- 
 orships : divinity, civil law, physic, Greek, and 
 Hebrew. Erasmus was the first professor of Greek, 
 and the third Margaret professor. The stipends 
 are from endowments, the university chest, and 
 fees. A few are richly endowed. There are three 
 terms: (1) Michaelmas, or October term (Oct. 1. 
 to Dec. 16); (2) Lent, or January term (Jan. 13. 
 to Friday before Palm-Sunday ; (3) Easter, or 
 Midsummer term (Friday after Easter to Friday 
 after Commencement day. which is the last Tues- 
 day but one in June). An under -graduate must 
 reside in the university two-thirds of each term, 
 i. e., about six months during the year. — Mem- 
 bers of colleges are classed as follows: (1) Heads 
 of colleges, styled Master (at King's, Provost; at 
 Queens', President): (2) Fellows of colleges. 
 elected by the Society from distinguished grad- 
 uates — in one or two colleges, after examination 
 — numbering in all about 400 ; (3) Xoblemen 
 graduates, doctors in the several faculties, bach- 
 elors in divinity, masters of arts, and of law ; 
 
 (4) Bachelors of Arts, Law. and Physic; (5) Fel- 
 low commoners, usually younger sons ol the 
 oobilitj . or young men ol foi tune ; (6) Scholars, 
 generally elected by competition and placed on 
 
 the foundation : (Ti Pens ers i boarders), 
 
 who form the great body of the students; and 
 (8) Sizars, who are students of limited means. 
 and enjoy certain emoluments and immunities. 
 Degrees are conferred in arts. law. medicine, 
 divinity, and music. The first degree is that 
 of Bachelor (B.A.).for which there are three 
 requisites : (1) a period of residence, (2) to be a 
 member of a college, or a non-collegiati student, 
 and (3) to pass examinations/1 he honor examina- 
 tion,, (triposes) nine in number, are held only 
 once a year. Those who pass in these are ar- 
 ranged in three classes according to merit, and, 
 in the mathematical liij^<- s. arc sty I. d, respect- 
 ively, wranglers, senior oplimes, and junior op- 
 times, the sniitir in;, „>/■'■ ,■ h, ndmg the list. 
 The subjects of this tripos (35 are named in the 
 schedule) embrace the whole range of pure 
 mathematics, and mathematics applied to nat- 
 ural philosophy. The examination lasts nine 
 days : and the publication of the list in the 
 senate house, is the great excitement of the year. 
 This tripos is the most ancient (the printed lists 
 in the Calendar begin with 1747 — 8), and has 
 given Cambridge its peculiar renown. The clas- 
 sical tripos ranks next in fame, age (first held in 
 1824), and numbers. It lasts eight days. The 
 moral sciences tripos, lasting I) days, embraces 
 moral, political, and mental philosophy, logic, 
 and political economy. The natural sciences 
 tripos includes (1 ) chemistry, and other branches 
 of physics, (2) botany. (3) geology and palaeon- 
 tology, (4) mineralogy, and (5j comparative ana- 
 tomy, physii >1« >gv. and z< 16I1 igy. 1 lesii les these, there 
 are the //'////..v. ,s of law. of history, and of tlieol- 
 ogj , A pass in any of these triposes entitles to 
 P.. A., the holder of which may become M.A. 
 after three years. The university, in 1858, in- 
 stituted heal i am (lions, conducted at various 
 
 places. (& Examinations.) — The university 
 is a body which holds public examinations, and 
 confers degrees; the professors lecture, but hardly 
 can be said to teach ; the colleges train, lodge, 
 and board the under-graduates. The most effect- 
 ive teaching is done by private tutors (coaches). 
 The names of the colleges, with the date of the 
 foundation of each, are as follows: St. Peters, 
 1257; Clare, 1326; Pembroke, 1347; Gonville 
 and Caius, 1348; Trinity Ball, 1350; Corpus 
 Christi, 1352 ; Kings, 1441 ; Queens', 1448 ; 
 St. Catharine's. 1473; Jesus. 1496; Christ's, 
 1505; St. John's, loll; Magdalene. I.M!>: 
 Trinity, L546 ; Emmanuel, 1584; Sidney Sus- 
 sex. 1598; Downing. 1800; Cavendish L876 
 The whole number of under-graduates. in 1876. 
 was 2.175. the largest number 1 5 3. 3 1 being in 
 Trinity, and the next (359) in St. John's. There 
 were also 74 non-collegiate students. ( 'avendish 
 ( ollege aims to give a less expensive education 
 to students, and at an earlier age than the others. 
 — The university buildings are numi fchi 
 
 senate house, adjoining which is the library, 
 
116 
 
 CAMPE 
 
 rich in 4.000 manuscripts and containing half a 
 million of volumes; the geological museum : the 
 observatory, in charge of Professor Adams: Ad- 
 denbrooke's hospital, the Pitt Press, the botanic 
 garden, the Fitzwilliam Museum, etc. There arc 
 various societies in the university for promoting 
 research: the Antiquarian, Philological, and 
 Philosophical societies. The Union combines a 
 reading-room, library, and debating club. It has 
 a handsome and spacious building.- -Sec Fii.i.kk, 
 History of Cambridge from 1066 /.- L634; Cak- 
 TKii, ilisiloni of ('mii/irii/i/r (London, 1753) : 
 Dyer, History of Cambridge; Cooper, Annals of 
 
 Unive ■ d n " Report L852 3 Cam- 
 bridge Ut -••■ ■' Col 'ar .i, m al ; S d »fe' 
 
 Guide to ihr University of Cambridge (1874); 
 Bristed, Three Years in an English University, 
 3d edit. (NY Y., 1873) ; Everett, On the Cam 
 (London, 1866). 
 
 CAMPE, Joachim Heinrich, a prominent 
 
 rsityof II 
 
 in 1" 
 
 elatioiis 
 siyied 
 
 of councilor of education (JB 
 the Philanthropic and becan 
 place of Basedow, who had i 
 
 The institution made marked i 
 under his direction : but his 
 to Basedow were so unpleasant 
 altera few months. lie then founded an edu- 
 cational institution, similar to the f'hi/<inthrojii>i. 
 at Trittow, near Hamburg, where he r< mained. 
 until 1787, when Puke Charles of Brunswick 
 called him to his capital, in order to reform, con- 
 jointly with some other prominent educators, the 
 school system of the duchy. The reformatory 
 scheme of the duke could not, however, be car- 
 ried out. in consequence of the opposition of the 
 consistory and the diet. Campe was the most 
 prominent representative of the principles on 
 ■which the Philanthropin was founded. He 
 avoided the eccentricities of Basedow, and thus 
 gained for the principles which they both repre- 
 sented. a much larger number of friends. Ilegave 
 so great a prominence to utilitarian considera- 
 tions that he declared he valued more highly the 
 merits of the man who introduced the use of the 
 potato, or invented the spinning-wheel, than those 
 of the author of the Iliad. The educational ideas 
 of Campewere set forth in two periodicals, the 
 Braunschweigisches Journal (4 vols., 1788—91), 
 and A ■ Revision des gesammten Schul- 
 
 und /> iehungswesens (16 'sols.. L785- 91). 
 In the ninth volume of the latter was published 
 a translation of Locke's Thm/i/hls on Eilnnition; 
 and in volumes xn. to xv„ Rousseau's Emile, 
 both with copious notes. The works of I lampe 
 are very numerous, including many popular 
 juvenile books. 
 
 CANADA, The Dominion of, a federal 
 union of provinces and territories, comprising, 
 in 1876, all the British possessions in North 
 America, except the island of Newfoundland. 
 
 CARLETON COLLEGE 
 
 Its area is estimated at 3.513,325 sq. miles; and 
 its population, according to the census of 1871, 
 was 3,718,7 17. The imperial act under which, in 
 1867, the Dominion was established, imposed 
 upon the several provincial legislatures the duty 
 of providing for public education within their 
 
 olderpi tvinci hav< revised their legislation upon 
 this subject ; while the younger members of the 
 confederation have laid the foundation of new 
 systems of public instruction. A full account of 
 the school systems of the several provinces, which 
 differ in essential points, will lie found, in this 
 work, under their respective titles. See ( ',i„,„hi 
 Educational Directory and Year-Book, by 
 Alexander Marling (Toronto, 1876). 
 
 CANE HILL COLLEGE, at Cane Hill, 
 near Boonsboro. Washington county. Arkansas. 
 was i bartered ill 1*52, and reorganized ill 1868. 
 It is under the control of the Cumberland Pres- 
 byterian Church. The institution has prepara- 
 tory and collegiate departments. In 1873—4 
 there were .'1 instructors, and 68 preparatory and 
 Is collegiate students. The Rev. F. R. Earle, 
 A.M., is (1876) the president. 
 
 CAPITAL UNIVERSITY, at Columbus. 
 Ohio, was organized in ls.50 by the Evangelical 
 Lutheran synod of Ohio mid the adjacent stales. 
 which, iii 1*76. formed a part of the Synodical 
 Conference. It includes a preparatory or gram- 
 mar school, and collegiate and theological de- 
 partments. It has a library of 2.500 volumes. 
 a Faculty of 6 professors. 2 of whom teach 
 both in the collegiate and the theological de- 
 partment, and 01 students, including those of 
 theology. Much attention is given to the study 
 of < ierman, which extends through all the classes 
 of the three departments, and is partly used as 
 a means of instruction. The annual tuition fee 
 in the grammar school is §25 ; in the college. 
 S40. In the theological department, which, with 
 a few brief intermissions, has been in successful 
 operation since 1 830. no charge is made for tui- 
 tiontand indigent young men. possessing the nec- 
 essary qualifications for the ministry, arc sup- 
 ported by the ' 
 
 ynodical Education Society. 
 
 niann is (1876) the 
 
 CARLETON COLLEGE, at Northfield, 
 Minn., was organized in 1866, by the Oongrega- 
 tionalists. It has a preparatory, a collegiate, and 
 an Knelish department, the latter embracing 
 those pupils wdiose time or means will not allow 
 them to secure a thorough classical education. 
 The college department was not organized until 
 Sept., 1870. Roth sexes are instructed in the 
 same classes, and may take the same degrees. 
 There were, ill L875, 2*16 students, of whom 13 
 belonged to the collegiate, 82 to the preparatory, 
 and 111 to the Knglish department, 'the corps 
 of instructors numbered 10. The first board of 
 trustees was elected by the state conference of 
 Evangelical churches, which now annually ap- 
 points a visiting committee. The board of 
 trustees is self-perpetuating, but a majority of its 
 members, according to the provisions of the or- 
 
CARTHAGE COLLEGE 
 
 ganic act. must be Congregationalists. In 1871. 
 
 the college received $50,000 in cash fi Wm. 
 
 Carleton, of Charlestown, Mass.. ami the board 
 of trustees voted to give liis name to the institu- 
 tion, and to hold his gift as an endowment. In 
 1875, the endowment fund had increased to 
 about $80,000. The library, in L875, numbered 
 2,000 volumes. The Wm. H. Dunning Cabinet, 
 donated to the college in L875, is a valuable col- 
 lection of geological specimens. A museum of 
 natural history has been commenced. The col- 
 lege has three buildings and a beautiful site of 
 about twenty-five acres. The tuition fee in the 
 colle-iate department is Ss per term of I '■'• weeks. 
 The president of the institution is (187G) Rev. 
 .lames Woodward Strong, D.D. 
 
 CARTHAGE COLLEGE, at < !arthage, 111., 
 was founded in 1870, by the Evangelical Lutheran 
 
 classical school', and the college department 'was 
 not organized until L873. Ii comprises two de- 
 
 CATECHISM 
 
 117 
 
 partiiieiits, the collegiate ami the academic, the 
 former embracing three different e, mr.-sof studv. 
 
 the classical, the scientific, and the philosophical. 
 The institution had, in 1875, 9 instructors and 
 
 203 students, of whom 53 were females. It is 
 supported partly from endowments, and partly 
 by tuition fees. The endowments, amounted, 
 
 iu 1875, to about S-10. The annual tuition 
 
 fee is from $24 to $28. The college libi a -. 
 
 number. ■ I about 3.0011 volumes, an 1 the two 
 III :n '■■! 'lies of the college, the (ialil I md 
 
 the i iicero have also each c imn ' th foi n i 
 
 tion of a library. I.. I'. M. East i lav was the 
 principal of the institution while it was a clas- 
 sical school (1870 to 1873) ; and the Rev. D. L. 
 Tressler was subsequently elected president of 
 the college. 
 
 CATECHETICAL METHOD, the method 
 of instruction by question and answer, accord- 
 ing to which the pupils are required to answer 
 the questions of the teacher, so as to show what 
 
 explanations they particularly n 1 in order to 
 
 obtain a correct knowledge of the subjed oi 
 sometimes they commit to memory and recite 
 answers to set questions from a text-book. This 
 was the metho I employed in teaching the truths 
 of Christianity in the early churches, each re- 
 sponse to the question being the formal state- 
 ment or definition of a dogmatic truth; and when 
 
 to 
 
 method is of great value, 'there are but few 
 subjects, however, which can be properly taught 
 in this way; since, in training the intellectual 
 
 faculties, the sequence of farts, thoughts, or 
 ideas, is more important than their clear ap- 
 prehensi r expression singly and disconnect- 
 edly. On this principle there are several objec- 
 tions to the catechetical method as ,,n 
 application : (1) The pupil is d pi 
 e ■ i he expressive faculties, being 
 
 required only to repeat what has been enunciat- 
 ed itL the language oi others: ['_') The logical 
 relations of the facts learned are apt to be un- 
 
 noticed by the pupils, from the absence of those 
 intermediate connective words and phrases by 
 which ordinarily those relations are indicated" 
 
 (3) The pupil, by learning rely the answer 
 
 to a question, fails to obtain a full idea of the 
 truth, a part of which, and sometimes the most 
 
 essential part, is expressed in the question itself. 
 Thus, if a pupil is asked, What is an island? 
 and he answers, L<n,il Surrounded In/ water, he 
 does not entirely express the fact, but only a 
 disjointed fragment of it. Many text-books 
 constructed on the catechetical plan are liable 
 to this objection ; others, however, obviate it by 
 ' ' , the answer a complete State- 
 
 ment, the 
 
 Thus, the 
 island? w 
 ed by watt 
 
 gist 
 
 repeated. 
 , What is an 
 id surround- 
 
 eal method is 
 employed in giving oral instruction, the teacher 
 should be careful to keep this principle in view. 
 
 A skillful use of this method will always be 
 found effective in opening up to the mind of the 
 pupil the fundamental ideas and principle* of a 
 subject previous to its formal study by the pupil 
 himself, or. when difficulties arise, in leading 
 the pupil's mind, by an adroit scries of inter- 
 rogatories, to such an analysis of the statement 
 or problem in question as will enable him to 
 
 turtle-raid. This, however, is not so much an 
 application oi the catechetical method as a skill- 
 iul use of interrogation, one of the most valuable 
 and indispensable means of imparting informa- 
 tion. (See l\ 1 1 i.-i.-oe miox.i The Soeratic method 
 
 bring conviction to the learners mind by obtain- 
 in",-, in answer to the questions asked, a series of 
 admissions leading finally to his assent to the 
 truth proposed 
 
 The catechetical method was formerly very 
 popular in schools, and almost universally em- 
 ployed; but, in proportion as mechanical meth- 
 ods of recitation and rote-teaching gavi place 
 to such as appealed directly to the pupil's intel- 
 ligence and powers of expression, the mere 
 quesfinn-and-auswer system of instruction be- 
 came discredited and was abandoned. In its 
 place, the /o/./c./' ni./hml is now in quite gen- 
 era] use. This requires that the pupil shall give 
 
 to a question, but as logically expressing the 
 knowledge wl i ii 1 1 he h.-i- ,i.-> p: i : ■■ I in regard to 
 the topic assigned by the teacher. 
 CATECHETICAL SCHOOL. See Ai.t.x- 
 
 CATECHISM [('iV.Karij\jn„n,,\v. 
 an elementary work containing a summary of 
 principles, especially of religious doctrine, re- 
 duced to the form of questions and answers. The 
 name ra'oeln-m lor r. limou- worl -■ of this kind 
 was probably lir-t pr.,po-,-d by Luther, whose 
 i w o i 1 1 1 c .i i - red in 1 ~>29. Sum- 
 
 maries ,,f ( hristian doctrines, in tl oi 
 
 questions and answers, undc r o in 
 
 however, of much earlier origin, and can be 
 
1 18 CATECHISM 
 
 traced to the eighth century. Among the early- 
 works of this class, those by Kero, a monk of St. 
 Gall, and one probably written by Otfried of 
 AVeissenburg, were the most famous. Subse 
 quently, we find similar bunks in use among the 
 Waldenses and Bohemian Brethren. These 
 works contained mostly the Apostles' Creed, 
 the Lord's Prayer, and, since the fourteenth 
 century, the Ten Commandments. Luther, who 
 devoted special attention to the religious in- 
 struction of children, published his first ele- 
 mentary work on this subject in 1520. A few 
 years later, Justus Jonas and Johaun Agricola 
 were commissioned to prepare a catechism em- 
 bracing the entire creed of the Reformation, but 
 subsequently Luther undertook the work him- 
 self. Both of his catechisms were received by the 
 Lutheran ( 'hureh among the symbolical books. 
 The most celebrated among the catechisms which 
 originated in the Reformed Church were the 
 Geneva catechisms, compiled in the French lan- 
 guage by ( lalvin (the smaller in 1 536, the larger in 
 1541), the Zurich catechism, which, in 1039, was 
 received as a symbolical book, and especially the 
 Heidelberg catechism, compiled in 1563 by 
 order of the elector of the Palatinate, and gener- 
 ally adopted by the German and Dutch lie- 
 formed I 'hutches. In the Anglican Church, the 
 Church Catechism, which, in 1552, was com- 
 piled by John Poynet, sanctioned by Kdward VI., 
 and published in 155:!, obtained a great author- 
 ity. The Presbyterian ('hureh lias generally 
 adopted the shorter Assembly Catechism, which 
 was compiled by committees of the Westminster 
 Assembly, presented to the I louse of Commons 
 in 1647 and L648, and in the latter year by 
 resolution of Sept. 15., 1G-18, ordered to be 
 printed "by authority," for public use. This 
 catechism is also extensively used among the 
 Independents and Congregationalists in Great 
 Britain and America. In the Wesleyan Church 
 of England, the cathecliisms in use have been ar- 
 ranged by the Rev. Richard Watson. For the 
 Methodist Episcopal < 'hureh of the United States, 
 a series of three catechisms, prepared by Rev. 
 Br. Kidder, was adopted by the General Con- 
 ference of L852. In the Roman Catholic Church, 
 the Tridentine Council ordered the compilation 
 of a catechism " tor the use of pastors." It was 
 published in Rome, in L566, under the title of 
 CatecMsmus Romanus. It was, originally, not 
 in the shape of questions and answers, though it 
 has this form in later editions. Among the 
 numerous catechisms prepared for the use of 
 children, those by Canisius (1551 and L566), 
 BeJlarmin (1603), and Bossuet (1687) have had 
 the largest circulation. The Vatican Council, in 
 L870, decreed the preparation of a common 
 catechism for the whole church, which is to be 
 essentially that of Bellarmin. In the Creek 
 Church, the catechism prepared by Mogilas, 
 metropolitan of Kiev (1642), was recognized as 
 a standard, in 1672, by a synod at Jerusalem. 
 Many other religious denominations, besides those 
 mentioned, have also their denominational cat- 
 echisms; and it may. therefore, be said that the iin- 
 
 CATIIEP/RAL SCHOOLS 
 
 mense majority of the children of Christian 
 patents receive their first instruction in the tenets 
 of ( 'hristianity by means of catechisms. The ob- 
 ject of a catechism is, more or less, not only to 
 present to children, in the most lucid form, "the 
 tenets of the religious communion of which they 
 are expected to become active members in after 
 life, but to impress these doctrines indelibly 
 
 (Gr 
 
 //fC'ir, m- 
 
 1 given, in 
 t who was 
 
 structed by wot 
 the early Christi 
 
 receiving catechetical instruction preparatory to 
 baptism. The catechumens were divided into dif- 
 ferent grades or classes according to the degree 
 of their proficiency, only those of the lughest 
 grade, who had been pronounced fit for baptism, 
 being permitted to be present at the adminis- 
 tration of the Lord's Supper. This appellation 
 was afterwards given to the younger members 
 of any Christian church who were undergoing 
 instruction to prepare them for the rite of cou- 
 th,, term is still used. (See Catechism.) 
 
 CATHEDRAL AND COLLEGIATE 
 SCHOOLS (Cer. /),„„- <n„l Klift*svh„lm), a 
 kind of schools founded in the middle ages in 
 connection with cathedral and collegiate churches. 
 They are of considerable importance in the history 
 of education, because they shared with the con- 
 vent schools the honor of being, for a long time, 
 almost exclusively the nurseries of instruction 
 and education in Christian countries. They 
 were originally intended chiefly for educat- 
 ing the candidates for the priesthood, but af- 
 forded also to others who regarded a good edu- 
 cation necessary for their social position, an op- 
 portunity to acquire the knowledge needed. A 
 few schools in connection with cathedral churches 
 appear to have existed even before the founda- 
 tion of the Benedictine order; and the towns of 
 Aries, Reims, and Orleans are, in particular, 
 mentioned as having possessed schools of this 
 kind. In England, the episcopal school at York 
 enjoyed a high reputation. The systematic or- 
 ganization of these institutions as a special class 
 of schools, in distinct ion from the convent schools, 
 was due to Bishop Chrodegang of Metz (died 
 766). lie united the clergymen of his cathedral 
 church for a common lite on the basis of a modi- 
 fied rule of the Benedictine order, and thus be- 
 came the founder of a class of religious orders 
 known in church history as the < anons Regular. 
 These orders, subsequently divided into a large 
 number of different branches, regarded it as one 
 of their foremost duties to establish schools sim- 
 ilar in organization to those of the Benedictines. 
 In the management of these schools, greater at- 
 tention was paid to strict discipline than to 
 excellence of instruction. One brother [/rater), 
 of unblamable character, was charged, in each 
 
 esiablisl nt of these orders, with the duty of 
 
 superintending the scholars, and of enforcing 
 strict discipline, in order that they might become 
 able " to rise to the dignities of the church, fitted 
 out with ecclesiastical erudition and spiritual 
 
CECII1AN COLLEGE 
 
 weapons." The number of these schools rapidly 
 increased, and they made the towns which con- 
 tained them thecentersof learning. The subjects 
 of instruction embraced, besides theology, the 
 reading of Latin and Greek classics, as Homer, 
 Yirgil, Sallust, Statins. Terence, Cicero, and 
 Seneca, the malting of Latin and Greek verses, 
 instruction in painting, calligraphy, church sing- 
 ing, and arithmetic. In the celebrated cathedral 
 school of Paderborn, instruction was given in 
 mathematics, physics, music, rhetoric, and dia- 
 lectics. Special interest in the success of these 
 schools was taken by Charlemagne (see Charle- 
 magne), who, iu very emphatic rescripts, urged 
 all the bishops to establish schools of this kind. 
 Ihuing the reign of his son. Louis le De- 
 bonnaire, the synod of Aix-la-Chapelle, in 816, 
 made the adoption of the rule of Chrodegang. 
 involving the establishment of a school, com- 
 pulsory for all cathedral (episcopal) churches. 
 Many other synods urged the carrying out of 
 this law, and demanded the establishment of 
 schools, not tor the episcopal churches alone, but 
 likewise for other large churches. The rapid 
 spread of the Canons Regular, who no longer 
 confined their religious communities to the 
 capital of the diocese, but established numerous 
 •' collegiate " churches in smaller towns, greatly 
 aided in the steady increase of scl Is. The col- 
 legiate schools of the smaller towns resembled 
 
 the town schools which arose during and after 
 tin- crusades. They provided only for the tcach- 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA 
 
 >r public exhibitions, large 
 
 enough to seat over two thousand persons. The 
 
 ege possesses a valuable set of philosophical, 
 
 lid the IMC ,. 
 
 The coll, i, 
 
 ■s: those oi tin 
 
 18' 
 
 legiate students, and 203 alumni. The Rev. 
 C. G. Andrews, A. M.. is (1876) the president. 
 
 CENTRAL AMERICA is a narrow and 
 irregular strip of hind which forms the southern 
 part of North America. It comprises the five 
 republics, Guatemala, Honduras, San Salvador, 
 
 175,000 sq. m.. and its population, according to 
 
 the census of lSC.'i, L'.IIO.MIOO. ( )( ihese l.'ll.OOO 
 
 are whites; 1,000,000 are mestizos, or the off- 
 spring of whites and Indians; 1,500,000 arc 
 
 nixed. The count i \ was 
 
 bv 
 
 ormed themselvi 
 lasted until 18 
 solved. There 
 
 «hcl 
 
 taugnr. ami tnc audition oi the surra /ini/inn de- 
 veloped the episcopal seminaries. With the de- 
 cline of the ( lanons Regular, this class of schools 
 also lost their reputation. The lower studies be- 
 gan to be pursued at the parish schools : and for 
 the higher branches the universities made much 
 more ample provision than had ever been made 
 by the cathedral and collegiate schools. - See 
 
 Launoii Descholis celebrioribus s. a Garolo M. s. 
 post eundem in Occidente instauraiis (Paris, 
 1672); Ozanam, La Civilisation Chretiennechei 
 les Francs (Paris, 1849). 
 
 CECILIAN COLLEGE, situated near Eliz- 
 abethtown, Hardin county, Kentucky, was found- 
 ed by Charles ( Veil and sons, in 1860. Though 
 a private institution, it was chartered in 1807. 
 and confers degrees. It is under Roman ( 'ath- 
 olic influence. It comprises a commercial and 
 a classical course. 
 
 CENSUS, School. See School Census. 
 
 CENTENARY COLLEGE, at Jackson, 
 
 and taken under the patronage of the Methodist 
 
 Episcopal Church. South, in L845. It c prises 
 
 a preparatory and a collegiate department, the 
 latter having a classical and a scientific course. 
 The buildings are healthfully situated in a grove 
 of pine, magnolia, oak. and beech. They consist 
 of a commodious steward's hall, two brick dormi- 
 tories, each containing twenty-four rooms, and 
 a magnificent center building, which has been 
 erected at an expense of over $60,000. It \ 
 
 a long time, each of the republic s ha. 
 its own way in polities and also i 
 — a way which thus far has led onlj 
 
 In Guah mala public instruction is still in the 
 
 hands of the clergy, wh n account both of 
 
 these repeated plunderings and of the severe 
 laws against them, are incapable of doing much. 
 There are 26 primary schools in the capital (10 
 for boys and 16 for girls) and several private in- 
 stitutions. These are supported mainly by volun- 
 tary offering's. For the higher education, there is 
 a college in old Guatemala, which formerly hada 
 
 fair reputation. New I oiatcinala ha- 1 1 ,■ 
 
 de la Trinidad, th eqio IHdentino, and a 
 
 ■patrttl nAmica, founded in 1795, also sup 
 
 port- a - I !• el t"i drawing, sculpture, and mat he- 
 matics, and publishes a journal. 
 
 Honduras possesses two institutions called 
 universities, but they are such only in name. The 
 public schools are scarcely worth mentioning, 
 and education is at the lowest possible point. In 
 1874, the number of public schools was 197, 
 which were attended, on an average, by '_'."> pupils 
 each, showing about one pupil for 60 inhabitants. 
 
120 
 
 CENTRAL COLLEtiE 
 
 San Salvador also possesses a university which 
 has the reputation of being the second hi Central 
 America. Primary schools arc few in number ; 
 n.i ling and reckoning are taught in them more 
 or less indifferently; writing is a luxury in all 
 these republics which everybody cannot afford. 
 
 XiairtK/ii'i ha.- a more demoralized popula- 
 tion even than the other republics, owing to the 
 former filibustering expeditions from abroad, and 
 also to the many political revolutions and parti- 
 san dissensions which have occurred. There are 
 two universities in name, one in Leon and one in 
 Granada. The first r a small library of 
 
 1500 volumes: the other has none. In 1873, the 
 whole number of schools for males was 92, with 
 an attendance of 3,871; and for females, 9, with 
 an attendance of 532. The whole number of 
 children of school age (7 to 15) was 30,000— 
 males, 12,000, and females, 18.000. 
 
 In Costa Rica the schools are somewhat better 
 attended, but both the amount and the manner 
 of instruction given are pitiable A very short 
 time suffices to forget what little has been learned. 
 Moritz Wagner gives a rather gloomy picture 
 of these schools. He leads us into dark, damp 
 rooms, in which teachers of unexampled igno- 
 instruction in reading, writing, and 
 reckoning to some dozen of barefooti 
 who are crowded closely together and full of im- 
 patience lo escape. There is a university as well 
 as a lyceum in San .lose, and anoth r lyceum in 
 ( 'artago. The univei ;ii \ has six chairs, and the 
 professors receive a salary of S 1011 a - '■ 
 
 prudence and theology are the chief studies. 
 Mathematics and a little Latin are taught, but 
 no Gre ik. There are about 100 student's. The 
 lyceums ■"'' "" better. See Le Roy in Schmid, 
 /',;/,,■ < '■ i '■■ yclopadie, vol. x.. art. Sud- 
 ameri e; Sqi ii.k. The States of Central America 
 IN. jr., 1857). 
 
 CENTRAL COLLEGE, at Fayette. Mis- 
 souri, undeT the control of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, South, of that sta'e, was chart ired 
 
 in is:,:.. It , iprises a preparatorj an I a 
 
 collogiate d 'part mem . 'I' 1 ' I •' • n ; .a ■ ■ <'\< 
 schools: namely, pure and appl I mathematics, 
 moral philosophy, En d 'i ]■>_■.'■■.■ and lit ra- 
 it language,- and literature, and phys- 
 ical science. Each student is i, ,pii>,l in attend 
 at least three schools. The degrees conferred by 
 Central College are (1) ( ivaduate in a School, 
 
 I".'] liaH.elor 'of Philosophy. C!) liaehelor of 
 
 Arts, (4) Master of Arts. The degi e of grad- 
 uate ina school is given upon passing an ex- 
 amination on the subj 'its i a tight in that school. 
 The degree of bachelor of philosophy is con- 
 ferred upon graduates in the schools of English 
 literature, moral philosophy, and physical science 
 i.ations in ill,, -u, lias 
 of the junior and interine liale r!:i-r- ,,!' i nthe- 
 
 matics. To obtain the degree ol 
 
 arts, the student inii-i c pa In. te i i the - oools 
 
 of moral philosophy, pin -i.-.i ' .- ' eic ■ ad I Q- 
 
 eient languages, except the tired., and Roman 
 
 and pass examinations in the studies 
 
 of the junior class in the school of English liter- 
 
 CBNTRE COLLEGE 
 
 attire, and in part of the studies of the school 
 of mathematics. To obtain the degree of master 
 of arts, the student must graduate in the schools 
 of English. Latin, (beck, moral philosophy, nat- 
 ural philosophy, and chemistry; also in two mod- 
 ern languages, and pass an approved examination 
 in all the studies of the school of mathematics. 
 The college property is valued at $40,000, and 
 the productive funds amount to $60,000. In 
 1873 — 4 there were 7 instructors, and 33 pre- 
 
 r-atory, and 111 collegiate students. The Rev. 
 C.Wills, D. 1>„ is (1876) the president 
 
 CENTRAL TENNESSEE COLLEGE, 
 at Nashville, Tenn., was organized in L866. It 
 is under the patronage of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal ( Ihurch, and is supported almost entirely 
 by the Freedmen's Aid Society of that church. 
 Through the Methodist Missionary Society and 
 the Eivdiiidi's bureau, the buildings now occu- 
 pied, valued at $45,000, were secured in 1869. 
 'J he coll ge is designed mainly for the education 
 of colored youth of both sexes. It embraces an 
 academic department, for English education ; a 
 normal department, for training teachers; a 
 preparatory school, a , la-.-ioal collegiate course, 
 and a th tologica) department. In 1873 — 4. there 
 were 14 instructors. 2'V1 students in the prepara- 
 tory and lower departments (139 males and L23 
 females), and '^1 in the theological department. 
 The Rev. J. Braden, I). P., is (1870) the presi- 
 dent. 
 
 CENTRAL UNIVERSITY, at Richmond, 
 Kentucky, was chartered in 1873, and is under 
 the control of the Southern Presbyterians. It 
 has property valued at $70,000, and productive 
 
 inn, Is to the a nut of $150,000. It was opened 
 
 in 1874 with 75 prepan > students, of whom 
 
 tO wi re preparing for the classical, and 35 for 
 the .-< i mtific m arse. The Eev. R. L. Breck, 
 P.P.. is [ls7i;> the chancellor. 
 
 CENTRE COLLEGE, at Danville, Ken- 
 dal v. was first chartered in lSP.I. and received 
 an amended charter in 1 S'J4. It was originally 
 a state institution, but was purchased by the 
 ! 'p -la ' ;. n svnod of Kentuckv. win, h obtained 
 
 complet, ntrol in 1830. Upon the division of 
 
 thesynod in 1866, the college was held by that 
 part adhering t,, the General Assembly (North). 
 It is supported by tuition fees and the income of 
 the endowment, which amounts to $180,000. 
 
 The other property isval 1 at $75,000. Tuition 
 
 in the eolleg-' is alia year: but to the sons of 
 
 clergymen and 
 
 stitution coinpri: 
 department. S] 
 
 of limited 
 free. The in- 
 and a collegiate 
 is given to the 
 there were s in- 
 structor, pj.i collegiate and "il> preparatory stu- 
 dent- and about T.aOII volumes in the libraries. 
 Thenumberof alumni in L872 was 754. The 
 successive pi sidents have been as follows: the 
 I: r . Jai ies Mi I bord, ' 320, who dud before 
 en eri a upon the duties of his office; the Rev. 
 - on I I inley, oro t n., L822; the Rev. 
 , lianiberhiin. P.P.. from IM"_' to IS'JC; 
 the Rev. P. 0. Proctor. P. P.. pro tern., 1826 
 
CERTIFICATE 
 
 tin- Rev. Gideon Blackburn, D. D., from 1*27 to 
 1830; the Rev.JohnC. 1 oung, !>.!>.. from 1830 
 to 1857; the Rev. Lewis W. Green, D.D., from 
 is;,; i,, 1>i,:; ; tli.' U.'v. W. I.. Hreokinridge. 
 from L863fol868; and OrmondBeatty, LL.D., 
 appointed in 1872 and still (1876) in office. 
 
 CERTIFICATE. See License, and Incen- 
 tives, School. 
 
 CHAPSAL, Charles Pierre, a French 
 grammarian, was burn in I'aris in L787,anddied 
 in L858. Be is chiefly Doted for the grammar of 
 which he was the joint author with Francis 
 Joseph Noel. This work, entitled Nbuvelli 
 grammaire franpaise, avec • zeroises, was verj 
 |io]iulai'. passim; tliron-li ;h inanj as 40 editions 
 between 1823 and L858, and is -till in use, 
 although to a L'lviit ex'. 'in —■!«».-« — ■ 1. -. 1 l.v in..,-,' 
 
 successful. His powers must becultivated under 
 the influence of ambition : n proarh will sting 
 him to the uiiick : In nun- will incite him : .iim I in 
 
 When children .'Mv,,|n,-.,,..,| .,: 
 teachers, and, indeed, always in 
 cation which belongs to the fami 
 there is a w ide scope for sucl 
 1ml when large masses of i In 
 together, as in ]inl>lic schools. 
 
 CHARACTER, Discernment of. The 
 
 (•option of the 
 
 Ill'tlT by its ,'\ 
 
 an essentia] pi 
 
 pecul 
 
 cious educatioi 
 
 diversity in the 
 nf children . a 
 
 d, tl„ 
 
 tiun can clain 
 cognize this fai 
 and rules that 
 
 to b 
 t. and 
 
 tion of such sel Is. the classificati 
 
 children should not be based upon othe 
 of individual char- siderations than merely their apparent 
 
 ixcept 
 
 .-till. 
 
 f the 
 
 profi- 
 
 ly. If 
 
 ili-e.'i'iiin-j ■ these inliviilu.il peculiarities, and i'-'i 
 
 the practical methods of treat nt best adapted 
 
 to eaeh. < ieiier.illv. however, education is ear 
 rieil on with but little or no such discrimina 
 tions ; pupils, whatever may be their tempera- 
 ment, physical condition, state of health, mental 
 capacities, or moral proclivities, are treated 
 according to the same system or plan. It is 
 true, there is in every mind a kind of instinctive 
 ]ieree|itinn of the pri nliarities of character, either 
 the result of an inexplicable impression or prej- 
 udice, formed with little observation, or a 
 positive judgment derived almost unconsciously 
 from an attention, more or I as superficial, t" 
 the person's appearance, actions, and words on 
 different occasions. A systematic study of the 
 external indications of character In- nut. how- 
 ever, been generally. Ill' 11-1 
 
 th ■ te icher as a preparati 
 training and instruction. N 
 distinguished educators have fully red, 
 principle. " Let him that isskilled in 
 says Quintilian, "ascertain first of all when a 
 boy is entrusted to him, his ability and disposi- 
 tion . . .When a tutor has observed these indi 
 catiiins nf disposition and .ability, let him next 
 consider how the mind of his pupil is to be man- 
 aged. Some buys are indolent, unless you stimu- 
 late them; same are indignant at being com- 
 manded ; fear restrains some, and unnerves 
 others; continued labor forms some ; but with 
 others hasty efforts succeed better. Let the 
 boy be given to me, whom praise stimulates. 
 whom honor delights, who weeps when he is un- 
 
 joi I upon 
 
 the work of 
 iss, the most 
 cognized the 
 
 requires 80 a ite ana careiiu 
 
 a, the proper iiii-tlu'ds "I •■.uidui".. eiintiiilling. 
 and trainnij the di-| "-it i"ii- nt eml.lt, n 
 
 In the discernment of the character of chil- 
 dren, a careful attention should be given to the 
 temperaments: in, Iced, a knowledge of n mpi ra 
 menial distinctions is oneof the most important 
 of the teacher's : nplishments. 
 
 pel'il 
 
 of 
 
 eilcllleat. 
 
 ild. I km 
 
 If I kl 
 
 nervous, sanguine, lymphatic and bilious are 
 strongly marked and easily discerned. In the 
 Scientijic Hums of Education by .him Hecker 
 
122 
 
 CHARACTER 
 
 (N. Y, 1868), they are thus described: "The 
 peculiarities of the nervous temperament spring 
 from the fact, that in such a physical organiza- 
 tion, the brain and nervous system predominate, 
 and their indications take precedence in the 
 make-up of tin- individual, both as to proportional 
 size and activity. The functions of mental life 
 are stronger than others in the system. The 
 sanguine temperament, in like manner, indicates 
 the predominance of the lungs and arterial 
 system, as compared with the other physiological 
 functions. The lymphatic temperament is ac- 
 companied by a similar predominance of the func- 
 tions of the stomach and digestive apparatus, 
 and of the glandular and lacteal system; and 
 the bilious temperament, by a similar predomi- 
 nance of the functions of the liver, — the great 
 secreting organ of the body." The same writer 
 enumerates with much minuteness the peculiari- 
 ties of disposition attendant upon these distinc- 
 tions of temperament. "Up to the age of pu- 
 berty." he remarks, "growth being tin' leading 
 necessity of life, the lymphatic conditions, as a 
 general rule predominate." Children of a nervous 
 temperament when the brain is well developed, 
 "are eager to learn, and learn easily and fast, 
 being readily impressed through the mental fac- 
 ulties." They are. however, less retentive of 
 what they learn, than those of the bilious 
 temperament, have less warmth of disposition 
 than thoseof tin' sanguine temperament, and are 
 less susceptible to the ordinary methods of train- 
 ing than those of the lymphatic temperament. 
 Children of the sanguine temperament are said to 
 be volatile, more swayed by the pleasures of the 
 senses and less interested in merely intellectual 
 employment; but they are characterized by a 
 great degree of active energy, and hence desire 
 ami need more physical exercise. Children of 
 the lymphatic temperament receive impressions, 
 as distinguished from ideas, readily, but do not 
 retain them as permanently, as those of the bil- 
 ious temperament; they lack also the physical 
 activity of the sanguine temperament. The bil- 
 ious temperament is said to give permanence 
 to all impressions, though their reception is com- 
 paratively slow and difficult. " When we con- 
 sider," says Mr. Becker, "that children in a 
 school are collected, not as operatives in a fac- 
 tory, for what they can do, but for what can be 
 done to them — what they can receive — it is 
 
 evident that differences of temperament 
 
 which 
 involve such important variations in the proper 
 mode of training, cannot be ignored in classifica- 
 tion, without severely affect big the results of edu- 
 cation." This writer, however, who has made to 
 a very great extent the phrenological discrimina- 
 tions of brain structure the "scientific basis of 
 education," remarks in this connection, " It is 
 not to be supposed that the mental disposition of 
 the child resides in the temperament. This depends 
 
 directly u] the organization of the brain ; but 
 
 the temperamental conditions exert a marked 
 influence upon the activity of the brain, and, 
 both directly by growth and indirectly by the 
 senses, modify the mental disposition." 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE 
 
 To what extent the principles of phrenology 
 may be applied to education, by affording a 
 means of scientific discrimination, has been con- 
 siderably discussed. The only question to de- 
 cide is, whether phrenology affords a reliable 
 means of discerning the mental peculiarities of 
 different individuals, or how far such peculiarities 
 are manifested in cerebral structure ; since, if they 
 are unerringly thus indicated, a means is in this 
 way afforded, in connection with the tempera- 
 ments, of ascertaining the capacities and capa- 
 bilities of children, which educators cannot prop- 
 erly ignore. 
 
 In whatever way, however, the educator may 
 obtain his knowledge of the peculiar dispositions 
 and talents of his pupils, it is essential that this 
 knowledge should be acquired, and that it should 
 modify his treatment of his pupils, physical, 
 moral, and mental. — See Sim uzhkim. Princi- 
 ples of Education, with Appendix by S. R. 
 Wells (X. Y., 1847) : Hecker, Scientific Basis 
 of Education (N. Y., 1868) ; Bain, The Study 
 of CJiaracter (London, 1861). 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE, Charles the Great, 
 or Charles I., king of the Franks and emperor 
 of the West, was born in 74'J, and died in Aix- 
 la-Chapelle, in 81 1. He was one of the greatest 
 monarchs that ever reigned, and no less distin- 
 guished in the history of education than in po- 
 litical history. Though, from his earliest youth, 
 a great and impetuous warrior, he tally recognized 
 the importance of the educational interests of his 
 empire, and patronized them with a devotion 
 such as has been shown but by few princes. It 
 was his clearly conceived plan to elevate the 
 Franks and the Germans to an educational 
 level with the countries which at that time ex- 
 celled iii the world of letters,— chiefly Italy and 
 Ireland. Amidst all his wars of conquest and 
 the cares of avast and steadily extending empire. 
 he ne\ei cea-ed to labor to supply the deficiencies 
 of his early education. His thirst for knowledge 
 extended to all the different branches of science. 
 The letters -which he addressed to Alcuinabound 
 in grammatical, arithmetical, astronomical, and 
 theological questions. He completely mastered 
 the Latin; and he studied Creek ill order to be 
 able to compare the Latin translation of the 
 gospels with the original. He personally dis- 
 cussed with the bishop the most subtle theolog- 
 ical questions, and was indefatigable in searching 
 for all the information necessary to a thorough 
 understanding of all controverted points. He 
 appreciated profound learning, and was anxious 
 to attract to his court as many scholars as pos- 
 sible. His chief advi.ier was Alcuin, with whom 
 he became acquainted in 781, and whom he ap- 
 pointed instructor of his court school (palat- 
 inate school ). Though he succeeded in gathering 
 at his court a brilliant galaxy of men of genius, 
 he was himself never satisfied, incessantly aiming 
 at still higher results. 1 lis desire to have twelve 
 teachers like St. Augustine and St. Jerome 
 drew from the astonished Alcuin the reply, that 
 the < 'reator himself had only had two such men. 
 Alcuin, conjointly with Hhabanus Maurus, Egin- 
 
CHARLESTON 
 
 hard, and others, instituted at the court of Charle- 
 magne a kind of literary academy, in which the 
 emperor himself and several members of his 
 family took an active part. Though this may 
 not have been an academy of science in the 
 modern sense of the word, there was probably 
 some established association of the literary men 
 living at the court. 
 
 Charlemagne being convinced that the clergy 
 were the only class who could furnish the large 
 
 number of instructors whom he needed for his 
 
 subjects, adopted measures for the thorough edu- 
 
 CIIEEVER 
 
 1211 
 
 call 
 
 to the abbot Uangnlf at 1'ulda inwhich heurged 
 the most thorough instruction of all candidates 
 for the priesthood, in order that they might be 
 enabled to understand more fully the Sacred 
 Scriptures, and to communicate their knowledge 
 more effectively to others. He also enjoined that 
 schools should be established in connection with 
 all the cathedrals and convents. In 78!), it was 
 ordered that reading, writing, arithmetic, gram- 
 mar, and singing should be taught in these schools. 
 Attributing very great importance to the devel- 
 opment of the language of the people, ill 794, 
 he issued an edict requiring that the faithful 
 should be taught the Lord's Prayer and the 
 Apostles' freed in German, and that no one 
 should teach that God could oidy be worshiped 
 in the Latin, Greek, or Hebrew tongues. In 802, 
 he enjoined upon all priests, parents, and god- 
 fathers to provi 1c for the instruction of children 
 committed to their care, in the tenets of the 
 Christian faith and in the Lord's Prayer ; and, 
 in 804, lie ordered that all those who did not 
 know the Lords Prayer and the Creed should be 
 scourged, and required to fast until they had 
 learned both. These efforts were zealously sup- 
 ported by the bishops ; and the councils held at 
 Mayence, Reims, and Tours declared in favor 
 of using the native tongues spoken in the em- 
 pire, for the instruction of the people, in place 
 of the Latin. Even the idea of organizing a. 
 system of public instruction began to be con- 
 ceived at that time, as appeal's from a rescript 
 addressed by bishop Theodulf of Orleans to the 
 priests of his diocese, admonishing them to keep 
 school every-where (per villas et vicos), and to 
 ask no pay, but only to receive gratuitous offer- 
 ings in return for the service rendered. — See 
 Gaillaud. Hisloire de Charlemagne (4 vols., 2d 
 edit., Paris, lsill) ; LoiiENz, Karl des Grossen 
 Privnt- und Hofleben, in Raumer's ffisfor. 
 Tasckenbuch, 1832); Heppe, Dos Schulwesen 
 des MUteWers (Marburg. 1860); Hallam, Eu- 
 rope during the middle ages; Schmidt, (resch. 
 der Padagoqik, voL 11. 
 
 CHARLESTON, College of, tit ( 'harleston, 
 South Carolina, was founded in I 785. It is non- 
 sectarian. The patronage 1ms been almost entirely 
 confined to the city, one great object being to 
 prevent the youth of Charleston from losing 
 their acclimation by absence from the city during 
 a critical period of their lives. There being 
 
 I has a valuable museum of natural history, a 
 library of 10,000 volumes, productive fund's to 
 the amount of $200,000, and scholarship funds 
 to the amount of $33,000. The value of the 
 college property is $50,000. In 1875 6, there 
 were 5 instructors and .'!."> students. The pres- 
 idents have been as follows : the Kt. Re\ . Roberl 
 Smith, the Rt. Rev. X. Bowen, the lion. Mit- 
 chell King, the Rev. Jasper Adams 
 Dr. Brantley, Win. P. Finley, and V 
 
 jffice). 
 
 \pT7jQ, I at. charta, a leaf of 
 generally of pasteboard. 
 
 l,!.' v ; 
 
 CHART (Gr 
 paper), a large 
 
 Middle 
 
 dormitories, the students 
 
 ire 
 
 the advan- 
 
 tage of domestic influences. The institution 
 
 containing a synoptical exhibit of letters, words, 
 colore, plants, etc.. to be used in giving instruction. 
 particularly to classes. This is a very useful 
 piece of school apparatus, since by means of it 
 the eye is addressed, and large numbers of pupils 
 
 may be taught simultai usly ; while the teacher 
 
 is relieved from the trouble of writing out or draw- 
 ing on the blackboard what is to be presented. 
 In teaching co/ar by object lessons a chart is in- 
 dispensable, as it exhibits, in a methodical way, 
 the objects themselves. Several excellent chart 
 for this purpose have been constructed. Charts 
 are also very useful in teaching phonics. In 
 higher instruction, there are many subjects in 
 which the use of charts affords an important 
 means of illustration ; and, hence, we rind in 
 school-rooms charts of botany, physiology, 
 chemistry, astronomy, etc. While the rapid 
 sketching of an illustration on the blackboard 
 has many advantages for certain kinds of illus- 
 tration and teaching, the more accurate delinea- 
 tion of objects by charts is often to be preferred, 
 and, therefore, no school-room can be completely 
 furnished without sets of these artiel, s. 
 
 CHEEVER, Ezekiel, one of the earliest 
 and most celebrated teachers of New England, 
 illustrious not only for the extraordinary length 
 of his service, which lasted seventy years, but 
 for his scholarship and classical attainments. He 
 was born in London, England, in 1614, where 
 he received an excellent education. At the age 
 of 2.'i, be emigrated to America, landing at 
 Boston. He did not remain there, however, but 
 took part with Theophilus Eaton, Rev. John 
 Davenport, and others in planting the colony of 
 New Haven; and held the office of deacon, from 
 1(144 to 1650, in the first church established tit 
 that place. He commenced his career as a 
 school-master in 1638, teaching the first free 
 school of New Haven till Kill, when betook 
 charge of a grammar school of a higher grade. 
 These schools, like the New Kiigland schools 111 
 general, were not common or public schools, 
 open to all without expense, but were partly 
 supported by endowments and partly by tuition 
 fees. The principal studies pursued were Latin 
 and Greek. Until 1650, Cheever continued to 
 take charge of this school, and as is remarked by 
 one of his biographers, "devoted to the work a 
 scholarship and personal character which left 
 their mark forever on the educational policy of 
 New Haven." At the date mentioned, he re- 
 moved to Ipswich, in .Massachusetts, where he 
 
124 
 
 CHEEVER 
 
 lllll 
 
 took charge of the grammar school of that town, 
 and made it famous by his faithfulness, scholar- 
 ship, ami skill. From 1661 to 1070, he taught 
 the Town Free School in Charlestown, in the 
 latter year removing to Boston, which became 
 the scene of his labors for :!S years thereafter. 
 Here he was appointed head -master of the 
 " Free Schoole," known since 1790 as the " I^tin 
 School." being engage I by the governor and 
 select men at a salary of "sixtie pounds p. an.", 
 and allowed the "possestion and use of ye i 
 house." This sele,,l. ,„„ler his long and f 
 service, became the chief classical scho 
 only of Massachusetts Bay, but of all the 1 
 colonies in America. Some of the most ei 
 men of the period were educated under 
 Oheever; and in the autobiographies 
 
 sonic of them have written, they have let 
 sincere testimonials of respect and affect 
 their old and venerable teacher, as well as 
 interesting pictures of school life in thus 
 days. Among these pupils the liev. I >r. 
 .Mather became the most celebrated; bt 
 haps the most interesting sketch of Mr. < 'li 
 school is contained in the .1 '■ iograph 
 Rev. John Barnard, drama up in 1 it>il 
 85th year of the v rit ■ e ■ "i I t i i--t ) 
 in the Collections of tin Mass ■ hus its Hit 
 Snricti/. ■■ 1 remember once." says liarnai 
 making a piece of Latin, my master 
 fault with the syntax of one word. whi. 
 
 -nosed bviMcl.vlle-lv.l.Utd.-.iu'ned! 
 
 ule to him. 
 
 'hen he smilingly said, " Thou art 
 
 brave boy ; 1 
 
 had forgot it." And no w ler; 
 
 ir he was th 
 
 ■n above eighty years old." 1 fe 
 
 vasa strict di 
 
 seiplinarian, and corporal punish- 
 
 
 n resorted to, and not sparingly 
 
 pplied.in hiss 
 
 diool ; but severity was ti apei 1 
 
 one of his pupils. He died in 1 
 year of his age : and we are told 
 
 CHEKE 
 
 successful, venerable, and beloved teacher," but 
 took occasion to deliver a lecture upon the duty 
 of towns and parents to provide for the education 
 of children. This sermon was printed under the 
 quaint title of " Corderius Americanus, an Es- 
 say upon the Good Education of Children, and 
 w) U may Hopefully '•■ .1" mpted foriheHope 
 
 r die Flock; Funeral Sermon uj Mr. 
 
 Ezekiel CuKi:vK!:.//,e Ancietd and Honourable 
 
 l/n 
 
 I'he 
 
 a Latin accidence, entitled .1 short introduction 
 to the Latin Tongue, which, for more than a 
 century, was the hand-book of most of the Latin 
 scholars of New England, and very highly com- 
 mended. An edition of this celebrated work 
 was published in 1838, with testimonials from 
 the most distinguished Bcholars, asserting its 
 merits, and commending its restoration to use in 
 the schools. President Quincj oi Harvard Col- 
 lege said. "It is distin-uiVhed for simplicity. 
 comprehensiveness, and exactness: and, as a 
 primer or first elementary book. I do no1 believe 
 it is exceeded by any other work, in respect to 
 those important qualities."— See \'.\ir \i:n. /■.'■/»- 
 Cilliinml Bhynipliii (X. V.. lSf.l |. 
 
 CHEKEJ Sir John, an eminent English 
 scholar and teacher, was born at Cambridge, in 
 1514, and died in 1557. lie was educated in 
 the university of < 'ambridgc. and was appointed 
 
 540, professor of Greek in that institution. 
 In 1544, he became tutor to prince Edward; 
 and on the accession of his pupil to the throne, 
 he was rewarded with an annuity anil a grant of 
 land. In 1551, he was knighted, and soon after 
 rose to the office of secretary of state. On the 
 accession of Mary, he was compelled to leave 
 England, as he had favored the cause of Lady 
 Jane t.'ivv and \v supported himself for some 
 
 confined in the Tower, when, in order to save 
 
 his life, he abjured his religion, and became a 
 member of the Catholic Church. Repentance 
 
 "that "he held his abilities in an unusual degree 
 
 among 
 
 Inch may be ie 
 
 I : mi 1. 
 
 
 to th" last, his intellectual fore bane a, little 
 
 n. a/i, 
 
 Bucer an 1 ." 
 
 
 I '■ ;i - 
 
 abated as his natural." Says one of lug biogra 
 
 
 
 
 tones Basel, 
 
 pliers, ■• It was his singular good fortune in have 
 lived tis an equal among the very founders of 
 
 
 
 
 published by 
 
 him wa 
 
 a pamphlet eiri 
 
 led \% 
 
 
 New England, w ith them of Boston, and Salem. 
 
 tii hi. In 
 
 
 Is In a ' 
 
 '■ommonwealih 
 
 and New Haven, — to have taughl their children. 
 
 (1549). 
 
 Among his ut 
 
 publishe, 
 
 manuscripts, 
 
 and 1 !i r children's children, unto the third .and 
 
 w as a translation of the 
 
 lospeloi 
 
 St. Matthew, 
 
 fourth generation— and to have lingered in the 
 
 in word 
 
 3 derived solely 
 
 
 on mots, and 
 
 recollections of his pupils and ihci- chil !i an the 
 
 a plan 
 
 to change the 1 
 
 
 thography by 
 
 model and monument, the sum- rand e;e tit 
 
 
 
 
 ig by sound. 
 
 alive of the Puritan and Pilgrim si ick down 
 
 
 
 
 reck language 
 
 almost to the beginning of the present ,■ ■ i \ 
 
 At his funeral, which took place from thi chool 
 house, there w ,-re , .. ,r. ciui, ;l 
 
 oj mini ters, justii es, and gentlemen ; and Dr. 
 Mather preache I ,1 hue ral -e n on the occa- 
 sion, in which he not only eulogized his -faithful. 
 
 Hon. lie was dcscnedly consider, I . 
 
 most learne I 111,11 ot hi.- ae ■'■' Siuvi'K, The 
 
 Life of Sir John Cheke (Lond., L705). 
 
ih one of the youngest 
 ce in its development, 
 t.from an educational 
 ition may be so readily 
 points of 
 
 ,.1 so 
 
 and it 
 
 CHEMISTRY, althc 
 branches of physical scii 
 is .nic. >f the most importi 
 point of view. But theatt 
 arrested by its many easi 
 contai i w ith the indivii 
 numberless applications 
 shop, (In' farm, etc., as h i 
 processes on a grander i 
 
 be overlooked, even by te 
 be regarded too much, simply as a low utilitarian 
 element in an educational course, however valu- 
 able it may be admitted to lie. It is, neverthe- 
 less, true that, in recent years, much that had 
 contributed a peculiar mi 1.1 ■■! n em -s to chemis- 
 try as a branch of instruction, seemed inex- 
 tricably involved in discussion. The perspicuity 
 of its nomenclature, the precision of its state- 
 ments, the simplicity and comparatively limited 
 number of the laws involved in its most com- 
 plex phenomena, were all apparently affected. 
 But it has at last emerged from this formative 
 condition, so changed to be sure, that many well 
 educated in chemistry a few years ago may be 
 obliged to recast their know ledge in new moulds, 
 but with a system of philosophy u Inch has much 
 clearer and more comprehensive generalizations. 
 It has. moreover, Lost nothing of its peculiar! 
 character as perhaps the most sharply defined 
 branch of physical science. The changes have 
 not been so much those of abandonment of views 
 formerly held, as of their expansion, to provide 
 for the wonderful accumulation of facts sine, 
 the science first took form about the beginning of 
 the century. The old nomenclature survives only 
 hi a few general principles. The names, being 
 out of accord with established and accepted facts. 
 were too precise, and expressed too much. 
 
 It may be felt that the New Gliemislry is 
 too elaborate and complex to permit of profitable 
 introduction; but a closer examination will show 
 that it still possesses its former peculiar sim- 
 plicity and directness of statement, that its no- 
 tation is as expressive as ever, that it requires 
 no application of mathematical analysis in wink- 
 ing out or stating its generalizations, that these 
 are as easily reached from tacts within the com- 
 prehension of the pupil, as ever, and that they 
 are just as susceptible of reproduction, for and 
 by the pupil, with comparatively little and in- 
 expensive apparatus. No doubt, more depends 
 now upon the faithfulness with which "it is 
 taught. There is more of a philosophy, as well as 
 a larger body of facts, and the mind of the pupil 
 must be led to discern the principles that under- 
 lie the facts. A necessity for the conception 
 of a threefold division of matter arises in the 
 modern explanation of chemical phenomena. The 
 indivisible, indestructible, insensible atoms of the 
 old chemistry are accepted ; but the interpola- 
 tion is required of equally insensible <jrt,njix of 
 atoms, called molecvies, between the atoms and 
 the sensible aggregations of matter called masses. 
 The word mo/sci'/i' henceforth ceases to be used 
 interchangeably with atom. Forces may act 
 
 12f) 
 
 upon or within these molecules and when they 
 act within, a chemical change is said to occur. 
 Thus, ice composed of molecule, is converted 
 
 into water by releasing these molecul, s. in a .jrent 
 
 ioiii cohesive attraction . ,,., ;,,■ . c.w 
 
 ing them perfect freedom of motional ,,, g tliem- 
 
 ass.leh heme Uliatieetcd. The elect riea I current, 
 whatever that maybe, invades these molecules: 
 dissects off atom from atom: demonstrates the 
 molecules to be groups of hydrogen and oxygen 
 atoms, held together by a force named clniuical 
 ujjiiiiti/ or vhcmiriil iitlrnctioi). or belter still 
 chemism. However chemical phenomena may be 
 influenced by physical conditions, tin \ iu\ol\e. 
 essentially, only this play of the atomic force, 
 between atoms, within molecules. This appar- 
 ently restricted and sharply defined character of 
 the held of chemistry is calculated to render it 
 more easy of comprehension, as a whole bj the 
 pupil, than most other branches of physical sci- 
 ence: whilst it still retains, in a high di 
 advantages conceded to such I, ranches as in- 
 iite, i tsfoi the culture of the faculty of abstrae- 
 
 icii.ie. '..: : .■ m. and for fostering a ha hit of 
 
 ■ ireful, do hietive reasoning, in connection 
 
 w ith that of cautious, patient observation, — habits 
 that have so much to do with the formation of 
 correel judgments in the affairs of everyday life. 
 Although a fuller consideration of the purely 
 disciplinary qualities of chemical studies might 
 exhibit them ill favorable comparison with soinu 
 of the usual branches taught, there can be no 
 doubt that it very properly holds its place Inf. Iv 
 by reason of the character of the information it 
 imparts. It may be regarded, therefore, as the 
 chief aim of the teacher of chemistry, to make 
 the pupil acquainted with the chemical proper- 
 ties of matter, and with the leading processes by 
 which comparatively worthless material has high 
 value imparted to it. And yet the manner in 
 which this information is acquired, to whatever 
 extent the science may be taught, has far more 
 to do with the subsequent practical value of the 
 study than the amount; and a proper mode of im 
 parting the facts will also prove of high educa- 
 tional value in other respects. It is only facts so 
 connected, and so lodged in the mind that they 
 
 readilj ugg -t tl selves when an occasion tnaj 
 
 demand them, that are fruitful. But cl strj 
 
 has such a body of minute facts, that the text- 
 books are necessarily constructed largely on a 
 cyclopaedic plan: masses of facts are eln-ilnd 
 as well as they can be. and are pigeon holed 
 away for reference rather than for a connected 
 inductive study. Nothing is more natural for 
 the pupil than to run into the vicious habit of 
 simply memorizing. There is no tendency more 
 decided in pupils with memories well trained by 
 early studies. It will require very little encour- 
 agement on the part of a teacher to have the 
 pupil reproduce the numerical statements of 
 a lesson, the specific gravitie 
 imal, the equivalents of elements, the melting 
 
126 
 
 CHEMISTRY 
 
 points, etc. Tet these form the very class of facts 
 which scarcely survive the day of recitation, and 
 for which the chemist would rely upon his ref- 
 erence-book in case of need. This is also true of 
 a large number of other facts of subordinate im- 
 portance. Again, facts of the highest importance, 
 assigned by a proper classification to one place, 
 may find most forcible re-statement, in many 
 other places, and in other connections. It rests 
 with the teacher to direct the pupil continually 
 in Ins study, by calling his attention to the most 
 important facts, and by holding them up to 
 view in all their relations, particularly in their 
 practical bearing upon each other. A compar- 
 atively few facts, thus exhaustively studied, will 
 form a nucleus around which further chemical 
 knowledge may accumulate, whilst the mind will 
 be impressed with the interdependence of chem- 
 ical processes. It is also apparent that the 
 process by which these facts are accumulated is 
 an educating process of the highest order. The 
 pupil soon falls into the habit of considering all 
 facts in their relations, and refuses to be satisfied 
 with uncorrelated facts; and he carries this habit 
 into the consideration of all matters, and seeks a 
 wider view of every subject. 
 
 In teaching chemistry, three methods readily 
 suggest themselves: (1) By text-books ; (2) By 
 lectures, accompanied by experiments ; and 
 (3) By experiments or investigations performed 
 by the pupil. These methods are so different in 
 themselves and in the end to be accomplished, 
 that they cannot be compared as to effectiveness; 
 but they so fully supplement each other, that 
 they should as far as possible accompany each 
 other. The tendency, at the present time, is to 
 undervalue the text-lmok. Whilst there can be no 
 doubt that, by itself, it yields the least return for 
 
 thi i attention, and drudgery of both teacher 
 
 and pupil, as an adjunct to either of the other 
 methods, it not only imparts fullness to the 
 knowledge, but also renders it more precise. An- 
 other incidental advantage of the highest charac- 
 
 tei usists in a certain facility for reference, 
 
 which its study imparts : and. in many cases, an 
 ability to make use of the literature of the 
 science, and. by means of it, to study up a 
 subject, or investigate a particular case, may be 
 of far more value than a memory thoroughly 
 crammed with facts. 
 
 Lectures accompanied by illustrative experi- 
 ments are generally conceded to be valuable, and 
 to some extent indispensable, aids in teaching 
 physical science. Text-book study, however 
 faithful and earnest, must be supplemented by 
 them. The facts formulated in words must be 
 vitalized, and re-enforced by their objective re- 
 production. Presented thus directly to the senses. 
 they not only become more intelligible, but pos- 
 sess a peculiar charm, that impresses them upon 
 the memory, and renders the whole study more 
 profitable, as well as im ,iv attractive. But lectures 
 are more particularly adapted to teach the gen- 
 eral principles of the science, and to develop, to 
 its fullest extent, the disciplinary value of the 
 mode of reasomng employed in the investigation 
 
 of the truths of nature, and also to cultivate the 
 faculty of observation. They are, however, 
 in no wise adapted to displace the text-book. 
 They are feeble in teaching details. Simple 
 statement and re-statement, and illustration com- 
 bined, will not impress these upon the memory. 
 If the pupil be required to take full notes, or in- 
 deed be allowed to take any notes at all. it will 
 be ,-,t the ln.-s of much that is peculiarly valuable 
 in such lectures With the faculty of observation 
 in the pupil generally untrained, any division of 
 attention between writing, and listening, and ob- 
 serving will greatly reduce the proper effect of 
 the lecture. Great pains should be taken to ar- 
 range the matter, and bring it before the pupil 
 so that the salient points may impress themselves 
 upon the memory; and the lecture should be tilled 
 in from memory afterward, or it may be a still 
 better plan, in many cases, to furnish, on the- 
 blackboard, a very brief syllabus of the lecture. 
 But much of the effectiveness of a lecture is lost 
 in attempting even incidentally to teach numerous 
 details by means of it. It cannot be expected, 
 nor is it at all necessary, to reproduce all, or in- 
 deed a very large proportion, of the facts and 
 processes of the text-book, in order that it may 
 be fully comprehended. There are many facts 
 and processes in chemistry that possess a typical 
 character, aiding directly in the comprehension 
 of many others, and these are the ones most 
 likely to be drawn upon by the lecturer. There 
 is no branch of physical science that admits of a 
 fuller illustration and verification of its facts 
 with comparatively limited and inexpensive ap- 
 paratus, nor any in which the want of thorough 
 practical knowledge and skill on the part of the 
 experimenter is productive of less damage to- 
 the apparatus employed. Up to a very recent 
 date, simple entertainment and amusement have- 
 been regarded, almost equally with instruction, 
 as the objects of such lectures. The most sen- 
 sational experiments that the science and the 
 means at command could afford, were impressed 
 into service: and these, too. often loosely con- 
 nected, or arranged in the order of the text-book. 
 There is still unfortunately a residuum of expec- 
 tation of something of this kind. The apparatus 
 and experiments with it are apt to be made the 
 display features of the instruction. Whilst simple 
 entertainment, or even amusement, may some- 
 times legitimately accompany lectures on chem- 
 istry, it should be only as a natural incident; and 
 even then, should not occur too often, since it is 
 apt to create an expectation of, if not a desire for, 
 such features: and this will seriously divert the 
 attention of the pupils from the line of thought 
 which should always connect the experiments. 
 Every experiment should come upon the scene 
 like a well-trained servant, just at the right 
 point of time to add its proper effect to the 
 total effect of the lecture ; and, in no case, 
 should it control the lecturer. An experiment 
 without such a subordinate relation is as much 
 out of place as a word without proper con- 
 nection in a discourse. As the text-book is 
 largely a compendium of details, its somewhat 
 
arbitrary plan of arrangement, and its formal, 
 systematic, didactic treatment must give way 
 to the more instructive, as well as more attract- 
 ive, Baconian method of insinuating knowledge 
 into the mind of the pupil i:i the manner 111 
 which it was discovered. Topics should be taken 
 up, discussed, and illustrated. The most familiar 
 phenomena should be noticed, and the lecturer 
 should place himself, with his appliances, in the 
 position of an investigator, — an interrogator of 
 nature, and an interpreter of her replies. The 
 point of attack, and the line of investigation 
 should be carefully determined upon and wrought 
 out, so as to evoke the most valuable information, 
 and exhibit the logic of facts inductively em- 
 ployed. The pupil will readily follow the in- 
 vestigator in his alternate inductions and deduc- 
 tions, as he ■■guesses and cheeks his guesses." 
 He will thus not only learn the subject, but ac- 
 quire, in a measure, the attitude of mind by 
 which facts are discovered, judged, and arranged, 
 and by which also they may be turned to prac- 
 tical account. To take a very simple case : car- 
 bonic acid being selected as the subject, a burn- 
 ing candle may suffice to start the inquiry which 
 will lead up to it, and far beyond it. Then, out 
 of the numerous questions that suggest them- 
 selves, the chemist might ask whether, as the 
 material of the candle evidently undergoes a 
 radical change, the air surrounding it is affected? 
 It is placed in a jar, and covered ; it goes out. 
 Is the air changed ''■ Test with lime-water. Yes. 
 Will a splinter change it in the same way? Try. 
 Yes. It is then allowable to guess that all burn- 
 ing bodies affect the air in the same way. The 
 guess may be checked by employing a wax taper; 
 then an oil-lamp ; then a gas-jet. The inference 
 then becomes the very plausible hypothesis, that 
 burning bodies invariably affect the air surround- 
 ing them in such a way, that it will render lime- 
 water turbid. All would be satisfied to stop at 
 this conclusion ; but a jet of burning hydrogen 
 is at hand, ami on repeated trials, each time 
 with greater care, it fails to give the result pre- 
 dicted from the hypothesis. The many facts only 
 led up to that degree of certainty; the one dis- 
 cordant fact shakes the whole fabric. The case 
 is now looked at anew. What have these bodies 
 in common so as to produce this identical result 
 in burning, which hydrogen has not? Carbon. 
 A piece of charcoal is tried. It confirms the 
 conjecture which led to the experiment with it. 
 More cautiously than before, the hypothesis would 
 then be modified to suit the new fact, — bodies 
 containing carbon in burning modify the atmos- 
 phere in a certain way. From this point, all the 
 leading properties of carbonic acid could be 
 developed, with but little more apparatus than 
 may be found in any household : its specific 
 gravity, by pouring it from ordinary pitchers, or 
 running it off by means of a syphon, by weighing 
 it in a paper bag on ordinary scales, etc.; its solu- 
 bility in water, and the solvent properties it im- 
 parts to the water, by passing it through lime- 
 water, until the precipitate is re-dissolved, then 
 re-precipitating it by boiling the solution, etc. 
 
 The other constituents of the atmosphere arc. 
 in a similar way. readily brought w ithin the range 
 of inquiry. Such a mode of treatment lias for 
 the pupils all the freshness of an original inves- 
 tigation. It arouses a spirit of inquiry, and 
 quickens observation; since they will be far more 
 
 apt to observe closely when they are to discover 
 
 I what is to be seen, than if required simply to 
 
 pleasing surprise at the evolution oi clear general 
 principles from apparently confused inquiries. 
 In such lectures, a sensational experiment with- 
 out a direct bearing upon the subject, would be 
 entirely out of place. Humble and apparently 
 trifling experiments are frequently found to pre- 
 sent the truth in its simplest, clearest, most in- 
 telligible form. In all eases the chemical notation 
 
 should be freely employed. All reactions should 
 
 lie expressed by symbols upon the blackboard. 
 due fact, however, should be continually kept in 
 mind in arranging such a lecture, mid bringing 
 the phenomena before the pupils; namely, that 
 in pupils of all ages, without any previous train- 
 ing in this direction, the power of observation is 
 generally exceedingly feeble, and that they can 
 follow the lecturer but slowly. They are very apt 
 to overlook or mistake the feature to be observed, 
 or to be misled by some unavoidably prominent 
 accessory. An examination upon a lecture of 
 the simplest character will reveal this fact. The 
 most salient points, even, will often be found to 
 be wanting. A great part of the value of the 
 illustrations of scientific lectures in our higher 
 institutions, and of the highly elaborated popular 
 lectures is lost for the same reason. This dif- 
 ficulty may be remedied in a great measure by 
 adding the other method of teaching suggested; 
 that is. by allowing the pupil, under the direction 
 of the teacher, to perform the experiments and 
 conduct the investigation, requiring liim to keep 
 accurate notes, and, in some cases, to reproduce 
 the results in the form of a lecture. < Jhemistry 
 is peculiarly adapted to this mode of instruction. 
 A few test-tubes, flasks, corks, etc.. and very little 
 material will put it into the power of the pupil 
 to reproduce the explanation of many facts. He 
 will learn more by a few failures than by a whole 
 series of experiments successfully exhibited in a, 
 lecture, and will realize how much of care and 
 painstaking accuracy must be expended in the 
 preparation of every successful experiment. He 
 will appreciate the importance of the most 
 trifling essential condition, and will find that 
 here no oversights, no mistakes, no negligence 
 can be condoned; but that failure follows them 
 as inexorably as effect follows cause. He will be 
 surprised to find how apparently trifling an over- 
 sight often lay between him and success, and will 
 
 learn to estiinat nditions by other standards 
 
 than their apparent magnitude or importance. He 
 will thus form the habit of observing closely, and 
 of noticing every thing exhibited in the course 
 of lectures, and will carry this habit into all the 
 affairs of life.— Sec I) \r hkn ;v (Prof. Charles G.B.), 
 On the Sluilif of < 'hemislrii as n lirmieh if Edu- 
 cation, in Lectures on Education (Loud., 1855). 
 
128 CHK 
 
 CHICAGO, the principal city of Illinois, the 
 commercial metropolis of the North-western 
 section of the Union, and the fifth in population 
 
 of the cities of the Tinted States. Its population, 
 according to the national census of 1*711. was 
 2!ls.!l77; but. according to the special census 
 of 1 ST I. was 395,408. This city was incor- 
 porated March 4.. 1837; and the first census 
 was taken in July of that year, when it was 
 found to contain a population of 4,170. Its 
 rapid growth is probably without a parallel in 
 history. During the I'll years preceding the cen- 
 sus of 1*74, its increase was nearly fi7!i pel cent. 
 The public schools of ( 'hicago were lirsl classified 
 and graded by John I '. Dorr, the first superin- 
 teiiilent, who served from May, 1*54. to March, 
 1856, when he was succeeded by William II. 
 \\ ells, who continued in office till August, 1864, 
 and was succeeded by Josiah L. Pickard, the 
 present incumbent. The first public school 
 building was erected in 1*44. but there was uo 
 published school report till I*.">4. 
 
 Srhimi Statistics. -For the year ending August 
 31., 1875, the following statistics were reported : 
 
 Number of schools tl 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled tn.l'Jl 
 
 Average daih a tt.-miiiliei.' . .. :;'J,'.n:i 
 
 Number ef teachers 7IWI 
 
 Nuiiiber of months schools were epen 1(1 
 
 Amount received from school tax fund.. .. .JTifi .in'.s.'JI 
 
 do do from state fund 10:1,1144.40 
 
 do do from rents, interest, etc i 
 
 Total receipts S966.697.19 
 
 Amount paid for teachers' salaries $.13.1,7(li:.7n 
 
 do do for school buildings 155,564.26 
 
 do do for school sites 9,769.98 
 
 do do for fuel and supplies 75,729.22 
 
 do do for other expenses 38,068.24 
 
 Total expenditure $814,838.49 
 
 The school age is from 6 to 21 : and the num- 
 ber of children in the city between those ages 
 was reported, in special census of Oct. 1., 1874, 
 as 102,555, out of a total population of 395,408 ; 
 of these 15.947 were reported as at work, and 
 33,547 as neither at work nor in school. The 
 whole number of children reported as enrolled in 
 the public schools was. at this date, only 36,416 ; 
 and the number in private schools, lii.ii 1.7. 
 
 School System. — The system consists of a 
 board of education of fifteen members, appointed 
 by the mayor of the city, subject to the approval 
 of the common council. I high school, .'{ division 
 
 high -cl is. 1 normal school, 21 district schools 
 
 with grammar and primary departments, and 15 
 independent primary schools. The term of office 
 of the members of the board is three year . five 
 members being appointed each year ; and at least 
 five years' previous reside is requisite for eli- 
 gibility to appointment. By the "act to estab- 
 lish and maintain a system of free schools", which 
 went into operation July 1 ., 1*71'. the hoard of 
 education has power, "with the concurrence of 
 the city council", (1) To erect or purchase build- 
 ings suitable for school houses, and keep the 
 same in repair; (2) To buy or lease sins for 
 school-houses with the necessary grounds; (3) To 
 
 issue bonds for the purpose of building, fur- 
 nishing, and repairing school-houses, for purchas- 
 
 or the same, and to provide for the 
 payment of said bonds: and to borrow money for 
 school purposes upon the credit of the city. It 
 is also empowered. (1) To furnish schools with 
 the necessary fixtures, furniture, and apparatus ; 
 (2) To maintain, support, and establish schools, 
 and supply the inadequacy of the school fund for 
 the salaries of teachers from school taxes; (3) 
 To hire buildings or rooms for the use of the 
 schools or the board: (4) To appoint teachers 
 and fix the amount of their compensation; (5) 
 To prescribe the school-books to be used, and 
 the studies to be pursued in the schools ; (6) To 
 divide the city into school districts, and, from 
 time to time, to alter the same, and create new 
 ones as circumstances may require ; and (7) To 
 enact such ordinances as may be necessary or ex- 
 pedient for the proper management of the 
 schools. The board of education is not per- 
 mitted to increase the expenditures beyond the 
 
 amount received from the state con i school 
 
 fund, the rental of school lands, and the amount 
 annually appropriated for such purposes; nor 
 can it levy or collect taxes, or demand that the 
 city council shall levy any tax for school pur- 
 
 pi on its concurrence, The ollieers of 
 the board are a president, vice-president, secre- 
 tary, clerk, assistant clerk, school agent, and 
 
 messenger; also a superintendent of scl Is and 
 
 an assistant superintendent of schools, to the 
 
 latter of whom is entrusted the more i ediate 
 
 supervision of the work of instruction and dis- 
 cipline in the schools. There is also a building 
 and supply agent, who has the immediate super- 
 vision of all the buildings and grounds used for 
 school purposes, and who attends to all repairs, 
 and to the purchase of needed supplies. 
 
 The com-se of study, below the high school, 
 comprises eight grades, four of which are known 
 as grammar grades, and four as primary grades; 
 the grammar schools, however, embrace all the 
 eight grades, instruction in the four lower grades 
 being given in the primary departments. The 
 high school course is arranged for four years, 
 and affords instruction in the higher English 
 branches and in the modern languages, preparing 
 for college such of its pupils as desire it. The 
 division high schools are organized with a course 
 of study for two years, excluding all foreign lan- 
 guages, except German, which is an optional 
 study. 
 
 The studies prescribed for the primary 
 schools are reading, the rudiments of arithmetic, 
 spelling, elementary geography, and writing; to 
 these, in the grammar schools, are added higher 
 geography. Knglish grammar and composition, 
 and the history of the United States. Music and 
 drawing are systematically taught throughout 
 the course. To each grade some topics are as- 
 signed for which no text-books are provided. 
 These topics constitute the oral course, which 
 includes various branches of science presented in 
 a familiar way. and designed to develop the in- 
 telligence of the pupils, as well as to impart 
 
CHICAGO UNIVERSITY 
 
 l'J'.i 
 
 useful information. German is 
 schools, besides the high schools, 
 vised by a special superintenden 
 division high school in each divisi 
 and the studies taught are oatui 
 guage, mathematics, history, and 
 men). German, music, and dra 
 tional. The establishment of thes 
 their brief and practical course 
 dictated by the fact that more ilia 
 of those who annually cuter the 
 leave before the completion of ill 
 Examination, Licensing, and 
 of Teachers. Candidates' for tei 
 cates are examined by a committe 
 of education, consisting of four me 
 
 tion receive, ai first . p irtiat ■ iifi 
 to their moral character and inte] 
 incuts. After trial, and upon thi 
 mendation of the committee on th 
 of teachers and the committee i 
 in which the teacher is employed 
 e lucation grants a full a HificaU 
 the competency of the holder in 
 
 mailers of instruci ion and dis ■iolii 
 
 taught 
 and is 
 
 . I'llCl 
 
 earl, 
 
 eighteen years of age. Teachers an 
 annually by the hoard of e lucation.: 
 times by a committee of the board, \ 
 cies occur. These latter appointme 
 ject to confirmation by the board. E 
 in the four higher grades, is resp his 
 instruction and discipline of 48 pu 
 the lower grade-, for 62. About hal 
 ers in the high and normal schools are males: 
 
 but in the other scl Is there are very few males. 
 
 —only 21 out of a corps of 671. 
 
 Salaries of Teachers. — Male teachers receive 
 from $1,11(10 to S.'l.oon per annum, according to 
 position and experience. Female teachers re- 
 ceive from $550 to $2,000. ( 'crtain salaries are 
 attached to particular positions, and no distinc- 
 tion as to sex is recognized in (his regard. 
 
 The private schools in Chicago are quite nu- 
 merous, and nianv of a hcli derive ot ellieieu.y. 
 The census of 1874 enumerated 1 14such schools, 
 including the various classes of parochial and 
 denominational schools, female seminaries, select 
 schools, kindergartens, etc. The iber of pu 
 
 ]iils in these schools was reported as 2s,2"il. — 
 14,113 males, and 14,138 females. The whole 
 number of teachers employed was 697, of whom 
 239 were males, and 158 females. 
 
 CHICAGO, University of, in Chicago. 
 1857 and opened in 
 
 Illino 
 
 1858. The building, a magnificent structure, 
 costing over $] I 7,000, is situated in the southern 
 part of the city, in a beautiful grove of oaks. 
 This site was donated by Stephen A. Douglas. 
 The charter provides that the majority of trust- 
 ees and the president of the university shall be 
 Baptists, but otherwise no religious test or par- 
 ticular religious profession is required for admis- 
 sion to any department of the university, or for 
 •election to any professorship or other place of 
 
 honor or einoli Mil in it. The institution em- 
 braces a preparatory department, a collegiate 
 
 lollegiate department comprisesa classical course 
 
 if tour years; a scientific course of four years: 
 
 course in astroi iy of two years: and a 
 
 .1 course. Youm 
 
 
 to furnish insti 
 
 uctiol 
 
 in astronomy, but also ti. 
 
 make original i 
 in its applicatii 
 
 
 lies in that science, and aid 
 
 n to g 
 
 sography. This observato- 
 
 ry contains a ti 
 
 le eqi 
 
 atorial refracting telescope. 
 
 Of 23 feet focal 
 
 lellet 
 
 h. and 18J inches aperture, 
 
 constructed bj 
 meridian circle 
 
 Alv 
 
 if th 
 
 n Clark in 1864, and a 
 
 3 first class constructed in 
 
 Hamburg, wit 
 
 i all 
 
 the necessary appliances. 
 
 It is under th 
 
 : din 
 
 
 Safford. The i 
 
 rice i 
 
 t tuition in the university 
 
 is $70 per anm 
 
 m : 
 
 
 versify proper! \ 
 
 is va 
 
 ued at $700,000, and there 
 
 are scholarship 
 
 iiiids 
 
 to the amount of $48,000. 
 
 The law depart 
 
 ncul 
 
 vas organized in 1858. It is 
 
 the Qnion Colli 
 
 
 Illinois), and is known as 
 
 Law of the University oi 
 
 Chicago and thi 
 
 Nor 
 
 hwestern University. 'The 
 
 Me, 
 
 ll ,1, 
 
 of the university. This college was chartered 
 
 in 1843, and organized in 1844; it became con- 
 nected with the university in 1874. The new 
 college building is near the new county hos- 
 pital. In 1874—5, there were, in the prepar- 
 atory and collegiate departments, 8 professors and 
 7 other instructors; in the law department, 5 
 professors and 2 lecturer's ; and in the medical 
 department, 11 professors. The number of stu- 
 dents was 611; namely, medical. 203; law. 103; 
 Wayland institute, 96 ; preparatory, 100 ; col- 
 legiate. 109, of whom (allowing repetitions) 
 3 were resident graduates, 3 in astronomy, 7 in 
 practical chemistry, '.'-' in partial courses, and 71) 
 in the regular classes. The Rev. John 0. Bur- 
 roughs, LL.I).. was elected president in 1858 
 and remained in office 15 years, when he was 
 succeeded by the present incumbent, the Rev. 
 Lemuel Moss, D. D. 
 
130 CHILDHOOD 
 
 CHILDHOOD. See Age. 
 
 CHILI, a republic of South A nniiia. havintr 
 an area of 126,034 sq. in., and a population, in 
 I stl\ according to official ■aliul.u i. in. < .t •J.nii::.:;tii. 
 exclusive of 70,400 independenl Lraucanians. 
 This is one of the few flourishing states oi South 
 America. It has been almost entirely free from 
 civil wars, and its progress in education, litera- 
 ture, commerce, and general prosperity exceeds 
 that of almost any other South American Mate 
 The government favors immigration from Ku- 
 rope; and, in 1865, the number of foreign born 
 
 persons was 23,220, among \\1 i there were 
 
 3.876 Germans, .'i.dil'J Kngli-h. ami L'.t-.'! French. 
 According to art. 5 of the constitution, the < !ath- 
 
 olii religion was permitted to the exclusi if 
 
 all others; but, in 1856, a treaty with England 
 guaranteed full religions liberty to all l.ugh-h 
 subjects; and. in 1865, an A.ct of Toleration was 
 adopted as an amendment to the constitut 
 
 CHILI 
 
 three questions : (1) What influence has public 
 instruction on manners, public morality, in- 
 dustry, and the development of public wealth? 
 (2) What educational organization is the most 
 appropriate in view of the national peculiarities 
 of the country and of its inhabitants? (3) 
 What is the best way to provide for the support 
 of public instruction? The prize was awarded, 
 in 1855, to Miguel Luis and ( i regorio Victor 
 Aiiiunategui: and the views of the successful 
 treatise were the basis on which the organization 
 of public instruction was begun. According to this 
 treatise, there were, in 1855, :t'.U public primary 
 
 man immigrants and their descendants. < Inly a 
 few Protestant congregations have been estab- 
 lished among the natives by missionaries from 
 the I'liitcd States. The national language is the 
 Spanish. 
 
 The Spanish conquest of the country began 
 about 15:i."i : and. during the Spanish rule. Chili 
 formed a viceroyalty under the name of Estre- 
 madura. The war of independence began in L810, 
 and was virtually terminated in 1818. The in- 
 dependence of the country, however, was not 
 recognized by Spain until L844. 
 
 Public instruction in < 'liili is under the direc- 
 tion of the minister of justice and ecclesiastical 
 and educational affairs. It is his duty to inspect 
 all the schools and colleges supported by the 
 national treasury, to appoint all the teachers and 
 
 employes, to apply to congress for the «ssary 
 
 sums for their support, and to present every 
 year a report on the condition and progress of 
 education. The university of Chili regulates 
 the studies and examinations which candidates 
 for the different scientific courses are required to 
 pass, examines and prescribes the text-books. 
 makes out the programmes of examination, etc. 
 The primary schools are. moreover, under the 
 immediate direction of a general visitor of schools, 
 who has deputies in all the provinces, and whose 
 central office is at Santiago. It is his duty to 
 
 visit the schools constantly, and ton ive detailed 
 
 information regarding the number of pupils and 
 the conduct of the teachers, as well as the finan- 
 cial condition. The municipalities of each prov- 
 ince exercise a vigilant inspection, and .aid. tic- 
 cording to the extent of their local treasuries, in 
 supporting the educational institutions. 
 
 Hull 
 
 ol |iriniarv instruction in Chili was due to the 
 
 zeal of President Montt, who regarded public 
 schools as the firmest support of republican in- 
 stitutions. He offered in L853, a reward of L000 
 
 pesos for the best treatise on the foil g 
 
 private). Of the \'.>~, new schools which had 
 been opened, 150 were female schools; of the in- 
 crease of 20.895 new pupils. 11,027 were girls. 
 
 The scl 1 population, embracing the children 
 
 from the 7th to the lath year oi age, numbered 
 in 1863, 167,409 boys and 167,838 girls ; which 
 slio«s that, notwithstanding the great progress 
 that had been made, nearly six-sevenths of all 
 the children of school age were growing up 
 without any instruction. In bringing these facts 
 to the knowledge of the country, the minister of 
 public instruction slated, that, to carrv out the 
 law of 1860, which prescribed the establishment 
 of a primary school for every 2,000 inhabitants 
 
 vided for in the budget: also, to cany out the law 
 of 1860 it would be necessary to establish 1 C.70 
 
 elementary and Hill higher scl Is. besides those 
 
 previously established. As the government did 
 not deem it advisable to raise the cost of public 
 instruction to the amount thus demanded, it 
 encouraged the formation of ] irivate associations 
 for the promotion of public instruction, and also 
 authorized the "Brothers of Christian Schools" 
 to establish schools; but though much has been 
 achieved in this way. the number of schools is still 
 insufficient, and the number of children attend- 
 ing school in proportion to the total population, 
 was. in 1 872, only 1 to 25. The number of public 
 schools, in the same year, was 451 ; of private 
 schools 706; the aggregate number of children 
 at ten, ling school (public and private) was 54,821. 
 and the annual expense for each scholar averaged 
 8.98 //csos. — The number of schools for adults, 
 which are designed to afford the advantages of 
 education to those who have grown up illiterate, 
 was, in 1855, 10 : and in L863, 30, of which 24 
 were supported by the state. Two normal schools, 
 one for male and one for female teachers, were 
 established by President Montt, in 1863. The 
 
cent, but 
 lall, teach 
 
 Mailla.) 
 Europe 
 
 I hi.' con- 
 
 :,irv s, ho. .],-. 
 
 in,!/. 
 
 CHILI 
 
 candidates for admission are required to be IS 
 years of age, and to furnish certificates of good 
 behavior and good health. They are educated at 
 the expense of the state, but engage 10 ;i«-< ■■ -| «t 
 the position of teacher at the place assigned to 
 them by the government. The smallest salary 
 paid to a teacher is 300 
 
 instruction in T I .. - normal r 
 
 The public primary scl Is 
 
 state, by municip tlit ii • 
 tions. Elementary instruct 
 writing, the elem at ol pi 
 legal weights and mea sures 
 of a higher iiradc which are 
 lished in the capital of . 
 the number of which is as 
 also Spanish grammar, big 
 ing. an outline nt the histi 
 stitution of Chili, and I I 
 
 Secondarylw • 
 of the republic embraced 
 lyceums with 2,537 pupils, 
 supported bj th< si ■■ u 
 garded as state iu-tit uti.ni- 
 with 210 students, and 5 I 
 2868 students. The stu lj 
 guages lias of late, s » ii 
 
 Superior Instruction. 
 tion of the country is tl 
 comprising the university . 
 college, and a school of tin 
 which embraces five facu 
 philology, law an. I poh". , 
 
 ence and mathematics, not 
 
 is entirely] leled after the best institutions" of 
 
 the kind n. Europe.and a large numberof the 
 professors are distinguished scholarsol Germany 
 and Prance. The university is richbj endowed, 
 and possesses excellent collections, it has pub- 
 lished a year-book, called Anales de la Uni- 
 versidad de Chile, by means of which it keeps 
 11)1 a communication with similar institutions 
 in Europe and America. Among the institu- 
 tions connected with the university, are an ob- 
 servatory, a national museum, and a national 
 library. 
 
 Special Instruction. — Of special schools. 
 there are, at Santiago, a national school of art and 
 industry, a military academy, a school of agri- 
 culture and veterinary science, with a model 
 farm : a school of midwifery, an institution for 
 the deaf and dumb, and a conservatory of music. 
 The most important schools in the provinces are 
 a school of mining at < lopiapo, a nautical school 
 at Valparaiso, a mariners' school at Ancud, a 
 school of fine arts and industry at Talca ; and 
 commercial colleges at Valparaiso and Quillota. 
 
 In accordance with the recommendations of 
 the prize essay, the government makes an annual 
 appropriation for the establishment of public 
 libraries in connection with public schools; and a 
 large number have already been establish. -.1. 
 See Le Roy, in Schmid's Realencyclopadie, vol. 
 ix, pp. 848 — 857; Anales de la Universidad de 
 Chile; Ami-nateoh. !>•' la instruccion primaria 
 en Chile (Santiago, 1856). 
 
 CHINA Proper is a country of eastern Asia. 
 
 vtemlin.f from Inn QSO I.' ,,. IMC P I 
 
 about 
 
 half that of all 
 iiilencies, it has an 
 
 sq. miles. The 
 
 ilosophy and 
 b, natural sci- 
 n.l theology) 
 
 the ( 'hi 
 
 spontai 
 be in in 
 
 pride among the people, which is not altogether 
 without justification; as there is scarcely a 
 modern invention of any note, with the excep- 
 tion of electricity and the steam-engine, which 
 was not known to them many centuries ago. 
 The mariners compass, gunpowder, printing, 
 porcelain, and paper were known to them soon 
 after the Christian era. The chiet religions 
 arc Confucianism. I'uddhisin, and Taonism: 
 and the lack of religious elements in these 
 systems has led to the charge that the Chinese 
 
 and devil worship. In all the empire, there is 
 but one temple consecrated to the worship of 
 the Supreme Deity, and but one worshiper - 
 
 i he emperor who celebrates the pageant once a 
 year. This, however, is a degradation from an 
 earlier and purer form of monotheism. The 
 works of the ancient sages, and even the earliei 
 works of Confucius abound in passages showing 
 a higher and purer concept m not c.l than after- 
 ward obtained. (See Life and teachings of Con- 
 fucius,by Dr. Legge.) The language, like every 
 thing else Chinese, is sui generis. It is neither 
 Semitic, nor Aryan, nor Turanian. It is not. how- 
 ever, a monosyllabic language, as is commonly 
 said, this error being due to the form of the' 
 printed words, in which the syllables are sepa- 
 rated, whereas they are not separated in meaning. 
 The alphabet is also peculiar. Instead of employ- 
 ing letters to represent sounds, they have letters 
 to represent things ami words. Hence, the lan- 
 guage contains many thousand signs. A dic- 
 tionary of the second century of our era contains 
 :i. .'!.').'{ signs. The imperial dictionary of kang- 
 he, the most recent work of the class, gives 
 43,960. This makes the language one of extra- 
 ordinary difficulty. The written language is 
 only mastered by a small percentage of the pop- 
 
132 CH 
 
 ulation, and even scholars rlo not by any means 
 master the whole number of signs. A knowledge 
 of ten or twelve thousand is sufficient to make 
 .111 accomplished graduate : and, with a knowl- 
 edge of two or three thousand, one may make a 
 very fair start as a literary man. The literature 
 is said tu be the most extensive in the world. 
 The most prominent works are the so-called 
 Classics, which are supposed to have been 
 super\ ised by I lonfucius. They are five in mini- 
 lie!, and are held in the highest reverence, being 
 looked upon as a standard from which there is 
 no appeal. They are the sacred books of Con- 
 fucianism, and are replete with rules for daily 
 conduct, public and private. Apart from these 
 Classics, and the commentaries upon them, which 
 are legion, the most important part of Chinese 
 literature consists of the histories of the several 
 dynasties. The historian of the western Han, 
 which ended A. D. 84, gives a catalogue of the 
 works in the imperial library, comprising clas- 
 sics, philosophy, poetry, military tactics, mathe- 
 matics, and medicine. The literature probably 
 suffered somewhat from the barbarism of Chi- 
 hwang-te, who attempted to immortalize himself, 
 about 210 B. C, by destroying all the literature 
 of the ages that preceded him. 
 
 Education is held in the highest honor. No 
 government provision, however, is made for pub- 
 lic education. The government fosters it only 
 by making it the road to distinction, and by sup- 
 porting the various examinations. Knowledge 
 centers in a mere acquaintance with the apho- 
 risms of tin.' V/n.isirs. A scanty knowledge of 
 reading, writing, and arithmetic is all but uni- 
 versal; but, owing to the peculiar structure of 
 the language, one may lie able to read a little, 
 without having any knowledge whatever of the 
 rest. Not more than three males in a hundred 
 can read the classical books with readiness, and 
 not more than one woman in a thousand. The 
 only course of instruction necessary to obtain a 
 government position, is a classical .and histor- 
 ical one. The consequence is a disregard for all 
 branches of study, which are not practical, and 
 hence a most astonishin _' nam iwness i if all culture. 
 The rights and duties of the government, and of 
 the individual in his several social relation-, form 
 the chief subject of Chinese books and instruc- 
 tion. Confucius, in his system, adopts the prin- 
 ciples of dependence ami subordination, ami the 
 instruction of the schools aims to impress them 
 carefully upon the student. The great end of 
 all instruction in < 'hina is not so much to fill 
 the head with knowledge as to make quiet and 
 orderly citizens. Any thing like general culture 
 is entirely unknown, except where the ( 'hinese 
 have been forced into contact with European 
 nations. They have no need of science, for the 
 Classics contain all that is worth knowing, 
 and no need of geographical and historical 
 knowledge beyond that of their own people, for 
 they are "celestials," and all outside are "barba- 
 rians". Female education is almost unknown. 
 Girls are very seldom instructed iu anything but 
 
 is held in honor. It is not thought right that 
 parents should conduct the education of their 
 own children, because the relation of parent and 
 chilil is a holy one ami would be disturbed by 
 the necessary severities of the teacher. Chil- 
 dren begin their studies with their sixth and 
 seventh year. There is no compulsory educa- 
 tion. School-teachers are not appointed by the 
 state and need no official permission. Parents 
 choose the teachers, who receive from $45 to 
 $90 a year with board. A teacher takes from 
 twenty to thirty scholars. Public school-houses 
 do not exist. The arrangement of the schools is 
 very simple; a teacher has a table and arm- 
 chair, and every scholar has to provide himself 
 with a desk and a chair. There is in every 
 school-house a little altar dedicated to Oonfucius 
 and to Wun-tschong-ya, the God of Science. 
 Upon entering school, the boys receive their 
 school names in place of their so-called " milk 
 names." The firs! school-book is the Path to 
 ihr regions of classical and historical literature. 
 It begins with the methods of instruction and 
 their necessity, the importance of the duties of 
 children ami brothers; and then follows an over- 
 sight of the different branches of knowledge: 
 the great powers, heaven, earth, and man ; the 
 four seasons and the points of the compass ; the 
 five elements, " metal, wood, water, fire, earth ;" 
 the five cardinal virtues, " love, justice, wisdom, 
 cleverness, truth ;" the five kinds of grain, the 
 six domestic animals, the seven passions, the 
 eight notes of music, the nine grades of relation, 
 the ten social duties. After this, follow rules for 
 a course of academical study, with an index of 
 the books to be used, a short account of the 
 universal history of < 'hina. together with a 
 list of the successive dynasties of the empire. 
 The idea is. to take .■chantage of I he receptivity 
 of the memory at this period, to store it with 
 facts to be afterward digested. The method of 
 learning to read is as follows : The book is open 
 and the teacher begins to read ; the scholars 
 have each a book, and with eyes upon the book 
 pronounce word for word after the teacher. Only 
 a line is read at a time, and this is repeated until 
 the scholars have learned the pronunciation of 
 every sign, and the line is then learned by heart. 
 When this is learned, the scholar goes to the 
 teacher, lays the book upon the table, turns his 
 back to him, and recites it. Besides reading, 
 writing is taught in all the primary schools, 
 but there is no instruction in reckoning, geog- 
 raphy, universal history, natural history, foreign 
 languages, or even in religion. This reading and 
 wining, however, for the most part, is the mere 
 ability to pronounce or make the signs, and does 
 not imply an understanding of what is read or 
 written; as if one should read or write Latin or 
 Greek words without any comprehension of 
 their meaning. Those who wish to devote them- 
 selves to study receive a thorough exposition of 
 the Classics, and write verses and essays. The 
 written language is so difficult, that more time 
 consumed by the Chinese student in mastering 
 
 ordinary house-work ; aud yet a learned woman it than is given in western countries to the ac- 
 
quirement of a liberal education ; and the cele- nation, and Failure is never looked upon as a dis- 
 
 brated literary examinations are limited to the grace. The licentiate is entitled to a | i 
 
 inquiry whether the candidates can read and after some years, and has the right In hoist a 
 
 write with readiness and grace. Thisstudyis flag before his house. The examination for the 
 
 overseen by teachers who have passed an exam- degree of doctor is held every three years al 
 
 ination. When one has acquired some reputa- Peking, and only licentiates are allowed to 
 
 gather around him to prepare themselves for that for the degree of licentiate, except that the 
 
 examination under his instruction. Such private examiners are ,.| In- her rank. I he na i es oi the 
 
 colleges are numerous both in the city and coun- bui ssful candidates are entered ui the ch il 
 
 upon them once a week by the students. It isthe the imperial academy lakes place every three 
 
 custom of these students to learn a large num- years at the imperial palace: tliis degree is 
 
 ber of standard essays by heart, in order to ob- equivalent to an office, since the members of 
 
 tain a finished and correct style. There arc four the academy are maintained by the .-tale. 
 
 literary degrees: The lirsi corresponds to our Contact with European nations 
 
 tally 
 
 in I hina si 
 three cxanii 
 is held by 
 
 Midi 
 
 1- Ih'ld 
 
 >se 1, 
 
 The third e: 
 the chancelli 
 years. Who 
 receives the 
 although he I 
 man above tl 
 his studies, hi 
 
 be present at the examinations up tohissixti- sen 
 eth year. Thousands of men of this degree be- he 
 come school-teachers, doctors, letter writers, ad- he 
 vocates, etc. The examinations for the second $lf 
 degree are held every three years, in the capital the 
 of each province, by two imperial examiners tot 
 from Peking. The average number of applicants scii 
 is twenty thousand, of whom about two hundred tail 
 Besides the imperial examiners from cry 
 Bking, about sixty-five literary officers and a ing 
 
 s to pass a monthly 
 tion : | l after three j 
 nination for dismissal: 
 
 \-x 
 
 Hie de 
 
 lid 
 
 which 
 
 shut up"in cell's of about L2 sq. ft., and high astronomy under heavy penalties. He viewed 
 enough to admit of their standing. The exami- it /is the greatest glory of the dynasty to have 
 nation hall contains about 7 .."mi I of these, arrange 1 restore. 1 to his fatherland the mathematical and 
 around open courts: these are paraded by sol- astronomical studies, and whatever the Europeans 
 diers to prevent any communication between the have built upon them, as an old property of the 
 candidates or with the outer world. The exami- nation. In this way he justified to the jealous 
 nation consists chiefly in the writing of themes. Chinamen the introduction of foreign teach r and 
 and is intended to last nine days ami three foreign inventions. The Roman Catholic Church, 
 • nights. When the work is done, it is examined which had. in L872,in China proper, 2 1 vica te 
 first by a subordinate commission, to see if the apostolic, and 3 prefectures apostolic, and, in the 
 formalities have all been observed. No essay Chinese dependencies, 3 vicariates, with a Cath- 
 may have more than seven hundred signs, nor less olic population of about 400,000, supports a 
 than one hundred : and correction is in no case large number of schools, some of which are of a 
 allowed. The work is afterward laid before the high grade. The number of native . 
 imperial examiners, who give the final judgment, considerable; and most of them receives Euro- 
 It is considered an honor to attempt this exami- : pean education in the propaganda at Home, and 
 
134 
 
 CHRIST CROSS ROW 
 
 in a Chinese missionary seminary at Naples. 
 The Protestants, who have formed native con- 
 gregations in the treaty ports, with an aggregate 
 membership (in 1869) of 5,024, have also some 
 schools, and make considerable progress in cir- 
 culating the Bible. In 1*71'. the Chinese govern- 
 ment sent 30 students to the United States, and 
 30 more were to come each year for the succeed- 
 ing four years; in all 150. — See Schmidt, Ge- 
 schichteder Padagogik; Cot bcy, L'Empiredu 
 Milieu (Paris, 1867); Davis, Description of 
 Chin, i and its Inhabitants (2 vols., London, 
 L857); Gutzlaff. Chi,m Ojia,.;/ 1 2 vols., Lon- 
 
 il \v-r\< m. /,' -Is, for tfie Years 
 
 1863 and 1864, of the Chinese Ver tcular 
 ,SW,oo's (Hongkong. I-'-"": II". I: Kw/.ir- < l,i- 
 
 nois (2 vols., 4th edit., Paris, 1862 ; Williams, 
 The Middle Kingdom (N. V.. 1*4*). 
 
 CHRIST CROSS ROW, or Criss Cross 
 Row, a familiar designation formerly applied to 
 the first line, or row. of the alphabet, as arranged 
 in the old horn-books, or primers. In these books, 
 h liieli consisted of only a single page, the letters 
 were printed in the following manner : 
 4- A a 1) c d e f g h i j k 1 in n o p q 
 r f s t u v w x y z etc. a e i o u 
 A BC I' E F G II 1 .1 K LMNO P Q 
 R ST U V W X Y Z. 
 
 The first line commencing with a cross was 
 called the Christ cross row, or briefly the cross 
 row. The term was. however, frequently ap- 
 plied to the whole alphabet. Thus, we read in 
 How's Polydoron (1631 i. "Of all th i letters In 
 the cross row a w is the worst " ■■The crosswas 
 placed at tlie beginning." says Johnson, "to show 
 that the end of learning is piety." 
 
 This term is often referred to by the old writ- 
 ers. In Shakspeare's Hiclfinl III., allusion is 
 made to it by Clarence when he says of the 
 king : 
 
 ■■He- hearkens after prophecies an.] dreams, 
 Ami from the cross row plucks the letter G." 
 
 Cotgrave mentions "La croix de par THeu,oi 
 La croix de Jesus, the Christ s-crosse-r owe, ox 
 horne-booke, wherein a child learns it." In Spec- 
 imens i>f lies/ Country Dialect, we find the 
 following words, used by one who is teaching 
 the alphabet : 
 
 ■• StOD still there, and mind what I da z.i to ye, and 
 wham- 1 do point. Xou ; i n-.- i-ross. gin a, iittle a, 
 h. e, d. That's right. Hilly; you'll zoon lorn the 
 
 In the autobiography of John Rritton.bnm in 
 
 1771,in Wiltshire, Kngland. the following pas- 
 
 " I learnt the Christ -ero-s-row from 
 
 a horn I k. on which were the alphabet in 
 
 large .iiil small letters and the nine figure in 
 
 Roman and Arabic numerals. The b-.i-n-l 1 i- 
 
 now a rarity." — See 'I'm i;s. Sri, out Ihii/s: Bar- 
 nard's Journal of Education, vol. xn, art. 
 A-B-C-Books and Primers. (See also Horx- 
 B c.and Primer.) 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, College of 
 the, at St. Louis, Missouri, was established by 
 Roman Catholics in 1855. It comprises a pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate department, and hasa 
 library of 15.0110 volumes. Its buildings, grounds. 
 
 CHRISTIANS 
 
 etc., are valued at $150,000. In 1873 — 4, there 
 were 30 instructors. 270 preparatory and 3-1 col- 
 legiate students. The Rev. Brother James is 
 (1876) the president, 
 
 CHRISTIAN BROTHERS' COLLEGE, 
 at Memphis, Tennessee, was opened in 1871. 
 It is a Roman Catholic institution, having a col- 
 legiate, a scientific, a commercial, and a prepar- 
 atory department. The college possesses valuable 
 philosophical apparatus and a library of about 
 1,500 volumes. The value of the college prop- 
 erty is §40.000. In 1874—5, there were 9 in- 
 structors and 127 students, of whom 48 were of 
 a collegiate grade. Brother Maurelian is (187G) 
 the president. 
 
 CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, at Monmouth, 
 Oregon, is under the control of the Christians. 
 It was formerly known as Monmouth University, 
 but was chartered under its present name in 
 1*B5. The value of its buildings and other prop- 
 erty is estimated at $20,000; the amount of its 
 productive funds is about the same. The college 
 has two separate courses of study, the classical and 
 the scientific; and there is also a preparatory 
 course. Both sexes are admitted. A student may 
 receive a certificate of graduation in any of the 
 following departments: (1) sacred history, 
 mental and moral sciences; (2) natural science; 
 (3) mathematics; (4) classics. To obtain such 
 certificate it is required that the candidate should 
 have been a student of Christian College at least 
 one year, and that he should pass a satisfactory 
 examination in all the prescribed studies of the 
 department. In 1873 — 1. there were !> instruct- 
 ors and 180 students. T. F. Campbell, A.M., is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY, at Canton, 
 Missouri, was chartered in 1853, and organized 
 in l*5(i. It was founded by the Christian de- 
 nomination for the education of both sexes. Its 
 buildings, grounds, etc.. are valued at #100.000. 
 In 1 872—3 it had 8 instructors and 166 students. 
 W.H.Hopon, A.M., is (1876) the president. 
 
 CHRISTIANS (sometimes, bul improperly, 
 pronounced Christians), Christiah Denomina- 
 tion, Christian Connection, and Christian 
 Church, are names chosen, in the I'liited States, 
 by organizations of Christians who "seek to 
 unite the followers of Christ of every persuasion, 
 by the breaking down of party walls, party 
 spirit, and sectarian feeling and practice and by 
 infusing into the minds and hearts cri all lovers 
 of tl mmon Saviour a liberal spirit, thi rebj in- 
 ducing liberal practice." (See W i i cons, Annual 
 of the ChrisH.iu Church fir 1*75. Suffolk. Ya.. 
 1875.) They have no rule of faith and practice, 
 ive n holy scriptures, and the only test of 
 fellowship agreed upon is Christian clmrariei- 
 They believe that the right of private judgment 
 and entire liberty of conscience, in reference to 
 
 -e | I- of doctrine and practice not con- 
 
 idi re I esse tial to alvation, should be accorded 
 to, and enjoyed by, all ; and that, therefore, all 
 who believe in. and love and serve, the Lord 
 Jesus Christ, ought to be received into the fel- 
 lowship and communion of the Church. They 
 
CHRIST'S HOSPITAL 
 
 are generally Antitrinitarians and Baptists;] 
 they cherish prayer meetings, Sunday schools, 
 
 CHURCH OF GOD 
 
 l:;: 
 
 highest class, of whom eight are annually sent to 
 Oxford and Cambridge. The government of 
 the institution is vested in the lord-mayor and 
 aldermen of London, and those who have con- 
 tributed to the institution the sum of E400. The 
 total income of the hospital is aboul £50,000. 
 
 oi Kev.J. U k 
 County, Va., A 
 consisted of sec 
 Church. As, 
 a few years I;. 
 Baptists, in th 
 in L804 in Kei 
 of l'n sbyteria 
 
 genera eonvciilioii. wlneli lu 
 
 n, 1866, and the fourth in 
 body had, in L875, II 97 orda 
 
 Noi 
 
 IV 
 
 Southern branch had, in the same year, 6 confer- 
 ences, 51 elders. L2 licentiates, and about 10,000 
 members 
 The main branch, according to the almanac 
 
 .1 1 -I i 
 
 ■ ■ ,i ■ ii. (Mr in num. m. and is now 
 
 a classical school. Latin and Greek 
 asisof its course of study, but all the 
 
 l.i.ui. he,, iii.-hi.lin^lrau'iiin.tlie ima- 
 ges, etc., are also taught. In L683, a 
 
 hospital children are nursed and Mi- 
 ll thej are old enough to enter the 
 i girls remain permanently here. Many 
 names are found in the list of it's 
 among whom may be mentioned, 
 the historian. Bishop Stillingtlect. 
 i, the novelist, Coleridge, Lamb, and 
 
 CHRONOLOGY. See Hi niv 
 CHURCH OF GOD, a denomination of 
 Baptists in the United States, organized in 1830 
 
 I lut chess 
 
 was for- 
 md was, 
 
 Sullivan County, Indiana; S 
 at Eddytown, fates County, 
 Academy, Andover, \. H., ai 
 Biblical Institute, at Stanfor 
 County. N. V. The latter ins 
 merly situated at. Bddytown, 
 in 1872, removed to Stanfordville, wh re sixtj 
 
 acres of land had been boughl for it, at a I 
 
 $18,000. The Institute building an lastu 
 home had been erected by the I Ion. 1 '.i\ i I I iai k, 
 of Hartford, Ct., at a cost stated to have been 
 between $20,000 and $30,000, and were present- 
 ed to the convention as his free gift. It offers 
 free tuition to worthy young men and worn "i : 
 also the free use of class-1 looks and library, a I to 
 students without families the free occupa i \ ol . 
 lodging and study-room in the Stud., its' 1 1 i ne. 
 The Siiutheru branch on it rols the Suffolk Col- 
 legiate Institute, at Suffolk, Va., and the 
 Graham High School, at Graham, N. C. 
 
 CHRIST'S HOSPITAL, or The Blue-Coat 
 School, one of the most famous charitable in- 
 stitutions of London, i : i . i >i- 1 >■ 'i . i . ■ 1 1 
 \ l.i.i L553, asa hospital for orphan land foun I 
 lings. It derives i • n >a1 Si hool, 
 
 from the costume of the boys, wlii h has con- 
 tinue 1 from its fouinlatioii. i his consists of a 
 blui wool ii g6wn or ci a1 with a re 1 leathern 
 girdle, yellow br hes and stockings, and a black 
 
 ical 
 
 of which are called King's boys. The age of ad- 
 mission is between seven and fifteen, except for 
 the King's boys and the "< Irecians," or buys < if the 
 
 tory on all < hrist 
 this denomination 
 of congreg si 
 
 failed. In 18 
 ited by a dele: 
 oi the J ree W 
 
 the m il G eral I Id rshi] . in 
 
 of educati m were, howe< 
 
 thai th i i fforl to raise an end 
 $10,000, had failed, no more th 
 been obtaine I. In accordam e \ 
 
 corporated society to take charge of the educa 
 tional interests of the church, and sii 
 ties in all the annual elderships. 
 
136 CINCINNATI 
 
 CINCINNATI, the metropolis of the state acrimony, at intervals, ever since. The Central 
 
 of Ohio, having- a population, in 1S70, of 216,231). I High School, with a graded course, was est ab- 
 
 Ediioalicmal History.— The first effort made listed in 1847 ; the W Iward High School and 
 
 who. in L818, devised $1,000 
 
 able up,,,, the "ground rentst 
 expended for the education o 
 
 of the city. Hi 
 ing defective. 1 
 
 was that of Th 
 tract of land 
 amounting to i 
 same purpose. 
 
 passed a e.enera 
 
 by a union board. In 1849, colored schools were 
 established by law. and the study of the German 
 
 language was authorized in some of the district 
 schools. The organization of intermediate schools 
 was begun in Is.VI, the object being the consoli- 
 
 law applicable to tin 
 
 making no special provision for education in I 
 
 cities. Owing to inherent defects, however, this question was again discussed, and, in the legal 
 
 needed. In is..,, the first 
 
 pened, the number of teaeh- 
 
 at that time being 300. In 1869, the Bible 
 
 law became inoperative; and, in L830, th 
 
 n.'iti 
 
 board of trustees and visitors, 
 council to divide the city hit 
 each of which they were req 
 years, to purchase a lot on wh 
 brick or stone, two stories big 
 two school rooms, should be en 
 which was to be defrayed by 
 opposition was encountered, 
 
 ity's struggle which resulted, it was excluded from 
 
 ired these! Is. bi May, 1873, the legit 
 
 lent an act for the re-organization and 
 
 tcin- of common schools, which is sub; 
 
 of a present law of the city. — The supei 
 
 the schools was tirst provided tor in I 
 
 general sup 
 who was elt 
 
 for such a purpose being very strong. Want of 
 means, and the unfriendliness of the city council, 
 also, produced such delay, and the accommoda- 
 tions provided for the pupils wen- so insufficient, 
 that the sympathy of the people was in danger 
 of permanent estrangement from the cause of the 
 schools. At this juncture, the friends of education 
 
 resolved to place the benefits derived from the 
 schools before the pei 
 
 of the pupils were l 
 
 from other states, were invited; a 
 followed by imposing street parade 
 children, which were continued foi 
 The result was a hearty endorsers 
 lie schools by the people, so that, ii 
 school-house was I milt.; and. in I 834t 
 public-school houses were erectei 
 at an expense of $96,159,4 t. \\ hich 
 issue of city bonds. The cause was 
 more by the establishment, about 
 the Western < lollege of Teachers, 
 ing of the Woodward High School 
 to receive annually, for gratuitot 
 ten boys to be selected by the schi 
 the common schools. In 1837, tl 
 of the school board was changed 
 
 changed, and the annual appointment of a super- 
 intendent by the board was ordered, A. J. Backoff 
 being the tirst incumbent of the office under the 
 new law; he was succeeded, in 1866, bj John 
 Hancock, and, m L874,byJno. I'.. I'easlee. 
 
 School System. — Thesystem,ai present (1876), 
 
 comprises 26 district, I intermediate, and 2 high 
 
 schools, for whites; and 4 district schools, one 
 
 intermediate, and one high school, for colored 
 
 pie was m danger persons; in addition to which, there are inter- 
 
 •oni the cause of the mediate departments in lOof the district schools. 
 
 friends of education There are, also. 10 district night .-chools, and one 
 
 derived from the evening high school. The legal school age is 
 
 iriual examinations ■ from 6 to LM years. Time courses of study have 
 
 leld, to which emi- ' been adopted by the union board of highschools, 
 
 iress. and teachers | denominated the classical, the technological, and 
 
 iIm 
 
 era! years. 
 f the pub- 
 i.'t.a model 
 L835, eight 
 the whole 
 
 ll.ose 
 
 
 which offered 
 i instruction, 
 il board from 
 ! constitution 
 as to consist 
 
 of two members, instead of one, from each ward. 
 In 1839, schools were established in orphan 
 asylums; in L 840, the German language was in- 
 troduced into the common schools; and, in 1842, 
 night schools were opened. The harmony of the 
 schools was disturbed, in 1842, by a violent dis- 
 cussion in regard to the use of the Bible in the 
 schools, which has been carried on with great 
 
 from a special three-mill tax on property, the state 
 tax. the income of the Woodward and Hughes 
 fund ... tuition fees paid by non-residents, etc. 
 The chief items of school statistics are : 
 
 No. of children of srheol age 7C.477 
 
 ending ] 
 
 public : 
 
 ;.r>4 
 
 " night schools 3,'-7'.> 
 
 No. of teachers in puldie schools 545 
 
 Receipts (1876) $695,000 
 
 Expenditures (1876) {691,700 
 
 Many other educational institutions exist in 
 Cincinnati. The Catholic parochial schools edu- 
 cate, it is estimated, about 17,000 children ; and 
 different religious orders, male and female, annu- 
 ally educate many children and young ladies in 
 denominational and conventual schools. The 
 University of Cincinnati, which is liberally en- 
 dowed, took possession of its new building in. 
 1875, and is now in active operation. 
 
CINCINNATI, UNIVERSITY OP 
 
 CINCINNATI, University of, in Cincin- 
 nati, Ohio, was organized under the act passed 
 by the general assembly of Ohio, April If... 1870, 
 "to enable eities of the first class to aid and 
 promote education." It consists of three depart- 
 ments : the Academic, or Department of Litera- 
 ture and Science ; the School of Design ; and the 
 
 funds either heretofore or hereafter given to tin 
 eity, for the purpose of founding or aiding an 
 institution for promoting five education. The 
 statute also authorizes any persons or bodies 
 corporate, holding any estate or funds intrust 
 
 far the pro tion of education or any of the 
 
 arts or sciences, to transfer the same to the city 
 as a trustee for such purpose, thus affording a 
 means of consolidating the various funds now 
 existing, which separately arc of little or no 
 avail for their intended purpose. The same 
 statute, furthermore, authorizes an annual tax. 
 
 CLASS 
 
 137 
 
 (187G) dean of the faculty. The S hoolof H< sign 
 was established in connection with the Ohio 
 Mechanics' Institute in lsil.'!. hut they are now 
 
 entirely separate. This school occupies rooms in 
 the Cincinnati College building: and there are , Inl- 
 and evening sessions. It is designed i-peeiallv for 
 
 by the eity, of o 
 port of such ins 
 the University of 
 of the estate de 
 
 .11, for,] 
 
 -up 
 
 \le\l 
 
 Mt. Adams, is upon the condition that the city 
 shall maintain an observatory in connection with 
 the university, and was accepted by the city 
 council accordingly. 
 
 The institution is managed by a board of 
 directors, consisting of the mayor ex officio and 
 
 by th, 
 
 illliell. 
 
 mM- 
 
 ing purposes. The aca lemic department was 
 opened in 1873. Three courses, of four years 
 each, have already been established ; namely, (1) 
 The Classical Course: (2) The Scientific Course; 
 (3) The Course in Civil Engineering. Besides 
 these regular courses, provision is made for stu- 
 dents desiring to pursue particular branches ex- 
 clusively. The work during the first year is rig- 
 idly prescribed ; but. after that, a large amount 
 of option is allowed, except in the civil engineer- 
 ing course. Candidates for the degree of B. A. 
 or P.. S. must choose at least one principal study 
 in which to take a full course of three or four 
 years. For the former, tliis may be either an- 
 cient languages, modern languages, or some other 
 literary branch: for the latter, chemistry and 
 physics, natural history, geology, mathematics. 
 astronomy, or some other science. The re- 
 mainder of the elective time may lie devoted to 
 other full or partial courses. Instruction is free 
 to all who are bona fide residents of Cincinnati; 
 but tuition fees are charged to non-residents. The 
 course pursued in the city high schools constitutes 
 the requirements for admission. 
 
 The north wing of the university building was 
 completed, and occupied by this department, in 
 October, 1875. In 1876, there were ID instructors 
 and 51 students. H. T. Eddy, C. E., I'h. D., is 
 
 design, 133 in wood-carving, and 'J7 in modeling. 
 The Obsi rvatory was established about 1844. The 
 new ,-ite is on Mi. Lookout, 6 m. from the city, 
 
 one of the highest points in Hamilton County. 
 Besides an astronomical library, it is supplied with 
 first class instrument.-, anion- them the Mitchel 
 refractor of 12 inches aperture. It is (1876) un- 
 der the direction of Ormoud Stone. A. M. 
 
 CIVIL GOVERNMENT. See Si ience op 
 Government. 
 
 CLAFLIN UNIVERSITY, at Orangeburg, 
 South Carolina, under the auspices of the Meth- 
 odist Episcopal Church, was chartered in 1st',!). 
 and opened in 1870. It y\;is established prima- 
 rily for the education of colored youth of both 
 sexes, but no one is excluded on account of race, 
 color, or religious opinions. The buildings, 
 grounds, etc.. are valued at §40,000. In 1872, 
 the state established its agricultural college and 
 mechanics' institute in connection with the uni- 
 versity. Three departments are now in opera- 
 tion, namely : a common English department, a 
 classical preparatory and higher English depart- 
 ment, and an agricultural and scientific depart- 
 ment. In 1874—5, there were 5 instructors and 
 188 students, of whom 151 were in the common 
 English department. .'17 in the higher English, 
 and li'i in the scientific and agricultural depart- 
 ment. The agricultural college and mechanics' 
 institute has a productive endowment of 
 $180,000. The Maker Theological Institute is 
 connected with the university. The Ihv. E,l 
 ward Cooke. 1). I»„ is (1S70) the president. 
 
 CLASS (Lit. <-l'i±*is. from Or. K/>aai(, from 
 Kotelv, to call, because applied to an assembly of 
 the people when called together), a number of 
 pupils or students in a school or college, of the 
 
 same evade of attainments, receiving the ■; ■ h 
 
 struction. and pursuing the same studies. When 
 large numbers of pupils are to be taught, a care- 
 ful distribution of them into classes becomes requi- 
 site; indeed, nothing is so important, previous 
 to the work of instruction, as an accurate classi- 
 fication. Heterogeneous masses of children can- 
 not be instructed simultaneously. They may be 
 made to perforin mechanically certain school ex- 
 ercises, — may, perhaps, be taught to read, to 
 spell, to write, and to cipher to some extent : but 
 it can only be by rote, without the due , sercise 
 of their intelligence, and. hence, without proper 
 mental development. A poorly classified school 
 can never be really efficient, whatever talent in 
 teaching may be brought to bear upon it. There 
 is no doubt that individual teaching has many 
 advantages over the teaching of classes; since 
 there is a better opportunity to observe the pu- 
 
CLASS 
 
 pils' peculiar traits of character, and to adapt the 
 instruction to them ; but class teaching n|i|>n>\- 
 imates to individual teaching in proportion as 
 ication is so accurate as to bring to- 
 gether under the influence of the teacher pupils 
 of a like grade of attainments, and of similar 
 disposition, temperament, and mental constitu- 
 tion. Of i ■' i lcd id rree of accuracy in 
 classification is ordinarily impossible; but this 
 is the ideal standard to which the teacher should 
 always endeavor to approximate in organizing 
 the classes of his school. 
 
 A proper limit as to the size of classes should 
 be carefully observed. This is difficult to lix 
 by the statement of any particular number,aince 
 the number of pupils that may be properly 
 placed under the instruction of a single teacher 
 will vary with the age and character of the pu- 
 pils, the evenness of the grade, and the skill and 
 experience of the teacher himself. When the 
 number is between .">(> and 100, or over, as it 
 sometimes is in the large city schools, of course 
 no proper result can be effected. " In a large 
 class." says Reid (Principles of Education), 
 "each of whom seldom, and at best only for a 
 short time, receives individually any attention 
 from the teacher, the progress is slow, the facul- 
 ties little develop ■ 1. a., 1 t he e lueal ion altogether 
 very imperfect." The danger inseparably con- 
 nected with the indis ri te tre itment of pu- 
 pils o! diff n it chara teri itics h is been often 
 referr, I to by experienced educators. Thus, we 
 find in a work d sign d t i aid practical teachers 
 the following imp ntani a [munitions : "In every 
 class, however well graded, the pupils will differ 
 much in age, health, mental capacity, an 1 home 
 advantages. A. correct and judicious classifica- 
 tion will reduce this inequality to a minimum; 
 but there will still remain a wide field for the 
 evii-e of discrimination, care, f.nd caution on 
 the pari of the class-teacher. The lessons should, 
 in all respects, lie adapted to the average ability 
 of the pupils of the class; but, even beyond this, 
 some allowance will often have to be made m th • 
 case of pupils of unite inferior mental eat itv 
 
 that is to say at school, it is the mass of minds 
 only, or some few general classes, tit the best, that 
 
 can be thought of And vet even this undistin- 
 
 guishing mechanism, which is proper to a school, 
 and which carries all before il with a sort of 
 blind force, is in itself, in some respects, a good; 
 and if some are the victims of it. to others it may 
 be beneficial. There are children who are not 
 to be advanced tit all, except by the means of 
 a mechanical momentum ; and such might well 
 be sent from home to school, on this sole account. 
 that they will then be carried round on the ir- 
 resistible wheel-work of school order.... But al- 
 though in a large school, even when broken up 
 into classes, little regard can equitably be paid 
 
 ir tas 
 
 the principle which is characteristic of home edu- 
 cation, may readily lie extended to schools not 
 much exceeding the bounds of a numerous fam- 
 ily. In fact.it is only the personal ability of the 
 teacher, his tact, his intelligence, and his assi- 
 duity, that can fix the limits within which the 
 principle of adaptation may be made to take ef- 
 fect." The number of pupils that should be 
 placed in a class is. therefore, a matter requiring 
 the utmost exercise of good judgment, taking 
 cognizance of all attending circumstances. 
 
 What should constitute the basis of classifica- 
 tion is also a matter requiring a careful consider- 
 ation. The several grades ot the course of study 
 should, of course, be exactly defined, and all the 
 subjects, or parts of subjects, prescribed, should 
 be carefullj adjusted, so that the various require- 
 ments of the grade may be accomplished simul- 
 t.-n isly, and a due proficiency in each may 
 
 .11 e\.n reorganization of the classes. Still, let 
 the adjustment lie as nice as practicable, some 
 diversity will be found tit the end of each period 
 of instruction. One pupil, for example, will 
 have made good progress in arithmetic, but very 
 little in reading, writing, grammar, etc. What, 
 then, is to be done'.'' If the average progress is 
 taken, pupils of such unequal attainments in 
 particular studies may be brought together, that 
 
 E this class time in attending to each separately. This dif- 
 
 \ceeilingly Acuity is often, measurably. obviated by selecting 
 
 care is re- some one brand i of instruction, as arithmetic, 
 
 hemselves and basing the classification upon the pupils' at- 
 
 nd study." tainments in this subject, working constantly 
 
 ompar- thereafter to bring the pupils, as far as may be 
 
 home (in- necessary, up to the same standard in other sub- 
 
 - instruc- jects. 
 
 ■ ■ Taylor's Whether a school is best taught by classes or 
 necessary by subjects, is a question that has n ceived much 
 
 ■ twosvs- attention from educators: that is to .siv, whether 
 
 faculties, tastes, and probable destination of the 
 
 pupils singly, and may be accommodated to the 
 individual ability of each: in the other system. 
 
 In' taught in succession by several teachers, each 
 one taking a particular subject or class of sub- 
 jects. The diversity of attainments, mental 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIES 130 
 
 tastes, and special skill among teachers, would literatures. The word classical is derived from 
 
 seem to dictate the subjecl system rather than the Latin word classicus, that is. reli a to 
 
 the class system ; since, were certain branches as- the classes of the Roman people, especially to 
 
 signed as a specialty to each teacher, there would the first class. The best authors known tothe 
 
 be more time for the careful study by the Romans, both Latin and Greek, « das 
 
 teacher, not only of the branches themselves, but classici, that is, of tl •>■ o The 
 
 of the proper methods of teaching them ; and, of ex|.iv~i..n is.- .-i,:-.. - u .1 o> .ie-ignate the 
 
 The 
 
 pit- 
 
 with 
 
 dwoiM. and Mill e, 
 
 dd 
 
 111 .•:..-ll 
 
 d li 
 
 Some edu- out of a mixture of 
 
 required to spend nut a si 
 class, and Ins means <>t acq 
 tributed over a number of 
 
 caters, however, take a view directlj opposed to guages, naturally retained 
 
 this. "If the pupil," says Wickershani, "recite I exclusive literary language. 
 
 always to the same teacher, he may become fa- world, a knowledge of Lath 
 
 miliar with certain lines of thought, but he will pensable, on account of tin 
 
 most likely be confined to them, lie might be churches with the see of 1 
 
 trained by a more unvaried discipline, but n scriptures, and the ecclesii 
 
 is a discipline in one direction. Ele becomesim- general, were only accessibl 
 
 bued with his teacher's peculiar opinions, ac- aone of the native languag 
 
 quires Ins manners, and is apt to create a little Latin was the onlj kej to i 
 
 thiss 
 
 Nevi 
 
 lis founded by him, 
 ly of Latin, but also 
 iwcvcr, found little 
 
 parti 
 large 
 
 ind 
 
 tutions of a higher grade, as high schools, col- positii 
 
 leges, and universities, the other system is in- | est in 
 
 variably, and of course necessarily, employed. | of tht 
 
 Instead of requiring all the members of a class Byzan 
 
 (llftel 
 
 been 
 
 ,n 
 
 requires a 
 working of 
 the discipli 
 
 says Wicki 
 
 classilie;,ti.. 
 
 —See \\ ells Graded ■ 
 
 WlCKERSHAM, School K 
 
 Isaac Taylor, Home H 
 N. Y., 1836); la: V via 
 
 Tendti,,,, (Toronto. 1ST.. 
 
 guished representath 
 
 CLASSICAL STUDIES, a term denoting I in the second half of the eighteenth ceiituiy. 
 the study of the Latin and Greek languages and J to a considerable restriction of Latin, in all 
 
CLASSICAL STUDIES 
 
 schools of a lower grade, and to a fierce controversy 
 in regard to the propriety of classical studies, in 
 general, in the course of instruction prescribed 
 for schools of a higher grade. This controversy 
 is not yet ended ; anil the relative importance of 
 these studies, as compared with other subjects of 
 instruction, is still greatly disputed. The op- 
 position to the prominence which was formerly 
 accorded to classical studies in colleges, gymna- 
 siums, and similar schools, has been so far suc- 
 cessful, that the course of instruction in all schools 
 of this grade, now end .races subjects formerly ex- 
 cluded ; and, moreover, institutions of a higher 
 grade have been organized, in which classical 
 studies are either entirely excluded, or reduced 
 to a secondary or auxiliary position. A large 
 number of American colleges and universities 
 have arranged, in addition to the full classical 
 course, a scientific course, from which (i reek is 
 always and Latin generally excluded; and the 
 
 dueemeni lor all collets to yield to what appears 
 to be a general demand. In Germany, a sharp 
 controversy is still pending on the question 
 whether the state government should confer 
 upon the real-schools in which either Greek or 
 
 classical studies, in g ral, are excluded, the 
 
 right of conferring certificates of maturity for 
 the university. On the part of those who de 
 maud that classical studies should be retained as 
 a pr inent and essential part of a higher edu- 
 cation, it is argued that the organic structure of 
 the Latm and Greek languages is more nearly 
 perfect than that of any otlier language, and that, 
 by the great diversity of their inflections, they 
 express more fully and exactly all the various 
 and minute modifications of thought. The fact 
 that they arc no longer living languages, is urged 
 as an advantage: because, being complete organ- 
 isms, they afford a better means of mental dis- 
 cipline than the modern languages, which are 
 continually undergoing important changes. The 
 mutual relation of the two classical languages is 
 represented as such that they supplement each 
 other, the Latin being more artistic, rhetorical, 
 and pathetic : while the < !reek bears, to a greater 
 extent, the impress of naturalness, refinement, 
 and freedom. The literatures of Koine and ( rreece 
 are regarded as no less indispensable than their 
 languages. Translations, it is claimed, will never 
 succeed in reproducing all the excellencies of a 
 literary masterpiece: and the standard works 
 of classic literature are models of such perfection, 
 that, like the ancient works of plastic art. they arc 
 sure to remain for all time the instrumentality 
 for teaching those who aspire to a higher edu- 
 cation. There is no country, in cither Europe 
 or America, which, for its intellectual develop- 
 ment, lias not leaned on the pillars of the Latin 
 and Creek classics, and a normal and continuous 
 growth of our modern literatures is not conceiv- 
 able, without an uninterrupted connection with 
 Mn duet sources of our intellectual life. This 
 connection is necessary for all branches of science ; 
 for some, its theology, philosophy, philology, law. 
 
 and medicine, it will obviously appear so indis- 
 pensable that no student of any of these sciences 
 will ever flunk of disputing it. 
 
 John Stuart Mill, in an address delivered in 
 the university of St. Andrews, on his inaugura- 
 tion as rector, strongly expressed his preference 
 for classical studies as compared with modern 
 languages. " The only languages.' he says, "and 
 the only literature to which I would allow a 
 place in the regular curriculum, arc those of the 
 Greeks and the Romans, and to these 1 would 
 preserve the position in it which they at present 
 occupy.'" The superiority of the Latin and Greek 
 languages over any other, ancient or modern, is 
 thus explained by Mr. Mill : "The principles and 
 rules of grammar are the means by which the 
 forms of language are made to correspond with 
 the universal forms of thought. The distinctions 
 between the various parts of speech, between 
 the cases of nouns, the moods and tenses of verbs, 
 the functions of particles, are distinctions in 
 thought, not merely in words. Single nouns and 
 
 can be cognized by the senses; but the des of 
 
 putting nouns and verbs together, express the 
 idations of objects and events which can be 
 cognized only by the intellect : and each different 
 mode corresponds to a different relation. The 
 structure of every sentence is a lesson in logic. 
 I'ln • various rules of syntax oblige us to dis- 
 tin guish between the subject and predicate of a 
 proposition, between the agent, the action, and 
 the thing acted upon : to mark when an idea is 
 intended to modify or qualify, or merely to unite 
 with some other idea; what assertions are 
 categorical, what only conditional : whether the 
 intention is to express similarity or contrast, to 
 make a plurality of assertions conjunctively or 
 disjunctively; what portions of a sentence, 
 though grammatically complete with them- 
 selves, are mere members or subordinate parts 
 of the assertion made by the entire sentence. 
 Such thing's form the subject-matter of universal 
 grammar ; and the languages which teach it best 
 are those which have the most definite rules, and 
 which provide distinct forms for the greatest 
 number of distinctions ill thought — so that if we 
 fail to attend precisely and accurately to any of 
 these, we cannot avoid committing a solecism in 
 language. In these qualities, the classical lan- 
 guages have an incomparable superiority over 
 every modern language, and over all languages, 
 d ai or living, which have a literature worth be- 
 ing generally studied." Mr. Mill also claims that 
 "the pre-eminence of the ancients in purely liter- 
 ary excellence— in perfection of form— is not 
 disputed, that their composition, like their sculp- 
 ture, lias been to the greatest artists an example, 
 to be looked up to with hopeless admiration, but 
 of an inappreciable value, as a light on high. 
 guiding their own endeavor." 
 
 'I'lie lion. William K ( dadstone. who as a clas- 
 sical scholar has few, if any, equals among the 
 great statesmen of the nineteenth century, 
 strongly maintains the hereditary claims of clas- 
 sical studies to a prominent position in a modern 
 
CLASSICAL STCIHKS 
 
 curriculum for secondary and superior schools. 
 He denies the right of natural science, modern 
 languages, modern history, or other studies, to a 
 parallel or ciptal position. -Their true position, ' 
 he says. •• is aneillan .and a- aneillaix it oughl to 
 
 pils themselves should, as soon as possible, be 
 made to understand the objects and advantages 
 
 as ; 
 
 ligiou for the spirit of man, and the Greek (and 
 in a secondary degree the Roman) discipline for 
 his mind and intellect. St. Paul is the apostle 
 of the Gentiles, and is. in his own person, a sym- 
 bol of this great wedding. The place, for ex- 
 ample, of Aristotle and Plato in Christian edu- 
 cation is not arbitrary, nor in principle mutable. 
 The materials of what we call classical training 
 
 were prepared in order that it might b me not 
 
 a mere adjunct, but (in mathematical phrase)the 
 complement of I Ihristianity in its application to 
 the culture of the human being, as a being 
 formed both for this world and the world to 
 come." 
 
 In the conflict between the advocates of clas- 
 sical studies in our higher schools and their 
 opponents, the former generally take the ground 
 that Latin and Creek, both the languages and 
 the literatures, supplement each other. ' Where 
 a comparison between the two is made, the pref- 
 
 because the knowledge of Latin grammar is 
 
 supposed to be of superior utility, and partly 
 with a view to the fact, that Latin is not only 
 the key to an understanding of the Latin clas 
 sic,. I .in. tor a long pei I,, I has been the universal 
 
 language of Christendom; and also 1 ause the 
 
 Latin works, since the restoration of letter-. 
 
 are in themselves of siderable value for the 
 
 knowledge of every kind which they afford, even 
 to this day. many valuable works being published 
 in that language. The Creek language, too, is 
 by no means without its champions : and, though 
 none of them would venture to disparage the 
 study of Latin, they regard the Greek as the 
 superior representative of classic antiquity. (See 
 Latin, and Greek.) 
 
 The method of teaching and studying the clas- 
 sical languages and literatures must, of course, 
 vary according to the object or purpose for which 
 they are taught or studied. In some schools, the 
 Study of these languages (particularly Lai in) has 
 been adopted for the sole or chief purpose of 
 showing their relation to the Knglish language, 
 and of giving a clear insight into the mean- 
 ing of English words derived from them. Where 
 
 this is the exclusive object. a comparatively small 
 amount of time will be found sufficient fortius 
 study. In classical schools, colleges, gymnasiums, 
 etc., classical studies are generally pursued for 
 the purpose of cultivating and developing the 
 mental faculties, and introducing the student to 
 the literary treasures of which they are the keys. 
 It is obviously of the greatest importance, that 
 the teacher should be fully conscious of the pre- 
 cise aim that is to be attained, and that the pu- 
 
 ll is evident that 
 -t skill and attain- 
 
 which can only spring from a professor ol ripi 
 scholarship, cultivated taste, and experience u 
 
 giving instruction. There is no doubt thai clas 
 
 the perusal of the sub- 
 ancieiit history, oratory. 
 
 proper text-1 ks. in order to produce the best 
 
 results in this department of instruction. The 
 books at first needed by every pupil are a gram 
 mar. a dictionary, and books for translation. 
 The grammars and dictionaries used should lie 
 tho-e specially prepared for pupils; for the 
 wants of pupils are different from those of 
 teachers and scholars. As regards the editions 
 of classic authors, some teachers prefer texts with 
 notes, others those without notes. In the former 
 ease, the notes should be exclusively calculated 
 to promote the pupil's knowledge of the language 
 and a clear understanding of the writer's mean- 
 ing. The use of translations is generally dis- 
 couraged by teachers; though all know, that 
 pomes'' arc great favorites with students. 
 There are some educators who regard a judicious 
 use of translations as not only not hurtful, but 
 commendable. When a knowledge not only..!' 
 the classic language, but also of its literature i 
 desired, the use of the entire work of an author is 
 preferable to that of selection.-, such as are found 
 in reading-books. An introduction, giving the 
 pupil information in regard to the authoi ol the 
 work, facilitates a correct understanding of the 
 work itself, and increases the pupils interest. 
 Ceographical and historical explanations should 
 be given wherever they are needed. The trans- 
 
L42 
 
 CLASSICS, CHRISTIAN 
 
 lations should be at first literal, but should, in- 
 variably, be converted into good English, and 
 should reproduce, as much as possible, tin- excel- 
 lencies, as well as interpret the meaning, of the 
 original. Of course, the pupil should not be dis- 
 couraged by too harsh and minute a criticism of 
 his efforts. Minor faults should, a< first, be passed 
 over, and the pupil's mind gradually trained to 
 
 facility, accuracy, and elegani t expression. 
 
 See' II. Barnard, Studies and Conduct (Hart- 
 ford, lKTo). giving the views of Byron. ( 'hatham, 
 Donaldson. He (juineev, Fronde, Cladstone, ller- 
 schel, Hodgson, Locke, Lowe, Macaulay, Marti- 
 neau. Mill, Milton. Niebuhr, Southey, Temple, 
 Tvndall. Vaughan. and Whewcll, respecting elas- 
 sical studies; Hodgson. . WsvW h^h-m-li,,,,: Its 
 
 Laas,G'///»«.<s/v/« »-■//,' :<■>,■ ■ I :• i Im.. 1 ~7.» i. 
 
 CLASSICS, CHRISTIAN, or Christian 
 
 Greek and Latin Writers. The ideas and life 
 
 of pagan tin _■ had linn expressed and beauti- 
 fied, and thi' growth of pagan genius had ceased 
 in ( J recce before the coming of Christ. Tin- ( Jreek 
 language remained to embody the new ideas of 
 Christianity: the expression of them by Christ 
 and his apostles in the New Testament is the 
 earliest Christian Greek. These ideas rapidly 
 affected all serious thought. A long succession 
 of Christian Greek writers followed, many of 
 admirable eloquence, more of wonderful subtlety 
 and learning, — apologists, preachers, commen- 
 tators, historians, philosophers, and poets. The 
 (Jreek language, meantime, was most carefully 
 studied from generation to generation, and 
 changed very slowly. 
 
 The center of controlling thought and genius 
 early moved westward. There had been an 
 after-growth of pagan literature at Rome; but, 
 in the second century of our era, Africa became 
 the nurse of genius, and Christianity its inspira- 
 tion. Minutius Felix, Tertrdlian, Cyprian, Com- 
 modian. Arnobius, Lactantius, and Augustine 
 appeared in rapid succession. The Latin language 
 expanded and strengthened, to express the new 
 ideas and life. An original Roman poetry for 
 the first time appeared, new in its form and 
 thought, and living on the lips of the people. 
 A new mythology of the saints displaced the 
 heathen deities. History was rewritten, phi- 
 losophy drawn to new and higher applications, 
 Christianity became the religion of the state, 
 and the services of the church, the canon law, 
 and the proceedings of the courts were in Litin 
 throughout the Western world. At the decline 
 and fall of the Roman empire, the mingling of 
 barbarians with Romans changed the spoken 
 dialects of the common people so much that they 
 are called new languages. Italian, French, Span- 
 ish, and the like. But the priests and lawyers 
 and scholars continued to read, write, and speak 
 
 Latin ; and. when learning revived, the book 
 Initio was carefully cultivated. All important 
 works in science or learning were written in it, 
 and also much literature. This practice continued 
 till recent times. Bacon, Milton, and Sir Isaac 
 Newton used it. and critical commentaries on 
 ancient authors are still often written in Latin. 
 
 The earliest Christian Latin differed little 
 from the heathen Latin ; but, after it ceased to 
 be folk speech, the free use of the living idioms of 
 feeling was gradually lost, and the number and 
 precision of its technical terms immensely in- 
 creased. The late Latin follows the general 
 
 for precision, brevity, and perspicuity in dealing 
 with its own range of subjects. 
 
 The early Christians detested and feared the 
 pagan religion and manners, and the literature 
 in which they are made alluring. The pagan 
 
 1 ks were often destroyed, ami the Christian 
 
 authors displaced them almost entirely. Through 
 the darkest period of the middle ages, the works 
 of the Christian writers were almost the sole 
 reading, and the study of them and their lan- 
 guage, almost the sole learning, of western Eu- 
 rope. At the pagan renaissance, the admirers 
 of the older heathen writers claimed for them 
 the place of honor : and heated contests were 
 waged between the advocates of the Christian 
 and the heathen Latin, which ended in a victory 
 for the heathen, and the establishment of the 
 pagan authors as the textbooks for the study 
 of Latin and Greek in the schools of Europe. 
 
 The great ( Ihristian writers have always been 
 the delight of < 'hristian scholars ; and no long 
 period has ever passed without expressions of 
 regret from eminent educators, that the best years 
 of youth should be spent in mastering the de- 
 tails of heathen life, and dwelling on the 
 thoughts of heathen heroes to the exclusion of 
 the Bible and Christian heroes : audit has been 
 yielded to by many, only on account of the train- 
 ing to be derived fr< mi the study of the Latin and 
 Greek languages, which were thought to be found 
 only in the heathen books. But Christians also 
 have written Greek and Latin well. All the 
 grammatical forms are preserved, and used in 
 their works according to the rules of our gram- 
 mars. Whatever is to be gained from an acquaint- 
 ance with a synthetic language, and from strange 
 modes of expression, may be had from studying 
 them; and, at the same time, the student may 
 imbibe from their perusal the noblest thoughts. 
 The modern science of language has changed the 
 estimate placed on classic periods, and ii now 
 teaches the recognition of many admirable lan- 
 guages, and the study of all dialects and periods 
 in their relation to thought and history: audit 
 has been said that no other thought or history is 
 so interesting or so important as that embodied 
 in Christian (Jreek and Latin, and that these 
 should, therefore, have the place of honor in the 
 linguistic studies of our universities. 
 
CLASSICS. CHRISTIAN 
 
 The knowledge of Christian Latin especially 
 is necessary to all original researches into the 
 history of modem civilization and of modern 
 philosophy, since the early history of the Euro- 
 pean nations, their laws, charters, diplomas, and 
 treaties, the councils of the church, and the 
 works of the founders of modern science, are all 
 written in it. It is also essential to original 
 researches into the history of the modern lan- 
 guages; the peculiarities of etymology, syntax, 
 and orthography, are to be explained from the 
 later Latin, for the most part. The history of 
 modern literature, the spirit emerging in the 
 works of the early masters, like < 'ledmon, Dante. 
 and Milton, is to be understood only by the 
 study of the Latin fathers From considerations 
 like t hese. the fitness of th •<" writ -rs to be used as 
 text-books in our schools and colleges, has lately 
 been strongly urged, and attempts are making 
 to introduce them in France and Austria. In the 
 United States, there has always been a consid- 
 erable use of the Hifdoria Sacra, as a Latin 
 book for beginners. Two e litioiis are now pub- 
 lished : /•.>/,.//• Ills' .->.p Sa rce, L'Homond 
 (Baltimore); HistoriaSacra | Phila.). A consider- 
 able part of it is also included in Allen and 
 Greenough's Latin Primer (Boston). The New 
 Testament, in Greek and Latin, is used in several 
 editions prepared for schools; also the Qreek 
 Testament, by Spencer i Xcw York;; and Qreek 
 mi'l L'ltiii.hy LRt'sriEN- (Phila.). A series of Chris- 
 tian classics in Greek and Latin, prepared with 
 notes, like the common text-books for our schools 
 and colleges, and edited by F. A. M irch, is also 
 appearing in New York under the name of The 
 Hour/lags Scrips. Mr. Benjamin I loiiglass having 
 given a fund to promote the publication, and to 
 establish the study in Lafayette Colleoe. The 
 following have appeared: La In Hymns, E - 
 Mus, Athen ■ , -as, /' tn; J >tin Martyr 
 
 is in press, .1 tgustineiv preparation, and others 
 are to follow. Other b loks which may be use 1 
 as text-books, are : San tori aPa ■umOpicscula 
 spJpcta ad usum pros ■■'■ n s ■■ I tsorum theo- 
 logies, H. EEurter (Innspruck . of which 31 
 volumes had appeared in IsTii. Books pre- 
 pared for the French schools: Tertullien, Au- 
 gustine, IZrasme, /'pi-px de rilglise Latine, Mor- 
 ceaux choisis des Peres Gfrecs, St. Basile, Gre- 
 goire, Ghrysostome, each a few pages with little 
 or no apparatus, but with a translation added. 
 There are stereotyped texts of the Confessions 
 i if si. Avgustine,ot the De Sacerdotio of Ghry- 
 sostom, by Tai'ohnitz. (Leipsic); of Eusebius and 
 Josephus by Teobner i Leipsic). Accessible trans- 
 lations of several authors are in The I i icene 
 Faihers, Edinburgh; Bohn's /.' tiastica Series, 
 London; Bosssler, />'/'.• •'. , I • K chenvaier 
 in rphpntPtzmi-rii iLci'./ie;. 1776—86); I'iiil- 
 
 HOFER. BihllotilPk i/pr h~,,:/>. ,, nil- r. AuSWaU 
 
 der Borzugttchsten patristischen Werke in dent- 
 scher Vebersetzung (Kempten), of which, up to 
 1870, 175 parts have appeared. Great Li- 
 braries of the Fathers are those edited by Gal- 
 lani.i (Venice, 1765—88), and by J. P. Migne 
 (Paris), not yet complete. Of all the most emi- 
 
 CLEVELAND 143 
 
 nent authors there are many editions, commen- 
 taries, and oilier works of elucidation. Students 
 will also find the following works convenient: 
 
 /, :i on Man eadScriptor i eel t 
 
 Latinit i i , bj W II. \l D'As Pari L866 
 
 by B. A. So,. :les (Boston] L870). 
 
 CLASSIFICATION. See I 
 
 CLEVELAND, an important city in Ohio 
 
 being the see I in the state in population. 
 
 The number of inhabitants in L870, was 92,829 ; 
 in 1876, it was estimated al 1 10,000. 
 
 school committees, and the levying of a tax for 
 school purposes ; and, in 1825, it made further 
 provision for education The acl oi incoi poration 
 in 1836, authorized the city council to provide 
 for the support of common school-, t.. Ie\ \ a 
 tax of not more than one mill 
 
 .I..I1,, 
 
 .•has. 
 
 in each of the three wards oi the i n\ fi 
 
 school in each of the three wards of the city, for 
 a term of not less than six mouths in the year. 
 The administration of school affairs was vested 
 in a board, entitled the Foard of Managers of 
 
 of cducat 
 
 on was 
 
 placed in th 
 
 ■ hands of the 
 
 and one h 
 
 dToTthe 
 
 ■being elect,-, 
 wards electil 
 
 in each ward, 
 
 g annually. The 
 
 city couni 
 
 I, howcv 
 
 t. still retain 
 
 id its control of 
 
 the finani 
 
 es : but 
 
 it was lcoiii 
 
 ed to "provide 
 
 and suppi 
 
 loh -■ ha 
 
 
 ade Of schools, 
 
 all the children 
 .port two high 
 
 all restraints on the pari of the city council from 
 the board of education, except that the purchase 
 of sites and the erection of school-buildings were 
 made dependent upon theconsen! oi the council. 
 In 1837—8, the number of pupils enrolled in 
 the schools was only 840 : and there were only 6 
 schools. In 1850 — 51, there were .'!'_' teachers 
 employed; the average attendance in all the schi k .Is 
 was L650 ;and the number enrolled, 2,304 oui oi 
 a school population of 6,742. In 1860—61, the 
 school population was L4,625; enrollment, 5,081; 
 average daily attendance, 3,962, with v .': teachers. 
 In 1870—71, theschool populationhad increased 
 to 34,544; enrollment. 13,184; average daily at- 
 tendance, 8,174, with 188 teachers. In 1846, a 
 high school for boys was opened by order of the citj 
 council ; and, in the I oil,, wine year, a department 
 
 for girls was established in the same scl 1. For 
 
 two years, the new institution met with much op 
 position.it being "maintained by some thai il 
 was illegal, by others that it was inexpedi i" ', 
 
 to levy taxes for the support of schools for 
 higher education. The people hov 
 their support to the policy, and the follow- 
 ing year, a law was passed authorizing and 
 
1 1 1 
 
 CLEVELAND 
 
 requiring the city council to '-establish and ' 
 maintain a high school" Since that time, two 
 other high schools have been established the 
 West High School, in ls(U; and the East Bigh 
 School, iu 1812. — The supervision of the schools 
 was. in is 11, vested in an acting manager of the 
 public schools, who was a member of the board, 
 and its secretary. The office of superintendent 
 of schools was created in 1853, and has been 
 filled as follows: Andrew Freese, 1853 61; 
 Luther M. Oviatt, 1861—3; Anson Smyth. 1st;:: 
 —7; Andrew J. Hiekoff. the present incumbent 
 (1876), from 1867. This officer is elected by 
 the board of education for a term of two 
 years. There are, besides, three associate super- 
 intendents, one (a female) specially for primary 
 schools. — The chief duties of the .superintend- 
 ent are to supervise the work of instruction 
 in all the schools of the city, visiting the schools 
 as often as possible, noting defects, and recom- 
 mending measures to remove them; to inspect 
 the sel I buildings, and report on their condi- 
 tion ; and to fix the time and mode of the 
 examination of schools. Candidates for teach- 
 ers' licenses are examined by a board of six 
 examiners, appointed by the board of edu- 
 cation. -The School System consists of a normal 
 school, 4 high schools, 1!) grammar schools, 
 and 15 primary schools, making a total of 39 
 schools. These schools receive all children six 
 years of age and upward, without regard to 
 color. There are four courses of study prescribed 
 for the high schools: an English curse, of .'! 
 years; a ( Jerman-English eour.se. of I years; a 
 Latin- English course, of I years; and a classical 
 
 course, of 4 years. The course of study pre- 
 scribed for the gramniarand primary schools com- 
 prises the branches usually taught in common 
 schools, including music, drawing, and the ele- 
 ments of natural science. German is taught in 
 most of the schools (introduced in 1870). All the 
 teachers of the primary aird grammar schools, 
 both principal- and assistants, are females. 
 
 S-lmiil S/i/i's/i. a. -The following items are re- 
 ported for the year 1S76 : 
 
 Number of children of school age 46,990 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 20,771 
 
 Average daily attendance U,069 
 
 Number of teachers 32G 
 
 Receipts (1S75) $497,174.67 
 
 Expenditures ( L875) $356,095.2 t 
 
 Besides the public schools, there are private 
 schools and seminaries in considerable number; 
 also German and English schools, and de- 
 nominational schools, the latter including several 
 Roman Catholic institutions. The Cleveland 
 Female Seminary is an institution for the supe- 
 rior instruction of women, chartered in L853. 
 
 St. Mary's Theological Seminary, a I! an t'ath 
 
 olic institution, was founded in Is I!). The 
 Ohio State and Union Law College, founded in 
 1856, in 1874, had! professors, and a library of 
 3,000 volumes. The ( leveland Medical ( lollege, 
 founded in 1843, had, the same year, 15 in- 
 structors; and 92 students; there is also a col- 
 lege, connected with the homoeopathic hospital. 
 
 CLINTON 
 
 CLINIQTJE (Gr. Kliyr/, a couch or bed), a 
 French word used, in medical schi « >ls, to denote an 
 examination or treatment of patients by medical 
 or surgical professors in the presence of their 
 pupils, for the purpose of giving practical in- 
 struction; hence the term clinical instruction 
 or lectures, because originally given or delivered 
 at the bedside of the sick. (See Medical 
 Schools.) 
 
 CLINTON, De Witt, one of the most il- 
 lustrious of American statesmen, of deserved 
 celebrity, not only on account of his brilliant 
 talents, high culture, and comprehensive views, 
 but for his earnest philanthropy and his zealous 
 efforts in behalf of popular education. He was 
 born at Little ISritain. Orange Co., X.T., March 
 2., 1769, and died in Albany, Feb. 11., 1828. 
 After graduating at Columbia College, New- 
 York, with great distinction, in 1786, he studied 
 law, and was admitted to the bar in 1 788. lie 
 also entered the field of politics, sustaining the 
 interests and principles of the republican party, 
 of which his uncle, George Clinton, was then the 
 leader in the state of New York. After filling 
 various offices under the latter as governor of the 
 state, he was elected to the legislature, serving 
 successively in the assembly and in 'the senate, and 
 at the age of 33 was appointed to a seat in the 
 senate of the United States. This he resigned 
 to assume the position of mayor of the city of 
 New York, which he filled, at intervals, for ten 
 years. He also served as lieutenant governor of 
 the state ; and his advocacy of the construction 
 of the Erie and Champlain canals made him so 
 popular, that, in 1816, he was elected governor 
 of the state, virtually by the unanimous voice of 
 the people; and his administration was contin- 
 ued, with the exception of an interval of two 
 years, during a period of twelve years. His wise 
 and c prehensive measures, particularly in be- 
 half of internal improvements and common- 
 school education in the state, gave him a wide 
 popularity and fame; and, in 1825, he partic- 
 ipated in a grand popular celebration ou the 
 occasion of the completion of his greatest meas- 
 ure, — the establishment of a water communi- 
 cation between Lake Erie and the J iudson River. 
 As he was borne in a barge along that magnifi- 
 cent canal (called the bhrand Brie Canal} he 
 was every-where saluted with the ringing of 
 bells, the firing of camion, and other joyous dem- 
 onstrations. 
 
 It is not, however, intended to dwell here upon 
 his brilliant career as a statesman and politician, 
 but to refer to his connection with the cause of 
 education, and the mighty impulse which was 
 giveii to it in the state of New York by his 
 genius and public-spirited exertions. The foun- 
 dation of the state school fund had already been 
 commenced ; but nothing had been done for 
 public education in the city of New York. In 
 1805, Clinton, then mayor of the city, joined 
 with several distinguished citizens in obtaining 
 an act of incorporation for the Society for Estab- 
 lishing ,i Free School hi the city of New York, 
 for ike ed "cation of such poor children <is donot 
 
CO-EDUCATION 
 
 145 
 
 belong to, or ore not /irorii/ci/ for bi/. am/ re- 
 ligious society; and for a period of 21 years, 
 from 1805 to 1826, he was the presidenl of the 
 society. Tin- society was at rward known is 
 
 the Public Stf Sue and its ra i fill 
 
 a large space in tin: t ■■ ln.-.-i t j. »i i.i J .mi a is oi I he citj . 
 In 1809, on the occasion of the iuautruration of 
 its first large school (for it conimeuced with a 
 few poor cl'iiMivu, in a single room]. Clinton 
 delivered an interesting address, in which he 
 referred to the previous work of the society in 
 connection with the Lancasterian system, in the 
 following won Is : -When I perceive that many 
 boys in our school have been taught to read and 
 write in two months, who did not before know 
 the alphabet, and that even one has accomplished 
 it in three weeks — when I view all th bearings 
 and tendencies of this system —when [contem- 
 plate the habits of order which it tonus, the 
 spirit of emulation which it excites, — when I 
 behold the extraordinary union of celerity in in- 
 struction and economy of expense,— and when [ 
 perceive a great assembly of a thousand children 
 under the eye of a single teacher, marching with 
 unexampled rapidity and with perfect discipline 
 to the goal of knowledge. I confess that 1 rec- 
 ognize in Lancaster the benefactor of the human 
 race — I consider his system as creating a new 
 era in education, as a 'blessing sent down from 
 heaven to redeem the poor and distressed of this 
 world from the power am 1 < lominion of ignorance.'' 
 The merits of the mutual system of instruction 
 as a means — and then the only means — of diffus- 
 ing the benefits of education among all classes of 
 the people, had impressed themselves deeply 
 upon his philanthropic mind. He discerned 
 clearly, to use his own language, that " the first 
 duty of a state is to renderits'citizens virtuous 
 by intellectual instruction and moral discipline, 
 by enlightening their minds, purifying their 
 hearts, and teaching them their rights and their 
 obligations." He took an active part in enlarg- 
 ing the means of education by augmenting, and 
 rendering more available, the school fund of the 
 state. In 18"2(i, in his annual message, he re- 
 marked, "Our common schools embrace children 
 from 5 to 10 years old, and continue to increase 
 and prosper. The appropriation for the school 
 fund for the hist year was S8O.li70.and an equiv- 
 alent sum is also raised by taxation in the several 
 counties and towns, and is also applied in the 
 same way. The capital fund is $1 ,333,000, which 
 will be in a state of rapid augmentation from 
 sales of the public lands and other sources ; and 
 it is well ascertained that more than 420,000 
 children have been taught in our common schools 
 during the last year. The sum distributed is 
 now too small, and the general fund can well 
 warrant an augmentation to $120,000 annually." 
 In May, 1824, the Presbyterian Society for 'the 
 Promotion of the Education ,f Youth elected 
 De Witt Clinton its president, and he continued 
 to occupy this position till his death. On taking 
 the chair, he delivered an address, in the course i 
 of which he said, " Monitorial education. Sun- 
 day schools, and Bible societies are the great I 
 
 I levers which must raise public opinion to its 
 proper elevation." He also took an active inter- 
 est in the Infant School S ty of Yew Fork, 
 
 founded in 1827, upon the pli i similar insti- 
 
 u " s '" ' ''''''" Britain i hi - ■ I Is were 
 
 prise designed, 
 
 in any n 
 
 iv. to proi tb ■ o 1 
 
 of mankind, n 
 part. Among 
 
 which h 
 
 ■ did not takea leading 
 
 the V w Ym 
 Historical Soc 
 
 k Hospi 
 ety, oi tl 
 
 r and the New Fork 
 
 c latter,,! which he was 
 
 the president t 
 
 rem 1-1 
 
 J to 1820. lb- was also 
 
 a member of i 
 
 lost of t 
 
 le literary and scientific 
 
 institutions in 
 
 he I "nit 
 
 d Mates, and of several 
 
 of those of i It 
 
 at Brita 
 
 n and the continent of 
 
 Europe. It u 
 
 is well i 
 
 •marked by Dr. Samuel 
 
 EL Cox, hi r 
 
 his distil 
 
 guishi d contemporaries 
 
 that "he was 
 
 
 
 biuation of grt 
 
 at (|iialit 
 
 ies, and the happy equi- 
 
 librium of thei 
 
 • adjust u 
 
 ■ut. 1 [e was unquestion- 
 
 Fork.) 
 private tie 
 sities), \\ ho 
 xaminations 
 
 ably a man of genius, a scholar, a jurist, a states- 
 man, an enlightened political economist. 
 and practical projector, and a polished 
 man." — See Hosack, Memoir ofDi Witt I 
 (N. Y., 182!!): S. S. Rand ; Histor 
 
 CoilllW C/-.S' -llilul Sl/<i,':tl ■ •' > /■ ,, 
 
 York (N. V.. 1871). (See also N 
 
 COACH, acant term applied t 
 
 tor (particularly in the English un 
 
 prepares students to pass the publi 
 I hence the veil, .■,„/,•//. to m've mh h instruction) 
 Such tutors are graduates from the university, 
 and are prepared for the special function which 
 they perform, not only by scholarship, but by ex- 
 perience in the particular requisites of the college 
 examinations, as well as by address in teaching. 
 —See Bristed, Five Years in an English Uni- 
 versity (N. Y.. 1852). 
 
 CO-EDUCATION of the Sexes, a term 
 used to denote the system of educating males 
 and females together, that is, in the same insti- 
 tution, Behool, or class, and by means of the same 
 studies, and methods, pupils of each sex receiving 
 the same school training and culture. This sys- 
 tem, in the lower grades of schools, has been al- 
 ways prevalent in the United States, as being the 
 most convenient and economical for small com- 
 munities. Where only one small district school 
 could be supported, of course, the separate in- 
 structionof boys and girls was out of the question. 
 'Ilii- practice.so common, appeared, and still ap- 
 pears, to receive not only the tolerant assent of 
 parents as a necessity, but, in most cases, an un- 
 qualified approval, as being not simply expedient. 
 but, in all respects, the best to be adopted. In 
 some of the large cities, as the schools grew 
 large, and were composed of children gathered 
 from all classes of society, it was often deemed 
 best to organize separate buys' and girls' schools; 
 especially, as this could be done without any in- 
 jury, but, probably with a benefit to the clas- 
 
[46 
 
 OO-KDUCATiON 
 
 siflcation. Private seminaries, however, have 
 generally been separate schools, except those for 
 the youngest pupils. Passing from the grade of 
 primary schools, we find the propriety of co-edu- 
 cation to be a question among educators ; while 
 many parents prefer that even the youngest 
 children of their families should attend schools 
 exclusively for either sex. Those who oppose 
 co-education allege as reasons for their views, 
 ( 1 ) That there is need of a better adaptation of 
 instruction and discipline to the peculiarities of 
 the aexes than is possible in mixed schools; (2) 
 That til' manners of the girls are unfavorably 
 affected liy the constant example of the rougher, 
 coarser conduct of the boys, the latter receiving 
 but little or no benefit from the presence of the 
 girls; and (3) That the moral character of each is 
 liable to be impaired by a premature develop- 
 ment of the sexual instincts, caused by the 
 constant presence of the other sex. With but 
 few exceptions, these arguments are advanced by 
 those who have only theoretically considered the 
 subject, or by those whose practical experience 
 has been in connection with mixed schools of 
 which the discipline and management were im- 
 perfect, thus leading to abuses which, under 
 proper and normal circumstances, would have 
 been eliminated. On the other hand, where 
 there has been a thorough and proper trial of 
 the co-education of boys and girls, the testimony 
 seems to be strongly, and almost exclusively, 
 favorable to that system. In many of the large 
 cities of the Union, this is the prevalent plan of 
 organization, and the reports of superintendents 
 are quite emphatic in its approval. The alleged 
 benefits arising from it are chiefly the fol- 
 lowing : (1) Improvement in discipline, the self- 
 will, viol. 'lice, and rudeness of the boys being 
 restrained by the presence of the girls; while 
 the girls' manners are rendered more easy and 
 self-possessed by daily school association with 
 the other sex; (2) Improvement in instruction 
 and study, the diversities of the sexes prevent- 
 ing extreme methods, and exclusive, one-sided 
 training and study. Thus, it is said, that the 
 tastes of the boys for severer studies, such as 
 mathematics, are corrected by the inclination of 
 the girls for the lighter am! more sentimental 
 Studies, general literature, poetry, etc.; (3) A 
 more sound and healthy development of both 
 sexes: in support of which it is asserted that 
 "schools kept exclusively for girls or boys, re- 
 quire a much more strict surveillance on the 
 part of the teachers. The girls confined by 
 themselves, develop tin' sexual tension much 
 earlier, their imagination being the reigning 
 faculty, and not bridled by intercourse with 
 society in its normal form.' So it is with the 
 boys, on the other hand. Daily association in 
 the class room prevents this tension, anil supplies 
 
 its place by indifference. Each sex testing its 
 
 strength with the oilier, on an intellectual plane, 
 
 n, Hi- presence of the teacher— each one seeing 
 the weakness and strength of the other, learns 
 to esteem what is essential at its true value. . . . 
 That the sexual tension be developed as late as 
 
 possible, and that all early love affairs be avoided, 
 is the desideratum ; and experience has shown, 
 that association of the sexes on the plane of in- 
 tellectual contest is the safest course to secure 
 this end." Thus, the theory of one side in re- 
 gard to sexual peculiarities is just the reverse of 
 that of the other ; but it is claimed that prac- 
 tical experience confirms the latter, while the for- 
 mer is only a theory ; and for this claim there 
 appears to be a. pretty strong foundation. The 
 citation given above is from the report of one of 
 the most experienced school superintendents of 
 the United States, and is based upon an obser- 
 vation of the mixed system in large public 
 schools for fifteen years.' (See School R,q,ort of 
 tit. Louis, 1869—70.) In the city of New York, 
 in 1874, the number of mixed grammar schools 
 was reported as 13. containing, in average at- 
 tendance, 2,400 pupils; and the superintendent 
 in his report for that year remarked: " Acareful 
 examination of these schools, as to their disci- 
 pline and progress in scholarship, has elicited 
 nothing to discredit, in any way, this mode of or- 
 ganization, as compared with that of the other 
 schools. The principals commend it as possess- 
 ing many advantages over the plan of separating 
 male and female pupils of such an age and grade 
 of attainments, and parents seem to approve of 
 it." In New York, however, most of the schools 
 are organized on the extreme separation system. 
 The report of the I'. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation, for 1874. states that there are in the 
 United States ."iid schools (secondary), contain- 
 ing 04,129 pupils, male and female (boys, 32,71 1; 
 girls, 27.942 ; of others, sex not reported); while 
 the number of separate schools for boys, report- 
 ing to the Bureau, was 195, with 13,592 pupils ; 
 and for girls, 275, with 20,458 pupils. This 
 would seem to indicate, as might naturally have 
 been expected, a tendency to separate schools for 
 girls; but, at the same time, shows that, in sec- 
 ondary education in the United States, the mixed 
 system prevails. There is, unquestionably, a 
 natural reluctance on the part of many parents 
 to send their daughters to schools in which boys 
 are also educated; but this apprehension of danger 
 seems to give way after a trial of co-education ; 
 and, it is claimed that corrupt influences are 
 
 re liable to abound in schools exclusively for 
 
 either sex, but particularly in separate schools 
 for girls. - To insure modesty," says Kiehter, 
 " I would advise the education of the sexes to- 
 gether ; for two boys will preserve twelve girls, 
 or two girls twelve boys, innocent, amidst winks, 
 jokes, and improprieties, merely by that instinct- 
 ive sense which is the forerunner of natural mod- 
 esty. Hut I will guarantee nothing in a school 
 where girls are alone together, and still less 
 where boys are." 
 
 All the facts and views here considered have, it 
 must be observed, reference only to that limited 
 education which is carried on in schools, where 
 boys and girls are brought together for a brief 
 period to receive instruction in those branches 
 of study which are pursued for the purpose of 
 intellectual education. The question whether 
 
DO-EDUCATION 
 
 such a limited co-education is expedient and 
 proper, does not involve a consideration of the 
 extent to which the distinction of sex requires a 
 diversification of method in education in a lar- 
 ger sense, as comprehending physical, mural, and 
 mental training. Extreme opinions, however, 
 prevail on this point. Dr. Clarke says, in Sex 
 in Education, " None doubt the importance of 
 
 age, acquire at, idiosyncrasy, and probable 
 
 career in life as factors in classification. Sex 
 goes deeper than any or all of these." Ou the 
 other hand, it is contended that sex is not to be 
 considered: and this is the position of most 
 women who have written on this question. 
 "Education," says Caroline H. Dall, "is to be 
 adapted neither to hoys nor to girls, but to indi- 
 viduals. The mother, or the teacher, has learned 
 little who attempts to train any two children 
 alike, whether as regards the books they are to 
 study, the time it is to take, the attitudes they 
 are to assume, or the amusements they are to be 
 allowed.'' The general principle, without doubt, 
 is, that education should be adapted to the in- 
 dividual ; but as there are many diversities of 
 character, both physical and mental, which arise 
 from the difference of sex, and. consequently, are 
 common to all of the same sex, boys cannot, in 
 every respect, be educated as girls, 'it is against 
 this ■■ identical co-education," as he calls it, that 
 Dr. Clarke, in Sex in Education, so warmly in- 
 veighs. -Hoys,' he says, "must .study and work," 
 " in a boy's way. and girls in a girl's way;" which 
 may be very true, an. I yet by no means invali- 
 date tin' propriety of school co-education. 
 
 In respect to the higher education of women, 
 this question takes a wider range: and, since 
 the diversities of sex are, at this stage, more com- 
 pletely developed, the argu ate against co-edu- 
 cation become more emphatic < m the part of those 
 who view the subject from a theoretical stand- 
 
 iint. These may be summed up as follows: (1) 
 culiarities of the female sex 
 
 was based upon certain facts which came under 
 the writer's observation as a physician : but it is 
 
 sweeping a generalization; and that 
 no facts of the kind within therangi 
 experience in co-education to warrant 
 tion. Hence, in the words of Miss 
 Brackett, "the men. generally, and 
 without appreciation of its logical r 
 prove of what Dr. Clarke has said; t 
 of largest experience condemn, denying 
 ises, disproving his clinical evidence 
 other facts, and protesting against 1 
 
 iere are 
 i actual 
 is asser- 
 
 ts prem- 
 adding 
 conclu- 
 
 The physioL 
 render it impo 
 undergo the s 
 
 at young women should 
 tinuous mental labor as 
 -young men, without the sacrifice of their health, 
 and without impairing the functions proper to 
 their sex; (2) The constitution of the female 
 mind is so diverse from that of the male mind, 
 that it requires different studies, different modes 
 of instruction, and different regimen in every 
 respect; (3) The career in life which is the 
 destiny of woman demands a preparation diverse 
 from that which is to fit a young man for the 
 special duties of his sphere. The first of these 
 positions is, of course, of paramount importance: 
 although it is not simply an argument against 
 co-education, but against affording to young 
 women the same facilities for a higher education 
 as are afforded to young men. whether they are 
 educated together or not. " Appropriate educa- 
 tion of the two sexes," says Dr. ( llarke, " carried 
 as far as possible, is a consummation most de- 
 voutly to be desired ; identical education of the 
 two sexes is a crime before God and humanity, 
 that physiology protests against, and that ex- 
 perience weeps over." Doubtless, this position 
 
 Co-cducalion in the higher institutions of 
 learning has, during the last few years, been 
 thoroughly tried in the United .States ; and the 
 system has rapidly advance'., stimulated by the 
 success which appears uniformly t.. have attended 
 the experiment. But a few years ago. there was 
 not one college in the United States, which af- 
 forded equal instruction to both sexes: in 1874, 
 according to the report of the U. S. Commis- 
 sioner of Education, there were 'J 7 colleges ami 
 
 universities in which the co-educative system 
 prevailed. < »f the academies, normal schools, and 
 high schools, only about seventeen per cent are 
 for boys exclusively, nineteen percent for girls 
 exclusively, and more than sixty percent for 
 both sexes. The testimony of those experienced 
 as instructors in the higher institutions, as well 
 as of the alumnae themselves, appears to favor 
 strongly the principle and practice of coeduca- 
 tion, in 1853, Horace Mann accepted the posi- 
 tion of president of Antioch College, which had 
 just been established: and. as the co-education 
 of the sexes in such an institution was then a 
 novel experiment, he had many misgivings as to 
 the result Five years afterward, however, in a 
 letter to Mr. Combe, of Edinburgh, he stated. 
 "We really have the most orderly.. sober. diligent, 
 and exemplary institution in the country. We 
 passed through the last term, and are more than 
 half through the present ; ami I have not had 
 occasion to make a single entry of any misde- 
 meanor in our record book — not a case for any 
 serious discipline." Mrs. Mann, in the Lift' nf 
 Horace Mann ( Boston, 18G5), says: "No one 
 conversant with the daily life and walk of Anti- 
 och College can deny that the purity and high 
 tone of its morals and manners, in both depart- 
 ments, were uuequaled by those of any other 
 known institution." In 1868, the Westminster 
 Review said: "Antioch College has been visited 
 by Emerson. Theodore Parker, Oliver Wendell 
 liolmes, Dr. Bellows, and other distinguished men; 
 and the testimonies as to its superior character 
 have been uniform." The writers of the article 
 referred to (The Suppressed Sex, Westminster 
 Review. Oct. lS(i.s), stated, that he had resided in 
 the vicinity of Antioch College under circum- 
 stances that afforded ample "opportunities for 
 forming an acquaintance with its plan, professors. 
 
148 
 
 00-EDUCATION 
 
 and students ; and, although quite familiar with 
 the University of Virginia. Harvard, and to .some 
 extent with English universities, he expressed 
 his "entire conviction that, in none of those male 
 institutions, can there be found anything com- 
 parable to the moral elevation, the refinement, 
 or the intellectual enthusiasm which characterize 
 the students of Antioch." As to the ability of 
 the female students to perform the intellectual 
 tasks assigned to those of the other sex, the testi- 
 mony of coll.- presidents and professors is uni- 
 formly and stronglj favorable. President Pair- 
 child, of Oberiin in L874, said. " 1 hiring my ex- 
 perience .is professor— twenty-seven years in all — 
 1 have never observed any difference ill the sexes 
 as to performance in recitation. President 
 Angell, of the University of .Michigan, said (1874), 
 •• We have not had the slightest embarrassment 
 from the reception of women. They have done 
 their work admirably, and, apparently, with no 
 peril to their health. "' President White, of ' lornell 
 
 "The best Greek scholar among 1,300 students 
 of the University of Michigan a fe\i years since, the 
 
 best mathematical scholar in one of the largest 
 classes of the institution to-day, and several 
 among the highest in natural science and in tin- 
 general courses of study, are young women.' 
 President Magill, of Swarthinor.- College, in an 
 address before the Pennsylvania State Teachers' 
 Association, August, 1*74, said. " As a rule, the 
 more faithful and conscientious discharge of their 
 duties, which characterizes the young women, 
 has produced a slight difference' in their favor, 
 in the matter of scholarship. The average stand- 
 ing of the oine young women, for the four years, 
 w.i- 36.8; that of the four young men. 82.2." 
 Professor Orton, of Vassar College, in an ad- 
 dress (entitled Four Years in Vassar College) 
 before the National Educational Association. 
 August. 1*7 f. said, "Vassar graduated last June 
 42, being just half the number who have been 
 
 com ted with the class. Amherst graduated 
 
 62 out of 95, and Cornell 65 out of 261 — a pain- 
 ful example of 'the survival of the fittest'. Dur- 
 ing the past year, eleven per cent of the under- 
 graduates in Vassar have been kept from college 
 duties more than ten days on account of illness: 
 while at Amherst, where the physical education of 
 the- young men is more carefully attended to than 
 at any other college, the percentage was twenty- 
 one." Professor Hosmer, of the I niversity of 
 Missouri, in a paper entitled Co-Edit oiionofihe 
 Sexes - Um ■ 6s,n id before the National 
 Education I \ sociation in 1-71. cited many in- 
 
 education of young men and women, and thus 
 very forcibly illustrated the need of great vigi- 
 lance ami caulioii iii the management of institu- 
 tions where the sexes are thus educated. Still he 
 sums up the matter in the following words: 
 " The co-education of the sexes in universities is 
 possible ; even to some extent desirable, on ac- 
 count of a certain good influence which the sexes 
 may exert upon each other. That co-education 
 is a matter of no difficulty, we are uot to believe; 
 
 much less that it is to be accepted as the power 
 which is to produce straightway a millennium of 
 
 ive, and seem to disprove the danger which, some 
 physicians have alleged, is attendant ou such a 
 system of co-education. Of the 620 women grad- 
 uated, up to 1873, at Oberiin College, some, she 
 says, have been "teachers in our common schools 
 and in our high schools, missionaries, both in the 
 home and foreign field, professors in female 
 medical colleges, founders of asylums and homes 
 of refuge, and leaders in all benevolent enter- 
 prises." The number of deaths among the 
 alumni is stated to have amounted to a little 
 over 10 per cent: among the alumna, to 9.67 
 per cent. Twenty cases of alumna . the namesof 
 whom are taken in alphabetic order from the roll, 
 are cited, to show how many, seventeen years after 
 their graduation, were leading lives of healthful 
 vigor and activity; and the facts in regard to 
 each afford additional testimony in disproof of 
 
 sexes in the higher institutions of learning. 
 The recently established lioston University 
 has been organized avowedly on the principle, 
 that a "universitj should exist not for one sex 
 merely, bu1 equal!} for the two." " It welcomes," 
 says the Univi rsi y Year Hook, vol. in. "woman 
 
 not IneleK lo the bench of the pupil, ljllt alSO tO 
 
 the chair of the professor It is the first institu- 
 tion in the Commonwealth of Massachusetts to 
 admit the two sexes to common advantages in 
 classical collegiate studies ; the first in the world 
 to open the entire circle of post-graduate profes- 
 sional schools to men and women alike." 
 
 In Europe, co-education is generally discour- 
 aged ; still, the principle seems to be gaining 
 Btrength, in consequence of the results of the pro- 
 visions made for the higher education of women. 
 In Switzerland, women have been admitted to 
 the various departments of the universities since 
 1864. In the university of Zurich, many young 
 Russian women have been educated; and in the 
 university of Berne there were, in 1 875, 32 female 
 ■students, pursuing their studies without any dis- 
 crimination as tosex. Women are now welcomed 
 to university instruction in Vienna, Paris, 
 Rome, Leipsic, Gottingen, Breslau, and some 
 other European institutions. Efforts have been 
 made, unsuccessful as yet, under the leadership 
 of Miss Jex Blake, to open to female students the 
 university of Edinburgh ; and, practically, co- 
 education is sanctioned in connection with the 
 " university examinations for women " in Eng- 
 land, since the lectures supplied by the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, for the purpose of afford- 
 ing a preparation for these examinations, are 
 
COLBY UNIVERSITY 
 
 140 
 
 open to both sexes. (See University Examina- 
 tions.) In London.in 1*71. a college was opened 
 under the name of College for Men and 
 Women, which recently reported about 500 
 students. In ('ainhrid-v. the establishment of 
 Newnham Hall and Girton College for young 
 women shows the growth of public sentiment in 
 favor of the higher education of women, and is a 
 step toward co-education in the University 
 Plenum. Girton College holds simultaneous 
 examinations with those of the university, and 
 uses the university examination questions Ac- 
 cording to the report of the \. ,!,.,„., I , i'.,,- 
 Improving the Education of Won 1874 
 more than two-thirds of all the professional 
 lectures of the University ol Cambridge have 
 been thrown open to women Public sentiment 
 
 eatl 
 
 already commenced to advocate it. The 
 iner declares, " We believe the separatio 
 sexes in the worlds of learning and thou- 
 simply evil. To allow young men and 
 women to meet together for amusemt 
 frivolity, and strictly to part them when 
 with any serious endeavor, is surely fa 
 See E. H. Clarke, M. D., S / 
 
 (Boston. L873) : and The S> I i 
 
 (Boston. 1874 : Avn\ C Br* kett, Th 
 cation of American Girls (N. Y., 1874 
 Doffey, No Sex in Education Phila 
 Westminst r /.' i w, Oct L868, s. v. T 
 press, I - . and Oct 1873, s. v. Th 
 Hon of II omen in America ; Boston 
 sity V. tr Book, rols. l and n. ; j). Beai 
 versity Examinations for Women I 
 1875 . R f h P, s 
 
 for 1869 Th. and 1872 3; Revorl oft 
 missioner of Ed 
 
 Wa-li: 
 
 COLBURN, Warren, one of the most emi- 
 nent American mathematicians and teachers, 
 was born at Dedham, Mass., March I.. 1793, and 
 <lied at Lowell. Sept. 15., 1833. His parents 
 were poor; and Warren, who was the eldest son 
 of a large family, could attend the district school 
 only a portion of the year, working during the 
 remainder on his father's farm. Subsequently, 
 he worked in the factories, till having turned 
 his attention to machinery, he followed, tor some 
 time, the trade of a machinist. He had, how- 
 ever, always been diligent in the improvement 
 of his mind, manifesting an unusual talent for 
 arithmetic; and. in his twenty-third year, he 
 entered Harvard College, at which he graduated 
 in 1820. After leaving the college, he taught a 
 private school in Boston: and in 1821 published 
 his First Lessons in Mental Arithmetic, the 
 book which made him famous. The publication 
 ,-,of this work, to a certain extent, revolutionized 
 the method of teaching arithmi tic then in vogue, 
 substituting for the mechanical working-out of 
 problems by rule, exercises in intellectual arith- 
 metic, of a simple and progressive character, re- 
 quiring not only calculation but analysis. In 
 his address on Teaching Arithmetic, delivered in 
 1 830, before the American Institute of Instruc- 
 
 tion, he compares what he called the old and the 
 
 new system, thus describing the latter : '• By the 
 
 new system, the learner commences w ii b prai tical 
 
 examples, in which the numbers .nv so small 
 that he can easily reason upon them ; and the 
 
 a! 
 
 lie same 
 than he 
 In this 
 lomplete 
 
 the k. the reason ol which he 
 
 ■rstand. the scholar makes his own 
 
 is rules are a generalization of his 
 
 g,and in a way agreeable to his own 
 
 'I he composition , if this hook was 
 
 thods. "The pupils, - ' he said. -while 
 i, made his arithmetic for him." 
 Iiis book was enormous, not only in 
 lates. but in Great Britain, reach- 
 in the former 100,000 copies, and 
 all.OINI copies, annually. It was 
 id into most of the languages of 
 11 as into some others. Its plan is 
 vas conceived by Pestalozzi, but 
 
 Lessons is the only faultless school-book that 
 we have. It has made a great change in the 
 mode of teaching arithmetic, and is destined to 
 make a .still greater. It should be made the 
 basis of all instruction in this department.'' ( 'ol- 
 Imrns career as a practical teacher was quite 
 short, continuing only three years. The subse- 
 quent part of his life was spent m the work of 
 Buperintending a large manufacturing company, 
 first at Waltham. afterwards at Lowell : but he 
 delivered several courses of lectures on natural 
 history ami physics, published a Sequel to ///« 
 First Lessons i-'-'t . compiled a school text- 
 hook on algebra and also a series of reading- 
 books, on an original plan. It was. however, his 
 
 educator, and that will ever associate his name 
 with the subject of oral or intellectual arithmetic. 
 "There are few men.'' it has been remarked, 
 "who, in so short and quiet a life, have done so 
 much good, and rendered their names so familiar 
 as Warren Colburn." — See Barnard, Educa- 
 tional Biography iN. Y„ 1861 |. 
 
 COLBY UNIVERSITY, at Waterville, 
 
 Maine, under tin ntrol of the Bap 
 
 founded in 1820. There are four line college 
 buildings. The value of the collo-e property is 
 $150,000, and the amount of productive funds. 
 
150 COI 
 
 8200,000. Scholarships to the number of 60, 
 yielding from ,S3(; to Still per annum each, have 
 been founded for the benefit of students needing 
 aid. The charge for tuition, room-rent, and use 
 of library is $41 per annum. The institution 
 has a gymnasium, a cabinet of natural history, 
 especially rich in the departments of conchology 
 and ornithology, and a library of about 10,000 
 volumes. The two literary societies have libra- 
 ries of about 3,000 volumes each. The Water- 
 ville Classical Institute is under the control of 
 the trustees of the university, and serves as a 
 preparatory department. The regular university 
 course is the ordinary four years' course of 
 American colleges. Persons of suitable age and 
 attainments are allowed to pursue a partial 
 course for any length of time not less than one 
 year, selecting such studies as they may desire. 
 On leaving the institution, they are entitled to a 
 certificate of their respective acquirements in 
 the studies in which they have passed an exami- 
 nation. The courses of study are now open to 
 young women on the same terms as to young 
 men. In 1873 — 4, there were 7 professors and 
 62 students, of whom 5 were females; namely, 
 senior class, 7; junior. L6 ; sop] ore. 14; fresh- 
 man, 25. The Rev. Henry E. Robins, D.D., is 
 (1876) the president 
 
 COLLEGE l Lati 
 ing any kind of assc 
 large classes of educational inst 
 in the United States, England 
 academic use of the word a 
 the beginning of the 13th centi 
 in the" following manner. '1 
 flocked to the university town 
 collision with the citizens, am 
 resulted. In order to protect 
 as well as to watch over the 
 houses were provided in which 
 under the charge of a superi 
 were called colleges; and this na 
 applied to any academic institution of a certain 
 grade, whether connected with a university or 
 not. Colleges appear to have first been estab- 
 lished in I'atis: and soon afterward in Oxford 
 and Cambridge, in Bologna and Padua, and 
 in Prague and Vienna. They were richly en- 
 dowed by popes and other dignitaries of the 
 church, princes, and powerful families ; and, in 
 some of the university towns just named, they 
 became so numerous in the 15th century, that 
 almost every student of the university was a 
 member of some one of the colleges. 
 
 France. In Paris, several monastic orders 
 
 riil/tyiiint. originally incan- 
 tation) is a name given to 
 onal institutions, especially 
 
 uts, lodging- 
 tudents were 
 1'liese houses 
 
 is afterwards 
 
 founde 
 
 hers an 
 ophya 
 
 to their yottnge 
 
 French Colleges Were the <'.,".,. ,.,■ ,s,.. 'A/,,,,,,,,*. 
 
 theDaniskCo . C edesDix-l tfl, the Co£ 
 UgeQrec (foundedin L206),theCb%< desBons 
 En/ants (1208), thai of the Premonstratensians 
 (1252), the Sgrbonne, founded in 1253 for L6 
 
 poor students of theology, and .subsequently one 
 
 of the most famous of French colleges, the Col- 
 Itgr ill- In Congregation tie < 'Ingng (1269), and 
 the College de Navarre, founded in 1304 by the 
 Queen of Navarre. In Prance, these colleges 
 were almost exclusively situated in Paris, where 
 their number, up to the end of the 13th century, 
 rose to 15, and subsequently increased to about 
 100 ; many of these, however, were of little im- 
 portance. From their origin, it is plain that 
 colleges were not originally designed togivein- 
 struction, but merely to look after the students. 
 ami also to help the pooler ones in their course 
 at the university. The teaching, however, be- 
 longed entirely to the university. This was 
 gradually changed, and the colleges, from being 
 merely auxiliary to the university, became 
 finally the centers of instruction. By limiting 
 lectures and disputations to a single department, 
 the colleges became so many distinct faculties ; 
 and the university assumed the character of a 
 union of colleges. In modern times, the term 
 college is, in France, the distinctive name for 
 schools of secondary instruction, corresponding 
 to the gymnasiums of Germany and other coun- 
 tries. The higher class of these schools are 
 called lyceums (see Lyceum), the lower, com- 
 munal colleges (colleges communaux). In 1873, 
 there were 78 lyceums and 236 communal col- 
 leges ; besides, a number of private institutions 
 of a similar grade were called colleges libres. 
 These colleges have the character either of Latin 
 schools or real-schools. The former strive to 
 emulate the lyceums, though consisting some- 
 times of only a few of the lower classes, and 
 frequently giving special prominence to a scien- 
 tific course of instruction. The latter class of 
 colleges generally exclude Latin, and are real- 
 schools for pupil.- of the middle class, who intend 
 to devote themselves to industry. commerce, arts, 
 and agriculture. Many of them prepare their 
 pupils to enter the special schools.. There is a 
 great variety in the courses of instruction of 
 these schools. Among the best schools of the 
 kind is the College municipal Chaptaloi Paris. 
 founded in 1844 by the city. It consists of 6 
 classes. The subjects of instruction in the first 
 or lower class are (1) Religion; (2) Arithmetic 
 (decimal and common fractions; exercises in the 
 metrical system; calculation of extension, sur- 
 face, and solids); (3) French and General Gram- 
 mar ; ili German and English ; (5) Geography; 
 (6) General Bistory ; i7i (oometiical Drawing: 
 (8) Free-hand Drawing; (9) Singing. In the second 
 class, the same subjects are taught, and, in ad- 
 dition. I he elements of geometry and mathemat- 
 ical geography. Those of the third class, besides 
 the studies of the pre, eding i lass give instruction 
 in algebra, natural philosophy, chemistry, stere- 
 ometry, mineralogy, and hook-keeping. Those of 
 One fourth class discontinue arithmetic, and take 
 
 tiii fcrigon etry, Latin. Italian or Spanish, 
 
 mechanics, botany, and zoology. In the fi/tkclaBB, 
 the history of French literature, hygienics, and 
 technology are added. In the sixth or highest 
 class. are taught geology, cosmography, industrial 
 and political economy, and the history of France. 
 
COLLEGE 151 
 
 The subjects taught in all the six classes are ] Commoners, Commoners, or Pensioners (the 
 
 religion. French (in the lower classes grammar, terms used at the two universities not quite 
 
 in the higher literature), German or English, agreeing). The undergraduate, interingcol- 
 
 history, drawing, and singing. The ''■".',■■ </• I. _;, i- a-igii.-d to a "Tutor," who is to mm in 
 
 grade than either the communal colleges m- provides for his instruction in tin- different st'ud- 
 
 lyceums, presenting a syste E instruction ies by the college lecturers or sub-le. irers 
 
 al ^ ;is < ipri-ln-nsivf as that i if a complete The iatter instruct those students wl the 
 
 university, [t was founded by Francis I., in 1530, lecturer cannot admit to his classes either for 
 
 and its professors have always borne the name the want of r n.orfors other reason. The 
 
 of lecteurs royaux. It lias counted among its tutor may be, at the same time, a college lec- 
 professors some of thegreatest Bcholarsof France, turer. The instruction in the college aims almost 
 and has at present 28 professors and several exclusively at preparing the student for the ex- 
 distinct courses, embracing all the different sei- animations, which arc partly college and partly 
 ences, law, medicine, as well as classic, modern, university examinations. The college examina- 
 European, and oriental literature. tions are called collections and take place at the 
 Great Britain and Ireland. — 'The colleges end of every tern, when each student has to 
 f. mil, led in England in connection with the uni- answer in writing several questions relative to 
 versities of Oxford and Cambridge, were not m- all the .studies pursued by him (Fortheuni- 
 tended to afford instruction, but to aid students versity examinations, see University.) Oxford 
 in passing through the university. The rich en- University contains 2] colleges and 5 halls: 
 
 dowments which wcr lfenvd upon the ml- Cambridge. 1 7 colleges or halls the two terms 
 
 leges, however, soon enabled them to give to in Cambridge meaning the same). Next to these 
 
 their inmates instruction as well as aid, and so most important institutions. Trinity College 
 
 increased their reputation and importance, that Dublin, holds a high rank. The Queen's Uni- 
 
 the university, with its four faculties, gradually versity in Ireland consists of three colleges lo- 
 
 lost its hold of the students, and retained little eated in Belfast, Cork, and Galway. Until about 
 
 more power than the conferring of degrees .and 1830, dissenters' colleges \\< re not allowed to grant 
 
 other honors. The studies designed to prepare degrees without requTring the graduates tosub- 
 
 the students for the academic degrees, were scribe to the thirty-nint articles. This caused 
 
 chiefly pursued in the colleges, and il wasespe- a great deal .a political agitation, wind, resulted 
 
 daily the lectures f the faculty of arts which in granting the privilege to these institutions, and 
 
 were transferred to the colleges. "The colleges," also in founding the I niversitj College, King's 
 
 said one of the speakers during the discussions College, and the University of i ondon, in which 
 
 upon the Cambridge bill, in the House of Com- the thirty^n m arti - are not insisted upon as 
 
 mons, May 30., 1856, "have overshadowed and a cond i admission. These institutions 
 
 practically almost monopolized the teaching of have also served to pr te the study of the 
 
 the university." Every coUege is a corporation natural sciences: Oxford and Cambridge being 
 
 of its own. having its own statutes, and electing still, in this respect, strongholds of conservatism. 
 
 one of its members for the legislative and exec- The -great public schools.' such as Eton and 
 
 utive authorities of the university. T^hegenera] Rugby, are, in effect, colleges. Of (her there 
 
 name given to the heads of th lieges is //,,,,/s arc IT. some of which have also the name college: 
 
 of Houses ; but there is a considerable diversity as Eton College, Dulwich College. Wellington 
 
 in the titles which the Beads ut I louses have in ( ollege, and Winchester Coll Home of the 
 
 different colleges. |„ some, the head is called school classed as grammar schools see Gram 
 
 Master,* title which prevails in < ■ ; ,n,l.iidgc : in mm: S h,«,i.m arc also stvled colleges. I J, -si, les 
 
 others, Provos Presiden Procurator,Warden, these, there are many theological colleges, classi- 
 
 Rector,Per} /,' •, or Dean. Mostofthe Bed as follows : Established, 11 ; Wesleyan, 7 ; 
 
 Beads of Houses are Doctors of Divinity. Next Congregationalist, 11: Roman Catholic, LI; 
 
 to the I leads of Bouses are the Fellows, a num- Baptist, 9 ; Presbyterian, 3 j Calvinist, 2; Meth- 
 
 ber of graduates who receive an in. e from odist,2; Unitarian, 1 ; Free Religious Thought, 
 
 the funds of the college, and are permitted to 1. There were also, in 1875 (according to 
 
 retain their positions for life, unless they inherit Whittaker's Almanack for 1876), five -Ladies' 
 
 estates of greater income, or marry. The num- Colleges." 
 
 her of fellowships in Cambridge is 130; in Ox- United States. — The American colleges gram 
 
 ford. "an. The Heads of Houses are elected for degrees in the arts, and give the ordinary course 
 
 life by the Fellows. A portion of the under- of undergraduate instruction. Someoftl Idei 
 
 graduates also derive an income fr the funds colleges, as Yale and Harvard, add instruction in 
 
 of the colleges, and are called /•'.„/,„/.///„„ M, ,„- theology, law. and lieinc and thus approach 
 
 bers. Members not on tin Fou dation constitute to the rank of universities in the European sense 
 
 a large number of graduates who continue their ot the word. Most of the so-called universities, 
 
 names on the Lists ot th, college in order to have however, furnish only collegiate instruct! in ; and 
 
 the right to take part in the sittings of the sen- there is. as yet. no fixed distinction between the 
 
 ate, and of independent under-graduates, who ae- terms college and u/tirer.iiti/m the United States. 
 
 cording to their rank and expenditures, are The institutions of this kind considerably differ 
 
 called Noblemen, Gentlemen Commoners, Fellow in their mode of organization. On the one hand. 
 
152 C0L1 
 
 are those which, adhering to the old system, have 
 fixed standards of admission and a curriculum 
 strictly prescribed ; on the other, those which 
 have no fixed standard of admission nor pre- 
 scribed curriculum, their course of studies being 
 arranged in schools, among which the student 
 
 may select at will. Of the for r (the prevailing 
 
 system) Yale may be taken as a representative ; 
 of the latter, the University of Virginia. Be- 
 tween these two extremes, are those that allow a 
 greater or less freedom of choice to the student 
 Some, like Harvard and Yale, have distinct scien- 
 tific departments; others, like Cornel] Univer- 
 sit\ have parallel courses in which greater atten- 
 tion may be paid to science or to modern lan- 
 guages than in the classical course. With some 
 
 of the colleges, prof essit 1 schools are connected. 
 
 Of about 350 institutions in the United States, 
 styled colleges or universities and possessing the 
 right to confer degrees, a large majority have 
 preparatory, and "some, inferior departments, 
 which often, especially in the West and South, 
 comprise the greater part of the students, I hu- 
 
 man year, and about one third of the sophomore 
 and junior years. For the senior year, only cer- 
 tain written exercises are prescribed. The re- 
 
 the choice of which the student is limited only 
 by his qualification to pursue them, '['he clas- 
 sics or mathematics may be pursued through the 
 entire four years. The requirements fur admis- 
 sion are embraced in two courses, distinguished 
 by a preponderance of the classics and mathe- 
 matics respectively. The first course embraces 
 Latin grammar and composition, with the trans- 
 lation of Latin prose at sight; Caesar, Be Bella 
 
 duate 
 
 the, 
 
 vard, Yale, and a few others hi 
 courses of study. The pri 
 red are as follow- : and • 
 of Arts, of Science, of Phi 
 of Letters; postgraduate, 
 of Philosophy, Doctor of S 
 Civil Engineer, Mining I 
 Laws, Bachelor of Divinity 
 honorary. — I 'oetor of Div 
 The degree of Master of .' 
 lerreil.as of course, upon 
 three years' standing: but, 
 implies a course of posl -gn 
 often honorary. Many i 
 course of study will lie ". 
 
 the different institution-, a 
 
 professii 
 
 noticed 
 
 degree of Bachelor of Arts will be noti 1 here. 
 
 and, for this purpose, Harvard and Vale will be 
 taken as examples. The term of studyfor this 
 degree is, in almost every institution, four years ; 
 the method of instruction is ordinarily a combi- 
 nation of lectures, recitations, and written ex- 
 aminations. 
 
 In Harvard, the course of stu.lv includes 
 Hebrew, Sanskrit, Greek and Latin languageand 
 literature, including ecclesiastical Greek and the 
 elements of Roman law), Anglo-Saxon, English 
 language and literature, German, French. Italian. 
 
 Spanish, Romai philology, rhetoric, political 
 
 economy, lo^ie, metaphysics, ethics, history in- 
 cluding international law), mathematics (includ- 
 
 mechanics, astr ly, optics, acoustics, electric- 
 
 ity, etc.), chemistry (including mineralogy , nat- 
 nral hi torj including physical geography, me- 
 teorology, geology, botanj .zoologj . palse mtology, 
 
 and the fine arts In many of these 'branches. 
 several parallel courses are arranged. The pre- 
 scribed studies occupy the whole of the fresh- 
 
 Reader, or Xenophon's A 
 
 Homer's Hind, Books [.- 
 
 the catalogue of ships ; a 
 metric system of weights 
 rudiments of logarithms 
 ratic equations; as inur 
 contained in the first 1 
 
 1 1 nei iv : ancient histo 
 
 ern and physical eeoera 
 
 colics, and Mieid, 
 reek grammar and 
 d Allen's (Jreek 
 sis, Books I.— IV., 
 ook of Herodotus; 
 
 I In . 
 
 era ot l'eirces 
 sography : mod- 
 nglish composi- 
 tion : the translation at sight of either easy 
 French prose or easy German prose; and either 
 elementary botany, rudiments of physics and 
 of chemistry, or rudiments of physics and of 
 descriptive astronomy. The second course em- 
 braces Latin grammar; Csesar, Be Betto GaUico, 
 Books I. and II.: Cicero, six orations and 
 Cato Major; Virgil, MneXd, Books 1.— VI.. in- 
 clusive ; Greek grammar; Goodwin and Allen's 
 Greek Reader, first 111 pages, or Xenophon's 
 
 hud - Books L- IV.. inclusive; Homer's 
 
 Iliad, Books Land II.. omitting the catalogue of 
 ■ hip,, algebra, as much as is contained in the 
 larger treatises of Greenleaf , etc.; solid geometry. 
 as much as is contained in Peirce's Geometry ; 
 plane trigonometry : elementsof plane analytical 
 geometry; with ' arithmetic, plane geometry, 
 history, geography, English composition, French 
 or German, and physical science as in the first 
 course. 
 
 In Yale, the course of instruction and the terms 
 of admission are similar to those of the better 
 class of colleges throughout the country. The 
 course of instruction includes the Greek and 
 ' Latin languages ami literatures (three years), 
 mathematics ftwo veal's. history. rhetoric, French 
 or German (two terms, junior yean, natural 
 ■philosophy, logic, astronomy, physics, mental 
 philosophy, political .and social science, chemistry, 
 natural tiieolo^v and evidences of Christianity, 
 moral philosophy, geology, anatomy and physi- 
 ology, the history of philosophy, constitutional 
 
 guage and the study of language. In some of 
 these subjects, the instruction is imparted simply 
 by lectures. The course of instruction is strictly 
 1 prescribed, except that the differential and in- 
 tegral calculus may be substituted for Greek 
 
or Latin during the first two terms of the 
 junior year. 
 
 The requirements for admission are Latin 
 grammar; Sallust, Bellum Jvgurthinum, or four 
 books of Caesar; Cicero, seven orations; Virgil, 
 
 Bucolics, Georgics, and the first sis I ks of 
 
 the .Eu'T'l: Arnold's Latin Prose Composition, 
 first twelve chapters; Greek grammar: Xono- 
 phon's Anabasis, four books; Homer's Iliad, 
 tliree books; Greek history ; higher arithmetic-, 
 including the metric system of weights and 
 measures; algebra; Euclid, first two books; 
 English grammar and geography. In the post- 
 graduate course, facilities are afforded for the 
 study of Anglo-Saxon, the American Indian lan- 
 guages (especially the dialects of the Algonquin 
 family), Sanskrit, the Chinese and Japanese 
 languages, Hebrew, and some other branches not 
 in the under-graduate course. 
 
 According to the Report of the IT. S. Com- 
 missioner of Education for 1874, there were, in 
 the I'nited States, 343 universities and colleges, 
 with 3, 7s:! instructors and ."Hi. iVXl students, dis- 
 tributed according to the following table : 
 
 s aggregate statistics from the same re- 
 port an- given in the following table: 
 
 No. volumes in college libraries 1 ,s,0. i;,;, 
 
 No. Miliitues in society libraries. . Ioc.141 
 
 Aggregate value of grounds, I 
 and apparatus % 19,170,223 
 
 Amount of productive funds ■Js.iiso.:ai:i 
 
 Vu'jToL'ate OH II thefel 1 1,801,890 
 
 lieeeipts fl nil tuition tees 
 
 Amount of seliolai>lii|. tends I.o'ei::;;, 
 
 State appropriation tor tl„. |,r -ding v.-ar i.ll.r.Ti; 
 
 The denominational character of the colleges 
 as nearly as can be ascertained was, in 1875, as 
 follows: 
 
 i-day Baptist 2 
 
 opal . 
 
 TERRITORIES. 
 
 Alabama . 
 Arkansas . . 
 California.. . . 
 Connecticut.. 
 Delaware. . 
 Georgia 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana. 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York. 
 
 North Carolina . . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania . . . 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 South Carolina. . . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Vermont 
 
 pal, South 9 
 
 ' Metliodi-tlYototalit I 
 
 Moravian | 
 
 MoMllOll . . 1 
 
 l'ie-ln tel i. iii 24 
 
 Protestant Episi opal ! 
 
 Reformed :: 
 
 German Reformed : 
 
 Roman Catholic ,,, 
 
 State 12 
 
 1.2s I 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 District of Columbia 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Utah 
 
 Washington 
 
 In the foregoing table, the colleges and uni- 
 versities arc placed together, but in such case 
 only the collegiate department is to be under- 
 stood. When there is a medical, law. or the- 
 ological department, the statistics of the same 
 are given elsewhere under the appropriate title. 
 
 A few colleges are not contained in this enu- 
 meration, it 1 icing uncertain ti i what denomination 
 they belong. All the important institutions, 
 however, are included. 
 
 Tie presidents of nearly all the leading col- 
 leges in the United States' met at EJanover, N. 
 If., in November 1874, and discussed, among 
 other things, college athletics (boating etc. I. the 
 taxation of college property, optional studies 
 
 and tin mparative importance of classical and 
 
 scientific studies, and the college and university 
 system. It was resolved not to interfere in 
 any way with regattas and boating. While the 
 
 amply sufficient to compensate for any such un 
 favorable results. Some of the presidents took 
 
 strong ground against the taxation of college 
 property. President Eliot warmly argued in 
 favor of optional studies, contending that the 
 United States is the only country which com- 
 pels a student to pursue prescribed branches 
 after the age of 19. In the discussion on class- 
 ical and scientific studies, each side had its 
 advocates; but the general opinion was. that, 
 the lanoiiao,-> and -oieinvs should be studied as 
 means of mental discipline only, during the 
 freshman and sophomore years, and that the 
 succeeding years— junior and senior — should be 
 
154 
 
 COLLKOIATK SCHOOLS 
 
 ■devoted to philosophy, literature, and special 
 sciences, leaving the languages and mathematics 
 optional during the junior year. — See Noah 
 Porter, Tlie American Colleges and the Amer- 
 ican Public (N '. r.,1870); Jbx-Blake, .1 Visit 
 /,, some American Schools and Colleges (Lond. 
 and \. V.): Oi.in. College Life; Its Theory and 
 Practice (N. V., L867); P. Arnold, Oxford and 
 Cambridge; their Colleges etc. (London). 
 COLLEGIATE SCHOOLS. See Cathe- 
 
 COLOMBIA, United States of, formerly 
 New Granada, a republic in the northern part of 
 South America, tunned of nine federal states, 
 tlir c bined area of which is variously esti- 
 mated at from 480,000 to 521,000 sq.m., and 
 the population at about 2,900,000, composed of 
 whites, negroes, Indians, and mixed races. The 
 whites are mainly Spanish, cither I > v birth or 
 by descent; they speak the Spanish language ami 
 generally profess the Catholic faith. The 
 country was conquered by the Spaniards in 1536 
 and L537, and was created a viceroyalty of 
 Spain, under the title of New Granada, in 1718. 
 After various insurrectionary attempts, the 
 Spanish rule was finally thrown off in L819, and 
 an alliance was formed with Venezuela and 
 
 Quito, under the name of the Republic of Co- 
 lombia. The chronic anarchy which has always 
 reigned among the South American republic's, 
 put an end to this union in 1829, and the pres- 
 ent republic was organized in 1831. 
 
 Under the Spanish rule, primary instruction 
 was chiefly in the hands of the Church; and 
 higher instruction was confined to the colleges. 
 In the latter, a, very superficial instruction was 
 given in the classics, history, geography, and the 
 elements of natural science; a smattering of 
 theology was also included. A number of these 
 colleges still exist, but are of little importance. 
 The chief ones arc the Golegio Nacional de San 
 
 tagena, I'npayan. Mompox. Tunja. and Cali. 
 
 After the overthrow of the Spanish power, 
 Bolivar aimed to set pu 
 firm footing. As a preli 
 property was sold, and all cloisters 
 than eight monks were suppressed. The con- 
 stitution of L821 limited the right of voting to 
 
 those citizens h tould read and write; it also 
 
 provided thai the national congress should con- 
 trol public education. Very considerable ad- 
 vance lit was made under liolivar's administra- 
 tion towards an efficient school system ; but, un- 
 fortunately, his dictatorial proceedings, together 
 wilh the anarchical spirit of I he people, produced 
 
 such political confusion, that nothing resulted 
 from it. Until the year L863, the only schools 
 were the relies of the old church and cloister 
 schools, a few private institutions, and some local 
 schools, supported by the municipalities. Public 
 instruction was first placed definitely under the 
 directi f the national government by the con- 
 stitution of 1863. The law of May 30., L868, 
 determines the relation of the national govern- 
 ment to the several states in the matter of edu- 
 
 linary step, the 
 
 which had 
 
 lurch 
 
 COLOMBIA 
 
 cation, prescribing the following as its duties : 
 Besides managing the national university, it is 
 required to maintain normal schools for both 
 sexes ; also to establish primary schools, which 
 shall serve as a standard for the establishment of 
 similar schools by the several states. The found- 
 ing of agricultural schools, together with the en- 
 tire direction of what school books and apparatus 
 shall be used, is entirely in the hands of the gov- 
 
 ernment. The law also j 
 normal school in the ca] 
 This law remained a dead 
 I ., 1*70, when a decree wa 
 
 for a central 
 the republic, 
 ltd November 
 upon the sub- 
 ject, providing for a national school board in 
 gota.and a state school board for each of thi 
 states to which a national school officer is sent. 
 The public schools arc either primary schools or 
 higher schools, arid are for both sexes. The 
 primary school gives instruction in reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic, the rudiments of the 
 Spanish language, the elements of physiology and 
 hygiene, singing, natural history. anil the history 
 of the nation. The higher schools add to these 
 branches the elements of algebra and geometry, 
 and an elementary knowledge of natural science 
 ami general geography. In the girls' schools, the 
 
 tent: and various feminine accomplishments, 
 such as house-keeping etc., are added. The cen- 
 
 Bubjects studied are grammar, Spanish literature, 
 the blench and l-.iigb-h languages, universal 
 history, the national history, algebra, geometry, 
 trigonometry, general geography, astronomy, in- 
 dustrial physics and chemistry, mechanics and 
 mechanical drawing. natural history and agricul- 
 
 voca'l and iiist'runi'cntal.'"'and gymnastics. The' 
 law further provides for a normal school in the 
 capital of each state, the expense of which is 
 borne by that state. A teachers' association is 
 connected with each of these normal schools. 
 Schools are also provided for those small chil- 
 dren whose' parents are unable to provide them 
 with the first rudiments of education. Every 
 public school must have its own building, which 
 includes the dwelling of the principal; it also 
 has a garden for the practical study of botany, 
 gardening, etc. The law provides, too, that pub- 
 lic instruction shall aim at moral culture, but 
 the national government does not interfere with 
 religious education. The course of instruction 
 
 -tors, or sit 
 
 iaus must cither send 
 bet ween the ages of scv 
 lie schools, or provide < 
 
 d wards, 
 the pub- 
 instrue- 
 
 although there is a strong sentiment in favor of 
 compulsory education. Besides these schools, 
 the government has established schools in the 
 military barracks, for the instruction of the sol- 
 diers in the common branches of learning. 
 
not been fiercely 
 
 I nit it has finally 
 quia. A further 
 out the law, was 
 nent called many 
 
 In Colombia, however, as elsewhere, the doc- 
 trine of state rights has been a troublesome ele- 
 ment. No act of the national congress heroines 
 a law in the several states, until it has been 
 adopted by their respective legislatures; and 
 there is not a single provision of the law per- 
 taining to education \\ 1 
 disputed by the Beveral 
 been adopted by all bi 
 disturbing element in c 
 Ultramontanism. Th. . 
 prominent teachers from abroad, and especially 
 from Germany, for the national normal schools, 
 — a measure at which the clerical party took great 
 offense. The exclusion of religious instruction 
 from the schools also caused a great deal of op- 
 position from the clergy; nevertheless, the system 
 ■of national instruction has continually grown in 
 favor with the people, and now seems to be as 
 well established as the restless character of the 
 people admits. A number of educational journals 
 are published, of which the following arc the 
 principal: La Escuela Normal, El Maestro de 
 JSscuela, La Escuela Primaria,£H Monitor, and 
 La Revista. 
 
 COLOR, as a branch of object instruction, is 
 of great interest and value; since, at an early 
 age, children take particular noticeof colors, and, 
 hence, lessons upon this subject furnish an excel- 
 lent opportunity for training them to distinguish 
 resemblances and differences, and for encouraging 
 the formation of those habits of attention and 
 comparison which are necessary to the successful 
 study of other subjects. From the fact that 
 many persons are found to be color-blind, it is of 
 great importance that suitable lessons should be 
 given children to enable teachers ami parents to 
 ascertain whether this defect exists in any under 
 their care, before they become old enough to en- 
 gage in any occupation in which color-blindness 
 would be an insurmountable defect. Besides, by 
 the early training of children to observe colors, 
 much of the inability to distinguish them, which 
 is commonly not discovered until later in life, may 
 be overcome by education. Furthermore, a gen- 
 eral knowledge of colors, and of their relations to 
 each other, is of importance in nearly every avo- 
 cation of life. This becomes especially apparent 
 
 furniture, household , lee, .ration's, in the work of 
 artists, and in various other kinds of employment 
 Since a knowledge of color can be gained only 
 through the sense of sight, the methods for 
 teaching it in school should be so arranged that 
 the pupils may have abundant exercise of this 
 sense in distinguishing colors. For the first les- 
 sons, place before the pupils the '..-*/ .,/,„-.< that can 
 be procured, in order that they may obtain cor- 
 rect conceptions as to what are good reds,yelr 
 lows, blues, greens, purples, etc. Commence 
 with showing a single color, as red, and leading 
 the pupils to compare red cards, paper, silk, 
 worsted, etc., with it, and thus to notice resem- 
 blances and differences between the true red and 
 the several objects compared with it. Give sim- 
 
 ilar exercises, with each of the primary and sec- 
 ondary colors, singly; then place two of these 
 
 ■les 
 
 pupils at the same time, and require them not 
 "nl\ to point out the colors as named, but to se- 
 lect colored articles to match each. 
 
 Frequent changes in the mode of giving these 
 exercises on color will increase the interest of the 
 children in the subject, and add to their knowl- 
 edge of it. especially when each one has some- 
 thing tn tin in the exercise. After the pupils 
 have learned to know each of the six colors used 
 in the previous lesson, fresh interest may be 
 given to the subject by supplying each child with 
 a piece of colored paper, taking care that those 
 who sit side by side shall, as far as possible, hold 
 different colors. When the papers have been 
 distributed, the teacher may say, " Now, look at 
 your paper, see what color you have, then fold 
 your arms so as to hide your paper. Now, look 
 at the color which 1 show you ; all who know 
 that they have a like color may hold it up. — 
 Right.—' Now, look at this color, all who have 
 one like it. hold it up." Proceed in the same 
 manner with each color; — to close the lesson, re- 
 quest one pupil to collect all the red papers, 
 another all the blues, another the greens, etc. 
 Similar lessons may be given for the purpose of 
 teaching children to distinguish shades of colors, 
 as dark and light reds. blue-, greens, etc. 
 
 If it be desired to continue these lessons, and 
 teach that the six colors previously shown may 
 be divided into two groups primary and sec- 
 ondary procure artists' paints: red (carmine), 
 yellow (chrome), blue i ultramarine); also a small 
 palette, and a palette knife. Place a little yel- 
 low and blue on the palette, side by side, re- 
 questing the pupils to notice what colors are 
 used. Then, with the knife mix these two 
 colors together until green appears in place of 
 the yellow and blue. Then ask the pupils what 
 color has been produced by mixing the yellow 
 and blue. Proceed in a similar manner to mix 
 red and blue, to produce purple ; red and yellow. 
 to produce orange. The teacher may now write 
 on the blackboard for the pupils to learn : Mix- 
 ing ueUow and blue will produce green. Mixing 
 red and blue wW, produce purple. Mixing red 
 and yellow will produce orange. Then pupils 
 may select the 1 two primary colors that will pro- 
 duce given secondaries, also the secondary that 
 may be made from two given primaries. Show 
 the pupils also that light and dark colors maybe 
 formed by mixing white or black with other 
 colors. Provide exercises by which the pupils 
 may do something to indicate that they know 
 each fact taught. 
 
 In order that children may understand har- 
 moiii/ if colnrs. they must be led to observe that 
 to produce harmony, the three primary colors 
 must be grouped together; that if two of them 
 exist in a given secondary, the other primary 
 will harmonize with that secondary. To acconi- 
 
156 COLO. 
 
 plish this result by teaching, arrange colored ' 
 paper, or other material, so that red and green, 
 yellow and purple, blue and orange, pale green 
 and violet, may be compared, and the sensation 
 noticed. Request the pupils to tell what colore 
 are compared in each instance ; also whether 
 the three primaries exist in each group; as well 
 as to observe that the colors of these groups ' 
 harmonize. Next, compare red and orange, blue j 
 and given, yellow and green, requiring the 
 pupils to observe the effect on the sense of 
 sight; also to state which primaries exist in each 
 gnaip. and to notice that the colors of these 
 groups do not harmonize. These lessons will 
 be more or less useful in proportion to the 
 amount of exercise which the pupils have in 
 
 and 
 
 N. 
 
 kins, Primary Object Lessons, 15th ed. (N.Y., 
 L871); Burton, T% Culture of Ike Observing 
 Faculties (X. T.,1865); Ci i:i:ik. Principles and 
 Practice of Early and Infant School-Education 
 (Bdin., 1857). (See also Senses.) 
 
 COLORADO was organized as a territory 
 Feb. 28., 1861, from parts of Kansas, Nebraska, 
 Xew Mexico, and Utah. The part which is 
 situated north of the Arkansas river and east of 
 the Rocky mountains, was included in Louisiana, 
 
 purchased fr Prance in L803; the remainder 
 
 formed part of the territory ceded by Mexico 
 
 of Colorado was reported as Int. .Mm sq. in., and 
 its population as 39,864, which included 456 col- 
 ored persons, 7 Chinese, and 180 Indians. The 
 settlement of the territory, it may be said, was 
 begun in .Time, 1858. by a party of gold-seekers 
 from Georgia, consisting of nine persons, under 
 the leadership of W. Q. Russel. The region se- 
 lected by these for settlement was near the pres- 
 ent city of Denver, then within the limits of 
 Kansas. Previous to this time, however, there 
 were a few Mexicans in the southern portion of 
 the territory, engaged in stock-raising. 
 
 Educational History. — Among the acts passed 
 by the firsi legislative assembly, which met Sept. 
 '/., 1861, was one that provided for the establish- 
 ment of a system of public schools, to be under 
 the supervision of a superintendent of public in- 
 struction, county superintendents, and district 
 directors. At this time, the school population 
 of the territory was very small ; hence, the law, 
 although comprehensive and liberal, was of little 
 practical use. At a subsequent session of the 
 legislature, the office of superintendent of public 
 instruction was practically abolished by making 
 the territorial treasurer superintendent exqfficio, 
 with a salary of ."JUKI per annum. Unlike most 
 of the recently settled states anil territories, Col- 
 orado had for her pioneers not families, but indi- 
 viduals, not women and children, but gold-hunt- 
 
 main for a longer time than was required to 
 gather a fortune. Hence but little interest u.ts 
 manifested in schools (indeed, at that period, 
 
 there was scarcely any necessity for their estab- 
 lishment), until about the year 18(ifl, by which 
 time the natural resources of the territory — agri- 
 cultural, mineral, and climatical — had been made 
 manifest to such an extent, that railroads were 
 projected, colonies were organized in the east, 
 and those who had been here during the preced- 
 ing years felt no desire to emigrate. The num- 
 ber of school children increased rapidly, and the 
 necessity for a permanent and liberal school sys- 
 tem not only became apparent, but was demanded 
 by the ] pie. In L870, the school law was re- 
 vised; the office of superintendent of public in- 
 struction was again created; and Wilbur C. 
 I/ithrop was appointed to fill the office for two 
 years, and re-appointed, in L872, for a second 
 term. Before the expiration of his second term, 
 however, Mr. Lothrop resigned, and Horace M. 
 Sale was appointed to till the vacancy, and re- 
 appointed for the full term ending iii Febru- 
 ary, L876. 
 
 ' Svlnuil Si/atnn. — The superintendent of public 
 instruction is appointed by the governor and 
 confirmed by the legislative council, holds the 
 office for two years, and receives an annual salary 
 of $1200. He has a general supervision of the 
 county superintendents and of the public schools, 
 and is required to report biennially to tin- gov- 
 ernor. 'I he county superintendents (25 in num- 
 ber) are elected at 'hi' regular county election 
 for two years; they receive five dollars for each 
 day's service, are required to examine teachers, 
 to grant certificates (valid for a period not ex- 
 ceeding one year), to apportion the county fund, 
 to visit the schools twice each term, and to make a 
 report each year to the superintendent of public 
 instruction. ' The district directors, consisting of 
 a president..! treasurer. and a secretary, arc elected 
 on the first Monday of May in each' year by the 
 tax-paying voters of each district The directors 
 employ teachers, make all contracts for the main- 
 tenance of the schools, and perform such special 
 duties as may be delegated to them by the citi- 
 zens at the time of their election, such as fixing 
 the course of study, designating the kind of text- 
 books to be used, specifying the time during 
 which the schools shall be in session, levying spe- 
 cial taxes for building and other purposes, etc. 
 School districts are bodies corporate, formed 
 from time to time by the county superintendent. 
 They may. tit a special election called for the 
 purpose, vote to issue the bonds of the district 
 for the purpose of building school-houses. Many 
 of the incorporated towns have special school 
 laws differing somewhat from the general school 
 law. The school fund is obtained from a county 
 tax (not less than two mills on the dollar), from 
 the proceeds of fines collected in the several 
 counties for breaches of the penal laws, from 
 all i cvs arisins from the sale of waifs and 
 
 licl 
 
 quarterly to the several districts, according to 
 the number of persons in each between i he ages 
 of 5 and 21 years. There is no state school tax. 
 
COLORADO COLLEGE 
 
 It is provided that the Bible shall not be ex- 
 cluded from the schools, but that no pupil shall 
 be required to read it contrary to the wishes of 
 his parents or guardian. Teachers' institutes are 
 held in the several counties at thecallof the 
 county superintendents; but there is no regularly 
 organized teachers' association, nor state normal 
 school. The school year bi gins I October 1st. 
 
 Educational Condition. Prom the report of 
 Sept. 30., 1875, it appeared that there were in 
 the territory .'12'.i school-districts, 280 public 
 schools, and 172 school-houses. The number of 
 children of school age — from 5 to "21 — was 
 23,274, and the number of pupils enrolled 
 L0.185. The whole number of teachers" employed 
 was 377, of whom 172 were males, and 205 fe- 
 males: and the average monthly salary paid to 
 the male teachers was $60, and to the female 
 teachers. $50. The whole amount of money ex- 
 pended for school purposes duringthe preceding 
 year, was $210,813.86; and the total value of 
 the school houses and furniture was $414,008. 
 The increase during the preceding year was as 
 follows: In number of school-districts, 16 per 
 cent; in schools. 18 percent; in school-houses, 
 L6 per cent : in school population, 16 per cent ; 
 in value of school property, 23 per cent. 
 
 Secondary and other Instruction.— The High 
 
 Scl lut Denver was established in 1873, and 
 
 will graduate its first class in 1877. There are 
 also several private and denominational schools. 
 including a school of mines, in Denver. There 
 is also a school for deaf-mutes at Colorado 
 Springs. -V proposed state university has been 
 chat i.i. J and located at Boulder. Forty acres of 
 ground have been. set apart for its use. and S: Id. (Kin 
 are now (187<i) in the hands of the trustees to be 
 appropriated to the erection of buildings. Col- 
 orado College, at Colorado Springs, was estab- 
 lished in 1874 by the ('ongivgationalists ; and 
 Evans University, at Evans, was chartered in , 
 1 874 by the Presbyterians. A school of mines 
 has also been commenced, at Golden, as the fut- 
 ure scientific school of the projected state uni- 
 versity. 
 
 COLORADO COLLEGE, at Colorado 
 Springs, Colorado, was organized in 1874. It 
 is under the control of ( 'ongivgationalists. Pre- 
 paratory and collegiate departments have been 
 established. In 1873 — 4, it bad 5 instructors, 
 and 2a preparatory and 15 collegiate students. 
 It admits both sexes. 
 
 COLORED SCHOOLS, a class of schools 
 designed for the instruction of colored children. 
 Such schools are quite common in many parts 
 of the United States, especially in the South, 
 where the negro population is very large. Thus. 
 in South Carolina, in 1874, the whole number 
 of children of school age (6 to 16. inclusive) 
 enumerated was 230,102, of whom 84,975 were 
 white, and 14.5.127 colored children; and of a 
 total enrollment of 100,719, the white children 
 numbered 44,470, and the colored children 
 56,249. In all the old slave states, and in many 
 of the northern states, the feeling of aversion to. 
 or prejudice against, the negro race is so strong, 
 
 COLORED SCHOOLS 157 
 
 that the public school system can be made effect 
 ive only by the establishment of separate schools 
 
 legislative requ 
 cording to the 
 1873, 'has prae 
 
 without regard to color, 
 ml larger northern states. 
 parate schools for white 
 fast passing away. Thus^ j 
 874, there were only 731 
 Idren out of an aggregate] t, 
 
 
 sr . 
 
 
 and of this only $66,126 was expended for the 
 support of colored schools in the state, those in 
 the towns costing only $7,768, and those in the 
 
 report 
 
 ge of all the other common schools 
 ii 1835, the whole number of pupils 
 these schools was about 1608, with 
 ittendance of 757 ; and the annual 
 city superintendent for 1875 shows 
 an enrollment of only 1958, and an average at- 
 tendance of 872. Although, by the Civil Bights 
 liill. passed by the slate legislature in 1873. all 
 the schools weri' practically thrown open to 
 colored children, few have taken advantage of 
 this, but have apparently preferred to remain in 
 the separate schools provided for them, though 
 their attendance is often at considerable incon- 
 venience in consequence of the remoteness of 
 their places of residence from the schools. 
 
 In some of the states, the prescribing of sep- 
 arate schools for colored children is a great hard- 
 ship, since their numbers are not sufficient to 
 warrant the establishment of good schools, if an\ 
 at all. Thus, in the Ohio state report for 1873, 
 it is stated that, "in many districts, colored chil- 
 dren are practically deprived of school pri\ ileges 
 ami advantages, especially where the number by 
 enumeration is less than twenty: and the separate 
 schools established for them are sometimes con- 
 tinued in session a less number of weeks than 
 the schools for white children in the same district. 
 It is a significant fact that, of the 23,020 colored 
 
I.'.s 
 
 COLORKII SCHOOLS 
 
 youth of school age in the state, only .5.950 are 
 under instruction." It has been claimed by some 
 that the fourteenth amendment to the constitu- 
 tion of the United States, which denies the right 
 of any state " to make or enforce any law which 
 shall abridge the privileges or immunities of 
 citizens of the United states," prohibits the 
 establishment of separate schools for colored 
 
 children; but decisions of the supreim urts in 
 
 New York and Ohio have settled this question 
 in favor of the separate schools, provided these 
 schools afford their pupils advantages equal to 
 those provided for white children. Such was 
 also the decision of the superior court of Marion 
 County, Indiana, in 1 ST 4, which held that "the 
 classification of scholars on the basis of race or 
 color, and their education in separate schools in- 
 volve questions of domestic policy which are 
 within the legislative discretion and control, and 
 do not amount t i an exclusion of either class." 
 Hence, the state law of May 13., 1859 was sus- 
 tained as constitutional ; and it was decided that, 
 while it remained in force, colored children were 
 "not entitled to admission into the common 
 schools provided for the education of white 
 children." 
 
 The feeling in regard to mixed schools for 
 white and colored children is very diverse in 
 different localities. In some places, there is a 
 most intense opposition to such schools ; while, 
 in others, and sometimes in the same state, there 
 is a complete acquiescence of all citizens in the 
 arrangement. In 1873, the school superintendent 
 of Illinois issued a circular of inquiry, in regard 
 to this Bubject, to the county superintendents, 
 asking for facts and results; and out of 77 
 counties reporting, there were in lo.no persons 
 
 of colortol lueated; in 41, colored children 
 
 attended the same schools as white children ; in 
 10, the colored children were in separate schools; 
 in 16, some were in separate schools, while others 
 attended the same as whites; in 30, no objections 
 
 to the -education of the races were reported; 
 
 but in 'J7. trouble, of a more or less serious na- 
 ture, was stated to have occurred. Some of the 
 superintendents were strongly in favor of co-edu- 
 cation, while others, including some from coun- 
 ties where the schools were mixed, expressed 
 their opposition to it in the strongest terms. 
 
 The opposition to the co-education of the races 
 in the Southern states is, as might be expected, 
 very strong. This was made manifest in the 
 public expression of opinion in regard 
 Civil Rights Bill while it was pending 
 the United States Senate, in 1874. 
 
 edueaki / ( White and Colored R 
 
 Rev. W. H. Rufiner, state superinteni 
 schools in Virginia, published in Sa 
 Monthly (May, I s 7 1), the author said. "A 
 
 Congress requiring the ill poles of i 
 
 nets to attract each other, would uo1 b, 
 more absurd than one requiring educatii 
 conducted on a race mixture in the lal 
 states." "There an 
 
 COLUMBIA COLLEGE 
 
 and he expressed the opinion, that the passage of" 
 any law enforcing co-education would have the 
 effect to ruin the common school system in every 
 one of those states. As long as this feeling of 
 aversion to the co-education of whites and blacks 
 exists, whether prejudice or not, it would seem 
 to be the duty of legislators to respect it; and 
 not to endeavor to force upon communities a 
 school organization which they abominate, as 
 lone as the equal rights of all citizens are re- 
 spected. \t the same time, it must be borne in 
 mind that experience seems to show that these 
 race distinctions disappear in time: but that 
 this time maybe prolonged by unwise violence 
 and haste. Probably, not in the present genera- 
 tion will the existence of colored schools cease, 
 at any rate in the Southern states; but that they 
 will finally disappear. ;is a feature of American 
 common-school systems, there are many that 
 entertain no doubt. 
 
 COLUMBIA COLLEGE, in the City of 
 New York, was incorporated by royal charter in 
 1754, and was called King's College, [t was sus- 
 pended during the revolution, and reorganized, 
 in 1787, under its present name, Columbia 
 
 College. Th, Uege "rounds comprise the block 
 
 bounded by Madison and Fourth avenues, and 
 49th and 50th streets. The value of grounds, 
 buildings, and apparatus i«S7*7.700 : tin' amount 
 
 annual income is S'-'(l.~>.IKI0. These tieiires are 
 exclusive of the medical school. Certain so- 
 cieties and coi] mrations. including each reli- 
 gious denomination in the city of New York, 
 
 may send students to be educated fri f charge. 
 
 Fourteen scholarships have recently been estab- 
 lished, of the annual value of §100 each, and 
 six fellowships (one in science and one in litera- 
 ture) of the annual value of S.">U(I each. The 
 fellowships are offered for competition to the 
 senior class upon graduation, and are tenable 
 for three years. The fellows are required to 
 continue their studies under the direction of the 
 president of the college, but they may choose the 
 place of study. The institution comprises the 
 college proper, the school of mines, the law 
 school, and the medical school. The college 
 proper has s professorships : (1)1 ireek language 
 and literature: l'J) (iciiuaii language and litera- 
 ture ; (3) chemistry; (4) mathematics; (.">) 
 mathematics and astronomy; (6) moral and in- 
 tellectual philosophy, and English literature; (7) 
 lage and 
 
 StoTOT 
 
 ire are now." he said. " more than 
 a million and a half of children, white and black, 
 in the public schools of the fifteen ex-slave states;" 
 
 of Bachelor of Arts. 'I he college has an astro- 
 nomical observatory, a herbarium, and valuable 
 chemical and philosophical apparatus. The cost of 
 tuition is SI (in per annum, but it may lie remitted 
 to indigent students. The school of mines was 
 established in 1864. It has 8 professorships : 
 ili mineralogy and metallurgy; (2) civil and 
 mining engineering ; (3) analytical and applied 
 chemistry: (4) general chemistry; (5) mechan- 
 ics : (6) mathematics ; (7) physics ; (8) geologj and 
 palaeontology. The system of instruction includes 
 
COLUMBIA 
 
 five parallel courses of study; namely, (1) civil 
 engineering; (2) mining engineering ; (3) metal- 
 lurgy; (4) geology and natural history; (5) ana- 
 lytical and applied chemistry. The course of in- 
 struction occupies three years. Those w ho com- 
 plete it receive the degree of Engineer of Mines. 
 Civil Engineer, or Bachelor of Philosophy. 
 There is an advanced course for graduates 
 nt' the school for the degn f Doctorof Phi- 
 losophy. For candidates not qualified to enter 
 the first year, there is a preparatory year. 
 Collections of specimens and models, illustrating 
 all the subjects taught in the school, are access 
 ible to the students, including crystal models, 
 natural crystals, pseud) rphs, ores and metal- 
 lurgical products, models of furnaces, specimens 
 
 illustrating applied chemistry, fossils, ecoi lie 
 
 minerals, rocks, Olivier'.- [els ol descriptive 
 
 geometry, models of mining machines, an I models 
 
 of mining tools. Tin -i of tuition k 8200 
 
 per annum, but it may lie remitted to indigent 
 students. The law school, now in Great Jones 
 street, was opened in L858. Under the direction 
 of Theodore W. Dwight, LL. D., it has attained 
 a high reputation. The ( lollege of Physicians 
 and Surgeons, on the corner of 23d street and 
 Fourth avenue, became the medical department 
 of Columbia College in L860,but the connection 
 is little more than nominal. The number of in- 
 structors, students, and volumes in the libraries, 
 in 1875 — 6. was as follows : 
 
 Departments. Instructors. Students. Volumes. 
 
 College (proper) 13 172 17,500 
 
 School of Mine- 23 220 6,000 
 
 Law School li 573 4.(1110 
 
 Medical School 29 410 1,200 
 
 COMENIUS 
 
 ir.it 
 
 not a large endowment, and is supported prin- 
 cipally by tuition fees. The value of its real 
 
 estate is about S." ,000. 
 
 The regular course of instruction (I years) 
 
 in the college department is c prised in'seven 
 
 schools, as follows: (1) School of English; ('-') 
 School of Greek ; (3) School of Latin ; (4) 
 
 Scl I of Modern Languages; (5) School of 
 
 Mathematics; (6) School of Natural Se,ene,. : 
 (71 School of l'liilii-uiiliv. Certificates ,,f mo- 
 
 ot Bachelor of Arts is conf 
 obtain diplomas in any si 
 ceive a certificate of orotic 
 
 juts who 
 who re- 
 esiduary 
 
 Tota 
 
 .37.-. 
 
 According to the triennial catalogue of 1870, 
 the total number of graduates of all the schools 
 was 3,834, of whom 2,721 were living. There 
 were 2,109 graduates in arts, 868 in medicine, 
 4s7 in law,37 in mining, and 333 honorary grad- 
 uates. The presidents have been as follows : 
 the Rev. Dr. Samuel Johnson, 1754 — 63; Myles 
 Cooper, LL.1>., 1763 — 7"> ; Benjamin Moore, 
 A.M., pro tern., 1775— 6; Win. S. Johnson, 
 LL.D., 17>7 -1800; the Rev. Dr. Charles II. 
 Wharton (win. probal.lv did not act), 1801; the 
 Rev. Benjamin Moore.D It.. 1801— 11; the Rev. 
 Wm. Harris. D It.. 1811—29; Win. A. Duer, 
 LL. D., 1829—42 : Nathaniel F. Moore, LL.D., 
 1842— it ; Charles King. LL. D., 1849—64 ; the 
 Rev. Frederick A. I'. Barnard, LL.D., the present 
 incumbent, appointed in 1864. 
 
 COLUMBIA, District of. See District 
 
 COLUMBIAN UNIVERSITY, nearWash- 
 
 ington. It. C, was chartered in 182] as the 
 Columbian College, and opened in 1822. [nl873, 
 the name was changed U ad of Congress to the 
 
 Columbian I niv, r.-itv. \ majoHts of the hoard 
 ol .:,-,. - and ,.M.,-„r- are' I cnni.-l.-. but the 
 
 examination, in review of all the studies pre- 
 scribed for this degree. The cost of tuition in 
 the college is ^60 a year, but it is remitted in 
 favor of students intended for the ministry. 
 The medical department, known as the National 
 
 Medical College, is in the city of Washington, 
 ls'.'i'i) is also in 
 
 Washington. The coll' 
 
 6, had 11! 
 
 instructors. 103 preparatory and 48 collegiate 
 students, and a lilnan of 5,750 volumes; the 
 
 law scl I. :> professors and 130 students: and 
 
 the medical college, II instructors and 54 
 students. The presidents of the university have 
 been as follows: the Rev. Wm. Staughton, D.D., 
 1821 — 1827; the Rev. Stephen ciiapin.lt.il.. 
 1828—1841; the Rev. Joel S. Bacon, D.D., 1843 
 —1854; the Rev. Joseph G. Benney, lt.lt.. Is;.;, 
 —1858; the Rev. Ceo. W. Samson, D.D., 1859 
 —1871; James ('.Welling, LL. D., the present 
 incumbent, appointed in 1871. 
 
 COMENIUS, John Amos, the forerunner 
 of Basedow and Pestalozzi, and one of the great- 
 est educators of modern times, was born at 
 Komna. in Moravia. March 2s., 1592, and died 
 Nov. 15., 1671. From his birthplace, he re- 
 ceived the name Komensky, Latin Comenius, 
 by which his family name was so fully sup- 
 irandson. It. K. Jablon- 
 
 plante 
 
 that evi 
 kli 
 
 sectarian. It comprises a preparatory depart- 
 ment, a college department, a law department, 
 and a medical department. The institution has 
 
 I le studied in llerboin 
 and Heidelberg, and taught for a time a school 
 of the Bohemian Brethren in Prerau Moral ia. 
 He afterward became a preacherof this church 
 at Fulneck, likewise in Moravia, assuming at the 
 same time the direction of the school, in com- 
 mon with the Protestants of Moravia and Bo- 
 
COMENITJS 
 
 hernia in general, he suffered great hardships at 
 the hands of the Austrian government : and the 
 Thirty years' war also entailed upon him the 
 most serious losses. At the sack of Fulueck by 
 the Spaniards, he lost his library and manu- 
 scripts, and the greater part of his property. In 
 1624, Protestant preachers were driven from the 
 country, and < 'omenius was compelled to conceal 
 himself. In 1628, he left Bohemia, and settled 
 atLissa.in Poland. Soon afterward heassumed 
 tin' direction of the gymnasium of this town, 
 and. while in this position, gained a Lnropean 
 fame by the publication of Ins first great work 
 
 an extraordinary Mieee.,. heine. translated into 
 twelve European, and even into several Asiatic 
 languages. \t a synod held in Lissa, in 1632, 
 he was elected bishop of the Bohemian Brethren. 
 In 1638, he received a call from Sweden, to re- 
 form the educational system of that country, but 
 he did not accept it. He sent, however, to the 
 Swedish government a Latin translation of the 
 greatest of his pedagogical works, the IHdactica 
 
 magna seu 
 
 doeendi artifici 
 
 which he had planned in Lissa as early as 1029, 
 and ha I now completed in German. An extract 
 from this work having been print c 1 by some of his 
 friends in Kngland under the title /'nn/riw/ns . 
 Pansqphia (London. 1639), he received an invi- 
 tation from Lirjand to reform public instruction 
 there. In compliance with this invitation, he 
 went, in 1641, to London, but political troubles 
 
 iu Ireland prevented bis ace plishing anything. 
 
 In 1642, he was invited to Sweden to consult 
 with Oxenstiern, the chancellor of the kingdom, 
 on educational matters. Oxenstiern had read 
 the I'rixh-nimix. and recommended ( 'omenius to 
 pursue his undertaking, but first to care for the 
 needs of the schools. "The Swedish government 
 established Comenius in the Prussian town of 
 Blbing to compose a work upon his method. 
 After" laboring four years, he returned in L646 
 to Sweden. Three commissioners examined his 
 work, and declared it proper for printing when 
 < 'one mils should have finally revised it. He re- 
 turned to Blbing to do this. 'and thence, in 1648, 
 he went to Lissa. where, in the same year, he 
 brought out his work, the Xorissinxi liinjiiiirum 
 ,ur(/itn/ii.<. which substantially brought to a close 
 his literary labors in behalf of a reform of the 
 methods of instruction. In the same year, the 
 Bohemian Brethren elected him Senior Bishop 
 mill President of ike Synod, a position which he 
 retained to the end of his life. In 1650, upon an 
 invitation from Prince Rakoczy, he went to 
 Hungary and Transylvania, and remained there 
 four years, during which time he organized a 
 school at I'aiak (also called Sams Patak). Here 
 (' - wrote, among other works, his cel- 
 ebrated Orbis Sensualium Pictus, which was pub- 
 lished in 1657 at Nuremberg, and, in various 
 forms has continued a favorite book for children 
 down to the present time, In 1 654, Comenius re- 
 l urned to Lissa, where he remained until 1056, in 
 
 which year the Poles burned the city. He lost on 
 this occasion his house, his books, and Iris manu- 
 scripts, the labor of many years. He fled into 
 Silesia, thence successively to Braudenburg, Stet- 
 tin, andllamburg, and in August. 1050. to Am- 
 sterdam, w here he remained until the end of his 
 life, highly honored by all who knew him, and 
 liberally supported by some wealthy merchants 
 whose children he instructed. He printed his 
 Opera Didactica (4 vols.), at Amsterdam, in 1057. 
 at the expense of Lorenzo de Geer, one of his 
 patrons. 
 
 Coniciiius's position in the history of pedagogy 
 is chiefly that of a reformer. His dissatisfaction 
 
 until his sixteenth year; and his mind was al- 
 ready sufficiently developed to be dissatisfied 
 
 with' the artificial and worthless instruction there 
 received. At that time, the. study of the Latin 
 language was the only means of culture; and the 
 ability to read and write it, was regarded as all 
 that "was valuable in education. Comenius in- 
 sisted upon a study of the mother-tongue as 
 ,,i greater importance than that of the Latin, 
 and declared, moreover, the study of languages to 
 
 be ; ans of knowledge, not an end. The aim 
 
 of education, he asserted, is the development of 
 complete men, and the pro founi lest knowledge 
 possible of the world without and within. The 
 ideal order of instruction in things, as opposed 
 to instruction in language, is: (1) A Pan- 
 sophia, in which the .sum' of human knowledge 
 should be treated in its relations to Uod, the 
 world, and reason ; (2) A Panhisinria, which 
 should be divided into six classes: biblical his- 
 tory, natural history, history of inventions, dis- 
 tinguished examples of virtue, history of dif- 
 ferent religious customs, and the history of the 
 world; (3) A Universal Dogmatic, or psychol- 
 ogy. In this outline, ( lomenius adopted a great 
 manv of the principles of Bacon's Instduratio 
 Magna. With Bacon he insisted strongly upon 
 a study of nature at first hand and unfettered by 
 traditional prejudices. He insisted, too, upon 
 the equal instruction of both sexes. Education 
 aims at the development of the human being, and 
 to shut any one out from it, is injustice. The 
 school should be no respecter of persons. He 
 strongly insisted upon the necessity of physical 
 education, and called the attention of educators 
 to the importance of providing airy school- 
 rooms and pleasant play-grounds. The true 
 order of instruction must be learned from nat- 
 ure. Art can do nothing except by imitation. 
 Upon this point Comenius uses many fantastic 
 analogies, with all of which, however, he mingles 
 a great deal of truth. Many studies are, at the 
 same time to be avoided, as dissipating the men- 
 tal strength. All studies must be so ordered 
 that the later are always founded on the earlier, 
 and the earlier supported by the later. Words 
 must be learned only in connection with tilings. 
 In the study of science the scholar must, as 
 far as possible, have the objects themselves be- 
 
no littl. urns at t 
 
 Schools he divided 
 r school, the vernac 
 md the university. 
 
 i every house. Hen 
 le senses and the m 
 ra the vernacular scl 
 
 if catechism, the lh 
 the Latin school, Li 
 
 3. chronology, ethics, 
 universitv should 1 
 
 COMENIUS 
 
 fore him; and. when this is impossible, correct 
 drawings should be used. His Orbis Pictus is 
 devoted to the exposition of this principle, and 
 
 ing." In the stud} oi languagi - one's mother- 
 tongue must come first. Children may only learn 
 that part of a language which deals with the no- 
 tions of childhood. Every language is to be 
 learned more through practice than by rule. 
 Rules must he grammatical, ami not plulo-oph- 
 ical. They must give the ham. and not the ex- 
 planation. Rules are necessary only where the 
 language differs from the mother-tongue. These 
 thoughts may seem commonplace enough at 
 present, but it requir 
 time to originate then 
 tour classes : The mol 
 school, the Latin schew 
 mother school musl 1" 
 child learns the use of 
 language. The child enters tl 
 in its sixth year. and lcar 
 luetic, singing, hymns, the 
 universal history, 
 Creek. Hebrew'.: 
 
 led. together witl 
 
 Biblical theology 
 
 place for universal study. In all tin.-, intellectual 
 culture must not he separated from morality ami 
 religion. According to him, all learning is a 
 means for the moral elevation of mankind. The 
 present life is to be viewed as a preparation for 
 the life eternal; and children and youth must be 
 taught, both by precept and example, to connect 
 this life with God and his commandments. The 
 importance, however, of < lomenius a- an educator 
 
 lies less in what he did than in the reform which 
 he inaugurated. His theory that education 
 should he a development of the whole man. that 
 educational methods should follow the order of 
 nature, that nature itself should lie studied, and 
 that education should aim at knowledge this, 
 though imperfectly understood by himself, con- 
 stitutes a solid foundation for an enduring fain.-. 
 Coineliius always designated dcrmany. to which 
 country he principally owed his education, as 
 his native country, although Slavic (Czechic) 
 blood may have flowed in his veins. He was 
 master of both the languages spoken in Mo- 
 ravia, his native land, the German and tin' 
 Czechic; and he acknowledged their respective 
 advantages, but he expressed his regret that 
 there wis more than one language. 
 
 The second centennial anniversary of Come- 
 nius's death was celebrated in L871, with ap- 
 propriate solemnities, not only in Moravia, but 
 in almost all the countries of Kurope. as well as 
 in the 1'nited Stales: and the Teachers' Associa- 
 tion in Moravia concluded to erect a monument 
 to his memory. A fine statue of the great edu- 
 cator has since been executed in Saxon sand- 
 stone with much genius and skill by the cele- 
 brated sculptor. Professor Seidan, in Prague; 
 and, since August 23., 1S75. it has adorned the 
 square before the castle in Prerau. A list of 
 the educational works of Comenius is given in 
 
 COMMENCEMENT lfil 
 
 Raumer's Oeschichlc dn- /'<),/.,>, ..,,,/, i translated 
 in Barnard's German Teachers and Educators); 
 
 hed 
 
 .hi 
 
 eational as well as others, has been published 
 by Palackyin the Jakrbucher des Bshmisclien 
 Museums, 1829. German translations of the 
 
 pedagogieal works of ( 'oniellius, with notes and 
 biography, are published by Dr. Th. Lion, in 
 
 /■' / ill I /,/(/( x/ISi In I' »'/./»,/,,■ I I ,|||._rli 
 
 -al.a. I-;., and U Beegei and Zoubek in Ru h 
 
 Ml-/', ■■,-.- : II ■ 1,1,,-ie; of the 
 
 translation of the Dt'rffl !ii I 1A : I in this col- 
 lection the 3d edition appeared in L875). See 
 
 also Lai pb t, Jol An - C ius' Lehr- 
 
 hoot Leipsic, I-:.:;. Gwdely, UeberdesJ.A. 
 
 I i, in- in -i* I. "ml II irln-md,- ,' in -I- i- 
 
 Fremd he pi lings oj ih, Vienna Acad- 
 
 emj of Science \ ienna, 1855 ; Qi n k, Essays 
 on Educational Reformers (London and Cin- 
 cinnati). 
 
 COMMENCEMENT denotes, in the United 
 
 form I I iv colleges and universities upon their 
 graduates. This takes place in June or duly, 
 and closes the scholastic year, so that the name 
 in this respect appears to be a misnomer. The 
 exercises connected with the commencement 
 sometimes begin on Sunday with a commence- 
 ment sermon to the graduating class. On the 
 
 nt- h, 
 
 ulties. and as 
 occasion may 
 graduates the 
 
 ,1 si 
 
 particular 
 I reunion 
 
 nual meet- 
 ent of the 
 •s the liee- 
 uing. All 
 neiit day' . 
 itution, in 
 s, the fac- 
 ors as the 
 upon the 
 for which 
 ! have pre- 
 
 pleeeded byoiatioii- delivered by the members 
 
 of the graduating class, the " valedictory" and 
 -salutatory'' addresses being assigned to the 
 scholars holding the highest rank in the class. 
 The Latin language is frequently used by the 
 -salutatory" speaker, as well as by the president 
 in conferring the degrees. 
 
 For the students of colleges and universities, 
 the commencement is an occasion of peculiar in 
 tcrest. The ambition to excel at that time, acts as 
 a powerful and most beneficial incentive to as- 
 siduous study. The reunion of former graduates 
 tends to nourish, in all the former students of 
 
 these institutions, a spirit of devoted attach m 
 
 to their Alma Mater, and thus secures to the 
 cause of collegiate education a large and influen- 
 
COMMERCIAL COLLEGES 
 
 162 
 
 tial number of zealous friends and patrons. The 
 large concourse of the relatives and friends of 
 the pupils, as well as of the friends of education, 
 and, in .smaller towns, of the town population 
 in general, diffuses among the people at large 
 an acquaintance with these institutions and a 
 care for their success, and gives them a pop- 
 ularity which no other feature could secure. 
 A glance at the reports, in American newspapers, 
 of the commencement exercises during the 
 months of June and July, reveals a national in- 
 terest in collegiate institutions, which is hardly 
 found to an equal extent in any other country; 
 and, if the wealthy citizens of the United States 
 have acquired a world-wide reputation by their 
 liberal donations for educational purposes, the 
 popular commencement exercises may claim to 
 have very largely contributed to this result. 
 Commencement exercises may, therefore, be con- 
 sidered a very potent agent in stimulating the 
 zeal of the students, and in fostering among all 
 classes of the people a just appreciation of the 
 value of higher education. 
 
 COMMERCIAL COLLEGES. See Bosi- 
 
 COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION. 
 
 See Bureau of Education. 
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS, the name given in 
 the United States to schools maintained at the 
 public expense, and open to all. These schools 
 are public elementary schools, although the com- 
 mon-school system of any state or city often in- 
 cludes schools of several grades, as primary, 
 grammar, and high schools, besides normal 
 schools for the special instruction and training 
 
 of teachers. Common sd Isintherural districts 
 
 are called district schods, being under the super- 
 vision and control of the officers of the school 
 district; and for the same reason those situated in 
 the wards of a city are sometimes called ward 
 schools. Common schools are established by 
 legislative enactment, and are supported by fun Is 
 derived from legislative appropriation. (See 
 School Fcnd.) The expensive common-school 
 systems of large cities are, however, chiefly, if not 
 wholly, supported by local taxation ; thus, in 
 the city of New York, the amount received by 
 apportionment from the state for the support of 
 the common schools of the city is very much 
 less than the amount of tax paid by the city for 
 the support of the common-school system of 
 the state. There is no uniform common-school 
 system in the United States no national system 
 of public instruction, the organization and con- 
 trol of the common schools being left to the in- 
 dividual states: and, even in the states, the tend- 
 ency is to almost exclusive local authority. The 
 history and description of the common-school 
 system of each state is given, in this work, under 
 the name of the state ; for an account of public 
 or popular education in general, see Public 
 Schools. (See also National Education, and 
 United St \tes.) 
 
 COMPANIONSHIP, as one of the neces- 
 sary conditions of a child's life, is an important 
 element in education ; indeed, the influence of a 
 
 COMPANIONSHIP 
 
 \ child's companions, either for good or evil, is 
 often far greater than any that can be exerted 
 by parents or teachers. The social nature of a 
 child is stronger than that of an adult ; and, 
 therefore, to educate it by itself, excluding it 
 from all intercourse with children of its own 
 age, would result not in a natural or normal 
 development, but in a kind of monstrous distor- 
 tion. The selfish principles of its nature would 
 attain a disproportionate growth and strength ; 
 and it could have neither sympathy nor self- 
 control. Hence, companionship is necessary for 
 several reasons: (1) To develop the social sym- 
 pathies and affections of the child: (2) To 
 cultivate properly its moral nature; (3) To bring 
 into play its intellectual activities, and to accus- 
 tom it to their ready exercise. Besides, without 
 
 suitable and congenial playmates, it would not 
 be properly or sufficiently stimulated to bodily 
 exercise; and its physical growth and develop- 
 ment would be incomplete. " How many young 
 
 girls," says Schwa rz. "have becoi liscascd in 
 
 body and in soul by reading! How many have 
 lost their health by close application to orna- 
 mental needle-work! They ought, therefore, to 
 be directed, at all suitable times to engage in 
 free bodily exercise, and even in some of the 
 more quiet and gentle gymnastic exercises ; they 
 should enjoy frequent opportunities of appropri- 
 ate amusement in the society of others of the 
 same age." < lompanionship, therefore, being in- 
 dispensable, it is of the greatest importance that 
 it should be of the right character. It is partic- 
 ularly true of children, that -evil communications 
 
 corrupt g 1 manners;" and not only manners, 
 
 but al- : indeed the society of the debased 
 
 will inevitably undermine the whole character. 
 leaving it but an example of incorrigible deprav- 
 ity. Nevertheless, a youth must gradually be 
 accustomed to the exercise of considerable free- 
 dom in selecting his or her associates ; since the 
 circumstances of after life will necessitate this 
 independence of choice. The great desideratum 
 is. that the child's mind should be so impressed 
 with right principles, that it will avoid the com- 
 panionship of those whose c luct and language 
 
 it perceives to be vicious. There is, however, al- 
 ways need of great vigilance in order to prevent 
 corrupting companionship, even when the greatest 
 care has been exercised in the previous moral 
 training of a youth ; for the stronger will must 
 always control the weaker will, when brought 
 together, and children learn much faster from 
 each other than from their elders. To influence 
 a young person, so as to form Iris character in a 
 particular direction, or fully to control his ac- 
 tion-, ii is requisite to cultivate a certain degree 
 of companionship with him. Parents who pur- 
 sue this course, —fathers making companions of 
 their sons, and mothers, of their daughters, are 
 the most successful in establishing the character 
 of their children. To a limited extent the same 
 principle may be applied in school education. 
 The austere teacher who never strives to culti- 
 vate any other relation between himself and his 
 pupil than that of authority, will never exert 
 
COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS 
 
 any considerable influence over his mural charac- 
 ter; while, on tlic other hand, he who is easy 
 and familiar, who cultivates the friendship, 
 esteem, and confidence of his pupil, will find the 
 latter always glad to be his companion, and will 
 be able to control Ins conduct to an almost un- 
 limited extent. 
 
 COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS. See 
 
 COMPOSITION 163 
 
 and the teacher writes, Glass is hard, solid, 
 
 hrtttle, and transparent. Such simple exercises 
 
 COMPOSITION, as the formal expression 
 of thought, and as a branch of school exercise, 
 has usually been confined to that which is writ- 
 ten; but by some the signification of the term 
 
 has b en so extended as to embrace also the oral 
 use of language in the expression of a logically 
 connected series of ideas. Thus, it has been 
 said that "unit composition may be cultivated 
 from a very early period, indeed from the be- 
 ginning of the pupil's school education ; and 
 whatever degree of facility he attains in it will 
 secure his more rapid advancement when he 
 cutis on the study of written composition;" 
 which is undoubtedly true. At the same time. 
 as nothing is gained by extending the application 
 of a term beyond the limits of ordinary usage, 
 it would seem best to restrict the word compo- 
 sition to the written expression of thought; mor i 
 especially as this requires a somewhat diverse 
 training from that wbii h is 3 eded in oral dis- 
 course. Of course, the habit of using language 
 correctly in all the oral school exercises, as well 
 as in ordinary conversation, is not only useful 
 but essential as an antecedent preparation for 
 written composition ; and in view of this.it is 
 important that pupils should be accustomed, in 
 all their recitations, to be accurate in expression, 
 and not only to use the proper forms of words, 
 but to construct complete sentences, instead of 
 such fragmentary phrases as are very often made 
 use of in answer to the questions of the teacher 
 Moreover, in all recitations which do not abso- 
 lutely require a verbatim repetition of the lan- 
 guage of the text-book, the pupil should be ac- 
 customed to use his own language as far as poe 
 silile, thus drawing upon the resources of his own 
 vocabulary, and his constructive power in expres- 
 sion. But all this is only auxiliary to written 
 composition, which requires special and peculiar 
 exercise-. Iie-innine alino-t a- -o m a- the pupil 
 
 ihe teacher, and 
 tin- substance of 
 
 in the t 
 
 tences: 
 (Dae, 
 
 Pi 
 
 i leas ; 
 
 has learned to write simple words and sentences; 
 indeed, rudimental exercises in composition may 
 
 constitute an essentia] pint of object lessons, the 
 teacher writing on the blackboard instead of 
 requiring the pupils to write on the slate or on 
 paper. For example, in the description of an 
 
 object, the pupils observe and s1 
 
 successively, and the teacher writes eai 
 Statement on the blackboard, ob-ervi 
 the rules for punctuation and the nsei 
 and then the pupils are required to put 
 
 into a connected statement, which t 
 also writes on the blackboard Thus. si 
 
 object is a piece of t//uss. The pupils say. ami 
 the teacher writes, Glass is hard. Glass is solid 
 
 (i/ns.l is ln-ittle. films is tniiisjhtre/it. Then 
 
 the whole is formed into a connected statement ; 
 
 ject under consideration, — ideas, facts, proposi- 
 lioii.-. opinions, ,vc. and arrange them into a 
 symmetrical whole. To do this well requires 
 not only maturity of mental culture, but much 
 practice in the use of language, filling thememorj 
 not only with a vocabularyof words, but a large 
 accumulation of phrases, and other forms of ex- 
 pression, associated regularly with certain re- 
 current ideas. The difficulty experienced by pu- 
 pils in writing compositions is proverbial: and 
 to a considerable extent, it is to be hoped. 
 obsolete; since modern methods of instruction 
 have gone far towards eradicating many of the 
 absurd educational practices of by-gone times. 
 one of which was to require young pupils to 
 write formal compositions upon difficult abstract 
 themes without any. or with wry inadequate, 
 preliminary preparation and training. The ne- 
 cessity of such training is now prettj generally 
 recognized, and suitable graded exercises are 
 employed; such as the following : il) Conversa- 
 tions upon familiar objects, such as usually 
 encage the attention of children; (2) Sentence- 
 making, in various tonus, and affording practice 
 in the application of grammatical rules; (3) 
 Formal descriptions of objects ; (4) Simple narra- 
 tives; (5) Didactic essays, graduated from the 
 simplest composition upon such subjects as a 
 horse, n cow, a flower, Ac., up to those upon 
 complex abstract themes; Mb Argumentative 
 compositions, in which the principles ami rules 
 of logicand rhetoric may hud an application ami 
 illustration. Each of these classified forms of 
 exercise i^<-'\^ much continuous pie 
 the pupil should not be required to win, mi 
 
 cell, .u- compositions until he ha- been sue 
 
 cessively trained in those oi I h 
 and has acquired a fair degn 
 each stage of his progress. In all thi 
 however, ot whatever grade or kind, it is very 
 'essential that the pupil should, as much as pos- 
 sible, be induced to make use ot his . experi 
 
n;i 
 
 COM POSITION 
 
 euce in selecting subjects for composition, writ- 
 ing of what he has himself seen and heard, and 
 using the simplest and most direct language he 
 can command. 
 
 Mere grammatical exercises are of little use 
 in teaching composition ; perhaps, they are 
 rather a hindrance, since the exclusive atten- 
 tion to the construction of sentences without 
 regard to their- meaning or logical coherence, 
 tends to the formation of habits that are directly 
 opposed to success in actual composition. The 
 great point is to accustom the pupils, by constant 
 daily practice, to the tree expression of their 
 thoughts in writing. Let them have something 
 to say, and then require them to write it in the 
 most natural way. employing their own modes of 
 thinking and using language, and thus, in the 
 course of time, developing a style : since style is 
 only the peculiar impress of a writer's individu- 
 ality upon his forms of expression. Paraphrases 
 and translations, however, afford a very valuable 
 kind of exercise in composition : but should not 
 be employed except in the more advanced stages 
 of the instruction. 
 
 In the correction of compositions, the teacher 
 should exercise great prudence, so as to impart 
 the kind and degree of instruction adapted to 
 the pupil's progress ; and. at the same time, not 
 discourage his efforts by too minute criticism. 
 If a class is under instruction, the prevailing 
 errors of the pupils, as discerned on a perusal of 
 the compositions, will suggest certain topics on 
 which instruction is needed ; and tins may then 
 be illustrated by examples culled from the com- 
 positions without referring to them individually. 
 Especially should the teacher avoid holding lip 
 any of the pupils' efforts to ridicule or severe re- 
 buke, unless the inaccuracies are such as result 
 from sheer carelessness. A pupil's whole intellec- 
 tual career may be vitiated by an imprudence of 
 this kind; since, in general, there is nothing in 
 respect to which persons, whether adults or chil- 
 dren, are so sensitive as in regard to their efforts 
 in written composition 
 
 When the compositions have been carefully 
 read, and the errors pointed out by suitable marks. 
 the pupils should I" recpiireil to transcribe them, 
 so that they may be presented for further revi- 
 sion. The study of grammar and composition 
 should be pursued together in the early stages, 
 and rhetoric and composition in the latter. A 
 distinguished writer thus sums up the require- 
 ments of these two branches of study: Rheto- 
 ric, to become a useful branch of modem educa- 
 tion, should embrace a gradually progressive 
 course of exercises, embodying successively the 
 facts of language, in the use of words and the 
 construction of sentences; it should include the 
 practice of daily writing, for successive years ; 
 frequent exercises in the logical arranging of 
 thought for the purposes of expression, and the 
 adapting of the forms and character of expres- 
 sion to thought ; and it should be accompanied 
 by the close study and critical analysis of the 
 works of distinguished writers, with the view to 
 acquire a perfect mastery over every form of 
 
 COMPULSORY EDUCATION 
 
 style." — See William Russell, Intellectual 
 Education, in Barnard's American Pa Uu logy; 
 
 Ci'rrie. The Principles and Practice of Com- 
 mon- School Eiluoitiim (Edinburgh, 1872): 
 Wic'kersham, Method* of Instruction (Phila.. 
 L865). 
 
 COMPULSORY EDUCATION, a term 
 commonly used to designate the compulsion of 
 parents by state law to provide an education for 
 their children. We find the principle that the 
 government of a state has the right, and that it 
 is its duty, to watch over the education of all the 
 children within its jurisdiction, for the first time 
 expressed in the legislation of Athens and Sparta. 
 Solon gave a law enjoining on parents to have 
 their children instructed in music and gymnastics, 
 and providing further, that no son was bound to 
 support his father in old age, if the latter had 
 neglected to have him instructed in some profit- 
 able trade. In Sparta, according to the legisla- 
 tion of Lycurgus. the state eli.nv.ed itself with 
 the entire education of all male children, after 
 they had attained their seventh year. In Rome, 
 the state did not interest itself at all in the edu- 
 cation of children, it being left to the care of the 
 mothers. During the period which followed the 
 downfall of the Roman empire, little provision 
 was made, in any of the countries of Europe, for 
 the education of children. Only the candidates 
 for the priesthood and the children of noblemen 
 and persons of affluence received instruction in 
 the cathedral, collegiate, convent, or parochial 
 schools ; but the mass of the people grew up 
 without any instruction. (See Cathedral and 
 
 Collegiati Sci i- Convem Schools, and 
 
 Parochial S< hools.) The capitularies of Charle- 
 magne imposed upon all parents the obligation 
 to send their children to a convent or parochial 
 school, to obtain the necessary instruction in re- 
 ligion. These schools were also required to teach 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, grammar, and sing- 
 ing; but no compulsion was to lie imposed in 
 regard to any of these subjects. A new interest 
 in the cause of universal education was awakened 
 by the revival of classical studies, in the fifteenth 
 century. More than one of the educational writ- 
 ers of that time demanded that the state govern- 
 ment should recognize and enforce the principle, 
 that parents should be obliged to send their 
 children to school. Luther said, that he regarded 
 it as a " duty of the state authorities to compel 
 their subjects to send their children to school," 
 in order that the community might have well- 
 educated clergymen, jurists, physicians, teachers, 
 and other officers: and the new church constitu- 
 tion of Saxony, of l.VJs. which was chiefly com- 
 piled by Melanchthon, required that clergy- 
 men should admonish the people to send their 
 children to school, " in order that persons might 
 be educated so as to be competent to teach in the 
 church, and to govern." The church constitution 
 of Wurtemberg, of 1559, provided that the 
 pastors should admonish their congregations at 
 least twice a year, to send their children regular- 
 ly to school. Similar provisions were made in 
 other German states, without, however, adopting 
 
COMPULSORY EDUCATION 
 
 165 
 
 tin- principle of compulsion; but, in regard to principle of compulsion, and M. Duruy, his min- 
 instruction in the catechism, which was given in ister of public instruction from L863 to L869, 
 
 Hi in. the Genera] Synod of W 
 nizi'il the duty of requiring al 
 school, and resolved that all 
 
 lined. whose children failed t 
 
 l\ di 
 
 progress in all the German 
 duced it in I 732 ; Bavai i. 
 
 the latest, in 1802. i ' pi 
 
 since the beginning of the 
 been the general rule in the 
 
 conflicts which have been c: 
 legislation, no party ha-, in 
 position to the principle, thi 
 ment may and ought tod 
 should provide some kind ot 
 children. This kind of leg 
 began in the eighteenth cei 
 vidang that magistrates sh 
 teachers, twice a year, lists oi 
 the sixth year of age, and thi 
 return monthly h~ts.it aba 
 school attendance steadilv ii 
 
 id lion of coin] ml 
 •e ly discussed in 
 al the separate S( 
 
 1 
 
 tened to introduce a new educational la 
 
 to that of Prussia, providing for the rig 
 
 forcement of the principle of cornpuJ 
 
 cation. In some provinces, it was I 
 
 fcremely difficult to provide for a suffic 
 
 ber of teachers and schools, and to a 
 
 attendance of children. The statistics 
 
 attendance show, however, a steady inc 
 
 then' is no systematic opposition to the 
 
 which is now being rapidly carried n 
 
 The cantons of Sw itzerland, with the single excep- 86 ii!li.-il.it;iiit.~. ' 
 
 tionof Geneva, and the Scandinavian kingdom a law providing t 
 
 have enacted laws similar to those of Germany ; in every locality 
 
 and Denmark, in particular, has had a stringent both boys and gir 
 
 law on compulsory education in operation since of any kind to ex< 
 
 L8U, and has thus effected a rcmarkal.lv high up to the end o 
 
 average education of its entire population. In communal school.. 
 
 Prance, the public-scl I system was, for the first 1834, on the Ge 
 
 time, regulated by th iueational law of 1833, system of compu 
 
 which embodied the ideas of Guizot and Cousin, article of the law 
 
 Neither this law. however. ■ the subsequent of live and twelvi 
 
 regulations recognized the principle oi compul- nuinal school. I 
 sory education ; ami the school at 
 cially in many of the rural distt 
 to be very small. Louis Napolei 
 
 tes of compulsion do not 
 I its ultimate adoption. 
 Oxford, and many other 
 iws, compelling the at- 
 the public schools. The 
 L871, adopted a new 
 
 Nether- 
 ,' law to 
 and, in 
 the ap- 
 
 st educated countries of 
 L875, ! scholar for about 
 .in 1 si;;». promulgated 
 e.-t.-il.li-hiuent of a school 
 requiring all children, 
 ittend it : but no attempt 
 
 the law had been made 
 year L875. In Greece, 
 
 • established by law, in 
 system, that is. on the 
 
 education. Bj the 6th 
 
 lildren between the a<_'cs 
 
 ml- nuinal school. Parents are liable to a line for 
 pe- eaclihourth.it the child is absent but the pen- 
 icd alty has fallen into disuse; ami it was found, at 
 the | the census of L870, that but 33 per cent of the 
 
COMPULSORY EDUCATION 
 
 grown-up men, and but 7 per cent of the grown- 
 up women, were able to read and write. Spain 
 and Portugal also have compulsory education 
 acts, but they are not fully enforced. 
 
 In America, the right of state authorities to 
 require the attendance of all children at school 
 was asserted at an early date by some of the 
 English colonies. B. G. Northrop, the secretary 
 of the Connecticut state board of education, in 
 his annual report for 1871, says, that Connecti- 
 cut may justly claim to be one of the first states 
 in the world, that established the principle of 
 compulsory education. Its code of laws, adopted 
 in May 1650, he says, contained stringent pro- 
 visions for compulsory attendance ; and these 
 provisions, with some modifications chiefly de- 
 signed to give them greater efficacy, continued 
 
 in force until the- revisi if the code, in L810. 
 
 Public opinion so heartily indorsed this principle, 
 or rather so thoroughly believed in the necessity 
 of universal education, that attendance lost its 
 involuntary character. Outside of Connecticut, 
 however, little appears to have been done in this 
 direction; and even in Connecticut, the diffi- 
 culty in enforcing the law was clearly shown 
 when the influx of immigration, in the nineteenth 
 century, gave to the state a considerable school 
 population of foreign birth. In L869, a new law 
 was, therefore, passed, forbidding manufacturers 
 to employ minors under fourteen years of age, 
 who have not attended any public school, for 
 at least three months in each year. The school 
 board appointed an agent to supervise the en- 
 forcement of the compulsory attendance law, 
 and the subsequent considerable increase of 
 school attendance is partly ascribed to its en- 
 forcement. This law makes it the duty of school 
 visitors to examine into the condition of chil- 
 dren employed in manufacturing establishments, 
 and to report violations of the law to the grand 
 jurors of the town. In Massachusetts, the 
 first educational ordinance, in Hil2. enjoined 
 the selectmen of every town to see "that 
 their brethren and neighbors teach their chil- 
 dren and apprentices, by themselves or others, 
 so much learning as may enable them to read 
 the English tongue, and the capital laws, upon 
 penalty of twenty shillings for each neglect 
 therein." In 1834, children under fifteen years 
 of age were prohibited from working in factories, 
 unless they had attended school during three 
 months of the preceding year. The present 
 school law compels parents and guardians to 
 send children in their charge, between the age of 
 eight and fourteen, to school twenty wei ks ei cry 
 year; andno person can be excluded from the 
 public schools on account of race, color, or re- 
 ligion, Towns and cities are required to provide 
 for the education ol orphans and the children of 
 drunken parents. In .Maine, the school law of 
 the state authorizes towns to make by-laws for 
 the enforcement of attendance of scholars be- 
 tween six and seventeen years of age, and to 
 annex a suitable penalty, not exceeding twenty 
 dollars, for any breach thereof. In New Hamp- 
 shire, an act of the legislature, approved in July 
 
 1871, provides that all parents, guardians, or 
 masters of a child, between the ages of 8 and 14. 
 residing within two miles of a public school, 
 shall send such child to school at least 12 weeks 
 each year. Similar acts were passed in the same 
 year by the legislatures of Michigan and Texas. 
 Nevada passed a law in February L873, which 
 makes it obligatory on parents and guardians 
 to send every child between the ages of 8 and 14 
 years to a public school for a period of at least 
 sixteen weeks in each school-year, at least eight 
 of which must be consecutive, unless the child 
 is being otherwise instructed, or is excused 
 from attendance by the board of trustees for 
 some satisfactory reason. The penalty, for non- 
 compliance with this act is a fine of not less 
 than $50, nor more than SI III) for the first offense, 
 and not less than §100 nor more than $200 for 
 each subsequent offense. In 1874, compulsory 
 laws were passed by the legislatures of Califor- 
 nia, New Jersey, and New York. The general 
 features of these laws are similar to those of the 
 state laws already referred to. The school age 
 during which every cliild is to be instructed is, in 
 New Jersey, from 8 to 13, and in California and 
 New York from 8 to II. There is some diversity 
 in the time of school attendance each year. New 
 Jersey requires 12 weeks, of which (j must be 
 consecutive, New York 14 weeks in a day school, 
 or 28 weeks in an evening school, and California, 
 two-thirds of the time during which the public- 
 schools are kept, at least 1 2 weeks of which must 
 be consecutive. The New York law also specifies 
 the subjects in which the cliild is to be instruct- 
 ed; namely, spelling, reading, writing, English 
 grammar, geography, and arithmetic. It also 
 provides that no child of this age shall be em- 
 ployed, unless the employer has a certificate that 
 such instruction was given the child the previous 
 year, the penalty for violating this law being a 
 tine of 050. In many other states, the passage 
 of compulsory laws is strongbj urged. In Indi- 
 ana. Illinois, Kansas, Minnesota. Mississippi, 
 Nebraska. Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island, the 
 state superintendents, in their annual reports, or 
 the governors in their messages, have of late 
 taken a decided stand in favor of such laws. 
 
 The opinions of American educators and legis- 
 lators, on the subject of compulsory education, 
 continue, however, to be greatly divided. The 
 Hon. Edward Searing, state superintendent of 
 public instruction in Wisconsin, in his annual 
 report for 1 874, expresses the opinion, that " the 
 difficulties lying in the way of the successful work- 
 ing of a general compulsory law are numerous 
 and nearly insuperable ; so that there is an over- 
 whelming probability of the failure of such a 
 law to attain the cuds desired." He beheves 
 that there is in such a law "something essentially 
 opposed to the genius of our free institutions, — 
 something essentially un-American." He appre- 
 hends no peril to the state from the mere fact, 
 "that a small fractional part of its children do not 
 obtain such primary instruction as the common 
 schools afford ;" and the idea that " crime is the 
 direct result of illiteracy " is characterized by 
 
COMPULSORY EDUCATION 
 
 him as a " fallacy quite commonly accepted as a 
 truth." An enthusiastic defendant of compul- 
 sory education, the Bon. II. I >. Met 'arty, state 
 superintendent of public instruction in Kansas, 
 in his annual report for 1-7;;. thus replies to 
 some of the common objeeti ms made to compul- 
 
 a new crime.' 1 reply, it ought to. To bring 
 up a child in ignorance is a crime, and should 
 be treated as such. (2) ' It interferes with the 
 liberty of parents.' 1 reply again, it ought to, 
 when they arc incapacitated by vice or other 
 causes for the performance oi essential duties as 
 parents. (3) -It arrogates new power by the 
 government.' So do all the quarantine and 
 hygienic regulations and laws for the abatement 
 of nuisances in time of pestilence. Now, igno- 
 rance is as noxious as the most offensive nuisance. 
 and more destructive than bodily contagions. 
 •Self-protection is a fundamental law of society. 
 (4) 'It is un-American and unadapted to our 
 free institutions.' To put the question in the 
 most offensive form, it may be asked : ' Would 
 you have a policeman drag your children to 
 school ?' 1 answer, yes. if it will prevent his 
 dragging them to jail a few years hence.'' 
 
 While, thus, a wide difference of opinion exists 
 in regard to the principle of compulsory educa- 
 tion, there is an almost entire agreement between 
 friends and opponents, as to the character of the 
 existing laws. They are. on all sides, de. lared to 
 be deficient. Many laws supply no means 
 
 whatever for the enforcement of tl ompul- 
 
 sory provisions; and. in such cases, the state 
 superintendents must, of course, report, that the 
 law has amounted to little or nothing. Thus, 
 the state law of New York was pronounced de- 
 fective and inefficient by the state association of 
 school commissioners and superintendents, at a 
 meeting held in Dec, 1*71; and it was unani- 
 mously resolved to ask the legislature to "so 
 complete and perfect the act ahead} passed, that 
 it may better secure the results at which it 
 aims." The American laws in favor of compul- 
 sory education agree with those of Europe in de- 
 signating a certain age, during which the state 
 shall enforce the education of exerv child. A < ier- 
 man writer, ltumelin (in Zeitschrift fur die ge- 
 sammte Staalswissensckafi, vol. sxrv.J, contends, 
 that the state has the right to demand and to see 
 to it. that each of its members receive a certain 
 amount of instruction, but that this right does 
 not give to it the power of depriving parents, for 
 any length of time that may appear necessary to 
 state authorities, of the right of disposing of 
 their children, but only justifies the state in de- 
 manding a certain amount of knowledge deemed 
 necessary for the discharge of the duties even- 
 one owes to society. Every child, therefore, he 
 argues, should be dismissed from the public 
 school, without any regard to its age. as soon as 
 it has acquired the knowledge demanded by the 
 state. 
 
 From the stand-point of the ( atholic church, 
 the claim of state governments to enforce edu- 
 cation has sometimes been absolutely denied, on 
 
 CONCEPTION 
 
 167 
 
 I the ground that only the church, not the state, 
 has received the divine commission to teach. 
 
 defines its position as follows: 
 of Catholic parents in Germany 
 
 mcert with both, if it mak 
 •ligatory. (2) The instr. 
 ie state should be limited 
 id be confined to readini 
 mdameiital rules of arithm 
 
 ■etion by state authorities. They should 
 concert with the church and the state. 
 Annual Reports of the !'. .V Commis- 
 f Education (1871—74); V. M. Rice, 
 Report on Compulsory Educati tc. 
 
 Compulsory Education [X. V.. 1874); Frakcis 
 Adams, Th Free School System of the United 
 States (London, 1875); .1./.;,... 8 .'..,./ Proceed- 
 ings of the National Educational Association, 
 August, 1*71 (N. Y. and Wash. 1872); Lukas, 
 
 (Ratisbon, 1866). 
 COMSTOCK, John Lee, M. D., a noted 
 
 ' American author, and compiler of school books, 
 was born in Lyme, Ct., m 1789, and died in 
 Hartford. Ct, 1858. After receiving a com 
 mon-school education, he studied medicine ; and, 
 during the war of 1812, served in the army as 
 an assistant surgeon, lie afterwards settled in 
 Hartford, where he practiced medicine, and 
 where his books were written, lie published 
 Natural History (1829), System of Natural 
 Philosophy (1831), a work which had an extra- 
 ordinary success, being translated into several 
 languages, and edited for use in Canada, 
 
 Botai 
 Book 
 
 ohgy, History of the Greek Revolution, History 
 of the Precious Metals, Readings in Zoology, 
 
 etc., etc. Though mostly compilations, these 
 books possess considerable merit, and some of 
 them have had a very wide circulation. 
 
 CONCEPTION, or Conceptive Faculty, 
 the faculty of the mind which retains past per- 
 
u;s 
 
 COXCKITIOX 
 
 ceptions, and forms from them general ideas, or 
 notions, sometimes called <;,,, ,;■/,/>:. In this man- 
 ner, the individual impressions nhtained by per- 
 ception are associated in the mind, according to 
 their resemblances and analogies, and become 
 the materials of thought: for without general 
 ideas thought is impossible. Thus, the child 
 perceives a horse, but the concept in its mind as 
 the result of the perception, is not of that par- 
 ticular horse, which it will remember to have 
 seen at a particular time and place, but of the 
 horse as one of a class of animals resembling tin- 
 one seen; and to each one of this class it is at 
 once prepared to apply the name horse. As, if 
 you ask a child, How many legs has a horse? 
 he answers./o«r ; because such is his concept or 
 notion of a horse, formed from all the percep- 
 tions which he has had of this animal. "Nature" 
 says Isaac Taylor, "for purposes which it is not 
 very difficult to divine, has allowed an absolute 
 predominance to the conceptive faculty during 
 the season of infancy, and has granted it a prin- 
 cipal share in the mental econ y during the 
 
 of past perceptions, winch it is to employ as the 
 material for the exercise <>t the other faculties. — 
 imagination, judgment, reason. "A rich and 
 ready conception," says Currie, "is the soil out 
 of which grows a sound judgment. The cause 
 
 of error in our iudeiuent- lies as fivqiientlv in 
 
 if materials 
 
 conception. Hence, the value of object-teaching, 
 the best results of which are the effects produced 
 upon the conceptive faculty. In training the 
 perception, we are, indeed, training the concep- 
 tion ; and it is the latter process that is espe- 
 cially valuable, not the former. This training can 
 oidy be carried on by means of language. No 
 idea can be fixed in the mind to be of any prac- 
 tical value, unless there is linked with it its 
 proper verbal designation. Words as well as 
 ideas are the elements of thought. A large 
 part ot elementary teaching consists in analyzing 
 the parts and properties of objects, and, after 
 
 leading the mind to form c ;epts of them 
 
 through sense-perception, applying to them the 
 names by which they are commonly known. As 
 examples of lessons of this kind, the following 
 are given from Curries Early School Education : 
 
 TREE. 
 Place— in the ground, in Holds, gardens, etc. 
 Fukm— upright, bending, wide-spreading above, with 
 
 waving motion, etc. 
 I'ii;i- Boot: below ground, branching, etc. 
 
 Trunk: round, solid, pillar-like, firm, dark, 
 rough, knotty, etc. 
 
 Leaves: heart-shaped, oval, etc.; soft, 
 green, yellow, etc. 
 
 Blossom and fruit in their seasons. 
 Siunii (in motion)— rustling, gentle, violent, etc. 
 
 GLASS. 
 Color— light, stained, clear, transparent, 1 
 
 obscured, etc. I ,,. , . 
 
 Form (in windows)— square, round, oval, f "'f/ ht - 
 
 lozenge-shaped, etc. 
 
 Thin, light, hard, brittle, cold 
 sharp, etc. 
 
 Timcli. 
 
 his 
 
 •aching him to 
 is most active 
 it, that is, the 
 
 on the want of pow 
 quired." lie also 
 great mistake to ha: 
 forms of judgmem 
 with the materials 
 der the impression 
 think." The facultj 
 m relation to the 
 perceptions derived from thai -. n-e -ji\o rise to 
 the strongest or most vivid conceptions; hence, 
 indeed, the word idea, meaning imagi oi , 
 in the mind. To those who are deprived of tin- 
 sense of sight, t lie perceptions produced by tin- 
 equal force the conceptive faculty. "The furniture 
 of the conceptive faculty, as derived from the ob- 
 jects of sight." say8 Isaac Taylor, "constitutes 
 the principal wealth of the mind, and upon tin- 
 ready command of these treasures, with s e 
 
 specific end in view, depends in great measure 
 its power." The cultivation of this faculty 
 should aim, (1) To give clear, definite ideas of 
 
 SEA. 
 Tvstk— salt, unpleasant, cold, etc. Taste. 
 
 Size — large, broad, deep, etc. 1 
 
 Color— green, 1. hi.-, clear, sandy, etc. I ~. , . 
 
 Form— Surface : plain, wavy, sn th, loam- | "'!/'"• 
 
 ing, etc. 
 Sihnd (iii 'imiliiw)— dashing, murmuring, | Sear- 
 gentle, violent, etc. | ing. 
 cool, refreshing, cold, etc. Touch. 
 Such lessons admit of an endless variety, and 
 may la- cither entirely objective, that is, given 
 with the objects placed before the pupils, or 
 purely conceptive : such as those above on the 
 tree and the sea. Both kinds, however, have the 
 same primary object in view, — to train the con- 
 ccpiivc faculty in connection with expression. 
 » Ibservation is also greatly stimulated and guided 
 by such lessons. 'I litis, to take so familiar an 
 object as the sky, of which every child must 
 necessarily have a multitude of conceptions, 
 
 although perhaps indefinite and al st useless, 
 
 because not associated with any names. How 
 much would his real available knowledge be in- 
 creased by an exercise enabling him to enumerate 
 the various appearances of the sky by proper 
 designations. Thus: — Tut: Sky may be serene, 
 stormy, clear, overcast, misty, hazy, foggy. 
 
 thej are derived. Clearness and strength of per- 
 ception are followed by the same qualities in 
 
 properties of a great variety of familiar objects 
 may be recalled and named, and in this way the. 
 attention of the pupils to minute characteristic- 
 
CONCERT TEACHING 
 
 may lie cultivated, and their command of 1 
 guage much increased 
 
 The conceptions 
 fluenced by its feeli 
 
 mental m 1 will e 
 
 tii m of any deep oi 
 
 greatly in- menl oi ini 
 
 or collective sympathy is established, whirl, 
 would not he possible by I he lArlim e, ■m|,|, ,y. 
 
 cherished and imperishable r 
 
 hood, often as bright and cli 
 were at twenty, are those I 
 ceptive faculty which have b 
 keeping under the influence 
 
 emotions." There is no \ 
 teacher should more earnest! 
 
 prompting as it dues to tin 
 
 collections of child 
 ar at eighty as the; 
 easun - of the con 
 ■en consigned to it 
 
 .f vivid pleasiirahli 
 
 Tl i rcise of intelligence is, however, i" be 
 
 msidered the rhii-f instrument of education: 
 
 Ho 
 
 awaken its delight, and lend a cha 
 
 lectual acquirements See [saai 
 
 Education; Currie, Principles m I Practice 
 
 of Early and InfantS h o Educat : Russell, 
 
 Pedagogy; Porter. The Human intellect :(N.Y., 
 L869). 
 
 CONCERT TEACHING, a mode of in- 
 struction in which the pupils memorize what is 
 to be learned, by simultaneous repetition. It is 
 thus a kind of rote-teaching, and i- subject to all 
 the disadvantages and liable to all th ■ objections 
 incident to that system. In large schools, in 
 which very many pupils are taught together in 
 a single class, this has been a common and favor- 
 ite practice with teachers; because it has been 
 found a ready way to fix in the memory of chil- 
 dren the rudimentary principles of reading, spell- 
 ing, arithmetic, etc., and to impart to the pupils 
 the ability to repeat, in answer to set questions, 
 what has been thus mechanically learned. The 
 arbitrary associations established in tins way are 
 very strong and durable ; and, as some things are 
 to be taught arbitrarily, and others to be asso- 
 ciated in the mind so that they may he arbitrarily I 
 suggested, that is, recalled without any effort of 
 reasoning or other mental process, the method of 
 concert repetition, has a place in teaching that 
 
 teacher, in giving simultaneous ii 
 endeavor to prevent this. The 
 different temperaments and diffi 
 mental power: and, consequen 
 perform the same work. The 
 addressed to the whole class, will 
 
 u ili, 
 
 who raise their hands those who a 
 and. at the same time, observing i 
 do not raise their hands. Then. win- 
 wishes a certain answer to he re pi 
 purpose of impressing it upon the | 
 the class may he required to repeal 
 
 is useful and important 
 tiplication table would 
 were so learned, that th 
 reason out. or reckon u 
 quired combination : tl 
 such a character, that thought 
 
 the si 
 
 d skill on 
 nethod of 
 
 ones of the 
 
 value if it 
 1 require to 
 of each re- 
 s must be of 
 unnecessary to 
 
 recall them, the process of simple suggestion be- 
 ing alone required. Heme, in memorizing such 
 firings as arithmetical tables, grammatical de- 
 clensions, conjugations, etc., concert teaching is 
 valuable, on the principles. 1 1 that all repetition 
 is valuable ill order to impress the mind: and l'_»l 
 
 voice should he as natural as possible. Without 
 great care on the part of the teacher, concert 
 exercises are very apt to degenerate into a sing- 
 song monotonous drawl, which undermines or 
 prevents all proper habits of reading and speak- 
 ing. The pupils, too. are very apt to pitch their 
 voices too high, or to use a kind of shouting 
 
 with 
 
 that.th, 
 
 to. the mental impressions and their associations 
 are more durable, and more easily recalled. He- 
 sides, by such exercises, the young pupils are 
 constantly employed ; their minds are kept stead- 
 ily upon their school work, and a strong social 
 
 are to be brought into play.— See t.'i / 
 
 Principles umi Pnn-tiv ,,/ Kirh/ and Infant 
 School-Education (Edin and Lond.). 
 
170 
 
 CONCORD COLLEGE 
 
 CONCORD COLLEGE, at New Liberty, I 
 Kentucky, was established in 1845, and chartered 
 in I860. It is under the control of Baptists. 
 Both sexes are admitted on the same terms. The 
 institution comprises a classical course, leading to 
 the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and a scientific 
 course, leading to the degree of Bachelor of .Sci- 
 ence. In 1873—4, it had 3 instructors and 69 j 
 students. II. J. Greenwell is (1876) the pres- 
 ident. 
 
 CONCORDIA COLLEGE, at Port Wayne, 
 Indiana, was organized in 1839 and chartered in 
 1848. It is under the control of the Evangelical 
 Lutheran Church. The value of its buildings, 
 grounds, etc., is $150,000. The library contains 
 5,000 volumes. To students whose parents are 
 members of the synod, tuition is free ; others are 
 required to pay S24 per annum. The college hasa 
 preparatory and a collegiate course. In 1873 — 4, 
 there were 15 instructors and 255 preparatory 
 and I.'!:; collegiate students. Br. AY. Sihicr is 
 (1876) its president. 
 
 CONGREGATION ALISTS. This denom- 
 ination takes its name from the fact, that the 
 church government is lodged with each local 
 congregation or ecclesia. And yet, in this re- 
 spect, the Congregationalists do not differ essen- 
 tially from the Baptists, the Universalists, and the 
 Unitarians. The Congregationalists of the Tint- 
 
 ed States correspond, in general, with the Inde- 
 pendents of England, and these names are used 
 somewhat interchangeably on both sides of the 
 water. The difference as far as there is a differ- 
 ence, is found in this, that the word Li*/,/,,, ,</,„? 
 has a stronger reference to the absolute and final 
 power of the local church, while the word Con- 
 grega ■' suggests more the comity, fellowship, 
 'intereh.iiijy 1 1 -t ween churches thai are, neverthe- 
 less, independent. The word Congregational 
 and that which is peculiarly suggested by it. is 
 rather growing in favor in England; but hither- 
 to the English Independents have made less of 
 councils, conferences, associations, than have the 
 American Ooiigrcgat ionalists. The general name 
 in England embracing the Independents, is "The 
 ( 'ongreg.it loiial Union." 
 
 The first Congregational church in America 
 was planted at Plymouth in 1620; and the 
 second at Salem in 1629. By the year 1700, the 
 number of churches was about 130. The Pres- 
 byterians and Congregationalists had been kin- 
 dred in their history in the old world, and they 
 early became kindred here. Until within times 
 quite recent, it was the common sentiment, that 
 a man who was a Oongregationalist in New 
 England, would be a Presbyterian in the Middle 
 States, and vice versa. When the great wave 
 of population began to set westward from the 
 Atlantic shore, in the early part of the present 
 century, these two denominations formed a "1 Man 
 of Union", by which they worked togetherinthe 
 
 founding of churches. ~,-\ kaul colleges in the 
 
 Middle ami Western States. The great benevolent 
 societies like the American Hoard, the American 
 Home Missionary Society, the American Edu- 
 cation Society, were union societies between 
 
 CONGREG ATION ALISTS 
 
 these two denominations, until within a few 
 years. 
 
 Because of this prevailing seiitinn nt. the Con- 
 gregationalists of New England did not, until 
 the present century attempt to found churches 
 distinctly Congregationa] out of New England, 
 and not till within the last forty years was any 
 special influence put forth in this direction. But 
 now the denomination, m the ^tate,-, and territo- 
 ries, numbers 3,438 churches, of which 1,459 are 
 in New Kiiglaiiil.an.l 1,979 out of New England. 
 There are but 57 < Congregational churches in the 
 Southern States. The number of ministers be- 
 longing to the denomination is 3,300. 
 
 The system of common schools originated with 
 the Congregationalists of New England in the 
 early generations, and so thoroughly inwrought 
 is this system with the whole history and habit 
 of the denomination, that it would be an anomaly 
 to find any number of Congregationalists any- 
 where in this country, without public schools. 
 
 From the first they built their institutions 
 upon the principle of an educated ministry, and 
 founded their colleges to this end. The rule has 
 been with slight exceptions, from 1,620 until now, 
 that a Congregationa] church should have a 
 minister, with a collegiate education. In Con- 
 necticut, from L635 1835, there were not far 
 from 1,000 Congregational ministers, and not 
 more than 30 of them were without an English 
 university education, or a collegiate education on 
 these shores. What was true in that state will 
 be found substantially true in all the New Eng- 
 land states. Quite anumber of the colleges and 
 iheolo^ical schools which the Congregationalists 
 largely helped to build, under the Plan of LJmo-n, 
 now belong to the Presbyterians. But aside 
 from these, their colleges are as follows, with the 
 date of the- foundation: Harvard. Mass, (1638), 
 now Unitarian; Yale, Ct: (1100); Dartmouth, N. 
 II. (1769); University of Vt. (1791); Williams, 
 Mass. (1793); Middlebury, Vt.(1800); Bowdoin, 
 Me. (1802); Amherst, Mass. (1821); Illinois. 111. 
 (1S30); Oberliu, O. (1834); Beloit, Wis. (1847); 
 Iowa, Io. (1847); Olivet, Mich. (1855); Pacific 
 University, Oregon (1*59); Washburn, Kan. 
 (1865); Wheaton, 111. (I860); Ripon, AYis. 
 (1863); Fisk University, Term. (1867), Carleton, 
 Minn. (1867); Tabor, Iowa (1866); Berea, Ey. 
 (1858); Drury, Mo. (1873); Thayer, Mo. (1868); 
 Doane, Neb. (1872); Colorado. Col. (1874). 
 
 The Congregational theological seminaries are, 
 Andover, Mass. (1808) — the oldest theological 
 school in the country; Bangor. Me. (1817); New 
 Haven, Ct. (lK22);l'fartford,Ot. (Is34);0berlin, 
 o. (1835); Chicago, 111. (1858); Pacific Theo. 
 Sen,., Cal. (1869): 
 
 Of academies and female schools the list is 
 too long to be enumerated. Some of the oldest 
 and best-known academies to prepare boys for 
 
 Andover, Mass.: Phillips Academy, Exeter. N. 
 II.; anilWilliston Aeademv. Ha.-thampton, Mass. 
 Of female academies, there are Mt. Ilolyoke 
 Seminary, Hadley, Mass.; Abbott Academy, 
 Andover, Mass.; Bradford Academy, Bradford, 
 
CONG BEUATIOXALISTS 
 
 Mass.; Wheaton Academy, Norton, Mass. and 
 Wellesley College, at Wellesley, Mass. 
 
 Of Congregational colleges in England, some 
 of the more conspicuous are, Rotherham Lude- 
 pendent Collet' ( 1 T -~. I : i . with wliieli Rev. F. J. 
 Falding, D.D., and Rev. II. I!. Reynolds are 
 prominently connected: I-ancashiiv I n< Kpt-nilcitt 
 College (1806), where Rev. J. G-. Rogers and 
 Rev. J. Baldwin Brown, both London ministers. 
 are employed as lecturers; New College, London 
 
 ReT.J.Stoughton,D.D.,and Rev.RHu^vjm- 
 
 'l'he,.],^i,-:,l 1 [.,11 ..t <■,.,,_,, ^u,., M l i hmvhrs ol- 
 der is honorably associated, and several other 
 institutions, with the same general character 
 and aim. 
 
 The American Education Society, organized, 
 in lsltl. to assist young men in humble circum- 
 stances, in obtaining an education for the Chris- 
 tian ministry, has given aid, in the sixty years 
 of its existence, to <;.:til'-' young men. It assists 
 them only in the collegiate" ami theological 
 courses, though, in the early years, it gave aid 
 also in the preparatory departments. Its prin- 
 ciple is not to support, but to help men to help 
 themselves. It gives them $100, a year, each. 
 The society is now giving its aid to 310 young 
 men in thirty different colleges and theological 
 schools. Two years since, this society was united 
 with the College Society, so called, whose func- 
 tion it was to assist young colleges at the West. 
 Since the union, the name of the organization is 
 "The American College and Education Society". 
 and it has now the double duty of aiding young 
 colleges, as well as young men. 
 
 The denomination now carries on its benevo- 
 lent work throuidi six societies, which are dis- 
 tinctively < 'onuivlmtioiial. namely: The American 
 Board of Commissioners for Forei m Missions. 
 
 CONNECTICUT 
 
 171 
 
 American I longregal 
 
 ing); The American .Miss 
 among the freedmen of tl 
 College and Education 
 
 S Society : The 
 d church-buUd- 
 ssociation i work 
 
 and the Con- 
 gregational Publishing Society. Besides these, 
 the Congregational churches bear a part in the 
 union societies, like the American Bible Society. 
 
 American Sunday School L'nion.etc. The whole 
 amount of the benevolent contributions of the 
 denomination, last year, was $1,241,014.29. 
 
 While the Congregational system of church 
 government lodges the power with each local 
 church, yet it makes much of the advisory power 
 of councils. _ In the settlement and dismissals of 
 ministers, — in the organization of new churches. 
 — in cases of difficulty in any local church — it is 
 customary to call upon sister churches for coun- 
 sel and assistance. There has also grown up in 
 the denomination a large system of interchange 
 and fellowship, by means of associations, local 
 and state conferences, and now, at length, a trien- 
 nial national council. 
 
 _ From the circumstance, that the Congrega- 
 tional lm s so early founded their system of public | 
 
 schools and their colleges, it has come to pass, 
 that this denomination has furnished the educa 
 torsof tin imiry. in the lower, and especially 
 
 in the higher departments, far beyond any other 
 religious denomination in the land. It has sup- 
 plied presidents of colleges, and prof, 
 leges and theological schools in immense num- 
 bers. Anything like an enumeration of nunc,. 
 in this particular would require so much space, 
 that we will not attempt it. But the fact will 
 probably stand unchallenged by all intelligent 
 anil observing men. A few conspicuous names 
 may be mentioned, for the most part belonging 
 to by-gone generations. Such were Increase 
 Mather. Edward Holyoke, John T. Kirkland, 
 dared Sparks, presidents of Harvard College; 
 Thomas < lap. Ezra Stiles. Timothy Dwight, Jer- 
 emiah Hay. presidents of Yale College; Eleazar 
 Wheelock and Nathan Lord of Dartmouth Col- 
 lege. The late Dr. Theron Baldwin, for nearly 
 thirty years secretary of the College Society, by 
 reason of his large organizing power in the depart- 
 ment of education, fitly finds a place in this list. 
 < If men still living, but who, by reason of age, have 
 passed out of the offices theyso long held.and 
 may be reckoned as erm riti, we may nam. Mark 
 
 Hopkins, of Williams College, and II lore 
 
 Dwight Woolsey. of Vale ( !ollege. Prom the be- 
 ginning until now. the presidents and professors 
 in the l''.-l.\ til in institutions ha\e been laigeh 
 furnished by New England; and the same is fine. 
 in a lesser proportion, in the institutions of other 
 denominations. A catalogue of presidents and 
 professors in American colleges and theological 
 seminaries, including only the men born and 
 reared among the " Congregationalists," would 
 embrace several hundred names. 
 
 CONNECTICUT, one of the original thir- 
 teen states of the American Union, having a 
 population, in 1870, of 537,454, and an area of 
 4,750 sq. m.. being the smallest of the present 
 states except Rhode Island and Delaware. 
 
 h'i/iir,itiiniul Ilisloiy. — This topic may con- 
 veniently be discussed under three heads: (I) 
 The establishing of schools: (II) The mode of 
 maintaining them ; (III) The mode of supervis- 
 ing them. 
 
 I. The earliest European immigrants to Con 
 necticut established schools very soon after their 
 arrival. Two distinct colonies were originally 
 planted within the present limits of the state, 
 each consisting of Beveral towns or plantations. 
 1 1 art ford settled in 1 n.'i."i) was the leading tow n in 
 the Connecticut colony.and New Havi i 
 in I 638 1, in the New I laven colony. At firs! i ai h 
 town acted independently in establishing schools. 
 The earliest records of Hartford arc lost. but the 
 oldest extant records show that a school existed 
 there as early as 1642. The records of New 
 Haven speak of a school there in 1639 :• 
 two years later they contain a vote to provide 
 means for a school. The action of these two 
 leading towns no doubt indicates correctly the 
 similar action of the other original towns. The 
 first code of laws for the Connecticut colony, 
 completed in 165U, required "the selectmen of 
 
172 
 
 COWKCTirUT 
 
 i-very town to have a vigilant eye over their 
 brethren and neighbors, to see thai none of them 
 shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their 
 families as not to endeavor to teach, by them- 
 selves or others, their children and apprentices 
 si i much learning as may enable them perfectly 
 to read the English tongue, etc." The same code 
 required every town containing :"><> families to 
 " appoint one within their town to teach all such 
 children as shall resort to him, to write and 
 read;" and every town of 1 ( 10 families, to " set 
 up a grammar school, the masters thereof being 
 able to instruct youths so far as they may be 
 fitted for the university." The New Haven 
 colony code, prepared iu 1655, was equally em- 
 phatic in requiring the education of all children. 
 The two colonies were united in 1665, and the 
 Connecticut code became the law for the whole 
 colony. In 1671'. that code was revised, and the 
 provision requiring a grammar school in every 
 town of LOO families, was superseded by a new 
 law requiring such a school to bo maintainel in 
 the county town of each of the four counties 
 
 that had then been organize 1; u. Iv. Hartford. 
 
 New Haven. New London, and Fairfield. This 
 law remained in force till 179s. In I 678, every 
 town c mtaining 30 families (instead of 50) was 
 require I to maintain a school. A new revision 
 of the code was prepared in 1 700, and publishe 1 
 two years later, ruder the revised code, even- 
 town of 70 families, or more, was required to 
 maintain a school eleven months of each year, 
 and every town of less than 70 t.nuilie- to have 
 a school at least half of the year. In 1717, these 
 requirements were extended to parishes or socie- 
 ties, into which several towns of large extent 
 were divided, from time to time, for the con- 
 venience of people in attending public worship. 
 In 1700. each town, and each parish, where there 
 was more than one iu a town, was authorized to 
 divide itself into convenient districts, and main- 
 tain within its limits as many schools as might 
 be needed to accommodate its inhabitants. Pre- 
 vious to this time, the law had required only one 
 school in each town or society. The law of 1 766 
 led. in time, to the " district system" of establish- 
 ing and maintaining schools. At first, however, 
 the districts were merely subdivisions of towns 
 or parishes. In 17!H. their separate existence 
 began to be recognized in legislation. They 
 were authorized that year to locate new school- 
 houses by a vote of two thirds of the citizens, to 
 lay taxes for the same, and to appoint collectors. 
 In I 799, they were empowered to choose clerks 
 and treasurers ; and, finally, in 1839, they wen.' 
 declared to be "bodies corporate," anil were 
 authorized to elect their own committees. In 
 L795, 1798, and 1799, laws were passed by which 
 parishes or societies were invested with full con- 
 trol over schools within their limits, and were 
 designated by the new name of -'school societies." 
 Such society might be an entire town, a pari of 
 a town, or parts of two or more towns ; bill all 
 
 action concerning schools was taken by scl 1 
 
 ocieties, and towns, as such, had no pari in 
 school affairs. In ls50, school societies were 
 
 abolished, and their powers and duties were trans- 
 ferred to the towns. In 1865, the towns were 
 authorized to consolidate all their districts, pro- 
 vided a majority of the districts in a town con- 
 sented. In 1866, the right to consolidate was 
 given without that condition: and this law. with 
 slight modifications, is still in force. Under this 
 law, several towns have abolished their school 
 districts and returned to the original " town 
 system." 
 
 II. There have been three principal sources of 
 support for public schools: (1) Taxes: (2) Tui- 
 tion fees, or rate bills ; (3) The income of per- 
 manent funds. 
 
 (1) 71 Mrs. — The earliest schools in Hartford. 
 New Haven, AVethersfield. and. doubtless, in the 
 other original towns, were supported in part by 
 appropriations from the town treasuries. The 
 code of 1650 (already mentioned) directed that the 
 teachers should be paid •■cither by the pa nail:- iii 
 masters of such children " as resorted to them, 
 •or by the inhabitants in general by way of 
 supply, as the major part of those who order the 
 prudentials of the town shall appoint." The two 
 methods here suggested. — taxes and tuition fees 
 
 -were, doubtless, combined, as they had been be- 
 fore that code was formed. In L690,the general 
 court (i.e., legislature,! of the colony granted 60 
 pounds yearly to each of the county grammar 
 schools of 1 1 art ton laud New Haven." 110 pounds 
 of ii to be paid out of the county treasury, the 
 other :io to be paid in the school revenue given 
 by particular persons, or to be given for thai use. 
 so far as it will extend, the rest to be paid by the 
 respective towns of Hartford and New Haven." 
 In L693, 20 pounds was voted to each of the 
 other two grammar schools. In the revised code 
 of 1700 (previously referred to), an important 
 change was made. The sum of 40 shillings 
 on the thousand pounds was ordered to be paid 
 from the colony treasury to those towns which 
 maintained schools according to law, in propor- 
 tion to their respective grand lists of taxable 
 property and polls. This sum was assessed in 
 addition to previous taxes, and was thus virtually 
 a town tax for schools. If the amount thus re- 
 ceived by any town was insufficient to maintain 
 its school, the deficiency was to be " made up of 
 such estate as hath been bequeathed by any for 
 that use, and for want thereof, the one half to be 
 paid by the town, and the other by the children 
 that go to school, unless any town agree other- 
 wise." In 171 7, parishes or societies were placed 
 on the same footing as towns for maintaining 
 schools. The law of 1700, as thus amended, re- 
 mained in force, with slight modifications, till 
 1820. The most important modifications were 
 the following: In 1754, the rate of tax was 
 diminished from 40 shillings to 10; in I 700. it 
 was increased to 20: and in 1707. was restored 
 to 40. The burdens of the Seven Years' war 
 
 L756 63), doubtless, caused the diminution 
 of the tax. In 1820, the state school fund had 
 beci ■ so productive that a law was passed per- 
 mitting the discontinuance of the tax whenever 
 the yearly income of that fund should amount to 
 
CONNECTICUT 
 
 $62.000, which occurred the next year, tn ls.">4. 
 the town school tax was restored, and it has since 
 been repeatedly increased, till it now supplies 
 fully half of the funds for the current expenses 
 of public schools. In L839, school districts were 
 authorized to tax themselves for current school 
 
 expenses. Thisisnowdi most commonly by 
 
 the more populous and wealthy districts. In 
 1*71. there was appropriated from the state 
 treasury 50 cents for each child between I and 
 16 years of age. The next year the sum was in- 
 creased to one dollar and a halt per child, which 
 it now remains. 
 
 (2) Tuition Fees or Rate Bills. —These were 
 a source of school income from the beginning till 
 they were abolished in L868. When' parents or 
 guardians were too poor to pay them, they could 
 
 fn.m the treasury of the U. S. In L836, Congress 
 directed that the "surplus revenue" then on 
 hand should Undivided a ir the stales in m'o- 
 
 (3 / of Permani /' fe.— Alawal- 
 
 read] quoted, passed in L 690, refers to "school 
 revenue given by particular persons." The quo- 
 tation already given from the law of 1700, con- 
 tains similar language. In 17,'S:i, the public 
 lands belonging to the colony, now constituting 
 the north-western part of the state, were set apart 
 to form a permanent school fund, and the avails 
 of these lands, exec] it certain reservations, were 
 distributed among the towns then organized, in 
 proportion to their tax lists; parishes receiving 
 their portions on the same basis. The money 
 thus obtained now constitutes the greater part 
 of the -'school society fund-" belonging to many 
 of the former societies. A small part of these 
 
 funds came from the '"excise nevs" granted 
 
 by the colony, in L766, lot- the encouragement of 
 schools, ami another part from the donations and 
 bequests of benevolent persons. The Connection 
 School Fund was for more than half a century 
 the main source of public school income. By 
 the charter granted to I 'oimeeticut by I 'ha lie.- 1 1, 
 of England, in 1662, the colony extended west- 
 ward to the Pacific, and from 41° to 42 1 -' 2' X. 
 lat. The part of this territory now belonging 
 to Pennsylvania, was yielded to that state 
 after a bitter controversy, but the title of Con- 
 necticut to the remainder, lying farther west. 
 was continued. In L786, this was ceded to the 
 U. S., except a reservation extending 120 miles 
 westward from the W. line of Pennsylvania, and 
 known as the" Western deserve," or sometimes 
 as " New Connecticut." This tract, except a 
 small part previously disposed of. was sold in 
 17'.).") for Sl.000.ooii, which was the original 
 capital of the Connecticut school fund. By ju- 
 dicious management, particularly that of James 
 Hillhouse. commissioner of the fund from ltd 
 to 1825, and Seth P. Beers, from 1825 to 1st'.). 
 the capital was increased to over $2,000,000. 
 The first dividend was paid in 1 7'.)'.). The fund 
 now bears interest at 7 per cent, and in some 
 cases more than that. The income, until 1820, 
 was distributed to the school societies in propor- 
 tion to their respective amounts of taxable prop- 
 erty and polls; since that time it is divided ac- 
 cording to the number of children between 4 and 
 16 yearsof age. — The Town l>rj„isil Fund came 
 
 from which they were formed. In theory, this 
 money is merely deposited with the towns 1>\ 
 the state (whence its name), and is liable to 
 be recalled; but, practically, it belongs absolutely 
 to the towns. At first, one half of the income 
 was devoted by law to public schools; since 
 Is.").-), the entire income has been so devoted. 
 111. I o,-t he first Co or TOvearsin the historv 
 
 their townsmen to prevent the " barbarism " of 
 ignorance; but nothing is recorded which indi- 
 cates that schools were particularly under their 
 
 qualifications of the masters of such schools and 
 their dtligi nee in attending to the service of the 
 .-aid schools, together with the proficiem \ ol the 
 children under their care." They were also re- 
 quired to give such directions as would render 
 the schools most efficient for the purpose in- 
 tended. This law remained in force till 1798, 
 when each society - then called a school society— 
 was required to "appoint a suitable number of 
 persons, not exceeding nine, of competent skill 
 and letters, to be overseers and visitors of 
 schools." who were to examine and approve 
 
 teael 
 
 eh as 
 
 then 
 
 
 disregarded the "regit 
 
 superintend and direc 
 youth in letters, refigii 
 
 and in other ways promote the efficiency of 
 the schools. When the school societies were 
 abolished, in L856, the appointment of "school 
 visitors was transferred to the towns. 
 
 No state superintendent of schools was chosen 
 
 in C lecticut till ls:{'.». In that year, a board 
 
 of commissioners of common schools was created. 
 ami authorized to appoint its own secretary, who 
 was to- devote his whole time, if required, un- 
 der the direction of the board, to ascertain the 
 
 condition, increase the interest, and pi ite the 
 
 usefulness, of the common schools." The board 
 appointed as its secretary Henry Barnard, who 
 served the state efficiently in thai position till 
 L842, when the law creating the board was re- 
 
m 
 
 CONNECTICUT 
 
 pealed. In 1845, the commissioner of the school 
 fund, S'eth P. Beers, was appointed by the gen- 
 eral assembly superintendent of common schools. 
 In 1849, an act was passed establishing a normal 
 school, the principal of which was to be. ex offi- 
 cio, superintendent of common schools. Under 
 this act. Henry Barnard became superintendent 
 in September of that year, and continued to 
 hold the office till January, 1855. .lolm 1). 
 Philbriek succeeded him for two years, and 
 David N. Camp was superintendent from Jan- 
 uary. L857, to August, L865. In July. 1865, 
 the state board of education was constituted, and 
 was required to appoint a secretary, who by the 
 appointment was made superintendent of schools. 
 The first secretary was Daniel C. Oilman, who 
 filled the position from August, 1865. to Jan- 
 uary. 1867. The present secretary. Birdsey O. 
 Northrop, entered upon his duties January 1., 
 1867. 
 
 A State Teachers' Association was formed 
 April 7.. 1846, which meets once a year Teach- 
 ers' Institutes arc held in different parts of the 
 state, every year. They are provided for by an 
 appropriation of $3,000 a year, from the state 
 treasury. Associations of teachers for mutual 
 improvement are formed from time to time in 
 some towns. 
 
 School System. — The general supervision and 
 control of the educational interests of the state 
 are entrusted to the state board of education, 
 which consists of six persons. — the governor and 
 lieutenant-governor of the state, ex officio, and 
 one person from each of the four congressional 
 districts, chosen by the general assembly for the 
 term of four years, one going out of office each 
 year, but re-eligible. The secretary chosen by 
 this board is superintendent of schools, as above 
 stated. Towns are required to maintain schools 
 for at least 30 weeks in each year, in every 
 district containing 24 or more persons between 
 4 and 1 n' years of age, and for at least 24 weeks 
 in other districts : but no school need be 
 maintained in any district in which the aver- 
 age attendance, the previous year, was less 
 than 8. Each town has a board of school 
 visitors, either 6 or 9 in number, who are 
 chosen by ballot for three years, one third go- 
 ing out of office each year, but re-eligible. In 
 choosing them, no voter may vote for more than 
 half of the number to be chosen when it is an 
 even number, nor for more than a bare majority 
 when it is an odd number. * The care of school 
 funds and other school property belonging to the 
 towns, is entrusted to selectmen, and the visitors 
 have charge of strictly educational affairs. They 
 examine and certificate teachers, rejecting those 
 considered unfit or incompetent, prescribe rules 
 and regulations for the management, studies, 
 classification, and discipline of public schools, 
 and direct what text-books shall be used. They 
 approve sites and plans for new school-houses, 
 fill vacancies in district offices, make rules for 
 the care and management of district libraries, 
 and supervise high schools where such exist. 
 They annually assign to one or more of their 
 
 number, ealleil acting visitors, the duty of visit 
 ing all public schools in the town at least twice 
 in each term. They choose from their own num- 
 ber a chairman and secretary, make yearly re- 
 turns of the number of children between 4 and 
 16 years of age. and draw all moneys from the 
 state treasury. They also send to the secretary 
 of the board of education such statistical re- 
 turns as he may call for. As compensation, they 
 are entitled to receive 3 dollars a day, for the 
 time necessarily spent in performing their duties. 
 Each town has power to form. alter, and dissolve 
 school districts within its limits, and any two or 
 more towns may form joint districts of adjoining 
 parts of their territory. Kaeh district is a body 
 corporate, with all the powers necessary for 
 building, purchasing, hiring, and repairing 
 school-houses, employing and paying teachers, 
 and raising moneys by tax or loan. The name 
 or number, and the boundaries of every district 
 arc to be definitely ascertained and entered on 
 its own records, as well as on those of the town 
 or towns in which it is situated. Each district 
 chooses yearly by ballot a committee of not 
 more than 3 persons, a clerk, treasurer, and col- 
 lector Some large districts choose their com- 
 mittees in the same way that school visitors are 
 chosen, as already described. The committee of a 
 district is its agent, employing its teacher or 
 teaehei-s. and taking charge of its affairs; giving 
 notice of district meetings, and calling special 
 meetings when deemed necessary, or when one- 
 fifth or ten of the voters in the district request 
 it in writing. 
 
 Any town may. at any annual meeting, abol- 
 ish all the school districts and parts of districts 
 within its limits, and constitute itself one district. 
 Such town assumes all the property and debts of 
 the former district, and chooses by ballot, as 
 school visitors are chosen, a committee of 6, 9, 
 or 12 male residents, who take the place and 
 perform the duties of both district officers and 
 school visitors. They arrange for schools, of at 
 least 30 weeks in the year, in the different parts 
 of the town, and take charge of school-buildings 
 and other school property. All towns have 
 authority to establish and maintain high schools, 
 and to do what is requisite for that purpose. 
 The state makes yearly payments for procuring 
 and replenishing libraries and apparatus, to such 
 districts as comply with certain requirements. 
 Teachers are required to be examined and ap- 
 proved by the school visitors before commencing 
 to teach, and to keep an accurate record of each 
 scholar's attendance, in registers provided by the 
 state for that purpose. An enumeration of all 
 persons between 4 and 1 6 years of age is made 
 yearly, in January, and the number is returned 
 to the proper officer by February 5th. The dis- 
 tribution of the school finance and state appro- 
 priation is based on this enumeration. 
 
 Education il condition. The number of school 
 districts as returned in L876, is 1506, of which 
 L6 comprise each an entire town; obout 2(10 are 
 joint districts, lying in two or more towns, and 
 about 1280 are each a part of a town. The 
 
CONNECTICUT 
 
 175 
 
 number of schools was 1 ,650 : of departments, 
 2,499. The number of graded schools was 264 ; 
 
 of which 11-t had each two departments ; 39 had 
 3 each; 37,4; 23.5; 11. 6; 111.7; 5,8; 5,9; 
 fi, 10; 1,11; 7, 12; 3, 13 ; 1,19; 1, 20; 1,21. 
 The whole number of departments in the graded 
 schools was 1,093. Hence about 1,406 of the 
 public schools were ungraded. 
 
 The support of schools (including the cost of 
 building and repairing school-houses) was de- 
 rived from several sources; namely. 
 
 School Fund $148,220.60 
 
 Town Deposit Fund 46,534.97 
 
 Other Punas 15,614.79 
 
 Total from funds $210,370.36 
 
 State Tax $202,119.00 
 
 Town Tax 668,167.13 
 
 District Tax 463,775.19 
 
 Total from taxes $1,334,061.32 
 
 Voluntary Contributions 6,881.26 
 
 Other sources 41,545.17 
 
 Total from all sources $1,592,858.11 
 
 The average wages per month of male teach- 
 ers was $70.05; of female teachers, $37.35. The 
 highest salary of any teacher is $3,000 a year. 
 
 The course of instruction in graded schools 
 varies so widely that no definite statement can 
 be given. 
 
 School Statistics (for the year ending August 
 
 Pupils enrolled (or registered): 
 
 In the winter term 98,402 
 
 " " summer term 88,595 
 
 " " whole year 119,481) 
 
 Average attendance, winter 71,935 
 
 " " summer 65,251 
 
 " " mean, for the year. . . 68,593 
 
 Total Receipts $1,592,858.11 
 
 " Expenditures ] ,552,583.85 
 
 The items of expenditure are as follows: — 
 
 For Teachers' Wages $1,057,242.19 
 
 " Fuel and Incidentals 
 
 " New School-Houses 
 
 " Repairs of School- Houses 
 
 " Library ami Apparatus 
 
 " other school purposes, inclmliiii; 
 of supervision 
 
 I in,i:ai.fj 
 
 135,1:15.46 
 
 77.544.4(1 
 
 8,262.15 
 
 134,2011.17 
 
 .$1,552,583.1 
 
 Total 
 
 Number of Teachers ; — 
 vinter, males, 721; females, 1.910; total 2,631 
 
 272; " 2,324; " ... .2.511(1 
 
 Niunlici of tliflWrnt teachers employed, at least, 
 males, Till: females, 2,307; total, 3.011. 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The state normal school, 
 at New Britain, was established in 1849, and 
 opened for pupils in 1850. It is supported by 
 an appropriation of $12,000 a year from the 
 state treasury. The number of students, in 1876, 
 was 180 ; instructors, 7. The design of the 
 school is strictly professional : that is. to instruct 
 its pupils in the best methods of organizing, 
 governing, and instructing schools, as well as in 
 the various branches pursued in the common 
 schools of the state. Candidates for admission 
 must be at least 16 years of age ; must declare 
 their full attention to teach in the public schools 
 of Connecticut, and must pass a satisfactory ex- 
 amination in reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- 
 raphy, English grammar, and the history of the 
 United States. The course of study embraces, 
 
 besides the branches usually taught in the 
 schools, school laws, theory and art of teaching, 
 English literature, vocal" music, and drawing. 
 The full course requires two years. This school 
 has a library of about 500 volumes ; a collection 
 of models, Casts, and apparatus for free hand 
 drawing; a chemical laboratory, and a philo- 
 sophical cabinet and apparatus. ' 
 
 Secondary Instruction. -Of this grade are 
 the high schools and the academies. The ac- 
 count already given of the public schools con- 
 tains the facts in relation to the county grammar 
 schools, which may be regarded as the high 
 schools of Connecticut iron, 1672 to 1798. The 
 Colony School in New Haven (1659— 62) may 
 
 be considered the prototype of these scl Is. In 
 
 1798, every school society was authorized to set 
 up a high school: and, in 1856, each (own re- 
 ceived similar authority. But very few towns 
 have permanently maintained such schools. In 
 many of the larger villages, the highest depart- 
 ment of a graded school serves as a high school. 
 
 In 1658, Edward Hopkins, who had beei v- 
 
 ernorof Connecticut, died in London, leaving by 
 will a part of his estate to trustees in New 
 Haven. Hartford, and Hadley. Mass.. to be used 
 "to give sonic encouragement in those foreign 
 plantations for the breeding up of hopeful 
 youths, both at the grammar school and college, 
 for the public service of the colony in future 
 times." New Haven and Hartford received 
 each a few bundled pounds from his estate, with 
 which they laid the foundations of the Hopkins 
 grammar schools. These schools date from 
 1660, though not actually begun till 1664 and 
 1665. The school at Hartford was united with 
 the high school of that town in 184*7, but the 
 Hopkins Cranmiar School in New Haven has 
 retained its separate existence, though most of 
 its present endowment came from other sources 
 than the Hopkins estate. 
 
 In the later years of the 18th century, acade- 
 mies began to he established, and a large number 
 have been incorporated. A general law for their 
 incorporation has been in force since 1838. At 
 present, about 25 academies are in active exist- 
 ence. In the early part of this century, the 
 I'laintield Academy, the Staples Free School, at 
 Easton, and Bacon Academy, at Colchester, 
 were especially prominent, but they have since 
 relatively declined. The most important are 
 now the Episcopal Academy, at Cheshire, the 
 Connecticut Literary Institute, at Suffield, the 
 Norwich Free Academy, the Bulkeley School. 
 at New London, and the Morgan School, at 
 Clinton. The last three named have large en- 
 dowments. Bowen Academy, at Woodstock. 
 Lewis Academy, Southington, the Guilford In- 
 stitute, Guilford, and the academics at Durham 
 ami Glastonbury are also valuable instituti ins, 
 
 Besides tic high schools and acad m '■ ere 
 
 arc 
 
 southern and western parts of the state Many 
 
 of these arc boarding-schools wind, n <- m- their 
 pupils chiefly from New York and other large 
 cities. 
 
1T6 
 
 CONNECTICUT 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
 There are but few schools of this kind except 
 
 those established by the Human Catholics in 
 communities where citizensof that denomination 
 are numerous, In two or tliree instances, schools 
 thus established have been incorporated into the 
 public school system. 
 
 Sup, rmr Iiislrnvtiiiii. — Although no college 
 was established in Connecticut till L700, the 
 founders of both the original colonies, and espe- 
 cially of New Haven, were ardent friends of col- 
 legiate education. I!ut Harvard ( 'ollege for a 
 long time needed and received their assistance. 
 The Connecticut colony appropriated money to 
 establish a fellowship there. In every town a 
 committee was appointed to receive ami forward 
 contributions in aid of students at Cambridge. 
 New Haven sent 40 bushels of wheat as one 
 year's contribution. But the purpose to found 
 a college at New Haven, was cherished from the 
 outset, and was never abandoned. At a town 
 meeting held early in 1048— less than HI years 
 after the firs! settlement — , the town directed a 
 committee. appointed to dispose of vacant lots. to 
 ••consider and reserve what lot they shall see 
 meet and most convenient for a college, which 
 they desire maybe set up so soon as their ability 
 shall reach thereunto." The subject was repeat- 
 edly discussed both in meetings of the town and 
 in the colonial legislature, but the want of means 
 prevented the gratification of their desire. In 
 1659, a -colony school " was set up, in the hope 
 that it might in time become a college, but it 
 was continued only three years. At length, in 
 L699, a plan was devised for establishing the 
 long desired college. The leaders in the move- 
 ment wen- the clergymen of the colony. Ten 
 of these were selected to act in behalf of the 
 whole number, to found, erect, and govern a col- 
 lege. In 1 TOO, they performed the duty assigned 
 them, and the '■collegiate school" was begun. 
 The next year, the Legislature bestowed on it a 
 charter and an annual appropriation of 120 
 pounds for its support. It was first located at 
 Saybrook. but the president (then called rector) 
 lived at Killingworth (now Clinton) a few miles 
 distant, and the students pursued their studies 
 there under his direction till his death in 17(17. 
 Afterward, the senior class was instructed by 
 his successor at Milford, the other classes re- 
 maining at Saybrook, where the successive an- 
 nual commencements were held. In 1716, the 
 trustees decided to remove the school to New 
 Haven, and after much contention this was 
 accomplished the following year. One year 
 later (1718), a generous and timely gift from 
 Llihu Yale induced the trustees to give the in- 
 stitution the name of Vale College. (See Tale 
 Colleue.) 
 
 Trinity ( 'ollege. at Hartford, was chartered as 
 Washington College, in L823 ; and instruction 
 was begun in 1824. The name was changed in 
 1845. (See Trinity College.) In addition to 
 these, there is the Wesleyan University, at 
 Middletown, which was founded in L831. (See 
 Wesleyan University.) 
 
 Professional mitl Si-initifu- lnstrvclion. — Un- 
 der this head are included Theological School*, 
 Lmr Schools, ami Scientific Schools, of which the 
 following is an enumeration : The Theological 
 Department of Yale College was organized in 
 [sTl. For the year 1875—0, it had 99 students. 
 The Theological Institute of Connecticut was 
 founded at East Windsor, in 1834, and was re- 
 moved to Hartford, in 1865. In 1870. the num- 
 ber of students was 10. The Berkeley Divinity 
 School was organized in l"--'l as the '1 lieological 
 Department of Trinity College, hi 1854,it was 
 removed to Middletown, and was incorporated 
 with its present designation. It had 39 students 
 in 1870. In 1784, the Litchfield Law School was 
 established by Judge Reeve, and it soon became 
 the foremost in the U. S., having students from 
 all parts of the country. It was continued about 
 half a century. The Law Department of Yale 
 College was separately organized in 1820. though 
 no class was formally graduated till 1843. The 
 number of students, in 1870, was 76. 'Hie Med- 
 ical Department of Yale College was organized 
 in 1813. The number of students, in 1876, was 
 50. The Sheffield Scientific School of Yale Col- 
 lege was begim in 1846, as the Department of 
 Philosophy and the Arts, and graduated its first 
 class in 1852. Its rapid growth has been due 
 mainly to the liberality of the gentleman whose 
 name it bears. In 1863, the legislature granted 
 to it the income ($8,100) derived from lands 
 given by Congress, the previous year, to provide 
 colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the 
 mechanic arts." The school had 224 students 
 for the year 1875—6. The School of the Fine 
 Arts in Yale College has been quite recently 
 established, and has as yet but few pupils. 
 
 Special Instruction- The American Asylum 
 for the Deaf and Dumb was established at Hart- 
 ford in 1816. being the first of the kind on the 
 Western Continent. It receives pupils from all 
 the New England States. The average numberis 
 usually about 225. The Whipple Home for Deaf- 
 mutes, at Mystic River, makes a specialty of 
 teaching the deaf and dumb to talk, in which it is 
 remarkably successful. The State Reform School 
 for Boys, at West Meriden. was established in 
 
 L851 . and ope 1 in L85 I. It has received in all 
 
 about 2.3511 pupils, and has an average number of 
 about 300. The Industrial School for Girls, at 
 .Middletown, was incorporated in 1868, and re- 
 ceived its first pupil in January 1870. It has an 
 average number of from 60 to 80 pupils, and re- 
 ceives from the Slate $3 per week for each pupil. 
 It is designed to be a reformatory institution. 
 The Soldiers' Orphan Homes, two in number, 
 were opened 10 or 12 years ago. at Darien and 
 .Mansfield. As the class of children for which they 
 were designed is now mostly beyond school age, 
 they cannot be much longer continued on the 
 original basis, but the sclu >< >l at I larien has a I reai ly 
 been somewhat transformed. The School for Im- 
 beciles, at Lakeville, was incorporated in 1801, 
 though it had been previously carried on as a 
 private institution. It receives from the state 
 treasury an annual appropriation of $7,000. 
 
COXSCIKNVK 
 
 177 
 
 Educational Literature. — The chief works on 
 the schools of the state are the Report of Henry 
 
 Barnard, Superintendent of Conn i Schools, 
 
 for L853, which contains a carefully prepared 
 history of education in Connecticut ; and histor- 
 ical accounts oi particular institutions which have 
 been published from time to time. Besides these, 
 histories of Vale College have been prepared by 
 -i'\.t.iI pc-tsuiis: and a full account of Trinity 
 College and tlu- lierkelev I>i\init\ .-.•!„ .,,1 i., mii- 
 
 lain 
 
 tiona 
 nectii 
 
 The feeling 
 that certain 
 he sense of 
 
 by Henry Barnard, in August, L838. Four 
 volumes, lto,were published in the next4 years, 
 
 and 4 vols, more, previous to ls.H. From 1854 
 to 1866, inclusive, 13 vols.. 8vo, were issued, 
 and after an interval of 4 years 1 vols, more 
 (1871—74), the last two being 4to. The whole 
 number of volumes issued is 2->. Li January. 
 1875, all the educational .journals of New Eng- 
 land were combined into the .\.«- England 
 Journal of Eihioitioii. published weekly in Bos- 
 ton. The Journal of Eiliioiliou was begun bv 
 Henry Barnard, in Is.Vi. and is still continued. 
 The series comprises about 20 large 8vo volumes. 
 (See Barnard, Henry.) 
 
 CONSCIENCE, Culture of. 
 of moral obligation, the coiivictioi 
 actions are right and others wrong 
 duty, the moral principle, or by whatevei othei 
 phrase of similar signification we may di i 
 science, is the most impoi I t object of < tilt ure 
 in every department and stage ol moraleduca- 
 tion. The strength of this principle, as an .nine 
 element of character, differs greatly in different 
 individuals, whether children or adults. As a 
 general fact, however, children are influenced 
 but very slightly by a sense of right or duty; 
 they are acted upon by a different class of mo- 
 tives. The desire of sensuous enjoyment, the 
 love of approbation, emulation. self-will, the hope 
 of reward, and the fear of punishment, are the 
 usual means by which youthful minds are 
 swayed, and their actions controlled. The appe- 
 tites are .strong; the moral sentiments, weak. , 
 Hence, to address the conscience of a child as a 
 ruling principle would be a great error; perhaps, 
 a disaster. Still, children should be treated as 
 possessing at least the germ of conscience ; and 
 they should early be habituated to scan their 
 own conduct as well as that of others, and apply- 
 to it a certain standard of moral rectitude. How- 
 ever imperfect this standard in a child's mind 
 may be, much will be gained when we have in- 
 duced him to ask. in regard to any of his actions, 
 " Is it right '.'" The enlightenment of conscience 
 
 is much easier than its development : to who 
 
 is deeply impressed with a sense of duty, a 
 knowledge of specific right and wrong will be 
 very readily acquired. It should be borne in 
 mind that, while the child is really restrained by 
 the lower motives of conduct, such as those above 
 enumerated, the conscience is to be steadily but 
 carefully addressed. Thus, if a pupil, whose love 
 
 of approbation is strong, has learned a difficnll 
 li on simply to please his teai hi i 
 
 accord him all the praise which he , .. 
 
 reward of his condw I | but let uot the teacher 
 
 l ' 11 ' '" H"fo .*--. uj his mind, at tlu 
 
 that this jiiaise is -urn because the action per- 
 
 be drawn from his overwi 
 
 approbation of nth , |,.,| to ap- 
 
 preciate more highly the approbation of his own 
 con-deuce: and so m respect to all the low.i in- 
 centives. If the child is punished tor a fault bi 
 an angry teacher or parent, he will rather dread 
 
 •ssed with the ulo|,. jt lll 
 
 ncss of his coi 
 
 1 1 nK result 
 
 dor him more 
 
 to 1|„ 
 
 vara or punishment is an 
 mprovemi m ol the pupil: 
 because it diverts his attention from the charac- 
 ter of his conduct, as good or bad in itself, to an 
 exclusive consideration of its effects upon the 
 mind of the teacher, as producing praise or cen- 
 sure. Some thoughtless teachers punish their 
 pupils for not telling of each other's offenses; 
 when they should be glad to perceive an ex- 
 hibition of .such a sense of honor, and should 
 rather encourage and commend it. Of course. 
 if a pupil who is strenuous in his refusal to act 
 the part of a talc-bearer, as mean and wrong, 
 could be convinced that In- dun demanded that 
 he should make known the wrong doer, he would 
 at once yield ; but, after a simple statement oi 
 the case, he should be permitted to exercise his 
 conscience, without any violence' or threats being 
 brought against it. A high standard oi moral 
 excellence in a child is just as striking an in- 
 stance of precocity, as great intellectual power 
 and attainments : and is, perhaps, as much lobe 
 discouraged. " Be content.'' says Herbert Spen- 
 cer, ■■ with moderate measures and n 
 suits. Constantly bear in mind the fact that a 
 higher morality, like a higher intelligence, must 
 be reached by a slow growth: and you will then 
 
 have more patience with those imperfections of 
 nature which your child hourly displays. You 
 
 will be less prone to that constant scolding, and 
 threatening, and forbidding, by which many 
 parents induce a chronic domestic irritation, in 
 the foolish hope that they will thus make their 
 children what they should be." 
 
 The conscience is not to be cultivated by 
 simply giving moral precepts. " Moral educa- 
 tion," says Dymond, "should be directed, not so 
 much to informing the young what thi 
 to do. as to inducing those moral dispositions 
 and principles which will make them adhere to 
 wdiat they know to be right.'' The In 
 cess in this is achieved when the pupil is seen to 
 be willing to make self-sacrifice, to practice 
 self-denial, in order to do what he fi 
 right. This point of moral excellei 
 been reached, the individual may, with entire 
 safety, be allowed to control his own actions, 
 
CONSTITUTION OF U. S. 
 
 CONVENT SCHOOLS 
 
 with the assurance that he will not, in any eir- I CONVENT SCHOOLS. The convents of 
 cumstance of life, go far astray. the Christian church were originally founded 
 ■ The basis of moral rectitude has not here been from ascetic and religious, not from literary and 
 considered; nor is it necessary to plunge into educational motives; and, for a considerable 
 any speculations as to what constitutes that (lis- time after their first establishment, hut little 
 criminative power between right and wrong value appears to have been attributed by their 
 whirl, is a part of the original constitution of inmates to literary culture and education. Basil 
 the human mind. It may undoubtedly be of c.iesarea was one' of the tirst who re- 
 strengthened by religious training of a proper commended the reception of children into con- 
 stitutes a vents for the purpose of being educated. The 
 if the con- recommendation was complied with by many 
 mlil labor. Eastern convents. Chrysostom. as well as other 
 ndingand bishops, expressly ordered that convent schools 
 
 character: and hence. such training i 
 very important agenc 
 
 Parent; 
 from the earliest dawning of und.-r.-ta 
 desire, to check tin- growing obstinacy o 
 curb all sallies of passion, impress tin 
 most amiable, reverential, and awful s 
 of God, a future state, and all saerei 
 (See Moral Education, and Reli i 
 
 TION.) 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF TJ. S 
 instruction forming part of the 
 
 should be opened also to lay pupils, and admon- 
 deepest, ished parents to send their children for ten or 
 itimcnts more years to convents, in order that they might 
 things." be brought up in the principles of piety. Next 
 Bduca- to the bast, th nvents of southern Gaul, Ire- 
 land. Scotland, and England became the seats of 
 a branch of Christian scholarship. I.eriimni. in southern 
 se ot studies < iaul, had an ecclesiastical seminary from which. 
 
 pursued in the common sel Is of main of [In- 
 states of the Cnion. As the object of common- 
 school education is . lii.-tlv to prepare for the du- 
 ties of citizenship, it is usually deemed essential 
 to impart a knowledge of the organic law of the 
 nation, as the foundation of those acquirements 
 
 struction, besides making the pupils familiar with 
 
 the particular instrument studied, may be made 
 the basis for much useful information in regard 
 to the elementary principles of jurisprudence 
 and governmental organization. An analysis 
 of the various provisions pertaining to the three 
 
 rtments of tin 
 
 their respective power; 
 with an explanation of the unite 
 cannot but prepare the y.mthfi 
 advanced studies of this kind, 
 means of a particular culture of 
 judgment, of very great value. 
 
 1 limitations of 
 
 'he practical 
 
 i of the knowledge thus imparted, par- 
 ticularly in boys' schools, is scarcely exceeded by 
 that of any other branch of instruction usually 
 included in a common-school course. Many 
 valuable school text-books on this subject have 
 id to 
 rally 
 
 Inch. 
 
 aooks of ref- 
 m of U. 8. 
 
 been compiled : besides v 
 teach the history of the 
 comprehend als is an 
 of the Unite I - tes, an 
 school study- —See B. I » 
 Education i N. V.. 1851 1 
 i in i. v. Story, On the 
 (N. V.): Kent. Comm 
 Law (Boston) : Mansfi 
 
 (N Y.); NoRDHOFF, /'" 
 
 leans IN. Y.i: Pomeroi 
 i\. Y.I; Sufppard. Ci 
 and m-st Book of th 
 
 Stearns, Constitution of U.S., with Concord- 
 ance and classified Index (N. T.) ; Townsend 
 Analysis of Civil Government iN Y.i; An- 
 drews, Manual of the Constitution of the U. 8. 
 (Cin., 1874). 
 
 (I'hila 
 
 in the ">th and (ith centuries, many aut 
 scholars proceeded ; and, in the British islands. 
 manyconvent schoolswhieh imparted theological 
 as well as other instruction, were especially 
 famous for the number of missionaries whom 
 they educated. 
 
 A new period in the history of convent schools 
 begins with the foundation of the Benedictine 
 order. By introducing a strict monastic rule, 
 Benedict not only developed the idea and organ- 
 ization of monasticism, but also made monastic 
 institutions one of the strong pillars of the 
 church. When, therefore, Benedict and his or- 
 der added the instruction of novices, as well as 
 of other scholars, to the regular work of the con- 
 vent, he did more for the development of educa- 
 tion among the new states emerging from the 
 ruins of the Roman empire, than any other man 
 up to the time of Charlemagne. (See Bknk- 
 dicttnes, Schools of the, and Charlemagne.) 
 Prom the 8th to the 11th century, the Bene- 
 dictine schools, and their rivals, the cathedral 
 and collegiate schools (See Cathedral and Col- 
 i 1 1 . i \ 1 1 Schools), were almost the exclusive re- 
 presentatives of Christian education in western 
 Europe. Some of these schools, especially in 
 Germany, France, and England, attained a high 
 degree of prospeiitv. and gave a powerful im- 
 pulse to the progress of education by the revival 
 of classical studies. At the time of Gregory VII., 
 the convent schools began to decline 'I he new 
 ideas set afloat by the crusades, found the course 
 of instruction in the Benedictine schools too nar- 
 row and one-sided; Franciscans, Dominicans, 
 and oilier n.lieani orders dislodged the Bene- 
 dictines in the affections of the lower classes of 
 society, and. therefore gathered in their schools 
 a large number of scholar's who otherwise would 
 have flocked to the Benedictines; several popes, 
 as Innocent III., ostentatiously evinced their 
 preference for the cathedral schools: and, finally, 
 the rise of the universities displaced the convent 
 schools from their rank as the highest class of 
 educational institutions. Moreover, the town 
 schools soon began to make a powerful compe- 
 
CONVENT SCHOOLS 
 
 tition for public favor, and created a demand for 
 instruction in secular subjects, whieh leil to tile 
 foundation of new religious orders: and these. 
 like the Hieronymites, attempted anew departure 
 in the organization of convent schools. The suc- 
 
 and mother European countries called forth, in 
 the Roman Catholic church, nen religious orders, 
 which regarded the establishment oi schoolssu- 
 periorto those of the Protestants as the surest 
 
 way to olitain a controlling iullueuce over the 
 rising generation, and thus to reconquer the 
 ground which had been lost by the church. 
 Among these orders, the Jesuits, the Piarists, 
 the (Jrsulines, and the many congregations of 
 school brothers and school sisters arc the best 
 known. In the eighteenth century, the convent 
 schools lost ground in consequence of the greater 
 influence winch the -tat,- governments exercised 
 in the organization and supervision of schools. 
 They were obliged to submit in many states to 
 die legislation of the stale government on school 
 
 matters: and. by the suppression of the order 
 of the Jesuits, were for a lone time deprived of 
 their most illustrious representatives. In the 
 nineteenth century, the convents, though fiercely 
 attacked in many states, and totally suppressed 
 in some, have found for their schools a very large 
 patronage. This i- particularly the case with 
 the female convent schools, which count among 
 their pupils many thousands of Protestants. 
 
 Convent school education is based on the prin- 
 ciple that religion should have a predominating 
 influence in the education of the child, and that 
 a complete retirement from the world is condu- 
 cive to the formation of a Christian character. 
 The features which distinguish them as a class 
 
 from other scl Is. consist chiefly in the peculiar 
 
 methods of their management and administra- 
 tion. The course of instruction present-- no 
 marked points of difference from that pursued 
 in other schools of the same grade, comprising, in 
 England and the United States, as the prospectus 
 of these institutions generally informs the public, 
 "all the usual branches of a sound English edu- 
 cation," with French, to which a greater promi- 
 nence is given than in the majority of other 
 schools. Instrumental and vocal music, and draw- 
 ing are carefully attended to as necessary accom- 
 plishments; and. in many institutions, the pupils 
 have also the "advantage of the best masters for 
 dancing." The superior of each of these schools 
 is expected to exercise special care in the su- 
 pervision of the deportment of the pupils, 
 and the greatest possible attention is given to 
 their religious and moral training. The religious 
 atmosphere in which the students live, and the 
 frequency of the devotional exercises, interwoven 
 with the studies, are calculated to produce pro- 
 found and lasting impressions; and it is but 
 natural that a considerable proportion of Prot- 
 estant pupils rear,-,! in Catholic convents, should, 
 
 in after life, embrace a rehg under the direct 
 
 influence of which they received their early edu- 
 cation. It is equally natural that Protestant 
 churches should be greatly opposed to convent 
 
 CONVERSATION 
 
 L79 
 
 education, and should earnestlj warn Prote tant 
 parents against placing their children in institu- 
 tions which, in so many eases, while affording a 
 thorough secular education, divert the minds of 
 their pupils from the religious faith of their 
 
 CONVERSATION has nianv claims t i- 
 
 deposit. 
 
 ideas a 
 interelri 
 
 one-sided and 
 corrected by 
 
 "< 'onvelsatlon 
 that is. the mi 
 of knowledge, 
 its acquisition: 
 and useful. Ii 
 lation. but ad.- 
 
 a reelp- 
 
 g infor- 
 bank of 
 i. 1 1 is 
 t of an 
 
 or they 
 
 narrow, becaus 
 
 itheyhave not been 
 
 contrast wit 
 
 those of others 
 
 ,' 'says Bacon," 
 
 nakesa ready man:" 
 
 nd, bythecons 
 
 ,nii used itsstores 
 
 3, and selects tl 
 
 iptS Itself lot 
 
 ical rule in making- 
 it which is available 
 
 ie demands of cm- 
 
 forth and discourses « i 
 philosophy becomes of i 
 
 persons should be consta 
 sation with each other, i 
 
 ■Hows that his 
 
 eal use. Young 
 
 ti 1 in conver- 
 
 eir elders, upon 
 ■ell as the inci- 
 should be cu- 
 ll, both for the 
 eadv expression 
 ■ir minds. The 
 alking or writ- 
 
 a really useful one. Flippaney, eap- 
 conceitedness, and forwardness in ad- 
 vancing opinions, or in disputing about them, 
 should of course be repressed, and humility and 
 modesty be cultivated; candor should always 
 be encouraged, as the best guide to knowledge. 
 In this way, conversation will be not only an 
 important agent in intellectual culture, but one 
 of the most effective means in social education, 
 that is. in training the individual for useful 
 and agreeable intercourse with his fellow.-,. I-.. II 
 Mansfield, in American Education, thus sums 
 up the advantages of conversation as a means of 
 education : " (1) The rapiditj and - 
 versation enables an intelligent person to com 
 miniicate information, or suggest ideas, or direct 
 attention, with a readiness and a velocity which 
 it is impossible to do by reading : (2) It may be 
 done more fully and more accurately, because 
 there is an opportunity to ask questions, to ex- 
 press different shades of thought. and to illustrate 
 
180 CONVERSATIONAL METHOD 
 
 in different ways : (3) ( 'onversation suggests 
 rapidly numerous ideas which can only be ex- 
 pressed in a very limited manner by written in- 
 struction; and (4) Such instruction may thus 
 draw out a sympathy of minds, by which the 
 pupil is enlivened, is led forward without labor. 
 and ascends, enlarges theeircleof ideas, loves the 
 pursuit of knowledge, and inquires into the 
 reason of things, without ever suspecting that a 
 task has been put upon him." 
 
 Conversation brings into play a great variety 
 of faculties, which without it are quite apt to 
 rust from disuse; but in order to exercise its 
 
 iv,,.!,, I except hva due'ro-a'id to the amen- 
 ities ol social intercourse, ft then beco s the 
 
 genuine inspirer of wit, fancy, and sentiment, 
 which rind their best and truest exercise in the 
 gla l.-oine communion of congenial minds. But 
 to have this effect, it must lie an interchange, not 
 a one-sided harangue: nor must it be permitted 
 to degenerate into dogmatism or debate. The 
 true art of conversation, apart from its intellect- 
 ual requirements, corresponds with the art of 
 politeness, the basic principle of which is. to try 
 to please others by making them pleased with 
 themselves. Hence, however much we may differ 
 in opinion with others, we should still treat their 
 opinions with respect; ami if we are obliged to 
 controvert them, we should do it rather by sug- 
 gesting views and considerations in opposition, 
 than by anything bordering on dogmatism or de- 
 nunciation, ( landor, charity, and courtesy alike 
 suggest this course, and will be much more apt 
 io |.i'.. Imv conviction than positive assertion or 
 beat (debate. < 'onversation has been compared 
 to "a ball, which is thrown from playerto player 
 without being allowed to drop, ami thus keeps 
 each one in play'' • 'arricd on in this way. and 
 upon this principle, it constitutes an educational 
 instrumentality of peculiar value and impor- 
 tance. 
 
 CONVERSATIONAL METHOD. This 
 refers to the mode of giving instruction, in which 
 the lessons, instead of being formal recitations, 
 exercises, explanations, or lectures, consist of a 
 familiar discourse by the teacher, interspersed 
 with questions or remarks by the pupils; that is 
 to say, in which the lessons partake of the char- 
 acter of conversations, both as to the manner of 
 presenting the subject and the style of language 
 employed. This mode of teaching is especially 
 adapted to young children, because it affords the 
 teacher a constant opportunity to appeal to their 
 intelligence and experience, and to employ the 
 simplest colloquial expressions. Besides, the 
 utmost freedom being given to the pupils, they 
 are enabled to show by their questions and re- 
 marks to what extent and in what respect they 
 need special instruction and information. In 
 order to arouse and sustain the pupils' interest, 
 their attention is called to such facte in connec- 
 tion with the subject as, although quite obvious 
 when shown or explained, are usually overlooked 
 by children, who are generally but superficial 
 observers before being trained to close attention 
 
 COOPER 
 
 and careful investigation. In object teaching, 
 the lessons should always be conversational, the 
 teacher saying only enough to lead the pupils to 
 observe, and to talk freely about what they 
 notice. As examples of the conversational 
 method we may refer to the beautiful colloquial 
 lessons contained in some of the works of Dr. 
 Aiken and Mrs. Barbauld. (See Evenings at 
 Home, edited by I 'ceil Hartley.) That on The 
 Leguminous Plants is an excellent example; 
 although the style is by no means so simple as 
 that which would be used in an actual oral 
 lesson. The lesson is given by the tutor to 
 
 two pupils, (irni-ijr and Hnrri/, and commences 
 with an exclamation of the former, who has ap- 
 : proached a bean -held, and proceeds as follows: — 
 
 G. What a delightful scent ! 
 
 H. Charming! [t is sweeter than Mr: Essence's 
 j shop. 
 
 T. Do you knew whence it comes? 
 
 G. 0— it is from the bean-field on tlie other side 
 of the hedge, I suppose. 
 
 T. It is. This is the month in which beaDs are 
 in blossom. See— the stalks are full of their black and 
 white flowers. 
 
 H. I see peas in blossom, too, on the other side 
 of the field. 
 
 <;. Von told us some time ago of grass and corn 
 [wheat] flowers ; but they make a poor figure com- 
 [iareil with these. 
 
 T. They do. Tie glory oi a corn-field is when it 
 
 be, | 
 
 >eas and 
 
 lock 
 
 ry shabbily 
 
 The blossoms of the bean and pea, arc then 
 brought, and compared by the pupils ; and the 
 
 oi proceeds. 
 
 T, Do you think these Bowers much alike? 
 
 H. O no— very little. 
 
 (J. Yes— a good deal. 
 
 T. A little ami n eu.iil dml ! How can that be? 
 Come, let us see. In the first place, they do not much 
 resemble each other in size or color. 
 
 G. No— but I think they do in shape, 
 
 T. True. They arc both irregular flowers, and 
 have the same distribution of pints. They are of the 
 kind called /)o/.)//eeoe.ei/s ,• from papilio, the Latin 
 word for butterfly, which insect they are thought to 
 resemble, etc . etc. 
 
 All the characteristics are thus successively 
 unfolded in this familiar manner, the explana- 
 tions of the teacher being interspersed with the 
 remarks of the pupils. Hookers Child's Book 
 of Nature presents another excellent illustration 
 of the conversational mode of instruction, to 
 which may be added many others. It is diffi- 
 cult, however, fully to show this method in a 
 book; since its characteristics are freedom and 
 spontaneity, the pupil talking in a child-like 
 manner, and the teacher adapting his words and 
 modes of illustration to the condition of the 
 pupil's mind, as shown during the lesson. This 
 method of instruction, in the elementary stages, 
 is far more effective than that which is given by 
 means of text-books, much of the language of 
 which usually needs to be translated into such 
 as is suitable to the child's comprehension. 
 
 COOPER INSTITUTE, oi Cooper Union. 
 See Cooper, Petrb. 
 
 COOPER, Peter, an American philanthro- 
 pist and the founder of the "Union for the Ad- 
 \,iiiecincnt of Science and Art," a large and im- 
 
 
portant institution of learning in the city of New 
 Xork, commonly called after its founder "< looper 
 Institute, " was born in New Fork, Febr. L2., 
 L791. He was apprenticed at the age of seven- 
 teen to the trade of coach-making, and n rose 
 
 to a conspicuous position among the manufact- 
 urers of the United States. The development 
 of American industry, has continued, tlir. oi-lo nit 
 his long life, to be an object oi his patriotic 
 aspirations; and, in his later years, there has 
 
 interests of the country, in the discussion of 
 
 the one great subject which, more than any 
 
 other, engrossed the attenti if his rip i | at - 
 
 was the education of the industrial cl i rhe 
 
 yalu ioi a good education he prized all the more 
 highly, because during his youth his own edu- 
 cation hail been sadly neglected. Only for a 
 single year had he been sent to school; all the 
 varied knowledge acquired by him since was the 
 fruit of laborious self-education. As an earnest 
 fried of education, he took an active part in 
 
 the development of the public-scl I j e a ol 
 
 the city of New Fork, lie was a trustee and 
 vice president of the Public School Bocietj at 
 
 after this society had been merged in h i I 
 
 of Education, became a school commissioner. 
 His effort to improve the deficient education of 
 his youth, and the high opinion which he held 
 of the value of education, early inspired him 
 with the wish to found agrand institution for 
 the gratuitous instruction, chiefly of the indus- 
 trial class soi bis native city. (" I determined," 
 he says himself, "if ever I cohld acquire the 
 means, I would build such an institution, as 
 would open its doors at night with a full course 
 of instruction, calculated to enable mechanics 
 to understand Loth the theory and the st 
 
 Skillful practice Ol their several trades; so that 
 they could not only apply their labor to the best 
 possible advantage, but enjoy the happiness of 
 acquiring useful knowledge the purest and 
 
 this means. 1 hoped to contribute to the elevation 
 and the happiness of the industrial classes to 
 which I belonged, finally, my plan also pro- 
 vided for a school of art suited to the wants of 
 females, during the day. with a reading room 
 
 and library open to both sexes, from ei-ht o clock 
 in the morning until ten o'clock at night. Tins 
 design was carried out by the establishment ol 
 the " Cooper Union for the advancement of 
 Science and Art," after the erection of a mag- 
 nificent building occupying .-in entire block be- 
 tween Third and Fourth avenues and Seventh 
 and Eighth streets. The deed of trust devotes 
 
 the institution, with all it- tents, issues, and 
 profits, to the instruction ami elevation oi the 
 working classes of the eit v of New 'link. The 
 original cost of the building when conveyed to 
 the trustees was $630,000. The aggregate re- 
 ceipts, from the openine of the institution in 
 L859,to Jan, 1.. L875, amounted to 8572,291.27, 
 of which S.Mr_'.7L'o.i;:i were from rents. Sol.'.C! I., 1 
 from donations, and $37,635.84 from sundry 
 
 PER 1SI 
 
 other sources. Tl xpcinliiurcs for earrj ing on 
 
 the several departments from L659 to L875, 
 were $583,840.27, and the total expenditures 
 
 on buildine; and education to .Ian. I.. Is7.">. 
 $1,213,840.85. 
 The course of instruction, as indicated above 
 
 em ot this in- 
 entific depart 
 hen the young 
 
 Ion, from the 
 
 f them are en 
 
 however, both 
 Mill,' 111-, a eel' 
 
 any pupil who 
 rogress in any 
 
 idciitly of the 
 neuts made mi 
 belong to the, 
 
 ate hi I.I both 
 
 ic retouching ot negatives, ami painting or 
 ayon drawing on positives. It is contemplated 
 
 i introduce other application.- a- - as praeti 
 
 i hie. so as to bring every depart met it of element - 
 v instruction close to the practical life and re- 
 iterative employment Of each student, while, 
 ■ or she remains at school, or immediately on 
 aving it. The corps of instructors, in L875, 
 unbercil 20, "t whom .'! were ladies, ami the 
 unber of pupils was 2,878, a greater number 
 lan in any previous year. 'I he tradi - ami occu- 
 itiotis most largely represented among the 
 tpilsof the Union were the , lerks and booi 
 tepers (369), machinists and iron-workers (30(i), 
 rvers ainl mi in i 2 <■■ . t ngravers and lithog- 
 ph. i- 261 |, teachers and -indents (] K>). The 
 
 S74— 1875 by 581,798 persons, a ,1 
 
 ' nearly 2,000. In the library there are about 
 
 i,000 volumes, and the books drawn bj the 
 
I 82 
 
 COO'I'K 
 
 readers numbered 129,655. The board of trust- 
 ees have also established a department of consul- 
 tation to assist the inventors and manufacturers 
 of new processes; and, during tl 
 1875, more than 350 persons ap] 
 As the popular lecture is mm 
 \ tnei tea as a standing instituti 
 have provided that two courses o 
 six to twelve each, shall be annua 
 large hall of the Cooper Union, di 
 of each six months, on subjects 
 social or physical science. Men 
 are selected as lecturers, who liein 
 in their several departments and well-known, 
 draw large audiences, fully taxing the capacity 
 of the hall, though it accommodates more than 
 2,000 people. Besides, there are several smaller 
 halls in the building of the < looper Union, in 
 which free lectures are given by the several pro- 
 fessors on chemistry, natural philosophy, English 
 literature, elocution and rhetoric, art. ami artistic 
 economy. 
 
 COOTE, Edward, a noted English teacher. 
 
 .-7 1 to 
 
 illshcd 
 
 Xjose I1UL jour hS, lUK-llurils, Ml' pi US, 
 
 nor girdle, garters, hat or band, 
 Let Bhoi s be tyi d, pin shirt band close, 
 
 keep well j'niir bauds at any hand. 
 If broken-hosed or shoe'd vou eo. 
 
 With, Hit i 
 
 ■ I'.l I. 
 
 then you and ] 
 
 fray. 
 
 and the autl 
 of 
 
 the followi 
 
 English School-Ma 
 
 of school-books, Brat pub- 
 L627. A good idea of the 
 its of this quaint old book 
 
 mi the title-page, of which 
 
 copy: 
 
 Tin 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 School-Master. 
 
 Teaching all his Scholars, of what age so ever, 
 
 tin- must easy, short, anil perfect order ol 
 
 distinct Reading, and true Writing 
 
 our English-tongue, that hath 
 
 ever yet been known or 
 
 published by any. 
 
 And further also tearheth a direct course, how many 
 
 unskilful persons may easily both understand any 
 
 the Or 
 
 first book be inert- childish 
 
 for tlieni.but also for other; 
 
 especially for those that 
 
 are ignorant in the 
 
 Latin Tongue. 
 
 In the next page, the Sehool-Master hangeth forth his 
 
 Table to the view of all beholders, setting forth some 
 
 Of the chief Col liesol his profession. 
 
 llrM-ed l,,r thy sake lint u-antesl any part of tins 
 
 skill; by mward Ooote, Master ol the Free-School 
 
 Perused and appt oed 
 
 
 now the 10 lirm Tmpt inlet 
 
 
 to write by, at Vie end 
 
 \f this Bo 
 
 Printed by A.M. and It. Ii.foi 
 
 thecompa 
 
 The following verses, extracted from this book, 
 give a picturesque idea of Coote's mode of school 
 management and discipline : 
 
 •■ My , 
 And si 
 
 If that thou cry. or talk aloud, 
 
 or books do read, or strike with knife : 
 l lr laugh, or play unlawfully, 
 
 then you and I must be at strife. 
 If that you curse, miscall, or swear, 
 
 if that you pick, filch, steal, or lye ; 
 If you forget a scholar's part, 
 
 then must you sure your points untye. 
 If that to school you do not go, 
 
 when time d.dh call vou to the same ; 
 Or.ifyouloit.ru, lie streets. 
 
 when we da meet, then look for blame. 
 Wherefore, mj i Mid, bi have thyself, 
 
 That thou iiia\ >t purchase parents' love, 
 
 and ok. obtain thy master's praise." 
 
 See Barxakh. Ethn-ntimial Biography, s. v. 
 Ezekiel Gheever. 
 COPY-BOOKS. See Penmanship. 
 COPYING, in school education, has several 
 applications: (I) Writing or drawing by imita- 
 tion from an original, which constitutes an es- 
 sential part of primary instruction, since the eye 
 must be trained to the observation of forms, as 
 well as the hand to execute them. Hence, the 
 first lessons in writing largely consist in practic- 
 ing the pupil in copying (1) the elements of let- 
 ters, straight line's, curves, etc.; (2) letters; 
 (3) winds: and i li sentences. In connection with 
 this copying, much incidental instruction is 
 required, all of which, however, is addressed to 
 the faculty <ff imitation. (See Penmanship.) 
 Rudimentary instruction in drawing must be of 
 a similar character, beginning with lines in 
 various positions and relations to each other, 
 then passing to simple figures, and thence to 
 more complex forms ; but. in all these, it is the 
 eye that must be trained through the faculty of 
 imitation, simultaneously with the gradual ac- 
 quisition of manual skill by means of constant 
 practice. (See Drawing.) 
 
 ill 1 I he copying, from books, of selected pas- 
 sages in prose and poetry is a very useful exer- 
 cise, if properly and systematically performed. 
 Of course, this' belongs to a later stage of ele- 
 mentary instruction, that is, after the pupil has 
 learned to write with some degree of facility: 
 and, when the utmost accuracy is insisted upon, 
 it will be found an effective means of imparting 
 habits oi correct spelling, punctuation, and the 
 use of capital letters: and will also have a very- 
 beneficial effect upon the pupil's style, impressing 
 upon his memory a great variety of words and 
 phrases, and thus aiding him to acquire fluency 
 and accuracy of expression. It was on this 
 principle that He sthenes copied the history of 
 
Thucydides so many times ; since he desired to 
 
 catch the style cif composition | leeuliiir to that 
 
 great writer. What is particularly necessary in 
 
 distensible, copying, as here described, should 
 he treated as an essential part of the school 
 work. 
 
 Ill) The term copying is also applied to the 
 reprehensible practice, often found to exist in 
 
 classes and schools that arc imperfectly disci- 
 plined, of one pupil's transcribing by stealth 
 what has been written by another. Weak or 
 idle pupils will, if they are permitted, in this 
 way avail themselves of the work of their neigh- 
 bors, thus failing to receive the benefits of the 
 instruction given to the class, and. at the same 
 time, deceiving the teacher. The effects of this 
 practice arc. therefore, bad intellectually and 
 morally, and all necessary vigilance should be 
 exercised by the teacher to prevenl orsuppn a> it. 
 CORDERIUS. Mathurin /V Cordier), 
 a celebrated Protestant school-teacher, born in 
 
 most distinguished pupils was Calvin, who ded- 
 icated to him one of his works. He published 
 
 several text I ks for schools, among which the 
 
 best known is i '■,'■'., / n ,>■'., .. . s ,'. , ,.,, 
 Colloquies), published in L564 This work was 
 long and extensively used in giving instruction 
 in the Latin language; and, indeed, is one of the 
 most noted school-books ever published. 
 
 CORNELL COLLEGE, at Mount Vernon, 
 
 Iowa, under the auspices of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, was founded in 1857 for the edu- 
 cation of both sexes. The institution has three 
 spacious buildings. The college campus, cm- 
 bracing about twenty acres, is beautifully de- 
 signed by nature, and commands one of the 
 finest prospects in the country. The college pos- 
 sesses one of the largest and best collections of 
 minerals and fossils in the West, a chemical 
 
 laboratory, and a library of over 4,000 volumes. 
 The college property is valued at $65,000, and 
 the productive funds amount to > HI.OIMI. Free 
 tuition is given in the preparatory and collegiate 
 departments to disabled soldiers and orphans of 
 soldiers. Five scholarships, endowed with 8500 
 each, have been founded for the purpose of edu- 
 cating destitute young men preparing for the 
 ministry. The heneticiari s are exempt from all 
 charges of tuition and incidental lees. There 
 are a preparatory department, with classical and 
 scientific courses, and a collegiate department, 
 with a classical course, leading to the degree of 
 Bachelor of Arts: a scientific course, leading to 
 the derive of llachelor of Science: and a civil 
 engineering course, leading to the degree of 
 Bachelor of < 'ivil Engineering. The young men 
 are required to practice military drill under an 
 officer of the army detailed by the secretary of 
 war as professor of military science and tactics : 
 ■a system of light gymnastics has been provided 
 for the young women. En 1873 — 4, there were 
 25 instructors, and 405 preparatory ami ">4 col- 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
 legiate students. The ltev. Win. !•'. King, 
 is ilsTlb the president. 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY, at 1 
 N. Y.. was chartered in 1865, and open 
 
 L868. It was named in h r of Ezra Ci 
 
 of Ithaca, who cave for i Is establishment Sail 
 and over 200 acres of land, to bi used as a 
 and as a site for the um\er.-it\ 1 mil. ii i . 
 
 hi!., 
 
 gift of Henry Y\ Si ,.;. f I r :ok 
 the action of the trustees, in 1872, 
 to the university on the same terms 
 
 rasas men. The' value of the build- 
 
 of New York. 
 
 id- In 
 
 usual rate of wages. Skilled labor is mostly ill 
 demand, 
 
 The points in which this university differs from 
 most of the other institutions of learning in the 
 United States may be summed up, in brief, as 
 follow-: 1 1 i The addition to the ordinary govern- 
 ing faculty of non-resident professors and lec- 
 turer-., some of whom deliver each year courses 
 of lectures upon subjects in the investigation of 
 which they have acquired a high reputation: 
 (2) Liberty in the choice of studies: (3) The 
 
 determining the relative rank of each student in 
 his class; (5) The non-sectarian charai 
 
 institution. 
 
 The instruction is comprised in tour great 
 divisions: eciieral curses, optional courses, spe- 
 cial courses, and post-graduate courses. The 
 general courses are four in number, namely: in 
 arts, in literature, in science, in philosophy. The 
 course in arts, leading to the degree 
 of Arts, extends through four year.-. It includes 
 the 1 1 reek and Latin language.-, and is similar to 
 
1-1 
 
 CORNELL UNIVERSITY 
 
 the usual academic course in the other colleges 
 
 and universities of the Lnited States. I hiring the 
 ln'-i year, no option is allowed in the choice of 
 studies. In the second year, everything is op- 
 tional, except Greek, Latin, ami the exercises in 
 elocution and rhetoric. I hiring the third and 
 fourth years, everything is optional 
 
 the departments of pliil— . .,| 
 letters. During the Brs1 and secondyi : I itin 
 and Greek are required four times a week eai h ; 
 and after that they may be pursued through the 
 two remaining year- so as to occupy twelve Out 
 of the fifteen hours of recitation per week. The 
 course in literature, leading to the degree of 
 Bachelor of Literature, extends through four 
 years. It differs from the course in arts in re- 
 quiring no Greek, and is characterized by a lar- 
 ger amount of attention to the modern languages 
 
 and English literature. The course i, ,. 
 
 leading to the degree of Bachelor of Sci ace, i t- 
 tends through four veal's, and includes five hours 
 a week, during the last year, devoted to someone 
 science as a specialty. Its peculiar features are 
 the study of mathematics, of tin- Erench and 
 <;erman*laii".uii. <. a. id of the historical, phys- 
 ical, moral, and poliii. il -nee,. 'I lie course ill 
 philosophy, a I - '■: h m \ ar<. is designed to he a 
 scientific course of a hi_h r grade than the pre- 
 ceding. Latin is required for admission, as in 
 the courses in arts and literature. 11 leads to 
 the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy. I >ptiona] 
 
 courses are those whieh the -aii'loiii u ' - "' ' 
 for himself. In no course is it neo ry, for 
 the attainment of a degree, that the tidies 
 should b ■ followed exactly in the prescribed or- 
 der; and, in the general courses, equivalents are 
 accepts I, in some cas : , for the studies indi- 
 cated, provi led they are of the sam ° in iral 
 
 character. The sj ial courses differ from the 
 
 general courses, not only in the studies which 
 they include, hut also in the important fact, that 
 while the general courses have chiefly in view 
 the culture of the mind, the special courses aim 
 rather to tit students more immediately foi some 
 one of the departments of productive industry. 
 There are eleven special courses: namely, l! 
 agriculture, with a full course of tour years. 
 leading to the degree of Bachelor of Agriculture; 
 
 (2) architecture, with a full course of fouryeara, 
 leading to the degree of Bachelor of Architecture: 
 
 (3) chemistry and physics; (4) civil engineer- 
 ing, with a full course of four years, leading to 
 the degree of Bachelor of Civil Engineering; 
 (5) history and political science; (6) languages, 
 c prising three schools — of the ancient lan- 
 guages, of living Asiatic and Oriental languages, 
 
 partineiit of rhetoric and general literature. No- 
 regular post-graduat urses have I >een arranged. 
 
 The degree of Bachelor of Veterinarj Science is 
 conferred on students who pursue a four years' 
 course in that study in the agricultural depart- 
 ment. The advanced degrees of Master of Arts. 
 Master i f Science, Doctor of Philosophy, Civil 
 Engineer, Doctor of Veterinary Medicine, and 
 Architect are conferred on holders of correspond- 
 ing M,a lento degrees upon fulfilling certain pre- 
 scribed conditions, and passing an examination. 
 The general faculty is divided into 13 special 
 faculties. The special faculties are those of (1) 
 agriculture, (2) architecture. (3) chemistry and 
 physics, i 1) civil engineering, (5 history and po- 
 litical sej, .nee. (II) ancient and Asiatic languages, 
 (7) North European languages, (8) South Euro- 
 pean languages, (It) mathematics. (10) the me- 
 chanic arts. (1 1 i military -cieiice. 1 1 2) philosophy 
 and letters, (13) natural history. There are 
 professorships of hi-torv; South European lan- 
 guages: moral and intellectual philosophy; North 
 European languages; agricultural chemistry: com- 
 parative anatomy and zoology: English litera- 
 ture (non-resident) ; English history (non-resi- 
 dent): veterinary medicine and surgery: constitu- 
 tional law ( non-resident ): general. ec< mic, and 
 
 agricultural geology; botany, horticulture, and 
 arboriculture; mechanical engineering and ma- 
 Inn construction; mechanics applied to agri- 
 eiiliinv non-resident I : analytical chemistry and 
 i.iin.val.cv : liennaii literature I non-resident); 
 ... mistry and chemistry applied to man- 
 ei tures non-resident); Latin language and 
 literature: Greek language and literature: rhet- 
 oric and general literature: architecture; Amer- 
 ican history (non-resident); Angio-Sa on and 
 English literature; physics and experimental 
 Mechanics; military science and tactics: Span- 
 ish and Italian: mathematics : civil engineer- 
 ing: living Asiatic languages: agriculture: and 
 Hebrew and Oriental literature and history (non- 
 resident). In 1875— 6, there were 23 resident 
 and s non-resident professors. 12 assistant profes- 
 sors, and 10 instructors. The following is a 
 summary of the students for that year: In 
 science ill 1. literature 45, philosophy 17. arts 43. 
 agriculture IT. architecture 32, chemistry It'., en- 
 gineering 82, mechanic arts 56, natural history 
 I", resilient graduates 12. In the fourth year. 
 or senior Studies, there were si .in junior studies 
 I lii. in sophomore studies L35, in freshman 
 studies 154. Total, deducting repetitions. 531. 
 At the commencement in L874, 72 degrees were 
 conferred, namely: B. A., 4 ; I'.. Lit., t: B. Ph.. 
 
 3: 1!. 
 
 30; B. Ag 
 M. E 
 
 „f Mechanical Engine. nn g 9 mihtarj a lence; 
 (10) natural history, comprising the school of 
 
 botany, the school of geology and palaeontology, 
 and the school of zoology; (1 I) philosophy and 
 letters, with a school of philosophy and a school 
 of letters, the latter having a department of 
 Anglo-Saxon and English literature, and a de- | 
 
 B. Arch..!'.: B. C. lv. 
 2; C. E.. I: Ph. D.,1; 
 
 •aditates was 52. The 
 
 at thelatterdate was 
 
 rarv contains 47,000 
 
 table col- 
 
 ire. archi- 
 
 tary science, zoology and physiology, and in the 
 
 fiii,'> arts. Male candidates for admission must 
 be at least sixteen, females seventeen years of 
 
 ipri-e 
 
CORPOKAL PUNISHMENT 
 
 is., 
 
 ago, and must pass a thorn uglily satisfactory o\ 
 aiiiination in tin- following subjects : ( I ) geogra- 
 phy, ('-') English grammar, including orthogra- 
 phy and syntax, (3 J arithmetic, and ill algebra 
 through quadratic equations. This general ex- 
 amination will admit them to the university as 
 
 optional students, or as students ill til.- - 1 .i- -i.i I 
 
 courses of agriculture, chemistry, and physics. 
 
 For other courses there are some additional re- 
 quirements. Andrew D. White, LL.D ha b m 
 the president of the university sine,, ii- op ning 
 CORPORAL PUNISHMENT, or the in- 
 
 what son is Ii.- whom the father chasteneth not?" 
 (Hebrews, xn, 6, 7.) St. Augustine says, in his 
 
 Coiifrssinns,'- Disci], line is needful to overo 
 
 our puerile sloth, and this also i a part of thy 
 government over thy creatures, ' I I lod, for the 
 
 purpose of rest raining our sinlnl inn ,d no-it v. 
 
 in the education of children, has the 
 high authority and time-honored ext 
 in recent times has fallen consideral 
 repute and disuse. Its necessity am 
 have been much discussed ; and then 
 ably, but few subjects in connection 
 
 ■■ relic ol b u barism, an I hould m rer be em a requisite i 
 
 ployed, but that children can be, and always often the tr 
 
 should he, governed by the use of "moral sua- tion." Cole 
 
 sion," — an appeal to their .reason, their sensibil- the can-, • In 
 
 ities, and their sense of right. Anciently, the he "hated tl 
 
 propriety of this mole of educational coerci in cau e he wi 
 
 seems to have been scarce^ questioned. Sol- "Bowyer tl 
 
 omon is emphatic in his approval of it. in proof soundly, as 
 
 of which the following citations from the />%,/,• izing would 
 
 f Proverbs 
 
 tint 
 
 nli 
 
 Usee 
 
 I, ill In 
 
 Ins rod Idled his i 
 ■ terieth liim li times." — Mil, 21, 
 "Foolishness is bound in the heart of a child ; but 
 the rod of corn, lieu shail drive it tar from him."— 
 xxn, 15. 
 
 '• Withhold not correction from the child; for if thou 
 beatest him with a rod, he shall not die. Thou shalt 
 
 heat lira v. lii a I .,,1, and -hall, delner he -mil I i 
 
 hell."— xxiii, 13, II. 
 
 "Correct tin son and lie shall give thee rest, yea, 
 he shall jiivi- delight nut., thy -old." — xxix, 17. 
 
 •' Whom the I. nd l..v. th lie correcteth : even as a 
 father the s,,n in win, in he .1, lightcth."— ill, 1-'. 
 
 ihih-theie is hope, and let not 
 
 Tha 
 
 thy 
 
 firmed me in my ab 
 Table Talk.) Locki 
 
 have i 
 the w 
 
 greate 
 
 shocki 
 
 CI ,1] II ,i 
 
 "The rod and reproof give wisdom; but a child left l""".'. -cnur.n 
 to himself bringi'tli his mother to shame."— xxix, 1.",. the f, i 1 1 1 . - i 
 
 Whether the practice enjoined in these scrip- hole in the bl 
 tural texts is to be considered as sanctioned and unnecessi 
 thereby or not, its existence, if not its usefulness dren by these 
 and necessity, has been recognized at all times 
 and in all countries. Horace refers to it when 
 he say-. ■■ Mi mini [cannina] quce plagosum milii 
 p "-'- i < >■ - ■ ■ I remember the verses 
 
 which Orbilius, my Bogging (or feruling) school- 
 master, used to dictate to me, when a boy). 
 Juvenal speaks of this school discipline as a 
 matter of course: El nos ergo manum ferulce 
 subduximxx: or. as translated by I'adham 
 
 '■And we oar-. H, - , no -i,at h'd thl I a i 61 
 From proue des, emtiiiu' r-l.a 
 
 St.Paul speaks in a similar manner of ( 
 of the rod as a means of family < 1 i— i 
 
 it is no won 
 
 pears to mai 
 
 tl ■ to be 
 
 " 1 >o but oon 
 
 their lesson, a 
 
 outcries of 1» 
 
 deling of pe 
 
 again, " 1 low 
 
 1 hat I he shame ,,f 
 in. should be the 
 t." 
 
 so grievously and 
 and teachers as 
 various and loath- 
 ion, caning, whip- 
 reh twigs, thongs, 
 . gencrallv Willi a 
 
 Its are about 
 thing but the 
 mil the tliuii 
 fury ;" and 
 ouldit I™- to 
 and Sowers, 
 It is a sad 
 r.,,1 has been 
 
 " Whom the Lord loveth he chasteneth, 
 scourgeth every son whom he receiveth ;" 
 again, - God doaloth with you as with sons 
 
 and tory of IheRwl.-h is recorded ,,f a Suabian 
 
 and sel [-master that, during his fifty one veal's' 
 
 for superintendence of a large school, he had given 
 
CORPORAL PUNISHMENT 
 
 011,500 canings, 121,000 floggings. 'JO'.i.ooo his- 
 toil's, loh.oob tips with the ruler, and 10.200 
 boxes on the ear. It was further calculated that 
 he had made Too boys stand barefooted on peas, 
 
 (i,000 kneel on a sharp edge of \\ I. -"'.000 wear 
 
 the fool's-cap, and 1,700 hold the rod." Girls as 
 -well as boys, and even young women, in schools 
 of high repute and attended by the children of 
 people of rank and fashion, it was once the 
 custom to subject to the most disgraceful and 
 indecent flagellation. In a poem entitled The 
 Terrorsqfthe Bod, published in L815, the whole 
 scene is depicted. 
 
 ■• 'i h, governess now tales her stand, 
 Tin lurch. 'ii scepter in her hand: 
 \\ ith l..it\ air. inspiring awe. 
 Anil upraised arm to mfurre the law. 
 She shakes the whlstlme lues, and then. 
 Whip— wlnii— whip-whip— millets the pain: 
 Now pauses— while miss roars aloud 
 Sad warnings to the little crowd— 
 C'rviujj. • Oh! dear nia am. pray oive o'er, 
 I never will do so no more.' " 
 On such occasions, it seems to have been in- 
 sisted that the other children should be witnesses 
 of the pain and disgrace of their fellow-pupil. 
 Thus Shenstone in The Schoolmistress, describ- 
 
 Ainl 'I"" ii they nr.ip appeal s his dainty sum, 
 Fair as the lurry coat of whitest ermilin." 
 
 But. the most touching incident of the affair is 
 the presence of the offenders sister. 
 
 •. o ruthfnl seen ' when from a nook obscure, 
 His inn- sisl rdot 
 
 And as the punishment proceeds, the sym- 
 pathies of the little gill are painfully excited. 
 •'No longer can she now her shrii ks command, 
 And )iardl\ she forbears, through awful fear. 
 To rushen forth, and. with iiresumptuous hand. 
 To sta\ kai-h .insti.e m its mid career." 
 
 boys, were made to suffer. Of this numerous 
 instances are sometimes cited. Plutarch gives 
 one in speaking of his tutor Ammonius. " Our 
 master," says he, '■having one day observed that 
 we had indulged ourselves too luxuriously at 
 diimer.at his afternoon lecture. ordered hisfreed- 
 in.iii to give his own son the discipline of the 
 whip in our presence; signifying, at the same 
 tune, that he suffered this punishment because 
 he could not eat his victuals without sauce. The 
 philosopher all the while had his eye upon us, 
 and we knew well for whom this example of 
 punishment was intended." Langhorne, in the 
 Life of Plutarch, commenting upon this in- 
 cident, remarks, " This mode of punishment in 
 our public schools, is one of the worst remains of 
 barbarism that prevails among us." 
 
 Ilr. Cotton .Mather, in his" elegy on " Master 
 Ezekiel Uheever " see Cheever), refers thus to 
 the severities of teachers in his time : 
 
 Blowesare but lor tu 
 
 The abuses referre 
 
 strong tendency to en 
 
 flicl i ci irporal pu 
 
 most earnest and emp 
 every form, and the i 
 tioii. In some places. 
 
 debased and hardened all concerned, in the 
 Spectator (No. 168), the master of Eton School 
 at that time is described as a brutal tyrant. 
 •• Many a white and tender hand," says the 
 writer, "which the fond mother had passionately 
 
 thousand i 
 it was covered w i 
 
 or for going a y 
 
 half out of a gate, or for writing an o for an a, 
 or an a for an o." Dr. Johnson, although an 
 advocate of judicious corporal punishment, had 
 boon the victim of its abuse. "The master." lie 
 said, "was severe, and wrong-headedly severe. 1 le 
 used to beat us unmercifully; ami he did not 
 distinguish between ignorance and negligence; 
 for he would beat a boy equally for not knowing 
 a thing as for neglecting to learn it For in- 
 stance, he woidd call a boy up. and ask him the 
 I -atin for candlestick, which the boy could not 
 expect to be asked. Now. sir, if a boy could 
 answer every question, there would be no need 
 of a master to teach him." So necessary was 
 the rod deemed, that it was made an instrument 
 of 
 to 
 
 and especially the 
 id excess in the in,- 
 ■nt. have led to the. 
 [enunciation of it in 
 lt of its total aboli- 
 sort to this kind of 
 discipline is strictly prohibited, and expulsion 
 substituted in its place. The opinions of educa- 
 tors in regard to the expediency of this measure 
 are verj diverse. Lyman Cobb, an extreme and 
 enthusiastic advocate of exclusive moral suasion, 
 expresses the sentiment of probably the entire 
 class of thinkers to which he belonged. "1 con- 
 scientiously believe that corporal punishment, as. 
 ;i means of moral discipline, is adverse to the 
 proper. full. and happy development of the social, 
 moral, religious, and intellectual character of 
 those who are flogged; and because, also. I be- 
 lieve ii has a degrading and hardening influence 
 on tiiose win. receive it, and on those who inflict 
 
 LTa.1. 
 
 ;arious punishment in the case of princes ; 
 hose offenses other lads, called »7///v«»</- 
 
 md hardens the sensibilities of those who 
 t. The first proposition cannot be main- 
 tained as generally true; since there are in- 
 numerable examples to prove that those who 
 have been habitually .subject. -.1 to the severest 
 discipline of this kind in their youth, have grown 
 up to be men of the highest character for talent. 
 benevolence, and worth. (See Busby.) The 
 eases of .liihnsun. < 'olciidge. etc.. already referred 
 to. arc instances of this. The second point of 
 the argument would seem to be pretty well 
 established by the " history of the rod;" since 
 nre see persons who have been accustomed to in- 
 dict pain upon others in this way become harsh, 
 
CORPORAL VV MSI I M ENT 
 
 tyrannical, and unfeeling. At any rate, if this 
 is not the invariable result, il appears to be quite 
 generally the effect oi an habitual administration 
 of this kind of discipline. George B. Emerson 
 says, " The great objection to corporal punish- 
 ment is the fart that it excites ;m-i\ passions. 
 no1 only in the child, bul in the master, and 
 more in the latter than in the former. My own 
 
 Self-willed, SO bent upon uiisrhief.su .letenmn 
 
 edlj wayward, and at the same time so devoid 
 
 pain. It excites a horrible feeling in him — a 
 feeling which we might conceive to belong to 
 evil spirits." It must be borne in mind, how- 
 
 Dr. Dwight, - The parents' w 
 to the child; yet, being ste 
 parental affection, is probab 
 
 the .li 
 
 power fora long period, without greatly abusing 
 it. At the present time, no such authority ex- 
 ists; and neither public opinion nor the law 
 would permit teachers to commit with impunity 
 the barbarities charged upon them in former 
 times. Very many, perhaps nearly all, of the 
 arguments against corporal punishment ma\ ~l> 
 shown to be objections to its abuse rather than 
 to its legitimate use. Thus, it is stated that the 
 nent is often intlictc 1 in anger, that it is 
 
 plllllsll 
 
 freaue 
 
 the whole of government, is usually the least 
 part oi it, a part indispensable indeed, and some- 
 times efficacious, when all others have failed.*' 
 John I.oeke. an enemy to corporal punishment, 
 admits that sometimes children are so obstinate. 
 that they can be subdued by no other means. 
 Mrs. Willard, for many years principal of the 
 Troy Female Seminary, said in 1847,"] believe 
 that corporal punishment should always be re- 
 sorted to as soon as other modes of discipline 
 fail, and I have known some young persons 
 whose consciences were so weak, and who had 
 
 be tl 
 howi 
 
 il mode of 
 
 
 physical pain upon others. Nor doe, the 
 ing that corporal punishment is useful 
 prompt and expeditious mo le oi punishin 
 offenses of children prove its necessity; al 
 admit that its concomitants and tendencies 
 
 al. 
 
 it to be. We must consider the Belfishness, will- 
 fulness, idleness, and spirit oi mischief that must 
 be controlled or exorcised before instruction can 
 accomplish its purpose; and before concluding 
 that corporal punishment is never necessary, we 
 must lie prepared to say. that, under all circum- 
 stances, and with all available instrumentalities, 
 this control can be effected without any appeal 
 i*o physical coercion. Are there not children so 
 
 Mill 
 
 tentive olw nation of the workings of all the 
 plans which have been devised to avoid its use 
 or to supply it.- place.' Horace Mann, one of 
 the most enthusiastic advocates of moral suasion, 
 vei recognized the necessity of corporal punish- 
 ment in s ■ cases. "Punishment," he says, 
 
 ••„ho„ld never be inflicted except in cases of the 
 extremes! necessity: while the experiment of 
 sympathy, confidence, persuasion, encourage 
 incut, should be repeated forever and ever \ a 
 English teacher says, ■■ It is necessary for a child 
 to learn that the violation of law. whether oi 
 school, society, or fiod. brings inevitable suffer- 
 ing. The sense of right is so imperfectly devel 
 
 pressing u] hild that right is right, and 
 
 wrong : m _ i bj showing that suffering fol 
 
 lows from :, enjoyini n1 and a sei.se of satis 
 
 faction from the other." | Jlw Educational Re- 
 porter (London, July L, 1874.) Corporal pun- 
 ishment is sanctioned by Roseiikranz in I'rihi- 
 iinijint ua ,i Si/slmi. •■ This kind of punishment," 
 he says," provided always that it is not too often 
 administered, or with undue son in . i- im- 
 proper way of dealing with willful defiance, 
 
COKPOUAL PUNISHMENT 
 
 with obstinate carelessness, or with a really per- 
 verted will, so long or so often as the higher per- 
 ception is closed against appeal." Under pecu- 
 liarly favorable circumstances, — a condition of 
 things which may be considered ideal, that is. 
 where the home training ot the pupils of a school 
 has been judicious and correct, where all have 
 been taught, from their earliest years, to obey 
 their elders and superiors ; and this not by vio- 
 lence and severity, but with gentleness and firm- 
 ness; and moreover, where the teacher or teach- 
 ers of the school are gifted with the same talents 
 
 for discipline.— under such circumstances -i 
 
 educators would agree thai a resort to corporal 
 punishment would scarcely ever, if at all. be 
 neces iry. Bu1 such are no! the circumstances 
 under which children are instructed in school. 
 This point is ably presented by Horace Malm. 
 ■■ The children « ho attend school." sns he. "en- 
 ter it from that vast variety of homes which 
 exist in the state. From differenl households, 
 where the widest diversity of parental and 
 domestic influences prevails, the children enter 
 the school -room, where there i usi b compara- 
 tive uniformity. At hom s s f these ihil- 
 
 dl'ell have been indulge I ill : ■' V ■'. i-'i ll i- •■■■■■ 1 
 and smiled upon f >r the ,■ ,. ■ j - of ,',, n ],,,,.,- 
 . and even their ti'eaks and whims 
 enacted into household laws. Some have been 
 so rigorously debarred from every innocent 
 
 .nun I .'ind in 'il nee. that they have 
 
 opened for themselves a way to gratification, 
 through artifice, and treachery, and falsehood. 
 Others, from vicious parental example, and the 
 corrupting influences of vile associates, have 
 been trained to bad habits, and contaminated 
 with vicious principles, ever since thev were 
 born : — some being taught that honor consists in 
 whipping a boy larger than themselves: others, 
 that the chie! end of man is to own a box that 
 cannot be opened, and to get money enough to 
 till it ; and others, again, have been taught, upon 
 their fathers' knees, to shape their young lips to 
 the utterance of oaths and blasphemy. All 
 these,'' as he says, "must be made to obey the 
 same genera] regulations, to pursue the same 
 studies, and to aim at the -nine results." More- 
 over, the teachers who are to control these diverse 
 characters and dispositions, are persons of im- 
 mature age and experience, with little, if any, 
 special preparation, and often morally and 
 temperamentally unfitted for the work: and. 
 therefore, as he further says. •• He who denies 
 the necessity of resorting to punishment in our 
 schools, virtually affirms two things: (1) That 
 this great number of children, scraped up from 
 all places, taken at all ages and in all conditions, 
 can be deterred from the wrong and attracted to 
 
 the right without punish at ; and (2) That the 
 
 teachers employed to keep their respective 
 schools, arc in il, ■ pp n* condition of things, 
 able to accomplish so glorious a work. Neither 
 of these propositions am I at presenl prepared 
 to admit." He also prudently remarks, that "it 
 
 is useless, or worse than ii-cles,. to say. that such 
 or such a thing can be done, and done imme- 
 
 diately, without pointing out the agents by whom 
 it can be done." 
 
 Thesi nsiderations assume, that every avail- 
 able agency has been employed before corporal 
 punishment is resorted to : for all educators are 
 agreed upon the point, that this kind of dis- 
 cipline is only, if ever, justifiable as a dernier 
 ressort ; that is. after every possible substitute 
 for corporal punishment has been used. There 
 is then one, and only one, alternative, a-s far 
 as school discipline is concerned, and that is 
 expulsion. To this it is objected that to 
 expel a pupil, ami particularly from a public 
 school, is to acknowledge the inadequacy of the 
 means to restrain him. "The vicious and ig- 
 norant scholar." says l>. P. Page, "is the very 
 one who most needs the reforming influence of a 
 good education. Sen! away from the fountains 
 of knowledge and virtue at this, the very time 
 of need ! And what may we expect for him but 
 utter ruin?" In the city of New York, coroora] 
 
 following statement is made : ■•There 
 class of boys whom our schools do not 
 
 a large 
 not and can- 
 not restrain, and v, hom. therefore, they cannot 
 benefit, but must send adrift, to find their way 
 inevitably to the reformatories and prisons, after 
 having committed those injuries to the com- 
 munity which our scl 1 system was designed to 
 
 prevent." It is further stated. " There arepupils. 
 the sons of widowed mothers, who cannot be 
 restrained at all at home: and when these are 
 turned from the school they arc lost indeed. To 
 these children the city owes an education, and 
 in order to be able to bestow it. it is bound by 
 every obligation of right and duly to govern 
 
 ment. thougli 
 been abandon 
 tendent state 
 
 •ars, the superin- 
 ./•/ for 1874- ;".t. 
 he great bugbear 
 
 1C use ot the rod. 
 
 " Misprisions tor mi- 
 
 in the sight of apologists 
 
 have been far less frequent than in the years 
 
 when corporal punishment was in vogue. The 
 
 most favorable year under the old regi gave 
 
 us one suspension for each 22,000 pupils in daily 
 attendance. The past year shows but one suspen- 
 sion for each 48,888 pupils in daily attendance." 
 He also states that "a greater good has been 
 secured at less cost than by the old methods. 
 The chief element of cost has been time spent in 
 discipline:" and added to this, is " loss of school 
 
 ti by enforced absence." The sll| lerilltell- 
 
 denl of St. Louis (A»»»<il R<>p<»-1 for 18(59— 70) 
 says "Corporal punishment is still inflicted in 
 the schools of our city, but lam glad to say in 
 fewer cases every succeeding year.. . . Ex- 
 perienced teachers affirm that they think it im- 
 possible to do without it." The Report of the 
 same superintendent for 1873 — \ says, "We 
 have had but very few cases of corporal punish- 
 ment, when compared with former years, but 
 
CORPORA I 
 
 still the uumber is quite large when brought 
 together .... Our general average is now aboul 
 L.000 cases per quarter for 25,000 pupils. Six- 
 
 t.vii veal- a^o. there w.-t- ..II.- li.ni.li-. ,l tunes this 
 
 Rion mi. in ed, the Supreme < '..mi of Ma a 
 
 chusetts held that a /ecu/, is a proper instru- 
 
 III. 'HI '.I .-. i." I | [mi. 'HI 'I lir ' .in- Melons 
 
 hment will be with us a thing 
 is kind of punishment still sur 
 
 e stale .-H|" 
 
 is doctrine. Pupil 
 ible to sui I. |iiuii : 
 
 sary means of discipline. In Gi 
 punishment is permitted in thi 
 
 for certain uffenses. as resistatiei 
 
 ■s. A child should never be struck f.u 
 
 ■ics. for faults of forgetfuliicss. for ii 
 lid carclcssii. .— , ..i for p, H\ hieeular 
 
 exceeding "the boui: 
 cipline," and that tli 
 for inflicting any ex. 
 local ordinance pro' 
 
 ili. i 
 
 Mows with the fist, or on the head, are strictly 
 
 prohibited. Similar laws prevail in the cantons 
 of Switzerland. In France, the law of 1850, 
 
 il.i.' 
 
 still in force, prohibited all 
 
 ■p. i 
 
 puni.--liui.iit in the primary schools ; and the sub- 
 stitutes for it are such' punishments as bad 
 marks, confinement, the imposition of tasks, 
 placing the names of delinquents on a roll of 
 
 did r, etc. In Russia, corporal punishment 
 
 was prohibited in the pitman schools at a very 
 
 tain restrictions. In L862, a statute was pro- 
 posed for the government of the schools without 
 corporal puiii.-lim.-iit : and this statute was sub- 
 mitted to German educatoK for their criticism and 
 
 suggestions. Of the twenty-. .lit' W ho presented 
 
 opinions, eleven opposed the abolition of t orporal 
 punishment, and two favored it. while eight ex- 
 pressed no opinion on that part of the statute. 
 The statute was finally so modified as to leave 
 
 the decision of the 
 
 pi.- 
 
 or with the knuckles, 1» 
 
 sing il ars,slapping 
 
 the cheeks or the mouth, 
 
 in aU brutal expedients. 
 
 These irritating and an 
 
 
 more likely to arouse n 
 
 alignant passion than 
 
 to allc\ iatc them. , 1 
 
 11,. tempei with which 
 
 you administer punishmi 
 
 nt will,generally, excite 
 
 in the child a corresp. 
 
 i:,;,, ; feeling. ' If you 
 
 bring ang r, anger will 1 
 
 s excited; if you bring 
 
 affi ctioi i d sorrow, j 
 
 ,u will find the child 
 
 responding in sorrowful 
 
 t. elings ; if you bring 
 
 moral feelings, tli. clu 
 
 !,- conscience will be 
 
 excited. Anger and s 
 
 verity destroy all the 
 
 benefit of punishment : 
 
 love and firmness will 
 
 if anything can, work i 
 
 enitence and a change 
 
 of conduct- See 11. M 
 , Ed 
 
 " % ,/:''':'..,.n"it;'n. 
 
 1872); Rem rl 1 
 
 of (he Eon. II V - 
 
 
 Masters ol thi Boston 
 
 'ublic schools Boston 
 
 1844); Reply ' esan 
 
 ,bv 1 loi.iec Mann (Bos- 
 
 ton, 1-1 1 : /' 
 
 Tears (Boston, 1845); 
 
 Lymam Cobb /'■ Evil 
 
 Tendency of Corporal 
 
 Punishment S V.. 1-1 
 
 7); Cooper, .1 History 
 
 of Rod London); K 
 
 VKI. RoSENKRANZ, /'"'/ 
 
 By Kuglish an.l American law, a parent may 
 correct his child in a reasonable manner, and the 
 teacher is in loco parentis (sec 2 Kent, 205; 
 1 Blackstone, 453; !) Wendells Itepori.-.. 3.V. : 
 27 Maine, 280; 32 Vermont. 123 ; 2 Devereux 
 and Battle, 365 ; 4 Gray, 37.) In the last deci- 
 
 (Edinburgh) ; Pillans, Rationale ■ 
 (Edinburgh, 1852). (See also \n 
 . ltional; A i moKiTv; and Discipline.) 
 
190 
 
 CORVALLIS COLLEGE 
 
 CORVALLIS COLLEGE (State Agri- 
 cultural), at Oorvallis. Benton county, Oregon, 
 was founded bv the Methodist Episcopal ( 'liureh. 
 in ISlin, and is still under its control. 'The state 
 agricultural college was made a department of it 
 in 1872. The value of the college property is 
 ■110,000; the endowment consists of 90,000 
 acres of agricultural college land granted by 
 Congress. The sum of 85.000 is annually re- 
 reived from the state. The institution embraces 
 a primary department, a preparatory depart- 
 ment, and a collegiate department. The last 
 comprises the following schools: (1) School of 
 Physics; 2) School of Mathematics ; (3) School 
 
 of 'Mur.,1 Science; : Scl I of Language; (5 
 
 Scl I ol His orj and Literature; (6) School of 
 
 Engineering i Special studies of Agriculture. 
 In chemistry and mathematics there are three 
 classes (junior, intermediate, and senior), and in 
 Greek and Latin two (junior and senior). There 
 are four degrees conferred in this institution : 
 (1) The degree of A. M., conferred on all who 
 complete the course in the study of physics, 
 mathematics, moral philosophy, history, an I 
 literature and language: ("-') The degree of A. 
 B., on such as complete the course in the schools 
 of physics, moral philosophy, matin-mat ic. an- 1 
 ancient languages; (3) The degree of B.S., on such 
 as complete the course in the schools of physics, 
 mathematics, moral philosophy, engineering, an 1 
 the special department of agriculture; (4) The 
 degree of Graduate of a Scl I, on such as com- 
 plete the course in any school. The title Pro- 
 ficient is granted to any candidate for degrees 
 svho passes two successful examinations, one of 
 which must be final. Both sexes are entitled to 
 the privileges of the college. The tuition varies 
 from .$f> to SI 5 (gold) per term, the college year 
 being divided into three terms. An extra fee 
 of s;. is charged for each modern language. Tin- 
 law provides for the free tuition of sixty young 
 men, over sixteen years old, who are known 
 as state students, [n 1873 — 4, there were 6 in- 
 structors and 1 34 students, of whom 32 were in 
 the agricultural department. The number grad- 
 uating was 4 (I?. S.); the whole number of 
 alumni, is, B. L. Arnold, A. M„ is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 COURSE OF INSTRUCTION, or Course 
 of Study, is a series of subjects of instruction 
 or study, arranged in the order in which they 
 should be pursued, and grouped or divided itrto 
 grades, each to be completed in a certain time. 
 Such an arrangement of studies is sometimes 
 called a i/rm/,;/ cmirv, and, especially in Superior 
 
 instruction, a curriculum. When these various 
 subjects are arranged in the form of a daily or- 
 der of exercises, showing the time, or the number 
 of lessons, to be given to each subject, it consti- 
 tutes the school programme. 
 
 In order that the objects of intellectual edu- 
 cation may be fully attained, it is of the greatest 
 importance that the course of instruction should 
 be judicious in respect to several points: (I ) The 
 selection of subjects ; (2) Their order or arrange- 
 ment ; (3) The number prescribed for simultane- 
 
 COURSE OF INSTRUCTION 
 
 otis study : (t) The divisi if the course in; i 
 
 grades, with a definite time assigned for the com- 
 pletion of each. The first of these considerations 
 is of paramount importance; since the subjects 
 of study constitute not only the basis of intel- 
 lectual culture, but the source of necessary in- 
 formation. Two points, consequently, are to be 
 considered in this selection: (I) Tin- value of 
 the subjects as means of culture; (2) Their 
 importance as sources of information. In the 
 early stages of education, the first of these con- 
 siderations should, without doubt, have the 
 preference: but. as education advances, the 
 
 instruction without sidering tin- nature of the 
 
 mind to be educated as well as the objects for 
 which it is to be educated. In elementary or 
 primary education, the necessary subjects of in- 
 struction may lie grouped into the following: 
 (1) Language, including reading and elocution, 
 spelling, the analysis and definition of words, 
 
 jjeel instruction 
 v. natural histo- 
 
 ' y- etc.; (I) 
 
 g, drawing, etc; 
 alisthenics. To 
 
 "f instru ntal, 
 
 tics. In addition 
 e eases, the rudi- 
 
 also taught. The 
 
 d secondary in- 
 d as to subjects, 
 may be deemed 
 ■ higher grade, 
 here must, how- 
 well as words. - 
 
 ever, be instruction in thin 
 the perceptive and eonceptive faculties must lie 
 trained as well as the expressive faculties, so 
 that the mind may be stored with ideas and 
 their representatives in language. A proper 
 discrimination between primary and secondary 
 instruction depends upon (1) the kind of in- 
 struction, and (2) the subjects of instruction. 
 Science taught in the high school is a very differ- 
 ent thing from science in the primary school ; 
 in the one case we address to a much greater 
 extent the higher faculties, — abstraction, general- 
 ization, reasoning, etc. : in the other, chiefly the 
 perceptive and eonceptive faculties. The sub- 
 jects of elementary instruction have been classi- 
 fied by an eminent educator as follows: "(1) 
 Reading <///'/ Writing — the mastery of letters; 
 (2) Arithmetic — the mastery of numbers; (3) 
 (rr,,,/rnji//i/ — the mastery over place ; (4) Gram- 
 mar — the mastery over the word; (5) History — 
 the mastery over time." 
 
 In schools of secondary instruction (high 
 schools, academies, etc.), the course includes also 
 language — the vernacular, and one or more 
 
i'iiI'KSK OF INSTHI CTION 
 
 modern languages, anil also the ru.limiiits of 
 Latin and Greek, particularly in preparatory 
 
 of the larger " union schools,"and of schools in 
 cities, appear to preclude the possibility of a 
 
 (taught a~-,„ I, - il,.-M..Un_ ; ., , x -n - :, , , I 
 
 astronomy descriptive, at least), phys 
 to which are usually added English 
 rhetoric, the elements of mental and 
 losophy.etc. What properlj belong 
 school or academic course is. boweve 
 being settled : indeed, to fix the line c 
 tion between primary and secondary 
 has scarcely been attempted ; henc . « 
 
 of 
 
 these si 
 
 man. it will be im- 
 • of study which all 
 ely the best." 
 ior instruction (col- 
 courses of study are 
 
 States require- thai 
 high school with a { 
 already mentioned ; 
 arithmetic, geogra] 
 the history of the 
 great error to suppi 
 fully mastete 1 In : 
 all education," says 
 agree as to the pr 
 study, as well as to 
 el information, and 
 faction of all, what 
 into activity, and ju 
 of these faculties ed 
 possible toestablis] 
 shall aeknow h- lu>- a 
 In institution, f, 
 leges and universal 
 also various but they all include the departments 
 of classics, mathematics, scii ntific studies, litera- 
 ture, philosophy, and modem languages. In the 
 American colleges, elective courses have, within 
 a few years, become quite general. I See lio-n,\ 
 University, and Colleges.) The courses of 
 study prescribed in the different cities of the 
 United States for the elementary public schools, 
 differ considerably as to subjects, number of 
 grades, and time assigned for the completion of 
 the course. The states do not prescribe any uni- 
 form course; in regard to which fart Mr Francis 
 Adams, in The Free School Syst m fffieUniied 
 States 1875), says. " It is worthy of remark that 
 American educationists do not appear to recog- 
 nize that the absence of uniformity in study and 
 examination weakens their .syst an. The nearest 
 appro.M h to a uniform course of study which has 
 ever been attempted by any state, is to prescribe 
 the text-books which shail be used, ami when 
 this has been done, it has been sometimes re- 
 sented, and the cry of centralization has been 
 raised. It is obvious that it would be a great 
 advantage to statesmen and statisticians, and to 
 the nation at large, if there were some test by 
 which the progress of scholars in each state could 
 be definitely ascertained." The diverse circum- 
 stances, however, of schools in the rural districts, 
 
 oolsof this 
 usually de- 
 special aim 
 
 New York, in address! 
 Association, at the ci 
 1 873, said. - ( >ur courses 
 
 of ostentatious learning rather than useful cul- 
 ture. The desire for sho« n acquirements, treat- 
 facts, irrespective of their use in giving mental 
 nourishment and cultivating power, is a perni- 
 cious evil." The complaint that the courses of 
 
 larly m many of the cities of the Northern 
 .-tai's. ,.te burdensome in their requirements, 
 has frequently been made. In this connection, 
 Mr. Francis Adams remarks. - Our [the English] 
 elementary course is generally longer than the 
 American ; ami Vet ours is nothing like so ainbi- 
 
 along the line. A foreign languagi i- often 
 commenced in the lowest grade of the primary 
 school." In prescribing a course of instruction for 
 elementary schools, the special province oi such 
 
 schools should In- kept steadily in view, to give 
 to their pupils the keys of knowledge, reading, 
 writing, etc., and. tit the same time, to discipline 
 their minds so that they will be able to acquire 
 and use knowledge in discharging the i lut Li oi 
 their after lives. 
 
 The division of the Course of Instruction into 
 grades is sometimes made by Ay '■■.<. and some- 
 times by text-books; and each method has its 
 advoi at The former, it is claimi I gives more 
 freedom to the teacher -more scope for the ex- 
 ercise of intelligent discrimination ami original 
 treatment; the instruction proceeds to a greater 
 extent from the living teacher, since there is less 
 inducement to confine it to a mere hearing of 
 recitations. The subject is the paramount con- 
 sideration: the text-book, secondary. The teacher, 
 .and the pupil also as far a.s possible, is reipiiivd 
 to consult various books, to compare their state- 
 ments, to cor, t their errors; and thus, while 
 
 perhaps a particular text-book is used as a basis 
 for the instruction, a more general knowledge of 
 the sul.|c,t is imparted than is contained in any 
 single work. Thus, if the study is the history of 
 
 book.it would be necessary that all the schools 
 should use the same, and a certain number of 
 pages would be assigned to each grade. For ab- 
 
COUSIN 
 
 solute uniformity, of course, the second plan is 
 preferable; but some educators claim that uni- 
 formity may be carried too Far, constituting a 
 Procrustean standard, and tending ti> deprive 
 the instruction of one of it- most essential qual- 
 ities, — its adaptability to different minds. Evi- 
 dently the topical system makes mure demands 
 upon the teacher; and this, it is claimed, con- 
 stitutes its great advantage, since it necessitates 
 better information, higher culture, and more real 
 teaching ability. What kind of development, it 
 is ,i-k,'d .•■in result fr the men: hearing of rec- 
 itations? And what kind of influence can be 
 exerted by a teacher that never goes beyond the 
 narrow scope of the school text-book ? Not that 
 the legitimate use of text-books is to be diseour- 
 aged, but only a servile dependence upon them ; 
 and it is claimed that the prescribing of topics 
 rather than books, tends to prevent this. Says 
 I). P. Page, in Theory and Practice of Teach- 
 iu'l." A teacher who is perfectly familiar with 
 what is taught, has ten times the vivacity of one 
 who is obliged to follow the very letter of the 
 book." For the courses of instruction of com- 
 mon schools in the different cities, see the titles 
 of the sa : the courses in the higher institu- 
 tions of learning are given each under its re- 
 spective title. No attempt, has been made here 
 to show what in regard to moral and religious 
 training properly belongs to a course of instruc- 
 tion for public or private schools. The various 
 considerations appertaining to these topics will 
 be found under the titles Mob vi. Education, and 
 Religious Education. — See How to Teach 
 (N. Y.. is; |); Wells, A Graded Course of In- 
 struction for Public Schools (X. Y., 1862); 
 Francis Adams, The Free School System of the 
 UnitedStates (London, 1875); Thomas Hill, The 
 
 r,;„- <>,;!. ,-nf S/„,/irs (X. Y., ISTii). 
 
 COUSIN, Victor, a French philosopher, and 
 the founder of systematic eclecticism in philos- 
 ophy. was bom Nov. 28, 17"L'. and died Jan. L5, 
 lstlT. lie di-tiu-ni-licl himself as a student at 
 the Ly Char m ague, and in 1812, was made 
 assistanl Greek professor a1 the Itcole Nbrmale. 
 His early studies were rather in the direction of 
 belles-lettres, but he soon turned his attention 
 to philosophy. Roger Collard had already re- 
 volted against the sensationalism of Locke as 
 depraved by Oondillac, and had introduced the 
 Scotch philosophy into France. For a while. 
 Cousin was an ardent disciple of Reid : and, in 
 I si;,, he became an assistant professor of philos- 
 ophy with Poger Coilar.l. and lectured both at 
 the EcoleNormale and at the Sorbonne. In L817, 
 he visited t I'erinanv.and became acquainted with 
 the Kantian philosophy, which had a great influ- 
 ence upon his later teachings. In lKL'l. his lec- 
 tures wee suspected of a had political tendency, 
 and were indefinitely suspended. In 1824, he 
 went to Germany again, and was arrested in 
 Dresden on the charge of belonging to the Car- 
 bonari, and sent to Berlin, where he was im- 
 prisoned for six months. During this stay in 
 Germany', he became acquainted with Hegel, 
 Schleiermacher, and ScheUing. Lu 1826, he re- 
 
 CRAMMING 
 
 turned to Paris; and. in 1 s27. he was appointed 
 professor of philosophy at the Siirhtmne. During 
 this period of enforced silence, he published ail 
 edition of Proclus and Descartes, anil also part 
 of a translation of Plato, which was completed 
 in 1840. After the revolution of L830, he be- 
 came a member of the Council of Public In- 
 struction, and later a director of the ticole Nbr- 
 male. In 1840, he became minister of public 
 instruction, which position he held for only a 
 few months, owing to the unsettled condition of 
 politics, lie was friendly to the revolution of 
 Is is. but never had any political importance 
 under the empire. I [is <r\r, r f . ism »a- based on 
 the doctrine that philosophy has always been 
 either sensualism, idealism, scepticism, or mysti- 
 cism. His constant oscillation of opinion is due 
 to the fact that each of these systems has some 
 truth in it; and the true philosophical method. 
 doubtless, is to take from each of them the true, 
 and reject the false. Without some standard of 
 selection, the product must be a mere philosoph- 
 ical medley ; and such was the result in this 
 case. Still Cousin's eloquence and his exalted 
 moral views combined to make his lectures very 
 popular. The crowds at the Sorbonne recalled 
 the days when William and Abelard had dis- 
 puted there, lie reorganized the system of 
 primary instruction in France, and arranged the 
 course of studies for the normal school. He also 
 published several very full and valuable reports 
 upon public instruction in Prussia and Holland. 
 I he e have been translated into English. Cousin 
 was an ardent believer in religious education. 
 Purelj secular instruction he thought more likely 
 
 to do mischief than g I. A complete edition 
 
 of his' works is published in French; and trans- 
 lations ot his more important works have ap- 
 peared in English, s.v Ripley, Philosophical 
 Miscellanies (Boston, 1838) : 0. W. Wight, 
 Translation of Cousin's Course of Modern Phi- 
 losophy (N. Y., 1855), and his Lectures on the 
 True, the Beautiful, andthe Good{N. Y.. 1857); 
 Cousin's Report on the State of Education in 
 Holland, translated by Horner (London, 1838); 
 and Report on the State of Public Instruction in 
 Prussia; with Plans of School-Houses, trans- 
 lated by Austin (London. 1SM4). 
 
 CRAMMING, a term used in regard to edu- 
 cation, to denote the fault of filling the mind 
 with facts, without allowing it sullieieiit time to 
 arrange and generalize them, to compare them 
 with its previous acquisitions, or to determine 
 their real significance, as related to general prin- 
 ciples. It is thus a kind of mental stuffing, and, 
 consequently, is opposed to the true object of 
 education, which, as the word etymologically i 
 considered implies, is not to pour something 
 into the mind, but to bring out, by appropriate 
 exercise, its latent faculties. In college phrase, 
 students are said to cnuu for an examination, 
 when they make preparation with undue haste, 
 impressing upon their memory, by repetition, a 
 mass of things about which they expect to be 
 questioned, but which, when the examination is 
 over, they immediately forget. Such a process 
 
CRECHE 
 
 is exceedingly injurious to the mind, since it is a 
 misdirection of its powers, wasting them at a 
 time when they should be all steadily employed 
 in the formation of those habits of acquisition 
 
 .in I thought, whii li < stitiite the basis of a 
 
 snunil intellectual character. 
 
 In elementary education, cramming is. there- 
 fore, especially pernicious ; ami it is ai tin- stage, 
 that it is the must likely to occur. It may as- 
 sume various forms. Imt chiefly the following: 
 , 1 i ( 'row i linn the memory w ith \ erUil /'../•/» ni,t . 
 -definitions, rules, statements of facts, names in 
 geography, dates in history, etc. ; (2) Overtask- 
 ing the powers of the mind with a multiplicity 
 of studies, or with such as are QOt adapted to its 
 immature condition, and. therefore, cannot lie 
 comprehended; (3) Undue haste in instruction, 
 so that the pupils arc compelled to commit to 
 memory what they have had no time properly 
 to digest in their minds. Cramming may be the 
 result either of the ignorance of the teacher, or 
 of circumstances which compel him to violate 
 the correct principles of education for some 
 special end. as the preparation of pupils for a 
 public exhibition in which they may make an 
 imposing display of their superficial acquire- 
 ments. (See Exhibition.) Such a sad perver- 
 sion of the teacher's work as this implies is of 
 too frequent occurrence : for parents and patrons 
 are too fond of witnessing such displays, and 
 there are teachers whose eagerness for praise or 
 
 patronage is sutlicient to mi.iv.nin' their sense of 
 the true object of their vocation. They seem to 
 work more for their own petty ambition or 
 pecuniary gain than for the true welfare of their 
 pupils. The evil of this is not alone with the 
 pupil, hut is shared by the teacher himself: for 
 by merely cramming the minds which it is his 
 duty to educate, he fails to realize in himself 
 the best results of giving instruction : since. 
 while "he may have the exquisite pleasure of see- 
 ing the growth of his pupils' minds, he may also 
 have the higher satisfaction of feeling the growth 
 of his own."— See Blackte, On Self-Culture 
 (Edinburgh, 1875). 
 
 CRECHE, a French word signifying a crih 
 or manger, but used in France, Belgium and 
 some other countries in Europe to designate a 
 kind of infant asylum I in remembrance of the 
 manger of Bethlehem). These institutions are 
 supported and managed by either private per- 
 sons or corporations. One of the most noted, 
 and a model of its class, is the famous Creche 
 Marie-Henriette, at Antwerp, named after the 
 queen of Belgium. This asylum originated in | 
 circumstances caused by the cholera, in 1866. 
 The ravages of the epidemic were very great in 
 Belgium, but especially in the city of Antwerp. 
 causing extreme suffering and distress among 
 the poorer classes of the population. Many 
 children were deprived of one or both of their 
 parents, and tints left helpless and destitute. 
 Others suffered almost as much in consequence 
 of the sudden destitution of their parents. In 
 order to afford relief to these unfortunates, the 
 creche was opened in January, 18(17, through 
 
 CRIME AND EDUCATION 
 
 193 
 
 the efforts of a number of philanthropic ladies 
 and gentlemen; and since that time has con- 
 tinued to afford an asylum to hundreds of poor 
 
 children, both l.ovs and -ills. \\ hen the ...-.rents 
 
 port of the child according t 
 their earnings. The institutioi 
 sick and diseased children n. 
 Every child aged 15 days, or 
 whose parents reside in the cit; 
 
 to 'I '. i h . The utmost ca 
 
 inmates, both as to their nurti 
 No corporal punishment is pe 
 
 .-are taken of young children .luring the day. 
 while their parent or parents are engaged in 
 their work. Thus, mothers may have their in- 
 fants in the morning, and take them away in the 
 evening, at a charge of ."> centimes .about 1 Cent I 
 per .lay. or 25 centimes per week in i a 
 payment. This feature of the creche distin- 
 guishes it particularly fri \m I >t her classes of infant 
 and orphan asylums. 
 
 CRIME AND EDUCATION. The rela- 
 tion between crime and education has, of late, 
 
 compared with the entire educated population, 
 
 were in the proportion of 1 to 931 ; while the 
 illiterate criminals were as 1 to 41, compared 
 with the whole number of illiterate persons; 
 
 thus proving the proporti if criminals in the 
 
 uneducated classes to be 226 times as great as 
 that ol the educated classes. The facts thus far 
 published on this subject are. however, still very 
 incomplete: but they invariably tend to prove 
 that the uneducated constitute the class of so- 
 ciety most prone to .rime. It. therefore, fol- 
 lows, that every advance made toward the re- 
 moval of illiteracy must have a tendency to re- 
 duce also the number of crimes. It is also evi- 
 dent that the more complete the stal 
 formation which can be obtained of the criminal 
 classes of all the countries of the world, the bet- 
 ter will statesmen and educators be enabled to 
 establish with certainty the true relation exist- 
 ing between crime and education. I hi n ari 
 Still, unfortunately, countries in which it is 
 
 tl _lit tli.it the government has discharged its 
 
 duty with regard to the criminal class.-.-, when n 
 has enacted criminal laws for the punishment of 
 crime, and erect.-.l prisons and penitentiaries. 
 The criminal is treated more as an offender 
 against society who deserves to be punished and 
 restrained from doing any more harm, than as an 
 unfortunate member of society who should be re- 
 formed. Great progress, however, is of late no- 
 ticeable in the legislation of almost every civil- 
 
I '.11 
 
 CRIME AM) EDUCATION 
 
 ized country. The intellectual and moral con- 
 dition of criminals is more thoroughly studied 
 than before ; the causes which lead to crimes are 
 more earnestly investigated, and the agencies 
 which are calculated to reform criminals are 
 more eagerly employed. The improvement 
 which has already been achieved is, to a great 
 extent, due to the prison congresses held in the 
 United States, as well as in Europe. The first 
 congress of this kind was proposed by the in- 
 spector general of prisons in Belgium. Ducpe- 
 tiaux, and was held in Frankfort on the Main, 
 in 1st",, Tin- most important was the Inter- 
 national Prison Congress, chiefly arranged by 
 Dr. Winesof New York, and held in London, 
 
 in 1872. A s nd international congress is to 
 
 be held in Europe in 1877. A penni nt com- 
 mission for the promotion of penitentiary reform. 
 organized by the congress of Ijondon, met in 
 L874, a1 Brussels, and in Is;;., at Bruchsal, in 
 the grand-duchy of Baden, Germany. In the 
 United States, national prison congresses wen- 
 held in 1870 at Cincinnati, in 1872 in Balti- 
 more, and in 1874 in St. Louis. The labors of 
 ill, , , ui u iesses. while being chiefly devoted to 
 the improvement of prisons and of prison life. 
 have also died a flood of light on the causes that 
 
 produce crimes. Beltrani Scalia, i of the 
 
 foivino-i prison-reformers of Italy of the present 
 century, estimates the illiterates among the con- 
 victs of Belgium, Denmark, the Netherlands. 
 
 Italy. Saxony, and Sweden at about hall of 
 
 the entire prison population of thos mines. 
 
 Recent official returns show that the percentage 
 
 of those wh lid not read on entering prison, 
 
 was 56 in Austria, 19 in Belgium,87 in Fiance. 
 4 in Baden. 12 in Bavaria. IT in Prussia, 60 to 
 92 in the different provinces of Italy, about W 
 in the Netherlands, and 30 in Switzerland. In 
 Ireland, 22 per cent of males, and 63 per cent of 
 females were illiterate. In England, 34 per cent 
 of the persons committed to county or borough 
 prisons, were totally ignorant. In regard to the 
 United States. Mr. J. B.Sanborne of Massachu- 
 setts, in a report prepared for the International 
 Prison Congress of London, says that the gen- 
 eral condition of American prisoners in point of 
 education is low, yet they are not so extremely 
 illiterate as criminals are in many countries, if 
 we except the colored criminals of the South. 
 In Massachusetts, for a period of eight years 
 past, the statistics show very nearly one third of 
 all prisoners to be wholly illiterate: yet, in the 
 highest prison at ( 'harlestown, the proportion of 
 illiterate convicts, since the begmningof L864, 
 has been scarcely more than 1 in 10. Partial re- 
 ports from seventeen states, including only three 
 from the middle and western states, show that 
 of an aggregate of 110,538 prisoners, 82,812 
 could read and write, 5,!i:il could read only, and 
 21,650 had no education. The totally ignorant 
 were thus about 22 per cent of the criminal 
 population ; inclusive of those who could read 
 only, they would amount to 25 per cent \ 
 large number of those who could read and write, 
 were also found to be very deficient, and the ag- 
 
 gregate number of those " very deficient in edu- 
 cation" was estimated at about 50 per cent of 
 the criminal population. There was a great 
 diversity in regard to illiteracy among criminals 
 of different groups of states. In New York and 
 Pennsylvania, the totally ignorant, or those un- 
 able to read and write, were 1 '.I per cent: but 
 those very deficient, at least 60 per cent. In 
 five north-western states, the totally ignorant 
 were fo per cent, the very deficient, 75 per cent: 
 in four states between the Mississippi and the 
 Pacific, the totally ignorant were 21 per cent, the 
 very deficient, 50 per cent ; in five far southern 
 States, the totally ignorant were 60 per cent, the 
 very deficient, 85 per cent. According to the 
 census of I 870, the number of illiterates above 10 
 year-ot age was, in New Yorkand Pennsylvania. 
 I percenf of the population: in the central states. 
 3J per cent : in the western and Pacific states, 3 
 per cent : and in the South. 22 per cent. A com- 
 parison of these figures which give the total num- 
 ber of illiterates, with the number of illiterate 
 criminals, shows that the illiterate classes of the 
 population furnish a disproportionately large con- 
 tingent to the number of criminals. The causes of 
 this fact are plain. Ignorance unfits a man. to a 
 considerable extent, for earning his daily bread, 
 and. in most cases, dooms in to ;ihjeet poverty: 
 the want of intellectual culture is, moreover, gen- 
 erally coupled with a lack of the feeling of self- 
 respect and moral responsibility, thus leaving the 
 poor victim an easy prey to the many tempta- 
 tions which society offers. That education is a 
 I force restraining vice and crime, appears to be 
 clearly established by two very important facts : 
 (li Wherever education is diffused among the 
 people, the ratio of the number of criminals to 
 the whole population diminishes; and (2) In all 
 countries, the criminal class is mainly fed by the 
 ignorant class. The conviction that the absence 
 of education tends to increase crime, has induced 
 educators and statesmen to strive to prevent this 
 evil by the introduction of compulsory education 
 laws (See Compulsory EnucATioN.) The friends 
 of this policy charge such states as fail to require 
 that all children should be educated, with pro- 
 ducing the very crime for which the criminal is 
 punished. Opinions differ, however, as to the 
 effect of compulsory education in diminishing 
 crime, and as to the responsibility of the state 
 government for uneducated criminals. Alison, 
 in the History qf Europe, boldly asserts the 
 whole doctrine to be a fallacy, and presents sta- 
 tistics to prove that crimes are more numerous 
 where education, that is. what is usually con- 
 sidered education, is diffused. " Experience." he 
 says, "has now abundantly verified the melan- 
 choly truth, that intellectual cultivation has no 
 effect in arresting the sources of evil in the 
 human heart ; that it alters the direction of 
 crime, but does not alter its amount." I fiber! 
 Spencer asserts, in Social Statics, that "we 
 have no evidence that education, as commonly 
 understood, is a preventive of crime." Fletcher, 
 in Siimmtuy (if !!/<• Mural Statislirs </ h'ta/laml 
 and Wales, says, that the comparison of the 
 
CRIME AND EDUCATION 
 
 criminal and educational returns of England and 
 other countries of Europe, "has afforded no 
 sound statistical evidenced favorof.and as little 
 against, the moral effects associated with instruc- 
 tion, as actually disseminated among the people." 
 These are, undoubtedly, extreme views, and can- 
 not be accepted in the light of mop lvivnt sta- 
 tistical information, 'liny present, however, a 
 strong argument in favor of improving the qual- 
 ity as well as the quantity of education diffused 
 
 among tin- people, anil especially nf tin- impor- 
 
 tance of moral training as will as intellectual in- 
 struction. (See Moral Education, National 
 Education, and Public Schools.) 
 
 \\ lull- every one must hope that the steadily 
 
 increasing diffusion of education will be found a 
 powerful aid in reducing the Dumber of crimes, 
 all prison-reformers of the present day agree in 
 
 criminals through the means provided fortheir 
 
 instruction. The provisio"ns made in this respect 
 in the United States are still inadequat ; but 
 great progress has been made of late years Li- 
 braries are common,33 prisons in 1873 reporting 
 50,663 volumes, being an average of 1 535 to 
 each. In some prisons, the convicts have the 
 benefit of schools, individual instruction in their 
 cells, and lectures. Secular instruction is reg- 
 ularly afforded in the prisons of California, Illi- 
 nois, Indiana. Kansas, Kentucky, Massachusetts, 
 New York, NVu Hampshire, ihv.,,,,,. Pennsyl- 
 vania, Rhode Island, anil Wisconsin. In some 
 of these states, a school is held once a week ; in 
 others, two or five evenings a week. The prisons 
 uf most European countries are also generally 
 provided with a school and a library. In the 
 so-called houses of correction, which are intended 
 for the treatment of those convicted oi higher 
 offenses, the educational element naturally occu- 
 
 prisons. Still mure is this the case in the institu- 
 tions for the treatment of juvenile offenders. 
 (See Reform Schools.) 
 
 An important discovery recently made by sta- 
 tistical science, has sometimes been quoted against 
 those who hope that, as education increases. 
 crime will decrease. It has been found that in 
 the number of crimes committed in a country, 
 the annual reports exhibit the same regularity. 
 as in finances, commerce, and other departments 
 
 of civilized life ; and the inference has I n 
 
 drawn from this fact, that, however valuable 
 education may be, no notable influence there- 
 from on the amount of crime need be expected ; 
 since that is unalterably fixed. This steadiness in 
 the amount of crime was observed by Madame 
 de Stael, and is made much of by Buckle, in his 
 History of Civilization. Statistically it was 
 proved by the great lielgian statistician Hiietelet. 
 who adduces an array of figures, which appear 
 to render his position impregnable. Some have 
 regarded this as a law of fatality; but Quetelet 
 himself states, that this apparently invariable 
 proportion depends upon the moral condition of 
 society, and. that if this be changed, the appa- 
 rently uniform proportion of crime will change in 
 
 the same degree. See Annual Reports of the 
 
 U. S. Commissioner of Education for 1872, :t. 
 
 1815 to 
 The 
 
 England (I 
 
 L857— 61); Porter, The 
 Progress of the Nation (Lond., 1G36 13) ; 
 Spencer, Social Statics (London. 1850) ; Quete- 
 ,et, La Statistique Morale, in vol. xxi. of Mem. 
 lerAcad.de Belgique (Brussels, 1848). 
 
 CRUELTY (to Animals i is a prevailing trait 
 n the characters of children who have not been 
 specially trained to habits of kind, considerate. 
 iii" I humane feeling and conduct. The activity 
 if a child's nature, its love of sport, and its un- 
 leveloped sympathies predispose it to acts of io- 
 
 cs harden their 
 hey who delight 
 of inferior erea- 
 y complacent or 
 d." The neces- 
 i the spirit of 
 ho have written 
 Says one. " I 
 lydelight which 
 
 in sports of this kind, they may acquire by 
 habit what they never would have learned by 
 nature, and grow up in a confirmed inattention 
 to every kind of suffering but their own. Ac- 
 cordingly, the supreme court of judicature at 
 Athens thought an instance of this sort not be- 
 low its cognizance, and punished a boy for put- 
 ting out the eyes of a poor bird that had nnliap 
 pily fallen into his hands." Hogarth, in the 
 series of paintings entitled TV Progress of 
 < VueUy, illustrates this vice in its several stages 
 of formation, the first picture showing children 
 engaged in various barbarous diversions. The 
 effect is heightened by the contrast of a youth 
 who intercedes to prevent cruel outrage to a 
 poor dog, offering a book to the inhuman young 
 tyrant. To this picture the following lines are 
 annexed : — 
 
 What various scenes of cruel sport 
 
 The infant rate employ; 
 What future baseness, must import 
 
 The tyraut in the boj ! 
 
 Behold a youth of gentler loot ; 
 
 To save the creature's pain. 
 "O take !" he cries, "here take my book;" 
 
 But tears and book are vain. 
 
 Learn from this fair example, you 
 
 Whom savage sports delight. 
 How cruelty disgusts tin- view, 
 
 While pity charms the sight 
 
196 CUM 
 
 All children are not equally addicted to such 
 cruel sports ; but perhaps, if we exclude certain 
 extreme and abnormal cases, it may be said, that 
 this inclination is found to exist in youths whose 
 fearless courage, resolution, and activity, if prop- 
 erly trained, would make them exceedingly use- 
 ful, if not illustrious, in after life. The germs 
 of glory or of infamy exist in the mind of the 
 young child; and, doubtless, in many cases, are 
 precisely the same, expanding into one or the 
 other according to the circumstances by which 
 they are fostered. " It would be curious," says 
 a celebrated writer, " to trace the human mind 
 either to the perfection of greatness or to the 
 completion of crime; to trace the hero from his 
 play at prisoner's base, where he domineered over 
 his a I Imates, to the battle by which he gains 
 
 and in the latter, the result of their operation. 
 Culture comprehends both development and re- 
 finement; that is. not simply bringing into 
 active exercise the latent powers of the mind or 
 body, but adding thereto a nice and careful dis- 
 crimination as to then- proper or improper ex- 
 ercise, with a due regard to the circumstances 
 which require their employment. Thus a man 
 of culture not only is able to express his thoughts 
 in suitable and impressive language, but knows 
 how to adapt his language to the persons, the 
 place, and the occasions which call for this ex- 
 pression: nor docs he give utterance to his 
 thoughts except when it is proper to do so. 
 I lenee. culture, iii iis mature stage, not only im- 
 plies power bu1 restraint, both belonging to the 
 inner nature of the individual. There are as 
 
 heart In has stabb i 
 
 The need of sp< 
 
 thetic affections in, 
 
 points out a number of ways of instilling such 
 habits; such as accustoming children to be gentle 
 and considerate to their pets, to be kind to each 
 other, and to treat servants and dependents with 
 
 rsical, intellectual, mural, spiritual, and esthetic, 
 ording as its scope is the improvement of 
 powers and susceptibilities of the body, the 
 „'llect, the moral sentiments, the sold, or the 
 :e. (ieneral culture implies that everything 
 Btituting the character of the individual has 
 n brought to as high a degree of improvement 
 
 waste nothing." Especially should they be cor- 
 rected in cruelly treating those animals \\ hose ex- 
 ternal appearance is repugnant. "Children,"" 
 says Maria Edgeworth, " shuuk I in it be taught to 
 confine their benevolence to those animals which 
 are thought beautiful ; the fear and disgust 
 which we express at the sight of certain unfort- 
 unate animals, whom we are pleased to call ugly 
 and shocking, are observed by children, and 
 these associations lead to cruelty." Another 
 writer, in this connection, remarks. " It might be 
 of service in order to awaken, as early as possible, 
 in children an extensive sense of humanity, to 
 give them a view of several sorts of insects, as 
 they may be magnified by the assistance of 
 glasses, and to show them that the same evident 
 marks of wisdom and goodness prevail in the 
 formation of the minutest insect, as in that of 
 the most enormous leviathan." In the same 
 spirit are the strung lines of Cowper : — 
 
 Ye, therefore, who love merey. teaeh your sons 
 To love it too. The spring-time of our years 
 Is soon dishonored and defiled in most 
 By budding ills, that ask a rrinh nt hand 
 To cheek them. But, alas ! none sooner shoots, 
 If unrestrained, into luxuriant growth, 
 Thau Cruelty, most dev'lish of them all. 
 
 (See Moral Education.) 
 
 CULTURE, a term used to denote the im- 
 provement of the human character by means of 
 discipline, training, ur self-exertiun. It is used 
 in both an active and a passive sense ; in the 
 former, implying the use of all necessary means 
 and agencies to cultivate the human faculties, 
 
 ever, does not exclude general culture; for no 
 
 man need be merely a practitioner, or worker in 
 any narrow sphere of effort. The object of 
 higher education is to give this general culture 
 as a basis for that which is necessarily special, or 
 technical. 
 
 The real instrumentality, in a certain sense 
 the only one. by which culture can be effeeted.is 
 self-exertion. None of the faculties, whether of 
 the spirit, mind, ur body, can be cultivated ex- 
 cept by exercise. Tims a person can never learn 
 to compose by studying grammar and rhetoric, 
 nor to think and reason by committing to mem- 
 ory the rules of logic. If he would learn to 
 write, or to think and reason, he must write and 
 think and reason, on the same principle and in 
 the same way as a person learns to swim, or a 
 child to walk." This exercise is the individual's own 
 work ; but the exercise may be unsuitable and 
 injurious, and. therefore, needs, at first, the care- 
 ful guidance of experience. Hence, the need of 
 an educator, until the individual has acquired 
 sufficient knowledge and experience to direct the 
 exercise himself. This shows the relation of 
 education and culture, the one being the handmaid 
 of the other. The instruments of culture vary 
 with its special scope. For those of physical 
 culture, we must learn what a knowledge of 
 physiology and experience in gymnastics dictate; 
 those of intellectual culture can be judiciously 
 selected only by studying the laws which regulate 
 the operations' of the mind. But we are par- 
 
CUMBERLAND UNIVERSITY 
 ticularly to be on our guard in supposing that 
 
 intellectual culture can spline fri.nn the mere 
 
 study of other persons' ideas. True culture of 
 this kind can alone come from (l|a patient, 
 laborious, and diligent acquisition of idea- ,,f ,,ur 
 own, by observation and reflection; and (2) the 
 study of the experience of other minds, and its 
 verification, as far as possible, by that of our 
 own. " The original and proper .sources of 
 
 knowledge," says Professor Blackie, "are not 
 hooks, but life, experience, personal thinking, 
 feeling, and acting." And again, "All knowl- 
 edge which comes from books comes indirectly, 
 by reflection, and by echo; true knowledge 
 grows from a living root in the thinking soul: 
 and whatever it may appropriate from without 
 
 it take~ by living assimilation into a luin.j m 
 ganism, not by mere borrowing." (See Se/f- 
 CuUure, Eldinburgh, L875.) This is simply an 
 emphatic and illustrative expansion of the gen- 
 eral principle above stated ; namely, that to cul- 
 
 CURTIS 
 
 197 
 
 ' meroial. T.»7 ; telegraphic ::s : preparatory, 66 ; 
 collegiate, 85 ; law . 70; theological, 28. The. 
 university library contains about 7,000 volumes. 
 The presidents have been as follows: P. I!. Cos- 
 -itt. I>. I>.. L842— t ; .1. C Anderson. I >. It.. 
 L844— 1866; II. W. McDonald, D. D„ I, I.. I)., 
 1867 — 1872; Nathan Green, A. M.. I.. 1!. 
 (chancellor), the present incumbenl 
 in ls7'_'. 
 
 CURIOSITY, or the desire to foimr, is a 
 very important element of the mind, in its n la 
 
 tion to education. The basis of the success of 
 
 the teacher is the attention of tin' pupil; and 
 
 tivate 
 
 them, 
 study. 
 
 cise of 
 rliscove 
 
 be trail 
 
 paramount to all, and to which every 
 cies of culture is subservient ; and j 
 can learn to walk only by walking, to 
 by thinking, and to live nobly only 
 
 ing a genumi 
 
 that is. by st i 
 of which hi' 
 norant. Thi 
 
 ira ; d. 'I I ' h i jo I by I ocke 
 
 T/ioi jM o?i Edi i m \- children," he 
 s. "should nevei be heard when theyspeakfor 
 f particular thing they would have, unless it, 
 it be proposed to them', so they should always 
 heard, and fairly and kindly answered, when 
 \ a I, about anything they would know and 
 tire to be informed about, i 'uriosity should 
 as carefully cherished in children, as other 
 
 Father 
 
 verse. 
 
 develop 
 
 beneficence. !,.,... | „, ||„. Mlnple-t pri 1.C1 p|. ■„ 
 
 of moral and religious truth. [See Bdui ition | 
 CUMBERLAND UNIVERSITY, at Leb- 
 anon, Tenn. was founded by the Cumberland 
 Presbyterian church in 1842. The value of its 
 buildings and grounds is $20,000. The institution 
 comprises a business college and telegraph insti- 
 tute (at Nashville ; a preparatory school ; a col- 
 legiate department, with a classical course of 
 four years, leading to the degree of Bachelor of 
 Arts, and a scientific course of three years, lead- 
 ing to the degree of Bachelor of Science; a 
 school of civil engineering with a twi i years' course. 
 
 leading to the degree of Civil Kngii r: a law 
 
 school : and a theological school. The d. -gives of 
 Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy are 
 conferred upon graduates who pursue prescribed 
 postgraduate courses of study. A plan has been 
 adopted, by which non-resident students, through 
 a system of correspondence and examinations, 
 may receive the benefits of the college courses. 
 In IsT-t ■—.">. then- were 13 instructors and 391 
 students (deducting repetitions) ; namely, com- 
 
 CURRICULUM. See Course op Lnstruc- 
 
 CURTIS, Joseph, a distinguished friend of 
 education in the city of New York, was born in 
 Newtown, (t., in 1782, and died in Ni -u 
 York. April 12., 1856. He became a resident 
 of that city at the age of Hi, and early mani- 
 fested a disposition for active beneficence. He 
 served for several yearsasthe secretary of the 
 Society for the Prevention of Pauperism, and 
 was active in all the public charities of the day. 
 As a member of the Manumission Society, he 
 ardently cooperated with Peter A. Jay, Cadwal- 
 lader (olden. Isaac M. Ely, and others in secur- 
 ing the State act of manumission, which was 
 passed in 1817; and he was afterward one of 
 the leading spirits in establishing the New York 
 House of Refuge, of which he took charge for 
 about a year, thus initiating the then novel en- 
 terprise of attempting to reform juvenile delin- 
 quents (1825). Previous to this, in 1820, he 
 
198 CURTIUS 
 
 was instrumental in opening, at Flatbush, I,. I., 
 the first Sunday-school for free Macks. Mr. 
 ( 'uvtis was also one of the founders of the Pub- 
 lic School Society of the city of New York, of 
 
 which h ntinu'eil to be an active and devoted 
 
 member until its dissolution in 1853, when he 
 was chosen one of the fifteen members of that 
 society who. toy a time, were to represent it in 
 the Board of Education, lie had been a diligent 
 and sagacious business man, and always eminently 
 practical; bu1 he suffered great losses through the 
 effects of the war of 1812—15. Fev. lives have 
 been marked so deeply and constantly with deeds 
 of genuine philanthropy and self-sacrificing 
 benevolence, as was that of Joseph Curtis, not 
 only in his public life but in the inner circle of 
 domestic privacy. — See W. 0. Boi EKE, History 
 of the Public School Society (N. Y., 1870); 
 15. K. Pkibcb, A Half Century with Juvenile 
 Delinquents (N. Y.. 1869); Barnard's Journal 
 of Education, vol. i.\ CM. Sedgwick, Memoir 
 of Joseph Curtis, a Model Man (N. Y., 1858). 
 
 CURTIUS, George, a German philologist 
 and author of school books, was born at Liibeck, 
 in 1820, and studied philology at the universities 
 of Berlin and Bonn. In 1-1'J. he was appointed 
 teacher at Blochmann's Institute (see Bi.och- 
 makn) at Dresden; in 1845, he became lecturer 
 at the university of Berlin ; in 1840, extraordi- 
 
 DAKOTA 
 
 nary, and in 1851, ordinary professor at the uni- 
 versity of Prague ; in 1 K54, professor in Kiel: and 
 in 1862, professor in U'ipsic, where he also be- 
 came one of the directors of the philological 
 seminary. Curtius endeavored to u-e the result.- 
 
 . it i i para tive linguistics to a larger extent than 
 
 had previously been clone in the study of Latin 
 and ( ireek. and was the first who wrote a gram- 
 mas of the Greek language for schools from this 
 stand-point. This work [Griechische Schulgram- 
 matik, Prague. 1852; 1 lth edit.. 1875),' is re- 
 garded as one of the best text-books in the prov- 
 ince of the classical languages, and has not only 
 been extensively introduced into the German 
 gymnasiums, but has been translated into mam 
 foreign languages. The principles which are 
 carried out in this book, are elucidated in a spe- 
 cial work, called Erltiiii. i-miif a :" meiner grie- 
 chischen Schidgrammatii 2d ed., Prague, 1870), 
 and in many essays of his Slmlirn :ur bileini- 
 schen und griechischen GrammaUk (8 vols., 
 Leips., L868— 75). In another work. Grundzuge 
 der griechischen Elymologie (2 vols., 4th ed.. 
 Leips., 1873), he undertook to find a strictly 
 scientific basis for (ireek lexicography. He also 
 wrote Zur Chronologie der indogermanischen 
 Si„;ifhft>rsrl,n,i<i filed . Leips.. 1*73), and Dux 
 Verbum der griechischen Sprache (1st vol., 
 Leips., 1873). 
 
 DACIER, Andre, a noted French scholar, 
 born at Castres in 1651, died in Paris, in 1722. 
 He published translations of several classic 
 authors, among them. Plutarch's Lives, Aris- 
 totle's Poetics, the CEdipus and Electro of 
 Sophocles, the works of Horace, and some of 
 Plato's dialogues. He was one of the 39 schol- 
 ars selected to edit the celebrated series of the 
 classics in iixiim delphini, prepared by order of 
 Louis XIV., for the instruction of the dauphin. 
 To this series he contributed an edition of Pom- 
 ponius Festus and of Valerius Flaccus. lie was 
 appointed keeper of the library of the Louvre; 
 and, in L713, became perpetual secretary of the 
 French Academy. 
 
 DACIER, Anne, wife of Andre Dacier.and 
 illustrious for her extraordinary attainments in 
 classical i especially (ireek) scholarship, was born 
 in 1654, and died in 17JH. Her father was the 
 eminent scholar Tannegtiy-L'tevre. by whom she 
 w.as educated. Her marriage, in 1683, to Andre 
 
 Dacier, who had been her fellow-pupil under her 
 father's instruction, was humorously styled the 
 " marriage of Greek and Latin." She.withher 
 husband, assisted in prepai ing classics for the u-e 
 
 acuteneSS of mind, she is generally thought to 
 have excelled her learned husband. 
 
 DACTYLOLOGY (Gi 
 
 a method of communicant 
 signs made with the fhig< t 
 called the manual or fingi 
 ployed by the deaf and di 
 alphabets of this kind : 1 
 
 phabet, the origin of whicl 
 (q. v.), and which is used e 
 Great Br 
 
 (2) the * 
 invented 
 
 these 
 
 if, a finger), 
 by means of 
 sing what is 
 )et. and em- 
 hcre arc two 
 lgle-band al- 
 lele to Bonet 
 lie except in 
 gaining ground there ; and 
 tabet. which was originally 
 o (i j. v.). The former of 
 'fought to a high degree of 
 perfection by the abbe de l'Epee and the abbe 
 Sicard (q. v.). (See Deaf-Mutes, and Peet, 
 Harvey P.) 
 
 DAKOTA was organized as a territory 
 March 2., 1861, being formed from the terri- 
 tories of Minnesota and Nebraska. In 1868, a 
 portion of the extensive territory of Dakota was 
 taken to form the territory of Wyoming. All 
 this region originally formed a part of Louisiana. 
 purchased from France in 1803. According to 
 the census of 1870, the area of Dakota comprises 
 150,932 square miles; and its population, at 
 that time, was 14,181. The first permanent 
 white settlements were mad.' in 1 859, in what 
 are now the counties of Yankton. Clay, and 
 Union; but there was but little immigration 
 into the territory until 1866. 
 
 Educational History.— The first legislature 
 met in March. 1862 : but no school law was en- 
 acted until IstiT. when an act was passed by the 
 
DAKOTA 
 
 territorial assembly, providing for the appoint- I houses, the supi.lv of furniture or apparatus, the 
 ment of a superintendent ot pul.hr instruction, employment of t.-;«.-li.-rs. ,„■ the direct govern- 
 
 n/Mm+i* <.,,,..,...,.. 1....+ . .11 *..:.* i:, ,..„.. ...,.i , a- ... . . . . ,. ,.- 
 
 .viim.il. u assciiniiy, pro\ null'-, I. .1 
 incut of a superintendent of pul.L . 
 county superintendents, district dirt 
 
 boards of scl I i 
 
 proved Jan. 3., L86€ 
 passed, which direct 
 rial superintendent, 
 to the legislature, t 
 who were t.. repoi 
 November. The im 
 
 Co In p. 
 
 district clerk made the annual enumeration of 
 children; and no district that had not maintained 
 a school three months during the year, was en- 
 titled to any portion of the school 'fund. Politics 
 and sectarianism were excluded from the schools. 
 In L870,a general improvement in the school.,, 
 and an increase in attendance, were remarked J 
 
 the number of children r iving instruction be- 
 ing 1,144, out of a population of 1 1.1-1. and the 
 salaries of teacher., ranging from $25 to $100 per 
 month. .Much trouble, however, was caused l.v 
 the want of uniformity in text-books. In 1-71. 
 the school law was repealed, and a new one en- 
 acted. Inl873,this was amended, the numberof 
 
 approximate estimate, loo, and the number of 
 children of school age being 5,312, of whom 2,006 
 were reported as enrolled in the schools. About 
 $22,000 were raised that year foi school pur- 
 poses. The territorial superintendents have been, 
 • lames S. foster, L869— 71; J. M.Turner 1-71 
 —3; E. W. .Miller. 1873—5; and J. J. Mcln- 
 tyre, elected in Is;;,, and still in office 1-7'. . 
 
 under the present law is the s p r a ni ol 
 
 ptihtir iitn/riirtinii, who is elected biennially. He 
 is permitted to choose a deputy who must reside 
 in that portion of the territory north of the Kith 
 parallel of latitude. His duties are to exercise 
 a general supervision over the schools, and to 
 hold, in connection with the county superin- 
 tendents, annual teachers' institutes, attendance 
 upon which is expected from all teachers ap- 
 plying for certificates. To defray partially tin- 
 expenses of these institutes, the sum of 6100 is 
 appropriated from the treasury. The territorial 
 superintendent, also, grants teachers certificates, 
 fixes the grades of county certificates, prescribes 
 the text-books to be used in the schools, and 
 makes an annual report to the governor. County 
 kills are elected bv the people bien- 
 nially. They divide their counties int.. school- 
 districts, examine teachers, grant certificates valid 
 for 3 months or a year, apportion the school 
 moneys, and report annually to the territorial 
 superintendent. THstrict-school boards com- 
 posed of three officers, a director, a clerk, and a 
 treasurer, arc elected annually. Pern ing their au- 
 thority directly from the people of the district by 
 vote at the annual meetings, their power, within 
 the law, is supreme in everything that relates to 
 the building, purchasing, or renting of school- 
 
 have forwarded to the count} 
 
 annual report, within 40 days 
 lied for holding the annual 1 
 
 a school tor ;t months 
 previous year. Each district may 
 
 rposes, not to exceed one per cent of 
 n. County or town assessors are 
 ax every voter $1 annually for the 
 he schools, to which is added ai; ad 
 
 Eklucational Condition. — The number of or- 
 anized school districts, in 1875, was 296; the 
 umber of schools, 1 7'J The school revenue was 
 s follows : 
 From county tax $13,138.41 
 
 ilistnct 
 ithe 
 
 ::.'.i.vj.'j:; 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 For t.a. hers 1 wages $18,045.88 
 
 '• buildings, repairs, rent, etc. 9,985.01 
 
 " incidentals ami furniture. . . 4,572.26 
 
 Total $32,603.13 
 
 The following are the principal items of school 
 
 s/iilislir.i for lSTTi: 
 
 Number of children ..I sol I age 5 to -1 years) 8,343 
 
 " " .ill'" II.-. I ill the sell. nils' 4,42s 
 
 N'umlier of teachers, belli sexes 20s 
 
 Normal Instruction. — No school has yet been 
 established for the training of teachers, the 
 
 general attendance, on the part of 
 
 if the territory. 
 
 ms made in Dakota for any thing 
 
 U 
 
 territorial superintendent says: -We have no 
 regularly formed school associations, e\ee|ii in 
 some of the older counties, which are beginning 
 to organize county teachers' associations." The 
 only school of a higher grade than elementary, 
 is an academy at Yankton. 
 
jun 
 
 DALGARXO 
 
 DALGARNO, George, an ingenious Brit- 
 ish scholar, teacher, and writer, chiefly noted for 
 his publications on the art of teaching deaf- 
 mutes. He was born at Aberdeen about 1627, 
 and died at Oxford in 1687. He was educated 
 at the university of Aberdeen, and subsequently 
 taught a school at Oxford for about 30 years. 
 Mis two celebrated publications are Ars S,,,„n- 
 rum. ml, in Cb.irrictrr Viii rrrs„/is el Liiiqua 
 Philosophic/! (London, 1661), and Didascah- 
 
 DAME SCHOOLS 
 
 every form of derision, the pupils formed in line, 
 and buzzingly passed a ragged book from hand 
 to hand. The book had an alphabet in it, some 
 figures and tables, and a little spelling; that is 
 to say — it had once." This description gives an 
 idea of the interior of one of these schools, and 
 the following, from Good Words, is intended to 
 represent the exterior: 
 
 bit rarv sign-, and present:', a vl.'v lull and put 
 accurate exposition of the principles of deal 
 mute instruction : the latter work was designee 
 "to Ining the way of teaching a deaf man t 
 read and write, as near as possible to that c 
 teaching young ones to speak and understan 
 their mother-tongue." Ualganio also invented 
 two-hand alphabet, from which the one suba 
 quently adopted in England appears to bav 
 
 (1834).- 
 
 ',,, (July, 
 1 1,, vol. IX.. 
 
 DAME SCHOOLS, 
 
 abounded, every village and hamlet having i 
 dame school. Shenstone in the Sckool-mistret 
 gives a probably correct, although satirical d 
 script ion of such a school and of the dame tin 
 
 For unkempt hair, or task un.-onned, are sorely shent." 
 Although, owing to the present ample provi- 
 sion, in England, for better instruction through 
 the national schools, the need of dame schools no 
 longer exists, yet they still linger in large num- 
 bers, and obstruct the proper working of the 
 Education Act. In the School Board Chronicle 
 of Feb. 6., 1875, there is the following suggestive 
 complaint: « It is within the power ol a f ew il- 
 literate old people to set the elementary educa- 
 tion act at nought. by giving the nai if m-huiilx 
 
 to the miserable places in which it is their mis- 
 fortune to dwell, and professing to impart in- 
 struction to children whose parents are desirous 
 
 of which the toll,, wing i- a specimen : " The pu- 
 pils ate apple-, and put straws down one an- 
 other's hack- until Mr. Wopsle's great-aunt [the 
 school-mistress, or dame] collected her energies. 
 and made an indiscriminate totter at them with 
 a birch rod. After receiving the charge with 
 
 off" to the old ! 
 
 The existence of da 
 recently been much i 
 parents can comply \s 
 ance law, or evade its 
 
 at of mischief, 
 ly's." 
 
 in England has 
 of. inasmuch as 
 npulsory attend- 
 by sending their 
 
 penal legists 
 
 '"i',, the I 
 schools are 
 but the lav 
 larlv eeititi 
 beautiful li 
 
 :lt to control without more stringent 
 lion than public opinion in England 
 
 nite.l Slate.-, the country district 
 generally taught by young women ; 
 
 requires thai they should be regu- 
 ated teachers. To one such the 
 ies of Longfellow probably refer, 
 
 w-ith interest, be contrasted with 
 quaint description of the school 
 time. 
 
 •■ sin- dwell- l>\ an al Kanhawa's si 
 In valleys grc-.-n and cool. 
 
 And all her hope- and all her pride 
 Are in her village school. 
 
 And thus she walks amid her girls, 
 With praise- and mild r.-lmkes; 
 
 Subduing i-.-n rude- village churls. 
 By her angelic looks." 
 
 Some of the private or " select" schools of the 
 cities answer, to a certain extent, to the English 
 dame schools, but are of much higher grade of 
 efficiency. There is no doubt that, as education 
 bec-c -s more diffused among all classes of so- 
 ciety in England, the possibility of " illiterate old 
 people" keeping a school with the chance of ob- 
 taining any patronage whatever, will become en- 
 tirely a thing of the past. 
 
DANCING, .iml Dancing Schools. Han- danced every Sunday and festive day. Every 
 ng. as a means of expressing by movements church festival had its own peculiar dances; and, 
 id gestures of the body the emotions of the i on the vigils, the most zealous and virtuous 
 
 the solei 
 
 formers 
 
 ed, for the s 
 Sacred danci 
 anniversaries 
 
 tally being a 
 
 v are worship. 
 
 in the In proportion as dancing became disconnected 
 King from the church ami religion, ii assumed greater 
 
 as an appropriate close of the joyous occasion of 
 the feast of the Tabernacles. The members of 
 the Sanhedrim, the rulers of the synagogues, 
 doctors of schools, and all who were eminent for 
 rank or piety, accompanied the sacred music 
 with their voices, and leaped and danced with 
 torches in their hands foragreat part of the 
 night, while the women and common peopli 
 looked on. The Jewish ilanee was performed by 
 the sexes separately. There is no evidence that 
 the diversion was promiscuously enjoyed, except 
 perhaps at the erection of a deified calf when, 
 in imitation of the Egyptian festival if kpis all 
 classesof the I lebrews intermingled in the frantic 
 revelry. Among the Egyptians, dam ing formed 
 a part of the religious ceremonies, and was also 
 common in private entertainments, Lu Greece, 
 the gods themselves were represented as pas- 
 sionately fond of the diversion; and in the 
 Roman empire, it wasa favorite pastime, resorte 1 
 to, not only to enliven feasts, but in the celebra- 
 tion of domestic joy. It was. however, con- 
 sidered beneath the dignity of persons of rank 
 and character to practice it. Cinder the patron- 
 age of the Roman emperors, the art was earned 
 to the utmost perfection; the favorite mode be- 
 ing that of pantomime, which, like that of the 
 modern almehs,OT Arab dancing women,was often 
 of the most licentious description. In the early 
 Christian elmreh, the dance was introduced on 
 the festival days of martyrs and other saints, as 
 well as on occasions of great ecclesiastical solem- 
 nities. Subsequently, dai s connected with 
 
 masquerades became a universal habit in the 
 Roman Catholic world at Shrove-tide, on the 
 day of St. Vitus (hence the name of St. Vitus 's 
 
 danee). and on that of Corpus Chri 
 " .lumping Procession " at Echterna 
 
 grand-duchy of Luxemburg, which wai 
 
 by large crowds of devout people. In all the 
 Christian churches of Germany, there was, in 
 early times, an elevated portion which was sepa- 
 rated from the other parts of the churches and 
 called chor (from the Ureek \ .i ( »»;, dame or dan- 
 cing place, English, choir). Upon this, the priests 
 
 came to be looked upi 
 of social enjoyment; ai 
 as the ballet, were in 
 Every eountrv. and al 
 
 ■liar 
 
 thus bee. 
 
 SS. Re- 
 
 aeeord- 
 
 litle 
 
 acquaintance with each 
 H hen properly restrict 
 prolific source of moral 
 ligious writers of all di 
 ingly Med with each 
 persons against the dam 
 
 taken by different churches in regard 
 in general. Many of the Proti -u 
 absolutely prohibit then member- tn 
 while the Human Catholic Church 1 
 strict in its denunciations, raising 
 voice more against the abuses than 
 practice itself. 
 
 The prevalence of dancing as a social amuse- 
 ment ami the esteem in which it is held asa part 
 
 the 
 
 •tv. 
 
 structed in dancing. Noprovision has anywhere 
 
 been made for it in any public-schoo] system; 
 
 but, in private schools and boarding-scl Is, it 
 
 is quite common to find that the pro 
 
 eludes dancing among the f.rlnis in which in- 
 struction may be received. This is less frequently 
 
JII'J 
 
 DAXA 
 
 the case in Protestant than in Catholic semi- 
 naries, and in American than in European 
 schools. The large majority of pupils, however, 
 who are instructed in dancing, receive their in- 
 struction in special dancing schools or academies, 
 the number of which is immense. It is a matter 
 of course that, as a general rule, this latter class 
 of schools cannot offer so good a supervision of 
 its pupils as the former. Sec Czerwinski, Ge- 
 schichie der Tamkunst (Leipsic, 1862). 
 
 DANA, James Dwight, an eminent Amer- 
 ican scientist, teacher, and author, born at Utica. 
 X. Y., in 1813. He was educated at Yale Col- 
 lege, where he afterward served as an assistant 
 to Professor Silliman, and subsequently (1855) 
 succeeded him as professor of chemist ry. lie 
 published several works of importance in the de- 
 partments of natural history, geology, and min- 
 eralogy. His school text-books have been ex- 
 tensively used ; among which may be particular- 
 ly mentioned Ins System of Mineralogy, 5th ed. 
 (1858),and Manual of Geology (1863). Since 
 
 1846, lie lias been one of the editors of the 
 
 Arm rican Journal of Science and jirfs, founded 
 in 1819, by the elder Silliman. 
 
 DARTMOUTH COLLEGE, at Hanover, 
 
 New Hampshire, was chartered in ITCH. The 
 first class graduated in 1771. It originated in a 
 school for Indian youth established at Lebanon. 
 ( 'oi .iicut, by the Ilev. Dr. Wheelock, the first 
 
 chcini 
 
 librar 
 by tt: 
 menta 
 about 
 demii 
 paxtn 
 
 ,e usually been Ortb 
 'he buildings front 
 mil plain near the ( ' 
 ion has extensive pli 
 i astronomical and n 
 ith a telescope, mad. 
 
 ■al laboratory i and a gymnasium. I he 
 escontain 53,900 volumes! It issupported 
 ition tees and the income of its endow- 
 , which, in all the departments, amount to 
 
 d.partm'nt. tin : I.Vndhi s: K-Vititi: h 
 
 cut. the New Hampshire coUege of Agri- 
 e and the Mechanic Arts, the Thavei 
 
 DARTMOUTH COLLEGE 
 
 particular studies. The course in the academic 
 department is one of four years, and leads to the 
 degree of Bachelor of Arts. The cost of tuition 
 is $90 a year. Aid is afforded to indigent stu- 
 dents ehietly in the form of scholarships, usually 
 yielding $70 per annum, but in Borne cases Sinn 
 Of the';, there arc (1876) more than L20. The 
 Cliandler Scientific Department was established 
 by a resolution of the trustees, in I852,in accep- 
 tance of thesuniof Srill.nnn. bequeathed to them 
 in trust by Abie) Chandler for the establishment 
 andsupportof a permanent department or school 
 of instruction in the practical and useful arts of 
 life, comprised ehietly in the branchesof mechan- 
 ics and civil engineering, architecture and draw- 
 ing, the modern languages and English literature, 
 together with book-keeping, &c. The course is 
 of four years, ami leads to the degree of Bache- 
 lorof Science. In the hist year, there are two 
 courses, — the general course and the civil en- 
 gineering course. The cost of tuition is $60 a 
 year. At the session of the legislature of Xew 
 'Hampshire in lHlill, an act was passed establish- 
 ing t£e 2Veui Hampshire CoUege of Agriculture 
 ,,,7,/ the Mechanic Arts, on the basis of the con- 
 gressional land grant, and authorizing its location 
 at Hanover, and its connection with Dartmouth 
 College. 
 
 The course of instruction embraces three 
 years. 1 luring the first year, all the students 
 pursue the same studies. At the beginning of 
 the second year, they are required to select either 
 the special course of agriculture or the course of 
 mechanic arts. The degn 1 Bachelor of Sci- 
 ence is conferred upon those who have completed 
 the entire course of agriculture or mechanic arts 
 and have passed the final examination. The cost 
 of tuition is $30 a year. There are twelve free 
 scholarships, covering the charge for tuition. 
 ,„,,. |,„. each -.eii.it, .li.il di-trirt. e-tablished in 
 
 connection with the congress algrant Several 
 
 scholarships have also been established by the 
 lion. John ( lonant, one for each town in ( Iheshire 
 County. There arc' other scholarships available to 
 worthy applicants from any part of the state. 
 There is an experimental farm of 165 acres in 
 the immediate vicinity of the college buildings, 
 which furnishes opportunity to the students for 
 remunerative labor. The college has also re- 
 centK purchased 200 acres of woodland adjoin- 
 
 estab'lisl'i a law department. ' While the college 
 adheres, m general, to the idea of n settled and 
 well-balanced curriculum, it admits, to a certain 
 extent, the elective principle. (1) There is a 
 choice, as students enter, between the three un- 
 der-graduate departments, — academic, scien- 
 tific, and agricultural. (2) In each of these 
 departments, a partial course may be taken, em- 
 bracing two, at least, of the prescribed studies, 
 and securing an appropriate testimonial (3) In 
 the scientific department, there is a choice in the 
 last year, and in the agricultural department in 
 the last two years, between different courses. 
 4) There arc, also, a number of options between 
 
 vi mi, I h net- lor i lie c.-tablii-liineiit of a special 
 coursed instru tion in civil engineering. It is 
 essentially, though not formally, post-graduate. 
 The course of study is of two years. The degree 
 of Civil Engineer is conferred on those whose pro- 
 ticiencv is such as to secure a recommendation 
 from the board of overseers. The cost of tuition 
 i- Sun ;i vear. The medical department was 
 
 founded in I797,and was formerly known as the 
 New Hampshire Medical College. It has mu- 
 seums of anatomy, materia medica, and pathol- 
 ogy The degree of Doctor of Medicine is con- 
 ferred after examination. livery candidate must 
 
i»avii»so\ (\h,lki;k 
 
 be twenty-one years of age, have attended two 
 full courses of lectures at some regularly author- 
 
 I'KAK \ICTKS 
 
 ing to take a regular course, but to acquire a 
 
 in. i !■■■! ■.■ ill' | iai t icul.ii- branches are pel-milled 
 
 ,1 Ml 
 
 tion of some regular ])ractitiuiier, the time spew 
 at lectures being included. There is a lectin* 
 term as well as a recitation term. The fee fot 
 lectures is §77, and for recitations $40. Thi 
 
 statistics for 1875- 
 
 Departments. 
 
 A.-iiile ■ 17 284 
 
 Scientific 17 7ti 
 
 Agricultural 14 29 
 
 Engineering 3 G 
 
 Medical 9 84 
 
 Total (ili'.luctiim repetitions) H'i 47U 
 
 According to the triennial catalogue of ls7.'i, 
 the whole numberof afomrei was 3,907.ofwhom 
 2,077 were living. The following is the list of 
 presidents: Eleazar Wheelock, It. !>.. 17ii!» — 7'J: 
 John Wheelock. LL.D., 1771I-1 si. 7: Francis 
 Brown, D.D., 1815—20; Daniel Dana, D.D., 
 1820—21; Bennet Tyler. D. D., 1822—28; Na- 
 than Lord, ll.lt.. Li. !».. L828— 63 ; and Asa 
 I). Smith. 1). 1)., LL. It., the present incumbent, 
 
 In 1816, the state legislature vested the prop- 
 
 pairing the obligation of eoutraets. 
 
 DAVIDSON COLLEGE is situated in 
 Mecklenburg Co., N. C, on the line of the 
 Atlantic. Tennessee, and Ohio Railroad, twenty- 
 three miles north of Charlotte. The name 
 of the post-office is Davidson College. It was 
 chartered in 1838, and is under the control 
 of the Presbyterians. Its buildings contain spa- 
 cious chapels, society-halls, and lecture-rooms, to- 
 gether with pleasant dormitories sufficient lor a 
 
 ihI 
 
 The Ml 
 
 and 351 alumni. The presidents have been 
 as follows: the Rev. II. II. Morrison, D. D., 
 I years; the Key. Sand. Williamson. D. I >.. 13 
 years; the Rev. Drury Lacy, D. D., 6 
 Rev. J. L. Kirkpatriek. D. D., 6 years; the Rev. 
 G. W. McPhail, D. D., 1. 1.. D., 5 years. There 
 is now i 1 876) no president. Prof, .lohn R. Blake. 
 M. A., having been chairman of the faculty 
 since ls71. 
 
 DAVIES, Charles, a noted American 
 mathematician and teacher, bom at Washing- 
 ton, Ct.. in 171-s ; died at Fishkill, \. V., in 
 1876. He graduated, in L815, at the West Point 
 Academy, and subsequently tilled, in the same. 
 
 itly 
 
 the Cuiversity of the city of New York, and 
 
 Columbia College, of the latter of which he 
 s made emeritus professor. Prof. Davies is 
 etly known by his scries of school and 
 lege text-books in the various departments 
 mathematical study, which have had a 
 le circulation. He has also published, 
 ,gic of Mathematics, and. in connection 
 th Prof. G. W. Peck, a Mathematical Bio- 
 nary ini,l Cyclopaedia of Mathematical Sti- 
 ve (N. Y.. 1855). 
 DAY, Jeremiah, a noted American edu- 
 
 legefrom 1817 to 1846 ,H| wa 
 Preston, Ct., Aug. 3., Hi.i and 
 Haven Aug. 22., 1867. His eh 
 
 were A,/ liilniihirtnni In Alifln 
 
 constantly lee IVIIl..' aee, 
 
 college and of the adjacent village is remarkably 
 healthy, being free from malaria and other local 
 causes oi sickness. The value of its grounds. 
 
 I mil. linu's. and apparatus h SI..0.1 ; theamounl 
 
 of its productive fund-. 885,1 ; oi scholarship 
 
 funds. $10,000. The collegi y .1 li 1 led into 
 two terms, and the cost ol tuition 1- S 10 for the 
 first 1 en 11. and $40 for the second. Candidates for 
 the ministry are not required to pay for tuition 
 while under the care of some Presbytery. The 
 college has a. classical course of four years, lead- 
 ing to the degree of Bachelor of Arts, and a 
 scientific course of three years, leading to the de- 
 cree of Bachelor of Science. Students not wish- 
 
 DEAF-MUTES, or Deaf and Dumb, 
 
 ass of persons, scattered tlironghoni 
 
 decennial enumerations of the United States and 
 Great Britain, and the censuses of most of the 
 countries of continental Europe, have supplied 
 
L'04 
 
 DEAF-MUTES 
 
 statistical information as to the number of deaf- j 
 mutes. The proportion to the population is 
 quite diverse, varying in Europe from 1 in 1,0(10 | 
 to 1 in 2,000. In the United States, theaverage 
 proportion is 1 in 2380; while in England it is 
 about 1 in 2,000. Hence, it is obvious that the 
 actual number of the deaf and dumb is quite 
 large. According to the census of L870, tin' total 
 number in the" United States was Hi.205, of 
 whom 8,916 were males; and 7,289, females. The 
 number between the ages of 5 and 'Jo was re- 
 ported as 7,648. In many ruses, they are deaf 
 from birth; in others, the loss of hearing is 
 caused by accident or disease at an early age, or 
 in some eases, later in life; but deafness is 
 almost always followed by a loss of speech, from 
 disuse of the organs and a want of ability to 
 modulate the voice. In the first few months of 
 life, little difference can be perceived between the 
 child who has its hearing perfect, and the one 
 horn deaf. The effect of sound is not often 
 thought of by the parents and friends, in some 
 instances, till the child is two years oi age : and. 
 even when deafness is suspected, the means em- 
 ployed to asei'i-tain llie taet are often such as to 
 confound the nervous condition of the whole body 
 with that of the portion wilcly connected with 
 the ear. In former times, the little one was con- 
 sidered as a doomed being, and sorrow took the 
 place of joy in the breast of the parents. Among 
 some nations, deaf persons were regarded as be- 
 ing under the curse of Heaven. Among some 
 Karliaioii- nation- they were called monsters, and 
 
 nous passion, in the absence of a control of judg- 
 ment : by fretful impatience at the dim percep- 
 tion of unknown or unattainable excellence seen 
 in others: by a total unfitness for nearly all the 
 occupations of their fellow beings ; by an entire 
 exclusion from the vast stores of knowledge dis- 
 played to their view in books ; or by an igno- 
 rance ofthe truths of religion. All these causes 
 operating upon a sensitive nature, may easily un- 
 settle the reason. 
 
 Such was. and is, the sad condition of the un- 
 educated deaf and dumb, and by many it was 
 asserted to be irremediable. St. Augustine de- 
 
 hearing by the word of God." The poet Lucre- 
 tius expressed in the following lines the opinion 
 prevalent in his 1 ime : 
 
 ] .nt to 
 
 as the 
 They \ 
 
 Mill 
 
 thr, 
 
 as deficient m intellect, and. consequently, were 
 abridged of their civil rights: as we find in 
 the code of Justinian. < londillac, at a compara- 
 tively recent period, denied them the faculty of 
 memory and the power of reasoning. Many 
 parents, even at the present time, consider them- 
 selves disgraced by having a deaf and dumb 
 child, and studiously conceal the fact from the 
 
 evi 
 
 capacity aim enuownient : nut. n we reucia uiu, 
 a moment, we shall find that the result of being 
 deaf and dumb, is to be ignorant, not to be weak, 
 — ignorant of science, ignorant of history, of 
 morality, and, above all, ignorant of religion, 
 and thus virtually "without God in the world." 
 The limited circle of purely intellectual ideas 
 which these unfortunates possess, is a natural 
 consequence of their limited intercourse with 
 those around them. They are shut out from 
 communion with the world in things which in- 
 terest others, from a knowledge' of literature and 
 history, and, in many eases, from all means of 
 amusement. In some cases, it has happened 
 that they have become idiots, consequent upon 
 the non-employment of the natural powers of 
 the mind. In other case-, they have bee,, me de- 
 ranged by the indulgence of headstrong, impct- 
 
 these unfortui 
 philanthropy 
 by the ancient 
 edged to possi 
 with other p. 
 the sense oi 1 
 they are founi 
 fleet ion ol mi 
 well i 
 
 us Pedius, 
 
 upon 
 
 :■ - .,!■ !i "I. .-.nation, anil 
 tin ne.l the opinions held 
 mutes are now acknowl- 
 •tnal faculties in common 
 ml. although deprived of 
 nl the fatadty of speech, 
 pahle of attention, of iv- 
 iuiagination. and of judg- 
 • ability to communicate 
 thoughts, their desires, and their wants, to 
 their more favored fellows. 
 
 According to the Venerable Bede, St. John of 
 
 licvcrlcv. bishop of lla-ul-ta.lt. taught a dumb 
 
 man to speak. Bede also described a manual 
 alphabet in his Be Loquela per Gestum Digi- 
 
 its plates showing the finger alphabet are prob- 
 ably the earliest illustrations of dactylology in 
 existence. Efforts were made in the early part of 
 the 1 6th century, to impart instruction to the deaf 
 
 Spain, about 1550. who taught two or three to 
 read, write, and articulate. Later, Juan Pablo 
 
 lionet, also in Spain, taught a few. and published, 
 in 1620. a treatise on the subject, with a manual 
 alphabet, the same which is now used in Europe 
 and America. (See Bonet.) Some learned men 
 in Italy also taught single persons; as Cardan. 
 
 dumb in England. In 1667, Van llelmont. a 
 native of Holland, published a tract, entitled 
 Alpliabetwm Naturae, in which he explained the 
 
DEAE-Ml'TES 
 
 process of reading from the lips. The two-hand 
 
 ;i]|iIi;iIm I . now used ill England, was iiiM-nlcil 
 
 by Dalgarno, in L680. (See Dalgarno.) In 
 
 1749, Rod] 
 before the 
 could read 
 method se 
 L754, Sa 
 cessfulrj : 
 Leipsicwl 
 by an\ civ 
 and itssuc 
 adoptiono 
 
 llir pupils 
 
 Paris, who 
 iir kepi his 
 
 the abbe Sicard, one of whose pupils, Lauren! 
 
 • 'Iriv, aivoiii|ianii'd Rev. 'I'lioinas 1 1. ( iallaudel I" 
 
 ih- I imi.-.I Si.in-,. and aided him in establishing 
 the Lmerican \ j lurn a1 I lartford i 'i. undei 
 the patronage oi the N'evt England states; 
 
 and from that, iii-titulioiis Inn, ,,, mo up in 
 
 walk.- of life. In ( 
 name Le Clerc, .1- 1 
 as an editor ; ( '•. W. 
 teachers and writers; 
 .Mann,.). R. Burnet, 
 J. Carlin, as an ar 
 
 1 
 Loring and W. Whiton, as 
 J. \.«L as a poet ; E. -I . 
 Hid A. Newsam,a£ svriter 
 isl : Alio Cogswell as .1 
 
 years, becami the Royal Institution of E ranee. I of all the institutions in the 1'niteil 
 I le used the natural Language of signs as the in- teaching ol deaf-mutes, according 
 strument of instruction. He was succeeded by \ of the 1 .'. S. Commissioner of Edu« 
 
 Institutions for the Deaf and Dumb in the United States. 
 
 Maryland Institution. 
 Arkansas lii-titiiti.in. 
 Xrbra-ka In-tilutinii 
 
 Oregon Institution 
 
 Inst, for Colored Blind & Deaf-Mates. 
 
 School of Articulation 
 
 Colorado Institute 
 
 Bartford.Ct. - 
 
 New York City 
 Philadelphia, " 
 Panvillo.Kv. 
 ( lolumbus, 
 Jacksonville, 
 Staunton, Va 
 Inili; 
 
 Pa.. 
 
 tnd 
 
 II! 
 
 Knew lilc. 'IV 
 
 Raleigh, N. C. . 
 
 Cave Spring, Ga 
 
 Cedar Springs, s. C, 
 
 Fnlt Mi 
 
 Flint. Midi 
 
 Delavan, Wise 
 
 Buflalo, X. V 
 
 Baton Rouge, La 
 
 < 'oiinril HluH's. l.iwa. 
 .lark-on, Mi-- 
 
 Austin, Tex 
 
 vVushimiton, D. C 
 
 Tallaileiru, Ala 
 
 Oakland, Cal 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 Fairbanlt, Minn 
 
 W a-luneton, 1>. C 
 
 Olatke. Kan 
 
 New York City 
 
 Northampton, Ma--. 
 
 Frederick, Mil 
 
 kittle Rock, Ark 
 
 Omaha, Neb 
 
 Pittsburgh, Pa 
 
 I'.M-toii, Mass 
 
 Mystic River, Ct. 
 
 Fordham, X. V 
 
 Romney, \V. Va 
 
 Salem, Oreg 
 
 Baltimore, Mil.. 
 
 Aurora, N. Y. 
 
 Colorado Springs, Col. 
 
 1867 Private .. 
 
 1867State 
 
 1-.;- Directors 
 
 Trusters . 
 Private . . 
 State 
 
 14,500 40,000 
 
 :i:s,ooo 150,000 
 
 104 
 
 7 
 
 26,000 
 
 8( 
 
 
 
 10,500 
 
 »'. 
 
 s 
 
 
 
 
 
 104 
 
 1 
 
 30,000 
 
 st 
 
 4 
 
 :;::, 
 
 :;.» 
 
 :. 
 
 10,0011 
 
 4/ 
 
 2 
 
 2,000 
 
 fi 
 
 fi 
 
 6,000 
 
 1? 
 
 2 
 
 525 
 
 4i; 
 
 fi 
 
 
 52 
 
 4 
 
 25,000 
 
 :n 
 
 7 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 10,000 
 
 1 
 
 ■< 
 
 
 12 
 
 2 
 
 5,000 
 
 17... Olio 
 
 18,000 
 
 ■15,000 
 
 20.1 
 
 17,000 
 7,000 
 
 $175 per pupil from the New England States. 
 
206 
 
 DKAF-Mr'I'KS 
 
 inciples on which 
 
 itutions are con- 
 ed by De L'Epee, 
 assary in order to 
 
 iguageandanad- 
 
 The first institution for the education of deaf- 
 mutes in the United States was opened, as stated 
 before, in Hartford. Ct.. April 15., 1817, under 
 the auspices of the Rev. Th. H. Gallaudet. (See 
 Gallaudet.) Associated with him was Laurent 
 Clerc.one of the most talented of Sieard's pupils, 
 who had accompanied Mr. Gallaudet on his 
 return to the United States after a visit to 
 Europe, which he had made to acquire a knowl- 
 edge of the methods of deaf mute instruction. 
 At first, the Connecticut institution had only 
 7 pupils, but accessions during the year made 
 the number 33. Congress, soon afterward, do- 
 nated to „ a township of wild land the proceeds 
 of which now form a fund of 8339,000. This 
 
 gift led to its assuming the nai t American 
 
 Asylum. The New York Asylum * as opened 
 in "1818. The fundamental 
 nearly all the American in 
 ducted, are those first introd 
 modified as shown to be ni 
 facilitate the acquirement of 
 vancement in knowledge I 
 250 schools for deaf-mutes in the world. In 1850, 
 there were '2 27 in Kurope. and 23 in America. 
 The greater number in Europe teach articulation 
 alone; while, in America, more dependence is 
 placed upon acquiring the ability to use written 
 language. The first regular school for deaf-mutes 
 in Great Britain was that established near Edin- 
 burgh by Thomas Braid's 1 and from this 
 
 have descended the present public institutions 
 for deaf-mute instruction in Great Britain. (See 
 Bbaidwood, and Pbbt, 1 1. P.) 
 
 Systems of Instruction. -Two methods or 
 systems of teaching are in use (with some modi- 
 fications) in nearly all the institutions in the 
 world. One is that of articulation and Up- 
 reading (sometimes called the German method, 
 because used in most of the German schools), 
 the other that of writing, or the sign lan- 
 guage. Both have their special advocates; and 
 each it is claimed, possesses superior facilities for 
 educating the deaf and dumb. In teaching ar- 
 ticulation, the pupil is placed before the teacher, 
 who begins with the vowels, and requires the 
 pupil to watch the motions he makes with his 
 mouth, lips, and throat: he places the pupil's 
 hand upon his own throat, so as to feci the dif- 
 ferent movements, and then imitate them him- 
 self. When he luus succeeded in some degree. 
 the consonants are introduced and practiced for 
 a longer or shorter time, according to the ability 
 or aptitude of the pupil. Simple words are then 
 introduced, and their meaning illustrated by 
 pointing out the object, action, etc.; and as prog- 
 ress is made in this, qualities and actions are 
 introduced. This course must be continued, and 
 the lessons repeated, till the pupil can read the 
 lips of tin' teacher, and communicate his own 
 thoughts, in questions and answers. Reading 
 must then be taught ; and the knowledge of lan- 
 guage already acquired aids the pupil in under- 
 standing what he reads. It will be apparent 
 that this is a work requiring much time and 
 patience on the part of the teacher as well as of 
 
 DEBATING 
 
 the pupil, merely to acquire the meaning of the 
 words and their proper pronunciation. Most of 
 the Institutions in the United States give more 
 or less instruction in articulation, generally in 
 special departments. The Clarke institution, the 
 Boston Day School, the N. T. Institution for 
 Improved instruction, and Whipple's Home 
 School make articulation a specialty. This mode 
 of teaching is especially adapted to the condition 
 of semi^mutes, who still retain some remnant of 
 the ability to use spoken language. Experience 
 has shown that children deprived of the sense 
 of hearing an learn by means of sight and feel- 
 ing, to distinguish the various elements of speech, 
 to read them from the speaker's lips, and to 
 imitate them in articulation. 
 
 'II ther method, writing and sign-making. is 
 
 substantially taught in the following manner: 
 \n object i- show a to the pupil, as for example. 
 a cat and the natural sign made for it, an out- 
 line is then drawn on the slate, and o-a-t is writ- 
 
 the 
 
 The object is removed and the outline rubbed 
 out; the same sign is used for the word alone 
 and the pupil soon associates it with the object 
 Other objects are presented, and the same proc- 
 ess repeated. The color of the cat is then taught: 
 a.s. if black, that is joined to the name. and black 
 cat is learned; then action is represented, as 
 
 black '-,il eats; and then the object follows. black 
 cat eats meat. The phrases are lengthened as 
 the pupil proceeds, and short stories are related 
 by signs, and written down by the pupil, the 
 proper distinctions being made at the time, so 
 that the pupil, in a short nice, is enabled to use 
 language properly. An important feature of 
 this method is. that the pupil begins at once to 
 learn words which convey meaning, without the 
 
 letters of which convey no ideas; and in this 
 manner the mind is quickened, and incited to 
 redoubled activity by the knowledge gained. As 
 this proceeds, the pupil becomes familiar with 
 the printed as well as the written characters, and 
 soon understands short simple phrases; and then 
 only a few months are required to enable the 
 pupil to understand clearly what is related to 
 him. -Sec John Wallis, Letter to Thomas 
 Beverley in the Philosophical Transactions 
 
 t„ 1698); Joseph Wai-son. Instruction of the 
 
 Deaf and Dumb (London. 1809); De I'Epee, 
 La veritable man iere etc. (Paris, I (84), English 
 translation (London, 1801) ; American Annals 
 ! of the Deaf and Dumb: Syle, .1 Summary 
 of the Researches etc of H. P. Peel I Wash.. 
 1873); Reportqfthe Institution forihe Improved 
 Instruction of Deqf-Mutes (N.T.,1874); in the 
 Appendix to which will be found a statement 
 of the method of teaching articulation and lip- 
 reading; Annual Reports of the U. S. Commis- 
 
 x/Vv/.r,/ E<h,v.tti<u, for 1871,-2,-3,-4. 
 
 DEBATING is often employed as an ex- 
 ercise in schools for young men (and sometimes 
 in those for the other sex), in order to afford a. 
 
DECIMAL NOTATION 
 
 means for practice in extemporaneous speaking, 
 and an incentive to the study and investigation 
 of subjects of scholastic ,,i- ,<eueral interest. 
 When so used, it should be carefullj n ■ dated, 
 both as to the questions selected for discussion and 
 the manner in which the debates are conducted. 
 The usual rules of debate should be strictlj en- 
 forced, and the participants confined to the ex- 
 act subject considered, and required to us.- lan- 
 guage of undoubted propriety The rules of 
 
 parlia ntary debate may be made a subject of 
 
 formal study auxiliary to the practice of debat- 
 ing, and, in this way. the students partly pre- 
 pared for public life. The d ■' . , soc con- 
 
 lleeted with colleges have UMialK In i - 1 . i . ■ 1 . -. 1 
 
 DEFINITIONS 
 
 20 T 
 
 the power of extemporaneous speaking and 
 
 I Sequentl} . in the ad\anivd stav.es nf '"uisiriic 
 
 tioii there is need of resorting to ex raises in off- 
 hand speaking in order to cc thi h ndenci 
 
 "They are," says McElligott, "capabl i oi splendi 
 service in the course of education; and not on! 
 splendid, but peculiar; a service, in fact, f< 
 which it is impossible to find any sufficient sul 
 stitute. Their appropriate sphere moreve 
 seems to be in connection with collegiate institi 
 tions. There, at all events, we have a right t 
 expect from them the best possible results; fc 
 
 \. V 
 
 Tin 
 
 r.A 
 
 xaki.'s Journal of Education, vol. in. 
 
 DECIMAL 'NOTATION, the ordinary 
 method of expressing numbers on a scale oi ti a 
 ten units of any order being equal to one unit 
 of the next higher order. The first lessons in 
 arithmetic should give the pupil a clear idea 
 of the principle of this notation. This can lie 
 done by means of the numeral frame (q. v.). 
 
 DECLAMATION, or the formal delivery 
 of set speeches or of memorized pieces of ora- 
 tory, is a school exercise of considerable im- 
 portance, when conducted in a proper manner 
 and with a due regard to its special uses and 
 limitations. The objects chiefly to be gained by 
 exercises of this kind are the following : L) lln 
 training and culture of the voice; (2) Practice 
 in elocution : (3) The habit of speaking in pub- 
 lic with confidence, ease, and grace; (4) The 
 cultivation of a taste for public speaking; (5) An 
 improvement of the pupils' style of composition. 
 In the education of boys and young men partic- 
 ularly, these are all points of great importance, 
 inasmuch .as the ability to speak effectively in 
 public is of great value in all civilized commu- 
 nities. The practice of declamation may. how- 
 ever, be carried too far, and may thus engender 
 an artificial style, and a taste for mere verbal 
 and elocutionary display, without sufficient re- 
 gard to the sentiment expressed or to the occasion 
 of their utterance. Indeed, it has been held by 
 some that those who have excelled as declaimers 
 in school, have rarely become it'feine -peakei-s 
 in afterlife; but. if 'this is the case, il has re- 
 sulted rather from the abuse of the exercise than 
 from its legitimate use. There can be no doubt 
 that long practice in dec] 
 memorized pieces may prodi 
 
 The following points should be carefully at- 
 tended to in giving elementary instruction in 
 declamation : (I) The piece to be declaimed 
 should be well studied, not only in its language, 
 but in regard to the thoughts, emotions, reason- 
 
 as well as il 
 various kind 
 pupil should 
 
 to their use 
 form, shouli 
 struction ; ; 
 pupil to spe 
 
 n.'iall 
 
 .ml hi. < 
 The pu 
 
 apacity to 
 
 iils of the 
 
 dently ad- 
 n in rhe- 
 
 'll'mi'" 
 al. Even 
 
 iriate 
 
 tools, how 
 
 exercises 
 
 iver ma\ 
 in recita- 
 
 g exclusively 
 habit that is 
 
 calculated to interfere with the acquisition of 
 
 tiou and declamation ; thus, the speaking of 
 easy and interesting dialogues by two Or more 
 children will be found one of the best methods 
 to impart to young pupils a practical knowledge 
 of the elementary rules of declamation, besides 
 cultivating a natural style of speaking. 
 
 DEFINITIONS, a branch of elementarj 
 education, generally used to designate instruction 
 in the meaning of words. The operations of a 
 child's mind naturally lead to a knowledge of 
 words as representatives of ideas; and. at quite 
 an early age, a child acquires a very extensive 
 vocabulary of terms and the ability to apply 
 them properly, since they are learned not by 
 formal statement or definition, but by hearing 
 them used, and by subsequent practice in using 
 them in connection with the actual objects or 
 conceptions which they represent. In this way. 
 the words which young children learn make but. 
 little impression upon their minds as minis ; but 
 they are so intimately associated with the objects, 
 actions, and qualities which they represent, that • 
 they convey to the mind the same ideas as the 
 
208 DEFINITIONS 
 
 objects, actions, etc. themselves. The school ex- 
 ercises or lessons designed to increase the child's 
 vocabulary, or to teach the meaning of words 
 found in books, often disregard tiiis natural 
 method of acquisition, and attempt to teach the 
 meaning of individual words by means of their 
 approximate synonyms, without any regard to 
 their application, or use in phrases and sentences. 
 Without an embodiment of words in actual 
 speech, the recitation of formal definitions is of 
 no use. \n< t sufficient illustration of this kind, 
 the pupil -huil I be required to tell, in his own 
 language, the meaning of the word in question, 
 which the teacher can then correct. No exercise 
 in synonyms is of any value, but on the con- 
 trary, rather injurious, until the meaning of 
 words has been thus explained. In oral lessons 
 in definitions to classes. pupil may be re- 
 quired to use the given word in a phrase or sen- 
 tence, another to explain its meaning, and an- 
 other to give a brief definition by a synonymous 
 phrase or word. Verysimple words, the meaning 
 of which is already known to the child, should 
 not be given for formal definition; sine,- properly 
 to define such words, requires a nice discrimina- 
 tion in the use of language, and a minuteness of 
 analysis beyond the capacity of a young child. 
 A full exercise of this kind should comprise the 
 following: (I) To pronounce it ; (2) To use it in 
 the construction of a phrase or a sentence; (3) To 
 define it : (4) To write a sentence illustrating its 
 meaning and use. [A written exercise for the 
 whole class, each pupil writing a different sen- 
 tence.] Instruction in the derivation of words 
 and the meaning of the common prefixes and 
 suffixes should be commenced at an early stage. 
 (See Etymology.) 
 
 Kvcrv subject of instruction has its definitions, 
 or precise statements of elementary truths, con- 
 stituting the basis of the science; and it is an 
 important consideration as to the proper time 
 and method of teaching them. The teacher is 
 very apt to err in requiring them to be com- 
 mitted to memory before the mind has been suf- 
 ficiently impressed with the elementary ideas 
 which they involve. In How to Teach (N. V.. 
 is;;!), we tiud this quite fully and emphatically 
 expressed: "One of the most serious abuses to 
 which the employment of elementary text books 
 
 is liable, is the practi if requiring the pupil to 
 
 commit to memory, verbatim, all the definitions 
 of a subject before teaching the subject itself, so 
 as to enable the pupils to understand the nature 
 of the things defined. It is, of course, most 
 logical in the scientific treatment of a subject to 
 place the definitions first, and the reasoning based 
 upon them afterward : but this is not the order 
 of investigation. The definitions are tin' results 
 of an induction based upon the facts obtained 
 by observation ; they are generalizations of those 
 facts, and are unintelligible to those entirely un- 
 acquainted with the facts themselves. Thus the 
 order of investigation is Inductive; the treatment 
 is deductive, and in elementary teaching the 
 method should conform rather to the former 
 than to the latter. Give the pupil accurate and 
 
 DEGREES 
 
 vivid conceptions of the facts, encourage him to 
 observe the phenomena -tocollect an experience 
 of his own : tell him, or let him learn from the 
 book, what has been discovered by the experience 
 of others; and when the facts thus obtained 
 form a sufficient groundwork, lead his mind to 
 the propei induction, after which the definition. 
 principle, or rule, based upon it, comes naturally. 
 nderstood, The defini- 
 be brief and accurate in 
 id thing, should be com- 
 <tim; tor great skill is 
 
 II be thoro 
 tions thus taught 
 language, and. as 
 mitted to memo 
 required to const 
 of the greatest v 
 to have his min 
 marks and guid 
 
 he scholar and thinker 
 
 tored with these land- 
 
 of knowledge." The 
 
 distinction between the description and the de- 
 
 finition of a thing should be kept in view by the 
 
 teacher. The former may include a statement 
 
 of all the qualiti 
 
 properties of the object 
 , being 
 
 other objects of the same kind. At first, chil- 
 dren should be taught rather by descriptions 
 than definitions: for the latter, while forming 
 necessary standards of judgment for the mind, 
 generally do not give, of themselves, complete 
 ideas of the things defined. 
 
 DEGERANDO. See (Jerando. 
 DEGREES are titles of rank conferred upon 
 students in colleges and universities, as evidence 
 of their proficiency in the arts and sciences, 
 or upon learned men as a testimony of their 
 literary merits. At fiist. the terms master 
 and doctor were applied indifferently to any 
 person engaged in teaching in the university. In 
 process ol time, the term unisf^r was restricted 
 to teachers of the liberal arts, and the term 
 doctor to divinity, law, and medicine. When 
 regulations were established to prevent unquali- 
 fied pei-sons from teaching, and an initiatory 
 stage of discipline was prescribed, these terms 
 became significant of a certain rank, and of the 
 possession of certain powers, and were called 
 gradus, — steps or degrees. The passing of the 
 initiatory stage, said to have been first instituted 
 by Pope Gregory IX. (1227 — 1241), conferred 
 in any of the four faculties the title of bachelor 
 (baccalaureus), and an additional course of dis- 
 cipline and examination was necessary in order 
 to obtain that of master or doctor. A degree 
 intermediate between bachelor and doctor was 
 that of licentiate. This is no longer in use in 
 Kngland. except in Cambridge, as a degree of 
 medicine. In Germany the degree of iAcentiat 
 now exists only in the theological faculty. The 
 title of Master of Arts originally implied the 
 right, and even the duty, of publicly teaching 
 some of the branches included in the faculty 
 of arts ; but this custom has now fallen into 
 general disuse. The title of doctor seems to 
 have been conferred, for the first time, in the 
 12th century, at the university of Bologna ; and 
 the ceremonial of investiture was drawn up 
 by the learned lrnerius. The university of 
 Paris almost immediately followed in the foot- 
 
steps of Bologna, the first reception of doctors 
 having taken place in the year 1U5, in favor 
 of Peter Lombard and Gilbert de la Porree, 
 the greatest theologians of the day. At a later 
 period, the emperors were accustomed to confer 
 upon the universities the right of appointing 
 doctors of law by their authority and in their 
 name. The example of the emperors was 
 speedily full. ■wed by the popes, who conferred 
 the same right in reference to the canon law. 
 In England, the degree of doctor was not given 
 until the time of King John (1207). In the 
 middle ages, the title of Doctor of Laws con- 
 ferred, in some countries, great privileges ; and 
 the possession of the title was requisite for some 
 of the higher officers in church and state. In 
 most civilized countries, the acquisition of the 
 title of Doctor of Medicine is still required pre- 
 vious to an authorization, by the state govern- 
 ment, of medical practice. The titles Doctor of 
 Theology and Doctor of Law, or of Laws, have 
 still to be acquired by professors of these branches 
 of learning in universities and colleges ; but they 
 are also conferred honoris causa upon distin- 
 guished theologians, jurists, and statesmen. In 
 the United States, the conferring of degreesis 
 carried to an extent which was formerly unknown. 
 While in Germany there are only about twenty 
 universities which have the right to confer de- 
 grees, and in Kiiglan.l a still smaller number, there 
 are in the I'nited States more than .'{0(1 chartered 
 colleges which are entitled to this right: and 
 they generally make a very liberal use of it at 
 the annual commencement. All the graduates of 
 American colleges and universities receive the 
 degree of Bachelor of Arts, and after three years 
 standing have the title of Master of Arts con- 
 ferred upon them. The former is made con- 
 tingent in the United States as well as in 
 England, upon the result of a previous ex- 
 amination ; but the latter is conferred, in due 
 course of time, without any further require- 
 ments. In Germany, the title Master of Arts 
 has fallen into disuse, and the philosophical 
 faculty, which corresponds to the faculty of 
 arts in the United Slates, confers, instead of 
 it, the title of Doctor of Philosophy. In the 
 nineteenth century, and especially in the United 
 States, a number of new degrees have been cre- 
 ated. The diploma of Doctor of Music is given 
 in England, the United States, and Germany. 
 Women have been, until very recently, the re- 
 cipients of academic degrees in only very excep- 
 tional cases: but, with the progress of the supe- 
 rior education of females, and the admission of 
 women to some of the highest institutions of learn- 
 ing, all the degrees which have so long been the 
 monopoly of the one sex, begin to be accessible 
 to both. (See Co-F.nucATioN op the Sexes.) 
 The annual reports of the U. S. Commissioner 
 of Education afford complete statistics of all the 
 degrees conferred each year by American col- 
 leges, universities, and schools. Below is given 
 a list of the various degrees which were conferred 
 in 1874, with the usual abbreviations employed 
 to designate them. 
 
 EES 209 
 
 The colleges for females confer, in the place of 
 the title I'.achelor :of letters, of Arts oi Liberal 
 Arts . the title Graduate, thnue.li thev retain the 
 abbreviation- I.. I'... A. 1!.. and B. L. A. 
 
 Wis. 
 
 B. M. E., Bachelor of 
 
 C. K.. Civii I j eei 
 
 C. A: M. E.. Civil atei Minnie EllL r ilieer. 
 l>. i:. Bachelor m Divinity: 
 
 1). ('. b.. Doctor ol Civil Laws. 
 
 D. D., Doctor of Divinity. 
 
 D. D. M., Doctor ot Dental Medicine. 
 I). E., Dynamic Engineer. 
 
 I). Sc, DoCtOl- III Sec e e. 
 
 L. B., Bachelor of Letters. 
 
 PL. B., Bachelor of Laws. 
 
 LL. D., Duel, a- oi Laws. 
 
 L. Sc. Laureate of Science. 
 
 M. B., Bachelor nl Medicine. 
 
 M. D. Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 M. E., Mmiim Engineer. 
 
 M. E. I... Mi-ire-, e| Kndi-h Literatim 
 
 Mus. B., Bachelor of Music. 
 
 Mus. D., Doctor of Music. 
 
 Ph. B., Bachelor ot Philosophy. 
 
 Ph. P., Doctor of Philosophy. 
 
 Sc. B., Badi-lnr of Science.' 
 
 Se- M.. Masterol Scienci . 
 
 s. T. D., Sai rai n i le Doctor. 
 As the title Doctor of Medicine, when con- 
 ferred by a medical faculty, alone entitles its 
 holder in some countries to practice, attempts 
 have, in many eases, been made by incompetent 
 to purchase it, and by dishonest persons 
 make money by selling it. The greatest noto- 
 riety, in this respect, has been gained by a so- 
 called faculty of medicine in Pennsylvania, which 
 carried on the sale of the title of Doctor of 
 Me iieine for a considerable time, not only in the 
 United States, but all over Europe, until the 
 legislature of Pennsylvania put a stop to this 
 nefarious business. In Germany, an article by 
 the historian Theodor Mommsen (in Preussisch 
 Jahrbwcher xxxvu. 1.) severely censured several 
 of the universities of the minor states for pro- 
 moting absent candidates who had merely sent 
 in a written dissertation, and prostituting the 
 honor of German science for mercenary purposes. 
 The article produced a profound impression, and, 
 early in 187(1. induced all the incriminated uni- 
 versities to abolish the /irimwlioitrx in n//sr„',,i. 
 Many writers, in modern times, have main- 
 tained. that 'degrees have always been, and must 
 continue to be, utterly worthless." Among those 
 who severely censured the way in which degrees 
 formerly were and. in general, still are conferred, 
 was Dr. Adam Smith, in his Wealth of Na- 
 tions. The same writer more fully develops his 
 views in a letter on Dr. Cullen, which is given in 
 Dr. McCulloch's edition of that work. He con- 
 tends that the value of a degree must always de- 
 pend on the disinterested character of the parties 
 
who confer it, and that, therefore, the system 
 hitherto pursued in universities of having aca- 
 demical distinctions awarded by the parties en- 
 
 ■ llv 
 
 A ch 
 
 test of literary or scienunc 
 this system was inaugurated on the establish- 
 ment of the London I niversity (q. v.). in which 
 the right of conferring degrees is vested in aboard 
 from which the professors are excluded. In <Jer- 
 many, a different reform has been proposed by 
 
 Prof. \l msen of Berlin, who, alter severely 
 
 denouncing the abuses existing in s of the 
 
 [Pr 
 
 to 
 
 clusively the degrees conferred by universities 
 belonging to the union, or to abolish entirely the 
 institution of academic degrees. In France, the 
 right of conferring degrees was one of the must 
 hotly contested points of the new law on superior 
 education, adopted by the national assembly in 
 187:">. This law abolishes the monopoly of the 
 state faculties in conferring degrees, and gives the 
 right possessed by state faculties also to special 
 juries' consisting of professors partly of the state 
 faculties, and partly of the free families author- 
 ized by the new law. 
 
 DELAWARE, one of the thirteen original 
 states of the American Union, having an area 
 of 2,120 sq. m.. and a population, in 1870, of 
 125,015, of whom 1.02,221 were whites, and 
 
 Educational History.— The original constitu- 
 tion of the state contained a general provision 
 forthe encouragement of education: but, through 
 want of specific enactments on the part of the 
 legislature, it was for a long time of little prac- 
 tical value. In L813, the secretary of state, 
 VVillard Hall, suggested to the legislature a sys- 
 tem of popular education; but no immediate 
 action was taken. In 1829, a bill providing for 
 the establishment of free schools was passed, 
 embodying substantially the views suggested by 
 the secretary of state, who has always been re- 
 garded as the founder of the present system. 
 The law then enacted has remained, in all essen- 
 tial respects, the school law of the state to the 
 present day. slight modifications only having 
 
 1 n made from time to time. The constitution 
 
 of the state, framed in 183] .declares it to be the 
 duty of the legislature to provide for ■■ establish- 
 ing schools, and promoting arts and sciences." 
 In 1837, the school fund of the state, established 
 in L796, was increased by the addition of the 
 income of the United States surplus revenue 
 fund. Up to 1852, the counties were divided 
 into school-districts, to each of which full power 
 was granted to establish a school or nol . accord- 
 ing to its pleasure. In 1852, the school law 
 was revised by the legislature, but was not 
 materially changed. Educational interests were 
 left to the voters in each school-district, their 
 
 action consisting in holding an annual meeting, 
 at which any number of voters constituted a 
 quorum. Their business was to elect a school 
 committee, consisting of a clerk and two com- 
 missioners, and to decide, by a majority vote, 
 \\ hat sum should lie raised for a school-house, or 
 a free school. The same year. an act was passed 
 by the legislature for the benefit of the public 
 schools in Wilmington, which, by this act, be- 
 came permanently separated from the public 
 school system of the state. In L855, the prop- 
 
 1 861 . a free-school act was passed, w Inch author- 
 ized the levy of a yearly tax in each district of 
 the state. By an act passed .Mmvh '-'.">.. 1*7."), 
 the school system was remodeled, and, in its gen- 
 ua I features, assimilated to that existing in 
 most of the other states. The first state super- 
 intendent appointed was James II. Groves, in 
 
 S ia ' System. The state board of education 
 con i-i- oi the secretary of Btate, the auditor, the 
 president of Delaware College, and the state 
 superintendent of five schools. It holds an an- 
 nual meeting at which the president of Delaware 
 College acts as chairman, and the auditor, as 
 
 secretary. It designates what text-1 ks shall 
 
 be used in the BC Is, settles all controversies 
 
 between the -mte sii,,,., mien, lent and the school 
 
 commissioners on i ne nana, ami subordinate 
 
 officers on the other, and issues uniform blanks 
 for the use of teachers. The state supi rintendent 
 is appointed annually by the governor. He 
 visits each school once n year, examines and 
 licenses teachers, keeps a full and accurate 
 record of the schools, their condition, the num- 
 ber of pupils attending them, the qualifications 
 of the teachers, methods of instruction, discipline, 
 and all other matters necessary to the making of 
 an annual report to the governor. County 
 superintendents, one for each county, are ap- 
 pointed annually by the governor, their duties 
 being, to correspond with school committees and 
 teachers, "to aid them with advice, to supply 
 proper forms, to collect information, and to re- 
 port to the general assembly the state of the 
 districts, and such matters as they shall deem 
 proper." Three school committeemen are elected 
 in each of the districts, one each year, the term 
 of office being three years. Their duties are, 
 to assess and levy the annual school tax, to 
 select the sites for school buildings, to build 
 school-houses, to supply furniture and fuel, to 
 employ teachers, and to see that the schools are 
 kepi open as long as the funds will permit. The 
 school committee levies in each district of New- 
 castle Co. $100 for the support of the schools; 
 of Kent Co. S.Ml: and of Sussex Co. 830, the 
 maximum additional amount in each being, ac- 
 cording to the law of 1861,34:00 for general school 
 purposes, and $500 for the building and repair 
 
 of school-houses. Thescl Is arc open to all white 
 
 children over five years of age. In L875, provi- 
 sion was made for the education of colored chil- 
 dren, by the taxation of colored citizens, and the 
 
DELAWARE 
 
 21 1 
 
 establishment of separate schools, from the pro- 
 ceeds of such taxation, by the Delaware Asso- 
 ciation for the Education of Colored People. The 
 permanent school fund, which consists of the 
 share of the state in the surplus revenue distrib- 
 uted by the general government an g the sev- 
 eral states, the proceeds arising from marriage 
 and tavern licenses, and from various other 
 sources, has yielded for several years an annual 
 income of about $30,000. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 schools report i'' 1 by the superintendent in 1875, 
 was 369. The school revenue was as follows: 
 
 Total $192,735.05 
 
 The expenditure per capita of average attend- 
 ance was $9.64. The school statistics show the 
 
 following : 
 
 Nimilirr, 
 
 Avrr.mi- m, mm 
 Normal Int 
 to teachers in the Wilmington Normal School 
 ami at Delaware College, Newark, in which a, 
 course has been organized for the purpose. 1 h ■ 
 graduates of the former find employment prin- 
 cipally in the schools of tin- city. It employs 
 3 teachers, and holds its sessions in the evening, 
 and on Saturdays. The course provided for the 
 training of teachers in Delaware College by act 
 of the legislature, in L873,isopen, free of charge, 
 to Id students from each county, who shall bind 
 themselves to teach, after graduation, not less 
 than one year in the public schools of the state. 
 The time required for the completion of this 
 course is.'! years. The branches pursued are those 
 included in the literary course of the college, ex- 
 cept Latin and nio.lern languages, with special 
 instruction in methods of teaching. Candidates 
 for admission to this course are appointed by the 
 me .nli is of the legislature. They must be not 
 less than 16 years of age, of good moral character. 
 and of average proficiency in Knglish studies. 
 Diplomas are granted at the end of the .'! years' 
 course; while, for one year or more, but less 
 than 3 years, certificates are given indicative of 
 the proficiency acquired. The Delaware State 
 Normal University, at Wilmington, was incorpo- 
 rated in 1867, for the purpose of supplying an 
 advanced course to teachers. It was authorized 
 to confer all degrees custi unary with universities. 
 and to grant diplomas. The special degree of 
 
 Bachelor of Scl 1 Teaching was conferrable 
 
 upon such students in the normal department as, 
 upon examination, were found qualified, and 
 the degree of Master of School Teaching upon 
 such as had been actually engaged in teaching 
 for ■'! years after graduation. In IS7I. however. 
 the charter of the university was repealed, but 
 the students held a meeting shortly after al 
 which it was resolved to continue the institution 
 without state aid. It is divided into 4 depart- 
 ments: a primary school, a select school, a me- 
 chanical and commercial school, and a high and 
 
 19,881 
 
 430 
 
 ...$28.28 
 
 . — ,-pccial training isgix 
 
 normal school. — Truchrrs fnstilutrs li.m 1 em 
 
 almost exclusively confined to the city of Wil- 
 mington, Tin' new law, however, requires the 
 state superintendent to hold one annually in each 
 county for three .lays, all the teachers of the 
 county being required to attend. 'I he Delaware 
 
 State I". :i . 1 1 . i ~ \ ii.Ji was organized in 
 
 Wi gton,in December, L875. 
 
 Sfe ■< Instrurli.,,1 — liraclcdse] 1.-. e\i-i 
 
 in neaih all of the large towns oi the state ; and, 
 in the city of Wilmington all of the schools are 
 of this character. The course of study in the 
 latter requires :! years. The branches taught are 
 those usuallj pursued in high schools, Latin and 
 German having bee,, added to the studies of the 
 
 Hull. 
 
 Dover. Smyri 
 and Milton, 
 dual, and cl 
 
 education is the I telaware ( 'oil, ge q. v. al 
 
 Newark. The We,-le\all female College, at 
 Wilmington, was organized in 1 ,-.'!!». It has two 
 regular courses of study, of 4 years each, a pre- 
 paratory ami a collegiate, besides p.mial i nurses 
 for special purposes. It has a library of 3,600 
 volumes, and. in 1873, reported 8 professors and 
 
 I ... ,../ S i , vfk Tnstrx ■ I 
 
 agricultural department oi Delaware College 
 furnish s insti in tion to such students as intend 
 to devote them, elves to the business of agricult- 
 ure, while they, at the same, time at tee. I to thi 
 studies that constitute a liberal education. The 
 grant of 90,000 teres, made by Congress to the 
 
 state for the founding oi anagri tilt legi 
 
 has been given to this institution It provii i a a 
 scientific and an agricultural course, admission 
 
 to which is granted to students of g 1 moral 
 
 character who are 14 years of age. and who suc- 
 cessfully pass an examination in geography. arith- 
 metic, the elements of algebra. Knglish grammar, 
 In -inn ol ihel iiiie.l States, and "such branches 
 as form the basis of a complete Knglish educa- 
 tion.'' The time required for the completion of 
 each course is3 years, the instruction in the agri- 
 cultural department being supplemented by 
 practical exercise in fanning, gardening, and the 
 work of the nursery. Thedegree of Bachelor oi 
 Philosophy is conferred by the scientific depart 
 incut; that of < Iraduate in Agricultun 1 3 I ! 
 agricultural department. In 1872, the admission 
 of females to the college classes was authorized, 
 the conditions of admission being the same as in 
 the case of males. The result is .said to have 
 been very satisfactory. No special provision is 
 made by the state for the instruction of the deal 
 and dumb, the blind or the imbecile: each county 
 caring for its own. or the state bearing the ex- 
 pense of their care in the institution 
 provided for the purpose by the neighboring- 
 state. Pennsylvania. 
 
212 
 
 DELAWARE < '< H.Ll'.l !E 
 
 DELAWARE COLLEGE, at Newark, 
 Del., was chartered in 1867 and opened in 
 1870. It includes the slate agricultural college, 
 established by the congressional land grant. The 
 value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus is 
 .s.Ml.OOO; tl„. amount of it- productive funds, 
 $83,000; the number of volumes in its libraries, 
 6,000. The farm of the professor of agriculture, 
 embracing about 70 acres of well-improved land 
 adjoining Newark, is used as an experimental 
 farm. Agricultural students have the oppor- 
 tunity of defraying a part of their expenses by 
 labor. The cost of tuition in the institution is 
 si'l fm- the first term of the year, $18 for the 
 second, and S2S for the third. Kadi countj in 
 the state is entitled, by a law passed in 1869, to 
 have ten students educated at the college free of 
 charge for tuition. The membersof the legisla- 
 ture arc vested with authority to make these 
 appointments, each member having the right to 
 make one nomination. 
 
 In 1872, the trustees authorized the admission 
 of females to the college classes upon the same 
 conditions as male students. There are four 
 courses: thvr/i/sxiad,at four years, leading to the 
 degree of Bachelor of Arts; the scientific, includ- 
 ing agriculture, of three years, leading to ihe de- 
 gree of Bachelor of Philosophy; the literary, 
 
 of three years, leading to the degr >f Bachelor 
 
 of Literature; and the normal, of three years. 
 Those not desiring to lake any one of the regular 
 courses may pursue selected studies. The lit- 
 erary course is similar to the classical, hut its 
 
 the higher mathematics, and stih>titutes if 
 
 the modern languages for Greek. Ii i- specially 
 designed for female students but may be pursued 
 by all such as prefer it to any one of the other 
 courses. The course of study in the normal de- 
 partment embraces all those branches of learn- 
 ing which arc included in the literary course, 
 with the exception of Latin and the modern 
 languages, for which is substituted instruction in 
 the higher essentials of a thorough English educa- 
 tion, and in the best and most approved methods 
 of teaching. Students who obligate themselves to 
 teach in the free schools of the slate for not less 
 than one year receive tuition free. In 1874 -•>. 
 tlh i -... !;■ - instructors and .VI .-indent.-, in Dela- 
 ware College. At the commencement in 1875, L2 
 ■degrees were conferred ; namely, A. B., 3 ; Ph. 
 B., 4; B. L„ 5. William H. Purnell, LL. J)., is 
 (1ST Hi the president, 
 
 DELPHIN CLASSICS, an edition of the 
 Latin classics prepared for the use of the dauphin 
 (in iK'iiii Delphini) by order of Louis XIV., 
 under the editorship of Bossuet and Huet, tu- 
 tors to the dauphin. The compilers, 39 in num- 
 ber, were selected by Huet from the best scholars 
 of the time. The plan of the work comprises 
 a continuous gloss in the margin, and copious 
 foot-notes, explaining the text. The different 
 works are edited with very unequal merit ; and, 
 as a whole, the series has ceased to have any 
 special value in comparison with more recent 
 and more accurate editions. — See Hallam, 
 Literature of Europe, vol. n, 
 
 DENMARK 
 
 DENISON UNIVERSITY, at Granville, 
 
 Ohio, under the control of the Baptists, was 
 founded in 1 s.'d. The buildings, three in num- 
 ber, are situated on a hill, north of the town. less 
 than liOII yards from the public square, the site 
 containing '-'4 acres, nearly half of which is oc- 
 cupied by a grove of old fores! trees. Theuni 
 versityand society libraries contain about 1 1,000 
 
 volumes. The cabinet containsag I collection 
 
 of shells, and of specimens in geology, mineral- 
 ogy, zoology, and archaeology. The value of its 
 grounds, buildings, andapparatus is $90,000; the 
 amount of its productive funds. $190,000. The 
 
 gree of Bacheli 
 
 of three years, 
 of Science. 'I' 
 $13 for the fa 
 winter and spr 
 partment, it is 
 for the ministr 
 of the Ohio Bi 
 
 dsT 
 
 gree of Bachelor 
 in the college is 
 
 ,50 i ai h For the 
 preparatory de- 
 
 supplies them with from S--0 to SI. Ml per annum 
 besides free tuition. In L875 6, there were 9 in- 
 structors, and 71 collegiate and 80 preparatory 
 students. The number graduating in b s 7.~> 
 was!). The Lev. E. Benjamin Andrews. A.M., 
 is (1S76) the president, 
 
 DENMARK, a kingdom of Europe, has an 
 area of I f,753 sq. m., and, in L874,hada popula- 
 tion of 1,874,000. Almost the entire population 
 (over 99 per cent) belongs to the established 
 Lutheran Church ; and all public religious in- 
 struction is, accordingly, based on the original 
 Augsburg confession.— Pew countries have un- 
 dergone so many vicissitudes of fortune as Ben- 
 mark. During the middle ages, it was one of the 
 most powerful empires of northern Europe. 
 •Jutland and the Danish isles became the early 
 home of a warlike (iothie tribe, the piratical 
 Danes or Normans. Ring Gonn the Old sub- 
 jected all the chieftains to his sovereignty in the 
 beginningof the loth century. Canute the I Ireat, 
 after 1024, extended the Danish rule over Nor- 
 way, southern Sweden, and, for a short period, 
 even over England. Under the two Walde- 
 mars. in the I'Jihaiid L3th century, Mecklenburg, 
 Holstein, Pomera ma. and the present Baltic prov- 
 inces of Russia were added to the empire. 
 During the civil wars following their reigns, 
 many of these conquests were lost. The so-called 
 Calmar Union of 1397,by which Queen Margaret 
 united Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, was of 
 shorl duration. Under Christian III., in 1537, 
 the Reformation was introduced. In llJIiO, south- 
 ern Sweden, and in 1814 all Norway was ceded 
 to Sweden; and by the unfortunate war of 
 1804, against Austria and Prussia, after which 
 the duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauen- 
 burg were re-united with Germany, the area of 
 the kingdom was reduced to its above-stated ex- 
 tent (exclusive of Iceland, the Faroe isles, and 
 the colonies). Owing to the new liberal con- 
 stitution of 1849 (revised in L865), the industry, 
 
DENMAEK '213 
 
 commerce, and finances, as well as the literary trj in every neigborhood capable of supporting a 
 .•mil educational institutions of the country are school, and of two scl Is in all the larger villages; 
 
 at pivs.-nt m a ll"iu -i-liiir.' oHidit mm of an i-l.-ni.-ntarv laindirr s.Iiu.,1. ami'. II I. a.-iTilr. 
 
 With ila- 1 
 convent a 
 
 establishe I i 
 (1-640), and 
 were greatly 
 after 1537, 
 
 Schools, I"'! 1 
 
 those of the 
 tothechildri 
 
 ing schools" 
 
 :../,. 
 
 hagen, which received its fundamental statute 
 early as 1788. 
 
 I a sir mi a, a. — The ge 
 iriman scl Is is in 
 
 tnni in l.aim. w.-iv support.-.! and . - - 1 > t i . 
 the municipal authorities. In the rural d 
 the only instruction imparted t" you 
 
 sisted in teaching the catechism, in weekly lea the ministry o1 instructions 
 
 either by pupils of the highest class of the intends the schools in his dioi 
 
 Dearest Latin school, mi Saturday*, tor a remu- all teachers in the rural i 
 
 nerati )i free lodging and board, or by the school board of the Amt (a s 
 
 sextons, or by students of 'I logy. The I8th cese) apj ts the teachers 
 
 century is marked by a quick succession oi im- ministrj of instruct and 
 
 portant steps toward the perfection lextensio osists ol two departments 
 
 al super- 
 : hands of 
 
 hschi 
 
 Bxingthe -aim oi the I ich 
 and reading obligatory, writi 
 ■ ■ ] > t i i > 1 1 . 1 1 st inlics. and i- ■• 1 1 1 i i~i i 
 an ind school, from their 5th 
 everyday for 5 or 6 hours, an 
 only half a day. The royal i sample was 
 by many noblemen and landed propife 
 .-stalni-di.-d -iniilar >.-li...,|< .,,, iheirestat 
 benefit of the chil Iren oi their tenai 
 Bupen tsion ol all these schools was as 
 /■the clergy; but a general system of p 
 stnii-ti.ui was m.t miroduced until L739 
 cree of Christian VI. ilT::u — L746), . 
 
 the establishment of i imon or parisl 
 
 cv.-rv l.ir-j- -i- villas.-, where religion, 
 
 hisi 
 
 - 
 
 writing, and arithme 
 si-ho.il-inast. is . 
 The schools wei 
 fund, collections 
 .'in I jitin schools 
 ished, and their 
 mon-school fun< 
 
 tills Dew svst.-l 
 
 opposition of 
 maintaine I I hei 
 matters. A oev. 
 under Frede 
 29., L81 t. the principal 
 in force. It ordained 
 mentary schools, each o 
 
 to 
 
 v tin- i-li'iuvuiaii. 
 irted by a revenue 
 ■li.nil tax. About 
 
 :k V 
 
 ■t school 
 T 1 nl- au- 
 country. 
 
 from one to four in the afternoon ; 
 -. from nine to twelve in the morn- 
 one to i in the afternoon ; but 
 
214 DEN 
 
 few rules are laid down for the management of 
 schools, and oidy very few schools have printed 
 rules. For disrespect and disobedience, teach- 
 ers may resort to corporal punishment, while 
 laziness and truancy must be reported to the 
 rector or principal of the school, who inflicts a 
 proper punishment in such cases. School .lo- 
 ries have been introduced in all the classes ex- 
 cept the highest. For every recitation the 
 scholar receives a mark expressed by a number, 
 (i being the highest, anil (I the lowest. At the 
 end of every month, the marks are added up, 
 and the standing for each ensuing month is thus 
 determined. In the highest class, the daily 
 
 marks are dis ltinueii. and a monthly report is 
 
 given instead. While the length of the school 
 term is generally let to the separate school 
 
 boards, the royal deer if Jan. 27., 1860, fixed 
 
 'J40 days in the year as the minimum for every 
 school. A general model course of studies for 
 the kingdom docs not exist. Every teacher pre- 
 pares his own course of studies, which must In- 
 approved by the school board. An equal free- 
 dom prevails in regard to the choice of text- 
 books, and in the methods of teaching as I En 
 1819, the monitorial or Lancasterian system was 
 introduced into the military school in Copen- 
 hagen, by a young officer who had observed it in 
 Prance. The king took great interest in the ex- 
 periment, and in L822 the system was recom- 
 mended for introduction into all elementary 
 schools. It was, however, severely attacked by 
 lyiesterweg (see Diestkkwkg), and gradually fell 
 into disuse, being greatly modified in those 
 schools in which it still exists. Almost everj 
 town has, besides the elementary schools, at 
 
 lea i higher primary school, orburgher real 
 
 school, in which a small fee is charged. The 
 course of instruction in these schools embraces 
 the following subjects: Danish language, n ligion, 
 aril huietie, penmanship. I. , il.-k ■ . 1 1 1 - . the i inli- 
 mciits of algebra, geometry natural history, 
 
 n. in 
 
 and g itrical drawing, singing, and 
 
 tics. The number 
 
 country, in 18G7, wa 
 
 teachers 2,929, female teachers 59, the number of 
 
 children of school agt 
 children attending public si 
 the number of children attoii 
 13,994, making the total qui 
 der instruction 208,1 92. Thi 
 1 1 .'! primary schools, with 4: 
 mall- teachers, and 2.'i..'i."i'J 
 6,161 attended the burghei 
 salaries oi the teachers m I 
 siderably from fchos ■ p rid i 
 both in city and 1 1 luntrj . 
 favorably will i the salaries pj 
 Europe. In the country, tin 
 sists of a fixed salary, paid partly in money and 
 partly in grain, which is changed into money ac- 
 cording to the average price of grain for the past 
 I'll years, which price is determined annually. 
 ! eaeheis also receive, for their services as sex Ions, 
 
 51, the number 
 lools 194,198, and 
 
 ling private schools 
 bcr of children un- 
 citieshad.in 1867, 
 2 male and 54 fe- 
 icholars, of whom 
 real schools. The 
 
 in otlier parts ot 
 imuneration con- 
 
 the sum of three marks (1 rix-dollar @ 6 marks 
 = $0.55.3), payable by every child: and there is 
 an increase of salary, according to age, of from 
 twentj fiveto fifty rix-dollars. Every teacher has 
 a house free, which must be kept in repair by 
 the parish, and a certain amount of school land, 
 and lie receives fuel, and such provisions as eggs, 
 milk, etc. Every ten years, the ministry deter- 
 mines for each position the money value of all 
 receipts, based on the average prices for the pre- 
 ceding ten years. In 1867, the total amount 
 thus determined was 1,370,914 rix-dollars, which, 
 for 2,5C6 teachers, gave an average salary of 
 534 rix-dollars. According to the law of 1850, 
 one half of the teachers in every city receive, be- 
 sides free lodging, not less than 300 rix-dollars 
 and 50 tons of barky, while the other half re- 
 ceive not less than 150 rix-dollars and 50 tons 
 of barley, so that no teacher receives less than 
 .:iio rix-dollars. taking everything into account. 
 The average salary of the teachers iu the 
 cities, in 1807, was 690 rix-dollars. Teachers 
 throughout the kingdom are exempt from mili- 
 tary duty. Denmark has five seminaries for 
 teachers, — in Joenstrup, with 51 pupils; in 
 Skaarup. with 75 pupils; in Lyngbye, with 31 
 pupils; in Banum, with 31 pupils; and in Jel- 
 ling, with 45 pupils : making 233 pupils. Every 
 seminary has three classes, the course of each 
 class comprising one year. No pupil is admitted 
 to the lowest class under IT years of age. The 
 course of studies is as follows for all three classes: 
 religion: reading and the Danish language and 
 literature : arithmetic and other branches of 
 mathematics: penmanship; history and geog- 
 raphy; natural history: lessons on education 
 and instruction: music: gymnastics; drawing; 
 catechisation. for some years past, there have 
 been established, in various parts of the coun- 
 try. Peasants' High Schools, which are attended 
 by young farmers who come together at their 
 own expense during the winter months. In 
 these schools, lceturo are delivered on the history 
 and institutions ot the kingdom, and the sciences 
 relating to agriculture. The plan of instruction 
 depends chiefly on the wishes of the pupils and 
 the capacity of the teachers, who are generally 
 graduates of the universitv. Of these schools, 
 there were, in 1874, 49, with 2,132 male and 
 1,003 female pupils.— In Copenhagen, the pri- 
 mary sel Is have three class s,the two sexes are 
 
 ,:.-•! e. . j .- ] ..oat. -1\ . and ili.- i -our.se of studies is 
 a little more extended than that in other cities. 
 According to the law of 1844, modified by that 
 of I S57. the schools are governed by a board of 
 school directors. composed of the chief magistrate 
 of the -ity. the burgomaster who has charge of 
 school affairs, and a clergyman of the city ap- 
 pointed by the minister of instruction. The im- 
 mediate supervision is in the hands of a super- 
 intendent, who has a seat but not a vote in the 
 board of directors. Every ward of the city and 
 suburbs has, furthermore, its own school com- 
 mittee of three members. The schools are partly 
 free and partly pay schools. They are of two 
 kinds. —those consisting of day classes in which 
 
the school time is six hours per day, and half-day 
 classes whirl) are taught only four hours per daj 
 On May 1., 1874, the aggregate number of pupils 
 
 the numbs 
 
 ■ofehildi 
 
 Of the -i.r 
 
 .'s childri 
 
 4,286 receit 
 
 vd privat 
 
 of is;::. t i 
 
 
 DENOMINATIONAL schools 215 
 
 160 scholars. The school ;it Herlufsholm was 
 founded in L565, and, in L8T0, had 95 scholars. 
 Superior Instruction.— The I niversity of 
 
 1537, Latin schools, of from three to four classes, 
 were founded in all the citiesof Denmark. Owing 
 u. the different wars and from other causes, the 
 condition of these schools was not very favorable, 
 until. in 17.'!!*, Christian VI. considerably dimin- 
 ished their number, and thus obtained the les- 
 
 sary means t < > improve the financial standing of 
 those remaining. At the same time, the course 
 of instruction was extended, and the Danish lan- 
 guage introduced as a study, an 1 in some cases 
 as the vehicle of instruction, while, up to thai 
 time, instruction had been given in the Latin 
 language only. Under Christian VII., the 
 course of sin. lies was more definitely regulated, 
 and instruction in the Danish language was 
 introduced into all the schools. The schools 
 then made steady improvement, until, in 1850, 
 they received their present form. The institu- 
 tions for secondary instruction now comprise 
 gymnasia, fashioned after the German model, 
 some of which also have real classes ; burgher 
 schools, corresponding to the German real 
 schools; and private schools. The course of iu- 
 
 -The schools for special 
 jws : A royal veterinary 
 >1, with 1(1 professors; a 
 
 are are eight schools 
 
 Denmark, was first 
 ie subject to Norway 
 
 i the college; and it als, 
 v.— See Schmid, Enci/clo 
 rd, National Education 
 
 « 
 
 struction embraces a period of i 
 
 pils upon entering must be at le 
 age. and must pass a satisfa 
 tion in various branches. The 
 in the gymnasia comprises, bes 
 lion of the studies of the elci 
 Latin and Greek, one or mi 
 natural history, and nal 
 he course of study in the burg 
 prises Danish, French, German, 
 geography, arithmetic, geometry 
 penmanship, and drawing. The 
 secondary schools at present is 26 
 gj mnasia, 5 burgher schools, and 
 The number of teachers, in 187.' 
 gymnasia, 6 in the burgher schi 
 the private schools, making a tot 
 number of pupils, in the same v 
 the gymnasia, 410 in the burgher i 
 
 padie, vol. x. ; 
 
 vol. II. 
 
 DENOMINATIONAL, SCHOOLS are 
 
 schools either under the control of a particular 
 
 e most important educational controversies 
 • present aev. in the United States as well 
 
 al st every country of Europe. The 
 
 •school system has been developed in close 
 ction with both church and -tan- : and. in 
 ie, until a recent period, it has been the 
 d rule to eive to th.- nublic school a de- 
 
 dl 
 
 was 249,151 rix-doUars. Among the oldest and 
 
 wealthiest secondary schools of the kingdom, tire 
 those of Soroe and Herlufsholm. Theschoolat 
 Sortie was founded in L580. In 1749, it was 
 changed into the Knights' Academy. After- 
 wards, a classical school was added'; and, in 
 1849, the academy was discontinued, so that only 
 the classical scl 1 remained which, in 1870, harl 
 
 dell. 
 
 estants in Germany and in other countries of 
 the European continent, generally take the 
 same view, but more in regard to the 
 
216 
 
 DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 
 
 pointt 
 place. 
 
 schools than to secondary schools ami univer- 
 sities. Imong the Liberal party, on the other 
 hand, there is a growing demandfor the ex- 
 clusion of all instruction in the tenetsofapartic- ! 
 ular religion from the state schools, and for the 
 abolition of every religions distinction in the ap- 
 They demand, in the 
 .11,. I schools i in Germany 
 called Confess ■- ' - communal " or " na- 
 tional " schools ; but they differ among them- 
 selves as to whether religious instruction is wholly 
 to be excluded. Some desire that there should he 
 instruction in the general principles of religion 
 and moralii j instea 1 of instruction in a denomi- 
 national ■ 1- while others preferthe total exclu- 
 sion of religious teaching. (See Diesterweg.) 
 
 Rolfns and Pflster [R il-Encyclopadu des Er- 
 :,, hungs- und Unterru hi tees is, art. Comn >> ■■- 
 
 <,J,.,/r„ i addnees. tit _ " ! i.' i- '[ ' follow ing 
 
 arguments in behalf of deiioininat 'oii.il .-eh. o],. 
 The public school is intended not merely to im- 
 part instruction, but to take part in the work of 
 education. Its educational function is not of a 
 preparatory or continuing character, bul it is to 
 
 aid and to accompany ; ' rhe 
 
 latter is based on religion, without wl ha ood 
 education is impossible. A school which doe. 
 not pr..vi I ■ fov v ■'i^iotis instruction 
 nun subj cts 'i • bild to influ mo < ectly iD 
 
 conflict with the education received al h< 
 
 ••■ .ii is, more than any other 
 initiate a child into an under- 
 
 ract ideas. It offers i! s1 
 
 ■ial for exercises in reading and 
 the development of the intcl- 
 5 the emotional faculties of the 
 chil<l. It is unquestionably better suited than 
 mere exercises in reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic, to establish a bond of affection between 
 teacher and pupil. In the eyes of the im- 
 mense majority of people, instruction in their 
 own religion is the most important ami the most 
 desirable" that can be given to their children ; 
 and. hence, the authority of a teai her « ho is Dot 
 permitted to give religious instruction, must be 
 
 lowered in their estimation. The public scl 1 
 
 is supported by those who have the righl to 
 demand that the subject to which they attach 
 the greatest importance should not be excluded 
 from the course of instruction. The strong con- 
 victions of a teacher manii si th mst Ives chiefly 
 
 in his religious belief. Scl 1-. therefore which 
 
 compel the teaeher to ivpre.-s everything that re- 
 flects his religious convictions, may be expected 
 to have as teachers few persons of firm prin- 
 ciples. Where state and church are allied in the 
 supervision of denominational schools, the state 
 
 govei nt fully knows what ideas of good and 
 
 bad, of virtue, or of conscience are taught; but 
 w here teachers are appointed w ithout regard to 
 their religious views, and where the church is 
 excluded from superintending the instruction, it 
 
 will be impossible to keep out of the scl Is the 
 
 most destructive views of religion and morality. 
 which teachers without religious principles will 
 
 Religious instr 
 brarn h suil 11 
 standing of ah 
 
 interest ing mat 
 writing, and to 
 lectual as well 
 
 find it easy to inculcate indirectly on many oc- 
 casions. When undenominational schools are 
 the rale in a community, very many parents are 
 dissatisfied, and private institutions, combining 
 religious with other instruction, flourish. But it 
 is not for the interest of the state that a large 
 portion of the population should, in a demon- 
 strative manner. express its want of confidence in 
 state institutions, and patronize schools which 
 
 have I n organized for the express purpose of 
 
 neutralizing the effect aimed tit by the legislation 
 Of the state. 
 
 The Protestant cvclopa'dias of education 
 edited by K. A. Schmid [Encyclopadie des Er- 
 
 :,.i ■ te s is etc and Padagogisches Hand- 
 
 huch, art. Co fes ions und Communalsckiir 
 few), take the same view. The Padagogische 
 HandbwJi says: " Religious school instruction 
 is specially a want of the evangelical child. The 
 church of the Word builds itself up by the tin- 
 
 fore her children must be supplied with religious 
 knowledge; Bible history, the most beautiful 
 sentences of the Bible, and the fundamental 
 doctrines of the Gospel must be inculcated for 
 beli id practice in life; the treasure of the 
 
 ngs of ■ hi church must 1 pened to them for 
 
 edification; and they must learn to join in the 
 chorus of the congregation. The Catholic 
 I 'hureh.witli a form of worship which captivates 
 the senses, with its religions ceremonies, into 
 which even small children are introduced, and 
 win. !i are constantly practiced by its members, 
 produces naturally a certain religious habit, 
 which interweaves itself with the ideas and emo- 
 
 W: 
 
 from our schooh must fatally injure the relig- 
 ious, moral, and ideal life of our Protestant 
 congregations." 
 
 The advocates of denominational schools also 
 point to the fact that the results thus far 
 
 obtai 1 1^ the undenominational school have 
 
 failed to satisfy even the most zealous among its 
 defenders. One of the leaders of the Liberal 
 
 party of Prussia, Miquel.in a S] ch made in 
 
 the Prussian house of deputies, March 12.. L875, 
 said : " The system of undenominational schools 
 in the Netherlands, which prohibits teachers 
 from giving religious instruction, bul provides 
 1 permission be given to the pupils 
 ruction from the dergy- 
 .tiiinatioiis to which they 
 under the liberal ministry 
 at statesman subsequently 
 to me that the system. in- 
 iciidK relations between 
 ominatioiis. had widened 
 ils of the public schools 
 ions instruction at all, or 
 being instructed by clergymen, became more at- 
 tached to denominational' differences, than would 
 have been the case, if the religious instruction 
 had been given by the school-teacher." 
 
 hat t 
 
 line 
 
 and | 
 
 
 t'l'l 
 
 " '" 
 
 .clon 
 if Tl 
 
 -'• "' 
 
 ke. 
 
 •km n 
 
 liffei 
 
 he 1 
 
 •lit 
 
 inn,, 
 1. 1 
 
DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 217 
 
 But although the fruits of the undenomina- 1 nominations in almosl every I the numer 
 
 tional school system in Holland and elsewhere ous small townships which do not i 'I more 
 
 have failed to satistv its friends. i.ul.Ii.- .minion tha school would have made the estab- 
 
 recognizes the principle of national or communal 
 
 schools, though it authorizes the churches to 
 establish their own denominational schools. In 
 Bavaria, the new law of 1873 gives to town coun- 
 cils the power to consolidate the existing denomi- 
 
 •I Is 
 
 il thel 
 
 The leaders in the great e llet ,,f the stale ,j.,,\ 
 
 ernmentsof Kurope with the ( 'atholic ( 'hurrheon- 
 cerning the public school.all favor, more or less, 
 the undenominational school. In England, when- 
 the traditional distrust ol Qxego\ m in mat- 
 ters relating to the school i- -till very apparent in 
 the actual condition of school matters, an immense 
 majority of all the schools deriving support from 
 the government, bear a strictly denominational 
 character. The advocates of secularism in state 
 education arc. however. 1 u ■coming more tinmen >us 
 and more powerful; and even those who fav< 
 ik'Domiiii'itiiniiilisiii are beginning to endorse the 
 
 underlying principle of mil n iuat i , >i i ■ . I state 
 
 education. Says Dr. Rigg, in Nation ■'!'■'■ r- 
 tion," It must be adi litted that.it the state is to 
 all directly in the matter of popular 
 education, its own function and responsibility 
 should certainly be limited to that which is uu- 
 sectarian. and. if it were possible, would most 
 conveniently be limited to that which is secular. 
 in instruction and results. Here 1 find myself, 
 in principle, pretty well agreed with the secular- 
 ists. It is where they would forbid the co-ope- 
 ration of Christian organizations and of Chris- 
 tian teaching, otherwise pre ided. with the func- 
 tions and work of the state in popular education, 
 that, in common with most others, 1 am obliged 
 to differ." 
 
 In the United States, the undenominational 
 character of the public school has always been 
 its most distinctive feature. The teaching of the 
 doctrinal tenets of particular denominations is 
 every-where excluded from the course of instruc- 
 tion. In many states, as in Arkansas. Illinois. 
 Kansas, Kentucky. Massachusetts, Nevada. Ne- 
 braska. New Jersey. New York, Ohio, South 
 Carolina, and Wisconsin, the constitution of the 
 state expressly forbids sectarian instruction and 
 control. But even where the constitution of the 
 state has not sanctioned the principle by a spe- 
 cial provision, the practice is universally the 
 same. The growth of the undenominational 
 school was the natural fruit of the voluntary 
 system which pervades all American institutions, 
 
 family and. 
 onl\ religiou 
 of America! 
 
 >1. The 
 portion 
 i in the 
 
 the Roman Catholic ( hurch. It disapproves 
 the practice of havii v. the Bible without m te or 
 comment, i ad h\ or to the pupils : it complains 
 of the reading of a Protestant version of the 
 Bible to ( 'atholic children as an injii -t a ■ but it 
 still more objects to any system of instruction 
 which excludes the teaching of religion from its 
 regular course. It ha- tli--refoi-o. put forth the 
 claim for a division of the school funds of the 
 Mat'- aicee all role-ions denominations in a fair 
 
 I'lie fi 
 
 lamental principl which 
 
 the claim is based. that, from an educational point 
 of view, it is desirable to include religious teach- 
 ing in the regular course of instruction, has been 
 conceded by not a few of their opponents: and 
 cases have not been wanting in which Protestant 
 congregations have asked for (he support of their 
 
 denominational scl Is out of the public funds. 
 
 Some eminent statesmen also, like Win. II. Sew- 
 ard, were disposed to recognize the Catholic de- 
 mand as being. in the main. fair and to concede it. 
 Public opinion, however, in the progri - oi thi 
 controversy, has taken it very deterim,ie,l stand 
 in opposition to the Catholic view and in favor 
 of the undenominational school. The majority 
 of the American people, at the present time, un- 
 doubtedly hold that n ligion is a matter entirely 
 voluntary and individual, which everj • ■ m 
 
 should regulat ■ tin t i the dictafc i I bis 
 
 own conscience, and in which the public author- 
 ities should in no way intt i fer 
 in the eyes of I h - ti , ai on 
 ciations of families holding ti 
 
 churches, 
 
 arv asso- 
 
 of 1 
 
 religious denominations than are found any- 
 where else, live together in the possession of 
 equal rights. The co-existence of various de- 
 
 power to supply, in Sunday-schools, all the re- 
 ligious instruction the\ desire their children to 
 receive ; that the state has no right to tax people 
 
218 DENOMINATIONAL SCHOOLS 
 
 for ecclesiastical objects ; and that the exclusive 
 aim of schools supported by the public funds 
 should be to fit their pupils for the discharge of 
 their civil obligations. To the most interesting 
 episodes of this conflict belongs the religious con- 
 trowr.-v in the eitv of New York from 1840 to 
 IS4-J. "During-" the' ah- -n.-e oi Kid...]. Hughes in 
 Europe, the Catholics of the city of New York, 
 in L839, organized an opposition to the public- 
 school system. « >n hi-, return, bishop Hugh..-., in 
 1840, himself took the lead, and drew up a peti- 
 tion to the common council, praying that seven 
 parochial schools should be designated as ''en- 
 titled to participate in the common-school fund, 
 upon complying with the requirements of the 
 law. " Bisdemand being rejected by the common 
 council, the matter was brought befi re the legis- 
 lature: and when he was baffled in his suit there 
 aLso, he recommended the Catholics to nominate 
 independent candidates in the ensuing election-. 
 
 thus nmeneing a movement which developed 
 
 into considerable strength. The controversy was 
 finally settled by the passage of the act of April 
 11., 1842, which provided that "no school shall 
 be entitled to. or receive, any portion of the school 
 moneys, in which the religious doctrines or teiieis 
 of any particular Christian or other religious 
 sect shall be taught, inculcated, or practiced, or 
 in which any book or books containing compo- 
 sitions favorable or prejudicial to the particular 
 doctrines or tenets of any sect shall be used." 
 The Catholic bishops have since taken the same 
 ground as bishop Hughes; and. in many cases. 
 
 have adopted very decisive ;i-mv, aguin-t th ■ 
 
 public schools. In some places, as in Pough- 
 keepsie. N. Y.. a compromise has been effected 
 between the common council and the represen- 
 tatives of the Catholic congregations, by means 
 of which the parochial schools have been placed 
 under the supervision of the city superintendent, 
 and thus enabled to participate in the school 
 fund of the city; but on the whole, public op- 
 pinion appears to pronounce itself in favor of 
 fully carrying out the principle of the undenomi- 
 national school, without the slightest compromise. 
 When the subject was agitated in Ohio, in the 
 electoral campaign of 1874, the state conventions 
 of both Republicans and Democrats formally de- 
 clared in favor of the principle of the unsectariau 
 school. The legislature of New York, in April 
 1876, almost unanimously declared itself in favor 
 of the same principle. President Crant. in his 
 message of Dec. 7, 1875, thought it proper to 
 bring this matter to the attention of Congress, 
 and most earnestly recommended that a constitu- 
 tional amendment should be submitted to the 
 legislatures of the several states for ratification, 
 making it the duty of each of the states to 
 establish and forever maintain free schools ade- 
 (piate to afford an elementary education to all 
 the children within its limits, irrespective of se\. 
 color, birthplace. <>r religion, forbidding the teach- 
 ing, in said schools, of religious, atheistic, or pagan 
 tenets, and prohibiting the granting of any school 
 film Is. or school taxes, or any part thereof, cither 
 by legislative, municipal, or other authority, for 
 
 
 DETROIT 
 
 the benefit 
 
 or in aid, directly or indirectly, of any 
 
 religious si 
 
 ct or denomination. — See S. S. Ran- 
 
 DALL, Ilisll 
 
 ry of Common Schools of New York 
 
 N.Y.,187 
 
 |; Bouse, History of the School System 
 
 of the C 
 
 qf \ )■ rl V V.. L869); Has- 
 
 sard, Life 
 
 f Archbishop Hughes (N.Y.,1866); 
 
 Porri B 
 
 igixm in Public Schools; The pro- 
 
 
 h i, it,, in qf sectarian for public free 
 
 
 cw Haven, 1848): Rigg, National 
 
 Education 
 
 in Us Social Conditions and Aspects 
 
 (London. 1 
 
 »,:: ; Vino. The Bible in the Public 
 
 Schools N 
 
 V.. 1870); Bourne, History qf the 
 
 Public Scl, 
 
 So i iN. Y. 1870); Wimmer, 
 
 D„ Eire) 
 
 and Schult in Jfordamerika (Leips., 
 
 II, II, I 
 
 DENTISTRY, Schools of. See .Medical 
 
 Sc |.s. 
 
 DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEM, or Sub- 
 ject System, a method of school organization 
 
 in which each department of instruction or sub- 
 ject of study is assigned to a particular teacher. 
 instead of requiring each teaeln r to give instruc- 
 tion to a particular class in all the branches of 
 Study pursued. This system is rarely employed 
 in schools for primary instruction; but, in those 
 of a higher grade, is nearly univ< real. In regard 
 to its advantages and disadvantages, as compared 
 wnh the class system, many considerations are 
 urged: ami tne experience of instructors seems 
 to be quite diverse as to its success. The chief 
 argument in its favor is, that it would narrow 
 the range of subjects required to be mastered by 
 a single" teacher! ami. in this way. improve the 
 character of the instruction imparted. For other 
 considerations in regard to this question, see 
 Class. 
 
 DEPRAVITY. See Moral Education. 
 
 DES MOINES, University of, at Des 
 Moines. Iowa. was chartered in 1865. It is under 
 
 the c tn >1 of the 1 '.aptists. and admits both sexes. 
 
 It occupies a fine park of five acres, and a four- 
 story brick building on an eminence command- 
 ing a fine view of the city and vicinity. The 
 library contains 2,000 volumes. The value of 
 its building, grounds, and apparatus is $50,000 : 
 the amount of its productive funds sin.niHl. In 
 1875 — <;, there wen- 6 instructors and 139 pre- 
 paratory and Is collegiate students. The Hon. 
 Frederick Mott is (1876) president. 
 
 DETROIT, the principal city of Michigan, 
 situated on the N. W. side of the Detroit river. 
 about 18 miles from Lake Erie. The river is 
 only about a half a mile wide at this point; 
 hence the name of the city I Pr. Detroit, narrow]. 
 
 The populate f this city, according to the 
 
 census of 1870, was 79,597, of whom 35,381 were 
 of foreign birth, and of these nearly 13,000 were 
 natives of Germany. The number of colored 
 persons was 2,325. The first permanent settle- 
 ment on the site of this city was made by the 
 
French in 1701. In 1763, it passed under the 
 government of the Knglish. 
 
 Kliinitiiiiiiil Ilisttirii.—'VW earliest scl ] hav- 
 ing any authentic record is thai of the Rev. 
 
 David Bacon, established in 1802. Two years 
 afterward, mention is made of two other 
 schools, but. particulars in regard to them have 
 not been preserved. A theological school was 
 opened at this time also; mil the fire of 1805 
 caused it to lie discontinued. About this time, 
 the first free school in the city was opened, un- 
 der Catholic control, near St. Ann's Church, on 
 Lamed street. It was a girls' school; and an in- 
 teresting fact in regard to it is. that three dozen 
 spinning-wheels were kept in theschool, on which 
 
 regard to schools from the time of thegreat tire 
 ly meager. -\ so- 
 opened on the 10th of 
 " f New England: 
 
 HOIT 219 
 
 present law was passed. The first board of edu 
 cation met March 15., 1842, consisting of twelve 
 
 
 in- a portion of the llible \n ithout comment st„-|, 
 rcadn,- to be optional Willi the lead,,.,, and at 
 
 tended with the penalty of re val in case of 
 
 comment In L847, the number of children be- 
 tween the aces of 5 and 1 7. was 2 239. The first 
 graded school, known as the old Capitol Scl I. 
 
 of 1805 to 181 
 
 6, isexcecdil, 
 
 called common 
 
 school 
 
 vas op, 
 
 dune, L816, by 
 
 a Mr. 
 
 la n for 
 
 and, in July 
 
 followii 
 
 ". he 
 
 1817, the cove 
 establish the "< 
 
 'a'thoic 
 
 
 Michigania". 
 
 The en 
 
 rgies i 
 
 this formidable 
 
 instil 
 
 ition, 
 
 have been spen 
 
 
 ■ pro! 
 
 and the passag 
 
 of tic 
 
 
 lishme.nt, as n 
 
 
 
 
 
 found, though 
 
 the re 
 
 ult of 
 
 the Catholepis 
 
 emiad 
 
 Act, \ 
 
 the public taxe 
 
 3 by 15 
 
 
 of a primary si 
 
 iooI. ai 
 
 d the , 
 
 inc. writing, a 
 
 , lie 111 
 
 c. and 
 
 in the classical i 
 
 1 III pi 
 epartn 
 
 ent'i.f 
 
 was li igun in 
 
 818. 
 
 I'll,- sa 
 
 teriau school was es 
 
 ablislu. 
 
 was committet 
 
 to tl 
 
 e care 
 
 who had been 
 by the trustees 
 
 special! 
 if the 
 
 
 branch of whic 
 In 1834, on the 
 
 had 1 
 
 v occii| 
 
 n of read- 
 
 • of Michigan, a 
 shed in Detroit. 
 
 ai i by the city-hall 
 
 was erected a building for a female seminary, 
 which was continued till 1842. In 1836, W. 
 A. Bacon opened a select school on the site 
 of the present cathedral, which he conducted 
 for 38 years. In 1838, a public school was 
 opened m the second ward; and, in 1841, the 
 first separate colored school was opened, with 88 
 pupils. The unsatisfactory operation of the school 
 law, however, led to the appointment, in 1841, of a 
 special committee of inspection, which reported 
 that there were 27 schools in the city, furnishing 
 instruction to 714 pupils, at a cost' of $12,600; 
 while there were L.850 children without instruc- 
 tion. The result of this examination was a rec- 
 ommendation that the legislature be petitioned 
 for an amendment of the citv charter permitting 
 the creation, by annual popular vote, of a board 
 of education, and direct taxation for the support 
 of the schools. The opponents of this proposition 
 were numerous; but the measure was sustained 
 by the people at an election ordered for the pur- 
 pose, and was embodied in a. law Feb. L8., L842. 
 tJnder this law, with a few amendments, the 
 schools were administered till 1868, when the 
 
 lull (he resulting 
 
 election, in L853, expressed the 
 
 will of a large n 
 
 ajority of the people in opposi- 
 
 tion to such divi 
 
 aon, and the question has not 
 
 been revived T 
 
 te first high school was estab 
 
 l.shed in l.s.-ifv ' 
 
 'he supervision of the schools 
 
 was originally co 
 
 dined to the inspectors, and so 
 
 continued till 18 
 
 13, when J. M. B. Sill was ap- 
 
 pointed to the d 
 
 ice of superintendent. His sue- 
 
 
 as Duane Doty, who held the 
 
 II'' v.: til 1. 
 
 when Mr. Sill was re-appointed, 
 
 and again appoin 
 
 ted in 1876, for .'! years. 
 
 
 Tic- care, if the schools is in- 
 
 trusted to a boon 
 
 ofedu r; i h, consisting of two 
 
 biennially. one h,- 
 
 eh ward, • lected by the people 
 If going ou1 -I office each year. 
 
 The mayor and r 
 
 icorde- are members, ex officio 
 
 but without vote 
 
 The board appoints annually 
 
 a superintendent 
 
 whose duties are those usually 
 
 milts on every itoitar oi real ami personal prop 
 city. The school year comprises a period ,,( not 
 less than 3 months. The school age is from 5 
 to "J I) years. Connected with the system is a 
 public library, the building for which was ,,ul\ 
 recently begun. The schools tire divided into 
 three classes: primary, grammar, and high 
 
 scl Is. The total number of schools, in 1875, 
 
 was L's, including - evening schools. The chief 
 items of schuni statistics for the year are : 
 
 Number of children of school age (5—20) 34,593 
 
 enrolled 13,739 
 
 Average enrollment .(number beloicjinc). . .. ii.'.'IM 
 
 daily attendam e 8,760 
 
 Number of teachers, males 9 
 
 females 212 
 
 Total 221 
 
 Receipts (1875) 8211,690.2: 
 
 I. ;pi I, lit., i, - 1S75) 
 
 I .,'.,1 , all, 1. 1. .a of school pro], city.. . . 
 
 Besides the public schools, there are several 
 Catholic schools, a German Lutheran school a 
 Ccrinaii-Anierican seminary, and several public 
 
 hi, lanes cnitai u about 40.0H0 volumes. For 
 
 information in regard to institutions for highei 
 
 Mi, i 
 
 tls iii relation to the early educational 
 
 t Heir,, ii. see W. D.Wilkins R 
 
 ml Traditions of the Detroit Schools, 
 
 1 in the Tin-Htii-e'ttpith Annual Import of 
 •dqf Education (Detroit, 1871). 
 
DEVELOPING METHOD 
 
 DEVELOPING METHOD is a term in- 
 troduced into the science and practice of peda- 
 gogy through the philosophy of Herbart. and 
 
 popularized among Fairopean teachers through 
 followers, Beneke and I >iestei weg. 11 
 means an education of the natural endowments 
 of the individual according to the psychologic 
 laws of human development, and to the exelusion 
 of all purposes foreign to such development. The 
 term, in some respects, is a misnomer, as it im- 
 plies far more than it expresses. It means a 
 system, realized in. or applicable to. a variety of 
 educai al methods, and based on the fundamen- 
 tal principle, that human nature alone, as devel- 
 oped and shown in its best products through a 
 long historical period, should be the guiding star 
 in all educational efforts. Herbart, who was the 
 first among the German philosophers, in oppo- 
 sition to the prevailing speculative philosophy, 
 to apply the method of induction to philosophy, 
 and who based his system on inductive psy- 
 chology, and treated the latter mathematically, 
 wrote as early as 1806 a work on pedagogy, en- 
 title 1 /'< ■ atigenu ine Pcedagogik, a 
 ili-m Zir.;-l- i'/i'r Er:b-h ,/ „,/. in which the new 
 drift of educational ideas inanuniited by Rous- 
 seau and Pestalozzi. was reduced t,, logical prin- 
 ciples, lie was the first in history to render in- 
 telligible the processes in the human soul which 
 lead to memory, comparison, thedistiin it i.n>l nc 
 pressions and their growth into mental images. 
 notions, judgment and reason, disposition and 
 
 will; and, in so doing, he reasoned ti the 
 
 established facts of consciousness and developed 
 a long scries of mathematical form < a evi- 
 dences of his correctness in interpreter ;h ■ i ■■<--. 
 Beneke, more straightforward than I hi but. gave, 
 
 in his Lehrbuch der Psychologie als A it>a s •/<- 
 
 srhnfl lis:!.'!), and Ki-'zii-hini-js- >/„,} Unti'i-rirhln- 
 lehre ( L835), a very lucid and common-sense ex- 
 position of this new system of psychology, in its 
 application to pedagogy, which, through Diester- 
 weg's practical treatises and school books, grew 
 almost universally popular among the German 
 teachers. What the ■■n,hit;,,,i lln-nri/ is in modern 
 natural scienct — an explanation of natural effects 
 from natural causes according to general laws 
 that can be verified by the evidences of the senses 
 and logical reasoning, that is the developing 
 iifllniil with regard to mental facts and laws, in 
 matters of education. The founders of this 
 system did not go so far as to reach all the legiti- 
 mate conclusions which may ultimately be drawn 
 from its principle, and which wei ■ drawn by the 
 succeeding generation of teacher- The sy tem, 
 as now taught and practiced by men like Hittes 
 and some of Froebel's followers, has undergone a 
 scries of gradual improvements, and seems capable 
 of many more; since human nature itself is a 
 subject that receives, through the constant im- 
 provement of all the natural science^, a daily 
 increasing illustration. Nor is there, as yet, 
 a tolerably full agreement among the foremost 
 
 pedagogical writers upon what may be consid- 
 ered the genuine development of human nature; 
 but the principle itself, that the spontaneous 
 
 growth of all the faculties of the mind into 
 the greatest possible harmony should be facil- 
 itated according to the laws of normal devel- 
 opment, not counteracted: guided, but not 
 curbed ; and all this in the order which is in- 
 dicated by nature herself — this principle seems 
 to be so well established, that, henceforth, oidy 
 its interpretation can be doubtful. 
 
 This new psychology sails clear of all the rocks 
 of preconcerted systems and of the maelstrom 
 of party strife; it deals with none but demon- 
 strable facts. Such facts arc. that there is no 
 beginning of mental action in the newborn child 
 except by impressions from without; that the 
 latter, called /races, cannot grow into distinct 
 images without a grouping of the traces in an 
 order corresponding to the outward objects ; 
 that we can verify by actual experiment, both 
 with animals and men. the laws according to 
 which equal traces strengthen each other similar 
 
 sions, cli ar traces; tnal one trace or sei oi traces 
 is for a time obscured by new ones, and that the 
 consciousness of an image is the effect of either 
 pleasure or pain of the mind in consequence of 
 
 the impressions, etc.. etc. The tl ry goes on to 
 
 shovi that all the higher mental processes are re- 
 petitions of the photographic action of the first 
 
 traces, in a highe 
 matical exact) 
 
 is. therefore. ] 
 ical systems. 
 and psycholog 
 
 ..rdc 
 
 .Ho' 
 
 , i 1 1 1 mathe- 
 
 the conditions 
 
 iv be ignored and left to the 
 
 •nt of science ; but it is all-im- 
 rogy, to demonstrate clearly all 
 thout which no mind can grots . 
 whatever the nature of mind itself may be con- 
 sidered to be. 
 
 It is. therefore, of the first importance to cul- 
 tivate the action of the senses, the gates to all 
 mental development, in such a way as to render 
 them self-active by their appropriate combina- 
 tion with pleasure and pain: next, to offer 1. 1 their 
 self-activity a succession of outward impressions 
 which will leave distinct and, by repetition, 
 lasting traces and the most complete images of 
 objects, accompanied by sensations and impulses. 
 The first consciousness being thusawakencd.it 
 follows that a comparison and distinction of the 
 representations once produced must lead to both 
 clear notions of their single features and clear 
 consciousness of the mind, without which the 
 origin of self-consciousness woidd be retarded, 
 and its growth stunted. The latter taking its 
 start from the first efforts in speaking, language 
 becomes the chief means of education, and its 
 proper use on the part of the educator, in con- 
 nection with the objects designated, the way to 
 the subsequent norma] development. The gap 
 in this system left between this stage and the 
 first school age was not tilled until Kroebel. 
 siartiiie from a somewhat different standpoint. 
 invented his kindergarten plays. 
 
DEVELOPING METHOD 221 
 
 Great stress is, in this system, laid on the gradual had to dedi for themselves From a comparison 
 
 progress of education, which, alter all. is little <>t examples, Eraser anil Vogel improved this 
 more than instruction, a somewhat one-sided method, which is liable to be too mechanically 
 
 
 crease of every mental faculty. '1 
 
 he pupil is t 
 
 be rendered his own teacher; his 
 
 
 to be fostered first, last, and a1 all 
 
 
 or^a^n^rreflectio^Thwh! 
 
 in'ainw/', 
 
 teaching, plays so prominent a pai 
 
 . is made ui 
 
 aeces8ary by stimulating the menti 
 
 1 appetite an 
 
 digestive power of the pupil ; wliati 
 
 ver is fully ui 
 
 derstoodwil] foreverremai enta 
 
 property. \ 
 
 mechanical .hill. and all r.il pre 
 
 chins is uioi 
 
 hurtful than useful, because skill n 
 
 
 to grow out of repeated self-appi 
 
 ■| .t i.i 1 1. 1 1 eoi 
 
 nected with that pleasure whicl 
 
 ,i mpnnii 
 
 the satisfaction of everj mental 
 
 ippetite; an 
 
 because an appropriate mental foi 
 
 1 is conduct 
 
 to moral power. Development in 
 
 
 opment, guided by well-developed 
 
 
 higher standard of abilities and 
 
 
 the educator than ever before hai 
 
 been deeme 
 
 necessary. This necessity led to 
 
 i considerabl 
 
 improvement in the course of tra 
 
 nine. if pupi 
 
 teachers in the German and other i 
 
 ormal school 
 
 "The teacher is the school, was 
 
 the maxim ii 
 
 culcated there. If he be the 
 
 •roper perso 
 
 destined by natural gifts anil pr< 
 
 
 calling by a careful study of men! 
 
 
 and alone' theoretic anil praetic; 
 
 1 training, h 
 
 will make up for the short-comings 
 
 ot text-book 
 
 apparatus, and previous education 
 
 If he be fll 
 
 of enthusiasm for his sacred ta 
 
 k of formin 
 
 he will 
 
 Mllil 
 
 means of their self-ilevelopiuciit. The rational 
 sobriety of this system was greatly aided by the 
 marvelous spirit of self-devotion and educational 
 enthusiasm which had been engendered in the 
 teaching fraternity by Pestalozzi ; and it may 
 be called a fact, that hardly ever, or anywhere. 
 was there done such intelligent and faithful 
 work in thousands of school- ;m,| tor so .^eanty a 
 remuneration, as in the detn loping-rm thod schools 
 
 up to the period of the "Scl I Regulations " 
 
 (Sckulref/uliitiri j ). 
 
 Among the reforms in special methods that 
 followed in the wake of this system, must first 
 be mentioned the introduction of phonic or 
 phonetic reading. Spelling was altogether super- 
 seded, and orthographical writing exercises sub- 
 stituted, based on a few rules which the pupils 
 
 Readers) and 
 which must b 
 
 hi, national 
 
 
 in ling ti 
 
 s at a very early 
 
 c eiitrie circles : 
 
 ions even before 
 lessons in special 
 ler (Pestalozzian) 
 crowded out when 
 
 all teaching became olyect teaching; yet spe- 
 cial object lessons in zoology and botany, e,. 
 
 etry and geography, remained favorite branches 
 in most plans of teaching. The method of teach- 
 ing the mother-tongue is also very variable : but. 
 through all that variety, a tendency is conspic- 
 uous to make the most of the pupil's self activity 
 by guiding him to form .sentences orally and in 
 writing, whether for orthographical, grammat- 
 ical, rhetorical, or elocutionary purposes. Gram- 
 matical analysis with parking till, far less ti 
 
 than synthesis. It is a strange fact that the 
 study of Latin and Greek has. only very recently 
 and to a very limited extent, been subjected to 
 the same method; but the modern languages 
 were treated in the analytico-synthetic waj (this 
 way ought not to be confounded with the Aim 
 or Ollendorf method, from which it is distin- 
 
222 DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES 
 
 guished by scientific, pedagogic spirit, and a far 
 greater efficiency). This method may be called 
 Mager's method. There is an endless variety of 
 special methods in all branches of primary and 
 secondary instruction, which it is not necessary 
 here to explain. 
 
 It is useless to discuss the merits and short- ; 
 comings of special methods, since any one of them 
 that has passed the ordeal of a practical applica- 
 tion in the school room may be called good, be- 
 cause adapted to the genius both of the teacher 
 and his particular class of pupils. No single prac- 
 tical method can claim universal applicability ; 
 every one will have to be modified to be adapted, 
 not only to every other teacher's peculiar de- 
 velopment, but also to that of every other 
 class or pupil. He is a bad follower of the 
 developing method who treats, year in ami year 
 out, every new class of pupils according to a 
 stereotyped manner for each branch of instruc- 
 tion, instead of accommodating himself to the 
 wants of the class. The developing method 
 means nothing more nor less than that there 
 shall be method in all the teacher's doings.— a 
 well-concerted plan, calculated to develop every 
 gift of each pupil by educating him to self- 
 activity in every branch of the curriculum, and 
 to produce a certain degree if uniform general 
 development without neglecting either the for- 
 ward, or the backward portion of his ela>s. And 
 high as this standard of abilities in the true edu- 
 cation may be, experience proves thai It Will lie 
 almost universally realized, if the position of th ■ 
 teacher be sufficiently remunerative, independent, 
 and honored, to attract to the profession all 
 pel-sons born to lie teachers. This realization has, 
 moreover, been considerably facilitated by the 
 preparation for the primary classes, which may 
 lie obtained from Froebel's kindergarten. 
 DEVOTIONAL EXERCISES. See Hi 
 
 DIARY, School, a daily record of the les- 
 sons, recitations, deportment, etc., of pupils, kept 
 in a small book winch is taken home each day, 
 or each week, to be exhibited to the parents, 
 whose inspection is attested by their signature 
 previous to the diary's being returned to the 
 teacher. Thus, a constant correspondence is kept 
 up between parent and teacher, the former being 
 continuously informed of the child's progress, 
 merit or demerit, and behavior: and thus enabled 
 intelligently to co-operate in his school edueation. 
 Instead of the diary, some teachers prefer the 
 monthly report. (See School Records.) 
 
 DICKINSON COLLEGE, at ( 'arlisle. Pa., 
 was founded in 1783. Since 1 833, it has been 
 under the control of the Methodisl Episcopal 
 Church, prior to which date it was under Pres- 
 byterian control. Prominent among it- founders 
 were John Dickinson, first governor of Penn- 
 sylvania, and Dr. Benjamin Bush of Philadel- 
 phia. Before the late war. its patronage was 
 largely from the South: since that event, it has 
 depended for patronage chiefly on the Middle 
 States. The value of grounds, iiuildings. and ap- 
 paratus is $150,000; the amount of productive 
 
 DICKINSON COLLEGE 
 
 funds, $175,000. The cost of tuition is merely 
 nominal. being by scholarships, the whole expense 
 of winch is $25 for the four years' course. The 
 board of trustees have recently established the 
 following departments of study, and propose 
 to carry out the university principle of elective 
 courses, as far as the means at their command will 
 permit: Hi moral science; (2) ancient languages 
 and literature: (3) pure mathematics ; (4) phi- 
 losophy and English literature, including history 
 and Constitutional law: (5) physics and mixed 
 mathematics, and the application of calculus to 
 natural philosophy, astronomy, and mechanics: 
 (6) chemistry, and its application to agriculture 
 and the arts; (7) physieal geography, natural 
 history, mineralogy and geology; B modern 
 languages; (9) civil and mining engineering, 
 and metallurgy. The scheme embraces much 
 more than can be accomplished in four years. 
 Those students who wish to obtain the collegiate 
 degrees are required to devote the earlier part 
 of their course, as heretofore, mainly to the 
 elements of classical learning and the pure 
 mathematics; but, for the latter part, certain 
 studies are made optional, and those who go 
 through any of the prescribed special courses, 
 obtain the decree of Bachelor of Arts equally 
 with those who complete the classical course. 
 These special courses are the Scientific Course, 
 in which Mich students as desire a re allowed to 
 substitute practical chemistry for the Latin and 
 Greek of the junior and senior years, and the 
 Biblical Course, in which students preparing for 
 the Christian ministry are allowed to take lie- 
 brew and New Testament Greek in their junior 
 and senior years, in place of equivalent studies, 
 chiefly mathematical. A partial course, of about 
 two years, and embracing such studies from 
 the regular curriculum as bear directly upon 
 any special vocation, can be pursued by stu- 
 dents not intending to graduate. The college 
 has a museum containing specimens in mineral- 
 ogy, geology, and natural history, and a cabinet 
 of ancient coins ; valuable philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus: and an astronomical ob- 
 servatory, provided with an achromatic tele- 
 scope. The college library contains about 8,000 
 volumes; those of the 'I'.elles-Lettres Society 
 and the Union Philosophical Society about 
 10,1 each. In 1874 — 5, there were 7 pro- 
 fessors and 8s students. There is a law depart- 
 ment under the charge of the professor of law. 
 The presidents of the college have been as fol- 
 lows : Charles Xisbet, D.D., 1784— 1804; Rob- 
 ert Davidson, D.D. (pro tern.), 1804—9; Jere- 
 miah At water. D.D.,1809— 15; John McKnight, 
 |l D [on, ten)) 1S15— III; John Mitchell Ma- 
 
 Durbin, D.D., 1833—45; Robert Emory, D.D., 
 
 1S45— S: Jesse Truesdale Peck, D. D.. 1848— 
 52; Charles Collins, D. D., 1852— 60 ; Herman 
 Merrills Johnson. D. !>.. 1S60— 7; Robert L. 
 Dashiell, I>. D., 1868 — 72; and James A. 
 McCauley, D. D., the present incumbent, ap- 
 pointed in 1872. 
 
DICTATION DICTIOls \I.V 223 
 
 DICTATION, a school exercise in which the and much additional information of greal value, 
 
 lacher reads or speaks (dictates) to the pupils This work isalarge quarto, of L840 pagi and 
 
 hat is to be written by the latter for practice i tains about 1 11 .(ton words. The elaborate 
 
 Webster's, and 
 
 In this respect, it supplements n,j, ,/,„.,, wii 
 
 exclusively disciprines the eye. 
 
 DICTIONARY, a book containing a lis( 
 all the words of a language, alphabetically 
 ranged, with information in regard to tli 
 derivation, meaning, ami use. The Greek™ 
 lexicon is frequently used to designate a dicti 
 ary of the words of a foreign language 
 term ghi 
 obsolete, 
 
 tillitio,, I 
 
 how, 
 
 but 
 
 pl.t. 
 
 ran ir> 
 
 coll'.. 
 
 also 
 
 grap 
 
 .1 in the Xew En-land -tat, 
 
 ebster's Dictionary is, howev, 
 
 pan- oi the I uited Stab 
 
 to denote a collection of technical, 
 
 pupilsto Irani byroteth 
 
 ther words requiring special de- 
 
 of -words fro,,, abridged 
 
 tonation. A dictionary of facts 
 
 tors, the alphabetical an 
 
 encydop edia if it embraces the 
 
 ing followed in the assi 
 
 if the full circle of sciences, and 
 
 this absurd practice is 
 
 it it treat- it a ~ ] ). -. i; 1 1 depart- 
 
 obsolete. After a certaii 
 
 edge. These two terms are not. 
 
 in learning to read, it is 
 portaiuv that the pupils 
 
 vs used with this discrimination, 
 
 applied indifferently to any min- 
 
 simple ilietionaries. and 
 
 eoni)ilete collection of 
 language was the Uni- 
 lish Dictionary (Lon- 
 ley, which subsequent- 
 lasis upon which Dr. 
 •at work. Johnson's 
 755, after seven years 
 fly entitled its author 
 ler of English lexicog- 
 larged by Todd in the 
 
 raphy. It was 
 
 edit a of 1814 
 
 dictionaries published in England since the time 
 
 of .lolinson are Walker's (171»1). Enfield's (1807), 
 liooths lis:;;,). Smart's (ls.'Ki), and Richardson's 
 (1837). The catalogue of works of this kind is, 
 however, verv extensive; but the most important 
 is the elaborate work of Dr. Richardson, entitled 
 a New Dictionary of the English Language 
 
 tion is given, in 
 
 the h: 
 
 rk, to tin 
 
 nolo-. 
 
 words and their illustration by copious citations 
 from standard writers : and the arrangement is 
 in t he alphabetical order of the primitives, be- 
 neath each of which its derivatives are grouped. 
 Of this work. Dean Trench remarks, " It is the 
 only English dictionary in which etymology as- 
 sumes the dignity of a science." 
 
 The first dictionary of any importance published 
 in the United States was the first edition of 
 Webster's American Dictionary of tlie English 
 Language (2 vols.. It,,. X. Y .. 1828 . Of this 
 work, revised and enlarge leditionswere published 
 in L840 and L843, during the life ol the author: 
 bui m L848, a new edition, revised and enlarged 
 
 by Prof, (i Inch, was issued at Springfield, 
 
 Mass., and in L864, a still larger edition was 
 published in Springfield, with revised etymologies 
 
 lead to a more accurate knowledge of their lan- 
 guage, more especially its orthoepy, in which 
 most persons, even those of considerable culture 
 otherwise, are apt to be quite faulty. In pur- 
 suing this method, the following course of pro- 
 cedure will be found beneficial : (1) The teacher 
 assigns a certain portion of reading matter, or a 
 certain number of selected words, which the 
 pupil is to study critically by the use of the dic- 
 tionary, as far as may be necessary; (2) The 
 pupil learns, from the dictionary, the meaning 
 or definition of those which he does not under- 
 stand, and next studies lmw to illustrate their 
 application by using them in sentence,, or by 
 citations from standard authors; (3) In an ad- 
 vanced stage, the student gives more critical at- 
 tention to the precise shades of meaning of the 
 words usually deemed to be synonymous, and 
 learns how to make a proper discrimination in 
 the use of such words. For this purpose, such 
 works as Roget's Thesaurus and Crabbe's Syn- 
 onyms will be found important auxiliaries to 
 the unabridged dictionary of either Webster to 
 Worcester. 
 
 To the tea. In -r. no acquisition is more impor- 
 tant than a critical knowledge ,,f the orthography, 
 pronunciation, meaning, and proper use of words 
 in his own language: and. hence, a good dic- 
 tionary should always be at hand for the deter 
 ruination of those doubtful points which, with 
 even the best scholar and the most experienced 
 teacher, will sometimes arise. A die: 
 therefot a part of the school apparatus, which 
 cannot be dispensed with. 
 
 In the study of a foreign language, the diction- 
 ary is needed at a much earlier f tagc than in the 
 study of the vernacular ; although modern edu 
 
'.'•24 
 
 DICTIONARY 
 
 cators strongly advocate that the process of ac- 
 quiring a foreign language should lie made, as 
 much as possible, to conform to the manner in 
 which the child learns to speak his nat h e tongue. 
 The number of words of the foreign language 
 which can be learned in this way must, however, 
 be always quite limited, and hence the constant ; 
 need of consulting the dictionary. It is a note 
 worthy fact in this connection, that the science 
 of lexicography has been developed by the need 
 of dictionaries to facilitate the study, if foreign 
 languages, not the native tongue. Though the 
 Greeks and Romans, and even some of the 
 oriental nations before them, had vocabularies of 
 the words of their languages, arranged more or 
 less in alphabetical order, the origin of complete 
 dictionaries is no earlier than the time when the 
 study of the classics was revived in Italy. The 
 mi i I. inn. us. though not the first among these 
 was f'.i/rpiiio (Latin Lexicon. Kcggi... I oO'J ). fr.ui) 
 whose name is derived the French word calepin 
 (a commonplace-book). But the path in which 
 modern lexicographers have gained so much dis- 
 tinction was first opened in 1532 by Robert 
 Stephens (Ft. IStienne or Eslii nne) by the pub- 
 lication of the Thesatir s / i Latino- and 
 
 Benry Stephens's Thesaurus Lingua Grcecce, 
 published in 1572, in 5 volumes, but abridged 
 l.\ Scapula, who issued in loT'J Is.rinm l.Vn.ii- 
 Latinum novum. (See Stephens.) These works 
 were the first notable attempts to develop the 
 various in callings of every word, and to make 
 scientific arrangement no less an essential feature 
 than completeness of vocabulary. Among the 
 most prominent of the sine Hue I, .geogra- 
 phers, are. Forcellini, Scheller, Kreuud. and 
 Georges for the Latin, and Passow for the Creek. 
 Forcellini was chiefly distinguished for illus- 
 trating the meaning of every word by examples 
 from classical authors; and the Germans just 
 named, developed this feature to a high degree 
 of perfection. The first Latin-English dic- 
 tionary was edited by Sir Thomas Elyot (Lon- 
 don. l.MtS): the most famous was that of Ains- 
 worth (q. v.). The work of Forcellini was the 
 basis ot the Uvtin-English dictionary of Leverett 
 (Boston, 1836), and that of Freund, of the 
 Latin-English dictionary of E. A. Andrews 
 (New York. Is.ui). The Creek lexicon of Pas- 
 sow is the basis of the Greek-English lexicon of 
 Liddell & Scott (Oxford. 1845) and its Ameri- 
 can revision by Drisler (New York. 1848). It is 
 a noteworthy fact in the history of English and 
 American education, that until the present cen- 
 tury the Greek language was studied through 
 the medium of the Latin, and there were no 
 Greek-English, but only Greek-Latin lexicons. 
 The Germans, for a considerable time previously, 
 had published lexicons in their own language, 
 and the French had followed their example. 'Hie 
 first Greek-English lexicon announced (in 1814) 
 was that of John Pickering, which was based on 
 the Greek-Latin dictionary of Schrevelius. But 
 before it was published ( Hoston. Is26i. a similar 
 work, the Greek and English Lexicon of John 
 Jones (London, 1823), appeared in England. The 
 
 Lexicon of Donnegan (London, 182") was pro- 
 fessedly, in substance, a translation of Passow's 
 work: and Dunbar's Greek and English Lexi- 
 con (Edinburgh, 1843) was chiefly a reprint of 
 the second edition (18211) of Pickering's work. 
 Creat improvements in the adaptation of the 
 classical dictionary to school purposes were in- 
 troduced by Ingerslev's Latin-German Lexicon 
 .1st edit., 1852; 4th. L876). Before him. it 
 had been the aim of lexicographers in general 
 to attain the greatest possible completeness 
 of words and their different meanings; and 
 the works of smaller compass wen- condensed 
 abridgements. Ingerslev conceived the idea of 
 a school dictionary in the strictest sense of the 
 term. It was to be limited to those writers 
 whose works are usually read in classical schools, 
 and was designed to explain sufficiently every 
 difficult passage occurring in any of this class of 
 authors. By "referring in succession to all the 
 synonyms of a word, and only defining the dis- 
 tinctive meaning of the word itself, the .syno- 
 nymic clement of the language, as far as it is of 
 value for the pupil of a Latin school, is explained 
 in the smallest possible compass. The poetic, later, 
 and ante-classic use or meaning of every word is 
 pointed out by appropriate abbreviations: the 
 remainder is classic. This plan has met with 
 universal approval among Gorman scholars: and 
 a number of other works have since been pub- 
 lished, the most important of which are those 
 by Georges (1st edit.. 1864 : 3d edit.. 1874), and 
 Beinichen (Leips., 1864), for the Latin: and 
 by Benseler (4th edit., 1872), and Schenkl (3d 
 edit., L867) for the Greek. The lexicon of In- 
 gerslev is the basis of the Latin-English lexicon 
 of Crooks and Schem (Philadelphia, 1857). A 
 large number of special dictionaries to classic 
 authors, especially those read by beginners, have 
 been prepared, but many educators disapprove 
 of the use of books of this class. ( >n the other 
 hand, the compilation of an elementary diction- 
 ary specially suited for the study of the Latin 
 writers read by beginners has been recommended, 
 and a good work of the kind has been edited by 
 Georges [Latein isch-deuisches Schuhcorterbuch, 
 Leipsic, 1876). 
 
 The dictionaries of modern languages are 
 either unilingual, intended for the natives of a 
 country, or bilingual, intended for the study of a 
 language other than the vernacular. The former 
 more or less resemble in their history and scope the 
 English works referred to above. Slany works of 
 the former class owe their origin to learn. .1 socie- 
 ties. Among them is the celebrated 1 talian diction- 
 ary delta Orusca [Vocabidario degli accademici 
 della < rusca, first published in 1612). The fame of 
 this work is. however, greater than its real merit, 
 for it is. in fact, only a dictionary of the Tuscan 
 dialect, and while regarding the 14th century as 
 the Augustan age of Italian literature, it slighted 
 the distinguished writers of the 16th century. It 
 was subsequently enlarged and improved (Flor- 
 ence, 1729 — 1738), and in this augmented form 
 is still the standard authority for the Italian lan- 
 guage. — Spain also owes its largest dictionary to 
 
DICTIONARY 
 
 the Spanish Academy (6 vols.. Madrid, 1726 — 
 1739), which became the absolute standard of 
 Spanish orthography; it was, in the present cent- 
 ury, revised and greatly enlarged bj Salva who 
 added more than 20,000 words 1st edit., L846). 
 
 dietionarv of its lantruauc to Hubert Stephen*. 
 who published a French-Latin dietionarv in l.VW. 
 The dictionary of the French Academj was Brsl 
 published in 1694, and soon became the standard 
 
 as to read ; and. hence, the native-foreign part of 
 the dictionary is as much needed as the foreign- 
 
 It 
 
 ith 
 
 lexical authority of the French. 
 from time to time revised; and a si 
 under the editorship of Patin, was to lie com- 
 pleted in L876. The dictionary of the Academy 
 was followed by a considerable number of other 
 works, the most important of which, that of 
 Littre (3 vols.. Paris. L863— 1873), is regarded 
 as being, in many respects, even superior to the 
 dictionary of the Academy, and entitled to a 
 place among the very best products of lexical 
 science. — The history of German lexicography 
 is traced to the 7th century. The first work of 
 lasting value was the German-Latin dictionary 
 of Frisch (Berlin, 1741). Adelung's dictionary 
 (Leips., 1774 — 1781) was, for a time, a classical 
 work; but the standard work of German litera- 
 ture is the dictionary of the brothers Jacob and 
 Wilhelm Grimm, begun in 1 No '2, on a plan more 
 extensive than any other dictionary of any mod- 
 ern language. It is to include every word used in 
 German works from Luther to Goethe. It was 
 continued after the death of the authors by Moritz 
 Heyne, Rudolf Hildebrand, and Karl Weigand: 
 and it is expected that the whole will beready 
 about 1890. Of other German dictionaries 
 those of Sanders are highly valued and have 
 found a large circulation ( Worterbuch der deutr 
 schen Sprache, 2 vols., Leips., L859— 1m',7 ; and 
 HandwSrlerbuch der dt Usch, i Sprache, Leips., 
 1869).— The standard dictionary oi the Russian 
 language has been prepare! by the Russian Acad- 
 emy (4 vols., 
 
 Mo.-t 
 
 the smaller nationalities of Kurope have like- 
 wise their national dictionaries, which, though 
 inferior to the works of Grimm and littre, are, 
 in many cases, store houses of profound learning 
 and indispensable for the philosophical study 
 of the several languages. In the schools of all 
 the countries referred to, the use of this class 
 of dictionaries in the study of the native lan- 
 guage is less frequent than in England. The 
 bilingual dictionaries belong to the same class as 
 the Greek and Latin lexicons, but there are some 
 marked points of difference. The Greek or the 
 Latin lexicon is chiefly, or almost exclusively, 
 used for acquiring the ability to read the classic 
 authors; a speaking and writing knowledge of 
 either of these languages has been the object of 
 study in only few cases, and, at present, even 
 more rarely than formerly; therefore, the great 
 majority of students use only the classic-modern 
 dictionary, and but very few the modern-classic 
 dictionary; indeed, many distinguished educa- 
 tors regard the latter as entirely superfluous. In 
 the study of modern languages, on the contrary, 
 the object of study is to speak and write as well 
 
 tempts to compile dictionaries containing the 
 words of more than two languages, have not 
 been wanting, but have met with but little 
 favor. The alphabetical arrangement is the 
 universal rule in all dictionaries; all attempts 
 to substitute any other having always failed. 
 In classical dictionaries, however, for begin- 
 ners the partial combination of the etymolog- 
 ical with the alphabetical arrangement is re- 
 garded by some educators as useful and con- 
 venient. The dictionaries of oriental languages 
 are, to a higher degree than either classical or 
 modern dictionaries, written for the special use 
 of scholars. 
 
 The great progress of linguistics, and, espe- 
 cially, of comparative linguistics, has nude it 
 possible for modern lexicographers to develop the 
 etymological department ot the dietionarv in 
 such a manner as to render works of an earlier 
 date almost useless. There is, however, a great 
 want of agreement as to the extent to which it is 
 desirable to introduce this feature into school 
 dictionaries. In the classical dictionary, it is 
 the general rule, to give at least as much of ety- 
 mological explanation as isof immediate prac- 
 tical value to the pupil. Of the dictionaries of 
 modern languages, some give etymological ex- 
 planations, and some wholly omit them. Asa 
 very valuable fruit of the science of comparative 
 linguistics may be mentioned the etymological 
 dictionaries of whole families of languages. I hie 
 of the best representatives of this class of works 
 is the Etymologische WSrterbuch tier romani- 
 scken SpracJien by Diez. 
 
 As in the study of languages, whether classical 
 or modern, as we'll as in the native language, the 
 dictionary is an important school book, the 
 teacher should not omit to familiarize his pupils 
 with the proper way of using it ; and it is there- 
 fore, desirable, as a matter of convenience, that 
 the pupils of a school should be all supplied 
 with the same dictionary. For information re- 
 garding the literature of dictionaries, see Vater, 
 LiliTiitiir </er <-trnmm<itikvn. Lr.rini iiml Win- 
 tersammlungen alter Sprachen der I 
 edit., revised by Jtilg, Berlin. Isl7). 
 
 DIDACTICS, the theory of instruction, as 
 distinguished from that of education in its nar- 
 rower sense, implying simply moral 
 
■22t) 
 
 DIDACTICS 
 
 It is commonly treated under two heads : gen- 
 eral didactics, which exhibits the philosophical 
 principles of teaching, and the conditions of its 
 success; and special didactics, or methodics, 
 which applies tile general truths to the several 
 branches of instruction, the different ages to be 
 instructed, and the various individual characters 
 and their treatment. The distinction between 
 didactics anil pedagogy in the narrower sense is 
 made only for the sake of separate scientific 
 treatment, as it is universally conceded that all 
 instruction can be rendered a means of moral 
 education, and that no instruction deserves the 
 name, or can be truly successful, without a cor- 
 responding development of moral power. In any 
 branch of instruction, the very first beginning 
 presupposes attention on the part of the pupil, 
 
 \S llilc 
 
 ;l l'l"'"l 
 
 Ml de 
 
 ,11 111. 
 
 his si'lf- 
 m his full 
 iherent in 
 
 branch of art or science concerned. On the 
 part of the teacher, moral power, engendered by 
 such mastership, must be presupposed, if he is to 
 impart to his pupil attention, self-activity, and 
 love for the subject. In regard to the age of 
 the pupil, instruction and moral educ.it ion bear 
 to each other a changing proportion. During 
 the first age, — from earliest infancy up to the 
 eighth or tenth year, the so-called formal pur- 
 pose of education prevails in importance; the 
 several functions of the youthful mind must be 
 made self-active, and the material purpose of 
 didactics. - the acquisition of knowledge or posi- 
 tive learning, must be made a mere means to the 
 former, so that no more of each concentric circle 
 of facts be given to appropriate than can be di- 
 gested for the benefit of each function. The 
 second age. which extends to the beginning of 
 sexual maturity, is the one during which instruc- 
 tion and education .should lie, as it were, in . qui- 
 poise; while, in the period after sexual maturity, 
 the material purpose, that of the acquisition of 
 knowledge and skill, may preponderate. In re- 
 gard to the branches of instruction, general di- 
 dactics shows which of these are adapted to the 
 several stages of the mental and moral develop- 
 ment of the three ages, and which concentric 
 circle of facts and truths of every science and art 
 may be introduced at the time when it can serve 
 as wholesome mental and moral food. A most 
 important distinction is made between the peda- 
 gogical and the scientific treatment of every sub- 
 ject of instruction, the latter being of necessity 
 systematic and synthetic, while the former should 
 lie methodic and analytic first, synthetic last; 
 that is to say, should introduce every object of 
 learning at such a time, and in such a manner, 
 that it may be mentally and morally appropriated. 
 Special didactics, commonly designated as me- 
 thodics, treats of the pedagogical means proper 
 in each branch of instruction, at each age and 
 stage of development. An explanation of the 
 more important methods of didactics will be 
 found under the titles of the various branches. In 
 general, however, we may state that all promi- 
 nent educators concur in holding that the teacher 
 
 DIBSTBBWEG 
 
 is every-where the best method, as he is in fact 
 the school itself, if he be a true teacher. It 
 would, however, be a dangerous error to sup- 
 pose, on that account, that every teacher should 
 be lefl free to invent his own methods, or could 
 be expected to be successful without an acquain- 
 tance with the best methods in use. This error 
 will lie avoided by those who, on the one hand, 
 are so deeply imbued with the great responsi- 
 bility of their calling, as to feel that the wisdom 
 of the preceding generations of great teachers 
 cannot be neglected, and. therefore, that the 
 methods devised ami practiced by them should 
 be made a subject of faithful and conscientious 
 study ; but who, on the other hand, realize the 
 principle that the most approved methods can- 
 not benefit a teacher who has not mentally so 
 appropriated them as to reproduce them accord- 
 ing to his own individuality, and to be able to 
 adapt them to the peculiar wants of his pupils, 
 as well as to all other circumstances in which he 
 is placed. All teaching should be methodical in 
 every aspect; it should be based on the thorough 
 appropriation of a proper system of pedagogy; 
 and it should be a natural outgrowth of the 
 teacher's personality, if it is to perform its proper 
 office in the work of real education. 
 
 DIESTERWEG, Friedrich Adolf Wil- 
 helm, one of the most distinguished educational 
 writers of (iermany, in the present century, was 
 born at Siegen, Oct. '-".)., 1 790, and died at Berlin, 
 July 7.. ls'dii. After studying, at the universities 
 of Herborn and Tubingen, theology, philosophy, 
 mathematics, and natural science, he became, in 
 1810, a private tutor at Mannheim; in lull, 
 
 teacher at the si. lary school of Worms, which 
 
 at that time was French; in 1813, teacher at 
 
 the i lei school of Frankfort; in 1818, second 
 
 rector of the Latin school of Elberfeld; and. in 
 1820, first teacher and acting president of the 
 seminary at Meurs. While in the latter position, 
 he gained a reputation both as a teacher and 
 as an educational writer, which spread through- 
 out Germany. He not only compiled a large num- 
 ber of school books, many of which arc still in 
 extensive use. bul also took an active part in 
 all the educational controversies of the day. In 
 1827, he founded the Rheinische Blatter fur 
 Unterricht und Erziehung,a, quarterly journal 
 devoted to instruction and education, with special 
 regard to elementary instruction. In 1832, he 
 accepted a call as director of the teachers' semi- 
 nary at Berlin, where, as an advocate of sweeping 
 and radical reforms, he had to contend with many 
 difficulties. In 1830, the Prussian government 
 sent Diesterweg to Denmark, to observe and re- 
 port, on the monitorial system which prevailed in 
 the schools of that country. Diesterweg's report, 
 published under the title of Bemerkungen und 
 Ansichten avf einer padagogischen Reist tuich 
 denddnischen Staaten im Sommer 1836 (Berlin, 
 L836 . was adverse to the Danish system, and 
 called forth replies from /.erronner and others. 
 In L846, Diesterweg took an influential part in 
 the celebration, by the German teachers, of the 
 centennial birthday of Pestalozzi, and 
 
 found 
 
 
DIESTERWEG 
 
 22? 
 
 ing an institution for orphans, as an appropriate 
 monument to the great regenerator of modern 
 popular education. 
 
 Diesterweg was very obnoxious to the political 
 conservatists ami the orthodox Protestants, but 
 maintained himself, amidst constant conflicts, 
 until 1-17. when the minister of educational and 
 ecclesiastical affairs, Eichhorn, suspended him 
 from office. Three years later, in I son. he was 
 definitely removed, but Ins entire salary was 
 left to him. Henceforth, he devoted his time 
 partly to literary labors, and partly to the advo- 
 cacy of his views in the town council of Berlin 
 and the Prussian parliament, to both of which 
 bodies the city of Berlin elected him a member. 
 In the Prussian parliament, Ih'o-terwoe was the 
 leader of the opposition to the principles which 
 the Prussian government, at that time, endeav- 
 ored to carry into effect, in the state scl I system, 
 
 and especially to the famous"three school regu- 
 lations" (SchulregulaHve), which aimed at sub- 
 stituting for the principles of Pestalozzi the most 
 intimate connection between church and school. 
 1 >iesterweg was generally regarded by the teachers 
 of Protestant Germany as the leader of the 
 party which demanded an entire disconnection 
 of the school from the church; and, by his own 
 party, he was looked upon with sentiments of 
 profound love and admiration. When he cele- 
 brated. Oct. 29., 1865, his seventy-fifth birthday, 
 a number of his pupils from all parts of « lermany 
 presented him with a silver laurel wreath. 
 
 The views of Diesterweg concerning the rela- 
 tion between religion and education necessarily 
 provoked the determined opposition of those 
 who did not share them, but even his opponents 
 concede the excellence of many of his school 
 books. Among these books, may be mentioned 
 the following: Lehrbuch der matkematischen 
 Geographie und popularen Himmdskunde (8th 
 edit!, Berlin. L874); Leitfaden fur den Unter- 
 richi in der Farm,;,- und GrtSss. n ' hr 3dedit, 
 Elberfeld, Ls:dii; /,;,/,■/,.<,■),.,■ /../,,■;.,■<■/ fur den 
 Unterricht in der deuischen Sprache (Part I., 
 6th edit... Giitersloh, 1836; Part 2. and 3., 5th 
 edit.. 1836); Praktisches Rechenbuch fur Ele- 
 mentnr- und hb'here Bilrgerschulen, in connec- 
 tion with Heuser (part 1 .. 'Jlst edit.. Giitersloh, 
 
 the different branches of instruction in particular. 
 The literature on every subject is given with 
 
 libels 
 
 I III, 
 
 lSlllli 
 
 //■ 
 
 eometrie (4th edit., Frank- 
 
 with Heuser 
 and the Elen, 
 
 fort, 1874). As an organ for tie dissemination 
 of his views, he established, in 1851, in addition 
 to the Rheinische Blatter, his Pddagogisches 
 Jiilirhiirli, of which one annual volume appeared 
 regularly until his death. This theory of in- 
 struction and education is fully developed in the 
 Wegweiser zur Bildung fur deutsche Lehrer, 
 which he published in union with Bormann. 
 Luben. Mager, and other teachers (5th edit., 
 Essen, L875). He treats in this work of the prin- 
 ciples according to which man should be in- 
 structed and educated in general, and of the 
 method which should be observed in teaching 
 
 Prussian government. He was outspoken in ad- 
 vocating that the denominational character of the 
 public school should be abolished, and that unsec- 
 tarian "communal" or "national schools" should 
 be established in their place. He did not wish, 
 however, to have religious instruction excluded 
 from the schools, but favored an instruction in 
 the general tenets of religion by the teacher. 
 
 Although Diesterweg devoted his attention 
 chiefly to the elementary schools, he also wrote on 
 the reform of the secondary schools, and still 
 more on that of the universities. In his essay 
 Ueber (/o.< Verderben auf deuischen Universi- 
 t&ten, which forms a part of the work Beiirage 
 zur Lebensfrage der Civilisation (Essen, 1836), 
 he severely censured the course of instruction 
 pursued at the German universities, and con- 
 tended that the method of teaching should be 
 made to conform to the wants of the age. 
 and that the studies, as well as the conduct of 
 the students, should no longer remain without 
 superintendence by the proper authorities. The 
 universities were defended against these charges 
 by Prof. Leo. of Halle, in the work Herr Dr. 
 Diesterweg und die deuischen Vhiversitaten 
 (Leipsic, L866). 
 
 Soon after the death of Diesterweg, a number 
 of his friends, pupils, and admirers determined 
 to establish, in commemoration of his merits, a 
 I),, sfl run j-Stiftung, the object of which was to 
 enable a numb, r .,1 competent teachers to devote 
 themselves wholly to educational labors in the 
 spirit ol Diesterweg. The &iflimg embraces with- 
 in the scope of these labors educational lectures, 
 the publication of educational works, inclusive of 
 a continuation of Hicsterweg's Juhrhuch; and 
 the establishment of a national German model 
 school on the basis oi Diesterwegs principles. 
 See Kneciit. Adolf Diesterweg, sein Leben und 
 Streben (in Magazin fur P&dagogik, 1869) ; 
 Langenbkro. .-I. Diesterweg, sein Leben und 
 .s',-/',/c Srhrift'-ii (Frankfort. 1 SC!) ; this biography 
 contains a complete list of all the writings of 
 Diesterweg). A "Memoir" of Diesterweg has 
 appeared in Barnard's Journal of Education, 
 in which are also published translations of sev- 
 eral essays of Diesterweg: as, Catechism of 
 Methods of Teaching, ScJiool Discipline and 
 
 Plans of Instruct Intuit ' Spea 
 
 Exercises. Aselection h the worl oi Di 
 
 s-terweg, with a biographical iiitrodiKti.in. ha.s 
 been published by Langenberg, under the title, 
 .1. l),,'shrir,. t , I/ifhWi-nhh-n • 
 ten (Leipsic. 1875). 
 
228 
 
 DIFFIDENCE 
 
 DIFFIDENCE, or an instinctive distrust of 
 one's own ability, arising from peculiarities of 
 temperament and menial constitution, very often 
 characterizes both children and adults ; and, when 
 it is excessive, presents a very serious hinderance, 
 in respect to both moral and intellectual educa- 
 tion, to the teacher who fails to study sufficiently 
 the individual characters of his pupils, or who is 
 ignorant of the proper methods of addressing 
 their peculiar traits, so as to guide or correct 
 their natural tendencies. Every teacher of ex- 
 perience is aware that some children are bold, 
 forward, confident, or conceited ; while others 
 are timorous, shy. bashful, and diffident. The 
 former seem to be better subjects of instruction, 
 and make a more gratifying return for the 
 teacher's efforts, because they are ready to make 
 an immediate use or display of their acquire- 
 ments ; while the others, however much they 
 may have learned, fail to meet the ordinary exi- 
 gencies of school recitations, examinations, or 
 public exhibitions, on account of their excessive 
 self-restraint, and their natural shrinking from 
 any trial of their ability. They fail because 
 they think they will fail, or because they are so 
 sensitive to censure or unfavorable criticism, 
 that they are paralyzed by the apprehension of 
 it. Of this peculiar trait the poet Cowperwas 
 a singular example ; and all are familiar with 
 the sufferings which he underwent in anticipa- 
 tion of the performance of his public duties as 
 clerk to the house of lords, almost unseating his 
 reason, and compelling him at last to resign the 
 honorable and lucrative position which his 
 friends had obtained for him. 
 
 This peculiar trait of character, according to 
 Spurzheim, is the "effect of circumspection, 
 combined with secretiveness and intellect ;" to 
 which may be added deficient self-esteem, and a 
 sensitive, impressible temperament. When the 
 feeling of secretiveness, or shyness is predomi- 
 nant, diffidence assumes the form of bashfulness; 
 when caution is the leading trait, it is the sense 
 of danger that restrains; and when self-esteem 
 is deficient.it is humility, modesty, or an extrav- 
 agant impression of inability. All these phases 
 should be subjected by the teacher to a close and 
 discriminating scrutiny, and proper means should 
 be adopted to give tone and balance to the char- 
 acter, as one of the most important results of a 
 judicious education. .Some of the best minds 
 have been characterized by diffidence ; but gen- 
 erally they possessed other qualities which coun- 
 teracted its effects, or compensated for the in- 
 firmity. Washington was noted for his modesty, 
 arising, without doubt, from natural diffidence 
 mixed and tempered with firmness and an un- 
 usually strong sense of moral rectitude ; but he 
 was also distinguished for his fearlessness in the 
 presence of extreme peril, showing that diffidence 
 is by no means inconsistent with intrepidity. 
 
 In dealing with children who possess this 
 trait, the teacher should use every means of en- 
 couragement, should be careful not to place the 
 pupil in positions in which there is a probability 
 of failure and disgrace, and should aim to con- 
 
 DILWORTH 
 
 trol his will by an appeal to his affections, his 
 love of approbation, and his sense of right, rather 
 than to his fear or his sense of shame. His self- 
 esteem being deficient, everything should be 
 done to cultivate it, and he should, therefore, be 
 led rather by praise than driven by censure ; but, 
 above every thing else, in a child who is want- 
 ing in self-esteem, should the seeds of moral prin- 
 ciple be planted; so that if he is not governed by 
 pride or a sense of personal honor, he may listen 
 to the dictates of conscience. The principle un- 
 derlying this treatment is, to counteract the bad 
 effects of a deficiency in certain mental qualities 
 by addressing those which are strong or excessive. 
 flecker, in The Scientific Basis of Education., in 
 this connection remarks, "If the child with whom 
 the teacher is dealing has these restraining facul- 
 ties large, the teacher, on that account, has more 
 difficulty in guiding him, but has the conditions 
 of greater success if he can succeed in doing so. 
 On this disposition depends the character of 
 self-sustained and self-made men." 
 
 DILIGENCE, the virtue of constancy in 
 labor, is an important, though not the sole, means 
 of success in any branch of human calling. It 
 is a function of the will power, as distinguished 
 from intellect and sensation, and is of sponta- 
 neous growth, wherever the occupation is akin to 
 the inclination and productive of pleasure. It 
 can, therefore, artificially be engendered only 
 by connecting the occupation with pleasurable 
 emotions that are not foreign to the subject. 
 Where the latter are missing, only dire necessity 
 can keep diligence alive, — either some necessity 
 from natural, or from positive law. But then 
 diligence has ceased to be a virtue, though it may 
 continue as a habit, mechanically as it were. In 
 education, diligence is more powerfid than nat- 
 ural adaptation, as all the experience derived 
 from the history of great men shows. It is the 
 office of pedagogy to promote diligence in the 
 pupils by spontaneous growth, as is done in the 
 kindergarten system of education. Where such 
 spontaneous growth has not been effected l>\ early 
 influences, an artificial growth must be cultivated; 
 but the pleasurable emotions to be connected 
 with the occupation, should be prompted as 
 little as possible by means foreign to the sub- 
 ject, such as, for instance, outward punishments, 
 rewards, purely mechanical discipline, or the 
 stimulus of ambition. Whatever the occupa- 
 tion or study in which pupils are required to 
 engage, they should, as soon as possible, be in- 
 duced to take a lively interest in it for its own 
 sake ; because such an interest will arouse into 
 active exercise all the best powers of their minds, 
 and thus lead to the most effective and salutary 
 educational discipline. Besides, the habit of de- 
 pending upon external incentives. — the love of 
 distinction, of praise, of pleasure, or of gain, 
 must necessarily engender selfishness, and thus, 
 narrow and debase the mind which a generous, 
 earnest zeal in the pursuit of a praiseworthy ob- 
 ject would expand and ennoble. 
 
 DILWORTH, Thomas, an English teacher, 
 and the author of several very successful and 
 
DINTER 
 
 popular school text-books, among which were a 
 .Y.'/r Guide to the English Tongue (London, 
 1740), which passed through more than forty 
 editions, and a Compendium of Arithnu Hi 1 1 on- 
 don, 1752); also The Book-keeper's Assistant, 
 8vo., and the Schoolmaster's Assistant, L2mo. 
 These were anion-- the most noted school books 
 of their time. Dilworth died in L780. 
 
 DINTER, Dr. Gustav Friedrich, a Ger- 
 man educator, was born Febr.29., 1760,at Boma, 
 in Saxony. He received his first education at 
 the Furstenschule of Grimma, where, at that 
 time, the monitorial system was in use. and the 
 
 DISCIPLES OF C1IIUST 229 
 
 eminence in the use of the catechetical method 
 of instruction, which, through his influence, not 
 only came into general use. but was s t.im«a 
 
 Ills views on female education areTafd down in 
 a work, entitled Malvina. Although lie did not, 
 begin his literary activity until he was forty 
 wars ot age, he is entitled to a place among the 
 most prolific educational writers in Germany. 
 His complete works edited by Wilhehn (1K41 — 
 
 edu 
 
 m a private family, lie was appointed, in I7s7. 
 pastor of a church in K itzscher. near Borna. Here 
 he gratuitously received young men into his house 
 in order to educate them as school-teachers, and 
 soon attracted the attention of the highest school 
 boards of the country by tin' superior knowledge 
 which his pupils showed on entering the normal 
 school. He was, therefore, offered, in 1 7'.»7, the 
 position of director of the teachers" seminary at 
 Friedrichstadt-Dresden, which he accepted, al- 
 though it yielded a smaller income, hoping to 
 find there a more extensive field of usefulness. 
 Inconsequence of his able administration, the 
 seminary attained a high reputation; but. as his 
 health tailed, he resumed, in 1S07, the charge 
 of a village church. Again he received young 
 men into his house, and prepared them for 
 the gymnasium, employing some of his former 
 pupils as assistants. In 1816, the Prussian gov- 
 ernment appointed him eonsistorial and school 
 councilor at Konigsberg. lie found the schools 
 which he had to inspect in a deplorable condition. 
 When he made his first tour of inspection, there 
 were forty-two rural and two town schools, in 
 which not a single child was able to write a let- 
 ter. Twelve years later, all the boys who had 
 been regular in their studies, in sixty out of 
 sixty-seven schools, had acquired this ability. 
 One year after settling at Konigsberg, he re- 
 ceived, in addition to his office as councilor, an 
 appointment as professor at the university. He 
 was an indefatigable writer, working, on an 
 average, eighty-three hours a week. He died 
 May 29., 1831. Asa theologian, Dinter belonged 
 to the Rationalists' school, though he never at- 
 tacked the Evangelical school. His merits as a 
 school inspector, teacher, and educational writer 
 were so conspicuous, and his life was so pure, that 
 even the opponents of his theological views, 
 without exception, recognize the prominent posi- 
 tion which he occupies in the history of educa- 
 tion. He exerted a considerable influence upon 
 the educational system of Prussia, by introducing 
 into the state school the ideas of Basedow and 
 Pestalozzi, which heretofore had been applied only 
 in private institutions. He was a master of rare 
 
 and the fourth the aseetieal works (5 vols.). The 
 most celebrated of his works, the S huUehrerbibel, 
 has been severely criticised from several points; 
 
 but two of his works, entitled lh, OOTZugHcksti u 
 
 Regeln der Pddagogik, Methodik ><»</ SchuL 
 meisterklugheit (7th edit., 1836) and. Die vorziiq- 
 lichsten Regeln der Katechetik (7th edit.. 1827), 
 are regarded as standard works of imperishable 
 value. — See Dinter's Leben, von ihm selbst be- 
 echrieben (Plauen, 1860); Schmidt, Geschichte 
 ,/rr />a,/„,„,,,i/,; vol. iv. 
 
 DIPLOMA (Gr. e, ->,.,„„. anything doubled, 
 or folded), a term anciently given to a formal 
 certificate of authority, because such documents 
 were usually written on double or folded waxen 
 tablets. In more modern times, the term was 
 applied to a royal charter or to any governmental 
 testimonial of authority, privilege, or dignity. 
 (Hence the science of state documents is called 
 diplomatics.) The term is now chiefly confined 
 to a certificate given by a university, college, or 
 other literary institution, as an evidence that 
 the person upon whom it is conferred has at- 
 tained a certain degree of scholarship ; or, in the 
 case of professional schools, as a license to prac- 
 tice a particular art. 
 
 DISCIPLES OF CHRIST, or as they 
 prefer to be named, " The Church of Christ," 
 a body of Baptists, sometimes called by their 
 opponents " Campbellites," after Thomas Camp- 
 bell and his son Alexander Campbell, who gave 
 the immediate origin and distinctive character 
 to the denomination. The original purpose of 
 Thomas Campbell, who came to the United 
 States, in 1808, from Ireland, as the minister of a 
 Presbyterian denomination known as the Seced- 
 crs, was to unite the various denominations of 
 ( 'hristians on the exclusive basis of the Bible. 
 For a time, the congregations organized h\ the 
 two Campbells attached themselves to a Baptist 
 association; but, in 1827, a distinct ecclesiastical 
 organization was begun. The disrip/i's believe in 
 "baptism for the remission of sins, " and practice 
 weekly communion. In church government, 
 this denomination is congregational. In 1874, 
 a committee of conference was .appointed to 
 confer with the Free Will Baptists on a union of 
 the two denominations. The membership in the 
 United States, cluefly in the Southern and 
 
Western states, is estimated at, about 500,000 ; 
 in the British Islands, they numbered, in 1874, 
 101) churches; and congregations have also been 
 established in Canada, the West Indies, and 
 Australia. They have always taken a deep in- 
 terest in education, and have a large number of 
 academies and seminaries, as well as several col- 
 leges of high standing. The moit prominent 
 among their literary institutions are Bethany 
 College, founded by Alexander Campbell, and 
 presided over by him until his death ; Kentucky 
 University, at Lexington, Ky.; the Northwes- 
 tern Christian University, at Indianapolis, Ind.i 
 Abingdon College, at Abingdon, 111.; Eureka 
 College, at Eureka. 111. ; and Hiram College, at 
 Hiram. Ohio. Female colleges have been estab- 
 lished at Columbia, Mo., Versailles and Har- 
 rodsburg, Ky., and Bloomington, 111. Theological 
 schools are connected with the Kentucky Uni- 
 versity and Eureka College. A Bible school for 
 colored ministers was established at I^ouisville, 
 Ky., in 1874. The number of Sunday-schools in 
 1874 was 2.450, with 253,000 scholars. For 
 fuller information on the literary institutions of 
 this denomination, see the special articles on the 
 colleges above mentioned. 
 
 DISCIPLINE ( I -at. i/isrip/iiia. from discere, 
 to learn), a term which, according to its literal 
 acceptation, means the condition of a disciple, or 
 learner ; that is, subordination requiring strict 
 obedience to certain directions or rules, or con- 
 formity with a system of instruction, having for 
 its object some kind of training. Hence the word 
 discipline is sometimes used iii an active sense as 
 synonymous with training or culture, as in the 
 
 should, particularly m education, he confined to 
 its strict meaning as above defined. In all teach- 
 ing, there is need of attention and obedience on 
 the part of the pupil ; and as an important aim 
 of education is to instill certain habits as a basis 
 for the formation of character, the learner must 
 be required constantly and punctiliously to con- 
 form to certain rules and general precepts; and 
 the discipline of the teacher is good or bad in 
 proportion as he succeeds in enforcing obedience 
 to these necessary rules. In large schools, the 
 system of regulations becomes more complicated, 
 and a habitual ready attention to them on the 
 part of the pupils produces what is technically 
 called order. [See Order.) This kind of dis- 
 
 
 an 
 
 large mini 
 a single pi 
 
 son. In military discipline, the indi- 
 crificed to the general object to be 
 
 dividuals being lost sight of in the endeavor to 
 enforce mere discipline for the purpose of gen- 
 
 eral management or show. In education, how- 
 ever, the interests of the individual should never 
 be disregarded. School machinery, — marching 
 
 pline, but a kind, if not absolutely pern 
 but little educational value Order is indispen- 
 sable to the proper working of a school ; but it has 
 been well remarked that " good order involves 
 impression rather than repression; it does not 
 consist in a coercion from which result merely 
 silence, and a vacant gaze of painful restraint; but 
 it proceeds from the steady action of awakened 
 and interested intellect, — the kindling of an 
 earnest purpose and an ambition to excel." 
 Hence, the discipline that is necessary to produce 
 order in a school or class, is of secondary im- 
 portance, in comparison with that which has for 
 its object to train the intellectual and moral nat- 
 ure of the pupils as individuals. "I!y discipline." 
 says Currie, "we understand the application of 
 the motives which prompt the pupil to diligent 
 study and to good conduct ;" that is. such mo- 
 tives as the desire of the approbation of teacher 
 or parent, emulation, or the desire of distinction, 
 the hope of reward, and the fear of punishment. 
 
 traits of character, constitute important subjects 
 for careful discussion. (See Government, and 
 Kewards.J 
 
 All moral discipline must be directed to the 
 training of the will ; and it is in this connection 
 that the consideration of motives becomes of 
 primary importance. Educators are at con- 
 siderable variance as to the proper methods of 
 controlling the will of children. Some advocate, 
 in all cases, an application of the law of kind- 
 ness, and contend that physical force should 
 never be brought in to coerce or restrain even 
 the most self-willed pupil ; others are of the 
 opinion, based on experience, as they claim, that, 
 in some cases, physical punishment is indispen- 
 sable. (See Corporal Punishment.) The best 
 training is. without doubt, that which brings 
 into play the pupils higher nature, and leaves 
 him habitually actuated by motives derived from 
 it. The child cannot be always restrained by 
 f ear , — that is, the fear of immediate physical 
 pain ; and, hence, the discipline to which he is to 
 be subjected, should be such as will implant 
 motives and principles of conduct that will be 
 effective as a means of permanent sell control. 
 The mere subduing of the will of children is not 
 sufficient ; indeed, it may be injurious. The 
 aim of the teacher should be to bring the will 
 into subjection to conscience ami a sense of right; 
 in the words of a distinguished educator, "to dis- 
 courage the child in the proper development of 
 its nature has a tendenev to crush out the life of 
 the child rather than to' cultivate that life into 
 tion." The 
 school-room 
 
 better methods of thought and 8 
 motives brought to bear in the 
 
DISPUTATIONS 
 
 (ISTEICT OP COLUMBIA 
 
 ■s-il 11 >nTe 1. as far as 
 
 ile. lie those which will be 
 
 The same author characterizes the exercise, 
 
 operative m after life. Special school incentives, which was originally designed as ; , public proof 
 such as merit marks etc.. are useful ami in-.. per of the student's progress in the art oi reasoning 
 
 cling to the child du 
 
 Unnatural, overstrain. 
 exaction of a precise c 
 
 regulations of a scl I 
 
 individuality of the chi 
 
 mind, which, having no outward demonstration 
 
 naturally results in a hal lit of deceit Nothing 
 is so baneful to the nature of a child as an at- 
 mosphere of tyranny ami arbitrary power ; and 
 any system of discipline that is founded exclu- 
 sively upon it, must produce the worst effects 
 possible. After all. the best discipline, even if 
 the outward order should not be so exact, is that 
 
 the consistent example, and the kindly heart-felt 
 sympathies of the living teacher, whose very 
 presence is sunshine to his school. and who quells 
 waywardness by the very sublimity of Ins pa- 
 tience, firmness, and perfect self-control. (See 
 
 For a long time the study of dialectics, or the 
 
 DISPUTATIONS 
 
 ical exercises in which 
 the universities, were 
 hibit their powers. 1 1 
 as applied in the 1'nivt 
 land, to those who 
 honor: 
 These 
 
 German universities of the Uth and lath cent- 
 tuiies, Noii Raumer says, "the lectures were 
 accompanied with frequent disputations, in which 
 teachers and scholars took part. The regular dis- 
 putation day was Saturday. Sophismata and 
 he old form of rhetor- qUKStiones, after the fashion of theses, furnished 
 ndidates for de-ices in the basis for the disputing. The purpose of them 
 ancrlv reonire,? to «. all seems to have been not SO much to deal w,th 
 
 i.il.l 
 
 III. 
 
 progress. I licy were ot two kin. Is: iinhiturii. 
 
 practice ; and extraordinary, or those performed 
 publicly as the necessary qualifications for a de- 
 gree. The exercise finally became absurd and was 
 held up to ridicule. The following gives a hu- 
 morous description of the method of disputation 
 at Oxford, England, in the last century : 
 
 "The persons of this argumentative drama are 
 three : namely, the opponent, the respondent, and the 
 -moderator. The opii.ment.is the person who always 
 begins the attack, and is sure of Io-uil' the .l.iv. ]..ai'iL r 
 always (as they call It. on the wrong si le of the ques- 
 tion; though oftentimes, that side is palpably the 
 
 right side, according I r modern philosophy and 
 
 discoveries. The respondent -i's ,,\,-, .i-.nii-t the ..p- 
 ponent, and is prepared to d'-io u I, it, i.i In- affirms, 
 and always eomes ott' with thin- . ;■ i -. \\ hi.-li hum 
 need3 make him enter the li-ts w eh "i. at iMititinle and 
 intrepidity. The i ler.n,, r i- the |„.,,,. ,„■ ,,,,,„ .,,,,. 
 
 1795); Von 1! u mkk. Geschichte der Padagogik, 
 vol. v., trans, in Barnabd's German Universities 
 (N.Y.,1859). 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, the federal 
 
 district in which the capital of the Dinted States 
 has been located since November. Imiii. It orig- 
 inally consisted of portions of territory ceded 
 to the general government by Maryland and 
 Virginia, and forming a square' of LO miles, and 
 hence having an area of 11)0 sq. m., (J4 on the 
 Maryland side, and 36 on the Virginia side, li 
 
 pursuance of anac 
 
 bate ; 
 to cut 
 again ; 
 
 ipiantit 
 
 quantity "I suntle 
 quoad 'line el ./»",/ 
 
 Jll-irilirtHnint Oiih .' 
 pntentialiler, dire, 
 cidens, eutil, ttirc i 
 
 meld was organized, the charters of Wa.-hitigloii 
 and Georgetown were repealed, and the adminiS- 
 
232 
 
 DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 
 
 tration of the affairs of the District was com- 
 mitted to a governor and legislative assembly. 
 By act of Congress, June 20., 1874, the territo- 
 rial government was abolished, and the adminis- 
 tration was vested in three commissioners to be 
 appointed by the President with the consent of 
 the senate. 
 
 Educational History.— The charter of the city 
 of Washington, amended in 1804, first made 
 provision for the "establishment and superintend- 
 ence of schools" in the District; and an act of the 
 city council, the same year, required the appoint- 
 ment of thirteen trustees to carry these provi- 
 sions into effect. Six of these trustees were to be 
 chosen by those persons who contributed to the 
 support of the schools. Among the trustees elected 
 by the contributors was Thomas Jefferson, who 
 was made president of the first board convened. 
 The first action taken by the new board contem- 
 plated the establishment of schools, a college, and a 
 university — the whole to constitute an institution 
 "in which every species of knowledge essential to 
 the liberal education af youth may eventually be 
 acquired." As the result of this action, two 
 schools were established, which, in 1809, it was 
 resolved to merge into one. About this time 
 (1810), the citizens of Georgetown applied to the 
 corporation of their city, to set apart a lot on 
 which suitable school buildings might be erected. 
 Their application is supposed to have been suc- 
 cessful, as eight months afterward the officers of 
 the city attended the laying of the corner-stone 
 of a new school-house ; and, five months after 
 that, a new school, organized upon the Lancas- 
 terian plan, was opened. In 1812, the sum of 
 $1,000 was appropriated by the council for the 
 purpose of building an addition in which the 
 female pupils might receive separate instruction. 
 The reputation of this school had extended so 
 far, that the committee of the Washington school 
 board, on receipt of a letter from one of the 
 teachers of the Georgetown school, suggesting the 
 establishment of a similar school in Washington, 
 acted immediately upon the suggestion, and pro- 
 cured the passage of an order "that there shall be 
 one school in the city of Washington, as near as 
 practicable in the center thereof, to be conducted 
 on the plan of, and as nearly correspondent as 
 may be with the forms observed in, the Lan- 
 casterian School." » longress. meantime, by a joint 
 resolution, authorized tie.' establishment of a lot- 
 tery for raising SIO.OOO to be used in the organ- 
 ization of two Lancasterian schools. These 
 schools must have been established, as we find 
 the board of trustees, in 1813, electing officers 
 and supervisory committees for the Eastern and 
 Western schools, and for the Eastern and 
 Western Lancasterian schools. In 1833, the 
 subject of free schools in the District appears to 
 have engaged the attention of Congress, but 
 nothing decisive was done ; and, on the 1th of 
 May of that year, the city corporation applied 
 $200 for the relief of the Georgetown school. 
 The authorities of the three cities Washington, 
 Georgetown, and Alexandria, in 1837, united in 
 an appea.1 to Congress for an appropriation for 
 
 the endowment of a system of education that 
 should embrace the whole District of Columbia, 
 by which the children of all might equally enjoy 
 tin' inestimable advantages of a liberal education. 
 The effort, however, was of no avail, and the 
 schools were provided for by private contributions 
 and annual appropriations from the city treasury 
 till 1842, when the corporation of the city or- 
 dered that the schools should be "taken under the 
 exclusive care of the corporate authority." To 
 this end, aboard of guardians of the Georgetown 
 school was appointed, with full powers to pro- 
 vide for the keeping of said schools, and to man- 
 age the same for the public interest. In 1844, 
 the public-school system was reorganized by the 
 abolition of the two ward boards, and the creation 
 of a new board of twelve trustees with ample 
 power for the complete supervision and control 
 of the schools. These were to be open to all 
 white children between 6 and 1 years of age, 
 on prepayment of a tuition fee of not more than 
 50 cents a month, the pupils furnishing their 
 own books, except in the case of children of in- 
 digent parents, who were taught, and furnished 
 with books free of cost. The same act appropriated 
 $3,650 for building two school-houses, and for 
 renting rooms for school purposes. Between 
 184. r ) and 1848, ten new primary schools were 
 established, tuition fees were abolished, and a 
 tax of $1 was oVdered to be annually levied on 
 every white male citizen for the use of the schools. 
 The changes during the next five years (1849 to 
 1853) were, the establishment of 13 new pri- 
 mary schools, the buying of lots, and building of 
 new school - houses, the increase of teachers' 
 salaries, and an annual average appropriation of 
 about $15,000. In 1857, an attempt was made 
 to bring the public - school system more into 
 conformity with the system which had been 
 adopted with such success by some of the Eastern 
 states, by creating the office of superintendent 
 of public instruction, and making an assessment 
 of i0 cents on every $100 of taxable property, 
 but it was not successful. In 1 still, the attempt 
 to pass so much of the original act as related to 
 taxation, was renewed, and with success, a tax of 
 10 cents on the $100 being ordered. Since that 
 time, the progress of the schools lias been marked. 
 In 1864, the first school for colored children 
 went into operation. The same year, Congress 
 approved an act to organize public schools in 
 the county of Washington, exclusive of the 
 cities of Washington and Georgetown. The 
 first obstacle encountered in the carrying out of 
 this law was a disagreement in the board of com- 
 missioners in regard to the division of the school 
 fund among the white and colored schools. A 
 decision was reached in July: and, the same year, 
 two schools were opened, affording instruction to 
 150 pupils. The following year, five schools 
 were opened, and the few schools for colored 
 children previously existing were incorporated 
 into the public-school system. Since the creation 
 of the board of guardians in Georgetown, in 
 1842, no changes except those incident to the- 
 ordinary routine of a successful school system are- 
 
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 
 
 recorded. The act of Congress which, in 1871, 
 placed the District under a territorial form of 
 government, led to changes in the form and com- 
 position of the board of trustees, and to many in 
 the details <>f the management of the schools; but 
 the efficiency of the latter was in no way im- 
 paired. In 1874, the school boards of Washing- 
 ton, Georgetown, and the county were consoli- 
 dated into one board of 1!) trustees, of whom 1 1 
 were residents of Washington. 3 of Georgetown, 
 and 5 of the county. In 1869, the officeof super- 
 intendent of public schools of Washington was 
 created, Zalmar Richards being chosen to the 
 position. The following year, he was succeded 
 by J. 0. Wilson, who has continued to discharge 
 its duties to the present time. The present super- 
 intendent of colored schools for the cities of 
 Washington and Georgetown is I i. F..T. Cook. 
 
 School System. — The control of the schools 
 throughout the District rests with the board of 
 trustees already mentioned, who report directly 
 to the triumvirate commission created, in 1874, 
 for the government of the District. This com- 
 mission appoints a superintendent of white schools 
 in Washington, Georgetown, and the county, and 
 a superintendent of colored schools in Washing- 
 ton and Georgetown. No permanent school fund 
 exists, the schools being maintained either by 
 special appropriations by Congress, or by direct 
 taxation and voluntary contributions. The second 
 method — that of direct taxation — has been most 
 effective, the amount of tax per dollar of assessed 
 property for the support of the white schools in 
 the District and county having been, during the 
 past year, 3.7 | mills for Washington, and 3.7J 
 mills for Georgetown; the amount for the 
 colored schools was 3.3 mills in the former, and 
 4 mills in the latter. Tuition is free, the cost of 
 books only being charged to scholars; but, in 
 case of poverty, this charge is remitted. The legal 
 school age is from ti to 1 7 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The principal items 
 of school statistics, for the year 1874 — 5, are as 
 
 The school revenue for the year was: 
 Local taxation for white schools ;.;• i i. << 
 All other sources " " 93,749.67 
 
 Total 28,817 
 
 Number of chil.lren em "lied, white. . 11,241 
 
 " " " colored 5,489 
 
 Total 16,730 
 
 Average daily attendance, white.... 8,520 
 
 " " " colored. . 3,924 
 
 Total 12,444 
 
 Number of schools, white 166 
 
 " " " colored 75 
 
 Total.. 
 Average number of teachers, males, colored 2 
 " ' females " 86 
 
 Total.. 88 
 Estimated enrollment in private and paro- 
 chial schools for the year 6,837 
 
 71.454,12 
 
 Total $174,458.04 
 
 Expenditures $334,547.36 
 
 Normal instruction. — The normal school at 
 Washington was organized in 1873, for the pur- 
 pose of supplying the public schools of tie- 
 city with teachers. The proportion of female 
 teachers in the schools is so large — 9f> per cent — 
 that no provision has been made in the normal 
 school for the education of males. The number of 
 pupils is limited to 2(1. They must have been, before 
 entering, pupils in the female grammar schools 
 of the city, and at least 17 years of age. The 
 course of study is one year in duration. The 
 number of pupils who received certificates last 
 year was 20 ; the number who received diplomas. 
 11. At the normal department of Howard 
 University, 7 students were graduated. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. Onlyone high school 
 is in existence in Washington; namely, that for 
 colored children, in the north-western section of 
 the city. About 120 private and denominational 
 schools, and academies are reported in the Dis- 
 trict, situated principally in the cities of Wash- 
 ington and Georgetown I If these schools. 1 in are 
 for white children, and L0 for colored. The Wash- 
 ington Business College furnishes instruction to 
 persons of all age and both sexes, who desire to 
 enter mercantile life. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The colleges and uni- 
 versities are as follows : 
 
 lME 
 
 Columbian Univ, 
 Georgetown Colli 
 Qonzaga College 
 Howard Dniversi 
 
 I i 
 
 1866 
 
 Di 
 
 I la]. list 
 B.C. 
 R. C. 
 
 Neii-see. 
 
 ashlligtnli 
 
 eorgetown 
 
 ashin^tnn 
 ..sliui^toli 
 
 Profession id and Scientific Instruction. -- 
 Schools of law, medicine, and theology exist in 
 connection with colleges and universities: and 
 scientific instruction, also, is to a certain extent 
 given, but no special institution for the last 
 exists. Instruction in theology is given to colored 
 students preparing for the ministry by the 
 Wayland Institute established by the colored 
 Baptists. The National University Law School has 
 3 instructors, and 100 students. The National Col- 
 lege of Pharmacy was organized in 1872. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Columbia Institu- 
 tion for the Deaf and Dumb was founded bj 
 Amos Kendall, and was chartered by Congress 
 in 1857. Its sources of revenue are tuition fees, 
 congressional appropriations, and voluntary con- 
 tributions. In addition to the preparatory depart- 
 ment, it has a collegiate department— the only 
 college for deaf-mutes in the world, n >;,<„>■■ 
 extends over 11 years — 7 in the preparatory de- 
 partment, and 4 in the college. 
 
234 
 
 DISTRICT SCHOOLS 
 
 DISTRICT SCHOOLS.See Public Schools. 
 
 DITTES, Friedrich, a German educator, 
 was burn Sept. 23., 1S2I), at Irfersgrun near 
 Zwickau. After studying at the university of 
 Leipsic and obtaining the degree of Doctor of 
 Philosophy, he was appointed director of the 
 teachers' seminary at Gotha, and at the same 
 time " Schulrath " (school-councilor). In 1863, 
 lie accepted a call as director of the Pcedago- 
 gium of Vienna, which had just been established 
 by the municipal government of that city. In 
 this position, he took a prominent part in the dis- 
 cussion of all educational questions in Austria aud 
 Germany. In 1873. the city of Vienna elected 
 him a member of the lower house of the Aus- 
 trian //' ichsrath, in which he formed, with only 
 four other members, the "democratic" (radical) 
 party. Dittcs is one of the chief representatives 
 of the pedagogical views of IV-ieke l<|. \ I. which 
 he explained and defended in a number of works. 
 The most important are the following: Gruncl- 
 rissder Erzieh /- n I Unt rrichtslehre (4th 
 
 (Le 
 
 undue, 
 
 Schule 
 
 live wo 
 
 ence of 
 
 0)1111 
 
 the 
 
 lion and instruction. He has also 
 edited the /Y/./,/c/c„ / /xr/,e .hihrrsbericlU. 
 
 DIVERSION'S. An important part of the 
 education of youth consists in affording them an 
 opportunity for natural, unrestrained diversions, 
 in which they may have free scope to exercis3 
 mind and body, particularly the latter, accord- 
 ing to their inclinations. During the early 
 period of childhood, no tasks can be or need be 
 imposed to guide or accelerate the natural devel- 
 iment of the mental and physical faculties : 
 of humanity open of themselves, if 
 their condition is normal, and their growth is 
 not arrested by injudicious interference. At 
 first, nature, as a wise educator, trains through 
 the pleasurable emotions; for the impulses 
 which she inspires are all to varied activity, and 
 activity is delight when nerves and muscles have 
 the spring of health and vital energy. A few 
 lessons in conscious restraint are all that this 
 period requires or admits. They are purely 
 negative, checking the violence of natural im- 
 pulse, not urging the child's activity in any par- 
 ticular direction. This is the education of" home 
 and parents, when presided over by love and 
 good sense, during the first years of the child's 
 existence. — a period of continous diversion. "A 
 child, before its fifth year," says Isaac Taylor, 
 "and even later, if in perfect health, does not 
 know that the day is long ; for the infant mind 
 glides down the stream of moments, conscious 
 only of the present, and altogether without | 
 thought of periods, intervals, and measured 
 seasons of duration ; the infant mind has no 
 weariness nor disquietude connected with the 
 
 slow numbering of hours, days, weeks, n ths." 
 
 When the age for serious application begins,— 
 the season for labor, or occupation under con- 
 
 DIVERSIONS 
 
 straint, the educator should strive to make the 
 transition as easy and gentle as possible. Fre- 
 quent diversions should be intermingled with 
 formal exercises; and much will be gained if 
 those exercises be made to partake of the nature 
 of diversions, by having the characteristics of 
 novelty and variety, and by stimulating the 
 child's curiosity. As the age of the child in- 
 creases, passing into youth, the times for regular 
 occupation and for recreation, or diversions, be- 
 come more distinctly separated. The bov or the 
 girl is gradually led to feel that there are du- 
 ties to be performed, as well as sports to be en- 
 joyed ; and that the pleasure received from the 
 latter will be greatly increased by the feeling 
 that it has been earned by a conscientious de- 
 votion to the former. Hence, under no circum- 
 stances, should youth be deprived of their op- 
 portunities for free and innocent recreations, ex- 
 cept as a penalty for misdoing or neglect of 
 duty. Tile office of diversions is twofold, — re- 
 j creation and exercise. The former is absolutely 
 essential after studious employment, to refresh 
 the mind; and the latter is needed to give health 
 and rigor to the body. Those sports are the 
 best, therefore, which combine cheerful relaxa- 
 tion of the one with the due employment of the 
 other. •• Among the Jesuits," says Disraeli, "it 
 was a standing rule of the order, that after an 
 application to study for two hours, the mind of 
 the student should be unbent by some relaxation, 
 however trifling." Boys, if left to themselves, 
 will take violent exercise, and thus develop their 
 physical powers and promote their growth ; and 
 girls will select sports of a lighter character. — 
 such as are adapted to their different physical 
 constitution. It is a serious error on the part of 
 parents to keep their boys under painful re- 
 straint, and. from solicitude for their safety, to 
 debar them the enjoyment of diversions com- 
 mon to their age. because attended with some 
 degree of danger. Excessive maternal tender- 
 ness and care thus exercised must result in ren- 
 dering boys effeminate, and unfit to cope with 
 the dangers and trials of .subsequent life. The 
 only need of restraint is to keep boys from 
 vicious actions, low company, petulance and a 
 contentious spirit in their sports, and from too 
 daring and perilous feats of agility and strength. 
 Gymnastic exercises may also be made a recrea- 
 tion, and. when carried on with some system, they 
 constitute an important part of a regular physical 
 education. (See Gymnastics.) What may be 
 [■ailed athletics, — rowing, swimming, riding, ball- 
 playing, cricket, etc'., are greatly to be encour- 
 igecl in the maturer periods of youth, not only 
 their effect in developing physical 
 use they keep those who actively 
 i from those vicious indulgences 
 it.' the great peril of that age. 
 d.Maxime ho?c aHas a libidinir 
 it arcenda, in labore corporis i ■cercenda. 
 i strongly recommends tins.- active exer- 
 cises in Ins tractate Of Education, and Locke in 
 Thoughts concerning Education especially en- 
 joins •■exercises of manual arts." As for the 
 
 vigor. 
 engage 
 
 which 
 
 Mill 
 
 •11 sa 
 
DOANE COLLEGE 
 
 more quiet in-door pastimes, they should be en- 
 couraged with moderation. ( Ihess aud draughts 
 may be permitted ; but, in these games, particu- 
 larly in the former, there is great dangerof ex- 
 cess; and it has never been demonstrated that a 
 
 good chess-player is, on that account,g I for 
 
 any thin-' but to play chess. Thesameof bil- 
 
 higher English anil modem languages, ami S.l in 
 
 the common English branches. These charges 
 
 should be encourage 
 
 its fascinating characi 
 their attention from 
 
 ot society m which th 
 accomplishments, ami 
 inent of a combative 
 diversions involve ch 
 body; but there arc others which require the 
 exclusive application of the mind. Such were. 
 in former times, the Ludi Leibniliani, including 
 the Ludus Finium, the Game of Ends (uses and 
 purposes), and the Ludus Remediorum, the 
 (lame of Remedies (expedients). These are 
 briefly described by Knox in Liberal Edna it ion 
 thus : 
 
 •• One asks, what's the use of this or that > as, for 
 instance, what's the use of a hat ' the other is to liii.l 
 
 lerate but ranee oi the English language i ften consti- 
 
 itheryouth tutes a barrier to all Christian activitj in their 
 because of behalf. There are (1876) 3 instructors and 58 
 icytodraw students, nearly all in the preparatory depart- 
 ment The institution lias Urn in charge of 1 1. 
 B. Perrj from its organization. 
 DOCTOR. See Degrees. 
 DOEDERLEIN, Ludwig, a noted German 
 philologist and teacher, was born at Jena,in 1791, 
 
 and died in 1863. He was a s f the eminent 
 
 German Protestant divine and critic, Johann 
 Christoph Doderlein. He studied at several 
 
 The old-fashioned 
 
 ting had much to 
 longed to a state 
 deemed useful as 
 iged the develop- 
 These games and 
 ■ exercise of the 
 
 l>lll 
 
 38), with a supplement, Die lateinische Wort- 
 bildung (18381; ffandbuch der lateiniscken Eh,- 
 mologie (1841); Homerisches Ghssarium (1850). 
 All these works were published at Leipsic. He 
 
 also edited several classical works. 
 
 DONALDSON, John William, an eminent 
 
 l,m,l 
 
 making Bhift, is thus played: Difficult situations and 
 circumstances are contrived, aud the answerer is to 
 devise means to extricate himself, or to find suc- 
 cedanea for wants— as, how will yon write without 
 iuk? etc.*' 
 
 Sports, however, that have for their express 
 purpose the combining of recreation with mental 
 improvement rarely succeed in their object; 
 since, as soon as the novelty wears oft', they are 
 felt as a task, and hence abandoned. See D Is 
 haki.i. Curiosities of Literature, s. v. Amuse- 
 ments of the Learned. 
 
 DOANE COLLEGE, at Crete, Saline 
 county. Nebraska, was chartered in 1872. The 
 first freshman class wss formed in 1873. It is un- 
 der the control of the General Association of 
 Congregational Churches of Nebraska, and is 
 designed for the education of both sexes. Its! 
 permanent buildings are to be erected on a high 
 plateau overlooking the city, the Dig I'.lne River, 
 and a wide reach of prairie beyond, which to- 
 gether present a scene of beauty .seldom sur- 
 passed. The college is out of debt and has the 
 following assets ; 818,785 in interest bearing 
 notes; $1,578 in non-interest bearingnotes and 
 subscriptions; 200 acres of land in Polk county; 
 600 acres adjoining the city of Crete. 320 of 
 "which are broken; 58 city lots in Crete: also 
 the academy building and the block on which it 
 stands, valued at $8,000. The college year is 
 divided into three terms ; the cost of tuition per 
 term is 87 in the full classical course, $5 in 
 
 don, Ji 
 
 Trinity 
 at the! 
 office o 
 
 class book. lie. subsequently, held the office of 
 head-master of the grammar school of Bury St. 
 Edmonds, which be resigned in 1855, 'and de- 
 livered a course of lectures at Cambridge on 
 Latin synonyms. In 1839, the first edition of 
 the New Oralylus was issued, a work of pro- 
 found erudition, embodying the principles of 
 comparative philology as established by the re- 
 searches of Iiopp. the brothers (irinini. and other 
 German scholars. This work, as enlarged and 
 improved in the edition of 18"ii). is still the 
 standard English work upon the subject of winch 
 
 «h; 
 
 tions wen- edition- of some of the classics,and 
 several theological works— among the latter, 
 Christian Orthodoxy i London. 1867). 
 
 DRAWING has been defined as the expres- 
 sion of thought by means of lines, or as a i isible 
 
 presentation upon a surface of OUT coneep A 
 
 a form. Hence its usefulness in every depart- 
 ment of mechanical science or effort : since each 
 of these departments is based upon the concep- 
 tion of forms and their realization in material 
 products. Drawing is thus supplementary to 
 
236 DRA\ 
 
 ordinary language, the function of which is to 
 recall ideas to the mind by their abstract repre- 
 sentatives in words ; but words can recall con- 
 ceptions of form only to a very limited extent, 
 and scarcely at all those of an irregular or com- 
 plex character. On the contrary, drawing, by a 
 combination of the simple elements of lines, 
 of various kinds and in various relations to 
 each other, can transfer from one mind to an- 
 other the most complicated conception, whether 
 it be that of an actual object, or the creation of 
 the imagination. Thus, the machinist has be- 
 fore him an exact representation of the piece of 
 mechanism which he is to construct ; the archi- 
 tect delineates the elevations and plans of the 
 edifice which the builder is to erect, and the 
 industrial draughtsman represents the designs 
 which are to embellish the varied fabrics of the 
 loom. In short, the uses and applications of this 
 beautiful and expressive form language are in- 
 finite, stamping it as one of the most indispen- 
 sable accomplishments of civilized man, and, con- 
 sequently, one of the most important elements of 
 his education. The value of drawing as a de- 
 part incut of general or popular education, has 
 been pretty fully treated in the article on Art- 
 Education, to which the reader is referred for 
 information on this point. In the present article, 
 it is designed to present a brief outline of the 
 relation of drawing to the various grades of 
 education, with practical suggestions as to the 
 methods of teaching it. 
 
 Drawing may be divided into two distinct de- 
 partments, instrumental and free-hand, the for- 
 mer being principally employed in the mechan- 
 ical, engineering, anil architectural branches of 
 industry ; the latter, by artists, designers, and 
 others. The two divisions are sometimes re- 
 ferred to as scientific and artistic, because the 
 subjects coming under the first group, are based 
 on scientific principles, and the results obtained 
 are capable of demonstration by geometry; 
 whilst free-hand work, either in imitation or 
 original design, employs the perceptive rather 
 than the reasoning faculties, and its results have 
 to be judged by the standard of taste, in all 
 features which do not involve a question of fact. 
 
 Instrumental Drawing. — The group of sub- 
 jects which come under this division may be 
 classified as elementary or applied; the first 
 teaching methods of obtaining accuracy of form, 
 and its appearance under given conditions ; the 
 second, applying this power of drawing to prac- 
 tical purposes, in the arts of planning, construc- 
 tion, and design. — The elementary subjects are : 
 (1) Plane geometrical drawing ; (2) projection 
 of solids, (a) radial or perspective, (b) parallel 
 or orthographic ; (3) projection of shadows. 
 (<«) radial or perspective, (b) parallel or ortho- 
 graphic and isometric. — The applied subjects 
 are: (1) Architectural drawing and building 
 construction ; (2) machine drawing, construction, 
 and design ; civil and military engineering ; 
 
 (3) surveying and topographical drawing; and 
 
 (4) ship draughting, and marine architecture. — 
 The elementary subjects teach the student how 
 
 to draw the forms of lines, planes, or solids, either 
 as the eye sees them by perspective, or as they 
 actually exist, by orthographic or isometric pro- 
 jection. The forms usually employed in teach- 
 ing, are regular geometric planes and solids, con- 
 veying, by the instruction given, the principles of 
 representation by lines, on planes of delineation, 
 when the objects are seen in space, or in a de- 
 fined position in relation to the eye. The study 
 of the elements of instrumental drawing is ne- 
 cessary, therefore, because by it we learn how to 
 draw, as a science, which is obviously required 
 before we can apply it to purposes involving a 
 knowledge of the science. The elementary 
 branches may thus be considered purely educa- 
 tional, whilst the advanced or applied divisions 
 may be described as industrial. — Jn the applied 
 subjects, a knowledge of plane and solid geom- 
 etry prepares the architectural draughtsman to 
 make working drawings for the builder, the 
 carpenter, the mason, and other mechanics em- 
 ployed in the erection and construction of 
 buildings ; displaying, by geometrical drawings 
 made to a regular scale, the true forms and di- 
 mensions of all parts of the fabric ; enabling 
 the builder to calculate exactly the quantity of 
 materials required in its construction, and each 
 artisan to prepare his share of the work, so 
 that it shall truly fit its place. The science of 
 projection and perspective is the basis of the lan- 
 guage by which the architect expresses his de- 
 sign for the whole structure, displaying his ar- 
 rangement of the plan, his design for the eleva- 
 tion, the true form of the building in its several 
 aspects, and the appearance of the whole by 
 means of a perspective view. — Again, in mechan- 
 ical engineering, the designer of a machine must 
 be thoroughly acquainted with projection as a 
 science, before he can express on paper his do- 
 vices for securing the sliced and power required 
 for his purpose. Working drawings have then 
 to be made of the several parts and details, 
 to furnish accurate information to the model 
 maker, by which he may make each part of the 
 machine in wood, to the molder who has to cast 
 it in metal, and for the guidance of the fin- 
 isher and fitter who complete the work and erect 
 the machine. So, also, in surveying and topo- 
 graphical drawing, the actual features of a coun- 
 try or estate are ascertained through the appli- 
 cation of plane and solid geometry, and reduced 
 from the natural size to a plan which is, in all 
 respects, like the true plan of the original, 
 although on a different scale. By. the use of 
 such scale drawings, railways are planned and 
 executed, cities and towns are laid out; and, by 
 civil and military engineers, who employ the 
 same means of delineating their work, cities are 
 drained, supplied with water, or fortified and 
 protected, bridges are built to span the river, and 
 piers made to encroach upon the sea, tunnels made 
 to cut through hills and mountains, and embank- 
 ments and viaducts to fill the inequalities of val- 
 leys. — The marine engineer or naval constructor 
 is equally dependent upon his knowledge of pro- 
 jection, in laying out the lines of his ship or boat, 
 
in displaying its capacity for freight and model- 
 ing its shape for speed. All these features of his 
 
 design is the same as a conipnsiti.ui or essay on 
 a given theme. The artist uses the expression 
 
 bear so important a relation to modern ,-i\ ili/a- 
 tion, and employ so vast a number of persons, 
 are all dependent upon drawing for the initiation 
 of their schemes. At the foundation of siieee.ss- 
 ful work, in any and all of their departments, 
 lies a knowledge of elementary drawing, which, 
 regarded as a language, is of such a character, 
 that it may be efficiently taught in the common 
 schools of America, bythe regular teachers em- 
 ployed to give instruction in general subjects, as 
 soon as this practically useful subjecl tonus a 
 part of all normal-school education. Pure ge- 
 ometry may be considered the study of all these 
 sciences in the abstract, and this is successfully 
 pursued in the schools and colleges; scientific or 
 instrumental drawing, under the headings called 
 elementary subjects, would be the concrete ap- 
 plication of geometry to the needs of practical 
 education, to be applied at a future time to 
 actual industry. 
 
 Frff-lLtinl Driiiriin/. — As the name implies, 
 this kind of drawing is the expression, by the 
 unassisted hand, of what the eve perceives, or 
 the mind, or imagination, conceives. It- results, 
 therefore, are dependent upon the truthfulness of 
 observation or p iwer of c inception possessed by 
 the draughtsman, and, in some measure', upon 
 his manipulative skill as a workman. As a rule, 
 however, the power of chawing, or expression, is 
 equal to the perceptive power, and imperfect or 
 faulty work proceeds generally from a lack of 
 clear understanding of the subject rather than 
 want of hand skill. — As in instrumental draw- 
 ing, free-hand drawing consists of two groups of 
 subjects,— elementary and applied, the first being 
 educational, and the second, industrial or pro- 
 fessional. In the elementary division, are all 
 those branches of study or exercises which 
 develop the imitative faculties, embracing all 
 kinds of copying from Hat examples or round 
 objects, including also the subjects of geometrical 
 drawing and perspective, by which alone the 
 truthfulness of expressed form can be tested. 
 In applied drawing, the language of form is em- 
 ployed to embody new ideas, either as original 
 designs for industrial art and manufactures, or 
 to express the ideal of fine art, the work of the 
 imagination. It will be seen, therefore, that 
 both scientific and artistic drawing, by instru- 
 ments or by the free hand, have a common 
 characteristic; they both involve a knowledge of, 
 and skill in, drawing as a language, before the 
 language can be employed for original purposes. 
 To continue the analogy, ami regarding drawing 
 as the language of form, its alphabet consists of 
 two letters, the straight line and the curve. 
 Simple combinations of these, by elementary 
 practice, produce, as it were, words of one syl- 
 lable; the grouping of .several objects in a drawing, 
 may be described as a sentence ; and an original 
 
 the sort of picture making, of a noudcsciipt kind. 
 which was then called drawing, could only be es- 
 timated, as it deserved, as a useless waste of time, 
 that might have been wisely employed to better 
 purpose. Experiments, in several European coun- 
 tries, upon large classes of children, and even 
 in whole grades of schools, demonstrated the 
 proposition that every one who could learn to 
 write could learn to draw. In the schools of 
 the Society of Friends in Kngland. drawing had 
 long been taught to every child, before the above 
 conclusion had been arrived at: and there was 
 no more inequality of ability displayed bythe 
 children in that subject than in any other. In 
 England, whose display of industrial art in 1851 
 was little less than a national humiliation, the 
 government, seeking after a remedy, took coun- 
 sel of the teachers in the common schools, and 
 requested some of them to try the experiment 
 of teaching elementary drawing, in their classes, 
 to pupil- consisting entirely of the children of 
 winking men. After a year'strial, a convention of 
 school-masters in London, about the year L852, 
 recorded as their opinion that all children who 
 could It am at all. could be taught to draw.giving 
 as the basis of their conviction that. during tin ir 
 year of experiment, "half of the time previously 
 given to writing had been given to drawing, 
 with the result, that the writing had been better, 
 and the power of drawing was a clear gain." 
 from this time, aided by strong encouragi n i at 
 
 from the government, the subject came n ■ 
 
 and more into favor amongst educators, until it is 
 now general in the schools. Concerning the 
 possibility of teaching all persons to draw, an 
 art master of long experience says, "'linn are 
 but four classes of human beings whom it is not 
 found practicable to instruct in drawing. They 
 are the blind, the idiotic, the lunatic, and the 
 paralytic. Of the rest of mankind and woman- 
 kind, exactly one hundred per cent can be 
 taught to draw." (Art Ki/iiru/ioit. Sclm/ostir 
 ,t,,t'l Imlnstriiil: Huston. 1873.) The same opinion 
 is held by those teachers who have tried the 
 experiment in the public schools of Host on. 
 Mass.— Where drawing may have failed as a 
 subject of instruction in the common schools, it 
 has probably been treated as a special subject, 
 taught by special teachers to the oldei pupils 
 only, in the last year or two of school life. When 
 
'J3s 
 
 one of the elementary subjects of 
 
 general education, and taught by the regular 
 teachers, it has never tailed. To ensure success 
 in teaching the subject in the public schools, the 
 following conditions are necessary : ( 1 1 Only 
 those elementary branches should be taught 
 which are educational in their influence, and the 
 knowledge conveyed by them of general use 
 (such as have been described as being at the 
 foundation of all constructive industry). (2) In- 
 struction in drawing should begin with school 
 life, and end only when school, college, or uni- 
 versity education is completed. (3) At the 
 basis of all instruction is geometrical drawing, 
 which illustrates the facte of regular forms ; and 
 perspective, which determines the appearance of 
 those facts. (4) Original design, either element- 
 ary or applied, should form a part of the reg- 
 ular exercises required from pupils, alternating 
 with other exercises, such as drawing from 
 memory, and dictation, in order to give variety 
 to the study. (5) The principles of drawing, and 
 of shades and shadows, should first l>e taught 
 from regular forms, and with scientific method 
 and accuracy, before the pupils are allowed to 
 draw and shade irregular forms, with no guide 
 but their own observation. All practice should 
 proceed from the simple to the complex, from 
 the regular to the irregular, from the fact to its 
 appearance. (6) The best preparation for truth 
 and beauty of design, is an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with the greatest works of the past and pres- 
 ent, and a complete mastery of all the methods 
 and vehicles of expression : so that. on the foun- 
 dation of knowledge and with unhindered skill, 
 the draughtsman and artist, educated by study, 
 and made powerful by practice, may impress on 
 their works the stamp of originality. To illus- 
 tiaie those propositions, programmes of instruc- 
 tion in drawing are here given in outline: 
 Primary and Grammar Schools. 
 1st i/enc— The ntimtv nf geometric terms anil lines ; 
 drawing straight lines and their combinations into 
 simple terms; also, the same forms from memory. 
 i All work on the slate.) 
 
 Iron," 
 from 
 
 ith 
 
 nictation ami memory drawing of preu- 
 ■ii- : simple .I. -i-e r. imposed ef straight 
 pie curves. (Slate work.) 
 Practice on paper of what lias been 
 .iiiii.l; al-u in drawing, with readiness, 
 v and dictation, forms previously drawn 
 
 ''•signing new i iliinatiuns from copies. 
 
 -Free-hand outline design, geometrical 
 
 jects bounded by right lines. 
 
 5th year.— Drawing ornaments and objects of his- 
 torical character, as Egyptian lotus forms, Greek vases, 
 etc.; the same to lie drawn also from memory ; geo- 
 metrical drawing of a more advanced character. 
 
 6th, 1th, and xth i/mrs.-Froe-hand drawing and 
 design, gcoinetrie.il draw ing. model drawing .In mi the 
 solid object), and free-hand perspective (developing 
 ideas in preparation for advanced work), dictation 
 and memory drawing; design with half-tint baci 
 grounds. Botanii .: i imi tnd forms. Colors and 
 the first principles of Una harmony. 
 
 -'''en-. Linear pors] five, angular; design irt 
 
 harmonious color.-., from flowers anil foliage; drawing 
 from plants in outline ; object drawing in one color, as- 
 fruits etc., from flat copies and from easts. 
 
 '.ill. i/enr.— Linear perspective, ohlnpie ; painting 
 
 light and shade, from .opus; drawing foliage from 
 plaster casts ; applied design for manufactures, such 
 
 as carpet-, i. ice. paper-hangings, pottery, glass, fresco- 
 ing, metal work, etc 
 
 Ill, iii o/'.— Li--- ens iii painting landscapes, from nat- 
 ure ; drawing the human lignre, from easts; lectures 
 in architectural styles, a " 
 also. 
 
 The principle on which every course should 
 be arranged is. thai before attempting to draw 
 anything, the pupil should be made to under- 
 stand it ; that is. to have as clear a conception 
 of it as possible. Hence, in the first year, the 
 young pupil is considerably occupied in simply 
 learning the names of forms, in order to impress 
 them upon his memory. When this principle is 
 observed, that the cultivation of the understand- 
 ing should precede draw ing, the latter will never 
 he ilillieult or uninteresting. 
 
 (-') ! 
 
 .icing the following 
 i. metrical drawing ; 
 d the follow mg ad- 
 
 II. Frir-hiiii'l Ih-iui-huj, including the representa- 
 tion of objects and ornament tnun both the flat and 
 the round, the study of light and shade, color, and 
 original design. 
 
 In each of these departments, some of the 
 knowledge and practice found in the other, will 
 be beneficial to the student. The following 
 course will be proper for each : 
 
 Fiiist Year's Course. 
 
 1st Part.— (1) Freehand outline drawing from 
 copies ami blackboard, with exercises in elementary 
 design; ('J) plane geometrical drawing, from copies 
 and lilackl.oael. 
 
 2nd Pari.— (1) Model and object drawing, from 
 copy and solid; (2) perspective drawing (for free- 
 hand students) ; (:i) projection (for instrumental 
 students). 
 
 Second Year's Course. 
 
 I. Instntmeittttl Ih-itirbig. — (li Building construc- 
 tion, including the following subjects: joints used in 
 carpentry, door and w mdow framing, eon-truction of 
 floors, partitions, roofs, and stain a-e-, bond in brick- 
 
 lst year L 
 
 meat-, paralle 
 
 loi modi I -I 
 half-tint, cross 
 
 loctiiral styles, 
 
 ' the use of instru- 
 . with diagrams in 
 in light and shade. 
 Lessons on archi- 
 
 and dictation, etc.: {'-) shading geometrical 
 -.lid-, -hading from the cast and natural objects, ap- 
 plied de-ign for industrial purposes and spec'al sub- 
 jects for particular I. ranches of business. 
 
 For a description of the necessary fittings and 
 apparatus, see Smith, Art Education, Scholastic 
 and Industrial (Boston, 1873). See also Stet- 
 son. Technical Education (Boston, 1876); Mod- 
 ern Art Education, translated from the German 
 of Langl (Boston, L875); Buisson, Rapport sur 
 Vinstructum primaire etc (Paris, 1875). 
 
I » MILL 
 
 DRILL, a term used in education, particu- 
 larly in school instruction, to denote the strict 
 routine of exercises required either to train pu- 
 pils to the ready performance of mental or phys- 
 
 those arbitrary associations of facts or words 
 
 Thus, a certain amount of drill is required in 
 teaching the arithmetical tables, the paradigms 
 and rules of grammar, the spelling of words, and 
 
 those facts of geography that pertain to thi 
 location of places (memorizing maps). I Mill re 
 quires definite exercises and regular practice in 
 
 aci|iim 
 though 
 dated t 
 
 by 
 
 muscular action maybe ace no- 
 performance of acts which at first 
 seemed impossible. This is the 
 iiindation principle of drill. (Sec Rote- 
 kachixo.) 
 
 DRURY COLLEGE, at Springfield. Mis- 
 iiiri. under the control of the < Vngregationalists, 
 
 its 
 
 111.. 
 
 Mich 
 
 ! 
 
 cont 
 
 is under the patronage of the American < VI- 
 lege Society of Boston. The institution com- 
 prises a collegiate department, with five cour- 
 ses of four years each (classical, scientific, Greek 
 scientific, Latin scientific, and ladies' course): 
 a preparatory department, with classical and 
 English courses of three years each: a normal 
 
 department of two years: a model scl I of three 
 
 years; and the Missouri Conservatory of Music, 
 chartered in 1875. Both sexes are admitted to 
 all the departments and courses on the same 
 terms, except that the ladies' course (equivalent 
 to that of the best female seminaries) is designed 
 for such young ladies as do not desire to pursue 
 the severer college courses. The library contains 
 2,000 volumes; the beginning of a cabinet of 
 mineralogy and geology has been made, and a 
 
 number of specimens of natural history have I n 
 
 secured. The college year is divided into three 
 terms. The regular charge for tuition per term 
 is $15 in the college classes. $12 in the prepara- 
 tory classes, $H in "the model school, and $6 in 
 the normal department. These charges are re- 
 mitted in favor of the children of ministers of 
 any denomination who are in active service. 
 and some aid is extended to other deserving 
 students. In 1875 — 6, there were 11 instructors: 
 the students were distributed as follows : college 
 classes, 35 ; normal class. '-'7 ; classical prepara- 
 tory, 75 ; English preparatory, 74 ; music, draw- 
 ing, and painting. 'J.'!: model school. M ; total, 
 deducting repetitions, 220. There were 5 grad- 
 uates at the commencement of 1 875. The Bev. 
 Nathan J. Morrison, D. D., has been the presi- 
 dent from the commencement of the institution. 
 
 DUBLIN UNIVERSITY. Sec Ireland. 
 
 DULL SCHOLARS, or Dullards, a class 
 of pupils found in every school and class, whose 
 perceptions are deficient in rapidity, and whose 
 
 DUPANLOUP 239 
 
 mental powers are sluggish. Such pupils need 
 
 especially the spur of encouragement, and should 
 
 
 chemist Liebig are often mentioned as examples 
 of this fact. 
 
 DUNCE, a term applied to a pupil who is 
 dull, or slow in learning. The word is supposed 
 to be a corruption of the name of Joannes 
 Duns Scotus, a very learned man, who lived in 
 the latter part of the thirteenth century died in 
 1308). Kr<an his keen, analytical intelleci and 
 acute logic, he was styled doctor subtiln the 
 subtle doctor. The name of this greal scholar, 
 according to sonic, was applied to a dullard in 
 derision, just as we often ironicallj call a stupid 
 fellow.-, Solomon, or a bully a Hector. Trench, 
 however thinks it became a term of scorn ap- 
 plied to the adherents of the old school-men by 
 the disciples of the new learning, as the latter 
 gained ..round during the middle ages. Bence, 
 the expression, "You are a Owns," was a reproach, 
 dvocate or supporter of obsolete 
 pinions. Butler, in Hudibras 
 
 as iniplyi 
 and cxpl 
 thus pun: 
 
 DUPANLOUP, Felix Antoine Philippe, 
 shop of Orleans and the foremost Catholic 
 ritcr of France, in the nineteenth century, on 
 litcatioiial subjects, was bom at St. Felix. 
 ivov, Jan. 3., 1802. lb- was ordained priest 
 
 in 1849, bishop of Orleans. His chief attention 
 has ever since been devoted to the educational 
 interests of the Catholic Church. The petit semi- 
 naireof I Means entered into a lively competition 
 with the state schools; in his own episcopal 
 palace, heopeneda new school, and he took an 
 active part in all the educational controversies of 
 the time, lie continued, with great energy, the 
 defense of the " liberty of instruction." which the 
 Catholics of France demanded in opposition to 
 the I'nivcrsitv. and in which he had zealously 
 
 eluding the pagan classics from Christian schools 
 
 (see Classics, Christian), and was 
 
 violently attacked by the Univers. The con- 
 
240 
 
 DTJKSOB 
 
 troversy was, for some time, continued on both I 
 sides with considerable severity, until, at length, 
 the Pope imposed silence upon both parties. He 
 was consulted in the framing of the law of March J 
 15., 1850, concerning the reorganization of public ; 
 instruction; and. after the promulgation of the 
 law, was appointed a member of the Conseil de 
 Vinstrwiion publique. He withdrew from this 
 position in 1852. In the National Assembly 
 which met in 1871, after the proclamation of the 
 third republic, he was the recognized leader of 
 the opposition against the liberal views of Jules 
 Simon, the minister of public instruction. The 
 Assembly appointed him president of the com- 
 mittee selecte 1 to examine and report on the bill 
 in favor of compulsory primary instruction, which 
 had been drafted by Simon'; and he not only 
 emphatically declared against the ministerial bill, 
 but presented a counter-project in favor of the 
 " free, religious, and gratuitous instruction of 
 the poor." In 1875, he secured, in the National 
 Assembly, the adoption of a Mil in favor of the 
 '■freedom of superior instruction." the chief ob- 
 ject of which was the establishment of free I lath- 
 olic universities, in the subsecpieut organization 
 of which he was the acknowledged leader of the 
 bishops. (See France.) Having been elected, in 
 1854, a member of the French Academy, he re- 
 peatedly prevented by his influence the election 
 of several decided opponents of ( 'at he die ' loet lines 
 When, in 1871, Littre was admitted to the 
 Academy in spite of his opposition, he resigned, 
 on the ground that he was unwilling to belong 
 to a society which admitted atheists ; but Guizot 
 and other friends prevailed upon him to with- 
 draw his resignation. The most important edu- 
 cational work of Dupanloup has been published 
 under the title De TlZducation (3 vols., 1855—7). 
 It treats of education in general, of authority 
 and respect in education, and of superior in- 
 struction, entering very fully into the discussion 
 of all the educational controversies of the day. 
 
 DUR3CH, Martin Georg, a Roman Cath- 
 olic writer on education, was born at Deggingen 
 in the kingdom of Wurtemberg, Nov. 11., 
 1800; studied philosophy and theology at the 
 university of Tubingen, and Oriental languages 
 at Paris, became on his return professor at the 
 gymnasium of Ehingen, and. in 1850, pastor and 
 dean at Rottweil. His work on pedagogics or 
 Christian education [Pddngogil ■ I • Wissen- 
 schaft der christlichen Erziehmuf, 1851 is re- 
 garded as one of the best on this subject from 
 the Catholic point of view. He advocates the 
 co-operation of church and state in the manage- 
 ment of the public school, and asserts that, with- 
 out this co-operation, the aim of the public 
 school to improve and purify human society can 
 never be attained. 
 
 DURTJY, Victor, a French historian, au- 
 thor, and educationist, born in 1811. lie was 
 professor of history at Reims, and afterwards 
 at Paris, in the Lycee Napoleon. In 1853, he 
 received the degree of Doctor of Letters. He 
 successively served as inspector of the Academy 
 of Paris, inspector general of secondary instrue- 
 
 DWIGHT 
 
 tion, and minister of public instruction (1863). 
 In the latter position, which he rilled till 18G9, 
 lie attempted many innovations which were 
 much opposed ; he effected, however, some im- 
 portant reforms. His chief historical publica- 
 tions are Histoire des Grecs, 2 vols., Histoiredes 
 
 Remains, 4 vols., Introducti jinerale a Vliis- 
 
 ioirede France, 1 vol., Cours dkistoire, 7 vols., 
 and Eisioire de France,^ vols. These works 
 have been very popular, and have attained an 
 extensive circulation. M. Duruy has also pub- 
 lished valuable reports on the progress of litera- 
 ture and science as shown in the Exposition Uni- 
 rersrlh-oi 18(17. 
 
 DWIGHT, Francis, noted for his efforts in 
 behalf of popular education in the state of New 
 York, and as the founder and editor of the 
 District SchoolJournal of that state, was born 
 in Springfield, Mass., March 14., 1808, and died 
 in Albany, N. Y.. Dec 15., 1845. For several 
 years he acted as county superintendent of 
 schools for the city and county of Albany, and 
 was successively member of the school board of 
 Albany, and of the executive committee for the 
 eare and government of the normal school in 
 that eitv the first in the state. The District 
 School Journal was commenced in 1840, and 
 edited by him till bis death. This journal was 
 aided by the patronage of the state, and was 
 supplied, at the expense of the common-school 
 fund, to every school district. Its tone and in- 
 fluence were highly commended by the distin- 
 guished educators of the time. It survived him, 
 however, only a few years. — See Barnard, 
 Auirriatit Trttrlirrs mill Eihiotltirs. 
 
 DWIGHT, Timothy, a celebrated Ameri- 
 can theologian and scholar, was born in North- 
 ampton, Mass.. May 14., 1752, and died in New 
 Haven, Ct., Jan. 11.. 1817. His mother was 
 the daughter of Jonathan Edwards. After grad- 
 uating at Yale College, in 17G9, he taught a 
 grammar school in New Haven for two years, 
 and. during the next six years, was a tutor in 
 Vale < ollege. 1 luring a part of the Revolution- 
 ary war, he served as chaplain in the army, dis- 
 tinguishing himself by the patriotic fervor of his 
 addresses, and by the stirring songs which he 
 composed. He. subsequently, performed the du- 
 ties of pastor of the Congregational church and 
 principal of an academy, in Greenfield, Ct. In 
 L795, he succeeded Dr. Stiles in the presidency 
 of Yale College, which position he held till his 
 death. He was a teacher of great ability, an 
 impressive pulpit orator, and an excellent divine. 
 His presence was commanding, and his manners 
 affable and genial. 1 1 is writings were numerous, 
 but confined to the departments of theology and 
 general literature. One who had been connected 
 with him as a student in Yale College. thus bears 
 testimony to his character as a teacher : " After 
 the lapse of forty years, and after much oppor- 
 tunity of associating with many eminent instruc- 
 tors, President Dwight is ever present to my 
 mind as the Great Model Teacher."— See Deni- 
 sonOlmsted, Timothy Dwight, as a Teacher, in 
 Barnard's American Teachers and Educators. 
 
241 
 
 EAR, Cultivation of the. 
 
 ological researches appear In ten 
 
 Recent physi- , office, since language, (lie most oflici, ■., 
 ■ Imt little rea- | all education, depends upon iis cvrei .,• Moral 
 
 waul, tl 
 only a 
 their gfi 
 ternal ii 
 
 and soeii 
 
 bin 
 
 cation of the senses is more orlesseffii 
 cording to the time at which it begins al'b 
 In the lighl iii in" lei a • 
 sidered by some extremely doubtful whetl 
 is really any rase of actual conger) I 
 
 doubtle 
 fection, 
 
 tub,- ,,l 
 
 malfi 
 
 and 
 
 r touch, or both tli 
 
 i' infant begins to 
 -usually after tin 
 the words are aeci 
 eulation.eare.-houl 
 
 which 
 ill be 
 
 om th 
 pie Ian 
 i. espe 
 
 lilnii'ix 
 
 a aegli 
 ial tli. 
 
 families. This is an importanl l ic1 . i i 
 
 serves to correct the notion, so generally enter- 
 tained, that good speakers and dingers musl be 
 horn .sneli. and that there are but few persons 
 thus naturally endowed. There is, without doubt, 
 considerable diversity in the sensuous endow- 
 ments of different individuals; but. at the same 
 time, it is impossible to fix a limit to the im- 
 provement of which every organ of 
 ceptible by continuous and proper education, and 
 particularly by a cultivation carried on through 
 several successive generations. As regards the 
 the ear, this may be considered as historically 
 established : since, but three centuries ago. there 
 were but an exceptional few persons who showed 
 an ability to appreciate, and a still smaller num- 
 ber who were able to reproduce, musical melody 
 and harmony. Of all the ancient nation-, the 
 Greeks alone seem to have been able to enjoy the 
 diatonic scale (but not the chromatic), and to 
 give it expression in their music, other nations 
 never having any other than the scale of five 
 notes (barbaric scale). The progress of musical 
 art among modem civilized liati.uis and partic- 
 ularly the diffusion of musical taste among the 
 people are striking illustration- of car culture, 
 since this progress could noi be effected without 
 an organic as well as an esthetic improvement. 
 
 The sense of hearing is the eat lies! to be devel- 
 oped in infancy, and. at the approach "t death, 
 seems to lie the last to be extinguished . it is al.-o 
 
 the last to be overcome by sleep, and the first to 
 
 be aroused on awakening. In reaching objects 
 at a distance, its power is next to that of sight. 
 In the earliest stages of intellectual development, 
 the sense of hearing performs a most important 
 
 children cither never, or with \ cry great dillicul- 
 ty acquire a distinct articulation. It is a great 
 erroi quite common in some families and com- 
 munities, to repress the natural vociferations of 
 children, and to insist on the constant use oi kra 
 tones in speech. Nature dictal ■ .: i al di d ol 
 crying, shouting etc., in order that the lungs 
 and vocal organs may be fully developed ; but, 
 
 i.l i m;u ill excess should lie re.-t rained, .-nice 
 
 the habit of yelling and shouting in the open air 
 will not only injure the delicate organs of the 
 voice, but will have a bad effect upon the moral 
 development of the child, besides incapacitating 
 him for the perception and appreciation ,,t tine,. 
 delicate distinctions of sound upon which musical 
 li;i:inoii\ and melody depend. To what an ex- 
 tent this nice perception and discrimination of 
 sound may be cultivated, appears from the fact 
 that, in good kindergartens, a child will learn to 
 distinguish blindfolded the voice of any one ot a 
 hundred comrades, to tell by what w 
 one of a hundred different noises is produced. 
 
 and to estimate with tolerable accuracy the dis- 
 tance of the source of any well-known sound. 
 Very young children may also, b\ suitabli i :er 
 cises, readily acquire the ability to distinguish 
 the intervals of musical notes, and their position 
 in the scale. By similar kindergarten 
 even eases of constitutional difficulty in hearing 
 may be considerably alleviated. Thus such a 
 child maybe shown how. by closing the mouth 
 and nostrils, the air may be forced into the 
 Kustachian tubes, until the well-known explosive 
 sound of each tympanum follows. After every 
 such exertion, the hearing will be found to be- 
 come somewhat better, until, by frequent repeti- 
 
242 EARLHAM COLLEGE 
 
 tion, its improvement will be quite decided; be- j 
 cause the fine blood-vessels of the organ, in which ; 
 the circulation hail become stagnant, are ren- 
 dered active ; provided, of course, there is no mal- 1 
 formation or incurable physical defect in the 
 organ itself. (See Sknsf.s, Education of.) 
 
 EARLHAM COLLEGE, at Richmond, 
 I, id., is controlled by a board of managers ap- 
 pointed bythe [ndiana Yearly Meeting of Friends 
 (orthodox). It was chartered in L857 : but a 
 hoarding-school for instruction in the higher 
 branches had been in operation in the same 
 building for several years previous. The college 
 is supported bythe income from an endowment 
 of s.Vi.i ioi i. by tuition, and by the proceeds of a 
 farm. There is a classical and a scientific course, 
 each of four years. The preparatory school has a 
 course of two years. Students may pursue si lected 
 studies at the discretion of the faculty, but no 
 degree is given except on the completion of one 
 or the other of the regular courses. The degrees 
 are. A. B. for the classii i] and B. S. for th 
 scientific course. Graduates may receive the 
 second degree (A. M.or M. S. according to the 
 
 previous course) either on continuing year 
 
 at the collide iii the satisfactory prosecution of 
 post-graduate studies, or. in regul 
 the end of three years on passin 
 
 examination in soon- -elected studies, or on the 
 presentation of a satt-t iet.,ry t Ii- -~i ~. The college 
 has libraries containing over l.niio volumes : an 
 observatory supplied with an equatorial telescope, 
 
 a transit instrument, and an astroi ical clock; 
 
 and a museum of zoology, comparative anatomy. 
 geology, archaeology, etc. There are from ten to 
 
 twelve instructors, including six professors and a 
 principal of the preparatory depai tm ri The 
 number of students at present L876 ranges from 
 
 220 to 230 per year, about -thirdof whom are 
 
 college students. The nuiiiber of gi. 
 1875" was 79. The first president, Prof. Barnabas 
 ('. I Ioblies. was appointed in 1 S('.."> : he held the 
 of flee two years and was succeeded by the present 
 incumbent, Joseph Moore. A. M. 
 
 EAST TENNESSEE UNIVERSITY 
 and State Industrial College, at Knoxville, 
 Tenn., non-sectarian, was chartered in 1807. It 
 received a grant of land from the United States 
 through the state legislature, from which about 
 $40,000 was derived; and a further endowment 
 was obtained from the property of Blount Col- 
 lege, which was merged in it on condition of its 
 establishment at Knoxville. It was suspended 
 during the civil war. and the college property 
 was occupied by the Tinted States army, and 
 greatly damaged. Exercises were resumed, in 
 1 Si;*!, in the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb In 
 181i!h the institution received the Congressional 
 land grant to the state for the e-taMi-liuient ot 
 an agricultural and m-ehaiiieal college and the 
 
 of '_'i;n acres i< about a mile from the buildings. 
 The libraries contain about 1,000 volumes. The 
 cabinets of geology, mineralogy, and /.oology have 
 
 ECUADOR 
 
 been recently commenced, and are constantly 
 receiving accessions. A chemical laboratory has 
 been established The value of the grounds, build- 
 ings, and apparatus is 8150,000; the amount 
 of productive fund-. $396,000. It has a pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate department. The col- 
 li -jiate studies extend over a period of four aca^ 
 demic years, of ten months each, and comprise 
 three distinct courses, as follows: (1) The agri- 
 cultural course, in which prominence is given to 
 the sciences pertaining to agriculture; (2) The 
 mechanical course, in which the principal stud- 
 ies are those which relate to the mechanic arts : 
 (3) The classical course, iii which the Latin and 
 < ireek languages are taught . Students c< >n iplet i i ig. 
 with credit, the classical course, receive the de- 
 gree of Bachelor of Arts: those completing the 
 agricultural or mechanical course, that of Bach- 
 elor of Science The students are organized into 
 a battalion ; and military drill and inspections, 
 
 mulct tin directi >f tie professor of military 
 
 t :.- t i - t ike place daily. The whole college is 
 under military discipline. All able-bodied stu- 
 dents must perform a small amount of labor; 
 but this is principally required of the freshman 
 and sophomore classes. Those who wish addi- 
 tional labor, are. to a limited extent, furnished 
 with work, for which they are remunerated. 
 The cost of tuition is $36 a year in the college, 
 and $30 in the preparatory department. Free 
 tuition is given to students nominated by mem- 
 bers of the state legislature, each senator having 
 the right ton inate two, and each represen- 
 tative three. Free tuition is also given to young 
 men who intend to prepare for the ministry, 
 and who bring a certificate to that effect from 
 some church organization. In 1874 — 5, there 
 were IS instructors, and 101 Collegiate and I'll 
 preparatory students. The Rev. Thomas William 
 Humes. S.'T. I>..islls7li) the president. 
 
 EAST TENNESSEE WESLEYAN 
 UNIVERSITY, at Athens. Tenn.. under the 
 control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 was chartered, in the winter of 1860 — 7, as the- 
 East Tennessee Wcsleyan College. The name 
 was changed at the next session of the legisla- 
 ture. It was opened in September, 1867. The 
 main college building is a substantial brick struc- 
 
 ture. 70 by 
 libraries contain 
 is an academic, v. 
 department, the la 
 tine course. Then 
 the cost of tuition 
 
 three stories high. The 
 1.500 volumes. There 
 aratory, and a collegiate 
 ing a classical and a scien- 
 wo terms in the year, and 
 from $6 to $22 per term, 
 
 according to the department. Deductions are 
 made in favor of ministers of the Methodist 
 Episcopal < 'hiirch. In 187 1 — 5, there were 7 in- 
 st motors. D! collegiate students, 35 preparatory. 
 :;m academic and I '.' inu-ic scholars, making a 
 total, deducting repetitions, of 86; the number 
 of alumni, up to that time, was 27. The Rev. 
 John P. Spence, A. \l„ is (1876) the president. 
 
 ECONOMY, School. See Set t. ECONOMY. 
 
 ECUADOR, a republic of South America, 
 having an area of 248,400 sip in., and a popula- 
 tion estimated, in 1ST... at L,850,000. Of these, 
 
55 per cent were whites; 42percenf Indians; the 
 remainder, negroes and half-breeds. The inhabit- 
 ants speak the Spanish language and belong to 
 the Roman Catholic Church, the form of worship 
 of which is the only one tolerated in public. 
 After the conquest of the empire of the [ncas,the 
 kingdom of Quito wasmade a presidencyof the 
 viceroyalty of Peru. It remained under Spanish 
 rule up to L822, when it became a part of the re- 
 public of Colombia: Mini, in 1831, became an in 
 
 dependent republic under the Hi i oi I oa lor 
 
 Since then, it has I n the Bcene of numerous 
 
 revolutions and want with the neighboring re- 
 publics. The schools of all grades have beenand 
 
 still are under tl ntrol of the church, which, in 
 
 this republic, lias generally wielded a greater 
 power than iii any otherpart of South America, 
 [t was especially the aim of the conservative pres- 
 ident Moreno die I L875) to place the entire de- 
 partment oi instruction under the immediate di- 
 rection of the eluuvh. In lsi',1 ii \\ i. i ; lived to 
 
 erect a number of n<\\ 3 tiool to 1 luctedby 
 
 the Brothers of Christian Doctrine. Vb d A 
 
 councilors were empowered to raise in advance 
 a part of the taxes for the support of these 
 schools. At the same time, an agreement was 
 entered into between the government and the 
 Society of Jesus, according to which the latter 
 
 How littl luca ion 
 
 from the fact that the es 
 cation, according to the 
 to only about 20,000 pe 
 Instruction 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 ature, Latin. Creek, law, medicine, etc Special 
 instruction is imparted in the following scl Is: 
 
 
 ,f, 
 
 1 conservatory of 
 
 music, with s 
 
 39 students. Ii 
 
 1872, a pro- 
 
 led for a school of 
 
 obsti 11 ii .H'.l 
 
 sculpture, to be 
 
 ened in Quito, 
 
 
 rofessors. An 
 
 ts and sciences \ 
 
 as als I.e 
 
 to. and the adv 
 
 ntages of the 
 
 mal Scl 1 were 
 
 to be extended 
 
 ell. See SclIMin, 
 
 Encyclopadie, 
 
 lamerika; Wapp 
 
 Ei s. Handbueh 
 
 ■ mid Statistik, v. 
 
 1. 1: Report 0/ 
 
 EDGEWORTH, Me 
 
 Richard Lovell 
 
 rated both as an 
 
 to some extent, 
 
 inual 
 
 s (1 peso=$0.96.5). 
 
 The schools are at- 
 lvbv the whites, the half- 
 
 TV, 
 
 tended aim 
 breeds,and the mulattoes; while the Ind 
 compose tin- laboring classes in the citii 
 enjoy the advantage of any education at 
 number of public schools, in \>',:,. \va. 
 private schools. 1 T < "> : and the number 1 
 supported by corporations was 1 1, ma 
 total number of primarj si hools 131. 'I 
 her of pupils 111 the public schools was I '1 
 number in private schools 3,966, audi 
 837, making 
 
 Early Lessons (1815), published originally by 
 bis daughter in 1810. In 1822, Maria Kdgeworth 
 published Rosamond, a sequel to Early Lessons, 
 which was followed by Harry / Lucy, the 
 
 and Frank, -su] 
 appeared in C, 
 People. It was 
 
 course of instrue- 
 •c mi prises reading. 
 
 ,/ In 
 
 supported by corporat 
 number of pu 
 tion in the 
 
 writing, arithmetic, and religion. 
 Secondary, Superior, and Spt 
 — There were, in 1873, six colleges colegiosna- 
 donales) with 59 professors and 757 students, 
 and one female college with t profe-^ois. and \:>:\ 
 students. The University of Quito comprises 
 four colegios, the Colegio de San Gri ?< 1 
 founded in L586 by the Society of Je.-u-. and 
 invested with the privileges of Salamanca in 
 1621; the Colegio de Santo Tomas de Aquino, 
 belonging to the Dominicans; the Colegio Mayor 
 with which a seminary is connected, and the ' '"- 
 / jiode San Fernando. The revenue of the uni- 
 versity a mi- to from 1,000 to 5,000 pesos. and 
 
 tic -..I in . j >i, professors to 3,950 pesos. In 
 
 the e.,', ,, ,„■, fchi irse of -1 udy embrai e Latin 
 
 and sometimes < 'reek, in addition to the branches 
 taught in the primary schools. The university 
 course comprises the Spanish language and liter- 
 
 hction 
 fame. 
 larity. 
 
 impossible to read ten pa Lie- in any of her writ- 
 ings, without filling, that not only as a whole, 
 but that, in every part, they were intended to do 
 good." " Sh, is the author, said Kdward Everett, 
 " of works never to he forgotten : of works which 
 can never lose then- standard value as English 
 Classics." In L820, she completed a Memoir of 
 ber father (commenced by him), who died in 
 ]slT. There are several editions of her works. 
 
 which still tiime to be reprinted. 
 
 EDINBURGH, University of. See Scot- 
 
 EDUCATION (Lat. educaiio), a g 
 comprehensive term, including in its signification 
 
 every thing that pertains to the brin 
 
 children, and il pcration of influi in 1 end 
 
 agencies designed to stimulate and direct ihe de- 
 velopment of the faculties of youth by training 
 and instruction, and thus to control the forma 
 tion of their character. Hence, education has. 
 
244 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 been divided into several departments, according 
 to the class of faculties in the development and 
 improvement of which il is directed, including 
 (] i Physical Education (q. v.). or the education 
 of the bodily powers: |2) /„/<■//, vtmil /■;/».,,/„,„ 
 (q. v.), that of the mind or intellect ; 3 U 
 Education (q. v.), — of the propensities, senti- 
 ments, will, and conscience; (4) Esthetic Educa- 
 tion,— oi the taste, musical, artistic, or literary, 
 that is. cmi.rcliendin"- the sphere of the iimmi- 
 
 which concern only the - tul as a spiritual and 
 immortal essence, and it n lations to the 1 Ireator, 
 
 the ll.lilille Spirit. (See l:,: [Qioi - I. in CATION.) 
 I 'dm ai em is also distinguished into Imiw or 
 domestic education [a. v. ), and public or common- 
 srlmul riln r.iiiun (see lYia.te Sen ,s). or, con- 
 sidered as a means for the general enlightenment 
 of the people, popular education; also into pri- 
 vate din,/, that i- -iippoited by private 
 
 funds, ind n Ui ma edit ation, — provided for by 
 the sf it i. (Si e \ vtm\ il Education.) 
 
 Scl 1 education, generally called instruction, 
 
 on account of the more limited character of its 
 scope and the sphere of its operations, is distin- 
 guished, according to it- -lade, into i I ) /><-, tn,i,-i/ 
 instruction, that is, the instruction given in ele- 
 HMutdjy schools (sm-li as th immon scl Is, 
 
 til | I'll'V schools of eitie- ropre-elithrg ulilv a 
 
 lowei -nli Ini-ionot primary instruction); (2) sec- 
 ""'I -,-■■■., „/, — as given in academics, 
 
 high -' h ■ ils mid lie schools) ; (3) superior in- 
 
 the growth and development of mind and body, 
 and which especially constitute the theory of 
 education, or pedagogics, as sometimes called. 
 This ain.le «ill embrace only the general con- 
 sideration oi [) the history of education, and 
 II the theory of education, with a reference to 
 sub-titles for fuller information in regard to sub- 
 ordinate topics. 
 
 I. History of Education. — Thehistoryoi edu- 
 cation is the history of the institutions, prin- 
 ciples, and method.- by means of which children 
 and youth of both sexes have been educated, 
 from the earliest period oi historic times to the 
 present day. It embraces within its scope an 
 account of the peculiar character which edu- t 
 cation has assumed among the several nations of 
 the globe, of the rise and development of t he 2 
 different methods of instruction, of the systems «J 
 and labors of prominent educators, of the divi 
 
 classes of schools, and < 
 v conflii 
 
 he rival and 
 
 (4) 
 
 ,-cbnok medical schools, military, naval or nau- 
 tical schools, theological seminaries, schools of 
 architecture, etc.. for information in regard to 
 which sec- the respective titles. 
 
 Education is to be carefully distinguished from 
 instruction, the Litter being only a subordinate 
 part of the great scheme of controlling and 
 eutding the development of a human being. To 
 
 this department of education ti, • r v s 
 
 (from the Greek word SiSavneiv, to ■ i is often 
 applied. (See Didactics and Instruction.) In- 
 struction is addressed to the intellect or under- 
 standing: while education comprehends the whole 
 nature of man and the various agencies by means 
 of which, ill itsfonnativestate.it may he affected. 
 Its primary object is to form the character either 
 by stimulating its development in the normal 
 direction, or correcting tendencies to morbid 
 growth. In respect to the scientific principles by 
 which its practical operations should be guided, 
 education is a science ; in relation to the proper 
 mode of performing those operations so as to ren- 
 der them as effective as possible, it is an art. The 
 science of education is a very complex one. inas- 
 much as its principles must be drawn from many 
 different departments of science: superadded to 
 which, as its own peculiar sphere of investigation, 
 there is the great body of truths which concern 
 
 and the object of this genera) article can, there- 
 fore, only be to preset it a briet 'jetieral view, in 
 outline. of the subject. so as to show more clearly 
 the relation oi it- si vera] departments and topics. 
 
 Theearlit si scl Is which have any claim to a 
 
 [Haee in a bistorj of education are met with in 
 Egypt, < hina, India and Persia. In all these 
 countries, it was the aim of the instructor to train 
 the young so that they might become homogeneous 
 members of the community to which they be- 
 longed, the institutions of which were to be pre- 
 served and continued by them unchanged. The 
 claims ol individuality were, at that early period, 
 unknown: and the principle of blind and slavish 
 Mil mn— ion lo i he constituted authorities was the 
 basis of all education. There are, however, some 
 
 mailed points of difference. In China, the dis- 
 tinctive features of education characterize it as 
 family education, in India as caste education, in 
 Persia as state education, and in Egypt as priest- 
 ly education. In ( hina. every child is reared in 
 absolute obedience to the bead of the family, 
 ami .'very family submits as a child to the com- 
 mon father of till, the Emperor. The excessive 
 veneration of ancestry makes the character of 
 the people essentially stationary, and education 
 assumes pre-eminently the character of mechanical 
 training. In India, every child belongs by his 
 birth to one particular caste: and the foremost 
 aim of the instruction given is to teach him the 
 rights and duties of the caste. The leading prin- 
 ciple of Indian education is habit. In Persia, 
 every kind of power and authority centers in the 
 king ; the children belong more to the state than 
 to their parents, and the germs of a strictly na- 
 tional education may. therefore, be found in the 
 institutions of that country. In Egypt, the 
 priest is the chief representative of education 
 and the only teacher. (See China, Egypt, India, 
 and Persia.) 
 
 The classic nations of the ancient world, 
 Greece and Rome, began a new period in the 
 
story of education. While the oriental child 
 as taught to become a docile member of the 
 
 EDUCATION 245 
 
 nf conquered < !r v revealed t.. the Ro- 
 
 a progn ss in .in science, and literature, 
 
 i they as yel bad uol even i :eived, and 
 
 awaken .1 .1 thirst foi highi 1 literal-} culture, 
 lolitical and social system of the republic 
 
 Highi 
 
 I -In, 
 
 he tl 1 of corruption which finally over- 
 
 ned the free institutions oi Rome. The 
 ot I [orace, so often quoted, have thus an 
 
 Solon as lawgivi 
 
 •rs, Pythagora 
 
 practical educah 
 
 ■1- an 1 !'l ito 
 
 writers on educat 
 
 tun. propound 
 
 to circulation a 1 
 
 lumber of new 
 
 not only did <ii 
 
 e oldi 1- tiatioi 
 
 wuii 1 have until 
 remained among 
 
 th.i most 1, .t • 
 
 progressive edui 
 
 '".' ' r ■" 
 
 ful individuality 
 
 was, to the « 
 
 life, and the idea 
 
 , oi .■ luci n 
 
 the word « 
 
 •• ... ,.. the li 
 
 guild. The Spa 
 
 ttati system 1 
 
 stitute I, to a con 
 
 si lerabledegr 
 
 this general cha 
 The Roman's att 
 
 mtion.from h 
 
 was directe 1 in 
 
 the affairs oi 
 
 which was n instant Iv « 1 i_r- 1_< •■ i 
 
 who reared him 
 
 naturally desig 
 
 a practical man. 
 
 Thedevelopn 
 
 individuality became tin- aim 
 
 tion. 1..-- time 
 
 was found for 
 
 felt in. tin- st 11 i 
 
 f ..I science a 
 
 was a notable | 
 
 irotrress in r I ■< 
 
 1 i- i- hi' 
 
 involving a 
 
 marriage and foi 
 
 a tnoredignii 
 
 Sltion of woman 111 society. In even 
 the mother was to begin and the fathei 
 titntc tin- work of chu-atioii. which cat 
 looked upon as a part of parental duty 
 
 
 Under the 1 mpire, tl li 
 
 1 landmarks of na- 
 
 m'.'ii't'Yi',- 
 
 tional education were ent 
 Greek tutors ami Greek bigl 
 
 11. -Iv swept away. 
 1 schools, at Athens 
 
 th which 
 
 lli-llest instill. Hoi, ; Imt lb, 
 
 lected to supply the 
 
 
 was no longer able to gras] 
 
 1 the ideal ot a nin- 
 
 es in 1I1 ' 
 
 versa! higher education, and 
 
 th.' Roman Kmpire 
 
 beauti- 
 
 oi the West was destroyed 
 
 by the barbarians 
 
 ■ aim of 
 
 without having developed ai 
 
 iv systems or forms 
 
 essed bv 
 and the 
 
 nl Ihood, 
 
 of education. As Romi 
 
 foundation of th - ■••. to 1 
 
 ... ;. 1 Ron ■ 1 r produced 
 
 lucation. from the 
 he downfall of the 
 tly utilitarian char- 
 1 on edu- 
 lato : yet the works 
 Seneca and Quin- 
 
 inwealth 
 
 tilian, contain ma j 
 
 ons oi great prac- 
 
 id those 
 
 tical value. 
 
 
 ake him 
 
 A peculiar position is 
 
 occupied by the 
 
 
 Hebrews, the only theocratic 
 
 Their children were to 1 
 
 family or caste, not for the s 
 distinction in ait ami litera 
 obedient servants of the G01 
 
 people uf antiquity. 
 
 ueateil. i,.,t for the 
 tate or for personal 
 hire, but to be the 
 1 of israel. AsJe- 
 
 >.iil for 
 
 hovah was represented to t 
 
 be people as their 
 
 
 -u\, reign, so he was their on 
 
 I3 teai her. Rduca- 
 
 r tocon- 
 
 tion wasa corollary of religii 
 family was both it- teacher 1 
 
 m. 1 he head ..1 a 
 ui.l priest, and gave 
 
 part ..I the educat which the 
 
 received under the parental ro >i 
 to become a useful, honest, and ill 
 of the commonwealth Under t 
 the will was more developed tl 
 emotional nature or the intellect, 
 ences which interested the Roma 
 exclusively those oi a strongly mi 
 ter,— rhetoric, Roman history, an 
 ence; since every noble and 1 
 aspired to become a lea ling politi 
 L'eiieral. The characteristic virtu. 
 Romans, before the decline oi the 
 stern and inflexible integrity in 
 but all their intellectual and mi 
 were circumscribed by the nar 
 their own nationality, and a .In. 1 
 outside of it appears to luce bei 
 them. When an acquaintance w 
 
 
 d as a bun 
 
 sect. 
 
 Theenew 
 
 wen so gn atlj 
 
 iv oral, 
 he Jew- 
 instruc- 
 II.- ages 
 lutation 
 lucated. 
 at turn 
 in 1 less 
 For a 
 ir from 
 ited and wealthy 
 ding a high rank 
 lie • 'hrisl ian ■ ap 
 int. and despised 
 stians themselves 
 effort to live up 
 
 this 
 
246 EDUCL 
 
 to the requirements of their religion, and to 
 develop the constitution of their church, that 
 but little attention seems to have been devoted 
 to the cause of education. They had no literary 
 institutions of their own. and.con.-eqiinitly. their 
 children were often sent to pagan schools for sec- 
 ular instruction. The first Christian schools 
 were founded to instinct the catechumens in the 
 doctrines of Christianity, and to enable them to 
 
 schools, that ot Alexandria i.-ee Ai.kn \\i,i:i \x 
 
 So .;. gradually developed into the first school 
 
 of Christian theology. Its jjreat teachers, espe- 
 cially ('lenient and Oriecn, not only freed < 'hris- 
 tianity from the chaise, until then very common, 
 of being the faith of the ignoranl and iffiterate, 
 
 but, hv'coneeivinu the idea ot demonstrating the 
 
 agreement of Christian doctrines with Platonic 
 
 ideas of the Greeks, the most advanced in ante- 
 Christian times, and to resume the work of edu- 
 cational development where the great masters of 
 ancienl Greece had left off . This attempt, how- 
 ever, fail- 1 in consequence of the passionate op- 
 position ma le to it by another school of Chris- 
 tian theologians, who saw in the world outside of 
 the Christian revelation nothing hut darkness 
 and sin. and did not believe that any good could 
 be derived from the study of pagan literature. 
 Tertullian rejected any connection between 
 Christianity and philosophy with the harsh re- 
 mark, "What have Athens and Jerusalem, the 
 
 life, but also children who were sent there by 
 their parents. In the East, the attention of the 
 monks was. however, so completely absorbed 
 in subtle metaphysical questions and controver- 
 sies, that little was accomplished deserving a 
 
 mention in the history of education. Ill the 
 west. Benedict and his followers cave to monas- 
 tic education a more practical basis, and com- 
 bined agricultural anil mechanical occupations 
 with the study of theology. The importance of 
 these convent schools (q.v.) greatly increased when 
 the barbaric tribes overpowered western Europe, 
 and rudely destroyed the last remnants of I to- 
 man civilization. The convents then became al- 
 
 were those of Ireland and England, which not. 
 ■ ml \ sent the greatesl number of missionaries 
 for the conversion of the pagan portions of 
 Europe, but also educated the best teachers. The 
 most vigorous impulses given to the progress of 
 
 ceed from any monk or convent, but from the 
 greal monarchs in the ninth century, Charle- 
 magne (q. v.) ami Alfred (q, v.). who by wise 
 laws, greatly increased the number of schools 
 and improved the course of studies, which were 
 divided into the Irivium and quadrivium. 
 
 deeline.aud. subsequently, in the tifthceiitun 
 extinction, of the Alexandrian school. \\\ 
 the study of the literature of ancient G 
 ceased, ami the treasures which are containi 
 the educational works of Plato and Axis 
 were for a lone' time hidden. The only SC 
 to be met with at that time in the Chri. 
 
 of 
 
 to 
 
 work of the greal emperor. The 
 towns ami rural districts did not 
 ..■ value of education, and a. large 
 ■ clergy looked with disfavor at the 
 Itivate in schools the language of 
 the expense ot the l.atiu. the inli- 
 
 ne ; their 
 rge extent 
 lurch and 
 
 .lioll WO.lld 
 
 controlled 
 
 by the su- 
 the church, 
 
 their faith and the depth of their reli-iou., fed- chained, the pupil.- endeavoring to reproduce,™ 
 ing. The organization of Christian schools literal recitations, the explanations and lectures 
 
 other than those of a theological character is of their teachers. Scl I discipline was not only 
 
 chiefly due to the monastic orders. Both in the severe', but often cruel, and corporal punish- 
 es i in I in the west provision was made for ment was generally approved, and frequently ap- 
 instructing not only the candidates for monastic | plied. The first departures from the educational 
 
methods of the church schools are met with in 
 the education of young nobles, and in the estab- 
 lishment of town schools, hi neither case was 
 there anj formal denial of the authority of the 
 church, but very great attention was given to 
 certain features of education which not only 
 found no place in the church schools, but were 
 l'lvcjnnitly c-.'ii-iiiv 1 I iv t In- representatives of 
 
 those sel Is as dangerous innovations. Thus. 
 
 the attention given to gy astic exercises in the 
 
 education nf young noiiles, and the worshipful 
 attention shown to noble women, gave to the 
 aristocracy of the middle aps a training c|iiite 
 « I i tt • 1 . ■ 1 it from wdiat it would have received in 
 the church schools The i -tabli-linr-nt of town 
 
 tion of such knowledge as was in ist needed bythe 
 business man and mechanic, especially reading, 
 writing, and arithmetic, the |. a ling object of 
 instruction. They were sometime-, called writing- 
 schools, as they aimed at fitting their pupils for 
 writing letters and business compositions. Tho-e 
 schools not only served to develop the idea 
 of secular instruction in the place of merely 
 ecclesiastical education, but, when town mag- 
 istrates were the patrons of the schools, led to 
 the appointment of lay teachers, and. gradually, 
 cause I teaching to be regar le 1 as a sp icial pro- 
 fession. The beginning of this prole— ion was 
 sufficiently humble. Even at the close of the 
 mid lie ages, special school-houses could be found 
 in only a few towns. Instruction was generally 
 given in sonic building usd for ecclesiastical or 
 municipal purposes, or in hired rooms. Winn 
 magistral - had the control of a sclm il. they en- 
 gaged a sei, , .; ... ; . , ... ,_,. |, rally for the term of 
 one yea 1 h -1. i il-master chose his own as- 
 sistants, and. it hi.- contract was not renewed, 
 ma.-ter and as-istant traveled from town to town, 
 until they found a new engagement. They were 
 sometimes accompanied by crowds of boys and 
 youths (see Bacchants), whose vagrant habits 
 were, however, by no means calculated to in- 
 crease the reputation of school e lucation. — The 
 greatest among the educational achievements of 
 the Christian world, during the middle ages, 
 was the establishment of the universities, in 
 which every department of .science was to be 
 developed to its highest perfection. The plan 
 of these institutions, which wen to be the centers 
 of the literary labors ol the entire I Ihi istia 
 world, and in which, therefore, the progress 
 made in any one science was to benefit all,' was 
 in itself an immense progress. The development 
 
 of the universities was givailypr ted b\ ihe 
 
 re\ival of classical studies dp v.), which began 
 in Italy in the 14th century, and by the discov- 
 ery of the art of printing in the lath century, 
 which greatly facilitated a general diffusion of 
 every kind of knowledge. The foremost rep- 
 resentatives of this new period of intellectual 
 activity were Erasmus. Eeuchlin, and Melanch- 
 thon. A striking feature in the educational 
 history of Christian Europe, from the rise of 
 Christianity to the end of the middle ages, is the 
 
 EDUCATION 247 
 
 with in i controlling influence of a universal church, with 
 i" esiab- one visible head, the Pope, and one literary lan- 
 
 •ase was guagc the Latin. In ancient Egypt, China, India, 
 
 vol the Persia, Greece, Rome, and ; the dews. 
 
 riven to t the aim of education had alwaj 
 
 iot only J national bearing, and (he same wool was gener- 
 
 ally used to 
 hostile, clin 
 
 of the i; ai 
 
 empire had 1 
 tion. soon wil 
 
 the lifted 
 lurks. Mi 
 in existenci 
 the predoi 
 Asia and J 
 
 lied 
 
 the Mohammedan Imd, ,cl„,ol,oi .-pan, not onlv 
 attracteda large number of students from < hris- 
 tian countries, but in many sciences, as mathe- 
 matics, philosophy, and natural history, became 
 the tcaehcis of all Europe. In the twelfth cent- 
 er) . llr -e sel U bee, III , n decline; and. from 
 
 that time to the present, education in the entire 
 Mohammedan world has been in a most depie.-sed 
 condition. 
 
 At the close of the fifteenth and the beginning 
 of the sixteenth century, a series of remarkable 
 events indicated the entrance of mankind into a 
 new period of it.s history. One of special im- 
 portance in regard to the progress of education 
 
 large portion of Europe. As Luther, Zwingli, 
 
 CaTvii, 
 
 lunch 
 
 ii 1 laws which were intended, after 
 tile example of Charlemagne, to bring the entire 
 population under educational influences. In this 
 way, education became more widely diffused 
 
 than it had ever 1 n in the middle ages: and it 
 
 remained, henceforth, to a higher degree than 
 
 any 
 
 legislators: but there wa- no .-ub-ianti.il change 
 in the methods of instruction, and the subs 1 1 i- 
 
 elley of secular to theological c I : ic , I |, ,| , remained 
 
 as complete as before. The desire to preserve 
 the < 'atholic ( hnreli from furl be] di fei i ion, 
 and to recover the ground already lo i led to 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 the establishment of the order of the Jesuits, 
 who tried, for this purpose, to obtain a control 
 of the education of the higher classes. The 
 schools of the Jesuits (q. v.) attained a great 
 celebrity, a large attendance, and the admiration 
 Of many of the most eminent Protestants. In 
 consequence of the close connection between 
 schools of every description and the church, all 
 the great religious movements were reflected in 
 education Thus, when the German Pietists 
 charged the Protestant Church of their time 
 
 and v, i ii and rvaluin<* the e tional ele ui of 
 
 shape I as to aim more at the education of 
 practical than orthodox Christians. (iermany 
 is indebted to these Pietists for one of its greatest 
 philanthropists and most practical educators. A. 
 II. Fraucke (q. \-.|. whose fame in the history of 
 education rests more on the excellent insl itutions 
 which were founded by him, than on any new 
 theory or literary work on education. 
 
 A radical reform in education had, in the 
 in '.in! niir. been introduced by ( 'omeiiius fij. v.i . 
 a bishop of the Bohemian ISrcihivn and one of 
 the greatest educators of all time. Influenced 
 by tile inductive method of Bacon (q. v i. and 
 the works of Ratich (q. v.) on the necessity and 
 importance of an independent art of teaching, 
 Oomenius conceived the idea of a harmoniou 
 development of all the faculties of man. and 
 proposed a grand system of popular education 
 which is still admired by all educators as a work 
 
 of lasting value. The views of C inius on 
 
 vernacular schools, on the return from dead 
 books to the live book of nature, on intuitional 
 teaching and the value of analytico - synthetic 
 methods met with genera! approbation and led 
 to immediate reforms. The movement begun 
 by Comenius was greatly strengthened by the 
 writings of John Locke q. v . who applied 
 Bacon's inductive method to the study of the 
 human mind ami became the founder of empir- 
 ical psychol ij\ Locke specially exceeded former 
 writer- in recognizing the importance of physical 
 education: his ideas in regard to this subject 
 
 have exercised a marked influeni u modem 
 
 school legislation. The new principles thus devel- 
 oped were wel led by the powerful opposition 
 
 which, in the seventeenth century, arose in the 
 literary world againsl the influence of both 
 orthodox Protestantism and the Catholic Church 
 ii] society, and which had its chief represent- 
 atives in the French Free-Thinkers, the English 
 Deists, and the German Rationalists. It became 
 the general tendency of the age to look upon 
 education as one of the most important depart- 
 ments of state administration, and. in most of 
 the states, ministries if education, school boards. 
 and school commissions were appointed. In 
 Germany and a number of oth r i ountrii s, com- 
 pulsory education was introd 1 Thi chief 
 
 difference a ng the leading educators concerned 
 
 the question whether instruction should chiefly 
 aim at iuip.irt in-' positive and useful knowledge, 
 
 or at exercising and training the mental faculties. 
 
 The advocates of the latter principle, who were 
 called the Humanists, attributed very great 
 educational importance to the study of the clas- 
 sical languages; while those of the former, called 
 Realists, from their utilitarian point of view, 
 thought more of natural sciences, modern lan- 
 guages, geography, and history. Among the writ- 
 ers iducation in the eighteenth century, none 
 
 became so famous as Rousseau, an enthusiastic 
 idealist who looked upon the entire civilization 
 
 he nor any of his ad- 
 s radical theories into 
 3 ideas, especially on 
 cultivation of the in- 
 i- correct by all edu- 
 
 the father of the an- 
 luc.nioii which insists 
 
 I'hi 
 
 thropists isee I mi. wnmopuM, attempted to 
 establish mod,'] boarding-schools on the basis 
 of the ideas of < 'omenius. Locke, and I lousseau. 
 The great hopes which they raised were never 
 reali ed; but many of their pupils have risen 
 to consid 1 ible eminence. 
 
 Hi'' -i famous and influential of modern 
 
 educators was Pestalozzi. The eminent position 
 which he occupies in the history of education is 
 not so much due to a | erfect method of instruc- 
 tion, to a superior talent of organization and man- 
 agement, or to the foundation of great educational 
 institutions, for in all these respecte Pestalozzi 
 has been exci lied bj othet educators ; but he 
 u- se hi. d the admiration of all time by his 
 fervid enthusiasm in the cans,' of education.' He 
 gave a greater impulse to the improvement of 
 popular education than any of his predecessors : 
 
 all,' 
 
 Many of the eminent philosophers of theeight- 
 
 the great problems of pedagogy ; and conflicting 
 as their views may 1 n many important ques- 
 tions, the principle that education should be a 
 natural and harmonious development of inde- 
 pendent individualities is ecu, rally recognized. 
 
 Of special interest for educators are the systems 
 of Herbart, Beneke, and Herbert Spencer. 
 Ilerhart (q. v.) rejected the traditional view of a 
 number of different powers constituting the 
 human soul, which on the contrary is regarded 
 by him as a simple entity and as not subject to 
 any change in its quality. Beneke (q. v.) pro- 
 posed a system oi education wholly based on 
 psychology, to which he attributed the character 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 of a wholly empirical science. FTerberl Spencer 
 (q. v.) claimed for the developmenl • ■! the soul 
 an organic growth subject to the ordinary laws of 
 organic development, and made psychology striet- 
 
 •nt of educational ideas, as it 
 .•IK- traced, Loul Ilv shows, 
 
 249 
 this 
 
 verb educo, to lead out ; but it never has 
 literal sense, and il i.- extremely unlikely that 
 
 the R ans c :cted the idea of drmn'vg out 
 
 with that of educatio. In order to gel al a true 
 idea of education, we must look at the circum- 
 stances of tlie case We pro© "I by way of 
 
 r, behind it the means of .-. 
 ies. Within certain limits, t 
 
 
 mend and promote o 
 lion of children? (Se 
 
 schools? (See Denominational Sci .-.; All 
 
 these questions are hi!l\ treated of, in this work, 
 
 Wlll.-ll it. 
 
 n is like 
 
 111 st lives 
 
 hrough a 
 
 attain an ideal of t 
 
 The differei betwi 
 
 is, that the limits oi 
 
 Dittes 
 
 brcvhl 
 
 itO 
 
 The word education is used in a variety of 
 
 senses, < nected but not always i ompatible with 
 
 the true idea. Thus man is viewed as being, in 
 
 his earliest stage, a kind of i .pressed mass of 
 
 faculties, and education is the ,1,-aui,,.. ,,,t of 
 
 L844— L85 
 lation in I! 
 
 23 
 
 transl 
 Tfo i 
 
 *•/„■■/, 
 (2 vol 
 
 md des Unt 
 
 , /;/.,. ution. - The won] educa- 
 tion isderived from the Latin verb educo which 
 is prnpi rlv used to .lr.~i.j-n.ili- the snstenaiiee ami 
 ran- bestowed bya nurse on a child; and it is.no 
 iloubt, connected etymologicahy with the Latin 
 
 t,and that no act is truly educative which 
 
 does not help I to strive afteractions that are 
 
 becoming to his nature, or, to express it object- 
 ively, to strive ait. r what is g I, beautiful, or 
 
 true. 
 
 But, in thus stating the work of education in 
 a general proposition, we have done very little 
 towards explaining its true nature. I duration 
 sets I., fore it an ideal. I low are we to form 
 anything like an adequate conception of this 
 
•250 
 
 EDUCATION 
 
 ideal? Only by a minute and careful study of 
 human nature; and, therefore, every educator 
 must necessarily devote a great deal of his atten- 
 tion to the phenomena ol body and mind, and 
 to man, the combination of both. The ideal is 
 a unity, but it is a composite unity, made up of 
 the perfect accomplishment oi endless detailed 
 actions, and we must, therefore, examine all the 
 details before we can attain lo a clear notion of 
 the whole. 
 
 The subject may be viewed in another light. 
 Every portion of man is made or preformed for 
 a special function or functions. Thus the eyes 
 are made for seeing, the hands for grasping, the 
 skin for touch. For what is the whole body 
 made '.' For what is man. body and soul, made .' 
 It is the work of the educator to help him whom 
 he educates to discharge the functions for which, 
 as man, he has been made or preformed. Ac- 
 cordingly, most of the definitions of education 
 which have been given, have been based on the 
 answer to the question, what in the chief end 
 the sunn bonum the destiny of man'.' 
 This was a question which occupied the atten- 
 tion of the ancients much, and I llemens Alexan- 
 drinus has gathered together a large number of 
 the answers which ancient philosophers gave to 
 the 1 1 1 < 1 1 1 i i v- . These are interesting to the edu- 
 cator, because they suggest different points of 
 view from which to look at the problem. In 
 mole modem times, the form which the answer 
 has most frequently taken is the state, n.:ii iha, 
 it is the work of education to pro In i, .. I ir ..- 
 it can, an equable and barmoniousd i ilo] i i 
 of all the powers of man. Berbarl and 1 - 
 school object to this way of expressing the aim 
 of education. The term powers is api to mis- 
 lead. There are no separate and special faculties 
 in mans mind. All the best psychologists admit 
 that these faculties are fictions ; and. therefore. 
 the aim of education must be denned apart from 
 the.-.e. I lei hart himself defined the aim of edu- 
 cation to be morality ; but he used the word in a 
 truly philosophical sense, in which it is not un- 
 derstood by the masses, and. therefore, he pre- 
 ferred to state the object of education to lie, to 
 
 produce a well-balanced many-sidedness of in- 
 terest. The emphasis laid on iiih-rt-st has been 
 
 eh fruit in educational in- 
 but, practically, 
 the same as the 
 
 ned to a series of 
 
 i ie with the 
 
 in harmony wi h 
 is we may call it, 
 rial ions from it. 
 
 productive of 
 vestigation an 
 Herbari - defi 
 
 other. Man is 
 
 activities closi 
 
 other. These i 
 
 bis nature, or 1 
 
 or they may hi 
 
 The business oi the educate] is to prevent the 
 
 aberrations, and to help thos ■ actn iti - v, hi b 
 
 are in harmony. Those activities which at in 
 
 harmony find their sphere in nature, i an, in 
 
 God. h is important thai all these activities 
 come into play. Man does not pursue his ideal 
 course, if they do not come info play. lie must 
 
 be fully developed. But if Ins activity c s 
 
 into play on these subjects according to the light 
 method. Ins interest in them is awakened and 
 
 becomes stronger and stronger : for all pleasure 
 is the accompaniment of the vigorous discharge 
 of some function, and all pain is the accompani- 
 ment of the weak discharge or hindrance ol 
 Borne function. If the organ which discharges 
 the function is exercised too powerfully, as may 
 
 lth 
 
 lower 
 
 ly, and then tl 
 pain. And t 
 arise from th 
 
 functions, win 
 
 higher 
 
 s the healthiness of 
 may be permanent- 
 tivity is followed by 
 at may arise, may 
 what we call lower 
 egle'eted. Thus the 
 lazy man desires true pleasure, as far as it goes, 
 from the vigorous exercise of his vital or vege- 
 tative powers. But. whatever pleasure does exist, 
 exists from the efficient discharge of function, 
 or in other words from healthy activities of body 
 or of mind. This pleasure may not be con- 
 sciously before the mind, as iii the highest intel- 
 leetual operations when the student does not 
 feel how intense has been Ins enjoyment, until 
 the enjoyment is over. This accompaniment of 
 all our healthy actions is cumulative. It grows in 
 degree, in proportion as the actions arc repeated 
 in a healthy or proper manner. A ml. hence, our 
 interest increases with the healthy repetition of 
 the activities on the objects. Herbart's defini- 
 tion becomes, therefore, nearly synonymous with 
 the other, but directs the attention to the ex- 
 ternal side of man's activity, to the objects on 
 which the mind works. Both sides must be 
 < ai dully considered by the educator; for, in the 
 activity of man, they itre invariably conjoined. 
 The distinction between formal and' mult rial in 
 edu ation has to ]„■ made with great caution; 
 and it has always to be remembered that form is 
 impossible without matter, and mallei impos- 
 sible without form, that while there can be no 
 right activity, if the mind does not act in a right 
 manlier, it is equally true that there can be no 
 right activity, if that on which the action takes 
 place is not a light object fur the mind to act upon. 
 After having thus generally discussed the aim 
 of education, we should now enter minutely into 
 particulars, for the general is of slight use with- 
 out the particular ; but tins would lie to write a 
 treatise on the laws if the activity of the human 
 mind, and the modes to be adopted by men to 
 dired th at ivities aright in the young. We 
 must, therefore, i online ourselves to hints which 
 maj suggi . to the reader the subjects which de- 
 serve his careful and minute examination. 
 
 A child gazes at an apple on a tree. "What 
 are the operations of the child's mind? First, 
 we have the exercise of the bodily organ. Then 
 the apple produces an imp,, -em on th, child's 
 
 I 'lie- i,n,„e,,„„, ucclla sensa ion. The 
 
 child feelssomt thing Some chat ge has taken 
 place within him. Itut.it this is not the first. 
 impression which the apple has made on the 
 child, we can observe that the sensation has at- 
 tained ill its complexity to three phases: First. 
 the child has the feeling of pleasure in seeing the 
 appie, second, he see,-, that there is an object 
 
EDUCATION 
 
 before him which he calls an apple; and, third, it', which he may aim. The broadest di\ ision which 
 
 „.. „ ~ .;,... : — I. . 1... . ... * .1 1 1 1 ! * ,1. .' i:. . :. . .1 . i . I 
 
 on ,a pre' 
 enjoyed the 
 comes back 
 
 he h.i^ tasted apples and 
 
 various phases <>t man's activities. He is, first I le feels pleasure, lie performs annthei success 
 of all, a physical being; (hen he is capable of fully. I'he recollectii f the past pleasure unites 
 
 feelinir. — lias an emotional nature: then he is -with the present feeling, anil the feeling is 
 
 blend unti 
 irward wit! 
 
 one. All the i 
 firs! . are distinci 
 
 faCtS do not ex, 
 
 intellectual, and 
 
 or the mastery over the other; 
 be, that the mind will ulti- 
 sht and cheerful mood, or in 
 
 .1 the 
 
 IS I ll 
 
 ask 
 
 himself. the 
 
 First, then, there is pJii/sici/ I'lhiriitiim. The stir 
 
 aim and end of physical education is to produce all 
 
 health, not strength in lull ienlar oivans. but a I por 
 
 tuition into the la«>« hi. I, I. uulat.- the gradual 
 
 progress of the mind from its earliest weak state 
 of mere Bensation til! n reach the power of deal- 
 ing with the i abstrai \ ideas. (See Senses, 
 
 Education of, and Instruction.) Thirdly, we 
 have the education of the emotional nature. 
 And here we enter upon a more difficult sphere 
 — one in which the educator has often to grope 
 in darkness: for the emotions an- not directly 
 under his control, and the movements of the 
 mind in regard to them are hid in such secrecy, 
 that sometimes an influence which seems to us 
 likely to produce one ei ton, actually produces 
 
 love may have for their resull the production of 
 
 dislike. We shall here take a short -lane al this 
 important subject. 
 
 The first point to which the attention of the 
 educator may be directed is a general result at 
 
 fection. Lovt 
 
 from those \vl 
 
 lie sweet, -enlle. |..llle 
 
 ho is uniformly kind to 
 ful influence on his whole 
 il influence than they are 
 
 elief that the 
 
 favoi of man. 
 the world is 
 
 i h greater than we may suppose, that God is 
 
 working all things to wise and noble ends, and 
 
 that man's destiny is for virtue and love. When 
 
252 EDUCV 
 
 we pass from this general consideration to the par- 
 ticular feelings, we find ourselves in a labyrinth. 
 
 A. feeling is a phase of mind which arises fr 
 
 the consciousness of having passed from one 
 .-t:Oe into another: am', accordingly, no mental 
 act can take place without a feeling. Hence, we 
 have feelings connected with the body, feelings 
 connected with the intellectual operations, and 
 feelings connected with the practical and moral 
 nature. Or we might soeak of the f.elings ac- 
 cording to the objects which give rise to them; 
 as those that arise in connection with nature. 
 with one's own self, with man. with God. We 
 select out of these, two classes of feelings that 
 especially deserve the attention of the educator. 
 'The first class deserve attention principally be- 
 cause they are in danger of being neglected, ow- 
 ing to the charactei oi the present age. Theedu- 
 cator should awaken and keep alive the feelings 
 of admiration and mystery. A child naturally 
 wonders and admires, and these feelings must 
 not be allowed to die out. Moreover, the sense of 
 mystery, closely eouneeted with these, will be a 
 source of great blessing to him. The practical 
 man is apt to look on all things is d 
 fully known: but the fact is, that nothing is 
 completely known. We know neither the be- 
 ginning nor the end of any thing. The smallest 
 object and the largest are equally invisible to us. 
 <hir knowledge is limited by a boundary that lies 
 far within the inlimtesiuiallvgre.it and the iiifin- 
 itesimally small; and so all knowledge atti ined 
 points to an infinite region the depths of w In. h 
 
 e have not sounded. A eonsrioii- ,...., r 
 is closely eouneeted with a humble spirit and 
 true humility generally allies itself with love. 
 The second class of feelings is that whii h relates 
 to the beautiful. The sense of the beautiful is 
 the power to feel the loveliness of symmetry of 
 proportion, of harmony. This power is to be 
 acquired only by the exercise of it. The sym- 
 metry and loveliness exist in nature. They are 
 calculated to produce an effect on the soul of 
 man. but the soul of man must be brought 
 into contact with them, before it ran feel them. 
 Therefore, in regard to the cultivation of the 
 feeling for the beautiful, the one essential condi- 
 tion is, that beautiful objects l 
 
 ponderanee in the individuality of the person 
 educated. Such a person becomes sentimental. 
 is easily moved to joy or tears, is sympathetic in 
 the highest degree, but the sympathy does not 
 
 lead to action. Th lucator has to take care 
 
 that every tram of feeling be strengthened and 
 
 self 
 
 Naturally every one bestows a great deal of at- 
 tention on himself, and there is a tendency to 
 
 feel only when the circumstances relate t i's 
 
 self. Here, again, what has to be done is, to 
 prevent the mind's being occupied too much 
 with self, and to interest it in the thoughts and 
 circumstances of others. Both these cautions 
 point to the next division of the sphere of edu- 
 cation—that of the will or of the practical 
 powers. The exercise of these is closely con- 
 nected with the intellect and the feelings, and 
 indeed ordinarily results from them. Man is 
 naturally a striving or desiring being. He is 
 a force, and by a force we mean something 
 
 ell. 
 
 Ac, 
 
 \nd the powers which he 
 
 Strive tor .spheres of action. 
 ire in the main determined 
 ! a. lion of Ills iiil.lt. el and 
 
 the feelings. A child does 
 ves urn pleasure. He has 
 
 I le turns to something else. 
 ■ previous action '.' A recol- 
 i pleasant; but the recollee- 
 that i- pleasant excites the 
 
 tions arisi 
 
 names, sir 
 honor, th 
 
 the person in whom the sense i 
 
 simple to the harmonii 
 the grandest spheres of 
 existences. I'.ut it can 
 pupil in every form at an early Btage, in beauti- 
 ful pictures, 'in beautiful i - in beautiful 
 
 landscapes, in order, in gi Qtle t I 
 
 uoble action, and in many othi i ways, SO a- to 
 induce within himself a. love of all that is orderly, 
 harmonious and pea, eful. 
 
 Two eauti i may be specially urged in con- 
 nection with the cultivation of the feelings. The 
 first is, that it is possible to render a human be- 
 ing too sensitive, to give feeling too great a pre- 
 
 ..s groups oi desires or inelina- 
 d we call these groups by general 
 
 ieh as the love of in y. the love of 
 
 lie love of fame. These desire ei. .a 
 rity according to the amount of time 
 Inch they are allowed to continue in the 
 
 d the amount of space they arc allowed 
 ,-in it. Add to this fact that we natu- 
 
 a value on the things which we desire, 
 rd some as higher than others, and we 
 
 region of morals. Two or three func- 
 uiind lie before us which we are able 
 rge at the time. We weigh these func- 
 t he balance. We pronounce one of a 
 iture than the others. This is the one 
 I feel bound to perform. Thus the fuiic- 
 he eye is a nobler one than that of the 
 or the taste: and. hence, the educator 
 isthcehild toseeis performing a nobler 
 than he who indulges a child's taste for 
 
 All functions m.,\ I ssary, hut 
 
 ;t have its own place in a well-arranged 
 
 The first essential, then, to a g 1 practical 
 
 training is to impress on the pupil the true value 
 of all actions and things. He is enabled to at- 
 tain to this only by having a clear intellect anil 
 a right state of feeling, anil, therefore, it cannot 
 
be too strongly urged, that a thorough intellectual 
 education is an important element in the at- 
 tainment lit a sound moral character. But. be- 
 sides this, we learn to act 1 iv acting. Tin re is a 
 natural instinct to act, and this instinct must 
 not ben sisted or blunted. It is by one action 
 that we rise to the power of doing a greater. 
 1 1 civ the sai in kin. 1 of fiction as that which we 
 have noti I in the case ii the mental faculties 
 is apt to mislead. Man is often spoken of as 
 
 .1 H ill : but man has n it H ill. bu1 
 
 many wills. The word will is used to denote 
 the complicated power which man possesses, 
 through his original faculties ami ' 
 of them, to will tor the future. L!ut. if this 
 be the ease, the strength of the power to will 
 in any particular case depends upon the pre- 
 vious exercise which the mind has had in will- 
 ing similar actions: ami so a man may have a 
 strong will in one direction, and a weak will in 
 another. Hence, the educator must take rare -to 
 bring into activity the willing power of his pupil 
 in as many directions as he can. without impair- 
 ing his strength of will in the most important di- 
 rections. Moreover, in action, we are influenced 
 strongly by the action of others, just as in feel- 
 lii": li\ I he tceling of others. The teacher who 
 wishes to leail his pupils to action, must himself 
 act first. The influence of example is all-power- 
 ful in this matter. Ami. finally, as willing de- 
 pends tirst upon fixing an .appropriate aim, and, 
 secondly, on selecting the right means, the pupil 
 must be trained, in all cases, to use the right 
 means. The clear insight into the true value of 
 actions, that is. int.. the aims which should guide 
 us, maj be oi comparatively little use, if we 
 have not the good sense to employ the suitable 
 means for our purposes These arc t In- general 
 rules which regulate practical education. It 
 would be impossible in an article like this to go 
 into the particular phenomena which must be 
 investigated before the educator can have a 
 proper grasp of the subject, -lust as in the case 
 of the feelings, desires and inclinations arise in 
 connection with all the activities of man. — with 
 the physical, the intellectual, the emotional, and 
 the practical forms of man's energy ; and they 
 
 embrace the same extent <>t objects. They < - 
 
 nect themselves with nature, with one's , ,w n s,.]t. 
 with other men. with < rod. But, they have wider 
 ramifications, and a more potent influence than 
 the feelings, and open up. therefore, a wider field 
 for investigation; and. in this Subject, the aber- 
 ration- demand the closest attention. The edu- 
 cator has continually to guard against the fori na- 
 tion and the strengthening of inclinations winch 
 are dangerous to the well-being of the individual 
 and the race. 
 
 Lastly, there is religious education, embracing 
 within it intellectual, emotional, and moral as- 
 pects. Religion may be said to arise in a feel- 
 ing. \\ e leel our weakness and littleness. We feel 
 that we are limited in power, in knowledge, in 
 i n.il energy. We feel surrounded, on every hand, 
 by powers that are stronger than we are. and 
 hemmed in by irresistible forces. If this, how- 
 
 ever, were the only feeling despairwould lay hold 
 of us. But, wi me to feel that thi 
 
 forces arc not antagonistic to us, that we can 
 come into harmonious relations with the super- 
 natural, that, to use the (1,11 I,,. [,. ,,f 
 
 thought, we can trust in a God oi justice and 
 
 love. Ii I- « hen we gain this feeling .. 
 
 »•■ . : , hi to a religion. Hut. a religion a.banccs 
 
 " ' I 'In mere feeling ; it sets dow u God or 
 
 gods, as possessing a 'certain « h.n 
 therefore, enjoining a certain kind of urn-hip. 
 doe., the Christian religion present 
 definite conceptions as to the ,-hara'i i. r of Cod. 
 and , njoin, as the first condition of worship 
 
 and .. thi , . aiu of hie. love In Cod and 
 lovi to nan | i. ctically exhibited. The Christian 
 reiigi ai 1 1..1-. bung, into plav the feeling- as the 
 foundation of religion, the intellectual powers in 
 apprehending its great truths, and the inclina- 
 
 The discussion of this subject belongs to the 
 article on religious education. 
 
 The subject oi education is discusse I in a 
 great variety ol treatises. I In- most satisfactory 
 
 works of llcrbart and Beneke. lb 
 cational writings have been collected and pub- 
 lished recently in two volumes (Leipsic, 1873 
 
 — 1875) under th litorship of Otto Will- 
 
 luami. U ucke's great work on the subject is 
 Erziehungs- und UnterricMehre (2 vols., third 
 
 voted to Eduk u '■ th second to°Si«/,wt 
 Oi the followers rbart, Zillei s works de- 
 
 the works of Dittes and Dressier. The educator 
 
 w ill also derive much good from the siinu ,,i i he 
 best works on psychology. Both llcrbart and 
 Beneke have written handbooks ,,i psychology; 
 and, in Knglish. special mention ma\ >■■ n.,C.ii 
 the writings of Sir William Hamilton. I >r. Moid], 
 Prof. Bain, and Mr. Herbert Spencer, the last 
 of whom has a work speci 
 cation ( EiIih;i{i,,i, : I 
 
 l'h,,si<;,l.. See al.-o \1M1I 
 
 IsT 
 
 d de 
 
 ited to edu- 
 Moral, and 
 undscUze der 
 h ed., 1845); 
 Jded.,1829), 
 Pddagogik 
 
 l.'l) ; (JK.EI'E, 
 
 51: Palmer. 
 
 cation is the E«cy. 'opadi, d, ■ , 
 
 Hehungs- und Unlerridtisicesem U Si hmid 
 
 (10 vols., 1859 76). A second edition, r rised 
 
 and enlarged, of the first volume was 
 
 lsTi'i. A coinpcndniiu of this work m '.' Mils.. 
 
 nii-1. i the title Pud.i : ii'!/isrhrs Jlaiidhiirh, was 
 
 begun by the same editor iii 1875. Th R 
 
 Encyclopadif </>* ErzMimii/s- mid Fnterrichia- 
 
 wesens, by Roli i s and Ppisteb [4 Mils.. 2d ed.. 
 
 1771—5), has been prepared from thi I atholic 
 
 point of view. 
 
54 EDUCATION 
 
 EDUCATION, Female. See Female Km ■ 
 
 ind Education. 
 
 EGYPT, a dependency of the Turkish em 
 pire. in N. E. Africa: having, with its recent con 
 quests, an area of 869,332 sq. m., and a popula 
 tion, in 187:"). ,,f lli.<|-J2.lKMl. 'I lie an ;. o t K M .i 
 proper is 212,601 sq. m. ; and its population 
 5,252,000. The principal races of peoplf 
 represented in Egypt, are Arabs or Bedouins, 
 Turks. Armenians, Berbers or Nubians, .lews. 
 the Copts, who are the recognized de.-o ndants 
 of the ancient Egyptians. Europeans of different 
 nationalities, and.' in the newly conquered prov- 
 :.ii . The religion of the large ma- 
 jority of the inhabitants is Mohammedanism. 
 There are. besides. 350,000 Copts or native 
 ( 'hristians. and L'.fo.lllio others who profess ( Ihris- 
 tianity. Egypt was. in ancient times, the scat of 
 a wonderful civilization, its history reaching 
 farther back than that of any other nation. 
 After having been ruled by a number of native 
 dynasties, and having been part of the Persian 
 and Macedonian i mpires, it became, in 30 B.C., 
 a Roman province, and afterwards formed part 
 ra i : lire ( hi i-tianity was intro- 
 duced during the first century; and Egypt, par- 
 ticularly Alexandria, became a noted seal of 
 theological learning and institutions. In 683, it 
 was conquered by the caliph Omar, who intro- 
 duced Moham danism. In LSI 7, it came under 
 
 the rule of the Turks, under whom it has. actually 
 or nominally, remained ever since. In 1806, Me- 
 hemet Ali was appointed pasha and governor of 
 Egypt. He made himself virtually the absolute 
 ruler of the country, and was prevented only by 
 
 the European powers fr proclaiming his entire 
 
 independence of the Turkish sway Under his 
 successors, who continued to promote the wad- 
 tare of the country, and to effect reforms in the 
 administration, the country prospered greatly. 
 At the present time, its dependence upon Tur- 
 key is merely nominal, and the complete ever 
 ance of the tie appears to be only a question of 
 time. Immense tracts of land in the south and 
 south-west have, of late, been annexed: so that 
 if it were an independent empire, it would now 
 (1876) rank as the seventh nation of the world 
 in regard to area. 
 
 Ki/iiruliimii/ His/nri/. — This will be treated 
 under two heads : (I) Ancient Egypt, (II) Mod- 
 ern Egypt. 
 
 I. Ancient E;i;ipt. — In respect to education. 
 Egypt before the Christian era occupied a pecu- 
 liar position. With China, India, and Persia 
 (see the articles on these countries), it was one of 
 the chid representatives of orientalism. While, 
 in common with the other oriental nations.it 
 aime I ,i; a national not an individual education. 
 it is to be considered as presenting a connecting 
 link, in this respect, between the extreme , , tern 
 institutions and the educational systems of 
 
 Greece and Rome. To a greater extent fchi i 
 
 any other oriental country, national education 
 was under the controlling influence of the priest- 
 
 hood. The priests and the warriors were privi- 
 leged classes; but, in their education, the priests 
 enjoyed several prerogatives over the warriors. 
 There were schools for priests and warriors at 
 Thebes. Memphis, and Heliopolis. In these 
 schools, there were two systems of instruction, — 
 .in ■ ii- foi those who were not pre- 
 pared for higher instruction, and an esoterii 
 course, to which only those youths were admitted 
 who belonged to the priestly caste. The instruc- 
 tors in both i lass - oi -■ hools were priests. The 
 subjects of instruction wire language, mathemat- 
 ics, geometry, astr any. natural history, music. 
 
 and religion. The princes were educated by the 
 best instructors, and only with the sons of priests, 
 who were twenty years of age. and noted for 
 their good maimers, so that the royal students 
 might not come in contact with any thing im- 
 pure. The education of other castes was of a 
 very low order, as was that of females : but com- 
 mon institutions of lcarnine were not entirely 
 wantinc Plato tells us that the children of the 
 
 writing, but adds that all did not enjoy these ad- 
 vantages but chiefly those preparing for a pro- 
 fession. The common people, he says, received 
 some kind of an education from their parents. 
 In writing, the bark of the papyrus and black 
 or red ink were used. In writing as well as in 
 reading, there seems to have been a separation 
 
 t ni'_. 
 
 the 
 
 country wnh great attention, ami tne metnoas 
 employed in teaching these studies were ex- 
 cellent. According to Diodorus, gymnastics and 
 
 music were not comprised in tile general plan of 
 education, because it was believed that the for- 
 mer was dangerous to the youths, and that the 
 latter was not only useless but hurtful. In 
 Chemmis, however, considerable attention was 
 given to gymnastics, as well as to music, the lat- 
 ter being devoted to religious purposes. The 
 Egyptians, even in the most remote ages.seem to 
 have had a great regard for the influence of edu- 
 cation ; for, according to Diodorus, the father of 
 Sesostris had all the boys assembled who were 
 born on the same day as his son, and arranged 
 that all should receive the same education, in the 
 belief that those who were educated together, 
 would prove the best friends and comrades in 
 war. Tin- physical training of children was 
 very severe ; they were obliged to go barefooted 
 and almost entirely naked, and were brought up 
 with such economy, that the entire education of 
 the child cost only a small pittance. The educa- 
 tional system of Egypt was entirely remodeled 
 when Psaimnetichus 1670 to 616 B. C.) under- 
 took a thorough reform by introducing Greek 
 and Phoenician elements into the institutions of 
 the country.and for thai purpose formed alli- 
 ances wnh the Athenians and other Greeks, and 
 afforded aid and encouragement to all foreigners 
 who came into the country. He entrusted the 
 
EGYPT 2i 
 
 education of Egyptian children to Carians and founded .-it Cairo and Uexandria, and bad, 
 
 lonians, by whom they ffciv also instructed in one time, about 'J.OIIO pupils, who were both i 
 
 was held in greater lion..]- than by the Ptolemies 
 in Alexandria. The museum, a royal palace, 
 formed the residence and seat of instruction for 
 the learned men of Gr< ■•-. who had emigrated 
 
 themselves to th 
 distinguished an 
 
 'hi. 
 
 B. ( 
 
 !., and was at the 
 
 rity 
 
 from -J::-.' to 30 
 
 cam 
 
 • a I!. in provi 
 
 gradually declined. 
 
 oml 
 
 century. Alcxum 
 
 of a 
 
 new philosophica 
 
 hull 
 
 in. which gave ; 
 
 pl.il 
 
 eophical and th 
 
 bow 
 dev( 
 
 
 Mi 
 
 . hi. 
 
 establishment 
 
 Iniivh haw never 
 1 in any country. 
 always believe I. 
 ling worth know- 
 and that "much 
 
 ity as the state religion 
 ol.l civilization were. 
 GescMchted ■ Pdda 
 II. Moder Egypt 
 of Mohammedanisni i 
 history has b en subs! 
 of other Mohammedan 
 Schools.) Insiru tion 
 on the Koran, and scho 
 been more intimately ( 
 The strict Mohammed 
 with the Prophet, that 
 tng is contained in the 
 
 investigation is heresy." The schools were ex- 
 clusively intended for boys, and most of them 
 were connected with the mosques; in smaller 
 
 places, private scl Is were frequently founded 
 
 byfakihs, or jurists of the lowest rank. These 
 schools were generally of the most rudimentary 
 
 character, the only school 1 k used being the 
 
 Koran. Most of the high schools (medrissas) 
 whirl, were founded in the firsl years of the 
 
 caliphate, and at which Mohi -'.Ian theol igy 
 
 and law. philology, philosophy, logic, math imat- 
 ics, medicine and alchemy, astronomy, history, 
 geography, ami rhetoric were tau-ht. have disap- 
 peared in th, ••".vs.- of time \i the beginning 
 of th- present .■.ntury. \|. ■]„■!, ,d \l, ,, ,,".„,„.. | 
 
 1. The most 
 
 Refah, who 
 
 kernel Ali, were al.ol- 
 Lbbas Pasha (1849 
 (1854 I 863). 1 1 rider 
 
 .\ council ot 
 < 'airo, which 
 the country. 
 
 for the news 
 
 asyel evi ry thing depends on the favorable dis- 
 position of theactual ruler. Only the establish- 
 ment of ;i c iiection between the communes 
 
 and these schools would he able to place the lat- 
 ter on a firm basis. The new government 
 schools embrace primary, secondary, and spei ial 
 instruction. They were first erected in L868, 
 since which time tiny have made rapid progress 
 
 1870, was °about 4,000 ; in 1873,8,000. They 
 received not only gratuitous instruction, hut 
 support, inclusive of clothing. Primary in- 
 struction embraces the reading and writing of 
 
 \ral 
 
 llm 
 
 and 
 
 bracing, in a three years' course, the study of 
 Arabic, Turkish. Knciish. French, Herman, 
 mathematics, drawing, history, and geography; 
 
 He founded about 50 primary schools, which | 
 were scattered over the country, and contained 
 about 5,000 pupils. Secondary schools were | 
 
 ing a course of four years, m :,\ . ! in 
 
 Fran e I I we m a ci\ il and a military career; in 
 the former case, they attend for two years the 
 
256 EG 
 
 School of Administration, and then enter the 
 service of the state ; in the latter case, they en- 
 ter the military academy of the Abassieh, at 
 Cairo. (The former of these institutions, in 
 1871. had 7."> pupils; the latter. 7 ."><). In 1-71. 
 the polytechnic school had 80 pupils.) ('_') The 
 Lou- Srhiuil, embracing a course of four years, in 
 which, besides the Mohammedan law, the I toman 
 law and that of the Christian nations in general 
 
 own; some receive aid from the ministry of 
 finance, and some defray their expenses by means 
 of subscriptions and by school money. 
 
 The university of Cairo, called El-AsJiar (the 
 blossom) after the name of the mosipie with 
 which it is connected, was once a really flourish- 
 ing center of Arabic science and scholarship. 
 At present, like the other famous mosque high 
 
 Mec 
 
 ./ Anlln 
 
 are taught ; (.' 
 
 ical School, giving instruction in philology, 
 
 mathematics, rhetoric, prosody, and drawing; 
 
 it- The Sch lof Arts and Induslnj, in Balak, 
 
 established by Mehemet Ali. and greatly im- 
 proved under Ismail Pacha lit has a curse of 
 three years, and had, in L871, about Inn pupils); 
 (.">) The.bW/W Schm,l. with 75 pupils, ia 1-71, 
 
 O ! 
 
 d 1,1 
 
 sell. 
 
 only one in the Kastl. with <!•") pupils. (The 
 
 Khedive, in L871, offered the , pie . .f Syria to 
 
 receive twenty-five students from that province 
 
 into the Medical School, irrespective 
 
 religion. A large number of candidates pre- 
 sented themselves, but there was not one Mo- 
 
 hammi I ig them, all being Christians) 
 
 ■ >'. I'h. V ■ . s .',„,/. in Alexandria, with s.'i 
 pupils, in |s7t. In 1*71. the Egyptian g..\ern- 
 ment called to Cairo professor II on Brugsch, 
 
 of the university of ' lot! ing a < blish i h 
 
 an academj for archseologj . an 1, in parti ular, 
 for Egyptological studies. I'he Khodi\c is also 
 endeavoring to eradicate the prejudice existing 
 against female education; and. for that purpose, 
 has founded a girls' school tit Cairo, in which, 
 \ m- an elementary education, the 
 pupils arc instructed in sewing, washing, and 
 dress-making. Iu 187.7, the Egyptian govern- 
 ment resolved to establish a teacher's seminary 
 after the German model, and applied to the 
 Prussian ministry of education for two teachers 
 to take charge of the institution. The voluntary 
 
 schools, in opposition to the government .-.■! ]-, 
 
 are annexed to the mosques, and intended for 
 elementary instruction. If the .statistical n p .its 
 can be relied upon, these contained, in 1-7". 
 60,000 pupils.and.in 1-7:!, sl'.oimi pupils. among 
 whom were many adults. These figures would 
 indicate a rapid progress since the time of Me- 
 hcinet Ali, when only one in a thousand of the 
 entire population received instruction. Prom an 
 official report on the voluntary school at Alex- 
 andria, which was opened April 1.. L868, under 
 the protectorate of the heir apparent, Mehemet 
 Tcfvik Pasha, it appear thai Bis school, on the 
 opening of the adult classes in April, numbered 
 30 pupils; in dune, 70; in July, 150 ; in No- 
 vember, 240; <>f the latter of whom 59 were 
 Egyptians, 52 Italians, 21 Frenchmen, 20 Greeks, 
 -I I'i'Ji Innen, 32 Syrians, etc. The elementary 
 schools for children were opened in April 1SI.S ; 
 and, in November, the number of pupils 
 amounted to 269. The languages in which the 
 instruction is imparted, arc Arabic. French, and 
 Italian. Most of these schools arc supported by 
 the mosques, some by the divan of wakufs (re- 
 ligious donations); some have property of their 
 
 students from Tin k. \ .mo \-i.i Minor, from dif- 
 ferent parts of Africa, from Arabia, and even 
 from [ndiaand the Sunda Islands. The number 
 of students, in 1871, was reported as 9,668. In 
 the preparatory classes, about L'.OIMI pupils are 
 clothed and supported at the expense of the mi- 
 h-i'fs: instruction is given by 260 teachers or 
 kattabs, of whom 160 are likewise supported 
 from the revenue of the wakufs. The students 
 in ihe higher classes are taught by about -111 pro- 
 fessors, most of whom, be-ides. ho] 1 some other 
 c i li ia si ical or legal office. The li turee in 
 givi ii gratuitously At the time oi its _..■. b si 
 prosp rity, the unneisitv sonatina - numbered 
 more than 20,000 pupils. The first .school for 
 the blind was founded a few years ago by Moham- 
 med Effendi Onsy.and is conducted by him at 
 
 his own expense. It is doing a givai : inn of 
 
 ■_ iod.a-.i 1 . 1 1 j ■number ot persons lose the Use 
 of their eyes by the so-. ■ailed Egyptian disease 
 ia kind of ophthalmia . The annua I examinations 
 held in arithmetic, reading, and different kinds 
 of handiwork, exhibit considerable proficiency on 
 the part of the pupils. 
 
 3/issiiniiiiy mill Fin-i-hjit Sfhi nits. — The num- 
 ber of foreign residents, in 1.-7J. was 7'.UI!n'.. of 
 whom 47,.'il('. were inhabitants of Alexandria, 
 and L9.120 of (airo. As they are the wealthiest 
 and be-t-edueated c]a.-s of 'the population, a 
 
 number .,t sc] 1- 1 ... \ ■ been established for the 
 
 . ducation of their children. 'I I. ■ IT ni h School 
 Brothi is and l.a/.an-t- have dav and boarding 
 school,; and female schools are conducted by 
 French Sisters of .Mercy and other religious 
 orders. With ..ne of these institutions at Alex- 
 andria, which has from inn to 500 pupils, an 
 orphan house and a foundling institution are 
 connected. Instruction in these schools is given 
 in the French language. The Cm k Ke.uin in 
 Alexandria in 1873, had 70 pupils; and the 
 I'nlhijii, hull, an,. CJII pupils. There are also 
 several Creek. Italian, and German elementary 
 schools. Presbyterian missionaries from the 
 United States have established a number of 
 mission schools, as well as an academy and a 
 theological seminary, both at Sioot, the leading 
 town in Upper Egypt. See Stephan, Das Jteu- 
 tige Aeqypten (Leips., 1-71',; Adams, The Land 
 of the Nile (London, 1-71 ,; Itcoxv, Statistique 
 tlr t'lltjiiiite (fifth annual publication, Cairo, 
 1875) ; la i ttke, Aegypten's Neue Zeii (2 vols., 
 Leips., L873) ; Dorr, L' Instruction Pitblique en. 
 Egypte (Paris, 1873). 
 
ELABORATJ VE FACULTY 
 
 ELABORATIVE FACULTY, a term 
 ■often used, at the present time, to indicate that 
 function of the mind by which it employs the 
 materials supplied by Bensation, perception, con- 
 ception, and consciousness (or the inner sense), 
 and builds them up into systems or chains of 
 thought and reasoning. The different processes 
 that, according to this nomenclature, are elabo- 
 rative, are comparison, abstraction, generalization, 
 judgment, and reasoning. To these particular 
 processes the term thouglu is now often restricted, 
 
 1 .oikI. 111. iii 1800. His labors have been specially 
 
 is rln 
 
 Science, Phenomena of Industrial Life, and 
 
 Education as a Means of Prevei, ing r 
 lion (London, 1851).- Her Knight's English 
 Cyclopredia. 
 ELOCUTION, the utterance or expression 
 
 of thought in reading and sneaking, is an im- 
 portant part of a scholastic education, because of 
 
 descr 
 procc 
 
 mind 
 
 into the body. The building and repairing 
 systems take hold of that which is brought into 
 the system and elaborate it; they transform it. 
 and make of it another thing. The elaborative 
 system does the same thing in the mind. It takes 
 the material given by the preventative faculty 
 [sensation, perception, etc.], and performs the 
 operations of comparison, abstraction, etc." Dr. 
 Porter, in The Human Intellect (N. Y., 1869), 
 thus defines the office of the elaborative faculty: 
 "The thinking power has been treated as two- 
 fold, and been subdivided into two : the elahora- 
 tiri'fuenltii, as performing the processes, and the 
 re,inl, ttire, as furnishing the rules, or more prop- 
 erly as prescribing the sphere and possibility of 
 thought. These are named also the dianoetic 
 and the noetic faculty. By some writers they 
 are distinguished as the understanding and rea- 
 son, in a usage suggested by Kant. but deviating 
 materially from his own. Milton and others 
 call them the discursive and instinctive reason." 
 (See Intellectual Education.) 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, etymolog- 
 ically. schools in which the elements of instruc- 
 tion are taught. The name is used in Germany 
 (ElemenUirsehnlen) sometimes as synonymous 
 with public schools in general, but more fre- 
 quently and correctly to designate the lower or 
 primary departments of the public schools. Some 
 writers think that the name elementary instruc- 
 tion should be only applied to the lowest class of 
 a school. In Sweden, a peculiar meaning is given 
 to the word, as it denotes institutions of a higher 
 grade in opposition to tha people's or lower 
 schools. In England, according to the " New 
 Code of Regulations", 1876 (Art. 4), an element- 
 ary school is a school, or a department of a 
 school, in which elementary instruction is the 
 principal part of the instruction given, and does 
 not include any school or department in which 
 the ordinary payment for tuition, from each 
 pupil, exceeds nine pence a week. (See Pri- 
 mary Education.) 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCIENCE. See Sci- 
 ence, Teaching of. 
 
 ELLIS, WILLIAM, an eminent English 
 writer and educationist, born in the vicinity of 
 
 public life. The departments into which this 
 subject naturally divides itself are the following: 
 ill Articulation, or the proper and distinct 
 enunciation of the elementary sounds as usually 
 combined in words; (2) Pronunciation, as de- 
 pendent upon a knowledge of the various sounds 
 represented by letters and their diverse combi- 
 nations in words, and upon accentuation ; (3) 
 Emphasis, or the placing of a stress of the voice 
 upon a particular word or words of a sentence, 
 so as to bring out the meaning fully, and to give 
 life and spirit to the delivery ; (4) Voice inflec- 
 tions, — upward, downward, or waved, also as a 
 means of giving a particular significance to 
 words or sentences, and as auxiliary to emphasis ; 
 (5) Tones, or those variations of the voice in 
 pitch, force, and quality, by which it is mod- 
 ulated to the expression of particular sentiments 
 and emotions. (See Reading, Culture of, and 
 Voice.) 
 
 ELPHINSTON, James, a noted Scottish 
 teacher and grammarian, was born in Edinburgh 
 in 17- 1, and died at 1 la nunc] smith, near London. 
 in 1809. For many years, he was the principal 
 of a school at Kensington, near London, and 
 was an intimate associate of Dr. Johnson, by 
 whom he was greatly esteemed. 1 luring his res- 
 idence in Edinburgh, he superintended an edi- 
 tion of the Rambler. His efforts to reform the 
 orthography of the English language, by the in- 
 troduction of phonetic spelling, made him noted, 
 but brought upon him considerable ridicule. 
 This system he carried out in a translation of 
 Martial (1782), which Dr. Beattie called "a 
 whole quarto of nonsense and gibberish ;" and a 
 further explanation of the system was given in 
 Propriety Ascertained in her Picture (1786), 
 which was followed by English Uiilii><//-<i/ihn 
 Epitomized (1788), and Fifty Years' Corre- 
 spondence, Inglish, French, and Laltin, in 
 Prose and Verse, between Geniusses on booth 
 Sexes and James ESpMnston (1794). Be also 
 published Education; a I'uem (1763), and En- 
 qlish Grammar reduced to Anabm 
 
 See ( 'll \ 
 
 /?/( 
 
 Meal I)ii 
 
 of 
 
 Eminent Sen/amen ; I'.osuki.i.. Life of Johnson. 
 EMERSON, George Barrett," a distin- 
 guished American educator, bom Sept. 12., 
 
 1797. in what is now Kennebunk, York Co., Me., 
 then a part of the town of Wells. In 1817, he 
 graduated at Harvard College; but while pass- 
 
258 
 
 EM1XEXCK COLLI* J E 
 
 ing through his college course, he employed some 
 of his winter vacations in teaching district 
 schools, in which he gai 1 a great deal of prac- 
 tical experience. After his graduation, he took 
 charge of an academy in Lancaster. Mass.; and, 
 from 1819 to 18"21, he was tutor in mathematics 
 and natural philosophy in Harvard College. In 
 this position he had unusual advantages for cult- 
 ure, since he was associated with some of the 
 most eminent scientific and literary men of that 
 time, among whom may be mentioned IM\ Kirk- 
 land. Prof. Earrar, and Edward Everett, then 
 Eliot professor of Greek. In 1821, he was se- 
 lected to take charge of the English High School 
 for boys, then called the English Classical School, 
 which was established that year by the town of 
 Boston, for the purpose of affov ling the means 
 of a higher education to those \\h olid not intend 
 to pursue a college course. This was the first 
 English high school established in the United 
 States. Two years afterward, Mr. Emerson 
 opened in Boston a private school for girls ; and 
 of this he continued to take charge till L855, 
 when he retired from the profession of teaching. 
 This school was eminently successful ; and Mr. 
 Emerson showed, in the system of instruction 
 which he pursued, the highest qualities of an 
 earnest, conscientious, and skillful teacher. Li 
 1830, he took an active part in the establishment 
 of the American Institute of Instruction, before 
 which he delivered, in I w.'il , a lecture on Female 
 Education : and, in 1842, one on Moral Educa- 
 tion. In L843,he wrote The Schoolmaster, be- 
 ing part second of The School and Schoolmaster, 
 the first part being written by the Rev. Dr. Pot- 
 ter, afterwards bishop of Pennsylvania. This 
 work was composed on the invitation of the 
 benevolent -lames Wadsworth.of (ieneseo. X. Y., 
 who paid the expense of printing and distribut- 
 ing gratuitously 15,000 copies of the work. 
 Through means afforded by Mr. Brimmer, of 
 Boston, a copy of this book was placed in each 
 of the district schools of Massachusetts. The 
 object of the work was to afford information of 
 a practical character in regard to the various de- 
 partments of elementary education, more partic- 
 ularly in respect to the organization, discipline, 
 instruction, and management of common schools. 
 The style in which it is written, its tone of sen- 
 timent, and the wisdom of its suggestions arc 
 worthy of its distinguished authors. Mr. Emer- 
 son served for two years in the School Commit- 
 tee of Boston, and, from 1848 to 1855, in the 
 Massachusetts Board of Education. He was 
 also a prominent member of the Boston Society 
 of Natural History, and was appointed by Gov. 
 Everett chairman of the commission to whom 
 was intrusted the making of a zoological and 
 botanical survey of the state of Massachusetts. 
 He has published also a Report on (he Trees and 
 Shrubs growing naturally in the Forests of 
 Massachusetts (Boston, 1846), and a Manual of 
 Agriculture ( l> s <il ). See Barn lbd, Educational 
 Biography (N. Y., 1861). 
 
 EMINENCE COLLEGE, at Eminence, Ky. 
 a non-sectarian institution, was founded in 1857 
 
 EMORY COLLEGE 
 
 for the education of both sexes. It is supported 
 by tuition fees. The buildings stand upon an 
 elevated site, and the grounds are tastefully laid 
 out and ornamented with evergreens and forest 
 trees. The libraries contain about 1,800 vol- 
 umes. The institution has philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus and the beginning of a min- 
 eralogical and geological cabinet. There is apre- 
 paratory and a collegiate course, the latter com- 
 prising six departments: namely, ancient lan- 
 guages, mathematics, physics and chemistry, 
 mental philosophy. Biblical literature, and mod- 
 ern languages. When a student has undergone 
 
 graduation in tlii.t'.l.'^.rtin.'nt : 'aill'the'po^- 
 sion of certificates from the various departments 
 of the curriculum entitles the holder to the de- 
 gree of A. B. The degree of I!. S. is conferred 
 on those students who complete the scientific 
 part of the course, and have a certificate to that 
 effect. There is also a special course for females 
 similar to that of female seminaries, upon the 
 completion of which a diploma is granted. The 
 regular charge for tuition is £25 in the collegiate, 
 and S20 in the preparatory course of twenty 
 weeks. The daughters of all regular preachers, 
 and of widows of limited means, are received at 
 a discount of thirty per cent. Young men pre- 
 paring for the ministry are admitted free of tui- 
 tion. In ls74 — 5, there were 7 instructors, 126 
 matriculates (58 males and 68 females), and 125 
 n/iiwiii. The whole number of pupils, in 1875 
 —6, was 190. S. G. Muffins was the pri sident 
 from September, 1857, to June, 1858, since 
 which time \V. S. Giltner has been the president. 
 EMORY COLLEGE, at Oxford, Xewton 
 county, Ga. under the control of the Methodist, 
 Episcopal Church, South, was founded in 1837. 
 It is supported by tuition fees and an endow- 
 ment of $20,000. The value of its grounds,, 
 buildings, and apparatus is $70,000. The in- 
 stitution has an academic and a collegiate de- 
 partment, the latter comprising a classical course- 
 of four years and a scientific course of three 
 years. The degrees of Bachelor of Science and 
 of English Literature, of Bachelor of Arts and 
 Master of Arts, are the regular degrees con- 
 ferred by this institution. The cost of tuition 
 in the college is $25 for the fall term and 
 $35 for the spring term ; in the academic de- 
 partment, it varies per term from $15 in the 
 primary classes to $31 in the academic classes. 
 There is a fund of five thousand dollars, the 
 interest of which is used in paying the tuition, 
 ami. in some cases, the board of young men of 
 limited resources, who arc preparing for tin- 
 Christian ministry in the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, South. ' The libraries contain about 
 7.000 volumes; the mineral cabinet is one of the 
 finest in the South. In 1873 — 1, there were 155 
 students, of whom Kill were of the collegiate 
 grade, including 1 I in the scientific course; and 
 ■ ^i were ill the academic department : the number 
 of alumni was 544. In 1875 — 6, there were 6 
 instructors and 155 students. The presidents of 
 
EMORY AND HENRY COLLEGE 
 
 the college have been as follows: Rev. Ignatius 
 
 A. Few, D. D., LL.D., 1837 to 1839 ; Rev. A. 
 
 B. Longstreet, LL. D., 1830 to 1848; Rev. 
 Geo. F. Pierce, D. D., LL. 1>„ 1848 to 1854; 
 Rev. A. Means, I). D., LL. D., 1854 to 1855; 
 Rev. J. R- Thomas, D. D., 1855 to 18(57 ; Rev. 
 Luther M. Smith. D.D., 1867 to 1S71 ; ami 
 Rev. ( ). L Smith. D.D., tin. 1 present incumbent 
 
 EMORY AND HENRY COLLEGE, 
 at Emory, Washington Co., Va.. founded m 
 L838, is under the control of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church, South. It has no endow- 
 ment, ami is supported by tuition fees, which, in 
 the collegiate course, are $30 per term of 20 
 weeks. The value of its grounds, buildings, and 
 apparatus is $125,000. The college library con- 
 tains 1,580 volumes, and those of the two litera- 
 ry societies 9,000. The college lias collections of 
 minerals ami fossils, philosophical and chemical 
 apparatus, eta It comprises preparatory courses, 
 the ordinary collegiate course, and a scientific and 
 a business course. Li 1875 — (>, there were <i in- 
 structors, 1G3 students (80 collegiate, and 83 
 scientific and preparatory), and 332 alumni. 
 The presidents have been the Rev. Charles 
 Collins. I). 1)., 1838—52, and the Rev. Ephraim 
 K. Wilev. I». 1>., appointed in 1852 and still 
 (1876) in office. 
 
 EMOTIONS are those conditions of the 
 mind in which the sensibility is excited, so as to 
 act upon the will, and with the tendency to out- 
 ward manifestation in bodily acts. The differ- 
 ence between emotions ami passions is rather 
 quantitative than qualitative ; the former, while 
 characterized by an intensity of feeling, still leave 
 a considerable scope for the exercise of reason 
 and ju Igment ; the latter, for the time being. 
 disturb the equilibrium of self-consciousness, and 
 produce a condition in which the mind is over- 
 mastered and controlled by the particular feel- 
 ing, and is borne along by its force, helpless ami 
 suffering (hence the name passion, meaning suf- 
 fering). Of this, we have illustrations in the 
 effects of extreme anger, love, hatred, and re- 
 venge. Emotions are also to be distinguished 
 from sentiments, the latter being to a greater ex- 
 tent based on mental discriminations, and more 
 steady and durable in their nature. Thus, lie 
 who has cultivated the sentiment of patriotism, 
 cannot but feel an emotion of joy at a victory 
 gained by his country over her enemies. Emotions 
 are likewise to be distinguished fromfeelings, or 
 the immediate sensations of the physical organ- 
 ism, giving rise to mental perceptions, or to 
 bodily pleasure or pain. The nature of children 
 is more emotional than that of grown persons, 
 because the restraining principle of the mind is less 
 active, ami the sensibility more fresh and more 
 acute. This is particularly true of certain kinds 
 of temperament and mental constitution. The 
 office of educat ion is to recognize every principle 
 of the human being, and to employ it or appeal 
 to it in the educative processes. An emotional 
 nature should be cherished ; inasmuch as one 
 who is deficient in this respect is apt to be cold, 
 
 EMPIRICAL METHODS 
 
 selfish, and unsocial. The emotions are 
 
 e patible with, but necessary to, the 
 
 meiits of man's moral nature ; and the 
 should strive to connect them with m 
 tives. Habit has much to do in laying 
 dation of a rich emotional nature in 
 
 only 
 t ele- 
 
 filial affection, etc. will awake 
 emotions; and when properly a 
 a means of emotional culture : 1 
 as far as possible.be permitted 
 natural emotions to which the 
 stances of their lives rive ril 
 
 feeli 
 
 ill ill. 
 
 torical incidents, or 
 ihoni they meet in 
 
 the conduct of thos 
 their daily lives. 
 
 EMPIRICAL METHODS, those methods 
 of instruction or education which are based not 
 on theoretical principles, but on the effects of 
 practical operations as learned by experience. 
 Hence the term (from Gr. ifi-cijua, experience). 
 When the application of scientific methods, or 
 those derived from general principles, is possible, 
 the use of empirical methods becomes a cause of 
 reproach, and is to be condemned. The science 
 of education is. however, too unsettled and in- 
 complete to justify such condemnation, except to 
 a limited extent. ' Methods that have stood the 
 test of actual experiment, and have proved 
 effective, are not to be discarded merely because 
 the principle underlying them is not understood, 
 or because they seem to contradict some favorite 
 theory. Such experimental processes are the 
 source of much valuable experience, and the 
 facts thus obtained should be generalized so as 
 to supply additional scientific principles, or cor- 
 rect those already deduced. In this way, the 
 practical experience of educators may be em- 
 ployed to improve and extend tin' science of edu- 
 cation. On the other hand.it is undoubtedly 
 true that teachers are too apt to follow 
 empirical methods blindly, without concerning 
 themselves with principles. The complaint is 
 often and justly made that education is not sci- 
 entific ; and, that, consequently old methods and 
 processes are often employed, when the circum- 
 stances render them entirely inapplicable. This 
 would naturally be the result of adhering to em- 
 pirical methods, since principles alone can guide 
 to a just discrimination as to practical processes. 
 The "rule of thumb" may answer when the oper- 
 ator is confined to a very narrow sphere of his 
 art, and is never obliged to depart from it: but it 
 is entirely inadequate to grapple with the difficul- 
 ties presented in a varied and enlarged sphere of 
 
260 
 
 EMULATION 
 
 practical effort, whatever the art or profession 
 may be. This is particularly true of education, 
 since the elements with which it lias to deal are 
 as innumerable in their combinations as the 
 phases of human character. In proportion as 
 education emerges from this condition of em- 
 piricism, and assumes a settled scientific status, 
 its practical operations will rise to the dignity of 
 a profession, and those engaged in it will receive 
 tin- consideration which appertains to the pro- 
 
 EMULATION ( hat. wmiihilio, from ii'iiuilu.i. 
 a rival), the desire to excel, is a principle of 
 action which has had a very general application 
 in practical education, being one of the must 
 common incentives brought to bear upon chil- 
 dren and youth to induce exertion in study. The 
 various systems of merit marks, prizes, etc., are 
 based upon this principle, inasmuch as they def- 
 initely recognize and reward superiority or ex- 
 cellence. 
 
 Scarcely any subject has been more thoroughly 
 discussed than the propriety of resorting to emu- 
 lation as a school incentive. On the one hand, 
 it has been held that the human mind, partic- 
 ularly in its immature state, needs the stimulus 
 of secondary motives to awaken its dormant 
 energies, especially for the accomplishment of 
 tasks in which it takes only an imperfect inter- 
 est. Naturally, children are but little prone to 
 study, their fondness being rather for active 
 sports and amusements ; and, hence, the awaken- 
 ing of an interest in the studies themselves, 
 while an important object of the teacher's efforts, 
 cannot be depended upon to incite the pupil to 
 continuous industry. While there are some 
 minds and temperaments that feel an almost in- 
 nate desire for the acquisition of knowledge, and 
 hence a love of study, on the other hand, the 
 great majority of children have no such desire 
 until it is engendered by the force of secondary 
 motives, that is, by holding out inducements to 
 study based upon the attainment of things in 
 which they do take an interest. All children 
 are, more or less, prone to emulation ; they love 
 to excel others, particularly in things that bring 
 commendation and honor, in this respect re- 
 sembling those of maturer years; for this prin- 
 ciple of action has been recognize 1 as leading to 
 eminence in every department of human effort. 
 Tims Cicero says, " Ilonos alit artes omnesque 
 inceuduntur ad studia gloria, jacentque ea sem- 
 per qu« apuil quosque improbantur." Hence, 
 in schools and colleges, emulation is an impor- 
 tant and valuable incentive which the educator 
 may, by no means, cast aside. Of course, it is 
 not to be allowed to degenerate into personal 
 strife, animosity, or jealousy ; nor is it to be in- 
 dulged in such a manner as to obliterate the pu- 
 pil's real interest in the study pursued. It is 
 always to be impressed upon the student's mind 
 that he is working in a good cause, and that he 
 should strive to attain to the highest possible 
 degree of excellence in it. — higher, if he can, 
 than that which he sees has been attained by any 
 <>f his fellow students. Thus what others achieve 
 
 becomes the measure of what can be done by 
 him if he exerts himself to the utmost, and also 
 the standard beyond which he is to go in order 
 to obtain the prize of excellence. Whewell, in 
 Emjlixh Viiir.rxiiii Education, remarks, "A 
 combination of direct and indirect instruction 
 appears to be desirable. The love of knowledge, 
 and the love of distinction with the fear of dis- 
 grace, are the two main springs ,,t all education, 
 and it does not appear wise or sate to try to dis- 
 pense with either of them." Contention, per- 
 sonal rivalry, and envy need not.it is said.be 
 the offspring of a noble emulation : and no other 
 emulation than this should be encouraged or 
 permitted by the educator. 
 
 On the other hand, an appeal to emulation as 
 a school incentive, has been either wholly or 
 partly condemned by a numerous class of educa- 
 tors of the highest distinction. Kr. I (wight said, 
 '• Emulation 1 condemn. I think it is a wicked 
 passion, and the cause of great evil. I wish to 
 see all actuated by this desire — to do the best 
 they can for the glory of their Creator.'' But 
 he also said, " On this subject I have often re- 
 flected. I have attended to all the arguments ; 
 and, for aught I know, impartially. I would 
 carefully avoid emulation ; I would get along 
 without it as far as possible, and as long as 1 
 could ; but how we can prevent its existence en- 
 tirely I do not know." .Miss ( '. B. Beccher said, 
 " Emulation always affects those the most, who 
 least need excitement, and leaves unaffected those 
 who most require it. Another evil is, that it 
 renders those who come under the influence of 
 this principle, less susceptible of better influence." 
 (See Annals of Education, vol. in., p. 28.) This 
 writer defines emulation as the "method of ex- 
 citing others to exertion by rewards and punish- 
 ments based on comparative excellence," or 
 "giving rewards to those who are decided to be 
 better than their companions, in any of those 
 particulars for which rewards are offered." 
 S. R. Hall, in Annals of Education, vol. n., 
 thus sums up the results of his experience in 
 employing emulation as a school incentive : 
 ■■ 1 1 ) A small part of the scholars applied them- 
 selves to their lessons with great correctness ; 
 (2) They aimed to get the lessons for recitations, 
 but thought little of learning them for the pur- 
 pose of applying knowledge to the practical pur- 
 poses of life ; (■'!) Efforts were relaxed whenever 
 the prospect of ' beating ' became faint ; (4) Those 
 near the head were usually jealous of each other, 
 and not unfrequcntly exhibited envy and ill-will; 
 (5) Those often obtained the prize, who were the 
 least deserving of it ; (6) Those who had be- 
 come considerably acquainted with a study had 
 greatly the advantage of others in their class, 
 who had enjoyed less opportunity ; (7) Parents 
 were frequently led to take the part of their 
 children, and to believe they were treated un- 
 fairly." Cowper, in Tirocinium, or a Review of 
 Schools, gives the following condemnatory de- 
 scription of emulation : 
 
ENCOURAGEMENT 
 
 That, with a world not often over-nice, 
 
 Hanks as a virtue anil is iuat a vice; 
 
 Or rather a gross compound, —justly tried,— 
 
 Most i't the severe condemnation passed upon 
 emulation seems, however, to be based upon a 
 definition of it that includes too much of per- 
 sonal rivalry, of the selfish desire for reward, 
 and of the mere craving for approbation, the 
 natural concomitants of which are "envy, hatred, 
 and jealousy;" whereas, the desire of attaining 
 excellence in worthy things does not necessarily 
 include these laser motives, although, it must be 
 confessed, the tendency is in that direction un- 
 less it is carefully regulated. " Emulation," says 
 a distinguished educator, " is a generous ardor 
 which nature herself kindles and nourishes. 
 There may be minds so indolent, so unhappy, as 
 never to have warmly felt its influence. There 
 may be whole schools in which, thanks to bad 
 organization, the indifference of the master, or 
 other circumstances, emulation is only weakly 
 manifested ; but in the school, as elsewhere, it 
 exists naturally, and there is less need of excit 
 ing it than of directing it aright." in this, as 
 in most other respects, the educator has great 
 need to watch the indications of character in 
 his pupils. Some minds, largely affected by ap- 
 probativeneas, or having excessive self-esteem, 
 may be greatly injured bya system that tends to 
 foster these qualities; others may need the in- 
 centive of emulation to bring out their powers. 
 The prevailing system of treating all minds and 
 dispositions alike must often do irreparable in- 
 jury. ■• There is no ground," says < 'urrie.in The 
 Principles and Practice of Common-School 
 Education, "for confining the application of 
 this principle so exclusively as we do to the 
 work of instruction. It is true that, in school, 
 intellectual occupation is the chief work of the 
 pupil, and that, therefore, to it there must be the 
 most frequent occasion of applying the principle. 
 Nevertheless, the teacher is supposed to have in 
 view the moral training of his pupils, whilst con- 
 ducting their instruction ; and if he is only im- 
 pressed with a due sense of its paramount im- 
 portance, he will find many opportunities of 
 directing their attention to acts of virtue per- 
 formed under their observation, and of exciting 
 a spirit of emulation in this sphere of the same, 
 active kind as that by which he helps forward 
 their intellectual work. The application of this 
 principle to moral actions ought to vindicate it 
 against the indiscriminate condemnation with 
 which we may be tempted to visit it, when we 
 think only of its extreme exhibition in the ac- 
 quisition of knowledge." 
 
 ENCOURAGEMENT, as an educational 
 incentive, is of indispensable importance in deal- 
 ing with a certain class of minds, particularly 
 with those characterized by an excess of caution, 
 timidity, and diffidence. (See Dn i idencb.) Many 
 teachers repress the exertions of their pupils by 
 failing to discern their true character, so as to 
 be able to ascertain the amount of effort they 
 may have put forth in order to accomplish an 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 >6T 
 
 assigned task, or to avoid a temptation to do 
 wrong. Adopting an arbitrary standard, they 
 sometimes condemn alike all who fail to attain 
 it, making no allowance for diversity of talent, 
 opportunity, or the power of will; whereas the 
 
 true test of a pupil's merit is not the aci iplish- 
 
 ment of the task, but the exertion put forth and 
 the selt control exercised in the endeavor to com- 
 ply with the teacher's precepts Or directions. 
 
 Encouragement consists in adjust ing the standard 
 ot success to the peculiar circumstances and traits 
 of the pupil. If the latter is dull, indolent, self- 
 indulgi nt. feeble in will, and yielding easily to 
 temptation, the educator who recognizes these 
 traits, accepts with satisfaction the feeblest efforts 
 at amendment which he sees have been put 
 forth, and by judicious commendation induces 
 stronger and more persistent ones, until the 
 foundation of moral or intellectual strength has 
 been safely laid. Timid children must be en- 
 couraged to lay aside their fears by being shown 
 that they are groundless. They must not be re- 
 pressed by harsh words of censure, or by those 
 forms of punishment which should be the ex- 
 clusive penalty of willful wrong-doing. On the 
 contrary, they should be made to feel that, even 
 if they have failed, they have won their teach- 
 er's approving Bmiles by their honest efforts. All 
 the various forms of encouragement, within the 
 power of a teacher of skill and experience, will 
 find occasions for employment in dealing with 
 the endless diversities of character presented by 
 
 the pupils of a large class or scl I. Home 
 
 minds, on the other" hand, need rather urging 
 than gentle encouragement; and the latter, in 
 the form of excessive praise, to talented pupils 
 is often a means of flattering their vanity, and 
 thus operates as a kind of moral poison, destroy- 
 ing the force of every true stimulus to activity. 
 The following are the suggestions of practical 
 educators : - Kneouragcnieiit inspires confidence, 
 and children, more than others, need it. Let it 
 be given in all eases where this can be honestly 
 done. To a want of this in the discipline of 
 classes are to he ascribed the timidity and reserve 
 so often manifested among pupils by a hesitating 
 manner, a low voice, and a tone of inquiry in 
 response, especially to strangers. A proper de- 
 gree of encouragement renders them confident 
 and spirited, eager to tell what they know, and 
 in an audible tone of voice. Encouragement has 
 a peculiar influence in promoting both mental 
 and moral improvement."— (flow to Teach.'S.Y., 
 1873.) 
 
 ENGLAND, an important European coun- 
 try, forming with Wales the southern portion of 
 the island of Great Britain, and being the prin- 
 cipal member of the United Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland. It has an area of 58,320 
 sq. miles, and a population, according to the 
 census of 1871, of 22,712,266. On the basis of 
 the official lists of births and deaths, the popula- 
 tion, in 1875, was estimated by the registrar 
 general at 23,944.4:>9. The last official census 
 contains no information of the number of per- 
 sons belonging to the established Church of 
 
England and other religious creeds. The pop- 
 ulation connected with the established church is 
 variously estimated at from .Vi per cent (Martin's 
 Fearb d to 77- per oeni [fiavenstein's Be- 
 
 The R 
 
 cent of 
 
 Edu 
 
 at 
 
 ! History. — The history of educa- 
 tion in England is a subject which deserves bet- 
 ter and fuller treatment than it has yet received. 
 Probably, some system of education existed in 
 Britain, or at least in the southern portion of it, 
 before Julius ( 'uesar visited its shores. After the 
 Romans had resolved on making Britain a per- 
 manent addition to their empire, education was 
 one of the means which they employed to render 
 their possession stable. Tacitus tells us that 
 Agrieola had the sons of the chief men instructed 
 in the liberal arts, and the result was. that the 
 Britons showed great ability, and devoted them- 
 selves with ardor to the new pursuits. The Ro- 
 man schools probably remained in existence 
 after the Romans abandoned the island. At any 
 rate, when Charlemagne conceived the great idea 
 of spreading knowledge among all classes, it was 
 in an Englishman. Alcuin, that he found his 
 principal guide, as well as his own instructor. 
 It is well known that Alfred the Great did much 
 for the spread of learning and for the English 
 universities, and many of the grammar Bchools 
 were founded in the middle ages. Carlisle 
 school, for instance, was established in the time 
 of William II.; Derby, about the year 1160; 
 .Salisbury, in 1319; and Winchester, the oldest 
 of the so-called nine Public Schools, in LIST. 
 These schools were generally connected with 
 cathedrals or monasteries. Their object was 
 mainly to train either for the priesthood or for 
 some lower service in the church, as for the 
 choir. Speaking generally, the subjects of in- 
 struction were grammar and music. Many of 
 these schools were reorganized at the Reformation, 
 and very many additional ones were formed. 
 The range of instruction was considerably 
 widened, and most of them were free ; but they 
 helped to educate only a small portion of the 
 community ; and. while the universities and a 
 few of the schools rose to eminence, most of these 
 schools were neglected. In process of time, too, 
 the endowments of these schools were greatly 
 abused; and when a commission was appointed 
 to impure into their condition (December 28., 
 18641, matters were found in an exceedingly un- 
 satisfactory state. The commissioners excluded 
 from their examination the nine schools which 
 had been already reported on. The number of 
 schools which came under their observation, and 
 Which they speak of as endowed, was about 
 700 ; but they examined 82 other schools doing 
 similar work, so that the entire number was 
 782, in regard to which they make the follow- 
 ing statement : " The aggregate net income from 
 endowments of the grammar and other sec- 
 ondary schools included in our list is £195,184. 
 The gross income of the schools and charitable 
 foundations, including grammar schools, is 
 
 £336,201. The annual value of exhibitions to 
 which the schools have a claim, but which are 
 not included in these amounts, is at least 
 £14,264. The total number of towns of more 
 than 2.000 inhabitants, according to the census 
 of 1861 . which have endowments for a grammar 
 or other secondary school, is 304. Many of these 
 endowments are now applied to primary schools 
 only. There are 228 towns of that size without 
 any such endowment." 
 
 The most singular feature in the results of the 
 inquiry was. that, in many places, the endow- 
 ments had come to be regarded and treated as 
 private property. The school-master often drew 
 the income without having a single pupil, and 
 many school-masters seemed to feel that the 
 fewer scholars they had, the more comfortable 
 would it be for themselves. We quote some out 
 of the very numerous examples which the Report 
 furnishes : " At Bosworth (net income of school 
 £792 a year), the head-master taught three 
 boarders and no others ; the under-master only 
 attended when he chose; the usher taught an in- 
 ferior village school. Thame had two masters 
 receiving £300 between them, one of whom had 
 a good house also. Mr. Fearon found one boy 
 in the school. A private school close by had 80 
 boarders and 40 day scholars, paying higher 
 than the grammar school fees. At Witney, the 
 head-master contented himself with teaching 
 Creek to one boy. Reading had three scholars, 
 and there was no hope of the school's reviving 
 under the then master. Aynhoe had five schol- 
 ars, the master having once had a flourishing 
 school at Banbury, and having come to Aynhoe 
 for retirement. North Walsham (£266) had 
 only 11 pupils, and 'the whole place wore an 
 aspect of decay and desolation.' but the master 
 objected to a new scheme's being procured." 
 
 In consequence of this report, an executive 
 commission was appointed to prepare schemes 
 for the improvement of these endowed schools, 
 and to see them carried into effect. This com- 
 mission worked with great vigor, and naturally 
 aroused the opposition of those who looked upon 
 the endowments as belonging to them by vested 
 right. The present government listened to 
 these complaints and introduced an Amended 
 Endowed Schools Bill, which transferred the 
 power of the commission to the Charity Com- 
 missioners. But the personal element in the 
 administration was not greatly altered, and the 
 Charity Commissioners are going on with the 
 work of reformation in an earnest spirit. There 
 was much need of it. These schools were the 
 only endowed institutions which the country 
 possessed forsecondary education. In consequence 
 of their failure to do this work, proprietary 
 and private adventure schools had arisen in great 
 numbers. The private adventure schools were 
 for the most part boarding-schools. They were 
 conducted by a single person as a money specu- 
 lation; and, though some of them were admirably 
 managed, most of them were utterly unfit to 
 educate. The Yorkshire schools have been de- 
 scribed with wonderful humor by Dickens in his 
 
Nicholas Nickleby : but schools equally bad 
 existed over the whole country, and some exist 
 to this day. The proprietary sehools were estab- 
 lished by a number of gentlemen who combined 
 together in their own districts to erect, maintain, 
 and manage them. They were much better.cn the 
 
 I'll- 
 
 i k,-.i 
 
 the two following characteristics: (1) Whether 
 endowed, proprietary, or private, they had no 
 connection with the state: the state did not con- 
 trol, examine, appoint masters for, or in any way 
 interfere with, or take the slightest superintend- 
 ence of. these schools; (2) They were to a large 
 extent boarding-schools. The boys left their par- 
 ents' home at an early age, ami live 1 in houses 
 where only boys and male masters lived ; these 
 schools were thus essentially monastic institutions, 
 and tin- public opinion prevalent in them was 
 
 tl pinion upheld by the majority or by the 
 
 Btrongesl of the boys. Hence an inordinate love 
 of outdoor games and such peculiar customs as 
 that of fagging. These peculiarities still attach 
 to the schools. The state has interfered with 
 the endowments, and claimed, in consequence of 
 these, the right to settle the nature of the govern- 
 ing bodies; but. after having once settled this, 
 the State will withdraw and leave the schools 
 
 •nil 
 
 Is of 
 
 is I„| 
 
 lie more contenteil.it was argue 1, and would con- 
 fine themselves to their ordinary toils, deriving 
 ample happiness from these in their humble 
 sphere, if they could neither read nor write, and 
 knew little or nothing of theories of government, 
 laws of trade, and the movements going on in for- 
 eign countries. Knowledge would only make them 
 restless. This feeling has continued down to the 
 present day. though it is not often that utterance 
 is given to it. The first vigorous effort made to 
 educate the masses was due to the zealot' Robert 
 Raikes (q. v.), who, in 1780, established Sunday 
 schools. The manner of the commencement of 
 these is noteworthy. The movement arose out 
 of religious feeling : ami tin's has characterize. 1 
 
 English education in an eminent degi In 
 
 other countries, education has gradually become 
 a subject of interest to all. and governments, 
 especially, have deemed their interference essen- 
 tial. In England, on the contrary, the effort 
 to educate has mainly arisen with the churches, 
 and the state has, even to this day, obtained 
 only a subordinate position in the manage- 
 ment of the schools. The entire history of the 
 question will bring out this curious aspect of 
 English education. It is certainly brought out 
 prominently in the next stage. Lancaster (q. v.). 
 a man of strong impulse and generous heart, was 
 
 AND 263 
 
 eager to educate the masses. He made the ex- 
 
 peri nt.'and was well supported in it by the 
 
 community ; but his success soon awoke suspicion, 
 l-aucastcr was a Quaker, and sohed the religious 
 dithVultv bv confining his religious instructions 
 to the reading of the Bible. S e saw in this 
 
 ot El 
 
 land: and an et 
 
 ort. they felt, must be made to 
 
 repel this iusi.li, 
 
 us attack. Lancaster had gained 
 
 distinction by 
 
 li" adoption of the monitorial 
 
 system. Anotl 
 
 ir educationist. Dr. Hell (q.v.), 
 
 laid claim to ha 
 
 ing practiced this system before 
 
 Lancaster, and 
 
 i furious dispute arose on that 
 
 question, but a 
 churches. Dr. 
 
 des were formed according to 
 
 Bell was .-, clergyman of the 
 
 Church of Eng 
 
 uid. and those who were afraid 
 
 for the safety ot 
 
 that church naturally looked to 
 
 him to organize an education which should effect- 
 ually oppose the Lancastrian movement. ( tut of 
 this antagonism arose two societies, — the one, the 
 British and Foreign Society, in 1808; the other, 
 the National Society, in L811. The National 
 Society was formed to establish schools in which 
 the principles of the Church of England should 
 be taught, and over which the church should ex- 
 
 followed Lancaster's system of teaching reli"ion 
 from the Bible, and the Bible only. These two 
 societies proved themselves active in the work 
 which they undertook, and schools arose in all 
 parts of the land. But they were utterly unable 
 to cope with the terrible destitution that pre- 
 vailed, and the number of neglected and unedu- 
 cated children was enormous. The religious dif- 
 ficulty, however, always intervened to prevent 
 
 mice of the 
 Is Parochial 
 
 \i,l,l 
 
 man that attempt ed to grapple with the question. 
 lb- in,.. le tw,, distinct efforts, one in 1816, and 
 one in L820. Broughams ideas were compre- 
 hensive. He wished to see a national system of 
 education, embracing the universities at the one 
 end. and at the other, parochial schools which 
 should furnish an elementary education fit for 
 the humblest of the people.' Hut, though he 
 labored with unremitting toil and with great 
 ability. Parliament did nothing. Meantime, out- 
 side of Parliament, there was considerable agita- 
 tion in regard to the subject, mainly under the 
 leadership of Brougham. Infant schools were 
 established. The Society for the Diffusion of 
 Useful Knowledge ordered the circle of Readers. 
 The Central Society devoted its energies to the 
 circulation of sound opinions on education, and 
 gave information as to the progress and methods 
 of education in foreign countries. It was not. 
 however, until Is.'i.'i, that Parliament was in- 
 duced to do any thing for education, when a grant 
 of CJO. 0110 was voted for distribution between 
 the National Society and the British and Foreign 
 Society, to aid in the erection of school build- 
 
264 ENG 
 
 ings. During this period, and for some time 
 subsequent to it, various inquiries were made 
 into the educational condition of the laboring 
 classes, and the results were found to be unsatis- 
 factory in the highest degree. The results of 
 the inquiry carried on by the committee of edu- 
 cation of 1838 were as follows : (1) Thatthe kind 
 of education given to the children of the working 
 classes was lamentably deficient; (2) That it ex- 
 tended, bad as it was, to but a small proportion 
 of those who ought to receive it; (3) That, 
 without some strenuous and persevering efforts 
 on the part of the government, the greatest 
 evils to all classes might follow from this neglect. 
 The time was ripe for further progress ; and, 
 accordingly, in 1839, the liberal government 
 appointed an educational committee of the 
 Privy Council ; and the House of Commons 
 voted a sum of £30,00(1, to be distributed by 
 this committee. With this sum, little could be 
 done; but, at any rate, there was something 
 like a government department for education. 
 The best thing the committee did was to appoint 
 Mr. James Kay, afterwards Sir James Kay 
 Shuttleworth, to be their secretary. He was 
 pre-eminently fitted for the peculiar position. 
 The committee arranged a system of inspection; 
 and if nothing more was done, at least the true 
 state of matters was ascertained. The committee 
 also attempted to found a training college for 
 teachers, but they were baffled in this effort by 
 the religious difficulty. Sir J. K. Shuttleworth 
 resolved to set up such an institution without 
 the aid of government, and he succeeded. The 
 various religious bodies followed his example : 
 and, "within six years, fifteen training schools 
 were founded." The result is, that, up to this 
 day, all the training schools are under the con- 
 trol of the churches ; but one body, the Inde- 
 pendents, took no distinct part in the work of 
 education, except in founding and maintaining a 
 training school for teachers; namely, Homerton 
 College. In 1846, the Committee of ( 'ouncil 
 made a still greater advance. A elaborate sys- 
 tem of inspection, with grants, was established, 
 much encouragement was given to pupil-teach- 
 ers, and the profession of teacher rose in public 
 estimation. But each year, under this system, 
 the grants increased, they amounted, in 1846, 
 to £100,000; in 1859, they had increased to 
 £836,920 ; and there appeared to be no limit to 
 this increase. A commission of inquiry was | 
 again appointed. Investigations of a most 
 thorough nature were prosecuted, and the report 
 was presented in six volumes. Mr. Lowe was 
 at this time vice-president of the Committee of 
 Council on Education, and was resolved to be 
 economical. The plan which suggested itself to 
 liim as the most likely to serve the purpose, was 
 one which he had seen employed on the convicts 
 in Australia. The grants had been given to 
 schools, before this time, on account of general 
 efficiency. The inspector reported on the entire 
 appearance of the school; note was taken of the 
 discipline, and of the success of the pupils in all 
 departments ; but especial praise was given when 
 
 | a school seemed to be imparting a good intel- 
 I lectual and moral training. Mr. Lowe thought 
 | that government should pay only for teaching 
 I the three It's; and the plan he proposed was to 
 | devise various standards in reading, writing, and 
 arithmetic, to suit the progress which scholars 
 might be supposed to make in one year, and to 
 assign a money value for each of these subjects, 
 paying to the managers of the school a sum 
 of money according to the number of passes 
 which the pupils had gained in the examination. 
 This plan was followed by evil consequences. 
 The higher branches were neglected, the profes- 
 sion of teaching was lowered, and the instruc- 
 tion became mechanical, and passed into mere 
 cram for the purpose of the passes. The one 
 good feature in the plan was individual exami- 
 nation — a feature which had existed to some ex- 
 tent before, and coidd well exist, if the plan were 
 given up. The essential peculiarities of this 
 plan still exist, but the details have been modi- 
 fied. Every year sees changes in the Code, the 
 name given to the document which contains the 
 regulations in regard to the standards and the 
 passes. The higher subjects have received rec- 
 ognition, and various other improvements have 
 been introduced; but the code method must be 
 continued as long as the religious difficulty bars 
 the way to a completely national system. An 
 effort in the direction of a national system was 
 made by Mr. Forster, in his bill of 1870. This 
 act contains provisions by which local school 
 boards may be established, rates may be imposed, 
 and compulsory clauses enacted. It prescribes 
 that the religious instruction shall take place at 
 the beginning or end of the school day, and that 
 no catechism or religious text-book shall be used. 
 It was thus only a half measure. The grants 
 were continued to the denominational schools. 
 The establishment of school boards, the imposi- 
 tion of rates, the employment of compulsion, 
 and the teaching of religion, were all to be 
 settled by the special localities. Many localities 
 have taken advantage of the powers thus granted 
 them, and some, such as the London school 
 board, have done incalculable good ; but there 
 has been considerable rivalry between the school 
 boards ami the churches, and much display of 
 bitter religious animosity. 
 
 _ The elemental-;/ education act of 1873 was de- 
 signed to supplement, by some essential provi- 
 sions, that of 1870; but more important changes 
 have been introduced by that of 1876. The com- 
 pulsory attendance provisions are strengthened,, 
 the law declaring that " it is the duty of the 
 parent of every child to cause such child to re- 
 ceive an efficient elementary education"; and, 
 not only, as in the previous act, are the school 
 boards vested with the power to make compul- 
 nari/ by-laws, but provision is made for the ex- 
 tension of this authority by means of school- 
 attendance committees, to be appointed, in a 
 borough, by the town council, and, in a parish, 
 by the guardians. The act of 1\76 also provides 
 for the establishment of day industrial schools, 
 in which elementary education, combined with 
 
industrial training may be carried on. the pupils 
 being supplied with one <>r more meals each day. 
 This is designed to encourage and facilitate the 
 education of a large class of neglected children 
 whom the previous provisions did Dot succeed in 
 reaching. A new Code of Regulations has been 
 issued in pursuance of this act. 
 
 The following table, compiled from official re- 
 turns relating to the elementary schools of Eng- 
 land and Wales (including those of the [sle of 
 Man), gives a view of the progress of education 
 between the years 1864 and 1*74. 
 
 
 Number of 
 
 Number of chil- 
 
 Average number of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 inspected 
 
 accommodated 
 
 ance 
 
 1866. 
 
 7,131 
 
 1,510,721 
 
 919.922 
 
 1867 
 
 7.601 
 
 1,605,409 
 
 978,382 
 
 1868 
 
 S.051 
 
 1,724,569 
 
 1,060,082 
 
 1869 
 
 8,592 
 
 1,888,416 
 
 1.153,572 
 
 1870 
 
 8,986 
 
 1,950,641 
 
 1,255.983 
 
 1871 
 
 9.521 
 
 2,092,984 
 
 1,345,802 
 
 1872 
 
 10.751 
 
 2.397,745 
 
 1,445,326 
 
 1873 
 
 11,951 
 
 2,005,467 
 
 1.570,741 
 
 1874 
 
 13,243 
 
 2,982,981 
 
 1.771,143 
 
 Elemi'ntari/ Educittion. — Nit/ional St/ste. 
 Appropriations are annually made by parliament 
 for " public education in England and Wales"; 
 and the grants thus made are administere 1 
 by the Education Department, which consists of 
 the Lords of the t 'onimittee of the Privy Coun- 
 cil on Education. The object of the grant is not 
 to make full provision for the support of schools, 
 but to aid local exertion, under certain condi- 
 tions, to maintain (1) elementary schools, and 
 
 (2) training colleges for teachers. Public element- 
 ary schools must be. conducted according to the 
 following legal regulations : ( 1 ) Xo religious ob- 
 servances, or attendance at any church or Sunday- 
 school, must be imposed as a condition of ad- 
 mission to the school; (2) Religious observances, 
 and instruction in religious subjects, must be 
 either at the beginning or at the end of the 
 school session, anil must not be compulsory ; 
 
 (3) The school must be open at all times to the 
 visits of the government inspectors ; but the lat- 
 ter are not permitted to take any cognizance of 
 religious instruction. I'nless the school is con- 
 ducted according to the legal provisions, it can- 
 not obtain any portion of the parliamentary 
 grant; and no grant is paid to any school, except 
 on a report of an inspector. These inspectors 
 are appointed by the Crown, on the recommen- 
 dation of the education department. In order to 
 obtain participation in the grant, the school 
 must be placed on the list for inspection, after 
 application to the Department by the school 
 board or other managers. The school premises 
 are required to be "healthy, well-lighted, warmed, 
 drained, and ventilated, properly furnished, sup- 
 plied with suitable offices, and to contain, in the 
 principal school room, and class rooms, at least 
 80 cubical feet of internal space, and 8 square 
 feet of area, for each child in average attendance." 
 The principal teacher must be certificated. If, 
 on the inspector's report of any school, there ap- 
 pears to be any serious objection, the grant may 
 be withheld ; but a second inspection, by another 
 
 AND 265 
 
 inspector, is always made. There must be not 
 less than 400 morning and afternoon sessions 
 of the school during the year. The giant is 
 based on the average at tendance and thepioticicn 
 cy of the pupils in certain branches, that is, 
 so much (4 s.) for each pupil in attendance, and 
 so much for each /></.« in nailing, writing, arith- 
 metic, geography, grammar, history, etc. M hether 
 the mode of examination shall be oral or writ- 
 ten, is left to the discretion of the inspector. 
 The girls must be taught "plain needle-work and 
 cutting out" as a regular branch in the day 
 schools ; and to show the proficiency acquired, 
 specimens must be worked on the day of the in- 
 spection. The evening schools must hold at least 
 45 sessions during the year, and are similarly 
 inspected and paid for. Attendances must not 
 be reckoned for any pupil in a day school, under 
 3 years of age or above 18; or, in an evening 
 school, under 12 or above 21. The standards 
 are six (from I., the lowest, to VI., the highest), 
 and minutely prescribe the degrees of proficien- 
 cy to be attained in reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, grammar, geography, and English history. 
 Reductions are made in the grants for various 
 reasons, including an unfavorable report of the 
 inspector, or the want of a sufficient number of 
 pupil-leachers, who are prescribed as follows: 
 for the first 60 pupils, none ; for any number 
 between 61 and 100, inclusive, one ; between 
 101 and 140, two, etc. The recognized classes 
 of teachers are three : (1) certificated teachers; 
 (2) pupil-teachers ; (3) assistant teachers. Cer- 
 tificates are obtained on examination, which is 
 open to (1) students who have resided for at 
 least one year in training colleges under inspec- 
 tion, or (2) candidates who are upward of 21 
 years of age, and have either completed satis- 
 factorilj an engagement as pupil-teacher, ob- 
 tained a favorable report from an inspector, or 
 served as assistants, for at least six months, in 
 schools under certificated teachers. These exam- 
 inations are held, in December of each year, at 
 the several training colleges under inspection, 
 and " at such centers as may be necessary"; and 
 the list of successful candidates is published. 
 Each certificate records the relative proficiency 
 of the candidate receiving it. Candidates must, 
 after examination, serve as teachers under pro- 
 bation, before receiving certificates. The certifi- 
 cates are of three classes ; and no certificate 
 above the second class is originally issued : the 
 third (lowest) includes special certificates for 
 teachers of infant classes. Good service alone 
 entitles any teacher to a certificate of the first 
 class. Those of the second class remain in force 
 ten years. Pupil-teachers are boys or girls em- 
 ployed to serve in a school, under certificated 
 teachers. They must be at least 13 years of age ; 
 and not more than four must be engaged for 
 every certificated teacher. At the close of their 
 engagement, these pupil-teachers may become 
 assistants, or they may be examined for admis- 
 sion into a training college, or be provisionally 
 certificated for immediate service in small schools. 
 — A training college includes both a "college 
 

 for boarding, lodging, and instructing candidates 
 for the office of teacher in elementary schools," 
 
 may learn the exercise of their profession '. An- 
 nual grant.-, are made to these institutions on the 
 same conditions as to public elementary schools. 
 Each college is entitled to £100 for every master, 
 and £70 for every mistress, who, after two years' 
 training, completes the prescribed period of pro- 
 bation, and becomes qualified to receive a teach- 
 er's certificate, or who has completed a like period 
 of good service as an elementary teacher in the 
 army, royal navy, or in the poor-law schools, cer- 
 tified industrial schools, or certified reformatories. 
 Examinations for admission are held annually, 
 and are open, without restriction by the educa- 
 tion department, to pupil-teachers, and others 
 who intend bond fide to adopt and follow the 
 profession of teacher in elementary schools. All 
 candidates, before admission, must be passed by 
 the medical officer of the college, who must cer- 
 tify that they are in good health and free from 
 serious bodily defect or deformity. If candidates 
 are admitted in violation of the rides, the edu- 
 cation department refuses to grant them certifi- 
 cates. — Pensions are granted to teachers in cer- 
 tain cases, the maximum number and value 
 receivable at one time, in England and Scotland 
 together, being 270, as follows : 20 of £30 each; 
 100 of £25 each; and 150 of £20 each; all of 
 which, with special gratuities and donations, 
 amount to £6,500. 
 
 Besides the schools that receive grants of 
 public money, according to the Code, there are 
 schools that are inspected, but receive no grant, 
 and private schools, the latter, however, rapidly 
 diminishing in number. The school boards, con- 
 stituted under the act of 1870, consist of not 
 less than 5 nor more than 15 members, elected, 
 in the boroughs, by the persons on the burgess 
 roll; in a parish, bythe rate payers, except in the 
 metropolis. Every voter may give all his votes 
 to one candidate, or distribute them among the 
 candidates as he thinks fit. Boroughs and par- 
 ishes may be united by the education depart- 
 ment so as to form a united sckool-disbriet. The 
 societies which have the charge of the inspected 
 schools, besides the school boards, are the fol- 
 lowing : (1) The British and Foreign .School 
 Society, supported by Christians of all denomi- 
 nations; (2) The National Society for the edu- 
 cation of the poor in the tenets and observ- 
 ances of the established church; (.'!) Diocesan 
 Boards of Education which, in connection 
 with special dioceses, look after the education 
 given in church schools ; (4) The Church of 
 England Education Soci.tv. consisting of mem- 
 bers of the Evangelical party, which gives aid to 
 schools, but. does not establish any; (5) The Com- 
 mittee appointed by the Roman Catholics to 
 watch over the education of the poor; (li) The 
 (ieneral Committee on Education, appointed by 
 the Wesleyans, for the first time, in 1840. There 
 are other societies of less note, such as the Home 
 and Colonial Society, the London Bagged School 
 Union, the London Committee of the British 
 
 Jews, and the Voluntary Society. The educa- 
 tion furnished by the school-board schools ap- 
 
 uE, a' L hr...-:' , p.v:t:" 1 '''' i p; ■.:;'■:"' :u" the 
 standards. The teachers of the board schools 
 are better paid, and of superior efficiency. The 
 income of all the schools, except the board 
 schools, arises from the following sources: 
 (1) voluntary subscriptions ; (2) fees : (3) govern- 
 ment grants according to the < 'ode. In the board 
 schools, instead of the voluntary subscriptions, 
 there is the rate. Fees and government grants 
 are common to all. — There are also schools for 
 special classes: (1) Ragged Schools, (2) Indus- 
 trial Schools, (3) Reformatories. Bagged schools 
 are supported entirely by voluntary contribu- 
 tions, and consist, as the name denotes, of neg- 
 lected, but not criminal children. The industrial 
 schools give both intellectual and moral training 
 and instruction in the industrial arts. These 
 schools are subsidized by the government. Re- 
 formatories are largely supported by the govern- 
 ment, being intended for juvenile offenders. There 
 
 are also scl Is connected with work-houses, 
 
 schools for the children of soldiers, and training 
 ships, in which, boys are trained for marine ser- 
 vice. — Speeial notice should also be taken of the 
 Science ami Art Department, which, under the 
 fostering care of the late Prince Albert, has 
 
 done bo much to spread a knowledge of science 
 
 and art over tin untiy. Art schools have been 
 
 established in various cities, and prizes offered 
 and awarded. Examinations in science may be 
 held in any town in which a committee can be 
 formed ; certificates are granted to those who 
 pass, and the teacher receives a sum of money 
 for each pupil that passes. 
 
 Edticttlitiittd Statistics. — The following statis- 
 tics, for the year 1875, show what progress has 
 been made in national elementary instruction: 
 Expenditure from Education Grants. 
 
 nlinij In Object of Grant. 
 
 ementary £ s. 
 
 li 
 
 7. < Iriranizatinii "t ilistrii'ls. etc 
 
 Total 1,3.311,746 10 5 
 
 Table II) — rl,^.-:,i'inl m-vm-ilnn/ tn I'i iiimnnaUiin. 
 
 On Schools connected with Church £ s. d. 
 
 of England 822,505 9 5 
 
 On British, Wesleyan, and other 
 
 Schools 235,887 6 6 
 
 On Roman Catholic Schools 73.8s 1 111 5 
 
 On Board Schools 90,231 10 10 
 
 (In Parochial Union Schools 12(1 (I 
 
 Administration (as in Table A) 12(1,11110 5 
 
 Organization of districts, etc 7,001 11 11 
 
 Grants to School Boards 317 10 11 
 
 Total 
 
 1,356,746 
 
The number of certificated male teachers in 
 the schools receiving grants was 10,221 ; of fe- 
 male certificated teachers, 11,731; of male as- 
 sistant teachers. 872 ; of female assistant teach- 
 ers, 1,549 ; of male pupil-teachers, 10,886; and 
 •of female pupil-teachers, 18,466. The number 
 •of schools actually inspected during the year 
 •ending August 31.. L875, and the number of 
 pupils, according to the denominations that edu- 
 cate, are given in the following tables. 
 
 NUMBER OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 DENOMINATIONS 
 
 Day 
 Schls. 
 
 Night 
 Schls. 
 
 Total 
 
 Schools connected with National 
 Society or Church of England . . 
 
 British Wesleyan and other 
 
 schools not iiirrtol with the 
 
 ChuiTh.it' England 
 
 2,034 
 
 598 
 
 1,136 
 
 17 
 
 52 
 4 
 
 9,466 
 2.0S6 
 
 School-Board Schools 
 
 1,140 
 
 Total 
 
 1:1.217 
 
 7:; 
 
 13.290 
 
 NUJinr.it of ripii.s in average attendance. 
 
 IH.N'i iMINATIONS 
 
 Schools connected with Na- 
 tional Society or Church "1 
 England 
 
 lint. Wt-sl. and other Schools 
 not connected with the 
 Church of England 
 
 Roman Catholi.' Schools 
 
 School-Board Schools 
 
 l'.III..MI2 
 
 53,074 
 
 rjs.i;:;i; 
 
 l:;7.:i7s 
 ,>a.:i.vj 
 '.i.s.iuo 
 
 The pupils on the school registers were divided 
 regard to age as follows : 
 
 AGE 
 
 No. of scholars 
 
 Per cent 
 
 
 
 
 lll.-Ui'.l 
 
 0.70 
 
 llCtWocU 
 
 3 an, 
 
 
 
 
 5 '■ .... 
 
 132.1 
 
 K.4H 
 
 
 
 
 297,134 
 
 
 
 
 
 323,464 
 
 11.7'J 
 
 
 
 8 •• ... 
 
 320,442 
 
 11.08 
 
 
 
 
 324,901 
 
 11.74 
 
 
 
 10 •' .... 
 
 315,496 
 
 11.49 
 
 
 11 ■• 
 
 12 •' '.'.'.'. 
 
 292,724 
 
 242,042 
 
 10.07 
 
 
 
 
 172,449 
 
 
 " 
 
 13 " 
 
 14 " .... 
 
 65.307 
 
 2.38 
 
 
 Nl 
 
 ,ht Schools 
 
 
 Males 
 
 Fema.es 
 
 Total 
 
 Schools connected with Na- 
 tional Society or Church of 
 
 23,418 
 
 10,207 
 
 1.7.17 
 
 5,081 
 
 I]l36 
 801 
 
 28,499 
 
 12,914 
 2,873 
 4,096 
 
 Brit. WYsl. and other Schools 
 not connected with the 
 Church of England 
 
 Roman Catholic Schools 
 
 
 Total 
 
 3S..V.I7 
 
 9,785 
 
 48.3S2 
 
 The following table gives the number of 
 pupils on the school registers, and the number 
 of pupils for whom accommodation is provided 
 at 80 cubic feet of internal space, and 8 square 
 feet of area per pupil : 
 
 
 Scholars on 
 
 
 DENOMINATIONS 
 
 the school 
 
 that may be 
 
 
 registers 
 
 accommodated 
 
 Schools connected with Na- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of England 
 
 
 
 British Wesleyan and other 
 
 
 
 schools not connected 
 
 
 
 with Church of England. 
 
 492.588 
 
 
 Eoman Catholic Schools.. 
 
 
 
 School-Board Schools 
 
 351,907 
 
 3V7.227 
 
 Total 
 
 2,744.3011 
 
 3.159,479 
 
 Of the pupils, 64 per cent attended the Na- 
 tional Society schools ; 18 per cent, the British 
 Wesleyan schools; 5.5 per cent, Roman Catholic 
 schools; and 12.5 per cent, the Board schools. 
 
 Over 14 years | 26,944 i 0.98 
 
 London School Board. — Of all the school 
 boards created, by the act of 1870. that of the 
 metropolis had the heaviest task imposed upon 
 it; and it has, accordingly, accomplished the 
 greatest results. The first 'board (elected Nov. 
 29., 1870) contained many eminent members, 
 among them Prof. Huxley, and Dr. Elizabeth 
 Garret- Anderson. The School-Board district 
 embraces a population of 3,400,000, out of 
 4,200,000 people inhabiting what is now called 
 Greater London, which covers 698 square miles. 
 The number of school. districts is 10. which are 
 represented in the board by 49 members, elected 
 by ballot. The population of London, in 1871, 
 was 3,265,005, of whom 681,107 were children 
 between the ages of 3 and 13; and of these, it 
 was estimated that more than 200,000 needed 
 school provision. Up to November. 1875, the 
 number of new schools opened by the board was 
 102, and 33 were in course of erection. There 
 were, at that time, under the control of the 
 board, 199 school-houses, in 436 departments, 
 containing 112,90] pupils. The school-houses 
 have been erected with gnat care and upon the 
 most approved principles of school architecture. 
 (See Robson's Scliool Architecture, 1875, and R. 
 
 T. Smith's School B i is and Fit is, L875.) 
 
 "The result of the School Board action," gays 
 Sir Charles Reed, the chairman of the Board, ••hits 
 been to add over 60,000 children now (1875) in 
 attendance at the board schools, and about 
 45,00(1, to the denominational schools." 
 
 Teachers' Associations. — The teachers of 
 England have formed various associations at dif- 
 ferent times, of which the most effective is the 
 College of Preceptors (see Preceptors, Col- 
 leoeof), which holds meetings and examinations, 
 gives diplomas, and more recently, has instituted 
 a professorship of education. Since 1870, the 
 elementary teachers have formed an association 
 called the National Union of Elementary 
 Teachers, which is increasing in influence. 
 
 Seviindnri/Eiliiriiliim. — The schools for second- 
 ary education in England comprise the great 
 endowed or foundation schools, including the 
 nine so-called public schools ; the proprietary 
 schools ; and the Ladies' Colleges. 
 
 The ji>ih/ic schools, or colleges, nine in num- 
 ber, are Eton, Winchester, Westminster, St. 
 Paul's School, Merchant Taylors' School, Char- 
 terhouse, Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury. In 
 
18G1, the government appointed a commission 
 to inquire into the revenues and management 
 of these schools ; and the results of the inquiry 
 were published in four volumes (1864) ; and, in 
 1868, a Public Schools .Vet was passed, giving 
 the commission power to frame statutes and 
 regulations for these schools. They were accord- 
 ingly remodeled, upon a new and uniform plan. 
 The chief features are here presented. — (1) Man- 
 agement. — Before the appointment of the com- 
 mission, bodies quite different in character were 
 the managere. Thus, at Eton, the managers were 
 the provost and fellows of the college ; at Win- 
 chester, the warden and fellows ; but the head- 
 master had nearly absolute control. The Court 
 of Assistants to the Mercers' Company were the 
 governors of St. Paid's ; and the Court of As- 
 sistants to the Merchant Taylors, of the school 
 of that name. Harrow, Rugby, and Shrewsbury 
 were governed by trustees. The new statutes of 
 the commission have established something like 
 a system in the mode of electing the various 
 governing bodies, without entirely removing the 
 peculiarities of each school. Thus, the govern- 
 ing body of Eton is now composed of (1) the 
 provost of Eton, (2) the provost of King's Col- 
 lege, Cambridge, (3) one member to be elected 
 by the hebdomadal ci nuicil of ( )xford University, 
 (4) one, by the council of the senate of Cam- 
 bridge, (5) one, by the council of the Royal 
 Society, (6) one to be nominated by the Lord 
 Chief Justice, (7) one to be elected by the head, 
 lower, and assistant masters, (8) not less than 
 two, nor more than four, to be elected by the 
 governing body itself. The governing bodies of 
 the other schools are constituted in a similar 
 manner, having regard to the peculiarities 
 of each locality. These managers have entire 
 control over the endowments, make regula- 
 tions in regard to the buildings, and elect and 
 dismiss the head-master. They are subject to 
 no supervision except that of the Visitor, who 
 is always a person of great eminence. — 
 (2) Teachers. The head-master appoints all the 
 masters and other persons engaged in teaching 
 in the school, and all hold their positions during 
 his pleasure. The exercise of the power of dis- 
 missal by the head-master has, however.given rise 
 to several disturbances. The masters, in these 
 schools, occupy a peculiar position. They are 
 keepers of boarding-houses, as well as teachers ; 
 and their incomes are mainly derived from the 
 former. The expenses at the various schools dif- 
 fer. Those at Harrow are given as a specimen: 
 
 Public tuition and school charges (per annum), 
 £28, 10 s. ; private tuition (per annum), £15; board, 
 washing, etc., at head-master's boarding-house (per 
 annum), £68; entrance fees, £12. The other board- 
 ing-houses are divided into two classes,— large houses. 
 in which the annual charge lor board etc. is £1)0, and 
 
 small l«» .«, in uliB'h received private boarders 
 
 at an annua! ci irge of £135. 
 
 (.'!) Instruction. — ( 'lassieal instruction has al- 
 ways been the pr i i lent feature of these schools. 
 
 Other branches, such as mathematics, geography, 
 history, and modern languages were formerly 
 more or less neglected. The methods of teach- 
 
 ing were bad. The tone of feeling prevalent 
 discountenanced study. The boy who wished 
 to gain the respect of his fellows, was compelled 
 to distinguish himself in the cricket field, or in 
 other athletic sports. If he failed in these, 
 success in study brought him into contempt, 
 instead of respect. The Public Schools 
 Act has introduced great changes, and an ap- 
 proach to a uniform system. The following 
 subjects are prescribed by the statutes for Eton: 
 religion, classics, writing, arithmetic, mathe- 
 matics, history, geography, and English; French, 
 for boys who have attained the middle division 
 of the fifth form, but German or Italian may be 
 taken instead; natural science, for all after en- 
 tering the middle division of the fifth form, 
 and for every boy in the school whose parents 
 desire it. After a boy has come within the first 
 hundred, facilities are afforded him for pursuing 
 special branches.- The age of admission is not 
 exactly the same at all the schools ; but. on the 
 average, it may lie said that no one is admitted 
 below 10 years or above 15; and no one is al- 
 lowed to remain beyond the age of 19. A pre- 
 liminary examination is- required. The number 
 of classes, or forms, varies in the different 
 schools. Each school is divided into two parts, — 
 an upper and a lower school. The upper school 
 of Eton is thus divided, the Sixth class being 
 the highest: (1) Fourth, consisting of (1) Lower 
 Remove, (2) Middle Remove, and (3) Upper 
 Remove; ill) Remove, consisting of (1) Upper 
 Remove, and (2) Lower lam<n-<-- (III) Fifth, 
 consisting of (1) Lower Division, (2) Middle 
 Division, and (.'!) Upper Division (the lower 
 and middle divisions being each subdivided into 
 a lower and upper remove) ; (TV) Sixth. 
 
 Before the commission sat, there was a great 
 diversity in the numbers allowable in a division. 
 At present, the statutes strictly limit this. In 
 Eton, there must be not less than one classical 
 master to every 100 boys in the school. In 
 Rugby, there is to be a't least one master for 
 every 20 boys, including the head-master, and no 
 class of boys under instruction, except the 
 sixth farm.' must exceed 32 in number, with- 
 out permission of the governing body. — 
 Annual examinations of these schools are con- 
 ducted by examiners appointed by the govern- 
 ing bodies. In all these schools, the pupils are 
 divided into two classes, —frnnnhitioiiers and 
 non-foundationers. The former, as the name 
 implies, in some schools, receive their education 
 gratuitously; in others, both their education and 
 maintenance. Often, they have to gain admission 
 to a foundation by a competitive examination. 
 The others are boarded with the master, and 
 sometimes, as at Harrow and Rugby, they re- 
 side with their parents. In the masters' houses, 
 the masters act as tutors. Fagging (q. v.) is a 
 custom peculiar to these schools ; but the right 
 to fag belongs, in most schools, to only a small 
 number of seniors. At present, this custom is 
 not wholly condemned. Indeed, the commission, 
 after a strict investigation, reported that, "on 
 the whole, it is a popular institution." 
 
The location and date of foundation of each 
 ■of these schools are here given: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 founded 
 
 
 London 
 
 Ktcm "pp. Wiinlsi.ri 
 
 llan-ow-ou-tke-Hill 
 
 London 
 
 Rugby 
 
 London 
 
 Shrewsbury 
 
 Westminster 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St. Paul's 
 
 Shrewsbury 
 
 1512 
 1551 
 
 
 1378 
 
 Christ's Hospital 
 
 Other endowed schoc 
 (q. v.), DulwicL Collegi 
 of London, founded in L619 ; Queen Kli/.a- 
 beth's School, at Ipswich (1565); the Free 
 
 Grammar School at Manchester, founded in the 
 reign of Henry VIII.; St. Andrew's College, at 
 Bradfield, near Reading; the Tonbridge Free 
 Grammar School (1552) ; Repton School (1557); 
 King Kdward's School, Birmingham (1552) ; 
 Wellington College, near Wokingham, Berk- 
 shire, founded by public subscription, in honor 
 of the duke of Wellington, for the education of 
 the sons of deceased military officers ; and the 
 City of London School, incorporated in I Slit. — 
 According to the Grammar Schools Act, gram- 
 mar schools include all endowed schools main- 
 tained for the purpose of teaching Latin and 
 Greek, whether the instruction be limited to 
 these, or extended to other branches, either of lit- 
 erature or science. The purpose of these schools, 
 as stated, is to give "an education higher than the 
 rudiments, conducted under religious influences, 
 "within the reach of all classes, but with an 
 especial preference for the poor boy who is apt 
 to learn, and frequently also for some particular 
 locality." The amount of endowment of the 
 schools ranges from that of Christ's Hospital, the 
 largest (over £42,000 a year), to some consisting 
 simply of a rent charge of about £5 a year. 
 Usually, the school possesses a school-house, a 
 masters house, and an annual income. There are 
 15 grammar schools which have net incomes ex- 
 ceeding £2,000 a year; 13, at least £1,000 a 
 year; 55, at least £500 ; 222, at least 6100; and 
 the rest are under £1 00 a year. The date of 
 the oldest of the existing endowed schools is 
 121G A. D. The endowed collegiate and gram- 
 mar schools are 782 in number ; and other en- 
 dowed schools number 2,559 ; but, including 
 those that have small endowments, the total is 
 given at 4.021. The Endowed Schools Act 
 (1869) intrusted to a commission the task of re- 
 organizing these schools, chiefly in the direction 
 of extending the benefits of the endowments. — 
 The proprietary colleges and schools are of the 
 same grade anil character, as educational institu- 
 tions, as the public schools. The most important 
 are the following : .Marlborough College, Chel- 
 tenham College, lfailcybury College, Clifton 
 College, Brighton College, Lexington College, 
 and Rossall School, near Fleetwood, I,ancashire. 
 Besides these, there are King's College School 
 and the University College School, at London, 
 which are partly preparatory schools. The gram- 
 
 AND 269 
 
 mar schools in the Metropolis are quite numer- 
 ous, and some of old foundation, as the Mercers' 
 Company's School, founded in 1542; St. Sa- 
 viour's, Southwark, in 1562 ; and the Brewers' 
 Company's School, in 1687. 
 
 Ladies' Colleges. — Queen's College, Harley St., 
 London, incorporated by royal charter in 1K;">3, 
 was instituted for the general education of 
 ladies, and for granting certificates of knowledge. 
 Queen's College School, for children from 5 to 
 14 years of age. is attached to the college. — Bed- 
 ford College, London, was founded in 1N-19, and 
 incorporated in ISti'J. The affairs are adminis- 
 tered by a council of management, and the lady 
 president; and the members of the college (26 
 
 educationists. — North London Collegiate School, 
 established in 1850, is endowed by a grant from 
 the estate of Alderman Richard I'latt. It pur- 
 sues the course of study preparatory for the uni- 
 versity examinations for women. The Camden 
 School for (I iris, established in 1S71. is under 
 the same governorship. — The ( Iheltenham Ladies' 
 : College was established in 1854, and now num- 
 bers 320 pupils. The object of the institution is 
 ; "to provide for the daughters of gentlemen a 
 sound and religious education of the highest 
 order, and on moderate terms." — Girton Col- 
 lege, Cambridge (incorporated in 1872), was 
 Opened at Ilitchin, in 1869; and, in 1873, 
 entered on the occupation of the present 
 buildings, which had been erected by public 
 subscription. The capital fund is now above 
 £20,000. The college is designed to hold, in 
 relation to girls' schools and home teaching, a 
 position analogous to that occupied by univer- 
 sities toward the public schools for boys; and 
 the promoters seek to obtain for the students 
 admission to the examination for degrees of the 
 ; University of Cambridge, and to place the col- 
 i lege in connection with that university. The 
 I course occupies about three years, half of each 
 year being spent in the college. — The Ladies' 
 College. Southampton, was established by the 
 Ilampkin Association for promoting female 
 education, with the view of raising the tone 
 of female education in the south of England. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The universities of 
 Oxford and Cambridge long stood alone as 
 university representatives of higher education. 
 (See Cambridge and Oxford.) The growing 
 wealth and importance of the provinces how- 
 ever, and the increasing demand on the part 
 of the prosperous middle classes for the more 
 advanced education, from which they were 
 practically shut out by the exclusiveness and 
 expensiveness of the great seats of learning, 
 have led to the establishment of colleges in dif- 
 ferent parts of the country. Indeed, the old 
 universities have begun to recognize the neces- 
 sity for an extension of their own influence and 
 usefulness. Iu 1873, the Cambridge senate organ- 
 ized a scheme of local lectures ; and, at the end 
 of 1873, and again at the beginning of 1874, a 
 session of twelve weeks was held in Nottingham, 
 Derby, and Leicester ; — the subjects taught be- 
 
270 
 
 ing political economy, physical science, constitu- 
 tional history, and English literature, and the 
 number of students ranging from 30 to .Mill. In 
 1874, the scheme was extended to Bradford, 
 Halifax. Keighley. and Leeds; and, in 1874 — 5, 
 applications were received from Derby, Not- 
 tingham, Leeds, Bradford, Halifax. Keighley, 
 Liverpool. Birkenhead. New Brighton. Leicester, 
 Burslem, llanley, Ncwcastle-under-Lyne, and 
 Stoke-upon-Trent. Three conditions were in- 
 sisted on : (1) a standard of excellence to give 
 definiteness an 1 thoroughness to study ; (2) reg- 
 ular and systematic class teaching ; and (3) a 
 .system of examination, regulating the granting 
 of certificates. The reports of the examiners 
 were highly satisfactory. 
 
 The University of Durham was instituted in 
 L 832, under an act of parliament empowering 
 the dean and chapter of Durham to appropriate 
 an estate at South Shields for the establishment 
 and maintenance of a university in connection 
 with the cathedral. The management was in- 
 trusted, under the bishop as Visitor, and tin; 
 dean ami chapter as Governors, to the warden, 
 a senate, and a convocation, — the senate being 
 composed of the warden, the professors of Greek, 
 mathematics, and divinity, the two proctors, 
 and five other members of the convocation. 
 The convocation originally consisted of gradu- 
 ates of Oxford and ( 'amhridge, who are now re- 
 inforced by the graduates of the university it- 
 self. The office of warden is permanently an- 
 nexed to the deanery of Durham; and a can- 
 oncy in the cathedral to each of the professors 
 in divinity and Greek. University College was 
 formed, at the openingof the university, for the 
 purpose of uniting a system of domestic disci- 
 pline with academical instruction. The Castle 
 of Durham is held in trust for the University, 
 its hall being used as a college hall, and its 
 chapel as a college chapel. To extend the 
 benefits of residence to persons of limited means, 
 Bishop Hatfield's Hall was founded in lK4(i; 
 and Bishop Cosin's Hall, in 1851 ; the students 
 of the latter, however, were transferred to the 
 former in 1864 The general academical in- 
 struction is similar to that of Oxford and Cam- 
 bridge ; and the B. A. degree examination is held 
 at the end of two years, of 26 weeks each. There 
 is a special course of theological study, and a 
 License in Theology, granted on examination; 
 and in the theological faculty alone is there any 
 religious test or subscription. In ls70, the 
 Newcastle-upon-Tyne College of Medicine. 
 (founded in 1851 i became the Durham University 
 College of Medicine, and its students are mem- 
 bers of the University. To obtain a license in 
 medicine or in surgery, a student must spend 
 four years at some approved medical school, 
 (one of the years, 'it Ic-.-t . at this college I. ami pass 
 two professional examinations. The College of 
 Physical Science, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, was 
 founded in 1871, and incorporated with the 
 University of Durham, in 1874. The endowment 
 of the college was provided partly by the uni- 
 versity, and partly by the leading landed proprie- 
 
 tors, employers of skilled labor, etc. in the 
 North of Kngland. There are chairs of pure 
 and applied mathematics, chemistry, physical 
 and experimental philosophy, geology, and 
 biology and physiology; and lectureships 
 h, Germa " 
 
 l-'relicl 
 
 English literature, and 
 mechanical drawing. The course lasts two years, 
 and successful students graduate as associates in 
 physical science. The general government is in 
 the hands of 17 members, partly ex officio, and 
 partly elected ; and the ordinary administrators 
 arc a council of IV elected out of , and by, the 
 governors. In 1875, Codrington College. Bar- 
 bados, was affiliated to the University. ' I Iwens 
 College, Manchester, opened in 1851. (See 
 Owens College.) The Yorkshire College of 
 Science was established in 1*74, to supply in- 
 struction in those sciences which are applicable 
 to the manufactures, engineering, mining, and 
 agriculture of the county of York, and in the 
 ■arts and languages thereto cognate". There is 
 a board of governors, life elected, and representa- 
 tive; and a council oi 21 members, elected from 
 and by them, foi the administration of the college 
 affairs. There are chairs of mathematii s and ex- 
 perimental physics, chemistry, geology and min- 
 ing, biology, and civil and mechanical engineer- 
 ing: and an instructor in textile industries. The 
 title of Associate in Physical Science is conferred 
 on students who attend classes, in not less than 
 three departments, for each of two entire sessions, 
 and who pass a special examination in each class 
 at the end of their course. These departments 
 are mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, bi- 
 ology, and civil and mechanical engineering. In 
 the session of 1875 — 6, there were 85 day students 
 (of whom 28 were students of chemistry belong- 
 ing to the Leeds School of Medicine), and 246 
 evening and occasional students. — University 
 College. Bristol, was instituted, in 1876, to sup- 
 ply, lor persons of both sexes above the ordinary 
 sejiool age, the means of continuing their studies 
 in science, languages, history, and literature, 
 and more particularly to afford appropriate in- 
 struction in those branches of applied science 
 which are employed in the arts and manufact- 
 ures. There are both day and evening lectures 
 and classes ; and medical education is provided 
 by the Bristol Medical School, which is affiliated 
 to the college. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction.- The 
 institutions for theological instruction are very 
 numerous including those of the various denomi- 
 nations : (1) Church of England, as follows: St. 
 Aidan's College, Birkenhead (founded in 1846); 
 the Missionary CollegeofSt. Augustine, Canter- 
 bury (founded as an abbey in 605 A. D., sup- 
 pressed in 1538, restored in 1848) j Chichester 
 Theological College (l.s.'iT: Citddcsdoii Theolog- 
 ical College. \\ 'heatley. Oxfordshire (1854); Lon- 
 don Collet,, of llivinitv, St. John's Hall, High- 
 burv(lsr.3|; Lichfield Theological College (1857); 
 Cloucestcr Theological College (1st;:)); St. Bees 
 
 ( 'ol lege, t 'uinlicrland (1816) : Salisbury Theolog- 
 ical College (I860) ; Wells Theological College 
 (1840); St. David's College, Lampeter (1822: 
 
ENGLAND 
 
 271 
 
 chartered, 1828), which prepares for the civil 
 service and other professions, as well as holy 
 orders; The Queen's I lollege, Birmingham (facul- 
 ty of theology, founded in Is.VJ); ami Church 
 Missionary College, Islington. (2) IIVs/i;i/h» : 
 •Manches- 
 
 WesleyanTheolog 
 ter (1834) : Wed 
 
 cal Institution, 
 •van Theologii 
 
 1 Is 186 
 
 - : R 
 
 chmond CoHe 
 
 istTheologi 
 United Met 
 statute (18" 
 College (18 
 
 al Ins 
 
 iinlist 
 
 2). ( 
 
 v students; Pri 
 itute. Sunder! 
 Free Church ' 
 3) Congregate 
 
 College.'Bii 
 Forkshin 
 
 ringh 
 
 mills:!] 1; Rotl 
 
 New College,! 
 
 Lancashire 
 (181(5); and 
 in 1842. 
 
 St 1 , .i,i a 
 furnish a ill 
 based on th 
 
 lldepe 
 Bala 
 (4) / 
 id Pi 
 
 sprint 
 
 ident College.il 
 Independent C 
 
 ul, Bath Msi',7 
 ucation forthf 
 iplesoftheB, 
 
 course in 
 
 
 phy and theol, 
 
 School. — Scientific instruction is given in the 
 Science and Art Department of the Committee 
 of Council, South Kensington, which administers 
 a sum of money voted annually by parliament 
 to promote instruction in science, especially 
 among the industrial classes. Science schools or 
 Classes may be formed in any locality under the 
 management of a local committee. The aid is 
 
 annually, in whu 
 instruments are 
 n £1 to £4 per st 
 I'es, on the res 
 
 isp, 
 
 i of 1 looks 
 payments 
 ■rs or com- 
 ninations ; 
 | building 
 
 KS; and in Ireland, 
 4,559 classes, and 
 ils of art in the 
 mbered 136, with 
 
 mvli. its 
 nbracing 
 :". years; St.' Marv's College. Birmingham (17!i:!), 
 which affords a .-la-ic-d ,-diicatioii. as well as 
 professional instruction: and St. Bruno's College, 
 St. Asaph, designed exclusively to prepare candi- 
 dates for the priesthood. (5) Baptist: New Col- 
 lege, London (1810) ; North Wales Baptist Col- 
 lege, Llangollen (lstl'J) ; Baptist Theological In- 
 stitute, Pontypool, Monmouth (1807); The Bap- 
 tist. College. Haverfordwest (1839); Pastor's 
 College, instituted at Camberwell in 1856, re- 
 moved to Metropolitan Tabernacle, in 1861 ; 
 Bristol Baptist College (1770) ; General Baptist 
 College. Cliilwell. near Nottingham (1797) : and 
 Bawdon College, near Leeds (1804). (6) Pres- 
 hiilii-i.in: Carmarthen Presbyterian College 
 (1719) . and Theological College'. London (1844). 
 (7) Unitarian: The Unitarian Home Mission- 
 ary Board, Manchester (1854). (8) Caloinistic. 
 Methodist: Trevecca College, near Talgarth, 
 Wales; (9) Fnv Rr/i<ii<ins 'limn, fid: Manchester 
 New College (178G). 
 
 There are four Inns rf Court, qualified to call 
 students to the Bar : (1) Lincoln's Inn, (2) the 
 Middle Temple. (3) the Inner Temple, and 
 (4) Gray's Inn. Each of these nominates two 
 benchers, and the eight benchers constitute the 
 Council of Legal Education. The council appoints 
 five readers, who deliver lectures in each term, 
 and guide the professional studies of young men 
 preparing for the Bar. — There are medical schools 
 connected with the universities: also the Royal 
 College of Physicians, the Royal I 'ollege of Sur- 
 geons, the Society of Apothecaries; Metropolitan 
 hospitals and schools of medicine : St. Barthol- 
 omew's, Charing Cross. Guv's, King's College, 
 
 Middles sx, St. I ;,,„ fa, St. Mary's, St. Thomas's, 
 
 Universitv College; and the following provin- 
 
 (1 ) the Agricultural I ollege, ( Srencester, founded 
 in 1842, which has a farm of 500 acrefi The 
 teaching staff comprises professors of agricult- 
 ure, chemistry, veterinary surgery, natural his- 
 tory, mathematics and surveying, and drawing. 
 
 (2) The Royal School of Mines, founded in 1851, 
 having grown out of the Geological Survey of 
 the United Kingdom, commenced in 1834, by 
 the late Sir Henry de la Bcehe. its first professors 
 being the officers of the Survey. There are vari- 
 ous exhibitions, scholarships, and free admissions 
 
 j attached to the school. (3) The Royal Academy 
 of Arts, founded in 1768, removed to the Na- 
 tional Gallery, in 1838, and to Burlington Home, 
 in 1869. (4) The Royal Academy of Music, 
 founded in 1822. receives an annual parliament- 
 ary grant, (5) The Royal Military Academy, at 
 Woolwich, founded in 1745, and the Itoyal Mili- 
 tary College, at Sandhurst, in 1799. also the 
 Royal Military Staff College. (6) The Royal 
 Naval ('ollege at Greenwich, founded in 1873, 
 and (7) Eastmans Royal Naval Academy, South- 
 sea, founded in 1851.- See Sir. I. K. Shuttle- 
 worth, Public Education, 3 vols. (1853) ; Four 
 Periods of Public Education (1862) ; and 
 77>oin///ts nnil Siu/t/estioi>s on I'crtoin Socio/ 
 Problems (1873) ; Ernest Wagner, VolksschuU 
 wesen in England (1864) ; Donaldson, Lectures 
 Prussia and England (1874). 
 
 on Education i, 
 In regard to se 
 of Her Mqjestj, 
 inquire into tke 
 certain Colleges 
 Return— Publu 
 by order of tli 
 
 Ek*»mm and Mancgem v.7 f 
 and Schools, etc., 4 vols. (1864); 
 
 Schools (statutes, etc.), printed 
 e House of Commons (1876); 
 MoNTrcei. J), lenseiqnementse- 
 
 to! Medical Si hool ; Cambridge Medical School; 
 Leeds School : Liverpool Royal Infirmary and 
 
 School; .Manchester Royal School ; Newcastle- 
 upon-Tyne (Durham) ; and Sheffield Medical 
 
 Maxwell, A History of Eton Collegi (18751; 
 Turner, Educational Legislation (Loud.. 1876); 
 Pascoe, A Handbook /o tke Schools of England 
 (Lond.. 1877). (See also Cambridge, and Oxford.) 
 
272 
 
 ENGLAND 
 
 ENGLAND, Church of. See Episcopal 
 
 ( 'mniii. 
 
 ENGLISH, The Study of. The mother- 
 tongue has peculiar relations to education. Lan- 
 guage has a twofold nature, — on the one side, 
 voice, on the other, thought. Early thought is 
 almost all stimulated, gun led and supported by 
 the mother-tongue. All early acquisition of 
 knowledge may be regarded as the study of the 
 mother-tongue; and, even in civilized nations, few 
 persons ever advance beyond the knowledge stored 
 up for them in their native speech. The mother 
 speech is also the means of communicating with 
 others, and of influencing them ; so that the 
 study of it as an art, includes the study of rhet- 
 oric and oratory, and of the art of poetry. 
 
 It would seem then that there are four chief 
 direct uses in studying English: (1) To under- 
 stand what is spoken or written in that language; 
 ^2) To speak it well; (3) To write it well ; and 
 (4) To master English literature. And there are 
 three remoter ends : (1) To master the language 
 scientifically; (2) Toacquire the knowledge of 
 language in general ; and (3) General culture. 
 
 Early study, in infant schools, kindergartens, 
 ninl primary schools. — The availing of words 
 is the first thing children 1 ■am of languages. The 
 names of a few familiar objects and acts are re- 
 peated in connection with the objects and acts 
 themselves so often, that the infant's thought 
 passes promptly from the sound to the thing. 
 Thus papa, mamma, kiss, laugh, make the child 
 think of the person or act before it can speak 
 any words. Many words are also attached to 
 thoughts by being often heard connected with 
 other words in discourse. Such knowledge, 
 raughl by the child rather than taught to it, is 
 for the most part very indefinite and inexact, 
 but no part of education is more important. 
 
 The objects named should be objects worthy 
 of thought. Good and bail qualities should be 
 marked by such tones and manner as will 
 give their names correct and powerful associa- 
 tions. The means of expressing the affections 
 should be carefully taught. In the kindergarten 
 or other infant school, care should be method- 
 ically taken to teach the words which accurately 
 name the objects and processes that the children 
 learn; unnamed objects anil processes, however 
 amusing or ingenious, enter little into thought 
 and contribute little to culture. A leading pur- 
 pose in all object teaching should be to give val- 
 uable ideas; but that is the same as giving 
 familiarity with good words. Teachers of infant 
 schools need good books, containing classified 
 lists of important words, with directions how to 
 teach them by means of well-chosen object 
 lessons, and amusing occupations. See Kinder- 
 garten, and Object Teaching.) For children of 
 a larger growth, we have a great number of 
 Spellers and Definers, and small dictionaries 
 which teach the meaning of English words. The 
 latter should be constantly used. 
 
 The study of meanings in such manuals is, 
 however, of little worth, unless supplemented by 
 object teaching on the one hand, and by the 
 
 ENGLISH 
 
 study of discourse on the other. Manuals of 
 object teaching arranged for the purpose are 
 wanting. Object teachers often contrast the 
 study of words with the study of things, and 
 condemn the study of words, instead of teaching 
 them through their exercises. There are many 
 books made up of progressive selections of dis- 
 course, intended to introduce young pupils to 
 words. Most Primers and Readers attempt 
 something in this way. and some are skillfully 
 prepared with notes and exercises for this pur- 
 pose. (See Primer, and Reading.) 
 
 To speak well requires a knowledge of the 
 meanings of words and of the combinations in 
 which they arc actually used, of the meanings 
 and uses of grammatical prefixes and suffixes, and 
 of the exact sounds wdiich are made by good 
 speakers. Speaking must go on at a certain 
 speed ; and, therefore, thoughts, words, and the 
 movements of the vocal organs must be closely 
 associated, so as to follow one another without 
 effort and with great rapidity. Much practice 
 in speaking is necessary in order to speak well ; 
 and, in general, practice in the very kind of 
 speaking in which the excellence is desired. In 
 the early stages of education, this must be almost 
 wholly imitative practice. Children catch and 
 use the sounds and forms which make the live- 
 liest impression on them, and which they hear 
 oftenest ; to use a form or sound once, makes it 
 most likely to occur to the mind again. Teachers 
 should, therefore, train by inducing imitation of 
 their own speech. Exercises may be used in 
 repeating after the teacher the elementary 
 sounds, and afterwards difficult words, and then 
 familiar dialogues, and finally passages of poetry, 
 or elevated prose, which the teacher likes and 
 can repeat with feeling. Incorrect articulation 
 and bad grammar should be constantly corrected, 
 not by repeating and caricaturing what is faulty 
 but by substituting the correct expression. Chil- 
 dren should also be encouraged to talk, at proper 
 times, to repeat the explanations of the teacher, 
 not verbatim throughout, but yet with a con- 
 stant, close, and correct use of the technical 
 terms or important words ; nor is it unscientific 
 to commit to memory formulas of permanent 
 importance, to be fully comprehended afterwards; 
 such as the multiplication table, catechisms of 
 moral and religious truth, and noble utterances 
 which it does men good to have fast in the 
 memory. The youth should be led on by lan- 
 guage faster and farther than his own thoughts 
 could have gone alone. Practice of this kind 
 will naturally go along with reading. 
 
 Learning to read should begin early. The 
 monstrous spelling of the English language makes 
 this much more difficult than to learn to read 
 German ; and teaching the names of the letter, 
 and the sounds of the syllables as if made up of 
 them, has a mischievous effect on the reason of 
 the learners. Several methods are used in our 
 schools to overcome the difficulties. The word- 
 method (q. v.) is one. In this, children are taught 
 to recognize words as wholes before learning the 
 letters. In skillfully prepared books, with pic- 
 
ENGLISH 273 
 
 tonal illustrations, children learn to read very | arithmetic ; and tlie preparation and explanation 
 
 grammar lesson 
 
 rapidly by this method, but not so aecuratelj ; 
 and it is very hard to teach them to spell. Skill- 
 ful teachers will use a judicious combination of 
 the two methods. Books are also prepared with 
 
 vork should lie the 
 early years. This 
 
 same sound. 
 
 spelt in the phonetic alphab 
 
 and gradually passing to our 
 
 These have been use I for .-< 
 
 Fork, Boston, St Louis, an I 
 
 reported to save one half of tl 
 
 voted to Learning to read. Tin 
 
 movement for the reform of our spelling which 
 
 it may be hoped will save the next generation 
 
 much time and toil. (See Orthography, and 
 
 Phonetics.) Books of this kind are I egh's 
 
 edition of various elementary reading-1 ks; also 
 
 Davis's American Primer, Doi u - B ia i 
 Phonetic Primer, Longli i .- .1 i /' u 
 
 Primer, Sheldon's New Phot Primer, 
 
 SlIEARKR's ('nmhin, li,'<:. •". '. \ ■ .1:1 iV's I'lm- 
 
 nelic Firs/ Reader. Primary cards and charts 
 to aid in this early instruction are to bo ha I in 
 good variety. Practice in writing is one of the 
 best aids in learning to read and spell, and hence, 
 
 copying choice extracts, and then writing them 
 down from memory, is quite useful. Soon after 
 lessons in penmanship begin, grammar should lie- 
 taken up. 
 
 Grammar is often used as a name for the 
 whole science of language and the art of using 
 it; but by masters of the science of language, it, 
 
 into parts of s] ch, according to their uses in 
 
 disc . ili ■ description and exposition of the 
 
 changes of form called inflections, and the uses 
 of these in the correct construction of sentences. 
 There would be some advantage in dropping the 
 old traditional definitions, which lead teachers 
 and pupils to expect that the study of bn-ii-h 
 grammar will make them able to speak ami write 
 the English language correctly. It Is only one of 
 the helps to correctness in speaking and writing. 
 The attempt by makers of school grammars and 
 by teachers to do too much is one reason why the 
 study is so much neglected and abused. Descrip- 
 tive grammar consists of definitions of the parts 
 of speech, paradigms, and rules of syntax. With 
 children, a careful selection of simple and typ- 
 ical matter should be made, just as in botany or 
 in any other science. This matter should consist 
 of definitions and rules, stated in accurate sci- 
 entific language, but simply and briefly; and of 
 selections of words and sentences, also simple and 
 clear, and suited to illustrate the definitions and 
 rules. This matter should be managed by the 
 teacher so as to use mere verbal memory as little 
 as possible, and to train the pupil to see. hear, 
 and think as much as possible. The definitions 
 and the rules should be learned like rules in 
 arithmetic, but the main work should be the ap- 
 plication of them to examples. The scholar 
 should every day hand in written grammar 
 work on the slate or on paper, like sums in 
 
 1 spelling. 
 
 ber of our In 
 
 ra in New 
 
 method, many 
 
 •e. and are 
 
 ing, day by da 
 
 usually de- 
 
 to remember, a 
 
 wan active 
 
 to be classified 
 
 l-o proposing trials 
 ords and sentences 
 
 oks are often \\ hol- 
 
 ly condemned by tin -e teachers, who collect, year 
 
 by year, in their own note-1 ks, or i ories, 
 
 a store of happy questions and examples, as well 
 as can lulls considered definitions and rules: and 
 it would obviously be a great help to young 
 teachers, as well as to pupils, to get a good note- 
 book of this kind, neatly printed, and there are 
 some bonks for beginners v\ Inch are. in substance. 
 such note-books; we mention ,1 Parser and 
 in \y rfor Beginners with diagrams and 
 suggestive pictures, by P. A. March (New- 
 York), and Greene's Analysis (Phila.). (See 
 Analysis, Grammatical.) 
 
 Advanced Stud// in High Sclook and 
 Co/fiyps. — Students entering the high school 
 should have been taught general descriptive 
 grammar thoroughly, so as to be able to apply 
 its del mil ions and rules promptly and accurately 
 to sentences which they understand, and which 
 have no strange idioms. They should also have 
 mastered some sy.-tem of notation to se1 forth 
 their grammatical knowledge in writing. .They 
 should have also been trained in articulation and 
 in the idioms of common conversation, and should 
 have had some practice in writing compositions. 
 The study of English will now be directed to 
 acquire skill in speaking and in writing, and a 
 mastery of English literature, and the philos- 
 ophy of speech. Each of these demands special 
 study and practice. 
 
 I. Skill inSpeaking. — This should be cul- 
 tivated in various ways : (1) By free conversa- 
 
 topies at set times, when the teacher may 
 
 act as a model and censor; (2) liy the declamation 
 "i elect m t standard authors; (3) By trans- 
 lating from foreign languages, the student being 
 required to give the thought of the author in his 
 own English with the common rapidity and in- 
 flections of his own discourse : (4) By recitations 
 by topics. (In all studies which admit of it, the 
 scholar should be made to stand up, face his 
 audience, and speak to them on the topic on 
 which he is to recite. This is probably the most 
 efficient means of giving power of connected dis- 
 course.) (5) By debates on assigned topics ; (G) 
 By the study of grammar. Some larger gram- 
 mar which gives a minute exposition of all the 
 idioms of the language should be taken up. A 
 historical and scientific grammar is the best. But 
 for immediate use in speaking, correct and clearly 
 
274 BNG 
 
 stated generalizations of the facts of the language 
 are what is wanted. A knowledge of these is 
 necessary to correct speaking. It is a great 
 mistake to suppose that if one never heard bad 
 English, he would always speak correctly. In 
 the mother-tongue, every one generalizes instinct- 
 ively. The child makes all its plurals in s, and 
 says mouses for mice, mans for men : so it says 
 buyed for bought, and tin- like, making its in- 
 stinctive and incorrect generalizations continu- 
 ally. This process is active with every speaker 
 until accurate generalizations, i. e., grammatical 
 knowledge, are substituted for the instinctive 
 work of association. The subject usually pre- 
 cedes a verb; hence, the instinctive talker uses 
 who for whom before the verb. The object usually 
 follows a verb; the instinctive generalization 
 suggests it is me, for it is I. In the households 
 of educated people, a continual correction of the 
 young folks is kept up, until they learn the most 
 common words and phrases pretty thoroughly ; 
 but. in the less common literary style, in which 
 abridged constructions, tropical expressions, and 
 relics of obsolescent forms occur continually, no 
 one ever speaks with uniform correctness, un- 
 less he studies grammar carefully. The greatest 
 geniuses are no exceptions. ( 'haiicer, Ben Jonson, 
 Milton, and Addison for example, wen' careful 
 students of grammar. The text of Shakespeare's 
 plays has to be corrected like a school boy's 
 theme. Moreover, all of us hear much bad 
 English, and need carefully and intelligently to 
 study the laws of the language, in order to dis- 
 tinguish the good from the bad. This kind of 
 study should be constantly applied in the criticism 
 
 of the speech and writing of pupils at scl Laud 
 
 of printed matter. A knowledge of descriptive 
 grammar is also needed for intelligent conversa- 
 tion upon the meaning of obscure sentences. 
 Among the many good descriptive grammars of 
 modern English, we may mention Brown's, Bul- 
 lion's, Butler's, Clark's, (.Well's, Few-smith's. 
 Greene's, Hart's, Kerl's, Murray's, Pinneo's, 
 AVeld's. t^uackenbos's, Vickroy's, and Whitney's. 
 We shall mention, farther on, works in which a 
 inmar is presented. 
 Is practice in writ- 
 ing the high school 
 :en and carefully. 
 [ is to dream. Be- 
 itical exercises as 
 ve their future oc- 
 rained in the writ- 
 . Future business 
 men should practice the writing of imaginary 
 business letters, answers to advertisements in the 
 newspapers, and the like. Any student may 
 keep a journal, may write descriptions of build- 
 ings, machines, scenery, persons, meetings, con- 
 versations,! ks : may prepare reports on such 
 
 matters as arc examined by committees for pri- 
 vate corporations, or public meetings. They 
 should also write in connection with their stud- 
 ies, preparing careful statements upon assigned 
 topics, notes of lectures, written examinations 
 on general subjects, and the like. Then there 
 
 histone.,1 view of Engli 
 II. Skill in writing i 
 
 ing. from the time- of 
 
 the studenl should wr 
 
 To study without pen ii 
 
 side the writing of g 
 
 above described, those w 
 
 cupation decided, shouli 
 
 ing needed in that ;u' 
 
 are more elaborate, ornate, rhetorical perform- 
 ances, and elegant essays, and metrical compo- 
 sition. 
 
 Two periods may be mentioned in the mastery 
 of language. In the first, the ruling idea is 
 imitative, the writer seeks to fashion his speech 
 after that of the authors or persons whom he 
 admires. He aims to have every expression bear 
 the current stamp, and will reject every phrase 
 not familiar in good books. Most writers never 
 pass out of this stage. The source and model of 
 good writing to them is an intimate acquaint- 
 ance with literature. But great writers, original 
 thinkers, learn that the current phrases do not 
 
 to invention according to their own ideals. Vital 
 signs should not be neglected even in school 
 ■ lays; it is by following these that the most per- 
 fect mastery of the language is to be attained: 
 but school work will be mostly in the first stage. 
 Active ami careful practice in writing is generallj 
 the best stimulus and help to the thorough study 
 of English. Imitative work has its value. Fix in 
 the memory the thought of an admirable passage 
 in a classic author, then write it as well as pos- 
 sible, and compare the result with the original. 
 There are some good books prepared as aids to 
 the young writer: Abbot & Sum'. English 
 Lessons (N. Y.) ; Swinton's Langm I -. res 
 (N.Y.); Abbot's How to Write clearly Boston : 
 Crosby A Lr in, mi a First Lessons; Day's Foung 
 Composer, English Composition, and other 
 works (N.Y.i : Parkek's Aids to Composition 
 (N. T.j; QrjACKEKBOs's First! n Compo- 
 
 of 
 
 irague. 
 
 Blair, Hay. Si-knokk's J'h, /,,*„/,/,,/ „f »,/,., 
 Shedd, \\ liately. and the like. A great part of 
 the writing should, however, be the record of 
 thought and research in the study of English 
 literature. 
 
 111. The philological study of English is the 
 study of the language as used in literature, i. e., 
 as shaped by the idea of the beautiful. The lan- 
 guage of literature is an ideal language of men 
 of genius. It is to be studied in their writings. 
 The main object of the study is to rethink their 
 thoughts. Every classic language contains in its 
 
 literature the n d of the noble thoughts and 
 
 acts of thousands of years, expressed in thousands 
 of happy and harmonious phrases, the invention 
 of thousands of men of genius. This is the 
 richest inheritance of a cultured race. Youth 
 who, if they had no classic speech, could do 
 nothing better than watch birds and bugs, to 
 snare and kill them, can. by means of speech, 
 rise, almost in childhood, to the highest thoughts 
 of all the ages before them. The "study of these 
 masterpieces of literature may be carried on by 
 two methods. One is rapid reading, enjoying 
 and emphasizing special beauties, and making 
 
 occasional esthetic and explanatory criticism, 
 but avoiding all minute researches, especially nil 
 grammatical and scientific labor, which might 
 give a distaste for the lesson and the author. 
 
The other method is that of giving minute and 
 profound study, linguistic and philosophic, to the 
 representative pa-sages of representative works. 
 The first method gives a delightful occupation 
 to sympathetic pupils, ami proves especially 
 valuable in the education of women. The un- 
 sympathetic and hard-headed are unaffected by 
 it; and it is. at its best, but an introduction to 
 the authors, leaving tin- tval philological mastery 
 of them yet to be attained. Thiseomes.if itcome 
 at all. from long dwelling, and much study, line 
 byline, word by won 1. such as is bestowed on 
 the noble passages of Greet or Latin writers. In 
 studying the literature of the mother-tongue, it 
 
 through the mind, and delude 
 with the impression that he 
 stands them. There is a fatal 
 porizing the lessons. This «litl 
 by making the text the foul 
 study, and by requiring writ* 
 ever is necessary to compreher 
 and allusions, matters of h 
 mythology, geography. phy> 
 theologj and the like. will, o 
 fully looked up. The history i 
 is being studied, should also b 
 to it.- growth in the mind of t 
 
 JSH 275 
 
 grammatical forms are concerned, is a develop- 
 ment of the Anglo-Saxon: in its vocabulary, it is 
 a mixed language, made up originally oi biglo 
 
 Thi 
 
 i.-kri 
 
 nl I (igh i lerman on the one 
 tin. leading on to I tn ek and 
 
 •I,.-., 
 
 as essential to a comprehension of his work and 
 speech, so as to see the man as a representative 
 
 man. and the work as a representative work. 
 
 The rhetorical laws, and the principles of poetic, 
 epic, and dramatic art should be applied word by 
 word, line by line. Then there is the study of 
 the words, their exact meaning and associations 
 in the mind of the writer, to be learned partly 
 by gathering up his different uses of them, an 
 easy and delightful labor in those authors for 
 whom a concordance has been made, as Shake- 
 speare, Milton. Pope. Tennyson : it implies also 
 a study of the general usage of the time of the 
 writer. The study of synonyms also comes in, 
 ami of derivations, as a guide and aid in fixing 
 the exact meaning of words. Written analyses, 
 derivation paper-, synonym papers, and tables of 
 rhetorical figures, will make sure that the work 
 is done. Happy phrases ami notable sentences 
 may be learned by heart: and by studying many 
 works, the knowledge of English a.s a record of 
 tained. which is the purpose 
 
 culture ma 
 
 of classical 
 
 IV. Con 
 
 ratine philology, a& the science of 
 language is' often called, suggests still further 
 study, It sets bi fore us I Dglish as a member of 
 a great family of language-, having a history. 
 and laws of growth, and made up of wordsand 
 phras 9, each of which has its own history, to be 
 understood in view of the laws of thought and 
 voice. It calls for the study of the physiology of 
 the organs of speech as the basis of the classifica- 
 tion of the vocal sounds made in English, and for 
 the study of psychology to explain the meanings 
 of the sounds. The English speech, as far as its 
 
 Phonology gives a history and exposition of 
 the sounds of English. It shows that the present 
 sounds of most words are changed from earlier 
 ones, and it seeks the laws which govern the 
 changes. It also points out and explains the re- 
 lations of these sounds to those in other lan- 
 guages. The fullest discussi f historic pho- 
 nology in any available text-1 k- for schools is 
 
 in Match's Comparative '■ an n tr of the Anglo- 
 Sax Ellis's Early E g * Pr icialion 
 
 (London), still incomplete, is the great store- 
 house of facts. Sweet's History of English 
 Sounds (London), and the historical grammars 
 
 we add s to form the possessive John's, 
 
 form the past loved; we change a to e to 
 
 the plural men, o to e to form the past 
 
 When we follow these words back to 
 
 o-Saxon. we find that our monosyllables are 
 ■ polysyllables, and many of them obvious 
 
 kin. 
 
 lllable 
 
 which is an obscure 
 
 Saxon, in (iothic show- h-iiha d, a reduplicated 
 
 root. The Gothic, however, often fails to solve 
 
 the problem, but it generally serves to identify 
 the forms with some like form in Latin and 
 Greek, which may, perhaps, give the key. or. if 
 not, lead ns on to the Sanskrit, where so large a 
 number of inflection forms and affixes of deri- 
 vation, are seen to be compound words, that the 
 philologist works on the theory that they all arc. 
 ami thus make- large progress in their solution. 
 
 are at hand, 
 
 the titles of which see the artii les on thi i ' 
 
 giiages. Icelandic, or ( IH Norse, i.- also ol great 
 
 aid in studying the forms of English, especially 
 
 in the transition period from Early Anglo 3a 
 
 All these the earnest scholar may study. The 
 
 High (ierman also has been much w 
 
 and strengthens the inductions man. 
 
 nearer kin. occasionally throwing light on a doubt- 
 
276 ENG1 
 
 ful point. The comparative study of derivation, 
 
 syntax, and prosody leads through the same 
 historical course. Parallel with the external his- 
 tory of the forms, runs a history of their mean- 
 ing, a history of thought, and its laws of change 
 and progress in connection with language. The 
 science of language does not stop with the Indo- 
 European family, but for a perfect understanding 
 of English compares it with the other great lan- 
 guages of the world, — with the Semitic, the 
 Chinese, and the aboriginal tongues of America. 
 It seeks to determine its relations to all lan- 
 guages, and to an ideal form of speech. 
 
 How much of this study should be attempted 
 in our schools and colleges, and in what method, 
 are mooted questions with educators. < Germany 
 has. heretofore, been the chief seat of fchi li aim- 
 ing, and it has been given in lectures to select 
 classes in the universities. It is gradually work- 
 ing its way, through our best grammars and 
 teachers, especially of Greek, into the common 
 stock of linguistic knowledge and teaching. A 
 considerable number of the American colleges 
 give a few lectures on the subject in the senior 
 year, or study Whitney's "Language and the 
 Study qf Language. In 1855, a department of 
 the English language and comparative philology 
 was established' in'Urfayctte < 'ollege. and an ar- 
 rangement of all the iinguistic studies of the 
 college attempted, by which the topics of com- 
 parative philology might be gradually introduced 
 to the .-indents, in connection with the recitations, 
 in reading the ela.-s-ic authors of each 
 
 PI |i gy is taken up the first term, 
 
 in the pronunciation of Latin, Greek, or other lan- 
 guages, are given. with the history of the sounds, 
 and the laws of letter change. Then. at the daily 
 lesson in leading. attention is called to such illus- 
 trations of these laws as occur in the text, and 
 the facts of each language are compared with 
 English. A special examination in these mat- 
 ters is held at the end of the term, in suc- 
 cessive terms, the etymology of the verb and the 
 noun, derivation, syntax, and prosody, are taken 
 up in the same way. from the point of view of 
 comparative philology, with daily application to 
 the text. The languages arc studied, in the clas- 
 sical course, in the following order: Latin and 
 Greek, French, German, Anglo-Saxon, English. 
 In the scientific course, the early work i through 
 a comparison of words in English, French, and 
 German; then come Anglo-Saxon and higher 
 English. It goes on in connection with a literary 
 andcritical study of the authors, and ends with a 
 synoptical general course, including, in one term, 
 the science of language, and in another a sum- 
 mary of English literature. This courst has I t> 
 
 very successful at Uifayctte < 'ollege. ;m<l ha- been 
 introduced, in its application to Lnglo Saxon and 
 English, into some other institutions, and has at- 
 tracted interest and commendation in Europe. 
 Perhaps no study, certainly no linguistic study, 
 has grown more rapidly, within the la-i I.' war,-, 
 than that of English. Previous to that time, there 
 was then hardly an attempt at the Scientific his- 
 torical study of it in England or America. There. 
 
 were no text-books, — historical grammars or 
 other histories of the language, nor good etymo- 
 logical or historical dictionaries, nor editions of 
 classic English authors with philological ap- 
 paratus for study. Now, all our good colleges 
 and universities, and many of our best high 
 schools and academies, attempt a course of En- 
 glish, and a fair supply of text-books of every 
 kind is to be had. Of these the following is a. 
 summary: Method of Philological Study qf ike 
 English Language, by Francis A. March, 
 (New York, 1865). This gives minute directions 
 for carrying out a course of study like that above 
 described. It begins with Bunyan, and sets forth 
 topics for an introductory essay on his life and 
 works, with bibliographical references. Then it 
 gives an extract from The Pilgrim's Progress, 
 and references to parts of the grammar to be stud- 
 ied, accompanied by questions applying the mat- 
 ter to the text, given in full, like a verbatim report 
 of a recitation." six pages of questions on twelve 
 lines of text. Synoptical questions and topics 
 for essays follow. Milton comes next, and then 
 follow Shakespeare, Spenser, and ( 'haucer, treated 
 in the same way. but with a progressive series of 
 grammatical and philological topics. This method 
 has been used in several high schools and col- 
 leges with g I success. The work is also to be 
 
 had bound' in one volume with Fowler's Gram- 
 mar, to which frequent references are made. 
 Sprague's Masterpieces of English Literature 
 (New York) is prepared for the same kind of 
 study; it contains selections from < 'haucer. Spen- 
 -i r. I'.acoii, Shakespeare. Milton, and Bunyan, 
 with notes for progressive grammatical, phil- 
 ological, and rhetorical study, beginning with 
 phonetics in connection with I 'haucer. and end- 
 ing with comparative philology in connection 
 with Bunyan. Day's Introduction to English 
 Literature (New York) is of similar content 
 and method. Graik's English <>/' Sholresjieare. 
 (London and Boston) consists of the text of 
 Julius Gcesar, prepared with copious notes on 
 philological matters suggested by the text, and 
 other apparatus for t lion mgh study ,— an excellent 
 book. To these maybe added C mix's Studies 
 in ike English of Bunyan (I'hila.); and Car- 
 penter's English oftkeXIV. Century (Boston). 
 From American editors, we have the following 
 series of classics prepared for school use, with 
 more or less annotation: Boyd's Series [New 
 York . inch,,!.;- Cm er / isl Hi ton's Para- 
 dise Lost, PoMoks Courst of T*ime, Thomson's 
 Seasons. Vi, ii,i,/'s Sight Thoughts, and Bacon's 
 Essays; Eudson's Series (Boston) a valuable 
 one; the notes and other apparatus are, in the 
 main, directly explanatory or critical, primarily 
 for rapid reading; it includes plays of Shake- 
 spean ; .1 Texthbook qf Poetry, consisting of 
 selections from Wordsworth. Coleridge, Burns, 
 Beattie, Goldsmith, and Thomson; .1 Text-hook 
 of I' r,,se, containing selections from Burke, 
 Webster, and Bacon ; Iioi.iKs Series, New York, 
 including Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, 
 
 The Tempest, Henry 17//., and Julius Ccesar; 
 and Goldsmith. (See English Literature.) 
 
KNIiUSH IJTKUATUUE 277 
 
 From the Clarendon Tress. Oxford. England. 
 are issued for students of English, Chaucer, by 
 W. W.Se m : S i ns of Early EnalishM 
 
 guage,byG. P. Marsh New York); Hadley's 
 Ussays, Philological and Critical (Ne* fork); 
 Whitnei - Oriental / Linauisti, Studies 
 
 Willi i n ) /' -* toe Plowman, by 
 
 \V. W. Ski m : Shakespeare, Ha n el bj W .G 
 Clark; 7%e '/;,»,, s/.' by W. Aldis Wrighi ; 
 ffiwo Lrar.by W. Aldis Wright; Milton,— Thi 
 
 Areopagitica, by J. W. Hales ; Aftifi -Se- 
 
 Aw,.,.- from •/, Sbectator.byT. Arnold; ZW 
 
 s£ (New Vo 
 (New York, 
 
 m nsof Lowland Scot h ana Vor ■ I ■ ■ 
 by J. A. H. Murray; also a seriesof English clas- 
 sics tor students. especially for ladies' scl band 
 
 middle class scl Is. under the Mipcrintendence 
 
 of Rev. .1. S. Brewer, M. V. professor of En- 
 glish literature at King's College, I. Ion, in- 
 cluding Parts of Cha "i s, tser's Faeriel 
 Queene, Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polity, Book i. 
 Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, Richard 
 the Secorad,and Wa> '■ <h; Bacon,— Advancement 
 of Learning, and Essays; Milton,— Poems ; 
 
 parts of Dryden, Bunyan, Pope, Johns 
 
 Burke, ma Cowper. 
 
 Grammars, Historical and Comparative, for ' 
 the earliest period are: March's Comparative] 
 Grammar .New York) (see Anglo-Saxon); 
 Hadley's Brief History of >'■■ En ! Lan- 
 guage (Springfield); Compend i f th< Com- 
 
 Schleicher, translated by 11. Bendale i 1 Ion); 
 
 .1 C ma h Grammar of the Teutonic Lan- 
 
 auaaes, l.v J. Helfexsteis London : Historical 
 
 ,/ /■:, 
 
 don); Changes in the English Language be- 
 tween the publication of Wiclifs Bible and (hat 
 of the authorized Version, A. D. 1400 to A. 1). 
 1600, by II. T. W. Wood (London); English 
 Writers,by B. Morley (London); History of 
 English Sounds, by 11. Sweei (London). 
 
 ENGLISH LITERATURE. To know 
 the writings and the lives of the best English 
 authors, to learn what past or foreign literature 
 influenced their minds and culture, to be able to 
 a i rtain development of thought and style 
 from the period of the Beowulf down to the 
 tm f Tennyson and Browning, to know a 
 
 (London ; / nenl ■ 
 
 Shakespearian Gran 
 irate some of the difft 
 and Modern Englis 
 (London); Handbook 
 
 iliole of our great literature, is a large 
 i. which — like many other ambitions- 
 -ong tendency to "overleap itself." But, 
 begun a1 school, and followed out with 
 he university, it is found to be a kind of 
 
 Language (New York ; Haldesian - /' , • 
 Affixes (Phila.) The great German-English grai 
 
 mars are M.kiznkk's. now translated in Londc 
 and Koen's.tor which see Anglo-Saxon. 
 Bid tries. Webster's Un ibn to I D 
 
 (Berlin and London, 1! 
 ary of Archaic and P 
 .1 Dictionary of th 
 Vlth—Ulh Centuries, 
 
 he whole circle of the sciences, still less by 
 'oung people at school. The impossibility of 
 chieving the whole task being seen, two ques- 
 
 ioiis at once arise : (1 J What shall we teach and 
 i hat leave untaught? and (2) How shall we 
 each it i. 
 
 In attempting to answer the first of these 
 uestions, we can find some guidance from an - 
 |,,v: and the seho, ,1 suhjeet ' which appears, in 
 
 Dicti try of Americanisms (Boston). 
 
 Further aids are: Lectures on the English 
 
 Lang i- (New York); and Lectures on 
 
 the On, in, and History of the English Lan- 
 
 bur'den the attention and 
 >f our pupils w i tli the in- 
 s of small towns, insignifi- 
 e lakes, and unimportant 
 
ENGLISH LITERATURE 
 
 headlands ; but we take only the most prominent 
 and, as it weir, the centra] features of the world, 
 and round these we group the knowledge which 
 is intended to abide with the pupil, and toserve 
 as a nucleus for his subsequent accumulations. 
 In the same way. there are certain names which 
 the sifting of time lias caused to stand out with 
 always increasing clearness; there are certain 
 hooks which have been, and which continue t<> lie, 
 forces in the development of civilized humanity ; 
 and it is with these authors and with these 
 hooks that the teacher should make the pupil 
 acquainted. Thus stated, the path seems to he 
 plain — so plain that no good teacher can miss 
 it. Hut there are two dangers — two besetting 
 sins, which await the teacher in his attempts 
 toward the systematic treatment of a subject so 
 large; and these are the vices of encycloposdism 
 and abridgment. Linked at more closely, both 
 these vices are seen to be only two sides of the 
 same central error — an error which pervades all 
 kinds of teaching, and which is. indeed, the most 
 prevalent educational error of the present day. 
 By encyclopadism, is meant the desire to include 
 too many facts — and, in the present instance, 
 too many authors — within the range of the 
 
 English essayist : Milt 
 Reformation, and the m 
 rhythms in the languag 
 the most elaborate of 
 (in parts)- as the ant; 
 Taylor— as the sweet 
 seventeenth century; / 
 
 pupil's mental vision ; and the i 
 pressure which results in an </'./■/»/.// 
 closest kind — an abridgment in whic 
 said uf- no facts are given about- 
 hiit when he was born, and when 
 the name of his best-known book, 
 that such knowledge is no kn.>\\ ledg 
 is of ii" more value than an acquai 
 the street directory. The desire t 
 much ends in achieving too little : 
 to learn everything results in in 
 sides, the pupil must have a livi 
 terior knowledge of English literati; 
 a dead and external acquaintance \\ 
 
 husk, appendages, and ehcuinstaiiccr 
 
 as the poet of the 
 if the must sublime 
 1 in his prose works 
 ice-makers; Bvilei 
 oi Milton : Jeremy 
 irose writer of the 
 i —as the herald of 
 a new and more • popular ' style : Pope — as the 
 culmination ot the most polished, clear-cut. and 
 sparkling English : Swift as the most powerful 
 intellect of hi> time; Johnson as the representa- 
 tive of the massive common-sense of his coun- 
 try, too ponderously, though characteristically . 
 expressed : Goldsmith — as the most charming 
 | writer of his generation : Burke — as the most 
 brilliant rhetorician that the modern world has 
 seen: Cowper — as the transition and the link 
 between the age of Pope and the nineteenth 
 century; Wordsworth— as the dawn and the 
 bright shining of the new day of English liter- 
 ature . and Tie Quincey, as the most wonderful 
 prose-writer of the nineteenth century. 
 
 (2) But it is evident that all the works of 
 these writers cannot be read in school ; and a 
 .selection from them is, therefore, necessary. Here 
 ipute comes to our aid and ma] is 
 
 irse to 
 
 -In.., 
 
 I'mln 
 
 lie tn 
 I haue 
 worth 
 
 tin 
 
 teacher must have settled with himself what is 
 to be done. 
 
 (1) Let us suppose that, seeing the impossibil- 
 ity of embracing all the details of so large a field, 
 lie has resolved upon making a selection of the 
 best writers in prose and verse in each epoch. 
 
 Dicti 
 
 smitl 
 and 
 
 nus, the Hymn 
 nor works, with 
 
 ,„/,se Last; il. 
 
 ■ Hudibras; in 
 f the Holy L,r- 
 irvden. the Ah- 
 
 Mac Flecknoe; 
 and the Essay 
 
 two or three of 
 
 Preface to the 
 lelas; in Gold- 
 i the Traveller 
 i.ke. the Reflec- 
 
 andoneof his 
 Progress of 
 
 minor poems. 
 1, were it only 
 
 the best of his 
 bev, Laodamia, 
 
 the type of the ehivalric period of English Liter- 
 ature; MandeviUe— as the "Father of English 
 Prose;" Spenser— as the richest poet of the 
 Elizabethan era; Shakespeare as the greatest 
 dramatist of the period when the drama was at 
 its highest ; Hooker— as the type of the ornate 
 and elaborate prose style of the sixteenth century; 
 Bacon — as the most compact and thoughtful 
 
 •df of the 5th century- 
 
 sion of 
 
 ndweU 
 
 first is 
 agview 
 s, from 
 
 which. 
 
 like the Iliad, existed only in the memory and 
 
EXCEISH LITERATURE 
 
 270 
 
 not in a written form, for several hundred years 
 — down to Caedmon, Beda, and King Alfred, to 
 the Saxon Chronicle and Chaucer. This ought to 
 be done orally by the teacher, who should, at 
 the same time, write upon the blackboard short 
 characteristic extracts from the works of these 
 authors, ami explain ami illustrate the growth 
 of the oldest English, with its highly inflected 
 tonus, into our present English. The second 
 thing to be done is, to connect every-where the 
 appearance and the work of a writer with the 
 social condition and the political events of the 
 age in which he lived, and to show— as far as this 
 
 can I >._■ 
 
 inline: 
 
 sense of indescribable completeness." (This 
 might l.r at first discussed in tin- class-room : and 
 then the line of argument and the results would 
 be given in the form of an essaj oj paper 
 
 many others which will naturally occm to khi 
 
 The steady purpose to be kept in view in this 
 instruction is to deposit in the pupil's mind a 
 few nuclei of thought, and to collect around 
 
 these nuclei as large an accretion of cognate 
 ideas from different writers and from different 
 a-vs as possible. The existence of these nuclei 
 
 tion— adiffic 
 
 tltvwit 
 
 twhii 
 
 constantly to 
 
 fight, i 
 
 nd a 
 
 will have at e 
 
 erv moment 
 
 to his pupils 
 
 onclusi 
 
 ons tl 
 
 not been giv 
 
 ■n. and 
 
 critic 
 
 which have ii 
 
 •ver lie 
 
 n tak 
 
 selves. Ther 
 
 • 1- not 
 
 ling i 
 
 young mind 
 
 -nothii 
 
 
 harmonious £ 
 
 rowth, 
 
 as th 
 
 fill child the father of the wise and instructed 
 man. And. from the point of view- of intel- 
 lectual training, they will enable him to keep 
 true to the central principle of repetition with- 
 
 The study of English literature is incomplete 
 unless it include a view of the works of Amer- 
 
 growrn. ; ,s me presence within it of 
 ready-made thoughts, of alien ideas, and of too 
 easily accepted results. The pupil m.i \ seem to 
 
 be in possession of such ideas and conceptions, 
 but he is not : they may seem to be the fruit of 
 his own mind, but they are really dead artificial 
 apples — the witnesses, not of a vigorous, sponta- 
 neous life, but of mental poverty and death. The 
 second-hand is the deadly foe of original life. 
 
 A large part of the benefit of a course of 
 literature will be lost to the pupils, if they arc 
 not required, always and every-where. to react 
 with their own mind upon the material they re- 
 ceive. and the forms which they are asked to con- 
 template. This view demands that, accompany- 
 ing everystepof the course, there should be a 
 well-selected and judiciously chosen set of exer- 
 cis s Such exercises might include the following: 
 
 1 1 I An account of a poem such as I lhaucer 3 
 Prologue, in the pupil's own words, — always 
 avoiding the vile practice of -paraphrasing." (2) A 
 short life of an author, from memory. (3) An 
 abridgment of an important chapter from some 
 prose work. (4) The turning into modern 
 English of a passage from a writer of the 1 lth or 
 12th century. (5) A critical comparison be- 
 tween the treatment of the same subject by two 
 different writers. [Thus Autumn has been treated 
 both by Keats and Shelley: the Nightingale by 
 -Milton. Keats, and Matthew- Arnold : the Death 
 of a Friendhj Spenser — in Iris Astropkel — and 
 by Shelley — in his Adoncas ; an Escape by 
 .Shelley — in his Fm/ilinv, and by Campbell, iii 
 hisXord OUin's Daughter.) (6) The discussion 
 of separate literary dicta — like the following by 
 Russell Lowell : •• Style, like the grace of perfect ', 
 breeding, makes itself felt by the skill with which 
 it effaces itself, and masters us at last with a 
 
 . Willis, 
 riticised. 
 s of En- 
 
 host of others, claim attention. The principles 
 and methods suggested in regard to English 
 authors, in this article, are equally applicable to 
 the American literature of the English lan- 
 guage. 
 
 .Many valuable books of reference have been 
 published on this subject which the teacher 
 
 Gycbp^dFalj 
 —4); Aminos 
 Literature (3 
 History of /-. 
 (London, 1861 
 
 English Li 
 
 glish Literature, full of lessons useful to young 
 pei-sons: Collier, A History of English Liter- 
 ature (X.Y., 1807), a brief and useful manual; 
 
ENTHUSIASM 
 
 llri/i*h 
 
 ;ind English Literature of the Nin 
 ury (Phil., 18521, also Compendia 
 ir.ni Lit rut'irr I I'hila.. I M.~>«) ) ; l*x 
 
 i /■„,</- /:,„,/,■ ,,f '£,„//;*?< Litmiti,, 
 Authors (l«.st, m. L871),and Ameri 
 (Boston, 1872); Duyckinck, Cydopcedia of 
 American Literature (2 vols., N. F.,1856). Of 
 series, the following may be mentioned : The 
 Clarendon Press Series, one of the best pub- 
 lished, is edited by men who know the En- 
 glish language ami understand their subject : 
 Chaucer, by li. Morris, is one of the most care- 
 fully edited books iii any language ; the Shake- 
 speare Plays arc also well done. Storr's Series 
 is also excellent ; many of the books are edited 
 by teachers, who understand best where pupils 
 arc liable to meet with difficulty. Of the London 
 Series, only ,,nc book has. as yet, appeared— 
 Bacon's Essays, edited by E.A.Abbott. This is, 
 however, a model of its kind, showing how a 
 work like the Essays, full of weighty thoughts 
 and precious English, ought to be edited. — See 
 also Mabsh, The Origin and History of the 
 English Language (N. Y„ 1862); and Reed, 
 Lecture ,,„ Em/iiith L/tmi/mv (I'hila., 135.5). 
 
 ENTHUSIASM is an emotion of so strong 
 a kind as to beget self-forgetfulness, and to 
 awaken the most powerful energies of the mind. 
 When made to rest upon an admiration of the 
 
 good, the true, and the beautiful, it be, ies an 
 
 educational stimulus of a very useful and effect- 
 ive character: it must not, however, be per- 
 mitted to supersede the exercise of conscience. 
 or the sense of what is right, and thus de- 
 generate into moral weakness. Earnestness, 
 rather than enthusiasm, should be the , plai- 
 ns inspired bv the educator; and this is to be 
 
 effected through the for f example, because the 
 
 sympathetic influence of the true teacher upon 
 the mind of his pupil is .almost without limit. 
 Especially should that spurious kind of enthusi- 
 asm be repressed which is characterized by a 
 
 habitual excitement about ,verv thing that is 
 new. and which tend- to destroy every thing 
 that is rational and stable in the character. En- 
 thusiasm is an exceeding!} important quality in 
 the teacher as well as in the pupil; indeed, a 
 teacher can scarcely meet with any true success 
 in his profession who is not enthusiastic in his 
 devotion to it. While this is true of those en- 
 gaged in any vocation, it i- peculiarly the case 
 
 with the educator; since tl ffectivene ! of 
 
 his work depends so largely upon bis rersonal 
 zeal. The best results, perhaps, of bis labors are 
 those which he accomplishes by what has been 
 aptly called unconscious tuition. 
 
 EPEE, Charles Michel, Abbe de 1', a 
 noted French teacher of , leaf-mutes, and the 
 founder of the system of instructing the deaf and 
 dumb by means of a, lan-mc..- ,,| -i-ju - \\., born 
 at Versailles, Nov. 25., 1712, and died in Talis, 
 Dec. 23., L789. He was at first an ecclesiastic, 
 but was suspended fr the priesthood in conse- 
 quence of his .lansenist opinions. While living | 
 
 EPISCOPAL CHURCH 
 
 a life of literary leisure in Paris, he, in 1755 
 chanced upon two deaf-mute sisters whose edu- 
 cation had been commenced by Pere Vanin, but 
 who were then, in consequence of his death, 
 without the means of instruction. De l'Epee 
 took so great an interest in their condition, that 
 he determined to undertake the task of teaching 
 them. He at first continued the method of 
 Vanin. that of pictures, and then tried articula- 
 tion; but being dissatisfied with these methods, 
 he conceived the idea of using a system of signs. 
 He succeeded so well that he took others under 
 
 his instruction, and s , organized a school 
 
 which he continued, at his own expense, till his 
 death. It is said that, even in his 76th year, he 
 deprived himself of fuel in order to support his 
 school. Joseph II. of Austria and ( 'atherina II. 
 of Russia offered him royal gifts, but he declined 
 them ; as his great wish was to obtain the royal 
 endowment of an institution for deaf-mute edu- 
 cation. His desire was not realized till after his 
 death. A bronze statue lias been erected at 
 Versailles to the memory of De l'Epee, and a 
 bas-relief placed by citizens of Sweden in the 
 church of St. Sulpice. In 1855, the centennial 
 anniversary of the establishment of his school 
 was celebrated at Paris by a large concourse of 
 persons, moulding delegations from many of the 
 countries of Europe. He wrote a work entitled 
 Institution des sourds el muets (2 vols., Paris. 
 1774). which was revised and republished under 
 the title of La veritable maniere d'inslruire les 
 sourds et muets (Paris, 17s I,. F. Bertbier, a 
 deaf-mute, wrote his biography [L'Abbe de l'E- 
 pee, sa Fie, son Apostolal, etc., 1852). — Sec 
 also I. Valette, Vie deT Abbe de l'Epee (Paris, 
 1857); and Bebian, Eloge de G. M. de l'Epee 
 
 EPISCOPAL CHURCH, in the wider 
 
 ing an episcopal form of government In a nar- 
 rower sense, it is coi nl v used as the collective 
 
 name of the clmiehe, which had their origin ill 
 the English Reformation under Henry VIII. The 
 i.io-t important oi these bodies are the Church 
 of England, the Church of Ireland, and the 
 I'rote-tant Episcopal Church of the United 
 States. The Church of England and the church 
 
 the Act of Cnion between En-land and Ireland 
 was passed, until .Ian. I . 1-71. when the Church 
 of Ireland was disestablished, only one body 
 under the name of the United Churchqf Eng- 
 land and In land. Now each of these churches 
 is an independent body, as arc also the Scotch 
 Epi.-copal Church and the Protestant Episcopal 
 
 c eh of the United States In L867, the 
 
 bishops of all these churches assembled in a 
 Pananglican Coin,,,!, undei the presidency of 
 the Ajchbishop of Canterbury, to deliberate on 
 t ommoi, interests oi these bodies. We shall 
 
 I. Tlie Church of England. — The parent 
 body is the Church oi England. When its con 
 nection with the see of Rome was severed, under 
 Henry Ylll., the avowed intention was to return 
 
EPISCOPAL CHURCH 
 
 281 
 
 to the purity of the primitive church and to re- 
 tain its creed ami its discipline. The doctrinal 
 standards of the church are. after the Scriptm >s. 
 the Book of Homilies, the Thirty-Nine Articles, 
 and the Prayer-Hook. There are within the 
 church three widely differing schools, known as 
 the High Church, the Low church, and the 
 Broad Church. The High Church men regard 
 the apostolical succession in the three orders of 
 the ministry as a divine institution : the Low 
 Church men generally look upon episcopacy as 
 not essential to the being of the church, and 
 recognize the claims of dissenters to he members 
 of Christ's body. The Broad Church, which is 
 of more recent origin, is tolerant of doctrinal 
 difference; and. while its own tendency is toward 
 what is called liberal Christianity, it would keep 
 the platform of the church sufficiently broad to 
 have room also for the high and low church 
 parties. The Church of England is the established 
 church in England and Wales. an 1 the king is its 
 supreme head on earth. England as an ecclesi- 
 astical territory is divided into two provinces, 
 Canterbury and York, with an archbishop in 
 each and 2a bishops Each province has a pro- 
 vincial synod, called a convocation and consist- 
 iug of two houses, the upper house, which com- 
 prises all the bishops of the province, and the 
 lower house, which comprises the deans, arch- 
 deacons, proctors of chapters, and proctors for 
 the parochial clergy. The convocation is .sum- 
 moned by tin' archbishop at the command of the 
 king, and its decisions have no legal force, since 
 the regulation of all church affairs belongs to 
 Parliament \~ no religious census is taken in 
 England a id Wales, there are no official state- 
 men'- ii ili- mi :i irical strength of the churi b : 
 
 the populatio limited with it is variously 
 
 estimated at from 50 to TT percent of the entire 
 population. As the Church of England is estab- 
 lished by law. most of the great institutions of 
 learning, including the national universities of 
 Oxford. Cambridge, and Durham, and King's 
 College. London, are under its control. All the.-e 
 four institutions have a number of theological 
 chairs, ami until recently (1856) academic de- 
 grees were conferred by them only upon candi- 
 dates who had subscribed to the thirty-nine ar- 
 ticles. All the Great Public Schools and the 
 large majority of Grammar Schools are under 
 ili ■ in in evinont of clergymen of the Church of 
 England. The study of theology can now 
 be pursued at any of the universities which 
 have been named, or in one of the theological 
 seminaries which have been founded by the 
 bishops since the beginning of the pre enl centu 
 iv. Vvording to the •• Kalcndar of the Church 
 of England for 1876," the Church of England 
 had. in ls7.">, theological seminaries at Birken- 
 head (St. Aidan's, founded 1846), Birmingham 
 ftheologicaJ department of the Queen's College), 
 Canterburj St. bigustine's Missionary College, 
 foumle i in no.'i ~iii ,| ,i, — ,-,1 in l.Y'!>, restored in 
 L848, to educab ministers for the distant depen- 
 dencies of the empire : Chichester (1859); Cud- 
 desdon (1854); Cumberland (StBees, 181 6); Lam- 
 
 peter (St. David's College, incorporated 1-22,. 
 Lichfield (1857); Salisbury (1860); Wells (1840). 
 There were in the same year, under the control 
 of the Church. 23 colleges and schools for the 
 training of school-masters and school-mistresses. 
 The educational so.aotCs connected with the 
 
 N; 
 
 and missionary dioceses oi 1 1n Church of Eng- 
 land has rapidly increased during the present 
 
 century, and in connection with them a large 
 number of educational institutions have been 
 established. The first colonial sec established 
 was that of \ova Scotia, in 1 7*7. In ls7a. 
 the whole number of dioceses was 60, of which 
 5 were in India. 6 in the West Indies. 12 in 
 Africa, 16 in Australasia, ami L5 in North 
 America. For further information in regard to 
 the Bchools of the Church of England in the 
 
 e ilo the articli - on 'he sevi ral provinces 
 
 of Cas uja, on India, and on Australasia. 
 
 rated from the Church of England in point of 
 administration since its disestablishment, in 
 1871, it fully agrees with it in doctrine. The 
 Church has two archbi>hop>. at Dublin and at 
 Armagh, and ten bishops. It is governed by a 
 general synod, meeting annually in Dublin, and 
 consisting of a house oi bishops and a house of 
 clerical and lay delegates. The population con- 
 nected with the Church was. according to the 
 census of ls71. fiS.'i.2!C. or over I '2 p, i cent of 
 the total population. The largest a ml richest edu- 
 cational institution of Ireland, the University of 
 Dublin, also called Trinity College, is in close 
 connection with the Church of Ireland, to which 
 its officers and professors belong. As religions 
 tests ha\e been abolished, the Ceneral Synod 
 has resolved to establish, under the direct man- 
 agement of the Church, a new divinity school. 
 The college of St. Columha, at Rathfarnham, 
 near Dublin, was founded in 1843, to afford a. 
 good English education, and to inculcate the 
 principles of this church. The education com- 
 mittee of the General Synod specially designs 
 " to add to the secular training of teachers in 
 the central school of the National Hoard of Edu- 
 cation, as efficient religious instruction as they 
 can impart in the very limited time at their dis- 
 posal." 
 
 " slant E,. 
 
 in 
 
 United 
 of Bng 
 indepei 
 
 plctcd 
 
 had b, 
 
 necticu 
 
 al Church in the 
 ition of the "Church 
 
 nited States into an 
 
 ody was ii.it e 
 
 v this, Dr. Seabury 
 iseopalians of ( 'on- 
 md had been conse- 
 
•JS2 
 
 EPISCOPAL CHURCH 
 
 crated. Nov. 14., 1774, by three Scottish bishops. 
 The doctrinal standards of the Church of Eng- 
 land were retained, and in the few alterations 
 which were made in the English formularies, it 
 
 intendine. to depart from tin- I lunch of .England 
 sential point of doctrine, discipline, or 
 worship, or further than local circumstances re- 
 quire." The dioceses formerly corresponded in 
 number and extent with the states ; but, in 1834, 
 a division of the state dioceses began. Each 
 i a diocesan convention, which meets 
 ii.l i> composed of the bishop, clergy, 
 tes chosen l.v the laity. The General 
 
 annually 
 and dele 
 
 Convention, which meets t 
 of all the bishops, who 
 house, ami tour clerical ; 
 from each diocesan convi 
 the lower house. The li< 
 missioner of Education 
 following universities and 
 the control or influence of 
 pal Church: College of 
 
 :,ll\. 
 
 bia ' lollege, in the city of New York, i 
 in 1754 under the name of Kind's 
 Trinity College. Hartford, ft., lS->3 
 College, Geneva, X. Y.. 1824 : Cenyon 
 Gambier, 0., 1826; Norwich (Jniversit 
 field, \'t-. L834; Burlington College, Bt 
 N.J., L846; St. Pauls College, Palm 
 
 1848; Racine College, Ri , R isc., 
 
 Stephens College, Anandal tf. "5 . 1 - 
 braska < lollege, Nebraska Citg Neb 
 Lehigh University, S. Bethlehem, Pa., 1; 
 sionary < lollege ol St. Lugustine, Beni 
 1868; Universitj of the South, Suwam 
 L868. Columbia College, N T .Y., which is 
 
 ated in this list, has not. however, it st 
 nominational character, as different rel 
 nominations are represented in the 
 trustees; buf the majority of the boari 
 presidents of the institution have always 
 to the Pro! stanl EpiscopaJ Church. Bei 
 institutions, I I schools for the superior it 
 of womenare classifiedas Protestanl I 
 with i siderable aumber of acade 
 
 seminal '.-.- The oMe-t ll logical sell' 
 
 church is the General Theological Set 
 
 New York City, which was organized in L820, 
 
 and is under the immediate control ot the I h-neral 
 
 Convention. The board of trustees gists of 
 
 all the bishops of the Protestant Episcopal 
 Church, of one trustee from each diocese, ot one 
 additional for every eight clergymen, of onemore 
 trustee for every S'J. I Mil I contributed, until the 
 
 same : ants to $10,000; and one for every 
 
 additional 810,000 contributed. Since the,,. 9 
 other schools of theology have been organized. 
 
 The Sunday--! Is of thechurchhad.il] L875, 
 
 235,943 sch lars taughtl 2 1,448 teachers. The 
 denominational societies for edui ational purposes 
 
 (rang liea! knowledge; (2) The I'. E. Evangel- 
 ical Education Society; (3) The General P. E. 
 Sunday-School Union and Church Book Society. 
 
 ERASMUS 
 
 The General Convention, at its triennial meet- 
 ings, regularly appoints a joint committee on 
 
 Christii lucation. 
 
 EPISCOPAL METHODIST COLLEGE, 
 at Lewistown, 111. an institution for the edu- 
 cation of both sexes, is under the control of the 
 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South. It was 
 opened in 1-7.;. and incorporated in 1875. It 
 has a preparatory, an academic, and a collegiate 
 
 music, drawing, painting, and book-keeping, for 
 which, except the last, an extra charge is made. 
 The regular tuition fee varies from &20 to $50 
 per year. For the special business course, pur- 
 sued separately, the fee is Sill a year. In L874 
 — 5, there were <i instructors and 89 students 
 (35 preparatory, '27 academic, 13 collegiate, and 
 14 in special branches). W. S. McKinney is 
 (1*711) the president. 
 
 | EQUATION. See Aloebra. 
 
 ' ERASMUS, Desiderius, was born in Rot- 
 terdam, Holland, Oct. 28., 1467, and died in Basel, 
 July 12., L536. His original name, Gerard, he 
 translated into its supposed Latin and Greek 
 
 united to form the new name which he after- 
 wards a.-sumed. In the convent school of Deven- 
 ter, when- hi- was educated, he distinguished him- 
 self so much, that even then it was predicted 
 that be would become the most learned man of 
 the age. After the death of his parents, his tutors 
 
 sent him to a scl 1 at Bois-le-Duc to prepare 
 
 himself tor th<- priest! 1: and, in 1 186, a friend 
 
 persuaded him to enter a convent near Gouda. 
 In L492, the bishop of Cambray took him into 
 his service, and he was ordained to the priesthood. 
 
 live veal- later, he lett for the I'niversity of 
 Paris; and thenceforward, he lived in France, 
 Fii.dand.the Netherlanils.and Italy, for the most 
 
 i ,.*■,.,„ I. 
 lies and 
 ,1 of the 
 inary of 
 
 . lie acted as a private teacher here and 
 ml was for a short time professor of theol- 
 1 Greek at Cambridge; but he soon re- 
 signed, and avoided after thai any fixed position. 
 The fame of his learning spread throughout the 
 
 , ,_\ 
 
 civilized world, and hon 
 ferred upon him by sei 
 ly attacked Scholastic i 
 
 powerfully to revive cla 
 
 ere cou- 
 ebold- 
 1 most 
 he did 
 and by 
 ud rid- 
 
 lastics. 
 
 in sympathy with them, buf he soon separated 
 from them and was even involved in a literary 
 conflict with Luther. In personal character, he 
 was egotistic, timid, and undecided. — faults 
 which became especially prominent at that 
 
 period of the Reformation. He , tributed 
 
 little to the profound thinking of his time, but 
 was a critic and a scholar rather than a phi- 
 losopher; nevertheless. Ins unbounded powers of 
 satire served to wrench men violently out of 
 their accustomed mode of thinking, and. in this 
 way. he acted as a powerful ferment, especially 
 in 'the revival of classical studies. His great 
 
acquaintance with classical authors and his I be reached only through language. The first 
 mastery of the Latin language made his ridicule thing to study is Greet and Latin grammar, for 
 
 i: 
 
 and tli. 
 
 id lo 
 
 int. at the same time, is fi 
 
 nuiiks. a cloister life, pilgri 
 ik was condemned by t 
 in France, burned in Spa 
 Rome to all Orristendoi 
 
 vorks exerted a tremeiido 
 
 i.lvor lan-na.... si 
 iding than by leai 
 
 should proceed 
 
 ire should be tab 
 .I the best means 
 
 Adages) 
 {Of' the 
 
 . publ 
 Orde 
 
 
 1 in 1 
 ' Stua 
 
 ,M 1 
 
 .'.(id; De Ea 
 
 Instiluti 
 Christia 
 
 " P™ 
 
 
 Hstiani (Mi 
 516. In 1-V. 
 
 lished a 
 
 book 
 
 up 
 
 an ( 1 
 
 nistian niati 
 
 last sed 
 
 ion ol 
 
 wJ 
 
 iieh tr 
 
 
 the best fruit may be 
 important means of 
 
 similar instruction 
 irding to many, he 
 
 or skill in our dailv labors 
 a knowledge of the ameniti 
 This division, however, was 
 i ii ed by him. I fe regard 
 marriage as of the highest 
 proper culture of children, 
 partly medical and partly 
 in which matrons should] 
 the bes! results for their eh 
 
 IllllO- 
 
 : and 
 
 »Tal education. The multitude holds it to be 
 illy, but wise men know that nothing is more 
 h.ini.iu.oiis to the morals of women than ex- 
 
 works of Erasmus was 
 •ath. by Rhenanus, at Basel 
 
 never tired 
 The greates 
 ol teachers 
 
 i vols., l.'Ht — 111: a m. ire complete edition 
 as published by Le Clerc, in Leyden (10 vols., 
 .1.. 1 To:; — - C.i. l'.ioLiTn).!iics ol l.i.iMims have 
 ■en published in English by Jortin, Cnight, 
 harles Butler, and K. B. Drunimond (2 vols., 
 
 ERIGENA, John Scotus, one of thegreal 
 
 ;t lihlloMiplie, -.-,,,. I -. hol.M- of the middle affS, 
 
 should not fail to teach their children so 
 trade. The study of language should prea 
 the study of things, as a knowledge of things < 
 
•_'S4 
 
 ERNESTI 
 
 srj/ahr. Tli.s instruction, which was confined 
 chiefly to philosophy and the classics, gave a 
 great impulse to the progress of philosophical 
 studies. As his own philosophical views re- 
 Bembled, in some respects, those held by the 
 Neoplatonisfcs of Alexandria, he has been called 
 the last of that school ; at the same time, he is 
 regarded as the first forerunner of the Scholas- 
 tics. Special works on Kriuvna have been written 
 by Staudenmaier (1834), Taillandier (1843), and 
 lluber (1861 |. 
 
 ERNESTI, John August, a German 
 philologist and educator, born August 4.. 1707. in 
 Tennstiidt, Thuringia;died September 11..17S1. 
 In 17:il, he became connected with the Thomas 
 School at Leipsic; and. in 1712, he was made 
 professor at the university of the same city, in 
 which position he remained until his death. His 
 chief fame rests upon his philological studies and 
 writings. He edited a great many classical works, 
 and was a mosl enthusiastic Humanist. His 
 work on the interpretation of the New Testa- 
 ment (InstUuiio tnterprelis Novi Teslamenti, 
 3d edit., 1775; English translation by C. II. 
 Perrot. Edinburgh, 2 vols.. 1833— 43) opened the 
 way to a freer exegesis of the Scriptures, and is 
 regarded as a forerunner of the later rationalistic 
 criticism. The sum of all culture lay. for him. 
 in the classics. "They unite beauty of content 
 with beauty of form ; and out of them one wins 
 political sagacity, practical wisdom, and moral 
 culture' According to his method, less weight is 
 placed upon grammatical rules than upon diligent 
 reading, which he thought the best way to learn 
 to read and write Latin fluently. This reading, 
 too, should be rapid, taking in whole books in a 
 short time: this he thought .1 better way of acquir- 
 ing the spirit of a language than spending weeks 
 upon single sentences with grammar and diction- 
 ary. Literal translation he banished, and in- 
 sisted upon an acquaintance with the public life 
 
 ESTHETIC CULTURE 
 
 1 There is a preparatory course of two years, and 
 a collegiate course of four years. In 1874 — 5, 
 there were .". professors. 77 students (5G collegiate. 
 13 preparatory, and 8 irregular), and 35G 
 alumni. The Rev. W. M. Grier, D. D., is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 ESTHETIC CULTURE. Esthetics (Gr. 
 aim'h/Tihur, from ninHannlini, to perceive), the 
 science which treats of taste and its object . the 
 beautiful in nature and art. has been recog- 
 nized, since the middle of the last, century, as 
 an independent branch of philosophy. Depend- 
 ing, as it does, upon the exercise of a special fac- 
 ulty of the mind, it forms a part of the basis of 
 a complete and harmonious education. How- 
 ever well the intellect, the will, or the conscience 
 of an individual may have been trained, if es- 
 thetic culture is wanting, he must continue rude 
 and unrefined; and, hence, in a comparison of 
 nations which arc csthdically cultivated with 
 such as are deficient in this respect, we find a 
 marked difference in the degree as well as in the 
 general character of the civilization which they 
 respectively present. The esthetic element. how- 
 
 of the 
 
 right 
 
 piil, I 
 
 •der to understand them 
 tlassical works, Ernesti 
 the elements of various 
 
 Solidioris). It treats 
 of arithmetic, geometry, and the elements of 
 philosophy. These are' divided into five parts : 
 (1) Metaphysics, embracing ontology, psychology, 
 and natural theology; (2) Dialectics; (3) Morals, 
 embracing ethics and the law of nature; I I) 
 Politics; 1.',) Physics. The high estimation in 
 which Ernesti was held in Saxony, is shown by 
 the fuel that bis system was adopted by the 
 state Latin schools in 177.'!. and remained almost 
 entirely unchanged until 1835. 
 
 ERSKINE COLLEGE, at Due West, Ab- 
 beville Co., S. ('.. under the control of the Re- 
 formed Presbvterians (the Associate Reformed 
 Synod of the South), was founded in 1839. It 
 
 lias fir-, 
 
 apparatus ; toge 
 refracting telesc 
 which affords a 
 The amount of 
 
 s buildings ; libraries, 
 s ; a well-selected ge- 
 iphical and chemical 
 a excellent eauatorial, 
 
 feel an 
 uncoutl 
 
 scicntioti.lv 
 proper stand. 
 
 rf of reditu 
 
 ■-ion that a 
 
 same niaiitici 
 
 the esthetic 
 
 ciple iii their minds, in its uncultivated and 
 partly undeveloped condition. Their percep- 
 tions of the beautiful are, like their thought- and 
 their reasonings processes unregulated and mis- 
 directed. They have. also, the moral sense the 
 
 to distinguish right from wrong, they often con- 
 •h. judged by a 
 ire reprehensible 
 fence is only the 
 inction between 
 lower to discrim- 
 I wrong. In the 
 tic principle is the sense 
 by which the mind, in a general way. distin- 
 guishes between what is beautiful anil what is 
 ugly ; lint it does not teach specifically what ob- 
 jects are beautiful. Hence, however advanced 
 persons may be in esthetic culture, they will still 
 differ to some extent in this specific discrimina- 
 tion. This diffi rence we attribute to .-, divi r-itv 
 of taste, the word last being used to designate 
 the esthetic principle or faculty of the mind. 
 We find, also the same diversity in the exercise 
 of the moral sense, in the absence of a settled 
 standard, some persons regarding as worthy of 
 approbation the same ad that others look upon 
 as decidedly sinful. 
 
 The aim of esthetic education must, therefore, 
 lie to cultivate the sense of the beautiful, i.e., the 
 taste. (1 I by showing v, hat the elements of beau- 
 ty tire. and thus establishing in the mind a propel 
 standard of the beautiful: il'i by present in- to 
 the mind simple forms of beauty, for the purpose 
 
KST11KT1C CL'LTUUK 
 
 of illustrating this analysis of the elements, and 
 also impressing them deeply upon the mind, as 
 the foundation of esthetic culture; and ■ b\ 
 
 285 
 
 sense. — a discriminative consciousness of tlie 
 beautiful in thought and action, which the rhet- 
 
 a. 1. 1 1 .•>.-.' in their Several spheres of ncmW' Thai 
 
 either of 
 
 bei 
 
 taught. To illustrate, we d t. in elementary 
 
 scho ils, teach estlielics as such ; but we strive to 
 cultivate the esthetic faculty by instruction in 
 drawing, painting music, etc. (See Art-Educa- 
 tion, Drawing, and Music.) In this d ipartmeni 
 of teaching, the practical value if the subjects 
 themselves is a consideration of greal importance, 
 but the development of tin- pupil's i 1-1 i- in- 
 dispensable to any true progr b, and therefoi ■ 
 diiiiiu the earlier stages at lc ■>•:. 1.1.1-1 lie tin- jiri- 
 mai-v aim of the educator. When th miu I has 
 become enriched with trari I forms of beauty, tlie 
 
 even from its earliest years, should be accus- 
 tomed to hear only chaste, pure e\piv.->ioiis: and 
 
 the >t familiar colloquialisms should be en- 
 
 tirely free from whal is coarse and vulgar, and 
 especially from slang. The esthetic element in 
 poetry cannot be addressed until an advanced 
 stage of culture has been reached. Poetry is 
 the expression of the beautiful by means of 
 wools . it embraci - rhetorii al I" auty, and the 
 beauty of thought and action, as well as of ex- 
 ternal tonus. 
 
 From what has been said, it will be quite ob- 
 \ioiis ih;ii teachers tin niselves should possess 
 esthetic culture, and should fully understand the 
 peculiar function of this department of educa- 
 tion in a harmonious development ot the human 
 mind. Nothing with which the young pupil is 
 brought in contact should he of such a i haraeter 
 .» to offend the finest taste. What may be 
 
 drawing should have a si rid refi t i ■ I ' 
 
 principle; that is to say, the pupils should be re- 
 quired to delineate not uncouth figures, but 
 
 simple forms of beauty. The hand and the ey • 
 may be trained, it is true, by practice in drawin ; 
 any forms, whether beautiful or not ; but the 
 taste is to be developed and cultivated as well ; 
 and, therefore, only such forms as appeal to th ; 
 esthetic sense should he. at first, presented. The 
 elementary forms of the script letters are illus- 
 trative of the esthetic principle ; and. hence. 
 writing is a means of esthetic culture. The let- 
 ters themselves being, however, complex forms, 
 it is held that rudimentary dravving should pre- 
 cede writing. "The experience of many good 
 teachers," says Wickersham, " seems to prove 
 that pupils should receive instruction in the ele- 
 ments of drawing before they begin to write, 
 and that such lessons arc better calculated than 
 any others to aid the pupil in attaining the 
 power of conceiving forms correctij 
 
 Esthetics is not only concerned in the beauty 
 of forms; it embraces the objects of every bodilj 
 sense, and also of what may be called the inner 
 
 pictures, hi! • ■ Ma] - globes, and other 
 school apparatus, kept in good order, and ar- 
 ranged in these! I m in a proper maimer 
 
 and ready for use. will have a pleading and happ> 
 effecl on the minds of the pupils. 'I he following 
 are. the observation.-, ol a practical teachei who 
 has evidently learned to apply the esthetic 
 culture of her own mind to the simple purposes 
 of district school instruction : •■ Much can be 
 done toward making a room pleasant by a skill- 
 ful seat ing of pupils. There are harmonies of 
 proportion and color to be observed. A girls' 
 school always seems brighter than a boy si Bool 
 The colors of the dress of girls give warmth to 
 the room in winter, and the light clothing of 
 summer gives an air of freshness and roolnc.-s. 
 The eye requires that the pupils shall In graded 
 from rear to front according to size. A hap- 
 hazard arrangement in this regard is never satis- 
 factory. ... But, after all. the soul of the teacher 
 
286 ETIENNE 
 
 has greatly to do with the beauty of the school. 
 A light glows in the face of the conscientious, 
 gentle, sympathetic teacher, which illuminates 
 all the room with its brightness. In the reflec- 
 tion of her own character, she sees in the seats 
 truthfulness, confidence, respect, and love; and 
 s<> the spiritual beauty sanctifies and glorifies all 
 the beauty secured by ornamentation, by any 
 and every device in material tilings. 
 
 Lmong the foremost writers on esthetics, are 
 [l.nuiiL'.-n 1,11. who first established the claims of 
 esthetics to lie classed as a separate science. He- 
 gel, Schiller. Vischer, Carriere, in Germany; 
 Cousin, Jouffroy, and Taine, in France; Dugald 
 Stewart. Hutchison, Alison, Utile v. and Payne 
 Knight, in Kngland ; and llenrv -V. Day (T/ie 
 Science of Esthetics, New Haven. 1872) and 
 Bascom I Lectures on Esthetics, New York, 1872), 
 in the United States. A critical history of 
 esthetics, from Plato to the present times, has 
 been written by Schuster (Kritisehe Geschichte 
 ,/rr Arxlhclih; l'ierlin, 1*72). 
 
 ETIENNE, or Estienne, Henry and 
 Robert. See Stephens. 
 
 ETON COLLEGE. See England. 
 
 ETYMOLOGY (tir. irr,:,.?,r m. from erv- 
 ftm, the true meaning of a word), a depart- 
 ment of philological science which explains the 
 derivation of words and their literal meaning. 
 This is historical etymology. (See English, 
 Study ok. and Philology.) The term is also 
 applied to that part of grammar which relates 
 to the classification of words as parts of a sen- 
 tence, ami their various inflections, used to in- 
 dicate their relations to one another, or modifi- 
 cations of the general ideas which they express. 
 This is grammatical etymology. (See Gramm \a i 
 As a branch of elementary instruction, it teaches 
 the component parts of words, — root ; prefix, and 
 suffix, and I iv explaining the primitive meaning 
 of the-e parts ill the language from which they 
 
 EVENING SCHOOLS 
 
 be substituted for the Latin of the scientific 
 and the academic course. The college year is 
 divided into three terms, and the tuition fee 
 per term is as follows : preparatory course, 18 ; 
 Bible, free; college. $10; normal, $10. In 
 1874 — 5, there were 6 professors, 215 students 
 in the college department. 27 in the Bible de- 
 partment, 68 in the commercial department, and 
 47 in the music department; total, deducting rep- 
 etitions, 234, of whom 1!C, were males and 88 
 females; the number of „/„//,„/ was 74. The 
 
 iws: Wi 
 
 M. i: 
 
 w. 
 
 nison. 
 
 took its rise in Pennsylv; 
 labors of the Rev. Jaco 
 to reform the German el 
 
 EVANGELICAL ASSOCIATION, a re- 
 ed States, which 
 300, through the 
 
 :ht. who desired 
 lurche- in eastern Penn- 
 ,n of faith and the polity 
 
 dlarto that of the Meth- 
 
 . that it has sometimes 
 been called tie German Methodist Church. Like 
 theMethodists.it has annual conferences and a 
 general conference, which meets every four ycare. 
 The form of government is episcopal, but its 
 bishops are elect, •(! onlv for a term of four years, 
 
 Dot, as a gthe Methodists, for life. For 25 
 
 years, the church had to struggle against violent 
 opposition; but since then it has made rapid 
 prooress' so thai in 1875, if bad 19 annual con- 
 ferences with B36 itinerant preachers, 519 local 
 i.i.i.l., i 95.253 members, and 1,233 churches. 
 
 body. Two of t 
 side of the Unit 
 
 No; 
 
 peaking 
 Lire out- 
 ( 'anada. 
 allege of 
 was or- 
 361, and 
 
 are , 
 
 the words. (See Words, Analysis of.) 
 
 EUREKA COLLEGE, at Eureka, Wood- 
 ford county. 111., under the control of the 
 Church of "the Disciples, was founded as an 
 academy in 1849, and chartered as a college in 
 1855. The college campus is in a spacious grove 
 of forest trees. There are two substantial brick 
 buildings. The endowment fund is nearly 
 $50,000, only about naif of which is now avail- 
 able. The institution has libraries containing 
 2,500 volumes, apparatus for the illustration of 
 the physical sciences, and a museum of geology 
 and natural history. It comprises five depart- 
 ments; namely, college, Bible (preparatory to 
 1 1 .- 1 1 . business, and music. The 
 t comprises a preparatory, a 
 lilar to the ordinary college 
 fie, and an academic course. 
 se differs from the baccalaure- 
 be i rreek and one half of the 
 [emic course omits the Greek, 
 atin, two terms in algebra, an- 
 alytical geometry and the calculus, and adds 
 French or German. French or German may 
 
 Pa 
 
 III 
 
 the II 
 
 eolle, 
 
 bare; 
 
 Latin, 
 one half 
 
 tin 
 
 gani/.cl at Plainfield, Will 
 received a. charter in 1865 
 was removed to Naperville, 
 and has now an endowment fund of $100,000. 
 Its annual expenditures amount to about $14,000. 
 (See North-western College.) A theological 
 school. The Union Biblical Institute, has been 
 established in connection with the college, at the 
 same place, having an endowment fund of 
 $30,000. Other educational institutions under 
 the control of the church are the Union Semi- 
 nary, at New Berlin, Pa., and the Ebenezer 
 Orphan Institution, at Flatrock, Ohio. Great 
 attention is given to the Sunday-school cause. 
 The number of schools of this class was re- 
 pair,!, at the General Conference of 1875, as 
 L,509, with 16,875 officers and teachers and 
 90.090 scholars. 
 
 EVENING SCHOOLS, or Night Schools, 
 have been established in many countries, gener- 
 ally in large cities, as a part of the public-school 
 system, for two purposes : (1) to give to those 
 of the school population who cannot avail them- 
 selves of the advantages of the day school, an op- 
 portunity to obtain an elementary education; 
 and, (2) to enable adults 
 
 ,ho have finished the 
 
eyenino schools 
 
 course of instruction in the public day school, to 
 acquire additional knowledge, especially on sub- 
 jects relating to their particular occupations or 
 professions. In England, France. Italy, and 
 Germany, there arc elementary evening schools 
 for children employed in factories; in the 
 I oited States, a large portion of the pupils of 
 evening schools consists of persons who have 
 passed the school age. In most eases, the school 
 regulations exclude all rhildivn below a certain 
 age. and also provide that no pupils shall be ad- 
 mitted who are not engaged in a useful occupa- 
 tion during the day. In tin »c countries « li lu- 
 
 cation has been made compulsory, the evening 
 schools are almost exclusively schools for adulN. 
 being chiefly intended to give to young apprentices. 
 mechanics, clerks, or peasants an opportunity to 
 continue their school education. 'See Am us. 
 Schools fob.) In Germany, the Sunday-schools 
 long served for this purpose (see Sund it-Schools), 
 the spreading of evening schools being of com- 
 paratively recent origin. But wherever even- 
 ing schools have been established, they are pre- 
 ferred by a large number of pupils. In some 
 countries, the Sunday school and the evening 
 school are combined, the pupils being taught in 
 some subjects, such as drawing, on Sundays, ami 
 in others on the evenings of the week days. Even- 
 ing high schools, which offer instruction in the 
 higher branches of study, or afford technical in- 
 struction to artisans and others, are compara- 
 tively rare. Such are the Evening Ilie.li School 
 and the schools of the Cooper I'uion q. \. .of 
 the City of New York, the Maryland Institute 
 Art Night Schools in Baltimore, and the I'd 
 Ion Polytechnic Institute of St. Louis. In some 
 of the large cities of the United States, foreigners 
 derive very great benefit from the evening. schools, 
 in the instruction afforded in the English lan- 
 guage by teachers who speak the language of 
 the students. Free evening drawing schools 
 are quite numerous in many parts of the United 
 States as well as in some' of the countries of 
 Europe. For statistics in regard to the evening 
 schools in the different cities. ,,, their respective 
 titles. In England, according to the " New Code 
 of Regulations," of l>7ii. the managers of an 
 evening school which has held not less than forty- 
 five sessions in the course of a year, may claim a 
 government grant. Special provisions regulate 
 the examination of each. of these schools. The 
 number of night schools in England, in 1875, 
 was T.'i, with 38,597 male pupils, and 8,785 
 females. In Wurtemberg, local magistrates are 
 authorized to enforce the statutes by which all 
 mechanics who have attained the 16th year are 
 required to attend the technical complementary 
 evening schools, thus making evening school in- 
 struction compulsory. In the city of St. Louis, 
 evening school pupils are rewarded for regular 
 and punctual attendance, good behavior, and at- 
 tention to study, by a years free membership in 
 the public library. More than 1,000 of these 
 pupils have obtained this award during a single 
 term by attending sixty evenings out of the sixty- 
 four. 
 
 In the organization and management of even- 
 ing schools, great can- should l«- taken to adapt 
 
 l.elhods which ,,, 
 
 .st of the 
 
 i dated 
 
 istastctul 
 
 add 
 
 dies i 
 in the 
 
 of teachers, none but those of superior tact, ex- 
 perience, and skill being appointed to this work. 
 They should also be of mature yens and char- 
 acter. A young man or a young woman who 
 attends school with an earnest desire for self 
 improvement, is not willing to submit to trivial, 
 perfunctory, or formal school-teaching; and 
 
 ely 
 
 ■ teaching 
 will take 
 on Of the 
 
 institutions unless especially organized for that 
 purpose. In the Report of the Superintendent 
 of Schools of the City of New York for 1871, 
 then- is found an enumeration of the difficulties 
 experienced in conducting the evening schools of 
 that city, probably experienced also in most 
 other ,,1'ace,. These are, briefly, as follows : (1 ) 
 The difficulty in obtaining for these schools 
 teachers of the requisite capability (the super- 
 intendent remarking, that "teachers of mature 
 judgment, extensive general information, tact in 
 management, and. above all, an earnest spirit, 
 are especially needed ; (2) The imperfect organ- 
 ization of these Bchools, owing to the haste with 
 which pupils arc admitted, and the consequent 
 inaccuracy of their classification ; (.'!) Pupils are 
 adiuitte,! at too early an age; very young boys 
 
 and girls (under L2) do great injury to the scl 1. 
 
 being generally in a physically exhausted con- 
 dition, and so unfit for any mental exercise as 
 to be often found asleep at their desks: besides, 
 
 of elementary education, are willing to devote 
 themselves laboriously, during the winter even- 
 ings, to obtain it ; (5) The absence of instructive 
 
288 EVERETT 
 
 and interesting lectures, calculated to make a 
 deep impression upon the minds of the pupils, 
 enkindling an ambition lor excellence and a love 
 of rectitude and truth. This statement of defi- 
 ciencies may very well serve to show what con- 
 ditions and characteristics are requisite to insure 
 efficiency in this class of schools. There can be 
 no doubt that such schools constitute an essen- 
 tial part of every common-school system, partic- 
 ularly in large communities, in which many chil- 
 dren are obliged to leave the day school before 
 they have acquired even the rudiments of an 
 education. The office of te< hnieal schools, while 
 different, is no less important, since an increase of 
 skilled labor in any community is one of the most 
 valuable elements of its wealth and pro }>• no 
 
 EVEBETT, Edward, an illustrious Vmer- 
 iean orator and statesman. di-tiirjjii-hed f, <v his 
 advocacy of common schools; and his libei d and 
 eulighteiie [ views in regard to e lucation in gen- 
 eral, lie was born in Dorchester, Mass., April 
 11., 1794, and died in Boston, dan. 15., 1865. 
 \l i In' ii'lvageof 1 «, he graduated at Harvard 
 College, with the highest honors, and became a 
 tutor in that institution, at the same time pur- 
 suing divinity studies. In 1813, he was settled 
 
 as pastor of a church in Boston, and soon bee,-, 
 
 distinguished for the eloquence of his sermons. 
 Subsequently, he was for several years Eliot pro- 
 fessor of ( ; reek in Harvard College. His public 
 life b i : ui 182 f. when h ■ was elected to ' Ion 
 gress, in which he served continuously for ten 
 years. In 1835, he was elected governor of 
 Massachusetts, and was three times re-elected. In 
 1840, he was appointed minister plenipotentiary 
 
 to England; and in this position. , ',!. ,1 
 
 to perform very important services for the Uni- 
 ted States. On his return, in 1845, he was 
 elected president of Harvard College. In ls.V_>, 
 he was appointed to succeed Daniel Webster as 
 secretary of state. on the decease of that eminent 
 .statesman, and served during the last four 
 months of Fillmore's administration. The nevi 
 year, he was elected to the Cubed States i nam: 
 but, in consequence of ill health, he resigned his 
 seat the sear after. In 1860, he receii I the 
 nomination of vice-president of the I'nitcd 
 States. ,,n the ticket with John Bell of Tennessee 
 us president. His oration on Washington, re- 
 peated about 150 times in various parts of the 
 I ii it. , i States, added greatly to his i 
 orator as well as a patriot, inasmuch as the pro- 
 ceeds from its delivery were in the main con- 
 tributed to the Mount Vernon fund. During 
 the civil war, Everett adhered strongly to the 
 cause of the Cnion, which he benefited by many 
 eloquent and patriotic speeches. In 1863, he 
 delivered the address at the consecration of the 
 national cemetery at Gettysburg, Pa. I lis last 
 address was delivered in Faneuil Hall. l',ost,,n, 
 in behalf of the suffering people of Savannah, 
 only a few days before his death. It is not in- 
 tended here to give more than a brief reference 
 to his career as a statesman; as an orator, he- 
 was distinguished for dignity and elegai in de- 
 livery ; and his published orations, which fill 
 
 EXAMINATIONS 
 
 four large volumes, contain an amount of intel- 
 lectual wealth of priceless value, still further en- 
 riched by a style of unsurpassed elegance. In 
 relation to education, the nest valuable of these 
 addresses are. The Education of Mankind, de- 
 livered in 1833 ; Educationfavorabh to Uh rty, 
 Miirnls. mill Knoirli'il'ii'. ill \K\.i ; Sn/„'i-iiir inni 
 
 Popular Education, in 1837; Education ike 
 Nurture of the Mind, in 1838; Importance qf 
 
 necessity oispecit 
 
 teachers ; / ninT. 
 ililiiius if ,i Got 
 
 instruction, and advocated. 
 
 t and eloquent manner, the 
 raining and instruction for 
 Education, in L846; Con- 
 ■School,m 1851; Education 
 i 1852; and Academical 
 Education, 1857. His various utterances in 
 regard to education have been collected and pub- 
 lished in a single volume. A full collection of 
 his Unit;, ins and Speeches on Various Occa- 
 sions has been published in four volumes 
 (Boston, 1869). 
 
 EXAMINATIONS constitute an important 
 part of the educator's work in order to test the 
 result of what has already been accomplished, 
 and to incite his pupils to additional efforts. 
 While it is perfceth true that the best effects of 
 educational training can lie but imperfectly, if at 
 all, tested by any personal examination: yet, 
 there is no other ready and definite method of 
 ascertaining the efficacy of the teacher's work 
 and the proficiency of the student. Examina- 
 tions, moreover, are of great educative value, if 
 tiny are conducted on sound principles. The 
 judicious examiner who is master of the subject, 
 v, hile aso n lining what the student has learned. 
 necessarily, to some extent, shows him what he 
 has failed to learn, either in consequence of tin 
 imperfect method of study or a lack of attention 
 to certain important parts of the subject. Thus 
 he is taught how to make his future efforts more 
 successful; and. further, by coming in contact 
 with a mind more mature in its operations and 
 attainments, he obtains views of the subject 
 which no amount of study of his own could im- 
 part. On this account, examination and recita- 
 tion should go hand in hand, the student show- 
 ing, in the first place, what he litis learned of the 
 in id to him. and the teacher then, by 
 skillful examination, demonstrating to him his 
 ignorance on certain points, and in this waj in 
 structing him in such things as ma\ bebeyond 
 the grasp of his unaided research. Examinations 
 of this kind form an indispensable part of in- 
 struction itself; those which occur at the end of 
 certain periods, either for promotion, or for grad- 
 uation. have in view the exclusive aim of testing 
 the actual progress of the pupil. Indirectly. 
 however,such examinations being anticipated b\ 
 the student, guide and stimulate his efforts, both 
 in acquiring and remembering. The considera- 
 tions to be presented in this article will be dis- 
 tributed under (I) Examinations of Schools; 
 (Ih Ki-umi, •!, ill, ins <f Ti-iirln-rs; (HI) College 
 null University Examinations. 
 
EXAMINATIONS 
 
 I. K.riniiiiiiitiiiim of Scliocth 
 (1 1 examinations for classifical 
 tion. in which the merits of ii 
 are to be can 1II3 asc rtained 
 with a certain standard of a 
 
 1 i cxamiual ioim t'nl' otlicial sup 
 
 ject of which need be only t 
 methods and skill of the teach 
 eral efficacy of his work, the reL 
 the differed pupils of a grade 1 
 
 -This includes I 
 
 a ] >r. x-rus-t ..111 standard liv which the 
 I defects of all who present them elves 
 
 le state. 
 ( itirffxitil Ki'iiiiiiiniliDii.i. - 
 
 llliolls of 'learning, periodical 
 
 and,ol c< 
 beemplo; 
 
 promote 
 
 tcacl 
 or. lei 
 
 of children are to k educated. 
 ie, a greal number of teachers to 
 fortiie following reasons: 1 1 They 
 
 hunter, referring to the rapid 
 3 tern oi si holastic inquiry, 
 
 of instruction and the method of the examiner. 
 It is. thus, not only a means of supervising the 
 teacher's work, but also of instructing the teach- 
 ers themselves. "The teacher," says Beale,"may 
 be very earnest, but an experienced critic of In I 
 work may he alile to point our where and why he 
 has tailed, an I. from a larger experience, to Mis- 
 tiest improved methods." [See St peevision.) 
 
 II. Examinations iff Touvhrrs. — As a prelim- 
 inary to their employment in public schools, 
 teachers are required bylaw to be licensed or 
 certificated. The license is the legal permission 
 to teach ; the certificate is the written or docu- 
 mentary evidence that such pen ii s been 
 
 given by the properly constitute 1 authority. 
 (See License, Teacher's.) This permission is 
 granted usually after an examination in certain 
 proscribed branches of study. The examination 
 is generally conducted, in the different states of 
 the Union, by th ■ -tato superintendent of public 
 instruction, the superintendents or boards of 
 education of 1 ities, or the county commissioners 
 
 are appointed at certain (ami .and all who desire 
 to obtain the certificate, attend as candidates. 
 In such cases, the examination is generally not 
 
 competitive, but only qualifying, all who show 
 the degree of scholarship prescribed obtaining 
 certificates. The methods of conducting these 
 examinations are almost as various as tin- indi- 
 viduals conducting them. AVheii. as is some- 
 times the case, particularly in the rural districts, 
 the licensing officer has no technical knowledge 
 of education or of schools, the kind of examina- 
 tion (generally oralj is far from being such as is 
 required to test properly either the teachers 
 knowledge, professional training, or special skill. 
 Perhaps some peculiar vagary or conceil of the 
 examiner, who may be a lawyer, physician, hut- 
 ■chant, or perhaps a farmer or mechanic, is made 
 
 1 oral examinations : 
 qualifying exauiina- 
 nating and marking 
 
 tal s. 
 
 reed that there are 
 h the examination 
 in all systems that 
 
 distinction, 
 Whewell,"; 
 
 cation, and i 
 
 nerally be 
 t previous 
 hence the 
 ■ indirect 
 he love of 
 ee," says 
 
 without making the love oi knoi I Ig ■ nothing." 
 Examinations, it must be borne in mind are 
 only a means to an end : namely, a good educa- 
 tion, comprehending a sound liberal culture of 
 till ilie mental faculties: ami. consequently, ex- 
 aminations cease to be a benefit when theyinter- 
 fere with this object. On this point. Whewell. 
 in English University Education, remarks as 
 follows: •■ Kxaminations. or .something equiva- 
 lent, must exist in a university; but when they 
 are considered as the only means of university 
 education, it is easily seen that the education 
 must lie bad. For their requisitions must be 
 lowered to the level of the average power of 
 mind and of application which young men pos 
 sess, in order that university degrees maybe the 
 general mark of a liberal education ; and. hence, 
 the substance of such examinations cannot be 
 sufficient to exercise and improve the quicker 
 and more capacious intellects. Moreover, for 
 reasons already stated, the knowledge which is 
 acquired for examinations operates less as cult- 
 ure, than that which is obtained under other cir- 
 cumstances. And when the examination is a 
 compulsory one, there is a servile and ignoble in- 
 
200 
 
 EXAMINATIONS 
 
 fluence breathing about it, since it acts not on 
 the hopes, but on the fears ; and holds disgrace 
 and degradation before the eyes of the candidate. 
 Such examinations may be necessary, but they 
 
 can never be more than a n sssaryevil; and 
 
 that system would, indeed, be unworthy of a 
 great and highly civilized nation, in which the 
 machinery of education was all of this structure." 
 In the same connection, Toilliiintcr remarks, " It 
 is easy to refine and elaborate our examination 
 machinery; but the results will scarcely repay 
 
 the 
 
 <!'■■' 
 
 liture of 
 
 We cannot by our examinations create learning 
 or genius; it is uncertain whether we can in- 
 fallibly discover them ; what we detect is simply 
 the examination-passing power of the candidates. 
 
 the number of candidates is too large to admit 
 of a thorough and impartial examination (the 
 oral method being used); (4) that a large share 
 of the examiners lack the requisite skill in ex- 
 amining: and (5) that the result- are unreliable, 
 because the students so eivatlv differ in disposi- 
 tion, temperament, etc., a bashful, though ex- 
 cellent student, being likely to fail, whSe the 
 confident one. with less merit, comes off tri- 
 umphantly. Most of these objections are ob- 
 viously weak, and are satisfactorily answered by 
 Von Raumer [German Unirerxi/itv, English 
 translation, by Barnard). 
 
 ('J) The comparative value of written and oral 
 (or rirn voce) examinations as tests of profii iency 
 has been much discussed : of course, for the pur- 
 
 ple and l.-scostlvpr --'■ This remark can 
 
 have but little application to the "local examina- 
 tions" recently founded by the English univer- 
 
 the " examination-passing power" of the candi- 
 dates, also ascertain their special scholarship : 
 ami. besides, operate as a powerful stimulus to 
 studious exertion, in the case of thousands of 
 persons anxious to obtain certificates of learning, 
 as well as the things to which they are a passport. 
 They also exert a very important influence on 
 education at large, and tend to elevate the qual- 
 ifications of teachers. Indeed, it was for this 
 express purpose, that these examinations were 
 established in 1858; and it is acknowledged, 
 
 that they have 1 n highly successful " in raising 
 
 the tone of middle-class scl Is. as well as in 
 
 widening the area of the influence of the uni- 
 
 
 are usually some written tests as well. A skillful 
 examiner, who is master of the subject under 
 
 consideration, can by a few judicious, well- 
 
 of both . sexes underwent (he local examinations 
 of Cambridge, and. in June, L876, 2,1 II those 
 of i Ixford. "The local examinations," says Beale 
 (University Examinations for Women, Lon- 
 don, L875), "have been very useful, especially 
 in girls' schools, bringing them into relation 
 with the national centers of education. The 
 old-fashioned parrot-learning, and slovenly, in- 
 exact work have been shown to be worthies, 
 and a better curriculum has been introduced." 
 Of the higher university examinations in Eng- 
 land, several are open to women over eighteen 
 years of age. (See Female Education.) 
 
 In the German universities, less resort has 
 been had to examinations than in the United 
 States or England, more dependence being placed 
 on the lecture system, or on the Greek mode of 
 teaching by dialogue. University examinations 
 have been emphatically condemned by some dis- 
 tinguished German educators; but by others 
 
 they have 1 n advocated as necessary to check 
 
 idleness on the pari of the students, many of 
 whom.it was found, failed to attend the lectures, 
 and others, although present.gave little or no at- 
 tention to them. Against ill se examinations in 
 
 been urged; as, (I) that they d i incite to 
 
 tic right kind of study : (2) that they are for 
 school-boys, and. therefore, it is an indignity to 
 subject university students to them ; (3) that 
 
 meiit. on the part of the examiner. In the ex- 
 amination of teachers, where there is so much 
 besides mere scholarship to test, the oral method 
 ought not to be entirely excluded. The objec- 
 tions urged against oral examinations may be 
 briefly stated as follows: (1) They are wanting 
 in fairness and thoroughness, because they are 
 necessarily very brief and hurried, and when 
 classes are examined the questioning is uneven, 
 so that a poor student may pass while a meri- 
 torious one fails, particularly if the latter is dif- 
 fident and timid: (2) The questions cannot be 
 
 perfect tests; and (3) The candidate has no time 
 
 for proper deliberation, and therefore must often 
 fail to show what his real attainments are. On 
 the other hand, the advantages of a written ex- 
 amination are the following: (1) The same 
 questions are given to each candidate, and, con- 
 sequently, the test is even: (2) The candidates 
 are left entirely to themselves, without sugges- 
 tion or aid from the examiner: i.'l.i The < (in — i ions 
 can be more carefully prepared; (4) The candi- 
 date has more time for deliberation in answer- 
 ing ; and (5) The examiner has a better oppor- 
 tunity to consider the answers, and to form a 
 just conclusion as to the meritsof the candidates. 
 The question of written or rir,i voce examina- 
 
 this connection. Todhunter remarks, "I will 
 acknowledge that if only two or three candidates- 
 have to be examined, and we have the command 
 
EXAMINATIONS 
 
 EXAMPLE 291 
 
 of unliniiteil time and of adequate examining I 
 force, then whatever may be the subject of ex- 
 amination, the viva voce method may be not on- 
 ly allotted Inn <mni,lv recommended. We may 
 
 ignorance and incapacity as to demand some 
 re decisive c lemnation than simple want of 
 
 what he k: 
 whether 
 pcwa 
 subjects o 
 
 stances in 
 
 l,e s 
 
 3tm, 
 
 f the 
 ider 
 
 and wh 
 hows ei 
 
 on the 
 examin 
 
 whirl, 
 
 ridence o 
 
 whole. ( 
 ations an 
 they occu 
 
 'onsii 
 
 d th 
 
 r. hi 
 
 prefers thi 
 in< isl authi 
 
 ;r 
 
 s both ii 
 
 irks aire- 
 
 !lod. whicl 
 
 i theorj a 
 
 nly made ! 
 
 ndpi 
 ifford 
 
 materials 
 importano 
 
 
 judgme 
 wmpetiti 
 
 ve and'qu 
 
 he co 
 
 nations. 
 
 The 
 
 ami of 
 
 the exam 
 
 inati 
 
 oi differen 
 
 
 ididates; 
 
 l.iu whei 
 
 l SUI 
 
 parison is 
 
 nee, 
 
 ssary, il 
 
 lere is m 
 
 i don 
 
 .ondon. Is7:; ): Beale, University Examina- 
 ms for Women (London, 1875). 
 EXAMPLE, the Influence of. This de- 
 
 !""'!" 
 
 the e, 
 
 more than the mere accuracy of the knowle 
 of the candidate. There should be consider! 
 diversity, some of the questions requiring o 
 brief statements of facts; while others, o: 
 
 th,' minds of all 
 of children. It 
 
 by the existene, 
 Which Would 1 
 
 early childhood 
 
 am is shown 
 is. prejudices, 
 
 
 firs! , and (4) that they should not require more 
 
 time than is to be given to the particular ex- 
 ercise, so as to make the candidate feel hurried 
 and nervous. 
 
 (5) The manner of estimating and marking 
 the results of written examinations requires a 
 careful consideration. The value of each ques- 
 tion as a test should be exactly estimated, and 
 the character of the answer given marked ac- 
 cordingly. Any scale may be adopted, but that 
 of UMl is the most convenient and the most gen- 
 erally chosen. Whatever number may be an- 
 nexed to each question as its specific value, the 
 result can lie readily reduced to a per cent, which 
 will thus show the absolute, as well as relative, 
 value of every paper. The system of negative 
 
 give marks for correct work, and to subtract 
 
 marks for errors. The justice of this method 
 he illustrates as follows: "Suppose that one 
 candidate has solved twenty questions all cor- 
 rectly ; and suppose that another has also solved 
 
 twenty question.- all correctly, and ha- at tempt oil 
 four more and failed completely in them; then. 
 
 • ileiu- 
 
 th v ar. I'lin Th \ 
 
 li\ a kind of "un 
 their children simp 
 
 ranged 
 
 placed 
 
 son haw a respect 
 
 himself have a gra 
 
 ima debetur p , 
 him imitate;" and 
 
 uid most effi- 
 
 of those things which you would hi 
 or avoid. . . . The beauty or uncomelinessof many 
 things, in good and ill breeding, will be better 
 learnt, and make deeper impressions on them, in 
 
 instructions that can be given about them.'' 
 (See 77, ,h/s Concerning Education.) The 
 
 in tin 
 
 portant principles tor tile learner 
 and employ. But it is in moral & 
 the force of example has its ch 
 activity. In it is comprehended 
 mean by the personal influence of I 
 I lis ma liners, his modes of action ai 
 expiv-sjon of his countenani i 
 las voice, all are constituent elcinei 
 
292 
 
 EXCHANGES 
 
 inn-,.,, 
 
 fluence. This personal power, it has been well 
 sail 1. is an "emanation flowing from the very 
 spirit of the teacher's own life, as well as an in- 
 fluence acting insensibly to form the life of the 
 scholar." — Sec Unconscious Tuition, by Prof. 
 Huntington, in Bakxakij's Jnnnml of Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 EXCHANGES, Educational. See Hol- 
 
 BEOOK, JoSIAH. 
 
 EXHIBITION'S, School, are arranged for 
 the public display of some of the ornamental ac- 
 complishments of the pupils, such as music, rec- 
 itation, ami declamation, and of other exercises 
 that admit of a ready performance in public 
 and run be made attractive, such as reading, 
 composition, calisthenics, etc. Exhibitions of 
 this kind are given for 
 
 the scl 1 before the p 
 
 Many parents take great delightin seeing then- 
 children participate in these public exercises; 
 and, hence, they generally attract a large audi- 
 ence. While the}' are. in some respects, valuable, 
 their general tendency as they are usually -uvn. 
 is injurious. They pervert not only the regular 
 order of exercises of the school into a special 
 preparation for display, but also the proper aim 
 of the pupils, which should be to make progress 
 in their studies, not to gratify their vanity by 
 the exhibition of superficial accomplishments. 
 Children whose special talents lie in this direc- 
 tion, are apt to be greatly injured by excessive 
 praise for these efforts at display, ami are in 
 this way unfitted for any steady exertion. Many 
 teachers, on this ao mnt, entir ily avoid giving 
 public exhibitions or receptions. Besides, an 
 exhibition does not present the best results of 
 the instruction given, but, chiefly, such accom- 
 plishmcnts asare showy. The reading oi .-ays 
 and other compositions, it is true, shows sonic- 
 thing of tin- culture, intelligence, and power of 
 expression of the pupils: but, in elementary 
 schools, this must be very limited. In college 
 commencements, the essays being of a higher 
 character, show to a greater extent the students' 
 intellectual development; but. still, they do not 
 at all exhibit their special scholastic attainments. 
 
 upon which their time and study have 1 n 
 
 principally expended, tin this account, some 
 educators have endeavored to devise a method of 
 
 showing these attainments in scl I exhibitions. 
 
 and in some cases with considerable success. 
 "When the classes arc so well trained that they 
 can be presented in public with an invitation to 
 any competent person in the audience to examine 
 them, the effect is very interesting, and quite 
 satisfactory, because every suspicion of unfairness 
 is prevented. The following is. in part, the sug- 
 gestion of a teacher as to the method of giving a 
 school exhibition: (I) Kngage a large hall, or 
 use your school room if necessary ; (2) Spread 
 out upon tables a portion of the work of the 
 pupils (specimens of penmanship, written ex- 
 ercises in arithmetic, etc.) ; (3) Place upon the 
 walls the maps and drawings, herbariums, etc.. of 
 the pupils, in charge of suitable persons to ex- 
 plain ; (4) lx.'t the pupils exhibit cabinets, plulo- 
 
 . EYE 
 
 sophical apparatus, etc.. of their own collection or 
 construction: (5) During the exhibition have 
 the pupils display their musical attainments by 
 singing, etc.; (6) Intersperse dialogues, recitations. 
 declamations, etc. or class examinations, of a 
 suitable character. In this way an exhibition 
 may be made not only interesting to an audience 
 but a useful incentive to the pupils. 
 
 ties and Public Scl Is, is used to denote an 
 
 allowance, or bounty, paid to the students, under 
 certain conditions, for their maintenance while 
 pursuing their studies in the university. Hence, 
 such students arc called exhibitioners. (See 
 
 EXPULSION is often resorted to in schooLs 
 in the ease of pupils who, by their willfulness, 
 insubordination, reckless and disorderly conduct, 
 or general depravity, cease to be amenable to the 
 ordinary regulations of the school, or are likely 
 io contaminate the manners and morals of the 
 other pupils. It is an extreme measure ; and, in 
 public schools, should not be taken until all other 
 
 employed : because it generally deprives these 
 ' pupils of all opportunity of receiving the educa- 
 tion for which the laws of the state provide. 
 
 the pupil i- iiltclv uncontrollable by any of the 
 ordinary means of school government : (2) That 
 the i lepra vcl character oi the pupil is such as to 
 
 Punishment.) In view of the fact that the ex- 
 pulsion of incorrigible pupils must be occasion- 
 ally necessary under all circumstances, it would 
 appear that a reformatory institution constitutes 
 an essential part of every public-school system. 
 (Sec Refobm Schools.) 
 
 EYE, Cultivation of the. The sense of 
 sight is capable, of an almost incredible improve- 
 ment by culture; of this, modern scientific in- 
 vestigations leave no doubt. We see improve- 
 ment in this respect not only in individuals but 
 in the general visual capacity of whole nations. 
 There can be no question, for example, that, 
 3,000 years ago. when the civilization of the 
 I 'hiiicsc came to a stand-still, they were very de- 
 ficient in the power of seeing perspectively ; so 
 that, in spite of all their skill in drawing and 
 painting, their pictures show all objects on the 
 same plane, without any variation of size, or of 
 light and shade, in order to represent the dis- 
 tances and relative positions of the objects de- 
 picted. Many proofs might be adduced to show 
 that, in the course of centuries, the human eye 
 has improved in power. The aim of education 
 in this respect is twofold: (1) To improve the 
 physiological conditions of sight, by removing any 
 causes of a morbid state, or by strengthening the 
 physical organ of vision: (2) To cultivate, by 
 judicious practice, the sense of sight, so as to 
 render it more observant, and able to receive 
 more full and accurate impressions of the objects 
 
which pass before it. This is of special impor- 
 tance, as of all the senses that of sight is, with- 
 out doubt, the must far-reaching, and leads to 
 the most numerous ami \ i\ id conceptions. 
 
 Thecultivat E the eve should begin soon 
 
 after birth, and, for a few weeks, should be con- 
 fined to keeping the infant from all excessive 
 glare of light; but, at the same time, allowing 
 it sufficient light properly to excite the nervous 
 activity. I Ihildren, like plants, need a great 'leal 
 of sunlight, which, provided it is not dazzling.is 
 the most important agent of both bodily ami 
 mental growth. At the first, it should be a re- 
 flected, diffuse, and mild light, direct Bunlighi 
 being admitted only after several weeks, ami 
 then gradually. Weak eyes may also be caused 
 bv surroundings of but one color. particularly 
 if decidedly brilliant. Hence, it is well to re- 
 lieve the impression made by a single color, by 
 alternation with its complementary. Bed or blue 
 
 throw their tinge upon the infants eye; but, as 
 a rule. Mil. luel colors shoul 1 be preferred. The 
 power of distinguishing both outlines and shades 
 of color is susceptible ol cultivation by means of 
 the slow movement oi bo lies ,,f different hue. 
 before the child's eyes This isan exercisewhich 
 is employe 1 in Froebels nursery education, and 
 
 is very properly accompanied by singing, 1 ause 
 
 the sense of hearing, having an earlier develop- 
 ment, is well adapted to excite the action of 
 sieht. After the second or third mouth, when 
 
 rE 293 
 
 ai uni .that Froebel invented that well-arranged 
 
 system of kindergarten occupations, h\ which 
 the free self-act ivit v of the child, stimulated by 
 agreeable intercourse with those of his own age, 
 learns how to employ his sensed sigh! in an 
 
 (Se 
 
 1 morally. 
 
 HIV,. J 
 
 aid, the 
 
 any of his 
 
 eof color- 
 hat cannot 
 
 xact color 
 
 Teachers should 
 stoop while engaged 
 ing : since this tend 
 
 equal degree of perfection espLkUy 
 ig, writing, and drawing. Then, if 
 ie tired at a given angle of sight, it 
 nine its work, without injury or dis- 
 t a smaller or larger angle, and thus 
 ,1 to do more work without detri- 
 be sight. Many of the ordinary school 
 
 order bo correct thi 
 eye. Various conn 
 for this pui] lose, a 
 
 woo len -lob i ami i 
 
 language fixes, at t 
 impressions of the 
 meaning to every w 
 expressions when 
 When language hi 
 
 
 reich (SchoolLife in its Influence on SigM,lxm- 
 don, L8T2), ■• is developed almost exclusively 
 during school life; rarely afterwards, and very 
 
 .1. or has school 
 
 short-;,,. .|ltc, | ,■],,!, 
 
 j such arrange- 
 light, or admit 
 
 s constant exercise. Thus 
 oiuer is able to notice the 
 if light, which the ordinary 
 
 observe,- nttei 
 
 j 1 i! to i 
 
 ite t. On the other 
 
 hand, the eye 
 ception. the i 
 
 habitually to 
 
 .aze at obj. 
 
 organs ol sense-per- 
 ■ it it is p rmitte I 
 :ts without any i i- 
 
 prehensive or discriminative view ol their pecu- 
 liarities and less obvious details. It is on this 
 
 far as possible, from above. The children ought 
 
 to sit straight, and not have the I I- nearer to 
 
 the eye than ten inches at the least. Besides 
 
 the. lie- book Ought to be raised '-'0' : 
 
 and about Ml- for reading. - See V wicnf.i:, The 
 
 Child and the Desk. (See Hygiene, School, 
 and Senses, Education of.) 
 
FACTORY SCHOOLS 
 
 FACTORY SCHOOLS are. as the name 
 indicates, elementary schools for the instruction 
 of children employed in factories. Tiny are 
 established in the factory buildings, and gener- 
 ally supported by the owners of the factories, in 
 proportion as legislators, in modern times, have 
 become desirous to extend the benefit of edu- 
 cation to all the children of the state, the school- 
 ing of factory children has attracted their atten- 
 tion; and the question, what can and should be 
 done to secure to these children the benefits of 
 education, now often engages the attention of 
 the legislatures of civilized states. With the 
 recent development of the factory system, the 
 employment of children in factories has assumed 
 large dimensions. They have been found to be 
 useful helpmates in many mechanical pro, v»c.-.. 
 in some even indispensable ; and they have b ten 
 employed to a large extent in house industries. 
 mining, pottery, agriculture, as well as in all 
 kinds of factories; and nowhere more than in 
 Great Britain, where formerly children, some as 
 young as six years of age. were severely employed 
 sometimes for 12, 14, 16, or L8hoursa day.or.by 
 a relay system. during all the night. and frequent- 
 ly at very exhaustive work, under unwholesome 
 conditions and in morally dangerous surround- 
 ings, while no time for school or home education 
 was granted. The inhumanity and the dangerous 
 effects of this practice began to be publicly dis- 
 cussed more than a century ago; but ii led to 
 no concerted action, until the abolition of the 
 conspiracy laws against the coalition of laborers 
 in England, in 1813. The first efforts to counter- 
 act these baneful influences were made by asso- 
 ciations of English laborers, and by their repeated 
 petitions to Parliament, which led (1819) to 
 enactments regulating children's factory labor. 
 These were, however, entirely disregarded, no 
 agency being ordained for their enforcement, 
 against the greed of profit on the part of em- 
 ployers, and the necessities of poor families. A 
 constantly repeated agitation by the workmen 
 brought about a parliamentary commission of 
 inquiry and the enactment of the law of 1833. 
 This related only to factories in a very narrow 
 sense, confined the work- lav within the hours of 
 6J A.M. and 9J PM., and the Hoiking time of 
 persons from Li to Is year.-- of age to I- hours, 
 of children from 9 to 13 years of age to 8 hours, 
 
 could be easily circumvented like the rest of I b 
 law; yet it was stricken out in a new enact 
 nieiit (Sept. 10., 1844), which allowed only II 
 hours as a work-day for children above Li. am 
 from 6k to 9 hours for those below 13 year. 
 of age. "This law would again have remained a I every factory 
 
 dead letter but for the appointment of factory 
 inspectors, with very restricted powers, among 
 whom was a man of extraordinary merit, Leonard 
 Horner (1833—59), who, together with the 
 trade unions and some few philanthropists, 
 worked with untiring energy, to accumulate, in 
 his reports to I 'arliament.a huge mass of evidence 
 in relation to the abuses of the factory system. 
 and especially its direful influences on women 
 and children. Liter legislation gradually ex- 
 tended the benefit of the factory laws to chil- 
 dren employed in most kinds of industry, and 
 slightly restricted their laboring time, chiefly by 
 confining it within the hours of the day (Chil- 
 dren's Employment Act of 1867) : but the factory 
 schools, being dependent on the school fees of 
 parents, voluntary private donations, and denom- 
 inational Sunday-schools, continued to be of the 
 most inadequate character down to the new 
 school act of L870 ; and this still left much to be 
 desired in respect to working children. 
 
 The legislation of all the other countries in 
 
 ' which modern industry is largely developed, is, 
 more or less, a copy of the English, with hardly 
 a single feature of improvement upon the latter 
 as regards the restriction of children's employ- 
 ment, ami with the disadvantage that there is 
 either no board of factory inspectors provided, 
 or where there is, or was (in France it litis been 
 abolished), that the inspection is of no value. In 
 Germany, Switzerland, and Belgium, however, a 
 sufficient provision exists for schools which are 
 accessible to. or even compulsory on, every facto- 
 ry child, thus affording a sel ling facility \\ hicli 
 
 extends from the earliest childhood up to the 
 adult age, or is about being so far extended. 
 Prussia was the second state to regulate the 
 hours of children's labor in factories, with the 
 view to afford opportunity for school attendance. 
 The laws of 1839, mere copies of the English act 
 of L833, were, in 1853, so far improved as to ex- 
 clude from factories all children below 12 years 
 of age. permitting those below 14 to work only 
 6 hours in each half day, under the condition of 
 .'! hours' attendance tit "school. The law of the 
 new German Empire (Xov. 10., 1871) is, in all 
 essentials, the same. France followed Prussia 
 with a law (March 22., 1841) which entirely ex- 
 cluded children below eight year., and required 
 all below 13 to prove some attendance at school 1 
 
 I but the law, having no enforcing clauses, was 
 altogether disregarded. The Austrian factory 
 law approves of the labor of children above Hi 
 years of age; and thence up to I4.it allows an 
 
 ascending scale from six to 10 hours, and be- 
 tween L4 and Hi years, 12 hours; exceptionally, 
 I I hours. The legislature of the Netherlands 
 adopted, in 1875, a law akin to the modern En- 
 glish law, but without any enforcing provisions. 
 In Belgium, there were, according to the latest 
 reports, 900 factory schools, comprising 158,060 
 children of till ages, ami schools connected with 
 I every factory in which young children, to the 
 
FALK 
 
 295 
 
 number of 
 ulates the a 
 sentially res 
 ment. An 
 council of 1 
 failed, as ti 
 
 Massachi 
 the law 
 
 of 12 v. 
 
 ted. The law reg- I cine were added. The division into four facul- 
 but does nut es- ties was transferred from the University of Paris 
 i time of employ- to the German universities; the faculty of arts 
 
 I had t. 
 i. Bel{ 
 tate la 1 
 ent of 
 neral I 
 ■■ No 
 
 . be discontinued after 
 num is the only coun- 
 w has made proi ision 
 Eactoi | schools. In 
 statutes, 1863, ch. 12), 
 child under the age 
 ployed in any manu- 
 more than 10 hours 
 labor statistics of that 
 tw is. almost every- 
 
 nerican universities and colleges, the faculty 
 isists nt' thr body of professors, with the presi- 
 it at its head, and lias the power of conferring 
 
 forms (classes) perform certain personal services, 
 for those of the higher. These services are either 
 due to a particular student— the special master- 
 
 vised Statutes of Rhode Island (1857, ch. 39) 
 say: •■ No minor who ha- attained the age of L2 
 years and is under the age of 15 shall be em- 
 plove 1 mure than 11 hours, nor before ."> A. M.. 
 nor after 7. 30 P.M." The enactments of other 
 states are similar; but there is nowhere an effi- 
 cient provision for tin- enforcement of the laws. 
 The legislationof most other states only requires 
 that factory children should attend school for a 
 specified length of time. It is easy to see. and 
 is generally admitted, that factory ehildren are 
 not so situated that they can avail themselves 
 of the public schools. Their attendance at th ■ 
 day schools will always be irregular and of short 
 duration. The larg a chil Iren may, to some ex- 
 tent, enjoy the advantage of evening schools and 
 Sunday-schools ; but, as long as chil Iren are em- 
 ployed in factories, th 
 
 ■ lueation in schools esp 
 wants. Many schools 
 
 attend at the games, in cricket, for example, 
 standing behind the wickets to eateh the balls. 
 and other such minor services. While many of 
 these services appear to be of a menial character, 
 they ate not considered such, inasmuch as. with- 
 out a fag, the boy would be obliged to perform 
 them for himself*. The system of fagging, like 
 pennalism, in the German universities, has been 
 the means of great abuse and tyranny exercised 
 upon the younger students, yet it has strenuous 
 defenders, as being, on the whole, beneficial. 
 (See England.) 
 
 FALK, Johann Daniel, a I ierinaii educator 
 
 in Rant/ 
 
 70, and 
 
 established by the 
 
 of which the best known, in Europe, are those 
 connected with the Krupp establishment in 
 
 Essen, with thatof Dolfuss in M ulhauscn. Ak , 
 
 and that of Greg, Co. of Chester, England. The 
 latter is a fair example of most of the schools. 
 The proprietors of the factories assume the entile 
 care of the children, chiefly orphans and poor- 
 house pupils, clothe, feed, a i id lod-e them, and edu- 
 cate them ill special schools. — See Von Plexer, 
 
 The English Factory Legislaii English trans., 
 
 with Intiod.by A.J. Mundelk (London); Huber, 
 Reisebriefe aus Englandim Sommer (1854). 
 
 FACULTY (Lat. facultas), a term originally 
 applied to a body of men to whom any partic- 
 ular privilege or right is granted; hence, in a 
 
 wrote an essay on common schools [Ueber die 
 Grenzender Volks- und Gelehrtenschtde, 1821), 
 which is still highly valued. In an appeal to 
 the diet of Saxe-We'imaraiid the entire ( Iennan 
 
 college 
 
 up. 
 
 ■sity.the faculty consists of those 
 
 education with pop 
 tion (Falkisches I. 
 In- death by his w 
 
 coii.-i.-tine ,.f a body of teacher-, or prole--. a--, in 
 some particular department of knowledge. At 
 first the European university (that of Paris) 
 comprised but two faculties.- that of arts (q. v.) 
 and that of theology, to which, in the 13th cent- 
 ury, those of canon and civil law and of medi- 
 
 t took charge of it.— See A. 
 Liebe, Leben, und Leiden in 
 
 FALK, Paul Ludwig Adalbert, Prassii 
 
 man. He received bis first education at Schweid- 
 nitz and Landshut. attended the F?-iedrich , s- 
 
Gtiiit/Ktxium at Breslau. iinil. a ft it graduation, 
 studied for the legal profession at the university 
 at the same city, aJso paying great attention to 
 history and natural philosophy. I le entered the 
 Prussian state service in 1847, received the de- 
 greeoi LI.. D.,in the same year, and, after having 
 abandoned his original intention of preparing 
 himself for a professorship in laws and pas ed 
 
 through the i >it liate stations •■! In- . areer, 
 
 lie obtained, successively, the at ttment of 
 
 that of state attorney at l.vk. In 1858, he was 
 elected to the Prussian Chamber of Deputies 
 and acted as a member of the Committee on 
 Petitions. Budget, and Military affairs during 
 the legislative period of 1858—61. In 1861, he 
 was appointed state attorney at the Kammerge- 
 richt in Berlin, and. in the following year (1862), 
 councilor of the court of appeals in Ologau, 
 Silesia. During this time, he took part, with 
 other eminent jurists in the edition of several 
 standard works on law. Although not engaoed in 
 practical politics, which he studiously avoided in 
 consideration of his judicial office, he was elected 
 (1867) to represent the district of Glogau Sile- 
 sia) in the provisional Parliament of the North 
 German Union, but peremptorily declined a re- 
 election, in 1868, he was appointed privy 
 councilor of justice [Qeheimer Justiz-Rath) and 
 Referent in the state ministry of justice, in which 
 position he took a very important part in the 
 new codification of laws for the North German 
 Onion, and, subsequently, for the German Em- 
 pire. In 
 
 of the re 
 
 Council I 
 man Pari 
 
 I lie enlHIl 
 
 dered vei 
 tion of tl 
 
 to the n. 
 January, 
 
 Stale for 
 
 kingdom, should he the sole prerogative of the 
 state: that all officials or corporations charged 
 with such supervision should he considered as 
 state commissioners; anil, filially, that this law 
 should not affect the co-operation in the super- 
 vision of such institutions, on the part of com- 
 munities and their constitutional organs, as 
 
 In .i rescript, dated March 13., 1872, and pub- 
 lished m the official Geniralblatt fur die Dnter- 
 richtsverwaltuiig, f'alk explained the radical 
 
 chance which the new law effected in the rela- 
 tion of thepublicscl Is to the state churches. 
 
 " Heretofore." the minister savs. 'the inspection 
 of schools was immediately vested in the church 
 officers, the pastors of the united Evangelical 
 
 •'lunch and ot the R an Catholic Church, these 
 
 being inspectors of schools, iii virtue of their 
 offices. By the operation of the new law, the 
 right of inspecting schools I iclongs exclusively to 
 the state: and all authorities and olheers to whom 
 
 sated nearly all the 
 
 towns ami ■'■circles" 
 mt. to guard against 
 
 irge of their former 
 1. however, that no 
 emain in this office, 
 
 igW'i 
 
 ham ; 
 
 afh,o 
 
 rjppi 
 
 Zl 
 
 ■.ai pi 
 
 the state were, moreover, expected to take special 
 care that the teaching of the German language 
 was not neglected. This law has since been 
 gradually carried into practice, and the number 
 of lav school inspectors who take the place of 
 clergyn i has steadily increased. 
 
 The Catholic bishops made a determined op- 
 position to the new policy of the government. 
 
 Mi. 
 
 affairs resigned his office, ami Falk 
 pointed his successor by King William. 1 
 
 of his a In 
 
 verj beg 
 energel 
 
 manage 
 state • 
 himself 
 
 rati. , i 
 
 at that time. Iieset his department, arising from 
 the differences between the authority of the state 
 and the church in regard to the supervision of 
 the schools, public and private a conflict which 
 had alreadj Btrongly manifested it- li during the 
 
 February, L872, Minister Falk introduced a \m 
 which was passed March 11. oi the same year, 
 according to which the supervision of all schools 
 was declare I to he the exclusive prerogative of 
 the state. This lavi was carried against the 
 united efforts of the Catholic ami Conservative 
 Protestant parties of the Prussian parliament. 
 It provided thai the Bupei \ i- t all educa- 
 tional institutions, public or private, in opposi- I 
 tion to the laws of some of the provinces of the \ i 
 
 school inspectors without previously consulting 
 the diocesan bishop; and, in a memorial ad- 
 dressed to the government, they solemnly de- 
 clared that t In \ regarded this law as an incroaeh- 
 nieiit up,,,, the inalienable, holy right of the 
 Church as to the public schools, and that they 
 
 expected from It disastrous c, .u.-e,|llel,ccs both to 
 
 church and state. Falk, however, continued, by 
 a number of measures, to assert the exclusive 
 rmlit of the ,-tate lo legislate ill all school affairs. 
 A rescript of dune 15., 1 S 7*J. excluded members 
 of ecclesiastical orders ami « eregations from 
 
 sitions in me puDiic sci i- ; a aecree 
 
 j 4., abolished the so-called Mariana- 
 >ii-, ami forbade the pupils of state 
 
 ■irv. 1-7.:. Minister falk proposed and 
 nact in relation to the scientific rc- 
 ■ exacted l>\ the -t.it.- for the admis- 
 ididates to i i-i. rial fum tions, re- 
 examination oi maturity tr a gym- 
 academic triclinium, ami a scientific 
 ination of candidates, with proper ex- 
 also conferring upon the state the 
 
FA KM Kir* CULLKGK 
 
 iii.l became a lav? by 
 
 ng him perpetually to the education of a 
 
 il free (if charge for tuition. The holders of 
 v .-.i mi. .n.-s elect ti-i.Mini.-illv l"i of their 
 
 famoi 
 the p 
 
 of til 
 
 s;:i. It is the first of t 
 Other difficulties antee 
 
 1 1 . . 1 1 . 
 
 tional institutions in which the German language 
 was ordinarily used, religious instruction should 
 likewise be imparted in German. Archbishop 
 Ledochowski of Posen instructed his subordi- 
 nates to disregard this decree, and to use the 
 Polish language exclusively in religious instruc- 
 tion. The government, at tir>t. did not proceed 
 against the prelate directly, but suspended a 
 number of Catholic clergymen and instructors 
 
 rr.il s to the ministerial decree. The persistent 
 opposition of the archbishop led to further 
 lasures against him, and. ultimately, to his 
 
 t for two years 
 
 and 38 
 
 del .art- 
 
 being sentenced to impri 
 (Febr.3., 1874). Before 
 
 in Minilar pro,'- lines a._a 
 
 of the king 1 all of whi 
 
 and the l.i-hop-T «|,.. 11. - 
 
 bishop of Posen into pris 
 Trevesand the Lrchbisho 
 
 .severe measure, follow. .1. 
 Posen was deposed April 
 L874, the Prussian chaml 
 
 latin- the administration 
 rics which may be vacated 
 
 the college was closed. 
 
 FEAR, a sense of danger, the apprehension 
 of cuniing injury, or the anticipation of pain, is 
 
 
 thi 
 
 r means of pcrsua 
 ho kinds of gover 
 
 that of force ; and 
 
 ml.. 
 
 legal decisions. The contest between the state 
 and church authorities is, however, not ye1 ended 
 (1876). 
 
 \\ hile substituting fur the former cooperation 
 
 of Btate and church, in the inspection of the 
 public schools, the sole right of the Btate, Talk 
 also conceived the plan of a total re-organization 
 
 of th.- sc] 1 system. Twenty prominent men. 
 
 ave failed. There 
 that of influence 
 
 .cause it addresses 
 a permanent effect 
 latter can be only 
 will of a child is 
 
 dispositions, however, need to be restrained by 
 
 brought to bear upon them. Many children are 
 inconsiderate, rash, and impulsive, and accord- 
 ingly yield at once to their propensities. Phys- 
 ical punishment seems tube Heeded 111 order 'to 
 
 produce any conscientious observation of their 
 own conduct : but. without great care on the 
 part of the educator, m inflicting pain for this 
 
 basis of its deliberations, the minister, Oct. 15., 
 L872, issued general regulations concerning the 
 
 public schools and teachers' seminaries. These 
 regulations were intended as a forerunner to a 
 new school law: and they were regarded as 
 modifying, in very many essential points, the 
 
 principles on which the former scl 1 regulations 
 
 of Prussia were base I. ami as requiring a return 
 to the educational principles advocated and 
 practiced by I 'estal ■ 
 
 FARMERS' COLLEGE, at College Hill, 
 Hamilton I '....( >hio. near Cincinnati, was char- 
 tered in L846. it is supported by the interest of 
 a fund of about $67,000. The institution belongs 
 to the contributors to its funds: each contributor 
 to the amount of §100 receives a certificate en- 
 
 stead of exhibiting to you hi- whole cons is- 
 
 ness. he conceals from you as much of II as ho 
 can; or he deceptively presents to you some 
 counterfeit of it. instead of the genuine. No 
 frighted water-fowl whose plumage the bullet of 
 the sportsman has just grazed, dives (pricker be- 
 

 lse of the school- 
 
 neath the surface than a 
 your eye when you have 
 ment of fear." This is 
 dispositions; and, hem 
 should not 1"- made w 
 crimination. Hecker, n 
 Education (N. Y.. 1868 
 is too large seek to influ 
 his affections. Fear wil 
 To make this faculty i 
 dominant, the teacher d 
 the child, and he can ti 
 make fear an int illigent 
 idea of school governn 
 that of absolute tyrani 
 the teacher, and unthi 
 pupil.enforce 1 by the gn 
 ment. Dr. Johnson, in I 
 master I tastie, said, " I 1 
 able, can be governed oi 
 tors do no 
 
 conscience, and. therefore, the proposition was 
 too sweeping. When Boswell repeated to John- 
 son the following sentence of a speech of Lord 
 Mansfield: ' My Lords severity is not the way 
 I., govern eith :r boys or m sn," he replied, "Nay, 
 it is the way to govern them. I know not 
 whether it be the way to m ./-/them." But no 
 school government can be approved that is not 
 intended to amend as well as to control. Chil- 
 dren should be made to fear to do wrong ; and 
 thisshould be brought about as much as possible 
 by what Herbert Spencer calls the method of 
 mitiiiv.xhat is, liy making punishment the neces- 
 sary consequence of the wrongful act, on the 
 principle involved in the maxim, "The burnt 
 child dreads the tire." This eliminates the i r 
 sonal element in the fear implanted in the mind 
 of the child He does not fear the teacher, but 
 he fears to offend, to do wrong. The a ■ 
 
 irts from j himself with the new real school of that city and 
 the senti- the tabular and literal method of Hahn (q. v.). 
 
 ii certain As the result of this visit was entirely sitisfae'ory 
 
 "i ears war. In 
 
 node! schools ; he also 
 if instruction, and on 
 
 nl, ■■ I lull li'<-ii being not reason- 
 rue 1 only by fear :" but educa- 
 :U1 children without reason and 
 
 personal safety, leading to meanness, cunning, 
 and deception as a means of self-protection, but 
 sin. ul. 1 In- akin to that feeling which Solomon 
 referred to w hen he -aid. " The fear of the Lord 
 is the beginning of wisdom." This is not incon- 
 sistent with a constant appeal to the higher 
 motives and finer feelings of human nature, but 
 may be made a means of their development. 
 which is the true end of all moral education. 
 
 FELBIGER, Johann Ig-naz von, one of 
 the fore s1 reformers of the public-school svs- 
 
 of school books, ulueh were printed at his own 
 printing establishment, and obtained a very large 
 nirulatii.il. Hahn's method became, through 
 his efforts, predominant in all Silesia, and was 
 often called after him Felbiger's or the Sagan 
 method. In 1771. he was appointed by the 
 Empress Maria Theresa chief director [Ober- 
 director) of the German schools; and, Dec. 6., 
 177 k the empress sanctioned the general regula- 
 tion for the German model, head, and trivial 
 schools which had been drawn up by Felbiger. 
 This regulation marks the beginning of a new 
 period in the history of Austrian schools. It be- 
 gins with the following significant sentence: 
 
 • 'Hi lucation of youth oi both sexes is the 
 
 most important basis of the true happiness of 
 nations.' Though it did not make education 
 compulsory, it expressed the expectation that all 
 children of both sexes who did not receive pri- 
 vate instruction, would attend the German 
 school for six or seven years, beginning with the 
 sixth year of age. Public education was treated 
 as a state affair ; the methods oi instruction and 
 discipline and the course of instruction were 
 regulated, a proper elas.-itieatiou introduced, and 
 provision made for the erection of school houses, 
 for cheap and good school books, and for the 
 better education and compensation of teachers. 
 In regard to salaries, the provisions wi re, how 
 ever, far from being satisfactory, as may be in- 
 ferred from the tact that the regulation expressly 
 allows teachers to work in their leisure hours as 
 book-binders, joiners, shoe-makers, tailors, and 
 weavers. They were, however, absolutely for- 
 l.idden to keep taverns. In order to elevate the 
 school-teachers to a higher Bocial position, the 
 regulation assigned to them a comparatively 
 high rank among public functionaries. As re- 
 gards the different classes of thecommon schools, 
 
 each town, marke 
 receive a trivial sc 
 teacher, and impart 
 writing, arithmetic, 
 culture. In each cil 
 IRauptsehule) was 
 
 and d|. 
 
 entered the order of St. Vugustme, and, in 1 7.». 
 became abboi of the house of his order in Sagan, 
 Silesia. In this position, it was hi- duty to 
 superintend the churches and schools of Sagan 
 
 and some of the neighboring villages. The wretched 
 Condition in which he found the schools, induced 
 him to visit P.erlin secretly, in older to acquaint 
 
 parish was 
 eh had oiik one 
 etion in reading. 
 elements of agri- 
 st one head school 
 stablished, which 
 •e teachers, and a 
 ie subjects of the 
 osition, drawing, 
 |,hy especially of 
 iie elements of the 
 Latin language. Wherever circumstances would 
 allow it. female schools were established, besides 
 the head schools for boys. Every province was 
 to have at least one normal school, which was 
 to combine the character of a model school and 
 of a teachers' seminary. The course of instruc- 
 
 In.-t. 
 
 „l a l,-i i 
 
n;i.i;n;i:i; 
 
 FEMALE EDUCATION 
 
 '2W 
 
 tion embraced all the 
 
 .•in. I. besides, natural : 
 
 the liistm-y "I arts ami ti 
 
 and mechanics. The establish 
 
 school k publishing office, 
 
 the Vienna Normal Scl I 
 
 sof the head school, i 
 and physics, Latin, 
 
 nientof Bern had presented tohim.aspecial school 
 of agriculture, with ulii.li. in \.808,a.pliilantkropin 
 for children of wealthy pat-mis was connected. 
 This s,l I. in l.s-.'.-i. had eighty pupils, tan-lit 
 
 Vm. 
 
 pi i-l. much, an. I dii 
 wrote a number of 
 explaining bis met! 
 
 ,/•;,,„- ,,-.... ir 
 
 rechtschafetu r Sch 
 of Felbigeris fount 
 
 FELLENBERG, Philipp Emanuel 
 
 i of the empress put 
 1 labors. The plan 
 te had drawn up, was 
 
 tended for 
 
 sja 1 La 
 
 middle class 
 
 in taut SChO! 
 
 original scl 1 of Hofwyl, chiefly in- 
 
 he i r. In L830, a real school, de- 
 he education of the children of the 
 •s. wusestalili.-lied.and still later an 
 1. As the education of teachers had 
 
 .nl.lt, instruction in 
 
 1 ks, and a manual 
 
 lenberg, »i 
 called turn 
 months' ut 
 
 teachers t.> Hofwyl for a three 
 nnal course. The next year, the 
 denied its consent, as it feared 
 
 :l,i. 
 
 was born 
 there, Nov. 21., 
 I ..t Pestalozzi, 
 society can be 
 ly by an ini- 
 i believed that 
 
 the Wylhof, called by him Hoi 
 
 .vsl. and there 
 
 of educa bag poor boys, and e\ 
 agriculturists. Fellenberg en lea 
 this school self-supporting and 1 
 
 vored to make 
 
 v;:-,',M;,uM:u l l ;,;!y!'u!' l ,,!'a«' l !u 
 
 wess. All th • 
 
 sul,,,-,|u"l„'|y dis'tiujlli-'hed til.'-'u 
 
 ofTe pupils 
 
 catora and teachers. Fellenberg 
 
 also believed 
 
 by thr labor of the pupil-: alth, 
 
 i tributions were receive 1 all 
 
 friends ol education, tin- In- bi 
 many Twice .in 1 BO I and I 3 
 
 .•1 themselves 
 
 be til,,.- ir 
 
 •ii doubted by 
 17), Pestalozzi 
 
 ti.ms ,,f l-'.-lh-nl,:,-. I,,,, th.-y Mil 
 to agree. Fellenberg, being des 
 
 ,1 n impossible 
 
 ■ led from a 
 
 tions in the state, was accustot 
 b . 1 dictatorial manners : while 
 as a practical educator was grea 
 was unu illing t., a.t as a subord 
 educational matters. The fame 
 Hofwyl was, to a large extent, du 
 v.), who became connected « ith i 
 the mean time, several uew insti 
 children ha.l been established by 
 1807, he opened, in buildings wl 
 
 ted to rule and 
 •estalozzi, who 
 ly bis superior, 
 
 .f the school of 
 
 ... W.I, ilt fa. 
 
 minus for poor 
 ■"ellenberg. In 
 ich the govern- 
 
 lominanl in Germany and Switzerland; but, 
 tnlike most of the Philanthropists, he attributed 
 
 ? nstruction.a!i,|, , l,-y,,tio,,alr\.oi-,-u,.|, -tn.ily 
 in.l solemnly observed in all his institutions.— 
 See W. Hamm, F, ■■■ -/- Lebei / Wirken 
 
 Bern, 1845 ; Amen I lis of Education, 
 ...I. [. (1831 . An interesting account of the 
 school of Hofwyl maj also be i I in the auto- 
 
 liographj ol one of its American pupil.-. Robert 
 Dale Hum | Threading My Way, N. V.. 1874). 
 
 FEMALE EDUCATION. This subject 
 ,\ill be treated in two sections: (I) The lu'story 
 a female education, and : 1 1 : the discussion of 
 
 \-i.p 
 
 a I institutions In 
 10th year of age 
 There she wag 
 
 she received the orna nt of the head-needle; 
 
 and, at the age of twenty, she was married. In 
 education, as well as in all other departments of 
 
300 
 
 FEMAU-: EDCCATIOX 
 
 life, China has remained stationary; ami the 
 education of girls is now substantially the same 
 as it. was thousands of years ago. While the 
 instruction of boys is quite general, nine-tenths of 
 all the women can neither read nor write; and 
 it is only the daughters of the wealthiest families 
 that receive even a meager education. In India, 
 the instruction of the female sex was also totally 
 neglected. An exception was made only in the 
 case of public dancers, or bayaderes. The latter 
 
 are daughters of poor parents, and. in chilclh 1, 
 
 are kept for the service of the temple The 
 priests teach them to read and write, and have 
 them carefully taught music, dancing, singing, 
 and all the ways of female coquetry. In /'' rsia, 
 
 which had a system of national scl Is, the .jiil, 
 
 were generally excluded from public instruction. 
 Still there seem to have been exceptions : for the 
 plot of a Persian novel is based upon the love of 
 two persons, which is represented as beginning 
 at school. In Egypt, the female sex occupied a 
 more dignified and independent position than in 
 the other oriental nations, attending to the 
 business of the market and to commerce; but 
 no provision was made for their instruction. 
 Cleopatra is. however, reported to have been one 
 of the most accomplished women of antiquity. 
 and to have spoken Eebrew, Arabic, Ethiopic, 
 Syriac, and other languages. The legislation of 
 Sparta excelled, in this respect, not only every 
 oriental country, but also every other Hellenic 
 state. The Spartans held a very high opinion 
 of the dignity of the family, and the wife 
 and mother was the center of family life. The 
 wife was helil in especially high esteem ; she was 
 called Sea-nowa, mistress, and exerted a consider- 
 able influence over her husband. This social 
 position of woman required that her education 
 should be similar to that of the other sex. The 
 Spartans thought that tree, noble nun could only 
 spring from noble, well-formed, healthy mothers; 
 and the girls, th i. fore participated, though with 
 some modifications, in the peculiarities of Spartan 
 education. They were to be inspired will, feel- 
 ings of morality and patriotism no less than men. 
 
 The society of experien 1 matrons was one of 
 
 the chief means of their education: and exercises 
 in singing, the study of the poets, and the learning 
 of choruses were used to promote their general 
 culture. They practiced gymnastic exercises, 
 on arenas specially provided for them, and grace- 
 ful mimetic dances. At certain festivals, they 
 sang ami danced in public. Young men were 
 usually present at these exhibitions; ami females 
 attended those given by the males. Thus a 
 rivalry arose between the two sexes, which had 
 a beneficent influence upon the education of 
 
 both. As the rest t this education, the young 
 
 women of Sparta m.-iuifcted .-, I .... lily vigor and 
 beauty, and a. national pride, which were admired 
 by all foreigners. The school of Pythagoras 
 which, like the Spartans, represents the peculiar 
 development of the Doric tribes, produced 
 
 several female writers on education (Theano, 
 Phintys, Periktione), whose writing.- are by far 
 the best that can be found on the subject in the 
 
 literature of the ancient world. The Dorians re- 
 garded piety as the basis of self-control, and 
 music and gymnastics as means for attaining it. 
 This and a due harmony between the intellect 
 and the will were viewed by them as the chief 
 results of all sound female education. In Alhi-mt, 
 female education was not so well provided for as 
 in Sparta, and the elevated position which the 
 Spartans conceded to their wives was derided by 
 the Athenians as gynocracy, or female govern- 
 ment. With them, the wife was not the 
 Aioirowa, or mistress, but, in fact, the servant of 
 the house. Only in exceptional cases, did the 
 daughters of a family receive instruction ex- 
 tending beyond the usual domestic duties ; female 
 schools were unknown. Women appeared in 
 public only at public festivals, and it was only 
 the educated heiarra that the intelligent Athe- 
 nian could meet in society. The Ramans had a 
 very exalted idea of the dignity of family life and 
 the position of woman. In no nation of antiquity 
 was monogamy so strictly observed asm Rome. 
 The kings, according to 'popular tradition, ami 
 afterward the decemvirs, were expelled from 
 power on account of attacks made upon female 
 virtue. The mother ot the family (maierfamilias) 
 presided over domestic affairs as a venerable 
 priestess, and regarded the education of all her 
 children, boys as well as gills, as her most sacred 
 
 and si important duty. Thus the girls received 
 
 an excellent home education ; and it would 
 
 -ell 
 
 iveral centuries, 
 
 only in the regeneration of family life. The 
 first places in Christian countries in which in- 
 struction was provided foi girls, outside of their 
 families, were the convents. The nuns, as we 
 see from the correspondence of Boniface, not only 
 copied the Biblical books, but also taught secular 
 sciences. The number of girls who were educat- 
 ed in these schools was. how ever, small in com- 
 parison with that of boys. The daughters and 
 si.-ters ot ( 'li.iilemaL'iie. as appeal's from their cor- 
 respondence with Aleuiii. t..,,k an active part in 
 the learned studies which distinguished the curt 
 of thai great emperor; and their example was sub- 
 sequently followed by several other princesses and 
 nuns: still no steps were taken toward a general 
 provision for female instruction, during the first 
 part of the middle ages. The development of 
 knighthood organized a system of instruction for 
 a small but very influential portion of female 
 youths,— the daughters of the nobility. Xo 
 special institutions were founded for them ; but 
 
 ii w.i- e, .a in to have a number of them brought 
 
 g, :!,. i- in the castli oi a count or other 
 
 nobleman. The pupils, in this case, inhabited 
 in common a separate pari oi the building, were 
 placed under a common governess, and received 
 
 traveling artists, singers, and poets. Reading 
 
 and writing were the principal part of this in- 
 struction, and the young ladies were called upon,. 
 
FEMALE EDUCATION 
 
 301 
 
 In i; 
 
 ;miii i> 
 s. and 
 
 ml. 
 
 and boys and girls who-were brothers and sisters, 
 were often allowed to attend the same school. 
 Similar schools were found in some of the other 
 cities, Inn only in a limited number. In the 
 convents, only those girls received instruction 
 in reading ami writing who intended to enter 
 the order. In some of the towns, the girls 
 were allowed to attend boys' schools. The 
 great impulse which was given to the extension 
 of female schools by the Reformation, in the 
 16th century, is generally recognized, even by 
 Catholic writers. Luther, in his appeal to the 
 magistrates of theGerman towns, urged them to 
 establish schools, not for boys only, but also for 
 girls. All the church andschool regulations which 
 were U-ue.l during this period recognized the need 
 of establishing female schools. The chief reason 
 adduced for the demand was the duty of women 
 as well as of men to read the Scriptures. The 
 greatest zeal for the establishment of female 
 
 was as follows: Dorpat, 1:2.4; Warsaw, L:6; 
 St. Petersburg, L:19; Odessa, 1:23: \\ Una, 1:51; 
 
 Kharkof, l:.il; Kasan, l:H:J: Kiel, L:65.8; Mos- 
 cow. L:49.4. Anion- the seventeen provinces 
 into which Austria proper is divide. I. thi n were, 
 in 1-71. four (Lower Austria, 1 ppei Austria, 
 Salzburg, and Vorarlberg) in which the number 
 of girls attending the public schools exceeded 
 that of lio\- -even in which the uumbi r of girls 
 wasa little inferior to that of boys, and six in 
 which it fell considerably below that oi boys; 
 
 namclv. Triest, boys 6,168, girls t,372; I 
 
 and <; rail i.-ea. In, \., -.1 .-:;. eiif- t',.1 1! ; istiia. Imvs 
 
 several ei 
 
 The n. 
 
 elemental 
 
 and deeply 
 
 the 
 
 Is providing a higher than 
 
 •ii for girls was very generally 
 
 •ca<ll\ when England, France, 
 and (HTinaiiy entered successively into the golden 
 age of their national literature. An 
 institution of the kind was founded by A. II. 
 
 be prescribed! 
 
 irthellicliereducati.il, ot females. 
 
 rity nf the schools ni this class 
 
 have ever sini i 
 
 been pi ivati institutions : but, in 
 
 < iermany and 
 
 -c\e:.il other i.itii.peaii countries. 
 
 the state gove 
 
 nniciits as well a- the municipal 
 
 authorities ha\ 
 
 e. in the nineteenth cent ury. begun 
 
 to establish fei 
 
 i.ile selmols of a hie her grade. In 
 
 England, the 
 
 education of the danglm is of 
 
 Bible history, and singing. Although the ideas 
 of the reformers were not carried out to their 
 full extent, the number of schools for the in- 
 struction of gill,, established at the time of the 
 
 Reformation, was vert large. They were partly 
 
 wealthy parents at home by governesses is more 
 general than in any other country of the I lnistian 
 world ; but. recently, considerable progress has 
 been made in the establishment of female schools 
 of a higher grade. See England. -In Catholic 
 countries a ven en tl n ai. ritj of the female 
 
 which aimed to impart a higher education than 
 could be found in the parish schools. Little 
 progress was, however, made in the second half 
 ni the L6th and in the J 7th century; and, after 
 the devastations of the Thirty Veals' War tenia le 
 schools were, in Germany and other countries of 
 the European continent, in a less flourishing 
 condition than at the time of the Reformation. 
 The work was resumed in the 18th century; but, 
 at lirst, with only slow progress. Gradually, how- 
 ever, the adoption of the principle of compulsory 
 education (q. v.) prepared the way for the univer- 
 sal education of female youth in public elementary 
 schools. In some of those countries of Europe 
 where the principle of compulsory education has 
 not y.t been adopted or earned out, a huge 
 portion of the female youth still grow up with- 
 out any instruction. Among the most backward 
 countries in this respect, is Russia. While, in 
 1874, the number of boys attending school in 
 proportion to the entire school population varied 
 in the nine school-districts into which the empire 
 is divided from 1:1.5 (in Dorpat) to 1:10.5 (in 
 Moscow); the proportion of girls attending school j 
 
 'alio 
 
 alone, 600 Ursuline nuns, in 11 houses who 
 
 devoted themselves to the instruction of girls. 
 During the last three centuries, a number of new 
 religious orders have been formed for the purpose 
 of affording girls a higher education. There are, 
 at present, more than 30 orders of this class, w ith 
 several thousand members; and their school, are 
 not only attended by Catholic, but also by large 
 numbers of Protestant girls. (See Roman Cath- 
 olics.) For statistics relating to female schools 
 in Europe, see the articles on the several coun- 
 tries. — The IT. S. < lommissioner of Education, in 
 his report for 1874, enumerates 21 I institutions 
 for the superior instruction of women, of which 
 111 were authorized by law to confer degrees. 
 These are in part styled cofie<yes,and in pari semi- 
 iinrit'.i, instiliilrs, etc The oldest of these institu- 
 tions is the Bradford Academy, at Bradford, 
 Mass.. chartered in L804; the oldest having the 
 title of < V/eyeare the Maine Wcslcyan Seminary 
 
302 
 
 FEMALE EDUCATION 
 
 ami Female College, at Kent's Hill. Me., and the 
 Granville Female College, at < rranville,< >hio,char- 
 teredin 1821 and 1834, respectively. The progress 
 of the higher education of women is illustrated liy 
 the following facts: in 1870, the number of these 
 institutions in the United States reporting to the 
 Bureau of Education was :i:i. the number of in- 
 structors 378, and the numberof students 5^337 ; 
 while, in 1874, the number of institutions is re- 
 ported at 209; the number of instructors, 2,285, 
 and the number of students, 23,445. These 
 institutions commonly comprise a primary, a 
 preparatory, and a collegiate department. The 
 
 last extends through a course of tin, r four 
 
 years, and embraces the higher English branches, 
 with the addition generally of Latin and French, 
 
 Spanish, and Italian. Facilities are afforded, i.i 
 most if not in all cases, for instruction in vocal 
 and instrumental music, drawing and painting. 
 
 etc. The principal degrees conferred by female 
 
 colleges are Graduate in Arts (A. B.), Graduate 
 inScienee(B Sc Sisterof ixtsl LS.), Mistress 
 of liberal Aits [M. I.. A.), Mistress of Liberal 
 Learning (M. L.L.), Mistressoi Scien e (M.& . 
 
 \lMre-, of hngli-h l.li. ...Mire \I. f.. 1. . and 
 
 Mistress of Music Mis Mus . In some of tl. ■ 
 higher co-educative institutions, there is a separate 
 course for females [Ladies' Course) .similar to 
 that of most female colleges ; in others, there is 
 
 no distinction, females being admitted to the 
 
 lies. 
 
 Among the institutions for females exclusively, 
 
 Vassar College, at Poughkeepsie, N. V.. holds 
 a very high rank, its curriculum being fairly 
 comparable with that of good male colleges. (See 
 
 V iSSAB I lOLLBGE.) 
 
 II. Theory of Female Education.— This is a 
 subject which, especially in recent years, has very 
 greatly engaged the attention of practical educa- 
 tors, scientific educationists, physicians, and all 
 others who have either written or spoken on 
 questions concerning the present condition and 
 future prospects of human society and human 
 welfare. The proper education of woman has 
 been recognized as an important, perhaps the 
 chief, factor of social progress. In former times, 
 both ancient and modern, as we have situ, woman 
 in general, occupied a secluded state; and it was 
 only m the extreme privacy of the home circle 
 that she excited the potent influence inseparable 
 from her sex. whether .-is daughter, wife, or 
 mother. The Roman matron, within this narrow 
 limit, was an educator of her daughters always, 
 and sometimes chiefly of her sons, as in the case 
 of Cornelia, only illustrious as the "mother of 
 the Gracchi.'' ' Lncient history affords many 
 examples of women who, breaking through thi 
 
 barriers of social custom, 1 ; illustrious for 
 
 their learning and eloquence. Such were ispasia 
 of Lthens,and Hypal aol le andria. The career 
 
 of theirsex under circumstances permitting or en- 
 couraging its culture. Female education, however, 
 has always been viewed .-is radically distinct from 
 that of males, — as presenting entirely different 
 
 aims, and requiring different processes of train- 
 ing and instruction, and a widely different cur- 
 riculum of study. Much has been said and 
 done in recent years to modify very greatly this 
 view; but it is still generally entertained, and is, 
 at the present time, the principle on which most 
 schemes for the education of females are based. 
 
 "A system of education," says Maudsley, "adapted 
 to women should have regard to the peculiarities 
 
 of their constitution, to the special function in 
 life for which they are destined, and to the range 
 and kind of practical activity, mental and bodily, 
 to which they would seem foreshadowed by their 
 sexual organization of body and mind." -From 
 the beginning of the eighti year." says Schwarz, 
 "the two sexes require, in almost every respect. 
 a different education." "The culture of girls," 
 
 boys ' Alonzo Potter, in the School and Oie 
 
 ciple: "One ci t look at the female — with less 
 
 muscular vigor and more nervous sensibility 
 than the other sex; with more timidity and 
 gentleness; with deeper affections and more 
 acute sensitiveness- without perceiving, that she 
 has been annointed to a sphere very different 
 
 over the family, where she not only lays the 
 foundation, during childhood, of individual char- 
 acter, but where sheever exerts, through her ac- 
 
 quaintai and especially through her husband 
 
 and children, a humanizing influence over the 
 world." - Hence,' he argues. -there should be, 
 in the education of females, a special reference 
 
 educational training for a boy." says Dr. Clarke, 
 in Searin Education (Boston, L873), "is not the 
 best for a girl, nor that for a girl best for a 
 boy." Such are the views upon which the 
 education of females has been based. Ar- 
 ranged, as it has been by the other sex. the 
 only considerations that have dictated its meth- 
 ods and processes have been the average phys- 
 ical weakness of women as compared with men. 
 and the accomplishments they might need as 
 wives and matrons. It is not difficult to per- 
 ceive that were the education of men arranged 
 by the other sex from an analogous stand-point, it 
 would also be narrowed in its scope and proc- 
 esses. During the last few years, the questions 
 pertaining to female education have been vig- 
 orously discussed by writers of both sexes ; and 
 much experience has been gathered, which 
 
 .ears to show that the necessity tor a modified 
 
 cm of education for females 
 
 supp. 
 
 cd. (Se 
 
 Co-Education of the Sexes.J We say modified 
 5 ,st m of education, because just as it is necessary 
 to adapt the educational processes to individual 
 traits, so is it equally necessary, upon the same 
 principle, to adjust 'the training and teaching 
 processes to male and female, as far as they 
 severally present peculiar characteristics. In 
 
 1 e education, these proper discriminations 
 
 must naturally be made. The girl is treated as 
 
FEMALE EDUCATION 
 
 nor; 
 
 a girl, and the boy as a boy — in manners, habits, ' tin ■ caprices and vanity of ill ju. J-ii i- | i.-n-i-nt-. 
 amusements, and accomplishments. Over the Female seminaries of all kinds have especially 
 former the mother exercises a peculiar care, been subject to the latter ivj.ri.acli: but the 
 
 says Schwarz, "require chiefly the guidance of due,in great part, to the false system of female 
 
 management, winch every w. 
 stand to which may be a. Me. 
 In every thine; thus taught . t 
 the t'iil. as a member of soei 
 
 dependency of these relations. should such be 
 her destiny. "AsthegeneraJ rule, "says MissO. E. 
 Heedier. "every true woman would prefer to be 
 a wife, mother, and housekeeper, could her ideal 
 be fully met. But in multitudes of cases this 
 ran never be, and so every woman should prepare 
 herself not only for the ordinary dutie.-. of the 
 family state, but also for some profession to 
 secure an independent livelihood." 
 
 In ]. ul. lie elementary instruction, as shown in 
 the article on Co-Educalion of the Sexes (q. v.), 
 girls and boys are frequently instructed not only 
 in the same schools, but in the same classes. 
 There are, however, numerous private female 
 seminaries, many of which are boarding-schools. 
 In such institutions, the discipline, instruction, 
 and studies are all specially adapted to impart 
 that culture and confer those accomplishments 
 
 ils, 
 
 domestic education, who arc introduced into 
 ! world under the broad and universal title of 
 •omplished young ladies, of all of whom it 
 mot very truly ant" 
 
 delicacy requires that girls should be educated 
 ehielly by their own sex. This is apparent from 
 considerations that regard their health and con- 
 veniences, the propriety of their dress and 
 manners, and their domestic accomplishments." 
 [nher Addr t to the P 1-1" i„ relation 
 
 to female e lucation, she discusse I very ably and 
 fully its defects, an 1 thus enumerated in particular 
 those of boarding-schools for girls: 1 1 I A want 
 of suitable accommodations, as well as of neces- 
 sary apparatus for instruction: (2) Incompetency 
 of no rin tors, those who keep these s< tools 
 being unable, and sometimes unwilling to pay 
 for properly trained and cultured teachers; 
 (3) Imperfection of organization: , I Tendency to 
 teach showy accomplishments rather than such 
 as are solid and useful, the immediate and sole 
 object being profit, and hence a wish to gratify 
 
 that they illustrate the defin 
 
 tiou l.v a coninlet •- 
 
 ness which leaves nothing 
 
 to be added, and a 
 
 perfection which leaves not 
 
 lingto be desired." 
 
 Hut at the period in which tin 
 
 was written, women 
 
 of scholastic or professional at 
 
 tainments or literary 
 
 ability were quite exception 
 
 d. th.ee. the chief, 
 
 social emploN incut of young 
 
 ...lie- wasa kind of 
 
 fancy embroidery or need 
 
 i-work wlu.-h con- 
 
 su 1, or wasted, a vast ai 
 
 lount of time Of 
 
 this. Miss Edgeworth, in / 
 
 ra ' 1 
 
 .-ays, "Our great-grandmi 
 
 tilers di-tillWU.-hcd 
 
 themselves by truly substanl 
 and carpets, by i He-work 
 
 ial tent-work chairs 
 
 .inures of Solomon 
 
 and the queen of Sheba. '1 
 
 lese were admirable 
 
 in their day, but their da\ 
 
 is over : and these 
 
 useful, ingenious, and laborii 
 
 us specimens of fe- 
 
 male talents are consigned i 
 
 i the garret, or pro- 
 
 duced but as curiosities to i 
 
 xcite wonder at the 
 
 strange patience and miseral 
 
 le destiny of former 
 
 generations. ' As late as 1 ~T 
 
 i. Rev. S. Van Bok- 
 
 kelen remarked. » 1 think * 
 
 • may venture the 
 
 opinion that all over the 
 
 United States the 
 
 academic education of yoi 
 tifarious and desultory. ' 1 
 
 ng women is mul- 
 is comprehensive, 
 
 embracing a little of every tl 
 
 in-., but ace urate in 
 
 almost nothing. Tin's is bei 
 
 tuse it has no well- 
 
 defined purpose. When on 
 
 young women, in- 
 
 stead of closing their 1 ks! 
 
 t 1 7. aim to prepare 
 
 themselves for a college com 
 
 -e. their shams will 
 
 give place to realities, and tl 
 
 ■ public exercises of 
 
 
 girls will present a. 
 
 more substantial programme 
 
 han music and sent i- 
 
 mental essays, and have a hig 
 
 her purpose than to 
 
 display the skill of the mat 
 
 tua-makers." ( The 
 
 Educati m of W .a pa 
 
 icr read before the 
 
 N. V. State Teachers' Assoi 
 
 ation. July, L873.) 
 
 Mi- -abject of the higher 
 
 ducation of women 
 
 has been eh 
 
 question of 
 continuous 
 or universit? 
 of the Sexes. 
 
 it may probably be said, have all been answered 
 either by actual experience, or by the cogent 
 reasoning of such writers as Anna C. Bracket) 
 
FEMALE EDUCATION 
 
 FKMALK TKACIIKKS 
 
 (Educati /' American Girls), < 
 
 Dall I The Other Sid , Mary P. Ji 
 U, iction and Phys H 
 
 Duffey Vo Sex in Education),: n 
 
 The ability of young women to comp 
 othei -i ix, as university students, a 
 physical injury, appears to be ] 
 i : and, hence, the dooi - of 
 and other higher institutes oi I. annu- 
 ally being thrown open to women. 
 been done only afti rthe most strenuous 
 and by stemming the adverse currei 
 opinion. In 1862, Mr. < (rote strongh 
 that the 1'niversity of I, Ion .-In 
 
 it wise men know 
 
 icons to the morals 
 
 e women uned 
 eir influence be;. 
 1 the disadvanti 
 
 ivniniiii---. 
 ,f dctermi 
 
 I n 1 1- in to say, '\\ e 
 e and deserving en- 
 hey are not laudable, 
 nee them forwomen. 
 . honors ami a Ivant- 
 urage what is a bad 
 ton for women.' 1 
 which the Senate is 
 This would be to 
 
 women to degree 
 gued, "the Senate 
 consider our stui 
 
 courngeuieiit only 
 
 and we intend to 
 
 We cannot giant 
 
 ages which will t 
 
 and wrong type 
 
 maintain this is 
 
 not warranted in 
 
 usurp the right 
 
 point which individuals have a full discretion to 
 
 determine by theme Ivi [i d that evi ry 
 
 woman has a right to .-I se for herself among 
 
 the various t> | es o edui it ion ; ii og th se 
 
 she prefers that which coincides with our cur- 
 riculum, we ought to be the last to discredit her 
 for so doing." 'I he Senate of the university, how- 
 ever, positively refused to grant degrees to wom- 
 en, on the -round that the strain ncccs-ar\ for 
 
 passing the examination would be injur 3 to 
 
 their health. To encourage women to compete 
 tor decrees, it was stated, is to invite them to 
 
 .self-destruction. Actual experience in the I ' i 
 
 States disproves the latter assertion. (See CO- 
 EDUCATION of the Sexes.) Jn that country 
 about fifty institutions for superior instruction 
 are open to both sexes, besides which there is a 
 large number for females exclusively. 
 
 The progress already made in the complete 
 education oi women a well as that which is 
 promised in the future by the continued opera- 
 tion of the same causes that have worked so 
 great achange in the past, cannot but redound 
 to the benefit of our race, and shed a genial in- 
 fluence on modern civilization. "Already." says 
 Van Bokkelen, "an hupuKe has been given to 
 society by the education oi women ; yet no truly 
 womanly duty has he n neglected, nor are wom- 
 en less disposed to accept the cares of domestic 
 life, or yield to the claims of conjugal or maternal 
 affection." "Will woman's smiles, be asks, 
 "cease to be attractive when they arc brightened 
 by intelligence? Will her conversation lose its 
 power when strengthened by words of wisdom '! 
 Will her beauty of form and feature vanish amid 
 geometrical and metaphysical problems? Will 
 her kingdom be circumscribed as her knowledge is 
 enlarged? Will her companionship be less valued 
 as her ability to counsel wisely and control judi- 
 ciously is increased?" "Girls too," said Erasmus, 
 " ought to receive a liberal education. The mul- | 
 
 of Instruction, Augui 
 An Address to the J 
 
 i Institute 
 
 WlLLARD, 
 
 g a Plan 
 
 68 : Bra. m it. The 
 
 Hrls (N. V.. 1,7-1,. 
 ttions for II omen, a 
 Science Association 
 '" l//e U. S. Conunis- 
 
 ■k,i„ 
 
 FEMALE TEACHERS. As long as female 
 education continued to be neglected, the work of 
 instructing pupils in schools devolved upon the 
 other sex ; but- inasmuch as girls were taught 
 only in the household, these schools were com- 
 posed exclusively of boys. A woman capable of 
 teaching was an intellectual and social phenom- 
 enon; for the position of females rendered the ac- 
 quisition of learning unnecessary. A writerof the 
 I 3th century enumerated, as the end and aim of 
 female education, " the knowing how to pray to 
 God, to love man, and to knii and sew." in pro- 
 portion, however, as women w ere set free from 
 the social bonds that prevented their receiving 
 the duecultureof their faculties, it was perceived 
 that they were well fitted to take a due share in 
 the work of elementary education. In the ITiited 
 States, the number of female teachers by far 
 exceeds that of male teachers. According to the 
 census of 1870, out of I 69,577 teachers. I 26,822, 
 or about 7 1 percent, were females. In the New 
 England states the excess of female teachers over 
 males is very great. Thus, in .Massachusetts, 
 during 1874 — 5, the number of female teachers 
 employed in the public schools was #,(147 out of 
 
FEMALE TEACHERS 
 
 FENfiLON 
 
 Mam.' 
 
 per cent : m 
 
 . is about 97 
 
 per cent, m winter, only ao per 
 necticut, the proportion is nearly as great; in 
 Vermont, in L873, out of 1,406 teachers, 3,739, 
 or nearly 90 per cent, were females. In the 
 .state of New York, about 67 per cent of all the 
 teachers employed are females: in the city of 
 New York, out of .'i.l lo teachers employed in 
 the public schools, in 1875, 2,842, or more than 
 'JO per cent were females, hi the other large 
 cities of the Union, the preponderance of female 
 over male teachers is very great. In the city of 
 Boston, for example, out oi L,289 teachers em- 
 ployed in 1M74, 1,091, or about 85 per cent, were 
 
 a smaller percentage of female teachers. Thus. 
 in Ohio, in 1873, the number of female teachers 
 was 12.110 out of 21,899; in Missouri. Ken- 
 tucky. Tennessee, and Kansas, the number of 
 male teachers is in excess of that of female 
 teachers. In some of the European countries, 
 the number of female teachers .-.hows a similar 
 preponderance ; but, as a rule, the male teacHers 
 are in a majority. Especially is this the ease in 
 most of the German states Thus in the public 
 •elementary schools of Prussia, there were, in ls.">7. 
 31,467 male and only 1,523 female teachers. 
 
 of employments in which women can engage; 
 (IS) the superior compensation paid to female 
 teachers, in comparison with that paid in other 
 occupations, such as sewing, copying, etc.: i li 'I he 
 fact that men of talent and enterprise can obtain 
 a larger compensation in other fields of labor, in- 
 duces most to quit the work of teaching at an 
 early age; (5) Women are often preferred to 
 men by superintendents and school officers on 
 account of their being more tractable, and more 
 willing to comply with the regulations and 
 to carry out the policy of special systems : and 
 (6) Considerations of economy, the salaries paid 
 to female teachers b 'ing considerably smaller than 
 those paid to males, the last mentioned reason, 
 though generally very influential, in a few cases 
 does not exist. The question of equal compen- 
 sation for equal service lias been much discussed, 
 but has rarely been decided in favor of the female 
 claimants for equal salary. The city of St Louis 
 makes no discrimination between male and female 
 teachers in fixing their salaries. The California 
 legislature of 1 S7.'l enact ei 1 that "females employed 
 as teachers in the public schools of the state 
 should, in all cases, receive the same compensa- 
 tion as is allowed to male teachers for like services, 
 when holding certificates of the same grade." 
 
 Much has been said, in addition, as to the com- 
 parative value of the services of male and female 
 teachers; and there is a wide difference of opinion 
 on this point. Many contend that it is "woman's 
 special mission" to teach, and that, therefore, the 
 whole field should be left open to lur without 
 any competition from the other sex ; and some 
 
 • Mast 
 id this 
 
 - should 
 
 chers of 
 
 A number of Germs. 
 Grundzuge der E 
 (EvaTigi s-Jhe Fz±-g 
 
 . shall fairly 
 the other." 
 
 as <;. Hack 
 I, Palmer, 
 
 SEKEiErzie- 
 
 no1 prevailed, and in Germany aswell as in most 
 of the other European countries, the scale on 
 which female teachers arc employed is steadily 
 enlarging, and the number of training schools for 
 female teachers correspondingly increasing (See 
 
 Training Sci s). It is sometimes said that 
 
 female teachers are i v earnest and devoted 
 
 than mal i teachers, and consequently thai their 
 work is more successful. This might be antici- 
 pated from the fact that women pursue teaching 
 more as a steady employment; while there are 
 but few young men engaged in elementary schools, 
 who are not looking forward to more lucrative 
 and more influential occupations. In this con- 
 nection. Adams, in 77. Free School System of 
 the United States 1875 . remarks: "The large 
 preponderance of female teachers in the States 
 will always render the occupation of teacher 
 more or less a temporary one. As a matter quite 
 of course, women do not look to teaching as a 
 lifelong career In England, scarcely one in 
 twenty of the female teachers reaches her tenth 
 year of service. Of the female teachers trained 
 at Bishop's Stortford, it has been ascertained 
 that their average school life was under five 
 years. The proportion of female teachers in 
 America is ten times greater than in England. 
 Female teachers may hive other advantages over 
 males, and in the United States are generally 
 conceded to have, but the length of their school 
 life is not one of them. 
 
 FENELON, Francois de Salig-nac de la 
 Mothe, a celebrated French educator and prel- 
 ate, was born Aug. 6., L651;died Jan. 7.. L715. 
 lie was. in 1074, ordained a priest, and four 
 years later appointed aumonier of a society of 
 French ladies for instructing Protestant girls in 
 the Catholic faith. I lis experience in this posi- 
 tion induced him to write a work on female 
 education, one of the first systematic works 
 written on the subject. When the Duke of 
 I'.eauvilliers was appointed governor of the 
 royal princes, he procured the appointment of 
 
306 FERULE 
 
 Fenelon as one of their educators. The results 
 of his labors in this position gained for him a 
 reputation as one of the most successful educators 
 of princes that ever lived. The oldest of the 
 princes, the Duke Louis of Burgundy, who when 
 Fenelon was appointed was only seven years old, 
 but already noted for a propensity to violent 
 anger and stubbornness, became, under the in- 
 struction of Fenelon, the model of a meek, docile 
 young prince, and was enthusiastically attached 
 to his teacher. In 1695, the king appointed him 
 Archbishop of Cambray; but, two years later, 
 he fell into disfavor with the king in consequence 
 of theological controversies with Bossuet. and 
 was removed from his position of educator. His 
 famous work. Leg Aventures de Telemaque, is 
 an educational novel, the chief object of which 
 is to develop the principles that guided Fenelon 
 in the education of the three princes. It was 
 completed about, the time his personal intercourse 
 with the princes ceased. It was published 
 against his wish, the manuscript having been 
 stolen by a servant. The best edition of Ins 
 educational works is that of llidot (Paris, 18">0); 
 the best Knglish translation of Tcleim/i/ne is that 
 of Hawkesworth (4to, London, L768, and L2mo, 
 New York. L859). — See also De Bausset, Histoire 
 de Fin, lion (Paris, 1808). 
 
 FERULE (Lat,/Wv//i/,from/eW/v, to strike), 
 an instrument used in inflicting corporal punish- 
 ment in schools. Allusion is made to it by Hor- 
 ace and Juvenal ; by the latter in the remark, 
 nit/Hum feral, r snlitht.i iniim. Among the Ro- 
 mans, this was the instrument for the lightest 
 kind of punishment; of a much severer kind 
 were the scutica, made of twisted strips of parch- 
 ment, and the terrible flagellum, a whip consist- 
 ing of thongs of hard ox-hide. The exact form 
 of the ferula as used by the Romans is not 
 known; in modern times, it was a Mat piece of 
 wood, narrow at the handle, generally with a 
 small hole in the middle of its broad part, for 
 the purpose of raising a blister on the offender's 
 hand. Sometimes, it was a broad leather strap, 
 about ten inches long, and at its broad part 
 about four or five inches wide, fastened to a 
 wooden handle. The Scotch ferule, called the 
 laws, was a leather strap with one end cut into 
 strips and hardened in the fire. — See Cooper, 
 History of the Rod. (See also Corporal Pun- 
 ishment.) 
 
 FESTIVALS, SCHOOL. See School Fes- 
 tivals. 
 
 FICHTE, Johann Gottlieb, one of Ger- 
 many's greatest philosophers, and one of the most 
 noted writers on the subject of national educa- 
 tion, was born May 19., 1762, and died Jan. 28., 
 1814. He was, for some time, professor of phi- 
 losophy at Jena ; but being charged with athe- 
 ism by some persons who had completely mis- 
 understood him, he left that university, and went 
 to Berlin, where he afterward became a professor. 
 His philosophy is a development of that of Kant, 
 and rests entirely upon the notion that the mind 
 constructs its objects by an internal necessity. All 
 activity, as well as the condition of the existence 
 
 FICTION 
 
 of all things, depends upon the ego. Very many 
 profound remarks and fine psychological anal- 
 yses occur in his philosophical writings. His. 
 bent of mind was strongly ethical; he viewed 
 nature as valueless except as a means for devel- 
 oping the moral character of the individual. 
 Like Kant he had the greatest abhorrence of all 
 utilitarian ethics, and woidd not sanction any at- 
 tempt to reduce the moral law to a means of 
 gaining either happiness or heaven. His ad- 
 dresses to the German nation, delivered while 
 Napoleon was in Berlin, are full of this ethical 
 rigor, and are so stirring, that it is a wonder 
 that Napoleon Buffered him to deliver them. 
 
 emphatic enunciation of the doctrine' that edu- 
 cation must be an unfoldingof the whole nature, 
 moral as well as mental. The mere acquisition 
 of knowledge he viewed as the smallest part of 
 education. The great aim of instruction is to 
 
 make g 1 men ; or. since will was the man 
 
 with him, to develop a will to do right. His hatred 
 of selfishness — which was probably much in- 
 creased by the political .vents of his time- 
 brought him into sharp antagonism with the pre- 
 vailing theories both of education and of religion. 
 He complained that the aim of the schools was 
 simply to make men knowing, and th.it they 
 were utterly indifferent to their moral develop- 
 ment. Religion itself, he said, as taught, ministers 
 to selfishness by its theory of rewards and punish- 
 ments. Selfishness was. for him, the root of all 
 evil, and tainted the old methods in church, school, 
 and state. The new education, therefore, must 
 aim to produce complete and unselfish men. 
 
 Addresses to the German Nation (the book 
 
 tion) to lay down a theory of state or national 
 education, in which the rights of the individual 
 do not receive proper recognition. This was a 
 necessary revolt from the individualism of the 
 previous century, but it was no less one-sided, 
 and prepared the way for the opposite theory of 
 Herbart. Concerning Fichte as an educator, 
 see Schmidt, Geschichie der Pddaaogik; and 
 Striempei.l, Die Padagogik der Phihsophen 
 Kant, Fichte, Herbart ( 1 8 13). See also Fichh 's 
 Leben and Briefwechsel, edited by his son, J. H. 
 Fichte (2 vols., 1830— 31) ; and Drmss, Schule 
 der Pddagogik (Leipsic, 1876). 
 
 FICTION, Works of, constitute an import- 
 ant part of the literature used in the education 
 of children. The young mind delights in inter- 
 esting tales, and receives impressions therefrom, 
 deeper and more durable perhaps than those 
 derived from any other source. While it instinc- 
 tively perceives what is fictitious in the scenes 
 and incidents of the story, it imbibes as true the 
 characters of the personages and their relations; 
 that is, it feels that such characters and relations 
 may, possibly or actually, exist in real life. 
 Hence, the awe with which children listen to 
 supernatural narratives is due not only to the 
 excited condition of their imagination, but to the 
 feeling that had such things never existed they 
 
would not have formed part of the story: for 
 stories are felt to be senseless and idle that tell 
 of things entirely impossible. This principle may- 
 serve to guide the educator in selecting or reject- 
 ing works of fiction for the young. They must 
 be looked upon as powerful instruments in either 
 benefiting or corrupting the minds of children. 
 The writings of Mrs. Barbauld, Miss Bdgeworth, 
 Berquin, and in part those of Hans Andersen, 
 are illustrative of this principle. Some of the 
 stories of the latter must be classed among the 
 impossible, and hence are much less instructive 
 and interesting to children. Nor do children take 
 any real interest in those stories usually found 
 in Sunday-school books, which are designed 
 to improve their moral and religious nature 
 by presenting examples of juvenile virtue and 
 
 g Iness, such as they never behold in real life, 
 
 and which they, therefore, look upon as senti- 
 mental and of no account. "There is, " said 
 Margaret Fuller, " too much amongst us of the 
 Preach way of palming off false accounts of 
 things on children, 'to do them good', and show- 
 ing nature to them in a magic lantern, 'purified 
 for the use of childhood', and telling stories of 
 sweet little girls and brave little boys, — O, all so 
 good, so bad! and, above all, so little, and every 
 thing about them so little ! Children accustomed 
 to move in full-sized apartments, and to converse 
 with full-grown men and women, do not need so 
 much of this baby-house style of literature. They 
 like, or would like if they could get them, better 
 things much more. They bke the Arabian 
 Nights, and Pilgrim's Progress, and Bunyan's 
 Emblems, and Shakespeare, and the Iliad and 
 Odyssey, — at least, they used to like them ; and 
 if they do not now, it is because their taste has 
 been injured by so many sugar-plums." In the 
 same spirit. Rosenkrauz says. 'The purest stories 
 of literature designed for the amusement of 
 children from their seventh to their fourteenth 
 year, consist always of those which were honored 
 by nations ami the world at large. One has 
 only to notice in how many thousand forms the 
 stories of (Jlysses are reproduced by the writers 
 of children's tales. Becker's Tales if Ancient 
 Times, (jlustav Schwabs most admirable Sat/as 
 of Antiquity, Karl Grimm's Tales of Olden 
 Times, &c. — what were they without the well- 
 talking, wOy favorite of Pallas, and the divine 
 swineherd? And just as indestructible are the 
 stories of the old Testament up to the separation 
 of Judah and Israel. These patriarchs with their 
 wives and children, these judges and prophets, 
 these kings and priests, are by no means ideals of 
 virtue in the notion of our modern lifeless moral- 
 ity, which woidd smooth out of its pattern stories 
 for the 'dear children' every thing that is hard 
 and uncouth." 
 
 By means of suitable works of fiction, the 
 minds of children and youth may be cultivated 
 in several respects ; (1) By imparting vivid con- 
 ceptions of persons and things ; (2) By impress- 
 ing upon them sentiments of virtue, courage, and 
 patriotism; (3) By developing and training the 
 imagination and the taste. Such were the 
 
 TON 307 
 
 which prompted Fenelon to write Telemaque, 
 and probably Xenophon in the composition of 
 the Cyropcedia; ami this office of fiction as a 
 vehicle of instruction and moral elevation has 
 been recognized by most, if not all. great educa- 
 tors. Pestalozzi selected it as the most effective 
 means of reaching the popular mind. In his 
 Leonard ami Gertrude (1784), he laid the 
 foundation for a national pedagogical literature. 
 
 pected turns and changes, and thus not only de- 
 lights, hut inculcates morality and nobleness of 
 soul. It raises the mind by accommodating the 
 image of things to our desires, and not, like his- 
 tory and reason, subjecting the mind to things.'' 
 There are, however, dangers to be avoided in us- 
 ing fiction as an educational agent, which we 
 may thus briefly summarize : i 1 Bj itsexciting 
 character, it may so occupy or intoxicate the 
 mind, as to destroy the taste for more solid and 
 useful reading. Such is uniformly the result of 
 permitting children to read the wild, romantic, 
 and startling stories, with which some of the 
 juvenile periodicals of the day are filled. The 
 constant perusal of such narratives is baneful : 
 like ardent spirits, it intoxicates but does not 
 nourish. (2) In the case of narratives which 
 present instances of suffering, the sympathies 
 are expended upon fictitious objects, and pity 
 thus becomes habitually a mere sentiment, instead 
 of prompting to active beneficence. "In the 
 healthy state of the moral feelings," says Aber- 
 erombie, "the emotion of sympathy excited by a 
 tale of sorrow ought to be followed by some ef- 
 forts for the relief of the sufferer. When such 
 
 dlv 
 
 wlii 
 
 m.l ths 
 
 11 seltis 
 
 hardu, 
 
 of heart." |3) By presenting to the young mind 
 fictitious scenes of immorality, vice, or .nine, it 
 becomes familiar with their associations, and is 
 thus depraved. (4) By impressing upon the 
 mind false conceptions of the enjoyments, duties, 
 and objects of life, it may be the means of pro- 
 ducing a kind of infatuation, unfitting for every 
 sphere of useful employment. Johnson, in Bas- 
 selas well describes this mental condition : "The 
 mind dances from scene to scene, unites all pleas- 
 ures in all combinations, and riots in delights 
 which nature and fortune, with all their bounty, 
 cannot bestow. In time, some particular train 
 of ideas fixes the attention ; all other intellect- 
 ual gratifications are rejected; the mind, in 
 weariness or leisure, recurs constantly to the 
 favorite conception, and feasts on the luscious 
 falsehood whenever she is offended with the bit- 
 terness of truth. By degrees the reign of fancy 
 is confirmed ; she grows imperious, and in time 
 despotic. Then fictions begin to operate as re- 
 alities, false opinions fasten upon the mind, and 
 life passes in dreams of rapture or of anguish." 
 (See Imagination, Culture of.) 
 
308 FINE ARTS 
 
 FINE ARTS, a term which lias, of late, 
 undergone considerable modification. Formerly, 
 it was tin- collective name of all those arts which, 
 through the power of invention or imitation, are 
 designed to produce pleasure in the mind ; such 
 as poetry, music, etc. Fine arts, in the widest 
 sense of the word, constitute an important 
 agency in every complete system of education; 
 for the element of beauty, which exists in the 
 human mind and should be trained no less than 
 the intellect, the will, or the conscience, depends 
 for its development, to a great extent, on the 
 proper application of the arts of poetry, music, 
 and , hawing. (See Esthetic Culture, and Akt- 
 Education). More recently, the meaning of the 
 term Fine Arts has been restricted to painting, 
 sculpture, engraving, and architecture, which 
 influence us through" the eye. In a still narrower 
 sense, it is sonitimcs applied to painting and 
 sculpture exclusively. 
 
 Special art schools maybe divided into two 
 large classes, — schools of a lower grade, chiefly 
 intended for industrial purposes, and embracing 
 instruction in drawing, modeling, and design ; 
 and schools of higher grade, specially intended 
 for the instruction of young artists in the fine 
 arts, according to the more restricted sense of 
 that term. The former class has been fully 
 treated of under the head of art-education (q. v.). 
 The schools of the latter class have generally 
 been designated by the name Academies <>f An. 
 In ancient times and m the middle ages, schools 
 of this kind were unknown; and the young 
 artist was educated in the n/e/ier of his master, 
 by being trained to take an immediate and active 
 part in the master's work. The first institution 
 which bears a similarity to our present academies 
 of art, was founded at Padua by Squarcione, 
 who, by his collection of antique works of art 
 and by encouraging a thorough study of antique 
 art, exerted a powerful influence upon the Italian 
 artists of the L5th century. The school which 
 was opened by Leonardo da Vinci at Milan, 
 is designated by the name of academy, and 
 even at that early period contained the principal 
 features of the modern academy of art, the 
 personal element of the atelier being enlarged by 
 general instruction. The entire separation o'f 
 the academy of art from the atelier began in 
 the school of Bologna, founded by Lodovico 
 Caracci, ami soon met with general approbation. 
 The influences proceeding from Ixjuis XIV., 
 closely attached art to the royal courts, and con- 
 verted the academies of art, to a large extent, 
 into court institutions. Among the most famous 
 institutions of this kind, were the schools of 
 Paris, founded in 1648, of Berlin, in 1694, 
 Dresden, in 1697, and Vienna, in 1726. The 
 revival of the fine arts, in modern times, caused 
 also a revival of the academies of art and raised 
 them to a higher standard. It, moreover, re- 
 established the close connection which formerly 
 existeil between instruction and the work of the 
 ateliers. Great celebrity, in modern times, has 
 been attained by the schools of Munich and 
 Dusseldorf. In Great Britain and Ireland, 
 
 FINLAND 
 
 there are also schools for artists, located in 
 London, Edinburgh, and Dublin. France has 
 3 schools of tine Arts ; and Italy. 25 academies 
 and institutes. Russia has imperial academies of 
 art at St. Petersburg and Warsaw, and a 
 
 school of painting and sculpture at Moscow. 
 The schools for artists in the United States have 
 already been mentioned in the article on Art- 
 Education. 
 
 FINLAND, a grand duchy in the north- 
 western part of- the Russian Empire, having an 
 area of 144,258 square miles, and a population, 
 in 1872, of 1,835,138. Of this number, about 
 
 ivl, 
 
 Finns having joined the Greek Church. 1a\ss 
 is known of the early history of Finland than of 
 any other countrv of Europe. It was originally 
 governed by independent kings; but, in the 
 middle of tlie 12th century, it became subject to 
 the kings of Sweden, who introduced < Christian- 
 ity, and retained their hold upon it up to 1809, 
 when it was ceded to- Russia. The Swedish 
 language had taken such a deep root, however, 
 that the Russians have not been able to eradicate 
 it. up to the present day. Very little was done 
 for education in Finland up to the 17th century. 
 In 1826, a gymnasium was founded in Abo, the 
 pupils of which were educated to serve as clergy- 
 men ; but. in their learning and manners, they 
 were not much better than the great mass of 
 the people. In 1640, Abo obtained it university ; 
 but the great obstacle to the spread of education, 
 was the want of books. In 1642, a Finnish Bible 
 was published at the expense' of the government; 
 and, by the efforts of the governor, Peter Brahe, 
 the schools were greatly improved. During the 
 northern war. which lasted up to 1721. Finland 
 suffered very much: but, after the conclusion of 
 peace, education was revived, both in the Swed- 
 ish and Russian parts of the country : and insti- 
 tutions of learning were every-where established. 
 At the present time, education is well cared for, 
 and the Finnish language, which had been 
 neglected under the Swedish rule, is encouraged 
 by the Russian government. A large number 
 of native Finns were sent to Germany and 
 Switzerland, in order to study the educational 
 systems of those countries, and to become ac- 
 quainted with them, both theoretically and 
 practically. Among them, one of the most 
 prominent was Uno ( Vgnaus, who, on his return, 
 advocated manual labor as a meansof education; 
 and, in his proposition for the organization of a 
 public-school system for Finland, he embodied 
 this idea. In 1863, he was entrusted with the 
 organization of a Finnish seminary for public- 
 school teachers in Jyvaskyla. This met with so 
 much success, that in 1871, two more were 
 organized for Swedes, — one at Ekeniis for female 
 teachers, and the other at Ny-Karleby for male 
 teachers. According to the latest accounts, 
 there were 71 elementary schools, with about 
 9,600 scholars. Secondary instruction is im- 
 
FISK UNIVEBSITY 
 
 iperior instruc- 
 elsingfors, \\ iih 
 on la provided 
 
 parted in 6 gymnasia : ai 
 rim. there is one univers 
 48 professors. Special 
 
 for in the following schools: one caaet corps at 
 Frederikshamn three navigation Bchools, three 
 technological schools, three commercial schools, 
 one institute for rural e »nomy, at Mustiala, ten 
 agricultural schools, six industrial schools for 
 girls, and our female aei leinv. or high si li ml. at 
 
 Helsingfors. -See Bcsch, B rag r G - 
 schichte und Slatistik des Kirchen- tmd Schul- 
 
 „■,..,,,,■ ,/,■< (^rns<f,,rstenihums Finnland (1874). 
 
 FISK UNIVERSITY, at NashviUe.Tenn., 
 
 Was established by the American Missionary 
 
 Association in 1866. The name was given in 
 honor of Gen. < ilinton B. Fisk. then chief of the 
 Freedmen's Bureau for Tennessee, who aided in 
 its establishment. It was known as the Fisk 
 School till 1867, when it was incorporated as a 
 university. It makes no distinction of race or 
 
 sex. but 'the institution was es] ially designed 
 
 for colored youth, and the students are mainly 
 colored. It has received some aid from th- 
 Preedmen's Bureau and the Peabody Fund, and 
 a gift of between three and four acres of land 
 from the United States; but its support is 
 chiefly derive 1 from the Association. In 1S71 , 
 a number of the students were organized as a 
 singing band, known as the " Jubilee Singers." 
 These and their successors, by concerts in the 
 Northern states and iu England, earned clear of 
 expenses $130,000, which was devote 1 to the 
 purchase of a permanent site for the University, 
 comprising 25 acres, in a beautiful situation in 
 the suburbs of the city, and to the erection of 
 a fine building (dedicated Jan, L, 1876), called 
 Jubilee Hall. The singers are now (1876) in 
 England, engaged in the effort to raise an en- 
 dowment of 8100,000 for the institution. The 
 property of the university is value! at $176,000; 
 its library contains l.:!UII volumes; audit has 
 chemical and philosophical apparatus, and a col- 
 lection of over .'i.000 specimens in natural history, 
 geology, and zoology. Six courses of study have 
 been organized: namely. a collegiate, a coll "je pr ■- 
 paratory, a higher normal, a theological, a nor- 
 mal, and a primary course. Other courses, in- 
 cluding law and me Heine, are to be a 1 led as soon 
 as they are required. The first college class, con- 
 sisting of 4 students, graduate 1 in 1875. In 1875 
 — 6, there were 14 instructors. The number of 
 students was as follows : in the college course. 11; 
 in the college ] ire] iamb iry. .'is ; higher normal. 1 li: 
 theological. 1 3 : normal. 03 : primary, 63 ; total, 
 deducting repetitions. 212. The tuition fees 
 vary from 89 to §13 per year. Prof. John 
 Ogden was principal of the institution from 
 1866 to 18711; and Prof. A. K. Spence,M.A., 
 
 6 i L870 to 1875. In 1875, the Rev. E. M. 
 
 Cravath. M. A., was elected president. 
 
 FLATTICH, Johann Friedrich, a Ger- 
 man educator of the Pietistic School, was born 
 October 30., 1713, at Baihingen. near Ludwigs- 
 burg. He was successively garrison chaplain at 
 Hohenasperg, and pastor at Metterzimmern and 
 at Munehingen, at the latter of which places he 
 
 died, June I.. 1707. lie was generally regarded 
 in Germany as one of the most successful eduea- 
 
 ictive in mind or manners. He -ought to 
 
 id severity in discipline, and to govern by 
 
 lie objected to tin- use of the rod. not, he 
 
 disposition and endowments, the circumstances 
 of his age, his bodily and mental strength, his 
 disposition, his family condition, and the calling 
 to which he was destined. Progress in instruc- 
 tion should be made by slow step.-, beginning 
 with teaching of a simple character, and grad- 
 ually building up the understanding, and .strength- 
 ening the mental powers. Flattich's fame rests 
 not so much on his actual work as a teacher, on 
 the distinction attained by any of his pupils, or 
 even on his written works, as on the pithy maxims 
 in which he expressed his views on education. 
 These maxims are often quoted in Protestant 
 works on the subject, and have had considerable 
 
 inline in molding the theory of teachers.— 
 
 See Ledderhose, Leben und Sckriflen des M. 
 Johann Friedrich Flatlich (4th edit Heidel- 
 berg. 1859) ; Seii.Et.-KR. Flattich und sein p&da- 
 gogisches System (Frankfort, 1871). 
 
 FLORIDA was ceded to the United States 
 by Spain, by a treaty concluded in Washington 
 in 1819, but not ratified till 1820. In 1821, the 
 United State- authorities took formal possession 
 of its new dominions; and in 1822, President Mon- 
 roe appointed William Duval of Kentucky gov- 
 ernor of the territory. It was admitted into 
 the Union as a state. March .'.'.. 1845. Its pop- 
 ulation, in 1830, was reported to be 34,730, of 
 whom 15,501 were slaves; in 1870, according to 
 the census of that year, the population was 
 187,748, of whom 91,689 were free colored per- 
 sons. The number of inhabitants, of all races, 
 lit years old and upward, unable to write, was 
 71,803. Of these 18,904 were whites, of whom 
 
 5,083 w. 
 from 1." 
 
 from 10 to 15 years old, and 4,345 
 i 21. Of the colored inhabitants 
 reported as illiterate. The area of 
 59,268 square miles. 
 rial History.— As early as 1839, a 
 is inserted into the proposed consti- 
 the lands received for " the use of 
 seminaries of learning" should lie 
 
 grammar schools, with 732 students, and 51 com- 
 mon and primary schools, with 925 pupils. Ac- 
 cording to the census report of 1850, there were 
 1(1 academies and tilt common or public school-. 
 In l-nll, the census report gave Florida 07 pub- 
 lic schools, with 2.032 pupils; and KiS aeado- 
 
310 FLO 
 
 mies and other schools, with 4.486 pupils. The 
 whole educational income was $75,412, of which 
 $2,045 was from endowments. The constitution 
 
 of 1865 contained a provision designed to secure 
 for the benefit of the schools of the state the in- 
 come derived from the school lands: but little 
 was done to promote the cause of education till 
 the passage of the school law, Jan. 30., L869, on 
 which the present school system is based. 
 
 Slate Superintendents. — The first state super- 
 intendent of public instruction was ('.Thurston 
 Chase, appointed Aug. 13., 1868, under whose 
 advice and direction the school law of the fol- 
 lowing year was enacted. He held the office 
 until his death Sept. 22., 1870 : and Rev. Charles 
 Beeeherwas appointed to succeed him March Is., 
 1871, who served until Jan. 23., 1873, when, a 
 new administration coming into possession of the 
 state government, he was superseded by Jonathan 
 C. Gibbs. The latter held the office till his 
 death, which occurred Aug. 11.. 1874. William 
 Watkin Hicks, the present incumbent, was ap- 
 pointed March 1., 1875. 
 
 School System. — The school law provides for 
 the establishment of a uniform system of public 
 instruction free to all children between the ages 
 of 6 and 2] years. The officers of the depart- 
 ment of public instruction consist of a superin- 
 tendent, a state board of education, a board of 
 public instruction for each county, a superin- 
 tendent of schools for each county, local school 
 trustees, treasurers, and agents. Each county 
 board of public instruction consists of not more 
 than five members, appointed by the state board 
 of education. The board of education consists 
 of the superintendent of public instruction, the 
 secretary of state, and the attorney general, the 
 .superintendent being the president of the board. 
 Its duties are. to take charge of and control the 
 sale or rental of all lands granted to, or held by, 
 the state for educational purposes ; to have 
 
 charge and direct the use of all educat al 
 
 funds of the state ; to audit the accounts of the 
 .superintendent ; to decide questions and appeals 
 referred to them by the superintendent ; to re- 
 move subordinate officers for cause ; and to keep 
 in view the establishment of a university, the 
 object of which shall be to impart instruction m 
 the professions of teaching, medicine, and law, 
 in natural science, the theory and practice of 
 agriculture, horticulture, mining, engineering, 
 and the mechanic arts ; also in the ancient and 
 modern lane n.- I.uli t -mathematics. literature, 
 and in such useful and ornamental branches as 
 are not taught in the common schools. The 
 superintendent holds office tour years, and is re- 
 quired to have the oversight, management, and 
 charge of all matters pertaining to public lands, 
 school buildings, ground.-., furniture, libraries. 
 text-books, and apparatus ; to furnish all school 
 officers with the necessary blanks for official re- 
 turns, and information regarding the proper dis- 
 charge of their duties; to provide plans and 
 specifications for the construction and furnish- 
 ing of school buildings: to call meetings of 
 county superintendents and other officers for the 
 
 j purpose of advising and instructing them as to 
 their duties : to grant certificates to successful 
 
 I teachers, and to fix the grades and standards of 
 qualification of teachers in general ; to apportion 
 
 sell, 
 
 i iv tiie one-mill tax among tne counties m pro- 
 portion to the number of children residing there- 
 in between the ages of 6 and 21 ; to decide 
 questions and appeals arising under the school 
 act, or to refer the same to the board of education ; 
 to collect and preserve useful educational and 
 historical documents, and specimens of natural 
 history. Each county board is constituted a 
 corporate body, and may take and hold real and 
 personal property for educational purposes. Its 
 duties are to have charge of all educational prop- 
 erty in the county ; to locate and maintain 
 schools wdiere needed, so as to accommodate all 
 the children of school age in the county, not 
 less than three months of each year; to examine 
 candidates for teachers' licenses, and grant certif- 
 icates to those found competent ; and to keep 
 a record of its official proceedings. The county 
 superintendent is secretary ex officio of the 
 board of public instruction ; and. in addition to 
 keeping the records, he is required to make him- 
 self acquainted with all parts of the county, and 
 to keep himself informed of the needs and wishes 
 of the people in regard to schools ; to visit each 
 school at least once in each term, and to confer 
 with and direct the teachers in their work ; to 
 exercise a supervision over the trustees, the gen- 
 eral management of the schools, and do all in his 
 power to awaken an increased interest in parents, 
 trustees, and teachers, in regard to every thing 
 pertaining to the welfare of the schools; also to 
 select pcisons for trustees, whose characters, 
 qualifications, and sympathy with education 
 specially commend them for such positions; to 
 decide questions in dispute, or refer them to 
 the board of public instruction : to keep a record 
 of the name, description, and locality of every 
 school established; and to perform the duties, as 
 far as may be necessary, of the board of public 
 instruction, in case such a body should not be 
 organized, or should fail without good cause to 
 pci form its duties. The school trustees are re- 
 quired to take special charge of the schools in 
 their respective localities, to see tu the construc- 
 tion and safe-keeping of the school buildings and 
 
 other property, to < perate with the teachers 
 
 in maintaining order and discipline, to suspend 
 or expel pupils for misconduct ; and to make a 
 quarterly report to the county superintendent. 
 Certificates of qualification to teach, valid 
 for one year, may be granted by the county 
 boards of public instruction, also by the state 
 superintendent to graduates of the Department 
 of Teaching, and to eminently successful teach- 
 ers, valid iii any part of the' state during the 
 time specified. ' These certificates are of three 
 grades, the standard for each being fixed by the 
 state superintendent A certificate may be an- 
 nulled by the authority which issued it. for any 
 cause which woidd disqualify a candidate for 
 a license. 
 
FLORIDA 
 
 Teachers are specially directed to labor ear- 
 nestly and faithfully for the advancement of the 
 pupils in their studies, and to inculcate by pre- 
 
 FOREIGN EDUCATION 311 
 
 yet in the state In the high schools, the usual 
 higher English and classical studies are pursued: 
 
 /...,.■/,.,,:■ :., ti„. i.;..i, J..1.....L , t otk ,'.. 
 
 mal Condition. — There are three 
 chools, — high, common, and primary, 
 
 ncy 
 
 suspend pupils from school for ten days for gross 
 immorality, misconduct, or persistent violation 
 oftheschool regulations; and to hold a public 
 examination each term. The reading of the 
 Bible and short devotional exercises of a non- 
 sectarian character, at the opening of the school, 
 are not to be prohibited ; hut no pupil is to be 
 required to engage in them against his conscience. 
 or contrary to the wishes of his parents or 
 guardian. 
 
 A school day is defined to consist of six hours 
 exclusive of recesses ; a school month, of twenty- 
 two days, exclusive of the first and last day of 
 each week; a school term, of three months ; and 
 a school year, of three terms. 
 
 School Fund. -The school fund consists of the 
 Kith section of the various townships set apart 
 
 by act of Congress for common school purposes, 
 
 and various donations by individuals for educa- 
 tional purposes. Besides the income from these 
 sources, then' are appropriations by the state; 
 the proceeds of all property granted to the state, 
 
 all nevs which may be paid for exemption 
 
 from military duty ; all tines collected under the 
 penal laws of the state ; such portion of the per 
 capita tax as may be prescribed by law for ed- 
 ucational purposes ; twenty-five per cent of the 
 proceeds of the sales of public lands which are 
 now or may hereafter be owned by the state ; a 
 special tax of not less than one mill on the 
 dollar upon all taxable property in the state, to 
 be levied and apportioned 'annually for the 
 
 raised by each county, annually producing' a sum 
 not less than one-half of the amount apportioned 
 to each county from the income of the common 
 school fund. 
 
 The seminary lands were granted by Congress 
 for the support of two seminaries, "one to lie 
 located east, and the other west of the Suwanee 
 River, and amounted originally to s."i,71 f aires. 
 Of these about 38,000 acres remain unsold. The 
 sum realized by the sale of these lands has 
 amounted to about $100,000 ; and the estimated 
 value of the remainder is about $75,000. In 
 addition to this, there are Florida 6,7, and 8 per 
 cent bonds, amounting to $81 ,41)2.45. There is 
 no uniform course if instruction established as 
 
 as follows: in .Jacksonville, 2, — Duval High 
 School and Staunton Institute: in Pensacola, 1 : 
 in Key West, 1 ; in Monticello, 1 ; and at Fort 
 Reid, 1. 
 
 The following are the principal items of the 
 school statistics for 1874 : 
 
 •of 1 
 
 There are no city-school systems proper in this 
 state, the management of all the schools in each 
 county being in the hands of the county board 
 
 Seminaries. The Middle Florida Seminary, 
 located at Gainesville, and the West Florida 
 
 ise of the adjoining 
 tudy includes common 
 ■he,-, with the classics 
 . 'I here are also several 
 jal schools in various 
 
 ■ state. 
 Tnstrui 
 
 'ion. — There is no institution 
 for superior instruction in Florida; but a state 
 agricultural college has been planned and provided 
 for by law, and was to have been inaugurated 
 some time ago : but this has been delayed by pend- 
 ing litigation in regard to the constitutionality 
 of the state bonds in which the college funds 
 had been invested. Of this college when estab- 
 lished the state superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion will be ex officio the president. 
 
 Educational ' Literature. — The Fernandina 
 Observer is the official organ of the state educa- 
 tional department. 
 
 FOREIGN EDUCATION. By this is 
 meant the education of children in foreign coun- 
 tries. Parents in the United States sometimes 
 send their children to France or Germany to be 
 educated, in preference to having them instructed 
 in the schools of their native country. The custom 
 also exists to some extent in Great I'ritain. The 
 motive which prompts this course is the desire 
 that their children shall have the best means of 
 instruction, and the impression that this is af- 
 forded by the teachers and schools of Europe. 
 
 Inchlcliiif.' fs.aaii frem the Ivabody limit. 
 
312 
 
 FOREIGN K1HCATION 
 
 Very frequently, however, it arises from the wish 
 on the part of parents to accomplish their children 
 in foreign languages, particularly French ami 
 German. "Some parents," savs Von Etaumer, 
 "who think no attainment valuable ii mpar- 
 
 daughters to French or Swiss schools, where 
 they can hear and speak nothing but French. In 
 such a foreign atmosphere they too often become 
 estranged from their native home and country." 
 " For our youth." says B. G. Northrop. "Ameri- 
 can schools are better than European. To send 
 our boys and girls away to a foreign boarding- 
 school is a great mistake, or rather one of the 
 fashionable follies which is just now having its 
 day." Parents who adopt this course, seem to 
 lose sight of the important fact that the school is 
 not the only educator, nay. is not generally the 
 most effective means of education. The influences 
 that cluster around the home-circle, and that 
 emanate from the peculiar laws, customs, man- 
 ners mi I institutions of tl ountry in which the 
 
 child lives, leave their indelibly impress upon the 
 plastic character of youth ; and these influences 
 should be such as to form a character in har- 
 mony with the life of the nation of which the 
 child when grown up is to form a part. Lin- 
 guistic and esthetic training cannot lie a satisfac- 
 tory substitute for this national culture. It is of 
 little use that young men or women know how to 
 speak fluently and correctly F"rench. German, 
 Italian, or any other foreign language, or excel 
 in either judging or executing works of art. if 
 they arc ignorant of, or indifferent to, the lan- 
 guage and institutions of their own country. 
 Children grow, ng up in a foreign land must nec- 
 essarily imbibe a predilection tor foreign man- 
 ners, customs, and sentiments, because these are 
 inseparably associated with the most delightful 
 part of their existence. Every one reverts with 
 pleasure to the scenes of childhood, consecrated 
 in the mind, as thev are. by the meinorv of the 
 enjoyments peculiar to that age. Itisthis thai 
 renders the foreign education of children so dan- 
 gerous, ..- tending to unfit them for the duties of 
 special citia nship I low often do we hear the 
 most unfavorable criticism pronounce 1 upon the 
 institutions and customs of the native country 
 by those whose notions, associations, and modes 
 of thought have been formed by a foreign educa- 
 tion! " The experience of American colleges," 
 says B. G. Northrop, "is believed to be nearly 
 uniform, as to the superiority in the qualifica- 
 tion of candidates trained at home over our 
 youth prepared for college abroad. The number 
 of the latter class is relatively small ; but the 
 instances of eminent success, either in college 
 studies or pra-tical life on the part of American 
 boys chiefly educated abroad, are rare and excep- 
 tional." 
 
 These objections, of course, do not apply to 
 the practice of sending abroad young men and 
 women of more mature age, cither to finish their 
 education in foreign schools or universities, or to 
 acquire a knowledge of sonic special arts in tech- 
 nical schools, because the national character hav- '< 
 
 FORM 
 
 ing been once fully formed, is not easily affected 
 by later influences and conversations. Young 
 men. among the Romans, particularly in the later 
 periods of the republic, were often sent to Greece 
 and other countries to finish their scholastic or 
 literary education. Thus Cicero addresses his 
 /'. qffii its to his son Marcus, then a young man 
 of 'J 1 . who had been for some time pursuing 
 his studies in the schools of Athens. In the same 
 manner and with equal propriety, a young man 
 may be sent from the United States to any of 
 the great European universities, either in Great 
 Britain or on the continent, to pursue linguistic, 
 scientific, technical, artistic, or other studies, for 
 which those institutions are able to afford greater 
 facilities than are offered at home. 
 
 Foreign travel constitutes an important part 
 of a complete education, and is not at all subject 
 to the objections which are urged against a 
 foreign elementary education. Nothing more 
 enlarges the mind than the observation of the- 
 manners, institutions, etc.. of foreign countries. 
 New and vivid ideas are impressed upon it; 
 narrow prejudices are removed; and a founda- 
 tion is laid for just and liberal thought. This, 
 however, should occur at a comparatively mature 
 age, and should be preceded by sufficient educa- 
 tion to fit for the observation of things abroad. 
 ,. Foreign travel." says Bishop Watson (cited in 
 Knox on Libera! Eilm-nHim), "is of great use 
 when it is undertaken by men who have learned 
 to bring their passions under the control of 
 reason and religion ; who have had some experi- 
 ence in life, acquired some knowdedge of the 
 manufactures, policy, revenues, and resources of 
 their own country.' — See Northrop, Education 
 of Americans abroad (Sen York). 
 
 FORM, one of the most important branches. 
 of object teaching, since, from the first dawn of 
 
 intellect, the endless variety of tonus presented 
 to the chiM's sight constitutes perhaps the most 
 effective means of awake nine and exercising its 
 perceptive faculties. The first comparison which 
 the young child makes between the objects of its 
 perception must be based upon their resemblances, 
 the conscious perception of differences occurring 
 somewhat later. 'I his arises from its need of 
 forming general ideas as preliminary to the exer- 
 eiseof its thinking powers. (See Intellect.) 'lite 
 diversity of forms, like that of color, as seen by 
 the child, very greatly interests it and attracts 
 its attention : and. hence, when formal education 
 begins, the child has already accumulated in its 
 mind, in a rude and indefinite way. many 
 materials which the expert teacher will use. in 
 guiding his pupil to more exact knowdedge. 
 The untaught child's vocabulary of terms to- 
 denote the various forms which it has seen is 
 very meager ; and, hence, its conceptions are too 
 indefinite to form the materials for conscious 
 thought. They are. as it were, only embryotic 
 thoughts, to be developed by the power of 
 language. Hence, an important office of the in- 
 structor is to teach the proper term, or word, by 
 which each particular object of the child's atten- 
 tion is to be designated, and in this way clearly 
 
FORM 
 
 individualized. For example, a young child 
 intuitively perceives the difference between the 
 form of a round object and a square one; but 
 before the terms round and square have been 
 learned as the names of these forms, they cannot 
 be used by the mind in any process of thought. 
 Besides, the young mind, in the exercise of its 
 unaided powers, is chiefly occupied with the 
 observation of resemblances and analogies, and 
 only after the guidance of the teacher, comes to 
 
 analogy, ;\< it has been called, taking the lead in 
 
 the obse 
 guided 1 
 
 a basis for training 
 teacher should be 
 inciples: (1) Resem- 
 blances are perceived before differences; (2) The 
 
 concrete precedes the abstract; (.3) Kvn\ object 
 is perceived as a whole before its component 
 parts are noticed ; (4) Every idea must have its 
 proper verbal designation to be clearly and 
 permanently fixed in the mind. The teacher 
 should, therefore, begin with simple regular forms, 
 such as the cube, prism, parallelopiped, pyrami 1. 
 sphere, cone, and cylinder. These, at first, should 
 be all alike in material and color, and about 
 the same in size, so that 
 develop the idea oiform 
 in the instruction. At 
 be very slow. Thus the 
 view of the pupils a cubi 
 of the box of solids us 
 lessons], and asks. •■ \V 
 children probably repjy 
 Then the teacher present 
 cone, cylinder, etc., askin 
 
 FOUNDLING ASYLUMS 313 
 
 have been thus developed, and the method of 
 representing lines and hemes on the blackboard 
 shown to the pupil, he is prepared fur varied 
 
 slate and blackboard exercises on the positions 
 and combinations oi lines both stra ! and 
 curved, to be followed h\ similar exercises on 
 
 designs. Of a similar bu 
 character are block eon. hi 
 
 HoxeS of blocks made for th 
 signs for construction, can 
 Charts containing diagrams 
 also be found very useful i 
 form. These lessons should 
 desultory, but regularly arrai 
 
 ined. 
 will 
 
 ele 
 
 process should 
 
 tolds up to the I 
 
 of wood Tone I 
 
 spl 
 question and 
 
 obtaining the same answer. The teacher then 
 says, •■ Each of these is a piece of w 
 they all alike? " To which the childre 
 
 - No." - Do they differ i lor?" 
 
 "In size?" "No." This leads the teacher to 
 show. in a very general way. not by giving names 
 at first, but by directing the pupil-' attention, 
 that the objects differ in form : that is, each has 
 its own peculiar form. 'The teacher may then 
 go back to the cube, and ask the pupils to men- 
 tion any other things they have seen which have 
 the same form as the block of wood: and so on 
 with the' other forms. This exercise being a 
 perfectly natural one will awaken interest, 
 liesides familiarizing the children with the par- 
 ticular forms presented. The next step will be 
 to lead the children to observe the points of 
 difference between thes • forms : and, in order to 
 do this, the analytic process must begin. Thus. 
 the teacher develops the idea of side or face, and 
 the pupils perceive that the cube has six faces; 
 the edges, corners, and equality of faces and 
 
 has perceived the distinctive characteristics of 
 
 the form, its name, as cube, prism, etc., may be 
 taught. This method requires the teacher to 
 begin with solids (as the concrete) and to deduce 
 from the observation of them the ideas of sur- 
 face, line, and point (as the abstract), in accord- 
 ance with the principle (2). After these ideas 
 
 I'rim.tn, Oh},,! hssous (X. V., 1*71) ; llmr to 
 
 Teach (N. V.. L874). 
 
 FORT WAYNE COLLEGE, at Fort 
 Wayne, Ind.. founded in 1846, is under the 
 patronage of the Northand North West Indiana 
 Conferences of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 It is situated in the most pleasant part of the 
 city, and occupies a large and commodious edi- 
 fice. It comprises six departments ; the college 
 (with a classical and a scientific course), the 
 normal, commercial, and academic departments, 
 and those of music and art. It is supported by 
 tuition fees, and both sexes are admitted. In 
 1875—6, there were 11 instructors and L32 
 students. The Rev. Reuben D. Robinson, It.. It., 
 is the president of the college (1876). 
 
 FOUNDLING ASYLUMS are institutions 
 in which children are revived who have been 
 
 hu 
 
 d!n 
 
 century, a foundling a.-yliim is said to have ex- 
 isted in Treves. But the first instituti f this 
 
 kind of which we have any authentic informa- 
 tion is that of Milan, founded in 787. Others 
 followed in course of time, and they spread 
 rapidly. Later, they disappear from the Ger- 
 manic countries, and principally from those in 
 which the Protestant faith prevailed: while 
 they continued to spread in the Catholic and 
 
 creased in I- ranee, and wherever French influence 
 has predominated. Thus in France the number 
 of foundlings received in asylums increased 
 from 40,000, in 1784, to 129,700 in 1834. In 
 Austria proper, there were, in 1872, 1 5 foundling 
 asylums, taking care of 13.72.3 children in the 
 institutions, and 42. ICO outside. The number of 
 
314 
 
 FOURIER 
 
 foundlings annually received in Rome is esti- 
 mated at 3,1 ; in Naples, at 2.000; and in Tus- 
 cany, at about 12,000. Spain had. in 1800, 14!) 
 asylums, with 53,464 foundlings. Portugal had, 
 in the same year, 21 asylums, with33,E found- 
 lings, L6.000 being received annually. England 
 has foundling asylums in London and Wanstead. 
 The institution in London, in L870, maintained 
 504 children. The only asylum in Dublin was 
 closed in 1k.'S.">. Norway has several institutions 
 of this kind, ami the number of foundlings has, for 
 some years, been more than !) per eent of the total 
 number of births. Sweden has also an asylum at 
 Stockholm. There axe but few foundling asylums 
 in the United States, the children being generally 
 brought to the almshouses. In New York, a 
 Catholic asylum was founded in 1800, which re- 
 ceived ( siderable aid, in money and grants of 
 
 land, from the state. Besides this institution. 
 there are several others in the same city, all, how- 
 ever, established and controlled by private char- 
 ity. The Nursery and Child's Hospital, founded 
 inl854, has, however, aschool, which is partly sup- 
 ported from the state school fund. This asylum 
 hasacountrv branch on the north shore of Staten 
 Island. Nowhere, in the United States, has the 
 
 government taken 
 tion of foundling as 
 
 money and grants of laud. Considerable differ- 
 ence of opinion exists as to the utility of found- 
 ling asylums. One of the chief objections raised 
 against them is the excessive mortality of the chil- 
 dren; but this has been greatly reduced by send- 
 ing the children into the country, and boarding 
 them out in private families. Very little has 
 been done for the education of foundlings, at 
 least in the asylums, a- tiny are sent to other in- 
 stitutions for instruction, and continued there 
 up to their thirteenth or fourteenth year, after 
 which they are provided with places of employ- 
 ment, generally as apprentices to farmers and 
 others. In Rome, a large number of the chil- 
 dren are educated in families. The boys that 
 return to the asylum, are sent to the foundling 
 asylum in Viterbo, where they learn trades up 
 to their twenty -first year, when they are dismis- 
 sed with a present of 10 scmli. If they remain 
 in the families, they are educated in the same 
 manner, and, when of age, receive a similar 
 present. The girls are kept in the families or in 
 
 the asylum until they marry, when they r ive 
 
 a dowry of 100 scudi. In I!u~>ia. foundlings 
 are educated for a trade or profession ; and those 
 who show particular talents are sent to tin' uni- 
 versity. Here also the children .are boarded in 
 private families as much as possible. In Russia 
 and France, agricultural colonies have also been 
 established, where tin- boys are brought upas 
 farmers. — See Huegel, Die Findelhduser mal 
 ,/,,.< Findetioesen Europa's (1863). 
 
 FOURIER, Pierre, the founder of an edu- 
 cational order of the Catholic Church, was born at 
 Mirecourt, I/irraine. in I ."ilia, ami died in Cray, 
 Franche-< lomte, in 1 OUt. I [e studied, for a time, 
 in the university of Pont - a - Mousson, where 
 he led a very strict life. At the age of seven- 
 
 FRANCE 
 
 teen years, he began to teach in the 
 families, and conceived the plan of devoting his 
 entire life to the education of youth. 1 le entered 
 the order of Pr&monbre; ami when the dissolute 
 monks compelled him to leave the order, he be- 
 came the parish priest of Mataincourt. when- he 
 gained a great reputation as an educator. In 1598. 
 with Alice Le Clerc and other nuns, he formed 
 an educational institution for girls. In L603, he 
 obtained a papal bull tor the organisation of the 
 society of Notre Dame de Lorraine, of which 
 Alice Le Clerc was the first abbess; and this 
 society was confirmed by Raul V., in Willi. The 
 older spread rapidly ami has. at present, flourish- 
 ing establishments in France, Hungary, Canada, 
 the New Knglaml States, and ( hili, with its 
 central house for America in Montreal. He also 
 reformed the canons of the order of Premontre, 
 who bound themselves to the education of 
 christian youths. In 1632, he was elected superior 
 genera] of the new Boeiety, which called itself 
 St. Sauveur de Lorraine. He was beatified Jan. 
 2!L. 17.10. and is generally styled the Blessed 
 Peter Fourier.- See Rittee, Der selu/e P. 
 Fourier. (I.inz. is;,;,). 
 
 FRACTIONS. See Arithmetic. 
 
 FRANCE, one of the principal countries of 
 Europe, having an area of 204,090 sq. m., and 
 a population, according to tie census of L872, of 
 1 36,102,921. Formerly France had immense pos- 
 sessions in America, tar exceeding those of (heat 
 
 a very small part. I luting the present century, 
 however, French rule has been extended over 
 
 considerable territories in northern Africa. Far- 
 
 ibout :t7::.000s,p m.. having a popu- 
 ut 6,600,000. Including itscolonies 
 icies. France occupied, in lsTli. the 
 uong the nations of the earth in 
 
 religion. Almost the entire population speak 
 the French language, and more than 98 per cent 
 are actually or nominally connected with the 
 Catholic Church. 1 hus France is the chief re- 
 presentative, among the countries of the earth, 
 of what is sometimes called the latin race; 
 ami its language is fore st among Romanic lan- 
 guages, as its people are chief among the supporters 
 of the Catholic Church - 'I he present territory 
 of France, in the earliest historic times, was in- 
 habited by the Cauls, a Celtic tribe. The country 
 became a Roman province 58—51 B.C. During 
 the 5th century A. D., it was conquered by the 
 Franks, a German tribe, who built up an empire, 
 which, under Charlemagne, reached its greatest 
 territorial extent, embracing, besides modern 
 France, a large portion of Germany and Italy. 
 With the division of this empire, in 843, by the 
 treaty of Verdun, begins the separate history of 
 France and Germany. The kingdom of France, 
 slowly consolidating itself by the absorption of 
 
the territories of numerous petty princes, at- 
 tained the summit of its glory under Louis XIV. 
 (1643—1715); but, tired at "last of the long-con- 
 tinued oppression of the kings and the priv- 
 ileged classes, the people, in IT-'.' rose in a 
 
 NCE 315 
 
 Louis le Debonnaire was not favorable to this 
 school, lint its prosperity revived under Charles 
 the Bald, when it counted .Mm Scotus Kriocna 
 among its teachers. Alter the death of ( harles 
 the Bald, the efficiencj of the school departed 
 
 fur ever, and theological seniinaries and convent 
 
 ,sclt 
 
 and established the greatest empire of nioilcrn 
 times, subjecting to his direct or indirect rule 
 all Europe except England and Russia. With 
 his final dethronement, in 1-1 A tlii- empire 
 came to an end : and the re-instated Bourbons 
 only ruled withm the former limits of the king- 
 dom of France. In 1848, a second republic was 
 proclaimed, and Louis Napoleon was elected 
 president, who. in L852, proclaimed himself em- 
 peror under the title of Napoli III. His de- 
 feat, in 1870, by the united German states led to 
 the deposition of Ins dynasty and the proclama- 
 tion of the third French republic. 
 
 Educational History. -Little is known of the 
 state of education among the Celts of ancient 
 Gaul; but Csesar says of the Druids that they 
 "held a great many discourses about the stars 
 and their motions, about the extent of the 
 universe and of various countries, about the 
 nature of things, and the power of the immortal 
 gods." and "transmitted their opinions and 
 knowledge to the young." In the flourishing 
 Creek colony at Marseilles, a school was estab- 
 lished long before the time of ( ';esar. which at- 
 tracted a large number of pupils. Under the 
 rule of the Romans, the cause of education made 
 considerable progress. Lyons, Narbonne, Bor- 
 deaux. Toulouse, Aries. Besancon, Treves, and 
 other centers of population, had both public and 
 private schools, in which the Creek and Roman 
 classics were read. The teachers of these schools 
 enjoyed many privileges. They drew their salaries 
 from the imperial treasury, and. before entering 
 upon their office, had to undergo a public com- 
 petitive examination. The scholars were divided 
 into three classes: exlenti, living outside the 
 institution, amvictores, boarders, and alimenr 
 tarii, those supported in the institution by pub- 
 lic or private stipends. When, in the course 
 of the 5th century, the education and civilization 
 of pagan Rome gradually decayed, and finally 
 disappeared before the advance of Christianity. 
 Christian schools sprung up in connection with 
 
 many monasteries, and Prance s i took aprom- 
 
 incn't part in the establishment of cathedral, 
 collegiate, and convent schools. Among the 
 cathedral schools, those at Aries. Bourges, 
 Clermont, Le Mans. Paris. Poitiers, and Vienne, 
 
 and among tin. nvent schools, those of Luxence. 
 
 and of St. Vaudville, in Normandy, were espe- 
 cially famous. I luring the 7th century, dense igno- 
 rance prevailed ; but Charlemagne infused new- 
 life into the existing schools, and founded many 
 new ones. Through the efforts of Alcuin. the 
 court school [sckola palatina), in which the sons 
 of nobles were educated, became a model school 
 for all ecclesiastical institutions. The reign of 
 
 the reformatory movements among the clergy 
 favorably reacted upon education, and many of 
 the clerical schools regained new luster. 1'aris 
 became the great center of learning, and many 
 were the distinguished teachers who added to 
 the reputation of the Parisian _ schools. The 
 most illustrious among all the French teachers 
 of this period was Abelard (q. v.). Besides the 
 episcopal schools of Notre Dame and Cciicvii-vc. 
 in Paris, those of Reims and ( 'hartres, and the 
 convent school of Bee, in Normandy, were 
 especially famous. In 1200, a royal decree which 
 exempted the teachers of Paris, the students and 
 their servants, from the jurisdiction of the city, 
 prepared the way for a corporate organization 
 of teachers and students, and. consequently, for 
 the establishment of the Paris university, which. 
 after animated controversies with the chancellor 
 of the chapter of Notre Dame, in 1203, had 
 its independence recognized and permanently 
 secured by Papal privileges. The reputation 
 and influence of the new university increased 
 with marvelous rapidity, and attracted thousands 
 of students from all parts of Europe. In 1233, 
 another university was established at Toulouse, 
 which received from Gregory IX. privileges 
 equal to those of Paris. A third university was 
 founded tit MontpeUier, where, probably, the 
 scholarship of the Arabian schools in the neigh- 
 boring Spain were exerting a favorable influence. 
 In the natural course of development, these in- 
 stitutions became the only seats of the higher 
 studies, while cathedral and convent schools re- 
 mained almost exclusively training schools of 
 candidates for the priesthood. 'Hie controversy 
 of the university of Paris with the powerful 
 orders of the Franciscans and Dominicans led 
 to the organization of the theological faculty, 
 which was gradually succeeded by the division 
 of the entire university into four faculties. As 
 the example of Paris was followed in most 
 countries of Europe, the establishment of distinct 
 faculties marks a new departure in the history 
 of the European universities. (See University.) 
 Another educational movement of great impor- 
 tance was begunin Paris by the establishment of 
 colleges in connection with the university. These 
 institutions were, at first, intended to give to 
 students from the French provinces, and from 
 foreign countries, lodging and board, and some 
 of them were founded even before the establish- 
 ment of the university. But their character as 
 preparatory and auxiliary schools was only de- 
 veloped in connection with the universities. 
 Among the oldest and most renowned Parisian 
 i colleges, were those of St. Thomas, the Danish 
 
^ 
 
 316 FRA 
 
 College, the College of the Dix-huit, the Greek 
 College (1206), and the Sorbonne (1253). Besides 
 these colleges, which, however, were numerous 
 only iu Paris, the universities conducted also 
 independent middle schools to meet the growing 
 demand of large classes of the population for in- 
 struction. Paris, at this time, had even a system 
 of parochial or elementary schools, under the 
 Grand Chanter, or master of singing. In 1380, 
 the male and female teachers of Paris held a 
 general meeting, from the proceedings of which 
 it appears that there were, at that time, in Paris 
 at least 41 male, and 'J2 female teachers. Of the 
 former, many had the degree of bachelier or 
 maitre-es-arls. In the course of the 14th and 
 15th centuries, the desire for knowledge and edu- 
 cation became quite general among the nobility 
 and the population of the towns. The number 
 of students rapidly increased in all parts of the 
 country. New universities arose at Orleans, 
 Cahors, Perpignan, Angers, Aix, C'aen, Poitiers, 
 Valence, Nantes, Bourges, and Bordeaux. The 
 kings recognized their importance, conferred 
 upon them many favors, anil by gradually with- 
 drawing them from papal and placing them 
 under royal jurisdiction, substantially changed 
 their character. Strict conformity with the 
 teaching of the church was no longer, to the 
 same degree as before, the highest aim kept in 
 view, and a more exalted position was accorded 
 to the foremost representatives of the high 
 schools in both church and state. Among the 
 grandest triumphs of the university was the 
 leading part which it was called upon to take in 
 the termination of the papal schism. The trans- 
 fer of the lectures from the halls of the univer- 
 sity to the colleges was an innovation which 
 has not proved conducive to the progress of edu- 
 cation. By making the colleges the centers of 
 university instruction, instead of preparatory 
 aud auxiliary schools, it retarded the sharp dis- 
 tinction between secondary and superior instruc- 
 tion, which has greatly promoted t lie educational 
 development of other European countries. The 
 ecclesiastical seminaries and convent schools 
 greatly suffered, toward the close of the middle 
 ages, from the disorders prevailing in the church; 
 but the petites ecoles, or small Latin schools, 
 which were conducted by clergymen in all the 
 larger towns, attai la high degree of prosper- 
 ity. Under Louis XL (1461—1483), the sub- 
 jection of all the non-clerical schools to the 
 supreme jurisdiction of the state government 
 was completed. In L529, Francis I. founded the 
 College </<■ Franc :, a school for the study of the 
 humanities, which were too much neglected by the 
 university. The new school flourished in spite of • 
 all opposition, and attained a very honorable 
 position among the high schools of France. The 
 university, on "the other hand, lost, to a great ex- 
 tent, its former influence and prestige, while im- 
 morality made alarming progress among the 
 students, especially between 1548 and 1558. 
 The government took occasion, from the deplor- 
 able condition of the university, to curtail its 
 privileges. The rector, instead of being the 
 
 head of an independent organization, became an 
 officer of the king. After the conversion of the 
 universities into state institutions had been com- 
 pleted, the government deemed it expedient to 
 extend their educational influence, and, to that 
 end, conferred upon them the exclusive privilege 
 of preparing students for the academic degrees 
 and for the state examinations. The powerful 
 competition which existed between the schools 
 of the Jesuits and the universities, was an effi- 
 cient spur for the latter, but, when Lotus XIV. 
 took the Jesuits under his special protection, 
 their influence upon the educational institutions 
 of the country became, for a time, all-powerful. 
 Another religious order, the Oratorians, were 
 active and zealous in the management of town 
 schools, while primary education, in the rural 
 districts, appears to have been, on the whole, in 
 a very unsatisfactory condition. After the ex- 
 ample of the Jesuits and Oratorians, a number 
 of other religious orders devoted their chief or 
 even exclusive attention to teaching schools of 
 different glades; and no other country of the 
 world showed itself so prolific in the formation 
 of new congregations of school brothers and 
 school sisters as France. (See Roman Catholic 
 Church.) The philosophy of Descartes emanci- 
 pated the French high schools to a considerable 
 extent from the rule of scholasticism, which until 
 
 then had 1 n generally prevalent, and through 
 
 the peiites ecoles of Port Royal, its influence 
 leached even the primary schools. The /iflitcx 
 ecoles of Port Royal were not of long duration, 
 but their school books were continued in use for 
 along time. Rollin, the celebrated Rector of 
 the Paris University, followed closely in the 
 footsteps of Port Royal, and France is indebted 
 to him for several important reforms. The rigid 
 centralization which, under Louis XIV., began 
 to be established in all departments of public 
 life, was also applied to the educational institu- 
 tions. A closer connection was established 
 among the colleges, a general course of studies 
 was drawn up, new studies were introduced, and 
 the training of teachers wa.s improved. .Many 
 distinguished educators found, however, in the 
 educational methods of the French schools too 
 much of a mechanical formalism ; and Rousseau 
 violently attacked the pedagogy of his time as 
 lifeless and weak, perverse and inefficient. — The 
 influence of the great revolution of 1 789 showed 
 itself first in an attempt to introduce the prin- 
 ciples of the revolution into all the schools of 
 the country. Several plans were tried, but with- 
 out satisfactory results. Talleyrand, in 1791, 
 submitted an elaborate and. comprehensive plan 
 of national education, but the Constituent As- 
 sembly confined itself to sanctioning two prin- 
 ciples: (1) public instruction shall be estab- 
 lished common to every citizen, and gratuitous 
 in respect to those branches which are necessary 
 to all, and its establishments will be grad- 
 ually arranged in accordance with the divisions 
 of the kingdom ; and (2) national holidays will 
 be appointed. In 1792, the philosopher Con- 
 dorcet submitted another elaborate plan to the 
 
Legislative Assembly; which, however, was like- ! 
 wise prevented, by the gravity of political events, 
 from completing the reconstruction of public 
 
 consented to a change in the composition of the 
 Council of Studies, by appointing, in addition 
 to the life members of which it was formerly 
 
 in 1795, the Ecofe Normale, which was aban- 
 doned alter three months, and one hundred cen- 
 tral schools, a kind of real gymnasia, which 
 likewise did not provea bucc ss. \ g 'neral nation- 
 hut it never took effect. Real progress in re- 
 in ISIIH. established four large colleges called 
 pri/ltiifiiMis.M Paris. Versailles. Fontainebleau, 
 and St. Germain, to which were afterwards 
 added one at Brussels, and one at < 'ompiegno, 
 the latter for mechanical arts and navigation. 
 A general revival of education began in 1802, 
 and in 180.i, France again possessed 30 [yceuras 
 and 250 communal colleges. At the same time, 
 the governmeut restricted the absolute freedom 
 of teaching, and subjected the entire educational 
 system to a strict supervision. In 1808. Napo- 
 leon abolished the old provincial institutions, 
 and united all the teaching forces of the country 
 into one educational corporation, which he 
 called Universite de France, lie comprised in 
 this one organization all th lucational insti- 
 tutions, from the primary school to the uni- 
 versity. The chief peculiarity of this organ- 
 ization was that the university alone possessed 
 the right of teaching, and that in this way every 
 body was forced to receive its teaching. The 
 supreme direction was placed in the hinds of a 
 Grand Master, and a Council of the University. 
 In 1815, after the overthrow of tin- Empire, this 
 grand master and the council of the university 
 were abolished, ami their powers were transferred 
 to a rm/ii/ aiiiDiiisniiiii acting under the authority 
 of the minister of the interior. The commission 
 was, in lsjo, changed into a royal council of 
 public instruction, the president of which again 
 received, in L822, the title of Grand Master of 
 the University, and in 1824, that of Minister of 
 Public Instruction and Ecclesiastical Affairs. 
 The ( 'harte of 1830 promised a new educational 
 law, as well as a law on freedom of instruction ; 
 these provisions were, however, only carried out in 
 part. In 1833, a new law on primary instruction 
 appeared, which introduced important reforms. 
 Mr. (Juizot. the minister of public instruction, 
 addressed, in connection with this law. a circular 
 letter to the primary teachers, which was trans- 
 lated into all the languages of Europe, and 
 gained for its author hosts of warm admirers. 
 The bishops regarded the existing school legis- I 
 lation, and especially the privileges of the uni- 
 versity, as detrimental to the interests of the j 
 Catholic ( 'hurch.and accordingly began a vigorous 
 agitation for freedom of instruction. In L845, 
 the minister of public instruction, Salvandy, | 
 
 body was henceforth to be composed of arch- 
 bishops, bishops, Protestant clergymen, council- 
 or's of state, and members of the Institute of 
 France, all elected by the free suffrage of their 
 colleagues. Under the second empire, this mode 
 of election was abolished; and the government 
 claimed the right of appointing all the members. 
 In making the appointments, the government 
 showed itself, however, anxious to give no offense 
 to the church. Bythe law of 1854, sixteen acad- 
 emics were established, to which one was added 
 afterward. These academies wen subdivisions 
 of the University, and comprised all the insti- 
 tutions of a district, faculties, lyceums, colleges, 
 and primary schools. For each academy a coun- 
 cil was appointed, composed of the inspectors, 
 the deans of the faculties, a bishop, two clergy- 
 men, two magistiatcs. ami two other state officers 
 of the academic district, the seven last being ap- 
 pointed by the ministry. After the overthrow 
 of tin- seii, ml empire, dules Simon, one of the 
 most distinguished educational writers of France, 
 became minister of public instruction. The 
 chief aim of the new minister was to make 
 primary instruction as general as possible, and 
 to raise the French schools of all grades to a 
 level with the best in any country of the world. 
 By a law of 1*73. the council of public instruc- 
 tion was again made elective. As the majority 
 of the legislative assembly were favorable to the 
 demands of the < hurch, superior instruction was. 
 in 1875, so regulated as to make it possible for 
 the Catholic Church to establish free Catholic 
 universities. In 1876, the chamber of deputies 
 passed a bill to restore to the university the sole 
 right of conferring degrees, but it was not con- 
 curred in by the senate. 
 
 Primary Instruction.— The policy of estab- 
 lishing public primary schools under the control 
 of the state, in which all children might receive 
 instruction, was not incorporated into the leg] 
 lation of France until after the law of June 28., 
 1833. under the administration of M. Guizot as 
 minister of public instruction. The attempts 
 made during the revolutionary period, and un- 
 der the empire, to provide a national system of 
 instruction, had lasting results only for secondary 
 and .superior instruction, but not for primary 
 schools. One of the great scholars of that time, 
 
318 FRA 
 
 M. I luvier, made an extensive tour through] 
 Holland, Germany, and Italy, to study the edu- 
 cational systems of those countries; and his re- 
 port, published in 1811, which specially com- 
 mended the elementary schools of Holland for 
 their sound practical organization, excited a 
 
 lively interest, and led to r retful comparisons, 
 
 but 'not to anv real improvement. M.7 Guizot, 
 
 to the inspector of the academy. The highest 
 school authorities in a department are the rector 
 of the academy and the prefect. The former 
 supervises the instruction, lias charge of the 
 normal schools and of the examinations of teach- 
 ers, and lias all tins done through liis inspectors, 
 
 in 
 
 France, commends the heads of the educational 
 department under the Restoration for their good 
 intentions; but of the educational condition of 
 
 tin iiitiv, from 1814 to 1830, he can only 
 
 state : " It cannot lie said that elementary in- 
 struction did not suffer from political attacks ; 
 but still it did not completely perish in the dan- 
 gerous contact." The government of 1 830 
 proved itself, from its commencement, highly 
 favorable to elementary instruction. The exec- 
 each other in the promotion of this object. In 
 1831, M. Cousin, one of the ablest scholars of 
 France, was sent to Germany to study the edu- 
 cational system of that country; and, in the 
 report published on his return, he carefully dis- 
 cussed all questions which the new law on 
 primary education, then in preparation, was to 
 settle. ' M. Guizot, who was appointed minister 
 of public instruction, in 1832, was supported in 
 the preparation of the new law. by a number of 
 eminent men, among whom, besides M. Cousin, 
 may be especially mentioned M. Villemain, M. 
 Thenard, and M. Rendu, on account of their 
 reputation as scholars or educational writers. 
 The conscientious care with which the law of 
 ls:S:S had been prepared, is now reeo.oiizedon 
 all sides, as is also the beneficent influence 
 which it has exerted upon the progress of pri- 
 mary education. In 1826, there were L4,009 com- 
 munities which had no elementary schools; and, j 
 in 1832, there were in Paris 30,000, among the 
 70,000 children of school age, who received no 
 instill. lion. Four years after the promulga- 
 tion of the law of 1837, as many as 29,613, 
 of 35,280 communities in the country, had 
 their own school-houses. On the basis of the 
 new law, the primary-school system was more 
 fully developed by the law of March 15., 1850. 
 the organic decree of March 9., 1852, and the 
 law of Jan. 14., 1854. These laws supplement 
 each other, and contain the chief principles 
 which are still in force. The primary schools of 
 each commune are under a local board, consisting 
 of the mayor, the parish priest, and a few citizens 
 elected by the officers of the arrondissement. 
 This board superintends both public and private 
 primary schools. It cannot appoint teachers; 
 but, in case of a vacancy, it can decide whether a 
 lay teacher or a member of a religious congrega- 
 tion shall be appointed. In urgent eases, the 
 mayor has the power to remove teachers, but he 
 must give immediate notice to the inspecteur pri- 
 maire. The inspectors are generally experienced 
 teachers; and it is their duty to visit and ex- 
 amine the schools, and to attend the examina- 
 tions of candidates. They make annual reports 
 
 lllllllstel 
 
 of the 
 
 sel Is. 
 
 houses. 
 
 ■ every department in 
 lie makes an annual 
 of the primary schools 
 lie and private, to the 
 'he prefect has charge 
 administration of the 
 erection of the school- 
 
 ■ finances, can appoint, 
 
 t;icf tfciMsdsmyof 
 
 pecteurs geniraux lor the lyceums and 
 S ,and eight for the faculties. Any French 
 citizen, twentj years of age or over, may give 
 priniarv instruction in public or private schools, 
 provided he has the necessary certificate. The 
 salaries of the French teachers arc very small, 
 though they have been raised seven times since 
 
 ceived 20(1 francs; 250 francs, in 1844; 275, in 
 IslT; l.il.in 1849; and lino, in 1867. Accord- 
 ing to a law of July 19., 1875, the salaries of 
 the teachers are regulated as follows : Male 
 teachers are divided into four classes, according 
 to their term of service. and the size of the cities. 
 The first .lass receive L,200 francs; the second, 
 1. 1 Oil; the third. 1,000; and the fourth. DUO. 
 
 and receive 900, HMl.and 700 francs. respectively. 
 The course of studies comprises religion, lead- 
 ing, writing, grammar, arithmetic, the elements 
 of French history, and geography. Teachers 
 may add to these -Indies the elements of natural 
 history, natural philosophy, agriculture, hygiene. 
 singing, and gymnastics. Only in recent years 
 have reforms been introduced in the methods of 
 teaching. As late as 1843, there were still5,484 
 primary schools pursuing the so-called individual 
 method [mode individuel), each child being 
 called to the desk, and instructed separately. 
 This method, as well as the monitorial system, 
 which found many admirers in France, is now 
 abolished. The method most generally employed 
 at the present time, is the simultaneous method, 
 by which the children are divided into three 
 divisions, all the pupils of one division receiving 
 instruction at once. Those who are not able to 
 take part in any of the three divisions, are placed 
 under the charge of the best pupil in the school. 
 
 The total number of sel Is, in 1 875, was 53,350, 
 
 with 3,477,542 pupils, of whom 1,366,360 were 
 
 free scholars. Of the sel Is, 19,044 were for 
 
 boys, and (i.'.V.)'.K for girls, besides which there were 
 16,570 mixed schools. The number of pupils in 
 the lay schools was 2,340,344, of whom 704,028 
 were free scholars. Of the convent schools, 1,970 
 were for boys, 8,322, for girls, and 1,099 were 
 
mixed schools. The number of pupils in the 
 convent schools, was l.l.'tv.l'.is, of whom 662,352 
 were free schi ilars. Infant asylums and schools 
 were first established in L808, but met with little 
 success. In 1827, they began to increase and 
 flourish, until, in I860, there were 3,517, of 
 whi.h. 1,088 were private. The public asylums 
 
 had 15,623 libraries connected with schools, com- 
 prising L,474,637 volumes. The number of books 
 loaned, in 1873, was 925,358. 
 
 Secondary Instrm 
 tion is imparted in t 
 coDegea [colleges comi 
 composed of eight cla 
 German gymnasia. ( ' 
 
 Secondary instruc- 
 ceums and communal 
 ux). The lyceums are 
 md correspond to the 
 8 and 7 compose the 
 
 ,-ision ; C. 5, ani 
 3, 2, lb, and 
 
 or.le 
 
 arithmetic, and linear drawing; manual occu- 
 pations, and other exercises appropriate to the 
 age of the pupils; the singing of hymns, and 
 moral and physical training. The decree of 
 1864 placed them under the patronage of the 
 empress, and created, in the ministry of educa- 
 tion, a central committee of patronage, for the 
 increase and superintendence of these schools. 
 In every academy, there is an inspectress, paid 
 by the government, to inspect all the public and 
 private asylums. Besides, there are two delegates 
 connected with the central committee, who go 
 wherever they are called. — As soon as primary 
 instruction had made some progress in Prance, 
 it was found necessary to open schools for adults. 
 in order to complete the instruction of some, 
 and to begin that of others. The first school 
 for adults was opened by M. Delakaye in Paris, 
 in L820. An evening school was opened by the 
 Christian Brothers. in 1830. In 1833, M.Guizot, 
 minister of public instruction, alluded to them 
 in an order of the department; and. in 1835, 
 they were formally recognized and aided by the 
 government, but were not incorporated into the 
 public-school system of the country until 1m17. 
 
 courses for adults, in 22,947 communes. They 
 
 men.— The first normal school in France was 
 founded in 1810, in Strasbourg. Under Napo- 
 leon I. and the Restoration, they greatly flour- 
 ished; but soon, objections were raised against 
 them, and, after the promulgation of the law of 
 1850, its authors considered normal schools not 
 only unnecessary, but even dangerous. It was, 
 consequently, proposed to abandon the normal 
 schools, and to recruit the ranks of the teachers 
 from a certain number of pupil-teachers, who 
 were to receive their training in the best com- 
 munal schools. This plan, however, proved a 
 failure, and the pupil-teacher schools were grad- 
 ually abandoned, and normal schools again came 
 into favor. Their number, in 187f>, was 81, of 
 which that of Nancy is considered the best. 
 Recently, efforts have been made to connect a 
 library with every school, particularly in the 
 country. The system was first organized by a 
 decree of M. Rouland, in 1862. The books, 
 which are of two classes, classics, reading-books, 
 and arithmetics, and books of general reading — 
 are the property of the commune, and are placed 
 under the charge of the teachers. France (ex- 
 clusive of the department of the Seine), in 1875, 
 
 been introduced, so that it comprises two courses, 
 -the literary and the scientific. The studies 
 of the literary course are Latin, Greek, geome- 
 
 both 
 
 
 Most of the lyceums are also boarding schools. 
 The censeur is the head of the boarding-school. 
 Corporal punishment is not allowed, and re- 
 proofs are required to be administered without 
 
 lished in 1802. They are founded and sustained 
 
 ,. h< 
 
 these 
 
 idary 
 
 character. Included in this class of institutions 
 
 are the so called pedis seminaires oj 'I fes 
 
 secondaires ecclesiastiques (ecclesiastical insti- 
 tutions), which are superintended and conducted 
 by the bishops, and. in many respects, resemble 
 the lyceums. The number of secondary schools 
 of each class, with the number of students in 
 each, as given by Brachelli [Die Stouten Eu- 
 ropa's, 1876), is as follows: 
 
 Schools. Students. 
 
 Lyceums (1872) 80 36,756 
 
 Conimumil colleges (1S72).... 244 32,744 
 
 Private institution" (1m;..| 935 74,585 
 
 Total 1,2.5!) 144,085 
 
 A superior normal school for the education 
 of teachers of secondary schools has been estab- 
 lished in Paris. It is composed of two depart- 
 ments, a literary and a scientific, each compris- 
 ing a three years' course. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — France has. at present, 
 five classes of faculties; namely, for theology, 
 law, medicine, mathematics and natural science 
 [facultes de sciences), and literature or philo- 
 sophical, historical, and philological science 
 
320 FRA 
 
 (faeuM des lettres). These faculties, which are 
 state institutions, are not, as in other countries, 
 united into complete universities, but each is an 
 isolated and independent institution. Among 
 the schools of superior instruction, are also 
 counted the high Bchools For pharmacy, and tin- 
 schools for medicine and pharmacy. 'J he organi- 
 zation of medical faculties was begun in 17'.'!: 
 of law faculties, in 1804; and the other-, in 
 1808. There were, in 1876, six faculties 
 of theology (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Aix. 
 Rouen, aiid Montauban, the 5 former being 
 Catholic, the latter Reformed); 12 for law 
 (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons. Nancy, Aix, Caen, 
 hijon. Crciioblc, Poitiers, Rennes. Toulouse, and 
 Douai ; S lor medicine | Paris. Bordeaux, Lyons, 
 Nancy, Montpellier, and Lille); 15 for science 
 (Paris, Bordeaux, Lyons, Nancy, Caen, Dijon, 
 Grenoble, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse, Montpel- 
 lier, Clermont, Besancon, Lille, and Marseille.- 1 : 
 15 for lettres (Paris, "Bordeaux, Lyons. Nancy, 
 Aix. Caen, Dijon, Grenoble, Poitiers, Rennes, 
 Toulouse, Montpellier. I'uuai, Clermont, and 
 Besancon); '■> higher schools for pharmacy (Paris, 
 Nancy, and Montpellier); and 2 higher schools 
 for medicine and pharmacy. The medical facul- 
 ties;, i Bordeaux, Lyons, and Lille are also in- 
 tended for pharmacy. Inclusive of preparatory 
 schools for medicine and pharmacy, and 4 pre- 
 paratory schools for instruction in science, these 
 institutions for superior instruction, were, in 
 1872, attended by 14,572 students; and the ag- 
 gregate number of professors ami teachers was 
 42L— Thelaw of duly 26., L875, authorized the 
 establishment, by private citizens or associations, 
 of free institutions for higher instruction (free 
 faculties), which, if three' of them are united, 
 may assume the name of free universities. At 
 the beginning of 1*7(1. the bishops of France 
 founded three free Catholic universities, at 
 Paris, Angers, and Lyons. — The College de 
 rntitr\ which provides for lectures on many of 
 the university studies, and the Practical School 
 for Higher Studies, which, in five differeni 
 sections, prepares its students for the higher 
 study of mathematics, physics, chemistry, natural 
 history, the lii.-toricnl - -i ■ ■:-. and philology, 
 
 has a seminary at Paris : and, in the same city, 
 there is a Free Thei .logical School, founded by the 
 Free Evangelical < hurch. The £cole des charies, 
 at Paris, educates paleograpbists and archivists. 
 For technical instruction, there are 12 ei oles pro- 
 fessionnelles, 3 ecoles des arts ■ n • u rs, at Aix, 
 Lngers, and Chalons BUT Maine: schools for 
 v. itch-makers, at I luses, in Opper Savoy, and at 
 Vsim on. a school for manufacturers of tobacco, 
 and a higher comineri ial school, at Paris, many 
 
 lower commercial schools, 42 hydrographic scl is 
 
 for educating seamen for the mercantile marine, 
 and many other schools and (ourscs ot study. 
 Agriculture is taught in 3 high schools, at 
 Grignon, near Versailles, Grandjouan, in Loire- 
 Inh'-i ■icinv, and Montpellier, and in 43 fermier- 
 ecoles; or agricultural si hools of a lower grade ; 
 besides these, there is a school of forestry at 
 Nancy. The principal mining school is the Na- 
 tional School of Mmcs. at Paris, besides which 
 
 there are mining scl Is at r-t. I'diei, uc and Alais. 
 
 For instruction in the fine arts, there are 3 na- 
 tional schools of fine arts,— at Paris, Lyons, and 
 Dijon, the National Conservatory of Music and 
 Declamation, at Paris, and many other institu- 
 tion.-. Military in.-iniction is imparted in the 
 i cho I, at Paris, the School of Artillery and 
 Military Engineering, formerly at Metz. now at 
 Fontainebleau, the Special Military School at 
 St. Cyr, near Versailles, the schools of artillery 
 at Valence and Nimes, the school of infantry 
 at the Campd'Avor, the naval school at Brest, 
 .!„■- hool of military medicine and pharmacy in 
 Paris, the school of cavalry at Saumur. the Mili- 
 tary Pyrotechnic School, at Bourges, the Normal 
 School for Gymnastics, al Vincennes, the Prac- 
 tical School of Maritime Engineering a1 I her- 
 bourg.— There are 314 orphan asylums in which 
 15,7 15 orphans were educated. 'I he saUes d'asi- 
 les, of which there were 2,950 (2,068 public and 
 882 private), were attended by I'M', (Hid children, 
 
 ,nd 
 
 Iget of about 2,000,000 
 almost 
 
 ion. — Th( 
 
 for the 
 tors of 
 ,onts ei 
 
 Special and Prof ssi ' I 
 
 Polytechnic School, at Paris, 
 having a military organization 
 pupils for the higher technical 
 military and civil. The latter i 
 Ecole ■ ntra ! ■ - 'es arts i ' mm 
 education of ci\ il engini ei , a 
 glass-works and Factori !, the 
 chau&sees, for the education oi roaa engineers, 
 and the ' • ' ■' " i art netiers, all 
 
 in Pan-, i. Polytechnic School, in 1873, had 
 1.9 professors an I I achers,20 assistants, and 426 
 pupils. Roman ( latholic theology is taught in 
 the diocesan seminaries, which arc established in 
 the principal town of every French diocese. The 
 numerous religious orders for males have gen- 
 erally theological schools of their own for the in- 
 struction of their novices. The Lutheran ( 'hurch 
 
 ciatui;oii.|\ an mdu-irial education to I '_' i , boys 
 an I 1 -,i '.(.". lii 1-. S, e .-, 1 1 \in.. Km -, j ii, n. ait. 
 Frankri • by I r. Biichelei ; Baknakd, Na- 
 UonalEdi'cation,\ol.n.;TntB.Y,Hisioirederedu- 
 cation en France (Paris, 1858,2 vols.); Jdles Si- 
 mon, L'&oh (8th edit., L874); Annuaire deVin- 
 slruction pvbliqut (Paris). Among the school 
 
 tablished in 1 • 12 is n garded as the mostimpor- 
 tanl forsecondary,! nd the Manuel general detin- 
 strudion primaire, as the foremost for primary 
 
 instruction. A complete collection of all the 
 laws and regulations which have been issued in 
 France relative t > primary instruction from 1789 
 
 to i-Ti ha- 1 ii published by Greard, La legis- 
 
 ,. , ■imaireen Francedepuis 
 
 1789 jusqu'a no* j i (3 vols., Pans. 1874). 
 
 The history of primary -cbool inspection is given 
 in P.iioi win and Dbfodon, Inspection des ecoles 
 primaires i Paris, 1874). \ very full account of 
 the primary sehoools of Paris and of the Dej«ir- 
 tementde la Seine is given in Greard, I'lnstruc- 
 tion primaire a Paris en ls7o (Paris. 1876). 
 
FRANCISCAN COLLEGE FEANCKE 321 
 
 FRANCISCAN COLLEGE, a Roman I nine schools with three boarding-houses and an 
 
 Catholic institution at Santa Barbara, Cal., was orphanage, and with property valued at 313,266 
 
 I. mm. led in L868. Ii is conducted bythe Fathers thalers. ' Since tli.-ii- toim.li.ti..ii. In. i teachers 
 
 of the Order of St. Francis. In 1873 Lit had and more than 200,000 children have been taught 
 
 2,500 volumes! The Rev. J. J. O'Keefe, O. S. 7000 orphans have been cared for! These in 
 
 F., is (1876) the president. titul s furnished the model after which those 
 
 FRANCKE, Hermann August, a distin- "l a similar character were founded in other 
 
 ral.lv . -I ii.if.1 will. :i clusti'i- of (..rphan houses Francke's death by liiss.ni. Gottlieb August 
 
 as an educational influence, was born at The governing ideas, in Francke's work and 
 
 l.'.il...-',. Maul. J'.' .. ir.iis.aml died June 8., 1727. teaching, were trust in God, and the cultivation 
 
 I i.'n ".',',', 'l 'Kir|'."]',',''"i,ll''„„,'|.,"'.'l,^ inll'n,-!,.-,. '.., ■l' I ..|i-Mip|».rt.:,n.l .■.-.•..•. '„■. I the her,'', am'l -.ills 
 
 Spener.the in -chaplain .,, 1 >,-. - 1. ■„. au.l re which he received as direct bounties from the 
 
 ceived from liiin iiiii.r.-M..„, ul.i.l, largely affect- hand of the Almighty. He regarded piety as 
 
 ed the motives and character of his future life, thechief thing needful; without it. aU I wledge, 
 
 I lo 1 an bis labors as an educator ... 1687, by wisdom, and worldly culture were more harmful 
 
 opening an infant sol I ... I Ian,!,.,,- LValizing than useful. He taught that, in bringing up 
 
 the importance and difficulty of teaching children, children, the teacher should first look to the im- 
 
 he resolved to devote himself to the improvement provement of the heart and the removal ol tan lis 
 
 of schools and methods ol ins tion Theresults While payingdue regard to the peculiarities of 
 
 of his experience he afterwards embodied in a I hilds nature, he should seek to banish 
 
 work which lie published under the title, Upon ih ■ whatever intei fen - with the higher development. 
 
 Mm-,,!,,,,, of, ■/,,',/,;■„ /,, /,„/,, ,„„l <-h,-hti.„> »•/-■- 'I'h.- inculcation of godliness was likewise 
 
 dom. [n 1692, he became professor of the Greek Francke's predominant object in discipline, 
 
 and oriental knsua.T- in tl..' in, ivrisiivuf Halle, ",, this subject, he observed, (1 that system 
 
 
 into a class, anil hung out a poor-box for 
 tii ms. I'"imling seven florins in the box c 
 ing, Ii.' ili'i-iilt: I lo I'oiuiil a | «-i inaiii'iil si-1 
 soon had to enlarge theschool; and circu 
 le 1 to the further development of his en 
 
 ami tl iganization of oih.T in-tituti. 
 
 there grew up under his charge the Orphi 
 the Pcedaqoqium, the Burgher School, 
 
 iv. geography, music, physics, ana! v. 
 
 iry, and logic. The Pcedagogium had at- 
 id to it a botanical garden, a cabinet of 
 
 Office, the Apothecary's Shop (establish, ,1 with. -.,,,,- lath -. ami J.i-.-nui,,,, ,„.,. l,n„i v. The 
 
 legacj I ft l>\ on,' i;,ii : H,tall.i..tlu'Canstein Bible svidences of Christianity, Latin, Greek, Bebrew, 
 House (the fruit of a gift by the Baron von Can- and French were taught in it. The system of 
 stein for the puxpou' of printing one hundred classiticatioti in tin.- schools allowed the pupils 
 thousand copies of the Bible), and the Mission to be graded according to their advancement in 
 
 0,1 pupils. The teachers lived with the scholars, 
 and Francke himself exercised a constant super 
 
 Institute. At the ti f Francki 
 
 's death, the e 
 
 institutions compris • 1 the follow in- 
 
 : The Pceda- 
 
 i/ui/ium, having >2 scholar- an 1 7" 
 
 t ach i - : the 
 
 Latin srhool of the « Irphan 1 1 ills 
 
 .: inspectors, 
 
 32 teachers, tOOscholars 1 LOsen 
 
 ints;theGer- 
 
 man Burgher Scl 1. 1 inspectors 
 
 98 teachers, 
 
 8 female teachers, 1728 boys and 
 
 girls; the Or- 
 
 plian House, 1 00 boys. 34 girls, 
 
 en overseers; 
 
 the Free Tulil,: 2.Vi students. 360 | r seholai-s : 
 
 the household of the Apothecary's Shop and 
 Bookseller's Shop. .".:{ persons; the Institution 
 for Women and Girls, with 15 persons in the girls' 
 
 department. > in the lioardiug-lioiise for young 
 women, and 6 widows. In 1876, they included 
 
 all. Besides Zinzeintorf. Fran, ke's 
 
 ■in law. 
 
 iiainelv. .I.'lni Ana-ta-iii-. I- lam 
 and his son, Gottlieb Anastasius; J. G. Knapp; 
 Joachim Lange; Jacob Rambach : 1 1 Freycr : G. 
 Sarganeck : Johann Julius Hecker, who founded 
 the famous Berhn real school; and Anton Bti- 
 sching. Francke is regarded by some as the 
 
322 
 
 FRANK LIN COLLECH 
 
 greatest practical educator that ever lived, and 
 even those who are opposed to the religions basis 
 of his educational theories do not hesitate to hold 
 him up as a model for all time. He was the author 
 of the orphan and charity schools of Protestant 
 Germany; and his ideas on superintendence, 
 inspection, and examination exerted great influ- 
 ence upon the development of the public-school 
 system fn Germany. The nourishing institutions 
 
 of the Moravians Iq 
 Zinzendorf, had been educated 
 for a long time conducted in 
 Prancke's principles. About 
 tions began to decline; bul the 
 Niemeyer, a gr at-grandson of 
 directory ushered in a new pei 
 which Mill I B76 conl inui - 
 .1. //. Francke (Halle, L827 
 Gestattung der I i >. 
 scken Pietismus 1 361 
 
 FRANKLIN COLLEGE 
 is under the control of the ft 
 
 hose foil I n 
 
 FREE SCHOOLS 
 
 Campbell, 1832—5; the Rev. Johnson Welsh 
 1835—6; the Rev. Dr. Joseph Smith. L837— 8 ; 
 the Rev. Jacob Coon, pro tern., 1 838 — fl ; the 
 Rev. Mr. Burnett, 183!) — 10 ; the Rev. Edwin 
 ||. NYvin. 1840—5; the Rev. Dr. Alexander 
 D. Clark. 1X45— III : the Rev. R. G. Campbell, 
 1867—71 ; and A. F. Ross. Id, 1).. the , .resent 
 
 FRANKLIN AND MARSHALL COL- 
 LEGE, at Lancaster. I'a.. is under the control 
 
 of the Reformed (I ■ermani Church. This insti- 
 tution was founded in L853, by the consolidation 
 of two older institutions, — Franklin College, 
 
 plant ; 
 
 the Ba 
 
 -41 
 
 cstiiulioii was first called 
 bor Institute. Aboul the 
 
 instruction he-un. I Ins name it lias ever since 
 retained, although it has ha 1 one suspension of 
 five years, and another of as many months. The 
 present organization dates from 1-71. The col- 
 lege has two large brick edifices, a campus of VI 
 acres, a dwelling-house, ami philosophical ; ,nd 
 chemical apparatus, the whole valued at $40,000. 
 The endowment amounts to S-5.UII0. ['ho libra- 
 ries connected with the institution contain about 
 3,000 volumes. It has both a preparatory and a 
 collegiate department, with a classical and a 
 scientific course. Facilities are offered for in- 
 struction in music and painting. Roth sexes 
 arc admitted. The cost of tuition in the college 
 is $28 per year; in the preparatory department, 
 $23 per year. In 1875—6, there were li in- 
 structors and !»9 students, of-whom 18 were in 
 the collegiate department. The presidents have 
 been the Rev. G. C. Chandler, D. D., Silas Bailey, 
 D. D., and the Rev. W. T. Stott, D. I)., the 
 present incumbent (1876). 
 
 FRANKLIN COLLEGE, at Xew Athens, 
 Harrison Co., Ohio, was chartered ill 1825. it 
 
 grew out off 
 conducted fi 
 the Rev. Jd 
 
 The colleger 
 
 controversy. 
 anti-slavery 
 
 torj i ' 1111 ' : 
 
 a classical an 
 admitted. 
 In 1st:— I, 
 students (27 
 
 which had 
 
 1875, there were 319 alumni. The presidents of 
 
 the coll e have been as follows: The Rev. Dr. 
 
 Wm. McMillan, 1825—32 ; the Rev. Richard 
 
 1836, and trans- 
 nii from itsformer 
 iklin Co. It has 
 
 four years' classical course of American colleges. 
 There are no optional courses of study, in which 
 the student is allowed to choose for himself what 
 he shall learn. The college receives no irregular 
 students, as they are called, and has no provisional 
 or mixed classes. The college and society libra- 
 ries contain about 11,000 volumes. Connected 
 with the college arc the Franklin and Marshall 
 Academy and the Theological Seminary of the 
 Reformed Church. The academy is designed as 
 a training school for those who desire to prepare 
 for college, and also to furnish a complete aca- 
 demical course for those who do not propose to 
 take a full collocate course of study. The full 
 
 (college, 7; academy. 2; seminary. 3), and 135 
 students (college, 67; academy, 36; seminary, 
 32). The number of alumni of Marshall college 
 was IM' ■ of Franklin and Marshall College 358 ; 
 total 540. The' first president of Franklin and 
 Marshall College was the Rev. Emmanuel V. 
 Gerhart, I>. I)., appointed in L855. He continued 
 in office till 1866, when he was succeeded by the 
 Rev. John W. Nevin.D. D., LL. 1)., the present 
 incumbent (1876). 
 
 FREDERICK COLLEGE, at Frederick, 
 Md., was organized in ITilT. It has a valuable 
 niineralogical cabinet, philosophical and chemical 
 apparatus, and a library of 3,000 volumes. There 
 are three department- : The classical department, 
 including the Latin and Creek languages, also 
 the German, with related subjects; The math- 
 ematical and higher English departments; and 
 the elementary department. The cost of tuition 
 in these departments is. respectively. SCO. S III, 
 and $25; but there is an extra, charge of $20 
 per annum for German. G. C. Deaver, A. M., 
 is , I .- 7 < ; , the president. 
 
 FREE SCHOOLS. .See Public Schools. 
 
FREEDMEN 'S SCHOOLS FE] 
 
 FREEDMEN'S SCHOOLS. A proclama- S. i '. | Method 
 
 fcion issued by President Lincoln, Jan. L., 1863, Orleans, La 
 
 abolished slavery in the United States, and the [Method. Epis 
 
 colored people set tree liv the piiH'laiiiiitiini re- luiiscetariain. 
 
 ceived the nam.' of freedmen. As nearly the Seminary (Ba 
 
 whole of this ii<i|iiilaitiiii «,is i Hi (<i.it.-. \ariniis ( '.; and the II 
 
 which, a 
 
 Itll all tin 
 
 rllMl-,- I.V It. atl.l III smile sialic u.-lv earned ..I 
 
 entirely by aid of its fund and under its provisions 
 A Qumberof benevolent and religious societie 
 
 continued to co-operate with the Bureau in tli 
 
 establishment of schools, and most oi the Amei 
 
 li-ivilini'iis „-| Is ■■ the objects of thei 
 
 home missionary socie'ties, or of specia] Freei 
 
 superintendent, appointed by the commissione 
 of the Bureau, traveled through most oi th 
 
 
 srli.iuls. ami day ami nielit schunls, that made 
 utilv occasional reports tu the liiin-au. 
 
 Year 
 
 Day & Night 
 Schools 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Pupils 
 
 Total number 
 of pupils 
 
 1866 . . . 
 1si;t ... 
 1868 . . 
 1869.... 
 1870. . . . 
 
 1,839 
 1,831 
 2,118 
 2,039 
 
 1,405 
 2,037 
 2,295 
 2, 1 >5 
 2,563 
 
 90,77s 
 111,412 
 LOt.327 
 11 4, V22 
 114,516 
 
 150,000 
 238,342 
 241,819 
 250,000 
 247,333 
 
 Of the schools reported in 1 *7n. 1 .•'!'.! I were sus- 
 tained wholly or partly by freedmen, wl wned 
 
 592 school buildings; 74 scl Is. with >.l IT 
 
 pupils, were high or leal Bchools. * » t' the 
 
 teachers, 1,251 were white, and l,312colored. The 
 wliole number of sellout. ..t all kinds, was \.TA\>. 
 with '.i..'!H7 teachers; of these. 1 ...li'J wereSunday- 
 schools, with 6,007 teachers and ! ' 7 . 7 "> 'J pupils. 
 and Gl industrial schools, with 1,7">i> pupils. 
 The whole amount expended for educational 
 purposes, to A.ug.31., L871, was $3,711,264, the 
 
 greater porta I' which was for the erection 
 
 and renting of school buildings. The Freedmen's 
 Bureau also aided in tl stal.lisl nt of a con- 
 siderable number of schools of a higher grade for 
 th.- colored population, in some cases co operating 
 for this purpose with one nt the religious d.-iinm- 
 inations. Among the institutions thus found- 
 ed, were Howard University. Washington, D. ( '. 
 (uiiseetai'iaiii ; Atlanta I ' niversity. Atlanta. <ia. 
 (unsectarianj ; Claflin University, Orangeburg, 
 
 .Is mi .-.. lai.'.-a l.a.-i-. a- t 
 Church. Ai theannivei 
 s Aid Society oi the M. 
 
 - ,.i that society, during 
 
 ii- M.-tl 
 
 the In. 
 
 the eig 
 
 ,t \ 
 
 Epis- 
 .1.1 in 
 
 ars.,1 
 
 
 no. '| 
 
 he r 
 
 ■eelptS 
 
 e last lill.lllil.il \e.-ll- lend 
 
 11-' \la\ 
 
 31. 
 
 1875) 
 
 $86,000. The Society 
 
 has aii 
 
 ii the 
 
 li-niiu-ut andsupport oi fi 
 
 
 n-ll 
 
 litmus 
 
 higher ul-a.le in the >oilt 
 
 .111 st: 
 
 
 It has 
 
 elaitm-'l that tif'tv't linn's. 
 
 ,11,1 ell 
 
 .In 
 
 have 
 
 taught in it- daj schools, and a 
 
 still 
 
 larger 
 
 H r in it- Sunday-scl Is 
 
 : that 
 
 
 • than 
 
 iili'-'l t sters, and ovei 
 
 a thou 
 
 ami 
 
 teach- 
 
 LSI II. I 
 
 a Inn 
 ers, ha\ 
 has est! 
 of tort 
 
 persons whom it has trained. Besides receiving 
 this aid from the Beveral American churches, the 
 sel Is for freedmen have had considerable sup- 
 port from the Peabody fund. (See I'i usody.) 
 FREEWILL BAPTISTS, a section of 
 Baptists, which commenced in North America 
 in 1780. The name was reproachfully given 1 ■ v 
 
 tln-ir calvinistic brethren to Benjamin R lall 
 
 and a few other I'.aptist ministers who gave spe- 
 cia] prominence to the doctrineof thefreedomof 
 the will in the work ..)' salvation. Randall and 
 
 IIM 
 
 nil tin 
 
 tists I 
 
 sneiatinn is called a N.-.n 1 \ Meeting. All the 
 Yearly Meetings send representatives to the 
 General Conference, which meets once in three- 
 
324 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE 
 
 years. They agree almost wholly in doctrine 
 with the General Baptists in England. In I - U . 
 nearly the whole body of another Baptist de- 
 nomination, the Free Communion Baptists, chiefly 
 belonging to the state of New York, united 
 with them; while, on the other hand, their 
 congregations in North Carolina left them, and 
 several thousands of Baptists in Kentucky and 
 other Southern states, who agreed with them 
 on doctrinal points, were refused admission to 
 their communion in consequence of the very de- 
 cided position which the church assumed against 
 slave-holding. More recently, negociations have 
 been begun to bring about a union with the 
 Church of God q.v.), as the two churches are 
 essentially one in principle; but from a report 
 made to the Freewill Baptist General Confer- 
 ence in L874, if appears that the < Ihurch of God 
 is unwilling to give up its present name. The 
 Freewill Baptist's reported, in 1N7.">. .'is yearly 
 meetings, 1,3'JO churches, 1,185 ordained preach- 
 ers, and 72,128 members. Of the yearly meet- 
 ings, one is in British America. ami one in India; 
 the others are in the United States. The Free 
 Baptists of New Brunswick and Nova Scotia are 
 in full agreement, though not in organic union, 
 with the Freewill Baptists : the former, in ls7.">. 
 had 138, the latter, 30 churches. The Freewill 
 Baptists have 21 literary institutions for second- 
 ary or higher instruction, six of which are col- 
 leges; namely. Hillsdale College, at Hillsdale, 
 Mich, (organized in 1855); Bates College, at 
 Lewiston. Me. llMJ.'i): Kidgeville College. 
 Ridgeville, Ind. (1867); West Virginia 
 College, at Flemington, \V. Ya. (1868) ; 
 Storer College, at Harper's Ferry, \V. Ya. : 
 and W'olsey College, at Peach Grove. Tenn. 
 Theological schools arc connected with Hills- 
 dale and Bates colleges. The Freewill Baptist 
 Education Society has invested funds to the 
 amount of $45,000, the interest on which is 
 chiefly devoted to sustaining theological instruc- 
 tion in Bates and Hillsdale colleges. It makes 
 liberal provision in aid of young men preparing 
 for the ministry. This denomination, from t lie- 
 beginning of the anti-slavery struggle, main- 
 tained an unwavering and strenuoii, oppo>iiio M 
 to slavery, and is still doing good service for the 
 freed n, especially in the Shenandoah and Mis- 
 sissippi valleys. Among the newspapers issued 
 by the denomination, are two Sabbath-school 
 papers, which, by alternating with each other. 
 furnish a weekly issue. Its Sabbath-school work 
 is pursued with much interest and vigor. 
 
 FRENCH LANGUAGE. The French 
 language is universally recognized as standing. 
 with the English and ( lerman, at the head of the 
 languages of the civilized world. Wherever a 
 knowledge of any other than the native lan- 
 guage is valued, French is sure to have its claims 
 considered. Hence, in the school, ,,i the English- 
 speaking world.it usually occupies, « 1 1 1 1 the I rer- 
 man language, a place in the coarse oi instruction. 
 Whatever should be said of the >tudy ..I modern 
 foreign languages in general. and especially of the 
 languages of great nations, like those of France . 
 
 and Germany, is reserved for the article Modern 
 L/i, : /n,i,/,'s. this article treating only of what be- 
 long, io the French language exclusively. 
 
 This language is one of the so-called Romanic 
 languages (q. v.), which, after the destruction 
 of the Western Roman empire, sprang from the 
 development of the provincial dialects of the 
 empire, and from the l-atin colloquial language 
 t/iiii/ii,! Hum, in, i riis/tr.i). which continued to 
 exist by the side of the refined language (sermo 
 urbanus), and was earned by the victorious 
 armies int.. south-western Europe. In Gaul, the 
 Latin colloquial language, in consequence of the 
 conquest of the country by the German tribes, 
 soon became the only medium of conversation 
 I between the people of the various tongues ; and, 
 by the close of the 7th century, displaced all the 
 other languages, except in a small district of the 
 north-west, apart of Brittany, where a Celtic lan- 
 guage, like that of primitive Gaul, maintained it- 
 self. The name French language, w Inch is derived 
 from the Franks, a German tribe, who established 
 themselves in Caul, in the 5th century, did not 
 come into general use, until the language of the 
 Franks (which, for a considerable length of time, 
 co-existed with the Latin provincial dialects in 
 the northern and eastern parts of the country) 
 became extinct. The dialects which could be dis- 
 tinguislied in the language thus formed grouped 
 themselves into two classes. — the Smith French 
 {rom, in provenfed, hngue (Toe) and the North 
 French (roman wallon, langue cFoil or cCoui). 
 Both developed a literature, chiefly poetical : but 
 gradually the South French, in which the Latin 
 element had a more thorough predominance, 
 lost ground, and the North French, which was 
 more largely mixed with German elements, be- 
 came the language of the entire country. In 
 the Ulth century. Francis 1. made it. in place of 
 the Latin, the language of public transactions, 
 and thus elevated it to the position of a national 
 language. The first work in genuine French was 
 published in the 14th century. Since the 16th 
 century, the development of the language made 
 rapid progress. Richelieu etablished the acade- 
 iii i, /~i;ii,,;n.<, for regulating all quest ions relative 
 to the national language : and under Louis XI Y., 
 it attained a high scholastic authority. Even in 
 the middle ages, the French language was known 
 and spoken far beyond the boundaries of its native 
 country. It was the court language of England 
 and Scotland, was generally understood in south- 
 ern Italy and by the German nobility, and was 
 also the chief language of the merchants in the 
 East. At the peace of Xlmeguen (1678), it 
 was, for the first time, used as the language of 
 European diplomacy: and this position it has 
 maintained to the present day. It is the national 
 language in all France, and in most of the French 
 colonies, as well as in south-western Switzerland, 
 and also in Hayti. In Belgium, though spoken by 
 only about one half of the entire population, it is 
 the prevailing language. It is also spoken as a 
 native language by most of the inhabitants of the 
 province of Quebec, and. other parts of the Domin- 
 ion of Canada; and in a part of Lorraine which, 
 
FRENCH LANGUAGE 325 
 
 in 1871, was ceded to Germany. It has, to some I prose than in poetry.and it is also admirably 
 extent, maintai 1 itself in that part of tin; suited for num-rsii Im with mosl 
 
 the French language are still dif 
 Even at present, no language is 
 
 StUllii'cl tl) SO great .III eXtelll b\ fll 
 
 the French : and. therefore, traveler 
 knowledge of French more useful t 
 any other modern language; althoi 
 respect, it is at present far less import; 
 pared with the English and German 
 than it was a hundred years aeo Th 
 
 writers ami sei.-nti-ts. like l„-il,nirz. lluniboMt. 
 
 Frederick the Great, Gibl , Beckford, and Sir 
 
 William Jones, write their works in the French 
 language, in preference to their vernacular, either 
 as a matter of taste or to insure to their writings 
 a wider circulation. 
 
 There is a sufficient number of literary docu- 
 ments extanl of every period oi the French lan- 
 guage. Iiy wliii-h its gradual growth may be traced 
 from its first formation to the present time. It 
 
 am from units, «, 
 re, the mother; i 
 mother; for (Lai 
 r (German, der I 
 ■ MuUer). Like it 
 
 i studied : 
 schools of English-speaking 
 
 * to be found in ■: 
 language, which 
 
 the Germane 
 
 ments were use 
 guages, the I'n i, 
 Latinsource. 8 
 comparative ling 
 of the French 
 the working of t 
 ulate the forma 
 languages : and. 
 much that formi 
 
 the l.allll Word I,..,:,, the new I I. I,. I. 1.1 1," ,1.,. e 
 
 formed a long Beriesof words, as or, tors, des-lors, 
 alors. lorsque, encore, dorinavant, desormais, 
 keure,heures,horaire, each with a different idea ; 
 
 it is obvious that, in tl rigin of the French 
 
 language, there was uot onlj the decay of the Lat- 
 in.l.nt the creative power ol new ideas. The 
 ahn.i lance of simple words in French, where the 
 
 English and Germans have to u mp mnds, is 
 
 gen rally conceded to be an .1 U.mi.i-. . a- IT neh. 
 /in,/ii,i,. ,-. •-,.,,,.; English, app ■■ vineyard. 
 jAmong the commendable qu dities oi the French 
 
 language, are generally em rated its logical 
 
 precision, neatin-s.-. and ) ■■ i ~ | u. nil v : while, on the 
 other hand, the monotony of accentuating the 
 final syllables, and the frequent oeearieiiee of the 
 nasal sound make it less euphonious and rhyth- 
 mical than other Romanic languages. Its excel- 
 lencies, therefore, appear to greater advantage in 
 
 tl 
 at lire 
 
 i to the English, and to tnini-h ih.- key for 
 understanding oi its truly magnificent liter- 
 It is desirable to use the I'reiieh. as far 
 
FRENCH LANGUAGE 
 
 as possible, in the recitations, in order to famili- 
 arize the ear of the student with the spoken 
 language, and also to afford him some practice in 
 speaking it. The ability to speak the French 
 language, however, eannot he acquired in school 
 exeepl within very narrow limits. To discontinue 
 the study after a fair knowledge of grammar and 
 reading has been acquired, is a serious educational 
 error. Where the study is introduced, it should be 
 continued without interruption until the com- 
 pletion of the school course. When it is intended 
 to teach pupils to speak French fluently, a course 
 of instruction of at least four years should be 
 provided, with daily exercise, and constant inter- 
 course with a French teacher. The French, in 
 this respect, does not differ from any other mod- 
 ern langage. (See Modern Languages.) 
 
 Instruction in French, as in every other foreign 
 language, begins with the acquisition of a correct 
 pronunciation. Next to Knglish, French is the 
 least phonetic of all languages; and. there- 
 fore, a large number of rules must be learned 
 before the pupil is able to pronounce ordinary 
 words, [t is important that this pronunciation 
 should be learned, partly at least, by means of an 
 imitation of the teacher's pronunciation. Memoriz- 
 ing lessons, before the correct pronunciation has 
 been acquired is positively injurious. The French 
 grammar offers but few peculiarities and difficul- 
 ties. The absence of case-endings and of many 
 other inflections, and the paucity of simple U ases 
 ami of changes in the radical' part of irregular 
 verbs, facilitate the rea lingo! a French author at a 
 very early stage oi ins tion. The chief peculiar- 
 ities, such as the interrogative and negative form 
 of sentences, ought to be frequently practiced. 
 Attention should be called to the relationship 
 
 which the Latin and the Norman elements of 
 
 the English language bear to both Knglish and 
 French. Simple exercises in etymology maygreat- 
 ly facilitate the early acquisition of a sufficient 
 number of words, to enable the pupil to read easy 
 writers without a too frequent use of the dic- 
 tionary. If French is studied by pupils who pos- 
 se-- some knowledge of Uitin. this knowledge can 
 be used to great advantage in etymological illus- 
 tration, and in giving a clear view of the peculiar 
 character of the Romanic languages. The under- 
 standing of French authors can lie made quite 
 
 for 
 
 deprive Fenelon's T&emaque and Voltaire's 
 ( Viarles XII of the deserved popularity which 
 they have so long enjoyed. In selecting modern 
 writers, teachers should exercise the greatest care 
 to avoid all works the contents of which are ob- 
 jectionable. In general, the reading of foreign 
 author, who in a marked manner reflect the 
 national peculiarities of their country, is to 
 be preferred; but whenever there is reason 
 to apprehend that the impressions thus made 
 upon the pupils mind may weaken his patri- 
 otic sentiments, there will be need of the ex- 
 ' ereise of caution. — There is. generally, too little 
 lime in Knglish and American institutions for 
 the study of French literature. In most cases, 
 the time devoted to it maybe more profitably 
 spent in improving the pupil's technical knowl- 
 edge of the language. Of course, advanced 
 pupils should become acquainted with the most 
 celebrated authors as well as a rudimentary out- 
 line of the literary history of France ; but most 
 of this can best be learned as an introduction to 
 the reading of the standard writers. Good French 
 reading books, with literary introductions to the 
 different authors, may be used for this purpose, es- 
 pecially in advanced classes, with great advantage. 
 The reading of selections which would make the 
 pupil acquainted with the peculiar style and ex- 
 cellencies of Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Boileau, 
 Fonclon, etc. of the age of Louis XIV. ; of Vol- 
 taire, Rousseau, Montesquieu. Florian, &c, of the 
 philosophical century: of Chateaubriand, Be- 
 ranger, Lamartine, V. Hugo. G. Sand, Guizot, 
 Tluei-. Michelet, Ac. of modern times, is prefer- 
 able to the exclusive reading of one or two entire 
 worksof French literature. When colloquial ex- 
 ercises constitute the chief part of French instruc- 
 tion. and to acquire fluency of speech is the chief 
 aim. care should be exercised that the command 
 of the language thus obtained may give to the 
 pupil something more than a collection of trivial 
 phrases and unmeaning expressions of politeness. 
 Eminent educators have often called attention 
 to the dangerous influence which a knowledge, 
 so exclusively formal and without substance, may 
 exercise upon the pupil's mind. 
 
 The' first grammar of the French language was 
 written by an Knglish author, Palsgrave (L'es- 
 darcissementdela£anguefranpoyse,Lond.,l530; 
 new edit li\ Genin, Paris,1852). It was followed 
 
 inajon 
 same r 
 should 
 rupted 
 
 lumatical or literary remarks. The 
 .should be to make the language 
 familiar to the pupil ; as he advances, it will be 
 easy, without any sacrifice of time, to call at- 
 tention to the rhetorical excellencies oi the 
 French classics. Classic prose should precede 
 poetry, and should be read to a much larger ex- 
 tent. The great prose writers of the 1 7th and 
 
 18th centuries have some claims to the privilege 
 of being read first : at all events, they should not 
 be neglected. French literature is exceedingly rich 
 in works suited, in every respect, for beginners : 
 and there is no reason \\ hy modern writers should 
 
 ■s ll 
 
 ;,,,,,,,,,. 
 
 Great progress was visible in the works of 
 
 Roberl and Henry Stephens q, v. . \u g the 
 
 later grammars published by French scholars the 
 most highlyvalued are those by the Port-Royal 
 writers, Lancelot and Arnauld (1660), de Wailly 
 (1754), Girault-Duvivier (1811), Landais (1836), 
 Bescherelle, Noeland ( lhapsal, Poitevin, Boniface, 
 ht llier and Larousse. Among the grammat- 
 ical works on the French language written by 
 foreigners, the works by Matzner, (Syntax der 
 neiiframdsischen Sprache, 2 vols. Berlin. L843 — 
 
aft'/fc,Berlin,1856) a schism took place in the Philadelphia Yearly 
 ch scholars. — The Meeting, which afterwards extended to mosl of 
 s French language the other yearly meetings in America. Both 
 
 i~ h 
 
 Dictionnaire universel by 
 (Hague, L690) was a kind of 
 
 ilia. A re\ ision of this work. 1 
 
 became celebrated under the 
 
 Vr 
 
 •H'l"' 
 the i 
 The 
 
 this, 
 
 Lani 
 tion. 
 1876 
 Sand 
 On i 
 
 by I!. 
 L851) 
 (1865 
 1863 
 
 has 1 
 first- 
 
 art id 
 
 try of tin' Freni 
 works have bet 
 
 if all diction- 
 istorical dic- 
 grand scale, 
 idemy, The 
 
 itirely without theological 
 lox Friends have twelve 
 ol.lest of which, that of 
 ,- the others with respectful 
 rof yearly meetings. The 
 n I iijand ami Ireland is 
 
 .Is 
 
 M.nl.i 
 
 
 Borel, 
 
 Noel ( 
 
 Masim 
 
 on the history of the 
 
 by V-. v // . ■ , 
 
 en Fran* Paris 18 
 
 dulangagi frangaU 
 
 1845), and l.ittre | His 
 
 2 vols., Paris, 1863).- 
 
 Frencli synonyms a: 
 
 French 
 ( I vols. 
 < feruzez 
 
 Beau/.ee 
 
 (180 
 
 liter 
 1841 
 
 (2 vol... 1852) — In ,■ ction with the other 
 
 Komanic languages, the French has 1 len, gram- 
 
 matieallv and lexicallv. ic.i i in the Standard 
 work. ..t Mez o,, these languages. Iramm a 'c 
 der romanis ' S <ra . 3 rol , I 336 12, 
 4th edit., 1876; and /' ...... ... j ' s II'. •. rbuch 
 
 trans, by Honkin, 1864). 
 
 FRIENDS, Society of, commonly called 
 Quakers, a religious denomination which was 
 organized in England, in the 17th century, by 
 George Fox. He begun his religious reform in 
 1047, and only a few years later, in 1655, the 
 first of his followers came to America. In 1827, 
 
 is tl„ 
 
 an endowment of £40,000, and 
 voted to the training of young 
 in the Friends' educational & 
 in I heir families. Ackworth Scl 
 worth, is the chief public Bchoi 
 and has an endowment of £3 
 pupils (about 180 boys and 120 
 ers. Besides Ackworth, the 
 public schools at I iroydon (endo 
 Sidcot (£15.000), Wigton (£1 
 
:!28 
 
 FROEBEL 
 
 near Leeds | 65,000), Penketh. near Warrington 
 (£4,000), Sibford (£10,000), Ayton, near Dar- 
 lington [£i 1,000), Newton, Waterford; .Mount- 
 in Sick | £9,000 . Ldsburn ''-'II ,000 . Brookfleld 
 I 68,000 . First day 8c] I- Sunday-scl Is) are 
 
 conducted in all 1 1 1. ■ vearlv incetin"> with zed 
 
 and efficiency, and North ' arol baa tab n the 
 
 lead in the establishment of a normal first-day 
 school. The other branch the Hicksites) have, 
 in the eities of New York. Philadelphia, Bal- 
 timore, and Richmond. Int. extensive and well- 
 conducted schools, adapted to a high standard 
 of useful and practical education. There arc abo 
 numerous schools of varied character through- 
 out the yearly meetings. Swarthmore College. 
 near Philadelphia, was organized in 1 Mii'.l. ami is 
 intended for three hundred pupils of both sexes. 
 FROEBEL, Friedrich, a celebrated German 
 educator, and the inventor of the kindergarten 
 system of school instruction, was born in Ober- 
 weissbach. Thuringia. April '21.. 17*'-'. and died 
 in Marienthal, June 21., 1852. lie was the son 
 of a Lutheran clergyman, but had few oppor- 
 tunities for education, leaving home at the early 
 age of 13, to become a forester's apprentice. As 
 such he learned the elements of geometry and 
 surveying, and acquired the means to prepare 
 himself for the university of Jenajbut his funds 
 being exhausted, he was compelled to shift for 
 himself in various stations, until, in L803, he 
 was employed as a teacher in a model school in 
 Frankfort on the Main. To acquaint himself 
 with the details of Pestalozzi's reforms in educa- 
 tion, he became his associate in the school at 
 Vverdun, Switzerland, from 1807 to 1810. He 
 then continued his studies at the universities of 
 Gottingen and Berlin; but, in 1813, he ' 10k pari 
 as a volunteer in Ltitzo'H - celebi ited i i apaig 
 against Napoleon I. In the same year he »;i- ap- 
 pointed assistant inspector of the mineralogie d 
 museum in Berlin : but he resigned that posi- 
 tion in lslG to found in Griesheim, Thu- 
 ringia, a school, which he sunn after transferred 
 to Keilhau, near Rudolstadt. His system of 
 education, as practiced here for fifteen years was 
 based on the principle of cultivating the self- 
 activity of the pupil, by connecting manual 
 labor with everystudy. Not fully satisfied how 
 ever, with the results of bis experiments, he left 
 his school to the. guidance of three devoted and 
 excellent assistants. — Middendorf, Barop, and 
 Langethal, and went to Switzerland, where lo- 
 lloped to rind more support in his reformatory 
 plans, lb- founded a school first in Willisau, in 
 1832, and att-rw.irds another in Ilurgdorf, in 
 1835, which he again left to be carried on by 
 Middendorf and Langethal, and returned to Ger- 
 maiiyin order to realize bi> plan of kindergarten 
 
 schools. He had be i ntirely convinced 
 
 that no thorough educational reform could be 
 effected, without changing the methods of the 
 earliest instruction. The powers of the infant's 
 
 mind, before they bo te stunted by aeglect, 
 
 he held, must be ham iousbj developed, in an in- 
 stitution specially adapted to prepare these young 
 minds for the ordinary processes of school instruc- 
 
 FTJRMAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 tion. In this institution, teachers were also to be 
 trained for the special work of infant education. 
 Such a school he called a Kindergarten, that is, 
 a garden for children, partly because it was to be 
 located in a hall within a garden, and, partly.be- 
 caus ■ thl children were to lie treated like plants, 
 beinu' carefully tended, and aided in the natural 
 development of their powers. His first attempt 
 at a practical realization of this scheme, was made 
 in lllankeiiburg, Thuringia. in 18411; the second, 
 at the invitation of the Duchess of Meinmeen. 
 in Liebenthal, in 1849, in the latter of which 
 places he began the training of young women to 
 be kindergarten teachers. Other kindergartens 
 were opine. 1 in several of the German cities — 
 Dresden, Hamburg, etc., previous to Froebel's 
 death, in 1852. Before his death, he had the 
 mortification to find the establishment of state 
 
 or public kindcrgai t, 
 
 as forbidden by the Prus- 
 
 sian Minister Von 1 
 
 auinei. who supposed their 
 
 founder to be Karl 1- 
 
 roebel, his nephew . w ho was 
 
 charged with beine a 
 
 democratic agitator and so- 
 
 eiah'st. Like all self ei 
 
 ucated persons, Froebel was 
 
 deficient in logical 
 
 1, arness, especially in writ- 
 
 ing. when a Hood of 
 
 ideas overwhelmed him ; as 
 
 a practical teacher. 
 
 te was wonderfully impress- 
 
 ive and clear. Aw 
 
 tward in appearance, indif- 
 
 ferent to the conven 
 
 ionalities of life, and always 
 
 filled with one inter, 
 
 st, one range of ideas and 
 
 efforts, he, lieverthel 
 
 ss. exerted on all genuine 
 
 educators who eauit 
 
 in contact with him, irre- 
 
 spective of creed, s 
 
 almost magical infl 
 
 atiou in life, or party, an 
 
 tence. Although a devout 
 
 Christian and religionist, he was entirely un- 
 
 sectarian ; although 
 
 a revolutionary thinker in 
 
 most respects, he ke' 
 
 t free from all attempts at 
 
 practical revolution 
 
 although a cosmopolitan 
 
 and lover of mankin 
 
 1. he was an ardent national 
 
 German; and altho 
 
 gh in theory be was most 
 
 uncritical, in speech 
 
 incoherent and hardly in- 
 
 tclli-ilile. his system 
 
 ,f methods for the develop- 
 
 ment of the mind i 
 matic, and effective. 
 
 s eminently practical, syste- 
 The most complete biog- 
 at written by A. P>. Hansch- 
 
 
 M \\\ Eis uai h 1 -7 
 
 l); shortei ones are found 
 
 ill Wit HARD LANGE' 
 
 complete e lition of Froe- 
 
 be] - pedagogical woi 
 
 ks 3 vols. Berlin, L862),in 
 
 !> ■■ -, "- Rhein 
 
 sche Blatter (1860), in the 
 
 journal Er iehungd 
 
 rOega <(1874,sq.)by 
 
 the Baroness Mares 
 
 louz. 11, BLOW, and in Am. 
 
 KtEHXER's Praxis t 
 
 is Kindergartens (3 vols.. 
 
 Weimar,. An excel] 
 
 ■nt bio-raphi, al sk, ti-li has 
 
 also 1 n written by 
 
 Matilda II. Crieqe (New 
 
 fork, 1-7 
 
 FURMAN UNIVERSITY, at Greenville, 
 
 S. ('., founded in 1 Sail, is under Baptist control. 
 It has ample buildings beautifully located on a 
 
 tract of land, of some forty acres. Its endow- 
 ment was almost wholly I,, 'st by the Avar. The 
 remnant spared has recently been augmented by 
 
 cent interest. Hereafter tuition will be free for 
 111 years. The university has an educational 
 fund of about $10,000, the interest of which is 
 to aid young men who are preparing for the 
 ministry. It comprises eight schools; namely,. 
 
GALESVILLE UNIVERSITY GAMES 329 
 
 Roman literature : (ireek language and litera- ' The theological di-j >art 11 n n t was abandoned some 
 ture; mathematics ami mechanical philosophy ; years after the organization of the university, in 
 natural philosophy; chemistry and natural order to make it the germ of the Southern Bap- 
 history; logic, rhetoric, and the evidences of tist Theological Institution, which hold il ses- 
 Christianhv : metaphvsies ; and Knglish lit, a.,- ions .it Greenville, and haf 5 pro! Of I h e 
 ture. Students are allowed entire freedom in I university, in 1874 -5, had 5 professors 54 stu- 
 the selection of the schools which they desire to dents, and 79 alumni. The Rev. James C. Fur- 
 attend. The full course for a degree of A. B. man. I». I».. has been the presiding officer of the 
 extends through four years. The preparatory institution since its opening. 
 department was discontinued in 1 8(19, and has FURNITURE, SCHOOL. See School 
 been succeeded by the Greenville High School. | Furniture. 
 
 GALESVILLE UNIVERSITY, at Gales- 
 
 \ille. Wis., chartered in L859, is under the con- 
 trol of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Both 
 sexes are admitted. It is supported by tuition 
 fees and an endowment of §15,000. It has a 
 library of over 4,000 volumes, a cabinet of natural 
 history, and apparatus for the illustration of nat- 
 ural philosophy, chemistry, and astron y. It 
 
 preparatory 
 
 year. and. in the collegiate department, $27. In 
 1S74 — 5, there were 7 instructors; and the num- 
 ber of students was as follows: in the collegiate 
 department, 29; in the preparatory, 96; in music, 
 28; total, deducting repetitions, 135. The Hon. 
 George Gale, Id.. I'., was the president of the 
 
 Harrison Gilliland, D.D., the present incumbent 
 (1876), was elected. 
 
 GALL, Franz Joseph, a German physician 
 and the founder of phrenology, was born a1 
 Tiefenbronn, in Baden, March !>., 1758, and 
 died at Montrouge, near Paris, A ug. 22., 1828. 
 The first impulse to his phrenological inves- 
 tigations was given by the observation mad.' by 
 him. when a boy, that all pupils who excelled 
 in committing pieces to memory had prominent 
 
 he thought he perceived in the human head 
 external marks of other intellectual and moral 
 faculties; and, after twenty years of uninterrupt- 
 ed Study, he believed that he had discovered 
 about twenty organs of different faculties. In 
 I7!)t;, he began to leel ure on his peculiar theory | 
 in Vienna ; but, in ISO'.', the Austrian govern- 
 ment interdicted his lectures on the ground that 
 they were dangerous to religion. This charge, 
 which has since been often repeated, againsl the 
 phrenologists, was stoutly denied bv Call. who. 
 
 tion. and that, therefore, a 
 nology, which revealed bet 
 
 knowledge of phre- 
 er than any other 
 
 means of observation, the gi 
 
 od and bad disposi- 
 
 tions of men. was of great 
 
 mportance to every 
 
 educator. Gall had many 
 
 followers, the most 
 
 noted of win an was Spun 
 
 leim. the author of 
 
 .1 View of the Elementary 
 
 P ,/ Edu- 
 
 cation (Edin, L821),and oil, 
 
 ■r important works. 
 
 GALLAUDET, Thomas Hopkins, a noted 
 teacher and philanthropist, was born in Phila- 
 delphia, Dec. 10.. 17*7. and died in Hartford, 
 Ct., Sep. !»., 1851. Hegraduated at Vale College 
 in 1805, entered the theological seminary at 
 
 ndent of an institution 
 rpose at I lartford. and in 
 e in its behalf. finding 
 
 vogue. In July 
 with Mr. Lin 
 pupils and ass 
 
 /;., 
 
 Defining Dictionary, Practical 8p ' i | Bo, ■: 
 The Every-Day Christian, Letters of a Father, 
 and Public Schools, Public Blessings.— See 
 Barnard, American Teachers and Educators ; 
 and Tribute to GaUaudet (Hartford, 1852); U. 
 Humphrey, Life of T. II. GaUaudet; North 
 Ameri an Eevi a for October, 1858. 
 GAMES are formal methods of sport or 
 
 diversion, which istitule. in an especial man 
 
 ner and degree, the peculiar life of childhood. 
 
 taneolis e\erei-c ot tie- hoililj Organs of an 
 
 animal, which promotes its growth and adapts 
 
 it to its surroiiiidiii'j- ; .- 1 ■ i . 1 -.I •- convention- 
 ally established modes of play I h ■ garni 
 maybe more or less in harmony with the nat- 
 ural wants of those who engage in them ; but it 
 
-will be found that the more nearly they agree I need of purchasing costly and elaborate toys, in 
 with these natural wants, the more generally which children take but a transient interest. Mure 
 
 they 
 
 tory 
 
 particularly will it dissuade from supplying 
 as children with contrivances for such games oi 
 id chance as tend to foster the spirit of gain and 
 is gambling, children should be led ;o make their 
 id own toys, and to trive their own games and 
 
 With the pro] 
 andergo cei-tan 
 to the age ; am 
 characteristics 
 and kinds of it: 
 arc. in part, ini 
 indeed, sometii 
 ser s oocnpa 
 
 child - plays .- 
 scholars, or asst 
 the household, 
 mechanic, etc., i 
 
 is pi 
 
 exclusively on the 
 tilia.ii also recogni 
 certain games. It 
 
 , 
 
 i 
 
 cause to be real! 
 spontanea ms. 
 rect in regard b 
 not prejudicial 
 unsuited to the 
 parents, and o 
 great influence 
 joining in thcii 
 may regulate t 
 make them an 
 struction. Tin 
 interference is 
 child's powers s 
 that amusemen 
 stimulating th. 
 that growth. I 
 from the earlii 
 and -aincs. sucl 
 has been deraoi 
 who have pracl 
 or the kinderg 
 proaches perfec 
 ing ability of t 
 that method, t 
 beautiful plays 
 ability which 
 them as childr 
 spheres of usef 
 meuts to adapt 
 and his sanies. 
 eighth year u] 
 number of schi 
 
 rebuses; and also construction games b\ 
 of geometrical solids, cutting, weaving, 
 
 must tend tu keep children from rough, boi 
 
 and dangerous sports, and will also obv: 
 
 has dune so much to 
 importance as Froebel ; 
 no educat tonal system ca 
 
 cation of 
 Aristotle.. 
 tssembled 
 ir female 
 eir plays, 
 lati.m for 
 
 •mine or 
 
 of recreation. Quin- 
 developing power of 
 d.lle ages, only the 
 ■eciated the value of 
 •ial culture. Luther 
 of children ; but the 
 ith centuries are. m 
 
 y neglect of this 
 
 •at i'.. not youth. The 
 ere, in this respect, 
 table principles than 
 dvocated games for 
 r» ise favored them. 
 particularly enjoined 
 required as far as 
 n playthings. "All 
 f children, ' he says. 
 
 ds g 1 and useful 
 
 tduce ill ones. What- 
 ipression on that ten- 
 j receive a tendency 
 er hath such an in- 
 flected." Rousseau 
 ipreciate the value of 
 9th century, no one 
 I attention to their 
 .at the present time, 
 • considered complete 
 onsideration of every 
 tional amusement of 
 ongs to their formal 
 her of 1 inuks in the 
 n published, ci.ntain- 
 rv \ai icty of games 
 boys and girls, and 
 
 have 1 ii expended 
 
 1 instrui tive in-d ■ 
 
 "onstructing material 
 ily exhaustive treat- 
 tin educational point 
 Spiel und die Bpii '• 
 
 GAUME, J 
 
 >an Joseph, a French ecclesi- 
 , especially noted for his earnest 
 ie use of the pagan classics in 
 ovn in iMi'J.and died in L869. 
 ,- orders tit an early age, and, in 
 uted professor of theolo-\ in the 
 ers. of which institution he was 
 
GEDIKE 
 
 afterwards the director. Subsequently, he be- 
 came canon of the cathedral and vicar-general. 
 In his Le rrr rongeur des societes modemes 
 — The Canker-worm of Modern Society (Paris, 
 L851), he endeavored to show thai all the so- 
 cial evils of the last four centuries could be 
 
 ival • 
 
 every other educational process. (See Develop- 
 ing Method.) 
 GENEVA COLLEGE, at Wesl Geneva, 
 
 editions of Latin and Greek authors anteri 
 to the 4th century A. D. should be read in I 
 schools. In order to carry out this idea, 
 issued Bibliothequ, des < 'assiques cftretiens, i 
 
 [lostolie by Pius IX. (See Clas- 
 
 GEDIKE, Friedrich, a Herman educat. 
 orn in 1755, died in 1803. He studied at tl 
 
 foi classical studies, $30. The Rev. H.H.George, 
 D.D.,i8 (1876 the president, having held this 
 
 GENIUS (Lat. genius, innate power or 
 capacity, from gignere, to produce), as used in 
 modern times, has been variously defined by 
 many writers, who. though differing widely as to 
 it,- essential quality, arc agreed as to its out- 
 ward, distinguishing manifestation ; namely, un- 
 usual mental ability coupled always with great 
 intuitional or creative power. Absolute creative 
 power cannot, of course, be claimed for it. since 
 it does not create the elements with which it 
 works ; but that it is creative in the scum' of re- 
 
 appointed sue 
 
 that restitutio 
 
 which' he intr, 
 a model for a 
 His principal 
 follows: " As i 
 man does not 
 studies, but ad 
 
 attend to all the studies m the sa 
 
 plan is, therefore, arranged in so A 
 
 a scholar can attend one less 
 
 another in a lower class, without I 
 otherwise necessary." In his po 
 school councilor i Oberschulraih),\ 
 appointed in 1787, he also showi 
 
 as an organizer. The creati 
 
 School Board WberschtdccUegim 
 
 traduction of the exai ation ol 
 
 graduation in the gymnasia Abitui 
 ware chiefly his work. In 17-7. I 
 teachers seminary for the instrud 
 of classical schools, the directioi 
 
 iClibes them for mortal ears; with 
 r follows the falling apple till worlds 
 i proclaim the same immutable and 
 
 iw ; it hr Is with Napoleon over the 
 
 and, scorning experience as its guide, 
 dden and overwhehnine; victory from 
 ield of disaster; it paints the heroic 
 the simplicity and grandeur of nature 
 in Homer, or probes, as in Shakespeare, 
 
 ess whichagescai tantiquate. Tran- 
 
 il his death, lie published a collec- 
 Schulschriftea (Educational Works) 
 
 GENETIC METHOD, in instruction, is 
 but another name for what is more frequently 
 
 cated. that is, their development from fundamen- 
 tal principles ; or that it will be led to construct 
 for itself eeiieral principles from observed facts 
 
 as antecedents. This method recocni/.es tin- l d 
 
 of a genesis, or development, of actual concep- 
 tions in the mind of the pupil, as the basis for 
 
 works the nil 
 be attained, 
 and living t 
 quite often h 
 
 Its 
 
 S b' 
 
 towever, that the man of 
 ,eniu, falls OUt of harmony with the age m 
 which he lives. And here the duty oi the educa- 
 tor towards him must be considered. Our first 
 question, therefore, is, How far can the teacher 
 influence genius ? Lf genius be. as many think, 
 only an abnormal development of .me faculty at 
 the expense of the others— as the ear becomes 
 exquisitely acute by the loss of sight — the 
 method to be adopted by the teacher is plain ; 
 namely, a repression of the abnormal faculty and 
 
332 
 
 GENIUS 
 
 a careful cultivation of the others. Whether this 
 process would result in a reduction of them all 
 to mediocrity, or a harmonious ami powerful 
 development of them all. remains to be con- 
 sidered. If. on the other hand, genius be, as it 
 
 epressible 
 
 has i 
 
 an apparently higher power, acting from with- 
 out, and impelling its | r, almost in spite 
 
 of himself, in a given direction, any attempt to 
 
 injurious irritation and disgust to the pupil and 
 
 discouragement to tin- teacher. History furnishes 
 many iust; es in which genius, thwarted in its 
 
 has passed for stupidity, till a fortunate chance 
 has disclosed its real nature. Perhaps, the ques- 
 tion how far genius can be profitably influenced 
 by education, must wait for an answer till a 
 betl r system of psychology than we now possess 
 has laid down the principles according to which 
 the experiment must be conducted. 
 
 Our second question is. How far is it desirable 
 that genius should be influenced by education? 
 Perhaps it is not too much to say that the last 
 and best result of education is to make men 
 happy, [f happiness be the only consideration, 
 and if happiness, according to an extensive 
 modern school of philosophy, consists in bringing 
 
 further it be granted, that the minil thu gifted 
 can be harmoniously developed and retain all its 
 
 original power, the duty of tl ducator is again 
 
 plain — the race would be benefited by such 
 development, and the man of -emus made more 
 happy liv eliminating- from his mental constitu- 
 tion all those jarring differences which arise from 
 inharmonious development, and which take the 
 form of eccentricities. There then arises the 
 broader consideration, how far the permanent 
 welfare of the human race is concerned in the 
 harmonious development we have been discussing. 
 This question, however, in the present state of 
 our knowledge, is, perhaps, beyond our power to 
 solve. — Akin to genius are those special aptitudes 
 which arc manifested. some times at ipiite an carn- 
 age. These, as constituting a part of the char- 
 acter, should be recognized by the educator; and 
 while they should not form the l.asis ,,f general 
 training or discipline, should be allowed their 
 specific exercise; ami. in the more advanced 
 steps of education, should become distinct objects 
 of culture. The existence of this special talent, 
 or of genius itself, should not be permitted to 
 supersede the necessity of industry and applica- 
 tion. As far as possible, the tasks imposed by 
 the instructor should bear a proper relation to 
 the special ability of the students, those who are 
 
 of brilliant parts being required to ace plish 
 
 more than those who arc comparatively dull and 
 slow to acquire. Many youths of great promise, 
 
 in large scl Is. are often seriou Ij injured by 
 
 insufficient requirements, lapsing into loth or 
 bad habits by the want of full occupation, d'lus 
 principle is of great, importance; though its 
 application in school and college education is 
 accompanied with many difficulties. The true 
 
 GEOGRAPHY 
 
 educator will, however, recognize it, and allow it 
 to guide and regulate many of his operations. 
 The possession of the brightest genius cannot 
 supersede the necessity of industry and study. 
 "Invention," said SirJoshua Reynolds, '-is one of 
 the great marks of genius; but, if we consult 
 experience, we shall find, that it is by being con 
 versant with the inventions of others, that we 
 learn to invent, as, by reading the thoughts of 
 others, we learn to think". 
 
 GEOGRAPHY (Gr. ytd, Vl . the earth, and 
 
 111 Its I 
 
 a concise 
 
 yet comprehensive definition. Strictly speak- 
 ing, modern scientific geography necessarily in- 
 cludes a great part of the results and many of 
 the details of the several natural and physical 
 sciences. We must look to astronomy for an ex- 
 planation of the phenomena of day and night and 
 of the seasons: and for the means of determining 
 the true form of the earth, its magnitude, and 
 the relative position of places upon its surface. 
 
 tii m and contour, and their incessant though slow 
 mutations. Physics only, can enable us to con- 
 sider intelligently the conditions of climate, the 
 origin of the wind and ocean currents, the rain- 
 fall, the relations of temperature to elevation, 
 and the mysteries of terrestrial magnetism. 
 
 derstand the nature and 
 t.-mt factors in modem 
 and mineral coal. Gei 
 tributions from all these 
 
 aphical 
 to un- 
 impor- 
 roleum 
 is con- 
 
 it and 
 
 liarities of the countries which th 
 nt the effects of their physical environment up- 
 on their social development and then- condition: 
 also a knowledge of their resources, industries, 
 and government; and of the commercial rela- 
 tions of nations. It is evident that a subject 
 so vast and comprehensive cannot be exhaus- 
 tively treated in any ordinary school course of 
 study. As in the science of arithmetic there 
 are very many things which cannot possibly be 
 included in an elementary or " practical " busi- 
 ness course, so in the study of geography, a very 
 large part of the entire subject must lieccssarily 
 be omitted, partly because of the immaturity of 
 the pupils mind, and partly because of the pres- 
 sure of other subjects upon his time and atten- 
 tion. The contents of the modern daily news- 
 paper furnish, perhaps, the best general indica- 
 tion of what should constitute a proper course 
 in geography for ordinary schools. With most 
 persons, the newspaper furnishes by far the 
 greater part of their reading, and is the chief, if 
 nut the only, source of their stock of general in- 
 formation. None can safely dispense with it; 
 and. iii the not distant future, with the general 
 increase of the number of intelligent readers 
 through improved systems of instruction, the 
 daily journal must bee e more and more the 
 
<;koi!i:aimiy 
 
 medium for spreading a knowledge of the things 
 which every one should know. ' Its telegrams, 
 editorials, and communications, as well as the ad- 
 vertisements, relate to every great human inter- 
 est, political and commercial, social and religious. 
 They are from every part of the world; and 
 those of chief interest involve geographical 
 knowledge which the editor must necessarily as- 
 sume to be already posa ssed by the reader. In 
 order to be truly practical, a proper course of 
 study in geography should recognize the fact 
 that, after reading, writing, and elementary 
 arithmetic, a knowledge of no other subject 
 studied in school, perhaps not of all others taken 
 together, is so frequently called into practical 
 
 In view of the limited time that can usually 
 be given to the subject in school, it is obvious 
 that, if a text-book be used, it should be clear 
 and concise, and should chiefly direct the atten- 
 tion of the pupil to those matters which will 
 afterwards be most needed. All unimportant 
 details should be omitted. It is a matter of no 
 consequence that the pupil should know the de- 
 tails of Arctic geography, or be able to describe 
 minutely, and by long formulas, the courses of 
 rivers, the precise boundaries of countries, or 
 the exact location of a large number of towns 
 and cities of the third and fourth orders. Gen- 
 eral but substantially correct ideas are all that 
 are here necessary; and, in nearly every case, 
 these will be nearly all that will remain in the 
 pupil's mind, after till the labor and time ex- 
 pended upon details. A know ledge of local geog- 
 raphy is indispensable as a basis for the proper 
 study of the more important descriptive geog- 
 raphy ; but great care should be taken to make 
 it no more than a well-selected outline, such as 
 the average mind is likely to retain. When 
 judiciously pursued in the school room, geography 
 becomes a lifelong study, full of pleasure and 
 profit : badly taught, it is perhaps more than 
 any other subject, "stale, flat, and unprofitable." 
 Geography, like all other subjects, cannot be 
 taught by any one who is not specially prepared 
 to teach it. The teacher should know a great 
 deal more about it than the brief statements of 
 the text-book. He should have a fund of illustra- 
 tion from books on history, travel, commerce, and 
 other collateral subjects, so as to fill up and en- 
 Bven the simple outline of the book. There are 
 few more common or more distressing illustra- 
 tions of incompetency in the school room than 
 that of the misnamed "teacher," with his eyes 
 fastened upon the book, now following with his 
 finger the printed question, and then doubtfully 
 poring over the map, or over the printed answer 
 in the descriptive text, to see if the pupil "knows 
 his lesson." Pupils are quick to estimate such a 
 teacher at his proper value. 
 
 Geography is. comparatively speaking, a moil- 
 em science. The Phoenicians, the Egyptians, 
 the Greeks, and the Carthaginians, in tie prog- 
 ress of their commercial enterprises, made a 
 few discoveries, principally confined to the shores 
 of the Mediterranean !Sea ; and the great mili- 
 
 tary expeditions of Alexander, in the 4th century 
 1!. <'.. added somewhat to this knowledge, which 
 Eratosthenes (about 2<l(> I',. ('.) first reduced to 
 a scientific form. The treatises of Strabo and 
 Ptolemy contained nearly all tl ei aphii al 
 ■ by mankind I r ceu tiries. 
 
 little 
 knowl 
 the 15 
 
 physical. A. P. Busching ( 1 754), of politico-statis- 
 tical geography. It was. however, the labors of 
 Kail Hitter, that first gave geography a truly 
 scientific character. A new and important era of 
 geographical discovery began just before the 
 middle of the 19th century, and is still in prog- 
 ress. The geographical society of Paris was 
 founded in 1821; that of Berlin, in L828 ; the 
 Royal Geographical Society of London, in 1830; 
 and the American Geographical Society, in 1852. 
 'I here ate now (1876), at least thirty-four such 
 societies, differing, of Course, in extent, activity, 
 and importance. Within a brief period, and under 
 their advice, direction, or encouragement, pro- 
 digious results have been ace plished. A few 
 
 years ago, more than one half of the map of 
 Africa was a blank: and of the 17 millions of 
 sq.m. of Asia, more than 12 millions was either 
 entirely unknown, or wholly cut off from all 
 intercourse with mankind. Twenty-five years 
 ago, a geographer wrote of Australia, "a corner 
 of this huge mass of land is all that is known." 
 Besides the newly opened empires of t !hina and 
 Japan and the recent vast conquests of the Rus- 
 sians, nearly every other country of Asia has 
 been visited by scientific explorers, eager to 
 notice every fact relating to physical or political 
 geography, ethnology, geology, botany, or 
 zoology, and to discover the various agricultural, 
 mineral, and other physical resources, developed 
 or undeveloped, which play so important a part 
 in modern civilization. In the same spirit, the 
 limits of the unexplored regions of Africa and 
 Australia have been greatly reduced ; the Arctic 
 Ocean has been penetrated nearly to the 83rd, 
 and the Antarctic to the 77th. degree of latitude ; 
 and the vast and almost unknown regions in the 
 heart of South America have been visited, again 
 and again, by enthusiastic observers. Twenty- 
 five or thirty years ago, the greater part of the 
 area of the United States. — more than 2 millions 
 of square miles, was inhabited only by savages, 
 and was almost unknown: now. although a great 
 part yet remains unexamined, the admiration 
 of the world is tixe.l upon "its gnat mountain 
 ranges, extraordinary canons, wonderful geysers, 
 and prehistoric ruins; upon its lakes, rivers, 
 majestic cataracts, and broad areas of culturable 
 land ; its untold mineral treasures of even- kind. 
 
334 
 
 CKOKKAPIIY 
 
 and the rapidity with which its ancient solitudes 
 are becoming the homes of an advanced civili- 
 zation." (President Daly's Annual Address, 
 L876.) 
 
 The study of geography in schools is, compar- 
 atively speaking, of recent introduction. The 
 first text-books ""appear to have been modeled in 
 part upon the extensive descriptions of Strabo, 
 and in pari upon the briefer work of Ptolemy, 
 much of which consists essentially of mere lists 
 of places. 1'ntil the latter part of the last cent- 
 ury, nothing had been done in the United 
 States to popularize the subject and adapt it to 
 school instruction. The first text-book on the 
 subject published in that country was a small 
 lsmo manual by Jedidiah Morse, issued in 17s4. 
 This work was of little use beyond affording a 
 means of giving some slight geographical informa- 
 tion to the pupilsof elementary schools : but. pre- 
 vious to t lie publication of the w ork of William 
 ('. Woodbridge and Mi- Kmma Willard as joint- 
 
 was it in the work published about the same 
 time by Sidney E. Morse i New System of Mod- 
 em Geography, 8vo, 1823), nor in the subsequent 
 editions' of that work, which had a wide and 
 long-continued circulation. The improvements 
 of Woodbridge and Willard, adopted and added 
 toby Morse, Olney, Smith, and many other au- 
 thor'- obliged the pupil to make the maps thechief 
 
 of William' '»''. ' Woodbridge. "geography" as a 
 science had receive 1 but little attention in the 
 public schools of New England : with the excep- 
 tion of a few of the more favored of the larger 
 schools, spelling, reading, and writingwere nearly 
 all the branches that received special attention. 
 As for geography, some tew schools studied 
 Morse ; a few others used as a sort of reading- 
 hook. Nathaniel Dwight's System of Geography, 
 which was arranged in the form of question and 
 answer. The vast majority, however, paid no 
 attention to the subject." Mrs. Willard urns de- 
 scribes the method of teaching geography in l.-l 1. 
 and for some years subsequently: "In geography, 
 the eye was not made the sole or the chief me- 
 dium of teaching the signs of external things, as 
 the forms, proportions, and situation of countries. 
 rivers, etc.; for though maps existed, yet they 
 were not required to be used : hut the boundary 
 was learned by the words of the book, and the 
 latitude by numbers there set down." This pre- 
 sents a very striking illustration of the error, 
 once so prevalent, of addressing the mere mem- 
 ory (and generally the memory of words), with- 
 out any endeavor to develop the intelligence. 
 The attempt to teach the situation of places 
 (topography) by mere verbal description was 
 perhaps the most absurd error which the history 
 
 of education presents. William ( '. W Ibridge, 
 
 who had been tor - t • , -neaped in t each i lei 
 
 geography to deaf-mutes, and Mrs. Willard. of 
 tin- Troy Female Seminary, appear to have been 
 simultaneously impressed with the ab.-urdity of 
 the method in use. and with the need of reform 
 In teaching geography: and both proposed to 
 
 publish text 1 kg on the subject, and on plans 
 
 substantially identical This led to the nni t 
 
 authorship already referred to. The application 
 of a principle of scientific generalization to geog- 
 raphy, whether apprehended by them or not, 
 was not introduced into their text-books ; nor 
 
 "asn'ot'strielly belonging to the subject. 
 Is of such a method of instruction must 
 mis. When the convenient plan of print- 
 is and text in one volume was adopted. 
 es opposite the maps werelargelj . and in 
 ises exclusively, given up to map exercises, 
 consisting of lists of islands, capes, rivers, 
 is. though convenient for map study, was 
 t to be abused. In 1849, Arnold ijuyot 
 lublished a small volume of lectures, en- 
 Earth and Man, which was the first 
 ation to the American public, in a pop- 
 
 BtimuluB, in the United States, to the study of 
 geography as a science, and led to many changes 
 
 in sel l'tc.xt-1 ks on the subject, as well as 
 
 more rational methods of presenting it in the 
 class room. The publication of EarthandMan 
 has been followed by an admirable series of wall- 
 maps and sel 1 text-1 ks of geography, by the 
 
 same author, who has thus home a leading part 
 m earrvine out the reform which he was the first 
 to introduce. In a similar manner, the labors of 
 
 dies. 
 
 country. In 1590, we find The Cosmography, 
 
 probably that of Sebastian Mun>teiM'ee mended 
 
 as a useful reader in certain schools of Hesse- 
 llannstadt. The school regulations for Saxe- 
 Gotha, in 1 680, provide for a simple geographical 
 outline, in schools where there were more than 
 one teacher. In ITii.'i. the school regulations for 
 
 provjg b were made in Silesia and some other 
 
 countries. The method followed in all appears to 
 have been that of oral instruction by means of 
 a few outline maps, beginning with the native 
 
 
(;k<m;i:ai']iy 
 
 village and province. Yet notwithstanding these 
 directions and provisions, Dittessays [Schuleder 
 Pctdagogik, Leipsic, L876), -As late as the be- 
 ginning of the L9th century, there was still, in 
 
 si] Is, scarcely any geographical instruction; 
 
 and when it was •j.'wi n. it was confined to a tow 
 
 and their capitals. Even in the higher schools! 
 but little geography was learned.' Xotwith- 
 
 (inlv the necessary preparation for it. These con- 
 ceptions are to geography but as the syllables to 
 
 is I,. 
 
 study, and the costly > 
 with maps and pictor 
 supplied to the pllpil; 
 complain that the rest 
 unsatisfactory. The vai 
 it embraces, imperfec 
 all. and bound togethe 
 drop from the pupils 
 committed to it. ( !ai 
 colleges and universiti 
 
 none receives so much attention tn the element- 
 ary schools, except reading. -p'lliiiL;. and arith- 
 metic. Tn what causes this is in lr attributed 
 has been Already in part considered and will be 
 further noticed as we proceed. In treating of 
 geography as a branch of elementary instruction 
 (for such it exclusively is at the present time), 
 we shall consider (I)what are the faculties which 
 are specially exercised in Btudying it; H) the 
 
 different stages into Which the instruction shoul 1 
 
 be divide I, and what is proper to each; illli the 
 
 I. Geography seeks to present to the mind 
 conceptions of countries and peoples thai we 
 have never visited, analogous to those which we 
 have acquired in relation to regions which we 
 have actually seen. It further seeks to com- 
 bine and generalize these conceptions into a 
 systematic view of the earth as a whole, and as 
 the abode of mankind. — The fundamental con- 
 ceptions, therefore, which are to be thus ampli- 
 fied, combined, or otherwise modified, must be 
 based upon objective presentation. A landscape, 
 the more varied the better, or in default of this, 
 a good pictorial representation, as its nearest 
 equivalent, must furnish most of the basic ele- 
 ments. The first, though limited, steps must. 
 therefore, be made through an appeal to the per- 
 ceptive faculties. The second stage must consist 
 in an exercise of the conceptive faculties in 
 vividly recalling .and combining the impressions 
 which the objective presentation has made upon 
 the mind. The" pupil must be trained to recall 
 the image of the mountain, the island, the forest, 
 the placid lake, the verdant plain, or the flowing 
 river ; to see again, as it were, the tossing ocean 
 and to hear the roar of its waves as they break 
 upon the beach ; and to picture to himself in one 
 season of the year the aspect of nature in an- 
 other. These and other analogous impressions, 
 
 alrea ly obtained from physical phenomena, must 
 furnish the indispensable basis for any true prog- 
 ress in geographical knowledge. — Hut all this 
 training is not the teaching of geography, but 
 
 e conception oi a long and 
 
 idening towards the right 
 
 crooked black 
 -hand side of 
 
 : but his imagination will i 
 
 t 01 picture 
 
 id surface and turbid wate 
 
 s of that vast 
 
 s hot and humid climate, 
 
 ind its limit- 
 
 st solitudes with their t< 
 
 ngle of giant 
 
 „i then troops of chatte 
 
 ing monkeys. 
 
 
 ly of maps is 
 
 ed. thedls.iphne ot the 
 
 /<• mory is ad- 
 
 that ot the perceptive, a 
 
 nceptive, and 
 
 
 ■inhering the 
 
 of mountains, islands, rivi 
 
 is. and towns. 
 
 while 
 
 and coast-lines, and in connecting the genera] 
 course of a river with the elevations and slopes 
 of the country which it drains. 
 
 struetioii have 1 u already, in part, indicated. 
 
 The conceptions and distinctions ot mainland 
 
 and island ; of mountain, hill, and table land : of 
 lake, river, basin, valley, peninsula, and rape ; of 
 
 ehmate. vegetation, race, and other geographii al 
 elements, should first be fixed, and then the terms 
 
 those 
 
 lia\ 
 
 lake, as actually used, defy all sharp differentia- 
 tion : and others, such as continent and water- 
 shed, are variously used by standard authorities. 
 It must be borne in mind that the definitions in 
 geography have a totally distinct function from 
 those of iiiatheiiialies. -laminar, and othel logic- 
 
 conception of a term, such as parallelogram or 
 
 adjective, is to bo obtained from its definition; 
 whereas, in geography, the definition, if required. 
 
 must bo developed from a correct v< ptioii of 
 
 the object defined. The formal definitions of 
 geographical terms have, indeed, their place ; but 
 this is not in the first stage oi thi subject. The 
 geographical terms and their association should 
 be followed by ideas of direction or relative 
 position, that is, a knowledge of the cardinal 
 
flF.OfiT: A Pin- 
 
 points ; after this, the construction and inter- 
 pretation of a simple map of limited and known \ 
 
 \ The final stage of geography, as a branch of ele- 
 mentary instruction, is much more comprehensive 
 localities, beginning perhaps with a plan or map | than the preceding stages, and makes more fre- 
 of the school room itself, loll. .wed by a map of j quent appeals to the judgment and the memory. 
 ' The outline already given is to he reviewed and 
 tilled up. Political or social geouraphv is then to 
 be more fully and systematically taught; and the 
 whole subject of the peculiarities and resources, 
 together « ith the commercial and other relations 
 of all the most important countries of the globe, is 
 to be more fully shown. Geographical definitions 
 
 the immediate neighborhood, then by that of the \ 
 
 county as it would appear if seen from a balloon. 
 When the pupil has been thoroughly trained to 
 understand the symbols of the map. am I readily to 
 picture to himself the things that are symbolized 
 by the various lines, dots, and other marks, he is 
 in possession of all the elementary ideas essential 
 to the subject.— Either of two opposite courses 
 may now be pursued in giving the outline of 
 geography itself which is usually included in a 
 primary or elementary course for beginners. One 
 of these plans, known as the synthetic, begins 
 with the study of a map of the locality of the 
 pupil's home or neighborhood ; it takes next the 
 map of the county, then of the state or district, 
 and. finally, of the whole country in which the 
 pupil resides. After this, follows the study of 
 the simple outlines of the continent of which the 
 country forms a part ; then the outlines of the 
 other continents or grand divisions, in some pre- 
 ferred order, and finally a general review, which 
 completes and combines all that has preceded i r 
 into a brief view of the world as a whole. Th ■ 
 other, .'!■ analytic system, pursues, at least in it- 
 early stages, an exactly revers urse. From 
 
 the consideration of certain < nun phenomena 
 
 and other well-known facts, the pupil is first led 
 to form a conception of the earth as a gigantic 
 globe or ball ; then of the primary divisions of 
 its surface into land and water; and then of 
 the leading subdivisions of these primary ele- 
 ments. After learning the climatic division of 
 the earth into /ones, the pupil studies the conti- 
 nents, each in its turn, as in the other system. 
 Both of these systems have their strong points, 
 both have been successfully followed, and both 
 have earnest advocates. Excepting in their in- 
 itial and terminal stages i hey have much in com- 
 mon. One great advantage of the analytic system 
 is, that it more readily admits theearhj intro 
 duction of the terrestrial globe, and requires its 
 frequent use throughout. In no other way can 
 certain serious misconceptions be thoroughly 
 piwented. The use of maps of different scales, 
 together with the inherent faults of projection, 
 
 to 
 
 Bizeof countries, and 1 ■ •. rot eptions of their 
 
 relative positions. These first impressions are 
 hard to correct, and. in the majority of eases. 
 are never corrected. The globe should have 
 the leading place in teaching elementary geog- 
 raphy. It should be used to fix the idea of the 
 spherical shape of the earth, its dimensions, and 
 
 lie di n of its surface into land and water. 
 
 It should give the first view of its division into 
 continents, oceans, islands etc., and just concep- 
 tions of their relative position and magnitude. 
 By no other means can the astronomic elements 
 of primary geography be so simply and correctly 
 taught ; such as the causes of day and night, and 
 .us. the zones, the nature of latitude 
 and longitude and the need of these measurements. 
 
 irough training in the 
 physical geography, as 
 ific basis, and the only 
 c generalization, for the 
 v. 'I his training should 
 
 igraphy as is nm 
 
 ilivocompaial ive | 
 [ immediately fol 
 
 tion, form. size. 
 tions; (2) the 
 islands, the chii 
 and lowland ,1 
 currents, and th 
 mate as affected 
 
 ) di- 
 .l by 
 
 distribution of characteristic plants and animals, 
 and of the races of mankind. All. or nearly 
 all, of these may be profitably taught simply 
 as physical facts to be known by observation. 
 The study of the explanatory theories belongs 
 to a higher stage of geographical knowledge. 
 Each of the six grand divisions should now be 
 considered in turn ; first, in relation to the lead- 
 ing facts of its physical geography, including its 
 surface, drainage, climate, and characteristic 
 plants and animals, indigenous or exotic; and 
 secondly, on the basis of these physical facts, in 
 relation to the separate political subdivisions, 
 their inhabitants, towns and cities, resources, 
 commerce, industrial develo] ment, government, 
 
 and g 11 iral social c Iition. I mally.a brief but 
 
 iprehensive general review should bring out, 
 
 in strong relief, the various interrelations of the 
 different countries in regard to commerce, gov- 
 ernment, race, language, and religion. 
 
 III. As a general rule, the pupil should not 
 begin the study of geography, at least, not what 
 may be called map geography, until ten or eleven 
 years of age. There are. however, geographical 
 lessons, of a very simple character, which may 
 be profitably given to younger children. These 
 should, according to the principles already 
 Maied, he pictorial and di seriptivc. approximat- 
 inwto object-lessons, in being designed to develop 
 ideas rather than to impart knowledge. In rela- 
 tion to this stage of the instruction, Currie says, 
 
CI'.OCRAIMIY 
 
 in Principles of Early School Education, " The 
 geography oi the infant school is a series of ob- 
 ject-lessons C icted liy a geographical link. Il 
 
 l>nt prepares materials for the formal study of 
 geography. It may be thought that the use of 
 the map would facilitate this instruction ; but i1 
 is quite immaterial whether the map be in the 
 
 school or Ii is the business oi the nexl 
 
 Ma.:.' "i i ■ i ■ •— i . ■■- ' ■ ■-■■■//.. all that has been 
 learn! ; which it does by going regularly over 
 the map, and fixing down in position the coun- 
 tries, which as yet areonly nam.- to the children. 
 The utmost use of the map that should be made 
 
 in the infant sc 
 
 iooI is togoove 
 
 infants, if time 
 
 Limit. ai the en 
 
 mi a physical i 
 
 i i the worl 
 
 lin d so a- to - 
 
 ..« the features 
 
 g n i il out line 
 
 .t what they ha 
 
 were not for i 
 
 „• early period 
 
 cliil Iren leave 
 
 cl 1, the regul 
 
 raphy might bi 
 
 profitably defer 
 
 longer. 1 he p 
 
 evalent practice 
 
 studyof maps a 
 
 ion the time and 
 
 disgust of both pupils and teachers with the usual 
 net results of itsstudy. II. • introductory course 
 should occupy from a year to a year and a half; 
 the subsequent course, from two and a half to 
 three years. 
 
 IV. The principles which should guide in 1 1 1 ■ • 
 selection of methods of teaching this subject, 
 have already been explain. • 1. ami the difference 
 I) twe i the synthetic- ami analytic systems has 
 been defined. The following suggestive hints 
 will prove valuable to practical teachers : I the 
 memorizing of the details of maps without sulli- 
 cient descriptive matter, will leave no permanent 
 
 impressi n the mind : Inure. (2) let the study 
 
 of the map he suli n. Iin.it.- I to tliat of tl 1 1 1 ■ i 
 
 important facts, such as soil, climate, productions, 
 etc., relating to the separate countries; and 
 (ii! let these facts he pivsente 1 ami studied in a 
 uniform order, so that the pupil's mind will 
 always haw a guide hoth for investigation and 
 oral description. A special oi ler of topics for 
 
 always be borne in mind, that in proportion as 
 the pupil becomes intei si I in the particular 
 country studied, h.- will • 1 — i i ■« - to know more • •! 
 ii- geographical details,and will remember them 
 longei II nee, th exhaustive Btudy of the map 
 should n..t precede ail other lessons. After fully 
 locating the country to be studied, by means of 
 iis boundaries, etc., the teacher may proceed with 
 a description of some of its most striking 
 features, passing from these to the mote minute 
 details of topography, as they are brought out 
 by this description, until all the topographical 
 and descriptive details are siilhViently learned. 
 In considering the methods to be pursued in 
 the study of geography, reference must also be 
 made to the necessary appliances. For the first 
 stages of the study a simple terrestrial globe and 
 good wall-maps arc indispensable. Eteliei maps 
 
 and relief globes, as now < stracted and used, 
 
 R re of great value in giving correct ideas ol the 
 
 superficial configuration of different countries. If 
 a text -hook is used, ii should lie chiefly a well-iUus- 
 
 aml lasting. In the first stage oi geogra] hical 
 study, the teacher is obliged to do a largi part 
 of the work: in th.' laid- Mac..-, the pupil should be 
 trained to do as much as possible for himself. 
 This subject, when properly taught, furnishes an 
 
 x.ell.ul ami lleco.SIIVill~.lpl 
 
 die illustrations oi the te 
 looks oi travel may be ma 
 
 'lelnel.l II 
 
 •ws. These may lake any one or more oi a 
 
 rietj oi forms too well known t.. need de 
 
 riptioii. < 'ai togiapliy. or the draw ing of mat 
 
 many 
 in ge 
 
 *ari..ii- ,1,'M,-, ■ ,,. ,, -,.,i, ,1 t,,. some using the 
 
 quare, others .. se l triangulations, and still 
 
 others a combination of these, in connection with 
 arbitrary measures .-. c i'hIi kisn ■ li 
 of Teaching, translated from Diesterweg's 
 Almanac for 1855 6,in Barnard's -I oj 
 
 Education; Gdtsmuths, Versuch einer Metho- 
 dikdes geographischen Unterrichts- Essay on 
 Methodical Instruction in Geography (1845); 
 Diesterweg, Anleitung zu einem methodischen 
 Unterricht in der Geography- Introduction to 
 Methodical Instruction in Geography (1833); 
 Km Mia:. ..Vs. -A, .-/,/.- ,/.;• /'lid.,.,,..,//,-; |.iiii:s. 
 
 m present use . I 
 of Common-St •'- 
 
 WlCKERSHAM, .>/■ tflO 
 
 \es and Practice 
 klin.andLond.); 
 ion (Phil.,1865.) 
 
GEOLOGY (Or. yrj, the earth, and 7Aynr. a 
 disc. mrsc). the science which treats of the history 
 of the earth. More exactly, it consists of a 
 group of sciences which treat of the materials of 
 which the earth is composed, and of the arrange- 
 ment of these materials, whether superficial or 
 deep-seated, and of their relations to one another; 
 of the changes which the earth is undergoing at 
 present, and of the series of changes through 
 which it has heretofore passed. Nay more, the 
 inorganic changes that have, in thecourseof time, 
 resultedinthe present physical geography and in- 
 ternal condition of the globe, have been accom- 1 
 panied, through the latter part of the series, by a 
 corresponding series of appearances and modifi- 
 cations of organic forms ; and these two sets of 
 phenomena, organic and inorganic, have been so 
 interdependent, that it is impossible to separate 
 the history of the earth from the history ol the 
 life it supports. It will thus be seen. (1) that 
 geology is intimately connected, both by the fans 
 of its own genesis as a science and by the light 
 it throws, in return, on the origin of existing con- 
 ditions, wiih /ill i/sical geography ; and, (2) that, 
 while in its branches, mineralogy, Hthology, an I 
 palceontology, it has its descriptive and classi- 
 ficatory elements, these are, in fact, only subor- 
 dinate to that element, which, by the aid of 
 dynamical geology, weaves the material facts in- 
 to a web of cause and effect,— a continuous his- 
 torical argument. It is important to observe 
 here that the part of geology which treats only 
 of the material conditions, without regard to the 
 reasoning which connects them into historical 
 sequence, is recognized as gefu/imsi/. a term, how- 
 ever, that is but little used by English or Amer- 
 ican writers. I 'ala.'ontolngv is really a natural- 
 history science, bearing much the same rekition 
 tozoologj ili, n geologj doe, to physical geog- 
 raphy. Geology, however, cannot lie read with- 
 out its aid; and it might perhaps be well to re- 
 suscitate the term oryctohgy for this application 
 of palaeontology to geological interpretation 
 
 If the highest aim of man. in the : i > ■ 1 1 ii - 1 1 ion 
 of material knowledge, is to obtain the fullest 
 attainable insight into his true position in the 
 great scheme of existence, and into the respon- 
 sibilities which that position implies, assuredly, 
 geology must be one of the fields in which he 
 may hope to gain most important information; 
 as the truths of this science, in throwing light 
 upon the history of his surroundings and their 
 antecedents, of the earth which supports him, 
 and of the life of which he is a part, must in- 
 evitably throw light upon the history and rela- 
 tionships of man himself. A science so com- 
 pletely underlying all the facts of our existence, 
 developing so multifariously our dependence up- 
 on all parts of the scheme of which we seem to 
 be the temporary culmination, should surely 
 commend itself to the educator, should be beyond 
 the need of having its importance asserted as an 
 essential factor in the problem of universal edu- 
 cation. Yet, as a matter of fact, the simplest 
 teaching of geology, even to-day, is generally 
 looked upon as supererogatory. Whether the 
 
 world is six thousand years old, or of incalcu- 
 lable antiquity ; whether it always lias been as 
 it is at this moment, or whether it has passed 
 through a vast series of changes ; whether life 
 has or has not bad its progress; whether the 
 facts that are taught us by every pebble and 
 every ram storm are not worth thinking upon, or 
 whether they lead to conclusions more wonder- 
 ful than the Btrangest dreams of the ancients, 
 implying more power than the boldest myths 
 ever imagined, and illustrating the rule of law so 
 universally that even the minutest grain of sand 
 proclaims its control : these are questions on 
 which most parents and teachers have thought it 
 scarcely worth while to enliehten the minds of the 
 
 will aid the purpose ot tins article, it is impor- 
 tant to ask. why this neglect of so important a 
 
 science? In the first place, the repbj i », 
 
 geology is a young science, begotten in the last 
 century. and brought forth m the commencement 
 of the present, an offspring of the second great 
 Reformation, the reformation not of creeds but 
 of philosophy. Secondly, geology has had to 
 fight its way as an intruder. as a disturber of old 
 received notions, of deeply ingrained prejudices; 
 its claims in the realm of thought were seen to 
 be stupendous, ami the possible consequences of 
 their admission beyond all calculation. Thirdly, 
 although, as in all reform movements, it has 
 derived genuine strength from persecution by 
 its foes, its progress has been all along greatly 
 impeded by the t 10 hasty zeal of many of its 
 votaries. < For the history of the gradual devel- 
 opment of geology, until, by Playfair's Illustra- 
 tions (f Hutton, and the patient researches of 
 William Smith, the clues were given by which 
 its accumulate 1 facts could be systematized into 
 a scientific form, see a concise account in the 
 first four chapters ot Lyells P i i iplesof Geol- 
 ogy.) Excluding the almost invincible bU iner- 
 tice of ancient prejudice, the third cause has, per- 
 haps, been the most potent in retarding the ac- 
 ceptance of geological discoveries; because some 
 hypotheses, which had been accepted by numer- 
 ous and, perhaps, influential geologists, were 
 ultimately proved to be untenable, therefore the 
 significance of truths that were incontrovertible 
 was unfairly belittled. It is, even to this day, a, 
 frequent argument against geology, that there is 
 so much in connection with it that is uncertain : 
 but those who make this objection are unwilling 
 to admit -will not allow themselves to realize, 
 how much of proven truth there is in the science, 
 and how thoroughly it is founded upon facts, 
 which need only the proof of observation. Per- 
 haps, the best way in which, in this brief article, 
 the fundamental ideas upon which geology is 
 based may be presented, will be to put them in- 
 to i he for f simple statements, or axioms, 
 
 which, though incapable of proof.it would be 
 absurd to deny, because their truth may be 
 seen at a glance : (1) It is a matter of observa- 
 tion, that wherever on the surface of the earth 
 there is moisture, then', under the influence of 
 changes of temperature, will be chemical and 
 
ihanical changes in progress, in the rocks < 
 
 of the 
 the n: 
 
 phenomena themselves, and from 
 of many volcanic rocks, we are ir- 
 
 ally moved onwards 1 
 from higher to lower 
 sink to rest in the q 
 (3) H this process oft] 
 [and were continued a 
 it would result in tin 
 every island and every 
 ing up, in part, of the 
 
 at w..rk re'-elevatino n 
 
 L'S ut" fossils. These 
 
 which all signs of a 
 In such " aether- 
 
 other organic reman 
 
 s which they contain ; and 
 
 other. (11) The rela 
 
 they thus show that 
 
 continents have either'been 
 
 rocks isdetermi 1. in 
 
 elevated ...It of tllov 
 
 ater, or that water has been 
 
 superposition, the lm 
 
 withdrawn from 01 
 
 ■r them. (5) < lareful and 
 
 which the others res 
 
 extended examinati 
 
 m has shown that altera- 
 
 oldest; and, secondly, 
 
 tions in the relativ 
 
 level of sea and land are 
 
 tain; because. (12) W< 
 
 the rale, a es 
 
 leptional cases, along coast- 
 
 rocks contains the rem 
 
 lines; thai these mo 
 
 'ements are ao( necessarily 
 
 wtie forms Of life, (lift 
 
 connected, directly i 
 
 t least, with volcanic phe- 
 
 those that preceded, a 
 
 nomena; that they 
 
 are ex. Lingrj gradual : 
 
 ceededthem. (13) W 
 
 and, finally, the un 
 
 
 fossils of the later rock 
 
 incuts of elevation ; 
 
 ml depression in opposite 
 
 mure nearly than thos 
 
 directions, in adjoint 
 
 ig areas, ai the Bame time, 
 
 the oldest deposits cot 
 
 proves conclusively t 
 
 .at these are movements of 
 
 those of to-day. We 1 
 
 the crust of the earl 
 lationsdueto the ris 
 
 
 a peculiar type of lift 
 never again been repro 
 
 rounding waters. 
 
 
 hand, there is a sufficiei 
 
 with lll.lll\ -.1! S of 
 
 idimentary rocks, overlying 
 
 I. itween successive fan 
 
 one another, in the 
 
 ame continent, we see that 
 
 ing, tiiat. at no time 
 
 the same region mus 
 merged, and that tl 
 
 
 there been a complete 
 life, succeeded by .a n.-\ 
 
 rive age of sedimentary 
 the first place, by their 
 ,-ost in the series, those on 
 t, being necessarily the 
 by the fossils they con- 
 ■ I'm. I that each series of 
 tins of certain character- 
 ering more or less from 
 and from those that snc- 
 find, as a fact, that the 
 
 •aduall\ 
 
 aerial elevation intervened lietween the submer- 
 gencies — as the older deposits had evidently 
 been partially denuded before the later sedi- 
 ments were laid upon them. .7; We have thus 
 evidence of a force at work within the earth, 
 capable of elevating the sediments resulting 
 from the destruction of .me continent, so that a. 
 new continent shall be formed from them ; and 
 our existing lands are in fact built up of the 
 debris of older and destroyed itinents, up- 
 heaved by this subterranean p..w.T. s. Prom the 
 observation of volcai s and the volcanic phe- 
 nomena of hot springs, and of the temperature of 
 mines and deep borings, we have evidence of 
 the existence either of a highly heated interior 
 of our globe, or of local areas of elevated tem- 
 perature at a greater or less depth below the 
 surface. (9) From the constant presence of 
 water in volcanic phenomena, from the character 
 
 ■ Unions. We I. ut that the chain of vitality has been contin- 
 
 ervals of siih- .mus, -old forms gradually disappearing, and 
 
 ■u the snluuei- new to rin.- taking their place. (15) As nature 
 
 had evidently is forever destroying parts of the geological 
 
 he later se.li- record of life that is kept in the rocks, this 
 
 We have thus record for this, amongst other reasons, is in a 
 
 most fragmentary condition. Imperfect as it is, 
 
 few, except the professional paheontologist, can 
 
 realize the enormous variety of fossils that have 
 
 already been exhumed, and upon which the above 
 
 formation by their association with unaltered 
 sedimentary rocks ; and in extensive regions of 
 highly disturbed and nietaniorphosc.Li... k.-. the 
 
 determination of their age lice 3 one of the 
 
 most difficult problems of the ••..■. .lo.jjst : hut 
 even here characteristic differences n. the min- 
 eral characters of different series may help as 
 
340 GEO 
 
 in the determination. (IT) The oldest known 
 rocks, or those underlying the lowest fossilifer- 
 ous rucks, are, generally speaking, so highly 
 metamorphosed that they may lie regarded as 
 belonging to the border period of legitimate 
 geological history; and the ingenious specula- 
 tions ol physicists and <-In-iiii.-t.-. ;i.-~ to tl \ . -i it - 
 
 that accompanied and preceded the orig a ol 
 an earlier earth, apply to what is really to us a 
 mythical epoch. (18) The evidence thai hits 
 I n collected iii every held of geological in- 
 quiry, conclusively shows that all terrestrial 
 forces act, as judged from a human stand- 
 point, with extreme slowness, except m occa- 
 sional and local instances; and if such energetic 
 disturbances oi ordinarj i indition could ever 
 have occurred, more widely .~j.re.vl over the 
 whole or even a large part of the earth at once 
 it is certain that they would have left us evi- 
 dences, both organic and inorganic, of the fact. 
 xhaustive our researches 
 
 The 
 
 more caret 
 
 have 
 
 become, t 
 
 are 
 
 such hvpi 
 
 shown to lie : - 
 
 com 
 
 iction, tha 
 
 have 
 
 obtained i 
 
 the 
 
 sarin, Mich 
 
 matter; and no case has, so far, been met 
 with, apparently suggesting such an interpreta- 
 tion, which on examination cannot lie shown to 
 be more readily explicable by the application of 
 known natural laws, acting through prolonged 
 
 periods of time. (19) The existence oi any ■ 
 
 series of geological monuments invoh i - on anal- 
 ysis, the idea of indefinite time. For example, 
 let us take the scries of strata known as the <W 
 measures We know l>y examination that coal 
 is formed from vegetable matter; that, in almost 
 every instance, there n •■■■'. . .n pi oof that 
 this matter was accumulati 1 bj growth on the 
 spot where the coal now is found; that coal eon- 
 tains by its constitution but a portion of the orig- 
 inal vegetation-, that it contains that portion in 
 a very compressed and condensed form, and con- 
 sequently a .-ingle workable coal-seam, a few feet 
 in thickness, represents an amount oi vegetable 
 matter, which, under the most favorable circum- 
 stances conceivable for growth, and without 
 allowing for waste in other ways, must have re- 
 quired certainly hundreds, probably thousands, 
 of years for its accumulation. In most localities, 
 where the coal measures occur, we find several, 
 in some cases many, such seams of coal vertically 
 overlying one another, and this proves with 
 mathematical certainty, that such periods were 
 as many times successively repeated, finally. 
 
 inten alate I betwi n tl al beds, arc beds of 
 
 sandstone, clay, li -tone, etc.. in the aggregate 
 
 hundred-, or m some cases thousands, of feet in 
 
 thickness, so constituted as to show the slow and 
 gradual mode of their accumulation, thus giving 
 evidence of great lapses of time between the 
 
 existet f the successive coal-making forests. 
 
 By a process of exact reasoning, we thus arrive 
 at the conclusion, that a vast period of tune was, 
 
 altogether, required for the formation of the coal 
 measures alone ; and these can be shown, in a 
 similarly logical manner, to constitute a. record 
 of only one, and that a subordinate, series of 
 events, in an epoch of the earth's history very re- 
 mote from the present. (20) We must 'here 
 
 which no rocKS were perinani nth tunned to 
 record events. Vet that such gaps occurred. — 
 that they were of enormous, duration, can be most 
 emphatically proved. At the conclusion of the 
 palceo oic age, after the formation of the coal 
 i leasures, tha anas that had been oscillating for 
 i oni between dry and submerged conditions, 
 became, by an extensive upheaval, permanent dry 
 land; the borders of the growing continent. 
 formed of sediments thousands of feet in thick- 
 ness, were elevated far out of the waters; water- 
 sheds, due probably, in the liist instance . to un- 
 equal amounts of elevation, were formed, and 
 running streams c arved out valleys hundreds and 
 ilioii.-ands of feet in depth, and left standing, as 
 
 tared in relief. The 
 of the si ulptor. were 
 id resorted, arranged 
 igth. during the next 
 e. they found perma- 
 >f the mesozoic age. 
 
 and ii 
 
 great 
 
 latter. Such was the birth-time and such the 
 history of the Appalachian Range; and.in the 
 interval that subsequently occurred between the 
 close of the mesozoic and the commencement of 
 the cainozoic periods, such a history repeated 
 elsewhere gave rise to the vast chains of the 
 Rocky Mountains and the Andes ;— a third and 
 later pause saw in Europe outlines given to 
 the Alps and Pyrenees: and. later still, the 
 Himalayas were carved out, the mightiest uf 
 existing landmarks of geological progress. We 
 thus see that the history of a continent is divis- 
 ible into periods of extensive submergence, dur- 
 ing which sediments arc arranged into rock 
 masses, and periods of upheaval, during which 
 the surface configuration is given to the new 
 land. (21 J Additional evidence of the length 
 of geological nine is afforded by the changes 
 in life that have tak< n place on the globe. Thus, 
 while it cm be shown that comparatively slight 
 changes in the mammalian fauna uf Europe have 
 taken place since the glacial epoch, and that the 
 great vicissitudes in climate, which that epoch 
 (humanly speaking of such immense duration, 
 as to be measured at least by tens or by hun- 
 dreds of thousands of years) implies, did not 
 produce any radical change of types; yet, in the 
 cainozoic period, we find the whole class of 
 mammals modified from the most generalized to 
 the most specialized forms. And in the interval 
 
 between the existence oi i the globe of theSeasin 
 
 which mesozoic and cuiiinznic deposits were re- 
 spectively formed, a still more striking revolution 
 
GEOLOGY 
 
 GEOMETRY 311 
 
 in animal lit' :curred ; reptiles ami amphibi- 
 ans jaic u;iv, as predominant forms, t ani- 
 mals ami bin Is: so that, if by the test -1 the 
 
 deriving principles The inculcation of the lat- 
 ter, at an early age, by reference to surround- 
 ing i .hi s 1 i it. .i - and in conjunction with 
 
 mesozoic and cainozoic ages with that from the 
 commencement of the glacial period to the 
 present day, we should have to turn the tens of 
 thousands of years of the latter into millions in 
 
 child' fundamental 'id,'!,', reuai'ln," \ all,' V-'a'ml 
 
 mountains, make him see that everj rain st 
 
 carves out. in miniature, such surfai e fei turesin 
 
 the fundamental concept - ol geologj is pre 
 
 elementary lessons upon the subject : 1 | The 
 uniformity of action of natural laws. (2) The 
 universal unrest of matter under the influence 
 
 great changes that i suit fr this constant un- 
 
 time. (5) The definite order that h is prevaile 1 
 in the introduction of living forms. ' 6) The 
 certain order which prevails in the arrangement 
 
 of rocks, ami thus enables us. as a rule, to de- 
 termine the relative ecological ace of any partic- 
 ular rock. From these fundamental ideas, we 
 
 student will advance to an intelligent study of 
 the rocks ami of the fossils. as examples of some 
 of the effects thus produced. 
 Th- works .a, g ...,. exclusive of special 
 
 numerous. \ m» are here suggested: Lyell, 
 Principles of G nr. this should be thought- 
 fully perused by every one aspiring to be con- 
 sidered educated, and especially by all engaged 
 
 our continents an 1 th i sue - ssive ep ichs of for- 
 
 in th' -line. thers; .1. 1'. Dana, Man- 
 ual of G ■•... which should he at hand for 
 
 mation of our great mountain ranges. In tin-. 
 sketch is presented only the briefest outline of 
 
 ologj : Lyell, Memento of Ge, ogy foi especial 
 
 permitting' a con-id.T.iti ei of th • details of ils 
 
 lithological or stratigraphical aspects. Neither is 
 it possil i todi ■■ - rtain i il gi al qu tions 
 
 
 the support of the former existence of a glacial ous states of tin- Union, of Canada, and of 
 
 /"■'•/■«/. the application of the doctrine of evolu- Great Britain, should he consulted. See also 
 
 tion to geology, etc. D'Aechiac, Histoire du Progres di la ' 
 
 The general omission of geology from the which treat- fully of the general development 
 
 course of instruction in high schools ami coif'- ■- mid pr,,".re— > >t t fi. ■ -. i. i ,. . ■. For a graphic his- 
 
 is much to be regretted: since, whether for the tory of coal and the I m, .i-ui, - .,- d, a, 'loped 
 
 purpose of culture or information, it has many in Nova Scotia), see Dawson, I ta I /./: 
 
 claims to consideration, a few of which are here on the phenomena oi the glacial period, Geikie, 
 
 suggested: (1) Of all sciences it most thoroughly The Great Ice Age ; and ou thi ■ ological bifr 
 
 cultivates a habit of inductive reasoning ; 2) It tory of the human race, Lyi r., Antiq Uy of 
 
 socompletelypenneate- phv-i"al .jio^iaphv. that Man; Lubbock, Prehistoric Man; ami Page, 
 
 a knowledge of its elements is essential to the Handb, c <f 6 ■ Terms. Other ele- 
 
 intelligent comprehension of the latter; (3) It is utaiv works by the same author, on geol- 
 
 obviously necessary and proper, while children ogy and physical geography, will be found of 
 
 are taught that the earth revolves around the assistance to the teacher. We hesitate to recom- 
 
 sun, and other fact- of the solar system, that mend to beginners any of the numerous works 
 
 they should also learn that tin'-, earth of to-day which aim at popularizing geology. Most of 
 
 has ha 1 a Ion- and eventful history, and thai these either endeavor to throvs a sensational 
 
 as we find them now ; (4) The practical applies- character; and.' in either ease, .in- generally 
 
 tions of the truths of geology arc not only of more or less unscientific, because inexact and 
 
 scientific interest ami importance but of great inaccurate. After the student can separate the 
 
 ■■■ ! utility. correct from thr incorrect. he will, however, find 
 
 If it is true that difficulty has arisen in com- that such works, with all their errors, i ften 
 
 imiiiicatin- ,_;coIoMJ|. ; d knowledge, it has. probably, rich in n,Avly-di.-,o\ •red fact-, ami m ingenious 
 
 been owinu to two ran-, ~: ill I'o a hesitation in presentation- of those lone known. 
 
 telling the whole truth, and, (2) to a misconcep- GEOMETRY i(lr. ;.''„,«.'-,,„.. from yea,yr/, 
 
 ' teaching, as to what reallj constitutes the earth, and , i asure), the science 
 
 ial part of the science. Ii is customary which treats oi the properties and i I oi 
 
 among teachers to dwell upon the details of magnitudes. We get the eleimi 
 
 strata, fossils, etc.. instead of upon general un- as well as the word used to designate it from the 
 
342 GEOMETRY 
 
 ancient Greeks. Etymological]}', the word is dividual student is exactly what \ 
 
 synonymous with our term land sur wiling ■ but by the race, as antecedent to logical inquiry : he 
 
 i not appear that it ever had .simply this needs to know the fact, and to perceive its practical 
 
 As far back as we can trace the significance, before he attempts to reason about 
 
 history of the subject, there appeal's to have been it. For example, if the t\ ro has Learned by trial 
 
 a body of theoretical truths and problems des- thai he cannot take three give I- and. by 
 
 ignated by this term. Thus, in the time of Plato, placing their ends together, make triangles of 
 
 the word j uuerpia does not appear to have had different forms, he is prepared to understand, 
 
 than it has with us ; for, when he spoke of God lateral trimigles are equal. [gain, ii he has 
 
 ence to land surveying. But it is not the pur- and found that he can combine them only into 
 
 pose of this article to trace the history of geom- triangles of the same shape, he is prepared to be 
 
 etry, nor to give even a ,■■<■,,„.■■ of' it* truths intelligently interested in the reasoning which 
 
 and methods. The object istopointout its place proves that. If two triangles ham iheir homol- 
 
 and function in a scheme of general education, ogous sides proportional, ihey are similar. And 
 
 and to offer certain practical suggestions in re- so of all the fundamental truths of plane geom- 
 
 gard to the methods of teaching it. These will etry. Much of the superficial and merelj 
 
 be presented in connection with the following mechanical, memoriier work which is done by 
 
 inquiries and considerations pupils in geometry is caused by their having no 
 
 I. How should this subjt '« approached, in adequate conception of the facts about which 
 
 the first instance, by th> learner? The proper they arc attempting to reason. Once show the 
 
 reply to this is, he should first b leacquainted pupil l>\ measurement that the circumference of 
 
 with the leading facts of plane geometry, with- a given circle is a little over three times its diam- 
 
 out any attempt at scientific demonstration; eter, and he will be induced to inquire whether 
 
 notwithstanding the fact that the chief excel- it is so in another, and finally it this is true in 
 
 fence of geometry, as a means of mental im- all circles. Again, let him draw several pairs of 
 
 proveiucnt. lies iii its admirable body ot prac- chords intersecting in a circle, and by actual 
 
 tical logic. It is. in part, in consequence of this measurement find that the segments are recipro- 
 
 veiv fact that the learner should have an ae- rally proportional, and his curiosity naturally 
 
 quaintance with the fundamental truths of the prompts him to inquire why it is so. Finally, a 
 
 science, as facts, before he attempts to reason feu illustrations of the mechanical value of tie 
 
 upon them. It must be remembered that the truths with which they are becoming familiar will, 
 
 logical faculty is not the inventive faculty, fngen- with most pupils, give added zest to their study 
 
 end. its materials must l> • furnishe I it. I- specially and acquisition. To know that the brace stiffens 
 
 The historvof the development of science affords I hau»..l without chanjiiiu. the sides, while those 
 
 abundant proof that these truths are furnished of a quadrilateral can ; to see how the carpenter 
 
 to the logical faculty rather than by it. Thus can square his foundation, calculate the length 
 
 the theorems. If mi. .,/,-,,/,//,/ /,,„■ ',,,.;) „,,,,//,■;• of his brace or rafter, on the principle that the 
 
 straight line, the sum qf the atigles formed equals squar i the hypotenuse is equivalent to the 
 
 two right angles ; The sum of the angles of a sum of the squares on the two other sides of a 
 
 triangle is two right angles; The square described right-angled triangle; how inaccessible heights, 
 
 on the hypothenuse of a right-angled triangle and the distances between inaccessible objects, 
 
 is equivalent to the sum qf the squares on the can be determined by the property of similar 
 
 other two sides; The circumference qf a circle is triangles these, and the like applications of the 
 
 alittlemori than ihre, times its diameter; and principles he is about to investigate, give an air 
 
 many others, were known to men as facta, and of practical reality to the abstract speculations 
 
 their practical significance was well understood, of the science, which will be found exceedingly 
 
 long before their logical connection with axioms helpful and stimulating to the student, 
 and definitions was traced. As it has been with II. It 'should be borne in mind that geometry 
 
 the race, so it should be with the individual; is a mechanical as well as a logical science. V> 
 
 the facts are needed as a basis for logical inquiry, more mischievous mistake can be made than to 
 
 We cannot reason about that c erning which underrate the problems of geometry; nevertheless 
 
 we kno» little or nothing. Indeed. this principle this is not an uncommon practice with teachers. 
 
 has been almost universally acl wledged in the While some teachers permit the pupil to omit 
 
 construction of our text-1 ks on geometry up- these problems in i struction altogether, others 
 
 on the analytical rather than upon the synthet- allow him the almost equally pernicious habit 
 
 ical model. From the time of Euclid, a1 least, of des ribing Ih c - -i 'ion without actually 
 
 to the present time, the custom has I n to Btate performingthe work according to the description. 
 
 each truth in formal proposition before attempt- Thus, thej allow him to tell how an angle is 
 
 ing to demonstrate it ; but this is not sufficient, bisectt d without requiring him actually to bisect 
 
 The mere statement of such a truth does not give a given angle; they accept a clumsy descrip- 
 
 the ordinary mind a sufficiently clear and full tion of the process of inscribing a circle in a 
 
 apprehensi f it to interest the attention or to triangle, illustrated by a five hand caricature of 
 
 guide the thought. What is needed by the in- the tiling itself, instead of requiring a neat and 
 
GEOMETRY 
 
 accurate construction upoi rrect geometrical no such classification has 
 
 principles. Now, this is g letrj with the ac- in our text-books. The si 
 
 tual geometry left out. Nor is it simply that tin- raneoment in Euclid, whi 
 
 mere mechanical part (not an inconsiderable or many centuries, is to den 
 
 unimportanl part) is left out; but any critical propositions as are elen 
 
 examination of such pupils will usually show essential use in subsequen 
 
 343 
 
 ilv found 
 f the ar- 
 led for so 
 irst such 
 hence of 
 inns. Of 
 
 the real spirit of geometi 
 may know, and be able to i 
 prop isitions. Nor are the 
 site to effect neat and ace 
 structions, attainments to 
 ing an education. Shall - 
 of form, and not cultivate 
 reference to form'.' Shall 
 ficient in the science of ext 
 cannot construct a paralleli 
 and eye are so i ipleteh 
 
 . having 
 triangle 
 
 Mo! 
 
 clearness of pe 
 
 arc most helpfn 
 
 ed, a student wi 
 
 rate a | 
 
 ir whirl 
 rineiple 
 
 it so constructe I. It 
 
 i figure used for the ] 
 should be thus const 
 
 but it is urged that the pupil should be able to 
 
 tangents 
 
 fre.pientlvl.e iv.piired to do this: and. moreover. 
 
 tersectio 
 
 it is claimed that there is a positive power to in- 
 vestigate geometrical truth begotten of this 
 method. Who that has ever attained any pro- 
 ficiency in geometrical investigation does not 
 know the value of an accurately constructed 
 figure? This Ls, g merally, the very first step in 
 
 that thi 
 ancle (1 
 while th 
 
 portant 
 
 an 
 
 often suggesting tl ntirelim 
 
 III. But, passing i in 
 
 the student ready t i commeni 
 body of geometrical proposit 
 up the Elements of Geometry 
 to demonstrate them. Whi 
 presented to him . Most asst 
 sified arrangement of the si 
 prime requisite in a branch of study which en 
 
 comparison ot nguw 
 
 joys the distinction of being the most perfect of there are three ideas to be taken as bases df com- 
 the sciences. It is. however" a singular fact, that I parison; namely. (1) equality, (2) similarity, and 
 
344 
 
 GEOMETBY 
 
 i?,) equivalence; out of the last of which grows 1 
 the idea of area. Having treated these topics, 
 we have exhausted thesubjeci of elementary plane 
 geometry. No other elementary inquiry can arise; 
 and no subsequent inquiries can be carried for- 
 ward except on the basis of these. Thus we 
 have hastily sketched the outlines of a scientific 
 arrangement: but our special purpose is to in- 
 sist, that some logical order of sequence be im- 
 pressed upon the mind of the student, whether 
 it be this, or some better one. 
 
 IV. Hints concerning class-room work. — The 
 order of arrangement in the treatment of a geo- 
 metrical proposition should be early fixed in the 
 student's mind: namely, il) The general state- 
 ment of the proposition ; (-) The illustration of 
 this statement by reference to a particular dia- 
 gram : (.'!) Any additional construction which 
 
 maybe necessary to the del istration : (4) The 
 
 demonstration proper. The exact language of 
 the text-book should always be used in the state- 
 ment of propositions, ami in quoting definitions 
 and all fundamental principles, unless such lan- 
 guage is changed by the instructor or student 
 for a particular reason: but the demonstration 
 should not be memorized, although the general 
 
 order of thought should i v-arily be retained.. 
 
 and the spirit and style of tie- lairj.ccj.e be pre- 
 served. The diagram ' 'I always be con- 
 structed on the blackbo ird by the pupil, with- 
 out prompting from any - >urce. When the con- 
 struction is complete, he should usually :'il 
 the board. and trace the lini of th i ight b\ point- 
 
 tion - 
 figures 
 the cat 
 
 are others which must not be neglected, nor be 
 unfrequent. — First among these is the giving 
 of outlines of demonstrations without going 
 through the details, and without reference to a. 
 diagram. This is one of the best tests of.pro- 
 ficiencj which can be applied, and the whole 
 subject should be repeatedly reviewed in this 
 way. \-iin frequent reviews of groups of 
 theorems, without demonstrations, are essential. 
 Thus, the teacher may call for the propositions 
 concerning equality of triangles, the elementary 
 propositions concerning the measurement of 
 a i lb prop i tons concerningparoZfefe, etc. 
 \\ li n a itud -e is assigned such a topic, he 
 should give all the facts embraced under it [defi- 
 nitions, propositions, corollaries, and Bcholiums), 
 
 equality, 
 monstra- 
 Ie which 
 itrations. 
 in! that 
 appliea- 
 e modifi- 
 letry the 
 
 '/""""' >sai«a\s 
 in,., of one figure 
 cation, that in cas 
 figures are ilividi 
 then applied as b 
 
 text-bi 
 memoi 
 
 the fa, 
 
 are 
 
 ■\ ice is 
 
 irizing. 
 
 sposed, 
 
 pearance 
 
 It is quite as easy for a pupil w 
 
 to in ■ i. e li\ the mere positii 
 
 of the parts, with figures to designate them, or 
 even without any characters attached, as by means 
 of letters. The pupil can make as perfeel a par- 
 rot-like recitation, by merely memorizing every 
 statement as referring to certain parts of the 
 diagram.and by using the barbarous diction, "line 
 this," ■■ lin ■ that, etc., whi< h may be heard in 
 
 Our counsel is, use the language of the science 
 hi,: . and depend on something le - - u- 
 pertieial, to prevent all improper memorizing. 
 In referring to antecedent propositions constitut- 
 ing the b isis of the argu nt, it is far more im- 
 portant that the proposition |... ,| noted. than that 
 its number be given ; for the latt r i- of no sort 
 
 pt as a mei i , ! rooi at nienee, 
 
 « ! nl i the former method i ■ t ■■ ntial rvicein 
 
 bringing out 
 the truths of 
 
 familiar on the tongue. Such methods should 
 Constitute the ordinary classroom drill: but there 
 
 n like manner, In- can 
 
 ot siwti.tnlii. Such 
 a study «ill lea be merely a review of the sec- 
 tion on or that on \ 'arily, since these 
 i leas are the lei- of the thought in many pro- 
 positions where they do not constitute the main 
 subject, or purpose. In fait, it will be found that 
 nearly one-half of the propositions of geometry 
 involve one or the other of these notions (i quality 
 and similarity) as the basis of thought. Again 
 he may be set to select and study the proposi- 
 tions relating to form, and then those in which 
 
 ll)il'li;i!iiili- is the object of inquiry : tllCSC two 
 
 ideas dividing between them the w hole domain 
 of geometrical truth. — Finally it is of the high- 
 est importance, that, from first to ia.-t. the pupil 
 be trained in the practical application of the ab- 
 stract truths as fast as they are learn, d. No truth 
 is well learned until it can be applied ; and n 
 would lie quite incredible to one who has not 
 had large observation, how fully one may appear 
 to understand a geometrical truth, and yet be 
 totally unable to apply it. The writer has ex- 
 amined in geometry hundreds of students desir- 
 ing to eiiier college in "advanced standing." and 
 has made this a mat* r of careful obsi rvation. 
 Porexample. he has n-uailv asked such students, 
 » ffovi do S "i find the area of a (spherical tri- 
 angle?" Generallyth i i r has been promptly 
 given, "By multiplying the sphericali iccessbythe 
 tri -rectangular triangle:" and. quite generally, the 
 can, li, late has been found able to demonstrate 
 
GEOMETRY 
 
 fi> proposition. But in no instance has the 
 examiner ever found a student, who had not been 
 trained in the practical application of the state- 
 ment, able to compute the area of a triangle the 
 alleles of whieh are. say 1 10". HI", ami t-7 . cm a 
 sphere the radius of which is 2 feet. In fact, they 
 could tell what atri-reetangular triangle is, what 
 part of the sphere it is, and what the spherical 
 excess is; but not cue could actually find the 
 number of square inches in the area of the tri- 
 angle. A student may appear to have thoroughly 
 mastered solid geometry.and yet be totally unable 
 to solve such a problem as. To rind how many bar- 
 rels of water a cistern in the form of the frustum 
 of a cone will contain. It is obvious, therefore, 
 that the teacher of geometry should never allow 
 his pupils to omit the practical examples. 
 
 V. G omeirii tl Invention. — This term is used 
 to designate the power to discover demonstra- 
 tions of propositions or the solution of prob- 
 lems. .Many excellent teachers quite overrate the 
 ordinary student's power in this direction. Some 
 have even thought, that, from the first, a pupil can 
 be lei to discover the demonstrations of all the 
 propositions. New classes may, indeed, maki m- 
 
 GEORGETOWN COLLEGE 345 
 
 of elementary ge try, either by a text book, 
 
 or by the hints of a competent and judicious 
 
 teacher; and thai it is best thai n should be ,o. 
 
 rhese were 
 
 llbject and , 
 
 M JTHEM VI les.l 
 
 GEORGETOWN COLLEGE, at George- 
 town, D. ('.. was founded in L789, but was not 
 
 mtothcr hand. ,,,];, ,1 -,a,e,„ent of prop- 
 ositions ; but it will be found that they do not 
 originate the demonstrations which they bring 
 into the .lass; thev simplv look them up 'in other 
 text-books, and thus learn them. After a pupil 
 has acquired a considerable stock of geometrical 
 knowledge, any real te.i u ill show that original 
 demonstrations are but slowly evolved, even of the 
 simplest propositions. Many stu lents have little 
 or no capacity in this direction: and. therefore, to 
 make it the staple of geometrical teaching would 
 supreme folly. Some exercise of this kind may. 
 
 t of such ability 
 ty of students of 
 ly, this is not the 
 
 and should, be given fr< 
 study: and students mav be -tiinu 
 in the work, so that all the abili 
 cise, which really exists in the das. 
 out: but, after all. there is no r, 
 to expect tl 
 can be dew 
 elementary 
 
 purpose for whieh geometry holds its emin 
 place in the curriculum of our colleges. It is, 
 that students may learn what a logical argument 
 is and how to frame it, from the study of such 
 arguments, carefully elaborated and express,.,) ), v 
 the ripest culture. ' What but the most clumsy 
 work can be expected from the tyro in framing 
 such arguments, if he has not had much study of 
 the best models? To put a demonstration in 
 good form, a.s well as to evolve it. is the ripest 
 fruit of scholarship, not the daily work of begin- 
 ners; the ability to do either is to be acquired, 
 in the first instance, by a protracted and careful 
 study of the work of masters. It is not the pur- 
 pose of theseremarks to discourage all attempts 
 to secure original demonstrations, but to guard 
 against a serious error into which enthusiastic 
 and ambition, teachers ate ,,, danger of falling; 
 and the conclusion is, that, for the most part, 
 pupils must be furnished with the demonstrations 
 
 institution, tinder the direction of members of 
 the Society of Jesus; and is supported by fees 
 from students. In the classical department, the 
 entire course, including the preparatory classes, 
 is of seven years, the last four of which corre- 
 spond generally with the classical course oi most 
 American .-..lieges. The institution has a well- 
 
 volumes, amongst which there are many rare and 
 curious works. One hundred of these volumes 
 were printed between the years 1 160 and 1520; 
 three- manuscripts are anterior to the year 1400, 
 
 and many others i al ' as earlj a date 
 
 Thesociety librari sec atain about 3,000 volumes. 
 The charcre for tuition, board, lodging, etc., is $325 
 large for day scholars is 
 igton, there is a medical 
 in 1 851 . and also a lav, 
 
 a year; the re 
 $60 a year. It 
 department, est 
 
 the law 
 
 , At the 
 
 i of the 
 o been 
 791-3 : 
 e Rev. 
 
 .eonard 
 
 were I., instructors and 80 studi 
 department. 4 instructors and 39 
 commencement in 1876, the degt 
 conferred on 7 graduates. The 
 college, with the date of appoint 
 as follows : the Rev. Rob art P 
 the Rev. Robert Molyneux, 17 
 bonis W. Dubourg, 1796 9; tl 
 
 Neale, 1799-1806 ; the Re* l: aoiyneux, 
 
 1806 8; the Rev. Wm. Matthews, 1808 LO ; 
 the Rev. Francis Neale, L810 L2 ; the Rev. 
 John Grassi, 1812 17 : the Rev. Benedi I J. 
 Fenwick,1817-ls; the I !ev. Anthony Kohlmann, 
 1818 20; the Kev. Knoeh Fenwic'k. I -'JO -T> ; 
 the Kev. Heiiedid .1. Fi ie\ i 
 Rev. Stephen Dubuisson, 182.V<; ; the Kev. 
 William Feiner, 1826-9; the Rev. John G. 
 
346 GEORGETOWN COLLEGE 
 
 Beschter, March, 1829-Sep., 29; the Rev. Thomas 
 Mulledy, 1829-37 ; the Rev. William McSherry, 
 1837-9; the Rev. Joseph A. Lopez, Jan. L840- 
 April 1840; the Rev. James Ryder, 1840-45; the 
 Rev. Samuel Mulledy, Jan., 1845 A.ug., 15; the 
 Elev. Thomas Mulledv. I -la -: the Kev. James 
 Ryder,1848 51; tin- Rev. Charles H. Stonestreet, 
 1851-2; the Rev. Bernard A. Maguire, L852 -; 
 the Rev. John Early, 1858 66; the Rev. Bernard 
 A. Maguire, L866 70; the Rev.John Early, 1870 
 73; the Rev. 1'. P. Healy, appointed in L873 
 and still (1876) in office. 
 
 GEORGETOWN COLLEGE, at George- 
 town, Scot! Co., Ky., chartered in L829,is under 
 the control ol tin- Baptists. It is supported by 
 tuition fees and the income of an endowment of 
 nearly $75,000. The real estate of the college is 
 valued at about S7a.ll<l(>. The library contains 
 between 5.000 and ('..lino volumes. The institution 
 
 ( 1 E< tRGIA 
 
 the state" ; but this was omitted in the revision 
 of L789, educational affairs being left to the 
 regulation of tin' general assembly. In L783, the 
 assembly donate.! 1,000 acres of land to each 
 county lor the support "1 free schools; and. in 
 
 uieiit ..f a state university, which was charter..! 
 in 1785. In lTl'J.an act was passed appropriat- 
 demy 
 
 cabinet of minerals, fossil... and shells, and a 
 seiini of curiosities. It comprises an acai 
 orpreparatory course and a collegiate course. 
 curriculum is. listributod into i he follow ine.l. 
 meiits of stu.lv: (li English; (2) Latin 
 Greek; Ml Modem lan-jua^-s; 'el Mathem; 
 (6) Physical Sciences; 7) History and Pol 
 
 !■;.• v: - Mentalai. I Moral Philosophy. 
 
 Arts, i 
 Arts to 
 tist Tht 
 college. 
 is $50 | 
 Candid 
 
 free, all 
 
 841 
 
 : J. L. Reyi 
 
 Ull| 
 
 .ell. D. !>.. 1 
 
 L86 
 
 5; B. Manly 
 
 .ft ufj 
 
 e IVl eolleees and 
 ents: and 17.VJ 
 7 pupils, the total 
 .•h was $449,966. 
 r the number and 
 ries. There was, 
 . system of com- 
 ilie taxation, and 
 fforts were made 
 
 establish such a 
 1 giving $20,000, 
 1 countiesof the 
 cr children"; but 
 
 regard to educa- 
 
 niake any return 
 the endowment. 
 
 itive white adults 
 lit were unable to 
 inber of illiterates 
 cent. Tht' state 
 tor the establish- 
 
 ;eneial education, 
 of the state," and 
 1 commissioner, to 
 with the consent 
 
 (84 collegiate and li:: j 
 dents of the college, wi 
 have b.eii as follows ; 
 1829; Joel S. Bacon, I) 
 worth. L836; Rockwooi 
 I lowar.l Malcom, 1>. I> 
 li. 1 1.. L850; Duncan R 
 \. M Crawford, 1>. I 
 1). 1)., 1871 (the present 
 GEORGIA, one of tl 
 of the American unii 
 Savannah, by colonists 
 (Jen. .lame. ( Iglethorpi 
 area is 58,000 - | in. : ai 
 
 in which were 545,142 colored persons, 10 In- 
 dians, and 1 ( 'liinaiuaii. Aeeor.liiie; to its entire 
 population, it ranked as the ll'th an g the 
 
 states: and, as to colored population, as the 1st. 
 li- gain in population, during the ten years 
 preceding, was \'l per cent. 
 
 Educational History.— The original constitu- 
 tion of this state, adopted in I 777. eonlai 1 a 
 
 provision requiring schools to be "erected in each 
 county, ami supported at the general expense of 
 
 
 jtablishing such 
 ,vas passed ' tet. 
 iols were put in 
 n of the first 
 s. His report, 
 I were enrolled 
 pi] ., an. I 6,66 I 
 
 s. Very great 
 
 many 
 <>1 law. 
 .1 dur- 
 J.Orr 
 
 under 
 1872), 
 
 ipened 
 
 w lib ll 
 
 \ i. line 
 
 counties, and faithfully disbursed. The regular 
 ,seh. ..,1 fund had accumulated to the amount of 
 $250,000, which also was properly. apportioned. 
 
'ikIit these r-ircnmst.il s, the schools thai year No county is entitled to a participation in the 
 
 lade considerable progress. The annual report state school fund unless its board of education 
 f Commissioner Orr, for L873, Bhowed that has provided, by taxation or othoru is. >. for keen 
 
 1 :i, , .1.1 were colored, lh 
 
 ring the next year, the 
 
 attendance ii ised to L: 
 
 
 colored, 12,371. The a 
 
 noil, it of school funds 
 
 apportioned in L874, was 
 
 $265, 1. The report 
 
 For the year L875 showed 
 
 a still further increase, 
 
 the aggregate attendance 
 
 leing 156,349, — whites, 
 
 105,990; colored, 50,35 
 
 1. During 1874, five 
 
 school laws were enacti 
 
 
 change was made in the 
 
 system, except the re- 
 
 quiremenl that the enu 
 
 aeration of the school 
 
 population should l.i- ma 
 
 e every four years in- 
 
 stead of every year, as fo 
 
 inerlv. 
 
 School System. -The 
 
 common-school system 
 
 ofGeorgia is under the di 
 
 ■eetionof the following 
 
 officers: (1) A state sckooh 
 
 rmmissioner appointed 
 
 by the governor, with th. 
 
 
 for four years, who is cha 
 
 "ged with the adminis- 
 
 tration of the school laws 
 
 :■ in 1 the general super- 
 
 vision of all the public . 
 
 shools of' the stale, as 
 
 well as the apportionmen 
 
 {•>) \ stsrfo hnm-ri nf ,;l, 
 
 of the school revenue; 
 
 •ntinn prm\rmtaT\a the 
 
 1 -1 .V sfm OUUl U ill 'I' 
 
 governor, secretary of I 
 
 • mi, a, t umpiiamg mi 
 
 schools, hut does not per- 
 sectarian character to he 
 
 rate* ami buildings, and the 
 •.are exempt from taxation 
 lution. 
 at present consists of the 
 
 of the West 
 these resourc 
 
 determine local controversies referred to them by cities 
 
 appeal, subject to a still further appeal to the school! 
 
 state commissioner; (I) ('mint*/ school rum- inggn 
 
 missioners, elected by the county boards of eduea- also p 
 
 tion. who examine applicants for licenses to The st 
 
 teach, and revoke licenses for immorality, incom- readinj 
 
 patency, or cruelty to pupils, subject, however, raphy, 
 
 The county school connnUioner is also required comn'i, 
 to visit each school in his county at least twice a. | Numbe 
 year, to make an annual census of the children 
 of school age (between and 18), to apportion 
 the school fund of the county ai one; the sub-dis- 
 tricts in proportion to the number of such children 
 in each, to make such reports to the state com- 
 missioner as he may require,and to act generally 
 as the medium of communication between the 
 state commissioner and the subordinate school 
 officers. 
 
 The county boards of education may establish 
 evening schools for youths over 12 years of age. 
 who are unable to attend the day schools ; and, 
 under the direction of the state hoard, they may 
 also establish self-sustaining nam mil lulmr tsrhmils. 
 
 inon schools are 
 irithmctie. geog- 
 
 lal items of the 
 
 ...114,648 
 
 d. . 55,268 
 
 Total, .lllll.llli; 
 
 105,766 
 
 children of school age, Whites .218,733 
 
 •' Colored. 175,304 
 
 Total. .304,037 
 For the private elementary schools the follow- 
 ing statistics were eiu'ii in the report for the 
 same year : 
 
 Number of Schools 820 
 
 •• Teachers 903 
 
 •■ Pupils taught. Whites 'Jl.27.~i 
 
 Colored 4,176 
 
 Total.. 2.'. ,451 
 Average monthly cost of tuition $1.88. 
 
348 GEO 
 
 The whole amount of money received and ex- 
 pended for the support of public schools, in 1875, 
 w;issi:;;,.;;i!i. of this. s'»il.:-'.l!) was supplied 
 by the slate: and $144,000, raised by local tax- 
 ation. The amount apportioned to the several 
 counties was $151304. The Peabody Fund 
 contributed 86,900 to the support of schools in 
 Georgia during the year. 
 
 \',,,„, | /. ,, No provision has been 
 made in this state for the special training of 
 teachers. In his annual report for 1875, State 
 ( 'oniniissioner < hr said. "The want of well-quali- 
 fied teachers for our white schools has been much 
 felt. The want of the white schools in this 
 respect, however, is, small in comparison with 
 that of the colored schools. It has been impracti- 
 cable to put colored schools in operation at all. in 
 some places, in conseque f the lack of com- 
 petent instructors." He. therefor.-, r mmended 
 
 that an "annual appropriation of $10,000 he 
 made for establishing two normal schools for 
 whites, one to lie located in the northern.; ;n id 
 the other in the southern portion of the state; 
 and that the law making an appropriation of 
 $8,000 tothe \tlant;i Onivi rsitj be repealed, and 
 
 that, in Lieu thereof $10 b annually appro- 
 
 priateil for e-t.il.!i-hn . ■'." il -ehool tor colore.l 
 
 pupils." Bowdon College has a normal class; 
 and the Atlanta University (q. v.), a higher and 
 a lower normal department, the former embrac- 
 
 for pi unary scl 1 teachei - Lnd, besidi 
 
 these, there is the Haven Normal Scl I. a1 
 
 Wavnolioro. which, in is, I, had 162 students. 
 The state appropriation to the Atlanta University 
 is designed to encourage the training of colored 
 teai h' irs hi thai institution. 
 
 Secondary Instruction The special systems 
 above referred to comprise 9 high schools. 2 in 
 Bibb County, 2 in Chatham County, 2 in At- 
 lanta, 1 in Columbus, and 2 in the city of 
 Griffin. Macon also has 2 high schools; and 
 Savannah, 8 high-school classes. Besides these, 
 there were reported I'M private high schools, 
 having 171 instructors, and 5,379 students, ol 
 
 wl i 3,087 were male-. .-,11.1 2,292 females. The 
 
 studies pursued in these schools included the 
 usual Knglish. rhi-~ii-.il. mathematical, ami scien- 
 tific branches ; and the average monthly cost of 
 tuition was $3.13 per pupil, ranging from $5 to 
 $1.15. There ai also si v\ ral business colleges. 
 
 Superior Instruction. The University of 
 Georgia (q. v.). at Athens, is the principal in- 
 stitution of this grade in the state. Others are 
 contained in the following table, according to 
 the annual report of the state commissioner for 
 
 Besides these, there are several institutions for 
 tin- bigher education of women, that claim the 
 rank of colleges, having preparatory and collegiate 
 
 1875: 
 
 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 B 
 lenomination 
 
 University of Georg l 
 
 Wli.-ns 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 
 
 Nun sect. 
 
 Mercer tJniversit; 
 
 
 Baptist 
 
 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Emory < lollege 
 
 0: ford 
 
 It 10. South 
 
 
 Jefferson 
 
 
 Pio Nono College 
 
 Macon 
 
 R. C. 
 
 ints. The following list 
 
 the report of the state 
 
 of the 
 re in 
 
 included 
 for 1875: 
 
 Baptist Fem.Col. Rome 
 
 Fem. Col Conyers 
 
 ;m.Col Pulton 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Meth. Epis. 
 Baptist 
 
 M. 10., Smith 
 
 Methodist 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 M. 10., South 
 
 tie and the 
 longressional 
 -part n lent of 
 orth i ieorgia 
 lege became 
 itv in 1872. 
 i/.l-d.in 1867, 
 ie American 
 •Iv supported 
 •specially for 
 In pursuance 
 s an annual 
 
 its support. 
 
 this institu- 
 movement in 
 
 the money thus i 
 devoted to ins 
 specially for tin 
 
 located at Lugu 
 partment of tin 
 value of its grout 
 estimated at $6 
 5,000 volumes. 
 
 •lusively 
 
 teachers 
 
 schools. 
 
 ill theGeorgia Academy 
 
 The former, in 1874, 
 
 upils, of whom 25 were 
 
 7 instructors and 51 
 
 receipts, winch wen- al- 
 
 ppropriations, a unted 
 
 a law school connected 
 Georgia, in which the 
 i. including the whole 
 
 t ieorgia; the 
 .1 apparatus is 
 brary contains 
 there are the 
 
 founded in ls:!s. which, in lS7-l.li.nl I '1 in: 
 ors, ami a graduating class ,.t L6 students. 
 
GEORGIA, UNIVERSITY OF 
 
 GEORGIA, University of, at Athens, 
 Georgia, was chartered in 1785, receiving 40,000 
 acres of wild Land, granted in I Ts t by the legis- 
 lature, for the endowment of a college, or semi- 
 n.nA of learning. It did not go into operation 
 for some years. In 1801, the first building was 
 erected, and, in 1804. the tir.-i class eaadnatcd. 
 
 ( IK UMAX- AMERICAN SCHOOLS 349 
 
 the General Assembly. -The North Georgia 
 Agricultural College oo upies the former United 
 
 tmeiits of the university was as follows: 
 h ___ t . Number of Number 
 
 academic dep 
 
 lege), the Get 
 and the Me 
 (established u 
 Medical Colli 
 lished in 183 
 cultural Colli 
 College and 
 established ii 
 congressiona] 
 Medical Colli 
 
 Lett 
 
 volumes. 
 
 of about 
 
 ds of the 
 
 ia. The 
 
 matics ; (7) natural philosophy and astronomy; 
 (8) chemistry, geology, and mineralogy c| his- 
 tory and political science; (10) English liter- 
 ature. These separate schools are so arranged 
 as to be combined into several departments, 
 which thus offer systematic courses of educa- 
 tion of different types of culture. Three degrees 
 are conferred in this department: Bachelor of 
 Philosophy. Bachelor of Arts, and Bachelor 
 of Science. The Stat,' College has three de- 
 
 ot 
 
 Arts [requiring certificate* ol proticiciicy in 
 
 all the academic school- except the last), <'ivil 
 Engineer, Civil and Mining Engineer, Bachelor 
 of Law, and Doctor of Medicine The cost of 
 tuition in the academic department is $75 a 
 year: in the State College, $40. Fifty young 
 men of limited means, residents of Georgia, are 
 admitted to the academic department free of 
 tuition, in return for which they are expected to 
 teach school in the state for a term of years equal 
 to the time they have enjoyed the advantages of 
 the university. Needy students intending to en- 
 ter the ministry also receive tuition free. In the 
 State College, state scholarships, exempting from 
 tuition fees, are granted to as many students, 
 residents of the state, as there are members of 
 the House of Representatives and senators in 
 
 Me, heal 
 
 College 
 
 gia College 
 
 Total (.Inducting repetitions) 33 572 
 
 At the commencement in 1875, 72 degrees 
 were conferred. The whole number of alumni 
 of the university, at that date, was 1,388 (of 
 whom 980 were living), including 1,153 bachelors 
 of arts, 141 of law, II doctors of medicine, and 
 
 but since that time they have been styled chan- 
 cellor. Their names arc as follows: .losiah Meigs, 
 LL.D., 1801-11 ; the Rev. John Frown. D. k. 
 1811-16; the Rev. Robert Finley, D.D., 1816- 
 17; the Rev. Moses Waddcll. D. D., 1819-29; 
 the Rev. Alonz.. Church, D.D., 1829-59; the 
 Rev. Andrew A. Lipscomb, D. D., LL. D., 1860- 
 71; and the Rev. Henry II. Tucker, D. !>., 
 appointed in 1874 and still in office (1876). 
 GERANDO, Joseph Marie de. Baron, born 
 
 in I '..lis. Nov. 1 I . 
 
 Instit 
 
 inline 
 
 De G 
 
 ■ question, -What is the 
 the formal ion of ideas.'" 
 tion on this subject took 
 
 : Paris before the 
 
 37, raised to the 
 itioiial and pliilo- 
 
 nes et de Van de 
 
 I; Be 
 dePhi 
 
 lation of it ( 
 Boston, in 18 
 de J. M. B, 
 American /•', 
 
 77" 
 
 noun. An English trans- 
 
 .■•.,, was published in 
 
 Morel, Essai surte m 
 
 Gei-ando (1846); Worth 
 
 April, 1861. 
 
 GERMAN - AMERICAN SCHOOLS, a 
 
 large class of schools in the United States, in 
 
 which a part or most of the instruction is given 
 
:;f,o 
 
 GERMAN CUT.EECE 
 
 in the German language. They consist .>f several 
 classes: (1) The earliest and still the most 
 numerous among these schools are tin ■ ilnmnii na- 
 tional schools, connected with the German 
 churches. These schools .ire chiefly supported 
 from the wish to establish the greatest harmony 
 between school, church, and family, and to induce 
 the children of German church members to con- 
 nect themselves with the congregations to which 
 their parents belong. The greatest zeal for the 
 establishment of denominational German-Amer- 
 ican schools has been shown by the German 
 Catholics and the German Lutherans. The 
 schools of the former were, iii 1 m; 1 .). attended by 
 about 1.17.(100 children. The Lutherans have 
 about 3,000 German congregations, the majority 
 of which support German-American schools. 
 ('_') A large number of private schools, in most 
 coses consisting of only one or two classes, are 
 patronized by parents, mostly Germans, bul to 
 some extent also by others, who regard the ability 
 to speak German as a valuable acquisition from 
 a business point of view. (3) Since 1848, a 
 number of German- American schools of a higher 
 grade have been founded, partly by societies. 
 These are designed not only to teach their pupils 
 to speak German fluently, but to transplant to 
 American soil the developing method of instruc- 
 tion, which prevails in Germany, and to realize 
 the ideal of a German real .school. With a num- 
 ber oi these schools, kindergartens arc connected. 
 Schools of this kind have been founded in Mil- 
 waukee (1853), New York (1854), Brooklyn, 
 llolioken, Detroit. Baltimore, Philadelphia, St. 
 Louis, and sonic other places. 
 
 GERMAN COLLEGE, at Mount Pleasant, 
 Iowa, under the control of the Metho list Epis- 
 copal Church, was incorporated in L873. It is 
 
 designed tO be the theological instit lltioll of the 
 
 German Methodistsin the West, North-west and 
 
 South-west It is intimately connected with the 
 
 Iowa Wesleyan University, though independent 
 in finances and control. All German students 
 become members of German College ; and all not 
 German, of the University. The students of the 
 < lollege are admitted free to all the classes of the 
 University, in which most of the collegiate instruc- 
 tion is given. The college has an endowment of 
 $25,000. It includes a preparatory and a theolog- 
 ical department. Instruction is given in music, 
 and facilities are afforded for Americans to 
 learn German. In 1H75— 6. there were 3 in- 
 structors ami fill students. The Rev. It. Lahr- 
 mann is (1876) the acting president. 
 
 GERMAN LANGUAGE. The German 
 language ranks, with the English and French, 
 in value and importance, above all the other lan- 
 guages of the civilized world. It is very exten- 
 sively studied in the literary institutions of every 
 civilized country, and as a department of school 
 and college instruction, continues to assume, from 
 year to year, greater prominence. The height to 
 which German literature and science have at- 
 tained in every department, and the great and 
 rapid progress of ( lerinaii scholarship, are univer- 
 sally recognized. Thomas de Quincey, in his Let- 
 
 GERMAN LANGUAGE 
 
 ters to a Young Man, thus refers to the compre- 
 hensiveness and extent of German literature: 
 "Dr. Johnson was accustomed to say of the 
 French literature, that he valued it chiefly for this 
 reason, that it hail a book upon every subject. 
 How far this might be a reasonable opinion fifty 
 years ago, and understood, as Dr. Johnson must 
 have meant it. of the French literature as com- 
 pared with the English of the same period. I will 
 not pretend to say. It has certainly ceased to 
 be true, even under these restrictions, and is in 
 flagrant opposition to the truth, if extended to 
 the French in its relation to the German. Un- 
 doubtedly, the French literature holds out to the 
 student .some peculiar advantages, Inn all these 
 
 are advantages of the French Only ill relation to 
 the English, and not to the German literature, 
 which, for vast compass, variety, and extent, far 
 exceeds all others as a depository for the current 
 accumulation of knowledge. The mere number 
 of books published annually in Germany, com- 
 pared with the annual product of France and 
 England, is alone a satisfactory evidence of this 
 assertion." The authors of the great educational 
 ideas and reforms which, during the last two 
 hundred years, have led to the creation of the 
 modern systems of education, were nearly all 
 I lermans : and. at the present time. ( Serman liter- 
 ature, in every branch of educational science and 
 art. is so much more copious and instructive than 
 any other literature of the world, that the supe- 
 rior advantages of German over other foreign 
 languages for every one connected with educa- 
 tional labors are. at the present time, hardly 
 
 disputed. The progress of c parative linguistics 
 
 has shown that a knowledge of the German 
 grammar and of its history offers greater advan- 
 tages for the complete in idei. standing of the .struc- 
 
 ture anil law - oi 1 1 c, ..jn.-u, l ■ . n ■_. [ i - 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 , . 1 1 o . . , • 
 . han the, tudv of anvoth.r lan,„a,e. ancient or 
 modem. The influence which considerations like 
 these have had upon the admission of German 
 into the course of instruction of many Kicjjish 
 institutions from which it was formerly excluded, 
 has been more recently strengthened by the 
 restoration of a powerful German empire, and 
 the steadily rising influence of this new empire 
 in the commercial affairs of the world. In the 
 United States, the presence of a numerous Ger- 
 man-speaking population, numbering, according 
 to the smallest estimate, no less than five millions, 
 has caused German to be looked upon by large 
 classes of the population as an acquisition of 
 great practical value. In the United States, 
 therefore, German is now studied to a much 
 larger extent than French. In some of the small- 
 er countries, near or adjacent to Germany, and 
 inhabited by kindred races, as Sweden. Norway, 
 Denmark, and Holland, the study of German 
 begins early, and receives so much attention, that 
 the educated classes of these countries are gener- 
 ally able to speak the language with fluency. In 
 France, the study of ( ierman has greatly increased 
 during the present century, and has generally 
 been favored by the men who have done most 
 for the educational progress of the country. Cou- 
 
GERMAN LANGUAGE 
 
 sin. Jules Simon, and Waddington. were among j clear idea of their many excellencies. Thelangu 
 
 its warmest friends. For so much of the study appears endowed with the luxuriant abunda 
 
 of German as it has in common wiih French and of a primitive language, having a fullness of n 
 
 other modern languages, we refer to the article and a considerable but well regulated variety 
 
 Modern Languages, a- we present under this inflections, derivat s, an. I compositions. 
 
 head, exclusively, what i- t" be said of German short, original vowels a, i, and u still predomin 
 
 and its value as a branch of instruction. and the other vowel and consonantal sou 
 
 The language of modern Germany is one of a have mostly 1 n preserved in unalloyed pur 
 
 cluster of languages which, collectively, are called Special case-endings distinguish the mat 
 
 the Germanic or Teutonic languages. They em- accusative, and vocative; there are different foi 
 
 Germany had a literatn 
 
 original Teutonic tongu 
 High German had In 1 
 modern < rermany is tl 
 from the latter; all the others 
 
 inglo-S 
 
 hill. hand 
 
 group. 1 
 
 >n U ' before 
 nee of the 
 
 of the former. The following table will fully 
 illustrate the relation of the Teutonic languages 
 to each other : 
 
 Germanic or Teutonic languages 
 I 
 
 ow German and inflections and derivations. I 
 he language of the other Germanic languag 
 nie that sprung | tion in nouns, adjectives, am 
 jre the offspring | the High German, has been i 
 
 High German 
 
 Old High I ;,Ti.,..n 
 Anglo-Saxon — Middle Dutch — ( )]d Saxon I 
 
 | | I MiddleHighGerman 
 
 English Dutch-Flemish Plattdeutsch I 
 
 Modern German. 
 
 The most educated among the German tribes 
 were the Goths. Theyshowed themselves recep- 
 tive of Greek and Roman artand science; and,in 
 the third century, adopted the Christian religion 
 They had, at that time, a numberoi heroic songs 
 
 ami se 
 I,, the 
 Latin 
 
 mis. A pliant 
 Is. a weakness ci 
 
 languages of the Buns 
 
 mans, with H hum tbey 
 
 thj grations. Simn 
 
 others of tie principal' 
 provinces of the decayi 
 finally succumbed tot! 
 established a number 
 south-western part of 
 found it necessary to ri 
 
 leaving conspicuous ma 
 e languages (q. v.), which 
 •d in all these countriei 
 alone among all the tribi 
 
 of theGothi 
 Latin and \i 
 was the begh 
 ature, consis 
 
 srary lan- 
 •st to the 
 
 ly furnish 
 
 port 
 
 that is extant, embracing considerable 
 of the New Testament, some portions ol 
 Testament, and a fragment of a paraphra 
 
 pel harmony, are given in th lition of 1 
 
 Gabelentz and Lobe 2vols.,1843 L846) 
 in those of Stamm (1858) and Bernhard' 
 these editions contain a grammar ami a 
 arv: a (iothie o'lossarv hiis also been publ 
 Schulze (1848). Th. nigh few. the fragmei 
 < Gothic language and literature suffice to ; 
 
 id. In the develop- 
 ■ great periods are 
 High German.ex- 
 n which the inflec- 
 
 of antiquity, and 
 
352 
 
 GERMAN LANGUAGE 
 
 Ei 
 
 leven with the Gothic, visibly declined; the voca- 
 tive case, the dual number, ami the inflected pas- 
 sive voice disappeared: and tin- variety nt' vmvi'l 
 sounds increased ; ('-') of the MiddU High Ger- 
 man, extending to the beginning of the 16th cent- 
 ury, in which the decline oi the inflections con- 
 tinued, the full vowel-endings were generally 
 weakened into r. and the auxiliary verbs, the 
 
 nil le and the Hmbli'l I nioditieat Inn , ,f the 
 
 v.. weh were i i, iii 11 I nee, 1 : (3) of the New Hiyh 
 Uermnii. in which the predominance of die vowel 
 e in the final syllables was completed, and the 
 quantity of wools accordingly changed. The 
 translation of the Bible by Luther introduced 
 this period, and established the exclusive use of 
 the High German as the literary language of all 
 Germany. < Ipitz fallout HJ.'Kll. several linguistic 
 o i ii , and Gottsched (about 1730) contributed 
 much to the further development of the language, 
 which, in the writings of Lessing and Goethe, 
 fully attained its present torn.. 
 
 By the side of High German as a literary lan- 
 guage, the Low German /' i kuisch) has main- 
 tained itself as the language of a considerable 
 
 rtion of the people even to the present day. 
 not altogether without a literature; and. 
 in the Kith century, even translations of the 
 Bib] into I-ovv German were deemed necessary, 
 in order to give to the entile population access 
 to the Sacred Scriptures. The last edition of 
 the Low German Bible appeared in 1 il-'.'. show- 
 ing that thereafter the entire German nation 
 were Miilieieiitly acquainted with the High Ger- 
 man to regard it as the only literary medium of 
 [n modern times, a literary culti- 
 vation of the Low German has been attempted, 
 chiefly in poems and novels, in order to reflect, 
 by using the people's own language, in the most 
 natural and impressive way, the sentiments of 
 the Low German people. -The Germans have no 
 national academy of science, such as exists in 
 i' i a ne,., !„>,<, .^jn.j- supreme authority ill deciding 
 elating to their language. There is, 
 in ( Jennan.as in Knglish.a considerable 
 difference in the mode ot writing a large number 
 of words and classes of words: and the authority 
 of -tand.ird grammarians and lexicographers is 
 appealed to in doubtful questions. As.moreover, 
 the desire for a thorough revision of the entire 
 
 < ier 11 orthography has long been expressed on 
 
 the Prussian government, in Jan., 
 1876, assembled a conference of 15 prominent 
 German philologists to propose general rules, 
 which are to be introduce,], by order of the 
 gover 'nt. into the schools. 
 
 'I he foundation of German philology was laid, 
 
 s alter the wars against Napoleon. by Benecke, 
 
 the brothers Grimm, and Uiclmiaim. Benecke 
 established the philological knowledge of the 
 Middle High Herman: though his chief work, the 
 Mill, -Hi. ,r//</,-nts<-J/t> SVort'-rhiirl) |:i vols., Leips., 
 1847 — 1864), was. only a sketch which was 
 lib equently filled up by W. Midler, jointly 
 with Zarncke. The brothers Jakob and vVil- 
 hebn Grimm comprehended within the scope 
 of their researches the whole of German philol- 
 
 ogy. In accordance with the principles of com- 
 parative linguistics, which at the same time were 
 applied by Bopptothe Indo-Germanic languages 
 ii general, Jakob Grimm gave, in his German 
 grammar {Deutsche Grammatik, 4 vols., 1810 — 
 L837) a history of the changes of t h-rinan words 
 and of the simple sentence, through every period. 
 in all the Germanic languages. The history of 
 the Herman language f (,',» ■/, i,i,l<- ihr ilrtttscht'ii 
 S/inirl/e, 'J. vols.. Is Is | supplements the above 
 work, and shows the relationship existing be- 
 tween the different Germanic languages. The 
 German- dictionarv bv the two brothel's Grimm 
 i Deuisches WSrh rbucl was begun in 1852; it has 
 been continued by I hyiic. I Id, I, brand, and Wei- 
 gand, but will not be finished until about 1890. 
 It is, in point of .scholarship, unsurpassed by 
 any other work in the entire literature of dic- 
 tionaries. Lachmann applied the principles of 
 philological criticism, as they were in use in clas- 
 sical philology, to the study of German, restored 
 the pure text of the master works of the Mid- 
 dle High German, and shed entirely new light 
 on the history of German prosody. On the 
 foundation laid by Benecke. the Grimms, and 
 Lachmann. numerous hands have reared the 
 edifice of German philology, which is now the 
 admiration of the literary world, and has served 
 as a model for similar labors in every other 
 literature, particularly in the Knglish. (See Kx- 
 oisn. Stud's of.) We can mention only a few 
 of the immense number of valuable works relat- 
 ing to the German language which German 
 scholarship has produced. A dictionary of the 
 
 I liuh 
 
 iMit/ill/iirhl/nitsr/, 
 
 alio, of New I lied 
 
 it ten by I 'raff 
 I vols., 1834- 
 Iligh German, 
 Zarncke, who 
 by Zicinanii 
 1837); diction- 
 resent < ierinaii 
 ms, by San- 
 ders ■ WSrb rbuch •>> r "'• utsi fu n Hprache,2 vols.. 
 L860 1865, besides several .-mailer works), and 
 by Weigand (Deuisches Worterbveh, 3 vols., 
 1857 — 1865) : grammars, besides by the 
 Grimms, by K. \\ . I.. Heyse (AusfvJirliches 
 Lehrbuchderdeutschen Spra, e, 2 vols., L838 
 1849); Ituinpelt. Deutsch Grammatik, 1860); 
 lleyne (Kiirn (•'ruiiiui'ih/.- •!■ r n/li/mirm isr/im 
 
 Sprachst&mme); Becket I tsfuhrliche deittsche 
 Grammatik, 3 parts, 1836 - L839), The latter, 
 viewing language as an organism regulated accor- 
 ding to strictly logical laws, attempted to lay a 
 new foundation for grammatical science, and 
 found a number of followers, but also a very de- 
 termined opposition to some of his ideas by the 
 historical school. Periodicals devoted to German 
 philologv. are llanpt's Znlsrliri/I far deutsches 
 AUerfhum (established in 1841. continued by 
 Mullenhoff and Steinmyer); Pfeiffer's Germania 
 (established in 1856, continued by Bartsch); and 
 the Zeitschrift fur Phihhgie by Hopfuer and 
 Zaches (established in 1870). Grammars of the 
 Old High German and the Middle High tier- 
 man for the use of schools, embodying the. 
 
CEKMAX LAXOTAO 
 
 results of the philological researches, have 
 been -written by Hahn (Althockdeuiscke Gram- 
 matik, -1th edit.,1875; and MUtelhochdeutscJie 
 Grammaiik, 3d edit., L875). A bibliography of 
 German grammars, from the earliesl times to 
 1836, is given in Hoffmann's (von FaUersleben 
 
 Die deutsch PI jieim Gr drisse L836). 
 
 Outlines oi the history of the .nun- German 
 literature, have been written by Koherstein 
 
 (Grundriss der deutschen Nat 
 
 L827); Vilmar I Vorlesungen iiber die GesckicJiie 
 derdeutschen NatumattUeratur, L847); Wacker- 
 aagel, ■ '■'- schicl t di rd < - hen Lil ratio 1 , L851), 
 The history of German Literature by Kurz. 
 (Geschichte der deutschen Literatur, I vols., 
 1851—1872) gives well-selected specimens from 
 all the prominent German writers. 
 
 The Herman language is the mother-tongue 
 •of about i»2 per cent of the population of the 
 German empire (in 1871,37,800,000), the re- 
 maining 8 per cent being Slaves, Danes, and 
 French. In Switzerland, 14 out of 22 cantons 
 are exclusively German ; in the large canton of 
 Bern, they are in a great majority (83 per cent); 
 and of the entire population of Switzerland, 
 about 69 per cent sneak ( rerman as their mother- 
 tongue. In Austria proper. German is the ruling 
 language, although it is the mother-tongue of 
 only 35 per cent of the population. In the lands 
 of the Hungarian crown, (iennan is spoken I > v 
 about 11 per cent. Russia has a German-speak- 
 ing population of about 700,000; in the three 
 Baltic provinces, the entire aristocracy are Ger- 
 mans; and the ( rerman 1 tnguage, although spoken 
 by only a small minority of the population, also 
 prevails in the church is and si Etools. as well a^ 
 in the literature. The two small German states 
 of Luxemburg and Lichtenstein also speak Ger- 
 man. England still owns the German speaking 
 island of Heligoland. In the United States of 
 America, a population, estimated at from 5 to 6 
 millions, to a great extent consisting of actual 
 emigrants during the present century and of 
 their children, and the remainder the descen- 
 dants of emigrants of the 18th century, speak 
 German as the family language, either equally 
 "with, or in preference to. English; but the use of 
 German as the mother-tongue is steadily reced- 
 ing before the advance of the English. The en- 
 tire population of the world speaking. German 
 as the mother-tongue may be estimated at about 
 60 millions, the German being, inrespect to the 
 number of those who speak it, only interior, 
 among the languages of civilized nations, to the 
 English. 
 
 The method of studying German, in English 
 and American universities, colleges, seminarii 3, 
 and academies is about the same a- that pursued 
 in the study of Erench. The statements made 
 in the articles Fn-m-h Language and Modern 
 Languages are. more or less, applicable to the 
 German, in regard to the place which it occu- 
 pies in the course of instruction, and to tin- 
 mistakes which, in this respect, are very fre- 
 quently committed. The most important feature 
 which broadly distinguishes the German lan- 
 
 guage from the French, and which an intelligent, 
 teacher will always keep in view from the very 
 
 commonly spoken and written, consists, to the 
 extent of five-eighths, of Anglo-Saxon words, 
 and that among these are found nearly all the 
 terms of common hie. Many of the e words 
 are spelled exactly alike; large classes of other 
 words show so slight a, modification, thai the 
 pupils recognize them ai once (as Voter, Mutter, 
 Cruder, Buck, Haws), and still others present 
 changes made according to certain laws which 
 are easily understood, even at the earliest stage 
 of instruction, and by the most youthful be- 
 ginner (as zehn, ten; Zinn, tin; Tag, day; 
 sagen, say). By a skillful use of this exten- 
 sive resemblance of the two languages, the in- 
 telligenl teacher has it in his power to give to 
 the beginner, in a few lessons, the command of 
 a very large number of words. The strange 
 letters which seem to surround the first lessons 
 in ( rerman with considerable difficulty, are quite 
 easily learned by the aid of words which 
 are substantially the sa in < lei-man a .; in En- 
 glish. Whole German sentences can, in this 
 way, be at once understood ; and when trans- 
 lation forms a prominent object of the study, 
 the pupil should begin to translate from < Iennan 
 into English, as soon as he knows the letters, 
 for exercise in the declensions and conjuga- 
 tions, the selection of cognate words for the 
 paradigms likewise facilitate.-, the progressof the 
 pupils. In this pari of the grammar, German 
 at once seems to the beginner to be more com- 
 plicated than English, and presents to him the 
 greatest difficulties he has to surmount ; among 
 which may bo enumerated the following: 
 (1) The noun in (Iennan has four cases, and 
 the plural is formed in four different ways 
 as far as its termination is concerned, besides 
 mollifying the radical vowel; ('!) Adjectives 
 and adjective pronouns are declined in three 
 differeni ways; (3) The past participle generally 
 adds the prefix ge, and, in compound verbs, this 
 prefix, in many eases, is placed between the verb 
 and the particle with which it is compounded, 
 or the particle is detached and placed at the 
 close of even a long sentence. In constructing 
 exercises for the study of these differences, it 
 u ill .main be found a help to choose for the par- 
 adigms words similar to English words, or such 
 as are common to both languages, so that the 
 attention of the pupil may lie concentrated upon 
 the learning of the inflectional peculiarities. It 
 i-. however, not only the resemblance of German 
 and English words, but also other points of 
 similarity, in the etymology of the two languages, 
 that should he made useof. Thus the possessive 
 
 case of English nouns may be 
 not only the German genitive, 
 clension, of which the Engli 
 remnant. A reference to the 
 
 rede- 
 
354 
 
 GERMAN LANGUAGE 
 
 fication of a large number of German nouns in 
 the plural; as will also such forms as children, 
 brethren, and pence. The fact that the division of 
 verbs into strong and weak is the same in both 
 languages, that the formation of the principal 
 parts of both is similar (see, saw, seen seh-en, 
 sah, ge-sehen ; lore, loved, loved — lieb-en, liebte, 
 ge-liebt), and that even, as a general rule, the 
 same verbs belong, in both languages, to the one 
 or to the other conjugation, is easily compre- 
 hended even by beginners, and greatly assists 
 them to understand the structure of the foreign 
 language. 
 
 the English should n..t be limited tn"th<M>nints 
 
 foreign language, a clear understanding of the 
 
 most < Bpicuous characteristics helps to iix in the 
 
 mind a clear conception of the language. Among 
 the features of the German grammar to which 
 special attention should be called, when they are 
 met with for the first time, are the following : 
 (1) The gender of nouns is arbitrary, and many 
 nouns that are neuter in English ale cither mas- 
 culine or feminine in German ; (2) ( me or more 
 long qualifying adjuncts may intervene between 
 the article and its noun ; (3) The order of se- 
 quence of auxiliary verbs is entirely reversed in 
 subjunctive propositions; (4) Prepositions and 
 verbs govern three different eases of the noun ; 
 (5) The object precedes the verb more frequent- 
 ly than in English. 
 
 The correct pronunciation of German, as of 
 every foreign tongue, must be learned by imitat- 
 ing the teacher. This is especially the ease with 
 the sounds that have no equivalent in English, 
 as ii. ii, eh, the guttural i/, short o, /-.and the com- 
 binations of sp and St. Their number is compara- 
 tively small; and, if they are steadily practiced, il 
 will require only a short time to learn to enunciate 
 them correctly. After a rudimentary knowledge 
 of the language has been attained, special atten- 
 tion should be given to the laws acci >n ling b i which 
 derivatives and compounds are formed. The < fer- 
 man has greater freedom in forming compounds 
 than almost any of the other modern languages ; 
 and, as this is liberally used by many writers, no 
 dictionary is so complete as to contain all the com- 
 pounds to be met with in modern ( ierman writers. 
 As the radical and component parts of these words 
 are, however, easily recognized, and, as but few 
 of the words in common use are of foreign ori- 
 gin, it is easy for students of German to under- 
 stand all such derivatives and compounds. This 
 is still easier, when, as is the case with most 
 compound verbs, each of the component parts 
 has an equivalent in English; as abhalten, to 
 keep off; ausgehen, to go out. etc. [f we con- 
 sider that, for a conversation on every-day sub- 
 jects, a knowledge of some 600 or 700 words is 
 generally found to be sufficient, the close resem- 
 blance of roots, derivatives, and compounds, in 
 (ierman and English, will be seen to afford ad- 
 vantages for proficiency in German conversation 
 of which no teacher can fail to make use. Progress 
 
 in reading the language will also be greatly pro- 
 moted, if the teacher, besides calling attention to. 
 the large number of common roots, derivatives. 
 and compounds, traces words which appear to 
 the beginner as entirely strange, to English 
 words of the same loot. '1 litis, it students learn 
 that jener is etymologically related to yon, Enabe 
 to knave.schon to s/iine, Blume to bloom. He,,,! 
 
 tin, 
 
 boy, beautiful, flower, dog, they will remember 
 their meaning 'moiv easily, and. by means of 
 every new word of this class, get a clearer view 
 of the near kinship between the two languages. 
 
 mological comparison of Genual! and English 'is 
 
 not \et sufficiently appreciated by teachers of 
 German, and that greater attention should be 
 paid to it in (ierman classes of all grades. 
 
 The rich and charming juvenile literature of 
 Germany affords an abundance of suitable read- 
 ing lessons, as soon as the pupil has sufficiently 
 advanced ill the knowledge of wools and gram- 
 matical forms, to take up a First Oerman 
 Reader. Anecdotes, fables, talcs, and pieces of 
 didactic poetry present the smallest difficulties 
 to beginners. The readers published by Com- 
 fort, Worman, Schlegel, IJenn. and others, con- 
 tain a huge number of selections adapted to the 
 wants of beginners. The attentive teacher will, 
 however, find it necessary to select, especially 
 during the fiist months, exercises w ith short sen- 
 tences only ; smce the length of the sentences in 
 many, even of the juvenile writers of Germany, 
 presents difficulties which, at an early stage of the 
 instruction, should be avoided. There are scarce- 
 ly any (ierman books which, like TUemaque 
 and Charles ATI in French, can be put into the 
 hands of beginners; but First Readers, containing 
 selections from a number of writers, are for this 
 ] mrpose in general use. Advanced students should 
 either use a fuller German reader, prepared 
 for advanced classes, or take up the work of one 
 of the (lassie writers. In the latter case, Schil- 
 ler and Goethe are, for good reasons, invariably 
 preferred. Annotated editions of some of the 
 plays of both these poets have been specially 
 prepared for the use of American and English 
 schools. Special dictionaries for one or more 
 plays are not only superfluous ; but, when a stu- 
 dent has access to a general dictionary, the use 
 of the latter is much to be preferred. When 
 students are able to read authors like Schiller 
 and Goethe, the teacher may properly use the 
 reading lessons not only to improve the student's 
 knowledge of the language, but also as an intro- 
 duction to the history of (ierman literature. 
 The (ierman readers for advanced classes might 
 advantageously be so arranged as to afford to 
 the teacher an opportunity to acquaint the pu- 
 pils with the foremost writers in the different 
 departments of German literature. In this re- 
 spect there is room for great improvement in 
 the readers now published. 
 
 In the United States, German is not only gen- 
 erally taught in universities, colleges, seminaries, 
 and academies, but more recently the study has 
 
GERMAN LANGCAGE 
 
 355 
 
 been introduced to a great extent into the pub- 
 lie schools, in some extending to the lowest 
 primary class. This is due to the fait that a 
 large part of the population consists of Germans 
 who are generally desirous that their children 
 should be taught the German as well as the 
 English language, besides to the desire of 
 many school hoards, to draw this class of chil- 
 dren, as largely as possible, from private into 
 public schools. '1'his practice has been gradu- 
 ally extended until, in ls7(>, a majority of the 
 large cities of the Union. — among them New 
 York, Rochester. Jersey City, Pittsburgh, Cin- 
 cinnati, Cleveland. Chicago, Milwaukee, St. 
 Louis, Louisville, an 1 a number of smaller ones, 
 had made provision for it. In that year, the 
 mayor of Brooklyn, in his message to the city 
 council, strongly recommended the introduction 
 of German as a branch of instruction in the 
 public schools of that city. The greatest variety 
 thus tar exists in the courses of instruction that 
 have been adopted for this study. In some 
 places, especi illy in the smaller towns where the 
 German-speaking people constitute a majority of 
 the entire populati ei.it has been made a part of 
 the regular course, in which all children must 
 
 take part. Inmost piaees.it is optional with the 
 children to pursue this study or not. In some 
 cities (Cleveland. Cincinnati, St. Louis, and 
 others), the school boards have arranged different 
 courses for children who come to the public 
 school with a speaking knowledge of the German 
 language, and for those who have not this knowl- 
 edge. The instruction of the former begins in 
 the lowest class of the primary department, the 
 time in the primary classes being equally divided 
 between the two languages. Very many Amer- 
 ican educators advocate the study of German by 
 Anglo- American children of the common schools 
 on the ground that the elements of English 
 grammar will in this way be learned more easily 
 and more thoroughly. That, from practical 
 considerations, many parents desire an opportu- 
 nity for their children to learn this language, 
 seems to be proved by the large proportion of 
 children who pursue the study, even when it is 
 entirely optional. The testimony of some of 
 the superintendents of schools in which this in- 
 struction has been given for years is quite em- 
 phatic in its favor. Thus, in his Annual Report, 
 for 1874, the city superintendent of New York 
 said : " No other consideration than its useful- 
 ness as a branch of American education should 
 have, in my judgment, any weight in continuing 
 or extending German instruction; and, within 
 this limit, I believe sufficient reasons exist, not 
 only to justify, but to recommend it strongly as 
 a part of our course. In the schools in which it 
 has received the most earnest attention, and in 
 which, consequently, the best progress has been 
 made, no indication has been presented that this 
 branch of study has at all retarded the progress 
 of the pupils in their English studies, but that 
 it has rather facilitated intelligent advancement 
 in English grammar and composition, increasing 
 the pupils' fluency of expression by giving them 
 
 a more precise knowledge of the meaning of the 
 
 words of their own language, and aiding, in an 
 
 cation of the city of New York, in Dec., 1874, 
 remarked, in their report of that date: "The 
 more effective this department of instruction is 
 made, the more successful will our system be in 
 this respect, and the more nearly shall we ap- 
 proach to that desirable consummation of bring- 
 ing under the influence of our common schools 
 the children of all classes of our people, as well 
 as of every nationality and creed. The impor- 
 tance of this consideration will be obvious in 
 view of the fact that at least 11,000 German 
 pupils are in daily attendance at the ( latholic I'a 
 
 rapid increase in the study of German had any 
 
 effect to ' retard the general course of study,' or. 
 in other words, the progress of the pupils in 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, and the 
 other Knglish branches, as they are sometimes 
 
 called." And he further remarked, that "the 
 chances for promotion" were found to be equal 
 among the pupils pursuing exclusively English 
 studies and those who studied German as well, 
 and added, " If now we take into account the 
 fact that the latter goes from the school pos- 
 sessed of a good knowledge of a language that 
 opens to him the literature and scientific rec- 
 ords of a great people, who can doubt but that 
 the advantage lies on the side of the study of 
 (ierman?'' In St. Louis, the study of the 
 German language was introduced in 1864, on 
 the report of a committee of the board of edu- 
 cation, who recommended its introduction on the 
 following grounds: (1) "That by such intro- 
 duction a homogeneousness of feeling would be 
 created between the native and foreign born ;" 
 
 (2) "That the study of German would naturally 
 assist the study of the English language ;" 
 
 (3) " That the knowledge of the German lan- 
 guage pecuniarily benefits those who speak it.'' 
 J luring the ten veai-s preceding the last report 
 of the schools of that city (1874 — 5). the num- 
 ber of pupils pursuing the study of German had 
 increased from 450 to 17,197, of whom 5,670 
 were Anglo-Americans. This was 73 per cent 
 of all the pupils attending the public schools. 
 In regard to this, the superintendent of schools, 
 in his report for 1873 — 4, stated. "A perfect 
 mingling of the different classes of population 
 in our schools has been the result, and the 
 fact that one-third of the entire number who 
 have taken up the study of (ierman are Anglo- 
 American children ( /. e., children of Irish or na- 
 tive American parents), shows how completely 
 this feeling of caste has been broken down. The 
 population has, in fact, grown homogeneous 
 
356 GERMAN WALLACE COLLEGE 
 
 during the past eight years by means of the in- 
 troduction of German into our public : 
 On the other hand, the admission of 
 
 III!,) 
 
 .Is 
 
 i .11! .! 
 
 ground i 
 
 teach the national languago.and that the exclusion 
 of all others will tend to promote the consolidation 
 of all the people of the United States into one 
 compact American nationality. In some of the 
 large cities, the difference of opinion on this sub- 
 ject, on the part of school officers, has led to 
 vehement and protracted discussions, as well as 
 to considerable vacillation in the school legisla- 
 tion regarding it. In some of the western states, 
 as Ohio and Indiana, the state law provides that, 
 when in a school district a certain number of 
 parents desire the introduction of Gorman into 
 the course of study, it must be introduced. A 
 considerable portion of the German-speaking 
 population still prefer to semi their children to 
 schools in which the German language is either 
 the exclusive medium of instruction, or shares 
 this position with the English. (See German- 
 American Schools.) 
 
 GERMAN WALLACE COLLEGE, at 
 Berea, Ohio, under the control of the Moth, .list. 
 Episcopal Church, was founded in 1st;.'!. The 
 professors arc all native Germans, educated al 
 German universities, and the instruction i- given 
 in German. It is patronized by many Americans 
 for instruction in German. By agreement, the 
 students have free access to all the classes of 
 Baldwin University. The college is supported 
 by tuition fees aiui partly by the interest of an 
 endowment fund of 838,982. The scholarship 
 funds amount to $19,455. The tuition fees vary 
 from $13.50 to $27 per year. It has a prepar- 
 atory and a collegiate department, with a clas- 
 sical and a scientific course, a theological course, 
 and special courses in English for Germans, and 
 in German for Americans. In L875 — (i, there 
 were I professors and 117 students (103 males 
 and 14 females), of whom 47 were in the pre- 
 paratory department. The Rev. William Nast. 
 D. I'., has been the president from the opening 
 of the college. 
 
 GERMANY. Anterior to 843 A. D., Ger- 
 many was a part of the great Prankish empire 
 of Charlemagne and his immediate successor; 
 but in that year, by virtue of the treaty of 
 Verdun, it was separated from the remain- 
 der of the great Prankish dominions, and was 
 given to Ludwig (Louis), surnamed the German, 
 a grandson of Charlemagne. Until L806, Ger- 
 many was an elective monarchy with the official 
 title of the "Holy Roman Empire of the t icrmau 
 Nation" (das Heilige ESmische Reich deutscJier 
 Nation). The French subjugation of the greater 
 part of Germany put an end to the fust Ger- 
 man empire. After the dethronement of Napo- 
 leon (18151, the Congress of Vienna re-established 
 Germany as a loose conglomeration of sovereign 
 states (Beutscher Bund), under the permanent 
 presidency of Austria in the federal diet. This 
 feeble union of the German states was dissolved 
 by the war, ill 1866, between Prussia and Austria, 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 and their allies, which ended with the complete 
 discomfiture of Austria and her withdrawal from 
 the Germanic confederation. Prussia then united 
 all the states north of the Main river into a 
 elose political union, the North German Union, 
 and formed treaties of alliance with the three 
 states of southern Germany, by virtue of which 
 the king of Prussia had supreme command of 
 the united armies of all Germany in case of war, 
 besides the permanent presidency in the federal 
 councils of the North German Union. The 
 Successful war against Prance, in L870 — 71, led 
 to the formation of the present German empire. 
 The south German state., joined the North 
 German Union, and the King of Prussia, as per- 
 manent and hereditary president of the whole 
 German confederation in all federal affairs. and as 
 supreme commander in chief of all the state con- 
 tingents in time of war. at the request of all 
 the ( ierman princes and free towns, assumed the 
 title of German Emperor. The official name of 
 the confederation is the German Empire. The 
 several states composing the confederation retain 
 their autonomy in all internal civil affairs not 
 regulated by federal legislation. Federal affairs 
 are: Army and navy, foreign diplomacy and 
 political representation, the tarif, the postal 
 service, the mint, weights and measures, and the 
 supreme commercial court (at Leipsic). Rail- 
 n .0. Is. telegraphs, legal proceedings, and edu- 
 cational interests, it is contemplated, will also 
 be brought under the federal government, the. 
 measure being now under consideration (1876). 
 Bavaria, however, has retained certain preroga- 
 tives in regard to her army, her postal service, 
 and herinternal taxation. The federal parliament 
 consists of two houses, — the upper house; the 
 federal council (Bundesraih), consisting of the 
 federal commissioners appointed by the several 
 state governments ; and the lower house i Reichs- 
 tag), consisting of 383 members, elected by the 
 direct suffrage of the people. In the federal 
 council Prussia casts 17 votes. Bavaria G, Saxony 
 ■1, Wurtcinberg 4. Baden 3, Iles.se .'i. Mccklcn- 
 burg-Schwerin 2, Brunswick 2. and each of the 
 lesser states 1 vote; 58, in all. The chancellor 
 of the empire is the chief executive and re- 
 sponsible officer of the confederation. The em- 
 peror is required to convene the parliament at 
 least once every year. The (ierman empire 
 comprises 26 states: namely. I kingdoms,— 
 Prussia, Bavaria. Saxony, and Wiirtemberg; 
 6 grand duchies,— Baden, Oldenburg, Meeklcn- 
 
 bur.r-Schwerin. Mcoklcnburu'-Stivlit/., Ilcsse- 
 
 -Wi 
 
 ■i.l.i 
 
 Brunswick, Anhalt. Saxe 
 burg-Gotha, and Saxc-Mciiiingeu-llildl.urgliau- 
 scn; 7 principalities, — Lippe, Schaumburg-Lippe, 
 Waldeck, '-' .Schwarzburgs. and - Busses : :\ tree 
 towns,— Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck; and 
 1 federal district - Alsace-Lorraine. The empire 
 has .-in aggregate area of 208,745 square miles, 
 and a population of 42.7.">7.sd , _\ according to the 
 census of Pec. 1., 1ST... 
 
 Educational History. — Germany, which for 
 several generations has held a very high, if not 
 
the leading, rank among all the civilized nations 
 of the world in regard to public education, has 
 risen to its present high standard from an cx- 
 
 lone and intricate liistorv of the development of 
 
 period of more than a t 
 present time. The << 
 within the limits of tin 
 were successively convei 
 the 6th to the 9th ecu 
 radic conversions ante] 
 thai epoch, the Franks 
 
 mi ians and Bavarians 
 
 Frisians. 1 lessians. Thtu 
 
 Beyond the Flhe river, in a region inhabited at 
 that time by Slavic tribes, now thoroughly Ger- 
 
 vionsto the 9th and 10th centuries, and in some 
 districts I Lithuania, for example), not until a 
 still later period,— from the 11th and 12th to 
 the end of the 14th and the beginning of the 
 loth century. Charlemagne. the mighty Frank 
 ish king, who had converted the sturdy Sax 
 ons to < 'hrisiiaiiity. by the aid of fire and sword, 
 was the first to sow the seeds of education in 
 Germany; and although without early instruction, 
 manifested the greatest interest and energy in 
 
 the establishment and furtherance of educational 
 institutions within the limits of his empire, re- 
 maining faithful to his purpose until his death, in 
 814. With the assistance of Aleuin whom he had 
 invited from England, he established the first 
 school in his empire, the Schola Palatina, or 
 court school, chietiv intended for the education 
 of the royal children, of whom Charlemagne had 
 fourteen: and the great monarch himself was not 
 ashamed to acquire, in his ripe years, what had 
 been neglected in his earlier education. The 
 great monarch spoke Latin, understood some 
 Greek, and preferred social intercourse with 
 the circle of learned men whom he had assem- 
 bled at his court, to every other. He also evinced 
 much interest in the introduction of the arts of 
 architecture and music, and invited talented men. 
 especially from Italy, to take up their residence in 
 Germany near the imperial court. Other schools 
 were established after the plan of tibeSchola Pa- 
 latina; and the artes liberates, divided into a 
 trivium 'grammar, rhetoric, and dialectics), and 
 a quadrivium (geometry, arithmetic, music, and 
 astronomy), constituted the principal subjects 
 taught. Besides these, there were schools of a 
 lower rank, in which the curriculum of study 
 comprised only reading, writing, arithmetic, gram- 
 mar, and music. Very soon adistinction between 
 ecclesiastical and secular schools was established, 
 although Charlemagne endeavored to obliterate 
 all differences of rank in educational matters. 
 Those pupils who wished to study for the priest- 
 hood, studied tiaetrimum and the quach-ivium.in 
 sckolis intrariis, seu claustris (convent schools) , 
 
 while the same studies were pursued by all others 
 in seholis exterioribus,seu canonicis. The driest 
 formalism was a characteristic feature of all these 
 
 I A XV 357 
 
 schools. Th nvents and the cities, as they 
 
 sprang into existence till over the empire, be- 
 came the originators of educational institutions ; 
 the former being the founders of convent and 
 
 cathedral sc >ls; the latter, of Latin and city 
 
 schools. See Cathedral Sc t.s.aud Convent 
 
 Schools.) Prominent among the convent schools, 
 was the one founded by the famous Abbot IJlia- 
 banus Maurus at Fulda, 813, which is still in 
 existence as a gymnasiun 
 primus preceptor Gem, 
 
 mder was called 
 
 Hi. 
 
 was a pro- 
 ed down to 
 •ators of his 
 r renowned 
 
 \V; 
 
 not maintain their high standard of excellence for 
 a long time, partly because their prosperity de- 
 pended in too great a measure upon the imme- 
 diate influence and energy of their founders, 
 and partly because the pure and apostolic ardor 
 of the earlier Christian church, from which they 
 had received their life-breath, gradually relaxed 
 and declined. Deprived of the strict and imme- 
 diate supervision of the bishops, monastic learn- 
 ing and discipline soon deteriorated; and, although 
 the mendicant orders of the Franciscans and 
 Dominicans largely increased the number of 
 
 convent scl Is. their educational work did not 
 
 compare favorably with the standard previously 
 maintained. Secular Latin schools were estab- 
 lished by the municipal authorities in cities at a 
 somewhat later period; but, a1 first, they had to 
 
 difficulties 
 i rgy, v ho 
 id conduct 
 which mot 
 
 arising from the op 
 •Iaimod the sole righ 
 ig schools of a highe 
 ■ than the mere rudi 
 
 .f'ntKSM 
 
 ht. Still, bypersevei 
 ccccdcd in founding 
 
 their own schools of a higher order, independent 
 of the immediate supervision of the church. 
 Among the oldest of these city Latin schools, may 
 be enumerated those at Breslau (Silesia), which 
 were founded in 1267 and 1293, and which still 
 flourish as Gymnasia. As a matter of course, 
 the teachers could only be taken from the ranks 
 of the clergy; and the convent schools furnished, 
 in general, the models for their course of studies 
 and general government. These city schools 
 were placed under the direction of a sckolasticus, 
 usually a Clergyman, whose appointment was gen- 
 erally for the term of one year, but coidd be re- 
 newed. The sckolasticus was assisted by a 
 number of baccqlaurei of his own appoint- 
 ment. The course of studies consisted chiefly of 
 Latin grammar, music, and. to a limited extent, 
 rhetoric, dialectics, and scholastic philosophy. It 
 is obvious that these city schools, as well as the 
 convent and cathedral schools, were under the 
 direct influence of the clergy, and that the stud- 
 ies therein pursued had the closest relation to 
 the immediate purposes,,) the church. Although 
 Latin, and in some schools Greek also, was stud- 
 ied with the greatest zeal, these studies did not 
 disclose to the scholars the ever fresh and hu- 
 manizing spirit of the Roman and Grecian clas- 
 sics; but. under the driest conceivable formalism 
 
:;:,s 
 
 GERMANY 
 
 of instruction, merely served, especially the Latin, 
 as the aid and support of a scholasticism, which, 
 notwithstanding its depth and speculative in- 
 genuity, was of little value, being unproductive 
 of the best results of education, according to its 
 true meaning. 
 
 School education in Germany was 80 firmly 
 held in subjection to church interests that it's 
 working was confined to a blending of dry scho- 
 lasticism and religious mysticism, and devoid of 
 all practical philosophy and true pedagogical 
 principles. The conquest of the Byzantine em- 
 pire by the Turks, the subsequent exodus of 
 many Greek scholars from the centers of learn- 
 ing in the Orient to the west, their infusion 
 of new views and ideas into the decaying 
 system of European scholasticism, revived the 
 study of the ancient classics, and a just appreci- 
 ation of their ever true and youthful spirit. 
 Italy, first of all, received these fresh germs for 
 the development of free and humanistic concep- 
 tions, tin' further advance of which to western 
 and northern Europe laid the first foundation 
 for the subsequent reformation of the Church. 
 This is especially true of Germany. The 
 Netherlands, at that time a part of the body 
 politic of the German empire, by means of tin- 
 greater activity in political life, which brought 
 
 I 
 
 ques 
 
 n-li 
 
 era m education. in-rani luoor i .140 — i.^-i) 
 became the founder of a new school. Having 
 studied scholastic philosophy for several years at 
 Paris, and become deeply imbued with the ad- 
 vanced ideas in matters of education, he gathered 
 around himself a number of spirited men, whose 
 aim was to combine with correct religious prin- 
 ciples a practical and scientific activity. Of 
 Groot's followers the most noted were Florence 
 Radewin, the celebrated Thomas a Kempis. and 
 Johann Wessel. They were the founders of the 
 so-called BrMer-Hauser (brothers' houses), in 
 
 which they taught. besides the traditional religious 
 
 ing to the new Italian plan. The new school 
 spread its principles over the Netherlands and 
 northern Germany generally. Rudolph Lange, 
 more especially, became a reformer of the pre- 
 vailing educational sv.-tem. II.- established or re- 
 
 turn. The great reformers advocated strongly 
 the study of classic antiquity, not only for 
 the development of rhetoric and a taste for 
 scientific subjects generally, but also, and princi- 
 pally, as important aids in the establishment of 
 true evangelical faith. The necessity of founding 
 schools for the maintenance and propagation 
 of the new faith was strongly pressed by Luther 
 in several of his writing's. The course of instruc- 
 tion followed in these Latin schools comprised, 
 mainly : reading, writing, vocal music, Latin, 
 dialectics, rhetoric, and religion. These schools 
 were generally divided into three classes, in 
 which the gradation of studies was as follows : 
 reading, learning of Latin vocables, and reading 
 of Donatus and Cato's Sententice, in the lowest 
 class; religion, grammar, proso.lv, music, and 
 .selections from JEsop, Mosellan's Pcedologia, 
 Erasmus's Cotloquia, Terence, Plautus, and the 
 Holy Scriptures, in the Becond class; Virgil. 
 Ovid, Cicero's B, Officii* and Epistola adfami- 
 liares, metrics, dialectics, and rhetoric, in the 
 highest class. Latin composition and colloquial 
 exercises formed an essential part of the curricu- 
 lum of the higher grades. The school hours were, 
 on every week. lav. from 5 or 6 o'clock to 9 o'clock 
 in the forenoon, and from noon to :i o'clock in 
 the afternoon. < hristian catechism was taught 
 twice a week .lining week-days, and every Bun- 
 day. The maxim Repelitio mater studiorum, 
 was exacted with great rigidity. The singing 
 classes of these schools were obliged to sing, 
 under the direction of the music-teacher, before 
 the houses of wealthy citizens on high church 
 .lavs, for the purpose of collecting alms. The 
 city schools, at the time of the Reformation, were 
 either of a lower or a liiejicr order; the latter 
 
 ing, I; 
 subject 
 
 of I 
 
 in the 
 
 sail 
 
 berg, 
 
 :ul 
 
 Ludwi 
 
 r \\ 
 
 Dalbei 
 
 g, b 
 
 ' >--) 
 
 
 i of the country. Reading, writ- 
 
 I religion formed the principal 
 ruction in the former, to which 
 reek. Ik-brew, mathematics, and 
 philosophy in the latter, or higher order of city 
 schools, lioth orders of schools commenced on 
 the same basis, the principal difference between 
 them consisting in extra courses for special 
 studies, introduced in the higher order of these 
 schools, which besides the studies enumerated 
 above, also taught rhetoric, logic, and, as a matter 
 of course, music. In some schools, Hebrew, and 
 mathematics were omitted in the course of 
 studies. These higher city schools, and a con- 
 siderable number of convent and cathedral 
 
 „ 1 Is, the latter especially during the period of 
 
 the Reformation, were transformed into so-called 
 tsted origi- 
 
 ,11 J, 
 
 The study of Greek and Hebrew, more partic- 
 ularly advocated by Reuchlin, found a stanch 
 supportei in Erasmus, and prepared the edu- 
 cated and sei. nuti.- classes of the German na- 
 tion to receive and ripen the germs of the great 
 reformation of the Church which was inau- 
 gurated at that time. The Reformation im- 
 parted a new and vigorous spirit to eduea- 
 
 ii.l, 
 
 quently increased to live, and in some instances 
 even to eight classes. LTie number of school 
 hours for each class varied from I'll to 22 per 
 week. Some of these institutions, in course of 
 time, rose to the dignity of universities. 
 
 We find, throughout the middle ages, in most 
 of the city schools, four hours of daily instruc- 
 tion. However, there were some schools with 
 five, some with three (Spires. 14th century) 
 
one with only two (Halle, 152G) ; while, on 
 the other hand, aw find as many as eight hours 
 per diem for the upper classes of the Latin 
 school at Esslingen (1548). The recitations 
 were generally divided equally between the fore- 
 noon and the afternoon. The number of classes 
 in the schools varied from two to four and up- 
 ward, with proper subdivisions. The school year 
 commenced, in a number of cities, regularly on 
 March 12., the day of St. Gregory, tie patron- 
 saint of schools. In othercities, admissi ins wen 
 allowed twice a year, at East r and Michael 
 mas. The schools were not free schools; pupils, 
 except the children of paupers, were requested 
 to pay a certain fee per quarter, varying in 
 amount according t<> time and locality. In some 
 places, the school money was fixed according to 
 an agreement between teacher and parents. 
 Teachers received, most generally, a salary from 
 the municipality, besides the pupils' fees, and 
 enjoyed other emoluments, tor assisting at divine 
 
 teachers from pupils were 
 in some cities were even pn 
 by the authorities. Of set 
 
 thi' proper sense of the te 
 although we read of occ 
 schools by prelates ; nor is 
 
 cations. Tl arliesl ordi 
 
 cations is found at Freibtu 
 the fall vacation to two we 
 
 lie.-t oplmance ni.-tit'iting va- 
 t Freiburg (1558), which limits 
 otwo weeks. School was kept 
 throughout the year, in some cities not even ex- 
 cepting holidays, e.g. i i Nuremberg, Landau, etc.; 
 but teachers and pupils could agree upon one or 
 more holidays, mostly in consideration of a fee 
 to be paid to the former. School festivals were 
 not frequent. The day of St. Gregory was 
 very generally observed as a holiday. A peculiar 
 festival was the Virgatum-gelien, the gathering 
 of birches in the woo Is by the pupils, for their 
 own corporal punishment at school, amid general 
 frolic, including procession, singing and in- 
 strumental music. The application of the rod 
 was the principal means of maintaining dis- 
 cipline in the schools, the more necessary, a^ 
 large numbers of vagrant scholars [fdhrende 
 Schiller), who went, sometimes begging, from 
 place to place to attend school, and who were 
 addicted to all manner of vices and irregular 
 habits, infested the whole of Germany through- 
 out the middle ages, and rendered strict school 
 discipline a verj difficult task. Corporal pun- 
 ishment with the rod was not only officially re- 
 cognized but minutely regulated by municipal 
 
 were several kinds of asini, according to the 
 character of the offence : an asinus morum, 
 
 r„/, /,,/,, 
 
 .'/"■'•- 
 
 y conduet ; an 
 asinus (xermanismi, for pupils who spoke Ger- 
 man instead ol Latin; and an asinus solwcismi, 
 for offendi ra against go I Latin grammar. 
 There are p rceptible,a1 thi period, many serious 
 defects in the system of instruction, more espe- 
 ili. I : at want of uniformity, of harmony 
 in the intellectual and moral training, of rational 
 methods, suitable text-1 ks, andof competent 
 
 i tractors tfany of the school-men of that 
 . ime rose te great distinction. Neander, Fried- 
 1 iml iTrot/endort . I '■uj.enliagcn. Spalatin, Lin- 
 
 lemann, Wolf, Fabricius, Rhodomann, Hoetius, 
 Caselius, Calixtus, Camerarius, Hessus, ETeyden, 
 Belwig, Nigidius, Goclenius, Jungmann, and 
 others, but especially Johann Sturm, are noted 
 as prominent educators in their time. Sturm not 
 only gained wide-spread renown as an author of 
 many Latin works on pedagogics, but also as a 
 practical educator. His famous school at 
 Strasburgj (1578) contained several thousand 
 scholars, including the Lest elements of society, 
 many being scions of the high nobility, and even 
 princes. 'I his school had not only a German 
 national fame, for representatives of all the 
 European nations flocked thither to sit at the 
 feet of the celebrated educator. Besides the 
 school at Strasburg, Sturm established many 
 others, either personally or by means of his 
 
 du- 
 
 first year of age. From the seventh to the 
 sixteenth year, he ordai I a strict school educa- 
 tion, after which he permitted a somewhat 
 freer course of instruction by lectures. His 
 established curriculum of studies was very 
 carefully carried out, from the very foundation 
 to the perfect master} of pure Latin speech. Still, 
 even- thing considered, his system was only a one- 
 sided formalism, devoid of that harmony of intel- 
 lect and heart, which is the aim oi true education. 
 
 While 
 
 many 
 
 an I 
 
 uds 
 
 ix in their endeavors to build 
 ins. In this special branch 
 ]n >se to encounter and combat 
 ,• have been successful in a 
 
 was dismissed, in L567,because he refused to flog 
 hispupils on the ground that some of them were 
 19 years of age. and, therefore, in his opinion, 
 too old for such punishment. Another peculiar 
 mode of punishment was that of the asinus, a 
 wooden frame in the shape of a donkey, which 
 the culprit was obliged to mount in face of the 
 class, as a punishment for minor offenses. There 
 
 tion of general of his order, he exerted the greatest 
 influence in the erection of Jesuit schools, which. 
 through the energetic activity of the order, 
 spread rapidly over the whole European conti- 
 nent, but were solely guided by hierarchical 
 interests. Their educational aims were chiefly 
 confined to the pursuit of scientific and human- 
 
istic studies; but, at the same time, an almost 
 absolute want of individual freedom of thought, 
 and a blind subserviency to established authority, 
 were their most prominent general characteris- 
 divided into two 
 wer order. The 
 
 ties. 
 
 These institutions 
 classes, — a higher and 
 latter were divided into Ave subdivisions, and 
 principally taught reading and writing, in I atin. 
 Cither studies, commonly comprised in a gym- 
 nasium course, were greatly neglected, although 
 mentioned in the plan of studies; such as 
 mathematics, natural philosophy, geography, 
 and history. Rhetoric and logic were taught 
 in the driest possible manner; and even the 
 favorite Latin was wanting in thoroughness of 
 grammatical instruction, and in a historical or 
 critical explanation of the classic authors. The 
 memorizing of disjointed phrases from Cicero's 
 writings, and of Virgil's and other poets' works, 
 formed a prominent part of the scholar's pension. 
 Implicit obedience to superiors, the fear of God, 
 and virtue, were the chief aims of Jesuitic edu- 
 cation. The speakingof German was prohibited, 
 the denunciation of offenses against the estab- 
 lished rules was invite I and encouraged, the love 
 of country and of family was gradually extin- 
 guished in 'he heartscit 1 li ■■ si ln'lars.and nothing 
 remained but the love of the established church, 
 and the strictest obedience to the superiors of 
 the order. — The maxims of Sturm and other 
 prominent educators of the Protestant school 
 remained the acknowledged models for the gov- 
 ernment of secular schools, for a long period of 
 time, especially in Wurtemberg, Saxony, and 
 Hesse. Bebel (died 1516) in Tubingen, and 
 Reuchlin (died L522), devoted great attention 
 to the promotion of the study of the ancient 
 languages; the former especially in regard 
 to Latin, the latter in regard to Hebrew and 
 Greek. The study of the mother tongue was 
 officially ignored, if not suppressed. 'I he ordi- 
 nances of Duke Christopher of Wurtemberg 
 (1 :">;">!)) encouraged the establishment of Latin 
 schools within his dominions. With the exception 
 
 for all the academic studies. The highest class 
 comprised the following studies: Melanchthon's 
 Latin grammar; Cicero's Be Officiis, De Seneo- 
 
 tute,a i id Be An 
 Virgil'si/m/v/zcsta 
 rates: I'vtliauora- 
 Be Liberorum Bk 
 
 of the positive i 
 the general cour 
 and. in its gener, 
 tained until qui 
 curriculum of 
 in every detail 
 ments of Lath 
 with < licero's or 
 Mneid; dialec 
 Melanchthon's ] 
 ophon's Cyropa 
 a favorite study 
 varied modificat 
 
 jlect of the Ge 
 
 language 
 client 
 
 I reek grami 
 
 h the rudi- 
 tcrniinating 
 . and Virgil s 
 according to 
 lar and Xen- 
 
 Musie was, and remained, 
 the grades. With slightly 
 In ^ general plan of studies, 
 iirtemberg for secondary 
 ing, was adopted, toward 
 ntury.as thi standard in 
 
 institutions oi learning, was 
 
 the close of the 1 ili century.a 
 Saxony, with the only exception that more at- 
 tention was given to arithmetic. The celebrated 
 princes' schools [Fursienschulen) at Meissen, 
 Grimma, and Schulpforta, were of a somewhat 
 higher order. Theyeach had three classeswith a 
 two years' course in each, and prepared scholars 
 
 mciilitiup ijiitrsttones ; 
 d; Horace's Odes; Isoc- 
 Carmina; Plutarch's 
 
 ,- the / in'/: the rudi- 
 ments of Hebrew: dialectics and rhetoric ; the 
 
 rudiments of astr any. etc Terence's and Plau- 
 
 tus's comedies were acted annually to accustom 
 i pupils to Latin speaking. 'I his course of studies 
 was also introduced in several other German 
 states. Erasmus of Rotterdam and Melanch- 
 thon had, both, strongly advocated a certain at- 
 tention to realistic studies, — mathematics, astron- 
 omy, and the natural sciences in general. Luther 
 also favored this view. Still, these studies re- 
 mained much neglected, and did not receive due 
 attention until the following century, when the 
 climax of one-sided formalism had been reached, 
 and a counter-current made itself felt in the 
 educational world. Francis Bacon (q. v.) was\ 
 the originator of the realistic principle iii edu— -> 
 cation; and he found enthusiastic disciples in 
 Wolfgang Ratich (Lo^l — 1635) and John 
 Amos ( lomenius ( 1 592- 1 li 1 1 ). who became the 
 founders of a new realistic method fo edu- 
 cation in Germany. They principally aimed at 
 a development of the reasoning power of the 
 mind; but, in their zeal, thej carried their aim 
 too far, by almost entirely ignoring fancy and the 
 appreciation of the beautiful. 'I hey failed to find 
 the proper blendingof mere instruction and gen- 
 eral culture : but. notwithstanding their want of 
 appreciation of classic antiquity and historic 
 study, they are entitled to a grateful recogni- 
 tion as the founders of a realistic school which 
 exercised a very beneficial influence upon the 
 educational principles of their country.— Soon 
 afterward, the whole German nation was shaken 
 to its very foundation by the great denomina- 
 tional feuds between the Protestants and the 
 Catholics, in which the schools also participated. 
 
 Tl logical disputations were the order of the 
 
 day; and the Latin Bchools, every -where in Ger- 
 many, were diverted from their original pursuits. 
 
 or against Rome and the papacy. 'I he religious 
 dissensions finally culminated in the Thirty 
 Years' War. which rent the German nation 
 into two bitterly hostile parties, and with fire 
 and sword, during an entire generation, devas- 
 tated and depopulated the country, and almost 
 entirely destroyed what civilization, and mental, 
 moral, and material culture, had built up in 
 centuries. Germany, which, before the war. 
 had been in a most prosperous condition, with a 
 population of about twenty million inhabitants. 
 was reduced to a vast desert with scarcely over 
 live million people. The war had swept away 
 the very flower of the nation, leaving, at its 
 termination, the once mighty empire in an im- 
 poverished, helpless e lition. an easy prey to. 
 
 the schemes and aggressions of foreign powers. 
 In the general state of exhaustion and demoral- 
 
GERMANY 
 
 ization, during, and at the close of, the war, 
 the educational institutions of the country 
 were almost entirely annihilated. A great 
 number of the schools were closed for want 
 of teachers and pupils, very many of them 
 were destroyed, teachers and pupils were scat- 
 tered, and an enormous increase of immorality 
 was perceptible among the students of the few 
 schools which survived. The pea f West- 
 phalia (1648) found the educational institutions 
 of Germany in a most forlorn and demoralized 
 condition. Gradually, however, they regained 
 their former standard ; but the course of studies 
 formerly prevailing had. in the mean time, un- 
 dergone very material changes. Latin, which 
 had almost become the ruling speech in the 
 higher schools, began to lose its pre-eminence. 
 Itwas still studied.with great attention : but the 
 national language began to assert its importance, 
 and even at the universities, the German tongue 
 was gradually permitted to become the medium 
 of scientific instruction. This reaction from 
 the firmer principles of education continued 
 throughout the following epoch. The study 
 of Greek, at some noted schools, became en- 
 tirely neglected. At this period, a marked 
 difference was manifested iu regard to the edu- 
 cation of scholars ,,f noble birth and others. The 
 so-called knights' academies [Ritterakademien) 
 were established, in which pupils were instructed 
 in history, genealogy, and heraldry, and in which 
 dancing and courtly manners were special 
 branches of instruction. Other studies, such as 
 military and civil engineering, astronomy, botany, 
 and theoretical and practical philosophy, found 
 their way into the regular curriculum. Generally 
 speaking, there was. however, no true idvance- 
 mentin the educational standard: on the con- 
 trary, the selection of studies manifested great 
 arbitrariness on the part of the patrons and 
 directors of schools of an advanced order. In 
 some of the German slates, the special interest 
 of highly cultured princes in matters of educa- 
 tion tended to elevate the standard by not only 
 grounding the scholars well in the mechanism 
 of the classic languages, a cording to the ol ! 
 
 and 
 
 them thoroughly acquainted with 
 classic authors. Th ■ study ol the G 
 was rehabilitated, together with II 
 other more liberal kinds of culture. Duke Ernest 
 of Gotha (1675) took a leading part in this refor- 
 mation of the higher schools, and his example 
 found many imitator,, in other German states. 
 Still, there prevailed a great diversity in educa- 
 tional principles throughout the country. Hu- 
 manism, rigid formalism, and rationalism con- 
 tended with each other, and were each fostered, 
 and advocated, according to local and personal 
 influences. At this time, Locke's ideas on 
 education commenced to exert a gnat influ- 
 ence on educational principles in Germany. 
 His maxim of imparting knowledge mainly 
 through the senses, in opposition to idealism, 
 although not always carried out consistently. 
 opened a new view of the principles of ration- 
 
 al education. [See Locke.) Another system was 
 founded by August Hermann b'rancke (q. v.). 
 
 cry beginning, in opposition 
 laiism. Among the studies 
 were chronology, astronomy, 
 
 latoniv. botany, and even the 
 
 icine, together with other set- 
 
 's ],i 
 
 lie edl 
 
 ism was the foundation of 
 structure. The so-called Paedagogium at Halle 
 became a model school for the fl hole of ( iermany. 
 It possessed a botanic garden, a museum of nat- 
 ural history, philosophical apparatus, a chemical 
 laboratory, and a, dissecting room. It was con- 
 sidered a normal school for tl dueation of 
 
 country. Francke's system laid the foundation 
 to the' so-called real schools. .1. S. Semler, in 
 Halle, was the first who used this term in an- 
 nouncing his establishment "t "a mechanical 
 and mathematical real school" in 1 Toil, which, 
 however, was of short existence. John Julius 
 Ilecker, also a disciple of the Halle school, 
 established a red school in lierlin 1 1747), which, 
 properly speaking, consisted of three different 
 departments: namely, a German, a Latin, and a 
 real school, but with arrangements to allow 
 pupils of the two former to participate in the 
 studies of the latter department. In many 
 respects this real - h "'I . n ried its aims too far 
 
 lar insti- 
 
 n school, 
 from the 
 name of 
 
 preciation of thoroughness, breadth, and har- 
 mony of culture, while the lower classes devoted 
 their attention almost exclusively to the prac- 
 tical affairs of life and to useful knowl- 
 edge. Pedantry on the part of the teachers, 
 and immorality on the part of the students: 
 Superficiality on the one hand, and onesided 
 
 dow (1723—90) and his followers, of whom 
 ■Salzinann and Gampe are the most noted, who 
 are known to the educational world as the 
 school of the Philanthropists. Their principal aim 
 was to educate a youth to become a man in the 
 best sense of the word. — to guide the natural im- 
 pulses and the will by reason. Sol f the schools 
 
established by the Philanthropists attained con- 
 siderable renown, more especially the one 
 founded by Salzmann at Schnepfentlial, near 
 Gotha, which is still in a flourishing condition. 
 The method of the Philanthropists, however, 
 .soon fell into disuse, owing principally to their dis- 
 rcgard for the classic authors, whose educational 
 value they underrated, and in the study of 
 whom they were completely outstripped by 
 rival schools. Although the general current of 
 the time favored utilitarianism, a tendency 
 encouraged by Frederick the Great, still there 
 remained in the German nation too much la- 
 tent love for the ideal to allow the realistic 
 school to become all-absorbing. Just then, the 
 first dawn of the great golden era of ( icrman 
 classic literature broke upon the nation, and re- 
 vived the love for ancient classic beauty. 
 Winekehnann and Lessing revealed the splendor 
 of ancient art and the eternal laws of the beau- 
 tiful. They were followed by hosts of others. 
 The love of the ancient classics, which was 
 awakened even in the masses of the people by 
 excellent translations of ancient authors into 
 (icrman, inaugurated by J. H. Voss's admi- 
 rable translation of Homer's works, and the de- 
 velopment of the German language, which had 
 
 lowing classic peri. > I of national literature, were 
 broughl into happy harmony, and their union 
 became fruitful of the best results in the whole 
 intellectual, moral, and esthetical life of the 
 nation. As a matter of course, the cause of 
 education also participated in the general ad- 
 vancement of the mental and moral culture of 
 
 a triumvirate of educators who knew how to 
 awaken a deep interest in the study of the an- 
 cients, — to introduce their scholars to the beau- 
 
 a rding to his own individual predilections. 
 
 without losing sight of the special requirements 
 of their own time, or of the general harmony in 
 the purposes of a really liberal education. In 
 elementary education, the principles of Pestalozzi 
 (174(1 — 1827), commenced to be more widely 
 known and appreciated in Germany, where the 
 great educators aim to elevate the lower classes 
 of the people through a well-adapted domestic 
 education, and his invention of a rational system 
 of primary instruction, founded upon teaching 
 from the object, and upon a gradual progres- 
 sion from the simple to the complicated, were 
 rapidly adopted, and whence great numbers of 
 teachers flocked to Pestalozzi's home to acquaint 
 themselves more thoroughly with his methods. 
 The downfall of the German nation before the 
 victorious arms of the French emperor, in the 
 beginning of the present century, far from curb- 
 ing the national ambition, gave a new impetus 
 to national life, which, in its turn, awakened the 
 spirit of the nation to new exertions in the 
 
 tin 
 
 aid sii 
 
 many names th inutility renieii 
 quent generations. J. M. Gesi 
 rector of the Thomas School in 
 sequently professor of ancient literature and 
 
 founder of the philological seminary at Gottiu- 
 gen, became a stanch supporter and propagator 
 •of the new humanistic school. J. A. Krnesti 
 1781), at Leipsic, and C. G. Heyne (1812), at 
 (iottiiiicen.wcre also enthusiastic' advocates of the 
 study of the ancient classics. They, and many 
 others, introduce 1 their students to the beauties 
 of the classics without wearying them with dry 
 
 man Nation {Reden an die devische Nation) 
 demanded a thorough reconstruction of the 
 schools, and a universal public education of the 
 nation. A fresh breath of life was inspired in- 
 to the whole intellectual and moral being of the 
 nation; and. in the darkest hours of her misfor- 
 tunes and humiliation. Germany sowed the seed 
 of future greatness, mainly by elevating the na- 
 tional spirit through her institutions of educa- 
 tion, by the reformation of the old, and by the 
 establishment of new schools, in which earnest- 
 ness of purpose, thoroughness, morality, and 
 harmony in the general development of mind 
 to this day. charac- 
 first half of the pres- 
 osion, combined with 
 
 liockh. Gottfried Hermann. Karl Reissig, and 
 Karl Otfried Miiller. At first, a close connec- 
 tion between thestudy of the ancient classics and 
 of German literature was strictly observed; but, 
 subsequently, when the latter had gained suffi- 
 cient Btrength and classic i haracter, this connec- 
 tion was gradually loo-end. Although one- 
 sided Latinisni repeatedly ,i— ertcd its opposi- 
 tion to the study of the German language and 
 literature, it could never regain its former 
 undisputed prerogative; while, on the other 
 hand. Greek had recovered all the territory for- 
 merly lost. Wolf, Hermann, and liockh form 
 
 and heart became, and 
 teristic traits. During 
 ent century, a constant 
 greater depth, in the tr< 
 became every-where ] 
 centuries, the schools 
 almost exclusively ser 
 church. The Bible an 
 as far as they could b 
 the service of the < Inn 
 importani elements of 
 
 : of all the sciences, 
 ible. In former 
 higher order had 
 e interests of the 
 
 education. Every thing 
 
 • relation to theolog) and 
 diaries. \\ hen. in the course of time, 
 ilopmentoi intellectual freedom gained 
 and strength, and when purely religious 
 ion lost its supremacy and was limited 
 
 •oper sphere, other sciences could raise 
 lims to be admitted as important educa- 
 ilements. The proper classification of 
 to attain a complete humanistic, and, at 
 the same time, scientific, education of the rising 
 
is a difficult problem, which still awaits a satis- 
 factory solution. Of noted representatives of 
 more modern German pedagogy, mention should 
 be made of Johann M. Sailer, who gained con- 
 siderable influence in the Catholic districts of 
 Germany, of F. A. W. Diesterweg (q. v.), and of 
 Friedrieh Froebel (q. v.). 
 
 Primary Instruction. — The development of 
 
 purely elementary instruction by 
 
 of pub- 
 
 lic schools, in Germany, is. comparatively, of 
 recent date. Elementary schools in cities (Dent- 
 ache Schulen) are traceable to a very remote 
 period, their foundation being contemporaneous 
 with the establishment of the earliest city 
 Latin schools. These schools were quite nu- 
 merous. In Hesse alone, there were, in the 13th 
 century, 14 cities, which supported theirown ele- 
 mentary schools. All official documents relating 
 to elementary education, which have come down 
 to our time, make reference to city schools only. 
 In the country, in villages or hamlets, schools for 
 elementary education, worthy of tin- name, were 
 almost unknown.The sextons of country churches 
 were required, in a general way. to instruct the 
 children in the catechism; and it is from this 
 primitive foundation that public elementary edu- 
 cation has been built up to its present condition. 
 In the electorate of Brandenburg, the first regular 
 country schools, for children of both sexes, were 
 established after the Thirty Years' War, in the 
 17th century, under the reign of the Great 
 Elector. Frederick William: but we know very 
 little of the condition of these schools. With the 
 aggrandizement of the electorate, denominational 
 differences commenced to manifest themselves. 
 Thus we find, at an early period, a recognized 
 distinction between Lutheran and Reformed 
 / schools. At Wesel, we find, as early as 1 (is;, a 
 
 i seminary for the education of school-masters. — 
 
 An ordinance, emanating from the church 
 authorities in Pomerania.in 1563, relating to 
 elementary instruction, makes no mention at all 
 of village schools, but has reference to city 
 schools only, subordinatingthem in every respe t 
 to the authority of the Church, and prescribing 
 especially the study of reading, writing, and 
 arithmetic, besides the catechism and choral 
 singing. — The general condition of elementary 
 instruction throughout the majority of the 
 German states was about the same. — Even in 
 the electorate of Brandenburg, a school ordi- 
 nance of 1658 plainly shows that village schools. 
 although their establishment wasstrongly urged, 
 had not as yet become a living reality. When, 
 in the beginning of the 1 stli century." the elect- 
 orate of Brandenburg and the duchy of Prussia 
 became a kingdom, feeble attempts were again 
 made to establish public elementary schools 
 throughout the royal dominions; but, as there 
 was no supply of trained teachers, and the efforts 
 where neither persistent, nor well directed, the 
 general condition of elementary education in the 
 rural districts remained pretty nearly unchanged. 
 The elementary teachers, in those times, were 
 generally forlorn and discarded students of the 
 higher schools ; and in villages, mostly me- 
 
 chanics, dismissed servants of noble families, or 
 invalid and discharged soldiers. King Frederick 
 William I., the second king of Prussia, paid 
 especial attention to elementary schools for the 
 mass of his people, with the design of educat- 
 ing them to a strict obedience to secular and 
 
 Frederick William 1. was the protector of the 
 pietistic school of educators, at Halle; and, 
 through the exertions of Francke and his fol- 
 lowers, Prussia received the first trained pro- 
 fessional instructors. Teaching, for the first time, 
 became a recognized science; and the theory of 
 pedagogy, and practical methods of instruction, 
 were made indispensable requirements for the 
 office of a public teacher. A royal decree, regu- 
 lating educational affairs in the monarchy, and 
 relating to institutions of all grades — in fact, the 
 first general school law for the Prussian mon- 
 archy — was issued October, 1713. A few years 
 afterward, in a number of royal decrees, the 
 first initiatory steps were taken toward obli- 
 gatory education throughout the kingdom. The 
 directing and supervising power was placed en- 
 tirely in the hands of the church authorities. 
 The founding of teachers' seminaries by the 
 state was not then thought of. By private enter- 
 prise, a teachers' seminary was established in 
 Stettin, Pomerania, in 1735; and. in the fol- 
 lowing year, another was founded, by order of 
 the' king, at the convent of Bergen, near Magde- 
 burg. — Although the number of schools increased 
 very considerably during the reign of the ener- 
 getic second king of Prussia, still, the qualifica- 
 tions of the teachers and the general condition 
 of the elementary schools remained in quite a 
 primitive state ; and the only important progress 
 made was the gradual development of the idea, 
 among all classes of the people, that education, 
 to some extent, had become an absolute neces- 
 sity. — Frederick II. (the Great), although him- 
 self a highly cultured monarch, had very little 
 time to devote to the advancement of elementary 
 education, until after the close of the .Seven 
 Years' War, when he promulgated a code of 
 "general school regulations", which contained 
 all the leading features of the later Prus- 
 sian school laws, prescribing tin- general obliga- 
 tion to attend school, fixing the obligatory 
 school age of the pupils, the payment of school 
 money, and fines for non-attendance, and char- 
 ging the church authorities with the duty of 
 supervising public schools. This code of school 
 regulations emanated from the pen of Johann 
 Julius Hecker (q. v.); and the king, after many 
 consultations with other recognized authorities, 
 gave it his sanction. The execution of these laws, 
 however, met with many serious difficulties in 
 several parts of the monarchy, partly on account, 
 of religious differences between Catholics and 
 Protestants, in regard to the supervisory author- 
 ity intrusted to the church; partly on account of 
 the obstinacy of the peasantry in refusing the pay- 
 ment of school money; partly from various other 
 
364: GEBJ 
 
 causes arising from local differences, which, in 
 the end, necessitated many modifications of the 
 original general plan, for certain districts of the 
 kingdom. Soon afterward, the necessity was 
 felt i if regulating the -system of city school edu- 
 cation in a manner similar to that prescribed fur 
 the country schools. The exceedingly meager 
 remuneration of teachers throughout the country 
 was one of the greatest obstacles to the securing 
 of well-qualified instructors, and led to the 
 establishment of a state-aid fund, from the 
 interest of which a small subsidy was granted 
 to meritorious teachers. The king never re- 
 laxed his interest in common-school education. 
 The newly acquired province of Silesia, with 
 its majority of Catholic inhabitants, enjoyed his 
 special care. A Catholic teachers' seminary was 
 founded at Breslau, in 1765; where, two years 
 afterward, a Protestant teachers' seminary was 
 also founded, the latter dependent mainly upon 
 private support. Under the reign of Frederick 
 William II., the successor of Frederick theCivat. 
 the care of the government for popular educa- 
 tion was undiminished. — Inl7H7.au Ohrr-Srhn/- 
 GoUegium (High School Commission), consisting 
 of professional members only, was established 
 at Berlin, for the examination of teachers, with 
 esign of appointing only well-qualified 
 ersons as teachers, without, on the other hand, 
 interfering with the established rights of school 
 patrons to fill vacancies. In the Prussian t'mit- 
 111,111 Law of 17!»t, all educational institutions, 
 including universities, were declared state insti- 
 tutions ; and a foundation was laid for a legally- 
 recognized educational system for the entire mon- 
 archy, which, in its fundamental principles, has 
 remained intact, to the present day. During the 
 first years of the reign of Frederick William III., 
 no material changes were made in the elementary 
 school system of the kingdom. I Jrcat difficulties, 
 however, impeded the general progress of ele- 
 mentary school education throughout the king- 
 dom ; and the education of females was even 
 more backward than that of males. Ernestine 
 von Krosigk was the first who had sufficient 
 courage to establish a seminary for female teach- 
 ers, — in Berlin, in 1804. The great national ca- 
 lamity which befell Prussia, and Germany in gen- 
 eral, shortly afterward, brought all the various 
 efforts for the advancement, of public education 
 to a stand-still for some time. King Frederick 
 William III., however, declared, '-although we 
 have lost, territory, power, and prestige, still we 
 must, strive to regain what we have lost by ac- 
 quiring intellectual and moral power; and, there- 
 fore, it is my earnest desire and will, to rehabil- 
 itate the nation by devoting a most earnest at- 
 tention to the education of the masses of my 
 people." National e luc.ition, which hail, hither- 
 to, be, -ii intrusted to the care of a subordinate 
 committee, under the state ministry of justice, 
 became a distinct and important branch of the 
 /state administration, as a separate department 
 of the ministry of the interior, and so remained 
 until the close of 1811, under the immediate 
 charge of the celebrated Wilhelm von Humboldt; 
 
 afterward, until 1817, under Yon Schuckmann, 
 who was very efficiently assisted by Nicolovius 
 ami Silvern. The laws regulating national and 
 popular education, hitherto a dead letter in many 
 respects, became, for the first time, a reality, 
 and commenced to show their beneficial influence 
 upon the advancement of national culture. Re- 
 newed and energetic efforts were made to edu- 
 cate teachers in accordance with the most ap- 
 proved sy.-tem of the time. Many instructors 
 were invited from other states to accept engage- 
 ments in Prussia ; others were trained under 
 the immediate supervision of Pestalozzi. A new 
 spirit commenced to pervade all classes of the 
 people, now a homogeneous nation. In 1818, 
 Yon Altenstein was appointed to the newly 
 established ministry of educational affairs, be- 
 ing still assisted by Nicolovius and Silvern. 
 National education soon attained a high degree 
 of development, considering the scanty appropria- 
 tions, both state and municipal, for the support 
 of educational institutions of all grades. At the 
 time of Altenstein's death, there were, in Prussia 
 (including then only the eight old. provinces), 
 universities. 1 2d ci illi ges. am I a still larger number 
 of real schools. 38 teai hers seminaries, and about 
 .'10,0(111 public schools, in a tolerably flourishing 
 condition. Every sixth inhabitant of the king- 
 dom was attending school. In L840, Minister 
 
 F.ichhorn was appointed to the depart nt of 
 
 educational affairs. Two decrees of this minister 
 especially stigmatize his administration, — the 
 dosing of the Protestant seminary at Breslau, 
 and the discharge of Diesterweg (q.v.); but the 
 revolutionary year lsls swept away Eichhorn 
 and his system. It is the merit of Friedrich 
 Stichl. a modified Pestalozzian, who entered the 
 state ministry of educational affairs as a col- 
 laborator, not only to have maintained the orig- 
 inal gnat principles of national education, but 
 to have developed the same under the adminis- 
 trations of all the successors of Eichhorn, down 
 to Vim Mulder. At the close of 1861, there 
 were, in the eight old Prussian provinces, with 
 a population of L8,476,500 (of whom 3,090,294 
 were within the obligatory school age from 6 to 
 14 years), 2,875,836 children actually attending 
 school. The number of schools was 24,763 (2,935 
 in cities, 21,828 in villages, etc.). with 36,783 
 classes (10,290 in city schools, 26,493 in coun- 
 try schools) , and 35,372 teachers (33,615 males 
 and 1,755 females). Two-thirds of these schools 
 ( 1 6,540) were Protestant; about one-third (8,082), 
 Catholic, and 141, Jewish. Of licensed private 
 schools, there were, in 1861, 1,434. with 2,944 
 classes and 84.021 pupils. Thus the aggregate 
 of registered elementary-school children, in I sill , 
 amounted to 2,959,857, leaving 130,437, who, 
 either received no education at all, or were com- 
 prised in the number of pupils attending 
 higher educational institutions. ( If the children 
 attending public schools, there were, in I SCI, 
 Protestants, 1,775,888; Catholics, 1,063,805; 
 ■Tews, 30,053 ; miscellaneous, 6,090. The sum 
 total of public elementary-school teachers' salaries, 
 in 1861. amounted to 7,449,224 thalers (I thaler 
 
= $0,714) (excluding the principality of Ilohen- 
 zollern, which had an independent school 
 budget), which sum was raised as follows: 
 2,320,968 thalrrs, school money paid l>v pupils; 
 4,799,958 thalers, raised by the communities; 
 328,298 thalers, state appropriation. Other re- 
 quirements of public elementary school education 
 demanded a further disbursement of 2,453,472 
 /W.rs.swciline, thea__r uatctexocnditurcsfor 
 
 for public elementary education, in Prussia, 
 31.16 per cent was raised from the pupils ; 64,44 
 
 percent, by the taxati >l communities, and 
 
 only 4.40 per cent, by appropriations on the part 
 of the state. The prevailing principle, at pres- 
 ent, in Prussia, tor the support of public schools. 
 is. that all the schools must be made, as far as 
 possible, self-sustaining, by the paymentof school 
 money, and by local taxation, the state granting 
 aid only in cases of the inability of communities 
 to maintain the schools in the legally-prescribed 
 manner. The city of Berlin, with a free-school 
 system, in 1874, supported 77 common element- 
 ary schools, with an aggregate of 950 classes 
 (488 for boys, with 484 male and4female teach- 
 ers ; and 4li2 classes for gills, witn 2s4 male and 
 178 female teachers). The whole force of teach- 
 ers, including assistant and special teachers, 
 amounted to 1,279. The average number of 
 classes to each school was 12; the average number 
 of pupils to each class. 5] ; to a school, 640. The 
 average number of pupils in free schools was 
 48,420; besides 10,500 children in corporate or 
 private institutions aided by the city; making a 
 grand total of 59,000 children enjoying free ele- 
 mentary education at the expense of the city. 
 The cost of elementary free schools supported by 
 the city amounted to Siill.000 thalers : whereas 
 the aid granted to Jiigher city schools, besides 
 the school money paid by pupils, required an 
 ' extra expense of 25 tha'.rs per pupil. The aver- 
 age yearly salary of a principal of a common ele- 
 mentary school, in Berlin, is 1.180 thalers : of a 
 class teacher, 745 thalers; of a female teacher. 
 487 tiialers; of female teachers of needle-work, 
 109 thalers. — In Prussia, a fund has been es- 
 tablished for the pensioning of teachers' widows 
 and orphans, which, in 1861, amounted to 
 1,682,158 thalers, with a yearly revenue of 
 139.331 thalers, from which (J ,01 7 teachers, or 
 their willows and orphans, were pensioned. Sim- 
 ilar pensioning funds for teachers and their 
 widows and orphans are founded in all the Ger- 
 man states. — The following are the principal 
 items of school statistics for the other German 
 states: Bavaria, in 1874, supported 7,1116 public 
 elementary schools 1,893 Catholic, 1,938 Prot- 
 estant,124 Jewish, 61 miscellaneous), with 9.431 
 male and i-'.Hl female teachers. Total number of 
 pupils, 632,599 (310,713 male. 321,886 female; 
 438,945 Catholic. 187,387 Protestant, 5,883 
 Jewish, 384 miscellaneous). Of the 7,016 public 
 elementary schools, 5,764 levied school money on 
 
 their pupils, amounting to 1,025,4 ID florins a year. 
 Baden, in 1874, had 1,765 elementary public 
 
 on instead, //esse Darmstadt 
 ublic elementary teachers. Sa.ee 
 ■d 7M teachers, who instructed 
 
 ing statistics (1872): Total number of public 
 elementary schools (estimated) about 60,000; 
 teachers, about 110,000; pupils, about 6,500,000, 
 or, more than 15 per cent of the entire popula- 
 tion. The proportion of pupils to the entire pop- 
 ulation, in the several German states, varies as 
 follows: of every 1000 of the population, there 
 are school attendants, in Saxony. 184, in Prus- 
 sia. 155, in YVurtemberg. 132. in Bavaria. 126, 
 in Mecklenburg. 1 'Jo : while in Brunswick, An- 
 lc.lt, Oldenburg, and the Thuringian principal- 
 ities, the proportion varies from 160 to 184. 
 
 School Administr, ! /' ss (.—All edu- 
 
 cational institutions of the monarchy are govern- 
 ed, primarily, by the state ministry of ecclesias- 
 tical, educational, and medical affairs, in Berlin. 
 Every province has its own provincial school 
 commission for the general administration of 
 schools, and a scientific commission, with proper 
 subdivisions, for the examination of teachers. 
 The provincial state school authorities are as- 
 sisted, in the larger cities, by committees elected 
 for this purpose by the administrative bodies of 
 the municipal it i(Sc) D nen); and in 
 
 villages, by other officials. The law of March 1 1 ., 
 1872, confers the right of supervising all educa- 
 tional institutions, public and private, upon the 
 state. Consequently, all supervisory power is 
 derived from the state, and exercised under its 
 authority. The co-operation of local authorities, 
 as established by law, is recognized by the state. 
 In Ihirnriii. educational institutions are subordi- 
 nate to the ministry of the interior, through the 
 department of church and school affairs I 0/,,-,-slrr 
 Sclinl-llath) and a committee for examinations, 
 appointed annually. Saxony, Wiirtembi y, and 
 
 the minor German states, administer their si 1 1 
 
 affairs in a similar manner.- A federal -. 1 1 
 
 commission has lately been established in IVrlin. 
 
 Secondary Instriieliaii. — Secondary school in- 
 struction, in Germany, aims to give a sound basis 
 for general scientific and literary education. 
 This grade of education is directed to two clearly 
 distinct ends, — that of a general philosophical 
 and liberal education, as represented in the 
 gymnasium or pro-gymnasium ; and that of a 
 more practical education, as represented in the 
 real schools, of the first or second order, and the 
 higher burgher schools. A complete gymnasium 
 
of seco 
 to havi 
 
 366 GER 
 
 has at least six grades [sexta being the lowest, 
 prima, the highest). The upper grades, from 
 the third toth ■ first, are mostly subdivided into 
 two divisions a lowerand a higher. 'The course 
 
 of instrueti ompriscs !• years, of which the 
 
 lower grades generally require one year each; the 
 higher, one year for each division. A pro-gym- 
 nasium comprises the gymnasium classes from 
 the lowest to the third or second grade of a 
 full gymnasium, with a course of five or six 
 years. A complete real school of the first order 
 has six grades and a nine years' course; one of 
 the second order, six grades and a seven years' 
 course. The higher burgher schools have only 
 the five lower classes of a real school. With 
 most of these secondary schools, preparatory de- 
 partments, comprising one. two, or more grades, 
 are connected. Candidates for the lowest class 
 stitutions are generally required 
 ted their !)th year of age, and to 
 pass a satisfactory examination in the elementary 
 branches of a common-school education. — In 
 Bavaria, there are Studien-Anslalten, or clas- 
 sical gymnasia, with '.< grades and a course of 9 
 years, the 5 lower of which constitute the Latin 
 school, and the 4 higher, the gymnasium proper. 
 The so-called Latin schools are frequently sepa- 
 rated from the higher grades, and form distinct 
 institutions. Real gymnasia, which, in Bavaria, 
 consist of a real school and a gymnasium, have a 
 six years' course of instruction. In Wwrtemberg, 
 there are full gymnasia, founded upon nearly the 
 same basis as those in Prussia; or lyceums, anal- 
 ogous to the Prussian pro-gymnasia; or Latin 
 schools, as preparatory schools for institutions of 
 a higher order. In Saxony, Baden, and the other 
 German states, secondary institutions of learning 
 
 are genera ll\ < ■ -t .i I -I i -I i- ■, I ii] the same basis as in 
 
 Prussia. The following schedule presents, in a 
 general way, the course of study followed in a 
 Prussian gymnasium (I. designating the highest 
 grade ; VI., the lowest) : 
 Number of Weekly Recitations 
 
 Studies. VI. V. IV. 
 
 Religion 3 3 2 
 
 German 2 2 2 
 
 Latin 10 10 10 
 
 and the realistic courses l 
 unanimous opinion of i 
 neither gymnasia nor re; 
 
 Cli uuo 
 
 French 
 
 History and Geog- 
 
 Geomc'try and Arith- 
 
 Physics 
 
 Natural history. 
 Drawing 
 
 Penmanship 
 
 This does not include Hebrew, singing, or gym- 
 nastics (Tit men), these being taught out of the 
 regular school-hours. 
 
 In 1874, there were in Germany, 547 gym- 
 nasia, pro-eviiniasia. and real evmnasia, with 
 G,7o 1 instructors and 10M,212 pupils; and 426 
 real and higher burgher schools, with 4,422 in- 
 structors and 7'.). si's pupils. — In the German 
 Empire, one pupil in every 377 of the. aggregate 
 population receives a classical, and one in every 
 4fi8, a non-classical, secondary education. — For 
 
 the higher education of females, there were in 
 Germany (in 1873) 278 schools of the secondary 
 order,— in Prussia and Alsace-Lorraine, 207; 
 Bavaria. 7: Saxony, 6; Baden, lit; Hesse. !); An- 
 halt. 5; the Mecklenburgs, 4.— There are also 
 many private institutions of great excellence not 
 included in this enumeration. 
 
 The salaries of instructors vary greatly, the 
 lowest salary of an assistant teacher being about 
 1,500 marks, that of an ordinary teacher from 
 3,000 to 6,000 marks, and that of a director sel- 
 dom exceeding 9,000 marks. In October, 1873, a 
 conference was held iii Berlin, convened by the 
 Prussian minister of public instruction, to discuss 
 
 questions oi sec ary instruction. The old 
 
 dualism in tins grade ot education formed an im- 
 >tli the classical 
 
 f discussed. The 
 irence was, that 
 i should be con- 
 sidered special schools, lint that their common 
 object should be the advancement of general 
 education. The majority of the meeting seemed 
 to think that the gymnasium and the rial school 
 should each pursue its own way, without inter- 
 fering with the other. On the quest] f bi- 
 furcation, opinions were much divided, but the 
 opinion generally prevailed that none of the 
 existing secondary schools could be considered 
 superfluous. — In regard to the question whether 
 real-school graduates should be admitted to the 
 universities, the prevailing opinion was. that 
 such graduates should be admitted according 
 to the existing regulations, but only to those 
 state examinations (Staats-Examina) which were 
 required for obtaining the position of teacher 
 of mathematics, natuial sciences, or modern lan- 
 guages. Many other points of importance re- 
 lating to secondary education were exhaustively 
 discussed; and Minister I'alk. in closing the con- 
 ference, said that the discussions of the meeting 
 would be taken into careful consideration by the 
 ministry of public instruction. 
 
 Teachers' Seminaries. — Xo class of the edu- 
 cational institutions of ( ieiiiiany has won more 
 general admiration than the teachers' seminaries. 
 Gradually developed in Prussia, through the 
 efforts of Francke, llecker, and their successors, 
 they have now become the training schools in 
 which nearly all the teachers of the elementary 
 schools receive their education. All political 
 and even all religious parties, in G.ennany. agree 
 in attributing the highest importance to the 
 professional training of elementary teachers in 
 these seminaries ; and the appreciation in which 
 they are held abroad, is best attested by the 
 fact that the system has spread from Prussia 
 over the greater part of Europe and the civil- 
 ized world. (See Teachers' Seminaries.) The 
 age required for admission to these schools now 
 varies from the 14th to the lfith year. Admis- 
 sion is every-where made contingent upon the 
 result of a rigid examination, at which, in many 
 I cases, a school councilor (Scktdraffl) is present. 
 The candidates receive the preparation needed 
 I for the examination either by private instrue- 
 
tion, or in special preparatory schools, called 
 Proseminarien or Pr'aparandu n. In the king- 
 dom of Saxony, these preparatory schools were, 
 in 1874, organically united with the .-.cminaries. 
 which now have six classes. In Prussia, the 
 course of instruction, as well as the examination 
 of candidates, has hern re-organized by theGen- 
 eral Regulations i .1"/ /,'- nmungen) of 
 
 Oct. 15., 1872. A.ecordina to these regulations, 
 the royal seminaries have three classes, each \\ nli 
 an annual course of instruction. The two lower 
 classes are instructed in pedagogics (2 hours a 
 week), religion (4 h.), German language (oh.), 
 arithmetic (3 h.j, geometry (2 h.), natural sci- 
 ence (4 h.), geography (2 h.). history (2 h.). mu- 
 sic (5 h.i. drawing (2 h.), penmanship (2 h. in 
 the lowest. 1 h. in the middle class), gymnastic 
 exercises (2 h.), either French or Latin, accord- 
 ing to the option of the pupils (3 h.). The 
 course of studies in the highest class drops pen- 
 manship, and devotes t he same amount of time to 
 pedagogics, history, music, and gymnastic ex- 
 ercises, but reduces the time allowed for other 
 subjects (religion, 2 h. ; mother-tongue, 2 h. ; 
 arithmetic and geometry, 1 h.: natural science. 
 2 h.; geography, 1 h.; drawing. 1 h.; French or 
 Latin, 2 h.). In some of these subjects, the 
 course of studies is now more comprehensive 
 than formerly. Thus, the instruction required in 
 pedagogics, is henceforth, to embrace the most 
 important points of psychology. Instruction in 
 German must illustrate the divisions of lyric, 
 epic, didactic, and dramatic poetry. The pri- 
 vate reading of the pupils must especially be 
 devoted to the classic writers of the last three 
 centuries. In addition to the history of Ger- 
 many and Prussia, the pupils receive a course of 
 Greek and Roman history. — The course of in- 
 struction in the seminaries, in the other ( ierniau 
 states (also in Austria), is, substantially, the 
 same. In the kingdom of Saxony, a new course 
 of studies was introduced in 1874, which makes 
 the study of Latin a part of the regular course. 
 The other German states provide for no in- 
 struction in a foreign language ; and Austria 
 provides for French only. — The number of 
 teachers' seminaries, in 1875, was (according to 
 Brachelli, Die Staaten Europa's, 1875), in 
 Prussia, 101, and in the other states, 73. The 
 total number of pupils in the Prussian semi- 
 naries, in May, 1875, was 6,456, being 1,670 more 
 than in 1874. 
 
 The Universities. — The following list gives 
 the names of all the universities of Germany, and 
 of the German part of Austria, arranged ac- 
 cording to the chronological order of their foun- 
 dation : Prague (1348). Vienna (1365). Heidel- 
 berg (1386), Cologne (1388, discontinued in 
 1798), Erfurt (1392—1816). Leipsic (1409), Ro- 
 stock (1419). Greifswald (1456). Freiburg (1457), 
 Ingolstadt (1472, transferred to Landshut, in 
 1802, and to Munich, in 1826), Treves (1472 
 —1798), Tubingen (1477), Maycnce (1477— 
 1790), Wittenberg (1502, transferred to Halle. in 
 1817), Frankfort on the Oder (1506, transferred 
 to Breslau, in 1811), Marburg (1527), Konigsberg 
 
 (1544), Dillingen (1549—1804), Jena (1558), 
 ffehnstadt (1576— 1809), Altorf, near Nurem- 
 berg 1578- L809),Olmutz(1581 L855 ,\\ iirtz- 
 burg 15-2 . Herborn L584 1-iT Gral I 586) 
 Giessen (1607), Paderborn (1615 L803 , Stad£ 
 hagen (1619— 21), Rinteln (1621— 1810), Salz- 
 burg (1622—1811), Osnabruck (1630—1633), 
 Minister (1631. in 1818 transferred to Bonn), 
 Bamberg (1648—1804), Duisburg (1655— 1802 
 Kiel (1665), fnnspruck (1672). Lingen (1685 
 L819), Halle (1694), Breslau (1 702), Vulda ( 1734 
 -1805), Gottingen (1737), Erlangen (1743), 
 Biitzow (176U 1789), Berlin (1809), Bonn 
 (1818), Munich (1826), Strasbourg (1872). The 
 early history of the German universities agrees. 
 in iis essentia] features, with that of the uni- 
 versities of other nations. (See University.) At 
 first, a papal decree was regarded as indispen- 
 sable for their establishment; but. later, they 
 were established upon imperial authority, with 
 or without papal sanction; and, in 1495, the 
 emperor Maximilian granted to every elector 
 the right to establish one in his dominions. 
 The original classification of the students was 
 according to nationalities, each of which elected 
 a procurator; but, simultaneously, there existed 
 an organization according to the four facul- 
 ties. The rector of the university was. at first, 
 elected from the philosophical faculty, but, 
 soon after, in turn from each of the four 
 faculties. Every faculty elected a dean from 
 the lecturing magistri, who, in their turn, 
 formed the faculty council.— The students of 
 Germany, like those of other countries, for- 
 merly gave a great deal of trouble by their riot- 
 ous and immoral conduct, as well as by some 
 abuses to which the younger students were 
 subjected by the older. * The student was intro- 
 duced to university life by a singular ceremony, 
 called the beania, or deposition, which con- 
 sisted of a series of painful castigations. This 
 habit gave way to the still more absurd /<> nnat 
 ism, which kept the freshman in a state of hu- 
 miliating servitude to the senior students. The 
 final suppression of pennalism and of the large 
 students' associations by the united action of 
 the universities and governments, was attended 
 with considerable public disturbances, and led to 
 the formation of secret orders or associations 
 [Landsmannschaften or Corps), which tried to 
 perpetuate pennalism, or the dependence of the 
 younger upon the older students in a modified 
 form. Each association elected, for the term of 
 one year, a. senior, and the convention of seniors 
 (Seniorenconvent) represented the common in- 
 terests of these associations. A strong esprit de 
 corps was, in this way, created and fostered 
 among the students, and many habits peculiar 
 to these German institutions were developed. 
 Among the worst of these habits was dueling, 
 which, in spite of all the laws against it. has main- 
 tained itself, though not to the same extent as 
 formerly, to the present day. The awakening of the 
 German people, which attended and followed the 
 national war against Napoleon, led, in 1815, to 
 the establishment of the B urschenschaft, an as- 
 
sociation of students, for promoting the moral 
 and intellectual condition of their country. 
 
 The modern German universities have main- 
 tained many of the characteristics of the earlier 
 times, at least in their general organization and 
 administration, while, as a matter of course, the 
 number and quality of the studies pursued 
 ■widely differ from the original standard. The 
 leading characteristics of a 
 
 German uni 
 wing account. 
 ration of ordi- 
 -. licensed pri- 
 and the im- 
 the necessary 
 
 vate lecturers (PrivatrDoceni 
 
 matriculated students, besidi 
 officials and their adjuncts. The studies pur- 
 sued are generally classified into four grand sub- 
 divisions, or faculties: the theological, the juris- 
 tical, the medical, and the philosophical ; the last 
 embracing, besides mental philosophy, mat hemat- 
 ics, the natural sciences, philology, history, and 
 cameralistics, or political and international econ- 
 omy. Bach faculty forms an independent sub- 
 division of the university 'I lie general adminis- 
 tration of a university is intrusted to a select 
 body of professors, called the Senate, presided 
 over by the rector. The. relative rank of the 
 professors is determined according to seniority 
 in oilie,-, like that of an ordinary professor at any 
 university. The several faculties are officially 
 represented by the body of ordinary professors of 
 each discipline. Jn a wider sense, the extra- 
 ordinary professors and /irinttim u'urr,,/ s are 
 id ml members of their respective 
 faculties. The faculties are obliged to exercise 
 a certain supervision over the attendance and 
 conduct of the students inscribed upon their 
 respective faculty rolls. Each faculty is respon- 
 sible for the completeness of the instruction 
 offered to students, within the limits of the 
 faculty studies, inasmuch as three (for students 
 of medicine, four) years must comprise a full 
 curriculum of the main studies pertaining to 
 each discipline. — Each faculty annually elects 
 a dean for the administration of its special 
 affairs. The dean is the president and chief 
 executive officer of his faculty. The rector and 
 the senate are elected annually by a plenum 
 (full meeting) of the ordinary professors. The 
 senate usually consists of the rector, his ini- 
 mediati pi lecessor in office, the faculty deans, 
 
 and five i bers elected from the number of 
 
 ordinary professors. This body, under the pres- 
 idency of the rector, exercises supreme author- 
 ity in' all matters concerning the university as a 
 whole, and the highest disciplinary power rel- 
 ative to students. The rector is the highest 
 functionary, and the foremost representative, 
 of a university in all its external relations. 
 In the discharge of academic jurisdiction, a 
 syndic is added to the senate, who has the rank 
 of an ordinary professor. The syndic is the 
 
 professional adviser to rector and senate in all 
 questions relating to statute law or to the state 
 constitution. Academic jurisdiction is vested 
 in the rector, the syndic, or the full meet- 
 ing of the senate, according to the character of 
 
 the. offense. Students are admitted to the uni- 
 versity and academic rights by the act of matric- 
 ulation. If a native, the student must produce 
 a certificate of graduation from a gymnasium; 
 if he is a foreigner, a certificate is required tes- 
 tifying to his good moral character. By the act 
 of matriculation, the student acquires all the 
 academic rights and privileges granted to stu- 
 dents by statute law. Disciplinary measures and 
 punishments, according to the nature of the 
 offense, are a private reprimand by the rector, 
 a public reprimand before the senate, incarcera- 
 tion, warning of the consilium abeundi (advice 
 to leave), the consilium abeundi proper (tem- 
 porary removal, mostly for one term, or six 
 months), and, lastly, the relegatio (expulsion), or 
 the relegatio cum in/amia (dishonorable expul- 
 sion). .Students expelled cum in/amia cannot be 
 admitted to any other university. The right to 
 lecture is granted only to the appointed profess- 
 ors, ordinary or extraordinary, and authorized 
 private lecturers (Privat-Docenien), who must 
 have attained the degree of Doctor ; or, in the 
 theological faculty, the degree of Licentiate. All 
 are carefully excluded from the privilege of 
 hearing lectures, who have not attained the 
 necessary degree of mental or moral maturity, 
 more especially undergraduates of gymnasia, and 
 all who have forfeited their matriculation. Lect- 
 ures for the succeeding semester are publicly 
 announced before the termination of the current 
 semester. The first course of lectures commences 
 in the fall of the year, at about the middle of 
 ( tatober, and terminates towards the latter part 
 of March; the second course commences in the 
 beginning of April, and terminal a in the latter 
 part of August. At the beginning of 1*77. the 
 German Empire had 20 compl te universities, of 
 which 9 were in Prussia, 3, in Bavaria, 2 in 
 Baden, 1 each in Saxony. Wiirtemberg, Hesse, 
 Mecklenburg, Saxe Weimar, and Alsace-Lorraine. 
 The number of professors and students at each 
 of these universities, in 1870, was as follows: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Professors 
 
 Students 
 
 matriculated 
 hearers) 
 
 
 100 
 107 
 54 
 53 
 51 
 
 57 
 
 104 
 
 01 
 83 
 
 150 
 05 
 
 110 
 39 
 SO 
 
 67 
 
 4,105 
 
 Bonn •• 
 
 73C 
 1,141 
 42S 
 
 
 254 
 
 1 . i v;; :-" ; '::::::::::: 
 
 352 
 1.005 
 452 
 888 
 
 
 4S8 
 
 
 459 
 
 i Bnigsbi rg (Prussia) .'.'.'.'.'.... 
 
 215 
 615 
 
 411 
 
 1,232 
 
 153 
 
 707 
 
 1,019 
 
 Each of these universities has the four time- 
 honored faculties. Bonn, Breslau, and Tubingen 
 
 have each two theological faculties, one I atholic 
 and one Protestant, -Munich, AVurtzburg, and 
 
Freiburg have only a faculty of Catholic theol- 
 ogy; and each of the others, one of Protestant 
 
 thei 
 
 there is, in Munich, Wurtzburg, and 'I iibingen. 
 one of political economy; and in Tubingen, one 
 of natural sciences. The academy of Minister, 
 ■which has only two faculties (Catholic theology 
 and philosophy) is also classed among the uni- 
 versities. At the Swiss universities of Bern, 
 Basel, and Zurich, at the Russian university of 
 Dorpat, and at the Austrian universities of 
 Czerhowitz, Gratz, Innspruck, Prague, and 
 Vienna, the German language is exclusively or 
 predominantly in use. 
 
 Professional and TecJtnical Instruction. — In 
 1875, there were, in Germany, 10 technical, or 
 polytechnic, high schools; namely, (1) Berlin, the 
 
 of machines and engineering, chemistry, mining, 
 and naval construction) ; (3) Hanover, prepara- 
 tory and polytechnic school, with 24 ordinary, 3 
 extraordinary instructors. 6 assistants, and 633 
 students); (4) Ais-la-ChapeU . general prepara- 
 tory school and special departments of architect- 
 ure, engineering, machines and mechanical tech- 
 nics, chemical technics, and mining, with 20 or- 
 dinary, 2 extraordinary, 15 assistant instructors, 
 and 4H7 students; (.'') Munich, general introduc- 
 tory school, and departments tor engineering, 
 architecture, mechanical technics, chemical tech- 
 nics, and agriculture, with 21 ordinary, 5 extra- 
 ordinary, 32 assistant instructors, 9 private lect- 
 urers, and 1053 students; (ii) Dresden, general in- 
 troductory school; departments of engineering, 
 mechanics, architecture; chemical technics, math- 
 ematics, and natural sciences, with 20 ordinary, 
 5 extraordinary. as.-i.-d ant instructors. 3 private 
 lecturers, and 366 students; ■■ & lart, de 
 partments of architecture, i ogineering, machine 
 building, chemical technics, mathematics. natural 
 sciences, with 23 ordinary, 25 a sistant, 11 private 
 instructors, and 537 stu 1 ints; (8) < 'arlsruhe, de- 
 partments of matlr-matics, engineering, machine 
 building mechanical technics, architectare, chem- 
 istry and chemical technics, and forestry, with 
 35 ordinary,. 1 extraordinary, 10 assistant in- 
 structors, 1 private lecturer, and 010 students; 
 (9) Darmstadt, a general preparatory school and 
 departments of architecture, engineering, ma- 
 chine building, chemical technics, mathematics, 
 and natural sciences, with 28 ordinary and I as- 
 sistant instructors, and 179 stud . ; i Br 
 wick, a general preparati >ry scl 1 < .f arts and sci- 
 ences; departments of architcc; mc ciiL'iiieeiinL.-. 
 machine building, chemical technics, pharmacy, 
 and forestry, with 24 ordinary and 5 assistant 
 instructors. and 15.'! students. There are also tei li- 
 nical academics at Cassel, Nienburg, and other 
 places. Of technical schools, there were, in 1875, in 
 Prussia, 32 provincial technical schools ( i .',■»■ .-, -/ '-.-. 
 Schnlen) ; in Bavaria, 36 (including commercial 
 and agricultural schools); in Saxony, 9; and in 
 Saxe Coburg-Gotha, 3. 
 
 Scientific Instruction. — Military Academies. - 
 There are schools of military science, especially 
 
 for the education of general-staff officers, at Ber- 
 lin and Munich; the imperial naval academy and 
 school at Kiel ; and, for the education of army 
 officers, the combined artillery and military en- 
 gineering schools at Berlin and Munich, the war 
 schoolsat Pots. lam. Erfurt, Neisse I og< rs,< ! assel, 
 Hanover, Anclam, Metz, and Munich, and the 
 
 several cadet corps in dilfeiviil states; also the 
 military surgical in-tmite. and veterinary school 
 at Berlin. Thereare numerous military schools for 
 non-commissioned officers throughout the Ger- 
 man -i ites. Veterinary academies are estab- 
 lished at Berlin, Munich, and Banover; acad- 
 
 j.olvtcclmicschoolsat licrlinand Aix la-l hapelle; 
 agricultural academies, at Berlin, Hofgeisberg, 
 Gottingeri, Eldena (near Greifswald), Proskau 
 (near Oppeln), Poppelsdorf (near Bonn), Tha- 
 randt, Ilohenheim (near Stuttgart). ami Wcihen- 
 stephan; and pomological institutes at Proskau 
 and Geisenheim. Schools of navigation exist at 
 Memel, Pillau, Dantzic, Grabow (Stettin), Earth, 
 Stralsund, Altona, Flensburg, Apenrade, < ieeste- 
 milnd, Leer, Papenburg, Emden, and Timmel; 
 also 7 preparatory nautical schools. 'I here are cmi- 
 servatories of music, at Berlin, Munich, and nu- 
 merous other cities; and commercial colleges (15) 
 at Dantzic, Berlin, Breslau, Dresden, Leipsic (2), 
 Chemnitz, Zwickau. Gera, l.iibeck. Osnabriick, 
 
 Bildesheim, II; ver, Munich, and Nuremberg. 
 
 — The institutions for spi ial instruction axe the 
 following: (1) for the deaf and dumb: in Prus- 
 sia, 37; Bavaria, 12; Saxony, 3; Wurtemberg, 4; 
 Baden, 2; Hesse, 2; Mecklenburg, Oldenburg, 
 Saxe Weimar, Anhalt. Pruu-w ii k, Saxe I 'oburg- 
 Gotha, Saxe Meiningen, Reuss, and Hamburg, 
 each 1; (2) for the blind: ii Prussia, 15; Bavaria, 
 3; Saxony. 2; Wurtemberg, 2; Baden, Hesse, 
 Mecklenburg, each 1; other states. 6; in all. 31. 
 
 Educational Publications. — In 1873, there 
 were published in the German empire 8 I papers 
 devoted to education (Prnssia 41; other German 
 states, l" See Si bhid, En, n qpddie, articles 
 Preuss ,.!■■■■ ■-.-'■ ■ n I: - / - 
 
 Pi - . Engl, trans, by Barnard) ; Schmidt, 
 
 Geschicftte a .-•/'. ; Barnard, National 
 
 Eduea >n vol.l.; Gir dors of Information of 
 the Bureau of Education, No. 2 (Washington, 
 1-71 ; Wit:-;--. Verordnungen und Gesetzefur 
 di hSh ■ , & '■>■ n in Preussen. The Pada- 
 gogisch r John bericlit, edited by Dittes (vol. 
 xxviii., Leipsic, 1876, embracing the year 1875), 
 and the Glironik des Volksschulwesens, edited by 
 Seyffarth (vol. XI., Gotha, 1876, embracing the 
 year 1875), give, from year to year, a very full 
 account of the progress of education in all the 
 ( ierman states. The fullest statistical account 
 of secondary instruction is given in Mdshacee, 
 Deutscher SchulrKalender (vol. xxv., Leipsic, 
 1876; edited by Jenne); and the fullest account 
 of the German universities, in Deutsches akade- 
 misches Jahrbuch (vol. n., Leips., 1870). 
 
::to 
 
 GE8NER 
 
 GESNER, Johann Matthias, a < lerman I 
 educator, born April 9., 1091 ; died Aug. .'!., 
 1761. He studied at Jena, and after holding 
 several minor positions, became, in 1730, rector 
 of the celebrated Thomas School, in I^eipsic. 
 This he found in a very low condition, both in 
 respect to studies and discipline ; but, in a few- 
 years, he succeeded in restoring its former repu- 
 tation. In 1734, he accepted a call to the new 
 university of I iottingen, where, in the position of 
 professor of ancient literature, he exerted great 
 influence upon the progress of philosophy in 
 Germany. ami contributed to a thorough reform 
 of the literarv institutions of a higher grade, lie 
 was intrusted with the establishment of the first 
 
 spector of all the Hanoverian schools, — two 
 offices for which his former labors eminently fitted 
 him. In 1757, he drew up the new school reg- 
 ulations, in which he embodied the experiences of 
 his life as a teacher, and the results of a mature 
 study of the proper organization of classical 
 schools. He favored the views of Ratich (q. v.), 
 Uomenius (q. v.), and Locke (q. v.), as to the 
 best method of facilitating the study of languages 
 and making it attractive. Notwithstanding his 
 great official industry, he wrote a large number 
 of important works on pedagogy and philology, 
 besides publishing valuable e litions of the clas- 
 sics. — See J. M. Gesxkr, Kduratiaual Vines, in 
 Barnard's Journal of Education. 
 
 GIFTS, Kindergarten, the term used by 
 Froebel to designate the apparatus devised by 
 him for kindergarten instruction, inasmuch aa 
 they are not used by the teacher but i/ircu to the 
 children, as the material for interesting and in- 
 structive occupation, by the manipulation of 
 
 which their 
 witli 
 
 ■lilt!. 
 
 , are unfolded ill accordance 
 method (q. v.). These gifts 
 lumbered from 1 to 20, and 
 r, of which, however, Nos. 8 
 
 right and left, up and down): also to train the 
 eye. and to exercise the hands, arms, and feet in 
 various plays. (2) SpJiere, cube, and cylinder, 
 designed to teach form, by directing the atten- 
 tion of the child to resemblances and differ- 
 ences in objects. This is done by pointing out, 
 explaining, and counting the sides, edges, and 
 corners of the cube, and by showing how it dif- 
 fers, in these respects, from the sphere and cylin- 
 der. The manipulation by the child should, of 
 course, precede this demonstration by the teacher. 
 The child's self-activity will prompt it to place 
 these forms in various positions and combina- 
 tions, so as to realize in its conceptions every thing 
 that is analogous or dissimilar in them. (3) A 
 large cube divided into eight equal cubes, the ob- 
 ject being to teach both form and number, also 
 to give a rudimental idea of fractions. (I) A. large 
 cube divided into eight oblong blocks, designed 
 to teach number and a simple variety of form 
 (cube and parallelopiped). (5) A large cube 
 
 GIFTS 
 
 divided into 27 equal cubes, three of the latter 
 being subdivided into half cubes, and three others 
 into quarter cubes (forming triangular prisms). 
 This is a further continuation and complement 
 of (3), but affording much ampler means of 
 combination both as to form and number. 
 (ti) A large cube so divided as to consist of 18 
 whole oblong blocks, three similar blocks divided 
 lengthwise, and six e-ivided breadthwise, — a still 
 further continuation of the ideas involved in (3). 
 (7) Triangular and quadrangular tub/els of 
 polished wood, affording the means of further 
 exercise in reversing the position of forms and 
 combining them ; and presenting, in addition, 
 illustrations of plane surfaces, instead of solids, 
 as in the previous gifts. This arrangement, 
 placing the surfaces after the solids, recognizes 
 an important principle of education. — that we 
 should pass from the concrete to the abstract 
 (see Form), the square being a side of the cube, 
 and a triangle deduced from the prism. (8) Sticks 
 for laying, , — wooden sticks about 13 inches long, 
 to be cut into various lengths by the teacher or 
 pupil, as occasion may require. These sticks, 
 like most of the previous gifts, are designed to 
 teach numerical proportions. The multiplication 
 table may be practically learned by means of 
 this gift. The forms of the letters of the alpha- 
 bet, and the Roman and Arabic numerals, may 
 also be learned. (9) Rings for ring-laying, 
 consisting of whole and half rings of various 
 sizes, in wire, for forming figures ; designed to 
 develop further ideas of form, also to afford a 
 means for developing the constructiveiiess of the 
 pupils, and practice in composing simple de- 
 signs. (Hi) Drawing slates and paper, consist- 
 ing of slates ruled in squares, and paper ruled 
 in squares, for the purpose of enabling tho 
 pupil to draw or copy simple figures, in a 
 methodical manner, the ruling aiding them in 
 the adjustment of proportions. (11) Perforat- 
 ing paper, ruled in squares on one side only, 
 with perforating needles, affording more ad- 
 vanced practice in producing forms, and execut- 
 ing simple designs. (12) 'Embroidering material, 
 to be used for transferring the designs executed 
 on the perforating paper, by embroidering them 
 ! with colored worsted or silk on card board. 
 
 (13) Paper for cutting: squares of paper are 
 folded, cut according to' certain rules, and formed 
 into figures. The child's inclination for using 
 the scissors is thus ingeniously turned to account, 
 
 I and made to produce very gratifying results. 
 
 (14) Wearing paper: strips of colored paper 
 are, by means of a steel or wooden needle of 
 peculiar construction, woven into a differently 
 colored sheet of paper, which is cut into strips 
 throughout its entire surface, except a margin at 
 each end to keep the strips in their places. A 
 very great variety of figures is thus produced, 
 and the inventive powers of the child are con- 
 i-taniK In. night into requisition. (15) Plaiting 
 material, including sets of flats for interlacing, 
 so as to form geometrical and fancy figures. 
 (10) Jointed slats (go<>,graj,/,s). for forming 
 angles and geometrical figures. (See Gonigraph).. 
 
GIRARD 
 
 (17) Paper for intertwining; paper strips of 
 various colors, eight or ten inches long, folded 
 lengthwise, used to represent a variety of geo- 
 metrical and fancy figures, by plaiting them ac- 
 cording to certain rules. (18) I '<iiff for fold- 
 ing, consisting of square, rectangular, and tri- 
 angular pieces, with which varimi-Iv shaped ob- 
 jects may be formed. (19) Material for peas 
 
 pointed at the ends, which are passed through 
 peas, that have been soaked in water for six or 
 eight hours ; these are then used to imitate 
 various objects and geometrical figures. Cork 
 cubes are sometimes used instead of the peas, as 
 being more convenient. (20) Mah rial fur 
 modeling: modeling knives, of w 1. and model- 
 ing boards, by means of which various forms are 
 modeled in bees-wax, clay, putty, or some other 
 soft substance. — These gifts tints represent every 
 kind of technical activity, from the mere collec- 
 tion of the raw material to the delicate processes 
 of design aswell as plastic art. They are designed 
 to develop not only the constructive ability of 
 the pupil, through his natural impulse to activ- 
 ity, and by the exercise of the faculty of con- 
 ception, so characteristic of childhood, but by 
 their countless combinations of color and form 
 to lay the foundation for a complete 1 develop- 
 ment of the esthetic nature. They address, at 
 once, his intellect, his emotions, ami his physical 
 activities ; while, as the child works out the re- 
 sults himself, he gains confidence in his own 
 ability to surmount obstacles, and thus learns an 
 enduring lesson of self-reliance. Kindergarten 
 gifts ami occupation material suitable for schools 
 or families, are put up in sets and soli I in 
 boxes, convenient for use. — See A. Douai, The 
 Kindergarten (New York); E. P. Peabody, 
 Kindergarten Guide (New York. 1869); H. 
 Hoffmann, Kindergarten Toys, and haw to use 
 them (Xew York) ; Aug. Kckiilkh, Drr Kinder- 
 garten in seinem Wesen dargesteUt (N. Y.); and 
 Die Praxis des Kindergartens (Weimar) ; M. 
 H. Kriege, Friedrich Froebel (N. V.. 1876). 
 
 GIRARD, Gregoire, a Swiss educator, 
 born Dec. 17., 1763; died March 6., 1850. He 
 entered the Franciscan order in his sixteenth 
 year, studied theology in VVUrtzhurg, and after 
 being ordained as priest, held several positions as 
 a teacher. lie paid special attention to the 
 common-school system, \\ hieh in his native canton 
 of Fribourg was in a poor condition ; and he 
 drew up a plan for the re-organization of the 
 public-school system of all Switzerland, which, 
 however, was not adopted by the federal authori- 
 ties. In 1804, he returned to fribourg to take 
 charge of the schools of that city. He remained 
 in that position up to 1823, when he resigned 
 in consequence of a quarrel with the church 
 authorities. From 1827 to 183-f, he was pro- 
 fessor of philosophy in Lucerne; but. after the 
 latterdate.he lived in retirement in his monastery 
 in Fribourg. 1 lis administration of the schools 
 of Fribourg attracted the attention oi many of 
 the friends of education throughout Europe. He 
 paid particular attention to the teaching of re- 
 
 GLOBB 
 
 371 
 
 ligion and language. I n the former, he ignored 
 the doctrines of particular denominations, and 
 favored general instruction in the fundamental 
 principles of the Christian religion. His views 
 on this subject are laid down in the Premieres 
 notions de religion, which he declared was not 
 a catechism, but an introduction to a catechism, 
 lie also embraced Pestalpzzi's views on tho 
 teaching of languages, making the study of the 
 mother-tongue the basis of all instruction. Father 
 Chard favored very much the system of mutual 
 instruction as practiced by Dr. Bell (q. v.) and 
 
 • Joseph Lancaster (q, v.| ; indeed, he is regarded 
 as the founder of that system in Switzerland. 
 As an illustration of its efficacy, he said that 
 "when he met with difficulty in explaining any 
 word or subject to a child, he often called in a 
 boy more advanced to aid him, and usualh found 
 him to succeed entirely, even when till his own 
 efforts had failed." See Nawi.i.k. Notice biogra- 
 phiquesurle I'. Girard (Geneva, 1850); Gibaed, 
 The Mother Tongue, Engl, trans. (Lond.,1847). 
 
 GIRLS, Education of. See Female 'Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 GLOBE, Artificial (Latin, globus), a hol- 
 low sphere, made of metal, plaster, or pasteboard, 
 used a.s a model of the earth, and having deline- 
 ated upon it all the various natural and political 
 divisions of the terrestrial surface, together with 
 the circles, etc., used in mathematical geography. 
 Through its center, runs an iron axis the two 
 ends of which project, and are fastened to a circle, 
 or ring, of brass, within which the globe can be 
 turned around. This ring, called the brazen 
 meridian, is graduated so as to indicate degrees 
 of latitude, and by rotating the globe can be 
 made to represent the meridian of any place. 
 The artificial globe is also usually surrounded 
 with a broad horizontal ring of wood, called the 
 mooden horizon, which has two slots in which 
 the meridian. and with it the globe move, so that 
 either pole 'nay be elevated or depressed, and the 
 horizon adapted to any place. The upper surface 
 of the wooden horizon is divided into several 
 concentric circles, representing degrees of ampli- 
 tude and azimuth, signs of the zodiac, the points 
 of the compass, the divisions of the year into 
 months and days, etc. Such a globe is called a 
 terrestrial globe. A celestial globe differs from it 
 iu representing the appearance of the starry 
 heavens, constellations, etc., as if seen from the 
 center of the globe. Globes of much simpler 
 construction are made for elementary instruction. 
 
 The artificial globe is supposed to have been 
 invented by Anaximander, about 580 B. C. 
 Rules for the use of the terrestrial globe were 
 first given by Ptolemy, 150 A. D. The two old- 
 est globes now extant (both celestial globes) are 
 of Arabic construction. One made in 1225, is 
 
 Veile'tri'; the ot,ier!made ill Vl'">. is'pn ,, i'\"i''| i„ 
 the mathematical hall of Dresden. In the 15th 
 century, the use of globes in schools rapidly in- 
 creased, and among those who distinguished 
 themselves in their construction, are mentioned 
 .Martin Belicius, Gerhard Mercator, ami Tycho 
 
372 
 
 GLOME 
 
 Brahe. The most celebrated globe is the so-called 
 Gottorp globe, which was constructed. I>v order 
 of the duke of Holstein-I IqI torp, by ( (learius and 
 Busch, in 16(14. it was 11 feel in diameter, and 
 was at first set up in Gottorp, near Scbleswig, 
 whence it was, in 1713, transferred to St. Peters- 
 burg. The national library in Paris has two 
 globes over 14 feet in iHameter; and the Mazarin 
 library and the museum of the Louvre have each 
 a magnificent copper globe. The georama is a 
 peculiar and colossal kind of globe which bears 
 the delineation of places, etc., on the inner sur- 
 face A globe of this kind. 51 feet in diameter, 
 was constructed in 185] by Mr. Wyld, in Lon- 
 don. An attempt to combine the terrestrial and 
 the celestial globe was made by Lohsc. in Ham- 
 burg, in 1829, the terrestrial globe being inclosed 
 in a glass sphere bearing on its surface delineations 
 of the constellations. A similar globe was con- 
 structed and patented in New York in 1867. 
 Globes have also been made of india rubber, to 
 be inflated for use ; others of thin card-paper, 
 made in sections, so as to be folded up and laid 
 away when not needed. Embossed globes show. 
 in exaggerated relief, the elevations and depres- 
 sions of the earth's surface. The hand hemi- 
 sphereglobe is very useful for elementary instruc- 
 tion ; it consists of two half-globes, or hemi- 
 spheres, connected by a hinge, each flat surface 
 containing a planisphere map of the correspond- 
 ing convex surface. This arrangement shows the 
 learner at once the relation of map to globe, also 
 why the lines on the map which represent the 
 circles must be curved. It is usually made so 
 small that it can be passed from hand to hand 
 while the teacher is explaining the lesson. The 
 wul> hfmisphere i/lul/e is designed to afford a 
 similar illustration. It is so constructed that the 
 two hemispheres can be hung up side by side, 
 against a wall, and contrasted with hemisphere 
 maps, suspended above. Globes without any 
 auxiliary appendages, such as stand, meridian, etc. 
 are often constructed so as to rest on brackets, 
 and thus form part of the esthetic decoration of 
 the school room, when not in use. Globes having 
 a black slate surface — slated globes — are very 
 useful for many kinds of instruction. In using 
 these globes, the pupil draws the circles — merid- 
 ians, equator, and parallels, and delineates the 
 countries, etc., with chalk, cither from a map or 
 from memory. The knowledge of geography 
 thus acquire 1 is more practical, and is more per- 
 manently based on the intelligent conceptions of 
 the pupil. These globes are of great use in the 
 
 study of advai I geography, as well as in that 
 
 of spherical geometry, trigonometry, navigation, 
 etc. Excellent globes, of every pattern and de- 
 scription, are made by Schedler, of New York, 
 who has invented a method of manufacture, 
 which renders them quite cheap and exceedingly 
 durable. They are also remarkable for the scien- 
 tific accuracy of their delineations. 
 
 The globe has many advantages over the map, 
 as an apparatus for teaching geography, because 
 (1) it represents the earth in it's natural form. 
 and shows clearly the relation of each and every 
 
 GOETHE 
 
 part of its surface to the whole ; hence, its use 
 should always precede that of the map ; (2) it 
 affords ii better means of explaining those points 
 and mathematical lines a clear conception of the 
 use of which forms the very groundwork of geo- 
 graphical science : (3) by means of it the teacher 
 can illustrate the earth's motions, the causes of 
 the seasons, day and night, etc.; and (4) many 
 useful problems may be solved by means of it, 
 as finding the longitude and latitude of places, 
 the difference of tune, the time of sunrise and 
 sunset, and the length of the day at particular 
 places, etc. Pupils in geography and astronomy 
 should be thoroughly practiced in the working 
 out of these problems on the globe, since they 
 not only gain thereby much useful information, 
 but acquire clear and durable conceptions of the 
 
 GOETHE, Johann Wolfgang von, an 
 
 illustrious German poet, clitic, and thinker, born 
 in Frankfort on the Main. Aug. 28.. 1749; died 
 in Weimar. March 22.. 1832. He was educated 
 at the universities of Leipsic and Strasburg, and, 
 in 1775, at the solicitation of the Grand Duke of 
 Saxe-Weimar, whose interest in him had been 
 aroused h\ his novel. Tltr .Sorrows if W'rriln'r. he 
 visited Weimar, which he afterwards made his 
 permanent residence. Philosophy, history, sci- 
 ence, art, almost every subject of inquiry, in fact, 
 claimed his attention, and led to frequent publica- 
 tions in the shape of novels, histories, plays, and 
 poems. It is to ( Joethe that botany owes one of its 
 fundamental conceptions, now generally admitted, 
 that the various parts of a flower are modified 
 leaves. With regard to education. Goethe's idea 
 was, that its great aim should be the development 
 and preservation of individuality. Every child is 
 different from every other, and has special powers 
 of its own: and the value of education consists in 
 maintaining and developing these individual 
 differences, and not in producing a dead level of 
 character, 'i he necessity of education lies in the 
 fact that the child is undeveloped: and educa- 
 tional efforts must all be based on the principle 
 that the germs of knowledge are in the soul. 
 I fence, all true development must be from within 
 outward. Education is not a pouring of knowl- 
 edge into the mind, as into an empty vessel, 
 but the development of faculties which are 
 already there, as the growth of a plant from the 
 seed. This development, too, must be general, in 
 all directions. To cultivate any one faculty at 
 the expense of others, produces monsters, not 
 men. Nothing was more repulsive to Goethe 
 than the mechanical, atheistic conception of the 
 world. He insisted upon finding an ever-present 
 Divinity in both nature and life. The recogni- 
 tion of this constitutes religion, and should be the 
 aim of all education. This feeling should be so 
 cultivated, that no circumstances can disturb in 
 us a conscious sense of the Divine. Religious teach- 
 ing should begin in the earliest childhood; not, 
 ho\\e\er. by means of the catechism, or any other 
 form of dogmatic instruction; but the child's 
 imagination must be made familiar with the 
 conception of a Divine Spirit underlying and 
 
(iOMtil! AI'll 
 
 COYKRNMF.NT 
 
 r,\i 
 
 interfusing every form of life, Ethics refer to i Ct., Aug. L9., 1793, and died in New York, 
 
 moral eon. Inn: iienee. etliieal culture must chiefly May 'J.. lS(i(l. 
 
 lie 
 
 consist m i 
 the bad is 
 moral as w 
 of morals 
 
 ig more especially of juv 
 11 is, books of trave 
 e works on the ar 
 books, especially 1 
 text-l ks in seho 
 
 Bible, familiarity with the history of the great 
 and good is the most important means of moral 
 ami religii ms culture. Instruction in the narrower 
 sense of imparting knowledge must be rather 
 synthetic than analytic. Building up teaches 
 more than tearing down. Classical study is 
 practically worthless so long as it is conducted 
 solely by grammar and dictionary. We must 
 work ourselves into the lite of classical times in 
 order to understand them. The study of Greek 
 
 their \va 
 
 he regarded as far superior, for tutoress in a family, to conduct the education of 
 
 literatu 
 
 purposes of culture, to Latin literature : becaus 
 the Greeks were far broader men. They s; 
 nature and life in all their aspects; while t 
 Romans saw only man : and him they regard 
 only as a warrior or a slave. ( roethe did nothi 
 for the systematic development of pedagog 
 His views in regard to teaching are scatter 
 through his works, and consist of hints ratli 
 than formulated rules. The great endeavor 
 his philosophy is to mediate between individu 
 ism and the stern necessities of society. — S 
 Schmidt. Geschichle der Padagogik. 
 
 GONIGRAPH ((Jr. yuvia, an angle, at 
 
 garten exercises and in object-teaching, to ilh 
 trate the nature and formation of angles ai 
 polygons. It consists of a series of 
 jointed slats of equal length, by the different 
 combinations of which, figures of various shapes 
 may be formed. The number of slats, or links. 
 varies from 3 to as many as 16, or even more. 
 As a piece of kindergarten apparatus (gift), the 
 gonigraph may be made the means of much 
 instructive entertainment to a young child, who 
 from its manipulation will acquire ideas of a 
 great variety of figures. In the more advanced 
 object-teaching, in connection with the subject 
 oiform, it will be found very useful, as well as 
 attractive. Gonigraphs are usually sold in sets 
 as a part of the apparatus necessary for kinder- 
 garten work, i 
 
 istoryofthe Animal King- 
 
 1. he was appointed Ended 
 
 GOVERNESS, or Governante (Fr. Gou- 
 'it''), a woman employed as a resident 
 
 children or young women. The employment of 
 
 sses began in the second half of' the 17th 
 when the French language and manners 
 to use among the upper classes of society 
 out Europe. When a young lady who 
 able to speak French fluently, and was 
 : conversant with Paris fashions, came to 
 d upon as lacking in refinement, it was 
 that mothers should be anxious to secure 
 ices of French teachers, especially I'aris- 
 ns. to give to their daughters the requisite 
 aining. The practice of employing governesses 
 ■came, in a short time, equally common in 
 ugland, Germany, and 
 ode of educating young 
 
 the 
 
 from Franc 
 
 ency of the 
 tion, had be 
 nesses cami 
 Switzerland 
 the sending 
 England an< 
 
 ■Ills 
 
 popular, 
 ly taken 
 social ascend- 
 if the revolu- 
 aative eover- 
 
 and Germany and 
 lete with France in 
 ten of education to 
 a livelihood in this 
 which female educa- 
 very considerably 
 
 influence of gover- 
 some extent, also in 
 
 in. r 
 
 ■du 
 lished for the purpose. In F: 
 
 inicn receive their 
 
 ligh schools estab- 
 
 itself, where ; 
 
 GONZAGA COLLEGE, at Washington, governess is usually called inslitutrice, the num- 
 D. C., was incorporated in 1858. It was for- ber of governesses has always been comparatively 
 merly known as the Washington Seminary. It smaller than in England, Germany, or Russia. In 
 is conducted by the Father, of the Sa ' 
 Jesus. The college is intended for days 
 
 only, irrespective of creed or 
 The entire course covers seve 
 
 • Society ot the I luted Mate.-, a larger proportion of young 
 lay scholars women than in any European country, finish their 
 
 i profession, education in female academics and high schools, 
 
 comprising and more recently in colleges to which both sexes 
 a preparatory and a collegiate department, with are admitted. Only in England has the employ- 
 a classical and a non-classical course of studv. incut of governesses, to anv considerable extent, 
 In 1875— fi. there were 5 instructors and 107 1 n maintained. Governesses are generally pro- 
 students. The library contains 1(1,000 volume,, fessional teachers who have received th 
 
 The cost of tuition is $10 per quarter in either tion in training scl Is; and in French - - 
 
 course. The Rev. Charles K. Jenkins, S. J., is land, there are special schools for the instruction 
 
 (187(>) the president. I of governesses. 
 
 GOODRICH, Samuel Griswold, better I GOVERNMENT, School, like the govern- 
 
 known as Peter Parley, was born in Ridgefield, ment of a state, must be based upon the estab- 
 
374 
 
 GOYKRXMKXT 
 
 lishment of authority (q. v.), which includes not 
 only the right to make laws, but the power, as 
 well as the right, to execute them. These powers, 
 in every civilized state and community, are dis- 
 tributed among different persons, so as to pre- 
 vent centralized authority leading to despotism ; 
 but. in the little community of the school 
 they must, to a greater or less extent.be 
 by one person. Genera] rules for the manage 
 ment of a school, it is true, may be prescribed by 
 the school officers to whom the teacher is ame- 
 nable ; but the actual government of the school, 
 that which converts it from a chaotic, disorder- 
 ly crowd of children into a regular organization, 
 under control and discipline, must be exclusively 
 the work of the teacher, hence called the school- 
 mrisler. Formerly, the powers of a school-master 
 were much less limited than they are at present ; 
 indeed, they were almost absolute, the law, as in 
 the case of parental government, only stepping 
 in to protect the child from injury to life or 
 limb. At the present time, the teacher's author- 
 ity is carefully hedged around not only by the 
 law, but by the rules of school boards and super- 
 intendents, so that the complaint is sometimes 
 made by the teacher that he has scarcely enough 
 authority left to enable linn to govern his school. 
 The policy of circumscribing the authority of 
 the teacher to so great an extent is an unwise 
 one, and endangers not only the efficiency of the 
 school as an organization, but destroys its effi- 
 cacy as an instrument of education. Besides, 
 it implies that the teacher is unfit to exercise 
 authority, either by lack of competency or of 
 conscientiousness, which is equivalent to pro- 
 nouncing him unfit to be a teacher at all. 
 
 The character of the school government de- 
 pends upon the manner as well as the degree in 
 which the teacher's authority is established ; anil 
 the influence of the school upon the intellectual 
 and moral character of its pupils will depend 
 upon the kind of government maintained. No 
 school can be efficient without order (q. v.), and 
 order can only result from judicious anil effective 
 government. The latter must, in all cases.depend 
 upon (1) the rules or requirements laid down, 
 and (2) the manner in which they are enforced. 
 Government is often impaired by unwise legis- 
 lation — unwise in the kind of laws enacted, or in 
 their number. The rules made for the govern- 
 ment of a school should be as few and as simple 
 as possible. A multiplicity of set regulations 
 confuses the pupils, and tends to multiply 
 offenses. Besides, the children, by the habit of 
 complying with a kind of written law, are apt 
 to think every thing right that is not specifically 
 forbidden, and thus fail to exercise their con- 
 science ; that is, in their attention to the mala 
 prohibila, they lose sight of the mala per se. 
 " If a school," says I). 1'. Page, " is to be governed 
 by a code of laws, the pupils will act upon the 
 principle that whatever is not proscribed is 
 admissible. Consequently, without inquiring 
 whether an act is right, their only inquiry will 
 be, is it forbidden ? Xow, no teacher was ever 
 yet so wise as to make laws for every case ; the 
 
 consequence is, he is daily perplexed with un- 
 foreseen troubles, or with some ingenious evasions 
 of his inflexible code, in all this matter, the 
 worst feature is the fact that the child judges 
 of his acts by the law of the teacher rather than 
 by the law of his conscience, and is thus in 
 danger of perverting and blunting the moral 
 sense.'' Government by positive enactments is, 
 therefore, to be dispensed with as much as 
 possible ; but such rules as are made should be 
 strictly and uniformly enforced. These rules con- 
 stitute what may be called school legislation, 
 and are not to be confounded with requirements 
 of a less formal character, which the pupil's own 
 intelligence and sense of right are to be trained 
 to recognize without particular enunciation, nor 
 with those moral precepts which are addressed 
 rather to the pupil as an individual, and there- 
 fore do not directly concern the organization of 
 the school. We here treat of school govern- 
 ment in the strict sense of the term. In the 
 enforcement of school legislation, however, we 
 are to keep in view the good of the pupil as 
 well as the good of the school, but primarily 
 the latter, 'i he principle is this : The school 
 is an organization designed to be the means 
 of affording an education to a large number 
 of pupils, and the school laws are made to 
 protect that organization, and render it effective 
 in the carrying out of its proper object ; hence, 
 the welfare of the school must be paramount 
 to that of any individual pupil. The violation 
 of a rule may, indeed, be sometimes overlooked 
 without injury to the offender, perhaps to his 
 benefit; but. as such a course tends to weaken 
 or destroy the school government, the law must 
 
 be uniformly enfoi d, No enforcement of law 
 
 cau be accomplished without the punishment of 
 the offender ; hence, the kind of school punish- 
 ments that are suitable under the various cir- 
 cumstances that arise becomes a matter for the 
 careful consideration of the teacher. Whether 
 in enforcing obedience to wholesome regulations, 
 corporal punishment should be resorted to, and, 
 if so. to what extent and in what manner, forms 
 also an important part of the general discussion 
 of school government. (See Corporal Punish- 
 ment.) But there must be prevention as well as 
 correction — rewards, as incentives to obedience 
 and good conduct, as well as punishments to 
 chastise the wrong-doer, and deter others from 
 wrong-doing. A system of rewards has a very 
 important bearing upon school government wheu 
 they are dispensed with uniformity and equity. 
 Under this head are included merit marks, certif- 
 icates and diplomas of proficiency and good con- 
 duct. and prizes. Man\ questions arise in connec- 
 tion with the administration ot school government 
 in this respect. (See I'im/i - i 'I he general efficacy 
 and propriety of rewards cannot be doubted. 
 They appeal to a principle of human nature uni- 
 versally operative. •■Whatever," says Jewell, 'may 
 be possible in the mature man, in the line of that 
 sublime abstraction, 'Virtue is its own reward,' 
 the child is neither equal to such abstractions, 
 nor are they demanded of him." (See Rewards.) 
 
GOVERNMENT 
 
 The efficacy of school government must depend 
 very much on the manner in which the teacher 
 exercises the authority conferred upon him in 
 virtue of his office. If he bases it upon force, if 
 the language he addresses to his pupils he uni- 
 formly that of command, threatening, or angry 
 rebuke, there will be engendered in their minds a 
 feeling of antagonism, from which will result 
 disobedience, and occasionally open rebellion. On 
 the other hand, if he is kind and considerate, 
 but at the same time firm and resolute, he will 
 gain first the respect of his pupils and then 
 their affection. When that is accomplished, the 
 government of his school will be quite easy. (See 
 Authority.) The following are wise suggestions 
 in regard to the proper course of the teacher in 
 obtaining and preserving the control of his 
 school: "(1) Endeavor to convince your scholars 
 that you are their friend, — that you aim at their 
 improvement, and desire their goo 1. It will not 
 take long to satisfy them of this, if you are so in 
 reality. (2) Never give a command which you 
 are not resolved to see obeyed. (3) Try to 
 create throughout the school a popular senti- 
 ment in favor of order and virtue. It is next to 
 impossible to carry into effect, for any length of 
 time, a regulation, however important, which is 
 opposed to public opinion." Fellenberg strongly 
 insists upon this as the most efficient meansdf 
 school government. " The pupil," he says, " can 
 seldom resist the force of truth when he finds 
 himself condemned by the common voice of 
 his companions, and is often more humbled by 
 censure from his equals, than by any of the ad- 
 monitions of his superiors." To the above im- 
 portant injunctions for the teacher should be 
 added the following: Observe in your conduct 
 toward your pupils a strict impartiality. Chil- 
 dren are keen observers, and at once detect the 
 slightest indications of favoritism ; and nothing 
 more effectually than this destroys their respect 
 for the teacher, and undermines' his authority. 
 Tact and self-control will enable the teacher to 
 dispense, to a very great extent, with any decided 
 demonstration of authority. " There is," says 
 Page, " such a thing as keeping a school too still 
 by over-government. A man of firm nerve can, 
 by keeping up a constant constraint both in him- 
 self and pupils, force a death-like silence upon his 
 school. You can hear a pin drop at any time, 
 and the figure of every child is as if moulded 
 in cast-iron. But be it remembered, this is the 
 stillness of constraint, not the stillness of activity. 
 There should be silence in school, a serene 
 and soothing quiet ; but it should, if possible, 
 be the quiet of cheerfulness and agreeable devo- 
 tion to study, rather than the 'palsy of fear.'" 
 (See Fear.) One of the most important means 
 of effective school government is to keep the pu- 
 pils constantly busy, to awaken in their minds 
 an interest in their studies, to vary the exercises 
 so as to prevent tedious monotony, to have spe- 
 cial methods of relief, after their minds have be- 
 come wearied by close attention. For this pur- 
 pose, in primary schools, in which very young 
 children are taught, movement exercises of a 
 
 GRADED SCHOOLS 
 
 375 
 
 simple character may be resorted to ; and. in all 
 schools, vocal music, which always exerts the 
 most pleasing and satisfactory influence. Calis- 
 thenics and gymnastics may be employed with 
 good effect. In short, if the school is conducted 
 ni such a way as to recognize the peculiar nature, 
 disposition, and wants of children, 
 
 •ol 
 
 NY. 
 
 Theory and Practice 
 
 WlCKEKSH IM. School 
 
 Economy (Phila., 1864)'; Dunn, The School 
 Teacher's Manual (Hartford, ls:{!») : Northend, 
 The Teacher's Assistant (Boston, 1859); Mor- 
 rison, Manual of School Management (London); 
 Le Vaix. The Science and Art ttf Teaching 
 (Toronto, 1875). 
 
 GRADE (Cat. gradus, a step), the relative 
 
 standing of scl Is. classes, or pupils, in a system 
 
 of education. Thus education, or instruction, is 
 designated, according to its grade, primary or 
 elementary, secondary, and superior or higher. 
 A course of study is divided into grades for 
 convenience in classification, all the pupils in 
 each class being supposed to be nearly of the 
 same degree of proficiency. The number of 
 grades into which a course of study shoidd be 
 divided is dictated by considerations of expedi- 
 ency and convenience. The grades, however. 
 should be arranged so as to assign proper pro- 
 portions of work for the several portions of tune 
 into which the school year, or the period of the 
 entire curriculum, is divided. The arrangement 
 of grades is also beneficial iii definitely marking 
 the progress of the pupil, and thus affording him 
 encouragement to proceed by regular promotion 
 from grade to grade. (See ( !l, IBS.) 
 
 GRADED SCHOOLS are usually defined 
 as schools in which the pupils are classified 
 according to their progress in scholarship as 
 compared with a course of study divided into 
 grades, pupils of the same or a similar degree of 
 proficiency being placed in the same class. An 
 ungraded school, on the other hand, is one in 
 which the pupils are taught, individually, each 
 one being advanced as far, and as fast, as circum- 
 stances permit, without regard to the progress of 
 other pupils. The grcnicd si/strm is thus based 
 upon classification ; and its efficacy as a system 
 must depend very greatly upon the accuracy 
 with which the classification has been made. 
 Grades, however, are not to be confounded with 
 classes; the former are divisions of the course of 
 study based upon various considerations, the 
 latter are divisions of the school based upon uni- 
 formity of attainments. In a small school, the 
 same number of grades may be needed as in a 
 large school, the course of study being the same, 
 and the promotions being made with equal fre- 
 quency ; hence, as the number of classes must 
 be smaller, it will be necessary that each class 
 should pursue two or more grades simultaneous- 
 ly or in succession ; that is to say, the promo- 
 tions from grade to grade will be more frequent 
 than from class to class. On the other hand, in 
 a large school, the number of classes may bo 
 
3T(J: 
 
 IRADKD SCHOOLS 
 
 greater than that of the grades, which will ne- 
 cessitate the forming of two or more classes, un- 
 der separate teachers, in the same grade. In the 
 management of a large school, this will lie found 
 to be better than a subdivision of the grades, re- 
 quiring either an extension of the time for com- 
 pleting the course, or greater frequency in the 
 promotions. In the small district schools of the 
 United States, the ungraded system prevails, be- 
 cause each school is taught by a single teacher. 
 and sometimes there is a want of uniformity in 
 text-books ; but in the cities the graded system 
 prevails. The advantages of the graded system 
 have been thus enumerated : (1) They economize 
 the labor of instruction ; (2) They reduce the 
 cost of instruction, since a smaller number of 
 teachers are required for effective work in a clas- 
 sified or graded school ; (3) They make the in- 
 struction more effective, inasmuch as the teacher 
 can more readily heir the lessens of an entire 
 class than of the pupils separately, and thus there 
 will be better opportunity for actual teaching, 
 explanation, drill, etc.; (4) They facilitate good 
 government and discipline, because all the pu- 
 pils are kept constantly under the direct con- 
 trol and instruction of the teacher, and, besides, 
 are kept constantly busy ; (a) They afford & 
 better means of inciting pupils to industry, by 
 promoting their ambition to excel, inasmuch as 
 there is a constant coni]>etition among the pu- 
 pils of a class, which cannot exist when the pu- 
 pils are instructed separately. On the other 
 hand, many objections have been urged against 
 the system of graded schools, chief among which 
 is. that tin' interests of the individual pupil are 
 
 often sacrificed to those of the many, the indi- 
 
 anism, ' says E. E. White, in Problems in Graded 
 Sehool Management, a paper read before the 
 National Kdueational Association, Aug. 4., 1874, 
 "it [the graded system] demands that pupils of 
 the same grade attend school with regularity, 
 and that they possess equal attainments, equal 
 
 ance and opportunity, and that they be instructed 
 by teachers possessing equal ability and skill. 
 But this uniformity does not exist. Teachers 
 possess unequal skill and power. Pupils do not 
 enter school at the same age; some attend only 
 a portion of each year ; others attend irregularly; 
 and the members of the same class possess un- 
 equal ability, and have unequal assistance and 
 opportunity. This want of uniformity in con- 
 ditions makes the mechanical operation of the 
 system imperfect, and hence, its tendency is to 
 force uniformity, thus sacrificing its true function 
 as a means of education to its perfect action ;us a 
 mechanism." There is no doubt that this diffi- 
 culty is inherent in the system, and that no ad- 
 ministration, however excellent. can wholly elim- 
 inate it. Various methods of procedure have. 
 
 however,l n suggested to dimmish its injurious 
 
 effects. That proposed by Superintendenl W". 
 T. Harris, of St. Louis, and carried out in the 
 public schools of that city is frequent discrimi- 
 native promotions. The following are the points 
 
 on which the system is based: (1) The different 
 rate of progress iu study on the part of pupils 
 of the same class, due to a difference in age, 
 capacity, regularity of attendance, and op- 
 portunity; and (2) The continual diminution 
 of the size of classes, particularly of the higher 
 grades. " Provision," he says, " must be made 
 for this difference in rates of progress by fre- 
 quent reclassification; otherwise the school will 
 become a lifeless machine." This arrangement, 
 however, was a reaction against the system of 
 annual promotions, which necessarily require 
 wide grades and unfrequent changes in clas- 
 sification. The other extreme, according to the 
 views of many educators experienced in school 
 management and supervision, was approached 
 in the recommendation by Superintendent Har- 
 ris to require promotions as often as every ten 
 weeks, and, besides that, to permit pupils " to 
 move forward as fast as their abilities might 
 permit.'' The objections to incidental discrim- 
 inative promotion are the following : (1) It en- 
 courages precocity in the pupils; (2) It pro- 
 duces a tendency in the teacher to give an 
 exclusive attention to the bright, intelligent 
 pupils to the neglect of the dull ones, because 
 in this way promotions are secured, which re- 
 dound to the teachers credit; (3) It deprives the 
 pupils thus promoted out of the regular course, 
 of the means of properly pursuing certain grades. 
 or parts of grades, inasmuch as. if placed from a 
 lower grade into a class of pupils already ad- 
 vanced in the next higher one, they must take 
 up the studies of that grade at the advanced 
 point, without acquaintance with the preceding 
 part of the grade, thus contusing tin-classification 
 and embarrassing the teacher. Semi annual pro- 
 motions seem to be approved by the majority of 
 educators, with such an adjustment of the num- 
 ber of the grades of the course of study and the 
 requirements of each, as will enable pupils of an 
 average capacity to complete the amount of 
 study prescribed in the half year. There is an- 
 other danger connected with the graded-school 
 system, as sometimes administered, to which al- 
 lusion is often made. It /<,;sri-if,rs too much, 
 le scope for the ex- 
 Igment. and intel- 
 :," says Mr. White, 
 ■oinplish the same 
 week by week. Nothing 
 
 leaving to the tern 1 
 ercise of indn idut 
 
 ligenee. "It is no' 
 
 •■ that the several t 
 result day by day, 
 
 is more ridiculous than the attempt to parcel 
 out primary instruction, and tie it up in daily 
 or weekly prescriptions, like a doctor's doses. 
 This week the class is to take certain facts in 
 geography; to count by twos to fifty (to sixty 
 would be a fearful sin!); to draw the vertical 
 lines of a cube ; to learn to respect the aged, 
 etc.!" This, however, with many other ohjections. 
 which are urged against the system of graded 
 schools, is only a fault in administration. A 
 
 this, ably seconded by well-trained and expe 
 rienced teachers, it will approximate to individ 
 nil teaching, and, in the powerful and whole 
 
 
GRADUATE 
 
 some stimulus which it constantly applies to the 
 pupil, prove much more effective. 
 
 Graded schools are far more numerous in the 
 Gnited States than in England, or in most of 
 the countries of continental Europe. The system 
 is, however, beginning to be introdu I. "The plan 
 
 ,,f t . -.-i. 1 . 1 1 . ■ ■ ■•la-os or -tale, in separate school- 
 
 Loih 
 
 I believe, and has given great satis- 
 faction." So essential has it been considered in 
 the United States to the efficiency of a school 
 that it shoidd be graded, that no" aid is given 
 from the Peabody Fund except to graded 
 schools.— See Wells, The Graded School (New 
 York, 1862); Wickersham, School Economy 
 (Phil., L868); Kiddle, etc, Howio Teach{H.Y., 
 1874). (See also Cuss, and Grade.) 
 
 GRADUATE (Lat. graduare, 6 i gradus, 
 
 a step or degree), to confer an academic degree, 
 thus advancing to a higher rank in scholarship: 
 also, to receive a degree from a college or uni- 
 versity. A person is said to graduate when he 
 takes a degree, and the college or university is 
 said to graduate a student when it admits him 
 
 ferring a degree. The person who thus takes a 
 degree, is called a. i/rniliiii/". (See Degrees.) 
 
 GRAEFE, Heiurich, a German educa- 
 tor, horn March 3., 1802 ; died July 22..1860. 
 He was successively rector of the real school 
 and professor at the university of Jena, rector 
 of the burgher school in ('assel. principal of an 
 educational institution at Geneva, and director 
 of the industrial school at Bremen. He was 
 also an influential writer up in educational topics. 
 His discussions of the metho Is of < Jerman public- 
 school instruction are his most important pro- 
 ductions. His general theory of education is 
 similar to that of Graser. Like him. he was 
 strongly opposed to merely general culture, be- 
 cause the idea of education is not only to develop 
 the faculties, but to tit one for the duties of 
 life. The true end of man, according to Graefe, 
 
 of education is to bring the individual into active 
 
 ourselves, but to do the will of God by filling 
 the place in society which belongs to us. this is 
 the end of our being. Graefe made very 
 valuable suggestions for the modification of 
 public-school instruction in the direction of 
 securing a more natural arrangement of study, 
 and better physical culture. — See Schmidt, Ge- 
 sckickte der Padagogik, vol. iv. 
 
 GRAHAM, Isabella, celebrated for her ef- 
 forts for the relief and education of the poor, and 
 in behalf of other philanthropic objects, was born 
 in Lanarkshire. Scotland, in 1742, and died in 
 New York, in 1814. She was the wife of Dr. 
 John Graham, an army surgeon, after whose 
 death, in the West Indies, in 1 77 1. she taught 
 school in Paisley and in Edinburgh. In I 789, she 
 came to New York, and opened a seminary for 
 young ladies. Her active, benevolent disposition 
 
 GRAMMAR :J77 
 
 had shown itself in her native country ill the 
 format ion of the Penny Society, mm the Society 
 for the Relief of Destitute Sick. In \,u York. 
 mainly through her efforts, were established 
 the Society foi the Relief of Poor \\ idows, the 
 Orphan Asylum Society, the Society for Pro- 
 moting industry among the Poor, and a Sunday 
 School for ignorant 'Adults, the first of it's 
 
 kind in the United States. Her benevolent 
 
 enterprise were very extensive. Her memoirs 
 were published by Dr. Mason (1816), and her 
 correspondence, by her daughter, Mrs. Bethune, 
 mother of G. W. Bethune, D. D. (1838). 
 
 GRAMMAR (Gr. ypd/jpa, that which is 
 graven or written, a written character, a letter) 
 means, in the widest sense of the word, the science 
 of language in general, and specially an exposi- 
 tion of the organism of language and the laws 
 of its structure. The first scientific investigations 
 in language are met with in the writings of the 
 Creek philosophers: thev are. however, not of a 
 
 nki 
 
 in of 
 
 language. ■bucn sp< i uJat s are tound in Plato, 
 
 Aristotle, and the Stoics The first attempt to 
 construct a grammar, in the present sense of the 
 word, was made in the second century, I!. ('.. at 
 Alexandria. The Greek grammarians, at that 
 tim 
 
 ,'IIH 
 
 e, expl 
 an.'ily. 
 
 ined the works of the classic authors, 
 ■xplanations embraced the definition 
 
 Tt.'.'-ix"/.!..",. : .I'.'hx'.'i"" .-xl-l'.i aliLnV-f 
 
 logv.a 
 lained 
 hors. , 
 
 v mad. 
 
 ■ of the classics, definitions, etymology, 
 d criticism. The Roman grammarians 
 the work, both ot Latin and Greek 
 lying special attention to theexpla- 
 archaic and obscure expressions; but 
 no real progress in the development 
 
 thorns 
 •ks of 
 val of 
 
 ■Ives with teaeliu,.. latin troni the 
 he later Roman grammarians. r l he 
 •lassieal studies and the Reformation, 
 ■enth century, led to a more thorough 
 
 ed the 
 
 views of era una,,, l,v adding the 
 
 Latin and Greek. Several I atin, Greek, and He- 
 brew grammars were published, and a beginning 
 was made in the preparation of grammatical 
 works on some of the modern languages. The 
 first attempts at general and comparative gram- 
 mars were made in the 17th century. A new 
 impulse was given to grammatical studies, after 
 the Sanskrit language and literature had become 
 more generally known among philologists. A 
 solid basis for comparative grammar was laid 
 
 languages : and. in the great work of his life, the 
 
 i ' parativeGrai ar of Sanskrit. Zend, < Ireek, 
 
 Latin, Lithuanian, Old Slavic. (Jothic, and Ger- 
 
378 
 
 GRAMMAR 
 
 man (Verqleichende Grammatik. 5 vols., 1833 
 —52; 3d ed., 1868—71 ; translated into English 
 and French) traced back the Indo-European lan- 
 guages to their origin, and pointed out their pres- 
 ent relations to each other. The idea of a historical 
 grammar was fully developed by Grimm in his 
 German Grammar | Deutsche Grammatik, 4 vols., 
 1819—37), which traces the history of all gram- 
 matical forms in the Germanic dialects through 
 the different periods of the language. Other mas- 
 ter-works in the literature of comparative gram- 
 mars are those by Diez on the Romanic languages 
 (Vergleichende Grammatik der romanischen 
 Sprachen, 3 vols., 1836 — 12), by Miklosich on 
 the Slavic languages ( Vergleichende Grammatik 
 der slavischen Sprachen, 1852 — 71), and by 
 Schleicher, on the Indo-Germanie languages 
 (Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik, 
 3d ed., 1871). Comparative grammars on Indo- 
 European Languages by English authors are : 
 Clark, Student's Handbook of Comparative 
 Grammar, applied to the Sanskrit, Zend, Greek, 
 Latin, Gothic, Anglo-Saxon, and English Lan- 
 guages (London, 1862) ; Ferrar, Grammar of 
 Sanskrit, Greek, and Latin (vol. I., Land., 1869); 
 IIelfenstein, .4 Comparative Grammar of the 
 Teutonic Languages (London, 1870); Beames, 
 Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan 
 Languages of India: Hindi, Panjabi, Sindhi, 
 Gujarati, Marathi, Urija, and Bengali. But 
 few comparative grammars have as yet been 
 written on other than Indo-European languages. 
 The more important of them are : Bleek, 
 A Comparative Grammar of the South African 
 Languages (vol. I., London, 1869) ; Caldwell, 
 Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Lan- 
 guages (London, 1861); Pimektel, Cuadro de- 
 scriplivoycomparaHvode la, lenguas indige- 
 nas ile Mexico— Descriptive and comparative 
 table of the native languages of Mexico (Mexico, 
 1874); and Epstein, Cuadro sinopiico de las 
 lenguas indigenas de Mexico (Mexico, 1874). 
 The most important work on the philosophy 
 of language is still the classic work by 
 Wilhelm von Humboldt, Uelier die Verschie- 
 denheit des menschlic/ien Spraehbaues (1836), 
 which originally appeared as an introduction 
 to his work on the Kavi language. Among 
 other important works for the study of gen- 
 eral grammar, are : Heyse, System der Sprach- 
 wissenschoft (Berlin, 1856), and Steinthal, 
 C'haracterislik </er l/aiiptsdi-hlichslen Ti/pen des 
 Spraehbaues (2d edit., I860) ; also, for "an excel- 
 lent and familiar exposition of linguistic science 
 and history, Max Mueller, Lectures on the 
 Science of Language (2 vols., Ijondon, 1861 — 4); 
 and Whitney, The Life and Growth of Lan- 
 guage (New York 1876). — The study of gram- 
 mar now constitutes, in every civilized country, 
 an essential part of the learning of languages, 
 both the vernacular and foreign. Opinions, 
 however, still widely differ as to the place 
 which grammar should occupy in the study of 
 language, the method by which it should lie 
 taught, the point of time at which it should be 
 begun, and the amount of time which should 
 
 be devoted to it. There is at present a more 
 general agreement among educators than at any 
 previous time, that not only is a grammatical 
 knowledge necessary for a good command of any 
 language, but that thorough training in the rules of 
 grammar is one of the best means to develop the 
 faculties of the mind, and is especially calculated 
 to promote correct and logical thinking. (See 
 Grammar, English ; English, Study op ; Clas- 
 sical Studies; Modern Languages; and the spe- 
 cial articles on Greek, Latin, Hebrew, French, 
 German, etc.) 
 
 GRAMMAR, English, has for its special 
 function, an exposition of the specific organism 
 and the structural peculiarities of the English 
 language. There are certain relations existing 
 between thought and language which must un- 
 derlie every form of human speech; these consti- 
 tute the basis of general grammar. Every lan- 
 guage has its peculiarities of (1) literal represen- 
 tation and combination (letters and words — 
 orthography), (2) inflectional forms (etymology), 
 (3) sentential structure (syntax), and (4) vocal 
 utterance (prosody). These peculiarities it is the 
 office of specific grammar to explain, so that they 
 may not only hi grasped by the understanding but 
 worked into the habitual use of the language, in 
 speaking and writing. English grammar has 
 been defined as " the art of speaking and writing 
 the English language correctly;" and as an art, 
 doubtless, this states correctly its practical ob- 
 ject, for it can have no other. This was the view 
 taken by the early grammarians. "The principal 
 design of a grammar of any language," says 
 Bishop Lowth, " is to teach us to express our- 
 selves with propriety in that language ; and to 
 enable us to judge of every phrase and form of 
 construction, whether it be right or not." Those 
 who teach grammar, as well as those who com- 
 pile grammatical text-books, should constantly 
 keep this practical aim in view, eliminating from 
 their systems of instruction every thing that 
 does not directly bear upon it. " To explain." 
 says Mulligan (Grammatical Structure of the 
 English Language, N.Y., 1852), "the laws of 
 artificial language is the particular province of 
 him who proposes to teach the science of gram- 
 mar ; to guide to the proper use of the signs of 
 artificial language, and to the correct interpreta- 
 tion of the thoughts of others embodied in lan- 
 guage, so far as this can be effected by reference 
 to the laws and usages of language, is the prov- 
 ince of him who proposes to teach grammar as 
 an art." 1 'roccsses of analysis and rules of syntax 
 are entirely useless, except so far as they contrib- 
 ute to this end. Viewed from this stand-point, 
 very much of the machinery of English grammar, 
 so called, as taught in schools, is of no practical 
 value to the pupil, but, on the contrary, serves to 
 waste his time and intellectual energies. This 
 has arisen from the application of a traditional 
 nomenclature and system of definitions and 
 rules to the English language, which belonged to 
 the Latin. "The manuals, by which grammar 
 was first taught in English," says Goold Brown, 
 were not properlj English grammars. They were 
 
GRAMMAR 
 
 3(9 
 
 translations of the Latin accidence ; and were 
 designed to aid British youth in acquiring a 
 knowledge of the Latin language, rather than 
 accuracy in the use of their own. The two lan- 
 guages were often combined in one book, for the 
 purpose of teaching sometimes both together, 
 and sometimes one through the medium of the 
 other." Richard < Jrant White, in Words and iheir 
 Uses (N. Y., 1870), also says, in this connection, 
 "It was not until English had cast itself firmly 
 and sharply into its present simple mould that 
 scholars undertook to furnish it with a grammar, 
 the nomenclature and the rules of which they 
 took from a language — the Latin — with which 
 it had no formal likeness, and by the laws of 
 which it could not be bound, except so far as 
 they were the universal laws of thought." This 
 circumstance, it has been frequently asserted, 
 has led to a complexity in English grammar 
 which is not found in the language itself ; and 
 hence also it has been claimed that the practical 
 results of teaching English grammar can be 
 reached by a much shorter and more effective 
 process. Without doubt, according to the modes 
 of instruction long prevalent, too much time has 
 been given to impressing upon the memory mere 
 theory, — technical definitions and rules, without 
 a corresponding amount of practice in the actual 
 use of language. This also has been traditional, 
 emanating from the practice of teaching Latin. 
 The more recent methods adopted by practical 
 teachers, as well as embodied in text-books, have 
 introduced considerable reform in this respect. 
 (See English, the Study of.) 
 
 The first attempt at an English grammar was 
 Paul's Accidence, an English introduction to 
 Lily's Latin grammar, written by I >r. .lohu • 'ulet. 
 ■dean of St. Paul's, for the use of the school 
 founded by him, and dedicated to William Lily 
 (q. v.'|, the first high master of that school ( 1 51(l|. 
 Lily's grammar was the exclusive grammatical 
 standard in England for more than 1100 years, hav- 
 ing received the sanction of royal authority ; but 
 the first book exclusively treating of English 
 grammar was that of William Bullokar (A Bref 
 Grammar for English, Ixmdon, 1586). This 
 was followed by John Stockwood's English Ac- 
 cidence (4to, London, 1590). During the next 
 •century, several works of the kind appeared, 
 among which may be mentioned, Ben Jonson's 
 English Grammar for the benefit of all strangers, 
 out of his observation of the English Language, 
 now spoiken and in use (London, 1034); 
 (Jharles Butler's English Grammar (4to, Ox- 
 ford, 1633), which we find quoted by Dr. John- 
 son in the Introduction to his Dictionary ; and 
 the Rev. Alex. Gill's English grammar written 
 in Latin (Logonomia Anglieu Grammatiealis, 
 London, 1619 — 21); also an English grammar 
 written in Latin for the use of foreigners, by Rev. 
 John Wallis, D. D. (London, 1653). from which, 
 it is said. Johnson and Lowth borrowed most of 
 their rules. The Treatise of English Particles 
 (1684), by William Walker, the preceptor of Sir 
 Isaac Newton, was a work of great learning and 
 merit. This was also written in Latin, 
 
 these, there were several others of lesser note. 
 1 luring the 18th century, many grammars ap- 
 peared previous to the more noted ones of Lowth 
 and Murray. The latter enumerates, as the 
 authors to whom he was ehietlv indebted in the 
 compilation of his work, Harris, Johnson, Lowth, 
 Priestley, Beattie, Sheridan, Walker, and Coote. 
 Many of these writers appreciated the grammat- 
 ical simplicity of the English language, and to 
 some extent adapted their grammars to it. Bish- 
 op Lowth remarked in his preface, "the con- 
 struction of this language is so easy and obvious, 
 that our grammarians have thought it hardly 
 worth while to give us any thing like a regular 
 and systematic syntax. The English grammar, 
 which hath been late presented to the public, and 
 by the person [Dr. Johnson] best qualified to 
 have given us a perfect one. comprises the whole 
 syntax in ten lines, — for this reason : ' because 
 our language has so little inflection, that its con- 
 struction neither requires nor admits many rules.'" 
 Brightland's Grammar of the English Tongue, 
 with the Arts of Logick, Rhetorick, Poetry, etc. 
 (London, 1711), was a valuable and celebrated 
 work, said to have been composed by some of the 
 most prominent literary men of Queen Anne's 
 reign. It was not, however, extensively adopted. 
 Bishop Lowth'a Short Introduction to English 
 Grammar was published in 1758. "It was cal- 
 culated," he states in his preface, "for the use of 
 the learner, even of the lowest class"; and for 
 fuller information he refers to the Hermes [A 
 Philosophical Inquiry concerning Language and 
 Universal Grammar, 1751 1 of dames Harris, 
 which he styles " the most beautiful and perfect 
 example of analv.-is. that has I n exhibited since 
 
 the days of Aristotle." 'I he learned Dr. Priest- 
 ley's Rut linn nts of Eng ish Grammar (London, 
 L762) was designed only as a brief introduction 
 to the subject; indeed, he considered that the 
 forms and usages of the language were not 
 sufficiently settled and uniform to admit of a 
 complete grammar of the language. Lindley 
 Murray published his first Grammar in 1795 
 (English Grammar, York), soon followed by 
 various other auxiliary works, all of which, al- 
 most immediately, secured an introduction into 
 schools. Of the Abridgment (12mo, 1797), very 
 many editions have been issued, both in England 
 and the United States. The annual side of the 
 book in England has been estimated at 50,000 
 copies. The most valuable part of the materials 
 of which this work is composed, was taken from 
 Lowth, as well a.s its general plan. Dr. Cheever 
 (in Y. Amer. Rev., xxxi., 377) calls it "an en- 
 larged copy of Lowth." and says of the latter. 
 " Although Lowth's treatise was written so early 
 as the year 1758, yet we doubt whether there is 
 at the present day a single work of equal excel- 
 lence in the same compass." Murray also copied 
 extensively from Priestley; "with several of the 
 best English Grammars published previously to 
 his own," says Goold Brown, "he appears to have 
 been totally unacquainted." This laborious writer 
 who, in his Grammar of English Crammars 
 (New York, 1851), so mercilessly reviews and 
 
GRAMMAR 
 
 criticises the works of his predecessors and con- 
 temporaries in grammatical authorship, exposes 
 and condemns with unmeasured severity the 
 plagiarism and defects of Murray's grammar. 
 "There is no part of the volume," he says, "more 
 accurate than that which lie literally copied 
 from Lowth. To the Short Introduction alone, 
 he was indebted for more than a hundred and 
 twenty paragraphs; and even in these there are 
 many things obviously erroneous. Many of the 
 best practical notes were taken from Priestley, 
 etc." (Gram, of Eng. Gram., ch. tit.) And, in 
 the same critical inactive, he pronounces the 
 following wholesale condemnation :" It might 
 easily be shown that almost every rule laid down 
 in the book for the observance of the learner, 
 was repeatedly violated by the hand of the mas- 
 ter. Nor is there among all who have since 
 abridged or modified the work an abler gramma- 
 rian than he who compiled it." But whatever 
 the merits or demerits of .Murray's grammar, and 
 whatever may be the source of its materials, it 
 doubtless owed its extraordinary success as a 
 school book to its practical adaptation to the 
 purposes of school instruction, and to the demand 
 which previous publications had created for such 
 a work. Since its publication, the number of 
 English grammars published is "legion." among 
 which those of Goold Brown may, without doubt, 
 claim precedence for popularity and extensive- 
 ness of sale in the United States. This author 
 laid down a canon in regard to grammatical 
 authorship which, while it is perhaps alleging too 
 much to say that he has strictly obeyed it', it is to 
 be wished, might receive a more general atten- 
 tion: "He who makes a new grammar does 
 nothing for the advancement of learning, unless 
 his performance excel all earlier ones designed 
 for the same purpose ; and nothing for his own 
 honor, unless such excellence result from the 
 
 exerc E his own ingenuity and taste." The 
 
 earliest of Brown's grammars was Tlie Institutes 
 of English Grammar (New York. 1823, revised 
 ed„ 1854), which was full. .wed, the same year, 
 by The Fir*/ Lines of I-;,,,,!,*!, Grammar, an 
 abridgment of the former. These books have 
 
 hail an ii aise circulation, and are still (18761 
 
 very extensively used in all parts of the United 
 States. The Grammar of English Grammars, 
 the most comprehensive work on the subject yet 
 published, was completed in 1851. Maiiy other 
 textbooks upon English grammar, of great merit, 
 have been published both in England and this 
 country, for the titles of which, see English, the 
 Study of, and Text-Books. 
 
 The methods of instruction embodied in Mur- 
 ray's and Brown's grammars, and in those of 
 most of their competitors for public favor, con- 
 sisted mainly in committing to memory defini- 
 tions and rules, in applying these, for the purpose 
 of practice, to various styles of composition by 
 parsing, and in the correction of false syntax. 
 Most of the later grammars vary or precede these 
 exercises with the tmah/sis of sentences, afford- 
 ing practice in the principles of genera] gra lar, 
 
 as preliminary to special rules.' (See ANALYSIS, 
 
 Grammatical.) Still more recently, a different 
 class of elementary grammatical text-books have- 
 appeared, under the name of Language Lessons, 
 
 ysis and parsing. I 'n ilia I 
 that has I n taught with 
 
 ctciit.for anal- 
 is no subject 
 a disregard of 
 the fundamental principles of teaching as English 
 grammar; and there is certainly none that has 
 so imperfectly attained its practical aim — cor- 
 rectness in the use of language. 'I his has arisen 
 from two errors of procedure: (I) an attempt 
 to teach definitions without developing in the 
 minds of the pupils the ideas underlying them, 
 and rules previous to an illustration of their ne- 
 cessity ; and (2) confining the instruction to 
 merely theoretical and critical work, without 
 sufficient practice in the application of principles 
 and rules to the actual use of language. 'I he intro- 
 duction of analysis was the result of an effort, to 
 reform the first of these emirs; and (he language- 
 lesson system, a reaction againsi the second. 
 Grammar being, distinctively, the science of the 
 sentence, the preliminary Btep in all grammatical 
 instruction must be. to give to the pupil a clear 
 and correct idea of what constitutes a sentence, 
 
 Ulich he 
 
 position, and how other parts are used as ad- 
 juncts. (See Analysis. Grammatical.) The 
 outline of a complete scheme of teaching gram- 
 mar in all its stages is presented in the following 
 points: (1) Principles, definitions, and rules 
 should be progressively taught by requiring the 
 pupil to analyze, and also to construct, classified 
 sentences commencing with those of the simplest 
 construction, and passing gradually to such as 
 are of the most complex structure ; (2) No defi- 
 nition or rule should be committed to memory 
 and formally recited until the pupil, by sufficient 
 practice, has obtained a clear conception of the 
 office of the word defined, and the nature of the 
 
 USaee which the rule is intended to guide. For 
 
 h alone they can occur are 
 
 [erst 1 at that stage. And 
 
 require a child to commit 
 A verb must agree with its 
 
 the. structures in u 1 
 
 too complex to be u 
 
 it is equally absurd 
 
 to memory the rule. 
 
 subject or nominative in person and number." 
 
 until by the comparison of a number of sentences 
 
 illustrating this usage, ho is made to understand 
 
 what is meant by agreement in grammar, and 
 
 how expressions may be incorrect by a failure to 
 
 observe this rule. According to this method, the 
 
 pupil is first made acquainted with the distinc- 
 
 tly 
 
 verb and the noun. From this point, the sentence 
 may !»■ complicated by the successive insertion 
 of modifying words, phrases, or clauses, so as to 
 
illustrate not only the nature and use of each 
 of the parts of speech, but every peculiar struct- 
 ure. This may be illustrated by the following 
 example of a sentence thus expanded : (1) Boi/s 
 learn. (2) The buys learn. (3) The studious 
 boys learn. (4) The studious boys learn rap- 
 idly. (5) The studious boys learn their lessons. 
 ((>) The studious boys learn their lessons in 
 school. (7) The boys and girls learn. (8) The 
 boys learn, but the girls do not learn. (9) The 
 buys who study will learn. Of course, each 
 sentence here given is only a specimen of what 
 may be used at each step; and when these 
 several steps have been taken, the pupil will 
 have acquired a knowledge of the functions of 
 the different parts of speech. Thus, in ill, he 
 learns the noun and the verb : in (2), the article 
 is added; in (3), the adjective; in (4), the ad- 
 verb ; in (5), the pronoun ; in ((>), the preposi- 
 tion; in (7), the conjunction, as a connective of 
 words; in (8), the conjunction, as a connective 
 of sentences; in (9), the relative pronoun. After 
 much preliminary oral instruction of this kind, 
 the pupil may be required to learn simple defi- 
 nitions. Underlying the whole process, it will 
 be perceived, is the analysis of the sentence, 
 parsing coming in at a later stage, as the appli- 
 cation to particular sentences, according to a 
 given praxis, of the definitions and rules learned. 
 This is the method recommended by prominent 
 educators of the present day. " The analysis of 
 a sentence," says Wickersham, " consists in find- 
 ing its elements, or in reducing it to the parts of 
 Bpeech, of which it is composed. Parsing con- 
 sists in finding out these pans of speech and de- 
 termining their properties and relations. Both 
 should be combined, as is the case in similar 
 operations in other sciences. The botanist ana- 
 lyzes a plant, ami then names and describes its 
 several parts. The anatomist dissects a subject, 
 and then characterizes the organs thus brought 
 to his notice. Grammar can be studied success- 
 fully in no other way. Parsing, without a pre- 
 ceding analysis, can lead but to a very imperfect 
 knowledge of the organic structure of sentences." 
 To the value of the analytical method, Prof. 
 Whitney thus hears witness: "Give me a man 
 who can. with full intelligence, take to pieces an 
 .English sentence, brief and not too complicated 
 even, and I will welcome him as better prepared 
 for further study in other languages than if he 
 had read both Caesar and Virgil. and could parse 
 them in the routine style in which they are often 
 parsed." Parsing should not be made a routine ; 
 when it becomes such, it is worse than useless. 
 The constant application of complicated defini- 
 tions and rules derived from a language of in- 
 flections, to English words and sentences having 
 scarcely an inflection, is to the pupil a senseless 
 3, and must only tend to dull, instead of 
 
 cultivating and sharpening, his intellectual fac- 
 ulties. It makes him, as lias been said, a " pars- 
 ing machine." The definitions and rules of En- 
 glish grammar should be simplified, recognizing 
 the fact that English is not an inflectional lan- 
 guage, except in a very few particulars ; and 
 
 MAR 381 
 
 hence, that the principles of agreement and fjor- 
 eriuiif ill have scarcely any application. The mul- 
 tiplying of rules that regulate nothing is idle; 
 Thus, of what use is it to cause a child to repeat, 
 in parsing, twenty i n s perha] in a ingle les- 
 son, the so-called syntactical rule, " Adjectives 
 relate t ins ami pronouns," when he has al- 
 ready learned as a definition that " Adjectives 
 are words added to nouns and pronouns?" The 
 editor of the last edition of Brown's Institutes of 
 'English Grammar remarks, in an Observation 
 on the treatment of Syntax in that work. 
 "Nearly one half of the twenty-six rules of 
 syntax laid down in this work are rather a rep- 
 etition of the definitions comprehended in ety- 
 mology than separate rules necessary to guide us 
 in the construction ot sentences": and the same 
 may probably be said of most grammars. All 
 such needless machinery should be eliminated. 
 The application of the terms case, gender, per- 
 son, and all other designations of inflectional 
 variations of words, should be kept within the 
 narrow limits prescribed by the simplicity of the 
 language. In most systems of grammar, how- 
 ever, we find these terms used in so ambiguous 
 a way as almost hopelessly to obscure the sub- 
 ject and perplex the learner. Sometimes, for 
 example, case is used to indicate a form or in- 
 flection, at others, a mere relation without 
 change of form ; while the fact to be taught is, 
 that where there is no inflection there is no case. 
 The rule that "a noun which is the subject of a 
 verb must be in the nominative case " is, in En- 
 glish, useless and absurd. The senseless machin- 
 ery of English grammar, as ll has lieeii goiierally 
 taught, lias brought the whole subject under rep- 
 robation, as being useless in an elemental y si In ml 
 curriculum, and as superseded in that of the 
 high school and college, by the study of Latin ; 
 while there is no doubt that college graduates, in 
 the United States, are generally m nothing so 
 deficient as in a practical and critical knowledge 
 of their own language. While it is very true 
 that the use of every language is a matter of 
 habit rather than of rule; every writer and 
 speaker knows, that there are myriads of in- 
 stances in which the ear and the memory, how- 
 ever trained by habit, wdl not serve as a guide, 
 and that a knowledge of the principles and 
 usages oi language in regard to nice points of 
 construction, is indispensable. "Since language," 
 says ( 'urrie. " is the instrument of all thought, a 
 more commanding knowledge of it than habit 
 alone can give must be deemed a necessity of 
 education, and particularly of all education 
 which pretends to cultivate the mind."— See 
 Cdreie, Principles and Practice of Common- 
 School Education (Edin. and Lond.); Wells, 
 The Graded School (X. Y., 1862); Wicker- 
 sham, Methods or Instruction (Phila., 1865); 
 Kiddle &c How to Teach (X. Y.. 1874); 
 Brown, Grammar of English Grammars 
 VS. V.. 1851); White, Words and Their Uses 
 N.T., 1870); Marcel, TheStudyof Languages 
 IN. Y.. L876). (See also English, Tut: Stcdy 
 of, and Grammar, English.* 
 
382 
 
 GRAMMAR SCHOOLS 
 
 GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, so railed, not be- 
 cause they gave instruction in English grammar, 
 but from the fact of their making the teaching 
 of Latin and Greek — particularly, and some- 
 times exclusively, the former — their especial aim, 
 existed in England from the earliest times. They 
 discharged the same function as the old cathe- 
 dral schools (q. v.). or the cloister schools of the 
 monasteries, and were established and supported 
 either by the endowments of benevolent individ- 
 uals, or by governmental aprpopriations. In Eng- 
 land, the endowed grammar schools are very 
 numerous and many of quite ancient foundation. 
 Quite a number of Royal Grammar Schools were 
 established during the reigns of Henry VIII., 
 Edward VI., and Elizabeth, from funds obtained 
 out of the spoils of the religious houses of the 
 Catholics, broken up at that time. To a certain 
 extent, they were free schools. "A few of the 
 poor," says Barnard, " who were unable to pay 
 for their education were to be selected — some 
 according to the parish in which they were burn 
 or lived, some on account of the name they bore, 
 — and to receive instruction in the learned lan- 
 guages, and, under certain conditions, to be sup- 
 ported through the university. These Public 
 Grammar Schools were thus the nurseries of 
 the scholars of England, in them the poor and 
 the rich, to some extent, enjoyed equal advantages 
 of learning, and. through them, the way to the 
 highest honors in the state, and the largest use- 
 fulness in the church was opened to the humblest 
 in the land " Endowed grammar schools whose 
 foundation dates back to quite early times exist 
 in almost all the principal towns of England. 
 They are generally both day and boarding 
 schools Of these the Grammar School of King 
 Edward VI., at Bromsgrove, is an example, of 
 which the tercentenary commemoration of the 
 foundation was celebrated March 31., 1853. 
 (See Proceedings, 8vo, Bromsgrove, 1853.) As 
 a curious old book on this subject see Brinsley's 
 Ludus LUerarius, or the Grammar Schoole 
 (London, 1612). The course of instruction is 
 about the same as in the Public Schools, such as 
 Eton. Harrow, etc., latin and Greek being quite 
 prominent; and, in both classes of schools, 
 pupils are prepared for admission into the uni- 
 versities. These grammar schools are. therefore, 
 the same as what have been called classical 
 schools, belonging to the class of middle schools, 
 and representing secondary instruction. They 
 correspond to the gymnasia of Germany and 
 the lycees of France ; iu the latter, however, 
 there is a course of instruction in modern lan- 
 guages, running parallel with the ancient course, 
 for all pupils beyond a certain age. Ix>ng before 
 the Reformation, there were grammar schools in 
 all the principal towns of Scotland, in which 
 the Latin language was taught. In the lecture 
 schools children were also taught to read the 
 vernacular language. In Glasgow, a grammar 
 school was in operation in the 15th century ; and 
 the Edinburgh High School, in the early part of 
 the Kith century. An act of James IV. — the 
 earliest Scottish legislation on the subject of 
 
 education (1494) — refers to the grammar school, 
 especially : 
 
 the 
 
 :of 
 ires to the 
 Re, and till 
 ill they be 
 
 Realmu that all Hamming ami In 
 substance put their eldest sonn 
 schules fra they be sex or nine y< 
 they remain at the Grammar Scl 
 competentlie founded and have )>t 
 
 Grammar schools, in the United States, were 
 originally of the same character as in England 
 and Scotland. "By free school and free gram- 
 mar school," says Barnard, "in the early records 
 both of towns and of the General Court of Con- 
 necticut and .Massachusetts, was not intended the 
 common or public school, as afterwards devel- 
 oped, particularly in .Massachusetts, supported by 
 tax and free of all charge to all scholars rich and 
 poor ; neither was it a charity school, exclusively 
 for the poor. 'I he term was applied here, as well 
 as in the early acts of Virginia and other states, 
 in the same sense in which it was used in England, 
 at the same and much earlier dates, to characterize 
 a grammar school unrestricted as to a class of 
 children or scholars specified in the instrument 
 by which it was founded, and so supported as 
 not to depend on the fluctuating attendance and 
 tuition of scholars for the maintenance of a 
 master. In every instance in which we have 
 traced their history, the free schools of New- 
 England were endowed by grants of land, by 
 gifts and bequests of individuals, or by 'allow- 
 ance out of the common stock of the town', were 
 designed especially for instruction in Latin and 
 Greek, and were supported in part by payments 
 of tuition or rates by parents. These schools 
 were the well-springs of classical education in 
 this country, and were the predecessors of the 
 incorporated academies, which do not appear 
 under that name until a comparatively recent 
 period." The gradual development of the com- 
 mon-school system in the United States, joined 
 with the partial decline of Latin and Greek as 
 instruments of education, and the demand for 
 studies of a more practical character, that is, 
 more in demand as a preparation for the ordinary 
 duties of life, have led to a different application 
 of the term grammar schools. The study of 
 English grammar having taken the place of Latin 
 grammar in schools of an elementary grade, such 
 schools came to be designated grammar schools, 
 and the former grammar or classical schools re- 
 ceived the name of high schools or academies. In 
 most of the public-school systems of the cities of 
 the Union, grammar schools are schools of agrade 
 between the primary schools in which the first 
 rudiments of instruction arc imparted, and the 
 high schools. Some of the grammar schools, so 
 called, have a primary, an intermediate, and a 
 grammar department. In these cases, the term 
 grammar schools has been used with no definite 
 idea of its propriety, except as designating a 
 somewhat higher grade of schools than those in 
 which the simplest rudiments of an English edu- 
 cation are afforded : since even in these English 
 grammar is taught in only the higher grades or 
 classes. See Barnard, Education in Europe; 
 and Amrrican liiiujraphy, s. v.Ezekiel Oheever. 
 
GRASER 
 
 GRASER, Johann Baptist, a Catholic 
 
 priest and educator, born in Kltinaim, Germany, 
 
 able opposition, especially among the Catholic 
 clergy, by his educational theories. Be insisted 
 thai education should not aim at general culture, 
 but at a preparation for life. I 'lass education was 
 particularly favored in his doctrine. His general 
 theory of education was derived trom Schclling's 
 philosophy. The essence of man is reason ; and 
 the aim of reason is to reproduce the divine 
 likeness. A knowledge of human life, in its re- 
 lation to nature and Cud, is necessary to every 
 one ; and no power should deprive any one of it. 
 The aim of this general culture should be to 
 produce a feeling of solidarity. Every one 
 should be made to feel that he lives not for or 
 in himself alone. Specific education must be 
 individual, since it aims to prepare each one for 
 his future position in life. The idea of general 
 culture is contradictory to nature, and is dan- 
 gerous withal. It is apt to produce restless, dis- 
 satisfied people, rather than useful members of 
 society. With Graser, as with Caesar, men who 
 think too muchwerei sidered dangerous. In im- 
 parting knowledge, the teacher should strive to 
 develop the student's powers. All teachers of what- 
 ever subject, should consider themselves as teachers 
 of religion, for no knowledge is complete until 
 its object is seen in its relation to God. Graser's 
 theory, like that of Fichte, subordinates the in- 
 dividual to the state in so despotic a fashion as 
 to reduce the former to a mere tool. It was 
 largely a reaction, in the interest of government, 
 from the individualism which was at that time 
 leavening all Europe. It was due, therefore, less 
 to an insight into human nature than to the 
 political exigencies of his time. His polemic 
 against general culture is due to the same cause. 
 His class education fits well in a despotic system 
 of government, but overlooks the fact that man 
 is, first of all. called to be a man, and not a 
 tradesman or a mechanic. 1 lis leading idea, though 
 by no means originating with him, was, that edu- 
 cation is properly a self-culture. — an unfolding 
 from within. His philosophy had a marked 
 effect upon his theory of religious views. As a 
 follower of Schelling. he believed in an im- 
 manent (iod, and was impatient, therefore, of 
 catechetical instruction in religion. God must 
 be found every-where. according to him. — in 
 man. in the world, and not alone outside of them. 
 Catechism he considered as having a tendency 
 to irreligion and rationalism. A one-sided mys- 
 ticism characterizes his theory, which gave rise to 
 the charges of heterodoxy, which were brought 
 against him. — See Schmidt, Geschichte der 
 Pddagogik, vol. iv. 
 
 GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND, 
 the United Kingdom of. This is the official 
 title of the British empire, Great Britain 
 being properly the name of the island which 
 comprises England, Scotland, and Wales. In 
 current language, however, the name Great 
 Britain alone is generally used to designate the 
 whole imperial power. At present, the British 
 
 empire, in point of extent, is the largest in the 
 world, its area being estimated at 8,700,000 Sq. 
 
 GREECE, a country of south-eastern Europe, 
 having an area of 1 9,353 sq. m. and, according to 
 the census of L870, 1,457,894 inhabitants, nearly 
 allot whom speak the Greek language, and are 
 connected with the Creek Church. 'I he number 
 of thosa who speak other languages is only 
 68,000, and the number belonging to other relig- 
 ious denominations, only 12,600. Greece, an- 
 ciently called Hellas, is the earliest of all the 
 European countries, that appear upon the stage 
 of the world's history; and though the Creek 
 states have, for many centuries, ceased to exist, 
 the language and literature of the Greek nation 
 have, in uninterrupted continuation, been instru- 
 ments in the education of mankind. The limits 
 of ancient (■'recce were not well defined, as the 
 northern boundary line considerably varied at 
 different periods. Of territories now subject to 
 Turkish rule, the Sporades. Crete, Rhodes, and 
 parts of Thcssaly and Epirtts are generally in- 
 cluded in ancient Creece, and are inhabited by 
 Greeks at the present day. Numerous and 
 flourishing colonies were established by the an- 
 cient Creeks, or Hellenes, in many countries, 
 especially in Sicily, southern Italy, and Asia 
 Minor, and, for a longtime, took an active part in 
 the literary and educational development of the 
 race. In I4(i B. C, ••recce became a Roman 
 province ; and for more than four centuries the 
 Hellenic nation remained subject to foreign rule. 
 The division of the Roman Empire, in 395, cre- 
 ated the Creek Ian]. ire. of which Constantinople 
 was the capital, and which embraced, for a long 
 time.not only the < J reek territory now belonging to 
 the kingdom of ( '• recce, but both the European 
 and Asiatic portions of the Turkish empire. The 
 empire was destroyed, in 1453, by the Ottomans, 
 or Turks : and the Creeks continued for centuries 
 without national sovereignty, until, in 1829, the 
 establishment of the kingdom of Greece restored 
 to them a place among the independent nations 
 of the earth. We shall treat, in this article, of (I) 
 Ancient Creece, (II) the Greek Empire, and 
 (III) Modern Greece. 
 
 1. Ancient Greece. — In the history of edu- 
 cation, the ancient ( i ceks hold a more promi- 
 nent position than any other people of antiquity. 
 They attained a far higher degree of intellectual 
 development than existed in the Asiatic or 
 African monarchies which preceded them ; or 
 in the Roman republic, the Roman empire, and 
 the rising monarchies of the middle ages, which 
 came after them. It needed the revival of clas- 
 sical learning, in the loth century, to raise the 
 intellectual culture of Europe again to the level 
 of ancient I .'recce. Sin. v then, the I [reek language 
 and literature have had a prominent part in the 
 development of modern civi/.ation. The progress 
 of modern literature, especially of history, mathe- 
 
matics, philosophy, the fine arts, natural science, 
 and geography, is largely due to the writings of 
 the Greek scholar's who were the first notable 
 teachers of these subjects, and who, during the 
 last four centuries, have been studied by so large 
 a number of the young students of the civilized 
 world. The great orators of ancient Greece have 
 not yet ceased to be admired; and the greatest 
 poets of tin' English language and'of other modern 
 tongues have not only derived from the master- 
 pieces of the Greeks, inspiration and the laws of 
 literary composition of every kind, but in many 
 cases, modern poets have borrowed from them 
 even the subjects of their poems. 
 
 The earliest feature of education in ancient 
 Greece, as we infer from the Homeric poems 
 ami other writings of that period, was the im- 
 planting of a strongly filial attachment in the 
 minds of children, and the ennobling influence 
 of parental discipline and example. Reverence 
 and obedience toward parents, respect for old 
 age, and habits of modesty, chastity, and silence 
 in the presence of elders and superiors were re- 
 garded as the chief ornaments of children. The 
 principle was generally recognized, that he who 
 is to be called upon to command, must first learn 
 to obey. Plainly and artlessly, sons and daughters 
 were brought up to be the images of their par- 
 ents. The son found in his father his model 
 and his teacher, who instructed him in the use 
 of arms, in gymnastic exercises, and in the wor- 
 ship and fear of the gods. The daughter was 
 expected to grow up, under the watchful in- 
 struction of the mother, a skillful, prudent, and 
 virtuous woman. However uncertain the his- 
 torical background of the heroic age may be, 
 we know that the ileal of a hero in ancient 
 Greece, which was held up to the rising youth 
 to be copied, awakened more lofty aspirations, 
 and exerted an educational influence far supe- 
 rior to any thing that is to be met with in the 
 early history of the oriental monarchies. A re- 
 liance on self-activity, a longing for fame, an 
 earnest effort to subject physical nature to the 
 rule of the mind ; and a devotion to music and 
 gymnastics, are some of the features which fore- 
 shadowed the eminent position which Greece 
 was to attain in the annals of education. In the 
 historic age of the Greek republics, we notice a 
 passionate ambition, on the part of the noblest 
 minds, for distinction in political life, in art. and 
 in science. A nobler vie\* was taken, than ever 
 before, of the functions of the state ; and educa- 
 tion was recognized as the most important sub- 
 ject to which state legislation could be directed. 
 The good of the state was an object constantly 
 held in view, and the individual and private 
 interests of the pupils were subjects of secondary 
 consideration. No other country ever had an 
 educational legislation likethat which isascribed 
 to Lycurgus (q. v.), and Solon (q. v.) ; and no- 
 where do we find such attempts to develop and 
 test new educational ideas, as those made by 
 Socrates, Pythagoras, Plato, Aristotle, Xeno- 
 phon, Epicurus, Zeno, and a host of others. A 
 characteristic feature of the educational system 
 
 of the Greeks, from the earliest period of 
 their history to the downfall of their country, is 
 the attempt at a harmonious development of the 
 powers of the mind as well as of the body. Gym- 
 nastics (q. v.) constituted an essential part of 
 Greek education, and was taught and practiced 
 in the gymnasia, or schools for bodily exercise. 
 All that part of education which related more 
 especially to the cultivation of the mind, was 
 called by some, Plato and Plutarch for instance, 
 music; while others separated grammar from 
 music, and divided education into three parts: 
 grammar, music, and gymnastics. The centers 
 of < heck education were the two rival capitals, 
 Athens and Sparta. Their educational systems, 
 though both embraced gymnastics and music, 
 differed in many and important respects. Sparta, 
 the representative of the Doric tribes, laid greater 
 stress on the subordination of the individual 
 to the state and preferred physical to intellectual 
 culture ; while Athens, the representative of the 
 more highly civilized lonians, was the birthplace 
 of those grand theories which, in the history of 
 education, are set down as the chief characteris- 
 tics of ancient Greece. (See Athens, and 
 Sparta.) Though we know but little of the 
 schools and educational systems of other Grecian 
 cities, there can be no doubt that all of them, as 
 well as the colonies, took a greater or less part in 
 the educational ideas which were developed and 
 carried out in Athens and Sparta. One of the 
 greatest of all Greek teachers. Pythagoras, was 
 a native of the island of Samos. and established 
 the famous school, which has immortalized him 
 in the history of education, in Croton, one of the 
 Greek colonies in southern Italy. (See Pythag- 
 oras.) With the subjection of Greece to the 
 rule of Macedonia, its achievements in the work 
 of education began to decline. Of considerable 
 influence, in the later history of Greece as well 
 as in that of the Roman empire, were, however, 
 the principles of the Epicureans and the Stoics. 
 The founder of the former was Epicurus, who 
 died at Athens, in 12 70, J?, ('..after having taught 
 there with great success for 35 years. Heregarded 
 a happy life, a quiet and cheerful mind, and 
 an undisturbed enjoyment of pleasure, as the 
 highest attainable good. Intellectual pleasures 
 were valued by him more highly than sensual 
 
 suffering unavoidable pain, and a tempi rate and 
 
 dinal virtues. Epicurus and his first followers 
 were entirely free from the licentiousness which, 
 during the times of the Roman emperors, was 
 considered the chief characteristic of that school. 
 The Stoics were founded by Zeno, who died 
 at Athens, in 2(i0, I>. ('., after teaching there for 
 50 years with as great success as his contempo- 
 rary, Epicurus. The name Stoics was given to 
 his school because he used to assemble bis pupils 
 in a otoci, or porch. Zeno regarded virtue as the 
 highest good, and he defined it as the firm ad- 
 hesion to established principles of rectitude. 
 A'ice was. in his opinion, the only evil. He. 
 therefore, laid greater stress than Epicurus upon 
 
the control of passions and emotions, upon the I thus existing through a period of more than a 
 subordination of the body to the mind, upon re- thousand years, and spreadinc out ,, vast extent 
 framing from sensual pleasures, anil upon every of territory, this empire presents in the history 
 
 kind of alt 
 itself shouL 
 exercise of 
 
 Athens an. 
 of their ind 
 Egypt, bee 
 
 •liiiouNied if it' h 
 
 indcr. 
 
 enee. [noppositio 
 later times, was tin 
 ity. WMeGreea 
 
 he educational ins 
 a perishing with tli 
 
 e tola 
 
 ■nee tl ity of Alt 
 
 •xaml 
 
 lie seat of Greek i 
 
 
 
 1- ob 
 
 system ot Neoplato 
 
 liar ize oriental t 
 
 tics, and to dislodge 
 versal philosophy. 
 teai lua - in Alexanih 
 mation of the first 
 gians, some of whom 
 
 ful : but the fact t 
 the ( 'hristian chur. 
 
 emed alike 
 the revolu- 
 
 ■ le. under Jus- 
 ts effect: and, 
 the islands of 
 hos offered the 
 
 ion. A tew, if 
 ■edit for having 
 'fin. The most 
 I), lie founded 
 ty. with a free 
 t of the church 
 ■hers of philos- 
 higher gram- 
 
 mar wen. 1 a 
 tended thi 
 schools for 
 
 from the 
 
 elf at 
 
 Unit nd i a i 
 R&mern (1851 ; 3a 
 der Griechen 
 VermischteSchrij a 
 by Felton, in Class, 
 ton, and Edwards (1 
 on education from tl 
 
 On 
 
 Theorie der Erzie- 
 (1813) : Schmidt, 
 
 York. 1842); Wn> 
 in Greece in the 
 
 4th century. A.D.. Constantine transferred the 
 capital of' the Roman Empire to Byzantium, 
 which from him received the name of Con- 
 stantinople, the predominance of the tlreek 
 language and literature in the educational insti- 
 tutions of the empire was firmly established. 
 About 7D years later, in 395, Theodosius, at his 
 death, divided the empire into the Western Em- 
 pire which remained under the influence of 
 Latin or Roman culture, and the Eastern or 
 fiyzantine Empire, which, in language and civili- 
 zation, was almost exclusively Greek.; and which. 
 therefore, is sometimes called the Greek Em- 
 pire. It dragged oul awretched existence, until, 
 in 1453, il was conquered by the Turks. Though I 
 
 most brilliant period.and I 'on.tantinople became 
 the central seat oi philological and encyclopedic 
 erudition. Constantine Porphyrogenitus (913- 
 '.i-''< . c-t.ibh-hed four special schools for philos- 
 ophy, rhetoric, geometry, and astronomy, and 
 required in every public officer of a highergrade 
 a knowledge of philosophy and rhetoric. Among 
 the succeeding emperors, Constantine Pucas 
 especially encouraged education ; but no impor- 
 tant or lasting results were, at any time, ob- 
 tained. The decay steadily advanced, and the 
 empire was, from an intellectual no less than 
 
 fr a political point of view, i nplete rum 
 
 when it fell a prey to the completing arm.- of 
 the Turks. — See Schmidt, Geschichie dm- Pd- 
 dagogik. 
 'III. Modem Greece.— i 
 
 s which the 
 hie empire 
 tile nation, 
 particularly 
 jw scholars 
 
 disastrous to Greek learning. Tin 
 
 who .succeeded in saving their lives, were either 
 forced to fly to foreign lands or to hide in 
 
 cloisters. Tl stablishment of schools of an 
 
 advanced grade for the instruction of Creek 
 youth was even more strictly forbidden than the 
 erection of churches. In consequence of these 
 
386 GEI 
 
 measures, schools and all other means of culture 
 fell into entire neglect : and the ignoranceof the 
 Greek population became, fn mi year to year, more 
 dense and extensive. After a long period, and 
 particularly during the eighteenth century, the 
 Turks, believing their authority to be beyond 
 danger of overthrow, began to be less suspicious 
 of their Greek subjects; and. in consequence, 
 the condition of the latter grew more tolerable. 
 Gradually, a more frequent intercourse with 
 other Christian nations of Europe awakened 
 
 whiclf was easily gratified by their growing 
 wealth. Public schools, beforeso rate, began to 
 in number; while there also sprang up, 
 of the cities, schools of a higher grade, 
 li was taught ancient Greek history, and, 
 
 were those situated upon the islands of Patraos 
 and Scio, at Cydonia. Smyrna. Xagora i with a 
 
 sec I one at Melia. on Mt Pelion in Thessaly . 
 
 two in Yanina in Bpirus, one on Mount A.thos, 
 two in the 'Peloponnesus, one at Kumtchisnie 
 on the Bosporus, and two in the Danubian 
 Principalities, -at Bucharest and Jassy. These 
 schools which were mostly supported by the en- 
 dowments of patriotic citizens, and by \olnulary 
 contributions, were, in most cases, under the 
 direction of excellent scholars, who had receive 1 
 their education in Italy, France, or Germany, 
 and who devoted their time to the instruction of 
 youth ata merely nominal salary- The condition 
 of the elementary schools of that period was 
 extremely miserable ; an I not until a few year, 
 before the insurrection, did any improvement 
 take place. A learned Greek, Georgios Kleo- 
 bulos, having become acquainted w ith the moni- 
 torial system of instruction, introduced it into 
 Greece, 'litis was the condition of public instruc- 
 tion at the outbreak of the revolution. During 
 the struggles that followed, this i dition gradu- 
 ally deteriorated. In the neighboring Ionian 
 Islands, which were under the prot ■■ t irate oi 
 "beat Britain, there had been, in the mi anwhile, 
 
 ary institutions. Several Hellenic schools and 
 a gymnasium had been established by the govern- 
 ment; and a university had been endowed by 
 
 the liberality of Lord Guilford, which, although 
 imperfect in many respects, had educated many 
 Grecian youths, who. upon the establishment of 
 a regular government in the new kingdom of 
 
 Capo d'Istria, upon being elected president, by 
 the national convention in I 828, erected, besides 
 numerous public schools, a gymnasium on tin- 
 island of .Egina. whi.h s became of great 
 
 benefit to Greece. DndeT King Otho, the entire 
 
 system of public education was i ganized; and 
 
 the relations of the schools and of the depart- 
 ment of education were carefully regulated. 
 
 Primary Instruction. -The common schools 
 of ( rreece are regulated by the law of] 833, which 
 makes school attendance obligatory upon all 
 
 children between the ages of 5 and 12 years. 
 This requirement is. however, far from being 
 enforced, as is shown by the fact that, in L870, 
 but 33 per cent of adult males, and but 7 
 per cent of adult females, were able to 
 read and write. There were 55 communes, in 
 1S70, in which not one woman was able to read 
 or write. In the army, the proportion of totally 
 illiterate men was 48| per cent, and in the navy, 
 it was 53 J percent, b/very parish is required 
 to have at least one school; and, in case its 
 means do not suffice to support a school, aid is 
 afforded by the government. There are also 
 "irregular schools" in towns which cannot sup- 
 port the regul ir government school. In the 
 irregular schools, the old method of individual 
 
 instrucl is still followed. Separate schools 
 
 for girls arc found in large cities only. A rule 
 adopt,- 1 by the educational department, without 
 any authority of law. however, providi s that, in 
 
 every scl 1 in which the number of scholars 
 
 exceeds I. Mi or 250, there shall 1 ne or two 
 
 assistant teachers respectively. Owingto a want 
 of funds, this rule has not been fully carried out 
 except in the chief towns of the inninirrhi,^ 
 (provinces) and eparchies (districts). The 
 schools of each parish are governed by a local 
 board of inspectors, called the ephory. This 
 
 two to four privaio eii i/ens. Where the inhabi- 
 tants of the districts belong to different faiths, 
 a priest from each of the denominations is 
 chosen. The ephory have the care. oversight, ami 
 iii.inag iment of all the si hools in the parish, and 
 m ■, en nipt poor families from lasal ion for 
 
 se| I purposes. They must visit the schools 
 
 at 1 Mst once a month, and report to the eparch 
 or the nomarch the defects in the schools. as well 
 as the improvements which they may consider 
 necessary. They also present a report on the 
 
 financial conditi if the scl I. Committees, 
 
 similar in their composition to the ephories, were 
 provided for the eparchies and nomarchies by 
 the law of 1833. The eparchs are required to 
 visit the schools under their charge semi-annu- 
 ally, and the nomarclis the schools of the nom- 
 archy annually; and they report to the depart- 
 ment on the condition of the .schools, and the 
 conduct of the teachers and of the local inspec- 
 tors. The principal of the school at the cap- 
 ital of the eparchy has the supervision of 
 all the schools in that district, as respects the 
 professional skill and capacity of the teachers; 
 and the principal of the school at the capital of 
 a nomarchy has a, : similar supervision of all the 
 schools in his province. It is the duty of these 
 principals to visit the schools under their charge 
 every six months, and report on them to the 
 
 each of which the scholars spend from one to 
 two years ; and the higher, syndidactic or simul- 
 taneous, composed of two (in the cities three) 
 
animal classes. All the scholars are instructed 
 in reading, writing, arithmetic, the rudiments of 
 
 modern Creek grammar, and religion. To these 
 studies are added, in the higher schools, the 
 elements of geography, liihlical and Creek his- 
 tory, and the grammar of the ancient Creek 
 language. Religious instruction is general!} im- 
 parted by the teacher: but, in a few cases. 
 where the scholars are of different religion, the 
 parents of that denomination which is in a 
 minority, provide separate religious instruction 
 at their own expense. The scholars are also 
 required to furnish short compositions. Miisie 
 
 treasurj i nthlj apportioi ml of 22 lepia 
 
 (100 lepta equal to 1 drachma) for each pupil. 
 As, with the exception of the islands of Syra, 
 Tino, Naxia, and Santorini, the inhabitants oi 
 
 which are Roman « 'atholies. ahn..st the entire 
 
 old of the visits of 
 
 a register of children who. throng 
 room, have been refused admission 
 honor, a record of reprimands and pti 
 a book for each scholar, in which his 
 noted twice a month by the teach 
 parents, registers of the different cla 
 monthly exhil.it of the condition of 
 not only with resped to the scholars 
 
 [national schools; and hem 
 
 ■ the members of 
 
 both churches, in these islands 
 
 send their children 
 
 to the same school. In some 
 
 la.es. schools have 
 
 been established by the Cath 
 
 ilic clergy for the 
 
 children belonging to that ch 
 
 trch : but these arc 
 
 support,,! ontinlyby privat 
 
 means. The in- 
 
 
 ivemment schools 
 
 t- verj limited, nol exti ndh a 
 
 b. yond the super- 
 
 Vrov'"] of the vl'.'.'o'.Tlool'" 
 
 .11. .ii and the ap- 
 
 crease in the niunber of sclioi 
 
 1s, as well as in the 
 
 school attendance, during tl 
 
 • present century, 
 
 has In coi \it\ marked. Wli 
 
 le, in 1830, there 
 
 wen y 71 schools, with 67 
 
 21 scholars, and, in 
 
 1858, 754 eel Is, with 51 
 
 596 pupils, there 
 
 were, in L872, 991 j rimarj » 
 
 iomIs tor boys, and 
 
 186 schools for girls, with 1 
 
 713 male and eon 
 
 female teachers, and 73,58l 
 
 pupils, of whom 
 
 etc 
 
 nomareli. . 
 and signed 
 Two gene] 
 at the end 
 
 I'ehrt 
 
 at the end of August, 
 
 of which the latter only is open to the public. 
 The final examinations of the highest classes 
 take place, at the end of the year, and are con- 
 ducted by a special examining committee. '1 he 
 school laws are read to the scholars and are 
 affixed to the walls of the school rooms, when- 
 they remain during the year. I 'orporal punish- 
 ment is strictly forbidden; the usual punishments 
 being the loss of credit marks, detention, re- 
 primands, and expulsion. Pupils are rewarded 
 by certificates of merit, admission to the roll of 
 honor, and premiums at the closing examination 
 of the year. A teachers' seminary has ex- 
 isted in Athens since the first year of the 
 kingdom, to which a model school is attached. 
 I pon pa-dug an examination teachers receive 
 diplomas of the first, second, or third grade, ac- 
 cording to their degree of proficiency. This 
 seminary also furnishes the Christian population 
 of the Turkish provinces with teachers. Female 
 teachers are educated in the higher female 
 schools, particularly in the one founded by the 
 Association of the Friends of Education, in 
 Athens. The minimum monthly salary is ]U0 
 drachmas (1 drachma=$0.19.3) for teachers in 
 the capital of a nomarchy, 90 drachmas for 
 teachers in the chief towns of eparchies, 80 
 drachmas for second-class teachers, and M drach- 
 mas for third-class teachers. The salaries of 
 teachers at the capitals of the nomarchies and 
 eparchies are increased 111 drachmas a month. 
 but cannot exceed 140 drachmas. Besides the 
 salary, the teachers of all classes are provided 
 with free lodging, and receive from the parish 
 
 were boys, and 11,695, girls. In 1874, 
 here where 12 2 7 schools, with si ,449 pupils. 
 
 Secondary Inrtrnctiini. — Secondary inst rue- 
 ion is imparted in the Hellenic schools and the 
 
 rvmnasia. The Hellenic s. 1 Is correspond to 
 
 vhat in Germany arc called Latin sdiools, and 
 ilso to the higher Lurcher schools, as thev are 
 
 trade. The gymnasia corresj 
 classes of the German gym 
 
 those for the university who 
 
 ■hies 
 
 anil eacli oi t the lioniarclues. a uviiiiiasmm. 
 
 The secondary sc Is are governed by the royal 
 
 ordinance of I s.'!7. In order to receive support 
 from the state, they must have no denomina- 
 tional character. The Hellenic schools of each 
 province are under the supervision of the prin- 
 cipal of the nearest gymnasium, w ho \isits them 
 and reports on their condition annually. The 
 Hellenic schools comprise three, and the gym- 
 nasia, four annual classes. The course of study 
 in the Hellenic schools is as follows: religion 
 and penmanship (2 hours each per week in all 
 three classes), history and mathematics (3 hours 
 each., French language .1 hours), the Greet 
 language (12 hours), geography (3 bom's in the 
 first class, and 2 m each of the others) , and Latin 
 (3 hours, in the third i lass only). In the gym- 
 nasia, the course., f study is as follows: religion 
 and natural philosophy (2 hours each in all four 
 classes], mathematics, history, and French (each 
 3 horn - Latin (5 hours), Creek (9 hou 
 raphy (3 bonis in the first two classes, and 2 in 
 the two highest classes): the elements of philos- 
 ophy are taught 2 hours per week. Religious 
 instruction is given in the Hellenic schools by 
 one of the teachers, and in the gymnasia by 
 
.,** 
 
 c.reeoi 
 
 - : but, in 
 i excep 
 iv taught 
 ividesfor 
 
 conducted 
 
 regularly appointed priests. In the Hellenic 
 schools, chrestomathies arc used ; and the classic 
 authors in Greek and Latin arc generally rei 
 in the gymnasia. Text-books have been pre- 
 pared tor all the various branches of study, and 
 have steadily improved. The system of class 
 
 teachers prevails in Ihe Hellenic sc 
 the gymnasia, all the branches, w 
 tion of Creek, geography, and histi 
 by special professors. The law als 
 a library for the use of the teach- i 
 in each Hellenic school and gyn 
 very little lias, as yet, been aeconq 
 direction. The final examination 
 by the professors of the gymnasium, in the pres- 
 ence of the eplioiy. and is both oral and written. 
 The instructors ar i styled professors, tutors, and 
 assistants. The title of professor is given to those 
 only who teach the above-nicntione I branches in 
 the gymnasia: all others who hold permanent 
 positions as instructors in the gymnasia and 
 
 Hellenic schools, arc styled tutors: but those 
 who are not permanently engaged arc called 
 assistants. The royal ordinance of 1850 makes 
 it obligatory on a candidate for a position as 
 teacher m a Hellenic school to have attended, 
 besides a full course in the gymnasium, at least 
 two years the philosophical and philological 
 course in the university, and to have taken part 
 in the exerciser of the philological seminary. In 
 the Hellenic schools, the teachers arc divided 
 into three classes in regard to salaries, receiving 
 respectively loo, i:io, and 150 drachmas per 
 month; while the principals receive 200 drach- 
 mas. In the gymnasia, the principal receives 300 
 drachmas, ami the professors 250. These salaries 
 may be increased one-fifth after five years' 
 s.n i.e. Hellenic schools and gymnasia may 
 also be established by private persons, upon re- 
 ceiving permission from the government. Higher 
 schools tor girls have been established in the 
 larger cities: but they are, with one exception, 
 private institutions Dhe course of study in the 
 private institutions is of three year.-, and doc- not 
 
 differ from that pursued in the Hellenic scl Is, 
 
 except that French and Kngli.-li are t a lie hi instead 
 of Latin. Instruction is given by both male and 
 female teachers: but there must be. in all eases, 
 a female principal. These schools are subject to 
 governmental supervision, under a special ephorv. 
 '("he exception mentioned above is the Central 
 .-.■ho,, I ,,i i l,c Society ot ih • friends of Kducation. 
 at Athens. This school, which is specially in- 
 tended to train female teachers, has four classes. 
 The fourth class is obligatory for those only \\ ho 
 wish to become teachers in the higher schools. 
 In IhTO. there wcr.' L 5 gymnasia, and 144 Hel- 
 lenic schools, with 77*0 pupils: and 2,\i private 
 institutions, with 15*11 pupils of both sexes. The 
 number of gymnasia, in 1*72. was 17. According 
 to the latest accounts, the number of higher 
 girls was L0, u ith about 900 pupils; 
 itral School has over 100 pupils. 
 Instruction. — The Otho University, 
 in Athens, was founded in L837,and is organized 
 
 .a the plan of the German universities. It has 
 
 made 
 
 cxistelic 
 
 GREEK CHURCH 
 
 ss during the short period of its 
 tudents that entered at the 
 
 i, it has risen to 1,205 stu- 
 tal numbcrof students that 
 
 ! pr., ■ -soi-.. in I -7 |.v,a.- V..: that of students. 
 1 ,352. It is composed of four faculties. — theol- 
 ogy, law and political economy, medicine and 
 pharmacy, and philosophy. Each faculty elects its 
 own rector and a representative : and these, with 
 the president appointed by the king, constitute 
 the academic council, 'i h i] rof ssors elect a repre- 
 sentative to the uatio.ia! I, -id. n urc. A philo- 
 logical and pedagogical seminary for the training 
 of professors and teachers for the gymnasia 
 and speci d schools, is connected with the uni- 
 versity. There are also connected with the uni- 
 versity a library, a botanical garden, a niii-emn 
 of natural history, an observatory, a collection 
 of coins and antiquities, and a hospital for prac- 
 tice and demonstration in medicine and phar- 
 macy, instruction is free, the salaries of the 
 professors being paid by the government. The 
 endowments, of which there are quite a large 
 number, are used for incidental expenses. The 
 university of Corfu was abolished in 1*(>5. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The following special 
 schools were in operation in 1*72: rive com- 
 mercial schools, four theological schools, four 
 
 nautical schools, one polytechnic school, and 
 
 school of agriculture. Of the theological schools. 
 three were of a lower.and one of a higher grade. 
 The course of study in the lower schools, which 
 are intended to educate village priests, is essen- 
 tially the same as that pursued in the Hellenic 
 schools, the principal difference being, that the 
 writings of the church fathers are used in con- 
 nection with the pagan classics, These three 
 schools had about *o students. The higher sem- 
 inary, known as the Ilhizarian School, was 
 established, about 1*15. by endowments from 
 two brothers, named Rbizaris. It has five a 
 nual classes, in which the students receive 
 thorough theological training; and. upon gradu- 
 ating, they are eligible to all the church off 
 It has about 40 students. Orphan asylums 
 were not established until quite recently. There 
 are two in Athens, — one founded by Queen 
 Amelia, for girls; and another, by two liberal 
 Greeks, for boys. A third one, in Syra, is sup- 
 ported by the parish. These three asylums had. 
 in 1869, L58 pupils. — See Sciimii.. A7/cvc/oy. ( o7/c. 
 vol. m; Barnard, National Education in Bu 
 rope, 
 
 ! 
 
 scho 
 and 
 Sup, 
 
 GREEK CHURCH (also called Greek 
 Catholic, Orthodox Greek, and Eastern 
 Church,) is the name generally used in English 
 to designate that part of the Christian Church 
 which recognizes only the first seven of the so- 
 called oecumenical councils, and, in addition to 
 them, the so-called Q sexlum of Constanti- 
 nople, held in 692, and the council of Constanti- 
 nople, held under Photius in 879 and 880. The 
 chief dogmatic difference between the Creek 
 Church and the Roman Catholic Church relates 
 to the doctrine concerning the procession of the 
 
GKEEK LANGUAGE 389 
 
 Holy Ghost, the former chargine; the latter with ' hits in the original tongue. In the middle ages, 
 
 altering the faith of the in n 1 i v ■• 1< -< 1 church on the (I reek latieuaee was Inn i.uvh studied; 
 
 oecumenical councils. This church is the state manj othei scholars are said to have understood 
 
 church in Russia, Greece, Montenegro, Servia, it. Toward the close of the 14th ce y.several 
 
 and Boumania; and it predominates in European Greek scholars, who came as fugitives to Italy, 
 
 Turkey, and in the Servian and Roumanian dis- awakened in the learned institutions an interest 
 
 tricts of Hungary. The population connected in their language. Florence and Rome were the 
 
 with the church numbers i nt 70 millions, first centers of the new study ; but, in Italy, the 
 
 The church organizations in the countries named study of the Latin classics graduallj super- 
 are all, in pointof government, independent of seded, to some extent, thai of the Greek lan- 
 each other; though honorary primacy is con- guage, which found its most enthusiastic admir- 
 cededto theseeof Constantinople. The virtual era and students in Germany and the Netherlands, 
 separation of the Greek Church from the churches Erasmus, Reuchlin, and Melanchlhon were the 
 of western Europe began in the 9th century, greatest Greek scholars in western Europe; and 
 under Patriarch Photius, and was fully con- they also introduced the stn.h of the Greek 
 
 summated in the 11th. As the state church of classics, though to a limited extent, in1 any of 
 
 the Eastern or Greek Empire, this church had a the institutions of learning. The appeal of the 
 
 controlling influence upon the educational affairs reformed churches from the Latin Vulgate to 
 
 of south-eastern Europe (see Greece); and the Uivi-k original of the New Testament greatly 
 
 since, through its instrumentality, the larger por- increased the demand for a knowledge of the 
 
 Hoi, of the Slavic race were converted to Chris- Greek. In the 17th century, there was a general 
 
 tianity, it has b en no less influential in the edit- declii f the study throughout Europe ; but, in 
 
 cational historj oi Russia and other Slavic the 18th century, it was resumed witl wvigor; 
 
 countries. The lethargj into which the Greek and it was especially the Dutch school of Bern- 
 Church appears to have sunk, is reflected in the sterhuis and Valckenaar that promoted the 
 slownessof educational progress in all the coun- philosophical study oi the language. At the be- 
 
 triesof the Greek faith, this I, that-v i- n..« <duni f the l'/tlieentuiv dottfned Hermann 
 
 on the wane. An aetne intercom-, ha.-, for -o,„e wreath improved the method of teaching Greek; 
 
 time, existed between Greek and Anglican the- and, more recently, the study of Greek, Tike that 
 
 ologians, and at union conferences held at Bonn, of Latin and all the modern languagi s, ha- been 
 
 tatives of the Greek Anglican, and Old-Catholic philology. Greek is one of the mosl important 
 
 communions, the unity of these three churches branches oi the [ndo-European I. lages. lis 
 
 in all essential doctrines was declared. The relation to the other branches of this family has 
 
 strenuous efforts which, for some time, have been not vet been definitely deter [; and opin- 
 
 made, in all the countries of the Greek faith, to ions still differ as to 'whether Creek and Latin 
 
 bring their educational systems to the highest .particularly the latter, are entirely indepen- 
 
 state of perfection, will b greatly strengthened dent branches, or whether they spring from a 
 
 by these church movements. Uready, the church single branch, now lost, which was co-ordinate 
 
 has theological faculties, modeled after those in with the Sanskrit, the German, the Slavic, and 
 
 (Jennany. connected with all the universities,,!' other 1. ram lies. Greek was probablj spoken as 
 
 Russia except Dorpai ,1 treece, Servia, and Rou- lone ago as fifteen centui ies before the » Ihristian 
 
 mania, as well as with the Austrian university of eta. and appears, in the mosl ancient traces 
 
 Czernowitz. The condition of the ecclesiastical which are left of it. split into a number of dia- 
 
 seminaries has likewise greatly improved. Many lects, the two principal of which were the Doric 
 
 ofthetl I..-1.-.1I pi.,t,s-,„- | m , received their and the Ionic. The largest and most important 
 
 education at the German universities; and their portion of Greek literature was written in the 
 
 efforts to raise the educat ..I standard of the l„nie dialect, in the history of which different 
 
 young clergy have met with considerable success periods may be distinguished: the old Ionic or 
 
 \silie institutions for secondary and primary epic dialect, which appear- in the 1 ins of 
 
 instruction, in all the countries professing the Homer, and remained the dialect of epic poetry; 
 
 Greek religion, have a denominational character, the new Ionic, in which the history of Herod- 
 
 rehtrious instruction l,eii,e,.ithere;iven «,r super- otus is written: and the Attic which is the 
 
 intended by the clergy, the improvement of language of the larger portion of Grecian liter- 
 
 theological education exerts an influence upon ature. Greek was spoken, in the earliest times 
 
 the schools of every grade, and greatly aids the to which we can trace it. in Greece as well as in 
 
 progress of education in general. parts of Asia Minor; subsequently, the establish- 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE, one of the two clas- ment of Greek colonies carried it as a living lan- 
 
 sical languages, which, as such, constitute an im- guage to Sicily, southern Italy, and southern 
 
 Astl riginal language oi the New Testament and Macedon gradually mingled ; and new dia- 
 
 andof the early fathers of the Christian church, it lects were produced, the most important of 
 
 has a special importance for I'lni-tian theoloej- which was that spoken tit Alexandria, and used 
 
 ans, and for all who desire to study the Script- in the Greek translation of the did Testament. 
 
:j'.iO 
 
 <;1IKKK LANGUAGE 
 
 in the New Testament, and in the early liter* 
 tniv i 'l' tli- Christian Church. During the first 
 three centuries of the Christian era, Greek held 
 a position similar to thai subs qu ntlj occu] 
 for a long time in Europe by the I rench Ian- 
 g i tge b ling the favorite language ol literature 
 
 ;illil i if the e llleato.l 'la-s It continued 1" 
 
 exisl as a spoken lan-ua-r in sunt hern Prance 
 
 during several centuries alter tin' introd I 
 
 .it' Christianity; and in Sicily and southern Italy, 
 until th.' Iltli century. Through the influence 
 lit' the Romans.and subsequently of other nations 
 that conquered south -eastern huiopc, the Greek 
 la n- u.i-'-. a- spoken I'V tin- people, « 18 I ons! Ii i 
 ably inn lilicd : an I -ra In illy tin- in" I. in tiiivk. 
 or Romaic, arose, .it pi - ml I n language of the 
 entire population of the kingdom oi Greece, and 
 df the numerous Greek population of Turkey. 
 The Greek alphabet was derived from the 
 
 manner in which.it was introduced, are still sub- 
 je :ts of learne 1 controvei sies V i utu ttion, as 
 well a~ the signs of aspiration, are supp — I by 
 many to have been invented by \n-t,.| hanes of 
 Byzantium, and to have been introduced about 
 
 200 B. C, for the purp i teaching the lan- 
 
 -na-y tii foreigners. The proiuim-iati I ai 
 
 , ient i ireek is till a matter ■■( discu ion Tl 
 ( treek sch il i who n \ ive I the stu ly of the lan- 
 guage in wesl in Europe, pr mm, I it like the 
 
 modern i .i oi and this system is 
 
 caUed iot'icis ■ R al i R uchlin 
 
 who was its chief advoo h in w tern i uro • 
 fnopposition toit,l ra a ■■■ ■ .ai itained that i icl 
 
 a like the Italian a,° like the Italian i, v like the 
 French u, and lil i the Italian long and short 
 . . respectively, and thai ......... -. and | h id 
 
 respectively the s lunds of the 1 n an ' . g, d, 
 /./..ami 1.1 
 
 controversy between tin- two >y-i. -m.- i- ii"l v, i 
 ended, but distinguished a h ilai -. like ( Had ton 
 
 Eichthal, Groves, and Pel rec aend the 
 
 introduction of the i Ii in Greek pronuni iation 
 
 into tli- Kn-lish. I-' in ii li. and American !■-.'• 
 
 Thedevel imenl oi tl iGreek lai .-... -■ hasbeen 
 
 ively national character, do influence 
 
 having b i n exerte I upon it by any foreign lan- 
 
 The t w words which it received from 
 
 a iv i - ' i ill 'roughly as- 
 
 .- i 1 1 1 i l it I with itsown. [t isrii h in radical words, 
 and in com] It also pos- 
 
 though, t is i 
 
 tl Iderb 
 
 ! the 7. nd. 
 eeeded by any laneuaaeiu the 
 
 ness of form, for law and organism. Its syntax 
 lias never been equaled by that of any language 
 in the world." -Ever since the introduction of 
 
 the studj oi Greek into classical scl Is. it has 
 
 been a general rule to begin it later than Latin. 
 i Henry Stephens strongly advised 
 tl pposite i mrse : and manj ol the si dis- 
 tinguished scholars, as 1 1, m-:. ilnn-. liulmki'U. 
 Gedike, Herbart, and Passow, expressed a con- 
 currence in these views. The vast majority of 
 educators have, however, been so decidedly in 
 favor of Latin as the first classical language to 
 be studied, thai only in exceptional cases has a 
 ].i.i. n, a I ait mpt to begin with Greek been made. 
 A- ., general rule, less time also is devoted to 
 Greek than to Latin ; though some distinguished 
 
 educators, like Rat n his Gesckichte der 
 
 Padagogik), who do not dispute the claim of 
 Latin to be taken tip first, demand an equal or 
 
 .1 sllpel 1,,|- 
 
 .-it i. m t,,r I in, k in tin- hi-her da.s- 
 
 I Is. Ii, il,, animated conflict 
 
 II c,|i|.-.il|.,m.l ii.~i it nt i. -ti- ■•( a hl-her 
 
 Greek has had to bear thi brut I oi the 
 On many si, I,- < . .i ,. . — i, .t i.- have been 
 I,, Latin, because of its closer affinity 
 i.i.l, in languages, and particularly on ac- 
 ,,l ii- importance for an etymological 
 ,1-,- nt tin -i- la 1 1- iiaucs : ami a readiness 
 a expressed to provide instruction for it 
 here Greek has been entirely excluded. 
 ,• tin, I thai in thi I nited States, in con- 
 
 d with the ad- 
 . i - ientific and other 
 ■ al, the study of 
 I ii, a -ivat many cases, 
 n retained In Germany, 
 ,,| the pn-ili. nun, line of 
 incentrated their strength 
 
 ,nls ill (ippcisitinll t" tile 
 
 istence of a large number 
 atin" is sufficient to indi- 
 ite iii which the twoclas- 
 il by the opponents of 
 
 iferior to some of 
 
 -European familv. 
 
 But ii is not cx- 
 
 ticles, and in the ability to expi by m u oi 
 •hem. ii., -in istvarii h 'lations and i lodifications 
 of id ■ Ii isals„,lis!i,,-uisl„,l tor its euphony: 
 
 and neither the Latin nor any lern languag 
 
 can compare with il in regard to rhythmical 
 beauty. "More than any of its sister languages," 
 says Curtius, "the Greek language must be re- 
 garded as a work of art, on account of its sense 
 ir symmetry ami perteetion ,,t sounds for clear- 
 
 hod to be pursued in 
 . a greati i agri i ment 
 
 than in respect to many 
 rally admitted that the 
 
 Greek grammar, even 
 
 able that all > ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ 'mprehend 
 
 a knowled- , i , , I -h,,al,l begin the 
 
 _ v , rigor oi memory 
 
 is still b h and its function still prevails in the 
 course of instruction. II and Jacotot's 
 
 metho Is find now-a days fi « t- lowers in the 
 teaching of Greek; and the study oi grammar, 
 -., transl i m from G I nghsh and 
 
 I'.n-li h into ' !reek,i hi, iK occu] iesth attention 
 of the b -inn, r. It has be n proposed, and some- 
 times attempted, to begin the teaching of the lan- 
 guage, in accordance with the development of 
 i (reek literature, with the study of the epic ami 
 old Eonic dialects ; but the old practice to make 
 
GREEK LANGUAGE 301 
 
 the Attic dialed tin- basis lias victoriously main- tiniillished themselves as autliors of did a lies 
 
 taineil its traditional ascendency. Kxciviscs in of Creek literature, w liile tlieir "lamina! eal la- 
 
 1 wl 
 
 nou generally pr< 
 here grammars at 
 in translation, th 
 
 general, the use oi a rea ler before the 
 
 of a particular author, i I inue 1 
 
 Greek than in Latin, because of the lo 
 required to obtain a good knowledg 
 grammatical rules in the former. Wh 
 is far enough advanced to take up 
 of Greek author-, the teacher, in 
 
 from the easier to the more 
 
 enough of the selected w 
 students an adequate idea o 
 literature. The orations, phi 
 and dramas are particularly 
 
 cla ii' rn ek. Oi 
 
 is not considered complete 
 of. at least, one of the Horn 
 
 
 Edward Everett (Bostot 
 
 . L822) ; A-usf&Ji 
 
 liche 
 
 uaking the 
 
 Qrv h Sprachlehn (2 s 
 
 .i-. L819 27, 2i 
 
 ed., 
 
 vnters. and 
 
 with valuable additions t 
 1830 3! i. trans, by Ei 
 
 ward Robinson 
 
 1. V. 
 
 ive to the 
 
 Bloomfield (L Ion, 183 
 
 : Rosl i 1816, 71 
 
 1 ed.. 
 
 i of < rreek 
 
 1854), Engl, translation 
 
 ond., 1827) ; Ku 
 
 incr. 
 
 dialogues 
 
 Schulgrammaiil trans. 
 
 l,v B. B. Edwards 
 
 and 
 
 r advanced 
 
 S. 11. Taylor (Andover, 
 
 1843 ; and Aus 
 
 fv.hr- 
 
 a in Gn i. 
 
 1 . , , . Hi 1 1 1 / 
 
 i - ■iechis hen Sp 
 
 ■acJie. 
 
 ' : ",';;ie"i- 
 
 2 vol ' 'i",V' :■'""''. '■',, 
 
 L86S 1 -71 ; Wc- 
 
 phal 
 
 uitih 
 
 and Hsrcdituc fully 
 
 ers and students, wl 
 centuries. In regard 
 desirable to wait i 
 grounded in the Att 
 
 dents, and as th- j;l 
 scribes is not calcula 
 
 interest in ancient C 
 
 nes are not suited for 
 onl\ Sophocles and 
 tended. 
 
 inimatical treatment of 
 id hack to the Sophists, 
 
 the language can be i 
 
 Plato, and Aristotle. Considerable progress is 
 
 visible in the works of the Stoics, who created 
 most of the technical terms used in Greek gram- 
 mar. The idea of a systematic grammar was 
 developed by the Alexandrian school of gram- 
 marians, some of whom wrote upon the subject 
 of grammar in the most limited sense : others. 
 upon different specific topics included in it. as 
 .svntax, meter, dialects, and the like. As the 
 author of the firsl systematic grammar, Dionysius 
 
 iend 
 ipkin 
 
 ick. M Vlmtock, 
 Silber. Smith. 
 
 Wad. 
 
 ell. Wettenhall, 
 
 Hon 
 
 •of these works 
 A IC the 1,0 
 
 /•. 18' 
 
 (I : chiefly based 
 
 icons 
 
 in modern times 
 
 a standard fur a long lime. The first Iexic 
 
 graphic attempts were likewise made at Ale 
 andria. The central seat of Creek philology \v( 
 . later period, transferred from Alexandria i 
 
 icon complete for 
 additional autliors. 
 
 Constantinople, where a number of scholars dis- ' tl,, an urns of the Cr 
 
 a full 
 death 
 
392 
 
 cpp.kic language 
 
 of Passow, a nen edition, carrying out the plan 
 of the author, was prepared by the joint labors 
 of Rost, Palm, Kreussler, Keil, Peter, and Ben- 
 seler (2 vols.. 1841—57). The work of Pas- 
 sow was the basis of the Greek-English lexicon 
 of Liddell and Scott (Oxford, 1845; New York 
 edited by Henry Drisler, 1848; large Ito ed 
 London, 1870. .' Other large Greek dictionaries 
 have been edited l,y .laool.it/ an. I S.il.i '.'yok. 
 
 GRIMM 
 
 Campbell, Crosby, Jebb, -Tones. Smead, White. 
 Weale, and Woolsey; of Theocritus, by Snow; 
 
 of Theophrastus, by .lebb : of Thucydidea by 
 Bigg, Frost, Owen, and Weale; of Xenophon, bv 
 
 Anthon. i;„is... (Why. Kcndnek, Owen, Pl.il- 
 
 1839—46), and Pape (3 vols., 1850 63; the 
 
 and literature of ancient Greece,^ vols.), Munk, 
 
 3d vol., containing proper names, by Benseler). 
 
 (2 \ols.. L849— 50) Nieolai (2 vols,, 1866 — 7), 
 
 School dictionaries have been prepared bv K.M. 
 
 Pun .out i Histoire delalitteraturegrecque,2 vols.. 
 
 Benseler, Schenkl, Liddell and Scott, and others. 
 Among English and American authors who have 
 
 l-'i'.i . Bergk vol. i.,1872). The standard gram- 
 matical work on the Creek language of the 
 
 brought out Greek dictionaries, besides those 
 
 N< h le-umeiit is Winer [Grammatik des neu- 
 
 alreadj mi utioned, are Jones, Pickering, Oliver, 
 
 
 Uriivr's. lloiin.-an.ai..ll»nnliar. (SeeDlCTlONAEY. 
 
 Stuari end Robinson); and other grammars 
 
 There is also' a very rich literature of special 
 
 have been written l.y Greene and Stuart. 
 
 lexicons for those Greek authors who are com- 
 
 Lexicons to the Greek New Testament have 
 
 monly read in schools. A cmuparatho ■■!•: iai 
 
 been published bv Wahl (1822), translated by 
 
 of Greek and Latin was written by 1 Meyer 
 
 Robinson; Bretschneider (1824); Wilke (1841); 
 
 (•-'vols.. Berlin, 1861 5), and an etymological 
 
 
 root-dictionary on the basis of comparative phi 
 
 Schirlitz 11851 ■ Robinson Greek ■ </' /■' , 1 
 
 lology by Benfey {Griechisdhes Wurzellexicon, 
 
 l.i cicon iif'ihr New Testament, 1836)- Granm 
 
 '-' vols., 1839- — 12). 
 
 (1868). -For an account of the Creek Church 
 
 Among the Greek readers which afford selec- 
 
 
 tions from all. or nearly all. the authors who are 
 
 GREENEVILLE AND TTJSCULUM 
 
 suited for school reading, none have Keen so ex 
 
 COLLEGE, at Home, Greene Co., Tenn., near 
 
 tensively used as those ••( Jacobs and Dalzel 
 
 Crecneville. was organized in 1868,bythe union 
 
 Theworkoi Ja S i Oar ■ > d r Gr , hi 
 
 of Greeneville College and Tusculum College, 
 
 scht a Spi b oun in 1 82 1 consist - ol four 
 
 founded in 1794 and 1847, respectively. It is 
 
 parts, the tir-tot \n In, li U designed for beginners 
 
 
 the sec 1 gives extracts from historians or ora- 
 
 a preparatory, and 'a e..| legate dei.!mincnt"witli 
 
 tors relating to the history of Athens the third 
 
 a classical and a scientific course. The libraries 
 
 is composed of philosophical, and the fourth of 
 
 contain 7,000 volumes. In 1874- 5, there were 
 
 poetical, extracts. Several American translation- 
 
 9 instructors and 112 students (senior class 2 ■ 
 
 of parts of this work have 1 a published (oni 
 
 by Prof. Anthoni, and have 1 „ used by many 
 
 regular course, 15 ; scientific course, 24; primary 
 
 Mnj. 
 
 university. New editions were brought out in 
 England by Dunbar and C. J. Bloomfield, and 
 in the United States by P..]. km and \\ heeler. 
 other Creek readers have been published by 
 
 Abbott. Arnold. Boise, Colton, Felton, G i- 
 
 win, Merry, and Wyttenbach. Of late, the use 
 of readers has. to some extent.given place to the 
 works of particular authors of which many an- 
 notated editions have appeared. Thus there are 
 editions of works of <Eschines, by Chatnplin 
 and Simcox; of /Eschylus, by Drake Edwards 
 Felton, Sachtlebt u, Weale, and Woolsey of Ari& 
 totle. by Poste; oi Aristophanes, by Felton, 
 Greene, and Weale; of Demosthenes by Champ- 
 lin. D'Ooge, Drake, Heslop, Holmes, fcendrick, 
 Simcox, Smead, and Tyler; of Euripides by VI- 
 len. Weale. and Woolsej : oi Homer by Anthon 
 Boise, Felton. Mayor, Merrj Owen Searine and 
 Smith; of Herodotus, by Johnson, Math, r ai d 
 Weale; of Isocrates, by Felton; of Lucian, by 
 Weale ; of I .ysias. by Huntingdon. Stephen,:. 
 and Whitou ; of Pindar, by Myers; of Plato, by 
 Tyler, Wagner, Weale, White, and Woolsey; of 
 Plutarch, by llacketi and Tyler; of Sophoi les bj 
 
 ot tuition m the pro] 
 per \ear : in the colle 
 
 Rev. W. S. Doak. 
 ident. 
 
 GRIMM, Jakob Ludwig, the greatest of 
 all Cermaii philologists, was bom at llanau. 
 Jan. 4.. 17S.1. and died in Berlin, Sept. 20..1863. 
 lie was appointed, in 1 -In. second librarian at 
 
 . w ith six other professors, 
 holitiori of the state foii- 
 ln 1841, the Prussian 
 to Berlin as professor and 
 iv, which position he re- 
 . In 1846 and L847,he 
 
 lologists,who universally recognized him as then 
 chief. Mis work on German grammar [Deutsche 
 Grammatik, 3 vols., 1819—37) established a 
 
 new branch of literature, that of historical gram- 
 mar : and while it has called forth a number of 
 similar works in other languages, it is still unsur- 
 passed. The German dictionary, which he began. 
 in I-:. -J.. jointly with his brother Wilhelm occn 
 pies an equally high tank in the history of dic- 
 
 arie [Beutsches Wbrterbuch, Lst vol., 1852; 
 
 Ith vol . 1*7 1). This work was designed by him 
 
to contain every German word from the time 
 Luther to (Jo. -tii.': and i In volumes which he pi 
 lished exceeded, in c prehensiveness of ..I 
 
 which Grimm's Gen 
 have introduced int 
 languages, has also •_ 
 nf teaching modem 
 vernacular. The m 
 knowledge of the gi 
 guages, which is no\ 
 telligent teachers, is 
 of millions of childn 
 of recent school gr, 
 
 which has been exer 
 GRIMM.Wilhe 
 
 st supenority 
 ig books, etc. 
 . the influence 
 ■ks of Grimm. 
 
 ii<:il works relate to physiology, hygiene. 
 lation : but soi I i hem have an im- 
 
 bearing on educati 
 tensively used for 
 
 Tc'hoc 
 
 ■ I others have 
 '1 instruction. 
 
 ilude: Animal Mea 
 f V, ,e York (1844 
 
 i: Us\ 
 
 n and Physi- 
 f the Laboring 
 •s and Abuses 
 
 aid th Means for 
 
 the 
 
 Ventilation of 
 
 gs 1850 : Hi spit 
 
 d Ihi 
 
 " ' (1853); 
 
 ', Brief Rules 
 
 GROOT, Gerard. See II 
 GROUNDS, School. See £ 
 GUATEMALA. SccCkvi 
 GUIZOT, Frangois Pieri 
 
 Guillaume, 
 • minister and 
 
 ili. 
 
 the ( 
 
 works 
 
 ,e was 
 eriiian 
 
 tune, tutor in a 
 soon became conm 
 and the literary 
 
 Ins master 
 g returned 
 was, for a 
 y : lint he 
 dical press 
 .l.in 1812, 
 of modern 
 
 GRI3COM, John, an American nln 
 born at Hancock's Bridge, N. J., Sept.27., 
 died at Burlington, N. J., Feb. 26., 1852 
 was of Quaker extraction, and, for a 
 studied at theFrieii.UAca.l.inv in Philadc 
 Afterwards, he took charge of the Fr 
 Monthly M k ting Si ho il, at Burlineton 
 
 L; 
 
 of Pauperism, and established a prh 
 nary, called the New York High Si 
 1823, he published .1 Fear in Europ 
 the result of his travels and visits ti 
 cipal institutions of learning and charit 
 factories, etc.. on the European contine 
 1831 to 1835,he was principal of a 
 school in Providence, R. I., after win 
 moved to Burlington. One of his las 
 the reorganization of the common-schi 
 .f Mew Jersey. His son. John II. 
 
 published his 'bionraphy I Xew York. 
 GRISCOM, John Haskins, a 
 
 he plans of his col- 
 li I-::; From 1840 
 f foreign affairs, and 
 it of the French min- 
 ii of 1848. he retired 
 ,-,1 himself wholly to 
 
 fork College of Pharmacy, from 1836 to 184 
 In 1843, he was appointed physician to the Ni 
 York Hospital, where he remained till 1*1 
 
 m Catholics, even as minister of public 
 n. His indefatigable zeal and his 
 rits in behalf of the promotion and 
 
(iUT.SMUTMS 
 
 organization of primary instruction 
 
 were generally recogiiizeil. (iuizut w 
 
 (JYMNASH\M 
 
 France, I took up his resilience at < 'niul>ri,lge, Mass. In 
 one of tli.- wiiiin ,.i i-i- :>. In- .!. Ii\,-i.',|. in I ,,,i..n. 
 
 i ing ana i. acnmg geog- 
 
 i.Hi ..I scl 1 i. m hooks 
 
 !uyot was employed, for 
 
 aehllsctts hoard of cilll- 
 
 s in the n al schools 
 
 the teachers' institutes. 
 
 ,i. Ii 
 
 Innaln 
 
 is 01 
 
 pub- 
 cmts ; 
 lined a 
 juishing 
 . I geog 
 
 Lie, t nil 
 
 S ■■ .-I them, especially the History of Civiliza- 
 tion in Europe, have been extensively intro- 
 duced as text-books into very many institutions 
 of learning. 
 
 GUTSMUTHS, Johann Christoph Fried- 
 rich, celebrated for his efforts in behalf of 
 physical e.lucation.aii'l particularly as one oi the 
 founders of the German system of gymnastic 
 
 training (Turnuiiterri 'it), was born in Quedlin- In 1855, he accepted the appointment oi 
 
 burg, a town of Prussian Saxony, in 1759, and fessor of physical geographj in the Colle 
 
 died al fbenhain, near Schnepfenthal, in 1839. Nev 
 
 II.- sin lit-: I ill -ologv al II. ill.- fur three years, still 
 after which he was .-jn j .1. >\ . ■ I to superintend 
 the gviunastic exercises at Sal/maims Inslitute. 
 
 ai Schnepfenthal (1786). Here he devoted him- Common-, 
 
 self to the study and elaboration of .jvinua-.ii.-s high degr 
 
 as a branch of e lucation, an I was the means of feature is 
 
 introducing it into many other institutions of raphy.ani 
 
 Germany, lie also wrote several works on gym- the basis of a s. i.-ntilic gen. -rali/ntioii. 'lln-iin- 
 
 nasties, a ag which his Gt/mnastit fir dieJu- derlying principle he thus ex] ressed in the pre- 
 
 ,/.„./, I T'.t::i li.-.-aai.- a., la-i.- u..rkan-l tli.- I.a-is liininaiv section ,,f the above work, on Geo- 
 
 of most other German treatises on the subject, graphical T tching: " I. was doI until the first 
 
 An,. .ic' others are Erliobm-, ■ /■■* A".., 7 ,-,-< '-.„■/ M uarter of the present century, when Ritters 
 
 Geisles fir die Jugend 1796), and Klein s greal mind made its power fell in his remark- 
 
 Lehrbuc'h </■■>■ S h ,,■;,„ ,„ I,;, ,s' , I T'.is). Hisser- able •_■ -n. i.,liAni..i,, ,,„ the facts given to the 
 
 vices in behalf of geographical in-tru.-iiou were world bj II boldt, that it began to be sus 
 
 al f greal value. He was not only an able pecte.l tiiai g.-n.-.ra|ilii. al la.ts could be reduced 
 
 teacher of ".-,, i-a|.liv. lmi a .li-:iii--iii-li.-'l wrii.i- t o a. science, in which hold g I the same laws 
 
 on the subject" The celebrated Karl Ritter was of mutual dependence of cause and effecl thai 
 
 one of his pupils in the institute at Schnepfen- prevail in all il her physical sciences." The 
 
 thai. Tli. menial celebration of the birth- introducti t this philosophical method of 
 
 day of Gutsmuths was held at Schnepfenthal, in teaching geography, the principle of w hi. 1, has 
 
 1 859,with great festivity and pomp. SeeDiTTES, been adopted by mosl other authors of school 
 
 Schule der Pudagogik (Leipsic, 1876). (See also text-books on this subject, has exerted an im- 
 
 Gymnastics.1 bortant influence upon the general methods of 
 
 schools; and, in this waj . I 'rof. 
 
 in- an important service to the 
 
 (See < i i:\rilY.) . 
 
 G'JYOT, Arnold Henry, a distinguished 
 
 study of natural sciei 
 passed through a course 
 Neufchatel and Berlin; 
 attention exi lusivelj to i 
 he w.-iii to Paris, whei 
 making summer scient 
 France, Italv, Bels , 
 
 he began the 
 sequently, he 
 
 in il logj at 
 
 ..-ii-.l- gave his 
 
 history and 
 ly of Neuf- 
 
 GYMNASIUM (< 
 
 ■ lac- lor 
 term 
 
 ho, .Is 
 
 sei Ian scl Is which hold a 
 
 between elementary scl Is and 
 
 ies. In England and the I nited 
 ii h the colli -j.s correspond to the 
 
 i.i-i.i the l i-v iiitia-iuia ' - hm 
 
 i..i physical exercises. We treat 
 ancient gymnasium of th i Irei ks 
 a,,. I .'_': of the schools di signated 
 by this name in Germany and other parts of 
 continental Europe. 
 
 II! Gy a-ia were first introduced in Sparta 
 
 to a . lass 
 middle pli 
 
 the llliivcl 
 
 id Ro 
 
 ,ia wc-c leveled and in 
 visions for the several 
 if Bhade, rows of plane- 
 
GYMNASIUM 
 
 :;;»;■) 
 
 ;ivcs wore planted, to which afterwards porti- 
 coes with sitting ro s (.'_-; ,i /P ,„). having stone 
 
 benches around the walls, were added. At last, 
 the gymnasia consisted of several b dl '•■><-■ whit b 
 
 were joined i' >^ P tier, and thus i formed 
 
 very spacious structures. capable ,,t In il. 1m- 
 
 While. 
 bodily 
 philoso 
 
 studies, fully secured tli-ir ) in-|i< iiidi-rance. The 
 
 oppositi nade to the classics by the Philan- 
 
 tl.mpi.t. Mreu--.l,-„-d ,.i.l.-r than weakened 
 U* ition \i the begim ins oi the L9th 
 
 1 .., 
 
 
 
 .1V,1(1 
 
 minance of 
 e, provided 
 
 
 1 of 
 the 
 
 
 the 
 ids o 
 
 
 '1 In 
 
 intru 
 into 
 
 eli-i 
 all 
 hai 
 
 geography, 
 righi of the 
 nstruction : 
 
 institutions 
 f the state 
 
 in n; 
 
 
 10W 
 
 bold 
 
 in theGer- 
 
 pared with the 
 reign of the einpe 
 served for the Bar 
 
 Greek gj 
 
 tors, the j 
 ,ie purpos 
 
 1'kiKKSKN.//,^ 
 
 
 has been con inn a 
 the time of J. A. 
 
 '\\oi!!'to 
 
 ii ( rermany, since 
 to those schools which 
 prepare students for the universities. Some 
 of these institutions, while holding the rank of 
 a gymnasium, have different names, as pceda- 
 gogiwm, lyceum, Geleltrtrim '• I ■ „.; •,■.* : ■ 
 
 FihrstenscJiule. Thisi lass ,,t -, ■], ..,|- has gradu- 
 ally developei I from the cathedral and convent 
 schools (q. v.) of the mi. Mir ages, which were 
 designed to impart to the youth of the country 
 the highest insta action aa essible in those times, 
 especially that needed forth- priesthood. After 
 the establishment of the universities, the cath- 
 edral and convent school assumed the character 
 of preparatory schools. Their number increased 
 rapidly, and the course of studies was steadily 
 
 ft 
 
 ssical 
 
 lh- lr 
 
 municipal authorities of many of the large 
 towns, as well as by many princes. The reviva 
 of classical studies, in the 15th century, great! 
 added to the reputation and social position 6 
 these schools. At the time oi the Reformatio! 
 Melanchthon intro luc • 1 i,„„-. , \.,lt- I \i-w- ., 
 
 -really reduced. I See Re w. 
 organization of the real -vm 
 in- completed, and governim 
 appear to be inclined to uph 
 rights of the i lassical -\ mna 
 of the course of instruction 
 gymnasia chiefly rest their p 
 
 il. They 
 ool cotm- 
 s a rector, 
 
 ot th 1-l.rat-l institutions at Halle, favored, 
 
 like all the Pietists, the realistic, in preference 
 to the humanistic, studies and secured the in- 
 troduction of geography and history as branches 
 of instruction, and the appointment oi special 
 teachers of mathematics. But Gesner (q. v.), 
 Heyne. [q. v.), and other champions of classical 
 
 ilK 
 
 t.-ion.s, the upper 
 spent in . 
 
 II-I|'T c!.. 
 
 atory school call- I a Latin .- hool . which com- 
 prises five classes. In Austria, the gymnasia 
 were thoroughly r.-or-aiii/.-d in IMIl. and now 
 resemble, in their essential features, in Austria, 
 proper as well as in Hungary, the institutions of 
 Germany. In Denmark, Sweden, and Norway. 
 the gymnasia have the same characteristics as 
 those of Germany. In Italy, the gymnasium 
 
consists of five classes which correspond to the 
 
 lower classes of a Herman gvnmasium. It serves 
 
 three 
 
 elasse 
 
 became places exclusively for physical education 
 and training. (See Athens and Gymnasium.) 
 There was almost entire uniformity in the exer- 
 of the different gymnasia in various parts 
 
 m 
 
 ligh schools, and only differ from the English 
 public schools for the upper and middle classes 
 in being day schools, instead of the centers of 
 large boarding establishments. The literature 
 
 relating to evinnasiuins is verv in nnh. Sec 
 
 on the German gymnasium, the i lei of the 
 
 others. Wi- /'. . j /.. „„.; 1/. tkodologie 
 
 der Gymnasialstudien (1830) ; Roth. Gymna- 
 sialrPkdagogik (1865); Laas, Gymnasium und 
 Reakchide L875) ; Barnard, Public Education 
 in Europe (1854). 
 
 GYMNASTICS (Gr. j u/ivaaru^. from : v/iv 6, , 
 naked), a system of bodily exercises designed 
 to develop muscular strength, and to promote 
 general physical culture and health. In the 
 article on Culi.illif.iiics, this subject has already 
 been treated as far as it comprehends those 
 light physical exercises which are especially 
 adapted for females, although frequently used 
 
 the bodily exercises exchi.-ively of boys ai 
 because those who performed them, in p 
 in private, were either entirely naked, 
 wore a short tunic, called x.rri>v. Among 
 eieiits. particularly the Greeks, gymnast 
 
 stituted the s1 essential par) of edu 
 
 and there was not a Greek town of any 
 tance that did not have it- gymnasium, i 
 for the regular physical n. rol h 
 
 of Greece : the 1 >orians. howev 
 
 er.made the hard- 
 
 (■nine of 
 
 the body, as a prepai 
 
 ttion for military 
 
 life, a pa 
 
 amount aim : while 
 
 he Athenians, and 
 
 the fdbi 
 and beat 
 
 basis of 
 
 ins in general, soug] 
 .v. as well asstren|t 
 ■ 'lei.ts. and to make' Y 
 
 t to impart grace 
 i, to the body and 
 hysical health the 
 als mind. These 
 ■ nature of games. 
 
 
 partook largely of tl 
 
 
 Inch we find mentioi 
 
 ecl 111 that of the 
 
 ball '-. i 
 
 piau , played in varioi 
 
 sways; (2)thatof 
 
 the tope 
 
 ti boy holding each end. and one trying 
 
 to pull t 
 
 le other across a line; 
 
 l.'i) that of the toi,. 
 
 played v 
 
 ■ry much as in our own time : (4) the 
 
 game of five stones ;-: r-„/ni,„ ■_). like the iack- 
 
 stones of 
 
 our day: (5) that of 
 
 a rope drawn over 
 
 a post o 
 
 i the opposite sides of which two boys 
 
 Stood ill 
 
 d tried to pull each other up off the 
 
 ground. 
 
 Besides these, the 
 
 more important 
 
 exercises 
 quoit ai 
 ling, box 
 
 ical art, 
 
 consider 
 
 for a lar 
 
 were swimming, ri< 
 d .javelin, jumping a 
 
 1 preserving health, 
 •e class of diseases. 
 
 ing. throwing the 
 n.i leaping, wrest- 
 ing. Among the 
 allied to the med- 
 odily exercise was 
 inly an important. 
 nit a certain cure 
 They thus recog- 
 
 athletic contest*, and nmi eniene - also for th, 
 philosophers, sophists, and teachers, with then 
 pupils, and all others who attended for intellect 
 ual instruction or amusement The laws of the lower orders 
 Solon regulated the management of these gym- 
 nasia among the Athenian.-, i h f these laws 
 
 forbade all adults to enter a gymnasium while 
 the boys were engaged in then- exei ises ; but u 
 was the practice for adults to attend for exercise 
 at other times of the day, or in other portions 
 of the building, specially set apart for men. IJn- 
 til boys reached the age of sixteen, gymnastics 
 constituted but a part of their education : but, 
 from sixteen to eighteen it .-..■ems to have .ab- 
 sorbed nearly their whole attention. At Athens 
 .and in all the Ionian states, females were never 
 permitted to attend the gymnasium; but at 
 Sparta, and in some of the other Doric states, 
 unmarried women attended, and took part in. the 
 exercises, dressed in the riruv. Instruction was 
 given by regular teachers who were supposed 
 to understand the physiological effects of each 
 exercise, and thus to be able to assign to every 
 youth sueh exercisesaa were best suited to his 
 particular case. ( monastics, at rival compre- 
 hended agonistics (the exercises of the public 
 
 eaiuesi and nlh/.-lira. or prote-sional 
 
 as prai ed by the athletes ; but, in later times. 
 
 thi i .. re entirely separated: and the gymnasia 
 
 ly for military training or drill, or the 
 knightly amusement of tl»' tournament. Among; 
 archery, foot-racing, wrestling, 
 arter-staff, etc., were common 
 nit there was no such thing as 
 es of exercises for muscular 
 il Basedow (q. V.) introduced 
 part of education, in the PJd- 
 -au : and subsequently (1784) 
 1 the same system for his in- 
 hs extensively introduce,! the 
 ■ties into Prussian schools, and 
 I,- on thesubjeel [Gymnastik 
 
 L793; I Tunibuch/ur die 
 
 andes, 1817). A still more 
 as Encyclopddu der Leibes- 
 8), by Vieth. a pupil of the 
 Dessau. Pestalozzi also favored 
 as an important instrumental- 
 1 culture of man. In 1810, 
 extended the system : and the 
 his direct ion, w as 0] ened ai 
 ublic Turnplatz, th.' object of 
 y to encourage physical devel- 
 )tie fervor among the young 
 to the aggressive si ni mi - o) 
 r sen ing in the army in de- 
 fy, Jahn resumed the i 
 
merit of his gymnastic schools: but the govern- 
 ment, fin. liiiLi their influence favorable to the 
 
 BIT 397 
 
 at the same time, to i:ive a pleasing, recreative 
 occupation to the mind. This is especially the 
 case when thej are regulated U the rhythm of 
 c See Calisthenics.) Those violent exercises 
 
 tilt 
 
 countries, ana became wid Ij p ip 
 1842, the king of Prussia order, 
 duction of these exert ises, .1- a 
 
 scl I -\ stem. The r«-w n im 
 
 from Germany to the I faited Statt 
 are now verv numerous, 
 
 As a department of education, gy astics re- 
 
 [uires verj careful regulation, having reference 
 to the age and physical constitution of the pupil. 
 
 Much injury may be done by requiring all the 
 members of a school or of a class to perform the 
 same exercises, especially if they are of a violent 
 character; indeed, it maybe doubted whether, 
 up to the age of 16, for the ordinary purpose 
 of physical development and health, boys need 
 any thing more than abundant "ppni'luiiity and 
 time for the out-door sports and recreations in 
 which their natural activity will ueiierally prompt 
 them to engage. Beyond that age, gymnastic 
 exercises, properly regulated, may be made the 
 means of laying the foundation of permanent 
 strength and health. Military drill IS often in- 
 troduced into schools and colleges, and is found 
 an efficient substitute for gymnastic exercises, or 
 an excellent auxiliary to them. The testimony 
 of educators is uniformly favorable to this kind 
 of exercise in boys' schools, not only as an effect- 
 ive means of physical culture, but as imparting 
 habits of attention, order, subordination, and 
 
 ',,,/,/ 
 
 gymnastics by Dio Lewis and others, the dis- 
 tinguishing peculiarity of which is its complete 
 adaptation to every physical constitution and 
 
 degr f strength. It dispenses with all fixed 
 
 ami cumbrous apparatus, and only employs such 
 implements as bags of beans, light poles, or 
 wands, rings, india-rubber straps with handles, 
 etc. The exercises, being light and simple, can 
 be performed in any room or hall ; and yet their 
 endless variety is such as to bring into healthful 
 exercise every part of the muscular system and, 
 
 , and 
 ,oscd 
 
 tie to Dhvsical 
 
 all such inter-coll, 
 many vices, such 
 etc.; (2) as dan- 
 ce of the excessr 
 
 parents and teachers, by unduly exaggerating 
 the value of success in these athletic contests. 
 Let these exercises be commended and encour- 
 aged as of intrinsic value, not as the means of 
 attaining a useless, barren victory in a boat-race 
 or other contest, but as the necessary means of 
 cultivating those powers and virtues which are 
 to enable the student to run a brave, manly, and 
 Christian course through life, meeting all its 
 emergencies not only with courage but physical 
 endurance, and no objection can possibly be 
 made to them.— See Markby, Practical Essays 
 on Education, s. v. Athletics 1 London. L868); 
 Schhebeb, Kinesiatrik (Leipsic, 1852); Nahl, 
 Instructions in Gymnastics (San Francisco, 
 1863); Wood. Mw'iwiI <f Phyxir.il l-:.,-m ■;.<,* 
 (N. T., 1867); Ravenstkix and Hclley, Gym- 
 ikisUcs mi, I AU/lrtics (London, 1867). (See also 
 Calisthenics.) 
 
 HABIT, a tendency to repeat the same 
 action, more or less unconsciously, or an inclina- 
 tion for the pursuits, occupations, or states to 
 which the body or the mind has become familiar 
 by use. 1 labit, as an automatic tendency, takes 
 a wide range, not only extending over all our 
 mental and bodily acts, but including likewise 
 our moods of mind, our sources of indulgence, 
 pleasure, ease, and recreation, and comprehend- 
 ing also, either by improvement or debasement. 
 our entire moral and spiritual nature. The 
 singular facility which is acquired by repeated 
 action, in accomplishing what at first was either 
 
 difficult or impossible, has never been satisfac- 
 torily explained. The fact, however, is univer- 
 sally recognized in the old saying. " Habit is 
 second nature." as also in the useful educa- 
 tional maxim, " Practice makes perfect." "It 
 conditions." says Koseiikranz [Pedagogics as a 
 81/x/fni). -formally all progress : for that which is 
 not yet become habit, but which we perform with 
 ' design and an exercise of our will, is not yef a 
 | part of ourselves." Physiologists profess to find 
 | a reason for this power of habit, in the sym- 
 j pathetic nerves; and some psychologists trace 
 | mental habits to the association of ideas. The 
 
extent to which habit influences the daily life of 
 every one — even the youngest child.can scarcely 
 he realized. Consciously or unconsciously, it 
 enters, in some shape, into every effprl at con- 
 tinuous action, physical or mental, and more or 
 less controls it. From the .lawn of intelligence, 
 when the child first takes cognizance of material 
 things, all through the period of self-education, 
 which precedes systematic instruction, it is form- 
 ing, of itself , habits of observation, comparison, 
 and generalization, which are to constitute the 
 basis of all subsequent intellectual activity. So 
 is it also forming those habits which, taken to- 
 gether, make up what is called disposition, tem- 
 per, etc. It is this tendency to contract habits 
 which gives such plasticity to the minds and 
 characters of youth, and which really underlies 
 the power and office of education ; for what we 
 call training is nothing more than guiding and 
 regulating the formation of habit. This relation 
 ofhal.it to education has never been more clearly 
 or forcibly illustrated than by Dr. Johnson in 
 his beautiful allegory calle I the Vision of Theo- 
 dore: " As Education led her troop up the 
 mountain, nothing was more observable than 
 that she was frequently giving them cautions to 
 
 beware of Habits; and was calling out t ie 
 
 or another at every step, that a Habit was en- 
 snaring them: that they would be under the 
 dominion of Habit before they perceived their 
 danger: and t hat those whom Habit should once 
 suli In ■ In I little hope of reeainiii.' their liber- 
 ty.- While it is the period of formal education, 
 at which the chil 1 especially nee Is to be pro- 
 tected from the influence of habit, to some ex- 
 tent and in some respects, the watchful care of 
 the educator is required even from the earliest 
 infancy to prevent the formation oi injurious 
 and almost ineradicable habits: indee 1, there is 
 scarcely a child who, on being sent to school for 
 
 the first time, will not be found to havi Q- 
 
 tracted habits, both physical and mental, which 
 the teacher wiU find it necessary to strive to 
 correct. ( )ne of his most important functions 
 will he to delect and eradicate bad habits, as a 
 kind ot morbid growth; for, like weeds, these 
 habits not only cumber the ground themselves. 
 but render it sterile for any other productions. 
 For example, what can be done with that most 
 troublesome of all cases, — a "spoiled child," un- 
 til the habits of self-indulgence, self-will, way- 
 ward caprice, and despotic control of others, 
 which characterize it, are eradicated, or super- 
 seded by other dispositions'.'' So, too, with 
 habits of deceit, falsehood, cruelty, and many 
 others that are apt to spring up in even very 
 young minds. In regard to the intellect, the 
 same principle holds true: for that natural de- 
 velop i, ent which precedes formal instruction 
 
 may, ind I, be luxuriant, but cannot be regular 
 
 The mind of the most active child, under cir- 
 cumstances that present the very best opportu- 
 nities for development, if it has I n left entirely 
 
 to itself, will be found to have acquired settled 
 ways of observing, thinking, and speaking which j 
 it will be necessary to correct : and. besides, it 
 
 will generally have become impulsive, impatient 
 ofanj continuous attention, and prone to pass 
 rapidly from one thing to another, in obedience 
 to a mere momentary fancy or impulse. It will, 
 therefore, be generally found that children, on 
 being first subjected to regular instruction, need 
 to have habits of attention formed, ill place of 
 those of inattention, which have been implanted 
 
 ity. (See Attention.) There are others, how- 
 ever of a less general character which will de- 
 mand special effort. As an instance, one of the 
 earliest ot these objectionable habits, and per- 
 haps one ot the most common. is the unconscious 
 
 for t li< - thine Bymbolized. 'I his will be mani- 
 fested by most children when shown, for exam- 
 ple, the picture of a horse, and asked to state 
 what it is. Usually the answer will be. " It is a 
 horse:" from the habit of confounding things 
 with their representatives. Hence, the unre- 
 sisting facility with which children yield their 
 
 the effect of which is to confirm the bad habit 
 referred to, and, in its final result, to extinguish 
 intelligence and destroy mental activity. While 
 
 son f the habits which demand the' teacher's 
 
 to 
 
 are 
 
 nation 
 recog- 
 , as an 
 
 parting facility, readi- 
 hoiit which certain ac- 
 he made, or if made, 
 useless. For example, 
 multiplication table be 
 LOUS effort of mind at 
 
 of its details? The 
 
 (1 by the playing of a 
 ie use of language in 
 I by the varied bodily 
 ily life, (iood habits 
 •lya period as possible; 
 that, when thoroughly 
 rally 
 
 line 
 
 upor 
 
 tance of maki 
 
 those 
 
 qualities and observances habitual, which con- 
 stitute the elements of practical success in every 
 walk of life ; such as punctuality, order, regular- 
 ity, ami perseverance; to which maybe added 
 neatness, courtesy, attention to the wants of 
 others, forbearance, and self-control. For the 
 same reason, bad habits should be eradicated be- 
 fore they have reached that mature state, after 
 which they scarcely ever entirely disappear. It 
 is. indeed, rarely the case that thoroughly fixed 
 habits are wholly removed ; hence, the tea. her 
 should strive to counteract their evil influence, 
 or neutralize their activity, by implanting those 
 of a contrary nature. In dealing with the had 
 habits of children, the teacher should appreciate. 
 and make due allowance for. the force of habit. 
 
1 1 A I) LEY 
 
 He cannot uproot them at once and In \ iolence. 
 
 As time is an important element in their forma- 
 tion. so i< it also in their eradication : anil, there- 
 fore, the child is to be led along a divergent 
 path whieh. liy derives, will conduct liim away 
 from the vicious impulse which, all the while, 
 tends to overpower his host resolutions. •• Hither 
 we should not attempt the conquest of habit." 
 says Miss hide. 'Worth, in l'r,iri,r,il Eiliiniliuii. 
 "or we should persist till we have vanquished. 
 Tin. ntidence whieh the sense of success will 
 
 ill probably, in his own op 
 rorthy of the price. .With 
 
 be thought well worthy 
 
 his reas >n nor his will was in fauli ; all lie 
 
 wanted was strength to break the diminutive 
 
 chains of habit.whieh.it seems, ha \o power to 
 enfeeble the captives exactly in proportion to 
 the length of time they are worn." Whatever 
 force or coercion may be found necessary for 
 
 this piii-p.se should be gradually relaxed, till the 
 
 HALF-TIME SCHOOLS 39t) 
 
 The same year, he commenced his career asa 
 teacher of the Greek language in Yale l ollege 
 filling successively the positions of tutor, assistant 
 profess,,!', and. in L851, professor, succeeding 
 President Woolsey in the latter position. Be 
 was a man of profound and varied scholarship, 
 including linguistic, philological, and mathemat- 
 ical attainments, lie was versed not only in 
 the classical languages, but in most ot the oriental. 
 including Sanskrit. Hebrew, Arabic, and Ar- 
 menian: ah,, in the Gothic, and in many of 
 the modem languages. He was a leading mem- 
 luring 
 . 1 [e 
 ge for 
 
 'f.v. 
 
 self- 
 
 rill 
 
 lei 
 
 ■il fri 
 
 kranz says 
 
 the whole of moral training: there must be the 
 culture of eon-ei iitioi-ii -s. of intelligence, of 
 self-respect, of a constant impression ami recog- 
 nition of the Divine presence, and of all the 
 other principles of human nature, by means oi 
 which it rises to the higher plane of moral re- 
 sponsibility, consciously exercising its own facul- 
 ties, not blindly obeying habitual tendencies re- 
 others. Properly educated, the 
 r, in the exercise of his own will and 
 uli-; - ill ■ power of habit in support 
 moral conclusions, making a useful 
 ho by which so many others are 
 i -la vi -d. In this connection, Ko.-en- 
 • Education must procure for the 
 pupil the power of being able to free himself 
 from one habit and to adopt another. Through 
 his ir iedom he must b • able not only to re- 
 nounce any habit formed, but to form a new 
 one : and he must so govern his system of habits 
 that it shall exhibit a constant progress of de- 
 velopment into greater freedom. We must dis- 
 cipline ourselves, as a means toward the ever- 
 changing realization of the good in us. constantly 
 to form and to break habits." And it is in the 
 attainment of this grand object of self-culture. 
 that habit may render the important aid referred 
 to, in making the exercise of self-criticism, con- 
 scientious watchfulness of our own conduct, and 
 obedience to the dictates of reason and religion, 
 easy and continuous by becoming habitual. 
 Thus it is that the man for whom education has 
 done all that it can do. within the utmost scope 
 of its power, truly finds habit not his master 
 but his ino-t useful servant and friend. 
 
 HADLEY, James, a distinguished American 
 scholar an 1 educator, was born in Fairfield, 
 Herkimer Co., N. Y, March 30.. 1821, and died 
 in Xew Haven, Ot.. Nov. II.. 1872. At the age 
 of 21, he graduated at Yale College, at the head 
 of hi- das, ; and iii 1845, completed a course of 
 study at the Theological Seminary in New 1 Iaven. 
 
 after hi- deat 
 HAEHN, 
 
 educator, bon 
 
 His essay 
 
 tit" < nana 
 
 ;;:/-'i,e';; 
 
 tanLn 
 whii h were 
 
 lid published 
 
 and 
 
 Johann Fiiedrich, a C 
 
 in Kin; died iii 1789. Afte 
 
 I fecker q. v.), and, m I 7.' 
 spector of the hitter's real s 
 tion he perfected his metho 
 
 W r ite, besides other ti'Xtl" 
 
 He 
 ils, a 
 and 
 
 of the.-,'' -viiops.s. he- the peculiarity of his meth- 
 od, called the to • or iter, method, accord- 
 ing to which the first letters of the principal 
 subjects of instruction were written on the 1 oard, 
 with the principal sentences contained in the 
 lesson, which were put down in tabular form. 
 By these m, an- he ,',, -i'-i , ,1 to facilitate not only 
 the memorizing of the lessons, but to produce 
 thoroughness and thoughtfulness in the study of 
 each subject. In every lesson, he illustrated his 
 instruction as much as possible by means of ob- 
 jects, of which he had a large collection. His 
 method was copied and perfected by Felbiger 
 ,i|. v.), but gradually fell into disuse as being 
 sowewhat impracticable. In the latter part of 
 his life, he was appointed director of the gym- 
 nasium in Aurieh, which position he retained 
 until his death. 
 
 HALF-TIME SCHOOLS, a class of schools 
 \\ liieh, as the name denotes, hold their sc.-.-ioiis 
 during only one half of each day. thus affording 
 an opportunity to a numerous class of children, 
 employed in workshops, factories, stores, etc.. to 
 attend school without giving up their employ- 
 ments. They are thus kindred, in object, with 
 evening schools, which in a certain sense, may be 
 considered as half-time schools. The half-time 
 system is encouraged in England by a special 
 government grant, and is said to work well ; espe- 
 cially vi here, by the co-operation of the employers, 
 
400 
 
 II \l,l, 
 
 the pupils (half-timers) are made to attend school 
 with regularity. These half-time sel Is are ex- 
 amined according to the same standards as full- 
 time schools; but the amount paid for half-time 
 regular attendance is only half of that paid for 
 full time. In other parts of Europe, and in some 
 of the cities of the United States, the half-time 
 system is said to have met with encouraging 
 results. This plan originates in the effort to 
 adapt the public schools to the circumstances and 
 needs of .ill i-I.-i~-.i-.- of tin- community; and thus. 
 in a measure al least, supersedes the necessity of 
 compulsory laws. The principle, however, ad- 
 mits of an application without the organization 
 
 system of education. The same object may be 
 carried out, it lias been suggested, by a Imlf- 
 time course of study, with grades and subjects 
 adapted to the purpose of ".nine; the half-time 
 pupils a good elementary education in a reduced 
 time. Of course, some degree of uniformity 
 would be sacrificed bysuch an arrangement; but 
 it is claimed that no real efficiency would be Inst 
 in the actual working of the school system, or in 
 theeducation received. On the contrary, it is 
 urged ilini the union of labia- and schooling has 
 many adxantages. the one a — i-ling the uther : and 
 that the half-time pupils prove, .1- a rule, as apt 
 scholars as their full-time ,-la-s-mates.if not so far 
 advanced. Besides.ii affords an encouragement 
 to manual labor, and gives it an honorable rec- 
 ognition, which is of greal importance in every 
 community, especially where the bo\ who has 
 had even an ordinary school education is prone 
 to look down upon all mechanical trades and 
 artisanship as unworthy, fixing his ambition 
 rather upon mercantile or literary pursuits. The 
 true interests of a community depend in a great 
 measure upon the productive industry oi edu- 
 cated, skillful, and self-respecting artisans; and 
 if the half-time system can foster, in any degree, 
 this important class of occupations, it deserves 
 the attention and support of statesmen and 
 educators. 
 
 HALL, Samuel Read, a noted American 
 teacher, the first principal of the tirst teachers 
 seminary established in the United States, was 
 born in Croydon, X. H., Oct. 27., 1795. His 
 parents having removed to Vermont, he received 
 his early education in that state: but subse- 
 quently attended an academy in New Hamp- 
 shire. He afterwards studied theology, and 
 entered the ministry, during the whole time, 
 however, teaching school. In 1823, he opened 
 a seminary, the special object of which was to 
 educate teachers. This school was composed 
 chiefly of advanced students, but a class of 
 vounger pupils was formed to serve as a model 
 school, lb- wrote and delivered a curs,- of 
 Lectures on School-keeping, and compiled, in 
 1827, the Geography and History of Vermont, 
 which met with much success. In 1829, his 
 Lectures were published; and, about the same 
 time. In- was appointed principal of the English 
 department of Philips Academy, at Andover. 
 
 HAMILTON COLLEGE 
 
 While there, he founded the American School 
 Agents' Society, the object of which was to em- 
 ploy agents to visit different parts of the coun- 
 try, for the purpose, by lectures and otherwise, 
 of awakening an interest in the cause of educa- 
 tion. Mr. Hall was one of the original founders 
 of the American Institute of Instruction. and. in 
 1833, read before it a lecture on the Necessity 
 of Educiting Teachers, in which he said, "In 
 this thirty-tnird year of the 19th century, then- 
 is not. in our whole country, one seminary where 
 the educator of children can be thoroughly quali- 
 fied for his important work." (See Normal 
 Schools.) Between L830and 1838, he published 
 a number of educational works, and also con- 
 tributed ([uite largely to the Annals of Educa- 
 tion. In I837,hewas appointed principal of a 
 teachers' seminary in Plymouth, X. H., and sub- 
 sequently tilled tin- iiHiee i if county superintend- 
 ent in Vermont. His efforts in behalf of normal 
 school instruction were of the most earnest and 
 devoted character, and did much to awaken 
 liublic oiiininn in its behalf. — Sec Barnard 
 
 American Teachers and Edu 
 
 HAMILTON, James, ai 
 
 was born about 1 769, and died 
 
 He removed to Hamburg i 
 
 ,1,-hi 
 
 reliant . 
 ..in 1831. 
 
 Where he 
 nethod of 
 
 i and put 
 
 inlmgthe 
 caching it 
 
 idsal k 
 
 nterlinear 
 ve signifi- 
 ig it. By 
 
 again, a good general idea of the language was 
 obtained a sort of rough-cast for practical use. 
 By this method, of course, all idiomatic and fig- 
 urative expressions, secondary meanings of 
 words, etc. remained to a certain extent unintel- 
 ligible, the learner getting only a general idea of 
 
 the no ng of the sentence. To go further 
 
 than this, however, was beyond 1 1, million's plan. 
 The llainiltonian method ha- had the good effect 
 of inducing teachers of mod, 111 languages to dis- 
 card the old pedantic method of rei|iuring the stu- 
 dent to commit to memory a full set of para- 
 digms and grammatical rules before commencing 
 the actual translation of a single sentence, and 
 has led to the adoption of a system which com- 
 bines the advantages of the llainiltonian method 
 with that formerly pursued. (See Modern 
 Languages.) 
 
 HAMILTON COLLEGE, at Clinton, Onei- 
 da Co., Xew York, was founded in 1812. It 
 is not under the control of any religious de- 
 nomination, but a majority of its board of trust- 
 ees are Presbyterians, or in general sympathy 
 with that denomination. The college buildings 
 stand in a park of 15 acres. The institution has 
 endowments amounting to about S.'lOO.dtlll. It 
 possesses a fine chemical laboratory, unproved 
 philosophical apparatus, geological and mineral- 
 
II IMILTONIAN METHOD 
 
 ogieal cabinets, collections in natural history, an 
 herbarium, and a well-equipped astronomical < > 1 »- 
 
 schools, as follows : 1 1 1 Sr),.„,l ,,r Knqlish litera- 
 
 t ,„•>■; (2) Sch.,,,1 „f !,/,,,„/,.:■<: l':{| Sr'kool of /„„- 
 
 $75 per year. Th 
 ships of from 8 iO 
 of ihv.1v and dese 
 
 The curriculum is the ordinary four years' course 
 of A rican colleges. A Uvss department was 
 
 nectedwith the college, 12 in-.inn-t.ii-, and 171 
 students '_>() law. 1 . >t I collegiate, and I special]. 
 
 The whole number of erf was 1,532, of 
 
 whom 1,054 were living; .it graduates of the 
 law school, 97. The presidents of the college 
 have been as follows : the Rev. \.-. i Backus, 
 S.T !>.. 1812— 16; the Rev. Henry Davis, S.T.D., 
 1817—33; the Rev. Sereno Edwards Dwight, 
 S.T. D., 1833— 5; the Rev Joseph Penney, 
 S. T. D., 1835—9; the Rev. Simeon North. 
 LL. D., S. T. 1)., 1839—57 ; the Rev. Samuel 
 Ware Fisher, S. T. D.. LL. 1)., 1858—66; and 
 the Rev. Samuel Gilman Brown, S.T.D..LL.D., 
 the present incumbent, appointed in 1866. 
 
 HAMILTONIAN METHOD. See Ham- 
 ilton-, James. 
 
 HAMPDEN SIDNEY COLLEGE, in 
 Prince Edward Co.. Va. 7 miles south of Farni- 
 ville. founded in 1770,1-. under 1'iv-liyterian con- 
 trol. The name of the post-office is the same as 
 that of the institution Thecollege is supported 
 by tuition fees and the interest on an endow- 
 ment of $95,000. It adheres to the old college 
 curriculum. The cost of tuition is $60per year, 
 with French, German, and civil engineering as 
 extras. In 1875 — (i. there were 5 instructors 
 and 77 students. The libraries contain about 
 7,(1111) volumes. The presidents have been as fol- 
 lows : the Rev. Stanhope Smith, D. D., I 776 -9; 
 the Rev. J. Blair Smith. D. D., L779 B9 ; the 
 Eev. Dury Lacy, 1789—97 ; the Rev. Archibald 
 Alexander. 1797— lsof>; the Rev. Wm. S. R.-id. 
 1806; the Rev. Moses Hone. 1807 — 20; Jo- 
 nathan P. Gushing, A. M., L821— 35; the Rev 
 Geo. Baxter, D. 1)., 1835—6; the Rev. D I.. 
 Carroll, D. P.. L836— 8; the Hon. Wm. Max- 
 well, 1838—44; the Rev. P. J. Sparrow. I>. I) 
 1845—7; the Rev. S. B. Wilson, I). D., 1847 
 —8; the Rev. L. W.Green, D. D., 1848 — 56; 
 the Rev. A. L. llolladav. 1856; and the Rev. J. 
 M. P. Atkinson. 1). D., the present incumbent, 
 appointed in 1857. 
 
 HANNIBAL COLLEGE, at 1 lannibal. Mo., 
 under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church, South, was founded, in 1869, for the 
 education of both sexes. It has an endowment 
 of 35 acres of land, and possesses chemical, 
 physiological, astronomical, and other scientific 
 and philosophical apparatus. It is supported by 
 tuition fees. Thecollege is divided int..;: depart- 
 ments: prepan y, high-school, and collegiate. 
 
 These three departments are sub-divided into six 
 
 eluding vocal and instrumental music, painting, 
 drawing, wax-work, and worsted work. A com- 
 mercial course and an evening school have been 
 organized. The cost of tuition, in the preparatory 
 department, is $10.50 per quarter; in the aca- 
 demic and collegiate, $12.50. In L875— 6, there 
 
 were 1 I instructor.- and 1 1(1 students. The Rev. 
 • I. I-'. Hamilton was president from 1869—1871, 
 when the present incumbent, the Rev. Leo Baier, 
 was appointed. 
 
 HANOVER COLLEGE, at Hanover, Ind., 
 organized in ls-_<7. and chartered in 1833, is 
 under the control ,,f the Presbyterians. It has 
 a campus of 16 acres and a tine college build- 
 ing. It.-, entire grounds embrace over 200 acres. 
 The libraries contain about 7,500 volumes. The 
 value of it* buildings, ".rounds, and apparatus is 
 $145,000; the amount of its productive funds, 
 6100,000. Tuition is free. The institution has 
 a preparatory and a collegiate department, the 
 latter comprising a classical and a scientific course. 
 In 1875 — 6. there were 10 instructors and 135 
 students (74 collegiate and 61 preparatory). The 
 Rev. Geo. C. Hickman. D. P.. is (1876) the pres- 
 ident. 
 
 HARMONY in Development, as regards 
 both the mental and bodily faculties, is now 
 ts as th.- most important 
 
 One 
 ■ P&dn 
 
 the pupil shoul 
 sible. and all t 
 incuts of educ 
 
 wnnout interruption, ana in One proportion. 
 The intellect should not be favored at the ex- 
 pense ot the moral and phvsical nature: and 
 hygienic considerations should not be left out of 
 view. The teacher should be especially careful 
 not to accord too much time and attention to 
 favorite branches of study." The latter is a very 
 important admonition. Every course of study 
 should be arranged with a view to the average 
 
 c lition of the growing mind and its needs; 
 
 and. therefore, should comprise sin-h a variety of 
 subjects as will call into exercise the different 
 mental powers, and thus become instruments 
 in their culture and development. The scientific 
 teacher will, however, watch for decided peculi- 
 arities of character.-- special aptitudes, traits of 
 genius, etc., and will modify his course of pro- 
 ceeding so as. while giving scope for the unfold- 
 ing of these particulai powers, or talents, not. 
 to permit them to rein-ess the growth of other 
 indispensable faculties. Thus, a pupil may show 
 a special inclination and talent for drawing, 
 which may very properly be allowed its full 
 development; but, in doing this, the educator 
 is not to permit all other mental or manual oc- 
 
■1 <">•_> 
 
 HARMONY 
 
 eupations to be neglected. Indeed, this special 
 gift may be kept in abeyance, and stimulus ap- 
 plied, for a time at least, to penmanship, and to 
 the study of language, science, or other impor- 
 tant subjects. Some pupils, as a further example, 
 may be too prone to the exercise of the imagina- 
 tion ; in which case, they should be required to 
 study science or mathematics. ( Ithers may show 
 an almost exclusive bent for calculation or 
 mathematical reasoning, which must, of course, 
 be corrected by the pursuit of studies calling 
 into exercise other powers of the mind ; such as 
 history, general literature, mental philosophy, 
 etc. Knowledge is sometimes called the food of 
 the mind, by the assimilation of which its various 
 powers are nourished; hence, to continue the 
 metaphor, there should be a due variety ol this 
 food, and the different kinds should he selected 
 with a view to the particular condition and 
 invd< of the system which is to be supplied with 
 nutriment. As in physical education, if a pupil 
 manifests any signs of abnormal development or 
 morbid growth, such, for example, as distortion 
 of the limbs or curvature of the spine, continu- 
 ous exercises and postures are prescribed to 
 correct this tendency: so, in every department 
 of education, a harmonious development can 
 only result from a discriminative application of 
 those agencies which call into active and habitual 
 exercise the powers of mind and body. Such a 
 development implies, too, a full recognition of 
 all the relations and powers of the human being, 
 embracing not only the cultivation of those 
 capacities which concern him as an individual. 
 but also those on which his happiness and use- 
 fulness as a social and moral hem- depend How 
 miserable is the mere student, the solitary genius, 
 cut off from the exercise of the social sympathies 
 and deprived of social enjoyments by a one-sided 
 development! It is no answer to this, that the 
 world may be benefited by his brilliant thoughts 
 and his deep intuitions ; for the interests of the 
 individual, as such, claim consideration : and be- 
 sides that, the best creations of genius have been 
 often impaired or marred by the effects of this 
 morbid development. Of this Byron, Shelley. 
 and Poe are examples. The educator must 
 recognize that there is a body, a mind, and a 
 soul to be addressed and cultivated ; and that 
 man has social, moral, and religious faculties, 
 without the harmonious development of which 
 he cannot properly fulfil his destiny, nor attain 
 happiness. The special claims of particular vo- 
 cations, it is said, demand one-sided culture. Of 
 this there is no doubt : but, preceding it, and 
 hence underlying it, there should be such gene- 
 ral culture as the circumstances of man. as man, 
 require. Profession or business comprehends, 
 in general, but one relation; and unfortunate, 
 therefore, is he who can meet the demands of 
 only that relation, unable to perform aright the 
 domestic, social, political, and religious duties 
 which are inseparably connected with the posi- 
 tion of every person in this life. In order to 
 perform these duties, every pel-son is endowed 
 with special faculties, which, by the want of 
 
 HARNISCH 
 
 proper cultivation in early life, or by disuse, 
 may be so enfeebled as to be unfit for exercise ; 
 and the harmonious development of these is the 
 only true aim of education. If all these facul- 
 ties do not. at an early age. receive their due 
 share of training, self-education, at a later period, 
 cannot, but within very narrow limits, supply 
 the deficiency. The individual w ill always find 
 himself more or less crippled, because no self- cult- 
 ure can entirely supply the place of early habits. 
 To the doctrine ol harmonious development. 
 it has been objected that special innate endow- 
 ments cannot be repri ssi d by > ducat ion : and to 
 address other faculties w ill only 1 
 ing superficial accomplishments 
 value. Thus a youth ol decide 
 
 y i-i ,-u It in hestow- 
 ta of no practical 
 ded mathematical 
 genius could never become more than an im- 
 perfect linguist : and .me with special talent for 
 language would be likely to make but indifferent 
 
 ment, however, does not require the repression 
 of special endowments, but the cultivation of 
 what may In- called the general powers, in such 
 a way as to gm- support to each particular 
 endowment. A wise educational training, com- 
 menced at the earliest childhood, and continued 
 through each successive period of the formative 
 state of human character, will not only fit for 
 any particular vocation for which there may lie a 
 .special bent, but will also prepare the individual 
 for general usefulness, and render him able to 
 enjoj the wonders of science, and the beauties 
 of nature and art. as well as to participate in all 
 other pleasures incident to his existence as a 
 social and rational being. (See Genius.) 
 
 HARNISCH. Christian Wilhelm, a Ger- 
 man educator and writer, born Aug. 28., 17m',. 
 died Aug. 18., 1866. After studying at the uni- 
 versities of Halle and Frankfort mi the Oder, and 
 acquainting himself, in Merlin, with Pestalozzi's 
 method, he was appointed, in 1812, teacher in 
 the training school of Breslau : and. in 1822, 
 director of the training school of Weissenfels. 
 In 1847, he became pastor of a church in a small 
 town, and remained in that position until 1861. 
 S( ion afterwards, he was seized with insanity, from 
 which he never recovered. In his writings, as 
 well as in all his teachings, he gave a prominent 
 place to religion, and to bodily exercises, such as 
 bathing, gymnastics, etc. He also took great 
 interest in the education of deaf-mutes. The 
 influence which he exerted on the development 
 of the common-school system of Prussia, was 
 very considerable. Among his most important 
 works are. Die deutschen Volksschulen (1812), 
 which appeared in a revised form under the title 
 of Handbuchrur das d, utschi Folicsi 
 
 I In 
 
 Volkssch.ule, zu Kirche, Stoat and Earn (1848). 
 
 The autobiography of I larnisoh was published 
 after his death by Schmieder (Mein Lebens- 
 morgen, 1868). 
 
HAltV AKI ) UN I V EESITY 
 
 103 
 
 HARTLIB, Samuel, was the son of a Folisli 
 erchant of Ebbing, Prussia. His mother, be- 
 
 at Mi 
 Hiss 
 
 
 the annuity above mentioned, he is thought to 
 
 have died in want. — See Barnard's Journal <</' 
 Edueation,voh. xi. and xn. 
 
 HARTSVILLE UNIVERSITY, at Harts 
 ville, End., under the control of the United 
 Brethren in Christ, was chartered in L851. It 
 grew out .if the Hartsville Academy, which was 
 transferred.by its trustees to the church, in 1848. 
 It is supported chiefly by donations and tnitio,, 
 fees. The available endowment amounts to 
 $20,000; the entire endowment is $54,000. The 
 college hasa good achromatic telescope, philosoph- 
 ical ami chemical apparatus, and an increas- 
 ing cabinet. The library contains between 700 
 and 800 volumes. The regular tuition fees vary 
 from $15 to $21 per year. It has a preparatory 
 and a collegiate department, with a classical and 
 a scientific course : also a theological department. 
 Facilities are afforded for instruction in the com 
 mercial branches and in music. In 1*74 — 5, there 
 were 9 instructors and 159 students, of whom 71 
 were of the collegiate grade. The principals and 
 presidents have been as follows : James Mc. D. 
 Miller. 1849—52; David Shuck. 1852—64; 
 John W. Serilmer. 1864—73; David Shuck, 
 1873 — 1; and the Rev. William J. Pruner, the 
 present incumbent, appointed in 1874. 
 
 HARVARD, John, an English non-con- 
 formist divine, who graduated at the university 
 of ( 'aiiibridge.in 1631, and emigrated to Charles- 
 town, Mass., where he died Sept. 24., 1638. Few 
 particulars of his life are known. He appears, 
 however, to have been active outside of his pro- 
 fession, as we find him appointed, in 1638, "to 
 consider of some things tending toward a body 
 of laws." At his death, he bequeathed £700 and 
 about 300 volumes for the founding of a college. 
 the present Harvard University of Cambridge. 
 The alumni of the university, in 1828, erected 
 a granite monument to his memory in the burial 
 ground of Charlestown. The address on this oc- 
 casion was delivered by Edward Everett, who 
 
 was afterwards president of the university. (See 
 IIakv m;h University.) 
 
 HARVARD UNIVERSITY, the oldest 
 institution of learning in the United States, com- 
 prehends Harvard College, the Divinity School 
 the Law School, the Medical School, the Dental 
 
 School, tile L, »;;,,.■■ S ■,-;, >,/,,,/.,!„. /;,,,. 
 
 • /„,/, 
 
 ./. the Botanic 
 
 
 fen 
 
 Abrary, the / 
 
 nil, 
 
 ,,/„ 
 
 \rchmology and 
 if the University 
 
 ete.l by certain' 
 
 Eth 
 
 lull 
 liar 
 
 e all 
 
 Medl 
 
 i. I<il 
 
 Mas>ae 
 
 :d S, 
 
 : No. 50 Allen street. Boston : and the Bussey 
 istitution. at Jamaica Plain, now within the 
 mits of Boston. The Episcopal Theological 
 
 struction given in any other department, with 
 the exception of exercises carried on in the spe- 
 cial laboratories. No one is excluded from any 
 department on account of color. 
 
 In 1636, the colonial legislature agreed to give 
 €4(iii toward a school or college, but whether this 
 sum was ever actually paid is doubtful. In L639.it 
 was -ordered, that the colledge agreed upon for- 
 merly to bee built at ( 'ambridu fhal bee called 
 Harvard Colledge," in honor of the Rev. John 
 Harvard of < harlestown, who, dying in 1638,had 
 left to the institution about £700 and a library of 
 over 300 volumes. The college was opened in 1638, 
 and the first class [D I graduated in 1642. The same 
 year a board of overseers was constituted; and. in 
 lii.'ili, a charter was granted, under which the 
 institution became a corporation, with the title of 
 the "President and Fellows of Harvard College." 
 In early times, it received much legislative aid, 
 and was intimately connected with the govern- 
 ment. but its connection with the Commonwealth 
 was dissolved in 1865. The corporation consists 
 of the president, five fellows,, and the treasurer, 
 who, subject to the. confirmation of the overseers, 
 fill their own vacancies. The board of overseers 
 is composed of the president and treasurer, ex 
 officio, and 30 members, elected by the graduates 
 of five years' standing, and holding office six years, 
 five being chosen each year. The corporation 
 nominates the professors and other officers of in- 
 struction constituting the different faculties of 
 the University, who must be confirmed by the 
 board of overseers. The Medical School was 
 estalilishi.il in 1 7*2. the Botanic harden in 18117, 
 
 the Law School in 1817, the Divinity Sel 1 in 
 
 1819. and the Observatory in 1839. 'The Law- 
 rence Scientific School was founded, in 1-17.1 y 
 Abbott Lawrence, by a gift oi $ 0,1 
 i piently increased. The Museum of Comparative 
 Zoology was established, in 1 85!), by a grant from 
 the state and the gifts of individuals through the 
 influence of Agassiz, who was its director till his 
 
404 
 
 HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
 
 death, and whose invaluable collections are here 
 deposited. The Peabody Museum was founded by 
 George Peabody, who gave 8150,000 in ism;. 
 The Dental School was organized in 1868. The 
 Bussey Institution was endowed by the will of 
 Benjamin Bussey, in 1842. The lands belonging 
 to the University in Cambridge, comprise about 
 60 acres. The college yard contains about 22 
 acres, tastefully laid nut and adorned with many 
 stately elms. In the yard, are 21 buildings, in- 
 cluding the president's house, four professors' 
 houses, the chapel, library, law school, and seven 
 dormitories, the remaining six buildings being 
 
 used for offices, recitation r is, laboratories, etc. 
 
 The oldest of these is Massachusetts I [all, erected 
 in 1720, and occupied by Continental troops in 
 
 1775—6. Adjacent to the yard, are i» her 
 
 dormitories, the Gymnasium, Memorial Mall, and 
 the Lawrence Scientific school. A little north. and 
 near i ach other, are the Museum of Comparative 
 Zoology and the Divinity School; and about three 
 fourths of a mile X. \V. and also near each other, 
 the Observatory, and the Botanic Harden and 
 Herbarium. The most magnificent building is 
 the Memorial Hall, erected at a cost of sr.'n. no. i 
 by the alumni and friends of the college in com- 
 memoration of the students ami graduates of the 
 University who died in the national service dup- 
 ing the civil war of 1861— 5. It is built of red and 
 black brick, with copings and wi 
 Nova Scotia stone, and is 310 ft 
 wide. The interior comprises th 
 ments : a dining hall, 1 (', 1 by 60 ft 
 capable .if seating 100(1 peT80ns 
 tibule. 1 1 2 by 30 ft., and 60ft. hij 
 ders theater, for commencement 
 arranged, on the plan of classic 
 • ■oiiiiuodutine; 1.J0II spectators. 
 said to be the grandest college hi 
 is used for college festivals, and 
 Hall Association, an organizatioi 
 managed by students for the pur 
 ing board at cost. Its walls ar 
 portraits of former college worthies, and 
 windows are intended to be memorial. Between 
 the dining hall and the theater is the memorial 
 vestibule, surmounted by a tower 200 ft. high. 
 The interior is surrounded by an arcade of black 
 walnut, with marble tablets inscribed with the 
 names of 1 10 students commemorated, and the 
 dates and places of their death. The walls above 
 are simply decorated, in color, with Latin inscrip- 
 tions concerning patriotism, duty, and immor- 
 tality. The property of the University, in 1876, 
 (not including the buildings, collections, and pub- 
 
 licgroiiiulsi; muted to S3.1 .' J '. i ."_! I s. The income 
 
 of the University, in 1874— 5, was §473,305. The 
 libraries of the University contain, in the aggre- 
 gate, 211,000 volumes. They include the follow- 
 ing: Mi College Library (in (hire Hall), l.Vi.DIHI 
 vols.; (2) Library of the Botanic Garden, 1,000 
 
 vols.; (3) Of the' Divinity School, 17. vols.; 
 
 (!) Of the Medical School. 2. I vols.; ,.',) Of the 
 
 Museum of Comparative Zoology, 12.000 vols.; 
 (6) Law Library, 15,000 vols.; (7) Libraries in 
 the Liwrence Scientific School, 3,000 vols.; 
 
 grand apart- 
 d 80 ft. high, 
 emorial ves- 
 
 hung 
 
 edand 
 ■upply- 
 
 ith the 
 
 is, 1 "hillips Library at the < Observatory. 3,000 vols. 
 
 There are also 1 .1.0110 or 20.000 voiumes iu the 
 
 society libraries of the students. There are two 
 physical and three chemical laboratories, a zoolog 
 
 ical, a physiological, and ago logical and pal; i- 
 
 tological laboratory at the Museum of Com- 
 parative Zoology, a mineralogical collection in 
 Boylston Hall, and extensive natural history col- 
 lections at the Museum of Comparative Zoology. 
 The large collections of the Peabody Museum are 
 exhibited in Boylston Hall. The Cray collec- 
 tion of engravings in Core Hall holds a high 
 rank. The Observatory is admirably ecpiipped 
 with astronomical instruments, including one of 
 the best equatorials in the world. The instruc- 
 tion of the College and Scieiitilie Sel 1. in prac- 
 tical astronomy and geodesy, is given at the Ob- 
 Bervatory; in Botany, at the Botanic Garden; 
 and in zoology, geology, and paleontology, at the 
 Museum of i lomparative Zoology. The course of 
 studies in the College leads to the degree of 
 Bachelor of Arts, and covers fouryears. The cur- 
 riculum is extended and varied, being so arranged 
 that the old prescribed college course may be 
 pursued, or other courses, according to the taste 
 or purposes of the student. The studies of the 
 freshman year are prescribed. The [prescribed 
 studies of the sophomore year till four hours a 
 
 week in history and rhetoric; and those of the 
 
 junior year, two hours a week in philosophy, be- 
 sides certain written exercises. In the senior 
 year only certain written exercises are prescribed; 
 sophomores are required to take ten hours a 
 week of elective studies ; and juniors and seniors, 
 twelve hours. The attendance by seniors upon 
 recitations is voluntary. Several' of the fresh- 
 man studies may be anticipated at the entrance 
 
 examination; and the prescribed Bopho e and 
 
 junior studies may be anticipated at the same 
 time, or by examinations at the beginning of the 
 respective years. Written e x aminations form a 
 marked feature of the method of instruction, oc- 
 curring frequently, during term time, in the dif- 
 ferent branches, and at the close of each year, 
 in the studies of the year. Special honors 
 are given at graduation for excellence in the 
 following departments : ancient languages, clas- 
 sics, modern languages, philosophy, history, math- 
 ematics, physics, chemistry, natural history. music. 
 For honors' in modern languages, the candidate 
 must present himself for examination in Italian, 
 Spanish, or English, as well as in French and 
 German. One of the ancient languages must be 
 Hebrew or Sanskrit, in addition to Latin and 
 Creek. A grade of second-year honors in clas- 
 sics and mathematics has been established, open 
 to sophomores and juniors, and to seniors who 
 intend to be candidates for final honors after 
 graduation. For final honors in ancient lan- 
 guages and classics, second-year honors in classics 
 must have been taken ; and, for final honors in 
 mathematics, second-year honors in the same 
 department. The requisitions for admission at 
 Harvard are higher than in any other college in 
 the country. Instead of passing the entire en- 
 trance examination at the time of admission to 
 
HARVARD UNIVERSITY 405 
 
 .liege, candidates for the freshman class may occupies three years ; the instruction of tin- iii>i 
 e examined upon five or i « subjects the year year is given al the Lawrence Scientific School. 
 
 \\ , stern students. In all tuition 
 rses were thrown open meritoriou 
 md upward, nol candi- among Ai 
 
 Harvard is 
 
 ilect. Tli.- tail 
 
 A cilt rtKMti- < it prutlrlrliry will In- -imii l.i.-i 
 
 as pursue their studies for a year, and pass sal 
 fartury examinations. (I'"nr : i 1 . 1 1 1 1 . . 1 1 . 1 1 .1,1. 
 I'l'spri'liiiii tin' ri-i|iiisiiiiiiis f..r . i- li 1 1 1 — ]• hi ainl i 
 
 in the college is 8150 per year. ' »in- hunch 
 ami four scholarships have been establi&hi 
 
 varying in annual i le from 840 to $300, 
 
 the aid of needy .nil deserving students. Tib 
 an dso beneficiary funds having an annual 
 come of al.-. lit ST. 1 -". whi.-l, i- MMtallv -liMiil.nl 
 
 -ar. Ninescholar 
 
 n is 850 
 iblished, 
 260; and 
 of needy 
 
 thi 
 
 scholars of high chat 
 s •l.li.m or never oblij 
 of money." In the 
 live regular courses, 
 civil and topographi 
 
 ing, ct which the t 
 with the first three > 
 leading t<> thedegre • 
 Mia. Bachelor of Sc 
 
 1 1 \ . .nil pb 
 
 ,-|.-. fo 
 
 is8150per 
 
 year 1 
 
 School ... \ 
 
 
 was. in l-T 
 
 
 tific School 
 
 The 1! 
 
 estate of 3f 
 farm, green 
 
 An,. .1.1 \il 
 
 houses, 
 
 o the regular course 
 ttns or science from 
 
 iitit'n- scl I. or pass 
 
 ns not candidates for 
 ,1 tu partial courses 
 
 era! 
 
 Sty 
 
 Massachusel 
 
 II..-1.11.1I. Willi 
 
 •s tor 
 ictical 
 rgery. 
 
 labo- of each. The degre 
 
 i la- cine is conferred n 
 
 degre. and upward, w bo hi 
 
 I vars ;ld 
 ine or den 
 
HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
 
 tistry three full years (at least one continuous 
 year at this school), upon presenting a satisfac- 
 tory thesis, and passing the required examinations. 
 The infirmary, a department of the Massachusetts 
 General Hospital, affords opportunity for prac- 
 tical instruction. Th st of tuition is $200 for 
 
 the first year,$l 50 for the second.and $50 for any 
 subsequent year. The degrees of Master of Arts. 
 Doctor of Philosophy, and Doctor of Science. 
 imply a post-graduate course of study, and are 
 conferred upon examination only. The degree oi 
 A. M, was conferred in course without examina- 
 tion for the last time in 1872. The degree of 
 Doctor of Science is open to Bachelors of Science 
 or Philosophy, who arc required to reside at least 
 two years at the University and pursue, during 
 three years, a course of scientific study, embra- 
 cing at least two subjects, aftd pass an examination 
 in the same. The other two degrees are open to 
 Bachelors of Arts. Candidates for the degree of 
 Master of Arts are required to pursue, for at least- 
 one year at the University, an approved course of 
 liberal study, and pass an examination in the 
 same. Candidates for the degree of Doctor of 
 Philosophy are required to pursue, at the Uni- 
 versity for two years, a course of liberal study 
 (and pass an examination in the same) in one of 
 the following departments: namely, philology, 
 philosophy, history, political science, mathemat- 
 ics, physics, natural history, or music. The degree 
 of Master of Arts is also conferred upon candi- 
 dates who pursue, at the University, at least one 
 year after taking the degree of Bachelor of 
 Laws, Bachelorof Divinity, or Doctor of Medi- 
 cine in Harvard University, an approved course 
 of study in law, theology, or medicine, and passan 
 examination in the same. Post graduate courses 
 
 of study have, accordingly. 1 u established in 
 
 the three professional schools, as well as in the 
 College and Scientific School. The fees for 
 these courses range from $50 to $150 per year, 
 which, however, are remitted to needy and meri- 
 torious students. The examination fees, $30 for 
 A.M. and $60 for each of the other two degrees, 
 are not remitted. Six fellowships have been es- 
 tablished, with an annual income of from $600 
 to $1000 each, to aid graduates of the University 
 in pursuing a postgraduate course of liberal 
 study. Summer courses of instruction, especially 
 designed for teachers, are given in chemistry and 
 mineralogy, botany, and geology. The first is 
 given in lioylston Hall. Tin' course in pheno- 
 
 sea-shore; and that in geology, at present, at Cum- 
 berland Cap, Ky., in connection with the state 
 geological survey. The fee for the geological 
 course is $50; for the others $25. In 1875, these 
 courses were attended "by 98 persons, as follows: 
 chemistry 10; botany, 27 ; geology 31. Among 
 those in chemistry and botany were women, who 
 
 in English, French, physical geography, elemen- 
 tary botany or elementary physics, arithmetic, 
 algebra through <|uadratic equations, plane geom- 
 etry, history, and German, Latin, or Greek; 
 (2) An advanced examination for young women, 
 not less than L8 years old, who have passed the 
 
 to those who pass satisfactorily. The fee for the 
 preliminary examination is $15; for the advanced, 
 $10. Two preliminary and three advanced cer- 
 tificates were granted in 1875. — In 1875 — 6, 
 besides 26 proctors, librarians, and other officers 
 there were 128 teachers of various grades as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 are 
 
 liilsscy llistltiltiim 
 Divinity School. . . . 
 
 I.;i\v School 
 
 Meilii'iil School 
 
 Dental School 
 
 Jliiscuinol Compnr 
 
 ative Zoology. . . 
 
 Ohservntory 
 
 nous departments ol the I Diversity. In 1S|4. 
 
 examinations for Women Were established, of two 
 
 grades: (1) A general or preliminary examination 
 for young women not less than 17 years of age, 
 
 Total, deducting 
 
 repetitions -.-■ -i - .- -• — 
 
 [n the College, there are professorships of Ger- 
 man ; Christian morals : astronomy and mathe- 
 matics: natural religion, moral philosophy, and 
 civil polity : matlieinat ics and natural philosophy; 
 ancient. Byzantine, and modem Greek; ancient, 
 and modern history: anatomy; the French and 
 Spanish languages and literatures: belles-let- 
 tres; rhetoric and oratory; Latin; the history 
 of art; chemistry and mineralogy; political 
 economy ; Greek literature; modern languages; 
 history; mathematics; and music. In the other 
 departments of the University, besides those 
 strictly professional, there are professorships of 
 natural history: engineering; geology ; elocution; 
 entomology; the application of science to the use- 
 ful arts; applied zoology; astronomy and geodesy; 
 Hebrew and other oriental languages ; zoology; 
 agricultural chemistry : topographical engineer- 
 in.' ; and palaeontology. The whole number of 
 different students, in 1875—6, deducting repeti- 
 tions, was 1 .2<;;j. distributed as follows : 
 
 Departments Number. Departments. Number 
 
 Resident Graduates 54 Scientifio School 34 
 College Students 776 Medical " 192 
 
 Divinity School 19 Dental " 33 
 
 La W ' " 161 Bussey Institution 5 
 
 Of the resident graduates. 35 were candidates 
 for higher degrees, and 6, holders of fellowships; 
 of the college under graduates, 148 were seniors, 
 l'.U juniors, L82 sophomores, and 252 fresh- 
 men. The following degrees were conferred at 
 the commencement in 1876: A.B., 136; S.B.,3; 
 C E 1 ; D. M, l>.. L0; M. D.,36; LL. B.. 49 ; 
 D. B., 5 ; A. M., 7 ; Ph. D., 5 ; S. D., 1 ; accord- 
 
ing to the triennial catalogue of 1875, the whole 
 Dumber of alumni of the college was 8,741. of 
 
 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 407 
 
 HAVEN, Erastus Otis, an American 
 clergyman and educator, born in Boston, Mass., 
 Nov.' I 1820. After graduating a! Wesleya 
 
 '. be taughl 
 N'ew York; 
 i the Meth- 
 
 - •M 
 thi 
 
 anted 
 versitj 
 
 I, h 
 
 served 
 
 Samuel Langdon, 177 1 80; Joseph Willard, 
 L78] L804; Samuel Webber, 1806 L0; John 
 Thornton Cirkland, 1810—28; Josiah Quincy, 
 1829—45; Edward Everett, 1846 — 19; Jared 
 Sparks, 1849 53; James Walker, 1853—60; 
 Cornelius Conway Felton, 1860—62; Thomas 
 Bill, 1862— 68 ; and Charles William Eliot, the 
 
 HATTY, Valentin, distinguished for his phil- 
 anthropic efforts in behalf of the blind, and as the 
 inventor of an apparatus for their instruction, 
 was born at Saint-Just, in France, in 1745, and 
 died in 1822. Be was brother to the distin- 
 guished French mineralogist, Abbe (Rene Just) 
 Hatiy. Bis remarkable zeal and success in the 
 cause to which he devoted his life, fully entitled 
 him to the appellation conferred upon him in 
 France, the Apostl oftii i Blind. I lis interest 
 
 tin- presidency of 
 at Kvanston, 111.; 
 
 night 1 1 it 'i ii to read by means of carved lett 
 hicli could lie moved, in the grooves of a bo; 
 id combined into words like type. The n 
 :' books led him to invent the raised print. 
 
 Milled 
 
 and. in 1 iSli, he published at 
 tion of the blind, in which hi 
 of instruction. The Aca len 
 it to be the best that had 
 fully endorsed it. This led 
 
 . In L869, he accepted 
 rth-western University, 
 1872, was elected hist 
 corresponding secretary of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal board of education. In .lime. Is7t. he 
 was appointed chancellor of the Syracuse I'ni- 
 versity, in New York. His chief publications 
 are Tfte Young Man Advised (N .Y ., 1855), Pil- 
 lars of Truth (1860), and Rhetoric,a TextrBook 
 for Schools (1869). 
 HAVERFORD COLLEGE, in Montgom- 
 
 itlic, 
 
 is the same as that of the institution. It is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees, contributions, and an en- 
 dowment fund of about $120,000. It has fine 
 college buildings and grounds. The libraries 
 contain about L1.000 volumes. It includes a 
 full collegiate course and a scientific course. In 
 1874 — ''.there were 5 instructors and 49 stu- 
 dents. The president of the college is Thomas 
 Chase (1876). 
 
 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS, or Sandwich 
 Islands, a group of islands in the Pacific ocean, 
 forming an independent kingdom; area ~, fi'l'.l sip 
 
 miles; population, in 1872, 56,877. Of these, 
 49,044 were natives; 889, Americans; 2,521, Eu- 
 ropeans; '.Ms:., half breeds; and 1,938, Chinese. 
 The total i 'atholic population, in L873, was about 
 23,000; the remainder were Protestants. The 
 native race is rapidly dying out, having been 
 
 nt a 
 
 •ook, 
 
 tury, 
 
 of 2 francs. In Ism'., he received, from the 
 
 emperor Alexander, a call to St. Petersburg, 
 where he founded a similar institution; but his 
 labors were interrupted by the war which broke 
 out. in 1812, between France and Russia, and 
 he returned to Paris, where he spent the re- 
 mainder of his life in retirement.- See V. llnu.il 
 and the Instruction of the Blind, in Barnard's 
 Jam-mil of Education. (See also Blind, Edu- 
 cation OF TIIE.J 
 
 the accomplishment ot reading became so popular. 
 
 island of the group for the purpose of introduc- 
 ing it. The schools grew rapidly, being at one 
 tune 900 in number, with about 52,000 pupils, 
 most of whom were adults. Besides reading and 
 
40S 
 
 HAWAIIAN ISLANDS 
 
 writing, arithmetic and geography were taught, 
 of which twu studies the Hawaiians are very 
 fond. The instruction, however, was necessarily 
 of a very primitive character. The American 
 Board of Foreign Missions Sustained, from L830 
 to 1840, schools at each of their stations, intended 
 
 as models for the native sel Is. When, in 1839, 
 
 the French Roman Catholic mission had been 
 firmly settled, it established its own schools, 
 which, although not so numerous as the others, 
 have always been prominent in the educational 
 history of these islands. The first written con- 
 stitution and laws were promulgated in 1840; 
 and among the latter was one for the establish- 
 ment of schools, which was 'amended in 1841. 
 This law had for its model the school law of 
 Massachusetts. In 1846, a minister of public in- 
 struction was appointed, which office was after- 
 wards changed to that of president of the board 
 of education. In 1865, a new school law was 
 promulgated, which, with few changes, is in 
 operation at the present time. 
 
 School System. — There is a board of edu- 
 cation of five members, appointed by the kino-. 
 The duties of the former minister of public 
 instruction, which were transferred to the pres- 
 ident of the board of education, are exercised 
 by the inspector general. This official is appointed 
 by the board, and is required to visit all the 
 schools, to direct what stud: s are to be pursued, to 
 
 grant certificates of qualification to teachers, and 
 lo ivMiki the same for proper i-au-e No clergy- 
 man of any denomination can hold this position. 
 The board appoints a school agent in each of 
 the twenty-five districts into which the islands 
 are divided, who is the local executive officer of 
 the board. The agent, the district judge, and 
 an elective member, yearly balloted for by the 
 parents of the district, together form a district 
 school board. This board has the power to ap- 
 point and remove teachers. subject to an appeal to 
 the board of education. The school sessions are I 
 held from 9 A. M. to 2 P. M., with two inter- 
 missions, one of 15 minutes and the other of 30 
 minutes. Every teacher is required to have a 
 certificate of competency from the inspector 
 general, and must attend the quarterly 
 teachers' institutes, of which there are three in 
 Hawaii, and one in each of the other islands. 
 There is no normal school, but most of the 
 teachers receive their education in the Lahaina- 
 luna seminary. The usual salary of teachers is 
 50 cents a day. The Hawaiian language is the 
 only medium of instru -non in the schools, in 
 which tuition is free, with the exception of the 
 Fnion school al Hilo, which is the first attempt 
 at a gra led school on the islands. English is 
 taught in thi~ school in the higher class. Ml 
 children betwe i the ag i and 1 I are re- 
 quired to attend ho il. This law is enforce. I by 
 tines and oilier penalties. 
 
 School a Uistii s. - The statistics for L872 are 
 
 .as follows: Com t schools, 202, with 3,574 
 
 boys and 2,700 girls; government boarding- 
 schools 3, with 205 boys ; govern at day schools 
 
 5. with 34 I boys, and I 18 girls : boarding-schools 
 
 HAZING 
 
 aided by the government, 9, with 170 boys and 
 1 - ' T girls : day schools aided by the government. 
 8, with L68 boys and 106 girls ; independenf 
 boarding-schools I. with IS boys and 7s girls; 
 and independent day schools 14, with .'112 boys 
 267 girls; making a total of 245 schools, with 
 4,791 boys, and 3,496 girls; or, in all, 8,287 pupils. 
 The Lahainaluna seminary, in I-ahaina, is a col- 
 lege for native males. It was founded, in 1831, 
 by the American mission ; but is, at present, 
 supported and controlled directly by the govern- 
 ment. Like the American colleges, itr- course of 
 study embrace, a period of tour wars. It had, 
 
 I lonollllu. 
 
 Ildc 
 
 chartered in 1849. It is the principal institution 
 for English-speaking youths of both sexes, and 
 has. at present. 75 pupils. There are six female 
 seminaries, with 358 pupils. These schools re- 
 ceive a small portion of their support from the 
 government. —See Lyons. Education in the 
 Hawaiian Islands, in the Report of the U. S. 
 Commissioner of Education, L872 ; Nordhoff, 
 Xmi/nrn California, Onyoti, ami the Sand- 
 wich Island* (1874). 
 
 HAYTI, a Negro republic in the A\ est In- 
 dies. Us area is about 9,232 square miles, and 
 its population, about 572,(100. of whom the great 
 majority are of negro extraction. The prevail- 
 ing religion is the Roman Catholic, but other 
 sects are tolerated. The language of the country 
 i- French. The island oi Hayti was discovered 
 by Columbus on Dec. ■">..! 192. The western part 
 of this island was. in 1 < '. ! ' T - formally annexed by 
 France; but the eastern pari remained, for a long 
 time, a dependency of Spain. See Santo Do- 
 mingo.) In L791,thenegroesol Bayti roseagainsl 
 the French rule, and, after assassinating all the 
 whites, proclaimed their independence in 1804. 
 Under the French rule, nothing was done to 
 educate the negroes. r I he constitutions of 1816 
 and lslfi contained educational provisions, 
 which were never carried into effect. Private 
 schools were established in a few places; but it 
 was not until President Geffrard came into 
 
 According to the latest a nuts, there 
 
 t 235 national schools, with about 
 
 ipils. Port-au-Prince has a scl I of 
 
 i. a law school, a scl 1 of physicians 
 
 ons. a music school, with about 100 
 
 drawing school, a school of arts and 
 
 , lyceum. and a Inch school for girls. 
 
 \ high school for females was also founded by 
 
 Indien undo 
 HAZING 
 
 in Wesi- 
 
 ■hievons 
 Inch are 
 
 age: but. during the last few years, much elf,. it 
 has been put forth by those wh,, have the charge 
 of higher institutions of learning to suppress the 
 
HEART 
 
 custom, as being shameful, barbarous, and utterly 
 demoralizing to those participating in it. In the 
 naval and military academies of the United 
 States, this custom was, a short time ago ob 
 served in the most revolting manner, often vio- 
 lating the i lies of common decency, and some- 
 times inflicting severe bodily injuries. In 1871, 
 a number of cadets at the Wesl Point Acadenrj 
 were dismissed from the U. S. service for being 
 engaged in acts of outrage of this character : and 
 . at Annapolis, several 
 lues dropped from the 
 ate 1 "coarse, cruel, and 
 d other members of the 
 
 at the Naval : 
 midshipmen had 
 roll for what ws 
 
 oppressb 
 
 due 
 
 institution. In issuing tl rder, the Secretary 
 
 of the Navy remarked, that "youthful vivacity 
 and mischief" might Bometimes be overlooked, 
 but that -persistent blackguardism" could not be 
 tolerated. In most of the better class of American 
 colleges, this demoralizing practice has been 
 partly or wholly suppressed; but nothing but 
 severe and persistent measures, supported by 
 strong public opinion, will banish it entirely, iii 
 mixed colleges, in which male and female students 
 are instructed, it has almost wholly disappeared ; 
 and, as an illustration of the difference between 
 
 male and f etna] [lege students, the following 
 
 account of the reception of new-comers at Vassar 
 College is cited : "Upon a certain evening, a few 
 days after the opening of the session, the mem- 
 
 bers of the sophomore class n ive their sisters 
 
 who have just entered, with (lowers, music, and 
 
 HEART, Education of. See Moral Edu- 
 cation. 
 
 HEBREW LANGUAGE, the language iu 
 which the Sacred Scriptures of the Old Testament 
 were written, is on thai accounl of Bpecial impor- 
 tance both for the Hebrew | pie and for Chris- 
 tians, more espcciallv t! Ioji.m,-, who do-ire to 
 
 read the Scriptures in theoriginal. It is one of the 
 Semitic I.-inunaj ■- -oealf-d b a n -o chiefly spoken 
 
 as ; ,,- 
 
 th. 
 
 Indo-European worl, 
 
 tints always serves j- 
 Iudo-Kuropean stud 
 acquaintance with a 
 from their own. Its 
 edged on all sides ; i 
 claimed for it an a 
 history of mankind 
 
 captivity 
 
 Babylon, it gradually became mixed with ( 'h 
 dee. by which it was finally supplanted as the 
 national language. The knowledge of the Old 
 Hebrew language was however preserved by the 
 priests and scribes, who used it for literary and 
 educational purposes. From the 2d to the 6th 
 century of the ( 'hristian era. Hebrew literature 
 shows an independent development ; from the 
 8th to the 11th it was stationary and neglected ; 
 
 HEBREW LANGUAGE 
 
 from the 1 1th century to the present time, i 
 
 I lel.rcu literarv language, formed on the 
 ot the Old Hebrew, and enriched by main 
 formations, technical terms, particles, and fo 
 words, has been extensively used by lei 
 Hebrews in all branches of literature. 
 alphabet now used in the Old Testament Si 
 ures is supposed to have been introduced 1 
 soon after Ezra. It is called by the ■ !, 
 doctors Assyrian. and is generally admitted 
 of \iaincaii origin. Another alphabet, tin 
 binieal or mcdiii-val. is chiefly used in lie 
 
 c mentaries and in notes to the OldTestan 
 
 the vowel points w.-re i n t reduced about th 
 century of the < hristian era, for the purp 
 presen ing as ti as possible the true prom 
 tion of the Ian magi . is generally aequiesc 
 Like all the -.antic languages, with thesi 
 ception of Ktlnopii-. the liebrewis read 
 right to left. 
 
 The scientific study of the Hebrew Ian 
 did not bee,,, eve, a - the Jews them; 
 
 ■1. the 
 
 . that 
 e 7th 
 oseof 
 
 ed in. 
 
 le CX- 
 
 from 
 
 guage 
 
 his Jewish mas 
 
 in all that 
 but, from 
 
 end of 
 
 the example of the Arabians to bestow careful 
 study upon ancient Hebrew: but, unlike the 
 Arabians, they compared in their studies the 
 whole Of the Semitic languages. Among the 
 
 •hristian-. the II, 
 
 
 the study of Hebrew, winch was especially culti- 
 vated at the university of Tubingen. The real 
 founder of a scientific study of Hebrew at the 
 European high schools was Reuchlin, whose 
 grammar and lexicon appeared in 1506, and 
 
410 
 
 IIKI'.I.'KW LAN'OCACE 
 
 closely followed the methods and traditions of the 
 • l.ui-li grammarians. Luther and Melanehthon 
 strongly recommended the study of Hebrew to 
 the Protestant theologians; and several Protest- 
 ant states of i iennany, accordingly . received ii in- 
 to the course of instruction of the learned institu- 
 tions, though generally as an optional study. In 
 the Roman Catholic Church, the principal works 
 were the grammar (1526) and dictionary (1529) 
 of Santes Pagnini, a Dominican; and. Bomewhat 
 later (1578), a greatly improved grammar by the 
 Jesuit Bellarinin. who was professor of Hebrew 
 at the university of Louvain. In the Protestant 
 schools, the grammars and lexicons of the older 
 Buxtorff were, for many years, the principal aids 
 
 the 
 
 school of He- 
 lie; of Alting 
 . 7th century, 
 phenomena 
 grammatical 
 ad their basis 
 nguage, and 
 
 to the study of Heb: 
 brew philology arose un 
 and Dauz, in the second 
 which endeavored to sir 
 which the Hebrew ex] 
 point of view, — the intle 
 
 could be rationally evolved from definite prin- 
 ciples. Great advance nt was made, in the 
 
 beginning of the L8th century, by the almost 
 .simultaneous rise of the two rival schools of 
 Schultens.in Holland. and Michaclis, in (iermany. 
 In the former, the predominating tendency was 
 toward the almost exclusive OSeof the Arabic for 
 the illustration of Hebrew grammar and lexicog- 
 raphy. To this school belong Schroder, professor 
 at Groningen, and Robertson, professor at Edin- 
 burgh {Grammatica II.',.. 2d edit., L783 . The 
 principle a lopted by the school founded by the 
 Michaelis family, was to combine the use of 
 all the sources of elucidation for the Hebrew, the 
 cognate dialects, especially the Aramaic, tin' ver- 
 sions, the rabbinical \vi ' 
 Hebrew itself, as exhi 
 
 States, grammars have, among others, been pub- 
 lished by I.e.. (3d ed., 1844), Greene, and Jones. 
 Of the .numerous Jewish scholars who have 
 written grammatica] and I. ideographical works 
 on the Hebrew language, none is valued so highly 
 as Furst (RandwSrierbuch, 2 vol.... L857), who 
 illustrates the llelnvw not only from cognate 
 tongues, but also from those of the tndo-Ger- 
 manic class, and endeavors, on philosophic 
 grounds, to separate the accidental from the 
 essential, the radical from the ramified, the rout 
 
 to arrive at the laws which actually rule the lan- 
 guage. Among the Hebrew grammars published 
 in England and in the United States by Jewish 
 scholars, are those by Horwitz (London, 1835), 
 Nordheimer (2 vols.. New York, 1838—42), 
 Kalish (London, 1863), Mayer, and Eelsenthal 
 (Chicago, 1875). 
 
 As the study of Hebrew, among Christians, 
 generally is not begun until the students have 
 obtained a good knowledge, not only of their 
 native tongue, but also of Latin and Greek, the 
 teacher will find it expedient to pursue a 
 method Very different from that observed in 
 teaching young pupils the elements of Latin 
 and Greek. The mastering of the chief rules of 
 
 ■Iv li 
 
 As tin 
 
 rece 
 
 '//'. lsl 
 
 L817; G 
 
 (1814, llthed., L873 
 
 wtirlerbuch, 1810—12; 7th ed., 1868; Latin 
 transl., 2d ed., 1846, English trans, by Edward 
 Robinson and by Tregelles ; T/irsnnrits, 3 vols., 
 1829 — 58) have been more extensively used than 
 any other works of the same kind. I lis grammar 
 was translated into English by Moses Stuart 
 (1826) and by Conant (1839) ; his shorter dic- 
 tionary, by Gibbs (1824), and. Robinson (183(1); 
 and both have I n extensively used in Amer- 
 ican schools. Tin- greatest rival of Gesenius for 
 the headship in llelnvw philology is Ewald 
 (Krilisch, Gramm.il, I,: ls'27. s'tli ed.. I-7H; 
 
 1 writ- 
 edGe- 
 
 pieteU 1 
 
 Hand- 
 
 5K 
 
 tion with reading 
 tongue are rare 
 s strongly reco 
 
 ■nabled 
 eachers 
 
 to that 
 
 illel 
 
 In I Jermany, the stal 
 f all the Protestant as 
 iansa knowledge of th 
 
 higher classes, tl 
 lectures given in 
 universities and i 
 
 an 
 
 ical principles, making a1 the Bame time a 
 extensive use .a thi cognate dialects. \ 
 the numerous other Hebrew grammars publ 
 in Germany, those by Hupfcldf Grammatik, 
 and Nagelsbach (Grammatik, 3d ed., 1870 
 highly valued. In England and in the 
 
 ;an countries, the 
 
 ir Christian thco- 
 • governments de- 
 wel] as ( atholic 
 ■i language; and it 
 n which all the 
 have to pass an 
 he course of in- 
 mbraces, for the 
 lebrew ; and the 
 tl faculties of the 
 
 cal seminaries, ex- 
 
 s than the tllco- 
 
 the Hebrew lan- 
 the Jews, whose 
 from six to Beven 
 le 1 lebrew script- 
 eligious worship, 
 uage is not only 
 readers, but is 
 ih schools. (See 
 ie.) The history 
 been written by 
 aischen Spracke, 
 ire ,i systeme des 
 >-!). The method 
 
of teaching Hebrew is treated of in Klingen- 
 stein, Der Unterrichi im Hebraischeii (1861). 
 The complete literature relating to the Hebrew 
 language up to 1850 is found in Steinsciinei- 
 der, Biblioqraphisches Handbuch f%r hebra- 
 
 HEBREWS, Education among' the. This 
 the middle ages ; (III) In modem times. 
 
 I. .1 // ■ - \..t\MTll-~t.ill.lin.. the 
 
 depended 1 In 1 1 1 n le I'M a n, 1 1 II- ..I' the Scriptures. 
 
 must. I., some extent, have formed a pari .it the 
 strictly religious Jewish education. Now, when 
 
 idem that the Hebrews musl have been, 
 residents of Canaan, a universally edu 
 
 people. 
 
 course,so long as the education ol the child 
 'ed upon the parent, there could not verj 
 
 any thine is known of their educational status 
 until after the termination of Biblical history. 
 From the sacred records we simply learn that 
 the Law made it the duty of parents to teach 
 their children its precepts and principles. — 
 During the Egyptian bondage, the Hebrews 
 probably enjoyed some educational advantages, 
 but to what extent it does not clearly appear 
 from the records. Moses himself had been 
 carefully trained, and was competent not only to 
 lead but also to instruct the people of Cod. 
 during their wanderings in the wilderness. At 
 that time, the Hebrews must have been more 
 or less subject to mental as well as to religious 
 training. They must have been able to read 
 ami write; for they were commanded of God to 
 lorUe the precepts of the l.iw upon their door- 
 posts and gates; and they were, moreover, re- 
 quired to write tin- injunctions upon great stones 
 ■•very plainly ". immediately upon crossing the 
 Jordan, so tint they might easily be read by 
 every Israelite. 
 
 The end and aim of all mental training among 
 the ancient Hebrews, up to the Babylonish cap- 
 tivity, was to develop most prominently the re- 
 ligious tendency, in the child, in order to rear 
 obedient servants of the true Elohim. Being a 
 peculiar people — the only theocratic people of 
 antiquity — engaged almost exclusively in 
 pastoral and agricultural pursuits, their system 
 ..I education aimed to secure the energetic as 
 sertion of a nationality whose essence consisted 
 in the principle of faithfulness to the covenant 
 of God. Hebrew education, therefore, was, 
 previous to the captivity, nothing more nor less 
 than a corollary of religion; and teaching was 
 necessarily, in tin -main, if not altogether, relig- 
 ious. It involved instruction in the Law, the 
 customs, and the symbolical observances of the 
 nation, as well as the narration of its history in 
 illustration of these subjects. We should bear 
 in mind, moreove*, that the understanding of 
 epeculiar prerogative 
 
 ire are. 
 Baby- 
 
 ,ir/,, rs 
 
 r. Thus David tells 
 
 ■is. In the .lays of 
 jaih sepher. the "city 
 ems to indicate the 
 ablishment that had 
 aites. But to what cx- 
 iselves of such helps 
 ivs of Samuel, again, 
 ihetical age, there are 
 ttlements in several 
 hel. Jericho, Gilgal, 
 
 ■nts, 
 sons of 
 ir rather 
 
 •fully obser 
 
 rame very 
 lildren.The 
 in < 'anaan. 
 
 raw's tield of kn, 
 intellectual capad 
 
 Babylonish school 
 ken. and scatter, 
 
 11 nations i et the Baby- 
 not without its benefits. The 
 
 enlarge 1 
 
 the sacred oracles w; 
 of the priestly OP 
 
 every Israelite. This makes it self ,\i, lent that 
 the know ledge of reading and writing must have 
 formed a prominent part in the education of all 
 children. For the same reason, too. arithmetic 
 must have been taught; as the days of the week, 
 the months, the festivals, etc., were not designated 
 by proper names, but by numerals. In fact, every 
 art or science which is alluded to in the Old 
 Testament, and upon a knowledge of which 
 
 own country, a brilliant page opens in their in- 
 tellectual history. True, when Ezra, the priest. 
 first came to Jerusalem to re-establish Mosaism 
 in all its former glory, he did not find as 
 many competent for the task of instructing the 
 youth. as there had been previous to the capth ity, 
 but lie found enough of highly cultured I leluvws 
 to form the nucleus of a college Uv the co- 
 operation of the most enlightened and learned 
 of the Hebrews, he formed a synod, or rather a 
 college, commonly called the Great Synagogue 
 [Jceneselfi haggedolah) composed altogether, it is 
 said, of one hundred and twenty ; and, wisely 
 organized these scholars into a distinct order, 
 
412 
 
 continued, in a succession of about as many 
 years, t lie work of public instruction in Jerusalem. 
 From this capital, teachers were sent throughout 
 the country of Palestine; and all Israel again 
 enjoyed tin- training it had been accustomed to 
 before the Exile, only with manifold improve- 
 mi'itts. ulituined. by the contact of their wise men 
 with foreign nations. Not merely was the 
 study of the Law re-established, but the study of 
 other languages besides tin 1 Hebrew was intro- 
 duced, and, iu consequence, the critical examina- 
 tion of other religious systems, as well as of 
 philosophical singulation. It need not then be 
 a matter of surprise that the Hebrews soon 
 came to be noted as scholars, that, in 260 !>. < '.. 
 Ptolemy Philadelphus paid seventy Jewish 
 scribes 2,500,000 dollars for the septuagint 
 version of the Bible, prepared by them at Alex- 
 andria at his request, or that the greatest light 
 of neoplatonic philosophy was none other than 
 Philo "the Jew" (A. D. 20). — Aftei the ex- 
 tinction of the Great Synagogue, its place was 
 supplied by the sanhedrim, the president of 
 that body, who was called " prince " [nasi) and 
 became the supreme arbiter and authority in the 
 whole sphere of morals and education, exercising 
 a rectoral office in the scholastic institutions of 
 the land. Besides, many of the members of the 
 Great Council activehj engaged in the work of 
 
 instruction itself. Oi t the brighter fights 
 
 in the history of ancient Hebrew pedagogy is 
 Simon ben Shetach, who took a wider range of 
 thought and speculation than any of his pred- 
 ecessors, lie introduced high schools in many 
 places and did much to elevate the standard of 
 Hebrew scholarship. He lived about 80 li. C. 
 
 lentil, and bival'th of 1 'alest'ine, and edueati, '.', 
 
 had 1 ii made compulsory. Kv ay Judean town 
 
 containing a certain number of inhabitants was 
 
 bound to maintain a primary scl l.the chazan, 
 
 or reader of the synagogue, usually being the 
 teacher. Schools of a higher grade were presided 
 over by the rabbins, and a c irtain portion of tin- 
 public revenue was set apart for the support of 
 these institutions. While there is not a single 
 term for school to be found before the Exile, we 
 now meet with about a dozen in common use. 
 Theetymologies of some of these words, and the 
 signification of others, give us, in a very striking 
 "| ; ir.the progressive history of Jewish educa- 
 tion, ami tell us that foreign elements had largely 
 and favorably impressed Hebrew pedagogy. 
 Some idea may be formed of the paramount 
 importance which public instruction had assumed, 
 in the life of the nation, from the innumerable 
 popular sayings of the period:— "Jerusalem 
 was destroyed because the instruction of the 
 young was iieeleeted. " •■ The world is ,.nlv siml 
 by the breath of the school chil Iren ' " Even for 
 the rebuilding of the Temple the schools must 
 not be interrupted." " Study is more meritorious 
 than sacrifice." '-.V scholar is greater than a 
 prophet." •• You should revere the teacher even 
 more than your father. The latter only brought 
 you into this world, the former indicates the way 
 
 into the next. But blessed is the son who has 
 learnt from his father: he shall revere him both 
 as his father and as his master; and blessed is 
 
 the father who has instructed his son. " The 
 
 character of the schools may be best inferred 
 fromthe laws by which their founding and 
 management were controlled. For elementary 
 instruction a school or teacher was required for 
 every 25 children; when a community had 
 40 children, they might have one master and an 
 assistant. Schools could not be established in 
 the most densely crowded part of the town, 
 nor near a river which had to be crossed by an 
 insecure bridge, so as to endanger the health 
 or lives of the children. The proper school age 
 for a boy was six years, until then the father be- 
 ing his instructor. (Jreat care was taken iu the 
 selection of text-books, and that the lessons 
 taught were in harmony with the capacity and 
 inclination of the child, were practical, few at 
 a time but. weighty. "The parents must never 
 cease to watch that their children are in school 
 at the proper time.*' 
 
 3per 
 
 jf the Hebrews was broken 
 nd their temple again de- 
 heir eoi union danger, misery. 
 in only more closely to one 
 •r had' the war terminated 
 
 than, iu p!ace i 
 
 t the temple, the synagogue ap- 
 
 peaiv I, and h h 
 
 it at first the priest had guided, 
 
 the rabbi now e 
 
 ontroUed. The dispersion of the 
 
 Hebrews and tl 
 
 e destruction of the temple and 
 
 sehool at Jerusi 
 
 lcin. therefore. did not long inter- 
 
 fere with their e 
 
 ijovmeiit of that peculiar nation- 
 
 ality which thej 
 
 have now maintained for nearly 
 
 
 ies. A citizen of the world, hav- 
 
 ingno country] 
 
 e could call his own. the Hebrew, 
 
 
 ed within certain well-defined 
 
 limits, beyond i 
 
 hieh.to him. there was no world. 
 
 Thus, though si 
 
 Ittered abroad, the Israelites had 
 
 not ceased to 
 
 «• a nation: nor did any nation 
 
 feel its oneness 
 
 and integrity so truly as they. 
 
 Jerusalem, indee 
 
 d.had ceased to be their capital; 
 
 but the school 
 
 and the synagogue, ami not a 
 
 liable citadel.' 
 
 ■hy. now became their impreg- 
 nd the Law their palladium. 
 
 The old men, s 
 
 chooled in sorrows, rallied the 
 
 manhood that 
 
 emained, and the infancy that 
 
 multiplied, resoi 
 
 ving that they would transmit. 
 
 a knowledge o 
 
 their mission to future gen- 
 
 
 founded schools as well as syn- 
 
 agogues and di 
 
 \ eloped a grade of scholarship 
 
 the ability of wl 
 
 ieh i^ attested bv the writing of 
 
 a code of laws . 
 
 nlv sec 1 to that of Moses - a. 
 
 system of tradi 
 
 
 customs, intende 
 
 1 to ke,p alive forever the pe- 
 
 culiar spirit of 
 
 ludaism. The high school .Ic- 
 
 stroyed at the I 
 
 ily i iiv. was supplanted by the 
 
 college at Tiberi 
 
 i~: and that pi. ehaiieed into 
 
 a kind of Jems: 
 
 lem. where instead of building 
 
 
 me. they employed workmen in 
 
 rearing another 
 
 edifice, which, even to this , lay. 
 
 
 
 after their dispe 
 
 sion. This was the Vishna and 
 
 the <• na be! 
 
 •r k now,, .,> the /;.,-■,.,' m Tal- 
 
 mud theso-calli 
 
 d Oral Law reduced to writing. 
 
arranged, commented upon, and explained; 
 til it became, in the course of a few centur 
 complete digest of the law. the religion, ani 
 
 n- attention, as it was regarded 1 >y the Hebrew 
 
 .1 f ;i^rs an essential part of education. The most 
 
 oks. Piety 
 
 estimation 
 dily work. 
 
 d Ushach. At first, the organizatioi 
 riischools was very simple. Besides 
 ent, who was the chief teacher, and 
 t, there were no offices or ranks. G 
 
 coming lectures: and so arduous became the 
 as the number of di.-j-iplcs iuereased. tha 
 time, no less than seven -deans- had to b 
 
 ot ( letoiier). ami elating witn nrwr (new moon 
 of March). In the concluding month of each 
 half vear. the studies of the session were re- 
 viewed. On these occasions, there were academic 
 disputations which created extensive interest, 
 and were attended by thousands of hearers. 
 The academical degree of chaber was conferred 
 by the resh, who laid his hand on the head of 
 the candidate, with the words. -lie thou chaber 1 " 
 As such he was entitled to a i-eat in the schools 
 
 It.llo 
 
 e English -fellow.-,.' The mode o 
 is chiefly catechetical. After tl 
 livered his exposition, for which 
 d prepared the students and tl 
 d followed with their comments, 
 icstioned the teachers. No* all 
 ovement.and debate; Question < 
 
 up in allegories or parables, until the inqu 
 was brought, to deduce the questionable p 
 for himself by analogy, when a memoraml 
 was made of the conclusions reached. 'The c 
 riculum of study wasquite varied, as much ,~ 
 in any modern university. All manner of .- 
 jects were brought forward in these I hi, 
 colleges. Theology, philosophy, jurisprudej 
 astronomy, astrology, medicine, botany. g( 
 raphy, arithmetic, architecture, were all the] 
 
 that time, and shows that, in many department 
 of science, these Jewish teachers anticipated som 
 of the modern discoveries. SeeB mm v..av..I!,,, 
 Encyklopadie fur Bibel und Talmud (Hamb 
 1866—74). The principal subjects of stud 
 were, of course. Biblical, including hermeneutici 
 or scripture interpretation ; hataka.oi the con 
 Stitutions of the traditional law : popular ethic; 
 legendary history, sacred poetry, and the scieiic 
 of the calendar. Etiquette received very grea 
 
 lonty. lie then also dropped his simple 
 tonal name, and took the briefer but more 
 orable designation oi ' thi son of" [ben); 
 .Joshua the son oi Bethira, called himself 
 B« i Thi highei degree was that of 
 
 or rabbi; in Babylon, mar. It was given 
 he same form as the oJiaber, with the be- 
 'ment of a key symbolizing that there was 
 
 conveyed to the recipient a power of open- 
 tbe law by authoritative exposition, and of 
 ing up or releasing the consciences of men. 
 named men and women were not allowed to 
 teachers oi boys As to girls, we have but 
 
 of Proverbs is, probably, a pretty full descrip- 
 tion of what was the education of a woman and 
 house-wife in the Old Testament period among 
 the Hebrews: but. aside from this, the fact that 
 mothers had to take part in the education of 
 their children, would of itself .-how that their 
 education must have been attended to. It is 
 certainly clear that the prophetical schools in- 
 eluded within their scope the instruction of 
 females, who were occasionally invested with 
 authority similar to that of the prophets them- 
 selves, it will be remembered also, that, in con- 
 tradistinction to other oriental people man} 
 female poets and learned women ligure in the 
 history of the ancient .lews. 
 
 11. The establishment of the Mohammedan 
 power opens a new epoch in Hebrew education. 
 
414 HEB] 
 
 The severe treatment of the Romans had been 
 superseded l>y a milder government at the hand 
 of the Abassides; but the Hebrew found con- 
 siderate masters first in the Mohammedan rulers 
 from Arabia. For centuries, the external con- 
 dition of the Hebrews, under the eastern caliph- 
 ate, was undisturbed by any great vicissitudes: 
 and. from the 7th to the 11th century, their 
 schools reached the height of prosperity. Thou- 
 sands of students repaired to those fountains of 
 instruction, not a few of whom came from 
 distant parts of Europe and Africa, to carry 
 back the means of promoting the cause of edu- 
 cation in their adopted countries. In the 11th 
 century, however, a less tolerant spirit ruled the 
 eastern caliphates; and, in consequence, we meet 
 with a decline in literature, which, had it not 
 been for the humane policy of the western or 
 white caliphates, would have resulted in an entire 
 suspension of literary activity among the dews. 
 So far was the intolerance of the eastern caliphs 
 carried, that, by the middle of the 11th century, 
 the schools of Palestine and Babylon were shorn 
 of all their ancient splendor, and Spain alone 
 stood as the world's representative of Hebrew 
 scholarship. In the Iberian peninsula. the Hebrew 
 had had representatives from time immemorial; 
 but. up to the close of the 10th century, the Jews 
 there, though numerous and wealthy, were 
 greatly behind their eastern brethren in intel- 
 lectual development. No schools of any account 
 are met with among them until the intolerance 
 of the Eastern caliphs drove over to Spain some 
 of the most renowned Hebrew scholars the East 
 could then boast of. It was thus that Hebrew 
 science received so decisive an impulse in the 
 peninsula as to inaugurate a new era in Jewish 
 intellectual progress. Indeed, the period from 
 the opening of the 11th to the close of th.- 15th 
 Century, may well be denominated the golden 
 period of medieval Hebrew learning, 'the Bame 
 spirit of broad tolerance which had prevailed for 
 over three centuries in the East, now marked the 
 rule of the "white" or western ealiphs. Schools, 
 colleges, and libraries were multiplied in the 
 great <enters of the population. The learned of 
 other countries were invited to take positions 
 munificently endowed, and ere long the univer- 
 sities of Spain became the resort of students from 
 the East and the West. Among both students 
 and teachers, the dews counted largely; and the 
 fountains of knowledge which sent forth their 
 streams from the Arabian universities of Cor- 
 dova and Toledo, were fed 1 iv Jews as freely as by 
 
 Christians and Saracens. (See Arabian So is.) 
 
 Besides freely entering the common as well as 
 literary walks of life, and contesting with the 
 other religionists the different avenues thus 
 liberally opened to them, the dews maintained 
 a school system very much akin to that of the 
 eastern countries in the preceding period. They 
 not only sought to influence the training of their 
 
 children in tl arliesl youth, but founded many 
 
 collegiate establishments of their own, where a 
 liberal education could be prosecuted by Hebrew 
 young men aud women under rabbinical in- 
 
 fluence. Such schools arose in Aragon, Castile. 
 Catalonia, and Navarre, and in the towns of 
 Barcelona, Aleala, Burgos, Cordova, Saragossa, 
 Toledo, Tarazona, and Lucena. In these institu- 
 tions, under the care of some of the most eminent 
 scholars of the age, a multitude of men were 
 trained whose works have been ever held in esti- 
 mation not only by Israelites, but by the learned 
 of the Christian world as well. (See Tickkoe, 
 History of Spanish Literature, 3d ed., vol. i.) 
 The principal of each college bore the title of 
 nagid or prince, equivalent to that of rrsl/ me- 
 Ihilth.i in the eastern schools. Of course, rabbin- 
 ical learning was made the basis of other forms 
 -it instruction. The Hebrem professors of these 
 
 scl I- \ci\ naturally wished the minds of their 
 
 students to be preoccupied with their own na- 
 tional doctrines and traditions. Thus a nagid, 
 Salomo ibn Adrath, went so far as to enact that 
 "gentile" philosophy should not lie studied till 
 the age of 24 years. (11 should be added, how- 
 ever, that this proposition divided Hebrew 
 scholars, and gave rise to a troubles e contro- 
 versy.) There was a tendency in the Spani h- 
 Hebrewyouth to forsake the distinctively Jew- 
 ish schools, and to avail themselves of the 
 greater benefits of the more extensive educa- 
 tional movements which were displaying them- 
 selves around them. The rabbins, of course, 
 saw. or thought they saw. imminent danger to 
 Judaism, or rather to rabbinism; and hence their 
 activity in educational movements. On the whole, 
 this fear, though, as it now appears, ungrounded, 
 was productive of much good to Hebrew learn- 
 ing ; for it stimulated to a healthy exertion, and 
 resulted iii perfecting Judaism in Spain and in 
 Portugal, until it rivaled that uprooted in the 
 East. To facilitate tahnudical studies, the works 
 of Hebrew tradition were translated into the then 
 vernacular Arabic; and thus the rabbinical insti- 
 tutes acquired a status in modern literature. 
 The critical study of the Hebrew was encouraged, 
 and a system of Hebrew grammar developed 
 which maintains its hold to this day. Besides, 
 the ii-eof the Hebrew in composition and the en- 
 largement of the Hebrew ritual were encouraged, 
 and thus a large number of students, in the west- 
 ern peninsula, learned to write as freely the 
 Hebrew, as their forefathers had written it in 
 Jerusalem's most glorious day. In all these ways, 
 the Hebrew sages domicilii in Spain and Por- 
 tugal cherished national and ancestral feelings 
 in the minds of the rising generation. The result 
 of all this labor was a vigorous religious life in 
 the social condition of the people, and an age of 
 literary activity such as had not been known in 
 Hebrew literature since the dispersion. Numbers 
 of eminent Hebrew scholars, theologians, poets, 
 liiiLtni-ts. and physicians were brought into gen- 
 eral public notice: and. besides, many works were 
 composed, treating of every species of science, 
 including law, medicine, astronomy, language, 
 and the fine arts. In philology, rose Uavid 
 Kinichi; in philosophy, Moses Maimonides, of 
 whom it is said by some that he has only been 
 excelled in wisdom and learning by .Moses the 
 
prophet: in poetry, Jehuda ben Levi, pronounced I 
 by some the rival of king Solomon; in astron- 
 omy, Aben Ezra and Ibn Tibbon. But these are 
 only a few lights in the much-iUiiminated fir- 
 mament, hi philosophy and astronomy, the 
 
 tion was far in advance of the Chinese and the 
 I Kndoos : for, in every lesson taught the I lebrew 
 
 Hebre 
 however, 
 
 peninsuh 
 also, esp. 
 mane pi il 
 country. 
 
 nt Montpellier, Nar- 
 illes, besides many 
 of which were con- 
 
 bonne 
 schools ii 
 ducted a 
 
 colleges at Mantua, Lucca, Otranto, and Bari not 
 only enjoyed considerable reputation, but had the 
 support of princes and of tin- pontiff at Home. 
 In the eternal city, the Bebrews supported an 
 academy which boasts as its presidents the most 
 renowned literati of the middle ages. One of 
 them, Nathan ben Jechiel, who presided about 
 the close of the 11th century, is said peritus 
 omnia generis scientieurum fuisse. 
 
 III. The general spirit of persecution which 
 prevailed againsf the .lews in Europe, from the 
 13th to the 17th century, largely stifled their liter- 
 ary activity; and the educational history of 
 
 \\ I. 
 
 lei, 
 
 the dictates of their conscience, many Israelites 
 went to Holland. Germany, and Poland, and 
 there established schools, which flourished for 
 centuries. But these schools were almost exclu- 
 sively devoted to talmudic study. No such sys- 
 tem as prevailed in Spain and on the continent 
 previous to the persecutions by the inquisition, 
 has ever been re-introduced; nor could such a 
 system have been maintained previous to the 
 present century. The baneful spirit of those 
 dark ages had' closed the doors of the schools, 
 common or academic, against the dew: and thus 
 the liberal professions being made inaccessible to 
 him, he could not well develop the scholarship of 
 which his forefathers had boasted. But as the 
 Hebrews labored for centuries under such dis- 
 advantages, and yet maintained among them- 
 selves a high moral culture, and did not sink into 
 that stale of degradation and crime which would 
 have probably been the lot of other nations, a 
 high estimate' must be placed upon the culture 
 and accomplishments resulting from the spirit 
 of Mosaism; and it might as well be confessed 
 that the theocratic institutions of the Hebrews 
 and the foundation of their politics and ethics 
 on their religion has produced a better culture, 
 mental and moral, in literature, than that of any 
 other non-Christian people. Their ancient educa- 
 
 art- 
 
 the philologist, deserve to be 
 bunders of the t list Hebrew free 
 'russian capital (I 778). Indeed, 
 ilar was really the ablest advo- 
 
 lein method of education : mg 
 
 I lms. he not only exerted himself 
 ilso at Vienna, and elsewhere in 
 
 e cle- 
 ii 1 fi .r 
 
 his co-relic i. mists 
 1801, a school at 
 and later, he labo 
 
 
 Hebrew culture. Next to him in rank. Abraham 
 Ceiger of Prussia, and S. L. Rappaport of Gali- 
 cia, in Austria, deserve a place. In Italy S. II. 
 Luzzato has done more in this direction than 
 all his contemporaries. In France, the place 
 of honor belongs to Salomon Munk and J. 
 Salvador. — There are. at the present time. 
 good schools, both public and private, pretty 
 widely distributed in Germany, Austria. Den- 
 mark, France, and even in Kitssja and Poland, 
 where efficient elementary instruction is afforded 
 
 tiotis of the Hebrews who r 
 schools are located. In some of 
 u here many dews resides the 
 provide separate training for tl 
 
416 
 
 HECKEB 
 
 girls giving special attention to needle-work and ligion. But notwithstanding these institutions, 
 
 other female accomplishments; those for boys it is claimed for London that it is probably the 
 
 giving sufficient classical training to admit them only city in which illiterate Hebrews reside. But 
 
 to the 5th or 6th year's course of the gymnasia, lor the degraded condition in which the very 
 
 where the course extends over a period of ten poor Hebrews in this city exist.it might safely 
 
 years. Since 1873, the German government has lie asserted that the Hebrews every-where are 
 
 also supported several Hebrew theological chairs educated : and that, t li-nuli belonging to all na- 
 
 at the Berlin university, and afforded aid to a tionalities, and scattered promiscuously all over 
 
 "seminary" (normal school) for the training of the face of the eartl Israelites can be found 
 
 teachers to be employed solely in schools for He- who cannot read or write, if not in the domicil- 
 
 brews. The Hebrew normal - liooLsat Berlin and iary language, certainly in the Hebrew. — In the 
 
 Breslau are regarde I as among the best institu- United States, the .lews have always occupied a 
 
 tions of the kind in Ccrinany. Hundreds of teach- 
 ers are annually trained there. The Hebrews 
 also support two greatly noted seminaries for 
 theological training; the one (founded in L847),at 
 Breslau. Prussia; the other (founded in L828), at 
 Padua, Italy. At the Berlin university, Hebrew 
 students in theology enjoy since 1-71. not only 
 the training of their co-religionists but of all the' 
 professors employed in that institution. — In Eng- 
 land, much has been done, in recent times.for the 
 education of poor Hebrews, who are mostly of 
 foreign birth. In the country, the schools main- 
 tained by 1 lebrews are intended simply for relig- 
 ious instruction. In London, a number of Hebrew 
 private schools exist, and several for the educa- 
 tion of poor children. The most noted of these 
 institutions is the Jews' Infant School, where 
 the gutter children of Spitalflelds and White- 
 chapel, from the age of 'I to 7, are taught to 
 speak, read, and write in English, and to recite 
 their Hebrew prayers, in addition to other ele- 
 mentary instruction. From 7">0 to 1(1(10 children 
 now find admission there. The government has 
 the supervision : and it is pronounced bythe Earl 
 of Carlisle" one of the finest schools in Eng- 
 land." The Free School, in the same city, 
 is of a more advanced grade. It admits those 
 who desire instruction after leaving the Infant 
 School. This Free School is pronounced the 
 largest scholastic institution in England, if no! 
 in Europe. About 2,500 children are here in- 
 structed, the sexes separately; the branches in the 
 highei classes being beyond the range of element- 
 ary study. The teaching staff is made up of 
 90 masters and mistresses. This school also is 
 under government inspection, and is supported 
 mainly by voluntary contributions. It has re- 
 ceived -everal munificent legacies, amounting 
 thus far to over £50,000. Another noteworthy 
 
 Hebrew scl 1 is the London Jews' College. 
 
 founded to afford good education at a moderate 
 charge to the children of the middle classes. 
 Many of its pupils are trained for university 
 degrees and in some instances for the Jew- 
 ish ministry. There is also a society called 
 The Jewish Association for the Diffusion of 
 Religious Knowledge which supports schools 
 and synagogues, and circulates publications, aim- 
 ing, in all these ways, "to impress upon the 
 Jewish mind proper notions of the principles 
 and observances, the spirit and mission of Juda- 
 ism, and. by appeals to the reason rather than 
 to sentiment, to develop and foster a most 
 
 he value 
 untry, 
 ns for 
 
 ist honorable position. B 
 of the political and social 
 they have not only main 
 the training of their children, but have sup- 
 ported education in the public schools. Sunday- 
 schools are now maintained in the cities for 
 the religious training of Hebrew youth ; and 
 where no such facilities are provided, the rabbi 
 or rl,,i:,ni (public reader of the synagogue) 
 usually assumes the task. At Philadelphia, 
 where there are several distinctively Hebrew 
 schools for general mental training, the Mai- 
 monides College was founded, in loiiN iU „i. f,„. 
 a few years, it struggled in vain to secure stu- 
 dents, though its facilities were superior, and 
 the president one of the ablest educators and 
 scholars in the country. In 1872, a movement 
 was Bel on foot for the union of all American 
 Israelites: and. supported priucipalh by congre- 
 gations in the Western states as a Union of 
 American Hebrew Congregations, a college 
 n ted, in 1875, with Dr. I. M. Wise as 
 president. There are reported to be 17 students 
 in the institution, which is located at Cincinnati. 
 < ilii.i. Thus far, the instruction is confined to the 
 Hebrew language and literature. In May, 1876, 
 the i mgregation of New York, supported by 
 many of the congregations in Philadelphia, 
 Baltimore, Chicago, and other cities, held a 
 convention in New York, and determined to 
 found a Hebrew Theological Seminary, for the 
 education of Hebrew preachers and teachers 
 first, and for general culture afterwards. The 
 opening of this high school will probably be pre- 
 ceded by the founding of schools for instruc- 
 tion in the rudiments of the Hebrew language 
 andin Jewish history. -See C 1: ,,,,. Geschiehte 
 d ■•/ d -vim. -xi.: .l.~i: <;■„/„,/,/,■, /rsj„. 
 denihums; B ■. - einer Get 
 
 Er hunffunddesDhterrichts bei den Israeliien 
 32 ; Kuiiuni;]'.. History of Hebrew Liter- 
 ,1,'nri' (revised and enlarged by Wonnan and 
 Pick, N. Y., 1876) ; Weber and Hoi.t/.maxn. 
 GeschiclUe der Israditen ; Salvador, Histoir, 
 
 -AS o-s/,/e'.- , 1/ ,- './/'..' /.,-',-•- 
 
 J. IT. Worman, Jews, in McCuntock and 
 Strong's Cyclopaedia of Bibl. Theol. and Eccles. 
 Literature. 
 
 HECKEB, Johann Julius, an eminent 
 German educator of the ISth century, died June 
 2 {., 1 7CS. I Ie was one of the foremost followers 
 
 fervent conviction of the truths of their re- | of A. II. Francke (q. v.), with whom he became 
 
IIEDDING COLLEGE 
 
 acquainted while studying al the university of 
 Halle. Ili- was appointed, in I "•'!.">. inspector ot the 
 orphan house ni I'ntsil.-mi. ami. in 1739, pastor 
 
 HEGIUS 
 
 m 
 
 devoted i" the elaboration of a new system of 
 philosophy, he exerted considerable influence on 
 
 theeduci ial system of Germany. While a1 
 
 Nuremberg, he received from the Bavarian 
 eovernmenl (1813) the am tme i sc I 
 
 id in 
 
 Reahchule, 
 (See RealS 
 definitely or| 
 Berlin, and < 
 school (Pa-u 
 
 11 ;ii sel I 
 
 with ii in 
 great renowi 
 his assistant, 
 to the new p 
 tothespellii 
 
 form, practical education 
 
 making me ral. The 
 
 if nature : awl. to become 
 be, as ii were, reborn — must 
 ;i] iiilo tin- self-conscious 
 n. To aid this transition 
 
 der Padagogit Leipsric, L8Tfi) : and Barnard, 
 
 German Educati ,1 Reformers, and Journal of 
 
 Education. 
 
 HEDDING COLLEGE, al Abington, III . 
 founded in 1854, is under the control of the 
 
 Aletll.iIlM Kl.i-eo;,;,! I I, null. Il ;..|luil. Iioll, 
 
 teacher of humanity 
 
 U]ioli authority in 
 The attempt u> < 1. \ 
 
 HEDGE-SCHOOL, 
 given, in Ireland, to a , 
 
 hedgfrficl I or oot In some parts oi the 
 
 States, such schools arecalled, 
 
 For an aniiiMiu « I . - . - 1 1 j . t i - ■ 1 1 ■ • t . i 1 1 . - . 1 •_: , - - . 1 1 . 
 
 it- teacher, see w illit larle - Trot 
 
 Stories of the Irish Peasantry Dublin 1831 
 
 The Ige-scl Imasters resembled sod 
 
 the German bacchants i it s vag 
 
 and were of ten men of quite respectable 
 ments in scholarship. The popular i 
 C'arleton, whose work is referred to aboi 
 partly educated, near the beginning of tin 
 cut century, in a hedge-school. 
 
 HEGEL, Georg Wilhelm. Friedrich, 
 "i Germany's most distinguished philosopl 
 was bora in Stuttgart, Aug. 27., IT 
 in Berlin, Nov. I I.. 1831. In L80] 
 
 things. II. 
 idies as t lu- 
 lu gi neral, 
 m theory of 
 i I iles of his 
 isis forsui h 
 ive. in part, 
 
 HegeCsAnsichtentiber 
 !■'. (3 vols . 1853- I.: 
 Zeit (1857); Schmidt, 
 
 HEGIUS, Alexander, 
 
 pres- 
 
 between 1 131 
 
 
 1498. His 
 
 . one 
 
 times, was de 
 
 lllel-S. 
 
 educated by 
 
 1 ha 
 
 i il, 
 
 Heck, i 
 ml died 
 
 W 
 
 is birthp 
 Thomas 
 
 ace. 
 
 professor at the gyiuiuisiiiiii in Nuivinlieii; : in 
 1816, professor in Heidelberg; and, in 1818, pro- 
 fessor in Berlin. Though his life was chiefly 
 
 lirated schools of that age. Ami mg his pupils were 
 Erasmus (q. v.) and Pope Adrian VI. Hegius 
 greatly encouraged the study of the Greek Ian- 
 
418 
 
 IIEIPELBERH C()IJ,K(.'K 
 
 guage, and was one of the chief promoters of a 
 better method of teaching the Latin classics. A 
 collection of his works was published at [Vvcntcr. 
 They are enumerated in Ebhard, Qeschickte des 
 Wiederaufbluhens wissens r/tli er Bildung 
 in Deutschland, vol. I. (See also Nbtheei ujds.) 
 HEIDELBERG COLLEGE, at Tiffin, 
 Ohio, was founded in 1850, under the auspices 
 
 for the education of both sexi 
 dowment of about $80,000, 
 society libraries, with that < 
 seminary, contain about 5,0 
 
 HERBART 
 
 HENDERSON COLLEGE, at Henderson, 
 Tex., was founded by the Methodist Episcopal, 
 Church as Fowler Institute, in 1840, and contin- 
 ued under Methodist control till 1870, wheD it 
 was rechartered as Henderson College, and be- 
 came non-sectarian. It is supported by tuition 
 
 dlege and 
 beological 
 
 institution comprises a colli 
 witli a classical course oi foi 
 
 giate departmen 
 
 entific course of three year-.; 
 
 nd an academyi 
 
 preparatory department, witl 
 English course. Special faci 
 
 ities are afiorde 
 
 for the study of German. II 
 
 delbei 1 il< 
 
 ical Seminary, though under I 
 
 separate board i 
 
 i , is intimately connei 
 
 ted with the co 
 
 lege. The cost of tuition in t 
 
 1 lassical cur- 
 
 is S'_»i; per annum ; in the sci< 
 
 ntific cur-,' $21 
 
 and in the academy, SI 7. 
 
 ii the il logic 
 
 seminary, it is free. In 18 
 
 5 6, the coSeg 
 
 had 6 professors, and the theo 
 
 ogica] seminary, 
 
 The number of student- wa- 
 
 189 : namely, co 
 
 lege,90; academy, 75 ; tl Ii 
 
 The whole number of the all 
 
 
 ', t the coliee 
 
 was L38 ; of the theological .- 
 
 linn n s II?. Tl 
 
 president of the college i- |Je 
 
 liard.D.D. (1876). ' 
 
 , George W . Wi 
 
 HEINICKE, Samuel, a 
 
 German educati 
 
 and teacher of deaf-mutes, born April lo., 172 
 
 died April 30., 1790. Having 
 
 grown up withoi 
 
 education, he joined the nrm\ 
 
 
 years old, and by a careful 
 
 use of his leisu 
 
 bours acquired some knowled 
 tion. In 1760, he became, tl 
 
 rough the recoi 
 
 :,tory 
 
 there were 6 instructors and '-'ok students. 
 II. Cooper has been the president since t 
 ganization of the college. 
 
 HENRY, Joseph, a distinguished Am 
 physicist, born in Albany, N. V.. Dec. 17. 
 lie was appointed professor of mathemat 
 the Albany Academy in 1826; and, shortly 
 began a series of experiments in electricity. 
 led to the theoretical invention of the ma 
 telegraph, several years before its practical 
 
 M. 
 
 ie Smithsonian Institution, at Washington, in 
 S46, Prof. Henry was appointed its secretary, 
 hich position he still holds. 
 HERBART, Johann Friedrich, a distin- 
 li.-bcd philosopher of Ccrnianv wh ade 
 
 inn 
 
 a new method for the instruction of that 
 class of people. Differing from the Abbe de 
 I'Epee (q. v.), who taught deaf-mutes to ex- 
 press themselves by means of sr_'ns and p.into- 
 niMiih gestures, and in writing. Heinicke strove 
 
 to teach them to speak in the com i language 
 
 of articulate sounds, so that tliev might under- 
 
 very body 
 
 The 
 
 ! to an 
 
 pi.', 
 
 quite successful, a number of deaf-mutes were 
 sent to him from different countries for educa- 
 tion. In 1778, at the request of the elector of 
 
 Saxony, he returned to his nativ mitry ; and. 
 
 in the same year, founded, at Leipsic, the first 
 German institution for the instruction of deaf- 
 mutes. But Heinicke was anexcellenl educator 
 generally. He did much to improve the wretched 
 condition of the common schools, and zealously 
 
 advocated the substitution of the pi ic thod 
 
 of spelling. — See II. E. Stiktzmc. Samuel Hei- 
 nicke, sein Leben und Wirken (1H70). 
 
 once began to elaborate a system of pedagogy. 
 His pedagogical studies led to an intimate 
 acquaintance with IYstaloz/i. wheat that time, 
 was tcaehin" at I'.urudorf in the canton of Bern. 
 
 lsii 
 
 privatrdocent (lecturer) at the university of 
 Gottingen. In 1805, he was promoted to an ex- 
 traordinary professorship ; in 1 SOU, be received 
 a call as ordinary professor to Kbnigsberg ; and, 
 in 1833, he returned to Gottingen, In ail these 
 academic positions, he lectured on pedagogics as 
 well as on philosophy, and gathered around him- 
 self a number of young men thoroughly imbued 
 
 instruct a select number of boys according to his 
 educational principles. 1 terbart says, that his in- 
 vestigations were chiefly due to the settled con- 
 viction that very many of the tremendous gaps 
 in our pedagogical knowledge are attributable 
 to defects in our psychology, and that these must 
 be remedied before a science of education is pos- 
 
Bible. His educational principles flow directly 
 
 from III.- philosophy. I lis psychoid'. > 
 
 mi predetermined capacities in the soul which 
 direct its future development. The soul, in it- 
 self, contains only the power of reacting against 
 
 external influences, .'-lull reaction constitutes 
 
 HEBDER 
 
 419 
 
 considerable length and with greal energy. I'n a 
 
 ri'i't.'lin extent also, In' viewed stalc-mali-hip as a 
 liranrli of |n.-il:itrc >L fics. The .iii.i educational 
 works of I I. i ii.n T arc: . {//,/.■„,,■, „,■ Pdda- 
 gogik (1806), and Umriss piidagogischer Vor- 
 lesungen (1835 ; 2d edit., 1841 |. Among the 
 
 ti e for 
 
 the edn 
 
 nthout a knowledge of his 
 in. which is chiefly explained 
 1 works, Psychologie ili vols.. 
 remeine Metaphysik 2 vols., 
 
 ciul nf clncatiiiii. Imt tin- development ol tin 
 iniliviilual himself. Kvery thin-- Imt the imli 
 vidua! is an abstraction, ami valueless except a 
 it serves to advance his interests. Pedagogics 
 therefore, with Herbart is a department o 
 ethics, or rather the method by which ethic: 
 
 secures its aim: namely, the perfectii f tin 
 
 imliviilual. The work of education has threi 
 parts: discipline, instruction. and training. Tin 
 child has no control of himself. He is the pre] 
 of whatever lawless inclination may claim him 
 To overcome this is the office of discipline 
 Society and the family furnish a part of tin 
 needed discipline, but imt enough; it must In 
 
 tinned any longer titan is necessary. Imt care 
 hum also lie taken not to relax it too soon. In- 
 struction must not lie limited to the aequire- 
 ni. tit ut knowledge, or "t technical skill. Its 
 chief aim is the culture of the will; that is. to 
 impart an insight into ethical relations ami 
 the ability to realize ethical ideas. Discipline 
 ami instruction must be united, in order to 
 bring forth many-sidedness in km i\\ 1. •. I u . ' ami in 
 character. Training aims to fix .the moral les- 
 sons into abiding forms of character, and to 
 bring the student to a point where he can un- 
 dertake the work of self-culture. It followsfrom 
 Herbart's psychology, that tie would not be con- 
 tent with unrelated knowledge. According to 
 him, the so-called faculties are produced and 
 developed purely by the a.-oeiation of ideas. 
 Mental vigor, therefore, can be secured only by 
 a habit of looking at things in their relations; 
 hence, the true order of teaching is to begin as 
 soon as possible to give not merely the facts, 
 but their bearings ami connections. In this 
 way, knowledge acquires an intellectual interest 
 for the student, and amoral interest also; for 
 the most important relations are ethical ones; 
 and the Inchest aim of instruction is to enable 
 one to see all things in their ethical relations, 
 and to act accordingly. These points are con- 
 stantly repeated by ilerbart, and illustrated at 
 
 luiatiir-lux. iiioretullyde- 
 
 ril Stoy, and Ziller. A 
 was published bj Harten- 
 
 if the smaller philosophical 
 3 vols., 1842- Mi.— See also 
 der Pddagogik, tv., trans- 
 of Speculative Philosophy, 
 . 1876, his native citj cele- 
 iniiitv. hi.- centennial birth- 
 
 HERDER, Johann Gottfried von, one 
 
 anthill's, and teachers, was born at Mohrungen, 
 Aug. 25., 1744, and died in Weimar, Dec. 18., 
 1803. He early distinguished himself by his 
 prueiv-s in scholarship; and his literarv attain- 
 
 ll -tllllie 
 
 he soon rellouliccil these. 
 
 and resolved to devote himself to theology. In 
 
 1 .(if. he was appointed teai her. ami aftei wards 
 preacher, at the cathedral school in Riga: and 
 while thee, he attraccl much attention by his 
 writings as well as by the brilliancy and eloquence 
 
 in Germany, France, ami Italy: ami while at 
 Strasburg was intimately associated with Goe- 
 the. In 177H. he became court preacher, general 
 superintendent, ami counselor of the Upper 
 Consistory at Weimar, where he passed the re- 
 mainder of his lite, in constant communion with 
 the most gifted minds of that brilliant period of 
 German literary history. Here, too, he labored 
 
 for the improvement of the scl 1.-. In 17*.'-!. 
 
 he drew up a plan for their management, and 
 secured an increase of salary to the teachers. A 
 teachers' seminary was established in 1787, 
 through his influence. In the lower schools he 
 introduced the Pestalozzian method as far as it 
 was practicable under the circumstances. Her- 
 der's views on education present many points of 
 interest and value. His leading principle was. 
 that the aim of education is to develop human- 
 ity. First and foremost, he says, we are re- 
 quired to be men ; and any educational system 
 
420 
 
 HERMANN 
 
 ■which aims at less than the full culture of all I 
 the powers of manhood is treason toward God 
 and humanity. It is only the purest and must 
 gifted persons that should be teachers ; for the 
 teacher must not onh know what the pupil is 
 to learn, but he must lie what he aims to nave 
 his pupil become. Bis connection with his 
 pupils must l>e of the must intimate character. 
 ilis intellectual instruction must be given 
 with all the freshness of original discover; : 
 and his moral teaching must have all the 
 fervor of conviction, and the authority of 
 absolute truth. In teaching science and history, 
 it is not isolated facts that must be presented, 
 but their relations and their aggregate logical 
 significance. Especially should the student's 
 self-activity be thoroughly aroused ; and. hence, 
 he favored the Socratic method of leading the 
 pupil's mind to develop truth for itself from 
 fundamental principles. The whole of education 
 must be permeated with the spirit of humanity 
 and with a fervent piety. Notwithstanding 
 his enlarged views and deep insight, he was 
 quite conservative. He condemned in unmeas- 
 ured terms the raw and presumptuous reformers 
 of his day ; and the Philanthropinists did not 
 entirely escape his censure. In one of his ad- 
 dresses, he remarks that "instead of the good 
 
 old word school, a fashion has been introdu 1 
 
 of using new and more showy terms, such as 
 Educational Institution, and P7iilanthropinum; 
 and that much is said of 'genius', 'original 
 genius', which dues every thing for itself, and 
 has no need of any other instructor; and 
 of wonderful self-development by one's own 
 powers.'' He strongly opposed a "French edu- 
 cation", instead of teaching in the native lan- 
 guage. He also advocated that the lower 
 classes of real schools should train useful citi- 
 zens, and that the upper ones should form a 
 scientific gymnasium. His viewson the teaching 
 of language were eminently sound and practical. 
 "Grammar," he said, ••must be learned from 
 the language, and not the language from gram- 
 mar : style, from speaking, and not speaking 
 from an artificially formed style." He was. in 
 every respect, a practical educator, and was 
 proud to be considered such. " In my nineteenth 
 ice he said, " I began teaching in the highest 
 class of an academical institution, and from 
 that time to this I have never been free from 
 
 the res] -il.ilities of a teacher, or else oi a 
 
 school officer." The complete edition of his 
 works I' vols., L805 22) contains a large 
 number ot address's and essays on educational 
 subjects. — See Schmidt. Gesckichte der Pada- 
 gogik, vol. iv. : Raumeb, Gesckichte der Padago- 
 gik (translated in Barnard's German Teachers 
 and Educators). 
 
 HERMANN, Gottfried, one of the great- 
 est classical scholars of modern times, born 
 Nov. 28., 1772, died Dec. 31.,1848. He studied 
 
 at the' university of Leipsic, where he became, 
 in IT'.l-l. /irirat-i/oft'i/l ilcctureri: in 1 "!•*, extra- 
 ordinary professor: and. in 1803, ordinary pro- 
 
 tcs«iii' \t the time of his death, he was the senior 
 
 HEYNE 
 
 professor of the university. He. had a vigorous 
 delivery, an unfailing memory, a fine perception 
 of the beauties of poetry, and a complete mas- 
 tery of the Latin language,— all qualities which 
 rendered him an excellent teacher. When, in 
 1834, the philological seminary in Leipsic was 
 revived. Hermann was appointed to conduct the 
 Greek instruction, lie banished all practical 
 exercises in teaching from the seminary, because 1 
 he believed that a man who had become a 
 thorough scholar, would also be able to teach. 
 He trained his pupils to translate back into I dvek 
 a translation from a (Ireek prose writer, so that 
 the mistakes might be detected by a comparison 
 with the Creek model, and, at the same time, 
 
 Ihc 
 
 of a more rational treatment of Greek grammar, 
 and as having thus indirectly exerted a consider- 
 able influence upon the improvement of gram- 
 matical science in general. His views on this 
 subject are chiefly laid down in his work Be 
 , mendanda ratione Graces grammatical (1801 1, 
 and in his learned notes to Viger's De prepcipuis 
 Gnror dirti, wis idiotismis (1802; 4thed.,1834). 
 His endeavors to elucidate the intellectual life 
 of the ancient world chiefly through an accurate 
 knowledge of the language and of the metrical 
 form, involved him in literary controversies with 
 Bdckh, K. < i. Midler, and Creuzer. His editions 
 of the tragic Greek poets and of other Greek 
 writers are still highly valued. Memoirs of his 
 life and works have been published bj 0. Jam] 
 
 
 HESPERIAN COLLEGE, at Woodland 
 Cal., under the control of the Christian denom- 
 ination, was founded in L869. It admits both 
 sexes. In 1875 — 6, it had 10 instructors, 150 
 students, and productive funds to the amount 
 of Sail .nun. The value of its buildings, grounds, 
 an 1 apparatus is $30,000. B. H. Smith, LL. D. 
 
 HESSTJS, Eohanus, one of the foremost 
 German educators of the time of the Refor- 
 mation, bora in I 188, died in 1540. Be was ap- 
 pointed, in 1516, professor at the university of 
 Erfurt : accepted, in 1525, a call to the newly 
 established gymnasium of Nuremberg, returned 
 in 1534 to Erfurt, and, in 1536, became profes- 
 sor of history at the university of Marburg, 
 lb- was an intimate friend of Reuchlin, Me- 
 lanchthon, and other eminent men of the age; 
 and his reputation as a teacher was so great. 
 that, as professor at Erfurt, he is said to have 
 had at one time 1500 hearers. He was one 
 of the best modern Latin poets : and, as author 
 no less than as teacher. largely contributed to 
 a better knowledge of I^itin and (ireek. Special 
 works on the life of llessus have been written 
 by Camerarius (1553), Lossius (1797), Berz 
 (1860), and Schwertzeli (1873). An interesting 
 account of Bessus is also given in the work of 
 D. F. Strauss on llutteii (I'd edit.. L871). 
 
 HEYNE, Christian Gottlob, a German 
 , scholar and educator, bora Sept. 25., 1729, died 
 I July 14., 181 'J lie studied in the university 
 
IIIKKOXYMIANS 
 
 men schools 
 
 ..i Leipsic, and after holding several minor posi- 
 tions, received, in L 763, a call to the university 
 
 ing called Brethren of the Common Life. Among 
 its other distinguished members, were Gerard 
 
 nary, he educated a 
 teachers; and as libra] 
 the university library 
 
 la rue n 
 an,hes 
 
 showed great talent 
 
 ■ope. . 
 
 tel. 
 
 the se 
 
 .llll-lo.j 
 
 Hanover, which, through his 
 great celebrity throughout < tei 
 corded as one of the greatest I 
 of the 18th century. Besides editing several 
 Latin and (ireek classics, lie wrote numerous 
 works on classic antiquity. His life was written 
 by Heeren (1813). — See also Kaemmkl, in 
 Schmid's Encychpadie. 
 
 HIERONYMIANS, or Brethren of the 
 Common Life, a religious order, which did 
 
 ern Germany, during the 1 tih. 15th, and L6th 
 centuries, [t was founded by Gerard Groot (also 
 written Groote or Grote), a native of Deventer. 
 He was born in L 340, and studied in Paris from 
 
 to 
 
 uttli, while the remallldel were absorbed l>V 
 
 csuits. Although they eared for the edu- 
 ot all the people, they were particularly 
 gui.-hed tor their zeal in receiving the poor 
 en of both Bexes, and educating them. 
 They laid particular stress on the religious ele- 
 ment. The plan pursued in their instruction 
 was simple in the extreme, and may be gathered 
 from the following' words of the founder: 
 "Spend no time either on geometry, arithmetic, 
 rhetoric, logic, grammar, poetry, or judicial 
 astrology. All these branches Seneca rejects; 
 how much more. then. should a spiritual! v-niiiided 
 Christian pass them by, since they subserve in 
 no respect the life of faith. Of the sciences of 
 
 d\ si, 
 
 magic, astrolo 
 
 books, 
 
 merely 
 
 houses soon follow.' 
 Netherlands; and 
 I iennaiiv. Female a 
 with similar objects 
 tutions of their owl 
 
 ucation : since to st 
 ist be instructed in 
 ily to writing ; and 
 
 •e sown, which sprang up 
 ■ Reformation. Because of 
 promoting education, the. 
 
 times called the Scholastic 
 
 
 the ele 
 
 they had spread from the Scheldt tothe Vistula. 
 They regarded Hieronymus St. Jerome and 
 St. Gregory (the Great as their patron-saints, 
 
 and hence called them- Ives Hieronymians, or 
 (f'i-i-i/<iriiiiis. Gerard only lived long enough to 
 see the commencement of the work ot the order, 
 as he died in 1384. He appointed as his suc- 
 cessor Florentius Radewin, who was horn in 
 1 . ".Mi. studied at Prague, and became canon at 
 Utrecht. As soon ashe had heard of Gerard's in- 
 fluential career at Deventer, he had given up his 
 position in Utrecht,and had gone to Deventer as 
 ii vicar, where he soon became an intimate friend 
 of Gerard. He died, after a life of great useful- 
 ness, in the year 14011. It was he who proposed 
 the living in common, which led to t he order's be- 
 
 Delprat, Oner de Bra 
 
 (1836; German translal 
 
 HIGH SCHOOLS, 
 
 ondary or academic in- 
 
 derP&dagogik; 
 m Educators; 
 wm G. Grote 
 
 [OHNIKE, 1840). 
 
 j schools of sec- 
 corresponding, 
 
 which they perform the office ot 
 schools. Some of these schools an 
 as to comprise academic, normal. 
 
422 HIGH SCHOOLS 
 
 cial departments. In small cities anrl towns, j have worked well, especially in its effect upon 
 high-school classes or departments, taught in the the high scl Is themselves, as subjecting them 
 
 same building 
 the place of se 
 great want of i 
 acter of these s 
 different cities 
 simply of a li 
 schools : thai i 
 
 nar schools, take j to go* 
 's. There is a 
 rade and char- 
 
 tig them 
 
 liversitv. 
 existing 
 
 high 
 
 tortus a very i 
 
 ortant function, both ; 
 
 elementary and superior or university education, thercti 
 
 portioi 
 
 stimulating the one and supporting the other. 
 The establishment of public high schools in the 
 United States is of quite recent date; although, 
 in Massachusetts, as earlj asl797, the academies 
 were virtually incorporated into the system of 
 public schools, by receiving endowments of land 
 from the state.' In L834, an act of the New 
 York legislature required the regents of the 
 
 lite 
 
 si: 
 
 so small a 
 it is urged 
 ijoy the ad- 
 t In- whole 
 
 ir influence, 
 stimulating 
 
 i. ■' I will 
 
 leticial 
 
 ittieult 
 
 of the legisl 
 vote the rest 
 the measure, 
 tion is now 
 York. Bosto 
 L853; and tl 
 stitution for 
 
 litical. social, and industrial intcr- 
 ■ munity are greatly advanced. 
 
 forces in every community renter 
 
 less than tw 
 
 so extensive 
 ll|i ill the 
 states, the 
 than in othi 
 of stu.lv. bo 
 
 .elves tell ill a tree col I mill II il V . should 
 
 re ,i, I less of wealth or social grade, full 
 innitv of reeen in-- such an education as 
 
 ipso facto into the university I a 
 
 i. there is an arrangement by which 
 
 nils that desire a recognition from the 
 
men SCHOOLS 
 
 e the best in the world, it is owing, in a great | in name from seminaries, academies, classi 
 easure, to the fact, that the higher schools are schools, etc. In England, the greal pul 
 
 classical 
 lie 
 
 i.vs HIGHER EDUCATION. SeeHlGHS in 
 
 t it" Ski'ONHAKY InSTKI CTlll.V iillll Si I'l I: lc .1: lv-i 
 
 HIGHLAND UNIVERSITY, 
 
 ladies. I li<- 
 
 L45 pre- 
 
 HILLSDALE COLLEGE, at Hillsdale 
 Mich., under the control of the Freewill Baptists 
 
 prol 
 the 
 
 ibit the establish 
 
 exai 
 
 lination was on 
 
 insti 
 
 Hills 
 
 notion shall be 
 be held to refe 
 
 il also 
 
 21 in- 
 
 whi.lll 
 
 St I'l 
 
 knowle 
 that. 1 
 
 teachers incuts, anil i:t ill the thcul.ie.ieal curse. 
 
 minimum ! HIRAM COLLEGE, at Hiram, Portage Co., 
 
 11. .1,. .-ill i Ohio, is under the control of the Disciples. It. 
 
 language," ' took its present title in L867, growing out oi the 
 
 for com- Western Reserve Eclectic Institute, founded in 
 
 iject of in- 1850. It is supported by tuition fees and an 
 
 achina of endowment <>l .'.limit shhiui. 'I !„• 1,1 ,.,,„■* 
 
 Greek, Latin, German, French, etc., was not ex- 
 cluded;^ that, as the school in question came 
 
 schools, it might, like others, be sustained by a 
 reasonable district taxation. 
 
 High schools should not be n Qessly multi- 
 
 plied, and should be carefully prevented fr 
 
 trenching u] the sphere of the elementarj 
 
 and (4) a ladies' 
 tiny, a normal, a 
 course. Conside 
 
 their 
 
 illtlllelie. 
 
 "1 
 
 the n 
 
 [uireme 
 
 
 as to i 
 
 
 Lai 
 
 schola 
 
 ship wi 
 
 Inn 
 
 their 1 
 the 11 
 
 
 aitl 
 
 this i 
 
 flu mce 
 
 
 
 i.or ivl 
 
 
 liatim 
 
 3. bison 
 
 fi of 
 
 York. 
 
 Boe 
 
 St. 
 
 school 
 
 has be 
 
 'ii i 
 
 evening-school 
 
 syst 
 
 tnulate is Burke A. Hinsdale. A.M. 
 When HISTORY, as a branch 
 
 schools, there 
 
 tions of a similar grade, which differ only fleurt 
 
424: HIS! 
 
 •nail account for the diversity of opinion as to I 
 1li,' proper method of teaching it, as well as for 
 the many obvious errors of method that exist. 
 
 Some, ind I. have condemned it as a school 
 
 study; on the ground that the mere facts of 
 history, without the general laws which they 
 teach, are nf no account, while the study i>t the 
 philosophy of history is too deep for immature 
 minds. On this account, Prof. Bain contends 
 that it is a subject proper only for the university. 
 John Locke said. "As nothing teaches, so | 
 nothing delights, more than history. The first of 
 these rea tends it to the study of the 
 
 for a young la 1 '. ' I'hcsc extreme opinions arise 
 from viewing the subject from different stand- 
 points. There is no doubt that the study of 
 history, like that of geography, botany, astron- 
 omy, and other school subjects may be presented 
 to the mind of the child in such a manner as 
 not only to be useless and distasteful, but actually 
 
 cator is to consider the nature of the mind to 
 lie addressed, and the character of the study 
 itself. Primarily, history is a narrative; and 
 there is nothing which pleases children so much 
 as narratives concerning things in which they 
 take an interest, or with which they are familiar, 
 [f children, therefore, are to study history, they 
 must first In' interested in the pei-oiisand things 
 that it refers to. Thus American children will 
 1 ager to learn about the discovery of Amer- 
 ica by Columbus, because it c lerns the coun- 
 try in which they live; and they will be scarcely 
 satisfied with any amount of detail in regard to 
 the particular facts connected with that event. 
 
 Columbus as a great personage will then! imp 
 
 in their imagination, and their curiosity will be 
 
 e\e,led to know something ill.ollt llilll. Tills 
 
 will interest them in Isabella, the g 1 queen of 
 
 Spain; and something may be said of her, and 
 
 of the country to whicl 
 
 desultory way, and wh 
 
 to show the relations i 
 
 cause and effect, the co 
 
 young children may be 
 
 tory, and thus their m 
 
 its regular study, by re 
 
 conceptions \\ hich are c 
 
 formal histoi teal narrai 
 
 understood. "The fad 
 
 correspond to somethin 
 
 intelligible". It is in i 
 
 that Wickersham rema 
 
 to know the lineage a 
 
 intrigues of courts, or 
 
 but it would interest u 
 
 i pie "' P^* times mi 
 
 their fields, or educated 
 
 i he in Milan- history of a country; the statesman 
 and politician, to the political; the agriculturist, 
 
 ny special effort 
 3 as to time or 
 faculty of quite 
 
 to a 
 !7— 
 
 tacts 
 nging 
 
 'I lie 
 
 I cliihl has to be 
 e indicated; (2) 
 formal study of 
 iniicipally with 
 is; and (3) The 
 onus of general- 
 ig what has been 
 a. In the first 
 
 simple 
 subject 
 
 lie pre- 
 
 y special 
 
 he great 
 
 "'- 
 
 his 
 
 vents 
 
 history 
 alual.le 
 study. 
 every 
 erience 
 hat is. 
 
 of 
 
 cover the whole ground. As 
 id by a celebrated educationist, 
 tome is like giving a child an 
 by heart". 
 
 stage, while the Bame principle 
 v kept in \ iew. the study should 
 ma! and systematic. It is here 
 iportant questions arise for con- 
 irst of these concerns the choice 
 indium of history and a series 
 -books on different nations. The 
 
 M national text-1 ks grew up 
 
 from national patriotism, each 
 •ed its own history as foremost 
 lers as of secondary importance ; 
 • advance of 
 ridgments of 
 
 has been fostered 
 
 learning, by a syst. 
 unlaid works, or 1 
 
 style of dress they wore, what kind of food they 
 
 eat, what 1 ks they read." The latter classes 
 
 of fads are not, however, more interesting in 
 
 themselves, hut because they are re nearly 
 
 related lo our individual experience. Different 
 persons will not be interested in the same class 
 
 Of historical facts. The soldier will attend to 
 
 the ml 
 for its 
 edge \ 
 
 hem. I!ut such 
 lit ions for which 
 Each of these 
 existence of all 
 lepends on them 
 1 for that knowl- 
 
 •ender the nana 
 
BISTORY 
 
 425 
 
 tive intelligible; and, hence, for school purposes, chrmiistic wilm,! \. Tlie latter method, by short 
 
 he abridgments are of little 
 
 general knowledge eallllot lie supposed to I 
 
 Besides that, the large standard works are 
 
 exclusively |iln'losojiliieal in their character 
 arrangement to admit of an abridgment 
 
 sel I purposes. Narrow iu;_; the field of 
 
 for the purpose of scientific investigation, 
 works naturally adopt largely the consect 
 
 this periods, centuries fur iiistai is useless for be- 
 ast, ginners, as it gives only a confused pict t 
 
 il wh. 
 
 There can be no perspective in such a mode of 
 treatment. Leading facts rank side by Bide with 
 subordinate ones, and the history assumes the 
 form of dry annals. Excessive detail in historical 
 text-books is always a fruitful source of vexatiu i 
 to both teacher and pupil. What is needed, h r 
 this stage of instruction, is a skillful grouping 
 of facts, which, while it departs but little from 
 the chronological order, shows the proper rela- 
 tion of events — how one brought about the 
 other. In the history of the world, as of each 
 separate country. and of every great event, as. for 
 example, the Reformation, the Thirty Year.' 
 War, the Revolution in England, the American 
 Revolution, the French Revolution, the great 
 Civil War in the CTnited States, there are cer- 
 tain conspicuous stand-points, or centers of in- 
 terest, around which other events should be 
 grouped, as dependent upon them. The same 
 principle is oppos • 1. in the teaching of general 
 history, t ntinin-; tie- attention of the ounil 
 
 along by some particular nation as the re 
 tative, for the time being, of some eontrolli 
 
 or principle, other nations playing a subo: 
 
 prominence; but, where this question is in 
 doubt, there is always a movement, more or less 
 general, to which the contemporaneous nations 
 
 arated intervals, the share of each particular 
 nation in such a great movement as the Refor- 
 mat cannot possibly impress the mind of the 
 
 pupil properly in regard to it. In the compi- 
 lation of a compendium Of history suitable for 
 
 school use, a con I promise is requisite bet Ween the 
 
 plan of teaching the history of each nation by 
 itself {ethnographic method) and thai i 
 
 by periods or epochs, the history of each nation 
 in where it belongs in the period *,,„- 
 
 -ii-ei. may, m successn 
 itioii: and all the othei 
 periods. In the middli 
 
 3 will 
 ages, 
 
 l- at 
 
426 
 
 logic order, will absorl i the 
 
 1 1 1 . i \ c i in episodieallj 
 
 tin- ethnographic princip 
 prominence, before the pv 
 I . 1 1 1 ■ ■ 1 >■ • . t i i movements. MU 
 and the Thirty rears' W 
 isfaction or benefit. A 
 
 century, the policy of < Ihi 
 part, the Protestant ile\ 
 Prance, and England com 
 17th. alternately", the adv; 
 Thirty Years' War, and ti 
 claim an absorbing attent 
 Englan I of Walpole, the 
 
 stand-poinl for understan 
 Chiefly as episodes, in i 
 history, com 'in certain gi 
 Saracenic <i\ ilization, i he 
 Turkish ascendency, the i 
 Portugal ami Spain, th 
 the struggle of the Dutch 
 Sweden and Russia, etc. 
 be used, st/nchr i 
 stantly requisite to a lull 
 relations oi i vents. "I hi - 
 of lists oi sovereigns grot 
 arrang i I. -i le by si I ■ in | 
 or leading events arrang 
 After the history of any 
 hern studied in the chron 
 methods oi arrangement i 
 purpose of review, varyin 
 ha been followed in the i 
 the pupil may lie require: 
 
 HISTORY 
 
 remainder, except what I a taste for reading, will devour solid books of 
 . In modern history, history, when not under compulsion ; especially 
 le must at first have if they have a strong frame-work fixed in their 
 nil can study theereat minds for ihe >eparaie facts to attach themselves 
 
 l culture. Dates are to 
 ut only in connection with 
 
 To memorize the dates 
 worse than useless. The 
 
 events, marking epochs, 
 cilin themind. Asaheady 
 aedshould be such as to 
 leconstantlj in view; and 
 emorizing of many dates 
 ", says the German writer 
 
 most simple monitors of 
 ■v.r be entirely omitted, 
 to In limited for children, 
 na.lc round numbers, for 
 nay. a sensible arrangement 
 
 understanding of related 
 :mld be done by lone ex- 
 igical relations may be 
 is of historical charts, rep- 
 osition ill time of every 
 
 as a map represents coun- 
 
 acc. 'I hoc should be large 
 ly to the eye what is rep- 
 iffcreiit nations slmulil be 
 ; colors. Of such charts, 
 ■ey's are examples. Pro- 
 
 la the states and countries. 
 
 uch as 
 IvMnes 
 
 individt 
 a strict 
 
 with th 
 of recit 
 
 not mi! 
 as far a 
 lateral 
 
 should, 
 and the 
 own lai 
 text-boi 
 
 ih" best results raphy and history, and afford an indication of 
 ed, but for cl- the extent to which geographical study is needed 
 ixpression. On in connection with that of history. It is. how- 
 cy in language ever, desirable that all the places mentioned in 
 
 the liistory should be at least pointed out on 
 
 insisted upon; 
 ,1 to use their 
 
 Ihe 
 
 also afford 
 spects. A . 
 
 sconnected 
 
 the mind 
 
 class drill: 
 
 detail in re 
 
 ■II, 1 to 
 
 system oi ii 
 
 lepende 
 
 members oi 
 
 a class, 
 
 to the acq 
 
 tisition 
 
 mation, cai 
 
 1, pupil 
 
 liution, to 
 
 ,e offer. 
 
 class exercis 
 
 ■s. Chi 
 
 will lead in the tlm 
 
 ing infor- thai Icctu 
 ,'ii eontri- I The da 
 with the be select© 
 ace, with is anothi 
 
 al movement. 
 
 pupils iniisi neces- 
 heir thought, and 
 re. 1 1 is, however, 
 
 ,i historical study 
 
 place. 
 I oi material — to 
 
 stinly of history 
 deration for the 
 
HISTORY 42T 
 
 teacher, as well as for the compiler nf a s.l 1 lluenees which constitute the other factors a: 
 
 < ipendium. There is a great diversity in this neither obvious, nor established in the gener 
 
 \i books, nn lue prom 
 itical and militarj histi 
 og tn social life being 
 the study of much oi 
 aterest. The condition 
 Je in the elements oi cr 
 
 general 
 
 human character and human 
 istic theory which attributes to 
 
 i I 
 
 ..■ which attrib- 
 esin the world's 
 
 and thus makes 
 lurce ..t all the 
 the intellectual, 
 ankind. These 
 the metaphysics 
 
 m teaches Inn 
 with either h 
 
 ats, h'ke 
 only by 
 
 Wha1 has already been suggested has exclu- 
 de reference to fai ts oi stat ts of facts, 
 
 ■<1 stage, that of superior instr 
 has strong claims to attenti 
 sphered life in which the s 
 
 history, 
 
 those wl 
 itsadvai 
 
 useful h 
 
 liistorj which 
 heir nature a 
 
 this : (1 i 'II 
 bit nt withh. 
 
 1.1 . Hill 
 
 Vo obje 
 fding its 
 
 ,..t SUp] 
 
 lilitj 
 
 Mil . 
 
 orted 
 
 sources of 
 
 ami this 
 
 history in 
 
 II be sul- 
 
 from all 
 by suffi- 
 
 mankin I. 
 "living stud 
 from theslo 
 
 pmto 
 
 ami 
 
 Inn,- 
 
 narrative oi events, bu 
 them to their real causes 
 
 udy, as n turn hold 
 
 :' the mind, ii is a rei 
 
 it. At this ..I the ft 
 
 i a simple conditio] 
 
 history, nays 
 tendencies wl 
 and the tmi 
 brought then 
 are to be lool 
 nature as con 
 
 it- principles which cuntr.il 
 ikiml in all the elements* 
 nee assumes an office and 
 
428 
 
 IIIWASSKH COLLEliE 
 
 connection with human education, without which 
 it must lie measurably ineffective and iniper- 
 fect. — See Wickeesham, Methodsof Instruction 
 (Phila., 1865); Ourrie, Principles and Practice 
 
 ,,/■ l ',„„,„,, ,,-Srhnul E.hn.ttn,,, ( K( lilll mrgll allll 
 
 London); Von Raumer. <7e.se/, ,.7,/e ,l,r Pai/.i- 
 gogik, trans, in Barnard's Journal of Educa- 
 tion^ No. xx.; also, in the same, Catechism on 
 Methods of Teaching, s. v. History, by Abben- 
 rode, in which will be found a list of valuable 
 works for consultation on the methods of teach- 
 ing this subject. 
 
 HIWASSEE COLLEGE, in Monroe Oo., 
 Tenn., 7 miles from Sweetwater, was founded in 
 L849, under the auspices of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, South. The name of the post- 
 office is the same as that of the institution. It- 
 is supported by tuition fees, and has a prepara 
 torj and a collegiate department The library 
 contains al ion I L ,500 volumes. The tuition fee 
 for five months i- 812.50 for primary studies, 
 $15 for intermediate, and $12 for collegiate. 
 A law department has b . in-organize 1, but it has 
 made little progress. In 1875—6, the college 
 had 5 instructors and 186 students. John II. 
 Brunner, A \l.. is the president of the institu- 
 tion (1876). 
 
 HOBART COLLEGE, at Geneva, N. Y., 
 was chartered in 1825, growing out of an 
 academy and divinity school established by Bishop 
 Hobartof the Protestant Episcopal Church, in 
 1821. Its entire endowment is something over 
 $300,000, of which, perhaps. $60,000 is repre- 
 sented by land and buildings, while one consider- 
 able portion is in the sha] f free scholarships, 
 
 of which there are twenty-six, leaving less than 
 $21,000 of annual income from endowment for 
 
 the support and inainteiiaii )f the college. A 
 
 considerable portion of the entire sum $4,200 is 
 in the shape of annuities, contributed from New 
 fork City. The library contains about 13,000 
 volumes. There arc twi i courses, a classical of four 
 years, and a scientific of two years. The tuition 
 Ee, i - .ii ., pear. The scholarships are primarily 
 designed for students intended for the ministry. 
 In 1875—6, there were 7 instructors and 29 
 students. The presidents have been as follows : 
 the liev. Jasper Adams. I). It., 1826 28 ; the 
 Rev. Richard S. Mason, It. It.. 1830—35; the 
 Rev Beni. Hale. It. D., 1836 57; the Rev. A.b- 
 ner Jackson, D. I>„ 1. 1.. D., L858— 68; the Rev. 
 Janes Kent Stone. It. It., 1869—70; the Rev. 
 .lames Rankine, D. D., 1870 -73; the Rev. 
 Maunscll Van Rensselaer, D.D., LL. D., Is;:; 
 —76; and the Rev. William Stevens Perry, I>. 
 |t„ LL. I'., the present incumbent, appointed in 
 187G. 
 
 HOFWYL, Schools of, a group of educa- 
 tional institutions established by Follciiherg. 
 which very widely attracted attention, and a1 
 taincd a high reputation for the excellence of 
 
 the il y on which thej were based, and for 
 
 their practical success Hofwyl originally called 
 Wylhof,was a large estate,abou( six miles from 
 Bern, Switzerland, which was purchased by Fel- 
 lenberg, in 1799, for the purpose ol enabling 
 
 HOFWYL 
 
 him to carry out his peculiar educational views. 
 Deeply impressed with the need of ameliorating 
 the condition of the poorer classes by affording 
 then- the means of a practical education,he was 
 also convinced that the education received by 
 the higher classes in the universities and middle 
 schools, veiy greatly needed reform. He de- 
 signed, therefore, to establish -an institution for 
 both classes, in which they should be so separate,!, 
 as to prevent confusion, and yet so connected, 
 that each might observe the other, and that oc- 
 casion might be given to establish, on a Christian 
 basis, the character of each.'' Agriculture he 
 believed best adapted, as an occupation, to de- 
 velop the powers of both mind and body in their 
 proper harmony. Hence, he conceived that an 
 agricultural school would form the best basis 
 for the carrying out of his proposed plans. In 
 1829, Hofwyl was described as a village of about 
 300 inhabitants, comprising il ) A farm, of about 
 600 acres; ('_') Workshops, for the fabrication 
 :md reoair of a-iiiailtural implements, and 
 
 for those who were destined for trade, or whose 
 circumstances did not permit a more complete 
 education; and (<'>) An Agricultural Institution 
 
 secluded situation of Hofwyl. at a i venient 
 
 distance from a large town, and surrounded by 
 some of the most beautiful objects of Swiss 
 scenery, particularly commended it to Fellen- 
 
 berg. The first of the schools was eon sneed 
 
 in 1804 ; but, in 1829, the writer of a series of 
 letters, published in the American Annals of 
 Education, for 1831, thus described the institu- 
 tions of Hofwyl : 
 
 "On entering Hofwyl from Bern, the traveler 
 andahimseli in an extensive court or play-ground, 
 furnished with instruments fur gymnastic exercises, 
 mill a hillock of clean sand, in which the yoiniL'er Leys 
 e\ernse their i ii U e 1 1 1 1 1 1 v ill digging eaves and imihlmg 
 ra-th-. suiTouncied on three sides hy the 1, adding dc- 
 \ i. led t.i tin- literary institution-, and sheltered on the 
 west by a little wood, composed "1 a variety of trees. 
 u ineli serve at once as a place for botanical observa- 
 tions and a- a retreat during the heat of summer. In 
 pleasant weather the lessons are not (infrequently 
 • dve'1 h-rc. in arl.'or- furnished with seats for this pur- 
 pose Tie- luilieipal liulldiinr on the east ol thi-ouiirt. 
 i, iiiiialuN >l I iv -u pupil-, under the constant super- 
 
 •i'!,,, 1,,,. ... „v i- oe" lllileil liV tin' Ultehell and 
 
 superintendents; 
 
 i in : a third ai 
 
 large and Lofty n 
 devoted to the i 
 lection of easts. 
 the dormitories o 
 superintendents, 
 every part of tl 
 
jive a complete educal preparatory to professional I and strongly developed in him, that, before the 
 
 studies. Betw 1 "J" an.l .in u.-tiuctors a.c ,- l,,y,l ,. 1m1 ,,f t |„'. Vl , n , ]„. requested to be placed with 
 
 ... . his esla . .shine,,,. .....si ..I ,v ...... res,. ■■ ... :im.t »'i; ,,„.,.,, ,j ]s . L ,.„ ,„.,,.,, ,',. ,,„. h,^,,^ all(l 
 
 garden spots, assigned to the p.. ink 
 amusement and exercise ; and, at a lit! 
 the side of the I. ill, a circular eold lull. . 
 !I0 feet in diameter, and 10 feet deep,] 
 
 Gothic style. ' 
 chateau, 
 
 On 
 
 (ani.lv 
 
 u. .Mil.seipientlv 
 ..f the highest 
 
 Alexander to be 
 
 823, a building was erected 
 
 o li.ai.sii.n. to a. von. in. ..late 
 
 ant (.'iris, under the lediate direetioi 
 
 lenberg, and one of her daughters. In t 
 
 rh ■//:'/ m, a IT two hllihln.es occupied by - 
 
 of the Practical Institution. These an 1 
 
 ary Institution, and are permitted to a\ 
 
 of its lessons, and to j ,ait. i k.' ■ ■ f 1 1 1 ■ ■ la ho 
 
 All tlir sell. ...Is at llofwvl were conducted on 
 thesoundest and most approved principles of 
 education, and with a devotion, on the part of 
 the instructors, that could not but be followed 
 by success. In L813,a commission, at the head 
 
 .1. I'll. 
 
 ..I agriculture, and n ive three or foui hours oi in- 
 struction daily in reading, writing, arithmeti. . and 
 
 other useful bran. die- \n int.-. . -1 n.u branch "I tin- 
 
 Institution of Hofwyl is the colony oi Meykirk, at the 
 distance of five or six miles. II consists ol - or L0 
 
 poor hoys who were placed under the di. Uon of a 
 
 teacher on a spot of uueultivated mound, from w hud. 
 they were expeeted to obtain the mean- "1 -ub-.-t- 
 'i.ii'. It is 1 1 1 ■ - i ■_- 1 1 1 ■ 1 1 as an experiment on tin- prac- 
 ticability of providing for the support and .-duration 
 of friendless children, without any further .-\p.-n-- 
 than that of the soil which they cultivate. Several 
 hours are devoted daily to intellectual and religious 
 instruction, and thus the children a. Ivance in cultiva- I 
 tion and knowledge, as well as in hardihood and in- 
 dustry." 
 
 Itwasaruling principle with Fellenberg, in 
 the management oi Hofwyl, thai "gradual prog- 
 ress is the only sure progress. And he care- 
 fully avoided bringing together u large nuiiilicr 
 of children of various characters, to be subjected 
 to a kind of discipline entirely new to them. 
 He commenced with introducing two or three 
 boys into his own family: and afterwards he 
 would receive only a few pupils at once into his 
 school, so that they mighl fan insensibly into the 
 prevailing habits and discipline. Wehrli, who 
 distinguished himself so highly as an assistant 
 of Fellenberg, was thus taken into his family ; 
 and the active benevolent spirit was so rapidly 
 
 mi the lowest and 
 ies — some of them 
 Lterally, taken from 
 mil yet they lived, 
 vernment, in perfect 
 
 peace and harmony. Such was the effect of the 
 sound principles, wis.- administration, and de- 
 voted labors of Fellenberg and his co-laborers, 
 in this most interesting institution. It still re- 
 mains under the control of the descendants of 
 
 liter thorough renovation and repairs. 
 !.. 1876, uii.ler the management of 
 Andresen, the successor of l>r. Ed- 
 >r. For a full account of Fell. -nln rg s 
 ■ American Annals of Education, 
 
 HOLBROOK, Josiah, distinguMi.-d for his 
 labors in behalf of science teaching in common 
 schools and the diffusion of useful knowledge 
 among all classes, was born in Derby, Ct., in 
 1788, and died near Lynchburg, Ya., in 1851. 
 
430 
 
 HOLBROOK 
 
 It was while pursuing- his studies in Vale Col- 
 lege, that, under the instruction of Prof. Silli- 
 inan, he imbibed that fondness for natural 
 science, particularly chemistry and geology, 
 which "ave direction to his future life. For 
 some time after graduating, in 1810, he gave his 
 attention to agriculture, managing his father's 
 farm at Derby. There he took part in the 
 
 HOME EDUCATION 
 
 first national convention. May 4., 1831, in New 
 York, and adopted a constitution. There were 
 present delegates from Maine Massachusetts, 
 New York. Pennsylvania, Yale College, the 
 city of Washington, and other places ; and 
 lei ted its first 
 was held each 
 
 Stephen Van Rensselae 
 
 he delivered It 
 1826, he publi 
 of Adults for 
 the Millbury . 
 jected Americ 
 consist of atlil: 
 mutual impri 
 Union. Thus 
 gates, to const 
 the county bo: 
 board : and tli 
 sented in a gri 
 being to pro 
 spread of inte 
 dxeds of these 
 ous parts of I 
 defatigable lal 
 whole time to 
 the distribute 
 personal visit 
 began the mi 
 
 sol 1 apparal 
 
 ' j . ana 
 
 iard of education, 
 manner, a state 
 fere to be repre- 
 
 letn 
 
 ,-hich, in 
 
 connection with Timothy « 'laxton. of Boston, he 
 uiciiK extended, into what was afterwards 
 known as the Holbroak School Apparatus. In 
 L842, he undertook the organization of a system 
 mg s, the object of which was an 
 interchange, among schools in different partsof 
 the country and in foreign countries, of speci- 
 mens of pupils' work: such as. maps, draw- 
 ings, geometrical solids, collections of minerals. 
 etc. In this way. he conceived, the intellectual 
 activity of the pupils would be stimulated : and. 
 In i les by becoming acquainted with the prod- 
 w i- of each other's labor, their standard of 
 
 excellence wi 
 
 uid be elevated, and 
 
 their desire 
 
 for improven 
 
 ent increase!. This 
 
 scheme met 
 
 with conside 
 
 able favor in many 
 
 putts of the 
 
 country, part 
 
 cularly in the city of 
 
 New York. 
 
 and for :i tin 
 
 > was successfully carried on. The 
 
 American U 
 
 , n also for a while, 
 
 greatly Hour- 
 
 ishcil. In 18 
 
 --■ a public meeting 
 
 was held in 
 
 Boston to pi 
 
 imote it- objects, at 
 
 vhich Daniel 
 
 Websl i pi 
 
 ded, and George B. V 
 
 net-son acted 
 
 as seen tarj . 
 
 .in 1 resolutions were 
 
 aloptcd corn- 
 
 mending the 
 
 / .-. . ■ n to public fa 
 
 er and sup- 
 
 port. Li oil 
 
 
 Everett took 
 
 part in the | 
 
 in. ■ ling ■ and subs 
 
 iquently, out 
 
 of this move 
 
 
 ar education. 
 
 grew the Bos 
 
 
 usion ■■>' USS- 
 
 j'hI KnowUdi 
 
 e, t illowed - i after 
 
 i\ the /•' ston 
 
 Lyceum : at 
 
 1, p.n 1 1'. ,i the i' uli 
 
 of the aame 
 
 awakening, t 
 
 
 • of Instruc- 
 
 Hon was established in 1830; and 
 
 
 the Florida Education Society wa 
 
 organized at 
 
 Tallahassee. 
 
 The American Lye 
 
 turn held its 
 
 WI 
 
 e enter- 
 his life, 
 burg, he 
 
 again seen until his body was found at the foot 
 of a cliff, from which it was supposed he had 
 fallen. I-Yw lives have been so' earnest, unselfish, 
 and philanthropic ; and to very few lias it been 
 given to be the means of stimulating the intellect- 
 ual activity of so many thousands. — See 
 Barn m:h's Journal of Education, vols.vin., and 
 xiv.: and American Educators, vol. n.: Amer- 
 ican Annals of Education; Bourne, History of 
 the Public School Society (N. Y., 1870). 
 
 HOLIDAY. See School Festivals. 
 
 HOLLAND. See Netherlands. 
 
 HOLY ANGELS' COLLEGE, at Van- 
 couver. Washington Ter., under Roman Cath- 
 olic control, was founded in I860. It is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees and voluntary contri- 
 butions. In ls7li.it had 7n pupils- Its presidents 
 have been as follows: the Rev. J. B. Brouillet, 
 1860—62; the Rev. P. Means, 1862— 72 ; the 
 Rev. P. Hylebos, 1872—3; and the Rev. Louis 
 (1. Schram, the present incumbent, appointed 
 in 1st::. 
 
 HOLY CROSS, College of the, at Worces- 
 ter. Mass., was founded in 1843 bj the Rt. 
 
 Rev. 
 olic I! 
 to the 
 
 the rei 
 the ile 
 
 Roman Cath- 
 and was given by him 
 
 sty of Jesus, In L865, 
 
 j the legislature of the 
 uthority " to confer such 
 I by any college in this 
 medical degrees." The 
 i is to prepare \oittli for 
 ommercial course of life. 
 inlnaces. in its whole ex- 
 pand junior classes, and 
 nor The candidates for 
 t Ait- musl undergo an 
 and natural philosophy. 
 rv. and must be well ac- 
 Ireek, and mathematics. 
 
 The charge tor hoard and tuition is !>z. ill per an- 
 num, besides sonic extras. In 1874 — 5, there 
 were 11' instructors and I 77 students. The num- 
 ber of degrees conferred at the commencement 
 in 1 s 7 . > was 13. The library contains 1 1,000 vol- 
 umes. The Rev. Joseph B. O'Hagan, S. J., is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 HOME EDUCATION is that which is car- 
 ried on in the home circle, or family, as con- 
 trasted with that which is afforded by the 
 school. Up to a certain age, and within a cer- 
 
MOM i: KMVATION 
 
 431 
 
 tain sphere, home education, or its equivalent, 
 is not only indispensable but inevitable. The 
 
 pan 0.t£ are I III' first teachers. < ■ ^ | .< ■ i 1 . 1 1 1 \ I In 
 
 mother; and the educative influences of the 
 nursery nol only precede in time, bu1 exceed in 
 power, ili"- "i the school. I [ere the foundation 
 
 IS laid "ii which tin- school-teacher inu.-t sub- 
 sequently lmilil : ami, comparatively speaking, 
 more is accomplished in the period of earliest 
 childhood, both in storing the mind and in 
 forming the disposition and character, than dur- 
 inganj equal number of subsequent years. " \ 
 chiM gains more idea-." says Lord Itrougham. 
 "in the first four years of his life than ever 
 afterward." Early tome education consists pe- 
 culiarly in what has been called unconscious 
 tuition, L\ means of which the plastic nature of 
 the young child is insensibly moulded by the 
 agencies which environ it. The mother chiefly 
 controls these agencies, which may lie enumer- 
 ated as follows : (1) The affectionate tenderness 
 which she displays, in ministering to the wants 
 and gratifying the desires of the child, and in 
 sympathizing with and alleviating its distresses ; 
 Cl\ Her behavior, as being delicate ami refined. 
 or coarse and rude, -showing self-restraint and 
 dignity, or manifesting impulsiveness and pas- 
 sion : (3) The tones of her voice - sweet and 
 
 her face, implying similar traits ; (5) The force 
 of her will, under the intelligent guidance of 
 educational principles and the restraints of con- 
 science. Such arc the element- of a mother's 
 educative power, a powerthe exercise of which 
 results in forming in the child traits of character 
 that no succeeding agency of circumstance, edu- 
 cation, or self-discipline can entirely efface. It 
 will be seen.from this enumeration, that the 
 mother's influence is rather moral than int. Uec- 
 tual : indeed, the special period of its exercise 
 supersedes the necessity of any formal cultiva- 
 tion of the knowing faculties. The child dur 
 ing the first EeiK years of its existence needs 
 littl i direction in this respect. Natural curios- 
 ity aud innate activity constantly stimulate the 
 growth of the mind, and till it with those ideas 
 which are to constitute, in succeeding years, the 
 materials of thought. It is just as absurd to 
 subject a very voting child to formal instruction 
 as it would be to attempt the development of its I 
 physical powers by gymnastic exercises. Watch- 
 fulness is, however, constantly required to cheek 
 the formation of bad habits, which have just as 
 strong a tendency to spring up in the young 
 mind as rani weeds in a virgin soil. (See 
 Habit.) The period of exclusive home educa- 
 tion h ire referred to being so decisive of the 
 future character of the child, and the ther 
 
 being the first and most effective of all educa- 
 tors, it will be apparent that the science of edu- 
 cation, in its most comprehensive sense, should 
 constitute an essential part of the curriculum 
 of every female seminary or college. Particu- 
 larly should the future mother be taught to ap- 
 preciate the character of the influence, in all its I 
 
 phases, which she is to exert ; as well as to un- 
 derstand. how to render it effectual in contribut 
 ing to the future welfare of her child. The 
 father, at a somewhat Liter period, but in a 
 similar manner, is a powerful educator within 
 the circle of home. Both by precept and ex- 
 
 " Would thai we ourselves did not corrupt the 
 morals of our children! We arc delighted it 
 they utter any thing immodest. Expressions 
 which would not be tolerated even from the 
 
 effeminate youths of Alexandria, we hear from 
 them with a smile .and a kiss. Nor is this won- 
 derful ; we have taught them: they have heard 
 such language from ourselves. Thej see our 
 
 mistresses, our male objects oi affeel ; everj 
 
 dining-room rings with impure ongs; things 
 shameful to be told are objects of sight. From 
 -in h practices splines habit, and afterwards nat- 
 ure. The unfortunate children learn these vices 
 before they know that they are vices : and hence, 
 rendered luxurious and effeminate, they do nol 
 imbibe immorality from the schools, but carry it, 
 
 lllem-ehe- into the school-." While contetm ,1a t- 
 
 Whi 
 
 of society of our times, could be subjected to 
 such contaminating influences; yet, even at 
 present, the impressions, both intellectual and 
 moral, received by children in very many of 
 the home circle- of what are considered the' bet- 
 ter el., -es of society, are rathe debasing than 
 elevating. The complaint is often made by 
 teachers that the children placed under their 
 care are so depraved by bad home training, or 
 in consequence of absolute neglect, that their 
 efforts to discipline and instruct these pupils are 
 almost useless. 'I his is the more to be regretted. 
 as school education can. in most cases, only sup- 
 plement that of home: and because the influ- 
 ences that center in the hitter arc always more 
 potent than those wielded by the former, chiefly 
 because school education is primarily intellectual; 
 whereas that of home is primarily moral. At 
 any rate, such is the fact generally. 
 
 Alter the period of formal instruction litis ar- 
 rived, the question arises in the minds of many 
 parents, whether it is better to detain 
 at home to be instructed by private tutors or to 
 submit it to the discipline and instruction of the 
 school. This question has been much discussed 
 by educators. Quintilian, in regard to this 
 point, .-aid. in favor of school education, that "it. 
 had the sanction of those by whom the polity of 
 
 the most eminenl states was settled, as well as 
 that of the most illustrious author-." The fol- 
 lowing arguments are generally adduced to prove 
 
432 
 
 HOME KM'CATION 
 
 that the education acquirer! in school is to he 
 preferred to anythat is possible by private tutors 
 at home: (I) The intellectual training is more 
 effective; Bince the boy or girl coming in com- 
 petition with those <>t the -:unr ,iu'' i- .-ti undated 
 to greater exertions than would be possible in 
 any system of home instruction. As Quintilian 
 says. '-At home, the boy can learn only what is 
 taught himself: at school, he will also learn what 
 is taught to others. He will hear many things 
 approved: many others, corrected. The reproof 
 of a fellow pupil's idleness will be a good lesson 
 to him; as will, likewise, the praise of his neigh- 
 bor's industry, lie will think it disgraceful to 
 yield to his equals in age. and great honor to ex- 
 cel his seniors. All these matters arouse the 
 powers of the mind; and if ambition be an evil, 
 it is often the parent of virtue." The child 
 educated at home can never realize the full ex- 
 tent of his own powers, having n<> standard by 
 which to measure them. Hence, he is satisfied 
 with meager results, at the same time that he is 
 likely to be filled with self-conceit. It is, how- 
 ever, scarcely disputed that the school, as a mimic 
 world, presents a variety of incentives which a 
 home education could never afford : and thai it 
 is favorable to rapid mental growth. But it is 
 
 chiefly called in question. Home has been de- 
 picted as the abode of purity and innocence, — 
 of kindness, gentleness, and affection, of court- 
 esy and refinement, of morality and religious 
 influence; and Buch it ought to be, and it isto be 
 hoped, often is. From such an atmosphere the 
 home-bred child is at once introduced inn, a new, 
 and to him utterly unknown, world. Instead oi 
 
 thoughtless disregard of all weakness, either of 
 
 mind or body, except, indeed, to turn it into 
 ridicule. He finds that, if he is not mindful of 
 himself, and sufficiently self-assertive, he will he 
 borne down in the mass. There is an antag- 
 onism — an aggressiveness in those around him 
 that begets caution and resistance; there is a, 
 sense of danger that cultivates courage, and a 
 matter-of-fact spirit that crushes out egotism 
 and sensitiveness. Thus the boy, in the little 
 world of the school, is prepared for the greater 
 school beyond. Probably, no Letter illustration 
 of tins fact i. afforded anywhere than in the 
 great Public Seliools of England. Eton has been 
 especially noted for the rough discipline to -which 
 its pupils subject each other: and yet we find 
 the following cogent testimony as to the favor- 
 able effects of that sy.-tetn upon the boys' char- 
 acters, from an entirely reliable source: •■ I think 
 it cannot be denied that the tendency of the 
 Eton system is to make a boy generous and firm- 
 minded, to exercise his common sense early, to 
 make him habitually feel a moral responsibility, 
 to act not under the impulse of fear, but of 
 generous shame and generous emulation, to be 
 willing and determined to keep trust because he 
 is trusted: — in a word, to make him a manly boy 
 and a gentleman." [I'nhlir Si-hmil Klm-nliim . 
 
 HOME LESSONS 
 
 by Sir J. T. Coleridge. London. I860.) It has 
 
 been well said in regard to the corrupting influ- 
 ent f school. ■■ School indeed brings the knowl- 
 edge of evil, but the innocence of childhood is 
 but tin' innocence of ignorance; by home edu- 
 cation it cannot be much prolonged, and when 
 
 pear, l.- it to unite the education of a <j 1 school 
 
 with that of a properly ordered family. in which 
 i bination the evils of school life will be neu- 
 tralized by the stronger and purer influences of 
 home. Not home or school, but home and 
 school, constitutes the proper agency for the 
 education of children, whether hoys or girls. It 
 is the opinion of some, however, that admitting 
 the advantages, in general, of a school education, 
 that of home generates certain peculiar traits 
 and excellencies of character which are essential 
 to the welfare of society. This is the argument 
 of Isaac Taylor, in Home Education, who says, 
 "the school-bred man is of one sort — the home- 
 bred man is of another: and the community has 
 need of both: nor. as I think, could any meas- 
 ures be much more to be deprecated, nor any 
 tyranny of fashion mole to be resisted, than 
 such as should render a public education, from 
 
 HOME LESSONS, or Home Studies. The 
 question whether home lessons, or home studies, 
 should be a part oi the system of instruction in 
 schools of differenl grades, and if so, to what 
 extent they should be permitted, and in what 
 manner they should be pursued and super- 
 vised by the teacher, is one of considerable im- 
 portance, which is still extensively discussed by 
 writers on education. The need of home 
 lessons for pupils of secondary and higher 
 schools has never been disputed. In regard 
 to the schools of a lower grade, many physicians 
 have strongly objected to any kind of home 
 lessons, as long as the children are required to 
 spend from 4 to 5 hours a day in the school 
 room. Their arguments are, however, chiefly 
 directed against the length of the school sessions. 
 From an educational point of view, it has justly 
 been urged by recent writers, that the regulation 
 of this matter must chiefly depend on the 
 question, for what purpose should home lessons 
 be given. On this point, educator.-, at the present 
 time, are much more nearly agreed than formerly. 
 No writt r of note will, nowadays, maintain that 
 
 home lessons should be tor the mere ] mrpose of 
 
 preventing idleness of keeping the children 
 busy, orasa pnni-hmeiit for delinquencies; but 
 it i-acrecd that all home „tudio, >houM aim at 
 
 the ab 
 
 I 'J 
 
 aid of a teacher. If t Hi- principle is accepted, 
 several corollaries are self-ei ident. 1 lorn.- lessons 
 should not begin at too early an age Young 
 children need the supervision of a teacher to a 
 much greater extent than those of a more ad- 
 vanced age. and are much less fitted to Spend 
 
HOME LESSONS 
 
 their time profitably without direct guidance. 
 Moreover, while the school sessions for young 
 children are as long as for older ones, the medical 
 warning not to overwork the brain, applies with 
 
 much greater force to the h e lessons of the 
 
 former than i" those of the latter. Special care 
 should be taken that all the children fully un- 
 derstand the work which they are required to 
 perform at home, and thai they are compe- 
 
 elass should feel it necessary o> apply to hi-* par- 
 rents or adult friends for help. It is especial!} 
 this point that is so apt to be disregarded by 
 teachers. Parents have a right to object toany 
 
 case of diligent pupils, any help in addition to 
 
 that of the teacher. All exercises of this kind 
 prove a torment, and are absolutely injurious. 
 "The school", says Diesterweg, "must teach 
 the method of home studies. It is not enough 
 that the home lesson he appropriate in itself; 
 the pupil must be enabled to prepare it in 
 a proper manner. How often i rchildren tor- 
 ment themselves where this is not taught ! The 
 teacher should show them how to memorize, 
 how to prepare or review a lesson, how to write 
 by previously memorizing, prc- 
 
 IIORN-BOOK 
 
 438 
 
 is of opinion that the best arrangement for a 
 common school is to confine all the learning of 
 lessons to the school room, and to set apart 
 special hours for study, under the direct super- 
 vision of the teacher. This, of course, i^ an 
 extreme view; but it serves to illustrate the 
 
 of '/'■ aching , " is mosl rui is to the mind of a 
 
 child. He, by the habit oi missing, comes to 
 
 think it a small thing to fail at recitation. He 
 loses his self-respect, lie loses all regard for his 
 reputation as a scholar. Besides, the attempt 
 to acquire an unreasonable lesson, induces a 
 
 is more than to be hi- master." Moreover, when 
 pupils are required to write exercises at home, 
 the teacher should faithfully correct them. The 
 failure to do this fosters habits of carelessness. 
 Many teachers greatly err in this regard, 
 burdening children with the task of writing 
 pages ol exercises, and correcting but few. or 
 none, of them. Certainly, no teacher who is 
 guilty of so serious a mistake, can be regarded 
 as understanding the work either of instruction 
 or of discipline. Home lessons are. in general, 
 more frequent in European than in American 
 schools. The opinion is entertained by many 
 European writer.-, especially German (as Rol- 
 fus and blister. /,' i , . vol. i.. art. 
 
 Aufgabe), that home lessons are entirely un- 
 known in American schools. Of course, this is 
 not correct : but the views strenuously adv. icated 
 by the best American educators, that home les- 
 sons should not begin early, and that they should 
 occupy only a small portion of the childrens' 
 time out of school are fully concurred in by the 
 best educational writers of Germany. "Under 
 the guidance of the teacher", says I liesterweg, 
 "the attentive pupil will be able to learn at 
 school, in one tenth of the time, what he is 
 sometimes required to learn, when distracted 
 and fatigued, at home. Thousands of pupils and 
 parents become disgusted with the school, on 
 account of the annoyance which they receive from 
 the home lessons heedlessly assigned by the 
 teachers; home lessons should, therefore, be re 
 stricted to the smallest possible amount ; and the 
 teacher, before assigning such a lesson, should 
 ponder well the question whether just this les- 
 son cannot be dispensed with, or be made un- 
 necessary." Dittes (Schule der Pddagogik) 
 
 superficial habit of study. - 
 the surface of things. 'The 
 teacher should be, not how m 
 lie should always ask. is i 
 child can master this lesson, 
 he mill." 
 HOPE. See Incentives, 
 
 a skimming 
 
 notto „f the 
 
 uch, but how 
 
 possible tha 
 
 and probable 
 
 over 
 
 icrll. 
 
 the 
 
 that 
 
 Prizes, and 
 
 Re- 
 
 WARDS. 
 
 HOPE COLLEGE, at Holland. Mich., was 
 established in L851, by the Reformed Dutch 
 Church, as the Holland Academy. It was 
 organized as a college in 1863, and incorporated 
 in 1866. Its especial design was to furnish a 
 suitably educated ministry. It has an endow- 
 ment of about $60,000. The library contains 
 about 1,200 volumes. Three departments have 
 been organized: (1) preparatory, (21 academic 
 or collegiate, and (3) theological. In 1874 — 5. 
 there were 9 instructors and 111 students. Rev. 
 Philip Phelps, Jr., has been the president since 
 the organization of the college. 
 
 HOPKINS, Mark, a noted American 
 scholar anil teacher, born in Stockbridge, Mass.. 
 Feb. 4.. 1802. After graduating at Williams 
 t 'ollege, and serving as tutor in that institution 
 
 for 
 
 medicine "in Ne 
 to Williams Co 
 fessor of moral 
 L836, succeeded 
 ( lollege, in whi 
 1872, when he J 
 
 nd rhetoric, and. in 
 as president of the 
 
 he remained until 
 ssume the duties oi 
 
 illustrates best Ins peculiarly lucid mode of 
 
 teaching difficult subjects is An Outline Slmhi 
 
 of Man (New York, 1873), which is a model of 
 the developing method as applied to intellectual 
 
 science, as well as of blackboard illustration. 
 
 HORN-BOOK, a book ,i.-tiie_ ,,t ,-, ,\u-A>- 
 
 page, formerly used to teach children the alpha- 
 bet and other simple rudiments. It was, in fact, 
 the first page of the primer, pasted on a thin 
 board, which terminated in a handle, and having, 
 fastened over the printed matter, a thin plate of 
 transparent horn, to protect it from being soiled 
 or torn by the young learner. Csually there was 
 a hole in the handle for a string, by which the 
 
434 
 
 HOUSE OK KEFUCE 
 
 apparatus was slung to the Bcholar's girdle. 
 Hence, in a View of the Beau Monde(11Zi I, we 
 find a lady described as "dressed like a child, in 
 a bodice coat and leading-strings, with a horn- 
 book tied to her side". Sometimes, instead of 
 being mounted on a board, the printed page was 
 pasted on the back of the born only. 'I be horn- 
 book was in use in England from the time of 
 queen Elizabeth to the close of the eighteenth 
 century ; it was also used in some of the Amer- 
 ican colonies until about the Bame time. The 
 oldest specimens contain the alphabet, in small 
 letters and capitals — in black-letter or in 
 Roman — commencing with a cross, which 
 
 to i 
 
 serv 
 
 by the vowels, and their simplest combination 
 with the consonants, the Lords' Prayer.and the 
 Roman numerals. (See Christ Cross Ron . Be- 
 fore the horn-book was invented, i1 is thought, 
 a cast-leaden plate was used in England, having 
 on its face the alphabet in raised letters ; as 
 ancient carved stones have been discovered 
 which appear to have served as moulds for cast- 
 ing such plates. There are many allusions in 
 English literature to this little implement of 
 elementary education. Shenstone in his quaint 
 poem, the Schoolmistress (1741), thus refers to it: 
 "Eftsoous the urchins t,> tln-ir tasks repair : 
 
 Their books, .if stature small, they take in hand. 
 
 HOWE 
 
 HOWARD UNIVERSITY, at Washing- 
 ton, 1). C.j was chartered by Congress in 18G7, 
 and named after I ren. O.O. 1 toward, one of its 
 
 founders. It occupies a commanding and 
 beautiful site tit the head of Seventh street, north 
 of and just beyond the city limits, and has several 
 
 pecially designed for colored youth, every depart- 
 ' nieiit is open to all, without distinction of raceor 
 ' sex ; and both white aud colored persons of both 
 sexes tire found among its instructors and stu- 
 dents. 'Ihe university is supported by contri- 
 butions and tuition fees. It has libraries con- 
 taining over 8,000 volumes, a mineral cabinet, 
 and a museum. The departments of instruction in 
 connection with it areas follows : (I) Academical 
 
 Which ■ 
 
 , in.. 
 
 To save from tine.r wet the letters fair." 
 
 Cowper, in Tirocinium, or a Review of Schools, 
 ( L784), thus describes it : 
 
 Neatly secure, 1 from 1» int.' soiled or torn 
 Beneath a pane of thin translucent horn, 
 
 Tis calle.l a hook, thong! Lot a Bingli page] 
 Presents the prayer the so. i..ur ,1. mm ,1 t>, teach. 
 Which ehil.lrcii use, amlp.ii> >ns-« h. n they preach. " 
 
 Locke, in Thoughts on Education, mentions the 
 horn-book and primer as the "ordinary road." to 
 learning to read in bis time. (See Pkimer.) 
 HOUSE OF REFUGE. See Reform 
 
 Schools. 
 
 HOWARD COLLEGE, at Marion. Ala., 
 was founded by the Missionary Baptists, in 
 L843. It has a' library of about 2000 volumes, 
 geological and mineralogical cabinets, and chem- 
 ical, mathematical, and philosophical apparatus. 
 The cost of tuition, board, etc. in the college de- 
 partment is $226 per annum. Theological stu- 
 dents receive tuition free. The course of study 
 is divideil into the following distinct schools: 
 (1) School of Latin; (2) School of Greek; 
 (3) School of modern languages ; (I) School of 
 English; (5) School of moral science and theol- 
 ogy: (6) School of mathematics; 1 7) School of 
 
 chemistry, geology, and mineralogy; (8) Scl I 
 
 of natural philosophy and applied mathematics; 
 (!)) School of civil engineering; (10) Business 
 school. There is. also, a preparatory department. 
 The degrees conferred are B.S., A.B..M. A., and 
 ('. E., each of which requires proficiency in sev- 
 eral schools. In 1874 5, there were 5 instruc- 
 tors and L02 students. The presidents have been 
 as follows: B.W.Talbird, D.D., J. L.M.Curry, 
 I.I,. It, S. R, Freeman. D. II.. and J.T. Murfee. 
 I.L It, the present incumbent (1876). 
 
 partmeut ; (3) 'Iheologieal department. The 
 normal department was, at first, supported by 
 what was known as the .Miner Fund. The medical 
 students have the advantage of the Freedmen's 
 General Hospital and Asylum, situated within 
 the grounds of the institution. The theological 
 department is open to students of every Chris- 
 tian denomination. The cost of tuition in the 
 law department is $50 a year (or $40, when paid 
 in advance) ; in the medical and theological de- 
 partments, it is free; in the other departments, 
 $12 per year. The number of instructors and 
 students, in 1875 — 6, was as follows : 
 Departments. Instructors. Students. 
 
 Normal ) 34 
 
 Model school ( ... 141 
 
 Preparatory f " 39 
 
 College ) 33 
 
 Medical 8 24 
 
 Law 2 13 
 
 Theological 3 2, r i 
 
 Total 23 309 
 
 I .en Howard was president of the University 
 till 1 873, when he was succeded by John M, 
 l.aiigston. I.L. H.. as vice-president. In 1875, the 
 Rev. Edward I'. Smith was chosen president ; 
 and continued in office till his death, in 1876. 
 
 HOWE, Samuel Gridley, a distinguished 
 American educator and philanthropist, partic- 
 ularly noted for his zeal and success as a teacher 
 of the blind and the imbecile, was born in 
 Boston, in 1801, and died in that city, in 1876. 
 After graduating at Brown University, in 1821, 
 he studied medicine for a time; but, becoming 
 interested in the cause of the Greek patriots, he 
 entered the revolutionary army, in which he 
 served as surgeon till 1827. About this time, 
 Dr, John D. Fisher, who while pursuing his 
 medical studies in Paris, had become a. .jimmied 
 with the Abbe Hauy's institution for the blind, 
 proposed the establishment of a similar institu- 
 tion in Boston. Dr. Howe, who had returned to 
 the United States for the purpose of soliciting 
 contributions for the cause of the struggling 
 decks, was invited to take charge of the pro- 
 posed institution; and having accepted, lie imme- 
 diately embarked for Europe to visit the asylums 
 
HUNGARY 
 
 435 
 
 'or the blind in England, France, and Germany. 
 On fiirt return, the institution was organized, 
 
 the Blind, with Dr. Howe at it- head (1832). 
 Here the education of Laura Bridgman (q. v.), 
 
 tion. attracted general attention, and placed Dr. 
 Hour in the front rank of teachers; since only 
 the most ardent zeal, and the most consummate 
 skill. tact,and patience could have accomplished 
 so difficult a task. He was also much interested 
 in the education of the imbecile ; and the ex- 
 perimental school for their training, which he 
 helped to found, resulted, in 1851, in the Mas- 
 sachusetts School for Miotic and Feeble-Minded 
 Youth, in South Boston. IK' was the author 
 of a Reader far the Blind 1839) and a Histor- 
 ical Sketch of the Greek E o i L828 . 
 
 HUARTE, Juan, a Spanish physician and 
 philosopher, was born inNavarre, about 1535, and 
 died about 1600. He gave great attention to 
 psychology, and particularly to the external 
 physiological indications of character; and at- 
 tempted to show the practical value of hi- system 
 in education ami otherwise, in hi- great work 
 Ex&men ,1, Tngenios para S - Test of 
 
 MndsfortheleamingoftJieS s),published 
 
 about 1580, in which he gave directions for dis- 
 covering the special talents of individuals for 
 the acquisition of particular sciences. This book 
 became very famous, and was translated into 
 various languages. The Knuli-h version was en- 
 titled the '/'/■• U of Wits, [t taught that every 
 person is endowed with a talent for some specialty, 
 which should be discovered and cultivated; since 
 whatever attention he might give to other pur- 
 suits, he could never rise above mediocrity in 
 them. As a means of ascertaining this special 
 gift, he laid great stress upon an examination 
 of the form of the head. thus, to some extent 
 anticipating the doctrine of (Jail and Spurz- 
 heim. — See TicKNOR, History of Spanish Liter- 
 ature. 
 
 HTJET, Pierre Daniel, a noted French 
 scholar, born at Caen. Feb. 8., 1630, died at 
 Paris, Jan. 26., 1721. He was a pupil of Des- 
 cartes and Bochart, accompanying the latter to 
 Sweden, in 1652. lie, also visited Holland, but 
 returned to Caen and gave himself up entirely 
 to study. He became Doctor of Laws, in 1670, 
 and soon after, was summoned to Paris, where 
 he was appointed sub-preceptor, under Bossuet. 
 of the Dauphin, lie directed, for his royal pupil, 
 the preparation of the Delphin edition of the 
 classics. In 1685, he was made bishop of Sois- 
 sons, but was transferred to the see of Avrau- 
 ches, in 1692, which position he resigned in 
 1699, on account of ill health. His complete 
 works were published in lS5(i. in l'> vols. 
 
 HUMANITIES (Lat. hin,t,uiior,i or litem- 
 fiumaniores), those branches of education or 
 study, which are included in what is called po- 
 lite or elegant learning, as languages, grammar, 
 rhetoric, philology, and poetry, with all that per- 
 tains to what is called polite literature, includ- 
 ing the ancient classics. The name implies that 
 
 the stmh of these blanches, in opposition to the 
 physical sciences, which especially develop the 
 
 a truly cultured man. In the older systems of 
 education, the humanities took the lead: in the 
 new, they have been, to a considerable extenl 
 superseded by studies deemed more practical, 
 from a utilitarian point of view. The contest 
 between the humanities and the so-called prac- 
 tical Mudies. as branches of higher education, is 
 still rife. The humanities are, at present, more 
 commonly designated /nl/ex-lrttres (cp v.). 
 
 HUMBOLDT, Karl Wilhelm von, a dis- 
 tiicjui-licl <;,■! man statesman, philologist, and. 
 educator, brothel- of the great scientist, Alexander 
 von Humboldt, was born June 22., 17*17. died 
 April -,. L835. He studied at the universities 
 of Frankfort on the Oder and Gottingen, and 
 after holding several positions in the Prussian 
 diplomatic and stale service, was appointed, in 
 
 in the fields of higher education that Humboldt's 
 influence was felt. He prepared the way for. and 
 thus became the real founder of, the University 
 of Berlin, and also laid the foundation of the 
 future greatiic-s of the Prussian gymnasia. His 
 reforms in the study of languages, in the schools 
 of Prussia, exerted a far-reaching influence. His 
 own linguistic works were of great importance, 
 especially that upon ICiri. the language of an- 
 cient Javanese literature l Ueber die Kawisprache 
 auf d r InselJava, 3 vols., 1836—40), still re- 
 garded as a classic on the philosophy of language. 
 >i'i.„ :..* i..„*; 1..-..1. + ,*.. ..» t'l... .i;tv,.', , 
 
 I'he introduction 
 of Ian 
 velopi 
 
 separa 
 
 cats of the difiet 
 
 Til U„ />„S / „-,,e/,,r/ssv„xe/„„7 IP. r„„ Ilmnhnldfs 
 
 (1848); IIkvm. Wilhelm von Humboldt (1856). 
 HUMBOLDT COLLEGE, at Humboldt, 
 
 Iowa, was founded in 1869, by the Rev. Stephen 
 II. Taft. but was not opened until 1872. It is 
 non-sectarian, and is supported by voluntary 
 contributions. Tuition is free to '.students to 
 the number of 100. The college building is a 
 beautiful marble edifice, erected at a eo-t ot 
 over $40,000. The library contains 1,300 
 volumes. It includes an English, a preparatory, 
 and a collegiate course. In 1874 — 5, there were 
 
 I instructors, and 97 students, of both sexes. 
 Rev. Stephen H. Taft has been the 
 
 since the commencement of the institution. 
 
 HUNGARY, one of the principal divisions 
 of the Austin-Hungarian .Monarchy, i 
 of Hungary proper, the former kingdom of 
 Croatia, which, besides sending deli 
 
 I I iiiigan'aii diet, has a provincial diet of its own, 
 and the free city of Fiume. Its entire area is 
 
436 
 
 HUNGARY 
 
 125,045 sq. m., and its population, which, ac- 
 cording to the census of 1809, was 15,509,455, 
 was estimated, in 1875, at 15,993,196. The 
 population of Hungary is made up of a number 
 of different races, no single race having an ab- 
 solute majority. These races differ not only in 
 language, but also in dress and customs. Accord- 
 ing to estimates by Austrian statisticians, the 
 races are divided nearly its follows: Germans, 
 1,780,000, funning 11.4 per cent of the total 
 population ; Slaves, 4,740.000, or 30.0 per cent ; 
 (nearly L6 per cent being Servians or Croats, 
 and 1'2 per cent Slovacksj; Italians and Rouma- 
 nians 2.073,000, or 17.0 percent: Jews, 55:i.7oo. 
 or 3.5 per cent ; Magyars, 5,553,700, or 35.7 
 percent; and various other tribes amounting 
 to about 199.000. or 1.2 per cent of the total 
 population. The Magyars, though constituting 
 considerably less than one-half of the population, 
 are the ruling race, and are making strenuous 
 efforts to introduce the study of their language 
 into all the schools of the country. The former 
 kingdom of Croatia and Slavonia, in which 94 
 per cent of the people belong to the Slavic race, 
 preserves a certain degree of administrative 
 independence ; and the Croatian language is 
 used in all the public schools. In 1-09, the 
 different religious denominations were repre- 
 sented as follows : Roman ( latholics, 7,600,000 ; 
 United Greeks, 1,600,000; United Armenians. 
 5,200; Protestants of the Augsburg Confession, 
 l.lll.ooi); and of the Helvetian Confession, 
 2,031,000; Oriental Greeks, 2.590.000; Grego- 
 rian Armenians, 050; Unitarians. 55.000; other 
 < Ihristian denominations, 2.000 ; Jews, 553.700 ; 
 other non-Christians, and persons of no relig- 
 ion, 220. The ruling race of the country, 
 the Magyars, were a .Mongolian tribe, that took 
 
 |> '■ f Hungary in *9I. Christianity was 
 
 introduced under Duke Geysa (972 — 98), whose 
 son Stephen was crowned king by the Pope. In 
 1 520. a part of the country was conquered by the 
 Turks, ami the remainder was annexed to Austria, 
 with which country it lias been connected ever 
 since. In 1849, it was deprived of its ancient 
 constitution, and converted into a crown land 
 or province of the Austrian empire; but, in 
 1*07. its constitutional independence was re- 
 stored; and. since that tinie.it has formed one 
 of the two main divisions of the Austro-IIun- 
 garian Monarchy. In consequence of the numer- 
 ous civil wars, the oppression by foreign barba- 
 rians, and the conflicting tendencies of the rival 
 races ami religions, the progress of education in 
 Hungary has been slow. The numerous German 
 settlements of the 12th and 13th centuries, even 
 in the darkest hours, never failed to make provi- 
 sion for the education of their children; and when 
 the majority of these settlements, in the 16th 
 century, joined the Augsburg confession, their 
 schools were benefited by their closer connection 
 with the states of Germany. It was thus that 
 the Cronstadt gymnasium was founded in the 
 latter part of the 16th century, that gradually 
 the city schools in various places were raised to 
 the rank of gymnasia, and that scarcely a com- 
 
 munity of the Augsburg confession was without 
 a common school. The same was also true of 
 most of the communities of the Reformed 
 ( 'hurcli. The elementary education of the < 'ath 
 olics in the German settlements, was not so well 
 cared for ; but numerous gymnasia were founded 
 by the Jesuits in the Hungarian countries, which 
 grew quite rapidly. Very little was done for the 
 cause of education by the government, until 
 Maria Theresa appointed a commission on 
 schools and studies, in 1774. The whole country 
 was divided into nine districts. The provincial 
 director, who presided over a district, had charge 
 of all the school-, with the exception of the 
 national university, the gymnasium of Buda, 
 and the episcopal lyceums. In 1778, the in- 
 spectors of the Catholic common schools met in 
 Buda, and consulted on a plan, called the pro- 
 jectum Budense, to organize these schools. In 
 accordance with this plan, a normal school was 
 immediately established in eveiy district, and 
 common schools were to be erected as soon as 
 possible in every parish. In the village schools, 
 instruction was to be confined to reading, writ- 
 ing, and arithmetic, with German, if desired: 
 while, in the city schools, a knowledge of Ger- 
 man was considered necessary for all the scholars. 
 The schools of non-Catholics were to be grad- 
 ually incorporated with the system. In 1780, 
 the empress gave to the schools the property of 
 the Jesuits, amounting to about L0,000,000 
 florins ; but, owing to the peculiar circumstances 
 which existed under Joseph II., this large sum 
 did not immediately produce the expected result. 
 Joseph 1 1, attempted a number of radical reforms; 
 but most of them had to be abandoned, even 
 before his death. A commission, however, ap- 
 pointed by the Reichstag, drafted a new law, 
 which was adopted in 1806 According to this 
 law, every Catholic community was to haven 
 national school, with one or two teachers : while 
 7.'! cities were to have upper schools, with three 
 or four teachers. The ten normal schools were 
 to serve at the same time as schools for teachers. 
 The 60 gymnasia were divided into 54 full 
 gymnasia, with six classes, and 6 of four classes 
 each. After the death of Joseph 44. the Protest- 
 ants refused most determinedly to introduce 
 this new law into their schools, and Catholic 
 children were prohibit 'd from attending Pro! -t- 
 ant schools without the consent of the priest. 
 A new era began when, in 1850, the Hungarian 
 lands became an integral part of the Austrian 
 monarchy. Attention was. at first, given to the 
 elementary schools. New schools were erected, 
 the condition of the teachers was improved, 
 and existing schools were enlarged. Teachers 
 were procured at great expense from other coun- 
 tries. Under the newly appointed district 
 officers, the school attendance increased rapidly. 
 The long interruption of school sessions, generally 
 from March till November, was abolished; and 
 penmanship. drawing, and music were introduced. 
 for the first time, into Hungarian schools. An 
 entirely new idea were the Puszta or Panya 
 schools, which were designed to furnish instrue- 
 
in m;aky 
 
 tion to the numerous children living on the 
 great plains in houses far apart from each other, 
 ami whose parents »viv rlmllv .n.-.i _;.-. 1 in hnd- 
 ing horses for the nobility. After the re-estab 
 Hshment of the Hungarian independence, a new 
 
 .-rim.. I law wa- I dual., I. in I -H>. which has 
 
 • •'i ill..- of, at least, nine members. The 
 
 whole country is divided into Bchool districts, 
 for each one of whirl, thr ininisirv a.. i«, mis an 
 
 to til. 
 
 or associations may also csial.li-li elementary ami 
 normal schools, if thr teachers hold proper cer- 
 tificates. These schools may heroine ]iublic 
 schools by complying with the provisions of the 
 school laws. Every private school, however, 
 must conform to the cour f instruction pre- 
 scribed by law for scl I- of the grade. 
 
 Every community in which del [national 
 
 schools exist, and in which there are as many as 
 
 ■ ill children of olhrr ilr Illations, lllllst pl'o- 
 
 viile an ele ntary school. The elementary 
 
 study corn- 
 arithmetic, 
 latural phi- 
 
 practical instruction 
 Every child must 1, 
 tongue. Wherever 
 people speaking diffe 
 those languages mus 
 oi more than 5,000 
 at least a higher pe 
 means suffice, a burgl 
 boys and girls must 1 
 in th.ir own langui 
 comprises religion, pi 
 
 in gardening and farming, 
 instructed in In- mother 
 
 inhabitants must establish 
 iple's school : and. n their 
 
 erscl 1. In these schools, 
 
 • instructed separately, and 
 
 :■■. Thr course of study 
 
 mother-tongue, the 
 
 it is nol thr in.- hum . 
 natural history and 
 raphy and history, tl 
 constitutional history 
 and singing. In the s 
 constitutional histon 
 ted, needle-work beei 
 
 I instruction, maiiematics, 
 natural philosophy, geog- 
 
 e eleinents of agriculture. 
 
 book-keeping, gymnastics. 
 
 ho. ,1s for girls, agriculture. 
 
 and uy mi last irs ale oinit- 
 Ig taught instead of them. 
 
 In the burgher schl 
 prises six years: and 
 In addition to the sti 
 people's schools, chi 
 elements of law a 
 
 .1-. th ■ liovs course corn- 
 he girls' course.four years, 
 h ■ pursued in the higher 
 mistry, statistics, and the 
 e taught in the burghei 
 
 II..-. . rlllirr up 0] 
 
 lio..|. <.r iipoii pi 
 A Bchool law for 
 Iroatian diet, in 
 
 : the entire school system, 
 is compulsory and free. In- 
 d in the t 'loatian language ; 
 I may be used as the medium 
 ire they are spoken by the 
 community supports its ow a 
 habitants are ignorant of the 
 In all such scl Is, the study 
 
 year inclusive. Fen 
 pointed in lower clas 
 i.i I need. Bui 
 
 Tl 
 
 .. the twelfth 
 may be ap- 
 inmoii school 
 or both sexes 
 schools which 
 itl, the head 
 era' sen inary 
 r. I hi' < ourso 
 
 ot instruction comprises three yi a is. 
 
 In 1-7.'!. there were, in all the lands oi the 
 
 Hungarian crown, 15 II". -. I Is, oi which 1,542 
 
 were communal Bchools, and 13,903, den - 
 
 inational s.l,o,,|s. I,, the same year, there were 
 
 801 communities without any si I at all. and 
 
 the children of which could not even attend 
 neighboring schools, on accoui ' distance. The 
 
 18,018 
 
 10.1(14 
 
 un u 
 
 boys and 359,734 girls), or marly 10 per cent of 
 
 the children of school age, received struc- 
 
 tion. The total number of teachers in the same 
 year was 19,598, of whom 15,149 were licensed. 
 
 Thr number of normal schools was f>7 : ot win. h 
 
 15 \\. re state and 32 de ninational schools for 
 
 male teachers, and I state and li denominational 
 
 s,|„ 
 
 for fel 
 id l.v -J 
 
 school is connected with every normal school. 
 The schools are under the direct authority of 
 the communities, each one of which elects a 
 
 burgher scl Is for boy 
 
 higher female school in Buda-Pesth, and two 
 state seminaries for female teachers, in Buda- 
 
 These school- were 
 I -77 malesand 494 
 eachers was 510, and 
 154. In 1875, there 
 Is for boys, « iih agri- 
 course of gardening 
 . an tng school, and 
 for both sex, s. '.".i 
 and 8 for girls. A 
 
iris 
 
 HUNGARY 
 
 Pesth and in Raab, were established in 1875. 
 BudarPesth, the capital of Hungary, had, in 
 1873, 51 communal, 2 government. 18 denomi- 
 national, and lit private schools. The school 
 population was 51,532. The day schools were 
 attended by 27,864, and the review schools by 
 4.7'J(i pupils, making in all about 79 per cent of 
 the school population. The courses for adults 
 were attended by L,922 pupils, and the trade 
 school, by 1,510 pupils. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- 
 tion is imparted in gymnasia and real schools, 
 which correspond to the institutions of the same 
 name iu Germany. In 1872, there were 147 
 gymnasia with 1,842 teachers and 27,360 stu- 
 dents. Of these, 20,775 were Magyars, 2,418 
 Germans, 2,195 Roumanians, and l.siiM Slaves. 
 The number of real schools, in the same year, was 
 31, with 315 instructors and 5,803 students, of 
 whom 3,815 were Magyars. L,530 Germans, 326 
 Slaves, and 115 Roumanians. The Hungarian 
 language is taught in all these schools. In Hun- 
 gary proper, it is the medium of instruction 
 in all secondary schools; though in some, one or 
 more other languages are also used for some 
 branches of instruction. In Transylvania, the 
 medium of instruction is German in the Roman 
 Catholic gymnasia of Hennaiinstaf.lt and ( 'ron- 
 stadt, and in all schools belonging to the Evan- 
 gelical Church : Roumanian, in the gymnasia of 
 the (i reek Church; and the Hungarian laii^ua^e, 
 in all other schools. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — There are three uni- 
 versities in Hungary: in Buda-Pesth, in Klau- 
 senburg (founded in 1872), and in Agram 
 (founded in 1874). The university of Buda- 
 Pesth had. in the winter term of 1875—6,150 
 professors and 2,630 students. Klausenburg had. 
 in the same year, 61 professors and tl 7 students. 
 In the Universits ol Lgram, 270 students were 
 
 1875 — (i, the number of students was .'119. and 
 that of professors, 31. The universities of Hun- 
 gary have substantially the same organization as 
 those of Germany and of Austria proper. 
 
 Special Instruction. — Hungary had the fol- 
 lowing Bpecial schools in 1875: A royal poly- 
 technic in-fit lit.-, in Buda-Pesth. with 57 profess- 
 ors and 862 students; 9 royal. and 4 evangelical 
 law academics, a commercial high-school, in Buda- 
 Pesth, a royal agricultural academy, in Alten- 
 biirg. 4 other agricultural academics, in Hebrec- 
 zin, Keszthely, Caschau, and Elausenburg, the 
 royal academy of forestry, in Schemnitz, the 
 Croatian sehool of agriculture and forestry, in 
 Ereuz, 5 lower agricultural schools, 3 schools of 
 vine-culture, a royal mining academy, in Schem- 
 nitz. 2 lower mining schools, an academy of 
 music, in Buda Pesth, a royal school for the edu- 
 cation of officers of the landwehr cavalry, in 
 Jaszbereny, the Ludovica Academy in Buda- 
 Pesth, for the landwehr, a preparatory school, in 
 Giinz, and a naval academy in Fiume.— See 
 Schmid, Encyclopadie, vol. v., s. v. Austria; 
 Klin, Statistik mm Oesterreich-Ungarn (1876); 
 Brachelli, Statistische Skizze der Staaten Eu- 
 
 ropa's (1875) ; and Statistische Skizze der Bster- 
 n it hisch-ungarischen Monarchie i 1874), being a 
 supplement to Stein and Wait.ius, Handbuch 
 
 HYGIENE, School, 
 
 is reference to that 
 stration. which per- 
 if physical health. 
 
 or developing of the body; while hygienic prin- 
 ciples and rules have for their object to preserve 
 that condition of health in which all pupils are 
 supposed to enter school, and. by their constant 
 though unobtrusive influence, to make that con- 
 dition permanent. The value of the maintenance 
 of physical health will hardly be questioned by 
 any thoughtful person, certaiiilv not by any educa- 
 tor; for while the mind does sometimes, indeed, 
 appear to act independently of the body, there 
 are numerous instances on record which show- 
 that not only intellectual iiictlieielicy is directly 
 traceable to ill health, but moral obliquity also. 
 If the effect of positive disease, then fore, be- 
 comes so evident in specific instances as to reveal 
 this direct connection, the cases in which that 
 connection is obscure, and the effect apparent 
 only in a general way, must be numerous. Il- 
 lustrations of this are not wanting in the experi- 
 ence of every observing person. So well estab- 
 lished has this connection become, and so im- 
 portant, consequently, has the subject of physical 
 health in education been deemed, that no prom- 
 inent educational writei has tailed to notice it. 
 
 of physical health in the school involves the fol- 
 lowing considerations : (I) the character of the 
 site on which the school building is erected; 
 (II) the mode of construe ting the building, as 
 well as the location and construction of the out- 
 buildings. — water-closets, etc.; illl) the eon 
 struction and arrangement of the class-rooms; 
 (IV) the size, number, and distribution of the 
 windows for the admission of light; (V) the 
 mode of ventilation ; (VI) the manner of heat- 
 ing the rooms, and the average temperature 
 preserved in them by artificial heat ; (VII) the 
 adaptation of the school furniture to the physical 
 wants and condition of the children : ( V III ) the 
 kind of discipline employed, in regard to hygi- 
 enic principles; (IX) the degree of attention 
 given to the personal condition of the pupils, so 
 as to preserve cleanliness and prevent the com- 
 munication of disease : and (X) the means af- 
 forded for physical exercise. Each of these will 
 be considered in its order, according to the above 
 
 I. Site. — Modern sanitary science, fortunately, 
 has given each particular attention to the sub- 
 jects of site and exposure, and has impressed the 
 public mind so thoroughly with the necessity 
 of their healthf ulness, that only willful ignorance 
 or obstinacy will, in our day, permit a building 
 designed for human occupancy to be placed in 
 a manifestly unhealthy location. The healthful- 
 ness of a school site depends upon (1) the char- 
 acter of the soil ; (2) its elevation; (3) the cir- 
 
■eumstane.es which facilitate or obstruct proper I 
 drainage; (4) its remoteness from any stagnant 
 
 at least 108 cubic feet of air space to each pupil. 
 
 anil '.' square feet of floor-space. The height of 
 
 timi decidi 
 
 these cons 
 
 ami a deci 
 
 intermedii 
 
 rise cf go< 
 
 medical an 
 
 their fitnes 
 
 the difficul 
 
 opportunit 
 
 best judgu 
 the nature 
 
 regard to an 
 arist between 
 ion, all manni 
 
 earth from a distance, and depositing it over 
 
 snots originally low and swampy : or the filling 
 itself may be composed of refuse and garbage 
 which are destructive of health. A scientific 
 test of such ground will ordinarily show a slow 
 
 Modern examinations, also, as to the distribu- 
 tion of diphtheria, fever and ague, and some 
 
 Other diseases, show that these usually follow 
 the lilies of old water-eonrses. The leakage of 
 
 22™di 
 
 absolutely necessary to furnish to 
 ie amount of air necessary for health. 
 
 1 V . TIu 
 School Edu 
 
 >'/:■'. Sum!,, r. <i,nl Dixlrihiitiun if 
 es. — On this subject, Currie, in 
 wft'ore, remarks: "The provision for 
 
 (1) a pro,,, 
 
 distribul 
 
 deficiency o 
 
 ■ amount of light, and (2 us just 
 The effect either of an excess or a 
 
 light is to strain the eye and cause 
 of spirits, especially as the day 
 
 
 
 ;,!!': r ;;::;': 
 
 per of .-mailer, straggling apertures, 
 of lighting a school are these : 
 
 equable, am 
 
 dows may 1 
 room, or in 
 
 .1.1 the roof, as It is then stea.lv. 
 free from shadow. (2) The wil'l- 
 ■ plaeed ill the ends of the sellool 
 
 two adjacent sides, so as to admit 
 
 be such a- to avoid these influences so hostile to 
 health. The soil should be, if possible, light or 
 sandy, or a coarse gravel, since clayey soil holds 
 
 the rain, and 8 i causes wet feet, with all their 
 
 accompanying diseases; while the vegetable mat- 
 ter, deeomposed by the sun and standing water, 
 frequently gises ris • to eonsumption. and fevers 
 of various kim Is. If such a soil must be used, 
 there should be a sloping surface, or, if unavoid- 
 ably level, nothing short of the most thorough 
 
 II. Construction of School Building. — The con- 
 struction of the school building will depend on 
 
 the number of pupils to he a omodated : the 
 
 kind of school, as regards the sexes; and the 
 grade, — whether primary, grammar, or high 
 school. (See School-House.) In regard to 
 water-closets and urinals, it is hardly necessary 
 to say, that they should, for convenience, be as 
 near the school house as possible, without being 
 near enough to allow the perception of any odor. 
 The approaches from the school-house should be 
 undercover, the ventilation and the supply of 
 light should be ample. They should also In- en- 
 closed from observation. 
 
 III. Construction and Arrangement of Class 
 Rooms.— This varies with the conditions under 
 which the school-house is built. The rooms, how- 
 ever, should always be constructed so as to allow 
 
 sch. 
 
 imluly. nor too glaring, so as to dazzle the 
 'reflection. Of the colors commonly em- 
 1 ; namely, the white, the ocher, the stone 
 and the lightish-brown, the last two are 
 isly to be preferred." If the lighting of 
 liool room is from the roof . care should be 
 
 light will be intolerable in hot weather, ami 
 their regulation by blinds will be difficult. If 
 the lighting, on the other hand, is by side win- 
 dows, "the height of the window sill- from the 
 floor." says Kohson, -should always be con- 
 siderable, and the heads near 1 1 ling Mini; 
 
 of the cheerfulness of a school r especially 
 
 in a town, depends on the amount of sky which 
 can be seen from the windows. The height of 
 the sills from the floor, therefore, should never 
 
440 HYU 
 
 be less than five feet, and may be even more 
 with advantage. This will enable the top or 
 head to be placed nearly, if Dot quite, up to the 
 ceiling, and then the upper stratum of vitiated 
 air ran lie mure readily removed." The impor- 
 tance of this subject m regard to health is very 
 great. Liebreieh, in his report to the College of 
 Preceptors of London (July, L872), attributes 
 several diseases of the eve to this cause alone ; 
 and Dr. Colin asserts that of 410 students ex- 
 amined by him, only one-third possessed good 
 eyesight, the remaining two-thirds having had 
 their sight injured, in his opinion, by the de- 
 
 ficient lighting of the school rooms i 
 studied. A rough calculation, from r 
 made on the subject, gives 200 square 
 window glass as the proper number 
 scholar. In the above remarks by Ci 
 left side has been designated as the i 
 which the lijht shoul I come. Ii.-eaii.~e 
 
 i- th 
 
 suivs the fullest Him 
 the least inconveniei 
 
 the eve. When Ugh 
 
 front of the room, t 
 
 fare either of teachei 
 
 posed to face each 
 
 hind, the shadow of 
 
 upon the page; if from the right 
 
 shadows of the arm and hand, in tl 
 
 writing, equally obscure it. Thelight, 
 
 should fall from the left si le, and. as t 
 
 sible, from above. In eve g si hools, 
 
 iug should be, as nearly as possible, equ 
 by day. If gas is used, the glass cj lim 
 reflecting shade is recommended, for th 
 of steadying the light and making it str 
 whiter. < .round glass shades are now 
 discountenanced, then- effect being to c 
 heht. for general illuminatm- pur, 
 are desirable, as in the parlor or cone, 
 but arc out of place in the school ro 
 any room where the object is to cc 
 light upon a particular spot. 
 V. The Mo, 
 
 cool and foul air is forced out at the other 
 through the flue of the grate, in which a tire 
 is usually kept to facilitate the current. This 
 method, while perhaps the least objectionable of 
 any. has been opposed on the ground, that by it 
 the stratum of air nearest the ceiling is kept 
 warmest, while that nearest the floor, which 
 should be the warmest, is least so. To obviate 
 this difficulty, it has even been proposed to make 
 the floor of stone and warm it after the manner 
 of an oven, i, e., by kindling a fire under it. 
 Whatever method is adopted, however, fluctua- 
 tions of temperature should, as much as possible, 
 be avoided, and the air of the room should be 
 kept steadily at from 65 to 70 decrees. 
 
 'II. Furniture. Several diseases have been 
 ed to faultily-constructed school furniture, 
 if among which is curvature of the spine, with 
 diseases consequent upon it. This is some- 
 estheresult of insufficient lighting; but more 
 uentlv it arises from the improper construc- 
 Of the desk and seat or the arrangement of 
 
 VIII. ]> 
 
 1 School Manag 
 
 intent. — 
 
 ne which militate against 
 
 mately growing 
 
 less in 
 
 as more studj IS 
 
 given to 
 
 ,. [tmaybesa 
 
 d briefly 
 
 ■ tends to bodil 
 
 deteri- 
 
 Id be discounts 
 
 anced.as 
 
 is to train, not 
 
 O break 
 
 
 s, under 
 
 anagement, whii 
 
 h affect 
 
 id those which a 
 
 ise from 
 
 \ly school session 
 
 These 
 
 le to the fact flu 
 
 t courses 
 
 first, with thevi 
 
 w of ac- 
 
 result, and tli 
 
 ■ pupils' 
 
 form to them. 
 
 By this 
 
 method, session 
 
 of five 
 
 of Ventilation 
 
 I.VTiOX. 
 
 VI. 
 
 Maim, 
 
 sometimes ordered; this can result only in 
 physical injury. The reversal of this, /. e.,a study 
 of the childs physical necessities first, and a. 
 School course based on them, will insure the adop- 
 
 id con- 
 anged, 
 
 stove, the cellar furnace, and all devices 
 warming air by passing it over heated m 
 surfaces are now entirely discountenanced 
 having been discovered that a highly poison 
 gas is set free, and passes through heated m 
 as through a sieve. The steam coil, placed < 
 
 side of th,'. school] n and heating a eolumi 
 
 air which is drawn fi i il utside, and, a 
 
 heating, ascends into the room, has, of late, I 
 extensively used. At the opposite end of 
 room, a grate, varying in size with that of 
 
 in is placed ; the theory being that, as 
 
 heated air ascends in one end of the room, 
 
 (2) The number, length, and distribution of 
 recesses must vary vs ith the different ages of the 
 children to such an extent, that the only practi- 
 cable guide for their regulation must befoundin 
 the discretion of the teacher. It may be said, in 
 general, however, thai the weariness of the pupil, 
 which is shown by his restlessness and want of 
 attention, furnishes the best indication of the 
 time when the ordinary text-book studies should 
 be superseded by physical exercises, or by the ab- 
 solute recreation of the play-ground. In tropical 
 climates, the middle of the day, for exercise of 
 
any kind, should be avoided. Pfature, however, 
 has pointed this oul so mniiistakaMv. that there is 
 little liability to error. (3) The nwmbi r, length, 
 and distribution of vacations are, in a genera] 
 
 with such modifications 
 climate, prevailing con- 
 r conditions. The ten- 
 the I oited States, has 
 
 ENE 141 
 
 than we can tell him within it. The teacher 
 
 shunM subdivide his lesson lather than trespass 
 beyond this limit Lessons of different kind.-. 
 i. '•., upying different senses should follow 
 
 each other ; this is a great relief. It is absurd 
 
 to speak of these frequent changes as causing 
 loss of time". Kxeiteinent and overwork, also, 
 should be avoided. The same general directions, 
 however, given in regard to the number and 
 
 tedl\ 
 
 — with a slight iiitenni-.-ion of a week durin; 
 holidays till the following June or July, 
 this arrangement, a long, continuous vacate, 
 insured during the wannest season of the ; 
 when, it is claimed, rest is most needed. It 
 been objected to this, and perhaps with res 
 that the heat of the summer months rei 
 
 which 
 atten- 
 
 ,1 lie 
 
 ,1 h, 
 
 ■aim or pupils w, 
 rather by confining them indoors. As long, 
 however, as the summer heats are avoided h\ 
 a flight to the sea-sl,ore or the mountains, this 
 practice will probably prevail : and though i; 
 may be said that the poor of cities, who are by 
 far the largest patrons of the public schools, can- 
 not afford to leave the city for summer retreat.-, 
 it must be remembere I. on the other hand, that 
 the greater prevalence of fatal diseases in cities, 
 during the summer months, renders a vacation 
 desirable even in their case. (4) The regulations 
 of the school may. by their severity, seriously 
 interfere with bodily health, by checking or 
 entirely repressing that activity which is so 
 marked a characteristic of childhood and youth 
 Reid, in his Principles of Education, says," 
 There is nothing in which parents arc often more 
 tyrannical and unreasonable than in expecting 
 
 children to be quiet and g 1, and give them 
 
 little trouble, when they will not put themselves 
 to the least trouble to find suitable occupation 
 fen- the active ami restless faculties of their 
 children. The trouble that a child gives to those 
 in charge of it. should very often be viewed as 
 an effort of nature to recall them to their neg- 
 lected duty." The degree andkindof restraint, 
 exercised over pui.il-. therefore deserve careful 
 
 . /'. /-s,,//,// 1 \,,nliliiHi nf Piijiils. — [ 1 ) ( 'lcan- 
 -. being a necessary condition of health. 
 Id I..- strenouslj insisted upon. Cleanliness 
 • person will sometimes be found, especially 
 
 tools among the very ] r. to be neglei ted. 
 
 danger of the outbreak of disease, or of its 
 nunication from this source, is always great 
 rge schools: and. therefore, the frequent 
 if the lavatory, in such cases, is necessary. 
 iliness of clothing is no less necessary to 
 •nt the communication of di.-ea-e. 1:, ali/ing 
 leglecl of a proper care of the . ; . I hing, 
 pal to children through though li ssness many 
 ,1 1, , lc hi ye made tb da 5 dusting and 
 
 precision cm at 
 leanliness of habits 
 ion of good health, 
 ir as may be and 
 e prevention of ill 
 
 nools 
 ■nits. 
 nted, 
 pre- 
 
 and skin' di-. ','-,-. whether of the' hc'ad'or the 
 body, are cases of this kind. A slight knowledge 
 of the symptoms should apprise an intelligent. 
 teacher of the danger at once, and secure the re- 
 moval of the case to the home or the hospital. 
 
 demned all 
 
 any considi 
 
 is a lie.'. 
 
 re] iressii >i 
 
 line, that innate activity which 
 ie child's very being, and the 
 ■h. though not immediately and 
 actively productive of disease, becomes passively 
 so by the condition of atrophy which it tends to 
 produce. Want of exercise is frequently as in- 
 imical to health as excess of it. The number 
 and h-nijtli if ii-xsimx. also, by their excess may 
 become physically injurious. -With young chil- 
 dren," ( 'urrie says, "a lesson should not average 
 in duration more than a quarter of an hour, and 
 on no account exceed twenty minutes. It is hard 
 enough to sustain the attention, even for this 
 period ; and no child will be able to retain more 
 
 die .1 ...-■ I n . - epidemic, if the puj.il has 
 
 never 1 n vaccinated, the operation should take 
 
 place at .•: ii be has,] f -1 Idberequired, 
 
 either iii the shape of marks, or a certificate, 
 which should establish three facts: that the 
 
 operation was performed by a ipetent and 
 
 responsible person, that it was effective, and that 
 it was done recently enough b . ensure its efficacy 
 in averting disease at the time the proof is re- 
 quired. 
 
 X. P/,i,si,Y,/ K.,; rc/se.— That this is one of the 
 most effective of all agencies in preventing dis- 
 ease, is now generally admitted, though the ex- 
 
442 
 
 cess to which it is often carried in our day has, 
 for winic time, been creating a reaction against it. 
 The phase of the question which rails for atten- 
 tion here, is its use not so much as a means of 
 development, as in promoting health. On this 
 account, one of the most important acces- 
 sories of the school-house is the play-ground. 
 Whether this is used as a place for continuing 
 the discipline of the school room, or simply as a 
 
 pursue their games, its size, location, and exposure 
 shoidd be carefully considered. It theplot,on 
 which the school-house Btands is large, but en- 
 tirely, or almost entirely, surrounded by other 
 buildings, the planting of shade trees around the 
 limits of the enclosure is recommended, in order 
 to give seclusion. These should never stand, h iw- 
 ever, so near the building as to exrlu le light, or 
 cause dampness. Robson says in i igard to this, 
 "The play-ground shoidd cot bi "i a straggling, 
 inconvenient form, but compact and without re- 
 cesses or places where children can remain long 
 out of sight. A northerly or easterly aspect should 
 never be wantonly provided when a Boutherly or 
 
 westerly one could have 1 n as easily obtaine 1 
 
 by no other outlay than that of a little common 
 sense. A portion should l>e covered, BO that in 
 wet weather the children may not be compelled 
 to play in their school rooms. In the case of in- 
 fant schools, this covered portion is absolutely in- 
 dispensable, as already shown, because inarching 
 forms so important an clement in their prepar- 
 atory instruction. It can generally be obtained in 
 the form of a light shed open on one side; but. 
 in some cases, and where land is dear, it may 
 be convenient to raise the boys' and girls' schools 
 on a low story of eight to nine feet high, and 
 thus to obtain some portion of the covered play- 
 ground underneath. In such cases, care will be 
 required to prevent a cold, drafty result. As 
 to the size of play-groin ids for different schools, 
 it is difficult to be precise. ( >n account of their 
 more active out-door games, requiring space, the 
 boys should undoubtedly have the lion's share, 
 while the infants — too young to develop all the 
 uses of a play-ground — will be happy in one 
 much more limited. Perhaps, a space of about ; 
 twice the size of the school room and classrooms 
 is necessary for the latter. Where land is dear, 
 and in consequence limited, one play-ground | 
 
 may suffice both for the girls' school and the in- 
 fants', an arrangement being made by the respec- 
 tive mistresses for its use at separate times. 
 W nlioui Mich arrangement, there is risk of dis- 
 order, no one being responsible for the discipline 
 of nil. If there are two infant schools or depart- 
 ments on the same site, the girls should be pro- 
 vided with a separate play-ground, because then 
 the numbers are sure to be too great for one." 
 By what means these play-grounds should be 
 separated, is still a matterof discussion, different 
 method.- being employed in different places, with, 
 thus far, equally satisfactory results. 
 
 In dismissing the subject of school hygiene, it 
 may be said that the influence of school life on 
 
 physical health, if properly managed, is not only 
 not injurious, but positively l» ncticial. This 
 might be inferred, a priori,hom the fundament- 
 al law of existence. It is amply continued, how- 
 ever, by actual statistics. Efforts to prove the 
 contrary have been made by inferences drawn 
 from false premises based on over-exertion, and 
 many erroneous theories prejudicial to the cause of 
 education have thereby become prevalent. The 
 
 interact! if mind and body, however, is not only 
 
 an i stablished, but a conceded fact : and just as 
 surely as the body, by proper exercise, contrib- 
 utes to the efficiency of the mind, so surely does 
 the mind. by duly regulated action, contribute to 
 that of the body. The annals of medical science 
 i < n if i ii n this in the most unmistakable man- 
 ner. The difficulty is to assign to each its proper 
 amount of exercise. <>n this point, differences 
 will probably always exist; but the foundation 
 ha* been carefully and substantially laid ; and. 
 each year, by increased interest, refinement of 
 processes , and patient investigation, something 
 is added to our knowledge of this most important 
 subject, and the probability of our possession of 
 
 .i scl 1 course capable of accomplishing the 
 
 great desideratum of modern life — a true educa- 
 tion — is more assured — Sec Ci 1:1:11 . Prim iples 
 ,1,,,11'rtftir, afCuNimi.i'-SrlKvlEdvcation Edin. 
 andLond.); Ronsox. School Architecture (Lond., 
 1874): Pappenhbim, ffandbuch der Sanitats- 
 I'nlhri, nacli eigeiieii rntersuchungen bearbeitet 
 (2 vols.. Berlin, 1858—9); Siegel, The Schule 
 und iln- Einfluss auf die GesundheU (1868); 
 Passavant, Ueber Schulunterricht vom writ- 
 lichen Slandpunkte (1868). 
 
 IDAHO was organized as a territory March children, between five and eighteen years of age. 
 
 3.. lsi;.'{. being formed from portions of Dakota, The whole number of children of school age in 
 
 Nebraska, and Washington territories, and in- t he territory was estimated at that time as 1500. 
 
 eluding then the present territory o) Montana and dp to 1870, little progress had been made, the 
 
 nearly all of Wyoming. Its present area i* 86,294 census returns showing only 466 pupils attend- 
 
 sq. m.; and its population, in 1870, was 14,999. ing the schools of the territory. The whole 
 
 Educational History. — Soon after the organ- number of school children in the territory, be- 
 
 ization of the territory, provision was made for tween the ages of five and twenty-one, in 1871, 
 
 the support of public schools, and a school system was 1,596 j in 1872, 1,909 ; in 1873, 3,473; and 
 
 was established. In 1866, the number of pupils in L 874, 4,010. 
 
 enrolled in the schools of eight counties was re- School System. — The school law has been re- 
 ported as 436, out of a school population of 71)2 peatedly changed. That at present (1870) in 
 
IDAHO 
 
 force was passed in .January. 1875. Its leading 
 provisions are the following : — 
 
 The territorial controller is. ex officio, territo- 
 rial superintendent of public instruc and 
 
 his duties are, to exercise a general supervision 
 
 l>are blanks fur reports of county superintend- 
 ents, trustees, teachers, etc.; to apportion the 
 school fund; ami to make a detailed report to 
 
 3 libraries, containing 1 OS volumes. The num- 
 ber of children, between rive and twenty-one was 
 
 file trustees of sel 
 
 e interest of whieli i- iqipni tii>in-<l iiiiiini.r tin- 
 unties. The county scl 1 fund is obtained 
 
 ■ a tax of not less than two, or more than 
 e, mills mi each dollar of taxable property 
 every county. All moneys arising from fines 
 rabreachof the penal lawsof the territory 
 
 ■ set apart by the county treasurer as a part 
 the county school fund. 
 
 Measures were taken in July, 1874, to estab- 
 1] in Boise t 'ity a university, to be known 
 the Idaho University. Provision has been 
 ule for this institution in the new school law. 
 IDIOTS, Education of. The term idiots 
 applied to those who, in different degrees, are 
 ficient in intellectual power and activity. A 
 ire genera] designation, however, of this class 
 unfortunates is that ol tki imbecile, or feeble- 
 
 thereii 
 
 i.the seho 
 
 ol hooks osed, the ! 
 
 school 
 
 theap 
 also to 
 
 ..'''uilitT! 
 
 to appoint trustees 
 irganize new school d 
 : the inhabitants of 
 
 :■ boundtiriesof school 
 
 School 
 
 year. Their powers and duties are to em] 
 and remove teachers, and to fix the salarie 
 the same; to visit the schools as often as i 
 in each month ; to take charge of all the sell 
 property in their respective districts; by i 
 
 teachers; and to appoint a census marshal to j triere, an 
 make the enumeration of the children in thedis- ! by Dr. V< 
 trict. No books, papers, tracts, or documents, of a at Paris, 
 political, sectarian, or denominational character But .-ill tl 
 
 ;>il by l>r. Tool of Edinburgh (lsl!t), 
 lelhomme of Paris (1824). Practical 
 on a small scale, had also been made 
 ■g in Austria (1816), at the American 
 ir the deaf and dumb in Hartford. 
 I) ; at the Bicetre, one of the large 
 tpitals in Paris (1828); at the Salpe- 
 jther insane hospital at Paris (1833); 
 ,isin, who organized a school for idiots 
 in 1833, and by other philanthropists. 
 
 orthography, reading, writing, arithmetic, geog- 
 raphy, English grammar, and the history of the 
 United States. — The legal school age is from 
 five to eighteen years. 
 
 School Statistics. — In 1874. the whole number 
 of school-districts in the territory was 77; and 
 rhe number of school houses. o3. There were 
 
 n 1- 
 
 18, n 
 
 •d St 
 
 n the organization and improvement of 
 istitutions for idiot instruction. In 1874, 
 •e three schools for idiots in France. — at 
 fcre and the Salpetriere at Paris, and at 
 t, with an aggregate number of 85 in- 
 i Belgium, institutions for the instruction 
 are connected with the insane asylums 
 
444 IDI 
 
 at Gheel anrl Bruges. The Netherlands have our 
 school for idiots, at the Hague, founded in 1 *">•>. 
 with which, three years later, a medical asylum 
 was connected. In Switzerland, Dr. Guggenbuhl 
 opened, in 1842, a school specially intended for 
 cretins,on the Abendberg. in the canton of Hern. 
 His pretended ability to cure cretins attracted 
 for a time great attention, but was. afterwards 
 generally denounced as a fraud. In 1874, Switzer- 
 land had two private schools for idiots, in the 
 cantons of Bern and Basel, with an aggregate 
 number of 27 inmates. There are similar schools 
 in the canton of Thurgau and in the city of 
 Zurich. In the German provinces of Austria, 
 an attempt to establish a school for idiots was 
 made, as early as 1816, at Salzburg, by the 
 teacher Guggenmoos. A few years later, twelve 
 cretin children were received at the monastery 
 of Admont, in Salzburg. From 1835 to 1847, 
 Haldenwang, a clergyman of Wurtemberg, main- 
 tained at Wilillierg a private institution for idiot 
 children. The governments of several < if tin- < fer- 
 man states granted the means for i-stabli-hine 
 idiot asylums ; and Dr. Kern, who had alreai ly. in 
 1842. begun to experiment in Eisenach, succeeded 
 in effecting remarkable partial cures, and was 
 placed by the Saxon government at the head 
 of an excellent asylum to Goblis, near Leipsric ; 
 while Sag ■' to Berlin 1844), Krause in Halle 
 (1840), G as in Hub. rtaburg L846 . and Dr. 
 RSsch, in Wurtemberg, were no less successful. 
 In 1874, Prussia had ten idiot asylums, some 
 private, and some maintained by the state. 
 Sweden had. in ls7 1. three schools, and Rus- 
 sia, one school for idiots. In England, the first 
 efforts for the instruction of idiot children were 
 made by some benevolent ladies, to Lancas- 
 ter, Hath. Ipswich, and Brighton. A movement 
 for establishing idiot asylums on a large scale 
 began in 1S47. The institution at Earlswood, 
 near Redhill, Surrey, had, in 1874, 700 inmates; 
 other institutions are the Eastern County 
 Asylum. Essex Hall, Colchester, the Western 
 Counties Asylum, at Starcross, near Exeter, 
 the Midland Counties Asylum, at Knowle, and 
 the Royal Albert Asylum, near Lancaster. A 
 private institution of Dr. Langdon Down, at 
 Normaiislicld. near London, is only designed for 
 the wealthy. All these institutions have train- 
 tog schools connected with them. Scotland 
 has a national institution for the education 
 of imbecile children, at Lasbert, Stirlingshire, 
 with 90 pupils. There arc also schools for idiots 
 in Ireland. Canada, and New South Wales. In 
 the United States, the earliest efforts to instruct 
 idiot children were made, as has already been 
 
 the Perkins Institution for the Blind in Boston, 
 andinthe New ForkDeafand Dumb Institution. 
 The first impulse to the establishment of special 
 schools for idiois was given (1845] by the letters 
 of George Sunnier, describing hw visit to the 
 Paris schools. Among the first and foremost 
 promoters of the cause in the United States, were 
 
 Dr. S. B. Woodward, superintendent of the 
 hospital for the insane, at Worcester, Mass.. and 
 Dr. Frederick V Backus, of Rochester. N. V. 
 The legislatures of Massachusetts and New York 
 at once took action in the matter. In New York, 
 Dr. Backus, who had been elected a member of 
 the state senate, reported, in 1846, a bill for the 
 establishment of an idiot institution: and, in 
 Massachusetts, the legislature ap] minted a com- 
 mission to investigate the condition of idiots 
 and report suitable incisures for their instruc- 
 tion. In accordance with the report of the 
 commission, an experimental scl I was estab- 
 lished at South Boston, in Oct. IMS, which was. 
 in 1850, incorporated as the Massachusetts School 
 for Idiotic and Feeble-Minded South. It was, 
 from its foundation until I876,underthe direction 
 of Dr. Howe, -whose death occurred to that year. 
 The state makes an annual appropriation of 
 Sir..:>on for its support, and poor children are 
 
 and care of 150 pn 
 been enlarged. 'I he 
 first, under the direel 
 
 dliho 
 
 Maine, 
 nd each 
 In New 
 
 irtedby 
 
 ■d at Albany, which 
 anenl state institu- 
 wherea large edifice 
 oilation at a cost of 
 s for the instruction 
 Since then, it has 
 
 by Dr. 
 
 from the 
 Wilbur, 
 had con- 
 it Barre, 
 he call to 
 e Brown. 
 
 r l he Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble- 
 Minded Children, originated as a private school. 
 to 1852, atGermantown.but was. in the following 
 year, incorporated under its present name: and 
 to 1857, after receiving a grant from the state, 
 transferred to its present location at Media. Del- 
 aware Co. The ' hio State Asylum for the 
 Education of Idiotic and Imbecile Youth, which 
 is wholly supported by thestate, was organized at 
 Columbus, in 1857, as an experimental school. 
 It was permanently established to L864, when a 
 site, about 2 miles from the city, was purchased, 
 and a building erected, in 1868, affording ac- 
 commodation for 250 inmates, bin subsequently 
 enlarged. In Kentucky, the Institution for 
 the Education of Feeble-Minded Children and 
 . at Frankfort; 
 on, in 1865, at 
 School for Imbe- 
 s, iii L858. The 
 17, a school for 
 
 in Illinois a similar 
 ;sonville. The Conn 
 Was established at 
 
 of New York opene 
 
 ieh limits 
 pencil in 
 ss. The 
 
 Is; I at Payville, Worcester Co., 
 report of the I". S. Commissioner of Education 
 for 1874, gives the following statistics of these 
 institutions : 
 

 NAMES. 
 
 III 
 
 II" 
 
 Number of inmates 
 
 | i'P 
 
 1 
 
 g 
 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 H 
 
 1 
 
 C innectioul Bch 
 
 
 12 
 
 21 
 
 H 
 
 50 
 
 16 
 
 7 to 9 
 49 
 
 74 
 
 65 
 
 45 
 
 66 
 
 50 
 
 52 
 
 71 
 
 5 
 110 
 217 
 
 123 
 
 31 
 37 
 49 
 23 
 
 47 
 
 3 
 89 
 
 143 
 
 101 
 
 103 
 99 
 
 lis 
 
 199 
 
 360 
 
 164 
 
 254 
 
 213 
 
 190 
 
 530 
 
 14 
 691 
 
 614 
 
 733 
 
 
 
 Illlnoia Institutii 
 
 Kentucky Instit 
 
 Minded Cliil 
 
 Private tnstitutii 
 
 u for the Education of Feeble-Minded 
 ition for the Education of Feeble- 
 n tor tiie Education of Feeble-Minded 
 
 $24,500 
 
 7,500* 
 
 $24,500 
 
 Massachusetts 8 
 
 chool for Idiotic and Feeble-Miuded 
 
 22,669 
 
 23,645 
 
 Hillside School 1 
 
 ir Backward and Peculiar Children, 
 
 New Ytnk A-\ li 
 
 Ohio State Asyli 
 
 Pennsylvania 1 
 
 Children... 
 
 in 4>r Idiots, at Syracuse, N. V 
 
 raining School for Feeble - Minded 
 
 41,186 
 70,283 
 
 10,962 
 63,433 
 
 63,594 
 
 * Also $150 per capita allowed by the state. 
 
 The first efforts for the instruction of iiliots 
 ■were made upon no definite plan, or simply with 
 the view to subject some philosophical theory 
 to a practical test Since the establishment of 
 special schools for idiots, idiocy is generally 
 viewe 1 as a prolonged infancy; and, in all efforts 
 for the development either of their physical powers 
 or their mental faculties, it is deemed essential 
 to proceed according to the principles of physiol- 
 ogy, and to conform, as strictly as possible, to the 
 
 teachings of nature. The physical e lucal will, 
 
 of course, vary according to the deficiencies of 
 individuals: and the instruction will always, to 
 a large extent, be conditioned by the health 
 of the pupils and the progress of their medical 
 treatment. It is self-evident, therefore, that 
 medical and educational skill must go hand in 
 hand in the management of schools for idiots. 
 — It has been found that Froebel's kinder- 
 garten occupations may easily be so modified 
 as gradually to enliven the nervous art ion of 
 idiot children, and that, in general, playful occu- 
 pations must be resorted to, so as to make at the 
 beginning deep and lasting impressions on their 
 list Ic -s minds. Experience also shows that, under 
 proper treatment, about one-third of all idiot 
 children (if the cure be early begun) may be ad- 
 vanced to nearly average usefulness ; another 
 third, to the lower grades of intelligence; and the 
 rest, to a condition in which they cease to be 
 a mere burden on the family or on society. 
 The largest of the American schools, that of 
 Media. "Pa., reports that, up to July 1., 1872, 
 the improvement of its inmates had been as 
 follows: taught to speak, 53; articulation im- 
 prove I. '-'"'.'1 : taught to read. 254, to write. 146, 
 to feed themselves, (51, to dress themselves, 94, 
 to walk, 5 ; gait improved, '_'*<; : reformed from 
 bad habits, 104, from destructive habits. 302; 
 accustomed to some employment, 241; epilepsy 
 cured. 23: epilepsy improved, 7-v 
 
 According to the last census, the number of idi- 
 ots in the United States was 24..">27 : in EneJand 
 and Wales, 2!),4;V2 ; in Norway, 2,039. In Scot- 
 
 Dt.Cheyne Bi 
 
 \HY. 
 
 nd Feeble- Mi 
 
 tried 
 
 id Dr. Keen's e 
 
 -say 
 
 land, the number was estimated at 3,000: in Ire- 
 land, at 7.000; in the Netherlands, at about 3, ; 
 
 in Switzerland, including the cretins, at 3,800. 
 In many countries, no official enumeration of 
 idiots is made. Where the census has been taken, 
 the figures are believed to be too low, as there are 
 many cases of idiocy which are not recognized by 
 parents and relatives. 
 
 The views of Dr. Seguin on the education of 
 idiots are laid down in the work.-. Traitement 
 moral, hygiene et ed ( fe I aris, 
 
 logical Method (Nct 5Tork, 1861 . and New 
 
 Fun, and Remark, i Id , (Nev, 
 
 York, 1870). See also Dr. Ayres, Report on 
 
 the Education of Imbet i Id oti, ( i dren, 
 
 (invol.xin. of the Transactions of the American 
 Medical Association.m 
 The Training of Idiot 
 CliUdren (Dublin, 1864) 
 
 on the subject, in A//</<>i/irinr Zrilnrl,ri/t ft> 
 Psychiatrie, 1857 : and Dr. L. P. Brockett, in 
 Barnard's Journal of Education, vol. I. — A 
 statistii d ! count of all European institutions 
 foridii i ,-. be found in Eclekmeyer, Ueber- 
 
 . ■'■!■ reffentlicl privaten Irr 
 
 Tdioten-AnstaUm , fer europaischer Staaten, 
 (1863). See also Seguin, Report on Education 
 al the Vienna Exhibition (Wash.. 1875). 
 
 ILLINOIS. This state formed a part of the 
 North-west Territory, organized in pursuance of 
 the ordinance of July 13., 1787, and including 
 the whole of the public domain situated north 
 of the Ohio river. Out of this territory were 
 successively formed, and admit ted into the Amer- 
 ican Union, the states of Ohio (1802), Indiana 
 (lsllli.and Illinois (181s) ; subsequently. Mich- 
 igan (1S3T), and Wisconsin (1S4S). Acm-ding 
 to the census of 1820, Illinois had a population 
 of 5.) .21 1 ; in 1>70. its population was reported 
 as 2.."il 1.0915, giving it the fourth rank among 
 the states of tiie Union. Itsaiva is 55,410 square 
 miles. The number of illiterates 10 years of 
 age and upward was, at that time, 8,38 pi i cenl 
 
of the whole population ; and the proporti f 
 
 illiterates among adults was 7.16 per cent of 
 the males, and *..>!) per cent of the females. 
 
 hWnr tiiniail Hixtorfi. — A law was passed 
 providing for the establishment of public schools 
 in the state as early as L823 ; and, the census of 
 1840 reported the number of common schools 
 as 1241 . with 34.876 pupils. In 18">0,the num- 
 ber of schools had increased to 2,(',4] , and the 
 number of pupils, to 132.324. The school fund. 
 at that time was S'.I3!I.7!)'.), derived from the 
 sale of public lands, and the surplus revenue of 
 the United States. On the formation of the 
 state, one section in each township was appro- 
 priated for the support of schools, and after- 
 wards an additional income of ,'! per cent on the 
 actual proceeds from the sales of public lands 
 
 within the state. One-sixth of thesi pr Is 
 
 was appropriated for the support of colleges. 
 The office of superintendent of education was 
 ao1 created till L854; aud, the next year, a bill 
 was passed, providing that the educational affairs 
 ol ili- -tate should be administered by the state 
 superintendent, a school commissioner for each 
 county, and a board of education for each town- 
 ship. State funds were to be distributed only 
 among those schools which had, for at least 
 six months in the year, offered equal and free 
 instruction to all children of the legal school 
 age. The first state superintendent was Ninian 
 Edwards who was elected in 1854 and served 
 till 1856; W. II. Powell served from L856 to 
 1858 : and again from 1862 to 1864 ; the system 
 was administered by Newton Bateman, as state 
 superintendent from 1858 to L862, and asecond 
 term from 1864 to 1874, when he was succeeded 
 by S. M. Etter, the present incumbent (1876). 
 The system, as at present constituted, was 
 adopted in 1872. An outline i, given below. In 
 1*71, a law was passed prohibiting all school 
 officers from excluding any children from the 
 schools on account of color. The school law was 
 further amended so as to abolish the provisional 
 teachers" certificate. A bill providing for coui- 
 pulsory education u a- pa —ell by the I louse, but 
 defeated ill the Senate. 
 
 Si-1,,1,,1 Si/sU'in. — Public education is ad- 
 ministered by the following school officers: 
 |li A state superintendent of public instruc- 
 tion; (2) County superintendents of schools; 
 |.'! I'.oaid- of township school trustees; (4) Boards 
 
 of district scl 1 directors. The state super- 
 
 iiitfmh-iil is chosen by popular vote, at a general 
 election, and holds office for the term of four 
 years. He is the executive head of the system 
 He is under bonds ($25,000) for the faithful 
 discharge of his official duties; and is required 
 to keep an office at the seat of government, and 
 to receive, arrange, preserve, and file all official 
 documents, and hold the same in readiness to be 
 
 exhibited to the governor or to any coi ittee 
 
 of the legislature. He has the general super- 
 vision of the schools, and is authorized to make 
 such rules as may lie requisite for carrying the 
 ■I I law into effect. He has appellate juris- 
 diction in all controversies arising under the 
 
 school law, where original jurisdiction is vested 
 in the county superintendents. He is authorized 
 grant state certificates autln prizing the holders 
 
 fpp teach without further examination. 
 
 every 
 
 county and school district in the state, and 
 valid untO revoked for cause. Be is, ex officio, 
 a member of the state board of education, to 
 which is intrusted the management of the State 
 Normal University, the condition and expendi- 
 tures of which he is required to report to each 
 session of the legislature; and he is also. ,:,■ utficio. 
 a member of the board of trustees of the State 
 Industrial University. — County superintendents 
 are elected every four years. They have the 
 custody of and distribute the school moneys to 
 the several townships, visit and inspect the 
 schools in the county at least once in each year, 
 and report their condition to the state super- 
 intendent. They are the official advisers of all 
 the subordinate school officers ami teachers of 
 I .their respective counties, and the channel of 
 official communication between the state depart- 
 ment of education and all local township and 
 district school officers. They are. also, required 
 to assist in the management of teachers' insti- 
 tutes. They, niorevcr. examine and license 
 teachers At least four public examinations 
 are required to be held every year in each 
 county: and the examination may be conducted 
 cither by the county superintendent in person, 
 or by a board of examiners appointed by him. 
 Sets of questions are furnished, from time to 
 time, by the state superintendent, for the pur- 
 pose of these examinations, with general instruc- 
 tions as to the conditions upon which certificates 
 of each grade should be granted. In this way, a 
 uniform standard of qualifications is preserved. 
 Xo teacher can lawfully lie employed in any 
 common school in the state without a certificate 
 of qualification : and no county certificate can 
 be granted except upon ••due examination" of 
 the candidate by the county superintendent. 
 \ftera certificate has been granted, it maybe 
 renewed, at expiration, by the county super- 
 intendent, or he may require the teacher to sub- 
 mit to another examination. County super- 
 intendents are also vested with power to revoke 
 certificates, at any time, for immorality, incom- 
 petency, or any other sufficient cause. The 
 compensation of county superintendents is $5 a 
 day for services actually rendered, and 3 per 
 cent upon the amount of sales of school lands, 
 and upon real estate taken for debt, for their 
 services in making such sales ; and a further 
 commission of 2 per cent upon the amount of 
 all sums distributed, paid, or loaned out, by 
 them. — A boavdof trustees, consisting of three 
 members, is elected in each township, for a term 
 of three years, one member retiring annually 
 The trustees determine the number of school 
 districts into which the township is to be divided, 
 and apportion and distribute, semi-annually, the 
 public school moneys among the districts of 
 their respective townships. They are invested, 
 in their corporate capacity, with the title of all 
 school-houses and sites, and may sell the same 
 
when it is deemed expedient. - -School directors 
 are elected, in the same manner as trustees; and 
 each board of directors ( gists of three mem- 
 bers, holding office for three wars, one new 
 
 ,1.. i 
 
 ation, for at least six months in each year, an 
 longer if practicable, a sufficient number of fre 
 
 schools for the proper accom dation of all tli 
 
 children in the district over the age of six an 
 under twenty-one years. They may adopt an 
 enforce all necessary rules and regulations fo 
 the management of the schools, and must visi 
 
 township fund, derived from the proceedsof the 
 sale' of the sixteenth section in each congress al 
 
 liars should 
 
 branches are to be 
 must be used. — i 
 taught are orthogj 
 arithmetic. Englisl 
 the history of the ( 
 
 may be taught th 
 permissory provisio 
 
 of one or more adv 
 county of the Btate, 
 
 which ".said Supt 
 through all the sub 
 The scl 1 ase is 
 
 proper age 
 the public si 
 deut in on 
 another wit] 
 
 i grammar, geography, and 
 I nited States; the law, how- 
 I other ami higher branches 
 ian those enumerated. This 
 n has led to the establishment 
 anced schools in nearly every 
 , 'the vitalizing influence (if 
 
 Bateman, in 1868, -is felt 
 •ordinate grades of scl Is. 
 
 from to '_'! years, and all 
 5 of a school district, of the 
 
 e right to attend, free of COSt, 
 if that district Pupils resi 
 ict cannot attend school in 
 e written consent of the di- 
 ricts. 
 
 Public educational revenues 
 le iullowing sources : 1 1 i The 
 . consisting of three per cent 
 
 of the sales of the public 
 !, one-sixth part excepted ; 
 
 hold a regular certifj 
 second grade. ( crtil 
 valid for two years, a 
 
 States, ph 
 
 ofthe.ee,' 
 
 hese,thereisrmaUy n (9 S )^ 
 nes,fo7'fi ituri s, andpenal- 
 incurred before, courts of 
 the peace. 
 
 tes. — Every teacher must 
 ate either of the first or 
 icates oi the first grade are 
 
 .1th. Those 
 
 year, and 
 
 ill eertiti- 
 
 or which 
 thereon ; 
 , for iui- 
 
 r cause. 
 
 money w In, 
 general gov< 
 providing t 
 
 Mar, 
 
 distribution of the surplus 
 lited States, and by law of 
 
 de a part of the common- 
 1 state. (.'!) The college or 
 nsisting of one-sixth of the 
 hool fund proper. (4) The 
 isisting of the proceeds of the 
 axy lands", donated to the 
 overnnieut. for the purpose 
 intaininga seminary for the 
 lildren of the state ; all of 
 which lands that remained unsold in 1861, were 
 < lonate, 1. by an act of the legislature, to the 
 Illinois Agricultural ( 'olletre. This fund amounts 
 I,, about siiii. uoo. These constitute the per- 
 manent state sehool fund, the principal ot which 
 is loaned to the state, which pays interest there- 
 on at the rate of six per cent. Besides these 
 sources of revenue, there are (5) tike county school 
 fund, consisting of surplus moneys in the hands 
 of the county school commissioner ; (C) the 
 
 sales of the ".-mii 
 state by the I'. g 
 of founding and 
 education of the 
 
 public schools was 11,646, and the 
 graded schools, 754. The other impor 
 tical items are the following: 
 
 \ umber of pcrs, mis ,,l' sellout age, 
 Number of pupils enrolled, male-, ;: ai ., 
 females, 321,, 
 Total of pupils enrolled, 
 AveniL'e daily attendance. 
 Number ot teachers, males, 9,1 
 
 females, 12,1 
 
 Total, 
 Receipts, from state tax, $1,021,071 
 
 " local tax. 1,65 I I 
 
 Interest of sell,,,, I fund, ,1, . 1.21:1.437 
 
 number of 
 
 taut statis- 
 
 Total, 
 is, for tuition, $!.<;:! I, C22 
 
 Sites am! I, nil, lines. l.lllia .oral 
 Other purposes, 
 
 Total, 
 
 2,221.100 
 
 Cost per unit of soli,,,, I population, 
 " " of enrollment, 
 " " of average attendance, 
 
 $;,.i:o 
 7>2 
 13.73 
 
Normal I»s/r>tctim>.—TTofoss\<ma.\ instruction 
 and training are afforded to teachers in the State 
 Normal University, at Normal, and in the 
 Southern Illinois Normal University, at Carbon- 
 dale. The former was organized in 1857 ; it in- 
 cludes both an academic and a normal depart- 
 ment. Students in the latter are required to 
 sign a pie Ige to b «ome teachers in the schools 
 of the state; an 1. on this condition, their tuition 
 is afforded gratuitously. Male students must be, 
 at least, 17 years of age; and female students. 
 16. Auxiliary to the normal department, is the 
 Mode] School, designed to furnish an opportu- 
 nity for observation and practice to those prepar- 
 ing to l>c teachers. The academic departmi n 
 consists of the High School, which funn-h - . 
 thorough preparation for admission into the 
 university or for business. The High School is 
 a department of the Model School, which com- 
 prises also a Grammar School and a Primary 
 School. Prom the time of its organization to 
 187"). this institution had given instruction to 
 3,258 persons, of whom 241 had completed the 
 course and received diplomas of graduation. 
 During the same period, the Model School in its 
 several erele. had received about -Kill pupils. 
 
 About 25 per cent of the pupils of the Model 
 School became teachers. The Southern Illinois 
 Normal (Tniversity was opened in 1874. It oc- 
 cupies one of the finest school edifices in the 
 United States. It includes, besides a normal 
 department proper, a preparatory department 
 and a model school. The model school is of an 
 elementary grade, giving instruction in the 
 branches usually taught in the common schools; 
 the preparatory department is of the grade of a 
 high school, with a course of study of three yen-. 
 The normal course, of four years, embraces two 
 courses, —a classical and a scientific course; both, 
 
 however, make the study of the I.n-h-h l.iii-n.ej • 
 and literature quite prominent. Daring the last 
 year, opportunity for practice is afforded in the 
 preparatory and model schools. Besides t hese t wo 
 state institutions, there are two county normal 
 schools, — the Cook County Normal School, at 
 Eaglewood. near < Ihicago, and the I 'eoria » lounty 
 Normal School, at 1 'eoria. Each of these has 
 
 Eureka. Teachers' institutes constitute an impor- 
 
 taul agency for the professional improvement of 
 
 tion in the state, including a large number of 
 preparatory schools, and several business colleges. 
 Of the latter, in 1874, there were 16. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — There is a large num- 
 ber of universities and colleges in the state, 
 besides several colleges for women. The name of 
 most of the former are given in the following table: 
 
 NAM I". 
 
 
 
 Lincoln University. . . 
 Lombard University. 
 MeKrn.lree c.illcue... 
 
 those actually 
 1874, there wei 
 state 184, whic) 
 days, and w, i 
 
 116 public high 
 
 law pl'o\ ides til 
 
 any school towi 
 a high school ii 
 election of tru 
 
 Of these, in 
 
 nt parts of the 
 inued in the aggregate 828 
 I, I bj 6 71 3 teachers, 
 
 1. 1 1874, there were 
 .1 in i he state. The school 
 
 a petition of 50 voters in 
 an election for or 
 
 held at the next 
 and if a majority of the 
 
 in favor of a high school, 
 ablish it. There are very 
 rics for secondary instruc- 
 
 .".bhiedou 
 
 I a i.ll. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Abingdon 
 
 la, lisniiwll, 
 lite, minute 
 
 Evaiiston 
 
 Alton 
 
 Chicago 
 
 ■. ■;!,-,. 
 
 lusciplcs 
 
 Lutheran 
 Presb. 
 
 Lutheran 
 r.antist 
 Inscijitcs 
 M. Eiiin. 
 X'.n-scet. 
 
 Meth. 
 CnSifpr 
 
 \l tins. 
 l:a]itn,t 
 R. C. 
 , C. 
 
 R. C. 
 
 U. Breth. 
 
 Congreg. 
 
 Technical and Professional Instruction. — 
 The principal institution for scientific and ti t h 
 nical instruction is the Illinois Industrial Uni- 
 versity, ai CJrbana, chartered in 1867. It has 
 a corps of 25 instructors, including professors, 
 lecturers, and assistants ; and, in 1875, the at- 
 tendance of pupils was over 400. It comprises 
 four colleges, of (1) Agriculture; (2) Engineer- 
 ing, including a school of architecture ; (3) Nat- 
 ural Science; (I) Literature and Science. These 
 embrace L2 subordinate schools and 
 of instruction, including a school of 
 
 courses or l 
 domestic scie 
 and a school 
 wood engrav 
 graphing, am 
 sion to the u: 
 age, of good ; 
 examination 
 
 A of commerce, 
 also a school of 
 raphing, photo- 
 lates for aihnis- 
 years of 
 
 dablc 
 
 pglish 
 
 geography, 
 
 .n ithmetic, algebra, history of the United States, 
 and natural science. This institution is endowed 
 with the national land grant, and the amount 
 of its productive funds is a I. out $320,000. The 
 value of its grounds, buildings, etc., is about 
 $640,000. It is well supplied with apparatus, 
 and has a library of over 10,000 volumes. The 
 Illinois Agricultural College, at Irvington was 
 organized in 1866. 
 
 The chief theological schools are t he following : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Tlicol. Dept. Slun-tiitr Col 
 do. do. Blackburn 
 
 University 
 
 Union Tlieol. "Seminary. . . 
 Chicago Tlicol. Seminary 
 Theol. Sem. of Northwest 
 Biblical Dept. Eureka I ol 
 Garret Biblical Inst... 
 Wartburg Beminary 
 Augustana Tlicol. Bern.., 
 
 J Religious 
 
 Carlinville 
 C hicago 
 i Ihicago 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Presb. 
 Baptist 
 Cong. 
 Presb. 
 
 Christian 
 Meth. Epis. 
 Lutheran 
 Lutheran 
 
ILLINOIS COLLEGE 
 
 In these various institutions, in 1S74, there! 
 were I!) instructors, L 8 endowed professorships, 
 and 290 students. The total amount of product- 
 ive funis was about $775,000; and the libra- 
 ries contained, in the aggregate, nearly 30,000 
 
 ILLITERACY 449 
 
 ILLITERACY (from the Latin ittileralus, 
 nlettered, i. e., ignorant of letters or books) 
 
 important m.stitu 
 in the United St; 
 for instruction i 
 as in articulation, 
 ing; alsodomesti 
 In L874, there v 
 
 bions tor dea 
 
 n ih i sign 
 
 I'll^M 
 
 rolls of the institi 
 ors. The Qlinois 
 of Feeble-Minde 
 also a large and ii 
 in 1865. Its clli. 
 the children being 
 
 Institution t 
 1 Children, . 
 nportanf ins 
 
 or the 
 
 besides being taug 
 with domestic ecoi 
 Educational A 
 ers' Association, es 
 vention annually, 
 which there arc 
 
 tablishedin 1 
 an 1 is well - 
 
 The 81 
 
 food and clothing arc for the body"'; and. of 
 course, this is an assumption that cannot be 
 maintained. But national systems of education 
 
 tlr- requirements of theBchool law. 
 
 ILLINOIS COLLEGE, at Jacksonville, 
 111., chartered in 1835, is non-sectarian. The 
 
 is Slim. I; tin- amount'of its productive fun Is. 
 
 $135,000. It has a classical an 1 a scientific 
 course, libraries containing 11,000 volumes, and 
 a corps of 9 instructors. The cost of tuition is 
 §36 per year. Connected with the college arc 
 the Whipple Academy and the Jacksonville 
 Business College. The number of students, in 
 L875 6, was as follow-,: in the college. 60; aca le- 
 
 niy, Til: Im-i collee,, _cj|. The liev. .lulian 
 
 M. Sturtevant, l>. D., LI, l>., is (18761 the pres- 
 idenl oi the college. 
 
 ILLINOIS WE 3LEYAN UNIVERSITY, 
 at Bloomington, 111., founded in L850. is under 
 tfethodisl BDiscotJal control. It ha, a line cam- 
 pus of 
 
 •s. Ill 
 
 nines, and pro luctivc funds an i : ;,ie" ." 
 
 The value of itsbuildiiigs > grounds,andapparati 
 is $150,000. Both Beste are admitted. A la 
 department was organized in 1874. In 18 
 
 that the 
 ■ccs of in- 
 
 (i, (7) home and its inl 
 
 Ml) su- 
 skillcd 
 
 there were 15 instructors and 776 students and religion; ( V ) the causes of illiteracy; 
 (546 preparatory and 230 collegiate). i (VI) remedies, and the prospects ol improve- 
 
450 
 
 ILLITERACY 
 
 i ] K-l-ll- 
 
 ment by the operation of various infl 
 liar to modem civilization. 
 
 T. As the chief sources of information, depend- 
 ence must be placed upon (1) census reports, 
 some of which, especiallj such as those of Italy 
 for 1861 and 1871, are replete with instruction 
 on this subject ; but those of the United Stales 
 are the most valuable of all, embracing, as they 
 do. four periods, 1840, 1850, L860, and L870. 
 The later ones are of especial importance, as 
 they afford particular statistics <>f various classes, 
 — native and foreign, white and colored, adults 
 ami youths, males and females. All the facts 
 presented in the census reports for 1840,- 50, 60, 
 tire brought together and digested in a paper on 
 Illiteracy published inthe Annual Beport of the 
 
 which the census returns of these three periods 
 are compared. The results of the census of 1870, 
 in this regard, are tabulated and compared in the 
 Annual Report of L871. (2) Government reports 
 on education, such as those of the I'. S. Bureau 
 of Education for lsTtt — 1. and the special Cir- 
 culars of Information issued by the Bureau, 
 contain a large amount of information on tin's 
 subject, derived from various Bourees, especially 
 the papers on Education uml Labor, Educa- 
 tion and Crime, and Education and Pauperism. 
 (3) Important facts are obtained from special 
 official reports, on Criminals, Conscripts, ami 
 iKarrzag , es,bysomeofthe European governments. 
 II. The first group, that of wholly illiterate 
 savage or barbarous tribes, needs only to be re- 
 ferred to, without any enumeration. Saving no 
 books and no written language, their total igno- 
 rance reacts upon their barbarism, and perpetu- 
 ates the degradation which has caused it. Pac- 
 ing to those nations that have written languages 
 and books, there appears, first, a group consist- 
 ing of those which, descended from ancient des- 
 potisms, have been enveloped in thick clouds of 
 ignorance from which some of them are onbj jus! 
 emerging. — Turkey, Egypt, Persia, Russia, and 
 (not long since) Greece, Poland, Italy (till her 
 late revival, .and even now in her southern prov- 
 inces), Spain and (doubtless) Portugal, with 
 their American colonies. In all these, to a greater 
 or less extent, popular ignorance, or illiteracy, 
 has prevailed up to the present time. The 
 government has neither provided for nor fos- 
 tered universal education ; ami the political and 
 religious status of the people lias afforded no in- 
 citements to any efforts of their own in this 
 direction. Even in the Spanish and Portuguese 
 colonies, the old spirit and habits inherited by 
 the people have been stronger than the desire for 
 liberty, intelligence, and progress. To the group 
 of nations above referred to. 1 lungary, not long 
 ago. belonged ; but. of late, the people, by their 
 
 lint with a history, and under conditions, wide- 
 ly different, stands India, one of the most be- 
 nighted of nations, having 90 per cent of her 
 males, and 95 per cent of her whole population 
 (for letters are religiously .and socially forbidden 
 to females) wholly illiterate: and this, notwith- 
 standing that she still possesses the wonderful 
 literature of her early days, in the hands of the 
 Brahman caste, still devoted to learning, with 
 her wealthy Parsees fostering education, and the 
 influence of her princely Mohammedan conquer- 
 ors still remaining in the religious schools con- 
 nected with the mosques. This fact shows to 
 what an extent outcast ami ignorant massestend 
 to depress and degrade the general condition of 
 a people. The case of the Mohammedan coun- 
 
 the middle ages, and who contributed so largely 
 to the sources of modern civilization, and gave 
 toil such an impetus.— China maybe referred 
 to, as presenting a somewhat singular phase of 
 illiteracy, her political system holding out the 
 
 strongest inducements t lucat ion and learning 
 
 to the males, while the female-, are \crv generally 
 kept in a condition of illiteracy. (See China.) 
 This is one of the results of Confucianism, which, 
 while it accords to the matron the highest re- 
 spect, has treated the subject of female education 
 (instruction in letters and books) with entire in- 
 difference. China, therefore, as far as the free- 
 dom of her male population from illiteracy is 
 concerned, would take a high rank among edu- 
 cated nations; but, as her women are untaught, 
 she in u-t be pi. eel with those who are half in 
 
 darkness. lapan would come inhere, side by 
 
 side with China, whose religion ami philosophy, 
 sacred books, with their language and literature, 
 and peculiar alphabetic characters, she adopted 
 
 peopl 
 
 energy and enthusiasm. 
 
 have made wonderful 
 
 progress in the march of 
 now, she remains, side hj 
 state Austria, in which, c 
 her intelligent and progl 
 tion. one half of the inlia 
 dition of illiteracy. By 
 
 ntelligence; but, even 
 
 side, with her sister 
 spite the influence of 
 issive ' lerman popula- 
 itanf - i. main in a con- 
 he side of this group, 
 
 more than China, she has added a simpler i.-vl- 
 labic) writing of her own {halakana); and. what 
 is far more, she has taught her women as well 
 
 as her men. The dapain -c cat t he considered 
 
 an illiterate nation. The number of persons, 
 who cannot read or write, is comparatively 
 small, even the most degraded classes being 
 often able to write tin- kalakana, and to read 
 the books printed in that style ; so that her illit- 
 erate population is set down at no more than 10 
 percent (See Japan.) In a distinct group may 
 be placed France. Belgium, England, and Ire- 
 land, about one-third of their people being un- 
 able to read or write. The proportion in Ire- 
 land may be somewhat larger; but. in that 
 
 country, the ] pie have received from the 
 
 priesthood some instruction in letters beyond 
 what the government has provided for them. In 
 these four countries, the spirit of progress 
 has had to contend against many of the same 
 influences that have kept down the people of the 
 more benighted countries of Europe already con- 
 sidered. Next in order of advance, comes the 
 
JEUTEKACY" 
 
 451 
 
 American Union, with its 20 per cent of illiter- 
 ates.— The Netherlands, Germany proper, Den- 
 mark, Norway and Sweden, and perhaps Switzer- 
 land, are entitled in the distinction of showing 
 the [smallest amount of illiteracy. (See Tabije.) 
 III. The diversity of social customs and na- 
 tional institutions leads to corresponding differ- 
 ences in the condition of various classes; and 
 the degree of illiteracy found to exist in these, 
 respectively, presents a basis for very important 
 considerations in relation to the expediency of 
 particular legislative measures. Hence, the im- 
 portance of a-eertainnig 1 1 n ■ comparative illiter- 
 acy of youth and adults, males and females (sex 
 illiteracy), white and colored (race illiteracy), 
 etc. The statistical facts in regard to these points 
 are very imperfect : but many, that are quite 
 reliable, are exceedingly instructive. Thus, ac- 
 cording in the U.S. census of 1870, of everj 
 L,000 jiers. ms of the population. 10 yearsold and 
 upward, 146 were illiterate: of adults. 94 ; of 
 youth (from 10 to 21 years of age). 52. In < Ger- 
 many, the census of 1871 reports 9 \ percent of 
 
 men. and 1:"> per cent of y m, unable to read 
 
 and write. In Scotland. 11 per cent of men, and 
 21 per cent of women could not read or write 
 at marriage. In Bavaria, only 7 per cent of the 
 recruits were illiterate : in Germany, however, 
 the mass of the illiteracy is in the north-eastern 
 provinces of Posen and Prussia proper, among a 
 people foreign to the language and institutions 
 of the German nation; while, in most of the Ger- 
 man states, the percentage of illiteracy is verj 
 small — in some, less than one percent. In 
 France, the census of 1872 showed 27 per cent 
 of illiterate males and 33 percent of illiterate 
 females: while the census of Spain 1 1 m'.M) showed 
 69 per cent of males and 91 per cent of females. 
 Italy, in 1861, was reported as having 60 per cent 
 of illiterate male adults and lis percent of il- 
 literate male youths i from 12 to 18 years of age). 
 In the city of New York, the census of L870 re- 
 ported, out of the total population of 942,292, 
 1 l.'J7 1 male adults and oii.M female adults, as 
 unableto write; while of male youths (from 10 to 
 21 I. there were only 3.0s8,and of female .youths, 
 4,929, unable to write. This close correspond- 
 ence in the one ca.se, with the huge discrepancy 
 in the other, is a very suggestive fart, pointing 
 as it does to the effect of foreign immigration, on 
 the one hand, and to the influence of a great 
 common-school system, on the other. The aver- 
 age of illiterates in Belgium is 30 per cent ; and 
 in Great Britain and France, it is considerably 
 below 50 per cent; while, in Belgium, the 
 percentage of illiterate criminals (le.Vq was 57 
 percent, in France (1871) it was 41 percent. 
 A comparison, based on full and accurate sta- 
 tistics, of the percentage of illiteracy among the 
 adults of a population, with the percentage of 
 illiteracy among adult criminals, would demon- 
 strate, with great force and clearness, the effect 
 of education upon crime. (See Crime and Edu- 
 cation.) The percentage of illiteracy among con- 
 scripts, in any country, affords a means of as- 
 certaining the general condition of a people in 
 
 this respect, inasmuch as inquiries in regard to it 
 
 are generally conducted with considerable care. 
 
 I V. The various points considered in this di- 
 
 \ ision ol the subject i annoi be treated upon a 
 
 basis of statistics; but, theoretically, or by apri- 
 ori reasoning, it may be satisfactorily shown 
 that the advancement of a people in everj de- 
 partment of learning, science, art. artistic and 
 industrial labor, depends on the diffusion of in- 
 lelligenee. and the means of intelligence — read- 
 ing and writing, among all classes of the com- 
 munity. Illiteracy is an exponent of ignorance ; 
 and "what bodily disrasr." says commissioner 
 Baton (Report of U. S. Bureau of Education, 
 1871), "has ever wrought the terrible evils to 
 societythat come from ignorance, whose children 
 are destitution and crime'.' The children whom 
 
 society, the church, and the school fail t lucate, 
 
 learn in the streets, and from countless teachers 
 of vice, aided by those grim master:- i 
 want, the malign arts that render the property 
 of our households, the virtue of our women, and 
 the health and happiness of our people insecure." 
 
 V. The causes of illiteracy, in nations that 
 have already reached the condition of civilization, 
 are various ; among them may be mentioned 
 (1) ohsoliifisin.'m government, basing itself up- 
 on the principle of ••divine right" instead of the 
 will of the people, or in religion, depriving the 
 people of all freedom of thought : as is shown by 
 the fact that a people controlled by a despotic 
 power — monarchy or hierarchy — are. usually, 
 largely illiterate, the ruling class, as in the case 
 of the priests in Egypt, and the Druids of 
 Britain, engrossing all knowledge, and shutting 
 up its avenues against the jicoplc: 12 au- 
 tocracy, or class distinctions fixed as institutions, 
 must necessarily promote illiteracy, for a similar 
 reason; as must also (I!) reslrirli,,i,s tnmn the 
 right of suffrage, shutting out any large class of 
 the community from its exercise; and. even 
 when the institutions of society are free, and 
 public schools are abundant, frequently, legisla- 
 tive compulsion may be required, as an inter- 
 mediate step to promote the acceptance, on the 
 part of ignorant or vicious parents, of the ad- 
 vantages of education for their children : and 
 in, i ,. , j i In- .,'..<■■,,<;■ i,f rnni/Dilsory ulteiiil- 
 
 ance laws may be a cause of illiteracy. (See 
 Compulsory Education.) 
 
 VI. Improvement in regard to the diffusion 
 of learning must come from the operation of ju- 
 dicious measures designed to remove the causes 
 of illiteracy above referred to. '1 he general ac- 
 ceptance by civilized nations, at the present time, 
 of the principle of popular or state education, as 
 the only stable foundation of national prosperi- 
 ty, with the vast augmentation of the mean, of 
 communication, through the varied applications 
 of steam and electricity, must gradually but 
 surely diminish among every people the ratio of 
 illiteracy. Evidence of a strong Tendency in this 
 direction is shown by every succeedim 
 
 the great and progressive nations of the world. 
 The following tables present the statistics of 
 illiteracy in different countries. 
 
ELLTTEEACT 
 
 Table I. 
 Ratio of Illiteracy to Population. 
 
 [Countries marked* are nearly free from illiteracy; 
 in those marked j, the ratio of illiteracy is very large 
 but not definitely ascertained.] 
 
 Countries 
 
 Percent of Illiteracy 
 
 Earlier 
 date 
 
 Recent 
 
 
 8 
 42 
 
 65 
 99 
 
 78 
 23 
 
 99 
 88 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 33 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Turkey 
 
 United States 
 
 t 
 20 
 
 Table II. — Illiteracy in the United States. 
 
 [Censuses of 1840, -BO, and -CO reported those who 
 could not read and write; that "1 1»70, those who could 
 not read and those who could not write.] 
 
 | r means cannot read; w, cannot write.] 
 
 Table III. 
 Illiteracy as compared with various 
 of Education. 
 
 All Classes -j 21 
 
 I to 21.... 
 
 i and over 
 
 Foreign-born 
 them whites) 
 
 Native-born 
 (white and 
 colored) 
 
 l,lif.0.47H 
 -.407 901 
 
 3,718 196 
 
 i5.C.->\.144 
 
 1.071. 1(12 
 1.4K.-..HS2 
 1.N3II.412 
 
 I 820,508 
 986,726 
 
 2.2)13.14* 
 
 2.ci'.i :::>7 
 :i,ii::7.('.'.ii-, 
 
 -t.SSC.-J71 
 
 [military). 
 
 [civil, males 
 
 [civil, females 
 
 " (adults 
 
 minors, (i— 20 years) 
 
 Spain men 
 
 women 
 
 both 
 
 United States ;aged 10 & ovei 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Germany. . . 
 
 Italv 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 write . 
 
 Ext. read .. 
 
 •■ write . 
 
 Basel all read fluently 
 
 Bern read. 
 
 1864 
 1867 
 
 1 Sal— Si 
 
 Belgium 
 
 England .v. Wales males . . . 
 
 • females . 
 
 both 
 
 Ireland 'males. 
 
 (females) 
 
 (both) 
 
 Italy (galley-slaves 
 
 [prisoners— males 
 
 ■' females 
 
 both) 
 
 Conde'd minors (males). . . 
 
 << " (females,. 
 
 (both).... 
 
 " lyr. or more (males) 
 
 .. .. .. •■ females, 
 
 both... 
 
 Minors in custody (males,. 
 
 (females) 
 
 both ... 
 
 United States ^Ttcntiary* 
 
 (minors) 
 
 N.Y. news boys 
 
 :i4 — 111. li 
 
 07—711 24 
 
IMAGINATION 
 
 IMAGINATION, Culture of. igina 
 
 tion is the power by which conceptions, origi- 
 nally formed from the perception "t natural ob- 
 
 The development of the imaginative faculty 
 begins al a very early period. The conscious- 
 
 only to confirm 
 
 thr materials 
 
 ■a.K 
 
 ?nce of imagination nl.nir. tin- vnli'il. I>v disranlini: T 1 1. • artnal ul.jn i. and form- 
 ing partly by the aid oi words as symbols of 
 general ideas, an ideal picture; or, independ- 
 ■ ntly oi words, and by its own act, creating 
 foi ii- li -.in- ami iiiia-rs mil I, ,-s vivid than 
 their tangibli' i..|.i..~iiiativis. 'I In' work oi the 
 
 imagination, therefore, is c plementary to that 
 
 of observation. The order is, 'I perception, 
 i-i oiiuvptiiiii. i-'ii iiii;i-_i i i i.i t i< >i i. Tin ai inni ui' 
 tin' latter is presupposed by that of the two 
 
 .liivn ami in.-iilar cultivation in the stu 
 any ordinary school course; but more 
 hidden uature "t its action, and the « 
 tli it siilitK' ilisii'i'iiiiii'iit Mrivssary ill til.- t 
 
 to detect its influence in the m atal opi i 
 
 A knowledge of its powi 
 
 lent need of its cultivation 
 
 of the 
 rived i 
 
 In-inv 
 
 actions 
 
 difflcul 
 
 where the tan; 
 cultivation of 
 
 rible lias 
 iiiiiut be 
 the fac- 
 
 era! methods . 
 
 ireopen 
 
 lin h ali- 
 
 I, tli.- attentioi 
 
 husonly 
 
 from our ow n exp rii m 
 •. to which it influences 
 
 painted, and 
 
 as is consist 
 A few salien 
 
 promineni 
 
 pn 
 
 .',","l„ 
 
 
 
 m of* 
 
 and ili ii 1 
 
 nvp 
 
 nt' t 
 
 In' 1 
 
 
 il wl il 
 
 helps i- i 
 
 ' in 
 
 id, 
 
 ..•ii 
 
 in llir 
 
 
 and the 
 
 least 
 
 I'M 
 
 Inn; 
 
 te inn 
 
 ■umsti 
 
 reason for 
 
 .I'll 
 
 llll.lt 
 
 nm 
 
 nnl gra 
 
 T IT 11. 1 . 
 
 siderations sh 
 
 ..iilil 
 
 .- ■ i 
 
 xe for i 
 
 t care 
 
 sinces ot life, Any other disposition than this is a decided dis- 
 • These con- qualification for the cultivation of the imagina- 
 ful attention. | tion hy this method. Where the picture aud 
 
454 
 
 IMACIXATTOX 
 
 the oral narrative are used together, the former 
 should not be exhibited till after the description. 
 It should then be produced to re-inforce the de- 
 scription and give it greater clearness: but, if 
 it is exhibited before that time, the attention is 
 drawn to it at once, to the neglect of the nar- 
 rative. Pictures winch are to lie used for the 
 purpose of illustration, should, if possible, be 
 new to the pupil in order to produce their best 
 effect, ( >f the methods mentioned, however, for 
 the cultivation of the imaginative faculty, read- 
 ing is not only the most common, but is, in most 
 case.-, indispensable. The requisites in this case, 
 however, are still the same. The object being 
 always to fix the attention as powerfully as pos- 
 sible upon a mental picture, the style should be 
 simple and clear, but graphic and forcible, 
 abounding in concrete terms, not in abstract 
 phrases, and appealing to the experience of the 
 pupil, and awakening his sympathies. An ex- 
 relleiit I c -a of the clearness of the mental picture 
 formed is that of recalling at the end of the 
 reading, the scenes, incidents, and actors in the 
 order of their introduction or occurrence. Al- 
 most every branch pursued in the ordinary 
 school or college cours ! affords some opportunity 
 for the cultivation of the imaginative faculty, 
 but speeial fields for its most active exercise are 
 found in geography, history, and poetry. Some 
 departments of natural science may also afford 
 occasion for its activity. The condition of the 
 earth in prehistoric time, its chemical, geolog- 
 ical, and meteorological constitution, the plants 
 and animals that grew or moved upon its sur- 
 face, together with its relation past, present, and 
 future, with other worlds, afford .-cope for the ex- 
 ercise of the most lively imagination. The his- 
 tory of the human race, also, is tilled with scenes 
 and incidents of which, if skillfully presented. 
 the mind of the pupil will never tire. Even in 
 the teaching of subjects usually considered diy 
 and uninteresting, there is field for the exercise 
 of thi- faculty. (Irammar. mathematics, polit- 
 ical economy, and logic, if illustrated by a teacher 
 of active fancy, can be freed, in huge measure, 
 from the abstract nature which is supposed 
 to be essential to them, and which renders 
 them ordinarily so uninviting. In regard to 
 th use of fiction as an agent in the cultiva- 
 tion of the imagination, much discus-ion h;e 
 arisen, the objection usually urged being that its 
 effect is to stimulate this facility unduly. This 
 is probably true of one class only: namely, those 
 in whose minds the imaginative faculty c\i.-ls 
 by nature in an abnormal degree. Where this 
 I ii i u ei i - deficient, it will hardly be said that the 
 perusal of works of fiction can do more than to 
 develop the faculty, so as to bring it into pro- 
 portion with the other mental powers; while 
 the probability is. that the result will fad short 
 of this. In the remaining clas-. those in whom 
 this faculty exists in a normal proportion, the 
 evil result of stimulation produced by the read- 
 ing of works of fiction, has, perhaps, been over- 
 rated. The reading alone can only serve to fill 
 the mind with high ideals — the harm resulting 
 
 IMITATION 
 
 has probably been produced by neglecting to 
 provide the necessary means or occasions for an 
 active exercise of the high and generous sen- 
 timents and resolves thus aroused. If we read 
 continually of suffering, but never give alms, 
 habit soon causes us to accomodate ourselves to 
 this condition as the natural one. and the mental 
 excitement ceases to seek jiiiy outward, active 
 expression. This, probably, is the explanation 
 of the anomaly sometimes noticed in the his- 
 tories of eminent writers, that their works are 
 filled with sentiment and tenderness, while their 
 lives were mean and despicable. The result here 
 is owing to that half education which rouses 
 the sympathies, and then neglects to provide 
 for their exercise. But this abuse of the true 
 method can hardly be considered a condemna- 
 tion of the method itself. An experienced edu- 
 cator says on the subject of the general culture 
 of the imagination : "1 much fear, neither 
 teachers nor scholars are sufficiently impressed 
 with the importance of a proper training of this 
 faculty. Some there may be wdio despise it al- 
 together, as having to do with fiction rather 
 than with fact, and of no value to the severe 
 student who wishes to acquire exact knowledge. 
 But this is not the case, it is a well-known fact 
 that the highest class of scientific men have been 
 led to their most important discoveries by the 
 quickening power of a suggestive imagination, 
 'if this the poet Goethe's original observations 
 in botany and osteology may serve as an apt 
 illustration. Imagination, thi efore,isthe enemy 
 
 of scienc ly when it acts without reason, that 
 
 is, arbitrarily and whimsically; with reason.it 
 is i iften the best and most indispensable of alhes." 
 
 ee Pn tion.) 
 
 IMITATION. The possession of this im- 
 pi rtant faculty, and the desire to exercise it, 
 constitute two essential elements of all humau 
 progress. From childhood to maturity, and 
 even beyond — as long, indeed, as the effort at 
 self-improvement is kept up a vast majority of 
 the human race are employed merely in imitat- 
 ing the models that have been set up by individ- 
 ual genius, or by the accumulated wisdom and 
 taste of ages ; and their success in life is greater or 
 less, according to the accuracy of their imitation. 
 Especially during childhood and youth, is this 
 faculty brought into active play. It is the nec- 
 essary accompaniment and basis of instruction, 
 the stepping-stone to all excellence. Being of so 
 meat importance, therefore, in nearly every de- 
 partment of education, it should receive the 
 special attention of the teacher. — The conditions 
 of success in imitation are chiefly two : (1) ac- 
 curate observation, and (2) a retentive memory. 
 Probably few have noticed how slightly the 
 (acuity of observation i- u-iiall.v exercised. Thi-. 
 however, may be easily illustrated. Of twenty 
 pel-sons listening to a' speaker whose voice has 
 some peculiar tone or inflection, it will probably 
 be found that only half a dozen or perhaps even 
 less will notice it, unless it is very marked ; and 
 of these, only two or three will be able to re- 
 produce it with any degree of accuracy. How 
 
INCENTIVES 
 
 of ten do men differ as to the form or color of 
 sunn 1 feature in the face of an acquaintance! 
 
 should be made pleasant and attractive. The 
 efficacj oi this incentive, as every teacher knows, 
 
 tin 
 
 mite impression is left on the mind, instead 
 of an accurate picture. (See Attention.) It' it' 
 be granted thru, that mere imitation, when 
 
 probably uot be denied that a g 1 memory, 
 
 and, in most cases, a certain degree of mechan- 
 ical skill, arc necessary, when it is cultivated, 
 to produce the best results. It only remains, 
 therefore, to point out a few of the studies 
 and pursuits in which imitation is the chief in- 
 
 ways exercise care thai their influence should 
 not be so exerted asto impair the force of higher 
 
 and inure enduring lnotivis tu good conduct. 
 
 INDIA, a country in Asia, at presenl under 
 British rule, with the exception of a few French 
 and Portuguese colonies. 'I he term India is 
 sometimes also applied in a wider sense, embra- 
 cing those countries known liy the name of 
 Hindooslan and Farther India. In this article, 
 
 /:,-, 
 
 l.dc 
 
 arc to be represent! 
 foreign language, ala 
 the faculty ol imital 
 used for producing 
 kindergarten system 
 ing steadiness of ham 
 
 KlNnERGARTEX.) Tl 
 
 reading, declamation, 
 less successful, accor 
 
 inal models for imitation. The value of this 
 
 faculty, in moral education, can hardly be over- 
 stated', that most powerful of all educators — 
 example— depending to a great extent on imita- 
 
 INCENTIVES, School, consist' of rewards 
 of various kinds, offered to pupils for progress 
 in study and good behavior; such as "good 
 tickets", certificates of merit, 1 ks, and other 
 
 hit ion of 
 .although 
 
 L830. [t is a kind o 
 if Brahman and l In 
 
 into Us canon of si 
 
 hiefly exists in the large 
 ike an active interest in 
 
 however, strong objection has been made, inas- 
 much as it seems to imply that attendance at 
 school is burdensome and grievous, whereas it 
 
 by Mohammedans began in the Mb century A. D., 
 and. since that time, large portions of India con- 
 tinued under Mohammedan Tide, until finally 
 
450 
 
 compelled to yield to the advancine power of 
 some of the European nations. Th ■ first oi these 
 who obtained territorial possessions in India, wi re 
 the Portuguese, who early in th i Llith centurj 
 
 established their nil bj ing = i of the forts 
 
 on the western coast. The English East India 
 Company, after obtaining permission h im the 
 Mogul emperor, es ibli bed il Si I factor) in 
 1618, and gra lually extended its power, until at 
 last nearly the whole of India was united under 
 its rule. In L858, the Easl India Company trans- 
 ferred all its possessions to the British Crown; 
 and. in 1876, the queen of England assumed the 
 official title oi Empress of India. 
 
 I. I. i it India. — India, like China, Persia, 
 and Egypt possesses one of the must ancient of 
 civilizations. The e lucation of children consisted 
 chiefly in training them as members of oneof 
 the castes into which the people were divided. 
 There were four principal castes: the Brahmans 
 or priests, the Kshatriyas or warriors, the Vais- 
 yas or merchants, and the Sudras or laborers, 
 composed mainly of the conquered people. Be- 
 low the Sudras was a still more degraded class, 
 known as Pariahs or outcasts. Every native of 
 
 India, 1, longedl eoroth fthe ecastes,and 
 
 all children were brought up strictly within their 
 own. The first instruction embraced teachings 
 and warnings suggested by the neces itiea ol 
 daily life, in order thus to teach the children 
 to imitate the go i I. Onth isubs qu -m education 
 the priests had the most powerful influence. 
 They were the sole teachers. Women and the 
 
 t ili caste were exclude 1 from all education 
 
 Elementary instruction embraced only reading 
 writing, and arithmetic. A. teacher with a tafl 
 and with an assistant holding the switch, gave 
 instruction to boyssitting around him under the 
 trees. In arithmetic only th ■■ elements were 
 taught; while writing, which was closely con- 
 
 ceremonies. India possesses no theory of peda 
 gogy : but, instead of the dry. prosaic collectioi 
 
 .1(1- 
 
 i the 5th century of our 
 been translated into almost 
 ige. It contains numerous 
 og the advantages of educa- 
 
 cularly over ( 'hina, Farther 
 an. and other countries of 
 lief aim of the Buddhists is 
 
 though it does not absolutely prohil.it them. 'I he 
 clergy Mere made the basis of Buddhistic society; 
 whereas, in other creeds, the laity were the basis 
 on which the hierarchy reposed. Though this 
 
 cr 1 has always been oneof the most extensive 
 
 in the number of its foHowers.it has contributed 
 
 see Seu.Mii.T, <irs,:hk-hte i.lrr 
 
 lis of the Brahmans; and the 
 which are treated quite ex- 
 law books, have reference al- 
 
 to the nig 
 e lucati in 
 haustively 
 most exclusively to th 
 schools in Benar a in 
 deah, th i exol rica I 
 the second and t In r I 
 structed in grammar 
 and the esoterics, in p 
 astronomy, me licine, 
 for five years only a 
 was permitted to e 
 doubts to the teache 
 disputatious. The whi 
 
 given as a remuneration. The reading of the 
 
 Vedas was sidered the highest instruction 
 
 of the Brahmans, and was connected with 
 
 II. ' Modern India.— Both the Catholic and 
 the Protestant missionaries who went to India, 
 established schools for the education of the na- 
 tives, but they reached only a small portion of 
 the native population. By the natives them- 
 selves nothing was done to improve the system 
 ■ ,t education end instruction. The East India 
 : , li i I not founded a single school until 
 L793 hiih.it year, Wilberforce moved, in the 
 
 Mouse of < !o Mill ions, in send scl l-teachers to 
 
 India, in order to superintend the instruction of 
 the people; but the India House denounced the 
 
 plan as d ti tal to the continuance of their 
 
 rule. In L813, parliament granted $10,000 an- 
 iin;ili\ foi educational purposes ; but the money 
 was spent for the promotion of literary studies, 
 rather than for education. In 1848, the lieu- 
 tenant governor of Agra brought forward a 
 scheme to give a school to every village of at 
 least one hundred families. After three years' 
 discussion the court of directors of the Mast 
 India I 'onipaiiy accepted the groundwork of the 
 plan: and orders were issued that a school should 
 be provided for every circle of villages, called 
 Hulkabundee, and that the teachers should be 
 paid by a tax of two per cent on the land 
 revenue. The plan has been gradually developed; 
 and government schools now exist, in regular 
 gradation, from those which give the humblest 
 elementary instruction to the Inchest colleges; 
 and the besl pupils of one grade are able to pass 
 through the oth r grades bj means of scholar- 
 
 p I mplete the system, a university was 
 
 established, in if i7, at each of the three presi- 
 dency capitals. ( 'alcutta, Bombay. and Madras. on 
 the mode] of the London University, for holding 
 examinations and conferring degrees. The gov- 
 
INDIA 
 
 eminent institutions are intended to serve as 
 models, to be ;j r.i. I nri I ! v superseded by schools 
 supported on the grant'-in-aid-system — a system 
 based on the principle of perfect religions neu- 
 trality, and on regular rules adapted to the cir- 
 cumstances of each province. Normal schools 
 exist in each province for the training of teachers. 
 The medium of education, in the elementary 
 schools for the masses, is the vernacular lan- 
 
 education of the upper and middle classes of 
 society. The governing agency of this system 
 consists of a director of public instruction in 
 each province, aided by a staff of inspectors. 
 The following table gives the number of schools 
 and colleges belonging to, aided or maintained 
 
 average number of punils attending them, the 
 
 
 < U , 1 1 1 V 
 
 MAEKAS 
 
 
 Year 
 
 Cand.- 
 
 Passed 
 
 1 
 dates 
 
 
 Candi- 
 
 Pass .1 
 
 1857 
 
 L860 . . . 
 L866 . . 
 1871 
 
 244 
 
 808 
 
 1,350 
 
 2,877 
 
 1G2 
 
 II 1 
 
 6211 
 
 1.1,111 
 
 440 
 
 1,701 
 
 8 
 93 
 564 
 
 41 
 52 
 
 l.l 13 
 
 36 
 23 
 
 l-'cmalo education, which had been almost en- 
 rely neglected, according to the custom of the 
 in L866, 
 upeuter, 
 '. After 
 ; several 
 Madias. 
 
 Miss 
 
 gross expenditure on account of i 
 ing the years 1862, 1867, and 18" 
 
 lsi',2 l:!,2l!i 
 
 1867 20,683 
 
 1871 25,147 
 
 nis.:;:;n rJM.OTH 
 461,378 
 040.724 
 
 Counting in the indigenous schools, the whi 
 number of schools of British India (exclusive 
 the native states and Burma) amounted. 
 1872, to 40,700; and the number of scholars, 
 1 ,280,91 t. The schools which have been inmrov 
 
 ?„$&£* 
 
 lows: Lower-class schools, middle-class schools. 
 high schools, normal scl Is, special schools, col- 
 leges, and universities. — The number of middle- 
 class schools, in 1871, was 2,873 (for boys 
 2,740, for girls 133), with 158 " 
 151,656; girls 7.071' i. Thenuml 
 was 273. with 47,572 pupils; i 
 school was for girls. The nn 
 schools was 104 (87 foT males 
 with 4,346 students, 1,080 mail 
 The number of general colleges, 
 of which 24 were government colleges, and '20 
 private and aided colleges. The number of stu- 
 dents in the government colleges was 1,K.">4: and 
 
 onlv 
 »f not 
 
 ools 
 
 44. 
 
 scl I-. wen estal lish ,1 Foi i ace unl ol the 
 
 progress i i education in India see the official 
 Staten ■ oj ' ■ Moral and 1/ - I Progrt ss 
 
 of I | al lished annuaUj ; also the several 
 
 volumes i f the Annual Ami rican < 
 
 and the Report of the U. S. Commissioner of 
 
 Education, for 1873. 
 
 INDIANA, at first a part of the North west 
 Territory, afterwards formed a pari of Indiana 
 Territory, organized July 4.. 1800. In 1805, 
 Michigan v.., -, I off from it ; and. in 1809, Illi- 
 nois leavii s the territorial limits the same as 
 
 7. giving ii the sixth 
 he duty of the slate 
 
 in the private colic 
 I t Colleges, with 3,9! 
 
 eral colleges there 
 684 students: 5 col 
 students : 4 colleges i 
 students ( if other 
 schools of design ani 
 cutta(with50studei 
 
 engil ring, with 540 ' 
 
 scl Is. there were 3 
 
 ativc art : one at ( !al- 
 
 at 
 
 at Calcutta. Madras, and Bombay.from the time 
 of their foundation, in I s . > 7 , to 1&71, is shown 
 by the following table : 
 
 not until the adoption of the new constitution. 
 in 1851, which made it the duty of the general 
 assembly to "encourage, by all suitable means, 
 moral, intellectual, scientific, and agricultural 
 improvement, and to provide by law for a 
 
 general and uniform system of common si I Is. 
 
 wherein tuition shall be without charge and 
 equally open to all," and which provided for the 
 election of a state superintendent of public in- 
 struction, that we have any permanent record 
 of the condition and progress oi the public 
 
 scl !-. 1 lie act to proi ide f a a general and 
 
 unifon i -\ stem oi comn n - hi i ' was passed 
 
 June 14., 1 -.",2 : hut. although in foi i 
 
 publication and distribution, ii did i 
 practically operative until the first Monday of 
 April, 1853. This was owing to a ■ 
 
458 IXD 
 
 between the school law anil the township law, so 
 that no school officers for the township conM be 
 elected until the time tor the regular election 
 of the township trustees, in April. This law 
 
 ■ if the school fluids, and for the organization of 
 
 school corporations by ci\ii town.-lnps instead of 
 by districts, and also gave the people the power 
 
 ing of school-houses and for the continuance of 
 schools after the public funds were expended. 
 William C. Larrabee was the first person elected 
 to till the office of superintendent of public in- 
 struction, lie inaugurated the system, ami at 
 this time served two years from November 8., 
 1852. Caleb Mills took the office November 8., 
 1854, and served until February. Is;,;. Ee 
 distributed the libraries bought with the pro- 
 ceeds of the tax levied for that purpose, among 
 the townships of the state. He was succeeded 
 by William « '. Larrabee, who was again elected 
 superintendent, and served for two veals, from 
 the second Tuesday of February, L857. During 
 his administration, he made many important 
 recommendations to the legislature, in regard to 
 the time of receiving reports and of apportion- 
 ing the revenue. Samuel L Rugg, his su ssor 
 
 served two years, from the set 1 Monday of 
 
 February, 1859. In his term of office, he in- 
 vestigated the condition of the school funds, and 
 considered plans for their more profitable man- 
 agement. Stiles J. Fletcher took the office of 
 state superintendent, February I I.. L861. In the 
 spring of L862, he was killed in a railway ac- 
 cident, and Samuel K. Hoshour, I >. I >.. I>\ ex- 
 the vacancy from 
 essor was elected 
 liugg was again 
 
 eeutive appi 
 May 29., L8 
 
 and qua! die 
 
 elected for a term of two years, commencing 
 November 21., 1862; but, owing to an amend 
 incut in the school law. chaiigin<_' the time of as- 
 suming the duties of the office. In- held over until 
 
 March L5., 1865. George W. II,... ucceeded 
 March 12., 1 Sdo. serving for a torn of two years. 
 lie administered the new school law, and replen- 
 ished the township libraries. Being elected for 
 a si 'con, | term, he held office until October, 1868, 
 when, bj reason of his resignation, the newly 
 elected officer, Barnabas < '. Hobbs was appointed 
 to fill oul the term. During the term of office 
 of Mr. Hobbs, the Normal School was opened, 
 January 6., 1870. Milton I!. Hopkins took the 
 office, March 15., 1871, for a term of two years. 
 Through his ■ 
 abolishing t 
 
 kin's entered 
 March 15., 1 
 
 lie died III : 
 
 O.Hopkins, 
 
 vacancy. frOl 
 
 1875, when, 
 bent, eiitere, 
 Of these SUpi 
 
 School Sy> 
 are the direc 
 
 townships are divided, the trustees of townships, 
 members of boards of school trustees in incor- 
 porated tow osand cit ies, county superintendents, 
 members of the state board oi education, and 
 the state superintendent of public instruction. 
 The directors of school districts axA under the 
 authority of the township trustees, and exercise 
 quite limited powers. Thcv pr. side at school 
 meetings, take charge of the school property, 
 tmdii.Tformoth.-r duties under the direction of 
 the trustees. Voters at school meetings may 
 designate other branches than those required bj 
 the school law. which they wish to be taught in 
 their respective districts. 'I hey may request a 
 trustee to remove a teacher, and they may peti- 
 tion him in regard to the repairing or removal 
 of a school-house. Township trustees are elected 
 by the people annually, and are the school 
 trustees for their respective townships. It is 
 
 their duty to take charge of the scl Is, employ 
 
 teachers, build school houses, provide furniture, 
 
 apparatus, etc., take the enumeration of the 
 school children, and to cause to be held, month- 
 ly, township institutes for the instruction of the 
 teachers. They may also provide township 
 graded schools and arrange for admission into 
 tin-in from the other departments. The sr//m,l 
 boards of cities and towns consist of three mem- 
 bers in each. 'I hose in cities are appointed by 
 the common council, for three years, one mem- 
 ber being appointed annually, in June. Those 
 in towns' are appointed by the civil trustees of 
 the town, in the mui.c manner as the city trustees 
 tire appointed. School matters in cities and 
 towns are more exclusively in the hands of school 
 trustees, than in township-, inasmuch as the 
 law does rot provide fo] sch ol meetings in the 
 former. 'I lie law permits school boards of cities 
 and towns to employ superintendents for their 
 respective corporations. The county superin- 
 tendent is appointed by the board of county 
 commissioners, biennially, in June : and he must 
 have had two years' successful experience in 
 teaching. It is his dutj to examine all appli- 
 cant- for license to teach. These examinations 
 are held on the la>t Sunday of each month. 
 'I he blanches required bylaw are orthography, 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, English 
 
 itality, a law was pa.-sed 
 if county examiner and 
 
 superintendent. Mr. Ilop- 
 
 county institute annual!; 
 From school trustees an. 
 forward them to the s 
 
 af public 
 
 has thi- 
 in his 
 
 •nts are now living. 
 
 he school officersof the state 
 
 he districts into which the 
 
 superintendent, who is, ex officio, president : the 
 governor; the presidents of the state university, 
 the normal school, and Purdue University; 
 and the superintendents of the three largesl 
 
INDIANA 
 
 cities of the state. The board meets as often as I each one hundred dollars, to be used i 
 
 It appoints the trustees 
 
 purchas- 
 grounds, building school-houses, and supply- 
 
 bakes cognizance of 
 ters as may properlj 
 
 into t\ 
 
 oclassi 
 
 a ■ 1 1 1 The cimii 
 
 
 fund, 
 
 
 which are the 
 le fund, the bai 
 
 surplus revenue 
 k tax fund, the 
 
 county 
 
 semma 
 
 ry funds, fines ass 
 
 ssed for breaches 
 
 of th, 
 
 penal 
 
 laws .if the sta 
 
 e, all forfeit ares 
 
 which 
 
 niiiv ai 
 
 crue, all escheati 
 
 1 lands and es- 
 
 township, set a] 
 
 mnts to $6,313,247, 
 
 ship fund amounts to 
 
 il school fund of the 
 
 funds can never be 
 
 •ils of them must be 
 
 ,lv. 
 
 ite levies annually a 
 
 scl I 
 
 cts, in proi 
 
 between the ages of 6 and 21 in each 
 
 authorities have also th • right to 
 school tax of 25 cents on each one In 
 lars, which must be expended in thi 
 
 town, or city, in which it is levied, 
 also the right to levy a local tax; of ." 
 
 uake public 
 
 rcesof rev- 
 
 d 
 
 » for the p 
 
 ounds i 
 
 ml the . 
 
 
 tract, -din the 
 ion of build- 
 
 
 thereon 1 
 
 y schoo 
 
 author 
 
 tie 
 
 . There can 
 
 ll 
 
 s the dul\ 
 ■ for their 
 tax there 
 
 of th. 
 payme 
 
 h of th 
 
 it. by tl 
 ided thi 
 
 .'.liars. ' 
 
 h, 
 hi 
 
 bonds in cir- 
 
 wlien issued. 
 rities to pro- 
 evy of a spe- 
 
 aid tax shall 
 than 50 cents 
 total amount 
 
 towns, in any 
 1 slate, is as 
 
 
 year, un, 
 
 er the 
 
 law of 
 
 th 
 
 .11 
 
 jw.s : 
 
 
 
 
 
 ta 
 
 e tax on each $100.. 
 
 .. $0.16 
 
 on 
 
 lach poll, $0.50 
 
 
 il tuition tax 
 
 oneacli$100 0.25 
 
 
 
 
 special " 
 
 
 •• 0.50 
 
 
 
 
 bond " 
 
 " 
 
 " 0.50 
 
 
 1.00 
 
 Total amount $1.41 $3.00 
 
 in townships the limit is $1.10. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The total number 
 of district schools in the state is 9,236 ; ofcity 
 systems, 40; of town systems. 202; and the 
 number of school-houses is 9,307. The number 
 of township and district graded schools is 396 ; 
 of ungraded Bchools, 8,940. Tl.c estimated value 
 ,,f school property i., .^Kt.,-70.338. The follow- 
 ing are additional items of the school statistics 
 for 1875— 6: 
 
 340,514 
 317,434 
 
 Total white, 657,948 
 
 colored males, 4,940 
 
 colored females, 4,848 
 
 Total school populatii 
 Number of pupils enrolled, whites, 4:.:., VI 1 
 
 Colored, 
 
 ., ,;,,i 
 
 X, 
 
 Total enrollment 502,302 
 
 lily attendance, estimated at 315,000 
 
 teachers, male and female 13,133 
 
 female teachers, estimated at .. 5,500 
 
 I $8,799,191 
 
 its 4,948,879 
 
 es lor tuition 2,830,747 
 
 Instruction.— The State X< irmal School 
 at Terre Haute, established in L870, occupies 
 one of the fines! school 1, nil, linos in the state. 
 'the faculty of the institution embraces 9 in- 
 structors, including the president ; while 1 others 
 
 arc employed in the model scl Is connected 
 
 with it. The number of students, front Jan., 
 1S73, to Dee., 1874, was over 401, of whom 187 
 were males, and '-'I I, females. The whole mun- 
 
 icludnio the branches 
 ie common schools, wit 
 y and practice of teat 
 meed, including all tin 
 
460 INDIANA 
 
 high schools of the state, and designed to pre- 
 pare teachers for employment in these schools. 
 In the latter course, special prominence is given 
 to the study of languages, especially French and 
 and German. The Northern Indiana Normal 
 School, at Valparaiso, organized in 1*78, is a 
 private institution. — Teachers' institutes con- 
 stitute, in this state, a very important instru- 
 mentality for the professional instruction of 
 teachers. The several county superintendents 
 are required to hold a county teachers' institute 
 at Last once a year in each county; besides 
 which, at least one Saturday in each month, 
 while the public schools are in session, is re- 
 quired to be devoted to township institutes. In 
 1ST."', the number of county institutes held was 
 91; and of township institutes, 4,080. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The number of pu- 
 pils in the 'Jl approved lii-h schools in the state 
 was reported, in 1874, as l.'{.81'2 : the number 
 of teachers employed was 350, of whom 223 
 were males, and 127 females. These schools are 
 so organized as to be preparatory schools to the 
 state university. No uniform course of study 
 is prescribed : but the candidates for admission 
 to the university, in 1874, were examined in 
 geography, English grammar and sentential 
 analysis, geometry, and Latin, including Csesar 
 anil Virgil. In a table appended to the state 
 report for 181 1. '.< private or denominational in- 
 stitutions for secondary instruction are enumer- 
 ;ii.' I. Ii i\ in-_'. in the :i /jiwate, sill students in 
 1 1 ■ ■ - ■ i .:" e! i-- - in I ."i it in the preparatory 
 departments. Several private schools and acad- 
 emies of this grade reported to the U. S. ISu- 
 reau of Education, in L874. There were, at that 
 time. also. Ill business colleges, with 81 teachers 
 and 1 Jili7 pupils. The courses of study in these 
 schools range I from 6 months to 5 years. 
 
 Sup rior Instrm Hon.— First among the insti- 
 tutions nt this grade, stands the Indiana Uni- 
 versity (q. v.|.at Bloomington, which is closely 
 
 till with the school systems of the state 
 
 by an arrangement which admits to the fresh- 
 man class, without further examination, all 
 graduates of high schools approved by the state 
 board of education, who present certificates that 
 they have passed a satisfactory examination in 
 the preparatory course of study. Other institu- 
 tions for superior instruction are given in the 
 following table : 
 
 
 
 Wh ,i 
 
 Religious 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 ed 
 
 d Tion na ' 
 
 Concordia College. . . 
 
 Fort Wayne 
 
 L839 
 
 Ev. Luth. 
 
 Earlliam i'<-]l. - 
 
 Richmond 
 
 
 Friends 
 
 <Ft. Wayne Co 
 
 Fort Wayne 
 
 1846 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 .Franklin I '. .1 1 ... 
 
 Franklin 
 
 II. r 
 
 1X4-1 
 
 Baptist 
 Presb. 
 
 Hart.-vill 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Vl , n j Hill 1 ill 
 
 
 
 V W. Chri ti« 
 
 u 1 raapoliB 
 
 L857 Chrutian 
 
 run's' Cull 
 
 rem Hanti 
 
 ll?2 R.a' Bap ' 
 
 ■ u ■ -., r- Cull.-. 
 
 
 1861 K.< ; 
 
 
 
 1859 1 Christian 
 
 % tn Dam 
 
 
 1842 K. C. 
 
 Wabash College 
 
 Crawfordaville 
 
 1832 
 
 Presb. 
 
 INDIANA ASBURY UNIVERSITY 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction.— 
 
 Purdue University, at Lafayette. is an industrial 
 university, and embraces schools of agriculture, 
 mechanics, mining and engineering, industrial 
 art. and military science ; besides this, there is 
 the Telle Haute School of Industrial* Science, at 
 Terre Haute. The schools of law are the law 
 department of the Indiana 1'niversity. and tin- 
 law school of the North-western Christian L T ni- 
 versity : and the medical schools are the College 
 of Physicians and Surgeons of Indiana, the In- 
 diana Medical l 'nllcgc, connected with the In- 
 diana University, and the Medical College of 
 Evansville. 
 
 Special Instruction. — This department of edu- 
 cation is represented by the Indiana Institution 
 for Educating the Deaf and Dumb, at Indianap- 
 olis, which, in 1S74. had 15 instructors and 
 88.'! students: and the Indiana Institute for the 
 Blind, at Indianapolis, which, in 1874 — 5, had 
 109 pupils, and a corps of instructors including 
 a superintendent, 5 teachers in the literary de- 
 partment. 3 in the industrial, and 3 in the mu- 
 sical, besides 4 household officers. 
 
 Educational Libraries.- 'I he total number of 
 volumes in the various educational libraries of 
 the state is reported as 357,545 ; of which the 
 township libraries contained '_'.">8."i4;i volumes. 
 the city libraries were estimated to contain 
 50,000 volumes, and the college libraries, 54,000 
 volumes. 'I he law does not, at present, provide 
 for a general tax for the support of public libra- 
 ries ; but it permits the founding of library as- 
 sociations, and authorizes the common councils 
 of cities to take stock in such associations, and 
 levy the annual tax of 2 cents on each $100 in 
 support of the same. 
 
 Educational Journals. — There are two edu- 
 cational journals published in the state: 77c 
 Indiana School Journal, the official organ of the 
 state superintendent of public instruction: and 
 The Northern Indiana Teacher, published at 
 South Bend. 
 
 INDIANA ASBURY UNIVERSITY, 
 at I 'l'eeneastle. hid., commenced ill 1 S82, and 
 chartered in 1837, is under Methodist Episcopal 
 control. The first class graduated in 1840. It 
 has an endowment of $180,000, and property to 
 the value of $150,000. Tuition is free. The li- 
 braries contain about 111,11011 volumes. The institu- 
 tion has philosophical and chemical apparatus 
 and a cabinet of minerals and fossils. Both sexes 
 are admitted. The regular courses are the clas- 
 sical and philosophical, but an elective course 
 may be pursued. Opportunity is afforded for 
 normal instruction, ami there is a Biblical course 
 for theological students. Indiana Medical Col- 
 lege is, by recent action of the proper author- 
 ities, made the medical department of Asbury 
 University. The medical school is located at 
 Indianapolis, and has 9 professors and 6 lect- 
 urers. There is also a preparatory departmen! 
 In L875 6, there were 12 instructors, 509 stu 
 dents 256 collegiate and 253 preparatory), and 
 filij alumni. The presidents of the university 
 have been as follows : Bishop Matthew Simpson. 
 
INDIANA UNIVERSITY 
 
 D.D.,1839 — 48; the Rev. LucienW. Berry, D. !>.. 
 1849—54; the Bev.Daniel Curry. D. ]>.. L854 7; 
 Bishop Thomas Bowman, D.D., IX. D., 1858—72; 
 the Rev. Reuben An.Irus. D. 1 ».. 1872 -5; and the 
 Rev. Alexander Martin. I». D., the present in- 
 cumbent, appointed in 1875. 
 
 INDIANA UNIVERSITY, at Blooming- 
 ton, 1 in I., was chartered as a college in 1828, 
 and as a university, in 1839. It is non-sectarian, 
 being under state control. It has two fine 
 buildings, a library of over 6,000 volumes, a 
 chemical laboratory, a museum containing fos- 
 sils, minerals, zoological specimens, etc.. and pro- 
 ductive funds to the amount of $110,000; besides 
 which it receives annual appropriations from t In- 
 state. The value of its buildings. grounds, and ap- 
 paratus is .^'-'(lO.dllll. Moth sexes are admitted. 
 Besides the preparatory and the collegiate depart- 
 ment, the latter having a classical and a scien- 
 tific course, there is a department for the study 
 of law. The medical department was discon- 
 tinued in 187(5. The number of instructors and 
 students in the various departments of the in- 
 stitution, in 1870, was as follows: 
 
 Departments Instructors Students 
 
 Preparatory 4 142 
 
 Collegiate 10 132 
 
 Law " 2 36 
 
 Total 16 310 
 
 The Rev. Lemuel Moss, D. D., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 INDIANS, American. The earliest at- 
 tempt at the civilization of the American In- 
 dians was made by the Spanish government, 
 in Mexico and South America, at the time of 
 their conquest, when the sons of chiefs and 
 princes in Mexico and Peru were educated, and 
 endowed with the rank of Spanish nobles. Many 
 families in Spain, to this day, boast of their 
 Mexican or Peruvian descent. Their further 
 education was conducted through the agency of 
 missions, the most celebrated of which were those 
 of Paraguay. The education of the North 
 American Indians was begun, also, by Catholic 
 missionaries in Canada and Louisiana. Florida. 
 Mexico, and California. It has been participated 
 in gradually by other denominations, and has 
 followed the line of the frontier to the present 
 time — the religious character of the instruction 
 imparted being gradually eliminated as the sepa- 
 ration of church and state approached com- 
 pletion. The Puritans, at an early date, estab- 
 lished missions at Nantucket and Martha's 
 Vineyard, at Newtown and Plymouth, Mass., 
 and in Connecticut, the laborers principally be- 
 ing the Mayhews, Eliot, Cotton, and Sargeant 
 The famous Indian Bible of Eliot was prepared 
 by him for the instruction of converts. The In- 
 dian School of Dr. Wheelock, now Dartmouth 
 College, and Harvard University, at the time of 
 its foundation, gave instruction to Indians, the 
 latter with the intention of using them as teachers 
 of their own race. Only one Indian, however. 
 has ever graduated there — Caleb ( 'hce.-hahteau- 
 muck, in liiti.7. The lirainerds, who labored in 
 
 INDIANS 
 
 461 
 
 New Jersey and Pennsylvania, the Moravians, 
 
 among the Delawares, and the Society of Friends, 
 
 have all produced results moreoi less inn ortant. 
 
 Nearly all of the large I'n-t. -i, atdenoi 
 
 have labored in this field, either separately or 
 
 through 
 
 ans established an 
 Methodists, in 1819, 
 a the Wyandots, 
 
 t, 
 
 The E 
 
 lists 
 
 the 1 
 
 can 
 
 Mission 
 
 \li 
 
 ssionarv 
 
 Uian 
 
 N i ir 
 
 1 ill theil 
 h Anier 
 
 ill the w'l 
 nada aloi 
 
 eft. 
 rk; 
 
 e t 
 
 Th. 
 
 bo. lit 
 
 ed 
 
 1 M 
 
 the s 
 
 11.1 
 
 he I 
 
 ritadBtl 
 
 tea,' 
 
 levotii 
 the In 
 
 lia 
 
 llld 
 
 IV bed 
 
 Vi 
 
 i three classes, according 
 consequent mode of lit 
 p are closely and enti 
 
 eK 
 
 heirsurrou 
 tamely, il i 
 surround 
 
 dl 
 tl 
 d 
 
 Illtl 
 
 •jv.'..iiii:; 
 
 10,!l,->s 
 
 -Urns 
 
 this last .lass only that the experiment of eivi 
 ization is operative, the reclaiming of the tirs 
 class being considered accomplished, and that o 
 the second class, impracticable. The followin 
 figures are taken from the report of the Unite. 
 Slates ( 'onimissioner of Education for 1874: 
 Number of Indians in the United Slates, ex- 
 
 elusive of those in Alaska 
 
 N'uiiilier et srli. ...1 l.uiMiiifK upon Indian res- 
 Number of sclinois up. >n Indian res. ivatn.ns 
 Number of scholars : males .1,797; females 
 
 5,161 
 
 \lllllliel el Irarliel'S 
 
 Number nf Indians who can read: adults, 
 
 1,392, youths 2,616 
 
 Number nt Indians who have learned to read 
 
 during the year 961 
 
 It will be seen from the foregoing, that the 
 proportion of scholars, among the Indians, is 
 about 1 in every 26. Of those in New Fork, 
 1418,out of a total of 5.140, attend school. These 
 Indians, of course, being few in number and 
 every-where surrounded by civilization, have un- 
 usual advantages over their brethren of the Far 
 West. The total number of Indians east of the 
 Mississippi, excluding those of New York, is 
 18,505 : scholars, 2,599, or about 1 in 7. It is in 
 the Indian Territory, however, that the most ex- 
 tensive and interesting attempts at education 
 have been made. (See [ndian Territory.) The 
 prospect of the education and final civilization 
 of the Indians brought under the ehaige of the 
 agencies, is considered promising: though the 
 want of funds, and the difficulty the Indians 
 have to encounter in learning a -ii.m 
 have thus far retarded their progress. The 
 
462 INDIAN TERRITORY 
 
 number of Indians in British America is esti- 
 mated at 150,000. For information in regard to 
 them, see the articles cm the several British 
 
 |im\ l 
 
 N( 
 
 \l,.el 
 
 INDIAN TERRITORY, an unorganized 
 portion of the Cnited States, embracing an area 
 of 68,901 square miles. In 1870, the population 
 was Btated at 68,152, of whom 2,409 were 
 whites, 6,378 colored.and 59,367 Indians ; of the 
 latter. 24,967 were living on reservations, the 
 nomadic Indians being estimated at 34,400. 
 Indian Territory was set apart by the act of 
 Congress, passed .Tune 30., 1834, for the regula- 
 tion of trade and intercourse with the Indians. 
 This act declared that "all that part of the 
 United States west of the Mississippi and not 
 within the states of Missouri and Louisiana, or 
 the territory of Arkansas", should fur the pur 
 poses of the act be considered the Indian country. 
 This vast tract funned a considerable portion of 
 the Louisiana purchase of 1803 : but the Indian 
 territory has been greatly reduced by the for- 
 mation of states and territories out of it; so that, 
 at present, it is comparatively of small extent. 
 
 Ed Condition. — Indian Territory 
 compris - -ix agencies and thirty-six different 
 nations and tribes, numbering (according to the 
 report of the I. S. Commissioner of Education 
 for L874) over 76,000 persons. The total num- 
 ber of scl Is, in 1874, was 172, withl77 build- 
 
 p,n, 
 
 ported , 
 
 1,300 a 
 
 he ( 'reeks. 
 1 : and the 
 .1). 22,000. 
 
 Choctausandrhiekasaw- - , 
 
 These nations occupy a1 n itorj th i1 has; in t 
 
 aggregate, an area of 28, 000 res,oi w : , 
 
 about 150*000 are under cultivation. Each i 
 
 tions has its own school -\-teni. including sup 
 intendents, school board', etc. The Cheroka 
 are the most advanced. Their system 
 a superintendent of public instruction, elected by 
 the nation I i luncil for a term of two years; and 
 a boat 1 ol education, consisting of four members 
 inelu lin_ tli Miperintcndent, who is a member 
 ex officio. It is empowered to establish rules 
 and regulations for the management of the 
 schools, and to prescribe the text-books to be 
 used. The common schools are divided into 
 three grades : primary, intermediate, and gram- 
 mar schools. The school year consists of nine 
 months and a half, commencing on the first 
 Monday in March, and is divided into two terms 
 of twenty weeks each. The regular school day 
 is six hours: but for pupils under eight years of 
 
 age. it is only tour hours. The sel i age is 
 
 from 6 to 18. All teachers are required to be 
 examined and licensed by the board of education. 
 There are 3 school districts, each havinga school 
 commissioner, who has the general management 
 and supervision of all the schools in his district : 
 but an appeal from his decisions may be taken 
 to the board of education. In 1874, there were 
 in the Cherokee nation, 68 schools, taught 
 
 INDIVIDUALITY 
 
 chiefly by natives, in their vernacular, but also 
 learning English, The number cf pupils enrolled 
 in these schools was estimated at 2,500 : and the 
 average attendance, at 2,000. The school fund 
 amounted to $2,909,1 1 .''.. upon which the annual 
 interest was $161,889. — The Choctaws and 
 < 'hickasaus. numbering about 22.060. in 1*74, 
 had 67 day schools, chiefly boarding-schools, at 
 which the estimated attendance was 1,650. The 
 Creeks had .'il schools, with Tad pupils; and the 
 Seininoles. 5 schools, with about 120 pupils.— 
 The Cherokecs maintain a female seminary with 
 about 70 pupils; also an orphan asylum, pro- 
 viding for about 1110 children. Mission schools 
 arc supported in the other agencies, as follows: 
 Quapaw Agency, .'5 mission schools (on the in- 
 dustrial plan) and one day school, with a total 
 enrollment of 232 pupils: Sacand Fox Agency, 
 a manual-labor school, with 28 pupils, and the 
 Shawnee day school, with 20 pupils; Osage 
 Agency, a manual labor school, with 90 pu- 
 pils, a mission school, with 35 pupils, a day 
 school for the Caws, with 54 pupils, and a 
 
 boarding-school ; Wirhiln Aijcnfii, 2 schools, one 
 a day school, and the other a boarding-school, 
 whole attendance 111 pupils: Kiowa Agency, 
 2 boarding-schools, having H4 pupils. — See 
 Report of U. S. Commissioner of Education for 
 1874. 
 
 INDIVIDUALITY, that distinction of 
 character which i- produced by mental or moral 
 peculiarities. The value of this element of 
 character.in the affairs of life, can hardly be 
 overestimated. Goethe consider! d that its pres- 
 ervation and development should be the sole 
 end of a true education ; and Mill declares that 
 it is the ercat want of our time. Its rarity, 
 however, is a necessary consequence of the lev- 
 eling tendency of the age in which we live. The 
 average experience of the world at any period, 
 is embodied in the prevailing customs of that 
 period. In that sphere, the gnat bulk of the 
 world's activities move with unthinking regu- 
 larity, — the forceof education making it natural, 
 and absorption in the struggle for existence 
 allowing no time for any thought of chance. The 
 increase of facilities for the spread of knowledge, 
 also, adds directly to the coercive power of 
 public opinion by extending its sway ; and. 
 while it enlarges the sphere of custom renders 
 its influence "more uniform and more difficult 
 to be opposed. Yet its boundaries must be 
 steadily extended, or life degenerates into mere 
 routine. To the man of individuality, whether 
 as artist, poet, preacher, philosopher, or thinker 
 of any kind, is committed the task of enlarging 
 (hat sphere, and setting up new ideals. In daily 
 life, also, a thousand emergencies arise, demand- 
 ing instant action for which experience furnishes 
 no guide. The ordinary mind is paralyzed, 
 and turns instinctively to the man of genius, or 
 exceptional power, for guidance. Individuality 
 
 thus become- the pi v ,,f progress. When 
 
 we remember, further, that individuality fur- 
 nishes the common ground on which genius and 
 insanity meet, and that its cultivation, according 
 
INDIVIDUALITY 
 
 463 
 
 as it is proper or improper, may minister in a 
 hundred ways to the happiness and well-being of 
 the individual and the race, or to untold misery 
 for the one. and loss to the other, its claim for 
 consideration in any educational scheme will not 
 probably 1"' denied. I ' 1 if ortunately, however. 
 the difficulty of properly treating it is com- 
 mensurate with its importance, the consider- 
 ation of it going, as it does, to the very mot of 
 
 are. Tn this search, many circumstances may 
 temporarily mislead him. In his first day's ac- 
 quaintance with a pupil, for instance, he may 
 fancy he discovers in him a natural aptitude for 
 a particular study, which a longer acquaintance 
 will shew to lie due to some slight previous 
 
 training in that study — in which case the apt- 
 itude will entirely disappear as soon as he has 
 reached the end of his fortuitous knowledge; 
 
 drawn from theobservati f a large number 
 
 of individual instances, necessarily employthem- 
 selves with the resemblances to be found among 
 those instances, to the exclusion of the differ- 
 ences. The question always is. "Under given 
 circumstances, how would a majority of minds 
 act '.'". little attention being paid to the minority. 
 And the larger the majority, the more readily is 
 the conclusion drawn from their uniform action 
 accepted as a rule, and the less likelihood is 
 there that any attention will be paid to the in- 
 significant minority. Vet it is in this minority, 
 that the minds possessed of decided individuality 
 will be found. In many cases, no doubt, private 
 instruction would produce more satisfactory re- 
 sults in developing exceptional powers; but cir- 
 cumstances frequently do not admit of this, and 
 the teacher, in that case, must endeavor to sup- 
 ply the deficiency, as far as possible, by special 
 attention. For that highest from of individuality, 
 called genius, the ordinary school system can, 
 probably, do little in the way of direction, its 
 very nature leading it to reject all external 
 guidance : it is a law unto itself. (See tiENlos.) 
 But for that great army of thinkers and work- 
 ers whose peculiar fitness for special pursuits 
 is early manifested, and whose earnestness and 
 patient labor, in a thousand varied ways, are 
 daily enlarging the domain of knowledge, the 
 advantage of a well-digested course of study and 
 moral training can hardly be questioned. One 
 of the most effective aids for resisting the tend- 
 ency to reduce all minds to uniformity, and for 
 giving to individuality its due prominence, con- 
 sists in keeping constantly in mind the mod- 
 ern idea of education : namely, that it is a 
 development from within of capacities there 
 existing. The mind is not a vessel into which 
 knowledge is to be poured till it is full, but a 
 plant on which education is to act, as the sun 
 and rain act. drawing out and expanding it into 
 leaf, flower, and fruit, according to the plan on 
 n-h, i, ,i is constructed. And just as the gar- 
 dener places different plants in different soils, 
 and subjects them to varying amounts of sun- 
 shin, '.and moisture, expecting diversity of results, 
 and recognizing in that diversity bis success, so 
 the teacher, while subjecting all to the same 
 general treatment, as the gardener does, shoidd 
 seek to vary his methods, in order to accom- 
 modate them to the peculiarities of the pupils 
 under his care. The first step to this end must 
 be a determination of what those peculiarities 
 
 immature powers ; or, in a third ease, an incli- 
 nation may be shown, which is produced solely 
 by some poetical aspect of the study, due to 
 early experience or association, and has no con- 
 nection with the essential nature of that study. 
 A boy. in this way. for instance, might show a 
 quasi-love for botany from having bei 
 up among flowers, the forms and colorsof which 
 appealed powerfully to his love of beauty ; or a 
 similar love of astronomy or microscopy from 
 having had the run of an observatory or an opti- 
 cian's shop. But no teacher of discernment will 
 Ion;: he deceived by such siipertieial knowledge 
 or inclination, if opportunities for examination 
 are afforded him. A more dangerous misap- 
 prehension, however, exists frequi nth in regard 
 to moral powers. This often happi ns in cases of 
 what may be called negative individuality — 
 eases in which the faculties necessary for the 
 future well-being, instead of being abnormally 
 developed, seem to be entirely wanting. These 
 
 at 
 
 once, and leads to detection: but the want of it 
 is. in many cases, easy of concealment, and. 
 escaping notice, escape*, also, correction, and the 
 error appears liter in life, bringing •'. 
 ruin. Dishonesty, both in word and deed, is one 
 of the commonest of these defects of character. 
 Tyrannical government in childhood and early 
 youth is the fruitful parent of this evil. Self- 
 preservation, the strongest instinct of its nature, 
 leads the child to the use of deception as a 
 shield from punishment ; and it us s it the more 
 readily because it cannot understand the base- 
 ness of it. 
 
 Having determined the pupil's distinguish- 
 ing trait, the treatment should be a partial cul- 
 tivation of the prominent faculty, with a special 
 cultivation of the others. An entire suppression 
 of this ruling faculty would result in disgust 
 with the enforced attention given to the others ; 
 while an exclusive cultivation of it — which 
 is almost always the result, when the pupil is 
 allowed to -follow his inclination'' — would end 
 only in one-sirlcdness. or want of balance. As 
 the constant disposition of the pupil, under the 
 treatment lure prescribed, would be to neglect 
 the distasteful studies for the favored one. the 
 efforts of the teacher should be exerted to make 
 the former as attractive as possible, by con- 
 stant references to the latter by way of illustra- 
 
464 
 
 IXDO-GERMAXIC LANGUAGES 
 
 tion. By a skillful teacher, this may be done to 
 a greater extent than might at first appear. A 
 judicious system of rewards, also, might be de- 
 vised, to favor proficiency in the studies likely 
 to be neglected. In the elaboration of the 
 plan, specific rides will be of little use. The 
 highly developed faculties, mental and moral, 
 exist in such varied combination, and the daily 
 circumstances and influences surround and 
 govern in such a way, as to make of each case, 
 a complicated problem, requiring special study. 
 The general plan, therefore, can only be indi- 
 cated, and its fulfillment committed to the 
 discretion of the teacher. In it. he will find 
 ample field for the exercise of his skill and in- 
 genuity. His genius for teaching will be no- 
 where more apparent. - In addition to the 
 case of negative individuality, there is another, 
 which may be called that of general negative 
 individuality, in which the faculties are evenly 
 developed, but are till below the average. This 
 condition is equivalent, in its results, to that of 
 a mind with faculties of normal strength, too 
 evenly developed, the resulting character, in 
 both cases, being one of mediocrity, which mani- 
 fests itself in a general want of decision or in- 
 firmity of purpose. Such characters are never 
 themselves in the presence of a superior mind. 
 Their negative virtue becomes as injurious as 
 positive vice ; for, as all men are compelled con- 
 stantly, under stress of daily circumstances, to 
 act, the action of such persons is never their own, 
 but is merely a reflection of that of the more 
 powerful minds by whom they are surrounded. 
 The demagogue and the quack find in such 
 characters their pliant instruments. This result, 
 therefore, should be carefully guarded against, in 
 every country especially, where political power 
 in the hands of the masses is greal or increasing. 
 The teacher's duty, in this case is perhaps the 
 most difficult of all. it being nothing less than 
 the creation of individuality. This object, how- 
 ever, is worthy of his highest efforts, since the 
 element he is endeavoring to evoke is the most 
 valuable of all the products of a true education 
 — the personal quality whose moral aspect is 
 sell i , ct, as well as self-reliance, and which 
 constitutes the surest basis for a correct life, 
 whether as an individual or a citizen. (See 
 
 C'HA 
 
 INDO-GERMANIC LANGUAGES. The 
 
 name Inihi-di'riiiuiiii: is applied to a large num- 
 ber of languages whicl oparative philology 
 
 has proved to be of a common origin. It was 
 chosen to indicate wli.it was believed to be the 
 eastern (India land the western (Germany) bound- 
 ary of the extent of these language.-. Since the 
 Celtic has been recognized as belonging to the 
 family, the name is no longer adequate, md 
 other names, as Aryan, Indo-European, Japh itdc, 
 
 Sanskritic, have been proposed and - itimes 
 
 used instead of it; but still [ndo-Germanic is 
 the name generally preferred l>\ writers on the 
 subject. — Thf [ndo-Germanic Languages, accord- 
 ing to the common consent of all prominent 
 writers on the subject, embrace the following 
 
 branches: (1) Germanic or Teutonic ; (2) Slavic; 
 13) Lithuanic; (4) Celtic (Irish etc.); (5) Italic 
 (Latin etc.) ; (6) Greek ; (7) Iranian or Persian; 
 (8) Sanskritic or Indian. Some writers add an 
 Ulyrian branch, of which the modern Albanian 
 is regarded as a relic; others divide somewhat 
 differently, regarding the Slavic and Lithuanian 
 not as two different branches, but as only one 
 branch; but they all agree as to the affinity of 
 the eight branches which have been enumerated. 
 From the time when Cyrus founded the Persian 
 empire until the present day. nearly all the lead- 
 ing civilized nations of the globe have spoken 
 liido-l ■crinaiiie languages, and to-day these lan- 
 guages arc the vehicle of thought for nearly 
 all Europe (the only exceptions being the Turk- 
 ish, the Hungarian, the Finnish, and the Masque 
 languages foi thi entire civilized population of 
 America and Australia, and for the larger por- 
 tion of Asa. The comparative study of the 
 [ndo-Germanic languages has east a great deal 
 of light upon all the languages vtlnch are taught 
 in the English-speaking world— the vernacular, 
 the classical, and the foreign. Not only does 
 
 merly attainable ot the peculiar kinship existing 
 between all these languages, but, especiallyby 
 the aid of the Sanskrit, explains many points 
 which were formerly obscure, and enables the 
 student to trace the origin and gradual growth 
 of most of the grammatical forms. The influence 
 is mosl apparent in the Latin and the Creek, 
 the relation.- ot wind, to the family have been 
 best set forth by Corssen [Lateinische Sprache) 
 and G. Curtius (Griechische Etymologie). The 
 standard grammars of these languages, especially 
 those written during the last twenty years, have 
 generally been benefited by the results of com- 
 parative philology; and teachers who understand 
 the chief Indii-i ierniaiiic languages find it easy, 
 without any need of additional time, to com- 
 bine with instruction in Latin and Greek, a 
 rudimentary knowledge of the I ndo-Germanic 
 system. And it is safe to say, that, henceforth, 
 it will lie impossible for any grammarian to 
 surpass, or even to equal, the best Latin and 
 Greek grammars now in use. unless he possesses 
 a good knowledge of the relation of the classic 
 to other [ndo-Germanic languages, and especially 
 to Sanskrit. — The study of English in the 
 lower grades of instruction has been indirectly 
 benefited by the progress of these researches, 
 because to them we are largely indebted for a 
 more intelligent class of teachers, and a much 
 superior class of text-books. In the more ad- 
 vanced grades of instruction, the course of 
 studies can In' so arranged — and notable at- 
 tempts have recently . been made in this direc- 
 tion — as to embrace an introduction of the stu- 
 dent to a rudimentary acquaintance with some 
 of the chief results ot lndo-1 H-rmanic philology. 
 (See English, Study of.) More detailed infor- 
 mation on this subject may he found in Max 
 Muller's, and in W. 1). Whitney's Lectures 
 on Language*. Comparative grammars of the 
 Indo-Germauic languages have been written by 
 
INDUCTIVE METHOD 
 Bopp, Schleicher, and Lapp; a dictionary, by 
 
 m of , 
 
 lialatn i 
 
 Fick. 
 
 the eighl branches 
 
 guagea was begun 
 
 ssstrss 
 
 (2) Iranian Gnu 
 
 (3) Greek Gramm 
 Grammar (embracir 
 (.-., German Gram] 
 Celtic) Grammar, 1 
 Grammar, by Leskii 
 Leskien. An tntrod 
 contains the Oullin 
 [Grundzvge der I, 
 duction to the stui 
 [ndo-Gennanic langi 
 
 INDUCTIVE METHOD, in education, is 
 bu1 another name for the developing method 
 
 tin principle of logical induction, or the process 
 of deriving general principles from an observa- 
 tion and comparison of individual facts. Instead 
 of teaching definitions, principles, and rules ar- 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 
 
 Pitt, equally failed. In Italy, canon Odesealchi 
 founded, in 1686, a great charitable institution 
 
 . by Meyer; (4) Italic 
 Latin, etc.) by Biicheler : 
 
 S tit' I'llulli'lii: /'//l/siti/ni/i/ 
 
 itphysiohgie) as an intro- 
 ' of the pi ologj oi the 
 
 method, is the la 
 
 xt-1 k« follow tl 
 
 most effective el 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS. 
 
 brandies nf instruction, but in certain industrial 
 or business pursuits. An ind - Is ,n 
 
 the widest sense of the word, denotes any school 
 for teaching one or several branches nt industry : 
 but the special schools of this kind. and. in par- 
 ticular, those of a higher grade, arc nunc gener- 
 ally comprised uniler the name of technical 
 schools (see TECHNICAL EDUCATION); and the 
 name industrial school is usually restricted to 
 a school for neglected children, in which training 
 in manual labor or industrial pursuits constitutes 
 a prominent feature of the plan of education. 
 The common schools, however, sometimes have 
 classes in which children are instructed in cer- 
 tain industrial pursuits. The idea of providing 
 for the instruction of children in manual labor 
 appears to have originated in the desire to enable 
 poor children to earn as early as possible their 
 daily bread. In England, Chief Justice Halerec- 
 ommended, about L676, to parliament to estab- 
 lish in every parish an industrial school. In 
 1705, Locke laid before the English parliament a 
 plan to counteract the spread of pauperism, and 
 to this end, proposed the establishment, in each 
 parish, of labor schools in which the children of 
 the poor, from ,'t to 1 I years of age, were to find 
 lodging, board, support, and occupation. Parlia- 
 ment, however, rejected the bill which embodied 
 this idea, and a similar attempt made, in L 796, by 
 
 institutions, and the instruction of git I- in house- 
 work and needle-work, and of the boys in some 
 mechanical trade, became a general feature oi the 
 Italian orphan and foundling asylums. '1 he first 
 practical attempt, in Germany, was made by 
 A. II. Iiaiieke. who introduced in his pceda- 
 i/iii/him instruction in turning and glass-grinding. 
 An attempt made by Hecker.the founder of the 
 first real scl I, to train his pupil- in the cultiva- 
 tion of mulberry-trees and the rearing of silk- 
 worms, was abandoned ii ..!.,! hi- death. The 
 
 Austrian educator k inderi.iaiiii conceived the 
 idea of introducing industrial instruction into 
 the con m a m si ho, ,1. and succeeded, in the course 
 
 oi a few 'ears, iii oi -ani/iiie. industrial schools in 
 more than 200 places. The proposition that 
 all children should receive at school instruction 
 in manual labor, as well as in book learning, 
 found an influential supporter in the philoso- 
 pher Kant, and the scheme of national educa- 
 tion proposed by Fichte likewise combined 
 learning with labor. Pestalozzi also endeavored 
 to train his pupils in various industrial arts 
 as well as in books; and his ideas were more 
 fully carried out by Fellenberg, and especially 
 by Wehili. Salzmann, in the famous insti- 
 tution of Schnepfenthal, gave to his pupils, 
 outside of the regular school hours, manual 
 work in the garden and field — exercises in turn- 
 ing and planing, in basket-making, and other oc- 
 cupations of a similar character. In Wttrtem- 
 berg. the government took great interest in the 
 labor school, and ordered that schools of this 
 kind should be organized in connection with 
 every common school, and that all the girls 
 should be instructed, during three or four hours 
 ti week, in needle-work. In several other states of 
 Germany, as well as in Sweden. Belgium, and 
 other countries, courses in industrial education 
 have been arranged on a large scale, in close 
 connection with the common schools; and the 
 children are trained not only for the common 
 pursuits of life, but for the special branches of 
 industry prevailing in their particular locality. 
 The idea thai the pupils of common schools 
 should be trained in industrial occupations was 
 also conceived by Froebel, the founder of the 
 kindergarten ; and one of his most enthusiastic 
 , ndeavored to develop this 
 well as practically. The 
 tchers' convocation to which an elab- 
 orate plan for embodying manual labor with 
 the course of instruction in common schools was 
 submitted, refused to commit itself in favor of 
 any such scheme; but it adopted a declaration 
 that the question, what kinds of labor should be 
 admitted into the course of instruction. I mw tiny 
 
 eorgen 
 ically, , 
 
40f i 
 
 INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS 
 
 should be organized, and in what order they 
 should follow one another, is one of the great 
 educational questions of the day. — One branch 
 of industrial pursuits, needle-work, has at present 
 been almost universally introduced into the 
 common schools of Germany and other coun- 
 tries. Two afternoons in each week are set apart 
 for the instruction of girls, by a competent per- 
 son, in the art of sewing, the pupils beginning 
 as early as six years of age, at first using 
 paper. They are also taught to knit, each "ill 
 furnishing her own material ami keeping the 
 product of her labor. When they have learned 
 to hem, the next step is mending. Prom plain 
 sewing, mending, and knitting, the pupil ad- 
 vanres to tine needle-work, tatting, an I criirln I- 
 ing. Some of tin- tapestry work of the older 
 pupils is often so beautiful in design and so 
 artistic in execution as to challenge general ad- 
 miration." (See J. P. Myers, in the Report of 
 the U. S. Commissioner 0/ Education, L873.) ' 
 
 In England, before any grant is made to an 
 elementary school, the educational department 
 must be satisfied that the girls in the day school 
 are taught plain needle-work and cutting out, as 
 a part of the ordinary course of instruction. 
 Plain needle-work is understood to inclu le darn- 
 ing, nun ling, marking, and knitting; but no 
 fancy work of any kind can be done in school 
 hours. In the United States, Massachusetts has 
 given the greatest attention to this subject. A 
 report of the committee on industrial schools, 
 made to the board of education, in 1k7H, recom- 
 mends tli it sewing, which is now taught in three 
 
 classes oi the girls grammar scl Is, be carried 
 
 forward into all the classes, by a gradual and 
 progressive change which is not to interfere 
 
 They proposed, also, that, as instruction in t\ 
 ing was thus extended in the immberoi cla 
 
 to which it was imparled, n ih luld be i olarge I 
 in the character and practical value of the 
 work performed, and that, certainly in the first 
 and second, and perhaps in the third classes, 
 instruction should be given in cutting, shap- 
 ing, fitting, and completely making girls' and 
 ladies' garments, the requisite materials for 
 this instruction to lie furnished by the city, 
 under the supervision of the committee on 
 accounts. The ,-iiv superintendent of Provi- 
 dence. R. [., stated in his report for 1873—1874, 
 thai the sewing department in the schools of 
 that city was producing the happiest results. 
 Nearly 600 children, he reported, were taught 
 every week to use skillfully their i He, and 
 
 chusetts and New York have taken the lead in 
 this question, and ordered its introduction into 
 all the common schools of the respective states. 
 iSee Let-Education, and Drawing.) 
 
 Special attention to industrial occupations is 
 
 die 
 
 
 able but 
 
 to prow 
 
 fying to learn, from the annual reports oi the 
 
 U. S, Commissioner of Education, that the 
 
 number of orphan asylums which have opined. 
 
 'Hi, 
 
 altci 
 
 Mu'iJwHMi">V^ 
 
 branches; for the boys, the instruction should 
 consist in preparing them for some industrial 
 occupation in life. The extent and the variety 
 of this instruction will, of course, depend on the 
 resources of the institution. The most extensive 
 industrial training given in any ■ haritaUe insti- 
 tution, as far as is known, is in Girard College, 
 Philadelphia. In 1864, a chair of industrial 
 science was established, embracing the practical 
 and theoretic teaching of various handicrafts. 
 The branches of labor in the work room thus pro- 
 vided for were type-setting, printing, bookbind- 
 ing, type-founding, stereotyping, turning, car- 
 pentering, daguerreotyping, photography, elec- 
 trotvping, eleeiiopliiliiie. and practical instruc- 
 
 Shoe-making has been taught and successfully 
 
 carried on since I i-TI . (See ORPHAN Asvi.u.ms, 
 
 and 
 
 The great importance of industrial education 
 in evening schools is too evident to need any 
 discussion. 'I lie technical instruction which 
 
 ,\.<. 
 
 a gr 
 
 • giv n to them in their 
 
 r education, is, therefore, 
 How well this is under- 
 bv them is clearly indi- 
 
 seh, 
 
 work as a branch of 
 generally intro luce 1 
 upon as an indispens 
 of instruction. As re 
 of public schools, th 
 drawing into till scl 
 by many educators. 
 
 Massa- H Stetson, Technical M 
 
INDUSTRY INSTRUCTION 4U7 
 
 INDUSTRY is a quality or habit upon the I from the faet tli.it no distracting cause can prop- 
 due lit' which it is scarcely requisite to insist erlv be allowed to enter: an, I because, tun. all 
 i an educational work ; since its absolute neces- its' exercises, lessons, and tasks imply the need 
 
 Montaigne did, that! 
 qualities of their mi 
 lilv.on examination, 
 
 men. who migl 
 
 ads, it will In- t 
 that their wan 
 
 it declare, as 
 
 of the ruling 
 ound, proba- 
 
 was supplemented b 3 
 m a measure, rende 
 sary. It will, probi 
 with more continuoi 
 would have been fi 
 
 rgreat nalural 
 red thai even 
 dily. be granfe 
 
 ir greater. Tl 
 
 ion unneees- 
 ld also that, 
 their success 
 le number of 
 
 such men. moreover 
 
 . is exceeding] 
 
 v small, and 
 
 they were never the i 
 
 
 ie cause they 
 
 the most important results of both home train- 
 in- and school education. 
 
 INFANT SCHOOLS. See Kindergarten. 
 
 INSPECTION, School. See Supervision. 
 
 INSTITUTES, Teachers'. See Teachers' 
 Institutes. 
 
 INSTRUCTION (Lat. instrm tio is the com- 
 munication of knowledge Educa i •;. ii th. 
 
 partment of knowledge, and 
 
 tellectuaranda. inorala-cn't 
 the word, in fact, as it is c 
 own best recommendation, 
 to keep one's self employed 
 Industry is thus nearly syi 
 gence (q. v.); but the lattet 
 upon the feelings, the for 
 
 jeetive or external. Instruct,' ,,•,„,,,., : . , 1 1 
 
 do with the intellectual development of tl, 
 Qd, and is an instrument in the hands of th 
 ucator, which he ■•an wield with the greates 
 ecision and in th,- most skillful manner. II 
 
 the 
 
 
 matter of temperament, or merely an indica- 
 tion of bodily health, there are many eases in 
 which the want of it cannot lie explained by 
 reference to cither of these causes. Usually, 
 children are active enough : though, during 
 their earliest years, their activity take. il„ form 
 of play. Nature seems to have pointed tl i- on, 
 asth ■ mosi promising avenue through which th i 
 mentally indolent child may be approat I I 
 
 gesting new ones which involve some pleasing 
 mental exercise, and thus bridging over the gap 
 which separates play from work, and making it 
 narrower or less abrupt, the judicious teacher 
 may rouse the dormant faculties and implant 
 industrious habits, where, at first, this might 
 have seemed impossible. This is the key to the 
 kindergarten system. It must never be forgotten 
 that an indolent habit of mind i> sometimes th • 
 result of discouragement arising from a too 
 early presentation of mental pui-Miits to faculties 
 not yet sufficiently developed to undertake them. 
 Frequently the child tails into an indolent habit 
 from the faet that it cannot choose out of many 
 things which one to do. or, doing a little only of 
 each, accomplishes nothing of consequence* — a 
 condition equivalent to indolence. The method 
 here should be a daily routine, in which the 
 teacher should work with the pupil, giving thus 
 the powerful stimulus of bis example, to instill 
 into the pupil's mind ideasof order, method, and 
 constancy of exertion. In forming the indus- 
 trious habit, the school room has immense ad- 
 vantages over the home circle as it usually exists, 
 
 ,,rk of cluea- 
 which can be 
 
 
 i does 
 
 
 
 ."■''in trucf nV , rV' S li!id- t l'' 1, "'" , l' 
 
 ■ takes 
 
 it 'i"n,'-t'i| 1 |i'is"\' h'ii'h'"-t' teacher r'm'iiives 
 
 ';;:';: 
 
 '!hr,r!'uadities'v,l!ieh i a!u!ch t 'r!di'!,l, 
 
 'I here 
 
 In these observations, like gathers to like. A 
 child looks at a tree : and the tree produces an 
 impression on his mind. The next day, he sees 
 another tree: and the resemblances in this tree 
 strike his mind. and recall the former impression. 
 The two impressions thus unite, and form a 
 stronger impression than either separately. 
 Other impressions of a similar nature unite, un- 
 til the child tonus a definite notion ot a tree. 
 The child is thus gathering into unities the 
 
468 
 
 INSTRUCTION 
 
 various impressions which he is continually 
 forming; and this process continues. lie learns 
 the individual first, and groups his observations. 
 Thus instruction, to be educative, must always 
 proceed from the individual to the general, from 
 the c xete to the abstract. There is no re- 
 versal of this process in education ; but the 
 process is often reversed in instruction with 
 baneful effect. To the teacher, the general truth 
 
 Contains the su f all the particulars, and lie 
 
 thinks he gives to the child this general truth 
 with all its contents, when he urges it upon him, 
 makes him commit it to memory, and frequently 
 recalls it to his mind : but the tact is. that the 
 chihl learns the general truth without the con- 
 tents, lie has the shell without the kernel. 
 
 state of the pupil's mind, when he commences. 
 Probably, he has come from the play-ground. 
 
 does not emp 
 
 
 s to dis 
 
 ilace it. Some 
 
 little time sho 
 
 ild be gh 
 
 en to th 
 
 ■ pupil to calm 
 
 down ; and th 
 
 n, when 
 
 lei-pr, 
 
 lared to listen. 
 
 the teacher shi 
 
 uld start 
 
 
 lething that the 
 
 pupil knows , 
 
 ell and 
 
 'eels an 
 
 interest iii. and 
 
 from that era 
 
 luallv Wi 
 ie has t. 
 
 rk his \ 
 
 ay to the new 
 
 has a Stronger interest in the subject than he 
 hadbefore. To rouse this interest, the teacher 
 has to remember that every intellectual activity 
 
 his 
 
 something when lie really knows nothing, and 
 his mind is prevented from stepping forward in 
 that direction, by the belief that he knows the 
 truth already. Furthermore, this non-educative 
 instruction loses a great opportunity. If the 
 child is allowed time, and is supplied with a 
 sufficient number of individual instances, he is 
 sure to make the generalization himself. Noth- 
 ing imprints the truth more permanently than 
 the discovery of it for himself, and nothing 
 I. lines into play all the powers of the soul more 
 healthily than the discovery of a truth. The 
 teacher must, therefore, always proceed from 
 the concrete to the abstract ; hut. in employ- 
 ing this method, he must exercise very great 
 patience. Generalization is a slow process, 
 somewhat uncertain in time. The child seems 
 to be just reaching the truth, but he turns away 
 with a bound, and he may take some time more 
 to master it completely. Or he may, one day, 
 have a glimpse of it, and the next, it has van- 
 ished. But, however slow or uncertain the 
 process may be, it is the only truly educative 
 mode of giving instruction. The teacher, like 
 Socrates, is a maieutic artist. and he must watch 
 carefully over the birth of a truth, not forcing 
 nature, but giving nature every help that she 
 will willingly receive. (2) Educative instruc- 
 tion arrests the attention and awakens the inter- 
 est of the pupil. The rule implied in this state- 
 ment may be expressed in the words, that the 
 teacher must attach the new matter to the old 
 by a natural connection, that he must pass from 
 the known to the unknown. The subject of at- 
 tention is one that cannot be discussed here. 
 We can note only how it is to be secured. The 
 pupil must be on good terms with his teacher. 
 Where there is antagonism, there can be no 
 :-ot i.-taei, ,i\ attention. The i . ■ , i ■ 1 1 iua\ . indeed, 
 attend through fear; but fear is a weakening 
 force; and the result is. to associate in his mind, 
 with the subject comprehended, feelings of dis- 
 like and disgust, so that, at the end. there is no 
 interest in the subject, but, on the contrary, a 
 wish that he may never have to do with it again. 
 Then, the teacher must carefully consider the 
 
 tive instruction always keeps in view the prin- 
 cipal aim and end of education. It always 
 works for a purpose. The object is not to cram 
 the pupil with a certain amount of knowledge. 
 to give him an hours dose of information, with- 
 out regard to his whole being. It deliberately 
 asks whether the information which is to be 
 
 evolution of the chill's nature. It will not look 
 to the greatest success in the particular depart- 
 ment, but to the greatest success compatible 
 with the healthy action of all the child's powers. 
 It is not necessary, in an article like this, to 
 go further into the questions to which the sub- 
 ject of instruction gives rise. They are treated 
 in separate articles. We may, however, take a 
 general view of them: (1) We should have to 
 treat of the subjects of instruction. These may 
 be divided into those that relate to nature, those 
 that relate to man. and those that relate to ( lod. 
 The first gives us the natural sciences, — a knowl- 
 edge of the earth in its p resent state, geology, 
 botany, zoology, physics, including astronomy and 
 chemistry, then come the abstract, subjects 
 arising out of these : the science of numbers 
 and of magnitude, arithmetic, algebra, and geom- 
 etry. Next follows the knowledge that relates 
 toman: physiology, psychology, and sociology; 
 but the latter sciences cannot be taught scientif- 
 ically to children. The- main facts are made 
 known concretely in literature, and therefore 
 the pupil learns languages, — his own, modern 
 languages, and ancient languages. Education 
 insists that these should ultimately, and as soon 
 as possible, pass from being mere studies of words 
 to be a means of acquainting the pupil with the 
 feelings, thoughts, and desires of great and good 
 men, past and present. Closely connected with 
 languages is the study of history : and allied to 
 history and intermediate between the first and 
 second classes of study, is geography.— a knowl- 
 edge of the earth as it has influenced man and 
 been used by him. The third class of subjects 
 relate to religion; but this is closely allied to the 
 
IXTKLLKCTT-.W, KIHTATIOX 
 
 4t;y 
 
 second, and, indeed, falls properly under it : for i however diverse a character, may be conceived 
 
 to depend, directly or indirectly, upon some 
 
 it is the knowledge 
 CD Weshould have 
 value of all these stu 
 
 of m 
 dies,1 
 
 Mlt til 
 
 ■elations t 
 utotheed 
 
 , Cod 
 
 that none of the sul 
 ted. The mind of n 
 
 < Her 
 
 Bit hi 
 
 it bedelib 
 
 larked 
 erateli 
 
 mad e-sided. T 
 
 he nni 
 
 In,,],' 
 
 
 lltelVS 
 
 should have to inqu 
 
 
 ,. the 
 
 methods. 
 
 of edu 
 
 cation ; and (4) hit 
 and public, necessar 
 
 "tow 
 
 n.l.~i- 
 
 mstructioi 
 
 l effcc 
 
 by T. Zdlr 
 
 ihrer ■ ■ isenschqfllickei I praktisch-rej 
 
 torischen Seite entwickeU (Leipsic, L865). 
 also llu-isuav. Pedagogy s as a System 
 by A. ('. Brackett (St. Louis, L872). 
 INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. 
 
 hist, sj.ni 
 theprimM 
 animal ki 
 
 ideas, at 
 ears to be 
 tlu- whole 
 
 and wil 
 charaetei 
 ordinate 
 mental 1 
 regard 1« 
 for the ii 
 which in 
 
 ded, the mind, as 
 may or may not 
 rolled by what is 
 
 if th. 
 
 inobled, and his ception the act 
 
 order to direct I nizant of it as 
 
 the in. 
 
 by ex- 
 ad per- 
 
 gn.wtlitmm infancy to matiuv age :tlieproc, 
 by which its powers may be guided, stimuls 
 and improved, and the agencies by mean! 
 which this improvement, or culture, is to l« 
 fected. The human mind acts, as it were 
 separate faculties: it appears to possess .list 
 powers. These facilities, or powers, are wit! 
 doubt, intimately associated. They are 
 
 tions distinct, both in their mode of opera 
 and in the objects upon which they are exerc: 
 To form an idea, from a present object of 
 sation is obviously distinct from recalling that 
 
 idea when the object is 
 
 again diffe 
 
 manner tlu.se made through the medium of 
 Bight, become in this way a part of the mind; 
 they are imprinted upon its very texture, as it, 
 were, like pictures upon the photographic glass. 
 Hence the name ideas (from the Greek word 
 Itielv, to see). This faculty is called conception 
 
 longer present. This (rp v.). It requires the most 
 
 an original picture, or series of pictures, such as employed in the exercise of it — in storing up 
 those of Bogarth on canvas, or of Bunyan, in idea.-., and gathering materials out of which to 
 written composition, is certainly a very different produce its subsequent creations, whether these 
 process from the selection and combination of are the fantastic pictures of fancy, the more 
 elementary propositions so as to derive from regular combinations of imagination, or the 
 them an original principle, or truth. The mind ! sequences of ratiocination. Whatever, therefore, 
 is, nevertheless, a unit; and all its operations, of i hinders this process, shrivels the mind and stunts 
 
470 
 
 INTKLLKCTrAL KIHVATK >X 
 
 its growth. Its vitality dies out for want of ex- 
 en i and torpor takes the place of elasticity 
 and vigorous life. This is, therefore, one of the 
 first faculties to be addressed in education. Its 
 activity i.s to be fostered by supplying it with 
 abundant food — objects on which it may be 
 exercise I. and language designed to bring into 
 clear mental view the conceptions already ac- 
 quired. — The next mental process to be COD- 
 si hi. 1 i !<■■■ . 'in. In the first stages of the 
 nun I - _ iwth. tin re exists but little power of 
 combination, certainly none of logical com- 
 bination; but there is an elementary principle 
 of intellection by which ideas tend to become 
 linked together according to certain relations; 
 tin-, is called association (q. v.). Perhaps, the 
 most important of the elementary associations 
 established in regard to the conceptions is that 
 of words or names with the conceptions of objects 
 which they are thus made to represent. This is, 
 without doubt, one of the earliest, as well as one 
 of the most rudhncntal. of the mind's combi- 
 nations. The association itself, it must be borne 
 in mind, is all that is arbitrary : since it i.s not 
 
 words themselves that are associated with the 
 
 conceptions of the object,-,, but conceptions of the 
 spoken words, formed through the me hum of 
 hearing. What is meant by asserting that the 
 association alone is arbitrary, is that the .spoken 
 word, as an actual seiise-pereeption. is retained 
 and recalled by conception, and is, therefore, no 
 inure arbitrary than any other i lea ; but having 
 no intrinsic relation to the conception for which 
 it is to stand, it is associated with it arbitrarily, 
 that is by repeatedly bringing tin 1 two conceptions 
 together, in accordance with that law of mental 
 action by which ideas repeatedly brought into 
 
 con -tii in suggest each other. — Without the 
 
 association of words with ideas, the mind could 
 advance but a very few steps in its development ; 
 because, (1) it would be unable to receive any 
 stimulus by communicating with any other 
 minds; (2) it would be powerless to control the 
 order in which the conceptions would present 
 themselves to the mind, or to divest them of the 
 vagueness of revery ordreamin- . an 1 3 noproc- 
 ess of thought or reasoning could b • carried on 
 without the assistance of language. This need 
 of words is illustrated by the efforts of children 
 to talk, and call things by names, long before the 
 power of articulation exists, thus showing that, 
 although they are unable to employ words for 
 the expression of ideas, the mini is constantly 
 making use of them in c irrying mi its rudimental 
 operations. It is an important law that con- 
 cept ions are nnre -: i e.Jv a --, , aate 1 w 1 1 ,'i their 
 corresponding p i ep i ins havi b a asso tiated. 
 Thus, Buppos it is d ired to tea h a child the 
 meaning of the word ship; in other words, to as- 
 sociate in his mind the spoken word ship with 
 the conception of the ship, so that the one will 
 always suggest the other. If he has never seen 
 a ship, nothing but the actual perception will 
 
 suffice, and he must be taken wher ie may be 
 
 actually seen; but if he has seen the object 
 without learning its name, the conception may 
 
 be recalled to his mind either by questioning 
 him or by showing him a picture of it. Without 
 doingthis, the word ship may be repeated to 
 him, and he may pronounce it any number of 
 
 times, without learning any thing, since it would 
 be presenting to his mind a sign without showing 
 what it signifies. In elementary instruction, this 
 
 It is important to consider upon what funda- 
 mental or primary notion the mind proceeds in 
 establishing the arbitrary association between 
 things and their names : that is between concep- 
 tions which intrinsically have no relation to 
 each other. A slight observation will ascertain 
 that the mind very early requires the notion of 
 names as representatives of things, and thus 
 comprehends the relation existing between a sign 
 and tin- thing signified; not that this notion is 
 made an object .,t actual consciousness or reflec- 
 
 inind.'and is practically employed by the child 
 in making known its wants or expressing its feel- 
 
 froin the lips of a young child on seeing a new 
 object, appears generally to have reference only 
 to this notion. The child perceives the need of 
 affixing a name to the object in order that it 
 may become a definite conception, as well as be 
 prepared for expression; and when a name is 
 given, howevei arbitrary or unintelligible, the 
 inquiry proceeds no further, the child appearing 
 entirelj satisfied It is only when the mind has 
 made more progress in development and has ac- 
 quired a knowledge of other relations, that this 
 question can possibly have any other import. 
 Very much of the early development of a child's 
 mind thus consists in acquiring a knowledge of 
 
 knowledge of words, increase pari passu, and 
 i the mind is prepared for operations of a more 
 advanced character ; since it is only by symboliz- 
 ing individual conceptions, that generalization 
 can take place, that is. that individuals can be 
 conceived with reference exclusively to certain 
 qualities which they possess in common, and 
 thus be arranged in classes. This office of lan- 
 guage has been explained in the following man- 
 ner by a very acute writer ill. I.. Mansel) : "1)1- 
 lu'itii-f i/riirriiliiii/iiiii consists in directing the 
 attention, voluntarily or involuntarily, to the 
 common features of several objects presented to 
 us, neglecting or not perceiving those qualities 
 which are peculiar to each. It is not a distinct 
 cognition of the class as a class, nor of the indi- 
 viduals as individuals; but a confused perception 
 of both together. To form a complete cognition 
 of the individual. I must, by the aid of imagina- 
 tion, supply those distinctive features which I 
 am unable clearly to perceive. To form a com- 
 plete cognition of the class, 1 must separate the 
 common attributes from their connection with a 
 definite time and place. But how are attributes, 
 apart from their juxtaposition in space, to be so 
 connected together, as to constitute a single ob- 
 
INTI'.ld.KcTI'AI. KIU'CATIOX 
 
 471 
 
 ject? The bead and trunk and limbs of an indi- symbols in language ; and, therefore, cannot be 
 vidual man are c ected together by continuity made distinct objects of conception or of con- 
 in space, and by thai continuity constitute a sciousness ; and. in the earliest stages of mental 
 whole of intuition, wlii'tlii'i- ilistiinily ri'i'i>u;iii/.ed development, this is no! required to enable the 
 
 in thai relati How are the attributes mind to carry on its rudimental proo ■ V'erj 
 
 of mankind in general to be separated from young children can learn to cla.-sit> ,■! |. . i- unii 
 
 [tconstitu - Mi c ecting link between va- which children applj the same n; • to objects 
 
 ri his attributes -the frame, .is ii were, in which having only a geni ral resemblani e to each othei 
 
 they are set and thus furnishes the means in form, color, or structure, is i thei prooi of 
 
 Km aeith r 
 possess, in so 
 
 them event, 
 passing with 
 incapable of 
 guage which 
 employm - r 1 1 
 formed byal 
 by whi I. alo 
 
 has I 
 langt 
 of rei 
 
 11 »l„ 
 did, ol 
 
 which il 
 
 mpoin' 
 
 [.- oi 
 
 iifferei 
 
 ice are 
 
 equally 
 
 ob- 
 
 id and mature 
 
 mind, 
 
 llic 
 
 Until, 
 
 the foi 
 
 mer bt 
 
 ■fore 
 
 ll II I 
 
 the 
 
 <mii niak.' n.M- ul Ins capacity ot seel 
 cataract is removed." 
 
 Next to the association of things with words 
 as their representative ■>. i- that toiinded upon a 
 perception oi resem ■,„■■ in the objects from 
 
 very unlike may, indeed, ha 
 resemblance which escape tin 
 and which, therefore, the tet 
 point out s:, as t>i assist in t 
 in this way, to cultivate the 
 
 takes place pric 
 directly lea Is. 
 obvious to a chi 
 ogy, and none 
 ment to its mil 
 pleasurable em< 
 case with the re 
 exist between o 
 ity and readini 
 dren discern i 
 founded upon 6 
 a natural aptito 
 
 ably, no relation so 
 esemblance oranal- 
 s'i much employ- 
 
 senses. Isaac 
 the power of 
 
 3 with which very young chil- 
 leinblances, whether they are 
 in, color, or structure, indicate 
 
 addressed to the sight, which of all the senses 
 gives rise to the most vivid conceptions. The 
 varieties of color (tints), form, etc., generally 
 have no designations in the child's mind — no 
 
 aid nf laiiLiiiaur. "iir (u -t abstractions arc in 
 fact, given to us already mad,': as we learn to 
 give the same name to various individuals pre- 
 sented t" n> under slight, and at first unnoticed 
 circumstances of distinction. The name is thus 
 applied to different objects long before we 
 learn to analyze the growing powers ol speech 
 and thought, to ask what we mean by each 
 several instance ,,| its application, and to cor- 
 rect and lix the significance of words al firs 
 
472 
 
 IXTELLE CT UAL ED U CATION 
 
 used vaguely and obscurely." The association 
 of the conceptions as dependent upon an obser- 
 vation of resemblance, has been called intuitive 
 generalization; since it does not consciously 
 follow any process of abstraction, because, from 
 the failure of the undeveloped mind to notice 
 distinctions and differences, no such process is 
 needed for the purpose. For example, a child 
 sees a book for the first time, and learns its 
 name, book; now, on seeing another hook, how- 
 ever different from the first in size, color, etc., he 
 invariably applies to it the term book, bj the 
 perception of analogy leading on to intuitive 
 generalization. Common names are, therefore, 
 first learned, and particular or proper names 
 only given to such objects as are constantly pre- 
 sented to the mind ; since, by being thus more 
 intimately known, their distinctive peculiarities 
 are more clearly discerned, this discernment 
 leading to an individualization, as the next step 
 in the growth or development of the mind. The 
 operation of the sense of analogy is seen in the 
 use of figurative, or more definitely, tropical 
 language ; and its rudimeiital character is illus- 
 trate] by the fact that children and savages are 
 particularly prone to the use of this language. 
 1 1 1 < I o I as li Fore remarke I. it is one of the most 
 
 intense mental pleasures of tl hiM to trace 
 
 analogies in objects of considerable diversity in 
 general appearance, and to apply such meta- 
 phorical terms as w ill foi tibhj i spress uhem. 
 This again adds very greatly to a child's power 
 
 of expression, since, without th ■ percept i if 
 
 these analogies in objects, every variation would 
 require some specific term, metaphorical names 
 ceasing to have any meaning whatever. This 
 characteristic of a chilli's mind gives to the in- 
 telligent teacher considerable resources for il 
 lustration, particularly in the use of words and 
 their application to the objects which they rep- 
 resent. Thus, the term ni[»' would lie much 
 better understood if its exact literal import were 
 explained, and the analogy exhibited between 
 the keadaaA a cape, or headland It is unfort- 
 unate that so few compound or derivative words 
 in English are formed from the simple words of 
 the language itself , and that recourse has been 
 had to so great an extent to the Latin and 
 Greek languages for a supply of such roots; 
 since, in consequence of this, most of the words 
 of the language are necessarily taught as arbi- 
 trary terms, which, otherwise, would be the 
 means of stimulating mental activity in the 
 learner. A striking contra-' In- \ 'TV often been 
 made, in this respect, between the English and 
 German languages, such terms as Regenschirm 
 (umbrella), Sonnenschirm parasol . Handschuh 
 (glove),^'«5 •< ! tl bl ,. ugen (absorb), 
 
 clearly the fact referred to. This peculiarity oi 
 a language, in drawing almost exclusive!} from 
 
 construction of complex epithets, is also very 
 
 prominent in the Creek language. and constitutes 
 one of its excellencies. Where it exists, it must 
 afford great facility in education, and must form 
 
 the basis for processes which are impracticable 
 where a language, such as the English, is to be 
 employed, which derives nearly all of itsabstract 
 and scientific terms from languages not merely 
 foreign but entirely out of use. The growth of 
 mind in its relation to language has been here 
 dwelt upon at some length because of its im- 
 portance as a source of practical knowledge to 
 every teacher who makes the study of mind the 
 basis of his operations. Arbitrary rules may be 
 laid down, and applied ; but the scientific teacher 
 who investigates the foundation of these rules in 
 the principles of intellectual science will best 
 know how to adopt his methods to the diversified 
 exigencies of his work. Association as an ele- 
 mentary function of mind, is dependent upon a 
 variety of circumstances other than those enu- 
 merated: as time, place, cause and effect, and 
 design. These are, however, of secondary im- 
 portance for the study of the educator. — The - 
 peculiar functions of tlie representative faculties. 
 memory and imaginalu n should receive a care- 
 ful study, since they underlie many of the most 
 important processes which he is called upon to 
 direct. (See Imagik moN.and Memory.) The elab- 
 orative faculties, comparison, abstraction, and 
 generalization, have already been referred to in 
 relation to the rudimeiital stage of their opera- 
 tion; in the higher grades of instruction, they find 
 constant exercise in the studies of mathematics 
 and natural science, which form a part of the cur- 
 riculum of every high school, college, and univer- 
 sity. Judgment and reason pass through a grada- 
 tion of development from the most elementary to 
 the highest stages of education. Mich isthe field 
 which a discussion of the principles of intellectual 
 
 educatii ulnae, - In the practical application 
 
 of these pi ini ipl s,the b ai her is to be guided not 
 only by a knowledge of the general functions of 
 
 liarities of individual endowment which he may 
 l.e able to discern. (See Charai i ek, Discernment 
 op.) lie is to permit the mind to expand by its 
 own intrinsic activities 
 ing or stimulating agi 
 timls a tendency to ab 
 'I here are. however, E 
 tioit in intellectual edt 
 
 pOSltl 
 
 ir morbid growth. 
 lethods of opera- 
 lartaking more of 
 is of which the 
 
 teacher is directly to impart knowledge — to 
 communicate information ; and, thus, is opened 
 up a consideration not only of the mind to be 
 cultivated, but of the branches of knowledge fo- 
 lic taught, in relation to the several faculties 
 which they tend to cultivate. (See Instruction.) 
 in this connection, and by the use of the same 
 guiding principles, the proper order of presenting 
 these studies mu.-t I »■ considered and ascertained, 
 this oriler beinc em related with the natural order 
 in which the intellectual faculties are developed. 
 (See Order of Studies.) The final result of 
 this department of education should be.toenable 
 the individual, in all the circumstances of life, to 
 exercise with efficiency and address the vari- 
 ous intellectual faculties with which he has been 
 endowed. (See Culture.) 
 
INTEREST. To awaken an interest on the stnietion. in order to induce tlie pupil to eoinliine 
 part of the pupils in the subjects of instruc- his ideas in such a way that he may be led to a 
 
 of which they treat. 
 
 tut the skillful teacher 
 
 knows how to stimulate 
 upon the mind of the p 
 acquiring knowledge, a 
 
 interest in the processes 
 
 iuriosity, and to impress 
 ipil the idea that he is 
 id thus to awaken an 
 of instruction. When 
 
 these processes are appropriate and natural, the 
 pupil's interest is easily sustained ; and it will be 
 generally found that a flagging interest is due 
 either to previous defective training or to the 
 
 axiom that the mil 
 knowledge of the rig 
 ally for proper food i 
 therefore, the office 
 termine the kindof 1 
 
 ■ss appetite tor 
 1 exists physic- 
 he body. It is, 
 .1 science to de- 
 
 ,the art of 
 pecial de- 
 
 these conditions exist, the questions asked will 
 Vie an effective means of making every subject 
 clear to the learners mind. (See Catechetical 
 Method.) 
 
 INTUITIVE METHOD. See Object 
 
 teacher giving whatever attention may he neces- 
 sary to the special inclinations, tastes, and capaci- 
 ties of his pupils. (See Attention.) 
 
 INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS are schools 
 of a grade between primary schools and grain mar 
 schools, or between ele nlarv schools and high 
 
 schools. Such schools generally istitute an 
 
 important part of the graded gel I system 
 
 Schools of a grade between elementary - I Is 
 
 (in German, fflementars hull .and colleges and 
 universities, are often called m, Idtt s kools Ger- 
 man, Mittelschule). 
 
 INTERROGATION, or the Interrogative 
 Method, is an indispensable meansof conducting 
 most processes of instruction, particularly those 
 of an elementary grade. Its office is either 
 (1) tentative, or (2) illustrative. As a tentative 
 
 quantity and the quality of the knowledge which 
 the pupil has attained. Thus, in hearing recita- I 
 tions, the teacher, by means of questions, ascer- 
 tains how much of the lesson previously assigned, 
 the pupil has learned, and with what accuracy 
 it has been learned; and on the kind of questions 
 asked, as well as on the manner of asking them, 
 depends the degree of skill and effectiveness of 
 this important part of the teacher's work. The 
 same is true, also, of the conducting of exami- 
 nations lie scl I inspectors or superintendents. 
 
 IOWA, originally a part of the vast Louisiana 
 
 uare miles: and its population, in L870, was 
 
 194,020; but, in 1873, it was reported as 
 
 Educational History.— In 1833, the date of 
 e first permanent settlement of Dubuque, a 
 hool house was built in that town, which, it is 
 limed, was the first built in the state. It was 
 
 elementary ( options upon which it is to be 
 
 based. Instruction on every subject needs such 
 preKminary questioning. — Interrogation is illus- 
 trative when it is used as a direct means of in- 
 
 othec of superintendent of public instruction was 
 created; Hid Dr. William Keynolds.a teacher at 
 Iowa ( Sty, was appointed to the place. The 
 
474 10 
 
 office was, however, abolished Fehr. 17., 1842; 
 but, by the first constitution of Iowa, the general 
 assembly was required to provide for the election 
 of a superintendent of public instruction, who 
 should hold office for three years. Since that 
 time, the office has been tilled successively by tin- 
 following slate superintendents: — James Har- 
 lan, from 1847 — 8 ; Thomas H. Benton, Jr., 
 
 fr 1848—54; James D. Eads, from 1854—7; 
 
 Joseph 0. Stone, for one month: Maturin L. 
 Fisher, from June L857 to Dec. 1858, when the 
 state board of education abolished the office, 
 assigning its duties to the secretary of the board. 
 Thomas II. Benton, Jr., was elected secretary, 
 and served till L863, when he resigned to enter 
 the ['. S. military service. I luring a portion of 
 that year, the duties of the office were performed 
 by II. A. Wiltse, who was succeeded, m 1863, 
 by < »ian FaviUe. The office of superintendent oi 
 public instruction was revived March 23., L864, 
 and (trail Faville was elected to the position, in 
 which he remained till March I.. 1H67. His suc- 
 cessors were l>. Franklin Wells, from March. 
 1867, till his decease, inNov.1868; Abraham 
 S. Eirsell, from Jan. 1869 to Oct. 1871 : and 
 Alonzo Ab, rnethv. from Oct 1-71 to the pres- 
 ent lime 1-7'. When b.wa was admitted into 
 the Dnion, it contained about luo school dis- 
 tricts. The number, however, rapidly increased, 
 amounting, in 1849, to'1,000, and in 1850, to 
 1200. In 1857, the state board of education as- 
 
 su 1 control of the e lucat al interests of th • 
 
 state. The number of school districts, at that 
 time, had inerea-ed to .'l."jr.."> : but, difficulties 
 having arisen in the practical working of the 
 system, an acl was passed in 1858, by which 
 
 the school districts were mad .-extensive with 
 
 the civil townships, and "cadi incorporated city 
 or town.inclu ling the territory annexed thereto 
 for school purposes, and which contains not less 
 than 1000 inhabitants," was created a separate 
 
 s.l 1 district. The number of districts was 
 
 thus reduced to less than 900. By this arrange- 
 ment, although it met with considerable opposi- 
 tions the system was rendered less complex, and 
 there was a saving of $31,000 in the expendi- 
 tures. In 1858, a law was enacted, providing 
 thai anj city or incorporated town, including 
 the territory annexed thereto for school purposes, 
 
 might i -titni.- a acl 1 district, by vote of a 
 
 majority ..t the electors residing therein. In 
 
 1860, this was extended t .incorporated towns 
 
 and villages of not less than 300 inhabitants ; 
 and. in 1866, to any city or sub-district contain 
 ing noi less than 200. Notwithstanding the 
 dissatisfaction caused by the sub-districl system, 
 which led to special legislation in 1867 and 
 L872, the system was not abandoned: and, ac- 
 cording to the report oi State Superintendent 
 Abcrncthv, for 1875, from April. 1872, to Sept. 
 15., 1873, L19 district townships, containing 90] 
 sub-districts, were reported a^ having completed 
 
 independent organizations. From Sept, ls7J,to 
 Sept . 1875, about 160 additional district town- 
 ships adopted the independent district system, 
 thus increasing the number of independent dis- 
 
 tricts by more than 1,000. The state board of 
 education, provided for by the constitution 
 adopted Sept., 1857, consisted of the governor, 
 lieutenant governor, and one member elected 
 from each judicial district in the state. The term 
 of office was four years, and the lieutenant gov- 
 ernor was the president of the board. To this 
 body were committed the entire interests of the 
 common school system. The first board was 
 elected Oct 12., 1858. In 1864, the General As- 
 sembly abolished the board, and reorganized the 
 school >y.stcin. c-iib.-. ijiient legislation also m odi- 
 
 School System. — The system, at present, is ad- 
 ministered by the following officers : (1) a 
 state superintendent, elected for two years; 
 
 J / suj tendents also elected tor two 
 
 years I toicnship boards of dire* ors, con- 
 sisting ot three on more sub-directors for each 
 township, who have the management of the 
 township school fund: and (4) a sub-director 
 for each sub-district, for the local management 
 of the school. By the school law of 1874, the 
 county superintendent is required to visit each 
 school' in the county at hast once in each term, 
 spending one halt day at each visit In order to 
 systematize and preserve the results of these 
 visitations, the slate superintendent furnishes 
 ceh countj superintendent with a blank con- 
 taining the subjects most important to be in- 
 quired into; and these blanks when rilled af- 
 ford information to be incorporated in the state 
 superintendent's annual report. These subjects 
 are, I tie condition of the school-houses, furni- 
 ture, and out-buildings ; i'-'i the discipline and 
 
 el. I — i Ileal I t the School, .1111 1 tile 1c of ooll- 
 
 ducting recitations; and (3) the form and mode 
 ..1 keeping the daily register. The county super- 
 
 those found qualified to teach orthography, read- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic geography, and English 
 
 grammar, iq satisfactory evidence of their 
 
 good moral character. The liiunberof applicants 
 thus examined in 1875, was 20,195; and the 
 number of certificates awarded was 16,452; of 
 which 4,797 were of tl». 1st grade; 7,!)59,of the 
 second ; ii.lt.'i.'i, of the Jul; and ,'ifiM. professional 
 cei tificates. 
 
 Tl». si-litml rrmnif is derived from several 
 sources: ill A teachers' fund : ( 1 1 ) A school- 
 house found ; (111) A contingent fund.— 1. The 
 teachers' fund is derived from. Ill the interest 
 on the permanent school fund of the state, ac- 
 cruing from the sale of school lands appropriated 
 by ' longress for this purpose; (2 a county school 
 tax of not less than one mill nor more than 
 three mills on the dollar, levied by the board 
 of supervisors on the taxable property of the 
 
 of the district, determined by the boards of 
 directors, as may be needed to support the 
 
 schools for six i iths or longer, if so determined. 
 
 II. The schooWiousefund is derived from a tax 
 for the pur] wise "f purchasing sites and erecting 
 school-houses. 111. The contingent fund is ob- 
 
tained by a tax, determined 1>\- tin' lioarcl of direc- 
 tors, sufficient to provide for rent, fuel, repairs, 
 
 tu those who may design to become teachers. 
 There is also a normal department in Whittier 
 
 Vor tl institutes constitute the chief instru- 
 
 mentalil j for 1 1 e pi il improveme E 
 
 teachers in this state, in 1874, the General As- 
 
 amount of 
 $3,098,497; 
 among the < 
 of children 
 
 Edm 
 
 d=T^ 
 
 common scl Is 
 
 were graded scht 
 ing school .lurin.. 
 
 items uf st'i/is/ir 
 
 Number of i.-liililreii enrolled, 
 Average daily attendance, 
 Number of teachers. 
 
 tate .■states, which 
 he proceeds of the 
 in each township, 
 eof. The aggregate 
 fund, in I-..', was 
 aeys are distributed 
 rtion to the number 
 -between 5 and 21 
 
 \ rding to the 
 
 533,571 
 
 3S4.012 
 
 22.->.41o 
 
 females. 
 
 6,500 
 11,645 
 
 Total. 18,145 
 
 Average monthly compensation, males, $36.68 
 
 females, f 2^.:;4 
 
 Receipts, {5,035,497.65 
 
 Expenditures, for tuition, $2,598,439.81 
 
 " other purposes, 2,007,309.58 
 
 Total, 84,605,749.3 i 
 
 Norma! Instruction. — The establishment of 
 schools for the instruction of teachers has not 
 met, as yet, with the success attained in most 
 other states. In 1848, a law was passed by 
 which three normal schools were to be estab- 
 lished in different parts of the state, which was 
 
 course of study with a daily ordei 
 was prepared by the state superii 
 was adopted at once. The gei 
 aroused l>\ thi se meetings is illust 
 following statement. In the year L! 
 
 limitary, the number \ 
 00. In L875, it was still 
 
 isite to defray the e) 
 
 .art of 
 iresent 
 
 laroer. 
 ises ..f 
 ted by 
 
 istration tee oi .1 
 
 (3) from the state appi 
 institute. The sum oh 
 
 lugmented by limited 
 
 ■ii Instruction. — In 1858, a law was 
 riding that the board of presidents of 
 
 10 
 
 rise a general 
 
 ■ sum oi $500 
 h school for the 
 
 ■ oi apparatus, 
 
 divided into three 
 
 each district, a board 
 
 pointed, with power 
 
 ings, employ teachei 
 
 supervision over the 
 
 was appropriated am 
 
 payment of teachers, 
 
 etc , provided the pa 
 
 subscribe an equal sum for the erection of tl 
 
 buildings. The expected pecuniary aid.howevi 
 
 not being furnished, the schools which had bet 
 
 commenced were, in a short time, discontinue 
 
 In 1858, a normal department was establish! 
 
 in the state university, and continued until L87 
 
 when it was consolidated, in the main, with tl 
 
 academic department, Since then, a chair 
 
 didactics has been maintained in the universii 
 
 for the purpose of affording special instructs 
 
 wh... together with the county superintendent, 
 
 should constitute a board of high-scl 1 trustees, 
 
 with power to lease or erect a building.and take 
 ■utile charge >.t it ; also to draw from the. 
 county treasury $3000 a year for six veins, and 
 £11)0(1 annually thereafter, for the maintenance 
 of such school. This provision, however, though 
 earnestly advocated by some, was not taken ad- 
 vantage of, the majority considering it prema- 
 ture in respect to both the wants of the state and 
 its financial ability. Only one school, that at 
 Albion, was established under this law. This 
 was continued about two years, when the funds 
 ex] ted from the state treasury not being Sup- 
 plied, it was discontinued, and the building was 
 sold. Two attempts have since been made to 
 re-enact this law in its essential features, but 
 without success. In 1874, the people of Guthrie 
 county decided to establish a high school, and 
 this, according to the present state superintend- 
 ent (1876), will soon be in operation. 
 
 In the Btate superintendent's report for 1875, 
 there are included returns from 1 I '2 private 
 academics, seminaries, high schools, business col- 
 leges, s. Icet schools, etc.. which show an enroll- 
 ment of Ill.ToT pupils, taught by 314 instructors. 
 In the preparatory schools of the various colleges 
 of the state, there are about 3,000 students, pur- 
 
470 
 
 IOWA 
 
 suing the usual branches assigned for secondary 
 institutions. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The Iowa State Uni- 
 versity (a., v.), at Iowa City, is the principal in- 
 stitution for superior instruction, endowed or 
 aided by the state. Other institutions of this 
 grade and character are included in the follow- 
 ing table : 
 
 
 
 u i„.„ 
 
 Kelsons 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 Id 
 
 denomina- 
 
 Burlington University... 
 
 Burlington 
 
 1852 
 
 Baptist 
 M. Epis. 
 
 
 Mt. Vernon 
 
 1857 
 
 
 Pella 
 
 1854 
 
 Baptist 
 M. Epis. 
 
 
 Mt. Pleasant 
 
 187:i 
 
 
 Humboldt 
 
 1869 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 
 ftriunell 
 
 ISIS 
 
 lollfjreg. 
 
 |..ua W, -1. >.m rillv.THitj Mt. Pleasant 
 
 IS.1 5 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 Norwegian Lutheran Coll. Decorah 
 
 1861 
 
 Lutheran 
 
 
 Oskaloosa 
 
 isr,i; 
 
 Christian 
 
 
 Oskaloosa 
 
 187:t 
 
 Friends 
 
 Simpson Centi nary Coll.. 
 
 Indianola 
 
 lsi',7 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 
 Tabor 
 
 lKCfi 
 
 •oiigreg. 
 
 rpp.r Iowa University. . . 
 
 Fayette 
 
 1855 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 ..University of lies Moines 
 
 1 '- - \l - 
 
 is,;.; 
 
 Baptist 
 
 Whittier College 
 
 Salem 
 
 West. Coll. 
 
 ISliS 
 
 
 Western College 
 
 1856 U. Bretli. 
 
 Technical mi'/ Professional Instruction. — 
 
 The State Agricultural College, at Ames, is en- 
 
 dowed with the proceeds of the congressional 
 
 land grant. Two experiments have 1 a made 
 
 in tliis institution, and arc considered success- 
 
 ful: tlie union of manual labor with intellectual 
 
 development, and the co-education of the sexes. 
 
 The course of instruction is for four years, 
 
 and rprises civil, i -lianif.il. and mining en- 
 
 gineering, agriculture, horticulture, stock raising. 
 
 architecture, military tactics.and general science 
 
 and literature. The institutions of tins class, 
 
 for theological instruction, are the Theological 
 
 hepartme.it of Iowa. Wesleyan University, the 
 
 • lerinaii Presbyterian Theological School of the 
 
 
 Institute. The law schools of the stat nsist 
 
 of the law departments, respectively, of the state 
 
 university, the Iowa Woslovan University, and 
 
 Simpson Centenary College. The chief medical 
 
 schools are the medical department of the state 
 
 university, and the College of Physicians and 
 
 Surgeons, at Keokuk. 
 
 Sprri.il lus/nii-liiiii. — The chief institutions 
 
 for special instruction 
 
 ire the low: 
 
 Instl 
 
 tutionfor 
 
 the I) 
 
 nil 
 
 ■lie 
 
 Council 
 e Blind, 
 
 at Vinton. Besides these, there are two state 
 reform schools, one at Kldora and the other at 
 Salem. At Davenport and at Cedar Falls, there 
 is a state soldiers' orphan home. 
 
 EducationalJournah. — The first publica- 
 tion in Iowa devoted to the u 
 
 >f sell, 
 
 .lamia 
 Schoo 
 
 entitled The Voice of Iowa was <■ nenced at 
 
 Cedar Ha] lids, and was made the organ of the 
 state teachers' association. It was, however, soon 
 
 IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY 
 
 suspended. The Literary Advertiser and Publii 
 School Advocate was published from May, 1859, 
 to October, 1860. In July of the latter year. 
 The Iowa School Journals monthly of 16 pages, 
 was started at Pes Moines,and has been continued 
 up to the present time ( 1876). An important in- 
 fluence is attributed to it in connection with the 
 schools and educational system of the state. The 
 Iowa Instructor was commenced in 1859 ; after- 
 wards united with the Journal, and, in 1872. 
 consolidated with The Manual, a monthly, com- 
 menced August 1., 1H71. In January, 1874, 
 The Common School was started at Davenport, 
 but in 1H75, it was united with the Iowa 
 School Journal. 
 
 IOWA COLLEGE, at firinnell, Iowa, was 
 established at Davenport, in 1847, and was re- 
 moved to Grinnell in 1860. It was founded by 
 Congregationalists and Presbyterians (who with- 
 drew in ls.VJj.liut is without any sectarian or ec- 
 clesiastical control. Its productive funds amount 
 to about $90,000. It has libraries containing 
 about 6,000 volumes, a museum of natural his- 
 tory, chemical, philosophical, and astronomical 
 apparatus, etc. The cost of tuition ranges from 
 $15 to $22 per year, with music, drawing, and 
 painting as extras. Aid is furnished to needy 
 students. The studies are arranged in the follow- 
 ing departments: (1) Normal and English de- 
 partment, furnishing all "English studies," or 
 preparation for teaching; (2) Academy course, of 
 two years, preparatory to the < lollege and Ladies' 
 courses ; l.'ii Ladies' course, of four years, chiefly 
 consisting of college studies, like that of the best 
 Eastern seminaries; ill College course, of four, 
 
 l-utiti'e.eacli iiieludino modern laueu.-i.-c-, and the 
 latter, some post-graduate studies. In 1875-6, 
 there were 17 instructors and 4 lecturers (in all 
 the departments), and ,T!7 students: post-gradu- 
 ate -I: colleg 3urse,45 ; ladies' course, 40 : acad- 
 emy curse. 68; normal and English depart- 
 ment. 174. Seventeen states and forty counties of 
 Iowa were represented by its students in 1H75, 
 and there is an increasing attendance from the 
 eastern and middle states'. The Rev. George F. 
 Magoiui, l».I>., the present incumbent, appointed 
 in 1862, has been the only president. 
 
 IOWA, State University of, at Iowa City, 
 was chartered in l*:,7.and organized in 1860. It 
 is non-sectarian. It has productive funds to the 
 amount of S2'J0,IMIII ; and the value of its build- 
 ings, grounds, and apparatus is $250,000. Bi- 
 ennial appropriations are made by the legislature. 
 It has an astronomical observatory, laboratory, 
 and cabinets. The colleee library contains lie- 
 
 namely, classical, leading to the degree of Bach- 
 elor ot Arts: philosophical and scientific, leading 
 to the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy; and civil 
 engineering, leading to the degr< f Civil En- 
 gineer. Both sexes are admitted, and tuition is 
 free. The law department was established, as the 
 Iowa Law School, at Pes Moines, in 1865, and 
 
IOWA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 was united with the university iu 1868. The 
 medical department was established in 1868. In 
 1874—5, the academic department had 21 in- 
 structors and 423 students; the law department 
 had 4 instructors and 106 students; and the med- 
 ical department, 13 instructors and 94 students. 
 The Rev. George Thatcher, D.D., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 IOWA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, 
 at Mt, Pleasant, Iowa, was chartered in 1855, 
 growing out of the Mt. Pleasant Collegiate In- 
 stitute, established some years before. It is open 
 to both sexes, and is under the control of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church. It has an endow- 
 ment of $03,000. The libraries contain about 
 3,000 volumes. The university comprises 5 de- 
 partments: namely, of liberal arts, with classical 
 and scientific courses, of four years each, and a 
 preparatory course of two years ; of theology; of 
 law ; of pharmacy and anatomy ; and of tech- 
 nology. In 1874 — 5, there were 15 regular in- 
 structors and 'JIT students in all the depart- 
 ments. A normal department has lately been 
 organized. German College (q. v.), though dis- 
 tinct from the university in government, is in- 
 timately connected with it in instruction. The 
 presidents of the university have been as follows: 
 Rev. L. W. Berry, D.D. ; Henry Jas. Harlan; 
 Rev. Charles Elliott, D. D. ; Rev. G. B. Jocelyn; 
 Rev. Charles Holmes, D. D.; Rev. John Wheeler; 
 Rev. Jno. Spaulding, Ph. D., the present incum- 
 bent (1876). 
 
 IRELAND, an island which forms an im- 
 portant part of the United Kingdom of Great 
 Britain and Ireland, having an "area of 32.531 
 sq. in., and a population, in 1871, of 5,402,759. 
 
 Educational History. — Annals that have con- 
 siderable claim to authenticity ascribe to the 
 people of Ireland a remarkable progress in educa- 
 tion at a very early period. Thus, it is said, that 
 Ollav Kola, who reigned about 900 B. i '.. founded 
 mTara Bchoolsof philosophy, astronomy, history, 
 poetry, and medicine, and that these institutions 
 wen' encouraged by his successors, during many 
 centuries. In the 5th century, A.K.. after its con- 
 version to Christianity, Ireland was greatly cel- 
 ebrated not only for its religious zeal (hence called 
 ins nli t sii/ictiirttm. isle of saints) but for its in- 
 
 IRELAND 
 
 477 
 
 Aftc 
 
 of Ireland 
 the part 
 
 stitutions of lear 
 
 the Saxons and Danes, the victorious 
 Boru. among other efforts to imprd 
 dition of his people, founded schoc 
 moted education. After the eonques 
 by the English, the first recognition 
 of parliament of the expediency of providing the 
 means of education for the Irish people. »i. the 
 act of 28 Henry VIII., to establish parochial 
 schools. In 1570, an act was passed instituting 
 a free school in every diocese. In 1.608, James I. 
 commenced the establishment of Royal Free 
 Schools. Various statutes were passed on this 
 subject in the reigns of Charles II., William III., 
 and the first three Georges ; but the main ob- 
 ject seems to have been to proselytize the people 
 to the Protestant faith. The Charter ,~elio,iN. 
 partly supported by parliamentary grants, had 
 
 the same object. The bad effects of a policy so 
 obnoxious to the Catholics, induced the parlia- 
 mentary commission, in is 12. to slate, m their 
 report, that no scheme of education should be 
 undertaken in Ireland which attempted " to in- 
 fluence or disturb the peculiar religious tenets of 
 
 fore 
 
 Lord Lieutenant, written in 1831, tot ins the 
 charter of the Irish National System. The new 
 system was based on the plan of "a combined 
 literary and separate religious education. "and was 
 committed to a board oi 7 members of different 
 religious opinions. Public aid was granted on 
 condition that the repairs of the school, the 
 salary of the master, and half the cost of school 
 requisites should be locally provided. The 
 extent to which the economical condition of 
 Ireland interfered with the financial proposals 
 of the board, may be estimated from the fact 
 that, even in 1874, while the board paid in 
 aid of schools nearly £433,000, the local aid 
 amounted to less than £80,000. The promise 
 of a national and non-sectarian system was not 
 fulfilled in the action of the board, as it per- 
 mitted religious instruction to be intermingled 
 with the secular, and issued text books of a dis- 
 tinctively religious character. The policy, as 
 first announced, was accepted by the Catholics, 
 but strenuously opposed by the clergy and lain 
 of the Established Church, and by the Presby : 
 terians of Ulster. At the close of 1833, the 
 number of National Schools in operation was 
 789, having 107.012 pupils enrolled : at the close 
 of 1839, the former had increased to 1,581, and 
 the latter, to 192,971. In the lattet year, ex- 
 planations were made by the board which satis- 
 fied the Presbyterians, who had made various 
 objections to the system, in repaid to the ar- 
 rangements for religious instruction, and to the 
 exclusion of the Bible during school hours. The 
 board declared these points of objection to be 
 conceded, but without any change of its rules. 
 This new rendering of the rules was followed 
 by an extension of the system. In 1841. there 
 were 2,237 schools, and 2sl .s I'.i pupils. Shortly 
 after this, the Catholic hierarchy manifested 
 a strong desire to acquire the control of such 
 of the National Sihools a.- contained any clnl 
 
 dren of their own persuasion ; and the S\ 1 of 
 
 Thurles, which met in 1850, while giving no 
 definite judgment on the National System, de- 
 clared that "the separate education of the I lath 
 olic youth is. by all means, to be preferred to it." 
 The more aggressive spirit manifested by the 
 Catholics against the National System during 
 the past twenty-five years, has led the board, 
 from time to time, to adopt conciliatory meas- 
 ures; such as the repeated changes in the con- 
 science clause, with the view of preventing the' 
 alleged proselytizing tendencies of Protestant 
 
478 IRE] 
 
 schools ; the special regulations in favor of con- 
 vent schools; the increased proportion accorded 
 to Catholic representation in the board, which 
 lias been increased from two to seven, in 1831, 
 to five in fourteen, in 185] .and to ten in twenty, 
 in 18(51 ; and the endowment of schools, under 
 Catholic management, in the neighborhood of, 
 and as rivals to, the Model Schools, which are 
 the special objects of denominational hostility. 
 These proceedings were strongly opposed espe- 
 cially bythe Pi sbyl rians, who are the wannest 
 auppo i : i hi Nal ional System ; and il must 
 
 object. No Unman < 'atliulic dignitary lias sat 
 in the board since 1863, and the most recent ex- 
 pression of Catholic, feeling on the subject has 
 been the formation, in Dublin, of a (atliulic 
 Union of clergy and gentry to promote the 
 establishment of denominationali-ni in the entire 
 education of Ireland. The popular feeling, how- 
 ever, seems, as a rule, to be in favor of unite. 1 
 education. 
 
 National System. — Aid is granted to two 
 classes of schools: those vested in the commis- 
 sioners, or in trustees : and n m-Vi ite I. b ling th - 
 Eroperty of private individuals. All National 
 chools receive pecuniary aid iii salaries to 
 teach irs.r suits' fi s, and books, and the benefito 
 
 jen ,n and training. Vested Schools alone 
 
 h ive buil ling grants. National Schools com- 
 prise \fo 'el S h <oh District and Minor), which 
 are wholly built and supported by parliament, 
 are under the exclusive management of the 
 board, and are intended to promote united edu- 
 cation, to exhibit the most improved methods of 
 instruction, and to educate young persons for 
 the office of teacher ; . \.gn ■ ' ■ i Schools, with 
 farms and gar-lens, which are devoted to the 
 illustration and introduction of the most ap- 
 proved systems of husbandry and tillage, and 
 which are divided into four classes: (1) First 
 Class Agricultural Schools, subdivided into (1) 
 those under th i management of the board, an I 
 (2) those under local management; illi Or- 
 dinary Schools, subdivided into . :!i tlios,. with 
 farms, and (4) those with gardens; Convent 
 Schools, which receive aid as Non -Vested 
 SI I ;. and in which the members of the com- 
 munity may ;ct ; . literary teachers ; Work-house 
 
 Schools, and Soho < > attached to prisons, asylums, 
 etc. School-houses are not to be employed as 
 the stated plac iS of divine worship of any relig- 
 ious community, nor for the transaction of any 
 political business; and no emblems of denom- 
 inational character are to be exhibited in them 
 during the hours of united instruction. Iii Vested 
 Schools, such pastors or other persons as shall be 
 approved of by the guardians of the children, 
 shall have access to them in the school room for 
 the purpose of giving them instruction there; 
 in Non- Vested Schools, it is for the patrons and 
 managers to determine what religious instruc- 
 tion hill be given in the school room. The 
 patrons and managers of .'ill National Schools 
 have the right to permit the Holy Scriptures 
 (either in the authorized or in the Douay version) 
 
 to be read at the times set apart for religious in- 
 struction. — The local government of the schools 
 is vested in local patrons or managers, who can 
 appoint and dismiss teachers, under certain re- 
 strictions. Inspectors visit their schools at least- 
 three times a year, communicate to the local 
 managers their criticisms and suggestions, and 
 report fully the results of their inspection to the 
 Board. All* National-School teachers arc divided 
 into the following classes: principals, assistants. 
 junior literary assistants, work-mistresses, and 
 teachers of industrial departments. 'I here are 
 also three classes of Monitors, whose term of 
 service is three years, and whose rate of compen- 
 sation ranges from £4 to £18 per annum. — The 
 only training establishment for teachers in con- 
 nection with the Hoard is the Institution, in 
 
 ih St 
 
 1838. It 
 
 which was opened 
 ile of accommodat- 
 ing about 100 masters and 75 mistresses, who 
 are divided into three classes: (l)the General or 
 ( Irdinary < !lass, composed of teachers of National 
 Schools, who have been recommended bythe in- 
 spectors; (2) the Special or Extra Training Class, 
 composed chiefly of teachers who have been 
 selected from the General Class for additional 
 training; and (3) the Extra Class, composed of a 
 limited number of respectable and well-informed 
 young persons who wish to qualify themselves to 
 act as teachers. Teachers summoned for train- 
 ing are allowed their traveling expenses, are 
 provided with free board and lodging, receive a 
 Small weekly gratuity, and also their class salary 
 subject to a deduction of £15 per annum for a 
 substitute. Teachers arc classified as of the 1st. 
 2d, or 3d class, and promotion from one to the 
 other is regulated partly by examination, and 
 
 partly by the efficiency of their scl Is. Male 
 
 teachers of the 1st class receive 658 a year ; of 
 
 I the 3d class, £32. Female teachers of the 1st 
 class receive £48 ; of the 3d class, £25. The 
 National School Teachers Act (1875) was de- 
 signed to supplement the incomes of the teach- 
 , rs by granting state aid corresponding to local 
 contributions. The latter, however, only amount- 
 ed to £32,055 instead of £60,000, as was con- 
 
 I templated. National teachers receive. in addition 
 to their class salaries, the total amount of results' 
 fees earned in the schools, which are paid accord- 
 ing to a fixed programme. Thus for children 
 (4 to 6 years of age) who know the alphabet, 
 and can spell and read words of two letters, the 
 fee is .'is. each; for reading in the First Class, 2s., 
 etc The whole number of classes is six, besides 
 the infants' class, numbered from 1 upward to 6, 
 the 5th and 6th being each divided into a first and 
 a second stage. The common branches of instruc- 
 tion, including grammar, geography, and needle- 
 
 | work, are taught. 
 
 Educational Condition [National System).— 
 On the. 'fist of December, 1875, there were 7,267 
 National Schools in operation (Ulster, 2,737; 
 Minister. 1,822; Leinster, 1,551; Connaught, 
 1,157). The Vested Schools numbered 2,105 ; 
 the Non-Vested, 5,162. The number of chil- 
 dren who attended some part of the year 1875. 
 
1.011.790 : the number on the rolls, on the i 
 day of the month immediately preceding 
 
 K,;;,inl,ir>i uml Sn/„ ,-i'nr Lintr>ir/inn . — Of the 
 higher institutions of katniii-i. the wealthiest is 
 Trinity College, in Dublin, founded in L591. In 
 its original charter, Queen Elizabeth Dominated 
 
 were Roman Catholic children. The Model 
 Sohools, in operation (luring- L875, were 29: 
 in Dublin. 3; and, in other parts of the coun- 
 try. 26. The average attendance of pupils was 
 
 !he 
 
 der the board was 156, with 13,835 pupils en- 
 rolled, and an average daily attendance of 7,1 13. 
 The total number of students admitted into the 
 Training Establishment was 294, of whom 150 
 completed their training within the year. — The 
 number of teachers under the board was as fol- 
 lows : principals, 7.0i!7 'males. -1.371; females, 
 2,69G) ; assistants, 3,037 (males, 713; females, 
 2,324) ; junior literary and industrial assistants. 
 177 : work-mistresses, 325. The total amount of 
 payments to teachers of every kind made from all 
 sources during the year ending March 31., 1876, 
 was £491,991.4s. The entire sum locally contrib- 
 uted for education, in 1875, was £84,860, 4s. 9d. 
 In 1875, there were 21 First- Class Agricultural 
 Schools, under the exclusive management of the 
 board, and 11 under local management. The num- 
 ber of school farms was 228. — In 1874 — 5, the 
 evening schools numbered 138. with 10,343 pu- 
 pils on the rolls, and 1.250 in average attendance. 
 There were 22 industrial schools, with 1.565 pu- 
 pils enrolled, and 1,397 in average attendance. 
 
 Other Educational Agencies. — The Church 
 Education Society, founded in Dublin, in 1^3'.). 
 as a protest against the National School Hoard, 
 for a time gathered in a large number of pupils. 
 In isil7.it had 1,451 schools, with 63,549 pupils. 
 Since then, these numbers have declined; many 
 of its schools have been transferred to Diocesan 
 Educational Hoards. The Kildare-Place training 
 and mode) schools are usually attended by about 
 50 students, males and females. — The Institute 
 of Christian Brothers ill. C.) founded in Water- 
 ford, in L802,for the education of ] r children, 
 
 in L876, had 291 schools, and 31,878 pupils en- 
 rolled. The Incorporated Society in Dublin for 
 promoting English Protestant schools in Ireland 
 holds a large amount of landed and other prop- 
 erty, having an income of £8,000 a year. It has 
 8 boarding institutions, 6 for boys and 2 for 
 girls, besides 10 day schools. — The other classes 
 
 of scl Is named in the Commissioners' Report 
 
 of 1868 are: Irish t'hur.h Mission, attended by 
 1.726 pupils; Island and Coast Society, by L59; 
 Wesleyan, by 720; Presbyterian. by 409: Society 
 of Friends, by 1 I 7 ; Religious Orders of Mens 
 Schools, by 706; Miscellaneous, by 954. The 
 total number of private schools was 1,165, of 
 which 690 were assisted by endowments. — The 
 Sunday School Society for Ireland was founded 
 in 1809. On the 1st of January, 1 876, there were, 
 in connection with it, 2,342 schools, attended by 
 184,589 scholars, and 16,560 gratuitous teachers. 
 
 rate. The number of members has since then 
 been increased; and. in L876, consisted of a 
 provost, 7 senior fellows. 26 junior fellows, and 
 7o scholars. The system of instruction is super- 
 intended b\ the I. Hows, together with a number 
 of professors 35, in L876). Students, alter an 
 examination ,,, Ureek, Latin, arithmetic, English 
 composition, history, and geography, are ad- 
 mitted as fellow commoners, pensioners, or sizars, 
 which last class is limited to 30, and is partially 
 maintained out of the college funds. The course 
 of instruction extends over four \ears. A med- 
 ical school is attached to the university, to which 
 has lately been added a school of engineering. 
 The college has a library of 160.000 volumes; 
 and its income, in 1873, was £61,324. The 
 average number of students on the books 
 of Trinity College is 1,100.— In I845,an act was 
 passed by Parliament for establishing now col 
 leges in Ireland, and three colleges, called Queen's 
 Colleges, were at once established under this 
 act, — at Belfast, Cork, and Galway. The gov- 
 ernment of each of these institutions is vested 
 in a council, consisting of the presidi nt and si 
 
 professors, elected from ai lgsl thi mselves. The 
 
 number of students attending the colleges, in 
 1874—5, was 783.— The Roman Catholic uni- 
 versity of Dublin was organized by the Catholic 
 bishops of Ireland, in L854, and depends for its 
 maintenance wholly upon the voluntary con- 
 tributions of the Roman Catholic people of 
 Ireland. It has five faculties. theology, lavs 
 medicine, philosophy and science, and letters. A 
 number of Catholic colleges ha\e been affiliated 
 with the university. — A Presbyterian institu- 
 tion.. Magee Collogivwas opened iu Londonderry, 
 in 1865; a Methodist College, in Belfast, in 
 1868. 
 
 Special and Professional Instruction. The 
 Royal College of Science for Ireland was estab- 
 lished in 1867, and is intended to supply a com- 
 plete courseof instruction in mining. agriculture. 
 i 1 1 -_ i r i . ering, and manufactures. — Maynooth Ool- 
 
 I i Catholic eminary for candidates for the 
 
 priesthood, was founded in L795. All Hallows 
 College, near Dublin, is intended to train mis- 
 sionaries for the Catholic Church. The Pres- 
 byterians have a theological school (the General 
 Assembly's < 'ollegei at Belfast. —The higher edu- 
 cation of women, in Ireland, has been neglected ; 
 but recently, amongst others, the following insti- 
 tution- ha\ohc, ii established: The Queen's In- 
 stitute, Dublin, opened, in 1861 . "for theemploy- 
 ment of educated women." the educational 
 classes being modeled on those of Cheltenham 
 College; Alexandra College. Dublin, on the plan 
 of Queen's College. London; and the Ladies' Col- 
 legiate School. Belfast, opened in 1859. Trinity 
 College, Dublin, and Queen's University hold 
 examinations for girls and < 
 
ITALIAN lax<;ua<;k 
 
 ITALIAN LANGUAGE. The Italian 
 language has no claims commensurate with those 
 of the German or the French, to a place in any 
 regular course of instruction th.- object of whichis 
 general culture, and which, to that end. embraces 
 the study of one or two modern languages. Its 
 value for tills purpose has not. however, been 
 without advocates. Thus L. Gantter, the author 
 of the article on the Italian language, in Schmid's 
 Encyclopadie (vol. rn.), in discussing the relative 
 importance of the principal modern languages 
 forthr Herman gymnasia, from an educational 
 point of view, assigns the first plan' to English, 
 the second to Italian, and the third to French ; 
 and he appeals to Goethe, Niebuhr, Etaumer, 
 Gregorovius, and many other celebrities to prove 
 that tin 1 educational impulse which may reason- 
 ably be expected from a study of the Italian 
 language and literature, would prove stronger 
 and more cond i iv ■ to a general development of 
 the mental faculties than that received from 
 the study of French. This view, however, has 
 found but few adherents ; and. except in Aus- 
 tria, where, from practical and business consider- 
 ations, the study of Italian is more extensively 
 pursued than in any other country, precedence 
 in the study of modern languages is given to 
 English. German, and French. Italian has, how- 
 ever, special importance for all studentsof music. 
 vocal and instrumental, as well as for students 
 of the tine arts. Music, in every country of the 
 world, uses to a large extent technical expres- 
 sions borrowed from the Italian : the Italianopcra 
 is exceedingly popular in every large city of the 
 world, and there is no student of the tine artswho 
 is not anxious to complete his study of Italian 
 art in Italy. These considerations have nof 
 only created a demand for instruction in Italian, 
 but they are sufficiently important to recom- 
 mend to students of music and of the fine arts 
 a much more general study of this beautiful 
 language than is to be met with at present ; and 
 it is to be regretted that universities, colleges, 
 academies, and especially female institutions of 
 a higher grade, do not. more frequently than is 
 the cas ■ at present, afford to their pupils an op- 
 portunity to learn this language. 
 
 The Italian language is one of the so-called 
 Romanic languages (q. v.), and arose from the 
 Latin in a .ay similar to that of the French. 
 The new language was designated, to distinguish 
 it from the Latin, Lingua vulgaris (volgare), and 
 greatly varied in different parts of the country. 
 Haute, in his work !),• rn/ : /nri r/,„/ui>i. enumer- 
 ated fourteen dialects, all of which, the Floren- 
 tine not excepted, he declared to be unsuited for 
 the literature of Italy. The written language 
 was in the main fixed, as it now is, by Dante, 
 I'ctrarch, and Boccaccio.— all Tuscans and Flor- 
 entines; and Italian literature attained its golden 
 age at an earlier period than any other literature 
 of modern F.urope. The Italian language is 
 spoken by almost the entire population of the 
 kingdom of Italy, in the two little states f Mo- 
 naco and San Marino, on the island of Corsica, 
 in the Swiss canton of Ticino. and several com- 
 
 munes of the cantons Grisons and Valais, in the 
 southern part of the Tyrol, in Tricst and other 
 cities of Istria and Dalmatia, and in the Hun- 
 garian free city of Fiume. The entire territory 
 in which the language is spoken contains, prob- 
 ably, a population of about _'s millions. 
 
 The Italian language is celebrated for its eu- 
 phony, though many linguists prefer the Span- 
 ish m this respect. Its smooth and melodious 
 character is due, to a large extent, to an extra- 
 ordinary predominance of vowels, every indigen- 
 ous word of the language, with the exception of 
 only five i //. in. con, i/< 'ii. /"'/'Lending in a Vowel 
 sound. This euphony is somewhat marred by 
 the exuberance of the vowel /. which, in the ter- 
 mination of Italian words has outgrown all just 
 proportions — as much so as the German e. The 
 pronunciation is wry simple, as almost every 
 sound is represented byonlyone letter or combi- 
 nation of letters. It has no silent letters. and each 
 of the vowels has only one sound, long or short ; 
 these sounds, in the main, correspond with those 
 of the German vowels. The letters /'. ir. if. mill. r 
 
 are not found iii the Italian alphabet ; and for 
 the ph and th, occurring in the words of Latin 
 ami (deck origin, n has substituted/ and t. Like 
 the Flench, it has lost the ease-endings in the 
 declension of nouns, and has introduced from the 
 language of the Teutonic conquerors the definite 
 article, the use of the personal pronoun before 
 the verb, and the auxiliary verb. It exceeds the 
 French in the richness of its augmentatives and 
 diminutives, in the greater variety of the accents 
 which may affect one of the last four syllables 
 of the word, in its greater freedom of inversion, 
 and in its freer and bolder phraseology. In a 
 lexical point of view, the Italian bears a more 
 striking resemblance, than either French. Span- 
 ish, or Portuguese, to the common mother of 
 
 The special motives which, iii a majority of 
 cases, lead to a study of this language, naturally 
 suggest a method of instruction different from 
 that pursued in the teaching of French and Ger- 
 man. The beauty of the language, which is re- 
 flected in its structure and pronunciation, and 
 which is so intimately connected with the lofty 
 position which Italian art has attained in the 
 history of civilization, should be pointed out 
 with special care. Exercises in grammar and 
 translation will require comparatively little at- 
 tention ; for not only is the structure of the 
 language unusually .simple and easy, but its 
 study is hardly ever begun until, in addition 
 to the vernacular, the knowledge of some other 
 language has been acquired. All the greater 
 prominence, on the other hand, should be given 
 to the practice of conversation; for only in this 
 way will the pupil fully realize the superiority 
 of the language in point of beauty and eu- 
 phony, and prepare himself for a visit to the 
 country which, more than any other, captivates 
 the affecti ns of every artist'. The literature 
 of Italy scarcely admits of a comparison with 
 that of Germany or France: but the golden 
 age of Italian literature presents names which 
 
ITALIAN LANGUAGE 
 
 -will never fail to recommend the study of the 
 Italian language to advanced scholars Dante 
 ranks with Homer, Virgil, Milton, and Goethe, 
 as one of the greatest poets of the world, 
 whom all civilized nations will always ad 
 mire; and Italian would be studied, if it were 
 only to read the Divina Corn-media. And 
 Dante is by no means the only ureal represent- 
 ative of Italian literature. In the middle ages. 
 Italy stood for a time at the head of modern 
 civilization (see Italy) : and, though it has been 
 unable to maintain this place, the literary world 
 will never cease to admire Petrarch, Boccaccio 
 Ariosto, Tasso, and Macchiavelli. As the ability 
 to read this language is acquired by most 
 students in a comparatively short time, and as 
 the interest they take in Italian literature will 
 chiefly center in the great names just men- 
 tioned, the intelligent teacher will, as soon as it 
 is practicable, begin with the reading of one of 
 these authors. As the poets use a great many 
 licenses in the alteration, addition, and omission 
 of sounds, and also a multitude of exclusively 
 poetic words, it is best for the student to be- 
 gin with a prose writer: and Macchiavelli's II 
 Principe or Istorie Florentine, in which the 
 style is as elegant as it is plain, will rarely fail 
 to interest and satisfy him. In the more recent 
 periods of Italian literature, the writers Goldoni, 
 Gozzi, Alfieri, Foscolo, Manzoni. Lcoparili, Sil- 
 vio Pellico. Xicolini have gained a well-deserved 
 celebrity: and espe ially tfanzoni's I Promessi 
 Sposi, and IVllics /,■,„, ■ Prigioni have become 
 favorite books of Etalian .-indents. 
 
 The Italians are greatly behind many other 
 nations in the philological study of their lan- 
 guage. Buonimattei s grammar lhll,i iui,jn,i 
 toscana (1648), which was adopted by thcAcca- 
 demia cklla Crusca, only treats of letters, nouns, 
 and articles. The first complete and systematic 
 grammar, which has served as the basis of nearly 
 all modern works, is the Regole • I osst rvazioni, 
 by Corticelli (1785). En Germany, a g I his- 
 torical grammar of the Italian language has been 
 written by Blanc (1844); and, in Italy, Pesavento 
 has recently published a valuable comparative 
 view of Latin and Italian, under the title Metodo 
 Gomparattvo. In the English language, gram- 
 mars of. and guides to, the Italian language have 
 been published according to Alius, Monteith's, 
 and Ollendorff's methods, and by Biaggi, Cuore, 
 Fontana, Foresti, Saner, Thimm. Toscani, Ver- 
 gani, Weale, and others. — The lexical literature 
 began with the meager dictionary of Minerbi 
 (1 53A). The first edition of the famous Vbca- 
 bolario degli Accademici detta Crusca, limited 
 to the Tuscan dialect, appeared in 1602; the 
 fifth revised edition was begun in 1843. The 
 first dictionary embracing within its scope all 
 the Italian dialects was by Albert! (6 vols., 
 179" — 1805). Other dictionaries of this kind 
 are the Jjizionario della lingua ttaliana, 
 published at Bologna (7 vols., 1819—26); the 
 works by Mortara, Bellini, Codagni, and Mai- 
 nardi (8 vols., 1845 — 56) ; those bv Tommaseo 
 and Bellini (1864) ; Carena (12 vols., 1851—3) ; 
 
 and Trinchera (2 vols., 1864). Italian-English 
 dictionaries have been published by Graglia, 
 
 of Italian literature are Tirabo.M hi ill mis., 
 L772 83, and many editions since); Guinguene 
 (1811—19); Maffei (1834) ; Cimoprelli (1845); 
 
 Kniiliano Giudici (Is.M): Malpaga ils.Vn. 
 
 ITALY, a kingdom ot Lurope, having an 
 area of I I l.-HH) ,-cpiaiv miles, and a population, 
 in 1870, of 26,801,154. Almost the entire pop- 
 ulation speak the Italian language, and belong 
 to the Catholic Church. From the downfall of 
 the Roman Empire, until 1870, when theannexa- 
 
 short 
 
 broken up into a number of small states, only 
 connected with each other by the bond of a com- 
 mon language. In the congress of Vienna, in 
 1815, Italy was divided into the kingdoms of 
 Sardinia and the Two Sicilies, the grand-duchy 
 of Tuscany, the duchies of Parma, Modena, and 
 Lucca, the Papal States, and the Lombardo- 
 Yenotian kingdom, the latter remaining with 
 Austria. In 1859, all these states with the ex- 
 ception of apart of the Papal States and Venetia, 
 
 •apal States in 1870. 
 
 lie tenth place among 
 cgard to population, 
 
 Educational History.— After the destruction 
 of the Roman Empire by Odoacer, in 47H. edu- 
 cation in Italy was for a long time at a low ebb. 
 The Ostrogoths, who, in 493, overthrew the rule 
 of Odoacer. were the most intelligent among the 
 
 telv. 
 
 ductive power in the field of education. Their 
 king, Theodoric the Great, who is said to have 
 spoken four languages, placed at the head of his 
 government one of the greatest scholars of the 
 age, Cassiodorus, wdio founded a theological 
 school, which was to conned the remnants of the 
 civilization of the Romans and Greeks with 
 Christian theology, and which served as a model 
 for the theological schools of the middle ages. 
 1 laving, at the age of 70, retired to the monastery 
 which he had founded, he not only taught the 
 monks to devote themselves to the copying of an- 
 cient manuscripts, but. by arranging the branches 
 of a liberal education into the trivium and 
 //in idr iriii in, he drew up a programme of instruc- 
 tion, which was adopted throughout the middle 
 ages, and long after. Another statesman in the 
 service of Theodoric. Boethius, was a still greater 
 scholar than Cassiodorus : and, by his translations 
 of several of the works of Aristotle, as well as 
 by his own works Be rrmsica and I '■■ a nsola- 
 tione philosophies, exerted a far-reaching in- 
 
482 IT. 
 
 fluence upon the entire civilization of the middle 
 ages, and became, jointly with Cassiodorus, the 
 founder of the educational system of the scho- 
 lastics (q. v.). The reign of the < Istrogothic kings 
 is also noted for the foundation of the Benedic- 
 tines (q. v.). whose schools, for centuries, were 
 among the few places of refuge for the friends 
 ..I education and civilization. Under the re- 
 established rule of the ' J reek emperor, as well 
 as under that of the Lombards, little was done 
 for education. Pope Gregory [.was a patron of 
 schools; but. for several centuries after his death. 
 Italy had no one who. as a scholar and teacher, 
 
 elevation of Gerbert, the greatest scholar of th 
 age. to the papal throne, under the name o 
 Sylvester II., awakened new interesl in sciei 
 tine studies: and the great increase of powe 
 which the papacy attained through the energ 
 of Gregory VII. and his successors, excite 
 anion- the young Italian clergy an emulation fo 
 distinction which led to considerable progress i 
 literature and education. In the l'-'th centurj 
 Italy became the birthplace of the modern mi; 
 versifies. These institutions arose a> free assi 
 ciations of scholars who did not belong to th 
 clergy, and were only bound together by their 
 common devotion to science. The growth of the 
 universities was rapid ; so that, after an existence 
 of half a century, the law faculty of Bologna 
 was attended by over 12,000 students. The 
 medical school of Salerno also became one of 
 the most famous schools of the middle ages, and 
 was attended by students from all parts of the 
 
 world. In these two scl Is. Bologna and 
 
 Salerno, we see for the first time in the middle 
 ages a five secular science develop itself inde- 
 pendent of the church and of clerical influence. 
 Besides giving to Europe its first universities, 
 Italvalso took the lead in the revival of classical 
 studies. Dante and Petrarch, both ardeni ad- 
 mirers of the intellectual greatni ss oi classic 
 antiquity, became the foundersof the firs! golden 
 age of Italian literature, which was the firsl 
 among the literatures of Europe to attain a high 
 degree of excellence. A number of teachers, 
 
 P roc hug from this school, traveled from city 
 
 to c llv . in orderto instruct all th ee desirous of 
 learning. The first of these trawling teachers 
 was Giovanni Malpaghino, a pupil of Petrarch, 
 who counted among hi. | ,u ] ,iUuio,t,.f the learned 
 men, who. in the beginning ol the I 5th centurj . 
 
 raised the It an classics from the obscurity 
 
 which had for so long a time surrounded them. 
 Emmanuel I 'hrvsolora- a learned I i reek, was the 
 first to awaken an interesl in the language and 
 literature of his native country, which he taught 
 in Florence, .Milan. Venice, and Koine. With 
 the arrival of the learned Greeks in Italy, after 
 the overthrow of the Byzantine Empire, the 
 study of the Greek language received a fresh im- 
 pulse, and a I » ii dge ol that language was 
 
 considered necessary to a complete education. 
 During this time, the republics and princes of 
 Italy vied with each other in protecting and pro- 
 moting the cause of education. This was espe- 
 
 | cially the case at Florence, where the family of 
 the .Medici, particularly Cosinio and Lorenzo de' 
 Medici, patronized science and art with an en- 
 thusiasm which lms rarely been equaled in the 
 history of the world. Among the many Floren- 
 
 s X.. Niccc-lode' Niccoli, 
 arsflius Ficinus, and Poc 
 
 icmisthius. 1'lethon. 
 i of Mirandola. In 
 
 eiiiee, science was cultiva 
 
 ed rather by single 
 
 dividuals than by the stat 
 
 In Naples, king 
 
 Ifonso gathered around hii 
 
 i anuiiiberof learned 
 
 en. anion,,' who,,, the i 
 
 lesof Lorenzo della 
 
 alle and Antonio degli 
 
 Beccadelli are best 
 
 lown. In Milan. Fran, is© 
 
 Sforza was an active 
 
 ■omoter of the -era, , . ; w 
 
 hile the lesser courts 
 
 a prominent position as a writer on education. 
 With the election of Tommaso Parentucelli to 
 the papal chair. Koine became the principal seat 
 of classical learning. I under his successors learn- 
 ing rapidly declined, uniil I.e., X.. again raised it 
 to a higher position. The principal scholars of 
 this period were Cardinal I'.ciubo and I'etriis 
 Pomponatius Italian learning from the 14th 
 to the beginning of tin- liith century, consti- 
 tutes an important epoch in the general 
 
 bv 1! 
 
 /// 
 
 scholastic especially, gave place, by degrees, 
 
 he ela.-dcal. The Italians became enthusiastic 
 then awakened love for the old Roman 
 liors, in whom they recognized their an- 
 ors; and their understanding of the Creek 
 sics was promoted by native Greek teachers. 
 er they were enabled to read l'lato. a pas- 
 iate love of the beautiful arose within them, 
 likewise a corresponding abhorrence of the 
 lousness of scholasticism, which based itself 
 n Aristotle; but. when they studied Aris- 
 e in the original, and learned how entirely 
 ■rent he is from the Aristotle of the 
 ilastics, th.- authority of the latter began 
 
 l>l s. 
 
 ized the more eminent of 
 noreover, there were many 
 me so foolishly enamored 
 lassical form. 'whether in 
 
 often proved to be but 1 
 
 toms without either Ii 
 elevation of the ItaJ 
 vernacular, it gradual! 
 which, in Hie middle a 
 the vernacular, and as i 
 
 Aft 
 
 plian- 
 ■r the 
 
 llo the 
 
 e Latin, 
 ■ated a. 
 id to the 
 
varying caprice of writers. The ancieni classics, 
 Cicero especially, then became models for imita- 
 tion, hut an imitation mostly of a lifeless and ser- 
 
 greatanaae 
 
 frowned ha 
 cureanism : 
 to become 
 
 Pagan sent 
 
 Italian scho 
 orthodox ft 
 too, it may 
 the teaching 
 
 LY 483 
 
 tho e of Germany, Switzerland, and other conn 
 tries. The Other Italian states were all provided 
 with schools, but in none of them was much at- 
 tention paid to the education of the people ; and 
 their educational condition was generally admit- 
 ted to be greatly inferior to that of mosl other 
 
 ten, of Sardinia into the 
 e thai time, the schools 
 in t Bteadily; ami it has 
 .vernnient'tn break as 
 uence of the church in 
 ii official report pub- 
 i ,h Regno d'ltalia.— 
 ,rivata, Firenze, L866) 
 
 headand its tl 
 
 ers, the greater 
 
 part arrayed 
 
 themselves afew.l 
 
 
 
 thegrea! ir pari onl 
 
 
 -.Hire. Such, 
 
 in brief, w.i- tii. cha 
 ogists to whom our 
 And these men exeO 
 
 ''in'Vit'il'.n'h'," l'i 
 
 ■en directed 
 
 ted a vasl inline 
 
 ,,ce upon the 
 
 learning of the ( u-r 
 
 mans and Hutch 
 
 . Rudolphus 
 
 Agricola.Reuchlin, 
 
 ; J . ■ . . . 1 1 , . . i r . i r 1 1 1 - 
 
 
 many other distingi 
 
 lislTcd scholars v 
 
 rent to Italy 
 
 to perfect themselvi 
 
 s. The Italians 
 
 became their 
 
 patterns; upon these 
 
 ■they modeled tl 
 
 lemselves; to 
 
 equal them, or if p 
 
 ossihle to surpa 
 
 ss them, was 
 
 their highest aim." 
 
 In the course 
 
 of the L6th 
 
 century, Italy era, In 
 
 ally lost her reputation as the 
 
 foremost cultivator 
 
 of classical stlldi 
 
 es. Though 
 
 she still produced i 
 
 lien like Ariosti 
 
 i and Tasso, 
 
 Giordano Bruno ant 
 
 IGalil ialilei i 
 
 he character 
 
 of her schools degen 
 
 date 1. Only in 
 
 the pro\ ilice 
 
 of tin- art. It.dv 
 
 »ntinui i io b 
 
 the teacher 
 
 of the civilized wori 
 
 
 ■i parti ular 
 
 was, in in,- .hi' 1 1 1 
 
 ■ following cent 
 
 uries, chieflj 
 
 
 or ii- proon ■ 
 
 After the 
 
 foundation of the order of the Jesuit 
 
 -the higher 
 
 schools in the largei 
 
 ■ portion of the 1 
 
 ■ n ■ ,,,i 
 
 pa--e 1 ■jjadnally under their c Mill 
 
 : and. for a 
 
 lone- time, the highe 
 
 r .'lasses of the 
 
 
 be said to have be 
 
 en educated 1 IV 
 
 the Jesuits. 
 
 (See .1 ESUITS.) — Tl 
 
 le tiist of the 1 
 
 talian statt • 
 
 to abolish the super 
 
 Vision of the SC] 
 
 1- l,\ the 
 
 church wasSardini 
 
 i. Iii L729, it \ 
 
 lithdivw the 
 
 supervision of socon 
 
 dary schools fro 
 
 in the relig- 
 
 ious orders, and pn 
 
 ivided that teat 
 
 ihers of tins 
 
 class of schools shoi 
 
 lid he educated 
 
 j,| ; ||, -.J,- 
 
 connected with a lit 
 
 iversity. In 1 ~, 
 
 
 was published wh 
 
 ich provided t 
 
 
 ■ils 
 
 ■hool- 
 
 there were 155; in Germany, 152; in Denmark, 
 135; and in France. 131. 
 Instruction in all the grades is regulated by 
 
 schools. Tl 
 
 impulse to education, and primary schools were 
 established in every town. Upon the restora- 
 tion of the old government, in L814, the laws 
 passed during the French rule were abolished; 
 and. although, in L821, an attempt was made to 
 re-establish common schools, no decided progress 
 was made, until, in 1-1 I. a normal school for 
 teachers was established in 'rutin. A law was 
 passed in 1848, and revised in 1857, which sought 
 to raise the schools of [Sardinia to a level with | 
 
 tests between school authorities, on applications 
 for professorships, and on offenses committed by 
 1 irofessors of normal ami secondary schools: it may 
 
 the condition of till the branches of education. 
 By the law of 1859, three general inspectors were 
 appointed, — one for superior, one for secondary. 
 
and One for primary, special, and normal in- 
 struction. Each one of the 69 provinces of the 
 
 kingdom has, for its highest school authority, a 
 school board, consisting of the prefect as presi- 
 dent, the superintendent as vice -president, and 
 six councilors, two of whom are appointed by 
 the ministry, two by the provincial deputation, 
 and two by the magistrate of the principal city. 
 The members appointed by the elective councils 
 hold their office for three years, but can be re- 
 appointed. They depend upon the prefect who 
 is entrusted with the general direction of all the 
 schools, public as well as private, and upon the 
 superintendent of the province, who has the 
 care of all the schools in his district ; while the 
 school board enforces the laws and rules relative 
 to the primary, secondary, and normal schools of 
 the province. The board also orders extraordinary 
 inspections of the schools ; and, in urgent cases, 
 has the [lower to close them, but must immedi- 
 ately notify the minister of the fact. 
 
 Primary Instruction. -Primary instruction 
 is compulsory throughout [taly, according to the 
 law of 1859. The school age is from 6 to 14 
 years; and all parents neglecting to send their 
 children between these ages to school, are liable 
 to a tine. The course of instruction comprises 
 lour years. The schools are composed of a lower 
 and a higher grade. c;ich of two classes. In the 
 former are taught, religion, reading, writing, ele- 
 mentary arithmetic, the elements of the metrical 
 system, and the Italian language. In the higher 
 grade, in addition to the studies of the lower, are 
 taught composition, penmanship, book-keeping, 
 elementary geography, the national history, and 
 elementary science. Schools of the lower grade, 
 one for boys and one for girls, must be main- 
 tained by every commune, although the minister 
 may give permission for two communes to unite, 
 if they are too poor to support separate schools. 
 Schools of the higher grade must be established 
 in all towns with more than 40011 inhabitants. 
 Communes of less than 500 inhabitants must 
 provide a mixed school for both sexes, if there 
 are 50 children of school age. The school term 
 extends from Oct. L5. to Aug. 1 •">. Examina- 
 tions both oral and written are held every six 
 months, and are directed by the municipal super- 
 intendent, unless state officials interpose. Cer- 
 tificates are granted promoting the candidates, 
 and prizes are given to the most deserving. The 
 persons conducting the examinations are, for the 
 lower classes, the teachers of the classes, and for 
 the next higher, as well as for the highest grades. 
 the class teachers and two other teachers of the 
 same or a lower grade. Religious examinations 
 are conducted by the clergy, but are obligatory for 
 Roman Catholic children only. Every examiner 
 can add ten marks to the results of the written 
 and oral examinations, on account of the con- 
 duct of the pupil during the year. Six marks con- 
 stitute the standard of approbation. -Male teachers 
 must be eighteen, and female teachers seventeen 
 years old. Having passed the necessary exami- 
 nation, they are appointed for three years, and 
 unless notified six months before the expiration 
 
 separa- 
 f which 
 and of- 
 1 extra 
 suspension 
 
 they 
 be be 
 
 sarv 
 
 of their term, are considered re-appointed. Teach- 
 ers may punish their scholars by admonition. 
 a note of censure in the school reg' 
 tion from their comrades, or suspen 
 the parents must be informed. I 
 tensive words, corporal puiii.-hnn i 
 lessons as penalties are forbidden 
 for a week or expulsion can be inflicted by the 
 municipal superintendent ; but each case of ex- 
 pulsion must be brought to the notice of the 
 mayor, and must be approved by him. The min- 
 imum salaries paid to teachers in cities are 900 
 and 700 lire (1 lira = $0.19.3) for the higher 
 and lower grades respectively, and Odd and 500 
 lire in the country. A fund to provide pen- 
 sions for teachers in their old age has been estab- 
 lished, to which teachers contribute two and one- 
 half percent of their salaries, and from which 
 pensions equal to their salaries, arc paid to all 
 who have reached the age of fifty-five, and have 
 taught for thirty years. A pension equal to one- 
 third of their salaries is granted to those who 
 are incapacitated after fifteen years of service. 
 achers receive pensions as long as 
 tnmarried. A private school may 
 y citizen who possesses the neces- 
 and a certificate of good morals. 
 A written request for permission to open such a 
 scl 1 must be presented to a district school in- 
 spector, who may refuse it. if he sees tit. Re 
 has also the power to visit and inspect all private 
 schools, and make such changes in their arrange- 
 ment as may seem necessary. In urgent cases he 
 can close the schools. No text-books arc pic- 
 scribed for private schools, but the government 
 can prohibit such books as it may deem offensive. 
 
 Besides the public and private day scl Is there 
 
 arc also evening schools for adults of both sexes, 
 and Sundav improvement schools. The number 
 of public day schools, in L872, was 34,213; of 
 which 18,243 were for boys ; 12,732, for girls: 
 and 3,238. with mixed classes. In addition to 
 these there were 9,107 private day schools, mak- 
 ing the total number of primary schools 43,380. 
 These schools are distributed very unequally in 
 the northern and southern portions of Italy. 
 Thus, in the northern province of Novara, there 
 is a school for every 368 inhabitants, and in 
 Turin one for every 35." inhabitants; while the 
 southern province of Basilicata has only one 
 school for 1,304 inhabitants, and Calabria, one 
 for 1,400. The number of evening schools was, 
 in the same year. 9,809, and of the Sunday im- 
 provement schools, 4,743. Adding these to the 
 43,380 schools as above, we have about 58,000 
 schools affording primary instruction. The num- 
 ber of pupils in the day schools, in the school 
 year 1871—2, was 1,745,467, of whom 1,553,389 
 were in the public schools, and 192,078 in the 
 private schools. This number. 1,745,470. re- 
 presents the largest attendance during the year, 
 which generally occurs in the beginning of win- 
 ter ; during the summer months, the attendance 
 fell off to 1.242,053. The number of pupils in 
 the evening schools for adults was 375,947, and 
 in the Sunday improvement schools 153,585. 
 
ITALY 485 
 
 rhe number of teachers in the primary scl Is, was w ; and the average number of pupils, 50 
 
 ii L872,was 23,479 males and 20,028 females. The largest iminber (124) of pupilswasin Milan. 
 
 ...7. In 1873, there were and the lowest number (33), in Padua. Besides 
 
 public, 7,337 private with these scl Is, there are other liigh scl is for 
 
 42,1 L8 
 44,430 
 
 
 L.797,5 
 girls). 
 
 i';; .':'■;: 
 
 priests' 
 827,361 
 
 , and L,i 
 . girls). 
 
 forelen 
 
 
 inces, 129,665 lire; >l ommunes, 22,067,13; 
 
 lire; and other bodies, 611,727 lire. The normal 
 schools are governed by the laws of June 24. 
 I860, and Nov. 9., 1861, and the course of study 
 comprises three years. The first two- years are 
 devoted to a preparation for teaching in the Iowa 
 grades; and, in the last year, the teacher is pre- 
 pared for the higher grades. The course of Btudy 
 
 (3) The schools (c 
 These were found 
 
 the direction of the professor 
 mal schools are of three class. 
 
 1 1 1 by the gover nt. (2) l.\ 
 
 (3) by private persons. The 
 schools, in L872 was 125, of 
 boys and 25 for girls weresup 
 
 ch 4S (23 for 
 -.1 by the state, 
 the provinces, 
 
 ite as lay corpora- 
 ted with convents, 
 of tli ' convents, 
 
 i . ■!! 
 
 object of reeeiun- a In. I. r..lne.-,ii,,n. The favi 
 with which this scho ■! was received, and the su 
 cess which ii met, induced other cities to provi 
 similar schools. The course of study comprisi 
 ethics, the Italian language and literature, h; 
 giene. the ii 1 1 nra I seien, ■,-.-. -y, .-ra|.hv. hi-' on . tl 
 French language and literature, arithmetic, bool 
 keeping, paiinaii-hip. -v .-.sties, and needle- gym 
 
 Work, liesi.les tll.-se -111 lie-, n l| iell ate , ,1 ,1 i-M I, ,.v e.'.el. 
 
 for all the schools, som .have also introduced the the I 
 
 study of German and English The cour f in- teacl 
 
 struction comprises three years in all the -I Is the I 
 
 except in Milan, where ii i- t ■ years in order and 
 
 that more attention may be paid to natural 6 hoi 
 
 sei nee. 'I'h • school in Milan was for a time free; Lath 
 
 but, as it was seen in other cities that a fee histo 
 
 required without detriment to the class 
 
 school. a charge of 50 lire was made, which is secoi 
 
 ■ i ■ :■•..-,:. - ., ,.-,.!■ ,,, |J v. ,r- . ... Illation natti; 
 
 I hour in the thr i ■ lower, an 
 and fifth classes; Greek, . r > 1 
 I hours in the fourth and til 
 
 hours in all three classes ; 
 ie in-' and I . in the second 
 6 hours in the first and 
 
 in the third cla.-s: pl.ilos- 
 
 study 
 
486 
 
 terniined by the ministry of education, and 
 adapted by the faculty to each individual g; 
 nasium and lyceum. After finishing the cot 
 iu the gymnasium or in the lyceum, the pi 
 must pass an examination for graduation. 
 provincial gymnasia and lyccinns may c-oiid 
 their own examination- for graduation, if t 
 conform in their course of studies to that of 
 nyal schools : while tl 
 
 the technical schools was free. 
 rticukrly intended to benefit the 
 
 this class 
 
 schools to be examined for gri 
 
 nasia are governed by a direct 
 
 by a president. 'I'll ly pn 
 
 any secondary schools an I '< 
 w hile Milan and Venice have 
 there were, supported by the s 
 with 9,296 pupils; and 80 ly 
 pupils. 
 
 Technical instruction in Lombardy was pro 
 vided for by the Austrian law of 1818 ; but 
 
 Ipils to the royal 
 luation. The gym- 
 
 r.andthelvceums 
 
 with 5,132 
 
 it' 
 
 were toiiniieU. each conmsIiii" ot six classes, ot 
 wind, three formed the lower, and three the 
 higher course. In the other provinces of Italy, 
 with the exception of Piedmont, there were no 
 such schools previous to the unification. There 
 were, however, similar schools supported by the 
 municipalities, or private schools governed by 
 different laws. There are. at the present time, 
 technical schools in all the provinces of the 
 
 kingdi 
 in oth 
 
 the 
 
 specti inly. In consequence of the two grades 
 
 into which the real schools of Piedmont and 
 Lombardy were divided, the law of 1859 pro- 
 vided for the erection of two schools of different 
 
 grades, each 
 of which tie 
 
 bwKfolSedlScS; 
 
 and the lii, 
 
 her istiluto tecnico. By a decree of 
 
 November 
 
 •Js., 1861, the supervision of the 
 
 technical i 
 
 istitutes was transferred from the 
 
 ministry ot 
 
 education to that of agriculture. 
 
 commerce! ; 
 
 ad industry. The course ot instruc- 
 
 tion in the t 
 
 ■chnical schools comprises the Italian 
 
 language 
 
 ■reiich. drawing, penmanship, t lu- 
 
 in liments 
 
 ll historv and geographv, algebra. 
 
 ge'""T',;, 
 
 immen ial arithmetic, and book-keep- 
 
 
 
 added ie 1- 
 
 71. in whi h only such subject.- were 
 
 was 72. with 1,594 stude 
 the communal schools din 
 cut from that of the state 
 
 is they were 
 oorer classes; 
 
 heir children 
 c introduced 
 
 .i state tech- 
 fa 5,571 stu- 
 ber of com- 
 rtrict accord- 
 
 ■ institutions 
 bearers; and 
 pstems differ- 
 8 in number. 
 I„ 1*74— 5. 
 s. with 6,498 
 
 originally reorganizations of the technical schools 
 in those cities; but. in consequence of their use- 
 fulness, thev rapidlv increased. According to 
 
 thecour-eot -tlldN of L872, tlleV BH & -1 1 1 1 OS© I 
 
 technical institute, the student must possess a 
 certificate of graduation from a technical school. 
 or show that he is proficient in the- studies taught 
 there, and must pass an examination in various 
 branches. The number of institutes, in l87'2.was 
 7'.'. of which 39 belonged to the state, and 33 to 
 the provinces, communes, or private persons. The 
 number of teachers, including the presidents and 
 the professors, was 881 : and the number of 
 students and hearers. 4,562. 'J he number of in- 
 stitutes, in 1875, was 74. In order to promote 
 secondary instruction and to accommodate such 
 families as have no schools in their own towns, 
 the government supports I'll institutes in which 
 
 Superior Instruction. — There are, at present, 
 17 universities supported by tin- state, of which 
 8 (in Bologna, Naples, Padua, Palermo, Pavia, 
 I'isa. Rome, and Turin) arc first-class, and i) 
 I in Gagliari, Catania, (ienoa. Macerata, Sassari, 
 Sienna, Messina. Modena.and Parma) aresecond- 
 
 intoa university, an examination is necessary, be- 
 sides a certificate of graduation from a lyceum. 
 Ill addition to the regular students, there are 
 hearers, who do not require an examination, but 
 
 rofe, 
 
 lie, si 
 
 '2,0110 ///v, while the professor- receive 
 
 to 'i.iiiio lire each, according to the cl: 
 grade they teach. For several years 
 
 I professors 
 lorsand 191 
 
 I '2 students ; 
 dents: Mc.s 
 Modena. <;•'! 
 .42 profess- 
 
JACOBS JACOTOT 
 
 and 205 students; Sassari, 25 professors I Seminario vaticano, the CoUegio 
 
 and 6C students ; and 
 L13 students; for Napli 
 sors.it is difficult to esti 
 dents, as any native of t 
 may attend' the univers 
 
 ifessors and | CWfe 
 
 ;is L18 i 
 
 Fern 
 studi 
 
 teacners and l it 
 Special Instr 
 
 schools estal'lidl' 
 
 if lnelier stuilies [Js/iIhId ill 
 ■alici e di perfi rio-namento) in 
 lomprises three sections, — the 
 philological, the medico-surgic- 
 ural sciences. It was founded 
 1348, and. in 1874—5, had 46 
 
 •Hon. — Besides the engi ts' 
 
 : in e lection with the uni- 
 
 i, Padua, ami Palermo, there 
 
 ; technical hi-h schools in 1S75: 
 
 lull — 11 
 
 dents, 
 
 ively. 
 
 n in Turin, with Is teacher- and Lf 
 in I ."> teachers and L28 students, n 
 ( Ither special schools are as follows 
 
 n it'ii t of marble in Carrara; 25 schools of fine 
 arts: numerous conservatories, schools, and in- 
 stitutes of music : the military schools in Turin. 
 
 istrial Itnlien 
 
 5 stu- full sti 
 spect- I cation 
 : The I cial wc 
 
 hool, with tWO .Il- 
 ia See Malfatti. 
 .,,-,./.. i,to1.x.); for 
 
 ■e the otlifial plllili- 
 
 leation.and the olli- 
 Kome. 1873). 
 
 JACOBS, Christian Friedrich Wilhelm, i 
 i eminent Greek scholar of Germany, born at \ 
 otha, Oct. 6., 1764; died March 30., 1847. He 
 
 JACOTOT, Joseph, 
 
 emy of Science. Ii 
 wlnre he was appoh 
 is the author of sen 
 readers, which are si 
 been frequently im 
 number of other l.u 
 „ri,-rl,i»-l, „ s ■ . 
 
 I deck authors with Latin notes (1826, seq.). on F 
 Jacobs was one of the most enthusiastic admirers vain. 
 
 of Creek civilizatr 
 es -o and populai 
 
 anion-' the educate 
 d irstanding of, ani 
 Greek antiquity. 
 his a [dresses and 
 
 number of | N( 
 
 lar difficulties, by 
 firsi dawned upo 
 
 is ami smii- 
 
 ident Felton), which he delivered in Munich in afterwards expanded, and applied successfully to 
 1808, is still in high repute as a brilliant essay all studies. The central idea of the universal 
 on education among the ancient Creeks. method, as it has been called, rests upon the in- 
 
488 JACOTOT 
 
 tiruate correlation of all knowledge. In other 
 words, a single fact, known thoroughly, at first 
 by careful observation, and. afterwards, by 
 long and repeated contemplation, becomes the 
 spur, if not the actual key. to the acquisition of 
 Other farts. In tins way! stalling front a single 
 truth as a center, the mind is led to extend, in 
 many ways, the circle of its conquests, till the 
 whole domain of knowle Ige is included. It will 
 be seen at once that this system requires un- 
 usually close attention and concentration of 
 mind 'on the part of the pupil— two elements 
 which can only be secured by a very great de- 
 gree of enthusiasm and magnetic influence on 
 the part of the teacher. The cause of the won- 
 derful success achieved by it. in Jacotot's prac- 
 tice, was, that it compels the pupil to exercise his 
 own powers thoroughly in other words, that it 
 is in entire accordance with the essential nature 
 of all education, i. ,:. the developing of in- 
 nate power. His method of procedure in in- 
 structing his class at Louvain in the French 
 language was to provide each pupil with a copy 
 of Fenelon's Telemaque, having the French on 
 one page ami the Dutch translation on the other. 
 With no aid from the teacher, the pupil was re- 
 quired to puzzle out the meaning of the text, 
 
 fects of the Hamiltonian method, the knowledge 
 of a language so acquired being enough for prac- 
 tical purposes, but not sullicient for a critical or 
 scholarly acquaintance with it. His method of 
 teaching reading was the following: The teacher 
 takes a book, and opening it at any place, 
 points out the first word, pronouncing it, and 
 requiring the class to repeat it. The next word 
 is then pronounced with the first, the class re- 
 peating as before; then the third word, in the 
 same manner, and so on. In this way, when 
 each word in a sentence has. by frequent repeti- 
 tion, become known by sight, the pupil is re- 
 quired to find these words wherever they occur 
 on the page. The words of the sentence at i 
 then divided up into syllables, and these syllables 
 are searched for on the page by the pupil, 
 as the words were before. The same is done 
 with the letters. When the pupil has become 
 perfectly familiar with the sentence, he is taught 
 to write byplacing before him the samesentence 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 spirit of the careful annunciator of a new truth. 
 'I hese maxims are : " All human beings are 
 equally capable of learning;" "Every one can 
 teach and, moreover, can teach that which he 
 does not know himself ;" and " All is in all." 
 Kach of these maxims, while contradictory on 
 its face, contains a germ of truth, which, only 
 by the aid of robust imaginative power and spe- 
 cial pleading, may be so amplified as to cover 
 the broad field comprehended by the text. In 
 the practical application of Ins system. Jacotot's 
 directions are : Learn some one thing thorough- 
 ly, and refer every thing l" that To this end, 
 the pupil must repeat, reflect, and verify. Jaco- 
 tot's chief educational works are Enseignement 
 universel: Langue materneUe (Louvain, 1822) ; 
 Musique, dessin et peinture (1824) ; Mafli4ma- 
 tiques (1828); and various articles in the Journal 
 
 itettectuelle, a periodical es- 
 f for the advocacy of his 
 ( ii hk. Essays on Educa- 
 
 attention is then directed to each word 
 
 ly.that he may note in just what r. 
 copy differs from the original, and < 
 The teacher corrects nothing himsel 
 his questions calls special attention to 
 needing correction, and requires the 
 change it. In this waj by constant 
 
 great success achieved by Jacotot, led to Ins 
 enunciation of several ma\im> whieh took the 
 
 ,],,,,„■ of Marlins paradox,-, reflecting rather 
 the exultation of an enthusiastic nature over a 
 
 meat discovery, than the calm, dispa ate 
 
 de I'emancii 
 
 tablished le 
 peculiar vie 1 
 tinned Reformers (Cincinnati, L874). 
 
 JAPAN. The empire of Japan I Dai Nikon 
 Kohu, or Dai Nippon ; Chinese, Jipun, mean- 
 ing Sun-root) c prises the four large islands- 
 
 Hondo (main island). Kiushiu, Hiikoku. and 
 Ye/o.tl,o I in Kin and Kwnle (Ckishima) groups, 
 and nearly 4,000 small islands, many of which 
 are bu1 reefs. The entire area is 145,500 sq. m.; 
 the population, U government census of 1874, 
 was reported a- '■'■' 31 0,675, of whom nearly one- 
 half were of the agricultural class, 167,000 Liu 
 K iuans, and about 20,000 Ainos ill Yezo and the 
 Kuriles. The indigenous, also the state or offi- 
 cial, religion is Shinto (way or doctrine of the 
 gods, i. e., theology). The census of 1814 re- 
 i oit.,1 L28.123 shrines and 76,119 officials. Shinto 
 is now beine eieativ modernized and modified 
 by contad with the ideas oi I hristendom. Bud- 
 dhism was introduced iioin Cm, a. m 552 A. D. 
 After nine centuries ol pro] _ on it became 
 the popular religion, whit h it still is. There are 
 nine great, and over twenty subordinate sects. 
 The census of 1872 reported 98,914 temples and 
 monasteries. 7.~i.'J'-'."> priests .and monks, and 9,621 
 nuns: in till 211>4li rr/ii/iru.r of both sexes, in- 
 cluding students and families of bonzes. Christi- 
 auit\ nia\ also be considered one of the relig- 
 ions of Japan. There are now (1876) ten native 
 churches, with over 1,000 members, a theological 
 seminary, day and Sunday schools for both sexes, 
 and an incipient Christian literature. 
 
 Japan was anciently inhabited, in the southern 
 part, by a mixed race sprung from the waifs. 
 brought by the Kuro Shiwo from southern 
 Asia' and the -Malay Archipelago. The Ainos. 
 occupied the central and northern portions. 
 Neither of these races ewer possessed any writing 
 or records, so far as is known. In 660 B. C, a 
 conquering race landed in south-eastern Kiushiu. 
 and advancing northward, subdued the natives, 
 and fixed their capital near Kioto, in central 
 Japan. In the seventh century of the Christian 
 era, in a great battle near Morioka — the Hast- 
 ings of Japan - the Ainoswere entirely defeated. 
 The remnant fled across the straits..! T.-uearu. 
 
JAPAN 
 
 •Is:* 
 
 and have remained in ,'i state of pure savagery. I besides the anciehl seatsin Kiotoand Nara. The 
 By the fusion of the aboriginal and conquering missionary tours and labors of Shinran and Ni- 
 
 races, with tl xasional addition of Malay, chiren, in the north and east of Japan, during this 
 
 Corean, and Chinese bl I, the modern com- time tended powerfully to spread Buddhism, and 
 
 posite Japanese race has been produced. I with it letters and writing, and t.. create priests 
 
 The national history i- mainlj thatofeduca- and monastic schools. Tin- revival oi Buddhistic 
 
 prayers, ani 
 
 
 ll.-.i 
 
 \-liil-a._ 
 
 the Ja' 
 Chin.' 
 
 fucian ethics. In 552 
 troduced books, the wr 
 sics,andthe Buddhist 
 This is the greatest a 
 anese history. The nob 
 read and write ; and 
 tories, ami literature In 
 official propagation of i 
 erection of temples, i 
 and tl..' location of the 
 
 persecutor of the I 
 was in every wax 
 Jesuits then in Jap 
 era (.f Hideyoshi (T 
 ncntlv favorable to 
 siderable stimulus I 
 
 master 
 
 creating a 1 
 
 a lai'iH 
 
 reading clas 
 
 tory of 
 
 Japanese ed 
 
 Buddh 
 
 Mil. 'I'll, in, 
 
 the ,., 
 
 
 scholar 
 
 in Pali, Sai 
 
 vernac 
 
 l.ir. and 'I,, 
 
 syllaba 
 
 ■v. or alphali, 
 
 acters. 
 
 abbreviated If 
 
 has t\\ 
 
 , forms: the 
 
 hand, i 
 
 n 1 the squat 
 
 laid th 
 
 • foundation 
 
 Buddh 
 
 am, by propo 
 
 in win, 
 
 
 but va 
 
 io^m^rife* 
 
 After 
 
 sol,.,. Sug iwa 
 
 A. I>.. 
 
 letter known 
 
 scholar 
 
 did much fo 
 
 educat 
 
 hi. Cntilthe 
 
 ruled s 
 
 premefrom 1 
 
 were fi 
 
 in, ms educati 
 
 ters. 
 
 n 1192, Vori 
 
 Shogw 
 
 (the officer 
 
 lOUS name of all 
 ibo (771—835), a 
 inese, and his own 
 ■ of the Japanese 
 
 ■oiisists of 17 char- 
 es,' ideographs. It 
 script or running 
 
 ers, from 1853 to L868), and fixed the mi 
 capital at Kamakura (about 35 miles froi 
 modern Tokio). I [encef orward, the goven 
 of Japan was virtually a duarchy, havin, 
 rulers, two capitals.and two centers of autl 
 Eastern Japan now became more and mon 
 izei.1, and education spread ;i | >.i < -< ■. In e-,, 
 only the bonzes and court nobles in Kioto 
 stunted the learned class, the sol, lid's and 
 ers being totally illiterate The bonzes 
 the scribes in camp, palace, and town, anda 
 the only teachers down to the fokugawa | 
 (1604—1868). Duringthe Hojo rule il: 
 13331 learning flourished. A fine liluan 
 school existed at Kana/.awa. near Kama 
 
 1,10101111,1 |«,l 
 
 a half, mark 
 as the only 
 has been get 
 
 nearly the en 
 Or fools of ai 
 reckoning on 
 
 culture. 'Idle v 
 
 diile the Var 
 
 ill,- nation, 
 tudy of En- 
 the tastes of 
 
■100 
 
 JAPAN 
 
 JEFFERSON COLLEGE 
 
 the samurai, or educated armed classes, inclined 
 them to favor modern science to the neglect of 
 the Chinese. In 1868, a revolutionary storm, the 
 elements of which had long been gathering, broke 
 at the battle of Fushmii, when the duarchy, and 
 the shogunate were overthrown, and the toku- 
 gaica were reduced to their proper place as vas- 
 sals of the mikado, who was restored to supreme 
 power, as before AD. I L92. The seat of govern- 
 ment also was re ved to Yedo (bay-door), which 
 
 was thereafter called Tokio (eastern capital). 
 Enterprises were now organized on a national 
 scale, among them the present system of edu- 
 cation, the scheme of which \v;is promulgated in 
 1872. According to this, the empire is divi led 
 into eight educational divisions, in each of which 
 there is a university or dai gakko, with thirty- 
 two middle schools, colleges or gymnasia; besides 
 which there are two hundred and ten grammar 
 schools, or academies, in the whole empire. In all 
 
 these scl Is, foreign languages and the sciences 
 
 are to I.e taught. The vernacular schools will 
 number about 54,000, or about one for every six 
 hundred of the population. According to the 
 latest statisties. there are 30,1 public schools in 
 
 andsenseof the most common Chinese characters. 
 They also learn abacus reckoning, the use of the 
 Arabic numerals, and our system of arith- 
 metic. A large Dumber of American and cither 
 elementary text books have been translated, and 
 the common-places of physical science are now 
 taught to Japanese youth. The vernacular is 
 also studied by the help of standard reading- 
 books, grammar (a new thing), declamation, ami 
 the committing to memory of choice passages 
 from the Japanese classics. The Chinese ethics 
 still holds its place: but the moral ideas, sen- 
 
 1 one being in Tokio, with 
 training from every prov- 
 Both sexes enjoy equal 
 
 pri 
 
 [Mom Bu Sho) is one of the ten 
 of the imperial government The pr 
 
 (lST(i) is Fujimaro Tanaka. tin lore 
 being Dr. David Murray, formerly i 
 Collegi New Brunswick, N. J. The u 
 
 ingare continued. In the middle schools, the 
 studies are wholly in English, or some other 
 elected foreign language, the text-books being 
 those used in America or Europe, while the course 
 of studies common to .-in American high school 
 or academy is gone through with. This period 
 covers four years. In the dai gakko, or univer- 
 sity, the full' standard of which it is expected to 
 teach in the future, the students are actually car- 
 ried through the curriculum of the average Amer- 
 ica,, college, excepting in latin ami Greek, the 
 place of these being tilled by f oglishand Chinese. 
 At present, there is but one university in Japan 
 the KaiSei Gakko, in Tokio, which has a corps of 
 about twenty American and English instructors. 
 and 350 students, while these! 1 of foreign lan- 
 guages of Tokio has double this number of pu- 
 pils, all under foreign instructors. Nearly two 
 hundred foreigners are employed in the edu- 
 cational service of Japan. Both students and 
 native teachers, as a rule, wear the foreign 
 
 tTOl ot the cell 
 
 vernacular scho 
 ken authorities. 
 central govern] 
 in each ken, an 
 the nobles, the 
 Each of the 72 
 while examine 
 sent out from ' 
 keeping up am 
 cation. In ad 
 Mom Bu Sho. 
 incut has its s] 
 cine. law. and i 
 
 cultur J, and oi 
 
 elementary instruction, the Japanese have suc- 
 cessfully introduced the kindergarten system 
 and object teaching. The general plan and dis- 
 cipline of American schools prevail; and such 
 appliances as tables and chairs, blackboards and 
 chalk, slates and pencils, phonetic and ideo- 
 graphic charts, colored representations and solid 
 
 models Of objects, are USed all these being 
 
 new ideas in Japanese pedagogics. The children 
 kana syllabary, and are then taught the sound | 
 
 method of school order, discipline, equipment, 
 and architecture approaches more closely to for- 
 eign models, year by year. Private schools are 
 also very numerous, and exert a healthful spirit 
 
 of rivalry with the government establish nts. 
 
 The newspaper press, publishers of books, and 
 government issues of tracts of information on 
 various subjects, also tend powerfully to elevate 
 the intellectual status of the people. There 
 are no educational journals in Japan, but the 
 minister of public instruction issues a yearly re- 
 port. -SeeGRiFFis. The Mikado's Empire (New 
 York. L8761 ; Education in Japan, No. 2 of the 
 Circulars of Information of the O. S. Bureau of 
 Education I Washington. 1st:,): An Outline 
 History of Japanese Education, prepared by 
 the Japanese Dept. of Education (N. \ .. L876). 
 JEFFERSON COLLEGE, a Roman Cath- 
 olic institution at St. .lames. La., under the 
 management of the Marist fathers, was char- 
 tered in 1861, and organized in 1864. It has 
 good philosophical and chemical apparatus, and 
 a library of 5,000 volumes. It has a collegiate 
 course of 6 years, including preparatory studies; 
 a commercial course; and a preparatory, or 
 primary, course. The regular charge for board, 
 tuition, etc., is $300 a year. German, Spanish, 
 
 \ung. 
 
 and music are extras. In lo75 — 6, 
 
JKliSKY CITY 
 
 491 
 
 there wi re 12 instructors and 65 students. The 
 Very Rev. J. B. Bigot, S. M.. is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 JERSEY CITY, one of the chief cities in 
 the state of New Jersey, embraces part of the 
 
 of filling the office has devolved upon the board 
 • ■I educal and the term of office has been ex- 
 tended to three years. 
 
 Scliool System. The school law under which 
 the schools are now mar ged, was enacted in 
 
 
 28., L820,ooi 
 
 taming ai 
 
 inhabitants. 
 
 It has si 
 
 annexation c 
 
 f other m 
 
 Bergen; bo 
 
 that its i 
 
 from the II. 
 
 dson rive 
 
 sack river, a 
 
 listance i 
 
 from north 
 
 o south, s 
 
 according tt 
 
 the sta 
 
 116,883; an 
 
 1 the nun 
 
 age, thai is, 
 
 letween 5 
 
 Education 
 
 il Histor 
 
 school of ai 
 
 v kind th 
 
 Jersey was 
 
 ocated o 
 
 house now known as 
 
 Square. It 
 
 s rei k. 
 
 of Bergen, .1 
 
 ited Sepl 
 
 by Sir Phil 
 
 i Cartan 
 
 province of 
 
 New Jei 
 
 thereof, stipi 
 
 lated, -tl. 
 
 0G8. I public works, 
 
 the first powered to e: 
 
 in \. u and maintain 
 
 en exercise their judgment in selecting a public 
 
 de s.l I in any part of the city for the education 
 
 hi- of their children. There are four grades of 
 
 • ! s.l Is; primary, grammar, high, and normal 
 
 or Bel Is. 'I here are 20 primary si I-: I I gram- 
 
 i i •• I Is; 1 high scl hand I normal scl 1 
 
 on held .'ii Hatnrdav- . The I I grammar scl„„,|s 
 
 and strongi 
 
 pel -"ii- "I I 
 
 body and spirit, when called on to pay a 
 tax The Dutch may thus claim equal 
 with the Puritans of New England for t 
 provision for the education of their chile 
 
 ,hn\ 
 
 \\,-t 
 
 the state 
 . $10,738. 
 teandas- 
 
 ai ii I I.". >. m.Hii'V , u.'.'-iai'hy. writ in-, and dr. 
 i 1 1 vr - Objert-teacliiiigispivsrrilicil for each gra 
 The course in t In- "laminar sclmols is divii 
 
 lie yet (1876) retains— From the organization 1'nited' States] physical evugrapliy. al-.'lna. nat- 
 
 of the first board of education to 1*71. ape- ural philosophy, and elementary science, the 
 
 riod of nineteen years, the olliee of superintend- latter in each grade. The course in the high 
 
 ent was filled annually by vote of the people at scl 1 is divided into an Knglish and a classical 
 
 ihe charter elections; since that time, the duty course, each extending over three years. 
 
492 JES1 
 
 School Statistics. — The following items arc 
 reported for the year b s 7"> : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 18,737 
 
 Average register number 10.678 
 
 Average attendance 9.583 
 
 Number of teachers, males. 16 
 
 " " females .247 
 
 Total ' 263 
 
 Number of pupils per teacher, primary schools 56 
 • ■ " " " grammar " 36 
 
 Kxpi-nditures: 
 
 Salaries $210,361.53 
 
 Rents 2,2110. IK) 
 
 Books and stationery 13,l;i:;.61 
 
 Repairs and furniture 10,613.64 
 
 Fuel and incid. expenses. 26,001.59 
 
 Total . . . . _ $262,310.37 
 
 Besides the public schools, there are but few 
 others of any great importance, with the excep- 
 tion of the denominational schools supported by 
 the Roman Catholics. These schools are largely 
 attended. 
 
 JESUITS, or the Society of Jesus, a 
 celebrated relieious order of the I 'a.tholic Church. 
 It was founded by [gnatiua Loyola in the begin- 
 
 XIV 
 
 mil"; of tin 
 rapidity o\ 
 tained an i 
 religious o 
 societies of 
 bv Pope CI 
 
 Pope Pius VII, and ha. 
 brunt of battle in the se 
 been raging between the 
 many of the present st 
 Catholic and Protestant. 
 as a special mission of th 
 progress of the Reforms 
 the church as much of the 
 In order to fulfill this m 
 to obtain control of the 
 ing i meration. Their i 
 
 |iat l/ed. w cll.lt t .11. b 1 
 
 met with complete sill s 
 
 ions which have been ex] 
 the schools of the Jesuits 
 to the sympathy or dislil 
 
 All the educational institutions of the .Jesuits- 
 are governed in ace. in lance with the official 
 course of instruction entitled ratio elinslUvtio 
 studiorum societatis Jesu, and well known in 
 history under the shorter name rutin studiorum. 
 It was drawn up under the direction of the 
 fifth general of the order, Aequaviva, who, im- 
 mediately after his election, in 1581, was com- 
 missioned by the 4th ( Seneral * iongregation to 
 appoint for this purpose a committee of six 
 fathers. In 15s4. the committee in which Spain. 
 Portugal, France. Austria, Germany, and Home 
 were represented, were presented to the Pope. 
 Their work was revised by another committee 
 of twelve members, subsequently submitted for 
 revision and approbation to the tth and 6th 
 General Congregations and to the Pope, and 
 finally printed in L599, in the printing office of 
 
 the C 
 
 ,11,; t i, 
 
 iii Rornanu 
 
 a. A new cditio 
 
 1, with 
 
 addit 
 
 ons s 
 
 mctioned b 
 
 ■ the 7th General Con- 
 
 L'i'ega 
 
 ion, 
 
 ,p, cared in 
 
 Rome in 1616. 
 
 After 
 
 the r 
 
 ■!■•■ Ill 
 
 
 older, the 20th ( 
 
 820, and the '-'1 
 
 eneral 
 
 t.lleld 
 
 
 
 
 i revision of the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ot'stl 
 
 dies; 
 
 and the eei 
 
 era! of the order. 
 
 Father 
 
 Root 
 
 ian, ! 
 
 ppointed, tl 
 
 erefore. in 1830 
 
 a com- 
 
 niltti 
 
 e of t 
 
 
 presenting the fh 
 
 e prov- 
 
 mees 
 
 of tl 
 
 e order, — Ii 
 
 dv. Sicily, Franc 
 
 !, ( .'cl- 
 
 many 
 
 and S] ain. In 18J 
 
 1, the revised cours 
 
 atter 
 
 havii 
 and 
 ..f tli 
 
 j rcci. 
 
 ■. The chang 
 
 n.ilatiiiii of the 
 sinade in the old 
 
 imbers 
 course 
 
 llllllll 
 
 Instia 
 
 Jesuits, through their schools, have exerl 
 the history of many countries is adm 
 all. In order to appreciate justly the edi 
 principl is of the Jesuits, it mas be well I 
 first, the plan accord in. j; to which the me 
 the order were, and still are. traine 1 themselves 
 as teachers. The candidates for the priesthood 
 are, during the two first years, novitii schokts- 
 tiri; then, by binding themselves to the order by 
 means of simple vows, they become scholastici 
 approbati. Devoting themselves Poi > ralyeara 
 to classical and philosophical studies, thej are, for 
 
 s time, i ■ i 1 1 ] > I ' . v i ■ 1 1 a- teachers ami educators 
 
 in the colleges, until they begin the study of 
 theology, which lasts for four years As all the 
 
 members were thus trai 1 as practical teachers, 
 
 the order was, soon after its foundation enabled 
 wherever a favorable opportunity offered, to call 
 
 into existence an astonishing number of literary 
 institutions. 
 
 \W. 
 
 sology and philosophy is not to be 
 ie same extent as before, on Thomas 
 id Aristotle; and. in mathematics and 
 1 sciences, proper attention is to be 
 he recent progress made in those 
 
 In the lower classes of their institu- 
 ( revisions are made for learning mod- 
 e's, both the vernacular and foreign, 
 study of history. The course of studies 
 into twenty sections, and embraces 
 ie provincial, the rector, the prefects 
 
 the professors, the scholastics, and 
 is, 'I he general of this order is the 
 ■ad of all its schools and educational 
 s; he superintends till of them, and he 
 orizes the establishment of new ones, 
 the pies. -in century, the government 
 
 transferred to the Society of Jesus 
 anasia and the theological faculty of 
 
 stale universities (Innspruck), the 
 he order, Father Beckx, explicitly in- 
 the superior- of the order must be at 
 
 "to appoint members of the order. 
 
 lessors, and to removi 
 in their steai I. as he n 
 
 of Cod.'' The head 
 
 id the first section oi the 
 nends to him the care of 
 tment of competent pre- 
 
 lessors, and the enforce- 
 
ment of a strict observance of the entire course 
 of studies. At the head of single houses oi col- 
 leges, is the "rector," who does not give instruc- 
 
 riTS 493 
 
 the Greek language begins simultaneously with 
 the I-atin. though much less time and attention 
 arc given to it.— Instruction in the vernacular 
 language was incorporated with the course of in- 
 struction by order of the 14th < Jeneral < 'ongrega- 
 
 the first class must, as a rule, have 20 teachers 
 or ■•regents"; a college of the second class, 30; a 
 college of the third class, or a university, at least 
 70. Small institutions which have not a suffi- 
 cient number of teachers must be dissolved. 
 With the colleges, there are generally connected 
 convictoria alumnorum (boarding-houses), in 
 which students of the college receive lodging. 
 boarding, and strict superintendence by a mem- 
 ber of the order, or seminaries, for educat- 
 ing young candidates for the priesthood or 
 knights' academies, for the exclusive education 
 of the sons of nobles. Pay scholars who do not 
 live in any of the institutions, have to promise 
 
 obediei to the rector and the rules, ami they 
 
 are. from time to time, visited by the prefect of 
 studies in their houses. 
 
 The schools of the Jesuits are divided into 
 
 der that of a /iruf'r ius studi 
 The smaller colleges have old; 
 and. therefore, only one prefi 
 ft riora embrace five classes 
 called "the rudiment": (5 
 classis grammatical, also 
 (3) Tertia, or suprema da 
 called-svntax"; i4i o.w/\'o 
 few, (5) Quinta rhetori, i 
 designated as the three gi 
 higher as the two humanity class 
 schools, two classes are sometimes united into 
 one ; in larger schools, parallel classes are formed. 
 Considerable prominence is given, in all the clas- 
 ses, to the study of the Latin language. As 
 much as practicable, Latin is made the medium 
 of instruction : and it is intended to give to the 
 pupils such a knowledge of the language as will 
 enable them to speak and write it. Father Beckx, 
 the general of the order, says on this subject, in 
 his correspondence with the Austrian minister of 
 public instruction : - Because the Latin language 
 
 is the language of the church, and the lan-ua-.' ot 
 
 Christian tradition, and 1 ause in this language 
 
 the literary treasures of all times and nations 
 have been deposited, and because it has been for 
 centuries developed beyond any other language. 
 as the medium of faith and of science, the Soci- 
 ety of Jesus has a special predilection for this lan- 
 guage, and uses it as medium of instruction in 
 
 its sc| Is." It is expressly stated that it is not 
 
 intended to imbue the minds of the pupils with 
 the spirit of classic antiquity, and most of the 
 Latin authors used in the schools of the Jesuits 
 are read in expurgated editions. — The study of 
 
 ;•«. 
 
 The 
 i In 
 
 studia in- 
 
 >!,„.,, als, 
 
 salle. 
 
 JL 
 
 • kumani- 
 
 ses. h 
 
 bv religious exercises than liv theoretical instruc- 
 tion.— In the two higher classes oratorical exer- 
 cises and exercises m composition n ive spe- 
 cial attention. The other .subjects of instruction 
 were originally comprised under the collective 
 name of rrntlitin, and it was recommended to 
 use specially the hours of recreation, and the 
 weekly holiday for the purpose of acquainting the 
 pupils with the elementary and most interesting 
 parts of tfie "studies. The studia superiora 
 comprise a two years' course of philosoph) and 
 
 The 
 
 is naseii on tiie inniianieiitai principle inai con- 
 cation and instruction should be most intimately 
 connected, and that the education of the pupils 
 is by far the most important aim of a school. 
 They favor the class teaching system: for not 
 
 nliK i|e, -the ehlss tcailicl' teach allol'lllOStof 
 
 the' subjects of instruction in his class, but he 
 takes his pupils through several or all of the 
 classes. They deem it an important condition 
 of the success ot the teacher that he should thor- 
 oughly know the character of each pupil: and 
 this, they contend, is only possible in the class- 
 teaching system. They believe that great care 
 should be taken not to crowd the pupils, either 
 in the number of subjects or the amount of time 
 given to study: and they object to the courses 
 of instruction adopted in most modern colleges 
 and gymnasia, as attempting too much. They 
 prefer short lessons, and are specially anxious 
 to make learning and reciting as attractive to 
 the pupils as possible. Great stress is laid on 
 thorough memorizing, and on frequent reviews 
 and disputations, the last day of every week 
 
 half-year are 
 work acconi 
 
 Chief llieelill 
 
 pal 
 
 until ami ot every 
 to a rc\ iew of the 
 is period. As the 
 ey encourage emu- 
 
 ties, which are taken from the Greek and Roman 
 republics l pretors, censors, d> curious, etc.). It is 
 made the duty of the teacher to control his pupils 
 by means of praise and encouragement rather 
 than by punishment. Corporal punishment is 
 to be employed only in extreme cases, and not 
 by any member of the order, but by a " cor- 
 rector " appointed for the purpose. 
 
 The influence of the Jesuits upon education 
 in Catholic countries has been very great. Each 
 
494 JESUITS 
 
 one of these countries, at one tii >r other, has 
 
 had Hniiri.-liiii'j colleges "t the Jesuits, in which, 
 in particular, a large number oi the children 
 of the nobility and of r prominenl persons 
 
 JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY 
 
 mi- of tin- exelamatiuii (if A^csihius cuiiivriiiii^ 
 Pharnabazus : ' Since thou art so noble, 1 would 
 
 activity was g 
 from the fad 
 '.'I professed 
 seminaries, i 
 
 the rising generation, by the 
 colleges. Thus, the Portuguei 
 1613, in Japan two coll gi s; ani 
 I tii-i-i . -Mlili-linl a rtj.nt.it !■ >n . 
 scholars. Their educational li 
 limited to schools of a high 
 the most celebrated of their m 
 „!. v.i.all the youth were, fc 
 der the sole educational conti 
 Though founded for combatii 
 they gained, as teachers, tin 
 many of the Protestant princes 
 the Great, of Prussia, perm 
 the abolition of their order, 
 organized society, under the 
 ill' the nival si'lnml institute." 
 
 „■ order had only 
 
 former 
 
 colleges and 176 
 
 classes. 
 
 inaries in pagan 
 
 the -.in 
 
 i- to obtain, as 
 
 highest 
 
 the education of 
 
 and ed 
 
 r.Mal'li.-lnni'iit nf 
 
 favorei 
 
 ,us; but in. nil,' will say that .Imii 
 isnl (iii ;i tree snaring (if the mnnl. 
 dety proceeded from the depth and 
 of a simple mind. They are snf- 
 
 culated, 
 v were 
 
 man Empire, and Russia ; ai 
 1876, threatened with suppres 
 1 fuugary. rhey li ive also be 
 Mexico, the United States of 
 number of other South Lmi i ii 
 howei er still have a aumber .a i 
 the Netherlands, Belgium, Gi 
 tin A.ustro Hungarian Monarcl 
 
 of that province. They conti 
 
 i inanity after tin- abolitioi 
 
 and l'i'i'W i-apiillv after its rest. 
 in 1876, were as follows 
 South Boston, and College oi 
 Worcester, Mass.: Collegi oi S 
 New York; St. John - < lollege, 
 ham) : St. Joseph's, Philadel] 
 Frederick, M.I : Loyola, Kali 
 Washington, l>. O; Georgetov 
 Bill, near Mobile, Ala.; St 
 St. Louis Mo.; College of the 
 
 n. ilv 
 
 I, Jl Ge- 
 ietz, His- 
 in Old 
 A special 
 ■ Sot ietat 
 b., Lands- 
 See also 
 
 <;■ rman 7i at h rs and i a ■ a condensed 
 
 translation fr EUt mers GeschicJiU der Pdda- 
 
 gogik); and Weicker, Das Schulwesen der Je- 
 suiten nach den Quellen dargesteUt. 
 
 JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, at 
 
 Balti re, Mil., was founded in L874. It is 
 
 named in hi r of the late Johns Hopkins of 
 
 Baltimore, who bequeathed a fund of $3,1 Minn 
 for it- endowment and a beautiful estate of 330 
 
 the 
 
 founi 
 choo 
 
 ill.-. I. 
 
 ed Oct. 3., 1876. The plan includes a med- 
 department and a law department. The 
 
 •rsitv <•. .ii 1 1 ii ii .l.i t. - ■• a eoinliinatiini (if lect- 
 iveimtions. lal...iat..rv practice, fi.'l.l w..rk. 
 
 do not exisl When I look at the diligei 
 the activity uf the .lesnits, Imih in im 
 knowledge and in moulding the heart. I 
 
 other, freedom of courses to be selected by the 
 Btudents," while it is " intended that the pupils 
 shall have been matured by the long prepar- 
 
atory discipline of superior teachers, and by | rule to particular objects or facts. Thus, in uat- 
 the systematic, laborious, and persistent pursuit ural history, after the pupil lias learned the 
 of fundamental knowledge." Ten fellowships, cliaraetei ishes ..I > 11ffl , and species by aminute 
 
 selves as applicants, twenty fell. 
 
 wsh 
 
 ps were be- 
 
 whether the 
 
 »rrespondeni 
 
 e i rists or not. As 
 
 JUDGMENT, Training 
 
 of. 
 
 leges. 
 
 This ,le- 
 
 regards cone 
 
 u'm °Sdf ! 
 
 re, ami is constantly 
 
 partinent of intellectual culture 
 attention, if the whole educal 
 
 adapted to the iiidmdii.il both 
 of maturity) and peculiarities 
 
 
 oiiah l... 
 
 
 or le» by r\ 
 
 ;;; , ;;; n p;;;' l ;;; ! ;;;;:;;;; 
 
 endow in, 111. \\ h.r,. ihis is not 
 
 the 
 
 ase, an effi- 
 
 formed dur 
 
 tg the \« no. 
 
 of earlj education. 
 
 eient corrective may be applied 
 exercise the pupil's menial faci 
 
 In'- 
 
 in various 
 
 Habits of at 
 
 ention, can fi 
 
 Lng^faprofouTd 
 
 wars and in connection with 
 The departure must be taken fr 
 the pupils experience; he mm 
 an accurate observation oi pari 
 details: (2) to then- collation, a 
 
 eul.i 
 
 us subjects. 
 
 and earnest 
 
 ■t of study or 
 
 •'":lrl 'will : 
 
 vm qualify anj person 
 
 led (1) to 
 
 liiniu.iiy to 
 
 from prejud 
 
 ich habits will be free 
 •adilv learn to elimi- 
 
 generalization; and (3) to tli 
 under appropriate heads. Wh 
 ciples or rules have been establisl 
 
 ','!r 
 
 lassification 
 mend prin- 
 
 I the pupils 
 
 nateall pass 
 
 and. hence, 
 
 its judgmen 
 is acquired, 
 
 ntellectual processes ; 
 s being solely based 
 \ Ml lie correct or the 
 
 mind in this way, his judgmen 
 into play in the application of 
 
 the 
 
 principle or 
 
 tent of the i 
 
 apportion ti 
 
 the accuracy and ex- 
 
 ssessed. 
 
 KALAMAZOO COLLEGE, at Kalamazoo, 
 Mich., under the control of the Baptists, was 
 
 founded in is;.:.. It admits both sexes, and is 
 supported by tuition fees (818 per year), and the 
 income of an endowment of $80,000. It has a 
 library of 2,500 volumes, chemical and philo- 
 sophical apparatus, ami cabinets of natural his- 
 
 Educaticmal History.- 
 the constitution ratified 
 was required to "encou 
 
 3y the provisions of 
 1859, the legislature 
 ee the promoti f 
 
 fori 
 ther 
 
 "SS 
 
 were 
 been 
 185c 
 
 of the col 
 
 as follows 
 
 and 
 
 the Rev. 
 
 incumbent lis 
 KANSAS, 
 
 pure 
 
 ritoi 
 It w 
 
 area 
 
 y by an ai 
 as admit 
 is 81,318 
 
 .of whom 27 
 .Stone,D.D., 
 
 b' , ,':"pa.. f , ; .;*,h," 1 :; 
 
 |l.. lsi;4— 7; 
 
 education law was ena 
 
 . the present 
 
 S hool System. — Tl 
 
 S. 
 
 the state are eomniitt 
 
 he Louisiana 
 
 of public instruction, ( 
 
 separate ter 
 
 state board oi educal i< 
 
 n May,1854. 
 
 cipals of the normal si 
 
 n 1861. Its 
 
 state university and o 
 
 ition, accord- 
 
 which body li I- am, 
 
 ing to the census of 1870, was 36 1,399, of whom 
 17d()S were colored. and 91 1 Indians. The state 
 census of Is;:: showed a gain of 67.63 per cent, 
 the total population of the state at that time be- 
 ing 6 L0.863. ( )f the male adults 8.42 percent were 
 illiterate; and of the female adults, 13.2 per cent. 
 
 catcs tor three or nye years; 3 a -late board 
 of commissioners, composed of tin' state super- 
 intendent, the secretary of state, and the at- 
 torney general, for the management of the per- 
 manent school and university funds ; ami 
 
(4) county superintendents, elected for two 
 years, whose duty it is to apportion the school 
 moneys, to visit schools, and to hold teachers' 
 institutes. These institutes are also required to 
 be held annually by the superintendent of public- 
 instruction, in the several judicial districts of 
 the state. The schools must be kept open six 
 hours per day for at least three months, the 
 •school month consisting of four weeks of five 
 days each. The school age is from 5 to 21 years. 
 By the act of August. L874, parents are com- 
 pelled to send healthy children to public or 
 private schools not less than twelve weeks every 
 year, under the penalty of a fine of from $5 to 
 810 for the first offense, and from si" to $20 
 for every subsequent offense. School directors 
 are charged with the enforcement of this law. — 
 The school revenue is derived from (1) the pro- 
 ceeds of all lands granted by < Jongress to the 
 state for the support of schools, including the 
 500,000 acres granted to each new state in 1841; 
 (2) all estates of persons dying intestate and with- 
 out heirs ; and (3) money derived from military 
 exemptions, tines, and estrays. The amount of 
 interesVbearing permanent school fund, in IS75, 
 according to the report of the state superintend- 
 ent, for that year, was $1,163,534.09. The 
 income from all sources for the support of 
 schools, amounted to 81,478,998.64, including 
 $264,683.30 from state funds, and $685,162.2'i 
 from district taxes.- The salaries of teachers 
 areas follows: average monthly salary of male 
 teachers, $33.98; of female teachers, $27.25. - 
 The course of instruction according to the law 
 of 1874, includes orthography, reading, writing, 
 English grammar, arithmetic, and such other 
 branches as may be prescribed by the district 
 board. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The total number 
 of school-districts in the state is 4,560 ; and the 
 number of school-houses, 3,71 5. According to the 
 report of 1875. the number of persons of school 
 age was 199,986; of whom 103,551 were males, 
 and 96,435 females. The following are addi- 
 tional items of school statistics : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled H2.G06 
 
 Average daily attendance 85,580 
 
 Number ,if teachers, males 2.44S 
 
 " " " females 2,935 
 
 Total 5,383 
 
 Receipts .-! .i. 998.64 
 
 Expenditures, for salaries, repairs, etc. $1,235,969.72 
 Normal Instruction. — There are three state 
 normal schools for the training of teachers The 
 first was organized at Emporia in 1865. This 
 affords a two years' and a four years' course of 
 study in the normal department, and has, be- 
 sides, a model department, consisting of a high- 
 school and grammar department, and an element- 
 ary training school. The enrollment, in 1875, 
 was 302 : in the normal department, 77; high 
 school, 8; training and preparatory school, 217. 
 The second normal school is at Leavenworth and 
 was organized in 1870. This comprises a nor- 
 mal department, which affords a thorough knowl- 
 edge of all the subjects taught in the public 
 
 schools of the state, and a model school, in which 
 the art of teaching is practiced. The model 
 school comprises thirteen grades or departments, 
 and. in ls7.">, the total enrollment was s.'ili ; and 
 the number of teachers, 12. In the normal de- 
 partment, the enrollment was 420; and the num- 
 ber of teachers, 7 ; the average attendance was 
 about 250. Tliis department includes two kinds 
 of classes: the regular classes of the normal 
 course, and the temporary classes of the institute 
 course. The former study in detail all that per- 
 tains to professional training: the latter give 
 their attention to all the ordinary common-school 
 subjects, with only enough detail to illustrate 
 methods. There are five of these short courses 
 in a school year. The normal students teach in 
 the grades of the city schools. The third normal 
 school, organized in 1 874, is located at Concordia. 
 The school edifice is a fine stone structure, ca- 
 pable of accomodating .'(111) students. The enroll- 
 ment, in 1*75. was. in the normal-department, 
 1 71 : in the training school. 83; total, 254. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — In 1873, the regents 
 of the university authorized the preparation of 
 a course of study for the high schools of the 
 state, for the purpose of introducing uniformity 
 into the school system. With this view a clas- 
 sification was adopted which assigned to the high 
 schools an intermediate position between the 
 graded schools on the one hand, and the state 
 university and agricultural college on the other. 
 Three courses, each of four years, were arranged, 
 — a classical, a scientific, and an English course. 
 The choice as to which shall be pursued, is op- 
 tional with the student. There are 66 graded 
 schools in the state which have, connected with 
 them, high school courses, attended by 1.066 pu- 
 pils. There are two business colleges, which were 
 reported, in 1*74. to have 4 instructors and 179 
 students, 140 of the latter being males, and 39 
 females. The principal denominational schools 
 of this grade are (1) St. Benedict's College (Ro- 
 man Catholic), at Atchison, with 7 instructors 
 and 110 students; (2) the college of the Sisters 
 of Bethany (Episcopal), at Topeka, with a pri- 
 mary, a preparatory, and a collegiate department; 
 (3) Mt. St. Mary's Female Academy (Roman 
 Catholic), conducted by the Sisters of Charity, 
 with 7 instructors and '.'(I pupils; (4) the Geneva 
 Academy (Presbyterian) with 2 instructors and 
 100 pupils; (5) the Western Methodist Collegiate 
 Institute, at Hartford; (6) Washburn College 
 (Congregational), at Topeka. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Of the institutions 
 which afford instruction of this grade, the only 
 one under the direct management of the state is 
 the University of Kansas (q. v.), at Lawrence. 
 Others are included in the following table : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Baker University 
 
 Highland rnivcrsity. 
 
 I.ane University 
 
 St. Benedict's College 
 
 St. Mary's College [St. Mary' 
 
 Washburn College ITopeka 
 
 LocatK 
 
 Baldwin cm 
 Highland 
 Lecornpton 
 Atchison 
 
 
 M. Kids. 
 Presb. 
 [-. lirtth. 
 R. C. 
 R. C. 
 Cong. 
 
KANSAS UNIVERSITY 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
 The Kansas Agricultural College.at Manhattan, 
 is designed, as its name implies, to afford instruc- 
 tion in agriculture; and, to thai end, ii has a large 
 farm of over-loo acres, by means of which the 
 
 and the raising of root-crops, as on an actual 
 farm. Besides this farm and the course con- 
 nected with it, there are departments for the 
 teaching of sewing, printing, and telegraphy. 
 The literary departments of the college include a 
 farmers', a mechanics', and a commercial course, 
 besides special instvuetion for women. It is 
 claimed that the full curriculum carries the 
 graduates up to the point reached by the besi 
 colleges. The endowment of the institution was 
 derived from the sale of the congressional -rant 
 of land (90,000 aires), yielding, in ordinary 
 years, an income of about $20,000, which it is 
 expected will, before many years, be doubled. 
 The attendance of students al the college, during 
 the year L874,was208, of whom 139 were males, 
 and 69 females. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Kansas Institution 
 forthe Instruetion of the liliml is organized with 
 a superintendent, matron, physician, and four 
 teachers, and receives pupils from 9 to 21 years 
 of age. It is expected that, before admission, 
 
 students shall have previously i ived sufficient 
 
 elementary instruetion to enable them to go on 
 with the course pursued in the instituti hi: and. 
 on this condition, they are received without 
 charge, except for clothing, traveling, and in- 
 cidental expenses. 
 
 KANSAS, University of, at Lawrence. 
 Kansas, was chartered in L864. It is supported 
 by state appropriations, the income of a fund of 
 $10,500, and by contingent fees of SHI per 
 
 annum, the only charge made by the university. 
 The institution owns 72 sections of land granted 
 to the state by Congress, in L861, for the sup- 
 port of a state university. The grounds com- 
 prise 50 acres on Mount (triad, donate! by 
 citizens of Lawrence and its vicinity. There are 
 two buildings, erected partly by the city and 
 partly by the state. Tin- university has chemical 
 and philosophical apparatus, libraries containing 
 about 2,500 volumes, and a cabinet of natural 
 history. Both sexes are admitted. The charter 
 provides that the university shall consist of six 
 departments: (lj Science. Literature, and the 
 Arts: (2) Law; (3) Medicine: (4) Theory and 
 Practice of Elementary Instruction: (5) Agri- 
 culture; (6) The Normal Department. Of these 
 several departments. — Science. Literature, ami 
 the Arts, and the Normal Department, are the 
 only ones yet organized. These departments, 
 at present, comprise seven courses of instruc- 
 tion : namely, a classical and a modern literature 
 course, each leading to the degree of Bachelor 
 of Arts: a general scientific course, and three 
 special scientific courses, — one in chemistry, one 
 in natural history, and one in civil and top- 
 
 [ ographica! engineering 
 
 tnie courses leading to 
 
 of the four seien- 
 ,-ree of LacheW 
 
 and 237 students (72 collegiate, 35 normal, and 
 130 preparatory), of whom 1 IT were males and 
 120 females. The presidents of the university 
 have been as follows : the Lev. It. W. Oliver, 
 11.1)., 1865— 8; Lev. John Fraser, A. M., 
 1868—74; and the Lev. .lame.- Marvin, D. I>., 
 tl»' present incumbent (1876),appointedinl874. 
 KANT, Immanuel, one of the most illus- 
 trious of philosophers, was born April 22., 1724, 
 at Kbnigsberg. where he die.l Lebr. 12.. 1804. 
 After having been for nine years a tutor, he be- 
 calm' in 1755. i„-irnt-iltu . nl. ami. iii 1770, pro- 
 fessor, in tin' philosophii al faculty of the univer- 
 
 by the name 
 because he wai 
 and criticism c 
 ored to fix ad 
 which is essei 
 cognition on 
 empirical, nou 
 other. The C 
 
 re- 
 
 d in our 
 which is 
 1, on the 
 i are the 
 
 I, ,11, 
 
 (It 
 
 element- of tiaiisceiidental knowledge, but that, 
 this transcendental knowledge does not at- 
 tain, with absolute certainty, to the nature of 
 things; (31 thai God, freedom, ami immortality 
 
 1 1 la 
 
 (1781); Kritikder prakt 
 
 schen Vernunft(l188); 
 
 Kritikder Uriheilskrqft 
 
 (1790) : Die Religion 
 
 innerhalb der Gramen 
 
 der Mossen Vernunft 
 
 (1793) : Anihropobgie , 
 
 n pragmaiischer Ein- 
 
 sirht (1798).- As profess 
 
 irof philosophy, Kant 
 
 was required to deliver 
 
 alternately with the 
 
 other professors of tl.es: 
 
 me subject, lectures on 
 
 pedagogy. Thenoteswhi 
 
 Ii he i n pared for these 
 
 lectures, were, in the latt, 
 
 pai t in his life, revised 
 
 and arranged by his pit] 
 
 1 Rink, who, in L803, 
 
 published 1 1n 'in uuiler tin 
 
 title. I,,,, „, ,,i„,l Km, t 
 
 uber Pddagogik. Kant 
 
 regarded education as 
 
 raid 
 
 study, that education should be freed from 
 mechanism, and be elevated to an art guided bj 
 science. Children must not be educated, in ac- 
 cordance with mere custom, for the world, as it 
 now exists, but, in harmony with the idea of 
 humanity, fora better condition of societj in the 
 future. The plan of education should not be 
 narrow and restricted, but cosmopolitan. The 
 
498 KENT 
 
 development of man for the fulfillment of the 
 manifold laws of his existence is regarded hv 
 K.n.t as the proper object of education. He lavs 
 
 requires that the tea 1 
 
 y a thorough course of in- 
 struction in the principles of morality, which 
 should be derived from reason. The work of 
 God (conscience, moral law. and reason) must 
 lie known, before God himself can be known. — 
 Kant was a great admirer of the pedagogical 
 views of Montaigne and Itousseau. and took an 
 earnest interest in the career of the philanthro- 
 pin. He has exerted considerable influence upon 
 the development of German pedagogics: as is 
 evident from the fact that a number of the most 
 devoted believers in his philosophical views dis- 
 tinguished themselves as educational writ.']-: 
 among whom may be mentioned Niemeyer, 
 Schwarz. and Hosenkranz ; and even Herbart 
 was greatly influenced by Kant. — Editions of 
 the complete works of Kant have been pub- 
 
 authorized to cause to be surveyed, located, and' 
 patented, within their respective counties, the 
 reserve above indicated, or elsewhere in the state, 
 6,000 acres each for seminary purposes, such 
 lands to be exempt from taxation. Through in- 
 attention or interested legislation, however, the- 
 land was. in many cases, sold by the county au- 
 thorities, and the proceeds were squandered; in 
 others, the funds are still held for their original 
 uses by trustees. On the ltfth of December, 1821, 
 one-half of the net profits of the Bank of the 
 Commonwealth were, by act of the legislature, 
 set apart as a Literary Fund, to be distributed, 
 pro rata, to the counties of the state, for the 
 support of a general system of education, under 
 state direction : and one-half of the net profits 
 
 lished by 1 1 urrF.NsTKiN 
 edit., 8 vols.. L867 — 9), by Si 
 
 KRANZ (11 Vols., lKlD !'_'. \\ 
 
 Schubert), and K ikciim \nn 
 A good English translation 
 Pure Reason has been pul 
 Meiklejohn (in Holm's Phi 
 1855). Recent works of va 
 dents are M wiufv. Kant's 
 for English Read ■ Lond 
 Abbott's hint's Theory < 
 1873) ;and Moitck's Tntrodu 
 Philosophy (Dublin, 1874). 
 Rink's pamphlet, Tmmanuel 
 
 d 1I..SK 
 
 KENTUCKY, 
 
 itional topics, has been 
 
 isthelOth vol. of Ui.'ii- 
 
 oihek). 
 
 :' the interior stales of 
 
 ion in 1792,as the second state after the original 
 thirteen. Its population, at that time, was about 
 75,000; but, in 1800, it was reported as 220,595. 
 [ts area is 37,680 sq. m., and its population, in 
 1870, was 1,321,01 1, its rank in the latter respeci 
 being the eighth. 
 
 Educational History. —The first step taken by 
 this state in the interesl of education, after its ad- 
 mission into the Onion, was in I 798, when, by act 
 of the legislature, 6,000 acres of the public lands 
 of the state were given to each of the following 
 institutions: Franklin. Salem, and Kentucky 
 academies, and Lexington and Jefferson semina- 
 ries. In 1 305 and I 808, acts were passed extend- 
 ing these provisions to all the counties of the 
 state then existing. Within twenty years after the 
 passage of the act of L798, forty six additional 
 institutions were endowed by a similar grant of 
 6,000 acres. Another law provided that, in ad- 
 dition to this, a large tract of public land, speci- 
 fied by the act, should be set apart for edu- 
 cational purposes ; and the county courts were 
 
 Until 
 
 priati 
 
 fund- in the treasury, to the older .-fates, with 
 the understanding that n was to be devoted to 
 
 educational pui poses. < If this; nut. Kentucky's 
 
 share was $1,433,757. As no condition was im- 
 posed, however, that it should be used as an edu- 
 cational fund, only $] ,000,000 of it wasset apart 
 for that purpose; and this was afterwards re- 
 duced to $850,000. This was the origin of the~~ 
 permanently invested school fund of the state,/ 
 and the interest of it was for many years the ^ 
 only constant revenue for the support of the 
 public schools. In 1838, the first law for the 
 establishment of a general system of common J 
 schools was enacted ; but for ten years little was 
 done to make it effective : and. in 1840, the state 
 having entered upon a system of costly internal 
 improvements by which a deficit in the treasury 
 was caused, the payment of interest on the school 
 bonds was refused'. This was followed by the 
 calling in and burning of all the school bonds. 
 In L847 - s . however, an act was passed, chiefly 
 through the efforts of Rev. Robert J. Breckin- 
 ridge, directing the governorto issue a new bond 
 for all arrears of interest due. and submitting to 
 a vote of the people a proposition to levy a tax 
 of two cents on each one hundred dollars, for 
 common-school purposes. The election showed 
 ,i majority of 36,882 votes in favor of this tax. 
 In lSHI. upon the framing of a new constitution 
 for the state, the school funds, for which the 
 state had given bonds to the state board of edu- 
 cation, were forever dedicated to common-school 
 purposes, together with all other funds which 
 might thereafter be raised for the same purpose. 
 During the legislative session of 1S50 — 51, a fierce 
 contest arose between the governor (John L. 
 Helm) and the state superintendent (Rev. Dr. 
 Breckinridge) as to whether the common-school 
 fund should be considered a part of the regular 
 state debt, the interest of which was payable out 
 of the sinking fund. Dr. Breckinridge considered 
 that it should be so paid, and the adoption of 
 this method was of vital moment to the popu- 
 
KENTUCKY 
 
 laritv of the public-school system, since, if it 
 were not bo paid, a special annual tax of $80,000 
 would be necessary. Aft ira long and heated dis- 
 cussion, a bill directing th nnnisMon.Ts of the 
 
 sinking fund to pay the interest of the school 
 bonds was passed ; but it was vetoed by the 
 governor. It was, however, immediately repasse I 
 over his veto, by a large vote. In 1855, the 
 school tax was increased from two to five cut. 
 on the hundred dollars, by a majority oi 57,980 
 votes out of 109,492 cast From that time till 
 
 1867, little ch age was made in the corni - 
 
 school system oi the state. In the latter year, 
 the state superintendent, Z. K. Smith, prepared 
 a plan which contemplated an entire reorgani 
 zation of the system. I lis proposition to increase 
 the school tax from five to twenty cents on the 
 hundred dollars, to add a poll tax of one or two 
 dollars, and to empower the people of any county, 
 district, town, or city to vote an additional local 
 tax of thirty cents on the hundred dollars, for 
 school purposes, was accepted by the legislature, 
 and carried by a large popular majority. His 
 plan for the reconstruction of the schools, though 
 greatly modified, was substantially embodied in 
 the law enacted, ami resulted in giving a fresh 
 impetus to the cause of education. In I B73, the 
 present school laws went into effect, and the 
 beneficial results of their operation are looked 
 for with very great confidence. In 1874, an 
 act was passed for the establishment of a uni- 
 form school system for the e filiation of colore 1 
 children, to be under the supervision of the 
 superintendent of public instruction and the 
 state board of education. This act provides that 
 
 all taxes collected from colored i pie shall go 
 
 to the support of col. .red schools. — The .V.7- 
 Superintendents have been as follows: Joseph 
 J. Bullock. D.D.. 1837—0; Hubbard H. Kav- 
 
 upon the office of super 
 year is five months, of 
 
 Benjamin IS. .Smith, 
 W. Brush, 1842—3; 
 
 ; 1 ; I toward A. M. 
 
 anaugh. D.I).. In-.'.)— 1(1 
 D. D., 1840—42; Georg 
 
 Hvland T. 1 Hilar,!. D. D 
 Breckinridge. I). !•„ LI.. 
 
 Mathews. D.D., 1853 : 
 A.M.. 1859 -63; Daniel 
 — 7; Zach. P. Smith, 186 
 
 Henderson. D. I)., elected in ]s71. 
 
 School System. — The general supervision and 
 control of the educational interests of the state 
 are intrusted to Astute htmrd nf nhientiini, which 
 consists of the secretary of state, attorney gen- 
 eral, superintendent of public instruction, and 
 two professional educators. The Inst three con- 
 stitute a standing committee for the preparation 
 of rules, by-laws, and regulations for the govern- 
 ment of the schools, and tor the recommendation 
 of a proper course of study and suitable text- 
 books — the latter to be adopted at the discretion 
 of the county board of examiners. The executive 
 officer of the bond is the superintendent of pub- 
 lic instruction who is elected for four years, and 
 whose duty it is to exercise a general supervision 
 over the schools of the state, to distribute an- 
 nually through the state the school laws, to 
 furnish blanks for reports, certificates, etc.. and 
 to perform all other duties naturally devolving 
 
 endent. The schoo 
 
 sts ot the state 
 :al educators tip- 
 .are held m.lulv 
 
 in any of tin 
 ination by ci 
 
 .)'"!:- 
 
 competent persons appointed by him. They 
 examine teachers, giant certificates, and select a 
 uniform series of text-books, to be in use two 
 years. 
 
 Edit at 'd ndition— Concerning the num- 
 ber of scl l-dist] ictS, scl Is. etc., ad\ ices from 
 
 counties and districts are so imperfectly made 
 up that entirely accurate stati>lii> cannot be ob- 
 tained. In the annual report of the state super- 
 intendent for the year ending June, lo74, an 
 approximate result "is -riven as follows: number 
 of school-districts, 1,035; districts in which com- 
 
 1,017; average attendance of pupils, 114,603. 
 
 Normal Instruction. — There is an incorpo- 
 rated normal school at Carlisle under private 
 control : but those who graduate from the course 
 provided for teachers have the right, under the 
 charter, to teach in the common schools of the 
 
 ing school connected with its public-school 
 system: and the Frankfort public school has a. 
 training class. At Lexington, there is a colored 
 school with a normal department under the 
 
 direction of the \ rican Missionary Society. 
 
 Teachers' institutes are held in almost every 
 county of the state. These institutes are con- 
 ducted by professional teachers: and. being tin- 
 chief agency for normal instruction in the state, 
 receive considerable attention. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — High schools for 
 males ami females are maintained in Louisville. 
 and some other parts of the state. There are 
 also academics, female seminaries and colleges, 
 and commercial colleges. ( >f the former. 47 were 
 enumerated in the state superintendent's report 
 for 1874. The two business colleges at Louisville 
 and Lexington, reported, in 1>7 1. 9 instructors 
 and 240 students. 
 
 Superior Instrnetion. — The following table 
 includes the principal colleges and universities, 
 exclusive of female colleges, in the state : 
 
KENTUCKY - UNIVERSITY 
 
 Bethel College 
 
 Kusselville 
 Richmond 
 Danville 
 New Liberty 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Kv. J.iith. 
 
 Nniest rt 
 Baptist 
 
 <i 'getown College . Georgetown 
 
 K.-ntu l.v Univi rsity. Lexington 
 
 Ky. Military lust Fiiriiidale 
 
 Ky. Wislevan Univ... Millersburg 
 
 St. Mary's College.... St. Mary's 1821 K. C. 
 
 Warren College Bowling Green 
 
 The female colleges are quite numerous ; chief 
 among which may be mentioned Bethel Female 
 i College, at Hopkinsville, a Baptist institution; 
 z Bourbon Female < 'ollege, at Paris ; the I'resby- 
 S terian Female College, at Howling Green ; Bap- 
 „ tist Female College, at Clinton; Franklin Fe- 
 i' male College, at Franklin ; Lebanon Female 
 t College (Baptist), at Lebanon: Lexington Fe- 
 • male College (Baptist), at Lexington; Logan 
 , Female College (M. E. South), at Russelville ; 
 '■ f Louisville Female College (Moth.), at Louisville; 
 /.Millersburg Female College, at Millersburg; 
 /'Shelbyville Female College (So. Presb.), at 
 / ? Shelbyville ; and Stanford Female College, at 
 Stanford, Besides these, there are several un- 
 chartered institutions which are prosecuting 
 the work of higher education. Among these 
 maybe mentioned Warren College at Bowling 
 Green; Daughters College. 1 larrodsburg ; Hocker 
 Female College, U'xington ; the Kentucky Col- 
 lege for Young Ladies. Pewee Valley; and 
 Berea College, at Berea. The last was organ- 
 ized in 1858 for both sexes, without distinction 
 of race. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. - 
 Scientific instruction is partially provided in 
 many of the colleges already enumerated; but 
 special provision in this respect is made in the 
 State Agricultural and Mechanical College, at 
 Lexington. The course comprises the following 
 departments: (1) English language and literature; 
 (2) mathematics; (3) chemistry and experimental 
 philosophy; (4) natural history and political econ- 
 omy: (.")) mental and moral philosophy; (C) com- 
 mercial training; (7) mining and civil engineer- 
 ing: (H) modern languages; (9) fine arts; (10) mili- 
 tary tactics. Law is taught in a special school 
 forming a part of the Kentucky University; and 
 inedieine iii the Transylvania Medical College, 
 now forming a department of the same univer- 
 sity. The Louisville Medical College. I.ouis\i]le 
 Hospital Medical College, and the University of 
 Louisville also afford opportunity for instruction 
 in the theory and practice of medicine. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The institution for deaf- 
 mutes, at Danville, is one of the oldest in the 
 United States, having been founded in 1823. 
 It is a school for the education of deaf-mutes, 
 similar to that of New York and of Hartford, 
 and not an asylum. Every deaf-mute in the state, 
 of sound mind, between the ages of 10 and 30, 
 is entitled to its privileges for seven years, free of 
 charge. It is under the control of a board of 
 commissioners appointed by the governor. Its 
 
 resident officers are a principal, matron. steward, 
 and physician. Its curriculum is that which is 
 common to such institutions. The A.-yluin tor 
 the Education of the Blind, at Louisville, is in- 
 tended to furnish instruction to every child in 
 the state, between the ages of 6 and 16, who is 
 deprived by defective sight from receiving the 
 education usually given in the common schools. 
 In addition to these institutions for special in- 
 
 in 1874, after having been discontinued for 
 some years. As its name implies, it is for 
 "feeble-minded children," not for idiots. To 
 such children, between, the ages of (i and 18 
 years, the state affords, through this institu- 
 tion, an education free of charge. The build- 
 ing is situated just beyond the city limits of 
 Frankfort. 
 
 Society for the Advancement of Education.- 
 On the 15th of July, 1K74. a meeting was called 
 at Frankfort to concert measures for establish- 
 ing a school or schools for the training of teach- 
 ers and the education of young men for clas- 
 sical and technical pursuits, 'ihis resulted in 
 the foundation of the Society for the Advance- 
 ment of Education. 
 
 s/.iir Tnirlirrs' Asxuritilioii . — This body holds 
 annual meetings to promote the cause of com- 
 mon schools and popular education, and to ele- 
 vate the character and advance the interests of 
 the profession of teaching. Prominent educa- 
 tors from other states are usually present by 
 invitation and take part in the proceedings, 
 which consist of discussions in regard to school 
 matters, a daily order of exercises illustrative of 
 school methods, and lectures in the evening. The 
 Louisville Educational Association is a body 
 formed for essentially the same purpose as the 
 Teachers' Association. 
 
 KENTUCKY UNIVERSITY, at Lexing- 
 ton, Ky.. was chartered in 1858. With the ex- 
 ception of the theological department, which is 
 under the control of the Christian Church, it is 
 lion sectarian. It was opened as a college, in 
 \y .*>!•. at I larrodsburg in the building of Bacon 
 College, the property of which had been trans- 
 ferred to the university. By an act of the legis- 
 lature, in 1865, the institution was removed to 
 Lexington, the property and endowment of 
 Transylvania University were transferred to it, 
 
 land 
 
 A, I, 
 
 stead of Henry Clay, and the adjoining estate of 
 Woodlands, on the border of and partly within 
 the city, the entire tract containing 133 acres. 
 were purchased for an experimental farm and 
 the permanent site of the university. These 
 grounds are now the seat of the Agricultural 
 and Mechanical College. The other departments 
 occupy the former campus of Transylvania Uni- 
 versity, containing 20 acres in the city, with 
 suitable buildings. The university has an en- 
 dowment of about §400,000; the value of its real 
 
KENTUCKY MILITARY INSTITUTE 
 
 estate is about $250,000. The libraries contain I 
 about 10.000 volumes. It has a museum of 
 natural history, an anatomical museum, and 
 
 valuable eliemieal. philosophical, ami astronom- 
 ical apparatus. The university comprises the 
 following colleges: (1) The College of Arts; 
 
 (•-'! The 'Agricultural ami Mechanical College of 
 
 Kentucky; (3) The College of the Bible; (4) The 
 Normal College (not yet organized : (5) The 
 Commercial College; (6) The College of Law: 
 (7) The College of Medicine (Transylvania 
 Medical College). Tuition in the theological 
 department is free; in arts and agriculture, its 
 cost is So per year, in commerce $30, in law 
 $60, in medicine $10 for each professor. Each 
 legislative district of the state is entitled to send 
 three students to the university free of charge 
 for tuition in any of the first four colleges 
 named above. In 1S73 — I, the whole number 
 of instructors in the various colleges was 32. and 
 of students. 406. John B. Bowman, LL. D-, to 
 whom the foundation of the university is mainly 
 due, is (1876) the regent. 
 
 KENTUCKY MILITARY INSTITUTE, 
 at Farrndale. Franklin Co., Ky., was founded in 
 1845, chartered in 1846, and placed under the 
 direction and control of a board of visitors ap- 
 pointed by tli- govern^!' ,,f the ,-tate. who is, ar 
 mli<-iti. inspector of the institute. The superinten- 
 dent, faculty, and ca li - are constituted a quasi 
 military corps; and the officers are commissioned 
 
 KINDERGARTEN 
 
 501 
 
 Havre. 2 yrs.: and Col. Robert D. Allen, the 
 |'iv .'in mm miibent. 2 vrs. 
 
 KENTUCKY WESLEY AN COLLEGE, 
 at Millersburg, Ky., under the control of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South, was char- 
 
 ehemistrv and natural science, mathematics. 
 Creek, and Latin. All these are necessarj to the 
 degree of A. B.. and with the exception of < J reek 
 and Latin, to the degree of B. S. In 1875 — li, 
 
 there were ."> instructors and 1)4 students. The 
 
 due 
 
 KENYON COLLEGE, 
 
 f Li- 
 
 the president and pro! 
 faculty of a college, u 
 < College : and. in Jun< 
 removed to its presen 
 
 volumes, in- cnarge tor tuition i- .-mmp per 
 annum ; for board. etc., $200. There is a prepai k- 
 tory,anundergra Luate, a resident graduate, a civil 
 
 engineering. an 1 a commercial course. The under- 
 graduate course is in three divisions, requiring 
 from three to five years for completion, and com- 
 prises four departments, mathematics, languages. 
 natural science, and En-jlish. A certificate of pro- 
 ficiency is conferred after a satisfactory exami- 
 nation in the studies of a department: in the de- 
 partment of language a I pledge of two is re- 
 quired, of which on must be either Latin or < !er- 
 iiiiui. The degrees i : Bach I a: of Mathematics, 
 of Natural Science, and of English, are conferred 
 after an examination in an extended course 
 in the respective departments. Lor the degree 
 of Bachelor of Languag ■-. four languages are re- 
 quired. The degree of i'.cehelorof Arts is eon- 
 ferrei 1 1 >n those receiving certificates of proficiency 
 in three departments, and of Master of Arts 
 upon those who receive them in all the four de- 
 partments. Lpon those completing the com- 
 mercial course the degree of Bachelor of Com- 
 mercial Science is conferred. In the resident 
 graduate course, besides mathematical scientific, 
 and linguistic studies, an elemetitarv course of 
 medicine or a professional com e oi law may be 
 pursued. In 1875- 6, there were 8 instruct- 
 ors. ">1 students, and 222 alumni. The super- 
 intendents have 1 u as follows: Col. I'. T. P. 
 
 Allen, 20 yrs.j Col. E. W.Morgan, 7 yrs.: B. B. 
 
 Douglass, LL. I)., 1840 — IT; the Rev. Samuel 
 Fuller, D. D. (provisional), 1844—5; the Rev. 
 Sherlock ABronson, D. D., 1845 50; the Rev. 
 Thomas M. Smith. 1>. ]».. 1850—54 ; Lorin An- 
 drews. LL. I)., 1854—61 ; Benj. L. I ang, \ \1. 
 (acting), 1861—3; Charles Short, LL. D., 
 1863 — 7; the Rev. .James Kent Stone. \. \L. 
 1867 — 8; Eli T. Tappan, L.L. 1).. 1868 — 75; and 
 the Lev. B.C. Benson, A.M. (acting), the presenl 
 incumbent ( 1876). 
 
 KINDERGARTEN (Ger., children's gar- 
 ib'n).n ]ieculiar svstem of education, founded by 
 Friedrich Froebel (q. v.), designed to precede ail 
 other elementary tramins, and to prepare the 
 
 While 
 
 included, whose assistant he was. treated the 
 youthful mind, more or less, as a passive recipient 
 of truth, goodness, and beauty, it was Froebel's 
 fundamental idea to set the child to do whatever 
 
502 
 
 KINDERGARTEN 
 
 it could be induced to do as a kind of amusement, 
 exercising its observing faculties in connection 
 with its plaything's and names, and thus to create 
 in it an interest in learning, lie discovered, 
 by means of half a century's attentive practice 
 in teaching, in association with many other 
 excellent educators, that the faculties (if most 
 children are stunted in infancy and earliest youth 
 by the want of appropriate mental food; that 
 every child may he developed (may develop 
 itself) into a self-educator by appropriate amuse- 
 ments ; and that, in this manner, pleasure may 
 lie made the most efficient instrument in the first 
 
 and bodily growth, and thus formed a complete 
 philosophical system of early intellectual culture. 
 This culture was to begin to the earliest years, 
 with ball plays, accompanied by snatches of song 
 and rhyme; later, with a sphere, a cube, and a 
 cylinder of wood, used for various amusing ex- 
 ercises, and calculated to enliven the attention, 
 and increase the self-activity of the infant. The 
 two little hook, for neither; which contain his 
 
 of invent ; he considers the 
 
 from a diligent observation o 
 many excellent and successful 
 was not from hooks alone that 
 mothers should learn how to ti 
 
 They Were to b ' e lu . 1, as 
 
 a kindergarten, and afterward 
 
 ine- from the upp ir d I • h 
 infant education in a model 
 was in this way that lie Impel 
 
 course of time, all thers tin 
 
 fancy, tin nters of happy t 
 
 the priestesses of a high ir num 
 
 being liable to one-sidedness and exclusivene 
 
 social education should begin early, in order 
 complement the former. During part of the di 
 the child should be in company with many oth 
 children of the same age. and should engage 
 such plays as supply, in a gradually ascendii 
 scale, proper food for the mental and bodi 
 appetites and functions, while making the coi 
 jiany of little ones as happy as possible. Tl 
 can be done only under the guidance of a tr 
 teacher, who should be a female capable, by n; 
 ural endowments and previous stn.lv. to' ta 
 
 whole, their adaptation for mental food in every 
 direction, and their development in detail must 
 be set down as Proebel's creation ; and the expe- 
 rience had with them for more than twenty-five 
 years, and in many hundreds of kindergartens, 
 justifies tin- wisdom of the sytem. Although 
 meeting at first with a most stubborn opposition 
 on the part of governments, sects, and the teach- 
 ing fraternity, the kindergarten has, step by 
 step, made friends of enemies, silenced the most 
 severe critics, and won favor with governments 
 (in Austria, Italy, and Russia), with the Roman 
 Catholic bishops lin Belgium, France, Hungary, 
 and many parts of the I nitcd States), and with 
 orthodox Protestants of various denominations. 
 It litis been endorsed h\ the great conventions of 
 German teachers, after a protracted study of its 
 results; and. in A rica. by the National Teach- 
 ers' Association, tit the meeting held tit Khnira. 
 in IH7:{. In short, it seems to be destined to be 
 universally adopted, and to be connected with 
 every infant school. 'I here is still much con- 
 troversy among the followers of Froebel them- 
 
 sehesii, n-ardioihemii Idaii- .,t tin-system; 
 
 f the kindergarl 
 
 a sitting, and 
 m, for the sake 
 rtlvsueh as can 
 
 lea. which, 
 be all that 
 ilityof the 
 to its prin- 
 'I he exer- 
 ■ly carried 
 >r walking 
 hange. and 
 
 occupations requires a practical training, on the 
 part of the teacher, and a theoretical study 
 which never can be too thorough, if the pupil's 
 mental and moral development is to become 
 what Froebel intended it to be. Each of these 
 
 exercises sen es a threefold purpose to proclitic 
 
 semble things'that occur within \he rhil.Vs ex- 
 perience), and forms of knowledge (such as may 
 
 ers, shrubs, tree., each child having its own and actions of objects), the child itself is to 
 
 flower-bed, so thai it may learn hots to raise produce these forms ; the teacher is not to teach 
 
 plants, and to enjoy nature. The playful n- them, but to lead his pupil by suggestions con- 
 
 pations of the pupils i iprise a urea! variety of \eyed in questions or conversation, so that the 
 
 plays in a given order which, however, should child may become inventive. To do this properly, 
 
 not be absolutely fixed, but B hould afford a Froebel has advised a method based mi the lati) 
 
 healthy change, without inducing habits of im- of contraries and their combination intoa higher 
 
 perfect attention and restlessness. No f these unit; but (he teacher is to abstain from all 
 
 occupations were the invention of Froebel ; they learned lore from using abstract expressions, 
 
 had all been practiced more ... less before his Abstract notions and words are severelybanished 
 
 time. But their combination into a harmonious from the kindergarten; it is merely concrete 
 
KINDERGARTEN 
 
 facts, which the child ran learn through | the demand of the mothers, and make the alph; 
 
 the senses, and ran clothe in its own lai 
 
 that can become familiar to it by its own 
 
 assimilation. Neither is discipline to 1" 
 
 tained by authority or by any mechanical 
 
 but by the suggestions of the teacher, 
 
 bet and ciphering a part of the regular kinder- 
 rises ; but this is a positive loss to 
 
 essay on the question, "How may 
 mrten be organically connected with 
 
 oet 
 
 on'M.l.^viii'-'n't. t'...Mit'.'iiiit' t.'.'^ln-^ill (.t'tlic l.laj'i.i'it v 
 
 the prize was aw 
 
 Leipsic. Thereas, 
 
 of their equals, on tli ■ one hand, or to assert, 011 
 
 gal-ten a universal 
 
 the other, their own free volition, if they can 
 
 in this essay and 
 
 induce others to agree with them. Thus, they 
 
 honorably mention 
 
 are to take their first lessons in mural self-govern- 
 
 be granted that t 
 
 ment. 
 
 through a good kii 
 
 An objection has been urged to the general 
 
 ive than that obtai 
 
 introduction of the kindergarten as being too 
 
 school, it will not 
 
 ■costly; but experience has established the indis- 
 
 pupils thai have . 
 
 putable fact, that a g 1 kindergarten need cost 
 
 
 no more than the best primary school. The 
 
 the uurserj or froi 
 
 genuine kindergarlner — and none but su.li 
 
 
 ought to be employed —can superintend more 
 
 former, posse sing 
 
 than a hundred children at a time, provide 1 
 
 development of all 
 
 she begin with no more than twenty, aiding 
 
 degree of self-actn 
 
 twenty more as soon a- Bhe has a good assistant 
 
 a more rapid com 
 
 able to replace her: and again twenty more, and 
 
 more advanced n 
 
 so on. whenever one more assist ml is prepared to 
 
 would In- proper fi 
 
 take her place. Such assistants may be pupils 
 
 These pupils WOU 
 
 of the training or nor nil school classes, who 
 
 fcarded in their pr 
 
 wish to acquire the art of infant e lucatiou, ail I 
 
 the same treatmei 
 
 need not be paid for their assistance. These pupil- 
 
 come toscl 1 wit 
 
 teachers will not. of ,-oi,r-' by merely six months' 
 
 who are. perhaps, 
 
 help in this way, be fully able to conduct a 
 
 the teacher says, ai 
 
 kindergarten independently : but they will learn 
 
 stood by him (or In 
 
 ^oodlducat I^mcihSfrLfanotmei Km 
 
 ity of mechanical 
 of their powers ha 
 
 garten, from four to seven years old, will form kindergarten pupils must, on account of their 
 ■several grades, that can simultaneously be en- | self-activity and self-control, need a different 
 
 gaged mil' 
 
 ipations; while 
 ■lv 
 
 cnt from that of the others, llenee 
 
 the guidance of proficient assistants, taking 
 the pupil-teachers along from division to divi- 
 sion, thus affording them an opportunity to 
 
 witness (he greatest variety of exercises pos.-iiile 
 
 within a short space of time, and to practice 
 every one under her direction. Besides, she 
 can hardly fail to receive valuable support in 
 the singing, articulation, and gymnastic exer- 
 cises, from the talents of some of her assistants. 
 But even more important is the following con- 
 sideration. It is almost impossible to carry on 
 a genuine kindergarten successfully without the 
 exercise of a wide-spread and lively interest in it 
 among the women, especially the mothers, of 
 the community; So long as they do not fre- 
 quently visit the institute, thej will not fully 
 appreciate its purposes and results; they win 
 insist that their children should begin to learn 
 the alphabet: and. if that is not done, they will 
 perhaps take them away to some primary school. 
 Many kindergariners of our country yield to 
 
 50ls afford the instruction 
 
 teachers for the work. 
 
 \e already recognized the 
 
 Hon, ami lor 
 Igation of the prim 
 
 jrchology"; (2) 
 
 ntroduction." Efforts 
 i German -American 
 found a normal and 
 
504 
 
 KINDERGARTEN 
 
 model school for the purpose of training teach- 
 ers for the management of kindergartens. The 
 report of the U. S. Commissioner of Educa- 
 tion for 1874 enumerated 55 of these schools 
 in various parts of the United States, in which 
 there were 125 teachers, and 1,636 pupils. The 
 experimental introduction of the system in con- 
 nection with the public schools of St. Louis, in 
 1874, is represented as being eminently success- 
 ful. At the date of the last annual report 
 of the superintendent of schools in that city 
 (1ST I — 5), there were 7 kindergartens connected 
 with as many of the public schools; and the 
 whole number of kindergarten pupils was 457. 
 The following advantages are claimed for the 
 system: (1) The kindergarten children submit 
 more readily to school discipline; (2) the aver- 
 age intelligence of the pupils is greatly superior 
 to that of children who enter school without 
 previous training; they are more accurate in 
 observation, and seize ideas with more rapidity 
 and exactness than other children ; (3) in addi- 
 tion to superior general development, children 
 thus trained show special aptitude for arith- 
 metic, drawing, and natural sciences, and can 
 express what they know with greater correct- 
 ness and fluency. 
 
 In Germany, where there are. as yet, no kinder- 
 gartens dependent on the state, and only a few 
 dependent on communities, efforts are being 
 made by the National Education Society to in- 
 duce the governments to authorize a general in- 
 troduction of the system, with all the steps pre- 
 liminary thereto. An experiment has also been 
 begunin Austria and in Wurtemberg, to establish 
 Froebel's Labor School. This is a continuation 
 
 of the l.m lergarte apations through higher 
 
 stag is oi development. Only about one-half of 
 the school time is spent in the ordinary kind 
 of primary and secondary instruction; the re- 
 mainder is devoted to recreation and occupa- 
 tions, such as singing, declamation, drawing, 
 modeling, gymnastics, geometrical object lessons 
 
 and exercises, paste-board work, w I work, and 
 
 metal work, etc. This experiment has also been 
 carried on for the last live years, at a German- 
 American school in Newark X. J., on a smaller 
 scale, but with very satisfactory results. 
 
 Owing to the necessity of special skill and 
 training in order to conduct a kindergarten 
 efficiently, many persons who undertake this 
 work fail, through want of preparation, to pro- 
 duce the results designed. In this way spurious 
 kindergartens have caused much complaint, and 
 brought considerable discredit upon the system. 
 The test ..t a g I kindergarten is its obvious 
 
 effect upon the pupils, in exciting cheerfu as, 
 
 intellnr ■■lie aetivitv.an.laf In.-- for the sel 1 
 
 work. If, on the other hand the children dislike the 
 sehool.it is an e\ iden ithal thi n isa want ol tad 
 
 0X1: 
 
 cording to the established formula : but if the 
 spirit in which the exercises are to be conducted 
 if the treatment is mechanical, all the 
 
 KESTDERMANN 
 
 moral influence wdiich should spring from the. 
 cheerful self-activity of the child, is lost. If too, 
 the teacher shows always the calm and dignified 
 deportment of the ordinary class disciplinarian, 
 instead of entering with allher heart into the 
 harmless joy from which the child's self-govern- 
 ment is to take a fruitful growth, and calming 
 only the troublesome excess of this mirth by 
 now and then a look, a word, or a gesture, she is 
 not well fitted for her calling. A genuine kinder- 
 garten teacher will, like the best of mothers, take 
 a lively interest in remedying, as far as possible, 
 the bodily, mental, and moral defects of every 
 child under her care, — uncleanly and disorderly 
 habits, want of attention, stammering, color- 
 blindness, a bad gait or posture, imperfect artic- 
 ulation, etc. She will, in this way, earn the- 
 gratitude of the children and their parents, and 
 exert a great moral influence. Her efforts in 
 this respect are. in a great measure, facilitated 
 by the pliability of the child's powers, as well 
 as by its desire to avoid ridicule, and to enjoy 
 the society of its comrades. Abundant experience 
 teaches, that there need be no incurable cases 
 of the above kind among children who have 
 the full use of their senses; that all children 
 may learn drawing, .singing, correct enunciation, 
 geometry, and many Other arts and accomplish- 
 ments that are. by common prejudice, pro- 
 nounced attainable by those only who are specially 
 gifted. It is evident, therefore, that a kinder- 
 gartner can hardly he too well educated; and, 
 also, that no education repays so abundantly 
 its cost. — See Feiedrich Froebel, Gesammette 
 padagogische Schrifien, herausgeg. r. Wichard 
 Lange (Berlin, 1862) ; P>. Mahenholtz-Buelow, 
 Die Arbeit und die neue Erziekung nach Froe- 
 beVs Weihodt (Gottingen, L875) ; II. Gold- 
 immer, Der Kindergarten Berlin, L874) ; Lina 
 
 M. nstern, Das Parodies der KindheU, 
 
 (Leipsic, L871); A Koehler, Der Kindergarten 
 in seinem Wesen dargesteUt (Weimar, 1868); and 
 Die Praxis des Kindergartens (3 vols., Wei- 
 niari : also, the monthly periodical Erziehung 
 der Gegenwart, published in Dresden, wdiich is 
 chiefly devoted to the cause of the kindergar- 
 ten. The chief English publications are: Ad. 
 Dooai, The Kindergarten iX. Y.. 1871); W. 
 X. Hahjian. Kindergarten Culture {Cm.,l%U); 
 II Hoffmann, Kindergarten Zbys(N.Y.,1874); 
 Aug. Kokiu.ku. Kindergarten Education (X.Y., 
 1876); M. Khaus-Boelte and John Krads, 
 Kinderqarten Guide (N. r.,1876); Mrs. Hor- 
 ace M inn and Ki.iz. P. IVtibo.lv. Moral Culture 
 of Infancy and Kindergarten Guide >N. Y.. 
 1m"i | J-3 I itot Froebsl and ilie Eimisr- 
 qarten System (London. 1874); Ki.iz. P. Pea- 
 body, Education of the Kindergartner (Pitts- 
 burgh, 1875); Johannes and Bertha Ronge, 
 Guide to the English Kindergarten (Loudon, 
 ls7.">) : Edw. Wiebe, The Paradise of Child- 
 
 KINDERMANN, Ferdinand, one of the 
 greatest educational reformers of Austria, born 
 at Konigswaldc.in llohemia. Dec. 27.. 1740, died 
 May 25., 1801. When lie was appointed, in 
 
KING COLLEGE 
 
 1771, parish priest of Kaplitz, he found the 
 Bchool -I thai town, as well as the schools of 
 Bohemia in general, in a mosl deplorable condi- 
 
 KXOX COLLEGE 
 
 iMs in sli.tn- I.iil' ly ni tin' benefits of the institu- 
 liun. Ni, p. is, hi. Imwi-vi i . \\ ho is not a member oi 
 
 mationoi ti 
 
 his pastoral 
 to theschoc 
 struct, and 
 equally enli 
 
 I!, ill 
 
 1 in make the refor- 
 rk nt' his life ; and. as 
 v which he gave to 
 
 w to learn ; and 
 t of teacher, childi 
 
 time with c pi 
 
 ilii/, became faun 
 ren beyond its h 
 
 s. 'I he arrangements of the 
 
 under tin- supcn isiuii nf the 
 ( 'am ni Barry. There is also 
 
 dermaim was appoit 
 all the German schc 
 cilor of tht' school c< 
 he also became pro 
 the gymnasia of I'r 
 he devol .1 his atten 
 nii'iit of the normal 
 which he exerted tl 
 
 upon tl ther Bohi 
 
 Maria Theresa ackni 
 ways, and rais '■! h 
 derthe title oi Kni 
 
 method which Kind 
 
 take such 
 In Lent 
 
 ..ni incuts. 
 
 .1 pupils: 
 
 udents in 
 
 its in the 
 
 lal would 
 
 method, 
 of the pei 
 induced h 
 
 
 m ,p.,„iii 
 ure, hi.irti 
 
 ni; 
 
 -ilk 
 
 Be thus became the founder of the industrial- 
 school system in his country. -See Aigner, Der 
 Folks- and friduslrieref or motor Bischo/ Ferdi- 
 nand Kinderma L867). 
 
 KING COLLEGE, at I'.ristol. 'Irn. „■-,,. 
 founded in 1868, is under the < trol of Presby- 
 terians. It is supported I iv tiiilniii fees, varvim_r 
 from $12 I,, $25 per term of 20 weeks, and the 
 procccils of an cinlowiiicnt of s.io.uiio. It has 
 a preparatory ami a collegiate department. In 
 1875—6, there were I instructors and 76 stu- 
 dents. The Rev. • lames l> Tadlock has been 
 the president from the commencement of the 
 institution. 
 
 KING'S COLLEGE .London) is erected 
 
 3, di i strators, and the 
 
 Many of these and oi the 
 
 with a council of 1 2 govi i uor 
 appointed by the proprietors 
 year. The remainder are eit 
 
 by 
 
 foumlation was owing 
 tion which many felt 
 religious teaching from 
 had opened its classes 
 than King's. Accord 
 are instructed in the 'I 
 England; although a lil 
 operation, which enabk 
 
 feasors, the other fourth being retained bj 
 the college The college has a hospital near 
 Lincoln's Inn Fields; it has also a chapel for 
 divine service on Sundays and week-days. A 
 
 fege. "see the CoUegl "rr'^ll. md the Fifth 
 Report nf the Royal Cot - » Scientific 
 
 KNOX COLLEGE, at Galesburg, Ilk. was 
 founded in 1836, and fully organized in L841. 
 The first class graduated in I -In. Ii is non- 
 
i06 
 
 LAFAYETTE COLLEGE 
 
 sectarian. The productive funds amount, to 
 §110,1100; and the buildings, grounds, etc., are 
 valued at $190,000. The libraries contain 6,600 
 volumes. There are also cabinets of natural his- 
 tory. The regular tuition fees vary from §20 to 
 $30 per annum. The institution comprises a col- 
 lege, a ladies' seminary, and an academy, t lie iirst 
 of which includes a "lassieal and a scientific 
 course.. In 1875 — (i. there were 12 instructors, 
 
 LANCASTER 
 
 and 325 students, of whom 41 were in the 
 college. The presidents have been as follows : 
 the Kev. Hiram II. Kellogg, to 1845 ; the Rev. 
 . Jonathan Blanchard, to L858 ; the Rev. Harvey 
 Curtiss,tol863; the Kev. \Vm. S. < 'urtiss, D.D., 
 to 1868; the Rev. John P.Gulliver, D. D., to 
 1872 ; Prof. Albert Hurd (acting), to 1874 ; and 
 Newton Bateman, LL. D., the present incum- 
 bent (1876). 
 
 LAFAYETTE COLLEGE, atEaston.Pa.. 
 under Presbyterian control, was chartered in 
 L826, and fully organized in 1832, with the 
 usual classical course of study preparatory to 
 the learned professions. The Pardee Scientific 
 Department was added in 1866, through the 
 munificence of Mr. Ario Pardee of Hazleton, 
 whose gifts for this purpose amount to nearly 
 $500,000. The college lias seven dormitories, 
 four of them, known as students' homes, having 
 also families residing in them, and providing 
 board and a home for such as desire it. It has 
 five buildings i if instruction and manipulation. 
 The Pardee" Hall of Technical Instruction, built 
 and fitted upat a cost of .-^oil.noil. was dedicated 
 in 1 -7;;. Tli ■■ cli 'inical 1 ili ■• I'oii . i iv perhaps 
 unequaled in this count > and th se of mining 
 and metallurgy, mechanics and physics, are of 
 the best. The department of natural history 
 
 contains the most complete collec i the 
 
 plants of Pennsylvania. The college has libraries 
 of over 20.0110 volumes, and is especially rich in 
 the department of Anglo-Saxon and early En- 
 glish. It maintains a reading r u, in which, 
 
 besides papers and periodicals, the reference 
 
 books most frequentU del in each study are 
 
 kept for constant use. The methods of instruc- 
 tion in the two lir-t years are those of the gym- 
 nasium. The classes are kept in small divisions; 
 and short lessons are thoroughly learned, and 
 accompanied by many exercises of practice, and 
 elementary explanation, often repeated. In the 
 two last years, there is more attempt to stimulate 
 general investigation, and to communicate ad- 
 vanced thought and methods by lectures, and by 
 requiring the preparation of essays of research. 
 It now offers five courses, of four years each; 
 namely, classical, scientific, engineering, mining 
 and metallurgy, and chemistry, leading respect- 
 ively to the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, 
 Bachelor of Philosophy, Civil Engineer, Mining 
 Engineer, and Analytical Chemist. Partial 
 n. and opportunities 
 are afforded for post-graduat( study. A three 
 years' post-graduate course leads to the degree 
 of Doctor of Philosophy. A law department 
 was opened in 1875. The cost of tuition is from 
 $ I.i to $75 per year. In L875— 6, there were 28 
 instructors and 335 students in the academic 
 departments. The college has been honorably 
 associated with the progress of meteorological 
 science through the labors of Prof. J. II. Coffin, 
 LL. D., by whom the government observations 
 
 and the collections of the Smithsonian Institution 
 have been here reduced and prepared for publi- 
 cation ; also, since the election of Prof. P. A. 
 March. 1 855, with the study of Anglo-Saxon and 
 English, in connection with comparative philol- 
 ogy and history, in which it has been a leader 
 (see Anglo-Saxon, and English, the Study of); 
 it is also distinguished for its courses in the 
 Latin and < ireek of i Ihristian writers, established, 
 in 1872, byan endowment from Mr. Ben j. Doug- 
 lass of New York City. Since 1865, under tht 
 presidency of the Kev.' W. ( '. ( 'attell. D.D.. it has 
 also become a center of scientific and technical 
 study for the coal and iron districts of Pennsyl- 
 vania and New Jersey. The presidents of the 
 college have been as follows: the Rev. George 
 • lunkin. D. D.. L832— 41, and 1844—8; the 
 Rev. J. W. Yeomans, D. D., 1841—4; the 
 Rev. ('. W. Nassau. 1). I'.. 1849; the l,V\. D.V. 
 McLean. D. I>„ 1850—57 ; the Rev. G. W. Mc 
 I'haii. I>. D., the present incumbent, appointed 
 in 1857. 
 
 LA GRANGE COLLEGE, at La Grange, 
 Mo., was chartered in 1859, and is under the 
 control of the Baptist denomination. The college 
 has valuable meteorological, astronomical, chem- 
 ical.and electrical apparatus. a good mineralogical 
 and geological cabinet, and a growing library. 
 It is'cliieily supported by tuition fees varying 
 from $24 to $40 per year. During the present 
 year an endowment of about $25,000 has been 
 secured. Candidates for the ministry receive 
 tuition free. There is a primary, a preparatory, 
 and a collegiate department, the last having a 
 classical and a scientific course. Both sexes arc 
 admitted. In 1874—5, there were 10 professors, 
 143 students, and 42 nlumni (24 males and 18 
 females). J. F. Cook, LL. D., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 LANCASTER, Joseph, an English edu- 
 cator, born in London in 1778: died in New 
 York, Oct. 24., 1838. He was the promoter, 
 though", probably, not the originator, of the sys- 
 tem of instruction or school organization which, 
 for a long time, passed under his name. Of an 
 imaginaf ive and excitable disposition. Lancaster, 
 at an early age, showed the enthusiasm of a true 
 j zealot. Thus, when only fourteen years old, 
 upon reading Clarkson's Essay on the Slave 
 Trade, he was seized with the desire to educate 
 the blacks, so that they might be able to read 
 the Scriptures, and. to that end. ran away from 
 home, carrying a Bible and a copy of Pilgrim's 
 
T.AXOASTKi; 
 
 307 
 
 Progress in his pocket. The captain of the tori u, System.) Of the extraordinary success 
 
 vessel, however, in which he proposed to sail, achieved by Lancaster in its application, and the 
 
 prudently sent him back. At sixteen, he joined unselfish devotion of his life to its practice, we 
 
 the society of Friends; I nit. .short 1\ afterward, have the most abundant evidence. Iliscourseof 
 
 afterwards the busini 
 Dr. Andrew Hell (q.-s 
 entitled An Experimei 
 the Male Asylum „f \ 
 
 teni, variously known i 
 instruction, or, afterwa 
 was set forth. This 
 attention in England. 
 Lancaster opened a si 
 
 att. 
 
 .In 
 
 the scanty arithmetic, and a knowledge of the llible. the fee 
 
 London, he for tuition being four pence a week; while many, 
 
 lich became even from the first, were admitted free. Over 
 
 In lT'JT. the door of the school-house, we arc told, was 
 
 i pamphlet, printed the ai uncement, " All that will, may 
 
 at. made at send their children, and have them educated 
 
 eh the sys- freely; and those that do not wish to have edu- 
 
 Hal, mutual cation for nothing, may payfor it if they please." 
 
 inn system. The children came to him like tlocks of sheep." 
 
 'acted little and his school, in London, was sometimes at- 
 
 iwing year, tended by a thousand. It became one of the 
 
 bwark, and points ,»f' interest for visiting foreigners, and of 
 
 iscover that persons of all classes int. n sted in the subject of 
 
 itch it was education. The wonderful discipline maintained 
 
 sciirity att 
 creas d by 
 
 began, how 
 
 d plan on which 
 stent to which 
 
 him tit this time 
 
 •hilly 
 
 general a recognition 
 organiz id upon that 
 ali over the country 
 the success attained 
 the poor, began to t 
 the direction of Id 
 established char h, v, 
 lected or overlooked 
 extolled. The excil 
 valrv was the means 
 
 by the help of monitors who accompanied him ; 
 
 lirst. till it 
 
 and it is said that, during one of those years, a 
 new school according to his system was opened 
 every week. The enthusiasm thus created soon 
 
 money from 
 
 from the kit 
 
 for him, and 
 
 led. however, to great pecuniary success, but with- 
 
 account of tl 
 
 out permanent benefit to the institutions which 
 
 expressed his 
 
 he had founded, since his ardent temperament 
 
 sire that ever 
 
 and want of business capacity constantly sub- 
 
 be taught to 
 
 jected him to serious embarrassment. In lsll'. 
 
 his power to 
 
 he attempted to found a school composed entirely 
 
 and economy 
 
 of the children of wealthy patents; hut he failed. 
 
 foratime.a\ 
 
 visited the United Stati 3, and was well received; 
 
 is'of "lut'lc" 
 
 but his want of discretion again broughl him 
 
 cipallv ilepen 
 
 into trouble. In L829, he went to t anada, where 
 
 Fiance, and 
 
 his fame procured him legislative aid in the fur- 
 
 and led' to v. 
 
 therance of his educational projects ; but again 
 
 land it is stil 
 
 becoming embarrassed pecuniarily, he removed 
 to New York, where sonic friends had purchased 
 
 teacher of 1111 
 
 by the emplo 
 
 for him a small annuity. A description of the 
 
 sistnnts. By 
 
 •system known as the Lancasterian, will be found 
 
 is enabled t( 
 
 •elsewhere in this volume. (See Bell, and Moni- 
 
 qualified to b 
 
 orderly portion of the 
 offender by means of 
 adopted by Lancaster 
 ling corporal punish- 
 Bis school revenue, 
 ilcst contributions of 
 ■ by slow degrees at 
 red gifts of land and 
 :' all ranks, and even 
 !.'). who. in 1805, sent 
 
 rsoii an 
 
 dished, 
 
 the de- 
 
 nied modifications. In bug 
 e as a means of relieving the 
 rk not essentially educational, 
 of the aptest scholars as as- 
 
 I those pupils who are best 
 ed for the profession of teach- 
 
508 
 
 LAND CHANTS 
 
 ing. The distinctive service, however, rendered 
 by Lancaster to the cause of education, was the 
 wide-spread interest ami enthusiasm excited in 
 its lirli.ilf. and his vindication ol anon-sectarian, 
 though Christian, system. His published works 
 are, Improvement in Education (London, 1805), 
 several elementary school hooks, and many pam- 
 phlets in defense of his system. For interest- 
 ing accounts of his life and labors, see Life of 
 Lancaster,hy Wii.u wi < Iorston; and Lord Cock- 
 burn, Memorials of his own Time; also Leitch, 
 Practical Educationists and their Systems of 
 Teaching (Glasgow, 1876). 
 
 LAND GRANTS, Congressional. See 
 United Si i pes. 
 
 LANE UNIVERSITY, at Lecompton. 
 Kan., founded in 1865, is under the control of 
 the United Brethren in < Ihrist. It has an endow- 
 ment of $12,000 in notes and real estate. There 
 is a preparatory and a collegiate course. Both 
 sexes are admitted. In 1872 — 3, it had 2 instruc- 
 tors and 81 students (70 preparatory and 11 col- 
 legiate). The presidents have been as follows: 
 the Rev. Solomon Weaver, L865 - 6; the Rev. 
 David Shuck, A. M., 1866—70; X. B. Bartlett, 
 A.M., 1870—74; the Rev. David Shuck, A.M.. 
 again elected in 1S74: and X. 11. Bartlett, A.M.. 
 elected a second time, in 1870. 
 
 LANGUAGE (Lit. lingua, the tongue, 
 
 speech), according to the ordinarv acceptal 
 
 of the word, is the utterance of articulate sounds 
 for the purpose of expressing thought. This 
 mode of expression constitutes one of the char- 
 acteristic faculties of man ; since no community 
 of human beings, in historic times, has been 
 found entirely destitute of language; and abroad 
 line of demarcation separates every kind of 
 human speech of which we have any knowledge 
 from all the modes of expression used by brutes. 
 
 But though common to men of all degrees 
 of culture, and. as far as we know, in all periods 
 of time, language presents an infinite number of 
 varieties. The further we remove from civiliza- 
 tion, the greater is th • number of different lan- 
 guages that are met with. "At the first attainable 
 period of our knowledge of it. whether by actual 
 record, or by the inferences of the comparative 
 student, it is in a state of almost endless sub- 
 division. The divaricating forces in linguistic 
 growth are in the ascendant; dialects go on 
 multiplying, by the action of the same causes 
 that had already produced them. But wherever 
 civilization is at work, an opposite influence is 
 powerfully operating. Out of the congeries of 
 jarring tribes are growing great nations ; out of 
 the Babel of discordani dialects are growing 
 
 ent languages to each other, is of a comparatively 
 recent origin. The Greeks and the Romans had 
 a number of grammarians, but most of them had 
 uage.or. 
 uages, 
 
 an acquaintance 
 
 and they wire, t 
 generalization. 
 
 prior to the tini 
 in the light of t 
 of scholars, is oi 
 of Leibnitz, am 
 the Origin of 
 ment. The Er 
 took great intei 
 her embassador 
 in collecting th 
 of languages foi 
 body and for th 
 of the material 
 Pallas prepared 
 
 le to make a sound 
 3t, hardly any work 
 
 which, considered 
 uistic attainments 
 ■ value. The ideas 
 lis prize essay Oh 
 litiatcd the move- 
 ine II., of Russia, 
 the co-operation of 
 1 Asia was enlisted 
 
 in a large number 
 parts of the human 
 if life. On the basis 
 . Zimmermann and 
 
 the empress. Lin- 
 
 first comparative 
 
 comparative grammar. After these publications, 
 Bopp, by his comparative grammar of the Indo- 
 Germanic languages, and Jacob Grimm, I v his 
 
 historical grammar of the German languages, 
 
 ,ilo]„gv. 
 
 I iv the 
 
 i degree 
 
 labor 
 
 of pel 
 
 again involved the necessity of a thorough 
 scientific study, not only of every language and 
 dialect that is now spoken, but even of the lan- 
 guages that are extinct. A marvelous amount 
 of energy and ingenuity has. in the course of the 
 present century, been expended for the purpose 
 of solving this task. Travelers and missionaries 
 have explored the languages of the most bar- 
 barous and uncivilized tribes; keen philologists 
 have spent a lite time in recovering the lost key 
 to extinct languages of the highest antiquitv. 
 like the Egyptian, Assyrian, and Etruscan ; and 
 the professors of comparative linguistics have 
 been indefatigable in collating all t hese discover- 
 ies, and in using them in order to improve the 
 classification of languages, and to promote our 
 knowledge (if the development of human speech 
 
 in general. It must, oi course, he apparent at 
 
 tir-t sight, that any classificati t languages, at 
 
 the present time, can .ml\' I.,- regarded as a tent- 
 ative and i.im isional arrangement ; but a glance 
 
 langu. 
 
 (Whi 
 
 Tin 
 
 guisti 
 
 11 over the earth. 
 rll, „/' Language.) 
 i the nature of li 
 
 at the labors mi 
 fication are based. 
 
 already have been 
 importance. The 
 
families nf languages is the Indo-Germanic (q. 
 v.J, which, in its totality, has been for more than 
 two thousand years the language of the ruling 
 races of the world, and which embraces, by t In- 
 side of the English, the rulimj ■ lan-n.-i-. - "n ur\ 
 American and European country, except Hun- 
 gary and Turkey, and the two classic lan-uag-s. 
 I^atin and llnvk, which have home so prominent 
 apart in the education of the human race up to 
 its present state of civilization. The Hungarian 
 and Turkish languages have been recognized as be- 
 longing to two distinct branches of one common 
 family called by different philologists Scytliiiui 
 (Whitney), or Turanian, or I 'ralo-Altaic. or Tar- 
 taric, ami presenting in the phonetic structure of 
 all its members some striking family traits. The 
 
 Am; 
 
 the sa 
 
 the Se 
 
 he Jewish and 
 Arabic Syriao, 
 igues of western 
 as a branch of 
 •s. which, after 
 
 family of lair. 
 the In lo-( lermanic, is byfar 
 in the history of the world. 
 
 portance in the history of reli 
 the founders of all the three great monotheistic 
 religions, — Christianity. Judaism, and .Moham- 
 medanism, belonged to it. 
 
 We have cast this cursory glance at the growth 
 
 iught : since 
 
 tific research must, in a marked manner, influence 
 and shape every course of instruction. The in- 
 fluence of these results is most apparent in the 
 
 first stage in the development of language consists 
 
 inth.-prolucti m of articulate sounds and combi- 
 nations of sounds ; the second, in the connection 
 of words with conceptions; the third, in the com- 
 bination of words for the expression of thought. 
 (See Intellectual Eottcation.) The develop- 
 ment of language in a child should not outrun 
 his mental development : it should at first follow, 
 and subsequently accompany it. The child, from 
 his first infancy, has a tendency to give some kind 
 of expression to all the emotions of his mind. At 
 first, various movements of the body, and inartic- 
 ulate sounds serve for the purpose: when the 
 perceptions become more distinct, the child looks 
 around for more definite expressions, and finds 
 them in the word-language of those who sur- 
 round him. If the child has sound organs of 
 speech, the task of the educator, at first, is com- 
 paratively easy. An artificial plan is neither 
 necessary nor practical : an occasional influence 
 is sufficient, By hearing the names of the objects, 
 actions, qualities, circumstances, and relations. 
 which he perceives, correctly and distinctly pro- 
 nounced, the child obtains his first knowledge of 
 words, and learns to associate them with the 
 designated objects. The memory, without dif- 
 ficulty, retains a large number of words, and 
 frequent practice soon leads to readiness of i 
 
 speech. Occasional conversations with the child 
 on the objects of his attention, with little de- 
 
 sary material tor , m „v,m„ 2 , ■ ; „ 1 !'b 1 ,.',: ,,'',' ' ^ 
 
 his mind" Where the cultivation ol speech is 
 
 neglected in the education ,,f u child, the intel- 
 lectual development is likewise retarded. On the 
 other hand, any attempt to force unduly the 
 rapid, development of speech, may lead to vain 
 and thoughtless garrulity, or to a production of 
 erroneous representations in the mind, which will 
 obstruct its harmonious development. During 
 this first stage of education, the mother is the 
 child's natural and best teacher of language, and 
 the language wtiich the child thus learns has 
 justly been called the "mother-tongue". Home 
 education may receive a useful, and in many cases 
 a very desirable, aid in a good kindergarten. 
 
 The instruction provided for in the common 
 schools of modern times aims chiefly at perfect- 
 ing the pupil in his vernacular language. The 
 course of instruction to this end eml paces ex- 
 ercises in spelling, reading, writing, definitions, 
 composition. English grammar, elocution, etc. 
 There is still great diversity of opinion among 
 educators as to the best methods of teaching 
 each of these branches, and as to the relative 
 position which each of them should occupy in 
 the course of studies. This subject is fully 
 discussed in the special articles devoted to the 
 branches of instruction just enumerated. All 
 educators, however, agree in regarding it as one 
 of the chief aims of school education to give to 
 the pupil a good knowledge of his vernacular 
 language, and fluency in speaking and writing it 
 correctly. Even in those branches of study 
 which neither solely nor chiefly aim at im- 
 proving the linguistic knowledge of the pupil. 
 as arithmetic, geography, history, etc. c\er\ edu- 
 cator nowadays requires that pupils shall be 
 trained in the correction of language, and taught 
 to avoid common criers of Bpeech.- Nothing is 
 more adapted to illustrate the great progress 
 which, in the course of the present century, has 
 been made in the education of mankind than the 
 steadily improving methods employed in teaching 
 the youth of civilized countries their vernacular 
 tongue. At Athens and Rome, instruction was 
 given to children in reading, writing, and gram- 
 mar, but it was mostly limited to the boys of 
 the higher classes. Throughout the middle a-rs. 
 Latin was the medium of instruction in all c la- 
 ses of schools, partly because the popular dialects 
 had not yet attained the degree of perfection 
 needed for expressing the thought of scholars. 
 Even in the Kith, 17th. and 18th centuries, the 
 study of the vernacular language made but very 
 slow progress, and it was reserved for the 1'ith 
 century to mature plans for imparting to the en- 
 tire population a good knowledge of their native 
 tongues. Hand in hand with the progress in ele- 
 mentary knowledge thus achieved, goes the more 
 general demand for popular, especially periodical, 
 literature, and the more active and more intel- 
 ligent participation of the masses in public life. 
 
510 
 
 i.wi.i w,i: 
 
 There are some countries in which the entire 
 native population speak one language; others 
 in which two, three, or more are spoken by large 
 
 bodies of the people. An - tie former are 
 
 Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Sweden, and Nor- 
 way': among" the latter. Great Britain, France, 
 Holland, Spain, Belgium, Germany, Austria, 
 Hungary, Russia, Switzerland, and the United 
 States. ' In Switzerland, three languages, — the 
 German, French, and Italian, are, to some 
 extent, regarded as national languages: in all 
 the other countries, one language only lias the 
 character of a national language, though in some 
 cases, as in Belgium, Austria, ami Hungary, it 
 is the mother-tongue of only a minority of the 
 population. In several of these countries, the 
 question to what extent any other than the ml- 
 ing language should be admitted into the state 
 schools as a branch, or as a medium, of instruc- 
 tion. has led to animated controversies, which 
 are far from being ended. From political rea- 
 sons, it is natural that the union of an entire 
 people in the bonds of one common language 
 should be looked upon as most desirable; but, 
 from an educational point of view, it will always 
 be urged that, however desirable the universal 
 knowledge of one national language by all the 
 inhabitants of a country, especially a large coun- 
 try, may be. the principle cannot be impugned 
 that, wherever it is practicable, the education 
 of young children should not dispense with in- 
 struction in the mother-tongue, in order to se- 
 cure an entire co-operation between home edu- 
 cation and school education. As this question 
 equally cone, rns a number of large countries, it 
 is to be hoped that a solution may be found which 
 will reconcile conflicting claims. — Besides the 
 mother tongue and the national laiiiiiia'j. 
 
 lodern languages 
 ed in .schools of a 
 
 languages have, to a 
 incut position which 
 lost schemes of ci I it- 
 'll languages, on the 
 
 steadily extending. 
 f view, many educa- 
 
 two classical an 
 are very extensively sti 
 higher grade. The classic 
 large extent. lo.-t the pre 
 they formerly occupied ii 
 cation: the study of mo 
 other hand, appears to 
 From a pedagogical poin 
 
 tors urge tl arly study of a cognate language 
 
 as a means to promote, by way of comparison, a 
 more thorough understanding of the native lan- 
 guage. From a business or practical point of 
 view, there is naturally a growing demand for 
 instruction in the languages of several foreign 
 countries. The treasures of the English, Ger- 
 man, and French literatures are also stimulating, 
 in an increasing ratio, the study, in many coun- 
 tries, of those three languages, which, by com- 
 mon consent, are • ivjardecl as exceeding. all others 
 in importance. — See Marcel, Language as 
 ,, Means of Mental Culture and International 
 Communication (2 vols., London. 1853) ; and 
 The Study of Lang ,es (Lond. and X. Y.. 
 
 guage \m. i., ioi»j. nseeaiBo i i.vssicu, on u- 
 iF.s, Grammar, Modern Languages, and the 
 special articles on Latin, Greek, German, and 
 French. 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE 
 
 LA SALLE, Jean Baptiste, a French 
 priest and teacher, born in Reims, April 30., 
 1651 ; died in Rouen, April 7.. 171 9. In 1 669, 
 he was appointed canon of the cathedral of 
 Reims, and afterwards went to Paris to com- 
 plete his studies. In 1671, he was ordained a 
 priest, and began at once the work of his life, 
 the education and improvement of the working 
 classes. His first project was the obtaining of a 
 charter for a sisterhood, already established in 
 his native place, an. I designed exclusively for 
 the edueati if poor girls. This led to the foun- 
 dation of a similar ord< r designed to promote the 
 education of boys, which rapidly spread through- 
 out I'raiice. under the name of Brethren of the 
 t hristian Schools. The distinctive features of 
 his system were, the bringing together of the 
 teachers in a common residence, the use of the 
 coarsest food .and raiment, and vows of the 
 strictest obedience and devotion, during a pre- 
 paratory course of three years, to be renewed 
 afterwards for life by those desiring it. No 
 member of the older was permitted to become a 
 priest; and to prevent any aspirations in that 
 direction. Latin, as a study, was forbidden till 
 the age of thirty. In order to set an example of 
 religious poverty to his followers, he renounced 
 his prebend, distributed his money in alms, and 
 constantly taught in the schools. After some per- 
 sectitionsat the hands of secular teachers, he pur- 
 chased the establishment of St. Yon. at Rouen, 
 which afterwards became the central school of 
 
 tl .lei. In L868, the brother] d numbered 
 
 Hi. teachers and 300,000 pupils, in France: 
 
 and in the United States, 323 teachers and 
 15,000 pupils. The published works by which 
 La Salle is best known, are: Les regies de la 
 bienseance et de la civilitt ehr&iennes, and Les 
 douze vertus d'tin ban maitre. 
 
 LA SALLE COLLEGE, in Philadelphia. 
 Pa., a Roman Catholic institution, founded in 
 leli:!. is under the control of the < hriMian 
 Brothers. Ii is supported by tuition fees, varying 
 from Sin to $20 per quarter. It has a primary, 
 an academic, a commercial, and a collegiate de- 
 partment. The degrees conferred are A.B..B.S., 
 and A.M. In 1875 6, there were 200 students 
 (74 collegiate, 33 commercial, and 93 academic). 
 The presidents of the college have been, Brother 
 Oliver, Brother Noah, Brother Joachim, and 
 Brother Stephen (the present incumbent). 
 
 LATIN LANGUAGE, one of the two clas- 
 sical languages, which as the language of one of 
 the greatest empires of the world, and of one of 
 the richest of literature.-, and subsequently as 
 the official language' of the Catholic church, the 
 literary language of western Europe, and the 
 mother of the Romanic languages, has been 
 among the foremost agents in developing modern 
 civilization. The name is derived from the Lat- 
 in.-, or inhabitants of Latitun. in central Italy. 
 by whom it is believed by some to have been 
 spok"n as early as fifteen centuries before the 
 Christian era. According to the researches 
 of modern philology, the Latin is one of the 
 two blanches of the Old Italic language, which. 
 
LATIN LANCI'.U.K 
 
 511 
 
 with the Greek, German, Sanskrit, and others, schools, which in the 12th century.began to arise 
 
 is regarded as <>ne of the chief divisions into by the side of , and frequently in opposition to, 
 
 which the [ndo-Germanic languages (q.v.) are the church schools. It was this latter class of 
 
 divided. The close resemblance oi the Latin, bc! Is for which the name 1 is •ok q.v.) 
 
 of the Old Italic language, 
 
 some philologists to assume 
 
 and the < treek language spri 
 
 now lost . which was co-on 
 
 all 
 
 Ait 
 
 name of the people to whom it owes its eminent 
 position in history, it his also been called the 
 Roman language. For a long time, the Romans 
 
 which is now extant dating about - 10 B. < '. < >f 
 the preceding, ante-literary period of the lan- 
 guage nothing is now left but a few fragments 
 of the Salian songs, of the chant of the Arval 
 brethren, and of the law of the twelve tables, be- 
 sides a few epitaphs. During the next two 
 centuries, Latin literature was gradually devel- 
 oped, until, in the writings of Cicero, it reached 
 its classic period. Though the distinction be- 
 tween the eleganl language of the educated 
 classes (lingua urbana, urbanUas) and the lan- 
 guage of the common and lower classes of the 
 people (lingua rustica or vulgaris, ruslicitas) 
 was early and broadly drawn, the literary lan- 
 guage was and remained substantially the same : 
 and the natives of the provinces of Spain and 
 northern Africa among the Roman writers used 
 the same language as the natives of the city, 
 although, in regard to the spoken language, the 
 latter claimed the same prerogative as the mo I- 
 ern Parisians in regard to French. In the Bret 
 
 rial 
 
 language of ( Scero 
 many w titers of I 
 success, to reprodi 
 
 The speaking of Latin was common 
 the citizens and inc. banics oi tow ns : 
 i- reported of the family of the learned 
 Henry Stephens that not only his wife, 
 en hi,' domestics talked Latin'. Special 
 au.v was attributed to the speaking of 
 in th.- schools of the Jesuits; and also 
 
 iking and wttting I .at- 
 ■ growing opposition 
 oi classical studies in 
 civilized nations, has 
 itin as well as that of 
 
 Roman 
 
 third eel 
 
 erature i 
 common 
 provincialism 
 
 j, the purity of the language and lit- 
 lly declined The language of the 
 led the literary language, 
 recisms became more and 
 more frequent: and although there was a revival 
 of pure Latin in the literature of the fourth and 
 fifth centuries, the spoken language, in constant 
 contact with, and under the influence of, the 
 tongues of the barbaric conquerors of the em- 
 pire, gradually succumbed to that series of gram- 
 matical and verbal changes which formed the 
 transition into the Romanic laii._nia<j.e. In the 
 
 mean while, Latin hail 1 me the liturgical and 
 
 official language of the < Ihristian < liuivh; and, as 
 the modern languages which arose in different 
 countries of Europe remained for centuries de- 
 void of a literary character, Latin became the 
 common language of tin- - lio.,L ami lit. i .: ■ 1 1-. - of 
 
 tion, not only in the convent, and in the cath dr.il 
 
 and collegiate schools, but also in the town 
 
 Ther 
 
 main 
 conic 
 
 rhei . ivhen she personally ap- 
 
 ts support, with the memorable 
 
 / -prorege nostro Maria 
 
 a- Roman 1 latholic < 'hurch. Latin 
 
 ipaired the high authority ac- 
 
 the language of the Church : and, 
 
 11 used by the Pope in his com- 
 th the bishops and church mem- 
 
 raalities, and by the councils of 
 
 heir discussions and decrees. 
 
 863) 
 
 t. It 
 
:.l: 
 
 LATTX LANGUAGE 
 
 ters are the offspring of the ./Eolo-Doric variety 
 of the Greek alphabet. According to ( !icero ami 
 Quintilian, the number of letters in the old Lat- 
 in was 21, but only 20 appear in the earliest 
 documents. ( »ne letter appears, therefore, to 
 have disappeared, which, according to Mommsen 
 and Lenormant, was Z. The letter C, as its 
 place in the alphabet, as well as its early pro- 
 nunciation, indicates, was originally identical 
 with the Greek V ; as it gradually a>.-unied 
 tliesoun.lK.it caused the introduction of the 
 letter G. which was not in the earliest alphabet, 
 as well as the disappearance of the letter K. 
 which maintained itself in only a very few ab- 
 breviations, in regard to the pronunciation of 
 Latin, grammarians, until late in the present 
 century, were accustomed to remark that the an- 
 cient mode of pronouncing it was almost wholly 
 lost, and that modern scholars had applied to it 
 those principles which regulate the pronuncia- 
 tion of their own languages. The obscurity in 
 which Latin pronunciation was believed to be 
 enveloped, has, to a great extent, been removed 
 by the learned works of Corssen [Ueber Aus- 
 sprache, Vocalismus tmd Beton rng tier V ini- 
 
 others; and the leading representativi - A Utin 
 
 itV ill reull'.l to this Mllijeet. It 1-1 JO I -I .,, 
 
 probable that the Latin vowels ha I about the 
 same sound as the corresponding vowels have in 
 the Italian and German alphabets, with the ex- 
 ception of o, which may have resembled more the 
 sound of that letter in /,</■■/. than in note. The 
 y, which only occurs in words of Greek origin. 
 sounds like the Greek v, the German ii. and the 
 French a. In pronouncing each of the diph- 
 thongs, the Romans distinctly uttered both of 
 the vowels composing it. Thus in ru uter each of 
 the two vowels was distinctly heard, just as iu 
 the pronunciation of this diphthong in the 
 modern Italian and Portuguese. The letter c 
 was always pronounced like /, ; the .'/ was always 
 hard as in give; final m had an obscure sound, 
 perhaps the nasal sound of the French, as in 
 limit ; s was always like the Spanish s, having 
 the sound of xs in miss : and />//. <•//, th were, as 
 the characters indicate, pronounced as the as- 
 pirates p, /,-, and t. In its niles for accentuation 
 and the iptantity of syllables, the Latin resembles 
 the ( J reek : and it was thereby, like its classic sis- 
 ter, enabled to develop in its ] try a rhythmical 
 
 form which by far exceeds, in point of beauty, 
 any thing that is found in any modern language. 
 The inflectional part of the language, both in 
 the declension of nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and 
 
 num lab. and in the conjugal i f verbs, also 
 
 characterized the Latin at firsi sight as a sister 
 of the Greek, having many points of resem- 
 blance. We meet with striking similarities in the 
 rules pertaining to cases, numbers, genders, per- 
 sons, voices, and i les, together with extensive 
 
 verbal affinities. The later development of liter- 
 ature among the Romans deprived the Latin 
 of many of the forms which .-till distinguish 
 the Greek, and gave to the language a touch 
 
 of that utilitarian character which characterized 
 the people. Thus, there is no dual number, no 
 middle voice distinguished in its form from the 
 passive, and no optative mood. Besides, in both 
 the active and the passive voice of the Latin 
 verb, there are fewer tense-forms than are found 
 in the (Jreek. An additional case in the declen- 
 sion,,! singular nouns — the ablative (which of 
 all the Indo-Germanic languages the Latin and 
 (lid Hadrian alone have preserved), is a small 
 offset in favor of the Latin, as far as fullness of 
 inflectional forms is concerned. 
 
 The study of Latin is generally begun by En- 
 glish students at an early age. It almost invari- 
 ably precedes that of the Greek, and generally 
 the study of any foreign modern language. In 
 many cases, the study of English grammar is 
 either entirely postponed in favor of Latin, or 
 only its most elementary rules are taught. At 
 the outset, the student becomes aware that he is 
 entering a new world of thought. The nouns 
 which he has met with in his English reading, 
 he has found to be subject to but very few 
 changes. When the word father was used in a 
 possessive sense, it became father's; if used in 
 the plural, fathers ; and in the plural and pos- 
 sessive, fathers'. All the various relations, ex- 
 cept the possessive, which a noun, either in the 
 singular or plural number, may occupy in re- 
 gard to other parts of the sentence, he rinds, are 
 expressed bv means of ] r, pud! ions : as. nf the 
 fa/her. to the father, with the father, etc. The 
 latin grammar presents to him quite an array 
 ,,f different forms: as, pater, patris, patri, i><i- 
 Irtm. etc. Thus he sees that the modifications 
 of thought which in English are chiefly expressed 
 by means of prepositions, are indicated m Latin 
 by the varying inflections of the root. It re- 
 quires considerable effort on the part of the 
 youthful scholar to grasp this new idea, and it is 
 easdyseen that this effort must tend to develop 
 and strengthen the thinking powers of the stu- 
 dent. — However much the methods of teaching 
 1 .atin may differ in certain details, no one 
 should dispense with a thorough drilling in the 
 inflectional part of the language and in the 
 principal rules of syntax. Exercises in translat- 
 ing from Latin into English, and from English 
 into Latin, are now quite generally connected 
 with the very first grammar lessons. In accord- 
 ance with the principles of modern educational 
 writers, the exercises in translation are now, 
 from the beginning, very properly given in most 
 of the text-books in the shape of complete sen- 
 tences. As it is the desire of every teacher to 
 prepare his pupils for the reading of the Latin 
 classics, a selection of the translation exercises 
 from classic writers has obvious advantages. The 
 mastery system, proposed by 'I'. Prendergast, in 
 Thr Xltis/ciy of L'iiii/ii,i</,'x (London, 1872), 
 inverts this process, by requiring the pupils to 
 study sentences instead of words, committing to 
 memory carefully constructed expressions, and 
 learning the inflectional forms by comparison. 
 This process approximates to the natural method 
 of learning language, and, it is contended, leads 
 
LATIN LANGUAGE 
 
 to a fluency and ease in its use which cannot be 
 acquired in any other way. (See R. II. QtntOK, 
 First Steps in Teaching a Foreign Language, 
 London, 1875.) In the system of T. K. Arnold 
 (<[. v.). tin' inflectional peculiarities arc learned 
 gradually, as in the Ollendorff system, and al- 
 3i the first step taken by 3ie pupil is an ex- 
 ercise in constniein.ii. The very large extent to 
 which words of Latin origin have been re- 
 ceived into English can be turned to great 
 
 advantage l>v the intelligent teacher. I!ut few 
 words will be met with in the Latin exercises, 
 which are not etymologically related to words 
 in the English dictionary; and a constant ref- 
 erence to this kinship not only facilitates the 
 acquisition 1 >y the student of a copious Latin 
 
 sics is considerably obstructed by the want i 
 good juvenile works in the literature of Koine, 
 that literature ever ha 1 its Barbaulds and Edg. 
 worths, their fame has perished with their work 
 The books which for centuries have b sen the fir; 
 to be read in Latin schools, -Cornelius Nep< 
 and Caesar, were certainly not written for boj 
 and girls. Even in Home, they were as little rea 
 by children of ten, eleven, or twelve years, as oi 
 children of that age are expected to 'read Shak 
 speare, Gibbon, or Macaulay; and n is, thereto] 
 undoubtedly a pertinent question, from an edi 
 cational point of view, whether it is consistei 
 with common sense to expect English boys an 
 girls to read and appreciate writers whom tl: 
 youth of the same age in their own countc 
 would have found too dilticult to understam 
 
 ,upi 
 
 Selected f. 
 Willvillot': 
 
 logllesof I 
 
 As the mo 
 
 Latin schi 
 
 Cicero. Sallust. Livy, and Tacitus, among the 
 prose writers; and Horace, Virgil, and Ovid 
 
 Hi 
 
 Hid Pha'drus, Valerius Maximus, Vellcius. 
 Mela. Curtius, Persius, the two Senecas, Lucan, 
 linen;,:, Quintilian, Pliny, Florus, .Suetonius. 
 Sellius, .lustiii, and Eutropius, of the time 
 ifter Christ, we have name.! all the writers of 
 
 tlioi>,i.f modern s. hool dictionaries as turiiisliing 
 all the words embraced within the scope of their 
 works. The reading of Latin classics constitutes 
 the principal part of the study of Latin wher- 
 ever it is pursued, except when only the ele- 
 ments of Latin etymology are taught for the 
 purpose of elucidating the structure of English. 
 (for further remarks on the methods of reading 
 Latin authors, see Ci.\--h m Sti tuns.) As the 
 advantages which are expected to accrue from a 
 reading of the Latin classics must depend on 
 the pupil's thorough knowledge of the language, 
 the study of grammar and the practice of trans- 
 lating from the vernacular into the Latin lan- 
 guage should he continued throughout the course. 
 Whatever portion of the whole time of a course 
 of instruction may be assigned to Latin, after 
 the study has been begun, it should be con- 
 tinued without interruption until the course is 
 completed. Whether exercises iii Latin con- 
 versation, in original Latin composition, and in 
 latin versification, should be adopted in a 
 ionise of Latin study in colleges and classical 
 schools, is obviously dependent on the amount 
 
 time wluc 
 
 ili]ect 01 an- 
 it'ors. The 
 
 times, have 
 
 lOlars regard a lit t L- work entitled Be 
 Virik Blustribus Urbis Romm, and commonly 
 
 known in the United States as 17c/ llmnir, by 
 L'Homoud, a French professor of the eighteenth 
 century. This work contains the most interest- 
 ing stories related by Livy, Valerius Maximus, 
 Florus, and other eminent writers, as much as 
 possible in the very words of those writers, and 
 is still extensively used in the L'nited States 
 Great Britain, France, and, to a less extent, in 
 Germany. Attempts have also hecn made to 
 epitomize special Latin classics for the use of 
 young students; thus, in recent times, an epitome 
 of Caesar, prepared by Dr. Woodford, classical 
 master in .Madras College. St. Andrews, has been 
 in extensive use. Many of the Latin readers al-o 
 contain attempts of this kind. — The number of 
 Latin classics which are commonly read in col- 
 leges and schools, is quite small. Nepos, Caesar, 
 
 all sides, regarded as entitled at least to a serious 
 consideration. The concessions which have 
 been made to these claims, have ereatly affected 
 ' o Latin. It has long 
 bum of instruct ion 
 i ii< 1 fluency of Latin 
 ; or w riting, is now- 
 pt among I latholic 
 
 the place formerly as 
 ceased to be the genen 
 in schools of a higherg 
 expression, either in sp 
 adays rarely met with 
 priests, who acquire it 
 and at the universitie 
 countries of continenta 
 didates for the academic 
 
 put poses, 
 mid other 
 
 the cau- 
 till continue. 
 
 m many cases, to write the required essay, and 
 to defend proposed theses, in Latin. In order 
 to obtain this proficiency, the Germau gymnasium 
 
514 
 
 LATIN' LANGUAGE 
 
 provides a course in Latin extending through 
 uine years, the number of hours devoted to it 
 weekly being, for the first seven years, 10, and 
 for the last two, 8. There are few learned 
 institutions in Great Britain and the United 
 States which deem it advisable to require so 
 large an amount of the student's time for the 
 study of Latin; since the ability to speak and 
 write it with fluency is no longer reckoned 
 among the objects to be accomplished by 
 the shorter course. While the amount of time 
 which, in various courses of instruction, may 
 profitably lie given to Latin is now, and will long 
 
 continue, 
 tors will nnt tim 
 amount of time li 
 the course of inst 
 are still made in 
 schools. Where t 
 are read by studi 
 
 . intelligent educa- 
 ilt. when once the 
 termined, to adjust 
 it. Great mistakes 
 t in many classical 
 (ficult Latin authors 
 re not familiar with 
 
 declensions or conjugations, or where original 
 Latin compositions are required from students 
 who are unable to translate simple sentences 
 without mistake, the Latin course may safely be 
 pronounced to have been wholly useless for the 
 training of the mind, and the time given to it. 
 to have been entirely wasted. The practice of 
 requiring Latin addresses to be delivered, by stu- 
 dents who cannot translate correctly, to audiences 
 among whom there may not be a single person 
 who understands the address, is ex linglv ab- 
 
 years of early life may be irreparably squandered 
 in learning to write bad l.al in and < {reek verses." 
 The grammatical treatment of the Latin lan- 
 guage is believed to have originated with ('rates 
 Mallotes. a (Ireek embassador of king Attains of 
 Pergamus ; but nothing definite is known of his 
 labors. The first grammarian of whose work 
 valuable remains have been preserved to us was 
 M.Terentius Varro (died 27 1'.. < '.). who was dis- 
 tinguished as the most learned of Romans. A mi rag 
 
 the nu nms grammatical writers who succeeded 
 
 him. Donatus, in the fourth, and Priscianus in 
 
 the sixth, century were es] ially celebrated; and 
 
 their works served, in some respects, as the basis 
 of all later works. A new period in the 
 history of Latin philology began with the revival 
 of classical studies in Italy, and the invention 
 of the art of printing. For some time, Italy re- 
 mained the chief seat of Latin scholarship, but, 
 in the Kith and 1 Tth centuries, it was outstripped 
 by France. Holland, England, and Germany. 
 The Latinists of Holland distinguished them- 
 selves by introducing a strictly scientific method 
 into Latin philology. Richard Bentley, of Eng- 
 land, became the father of the science of verbal 
 criticism. In Germany, the efforts of Krncsti. 
 Heyne, Wolff, and others, caused an entire reor- 
 ganization of Latin studies, which gradually 
 led, in the course of the 19th century, to the 
 acknowledged superiority of the (iernian I atin- 
 ists. The most notable German contributions 
 to Latin lexicography (see Dictionaries), are the 
 
 comprehensive dictionaries by Freund, Georges, 
 and K lot/,, the school dictionaries by Ingerslev, 
 Georges, lleinichen, Kreussler, the etymological 
 dictionaries by Schwenck, and Vanicek (1874), 
 besides a manlier of special dictionaries for the 
 poets, the sources of jurisprudence, the histori- 
 ans, and for every Latin work that is com- 
 monly read in schools. Latin grammars in 
 the German language have been written by 
 /uinpt (13th ed., Is71; shorter grammar, 9th 
 ed., 1866); Madvig (3d ed., 1875; shorter gram- 
 mar, L857); Berge] 9thed ,1875); EUendt (16th 
 ed.,1876); Kiil.ner {Schvlgrammatik, 5th ed., 
 1861; fflementargrrammatik, 38th ed., 1875); 
 Lattmami and Midler [Silin'hiniiiiiintlik. ,'lded., 
 1872 ; Kurzgefasste QrammatOe, 3d ed., 1872); 
 Middemlorf and Griiter lathed., IsTO ; Sibcrti 
 
 1 llh i 
 betica 
 
 el, rest 
 
 Latin 
 Germi 
 Biblu 
 
 celcbr 
 
 iPhi 
 
 elV, 
 
 An alpha- 
 itionaries, 
 ng to the 
 filished in 
 ngelmaun. 
 
 ((3d ed., 1853) . — The most 
 lexicographers were t'ale- 
 pino, Robert Stephens, Facciolati, and Forcel- 
 lini. (See 1 > i« i ion miiks.) Iii England, and sub- 
 sequentlj also in the United States, the Latin 
 lexicon of Ainsworth (1736) became the most 
 popular work of this class. Of the English and 
 American works published in the present century, 
 Leveretfs lexicon (183(1) announces itself as 
 an "abridgment of Facciolati and Forcellini, with 
 improvements drawn from Scheller and Lttne- 
 mann"; the lexicon of Andrews (1856) is based 
 on Freund : that of W. Smith (1855), on For- 
 cellini and Freund; that of Piddle and Arnold 
 (American edition by Anthon),on Georges ; that 
 of Crooks and Sel'iem (1 857). on Ingerslev. 
 Other Latin-English dictionaries have been com- 
 piled by Beard, Bullions, Entick, Gardner, White, 
 
 and young. Anion- the I aim gnu ars used 
 
 in American and English schools, besides trans- 
 lations of the grammars of Zumpt, Madvig, and 
 others, are those of Adam (formerly very ex- 
 tensively used ill American schools; new edi- 
 tion by Gould, by Fish, and by others), Allen, 
 Greenough, Andrews and Stoddard, Anthon, 
 Arnold, Bartholomew. Bingham. Brooks, Bruns, 
 Bullions, Clark, Dillaway, Fischer, tiildersleye, 
 Goodrich, Grant, Donaldson (complete Latin 
 Grammar, 3d ed., 1867 ; one of the best), Hark- 
 ness now extensively used in American colleges, 
 Harrison, Key (3d "ed., 1862), McClintock, Mor- 
 ris, Roby (2 vols., 1871—4, one of the best), 
 Rose, Ross. Ruddiman, W. Smith. Spencer, 
 Thompson, Waddcll, and Weale. An excellent 
 introduction to a philological study of the Litiu, 
 
 2 vols, 1861 — .">). The relation of Latin to the 
 other branches of the hido-Germanic family is 
 fully elucidated in the comparative grammars- 
 
Anthuu. Brooks, 
 others. The best 
 many are those 
 he direction of 
 
 LATIN SCHOOLS 
 
 of Bopp and Schleicher. (See Indc-Germanic 
 
 Languages). — There are numerous editions of 
 every Litin writer that is usually read in schools, 
 with English notes, and in many cases with a 
 special vocabulary. Collective editions of the 
 Latin authors read in schools, according to a uni- 
 form plan, are, among others, the Bibliotheca 
 Classica, under the direction of G. Long and A. 
 J. Macleane (London, since 1854) : the Clarendon 
 Press Series, which counts among its contribu- 
 tors Moberley. Ellis.W.and O. Ramsay, l'richard. 
 Bernard, AValford, Browning. Wickham, Lee- 
 Warner(Oxford); the Catena Classicorum, under 
 th- direction of Holmes and Bigg (London) ; 
 the series published bv < 'has,- and Stuart i 1'hila- 
 delphia); the editions of several of the classics by 
 Allen and Greenough, Andre 
 Harkness, Sehmitz. Weale. a 
 collections of this kind in 
 published at Berlin, undei 
 Sauppe and ITaupt. and at Leipsic. by the firm 
 of Teubner. The latter, in 1876, consisted of 61 
 volumes. — Histories of Roman literature have 
 been published by Ivlotz ( Leipsic. 1845); Thomp- 
 son (London, 1852) ; Browne (London, 1853) ; 
 Munk (Berlin. 1861); Bahr (3 vols.. 4th ed., 
 Carlsruhe, 1867) : Bernhardy (Brunswick. 5th 
 ed., Is72>; Teuffel (3d. ed.. Leipsic, 1«7(> ; Engl. 
 transl., London. 1873). 
 
 LATIN SCHOOLS, a name given, in several 
 German states as well as in the Netherlands, to 
 a class of secondary schools. The name is derived 
 from the fact that Latin was formerly, in these 
 schools, the most prominent branch, and generally 
 even the medium, of instruction. These schools 
 gradually developed out of the "trivial schools," 
 which, in the course of the middle ages, sprung up 
 in many towns by the side of, or even in opposi- 
 tion to, the convent schools, and the cathedral and 
 collegiate schools. The name hi/in sehimh\i\\ not 
 come into general use. but alternated with that of 
 particular school. When, in the Kith century, the 
 word gymnasium, and (more rarely) padago- 
 gium was applied to those Latin schools which 
 were completely organized, and prepared their 
 pupils for the university, the name Latin school 
 was commonly reserved for the lower half of the 
 institution. Only in exceptional cases (as in 
 Halle!, has a complete gymnasium retained the 
 name Latin school, which is now generally on 
 the wane. In Prussia, no distinctive name is 
 any longer given to the lower classes of a com- 
 plete gymnasium ; and schools containing only 
 tin- lower classes of a gymnasium, are called 
 progymnasia. The largest proportion of these 
 schools is to be found in the kingdom of Wiir- 
 temberg. where many of them have only one 
 or two teachers. In Bavaria, the name is still 
 given to the five lower classes of the classical 
 gymnasium, which is there called Studienanstatt, 
 and also to those schools which only contain 
 the five lower gymnasial classes. In the Nether- 
 lands, the difference between Latin schools and 
 gymnasia is not defined. (See Netherlands.) 
 In the L'nited States, one of the best known 
 of such schools is the public Latin school of 
 Boston. 
 
 LAW SCHOOLS 
 
 515 
 
 LAW SCHOOLS have been in use as a 
 means of education for the bar. almost from the 
 time when the bar first became a recognized 
 profession. In ancient times, the schools of 
 Rome, Berytus, and Constantinople, with some 
 of minor importance, were the recognized nurs- 
 eries of the legal profession. The most eminent 
 of the Roman jurists taught in these schools. 
 There is reason to believe that at least one such 
 school remained at Ravenna up to a period not 
 very long before the revival of the law; if, indeed. 
 it was not, as some have supposed, the germ from 
 which the famous school of Bologna afterwards 
 sprung. From the time of Irnerius, early in the 
 12th century, the history of European juris- 
 prudence has been identified with that of the 
 schools of law, in the states of modern Europe. 
 
 At present, u] that continent, the law schools 
 
 of the various universities are the recognized 
 portals of the legal profession, and of the 
 bench. In England, le-,,1 education was, at first. 
 conducted in tie same method. The arrival of 
 
 in the reign of Stephen, marks the introduction 
 of scientific jurisprudence into England. He con- 
 tinued to teach for a period not definitely ascer- 
 tained, but long enough to found a school which 
 has left, in its glosses and other legal writings, 
 considerable traces of its existence. The Inns of 
 Court. at London, were probably intended, in the 
 first place, as rivals of this civilian school, and 
 were devoted, from the beginning, to instruction 
 in the common law. During their flourishing 
 period as schools, the attendance of students 
 there was very large, in proportion to the entire 
 population of the metropolis and of the kingdom. 
 The well-known account given by Forteseue (in 
 his treatise Be laudibiis legum Anglioz, cap. 19.) 
 of the life, anil mode of instruction in these 
 schools, proves the importance of the position 
 which they held as the chief, if not the only, 
 mode of preparation for the English bar of that 
 time. Their activity in this respect seems to 
 have been at its height about the time of For- 
 teseue, or in the 15th century. In the 16th, 
 they became rather places of gaiety ; and the 
 readership and other offices were perverted to 
 means of ostentatious display. The number of 
 students declined ; and, from the middle of 
 the 17th century, the course of instruction in 
 them ceased to be any thing more than a mere 
 form. Education for the bar was, henoeforth, 
 conducted in the offices of special pleaders, con- 
 veyancers, and other practicing lawyers ; and it 
 was not until the present generation that the 
 Inns of Court have again made the effort to 
 resume their original function. The Inner 
 Temple led the way in this reform, by establish- 
 ing, in 1833, two lecturcrships. one of common 
 law and equity, the other of general jurispru- 
 dence and international law. The latter was filled 
 by John Austin, whose lectures, though only the 
 first six were published in his life-time. I,a\ i since 
 exerted so great an influence upon the revival 
 of scientific jurisprudence in England /. hires 
 on Jurisprudence, or ike Philosophy of Positive 
 
516 
 
 LAW SCHOOLS 
 
 Lair; edited by his widow, 1861 — 3; 3d edition 
 by Robert Campbell, 1869). In 184", another 
 attempt was made to establish readerships or 
 lecturerships, originating in the Middle Temple, 
 by which body Mr. George Long was appointed 
 reader on civil law and jurisprudence. The 
 other Inns followed the example, and moot- 
 courts and examinations were added by tin- 
 lecturers. But no joint action of the four Inns 
 was had until 18.VJ, when a standing committee, 
 or council of legal education, was appointed : five 
 readerships were established, in which those 
 previously appointed by the several Inns were 
 merged ; and students were required, before ad- 
 mission, either to attend at least two of the 
 courses for a year, or t<> pass a public exami- 
 nation. In the mean time, a committee of in- 
 quiry, appointed by parliament in 1846, had 
 reported in favor of uniting the four Inns into a 
 single law university; and, in 1854, a royal com- 
 mission was appointed, which investigated the 
 subject very thoroughly, and reported in favor of 
 the proposed measure, and of a compulsory exami- 
 nation before a call to the bar. No practical 
 result, however, followed so far as the Inns are 
 concerned until 1873, when these recommen- 
 dations were partially carried out. The four Inns 
 of Court now elect a council of legal education, 
 
 of right members, called the I lommittee of Edu- 
 cation and Kxamination, to superintend the edu- 
 cation and examination of students for the bar. 
 The council also appoint six readers or lecturers, 
 to hold office for three years, and a certain num- 
 ber of tutors for private instruction. There is 
 also a paid board of examiners, six in number, 
 holding office for two years, and re-eligible only 
 after an interval of a year; and studentships, ex- 
 hibitions, and certificates of honor are awarded 
 to those who pass- [examinations. I Jut at- 
 tendance on the lectures and examinations is not 
 compulsory; and any person may still qualify for 
 admission to the bar by passing, previous to his 
 admission to an Inn as a student, examinations to 
 I In- Knji-li and Latin languages and in Kngli.-h 
 history, and by spending a year as pupil with a 
 barrister or pleader. — All that has been said thus 
 far relates only to education for the English bar 
 as distinct from the body of solicitors. Admis- 
 sion to this body has always been in the hands of 
 common law judges and masters of the rolls; and 
 the Incorporated Law Society, a very iiillm-nt ial 
 organization, succeeded, as early as L836, in intro- 
 ducing a system of examinations, preliminary, 
 middle, and final, as a strict condition of admis- 
 sion to the roll. Candidates are examined by a 
 committee of sixteen solicitors, generally chosen 
 from the council of that society, together with 
 the masters of the common law courts. The 
 council also appoint annually three lecturers, by 
 whom Lectures are delivered to articled clerks. 
 Attendance at these is voluntary, but no solicitor 
 can be admitted without passing the examinations 
 for which they prepare the student. — In July, 
 1870, the Legal Education Association, composed 
 of both barristers and solicitors, and headed 
 
 by Sir Roundell Palmer, now Lord Selborne, 
 was formed, with the avowed objects of bringing 
 about the establishment of a law university for 
 the education of students intended for the pro- 
 fession of law. and the placing of the admission 
 to both branches of the profession on the basis of 
 a combined test of collegiate education and an 
 examination by a public board of examiners. In 
 every session of parliament, from that time to 
 1873, they made vigorous efforts to secure these 
 objects by resolutions and bills, an account of 
 which will be found in Mr. Campbell's preface 
 
 courts, the methods of procedure, and the fusion 
 of law and equity. The association, however, is 
 still engaged in prosecuting its reforms, which 
 have been materially facilitated by these changes. 
 The law schools of the United States have 
 no historical connection with those already men- 
 tioned. Their existence is due entirely to the wants 
 of that country. Before the Revolution, it was 
 not uncommon for law students who could afford 
 it. to go to the mother country, and prosecute 
 their legal studies there, nominally in the Inns of 
 I 'unit, really in the offices where other English 
 students of the time prepared themselves for tin- 
 bar ; but the number of these was, of course, 
 small, and the bar of the colonies was composed 
 in a large measure, of those who had read only 
 in the office of the nearest practicing attorney. 
 The number of these was comparatively large. 
 In a work published at London in L 790, entitled 
 .1 Review of the Laws of the United States etc., 
 it is stated that tlie;-e were at that time three 
 hundred practicing lawyers in I lonneeticut, and 
 that, "in New Y oik. and from thence through all 
 the northern states, lawyers swarmed." This natu- 
 rally led the attention of thoughtful men to the 
 1 ii issil ii lity i if improvement in legal education; and 
 James Wilson, one of the signers of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence, a member of the con- 
 vention which framed the Constitution of the 
 United States, and an associate justice of the 
 supreme court, has the honor of having been 
 the first to deliver a formal course of lectures 
 upon American law. lie held the law professor- 
 ship in the College of Philadelphia, then the 
 federal capital, and in the winter of 1790 — 91, 
 delivered his first course ; a second course was 
 commenced in the following winter, but was never 
 completed. The college became incorporated 
 with the University of Pennsylvania, in April 
 1792; and the law school, fm- some unexplained 
 reason. was discontinued. The lectures delivered 
 by Judge Wilson are published in his collected 
 works in three volumes, 8vo (Philadelphia, 1804). 
 The honor of precedence is sometimes claimed 
 for the Litchfield school, next to be mentioned. 
 Judge Parker, in his pamphlet on the Harvard 
 law school (Boston. 1871), says that Timothy 
 Reeves established the Connecticut school in 
 I 782 or 1 784. But there is no reason to believe 
 that the instruction given by Judge Reeves in 
 the earlier years differed in any respect from that 
 
LAW SCHOOLS 
 
 511 
 
 usually given by lawyers in their offices, till 
 Judge Gould became associated with hiin in 
 1798. The Philadelphia school was at least the 
 first one formally incorporated, while that of 
 
 .hl.Ure lie 
 
 <t successful one. It 
 [ by the Hon. James 
 
 Treatise on Pleading. 
 
 .re than thirty wars. 
 
 University of Michigan, was established in 
 L858, and that of Columbia College, in New 
 York (which had previously been established 
 under Chancellor Kent, but discontinued after 
 a brief existence), dates its present existence 
 from the same year. These are now the two 
 largest schools in the country; and the .late of 
 their establishment may well be taken as the 
 period when the more rapid growth of law 
 
 John Hooper Ashnuin. having been elected to a 
 position at Harvard. The Litchfield school had 
 students from all parts of the Union, but its 
 numbers were never large. The attendance at 
 no time exceeded 50; and the total number of 
 its students, from 1798 to 1827, was 730, or an 
 average of about 25 per annum. The third law 
 school, and the oldest now in existence in the 
 United States, is that of the Law Department of 
 Harvard University. A single professorship 
 was established in 1815; and the school, in L817. 
 Until 18'29. its success was very meager; but, m 
 that year, a gift from the Hon. Nathan Dane 
 established a new professorship to which Judge 
 Story was elected. Professor Ashiuun was as- 
 sociated with him; and the Harvard School 
 sprung at once to the position which it has ever 
 since retained, tit the head of American law- 
 schools. Among its professors have been the 
 distinguished Icjal authors Simon Greenleaf, 
 L832— 48; Theophilus Parsons, 1848—70; and 
 EmoryWashburne, L855 -76; besides manj other 
 
 distinguished men. Several Other law schools 
 
 were 'started in various parts of the country 
 
 prior to 1830; but tin Iv ones now surviving 
 
 without a break of existence are believed to be 
 those of Vale College, 1824, and of the Univer- 
 sity of Virginia, 1825. The history of the thirty 
 years from 1829 to,59,maybesuinuied up by say- 
 ing that law schools were few and neglected, and 
 that their graduates were but an insignificant mi- 
 nority of the profession. Even the great name and 
 influence of Joseph Story, and the success of the 
 Dane Law School, under his direction, formed but 
 an exception to the rule, without perceptibly mod- ' 
 dying the general custom of legal education in 
 
 private offices. In L842, if we may trust a table 
 
 published the following year, there were only 
 10 law schools in nominal existence in the coun- 
 try, with 19 professors among them, and .'1st 
 stin lents. No school had more than three teachers; 
 and some of the most frequented, like the 
 University of Virginia,had only one. Harvard 
 had only two. but they were Judge Story and 
 Simon Creenleaf: and their reputation attracted 
 115 students, while no other law school in the 
 country had more then 7.">. The only schools still 
 existing which date from this period are the 
 following: Indiana University, at Bloomington, 
 L842 ; Louisiana University, at New Orleans. 
 1847: Albany Law School, now a branch of 
 Union University. 1851 ; University of New 
 York, New York City, 1857: Cincinnati Law 
 School. L833; Ohio State and Union Law Col- 
 lege, Cleveland. L856; Cumberland University, 
 Lebanon. Tenn.. 1847. The Law School of the 
 
 it which mie;ht 
 
 part of the preparation for the actual work of 
 the bar; but, about this time, several causes con- 
 tributed to produce a change in the system of 
 legal education. 'I he rapid development of the 
 West, and the number of lawyers required by its 
 business gave a great stimulus to professional 
 education; while it became evident that the tra- 
 ditional method of instruction in offices would 
 not meet the wants of the country, outside of the 
 few great cities. The introduction of codes also, 
 and the change from a mm technical practice to 
 an informal one. together with the immense in- 
 
 an evident necessity; and the recent growth of 
 
 law scl Is has been the result, rather than the 
 
 cause, of the change which has come over the 
 whole system of professional education. The 
 
 scl I at Ann Arbor was also the first to place 
 
 its tuition fees at a rate within the means of) 
 
 general disposition on their part to take a course 
 
 in the law school, as. a. !,,,-.. a par. „t thci, pro- 
 fessional education. Thegrowth in numbers of 
 this school was entirely unprecedented. — In 1860J 
 as we learn from the United States census of 
 that year, there were in the country twenty law 
 schools, distributed as follows ; five' in the state 
 of New York, two in Indiana .and one each in 
 the states of Connecticut, Illinois. Kentucky, 
 louisiana. Massachusetts. Michigan. Missouri. 
 
 ,h,,,,l,i. 
 
 lint 
 
 what mav be called a sub-tanti.d existence at 
 that time. Nearly all of these remain in full 
 operation at present. Since that time the number 
 has been more than doubled, as will be seen by 
 the table we give below. Some of the most 
 flourishing schools at present have been estab- 
 
518 
 
 LAW SCHOOLS 
 
 lished since that period; as. for instance, those 
 at Boston, Chicago, St. Louis, Iowa City, and 
 Washington; and most of the older schools 
 have been reorganized and improved. — The fol- 
 lowing table, will show the remarkable recent 
 increase of these institutions. 
 
 1S4 , 2 American Almanac 
 
 for 1843) 
 
 1SC0 (American Almanac, 
 for 1861) 
 
 (U. 
 
 1870 U.S. Bureau of Edu- 
 
 1871 (do.)'.!.'."."!!.'.".'.!! 
 
 1872 (do.) 
 
 187:) (do.) 
 
 It will be noticed that, of late years, the numbe 
 of teachers has increased much more rapidly ii 
 
 propni 
 
 rtion than that of students. 
 
 as a single and uniform system. The course is 
 composed of detached fragments, in each of which 
 a siugle topic of law is treated with no reference 
 to others, and no attempt at consistent treat- 
 ment by different teachers. The result, too fre- 
 quently, is. that students go through a course 
 with no conception of the law as a whole, and 
 with no training of that power of legal judgment 
 which is the first requisite of a lawyer. 
 
 Admission. — Most of the schools throw open 
 . their doors to all comers, and require no partic- 
 ular amount of education for admission. The 
 course is intended to be taken, in all cases, at the 
 very beginning of professional education. None 
 'of the schools require any previous knowledge of 
 ^jlaw, except in cases where students apply for 
 y (advanced standing. — Two or three of the older 
 jfrschools have recently adopted a rule by which 
 fc &students are required to present a college 
 r diploma, or to pass an equivalent examination, 
 i J This rule is not to take effect until the next 
 college year, 1877 — 8; and its operation must 
 
 Orijaniziition, Course of Xtmli/. etc. — Although be considered as yet an unsolved problem, 
 there is, in the nature of the case, no statutory t Length of Course, and Graduation. — The 
 or other ride prescribing the organization and course of study varies in length, from a single 
 conduct of American law schools, in general, yet session of five or six months to three years. Only 
 a few prominent features are common to all. one or two schools, however, have as yet adopted 
 The faculty usually consists of lawyers in the i the latter. The majority require either a single 
 active practice of the profession, or judges oc- year of continuous study, or a course nominally 
 cupying seats upon the bench: and the time of two years, composed of two annual sessions of 
 which they give to instruction is usually but a five or six months each. The advantage of the 
 small part of that required by theirother duties, latter arrangement is supposed to lie in the op- 
 Only a few schools have yet succeeded in secur- portunity given to students to prosecute their 
 ing to themselves the constant services of one or studies in an office between the two sessions. In 
 more resident professors who devote themselves such cases students are usually admitted to the 
 entirely tn the work of instruction in law. — The senior class, upon examination, and are thus 
 method of instruction differs in different schools, enabled to reduce the period of actual attendance 
 but is usually either by lectures, or by recitation to one session; but, as methods of instruction im- 
 frorn text-books. The latter are for the most part prove. a tendency is manifest to insist more upon 
 the treatises which have been prepared for the use the discipline acquired in the school itself, and 
 of practicing lawyers, and very few of them are ! to make a constant term of attendance a condi- 
 fit for elementary instruction. Still, the method tion of graduation. The usual degree at gradu- 
 of recitation is so much more effective than the ' ation is that of LL. B. It was formerly given 
 mere delivery of lectures, that the present tend- j as a matter of course, after the requisite period 
 ency is to an increased use of textbooks. A "of attendance; but, at present, an examination 
 few teachers have made an effort to combine [ is required in every case. This examination, in 
 
 the two, thus affording a method really adapted 
 to the use of beginners, or have prepared them- 
 selves printed synopses of their lectures, or col- 
 lections of cases, to be placed in the hands of 
 the class for study. Attention has recently been 
 drawn to this subject, and to the great waste of 
 time and labor caused by the previous neglect of 
 
 some schools, is conducted by the faculty ; in 
 others, by a committee appointed by the courts 
 of the state, orin some other manner. The extent 
 and rigor of examinations, of course, vary widely 
 in different institutions; but, upon the whole, they 
 are so much more thorough and severe than 
 those to which applicants were subjected under 
 
 all effort toward better teaching. Another defect the former system, that they have undoubtedly 
 of the schools may be traced to the circumstances , done much to raise the standard of professional 
 
 of their origin As they grew up only to 
 plement the old method of instruction in offices, 
 they have relied entirely upon such instruction 
 for the training of students in professional 
 habits, and in the details of practice. They have 
 confined themselves exclusively, or almost so, to 
 the task of assisting the student in memorizing 
 rules of law; and a course of introductory lect- 
 ures like the encyclopaedia and methodology of 
 the < irrman schools is almost unknown. Very 
 few schools give their students a view of the law 
 
 cquire tits. — Quite 
 
 r of schools have, 
 ing students to the 
 ,' are situated. In 
 nt for a graduate 
 
 to present his diploma, and take the attorney's 
 oath; though, in some instances, the diploma 
 serves merely as a substitute for examination, 
 and the applicant must also prove moral char- 
 acter, etc. A warm controversy has recently 
 been waged, in Xew York and some other states, 
 in regard to the value and propriety of this 
 
LAW SCHOOLS 
 
 privilege. The schools themselves are by no 
 means unanimous in desiring it. The better 
 opinion seems to be that it should be granted 
 only in cases where the examination for the 
 degree is not left with the faculty alone, but is 
 under the direction of the supreme court of the 
 state, or of some other body whose position will 
 guarantee its fairness and impartiality. Where 
 
 again bcfo 
 pointed for lo 
 
 railuates to appear 
 as air usually ap- 
 s. As a general rule. 
 
 i degree but that of LL. B., giv. 
 pletion of the usual course, is b 
 American law schools. The Ya 
 •ever, now offers the degree of 
 (M. L.) to such students as puiM 
 course for one year after takin 
 degree, and the degree of Poetoi 
 (It. C. L.) for a second year of ; 
 The University of Georgia offers the degree 
 of Doctor of Jurisprudence to such of its 
 graduates as have pursued the practice of law 
 with success, and maintained an honorable and 
 virtuous character, for seven years after grad- 
 uation. — The subjoined table contains a list 
 of all the important law schools in the United 
 States : 
 
 Law 
 
 il Law 
 
 study. 
 
 Union . 11. : I ... . 
 
 M.Keii.livo < ■ .1 1 , ■- 
 Lincoln University. 
 -Indiana University. 
 Iowa Coll. of Law 
 .Simpson (rut. Cull. 
 
 - Iowa state Uiiiv 
 
 IuwaW.-s.Univ 
 
 K.-ntu kv Univ 
 
 Central Univ 
 
 " Univ. of Louisiana. 
 -Univ. of Maryland.. 
 
 Boston University. 
 
 Harvard University 
 -«Univ. of Michigan.. 
 -Univ. of Missouri.. 
 
 Washington Univ... 
 
 Albanv Law School. 
 
 Hamilton College.. 
 
 Coluuilna College. . 
 -Univ. of N. Y. citv. 
 
 lluth. llurd College 
 
 Trinity College 
 
 Cmeiiiliati Law Sole 
 
 (Cincinnati C -ll. g 
 
 ■ Ohio Stale & Union 
 
 Law College 
 
 Wilb.Tforce Univ.. 
 
 I.afay, He College.. 
 
 - Univ of Fenns 
 
 - University of S. C... 
 Neoj.h'gau LawSch 
 Cumberland Univ.. 
 
 ^Univ. of Virginia .. 
 
 Sen. of J.aw.'.r.pitv 
 WasL. .'; Lee Univ... 
 -Univ. of Wisconsin. 
 
 Columbian Univ 
 
 Howard Univ 
 
 Georgetown Univ... 
 National Univ 
 
 Lebanon, 111 
 
 Lincoln. Ill 
 
 Bloomingt'n, Ind. 
 Pes Moines, la.. . 
 
 NewOrleaus.La.. 
 Baltimore, Mil.... 
 
 Cambridge, Mass 
 .inn Arbor, Mich. 
 
 Columbia, Mo 
 
 St. Louis, Mc 
 
 Albany, N. Y 
 
 Clinton, N. Y 
 
 New Y. >rk, N.T... 
 New York, K.Y... 
 Happy Homo.N.C 
 
 Trinity, N.C 
 
 Cincinnati, O 
 
 Cleveland, O 
 
 Xenia, 
 
 Kaston, Pa 
 
 Philadelphia, la. 
 Columbia, s. c... 
 Gallatin, Tcnn.... 
 Lebanon, Tcnn. . . 
 Charlottesv'le.Ya. 
 
 Lexington, Ya 
 
 Madison, Wis 
 
 V.ashington.P. C. 
 Washington, P. C. 
 Washington, P. C. 
 Washington, D. C. 
 
 El-aii 
 
 1-.G7 2 
 ^^ 2 
 
 1S72^™ 
 
 isgo ■ 2 37 
 
 1870 I 2 S4 
 1870 2 I 36 
 
 EBANON VALLEY COLLEGE 51!> 
 
 Abbott, bom in Groton, 
 
 ■2 ; .lied in Huston, Aug. IS., 
 
 to 1862. His chief claim to remembrance in 
 the educational world was his founding of the 
 Lawrence Scientific School, at Cambridge, in 
 1847. 
 
 LAWRENCE, Amos, brother of the pre- 
 ceding, merchant, born in Groton, Mass.; April 
 22., L786; died in Boston, Dec. 31, 1852. After 
 in L831, he retired from active 
 luted the remainder of his life 
 
 nary 
 
 a serious illness in i.^.ii. n 
 business, and devoted the 
 to acts of benevolence, expending in this way 
 ..ver $600,000. Among the educational institu- 
 tions which were the obj< cts of his bounty, may 
 be enumerated : \\ lilian.s ( lollege.the 1 awrence 
 Academy of Groton, Wabash College, Kenyon 
 College, and the theologi 
 gor, Me. 
 
 LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY OF WIS- 
 CONSIN, at Appleton, Wis., chartered in 
 1*47, is under Methodist Episcopal control. It 
 is supported by tuition fees, etc.. and the income 
 of an endowment of about $60,000. It has 
 chemical and philosophical apparatus, a cabinet 
 of minerals, botanical specimens, etc., and a li- 
 brary of nearly 8, I volumes. The regular 
 
 tuition fees vary from $15 to $21 a year. 
 The university comprises both the College and 
 the Institute, and consists of six departments, 
 as follows: (1) The Preparatory Department; 
 (2) The Academic Department; (3) The Com- 
 mercial School; (4) 'the Conservatory of Mu- 
 sic; (5) The School of Drawing and Painting; 
 ((>) The .hivenilo Department: and the Col- 
 lege (opened in 1853), which has a classical, a 
 scientific, and a civil engineering course. Both 
 sexes are admitted. In 1875 — 6, there were 14 
 instructors. The number of students was as fol- 
 lows : collegiate, 102 (58 males and 44 females) ; 
 preparatory, 97 ; academical. 38; commercial, 
 45 ; music, 33 ; drawing and painting, 14 ; ju- 
 venile, 29 ; total, deducting repetitions. 333 (1 85 
 males and 1 18 females). There were \1'i ahomii 
 (114 males and 59 females). The Rev. W. H. 
 Sampson, A. M., was principal of Lawrence 
 Institute from 1848 to 1853. The presidents of 
 the university have been as follows : the Rev. 
 Edward Cooke, D.D., 1853—61 ; the Rev. R. Z. 
 Mason, LL. I)., 1801—5 ; and the Rev. George 
 M. Steele, D. D., the rresent incumbent (1870), 
 appointed in 1865. 
 
 LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE, at 
 Annville, Pa., under the control of the United 
 Brethren in Christ, was founded in 18G7 by 
 the East Pennsylvania Conference of that 
 church. It has an endowment of $20,000, 
 but is chiefly supported by several conferences 
 of the church, and by contributions and tuition 
 fees. The regular fees are from $40 to $17 a 
 year. The college has a beautiful campus of 
 about seven acres, two line buildings, a cabinet, 
 and a library of over 1,200 volumes. The cur- 
 riculum embraces three courses : a classical, a 
 
o20 
 
 LECTURES 
 
 ladies', and a scientific course. There is also a 
 preparatory department. In 1875 — 6, there were 
 6 instructors, and 116 students (classical course, 
 30; ladies' course, 3; scientific course, S3), of 
 whom S-l were preparatory. The presidents have 
 been as follows: T. R. Vickroy, 1867—71; 
 Lucian H. Hammond. 1*71 — 6 ; and 1). D. De 
 Long, the present incumbent, elected in 1*76. 
 
 LECTURES, or Lecture System, a 
 method of giving instruction by formal expo- 
 sitions, generally written out and read to the 
 learners. Hence the term lecture (from the 
 Latin, meaning reading or something read). 
 Lectures are, however, quite often extempora- 
 neous, or delivered without previous preparation 
 of the language. The lecture differs from the 
 lesson chiefly in dispensing with the ordinary 
 processes of the recitation room— question and 
 answer, repetition, etc. The learners simply 
 listen, or take notes, while the lecturer nails or 
 speaks, with or without illustrations by means 
 of the blackboard, maps, pictures, apparatus, 
 etc. — Lectures, as a system of instruction, are 
 chiefly depended on in higher education in col- 
 leges and universities, also in technical, scien- 
 tific, and professional schools, because the stu- 
 dents are supposed to have acquired a consider- 
 able maturity of intellect, enabling them not 
 only to receive knowledge without exercises 
 specially designed to awaken attention or stim- 
 ulate the understanding, but to exercise their 
 own faculties in arranging it in their minds for 
 
 previously acquired knowledge. I'hey are, be- 
 sides, supposed to appreciate the importance of 
 
 the information communicated, so as not to need 
 
 LESLIE 
 
 year are the same in all the courses. This 
 institution was originally designed to impart a. 
 technical education, and the school of general 
 literature (similar to the ordinary college course) 
 was added subsequently. In 1875 — 6, there 
 were x professors, li other instructors, and 113 
 students. The Rev. John M. Leavitt, D. 1>.. is 
 (1876) the president 
 
 LELAND UNIVERSITY,in New Orleans,, 
 La., chartered in 1870 and opened in 1873, 
 is uniler Baptist control. It was especially de- 
 signed tor colored youth, but no one can be ex- 
 cluded on account of race, color, sex, or religion. 
 It is supported by contributions, tuition fees, and 
 the products of 10 acres of cultivated land. The 
 buildings and grounds are valued at about 
 $75,000, toward which the Freedmen's Bureau 
 contributed $17,500, and benevolent individuals 
 and churches the residue. The cost of tuition is 
 SI per month, which is remitted to ministers and 
 licentiates. An opportunity is afforded students 
 to support themselves in part by labor on the 
 farm. The university has an academic and a 
 college preparatory course, of three years each, a 
 college course oi four years, and a theological 
 department. In 1874- 5, there were 4 instructors 
 
 whom 5 were in the eolleee preparatory course. 
 
 dies. 
 
 LESLIE, Sir John, a celebrated natural 
 ulosopher, teacher, and author of scientific 
 orks. born in Largo, Scotland, April L6., 1766; 
 ed iu Coates, Fifeshire, Nov.:!.. 1832. While 
 boy, bis strong inclination for natural science 
 as shovi n, and led to his entrance into the uni- 
 
 ' LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, at South Be 
 lehem, Pa, chartered in L866, is under Proti 
 ant Episcopal control. It was founded 
 Asa Packer, of Maueh Chunk, who. in L8 
 appropriated $500,000 and suitable grounds 
 the purpose. Tuition is entirely free. Tin 
 are three tine buildings, besides houses for t 
 
 ph family of Vir- 
 to London, where 
 -clt as a lecturer 
 g in this, he be- 
 
 Mr. Wedgcwood, 
 vhile traveling in 
 . made a transla- 
 v of Birds (1793), 
 / Inquiry into(he 
 
 I! 1-iit). Iu 
 i the part of the 
 rcted professor of 
 
 if thai place, suc- 
 1819,on the death 
 
 equipped observatory, a museum. and collections 
 in natural history. It comprises five schools: 
 (1) general literature ; (2) civil or statical en- 
 gineering; (3) mechanical or dynamical engineer- 
 ing; (4) mining and metallurgy; (5) chemistry. 
 The courses are each, if four years, except that for 
 the degree of Engineer of Mines, which requires 
 four years and a half. The studies of the fresh- 
 man year and of the first half of the sophomore I 
 
 .!/.,//„ 
 
 nine of his Elements of Natural Philosophy. 
 The latter was never completed. Shortly before 
 his death, in L832, he was created a knight of 
 the order of Guelph. As an able and versatile 
 writer in almost every department of science,. 
 
LEWIS 
 
 and an inventor of philosophical instruments, 
 his merit is generally acknowledged. The inven- 
 tion of a differential thermometer, a hygrometer, 
 and a photometer, also of a process of artificial 
 congelation, and a method for freezing mercury, 
 are some of the results ot his experimental labors. 
 Bis chief publications, in addition to those men- 
 tioned.are An essay on the Resolution of Inde- 
 terminate Equations (Edin., 1788); Philosophy 
 of Arithmetic (1817) ; Progress of Mathemalr 
 icaland Philosophical Science during the 18th 
 Century, the fifth dissertation in the Ekcyclopa* 
 dia Britannica. 
 
 LEWIS, Dio, an American physician and 
 author, horn in Auburn. N. Y., March .'!.. 1823. 
 He was educated at Harvard, and practiced 
 medicine at I'ort IJvron and Buffalo. While 
 in the latter place, he published a medical maga- 
 
 phys 
 
 LIBRARIES 
 
 521 
 
 ers accordin 
 
 cation. Th 
 advocated fi 
 
 
 
 for 
 
 1863, he established in 
 
 in 
 
 stitution 
 
 the training of teach- 
 
 iii 
 
 to his n 
 
 
 system of physical edu- 
 
 le 
 
 necessit; 
 
 IT Ot 
 
 such education he has 
 j, and sought to intro- 
 
 
 the |.n 
 
 bin- 
 
 try i 
 
 school system of the 
 liter the destruction of 
 
 :es are admitted. Tn 1 874 — 5, 
 tors and ss ■students. The 
 i as follows: the Rev.D.A. 
 ; the Rev. Joseph Barwick, 
 e Rev. L \1. Albright, A. 
 
 A. M. 
 
 I.-TI. 
 
 LIBERAL EDUCATION, literally, that 
 liich is suited to the condition and wants of a 
 wiiian or a gentleman, that is. extending be- 
 
 whichcollectivi 
 LIBERIA, 
 
 mblished works i 
 i.862); Weak L. 
 
 md how to make them 
 m. 1863); Talks about People's 
 Stomachs (1870); Our Girls (New York. 1871); 
 and Chats with Young Women (New York. 
 1874). 
 
 LEWISBURG, University at, an in- 
 stitution at Lewisburg, Pa, under Baptist con- 
 trol, was founded in ls47. It is supported by 
 tuition fees, room rent, and the income of an 
 endowment of $130,000. Its library contains 
 about 5,000 volumes. The institution has a 
 cabinet of geology and mineralogy, collections 
 in natural history, and philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus. The cost of tuition in 
 
 institute. In 1 ST.") — li. the c 
 had C> instructors. The inn 
 118; namely, collegiate. 6 
 academy, '21. The preside! 
 have been the Rev. How 
 1851—8; and the Rev. Jus 
 the present incumbent, up] 
 LEWIS COLLEGE, 
 founded iii 1866, is under 
 
 t the university 
 \lalcom, I). I>., 
 . Loomis, LL. I)., 
 
 vary trom $dU to > H> per year, and by the liber- 
 ality of its founders, the Lewis family of Howard 
 county. It has a library of about 3,000volumes, 
 and comprises a primary, an academic, a prepar- 
 atory, and a collegiate department, the last hav- 
 ing a classical and a scientific course. Oppor- 
 tunity is also afforded for theological and musical 
 
 hey are found on tli 
 he republic, and exta 
 
 ier of 
 iorof 
 
 38 Of 
 
 hools 
 
 lead 
 
 professor in Fourah Bay College, Sierra Le e), 
 
 The Republic of Liberia, its Status and its 
 Fields, in the Methodist Quarterly Review 
 
 (1872). 
 
 LIBRARIES constitut. f the most 
 
 in schools. This has been recognized in the 
 legislat of many of the states of the Amer- 
 ican Union, by making provision for supplying 
 
 the sel Is and school-districts with libraries of 
 
 interesting and useful 1 ks. In 1827, Governor 
 
 Clinton, of New York, recommended the estab- 
 
o22 
 
 LIBRARIES 
 
 lishment of school-district libraries: and. in 
 1835 , a law was passed by the legislature of 
 that state which permitted school-districts to 
 raise money by tax for the support of libraries. 
 In 1838, further provision was made by author- 
 izing an annual appropriation of S.Vi.OllO from 
 the general school fund for this purpose, on con- 
 dition that the districts would raise an equal 
 sum. In 1ST5, the legislature of this state re- 
 duced the appropriation to $50,000. Massachu- 
 setts enacted a permissory law in 1837, and, in 
 1842. granted a premium of $15 to each district 
 which raised an equal sum by taxation. Maine, 
 Connecticut, New .Jersey, Ohio, Michigan, Illi- 
 nois, Wisconsin, and < 'al'ifornia have passed acts 
 similar to that of New York. These provisions 
 have, however, been found inadequate ; and, in 
 some of the states, township libraries have taken 
 their place. Such libraries, administered as a 
 part of the common-school system, have been 
 established in Michigan. Indiana, and Wisconsin ; 
 but the results are said not to be wholly satis- 
 factory. In Massachusetts, the library has been 
 separated from the school system, being made 
 public, or open to all. In 1851, a law was 
 passed authorizing" cities and towns to establish 
 and maintain public libraries," and the system 
 thus inaugurated has proved eminently success- 
 ful. In 1869, there were 58 public libraries in 
 the state, wholly or partly maintained by taxa- 
 tion. At the present time, there are, probably, 
 more than three times that number. " Public 
 libraries," says the I'. S. Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation, in his report for L874, "arc now univers- 
 ally regarded by school officers and friends of 
 education as an indispensable complement to 
 our system of free schools, and no educational 
 report can now be considered complete which 
 does not recognize their importance. ' 
 
 Tin' \ iluc of ;i school binary will depend up- 
 on the character of the books of which if is 
 composed, and the uses to which it is applied. 
 A large and expensive collection of books is not 
 needed; but the books should be instructive and 
 interesting to children, so that through their 
 perusal they may not only obtain useful infor- 
 mation, but imbibe a taste for reading. By this 
 means, an antidote may, in part at least, be ap- 
 plied to the influence of the trashy, exciting, and 
 sensational literature, which so greatly abounds 
 at the present time, and which is so apt to cor- 
 rupt both the minds and morals of the young. 
 " A library.' says How to Teach (N.Y., 1874), 
 "is the indispensable supplement to the system- 
 atic mental instruction given in the i lass room. 
 If. for instance, care be taken and opportuni- 
 ties sought during the lessons in geography, his- 
 tory, or in any of the departments of science, to 
 
 introduce some little 1 k from the library, and 
 
 to read a few interesting paragraphs illustrating 
 
 the lesson, a brief notice and < mendation of 
 
 the book at the close of the exercise, with a few- 
 hints as to how best to read it. will utilize many 
 a valuable work that mighf otherwise remain 
 
 untouched upon the shelves A teacher lias 
 
 failed in one of the most important of all his 
 
 LICENSE 
 
 functions, if. being in possession of a good school 
 library, he has not fixed, in at least some of his 
 pupils, the habit and love of self-culture, by 
 leading them to become habitual readers." 
 
 LICENSE, Teacher's, a legal permission 
 to give instruction, generally in a public school. 
 This license is usually conferred after exami- 
 nation, and attested by a certificate, either tem- 
 porary or permanent, which is evidence to 
 employing school boards that the holder is a 
 qualified teacher, sometimes called a certificated 
 teacher. The object of such a license to teach 
 is to protect the interests of the community 
 against the evils arising from the employment 
 of incompetent persons by those who might not 
 be able to test the qualifications of applicants, 
 or who might, from favoritism or corrupt mo- 
 tives, be willing to employ as teachers persons 
 not possessing the requisite qualifications. In 
 the I" inted States, the requirement that all teach- 
 ers should be duly examined and licensed previ- 
 ous to appointment is almost universal. The 
 practice in regard to the mode of examination, 
 and the forms and grades of the certificate, 
 varies considerably in the different states, for 
 information in regard to which, see the titles 
 of the states, respectively. In all an unqualified 
 attestation of moral i haracter is n quired, in ad- 
 
 W. 
 
 The J., 
 
 N. V 
 
 Morality) State certificates, thai is, certih- 
 
 cati s i> mi i d by state boards of education or state 
 superintendents, entitle the holders to teach in 
 any part of the state without an examination 
 before count}-, town, or district boards or officers. 
 Such certificates arc. however, usually overruled 
 by city boards of education, who make an ex- 
 amination and license by their own officers — 
 
 usually the city superintendent— a c lit ion of 
 
 employment. In some states, the standard for a 
 license is fixed by the state board of education 
 or by the superintendent; in others, each locality 
 fixes its own standard. This gives rise to a great 
 want of uniformity, which has often been in- 
 veighed against as prejudicial to the interests of 
 teachers and of the profession. American teachers 
 have been, and still are, to a diminished extent 
 however, subjected to great wrong and injustice 
 by being obliged to pass examinations before in- 
 competent persons, that is. persons who have 
 Deither scholarship nor professional knowledge, 
 either theoretical or practical. 'I he examiners in 
 the rural districts are rarely teachers, and hence 
 
 qualifications, except, indeed, elementary schol- 
 arship and moral character. At the meeting of 
 the National Educational Association, in 1872, 
 this subject was discussed, and the following 
 decided uponasthe proper conditions for award- 
 ing teachers' certificates : (1) a comprehensive 
 system of state, city, county, and town boards 
 of examination ; (2) such boards to be composed 
 of school superintendents and professional teach- 
 ers ; (3) a graded series of certificates from life 
 diplomas down to annual certificates, to be 
 
LICENSE 
 
 granted only upon actual examination ; (4) legal 
 recognition by each state of professional certifi- 
 cates and normal school diplomas issued in other 
 states. In the state of New York, the superin- 
 tendent of public instruction can issue his cer 
 titicate only to those who have been found on 
 examination qualified to receive it ; and it is Ids 
 duty to appoint examiners, at such times and in 
 such places, as he may deem necessary, for the 
 purpose of examining candidates. (See New 
 York.) 
 
 The English Elementary Education Act (1870) 
 provides that "before any grant is made to a 
 school, the Education Department must be satis- 
 fied that the principal teacher is certificated ;" 
 and that •'teachers, in order to obtain certificates, 
 mast be examined, and must undergo probation 
 by actual service in school;'' that is. "after suc- 
 cessfully passing their examination, thsy must, 
 tus teachers continuously engaged in the same 
 schools, obtain two favorable reports from an in- 
 
 iceli 
 
 Mil: 
 
 i at an m- 
 sport, i.s re- 
 rt is favor- 
 under pro- 
 
 tiiem : and if the first of tl 
 preceded by service of three u 
 since the examination, a thin 
 terval of one year after the s 
 quired ; if the second or thi 
 able, a eertiticat" is issued. 'I 
 bation satisfy the conditions 
 schools be kc] it by certificated teachers.'' The 
 Scotch Education Act (1872) provides that "no 
 person shall be appointed to the office of prin- 
 cipal teacher in a public school, who is not the 
 holder of a certificate of competency." Those 
 who hold university degrees are entitled to re- 
 ceive the certificate without further examination 
 in the studies in which tliev were examined for 
 the degree. Too great laxity seems to exist in 
 the granting of these certificates; as appears 
 from the following statement oi the Educational 
 News (Edinburgh, June 3., L876 i "A gradual 
 deterioration in the value of eertiticat' s has been 
 going on for the last twenty years, under pre- 
 tence of making it the badge of practical skill 
 rather than of literary attainments and scientific 
 knowledge of the principles of teaching; and so 
 thorough has been the transformation, that it 
 now affords no evidence whatever of the posses- 
 sion of knowledge, and next to none even of 
 practical skill ;" which strong statement is based 
 •on the fact, as alleged., that " the Education De- 
 partment seems bent on interfering with the 
 intentions of parliament in this matter by grant- 
 ing certificates 'without examination.' although 
 the act unmistakably makes examination a nec- 
 essary conditi t granting a certificate." — In 
 
 Austria, most of the teachers are compelled to 
 spend four years in the normal schools, after 
 which they are required to pass an examination 
 before an independent commission appointed by 
 the government, before they can obtain a license 
 to teach. In Prance, the teachers of private as 
 well as of public schools are required to obtain a 
 license by passing an examination before the 
 governmental officers ; and their schools are also 
 subject to official supervision. In the German 
 
 )23 
 
 stales, persons are prohibited from keeping 
 schools without being licensed ; and to obtain a 
 license are required to pass an examination ; 
 upon which they receive certificates showing the 
 
 grade of school they are qualified to teach ; and 
 
 lhe\ are interdicted, under a severe penalty, from 
 issuing a prospectus for any higher school. Sim- 
 ilar legal provisions exist in Sweden, Denmark. 
 and some other European countries. 
 
 LIEBER, Francis, a noted publicist and 
 teacher, born in Berlin, March IS.. 1800i died in 
 New York. Oct. '.'.. 1872. lie entered the uni- 
 versity of Jena, in 1819, but left it in 1821 : and. 
 after traveling on foot through Switzerland, em- 
 barked at Marseilles for Greece, w here he entered 
 the Greek army as a volunteer. Returning to 
 Rome, he became an inmate of the family of 
 
 :ity of Halle, but was at 
 d at Kopenick, where he 
 
 cession of Nieb 
 name of Franz . 
 another arrest, h 
 to England, wb 
 
 uhlished under t 
 ill" threatened in 
 iin.iii L825,and tl 
 
 li 
 •d 
 
 bile in England. 
 
 iodi.als. and urn 
 
 I: 
 
 which was published, m i:{ volumes, in I'lula- 
 delphia 1 1 828— :('_>). ]! v invitation of the trus- 
 tees of Girard College in Philadelphia, he fur- 
 
 nished 
 
 a plan 
 
 of education and 
 
 list 
 
 uction for 
 
 chair' 
 
 South 
 
 f -,r'lo- 
 
 ry andpol 
 , College, a 
 
 Ileal ei 
 
 Colun 
 
 ';;;; 
 
 :i position 
 
 e 1 lie most 
 
 which 
 
 le held' 
 
 till 1856. 
 
 These 
 
 wei 
 
 fruit fu 
 
 years 
 
 of his life 
 
 Here 
 
 he 
 
 wrote his 
 
 Marnu 
 
 I of 1 
 
 olitical Eth 
 
 cs (Boston 
 
 1838—9), 
 
 conmit 
 
 nded 1 
 
 j Kent an 
 
 1 Story 
 
 
 d adopted 
 
 by Ha 
 
 v.iril t 
 
 
 ext-ba 
 
 k : 
 
 Legal and 
 
 Poliiii 
 
 ,1 lb n 
 
 11 /,. util s 1 1 
 
 oston, 1 
 
 
 ) ; a trans- 
 
 lation 
 
 if Ran 
 
 .-horn.- La 
 
 
 my 
 
 ns (1839); 
 
 Great 
 
 Events 
 
 describi d 
 
 by Gr 
 
 the US, 
 
 at 
 
 
 (N.T. 
 
 1847) 
 
 essays on 
 
 <>f 
 
 the Study 
 
 of Lot 
 
 n and 
 
 Greek, as 
 
 Elements 
 
 of Educa- 
 
 tion ; 
 
 m the 
 
 Study of 
 
 History 
 
 an 
 
 1 Political 
 
 ./.,„ 
 
 riii 
 
 otts other e.-savs. letters, ami reports. liilM,, 
 he was appointed to the chair of history and 
 political science in Columbia Coll,-,,, N. Y., and 
 remained in that position till his death. The 
 labors of Dr. liebcr were of great importance, 
 and their value has been fully recognized both 
 in the United States and in Europe. Although 
 passing most of his life in the professor's chair, his 
 commanding ability gave him a reputation such 
 as is usually the reward of long public service. 
 
524 
 
 LILY 
 
 LILT, William, a celebrated English schol- 
 ar and teacher, the friend of Erasmus and Sir 
 Thomas More, was bom at Odiham, Hants, in 
 
 England, in 1466. and died in l.Vj:',. lie was 
 educated at Oxford University, and, soon after 
 arriving at manhood, traveled in the Kast to 
 obtain a knowledge of the Greek language, and 
 subsequently studied for a time at Koine, and 
 also at Paris. On his return to England, he ac- 
 quired a very high reputation for scholarship, 
 being the first teacher of Greek in London; and, 
 in L512, he was appointed by Dr. John Colet, 
 dean of St. Paul's church, London, high master 
 of St. Paul's school, then recently established 
 through the dean's niuiiitiecuce. This position 
 he filled until his death, lie published several 
 educational works, but is chiefly noted for his 
 Latin grammar (Brevissima Tnstitutio seu Ratio 
 Grammatices Gognoscenda?, 4to, London. 1513), 
 one of the most celebrated of text books. In the 
 compilation of this work. Colet, Erasmus, and 
 Cardinal Wolsey had a share : the English rudi- 
 ments being written by • 'olet, the preface to 
 the first edition by Wolsey, and the Latin syn- 
 tax chiefly by Erasmus. This book was thus 
 the joint production of four of the greatest 
 
 scholars of the age. Few scl 1 books have 
 
 had so long a career, or have passed through so 
 many editions, being used to this day in St. 
 Paul's school. King Henry VIII. wrote an 
 introduction to grammar, making Lily's gram- 
 mar the basis; he also caused a law to be en- 
 acted prescribing this as the grammar to be ex- 
 clusively used in all the schools of the kingdom ; 
 and.ai •dingly.it remained the accepted gram- 
 matical standard in English schools for more 
 than three centuries. Beneeit bore on it- title- 
 page, Qmiiii solam R p i 1/; ■ s in omnibi i 
 scholis docendam prcecepil. This grammar is 
 also noteworthy as being the basis of the first 
 English grammars. — See Filler. History of the 
 Worthies of England (1622) ; Samuel Knight, 
 Life of Dr. John. Colet (1724) ; Dibdin, The 
 Biographical Decameron (London. 1817); Jor- 
 nv Life of Erasmus (1758—60). (See also 
 
 LINCOLN COLLEGE, at Greenwood, Mo., 
 was founded, in 1869, by the United Presbyte- 
 rians. The grounds comprise five acres, reserved 
 for the site of a college when the town was laid 
 out. The building was erected through the efforts 
 of the Rev. Randal Ross. A. M., who has been the 
 president of the board of directors from the first. 
 II ie college i- supported by tuition fees of $30 
 a year. Ft has a classical course of four years, 
 and a scientific cause of three years; both sexes 
 are admitted. In ls75 — G, there were 5 instruct- 
 ors and 75 students. 
 
 LINCOLN UNIVERSITY, at Lincoln. 
 111., under the control of the Cumberland Pres- 
 
 LOCKE 
 
 tific and a select course. A theological depart 
 ment has also been organized. In 1873 — 4. there 
 were 12 instructors and 386 students (332 pre- 
 
 ' LINCOLN UNIVERSITY, at Oxford, in 
 Chester Co., Pa., opened in 1856, is under 
 Presbyterian control. It is especially, but not 
 exclusively, designed for colored students. The 
 value of its buildings, grounds, and apparatus is 
 §125.000. The grounds include 80 acres, and 
 contain four university buildings and four pro- 
 fessors' houses. The library contains 3.500 vol- 
 umes. The university has valuable philosophical 
 apparatus and a lnineralogical cabinet. It has a 
 collegiate department, a normal, preparatory, and 
 business department, and a theological, a law. and 
 a medical department. In 1874 — 5, there were 
 111 instructors and 147 students (74 collegiate, 
 57 preparatory, and 16 theological. The Rev. 
 Isaac \. Randall, D.D., is (1876) the president. 
 LINDSLEY, Philip, an American edu- 
 cator, born at Morristown. N. .1.. in 17Mi; died 
 at Nashville, Tenn., in 1855. After graduating 
 at the College of New Jersey, in 1804, he was 
 for three years tutor in that institution. In 1813, 
 be became professor of languages, and, in 1817, 
 vice-president of the college. In 1823, he was 
 chosen president of the institution, but he de- 
 clined. In 1824, he accepted the thrice tendered 
 presidency of the university of Nashville, which, 
 through his efficient administration, attained a 
 very high rank among American colleges. So 
 jnat was the reputation which he acquired in 
 that position, that no less than ten different col- 
 leges offered him the presidency. He retired in 
 Oct. 1850, and spent the last four years of his 
 life at New Albany, teaching part of the time. 
 
 in the tl logical seminaiv oi thai tow I). III-. 
 
 works ha\e been edited l.y'l.. -I. Halsey (Phila.). 
 LING, Peter Henrik, a Swedish poet, and 
 the founder of a system of gymnastics for the 
 cure of disease, was born in Ljunga, Nov. 16., 
 1 776. and died in Stockholm, May 3.. 1839. Un- 
 derlie name of hinesipalhy [movement cure), 
 his system has been put into practice to some 
 extent in other countries, but, like many similar 
 discoveries, has not fully answered the expec- 
 tations of its too sanguine advocates. In lsl.'i, 
 the Royal Central Institution of Stockholm was 
 
 system. I ing being appointed director. His 
 Elemental) Pr /■' s of Gymnastics was pub- 
 lished after his death (Stockholm, 1840). 
 
 LINGUISTICS. See Language. 
 
 LOCKE, John, an illustrious English philos- 
 opher, born at Wrington, in Somersetshire, Aug. 
 
 \\i 
 
 
 in 1-72. Theva 
 apparatus is -'I" 
 nve funds, $834, 
 volumes. Both 
 preparatory. a 
 
 • libraries contain 22, 
 
 B admitted. There is a 
 
 Latin-scientific, a scien- 
 
 himself to the study of medicine with such suc- 
 ee-s as to win the special approbation of Dr. 
 
 Sydenham, the great est medical authority of his, 
 time. In 1664, he went to Berlin, as secretary to 
 the British envoy. SirW'illiam Swan, but returned 
 within a year to pursue his studies at Oxford. 
 
His perplexity, at this 
 
 ime 
 
 as to the choice of 
 
 a profession, was very g 
 
 reat 
 
 three being open 
 
 to him. A preferment i 
 
 i ih 
 
 • church was offered 
 
 him by the duke of 
 
 
 
 continue in diplomatic s 
 
 arii 
 
 e, either in Spain or 
 
 Germany, were, also, n 
 
 ade 
 
 
 own inclinations were 
 
 tow 
 
 ml the practice of 
 
 medicine, forwhichhe ha 
 
 
 iwn special aptitude. 
 
 While engaged in the 
 
 stu 
 
 Iv of experimental 
 
 stu' lies'!' 'lie torm'TVl, 
 
 
 with his medical 
 L aintance of Lord 
 
 by Locke's skill ; and at 
 
 ihi. 
 
 have been saved 
 
 sprung up between the 
 
 11, \ 
 
 bich Led to Locke's 
 
 taking- up his residence 
 
 it I 
 
 ord Ashley's house 
 
 in J Ion, where he ap] 
 
 
 himself to the study 
 
 of polities and philosop 
 
 IV. 
 
 There he met the 
 
 earl of Northumberlai 
 
 i, t 
 
 16 earl of Halifax. 
 
 the duke of Bnckingh 
 
 Tin 
 
 and others of the 
 
 most eminent persona of 
 
 t day. In L6G8,he 
 
 accompanied the earl of 
 
 N 
 
 irthumberland on a 
 
 tour in France, and, o 
 
 n 1 
 
 is return, was em- 
 
 ployed by Lord Ashley. 
 
 fchi 
 
 i chancellor of the 
 
 exchequer, to draw up 
 
 the 
 
 constitution of the 
 
 Some of his recommendations in this respect. 
 )f course, become antiqui 
 
 lade in physiology and 
 
 haw. of course, become antiquated by the prog- 
 know 1- 
 
 In regard to the training of 
 rations concerning the time at 
 begun, the means to be em- 
 
 cators. r or insti 
 record as entirely i 
 it, except for obi 
 would have the 1 
 
 drrs- 
 
 L675,h 
 
 health. 
 
 ouaintc 
 
 ears later. In 
 benefit of his 
 he became ac- 
 
 it was not his intention to 
 .il theory of education, bi 
 
 educating the young. The 
 children' is very rarclv < 
 
 ason.left the country. Lock.- accompanied 
 king up his residence in Amsterdam, 
 a conjunction with Limborch, Le Clerc, 
 
 1681 
 
 On Tnh'r.d,,,,,. In the latter year, he 
 to England, in the fleet which com 
 princess of Orange, and shortly alt. 
 published his celebrated h'ssm/. The :■ 
 this work, largely aided by the viole 
 
 . editions 
 ins of it 
 
 which it was attacked, was very great, 
 
 appearing in 1 1 years, besides translai 
 into Latin and French, which gave th 
 European reputation. In 1693, apj 
 Thoughts Concerning Education. 'J 
 the value of which has been variously 
 by distinguished critics, isof special i 
 educators, inasmuch as i1 wi Brs 
 
 in England, to deal with the subject of 
 in a comprehensive and practical way 
 written as a guide to the education of a young 
 gentleman, in this respect resembling Montaigne's 
 essay on the same subject. Indeed, Ixjcke's work 
 was an amplification, through in no sense an im- 
 itation, of Montaigne's. The subject is considered 
 from the beginning, and rules were laid down not 
 only for mental and moral development, but for 
 physical training, I ke's education as a physi- 
 cian especially qualifying him for the latter. 
 
 It was 
 
 children to do right - that of rewards, or .if ap- 
 pealing to their love of approbation. He care- 
 fully guards himself here, by explaining that the 
 reward or the approval must not be given for 
 any "particular performance that they show an 
 aversion to. or to which they would not have 
 applied themselves without that temptation", 
 'But , 1..' says, "to make the sense of esteem or 
 Lisgl ice sink the deeper, and be of the more 
 weight, other agreeable or disagreeable things 
 i-hould constantly accompany these different 
 states; not as particular rewards and punish- 
 ments of this or that particular action, but as 
 iinr.-sni!) In longing to. and constantly attending, 
 one. who. by hi- carriage, has brought himself 
 intoa state of disgrace or commendation." It 
 is doubtful whether any more powerful agent can 
 be brought to b..ur practically in influeiieiiig t In- 
 child. It has. indeed, been doubled whether any 
 higher motive for doing right, can be presented 
 to the majority of adults, than this of the ap- 
 probation of their fellows, which is usually 
 known as public opinion. To attempt to in- 
 fluence children, therefore, exclusively by higher 
 motives, would hardly be practical, or productive 
 of benefit. That Locke was not forgetful of these 
 higher motives, however, the following words will 
 show: "Concerning reputation, 1 shall only re- 
 mark this one thing more of it ; that though it 
 be not the true principle and measure of virtue 
 (for that is the knowledge of a man's duty, and 
 
526 
 
 LOCKE 
 
 the satisfaction of it is to obey his Maker, in fol- 
 lowing the dictates of that light God has given 
 him, with the hopes of acceptation and reward), 
 yet it is that which comes nearest to it, and, 
 being the testimony and applause that other 
 people's reason, as it were, by a common con- 
 sent, gives to virtuous and well-ordered actions, 
 it is the proper guide and encouragement of 
 children, till they grow able to judge for them- 
 selves, and to find what is right by their own 
 reason." His disapproval of public schools, also, 
 is not in accordance with our modern view, but 
 of this there are two extenuating circumstances, 
 — one. the fact that his essay was intended to 
 be used in the education of a young nobleman ; 
 the other, that the public schools, in Locke's day, 
 were so inferior to those of to-day, that his cen- 
 sure can hardly be construed as applying to the 
 latter. His slight opinion of the classics, also, 
 must be modified in our estimate of it, by the 
 same fact mentioned above, that it was the edu- 
 cation of the man of affairs that he had in view, 
 and not that of the scholar. Ilis recommendations 
 in regard to the study of natural philosophy, in- 
 terspersed, as they are. with theological con- 
 siderations and directions concerning "spirits", of 
 course, show the confusion of mind in regard to 
 this subject, prevalent in his day. and furnish no 
 guide for that branch of study at the present 
 time. His high opinion of the value of history, 
 civil law, English law, style, and letters will, by 
 many, be thought to show the bias produced by 
 his long association witli them, and the station of 
 the pupil for whom bis treatise was intended : 
 while his depreciation of music, as part of a liberal 
 education, is accounted for by the low state of that 
 art during his time, and will hardly be acepted 
 now as a true statement of its merits. Not- 
 withstanding the objections which can be urged 
 against Locke's method, owing to the changed 
 condition of society, the great progress thai has 
 been made in many brandies of learning, and the 
 creation of new ones, his treatise remains a 
 memorable contribution to the literature of the 
 great subject of which he treats, and a landmark 
 in its history. That it is not without errors and 
 short-comings. ami that lie was conscious of them, 
 his own concluding words will show: "Though 
 I have now come to a conclusion of what ob- 
 vious remarks have suggested to me concerning 
 education. I would not have it thought that I 
 look on it as a just treatise on this subject. There 
 are a thousand other things that may need con- 
 sideration ; especially if one should take in the 
 various tempers, different inclinations, and par- 
 ticular defaults that are to be found in children: 
 and prescribe proper remedies. * * * * Each 
 man's mind has some peculiarity, as well as his 
 face, that distinguishes him from all others ; and 
 there are possibly scarce two children who can 
 lie conducted by exactly the same method. " 
 But having had here only some general views iu 
 reference to the main end and aims in education, 
 and those designed for a gentleman's son. whom, 
 being then very little. I considered only as white 
 paper or wax to be molded and fashioned as one 
 
 LONDON UNIVERSITY 
 
 pleases, I have touched little more than those 
 heads, which 1 judged necessary for the breeding 
 of a young gentleman of his condition in general, 
 and have now published these my occasional 
 thoughts, with this hope. that, though this be 
 far from being a complete treatise on this sub- 
 ject, or such asthat everyone mayfindwhat will 
 just fit his child in it. yet it may give some small 
 light to those whose concern for their dear little 
 ones makes them so irregularly bold, that they 
 dare venture to consult their own reason in the 
 education of their children, rather than wholly 
 
 L'HOMOND, Charles Francois, a French 
 pries! and educate] , was born, in 1727, at Chaul- 
 nes: died at Paris, in 1794. Be was for some time 
 at the head of the i •ollege dlnvUh at Tails, and 
 from there passed to the College du Cardinal 
 Lemoine where he was for twenty years teacher 
 of the sixth class. After becoming professor 
 emeritus, he devoted his time to the compilation 
 of school books, many of which attained a very 
 wide circulation. His work He fin's ittustribus 
 urbis Roma;, is still in extensive use, not only 
 in 1'ranee. but in the 1'nited States, England, 
 Germany, and some other countries, and is re- 
 garded by many distinguished educators as the 
 best Latin reader that has ever been issued. In 
 1860, his native town erected a statue to him. 
 (See Latin Language.) 
 
 LOMBARD UNIVERSITY, at Gales- 
 burg. 111.. under the control of I 'nivcrsalists. was 
 founded as the Illinois Liberal Institute, in 1851, 
 and chartered as a university, in 1853. It is 
 supported by the income of an endowment of 
 $100,000, anil by tuition fees. The regular fees 
 vary from .<!."> to $33 per year. It has a large 
 and valuable cabinet, and libraries containing 
 over 4,000 volumes. The university embraces 
 two departments of instruction, — the collegiate 
 and the preparatory. The collegiate includes 
 three different courses of study. — the classi.-al. the 
 scientific, and the literary course, on the comple- 
 tion of which the degrees of Bachelor of Arts, 
 Bachelor of Science, and Laureate of Arts are, 
 respectively, conferred. Both sexes are ad- 
 mitted. In 1875 — 6, there were '■> instructors 
 and 114 students, of whom 25 (7 classical, Li 
 scientific, and 5 literary) were in the collegiate 
 department, and 69 (24 pursuing ancient and 
 modern languages, and 4 5 English studies), in the 
 preparatory department. The presidents have 
 been as follows: the Rev. Paid R. Kendall, A. M., 
 18ol_G; Trof. J. V. N. Standish (acting), 
 1856—7; the Rev. Otis A. Skinner. D. D., 
 Is57— ; the Rev. J. I'. Weston. I». !>.. 1859— 
 Til: Prof. Win. Livingston (provisional), 1873 
 - -5; and the Rev. Neliemiali White. Ph.D., the 
 present incumbent, appointed in 1875. 
 
 LONDON, University of, was created bv 
 royal charter bearing date Nov. 28., 1836. It 
 was founded on the same principles of liberality 
 as University College, London (q. v.), out of 
 which it sprung. By an oversight, the first char- 
 ter was granted only during "royal will and 
 pleasure", and would have expired six months 
 
LONDON UNIVERSITY 
 
 after the death of the king. A new charter, 
 therefore, not so determinable, was granted in 
 the following year by Queen Victoria. The 
 early constitution of the university bore a rough 
 resemblance to that of the universities of ( Ixford 
 anil Cambridge, there being, on the one hand. 
 
 in fact, had not, in many cases, been working 
 well ; many whom the university would gladly 
 have welcomed as candidates, were kept away; 
 
 sity ot Iaiiic 
 in one local 
 some of tl: 
 colonies. In 
 every candii 
 examinatioi 
 a certificate 
 
 to 
 
 prised, in addition to the universities of t 
 United Kingdom and of Sydney, 37 other c, 
 leges and schools. The most important of th. 
 were University College and King's Collej 
 London, and Owens College, Manchester (q. \ 
 Most of the remainder were theological coUeg 
 in connection with the Roman Catholics, t 
 
 Independents, the Baptists, and other dei lii 
 
 tions. 
 
 The government of the university is in t 
 
 of whom arc appointed l.v the Crown for life or 
 
 until resignation. All by-laws and regulations, 
 
 however, have first to be submitted to the ap- 
 proval of one of her Majesty's principal secre- 
 taries of state. It had been proposed, as early as 
 1840,to give the graduates some influence in the 
 management of university affairs. This scheme, 
 taken up in earnest in Is IN, was agitated year 
 after year, until a new charter was obtained in 
 L858. This charter formed the graduates, then 
 about 1,000 in number, into a corporation, giving 
 them the right to meet in convocation and, to in- 
 tervene by discussion and opinion in university 
 affairs, to nominate one-fourth of the senate, anil 
 the right, along with the senate, of accepting any 
 new charter or of surrendering a charter. The 
 charter also gave the right to confer new degrees 
 in science, in music, or in any department of 
 knowledge whatever, theology always excepted. 
 It is expected that the degrees in music will be 
 instituted shortly. 
 
 Whilst the draft charter was under considera- 
 tion, in the earlier half of L857, a new clause was 
 introduced by the senate which provoked great 
 , excitement and strong opposition from all the 
 affiliated colleges except one, and from a decided 
 majority of the graduates. A -cording to this 
 36th clause, all persons, wherever educated, were 
 t» be allowed to compete for degrees, other than 
 medical. The senate, notwithstanding the oppo- 
 sition they met with from without, persevered 
 in their course, and the new charter came into 
 force on April 9., 1858. The certificate system, 
 
 ht to be secured by making the exam- 
 more frequent. There had, for in- 
 
 irinerly lieen two examinations, includ- 
 iculatnin, for ]',. A.. with at least two years 
 them; henceforth, there were to be three, 
 
 s. it can hardly be said that theap- 
 if its opponents have been realized. 
 • number of graduates now is nearly 
 it was 18 years ago, the value of 
 in public estimation has not di- 
 t increased. Nor have the colleges 
 
 lowing statistics relating 1 
 for the ordinary P.. A. de 
 candidates. J!! described 
 from certain colleges and 
 
 Mill I 
 
 lie comparison would be 
 ■ examinations for honors 
 
 mi 
 
 The first examination in the university is the 
 matriculation examination (to be carefully dis- 
 criminated from matriculation at Oxford or 
 Cambridge) ; for this there were, in 1875, 1,021 
 candidates, of whom 522 passed. It may be 
 passed at the age of Hi; but the average age of 
 candidates i* 19. and sum, imie.-, 'JO years. It is 
 an examination in Latin ; in any two of the fol- 
 lowing languages.- Creek. French, German; in 
 KngliMi: in mail,, man.-, and in natural , hilos- 
 
 
 aritv of the examination, as of tl tier pass 
 
 examinations, is, thai a candidate is rejected if 
 he fails entirely in any one .subject, however well 
 he may do in all the rest. Of those who pass 
 this examination, about one-third go no further. 
 Those who do, henceforth pursue diverging 
 courses. They may proceed to prepare for de- 
 grees in arts, in science, laws, or medicine. 
 The university grants the higher degrees of 
 Master and Doctor only after the passing of a 
 further examination, which differs from the 
 
 particular, "nave always had a high reputation. 
 A large proportion of the leading physicians in 
 London tire graduates of this university. The 
 
i.L'S 
 
 LORINSER 
 
 matriculation examination and the pass exami- | 
 nations for B. A. and B. Sc. are, on application 
 to the senate, held, simultaneously with the ex- 
 aminations in London, at various populous cen- 
 ters in England, at some places in Ireland, and 
 in the colonies (e. g. Canada. Mauritius, and 
 Tasmania). They will shortly be held also in 
 Scotland. 
 
 An unintended omission in the charter of 
 1858 made a new charter necessaryin 1863; and, 
 in 1867, a supplemental charter was obtained, 
 conveying the right to hold examinations for 
 women. There have been, at times, a majority 
 in Convocation who were willing to admit wom- 
 en to degrees on the same terms as 
 whether the movement will be 
 mains to be seen. The program m.' of the gen- 
 eral examination for women will, next year, be 
 completely assimilated to the matriculation pro- 
 gramme ; and that is the amount of success 
 which the movement has attained so far. Wom- 
 en, after passing this examination, may be ex- 
 amined for certificates of higher proficiency also. 
 The Reform Act of 1867 gave the members of 
 Convocation the right of returning a represent- 
 ative to Parliament : the first member for the 
 university is the Right lion. Robert Lowe. 
 Convocation, in March, 1876, numbered 1.663 
 members. The entire number of graduates is 
 nearly double this, only those of them being 
 members of Convocation who are of a certain 
 standing, and have paid the prescribed fee. 
 
 The estimate of the expenses of the univer- 
 sity, for 1876 — 7, is as follows : salaries (of the 
 registrar and his assistant, of the clerks, etc.) 
 £2,765 5s 8d; examiners, £5,300; exhibitions, 
 scholarships, prizes, and medals, i.'l.!»7'_' Hi s.; 
 incidental expenses, 6520; total, £10,557 15s. 8d. 
 If from this be deducted £4.500, which it is 
 estimated the fees will yield during the same 
 period, it will be seen that the university is a 
 yearly charge to the country to the extent of 
 about tii.ono. It must be added that the beauti- 
 ful new buildings in Burlington Gardens, which 
 are the first home of its own the university has 
 had, and which were opened by the Queen in 
 1870, were built entirely at public cost. The 
 earl of Burlington, now the duke of Devonshire, 
 was the first chancellor of the university; be 
 still retains a seal in thesenate. Thesecondand 
 present chancellor i- Ear] Granville. 3ee the 
 
 yearly Ca idar t D - of 1 id 
 
 and the Win a s of th S not . T) Urn >ersity 
 of London and its Influence on Education in 
 Scotland, in Frazer's Magazine (Aug. 1876). 
 
 LORINSER, Karl Ignaz, a distinguished 
 
 (Zum Schutzt der Gesundheil aufSckulen), in 
 
 which he severely inveighed against the condition 
 of the gymnasia, a -.-emu- that- the great variety 
 of studies pursued, the long school hours, and 
 tli' exce ive amount of home work, tended to 
 undermine the health of the pupils. This criti- 
 cism of the school management gave rise to a 
 
 LOUISIANA 
 
 bitter controversy, more than seventy pamphlets 
 being written pro and con. King Frederick 
 William III., of Prussia, declared himself in 
 sympathy with Lorinsers views, and ordered the 
 ministry of education to draw up a plan to rem- 
 edy the evils described in the pamphlet. The 
 minister Altenstein, however, in his decree vir- 
 tually denied the charges. An important result 
 of this controversy was, that gymnastics were 
 again introduced into the gymnasia, and that the 
 necessity of making school hygiene a subject of 
 special and thorough study, was generally ad- 
 mitted. The autobioeraphv of Lorinser was pub- 
 lished in 1864. by his son. 
 
 LOUISIANA, one of the southern states of 
 the American I 'nion. was originally a part of the 
 French province of Louisiana, which was ceded 
 t.. the Tinted States in 1 MI3. This vast tract, 
 stretching from the Mississippi river westward 
 to the Rock}- mountains, was at first divided into 
 two territories, that of Orleans and Louisiana, 
 the former including the present state of Louisi- 
 ana, and the latter all the remainder. In 1812, 
 the territory of Orleans was admitted into the 
 Union as the state of Louisiana. The population, 
 in L810, was 76.556, of whom 34,660 were 
 slaves, ami 7 .5*5 free colored persons; in 1870, 
 the population was 726,915, of whom 362,065 
 were whites. 364.210 colored persons, 569 In- 
 dians, and 71 Chinese. 
 
 'Educational History. — While Louisiana was 
 yet a territory, provision was made for the es- 
 tablishment of primary schools in each parish. 
 In 1819, these schools were placed under the su- 
 pervision of police juries; and, in 1821, under 
 live trustees appointed by the police jury of each 
 parish, from the resident land-owners. In that 
 year, the sum of SMio was appropriated for the 
 support of schools, and authority was given to 
 increase that amount by a tax on the property 
 of each parish. By an act of the legislature, in 
 I-;:.;, the -ccretan of .-tale was made superin- 
 tendent of public education, and acted as such 
 from that time until 1846. The result not 
 proving satisfactory, however, a bill was passed 
 in L847, providing for the appointment of a 
 state superintendent and parish superintendents, 
 the collection of a one mill tax on property, and 
 the establishment of a state school fund by a 
 consolidation of the land grants (amounting to 
 7*6.044 acres) and individual donations. The 
 object of this legislation was to establish a free 
 public-school system for all the white children 
 between the ages of 6 and 16 years. Additional 
 legislation, in 1855, imposed a poll-tax of $1.00 
 on each tree white male inhabitant over twenty- 
 old. In 1850, there were 675 public 
 schools in the state, taught by 845 teachers, and 
 giving instruction to •.'5.716', pupils. There were 
 also l 12 academies, and 8 colleges. In 1860, the 
 number of public schools had increased to 713, 
 with 31.813 pupils; and the school revenue 
 amounted to $469,210. In 1868, the new state 
 constitution provided that a state superintendent 
 should be elected for four years, aud that all the 
 children of the state between the ages of 6 and 
 
LOUISIANA 
 
 529 
 
 21 years, should be admitted to the public schools 
 
 or to other state institutions of learning, without 
 regard to race, color, or previous condition. A 
 special act to carry out these provisions was 
 passed in March, 18f>9. This required the ap- 
 pointment of a state board of education to con- 
 sist of the superintendent of public education, 
 one member from each congressional district in 
 the state, and two from the state at large. To 
 this board were committed the supervision and 
 management of the educational interests of tin- 
 state." The state was to be divided into six 
 districts, with a division superintendent foreach, 
 whose duty it was to supervise and manage the 
 schools in his district, subject to the control of 
 the state board. Hoards of directors for each 
 district in the state were also to be appointed by 
 the state board, for the purpose of establishing 
 and supervising schools in their respective 
 districts, subject to the authority of the division 
 superintendents. A two mill property tax was 
 directed to be levied, leaving it optional with 
 the voters to raise by local taxation whatever 
 additional funds were necessary for the erection 
 or hiring of school buildings. During the earlier 
 years of legislation, the sparseness of the popu- 
 lation rendered the school laws. in many respects, 
 inoperative; and, during the last twenty years, 
 political disturbances ending finally in civil war, 
 by producing class distinctions founded on color, 
 made the work of education in the state a matter 
 of great difficulty. Since the establishment of 
 the school system, in 1870, considerable progress 
 has been made. The school boards have been 
 energetic and judicious ; the school funds have 
 been managed with economy and prudence, 
 many new schools have been established, and an 
 increased number of pupils brought under in- 
 struction. The first state superintendent under 
 the new law was Thomas \V. ( !onway, who was 
 succeeded, in 1872, by William 6. Brown, the 
 present incumbent (1876). 
 
 School system. — The public schools, according 
 to the provisions of the act of March lfi., 1870, 
 arc- governed by the state board of education, 
 which consists of a state superintendent and six 
 division superintendents: there is also an assistant 
 superintendent for the city of New Orleans. The 
 duties of the board are to appoint parish, city, 
 town, and district directors, to make all needful 
 rules for the government of schools, to enforce 
 the constitutional provisions relating to the ad- 
 mission into the schools of all children without 
 regard to race, color, or previous condition, to 
 recommend a uniform series of textbooks, and 
 to prescribe a course of study. The state super- 
 intendent is, ex officio, president of the board, and 
 its chief executive officer. He is charged with 
 the care of all educational reports and docu- 
 ments, exercises a general supervision over the 
 division superintendents, holding meetings with 
 them in the several divisions of the state, at least 
 once a year, issues teachers' certificates of quali- 
 fication, apportions the school fund, examines 
 and approves all plans for school buildings 
 erected, and makes a report to the general as- 
 
 sembly at each session.- — Division superintend- 
 ents have control of the schools in their respective 
 divisions, examine teachers, issue certificates of 
 qualification good for one year in the division 
 where issued, hold teachers' institutes, organize 
 teachers' associations, audit treasurers' accounts, 
 make reports to the state board and Btate super- 
 
 superintendent.- Hoards ,,,'sc',.,.,' ,/,,;. tors dis- 
 charge all the duties usually appertaining to 
 
 such bodies in other states. The school ith 
 
 consists of four weeks of five days each. The 
 Bible is not excluded from the public schools, 
 
 but no pupil is required to read it contrary to 
 the wishes of his parents or guardians. 
 
 Educational condition. — The total number 
 of school districts in the state, in 1875, was 473; 
 and the number of public schools, 1,032; besides 
 which there were reported 418 private schools. 
 The whole amount of school income for the year 
 was $789,068.95, of which $314,818.03 was de- 
 rived from state apportionments. Other items 
 of the school statistics arc given below : 
 Number of children of school age 280,387 
 
 Number enrolled in public schools 74,846 
 
 Xinnlier attending private schools 22,300 
 
 Number of teachers, males, 707 
 
 females, 7C0 
 
 Total, 1,557 
 
 Average salary of teachers per mouth $37.00 
 
 Expenditures, for salaries, $573,144.44 
 11 oilier purposes, 290,247.42 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Although the law pro- 
 vides for the establishment of a normal school in 
 the state, no steps have yet been taken to carry 
 out its provisions in this respect. The city of 
 New Orleans had formerly a normal school : but, 
 owing to the inability of the school board to 
 sustain it with appropriations, it has passed from 
 their control, and is now a department of the 
 New Orleans University. Straight University 
 and the Peabody Normal Seminary, in the same 
 city, also afford normal instruction and training. 
 The division superintendents are required by 
 law to hold teachers' institutes annually in their 
 respective divisions. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The institutions of 
 this grade, in the state, are (1) private schools, 
 (2) high schools, and (3) business colleges. The 
 first, in 1875, reported 846 teachers and. 22,306 
 scholars. Of the high schools, four are mentioned 
 in the state superintendent's report for 1875, three 
 being established in New Orleans, and the other 
 recently open at Baton Rouge. One of those 
 located in New Orleans is for boys ; the other 
 two, for girls, The Central High School for 
 boys, is divided into six departments, as follows : 
 English literature; Latin and Greek; science; 
 mathematics ; commerce, comprising penman- 
 ship, drawing, and book-keeping : and French. 
 During the first year in this school, all pursue 
 the same studies; after that time, the study of the 
 classics is optional. Four business colleges re- 
 
530 LOUISIANA 
 
 ported, in 1874, to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, 12 teachers and 915 pupils, of whom 
 860 were males, and So females. Their courses 
 of instruction vary from three months to a year. 
 Superior Instruction. — The institutions which 
 afford opportunities for higher instruction, in- 
 cluding the Louisiana State University (q. v.), 
 are enumerated in the following table : 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Religious 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 r,.m,.i. 
 
 de " t '™' na " 
 
 Centenary College 
 
 Jackson 
 
 l.S'Jo 
 
 M. Epis.S. 
 
 
 N. Orleans 
 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 
 Bat. limine 
 
 ih.-,:i 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 New Orleans University.. 
 
 N. Orleans 
 
 1873 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 St. Charles College 
 
 Gr. Coteau 
 
 
 E. C. 
 
 St. Marv Jefferson College. 
 
 St. James 
 
 1861 
 
 
 Straight University 
 
 N. Orleans 
 
 
 Evangel. 
 
 Centenary College, the oldest in the state, is 
 also one of the most efficient. The New Orleans 
 University, like Straight University, makes no 
 distinction of race or sex in its requirements for 
 admission. It has a preparatory, a normal, a col- 
 legiate, anil a theological department. The Silli- 
 man Female Collegiate Institute, at Clinton, 
 under the control of the Presbyterians, also 
 affords superior instruction. It has a collegiate 
 course, and is authorized to confer degrees. 
 
 Scientific and I'mfeasimial fiistrnc/itiii.- 
 The Agricultural and Mechanical College of 
 Louisiana was opened June 1., 1874. in the 
 building of the Louisiana University, in pursu- 
 ance of an act of the legislature, passed in April 
 of the same year, making provision for carry- 
 ing into effect the purposes of the donation, by 
 the United States, of public lands for the estab- 
 lishment of an agricultural and mechanical col- 
 lege in the state. The Chalmette battle-ground, 
 in the parish of St. Bernard, where the state 
 owns 'JHII acres of land, was selected as a site for 
 the college. The only schools of theology are the 
 Biblical department of New Orleans University. 
 the theological department of Straight Univer- 
 sity, which is open to all denominations, and 
 the theological department of Leland University. 
 The law department of the University of 
 Louisiana performs the office of a law school, 
 besides which there is a law department in 
 Straight University, instructed by members of 
 the New Orleans bar. By a special act of the 
 legislature, a diploma from this department en- 
 titles the graduate to practice in all the courts 
 of the state. The same institution has also a 
 medical department. 
 
 Special Instruction.— The Louisiana Institu- 
 tion for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, 
 at Baton Kongo, was founded in 1854. In 1874, 
 it had 51 pupils, ami 111 instructors. The value 
 of its grounds, buildings, etc., is about $200,000. 
 The Institution for the Instruction of the Blind, 
 also at Baton Rouge, was founded in 1871. It is 
 represented to be in a flourishing condition. In 
 1874, it had 65 pupils, and 1 9 instructors and 
 other employes. The value of its grounds and 
 buildings is about $100,000. This institution 
 includes also an industrial home for the blind. 
 Besides these institutions, there is an insane 
 
 LOUISVILLE 
 
 asylum, at Jackson, supported by the state at an 
 annual cost of about $40,000. 
 
 LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, 
 at Baton Rouge, La., was chartered in 1853, be- 
 ing founded upon grants of land made by Con- 
 gress to the state for the establishment of a 
 seminary of learning. It was opened at Alex- 
 andria, in January. I860, under the superintend- 
 ence of Col. (now <icn.) Win. T. Sherman, and 
 continued in operation till June. 1861, when it 
 was closed on account of the war. It was re- 
 opened in 1862 — 3, under the superintendence 
 of Col. Wm. E. M. Linfield and Prof Wm. A. 
 Seay.but was again closed. It was again opened 
 in October, 1865, under the superintendence of 
 Col. David F. Boyd, who resigned in 1875, but 
 is still (1876) in charge of the institution. In 
 1 869, the university building having been burned, 
 the institution was transferred to the buildings 
 of the Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb at Baton 
 Rouge. This location is intended to be tempo- 
 rary, until the edifice at Alexandria shall be re- 
 built. The university owns state bonds to the 
 amount of $138,000, on which it receives 6 per 
 cent interest. It has a library of 13,000 vol- 
 umes, good chemical and philosophical appara- 
 tus, and museums of natural history, fine arts, 
 etc. The value of its real and personal property 
 is about $160,500. The cost of tuition is 
 $80 a year. An act of 1 870 provided for the 
 education and maintenance of two indigent 
 youths from each palish, and 'JO from the city of 
 New Orleans, who, after remaining at the uni- 
 versity four years, were required to teach school 
 in the state two years. No provision, however, 
 has been made recently for carrying this act into 
 effect. By act of the legislature, the professors- 
 of engineering, mineralogy, geology, botany.and 
 zoology, of this in.-titution. are required to make 
 surveys of Louisiana, in their respective depart- 
 ments. Several reports of these surveys have 
 been made. The organization of the university 
 is thoroughly military, and there are daily drills 
 and parades. The course of study embraces a 
 preparatory and an academic department, a spe- 
 cial school of civil engineering, and a commercial 
 school. The academic department has a literary 
 (or classical), a scientific, and an optional course. 
 The degrees conferred are B. A., B. S., B. Ph., 
 A. M., and 0. E. In 1872—3, there were 12 in- 
 structors and 140 students. Since then, the 
 unsettled condition of the state and the con- 
 sequent withdrawal of legislative support have 
 greatly embarrassed the institution : and, in 1*70, 
 there were only 22 students. The number of 
 graduates, from 1869 to 1874. inclusive, was 58. 
 
 LOUISVILLE, the chief city of the state 
 of Kentucky, having a population, according to 
 the U. S. census of 1870, of 100,753, of whom 
 14.956 were colored persons, and 25,668 foreign- 
 ers, the latter including 14.380 natives of Ger- 
 many. This city has grown up during the pres- 
 ent century, its population, in 1810, being only 
 1.357. The town was established by an act of 
 the Virginia legislature in 1 7S0, and called Louis- 
 Mile, in honor of I-ouis XVI., king of France, 
 
LOUISVII.I.K 
 
 531 
 
 important aid having been furnished by tli.it 
 country to the United .States in their struggle 
 for independence. 
 
 Educational History.— Among the earliest 
 efforts in the cause of education in Kentucky. 
 were those made by the Roman Catholics, who 
 established Bchools in connection with their 
 churches, in many parts of the state; and it is 
 probable that Ixjuisville shared in the benefits of 
 these efforts. In 1819, an institution known as 
 the Seminary, gave instruction in the several 
 branches of an Knglish and classical education. 
 It was under the direction of the trustees of the 
 town, but was not well supported, the wants of 
 the community requiring little beyond elementary 
 education. In 1837, the -Medical Institute was 
 organized, having received an appropriation of 
 $50,000 from the city council, and opened with 
 80 students. In 1847, the building for the Uni- 
 versity of Louisville was sufficiently near comple- 
 tion to permit the opening of its law department. 
 the first lectures in which were delivered to 
 about 30 students. At that time, there were, in 
 the city, 4 large public-school buildings, and 24 
 schools, of which (i were grammar schools, — 3 
 for males and 3 for females. In 1861, a high 
 school for males, with all the rights and privi- 
 leges of a university, was chartered by the legis- 
 lature, as an institution for superior instruction, 
 iu connection with the public schools of the city. 
 In 1862 — 3, the average daily attendance of 
 pupils in the public schools was 3,851. Two 
 years afterward, instruction in vocal music was 
 made a part of the common-school course ; and. 
 in 18G8, the study of the German language, 
 which harl been previously introduced, had been 
 bo far extended, thai one-naif of all the pupils 
 (over 4,000) rec lived instruction in it. In 1870, 
 there were 2 high schools, and 17 schools of an 
 inferior grade. The progress of the school sys- 
 tem has been uninterrupted since that time. The 
 number of pupils enrolled in the public schools 
 has increased, during the ten years ending in 
 1875, from 9,388 to 17,593; and the cost of the 
 system, from §103.425.05 to S255.529.02. 
 
 School System. — The public schools are under 
 the management of a board of trustees, consist- 
 ing of 24 members, 2 from each ward of the city. 
 The chief executive officer of the system is the 
 superintendent of the public schools, who exer- 
 cises a general supervision over the schools, and 
 makes an annual report to the board of trustees. 
 There is also a superintendent of German in- 
 struction, who is subordinate to the superintend- 
 ent of schools, but acts under the direction of 
 the committee on German, of the board of trust- 
 ees. The board of examiners of public schools 
 consists of the superintendent and six or more 
 professional teachers, who hold principals' cer- 
 tificates, selected by the committee on examina- 
 tions and course of study of the board of 
 trustees ; and there is also a German board 
 of examiners, consisting of the superintendent 
 and other persons selected by the committee. 
 All teachers are required to be at least 18 years 
 of age. The schools are divided into primary, | 
 
 district, intermediate, and high schools, besides 
 the evening schools and the training school for 
 teachers. The studies pursued embrace .ill in- 
 ordinary common-school branches, besides Ger- 
 man and music, which are taught in all the 
 grades of the schools. — The length of the school 
 course is designed to be 71 years in the lower 
 grades, 5 years in the male high school, 4 years 
 in the female high school, and 2 years in the 
 training school. The support of the schools is 
 chiefly derived from a city tax. The daily ex- 
 ercises in each are commenced by the reading of 
 a selection from the Scriptures. The legal school 
 age is from (i to 20 years. Children living out- 
 side the city limits arc permitted to attend the 
 public schools on payment of a tuition fee ran- 
 ging from $20 to $50 per annum. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The whole number 
 of schools, in 1875, was 34, as follows: 2 high 
 schools, — 1 male, and 1 female, 6 intermediate 
 schools, 14 district schools. 7 primary schools, 4 
 night schools, and 1 training school. Of the 
 schools of the lower grade, 5 are for colored 
 children. The principal items of school statistic*, 
 for 1875, are as follows : 
 
 Whole number of children of school age 44,S27 
 
 Whole number of pupils enroll, .1 17,503 
 
 Number of colored pupils enrolled 2,034 
 
 Average daily attendance 11,551 
 
 Average attendance in the night schools 010 
 
 Number of teachers, English 2S6 
 
 " " " German 27 
 
 " " " of music . 4 
 
 Total number of teachers 317 
 
 Total receipts for school purposes $301,655.72 
 
 The course of instruct ion iu the training school, 
 or class, embraces arithmetic, algebra, geometry, 
 liistory, English grammar and composition, elo- 
 cution, physical geography, physiology, astronomy, 
 chemistry, and theory and methods of teaching. 
 The whole number of pupils iu this school, in 
 1875, was 42. The Male High School contains 
 five classes, including the preparatory class. The 
 studies taught are comprised in the following 
 departments : belles-lettres, ancient languages, 
 pure mathematics, chemistry and technology, ap- 
 plied mathematics, and modern languages. Any 
 student who passes a satisfactory examination 
 in any of these departments is entitled to a cer- 
 tificate of graduation in the same. Tins institu- 
 tion, in 1875, had an enrollment of 221 students, 
 and a faculty of G members, including the pres- 
 ident. For admission into the Female High 
 School, applicants are required to pass an ex- 
 amination in the branches taught in the first 
 grade of the Intermediate Schools. They mast 
 also be at least 12 years of age. The number of 
 teachers in the school, in 1875, was 424. 
 
 Besides the institutions for superior, pro- 
 fessional, and scientific instruction mentioned in 
 the article on Kentucky, there are several pri- 
 vate schools and academies, and .'i public libra- 
 ries, having an aggregate of about 40 000 volumes. 
 The Public Library of Kentucky alone contains 
 20,000 volumes. 
 
532 
 
 LOVE 
 
 LOVE, on the part of pupils for their teach- 
 er, is one of the most essential elements of his 
 success, just as antipathy (q. v.) constitutes an 
 insurmountable obstacle to the- exertion of any 
 important educational influence. The first thin*;, 
 therefore, which the educator should strive to do 
 is to win the affection of his pupils; if that is 
 accomplished, every thins else will be done with- 
 out difficulty. It is of little use to address 
 merely the intellect of children. Their curiosity, 
 it is true, can be excited, their attention aroused, 
 and the faculties of their minds, to a certain ex- 
 tent, be developed and sharpened ; but the real 
 elements of character are behind all this ; ami 
 these cannot be affected in any important degree 
 by mere intellectual training. The heart— the 
 sensibilities and the will — must be reached; 
 and the key to success in this, the greatest 
 office of the educator, is love. When love for 
 the teacher reigns in the bosom of his pupil, 
 there is entire confidence in him. a desire to obey 
 him, to please him, to listen to Iris precepts, to 
 imitate his example, both in words and in acts; 
 indeed, by an inexplicable psychologic law, the 
 pupil seems to be bound to the" teacher by a kind 
 of magnetic chain, and is subject in every thing 
 to his will. Fear, on the other hand, repels, and 
 thus prevents the operation of that influence 
 without which educational processes are, more or 
 less, nugatory. The fear to do wrong, and of the 
 punishment which is to follow it, is not, how- 
 ever, inconsistent with a love of the teacher. 
 (See Pear.) The latter must make himself, and 
 the authority which he wields, respected ; or he 
 will incur the contempt of his pupils ; and this 
 is, of course, antagonistic to love. Children 
 naturally recognize authority, however much 
 they may strive to evade or defy it ; and its just 
 and rightful exercise does not interfere with 
 their warmest affections toward parents and 
 teachers. Hence, love is not to be inspired by 
 making improper concessions to children, for 
 these they construe into weakness, which they 
 despise. Minute directions may be given for the 
 winning of the pupil's affections ; but these 
 would be either unnecessary or futile. Love on 
 the part of the teacher can alone produce love in 
 the hearts of the pupils. He cannot put on a 
 semblance of affectionate regard for his pupils ; 
 he must feel it. Children have naturally deep 
 intuitions into character, and detect hypocrisy 
 almost instantly ; hence they at once discern 
 whether there is any real affection in the mind 
 of the teacher towards themselves, or only a mere 
 pretense. Love will show itself in his appear- 
 ance, his words, his manners ; every tone of his 
 voice will indicate it. if it exist, and the pleasant 
 smile beaming habitually from his countenance 
 will, while making his own labors pleasant and 
 easy, make light the hardest tasks of his pupils, 
 by exciting their ambition and determination to 
 accomplish it. The teacher should, however, 
 never forget the relation existing between him 
 and his pupils. "Some teachers," says Hart (In 
 the School-Room, Phila., 1868), "in avoiding a 
 hard, repulsive manner, run to the opposite ex- 
 
 LUTHER 
 
 treme, and lose the respect of their scholars by 
 undue familiarity. Children do not expect you 
 to become their playmate and fellow, before 
 giving you their love and confidence. Their 
 native tendency is to look up. They yearn for 
 repose upon one superior to themselves." 
 
 LOYOLA COLLEGE, in Baltimore, Md., 
 was opened in 1852, and chartered in 1853. It 
 is a Roman Catholic institution, controlled by 
 members of the Society of Jesus. It has a mu- 
 seum, philosophical apparatus, and libraries con- 
 taining 21 ,5(10 volumes. There is a classical, a 
 commercial, and a preparatory course. The cost 
 of tuition, in the preparatory course, is $50 a 
 year ; in the other courses, $75. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 16 instructors and 140 students. 
 
 LUTHER, Martin, the author of the great 
 religious movement of the 16th century, was 
 born at Eisleben, Nov. 10., 1483 (according to 
 others, 1484), and died in the same town Feb. 
 18.. 1546. After attending the town school of 
 Mansfeld and the Latin schools of Magdeburg 
 and Eisenach, he went, in 1501, to the university 
 of Erfurt in order to study law. In 1505, he 
 entered the Augustinian convent at Erfurt, and 
 in 1508, received the appointment of professor 
 in the university of Wittenberg. There he be- 
 gan, in 1517, the religious reform which made 
 his name so famous. As Luther held that all 
 Christians should read the Bible in their native 
 tongue, the governments which adopted the Ref- 
 ormation had to direct their attention to the es- 
 tablishment of schools in all the parishes. Luther 
 himself, in 1524, issued a powerful appeal to 
 " the burgomasters and magistrates of all towns 
 in the German countries," in which he urged them 
 to establish schools, and to provide for the educa- 
 tion of school-teachers, and the establishment of 
 school libraries. He laid great stress upon the im- 
 portance of religious instruction and the ancient 
 languages, and made many suggestions in regard 
 to an improvement of the methods of teaching, 
 which were adopted by educators of the follow- 
 ing centuries. His German translation of the 
 Bible and his smaller catechism were generally 
 introduced into the Lutheran schools, and have 
 remained in extensive use up to the present day. 
 The first German primer (FtbeVj, which appeared 
 about this time, is by some ascribed to Luther; 
 by others to Melanchthon. It contained the alpha- 
 bet, and as reading exercises the ten command- 
 ments, the creed, the Lord's Prayer, some pas- 
 sages from the Bible, and prayers. At the end, 
 the numbers from 1 to 100, and the multiplica- 
 tion table were given. Many of the measures 
 wdrich were taken by Melanchthon for the refor- 
 mation of schools, were, in great part, due to the 
 advice and co-operation of Luther. For the 
 schools which he recommended the German 
 burgomasters to establish, Luther drew up a 
 comprehensive course of studies, which he sent to 
 his friend Spalatin with the request to submit it 
 to the elector of Saxony. This course of studies 
 is cither verbally contained in the Book of Visita- 
 tion (VisitalionsbucMein, published by Melanch- 
 thon in 1528), or at least forms the basis of the 
 
LUTHKRAN CHURCH 
 
 53:i 
 
 one published by Melanchthon. — See Gedike, 
 Luther' a Padagogik (1792); Bri estlein, Luther's 
 Einfluss iiuf das Voffcsschulwesen und den 
 Religionsunterricht (1802) ; J. Schiller, Dr. M. 
 Luther tiber chrisUiche Kinderzucht (2d ed., 
 1854). 
 
 LUTHERAN CHURCH, the name of the 
 religious denomination which arose in the 16th 
 century, from the church reformation effected by 
 Martin I Ait her. It has also been designated by 
 the name Evangelical, Evangelical Lutheran, 
 or Protestant ( 'hurch, or, as in Austria, the 
 Church of the Augsburg Confession. The three 
 general creeds of the ancient church, and the 
 Confession of Augsburg have generally been re- 
 garded by Lutherans as standards of faith. In 
 respect to constitution the Lutheran churches 
 greatly differ. Sweden. Norway, and 1 lenmaxk 
 have an episcopal, most of the other churches 
 a synodal or consistorial, form of government ; 
 the latter, which means a government of the 
 church by state boards called ronsistories, is. 
 however, on the wane. In Prussia and some of 
 the other German states, the Lutheran Church 
 has been united with the Reformed Church into 
 one ecclesiastical organization, called the United 
 Evangelical Church (q. v.) ; but the Lutherans 
 to a large extent have regarded this as a mere 
 confederation which does not impair or alter their 
 standing as Lutherans. In Germany, as in other 
 countries, the predominance of rationalistic 
 views, and the almost unlimited freedom of be- 
 lief or unbelief, which has been practically con- 
 ceded to the clergy and members of the church, 
 have, to a great extent, swept away the distinctive 
 landmarks of the Lutheran denomination. It has 
 been calculated, however, that of the 2."> millions 
 of Protestants in the t lerman empire. 20.0011.(1110. 
 at least, are of Lutheran extraction. In the Scan- 
 dinavian kingdoms, which have an aggregate 
 population of about 8,000,000, as well as in the 
 grand-duchy of Finland, and in the Baltic provin- 
 ces of Russia, nearly the entire population is Lu- 
 theran. Austria hail, in lMill. a Lutheran popu- 
 lation of l,365,000,and Russian Poland, 240,000. 
 France has lost almost all her Lutheran pop- 
 ulation by the annexation to Germany of Alsaee 
 and l/itraine. The entire Lutheran population 
 of the world (including the Lutheran portion 
 of the United Evangelical Church) has been 
 estimated at about 40,000,000. In consequence 
 of the close connection of church and state in 
 Europe, the Lutheran Church has exerted, and 
 to some extent still exerts, a very great influence 
 upon the educational institutions of those coun- 
 tries in which it prevails. Universities and 
 gymnasia have, however, so generally passed 
 under the sole control of the state, and in the 
 German churches so wide a departure from the 
 official creeds of the Protestant churches has 
 been generally allowed to theologians, that it 
 would be extremely difficult to state in a few 
 wonls the relation of the Lutheran Church to 
 the learned institutions of the countries named. 
 It may be said, however, that at present (1876) 
 the universities of Rostock, Erlangen, and Leip- 
 
 sic, in Germany, those of Copenhagen, Lund, and 
 Upsal, in the Scandinavian kingdoms, and of 
 Dorpat.in Russia, are seats of a strictly Lutheran 
 theology. (See Germany, Denmark, Finland, 
 Norway, Sweden.) 
 
 The immigration of Lutherans into the United 
 States began as early as 1621, when a few came 
 to New York from Holland. Their first church 
 was built in 1671. They were soon followed by 
 a Lutheran colony from Sweden, and by more 
 numerous emigrants from Germany, who chiefly 
 settled in Pennsylvania. In the 10th century, the 
 immigration into the United States, from the 
 Lutheran countries of Europe. — Germany, Den- 
 mark, Sweden, and Norway, increased so rap- 
 idly, that the number of preachers and of 
 communicants, which, in 1820, was only 170 and 
 35,000, respectively, rose, in 1875, to 2,669 and 
 573,149. 'I lie first generation of immigrants re- 
 tain their native tongue in divine worship; of 
 their descendants, a considerable number have, 
 in the course of time, substituted for it the En- 
 glish. Still the church, school, and family lan- 
 guage of a large majority of these churches is 
 
 | even now chiefly German. Some idea of the 
 proportion of the languages spoken among the 
 Lutherans of the Tinted States may be formed 
 
 ' from the fact, that of their periodicals, 22 
 are published in the English language. 30, in 
 the German, 5, in the Swedish, and 8, in the 
 Danish or Norwegian language. Like the Meth- 
 odists and Baptists, the Lutherans of the United 
 
 1-21 
 
 In it the En 
 It allows lar 
 in both doct 
 Augsburg C 
 
 ; formed in 
 the oldest of the general bodies. 
 
 irship. 
 
 -This 
 
 ■xposmon of 
 st adherence 
 
 formed 
 
 in 1867. It exacts a strict adherence to the 
 unaltered Augsburg Confession, and recognizes 
 the Apology for the Augsburg Confession, Lu- 
 ther's greater and smaller catechisms, the 
 Schmalkalden Articles, and the Formula of 
 Concord, as forming, with the unaltered Augs- 
 burg Confession, the full creed of the same 
 faith. 
 
 (3) The Si/nodical Conference.— This is the 
 most numerous Lutheran body in the United 
 States. It is also the most strict in its inter- 
 pretation of the standards,' and in its rules of 
 membership and fellowship. It was formed in 
 1872, and the language used in its churches and 
 schools is almost wholly German. 
 
 ill TheSouOiern Synod.— This, withdrew from 
 the General Synod during the civil war, chiefly 
 for political reasons, and formed the General 
 Si/inn! Simlli. Resides these four general organi- 
 zations, there are seven particular synods, which 
 are entirely independent. 
 
534 
 
 LUTHERAN CHURCH 
 
 The Lutheran bodies in the United States have 
 always felt the importance of the educational work 
 required of them, and have endeavored to meet 
 its demands as far a.s they have had the means. 
 In 1773, Drs. Schmidt and Hellmuth opened, in 
 Philadelphia, a Latin school and a private semi- 
 nary for the instruction of candidates for the 
 ministry. It continued in operation for more 
 than twenty years, and was finally closed by the 
 necessities of war during the Revolution. In 
 1787, the legislature of Pennsylvania established 
 Franklin College, Luicaster, of which Henry 
 Ernest Muhlenberg was the president 
 especial benefit of the Germans of the c 
 wealth, and as a reward for their services in the 
 war. In 1791, the Church's services to education 
 were further recognized by the legislature of 
 Pennsylvania, by the gift of five thousand acres 
 of land to the Free Schools of the Lutheran 
 Church, in Philadelphia. Tn 1784, Johann 
 Christoph Kunze, of Philadelphia, accepted a 
 call to the High German Congregation, in Xew 
 York, in the hope that he might establish a 
 Lutheran theological professoishi 
 
 ilii;i 
 
 College, lie became professor of oriental lan- 
 guages in that institution. The Lutherans at- 
 tach great importance to theological instruction, 
 and theological seminaries receive very great 
 consideration from them. Their oldest in- 
 stitutions, in fact, seem to have been at first 
 theological schools, around which literary de- 
 partments were afterwards formed. Hartwiek 
 Seminary, New York, was founded in 1816. 
 The theological school there was the first pub- 
 lic training school of the American Lutheran 
 Church for candidates for the ministry. The 
 theological seminary, at Gettysburg, Pa., was 
 founded by the General Synod in L826. Pre- 
 vious to that time, the Rev'. Dr. S. S. Schmucker, 
 of New Market, Va., and the Rev. I). F. Schaef- 
 fer, of Frederick, Md., had received a limited 
 number of young men as students, and in- 
 structed them in theology. The Gettysburg 
 seminary celebrated, in 187C, the completion of 
 the fiftieth year of its existence. It had then 
 furnished thirty-nine professors to various in- 
 stitutions, nearly all the editors of the English 
 periodicals and reviews of the General Synod, 
 and five hundred and thirty-eight ministers. 
 Pennsylvania College, Gettysburg, Pa., was 
 founded in L832, six years after the theological 
 seminary. The General Synod has also the 
 following higher institutions of learning: Wit- 
 tenberg College. Springfield, Ohio (founded 
 in L846), to which a theological department 
 (founded in L845) is attached; Swedish-American 
 Ansgari College, Cnoxville, 111. (1873), with a 
 theological department: Carthage College, Car- 
 thage, Mo. (1871); and Practical Theol. Seminary, 
 Marshall, Wis. (1876).— The General Synod 
 South, has the care of Roanoke College, Salem, 
 Ya. (1H54), a theological seminary at the same 
 place (1830, at Lexington, S. ('..and removed to 
 Salem, Va., in 1872) ; Newberry College, Pal- 
 ilalia, S. C. (1858). North Carolina College, Mt. 
 Pleasant, N. 0.(185!)), and the theological de- 
 
 LYCEUM 
 
 [ partnient of the same (1872), are connected with 
 the North Carolina Synod. The General 
 Council lias a theological seminary at Phila- 
 delphia, which was founded in 1864. Its other 
 collegiate ami theological seminaries are : Muh- 
 lenberg College, Allentown, Pa. (1867); Augus- 
 tana College and theological seminary (the latter 
 founded in 1803), at Rock Island. 111.; Mosheim 
 College. Mosheim. Tenn. ; German American 
 College, Rousselville, Texas ; Thiel College, 
 Greenville, Pa. (1870) ; Wartburg Theological 
 Seminary, Mendota, 111.; and the Norwegian 
 Lutheran Seminary, at Madison. Wis. (1876). 
 The principal theological school of the Sy nodical 
 Conference is the Concordia Theological Semi- 
 nary, of which the theoretical department, at St. 
 Louis, Mo., was founded in 1840, and the prac- 
 tical department, at Springfield, 111, in 1H40. 
 Its other higher institutions are : Capital Uni- 
 versity, Columbus, Ohio (1)n>(>), with a theolog- 
 ical department (1830) ; Concordia College, 
 Fort Wayne, Ind. (1840, and organized after 
 the plan of a German gymnasium) ; Luther 
 College, Decorah, Iowa (1863); North West 
 University, Watertown, Wis. (1865). — The con- 
 ference of the Norwegian-Danish Evangelical 
 Lutheran Church sustains the A.ugsburg The- 
 ological Seminary, at Minneapolis. Minn. The 
 synod known as Graham's Buffalo Synod sup- 
 ports Martin Luther College, with a theological 
 department, at Buffalo, N. Y., and the Synod of 
 Iowa supports the College of the Iowa Synod, 
 Mendota, HI. The Lutheran almanacs give also 
 lists of twenty-two classical schools and acad- 
 emies and seven female seminaries under the 
 patronage of the various Lutheran bodies, or 
 looking to Lutherans for support. — Orphans' 
 homes and schools are supported by the general 
 bodies and several synods at i-oysville, Zelienople, 
 Rochester, Middlctown. and Germantown, Pa., 
 Mt. Vernon and Buffalo, N. Y., Toledo, Ohio, 
 Jacksonville, Addison, and Andover, 111., Vasa, 
 Minn., St. Louis, Mo., Boston, Mass., Norris, 
 Mich., and Andrew, Iowa. The Missouri Synod 
 has a deaf and dumb institute, at Norris, Mich. — 
 The Synodical Conference enumerates, among 
 the conditions required for admission to, and 
 membership in, its organization, the providing of 
 Christian school instruction for the congrega- 
 tions. Accordingly, parochial schools are gen- 
 erally connected with its congregations. For the 
 education of its school teachers, the Synodical 
 Conference supports a teachers' seminary at 
 Addison, 111., which, in 1875, had 5 instructors 
 and 1 14 students. Three educational papers, 
 in the German language, were published in 
 1877, the Schvlblatt and Abendsckule, at St. 
 Louis, and the Schulzeitung, at Milwaukee. 
 
 LYCEUM (Gr. Mbatm, named after the 
 neighboring temple of Apollo, '/mime, a surname 
 which is differently explained by Greek etymol- 
 ogists), a gymnasium or public palestra with 
 covered walks, in the eastern suburb of Athens, 
 where Aristotle and the philosophers of his school 
 taught. The Romans gave the name lyceum to 
 several similar institutions, as to those in the 
 
LYCURGUS 
 
 Tusculanum of Cicero, and in the villa of 
 Adrian at Tibur. In the middle ages, lyceum 
 denoted an institution in which the Aristotelian 
 philosophy was taught. In modern times, the 
 
 countries. In \\ iirtemberg 
 
 . it is equivalent to 
 
 a progymnasiuin, or the ti\ 
 
 e l,,«er classes of a 
 
 gymnasium ': in Alsace- l.oi 
 
 aine, it is still given 
 
 to some of the gyiuna-ia, « i 
 
 h which a real Bchool 
 
 is connected ; in France, the 
 
 1 vi -en in is the highest 
 
 Secondary school and compi 
 
 is a eight classes ; in 
 
 Italy, it corresponds to the 
 
 three higher classes 
 
 of the German gymnasium 
 
 in Finland, some of 
 
 the lyceums which have 
 
 seven classes corre- 
 
 spond to the German gymnasium, and 
 which have only four classes, to the higher clas- 
 ses of the gymnasium ; in Ronmania, the lyceum 
 has seven classes, and equals the complete gym- 
 nasium. In England and in the United States, 
 the word is not applied to any class of schools, 
 but is sometimes given to literary associations. 
 For a fuller account of the modern lyceums see 
 the articles on the several countries ; for an ac- 
 count of the American Lyceum, see Holrrook, 
 Josiah. 
 
 LYCURGUS (Greek \vKovpy IK , the light- 
 producer], the reputed author of the Spartan 
 system of education. He is said to have lived 
 in the 9th century before Christ: but so little is 
 known of his life, that even his existence has 
 been doubted by some, his name being regarded 
 by them as the personified origin of a new era of 
 culture. According to the traditional view, he 
 belonged to the royal family of Sparta, and was I 
 guardian of his nephew, king Oharilaus. Having ! 
 been forced by an opposing patty to leave his' 
 country, he made extensive travels in Asia i 
 
 McGUPFEY 535 
 
 Minor. and in Crete, where he became acquainted 
 with the laws of Minos. He was finally recalled 
 to Sparta, in order to put an end to the increasing 
 disorders, for which purpose he enacted the laws 
 which have made his name in, mortal. He made 
 
 should return from Delphi, where he was to ask 
 the god's opinion as to their value. As the oracle 
 predicted for Sparta an unfailing prosperity ai 
 long as these laws should be observed, he never 
 returned to his native land. According to one 
 legend, he starved himself to death, having pre- 
 viously ordered the ashes of his corpse to be 
 thrown into the sea in order that they might not 
 be brought back to Sparta so as to release tin' 
 Spartans from their pledge. That the whole of 
 the political and educational system of Sparta 
 was not the work of Lycurgus. is admitted 
 even by those who have entire faith in the 
 existence of a famous lawgiver of that name. 
 (See Sparta.) 
 
 LYON, Mary, an American teacher, born 
 in Buckland, Mass.. Feb. 28., I7'.)7: died in 
 South Hadley,, -Mass.. Mar. 5., 1849. Iu the face 
 of many obstacles, she acquired sufficient educa- 
 tion to enable her to teach, which she did with- 
 out notable result till 1837, when she established 
 at South Hadley. Mass.. the Mount Holyoke 
 female Seminary, the first of Several similar es- 
 tablishments founded by her pupils. The dis- 
 tinct feature of the Mount 1 lolyoke seminary was 
 the union of domestic labor with intellectual and 
 moral instruction. Her published works are 
 Tendencies of the principles embraced and tlie 
 system adopted in the Mount Holyoke Female 
 Semi?iary(184ff); and the Missionary Offering 
 (Boston, 1843). 
 
 McCORKLE COLLEGE, at Bloomfield 
 (Sago P. 0.), Ohio, was founded as a high school 
 in 1862 by the Rev. Wm, Ballantine, A. M., who 
 has been its president from the first. It was in- 
 corporated as an academy in 1868, and as a col- 
 lege in 1873. It is under Associate Presbyterian 
 control. Both sexes are admitted. The prin- 
 cipal design of the institution is to qualify young 
 men for the study of theology ; yet a general 
 and thorough course of education, well adapted 
 to qualify students for the pursuit of any of the 
 learned professions, is given, in languages", mathe- 
 matics, and the sciences. There are three depart- 
 ments: a preparatory, two years ; and a classical 
 and a scientific, each four years. The cost of 
 tuition ranges from $18 to $30 per year. In 
 18 id — f>, there were 5 instructors and 13 students. 
 
 McCOSH, James, an eminent Scottish 
 scholar, teacher, and metaphysician, born in Ayr- 
 shire, in 1811. He was educated in the univer- 
 sities of Glasgow and Edinburgh; and, in 1835, 
 ordained a minister of the Church of Scotland. 
 at Arbroath. Subsequently, while pastor at 
 Brechin, he took an active part in the organiza- 
 tion of the Free Church of Scotland. In 1851, 
 
 lintment of professor of 
 in Qneen'a College Bel- 
 
 th 
 
 as a lecturer and a metaphysician, pnl 
 | Intuitions of //<•■ Mind (London. I860), 
 of great merit for its originality and act 
 
 he accepted tin 
 logic and metal 
 fast ; and wl 
 lecturer 
 
 ork 
 great merit for its originality and acuteness. 
 i Inl8G8,he was elected president of the College of 
 ! New Jersey, at Princeton, which position he still 
 i occupies. As an educator he has exerted a very 
 I extensive influence, by the breadth and sagacity 
 i of his views. His reputation as a metaphysician 
 J is not exceeded by that of any living scholar. 
 | In this department of intellectual research, his 
 | writings have been very numerous, and. as is 
 ! universally conceded, are characterized by re- 
 I niarkable depth of thought and acuteness of 
 I reasoning. 
 
 McGUFFEY, William Holmes, an Amer- 
 ■ ican educator, born in Washington Co.. I 'a., 
 ! Sept. 23.. 1800; died in Charlottesville, Va., 
 May 4., 1873. He graduated at Washington 
 j College, in Pennsylvania, in 1826, and was 
 soon afterwards elected professor of ancient lan- 
 guages in Miami University, at Athens, Ohio, 
 I in which institution he was transferred, in 1832, 
 
536 
 
 McKENDREE COLLEGE 
 
 MAGER 
 
 to the chair of moral philosophy. In 1836, 
 he was elected president of Cincinnati Col- 
 lege ; but, in 1839, he returned to Miami Uni- 
 versity to take the position of president of the 
 institution. In 1845, he accepted the appoints 
 ment of professor of moral philosophy and po- 
 litical economy in the University of Virginia, 
 where he remained until his death. while 
 president of Cincinnati College, he began the 
 preparation of the Eel f die Serin of school read- 
 ing-books, which became widely popular, more 
 than a million copies, it is said, having been 
 issued. It is by these that he is best known. 
 
 M'KENDREE COLLEGE, at Lebanon, 
 111., established in 1828, was chartered in 1834, 
 and rechartered in 1839. It is under Methodist 
 Episcopal control. It has beautiful grounds, and 
 buildings well adapted for college purposes. The 
 location is healthful and easy of access. The 
 libraries contain about 7,:">00 volumes ; and the 
 apparatus is extensive. The institution is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees and the income of an en- 
 dowment of $45,000. Both sexes are admitted. 
 The collegiate department has a classical and a 
 scientific course, and there is a preparatory 
 and a law department. The cost of tuition in 
 the collegiate department is $24 a year. In 
 1875 — 6, there were 8 instructors, and 220 stu- 
 dents, of whom 129 were in the collegiate and 
 8 in the law department. The presidents have 
 been as follows : the Rev. Peter Akers, D. D., 7 
 years; the Rev. John W. Merrill, D. D.,3 years ; 
 the Rev. James Finley, D. D., 4 years ; the 
 Rev. Erastus Wentworth, D. D., 4 years ; the 
 Rev. Anson Cummings, I). 1)., 2 years; the 
 Rev. Nelson Cobleigh, I). D., 5 years ; the Rev. 
 Robert Allyn, D. D., 13 years; and the Rev. 
 John W. Locke, I). D., the present incumbent 
 (1876), 2 years. 
 
 McMINNVILLE COLLEGE, at McMinn- 
 ville, Oregon, under the control of Baptists, was 
 chartered in 1N59. It has an endowment fund 
 of $25,000. It comprises a primary, an academic, 
 and a collegiate department, in which the cost 
 of tuition is §18, $30, and $44 a year, respect- 
 ively. Both sexes are admitted. In 1873 — 4, 
 there where 6 instructors and 150 students. 
 
 MADISON UNIVERSITY, at Hamilton, 
 N.Y., under Baptist control, was chartered in 
 1846. It comprises a theological seminary, a col- 
 lege, and an academy. The seminary was opened 
 in 1820 ; the college and academy were organ- 
 ized in 1832. The college has a classical and a 
 scientific course. The endowment amounts to 
 $435,000. The university has extensive cabinets 
 of natural history, and valuable chemical and 
 philosophical apparatus. The libraries contain 
 11,000 volumes. The cost of tuition in the col- 
 lege is $30 a year, in the academy $20 ; in the 
 seminary, tuition and room rent are free. In 
 1875 — 6, there were in the seminary, 5 instruct- 
 ors and 33 students; college, 9 instructors and 
 87 students; academy, 9 instructors and 89 stu- 
 dents; total, deducting repetitions, 19 instructors 
 and 209 students. The Rev. Ebenezer Uodge, 
 D. D., LL. D., is (1876) the president. 
 
 MADRAS SYSTEM. See Monitorial 
 System. 
 
 MADVIG, Johann Nikolai, a Danish 
 educator and philologist, born in Svanike, on 
 the island of Bornliolm, in 1804. He graduated 
 at the university of Copenhagen, where he 
 became professor of the Latin language and 
 literature in 1829. In 1848, he was appointed 
 minister of public worship, and in 1852, di- 
 rector of public instruction. He has edited the 
 works of Cicero, Juvenal, Livy, and Lucretius. 
 In 1829, he published a pamphlet in which he 
 attempted to prove that the JJe Orthographia, 
 attributed to Apuleius. and first published by 
 Mai in 1823, was written as late as the 15th 
 century. He has also published a (fiance at the 
 Constitutions of Antiquity; The Creation, De- 
 velopment, ami Life of Language; Adversaria 
 < 'ritica ml Scriptores Grcecos et Latinos (vol. i., 
 1871); and a Latin Grammar for Schools. 
 This last was translated by the Rev. G. Woods 
 (Oxford. 1859). 
 
 MAGER, Karl, a distinguished German 
 educator, was born near Pusseldorf, Jan. 1., 
 1810;diedin Wiesbaden, June 10., 1858. He 
 studied in Bonn. Berlin, and Paris, where he 
 early attracted attention by his talents and 
 scholarship. After his return to Germany, he 
 engaged in the study of the philosophical sys- 
 tems of Hegel and Ilerbart, and in those of edu- 
 cation and instruction, introduced by Pestalozzi 
 and Diesterweg. For the Wegweiser fur deutsche 
 Lehrer, edited by the latter, he wrote an essay 
 on the teaching of foreign languages (1835 and 
 1838), after which he became professor in the 
 cantonal school, in Geneva. This position he soon 
 resigned on account of a spinal disease, from which 
 lie found some relief in Cannstadt. a watering- 
 place, near Stuttgart. In 1840, he founded the 
 P&dagogische Revue, which soon became one of 
 the leading journals for all questions of education 
 and instruction in Germany and Switzerland. 
 
 .ks 
 
 school of Aarau, Switzerland. After a few years, 
 he resigned this position, to give all his time 
 to the Padagogische Revue, which, for his con- 
 venience, had been removed from Stuttgart to 
 Zurich. In 1848, he was invited by the Staats- 
 minister Wydenbruck, in Weimar, to take the 
 direction of the real gymnasium in Eisenach, an 
 institution that, had been organized according 
 to his plan and ideas. He began his work with 
 his usual ardor; but, unfortunately, his disease 
 grew worse, and his health became so much 
 impaired, that, in 1852, he was obliged to retire 
 from his office, and, even to give up all literary 
 work, thus being unable to show whether his 
 practical skill as a teacher and head of an insti- 
 tution was equal to his extensive scholarship and 
 the brilliancy of his writings. His death oc- 
 curred a few years after his retirement. Mager 
 was without doubt an eminent reformer in the 
 field of education and instruction; and his coun- 
 
MAGER 
 
 try is largely indebted to him for his efforts in 
 the introduction of the genetic method and the 
 creation of the higher real school or real gym- 
 nasium. (See Real Schools.) A few words 
 will suffice to characterize Mager's ideas oil the 
 genetic method, which he calls the combination 
 of analysis and synthesis. There is a method 
 of development proper to every object — a pecu- 
 liar mode of growth, both in form and substance; 
 this is objective method. But the term method 
 has also a subjective meaning, implying the man- 
 ner in which the pupil acquires knowledge, and 
 hence having reference to his self-activity, which 
 it is the office of the educator to stimulate, to 
 restrain, or to guide. Now, psychology and ex- 
 perience teach us that the human mind has to 
 go through different stages in the acquisition of 
 knowledge: intuition, perception, and, finally, 
 abstraction ; and the mode of instruction must 
 conform to the operations of the human mind. 
 Applying these principles to the study of foreign 
 languages, it is obvious that grammar cannot be 
 its beginning, but must be its end. Man speaks 
 in sentences. The simplest form of human speech 
 is not a word, but a sentence. The old gram- 
 matical school said, the sum of the parts of a 
 thing is the thing; but this is not true; the sum 
 of the parts of a watch is not necessarily a 
 watch; only when they are combined in a proper 
 manner so that they indicate time, they are a 
 watch. Just so it is with language. Hence, gram- 
 matical lexicography, inflections, parsing of 
 words, etc., must In- .subordinate to syntax. Now. 
 every sentence contains a verb, and the verb 
 alone can form the whole sentence, though now 
 more rarely than in the older languages; there- 
 fore grammatical instruction must be-in with 
 the verb. As the simple sentence is the begin- 
 ning of language, so the most developed period 
 is its completion. So far for the genesis of the 
 substance; but also the form of the instruction 
 must follow the process of human thought — in- 
 tuition, perception, abstraction — first, the lan- 
 guage (example), then its rides. But the study 
 of language is not merely theoretical, it is prac- 
 tical also. He who learns a language, has to 
 apply it, to use it; and. therefore, Mager ends 
 with the free speaking and writing of the for- 
 eign language.— Besides several articles in the 
 
 MA INK 
 
 531 
 
 fP 
 
 n l.s;iT— 40); 
 rh heuristisdh- 
 ) ; Ueber den 
 (Essen, 1838) ; 
 
 Wissenschqft der Mathen 
 
 genet ixrln'r M-lhmle (Her 
 Uhterricht in fremden S/ 
 
 Die kShere Bvrgersehde (Stuttgart, 1840); 
 Deutsches Elementarwerh, Sprack- und Lese- 
 buch (a posthumous work, completed and edited 
 by Charles Schlegel, Stuttgart. 1866) ; FranzS- 
 sisches Sprach- and I.- sebuch, revised by Charles 
 
 Schlegel, Stuttgart, 1862 : D lerne Philo- 
 
 hgiewnddied uischen Schvlen (Stuttgart, 1844); 
 Die genetische Methods (Zurich. 1846); Die En- 
 rt/kbpddie, t/'/x Si/stem des Wisscus, ein Lese- 
 bttch (Zurich, 1847). 
 
 MAINE, until 1820 a part of Massachusetts, 
 has an area of 35,000 sq. in., and a population, 
 according to the census of 1870, of 029,915, 
 found mostly in the southern half of the state. 
 
 Educational History, — This will embrace 
 (I) The establishment of schools; (II) The main- 
 tenance of schools ; (HI) The supervision of 
 schools. 
 
 I. The school system of Maine, when it became 
 a distinct state, in 1820, was the same as that 
 of the parent state, Massachusetts. In the con- 
 stitution of Maine, the duty of the state to pro- 
 vide its people with the means of education, and 
 its right to control public education throughout 
 its entire extent, are asserted in the following 
 article: "A general diffusion of the advantages 
 of education being essential to the preservation 
 of the rights and liberties of the people, to pro- 
 vide this important object, the legislature are 
 authorized, and it shall be their duty, to require 
 the several towns to make suitable provision, at 
 their own expense, for the support and mainte- 
 nance of public schools: and it shall furl her be 
 their duty to suitably endow, from time to time, 
 as the circumstances of the people may author- 
 ize, all academies, colleges, and seminaries of 
 learning, within the state, provided that, at the 
 time of making any donation, grant, or endow- 
 ment, the legislature of the state shall have the 
 right to giant any further powers, to alter, limit, 
 or restrain, any of the powers vested in any such 
 literary institution, as shall be judged necessary 
 to promote the best interests thereof." — The 
 school law of Maine remained the same as that 
 of Massachusetts until the second legislature, in 
 1821, enacted a general school law differing from 
 the former one only in requiring each town to 
 raise, by a tax on polls and property, a sum of 
 not less than forty cents for cadi inhabitant, to 
 be apportioned among the several districts in the 
 town, and annually expended tor public schools, 
 instead of requiring each town. as in the original 
 law, to sustain its schools for a certain prea ribed 
 length of time each year. The district system 
 had become fixed in the school law of Massachu- 
 setts previous to the separation, and it has been, 
 up to the present time, recognized in the school^, 
 law of Maine. At first, the towns, at their annual 
 meetings, elected agents for the several districts; 
 later, districts were allowed, on the vote of towns, 
 to choose their agents, and agents were allowed 
 to expend, at their own discretion. 10 per cent of 
 the school money for repairs. A return of sta- 
 tistics to the office of the secretary of state was 
 required; and abstracts of these were made, and 
 transmitted to the various districts. The bank 
 tax of one-half of one per cent on the capital 
 stock of state banks was divided among the va- 
 rious towns according to the number of persons 
 between the ages of four and twenty-one years 
 of age, for the benefit of public schools: and 
 power was given to districts, in 1827, and still 
 further, in 1 S42. "to classify scholars and to grade 
 their schools." The district system has proved 
 unfavorable to the highest degree of efficiency 
 in schools, and a few years since a law was en- 
 
538 MA 
 
 acted authorizing towns to abolish school-districts 
 and to adopt a uniform township system. A law 
 was enacted in 1873, encouraging the establish- 
 ment of free high schools at the joint expense of 
 town and state. 
 
 II. The public schools of Maine have always 
 been free. Their support has been derived from 
 (1) Taxes ; (2) The income of permanent funds. 
 
 (1) Taxes. — The sum of forty cents for each 
 inhabitant, required by the law of 1821, to be 
 raised annually for the support of schools, was 
 increased by subsequent legislation, in 1854, to 
 sixty cents, in 1865 to seventy-five cents, and in 
 18fi8 to one dollar. In 1872. a law was enacted 
 assessing annually a tax of one mill per dollar 
 upon all the property of the state, according to 
 the valuation thereof, to be distributed to the 
 several towns of the state according to the num- 
 ber of persons of school age in each town. Up- 
 on the passage of this act. called the Mill Tax 
 Law, the per capita tax was changed from one 
 dollar to eighty cents for each inhabitant. — For 
 many years, a large sum was added to the school 
 fund annually by a tax upon deposits in the 
 state banks. This amounted sometimes to 80,000 
 dollars in a year. With the change from state to 
 national banks, this sum decreased until it be- 
 came nothing. In 1872. a tax of one-half of one 
 per cent was assessed upon deposits in savings- 
 banks, to be distributed among the several towns 
 of the state according to their school population. 
 Many towns raise by taxation a larger sum than 
 is prescribed by the law. and "any school district 
 maintaining graded schools is authorized to raise 
 for the support of these schools a sum of money 
 not exceeding that which it receives from the 
 town, in addition thereto." 
 
 (2) Income of Permanent Funds. — These funds 
 are state and local. The state fund is derived 
 from the proceeds of the sales of twenty town- 
 ships of public lands formerly set apart f >r school 
 purposes, increased from year to year by the ad- 
 dition thereto of unexpended balances of school 
 money. The local funds are derived in part from 
 the sale of lands assigned to towns for the sup- 
 port of schools, and in part from various other 
 sources, such as bequests, etc. An amount equal 
 to six per cent of the permanent school fund is 
 distributed to the schools each year. This fund 
 at present amounts to §400,558. 
 
 III. Sn]ii>rrisiim if Schools. — Notwithstand- 
 ing the emphatic statements of the constitution 
 as to the rights and duties of the state in regard 
 to public education, there was in the law a great 
 lack of the elements of an effective system until 
 1 846, when, in response to determined action of 
 the friends of education, a law was passed estab- 
 lishing a state board of education consisting of 
 one member from each county, chosen by the 
 school committees of the county in joint con- 
 vention, with a secretary chosen by the board. 
 Wm. G-. Crosby, afterwards governor of the 
 state, was secretary of the board from 1 84(1 to 
 1849. He then resigned, and was succeeded by 
 K. M. Thurston, who served until the abolition 
 of the board, in 1852. Great good was effected 
 
 by this board of education. County institutes 
 were held, and were attended by large numbers 
 of teachers. Teachers' associations were organ- 
 ized in every county of the state. Better school- 
 houses were built, and the. -tandard of teaching wa.s 
 raised ; moreover, the state owes several improve- 
 ments in the school law to this period of its his- 
 tory. In 1852, an act was passed directing the ap- 
 pointment by the governor of a school commis- 
 sioner for each county, thus replacing the board 
 of education by a much less efficient agency. In 
 1853. tins law was repealed, and the office of state 
 superintendent was created, the superintendent 
 being appointed by the governor and the coun- 
 cil. The following is a list of the successive state 
 superintendents, with the dates of their appoint- 
 ment to office : Charles A. Ixjrd, June 26., 1854; 
 Mark H. Dunnell. March 27.. 1855; John P. 
 Craig. Feb. 28., 1856 ; Mark II. Dunnell, Jan. 
 29., 1857 ; Edward P. Weston. March 5., 1860 ; 
 Edward Ballard, May 8.. 1865: Warren Johnson 
 March 30., 1868 ; and Wm. J. Corthell, the 
 present incumbent, Oct. 26., 1876. 
 
 In 1869, acts were passed directing the ap- 
 pointment, by the governor and the council, of a 
 board of county supervisors for a term of three 
 years. and making provision for county institutes. 
 In 1872. the first of these laws was repealed ; and, 
 three years later, the second was also repealed. 
 The efforts of the friends of education to secure 
 more efficient means for the training of teach- 
 ers were for a long time fruitless. For several 
 years appropriations were made by the state to 
 academies for the maintenance of normal depart- 
 ments. The results proving unsatisfactory, the 
 first state normal school, located at Farming- 
 ton, was established by an act of the legislature, 
 approved March 25., 1863 ; and the school went 
 into operation Aug. 24., 1864. The second state 
 normal school, located at Castine, went into oper- 
 ation Sept. 7.. 1867. A state teachers' associa- 
 tion was organized in 1859 ; but it was not con- 
 tinued, holding its last session in 1 864. Another 
 association was organized in 1867, and still holds 
 annual sessions. Of county and town associa- 
 tions, there are very few. 
 
 School System. — The public schools of the state 
 are under the supervision of the state superintend- 
 ent of common schools and the town superintend- 
 ing school committees. There is no intermediate 
 agency. The stub' supei-iiitcni/citt is appointed 
 by the governor and council for the term of three 
 years, " or during the pleasure of the executive." 
 It is his duty to exercise a general supervision 
 over the schools of the state ; to advise and di- 
 rect town committees in the discharge of their 
 duties, devoting all his time to the duties of his 
 office ; to collect and disseminate information 
 as to the school systems of our own and other 
 countries ; to prescribe the studies for the com- 
 mon schools of the state, town committees hav- 
 ing also the right to prescribe additional studies, 
 and to make a report to the governor and coun- 
 cil, annually prior to the session of the legislature. 
 The superintending school committees examine 
 all teachers, and employ teachers for the school- 
 
■districts when authorized to do so by the town. 
 They direct the general course of instruction, se- 
 lect a uniform system of text-books. and exercisea 
 general supervision and control over the several 
 schools of the town. They are required to make 
 a written report of the condition of the schools 
 in their respective districts, for the preceding year, 
 at the annual town meeting, and to transmit a 
 «opy thereof to the state superintendent of com- 
 mon schools. They are also required to make an 
 annual statistical report to the state superintend- 
 ent on or before the first day of May of each 
 year. Supervisors, and members of the school 
 committee, receive for their services SI. 50 a day, 
 besides the necessary traveling expenses. 
 
 A town, at its annual meeting, or at a special 
 meeting called for that purpose, may determine 
 the number anil limits of school-districts therein: 
 but these districts must not be altered, discon- 
 tinued, or annexed to others, except upon the 
 written recommendation of the municipal officers 
 and of the su]ierintending school committee. A 
 town may abolish its school-districts; and it must 
 thereupon take possession of all the school prop- 
 erty therein, levying upon the town a tax equal to 
 the appraised value of such school property, and 
 remitting to the tax payers of each district the 
 appraised value of the property thus taken. The 
 town must annually expend for the support of 
 schools the amount received from the state school 
 fund, under penalty of forfeiture of its share of the 
 fund for the ensuing year; anil it must raise and 
 expend annually for the support of schools, ex- 
 clusive of income from any other source, at least 
 eighty cents for each inhabitant, or forfeit not less 
 than twice, nor more than four times, the amount 
 of its deficiency, and also its share of the state 
 school fund. The assessors and the school com- 
 mittee may annually apportion among the smaller 
 districts of the town, in addition to their per capita 
 share of the school money. 20 per cent of money 
 raised by the town and of that received from 
 the state, in such a manner as to give them equal 
 educational advantages with the larger districts. 
 
 The town may provide school books to pupils 
 of the public schools at cost, or free of cost. It is 
 required to choose a school committee of three 
 for a term of office of three years, one to go out 
 of office each year, or a supervisor instead of 
 school committee. Towns are empowered to make 
 such by-laws, not repugnant to the laws of the 
 state, concerning truants and children between 6 
 and 17 years of age not attending school, and 
 having no regular and lawful employment, as are 
 most conducive to their welfare and the good 
 order of society. ( 'hildren under 1 5 years of age 
 cannot be employed in a cotton or woolen niami- 
 
 scribed portion of the year next preceding, and 
 no person under the age of Hi can be employed 
 by any corporation more than ten hours a day. 
 A law was passed in 1875, compelling the at- 
 tendance at school for at least twelve weeks 
 each year, of all children between the ages of 6 
 and 15 years, unless excused by the school 
 .officers, for reasons prescribed in the act. 
 
 [NE 539 
 
 Every school-district is a corporate body, and 
 all school property therein belongs to the dis- 
 trict, and is under its full control ; but all 
 plans tor the election or reconstruction of a 
 school-house voted by a district must be ap- 
 proved by the .-chooi committee. Each school- 
 district, at its annual meeting, chooses a moder- 
 ator, a clerk, and an agent, unless by vote of 
 the town the agents arc chosen in town meet- 
 ing. Two or more districts may unite to sup- 
 port a union school for advanced scholars, or to 
 maintain a graded school; and a district main- 
 taining a graded school may choose a committee 
 to classify and grade the pupils therein. Wher- 
 ever, in the opinion of the school committee, a 
 school-district unreasonably neglects or refuses 
 to raise money to provide proper school build- 
 ings or grounds, the matter may be brought be- 
 fore the next town meeting, and the town may 
 vote to raise the money by a tax upon the dis- 
 trict, to be expended by a committee appointed 
 by the municipal officers. A school-district non- 
 appropriate a sum not exceeding 1(1 per cent 
 of its school money for any year, for the pur- 
 chase of a school library and school apparatus ; 
 and adjacent districts may unite for this pur- 
 pose. The si 1 1 agent attends to the finan- 
 cial affairs of the district, and employs teachers, 
 unless by vote of the town they are employed 
 by the school committee. The agent may. at 
 his discretion, expend for repairs, each year. 
 10 per cent of the money apportioned to the 
 district. 
 
 Any town establishing and maintaining a free 
 high school for at least ten weeks in any one year, 
 is entitled to receive from the state one-half of the 
 amount actually expended for instruction, not 
 however exceeding $500 from the state to any 
 
 ! one town. Two oi more adjoining towns may 
 unite in sustaining such a school ; and so long as 
 any town shall decline to avail itself of the pro- 
 
 , visions of this act. any school-district, or union 
 
 I of school-districts, in the town may do so. — 
 Every teacher of a public school is required to 
 keep a register containing the names and attend- 
 ance of his pupils, and a record of such other 
 facts as may be required by the blank forms 
 provided for annual or other reports; and he is 
 required to leave such register completed, and 
 signed by the school committee, as a condition 
 of receiving his salary. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts returned in 1875, was 8,953; and 
 the number of parts of districts, 368. The num- 
 ber of towns in the state was 421, and the num- 
 ber of these which have abolished the district sys- 
 tem was 25. The country schools are generally 
 ungraded. In the cities and larger villages, pri- 
 mary and grammar schools are maintained ; and. 
 in the cities and a few of the larger villages, high 
 schools have also been established. There were 
 maintained, in 1875, for one or more terms. 157 
 free high schools, at an annual cost of §116,308, 
 of which the state paid .538.633. There are no 
 
 returns by which the number of graded schools, 
 or departments in each grade, can be ascertained. 
 
540 
 
 For the support of public schools there was 
 paid, in 1875, $1,261,297, from the following 
 sources : 
 
 Permanent school fund $22,193 
 
 Local funds 25,585 
 
 Total from funds $47,778 
 
 Municipal taxation for current 
 
 expenses $662,658 
 
 School mill-tax 224,579 
 
 Savings-bank tax 145 ,935 
 
 For free high schools 116,308 
 
 " supervision 36,968 
 
 " normal schools 15,500 
 
 To prolong schools 11,671 
 
 Total taxation $1,213,51:) 
 
 Total current expenses $1,261,297 
 
 There was also expended for new school- 
 houses in 1875, $110,725 ; and hereafter $13,00(1 
 for the support of normal schools will be taken 
 annually from the general school fund, instead 
 of being made a special appropriation. 
 
 The folio wiug are other important items of 
 school statistics for 1875 : 
 
 The number of teachers : 
 In summer, males, I 71 ; females, 4,426; total, 4,597 
 In winter, males, l,!)s4; females, 2,47:,; total, 4,450 
 The average wages per month, excluding board, 
 was of 
 
 Male teachers $36.96 
 
 Female teachers 17.16 
 
 The average cost per mouth nftea.ch- 
 
 ers' board was $9.52 
 
 Whole number of -.li.il.ir- between 4 and 21.. 221,447 
 
 Number registered in summer schools 117,821 
 
 Number registered in winter schools 130,343 
 
 Average attendance in summer schools '.15,05s 
 
 Awrairc attendance in winter schools 105,1125 
 
 Werage lengthof schools for the year 
 (.U days to a week) 21 w-eeks 1 day. 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The date of establish- 
 ment of the two state normal schools has been 
 given in the historical sketch. For their support 
 $13,000 is drawn from the common-school fund 
 each year. The law establishing these schools 
 prescribes thai they ••shall be thoroughly devoted 
 to the work of training teachers for their profes- 
 sional labors." that " the course of study shall 
 include the common English branches in thorough 
 reviews, and such of the higher branches as are 
 especially adapted to -prepare teachers to con- 
 duct the mental, moral, and physical education 
 of their pupils," and "that the art of school 
 management, including the best methods of gov- 
 ernment and instruction, shall have a prominent 
 place in the daily exercises of said schools." 
 Candidates for admission must be, if females, 16 
 years of age ; if males. 17 ; they must pledge 
 themselves to teach in the public schools of Maine 
 for as long a time as they shall have remained 
 connected with the normal school, and pass a 
 satisfactory examination in reading, spelling, 
 writing, arithmetic, geography, and English 
 grammar. The course requires two years for 
 its completion, and comprises the usual studies 
 of an English high-school course, together with 
 history of education, school laws, and didactics, 
 and practice teaching. The schools arc sup- 
 plied with libraries and apparatus, and with 
 models and copies for free-hand drawing. — The 
 normal schools are under the direction of a 
 board of trustees consisting of seven members, 
 
 five of whom are appointed by the governor and 
 executive council for a term of three years, the 
 governor and the state superintendent of schools 
 being, ex officio, members of the board. 
 
 S.r,,„, l.iri/ Instruction (comprehending the 
 hiijlt schools and the acnilemies). — Of the high 
 schools an account has already been given. The 
 right and duty of the state to aid institutions of 
 this class is explicitly asserted in the constitution; 
 and, in its early history, many academies received 
 grants of public lands. Several academies were 
 incorporated by Massachusetts before Maine be- 
 came a state. For many years the elements of 
 an effective system were lacking in the public 
 schools of the state ; and the academies, always 
 tuition schools, effected much good. The period 
 from 1830 to 1850 was perhaps the period of 
 their greatest influence. Since the latter date, 
 improvements in the public-school system, and 
 other causes, have led to their decline, and some 
 have been incorporated with the public-school 
 system as high schools. Several have been en- 
 dowed by religious del inations, or made pre- 
 paratory schools for the several colleges of the 
 state. Of these the most prominent arc Maine 
 VVesleyan Seminary and Female College, at 
 Kent's Hill, the East Maine Conference Semi- 
 nary.at Bucksport, both conducted by the Meth- 
 odists : the Westl.rook Seminary, by the Dni- 
 versalists; Waterville Classical Institute, He- 
 bron Academy, and Houlton Academy,- prepar- 
 atory schools for Colby University, Maine Central 
 Institute, at Pittefield. and \ icliols 1 at in School 
 at Lewiston, — preparatory schools for Hates 
 College, and Hallowell Classical Institute, a 
 preparatory school for Bowdoin College. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
 Most of the academies of the state were origi- 
 nally founded by the efforts of religious denom- 
 inations. The most prominent have been named 
 in the preceding section. Of parochial schools, 
 there are none but a few small Roman Catholic 
 schools in connection with local churches. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Bowdoin College 
 (q. v.). the oldest college in Maine, situated at 
 Brunswick, received its charter in 1794, with a> 
 grant of five townships of land. It derives its 
 name from James Bowdoin. governor of Mas- 
 sachusetts in 1 785. The board of trustees and 
 the board of overseers met in 1801 and elected 
 a president, and a professor of languages. At 
 the installation of these officers, in 1802, 8 stu- 
 dents were admitted, and in 1S06 the first class, 
 consisting of 8, was graduated. It has uow an aca- 
 demical faculty of 15, and numbered, in 1875 — 6, 
 148 students. — Waterville College, located at 
 Waterville. was established in 1820; and a few- 
 years since, the name was changed to Colby Uni- 
 versity (q. v.), in honor of Gardner Colby, a bene- 
 factor of the college. It has a faculty of 12. and 
 01 students. Bates College (q. v.), located at, 
 Lewiston, was founded in L863. It is named in 
 honor of Joshua Bates, a benefactor of the college- 
 It lias a faculty of 7, and numbers 96 students. 
 
 Profess iom 1 1 and Scientific Ins/ruction. — Un- 
 der this head are included Theological Schools. 
 
MANHATTAN COLLEGE 
 
 Medical Schools, and Scientific Schools, of which 
 the following is an enumeration : — The Theolog- 
 ical Seminary (Congregationalist) at Bangor, 
 was organized in 1819. In the year 1875 — 6, it 
 iad 39 students. The Theological School of 
 Bates College (Free Baptist) was organized in 
 1870. In the year 1875—6, it had 25 students. 
 The Medical School of Maine was organized in 
 1820. By art of the legislature it is placed 
 under the superintendence and direction of the 
 Board of Trustees and Overseers of Bowdoiu 
 College. In the year 1875 — 6, it had 93 stu- 
 dents. The Maine State College of Agriculture 
 and the Mechanic Arts, situated at Orono, was 
 established upon the basis of the congressional 
 grant of public lands for such instruction. In 
 the year 1 875 — 6, it had in its various courses 115 
 students. The Scientific Department of Bowdoin 
 College should also be named among the scientific 
 schools. Its course of study is four years, parallel 
 with the classical course, and its students, in 
 1875 — 6, numbered 50, already included in the 
 enumeration of Bowdoiu College. 
 
 Special Instruction. — There is a State Reform 
 School for boys at Cape Elizabeth, and one for 
 girls, at Gardiner. There is a Soldiers' Orphan 
 School at Bath. 
 
 Educational Literature. — No works have been 
 published upon the schools of Maine, with the 
 exception of the reports of the secretary of the 
 board of education and of the superintendent 
 of common schools. The Mime Teacher, a 
 monthly, published forseveral years, was followed 
 by the Mane Journal of Education, which was 
 merged, in 1874, in the New England Journal 
 of Education. 
 
 MANHATTAN COLLEGE, a Roman 
 Catholic institution in New York City, under 
 the direction of the Christian Brothers, was 
 chartered in 1863. It comprises a collegiate, a 
 commercial, and a preparatory department. The 
 library contains about 10,000 volumes. In 
 1874 — 5, there were, in all the departments, 48 
 instructors and 61)4 students. Bro. Paulian is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 MANITOBA, a province of the Dominion of 
 Canada; area 13,923 sq. m.. population, in 1870, 
 11,963. This portion of the Dominion was first 
 visited by the French, for the purpose of estab- 
 lishing trading posts at various points. In 1767, 
 it was for the first time visited by English 
 traders. It subsequently belonged to the Hud- 
 son Bay Company, who," in 1869, gave up their 
 territorial rights to the imperial government, 
 which, in 1870, transferred them to the Canadian 
 government. The schools of this province are 
 divided into two sections : one for Protestants, 
 and one for Roman Catholics. Each section has 
 its own superintendent, but there is only one 
 board of education, in which both sections are 
 represented. The forms of prayer prescribed in 
 Ontario, and the reading of the Scriptures, or 
 the saying of the Lord's Prayer are employed in 
 opening and closing each session of the Protest- 
 ant schools. The school hours are required to 
 be not less than five per day, for five days in the 
 
 MANN 
 
 541 
 
 week ; and the school year is divided into two 
 parts of 100 days each.— The legislative grant, 
 which, in 1874, amounted to $7,000, is divided, 
 according to law. between the two sections in 
 proportion to the relative average attendance of 
 pupils at the schools of each. In 1874, it was, 
 however, for some reason, divided equally be- 
 tween the two sections. In 1 874, there were 22 
 Protestant schools, with 1,248 pupils enrolled, 
 and an average attendance of i">.'S.">. The number 
 of Catholic schools was 21, with 998 children 
 enrolled, and 21 teachers.— The Manitoba Wes- 
 leyan Institute was opened in 1873. It prepares 
 its pupils to enter any of the universities, the 
 course of studies comprising, besides the common 
 English branches. Latin, Greek, mathematics, 
 French, and German. It is governed by a board 
 of management, appointed by the Methodist Con- 
 ference of Canada. Manitoba ( 'ollege, in Winni- 
 peg, was incorporated in 1873. Its affairs are 
 conducted by a board appointed by the general 
 assembly of the Presbyterian ( liurch. The cur- 
 riculum of study of the college is divided into 
 three courses : a regular, a commercial, and a 
 special course. The regular course fits for ma- 
 triculation, and for first-year examinations in 
 the University of Toronto, for matriculation in 
 law or medicine, as well as for entrance upon 
 the courses of civil engineering and agriculture, 
 and for commencing the study of theology in 
 any of the Canadian colleges. A preparatory 
 department has been organized in connection 
 with the college. St. John's (.'ollege, belonging 
 to the Episcopal Church, has also a preparatory 
 department and a theological school connected 
 with it. The Roman ( 'atholies have a college at 
 St. Boniface; and the Sisters of Charity have also 
 a large convent at St. Boniface, an academy for 
 young ladies, an orphanage, and four missions 
 in the province. — See Marling, Canada Edu- 
 cational Directory for 1876; Lovell's Gazetteer 
 of British North America, 1873. 
 
 MANN, Horace, one of the most celebrated 
 of American educators, born in Franklin. Mass., 
 May. 4., 1796; died in Yellow Springs, Ohio, 
 Aug. 2., 1859. The cause of education in Amer- 
 ica is deeply indebted to this remarkable man. 
 Barely have great ability, unselfish devotion, 
 and brilliant success been so united in the course 
 of a single life. More rarely still, has the prep- 
 aration for that success been made under such 
 discouraging circumstances of poverty, want of 
 opportunity, and ill health. To say that the 
 childhood and youth of Horace Mann were 
 passed in poverty, is only to repeat the story 
 common to the early lives of very many 
 eminent men. The degree of poverty, how- 
 ever, in his case, appears to have been excep- 
 tional ; his biographer telling us "that it was the 
 misfortune of the family that it belonged to the 
 smallest district, had the poorest school-house, 
 and employed the cheapest teachers, in a town 
 which was itself both small and poor." The 
 hard manual labor to which he was subjected 
 giving him no time for recreation, in either sum- 
 mer or winter, weighed upon his naturally 
 
542 Mj 
 
 buoyant spirits, and left an ineffaceable impres- 
 sion on his memory. Many years after, he 
 speaks of this want of happiness in his child- 
 hood as an " irretrievable misfortune." Left 
 fatherless at the age of thirteen, he remained at 
 home, with no opportunities for cultivation 
 beyond those furnished by the few and unsuit- 
 able books of the household, and the ancient 
 histories and theologies contained in a small 
 library which had been given to his native town 
 by Franklin. Always thirsting for knowledge, 
 he declares that, up to the age of fifteen, he had 
 never received more than eight or ten weeks' 
 schooling in any single year. He remained at 
 home till the age of twenty, eagerly treasuring 
 up every thing that could add to his scanty 
 store of information. About that time, having 
 snatched some knowledge of Latin and Greek, 
 and of English grammar, from an itinerant school- 
 master, he pivs sited himself, after six months 
 of such intermittent schooling, for admission to 
 the sophomore class in Brown University, ami 
 entered it in 181C. Illness — the consumptive 
 habit bequeathed him by his father — now inter- 
 rupted his work, and compelled him to leave. 
 Poverty succeeded, requiring him again to ab- 
 sent himself during the winter, in order to teach 
 school for his support while in college. In spite 
 of these drawbacks, however, he graduated in 
 1819, with the first honors, conceded by the 
 unanimous consent of both faculty and class- 
 mates. He immediately entered a law office; but 
 had been there only a few months, when he was 
 offered the position of tutor of Latin and Greek 
 in the college he had just left. He accepted, 
 principally on account of the facilities it gave 
 him for self-improvement ; and at once began a 
 course of study, to be carried on simultaneously 
 with his teaching. His method, in the latter, 
 already foreshadowed his fitness for the teacher's 
 vocation. In 1821, he resigned his position as 
 tutor, and entered the law school at Litchfield, 
 Ct„ where he remained about a year. Leaving 
 it, he was admitted to the bar in 1823, and 
 immediately opened an office for the practice 
 of law. During the fourteen years of his pro- 
 fessional practice, the probity which was so 
 marked a characteristic throughout his life, was 
 always apparent. In 1827, he entered political 
 life, having been elected representative for the 
 district of Dedham, in which he resided ; and 
 to this office he was successively re-elected till 
 1833, when he removed to Boston, where, shortly 
 after, he was elected to the state senate, serving 
 four consecutive terms, during which time, he 
 was twice chosen the presiding officer. Through- 
 out his legislative career, Mr. Mann took an 
 active part in all discussions relating to internal 
 improvements, temperance, and education. The 
 state lunatic asylum at Worcester was almost 
 entirely his creation, he having suggested it, and 
 carried it, almost single-handed, through the 
 various stages of legislation. His services in 
 this respect were so generally recognized, that he 
 was appointed chairman of the board of com- 
 missioners for its erection, and, on its comple- 
 
 tion, chairman of its board of trustees. In 
 1835, he was appointed by the senate one of a 
 committee to codify the statute laws of the state, 
 and assisted in their publication. In 1837, the 
 legislature appointed a board of education, to 
 revise and re-organize the common-school system 
 of the state. In view of the laborious duties 
 inseparable from this work, the good judgment 
 required for its successful issue, and the great 
 length of time necessary for its completion, it 
 was no ordinary compliment that, on the organ- 
 ization of the board, Mr. Mann was chosen its 
 secretary. r l here is complete evidence, however, 
 that he fully comprehended the magnitude of 
 the work before him : but, having found, at last, 
 a congenial field of labor, he did not hesitate. 
 Kecognizing the necessity of entire devotion to 
 his new undertaking, and the necessity, also, of 
 an unbiased position in regard to it, he declined 
 re-election to the senate, left political life entirely, 
 
 fave up all professional engagements, and placed 
 imsclf simply in the position of a citizen of his 
 native state. From this stand-point, he ap- 
 proached the work before him, and, for twelve 
 years, applied himself solely to his duties as. 
 secretary. Notwithstanding the sacrifices he. 
 had made, however, for the purpose of freeing 
 his work from any suspicion of partisan bias, the- 
 difficulties he had to encounter were appalling. 
 The abuse of enemies, open and covert; the. 
 jealousies, not only of political partisans, but of 
 religious denominations, educational associations, 
 and private schools ; the opposition of tax-pay- 
 ers ; and, more than all. the deep-rooted conserv- 
 atism, which, through indolence or ignorance, 
 or both combined, resists all chance, constituted 
 a formidable opposition which might have well 
 led him to decline the duties that now devolved 
 upon him. < hi the other hand, the aid on which 
 he was to depend was often lukewarm, seldom 
 enthusiastic. His method of procedure was com- 
 prehensive and effectual. He began the pub- 
 lication of a periodical on his own account — 
 Ttie Common-School Journal, in which he gave 
 in detail his views concerning general school 
 management, and methods of instruction and 
 training ; while he visited all parts of the state, 
 conferring with teachers, attending conventions, 
 and delivering lectures and addresses. His most 
 effective instrument, however, was the annual 
 report, which the duties of his position required 
 him to make to the board. In these reports, of 
 which there are twelve, the entire subject of 
 education is treated in a practical and exhaustive 
 manner. The sound judgment, wide experience, 
 and comprehensive grasp displayed in these 
 papers, constitute them a classic on the subject 
 of which they treat ; while their clear and vigor- 
 ous statements, apt illustrations, and felicitous- 
 style carry conviction even to careless readers, 
 and amply justify his selection as the instrument 
 for working out the great reform proposed. 
 Their publication and broad-cast dispersion over 
 the state, gradually changed the current of pub- 
 lie opinion, and raised up friends in every quar- 
 ter. Not without opposition, however, were all 
 
MANN 
 
 these changes effected. In 1840, in the midst of 
 his manifold wearying and distracting labors, a 
 bill was introduced into the legislature, calling 
 for the abolition of the board of education, thus 
 undoing the work of three years, and remanding 
 the schools to their former condition. Happily 
 the bill, though sustained by a majority of the 
 committee, was defeated. The publication of 
 his seventh annual report gave rise to a fierce 
 opposition. Up to this time, his reports had 
 treated the subject of education in a philosoph- 
 ical way, with a constant reference to first prin- 
 ciples, and with illustrations drawn from the 
 practical experience of every reader. His seventh 
 
 MANNERS 
 
 543 
 
 report, however, gave the result of his 
 tions in Europe, singling out Prussia for special 
 commendation, and comparing her system of in- 
 struction with that of his native state, to the 
 disadvantage of the latter. A rancorous hostil- 
 ity, founded on national jealousy, was the im- 
 mediate result, and Mr. Mann found himself, his 
 motives, and his work assailed by means of let- 
 ters, newspapers, and pamphlets in the most 
 violent manner. The result of this attack, how- 
 ever, was that the attention of the public was 
 specially called to the subject under discus- 
 sion, without impairing the work of the board, 
 either in its extent or its efficiency. In 1848, 
 Mr. Mann was elected to Congress to fill the 
 vacancy caused by the death of John Quincy 
 Adams; and, in November of the same year, 
 was re-elected. In 1850, though failing of the 
 nomination, lie was elected again as an independ- 
 ent candidate. It was thought by many, per- 
 haps by Mr. Mann himself, that by re-entering 
 the field of politics at Washington. 'he might in- 
 fluence the government to establish a bureau of 
 education eith t ind ■pendently. or in connection 
 with the Smithsonian Institution. This, how- 
 ever, was not accomplished. Leaving politics, 
 therefore, he accepted the presidency of Antioch 
 College, where he hoped to be able to effect 
 something in the way of further reforms in the 
 pursuit he had most at heart. In the organiza- 
 tion of this institution, his shaping hand is again 
 recognized; and the objects attained before his 
 death, which happened a few years after, are 
 said to have satisfied him of the feasibility of his 
 plans. The great glory, however, of Mr. Manns 
 career — that which is now acknowledged to be his 
 distinctive work — was the reform accomplished 
 in the Massachusetts common and normal school 
 system, during his labors in the board of educa- 
 tion. His twelve annual reports led to many 
 radical reforms, which extended beyond the bor- 
 ders of his native state ; and the knowledge on 
 the subject of education which they contain ren- 
 ders them a necessary part of every school library. 
 Mr. Mann's other published works are: A Few 
 Thoughts for a Young Man (1850); Slavery, 
 
 Lrltrrs mitl S/ rites (1851); Lrrturrs tin ht- 
 
 temperance (1852); Powers and Duties of 
 Woman (1853) ; besides numerous reports, 
 lectures, and addresses. A complete edition of 
 his works with a biography [Lifr mid Works of 
 Horace Mann, 2 vols.) was published in Cam- 
 
 bridge, in 1867; a selection from his works 
 (Thoughts selected from his Writings), in 1869. 
 A biography was published by his wife, Mary 
 Peabody-Mann (Boston, 1865). 1 1 is lectures on 
 education were translated into French by Eugene 
 ile (iuer. with a preface and biographical sketch, 
 
 byLaboulaye (1873). 
 
 MANNERS, the genuine or simulated 
 manifestations of disposition towards each other, 
 which occur in the intercourse of human beings. 
 The ordinary use of the word manners re- 
 stricts it to those personal and visible peculiar- 
 ities of deportment which characterize the inter- 
 course mentioned. The agents commonly cm- 
 ployed for this purpose are the eye, the voice, lan- 
 guage, and gestures. When persons are brought 
 together without previous knowledge of each 
 other, or with no common ground of taste or ex- 
 perience between them, custom has prescribed a 
 conventional code of formal manners, character- 
 ized as etiquette, which serves to relieve the 
 awkwardness of the situation. That this, how- 
 ever, is temporary in character, and not intended 
 to survive its original uses, is evident from the 
 fact, that after it has, in great measure, been laid 
 aside, any attempt to revive it, as the exclusive 
 medium of kindly expression, is regarded as just 
 cause for resentment. The fugitive character of 
 mere etiquette can never constitute it an equiv- 
 alent for that abiding kindliness of disposition 
 which finds expression in genuine politeness. 
 Manners, therefore, are more decidedly moral in 
 their nature than a superficial observation would 
 lead us to suspect ; hence the usual association 
 of " morals and manners." The basis of agree- 
 able manners is that humanity, or feeling of 
 brotherhood, which, in a greater or less degree, 
 pervades the human race, and which every cent- 
 ury, by its multiplied means of communication, 
 is tending to extend and strengthen. It is. there- 
 fore, essentially Christian ; and pleasant man- 
 ners may he regarded, not as an accomplishment 
 merely, but as one of the legitimate ends of a 
 thorough education. In social intercourse, agree- 
 able manners are far more powerful than intel- 
 lectual accomplishments ; while the displeasure 
 produced by rui le manners often neutralizes moral 
 worth, and renders mental acquisitions, however 
 great, comparatively useless. Momentous issues — 
 even the destiny of a lifetime — may hang upon, 
 the apparently unimportant question of man- 
 ners. To educate thoroughly, therefore, and 
 neglect, the means by which that education is to 
 be made effective, is self-evident folly. Beyond 
 the ordinary rules of etiquette, no set rules can 
 be given for the production of good manners ; 
 since, in addition to the moral basis above re- 
 ferred to, they are largely dependent upon tem- 
 perament ; but, no precept is half so powerful in 
 furtherance of this end, as the daily example of 
 the teacher, the parents, or other persons with 
 whom tin' pupil is brought into daily contact. 
 The indirect though constant insistence upon the 
 claims of every individual to respect anil kindly 
 attention, which results in a practical recognition 
 of this by the pupil, together with the daily 
 
544 MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS 
 
 example referred to, constitute, perhaps, the 
 most effective method for the grafting of agree- 
 able manners on the conduct of the pupil. — See 
 
 (Jllir. (too,/ Morals U,ul tWlltlc Man„rrS\V m . 
 
 and X. Y.. 1ST.'!). (See also Moral Kin rvnovi 
 MANUAL LABOR SCHOOLS. See IN- 
 DUSTRIAL SCI LS. 
 
 MAP-DRAWING. See Urography. 
 
 MARIETTA COLLEGE, Marietta, Ohio, 
 was founded in 1*35. It is supported by tuition 
 fees and the income of an endowment of $115,000. 
 
 The libraries contain 27,000 volumes. The cost of 
 tuition is $38 per annum. There are several schol- 
 arships exempting the holders from the payment 
 of tuition, and aid is extended to candidates for 
 the ministry. The college has four buildings and 
 valuable cabinets and apparatus. There is a pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate department. In 1875 
 -6, there were 9 instructors and 162 students, of 
 whom 82 were of the collegiate grade. The num- 
 ber of graduates in the classical course is 421; 
 in the scientific course, 11. The presidents have 
 been as follows : the Rev. Joel II. Linsley, D. I>., 
 1 835 — 16 ; the Rev. I lenry Smith, D. D., LL. D., 
 1846 — 55; and the Rev. Israel ^Vard Andrews, 
 D. D., LL. D., the present incumbent, appointed 
 in 1855. 
 
 MARYLAND, one of the thirteen original 
 states of the American Union, having an area 
 of 11,124 sq. m.; and a population, according to 
 the census of 1870. of 780,894, of whom 605,497 
 were whites, 175,391 colored persons, 4 Indians, 
 and 2 Chinese. In respect to population, the 
 state ranks as the 20th. 
 
 Educational History. — In many counties of 
 the state, free schools were established as early 
 as 1723. when an act was passed " for the en- 
 couragement of learning.and erecting schools in 
 the several counties of this province." Under 
 it, a " public free school" was established at the 
 county-seat of Calvert county (Battle Creek), 
 which existed without a rival for fifty-two years. 
 In 1775. another school was established at Lower 
 Marlboro', the efficiency of which was. in 177'.i. 
 increased by the addition to its funds of the 
 proceeds from the sale of the buildings and 
 lands of the first school. Though this is one of 
 the earliest schools on record in the state. Talbot 
 county claims to have had the first absolutely 
 free school. Between the years 1750 and 1753, 
 the Rev. Thomas Bacon established a charity 
 working school in the parish of St. Peter, which 
 continued in existence to the time of the Revo- 
 lution, when the building in which it was kept, 
 was converted into a home for the county poor. 
 No general interest appears to have been aroused 
 on the subject of education till 1825. when the 
 legislature passed an act " to provide for the 
 public instruction of youth in primary schools." 
 The offices of state superintendent, county com- 
 missioners, and school inspectors were created 
 by this law; and a system of public schools for 
 the city of Baltimore was authorized to be 
 established by the mayor and common council, 
 for which purpose they were empowered to levy 
 a tax. In 1827, the office of state superintend- 
 
 MARYLAND 
 
 ent was abolished. For some years from this 
 time, little mention is made of the schools of 
 the state, and little action was taken for their 
 benefit outside of the city of Baltimore. In 
 1828, six school commissioners were appointed 
 to establish a system of city schools. The next 
 year, three schools were opened ; the following 
 year, two more, the highest number of pupils up 
 to that time being 402. In 1839, the first high 
 school was opened; and, in 1840, the number of 
 common schools had increased to nine. In 1840, 
 there were 127 academies or grammar schools, 
 with 4,178 pupils; and 507 common and pri- 
 mary schools, with 16,982 pupils. In 1850, of 
 104,438 cducable children in the state, only 
 34. 407 attended school, for which there was an- 
 nually expended $225,260. The school fund, in 
 1852, was $148,509. In 1864, the constitution 
 gave a generous recognition to the cause of edu- 
 cation, for the first time, by decreeing that free 
 schools should be opened in every school district, 
 and taught six months every year. A state 
 board of education was created, consisting of 
 the governor, lieutenant-governor, speaker of the 
 house, and state superintendent. Local super- 
 vision was to be exercised by school commission- 
 ers, and an annual tax was levied upon the 
 property of the state for the creation of a school 
 fund. Acting on this suggestion, the state super- 
 intendent prepared a detailed plan for a system 
 which was adopted in 1865, and continued in 
 operation till 1808. It was then superseded, 
 and the school system of the state has been 
 variously modified since that time, principally in 
 1868, 1870, and 1872. Under the system estab- 
 lished in 18C5, Rev. L. Van Bokkelen was the 
 state superintendent ; and on the change of the 
 system, in 1808. M. A. Newell, principal of the 
 state normal school since 1865, became, by the 
 operation of the law, the state superintendent. 
 This position he still holds (1876). 
 
 School System. — The care of the schools, at 
 present, is confided to a state board of education 
 which consists of the governor, the principal of 
 the state normal school, and four persons ap- 
 pointed by the governor with the consent of the 
 senate. These four persons are appointed for 
 two years, and must be chosen from among the 
 presidents and examiners of the county boards, 
 one of whom must be a resident of the 'astern 
 shore. The members of the board are, ex officio, 
 trustees of the state normal school. The prin- 
 cipal of this school is the executive officer of the 
 board, his office corresponding to that of state 
 superintendent. The boards of county school 
 commissioners consist of three, or five members, 
 according to the size of the county, who are ap- 
 pointed for two years by the judges of the cir- 
 cuit courts. They elect a person, not of their 
 number. to act as secretary, treasurer, and ex- 
 aminer, and when necessary, an assistant exam- 
 iner in the larger counties. The county com- 
 missioners fix teachers' salaries, and decide what 
 text-books shall be used. District school trustees, 
 three in each district, are annually appointed by 
 the county commissioners. They have the more 
 
MARYLAND 
 
 immediate supervision of the schools in their 
 respective districts, subject to the county com- 
 missioners and the state board. A special board 
 of trustees is appointed by the county board for 
 each colored school. Countj examiners are re- 
 quired to visit tli<' schools under their jurisdiction 
 at least twice every year, and to make quarterly 
 reports to the county board. Teachers must be 
 graduates of the normal school, 01 have a certif- 
 icate from the state board, or the county exam- 
 iner. Teachers' institutes must be held, once a 
 year, for five days, in each county. For this 
 purpose, time is allowed from the school session, 
 aula portion oi the traveling expenses is paid. 
 These institutes are presided over by the county 
 examiner, or by the principal or a professor of the 
 normal school. The law, also, encourages asso- 
 ciations in districts and counties. ami state teach- 
 
 Ifi.i females. The number of graduates was 21. 
 There is also a normal school for the education 
 of colored teachers, which was organized in 1866. 
 
 must be kept open ten months each year, th 
 sessions, of five hours each, to be held five day 
 of each week. The school age is from 11 to 21 fo 
 whites, and, in the city of Baltimore, from 6 t 
 2(1 for colored persons. For the latter, separal 
 schools hue been established in each election di 
 
 The school revenue is made up of a state 
 school tax. a five-school luml. an academic fund. 
 and a county tax. The state tax is limited to 
 ten cents on the $100 : the county tax is levied 
 by the county officers at a rate varying from ten 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 schools in the state, in 1875, was 1,846, — in the 
 city of Baltimore. 125 ; and iu the counties, 
 1,721. The other principal items of school sta- 
 tistics, for lci7.">, are the following : 
 
 143,003 
 
 irj,:i!w 
 69,259 
 
 Receipts ic\, ept city of Baltimore): 
 
 State school tax $336,110.11 
 
 Appropriations to col- 
 ored schools 81,170.16 
 
 County taxation 3iW.iii;'J.:Vi 
 
 Other sources .... ]:!."i.7.V7..M 
 
 Total 
 
 Expenditures (counties): 
 
 Teachers' salaries . . .$i;n:i.(i::.-,.07 
 Buildings, repairs.ete. 1ii."i.17.',.i:."> 
 
 Other expenses 209,898.23 
 
 Total 
 
 Expenditures iu Hie city of Baltimore 
 
 7IC.'. 
 
 i.82 
 
 Total in the state SI ,641,047.77 
 
 Normal Instruction.. — A state normal school 
 was established in Baltimore in 1865, to which 
 200 pupils.upon the recommendation of the city 
 or county commissioners, are admitted free, if in- 
 tending to teach in the state; otherwise, payment 
 for tuition is required. An appropriation of 
 8100,000 has recently been made by the legis- 
 lature for a new building, which is now in proc- 
 ess of erection. The number of instructors, in 
 1874, was 10; number of pupils, 174, — 9 males, 
 
 ICipal Of the Mate 
 
 amineris, by law. 
 ■ncy to substitute 
 s the 
 "The 
 annual 
 i Mary- 
 
 Secondary Instruction.- The provision for 
 
 thi- purpo.-e. 1 iv the establishment and mainte- 
 nance of high schools, has been somewhat re- 
 tarded by the existence of the old academies of 
 the Mate which, by rec, iving from the state an- 
 nual appropriations too small to maintain them 
 in a ci. million of efficiency, and yet too large to 
 permit of their extinction, act as a bar to prog- 
 ress in the means of secondary instruction. The 
 old law provides that each academy shall edu- 
 cate one pupil free of charge foi every $100 
 received from the state. This was intended to 
 encourage the academies, and, at the same time. 
 to educate a few of the most deserving poor. 
 The first object seems not to have been attained, 
 at least not to the extent expected; while the sec- 
 ond has tailed entirely, on account of the estab- 
 lishment of the public schools. Anotherresult has 
 been, that these academies have become, in many 
 
 in others, that of high si 
 cult to classify them in I 
 Male. The city college . 
 cipal Inch school of the 
 professors and ion stude 
 
 elementary schools. 
 
 s. so that it isdiffi- 
 
 1 1 system of the 
 
 Itiniorc is the prin- 
 e. It numbers 10 
 Its English course, 
 alone, furnishes a good commercial education ; 
 while the full course is an ample preparatory 
 
 one for entrance into any colleg • university. 
 
 Two female Inch schools are also located in Bal- 
 timore, with 30 teachers, and an attendance of 
 
 years each, and give instruction iu the ordinary 
 
 branches of a g 1 English education, besides 
 
 the accomplishments of drawing and music. 
 Many other academies and secondary schools ex- 
 ist in the state ; but the reports from them arc 
 incomplete or entirely wanting. In l>74.a.-far 
 as heard from by the U. S. Bureau of Education, 
 they gave employment to 243 teachers, and had 
 an attendance of 3,694 pupils. There are. through- 
 out the state, a number of private schools and 
 academies, the courses of study in which are 
 various, furnishing all degrees of preparation, 
 from that necessary to enter commercial life to 
 that required for admission to college. 
 
546 
 
 MARYLAND 
 
 Denominational anil Parochial, Schools. — 
 Several of these exist in the state, but from the 
 amount of instruction imparted, they are more 
 properly classed under the head of schools for 
 
 Superior Instruction. - The following table 
 contains the principal institutions of this grade. 
 
 v\MK 
 
 College ..I SI. .lilllH'9. - 
 Frederick ('..llr-a,-. , 
 
 ".tolms Hopkins Univer 
 
 Loyola College 
 
 "Ml. St. Mary's College 
 
 I'm ilil-i.-k 
 llaltlhlorc 
 
 Baltimore 
 Emniettsbnrg 
 Ellicottcity 
 I'.lh.ott City 
 Annapolis 
 Chestertown 
 Westminster 
 odstoik College '. . Woodstock 
 
 St. Charles's College 
 
 St. John's College 
 
 Washington College 
 
 Western Maryland College 
 
 Location 
 
 ''"''' " n..t 
 
 M l.pis 
 Noll see. 
 
 St .In 
 
 College 
 
 is the usual col 
 scholarships are 
 senatorial distric 
 
 titled to rent of i 
 
 reported, in 1874, 11 pro- 
 ui'l 8 graduates. Its course 
 le one of four years. Six 
 ded .it this college for each 
 
 holders of which are en- 
 anil tuition five; and board 
 
 is furnished free to two of them from each dis- 
 trict, who agree in return to teach in the slate. 
 after graduation, not less than two years. For 
 the latter purpose, $10.00(1 of the S'J.,,ilO<) annual- 
 ly appropriated by the state, is devoted. The 
 Western Maryland I lollege reported l3professors 
 
 and 131 students, of whom 61 were females, for 
 whom there is a three years' course of study. This 
 college also, has several state scholarships. Wash- 
 ington College had '1 professors, 27 students, and 
 :{ graduates. It supports 6 state scholarships as 
 provided by the act of 1874. Mt. St. Mary's 
 college had, in 1873— 4, 13 professors, and L82 
 students, liesides the usual collegiate emirs,., it 
 
 m aaom 
 ceived n 
 
 profess,, 
 
 for stui 
 Woodsl 
 sively It 
 
 ti 
 
 spective 
 to be co 
 U. S. 1 
 58 instr 
 Prof. 
 Agricul 
 
 led only 
 church. 
 
 is I'Xellt- 
 
 reported to the 
 They numbered 
 
 !■;: 
 
 l-or, 
 
 professions of medicine, surgery, etc., are repre- 
 sented by the College of Physicians and Sur- 
 
 r.altimore. the Maryland Dental College, 'the 
 
 Maryland College of Pharmacy, and the scl Is 
 
 attached to the Washington I niversity and the 
 
 University of Maryland. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Institution for the 
 Education of the Deaf and Dumb was opened at 
 
 Frederick, in 
 
 ore of all 
 
 .had II 
 
 extends over seven years, and comprises the 
 branches usually taught in the public schools, 
 
 together with instruction in several kinds of 
 manual labor. The study of written language 
 receives special attention. It is found that com- 
 paratively few of the pupils remain to complete 
 the course. The whole number of pupils in- 
 structed in the institution since its opening is 
 146 ; of these the number who have engaged in 
 teaching in similar institutions, is very small. — 
 The Institution fur the Instruction of the Blind 
 at Baltimore was organized in 1853. Pupils be- 
 tween the ages of !) and is are received, and 
 may be educated free, upon the recommendation 
 of the governor. The instruction afforded is 
 
 that of a common-scl I course, with special 
 
 instruction in vocal and instrumental music. 
 Such branches of trade or manual labor also are 
 taught as are specially suited to the condition of 
 the blind. The value of its grounds, buildings, 
 and apparatus is estimated at $255,000. The 
 Maryland Institution for Colored Blind and 
 Deaf-Mutes was established in 1872, in Balti- 
 more. The faculty consists of -1 instructors. 
 The number of pupils during the year 1874 was 
 12, — 5 males and 7 females. — The McDonough 
 Institute was organized in 1ST.'! by private mu- 
 nificence to give "instruction in the Christian 
 religion, a plain English education, music, and 
 the art of husbandly or farming to poor boys 
 of good character, of respectable associations in 
 life, residents of the city of Baltimore." It has 
 an endowment Fund of' $725,000, with which it 
 
 it, and furnishes partial 
 students from each con- 
 has a preparatory and a 
 and has !> professors and 
 
 Sulpiee, bo 
 in theology 
 of the other 
 part of the University of Maryland, while the , exercises consisting of debates upon subject 
 
 bes 
 
 colic 
 
 the theological depi 
 
 A scl I of law forms a 
 
 tor colored girls by the St, Francis Academy of 
 Baltimore. It was established by the Oblate 
 Sisters of Providence, a religious order founded 
 
 by means of a library, a gallery of paintings, and 
 yearly courses of concerts and lectures. 
 
 Teachers' Associations. — The Maryland State 
 
 School-Teachers Association hasl n in existence 
 
 about ten years. It holds an annual convention 
 at some convenient point in the state foitlie 
 
 discu ion of such questions as pertain to the 
 welfare of the teachers, or the cause of educa- 
 tion. Day ami evening meetings are held, the 
 
MARYYILLE COLLEGE 
 
 affecting the schools, recommendations of im- 
 proved methods of instruction, and listening to 
 papers previously prepared by members desig- 
 nated fur the purpose, or to casual addresses by 
 distill 'wished educators from other states. 
 
 MARYVILLE COLLEGE, at Maryville. 
 Tenn., founded in L819, is under Presbyterian 
 control. The grounds comprise 65 acres, beauti- 
 fully situated, and contain three new buildings, 
 erected at a cost of $50,000. The college has a 
 library of 3,000 volumes, and valuable chemical 
 and philosophical apparatus. It comprises a col- 
 legiate, a preparatory, a normal, a ladies', and 
 an English course. In L875 — ii. there were - in 
 structors and 137 students, of whom 27 were of 
 collegiate grade. The Rev. P. M. Bartlett, D. D., 
 is (1876) the president. 
 
 MASON', Lowell, an American composer 
 and teacher of music, born in Medtield. Mass . 
 January 8., L792 ; died in Orange. \. •!.. August 
 11., 1872. lie manifested, at a very early age. 
 a fondness for music, and adopted it as his pro- 
 fession, teaching it successfully and organizing 
 choirs and musical associations. In L821, he 
 made his first effort at musical publication, the 
 Boston Handel and Haydn C < of Ghw I 
 
 Music. In 1827, at the instance of several gen- 
 tlemen interested in the improvement of church 
 music, he removed from Savannah to Boston, 
 where he devoted himself more particularly to 
 the training of children's voices. His efforts 
 wera highly successful, resulting in a general 
 awakening, to the value of music, of the com- 
 munity in which he dwelt, and paved the way 
 for its introduction into the school system of the 
 city and state, and to the formati in of the Boston 
 Academy of .Music. Mr. Mason ha I Keen success- 
 ful formanyyears agapractii il teacher of vocal 
 and instrumental music, by the use of what is 
 now known as the arbitrary or text-book method, 
 when, about 1827, at the instance of his friend 
 Mr. W'ooilbridge. lie turned his attention to the 
 method of Pestalozzi. For a long time, he re- 
 sisted its conclusions, his own method, pursued 
 with success for many years, appearing to furnish 
 a practical refutation of its utility. He consented, 
 at last, however, to make the experiment of 
 publicly teaching a class according to the new 
 method; and the success attending it was so 
 great, that he frankly accepted the result as 
 conclusive, and always afterwards pursued it, 
 continuing the practice for more than thirty 
 years. A lecture given in 1830, by Mr. Wood- 
 bridge, before the American Institute of Instruc- 
 tion, illustrated by a class of Mr. Mason's pupils, 
 called renewed attention to the subject of music, 
 and led to the formation of large classes among 
 the children of the public schools, in which the 
 study of music has now become a striking fea- 
 ture, and from which it has spread throughout the 
 state and the Union. In 1837, Mr. Mason visited 
 Europe, where he examined the different systems 
 of musical instruction, with a view to improve- 
 ment. The result of his observations, however, was 
 to confirm him in his opinion of the wisdom of 
 the method of Pestalozzi ; and, on his return, he 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 547 
 
 applied the method more carefully and rigorously 
 than before, with the most satisfactory results. 
 In L855, the University of New York conferred 
 on Mr. Mason the degree of Doctor of Music. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS, one of the thirteen 
 original states of the American Union, having 
 an area of 7. Mill sip m. and a population, accord- 
 ing to the census of 1870. of 1 .457.3."il, of whom 
 13,947 were colored. Though ranking, accord- 
 ing to population, as the 7th state in the I uion, 
 and in size as the 35th, its influence has always 
 been very great in every thing that pertains to 
 education, literature, and general improvement. 
 
 Educational History. — 'I his topic will be 
 treated under the three following heads : i i i 'I he 
 establishment ot sc hools : 1 1 1 ) 'J he mode of main- 
 taining them ; (111) The mode of supervising 
 them. 
 
 I. As far back as 1C35, the people of Boston 
 expressed by vote their appreciation of the need 
 of a school, and requested "Brother Philemon 
 Purmont to become si hool-master for the teach- 
 ing and nurturing of children." The following 
 year, a small subscription was made by some of 
 
 colledge whereof £200 to bee paid thei,e\i ware. 
 and £200 when the worke is finished, and the 
 next court to a]. point wluarc.and what building." 
 'I he next year the court directed that the college 
 should be established at Newtown. 'J lie first 
 educational ordinance of the colony is dated in 
 1642. By it. the selectmen of every town are 
 enjoined to have a •■vigilant eye over their breth- 
 ren and neighbors, to see. first. that none of them 
 shall suffer so much barbarism in any of their 
 families as not to endeavor to teach, by them- 
 selves or others, their children and apprentices so 
 much learning as may enable them perfectly to 
 read the English tongue, and knowledge ,,t 1 1 n - 
 eapital laws, upon penalty ot twenty shillings 
 therein." Bythe lawof 1647, it wasordi n d bj the 
 court, that every township of fifty householders 
 should appoint one of their number to teach all 
 children that might be sent to him to read and 
 write, the wages of such teacher to be paid either 
 by the parents or guardians of the children sent, 
 or by the inhabitants in general : the penalty at- 
 taching to the disregard of this ordinance for 
 one year to be £10. It was also ordered that 
 every town of one hundred families should 
 maintain, in addition to its common school, a 
 grammar school for the fitting of pupils to enter 
 the university. In lfi.70. Ezekiel I heever , ame 
 to reside in Ipswich, taking charge of the gram- 
 mar school there. Iii L661, lie ren 
 Charlestown, and became principal of the Town 
 Free School, which position he filled till 1(170, 
 when he removed to Boston, where he took 
 charge of the first school founded in the state, 
 continuing his labors there thirty-eight years. 
 From lOoO, the time of his teaching in the 
 Ipswich school, which he made •■famous in all 
 the country," down to 1708, he contributed 
 
548 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 powerfully to the fame of Massachusetts as an 
 educational renter, and encouraged, more than 
 any other man, that love of learning, the prac- 
 tical activity in behalf of which lias always been 
 a characteristic of the state. (See Chebver.) 
 Further enactments were made, from time to 
 time, as required by the wants of the growing 
 colony. 'Thus, in 1683,all towns of five hundred 
 families where required to maintain two gram- 
 mar schools and two writing schools; and any 
 
 required t,,'~pav al iirst flo'iind afterwards {211 
 to the nearest school kept in compliance with the 
 
 substantially were kept in force. Thee stitu- 
 tion of 17*0 made special mention of the impor- 
 tance of education ; and after the revolution, 
 when new townships were created, a lot was re- 
 served in each for a school, in 1789, a general 
 act of the legislature directed that, in every 
 town, schools should In- maintained in which 
 children should lie taught to read and write, and 
 to receive instruction in the •■ English language, 
 arithmetic, orthography, and decent behavior." 
 It was further directed that towns should be 
 divided into scl I districts which were after- 
 wards erected into corporations, with power to 
 sue and be sued, and to hold property for the 
 use of the schools; that towns of 200 families, 
 instead of 100, as before enacted, should consti- 
 tute the basis for the maintenance of grammar 
 .schools ; that the teacher should have a c i i in. al 
 of good moral character; and, lastly, that pupils 
 should be permitted to pass from the common 
 school to the grammar school after a certain pro- 
 ficiency had been attained. For the violation of 
 this law. penalties in money were imposed, gradu- 
 ated according to the size of the towns dii-obcy- 
 ing. In compliance with this law, the town of 
 Dedham was. in L818, indicted, tried, and con- 
 victed for neglecting for a year to keep and sup- 
 port a grammar school for the instruction of 
 children in the Wreck. Latin, and English lan- 
 guages. This was the first law in which women 
 were recognized in Massachusetts as teachers 
 In I*'-! I, the law was mollified somewhat in favor 
 of towns having a population of less than 5,000, 
 the maintenance of a grammar school being 
 waived in this case, and a common school being 
 accepted in its stead, if the inhabitants so de- 
 sired. In 1832, incomplete returns showed that 
 the sum of SI. :k per pupil was the average annual 
 expenditure: and. in Is.'! I, it was ascertained that 
 five-Sixths of the cdueal lie children of the state 
 
 received instruction in the public schools, the re- 
 mainder attending private schools. In this year 
 (1834) a law was passed prohibiting children 
 tinder I ."> years of age from working in factories, 
 unless they had attended school for at least three 
 months during the preceding year. In 1*37. 
 the state board of education was created, and 
 Horace Mann was elected itSSei n tan June 29 
 
 1837). It was made the duty of th i.uv. 
 
 "to collect information of the actual condition 
 and efficiency of the common schools and other 
 means of popular education ; and to diffuse its 
 
 widely as possible, throughout every part of the 
 commonwealth, information of the most ap- 
 proved and successful methods of arranging the 
 studies and conducting the education of the 
 young." I p to that time, though much had been 
 done, throughout the state, for the cause of edu- 
 cation, the gnat lack of uniformity, in system 
 and action, had deprived the results of much of 
 their practical usefulness. This uniformity the 
 board set itself vigorously to work to supply. 
 .Mr. Ma,,,,.,,, particular. iaWcd lone and ca'r- 
 
 tice ol ms profession, ami devoting Imnsefl tor 
 twelve years to the work. (See Mann, Horace.) 
 The result of the labors of the board was a uni- 
 form common-school system, which was adopted 
 by the legislature, and which has continued in 
 force to the present time. In 1*39. two normal 
 schools were opened, — one at Lexington, and 
 the other at I'.arre. These were first designated 
 state normal schools in 1842; and their number 
 
 compulsory in this state was passed; being ren- 
 dered necessary, in the opinion of the legislature, 
 by the fact that the number of persons in the 
 state who were unable to read and write was 
 rapidly increasing, the presence of which class 
 had always been regarded with distrust. Previ- 
 ous to I 819, accurate information in regard to 
 the schools had not been obtainable; but. in 
 (hat year, a law was passed, specifying that the 
 income of the permanent school fund should be 
 apportioned among those cities, towns, and dis- 
 tricts only which had raised by taxation the sum 
 of §1.50 for the education of each child between 
 the ages of 5 and 15 years. By thus making 
 the amount raised for each child the unit of ap- 
 portionment, definite statistical information as 
 well as accuracy of appropriation, was insured. 
 Various changes and amendments of minor im- 
 portance were made in the school laws from this 
 time to 1857, when the state constitution itself 
 was altered in the interest of free non-sectarian 
 education. By this amendment it is provided, 
 that " no person shall have the right to vote, or 
 shall lie eligible to office under the constitution 
 of this commonwealth, who shall not be able to 
 read the constitution in the English language, 
 and write his name, unless prevented by physical 
 disability from complying with the requirement, 
 and unless he already enjoys the right to vote. 
 All moneys raised by taxation in towns and 
 cities for the support of public schools, and all 
 in ys appropriated by the state for the sup- 
 port of common schools, shall never be appropri- 
 ated to any religious sect for the maintenance 
 exclusively of its own schools." In 1869, upon 
 petition of several citizens of the state, an act 
 was pa-sed aiuendine a previous act so as to in- 
 clude drawing in the common-school course, and 
 providing, in addition, that every city and town 
 having more than 10,000 inhabitants, should 
 make annual provision for giving free instrue- 
 
MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 tion in industrial and mechanical drawing to 
 pupils over fifteen years of age. 
 
 II. There have been live Sources of income 
 
 for the support of scl Is and colleges: (1) ln- 
 
 dividual guts; 2) Tuition fees, or rate bills; 
 (31 Taxes : 1 1 The in. ome of permanent funds; 
 
 (l)In 
 
 \l.i 
 
 'he first mention made 
 of a fund for the es- 
 s that of a gift, in the 
 Klein 1636, by several 
 ii, for the school, of 
 
 the 
 
 people nt the towns all.l selln 
 
 any substantial aid trom the 
 the establishment of the .-.-1 
 less aid has been furnished b; 
 
 support of tl .minion scl 
 
 period from L835 to I - 15, thi 
 
 who bequeathed 6779 and a library of 300 vol- 
 umes to the college already founded at New- 
 town. A year after, the name of Harvard Col- 
 
 of Newtown was changed to Cambridge, in com- 
 pliment to the English university of that name. 
 
 of which some of the settlers were graduates! 
 Since that time, the history of e lucation in the 
 state, particularly since the Revolution, is 
 adorned by continual gifts made by enlightened 
 
 citizens for the establishment, maintena or 
 
 improvement of schools or colleges. < Ihief among 
 these benefactors may be mentioned, Samuel 
 Appleton. John Lowell, jr.. Amos Lawrence, 
 Abbott Lawrence. Nathaniel Thayer, Edmund 
 Dwight, and George Peabody. Probably no 
 state has produced a larger number of pecuniary 
 contributors to the cause of education. 
 
 (2) Tuition Fees. -Theearliest met hod employed 
 for the payment of the teacher was that of a fee 
 charged to each parent or guardian, according to 
 the number of children sent. This method con- 
 tinued in force for a century and a half after 
 the first school law was passd. Even after 
 towns were compelled by law to maintain a 
 free school by a special yearly tax, the original 
 method was continued in many country districts 
 down to a very late day. These fees took 
 different tonus according to locality, in the cities 
 and large towns being usually in money ; in the 
 country, consisting of board for the teacher, con- 
 tributions of fuel. etc. 
 
 (3) Taxes. — The first educational law passed 
 by the colony — that of 1 (",47 — provided that 
 the teacher should be paid either by the parents 
 or masters of the children taught, or by "the 
 inhabitants in general, by way of supply, as the 
 major part of those that order the prudentials 
 of the town shall appoint ; provided that those 
 that send their children be not oppressed by 
 paying much more than they can have them 
 taught -for in other towns." Through ' every 
 period of the subsequent history of this state. 
 taxation has been, to a considerable extent, re- 
 sorted to as a means of supporting schools. As 
 already stated, the towns wen. obliged, under 
 stringent penalties, to support schools": and this, 
 of course, could only be effected by paving taxes. 
 In 1 627, the legislature, in the school law of that 
 year, authorized the towns to raise as much 
 m..iie\ as they might deem necessary for school 
 purposes. The method of raising money for the 
 
 d from time 
 ne,| priorto 
 
 expended for the purpose of instruction in each 
 town; but, in 1S4.">, more than $3 for every 
 child of that age was actually raised by tax in 
 53 towns, and more than $2 in 1 'JO towns, the 
 average being $2.99. 
 
 (I) The Income of Permanent Funds. The 
 first trace of any thing like a permanent fund 
 
 Of a pel 
 the laws 
 should o 
 
 taut step was taken 
 system of the state 
 the establishment 
 
 . Chapter L69 of 
 led that this fund 
 in the treasury de- 
 
 lands i 
 and all 
 
 itarv services and 
 This fund was not 
 
 common sei 1st 
 
 v in- more than it 
 ose. This created 
 nanent fund of 
 from that amount. 
 At the close of 
 the fund was up- 
 I of L853, it had 
 
 in !!..st 
 
 I si 
 
 il lose oi 1-7 1. 82,117,732.82. By an act of 
 
 the legislature, passed in 1-71. one half of the 
 income derived from this fund is applied to the 
 support of the common schools, the other half 
 being used for the maintenance of normal 
 schools, teachers' institutes, repairs of school 
 buildings, the salary of the secretary of the board 
 of education, printing, etc. Any surplus, re- 
 maining after the payment of expenses, is to be 
 
550 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 added to the fund. For some time, the principal 
 of the fund was increased by these unexpected 
 balances, but at present this is not the case. By 
 a liberal interpretation of the law, various sums 
 of money were, from time to time, drawn from 
 the income of the permanent fund for the pur- 
 pose of aiding, in an indirect, way new normal 
 schools, till it was discovered that the income 
 was becoming insufficient, and the half devoted 
 to the support of common schools was being en- 
 croached upon. This was due to the increase in 
 educational wants produced by the growth of 
 the state iu population, and has been remedied, 
 from year to year, by special acts of the legis- 
 lature. 
 
 (5) SpecialAppropriaiions. — The first special 
 appropriation made for educational purposes was 
 that of L636, by which £400 was devoted to the 
 founding of a school or college. The appropria- 
 tions from that time to the present have been 
 many, and for various purposes, and have in- 
 creased rapidly in number with the growth of the 
 state, being most frequent as we approach the 
 present time. Thus, in L836, the foundation of 
 school libraries was made secure by an act of 
 the legislature which authorized the expenditure, 
 in each school district, of 150 the first year, and 
 $10 each succeeding year, tor their establishment 
 ami maintenance. In Ix.'f". SIO.IMHI was appro- 
 priated for the establishment of two normal 
 schools, a like sum having been contributed for 
 
 the - ■ purpose by Hon. Edmund Dwight : 
 
 and. in L842, $6,000 was appropriate! annually 
 for three years to continue these schools. In 
 1 873, a special act of the legislature set apart the 
 sum of $7,500 to establish a state normal art- 
 school in Boston. 
 
 III. The supervision of the common schools of 
 the state appears to have been committed to the 
 selectmen at the first, afterward (in lx'2(i) to school 
 committees appointed in the different towns. In 
 1837, the reorganization of the public-school 
 system was undertaken by the board of educa- 
 tion. The secretary of the board, Horace Mann, 
 in his first annual report, makes special mention 
 of tin- unsatisfactory manner in which the schools 
 were supervised, hiving great stress upon the 
 need of properly qualified school committee- 
 men. " They occupy," says the report. " a con- 
 trolling position itL relation to our common 
 schools. They are the administrators of the 
 system ; and. in proportion to the fidelity and 
 intelligence exercised by them, the system will 
 flourish or decline." t >ne of the most important 
 
 duties imposed upon the scl 1-committees (by 
 
 the law of 1826) was to obtain evidence of the 
 
 - 1 moral character of all instructors, and to 
 
 ascertain their "literary qualifications and ca 
 
 parity for the government of scl Is." Tie' law 
 
 expressly req I evert teacher to obtain, from 
 
 Sell.. 
 
 of his qualifications befoi 
 The laxity with which thi 
 enforced received severe 
 
 Mr. Mann, in the report al 
 
 employment by the board of education of state 
 
 tg the scl I. 
 
 the law was 
 version from 
 rred to. The 
 
 uijeuts constitutes a peculiar feature of the Mas- 
 sachusetts system. Their duties, as denned by 
 the general statutes of the state, are " to visit 
 the several towns and cities, for the purpose of 
 inquiring into the conditions of the schools, con- 
 ferring with the teachers and committees, and 
 lecturing upon subjects connected with educa- 
 eation."' In L850, the legislature appropriated 
 $2,000 to the board for this purpose; and ac- 
 cordingly, six agents were employed to visit the 
 towns in the early summer. Among these, were 
 X. P. Hanks, and S. S. Greene, the latter after- 
 wards of Brown University. The experiment, 
 was eminently successful; and accordingly, the 
 legislature, in L85] . made a similar appropriation 
 for two years, which was renewed in 1853, L855, 
 and L857, with the authority in the last instance 
 to expend a sum not exceeding $4,000 in one 
 year. 15. (i. Xorthrup was sole agent from I860 
 
 to 1867, when he was suet led by Abner B. 
 
 Phipps, who has continued in office till the pres- 
 ent time (1876). The legislature of 1871 made 
 a special appropriation of $10,000, for this 
 purpose, payable from the "moiety of the in- 
 come of the scl 1 fund appropriated to ovn- 
 
 qf art-education, to which position Walter 
 Smith was appointed in 1871. In 1x75. the 
 legislature made an appropriation, for the same 
 purpose, of $14,000, payable from the state treas- 
 ury, and thus enabled the board to increase the 
 number of its agents. — The following named 
 persons have filled the office of secretary of the 
 board, of education since its creation in 1837: 
 Horace Mann, until 1848; Barnas Sears, from 
 L848 to 1855; George S. Boutwell, from 1855 
 to L861 ; Joseph White, from 1861 to the pres- 
 ent time (1876).- Teachers' Institutes were first 
 organized in 1x45: and. in 1846, the legislature 
 for the first time made an appropriation for 
 their support. 
 
 In 1 850, the first truant law was passed, which 
 simply authorized the towns to make needful 
 by-laws concerning habitual truants, and re- 
 quired the towns that availed themselves of the 
 act to appoint truant officers em powered to carry 
 
 enact by-laws concerning truants: and such is 
 the law 'at present. An amendment, made in 
 I 873, requires the school committee, instead of 
 the town or city, to appoint the truant officers, 
 and fix their compensation. This is the duty of 
 the committee independently of the action of 
 the town ; since there arc other laws besides 
 those relating to truancy which only the truant 
 
 System, The control of the educa- 
 tional interests of the state rests immediately 
 with the legislature. All information, however, 
 iii regard to the schools, colleges and other in- 
 stitutions of learning, on which its action is 
 based, is derived from the annual report of the 
 state board of education, which is composed of 
 the governor, lieutenant governor, and eight 
 
MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 persons appointed by the governor, who hold 
 office for eight years, one retiring each year. To 
 this board is entrusted the care and management 
 
 Educational Condition. - The number of 
 elementary public schools in the state, in L875, 
 was 5,551 : the number of high schools, 208 ; of 
 
 id value, as returned by comi 
 houses and grounds, was $20,f 
 ■ amount of money received fa 
 if the schools was as follows: 
 e "i stati school fund. $88,613.45 
 
 any multi| 
 intend the 
 the school 
 
 above eiiuiiicr.it" 1. Tie- > il nv ■ 
 tendent is axed by the school c 
 by appointing this officer relinquish all 
 to compensation for their own services. - 
 dential committees are elected in some 
 towns, consisting of one person in each .1 
 who must be an actual resident. The 
 
 those of the town school committee. I 
 and guardians are required, un ler a pen 
 $2 I, to send th sir chil ben between 8 a 
 years of age. to school at Last 20 week 
 year, six weeks of which must be consei 
 The only exemptions are cases of p 
 physical or ment il incapacity on the part 
 child, or when the child is otherwise pr 
 
 e, who 
 claim 
 -Pru- 
 of the 
 istrict, 
 
 $4,650,260.99 
 
 Expenditures mi public schools alone, ex- 
 clusive of the repairing and erecting of 
 school-houses and the cost • >! school 
 
 books $4,668,472.09 
 
 AniMiiet expended in 1*74 for erecting 
 
 school-houses $1,148,133.65 
 
 Average wages per month, male teachers. fs*.:;7 
 
 female teachers $:«.:« 
 
 The other most important items of the school 
 statistics for the year 1874 — 5 are the follow- 
 ing :— 
 Xuinlier of children „i -chool age 2H4.7US 
 
 ■ public 
 
 
 
 302,118 
 
 iar 
 
 216,861 
 
 illed.... 
 
 2,383 
 
 died 
 
 32,986 
 
 
 ,169 
 
 Number over 15 years of age euro 
 
 Number of teachers, males 
 
 " ' " females 8.047 
 
 Total 9,216 
 
 Average length of school term s mo. 17 days 
 
 Normal Instruction. — 'I here are five normal 
 schools in the state, exclusive of the Normal 
 
 they reside.— The school age is betweei 
 15 years; ami the public schools of the si 
 free to alt persons of school age, without 
 to religion, race, or color. — The daily i 
 of a portion of the Scriptures is requi 
 every school. -The school fund, which. 
 1st of January L876, amounted to«2 1)65, 
 
 is in charge of a board ol C in. ii i 
 
 sistingof the secretary of the board of e hi 
 and the treasurer ami receiver-general. < »i 
 ety of it is distributed among the towns 
 portion to the school population of each,) 
 other is applied to the support of normal > 
 teachers' institutes, etc. A special fund 
 vided for the education of Indians. 
 
 ber of pupils in at 
 
 was opened 
 
 I Is, 
 
 s pro- 
 
 of graduates, lib— '.) males, ami to females 
 normal school at Westfield is for both 
 The number of students in attendana 
 winter term. 1.'!."), — 11 males, 124 females; 
 mer term, 126, — 11 males, 11.") females; 
 ber of graduates, 42, — 3 males, 39 females 
 
 lec 1 
 
 imber 
 . The 
 
552 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS 
 
 normal school at Worcester was established in 
 1874 The number in attendance the first year was 
 93. The intention is to make these schools com- 
 plete, in all aids to a higher education, with spe- 
 cial reference, however, to the career of the grad- 
 uates as teachers. For this purpose, libraries, 
 laboratories, cabinets of specimens, and courses of 
 lectures have been provided; and each of the 
 schools is visited annually by a board of visitors 
 who report to the secretary of the state board 
 of education. — The Normal Art-School, at 
 Boston, was established in 1873, and grew out 
 of the necessities first made apparent by the 
 attempt to carry out the law of 1870, which 
 provided that every city or town containing 
 more than 10,000 inhabitants should establish 
 and maintain a school for the teaching of 
 mechanical and industrial drawing. This law 
 was inoperative from the want of competent 
 teachers to conduct such schools; and with the 
 view to supply this want, the Normal Art-School 
 was founded. The number of pupils the first 
 year was 133. This number was increased, in 
 the second year, to 239, — -1 m.dcs. and L55 fe- 
 males. The establishment of tliis bcI I was in 
 
 answer to a petition made to the legislature by 
 the manufacturing and mechanical interest.- ,,t 
 Boston, in which it was represented that those 
 interests were suffering from a lack of skilled 
 employes. The ease with which graduates from 
 this institution have found employment since 
 their graduation is considered ample proof of 
 the wisdom shown i„ it- establishment.— Teach- 
 ers' Institutes were Bra) organized in 1845. From 
 this time to 1874 inclusive, 242 institutes have 
 been held, averaging 8 annually. The annual 
 average attendance lias been 1,060, or L3J3 at 
 each institute. The average cost of each institute 
 is about $3,000; average cost of each teacher 
 
 attending, between S'_' and S3: total ; lal c.M 
 
 to the state for eight institutes, about $2,550. 
 
 Evening Schools.— In addition to the scl Is 
 
 for primary instruction enumerated, there are 
 exeniiie. schools ill many of the large towns and 
 cities, the opportunities afforded by which are 
 eagerly sought by many whose early educational 
 privileges have been neglected. The reports an- 
 nually made in regard to them show a larger 
 attendance of adults than in other schools, ami 
 of pupils of both sexes, drawn principally from 
 the mechanical and laboring classes. Their sessions 
 being short, and held generally during only the 
 winter months, and the attendance being fluct- 
 uating, the results are, of course, not as satis- 
 factory as in other schools. The instruction im- 
 parted also is necessarily elementary in character. 
 
 had failed to comply with the law, while 40 such, 
 schools were maintained in 3K towns not required 
 to do so. The high schools are of various degrees 
 of excellence, ranging from about that of the 
 ordinary grammar school to that of the best pre- 
 paratory school for admission to college. It is 
 estimated that about one third are of this latter 
 class, stui lents passing from them into college with- 
 out difficulty. The former class numbers also 
 about one third, their condition of comparative in- 
 feriority being attributed to the want of teachers 
 and apparatus, and to the mixed character of 
 the pupils. r l he remaining, or middle third, 
 furnish their pupils with only a tolerable prepa- 
 ration for college, but with a good English edu- 
 cation. The state includes among its academics 
 and private schools, a very large number of in- 
 stitutions for the education of girls. All these 
 various schools draw their pupils largely from 
 other states, the high reputation of .Massachusetts 
 in respect to education securing for them an ex- 
 tensive patronage. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — Of 
 schools of this class, a comparatively small num- 
 ber is reported, the intellectual instruction usu- 
 ally given in such schools being furnished by the 
 many non-sectarian or public schools of the state. 
 Superior Instruction. — The institutions in 
 the state for supplying a higher education are 
 numerous, and have always sustained an envi- 
 able reputation. Their number and efficiency, 
 and the completeness of their outfit in all the 
 means necessary for furnishing a liberal edu- 
 j cation, have long rendered them the objects of 
 ! just state pride. They have been, also, the re- 
 cipients of a greater amount of private munifi- 
 cence, proportionally, than those of any other 
 ,-t ate. Special mention is made of the most im- 
 portant of these institutions in other parts of 
 this volume. Their names arc given below : 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 
 ed 
 
 KuliLiious 
 
 Ainli- rsf College 
 
 r.i.>t.ai College 
 
 Huston Cniwisity.. 
 Coll. of the H-l, n..- 
 
 Harvard College 
 
 Tnt'ts College 
 
 Williams College 
 
 Amherst 
 
 Boston 
 
 Worcester 
 Cambridge 
 Medford 
 Willianistown 
 
 1864 
 1873 
 1813 
 1638 
 
 1793 
 
 Cong. 
 K.C. 
 M. Epis. 
 R. C. 
 \ n-seoi 
 
 Cong. 
 
 soho 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction.— 
 This includes principally institutions for the 
 study of science, law, medicine, and theology. 
 Many of the colleges just enumerated under the 
 head of superior instruction have departments 
 or courses in which the subjects classed as pro- 
 fessional or scientific may be pursued, but there 
 are in addition the following: 
 
 Th. 
 
 schools, incorp irated academies, ai 
 
 academies ill tin State lu- all'eadv ben 
 
 208, 6.3, and 369 respectively. Of 
 numbering over 500 families, and th 
 quired each to maintain a high schi 
 
 1, 6 only i New Cnurc 
 
 Non sort. 
 I'.aptist 
 N. J. Ch. 
 
MASTER OP ARTS 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Clarke Institution 
 for Deaf-Mutes was established at Northampton 
 in 1867. Pupils axe instructed in the ordinary 
 branches of an English education, besides philos- 
 ophy, zoology, chemistry, and drawing. There 
 is attached to the institution, also, a cabinet shop 
 in which many of the pupils work a part of each 
 day. Though founded by private benefaction, 
 it receives an animal appropriation from the 
 state, the amount from the latter source being, 
 in 187.1, 811,415. The number of pupils during 
 the year was 50 J the number of instructors, s. 
 The Boston Day-School for Deaf-Mutes was 
 founded in L869. It is a city free school for both 
 sexes, and is supported entirely by taxation. The 
 number of pupils, in 1874 — 5,' was <!.'!; the num- 
 ber of instructors. 7. The Perkins Institution and 
 Massachusetts Asylum for the Blind was estab- 
 lished in 1829, Samuel (i. Howe being its first 
 superintendent. (SeeHowE,S. G.) The total num- 
 ber of pupils admitted into it since its foundation 
 was. in 1871—"'. 865. All blind children who 
 are residents of the state, who are suitable sub- 
 jects for instruction, and who arc recommended 
 by the governor, arc received for education. The 
 
 of the state form the course of study; to which is 
 added instruction in music and in some branch 
 of manual labor. In addition to the original 
 donation made by its founder, it receives from 
 the state an annual grant of $30,000. Besides 
 the residents of the state who are educated 
 
 gratuitously, it r< ives pupils from other states. 
 
 upon payment of a certain annual sum. The 
 number of instructors and employes was 55 ; the 
 number of pupils, 156. There is also a school 
 for idiotic ami feeble-minded youth in Boston, 
 founded in 1848, the number of instructors and 
 employes in which, in 1874—5. was l(i, of pupils 
 118 ; a private institution for the same purpose, 
 founded in Barre in 1S4S, with 50 instructors 
 etc.. ami 75 pupils; and one for backward and 
 peculiar children, in Payville. with 7 instruc- 
 tors and 8 pupils. There are nine industrial 
 and reform schools in different parts of the state 
 for the reformation of children, principally those 
 between the ages of 7 and 17 years, who have 
 been committed for poverty, truancy, vagrancy, 
 and petty crimes. 
 
 MASTER OF ARTS. See Degrees. 
 
 MASTERY METHOD. See Latin Lan- 
 
 MATHEMATICS. -The term mathematics 
 is the Latin word mathematical, or the Greek 
 word fia&Jifianica, anglicized. The Greek word 
 was derived from jiavdavu, to learn; whence 
 jiaftrimr, learning. Both the Greeks and the 
 Romans used the word mathematica as we do 
 the word mafliemalics. The use of the plural 
 form indicates that this department of human 
 knowledge was formerly considered not as a 
 single branch, but as a group of several branches, 
 much as we use the phrase the mathematical 
 sciences. This group of sciences is subdivided 
 into pure mathematics and mixed, or applied, 
 mathematics. In this article we are concerned 
 
 MATHEMATICS 
 
 I mainly with 
 and geomelr 
 
 under the term' mathematics. lia> as yet hec'n 'so 
 
 ment that " mathematics i- the Bcience of quan- 
 tity" is often flippantly repeated as a defini- 
 tion, but it can scarcely serve for that purpose. 
 Comte defines mathematical science, as the sci- 
 ence which has for "its object the indirect 
 measurement of magnitudes, and constantly 
 proposes to determine certain magnitudes from 
 others, by means of the precise relations existing 
 between 'them." It is not a little singular that, 
 while this great thinker rules geometryoul of 
 the realm of pure mathematics, he bases his 
 definition of the science exclusively on the 
 geometrical conception. That he does so is espe- 
 cially apparent in the discussion from which he 
 deduces the definition. Moreover, it is not clear 
 
 In- ,1. 
 
 mult 
 
 plier is equal to the sun 
 parts of the multiplica] 
 "The root of the produ 
 equals the product of 
 
 ?sof 
 
 win 
 
 ligation of the properties and relations of quan- 
 tity comprehending number, and magnitude 
 as the result of extension and of form. It will 
 be observed that this definition embraces that, 
 of Comte, inasmuch as the measurement of 
 quantities, or the determination of unknown 
 from known quantities, is effected by an in- 
 vestigation of their relations ; but, on the other 
 hand, we can scarcely say that all investiga- 
 tions of the relations of quantities are for the 
 purposes of measurement, or of determining un- 
 known quantities from known. — But the chief 
 purpose of this article is to inquire as to the 
 place which mathematical studies should occupy 
 in our courses of elementary instruction. In 
 such an inquiry, the leading considerations are, 
 (I) Por what purpose should these studies he 
 pursued in such courses? (II) To what extent, 
 should they lie pursued? and fllli What gen- 
 eral principles should govern our methods of 
 teaching? 
 
 I. Mathematical studies should be pursued in 
 elementary schools primarily as a means of mental 
 
554 
 
 M ATI I KM ATI <'S 
 
 Sir Willi. 
 
 -1, develoj 
 well adapted 
 
 ulnle 
 
 discipline. Notwithstanding all t 
 Hamilton has said, and the fori 
 names which he adduces in sup] 
 it may still be claimed that tl 
 
 line of study pursued in scl Is, 
 
 the mind in so many ways, and i 
 to every stage of mental growth, as mathemat- 
 ical studies. It has been asserted, and quite gen- 
 erally conceded, that the pow 
 is not developed by matheinati 
 the truth is. that, from the most elementary 
 mathematical notion which arises in the mind of a 
 child to the farthest verge to which mathematical 
 investigation has been pushed and applied, this 
 power is in constant exercise. By otiservation, 
 as here used, can only be meant the fixing of 
 the attention upon objects (physical or mental) 
 so as to note distinctive peculiarities — to recog- 
 nize resemblances, differences, and other relations. 
 Now. the first mental act of the child recogniz- 
 ing the distinction between one and more than 
 one, between one and tiro, two and three, etc., is 
 exactly this. So, again, the first geometrical 
 notions arc as pure an exercise of this power as 
 can be given. To know- a straight line, to distin- 
 guish it from a curve ; to recognize a triangle 
 and distinguish the several forms — what are 
 these, and all perceptions of form, but a series 
 of observations? Nor is it alone in securing 
 these fundamental conceptions of number and 
 form that observation plays so important a part. 
 The very genius of the common geometry as a 
 method of reasoning — a system of investigation 
 — is. that it is but a scries of observations. The 
 figure being before the eye in actual representa- 
 tion, or before the mind in conception, is bo 
 closely scrutinized, that all its 
 uresare perceived; auxiliary lim 
 imagination leading in this), and a new scrie- of 
 inspections is made; and thus, by means of duvet, 
 simple observations, the investigation proceeds. 
 So characteristic of the common geometry is this 
 method of investigation, that (Jomte, perhaps 
 the ablest of all writers upon the philosophy of 
 mathematics, is disposed to class geometry, as to 
 its methods, with the natural sciences, as being 
 based upon observation. Moreover, wdien we con- 
 sider applied mathematics, we need only to notice 
 that the exercise of this faculty is so essential, 
 that the basis of all such reasoning, the very 
 materials with which we build, have received 
 
 ; arc clr 
 
 to consider the whole ran-c of the human facul- 
 ties, and find for most of them ample scope for 
 exercise in mathematical studies. Certainly. 
 the memory will not be found to be neglected. 
 The very first steps in number.- counting, the 
 multiplication table, etc., make heavy demands 
 on this power; while the higher branches re- 
 quire the memorizing of formulas which are 
 simply appalling to the uninitiated. Ho the 
 imagination, the creative faculty of the mind, 
 has constant exercise in all original mathematical 
 investigation, from the solution of the simplest 
 problem to the discovery of the most recondite 
 principle ; for it is not by sure, consecutive steps, 
 
 as many suppose, that we advance from the 
 known to the unknown. The imagination, not 
 the logical faculty, leads in this advance. In fact, 
 practical observation is often in advance of log- 
 ical exposition. Thus, in the discovery of truth, 
 the imagination habitually presents hypotheses, 
 and observation supplies facts, which it may re- 
 quire ages for the tardy reason to connect logic- 
 ally with the known. Of this truth, mathemat- 
 ics, as well as all other sciences, affords abundant 
 illustrations. So remarkably true is this, that 
 to-day it is seriously questioned by the majority 
 
 of thinkers, whether the subliinest branch of 
 
 mathematics— the infinitesimal calculus— haa 
 any thing more than an empirical foundation, 
 mathematicians themselves not being agreed as 
 to its logical basis. — That the imagination, and 
 not the logical faculty, leads in all original in- 
 vestigation, no one who has ever succeeded in 
 producing an original demonstration of one of 
 the simpler propositions of geometry, can have 
 any doubt. Nor arc induction, analogy, the 
 scrutinizing of premises or the search for them, 
 or the balancing of probabilities, spheres of 
 mental operation foreign to mathematics. No 
 one. indeed, can claim a pre-eminence for math- 
 ematical studies in all these departments of in- 
 tellectual culture, but it may, perhaps, be claimed 
 that scarcely any department of science affords 
 discipline to so great a number of faculties, and 
 that none presents SO complete a gradation in its 
 exercise of these faculties, from the lirst prin- 
 ciples of the science to the farthest extent of its 
 application, as mathematics. There arc, however, 
 two respects in which, probably, special pre- 
 
 study 
 
 the habit of forming clear and definite concep- 
 tions, and. of clothing these conceptions in exact 
 and perspicuous language. 'I his pre-eminence 
 arises, in part, from the fact that, in this 
 branch of knowledge, the term.-, convej exactly 
 the same meaning to all minds. Thus, there can 
 be no difference "between the conceptions which 
 different persons have of five, six, a straight 
 line, a circle, a perpendicular, a product, a 
 square root; or of the statements, that 3 and 5 
 make 8, that the sum of the angles of a plane 
 triangle is two right angles, etc. The concep- 
 tion in each case is definite, and the language 
 may be perfectly clear. That this is not so in 
 most other sciences, no one needs to be told. 
 Can we be sure that all have tin' same concep- 
 
 designed to be conveyed b; 
 fissile, slaty, laminar, folit 
 
 s 7" 
 
 dis- 
 
 tinct that no two mineralogists will evei inter- 
 change them? Is the meaning of a Greek text 
 always unequivocal ? Is it an easy matter for 
 any two persons to get exactly the same concep- 
 tion of the causes which led to a certain political 
 revolution ; can either be absolutely certain, from 
 any language which he can use, that no one will 
 
MATHEMATICS 
 
 mistake his conception? — That the habit of 
 mind which rests satisfied only with clear and 
 definite conceptions, and the power of speech 
 which is able to clothe such conceptions in lan- 
 guage perfectly unmistakable, are most impor- 
 
 these are exactly the ends which mathematical 
 studies, properly pursued, are adapted to secure. 
 Ju this hasty review, nothing has been said di- 
 rectly of these studies as a means of developing 
 the reasoning faculties, since it is generallj con- 
 ceded that pure mathematics is practical logic, 
 and that pupils, who do not learn to reason by 
 their study of mathematics, fail of the most im- 
 portant end of such study. 
 
 Iloiibtless.the ri milium answer to the question, 
 Why should mathematical studies be pursued in 
 schools? would be, for their practical value; by 
 which is meant, their direct application to the 
 affairs of life, as in reckoning bills, computing 
 interest, measuring distances, volumes, areas. etc 
 It is, indeed, true, that, in the every-day affaira 
 of life, to the accountant, and to the man of 
 business, a certain amount of arithmetical 
 knowledge is essential — that surveying, civil 
 engineering, mechanics, navigation, geography, 
 
 and astronomy, are based on gi etry. But, let 
 
 it be observed, that only a special few practice 
 
 the arts last named, and that for the masses 
 
 embraced in the former specifications, a very 
 
 limited amount of arithmetical knowledge i> all 
 
 that they arc requn 
 
 further, while it is, i 
 
 business man should 1 
 
 multiply, divide, and 
 
 these operations can m 
 
 tieal success in life, ex 
 
 clerks. Many of the 
 
 men would make w 
 
 ledger columns, and th 
 
 deficiencies to risk tin 
 
 numerical computatio 
 
 of practical success 
 
 than a specific knowli 
 
 ence whatever, howei 
 
 amount of such know 
 
 callings. 'The conclus 
 
 importanttpoint is noi 
 
 knowledge can be cr 
 
 pupils, but ' 
 
 And still 
 y that the 
 I, subtract, 
 at, skill in 
 
 at methods of teaching and 
 
 of mind can be secured, as 
 Is most efficient in performing 
 
 ical economy. — all these, and 
 ! to make up the furniture. and 
 ne. of a well-cultivated mind. 
 
 And 
 
 is 1 1 
 
 of a graded school, or college, for i he first six 
 or seven years of the ordinary graded public 
 school course, if we include the mal lessons, in 
 number and form, of the lowest grade, arithme- 
 tic forms 01 f the three main studies for the 
 
 entire course; and. ii t a few cases, there are 
 
 two arithmetical exercises, one in mental (oral), 
 and one in writ 1 1 n aril hint -t ic. or one in arithme- 
 
 tic ; 
 
 t of time which the pupil's niathe- 
 ,lies usualh occupy.and by the fact 
 
 are pursued at the same tune. In the college 
 course, one of the three regular studies for the 
 first two years is, almost invariably, mathematics. 
 
 -So far, reference has 1 n had exclusively to 
 
 pure mathematics, including only arithmetic, al- 
 
 (analytical) geometry and the calculus. What- 
 ever of applied n. at hen cities, including surveying, 
 navigation, mechanics, astronomy, etc., is to be 
 
 l.olllt 
 
 netl. 
 
 w, 
 
 Studies 
 
 half of 
 life, ui 
 be mai 
 
 student finds one-third of the time, for the first 
 
 two years, scarcely adequate to secure a respect- 
 able knowledge of higher algebra, geometry. 
 and trigonometry, the elements of the general 
 geometry, and the infinitesimal calculus: and 
 whatever of applied mathematics is learned, as 
 
 of surveying, mathematical drawing, i lanics, 
 
 astronomy, etc, must find a place in the other 
 
 ■lief 
 
 favor of other studies for the last 
 two years of a college course ; that is. that read- 
 ing, spelling, writing, geography, grammar, his- 
 tory, literature, rhetoric, logic, the whole domain 
 of natural science, including the physical consti- 
 tution of the human system, chemistry, languages, 
 
 If. however, the inordinate demands of arithme- 
 tic can be so abridged (see Aciiumi nc), that the 
 grammar school course shall include, at least, 
 eighteen months' study introductory to algebra 
 and geometry, the highschooJ can save this time 
 for other studies, ami also secure such thorough- 
 
550 
 
 M ATI I KM AT I CS 
 
 ness in preparation, that the stv 
 college will be far m 
 than at present. AVi 
 tion now secured, it 
 
 that the student ( i 
 
 true, been over the 1 
 so little of the real str 
 that course should 
 
 dent's course in 
 d ami satisfactory 
 quality of prepara- 
 
 t should be borne in mind. 
 
 nn's to college having, it is 
 requisite amount, but with 
 
 itrength and knowledge which 
 
 impart, that, if he does jus- 
 tice to his mathematical studies for the first two 
 years, nearer one-half than one-third of his time 
 is consumed upon them. By rigidly confining 
 the study of elementary arithmetic to its proper 
 domain, giving a year in the grammar school to 
 an introduction to algebra, and half a year to 
 the definitions and facts of plane geometry, the 
 pupil may come to the high school so thoroughly 
 prepared in the elements of the three great 
 mathematical studies, — arithmetic, algebra, and 
 geometry, that between two and three years in 
 the high school will be amply sufficient tosecure 
 such further proficiency in these branches as is 
 consistent with the course here marked out. 
 Moreover, if the pupil's school life closes with 
 the grammar school, the course thus secured will 
 be of far more value to him in after life, both 
 for practical uses and as a discipline, than the 
 ordinary one. (See Arithmetic, Algebra, and 
 Geometry.) — In the above, it will be observed, 
 that the general geometry and the infinitesimal 
 calculus are included in the college course. The 
 elements of the former are usually required, al- 
 though it is quite common (for no good reason) 
 to make the latter elective. By omitting the 
 calculus, the graduate leaves college without ever 
 having looked into one of the sublimest depart- 
 ments of human knowledge, or having even 
 the remotest idea of the language and methods 
 of the mechanics and astronomy of the day. or 
 being able to read an advanced treatise upon 
 any scientific subject as treated by the modern 
 mathematician. Xor can the beauty and power 
 of the general geometry be appreciated without 
 a knowledge of the calculus. Thus the pupil 
 who is allowed, at his option, to leave this out 
 of his course, leaves college a hundred years be- 
 hind his time, in one of the leading departments 
 of human knowledge. 
 
 1 1 1. What general principles should govern 
 our methods if teaching mathematics? — This 
 topic has been quite fully treated in the separate 
 articles Arithmetic, Algebra, and Geometry, 
 to which reference is made. It is proper to 
 add here, that, from first to last, the methods 
 should be such as will give absolutely clear per- 
 ceptions and conceptions, and secure facility, 
 accuracy, and elegance in expression. These ends 
 are of vastly more practical importance than 
 the mere ability "to get the answer" of special 
 problems. The notion which prevails among 
 some teachers, that if the pupil learns the proc- 
 
 I'very thing that is essential, and that, whatever 
 of the rationale may be desirable will be. in 
 some way, induced by this mechanical process. 
 is an exceedingly vicious one. In the first 
 place, it is far more important that the pupil 
 
 should be able to comprehend the logic, and to 
 express his ideas in intelligible language than 
 merely to solve any number of problems, since 
 the former ability he will have occasion to use 
 every day of his life, while he may never need 
 the fatter at all. lint we arc not driven to the 
 alternative of securing culture at the expense of 
 mechanical skill ; the very best means to acquire 
 expertness in mathematical manipulations is 
 that which secures the best results in culture. 
 No greater intellectual monstrosity probably 
 ever presents itself than he who is usually 
 known as a mathematical genius; that is. one 
 who has a wonderful ability to do what nobody 
 else can do. or cares to do — to solve knotty and 
 often senseless mathematical problems. On the 
 contrary, the object of mathematical study should 
 be to develop men with cultured minds, not to 
 make them mere computing machines. 
 
 Mathematical Literature. — It is designed, un- 
 der this topic, to point out to the teacher a few 
 treatises which may be helpful to him in extend- 
 ing his knowledge of the subjects of arithmetic, 
 algebra, and geometry beyond the mere rudi- 
 ments ; in bee ing acquainted with the history 
 
 of these branches; and in providing material 
 for use in class-room work. It is rather to men- 
 tion a few works which are presume) I to be w , . •- 
 sible to the teacher than to furnish an extended 
 list of authors. The best catalogues of writers 
 on algebra and geometry accessible to teachers 
 are those in the Encyclopedia Britannica. The 
 list of writers on algebra contains 171 names, 
 and extends from 360 A. 1>. into the present 
 century. The catalogue of geometrical writers 
 covers the period from 'J.1'2 A. I>. to the middle 
 of the present century. — By far the most com- 
 plete history of arithmetic with which we are 
 acquainted is the article by Dr. Peacock in the 
 Encyclopaedia Metropolitana (vol. i. of Pure 
 Science, pp. 369—482). The Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica also contains a fair history of this 
 branch, together with as good an outline of the 
 history of algebra and geometry as the teacher 
 can usually find accessible. The Algebra of 
 AVallis.au Knglish mathematician (1<>]6 — 17(13), 
 has a history of the subject prefixed.— Of 
 Mathematical Dictionaries, mention may be 
 
 1 8 1 5 
 1 Tee 
 Matki 
 
 Barlow (London. L814); and Di 
 (N. V., L856). — MontucJa's His 
 malics | I vols.. 4to), besides being too volumi- 
 nous for most readers, is brought down only to 
 the beginning of the present century, and is 
 only to be had in Latin or French. A more 
 recent work is Geschichte der Maihernatik, by 
 Poppe (Tubingen, 1828), to be had only in 
 German. Among other works in the German 
 language, especial reference should be made to 
 Diesterweg's Wegweiser (Essen, 1851). This 
 may be called a treatise on the Theory and 
 Practieeof Teaching, discussing not only the 
 
 in.', quite in detail, methods and even text- 
 books. In the second volume ipp. 343 -394), 
 maybe found a full list of German text-books. 
 
MATRICULATE 
 
 on arithmetic, in connection with the discussion 
 of methods. The succeeding chapter treats in 
 like manner .if geometry. Among arithmetics 
 not now specially candidates for popular favor 
 the following will be found interesting and val- 
 uable in a teacher's library: An Introduction to 
 Arithmetic on the Lancasterian plan, by John 
 Ruton (Albany. 1817); liana P. Colburn's 
 Arithmetic will be found exceedingly suggestive 
 to the practical teacher: Winslows t 'amjai/ist's 
 Manual contains a large amount of practical 
 matter very useful to the teacher ; Chase's 
 Arithmetic furnishes a vast amount of material 
 which can be utilized by the teacher in the reci- 
 tation room ; Sangster's Arithmetic (Montreal, 
 l,sti4) will be found quite instructive in many 
 respects. To these the intelligent teacher will add 
 the various series offered to the public by lead- 
 ing educators in the United States. In algebra, 
 among English works. Todhunters Algebra, 
 and Theory of Equations; Bland's Examples; 
 "Wood's. Young's. Hind's, and Bonnycastle's trea- 
 tises on algebra will afford not only the elements 
 of the subject, but an exhaust less mine of ex- 
 amples for practice. Peacock's A/iji'lira ['1 vols.. 
 8vo, London) is one of the most celebrated 
 theoretical treatises. Serret's is one of the best 
 French treatises. Cirode's and Oomberousse's 
 are also valuable. Hackley's Algebra (X. Y., 
 1849) will be found valuable for reference, being 
 one of the most complete ever published in this 
 country. In reference tog aetry,ii may be sug- 
 gested that cm it teai-ln-r >ln.iiM ivad President 
 Hill's two little I Its, /" / s iii Geome- 
 try, and Second I!""/,. Mosl English writers on 
 the elements of geometry have contented them- 
 selves with editing Kuelid with slight modifica- 
 tions. The student who wishes a knowledge of the 
 modern methods in elementary geometry, will 
 find Mulcahy's work quite satisfactory. Rouche 
 et Comberousse, a French treatise (2 vols., 8vo), 
 is the most complete modern treatise on element- 
 ary geometry with which we are acquainted. 
 and is a complete thesaurus of examples for in- 
 dependent work. All of De Morgan's (English) 
 mathematical works are exceedingly valuable, 
 containing treatises on algebra, geometry, the 
 calculus, and other branches. In regard to the 
 relative value of mathematical studies, see Sir 
 William Hamilton. Discussions on Philosophy 
 
 MEDICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 MEDICAL SCHOOLS. The earlii 
 
 ration of lical science was effi 
 
 cans of tradition, and not mini mu.Ii 
 
 iporrates, 
 Romans, 
 the first 
 
 no special medical schools, but their scl Is gave 
 
 scientific and philosophical inr-l met ii i in genera I. 
 Such institutions could be found in Athens, 
 Alexandria, Rome, and other cities. The name 
 medical school -was first used in the 9th centurj 
 in the city of Salerno, where an association of 
 Several medical teachers, of the Creek. Jewish, 
 Latin, and Arabian nations, lectured on the heal- 
 ing art. Their method. sub>taiitially.coii>i>ted in 
 the reading and explanation oi the old i ii. ek, Ro- 
 man, and Arabian parchment scrolls. After the 
 foundation of universities, in the I Mi century, 
 the medical schools, as a rule, were united with 
 them. (See University.) The earliest were those 
 ,,f Naples and Messina, founded in 1224. by the 
 emperor Frederick tl. of Germany. Thedivision 
 
 and V 
 
 t made in Paris. Prague, 
 
 e. 1, luated nil dienl .-el,, ,,| 
 
 -/ /., 
 
 N. V 
 
 En. it is), 
 II.Saf- 
 
 of Mathematics as an 1 
 
 Alii.i., Examinati n$ o/& II 
 
 Philosophy (1865); Grote, Ifer 
 
 (1868); Barnard's Journal of 
 
 sin.; Whewell, On the Princ 
 
 University Education il.ond., 1 
 
 ford, Modern Mathematics ... th, Co eg Course, 
 
 in Proceedings of Na /' - , • lssc~ 
 
 ciation, at St. Louis, 1871; T. Hill, '/'■■ Order 
 
 of Studies |N. Y.. L876); Todhdnter, The Con- 
 
 flirt,,/ Studies (Loud., 1873). 
 
 MATRICULATE (Lat. matricula, a public 
 roll or register), to admit to membership in a 
 college or university, by enrollment. (See Col- 
 lege, and University.) 
 
 of the early middle ages were, together with those 
 above named, at hip.-ie. I'.asel. Montpellier. I.'o- 
 logna, Padua. Pavia, and Salamanca; at the last 
 named of which, the dews and Arabs taught 
 mathematics and medicine. In all these institu- 
 tions, the writings of the ancient physicians 
 named above formed the basis of teaching: and 
 only with the development of anatomy, did the 
 scientific efforts attain a higher degree of perfec- 
 tion. In 1308, the < ireat Council of Venice pro- 
 vided, by a special decree, that the medical pro- 
 fession of the city should, once a year, make the 
 dissection of a human body: and. about 1320, 
 the first work on anatomy, based on his own dis- 
 sections, was written by Mondini di Luzzi. It 
 was first printed in Padua, 1 t78, and for a long 
 time was held in the highest esteem. Still, the 
 dissection of human bodies remained a very rare 
 occurrence, a special permission of the pope hav- 
 ing to be obtained in each ease. The real father 
 of anatomy was Andreas Yesalius. professor in 
 Basel; where his celebrated work, De humani 
 corporis fabrica, was edited in 1403. Surgery, 
 the child of anatomy, remained, for a long time, 
 in the hands of empirics: and it was not until 
 the 17th or 18th century, that it, was taught 
 scientifically, in universities. The cultivation and 
 development of anatomy also changed the meth- 
 od of teaching, in the medical schools, from a 
 simple lecturing to a more demonstrative course: 
 and, with the accumulation of material for teach- 
 ing, it was natural that medical science should 
 be more and more divided into specialties, for 
 which separate instructors were appointed. The 
 first stationary clinics were organized at I.eyilen, 
 by Boerhaave, in the first half of the 18th cent- 
 ury, and at Vienna, by his pupil Van Swieten. 
 
558 
 
 MEDICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 These two, together with Van Haen and Johann 
 Peter Frank, were the founders of the practical 
 method of medical instruction. Previous to them, 
 the professors, of surgery for instance, lectured 
 before their audience for years, without even 
 touching a patient with the knife. This to us, 
 nowadays, seems hardly comprehensible. The 
 first clinic of obstetrics was established in 1720, 
 in Paris, by Gregoire. A very celebrated school 
 of midwifery \v;us founded, about 1730, at Stras- 
 bourg, and first conducted by the renowned 
 Johann Jacob Fried. Separate clinics for other 
 specialties, as ophthalmology, otology, skin and 
 venereal diseases, etc., are of more recent date. 
 
 Tn Germany, every medical school constitutes 
 a faculty of a university; this is also the rule 
 in the other European countries. England ex- 
 cepted. Considering the degree of preparatory 
 instruction, Germany ranks highest. The stu- 
 dents.after having gone successfully through the 
 gymnasium, receive a certificate of maturity, 
 that enables them to matriculate in the medical 
 faculty of any of the German universities of 
 the German Knipitv, Austria, and Switzerland. 
 No time is fixed for the duration of the course 
 of studies; but, generally, it takes five years. At 
 the end of the first or second year, the student 
 has to undergo an examination in natural philos- 
 ophy; and, at the end of the whole term, a rigid 
 examination (rigorosum), theoretical as well as 
 practical, takes place for the degree of M. D. 
 Besides this, the several states require what is 
 called a Stoatsexamen .state examination) before 
 grint iiu a liccii-e i^v practice, [n all the German 
 iiniversi ii -. the students have absolute freedom 
 to 'el Mid, lectures, and to follow them iii such 
 order, as they please. Very nearly the same are 
 the arrangements in the universities of Austria, 
 Switzerland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Russia, 
 the Netherlan Is, and Belgium. France has 
 only three me, lieal faculties (Paris. M< .lit] ..Hi. r. 
 and Nancy) and 2] -.- dledecofl . reparatoires. 
 
 At thefonner, tl to ■ s en ■'■ kcineelchi- 
 
 rurgie are educated ; 
 class of physicians (q 
 for practice only in 
 France, no freedom 
 lectures and th< ir ord 
 
 The ti f study is fixed at 3 years for the offi- 
 
 ders de sante, and at I years for the degree of 
 M. It. -England has preserved the old independ- 
 ent institutions of the middle ages. The state 
 has no influence upon the education of medical 
 students ; ami only a weak control is exercised 
 by the General Medical Council of London— 
 the highest medical authority of Great Britain. 
 This body a]. points the corporations that have 
 the right to educate and license physicians. All 
 medical schools are private institutions main- 
 tained by private means. Twenty-three so-called 
 "licensing bodies" (7 in Ei eland, II in Scotland. 
 5 in Ireland) bestow the privilege of practicing 
 the art, the qualifications for which may be ob- 
 tained at la medical -. I I.-. < if these. 27 are in 
 
 ie Ia1 1. r train an inferior 
 .. rs de sanie , licensed 
 
 instruction exists. The 
 are strictly prescribed. 
 
 I Ian, 
 
 and 10 in Ireland. The licensing bodies require 
 
 I 4 years' study, and a certificate showing the 
 scientific acquirements of the applicant to be 
 sufficient for the study of medicine. The differ- 
 ent degrees that may be obtained at the English 
 universities are Bachelor of Medicine (M. B.). 
 Bachelor of Surgery (B. S.|. Master in Surgery 
 (M.S.), and Doctor of Medicine (M. D.). Simi- 
 lar to the English medical schools are those of 
 India and Australia. — In Italy. 17 universities 
 are maintained by the state, and 5 by municipal 
 and provincial corporations. Perfect freedom of 
 instruction j.s allowed, the only control exercised 
 over the students consisting in Ii several exami- 
 nations in the different branches of medical sci- 
 ence ; after passing which the license is granted. 
 For the diploma laurea di dottore in medicina 
 
 Turkey has a medical school in Constantinople, 
 divided into a military and a civil department, 
 
 and organized after the French model. 'I he same 
 J is the ease with the medical academy in Cairo, 
 
 aad 
 
 of medical learning. Medical instruction was 
 alone conveyed in the irregular form of medical 
 pupilage. A few physicians, in different parts 
 of the country, eminent for their skill and popu- 
 larity, attracted to themselves numerous pupils, 
 who enjoyed the advantages of the library and the 
 conversation of their preceptor, compounded his 
 medicines, and occasionally attended him in hia 
 visits: these preceptors, after three or more years, 
 signed certificates of attendance which supplied 
 the place of diplomas. In some sections, a system 
 of apprenticeship existed; the young medical 
 pupil being indentured for a period of time, often 
 as long as seven years. Those students who as- 
 pired to a regular degree in medicine, and the 
 high public favor accorded to it. were obliged to 
 
 era il an and to attend one of the European 
 
 universities, a step not unfrequently taken by 
 those able to afford the great expense of such a 
 course. In some of the larger towns, an occasion- 
 al private course of lectures on anatomy, surgery, 
 etc., was attempted with success; and these paved 
 the way for the regular and ordi rly organization 
 of medical colleges. The first medical faculty in 
 the country was instituted in L765, under the 
 auspices of the < 'ollegeof Philadelphia, which was 
 afterwards merged in the far-famed University 
 of Pennsylvania. In 17(17, a second school was 
 founded in New York, as a department of King's 
 (now Columbia) College, having six chairs, from 
 which lectures were, from the outset, read upon 
 anatomy, theory and practice of physic, surgery, 
 chemistry and materia medica, and midwifery. 
 These two faculties, the only ones established be- 
 fore the Revolution, were possessed of very 
 meager means and appliances of instruction, but 
 they placed their standard ..f requirements very 
 high, much higher than it has since been, or is 
 even now. held. The principal rules of the 
 New York faculty were (I) a preliminary exami- 
 nation, in Latin and some branches of natural 
 
MEDICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 5o<> 
 
 philosophy, was required of all matriculants who 
 had not taken a degree in arts; (2) after three 
 years' study and one complete course of lectures, 
 the bachelor's degree was allowed ; (3) after an- 
 other year aud a second full course, students 22 
 years of age were admitted to examination for 
 the doctorate ; and they were required to pub- 
 lish and publicly defend a thesis on some medical 
 subject. The examinations were conducted after 
 the pattern of the University of Edinburgh, the 
 regnant medical school of that day. These 
 schools were broken up by the Revolutionary 
 war, in 177n'. at which time they had graduated 
 about 50 physicians. With the return of peace, 
 these institutions were resuscitated; and other 
 faculties were formed in different parts of the 
 country, principally as departments of previous- 
 ly existing literary colleges or universities, — that 
 of Harvard in L782, Queen's in L792, and Dart- 
 mouth in 1796. They did not at once enjoy the 
 
 attendai of large classes, for the country was 
 
 impoverished and distressed l>v the effects of a 
 lone war: and they exercised with caution and 
 
 with this formative period, are the names of 
 Physick, Mott, Drake. Mussey. Caldwell, Cod- 
 man, McDowell, Knight, and Childs. Unprom- 
 ising as this system, or want of system, in 
 
 medical education, seemed to the conservative 
 
 and educated part of the profession, and despite 
 
 protests, in great variety, made as early as 
 L827, against the degenerate tendencies of the 
 I now developed American plan, the status of in- 
 struction grew worse rather than lutter. Char- 
 tered colleges of an inferior grade, often-times 
 short-lived, multiplied, duplicated even in the 
 
 dt!„ 
 
 ttendance 
 
 It 
 
 reserve their privilege of conferring medical de- 
 grees, so that, with the close of the 1 8th century, 
 their graduates did not exceed 253 in number; 
 and the honorary M.D. was but seldom granted. 
 Among the eminent names allied to these pio- 
 neer movements are those of Morgan, Rush, 
 Jones. Bard, Koinayne. Hosack, Warren, and 
 Nathan Smith. During the opening quarter of 
 the present century, as national prosperity re- 
 vived, and learning began to flourish and students 
 to multiply, a great degr if energy marked tin- 
 progress of medical education. In L825, the 
 number of schools had increased from four to 
 
 sixteen, well distributed, geographically in twelve 
 states, principally the Northern and sea-board 
 states. Three were south of the Potomac, and 
 two west of the Alleghanies. They were, as a 
 rule, affiliated with some previously existing col- 
 lege, but the practice of seeking private, inde- 
 pendent charters had commenced; these charters 
 were readily granted by the legislatures of the 
 various states. The American medical college 
 then began to take shape and direction, the same 
 essentially that it retains at this clay. Govern- 
 ment, as a rule, withheld all support, endowment, 
 or control ; and what little protective legislation 
 had previously been enacted was then, or soon 
 after, repealed ; practical anatomy was a felony 
 by statute ; the populace were still inimical to 
 dissection, the last mob-rising being as late as 
 1820. Thrown upon their own resources, aud 
 recognizing the necessities of the land for prac- 
 titioners, the colleges broke away from the line 
 of European tradition, at once increasing the 
 facilities and lowering the standard of medical 
 education. The minimum of requirements was 
 pretty uniformly adopted; preliminary qualifica- 
 tions were not demanded: the time of study was 
 shortened; examinations became less difficult; 
 the printed thesis and its public defense were 
 remitted except on special occasions; and. about 
 1812. the primary degree of M. R. ceased, and 
 all diplomas declined in appreciation. Identified 
 
 the regulati 
 
 was reduced 
 even then w, 
 were rejectc 
 
 with lithographed signatures, were sold. About 
 this time ils.-.O). largelv through the instrumen- 
 tality of the American' Medical \ iation.the 
 
 demand for reforms gradually made itself felt. 
 No radical change ol plan has been adopted 
 or is immediately piohahle. but a progivsshe 
 growth from within is manifest. Schools of the 
 poorer quality are still unduly multiplied; there 
 are now over till of all grade-,, about .'SO others 
 having been discontinued. The time of study, and 
 the length of the lecture-term, are vet too short, 
 although additional courses have been added 
 which are for the most part optional, and the 
 number of branches taught has been increased. 
 The instructor is still also the examiner of the 
 candidates for graduation, although some visiting 
 rr„m,r* haw been appointed. The curriculum, 
 nominally the same as fid years ago. is vastly iin- 
 
 : proved by the introduction of clini al teat hing, 
 by demonstrative methods and illustration that 
 excite the admiration of critics from abroad. 
 and in a few cases by the gradingof classes. The 
 superior appointments of the more modern 
 schools facilitate the work of the studi i t, and 
 many of them have their buildin ■ - ' ti the 
 hospitals. The study of anatomy \ < d section 
 is now as easy as formerly it was difficult. 'I he 
 American plan favors the production of a superi- 
 or teaching corps. The success of a school is 
 ordinarily in direct proportion to the merits of 
 professors; the brightest and most progressive 
 minds, therefore, arc diligently sought out. and 
 a fruitful emulation is excited among them to 
 lender their lectures at once practical and popu- 
 
 ! lar. From these and other considerations, the 
 conclusion is inevitable -that the colleges of the 
 United States are destined to advance, however 
 defective their origin and place may be. In 1874, 
 the number of instructors was 780 ; of pupils, 
 over 7.000. of whom 2,000 were graduated a 
 doctors in medicine; one student in ten had pre- 
 viously obtained a degree in arts or science. In 
 the above enumeration and description, only the 
 ■regular ' schools are included. In this century, 
 
 these sel Is have graduate, I fully 7 > ■ ■ 
 
 dates. In regard to the education of women as 
 physicians, a favorable sentiment has been grow- 
 
OOU 
 
 MEDICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 ing up, and some progress has been made, tliree 
 good schools being in operation. In the medical 
 faculties of South America and the British do- 
 minions, the scale of regulations is higher than in 
 the U. S., both as to preliminary qualifications 
 and the term of study. In Brazil, there are two 
 departments of medicine; in < lanada, there are six, 
 some of them quite small and poorly sustained. 
 The subjoined table contains a list of the med- 
 ical colleges and departments in the U. S. 
 
 Medical College 
 
 
 c | 
 
 .£„ 
 
 ¥ s 
 
 
 Location 
 
 
 
 
 Department 
 
 
 -: g 
 
 - : 
 
 •S.S 
 
 """ Med. Coll. of Alabama 
 
 Mobil.-. Ala 
 
 1858 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 Mid. C. of the Pacific 
 
 San 1 lancisoo.Cal.. 
 
 I KM 
 
 
 
 
 
 IHH4 
 
 
 40 
 
 
 
 lsp_ 
 
 is;.; 
 
 3 
 
 34 
 
 Atlanta Med. Coll 
 
 Ulaiila, Ga 
 
 17 
 
 — Univ. of Georgia .... Augusta, Ga 
 
 
 
 
 Savannah Med Coll.. Savannah, Ga 
 
 
 
 
 Northwestern Univ.. . Chicago, 111 
 
 S.i' 
 
 3 
 
 
 Bush Med. Coll Chicago. Ill 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 M. C. of Evans villi 1.. ai..-\ i lie, Ind 
 
 
 1 
 
 
 Coll.ofPlivsiciaiiBa.nl 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 1- Uuiv.oflowa Iowa City, Iowa.... 
 
 LH6S 
 
 
 
 Coll. of Physicians and 
 
 
 
 
 
 Ki iknk. Iowa 
 
 Louis\ ille, Ky 
 
 1852 
 
 2 
 
 
 Ky. School of Medicine 
 
 20 
 
 s~ Univ. of Kv Lexington, Ky 
 
 
 
 
 Central Univ Louisville, Ky 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 •1 
 
 
 
 Louisville, Ky 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 Mew Orleans. La.... 
 
 
 3 
 
 
 Med. School of Maine. 
 
 
 1820 
 
 
 
 
 Brunswick, Me 
 
 
 
 Coll.of Physicians ami 
 
 
 
 
 
 Surg, of Baltimore 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 
 J'i 
 
 
 /~Univ. of Marvlaud. . . 
 
 Baltimore, Md 
 
 I si 1 , 
 
 
 Washington Univ 
 
 
 
 
 
 Iloslntl, Mass 
 
 Ann Arbor, Mich.. . 
 
 I'lS'J 
 1850 
 
 3 
 3 
 
 
 r Univ. of Michigan.... 
 Detroit Med. Coll.... 
 
 26 
 
 Iletinit.MlCh 
 
 
 
 
 ~ Univ. of Missouri 
 
 Columbia, Mo 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 Kansas City Coll. of 
 
 
 
 
 
 Phvs. and Sur 
 
 Kansas City, Mo 
 
 
 2 
 
 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 
 
 
 St. Louis Med. Coll... 
 
 St. Louis. Mo 
 
 
 'i 
 
 
 Dartmouth College. . . 
 
 Hanover. N. H 
 
 
 
 
 Ubanv, N. Y 
 
 r.rnoblvn, N. Y 
 
 
 
 
 L. I. Coll. Hospital. . . 
 
 
 1 
 
 36 
 
 Univ. of Buffalo 
 
 IiuiValo. X. Y 
 
 
 
 
 BellevueHospit. M. C. 
 
 New York. N.Y 
 
 1861 
 
 j 3 
 
 
 Coll. of Phys. and Sur. 
 
 New York, N.Y 
 
 
 
 
 New York, N.Y 
 
 I8VI 
 
 » 
 
 
 <— Univ. of City of N. Y . 
 
 New York, N.Y 
 
 lsll 
 
 
 
 Women's Med. Coll.ot 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New York, N.Y 
 
 
 
 
 Syracuse Univ Sviacuse, N. Y 
 
 1ST'. 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 " 3 
 
 
 
 1 s 1 '. 
 
 20 
 
 
 Is.V. 
 
 
 21 
 
 
 isi: 
 
 
 40 
 
 Univ. of Wooster .... Cleveland, Ohio.... 
 
 1861 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 StarlingM.C.andHosp 
 Univ. of Willamette.. 
 
 i ..luhibiis, Ohio 
 
 lsll 
 
 
 
 Salem. Oregon 
 
 L86V 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jefferson Med. Coll... 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa.... 
 
 1 - .' 1 
 
 j a 
 
 22 
 
 "^ Univ. of Pennsylvania 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa.... 
 
 1 J.. 
 
 
 
 Women's M. C. of Pa. 
 
 Philadelphia. Pa.... 
 
 
 
 
 
 I'haibstou. S. C... 
 
 S'.'t 
 
 
 
 
 Columbia, S. C 
 
 M.S 
 
 
 
 Univ. of Nashville ami 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Nashville, Tenn 
 
 
 
 
 Tex. Med. C. andHosp. 
 
 Galveston, Tex 
 
 1871 
 
 
 
 
 Burlington. Vt 
 
 
 j. a 
 
 
 
 riiailottesville.Va.. 
 
 IV) 
 
 
 
 Kicliinoud, Va 
 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 
 Washington, D. C... 
 
 1851 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Columbia Univ 
 
 Washington, D. C... 
 
 
 
 
 MEIKROTTO 
 
 Dental Colleges. — In the United States, the 
 first institution of this kind was the Baltimore 
 College of Dental Surgery, which received its 
 charter in 1839. In 1876, there were in the 
 U. S. the following dental schools : 
 
 New Orleans D. C New Orleans, La. . . . 1S6 
 
 Baltimore College of 
 
 Iiental Surgery Baltimi 
 
 Maryland Dental Coll. Baltimore. Md, 
 Boston Iiental Col" 
 Dental School of 
 
 van! PiiiM n t. 
 
 Pa. Coll. of Dent. Sur. Philadelphia 
 
 Phila. Dent. Coll Philadelphia 
 
 Amer. Dental College Austin. Tex. 
 Univ. of California.. . lOakland, Ca 
 
 Homoeopathic Colleges. — The homoeopathic 
 system of medicine was first definitely propound- 
 ed by Hahnemann (born in Meissen, Saxony, 
 1755; died in Paris, 1843). The first homoeo- 
 pathic college was founded at Allentown, Pa., by 
 Dr. "Wesselhoeft, but it no longer exists. In 1870, 
 there were in the United States the following 
 homoeopathic colleges and departments : 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 *::■ 
 
 ^ ■ 
 
 1867 
 
 2 
 
 ism 
 
 2 
 
 is,:; 
 
 2 
 
 1 so ; 
 
 3 
 
 lscs 
 
 2 
 
 I-,,.; 
 
 2 
 
 isni, 
 
 2 
 
 ISs.-i 
 
 2 
 
 IS.Hi 
 
 
 
 •1 
 
 IHYS 
 
 
 1873 
 
 
 Homoeopathic 
 
 
 s | 
 
 .= « 
 
 -: S 
 
 College or 
 
 Location 
 
 H 
 
 
 
 Department 
 
 
 - 7 - 
 
 '■- 
 
 ChicagoHomrrop.Coll. 
 
 Chicago, 111 
 
 1876 
 
 3 
 
 •i\> 
 
 
 
 
 
 and Hosp of I'lii.-ag-. Chicago, 111 
 
 186(1 
 
 
 
 Iowa Slate Ci.n.rsiti Iowa City. Iowa 
 
 IS,, 
 
 
 
 
 IH7H 
 
 3 
 
 
 
 1H74 
 
 3 
 
 36 
 
 Homo-op M.< ,.t Mo St Louis. Mo 
 
 1858 
 
 2 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 St Lmiis, Mo 
 
 1876 
 
 
 
 N. Y. Homteop. M. C. . 
 
 New York. N. Y 
 
 1860 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 New York. N. Y 
 
 186a 
 
 
 
 
 Cincinnati. Ohio 
 
 
 
 
 Homreop. Hosp. Cull. 
 
 Cleveland, Ohio 
 
 1849 
 
 2-3 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Philadelphia 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa.... 
 
 I860 
 
 
 
 In Europe, there are chairs of homoeopathy 
 in the universities of Munich, Germany, and of 
 Buda-Pesth, Hungary; also, a school of homoeop- 
 athy in London, England. 
 
 MEIEBOTTO, Johann Heinrich Lud- 
 wig, a German educator, born August 22., 1742; 
 died September 24., 1800. He was appointed, 
 in 1771, professor, and, in 1775, rector of the 
 Joachimsthal Gymnasium, in Berlin ; in which 
 position he was eminently successful, being called 
 the King of Rectors. AVliile a member of the 
 school council, he traveled through the provinces 
 of Prussia, Silesia. and IWn.and displayed great 
 talent in organizing common schools. Besides 
 numerous works on various subjects, he wrote a 
 Latin grammar constructed on a plan which bore 
 some resemblance to the methods of Jacotot and 
 Hamilton, and which attracted considerable at- 
 tention at the time of its introduction, but soon 
 fell into disuse. 
 
MELANCHTON 
 
 MELAKCHTHON, Philip, one of the 
 church reformers of the L6th century, and one 
 of Germany's greatest schoolmen and educators, 
 was born at Bretten, a little town near Heidel- 
 berg, Feb. L6., 1 197; died at Wittenberg, April 
 19., L560. In recognition of the extraordinary 
 influence which he exerted upon the schools 
 of Germany in his own and the following cent- 
 uries.he lias been honored witb the t it eol Prce- 
 
 MEMOHIZING 
 
 i gymnasium, invited Me- 
 ts rector. He declined this 
 
 it seem to lie uiieiatefu] to 
 
 in 1507, he was taken into the family of his 
 grandmother, who was a sister of the celebrated 
 Keuchlin, and lived at Pforzheim. Keuchlin. 
 who frequently visited his sister, was delighted 
 with the progress of young Melanchthon, gave 
 him books, and, after the fashion of the times, 
 changed his original name Schwarzerd into 
 the Greek Melanchthon. At the age of only 
 twelve years, Melanchthon was sent to the uni- 
 versity of Heidelberg, which two years later, in 
 1511, gave him the baccalaureate degree, but, 
 in 1512, by reason of his extreme youth, de- 
 clined to confer upon him the degree of Master. 
 While at Beidelberg, Melanchthon took charge 
 of the studies of the two sons of Count Lowen- 
 stein, and sketched, probably for their use, the 
 first outlines of a grammar of the Creek lan- 
 guage. In 1512, he went to the university of 
 Tubingen, where he was involved in the struggle 
 between the old and the new era. and with the 
 energy and ardor of youth strove to compass all 
 branches of knowledge. In 1514, at the age of 
 seventeen.he was made a Master, and at once 
 began to lecture on Latin classics. His career 
 as an author began about the same time ; for, as 
 early as 1 51 6, he published an edition of Terence, 
 and, in 1518, his Greek grammar, at the close of 
 which he announced " that he intended, in eon- 
 junction with a number of his friends, to edit 
 the works of Aristotle in the original". At the 
 same time, he attended mathematical and med- 
 ical lectures, and studied the science of law. 
 In 1518, Frederick the Wise, Elector of Saxony, 
 upon the recommendation of Reuchlin, ap- 
 pointed him professor of Creek in the university 
 of Wittenberg. When he left Tubingen, Simler, 
 his old teacher, said of him : " As many learned 
 men as the university can boast of, they are, 
 nevertheless, none of them, learned enough to 
 form a suitable estimate of the learning of him 
 who is about to leave us." Melanchthon entered 
 Wittenberg Aug. 25.. 1518, and remained there 
 until the close of his life, laboring for 28 years in 
 intimate connection with Luther. He lectured 
 on the most diverse subjects, — the Old and 
 the New Testaments, dogmatics, the Greek and 
 Latin classics, ethics, logic, and physics. His 
 fame spread throughout Europe; and the number 
 of his hearers reached at times as high as two j 
 thousand, embracing not only Germans, but 
 Frenchmen, Englishmen, Poies, Hungarians, 
 Italians, and Greeks. Among the distinguished 
 educators who were formed under his teaching, 
 were Trotzendorf and Neander. He was often, 
 and in various ways, appealed to for counsel in 
 school matters. The people of Nuremberg having 
 
 tion with scl 1 
 
 L527, of the elm 
 undertaken by i 
 Constant, and tl 
 
 ches and .school 
 rder of the El. 
 rough the inflm 
 
 of Thuringia, 
 
 ■tor, John the 
 nee of Luther. 
 
 In company witl 
 he traveled over 
 published his 1! 
 work of great in 
 cation in ( lermai 
 ginnings, as yet 
 
 Myconiusand . 
 he whole count 
 port, or Book < 
 
 portaiuv in the 
 
 v. Thisl kd 
 
 crude, of a big 
 
 y,and,inl528| 
 /' 1 'isitation, a 
 
 listorv of eilu- 
 ■scribes the be- 
 i-school system 
 
 in that country, without organization, or well- 
 regulated activity. Melanchthon was a prolific 
 author of text books, which were universally 
 introduced, and were perpetuated through many 
 editions. They comprise a Greek and a Latin 
 grammar, two manuals of logic, one of rhetoric, 
 one of ethics, and one of physics, all character- 
 ized by great clearness oi expression. Under 
 the title Jjtvlttiiiitlimn-s, we have a collection of 
 Melanchthon's orations, which contain a treasure 
 of educational wisdom. The best edition of 
 Melanchthon's numerous works is that of Bret- 
 schneiderand Bindseil, in the Corpus Reforma- 
 torum (28 vols.. 1834 60). His life has been 
 written by Ledderiibse (Heidelberg, 1847; trans- 
 lated into English by Krotel); Schmidt (1861); 
 and many others. 
 
 MEMORIZING, committing to memory, or, 
 as it is sometimes called, learning by heart, 
 generally implies repetition or rote-learning; 
 though it need not be without an understanding 
 of what is memorized. The law of repetition 
 has tin important application in many processes 
 of instruction that arc addressed, wholly or in 
 part, to the memory. The mere memorizing of 
 words or sentences, in order to produce a show 
 of knowledge is a great abuse. Children may, 
 however, be required to commit to memory some 
 statements which tiny do not perfectly under- 
 stand, such complete understanding requiring a 
 more mature degree of intellectual development. 
 "No doubt", says Calderwood (On Teaching, 
 Edin., 1H74), "all children must commit to 
 memory a good many things they do not rightly 
 understand. Such storing of the memory be- 
 longs less or more to all study." This is the view- 
 also of Thring (Education and School, Lon- 
 don. 1864): "There should be a clear perception 
 how far it is wise to explain, and to proceed on 
 the principle of making a boy thoroughly under- 
 stand his lessons, and how far they should be 
 looked on as a mere collecting of material and a 
 matter of memory. It must be borne in mind 
 that, with the young, memory is strong, and 
 logical perception weak. All teaching should 
 start mi this undoubted fact. It sounds very 
 fascinating to talk about understanding every 
 
562 ME* 
 
 thing, learning every thing thoroughly, and all 
 those broad phrases, which plump down on a 
 difficulty, and hide it. Put in practice they are 
 about on a par with exhorting a boy to mind he 
 does not go into the water till he can swim." The 
 method referred to in this citation is the other 
 extreme from mechanical word memorizing, and 
 while not as injurious, or as likely to be adopted, 
 is equally unphilosophical. The extent to which 
 memorizing is to be carried, and the branches of 
 instruction to which it is to be applied, constitute 
 important subjects for the exercise of the teach- 
 er's judgment and intelligence. (See Concert 
 Tkaciiino, Mkmoky, and Roth-Teaching.) 
 
 MEMORY is often represented as a distinct 
 faculty of the mind; but this may do harm in 
 education. The mind is one. and has no sepa- 
 rate faculties distinct from each other, the term 
 faculty being used merely for the sake of con- 
 venience. It is import-ant to turn away from 
 this m.«le of conception, and to look at the 
 phenomena as they arise in the mind. An ob- 
 ject and a mind come into connection; what is 
 the result? An impression is produced on the 
 mind, or more correctly the mind forms an im- 
 pression of the object. What becomes of this im- 
 pression? A new object presents itself, and then 
 the impression disappears before the new impres- 
 sion which the mind forms of the new object. Ifas 
 the former impression disappeared altogether? 
 No. We believe that, in some way or other, 
 it still remains in the mind. If a similar ob- 
 ject were to come before the mind, it woidd be 
 conscious that it had formed an impression of it 
 before, and the two impressions would blend into 
 one. We have here. then, a peculiar power of the 
 mind to retain what it has once had ; and this 
 power does not apply merely to perceptions or 
 other intellectual acts, but to feelings an 1 desires. 
 A longing for an object has been aroused within 
 us. The longing is displaced for a time by some 
 other pressing passion. But the longing is still 
 in the mind: and when the appropriate causes of 
 excitation occur, the longing will come back, and, 
 it may lie, blend with the lieu longing which 
 helps to awaken it. or repel the new longing 
 which has aroused it by contrast. This then is 
 the liisi feature of memory. The soul has the 
 power of retaining feelings, volitions, perceptions, 
 and thoughts. The question has been raised, 
 can these feelings, volitions, and thoughts en- 
 tirely and absolutely vanish from the mind? A 
 categorical answer cannot, from the nature of 
 the ease, be given to this question ; but, certain 
 facts render it likely that the mind retains every 
 
 citation which is defective. Many circumstances 
 which seem to have been entirely forgotten, are, 
 under peculiar coudit ions, recalled to the memory. 
 It is said that often, when persons have been 
 drowning, they have seen, as in a rapid vision, 
 their past life in multitudinous details which 
 they had entirely forgotten. People, in diseases 
 of the brain, have remembered languages, which 
 they had learned in early days, but which they 
 seemed to have lost completely. Facts like these 
 
 point to the indestructibility of that which has 
 once had a place in the soul. — But besides the 
 power of retention, there is the other power of 
 
 We 
 
 jkat 
 
 the conditions of its exercise ; and. in this con- 
 nection, we must consider the four following 
 principles: (I) It is plain that the impression 
 will be reproducible in proportion to the strength 
 and vivacity with which it is first made. 'I his 
 strength depends partly on the natural capacity 
 of the child, partly on whether the stimulus 
 in the object is such as to produce a strong 
 impression. The educational inferences from 
 this statement are numerous. Thus it follows 
 that wherever a real object can be presented 
 to a child, it should be used in preference to 
 any picture of it. and that a picture of it is 
 better than a mere verbal description. More- 
 over, if more than one sense can be employed, so 
 much the better. If any object is to be re- 
 liietnhcrcd, the child will remember more easily, 
 if he can touch, smell, and taste it. as well as see 
 it This arises partly from the fact that these 
 direct sensations produce strong impressions, but 
 partly also from what we call our second prin- 
 ciple of memory: — (II) Every means should be 
 used to concentrate the attention on the object. 
 If we wish to make a child remember an object, 
 the object must he allowed to lie before the 
 child's eye or mind for some time. In the percep- 
 tion of every object the process is somewhat as 
 follows: the perception or sensation has first to 
 
 \\ lliell 
 
 butalsi 
 
 it may 
 
 acts: a 
 
 s executed at its central moment, 
 strength of the connections u bid 
 lh the antecedent and subsequent 
 strength depends partly on the 
 time and attention with which they can be kept 
 together in the mind : for. in every mental act, 
 there are subsidiary simultaneous acts which 
 scarcely reach the point of consciousness. For 
 instance, when 1 examine a house, there is some 
 slight perception of the intermediate space be- 
 tween me and the house, of the objects, such as 
 trees, which may be in that space, and of the sky 
 which is overhead. These pass from the one 
 definite perception to the other, and in a latent 
 state help to recall the one. when we get the 
 other. The strength of the connection is in- 
 creased, if there liea natural coin tioii between 
 
 the two mental acts, such as that of cause and 
 effect, means and end, or if there be some points 
 ' resemblance between them, or some points of 
 
contrast. But, in all eases, time must be given 
 to let these points of resemblance or contrast 
 flow over, as it were, from the one to the other. 
 The danger to which the educator is here ex- 
 posed, is that of attempting to do too much and, 
 therefore, doing what he does too hurriedly. He 
 must be patient. lie must try to intensify the 
 impression by allowing the various senses to deal 
 with it, and he can thus concentrate attention 
 longer on it than he could otherwise do. And 
 he must. as far as possible, tiring only twoobjeets 
 or two ideas at a time before the pupil's mind. 
 These should be held together for sometime: 
 and they should, it' it is possible, be naturally 
 connected. Of course, there are occasions in 
 which this is neither possible nor advantageous. 
 There are some occasions in which the teacher 
 must pass over a good deal of matter in a short 
 time. He does not wish his pupil to remember 
 the whole, nor would it be good tor the pupil to 
 do so ; but these cases should be limited to those 
 of necessity. And a warning should be given 
 against the danger of indulging too much in 
 reading books which, awakening the interest 
 strongly and thus disturbing the nervous sys- 
 tem, do not demand of the reader an accurate 
 recollection. This is specially true of novels, 
 The frequent and rapid reading of these works, 
 in which the reader has no stimulus and no occa- 
 sion to remember the incidents accurately, tills 
 the mind with a great number of vague mem- 
 ories. These memories render indistinct what 
 ought to be distinct, for they abstract so much 
 of the valuable power that the mind possesses 
 for reproduction: and the habit of reading with- 
 out caring to remember, is apt to transfer itself 
 
 to the 1 ks and acts which ought to have the 
 
 closest attention. — (111) There must be frequent 
 repetition. An object or thought is reproducible 
 easily, when it has been made to occupy a large 
 space in the mind. The power of reproduction is 
 limited by lime, and the mind can only reproduce 
 within certain limits in this respect. If. therefore, 
 an object is to be reproduced, the faded impres- 
 sion must be renewed : and the renewal of the 
 impression strengthens its hold. It is thus that 
 a fact may become indelibly imprinted on the 
 memory. The value of the repetition cannot be 
 overestimated, but great care must be taken not 
 to make it wearisome. — (IV) The power of re- 
 production greatly depends on the state of the 
 health. That there is a very close connection 
 between this power and the body, is proved most 
 conclusively by the numerous instances collected 
 by Dr. Miireioiiibie. in which abnormal states 
 of the brain were accompanied by abnormal 
 developments of memory. When, therefore, a 
 child forgets, it must not 'be always attributed to 
 carelessness. A child learns a word on Monday, 
 ami knows it with perfect accuracy; but when he 
 comes, on Tuesday morning, to repeat it. he finds 
 he cannot. In all probability, the impression was 
 too weak to last a whole day, and to resist the 
 many and more interesting idea- which have 
 intervened ; but the lesson is not lost. The orig- 
 inal impression is there ; the teacher patiently 
 
 and pleasantly renews the impression; and the 
 old blends with the new. and strengthens, until 
 repetition fixes it in the mind forever. But it 
 maybe merely a temporary suspension of the 
 child's power of reproduction, in consequence of 
 illness: and there is no surer sign of latent dis- 
 ease than when a child, generally ready and 
 quick, stumbles and forgets. Some phyMoingiMs 
 go the length of affirming that, owing to the 
 freshness of the nervous system, the exercise of 
 the memory should be assigned to the morning; 
 while other mental efforts, such as those of 
 imagination, should be reserved for the evening. 
 These four principles lead not only to the power 
 of reproduction, but to the power of ready and 
 accurate reproduction. In order that the mem- 
 ory may embrace a wide range of subjects, it is 
 essential that the mind should devote itself to 
 such a range of subjects. The power of reprodu- 
 cing a subject depends upon the frequency and 
 strength with which it has come before the 
 mind. It is, therefore, not quite correct to say, 
 that a person has a good or a bad memoiy. Kvery 
 one has many kinds of memory. If he ii;<^ exer- 
 cised his mind in words, he will remember words; 
 if he has given much attention to numbers, he 
 will remember numbers: if to any other class of 
 ideas, he will remember such ideas. But. however 
 great his practice in numbers may be. that prac- 
 tice will not enable him to remember words; and 
 the converse is also true. The teacher must care- 
 fully exercise the pupil in each group of notions, 
 if he expects him to remember them readily and 
 accurately. Perhaps, one of the questions which 
 deserve careful consideration in education is 
 what ought to be forgotten. The human mind 
 is limited in its range, and cannot reproduce 
 every thing. Ought it to put into its store-house 
 any thing that it cannot hope to reproduce? We 
 think that it ought. Where the aim is to pro- 
 duel- in the pupil a clear idea or notion, many 
 particulars must be adduced which, studied atten- 
 tively for a short time, will render the notion 
 clear and distinct : but it is not necessary that the 
 mind should retain all these particulars. This 
 is the case, for instance, in geography. In order 
 to form a correct notion of a country, many par- 
 ticulars must be carefully weighed: but. after the 
 notion has been attained, the pupil will wisely 
 drop a oivat deal of the knowledge which he has 
 
 temporarily mastered, deeming ii enough to 
 
 know where he can get the knowledge when he 
 wants it. Again, when the object is to inculcate 
 a great principle of action, the same course may 
 be pursued. If, for example, a teacher wishes 
 to impress upon 1 1 is pupils the Inn- idea of tolera- 
 tion, he may choose many incidents in history 
 to bring it home to their minds, and may go into 
 the minutest details of these incidents in order 
 to awaken interest ; but he succeeds in his pur- 
 pose, if he leaves a strong and accurate genera] 
 impression, even though the pupil forgets most of 
 the details which have been given him. The power 
 of forgetfulness is one that can also be directed, as 
 well as the power of reproduction. It is, indeed, 
 true that the greater the effort to forget any 
 
564 MEN 
 
 thing, the more surely is it impressed on the 
 memory; but this holds true mainly in those mat- 
 ters in which there is a strong persona] element: 
 and just as a man who sleeps in a loom where a 
 clock strikes can make up his mind not to take 
 any notice of the striking of the clock in his 
 sleep, so, in the impersonal matters of the intel- 
 lect, we can make up our minds to let such and 
 such facts fall into oblivion. Kant distinguished 
 memory as the mechanical, the ingenious, and 
 the judicious. The mechanical is employed when 
 the only bond of connection is, that the two things 
 are in the mind at the same time, the one im- 
 mediately succeeding the other. This is what is 
 called committing to memory, or learning by 
 heart. Such kind of memory must be frequently 
 used in early education. It is important for the 
 teacher to note its character. It depends on 
 simultaneity and succession, and any disturbance 
 of these circumstances disturbs the memory. For 
 instance, it would lie very difficult for anyone at 
 first tn repeat the Lord's Prayer backwards. He 
 lias learned it forwards ; he has not learned it 
 backwards. A boy learns a/no, I lure. He may 
 not have mastere 1 / love, amo. If you ask him the 
 Latin word for death, he cannot tell you ; but if 
 you ask him the meaning of mors, he can tell you. 
 The third method — that which Kant calls the 
 judicious, is no doubt the best; since by it, things 
 are remembered by means of their natural con- 
 nection in thought. Tin nights can lie grouped, and 
 one of a group suggests the other. Phenomena 
 stand in the relation of cause and effect. The 
 cause will suggest the effect, or the effect the 
 cause. — As an "example of the second kind, may 
 be mentioned mnemonics; which is an attempt to 
 introduce an artificial connecting link. Two ideas 
 are unconnected, but they may be linked by a 
 third which is familiar to the mind. Thus a clock 
 has no real connection with hope; but, having re- 
 solved to make a speech, I fix on three objects in 
 the hall, with which I arbitrarily connect the three 
 heads of my discourse. The first,, for example, 
 is a pillar in the hall, and with it I connect the 
 idea of faith : this will be my first head, and, 
 ■when I see the pillar. I shall know how to begin. 
 Hope is my second and I have but to look at 
 the clock to recall it to mind; and a third object 
 in the room, in the same manner, will remind 
 me that my third head is charily. Mnemonic 
 systems may be divided into three classes : 
 (I) those which connect the ideas with localities, 
 such as the parts of a room, tablets divided into 
 different compartments, etc. ; ('_') those in which 
 the ideas are connected with letters or words ; 
 and (3) those in which an attempt is made to 
 seize hold of some natural connection ; for in- 
 stance, hair, mourir, naitre, plaire, rire, vivre, 
 are irregular French verbs, having no connection 
 with each other ; but the meanings may be so 
 arranged as to be easily suggestive of each other; 
 thus, die suggests lire, lire suggests to be born, 
 to be born suggests lain/li. lamjh suggests please, 
 and please suggests hate. Now, if two of these 
 ideas be kept steadily in the mind together, they 
 will remain united in the mind, and afterwards 
 
 the one will suggest the other. None of these 
 mnemonic systems are likely to be of much use 
 to the teacher. They, indeed, often add to the 
 task of memory; they are apt to create confusion, 
 after a time, and they tend to displace intelligent 
 memory. The only case in which some good may 
 be got out of them is in connection with dates. 
 There is no doubt that dates are far more dif- 
 ficult to remember than letters or words ; and, 
 therefore, a temperate use of letters or words for 
 figures may be recommended. — One of the most 
 noted systems employing letters is the old one 
 of Grey's Memoria Technica (1730). The letters 
 employed are as follows : 
 
 b d t f I s p k n z 
 Here a and b stund for 1 ; e and d. for 2 ; i and t, 
 for 3; and so on. 
 
 These letters are assigned arbitrarily to the 
 respective figures, and may very easily be re- 
 membered. The first five vowels in order natu- 
 rally represent 1, 2, 3, 4, 5. The diphthong au, 
 being composed of a (1) and u (5), stands for G ; 
 oi for 7, being composed of o (4) and i (3); on for 
 9, being composed of o (4) and u (5). The diph- 
 thong ei will easily lie remembered for eight, being 
 the initials of the word. In like manner with the 
 consonants ; where the initials can conveniently 
 be retained, they are made use of to signify this 
 number : as I for three, f for four, s for six, and 
 n for nine. The rest are assigned without any 
 particular reason, unless that possibly p may be 
 more easily remembered for 7 or septem, k for 
 8 or i/crii, d for 2 or duo, b for 1 as being the 
 first consonant, and I for five, being the Roman 
 letter for 50, than any others that could have 
 been put in their places. A much more ingenious 
 and more effective system, is that taught by F. 
 Fauvel-Gouraud (Phreno-Mnemnlechny, or Art 
 of Memory, N. T., 1845; with Dictionary, for a 
 ready application of the system), which was a 
 modification of Fainagle's New Art of Memory 
 (London, 1812). In this, as in other systems, the 
 underlying principle is the law of association of 
 ideas ; ' and, in order to facilitate this association, 
 arbitrary facts and dates are translated into the 
 expressions of ideas or thoughts. Numbers are 
 transformed into words and sentences by the fol- 
 lowing arrangement of equivalents : 
 
 0123456 7 89 
 stnrurlch k fp 
 z d g ;soft) g (hard) v b 
 
 th sh 
 
 The vowel and the aspirate h, with the quasi 
 vowels, w and y, are not represented; and hence, 
 in forming a word for the mnemonic representa- 
 tion of a date or other number, any of these can 
 be used. Tims the number 32 may be represented 
 by man, moon, many, human, woman, etc. This 
 feature of the system adds greatly to the facilities 
 with which it may be applied. For example, 
 suppose it is desired to fix in the memory in this 
 way the date of the passage of the Red Pea by 
 the Israelites (1491 B. C); by a careful selection 
 from among the numerous words and phrases 
 
MENNONITES 
 
 that may be taken to represent this number, 
 the phrase watery bed is taken, as having some 
 connection in ideas with the historical fact re- 
 ferred to. Then Gouraud's association is ex- 
 pressed in the sentence, "At the Passage of the 
 Bed Sea, the armies of Pharaoh met their death 
 in a watery bed"; and as long as this phrase is 
 remembered, tin' date involved in it cannot be 
 forgotten. The advantage of this system is. that 
 it need not living into association heterogeneous 
 ideas. In the application of it. many other cu- 
 rious devices, such as komopAonic analogies etc. 
 are used. — Of a somewhat similar character is 
 Dr. Alex. Mackay's Facts mid. Bates (Edinburgh, 
 1869). In this, as in Gouraud's system, every 
 date is contained in a sentence which is approp- 
 riate to the event. Thus the sentence which 
 gives the date of Hannibal's defeat at Zama is. 
 "The formidable warrior is defeated." — The art 
 of mnemonics is said by Cicero to have been 
 invented by the Greek poet Simonides. It is 
 described by Cicero, Quintilian, and Pliny. In 
 more modern times, works on the subject have 
 been written by Schenkel (1593), Bruno (1582), 
 Mink (1648), Grey (1730), Aretin (1810), Fain- 
 agle (1812), improved by Aimce (Paris 1832), 
 Bemowsky (1842), Otto (1843), Cothe {System 
 der Mnemonik, Cassel, 1853), Pick (1866),Sayer 
 (1867). Slater {SententicR Ghronologicoe, edit, by 
 Miss Sewell, 1868), Mackay (1869), Minola, 
 Nemos (1875), and many others. .V short his 
 tory of Mnemonics is given in Tick's work. 
 
 MENNONITES, "a denomination of Prot- 
 testants, which on'ginatedat Zurich, Switzerland, 
 in 1525. They spread to Southern Germany, 
 and soon after to the Netherlands, where Menno 
 Symons, a former Roman Catholic priest, joined 
 them in L535. Prom him they took their name. 
 though he was not their founder, but only re- 
 organized them. In coiiin with the Friends. 
 
 they practice non-resistance and abstinence from 
 oaths; and, in common with the Baptists, they 
 reject infant baptism, administering, however, 
 baptism by pouring. In the Netherlands, in 1700, 
 they numbered 150,000 members; but at present 
 have only 211.0(10; and, in Germany and Switzer- 
 land, even less than that number. In southern 
 Russia, whither they have gone from Germany 
 as colonists, they form a population of more 
 than 30,000. Their emigration to the United 
 States began in 1683, and continued throughout 
 the entire 18th century. At present their mem- 
 bership in the United States and I lanada, i^ esti- 
 mated at 60,000. They are all of German origin, 
 and most of them still employ the German lan- 
 guage. Nearly all of them are farmers, being 
 favorably known for their honesty, industry, and 
 other domestic virtues, but greatly behind the 
 age in the matter of education. Their first at- 
 tempt to found a high school took place in I -t„-~, 
 when the Ghristliche Bildungsanstatt (christian 
 institution of learning), at Wadsworth, Medina 
 Co., Ohio, was opened. It is an academy, hav- 
 ing for its principal a theological teacher. Rev. 
 0. J. Van der Smissen, but besides him only 
 teachers of German and English grammar, mu- 
 
 mkrckrsiurg coli.kgk ;>t;;> 
 
 sic, and the elemental v brandies. The number 
 of pupils, in 1876, was 27. Onlj one of the 
 various divisions existing an •_' the Menno- 
 nites of this country, supports this school, which 
 
 mittee," appointed by the general conference of 
 
 the body. The other divisions of the Mennonites 
 have no institutions of learning whatever. Even 
 Sabbath schools exist only in a minority of the 
 churches, and are of quite recent origin. In 
 Europe also, little is done by the Mennonites for 
 the education of the members of their order. 
 They send their children to the public schools, 
 but support a theological seminary of their own, 
 founded at Amsterdam. in lol2, under the name 
 
 Be Kit kschool der algemeene Boopsgezvn.de 
 
 Socieit it ter bevordering van de predikdienst, 
 i. e., Seminary of the General Society of Bap- 
 tists for the 'furtherance of the ministry. This 
 seminary is under the control of 12 curators, 
 who are appointed by the trustees of tlie general 
 society. It has at present (1876) 3 professors 
 and about 30 students. In Germany the Menno- 
 nites have an academy at Weierhof, Rhenish 
 Bavaria, founded in L868. 
 
 MERCER UNIVERSITY, at Macon. Ga., 
 under the control of Baptists, was founded in 
 
 is furnished with 
 heiiiical apparatus. 
 8250,000. The li- 
 tlnmes, The cost of 
 
 The i 
 
 ts.with 
 
 comprises a college of libera] arts, with a classical 
 course of four years, and a scientific course of 
 three years ; a department of theology (not yet 
 separately organized) ; and a school of law. In 
 
 
 college, 
 students, of 
 I'he Mercer 
 'o., and the 
 e connected 
 
 Re, 
 
 o. I.. Dagg, 1>. I>., 1843 — 50; the Rev. 
 M. Crawford, It. D., L850— 60; the Rev. II. 
 Tucker 1». I».. 1867 — 71 : and the Rev. Archi- 
 Id.l. Battle, D.D., appointed in 1872. 
 MERCERSBURG COLLEGE, at Mercers- 
 ]■!_'. I'a.. founded in 1M'>.">. is under the control 
 
 ■med Chi 
 Marsha] 
 
 md chiefly by tuition fees and contributions 
 as an endowment of $18,000. The librariet 
 tain about 3,000 volumes. The cost of tin 
 is $45 per annum. There is a preparatory 
 
 and 
 
 II. 
 
 The presidents have been the Rev. Dr. Thomas 
 G. Apple, and the Rev. Dr. E. E. Higbee, the 
 present incumbent (1876). 
 
Oiili 
 
 METII S'I'S 
 
 METHODISTS, the collective name of a 
 number of Protestant denominations that have 
 sprung from the peculiar religions character 
 and influence of John Wesley, a Fellow of Ox- 
 ford University, and ordained as a clergyman of 
 the Church of England. As early as 1729, while 
 a Fellow at Oxford. Wesley gathered about 
 him a number of persons of like character, and 
 spent much time in religious worship, in the 
 study of the Bible, and in active benevolent la- 
 bors among the poor. Their fellow studc- its. either 
 in derision or as a happy expression of their char- 
 acter, called them Methodists, a term which lias 
 been loosely employed not only to describe any 
 who are extraordinarily zealous in religion, but 
 as the recognized name of several denominations 
 that can trace their origin, more or less directly, 
 to the influence of John Wesley. The principal 
 Methodist bodies in Great Britain are the Wes- 
 levan Societies, organized in 1740; the Primitive 
 Methodist Church,organizedl819; the Methodist 
 New Connection church: the United Methodist 
 Free Churches ; the Bible Christian Church.and 
 the British Wesleyan Reform Union. There are 
 also affiliated Methodist bodies in Krance.and in 
 Australia ; ami lai'ee and flourishing missions in 
 China. India. South Africa, and elsewhere, under 
 the charge of British Methodists; and bodies of 
 American Methodists, which promise soon in- 
 dependent and affiliated organizations. In Amer- 
 
 from which sprung, in 1844, the Methodisl Epis- 
 copal Church, South; the African Methodist 
 Episcopal Church; the African Zion M. E. 
 Church; and the Colored M. K. Church of 
 America. There are also several smaller organ- 
 izations, called The Methodist Church, Methodist 
 Protestant Church, American Wesleyan Church, 
 Free Methodist, and Evangelical Association. All 
 these bodies are substantially identical in doc- 
 trine, all maintain a regular itineracy of the 
 preachers; and. ill fact, the M. E. Church, and 
 M. E. Church, South, embrace by far the greater 
 part of all the membership among the white 
 population. The general summary of Methodists 
 in the United States, in 1876, gave in round 
 numbers 1 '.1 .110(1 itinerant ministers and nearly 
 3,000,000 members, in Methodist Episcopal 
 churches; and 1,500 itinerant ministers and 
 
 1«0,000 members, in i -episcopal Methodist 
 
 churches. In the rest of the world, Methodists 
 at the same time numbered about 5,000 itin- 
 erant ministers and 1,000,000 members. Ac- 
 cording to the U. S. census of 1870, the Meth- 
 odists had 21,337 church edifices, 6,528,209 
 sittings, and church property (edifices and 
 parsonages) worth $69,854,121; but they have 
 rapidly increased since that time. 
 
 In Great Briiain.the leading body of Meth- 
 odists in England and Scotland is composed of 
 the Wesleyan Societies under the control of the 
 British Wesleyan Conference, which has also a 
 branch in Ireland, and affiliated Conferences in 
 the British colonies. As early as 1744, two 
 schools, the Kings wood and the Woodhouse 
 drove, were established, which are still flourish- 
 
 ing. Two theological institutions were estab- 
 lished in 1838, which are largely attended, many 
 of the ministers now receiving their education 
 at these schools. They have also the Wesleyan 
 Proprietary School at Sheffield, which is recog- 
 nized as one of the colleges of the London Uni- 
 versity. What are called day schools or parish 
 
 scl is , ire established numerously in England. 
 
 complying with the terms required, and sharing 
 in governmental assistance. Also, to fit teach- 
 ers for these schools, the Wesleyans have a large 
 normal school at Westminster. They have also 
 a college designed expressly for the education of 
 those who are preparing to be foreign mission- 
 aries. By means of a Children's Fond and other 
 collections, many needy students arc aided while 
 securing an education. The Irish Wesleyan « in- 
 ference has two vigorous schools under its charge, 
 — the Belfast College and the Conventional 
 School at Dublin. There are various other 
 branches of Methodists in Great Britain, all of 
 which manifest an increasing interest in edu- 
 cation. The Primitive Methodist Church has 
 a theological institute at Sunderland : the Meth- 
 odist New Connection Church, has one at Shef- 
 field : the United Methodist Free Societies, at 
 Manchester; and the Bible Christians, atSheb- 
 bear. 
 
 In Canada, there are but two Methodist bodies. 
 the one called the Methodist Church of Canada 
 and Eastern America : and the other, the M. E. 
 Church of Canada. The former has a flourish- 
 ing university at Cobourg, with colleges of arts, 
 theology, law, and medicine ; also the Ml. Alli- 
 son Wesleyan College, at Sackville. N". B. ; the 
 Wesleyan Female College, at Hamilton; Home- 
 stead i 'ollege ; Theological < 'ollege. at Montreal; 
 Collegiate Institute, at IHindas; Manitoba Wes- 
 leyan Institute, and Ontario Ladies' College, at 
 Whitby. "These institutions have an aggregate 
 property oS about one million dollars. They are 
 all under the care of a board of education. The 
 Methodist Episcopal Church of < 'anada concen- 
 trates its educational interests at Belleville, where 
 it has a flourishing institution called Albert (.'ol- 
 lege, which has university powers, and depart- 
 ments in arts, theology, law. and medicine. There 
 is also connected with it a school for females, 
 called Alexandra College. 
 
 In Australia, the Methodists have several 
 flourishing academies and colleges. 
 
 In the United States, the Methodist Episcopal 
 church was not organized till 1784; but Meth- 
 odist Societies were established in New York 
 and Maryland as early as 1766. Rev. Thomas 
 Coke. LL.D., one of the presidents of the 
 first conference, was a graduate of Oxford Uni- 
 versity, .■mil deeply interested in education. 
 At this conference, a "Book Concern", which 
 has since become one of the leading publish- 
 ing houses in the country, was provided for; 
 and it was ordered that its profits should 
 be devoted to five purposes, one of which was 
 the foundation and maintenance of a college 
 particularly designed for the education of preach- 
 ers. A collection for this purpose was also or- 
 
MKTIH MUSTS 
 
 all the congregations. Tims 
 ved as a part of the legiti- 
 lurch at the time of its or- 
 illege thus established was 
 Ion, Md., in its;, and 
 
 Coke and Asbury, Cokes- 
 as well attended 'till 1797, 
 
 become preachers or teachers, 
 ing conference seminaries an 
 secure endowments in additi 
 buildings. There are but few 
 
 college was re-opened in Baltimore; but the new 
 
 building was also soon consumed by fire. So 
 disheartened was the Church by these losses that 
 some hastily inferred that it was "not the business 
 of Methodists to build colleges", and it was im- 
 pracl icable to resume the enterprise at once: and, 
 for twenty years, all the educational work of 
 the church was carried on in a few private 
 schools in various parts of the country. These 
 schools were somewhat numerous, and. in some 
 instances, formally recognized by the ( 'liurch: but, 
 for the want of system and permanent foun- 
 dations, the most of what they accomplished has 
 not been recorded in history. Asa kind of sub- 
 stitute for theological schools, the general con- 
 ference ordered that all who entered the reg- 
 ular ministry should pmsue for tour years a 
 prescribed course of literary and theological study. 
 and be examined annually in the same; and their 
 promotion in the conference as well as their 
 
 University, at Middletown, Ct.. in Li 
 college lias been remarkably success 
 character of its alumni, having gradui 
 1,200 in 45 years, besides partially 
 
 charters, about 20 of which were doii 
 able college work. Four or five had i 
 to the literary college, schools of med 
 or theology." The Northwestern I Hi 
 Evanston, 111., has associated with it 
 school in Chicago. The Boston Univei 
 medical, a law .and a theological depart] 
 Syracuse University, in Syracuse, N. 
 medical college; and a college of missio 
 a law school are a part of its plan. The 
 
 J31. 
 
 ful 
 
 lied 
 edll 
 
 about 
 
 prm ig 
 crsity 
 
 jS 
 
 a medical 
 
 neiit. The 
 Y.. has a 
 
 naries and 
 buildings 
 
 an 1 stu ly for the first four years of their min- 
 istry. This has greatly contributed to harmony 
 of belief and theological culture. It has. indeed, 
 been a great educating power, every young 
 Methodist preacher being specially charged to 
 spend from four to mx hours in study daily. 
 
 In L817,largely through the influence of Rev. 
 Wilbur Fisk. D. l'l.,of New Fngland.an alumnus 
 of Brown University, an academy was purchased 
 by the Conference in New England, and opened 
 as a conference seminary. Students of both 
 sexes were admitted. The ensuing general con- 
 ference approved the enterprise, and recom- 
 mended all the annual conferences to follow 
 the example. This has become the general prac- 
 tice. The greatest educational force of Meth- 
 oili-ts has appeared in these seminaries. There 
 have been nearly a hundred of these conference 
 seminaries founded, of which some have become 
 extinct after doing a noble work, some have be- i 
 come female colleges, and some have grown 
 into regular colleges; but more than fifty 
 still remain in a nourishing condition on the 
 old foundation. The buildings and funds 
 of these seminaries are valued at more than 
 
 34,oiM>.ooO ; and they employ about 500 teachers. 
 
 both sexes. They have 
 pupils, mostly young 
 from 16 to 25 years of 
 
 0.000. Several of these C 
 Uy to both sexes. The 
 len attending them an 
 
 suing thorough college 
 
 paratively small: but t 
 schools of the Boston 
 
 I'he establishment of 
 
 met with siderable 
 
 Methodist Episcopal ( 
 the teachingwould ten 
 
 work : others maintaii 
 
 were well grounded m 
 
 I llu'h 
 
 Which 
 
 and young women 
 many of whom have 
 
 •iginally attended by stu- 
 dents who had not pursued a college course 
 of study. Dr. Dempsters ereat object being a 
 
 scl I exclusively theological foryoung ministers 
 
 of whatever grade of scholarship. Subsequently, 
 this school was removed to Boston, and its 
 
5(iS 
 
 METHODISTS 
 
 courses of study were greatly enlarged; it is 
 now a department of the Boston University. 
 In 1855, the Garrett Biblical Institute was 
 opened in Evanston, III., founded on a bequest 
 by a Mrs. Garrett, of ( 'hicago. In 1807. the 
 Drew Theological Seminary was opened in 
 Madison. N. J. These three theological schools 
 are now largely attended by college grad- 
 uates; but they furnish, as yet, but a small 
 portion of those who enter the conferences as 
 regular preachers. From the beginning, it has 
 been the practice to admit to the ministry prom- 
 ising young men, with but a limited school 
 education ; but the relative proportion of college 
 graduates is rapidly increasing. Several of the 
 colleges offer special instruction to candidates 
 for the ministry. 
 
 In theforeign missionsoi the Methodist Epis- 
 copal Church, schools have been established ac- 
 cording to the exigences of the place, some ele- 
 mentary, and siime theological, and even medical. 
 Martin Institute, at Frankfort on the Main. I ler- 
 many. is a combination of a conference seminary 
 with a theological school. There is also a flour- 
 ishing India Theological School, at Bareilly, 
 British India. Several schools are under the 
 charge of the Woman's Foreign Missionary 
 Society. 
 
 Considerable effort has been made through 
 the Freedman's Aid Society to open and sup- 
 port schools for the freed colored people of the 
 South. About twenty schools have been estab- 
 lished, employing a hundred teachers, and edu- 
 cating many young colored ] pie for teachers 
 
 and preachers. In eight years, more than half a 
 million of dollars was expended for this purpose. 
 Most of these schools will, probably, grow 
 into permanent and strong seminaries or colleges. 
 
 In 1869,a board of education of the Methodist 
 Episcopal Church was chartered in the State of 
 New York, by request of the General Confer- 
 ence, designed to hold and disburse funds for 
 the whole Church, particularly to aid students 
 for the ministry, and especially for missionary 
 work ; and also, to assist schools, if any funds 
 are intrusted to it for that purpose. The board 
 is designed to be as permanent as the Church it- 
 self, consisting of two bishops, four preachers, 
 and six laymen, appointed in sections, for twelve 
 years each, by the General Conference. In 1872, 
 Rev. E.G. Haven, 1. 1.. D., was elected by the 
 General Continue.- corresponding secretary; 
 and, since that time, many students, mostly in 
 colleges and tin- ■!■ >_i n -.-i! schools, have annually 
 received some assistance from the board or its 
 auxiliary societies, in obtaining an education. 
 
 The Genera] Conference lias also reci tended 
 
 the observance of the second Sunday in June as 
 " Children's May." and that collections be taken 
 in the Sunday-schools on that day in behalf of 
 the board of education. The beneficiaries of 
 
 the board are all pledged to repaj the m v 
 
 after ( pleting their scl I education. They 
 
 receive money as a loan, no! by gift. 
 
 The General Conf erenee of 1876 made a pro- 
 vision in regard to education, w Inch 
 
 to render the actio] 
 
 more systemal ic ai 
 makes it the duty i 
 the subject of 
 
 Church on that subject 
 •al than ever before. It 
 residing elder to bring 
 in individual churches, 
 
 before the first quarterly conference of each 
 year, and secure the appointment of a commit- 
 tee, of which the preacher in charge shall be 
 chairman ; to organize, wherever practicable, a 
 church lyceum for mental improvement ; to or- 
 ganize free evening schools ; to provide a library, 
 text-books, and books of reference ; to popular- 
 ize religious literature by reading-rooms, or 
 otherwise; to seek out suitable persons, and, if 
 necessary, assist them to obtain an education, 
 with a view to the ministry ; and to do whatever 
 shall seem best fitted to supply any deficiency 
 in that which the church ought to offer to the 
 varied nature of man. In this way, it is hoped 
 to make educational work a part of the duty of 
 
 accomplished by the direct agency of the Meth- 
 odist Episcopal Church appears creditable, it 
 must be acknowledged that, hitherto, the efforts 
 of the denomination have not been so systematic, 
 and so thoroughly wrought out, on this subjei t, 
 as in many of its other enterprises. Its numer- 
 ous Sunday-schools are all carefully organized 
 and reported, and the circulation of Sunday- 
 school literature is immense. Through the in- 
 fluence of the Rev. J. II. Vincent, corresponding 
 secretary of the S. S. Union, nearly every Sun- 
 day-school in the whole Church feels the power 
 of a central life and controlling spirit. The 
 seminaries and colleges have acted less in con- 
 ceit, and some conferences have done compara- 
 tively little for education; but. at last, a con- 
 dition has been leached, in which every society 
 is requested to have a committee on education; 
 nearly every annual conference has an education 
 society practically auxiliary to the board of edu- 
 cation; every congregation is requested annually 
 to contribute for education 
 colleges, and theological si 
 steadily receiving addition 
 an increasing proportion 
 graduates of colleges and 
 and the sentiment is stron 
 education will be far more 
 
 designed , popular elementary edueatii 
 
 : and the seminaries, 
 ■hools are nearly all 
 s to their property; 
 if the ministers are 
 theological schools; 
 ,| in the < 'hurch that 
 thoroughly advanced 
 entury of American Metliodisl 
 he first. 
 
 t Church is decidedly in favor 
 ool system, particularly of the 
 ils attended by children residing 
 1 times, the General < inference 
 sentiment of the < 'hurch against 
 if the state to aid parochial or 
 It is.h.iwever. in favor of fol- 
 
 ipio. oi Having tin- 
 i the public schools; 
 lists do not recoin- 
 lat. This ( Ihurch 
 ■k of the state by 
 ecessary to secure 
 l. It claims that, 
 
MKTIIwMST- 
 
 oC'.t 
 
 if the stalt.' docs not prov 
 
 control. The Church is competent to establish 
 and sustain colleges and universities in which 
 the broadest and best culture shall be given in 
 science, philosophy, and religion. Neither of 
 these should be absent from a college ora univer- 
 sity ; but it is difficult to maintain them all in a 
 college controlled by the state— The literary in- 
 stitutions of every grade, under the care of the 
 Church, are so numerous, and their condition is 
 so constantly changing that, for an exact enu- 
 meration of these, attention is directed to the 
 Methodist Almanac and other current publica- 
 tions of the < Ihureh. 
 
 When the Methodist Kpiscopal Church, in 1844, 
 divided itself into two sections, that which be- 
 came the .Methodist Kpiscopal Church, South, 
 retained all the schools of every grade within the 
 boundary created by what was called the /'/mi 
 of Separation. Among these schools, were several 
 chartered colleges of high standing. Randolph 
 Macon College had been established in 1832, 
 one year after the Wesleyan University at 
 Middletown, Ct., and is. therefore, next to the 
 oldest Methodist College in America. Emory 
 College, at Oxford, (la., had been founded in 
 
 1837, and Emory and Henry College, at E ry, 
 
 Va„ in L838. Between 1844 and the breaking 
 out of the civil war. other institutions were 
 added. Centenary College, which had been es- 
 tablished by the state of Louisiana in L825, 
 
 KpTs'copai Church. ' South' V'm,itv' College, in 
 Randolph < !o., \. < '., arose (1852) from a school 
 commenced by the Rev. B. Craven. )>. I». Wof- 
 ford College, S. C, named after the Rev. Ben- 
 jamin Wofford, who gave $100,000 for its en- 
 dowment, was opened in 1855 ; ( Jentral < lollege, 
 at Fayette, Mo., in the same year; the Southern 
 University, at Greenboro, Ala., in 1856; the 
 Kentucky Wesleyan University, at Millersburg, 
 Ky., in L858. The civil war had a most dis- 
 astrous effect upon the Methodist as well as upon 
 the other literary institutions of the Southern 
 states. A number of colleges and other institu- 
 tions wholly perished : others were closed during 
 the greater part of the war, and have been, since 
 then, but gradually revived. Thus, there were 
 in the state of Alabama three colleges for males. 
 all in a flourishing condition, two of which had 
 their entire endowments swept away; while the 
 third, the Southern University, was greatly re- 
 duced in its means, and only kept open in some 
 of its departments. Since the close of the war. 
 great efforts have been made by the Church to 
 enlarge her educational work. The unfortunate 
 condition in which the finances of most of the 
 Southern states found themselves, proved, of 
 course.a great obstacle; but, more recently. great 
 strides in advance have been made, and; at pres- 
 ent, the Church, possesses, in Yanderbilt Univer- 
 sity, at Nashville, Tenn., the best endowed in- 
 stitution of learning in the South. The movement 
 for the establishment of this institution began in 
 
 1871. when delegates were appointed to a con- 
 vention to consi ler t he subjecl of a university, 
 such as would meet the wants of a church do 
 maiidnig a higher Christian education than 
 could be obtained in the South and South-west. 
 It declared that one million of dollars was neces- 
 sary to perfect the plan, and refused to author- 
 ize steps towards the selection of a site, until the 
 public showed itself in sympathy with the move- 
 ment, by a valid subscription of half that 
 amount. It was early discovered that, in the 
 exhausted condition of the South, so soon after 
 the war, it was no! practicable to pursue the en- 
 terprise. The project was in abeyance, when 
 Cornelius Vanderbilt. of the City of New York, 
 donated $500,000, to which he subsequently 
 added $200,000. 'I he institution was dedicated 
 and inaugurated in Oct., L875. (See Vander- 
 tai.T University.) In Texas, a convention was 
 called in 1869, to consider the propriety of con- 
 solidating four chartered colleges of the Church, 
 the oldest of which, Rutersville College, had 
 been chartered in 18C0 by the Congress of 
 the Republic of Texas. The convention met in 
 
 L870, resolved uj the establishment of a united 
 
 central institution, and declared not less than 
 §500,000 necessary to carry out the design. The 
 new institution was opened, in 1874, as Texas 
 University, and. in 1875, chartered as South- 
 western University ((J. v.). The total number of 
 chartered colleges enumerated in the Report of 
 (he Commissioner of I'j I neat ion for 187 5, was 1 (i. 
 All of them arc m the Southern states, with the 
 exception of one in California, and one in Ore- 
 gon. The latter. Corvallis College (q.v.),was 
 opened in 1st;:,, and the legislation of the state, 
 in lsi',0, placed the agricultural college of the 
 statu in connection with it. The Chun h has a 
 huge number of female colleges and high gi hools 
 under her control. The Wesleyan Female Col- 
 lege, at Macon. Ga,, is tl [dest institution of 
 
 chartered by the Legislature of Georgia,™ 1836, 
 under the name of the Georgia Female College. 
 The Greenboro Female College, at Greenboro, 
 \. ( '.. is only a few years younger, having been 
 founded in L841. Other prominent institutions 
 ot this i i iss .oe. the Montgomery female Col- 
 lege, at Christiansburg, Va : the Central Female 
 College, at Lexington, Mo.; the Thomasville Fe- 
 male College, at Thomasville, N. C; the Wes- 
 leyan Female [nstitute, at Staunton, Va.; Dav- 
 enport Female College, at Lenoir, N. (.'.; Mar- 
 tin Female College, at Pulaski, Tenn.: the 
 Mariha Washington College, at Abington, 7a.; 
 the Wesleyan Female College, at Mnrfreesboro, 
 N. C. — One of the most interesting and impor- 
 tant institutions in connection with the Southern 
 Methodist Church, is the < 'ulleoka Institute, in 
 Mora Co.. Tenn. It is a model high school, as well 
 as an academy affiliated to Vanderbilt Univer- 
 sity. There has always been a stroi ' lit in 
 this Church againsl special school of theology. 
 Biblical instruction in connection with the reg- 
 ular college course is, however, afforded in most 
 Southern Methodist Colleges. 
 
570 ME 
 
 MEXICO, a republic of North America; area, 
 741,800 sq. miles; population, about 9,276,000, 
 made up of whites, Creoles, Indian- half-breeds, 
 and a few negroes. The language <•(' the country 
 is Spanish; and the ruling n-li-ion. tin' I'onian 
 Catholic. Mexico was discovered by the Spaniards 
 early in the Kith century, and wa.- conquered by 
 Cortes,1519- 21. It continued in the possession 
 of Spain up tn the beginning of the present cent- 
 ury, when it established its independence. Since 
 thattime.it has passed through a number of rev- 
 olutions and civil wars. When the Spaniards 
 came In Mexico, they found there the intelli- 
 gent and highly cultivated Aztecs. This people 
 had been preceded by others who had also at- 
 tained a high degree of civilization. In many of 
 the arts and sciences, the ancient Mexicans, 
 when conquered by Cortes, had made great 
 progress. Their calendar was more correct than 
 that of the ancient Greeks and Romans. They 
 knew how to manufacture paper, and possessed 
 maps, on which even the roads were marked 
 which their ancestors had used when they came 
 to .Mexico. The education of children was of a 
 very severe character. In each family of the higher 
 classes, the boys remained with their mothers 
 up to the 6th or 7th year, when they received a 
 carefully selected companion; and in their I nth 
 or 12th year, they were sent to the temple, to lie 
 educated by the priests. Here they were sub- 
 jected to a strict discipline, and were instructed 
 in the liturgy, and in various other subject.-. The 
 girls were also received into the temple, which 
 they di I not leave until they were married. For 
 tie' boys, there were also military schools. As in 
 the other Spanish colonies, very little was done 
 for education by the Spaniards. A university and 
 a number of colleges had been establi-h.d in 
 which the teachers were generally priests who had 
 been educated in Spain. But insullicicut a- the 
 
 Spanish rule, it b 
 ilic. The continua 
 ress in education ; 
 
 instruction was, unde 
 worse under the re] 
 wars prevented all pr 
 the hatred for every thing that came from Spain, 
 tended to destroy ad educational institutions 
 previously established. Hence, the education of 
 the whites, who alone had been cared for by the 
 Spanish government, was now neglected ; while 
 
 the native population itinued to be neglected. 
 
 By the law of 1840, the federal government 
 transferred the care of the schools to the separate 
 states, in some of which considerable progress 
 has been made. Recently, the federal govern- 
 ment has again established secondary schools in 
 the capital, principally for the education of 
 teachers. Compulsory e lucation laws have been 
 
 are eutir. ly inoperative. In I ^7~>. president Lerdo 
 
 to education in the following words :' "Public 
 
 instruction has continued to merit particular at- 
 tention. Both in the primary and in the pro- 
 fessional schools, efforts have constantly been 
 made to afford the elements of instruction, by 
 establishing new professorships, as well as by 
 providing all the instruments and other useful 
 
 ' apparatus for practical teaching. With the same 
 desire to obtain the mosj complete practical in- 
 struction, various pupils of the national schools 
 j have continue. 1 to be sent abroad upon the suc- 
 cessful conclusion of their studies." — Primary 
 schools have now been introduced in almost all 
 of the states. The schools are supported by the 
 state governments, with pecuniary aid from the 
 federal government, the municipalities, and sev- 
 eral private associations, among which the Lan- 
 casterian Society and the Benevolent Society 
 in Mexico occupy a prominent position. The 
 Lancasterian Society supplies the government 
 schools with teachers. '1 here are also, in all the 
 principal cities, private schools; but these are. 
 open only to the children of the ril h. The plan 
 of instruction comprises only the most necessary 
 subjects, and the text-books are written in ac- 
 cordance with this plan. In 1874, the total 
 number of private schools was 8.040; of which 
 5,091 were for boys; 1,615, for girls; and the 
 rest were common to both sexes. Of the total 
 number, 603 were supported by the federal and 
 state governments : 5,240, by the municipalities ; 
 378, by private corporations; and 117, by relig- 
 ious associations : 1,518 were private schools, in 
 which tuition is paid for: and 184 were without 
 classification. The proportion of the number of 
 schools to the population, was one primary school 
 to every 1,111 inhabitants. The attendance, 
 during the Bame year, was about 349,000. or 
 something less than one-tilth of all the children 
 between i he ages of 6 and 13 years. There are 
 also, in some of the larger cities, evening schools 
 for adults of both sexes. The total expenditure 
 for primary instruction, during the year 1874, 
 was Sl.i,;;2,43u, of which $1,042,000 was fur- 
 nished by the municipalities ; $417,000. by the 
 federal and state governments : and $173,000, by 
 individual- and pi ivatfi corporations. 
 
 Secondary instruction is imparted in national 
 and stale colleges, and in Catholic seminaries. 
 The course of studies, in these institutions, com- 
 prises Spanish, Freni h, and Latin grammar, his- 
 tory, geography, natural philosophy, and math- 
 ematics. In some colleges, other branches are 
 added; as the English language law. medicine, 
 engineering, agriculture, a 
 there were 5 I state and n 
 9,337 students : and 24 Ca 
 3,800 students. Law was 
 colleges ; medicine, ill 11; 
 agriculture. 
 
 ional colleges, with 
 olic seminaries with 
 
 aught in 33 of the 
 engineering, in 9 ; 
 2 : and theology, in 2 \. There 
 were. also, la higher schools for' girls, with 2,300 
 students. The University of Mexico only grants 
 diplomas, no studies being pursued there, as all 
 the instruction is given in the colleges. The total 
 expense of supporting the government colleges, 
 in 1>71. was SI. 1 Ultimo, of which 8200,000 
 was expended in fellow-hip-, which entitle those 
 
 Who hold them to free board and lodging ill the 
 college building. There were, in the same year, 
 5 special schools in the federal district; 1, of 
 mines and engineering; and 1. each, of medicine, 
 law, agriculture, and the fine arts ; the last men- 
 tioned was attended by about 700 pupils of both 
 
MIAMI UNIVERSI 
 
 MIAMI UNIVERSITY, 
 
 MICHIGAN 
 
 571 
 
 > a School for 
 
 fiscke Euc,,- 
 \qf the U.S. 
 74. 
 ixford, Ohio, 
 
 incumbent, 4 veal's. — A .i/,i/, 7-wf/i.rs' ussurintiiiii 
 was organized in 1852. It holds its meetings an 
 Dually, in December; and is sustained now, as 
 heretofore, by the leading teachers and educators 
 in the state. -The primary-school fund of the 
 stale most of which pays 7 per cent, is $3,130 r 
 911.05. There are 398,080 acres of primary- 
 school lands yet unsold, ami held at four dollars 
 
 School System. — Each township has a board of 
 
 three school inspectors, whose main duty is to 
 
 ;anize and regulate the boundaries oi school- 
 
 undergraduate, and a post-graduate course, and 
 
 is composed of six schools; namely. Latin lan- 
 guage and literature ; Greek language and 
 literature; modern languages and English phi- 
 lology; mathematics; natural science: and philos- 
 ophy and literature. The cost of tuition is 840 a 
 
 year. The libraries contain about 9,000 volumes, districts. Each district has an executive board 
 The university has valuable cabinets and appa- of three members, who make provision for such 
 ratus. In 1872 — 3, there were instructors and length of school terms, as is determined by the 
 Mi students. The university is temporarily closed, votes of the district; but which must lie nine 
 MICHIGAN, one of the western states of months, in district* having 800 children of school 
 the American Union, was at first included in age: tive months, in districts ha\ing ■; :!n children ; 
 the North-west Territory, set apart by the ordi- and three months, in all districts containing a 
 ! of 1787. .Subsequently it formed a part ! number less than 3d. under a penalty of forfeit- 
 
 of the territory of Indiana ; but, in 1805, was 
 organized as a separate territory. In January, 
 L837, it was admitted into the Union as a state, 
 Wisconsin Territory having been formed from 
 its western portion. At the next census, in 1840, 
 the population of Michigan was 212,267; in L870, 
 
 it was 1,184,059, of whom 11,849 wen bred 
 
 persons, and 4.92(5 Indians. The land area of the 
 state is 56,451 sq. in. 
 
 Educational History. — One of the first acts 
 
 ure of their share of the interest derived from 
 lary-school fund (about 50 cents per ca- 
 ll the tax of 2 mills on each dollar of the 
 in the district, which amounts, on an 
 to about .me dollar per child. This con- 
 al provision azures a school in nearly- 
 strict in the state. The district board 
 tes the amount of taxes to be raised each 
 addition to the statutory two-mil] tax. 
 
 and primary school money for the support of the 
 
 of the first legislature of Michigan, in the year school ; but taxes for building purposes must be 
 L836, required ' 
 
 ■rnor to appoint a super- 
 
 duti 
 
 voted 1 
 pcllc 
 
 tl.edistr 
 
 The 
 
 sti icts are not com- 
 
 >l'l" 
 
 university and its branches." Th 
 
 was given to the Rev. John I». Pierce, who still 
 lives (1876); and few men have ever lived to see 
 bo abundant fruit from the seed of their plant 
 ing. In 1837, he reported the -system" and the 
 "plan," and both were adopted, without material 
 •change, by the legislature. The primary school 
 law comprised 45 sections originally ; and though. 
 from subsequent legislation, the same code now 
 numbers nearly two hundred sections, yet the 
 general features, if the system have been changed 
 in no essential respect. The same may be said 
 of the original plan of the university : and now, 
 after a trial of forty years, the educational 
 system of Michigan has the reputation of Vicing 
 one of the best in the Union. Since the adop- 
 tion of the constitution, in 1 Halt, the superintend- 
 ent of public instruction has been elected bien- 
 nially, with other state officers. He has a general 
 supervision, without much actual power.over all 
 the educational institutions of the state, includ- 
 ing local colleges and incorporated private 
 schools ; and all such institutions are required to 
 make an annual report to him. Since the estab- 
 lishment of tb, office, there have been eight 
 incumbents, serving in the order and for the 
 time here named : John I). Pierce, 5 years ; P. 
 Sawyer, Jr., 2 years ; C. C. Comstock, 2 years ; 
 Francis \V. Sherman, 6 years; Ira Mayhew, 8 
 years ; John M. Gregory, 6 years ; Warnel Hos- 
 ford, 8 years ; and Daniel B. Briggs. the present 
 
 imal reports to the inspector*, by whom these 
 are collated, in the several townships, and for- 
 warded to the superintendent of public instruc- 
 
 writing.and no public money can be legally paid 
 to a teacher who ha* not a certificate in the form 
 prescribed by law. All school officers are liable to 
 a fine, and district officers to removal, for delin- 
 quency in the discharge of their duty. Parents 
 are liable to a fine if they fail to send their 
 children to school three months in the year, 
 while over eight and under fourteen years of age; 
 but little respect is paid to this law. Districts 
 
 board o 
 
 this pn 
 
 been si 
 
 may have a 
 enactment of 
 districts have 
 
 and high-school di 
 superior privileges, exc 
 'i school, in w 
 
 may establish a high 
 may be made for tuition, instruction in all other 
 departments being free. A very small number. 
 however, of the districts (nearly 300) organized 
 under this law. have ever charged tuition to the 
 resident pupils. These high schools are, many 
 of them, of a superior grade; and pupils graduat- 
 ing from them after a satisfactory examination, 
 are admitted to the state university without re- 
 examination. The working of the school system 
 is generally satisfactory, except in regard to 
 
572 
 
 MICHIGAN 
 
 supervision. After eight years' trial of a county 
 superintendency, the Btate, in 1875, returned ti> 
 a township superintendency, each township (not 
 including the cities) having a superintendent, 
 who examines teachers, grants certificates, and 
 visits schools. The present system of supervision 
 is not, however, giving that satisfaction which 
 insures its long continuance. It may also be 
 said that the supply of really competent teachers 
 is not equal to the demand : although a marked 
 improvement in the qualifications of teachers 
 was manifest under the county superintendency. 
 
 Educational Condition. There are (1876) 
 5,411 ungraileil-schiiol <listricts. each employing 
 a single teacher, and '-".'7 graded-school districts 
 requiring about 2,000 teachers. The graded 
 schools have regular courses of study, from the 
 lowest primary grade to that of the senior year 
 of the high school. The whole number of school 
 buildings in the state is 5,787, valued in the 
 aggregate at SO. I 15,354. The 297 graded-school 
 districts have 539 buildings, valued at $5,775,790, 
 showing an average of $10,716 each. Twenty- 
 five of these buildings cost over $'20,000 each, and 
 several cost from $50,000 to $100,000 each. 
 
 The support of the schools, during the year 
 1874—5, wasderived from the following 
 
 Primary scl I interest hunt 'Jls.ii:if;,*_".i 
 
 District taxes 2,341,923.71 
 
 Statutory tax (2 mills, m $1). 508,551.87 
 Tuition ot uou-resideut pupils :;7.4.">:;.i;.\ 
 All other sources 401,722.97 
 
 Total $4,183,580.81) 
 
 Expenditures during the year 1874 — 5 : 
 Teachers' salaries .$1,958,481.15 
 
 Buildings v.ii.i;i;i.i;i 
 
 Bonded indebtedness 398,106.41 
 
 Other purposes,. 619,112.98 
 
 Total. $3,526,362.18 
 
 The principal items of school statistics, for the 
 year 1875- ('•. are the following: 
 
 Number oi children oi scl 1 age (5 20). ...449,181 
 
 Numbei attending school 343,:>sl 
 
 Number of teachers, mules 3,150 
 
 females 9,120 
 
 Total ' 12,276 
 
 Average monthly wage's of teachers , male; -7,1.:") 
 
 receive instruction free of charge. Many avail 
 themselves of this privilege. The diploma of the 
 school licenses the holder to teach in any of the 
 public schools of the state. Nearly 7000 teach- 
 ers have received instruction in this school dur- 
 ing its existence. The hoard of instruction con- 
 sists of a principal and 12 assistants. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Under this head may 
 Declassed high schools and academies. There 
 were, in L874, 311 graded schools in the state. 
 Of these. 144 made reports as to organization 
 etc., and 84 were reported as having high school 
 departments, with an aggregate' of 5,(142 pupils, 
 and. in 1S7.'). 303 graduates. The subject of high 
 schools has assumed unusual interest and impor- 
 tance in this state, (1) on account of an effort 
 recently made to have their existence declared, 
 by the courts, illegal ; and (2) on account of their 
 peculiar status as direct tributaries to the state 
 university. The first effort failed, the court, rul- 
 ing that, though there was nothing in the school 
 law expressly dire, ting their establishment, there 
 was nothing, on the other hand, forbidding it. 
 This decision has hen regarded as tinahnot only 
 for the state of Michigan, but for other states in 
 which the' school law is so worded as to raise a 
 doubt on this point. (See High Schools.) The 
 peculiar relation of the public high schools to the 
 state university is the result of an arrangement 
 
 by which high scl Is that wish to be recognized 
 
 by the university in such a way as to permit 
 their graduates to enter the latter without further 
 examination, are visited and examined as to 
 course of study and methods pursued, by a com- 
 mittee of the faculty- This examination lasts 
 one, lav for each school; and. if the school is 
 rejected by the committae, the reasons are dis- 
 tinctly stated. If the scl I is accepted, its gradu- 
 ates arc admitted to the freshman class of the 
 university without examination. This method 
 
 Normal Instruction . — The state 
 at Vpsilanti. was opened in L852 
 the general supervision of a boar, 
 consisting of three members, eleel 
 ticket for six years, and the sup 
 public instruction, ex officio. It 1 
 ment fund of $69,255, the balanci 
 its support being, lerived from apt 
 the legislature. The value of Us 
 other property is about $75,000. 
 current expenses are nearly $25,01 
 ber of students, in 1 875, in the i 
 ment, numbered too. 187 male 
 males : in the experimental den; 
 
 .. J51.29 effect upon the high schools has been beneficial 
 
 -• ■•t'-'s.I'i | 1V raising the grade of scholarship for graduates, 
 
 al school, and by maintaining the schools on that higher 
 
 is under level produced by the dignity of their position 
 ducation as stepping stones to the university. In thelatter, 
 i a state the direct effect has been uniformity of scholar- 
 indent of ship, and a decrease of necessary watchfulness 
 i endow- on the part of professors and tutors, for individ- 
 ssary for ual deficiencies. Though, by the old method, 
 itions by then- maj have been, in individual cases, greater 
 ings and proficiency at the time of admission, the great 
 • annual diversity of attainment shown by members of 
 'he nunc the same class was likely to be maintained to 
 
 depart- tl nd of the college course, and the diplomas 
 
 222 fe- given to graduates had. therefore, widely diffor- 
 
 it. there ent values. By the new method, uniformity of 
 
 All stu- attainment, by being insisted on at an earlier 
 
 neiii. are period, produces uniformity of attainment at 
 
 their in- graduation. This plan, though regarded at first 
 
 [icr year; with misgiving, if not positive disfavor, is gradu- 
 
ally working its way to general approval. Those 
 more immediately interested in it and besl capa- 
 ble of judging of its effects the teachers of the 
 schools, and the faculty of the university — regard 
 its success in the near future as assured. The 
 private schools of the state are reported by the 
 present superintendent of instruction as "few 
 and feeble, owing to the excellence of our free 
 public schools." The number reported in 1873 
 was 1. '{.'{. with <i,701 pupils. This is thought to 
 be much below the actual number. Business 
 colleges exist in several of the cities and towns, 
 13 being reported in ls7-l. with .'12 instructors 
 and 1,500 students. Of the latter, 196 are fe- 
 males. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
 These institutions are not numerous. A few are 
 reported in different parts of the state, managed 
 by Catholics and German Lutherans, where in- 
 struction is given to a few thousand children, but 
 a vast majority of the children and youth of the 
 state rind their only source of education in the 
 public schools. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The names etc. of the 
 higher institutions of learning are contained in 
 the following table. For further information 
 in regard to them, see the respective titles. 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 A le:„ 
 ed 
 
 Religious 
 
 'U"ii"iniLi.i- 
 
 
 Adrian 
 
 Albion 
 
 Battle Creek 
 
 Benzonla 
 
 Hillsdale 
 
 Holland City 
 
 Kalamazoo 
 
 Ann Arbor 
 
 ISj'.I 
 
 1864 
 1875 
 1865 
 1855 
 1863 
 ls.,5 
 1858 
 1841 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 M. Eliis. 
 Advent. 
 Cong. 
 
 V. W. Cap. 
 Kef.(HVH) 
 
 Bap. 
 
 
 Battle Creek CoUege.... 
 Orand Traverse College 
 Hillsdale College 
 
 Kalamazoo College 
 
 University of Michigan 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 In none of these institutions is any distinction 
 as to sex made in the admission of pupils ; but 
 there are, besides, several institutions specially for 
 the education of females, among which maybe 
 particularly mentioned the following: Michigau 
 Female Seminary, at Kalamazoo, under the pat- 
 ronage of the Presbyterians, was organized in 
 1867. and conducted on the plan of the cele- 
 brated Mt. I lolyoke Seminary in Mass. Its prop- 
 erty is valued at 870,000, and its annual income 
 is about $10,000. The Young Indies' Seminary 
 and Collegiate Institute, at Monroe, was incor- 
 porated under the laws of the state, and has been 
 in operation about 30 years. It holds property 
 valued at $10,000. It has a regular college 
 course, besides post-graduate courses. Music, 
 drawing, painting, and the modern languages are 
 taught. Degrees are conferred as in colleges for 
 young men. The number of instructors is 8; and 
 the number of students, in 1875, was 103. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. 
 There are two institutions for this kind of in- 
 struction, — the State Agricultural College at 
 Lansing, and the Detroit Medical College. Near- 
 ly all the institutions, however, enumerated under 
 superior instruction have departments in which 
 professional or scientific instruction is given. The 
 Agricultural College of Michigan was the first 
 state institution of its kind established in the 
 
 IGAX 573 
 
 United States. By an act of the legislature, in 
 1855, it came into existence and was opened for 
 students in the spring of 1857. Until recently, 
 it has been supported wholly by appropriations 
 
 from the state treasury, aside from $56,320 real- 
 ized from appropriated state lands. 'I he appropri- 
 ations from the state treasury for the college, up 
 to the present time, amount to $397,787. The 
 farm consists of 070 acres, situated on both sides 
 of the Cedar river, three miles distant from the 
 capital of the state: and 300 acres are under cul- 
 tivation. The property of the college is valued at 
 $250,000. The agricultural land grant by Con- 
 gress, in 1862. gave Michigan 2 10,000 acres. From 
 this has been realized S22S.933. and the portion 
 yet unsold is valued at $496,543. These avails 
 go into the state treasury and constitute a perma- 
 nent fund, on which the state pays 7 per cent. 
 
 cost, which is about $2.60 per week ; but, quite 
 one half of this expense is met by allowances 
 granted the students for manual labor performed. 
 Tuition is free, and the incidental fees are a mere 
 trifle. The faculty and other officers number 14. 
 The control of the college is vested in a board 
 of agriculture, the members of which are ap- 
 pointed by the governor, for a term of six years. 
 The governor of the state and the president of 
 the college are members, ex officio. 
 
 Special Instruction.— 'Die State Public School 
 at Coldwater, partakes of the nature both of a 
 school and an asylum. The object is to educate 
 the dependent children from the poor-houses. 
 It originated in 1871, when a state appropriation 
 of $30,000 was made, and three commissioners 
 were appointed to carry it into effect, A gift of 
 20 acres in the town of Coldwater and of $25,000 
 towards the buildings, led to its location at that 
 place, and this was supplemented by an additional 
 appropriation of $38,000 by the legislature. The 
 plan of the buildings consists of a large central 
 edifice, and surrounding cottages for the home 
 residence of the children. It receives children 
 between the ages of 4 and 16 years from the 
 county poor-houses, and provides for and edu- 
 cates them till good homes are found for them. 
 They are strictly the wards of the state till 21 
 years of age. There is an agent in each county 
 whose duty it is to look after those who are in- 
 dentured to. or adopted by, individuals, and, in 
 case of any violation of the terms of indenture, 
 to return them to the school. The school was 
 opened in 1 874, with nearly 200 children ; the 
 number, in September 1875, was 171. The num- 
 ber of officers is 1 8 consisting of a superintend- 
 ent, teachers, matrons, etc. The aim of the insti- 
 tution is, to give a fair elementary education. 
 Since its establishment, the legislature has made 
 appropriations for its support to the amount of 
 $187,565.— The State Reform School, at Lan- 
 sing, was established, in 1856. for the purpose 
 of rescuing, if possible, from a life of crime, chil- 
 dren and youths convicted of offenses against the 
 law. It receives boys of from 10 to 16 years of 
 
MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 age. and is strictly 
 managed bya boan 
 
 llcl 
 
 hours of each day are Bpent in a hool : and four, 
 
 ent and an assistant, and .'! teachers, besides over- 
 seers of the farm and shops. The annual ex- 
 penses are from $25,000 to 830,000. The school 
 has at present 220 Inmates. Over 1,(500 boys 
 have been cared for by the institution since its 
 establishment. — The Michigan Institution for the 
 Deaf and Dumb, and Blind, was organized at 
 Flint in 1854. About 94 acres are contained 
 in the grounds and the farm connected with 
 them. It is managed by a principal, steward, 
 matron, assistant matron, physician, and 17 teach- 
 
 ants. In a Idition to the usual mental instruction 
 given in such institutions, tin- pupils arc trained 
 in mechanical and industrial occupations. In 
 some of these departments the sale of wares pro- 
 duced has more than paid expenses, and the sur- 
 plus has been devoted to the support of the libra- 
 ry. About 200 inmates were receiving instruc- 
 tion in 1874. 
 
 'Y\\f,iliii'iilii)iinl /o»>-Ws published in the state 
 are. Tin- Mirliii/,1,1 Tnirhrr.a. monthly, published 
 at Kalamazoo.' and Tin' Sr/,,,,,/. a monthly, pub- 
 lished in Ypsilanti. The publication of the 
 former was begun nearly I'll years ago. Both are 
 ably edited, and have a very general circulation 
 in the state. 
 
 MICHIGAN, University of, at Aim Arbor, 
 owing its foundation to a grant by Congress, in 
 1826, of two townships of land, to the territory 
 of Michigan, was established by a legislative act, 
 March L8., 1837, and was first ope I for stu- 
 dents. Sept. 20., is 12. It is a part of the public 
 educational system of the state, and is governed 
 bya board of regents, elected by popular vote, 
 each for a term of eight years. Under certain 
 conditions, the graduates of the public high 
 schools of the state are admitted without 
 examination. The university comprises the de- 
 partments of literature, science, and the arts 
 (including Ih 'school of n lines, organized in 1875); 
 the department of medicine and surgery, organ- 
 ized in 1850; the department of law, Is.V.i ; the 
 
 • deer 
 id. St 
 
 The University Senate is composed of all the 
 faculties, and considers ipiestions of common 
 interest and importance to them all. The de- 
 partment of literature, science, and the arts em- 
 braces six regular courses of four years each, 
 and two shorter special courses. The regular 
 courses, with the degrees that are eon lei red. upon 
 
 their completion, are as follows: classical [Bach- 
 elor of Sorts), scientific I Bachelor of Science . 
 Latin and scientific I Bachelor oi Philosophy), 
 Greel and (scientific (Bachelor of Philosophy), 
 civil engineering (Civil Engineer), mining engi- 
 
 of Pharmaceutical Chemist is 
 dents may also pursue selected studies for any 
 period not less than one term. Postgraduate 
 courses are provided, leading to the degrees 
 of Master of Art.-, of Philosophy, or of Science, 
 and Doctor of Philosophy, as well as for those 
 not candidates for a second degree. After 1877, 
 the master's degrees are not to be conferred "in 
 course." The technical courses of the depart- 
 ment of literature, science, and the arts, are 
 grouped together and known as the Polytechnic 
 School. The regular courses in the professional 
 departments are for two years. Roth sexes are 
 admitted to all the departments; but the courses 
 of lectures for women, in the medical depart- 
 ments, are distinct from those for men. The only 
 charges made by the university are to residents 
 in Michigan, an admission fee of .$10, and the 
 annual payment of iff 15; to those who come from 
 other states or countries, an admission fee of 
 $25, and the annual payment of $20. The num- 
 ber of instructors and students in the different 
 departments, in 1875 — 6, was as follows : 
 
 Departments Instructors Students 
 
 Literature, etc. 31 452 
 
 Law 6 321 
 
 Medic and surgery 10 312 
 
 Dental college 3 20 
 
 Homoeopathic med. college 2 24 
 
 Total, deducting repetitions 49 1,127 
 
 The Students in the department of literature. 
 
 university grounds embrace -l-C acres, and con- 
 tain an astronomical observatory: a central build- 
 ing, called University Hall, for the department 
 of literature, science, and the arts; buildings 
 for the departments of law and medicine ; a 
 hospital; a chemical laboratory; and residences 
 for the president and the prof essors. The observ- 
 atory, erected by citizens of Detroit, was opened 
 in 1854, and is supplied with the most approved 
 instruments. The university museum contains 
 valuable and constantly increasing collections, 
 illustrative of natural science, ethnology, art, 
 history, agriculture, anatomy, and materia med- 
 ica. The geological, zoological, and botanical 
 cabinets together are estimated to contain about. 
 57,250 entries and 255,000 specimens. The li- 
 braries accessible to the students contain about 
 31,000 volumes. The university fund, being the 
 
 pr eds of the sale of the university lands, 
 
 amounts to about 8550,000. It is held in trust 
 by the state, which pays interest thereon at the 
 rate of 7 per cent [per annum. The present an- 
 nual income of the university amounts to nearly 
 
 Previous to 1*52, under the regulations then 
 in force, there was no president of the university. 
 
MIBPLEBURY COLLEGE 
 
 Since that time, the office has been filled as fol- 
 lows : llcnrv P. Tappan, D. P., 1852—63; 
 Erastus O. Haven, D.P., L863— 9 ; Henry S. 
 
 Frieze, LL. P. (acting), lH(il) — 71 ; James B. 
 Angell, LL.D., appointed in 1871 and still (1876) 
 in office. 
 
 MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE, at Middle- 
 bury, Vt., founded in L 800, though not denomi- 
 national by its charter, is under the direction 
 of i longregationalists. The grounds, embracing 
 about 30 acres, occupy a commanding eminence. 
 It has productive funds to the amount of 
 8180,000. a library of more than 12,000 volumes, 
 and valuable cabinets of natural history. The 
 cost of tuition is $45 per annum. There arc 
 several scholarships, besides other beneficiary 
 funds, for the aid of needy students. In 1875--I.. 
 there were 8 instructors and 53 students. Ac- 
 cording to the triennial catalogue of 1871, there 
 were 1,160 alumni, of whom ~i2\ were living. 
 Of the whole number 1*1 (274 living) became 
 clergymen. The presidents have been as follows : 
 the Rev. Jeremiah Atwater, 8. T. D., 1800 - 
 1*119 ; the Rev. llcnrv Davis.S.T. P.. 1810— 17; 
 the Rev. Joshua Bates. S. T. D., 1818—39 : the 
 Rev. Benjamin Labaree, 8. T. D., L. L. D., 1840 
 —06; the Rev. Harvey Denniaon Kitchel, 8. T. 
 P., 1866—1875: and the Rev. Calvin B.Hulbert, 
 P. I >.. the present incumbent, elected in 1875. 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS. Special institu- 
 tions for the education of army officers now exist 
 in all European countries, though they are of 
 comparatively modem origin. The first military 
 school in Prance was established by Louis XV.. 
 at Yiucennes, in 1751. It was. soon after, re- 
 moved to the Champ de Mars, Paris, but it has 
 long ceased to exist as an institution for instruc- 
 tion. The Special Military School of St. t Yr. 
 near Versailles, was founded by Bonaparte in 
 1802, and. for the first few years, was located at 
 Eontainebleau. Candidates are admitted by 
 competitive examination, and must be between 
 17 and L'O, or, if from the army, not over 2.3 
 years of age. The course is for two years, and 
 embraces geography, < ierman, literature, drawing, 
 legislation and administration, hygiene, topog- 
 raphy, military art and history, artillery, for- 
 tification, and military exercises. The pupils 
 pass either to the Staff School, in Paris, the 
 Cavalry School, at Saumur, or to the army as 
 sub-lieutenants of infantry. The St. < 'yr School 
 has about 701) pupils. The Polytechnic School, 
 in I 'arts, opened in 1794. and organized by La 
 Place in 1799, though not specially military in 
 character, affords theoretical instruction in vari- 
 ous military and related branches. There are 
 aLso the Artillery ami Engineers' School, at Fou- 
 tainebleau, for officers; for the education of 
 "officers, the artillery schools at Valence and 
 N lines, the School for Non-commissioned In- 
 fantry Officers, at ( 'amp dAvor : also the .Mil- 
 itary Orphan School, at La l'l.Vhe. the Militarv 
 School of Medicine and Pharmat v. in Pari.-, the 
 Military Pyrotechnic School, in Bourges, and the 
 Normal School for Gymnastics, in Yiucennes. — 
 In Great Britain, the most noted institutions 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS 
 
 founded in 1741. and the Koval Militarv Cull,.,,,., 
 at Sandhurst, founded in 1799. The former is 
 intended for officers of the artillery and engineers. 
 The course is for two years and a half, and em- 
 braces mathematics, elementary chemistry and 
 physics, French or German, military drawing 
 
 h .r 
 
 ■ liv. drills 
 
 of age. The number of pupils is about 200. 
 The college at Sandhurst is intended for officers 
 of the cavalry and infantry. Admission is by 
 competitive examination. The course is for one 
 year, and embraces the elements of tactics, in- 
 fantry and field-artillery drill, the regulations 
 
 ence, gymnastics, riding, regimental interior 
 economy, militarv topography and reconnois- 
 sance, field fortification and the elements of 
 
 are 250 students. The Stafl Colleg. at the same 
 Place, fo] tl, instruct! -,.-,„ ..Mi..-, former- 
 ly the sc,,„.r depart at of th< Koyal Military 
 
 i ollege.is now a distinct institution. LTiecourse 
 is for two yea-, and embraces French, German, 
 
 fortification and field emjucci in u . ecology, mil- 
 itary art, historj and geography, artillery, riding. 
 topography, /v .,,„„, ,/nno//. < . and military teleg- 
 raphy and signaling. Admission here, also, is 
 
 Engineering, at Chatl 
 at .-1 ..1 uryness, th 
 [ythe the Military 5 
 
 and the Royal Hi 
 
 am. the S.hool of 
 School of Mus- 
 edi.al SchooLin 
 
 is given in the follow 
 8. the war academi. 
 br higher scientific et 
 general staff ; for 
 
 - in Berlin and 
 ucation, especial 
 the education oi 
 
 e united artillery and 
 
 ■iigineers schools 
 
 six schools for the education 
 id officers; also the Medico- 
 William Institute, the Med- 
 v Aeademvin Berlin. the Mil- 
 
 the pupils pass to a war school, though some 
 remain an additional year in the senior cadet 
 
576 
 
 MILITARY SCHOOLS 
 
 school. There is an examination for admission 
 to the junior schools, and to the senior school for 
 those who have not passed through the junior 
 schools. The age of admission to the junior 
 schools is about 10 years; to the senior, about 1 5. 
 In the former, the course embraces arithmetic, 
 elementary algebra and geometry, < lerman gram- 
 mar and composition, French, Latin, Bible his- 
 tory, natural philosophy, drawing, writing, his- 
 tory, drill, gymnastics, fencing, and dancing; in 
 the latter, urography, mathematics, physics, drill, 
 fencing, imitative drawing. Latin, German, 
 French, history, military drawing, religious in- 
 struction, riding, and gymnastics. For the ad- 
 ditional year, the branches are topography, mil- 
 itary service and correspondence, science of arms, 
 military exercises, fortification, tactics, military 
 surveying and drawing, French, etc. Kadi junior 
 school has about 200 pupils; and the senior 
 school, about 700. The war schools are intended 
 for officers of the infantry and cavalry, and as 
 preparatory to the Artillery and Engineers' 
 School. The course is for about nine months, 
 and embraces musketry practice, tactics, science 
 of arms, riding, fencing, fortification, military 
 surveying and drawing, gymnastics, manual of 
 the piece in artillery, drill in infantry exercises, 
 with about six weeks' field exercise in applied 
 tactics, reconnaissance, and surveying. The War 
 Academy is intended for the education of officers 
 for the staff, as military instructors, and for 
 other high duties. Candidates are admitted by 
 competitive examination, open to officers of all 
 arms of three years' active service. The course 
 is for three years, and embraces French, Rus- 
 sian, military hygiene and law, general, physical, 
 and military geography, tactics, history of liter- 
 ature, geodesy, mathematics, science of arms, 
 history of the art of war, fortification, military 
 administration, history, surveying, art of siege. 
 chemistry, staff duty, physics, with practical field 
 instruction in staff duty, surveying, field-sketch- 
 ing, etc. There are about 275 students in this 
 institution. The military schools of other Euro- 
 pean countries are similar, in their general feat- 
 ures, to those already described. — -In Austria- 
 Hungary, there are the following: for officers, the 
 War School (for the general staff) . the higher Ar- 
 tillery and the Higher Engineering Course, the 
 Preparatory Course for Candidates for the Artil- 
 lery Staff, the ( 'entral Infantry* lourse, the Intend- 
 ancy Course (affording a preparation for the mili- 
 tary intendancy), all in Vienna, and the Royal 
 Hungarian Landwehr-Cavalry School, at Jasz- 
 bereny ; for the education of officers, the Mil- 
 itary Academy, in Wiener-Neustadt (for infantry 
 and cavalry), the Technical Military Academy, 
 in Vienna (for the artillery and engineers), the 
 Ludovica Academy, in Buda-Pesth (for the Hun- 
 garian Landwehr); preparatory to the academies, 
 the Military Superior Real School, in Weiss- 
 kirchen, the military inferior real schools at St. 
 Polten and <iiins: the Military Medical Course 
 and the Military Riding Institute, in Vienna. — 
 The Russian institutions are as follows: for 
 officers, the Nicholas Academy (for the general 
 
 staff), the Michael Artillery Academy, the Nich- 
 olas Engineering Academy, the Military Jurid- 
 ical Academy, all in St. Petersburg; for the 
 education of officers, six war schools (two for in- 
 fantry, and one each for cavalry, artillery, and 
 engineers in St. Petersburg, and one for infantry 
 in Moscow), the imperial Page Corps, in St. 
 
 progymnasia ; — f or special instruction, the Mil- 
 itary Law School, the Military Topographical 
 School, the Preparatory School for the Guards, 
 
 est instruction and the general staff), the Artil- 
 lery and Engineers' School, at the same place; 
 for the education of officers, the Military Acad- 
 emy, in Turin (for the artillery and engineers), 
 the Military School, in Modena(for infantry and 
 cavalry); as preparatory institutions to the Mil- 
 itary Academy and Military School, the military 
 colleges, in Naples, Milan, and Florence; also 
 the Normal Infantry School, in Parma, and the 
 Normal Cavalry School, in Pinerolo. — Besides 
 the schools for officers of the character already 
 indicated, there are in nearly eveiy European 
 country regimental or battalion schools for the 
 instruction of privates or non-commissioned 
 officers in the common branches of learning. — 
 In Brazil, military instruction is given in reg- ' 
 iinental schools, for training non-commissioned 
 ollieers : preparatory schools; the Military School, 
 in Rio de Janeiro ; the Depot of Artillery Ap- 
 prentices, in the same place ; the Cavalry and 
 Infantry School of the Province of Sao Petro 
 do Rio Grande do Sul ; and the General Gun- 
 nery School of t'ampo Grande. — In the Military 
 Academy, at West Point, N. Y., founded in 1802, 
 the Tinted States has an institution second to 
 none of its kind in the world. The organization, 
 course, etc., are described under the appropriate 
 title. (See West Point.) There is also an 
 Artillery School at Fortress Monroe, organized 
 in 18(57. The act of Congress of 18(>2, donating 
 land to the states for the establishment of agri- 
 cultural and mechanical colleges, includes milita- 
 ry tactics among the branches to be taught in 
 those institutions. An act of 1800 authorizes 
 the president to detail officers of experience to 
 act as professors of military science in institu- 
 tions of learning, having over 1 50 male students. 
 A number of institutions have availed them- 
 selves of this privilege. By the same act, provi- 
 sion is made for the instruction of enlisted men 
 in the common English branches of education at 
 every post, garrison, or permanent camp. In 
 nearly every military department, there are 
 schools for instruction in military signaling and 
 telegraphy. A number of academies or high 
 schools in the United States are organized 
 upon military principles, in imitation of West 
 Point, daily drill being required of the pupils. 
 
577 
 
 Some of these are designed for b( 
 
 liable to the milder discipline of 
 
 schools. Several institutions prov 
 
 tion of a collegiate grade, in das 
 
 languages, and scientific branches,] 
 
 organization, » it these the prin 
 
 Beparate articles in this work an 
 
 the Kentucky Military Institute, i 
 
 Rouge, LaTNorvrich University! i 
 
 Vt.; Pennsylvania Military Acad 
 
 fcer, Pa.; Texas Military Institub 
 
 Tex.: and Virginia Military ln.-ti 
 
 ington, Va. -Gen. 1 [azen, in i tr 
 
 the French and Prussian syste 1 
 
 French officers are of necessity educated men, 
 while, in Prussia, all must be. In the French 
 schools, there is almost a total absence of moral 
 control ; while, in Prussia, the opposite is true. 
 In France, the great lark of a good preparatory 
 
 education is loudly comphu I of, and the almost 
 
 total neglect ,,f' mathematical subjects in the 
 
 of a military character. In the French system, 
 the entire school course is given before service 
 
 is seen; but, in Prussia, a certain ai int of 
 
 actual service must precede any theoretical course 
 at the schools: nor is there in France, as in 
 Prussia, any provision for recognizing, utilizing, 
 and educating the talent of young men who 
 have, by a fen years' service, developed mental 
 superiority. In Prussia, nothing is moje stril 
 
 ing than the ( nection between the military and 
 
 civil education of the country. The competitive 
 system is almost universally objected to, tun! 
 mathematics are thought worthy of attention up 
 to the highest grades only by those of peculiar 
 aptness. The Academy, which gives a superior 
 education to the first men of the army, is of 
 great merit and usefulness. The greatest pos- 
 sible care is bestowed upon methods of study and 
 instruction; the must remarkable feature of the 
 system is the attention paid to forming and dis- 
 ciplining the mind and encouraging habits of 
 reflection. Thee location is eminently practical. - 
 In reference to West Point be says': -After see- 
 ing much of the best European armies, 1 believe 
 that, at the breaking out of our war. our little 
 regular army was officered by better technical 
 .soldiers than any army in the world: and this 
 I believe to be due to West Point,"— See II. 
 Barnard, Military Education ; an Accounlof 
 Institutions for Military Education in France, 
 Prussia, Austria, Russia. Sardinia, S,rr,/r„. 
 Switzerland, England, and the United States 
 (2 vols.).— A list of the military schools of all 
 European States is given by Brachelli, Die 
 Staaten Eurapa'y. (1875).— Sec (Jeii.AV. P.. II a- 
 zen, U. S. A.. The School and the Army in Ger- 
 many and France. 
 
 MILTON, John, a celebrated English poet, 
 born in London, Dec.9.,1608; died there tfov.8., 
 ll>7l 1 lis father, being disinherited Oil chang- 
 ing his religion — which had been the Human 
 
 ■ssion of a scrivener, 
 t a plentiful estate." 
 educated. A private 
 
 in ( !reek, and 
 poetry, and tl 
 
 poetry. The must beautiful of his shorter poems 
 were written at this period of his life. In 1037, 
 he set out upon his travels, visiting France and 
 Italy, in both of which countries he formed the 
 acquaintance of men eminent in science and 
 literature. Paris, Florence and Rome were 
 among the places visited bvhimat this time: and 
 
 is t, 
 
 the long, he a 
 
 
 blithe 
 
 ened home. 
 
 'or seven 
 
 1 years 
 
 devoted to tin 
 
 1 isgrei 
 
 the i. 
 pamph 
 
 English pros, 
 to incompatib 
 
 in it ; 
 h. a sept 
 ln\ of tl 
 
 1, he i 
 
 tempt on his 
 
 iait to 1 
 
 
 marriage, in t 
 
 
 of V 
 
 some of the t 
 
 
 en ous 
 
 phlets. In 1 
 
 14, he ] 
 
 III ii-Im 
 
 Education ai 
 
 1 bis .1 
 
 
 the Liberty of 
 
 I , n 
 
 erf Pr 
 
 reconciliation 
 
 took lib 
 
 ec beta 
 
 wife : and, for several 
 
 years, 
 
 don, devoting 
 
 limself t 
 
 ) litem 
 
 His wife dying in 1652, or 1653, he married 
 again in 1656, and again in 1663. About 1665, 
 he completed Paradise Lost and began Paradise 
 Regained. The last years of his life were passed 
 
 principally upon his Tra tate on 
 tressed in the form of a letter to 
 In this tractate is pre- 
 
 ■llted Mi 
 lueatiun 
 dlv, an. 
 
 (q. v.). 
 
 private and public, of peace and war. ills first 
 injunction is "to find out a spacious house and 
 ground about it fit for an academy, and big 
 
MH.W.U'KKK 
 
 enough to lodge 
 thereabouts may 
 government of our 
 
 suthcicnt. anil abil 
 to direct and oven 
 is to be both "schi 
 place of instruetit 
 
 ie.' Such an academy 
 university ' — the sole 
 ie youth it contains, 
 [mission to the time 
 when they enter upon the duties of mature life. 
 Their studies, their exercise, and their diet arc 
 separately considered. For the first, grammar is 
 tq be used as an introduction, giving special at- 
 tention to the practical use of it, as in correct 
 pronunciation and a knowledge of the rules 
 most commonly used. Advantage, also, should 
 be taken to cultivate indirectly the moral sense 
 by the use. as text-books, of such works as have 
 become classics. For this he recommends several 
 in the Greek language. He attaches great im- 
 portance, also, to the personal magnetism of the 
 teacher, as a means for inciting his pupils to an 
 "ingenuous and noble ardor." Arithmetic is to 
 be taught at this period; and. shortly after, 
 geometry. In the evening, the instruction is to be 
 moral only. The next step is the study of agri- 
 culture, as found in the writings of < lato, Varro. 
 ami Columella. These authors are chosen for the 
 double pin pose of ae<|iiii ni- .1 mastery of " any 
 ordinary prose," and for inciting in the pupils a 
 desire in after life to "improve the tillage of their 
 country." It will then he proper to go on to 
 the study of maps, globes, and natural philoso- 
 phy. Greek should then be taken up. ami in a 
 short time, trigonometry, fortification, architect- 
 ure, enginery or navigation, and anatomy. Medi- 
 cine, both theoretical and practical, should next 
 be pursued. These studies should all be supple- 
 mented, as far as possible, by an observatii.n of 
 their application in practical pursuits. Moral 
 instruction should now predominate. Tin' les- 
 sons inculcated should be enforced by reading 
 the moral works of Plato, Xenophon, Cicero, 
 Plutarch, etc., ending at evening with the Bible. 
 The next study should be that of political econo- 
 my, followed by polities and law. Sundays and 
 evenings should be devoted to theology, church 
 history, and the study of Hebrew — the latter in 
 order that the Scriptures may be read in the 
 original. Then follow " choice histories, heroic 
 poems, and attic tragedies," with " political ora- 
 tions," some of which should be committed to 
 memory, and declaimed. Rhetoric, the art of 
 composition, logic, and poetry next succeed; after 
 which, he says, "whether they [the students] be 
 to speak in parliament or council, honor and at- 
 tention would be waiting on their lips." He next 
 speaks of physical exercise. Wrestling and the 
 use of the sword are specially commended, the 
 breathing spells to be tilled with music. About 
 two houre before -upper, the students are to be 
 
 on horseback, in fair weather or foul. These "ill 
 give personal prowess and hardihood, and ac- 
 custom the youths to habits of discipline, 
 and the practical conduct of armies. Visits to 
 the country, also, at favorable seasons, and for- 
 
 eign travel, are recommended to supplement the 
 stinlies and exercises ,,t the academy. Lastly, the 
 students food should be -plain, healthful, and 
 
 moderate." and served in the same house. The 
 proper age in which to puisne this curriculum is 
 from the 12th to the 'J 1st year. It will be seen 
 from this synopsis, that Milton's view of a liberal 
 education differed w idely from that of the school- 
 men of his day, in its estimate of the classics and 
 natural science ; 
 ceeds the liberal 
 educatorsof the present time. The period of child- 
 hood, which is now claiming so much of the at- 
 tention of the educators thioughuiit the civilized 
 world, is not, indeed, considered by him : not, 
 however, because it was overlooked, nor because 
 he undervalued its importance; but. because 
 "brevity" was his "scope." On nearly all of the 
 great subjects thai now agitate the educational 
 world, this tractate is silent. Compulsory educa- 
 tion, sectarianism, the relation of schools to the 
 state, the education of women, the co-education 
 of the sexes — none of these are mentioned. Yet, 
 if the reader of to-day. wondering at its fame, and 
 doubting its claim to special consideration, will 
 transport himself to Milton's time, and note the 
 influences by which he was surrounded — the 
 almost universal disregard of the practical in 
 education, and the blind worship of book knowl- 
 edge — this "Letter to Master Samuel llartlib" 
 will appear almost a daring innovation; and the 
 moral courage, as well as the sagacity, of its 
 author will be unquestioned. 
 
 MILTON COLLEGE, at Milton, Wis., 
 founded as an academy in 1844 and as a college 
 in 1867,is under the control of the Seventh-Day 
 Baptists. It is supported chiefly by tuition 
 fees. Its endowment amounts to $6,000. The 
 libraries contain about 2,100 volumes. It has 
 philosophical and chemical apparatus and cab- 
 inets of botany, mineralogy, etc. The academic 
 department has a teachers' course, an English 
 and business course, and a preparatory course; 
 the collegiate department has a classical and a 
 scientific course. In 1875 — 0, there were 260 
 students in all courses. Both sexes are admitted. 
 The principals and presidents have been as fol- 
 lows : the Rev. Bethnel C. Church, 1 year ; the 
 Rev. S.S. Bicknell, 3 years ; the Rev. Amos W. 
 ( loon, 2 years ; Prof. A. C. Spicer, 7 years ; and 
 the Rev. \Y. C. Whit ford, the present incumbent 
 
 MILWAUKEE, the chief city and port of 
 entry of the state of Wisconsin, was settled in 
 1835, and incorporated as a city in 1846. Its 
 population, according to the census of 1870, was 
 89,930; and its school population (between the 
 ages of 4 and 20 years) 27.359, which, in August 
 1875, had increased to 33,919. The total popu- 
 lation of the city, at present (1876), is about 
 120.11011. Of the school population, in 1875, the 
 number attending the public schools was 30.7 
 per cent: attending private schools, 21.3 per cent. 
 Of the children between the ages of 4 and 15 
 years, more than 75 per cent attended either 
 public or private schools. 
 
Educational Hislon 
 public schools of Milw. 
 
 .•IC'tlT. 
 
 dill, 
 
 MILWAUKEE 
 
 during the last thirt 
 has been from the 
 early settlers, in wh 
 common English e I 
 highly-organized sys 
 its several gra les - 
 high or normal sch 
 
 chools, may be 
 il department 
 
 in East Water .- 
 first public schi 
 laws of tlic terril 
 Since the incorp 
 progress of the s 
 Two steps of sti 
 are the intro hi' 
 
 only adjuncts of district schools, ami are opened 
 whenever any of the latter are not adequate to 
 the public needs. The work in the branch 
 
 ■In. .1 
 
 music, in LB7A 1 Ue ] 
 organized in 1846. The first school superintend- 
 ent was Rufus King. 1859—60. His successors 
 were. Jonathan Ford, L860— 62 ; A. ( '. May, 
 8 days in 18(52; J. R. Sharpstein, 1862— :i ; 
 '° fl 3— 5; P. C. Pomeroy, 
 
 Edwin De \V. 
 
 1865—70; (. 
 1871^; Ja 
 cumbent (181 
 School System. 
 
 F. C. Law, 
 
 iter, the present in- 
 L874. 
 -The supervision and control 
 
 of the public schools are vested in a ln>.iril ,i/' 
 education, consisting of 26 members, 2 from each 
 ward, who are appointed biennially by the alder- 
 men, subject to confirmation by the common 
 council. The board elect annually from their 
 number a president, who is required to preside 
 at all meetings, and to deliver an annual ad- 
 dress. The school board is required, subject to 
 the approval of the common council, to establish 
 and organize a sufficient number of schools for 
 the accommodation of the children of the city. 
 for which the common council must purchase, or 
 lease, lots and buildings, erect school-houses, and 
 provide the necessary furniture. The board, is, al- 
 so, authorized to define the boundaries of school- 
 districts, to adopt suitable text-books, which must 
 be uniform, and must continue in use without 
 frequent change, and to enforce uniformity in the 
 
 system of instruction employed in these] Is. 
 
 They also elect biennially a superintendent of 
 schools, whose duties are to exercise a general 
 supervision over the public schools, to examine 
 into their organization and condition, to suggesf 
 to the teachers such changes, consistent with the 
 school law, as he may deem expedient, and, in 
 connection with a committee of the board, to ex- 
 amine teachers, to employ and classify them, and 
 to dismiss them when necessary. The school law 
 requires the establishment and maintenance of 
 a high school, in which must be organized an 
 academic department and a normal course for 
 the special training of teachers for the public 
 schools of the city. The course ^ of study in 
 
 chool is; 
 
 ele 
 
 an English education, together with German 
 (graded like the other studies, and taught by a 
 special teacher), and music, free-hand drawing. 
 and calisthenics, graded and systematically 
 taught by the class teachers. There are special 
 superintendents, however, for each of these 
 branches, who regularly inspect and supervise 
 the work. and. in the case of drawing and music. 
 hold all the examinations for promotion. In 
 the liiuli M-l I, there are two courses — the clas- 
 sical and the English- each occupying four 
 vcars. Throe grades of certificates are granted 
 to teachers, examinations for which are held in 
 March, June, August, and December. The 
 
 schools, 13 ; branch schools, (>. — The following 
 are the principal items of srliool stutistirs for 
 the same year; 
 
 Number of pupils of school age 34,031 
 
 " " enrolled in public schools. . . 13,8*1 
 
 Average daily attendance 8,453 
 
 Number of teachers 107 
 
 Total receipts $168,949.22 
 
 " expenditures $164,210.15 
 
 valuation of school property $486,500.00 
 
 Connected with the public schools, is a teach- 
 ers' library, the privileges of which are free to 
 all teachers employed in the public schools, and 
 to the pupils of the normal department of the 
 high school. In addition to the means of in- 
 struction afforded by the public schools, there 
 are many private and denominational schools. 
 The number of the former, in 1873, was 47, in 
 which instruction was given to i .011(1 pupils, the 
 number of whom, in 1875, was increased, to 
 9,269. 
 
MINERALOGY 
 
 MINERALOGY. Under the head of 
 ■al substances, or those which constitute 
 
 stai 
 
 that 
 
 the 
 
 .i), all sub- 
 ife. By a 
 > say that, 
 if nature, 
 1 from it. 
 ed by our 
 
 the mineral kingdom being &i 
 artificial products should be 
 Nature, however, is not to 
 verbal definitions; organisms appropriate and 
 use mineral substances without altering their 
 composition, or they may. in the complex 
 chemical reactions of vitality, give rise to a min- 
 eral substance, especially as a result of organic 
 decomposition. Thus we have in hones mineral 
 
 much to the mineral kingdom as that evolved 
 from the Hour of the cave. Again, nature right- 
 fully claims as true mineral substances many 
 which owe their existence to the art of man. be- 
 ing altogether identical in form, composition. 
 and character with those of her own production. 
 We can make no distinction between the crystal 
 of salt formed by the artificial evaporation of 
 brine, and a similar crystal produced by the 
 natural evaporation of sea-water: or between 
 the crystals of augite formed as furnace products 
 and those of volcanic origin. I Iciiee we see that, 
 in reality, the mineral kingdom embraces all sub- 
 stances, in their constitution essentially inorganic, 
 which cecur in nature, even though they may 
 have been formed under organic or under artiti- 
 
 i.t liquid or gaseous, within, upon. 
 ■ earth. Among these, we are at 
 
 pon to recognize the distinction be- 
 ifferent kinds of molecules that are 
 
 language, we recognize 111 rteri Us and structures. 
 To the materials we apply the term minerals. 
 A material must be homogeneous; hence the 
 definition of a mineral is "a natural homogene- 
 ous substance of inorganic origin." To mineral 
 aggregates we apply the term nicks; but as fluid 
 minerals, whether gaseous or liquid, can hardly 
 be said to have structure in the sense in which 
 the geologist uses the term, he defines a rock as 
 •' tun aggregation of solid mineral particles which 
 constitutes an essential part of the earth's crust." 
 Imbedded within rocks, we meet with certain 
 mineral bo lies that present forms and structures 
 undoubtedly of organic origin ; to these, provided 
 they are of a certain geological antiquity, is ap- 
 plied the term fossil. (See PALEONTOLOGY.) — 
 Each mineral is theoretically assumed to be ca- 
 pable el taking, under favorable circumstances, 
 the form of a geometrical solid. This capability 
 is due to forces inherent in inorganic matter, 
 which causes its molecules to arrange themselves 
 according to fixed laws about certain mathemat- 
 ically related axes. A perfect crystal is thus 
 
 the outward expression of symmetrical internal 
 
 structure, and is defined as "an inorganic solif! 
 bounded by plane surfaces symmetrically ar- 
 ranged, and' resulting from the 'forces of the con- 
 stituent molecules. (See Dana, System of Min- 
 ei-alogy,Yol.i.) As the molecules of different kinds 
 are variously affected by the molecular forces, the 
 crystalline forms of different minerals vary ac- 
 cordingly. The form of the same mineral is 
 always constant : not that it always occurs in 
 crystals of identical form, but that all its forms 
 are referable, under mathematical conditions, to 
 one fundamental type. Its crystalline form is, 
 therefore, regarded as an essential characteristic 
 
 of a mineral specie.-, which will embrace yari- 
 
 and, in this light, anj particular crystal maybe 
 regarded as a mineral individual. '1 he existence 
 of such mineral structures is not incompatible 
 with the definition of a TOCk given above, since 
 crystals are not structures essential in the earth's 
 crust. The formation of a crystal is interfered 
 with by so many external and varying influences, 
 that forms of exact symmetry are almost im- 
 probabilities; or, to quote Dana, "this sym- 
 metrical harmony is so uncommon that it can 
 hardly be considered other thai, an ideal perfec- 
 tion.'— The law that the same mineral is always 
 limited to its own crystalline form is apparently 
 
 have minerals of similar composition, as of 
 carbonate of lime, or even elements, as carbon 
 and sulphur, crystallizing under two or more 
 different fundamental forms [dimorphism, poly- 
 morphism); or. we may have minerals of differ- 
 ent but related chemical composition assuming 
 identical or similar forms [isomorphism, homceo- 
 morphism); or. finally, we may have a mineral 
 assuming the form of another mineral of essen- 
 tially different chemical composition [pseudo- 
 morphism). As the molecular arrangement 
 known as crystalline structure is thus intimately 
 controlled by the laws that govern chemical 
 combination, the explanation of the above men- 
 tioned apparent exceptions to law lies within 
 the province of the chemical physicist. Thus, 
 whilst the mathematician deals with the forms 
 of crystals and their properties as geometrical 
 solids, to the chemist and physicist must be as- 
 signed that part of crystallology, or the science 
 of crystals, which treats of the laws and condi- 
 tions' that give rise to such forms. To the 
 mathematical branch, is assigned the name crys- 
 tallography, to the physical, crystallogeny. As 
 crystalline form and chemical composition are 
 the essential characteristics of mineral species, 
 chemistry, physics, and solid geometry are the 
 sciences upon which mineralogy is based. In 
 turn, it is an essential subordinate of geology, 
 necessarily throwing light upon the character 
 and history of rocks. From a more general 
 educational stand-point, mineralogy is important 
 as making us acquainted with the results of the 
 forces that are restricted in their action to in- 
 organic matter, and enabling us to contrast 
 them with the results of that combination of 
 forces which we call vitality. The properties 
 
of minerals also 
 
 throw lighl on 
 
 by affording da 
 
 t.i for the disc 
 
 affecting light, 
 
 electricity, mi 
 
 its applications 
 
 to the arts, thi 
 
 ogy rests upon 
 
 a chemical bi 
 
 be regarded, . 
 
 iducatioually, 
 
 chemistry, as i 
 
 omplementarj 
 
 great technical 
 
 importance to I 
 
 ist and as a nee 
 
 
 and miningengi 
 
 ueer. Itwilll 
 
 that thestu lv . 
 
 ,i .;:.,: 1 1 . 
 
 vanced educatio 
 
 n. At the sai 
 
 noted that mil 
 
 terals, regarde 
 
 materials of wh 
 
 ich the earths 
 
 offer examples 
 
 nt so many p 
 
 that come undi 
 
 •i- ill. izai 
 
 either unaided i 
 
 
 MINERALOGY 
 
 il problems 
 
 MINNESOTA 581 
 
 Dana, .1 System of Mineralogy : 
 
 
 MINEo, SCHOOL OF. See Scientific 
 
 SC U.S. 
 
 MINISTRY OF PUBLIC INSTRUC- 
 TION, [low fur it is viuht ..I- expedient for 
 
 dary ami si 
 
 all. 
 
 the cultivation of the powers of observation 
 the lowerstages oi education. Minerals presei 
 
 complicated, as in vegetable or animal materia 
 by the effects of vitality; and theyare superior 
 artificial objects for objective teaching, becaue 
 
 if rightly used, they may be de to elucida 
 
 all that can be elucidated by the former, whil 
 
 they In me, in a Idition, foundation Btones up 
 
 which a more a Ivanced and scientific study mi 
 be satisfactorily base I. In this manner.they mi 
 be use I to inculcate, in its must elementary fori 
 a scientific method of research. Thus, by raeai 
 of the physical charactersof minerals, observ 
 ti.ui, accurate as far as our unaided senses ca 
 make it, and exactness of thought, and eons 
 quentlyof speech, may be cultivated in re-ai 
 
 le .it Ministi 
 hit-, in Prusi 
 
 to. 
 
 elementary notions of crystalline structure anil 
 cleavage), cuhr, diaphaneilu, luster, luxrdness 
 tenacity,fra tun etc Observations, elementarj 
 
 it is true, but still oi a fun I. ntal character 
 
 regarding specific gravity, solubility, sadfusibil 
 ity, may be induced by simple experiments with 
 the balance, the test tube, and the blowpipe. 
 
 Such knowledge, acquired from the coi 
 
 minerals around us, will undoubtedly be a val- 
 uable stepping-stone to further acquisitions. A1 
 
 insight into simple chemical phenomena, and, if 
 carried far enough, might be made an excellent 
 starting-point for systematic scientific : 
 tion by analysis. 
 
 In connection with mineralogy, 
 should be given to lithology, or the b 
 mineral aggregates, or rocks. This 
 presents many points of interest botl 
 scientific and an educational point of v 
 in its connections, on the one hand, wit! 
 
 iy. Wurtemberg, Den 
 olivia, Chili, and Cost 
 lucation was. in 1875, 
 
 i-'.-.]\ 
 
 education, were assigned to one bei of thi 
 
 ministry. In n f the oilier stati a oi t uropi 
 
 or America, do any of the members oi thi 
 
 ministry bear the special title of isterofedu 
 
 cation, either . xclusivelj or jointlywith that ..1 
 ■ the,- min .-te.ial .1. i.'.ii t. In Belgium and 
 
 educational affairs in the ministry 
 rior; and. in the .same way, in the I 
 a bureau of education, with a com 
 
 work 
 
 ill. i- 
 
 topics of mineralogy and lithology are few; a 
 
 those only are here Darned that are perfectly 
 
 MINNESOTA, one of the north-western 
 states of the American Union, formed a part of 
 the territory of the same name, which was or- 
 ganized by Congress in 1849. Thestate of Min- 
 nesota was admitted into the Union in 1858, 
 
MINNESOTA 
 
 taking rank as the 19th, in the order of ; 
 Its area is 83,531 sq. in.; and its popi 
 
 Clilmvil 
 
 Edu 
 
 general 
 at tin: 
 
 ?e a year, and issues to teachers, 
 ation liy himself, or by a committee 
 tppointed by him, state certificates, 
 the secretary of state, and the pres- 
 university. constitute a board for 
 mdation of text-books to be used 
 m ,-. 1 Is of the state. He is also 
 
 free publico 
 Every towns 
 families was 
 
 which scl I 
 
 the majority 
 a tax not I 
 county tax \ 
 po3es. The 
 the school sy 
 intendent. 
 schools, havi 
 having 366 s 
 school fund > 
 Bed 
 
 mi|,|, 
 
 mon schools.' In 1 858, the first normal school was 
 established, by an act of the legislature; and. in 
 1860, it was organized and opened at Winona. 
 This school was suspended from March, 1862, to 
 November, 1864, when it was re-opened in pur- 
 suance of a law passed in February of that year. 
 A second state normal school was opened at 
 Mankato, in 1868 ; and, the following year. 
 $30,000 was appropriated by the legislature for 
 a permanent building for its accomodation. A 
 third normal school was opened at St Cloud in 
 1869. A state normal board was constituted by 
 
 than $10, 1ur each organized district 'I he duties 
 of the latter are to examine teachers and grant 
 certificates, to visit the schools in their respective 
 counties once during each session, and each to 
 make an annual report to the state superintend- 
 ent. No one is eligible to the position of county 
 superintendent who cannot obtain from the state 
 superintendent a first-grade certificate. In each 
 district, there is a director, a treasurer, and a 
 clerk elected for three years. 'I heir duties are 
 
 ils 
 
 clu 
 
 districts may also be organized in any city. town, 
 township, or village. In such cases, the govern- 
 ment of these districts is intrusted to a board of 
 six directors, who perform the duties usually 
 
 audition. — The number of 
 L875, was 3,362 ; the number 
 1 !>7."i • the number of winter 
 summer schools, 2,643. The 
 
 scl Is reported in that year 
 
 «ipts for the support of the 
 nl from the following sources: 
 
 the 
 
 now exists. During the scssioi 
 in that year, a bill was prop 
 universal compulsory educatio 
 volition of truancy; but it was 
 state school fund, at that ti 
 nearly '■> millions of dollars. 
 
 .1 ah. 
 
 prese 
 
 chool System. — The supervision of the edu- 
 >nal interests of the stale is committed to a 
 trintendent of public instruction, who is ap- 
 ited by the governor for two years. Hi.*- 
 esare8imilar to those ol state superintendents 
 •rally ; while his powers are greater from the 
 that he is called upon to perform the func- 
 s usually intrusted in other Mates to state 
 
 ning schools, convenes teachers' institutes, 
 i, Hi., lis the school funds among the several 
 
 Siilrnll .Is " ' 4S.S70..-.1 
 
 I Ither sources ■■ 84,856.34 
 
 Total...." $1,576,081.60 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 F,,r teachers' wages . . $702,662.66 
 
 |,vj,Tinn" i '■"■'.'-■ -"'i'.''. i.ls a I'.'joii.'is 
 
 "houses ~' ' " ' 187,667.74 
 
 Rent ol siteaand i is 3,158.64 
 
 |.„ „| „l ,lj-tMcI I U. l.-.l..-.li7.7!> 
 
 For oilier purposes. 1 32.796.30 
 
 Total $1289,629.03 
 
 The other important items of the school 
 statistics, for 1875, arc the following: 
 Pupils enrolled ■■■ M!™ 4 . 4 . 
 
 \\,\ .CO H I li. I. III. r 111 -II irl i;"''.'!,'!,' 
 
 '<• " mean? for 'the year! 35',646 
 
 Number ol teachers in ungraded schools: 
 
 2,:tH9 
 2,301 
 
M1WKSOTA 
 
 ichers in graded schools: 
 males. 
 
 K;; W , /„r>l r„sfn 
 
 ■ of high 
 . 'I hey 
 
 Norm 
 the state 
 Mankato 
 the cour 
 guage.mi 
 political 
 
 mail's. T.">: females. 220. '1'lie number enrolled 
 
 total enrollment, 499; the number in actual 
 attendance in the normal department, 220. The 
 faculty consists of a principal and ten assistants. 
 The class of graduates of May, 1875, numbered 
 18 j the whole number of graduates, since its 
 
 organization, was 227. The Bi id state normal 
 
 school is at Mankato. [tig divided into a nor- 
 mal and a model department, and has a faculty 
 of one principal and five professors or assistants. 
 Both sexes are admitted, lis cuius,' of study is 
 similar to that pursued in the normal school at 
 Winona. The number of pupils enrolled, in 1875, 
 was, in the normal department, males. 63; fe- 
 males, L50; in the model department, males. 30; 
 females, 16. The average at ten. lance in the nor- 
 mal department was 59; in the model depart- 
 ment, 20. There were 11 graduates during the 
 year. — The normal school at St. < loud is the 
 youngest of the three state institutions, having 
 been established in 186!). Its organization and 
 course of study arc the same as those of the two 
 older schools at Mankato ami Winona, [tisopen 
 to both sexes, and has a faculty consisting of a 
 principal and six instructors. The enrollment was 
 as follows: in the normal department, males, 50; 
 females, 124; in the model department, males. 1 6; 
 females, 32 ; average number in the normal de- 
 partment, males, 28; females, 64; average in 
 model department, males, 10; females, L5. In 
 addition to the privileges afforded by these three 
 institutions, special instruction, to those desiring 
 to teach in the public Bchools, is given in several 
 of the high schools of the Mate. A Ian..' number 
 
 <>f teachers of both s 
 from this source. — Tf 
 vein- 1 by the superinti 
 
 annually 
 are con- 
 instruc- 
 
 that of I'hill: 
 St. Croix V; 
 its charter in 
 
 regularly inc. 
 institution hi 
 
 schools. Am 
 
 kind in this part of the North- 
 mlicr of t.a. hers, in 1875, was 6 ; 
 
 established to provide a Christi 
 
 nhoni 
 
 ■for young 
 est menial 
 
 ladies, with opportunities fort 
 
 ie higl 
 
 
 V Coll. 
 
 ge is con- 
 
 necte.l with this group of in 
 
 titutic 
 
 ns : also a 
 
 cathedral, which cost ¥50,000. 
 
 n whi 
 
 h the'stu- 
 
 dents meet for public worshii 
 
 Bes 
 
 
 there is Wesleyan Seminary, a 
 
 Was 
 
 >ja, under 
 
 the control of 'the .Minnesota i 
 
 onfen 
 
 tee of the 
 
 Wesleyan Methodists, which 
 
 n 1ST 
 
 "), had 98 
 
 students; and St. Johns Sei 
 
 linary 
 
 near St. 
 
 Joseph, Stearns ( !o., w hi. h is i 
 
 induct 
 
 ■.I by the 
 
 I'eneilictine fathers, anil provi. 
 
 cs fivi 
 
 courses of 
 
 study: an elementary, a si ientifi 
 
 ,a coi 
 
 unci, lal.a 
 
 aclassical and an ecclesiastical a 
 
 U-e. i." 
 
 ee below.) 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Th 
 
 ■ Uni 
 
 Clsitv of 
 
 brinirii... 
 Of the nc 
 promise. 
 
 Cali.t.'ll I vll.n,- Nnrtl.ti. M 
 
 Hamlin,. University Red Wing 
 
 Ma.alist.T Uollejjo Minn, uji.ihs 
 
 St. .lohn'sN.-iiiiiiary St. Joseph 
 
 University oi Miiiui s.ita , Mniu.-ai.nlis 
 
 Presb 
 
 i fO Won eel 
 
:.*■! miwf.sota rxi\-Ki;sri'v 
 
 MISSISSIPPI 
 
 Pro/essi ,1 , 
 
 Sealnu v I ii\ init\ 
 .liilm's Seminan 
 ferred to as insti 
 have full courses 
 there is A.ugsbu 
 
 UlnliT Kvalie.. lie.i 
 
 instruction, in -•' 
 
 afforded by tfa • ■- 
 
 Specia I ■ 
 
 and the Blind, located at Fariba 
 
 in 1 -I',.'!. lui residents of the sta 
 ages of in an 1 25 years The 
 embraces all il i iinary bran 
 
 special 
 the yea 
 
 II,. 
 
 pursuits. During 
 leaf-muti s and 'Jl 
 
 ilished 
 
 ings. rhere is also an e 
 library contains nearly 
 The general museum coj 
 
 Bhn.,1 u 1,1,1,. II, .1 nil,-. I ST.',. »> consolidated 
 
 with Thi Chi ago Teacher and published at Chi- 
 cago, mi I, r the title of Tfo Western Journal of 
 Education. 
 
 MINNESOTA, University of, at Min- 
 neapolis, Minn., was established upon grants 
 of land by Congress for the endowment oi a 
 university and of a college ,,t agriculture and 
 
 the mechanic arts, ai inting, in all to 202,000 
 
 acres. The first act for its organization was 
 passed by the territorial legislature in l-.'l. 
 The present charter was granted in 1m;-. ami 
 amended in 1872. A preparatory school was 
 opened in 1867; and, in L869, the first college 
 
 class was organized. Under tl rganic law, the 
 
 board of regents are authorized to establish any 
 desired number of departments or colleges, the 
 following, however, being specified : "A depart- 
 in, ut of elementary instruction ; a college of 
 science, literature, and the arts; a college of 
 agriculture; a college of mechanic arts; i col- 
 lege or department oi medicine; a college or 
 department of law.' The colleges of I .-. an, 
 medicine have not Vet 1, n, orejnii/.cl. 'I he ,1 - 
 
 The chemical and physical a] 
 Both Bexes are admitted. In I 
 16 instructors and 267 stude 
 
 71 females:, of « holli 1 I - v 
 
 Tv!\\,|well!^V.A.'.'lia'sl,e','n I 
 
 MISCHIEV0U3NESS. 
 
 ry course, coincid- 
 .\ itli the scientific 
 
 advanced or ina- 
 ppropriate bacca- 
 civil i ngineei ing ; 
 ,1 1 1 . _ a course in 
 an- based on the 
 giate department. 
 , being supported 
 |,,u lii.-i it . amount- 
 an annual appro- 
 laie. The univer- 
 
 aeles.well woo, led 
 
 i, two fine build- 
 nental farm. The 
 i bound volumes, 
 s the collections of 
 ory survey of the 
 ssors of the uni- 
 s,-s and donations. 
 iaratus is valuable. 
 
 ts I 96 males, ami 
 re "I tin- college 
 I, special. W illiara 
 e president oi the 
 
 tO the 
 
 i'j.-i,„,.il Uan.-Lir, -»i t an oMal>li.-hed rule n, a 
 
 playful spirit, bu1 without a malicious intention. 
 Iljis disposition is usually the resultof the union 
 of humor, or love of fun, with sound bodily 
 health. The exuberance of spirits thus produced 
 
 generally finds rent in actions which are de ,,- 
 
 inated mischievous. This spirit is so widely 
 lifferenl from the willful breaking oi rules with 
 
 teacher ; the g 1 nature 
 
 chievous act isai companii 
 perpetrator to desist on 
 
 eh thl II 
 
 causing 
 
 versity. 
 the fresh 
 dinary c 
 tneiit. 'I 
 senior ye; 
 first prep 
 ml,- has 
 maining 
 obtain il 
 
 scl Is. 
 
 cours is ,, 
 modern. 
 the aits | 
 a course i 
 
 in 
 
 two cot 
 based i 
 depart) 
 
 with the work of 
 
 classes of llle ,,r- 
 
 that. t,, the discipline of 
 • other hand, the good 
 sor is in, -i by a similar 
 the tea, her. the task of 
 \ . an, I causes no offense ; 
 >s a respectful obedience 
 
 ndermine, or permanently deprave the moral 
 laracter. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, one of the southern stales 
 'the American Union formed at first a partof 
 
 ■ oi the states ,,i Mississippi 
 
 \la 
 
Mississirri 
 
 enlarged by successive additions, in 1802 and 
 L812; and, in 1-1 7. AJabama Territory was 
 formed from the eastern portion of it. ami in 
 the same year Mississippi was admitted into the 
 Union as a state. Its area is l7.loli sq. in.; 
 and its population, in 1870, was 827,922, of 
 whom 382,896 were whites: 444,201, colored 
 
 or properly organized system o puonc scnoois 
 was established in the state In 1840, the census 
 returns showed that there were 382 common 
 and primary scli. mis, with 8,263 pupils, an I ". I 
 academies, with 2,553 Btudents. diere were 
 also several colleges in the Btate, having, in the 
 aggregate, 250 students. In L850, the number 
 (if public schools had increased to 762 ; ami the 
 number of academi s, to [89. In L860, there 
 
 report to the legislature The 
 vision ami control of the sclu 
 to the superintendent of pubi 
 
 hose ot county Bupi 
 
 ■m h comity eoiistitu 
 governed by a boa 
 
 Each .mi 
 school-dis 
 counties, 
 
 pupils, and an 
 
 
 
 
 ,''. 'I'he number 
 
 of academies ai 
 
 d o 
 
 h t 
 
 
 was L69, with 
 
 7,974 pupils; 
 
 ind 
 
 here 
 
 
 3 colleges, with 
 
 856 students. 
 
 The 
 
 stat. 
 
 const 
 
 tun ni of 1868 
 
 recognized the 
 
 leed 
 
 .f ). 
 
 ■ovi lin 
 
 : the means of 
 
 popular educat 
 
 mi. a 
 
 .1 h 
 
 nee in; 
 
 Ic n the duty of 
 
 the legislature 
 
 
 ablis 
 
 i "a ui 
 
 iloi'in system of 
 
 free public sch, 
 
 ols 1 
 
 v tax 
 
 ition, i 
 
 r otherwise, for 
 
 all children bet 
 
 yeen 
 
 'the. 
 
 ges of 
 
 5 and 21 years, " 
 
 and also, as so 
 
 
 8 1"' 
 
 cticabl 
 
 >, "to establish 
 
 schools of a hig 
 
 
 radi 
 
 Th 
 
 sai 'oustitu- 
 
 tion also rerpiit 
 
 ■Itl 
 
 • e]e, 
 
 tion of 
 
 a • superintend- 
 
 ent of public . 
 
 years, and also 
 education." con 
 
 luca 
 
 
 to ho 
 
 
 hat 
 
 
 
 bea"boardof 
 
 
 
 
 
 attorney-genem 
 
 . an 
 
 1 th 
 
 
 superintendent; 
 
 ami that there 
 
 
 1 hi 
 
 
 up rinten lent 
 
 in cad. countj 
 
 
 thai 
 
 I '!''", 
 
 should I..- kept 
 
 year. It also 
 
 
 l l 
 
 : ira - 
 
 h'!.7'fim'uVo,u 
 
 the proceeds i 
 
 
 
 
 i ;.. the state, 
 
 ESS-'Si 
 
 1 i 
 
 '!.',' 
 
 anTa 
 
 and the lands 
 
 ithorized a poll- 
 
 tax not rxrrr 1 
 
 
 
 ■''■'J-il 
 
 ';.i,'','c,li' of "."n 
 
 fund. It pres 
 
 
 agricultural co 
 
 
 and 
 
 that " 
 
 io religiou - ii i 
 
 IS ever to < ti 
 
 .1 a 
 
 y pa 
 
 ■t of t 
 
 c school or uni- 
 
 versity funds 
 
 if t 
 
 e st 
 
 ite". 
 
 u pursuance of 
 
 these constitut 
 
 jnal 
 
 •eqn 
 
 ivincut 
 
 s, the legislature, 
 
 at its session ,, 
 
 Jui 
 
 e. L8 
 
 To. pas 
 
 ed a school law. 
 
 organizing the 
 
 pres 
 
 lit s 
 
 ihool s 
 
 vsteni. except as 
 
 amended in so 
 
 
 
 lara b\ 
 
 the revised code 
 
 of 1871.- 'ih. 
 
 firsl 
 
 stat 
 
 • supei 
 
 iiitcmleiit under 
 
 this law was 1 
 
 . K. 
 
 
 
 served till 1874: 
 
 his success, .rs 1 
 
 ■iii' 
 
 r. w 
 
 . Cardozo, from 1 8'U to 
 
 1876; T. S. Gathrig 
 
 it. from Jai 
 
 . to Sept.. 1876; 
 
 and Rev. Jos. 
 
 tardwell, 
 
 tow in 
 
 ..Mice (1876). 
 
 School SysU 
 
 n. 
 
 I'he 
 
 general 
 
 supervision and 
 
 control of the 
 
 pub 
 
 ic sc 
 
 IIOOIS , 
 
 f the state arc 
 
 committed to a 
 
 
 boa 
 
 ■d of e, 
 
 ucalion, consist- 
 
 ing of the secretar 
 
 ■ of 
 
 state, t 
 
 ie attorney-gen- 
 
 eral, and the su 
 
 peril 
 
 dell. 
 
 elll of 
 
 lublic education. 
 
 This board has 
 
 charge of all property and funds 
 
 lower house of the legislature. It is provided by 
 law that " the Bible shall not be excluded from 
 the schools of the state". The school age is from 
 5 to '-'I years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 schools, in 1875, was 3,434,— first grade. 764; 
 second grade, 2,670; high schools. 8; private 
 schools, 606. 'I he support of the schools was 
 derived from the following sources: 
 
 Expenditures : 
 
 Knr teachers' salaries ?-.u ,950.44 
 
 t alaries of county superintendents . 48,650.00 
 
 Miscellaneous expenditures 80,000.00 
 
 Total ■-'' 6,600, I I 
 
 The other items of school statistics are the 
 following: 
 
 Number ol children of sel 1 age: 
 
 Whites, 141,514 
 
 Colored 17(i,945 
 
 Total 318,459 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled L68.217 
 
 u. iieje iiM.nthiv ciiri.lliiicnt i:;:;,:;:;o 
 
 Average daily alien. Ian. <■ l(IC.s:i-l 
 
 X i i , i i 1 , . ■ i nt teaelicrs 4, tir.s 
 
 Average monthly wages of teachers $55.47 
 
 Normal Instruction. — There are two normal 
 
 sel Is in the state. at Holly Springs, the 
 
 other at Tougaloo. The first was opened in 
 1870, and three years after, graduated 3 pupils. 
 The limited appropriation made for its support, 
 has impaired its efficiency by rendering it diffi- 
 cult to secure the services of competent persons 
 as instructors. 'I'he normal school at Tougaloo 
 
 the American Missionary Association contributed 
 
 SI. -.,0(1(1. and the state $10,000. 'I'he facultj of 
 the school consists of a principal, preceptress. 
 
586 MISSISSIPPI UNIVERSITY 
 
 and five teachers. Manual labor is a feature of 
 the curriculum, each student being required to 
 occupy himself one hour daily in this way In- 
 struction is given principally in the English 
 branches and mathematics. Facilities are also 
 afforded for the stu.lv of vocal and instrumental 
 music. There is a reference library oi L,000 
 
 Secondary Instruction. -'J he reports received 
 from high schools and academies have been so 
 few in number as to give very little ground on 
 which to base an estimate of the work that is 
 being done in this grade of instruction. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The chief institu- 
 tions of this grade are enumerated in the follow- 
 ing table: 
 
 NAME 
 
 u~* 
 
 U i : 
 Counci- 
 
 Religious 
 denomina- 
 
 Mississippi College. . . 
 
 Puss»'lmstian Cnlleyi 
 Shaw University 
 
 Tnu^alnu rniviTsity. 
 Univ. uf Mississippi. . 
 
 Clinton 
 Pass Christian 
 Bolly Springs 
 rougaloo 
 
 Oxford 
 
 ls. ;n 
 18G6 
 1868 
 1869 
 
 is a 
 
 Bap. 
 K. C. 
 Meth. 
 
 Non-sf-ct. 
 
 The report, for 1*74, of the U. S. Bureau of 
 Education mentions 7 colleges for the superior 
 instruction of w n. of which 6 were author- 
 ized to confer degrees. Thes ■ colleges are located 
 at Brookhaven (Whitworth), Clinton (Central 
 Institute), Columbus (Female [nstitute), Holly 
 Springs Franklin), Meridian. Oxford (Union), 
 and Pontotoc (Chickasaw). 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction.— 
 
 act ot the 1,-idatuiv in 1-71 . and occupies the 
 site of the institution formerij known as Oak- 
 land College, the oldest academic institution in 
 the state. To the university was granted three- 
 fifths of the proceeds of the sale of the agricult- 
 ural college land-scrip, amounting to $113,400, 
 besides a legislative appropriation of $50,000 
 for ten years. It is ..pen to students of either 
 race. It has an agricultural department, with 
 a farm of 27:7 acres. Its philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus is very elaborate and com- 
 plete. Means for scientific instruction is also 
 afforded by the College of Agriculture and Me- 
 chanic Arts, a department of the University of 
 Mississippi. This institution has also a law de- 
 partment; and there is a theological class in 
 Tougaloo University. 
 
 S/in-iii/ hislrti'-iimi. —The Mississippi Institute 
 for the Blind, at Jackson, is the only institution 
 of thischarac er in t li ■ state. It was founded in 
 1852, and is support id by stab' appropriations. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI, University of, at Oxford, sc 
 Miss., was chartered in 1844and opened inl848, E 
 
 sils, soils, and other geological apparatus; be- 
 sides instruments to illustrate mathematics 
 and engineering, and a large farm, The library 
 contains more' than 6,000 volumes. The in- 
 vested resources of the university do not ex- 
 ceed $200,000. The income, in 1876, from en- 
 dowment and state appropriations was $30,000. 
 The plan of instruction embraces three general 
 departments; namely. (1) preparatory educa- 
 tion (includmg a com) rial course) ; (2) sci- 
 ence, literature, and the arts; (3) professional 
 education. The second department includes 
 five distinct courses of study, three of which 
 are undergraduate parallel courses, two being 
 post - graduate courses. The undergraduate 
 courses are known as (1) The Course for 
 Bachelor of Arts (-1 yrs.) ; (2) The Course 
 for Bachelor of Science (4 yrs.); (3) The 
 Course for Bachelor of Philosophy (3 yrs.). A 
 student has free choice of these courses, but the 
 studies prescribed for each course are all com- 
 pulsory for that course. The post-graduate 
 courses are for the degrees i 
 Doctor of Philosophy. t*i 
 department are embracei 
 schools; namely. (1) law 
 Burgery (not yet organized); (3) agriculture 
 and tin- mechanic arts, in which the regular 
 course is for four years, leading to the degree of 
 Bachelor of Scientific Agriculture (B. S. A.). 
 The cost of tuition in the first general depart- 
 ments is $25a year; in the law school, $50 a 
 year. In 1875— li, there were 13 instructors 
 and l.'il students. The presiding othcers have 
 been as follows: George P. Holmes, LL. D. 
 (president), 1848-^9; the Bev. Augustus B. 
 
 Master of Arts and 
 r the third general 
 three professional 
 (2) medicine and 
 
 eellor; the Bev. John N. Waddel, D. D., LL.D., 
 (chancellor) 1865 — 71 ; and Gen. Alexander P. 
 Stewart, the present chancellor I L876), appointed 
 in 1874. 
 
 MISSISSIPPI COLLEGE, at Clinton, 
 Miss., under Baptist control, was chartered in 
 1830. It has libraries containing 3,0110 volumes, 
 and extensive apparatus and cabinets. Its pro- 
 ductive funds amount to $50,000. The regular 
 tuition fee is S'2.7 a year. The college consists 
 of a preparatory department, and the following 
 six schools: (1) mental and moral science. 
 (2) Greek, (3) Latin, (4) mathematics, (5) natural 
 sciences, and (6) English. Any student complet- 
 ing the six scl Is isentitled to the degree of 
 
 A. B.; those completing, the schools of moral 
 
 the legislature two-fifths of the congressional Bev. \V 
 land grant for the establishment of a college of MISi 
 
 agriculture and the mechanic arts The msti- Americ 
 
 and astronomical apparatus; a cabinet ot shells sion of 
 
 and mineralogies! specimens; collections of fos- part of 
 
 1 163 students. The 
 he president (1876). 
 western slates of the 
 nally a part of the 
 !. and on the admis- 
 na. in L812, formed 
 it. It was admitted 
 
into the Union as a state, with its present limits, 
 in L821. Its area is 65,350 sq. m. ; and its popu- 
 lation, in 1870, was 1,721,295, of whom 1,603,1 16 
 were whites, 1 18,071 colored persons. 7"> Indians. 
 and 3 i Ihinese. 
 
 Educational History. This subject will be 
 
 history of St. I>ouis and the state. They were 
 authorized to take and hold all real and personal 
 property given to the schools by individuals or 
 
 tl.ei 
 
 the act of incorporation requiring. 'that an insti- 
 tution for the education of females shall be estab- 
 lished by the trustees as soon as the funds of the 
 academy will admit of it : and that the trustees 
 shall cause, at all times, the French and English 
 languages to be taught in the said academy. In 
 L812, Congress, in erecting the territory of Mis- 
 souri, made general provision for the cause of 
 education, which took practical shape shortly 
 after in special grants of town lots and other 
 lands to specially named communities, or school 
 corporations; but the territorial government 
 made no effort to establish a general system of 
 public schools. It contented itself with extend- 
 ing aid, encouragement, and protection to all 
 communities showing enterprise in this respect : 
 but further than this it could not prudently go, 
 owing to the numerical weakness of the Dopula- 
 
 tionaiid its widely scattered character. An act 
 was approved January 22. HI 7. establishing "a 
 lottery for the benefit ot Potosi Academy," which 
 institution consisted of two houses built and in 
 part furnished by the inhabitants of Washington 
 county at Mine a Burton. On the 30th of Janu- 
 ary, in the same year, an act to incorporate 
 trustees of this academy was approved. The 
 board was to consist of seven members. Two 
 classes — junior and senior -were established, 
 the instruction given in the former being prepar- 
 atory, that in the latter, -the English language, 
 with such other languages and sciences as were 
 usually taught in seminaries of learning. Tin- 
 name of the school had previously been Mine a 
 Burton Academy. This is the first school men- 
 tioned in the public records between 1812 and 
 1820. ( hi the same day (January 30., 1 si 7). an 
 act was approved author 
 of public buildings, in th 
 Girardeau Co., to convey to five 
 named in the act. four acres of land on 
 erect a school-house. They were per: 
 dispose of a portion of this land, for th 
 of creating a building fund. On the san 
 act to incorporate a board of trustei 
 superintendence of school,-, in the town 
 
 ■w ones were estab- 
 period of the state's 
 
 hereafter, the leiris- 
 
 authorizing the 
 form a constitut 
 ositions were off 
 
 the commissioner 
 
 i of -laekson. ( 'a pi 
 
 of e.l 
 state 
 ures • 
 as ha 
 
 measures for the improvement of such land as 
 had been already, or might be thereafter, granted 
 by the United States, the funds accruing from 
 the rent or lease of which, together with all 
 
 other funds given for the same purpose, were to 
 constitute a permanent fund for the support of 
 "a university for the promotion of literature aud 
 the arts ami sciences.' The state was ad- 
 mitted into the Union upon the terms of this 
 
 ited to thirteen members, anil when incrp .Kited, 
 consisted of William Clark. William • '. fair. 
 Thomas H. Benton. Bernard Pratte, Auguste 
 Chouteau. Alexander MeXair. and John I'. 
 Cabanne — names ever after prominent in and 
 intimately associated with, the development and 
 
 two commissioners in each township, whose duty 
 it should be toereet "a sufficient school-house for 
 the benefit of education.'' whenever the funds 
 
derived from tl 
 lands were suffi 
 act was passed 
 stituted a schi 
 trustees was ai 
 powered to "bu 
 repair the saint 
 
 ors of scl Is, ; 
 
 incut of tin' scl 
 in regard to the 
 fications of the 
 
 a system of common pr 
 nearly uniform as possi' 
 By this, each congressh 
 a school-district, in wl 
 elected annually, who \\ 
 
 scl 1 houses, employ 
 
 schools six months in 
 the year, if a majority i 
 therefor. The constitut 
 
 ■),..!. IclS. 
 
 y and collet 
 the Bchools 
 
 of free S ihools for all pes,,,,-, in the state b 'tween 
 the ages of 5 and 21, and permits the establish- 
 ment of separate schools for children of African 
 descent, requiring the distribution of all public- 
 school moneys (not funds) in proportion to the 
 
 lose sending pupils to them, 
 when the public funds were insulin i. nt. In ls:il. 
 an act was passed authorizing the sale of the 
 saline lands given by Congress to the state. In 
 
 the sa year, the Eale of the 16th section was 
 
 directed l>\ law, by an agent appointed by the 
 county court of each county, wfii n three-fourths 
 of the inhabitants of any township petitioned for 
 such sale. The interest of the money thus de- 
 rive! was to be used for school purposes. The 
 Bale of the "seminary lands" — two entire town- 
 Bhips was, in 1832, directed by the legislature 
 for not less than $2 per acre, it is estimated 
 that $400,000 was lost by this sale alone; and 
 that the losses by injudicious sales of other lands 
 belonging to the state, and by inset lire investments 
 of the proceeds, have amounted to a sum suffi- 
 cient to have supported the public schools of the 
 
 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 » -■ 
 
 tiou 4. - 
 lature t 
 
 fund will permit. The Bchool law was still furthur 
 amended, but not materially, in 1870, and again 
 by the new constitution, adopted in convention, 
 in is;;,. 
 
 II. The earliest record of measures taken for 
 the maintenance of schools in Missouri extends 
 back to the school incorporated in St. Genevieve 
 
 aspeciai tax tor tne purpose 
 Is open as lout;' as a majority 
 ed. whenever two-thirds of 
 chool-districts demanded it. 
 
 'I he 
 
 md, and provided forth, 
 he income of the same. 
 
 a seni 
 alreai 
 Mine 
 electa 
 quire 
 for tl 
 by ea 
 the p 
 niissi. 
 of pr 
 snbni 
 gectio 
 when 
 posed 
 
 il funds 
 schools 
 
 wit I 
 
 Preside 
 
 purpose, shall be reserved for the use 
 
 nary of learning, and vested in the lej 
 
 Said stall', to be appropriated solely tc 
 
 such seminary by tin' said legislature." 
 
 ind the 
 
 rs. and 
 
 the new constitution limits taxation 
 urposes to H) cents on the $100, un- 
 
less increased by a majority vote of the tax-payers. 
 Ify such vote, it may be increased, in cities and 
 towns, to si . and. in country districts, to 65 rents. 
 For building purposes, it can be still further in- 
 
 The permanent public-school funds of the state 
 arc the following : 
 
 ness ($! ,000) 12,634,354.00 
 
 Seminary Fund (University), i sist ng 
 
 of U. S. Reg'd, and coupon 6 per cent 
 
 bonds $108,700.00 
 
 Tbumskip Funds $2,079,182.90 
 
 County Funds (including swamp land). $2,257,716.83 
 
 Township and county funds under the control 
 of the county courts, may be invested in state or 
 d. S. bonds, or loaned upon personal and real 
 estate. It is an almost invariable custom to loan 
 them. The proceeds, like the proceeds of the state 
 fund, and 25 percent of the revenue, are annually 
 distributed to the districts in which schools were 
 taught the previous year for not less than three 
 months, in the ratio of school population. 
 
 III. For many years, the method of super- 
 vising the few schools and academies in the ter- 
 ritory was by local trustees, specifically named 
 
 for the purpose, or el 
 power, also, was v 
 most all that is 
 era les of officers, 
 in isi 7. to super 
 was authorized no 
 to take and hold a 
 given to the schoi 
 gross, and to di>po 
 lease or sale. In 1 ' 
 appeal's, county c 
 pointed to manag 
 tli i boards of fcrusl 
 sume control of t 
 their other duti s, 
 of appointing visil 
 
 months 
 
 ■ted 
 
 
 Their 
 
 
 
 
 
 l sell, 
 ni.ll ] 
 
 ils, but 
 roperty 
 
 ine teachers, and to issue certifi- 
 cates of qualification, without which no one was 
 allowed to teach, and to exercise a general super- 
 visory power. In 1835, the revised school law 
 placed the supervision of the schools in the hands 
 , of three trustees annually elected for thepurpos' 
 I in each school-district, who reported to the 
 1 county courts, the latter reporting biennially to 
 I the secretary of state. The first system of gener- ! 
 al supervision of the schools" was inaugu- 
 rated at this time, the law constituting the 
 governor, the auditor, the treasurer, and the at- 
 torney-general, a state board of education. In 
 1853, an act was passed, requiring the election 
 of a state superintendent. The constitution 
 adopted in L865, created a state board of educa- 
 tion, to consist of the secretary of state, the at- 
 torney-general, anil the superintendent of public 
 schools, the latter being chairman of the board 
 and eligible for four years. In 1874, the school 
 
 )URI 589 
 
 law was again changed, the general supervision 
 of the schools remaining with the state board, 
 and the immediate supervision with district 
 directors. The state superintendents have been 
 
 as follows : (1 i Peter &. Glover oi I ' roon 
 
 (Schools"), elected by the legislature in I-..: 1 for 
 two years. After his term the office was abol- 
 ished, and its duties devolved on thi secretary 
 of state. In 1853, the office was re-established, 
 and (2) John W. Henry (of "Public Instruction' i 
 was appointed by the governor to serve until 
 after the election, in 1854, when (3) E. C. Da- 
 vis was elected, lie was BUCCeded by [4 Wil- 
 liam B. Starke, elected in 1856, and re-elected in 
 
 ecame, by law, superintendent, ex officio. In 
 865, the office was restored, and (5) .lames 
 ;. Robinson was appointed by the governor 
 iiperiiitendent of public schools. The succeed- 
 
 lointcd to fill the 
 Shannon, elected 
 
 office (1876). 
 
 I control of the 
 
 led \M 
 
 v>h 
 
 vacancy ; and \\>l 
 in November. 187' 
 School Sysh iii.- 
 educational interee 
 a state hoard of et 
 secretary of state, the attorney-general, and tb 
 state superintendent. In addition to a supei 
 visory power, it is charged with the duty o 
 investing all moneys received by the state fo 
 educational purposes. The state superintenden 
 is elected for four years, and is chairman of th, 
 
 has 
 
 the whole school system, with power to compel 
 all scl 1 officers to furnish him with any statis- 
 tics or information respecting their trusts he may 
 deem proper. In addition to the duties usually 
 performed by this officer, he is required to estab- 
 lish needed schools whenever the proper officers 
 fail to do so. He makes an annual report to the 
 legislature, or to the governor when the legislature 
 
 in each county- are elei ted biennially, in April. 
 Their duties are to examine teai hers,gran1 certif- 
 icates (graded, limited to one county, and valid 
 for one or two years), and exercise a general 
 supervision over the schools of the county. Dis- 
 trict directors, three in number, are elected for 
 three years, one being chosen annually. They 
 arc required to examine into, and report upon. 
 the condition of the schools, to purchase the i ec 
 essary apparatus and furniture, to employ teai h- 
 ers, and to make all regulations requisite forthe 
 proper organization and management of the 
 schools. They may borrow money when neces- 
 sary for the maintenance of the schools, at a rate 
 not exceeding one per cent of the taxable proper- 
 ty of the district, for teachers' salaries ; and not 
 exceeding the same rate, for buildings and inci- 
 dental purposes; but no tax can be levied for 
 the continuance of the schools for more than four 
 months in the year, except by a majority vote of 
 
the district at the annua 
 
 meeting. The school 
 
 system is divided into <1 
 
 ipartments as follows : 
 
 (1) the university, suppo 
 
 ■ted by a distinct fund 
 
 and legislative appropriat 
 
 < »ns: ('_') normal schools, 
 
 support,.! by permanen 
 
 legislative appropria- 
 
 tiuiisot SI (1.011(1 cadi: i.'.i 
 
 Bchools in "cities, towns, 
 
 and villages," under the 
 
 general law of 1870 for 
 
 their organization. Thesi 
 
 schools have boards of 
 
 education, with special p 
 
 ivil es, each consisting 
 
 of six members, two of w 
 
 torn are elected annual- 
 
 ly in September. The sch 
 
 mlsmust be taught nut 
 
 less than .'in. nui- more (li 
 
 iii tO, weeks each year; 
 
 'II "1 la "cities bavi 
 
 
 ters, which charters cot 
 
 fer al si unlimited 
 
 powers in all matters pel 
 
 aining to their school 
 
 interests ; (5) general dist 
 
 ■id public schools : and 
 
 (6) colored schools, specii 
 
 ly provided for; those 
 
 1 it ■]< >i i-_;i ' i'_C to tin- classes 
 
 marked above (3), | h. 
 
 Ch. and (^beingsuppo, 
 
 ted by the state public- 
 
 srliiiul tun 1 anil local ta\; 
 
 tiuii. -( lentraJ schools" 
 
 may be established by thi 
 
 union of two or more 
 
 districts for that purp 
 
 se. These are graded 
 
 schools kept for six mont 
 
 ts, or longer, if the d is- 
 
 Normal Instruction. — There are four normal 
 schools under the control of the state, and one 
 at St. Louis, the latter intended principally 
 for supplying teachers to the schools of the city. 
 This school' has recently been made more useful 
 
 these sc 
 
 t rii-ts interested so vote. They 
 boards — composed of the p 
 boards of these districts — and 
 themselves, to about the same 
 district schools are managed by 
 tax for the maintenance of tli 
 is levied on the taxable property 
 in \\ liich the schools arc located 
 pel-sons over 21 years of age are admitted. The 
 legal school year is 4 months ; the school month, 
 4 weeks of 5 days each ; and the school day. 6 
 hours. The legal school age is from 5 to 21 years. 
 Ameetingof the presidents of the various boards 
 of directors, with the county commissioners, is 
 held at every county scat mice in I years, to se- 
 cure uniformity in text-books. Sectarian instruc- 
 tion is prohibited. 
 
 for the 
 
 tiolis fl 
 
 a teach 
 
 il are admitted to the nor- 
 t examination. In 1874—5, 
 ,it was 254. The Fruitland 
 it Jackson, was organized in 
 1 874, 3 resident and 2 non-res- 
 i male, and 24 female students, 
 tute the school course The 
 formal School, at Kirksville, 
 the purpose of fitting tt achers 
 (rii t schools. 'I he ipialirica- 
 arc those necessary to secure 
 te of the lowest made. I„ 
 
 ml a professional. Two terms, or 
 are necessary to complete the 
 . Some embarrassment has been 
 he institution from lack of funds. 
 
 Mo. St 
 
 .a I S, In 
 
 .students. In 
 students. Eai 
 der the care i 
 Institute at 
 
 sup 
 
 s. It is 
 ■ition of 
 
 divided 
 
 schools, 661, in which there were enrolled 
 33,525 pupils. The support of the schools was 
 derived from the following sources : 
 
 From pulilir In, ii Is (state, '■niiiitv, and 
 
 township) $857,785 
 
 From taxation <2,15. r ,,K10 
 
 Total $3,013,595 
 
 Expenditures. 
 
 For salaries, buildings, rent, etc $1,638,353 
 
 School Satisfies. 
 Number of persons of school ace ( 5— 21): 
 
 Whites 678,270 
 
 Colored 41.916 
 
 Total 
 
 720,1s 
 
 Number enrolled in public schools: 
 
 
 Whites 379,948 
 
 
 Colored 14,832 
 
 
 Total 
 
 394,78 
 
 iverage aaily attendance .. 
 
 192,904 
 
 Number of teachers, males 5,904 
 
 
 " " females 3.747 
 
 
 superintendent, for Ih,:). are teaching colored 
 schools in a large number of counties, and are 
 giving general satisfaction. 
 
 Teachers' Institutes. — The practice of holding 
 
 ,n counties which employ the whole time of the 
 commissioner, and there being only one (Jasper) 
 in which this is the case. Probably not over '20 
 institutes were held during the year. Efforts, 
 however, are to be made to increase the number 
 and efficiency of the institutes. 
 
 Si-rmiiliirii fiistrui-tiioi. — The question of the 
 
 support of high sol Is by the state has been 
 
 raised in Missouri, as it was in Michioan. and 
 
 M< 
 
MISSOURI 
 
 leges, situated in various parts of the state, but 
 chiefly in St. Louis,8of which.in L874, reported 
 to the U. s. Bureau of Education, I- teachers 
 
 from three months to 4 years 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The universities, col- 
 leges, and institutions for higher education arc 
 enumerated in the follow ing table : 
 
 MODERN I.AXOI/AOES 
 
 591 
 
 Educational Journals. — There arc several 
 journals cither wholly or partly educational 
 published in the state, aniens which may he 
 
 specially menti I Tlu Western a monthly 
 
 published at St. Louis, and now in its i leventh 
 year ; ami the American, Journal of /' Uion, 
 
 (Vntrul clt- 
 
 Chi'istuui Uiiiviisitv 
 Ccllc-cof the I 
 Brothers. 
 
 M. ■(>.•(', 
 St. JOBep 
 St. Louis 
 
 St. I'iiu]'- 
 
 Col) Mound 
 sr. Joseph 
 St. Louis 
 Palmyra 
 ('.Girardeau 
 
 Cumli IT. 
 B. C. 
 Prot. Ep. 
 
 1837 
 
 1852 Pr. so 
 
 1853 Bap 
 
 lici- 
 
 . and colleges 
 
 1869 
 
 s. there are 11 acad- 
 the higher education 
 of women, 9 of which, in 1874, reported 97 in- 
 structors and 1,136 students. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. 
 Many of the colleges and universities furnish 
 opportunities for professional and scientific in- 
 struction. but special schools have hecn established 
 for the same purpose in many places. Of thet-e. 
 the principal arc the Vardeman School of Theol- 
 ogy, at Liberty; the Kansas City College of 
 physicians and surgeons ; the Missouri Medical 
 College, the St. Louis Medical College, the 
 Honi.copathic Medical ( 'ollege of Missouri, the 
 Missouri Dental College, arid the College of 
 Pharmacy the last five, at St. Louis. 
 
 Special Instruction. The Missouri Asylum 
 for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb was 
 organized at Fulton, in 1851. It is supported by 
 state appropriations, which have not been large 
 enough, thus far. toailinit of giving instruction in 
 the trades — a prominent feature in several other 
 institutions of the kind. Board and tuition for 
 all deaf and dumb persons between the ages of 
 7 and 30 years arc furnished free of cost, but it is 
 estimated that only about one half the persons so 
 afflicted in the state can be accommodated. There 
 were 8 instructors, in 1874, and 153 pupils — 75 
 males, and 78 females. Besides this, there is an- 
 other institution iSt. Bridget's Institute), founded 
 in St. Louis, in I860, for the same purpose. The 
 Missouri Institution for the Education of the 
 Blind was opened in St. Louis, in 1851. It receives 
 from the state an annual appropriation of about 
 S21,000. In addition to the branches of au 
 ordinary education, instruction is given in music. 
 and the pupils are taught some kind of industrial 
 or mechanical occupation. A normal class has 
 also been formed, for the purpose of fitting some 
 of the more advanced pupils to teach in the pub- 
 He schools. There were, in 1874,27 instructors 
 and employe's of all kinds, and 93 pupils. 
 
 wdl conducted, and have exerted an important 
 influence in advancing the cause of edui ation in 
 the state. 
 
 MISSOURI, University of the State 
 of, at Columbia. Mo., was chartered in 1839, 
 and organized in 1840, receiving the proceeds of 
 the lands granted by Congress to the state for 
 
 (I)th, 
 
 protest- 
 Of 111- 
 
 (111, T 
 
 i arts, sci- 
 following 
 
 VII 
 
 ■v. 1 873. Doth sexes' are admitted' to all the 
 lartments. The university has appropriate 
 Mings, all necessary apparatus, and an ex- 
 sive farm. The libraries contain about 8,500 
 
 The school of mines and metallurgy has exten- 
 sive and valuable hinds in the mining district 
 in the south-eastern part of the state. In 1875 
 — 6, there were, in all the departments of the 
 university, 29 instructors and 391 students. The 
 presidents have been as follows: John EL La- 
 throp, LL. D.. 184(1—50 ; James Shannon, LL. 
 D.. 1850—56 : W. W. Hudson. A. M., 1856—7 ; 
 B. B. Minor 1858- 60; and Daniel Read, LL. 
 D., the present incumbent, appointed in 1866. 
 MNEMONICS. See Memory. 
 MODEL SCHOOLS. See Normal Schools. 
 MODERN LANGUAGES, in the literal 
 and widest sense i if the term. are the languages now 
 in use, in contradistinction to those which were 
 formerly spoken, but are now extinct. Taken in 
 this sense, the term embraces the mother-tongue, 
 in which the home education of the child is con- 
 ducted, the national or ruling language of the 
 country, which is the medium of instruction in 
 the schools, and the living languages of foreign 
 nations. It is the general tendency oi the age, 
 to make a thorough knowledge of the national 
 language the center and the chief aim of all 
 
 school instruction : though it has 1 n demanded, 
 
 from an educational point of view, that wher- 
 ever the mother-tongue of a large portion of the 
 
592 
 
 MODERN LANGUAGES 
 
 inhabitants of a country is different from that of 
 the national language, the claims of the mother- 
 tongue should not he ignored. When the modern 
 languages are spoken of as a branch of school in- 
 struction, they are, however, generally understood 
 in the sense of the languages of foreign nations. 
 The admission of modern foreign languages into 
 a regular course of instruction isof comparative- 
 
 la! 
 
 language (q. v.). Until very recently, French 
 has enjoyed, in this respect, an acknowledged 
 superiority over any other language of the globe; 
 and it is but recently that English and German 
 have to any considerable extent begun to com- 
 pete with it. At present, French, English, and 
 German are studied all over the world, as the 
 chief representatives of modern culture. The 
 Italian language (q. v.) is learned by many of the 
 students of tine arts and of music in preference 
 to any of the three principal modem languages; 
 but more in courses of private instruction than 
 in schools. It is, however, chiefly in the second- 
 ary schools, that the stu ly of modern languages 
 has now been generally admitted. There are but 
 few colleges, gymnasia, lyceums, Latin schools, 
 real schools, academies, seminaries, or boarding- 
 schools which do not provide for instruction in 
 one or two of the modern languages. The adop- 
 tion of more than two modern languages, in a 
 regular course of studies, is met with in only a few 
 cases, and finds but few advocates. Scientific and 
 real schools (or departments), especially the latter, 
 cultivate the modern languages, frequently to 
 the exclusion of the classical ; "but even classical 
 schools have now quite generally opened their 
 gates to the at first unwelcome rival. — In the 
 highest institutions of learning, such as the Euro- 
 pean universities, the modern languages are still 
 far from occupying a position of equality with 
 the classical, or even some of the oriental lan- 
 guages. In England, Oxford and Cambridge had. 
 in 1875, professorships of Latin, Greek, I Febrew, 
 Arabic, and Sanskrit; Oxford, also of Anglo- 
 Saxon and comparative philology, but not of 
 either French or German. In the 21 universities 
 of Germany (including the academy of Minister). 
 classical philologists had, in 1874, the oppor- 
 
 tmiin i i ■ nd 134 courses of lectures, which 
 
 occupied an aggregate of 400 hours weekly. 
 Besides, th : exercises in die philological seminaries 
 occupied I '2- hours, making a total of 528 hours. 
 ( if the professors teaching the classical languages, 
 64 wereordinary, 1 6 extraordinary, besides 1 1 pri- 
 
 vat-docenten (lecturers); total 91. Tot! Rental 
 
 languages. .Till hours were devoted: but to French 
 and English, only 172 hours. The <iei n govern- 
 ments show, however, a readiness to reconsider 
 the claim of modern languages to a better repre- 
 sentation; and a number of new chairs were, 
 therefore, created during the years 1875 and 
 1876. — In regard to the lowest classes and schools 
 in which the study of modem languages may 
 advantageously be admitted, there is a variety 
 of opinion at present in school legislation, and 
 among educational writers. It is evident that, in 
 
 this respect, a marked difference exists between 
 those localities where only one language is spoken, 
 and those where two or more languages are in 
 the daily use of large portions of the people. In 
 the latter case, the language which is spoken 
 by a large portion of the children who attend 
 school, is by many not regarded in the light of a 
 foreign language; and school regulations for 
 giving instruction in it are often different 
 from those for the teaching of languages to- 
 tally foreign. The latter," according to the 
 
 opini f most educators, should not be begun 
 
 too early. It is, however, on the other hand, 
 urged that the pronunciation of a foreign lan- 
 guage is best learned at a time when the organs of 
 speech are still flexible, and that a good pro- 
 nunciation of a foreign tongue is rarely acquired 
 except by those who learn it in childhood. — 
 The French language had been long and exten- 
 sively studied in other European countries before 
 it was. in the 17th century, introduced in some 
 of the German schools as a part of the regular 
 course of studies. Toward the close of the 18th 
 century, the German real schools made the 
 superior advantages of the study of French, in 
 comparison with the classical languages, a main 
 issue of their war against the classical schools; 
 and, from that time, the admission of French into 
 the schools of other countries has been rapid and 
 extensive. In Prussia, the efforts made to secure 
 to the French language a prominent place in the 
 course of instruction were so successful, that the 
 Prussian government became alarmed, and, in 
 I si tl. excluded it altogether from public instruc- 
 tion. A rescript of \>:>~ readmitted it. how- 
 ever, "out of regard for it.- usefulness forpractical 
 life.- That, from the stand-point of practical 
 usefulness, modern languages, as a branch of 
 instruction, have an advantage over the classical, 
 is now scarcely disputed. French. English, and 
 German bring the student into living contact 
 with the great standard-bearers of modern civ- 
 ilization, and thus afford, in many cases, mental 
 enjoyments, material and business advantages, 
 and 'impulses to esthetic culture which classical 
 studies obviously cannot afford. Being the keys 
 to the three great literatures of the world, the En- 
 glish, German, and French languages, as branches 
 of instruction, have challenged a comparison 
 with the Latin and the Greek. Here also it 
 will be readily and generally admitted, that 
 modern literatures contain a vast amount of 
 information unknown to the ancients; and 
 that, viewing their contents as a whole, they are, 
 in nian\ respects, vastly superior to the liter- 
 atures of the ancient world. Classical scholars, 
 in fact, are among the first to recognize the 
 great value of modem literatures: and there 
 are few among them who cannot read the three 
 great modern languages, at least, as fluently as 
 the tWO classical. The contest has been narrowed 
 down to the question whether latin and Greek 
 classics, as literary master -works, ami in view of 
 the superior advantages claimed for the languages 
 themselves, still afford such advantages forda- 
 vclonin" the mental faculties as to recommend 
 
MODERN LANGUAGES 
 
 :.«i3 
 
 their retention in every 
 Classical Studies.) 
 
 Upon the field of comparative linguistics, (lie 
 superior value of the richly inflected Latin ami 
 Greek by the side of the less inflected German 
 and the mutilated English and French, is not 
 likelv to be ever disputed. But since the labors 
 of Bopp, Grimm, and their numerous followers, 
 have opened an insight into the degree of kin- 
 ship existing between the prominent languages 
 of the present and former times, the question 
 has been forced upon the attention of gram- 
 marians, how far a comparison of kindred lan- 
 guages may. even at an early stage of instruc- 
 tion, elucidate the structure of the native tongue, 
 and thus be made serviceable in giving to the 
 youthful scholar a better command even of his 
 'i than otherwise would be attain- 
 nci lative power which belongs to 
 
 n -laminar no less than in other 
 
 of studies. (See everj possible method has beentried: the strictly 
 
 I synthetical, which startsfrom the parts ol | ., , I 
 ve linguistics, the and teaches them singly, before proceeding to a 
 fleeted Latin and regular system of translations; the strictly 
 inflected German analytical, which begins with the analysis of 
 
 natt 
 able. ' 
 compai 
 
 branch- 
 
 though 
 mantiei 
 
 practice in using the foreign language. Of these, 
 
 the former may be said to have been almost 
 entirely abandoned, the latter being the one 
 generally preferred in .schools. In regard to the 
 arrangement of the grammatical rules, an in- 
 finite variety may lie observed in the numerous 
 grammars of modern languages. It was espe- 
 cially Mager (q \ . one of the most ingenious 
 
 the tri- 
 
 ne pi 
 
 win. 
 
 -nil 
 
 tions. It will be seen, however, that the degree 
 of usefulness which may be attributed, from this 
 point of view, to one particular language, is by 
 no means commensurate with the advantages 
 which the same language may afford as the key 
 to the superior civilization or the rich literature 
 ■of one of the great nations of the globe. It will, 
 on the contrary, be chiefly dependent on the 
 relationship existing between the language to 
 be studied and the Language of the student. In a 
 French school, the Latin, Italian, and Spanish 
 languages will, in this respect, be of more use 
 than English or German; in German schools, the 
 English will be more important than French or 
 Latin: and in English schools, the German more 
 than Latin or French. 
 
 Since modern languages have come to be 
 ■studied on a much more extended scale than the 
 classical, a great variety of methods have been 
 proposed. The authors of some of these methods 
 are by no means distinguished for modesty, and 
 do not hesitate to declare all former modes of in- 
 struction absolut ly useless, as having been wholly 
 superseded by their own. In most cases, they 
 have wholly forgotten that the method of teach- 
 ing and learning a modern language must, to a 
 very great extent, be dependent upon the pur- 
 pose for which it is learned. If the student chiefly 
 aims to acquire the ability to express his thoughts 
 in the language of another person belonging to 
 a foreign nation, the metlio Is w Inch make con- 
 versation the basis of instruction will justly com- 
 mend themselves to the attention of the in- 
 structor. When a foreign language is learned 
 as a means of understanding the literature of it 
 particular nation, an early knowledge of the 
 inflectional part of the language, of all its pecu- 
 liarities in etymology and syntax, and of its 
 vocabulary, will be felt as an urgent want ; and 
 grammar lessons connected with translating exer- 
 cises, will form the chief means of instruction. 
 In the combination of grammar and translation, 
 
 with whole S( 
 thought. In 
 structors gen 
 students as sc 
 of standard w 
 
 :ii e in introducing their 
 irai ti. able to the reading 
 the foreign language. The 
 ,cd torthe stuiU of foreign 
 
 languages will recommend the use oi a g I 
 
 reading-book in order to familiarize the student 
 with the peculiar style of several writers. 
 
 It t- not possible in this article to attempt an 
 enumeration or a criticism of the different meth- 
 ods whit h have been s-pei ially pioposcd for teach- 
 ing modem languages. Among those whose sys- 
 tems have obtained any general reputation or 
 acceptance, may be mentioned Aim, Jacotot, 
 Hamilton. Mager. Ollendorff, and Robertson. 
 Alms and Ollendorff's methods have had 
 numerous imitations, of very unequal value, and 
 have been applied to nearly all the living languages 
 of Europe, and even to latin and Greek. Of the 
 elementary books based on Alms method. P. 
 I Kim's Rudiments of the German Language 
 (4 parts. New York), written with a special 
 view to the requirements of the public schools in 
 the United States, and, in ] artii ular, in the city 
 of New York, has deservedly gained very great 
 popularity. Among recent attempts to teach 
 living languages "without grammar or dictionary. 
 solely by means of conversation, that by lioness 
 [Introduction to the Leitfaden; a Guide for In- 
 
 scholars. I'lvndeiga-t.s 77- .1/-V - , -/ / 
 guages (London. 1 872 i is a new effort to introduce 
 the pupil to a practical knowledge of language in 
 iin analytical way, by proceeding from sentences 
 j committed to memory and learning the inflec- 
 tional forms from their position in sentences. 
 
 (New York. 1869), to a higher degree than any 
 former English grammar of a foreign language, 
 embodies the results of comparative grammar, 
 and directs special attention to the points of 
 
594 
 
 MONITORIAL SYSTEM 
 
 correspondence between English and German. It 
 need hardly be added that the study of modern 
 languages, and especially that of their pronun- 
 ciation, should be pursued, whenever it is pos- 
 sible, under the guidance of an intelligent pro- 
 fessional teacher. Anion"; the attempts to teach 
 these languages without the aid of a teacher, 
 the method proposed by Toussaint and Langen- 
 
 scheidt has received the best r.-. imendation. 
 
 (See the special articles on French, German, 
 Italian, Spanish.) See also Whitni y, /. mguage 
 and the Study of Language (1861); and Ufeand 
 Growth of Language (NewYork, L875) ; Quick, 
 First Steps in Teaching a Foreign Languagt 
 
 (\.-u Fork, 1874 ; Schhitz, Ency lopddie des 
 
 Philo ! •• i a ' -en Sprachen 
 
 CM ,,1. 1., p-.l 875; I parte and 3 supplements); 
 Pflanz, Ueberden BUdungswerth der fremden 
 Sprachen im Schulunterricht (Lips., 1875); 
 Mager, Ueberden Unterncht in fremden Spra- 
 chen (Essen, L838). A periodical specially de- 
 voted to the study of modern languages is the 
 Archivf&r das Sin, limn der neueren Sprachen 
 by Herrig (2 vols., in 4 parts annually, 55th 
 and 56th vols., 1876.). 
 
 MONITORIAL SYSTEM, sometimes called 
 the Madras system, because it was introduced 
 into England 'from Madras, by Andrew Bell; 
 also the Lancasterian system, after one of its 
 most enthusiastic advocates, .lo-rph Lancaster. 
 It is, moreover, often designated the system of 
 
 be. 
 
 to England for education by the Pacha of Egypt. 
 The rivalry that had existed for years between 
 this society and the National School Society, 
 which favored Bell's system, increased the efforts 
 of both. In the American Annals of Edu ition 
 (1831), it was stated that, in Denmark, 2,000 
 monitorial schools wen- established iii the course 
 of four years; in Sweden, there were 1,800 of 
 such schools, in many of which music, linear 
 drawing, and gymnastics were taught. The 
 system had also been introduced into France, 
 Spain, and Sardinia. The French Society for 
 the Promotion of Education sent books and 
 tables of the system to the principal countries of 
 South America and to BTayti, and opened schools 
 at St. Louis and Senegal, in Africa, which were 
 attended by the native chiefs. There were, also, 
 numerous schools in t 'ape Colony. Madagascar, 
 and the Easl Indie-, both continental and insular. 
 The system was also said to have been adopted in 
 oneot the first classical schools of Paris, and in 
 the High School of Edinburgh. — The opinions 
 entertained of the advantages of (his system were 
 at first very extravagant. Dr.»Bell said, "The 
 system has no parallel in scholastic history. In a 
 Bchool, it gives to the master the hundred' eves of 
 Argus, the hundred hands of Briareus, and the 
 wines of Mercury. I'.v multiph inn Ids ministers 
 
 aster. 
 
 ■IS 
 
 pupil teachers employ. 
 
 1 t,. carry on the gj 
 
 were called monitors 
 
 This plan oi teachi 
 
 very old ; but whether 
 
 Bell or Lancaster des 
 
 the merit of first intro 
 
 [ui ing 1' ii. io l,iiio|„ 
 
 been warmly dispute. 
 
 1' i . and 
 
 CASTER.) By means of 1 
 
 i • Eforts .nid publics 
 
 of these anient philan 
 
 
 with a rapid and ex 
 
 ensive 'adoption bo1 
 
 Europe and America. 
 
 Intheeitvof New! 
 
 free schools were orgai 
 
 izc.l upon this plan, w 
 
 Continued to be the pr 
 
 vailing method ..t .. 
 
 ization and instruction 
 
 in the public scl 
 
 that city for nearly lifi 
 
 wears. In Philade 
 
 and oi her large cities i 
 
 f the rnion. it was 
 
 employed : in Boston, 
 
 t was soon pronoun 
 
 fulur. -:i:l :lanl i: 1 
 
 The 25th Report .1 
 
 casterian) stated thai 
 
 neasures had been t 
 
 by the governments of] 
 
 Norway, and Russia, 
 
 eleiuin.Dcnmark.Sw 
 
 to introduce the svs 
 
 that more than 30 mo 
 
 litorial schools had 
 
 for some time in ..pea 
 
 ion in Tuscany; and 
 
 the duke of Lucca 1. 
 
 ■ I also caused seven 
 
 such schools to be es 
 
 ablished; thai even 
 
 government of Naples 
 
 had ..p. Ii,-. 1 20 of 
 
 schools in Sicily, and 
 
 
 in each parish. The r 
 society had constantly 
 
 •port also stated tha 
 
 a number of perso 
 
 training as teachers, i 
 
 n.l at the previous 
 
 versary, had under its 
 
 care 20 Arab youths. 
 
 Witt 
 
 lest ion of educa- 
 York. expressed 
 
 as an instrument for educating large masses of 
 
 children, lint not only as ,• a lis of teaching 
 
 large numbers was it commended. The system 
 of mutual instruction was thoroughly discussed 
 at a meeting of the American Lyceum held in 
 New York,' in 1836 ; and. while the New England 
 members seemed to condemn it as unsatisfactory 
 and defective, others cave it their unqualified ap- 
 proval. "If",said S.'W. Seton.the public-school 
 agenl of New York city, " I had a school of 
 twenty, nay of ten, 1 would make one teach 
 another. If I had but three, I would make two 
 of them monitors. "-This system, when carried 
 into operation by a master of energy and tact, 
 was showy and attractive; and. doubtless, was 
 an effective instrument in giving an elementary 
 education to many thousands of children ; that 
 is, in teaching them to read, write, and cipher; 
 but, as remarked by Donaldson, it "ignored alto- 
 gether the fact that the work of the teacher is to 
 evolve the powers of the mind, and that for this 
 work a wise and cultivated mind is required." 
 The arguments advanced in its favor were 
 ili that it provided for the tuition of a far 
 greater number of pupils than could be taught 
 by the ordinary method of managing an ungraded 
 school, in which only one teacher was employed;. 
 
MONMOUTH COLLEGE 
 
 (2) that this was accomplished by an aomy of 
 
 the time and labor of the teacher; (.'!) that it kept 
 every pupil of the seliool eoiistantlv employed ; 
 (4) that the monitors, or pupil teachers, were 
 benefited by giving instruction to their fellow 
 pupils; (5) that, as children learn, by a kind of 
 
 maderapid progress. These principles, without 
 doubt, are sound to a certain limited extent.and 
 under circumstances which prevented a thor- 
 oughly organized system of instruction by compe- 
 tent teachers. The monitorial system required 
 very remarkable ability in the master— such an 
 ability as few could be found to possess. The 
 monitors required a special training; and the 
 
 peculiarly efficient discipline, and an adroit man- 
 agement, to prevent it from degenerating into the 
 
 MONTAIGNE 595 
 
 Bordeaux, and studied law; but. being possessed 
 
 of ample means, and having no inclination for 
 public life, he retired to Ins castle al Montaigne, 
 where he wrote his famous essays. The subject 
 of education is touched upon incidentally all 
 through the works of this writer; but his 
 
 conehi ions arc Dearly all condensed into one 
 remarkable essaj adds ed to the Countess of 
 ton.-,.,,, and entitled Of the Education of Chil- 
 
 ■re afterwards amplified by John Locke, 
 is essay, a scheme of education is laid dc 
 r a young gentleman of quality, which is 
 
 rmost advanced modern idea.-. The sub, 
 
 tellcctual, and moral. The dominant i 
 roughout, is the modern one, derived from 
 
 g out or development of the mind accordin) 
 i individual bent, rather than a moulding 
 
 ve the pupil educated away from home. 
 give him due correction for the faults he o 
 
 means for such an organization, led to the 
 adoption of the monitorial system; but, wherever, 
 
 at the present time, as m the large cities of the 
 United States, such means are afforded, mutual 
 instruction is found not to have even a modified 
 existence ; indeed, the reaction against it has 
 been so st rone-, that, foryears.it has not only 
 made no progress anywhere, but has been very 
 generally abandoned. 
 
 MONMOUTH COLLEGE, at Monmouth, 
 Dl., chartered in is:,;, is under United Presby- 
 terian control. It has a fine college building, a 
 library of about 2,111)11 volumes, a cabinet, and 
 
 lerstandii.es without exer setting them to 
 rk.ctc." 'f'hv,ical education, also, was fully 
 
 tors 
 
 Theadvantas 
 
 up to the 
 s of sound 
 sly insisted 
 ny weighty 
 
 iv f;:ll :.X 
 
 meut. Both sexes arc admitted. The tuition 
 fee in the collegiate department is $30 a year. 
 In 187a— (i. there were Hi instructors, and 397 
 students, of whom 200 (128 classical and 72 
 scientific) were in the collegiate department. 
 The Kev. David A. Wallace, D.D., LL.D., is 
 (ls7(i) the president. 
 
 MONTAIGNE, Michel, Seigneur de, a 
 celebrated French essayist, born at the chateau of 
 Montaigne, in IVrigord, in la.';:; ; and died there 
 September L3., 1592. His father, having ideas 
 on the subject of education far in advance of his 
 age. pun hied for his son a German tutor, who, 
 knowing nothing of French, conversed with him 
 entirely in Latin, so that the young .Montaigne 
 spoke that language with ease at the age of six. 
 He graduated at the College of Guienne, in 
 
 peculiarly modern, perhaps, than any other, that 
 education should not end with school or college, 
 but should be continued through life, is every- 
 where enforced. This entire essay, indeed, 'is 
 
 maki allowance for the difference in condition 
 
 of the civilized world in Montaigne's days and 
 ours, it maybe considered, general!) speaking, 
 
 an admirable resiumi of all that has been -, n!ed 
 
 tinie.-'-In 1 .'..-0— Si . Montaigne vi.-ited I h-rmanv. 
 Switzerland, and Italy for his health, and wrote 
 a journal of his tour,' which remained hidden in 
 tlie family chest at Montaigne till 17,1, when it 
 was published at Paris. The principal English 
 translation of his works is that ot t harles Cotton 
 
5!»G 
 
 MONTANA 
 
 (published about 168(1). revised in 1S42, by the 
 younger llazlett (Phila., 1849). An edition in 
 5 volumes, by De Coste, was published at the 
 Hague, in 1772: and one by Victor I.e ' 'lcrc. at 
 Paris, in L826. Bayle St.John published a biog- 
 raphy of Montaigne (London, 1857). 
 
 MONTANA; one of the territories of the 
 United (States, net off from [daho, and organized 
 with an independent territorial government in 
 1864 Its area is 145,776 sq. m., and its popu- 
 lation, in 1870, was 20,595, of whom L83 were 
 colored, 1,94!) Chinese, and 157 civilized Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The legislature of the 
 territory, at its first session, passed a law for the 
 establishment of schools, but the sparseness of 
 the population and its migratory character, de- 
 prived the law of its practical value. In 1872. 
 the subject was again taken up. anil a new law 
 was passed, under which about mi school-districts 
 were organized. In 1874, the law was again 
 amended, resulting in the present system. The 
 first superintendent of public instruction was 
 Cornelius Hedges, appointed in 1>72. re-ap- 
 pointed in 1874, and still in office (1876). 
 
 Still lolSyslem. — He supervision of the schools 
 is entrusted to a superintendent of instruction, 
 who i, nominated by tile governor tor two years, 
 and confirmed by the council, lie prescribes 
 all needful regulations, designates the course of 
 study and the text-books to be used in the 
 schools, and makes a biennial report of their con- 
 dition to the governor. Cnnnhi superintendents 
 are elected each for two years. They are eight in 
 number, and perform the usual duties of such 
 officers. They make annual visits to the schools 
 in their counties, and receive not more than $10 
 for each district under their supervision. They 
 are also allowed to charge §2 for each teacher's 
 certificate granted, drier the present law. these 
 certificates are of one grade only, and are given 
 for oidy two years ; but the character of the ex- 
 amination, depending.as it does, upon the caprice 
 of the county superintendent, leads to a want of 
 uniformity in the value of the certificates, which 
 has been a cause of complaint. District trustees 
 are also chosen for three years, three in each 
 district constituting a board. Their duties are to 
 employ teachers, furnish books, take charge of 
 school-houses, furniture, etc., and exercise an im- 
 mediate supervision over the schools, subject to 
 the direction of the territorial superintendent. 
 With these boards, also, rests the power of sub- 
 mitting to the voters of the district the question, 
 whether money shall be raised by taxation, when- 
 ever additional school facilities are needed. They 
 may.also, establish a high school in each district, 
 grade it, and employ teachers to conduct it, 
 whenever such school is needed. Resident voters 
 may decide, at the annual election, what amount 
 they shall raise by taxation for the building of 
 school-houses: but they are not authorized to 
 issue bonds, nor incur any indebtedness for the 
 purpose. Provision is made for the separate edu- | 
 cation of colored children in each county, by the 
 establishment of special schools, on application of 
 the parents or guardians of not less than ten 
 
 MOORE'S HILL COLLEGE 
 
 colored children, to the board of trustees. Less 
 than ten may be provided for in any maimer 
 deemed advisable. The school age is between 4 and 
 21 years : the legal schoi >1 year. 3 months : and the 
 school day, ti hours. The school revenue is derived 
 from the school fund, which is the interest on all 
 moneys derived from land grants, and from the 
 school tax. which is levied by the county com- 
 missioners annually, at a rate of from three to 
 five mills on every dollar of taxable property. 
 The school fund is apportioned according to the 
 number of children of school age. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of or- 
 ganized school-districts, in 1875, was 96; the 
 I number of school-houses, 76 ; the average dura- 
 tion of schools. 92 days. The school 
 derived from the following sources : 
 
 County tax $30,011.01 
 
 Local tax for school-houses 17,059.63 
 Other sources 4,043.62 
 
 Total ~ 
 
 Expenditures for the year 
 
 School population .;s,; ( 
 
 Number enrollcil in M'hunls 2337 
 
 Number of teachers, males 56 
 
 females 43 
 
 Total 99 
 
 Normal Instruction. — No provision has yet 
 been made for the special instruction of persons 
 
 $51,114.26 
 $31,821,68 
 
 school-teachera in theterritory was held in 1874. 
 This was composed of the teachers of Deer Lodge 
 Co., and the territorial superintendent was the 
 president during its temporary organization. 
 .Measures were taken for the establishment of a 
 permanent teachers' institute, and several edu- 
 cational subjects were dis ussed. 
 
 Secondary Instruction.— In 1875. the number 
 of private schools was 14, with 292 pupils. There 
 are, besides, a small number of high schools, and 
 denominational schools and academies. 
 
 Superior, Professional and Scientific, and 
 Sj,rri,,l [i/strtii-tiiui. — Ni> opportunities for this 
 kind of education are, as yet. afforded, the ener- 
 gies of the people being almost entirely devoted 
 to the development of the mines and the cultiva- 
 tion of the soil. In the report for 1873, the 
 superintendent. Cornelius Hedges, said: "Our 
 people are generally poor and very scattered. 
 Many of our Bchool-distril ts are of greater area 
 than whole counties in the Kastern states." Again, 
 in L875, he said: • Only 6 slates, and none of the 
 territories, unless the District of Columbia be 
 so reckoned, surpass Montana in the amount of 
 money raised per capita of its school population, 
 and this without any aid derived from perma- 
 nent funds, such as most of the older states 
 
 MOORE'S HILL COLLEGE, at Moore's 
 Hill. lnd.. founded hi 1856, is under Methodist 
 Episcopal control. It is supported by tuition 
 fees, and an endowment of §18.000. It has ap- 
 paratus, a cabinet, and a small library. Both 
 sexes are admitted. There is a preparatory and 
 a collegiate department, with a classical and a 
 
MORAL EDUCATION 597 
 
 scientific course, and also a musical, a normal, among the latter, the opposites of these, as lying 
 and a commercial department. The cost of tui- and deceit, a disposition to steal, cruelty to ani- 
 tion in the collegiate department is $30 per an- mals, unkindness and injustice to playmates, 
 
 the Rev. Samuel R. Adams, A. M.. 8 years; the leading to arrogance an 
 
 Rev. Thomas Harrison, A. \l..ii years': the Rev. are specific .pi.ditic ot 
 
 John II. Martin. A. M.. 2 years; the Kev. V. A. particular ivcoeiiiti..n •■ 
 
 Hester. D. D., I years; and the Kev..!. P. D. of the educator ; but w 
 
 John, A. M.. the present incumbent ' 1 876). been thoroughly develc 
 
 MORAL, EDUCATION has for its sphere principle, to do unto 
 
 of operation the culture of those principles which they should do unto us 
 
 influence or control the voluntary action of hu probation or condemnat 
 
 propensities and desires, when the latter are in the part of the pupil, and thus lead to the for- 
 
 conflict with it. The means employed in moral mation of eood hahit.s. ( 'aution should lc exer- 
 
 education are the following: (1) precepts, ad- cised, however, in employing such incentives; and 
 
 dre3sedboth to the understanding and to thi the educator should always keep in view the just 
 
 conscience, the bj icl being t lighten the l.,t limits of their use, the injurious sequi nces of 
 
 ter, which of itself does not r, gnize specific depending too exclusively upon them, and the im- 
 
 right and wrong ; (2) example, appealing to imi portance of so employing them thai they may 
 
 the love and respect felt by the child toward its right for its own sake. (See Emui m ii \ llheprac- 
 
 educator, leading the former to feel that whatever tical application of the system here briefly out- 
 
 isdone by th ■ latter is right, an 1 hence should line I. is atten lei with very great diffii uhv. and 
 
 by means of repetition, an inclination to act in part of the educator ; and not alone this, hut 
 
 the same way under the s circumstances see moral culture involving self-control, patience, 
 
 strengthening the al feeing, l,r..Me.ht into ,-,s well as a fulU\ tnpaihv with the ecu. ral pn-u- 
 
 play, an 1 of forming habits. Exercise, in moral liarities and wants of i hildl d. To this may be 
 
 education, is just as important as in physical or added, with emphasis, the ability to discern the 
 
 intellectual education; indeed, there can be no peculiarities ot individual character, as depend- 
 
 training or culture without it: and, in carrying ent on both mental and physical constitution; 
 
 with 
 
 ated truthfulness, ho:ie>tv, justice, candor and works: Spencer, Education; In\ >ual, Moral, 
 
 modesty, kindness or benevolence, diligence, obe- and, Physical (X. V.. I860) : Ot Ran , Common- 
 
 dience to proper authority, gratitude, fidelity to School Education (Edin. and London); Aber- 
 
 every promise or trust, and patriotism; and crombie, The Philosophy of the Moral Feelings, 
 
:')98 MORALIZING 
 
 edited by Jacob Abbott (Boston, 1836) ; Dt- 
 mond, Principles if Morality Pf."5 ,1851 ; Gow, 
 Good Morals and Gen& Manners (Cincinnati, 
 1873); Rosenkranz, Pedagogics as a System, 
 trans, by Anna C. Bracket! (St. Louis, 1872). 
 (See also Moral.zinu.) 
 
 MORALIZING, the formal inculcation of 
 moral truth by means of precept, or of stories 
 related for the sake of the moral, with the 
 view of influencing conduct. 'I his practice, 
 common in the home circle and in the school, is 
 the result of a consciousness mi the part of the 
 parent or teacher of a duty unperformed, thedis- 
 charge of which is attempted in this perfunctory 
 way. It is hardly necessary to say that it almost 
 always fails; since it is either an attempt to 
 reason with the young — a process for which 
 their minds are not yet sufficiently mature— or 
 an effort to impose mechanically on their minds 
 generalizations which can only be reached natu- 
 rally after the observation of many individual in- 
 stances. In cither case, the abstract nature of 
 the appeal is so far beyond their powers, thai 
 the attention which is given, if indeed it is given, 
 is only the amiable toleration of a discourse 
 which arouses no interest. Of course, moral 
 lessons received in such a spirit accomplish no 
 useful purpose, if indeed they are not positively 
 hurtful; since they tend to produce disgust for 
 an important branch of education, which in 
 maturer years, would be interesting. The con- 
 ceptions existing in the minds of children and 
 youth being in large measure concrete, the true 
 method of approaching their intelligence is 
 through courier images. In intellectual train- 
 ing, this is usually done, and is always the most 
 successful method. In one of the methods of 
 moral training above referred to — that of moral 
 stories — this is attempted, and doiibilos.it is 
 supposed, with success; but it is safe to say 
 that the interest aroused is not extended to the 
 moral deductions drawn from the acts of the 
 persons introduced, but ends with the acts or 
 actors themselves. Thus the fables of Jfeop are 
 interesting to the young only as long as the 
 men and animals arc, so to speak, in motion. 
 When the moral is reached — which is not till 
 after the narrative has been brought to a climax, 
 and the actors have been dismissed — their inter- 
 est is at an ebb; ami not till many years later is 
 that moral brought home to them by the mani- 
 fold experie s of life. This, therefore, is the pe- 
 culiar valu !,an 1 the only proper use of, the fables 
 of ,Esop, namely, that they present in a striking 
 
 MORAVIAN BRETHREN 
 
 crease the difficulty ; but it should never be for- 
 gotten that the object to be attained is not a 
 present, but a future, and a far more important, 
 om — the determination of the pupil's conduct- 
 through life : and any course which shall hazard 
 this is not only valueless, but evil. The mind of 
 youth, in fact, is not riven to that sober, con- 
 templative process which we call moralizing. Its 
 natural disposition is one of gaiety, ceaseless 
 activity, and even boisterousness. 'the exuber- 
 ance of spirits natural to this period of lifi there- 
 fore, makes the child indisposed to give patient 
 attention to any purely speculative process of 
 thought. That this is a wise provision of nature 
 for the development of the physical powers, has 
 long been recognized by observant educators; 
 and any attempt to (tub this spirit, with the 
 view of inculcating moral truth, only inverts the 
 natural order of development, and. in healthy 
 children is apt to result disastrously. The only 
 met hoi I of moral training effective with youth 
 is that which discards formal ] accepts, and by 
 
 The habit of righl acting is thus unconsciously 
 acquired, but not till a much later period is the 
 mind disposed to survey critically this action, 
 and pass judgment upon its propriety. The 
 maturity of the mind is an indication of the 
 prop ir season for moralizing. 
 
 MORAL SUASION. See Corporal Pun- 
 ishment. 
 
 MORAVIAN BRETHREN, or Moravi- 
 ans, a common designation of the Uni/us Frti- 
 ') "i I rotestant t Ihristians, distin- 
 guished for activity in missionary work among 
 the heathen, and also in the education of the 
 young. The church was founded in l-!fi7 A. I)., by 
 followers of John Huss. the Bohemian reformer 
 and martyr (died tit I 'onstanee. duly li.. 1415) ; 
 and Uourishcd in Bohemia. .Moravia, and Poland 
 until the anti-reformation under Ferdinand II., 
 1621 — 7. A " hidden seed," however, remained : 
 and. in 1 722 — 7, descendants of the ancient 
 Church of the Brethren, to the number of about 
 300, settled at Herrnhut. in Saxony, on an estate 
 belonging to Count Zinzendorf, forming the 
 nucleus of the Renewed Brethren's Church, to 
 which other emigrants from Bohemia and Mo- 
 ravia, with many of the inhabitants of other 
 countries of Europe, joined themselves. Since 
 
 that time, the churcn 
 numbers, has spread ov 
 a vast mission work ; : 
 
 diately influential, b 
 
 the feeling w nich al '■ 
 i. e., the certainty of 
 difficult, of course, for 
 has the well-being of 
 to leave him in that si 
 bearance from moral 
 tenance; and the pseu 
 ing is better than nc 
 
 ^ 1,1. li 
 
 languag 
 
 till small in 
 
 1. cat iving on 
 
 present time, 
 
 rational institutions. There 
 
 rypi . ices: < iontinental 
 
 i tie United States. 
 
 i L627). — Very 
 
 ung of the church, the 
 
 vote themsi Ives to educa- 
 
 ils were held in the parson- 
 
 the si holars being chiefly 
 
 ministry. Soon, however, 
 
 c established for thorough 
 
 its of knowledge, including 
 
 many of the pupils were 
 
not members of the church. Classical schools 
 ■ur colleges were founded at Eibenschutz (under 
 Esrom Riidinger, of Wittenberg), Meserritsch, 
 and Fulneck, in Moravia; Lissa, in Poland; 
 ami other places; these colleges were well at- 
 tended, many of the students 1 a Roman 
 
 Catholics. In' L585, there w, re.in addition, three 
 theological seminaries, at Jungbunzlau, Bohe- 
 mia: ami 1'rerau ami Libenschutz. in Moravia; 
 to these was afterwards added one at Lissa. in 
 Poland. The must distinguished educators in the 
 ancient Church of the Brethren were Blahoslav, 
 the author of a Bohemian grammar, still in use; 
 Riidinger; and John Amos Comenius. The 
 1 . 1 1 r . • i w.i< a skillful educator, and his new meth- 
 ods of teaching gained him great celebrity. He 
 is one of the forerunners of the so-called "mod- 
 ern "system of object-teaching and of the kin- 
 
 MORAVIAN BRETHREN 
 
 ■iconic man 
 
 lie finally settled at Amsterdam, ill Holland, 
 where he died Nov. 22., L670. dp to the day 
 of his death, he was unwearied as a writer in be- 
 half of education and of his beloved church, of 
 which he had become the senior bishop. (See 
 Comenius.) Though thai church was nowseem- 
 ingly stamped out of existence, he hoped against 
 hope that it would be restored. And this hope 
 was fulfilled. Emigrants, for conscience' sake, 
 from Bohemia and Moravia, were the Inst settlers 
 of Herrnhut, in Saxonv. The first little band 
 arrived in June, L722 ; an l,,on May 12., 1724, the 
 corner-stone of the first school-house was laid. 
 This building was erected in pursuance of a plan 
 formed by /iuzendoif to establish institutions 
 similar to those at Halle, where he had studied 
 under Francke. Though the project was soon 
 abandoned, particularly as tins first school in 
 Herrnhut proved a failure ; .-till, from thai day, 
 .May 12., L724, dates the educational activity of 
 the Renewed Bn three s I lunch. 
 
 II. Renewed Breth •< i \Ch trek. (1727— 1876). 
 
 'The school, therefore pn led the organization 
 
 ■of the church. As a I litiona] congregations were 
 founded, parochial schools were introduced; 
 with the! spread of missions, schools for the in- 
 struction of the converts were begun ; theological 
 schools were needed for the education of minis- 
 ters ; and friends of the church urged the estab- 
 lishment of boarding schools. The most promi- 
 nent educators within the church, am I especially in 
 the Herman province, have been .lohann Nitsch- 
 maiin. Sr.; Polycarp Miillcr. the founder of the 
 .scientific internal development; Paul Eugen 
 Layritz (author of a Latin dictionary long in 
 use), who. with his son-in-law, < Ihristian Theodor 
 Zembsch, the latter for 55 years teacher and 
 president of the Pcedagogium, may be con- 
 sidered the real founder oi the Moravian school 
 system. Bishop Johann Friedrich Reichel, 
 though not directly employed as an instructor, 
 deserves special mention, as he wasven active 
 in the establishment oi boarding schools, the 
 Pcedagogium, and the theological seminary. Ry 
 his wise counsel he assisted those more actively 
 
 lliet with < 
 place of the 
 
 III! 
 
 ,,1,1 
 
 g six heads: 
 ( I ) Primary Schools. — • ireat stress is laid by 
 the Brethren on the importance of home train- 
 ing; and it is officially recognized that "the 
 
 if the 
 
 luct of 
 
 1 1, 1 is la 
 
 fan] Is 
 
 llell 
 
 (a) Infant schools up to 
 In many of the congregatio 
 rope, infant schools are kept. 
 which is " to employ the lit 
 and easy lessons, and to awa 
 —not to burden the mind at 
 
 site is held to be "a 
 
 hen, who can enter 
 stand how to man- 
 
 — from the 7th to f 
 ■rally, and. in Ami 
 
 to chil 
 others. 
 
 of 
 
 L, ligious instiii 
 taut part of the edueatii 
 care for the heart and sol 
 tellect. In thesi school 
 bran, lies are taught; toot 
 principle, avoided. Whi 
 
 
 (e) Sunday schools, w hn h are more common in 
 America than in England or Germany. In these 
 latter countries, they arc more confined to their 
 original purpose. — to impart instruction, secular 
 or religious, to those who are unable to obtain it 
 during the week. 
 
 (2 1 llnun/inn-Schonls- from the Till to the 18th 
 year, and upward. The first boarding s. hool 
 was o] iciicd at Neuwied on the Rhine. Prussia, 
 in 1756. The number of church boarding- 
 schools had increased to 51 at the close of the 
 year 1875. The number of scholars, each year, 
 ranges from 2,5011 to 3,000. In the German 
 province, there arc 30 schools. 11 for boys (600 
 pupils), 10 for girls (759), including the two 
 boarding-schools and the primary department 
 for the children of missionaries, in the British 
 province, there are 15 schools; 6 for boys (281 
 
MORAVIAN BBETHRBN 
 
 pupils), and 9 for girls (302), one of those for 
 boys being a primary boarding-school. In the 
 American province, there are 6 schools ; 2 fur 
 boys (180 pupils), namely, Nazareth Hall, Naza- 
 reth, Northampton Co.. Pa. (125 to 150 pupils) ; 
 Salem Hoys' School, Salem. Forsyth Co., X. 0. 
 l.'iO pupils); and 4 for girls (7511 pupils); namely, 
 Seminary for Young Ladies, Bethlehem, Pa. 
 (250 pupils) ; Linden Hall, Litiz, Lancaster 
 Co., Pa. (80 to 100); Salem Female Academy 
 (about 225 pupils): and Hope Seminary, Hope, 
 Bartholomew Co.. Ind. (HO to 80 pupils). The 
 course of study, in all these schools, embraces, 
 first, the fundamental branches, and after that. 
 whatever accomplishments are deemed necessary 
 by the parents, and by the demands of the times. 
 Special attention is paid to music, mathematics, 
 and the classical and modern languages. As far 
 as is known, the Seminary at Bethlehem, which 
 was opened as a school for girls in 1749, and as 
 a boarding-school in 1785, is the pioneer school 
 in America in the education of women. At 
 Nazareth Hall, there are special classes to prepare 
 boys to enter either a college or a polytechnic or 
 scientific school ; the former with a special view 
 to the theological .seminary. One peculiarity of 
 the method of training is the constant super- 
 vision of all the scholars by the teachers, the 
 ideal being th- watchful care of parents over tin 
 family. Though irksome to boys and girls, this 
 principle of Moravian education still commends 
 itself to those who have the responsible charge 
 of the pupils. The aim of all the boarding- 
 si'liools is not brilliancy of attainments, but a 
 solid foundation: and. at the same time, to be 
 equal to the standard of modern requirements. 
 Due and careful attention is paid to moral and 
 religious training. Besides the church schools, 
 there are other private boarding schools con- 
 duete 1 by members of the church, notably those 
 for boys at litiz. The same principles of edu- 
 cation prevail in all. 
 
 (3) < 7 issic il Schools and Coll ges.— The prin- 
 cipal college is that at Xisky. in Prussia, official- 
 ly styled the •pcedagogium, with 60 students. 
 The course of study is equal to that of the 
 
 attention is paid to the Hebivw language In the 
 schools at Fulneck. England, and .\ azareth. Pa., 
 classical studies are pursued bythe higher classes 
 of boys who prepare forcollegeor the university. 
 
 i-li Tin ilogi d S nt .-/ 
 of the German provim i, 
 now located at < Ina lenfeid 
 ber of students averages ' 
 professors. Th- theological 
 is very thorough. The sei 
 pro\ imv is 1 1 ii - Trainini; li 
 I m;ii, at Fairfield, near Mi 
 a seminary proper and a 
 seminary of the American 
 
 ■thlehem, Pa. The 
 itinues two years. 
 
 . — The seminary 
 inded in 1 735, is 
 atssia. The num. 
 ii :; classes, with I 
 
 1*07. at Nazareth. since 1 858 permanently located 
 at Bethlehem, incorporated in 1864 as The 
 Moravian College and Theological Seminary, 
 though familiarly known by the latter half of 
 its title, averages 30 students, with 4 profess- 
 ors. The course of study, after two years' prepar- 
 atory training at Nazareth, is for 6 years ; three 
 and a half devoted to the classics, mathematics, 
 natural science, Hebrew, and philosophy, and two 
 and a half years to theological studies. Special 
 attention is paid, throughout theeourse, to the 
 study of German. 1 he full course of training 
 for a minister, therefore, occupies 8 years, or its. 
 equivalent in work. Classes are formed bien- 
 nially. 'I he endowment fund is very small ; but 
 the charge for students preparing for the Mo- 
 ravian ministry is nominal, the expenses being 
 defrayed by tlie church. 
 
 (5) Special Schools.— In Germany, there are 
 two normal schools for training young men and 
 women as teachers ; a missionary institute for 
 training missionaries ; and a technical school at 
 Cnadenberg. Prussia. In connection with the 
 mission work, there are normal and industrial 
 schools : in the latter, instruction is given in agri- 
 culture, mechanics, printing, book-binding, etc. 
 
 (6) Schools in the Missionary Provinces. — The 
 instruction of old and young in religion, general 
 knowledge, and industrial art, is a chief part of 
 the duty of the missionaries of the church. Their 
 labors in education cover the following field : 
 Greenland, Labrador, the North American In- 
 dians. Mos.piitia, the Knidish and Danish West 
 Indies. Dutch Guiana or Surinam, South Africa, 
 Australia, and West Himalaya. In these mission 
 provinces, there are the following schools: (1) a 
 theological seminary, in Jamaica, W. I.; (5) nor- 
 mal school- 2 in .lamaiea. 1 each in Antigua, 
 in Surinam, and in South Africa; in Greenland, 
 4 normal classes: and in Labrador, 3, at dif- 
 ferent stations, as the isolation prevents com- 
 plete union in a normal school. The pupils num- 
 ber, in all. about 100 : but the number increases 
 each year. There are maintained 217 day schools, 
 at ornearthe 92 mission stations, with 756 teach- 
 ers and 15,173 scholars; besides sunday-schools. 
 With the most, infant schools are also connected; 
 many adults attend sp ■, ial classes. Many of the 
 scholars are not connected with the church. The 
 instruction ranges from a primary to a grammar- 
 school grade. It may be mentioned that "among 
 1.200 colonial schools in Gippsland, Australia, the 
 school for natives at Ramahyuk, consisting of 
 perhaps the lowest and most degraded of heathen 
 tribes, the aborigines of Australia gained, in 1*73, 
 ihe lii._liest prize offered by the government." 
 
 Principles of Education. — 1 he schools of the 
 Brethren are eon lueted on religious, though not 
 sectarian, principles. In regard to the method 
 oft u tiii j the General Synod of 1869 reiterates: 
 ■While ue would earnestly endeavor to keep 
 pace with other schools in imparting a store of 
 solid useful knowledge, we would not aim at 
 that extent or display of learning which tends 
 to foster vanity, to lead to the necjeet of proper 
 regard for health, and to destroy that simplicity 
 
d to tl 
 
 duced no educator with a wor 
 ( lomenius : tin- energies of 1 
 
 I n directed td the improvi 
 
 schools, [ndirectly, however. 
 
 by impressi] i all their a 
 
 points of the German met 
 
 MOTHER-TONGUE 601 
 
 rabs from all parts of Africa. It 
 
 i\v. c. 
 
 etk Hi// and its Reunions.) In 
 the schools, there is instruction 
 
 common-school system. On 
 co-education of the sexes the 
 cussion or action, as no neces 
 
 he 1st of danuary, 
 ipof L7,993 com- 
 inchiding children, 
 care of the Mo- 
 . with *.'! students: 
 
 ravians 4 theological semin; 
 4 coUeges and classical schools, with! 10 students; 
 9 normal schools and 7 normal classes, with 150 
 students: 51 boarding-schools, with about 2,700 
 pupils; '.'17 common schools in the mission 
 provinces, with 15,173 pupils; also about 200 
 pupils in the technical and industrial schools: 
 and about 3,000 pupils in parochial and infant 
 schools — a total of persons under instruction of 
 21,446. Adding the sunday-school pupils, the 
 grand total swells to 13,500. The number of 
 
 tw. 
 
 held. 750; of sunday-school teachers, about 1 ,500. 
 Further information in regard to the Moravian 
 schools and school system may be found in 
 CoMENins, Ihhool of Infancy (London, 1858); 
 
 //,, 
 
 ;>;■>„■ 
 
 l/c* 
 
 hatever primary instruction is afforded is given 
 i schools connected with the mosques; but, 
 lore are no statistics to show to what extent 
 lis exists. 
 
 MOTHER. See Home Education. 
 
 MOTHER-TONGUE, the laneua-e in v, hid, 
 
 tion, and pronunciation that arc ci 
 the child, and that constitute the ge 
 
 which the child's own language gradually 
 
 itself. That this prerogative of the 
 
 It is. however, no interference with this that 
 children, by associating with companions who 
 speak a different language, should learn, at an 
 early period, to converse in a second tongue: 
 since., when the mothei exerts her legitimate in- 
 fluence, the language in which she communes 
 with the child will continue to be the first 
 moulder of the youthful mind. 'I he privileged 
 position of the mother-tongue during the first 
 years of a < hild s lite, i v;w s u ith the beginning 
 
 l,-ii„ 
 
 d I, 
 
 MOROCCO, or Marocco, an empire in the 
 north-western part of Africa; area.. 259,000 
 sq. m.: population, about 6,000,000, In ancient 
 times, it formed part of the territory known as 
 Mauritania, and subsequently of the Roman em- 
 pire, with which it remained up to 429 A. D., 
 when it was overrun l>v the Vandals. After its 
 
 
 rerinnen ; and the <-l I dioiild find thi re the lai guage with win 
 
 ■st l.v tin 
 
 nd their little stock of knowledge has 
 •d. h is thus easv for the intelligent 
 
 thousand .lews, belongs. Education, in Morocco, 
 is in a very low state. All that remains of the 
 ancient universities, at the present day, is the 
 university of Dar-elibn, which, in the middle 
 
 ages, had an extensive reputation, and was at- | 
 
 them; and it is evident that all that is pos- 
 sible, in such cases, is some special attention 
 
<J02 MOUNT ST. MARY'S COLLEGE 
 
 on the part of the teacher to the educational 
 wants and to the progress of the little strangers. 
 15ut as few countries, at the present time, are 
 inhabited by people of only one nationality, it is 
 also very common to find localities, or even 
 large districts, where a large portion of the chil- 
 dren — indeed, sometimes the majority — speak at 
 home a language different from that in which 
 they are instructed at school Thus the Celtic 
 and the German mother-tongues are extensively 
 met with in Engli.-h schools : the Polish, Wendish, 
 and French, in German schools ; the German, 
 Polish. Finnish, and many other languages.in Rus- 
 sian schools: and the Italian, in 1 reuch schools. 
 In such cases, it is not uncommon to find that 
 nearly all the young pupils understand some other 
 language better than thai through which they 
 receive their school instruction, and in which 
 they are expected to retch the highesi state of 
 perfection. Wherever this state of things exists, 
 
 it : 
 
 m behalf of (he mother-tongu '.either as a means 
 
 or as, a branch of public instruction, des irve con- 
 sideration. The legislation on this subject has 
 been very vacillating, and still "ready differs in 
 various countries ; but the general tendency, at 
 
 present, is to c\t nd. by means both of school leg- 
 islation and sch tol c lucation, the domain of the 
 n.itio i<ll iii-ii i u ■ [See National Lynocao,-:.) 
 
 MOUNT SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE, 
 a Roman Catholic institution, chartered in ls30, 
 is situated about 2 mil -s from Faninott.-burc-. 
 
 Ml 
 
 Che 
 
 I I, 
 
 .lin 
 
 The regular charge for tuition, board, etc., is 
 Sled per session of five months. The system 
 of education is a combined classical and com- 
 mercial one, including the various arts and sci- 
 ences usually taught in college- of the tirM class. 
 In lsTa — ti, there were 12 professors, 18 other 
 instructors, and 1 WO students. The Rev. John 
 McCloskey, D.D.,isthe president (1876). 
 
 MOUNT SAINT MARY'S SEMINARY 
 OF THE WEST, a Roman Catholic institu- 
 tion in Cincinnati, Ohio, was founded in 1848. 
 The course of instruction is of two grades, 
 preparatory and theological. In the preparatory 
 department, all branches pertaining to a regular 
 collegiate course are taught in seven different 
 classes, embracing as many years of study; of 
 thesj, the last four correspond to a regular col- 
 lege course, the first three embodying'' the pre- 
 paratory studies. The theological course em- 
 braces a period of three years. The library 
 contains about 15,000 volumes. All students 
 are required to pay $160 a year toward board 
 and tuition. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 Lnstruc 
 
 tors, and 111 students, all prepari for the 
 
 priesthood. The Very Hey. F.J. Pabisch, D. D., 
 LL. 1)., has been the president of the institution 
 since 1863. 
 
 MOUNT UNION COLLEGE, at Mount 
 Union, near Alliance, Ohio, was organized as a 
 
 MURRAY 
 
 seminary in 1846, asa college in 1 858. Among its 
 distinguishing features are entire liberty in the 
 choice of studies, the prominence given to practical 
 studio, its Christian, but not sectarian nor par- 
 tisan character, the admission of females to equal 
 privileges in all the departments, and its econ- 
 omy for students. The college lias productive 
 funds to the amount of over S451 .llllti, and valu- 
 able apparatus and extensive cabinets. There 
 j are four general courses of four years each, 
 j namely, science, philosophy, liberal literature 
 i and arts, and classics. r l be special courses are 
 | music, fine arts, normal, and commercial. There 
 is a preparatory department. The degrees of 
 M.i.-tci of Arts. .Master of Science, and Master 
 or Doctor of Philosophy, are not honorary de- 
 grees, but are conferred on those who have com- 
 pleted, and sustained an actual examination in, a 
 suitable post graduate eour.se of one year's study. 
 , In 1875 — 6, there were 18 instructors and 842 
 students, of whom 344 were in the collegiate de- 
 partment. 'I lie Rev. O. N. Hartshorn, LL. D., 
 is (1876) the president. 
 
 MUHLENBERG COLLEGE, at Allen- 
 town, Pa., is under Evangelical Lutheran con- 
 trol. It was opened as a seminary in 1848, and 
 as a college under its present name in 1867. It 
 is supported by tuition fees, synodical aid. and 
 the income of an endowment of $50,000. 'Ihe 
 buildings are surrounded by about five acres of 
 ground. The libraries contain about 3,600 vol- 
 | times. The institution embraces a collegiate de- 
 partment, with a course of four years, and an 
 academic department, with a course of three 
 years. The cost of tuition in the collegiate de- 
 partment is Sell a year. In F s 74 — 5. there were 
 .- instructors and 1)1 students (42 collegiate and 
 69 academic). The Rev. Frederick A. Muhlen- 
 berg. II. II., has been the president of the college 
 from its organization. 
 
 MURRAY, Lindley, was born in 1745 at 
 Swetara, near I ancaster, Pa.; died near York. 
 England, in 1826. He at first devoted himself 
 to the law, but abandoned it for commerce at 
 the outbreak of the disputes with the mother 
 country, and retired with a competency, on the 
 establishment of American independence. In 
 1784,hewent to England for his health; and, 
 after some months, fixed his residence at Hold- 
 gate, near York, where he remained until his 
 death. Murray never was a professional teacher. 
 I lis Grammar arose out ot some lessons which 
 he gave to the assistants at a girls' school in 
 York. His pupils appreciated his efforts, and 
 urged him to write an English grammar. This 
 appeared in I7!ie. was followed by a book of 
 exerciser and a key. and has passed through a 
 greal number of editions, both in England 
 and America. It was con, piled from Harris, 
 Lowth, Blair, Campbell, and others; and the 
 
 of simplicityin the language, together with de- 
 ficiencies in the accidence, which were perhaps 
 inseparable from a work written at that date. 
 A good teacher might occasionally gather useful 
 
matter from Murray's Grammar, but would not 
 use it as a class-book. Mr. Washington Moon, in 
 Bad English (London, L868), has drawn atten- 
 
 \1 
 
 books also, besides sunn' works of a 
 nature. He was a member of the S 
 Friends, and a man of great benevolei 
 Autobiography of Murray, down to 
 geared after his death, with a eontini 
 Klizabetli Frank. This autobiography 
 
 <IC 603 
 
 sackbut, psaltery, dulcimer, and all kinds of 
 music." Of these ancient musical instruments, 
 the barn, the psaltery, the lute, and the dulcimer 
 were stringed; while the cornet, the trumpet, the 
 flute,andthe sackbut were wind instruments. 
 
 Assyrian, I 'In 
 
 nit character, and 
 
 had criticise 
 
 MUSIC, 
 
 Cultivated I 
 
 Mil 
 
 ..desirable ends, which all sii 
 •ecognize as more thoroughly 
 ense oi combining all depat 
 
 ;'ln!'l. pi'e.'ededliu-iu. 'i'vtli.i 
 
 rfeetion of detail 
 
 li;.l 
 
 measurably acquainted with the arts, of the 
 Egyptians, which included the use of the lyre 
 and other musical instruments, rude sculptured 
 
 i.v viDranons | roau 
 divisions of a string, I 
 for the who],, model 
 discords than his simi 
 ernment,aswell asth. 
 
 tot 
 
 their | 
 
 ,.y and 
 
 delive 
 
 ranee f 
 
 in wa 
 
 r and 
 
 spiriti 
 
 ng po\ 
 
 newed 
 
 effort, 
 
 gathei 
 
 •ings, t, 
 
 Hi.- inii.-i.al s -s.-i lid no| pro- 
 
 n direction. The mantli oi Greek 
 and Ktruscan art fell upon Koine. 
 k,-,l with Virgil, Demosthenes with 
 bagoraswith Seneca. Subsequently, 
 n bishop linked the logic of Aristotle 
 
 all 
 
 lax id 
 
 ihns. Ant, phonal 
 
 1 by ,-hoirs under 
 , director of them 
 instrumental ac- 
 
 of no mean order. 
 
 ,li,i, 
 
 n L 
 
 AVe find, on examination, that the harp, the psal- 
 tery, the shawm, the cornet, the lute, the tabret, 
 the cymbals, — "every thing that has breath," 
 that is. every thing that had a resonant body 
 which would' vibrate through the action of the 
 air upon it,-all were to be used in carrying out 
 the divine injunction, « Praise ye the Lord ! " - 
 
 1- our hundred years later, while Kaniel stood 
 high in the favor of Nebuchadnezzar at tin- 
 court of Babylon, we read of the setting up of 
 agolden image by the king, which 1 ';u .i, 1 was 
 required to worship at the moment when lie 
 should hear the sound of the " cornet, flute, harp. 
 
 letters, to, 1,-note the iisin-j and the falling inflec- 
 tions. St. Ambrose, bishopoi Milan i A. 1 1, 386) 
 composed many hymns; and the tradition of a 
 majority of the western European churches 
 assigns the authorship of the Te Ilium to his 
 
 St. Augustine chanted' it antiphonally at the 
 baptism of the latter. This statement does not 
 assume the certainty of an historic fact ; but 
 there is no doubt that St. Ambrose improved 
 the church music of his day by adopting the 
 four authentic modes found,',l upon the Ureek 
 tctr.-ielior.ls. The Ambrosial! chant continued 
 
 to be used as the music for the hymns and dox- 
 
 ologiesof the church for more than two hundred 
 years, until St. Gregory added four more, thus 
 completing what have since been known as the 
 I-light Gregorian Tones. Thirteen hundred years 
 have only served to make the Gregorian Tones 
 
IHI4 
 
 ::< ; ti-i-< ■] tt ;■ 1 >I< ■ iis they were in the earlier 
 the church. The reason is obvious. \ 
 it be the Greek, the Latin, or the Angli 
 vice, intoning can be more distinctly hea 
 
 ordinary speaking; and, therefore, it is i 
 fective to largj auditories. The vehicle, i 
 
 able musical sounds, employed for this' 
 
 must 
 
 •so that the celebrant, of cither bass or tenor voice. 
 can render the service acceptably. The Eight 
 Gregorian Tones contain all the variety of mel- 
 ody and pitch suitable for this purpose: and priest, 
 choir, and people can all participate in the ser- 
 vice, by using these ancient chants, without extra- 
 ordinary effort, if only the gift of a correct ear 
 be vouchsafed them. The Anglican Church has a 
 rich and beautiful vari 'ty of >iii".lo chants founded 
 directly upon the (in-oi i ;l n Tones, and, during 
 the past thirty years, has use! them more gener- 
 ally than at any period since the Reformation.— 
 St. Gregory's pontificate was also distinguished 
 musically, by the erection of the organ, as the 
 permanent musical instrument of the church. It 
 origin, according to some writers, was the syrinx. 
 or I 'andean pipes; although others mention as 
 a fact that Otesiphon, six hundred years before 
 Christ, constructed a plain, rude "chest oi 
 whistles", with water as the motive power for 
 the supply of win 1. Not until St. Gregory's day, 
 however, did it assume proportions sufficiently 
 dignified to take its place as the combined 
 orchestral support of the music of the church, s. 
 far as wind blown through pipes could make it 
 orchestral. It never can yield th ■ intense, pen- 
 etrating tone of the violins and other stringed 
 instruments, by reason of the difference in the 
 application of the motive power. On the other 
 hand, it approaches more nearly tic tone of the 
 human voice ; and organ- builders and organists 
 are vying with each other in developing its la- 
 test achievement, the vox humrtna, to a degree so 
 near top irfectionin the beautiful, that some have 
 ventured to pronounce it angelic and heavenly. 
 -The history of concords and discords as em- 
 ployed in music. — in other words, the origin of 
 the whole system of modern harmony, may lie 
 said to date from the use of the organ in the 
 church. Not until the pressing of .me key with 
 
 or sixths, did thc'ideaof a science of concords 
 and discords, remotely outlined a thousand years 
 before present itself to the human mind through 
 the tympanum of the human car. acted upon by 
 the living, breathing tones that came from the 
 pipes of an organ. Thenceforth, music began to 
 
 language. Hut the progress was slow. Lfter 
 St. Gregory, ten parallel lines were used instead 
 of one, to denote the ascent and descent of the 
 
 ited also with the establishment of the gamut. c:- 
 SCOle, through the use of the syllables Vt, Be, 
 
 M,. Fa Sol, La, Si, selected from Latin words 
 in honor of the apostle John. A period of two 
 
 centuries followed, in which, according to Dr. 
 liiinbault. no remnants or records of secular 
 music can be found, except those of the Trouba- 
 dours. These Provenpal minstrels served to in- 
 crease both the fancy and the language of Dante. 
 Petrarch, and other Tuscan poets, in the 13th 
 and 14th centuries. Little variety of notation 
 appears, and no time is marked in their produc- 
 tions, yet it is not difficult to discover in them 
 germs of the futuie melodies, as well as the poetry. 
 of France and Italy. 'J he stanza and the rhyme 
 
 nto the church also; and the trochaic 
 erallv prevailed, by reason of the 
 
 aii cut at the commencement of 
 the lines, and by reason also of the inherent 
 superiority of twofold over threefold measure. 
 'ihc Latin hymns, Dies Tree and Stabat Maier, 
 are well-known examples of this. '1 he harmonies 
 of the church music and of the set ular. thus far. 
 had been entirely founded upon pure concords, 
 save an occasional mild discord by suspension. 
 'I he union of this sweet harmony with quaint 
 and charming rhythmical devices resulted m the 
 construction of a form of composition, the 
 
 luster upon the reign of Queen 
 it declined with tin m. Althoug 
 in variety of harmonic progr 
 
 lent, and 
 the most 
 
 
 \h 
 
 Handel. Haydn, Mo/art. Beethov 
 delssohn have left immortal works which can 
 hardly be equaled, and can never be excelled; 
 although 1 iszt. Wagner, and Rubinstein have 
 written as representative composers of a school 
 of music founded upon sudden and strange 
 transitions and ear-splitting discords; yet the 
 madrigal of the L6th and 17th centuries remains 
 a living, breathing, visible proof that the truest, 
 sweetest, most permanent progressions m vocal 
 harmony are those which recognize this fun- 
 damental axiom as a necessity; namely, that con- 
 cords are the nil,; and discards are th,- excep- 
 
 posite to each other, were used to represent the with that nt tin 
 
 the term counterpoint. The staff was afterward ence lies not so i 
 
 reduced to five lines, and the spaces were used as in the words ; 
 as well, through the teaching of Guido d'Arezzo, With the Befi 
 a monk of the 11th century, who must be cred- I people's congreg 
 
 e progression, 
 thmie flow.— 
 • choral, the 
 jre stands out 
 
IK). i 
 
 Martin Luther, who as singer and musician. as well 
 as theologian and preacher, exerted an influence 
 second to none in his day. From the time when, 
 
 as a boy, he sa the song of the Virgin and the 
 
 birth of i'lin-t in Madam I ottas house, to the 
 
 his mus 
 is sliaivi 
 the stud 
 of Luth 
 
 of continuous labor for the pleasure and instruc- 
 tion of his sons and the circle in which he moved. 
 Originally of a musical family, he commenced 
 his active life with the fullest preparation for his 
 work: and never did he taller tor a moment in 
 considering his efforts as little less than a divine 
 duty. Not all of bis manuscripts have yet been 
 published; and a new and deep interest has, of 
 fate, been developed in every thing that emanated 
 from his prolific brain and pen.- This new and 
 largei liberty, ushered in by the Reformation, ap- 
 peared in the masses of the Roman Catholic 
 Church, and in the services of the Anglican 
 Church. Composers have generally been willing 
 toadapl themselves to the musical exigencies of 
 
 Tli. 
 
 testimony ..f a Hebrew who has composed the 
 
 most elaborate operas of modern times. German 
 scholars truthfully refer to the examples of l.uthcr 
 and Melanchthon as pioneers in the cause of re- 
 ligion, literature, and art. in modern Germany; 
 and musicians can certainly point to Luther's 
 establishment of the study and practice of music 
 in his native Ian 1 a- tic particular cause of the 
 nearly general and complete musical intelligence 
 of that people in modern times. — Germany, Eng- 
 land, and America may be said to constitute a 
 triple alliance for the preservation and perpetua- 
 tion of the choral. It was the sacred song that came 
 to this country with the pilgrims of New Eng- 
 land, with the Hollanders of New Amsterdam, 
 and with the loyalists of Maryland ami Virginia. 
 Events which transpired previous to and during 
 the Revolutionary warquickened and invigorated 
 its rhythmic pace, as we see and feel when we 
 sing Old Coronation ; but it is so strongly in- 
 trenched within the hearts of the people, thai 
 wars cannot silence its perpetual vibrations, nor 
 misfortune and disaster impede its steady, irre- 
 sistible course. Innovations, in the shape of 
 rhythmic irregularities and too extended melodic 
 compass, may occasionally mar its stately pro- 
 portions ; but it finally returns to its original ami 
 permanent form, one note to each syllable of 
 words, supported by a pure, chaste harmony of 
 concords. He who softened and elaborated the 
 choral until it became to the ear what a picture 
 of ever varying tints is to the eye, was Johann 
 Sebastian Bach, a tower of musical strength to 
 his own and to every other civilized lamb ( >f 
 all who have striven to preserve a lofty and en- 
 during style, in the musical treatment of sacred 
 subjects, none occupies higher ground than does 
 this modern king of harmony and the organ. 
 It is impossible to review the state of music 
 during the latter part of the 17th and the begin- 
 ning of the 18th century, without recognizing in 
 almost superlative terms his claims to the most 
 genuine ami unbounded admiration. From single 
 air and accompaniment, through movements of 
 two, three, four. live. six. eight, and even twenty- 
 two parts, this tireless musician spent fifty years 
 
 anil the people wi 
 
 course "I tune, the i 
 less rigid : when eon 
 
 itrapuntal effect 
 
 female voice was pe 
 
 separate musical ser 
 
 i. in the 
 became 
 to strict 
 
 illy, the 
 
 indeed, the chun 
 
 beautiful masses 
 
 cessors give e\ ii 
 
 iinl all other kinds of 
 
 new influence. The 
 
 Mozart, and their sue- 
 leo. Hogarth remarks, 
 lnnic changes which 
 
 Cregonan 
 
 directness. 
 
 After t: 
 
 fugue, and 
 
 Tones in siiuplicitv. strength, and 
 or in permanency of effect, 
 
 tie Gregorian Tones, the canon, the 
 the choral, associated with the ser- 
 vices, liturgical, psalmodic, and hymnic, of the 
 Church, arose a new combination, dating from 
 the mysteries, or portions of biblical narrations 
 in dramatic and musical form. These were 
 ! presented for the contemplation of the faithful, 
 with the brilliant accessories of costume, scenery, 
 
 and instrumentation. This seems to have 1 n 
 
 the thought which moved the religious teacher.-, 
 of the 17th and L8th centuries: since those who 
 were to be instructed in religious knowledge 
 could not see Moses, and Joshua, and Samuel 
 and the prophets, and David, and Solomon, and 
 the apostles, in their living visible forms, what 
 more proper than that their young imaginations 
 and memories should be assisted with the next 
 most obvious and most effective instrumentality .' 
 Poesy lent her- inexhaustible attraction to the 
 scene; and music, that is. poetry sung, tired the 
 emotions with an ardor and an inspiration that 
 reached to heaven. Costume and scenery, in 
 the secular musical drama, the opera, were ad- 
 ded to make this new development in music 
 more natural and picturesque : while the relig- 
 ious drama, the oratorio, was ( tent to appear 
 
 in a certain lofty and spiritual attitude without 
 these adjuncts. The opera indulged in melodic 
 flights which dazzled and bewildered — a con- 
 
606 MU 
 
 sisteut musical reflection of the wild license of 
 most of its libretti; but the oratorio could not 
 depart from the truth of sacred history, nor 
 could it allow those fantastic flights of melody 
 and rhythm, which characterized the opera. Now 
 appeared the man who succeeded in reconciling 
 these apparently antagonistic elements of the two 
 styles. George Frederick Handel was thoroughly 
 familiar with the operatic school of his day. He 
 was violinist, pianist, organist, and operatic com- 
 poser, when he attempted this bold experiment. 
 Depressed by the competition of his contemporary 
 Italian enemies, and even neglected by his former 
 royal and noble friends, this great musician. 
 whom Beethoven called "the musical father of 
 us all," deliberately proposed and carried out th • 
 
 of 
 
 combined with it tin 
 solidity and characte 
 in no other way. Nc 
 and indifferent reeei 
 
 Mo/art. Beethi 
 delssohn have 
 ten musical to 
 him; and succe 
 to swell the i 
 
 er of his 
 id Mende 
 
 Haydn, M. 
 
 ably be placed next in the order of composers of 
 the first rank. In the United States, during the 
 first fifty years after the establishment of the 
 national independence of the country, attention 
 was chiefly given to the study of the simpler 
 forms of psalmody, and to the appropriation 
 of whatsoever of European melody could be 
 nci'le to subserve a local or temporary pur- 
 
 by tl 
 
 exere 
 
 nth that ot litty years ago, 
 than it was at that time. 
 lianos.melodeons, and other 
 led to produce this result, 
 c greater necessity for sys- 
 schoolsand families, where- 
 tion may be so drilled in 
 in a knowledge of the key- 
 
 notes, the relationship of the keys, the various 
 signs of notation, and the fundamental rules of 
 harmony, that they may be able to sing, that is, 
 to read music, with or without an instrument. 
 Musical Education.— From the preceding 
 
 school or conservatory of music, is natural and 
 easy. This institution had an earlier foundation 
 than is generally supposed. ( Iriginally designed 
 as a high learning hall for music, in wdiich 
 young and inexperienced persons were built up 
 in musical knowledge, the name shows the object 
 of such an institution to cultivate, and to pre- 
 serve in their purity, the science a,„l the art of 
 
 music The enti mtrivance of this sort of 
 
 ■nusicscl I sprung from Italy.where the greater 
 
 time were located ; and the Italian nation, before 
 all others, had, in that respect, the formation of 
 an almost infinite number of artists anil art in- 
 ' very gener- 
 
 indeed, rejoicing 
 
 i of g I music. 
 
 frequently asso- 
 isvlums. through 
 
 iartly 
 
 pose. Musi', dlllill- the seeon 1 lilty Years ot 
 
 the century, has signally advanced as an art; but 
 
 becai 
 
 made little progress. Musical instruments of all 
 
 exclu 
 
 kinds have been improved, from a piccolo Bute 
 
 Porpt 
 
 to a hundred thousand .lobar organ; but this 
 
 instrt 
 
 improvement by no mem- implies thataknowl- 
 
 mi, A 
 
 edge of the harmony which lies at the founda- 
 
 ers. 
 
 tion of both vocal and instrumental music has 
 
 of To 
 
 correspondingly advanced. How many can 
 
 Const 
 
 write m strict two-part, three-part, and four-part 
 
 vator 
 
 harmony? Mow- many can write the four-part 
 
 Const 
 
 harmony for the quartet of strings lying at the 
 
 whicl 
 
 base of orchestral work ? How many can write 
 
 about 
 
 in chaste, pure, and simple harmony for four 
 
 withii 
 
 mixed voices? Rather, it is suspected and even 
 
 11, sin 
 
 time, the pattern of all others, was that founded 
 in Naples, by a Spanish clergyman named Gio- 
 vanni di tappia, in 1537, called Conservalorio 
 , di Loreiio. 'I his conservatory 
 
 I eo. Durante, Scarlatti, 
 re In re, in i onrse of time, 
 echini, Cimarosa, Gugliel- 
 and others, fellow-teach- 
 
 ■ more advanced scholars 
 .•stablislicd gradually the 
 wfrio, later, the Conser- 
 n'd lastly, in 1589, the 
 nri di Gesii Crista, in 
 
 ■ante was chapel master. 
 
 d whicl, continued until 
 
 inc. Iluriiey [General 
 ■j i\ i a detailed account 
 
 . showing that the first 
 had 90, the second. 120, and the third, 300 
 scholars: and the fourth was extinct. Eachof 
 these three establishments bail thirty laws, and 
 stood under the direction of two guardians, who 
 severally bore the title of High Uhapel Master; 
 and of the two, one examined and corrected the 
 compositions of the scholars, and the other gave 
 lessons and superintended the singing. From 
 ihosen teachers, with the 
 
 these scholars, 
 
title of maestri sco/m-i. to assist in instruct]'. 
 upon instruments. The general call was on 
 age; ai 
 
 for | 
 the ti 
 self. > 
 eight 
 while 
 kind 
 
 one, w in. i 
 di Music, 
 former mi 
 ofthisinsi 
 
 » from S to 20 v. mis 
 thai eacl for himself < 
 
 607 
 
 ■ of old or modern time, is tin.' Oonserv- 
 aris, which, in regular order, secured 
 ice of artists of the first rank. The 
 
 ndiStoi %■' ,1', .'"'."".' "■",.'■ "■"";;; !| 
 
 der 
 
 ,ryof Milan, 
 ce, are found 
 tpon a basis 
 
 four conse 
 similar to tl 
 have been v 
 girls, who, 
 dinary us \s 
 wedded to 
 four conser 
 
 relate the toll, .win- ,!.•(, tils in iv.jard to tl,,-,' 
 institutions. [mmediately upon being placed 
 
 in playing upon all kin, Is of instruments, by 
 the best masters. A chapel-master controlled 
 the higher conduct of the institute; ami. on 
 each Sun lay, was prepared a public music offer- 
 ing. These gatherings for song were heightened 
 and enriche I liy accompaniments upon instru- 
 ments, iu which the pupils all joined, lu con- 
 nection with ill,' vai -i,' I an, I 1 i.-.i lit iful effects thus 
 produced, many voices, not decayed and worn 
 out 1 n it fresh an 1 pure, were constantly devel- 
 oped and firmly built up. The result was the 
 
 ,- I binding togeth r of a lai g • company of 
 
 brilliant amateurs and connoisseurs. All other 
 conservatories in Italy are of a comparatively 
 
 rec hi 'lo !. The most important ai g the 
 
 latter is that of 1809, founded by the viceroy 
 Eugene, in Milan, of which the first director 
 was Bonifazio Asioli ; and which, in L872, re- 
 
 cato. Against th • decay which has come upon 
 more or less of th" Italian • ■ ,- n a lories ,,f mu- 
 sic, there lias recently been inaugurated an 
 effective check. A commission ,,t experienced 
 musicians was recognized by the minister of 
 
 instruction, in May. 1.871. 'I Ins ,• mission was 
 
 organized under the presidency of <■. Verdi, and 
 
 pledged.and the 
 at L15. Pupils 
 if ten to twenty 
 
 in, of 
 ,1 the 
 
 ited the 
 nd these 
 
 ,N,I„, 
 
 in w hi, 
 
 tly, the 
 
 parted. Subsequ 
 ih" greater part of their 
 
 fate of the i on.-ei \.ii,iiv was inextricably inter- 
 woven with all of the old disn al f orebod _■ of 
 those eventful days ; but ih, se h n.| orary obstruc- 
 tions could not impede the stead] advancement 
 of this noble school of music; and il remains, to 
 this day, what it ever has been, the mosl brill 
 iantly artistic preparatory musical establish- 
 ment in the world. Its first director was Sarette, 
 
 With him were associated, for the formatii 
 execution of the new plan, five other mi 
 of the administration ; namely, ih, .-, , r, i,-i 
 
 ibers 
 ■,the 
 
 siili ,,| their consultations a lnci 
 iroposals for reform. This refor 
 
 offerei 
 oral 
 
 isiblc effect 
 
 The conservatory o? Vl iI.it, bestowed upon this 
 movement toward reform the character of an 
 international influence, while that of Naples 
 supported il rather as a strictly national effort. 
 The most brilliant and artistic musical institu- 
 
 ol,s \\, |e 
 
 until his 
 
 i. and I.e 
 
 Catel, Caraffa, Hal vy, I horon, Planl Bot 
 
 dogni, and others. The successor oi ' herubiniwas 
 Auber; and, iu L 871, director Ambroise 'I homas 
 followed, who, through a special leadership in 
 musical history, esthetics. acoustics. an, 1 prepara 
 tory studies, had justly acquired merit. Forty- 
 
€08 MU 
 
 four classes of male pupils were generally instruct- 
 ed in every style of composition, upon subjects 
 appertaining to all kinds of practical music, in 
 singing, in playing upon instruments, in declama- 
 tion, tin' lYcnch language, and stage manner, or 
 carriage; twenty-two classes of female pupils re- 
 ceived instruction in enunciation, harmony. 
 piano-playing, accompaniment, stage carriage, 
 
 yearly examinations are appointed, -in January, 
 April,. I uly. and the middle of October, at which 
 the minister of instruction and female artists 
 are present. By the middle of July, a concourse 
 stand for the first prize in composition, the dis- 
 tribution of the prize following in November, 
 at the Opera Eouse. Whoever obtains the first 
 prize, next publicly directs his work with a grand 
 orchestra, ami is called the laurel-winner, being 
 solemnly crowned, [n almost all the departments 
 of music, this conservatory achieves careful and 
 diligent developments, the most trustworthy 
 text-books and appropriate methods being thor- 
 oughly used, as the whole continent of Europe 
 is made constantly to contribute to its bucc ss in 
 these respects. The institution is. at the same 
 time, the chief point of union for till Kurop.Mii 
 lovers of magnificent musical effects; while the 
 yearly puldicexoreisrsnf its pupils. 1 t and some- 
 times 20 in number,' beginning in October and 
 continuing through the entire winter, in. -In ling 
 
 the I erate performances of Sunday evening. 
 
 altogether confer upon these dazzling concerts of 
 Paris the praise and the fame which are ^ex- 
 ceptionally conceded to them. Seven of tin- al- 
 ready named children's schools of the Parisian 
 Conservatory are established in Dijon, Lille, 
 Lyons. Marseilles, Nantes, Rouen, and Toulouse. 
 Strasbourg had, up to the time of the Franco- 
 German war, an independent town-like con- 
 servatory, conducted till IsTii by Hasselmans ; 
 the same was, in 1871, resuscitated, and carried 
 on by director Franz Stockhausen. Alter the 
 example of the Parisian CwiSfi-rnt n'tv. was ren- 
 ovated the conservatory in Madrid, in 1831; 
 but in circumscribed compass, though with ju- 
 dicious powers. Music and declamation were 
 taught under its first director, an Italian singing- 
 master by the name of Francesco Piermarini; 
 but the present director is Emilio Arrieta. This 
 school has suffered through the political fluctu- 
 ations of late years, and by continued disadvan- 
 tageous animadversions ; but it now appears in 
 its own proper strength, having received the favor 
 of the late king Amadeus, offering an important 
 barrier against decline. Likewise, after the ex- 
 ample oi the French, four Belgian conservatories, 
 those of Brussels, Liege. Antwerp, and Ghent, are 
 established, of which the first two are entirely 
 sustained by state means and are royal institu- 
 
 whilethat of Client is simply a tovi stitute. 
 
 In connection with the < kmservatory of Brussels, 
 
 reference should lie made to the labors of Director 
 
 Fetis, wdiose earnest and useful service was 
 continued from 1838 until his death, in 1(S71. 
 The conservatory in Liege, although limited in 
 its materiel, is yet constantly advancing to a 
 higher rank through additional musicians, in- 
 struments, and musical mean.-, together with the 
 aspiring ideals and activities of the directors 
 Daussoigne-Mehul and Soubre; and it rejoices in 
 having for its foundation-plan of study the 
 works ot the grand masters in harmony, Bach 
 and Handel, who in Brussels arc sufficiently 
 ignored: the instructing power in Liege also 
 throws the Brussels conservatory quite into the 
 shade. The attendance of scholars is fully 1000. 
 A highly honorable reputation, long known in 
 
 and 
 
 in Belgium but throughout the entire art-world, 
 attaches to the conservatory of Antwerp. Here 
 Director Pierre Benoit nourished. '1 his hold. 
 out-spoken man, alike teacher, composer, and 
 director, assumed a position so impregnable in 
 right, and showed a faith so dauntless, that he 
 is entitled to the sinccrcst admiration. Said he, 
 "Music is the most perfect national speech; in it. 
 all civilized races find their fullest and most en- 
 joval.le iiiipiv>M.ni.-; and a music-school should be 
 like unto a temple in the father-land?'. These prin- 
 ciples have been realized with energy, and have 
 
 fication' so general and bo important, that they 
 constitute a central influence in the political and 
 intellectual regeneration of the country. The 
 nameofBenoil has a familiar, Donulai 
 the ears of at least t\ 
 Kelgians, conveying to his disciples a certain 
 lofty inspiration, which is self-supporting, and 
 by association is communicated to the towns and 
 cities of the Flemish lands. — The kingdom of 
 the Netherlands possesses many excellent music- 
 scl Is of their kind : but the name of its con- 
 servatory only can be mentioned— the institu- 
 tion in Rotterdam, conducted by W. Bargiel, 
 since 1865. There is also a conservatory in 
 Luxemburg, founded in 18(>4, and since then 
 directed by E. Ziimeii. Doth of these establish- 
 ments have raised themselves toa high and note- 
 worthy position. 
 
 The most celebrated Austrian conservatory is 
 that in Prague; the most munificent in organiza- 
 tion, and the best in other respects, is that of 
 Vienna. In the year 1808. it occurred to some 
 high-minded patron of music, formerly flourish- 
 ing in Bohemia, to develop the depressed art of 
 music, and to supply the want of intelligent or- 
 chestral players; the resolution required that an 
 academy shott Id he founded in Prague, of which 
 the essential features should be elaborate instru- 
 mental effects, combined with a universal, artis- 
 tic, and humanitary knowledge. The Prague con- 
 
 MT\alor\ wa- celeb ra I ed throughout Kurope: the 
 singing-school, too, in this institution, both for 
 concert and for opera, begins to show satisfacto- 
 ry results. In the year 1871, the school had 137 
 pupils, 129 of whom were Bohemians; of this 
 number II were singing scholars, and l'J.'i in- 
 strumentalists, the latter divided into 61, in 
 
609 
 
 the lower, and 62, in the upper division. The 
 Austrian minister of instruction included in the 
 finance budget a yearly appropriati in of three 
 thousand florins for the conservatory in Vienna; 
 and this sum was raised to ten thousand florins 
 
 inTienna is a .-ivati.-n of the S.-.-i. in of \lusi',- 
 Friends, in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy, 
 ji I-- > w i 1 1 li "Ht ^t th.- simple beginnings ut a singing 
 school, in the year L816 j but, since L8 >9, i1 has 
 developed into very comprehensive and brilliant 
 
 surroundings through the noble principles U] 
 
 win, 1. it was u^aiii/.i-d. Th,. artistic diicctor of 
 
 the institution in 1876, Jos. Hellmesberger) is 
 assisted I.n 35 instructors in the musical depart 
 
 history of music, on oral discourse di I ion 
 
 esthetics, the history of literature, the Italian 
 
 language, mimics, and the dance. The ta 
 
 ment possesses a theater for drilling purposes, 
 and was attended, in the year 1871, by 145 
 scholars, of whom 925 were males, and 220 fe- 
 males. Willi a lofty and stirring splendor, made 
 familiar and exercised at a memorial to the 
 king of Bavaria, Richard Wagner presented his 
 course of teaching, under the auspices of the 
 royal conservatory, in Munich. October, 1865, 
 upon the ground of a previous re-organization of 
 bis own. "This institution is the only German 
 establishment fur teaching the s, i.-nce and art of 
 music not endowed by state appropriations; but 
 it is placed under the direction of a court musical 
 superintendent. The conservatory in Munich is 
 divided into three chief departments, with rela- 
 tive individual subdivisions, eai h hav ing its Ofl D 
 assigned work. These chief departments are. 
 the singing, the instrumental, and the thi on tic. 
 At the head of the singings, h.iol stand* th 
 professor of solo-singing; at the head of the in- 
 strumental school, likewise a professor, who is 
 •also the chief of the piano or the violin. The 
 particular csv,;/',/.- drilling of the sii.g.Ts. on 
 the one side, or of the instrumentalists ,,u th 
 other, was conducted by both of these profess 
 ors; while the control of the ensembl .1 illing 
 of all the pupils became the duty of the chief 
 director. In those general studi.--.as well a< in th 
 previously mentioned particular, „-■ .«','. ■ ■.-: u li.-s. 
 the scholars were enable I at the same time, to 
 obtain a methodical, practical guidanc i i the 
 technique of the directors, in the th iretic de- 
 partment, a professor of counterpoint, and a 
 professor of music-history \\.u-|,.-l ml. -..a. I in- 
 ly. Near these four professors, are also the fol- 
 lowing exponents of the tea, Inn- force: in the 
 singing-school, a teacher of solo-singing, an as- 
 sistant teacher of chorus-singing, and a t.-a, h,-i ... 
 rhetoric and mimics; in the instrumental school. 
 a teacher and an assistant teacher for the four 
 instruments of percussion, and a teacher of organ- 
 playing; in the theoretic school, a teacher ,.f har- 
 mony. So excellent and complete in all respects 
 was this organization, and so did it continue to be. 
 as long as Hans von Bulow, from 1866 to L868, 
 retained the position of its guide and director. 
 
 After his departure, the institution fell, more 
 and more behind its former aekn. ,\\ lodged devel- 
 opment, the attendance having considerably di- 
 minished. In Wurtzburg, then is also a royal 
 conservatory, founded bj Frohlich, and led by 
 la i,-. h. i I, -, n is a1 Stuttearl is mi- 
 
 ni artists' and an amateurs' school. The de- 
 partments of instruction are confined to ele- 
 mentary, choral, and solo singing; piano, organ, 
 violin, and violoncello playing; composition, 
 esthetics, mu.-ieal lu.-t,.N .-,',, I 'ih. Italian lan- 
 
 tection and contributions of the king of Saxony, 
 and under the co-operation of Felix Mclidelssohn- 
 Bartholdy. It m 1 at the .summit of its splen- 
 dor, with Men,!, 1 - ■ In i. \ ',..-, hi-1, s. 1 latiptmaiin, 
 Richter, Ferd. 1 avid, Klengel, Plaidy, etc., as 
 
 instructors ; and iti i bolars I y streamed 
 
 out upon all European and American lands. 
 The instruct ion , xteiids thcon tically and practi- 
 cally over all the branches of music, scientific and 
 artistic. The theoretic instruction en, braces har- 
 
 and the art of 
 male scholars 
 
 stands a conservatory founded and 
 directed by Pudor, which, for nearly t w < nty years, 
 
 has exhibited good results, and which, more par- 
 ticularly in the instruction upon orchestral in- 
 struments, imparted by the able members of the 
 royal Saxon court chapel, is even highly distin- 
 guished. — The Prussian kingdom possesses only 
 two local conservatoii. s. those ... < ..'...-.is aid 
 Berlin. The conservatory in Cologne 
 onEaster-day. in 1 Sat), and remains, up to the pres- 
 ent time, under the direction of the city chapel 
 master. Dr. Ferdinand Hiller. Someof the mos( 
 prominent among young Cerman composers, up 
 i,, ih.- pi,-, ut nine, have gone forth from the 
 halls of this institution. The instructo: 
 
 ■ at musical association. I kin ing lor its 
 main object the development of a powerful 
 music life on the Rhine; and. for this purpose, 
 an equal regard for other districts than their 
 own, inspired thein in the production of their sub- 
 
610 
 
 sequent compositions. In Berlin, exists another 
 conservatory, founded by •!. Stern, A. B. Marx, 
 and 'I'll. Kullak, at present directed by the first- 
 named; out of its branches, was formed the new 
 academy of music, of which Th. Kullak is the 
 director. In 18(19, by means of the minister of 
 instruction, and in close connection with the 
 royal academy of arts, a royal high school was 
 founded, for exercise in the art of music, in Ber- 
 lin. Beside the director, stands the celebrated 
 violin virtuoso, professor Joachim. In this insti- 
 tution, still in tne introductory phases of devel- 
 opment, the violin school is quoted as among 
 the best; while care is taken in all the other 
 branches of high musical inst ruction, except, per- 
 haps piano playing, preparation for which is 
 quite insufficient. — Switzerland possesses high 
 music schools, in Berne and Geneva.— England 
 has a royal institution in London, formerly di- 
 rected by Cipriani Potter, but more recently by 
 Sterndale Bennett, of which MacFarren is' the 
 most distinguished graduate. There are also 
 conservatories in Edinburgh ami Dublin. — 
 Copenhagen also has a conservatory ; and. since 
 lSli."). there is one even in Christiania, while the 
 royal musical academy in Stockholm is already 
 anew development. In the remaining parts of 
 Europe are still to be named the conservatory 
 in Warsaw, founded, in L821, by Klssner, and 
 further directed by A. Kontski, and then by 
 Moniusczko with imperial assistance; and also 
 conservatories in Klausenburg, Pesth, and Lis- 
 bon.— In the Russian empire, both in St. Peters- 
 burg ami in Moscow, are conservatories, founded 
 by the Grand-] hichess Helen. These have an 
 excellent foundation, and are liberally supported. 
 The elder, in St. Petersburg, was successively 
 directed by Anton Rubinstein, by Xaremba. ami 
 by Assantschewsky ; and that in Moscow, by 
 Nicholas Rubinstein. 
 
 In the United Stales, conservatories are, al- 
 most without exception, private speculations, 
 and, as compared with similar efforts in Europe, 
 
 neither in management nor in perfort :es, can 
 
 venture to compete with the elder institutions. 
 New York possesses many of these; also Bal- 
 timore, Huston, Buffalo. Cincinnati, Chicago, St. 
 Louis. Philadelphia, ami other cities. In justice 
 to these American efforts, however, it must be 
 stated that, as government, in the United States, 
 whether national, state, or municipal, makes no 
 appropriation for conservatories of music, these 
 enterprises, at present, must necessarily be pri- 
 
 .1 the 
 
 ruction in music, chiefly 
 lentary piano playing, 
 mally found, who have 
 i in both of these de- 
 letter day is dawning 
 igher styles of music, 
 i mail.' t.. establish and 
 al college for young 
 
 women in the city of New York, wh 
 
 eh would be. 
 
 from many points of \ieu.a highly 
 
 sefnl. benev- 
 
 olent, and art-elevating institution. 
 
 n succeeding 
 
 days, the state may possiblystep in t 
 
 ■ secure a sys- 
 
 tematic course of musical instructio 
 
 i for hcrchil- 
 
 dren, and thus rescue this noble science and art 
 from many of the prolific causes of superficiality, 
 perverted tastes,and degrading associations, ulti- 
 mately producing a complete indifference to the 
 higher claims of music. 
 
 Of the methods employed in the European 
 music schools, it can confidently be said that 
 they differ as much from each other, in their 
 working details, as the literary, scientific, and 
 higher professional and special institutions do in 
 the presentation ot the important subjects brought 
 under their notice. Differences arising from 
 climate, age, precocity, natural aptitude, early 
 opportunities, physical organization, and associ- 
 ation with intelligent persons of artistic, genial, 
 and mobile tendencies, display themselves in no 
 department of human labor more frequently, or 
 with more prominent demonstrations of enthu- 
 siasm, than among the lo\ers ami students of 
 music. But. whatever may be the difference 
 of details in the methods employed, or. however 
 great may be the disparity arising from the other 
 causes named, these music schools, without ex- 
 ception, agree in selecting the plastic and im- 
 pressible age of youth, and often very early 
 and tender youth, as the heaven-appointed time 
 when eye, ear, hand, and voice must simultane- 
 ously begin their never-ending work of cultiva- 
 tion. 'I he early lives of celebrated musicians, 
 the moderate success of those inclined to me- 
 diocrity, and even the more feeble attempts of 
 those who have learned to play and sing but 
 little, are a Btanding proof that, to achieve any 
 audible or distinguishable result in music, the 
 
 child must commence at its flier's knee to 
 
 lisp the melody that shall perpetually link the 
 memory of these child-like efforts to the maturer 
 accomplishmi m- ot a later season. The Christian 
 Church has neyi rbeen unfaithful to herself or to 
 
 linistrations. has sprung not 
 especially adapted to the 
 purposes of divine worship, but the very 
 hist an.l highly successful plan of a systematic 
 music school worthy of a name and of historical 
 mil di Tappia should be gratefully 
 iy every musician, as well as by 
 rested in musical progress, for it 
 took the girl with her naturally 
 and the boy with his inflexible 
 them by degrees to pass from the 
 unisonant rendering of the Cregorian Tones to : 
 part-singing in the lofty counterpoint of Pales- 
 trina. Although a hundred years had elapsed 
 before the lovely and more emotional voice of 
 the mature woman was permitted to be heard in 
 public, and in the services of the sanctuary; and 
 although its use is still denied by many eccle- 
 siastics in the < rreek, Roman, and Anglican com- 
 munions, yet it must he conceded that it should 
 be trained, at first, in the parish schools and 
 sunday-schools, which arc the musical nurseries 
 of the church, and from which pupils pass into 
 the choir by a very natural and easy way. No music 
 teachers are so successful as they who have the 
 religious sympathy and co-operation of the par- 
 
 the results of hi 
 only the mus 
 
 remembered 
 every one in 
 
 flexible voic 
 voice, and le 
 
til] 
 
 cuts; and no pupils render more effective music 
 than they who, to intelligent reading and a 
 
 certain degre f cultivation, unite the higher 
 
 merit of believing in the truth of the words they 
 
 utter. But even where the religious idea is not 
 
 schools, in win. h gratuitous 1 1 1 1 1 - i . . • I ni-i ru t i. hi 
 
 was given as a preparation for entri e into the 
 
 grand conservatory at Paris, or in the common 
 schools of the I nited States, where music, in 
 cities of considerable size, is taught gratuitously. 
 there exists the imperative necessity that it be 
 commenced in the primary departments, where 
 
 make the study and practice of vocal music a 
 delight instead 'of a task. A limited and stipulated 
 portion of the ordinary semi-annual term, of 
 about five months, can be spent in tri-weekly 
 exercises upon the scale, including melodies of 
 limited compass, which is simply oral and imi- 
 tative work on the part of the teacher and 
 scholar, preparatory to the introduction of tli- 
 musical sign-language during the second five 
 mouths of the vear. Two grades are thus created 
 
 Hiivlv 
 
 oral- 
 
 al w 
 aJ sign-language 
 
 eye-knowledge w U 
 
 vocal compass, these exercises must be limite 
 either ascending or .1- ''u. ling, and in expression 
 without force I or blatanl effect, to modify which 
 at least four vowel sounds, ah, ee, oh, and oo 
 may be used; but, in rhythmical variety and in 
 change of key. they may be quite extended, 
 depending upon the knovs le Ig ■ skill, and tact of 
 the teacher. Care must betaken thai the young 
 voice be not fatigued, and thai boys especially 
 be early taught to avoid carrying the chest tones 
 too high. Three lessons of half an hour each 
 during the week are more effective than two 
 lessons of an hour each, to pupils under twelve 
 years of age; and five lessons of twenty minutes 
 each, during the week, arc b tter than either. 
 Beating time should accompany the written 
 exercises in the second term of the primary de- 
 partments; and. m the higher departments, the 
 written exercises shotdd be copied by the pupils 
 for two years consecutively, with more extended 
 practice in rhythm and melo ly.aud plain singing 
 in two and three parts. Drilling like this has 
 been practiced in many of the schools of the 
 United States during the past ten years; and 
 the plan, if earnestly encouraged and carried out. 
 will enable every pupil, of sufficient ear and age. 
 to become a reader of plain music— The place of 
 music as a branch of superior instruction must 
 also be referred to. The ureal universities of 
 England— Oxford and Cambridge, do not teach 
 music systematically; nor do they care where 
 the musical student acquires his information; 
 but they always have superior musicians to ex- 
 amine the musical aspirant, and these examina- 
 tions are thorough and severe. In the United 
 States, considerable progress has been made in 
 ^this direction. Harvard University has always 
 
 shown a commendable love of music in the 
 
 amateur orchestral line, and in sundry vocal 
 organizations; but not until 1871—2, was music 
 
 course in JlOTT, 
 cc lurse was a 
 when there wei 
 counterpoint, 
 
 cceeding this, an elective 
 eh year, until L875— 6, 
 ■ in •> - : namely, harmony, 
 nd tin- thematic music, 
 f of music. The number 
 of students has steadily increased year by year, 
 until, in 1875 6, there were 32. The fad thai 
 this instruction is purely m the science and art 
 of musical composition, and in musical history, 
 and that the students ill music who pursue this 
 elective course are required to possess consider- 
 able preliminary knowledge and familiarity with 
 the pianoororgan. will account for the sinallness 
 of the number of students. Music is now. at 
 Harvard, included among those studies for 
 which honors arc given at graduation. The de- 
 gree of A. M. and Ph. D. are also open to bache- 
 lors of arts who pursue the required course, and 
 pass the examination in music. For the degree 
 of A. M., one year's exclusive study is required 
 after graduation: for the degree of Ph.D., sever- 
 al years. Thus far, 2 graduates have taken the 
 degn I' A. M„ in music, and will probably ap- 
 ply for the highest degree, that of Ph. D. 'The 
 instruction in this department is given by J. K. 
 Payne, author of the Oratorio of St. Peter. \t 
 Yale College, music is restricted to instruction 
 in singing, for the purpose of obtaining good 
 vocal music for morning and Sabbath-day devo- 
 tions. For this object, Joseph Battell, in 1854,gave 
 
 $5,000, the interest of which was to be devoted to 
 
 Stocckcl. was then appointed, and services for 
 malevoiceswereintroduced.rnl861,Mrs.Wm.A. 
 Lamed a sister of Mr. BatteU, gave the college 
 $1,000, the interest oi which was to be expended 
 in the purchase of musical works. By this 
 means, and by the donations of friends of the 
 institution, a musical library has been formed. 
 In L862, Mrs. lamed donated to the college 
 $5,000 for the support of a teacher of music, in 
 1ST 1 . after tin' death of Lowell .Mason, his family 
 gave the library of that well-known composer — 
 comprising 8,000 titles — to the Yale Theological 
 Seminary. In 1876, when the new Battell 
 ( 'hapel was supplied, through the munificence of 
 Mrs. Larned, with a new organ, the old organ, 
 after being repaired and enlarged, was trans- 
 ferred to Calliope Hall, which has been placed 
 at the disposal of musical studentsof the college. 
 A musical professorship has not vet. however, 
 been established.- The College of Music of thi 
 
 of music. It admits only students having the 
 average proficiency of graduates ol Vui'iicaii 
 conservatories, and includes four regular courses. 
 .Many other American colleges contain musical 
 departments as a part of the full curriculum. 
 — For authorities on the history of music, and 
 
612 NASHVILLE UNIVERSITY 
 
 on musical science and composition, sec Burney, 
 General History of Music (1789); Hawkins, 
 .1 <!,, irriil llistiir,/ i if Hi'- Srtnir,- mill /'rmiin- 
 of Music (new edit., Loudon, 1853) : I Ihafpej l, 
 
 The History of M sic I Ion, 1-7 1 ; George 
 
 Hogahth, Musi ■ r ■■ ■-!. ■ . i 36 . il. Men- 
 del, Musik Co i ■ Ber- 
 lin, 1871); Callcott, Musical Grammar (1805); 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION 
 
 STSBERGER AND AVeBER. Course of Hnr- 
 
 iSouth trds Digest Boston, 1854); A.B. 
 
 ' / ■■ '■ ■ ■-■ hen Compo- 
 
 eipsii ,1834 t5 . I ng. trans, by Saro.ni 
 852);and AUgt meine MusiMehre (1839). 
 ) SiNoixo-Sriioor.s. ami Voice Cit-tube.) 
 UAL SYSTEM. See Monitorial 
 
 NASHVILLE, UNIVERSITY OF, at 
 
 Nashville. ' 
 
 elill. 
 
 was 
 
 founded 
 
 by 
 
 thi 
 
 state of 
 
 North far 
 
 ilina, 
 
 Dec 
 
 29., 17 
 
 
 IS 
 
 
 Academy. 
 
 It 1« 
 
 
 Cumber] 
 
 Mid 
 
 Co 
 
 
 the Univers 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 - ■- 
 
 eleemosynai 
 
 
 1- 
 
 ituating 
 
 1,1 1 
 
 
 
 .In IS 
 
 the 
 
 y Bell bequeathed to the 
 {20,000. This now amounts 
 1 endows a grammar school, 
 college, then and now the 
 only one in Tennessee, was organized. It is sup- 
 ported bj tuition fees alone. In 1875, the col- 
 legiate department was suspended: and its 
 grounds, buildings, and funds, appropriated to a 
 normal college, under state countenance, and 
 mainly supported by the Peabody education 
 fund. Tuition is tree for young women and 
 young men alike. Twenty three acres and four 
 large buildings, all within the city limits, con- 
 stitute the property of the university, and are val- 
 u l..i a!.. hi sI.Mmiiio. The college fund is within 
 a fraction of $50,000. The normal college clo ed 
 its first session with 51 students. The medical 
 college averages from 175 to IMMI students, and 
 has nearly 2,000 alumni. The normal college is 
 the only first -class school of its description in a 
 region occupying at least soii.iino square miles. 
 Tii.' Ii.'. 1- of the university have been as follows: 
 James Priestly, LL. D., president, 1809 — 15; 
 and again 1819—20; Philip Lindsley, D. D., 
 president, 1824—50; John Berrien Lindslev, 
 M. I >., 1 >.l »., chancellor, 1 ■<">."> — TO ; < ien. Edmund 
 Kirby Smith, 1870 — 75; Eben Sperry Stearns. 
 1). D., appointed in 1 sT-"». 
 
 NATIONAL EDUCATION, or State 
 Education, a system of education or schools, 
 established by the state, for the benefit either of 
 the whole people, or of a particular i 
 ized nations, in both ancient and modern times. 
 i ems of education for the instruc- 
 tion of the favored few ; but it is only within 
 the last three centuries that, in Europe or 
 America, any thing like a properly organized 
 system for educating the masses has existed. 
 (See I'll. i .mi.., aland, and 
 
 some of the staic, .. i ih.- \ nan Union, may 
 
 claim precedence for putting into operation gov- 
 ernmental schemes for general education, both 
 elementary and advai.c. .1. Many other nations 
 followed in their wake ; and. at present, national 
 education, to a greater or ],■■ s extent, prevails in 
 most civilized countries in the world. Among 
 the Asiatic nations, the Chinese may claim great 
 
 antiquity for their remarkable system of national 
 education (see China); while the Japanese, in 
 quite recent times, have exhibited a wonderful 
 
 intelligence and energy in the establishment of 
 state schools. (See Japan.) In England, not- 
 withstanding the age ot her great universities 
 
 and public and endowed schools, there was no 
 national system until recently. >.•■ I.v i wn.l 
 I 'or an account of the national .-\ sb ms in other 
 countries and states, see the respectivi titles. 
 
 The importance of a national system ot edu- 
 cation is now generally conceded, as a corollary 
 to the demonstrated benefit to a community of 
 affording to each of its members at least an ele- 
 mentary school education. Herbert Spencer, 
 indeed, has assailed these first principles, by 
 denying the right of the state "to administer 
 education, inasmuch as the taking away, by 
 government, of more of a man's property than 
 is needful for maintaining his rights, is an in- 
 fringement of his rights, and, therefore, a re- 
 versal of the government's function toward him; 
 and. inasmuch as the taking away of his prop- 
 erty to educate his own or other people's chil- 
 dren is not needful for the maintaining of his 
 rights, the taking away of his property for such 
 a purpose is wrong.'' Given the premises of 
 this argument, and the conclusion is inevitable ; 
 but the premises are denied. School education, 
 widely diffused, is held to be not only a benefit 
 but a | : .icction to the community ; and just as 
 it is proper for the state to enact laws to pre- 
 vent crimes by punishment, taxing the citizens 
 to support a penal system, so it is also proper to 
 establish educational systems the general tend- 
 ency of which, by cultivating the minds and 
 improving the morals of the people, is to pre- 
 vent crime, and thus erect a barrier against law- 
 less violence, imperiling the welfare of the citi- 
 zens in the enjoyment of their rights as such. 
 The principle of national education has been 
 attacked by asserting that school education docs 
 not greatly affect the character of those who 
 receive it: while the community can only be 
 benefited by improving individual character. 
 The extent to which a national system of edu- 
 cation affects character will, of course, vary with 
 the kind of education imparted ; but. certainly, 
 the inefficiency of a bad system is no argument 
 in favor of the abolition of all systems. "Al- 
 th0ugh,"saj Mi rlej Ifective int ruction does 
 not i ox.r nor touch the "hoi.- field of character 
 and conduct, it does most manifestly touch 
 •some portions of it. It adds, for instance, to 
 
NATIONAL EDUCATION 
 
 the consciousness of power and faculty,! 
 increases the invaluable and far-reaching 
 of self-respect. Hence, even if a great < 
 provide our people with the instrum 
 knowledge did Dot reduce the Dumber o 
 n.-ils. it would still improve the tone i 
 who are not criminals." — 15ut . as has bi 
 Baid, school education, however excel! 
 however widely diffused, cannot prove, o 
 a panacea for all the ills of tne Bocii 
 
 -l,;i 
 
 \\ I 
 
 NATIONAL LANGUAGE 618 
 
 this [ NATIONAL LANGUAGE. There are 
 ality but few among the civilized countries of the 
 rtto world in which all the people speak the same 
 
 •ench; 
 tnsch. 
 speak 
 
 wbat be is not — is part ot 
 Hence, there is an education 
 family, the street, the workshc 
 well as thai of the school : am 
 by some, that, as the influenci 
 from these are more potent t 
 school, the state should contro 
 as well, or its system of educa 
 or less nugatory. " Whatever 
 tin' in. in an. I '.'Ili'i.'ii.'V ..I lii 
 
 domof Poland, 
 
 in .! provinces, do language is 
 .solute majority' of the people, 
 languages is. in some instances, 
 events of comparatively recent 
 ie dismemberment of the king- 
 id large Polish-speak- 
 tn and Russian rule; 
 
 
 ii effective cenl 
 
 rerse Ii e ' of <; 
 
 1 most <lis- have 
 
 the ne 
 
 as much as poa ible ( 
 street, etc., is still ap] 
 ability to read, in tlii. 
 the portal to knowle 
 ennobling, and thus 
 often, if not always. 1. 
 (See Ilutii: lcy.) 
 tional edueati.ni tn tl 
 
 stitutions of the country in which it exists, is 
 very generally recognized. Tims, in A State- 
 ment of the Tlieoryof Education in the U.S. 
 (Wash.. 1st 1 1. it is said," In order to compen- 
 sateforlack of family uurture, the school is 
 
 habits o 
 order thi 
 in there 
 the cons 
 have ate 
 tion.ort 
 
 ;ite or public schi 
 
 n. 's worked a rem 
 
 Whe 
 id and* 
 
 •It 
 
 * 
 
 ■eatly 
 
 suii.ii 
 
 T, 
 
 mi 
 
 uld 
 
 ' sl 
 
 miti- 
 
 that 
 look 
 tould 
 
 Wheth. 
 ..is basis 
 
 (2) Whether it should extend to higher edu 
 tion, or be confined to elementary instructio 
 and (3) Whether it should embrace technical a 
 professional instruction, or not. In regard 
 
 these points, res] tivdy. see Denominatiok 
 
 Schools, 1 1 igb Si i ls, and Ti i bnical Edu. 
 
 tion.— See also Spi hi i b, So ia Sl ttics ,\. 
 
 1866); Rio,;. Nat dEducatitm (London, 187 
 
 Morley, The Struggle for National Educati 
 (London, 1873). 
 
 s.-lt for, at least, one thousand years, has at last 
 given way to the Italian. In Germany, the 
 linguistic territory of the Slavic Wend;, who 
 still comprise a population of about I 10,000 
 persons, has been largely reduced within the 
 
614 NATIONAL LANGUAGE 
 
 last hundred years. The increasing str 
 modern times. of the principle of na 
 
 which has achieved it.-, ^n-atesr ti-iimii • 
 
 Italy, has caused many governments to look 
 upon the universal iscendency of the national 
 language, and the suppiv.-sinii of all others, as a 
 means of strengthening national unity. From 
 this point of view, great efforts have been made 
 in many countries, to force the exclusive use of 
 the language of the government upon all schools, 
 as the sole medium of instruction. Where these 
 measures were directed against languages spoken 
 by large bodies of the people, or even against 
 smaller portions of the population, speaking the 
 language of another large country, they have pro- 
 voked resistance, more or les- violent, and have 
 in many instance. |e 1 to controversies which arc 
 not yet ended. The principles according to 
 
 which different governments have proe led. 
 
 are very different. None has gone so far in the 
 use of force as Russia, which, in its attempts to 
 crush out the lan-uace of some eight million 
 Poles, has manifested a disregard of the first 
 rights of families in the education of their chil- 
 dren, that has deservedly met with universal 
 disapproval. No country of the world has been 
 so greatly embarrassed in its legislation by the 
 co-existence of a number of languages, as the 
 Austro-llungarian Monarchy. The two ruling 
 languages, German in Austria proper, and 
 Magyar in the lands of the Hungarian crown, 
 are L.oth the languages of only a minority of the 
 population in their several sections; and while 
 the two governments have been anxious to extend 
 
 the do, run ol the Hilin._'la>i-ii.^,~.. the Czechs in 
 
 mans in Hungary, have insisted that for the 
 schools in those districts in which a majoritv of 
 the people speak their language, it shall he made 
 
 tic- me hum of instruction of all grades. The 
 conflid is at present fiercer than ever. The 
 Hungarian government has thus far successfully 
 itinued its efforts to extend the ascendency 
 
 NATURAL SCIENCE 
 
 in the provinces of Prandenliurg. Silesia, Posen, 
 Prussia, and the northern part of Schleswig, has 
 devoted to the principles underlying tiiis question 
 a greater attention than any other European gov- 
 ernment, ami has evidently endeavored to evolve 
 principles which will admit of application in 
 more than one country, and which will reconcile 
 the clashing claims of the mother-tongue and 
 
 language; but it demands, "for the purpose of 
 securing in these parts and members of the 
 monarchy a lively appreciation of the progress 
 
 to facilitate a busin, 
 wjth their German-spi 
 
 higher classes, the German gradually takes the 
 
 ] 'lace of the mother-tongue. Even in the gym 
 nasia. a similar regard for the mother-tongue is 
 shown: for, in all those gymnasia in which the 
 majority of the pupils is of the Polish national- 
 ity, the Polish language is, at least partly, 
 used .is medium of instruction in the lower 
 
 the Si 
 
 nant languages an g the white 
 
 rge tracts of country; hut all have 
 en way to the English. A dialect 
 commonly called Pennsylvania 
 
 ill extensively spoken among the 
 
 if the old German settlers in Penn- 
 d. in the new acquisitions of terri- 
 5outh and on the Pacific, Spanish 
 
 iii-un-c chiefly spoken ill many sec- 
 he strong ties of commercial and 
 Is. and th tucational influence of 
 
 aso 
 
 .scholarship. 
 other Hon i ;, 
 
 secured the 
 
 guages as m 
 primary scho 
 has been don 
 two universit 
 been fully si 
 Prague, the i 
 In Germany, 
 German, is a 
 government. 
 
 . in Austria 
 mains of the 
 ly due to the 
 erature and 
 ;. Poles, and 
 tve not onlv 
 
 The P, 
 
 •rnian i 
 
 of E: 
 
 I 11 op] 
 
 American 
 imigrants; 
 
 NATURAL SCIENCE. See Scienck, tiik 
 
NAUTICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 NAUTICAL SCHOOLS, or Schools of 
 Navigation, are institutions for educating and 
 training pupils in the science and practice of 
 navigation. Schools of this kind have long been 
 in existence in European countries, and are 
 of various grades. I In i of the chief objects of 
 the theoretical instruction given in them, is to 
 
 NAVAL SCHOOLS 
 
 of the best 
 they desire 1 
 
 m such oth, 
 sary. A sch 
 conducted in 
 
 r their first voyage, 
 iselves for the posi- 
 instruction i- given 
 tical navigation and 
 
 observation, and how to apply the results for the 
 
 position of a vessel at sea. The calculal > nec- 
 essary for tliis purpose requin a knowledge 
 of various brandies of mathematics, especially 
 trigonometry; hence, mathematics musl con- 
 stitute the chief part of die course of instruc- 
 tion in schools of navigation. In those schools 
 in which most of the pupils lack the amount of 
 knowledge necessary for a scientific understand- 
 ing of these nautical calculations, they receive a 
 merely mechanical instruction, which is found 
 to be generally sufficient for the mercantile 
 marine. The course of instruction varies con- 
 siderably. In Prussia, where prominence is 
 given to scientific instruction, it lasts eighteen 
 months, of which twelve are spent in thi mal - 
 class, and -iv in the navigators' (captains') class. 
 Before pupils can lie admitted to the latter 
 class, they must have been for eighteen months 
 in active service as mate-. In other schools 
 less attention i- given to tb in ti il tidies, and 
 
 the course of instruct i - . , ! > i , 
 
 six months. In 1875, the German I mpire bad 
 '.'1 navigation schools, 1 I of which were in 
 Prussia, I in the Hanse towns, 2 in Mecklen- 
 burg, and 1 in Oldenburg. In the Austro- 
 Sungarian Monarchy, there were 8 nautical 
 schools, in France 4 l\ in Italy '.':;. in Ku-ii -I 
 in Finland t'.. in Sweden 9, in Norway 6, in 
 Denmark 1. in Holland '.'.in Belgium L'.m .-pain 
 9, in Portugal l.in Greece 5. England also has 
 
 a large number of navigation scl Isoi various 
 
 grades. In some of the countri - named, thes 
 schools are rail' 1 „.,■„, .,, /,„„..< ■ m other. 
 
 the u 
 
 .f N( 
 
 tical Bchool iii the eitv.it \, w "i ork tol 
 the charge of the board of education of 1 
 The Chamber of Commerce of New \> 
 was authorized to appoint a committe 
 members to serve as a council for this scl 
 to co-operate with the hoard of edua 
 its management. (See \ , « Yt ibk, i 
 
 m an 
 
 authorized the 
 for this purpose. as well as the di tailing of naval 
 officers loaet as superintendents and instructors 
 in such schools, but with the special provision. 
 " that no person shall be sentenced to, or re- 
 ceived at, such schools as a punishment, or coiu- 
 
 mutati f punishment, for crime." The 
 
 ■course of instruction covers a period of from 
 18 months to 1> years. The pupils who complete 
 it successfully, receive a certificate ; and efforts 
 iire made to obtain positions for them on board 
 
 NAVAL SCHOOLS arc schools for the 
 aining of midshipmen in all the theoretical and 
 actical branches requisite to fit them for their 
 ofession. In the United States, there isthe 
 aval Academy at Annapolis. Md., which was 
 
 ■tary of the navy. Originally little more 
 i a school of practice on board ship, and 
 aded to afford comparatively slight nien- 
 traiuing. it was. in 1850, reorganized un- 
 its present name. The course of study was 
 ■rially enlarged, and the institution was 
 sd under the charge of the Bureau of Ord- 
 
 i he mainly conducted under the 
 if the Bureau of Navigation, which 
 nicd. ami put ill charge of it, in duly. 
 
 law w; 
 
 course Of instruction comprises a thorough and 
 exhaustive drill, not only in mathematics and 
 the natural sciences, but in the English, French, 
 andSpanish languages in history, international 
 law, ,-e.i .a,, -hip. ,-hipdiuildine. gunnery, steam- 
 eng 1- a id drawing both mechanical and free- 
 hand .especiallj in its applications to naval con- 
 struction, machinery, .and map-making. Three 
 times a week, exerci- - in practical seainandiip. 
 onboard ship or in boats, vary the courses of 
 
 die lecture and recitation r u; while.from the 
 
 middle .,f dune till the middle of September, a 
 cruise alone; the coast, in a United States sailing- 
 ship or steamer, gives opportunity for putting 
 into practice all the nautical knowledge that has 
 been acquired. The number of cadet-midship- 
 men, in 1874 5, was 29'i : the number of in- 
 structors, 58. — Since 1864, classes of naval con- 
 structors, of civil and steam-engineers, called 
 cadet-engineers, have been permitted to be edu- 
 cated e. the academy, the number of such being 
 limited to 50, and the course for them being 
 two yea it the school, and two years on hoard 
 ship. During the civil war, the ai ademy was re 
 moved to New port, R. [.; but, soon after its close, 
 was brought hack to Annapolis. In England, 
 the lioyal Naval College was erected in 1 71".), at 
 Portsmouth. There, formerly, youths intended 
 for the navy were instructed in navigation etc.; 
 Inn. in 1839, the eolleee was remodeled, and ap- 
 propriated to the instruction of junior naval and 
 marine officers in the higher ln-am-hes of science, 
 connected with their profession, and especially 
 in the principles and practice of naval gunnery. 
 
In 1872, the college was transferred to <lreen- 
 wich. — On the continent of Europe, there are 
 naval schools at Fiume (Hungary), Kiel (Prus- 
 sia), Brest (Prance), Naples and Spezia (Italyl, 
 St. Petersburg (Russia), Stockholm (Sweden), 
 Christiania (Norway), Copenhagen (Denmark), 
 Willemsoord (Netherlands). Ferrol (Spain). Lis- 
 bon (Portugal), the Piraeus (Greece), and on the 
 island of Khalki (Turkey). 
 
 NEBRASKA, one of the western states of 
 the American Union, to which it was admitted 
 ,n 1867, as the 24th. lis area is 75,995 Bq. m ; 
 its population, in 1870. was 129,322, of whom 
 789 were colored, and 6.416 were Indians. 
 
 Educational History. While yet a territory 
 (1854 -67), Nebraska adopted a liberal school 
 system which, as early as 1865, when the popu- 
 lation was only 50,000, furnished free tuition 6 
 months in the' year. In 1869, a general school 
 Ian was passed, which has been modified from 
 time to time to suit the wants of the rapidly in- 
 creasing population of the state; and on this 
 law, substantially, is based the presenl system. 
 
 The intention of the scl 1 law of Nebraska is 
 
 to afford an opportunity for a finished education 
 to every child in the state. To this end. tuition 
 is free from the day of admission to the primary 
 school to the completion of the course in the 
 university. The state superintendents have been 
 as follows: S. I.). Heals, ls6!>— 71: .1. M.MeKen- 
 zie, 1871 — 77; and S. I!. Thompson from 1877. 
 
 ,9,7,,,,,/ ,%■■</">'>■— There is no state board of 
 education. The constitution provides, that there 
 shall be elected by the people every two years, a 
 state superintends nt, w hose principal duf ies shall 
 
 be, to apj 
 December) 
 counties, t 
 number o 
 21 years: 
 schoolsa i 
 
 [oiniieiil being the 
 the ages of 5 and 
 thepublic 
 to examine appli- 
 hold teachers' insti- 
 i rl ; to di ignate the forms of all blanks for 
 the use of the schools, and for the reports of 
 school officers : and to make a full annual peporl 
 
 to the governor, of the educational li ion oi 
 
 Ea :n county elects a count / sap r- 
 intendent biennially, whoseduty il is to divide the 
 county into school-districts^if this has not al- 
 ready been done. He has no power, however. 
 
 to change any district line, unless petitioned so 
 to do by one-third of the legal voters in the 
 districts affected a legal voter being any male, 
 or unmarried female '21 years of age, residing 
 in the district, and subject to pay a district 
 school-tax. It is the county superintendent's 
 duty, also, to examini teachers, to visit each 
 school in the countj al leas! once each term, to 
 hold teachers' institutes, to apportion to the 
 several district,-, twice each year, the public 
 school money, and to report to the tat super 
 
 intendcnt annually the C lition of the schools. 
 
 For this service, he receives not less than $3, 
 nor more than .*.">. per dayfor every day actually 
 employed in the duties of his office. The county 
 superintendent issues three grades of certificates 
 
 to teachers: the first grade valid for 2 years, 
 the second, for one year — both entitling the 
 holder to teach in any district in the county; 
 the third grade being valid for 6 months, and 
 cnlitlnig the holder to teach only ill a specified 
 district. Three third-grade certificates, however, 
 may be issued to the same person. Each school- 
 district has three officers. — a director, a modera- 
 tor, and a treasurer. One of these is elected each 
 year at the April meeting. These officers have 
 full control of all school matters pertaining to 
 the district, except the building of school-houses, 
 and the issuing of school bonds. 'I hey are not 
 permitted to pay, out of the public funds, any 
 i,a. her not holding a certificate from the proper 
 authority. Relatives of these officers are in- 
 eligible as teachers. The director must, within 
 10 days after the annual meeting, report to the 
 county superintendent the number of children 
 oi school age in the district, the appropriation 
 of the state fund being based upon this return, 
 and not payable without, it. 'I he permanent 
 school fund consists of all moneys arising from 
 the sale of the 16th and" 36th sections in each 
 township, the five per cent granted ly Congress 
 on the sale of public lands within the state, and 
 all escheats, gifts, grants, i to., not otherwise ap- 
 propriated. This fund IS at present invested 
 principally in state securities. Some of it, how- 
 ever, is in school distric 1 county bonds, and 
 
 bond and mortgage, but all draws 111 per cent 
 interest. 'I he items are as follows •■ 
 
 School fond now invested $497,037.34 
 
 I'niiaid principal of scl 1 land- . -old i::;,,.--7.sii 
 
 Value of school lands leased 272,169.16 
 
 Total $1,407,994.30 
 
 The constitution provides that the fund shall be 
 invested hereafter only in United States and 
 
 -1,1 , i,i i, ■_■ i - 1 • red county bonds. 
 
 'I he numb r oi acres of school lands amounts to 
 
 more than 2,£ M 0, none of which can be sold 
 
 at less than $7 per acre. The apportionable 
 school fund arises from the 10 per cent interest 
 
 on all i iys forming a part of the permanent 
 
 chool fund, the 6 per cent rents of school hinds 
 ! ased, together with the proceeds of the one- 
 mill tax. The other sources of income for the 
 suppori of school, are the moneys arising from 
 lines, licenses, dog-tax, and thespei ial district tax. 
 
 S,.| | districts are prohibited from levying for 
 
 school purpo-, - a greater tax than '2.7 mills on 
 the dollar in anyone year. Three months' school 
 niu-1 he maintained 'in each school-district to 
 entitle it to any portion of the public fund. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts in 1876, was 2,567 : the number 
 
 of scl 1-houses of all kind- 1 ,980 : the number 
 
 of districts in which graded schools exist, 55. 
 
 prineipa 
 
 In tollov 
 
 1 items i 
 
 for IS 7,"> 
 
 The 
 are tl 
 
 Number of children of school age 86,1 
 
 enrolled 50,'. 
 
 ■' teachers, males l,4i;s 
 
 females 1,893 
 
 Total 3.3 
 
 $32 
 
 Amount of apportionable school iiwd. 
 
NEBRASKA 
 
 Normal Instruction.— The state normal school 
 was opened at Peru, in 1867. It was originally 
 organized with three departments, the time re- 
 quired to complete the course being L3 years. In 
 1873 — 1. this was modified so as to comprise 
 2 departments, the preparatory and the normal, 
 5 years being necessary to e ' 
 
 add 
 
 NEBRASKA 1 NIYKRSITY 017 
 
 Superior Instruction.— the institutions in- 
 tended to furnish an advanced education are as 
 
 follows : 
 
 ege Crete 1872 Cong. 
 
 i\,!l.-.' Wln-nsUn. City lSi'.H Pr. Epis. 
 
 ibraska.... Lincoln 1869 Non-sect. 
 
 Ac and Professional Instruction.— The 
 
 Drawing and vocal music are also taught. In 
 
 The normal department, the branches peculiar to 
 schools of this description are pursued. The ; 
 number of students in attendance at the present | 
 time (1876), is about 190. 
 
 Teachers' Institutes.- -These bodies have been 
 
 convened. IVom time to time, at such placesasthe 
 state and comity superintendents have deemed 
 
 since 1863, has bei 
 
 n large, and the interes 
 
 aroused has extendei 
 
 very generally among the 
 es where the meetings havi 
 
 people in the localil 
 
 l.een held. The State 
 
 / i I rs Association meets 
 
 annually about the 1 
 
 it i March 
 
 An educational jon 
 
 nal /" Vi Waska Teacher 
 
 was begun in 1 8 i 1 . ; 
 
 ml is now of the agen 
 
 cies for the instrui 
 
 tion and training of tin 
 
 teachers of the state 
 
 [ts editor is the presiden 
 
 of the Stat- Teachi 
 
 3' Lssoi i. A similai 
 
 publication i i ued 
 
 hy the faculty and student 
 
 A years. In Is,. I, 
 
 of the -i ite univi rsity. 
 
 Secondary Instruction- There are several 
 high .-eliouls in tin' state, principally ill the cities 
 and large towns, where the great interest awak- 
 ened in the subject of education has led. in some 
 eases, to the erection of costly buildings, the most 
 noted of which, the high school building of 
 Omaha City, with a seating capacity for more 
 than TOO pupils, was erected at an expense of 
 mole than $200, >. Similar schools, but not 
 
 and 
 
 ation. The want of uniformity in the 
 of study in the high schools, however, 
 for some time led to such a lowering of the 
 standard of admission as seriously to threaten 
 the efficiency of the university. Measures have 
 already been taken to remcK this. 
 
 The number of private sc ■ in the state has 
 very much decreased since 1870. The number at 
 that time was 70. but increased confidence in 
 the efficiency of the common schools had dimin- 
 ished the number", in L874, to 30. There are but 
 few ih'itumiiiiiHtiiHtl schools in the state,— 
 ISrownell Hall (Kpiseopalian), a ladies' seminary 
 at Omaha, a Roman Catholic school in the same 
 place, and another in Nebraska < Sty. ( Ine 
 business college, at Omaha, reported, in 1874, a 
 total of 135 pupils, of whom 17 were females. 
 
 Sjjecial Instruction— The Nebraska Institute 
 for tin Di ,.:' oid I 'i mb is sit uated near I Imaha. 
 It was organized in 1869, for the free education 
 of all deaf and dumb children in the state, be- 
 tween the ages of L0 and 25, of sound mind, of 
 
 g 1 moral habits, and free from contagious 
 
 disease. The course of study comprise years 
 of 10 weeks each. The studies pursued are those 
 common to such institutions. The instruction 
 
 . ■ 1 i le-s. lanciiaLte and aiithim in ..!■ iai"_ht ; 
 
 in the third, language, arithmetic, and gei graphy; 
 in the fourth, arithniel ie. ee ■o^iaphy. the science 
 
 of coi in i line,- and I he history of the United 
 
 States. Daily exercises in written language con- 
 stitute a part of the instruction in all the grades 
 
 stitute has at present 3 instructors, and about 
 -in pupils in all the classes. The Asylum for the 
 Blind was opened near Nebraska City, in Decem- 
 ber, 1875. It has a fine building and ^rounds, 
 but its organization is so recent that but little is 
 generally known in regard to it. 
 
 NEBRASKA, UNIVERSITY OF, at Li 
 
 Nt 
 
 op, 
 
 ed in 
 
 1S71. It was established upon grants of land, 
 amounting to 134,800 aires, made by Congress 
 to the state for the support of a university and 
 a college of agriculture and the mechanic arts. 
 The charter provides for six departments, or 
 colleges, namely: (1) a college of ancient and 
 modern languages, mathematics, and natural 
 science ; (2) a college of agriculture : (3) a col- 
 lege of law; (4) a college of medicine; (5) a 
 college of practical science, mechanics, and 
 civil engineering; (6) a college of fine arts. 
 Only the first two have yet (1876) been organ- 
 ized. In the first there are four courses of study 
 of four years each ; and, in the second, there are 
 
♦US 
 
 NEBRASKA COLLKCK 
 
 two courses, one of three years, and a course of 
 one year. In the College of Literature, Science, 
 and Art, the courses are the classical, the scien- 
 tific, the Latin scientific, and the Greek scien- 
 tific. There is a Latin or preparatory school 
 connected with the university. It has a farm 
 of 320 acres, and extensive chemical and phys- 
 ical apparatus. Tuition is free. In 1874 — 5, 
 there were 8 instructors and Li'2 students, of 
 whom 117 (48 collegiate and 69 preparatory) 
 were in the department of literature, science, 
 and arts, and 15 in the department of agricult- 
 ure. Both sexes are admitted. Allen K. Benton, 
 A. M., LL. 1)., is (1870) the chancellor. 
 
 NEBRASKA COLLEGE, at Nebraska 
 City. Xeb., under Protestant Episcopal control, 
 was organized in 1865, and chartered in 1868. 
 It is supported by the fees of students. The 
 institution has a valuable mineral cabinet, and 
 libraries containing about li .<»(>( ► volumes. It 
 comprises a collegiate course and a grammar 
 school, with a preparatory and a business course. 
 Facilities are afforded for instruction in theology. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instructors and 70 
 students (3 collegiate. 13 preparatory, and 54 
 business). P. L. Woodbury. M.A., is (1870) the 
 head-master in charge. 
 
 NEEDLE-WORK. See Female Education, 
 and Industrial Schools. 
 
 NETHERLANDS, the name of a kingdom 
 in western Europe, which has an area of 12,080 
 square miles, and the population of which, in 
 1874. was 3,767,263, exclusive of its colonial 
 
 people revolted against the rale of Spain, ami 
 proclaimed the republic of the United Nether- 
 lands. Napoleon, in 1*00. elveted the kingdom 
 of Holland; but the Congress of Vienna, in 1815, 
 united Belgium and Holland under the title of 
 the Kingdom of the Netherlands. In 1830, the 
 Southern provinces seceded, and ton 1 the king- 
 dom of Belgium; and, since that time, the name 
 Netherlands has been applied exclusively to the 
 kingdom formed of the northern provinces. 
 About 61 per cent of the population of the 
 kingdom are Protestants; and nearly 37 per 
 cent. Roman < latholics. 
 
 History of Education.— The earliest school of 
 which there is any record was that of St. Martin 
 at Utrecht, said to have been founded in the 
 
 time of I hades Mattel. This Bchool enjoyed 
 
 begi 
 
 sessed no less tl 
 
 nc 
 
 a rector 
 
 hing schools 
 
 of which had , 
 
 in additioi 
 
 priests, who hai 
 
 tl 
 
 e general 
 
 •ontrol of tl 
 
 that time, sevei 
 
 al 
 
 tonvent schools gain 
 
 reputation, the 
 
 
 at promin 
 
 •nt of whiel 
 
 Egmond, NTime 
 
 TUI 
 
 li, Midde 
 
 burg, and A 
 
 near • troningen 
 
 
 Schools v, 
 
 ere also est 
 
 at this time by 
 
 he 
 
 inotv II. 
 
 urishing t. 
 
 the instruction 
 
 of 
 
 the citi/ 
 
 ens. Auth 
 
 NETHERLANDS 
 
 open these schools was always derived from the 
 courts, and the supervision and instruction were 
 entirely secular. The best-known school of this 
 class was at Zwolle, which, in the 1 1th century, 
 is reported to have had over 1,000 pupils. In 
 Holland, as well as in Belgium, the Brethren of 
 the Common Life did much to promote educa- 
 tion. (See Hieronymians.) During the 15th 
 century, this country was rich in eminent 
 scholars, among whom may be mentioned John 
 Wessel, Rudolf Agricola. Alexander Hegius. and 
 Erasmus. A new era was inaugurated with the 
 opening of the Leyden University, in 1575, which 
 awakened a new zeal for all departments of 
 learning. Other universities were established. 
 at Franeker (1575), at Groningen (1614), at 
 Utrecht (1638 . and at Harderwick (1048), all 
 
 rendered their people one of the 
 
 best educated 
 
 nations of the globe. During tht 
 
 18th century, 
 
 there was, however, a visible decli 
 
 le; and, at the 
 
 beginning of the 19th century 
 
 181 L), Cuvicr 
 
 made ti rather unfavorable repor 
 
 of the condi- 
 
 tion of the universities and Latin 
 
 schoolsof IIol- 
 
 land. The French government wh 
 
 Ic Napoleon 1, 
 
 established in Holland, introduce! 
 
 some reforms. 
 
 which were subsequently sanctioi 
 
 •d and further 
 
 developed by Kin- William 1. S 
 
 nee that time. 
 
 the Netherlands have regained, t 
 
 i some depart- 
 
 ments of superior instrui ti n, i ■ 
 
 c, daily in that 
 
 of the ancient languages, their for 
 
 ter reputation. 
 
 The Dutch legislation in regard 
 
 to primary in- 
 
 struction has attracted the attention of educa- 
 tional writers and the governments of various 
 countries, chiefly by its outspoken opposition to 
 the principle of denominational schools. The 
 basis of the Dutch system was laid in the cel- 
 ebrated law of 1800. drawn up by M. Van der 
 Ende. who was. for nearly thirty years (until 
 1833), at the l.ea.l of the common-school depart- 
 ment of the Hutch ministry. Articles 22 and 23 
 of this law provide that pupils shall be trained 
 '■in the practice ot all the social and Christian 
 virtues.' and that they shall " not remain with- 
 out instruction in the doctrines of that religious 
 faith to which they belong:" but that tic teacher 
 of the school -shall not have charge of this 
 branch of instruction.'' The principle of secular 
 and mixed schools had. at first, the co-operation 
 of ministers of every creed, even of the Roman 
 
 professor and writ 
 
 I; an ( atholics, wl 
 
 nee, wire strictly c; 
 
 As 
 
NETHERLANDS 019 
 
 schools, denouncing them as breeding-places of 23 years of age. [f a teacher has over 70 scholars, 
 atheism and immorality, and demanding in their he receives an aspirant, thai is. a young man 
 
 |i|;nv <l< 'in ii ni national s. In mis. which n.iidil atlnril who has not reached the requisite age In In- an 
 
 I holies who ditional 100 pupils an assistant, 
 tion entirely ; an aspirant. Instruction in th 
 it a more ni- is of two kinds. — eoninion ai 
 
 oew educational 
 
 composed, in th 
 
 preferred to exclu 
 
 fr theschools, 
 
 buildings may.hi 
 pose, to accomm 
 these, at hours m 
 The Catholics, 
 and at present 
 Protestants and 
 divide the school 
 
 that, while , a c se n 
 
 at.' all nee- : elementary 
 
 
 J 
 
 
 l-tirs 
 
 ilr aw in 
 
 ork. The 
 
 111.1 
 
 wl 
 
 iv* • 
 
 chools, 
 
 llblic seho, 
 
 Is 
 
 
 6,538 i 
 
 iale tea 
 
 laleteache 
 upils in h 
 
 here were 
 
 ? 
 
 m.l' 
 
 I" 1 
 ml 
 
 - sell..,, 
 
 eachen 
 
 pnvat 
 
 1 priva 
 girls. 
 
 II, ,1 
 
 fund, a scheme which is op- Sec 
 
 als only. Thisquestion of de- of 16 
 
 ■Is has since formed the chief publii 
 
 I election. In the elect ton of seconi 
 
 9 of the second chamber, the (corre 
 
 a majority of two over the burgh 
 
 ■schools, 2,332 
 The number of 
 
 ate scl Is. was 
 
 In L873, there 
 
 a-s state.l above, ts regi 
 Theimmediate supen 
 the ham Is <>t local sc 
 each committee, there 
 intendent, above him i 
 finally, as the highest 
 ^reeducation. Everj comi 
 lee ; communities, h.e 
 to establish ami sustaii 
 tee in common. In ci 
 
 by the 
 
 course ,»t study is arranged by the 
 the tea. ■hers. an. I must be approved 
 ter. The yearly tuition fee is. at the 
 'ins. Burgher schools are established 
 eflyfor the children of trades-people and farm- 
 
 are of two classes: assistants, who must lie Is ers. and consist of day and evening schools. Every 
 years of age, and principal teachers, who must be community of more than 10.1 Mil I inhabitants, must 
 
(i'.'O 
 
 NETHERLANDS 
 
 have at least one burgher school, both day and 
 evening. The course, in the day school, com- 
 prises two years. If the attendance does not war- 
 rant the establishment of a day school, a com- 
 munity may be excused from having such a 
 school; but. in such a case, the evening school 
 must comprise a two years" course. The teachers, 
 in these schools, are appointed by the common 
 councils, and are paid l>v the communities. They 
 are also entitled to a pension from the state, 
 under the same conditions as other officers of 
 the government. The cost of the burgher schools 
 is borne by the communities, who may charge a 
 fee not to exceed 12 florins per year. In 1871, 
 the number of burgher schools was 43, and of 
 higher burgher schools and commercial schools. 
 47. The number of teachers was 338, in the 
 burgher schools, and 542, in the higher burgher 
 schools; of pupils. :;,s(il. iii the burgher schools, 
 and 3.2*5. in the higher burgher schools. The 
 polytechnic school at Delft is intended for those 
 who wish to follow the business of engineering 
 in any of its various branches. This school. 
 in 1875—6, had 26 professors and 260 
 students. The following schools are also classed 
 a 1 1 long :-ee lary institutions: 4 schools of agri- 
 Culture, with 18 professors and 53 students; 9 
 schools of navigation, with 20 professors and 
 200 students; Ml) drawing schools, with 10s pro- 
 fessors and 2,500 students: seven secondary 
 schools for girls, with 71 teachers and 472 stu- 
 dents ; and 78 secondary schools for mechanics. 
 The sum total expended on secondary instruction 
 amounted to .<Vi7.i>i>2. of which £278.1112 was 
 
 flid by the state: $4,845, by the provinces; 
 l!MI.!)-i:>.by the municipalities:' and S<:u Is was 
 derived from tuition fees. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — According to the law 
 of l~l 5, the institutions for superior instruction 
 are classed as Latin schools and gymnasia, athe- 
 nieums. and hii/h xchnnk. The Initio schools and 
 the gymnasia correspond to the German gynina- 
 athenaeums and high schools, to the 
 universities, of which, however, only the high 
 schools axe entitled to confer academic degrei 
 
 Kach 1 .a tinsel 1 and gymnasium has a rector and 
 
 conreetor and one or more preceptors and docents, 
 according to the means of the institution. The 
 studies comprise Latin and Greek, mathematics, 
 history, and mythology. The following studies 
 are taught in only a [part of the schools: the 
 modern languages. Hebrew, and natural hi-torv. 
 The gymnasia have pretty much the same course 
 of ml', as the Latin schools. In L873, the num- 
 ber of Latin scl Is and gymnasia was 54, with 
 
 227 professor- and 1,185 students. There arc 
 three universiti s, at Levi m, Utrecht, and ( fro- 
 ningen, which, in 1871, had 732, 488, and 146 
 students, respectively, making a total of 1.3GG 
 students. Of these, 5s5 studied law : 3d2. th,,.!,,- 
 
 NEVADA 
 
 Utrecht, 34 professors and 527 students ; Gro- 
 ningen, 30 professors and lss students ; and the 
 athenasum of Amsterdam, 40 professors and 399 
 students. 
 
 Special Tnsirm Hon. — Besides the special schools 
 
 classed among tl ondary schools, there are 
 
 the following: five Catholic theological semi- 
 naries; an old Catholic (Jansenist) seminary, in 
 Amersfoort: a Lutheran seminary, and seminaries 
 for Remonstrants and Mennonites, in Amster- 
 dam; a seminary of Separatists, in Kampen; two 
 Jewish seminaries, in Amsterdam; a school of 
 veterinary surgery, and a school of Last Indian 
 languages, in Delft; a school for army surgeons,, 
 at Utrecht; schools of art. in Amsterdam, Bois- 
 le-llne. the Hague. Iiotterdam. and Groningen; 
 and a school of music, at the Hague. In L874, 
 there were three institutions for deaf-mutes, with 
 391 inmates; three asylums for the blind ; and 
 an asylum for idiots, having 111 girls and 23 boys, 
 and. in connection with it, there is a day school 
 for idiots. 
 
 Luxemburg. — This country is governed by the 
 king of Holland as grand-duke of Luxemburg. 
 It had. in 1-7 1. 644 primary schools, with 28,437 
 pupils; one teachers seminary: an athenaeum, 
 composed of a gymnasium and a trade school, of 
 6 classes each: and 2 progymnasia, having to- 
 gether -12 professors and 911 pupils; a Catholic 
 seminary and an agricultural school, in Echter- 
 nach. — For further information in regard to 
 education in the Netherlands, see Barnard, Na- 
 tional Education,vo\. it.: I 'orsix, Bel'instruction 
 publique en HoUande, 1836—7; Biddingh, 
 Geschiedenis run Opvoeding en Onderwijs in 
 de Nederlanden (Hague. 1847); Laveleve, 
 Debats sur Venseignement dans les chambres 
 hollandaises, session of L857 (Geneva, 1858 . 
 
 NEVADA, one of the extreme west ra states 
 of the American Union, originally a part of the 
 territory of Utah, from which it was set off as 
 a separate territory. March 2.. DSG] .and enlarged 
 by a further portion of Utah, in 1862. It was 
 admitted as a state in 1864. It was further en- 
 lamed by add. d territory from Utah and Ari- 
 zona,^ 1866. In L859,the population was about 
 1,000; but, in August, 1861, H was estimated at 
 16,000. In 1870, it was 42,491, of whom 38,959 
 were whites; 357, colored persons; 3,152, Chi- 
 nese; and 23, civilized Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — Notwithstanding the 
 almost exclusive absorption of the energies ol 
 
 the ] pie in mining and kindred operations, the 
 
 interests of education have uot been overlooked. 
 
 gy . 2 12. medicine ; 1 57, 
 117, literature. The two 
 ter and Amsterdam, had t 
 
 1876, it was resolved to 
 Amsterdam to a full u 
 Leyden had 45 professo 
 
 iences ; and 
 
 IS, at I level, - 
 
 1 pupils. In 
 
 .thcr.eu.n of 
 
 ,2 students';' 
 
 normal schools, and to promote by all appropri- 
 ate means the cause of education. To this end. 
 the state was to be divided into school-districts, 
 and schools were to he established therein. For 
 the maintenance of ih. . -eh.,. .!-. there were to 
 be set apart the 50,1 acres granted by Con- 
 gress to all the n. » states, 30,000 acres for each 
 senator and representative, the 16th and 36th 
 section in each township, a half-mill tax on all 
 
NEVADA 
 
 pieperty subject to taxation, and all escheats, and 
 fines for personal offenses. The int. -rest of all the 
 monej derived from the above soun i exi ep1 
 the half-mill tax, of whirl, five percent is taken), 
 together with two per cent of the receipts from 
 all toll-r.ia.ls and bri.lee,. i, .lev. .ted to school 
 
 school fund, in 18' 
 The method of supi 
 
 (In 1 sain. 1 as now en 
 visions of law iu th 
 somewhat by succe: 
 1*73, when a com 
 passed. From 1866 t 
 ent was A. W. Pishi 
 succeeded bv 8. P. 
 
 the state superintend- 
 at the latter date, was 
 
 eleete. 1 for four years. 
 
 in. 'lit of the educational syst< m ol the state are 
 
 confided to a slat : -dqf », consisting 
 
 of the govt rnor, surveyorgeneral, and the super- 
 intendent o( public instruction, ttsdutiesare to 
 organize schools, pi scribe a uniform list of text- 
 books, an l.l. 'vise all needful measures for the con- 
 duct and improvement of the srhools. The state 
 
 S'l/icrin/c,, </,,</ 1.^ t lie i'X.'CUli\ colli. . 1 of tile board. 
 
 He performs all the duties generally appertain- 
 ing to the office, and makes a biennial report to 
 the governor, ( 'ounty superintendents are elected 
 throughout the state,each for two years. Boar.ds 
 of trust es are elected in the several school-dis- 
 tricts, and are so constituted as always t n- 
 
 tain at least one experienced member. Each ' 
 board consists of three trustees in districts hav- I 
 ing less than 1,500 voters, and of five in all others. | 
 In addition to the usual duties pertaining to 
 such officers, they are intrusted with th< power 
 of levying taxes in order to supply deficiencies 
 in the school moneys received from the state. 
 They are required not onlj to keep a public rec- 
 ord of their proceedings, but to publish, in some I 
 newspaper, full minutes of those proceedings. 
 The .■ounty superintendent appoints two com- 
 petent persons, who, with himself, constitute a 
 board of examiners of which he is chairman. A 
 certificate, either from this county board or from 
 the state board, is necessary before a teacher I 
 can receive any compensation for services ren- I 
 der. d. A life certilicate of any state, or a diplo- ' 
 ma from a « lalifornia stale normal school, entitles 
 the holder to a county certificate without exami- 
 nation, if presented within live years from the 
 date of its issuance. The compulsory school law- 
 requires parents or guardians to semi all > lnldivn 
 between the ages of 8 and 14 years, unless other- 
 wise educated, to the common school.-, ].,r not less 
 than sixteen weeks each year, eight weeks of 
 which must be consecutive. A penalty of not 
 less than $50, nor more than 8100 for the first 
 offense, and of not. less than $100 nor more than 
 $200 for each subsequent offense, is imposed for 
 a violation of this law. The schools are required 
 to be kept open at least six months each year in 
 every school-district. 
 
 A'/' /,■■//,,,/,,/' i 'miiliiiini. Thenumberof school- 
 districts, iu 1«74, was 71 ; the number of schools 
 
 NEWARK 621 
 
 dispensing with rate-bills, f'.s ; the total number 
 of schools, 108. Of these schools, 21 arc primary; 
 
 I. iiiin in. '.Ii. Mr : I 2, gri n.ii' ; 2, high ; and 69, 
 
 unclassified. The support of the schools was de- 
 rived from the follow ing soun i 
 
 From taxes $93,431.23 
 
 '• rate-bills 317.80 
 
 state apportionments 
 
 and other sources 52,432.40 
 
 Total $14G,181.32 
 
 The expenditures were as follows: 
 
 For teachers' aalaries $ 13,54 3.88 
 
 " sites, buildings, etc 22,241.05 
 
 " other purposes 18,511.71 
 
 Total $124,301.64 
 
 The average wages ofteachersper month v. o - L00.00 
 The principal items of school statistics for the 
 year were the following : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled (0— IS) 4,811 
 
 Average attendance 2,881 
 
 Number of ten. hers, male- ?,;, 
 
 females .so 
 
 Total 115 
 
 Normal Instruction. — No schools for the in- 
 struction ,.f teachers are yet reported. The legis- 
 lature, however, in 1875, passed an act authoriz- 
 ing the establishment oi a normal ;i 1 1. 
 
 Secondary Instructi \ preparatory school 
 
 iu connection with the university, provided for 
 by an act of the legislature, in 1873, has been 
 ..pen. .Lit Elko; and an appropriation of $20,000 
 was. in 1875, made for its support. This, and 
 two high schools, are the only means for free 
 secondary instruction now known to be in 
 existence in the state. 
 
 Supi rior Instruction. — By an act of the legis- 
 lature, in 1873, the state university was estab- 
 lished ; but h til. has as yet been done.exci | t the 
 organization of the preparatory department. 
 above refei red to. 
 
 Pr<;i - ■ oil mnl Scientific Instruction. — In 
 I 375, an act was passed for the establishment of 
 an agricultural college, and for ...lieges of arts 
 and mines, endowed with the COE 
 land grant of 90,000 acres ; but this action was 
 .. recent, that no report has been made of their 
 organization. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The settlement of the 
 state is so new. and the population so small, that 
 no .ITuits have yet been made to establish special 
 institutions, for the blind, or for the deaf and 
 dumb. Those afflicted in this way have thus far 
 been cared for, at the expense of the state, in 
 institutions provided for the purpose by the 
 neighboring state, t 'alifornia. Several deaf-mutes 
 tire under instruction in the Institution for the 
 Deaf, Ihinib. and Blind, near Oakland. 
 
 NEWARK, the chief city of New Jersey, 
 first settled in 1666,by Puritan families from 
 Connecticut, who were joined the next year b\ 
 other settlers from the same colony. 1. d l.\ their 
 minister, the Rev. Abraham Picrson.who named 
 the settlement .after Newark, in Kngland, where 
 he had formerly preached. Newark was incorpo- 
 rated as a city in 1836. Its population, in 1840, 
 was 17,200; but. in 1870, it was 105,059, of 
 
whom G9 ,175 were natives, and 35,884 foreigners, 
 including 15,873 Germans, the largest foreign 
 element. The population, according to the state 
 census of 1875, was L23,310. 
 
 Educational History. - In 1676, ten years after 
 its settlement, the selectmen of the town -agreed 
 with Mr. John Catlin that he should do his 
 faithful, honest, and true endeavor to teach the 
 children of those as have subscribed, the leading 
 and writing of English, and also of arithmetic, 
 if they desire it. as much as they are capable to 
 learn, and he capable to teach them." About 
 
 17110. a small sel l-house was built in Market 
 
 Street.whieh.it is thought, was the only school 
 building in the city for many years. From 174 7 
 to 1756 the College of New .Jersey was located 
 in Newark, but, ill the latter year, was removed 
 to Princeton. In L769, it is recorded that the 
 children of the poor should be '-constantly sent 
 to school at the expense of the person that takes 
 them." it being the custom, at that time, to 
 award annually the keeping of the poor, by pub- 
 lie auction, to the lowest responsible bidder. In 
 1792, the Newark Academy wasopenedin Broad 
 Street, and three years after, wasincorporated. 
 It remained in its original location till 1856, 
 when it was removed to the present site in High 
 Street. The next school-house was built in 1797, 
 near the South Park. This was followed by 
 another, in 1804, in Market Street ; another, in 
 1807, in Fair Street; one in New Street, in 
 180!) : and one in < Irange Street, in 1 820. These 
 were all built by private enterprise, and the 
 schools held in them were consequently sup- 
 ported by tuition fees. In 1813, the sum of $500, 
 for the schooling of the children of the poor, was 
 voted by the people, the practice of requiring 
 the person who supported the poor to provide 
 for the schooling of their children, being at that 
 time discontinued, and never revived. 'I his sum. 
 or a larger one, was voted, fur the same purpose, 
 annually thereafter till 1836, when Newark was 
 incorporated as a city. This method of provid- 
 ing for the education of a special class of children 
 proved to be the entering wedge which opened 
 the way for a system of public schools free to all 
 the children of the city. The first public-school 
 house was built in 1843 or 1844, and was located 
 in the third war. '.between Mill and ( 'ourt streets. 
 It was a building of two stories, the first being 
 occupied as a girls' school, the second as a boys'. 
 From that time till 1848, six similar school- 
 houses were built. In 1 850, the legislature pa.ssed 
 an act. to establish public schools in the city, the 
 population of which, at that time, was 38,894. 
 This was supplemented, in 1853, by an act in- 
 corporating the board of education, with ample 
 powers for tin- establishment and maintenance 
 of public schools. In 1855, there were 7 public- 
 school houses, and 16 public sel Is, including 
 
 one primary school for white children, and one 
 of the same' grade for colored children, the aver- 
 agedaily attendance being 2,461 pupils. The 
 publ i high school, which was opened in 1855, 
 gave i new impulse to the cause of the schools, 
 restating in the establishment of a graded system 
 
 of primary, grammar, and high schools. In 
 1865, with a population of 87,428, the city had 
 16 school-houses, and the estimated value of its 
 school property was $200,000. The first city 
 superintendent was Stephen Congar, who held 
 the office from ls53 till 1859. lie was succeeded 
 in the latter year by George B. Sears, who has 
 held the office without interruption to the pres- 
 
 School System. -The general management of 
 the public schools of the city is committed to 
 a board </ education, composed of two commis- 
 sioners from each ward, who are elected by the 
 people biennially. They elect annually a citi/ 
 sii/ifi-iii/i'iii/rii/. whose principal duties are to 
 enforce the regulations of the board, to visit the 
 schools, and to report to the board, from time to 
 time, concerning their condition. The school 
 money is derived chiefly from a special city tax, 
 which varies annually in such a way as to make 
 good the deficiency of the state tax. The course 
 of study in the primary schools comprises read- 
 ing, spilling, writing, arithmetic, geography, 
 drawing, and vocal music. The additional stud- 
 ies in the grammar schools are grammar, histo- 
 ry, composition, and declamation; in the high 
 school, the studies pursued, in addition to those 
 of the grammar schools, are chemistry, physiol- 
 ogy, astronomy, algebra, book-keeping, geometry, 
 geology, drawing, gymnastics, and certain other 
 branches, chiefly languages, which are prescribed 
 by the board of education. The school age is 
 from 6 to 18 : the school year is 10 months, ex- 
 cept in the evening schools, in which the term is 
 
 3 aths. The day schools are opened, ami the 
 
 evening schools closed, by the reading of a por- 
 tion of the Scriptures without comment, and the 
 saying of the Lord's Prayer. In 1 -75, the number 
 of schools was 44 : 1 normal and 1 high school, 
 12 grammar schools. 22 primary schools (includ- 
 ing 1 colored school), 2 industrial schools, and 
 6 evening schools. — The principal items of school 
 statistics for the year 1875 are as follows: 
 
 Number of children of school age 3.5,125 
 
 " " " enrolled in public schools, 
 
 including evening schools Is.osT 
 
 Average number of pupils en the roll.. I^,>a 
 
 Average daily attendant.-. .. 10,s,",2 
 
 Numb, r of teachers, males 54 
 
 « " " females 21s 
 
 Total 272 
 
 Total receipts 8209,707.05 
 
 " expenditures $209,700.9.:> 
 
 Total value of school property $900,000.9(1 
 
 Besides the public schools, there are many acad- 
 emies, and private and denominational schools, 
 the Roman Catholics alone having several of the 
 latter. There are. also, two libraries, that of the 
 New Jersey Bistorical Society, which contains 
 6,000 volumes, 10,000 pamphlets, and some man- 
 uscripts of cr..n age and value; and that of the 
 Newark Library Association, which contains 
 20.11110 volumes.' Courses of instruction, chiefly 
 in elementary branches, are, also, provided at 
 nearly till of the orphan asylums, of which there 
 are several. 
 
nk\vi:ki;i;y coi.i.kck 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK 
 
 NEWBERRY COLLEGE, at Walhalla, 
 Oconee Co., S. C, founded in 1858, is under 
 Evangelical Lutheran control. It was removed! 
 from Newberry in L868. The college library 
 contains about 4,000 volumes. The cost of tui- 
 tion in the collegiate department is $45 per year. 
 
 Mile 
 
 incumbent (1876), was chosen. 
 
 NEW BRUNSWICK, a province of the 
 Dominion of Canada, having an area of 27,322 
 sq.m., and a population, in L870, of 285,594. 
 It was first settled by the French, in 1639, and 
 
 Acadia. 
 
 The fir 
 
 was separated from Nova Scotia, to form a sepi 
 rate province. In L867, it joined the Dominio 
 of Canada. — The present school law (1876) wi 
 passed in L871, and amended in 1st.'!. Accon 
 ing to this law, the Bchools are governed by 
 
 be compelled to 1 
 against the written i 
 
 ian. Kvening schoi 
 
 nt. At 
 
 from the 
 partly by 
 
 . so as in se 
 
 •lire a pro 
 
 ier 
 
 system ol su 
 
 
 lis 
 
 id, in which 
 i school may 
 
 scl 1. Tea 
 
 1. and the d 
 am. .nut pail 
 
 he course 
 
 he -rami 
 
 leestablisl 
 
 hers' salai 
 :ial treasu 
 
 of 
 
 cd 
 
 ry. 
 er 
 
 thepresii 
 and the 
 pointed 1 
 
 the province into school-districts, and 
 districts as may be necessary, make re 
 for schools and the examination of teac 
 
 'tcxt-ln n>ks and lit nary books, and sc 
 •use plans. The superintendent hasthege 
 
 presenile 
 luuise nla 
 
 tioned to tiie trust- 
 e following manner: 
 
 lis assistants, to re- 
 liance to be distrib- 
 ne and attendance. 
 t. John and Freder- 
 overnment. Each of 
 et with a board of 
 
 trustees in a district, elected at the animal dis- 
 trict meeting, one each year. When a district 
 fails to elect, or a trustee fails to act, one or more 
 trustees may be appointed by the inspector, mi 
 
 ii-p. 
 
 of the schools, may empl 
 
 and must furnish the clerk of the peace nt tl 
 county with a list of the persons liable to be 
 rated. Male candidates for the position of teacher 
 must be at least 1 8, and females 1 6, years of age, 
 and must have attended a term at some normal 
 school, or else be graduates of some university. 
 Licenses are provincial, valid during good beha- 
 vior, and are issued by the board of education. 
 Examinations are held at Fredericton, in March 
 and September, and at St. John and Chatham, 
 in September, on the third Tuesday <>t' the 
 month; and- are presided over by the super- 
 intendent or his deputy. The teacher opens and 
 closes the school daily by reading from either 
 version of the Scriptures, and by the saying of 
 the Lord's Prayer. Any other prayer permitted 
 by the trustees may be used, but no pupil can 
 
 .with 1.1 If, teach 
 
 boys and 20,393 
 id. r five years of 
 fifteen; and 6,693, 
 
 schools in the winter; and III districts with 
 
 schools in the vs inter, and wit In an scl Is in the 
 
 summer. The number of teachers employed dur- 
 ing the winter term, ending April 30., 1875, was 
 4(i(> males and 626 females, making a total of 
 L,092. In addition. I male and 20 female a si I 
 ants were employed. The number of grammar 
 
 was It. with 37 teachers in the summer term, 
 and 39 in the winter term. '1 lie whole number 
 of pupils registered in the summer term was 
 1 ,776, and 2,027 in the winter term. The num- 
 ber of pupils on register was 716 in the summer 
 term, and 80!) in the w inter term; and the average 
 daily attendance was 434 in the summer, and 531 
 in the winter. The number of superior schools. 
 April 30., 1875, was 50, with 3,053 pupils. The 
 
(124 
 
 NEW CASTLE COLLEGE 
 
 provincial normal srlmn] in Eredcricton had 4 
 teachers and 130 students during the year, of 
 whom 108 received licenses to teach. < Jonneeted 
 with the normal school is a model school. — The 
 University of New Brunswick, at Fredericton, is 
 composed of three classes, — freshman, junior, and 
 senior. The university confers the degrees of 
 Bachelor of Aits. Master of Aits, Bachelor of 
 Science, Doctor of Philosophy, Bachelor of < am- 
 nion Law. and Doctor of Common Ijiw. The de- 
 gree of I toe-tor »f U«s (LED.) is strictly honor- 
 ary. The .Mount Allison Wesleyan College and 
 Academies in Sackville. In-long to the Methodist 
 Church, but are also extensively patronized by 
 students from other denominations. They are 
 the result of the benevolence of Mr. Chas. F. 
 Allison, and comprise a male academy, founded 
 in J s 12, a female academy, founded in 1*54, and 
 the college, founded in L862. They are under a 
 board of governors, appointed by the general 
 conference of the Methodist Church of Canada. 
 The college has,b sides its regular course.a liter- 
 ary or scientific course, from which Latin and 
 
 Creek are omitted. A faculty of tl logy is 
 
 also connected with the college, which confer.-, tin- 
 degree of Bachelor of Divinity. Connected with 
 the male academy, is a commercial college, which 
 is designed to insure thorough preparation for 
 coll,- - 1, or for entrance upon a course of special 
 training for agricultural, mechanical, or commer- 
 cial pursuits, or of sp i fii ' -i Ij for professional 
 life. In the female acadi mj there are two 
 courses of study. The firs! is the regular course 
 for the baccalaun ate -1 gn -. while the other 
 course is designed Eor those who prefer to sub- 
 stitute for the classics, the modern languages 
 and natural science. — See Marling, Canada 
 Educational Directory and Yearbook for L876, 
 Lovell, Directory <>f British North America 
 (1873). 
 
 NEW CASTLE COLLEGE, at New Castle, 
 Pa., was established in 1872, and chartered in 
 1875. It is non-sectarian, and admits both sexes. 
 It is supported by tuition fees. The college has 
 a preparatory, a classical, a scientific, a com- 
 mercial, a telegraphic, a musical, an art, and a 
 normal department. In 1875 — ti. there were 15 in- 
 structor,; ami 32 J students, of whom 121 were in 
 ■ dory and collegiate departments. John 
 R. Steeves, A !'.., is 1 1 876) the presid int, 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND, an island of North 
 America, belonging to Greai Bri ain;are 10,200 
 square miles; ;■■■.>..; ■ r i .ti. in 1874,161,381. New- 
 foundland is supp « I to li ive hi en discover! d 
 by the North i i, ah ..• the year 1,000. It was 
 rediscovered by tin I abots, in 1 L97, and has re 
 
 mained with the Bi i wn ever since. The 
 
 first governor was appointed in 1728, and the 
 ii, i I l.nive assembly met in I 733. It is the 
 i > 1 1 1 \ pa 1 1 of British Norili America not yet in- 
 corporated in the Dominion of Canada. The 
 public school system is based on the denomina 
 tional principle an.! i d by the 
 
 Education Act of L876. According to this law, 
 each denomination lepie-ei.tiil iai 1 1 1. i.-laud is 
 
 entitled to a share of the school money. In those 
 
 NEWFOUNDLAND 
 
 districts in which a particular denomination 
 forms a majority of the inhabitants, the governor 
 appoints a board of education of from 5 to 7 
 members of that denomination. These boards may 
 establish schools in their respective dist i ids. make 
 rules for their government, and appropriate all 
 moneys granted to such districts. A proportionate 
 amount of the government grant must be at the 
 disposal of the denomination forming a minority 
 in any district. A certain fee must be paid by 
 each child to the teacher. The governor appoints 
 three superintendents of education, — one for the 
 
 Church of England sel Is, one for the Roman 
 
 Catholic schools, and one for the Methodist 
 schools, who supervise and inspect the si hools of 
 their respective denominations. The Church of 
 England and Methodist superintendents also, 
 every year, alternately, inspect the other Prot- 
 estant board m hool.-. belonging to the Presby- 
 terians and Congregationalists. The superintend- 
 ents arc required to visit annually, if possible, all 
 the schools and training institutions of their 
 respective denominations, and carefully examine 
 into their condition. 'I hey must present an an- 
 nual report on the schools under their charge, 
 with the statistics of such schools, and detailed 
 accounts of income and expenditure. They are 
 also required to give such advice as they may 
 deem proper to teachers and boards of education, 
 to do all in their power to carry out a uniform 
 system of education, and, by public addresses or 
 othervt tse, to improve the character and effii iency 
 of the public schools, as well as to promote tho 
 establishment of other public schools in destitute 
 localities. 'I here are two higher grammar schools, 
 in Harbor Grace and Carbonear, governed 
 by their own boards of education. There are also 
 four academies in St. John's, belonging respect- 
 ively to the Roman ( latholics, and to the Church 
 of England, the Methodists, and other Protestant 
 denominations. The governor appoints for each of 
 these a board of directors of seven or nine mem- 
 bers. The Roman ( 'atholic and Church of England 
 academies are connected with collegiate institu- 
 tions belonging to those denominations — the for- 
 mer, with Bonaventure College, the latter, with 
 the Episcopal Theological Institute. Pupil teach- 
 ers-are trained in these acadi mies, who, upon com- 
 pleting their studies, are bound to teach a speci- 
 fied time in the public schools. Candidates for 
 the position of teacher must be at least 16 years 
 old. and. must have either been pupil teachers. 
 or must have been trained in some normal or 
 training school abroad, or must have served as 
 teachers for at least two years. In 1874, there 
 were 157 Protestant schools, with 7.805 pupils, 
 and 136 Roman Catholic schools, with 5,792 
 pupils. Besides these, there were 7 commercial 
 schools, with 502 pupils, and 13 convent schools, 
 i, eh l.'c> pupils. The inspectors of the Church 
 of laie la i id a ml Methodist schools, in their joint re- 
 port of Dec., 1875, deplore that, "notwithstanding 
 mounts which have been granted by 
 the legislature for educational purposes, many 
 large communities, especially in Notre Dame Bay 
 and Trinity Bay, have been hitherto without 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE 
 
 schools, and the youth growing up to manhood 
 and womanhood, are unable to read and write." 
 In most of the schools which they visited, "read- 
 ing, writing, and arithmetic have been the only 
 subjects taught, even in some of the largest settle- 
 ments; and, in most cases, the attainments of the 
 scholars have not been verj satisfactory." — See 
 
 The Education Act, L876; Loveu f 
 
 British North America (Montreal, L873 ; and 
 the official Rep rrtx "f ''• A<V" ' "'" ,,r • s '-"'" , ",'s. 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE, one of the thirteen 
 original states of the American Onion, was the 
 third in the order of settlement. It ranks among 
 the smallest states in regard to area, containing 
 only 9,392 sq. m. Its population, in L870, was 
 318.800, of whom 580 were colored persons, and 
 23, Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — It was the prevailing 
 custom among the earliest settlers of Xew Hamp- 
 shire, like those of Massachusetts, to make im- 
 mediate provision for the erection of a meeting- 
 house, and of a school house beside it. 'Many of 
 the immigrants, especially the Scotch-Irish set- 
 tlers of Londonderry and vicinity, had received 
 a good elementary education. I laving been united 
 with Massachusetts, in 1641, it became subject to 
 the law passed by the legislature <;■' that province 
 in 1642. (See Massachusetts.) The first aot 
 of the government of Xew Hampshire, in regard 
 to schools, after it became a separate province. 
 in 1680, was passed in 1693. This law required 
 the selectmen, in the respective towns, to raise 
 money, " by equal rate and assessment, upon 
 the inhabitants. " for the support of schools. In 
 1719, a law was passed, which was almost an 
 exact copy of the Massachusetts law of 1647, 
 with an amendment increasing the penalty to 
 £20. The original constitution of the state made 
 it the special duty of "the legislators and magis- 
 trates to cherish the interests of literature and 
 the sciences, and all seminaries and public 
 schools." An act of the state legislature, in 
 1789, established the rate of assessment for 
 School purposes, and provided for the examination 
 of teachers. In 1805, towns were authorized to 
 form school-districts ; and, three years later, the 
 system of town superintendence was established 
 by law, every town being required to appoint, a 
 superintending school committee, whose duty was 
 to visit and inspect the public schools. In 1 807, 
 the rate of school assessment was increased; and, 
 in 1818, was fixed at $90; in 1840, it was 
 raised to 8100 ; and by further change, in 1870, 
 to $350. for each dollar of the apportionment for 
 state taxes. Provision was made for a state lit- 
 erary fund in 1821, which was created from the 
 iucome arising from a tax of one half of one per 
 cent upon the capital of all banking corporations 
 in the state. In 1827, the school law was re- 
 vised, and fitted to the wants of the people. It 
 recognized the office of a superintending school 
 committee in each of the several towns, who 
 were required to examine and license teachers, 
 visit and inspect schools, select school books, etc. 
 District or prudential committees were chosen, 
 who constituted the legal agency to hire teach- 
 
 ers, and to hav3 the care of the school property. 
 In 1846, a law was passed providing for the es- 
 tablishment and support of teachers' institutes 
 in each county, which continued in force, with 
 little interruption, until 1*74. when the law was 
 repealed. A stringent law. made more effective 
 by further legislation, was enacted in 1848, for 
 the purpose of securing public instruction to 
 children engaged as factory operatives. Another 
 important act of that year established the office 
 of state commissioner of common schools, 'lhis 
 office was modified four years later, and a state 
 board of education was established, to consist of 
 
 a commissioner of scl Is for each county ; and. 
 
 in 1K67, a further change took place, creating 
 the office of superintendent of public instruction, 
 the governor and the eounc il with the superintend- 
 ent to constitute the board of education. In 
 1874, the state board was abolished, and the duties 
 of the superintendent were somewhat enlarged. 
 In 1870, a law was enacted, establishing a state 
 normal school ; and another act, in the same 
 year, required that all children between the ages 
 of 5 and 15 years, unless excused by reason of 
 ill health, should attend a publicsehool or receive 
 private instruction, at least 12 weeks annually. 
 An act of 1*72 ordained that 'female citizens of 
 adult age may hold the office, and discharge the 
 duties of prudential committee in any district, or 
 of superintending school committee." The state 
 school officers haw been as follows: 1 1 ) ( 'ommis- 
 sioners of common schools. — ( harks I',. I laddock. 
 D.D., 1846—7; and KichardS. Rust, 1847—50. 
 (2) Secri tariesqf board of county commission! rs: 
 the office of state commissioner was succeeded, 
 in 1850. by the board of county commissioners 
 of common schools, who organized annually, 
 electing a chairman and a secretary, of whom the 
 latter was the chief officer of the board, and pre- 
 pared the report to the state. The successive 
 secretaries were. John S. Woodman, A. M., 
 1850—51 ; Hall Roberts. A.M., 1851 — 4; Rev. 
 King S. Hall, 1854— 5 ; Jonathan Jenney. A. M., 
 1855—7; James W. Patterson, A.M., 1857—61; 
 William D. Knapp, 1S61 — 2; John Wingate, 
 Jr., A. M„ 1862—3 ; Rev. Roger M. Sargent, 
 A.M., 1863—4; Rev. ( 'harles A. Downs, 1 864—5; 
 George W. Cate, 1865—6; Rev. R. M. Sargent 
 [second term). 1866 — 7. During the first two 
 years of the existence of this office, the cause of 
 education made considerable progress, in effecting 
 which the teachers' institutes, conducted with 
 great ability and efficiency, were an important 
 auxiliary. The annual reports of the first five 
 secretaries are especially referred to as documents 
 of permanent value. (3) State superintendents: 
 in lsOT.the office of commissioner was abolished, 
 and that of state superintendent of public in- 
 struction was instituted, which has been filled by 
 the following persons: Amos Hadlev. A.M., 1867 
 —9; Rev. Anthony C. Hardy, 1869—71; John 
 W. Simonds. A. M., 1871— 3; Daniel G. Beede, 
 who held office for only six months, when Mr. 
 Simonds was re-appointed, and is still in office 
 (1876). — The teachers' institutes, suspended for 
 a few years, were revived during Mr. Hadley's 
 
626 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE 
 
 terra, and were continued under Supt. Hardy 
 and during the first term of Supt. Simonds ; but 
 during Supt. Beede's term (July, 1874) they 
 were abolished. — Many interesting changes have 
 occurred in regard to the character of the teachers 
 employed in the state. For the first century and 
 a half, the teachers were almost exclusively males; 
 and the school-masters employed were well edu- 
 cated. They were characterized by inflexible 
 severity in the maintenance of discipline ; and 
 flogging was a common practice. The methods 
 of instruction employed were mechanical, and 
 the text-books crude; among the latter, the most 
 noted were the Columbian Orator, the American 
 Preceptor, the English Reader, Dillworth's 
 Speller, and Webster's SpeUing-Book, with Da- 
 boll's or Pike's Arithmetic. In 1758, the town of 
 Newton made provision for employing "school- 
 dames" ; but the school-mistress was not recog- 
 nized by the laws of the state till 1808. In their 
 infancy, and on account of poverty, many towns 
 were compelled to hire female teachers, but the 
 prevailing ideas were against that practice. The 
 legal qualification of the mistress was limited, 
 by an act passed in 1808, "to teaching the various 
 sounds and powers of the letters of the English 
 language, reading, writing, and English gram- 
 mar." Masters were further required, by the same 
 law, to teach "arithmetic, geography, and such 
 other branches as may be necessary to teach in 
 an English school." After the Revolution, many 
 foreign emigrants became school-masters, and so 
 continued for several years, often performing 
 excellent service. The wages of masters, previ- 
 ous to the present century, varied from $-1 to $10 
 per month, with board, which was usually "given" 
 by the families who patronized the school. The 
 mistress received from fifty cents to one dollar 
 and a half per week, with board. For about two 
 hundred years, the division of towns into school- 
 districts was unknown, the situation of the school 
 depending upon the location of the population, 
 not upon any territorial limit. The teacher went 
 from one section of the town to another, holding 
 a school wherever pupils could be found ; and 
 when the people required the services of more 
 than one teacher, they were divided into classes, 
 or "squadrons." Although, in 1805, the towns 
 were empowered to form school-districts, the 
 work of subdivision was not completed until 
 1843, when an act peremptorily ordered it. For 
 a time the district system worked well ; but, in 
 1870, the legislature passed a permissory act, 
 authorizing any town to abolish the division 
 into school-districts, and to organize the whole 
 town as a single district. This act has been 
 adopted in several of the towns. A compulsory 
 attendance law, passed in June, 1871, went into 
 operation July 14., the same year. 
 
 School System. — The state superintendent is 
 placed at the head of the public-school system. 
 With limited powers and means, he is expected 
 to "guide and direct the interests of popular 
 education." He prepares and distributes the 
 school registers and blanks for statistical reports; 
 and is required to make a report to the general 
 
 court, containing an "abstract of the returns of 
 school committees," a "detailed report of his own 
 doings, and the condition and progress of popu- 
 lar education in the state." Each town has a 
 superintending school committee, chosen by the 
 people " in such manner, for such terms, with 
 such title, and such powers relating to schools, 
 as they may think proper." These committees 
 are required to examine and license teachers, 
 visit and inspect schools, select school books, and 
 report in writing upon the condition of the 
 schools, at the annual town meeting. They may 
 also, when necessary, withdraw teachers' certifi- 
 cates, and dismiss teachers and scholars. No 
 teacher can receive pay from the treasurer who 
 cannot produce a certificate of license from the 
 committee. Teachers of common schools must 
 be examined in reading, spelling, writing, English 
 grammar, arithmetic, and the elements of geog- 
 raphy and history, and in other branches usual- 
 ly taught in these schools. The school committee 
 may prescribe for any school, when, in their judg- 
 ment, it may be proper, the study of surveying, 
 geometry, algebra, book-keeping, philosophy, 
 chemistry, natural history, and physiology, or any 
 of them, and other suitable studies; and teach- 
 ers, proposing to teach in such schools, must be 
 examined in those branches. Applicants hold- 
 ing certificates of graduation from the state nor- 
 mal school, may teach in the public schools, 
 without further examination, in those blanches 
 which are covered by such certificates. The 
 cities of Concord. Dover, Manchester, Nashua, 
 Keene, and Portsmouth have each a city super- 
 intendent of public instruction. In each district, 
 there is a prudential committee, chosen at the- 
 annual meeting, whose duties are to employ and 
 pay teachers, and have the care and safe-keeping 
 of the school property of the district. A number 
 of the members of both superintending and pru- 
 dential committees are women. The selectmen 
 in each town, and the assessors of each city are 
 required, in April of each year, to make an enu- 
 meration of the children of each sex between the 
 ages of 5 and 15 years, in their respective towns 
 and cities, and to report the result to the school 
 committee of the town or city. 
 
 School Revenue. — The public schools, free to 
 all attending them, draw their support from three 
 sources ; namely, taxation, the state literary fund, 
 and the income from local funds. Towns are re- 
 quired to raise by taxation at least $350 for each 
 dollar of the apportionment to the town for 
 the state tax. Towns and districts are author- 
 ized to raise by vote larger sums for the support 
 of schools; and towns are authorized to appro- 
 priate money from the tax on railroads. The un- 
 expended balance of the tax upon dogs is devoted 
 to the support of schools, at the expiration of 
 every two years. The state literary fund is dis- 
 bursed to the towns in proportion to the number 
 of scholars attending the schools. The income 
 from local funds arises from the interest on the 
 donations of individuals to towns and school- 
 districts, the original gifts of "school lots," and 
 the contributions of individuals in order to pro- 
 
NEW HAMPSHIRE 
 
 627 
 
 long the schools. The moneys received from town 
 taxes and the literary fund are disbursed to the 
 several districts in proportion to their valuation, 
 or in such other manner as the town may deter- 
 mine. The revenue from the tax on dogs is di- 
 vided equally among the districts. The various 
 amounts derived from local funds are expended 
 agreeably to the conditions of the gift. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The whole number 
 of organized school-districts in the state, in 1876, 
 was 2,102; of districts formed under a special act, 
 31. The total number of schools was 2,498 ; the 
 number of graded schools. -ISM, of which 18 were 
 town high schools, and 2 1 district high schools. 
 The number of school-houses was 2,223. The 
 amount of school revenue for the year 1875 was 
 as follows : 
 
 Raised by town taxes $465,186 
 
 liaise. 1 liv district taxes 71,600 
 
 Literary fund 24.600 
 
 Local hinds 32,316 
 
 Railroad tax 5,781 
 
 Dog tax and contributions 15.460 
 
 Other sources 37.741 
 
 Total $652,714 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries $450,440 
 
 " new buildings 110,709 
 
 " permanent repairs 31,880 
 
 " miscellaneous expenses 75.017 
 
 Total $668,046 
 
 The following are the principal additional 
 items of school statistics for the year ending 
 March 14., 1876: 
 Number of children between the ages 
 
 of 6 and 15 (April, 1875), males, 37,314 
 females, 34.008 
 
 Total 71,322 
 
 Number enrolled in the public schools (1876). . .66,690 
 
 " of those enrolled pursuing higher branches 4,082 
 
 Average daily attendance 48,857 
 
 Number of pupils attending academies and 
 
 select schools 4,982 
 
 Average length of the public-school year. 18.75 weeks 
 Number of teachers employed, males 555 
 
 " " " females. . . . 3.107 
 
 Total 3,662 
 
 Average monthly salary of teachers, males $41.03 
 
 " " " " females $25.72 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The state normal school, 
 established by a legislative enactment, in 1871, 
 is located at Plymouth. Two courses of study 
 are provided, extending over one year and two 
 years, respectively. Certificates of graduation 
 from these courses entitle' the holders to teach, 
 the former for a term of three years, the latter 
 for five years. The school is managed by a board 
 of trustees, and taught by a principal and 4 as- 
 sistants. Teachers' institutes were formerly held 
 in the different towns ; but, in 1874. they were 
 abolished by state law. Supt. Simonds, in his 
 annual report for 1875, strongly recommends 
 the general court "to appropriate a sum for the 
 proper expenses of teachers institutes to be held 
 under the direction of the superintendent of 
 public instruction, at times and places approved 
 by the governor of the state." 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — This grade of instruc- 
 tion is represented chiefly by the academies and 
 
 public high schools. The former are usually in- 
 corporated. The necessary buildings and appur- 
 tenances have been furnished by individual liber- 
 ality ; but the schools are sustained by the tui- 
 tion fees received from students, and the income 
 from endowments. Phillips Academy, at Ex- 
 eter, chartered 1781, was the first established in 
 the state ; but academies were chartered and 
 opened at Ipswich, Chesterfield, Atkinson, and 
 Gilmanton before the close of the last century ; 
 and. in the early part of the present century, 
 academies were established in nearly all the larger 
 towns of the state. Many of these have been 
 displaced by the higher grades of public schools. 
 During the year 1876, the number of academies 
 in active operation was 47, several of which are 
 permanently endowed with commodious build- 
 ings, and supplied with excellent instructors and 
 all the necessary appliances for efficient work. 
 Phillips Academy, at Exeter, and St. Paul's 
 School, at Concord, for males exclusively, are 
 devoted to the work of fitting their students for 
 college ; the other academies are open to pupils 
 of cither sex. and furnish the means of a com- 
 mon, higher English, classical, and ornamental 
 education. The Adams Female Academy, at 
 East Perry, the first incorporated school of its 
 class in New England. Tilden Seminary, at 
 West Lebanon, and the Robinson Female Semi- 
 nary, at Exeter, are devoted exclusively to the 
 education of females. The number of high 
 schools proper, maintained at public expense, is 
 3!1, including \\\ town high schools, and 20 dis- 
 trict high schools. The report of the state super- 
 intendent for 1876 enumerated 8 (i high schools, 
 seminaries, academies, etc., affording higher in- 
 struction to 5,418 pupils. Several of these insti- 
 tutions are classical or preparatory schools ; and 
 there is one business college, at Manchester, hav- 
 ing 286 male students, and 90 female students. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools.— Sev- 
 eral of the academies are fostered by distinctive 
 religious denominations, prominent among which 
 may be named, Kimball Union Academy, at 
 Meriden, Gilmanton Academy, and Pinkerton 
 Academy, at Deny, which are under the control 
 of the Congregationalists ; the New Hampton 
 Conference Seminary and Female ( 'ollege. at Til- 
 ton, under the Methodists ; the New Hampton 
 Literary Institution, under the Freewill Baptists; 
 the New London Literary and Scientific Institu- 
 tion, under the Baptists : and, St. Paul's School, 
 at Concord, under the Episcopalians. In the city 
 of Manchester, the Roman Catholics support 
 parochial schools for the education of their chil- 
 dren. These schools are graded. Mt. St. Mary's 
 Academy is designed for the higher education of 
 females. 
 
 Superior Instruction, etc. — Dartmouth College 
 (q. v.), at Hanover, "the pride of the state, is 
 the sole representative of this grade of instruc- 
 tion. In 1796, a medical department was organ- 
 ized: and, more recently (1852). scientific schools 
 (Chandler Scientific Department), besides which 
 there is the Thayer School of Civil Engineering, 
 organized in 1870, and the New Hampshire Col- 
 
til'S 
 
 NEW JERSEY 
 
 lege of Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts, estab- 
 lished by the legislature, in 1866. on the basis of 
 the congressional land grant, and as a depart- 
 ment of Dartmouth ( 'ollege. 
 
 The State Teachers' Association, incorporated 
 
 During the first years of its existence, it held 
 two meetings annually, in the spring and in the 
 fall, in different sections of the state ; but, later, 
 only one annual meeting has been held. Many 
 of the most important measures connected with 
 the progress of education in the state have ema- 
 nated from its discussions ; sucli as the creation 
 of the olfiee of state superintendent, the establish- 
 ment of the state normal school, etc. For a few 
 years, the association maintained a state journal 
 of education. 
 
 NEW JERSEY, one of the thirteen original 
 states of the American Union, the first settle- 
 ment in which by Europeans is supposed to have 
 been made, about 1618, at Bergen, by a detach- 
 ment of the Dutch settlers of New Amsterdam. 
 Its area is 8,320 sq. m.; and its population, in 
 1870, was 906,096, of whom 30,658 were colored, 
 16 Indians, and 15 Chinese. 
 
 Etliirttlhmid Hixtor//. — The history of the 
 school system in New Jersey begins just one 
 hundred years prior to the Declaration of Inde- 
 pendence. The Presbyterians and I longregation- 
 alists, who were the earliest immigrants under 
 English authority, came to this province bring- 
 ing preachers and school-teachers with them. 
 By the side of the log church, the primitive 
 school-house was erected; and schools, supervised 
 and supported by the church authorities, were 
 established in the early settlements of Newark, 
 Woodbridge, Elizabeth, Middletown, Freehold, 
 Shrewsbury, Piscataway, Perth Amboy, and 
 other places in East New Jersey. The pioneers 
 in West New Jersey were Quakers. To them 
 the school-house was scarcely second in import- 
 ance to the church or meeting-house, and both 
 were usually under the same roof. The earliest 
 record of any action of a public nature for the 
 establishment of schools is dated November 21., 
 1676, when the people of the town of Newark 
 resolved at town meeting, " that the town's men 
 have liberty to see if they can find a competent 
 number of schollars, and accommodations for a 
 school master." "The town's men" found the 
 '•competent number of schollars", accordingly, 
 and made partial arrangements for the employ- 
 ment of a 'school-master." Further instructions 
 were given at the next town meeting, in the 
 form of the following resolution: "The town hath 
 consented that the town's men should perfect the 
 bargain with the school-master for this year, 
 upon condition that he will come for this year, 
 and do his faithful, honest, and true endeavor 
 to teach the children or servants of those who 
 have subscribed, the reading and writing of En- 
 glish, and also of arithmetick if they desire it, as 
 much ms they are capable to learn, and lie ca- 
 pable to teach them, within the compass of this 
 year; nowise hindering but that he may make 
 
 what bargain he please with those as have not 
 subscribed." From this date, the people of the 
 town of Newark never failed to provide for the 
 schooling of their children. The superior claims 
 of the church, however, were recognized; as ap- 
 pears from the following order given in town 
 meeting, September 2s. , 1714 : "Ordered by vote 
 that ye old floor in ye meeting house should be 
 made use of for ye making a floor in ye school- 
 house in the middle of ye town." In March. 
 1689, the town people of Woodbridge resolved, 
 "that James Fullertou should be entertained as 
 school-master;" and. in 1694, we are informed 
 that John Brown was engaged at a salary of 
 £24 steriing to keep a free school for the next 
 year. In 1701,the people of Woodbridge further 
 resolved that a piece of land, "about 10 rods," 
 be allowed for a school-house, "provided it did 
 not prejudice the highway." As early as 1667, 
 George Fox advised his brethren in Sew Jersey 
 to establish boarding-schools, "that young men 
 of genius, in low circumstances, may be furnished 
 with means to procure requisite education," and 
 the Shackelwell school was opened about this 
 time, "for the teaching of whatsoever things 
 were civil and useful in creation." In 16s.'!, an 
 island in the Delaware, opposite the settlement 
 of Burlington was set apart for educational pur- 
 poses, the revenue derived from the rent or sale 
 of which was reserved for the education of 
 children in the adjoining settlements. The in- 
 come of the fund thus derived is still used to as- 
 sist the cause of education by the school officers 
 of the present city of Burlington. This was the 
 first school fund established in the province, and, 
 it is believed, in America. The first school law 
 of the state was enacted by the general assembly 
 of East New Jersey, at Perth Amboy, on the 12th 
 of October, 1693. It reads as follows : "Where- 
 as the cultivating of learning and good manners 
 tends greatly to the good and benefit of man- 
 kind, which hath hitherto been much neglected 
 within this province, Be it, therefore, enacted by 
 the governor, council, and deputies in general 
 assembly now met and assembled, and by the 
 authority of the same, that the inhabitants of 
 any town within this province shall and may, 
 by warrant from a justice of peace of that county, 
 when they think fit and convenient, meet to- 
 gether and make choice of three more men of 
 said town, to make a rate for the salary and main- 
 tenance of a school-master within the said town, 
 for so long time as they think fit ; and the con- 
 sent and agreement of the major part of the in- 
 habitants of the said town shall bind and oblige 
 the remaining part of the inhabitants of the said 
 town to satisfy and pay their shares and propor- 
 tion of the said rate; and, in case of refusal or 
 non-payment, distress to be made upon the goods 
 and chattels of such person or persons so refus- 
 ing or not paying, by the constable of the said 
 town, by virtue of a warrant from a justice of 
 the peace of that county, and the distress so to 
 be sold at public vendue, and the overplus, if 
 any be after payment of the said rate and char- 
 ges, to be returned to the owner." In 1695, this 
 
NEW ,1 HUSKY 
 
 6 lii) 
 
 act was amended, providing that three men 
 should be chosen yearly in each separate town 
 to have "power to appoint t hi- most convenient 
 
 place or places where the school shall be kept. 
 that as near as may be the whole inhabitants 
 may have the benefit thereof." Under the opera- 
 tion of this law. schools were established in all 
 parts of the province, whenever a majority of 
 the inhabitants desired them. The first step to- 
 ward the establishment of a state school fund 
 was the passage of an act, on the ',*th of February, 
 
 1816, which directed the treasurer to invest in 
 the public 6 per cent stocks of the United States 
 the sum of Sla.OOII, which arose from the pay- 
 ment of the funded debt, and from the dividends 
 of the stocks held by the state in the Trenton 
 Bank. and. at the end of every year to invest the 
 interest on the capital in the same manner. This 
 sum was increased by an act of the legislature in 
 
 1817. In 1818. the governor, the vice-presi lent of 
 councils, the speaker of the assembly, the attor- 
 ney-general, and the secretary of the common- 
 wealth were appointed " trustees for the control 
 and management of the fund for the support of 
 free schools." The whole amount of th i fun I 
 was then increased to the sum of $113,238.78. 
 En 1820, a law was passed authorizing the inhab- 
 itants of any township to raise by taxation 
 money for the education of paupers and the 
 children of such poor parents residing in the 
 township as are, in the judgment of the township 
 committee, unable to pay for schooling the same. 
 This was the first general act « hich authorized 
 the township to raise money for the- support of 
 schools. The idea that the money raised under this 
 law was to be used for the purpose of educating 
 paupers and poor children only, became general 
 at this time, and remained a feature of all school 
 
 enacl nts in the state till the year L838 In 
 
 1824, the legislature provided that one-tenth of 
 all the state taxes should e\erv vear be added to 
 the school fund: and. four year,' later, the people 
 were authorized to raise funds in town meetings, 
 to erect or repair school-houses. In 1828, a 
 "central committee" on e lucal ion was appointed 
 by a convention held at Trenton, to canvass the 
 state and collect statistics from every county 
 and committees were appointed in the ivi r, 
 counties, and in the majority of townships, to 
 aid the central committee. A. summing up of 
 the reports of these committees revealed the fact 
 that more than one-third of the children in the 
 state were without schooling of any kind. One 
 of the county reports made at that time was re- 
 markable from the fact that in it was embodied 
 the idea of a normal school. Among other sug- 
 gestions, the chairman of the Essex county com- 
 mittee said : "I very much wish that some plan 
 of improvement may be attempted to raise the 
 tone of feeling respecting our common schools. 
 I have thought of no plan better than to estab- 
 lish a high school for the sole purpose of educat- 
 ing young men tor teachers." The result of the 
 labors of this "central committee" was an awak- 
 ened public interest, which led to the passage of 
 the school law of 182'J — the first comprehensh e 
 
 and practical school enactment of the state legis- 
 lature. This provided for an annual appropri- 
 ation of S20.IMM1, to be apportioned for school 
 purposes among the several counties in propor- 
 tion to the amount of taxes paid by each. It 
 also provided for the election of school commit- 
 tees in each township, who were required to di- 
 vide the township into convenient school-districts, 
 to examine and license teachers, to visit and in- 
 spect the schools at least once every six months, 
 ami to make a report of their condition, which 
 report was read at the annual town meeting, and 
 was then sent to the governor to be laid before 
 the legislature. They were also empowered to 
 call annual district meetings, at which three 
 trustees were chosen, whose duty it was to pro- 
 vide suitable school-houses, and to determine 
 how many months during the year the schools 
 should be kept open. They also prepared a list 
 of children in the district between the ages of 4 
 and 16 years, which was used as the basis for the 
 apportionment of the public money. In 1831, the 
 act of 1829 was repealed, and a new law enacted, 
 the most important features of which were that 
 the state appropriation should lie applied, to the 
 education of poor children exclusively, and that 
 the public money, which had before been paid to 
 the trustees of the school-districts, should now 
 be paid to the several schools in the township, 
 whether they were public, private, or parochial. 
 This latter change was made in obedience to the 
 demands of the religious denominations of the 
 state, under whose auspices schools had been 
 established throughout the state. By this law, 
 also, district boundary lines were abolished, and 
 teachers were not required to be examined. In 
 ls.'is, the dissatisfaction with the school system 
 was so general that a convention was called to 
 reorganize it. This convention assembled at 
 Trenton, on the 16th of January, and appointed 
 a committee to issue an address to the people. 
 The result of this spirited action was, that, the 
 legislature, thoroughly informed of the temper 
 of the people, repealed the pernicious act of 
 1831, and re-enacted a law, which contained, in 
 an improved form, all the characteristic features 
 of the act of 1829. The slate appropriation was 
 increased to $30,000; district boundaries were 
 restored; money was appropriated to districts 
 for the benefit of the public schools exclusively ; 
 and townships were recpiired to raise by taxation, 
 for school purposes, a sum equal to double the 
 amount received from the state. The minimum 
 age of school children was changed from 4 years 
 to 5; and a board of examiners for each county 
 was created, with authority to examine teachers 
 and to i<sue county certificates. No reference u.i < 
 made to pauper or poor children. In 1845, a 
 supplementary act was passed, authorizing the 
 trustees of the school fund to appoint a state "> 
 superintendent of public schools for the counties 
 of Essex and Passaic; but other counties might, 
 at any time, come under the provisions of the law 
 by resolution of the board of freeholders. The 
 jurisdiction of the stale superintendent was not 
 extended over the whole state til! 1 - In. In thai 
 
NEW JERSKY 
 
 year, all previous school enactments were re- 
 pealed ; and a comprehensive law, including the 
 must important features of the repealed acts, 
 witli several new provisions, was enacted. This 
 law remained in force till 1867. Its distinctive 
 feature was the creation of township superintend- 
 ents, who were required, in addition to other 
 duties, to visit the schools once every quarter, 
 and to make a report of their condition to the 
 state superintendent. In 1851, the annual appro- 
 priation was increased to $40,000. The act of that 
 year provided, also, that the public money should 
 lie apportioned to the counties in the ratio of 
 their population, and to the townships in propor- 
 tion to the number of children between the ages 
 of 5 aud 18 years ; and no township was allowed 
 to raise by taxation, for school purposes, more 
 than $3 annually for each child of school age. 
 In 1854, teachers' institutes were established by 
 law, and $100 was annually appropriated to each 
 institute. The following year, the legislature 
 provided for the purchase of a copy of Webster's 
 Dictionary for each school in the state; and, the 
 next year, for a copy of Lippincott's Gazetteer. 
 In 1850, the normal school was established. In 
 1858, the annual appropriation was increased to 
 $80,000. The state board of education was es- 
 tablished in 1866. It consisted of the governor, 
 attorney-general, comptroller, secretary of state, 
 president of the senate, speaker of the house, and 
 the treasurer and trustees of the normal school. 
 In 1867 the act of 1846 and its amendments 
 were repealed, and the law now in force was en- 
 
 acted. In 1871, all the public schools of the state 
 
 £ were made free; and. in 1874, a compulsory 
 school law was enacted, by which every person 
 having charge of achild between the ages of 8 and 
 13 years is required to see that such child has, 
 at least, twelve weeks' schooling in each year, six 
 weeks of which must be consecutive. The state 
 superintendents have been: T.P. King. 18 15 52; 
 J. H. Phillips, 1852— 60; F.W.Ricord,1860— 64; 
 ('. M. Harrison, 1864 — 6; and Ellis A. Apgar, 
 from 1866 to the present time (1876). 
 
 School System. — The state hoard of education 
 is intrusted with the educational interests of the 
 state. It is composed of the governor, secretary 
 of state, attorney -general, comptroller, president 
 of the senate, speaker of the assembly, treasurer 
 of the state normal school, and the trustees of 
 the same, at present 14 in number. This board 
 exercises a general supervision over the schools, 
 appoints county superintendents, prescribes rules 
 for holding teachers' institutes, and makes an 
 annual report to the legislature. It appoints, also, 
 the state superintendent of public instruction, 
 who is. ex officio, its secretary. His term of office 
 is 3 years. He is required to have his office in 
 the state house, to exercise a general supervision 
 over the schools, and to make an annual report 
 to the state board. County superintendents are 
 required to examine teachers and grant certifi- 
 cates, to apportion the school money, and to per- 
 form the other duties usually devolving upon 
 such officers. In addition to the certificates 
 granted by county superintendents, a state board 
 
 of examiners, consisting of the state superin- 
 tendent and the principal of the normal school, 
 is authorized to grant certificates valid in any 
 part of the state. County hoards of examin- 
 ers, composed of the county superintendent and 
 .'i associates chosen by him, and examiners ap- 
 pointed by the city boards. of education, also 
 grant teachers' certificates valid, respectively, in 
 the counties and cities where issued. Township 
 boards are composed of the district trustees of 
 each township, and meet at such times and 
 places as the county superintendents designate, 
 for the purpose of consultation with the latter 
 in regard to the management of the schools. Each 
 city in the state constitutes one school-district; 
 but, in the country, a district usually comprises 
 only the territory and inhabitants necessary to 
 support one school. — The schools are supported 
 mainly by a direct state appropriation, which 
 amounts to about $1. 300.000 annually. This sum 
 is raised by a tax of 2 mills on every dollar of 
 the property of the state. In case the amount 
 thus derived from the state, however, is not suf- 
 ficient to maintain the schools nine months in 
 the year, the townships are still authorized to vote 
 school money ; and the money needed for build- 
 ing and repairing school-houses is still raised by 
 district tax. The amount of the permanent 
 school fund was largely increased, in 1871, by a 
 gift from the state of the proceeds of the sales and 
 rent of all riparian lands between high and low 
 water mark — a sum the future value of which 
 has been variously estimated at from $5,000,000 
 to $10.(100,000. 'A free library system exists in 
 the public schools, and state aid is extended to 
 such districts as raise money for the purpose. 
 Nearly 100 free-school libraries have been estab- 
 lished in this way. The school age is from 5 to 
 18 years. Corporal punishment, and all religious 
 exercises, except the reading of the Bible and the 
 saying of the Lord's Prayer, are forbidden. 
 
 'Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts, in 1876, was 1,368 ; the number 
 of school buildings. 1,532 ; of school departments 
 under the charge of one teacher each, 3,046. 
 The school revenue for the year 1876 was : 
 Two mill tax from the state. $1,225,462.19 
 Additional state appropria- 
 tion, including income from 
 
 permanent fund 
 
 Township school tax 
 
 Interest of surplus revenue. 
 District and city tax for 
 
 teachers' salaries 
 
 District and city tax for 
 uildings and repairs. 
 
 1(10,1100. on 
 
 2C.54s.50 
 :io,52:i.54 
 
 K'.T.TCT.TI) 
 
 Total appropriated lor school purposes. .{2, 115,290.27 
 
 Total value of school property $(>,449,.>1G.00 
 
 School statistic* for the year ending Aug. 31., 
 1876 : 
 
 Number of children of school age in the state 314,82(1 
 " " " enrolled in public schools 196,252 
 
 Average attendance in public schools 111.1,52(1 
 
 Number attending private schools 41,964 
 
 Number of teachers, males 978 
 
 females 2.306 
 
 Total 3,284 
 
NEW JKKSKI 
 
 631 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Besides the state 
 normal school at Trenton, normal schools or 
 classes have been established at Newark, Jersey 
 City, Paterson, and in some other cities of the 
 state. The state normal school, with its adjuncts, 
 the model school, and the Farnum preparatory 
 school, at Beverly, constitutes the special means 
 employed by the state for the education of 
 teachers. The normal school is supported partly 
 b>y an annual appropriation of $20,000. The 
 course of instruction occupies 3 years. Graduates 
 from the advanced course receive Mate certificates 
 of the second grade, valid for 7 years ; graduates 
 from the elementary course receive certificates 
 of the third grade, valid for 5 years. These 
 certificates entitle the holders to teach in the 
 public schools of the state, without further ex- 
 amination. The number of the former class, in 
 1875, was 28 ; of the latter, 14. The Farnum 
 preparatory school receives aid from the state, 
 and serves as a stepping-stone to the state 
 normal school. The students from its normal 
 department receive no diplomas, and are not 
 authorized to teach in the public schools without 
 examination. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — High schools in con- 
 nection with the public-school system have been 
 established in Newark, Jersey City, Paterson, 
 New Brunswick, and Trenton. Besides the 
 high schools and academies, secondary instruction 
 is given at many of the private schools and 
 seminaries in the state. Three business colleges 
 exist in the state, one each at Trenton, Newark, 
 and Elizabeth. Two of them, in 1874, reported 
 10 instructors and 3:">3 students. 
 
 Private, Denominational, an,/ Parochial 
 Schools. — The number of non-sectarian private 
 schools is 240 ; of denominational schools, 106. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The colleges of the 
 state, exclusive of those for females, are the 
 following: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 °"d 
 
 Denomi- 
 
 Burlington College 
 
 ■College of New Jersey 
 
 Burlington 
 Princeton 
 N. Brunswick 
 So. Orange 
 
 1846 
 174s 
 1771 
 1856 
 
 P. Epis. 
 
 Seton Hall College 
 
 ft. C. 
 
 There are five colleges for the superior in- 
 struction of women: St. Mary's Hall. Burling- 
 ton ; Trinity Hall. Beverly; Bordentown Female 
 College ; Ivy Hall. Bridgeton ; and the Pennmg- 
 ton Seminary and Female Collegiate Institute." 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
 The John C. Green Schoi >1 of Science is a depart- 
 ment of the College of New Jersey, at Princeton. 
 It provides two courses of study, and confers 
 degrees expressive of proficiency in each. Nearly 
 $600,000 have been expended on this school, its 
 name indicating the principal contributor. The 
 scientific school of Rutgers College, endowed 
 principally by the sale of agricultural land scrip, 
 to the amount of 8116,000, has been constituted 
 by an act of the legislature the college for agri- 
 culture and the mechanic arts. It has a course 
 In chemistry and agriculture, and one in civil 
 
 engineering and mechanics. Connected with the 
 former, is a model farm, on which the claims of 
 different systems are put to a practical test. State 
 Btudente, t'o the number of to. are admitted on 
 the recommendation of the counts superintend- 
 ents, and are instructed free oi charge. The 
 Stevens Institute of Technology, at Uoboken, was 
 founded by Edwin A. Stevens, by a gift of land, 
 and $650,000 for buildings and endowment. It 
 was opened in 1871 as a school for special scien- 
 tific training, but provides instruction in other 
 branches as well. Connected with it is a high 
 school, which is designed as a preparatory depart- 
 ment for the Institute. The latter has extensive 
 collections, and a library of 5.000 volumes. Its 
 course is 4 years, on the completion of which it 
 confers degrees. 'I he theological seminary of the 
 Reformed Church is substantially a department 
 of Rutgers College, and is the principal training 
 school in the United States for ministers of that 
 denomination. In 1 h74 — 5. it reported 4 pro- 
 fessors and 3!) students. The theological semi- 
 nary of the Presbyterian ( hurch at Princeton 
 organized in 1812. and has a 4 years' course 
 
 tin' grad 
 for 
 
 of New Jersey, or 
 a classical educa- 
 rs and 97 students, 
 jol at Bloonifield 
 Presbyterians, for 
 man-speaking in- 
 ■apidly increasing 
 ted States. It has 
 iepartment, the 
 
 The German Theological Sc 
 
 was founded in 1869, by the 
 the purpose of providing G 
 structors for the large and 
 German population ol the I i 
 
 a theological, and an academ 
 principal study in the latter being the German 
 language. In 1 874 — 5, it had 5 instructors and 
 24 students. The Brew Theological Seminary, 
 at Madison, -was opened in 1807" by a fund of 
 §250,000, given by Daniel Drew for its establish- 
 ment, to which additions have, from time to 
 time, been made, making a total of nearly 
 §1. 000,000. It is under the auspices of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, bishops of which 
 are. ex officio, members of its board of supervision. 
 The grounds are 95 acres in extent. There are 
 3 seminary buildings, besides professors' resi- 
 dences, and a library containing 12.000 volumes. 
 The introductory course is 2 years; the regular, 3. 
 To the latter, only college graduates are ad- 
 mitted. In JS74 — 5. it reported 9 instructors, 
 i) lecturers, and 127 students. 
 
 Sjieciit! Instruction. No provision has thus 
 far (1876) been made by the state for the in- 
 struction of deaf-mutes, blind, or feeble-minded 
 persons; but about S 10.00(1 is annually expended 
 by the state for their care in the institutions of 
 other states. Their number, according to an in- 
 quiry instituted by the legislature in 1873. was 
 500 deaf-mutes, GOO blind, and more than 1,000 
 feel ile-minded. 
 
 The State Industrial School for Girls was 
 established at Trenton by an act of the legislature, 
 in 1871, "for the reformation of girls between 
 the ages of 7 and 16 years." In 1874, there were 
 19 inmates. The State Reform School was 
 opened at Jamesburg. in 1867. The institution 
 is rather reformatory than penal, and, in addi- 
 
i;:J2 
 
 NEW JERSEY COLLEGE 
 
 tion to moral training, provides intellectual in- 
 struction in elementary branches. In 1874, the 
 total number of its inmates was 298; the average 
 attendance, 184. 
 
 NEW JERSEY, Colleg-e of (popularly 
 called Princeton Colleg-e), at Princeton, N. J., 
 founded under the auspices of the Presbyterian 
 Synod of New York, which then included New 
 Jersey under its jurisdiction, was opened in .May, 
 1747. at Elizabethtown (now Elizabeth) and the 
 same year was removed to Newark, whence it 
 was transferred to Princeton, in 1757, upon the 
 completion of a college edifice, which at the 
 suggestion of Gov. Belcher was named Nassau 
 Hall, "to the immortal memory of the glorious 
 King William III., of the illustrious house of 
 Nassau." From this circumstance the college 
 itself is often called Nassau Hall. It obtained a 
 charter in 1746. and a more liberal one in 1748. 
 The college buildings, including a library, gym- 
 nasium, observatory, society halls, and the presi- 
 dent's house, besides various college halls, are 
 mostly of stone, and occupy a well-shaded cam- 
 pus on the main street of the town. The con- 
 tributions to the college within the last eight 
 years amount to $1,500,000. The college and 
 society libraries contain about 55,000 volumes. 
 The institution comprises an academic depart- 
 ment and the John ( '. < ! recti School of Science 
 (opened in 1873), and has a preparatory school 
 connected with it. In the academic depart- 
 ment, all the studies of the freshman and the 
 sophomore year are required ; in the junior and 
 the senior year, a considerable range of elective 
 studies is provided. The School of Science has 
 two regular courses, one of two years, for grad- 
 uates of colleges, on the completion of which the 
 degree of Master of Science is conferred, and the 
 other of four years, for others, on the comple- 
 tion of which the degree of Bachelor of Science 
 is conferred. The cost of tuition in the academic 
 department is $75 per annum ; in the School of 
 Science, $120. There are several prizes and 
 scholarships obtainable by deserving students. 
 Six fellowships hav • be n established, four of 
 which yield $600 each, the other two yielding 
 $250 each. These are open for competition to 
 members of the graduating class who intend to 
 pursue a post-graduate course of one year. In 
 1876, there were 18 professors, 6 other instruct- 
 ors, and 483 students (438 in the academic de- 
 partment, and 45 in the School of Science). 
 The whole number of graduates is about 4,850, 
 of whom nearly 2,750 survive. The presidents 
 of the college have been as follows : Rev. Jon- 
 athan Dickinson, May to Oct.. 1747 ; Rev. Aaron 
 Burr. I 748 — 57 ; Rev. Jonathan Edwards, Jan. 
 to March, 1758 ; Rev. Samuel Davies, 1759—61; 
 Rev. Samuel Finley, 1761 —6; Rev. Dr. John 
 W ithers] n. 1768—94 ; Rev. Dr. Samuel Stan- 
 hope Smith, L795 L812 ; Rev. Dr. Ashbel 
 Green, 1812—22; Rev. Dr. James Carnahan, 
 1823—54; Rev. Dr. John Maclean. 1854—68; 
 Rev. Dr. James McCosh, from L868. 
 
 NEW JERUSALEM, Societies of the, 
 the name assumed by the ecclesiastical organiza- 
 
 NEW MEXICO 
 
 | tions of the followers of Swedenborg, the Swedish 
 theosophist, wdio died in 1772. Swedenborg him- 
 self did not make any provisions for organizing 
 his followers into an independent religious body, 
 and the first Society of the New Jerusalem was 
 not formed until 178S, when Robert Hindniarsh 
 and otherscstablished public worship in London. 
 At present, there is a general conference of the 
 New Church in England, with about 4,000 mem- 
 bers, and another in the United States, which, in 
 1875, had about 5,000 members. There are, be- 
 sides, a number of independent societies in the 
 United States and on the continent of Europe, 
 with an aggregate of about 1.(100 members. The 
 general conference in the United States founded, 
 in 1866, a theological school at Waltham, Mas- 
 sachusetts ; but no term was held hi the year 
 1875 — 6, as no students applied for admission. 
 A college under the control of the Church was 
 chartered, in 1850, anil organized, in 1851, at 
 Urbana, ( mio ; and, in 1874, it had 14 students. 
 There is also a school under the control of the 
 general conference of England. Sunday-schools 
 are connected with nearly all the societies, both 
 in the United States and in England. 
 
 NEW MEXICO, one of the territories of 
 ihe United States, first made known to Euro- 
 peans, about 1537,by the visit of a Spanish expedi- 
 diton under Alvar Nunez. It was ceded to the 
 United States in 1 848, at the close of the Mexii an 
 war. ami was organized as a territory in 1850. 
 Its area is 121.201 sq. m.; its population, in I -To. 
 was 91,874, of whom 90,393 were whites; 172 
 colored persons: and 1,309, non-tribal Indians. 
 
 Eduction,,! History. — Provision was first 
 made for giving elementary instruction to the 
 youth of the province of New Mexico in 1822. 
 Owing to the sparsely settled condition of the 
 country, and to the fact that the peons, or serfs, 
 not included within the privileges of the act, 
 constituted a majority of the inhabitants in the 
 country districts, the operation of the law was 
 confined to the cities and towns. The salaries 
 of the teachers were small, those in the capital 
 being paid by appropriations from the public 
 treasury; while those in the country wen paid, 
 by the district officers, from money taken either 
 from the general treasury, or derived from local 
 taxation. Under this system, no permanent in- 
 stitution of learning was founded. In 1852. bow- 
 ever, the Academy of Our Lady of Light was 
 established at Santa Fe by the Sisters of Loretto; 
 and, from an experimental beginning, with 7 
 boarders and a few other scholars, it has now 
 become firmly established as a permanent insti- 
 tution, with an influence which has not only led 
 to the establishment of branch schools under its 
 own direction, but to the foundation of other 
 independent schools in various parts of the ter- 
 ritory. In 1855, and again in 1861, attempts 
 were made by the legislature to organize a system 
 of public schools by general taxation; but the 
 public sentiment of thepeople was opposed to 
 the measure, and the laws were repealed. No 
 other school law was enacted till 1871 — 2. In 
 that year, the assembly passed an act, which was 
 
NEW MEXICO 
 
 NEW OKLEANS 
 
 ratified by the people at (In- polls, and. which, 
 with slight modifications, iu L873 — 1. is the pres- 
 ent public-school law of the territory. In accord- 
 ance with recommendations made by the gov- 
 ernor, in 1875, a bill was introduced in the coun- 
 cil, proposing a non-sectarian system of public- 
 school education, but it was defeated in the 
 house by a vote of 14 to LO. 
 
 School System. — The school law provides thai 
 the educational interests of the state shall be in 
 
 A\it:i'_"' ti-.ii'lu-r- « i:k [leriiiiintli $1G.5S 
 
 Numbei ol public - I Is supported out of 
 
 tin- -i-ImiiiI lun. I. I. ut i-oiitrulleil liv re- 
 ligious societies ' 10 
 
 Private and Parochial Schools.— Under this 
 head must be classed all the convent and mis- 
 sion schools and academics, and many private 
 schools. Of these. 12 are Roman Catholic 6 for 
 boys and (i forgirls; 8 Protestant, for both sexes; 
 exclusive of 13 non-sectarian schools, including 
 7 Pueblo Indian schools, in which there were 
 
 trusted to local board.* <f.*>i]>rrri*u-s and direct- ' enrolled, at the 'lose of 1675, 242 pupils; and of 
 ors of the public schools, to be elected for two this number, 180 were in daily attendance during 
 
 years, in each county, respectively. These boards the winter months, and about one-half that num- 
 consist of three members each, with the probate ber during the summer months. The number of 
 
 scholars able to read and write was 47, and 15 
 
 judge of the county, who is president, cr iifncm. 
 They have the entire control of the schools and 
 of the school funds, each member receiving for 
 his services S3 a day. The want of uniform- 
 ity, thus engendered, in the administration of 
 the schools, has been a serious cause of com- 
 plaint. The area, however, over which each board 
 exercises supervision being limited, the existence 
 of any other officers is rendered unnecessary. The 
 territorial superintendent, an officer created in 
 1873—4, receives the annual reports from the 
 local boards, and transmits them to the governor. 
 He is. also. t. 
 school fund ( 
 
 could work in the first four rules of arithmetic ; 
 while spelling, leading, writing, arithmetic, and 
 geography were all successfully taught in En- 
 glish. But few of the children.' however, under- 
 stand English to any extent. Of the Protestant 
 schools,4 are Methodist Episcopal Mission schools. 
 Only 3, in all this number, teach the higher 
 branches. The average attendance of pupils, in all 
 
 these schools, in 1875, was 1,259; the" number of 
 
 male teachers. 41 ; female teachers. 40. The average 
 
 number of months the schools were kept was '.1.4. 
 
 officio. The .Many of these schools receive a yearly donation 
 
 nt of the tax on from the public-school fund. 
 
 No i ■ 
 
 property, $1 poll tax forevery male citizen above No special provision has been made for supe- 
 the age of 21 years, and any surplus, of more rior ii/slrnrtimi. (If the schools above referred 
 than $500, in the treasury of any county, after to, 3 give instruction in the higher branches, in- 
 paying the current expenses of such county, chiding latin. 'I he want of a uniform public- 
 The public schools are almost entirely con- school system in the territory has long been felt, 
 fined to the teaching of elementary branches. I and has been a subject of consideration by its 
 Owing to the early settlement of the country by governors and many of its leading men. The 
 the Spaniards and the Mexicans, and its almost present school law, though faulty in many re- 
 exclusive possession, till very recently, by them spects, is regarded as evidence of a decided step 
 or their descendants, Spanish is the language in advance of the position taken as late even 
 spoken by the great majority of the people. The as lMd. when a public-school law was voted 
 control of the schools, also, being entirely local, ! down almost unanimously. "While the parochial 
 that language has been introduced into them, in schools. "says secretary Rich, 'are. without doubt, 
 some cases exclusively, and in others jointly with the best schools we have had in New .Mexico, 
 the English language. The Catholic religion, there is rather more than a suspicion that the 
 also, is, for the same reason, generally taught in advocates and supporters of some of them have 
 them. The legal school age is between 7 and a special interest in paralyzing the efficiency of 
 18 years. The secretary of the territory is the the public schools, and in keeping them in bad 
 acting superintendent of public instruction. W. repute, as a. means of maintaining their own 
 
 O. Hitch has I" en the secretary since 1873 
 
 Educational < bndition. — The number of pub- 
 lic schools in the territory, reported in 1875, 
 was 138, of which i)7 were for boys ; 8, for girls; 
 and 33, mixed Some, however, were no! re- 
 ported. English and Spanish were taught in 38 
 schools: Spanish alone, in 8<>; and English alone. 
 in 7. The revenue for the support of the schools 
 derived from the sources above mentioned, 
 amounted, in 1875, to 825,473.46. The principal 
 items of school statistics are the following: 
 
 Number of pupils in attendance 5,151 
 
 " teachers, males. .. . ... 132 
 
 15 
 
 Total 
 
 Average number of months schools were kept. 
 Expenditures for teachers' wanes. . $15, J .12 
 " rent and books. . 1,800 
 " " other purposes. . 1.057 
 Total 
 
 superiority": and again, "make the public-school 
 system of New Mexico all it is practicable to be 
 made at this time, and the result will be pre- 
 paratory schools, not only for the state, but for 
 higher education. The present denominational 
 schools would then, under the free push of these 
 
 preparatory scl ls.be forced, like the sects they 
 
 represent, to stand on their own merits, to en- 
 large and liberalize their curriculum of .-tii.lv. 
 and biush up their diction and scholarship." 
 
 NEW ORLEANS, the capital and metn.p 
 olis of the state of Louisiana, nearly co-exten- 
 sive with the parish of Orleans. It was first 
 permanently Bettled in 1723, under the French, 
 who held 'po~i.»iou of it till 17H9, when it 
 passed undeT Spanish rule, and so continued till 
 1 sol. when the French regained possession of it, 
 but ceded it, as a part of Louisiana, to the United 
 
 $18,889 l States, in 1803. 
 
634 
 
 NEW ORLEANS 
 
 Educational History. — As might be expected 
 from the manner in which the city was founded, 
 the first instruction given was in connection 
 with the religious establishments of the Roman 
 Catholics. The earliest school appears to have 
 been that of the Ursuline nuns, which was 
 founded by the French government in 1733, and 
 carried on in the same place till 1824, when it 
 was removed to its present location, about two 
 miles from the center of the city. It was a semi- 
 nary for young ladies, and, in 1845, had 120 
 pupils. The city, during all the early years of 
 its existence, had no public-school system, the 
 instruction of children and youth being given 
 in private or denominational schools, or in chari- 
 table institutions. Of schools of the first class, 
 many existed, but no record of them remains. 
 In 1836, the Female Orphan Asylum was 
 opened with 6 children. In 1840, more extensive 
 buildings were completed for it, in which it gave 
 instruction to about 100 children. Since then, 
 an average of 145 have been annually instructed 
 there, and, at a suitable age, apprenticed. In 
 1845, the Carmelite Convent, which was oc- 
 cupied by nuns of that order, supported two 
 schools, one white, the other free colored. At 
 the same time, the Poydras Female Orphan 
 Asylum gave instruction to 120 children an- 
 nually. Other institutions of the kind, which 
 have taken a greater or less part in the work of 
 education, are the Male, the Catholic Male, and 
 the Milne Orphan Asylums— the last endowed 
 by Alexander Milne, in 1839. Two reading- 
 rooms, also, have been in existence for many 
 years. — The first decided change in the common- 
 school system was in 1841, the city being divid- 
 ed into 3 municipalities and containing, at that 
 
 time, about 103. ) inhabitants. On the 14th of 
 
 February, 1841, the legislature passed an act 
 authorizing each municipality ■ to establish 
 schools, each parish being controlled by a board 
 of 5 administrators, who reported annually to 
 the secretary of state. The 2d municipality 
 selected 12 citizens as a board of directors of 
 public education, granting them almost unlimited 
 powers. They employed as superintendent, J. 
 A. Shaw, who was thoroughly acquainted with 
 the New England system of public schools, ac- 
 cording to which it was proposed to re-organize 
 the schools of New Orleans. Under his super- 
 vision, the schools began with 1 3 pupils, and. in 
 2 years, numbered 1,061 in actual attendance, 
 with an enrollment of double that number. These 
 efforts for the improvement of the schools en- 
 countered strong opposition, at first, but were 
 attended with such unqualified success as ulti- 
 mately to secure general approbation. The in- 
 fluence of this improvement, also, soon extended 
 beyond the limits of the municipality in which 
 the movement had its origin. In the 3d munici- 
 pality, the old method was pursued for a long 
 time, instruction being given in English, French, 
 and Spanish; but here, as well as in the 1st 
 municipality, the improvement in school organ- 
 ization and methods gradually made progress, 
 .and, in 1844, the system throughout the city had 
 
 become uniform. By the state constitution, 
 then recently adopted, the establishment, in New- 
 Orleans, of a college to be called the University 
 of Louisiana was directed. It was to consist of 
 four faculties; and one of them, that of medicine, 
 was immediately opened. The Public School 
 Lj'eeum and Society Library was organized in 
 1844. The object was to provide a library for 
 the youth of the 2d municipality by the voluntary 
 subscriptions of the public school children and 
 others. The officers were those of the public 
 schools, with the addition of the mayor, recorder, 
 and aldermen as members, e.c officio. The People's 
 Lyceum and the Young Men s Literary Associa- 
 tion were similar institutions. 
 
 School System. — The public schools of the 
 city are governed by a board of school directors 
 consisting of twenty members, one from each 
 representative district, one additional from each 
 municipal district ; the administrator of finance 
 of the the city, ex officio; and the superintend- 
 ent of the sixth division, ex officio, who has the 
 right to speak, but not to vote, in the board. The 
 district members are appointed by the state 
 board of education, each for a term of three 
 years, one-third of the number retiring annually. 
 The superintendent of the sixth division is the 
 city superintendent. The board of school directors 
 appoints a committee on teachers, who, with the 
 city .superintendent, examine applicants for em- 
 ployment as teachers. Thus the public-school 
 system of the city is under state control, though 
 supported by a city tax. The salaries of teach- 
 ers vary from $2,400 a year for the principal 
 and $1,500 for associate teachers, in the boys' 
 high school, to an average of $814 for teachers 
 of a lower grade. — The number of public schools 
 is 76, including a central high school for boys, 2 
 high schools for girls, and 73 schools of an in- 
 ferior grade. The course of instruction in the 
 central high school for boys embraces English 
 studies, mathematics, natural sciences, the clas- 
 sics, French, and book-keeping ; that of the 
 girls' high schools is similar, with the exception 
 of book-keeping and classics. The principal items 
 of school statistics for 1875 are as follows : 
 
 ... 70,093 
 
 Average daily attendance 18,719 
 
 Number of teachers, males 33 
 
 " " " females 
 
 .417 
 
 Whole number of teachers 450 
 
 Total receipts for school purposes $373,S47.!MI 
 
 " expenditures " " $460,128.83 
 
 Average salary of teachers per month $67.82 
 
 Total value of the school property $775,000.00 
 
 The private schools exceed in number the public 
 schools ; and, in 1875, were attended by 14,235 
 pupils, giving employment to 471 teachers. 
 Most of these schools are attached to religious 
 bodies, and the great majority are for females. 
 The schools for colored children, both public 
 and private, are separate ; though a few colored 
 pupils attend the schools for white children. 
 There is great opposition to mixed schools. (For 
 an account of the higher educational institutions 
 of New Orleans, see Louisiana.) 
 
NKWSI'Al-KRS 
 
 NEWSPAPERS. The objection is fre- 
 quently made tn the character of the instruction 
 ordinarily imparted at school, that it has little 
 relation to the concerns of daily life. This want 
 of relation sprung originally from the fact that 
 the literal)' class, in earlier times, was a class 
 apart, having only slight connection with the 
 mass of people who, possessing few political rights, 
 were unworthy of consideration. The instruc- 
 tion given, therefore, was purposely of a kind to 
 emphasize theexclusivenessof the educated class. 
 Under the changed political conditions of our 
 day, however, the tendency has steadily heen to 
 equalize the two classes in intelligence — to lift 
 up the masses to the level of the educated, on the 
 one hand, and. on the other, to bring the studies 
 of the school and college more into accordance 
 with the daily life of the majority. Traces of 
 the original exclusivene8S still remain, however, 
 in the antiquated and unpractical character of the 
 instruction, as mentioned above. Almost every 
 youth, on entering upon the business of life, be- 
 comes conscious of this with chagrin. The arith- 
 metic that he studied, for instance, seems to have 
 little application to the concerns of daily life; the 
 book-keeping which he mastered with so much 
 difficulty, seems now, at this later date, to have 
 been filled with theoretical eases which have no 
 parallels in actual experience ; even the geog- 
 raphy, in which he attained such proficiency, 
 has little place in his daily routine ; while algebra, 
 geometry, and many other studies, have none al 
 all. The result is a feeling of inferiority when 
 he is brought into contact with others of his age 
 whose training has been entirely that of practical 
 life, which leads him to suspect thai his time 
 has been wasted. Not till long afterwards, 
 perhaps, does lie recognize the fact that the prin- 
 ciples on which both theoretical and practical 
 knowledge are based, are the same, and that the 
 ability to apply these principles was his chief 
 want. The feeling of df-appointmcnt referred 
 to might have been entirely removed, if. in his 
 instruction, the teacher had kept constantly 
 in mind, not the mental discipline alone, but 
 the mental discipline and the adaptab 
 affairs of life of the knowledge used 
 ing that discipline. One of the mosi 
 struments for accomplishing this double purpose 
 is the newspaper. The arithmetic which is now 
 taught by the use of unusual and improbable 
 examples, could be made a living and interest- 
 ing thing, by the use of problems to be found 
 in its pages, which introduce the actual prices of 
 articles in daily use. Interest, discount, exchange. 
 the price of bonds and stocks, coidd be made so 
 familiar to the pupil in this way. that the change 
 from school to counting-house, which is now at- 
 tended with such a want of ease and so much 
 disappointment, would seem but the continua- 
 tion of study in another class. — Reading, also, if 
 taught from the newspaper, would familiarize 
 the pupil with the terms used in the daily con- 
 versation of professional and business men; and, 
 through the reports of proceedings in every field 
 •of human activity, fresh interest could be aroused 
 
 in studies already taken up. while attention could 
 profitably be called to those which arc ordinarily 
 pursued in more advanced courses; and a partial 
 preparation for them could thus unconsciously be 
 made. Thus the study of geographj wouldreceive 
 increased attention, if it could be connected with 
 the reports of the interesting events from all parts 
 
 quiring into the position on the map, population, 
 form of government, etc, of the different coun- 
 tries referred to. By following, in this way. the 
 records of campaigns and battles, a knowledge 
 of the topography of the country could Be 
 obtained almost without effort, which would be 
 easily retained in the memory of the most ap- 
 athetic scholar; while opportunity could, at the 
 same time, betaken for digressions into its history. 
 Through its reports of strikes, labor troubles, 
 and co-operative associations, the newspaper 
 could also be made the medium for inculcating, 
 in a familiar and practical way, the rudiments of 
 political economy, usually so dry and uninterest- 
 ing ; while the accounts of great engineering 
 feats, astronomical discoveries, exploring expedi- 
 tions, and voyages of discovery, would be more 
 eagerly listened to, if the pupil were made to un- 
 derstand that the algebra, geometry, or geography 
 which he daily studies has an intimate and funda- 
 mental relation to them all. The thought, also, 
 that he might one day take part in similar work, 
 would act as a spur to renewed exertion. Any 
 
 ch of 
 
 tty to tne 
 n acquir- 
 
 nseful in- 
 
 them with a human interest, by showing that 
 men and women similar to those with whom he 
 daily associates are the actors in all these stir- 
 
 that the hasty manner in which they were re- 
 ported rendered their accounts not only worth- 
 less as models but injurious, are no longer valid. 
 To the first, it may be said that newspapers are 
 now so universally read thai pupils can hardly 
 fail to see them or hear their contents discussed; 
 and to the second, that active competition hav- 
 ing brought into the employ of the newspaper 
 so large a share of the best talent, specimens of 
 composition may now be found iu any influen- 
 tial paper, not only unexceptionable in matter, 
 but worthy of imitation for lucid statement and 
 grace of expression. The ability, independence, 
 and rapidly-increasing circulation of the daily 
 press are fast constituting it a powerful educator; 
 and, in countries where the necessities of daily 
 life leave little time for that higher education 
 which demands leisure and a competency for its 
 accomplishment, a double purpose would be 
 served by using it as a means of instruction, as 
 not only giving to the minds of the pupils 
 practical culture, but also habituating them to 
 the constant use of the newspaper as, perhaps, 
 their chief source of intelligence. 
 
G36 NEW 
 
 NEW TORK, one of the thirteen original 
 states of the American Union, having an area of 
 -17.00D sip in., and a population, according to the 
 census of 1870, of 4,330,210, of whom 52,081 
 wne colored persons; 439, Indians; and 29, 
 Chinese. Of the total population, the number. 
 10 years old and upward, reported as unable to 
 read was 16a,50I ; unable to write, 239,271. Of 
 the latter, 168,569 were foreign born. According 
 to the state census of 1875, the population was 
 4,705,208. 
 
 Educational History. — This topic will be 
 treated under the billowing heads: (I) The 
 establishing of schools ; (II) The mode of main- 
 taining them; (III) The mode of supervising 
 them; (IV) Special provisions of legislation. 
 
 I. The Dutch, by whom the first settlements 
 were made in the state, brought with them the 
 ideas and institutions of the father-land, among 
 which those of the church and the school were 
 not the least prominent. As early as 1629, the 
 West India Company, in its charter, enacted 
 that the patroons and /colonists should, " in the 
 speediest manner, endeavor to find out ways and 
 means " whereby they might supply a minister 
 and a school-master. This is the first official act 
 relating to public education in the state. The 
 first regular school-master in New Amsterdam 
 was Adam Roelantsen, who commenced his 
 school in 1633, and continued it till 1639, when 
 he was succeeded by Jan Cornelissen, and he by 
 William Vestius, during whose administration 
 of this school, a second was established, in 1652. 
 (See New York City.) The Company and the 
 church united in paying for the services of 
 these early masters. The first school in Brook- 
 lyn was established in 1661. (Sec Brooklyn.) 
 The first school at Flatbush was established in 
 1659, under Adrian liegeman ; and one was 
 opened in Newtown, in 1661, under Richard 
 Mills. The first school-master in Albany was 
 Andries Jansz. in 1650. In 1659, a Latin school 
 was established in New Amsterdam, and Alex- 
 ander Carolus ( 'urtius was sent out by the I lom- 
 pauy to serve as rector, with permission also to 
 practice his profession as physician. His services, 
 particularly in regard to discipline, were not 
 satisfactory, and he was supers,, led, the Rev. 
 .lEgidius Luyck being appointed in his place, 
 under whom the school flourished, children be- 
 ing sent thither from Virginia, Fort Orange, and 
 the Delaware, to receive a classical education. — 
 Up to the time of the English occupation, the 
 fundamental idea was that of the free school. 
 The proper authorities provided a certain salary, 
 and the school-master was bound by his contract, 
 to the limit of a specified number, to instruct 
 his pupils free of tuition; and so faithful and 
 earnest were the authorities and clergy, that, at 
 the time of the final surrender to the English 
 (1674), schools existed in almost every town and 
 
 the entire period, at least from a tin: 
 
 to 1644; but no one was allowed to teach a 
 school without permission from the director-gen- 
 eral and council, wdio acted in conjunction with 
 the church authorities. This custom was after- 
 ward followed by the English, who substituted 
 the archbishop, bishop, or ordinary, in place of 
 the minister and consistory. The English, on 
 their accession, paid no great attention to edu- 
 cation, for obvious reasons. The settlements 
 were all Dutch. The prevailing religion was that 
 of the Church of Holland. The charter of the 
 Reformed Dutch Church of America gave to the 
 minister, and the elders and deacons the right to 
 " nominate and appoint a schoolmaster." This 
 charter was carefully protected in the articles of 
 surrender. An English school-master could not 
 be placed in the I hitch school without the con- 
 sent of the consistory. The English knew of no 
 public schools except those in connection with 
 the church. They did, however, all that, under 
 the circumstances, was practicable. The very next 
 year afti r Stuyvesant's capitulation (1665), Gov. 
 Nicolls licensed John Shute to open an English 
 school in Albany; anil frequent licenses for 
 private schools, at various places, were granted 
 ty the succeeding governors. In 1687, a Latin 
 school w r as opened in the city of New York, 
 under the sanction of the English government; 
 and, in 1702, an act was passed for the " en- 
 couragement of a grammar free school in the 
 city of New York," and for the raising annually 
 of £50 for its support for seven years. This 
 school does not seem to have been established 
 previous to April. 1704. when Mr. George Muir- 
 sou was duly licensed by Gov. Cornbury as its 
 master. Cornbury is also credited, at this time, 
 with the establishment of two other English 
 schools in the city. Of all the English governors, 
 he was the most zealous and aggressive in behalf 
 of the English Church and schools. What 
 Andros and Fletcher would fain have accom- 
 plished legally, or by persuasion, he boldly at- 
 tempted by an exercise of authority. He pro- 
 hibited the ministers of other denominations, 
 and school-masters, from officiating without his 
 special license. The Dutch schools on Long 
 Island, too weak or too timid to contest the. 
 matter, were broken up by him ; but the Dutch 
 church in New York stuod up for its chartered 
 rights, and called and settled its own school- 
 masters. The act of 1702 expired by its own 
 limitation in 1709, and was not renewed: nor 
 does it appear that legal provision for schools 
 of any kind was made for several years. Corn- 
 bury was gone, and he transmitted to none of 
 his immediate successors any of his misguided 
 zeal. In 1704. the Society for the Propagation 
 of the Gospel established 'a school at Eye. and 
 employed as its master, Joseph Cleator. In 1710, 
 the society established Trinitv School in Sew 
 York, and employed William' Huddlestone to 
 teach it.wdio served until 1721. at a salary, first 
 of £10, and afterwards of £15; for which ' 
 was required to teach 10 pupils free. This scho 
 still continues, and had 72 boys on its founda 
 tion in 1875. It appears from a table in Pratt's. 
 
XEW YORK 
 
 63^ 
 
 Annals of Puqlic Education (1872), that at the 
 •close of the colonial period, the society had estab- 
 lished, ;«.i n 1 supported, in whole or in part, 21 
 schools iu 7 counties. The standard studies in 
 all these schools were similar to those in the 
 Dutch schools, — reading, writing, arithmetic, and 
 the catechism of the English Church. In 17.'!!'. an 
 aci was passed, "to encourage a public school in 
 the city of New York for teaching Latin, Greek, 
 and mathematics." This school was tree for U « > 
 pupils, of whom Xew York City and County 
 were entitled to ten, Albany County to two, and 
 the counties of Dutchess, Kings. ( (range, Queens, 
 Richmond, Suffolk, Ulster, and Westchester each 
 to one. The act expired, by a provision con- 
 tained in it, Dec. 1., 1737; "but was extended, 
 by the assembly and council of that year, to 
 Dee. L. 1838. Hon. B. F. Butler of New York. 
 in an address before the Albany Institute, in 1 830, 
 states that the act "was not afterwards renewed: 
 but the school was again continued, and is said 
 to have proved the germ of Columbia College." 
 This is very probable, since the establishment of 
 a college began to be agitated soon after; and 
 an act was passe 1. in 1 7 iii, for raising by lottery 
 £2,250 •• for the encouragement of learning and 
 toward the founding of a college." By similar 
 acts, this had increased, in 1751, to £3,443, and 
 trustees were appointed to guard and promote 
 the interests of the embryo institution. The trus- 
 tees, in 1753, invited the Rev. Samuel Johnson 
 to become the president of the proposed college, 
 at a salary of £250, with the assurance that 
 Trinity Church would make a proper addition 
 thereto. The royal chatter establishing King's 
 College, bears date Oct. 31., 17.il. Its functions 
 were suspended during the AYar of Independ- 
 ence, and its building was used for a hospital. 
 Robert R. Livingston, Gouverneur Morris, and 
 John Jay, were among its early graduates ; and 
 Alexander Hamilton was one of its students 
 whose studies were interrupted by the opening 
 scenes of the Revolution. From the founding 
 of the college to the close of the colonial period, 
 little was done in behalf of public education. 
 Immediately after the Revolution, the number 
 of the governors of King's College, being so 
 lessened by death and absence as to require the 
 interposition of the legislature, an act was passed 
 in 1784, investing a new corporation, under the 
 title of the Regents of the University of the 
 State of New York, with all the rights, fran- 
 chises, privileges, etc., vested in the governors of 
 the college by its charter, and changing its name 
 to Columbia College. This act required that all 
 the estate real and personal, held by King's Col- 
 lege by virtue of its charter, should be applied 
 solely to the use of Columbia College, and em- 
 powered the regents to hold additional estate, 
 for the use of said college, to the amount of an 
 annual income of £3,500 ; and, " for the further 
 promotion of learning," to hold estates real and 
 personal to the annual amount of 40.0(1(1 bushels 
 of wheat ; " to found schools and colleges in any 
 part of the state," which colleges properly 
 founded should " be considered as composing a 
 
 part of the said university." The act of 1784 
 proving unsatisfactory, another act was passed 
 in 1787, declaring "'I hat an university be and is 
 hereby instituted within this state, to be called 
 and known by the name and style of "The Regents 
 of the University of the State of New Fork 
 This act reduced the number of regents, re- 
 manded Columbia college and all its estates to a 
 board of trustees, continued the power to hold 
 property to the amount of the annual income of 
 in. iioo bushels of wheat, granted authority to in- 
 corporate colleges, continued the power to confer 
 degrees, repeated the provision making such col- 
 leges a part of the university, made provision for 
 the incorporation of academies, and placed both 
 academics and colleges under the general super- 
 vision of the regents. In this year, and subse- 
 quent to the passage of the act. the lir.~t two 
 academies were incorporated. < linton Academy, 
 at East Hampton, and Erasmus Hall, at Flat- 
 bush. The latter is still in existence.— In 1789, 
 the legislature set a] art certain portions of the 
 public lands for gospel and school purposes; and, 
 in 1793, the regents, iu their report, recom- 
 mended the establishment of a general system of 
 common schools. In 1795, Governor Clinton, in 
 his message to the legislature, urged the establish- 
 ment of common schools throughout the state. 
 On the 9th of April, the same year, a law was 
 passed ''for the purpose of encouraging and 
 maintaining schools in the several cities and 
 towns in the state, in which the children of the 
 inhabitants of the state shall be instructed 
 in the English language, or be taught 
 English grammar, arithmetic, mathematics, and 
 such other branches of knowledge as are most 
 useful and necessary to complete a good English 
 education;" and the sum of $50,000 a year, for 
 five years, was appropriated for their support. 
 In 1798, the returns showed that 1,352 schools 
 were in operation, with 59,660 pupils. In 1805, 
 the Free School Society, afterwards the Fublic 
 School Society, in the city of >>'ew York, was 
 founded, its first school being opened in 1806. 
 (See New York City.) The first act contem- 
 plating a permanent system of common schools 
 was passed in 1812. The following table exhibits, 
 by decades, the progress made, under this and 
 subsequent laws, in the establishing of schools. 
 
 
 
 Number or 
 
 No ofchil 
 
 No. of 
 
 Year 
 
 Population 
 
 
 dren of 
 
 children 
 
 
 
 districts 
 
 school age 
 
 taught 
 
 1815... 
 
 1.U3.VJ10 
 
 2,031 
 
 176.449 
 
 140.106 
 
 1825... 
 
 1,614,458 
 
 7.042 
 
 395, 5KC 
 
 402,940 
 
 ISM... 
 
 •2.174,517 
 
 10,207 
 
 538.398 
 
 641.401 
 
 1845... 
 
 2.604.495 
 
 11.018 
 
 703.399 
 
 742,433 
 
 1S55... 
 
 :u fit'.. 2 12 
 
 11.798 
 
 1.214.113 
 
 945,087 
 
 1805... 
 
 3.831,777 
 
 11,780 
 
 1.39M.757 
 
 916,617 
 
 1875... 
 
 4,705,208 
 
 11,291 
 
 1.583,004 
 
 1,069,238 
 
 It will be observed that, for several years, more 
 children were reported in school than were 
 enumerated. This is due to the fact that, until 
 1851, the legal school age was between 4 and 16 
 years, after which it was from 4 to 21 until 
 1864, when it was declared to be from 5 to 21. 
 
 II. The acts of 1789 and 1795, as before 
 stated, made provision for the support of schools. 
 
638 NEW 
 
 The former set apart two lots in each township 
 of the public land thereafter to be surveyed, for 
 gospel and school purposes. According to the 
 comptroller's report, it appears that, in pursuance 
 of the law, 6100,000 was appropriated in 1799 
 and 1800; but this was never distributed. The 
 act expired in 1800. and an attempt to revive it 
 failed. But though these appropriations were 
 not paid, some effort was made to provide means 
 for the support of the schools. Lotteries were 
 authorized, in 1799 and L801, to raise money 
 "for the joint benefit of academies and common 
 schools, but chiefly the latter". An act, passed 
 April 8., 1801, "to divert certain moneys to be 
 applied to the use of free schools in the city of j 
 New York", directs the school moneys appor- 
 tioned to New York, to be paid to the trustees of 
 the several churches in that city, eleven being 
 enumerated, and each receiving one-eleventh part. 
 The law of 1812 appropriated $50,000 annually, 
 to hi distributed among the counties of the state; 
 and authorized the towns to raise by tax a 
 sum equal to their distributive share. The 
 law passed in 1814 made it the duty of the 
 boards of supervisors to levy on each town a 
 sum equal to its distributive share of the money 
 from the state, and made the forfeiture of the 
 school money for the county, the penalty for 
 a neglect or refusal to make such levy. No 
 provision was made by the original act of 1812, 
 for raising any money by district taxation, or by 
 rate-bill to supply deficiencies, because it was 
 believed that the income of the school fund and 
 the tax for the same amount would maintain a 
 school in each district for three months in the 
 year. But the amended act of 1811 required 
 "the trustees to cause a school to be kept three 
 months each year, to apply the school moneys 
 to the payment of teachers' wages, and, if there 
 should be a deficiency, to collect it from the ; 
 patrons of the schools in proportion to the at- j 
 tendance of their children. As the general school 
 law of 1812 did not apply to New 1'ork City, a 
 supplementary act was passed March 12., 1813, 
 permitting the city to share in the revenue of 
 the school fund. The city was required to raise 
 a sum equal to its share of such school money, 
 which was "to be apportioned and paid to the 
 trustees of the Free School Society of New York, ! 
 the trustees or treasurer of the Orphan Asylum 
 Society, the Society of the Economical School, 
 the African Free School, and of such incorpo- 
 rated religious societies in said city as now sup- 
 port, or shall hereafter establish, charity schools 
 within the said city." The distribution was to be 
 in proportion to the average number of children 
 taught, between the ages of 4 and 15 years. Nine 
 months' schooling during the previous year was 
 required; and the children were to be taught 
 free of expense. — In 1805, the common-school 
 fund was established by an act providing that 
 tin' net proceeds of ."iOO.oOO acres of the vacant 
 and unappropriated lands of the state which 
 should be first thereafter sold by the surveyor- 
 general should be appropriated as a permanent 
 fund for the support of common schools. This 
 
 amounted, at the end of that year, to 326,774. 
 The law provided that none of the income should 
 be distributed until it should amount to §50,000 
 annually ; and. accordingly, no distribution was 
 made until 1815. In 1849. the legislature passed 
 an act establishing free schools. The main feature v 
 of the act was the abolition of the rate-bill, and-"^ 
 the substitution therefor of district taxation. On 
 a submission of this act to popular vote, it was 
 approved by a large majority. The next year, 
 however, it was repealed, lint the repeal was not 
 sustained by the vote of the people. The contro- 
 versy was temporarily settled in 1851, by an act 
 repealing the law, and levying a state tax of 
 $800,000, to be distributed in lieu of the county 
 tax required by the law of 1814; it also restored 
 the rate-bill and extended the school year to six 
 months. In 1856, a tax of three-fourths of a 
 mill on each dollar of the valuation of properly 
 in the state was substituted for the §800,000 
 state tax. In 1867, the rate-bill was finally^ 
 abolished, and the state tax for the support of ■ 
 common schools was fixed at one and one-quarter 
 mill on each dollar of the assessed valuation of 
 property in the state. The act authorizing the 
 formation of union free-school districts was 
 passed in 1853. In 1804, the school year was ex- 
 tended so as to include 28 weeks, as at present. 
 In 1838, the income of the U. S. deposit fund 
 was by law appropriated as follows: §110,000, 
 for the payment of teachers' salaries; §55,000, 
 for the support of district libraries ; §28.000, 
 to the literature fund, to be expended for the edu- 
 cation of common-school teachers; and §15,000, 
 to colleges. The balance, which it was estimated 
 would annually amount to about §50,000, was 
 to be applied to the increase of the common- 
 school fund. The constitutional convention of 
 1846 ordained that §25,000 should annually be 
 set apart from the revenues of the U. S. deposit 
 fund, and become a part of the capital of the 
 school fund. From 1840 to 1846, the amount of 
 the fund derived from this source had increased 
 iiwiii si .'.Ki'J.-r.'l' to S2.n9n.63:; ; hut. from 1846 
 to 1866, it increased to §2,799,630. In 1834, the 
 regents of the university were required by law 
 to apply the surplus income of the literature 
 fund, beyond the sum of §12.000, to the education 
 of common-school teachers, by the distribution 
 of it to such academies as should undertake their 
 instruction. In 1866, a law was passed author- 
 izing the taking of land for school-house sites by 
 right of eminent domain. — The following table 
 exhibits by decades the financial progress of the 
 common-school system. 
 
 Year 
 
 Valuation of 
 real and 
 personal 
 
 Capital of 
 school fund 
 
 School- 
 
 rais° n d1y 
 county 
 
 
 
 $26,771 
 934.015 
 1,319,886 
 1,875,192 
 2,090,032 
 2,457,521 
 2,765,761 
 3,OS0,108 
 
 
 1815 
 
 1825 
 
 ums!!!!!! 
 1865!!!."! 
 
 1S76 
 
 S292.38K.S27 
 299.197,721 
 5i~.7M.CM 
 fill.-,.f,ln,09.-. 
 
 1.402.-S49.304 
 
 1,550,879,685 
 
 2,307,780,102 
 
 
 
 $('.0.1 
 
 80,000 
 100.000 
 110.000 
 156.000 
 155,000 
 170,000 
 
 $.10,11(10 
 100,000 
 193,503 
 soo.ooo 
 
 1. MS. 422 
 2,884,634 
 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 »;:;<,» 
 
 III. According to the law of 1705, each town 
 was to elect three or more commissioners to have 
 general charge of the schools, to license teachers, 
 and to apportion the public moneys to the 
 districts, in proportion to the number of days of 
 instruction given in each. The people in each 
 district were to elect trustees, to employ teachers, 
 and to provide for the schools. The act of 1 s 1 li 
 
 also required each town to elect three mmia- 
 
 Bioners of common schools, whose lirst duty was 
 to form the town into school-districts. They re- 
 ceived, and distributed to the districts, the public 
 moneys ; and the trustees were required to re- 
 port to them. Each town was also required to 
 elect from one to six inspectors, who, with the 
 commissioners, had the supervision of the schools. 
 and the examination of teachers. This law also 
 created the office of state superintendent of com- 
 mon schools ; and the first annual report was 
 made in 1813. In 1821, the legislature abolished 
 the office, and made the secretary of state, ex 
 officio, superintendent ot common schools. In 
 1822, an important amendment to the school 
 law gave the right of appeal to the superintend- 
 ent on all questions arising under any of its 
 provisions. In 1841, an act was passed creating 
 the office of deputy superintendent, and also 
 that of county superintendent, to whom all ap- 
 peals were first to be made, his decisions being 
 subject to review by the state superintendent. 
 In 1843, the offices of town commissioner of 
 schools and inspector of schools were abolished, 
 and that of town superintendent created in their 
 stead. The office of county superintendent was 
 abolished in 1817. and appeals were required to 
 be brought directly to the state superintendent; 
 and the returns of the town superintendents were 
 to be made to the county clerks. In 1854, the 
 legislature created a department of public in- 
 struction, and placed at its head a superintend- 
 ent of public instruction, to be elected by joint 
 ballot of the senate and assembly. In 1856, the 
 office of school commissioner was created, that 
 of town superintendent being abolished : and the 
 supen isors of the towns were made the financial 
 agents, to hold and pay out the moneys appor- 
 tioned by the school commissioners to the towns 
 and districts. The school-commissioner districts 
 were originally, and are now nearly, the same 
 as the assembly districts ; but they are not, like 
 the latter, required to be reconstructed after 
 
 ■ State Sii],<-riiit'ii<l,-itt*.—'\'\\v following is a list 
 of those who have served as superintendents of 
 common schools : Gideon Haw-ley, from Jan. 14., 
 1813 until Feb. 22., 1821 : William Esleeck, 
 until April 3., 1821, when the office was abol- 
 ished, its duties being performed by the follow- 
 ing persons, holding the office of secretary of 
 state: John Van Ness Yates, from April, 1821 
 until Feb., 1826 ; Azariah C. Flagg. until Feb., 
 1833; John A. Dix, until Feb.. 1839; John C. 
 Spencer, until Oct., 1841; when Mr. Spencer 
 being called to take a place in the cabinet at 
 Washington, the position of superintendent was 
 filled by the deputy, Samuel S. Randall, until 
 
 Feb., 1842; Samuel Young, until Feb.. 1845; 
 Nathaniel S. Benton, until Dec. 31., 1847; Chris- 
 topher Morgan, until Dec. 31., L851; Henry S. 
 
 ted, Victor M. Rice was elected, and served 
 ntil April, 18:">7, and was succeeded by the fol- 
 jwiug persons: Henry H. Van Dyck, until April 
 9., 1861; Emerson W. Keyes (acting), until Feb. 
 .,1862; Victor M. Rice (again),until April, 1868; 
 Vbram B. Weaver, until April, 1874; and Neil 
 
 IV. In 1830, A. c. Flagg- in Ins report, sug- 
 gested the establishment of district libraries; 
 
 and, in 1838, a law was passed, providing for 
 this, and authorizing each district to rai.-cbv tax 
 §2(1 for the first year, and $10 for each sue', ced- 
 ing year, for the purchase of books. This was 
 increased, in 1875, to $50 a year. The act of 
 1838. appropriating the income of the U. S. 
 deposit fund, set apart §55,000 a year for district 
 libraries, and required each county to raise for 
 the same purpose a sum equal to its distributive 
 share thereof. By an amendment passed in 1875, 
 this is reduced to $50,000. The total number 
 of volumes in these libraries was reported in 
 1845 as 1.203,139; in 1855, as 1,418,100; in 
 1865, as 1,181,811 ; and in 1875, as 809,141.— 
 Ample means have been provided for the edu- 
 cation of teachers. < lasses tor the instruction 
 of common school tea. hers were established by 
 the regents in certain academies, in 1834. in 
 pursuance of the provisions of the act of that 
 year already referred to. 'Hie sum now annually 
 appropriated by the regents for these classes is 
 $18,000. In 1844, the first state normal school 
 was established, at Albany, and opened on the 
 18th of December, in that year. In 1863, the 
 
 Oswego Training School was taken under the 
 patronage ot the state, and, by the acts of 1866 
 and 1867, was constituted a state normal school. 
 By Chap. 466 of the laws of 1866, normal schools 
 Were established, respectively, at Brockport, 
 Cortland, Fredonia, and Potsdam ; and, by 
 special acts, in 1867, a normal school was 
 established at Buffalo, and another at Oencsco, 
 the latter under the title of the Wadsworth 
 Normal and Training School.-— Teachers' in- 
 stitutes have been an important agency for the 
 improvement of common-school teachers. The 
 first teachers' institute in the state was held a1 
 Ithaca, Tompkins Co., April 4., 1843; other 
 counties soon followed, and. in 1817. teachers' 
 institutes were re-organized by the legislature, an 
 appropriation of $60 to each county being made 
 for their encouragement. — A compulsory edu- 
 cation Ion- was passed May 11., 1874. entitled 
 "an act to secure to children the benefits of ele- 
 mentary education." This law requires that every 
 child between 8 and 14 years of age shall be in- 
 structed in spelling, reading, writing, English 
 grammar, and arithmetic, at least 14 weeks each 
 year, at a day school, or at home, or 28 weeks in 
 an evening school. All persons are prohibited, 
 under a penalty of S5U fine, from employing 
 
640 
 
 children of the age mentioned without being 
 certified that such instruction was given the 
 previous year. This law was amended in some 
 respects in 187G; but it is to a great extent in- 
 operative. — In 1875, a law was passed providing 
 that "industrial or free-hand drawing shall 
 be included in the course of study in each of the 
 normal schools ; shall be taught in, at least, one 
 department of the schools under the charge of 
 the board of education in each city, in each union 
 free school, and in each free-school district in- 
 corporated by special act of the legislature." — 
 The general school law was alsn amended so that 
 state certificates should be granted by the super- 
 intendent only on examination, either by him- 
 self or by proper persons appointed by him. The 
 first examination under this law was held at 
 Albany, Dec. 16., 1875; nine candidates were ex- 
 amined, and four certificates awarded. 
 
 Educational Syst* i. The officers having 
 charge of the i mon schools are the super- 
 intendent of public instru iion, the school com- 
 missioners, and the district trustees. The super 
 intendent is elected for three years on joint bal- 
 lot of botli branches of the legislature. He has 
 the general supervision of all the schools in the 
 state; apportions the school money, superintends 
 the apportionment by the commissioners, and 
 sees that it is paid by the supervisors and ex- 
 pended by the trustees according to law. He 
 hears and decides all appeals regarding school 
 matters, and his decision is final, lie is charged 
 with the control and management of teachers' 
 institutes, and makes rules concerning district 
 libraries. He makes appointment of state pupils 
 to the institutions for the deaf and dumb and the 
 Mind, and has the supervision of those institu- 
 tions. He has the charge of all the Indian 
 schools in the state, and employs agents to super- 
 intend them. He is, ex officio, a regent of the 
 university, a trustee of the asylum for idiots, and 
 of the Cornell University. He receives and 
 compiles reports from all the school-districts, 
 and makes an annual report to the legislature. 
 The school commissioners are elected for the 
 term of three years by the people of their several 
 districts. It is their duty to see that the bound- 
 aries of districts are correctly described; to visit 
 and examine the schools; to advise with and 
 counsel the trustees ; to look after the condition 
 of the school-houses, and condemn such as are 
 unfit for use ; to recommend studies and text- 
 books; to examine and license teachers; to 
 examine charges against teachers, and, on suffi- 
 cient proof, to annul their certificates; and, when 
 required by the superintendent, to take and re- 
 port testimony in eases of appeal. 
 
 District trustees, one or three in each district, 
 are elected by the inhabitants. The term of 
 office of a sole trustee is one year; of each of a 
 board of three trustees, three years, one being 
 elected annually. The powers and duties of 
 these officers are, to make out tax lists and war- 
 rants ; to purchase or lease sites, to build or 
 hire school-houses, and to insure and have the 
 custody of all district property ; to employ and 
 
 pay teachers; and to report annually to the school 
 commissioner school statistics and such other in- 
 formation as may be required. — The school dis- 
 trict is the smallest territorial subdivision of the 
 state. It is formed by the school commissioner, 
 who makes an order defining its boundaries, and 
 files it in the office of the clerk of the town in 
 which the district is situated, lie may change 
 the limits of districts by a similar order. A 
 joint district is one that lies partly in two or 
 more counties. Union free-school districts are 
 formed under the law of 1853. authorizing the 
 inhabitants to organize a school in a district 
 comprising more territory and population, and 
 possessing greater powers, than an ordinary dis- 
 trict. About 100 districts have been formed by 
 acts of the legislature granting special powers 
 and privileges. The inhabitants, at the annual 
 district meeting, have power to elect a chair- 
 man, one or three trustees, a district clerk, a 
 collector, and a librarian ; to designate a site 
 for a school-house, to vote taxes to pay for a 
 site, to build and repair school-houses, and to 
 furnish them with fuel and appendages, also to 
 make up deficiencies for teachers' wages. They 
 may also vote taxes, not exceeding $25, for ap- 
 paratus and text-books. $50 fora library, $25 for 
 contingent expenses, and any sum necessary to 
 insure the district property, and to pay the costs 
 and reasonable expenses of suits at law in which 
 the district may be interested. The librarian 
 serves one year, and has charge of the district 
 library. The collector serves ior a year, giving 
 a bond for the faithful discharge of his duty in 
 collecting the moneys due on tax lists, and hold- 
 ing them subject to the order of the trustees. 
 The clerk holds office for one year. It is his duty 
 to keep a record of thedistrict meetings, to attend 
 meetings of trustees, and keep a record of pro- 
 ceedings; to notify persons elected as district 
 officers ; to report to the town clerk the names 
 and post-office address of district officers ; to 
 give trustees notice of every resignation accepted 
 by the supervisor ; and to keeji and preserve all 
 records, books, and papers belonging to the 
 office.— The town clerk is required to keep in 
 his office all books, maps, papers, and records re- 
 lating to the schools ; to record the certificate 
 of apportionment of school moneys, and to notify 
 trustees of such certificate ; to obtain from 
 trustees their annual report; to furnish the 
 commissioner with the names and post-office ad- 
 dress of all district officers ; to distribute books 
 and blanks to the trustees ; to file and record 
 the final accounts of supervisors ; to preserve 
 the supervisor's bond ; to file and keep the de- 
 scription of district boundaries ; and, when 
 called upon, to take part in the formation 
 or alteration of a school-district. The school 
 moneys apportioned to the several towns are 
 paid by the county treasurer to the supervisor, 
 who gives a bond, with two sureties, for double 
 the amount of money set apart to the town, for 
 the safe-keeping, disbursement, and accounting 
 for, of such moneys, and all other school moneys 
 that may come into his hands. The school mon- 
 
nys apportioned to a county, or to a city, arc paid 
 by the state treasurer mi the warrant of the 
 superintendent of public instruction ; and the 
 treasurer's check in payment must lie counter- 
 signed by the superintendent. All children in 
 tin' distrid between tin' ages of 5 and 21 years, 
 ina\ attend school ; and non-residents may also 
 attend it on such terms as the trustees may pre- 
 scribe. None hut a qualified teacher can receive 
 public money, or money raised by tax, in pay- 
 ment of his wages. A qualified teacher is one 
 who holds a state normal school diploma, a cer- 
 tificate from the superintendent, from a school 
 commissioner, or from a city or village officer 
 empowered to grant licenses. — The great major- 
 ity of the schools in the rural districts employ 
 but a single teacher, and are not graded ; but 
 the pupils are generally so arranged in i lasses as 
 in part to compensate for this. In the larger 
 villages, where most of the -union free schools," 
 and the -free schools" by special acts, are found, 
 the schools are more or less accurately graded, 
 and the system culminates in academical or 
 high-school departments. In the cities, each of 
 which, though under the general law. has special 
 provisions of law applicable to its own schools, 
 the schools are well I I and generally, with 
 the exception of Brooklyn and New York, have 
 at their hea I a high school. The system in 
 Brooklyn, finds its culmination in the academ- 
 ical grad (S of its grammar schools; and, in New 
 York, in the College of the City of New York, 
 connected with which there is an introductory 
 department, which performs the office of a high 
 school, a business or commercial school, and a 
 preparatory school. This department is under 
 the supervision and management of a special 
 principal. 
 
 Secondary and superior instruction is under 
 the control and supervision of the ivi/riilx of tin' 
 university who were originally incorporated 
 May 1., 1784; and were re-organized and re- 
 incorporated by the act of April 13., 1787 ; with 
 power to incorporate colleges and academies; to 
 appoint a president for any college, or a prin- 
 cipal for any academy, in case the trustees 
 should leave the office vacant for a year ; to 
 hold property to the amount of the annual in- 
 come of 40,0111) bushels of wheat ; and to confer 
 such degrees, above that of Master of Arts, as 
 are granted by any college or university in Eu- 
 rope. They were also authorized and required 
 to visit and inspect all academies and colleges 
 established or to be established ; to Inquire into 
 the system of education and discipl i th I in, 
 and make an annual report thereof to the legis- 
 lature; all of which powers and duties still re- 
 main. The board as re-organized, consisted of 
 the governor and lieutenant-governor, ex officio, 
 and 19 other persons named in the act. In 
 1842, the secretary of state, and in 1854, the 
 superintendent of public instruction, were made 
 regents, </■ officio, making the number of the 
 board, as at present constituted, 23. Vacancies, 
 except in case of ex officio membera, are filled 
 by the legislature; and the term of office, unless 
 
 YORK 041 
 
 1 forfeited, is for life. The officers of the board 
 area chancellor, a vice-chancellor, a secretary, 
 and an assistanl secretary. The annual meeting 
 is fixed by statute, and is held in the senate 
 chandier at Albany, on the evening of the second 
 Thursday of January of each year. ( tthcr meet- 
 ings arc held at such time and place as the 
 chancellor may appoint. Six members consti- 
 tute a quorum for the transaction of business. 
 They serve without salary. Other duties have, 
 from time to time, been imposed upon them by 
 law. In 1844, they were made trustees of the 
 state library; and, in the same year, in con- 
 junction with the superintendent of public in- 
 struction, were placed in charge of the State 
 Normal School at Albany. In L845, they were 
 made trustees of the state cabinet, and. in 1856, 
 were charged with what remained of the publi- 
 cation of thecoloni.il history of the state. In 
 
 of study for teachers' classes in academies; and 
 have prescribed the following : reading and 
 orthography; writing; arithmetic, intellectual 
 and written; English grammar; and geography. 
 The theory and practice of teaching must be 
 combined with these studies. When any of the 
 above subjects have been thoroughly mastered, 
 one or more of the following may be pursued: 
 al-j bia. geography, natural history, natural phi- 
 losophy, history of the I nited Slate.,, science 
 of government, and physiology. In 1853, the 
 regents were r quired to establish general titles 
 for the incoriiorittiou of academies, colleges, and 
 universities, in conformity with existing laws. 
 Academies, colleges, and universities are corpo- 
 rations, under the management of trustees, who 
 usually till all vacancies occurring in their num- 
 ber. They hold the property, appoint the pro- 
 fessors and instructors, and, in the absence of 
 special agreement, dismiss them at pleasure. 
 
 As shown by t' e statistii given below, much 
 dissatisfaction has been expressed with the double 
 feature of this educational system, as shown in 
 the existence of the office of superintendent of 
 public instruction, and of the board of regents; 
 and efforts have been made to give to it a unitary 
 character: but thus far without success. A bill 
 making the regents subordinate to the superin- 
 tendent and requiring them to report to him, 
 passed both houses of the legislature in 1870, 
 but was vetoed by the governor. Since then, 
 each of the patties in interest has tried, through 
 the aid of the law-making power, to secure for 
 itself the sole supervision of education : and 
 each has expressed, by these acts, the conviction 
 that the welfare of the schools demands a uni- 
 tary system. 
 
 Fiii mu-inl— The schools derive their support 
 from the following sources: (1) The income of the 
 common-school fund, which, in H75, amounted 
 to about $180,000. (2) The amount the legislature 
 may annually set apart from the income of the 
 United States deposit fund. This has been for 
 many years SI (15,000. (3) The state tax of one 
 and one-fourth of a mill on the dollar. (I ) J >istrict, 
 village, and city taxation. (5) The income from 
 
local funds, mainly gospel and school lands — 
 The mode of distribution is as follows : The 
 superintendent of public instruction, after ascer- 
 taining the amount to be apportioned, sets apart, 
 from the income of the United States deposit 
 fund, (1) The amount necessary to pay the 
 salaries of the school commissioners; (2) to each 
 city having a superintendent of common schools, 
 or a clerk of the board of education performing 
 the duty of superintendent, the sum of eight 
 hundred dollars, and in case any city is entitled 
 to more than one member of assembly, five hun- 
 dred dollars for each additional member, for the 
 support of the common schools of the city; 
 (3) for library moneys, such sums as the legis- 
 lature shall appropriate. (4) He then sets apart 
 from the five-school fund, four thousand dollars 
 for a contingent fund. (5) He then sets apart 
 for the support of Indian schools an equitable 
 sum, the same, in proportion to their numbers, 
 as is apportioned to schools for white children. 
 (6) He ascertains the total so apportioned, and i 
 deducts it from the total school moneys ap- 
 propriated, and divides the remainder into two 
 parts, one equal to one-third thereof, and the 
 other to two-thirds. (7) The one-third of the 
 money is divided by the whole number of quali- 
 fied teachers in the state, employed for twenty- ! 
 eight weeks or more dining the school year, to 
 ascertain the "district quota;" and is distributed 
 to the districts, one quota for each qualified 
 teacher employed for the required time. (8) He 
 apportions the remaining two-thirds, and also 
 the library money, among the counties according 
 to their population, as shown by the last state 
 or United States census, excluding Indians. In 
 counties where there are cities, separate appor- 
 tionments are made, one to the city, and one to 
 the rest of the county. (9) He apportions an 
 equitable sum for three separate neighborhoods 
 from the contingent fund. He certifies to the 
 county clerk, county treasurer, and school com- 
 missioners, and to city chamberlains or treasurers 
 the amount apportioned to each county and city. 
 The apportionment is payable on the first day 
 of April next after it is made. — The school 
 commissioners having received such certificate, 
 meet at the court-house in their respective coun- 
 ties on the third Tuesday in March, and, ap- 
 portion the money to the districts. (1) They 
 set apart to each district the " district quotas " 
 allowed by the state superintendent. (2) They 
 set apart any money assigned to districts as 
 equitable allowances. (3) They divide the re- 
 mainder into two equal parts ; one of which 
 they apportion to the districts in proportion to 
 the children of school age residing in each ; and 
 the other, to the districts according to the average 
 daily attendance of resilient pupils. (4) They 
 apportion the library money according to the 
 number of resident eliiMien of school age. They 
 sign their apportionment in duplicate, send one 
 copy to the superintendent of public instruction, 
 and deliver the other to the county treasurer. 
 They also certify to each supervisor the amount 
 apportioned to each district in his town, desig- 
 
 Dg the library money, and that for teachers' 
 
 The capital of the common-school fund Sept. 
 30., 1875 amounted to $3,080,107.68, consisting 
 of the following items : 
 
 Bends for lands 
 
 Bunds tor loans 
 
 Loan of 1S4U 
 
 Bank stocks 
 
 $237,4ss.s7 
 
 150,l2s.ol 
 
 49,320.00 
 5(1,(1(10.(111 
 
 30. 1.0(1 
 
 1,165,057.24 
 
 10,400,00 
 
 1,381,706.96 
 
 Oswego city bonds 
 
 Money in the treasury 
 
 The income for the year ending Sept. 30., 1875 
 was $179,303.66. The free-school fund, or 
 income derived from \\ mill school tax on 
 §2,367,780.102— equalized valuation of the real 
 and personal property in the state, amounted to 
 $2,950,725.1 3. The 'capital of the U. S. deposit 
 fund amounted to $4,014,520.71, consisting of 
 the following : 
 Mortgages for loans, and invested in 
 
 county bonds $3,436,407.93 
 
 State stocks 315,239.44 
 
 U. >. 5 per cent stocks. 1881 50,000.00 
 
 Money in the treasury 12,873.34 
 
 The revenue from which, in 1875, was $236,000, 
 
 as follows : 
 
 Set apart by statute for common schools $1('.5.000 
 
 For dividends to academies 28,000 
 
 For addition to capital of common-school fund 25,0(10 
 For teachers' classes m academies 18,000 
 
 The state has provided no funds for the sup- 
 port of colleges. For aid to academies, a fund 
 known as the literature fund, was derived from 
 the sale of certain tracts of land reserved for 
 literature, and was largely increased by four 
 lotteries, authorized in 1801, to raise 8100,000 
 for the joint benefit of the academies and com- 
 mon schools. 
 
 The capital of this fund consists of 
 
 1. State stocks :— 7 per cent $57,000.00 
 
 6 per cent 165,000.00 
 
 5 per cent 20,347.00' 
 
 2. Comptroller's bond payable on demand 25,330.94 
 
 3. One hundred shares iii the Albany In- 
 surance Company 4,000.00 
 
 $271,677.94 
 The income for the year ending Sept. 30., 1875, 
 was $17,979,49. 
 
 School Statistics. — The following are the chief 
 items of statistics of the common schools for the 
 year ending Sept. 30., 1875 : 
 
 Number of districts 11,291 
 
 Number of children,,! school ape, (5—21), 
 
 cities, 728.948 
 towns , 854,116 
 
 Total 1,583,064 
 
 Number of children enrolled in the 
 
 common schools, cities, 445,552 
 
 towns . (J13.C86 
 
 Total 1,059,238 
 
 Average daily attendance, cities, 226.980 
 towns , 304,855 
 
 Total 531,835 
 
 Number of male teachers, cities, 612 
 
 towns. 6,816 
 
 Total 7,42s 
 
 Number of female teachers, cities, 5.724 
 towns, 16.861 
 Total 22,585 
 
NEW YORK 
 
 ii4:; 
 
 Total number of teachers in the state 30,013 
 
 Number of teachers employed at the same 
 
 time for 28 weeks or more 19,073 
 
 Number of volumes in ilistriet libraries 809,141 
 
 Whole number of school-houses 11,78s 
 
 Whole number of pupils taught, in 
 
 Common schools 1,059,238 
 
 Normal schools 6,348 
 
 Academies 29,988 
 
 Colleges 2,921 
 
 Private schools 134,644 
 
 Law schools 663 
 
 Medical schools 1 .47*2 
 
 Total 1.235,269 
 
 The following statistics of Indian schools were 
 reported in 1875 : 
 
 Number of school districts 29 
 
 Number of teachers, « bites 23 
 
 Indians 32 
 
 Total 
 
 Nam 
 
 Exp< 
 
 ^ The school moneys for the fiscal year ending 
 Sept. 30., 1876, were from the following sources: 
 
 Common-school fund $170,000 
 
 U. S. deposit fund lc.>[ooo 
 
 State school tax 2,712,000 
 
 $3,047, I 
 
 follows : 
 
 Total 
 
 The apportionment for 1870 was a 
 
 For salaries of school conimis- 
 
 sioners $89,600.00 
 
 For supervision in cities 30,200.00 
 
 For libraries 60,000.00 
 
 For contingent fund, including 
 $89.01 for separate neighbor- 
 hoods 2,583.13 
 
 For Indian schools 3,379.9:1 
 
 For district quotas 9.">7,'on1.9C 
 
 For pupil and average attend- 
 ance quotas 1,9] t,l63.92 
 
 Total j 
 
 Aggregate expenditures for school purpo- 
 
 cities $6,292,737.30 
 
 towns 5,166,616.13 
 
 $11,459,353.43 
 
 -The state normal school 
 joint supervision and 
 
 Total 
 
 Normal Instruction- 
 at Albany is under tin 
 management of the si t 
 instruction and the regents of the imiversity 
 who arrange the studios, fix the number and' 
 compensation of teachers, prescribe the condi- 
 tions on which pupils shall be received fr 
 
 each county, giving to each its proportion acced- 
 ing to population. They appoint an executive 
 committee oi five persons, one of whom is the 
 superintendent, who is also the chairman for the 
 management of the school under the prescribed 
 regulations. The supervision and control of the 
 other normal schools are exercised by the super- 
 intendent of public instruction, who appoints 
 local boards for their management. The follow- 
 ing is a statement of the general statistics of the 
 normal schools for 1875 : 
 
 Number of normal schools, state ... 8 
 
 city (N.Y. Normal 
 
 College) 1 
 
 Total 9 
 
 Number of teachers in stale normal schools 112 
 
 No. of pupils, including those in training depts.. i;,:t(s 
 No. of students, in normal departments .2,9.,.-, 
 in N.Y. Normal College. .1,310 
 
 Total 7777774,265 
 
 No. of graduates, state normal schools •_>,-,!; 
 
 N. Y. Normal College I us 
 
 Total r_'i 
 
 Cost of state normal schools $163,892.03 
 
 «i u a j^_ y m formal College 88,873.23 
 
 Tlu> state normal school at Albany, in 187;">. 
 
 was 14. The normal school at I'.uekport had an 
 enrollment of 886: normal department, 325; 
 academic department. 221 ; intermediate and' 
 primary departments, 340. The average attend- 
 ance was 469, of whom 17(1 belonged to the 
 normal department. The number of graduates 
 was 14. — In the normal school at Buffalo, the 
 average attendance was lso, out of an en- 
 rollment of 314; academic students, 16. The 
 number of graduates was 75. — In the normal 
 school at Cortland, the enrollment was 807, 
 in the normal department, 370; training school, 
 
 179 and 328. In the normal school at h'redoi'iia,' 
 the enrollment was so.",, in the normal depart- 
 ment, 230 ; .academic. Is.",; senior, 116; junior 
 and primary, '27 I : the average attendance was. 
 respectively, 117, Is!), 103, and 188; total, 627. — 
 
 In the normal scl 1 at Geneseo, the enrollment 
 
 was 902,— in the normal department, 347; 
 academic, intermediate, and primary, 555. The 
 number of graduates was 24. The normal and 
 training school at Oswego had 13 instructors; 
 an enrollment of 460 pupils, and 59 graduates, 
 
 In the normal school 
 
 lhnent was 776, — normal 
 
 demic, 163 ; primary and 
 
 ie average attendance was, 
 
 and 1 49. The number of 
 
 ornial ( 'ollcge of 
 
 iber of students 
 
 of the training; 
 
 ancc was 1,07 1. 
 
 ,1, .- 
 
 lively, 183, 38, a 
 ictors was 15. I 
 
 ty of New York. 
 
 i ne nuniner or pupus enrolled m tne training 
 department was 803; average- attendance", 761. 
 The number of instructors in the normal college 
 was 34; in the training school, 18.— Teachers' 
 institutes are held for one or two weeks (in the 
 majority of the counties, for two weeks), under 
 the instruction of persons employed by the state 
 superintendent. The following statistics of in- 
 stitutes are reported for 1875 : — 
 Number "I counties in which institutes were held. .5.8 
 
 Number of institutes as 
 
 No. of teachers in atttendance, males 3,638 
 females. 7.295 
 Total..... 19.93:: 
 
 Average number from each county 188 
 
 Average expense per couuty '. $279.44 
 
ii!4 
 
 In 1875, the number of academies which main- 
 tained teachers' classes was 95, at which the at- 
 tendance was 619 males and 1,275 females. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
 The convention journals of the various dioceses 
 of the Protestant Episcopal Church, for ls75, 
 excepting the dioceses of New York and < 'entral 
 New York, state the number of schools, church 
 and parochial, as 16, with 804 pupils; Sadlier's 
 Catholic Directory for 1876, gives data from 
 which are derived' the following : the number of 
 schools, select and parochial, was 292 ; the num- 
 ber of pupils, 94,430. 
 
 Secondary Instruction— The whole number 
 of academies in the state reporting to regents is 
 222, of which more than one-half are connected 
 with, and form a part of, the free-school systems 
 of their respective localities. This number in- 
 creases annually, under a law of 1864, which 
 authorizes the trustees of any academy, by a 
 majority vote, to surrender their property to 
 the board of education of any union free-school 
 district in the same place, and thus pass out oi 
 existence as a corporation. The academies still 
 exercising their corporate rights depend mainly 
 upon tuition fees for their support. In 1870, 
 examinations were instituted by the regents to 
 test the attainments and determine the classifi- 
 cation of academic pupils. Printed lists of 
 questions are furnished on English grammar, 
 geography, and arithmetic, anil a list of 100 
 words to be spelled. Certificates are issued to 
 those who pass the examination successfully. 
 
 The following items of statistics are for the 
 year 1875 : 
 Number of academies and Bchools reporting. . 222 
 
 Number of teachers employed 1,151 
 
 Whole number of scholars :il,4i;:i 
 
 Average attendance bv terms 20,742 
 
 Number of academic scholars *, M - 
 
 Average age of scholars 17.3 yrs. 
 
 Receipts, from tuition $431,r>i'.0 
 
 other sources 7"i4.!i2.i 
 
 Total $1,186,685 
 
 Expenditures, for salaries ?7ss,2 l."> 
 
 other purposes. . . 372. a im 
 
 Total T. $1,160,844 
 
 Value of academic property $6,492,050 
 
 At the regents' examination in 1873 — 4, the 
 number of candidates examined was as follows : 
 lu arithmetic, 18,856 ; passed, 3,947 
 " geography, 17,376; " 8,649 
 
 " graiumar," 17,330; " 7.300 
 
 « spelling, 17,182; " 8,830 
 
 Of private institutions for secondary instruc- 
 tion, 38 for boys, 47 for girls, and 121 for both, 
 reported to the IT. S. Bureau of Education, in 
 1874, a total of 1,400 teachers, with 25,620 pu- 
 pils ; of whom 14,721 were represented as pur- 
 suing English studies, 3,131, classical studies, 
 and 3,791, scientific studies. There are also 
 many preparatory schools, included in which 
 may' be mentioned the introductory department 
 of the College of the City of New York. These 
 schools contain, in the aggregate, upward of 
 6,000 pupils. Business colleges are also numer- 
 ous, 15 making return, in L875, to the U. S. 
 Bureau, of 72 teachers and 2,919 pupils. Besides 
 
 these institutions, several of the cities— Albany, 
 Buffalo, Oswego, Rochester, Syra u8e,Troy,Utica, 
 etc,— support free academies or high schools. 
 
 Superior Ins ruction.— The following is a list 
 of the principal colleges and universities. 
 
 [Those exclusively for the higher education of 
 women are printed in italics ; those in small caps 
 admit both sexes.] 
 
 N UII-: 
 
 Ami. en 1'mvh;hiv 
 
 Urookhn Collegiate 
 
 and Polyt. lust.. . 
 
 Camsms Coll 
 
 Location 
 
 Alfred Centre. 
 
 Brooklyn 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 ev fork, 
 ew York, 
 
 l w York. 
 
 Union College 1 
 Univ. of N. Y. City 
 Univ. of Rochester 
 
 Vctssar College 
 
 Wells College 
 
 Auaudale 
 
 Albany and 
 
 S.'ll.'Tii , tudv 
 
 New York.... 
 Rochester . . . 
 Po'keepsie .., 
 
 Date 
 
 1861 
 
 Iioiioin- 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Noll-sect. 
 
 N"ii suet. 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Preab. 
 
 Non-i 
 
 
 For further information in regard to these in- 
 stitutions, see their respective titles. 
 
 Scientific and Professional Instruction.— 
 Under this head, arc included 7 schools of science, 
 having, in the aggregate, S4 instructors and 2,311 
 students; 14 medical schools, with 199 instruct- 
 ors, and 2,206 students; 4 schools of law, with 
 1 5 instructors and 589 students; and 12 theo- 
 logical schools, with 68 infractors and 652 
 students. The following tables contain lists of 
 t hi ise s veral institutions : 
 
 Medical Schools. 
 
 College of Pliys. 4; Surg, 
 of City of New York. . 
 
 ( nil, -.■ of Pharmacy of 
 City of New York 
 
 Medical 1 'opt. of Univer- 
 sity of Cityof N.Y... 
 
 Albany Medical College 
 of Union University.. 
 
 Medical Dept.oftheUui- 
 ilty < ■ - 
 
 Long Island Collegellos 
 
 pital 
 
 Ilomu-opathio Mod. Coll. 
 
 of tin' State of N.Y... 
 liollevne Hospital Mod 
 
 ica! College 
 
 NowYork Med. Coll. and 
 
 Hospital for Women.. 
 New York College o: 
 
 Dentistry 
 
 Eclectic Medical Collegs 
 New York Free Med. 
 
 Coll. for Women :New York 
 
 New York College ofi 
 
 Amcsthesia | 
 
 College of Physicians \ 
 
 Surg., Syracuse Univ. Sy 
 
 New York 
 New York 
 New York 
 Albany 
 Buffalo 
 Brooklyn 
 New York 
 New York 
 New York 
 
 N.-w York 
 
 1807 
 
 24 | 
 
 1S31 
 
 6 
 
 1837 
 
 21 
 
 1839 
 
 19 
 
 1846 
 
 9 
 
 1858 
 
 22 
 
 18(30 
 
 19 
 
 1861 
 
 19 
 
 1863 
 
 15 
 
 1865 
 1865 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 1871 
 
 13 
 
 1873 
 1870 
 
 
 15 
 
NKYV YORK 
 
 tilf) 
 
 Schools of Science. 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 
 ed 
 
 V. . . I 
 
 No. of 
 
 College of Agriculture 
 
 Dept of 8 ic m • . 1 ni\ 
 
 Engineering School, Un 
 
 Rensselaer Polytechnic 
 
 Institute 
 
 School of Mines. Colum 
 
 Ithaca 
 New York 
 
 S, lie 10 i Mil) 
 
 Troy 
 
 1865 
 1831 
 1795 
 1826 
 1864 
 
 1859 
 
 1802 
 
 2 
 
 12 
 
 16 
 
 25 
 9 
 
 206 
 15 
 33 
 
 181 
 
 Schools of Science and 
 
 Art. Cooper Institute 
 U. S. Military Academy. 
 
 New York 
 West Point 
 
 1,436 
 278 
 
 Albany Law School, Un- 
 ion University 
 
 Columbia College, Law 
 School 
 
 Department of Law. Uni- 
 versity, City of " • 
 
 New Y'ork 
 New York 
 
 Theological Schools. 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 ed 
 
 Relcom 
 
 Delancey DiTinit; School 
 General Theol, Sera, of 
 
 Prot. Episcop; 1< hurcli 
 Hamilton T 1 S m 
 
 Madison University. . . 
 
 Hartwick Seminary 
 
 Theological Dept.. Mar 
 
 tin Luther College. 
 Newburgh Theological 
 
 Geneva 
 New York 
 
 Hamilton 
 
 Hartwick 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 Xewbiirgh 
 
 Rochester 
 
 Troy 
 
 Susp. Bridge 
 
 Canton 
 
 New York 
 
 1817 
 
 1820 
 1816 
 
 1853 
 
 1836 
 
 1850 
 
 1864 
 
 1863 
 
 1820 
 
 1858 
 
 1836 
 
 P. Epis. 
 
 P. Epis. 
 
 lop 
 Luth. 
 
 Ger.Lnth. 
 
 Rochester Theological 
 Seminary 
 
 St. Joseph's Provincial 
 
 
 Seminary of <>ur I.a.ly ot 
 Angels 
 
 Auburn The.logi.al Sem- 
 inary 
 
 Theological Dept.. St. 
 Lawrence University. . 
 
 Union Theological Scm- 
 
 Bap. 
 B. C. 
 
 R. C. 
 Presb. 
 Univ. 
 Presb. 
 
 Tho New York Nautical School, under the 
 managment of the hoard of education of the 
 city of New York, was established for the pur- 
 pose of educating seamen for the mercantile 
 
 marine, and i 
 
 scupies, in conformity with an act 
 
 of Congress, 
 
 ! June '-'.. 1874, the 1". S. 
 
 ship St Man 
 
 - in \. Y. harbor. In 1875, the 
 
 whole numbe 
 
 tan In was 185; the average at- 
 
 tendance. 97. 
 
 This institution is in a flourishing 
 
 condition. 1 
 
 te first class, consisting of 60 pu- 
 
 pils, graduate 
 
 1 in November, L876. 
 
 and opened in 1818 ; (2) The N. Y. Institution 
 for the Improved Instruction of I leaf-Mutes, in 
 New York, established in 1870; (3) the Cou- 
 
 tcnlx St. Mary's institution for the Improved 
 Instruction of Deaf-Mutes, in KulValo. iv, ..^m/rd 
 by the state in 1872; and (li the Central New 
 York Institution for Deaf-Mutes, in Rome, in- 
 corporated and organized in 1875. 
 
 Any parent having a deaf and dumb child 
 above the age of twelve years, though able to sup- 
 port him at home, being without sufficienl means 
 to pay for his support at a proper institution 
 where lie may be instructed, mav present to the 
 
 inability to pay, and thereupon it becomes the 
 duty of the superintendent to give to said child 
 an appointment, for five years, to one of tin- 
 above named institutions. 'I he overseer of the 
 poor of the town, if any deaf-mute child, over 
 six and under twelve vein's of age. is liable to be- 
 comeacounty charge, or becomes such.may .--end 
 such deaf-mute child to "any institution in this 
 state for the education of deaf-mutes". [Laws 
 0/1875.) A boarding-school for female deaf- 
 mutes is connected with St. Joseph's Academy, 
 located at Fordham, and under the control of tho 
 Roman Catholic ' hurcli. 'I he following statis- 
 tics in relation to the instruction of deaf-mutes 
 
 No. of pupils supported by the state 355 
 
 females .... '247 
 Total...: 
 
 684 
 
 he education of th 
 
 The New \ oik Inst 
 
 • blind 
 
 B instructors, and IT: 
 
 pupils; 
 
 State Institution, lot 
 
 ited at 
 
 which, in 1875, had I 
 (2) The New York £ 
 
 Batavia, incorporated in 1867, and receiving its 
 support from legislative appropriations. In 
 L875, the number of instructors was 10; of pu- 
 pils, 166.— The Now York Asylum for Idiots 
 
 was tirst established at Albany m I'M", by 11. 
 B.Wilbur as a private institution. It was adopted 
 by the state, and continued tit Albany, for a few 
 years, and removed to Syracuse, in 1854. The 
 building was erected by the state, in 1853 -I. at 
 a cost of $70,000, on a site donated by residents 
 of SyraCVJ e. This institution has deservedly at- 
 tained an excellent reputation, as amongthebest 
 of its kind. — The number of pupils, in lis7.>. was 
 207 : average attendance for the year, L83. 
 
 /.'/ I 'I he first teachers' 
 
 association in the state, as far as can be ascer- 
 tained, was TheTeai hi re' Association for Mutual 
 Improvement, of the town of Charlton. Its first 
 meeting was held .(an. .">., 1836; and it continued 
 
 M L839. In July, 1836, J. Orville Taylor 
 
 issued a call, in the Common Scl ol Assistant, 
 
 for a convention of tl common .- 1 1 teachers 
 
 of the Male'' to bo hold at Albany; and the meet- 
 ing. Sept. 'Jo.. L836, resulted in the formation of 
 the State Teachers' Society. This a a 
 
 held a meeting Feb. 18.. 1837. and a convention 
 at Utica on the 11th of May following ; but, for 
 
046 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 some unexplained reason, no subsequent meeting 
 was held. The next movement to form an associa- 
 tion of the teachers of the state was made in 
 March, 1845. at a meeting of the Albany County 
 Teachers' Association. A call for a convention 
 was issued: and a meeting. July 30. and 31., 1845, 
 at Syracuse, resulted, attended by more than 150 
 teachers. This association has held an annual 
 convention each year since that time, except in 
 1x4'.). The addresses, reports, resolutions, and 
 discussions have taken a wide range, covering 
 the entire field of public education, and have ex- 
 erted a powerful influence both in the school 
 room and in legislative halls. Other associations 
 have sprung up in all parts of the state. The 
 principals of the normal schools have an associa- 
 tion which holds an animal meeting. The State 
 Association of School Commissioners and City 
 Superintendents, organized in 185G,also holds an 
 animal meeting. The superintendent of public 
 instruction is, ex officio, its president. The Uni- 
 versity ( 'onvocation, organized in 1863, is an asso- 
 ciation composed of the members of the board of 
 regents, of all teachers in colleges, normal schools, 
 ami academies that are subject to the visitation 
 of the regents, of the trustees of such institu- 
 tions, and of the president and other officers of 
 the State Teachers' Association. The chancellor 
 is. the permanent president, and the secretary of 
 the board of regents is the permanent secretary. 
 
 The rocation meets annually at Albany. 
 
 School Journals. — The following arc the prin- 
 cipal school journals which have been published 
 in the state: The Common School Assistant 
 (monthly), published at Albany, in 1836, by J. 
 < (rville Taylor, discontinued in 1-:S!>; The Dis- 
 trict School Journal (monthly), commenced at 
 Geneva, in 1840, by Francis Dwight, removed, in 
 1841, to Albany,' discontinued ' in 1 852 ; The 
 Teachers' Advocate (weekly), first published at 
 Syracuse, in 1845, by L. \V. Hall, in 1S47. 
 united with the American Journal of Education 
 (monthly), commenced, in 1846, in New York. 
 edited by Joseph McKeeii, afterwards county 
 superintendent of schools, anil (1854 — 6) assist- 
 ant en \ superintendent in New York; this jour- 
 nal was merged in The Teachers' Advocate, 
 
 New York 
 
 Albany, in 1 
 York State 
 1856, by Ja 
 with The An 
 
 NEW YORK (City) 
 
 Educational Journal (monthly), commenced at 
 Fredonia, in 1872, united, in 1875, with The 
 School Bulletin, established in 1874, at Syracuse; 
 and TheNaiional Teachers' Monthly, commenced 
 
 at New York, in 1875. 
 
 For further information in regard to the 
 history of education m this state. set- ,\ . IirssKix. 
 An Account of New York Schools 1847) ; S. S. 
 Ram.au.. Hist,,,;/ of On <;,„,„ „->,/„.,./ Sushn, 
 
 Education in' 
 order of the In 
 History of il 
 Ddnshee, Hist 
 Prot. Dutch C 
 of Public Edu 
 1626 to 1746 
 
 j it ni 
 
 the Vr, 
 
 Education (1869); Bourne, 
 fe School Society (1870); 
 hi S hool of the Reformed 
 1853); D.J. Pratt, Annals 
 n the State of N.Y., from 
 V. M. Rice, Special Re- 
 State of Education in the 
 
 United States and other countries (1867). 
 NEW YORK (Cityi, the metropolis of the 
 
 state of New York, the chief emporium of the 
 United States, and the most populous city of the 
 western continent. Its population, according to 
 the state census of 1875, was 1,046,037.— The 
 history of education in this city commences 
 almost with its first settlement by the 1 hitch, 
 who, in their own country, had already realized 
 the importance of popular education. " Neither 
 the perils of war," says Brodhead, " nor the 
 busy pursuit of gain, nor the excitement of 
 political Btrife, ever caused them to neglect the 
 duty of educating their offspring. Schools were 
 every-where provided, at the public expense, 
 with good school-masters to instruct the chil- 
 dren of all classes in the usual branches of edu- 
 cation ; and the consistories of the churches 
 took zealous care to have their youth thorough- 
 ly taught the catechism and the articles of 
 religion. 'I he offices of minister and school- 
 master were at first united, and the school was 
 under the control of the established church. In 
 1633, these offices were separated: but it was 
 several years before a school-house was built. At 
 the end of Stuyvesant's administration, there 
 were, in New Amsterdam. 3 public schools, a 
 dozen or more private schools, and a Latin school 
 of great repute. The first public school estab- 
 lished in New Amsterdam by the Hutch has 
 continued to the present time, under the title of 
 the School of the Reformed Protestant Hutch 
 Church. After the conquest of New Nether- 
 lands l.v the Knelish.in 1 IHM. the schools of New 
 
 dai 
 
 .establish, 
 
 Seller 
 
 Al.salc 
 
 lislled 
 
 York, 1855 7 
 
 School Journal (semi-monthly), established in 
 New York, 1809 : The Journal if Eihieation . 
 first published in Brooklyn, in 1875, afterwards 
 in New York, until 1876 ; The New York State 
 
 net was passed by the colonial legislature for the 
 "encouragement of a Grammar Free School in 
 the City of New York :" but it does not appear 
 that the school was immediately established. 
 This act expired bv limitation in 170!) ; and. for 
 a period of twenty years thereafter," no effort 
 seems to have been made to revive it, nor any 
 The New York \ measures taken in behalf of primary education 
 during the subsequent history of the colony. 
 King's (now Columbia) College was established 
 in L754. During the Revolutionary war, the 
 schools of the city were closed ; and, for several 
 
NEW FORK (Cm) 
 
 years after the termination of the war and the I city, ami local school inspectc 
 
 establishment of the federal government, 
 measures were taken to provide schools for the 
 people, except by benevolent societies. The 
 
 each ward ; but still allowing (I 
 Society and other corporations 1 
 
 schools wen 
 
 Society, whi 
 trol of the i 
 society was 
 " The Societ; 
 the City of 
 
 
 Wi 
 
 elc 
 
 the society. 1 he first school was opened by 
 the society May 17., L806. In 1808, the name 
 of the society was changed to the Free-School 
 Society of New York. In 1815, it received 
 $3,708.14 from the school fund, the quota of 
 the city under the first apportionment of the 
 fund. Then the whole number of pupils, un- 
 der its care was 933, taught in ;i schools. 
 These schools were organized under the Lan- 
 casterian or monitorial system, and so con- 
 tinued to a considerable extent up to the time 
 
 ol S< 
 
 embers of the 
 • officio, of the 
 
 • : and the trustees 
 ie members. The 
 ion were members. 
 
 ■ere rapidly established, and 
 
 ■al basis, the old monitorial 
 greatly restricted or aban- 
 buildings Vicing constructed 
 ier of (lass looms, auda much 
 
 liar 
 
 vervyreat rivalry, and the 
 tturesof the ward schools, as they 
 ive them a great advantage over 
 
 'ublic Scl 1 Society. The latter 
 
 financial embarrassment, its an- 
 
 stanl obstacle to this. The only 
 to merge the systems, and transfer 
 of the society to the city. With i 
 
 corder, of the board of trustees. In 1831, the 
 legislature authorized, for the. support of the 
 schools, the levying of a tax of one-twentieth 
 of one per cent of the assesse 1 valuation of the 
 city property. The commissioners of the com- 
 mon-school fund, consisting of our person from 
 each ward of the city, appointed by the common 
 council, received and distributed the school 
 moneys of the city and the Btate; and it was 
 their duty to visit every school twice in each 
 year. In addition to these means of support, 
 considerable donations of money and land had 
 been made to the society from the commence- 
 ment of its beneficent career. In 1840, the 
 trustees of the Catholic Free Schools applied to 
 
 ipate in the school moneys, and, in that appli- 
 cation, took occasion to find considerable fault 
 with the internal management of the schools. 
 and the text-books used, which they denounced 
 as practically sectarian, and referred to the 
 Society as a "gigantic and growing monopoly", 
 to which it was unwise to intrust, to so- large an J 
 extent, the interests of public instruction.'" An j 
 exciting discussion ensued, first, in the common j 
 council, afterwards, in the legislature; and, in 
 
 1842, on the it emendation of the governor, 
 
 William II. Seward, an act was passed author- 
 izing the election of school commissioners who 
 were to constitute a board of education for the 
 
 
 he eslabhsh- 
 demy, for hoys, in case the 
 veil by a majority of the 
 y. Such approval having 
 sry large majority (19,400 
 stitution was organized in 
 as the first presi- 
 ii. by a special act 
 ( 'ollcge of the ( 'ity 
 ie Female Normal 
 us to which time, 
 
 \\cb>l 
 
 of New York.— In 1870, 
 
 College was organized : prev 
 
 there was no normal school in the city except a 
 
 Saturday school for teachers. There is. at present, 
 
 Nei 
 
 \1,, 
 
 gamzatiou oi the system in New \ ork since 1853. 
 Then the board of education consisted of two 
 school commissioners from each ward, one-half 
 
048 
 
 NEW YORK (City) 
 
 elected annually; and there were also elected in 
 each ward eight trustees, and two school inspect- 
 ors; the twelve, including i c >i 1 1 in i.-^-i rs trustees, 
 
 and inspectors, constituting a waul board of 
 school officers. This continued until 1m; l.wlien an 
 act was passed dividing the city into seven school- 
 districts, for each of which three commissioners 
 of schools were elected for a term of office of 
 three years, one third retiring each year. Five 
 trustees were elected in each ward; and three 
 
 inspectors were, on I he n ination of the mayor. 
 
 appointed by the board of education for each 
 distii t. In 1 869, the system was again changed, 
 the board of education being composed of twelve 
 commissioners appointed from the city at large 
 by the mayor. In 1871. the educational system 
 was made a department of the city government, 
 all the officers— commissioners, inspectors, and 
 trustees being appointed by the mayor. In 1873, 
 the law was passed under which the schools are 
 now (1876) conducted. 
 
 County and City Superintendents. - The first 
 superintendent of schools in the city of New 
 York was William L. Stone, appointed in 
 pursuance of the state law passed May '_'<;., 
 1841, creating the office of county superin- 
 tendent to be appointed by the board of super- 
 visors in each county. Col. Stone served until 
 his death, iii 1844, when he was succeeded by 
 David ,\1. Reese, till 1847; William A. Walker, 
 till 1848; Joseph McKeen, till 1853, as county 
 and city superintendent, the latter from 1851; 
 S.S. Randall, till 1870; Henry Kiddle, from 
 1870 until the present time.- elected for the 
 third time in 1876. Mr, Kiddle had previously 
 served as chief assistant superintendent from 
 1856 to 1870. 
 
 School System. — The board of education con- 
 sists of twenty-one members appointed from the 
 city at large 
 of tiv 
 
 oroftener if required, to the state superintendent. 
 He may also revoke licenses, with the concurrence 
 of two of the inspectors of the district in which 
 the teacher is employed ; but the teacher has a 
 right of appeal to the state superintendent. There 
 are also seven assistant superintendents, elected 
 in the same manner and for the same term as 
 the city superintendent, whose duties are to ex- 
 amine schools and assist in the examination of 
 teachers, under the direction of the city super- 
 intendent. — The schools are supported from the 
 general tax levied on the real and personal prop- 
 erty of the city for the support of the city 
 government, etc. The city, it is true, receives 
 from the state its distributive portion of the 
 state school moneys (see New York); but its 
 contribution to the state for school purposes is 
 greatly in excess of all that it receives in return, 
 the difference, in 1 875, amounting to $827,253.87. 
 Teachers' certificates are conferred, after ex- 
 amination, by the city superintendent, but must 
 also be signed by at least two school inspectors, 
 certifying that they were present at the exami- 
 nation and that they concur in granting the 
 same. These certificates are, at first, provision- 
 al, and attest only the scholarship and moral 
 character of the holders: and no permanent 
 certificate, attesting the ability to teach, can 
 be conferred until at least six months' experi- 
 ence has been had in the public schools of 
 the city. No person is permitted to perform 
 service in any position as a teacher until duly 
 licensed, and no certificate is valid after a dis- 
 continuance of service of two years. ( andidates 
 for provisional licenses, or certificates, must be 
 examined in reading, spelling. 1'iiglish grammar, 
 history of the United Stat.-'. English literature, 
 arithmetic, algebra (through quadratics), plane 
 geometry, descriptive astronomy | hysi B, zoology, 
 principles and methods 
 to obtain a permanent 
 tion or grade, the candi- 
 . must beattested, and he 
 examination in the par- 
 
NEW YORK (City) 
 
 paid to teachers are as follows: to principals 
 of male grammar schools — maximum, $3,000; 
 minimum, $2,250 ; of female grammar schools- 
 
 max.,$2, i; min., $1,200; of primary schools 
 
 max., $1,800; mira.,'$l,000; to vice-principals 
 of male grammar Bchools max $2,500; min., 
 $2,000;offemalegrammarschools toot.,$1,298; 
 min., §1,200; of primary schools — max., $1 ,200; 
 min., S900; to male assistants, an average nol 
 exceeding $1,652; to female assistanta in male 
 grammar schools, an average of $850, in female 
 grammar schools, an average of $767; in primary 
 schools, an average of SHOO. The minimum of 
 salary payable to any teacher is $500. The 
 school age is from 4 to 21 years; and "par- 
 ents, guardians, or other persons having the 
 care or custody of children," residing in the 
 city, are entitled to send such children to any 
 of the public schools. — The course of study 
 of the grammar and primary schools embraces 
 reading, spelling. English grammar, geography, 
 arithmetic, the history of the United States, 
 astronomy, algebra, book-keeping, penmanship, 
 drawing, and vocal music, German or French 
 maybe taught in the three higher grades of the 
 grammar-school course, whenever the parents or 
 guardians of at least thirty pupils desire it. Pu- 
 pils to be promoted to the grammar schools, must 
 be able to read inaThird Header, to ciphi i a Fat 
 as long division (with divisors not exceeding 25), 
 have learned the elements of geography, and 
 have made some progress in penmanship and 
 drawing. Sewn, i ; be taught in the grammar 
 
 schools forgirls. Theai mt of time to he given 
 
 to each study is carefully fixed by the rules of 
 the board of education. 
 
 The whole n Iier of ,-cl Is under the (are of 
 
 the board of education is 3(18. as follows: 46 
 grammar schools for males: 46,for females; L3,for 
 both sexes (mixed schools) : 66 primary depart- 
 ments (in the same buildings with grammar 
 schools) ; 45 separate primary schools ; 7 colored 
 Schools: 4<; corporate schools; .'{5 evening schools: 
 besides the Normal College, the Saturday Nor- 
 mal School, for teachers, the Training School. 
 and the N. Y. Nautical School. The following 
 table presents the »■/„»// statistics for 1875 : 
 
 Grade of schools. 
 
 No. of 
 -diool- 
 
 v, ,,| 
 
 '"rolled" 
 
 luelTT 
 
 Normal College 
 
 Training School 
 
 Satmdav Normal 
 School 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 105 
 
 111 
 
 1 
 
 34 
 
 is 
 
 9 
 
 1,112 
 
 1,388 
 37 
 3 
 
 2,031 
 
 803 
 
 560 
 46,813 
 
 109,003 
 
 1,482 
 
 185 
 
 1,071 
 
 Grammar Schools. . . . 
 Primary Departments 
 
 and Schools 
 
 Colored Schools 
 
 Nautical School 
 
 36,572 
 
 62,418 
 
 S72 
 97 
 
 Total in day school ! 
 
 227 
 
 2,601 
 
 lr.ll.s77 
 
 101,940 
 
 Evening Schools 
 
 35 
 
 40S 
 3,009 
 
 24.149 
 
 10,343 
 
 Total in public schools 
 
 262 
 46 
 
 I .-..ii-j.; 
 
 112,283 
 
 Corporate Schools 
 
 195 
 
 3,204 
 
 22,812 
 
 2ii7,s::s 
 
 9,092 
 
 Grand total 
 
 308 
 
 121,375 
 
 NEW YORK CITY COLLEGE 64» 
 
 Receipts (for 1875—6): 
 Apportioned to the city by 
 
 the state superintendent J .',- I.e.. 1 . 
 Raised by local tax 2,964,486.98 
 
 Total $3,549,141.56 
 
 Payments : 
 
 Fori -hers' salaries , . . J 2, 439,696. 36 
 
 " buildings, sites, re- 
 pairs, etc 390,296.22 
 
 " school apparatus. 
 
 books, etc 144,273.29 
 
 Colored schools 39,503.82 
 
 Corporate " 103,126.05 
 
 Other expenses 432,245.82 
 
 Total 13,549,141.56 
 
 Private, Parochial, and Denominational 
 Schools. — No complete and reliable statistics in 
 relation to private schools in the city have been 
 collected since 1867, in which year there were 
 
 23 Roman Catholic free schools, having 16.342 
 pupils : 24 R. C. pay schools, with 6,070 pupils; 
 
 24 schools of the Protestant Episcopal Church, 
 with 2,367 pupils; 22 schools connected with 
 other Protestant denominations, with 5.713 pu- 
 pils; 12 Hebrew schools, with 998 pupils; 25 
 German schools, free and private, with 3,641 
 pupils; and 1 68 oilier private schools, with 1 1.875 
 pupils ; making, in all, 298 schools, with 47,006 
 pupils. 'I his class of schools has considerably 
 increased in number and attendance since that 
 time. At the close of 1875, the Catholic paro- 
 chial schools numbered 57. with an enrollment of 
 30,732 pupils,— 13,062 boys and 17,670 girls, 
 taught by about 380 religious and laj teachers. 
 Besides these, there were ISselecl schot I i. long- 
 ing to this denomination, which gave instruction 
 to about 1,500 pupils. For information in re- 
 gard to the educational institutions of a higher 
 grade, see Nkw York [State). 
 
 NEW YORK, College of the City of, 
 is the only free college as yet established by 
 any city of the I'nited States which is supported 
 wholly by annual taxation. It was originally 
 organized as the New York Free Academy, in 
 the year 1848, the subject having been first 'sub- 
 mitted to a vote of the citizens, who approved it 
 by an overwhelming majority. In the year i860, 
 by act of the legislature, it was "erected into the 
 College of the City of New York." but the emirs,. 
 of study remained unchanged. It is a part of 
 the common-school system of the city, and is 
 governed by a board of trustei 3,< omposed of the 
 members of the board of education and the pres- 
 ident of the college. The h» also establishes an 
 executive committee of nine trustees, including 
 the president, for the "care, management, and 
 government of the college." An annual ap- 
 propriation of $150,000 is made for its support. 
 Every thing is tree. —tuition, books, and station- 
 ery. The expenses for commencement exercises 
 and junior class exhibitions are paid by the 
 board, and an annual appropriation of $200 is 
 made to each of the two literary societii s of the 
 college. Its students are drawn from the com- 
 mon schools. The candidates for admission must 
 have attended one year at a common school in 
 the city, and must be 14 years of age. The sub- 
 
<J50 NEW YORK UNIVERSITY 
 
 jects in which they are examined in June of 
 each year are those taught in the grammar 
 schools. The college curriculum extends through 
 5 years, and comprises two full courses of study, 
 — the ancient, and the scientific. The former his 
 for its main feature the study of Latin and 
 Greek; the latter, that of French and German. 
 The calculus and mixed mathematics are taught 
 only in the scientific course. There is a partial 
 course for introductory or first-year students, 
 finished in one year, and known as the com- 
 mercial course. The students are arranged in 
 five classes, introductory, freshman, sophomore, 
 junior, and senior. In the collegiate year, 187(5 
 — 7. there were in the introductory class, 512; 
 freshman, 163; sophomore. KO; junior, 57; senior, 
 50 ; total, 862. Of these, there were in the an- 
 cient course 348 ; in the scientific course, 276 ; 
 in the commercial course, 238. As there is no 
 requirement in ancient or modern languages for 
 admission, these are begun in the college. There 
 are It professors, who with the president form 
 the faculty. In addition to these, there are 18 
 tutors; total number of instructors, 32. The 
 .subjects taught are Latin, (ireek, French, Ger- 
 man. Spanish, Knglish, history, mat hematics, 
 mechanics, chemistry, natural history, philosor,' 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL 
 
 with the scientific department. In 1874 — 5, the 
 number of instructors and students was as fol- 
 lows : arts and science. 14 instructors and 140 
 students; line arts. I instructor and Li students; 
 
 versity have been as follows : the Rev.JamesM. 
 Mathews, D. D., 1830—38 : the Hon. Theodore 
 Frelinghuysen, 1. 1.. D., 1838—49; the Rev. Isaac 
 Ferris, D.D., LL.D., 1852—70; and the Rev. 
 Howard Crosby. I). I)., LL !>., the present in- 
 cumbent, appointed in 1870. 
 
 NEW ZEALAND. See Australia. 
 
 NIEMEYER, August Hermann, a Ger- 
 man educator and author, born Sept. L, 1754 ; 
 died July 7., 1828. In 1779, he was appointed 
 extraordinary, and. in 1784. ordinary professor 
 of theology in the university of Halle, holding 
 
 if A. H. Fn 
 
 rity as one c 
 if Franeke. 
 in 1785; an. 
 
 ig; and. in the con 
 . book-keeping, an 
 
 penmanship. Two degr 
 
 elor of Arts, and Bachelor of Sciences. There 
 
 is also a J mst -gradual:- course in engineering, In 
 1875—6, this had no students; in the present 
 year, 1876—7, there are 3. The library con- 
 tains 18,000 volumes, and its support is de- 
 rived from the interest on two bequests, — the 
 
 fund of $5,000. The apparatus of all kinds, 
 illustrating the principles of chemical, physical, 
 and mechanical science, is valued at $20,000. 
 The cabinet of natural history is estimated to be 
 worth $3.000.— One of the best collections, in 
 the United States, of casts from the Elgin mar- 
 bles, is in the department of drawing; anil, to- 
 gether with other casts from the antique, is val- 
 ued at 83,000. The fund for annual medals 
 donated by citizens is $5,250. The college 
 buildings together with the site are valued at 
 $190,000, and belong to the city. There have 
 been but two presi lents since the organization 
 of the institution: Horace Webster. LL. D., ap- 
 pointed in 1848; Alexander S. Webb. LL.D., 
 
 NEW YORK, University of the City of. 
 
 \ 
 
 as appointed 
 a hers' semi- 
 s.Niemeyer 
 07, owing to 
 li had been 
 id by King 
 
 he V as cole 
 
 gards the harmonious development of the facul- 
 ties with which v>e are endowed. His Grundr 
 salze tier Erziehung etc. gradually grew from 
 one to three volumes, and he himself edited 
 eight editions of the work. 
 
 NORMAL COLLEGE. See New York 
 {City). 
 
 NORMAL SCHOOL, the name given, in 
 the United States and some other countries, to 
 
 of $200,000, wit 
 Of law and medi 
 incut of arts is 
 course in the oh 
 engineering and 
 
 :e i- free. The i 
 
 i- rents of the in 
 neofaliemlowinei 
 
 chool of art an 
 
NOKTII CAROLINA 
 
 651 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, one of the thirteen 
 original states of the American Union, having 
 
 Educational History.— The constitution of 
 L776 provided thai a school orschools shall be 
 
 established liy the legislature tor the convenient 
 instruction of youth, with such salaries to the 
 masters, paid by the public, as may enable them 
 to instruct at low prices; and that all useful 
 learning shall be encouraged in one or more 
 universities." This is believed to be the first 
 declaration made by the authorities of the state 
 in the interest of education. Nineteen years after, 
 the state university was organized; but no action 
 was taken for the establishment of public schools 
 till 1816, when the general assembly, at the in- 
 stance of the governor, took measures to pro- 
 vide a general system of public instruction. For 
 tins purpose, a committee of three was charged 
 with the duty of devising such a system, in ac- 
 cordance with the recommendations of the gov- 
 ernor and the assembly, previously made. The 
 ir action i» b.-t di-eii-.se 1 under the 
 
 mounting them. In 1 836, the board was changed 
 so as to consist of the governor and three other 
 members appointed I >y him biennially. In 1*37. 
 'heir duty to prepare a 
 suited to the resources 
 
 plan for common 
 
 and condition of t 
 act, the hoard, in 
 
 report, in which,! 
 condition of the 
 
 of the countries 
 
 this respect, they 
 into L,250 school 
 
 thre> 
 schoi 
 (III) 
 
 ilishing of 
 ing them; 
 
 i, and to erect in each a 
 
 school-house of the best materials, and according 
 
 plan, and location. According to the condition 
 of the school fund at that time, it was estimated 
 that each of these schools would receive about 
 $240 annually. With the scanty means at the 
 disposal of tiie people, they could hope only to 
 lay the foundation of a system, trusting to after 
 years to establish also schools and colleges for 
 more advanced instruction. In January, 183!), 
 the legislature took positive action upon the re- 
 port, directing that counties should be divided 
 
 intoscl l-distriets six miles square, and that an 
 
 election should he held in each countj toascertain 
 
 the wishes of the people in regard to these! Is. 
 
 Nearly every county voted in favor of their 
 establishment. In all such counties, the county 
 court was directed to levy a tax for the building 
 of a school-house in each district, large enough 
 
 course of studies to be pursued, the mo Le of in- 
 struction, the creation of a permanent school 
 fund, and the constitution of a board for its 
 management. Their report was favorably con- 
 sidered by the assembly, and passed to its first 
 reading, but, unfortunately, went no further, 
 owing to the difficulty of raising the money 
 needed to make the proposed system effective. 
 Nothing further was done till 1 825, when a fund 
 was created for the establishment and support of 
 "common and convenient schools for the instruc- 
 tion of youth in the several counties of thestate." 
 For this purpose, the second section of the act of 
 ihat year constitutes the governor, the chief 
 justice of the supreme court, the speakers of the 
 senate and house of commons, and the treasurer 
 of the state, a board, "for the promotion of learn- 
 ing, and the instruction of youth". Under the 
 name of The President and Directors of the 
 Literary Fund, they were empowered to hold 
 real and personal property, and to sell, dispose of, 
 and improve the same. In 1832, Joseph < 'aid- 
 well, the president of the university, aroused the 
 attention of the state to the nee I of public 
 schools, by the publication of a pamphlet con- 
 sisting of eleven letters which had been furnished 
 by him to a local paper. In these letters, he 
 called attention to the progress made by the com- 
 mon schools of other states and countries, enumer- 
 ated the difficulties in the way of such progress 
 in North Carolina, and suggested means for sur- 
 
 fs according to the plan already 
 ind to appoint not less than three 
 ittee men in each, "to assist the 
 nts in all matters pertaining to the 
 
 which substantially continued in fore,, till 1865. 
 By an act passed in 1844, county superintend- 
 ents were permitted tip lay out school districts of 
 such form and size, for one school each, as they 
 might deem most convenient for the inhabitants 
 of the county. As the money appropriated by the 
 state was to lie divided equally among the dis- 
 tricts, the effect was to increase greatly their 
 number. The result was. that about $250,000 
 was annually divided among the districts, the 
 number of which had increased to 3.000, but 
 without accomplishing the best results. 
 
 II. There have been two principal sources for 
 the maintenance of the schools: (1) the income 
 of permanent funds; and (2) taxes. 
 
 (1) The Income, of Permanent Funds. — In 
 1825, the legislature created a fund for the sup- 
 port of schools, to consist of the dividends re- 
 ceived from stock, then held or afterwards ac- 
 quired by the state, in banks and works of inter- 
 nal improvement; the liquor tax; the unexpended 
 balance of the agricultural fund: money paid to 
 the state for entries of vacant lands ; money de- 
 rived from the sale of swamp lands; and such 
 sums as the legislature might, from time to time, 
 
»i.V2 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 appropriate. In 1837, the state received, by the 
 removal of its deposits from the United States 
 treasury, the sum of $1,433,757.39. This, with 
 I lie exception of §30(1,(1(11), was transferred to the 
 literary board, to be set apart as a permanent 
 fund for the maintenance of the schools, the in- 
 come thence derived, with the amounts received 
 from sources above specified, constituting the an- 
 nual school fund of the stair. The revenue from 
 this source, in L838, amounted to 8100,000. In 
 L840, the permanent fund was $2,000,000, yield- 
 ing an annual income of $120,000. The present 
 permanent fund amounts to $2,190,564.65. 
 
 (2) Taxes. — In the report made to the legis- 
 lature in 1838, by the literary board, the insuf- 
 ficiency of the income of the permanent fund 
 for school purposes was plainly pointed out. In 
 1840, a tax was levied in each district sufficient 
 to build a school-house; and, in L844,each county 
 was required to levy a tax equal to one half of the 
 amount annually received from the lit era rv fund. 
 In I 868, the constitution of the state directed that 
 "the general assembly, at its first session under 
 this constitution, shall provide, by taxation and 
 otherwise, for a general and uniform svstem of 
 public schools." The following year, the school 
 lawprovided that, in ease any township .should 
 fail, at the annual meeting, to provide forschools 
 to be taught four months in the year, the school 
 committee should immediately forward to the 
 county commissioners an estimate of the neces- 
 sary expenses; and a tax equal to the amount of 
 such estimate should be levied on the township by 
 the county commissioners at the same time that 
 the county taxes were levied. The act of 1*71 - 
 required that a tax of <>-', cents on the $] 00, and 
 20 cents special tax, should be levied; and this. 
 with 75 per cent of the State and county poll tax. 
 and all other public school funds, should be paid 
 at the rate of 50 cents per month, for each 
 pupil attending the public schools. The present 
 law, enacted in 1*72 — 3, levies an annual tax of 
 8J cents on the $100, and a special poll-tax of 
 25 cents; and this, with 75 per cent of the state 
 and county poll-tax and all other school money, 
 is distributed among the school districts according 
 to the number of children of school age in each. 
 
 III. The report of the president ami directors 
 of the literary fund to the legislature, in 1 838, 
 called attention to the fact that no supervision of 
 the schools was maintained by the intelligent por- 
 tion of the community, on account of their want 
 of pecuniary responsibility, and sugge ted thai 
 the portion of the literarj fund due each county 
 should not be distill. ute I till the county court 
 should have levied and collected twice the amount 
 due from the fund to the county. They recom- 
 mended a thorough organization and supervision 
 
 of the schools. In L852, Rev. Calvin II. Wiley 
 
 was appointed superintendent of schools, and re- 
 tained the position till l-'.5 \| that time the 
 
 public schools were closed for wanf of funds, and 
 remained so till L870. I lis successors have been 
 S. S. Ashley, till L872; Alexander Mclver, till 
 1875; and Stephen 1). Rool, the present incum- 
 bent (1876). I 
 
 . — The general supervision 
 
 en 
 
 ScJlOi 
 the schi 
 ofeduc 
 
 tary of state, the treasurer, the auditor, and the 
 attorney general. Of this board, the governor is 
 the president, and the state superintendent, the 
 secretary. The immediate control of the schools 
 is committed to the state superintendent, who is 
 elected by the people for four years. Courtly 
 commissioners arc also chosen, who are charged 
 with "a general supervision and control of the 
 schools in their respective counties". Their duties 
 relate chiefly to the financial management of the 
 schools ; though, in other respects, they have 
 considerable discretionary power. Their efficiency, 
 however, is impaired by the fact that their duties 
 arc confined entirely to office business, there 
 being no visiting of the schools on their part, as 
 in other states. In each township, a school com- 
 mittee of three is elected biennially. This com- 
 mittee is empowered to purchase and hold real 
 estate and personal property, to receive any gift, 
 giant, or donation made for the use of anyschool 
 within its jurisdiction, and to sell or transfer the 
 same for school purposes. It is required to make, 
 for the use of the county board, an annual census 
 of all children of s. boo] age, designating race and 
 sex. of all public schools, and the number of 
 children who do not attend school. It is also re- 
 quired to divide the township into suitable dis- 
 tricts, and to establish separate schools for white 
 and colored children. 'I his committee, also, has 
 
 to iculate their salaries, subject to certain re- 
 strictions as to grade. Public schools must be 
 maintained not less than four months each year. 
 
 'I he scl 1 age is from 6 to '21 years. The choice 
 
 of text-books rests partly with the teachers and 
 partly with the state board : but no sectarian or 
 political text-books are permitted. 
 
 Educational Condition.— The number of 
 schools in the state, as reported in 1874, was 
 4,020, of which 2,820 were for white, ami 1.200 
 for col. .led children. The support of the schools 
 was derived from the following sources : 
 From the'state treasury I 3(1,230.67 
 
 From poll-tax. 143,609.92 
 
 From property-tax 109,434.94 
 
 balance from previous year.. 202. 129.70 
 
 it'll 
 
 
 1 l-houses. 
 
 i.nniy treasure] 
 
 were as follows : 
 .... ..$182,646.53 
 
 s of OOl- 
 
 77.illS.25 
 
 2,854.55 
 
 22,676.46 
 
 ........ 11,802.06 
 
 $297,594.86 
 
 addition to this amount. 812.450 was dis- 
 ted among 30 public schools from the 
 ody educational fund. 
 le principal items of school statistics were 
 
 illowing : 
 
 lclnhlron of school a-e, white, 2I2.7HS 
 colored, 127,192 
 Total 369,9(10 
 
NORTH CAROLINA 
 
 No. of children attending school, white, lCUi-e: 
 colored, 50,000 
 
 Total T^TT7. 175,083 
 
 No. of teuehcis employed, while mule. l.t'.C, 
 white female, 013 
 
 Total white 2,108 
 
 colored male, 515 
 
 colored female, 252 
 
 Total colored 707 
 
 Whole number of teachers employed 2.875 
 
 Formal Instruction.— In the pamphlet pub- 
 lished by the prarideni oi the Btate university, 
 referred to above, special attention was called to 
 
 proposed for supplying this deficiency. No im- 
 mediate action, however, was taken. " The report 
 of the presidenl and directors of the literary 
 fund, in 1 838, also called attention to the subject, 
 and urgently recommended the establishment of 
 normal scho ils for the education ofteachers, and 
 advised, als >, the establishment of a normal de- 
 partment in the state university. The Ashboro' 
 Normal School was organized, in 1873, by the 
 Randolph County Educational Association, and 
 was conducted by the superintendent of the as- 
 sociation, one month in L873, and one in 1874. 
 In the former year. LOO teachers received in- 
 struct ion : in the latter. 75. The Lexington 
 Normal School was organized by the Davidson 
 County board of education, under aspecial ad of 
 the legislature, in August, 1ST 1, ami continued 
 oi session 25 days, under the direction of the 
 eh in nan of the county board of examiners. In 
 this - iho ' - iparate instruction was given to 30 
 white teachers, and 35 colored teachers. The 
 normal department of Shaw University, at Ra- 
 leigh, in 1874, had 3 resident instructors 
 and 60 pupils, of whom 40 were males, and 
 
 held m various parts oi th ■ state. I he u uliston 
 A.ca Lemy and Normal School, at Raleigh, also 
 affords special instruction to teach its. It is sup- 
 ported by the American Missionary Association. 
 — The Slate Educational Association was estab- 
 lished July 11., 1873. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Of institutions of 
 this grade, there were reported, in 1875, to the 
 U. S. Bureau of Education, 27, with 84 teachers 
 and 1,638 pupils, of whom 478 were in classical 
 studies, 201 in modern languages, 217 preparing 
 for a classical course in college, and 53 for a 
 scientific course. There are also preparatory de- 
 partments in several of the colleges, which, in 
 
 Superior Instruction. -The institutions which 
 furnish instruction ot this grade are included iu 
 the following table. 
 
 ItllVlilMnri Oollrjw' 
 
 North Carolina Coll., 
 Rutherford College. . 
 Trinity College 
 
 I'hiv. ,,i'X. Carolina,, 
 
 Wake Forest College 
 
 Wilson College 
 
 is:n I'rrsi, 
 1859 I.uth. 
 1870 Noii Beet. 
 
 NORTHERN ILLINOIS COLLEGE 653 
 
 Besides these, there are several institutions for 
 the higher education of women. Of these. re- 
 ported, in L874, to the 0. S. Bureau of Educa- 
 tion. 70 instructors and 580 stud mts. 
 
 Scientificand Professional Instruction. — Con- 
 nected with the state university. there are schools 
 of natural science, including chemistry, physics, 
 and engineering, and a si boo! oi agi iculture, en- 
 dowed with the coiigre.-Monal land 
 
 Shav 
 
 ity 
 
 I 'nlloo,.. ;, theological and a law department', and 
 
 Rutherford College, a law school 
 
 Special Instruction. — The institution for the 
 instruction of the deaf and dumb. and blind, was 
 founded at Raleigh in 1847. It had. in 1875, a 
 coq is of L2 instructors, and 208 pupils, of whom 
 132 were deaf-mutes, and 76 were Mind. Special 
 attention is given to music, and tin re is a mechan- 
 ical department, in which practical instruction 
 is given in several industrial branches. The edu- 
 cation of colored children of this class was first 
 undertaken iii this institution. The Oxford Or- 
 phans' Home, at Oxford, under the care of the 
 .Marion Fraternity, affords an asylum for L15 
 orphans. It is sustained by voluntary contribu- 
 tions. There is a branch asylum at Mars Hill. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA, University of, at 
 Chape] Hill, N. C.was chartered in 1787, and 
 organized in 1795. 1 cercises were resumed, 
 aftera period oi suspension, in Sept.. 1875. It 
 comprises six colleges; namely, of mathematics, 
 of literature (including the schools of Greek, 
 Latin, and modern languages), of philosophy 
 (schools of metaphysics, and of history and 
 political science], of natural science (schools of 
 chemistry, applied chemistry , and physics i, of 
 engineering, and of agriculture (endowed with 
 the congressional land grant, and including 
 schools of natural history, chemistry, and mili- 
 tary tactics). Three regular courses have been 
 established : the classical (4 years), leading to 
 the degree of Bachelor of Arts; the scientific 
 (3 years), leading to the degree of Bachelor of 
 Science; and the course in agriculture (3 years), 
 leading to the degree of Bachelorof Agriculture. 
 The university has an extensive collection of 
 geological and mineralogical specimet 
 'library of about 5,000 volumes and 2,000 pam- 
 phlets; the libraries of the two liti rary .-> i leties 
 contain about 7,000 volumes each. The cost of 
 tuition is §60 a year. In 1876—7, there were 
 9 instructors and 100 students 145 classical, 31 
 scientific, 7 agricultural, and 1 7 optional). Kemp 
 P. Battle is (1876) the], resident. 
 
 NORTHERN ILLINOIS COLLEGE, at 
 
 I'ulti 
 
 111.. 
 
 led. 
 
 161, as the We 
 
 Union College and .Military Institute. In 
 1866, it was chartered and opened as the Illinois 
 Soldiers' College for the education of disabled 
 soldiers and sailors of the state. The name was 
 changed in 1873, when the college was thrown 
 open to both sexes. It is supported by tuition 
 fees and the income of an endowment of about 
 §20,000. The college building originally cost 
 §100,000. The library consists of over 1 000 vol- 
 umes ; the cabinet is' well furnished with spec- 
 
654 X. W. CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 iinens in geology, mineralogy, and palaeontology; 
 and the laboratory has a valuable set of philo- 
 sophical and chemical apparatus. The regular 
 tuition fees vary from $27 to $32j per year. The 
 college has a preparatory collegiate course, an 
 academic course (designed especially for those 
 preparing themselves for teaching or business), 
 and a regular graduating course of four years, 
 which seems to be similar to the courses of the 
 higher female seminaries. Female students who 
 complete the full course, or its equivalent, receive 
 the degree of .Mistress of Liberal Arts (M.L.A.); 
 those completing the English studies of the 
 course, that of Mistress of English Literature 
 (M.B.L.); and male students completing the 
 course, the degree of Bachelor of Science (ii. S.). 
 In IsT") 6, there were 10 instructors and 111 
 students (66 males and 45 females). The pres- 
 idents have been, Leander II. Potter, A. M., 1866 
 —73; William D. P. Lummis, A. M., 1873— 5; 
 and the Rev. Joseph W. Hubbard, A.M.. the 
 present incumbent, appointed ill 1875. 
 
 NORTH WESTERN CHRISTIAN UNI- 
 VERSITY, at Irvington, lud., founded inl853, 
 is under the control of the Christian denomina- 
 tion. It was removed from Indianapolis to its 
 present site, about four miles east of that city, 
 in 1875. It has a fine new building and a cam- 
 pus of 25 acres, situated in a natural grove of 
 forest trees. It is supported by the interest on 
 an endowment .if $300,000, the tuition fees be- 
 ing merely nominal. The endowment property 
 of the institution amounts to nearly $1,000,000. 
 The university is open to all without distinction 
 of sex, race, or color. It comprises a college of 
 literature (classical), a college of sciences, a col- 
 lege of the Bible (theological), and a college of 
 business, with classes preparatory I" the classical 
 and scientific departments. In 1875 — 6, the stu- 
 dents were as follows : college of literature,'-'."!; 
 college of science. 12; preparatory, 48 ; college 
 of the Bible, 23; college of business, 44 ; total, 
 deducting repetitions, 12!). There were !1 in- 
 structors" The presidents of the university have 
 been as follows: John Young, L.L. D., 1855 — 7; 
 S. K. Hoshour, D.D., 1858—61; A. K. Benton, 
 LI, D.. 1861 -8; Otis A. Burgess, l>. D„ LL.D., 
 1868—70; W. F. Black, A.M., L870— 73; and 
 Otis A. Burgess again, since 1873. 
 
 NORTHWESTERN COLLEGE, at Xa- 
 pervillc. 01., organized in 1861, and chartered in 
 1865, is under the control of the Evangi lical As- 
 sociation. It admits both sexes. The productive 
 funds amountto $85,000; the value of itsgrounds, 
 buildings, and apparatus is $50,000. The in- 
 stitution has a German course, an English-Ger- 
 man course, a commercial department, and an 
 art department, in addition to the usual classical 
 and scientific courses. In 1873 — 4, there were 
 II instructors and 105 students, including 42 of 
 collegiate grade. The Rev. A. A. Smith. A. M., 
 
 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, at 
 Evanston, 111., under Methodist Episcopal con- 
 trol, was chartered in L851, organized in 1853, 
 and opened in 1855. It consists of the following | 
 
 NORWICH UNIVERSITY 
 
 departments, or colleges : (1 ) literature and 
 science ; (2) technology ; (3) literature and art 
 (Woman's College) ; (4) conservatory of music; 
 (5) college of theology (Garret Biblical Insti- 
 tute); (6) law (Union College of Law of the 
 University of Chicago aud the Northwestern 
 University); (7) medicine (Chicago Medical Col- 
 lege); (8) preparatory school. Departments (6) and 
 (7) are located in ( bicago. The university has 
 a library of about 25,000 volumes, including 
 pamphlets, and valuable apparatus and cabinets. 
 I he value of its buildings, library, and apparatus 
 is §400.11(10 ; of other unproductive property, 
 $500,000; productive property, $440,000. In 
 the theological department, tuition is tree; in 
 the first three departments enumerated above, 
 the cost is §45 per annum. 1 here are six paral- 
 lel courses of four years each, three in the col- 
 lege of literature and science (classical. Latin, 
 and scientific, and a course in modern lan- 
 guages), and three in the college of technology 
 (a course in chemistry, a course in engineering, 
 and a course in natural history). The courses 
 in the Woman's < 'ollege are the same as those in 
 the colleges of literature and science, and of tech- 
 nology. In 1873 — 4, the number of instructors, 
 in all the departments, was 62 : and of students. 
 806. The presidents of the university have been 
 as follows : the Rev. Dr. Clark T. Hinman, 
 1853— G ; the Rev. Dr. R. S. Foster. 1856—60 ; 
 Prof. Henry S. Noyes (vice-president). I860 — 67; 
 the Rev. Dr. F. 0. Haven. 1869—72 ; and the 
 Rev. Dr. ( harles II. Fowler, since 1872. 
 
 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, at 
 Watertown, Wis., chartered in 1864, is under 
 the control of the Evangelical Lutheran Synod 
 of Wisconsin. It comprises a collegiate, a pre- 
 paratory, and an academic department. The 
 library contains about 2.000 volumes. The cost 
 of tuition is $30 per annum. In 1874—5. there 
 were 6 instructors and 180 students: collegiate, 
 T> ; preparatory, 61 ; academic. !)7. The Rev. 
 A. F. Ernst, A. M., is (1876) the president. 
 
 NORWAY. See Sweden. 
 
 NORWEGIAN LUTHER COLLEGE, 
 at Decorah, Iowa, founded in 1861, is under 
 Lutheran control. It is supported by collections 
 in the congregations of the Norwegian Lutheran 
 Synod of America. It contains 7 classes or 
 grades, of one year each. Instruction is free, 
 except in the two lower classes, where, since 
 Sept. 1., 1876, $30 a year is paid for tuition. 
 The value of buildings, grounds. and apparatus is 
 $120,000 : the libraries contain about 4.000 vol- 
 umes. In 1875 — ii, there were 8 instructors 
 and '200 students, the greater part, in the pre- 
 paratory department. The Rev. Laur Larsen 
 bas been the president from the organization of 
 the college. 
 
 NORWICH UNIVERSITY, a military 
 college, at Xorthfield, Vt.. founded in L834, is 
 under Protestant Episcopal control. It has a 
 preparatory, a business, and a collegiate depart- 
 ment, with a classical and a scientific course, of 
 four years each, and a philosophical course of 
 three years, leading, respectively, to the degrees 
 
 
NOTRE DAME DU LAC 
 
 of B.A., B. S., and B. Ph. Drawing and military 
 science are pursued throughout the three courses. 
 The charge for tuition, board, etc., is $300 per 
 year. In 1874 — 5, there were 8 instructors and 
 4!) students. The Rev. Josiah Swett, D. D., is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 NOTRE DAME DU LAC, University 
 of, a Roman Catholic institution at Notre Dame, 
 Ind., was founded by the Congregation of the 
 Holy Cross in L842, and chartered in 1844. It 
 has commodious buildings finely situated. The 
 libraries contain nearly 30,000 volumes. The reg- 
 ular charge t'or I >o;in 1. 1 nit inn. etc., istf.'KIO per year. 
 The universitj has a classical, a scientific, a civil 
 engineering, a law. and a commercial department, 
 with preparatory and post -graduate courses. In 
 1875 —6, then- were 38 instructors and 324 stu- 
 dents. The Very Rev. Edward 1". Sorin, the 
 founder of the institution, was its president for 
 twenty-two years. The Rev. Patrick J. Colovin, 
 0. S. ('., is (1876) the president. 
 
 NOTT, Eliphalet, an American educator. 
 born at Ashford, Ct., June 25., 177.'!: died at 
 Schenectady, X. V.. Jan. 29., 1866. He studied 
 theology, and was sent, as teacher and missii inary, 
 to central Xew Fork, locating himself at Cher- 
 ry Valley. He was soon alter tailed to the 
 pastorate of the Presbyterian Church in Albany, 
 where his sermon on the death of Hamilton 
 made him celebrated. In 1804, he was chosen 
 president of Union College, tit Schenectady, 
 which position he held till his death. During 
 this lung period, nearly 4, students were 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA 
 
 (>■,■> 
 
 No 
 
 se& to Yovaig Men (1810), often republished, 
 and Lectures on Temperance (1847), besides 
 many addresses, discourses, and sermons. Physical 
 
 science, also, received a large share of his atten- 
 tion, about .'in patents for inventions having been 
 obtained by him. 
 
 NOVA ' SCOTIA, a British province of 
 North America, forming a part of the Dominion 
 of Canada. It has an area of 21. 731 sq. m.;and 
 its population, in ls71, was 3S7.NOO. It was 
 first settled, in 1605, by the French under De 
 Monts. at Port Royal (now Annapolis); but, 
 in 1621, the country being claimed as a part 
 of Virginia. James I. granted it to Sir William 
 Alexander, under the title of Nova Scotia. It. 
 however, continued in the possession of France 
 until 1713, when it was formally ceded to the 
 English by the treaty of Utrecht. The island 
 of Cape Breton was annexed to it in 1703, and 
 the province of New Brunswick separated from 
 it in 1784. In 1 867, it became a member of the 
 f Dominion of Canada. 
 
 Educational History. — The highest school 
 thority in the province, is the council of public 
 instruction, composed of the members of the 
 executive council. The superintendent, who is 
 also a member, and the secretary of the council 
 are appointed by the lieutenant-governor. The 
 council appoints an inspector for each county, 
 upon the recommendation of the superintendent, 
 and with his concurrence prescribes text-books, 
 library books, and school-house plans. The coun- | 
 
 -K. 
 
 cil also makes regulations for the expenditure of 
 the school grants, for the location, construction, 
 and control of county academies, and the classi- 
 fication of teachers; appoints four provincial 
 examiners for teachers' licenses ; determines ap- 
 peals from trustees, and may take such action 
 as any special exigencies require. The super- 
 intendent has, subject to the council, the super- 
 vision of the inspectors, the normal and the 
 common schools, and the county academies, also 
 the enforcement of the law. He inspects the 
 academies, and. if directed, other schools ; holds 
 meetings and teachers' institutes ; reports on 
 school management and teachers cpudincations ; 
 furnishes printed regulations and instructions to 
 school officers, and makes an annual report with 
 suggestions. The lieutenant governor appoints 
 fortheseveraldistrict8,correspondingtothe end 
 couniies.a boa,,l,,f seven commissioners. The 
 commissioners are required to name a day when 
 all semi-annual school return.- will be received at 
 the inspectors office, and to endorse on each of 
 such returns their approval or disapproval, and 
 they may authorize, on the inspector's recom- 
 mendation, the payment of a grant to a licensed 
 teacher of a poor section. The commissioners 
 may settle disputes in regard to teachers' sala- 
 ries, and may appoint trustees in certain cases. 
 'i hey may. upon the inspector's report, declare 
 school premises to be unfit for use : and in such 
 a case, the provincial aid to the section is with- 
 held unless the necessary improvement is pro- 
 vided. They may cancel or suspend the license 
 of a teacher for sufficient cause ; but in the case 
 of incapacity or negligence, they must notify the 
 trustees and the superintendent. The inspector 
 is required to inspect semi-annually each school 
 and academy in his district, and report thereon 
 to the superintendent. He must also give such 
 information to trustees and teachers as may be 
 required, and assist in improving the methods 
 of school management. 1 le must make an annual 
 report to the superintendent on the 1st of De- 
 cember, specifying the work performed and its 
 results. Every section has a board of three trust- 
 ees, one elected each year, from among the qual- 
 ified voters at the annual meeting. If a section 
 fails to elect a trustee, ora trustee refuses or fails 
 to serve for twenty days, the commissioners are 
 required to till such vacancy. If a person elected 
 a trustee, refuses or fails to serve, he is liable to 
 a tine of 62(1, which is applied to aid the erec- 
 tion of school-houses. The school year consists 
 of two terms : the winter term, from Nov. 1. to 
 April 30., and the summer term, from May 1. to 
 Oct. 31. The school time, holidays, and vaca- 
 tions are regulated by the council, trust,', s must 
 employ a licensed teacher, and. if necessary, an 
 assistant, for not less than five months, or in a 
 poor section, three months in a year. No teacher 
 can establish a school without an agreement with 
 the section trustees. The annual giant from the 
 provincial treasury for the public schools is 
 SI 17.0(10, of which the city of Halifax revives 
 S7.."iOO. This grant is divided according to the 
 total days' attendance of registered pupils at the 
 
o;.r, 
 
 NOVA SCOTIA 
 
 common schools, the distribution for each term 
 being made for the corresponding term of the 
 preceding- year. Halifax constitutes one school 
 section, with a board of thirteen commissioners, 
 who form a corporation, and of whom seven are 
 appointed by the government, and six by the city 
 council. The governor may appoinf principals 
 of the normal and model schools, who with the 
 approval of the council, may appoint their assist- 
 ants. The general control of the normal school 
 is in the hands of the superintendent. An an- 
 nual grant of $600 is made to each county acad- 
 emy. The normal school has but one term, 
 commencing on the first Wednesday in Novem- 
 ber, and closing on the Friday preceding the 
 annual provincial examinations, in July. Before 
 entering, every student, must declare his or her 
 int. 'iii ion to teach three years in the schools of 
 the province : otherwise, 'a fee of $20 is charged. 
 The chief town of each county is entitled to a 
 grant for an academy, on complying with certain 
 ■conditions. The first or highest department is 
 open, free of charge, to all children of the county 
 who are able to pass the required examination. 
 Whenever the chief town fails to obtain the 
 grant, or to maintain an efficient academy, the 
 council reserves the right to treat with any other 
 section in the county for the establishment and 
 proper maintenance of such academy. — The an- 
 nual examination of teachers takes place on the 
 tii t 'I'ii day after duly 15. All licenses are 
 valid in any part of the province until revoked 
 I'n cau : bur nobody under 1' years of age is 
 allowed to teach unless with the cxpi 
 of the inspector. A system of evening schools 
 is authorized for persons over l.'i years of age. 
 The number of teachers, in 1874. was GS6. The 
 number of pupils enrolled during the year was 
 93,512; and the number present, of each 100 
 registered, was, in the winter, 52.9 ; and in the 
 summer, 57.1. The normal school had 118 pu- 
 pils under instruction and training, of whom SO 
 received licenses to teach. The total number of 
 teachers examined was 1,108. of whom 59 ( were 
 I he expenditure for the public schools 
 was -See'J.'J'.'l, of which the government grant 
 was $157,481; and for the normal and model 
 schools, $4,733, all of which expense was borne 
 
 by the gover at. In 1875, there were 10 
 
 l« tie -i'ii 13 teachers and 2,614 
 pupil-. I !i re ai-alo a nuiiibir of special acad- 
 emies, of which the Horton Collegiate School, 
 
 with I la pupils, and (he I' '. , 
 
 120 pupils, in 1H ( .">, are the largest. The latter 
 institution was founded, in 1816, on the plan of 
 a Scotch college, but without the power of con- 
 ferring degrees, hi addition to these academies, 
 there ts a high school at NewGlasgow, founded 
 in I860. The Institution for the Deaf and Dumb 
 is almost entirely free ; in 1875, it had 5 teachers 
 and 12 Btudents. The University of Dalhousie 
 now virtually tills the place for many years oc- 
 cupied by the academy ; and the latter is now 
 organized as the highest or academic grade of the 
 schools of the town. There were, in 1875, five 
 colleges : Dalhousie College and University, liaii- 
 
 NUMBER 
 
 fax; St. Mary's College (Roman Catholic), Hali- 
 fax ; Acadia college "(Baptist), Wolfville ; St. 
 Francis College (Roman Catholic). Antigonish; 
 and King's College and University (Church of 
 England), Windsor. Of these, King's College and 
 Dalhousie College are the largest. The former 
 originated in a recommendation made by a com- 
 mittee of the House of Assembly, in 1787. It 
 was founded by an act of parliament, in 1788, 
 and received a royal charter from Oeorge III., 
 in 1802. Connected with it, is a school of civil 
 engineering, a library of 6,000 volumes, and a 
 museum containing i'iiiecollcclions in the various 
 departments of natural history. A collegiate- 
 school, which is also connected with it, prepares 
 boys for the college. It had, in 1875, 5 professors 
 and an endowment fund of $106,891. Dalhousie 
 College had. in L875, 6 professors and an endow- 
 ment fund of $99,233. There is a medical facul- 
 ty in connection with the college, in which, in 
 1875, there were 11 professors. — See Marling, 
 Canada Educational Yearbook for 1876; 
 Lovell's Gazetteer of British North America. 
 NOVELS. See Fiction. 
 NUMBER is here considered as a branch of 
 elementary or object instruction. Great impor- 
 tance should be placed on the means by which 
 children acquire their first ideas of number. 
 Since a child's knowledge of this subject begins 
 with counting, the first exercises for teaching it 
 should be the counting of objects. The child 
 may first be taught to count as far as ten by us- 
 ing the numeral frame (q. v.), or buttons, pencils, 
 the fingers, sticks, marks, or other objects. Next 
 he should be taught to count groups of balls, 
 buttons, sticks, or other objects, used to repre- 
 sent the several numbers, one, two, three, four, 
 five, etc. By using the groups of objects thus 
 counted as illustrations of the several numbers, 
 figures may readily be taught. Let the pupil 
 count one ball on the numeral frame, one pencil, 
 one finger, one mark, and then show him the 
 figure 1 to represent the number of each object. 
 Next let him count, in groups, two balls on 
 the numeral frame, tico pencils, two fingers, 
 two marks, etc.; then show the figure 2 as a 
 symbol of the number of objects in each group. 
 Afterward, require the pupil to count balls, pen- 
 cils, and other objects in groups of three, and 
 then show the figure .'! as the representative of 
 the number counted iu each group. In a similar 
 manner, the several figures from 2 to 9 may be 
 associated, and their value learned by means of 
 counting. In order to teach children the value 
 of the several figures by personal experience, let 
 them count in groups two balls, or buttons, etc., 
 and observe that each group contains two ones, 
 — that two is equal to one and one more, or two 
 ones. After the pupils have counted several 
 kinds of objects in groups of three, lead them to 
 notice that one and one and one, or three ones, 
 make three, also that two and one make three. 
 I 'roeeedingin the same manner to count in groups 
 ''.: ete I I '' pupils observe that four ones, 
 or two and one and one, or three and one, or two 
 and two, or two times two, make four. By means 
 
NTMKKAI. I'llAMK 
 
 of similar exercises, the value of each aumber 
 from two to nine may be thoroughly learned by 
 children. As additional exercises, or a review 
 of previous lessons, lei the pupils count as many 
 balls cm the numeral frame, or hold up as many 
 fingers, as the given figure represents. By this 
 means, all the figures from 1 to 9 may be learned 
 as symbols of numbers. In subsequent lessons, 
 for teaching figures as representatives of num- 
 bers greater than nine, let the figures be arranged 
 in groups as follows : 
 
 First group, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 
 Second group, L0,ll,12, 13, 14, 15,16, 17,18, 19 
 Third group, 20,2 1 , 22, 23, 24, 25, 20,27, 28,29 
 
 and so on to 99. Requiring the pupils to count 
 as many balls, or other objects, to represent in 
 order the numbers symbolized by each of these 
 groups, will lead them to understand the value 
 of the numbers that are expressed with two 
 figures. This part of the instruction may be 
 greatly facilitated by giving the pupil several 
 small ,-tieks. like matches, and requiring him to 
 count and tie in bundles as many sticks as each 
 of the figures from 1 to 9 represents. Then to 
 furnish the pupil with favorable opportunities 
 of learning, by personal observation and experi- 
 ence, that each number represented by two fig- 
 ures in the second group is composed of one 
 bun 11 sof i mi ones, and one or more single ones 
 added, let him count and tie in a bundle ten 
 sticks to represent the number 10 ; and then tie 
 ten sticks in a bundle and add to it one single 
 stick to represent the number 1 1 . and so on to I 9. 
 Two bundles often sticks each may be made for 
 the number 20, and two similar bundles and a 
 single stick for 21; and so on to 29. In this 
 manner, children may be taught to comprehend 
 the value of all the simple numbers to 100. The 
 knowledge obtained by means of the exi rcises 
 described above will prepare the pupils to learn 
 readily and intelligently both the value and the 
 form of writing numbers through hundreds, and 
 thereby to understand the principles of numera- 
 tion and notation. See Cukrie, Principles and 
 Practiceof Early and Tnfant School Education 
 (Edin.andLond.); N. A. Calkins, New Primary 
 Object Lessons ( New York, 1871). 
 
 NUMERAL FSAME. This simple appa- 
 ratus has been in use for many centuries. In 
 some form or other, it is now used for teaching 
 number, in all parts of the world. It is some- 
 times employed to represent units, tens, hun- 
 dreds, thousands, etc., in numeration. This use of 
 the numeral frame renders it necessary to give ar- 
 tificial values to the balls on different wires; and 
 notwithstanding that this is analogous, in order, 
 to the arrangement of the numerical system of 
 figures, there is danger that young children, by 
 the use of it for tliis purpose, may become con- 
 fused between the actual numerical value of a 
 ball and its several artificial values. Inasmuch 
 as numeration can be illustrated much more in- 
 telligently by the method described under Num- 
 ber (q. v.), if aided by the use of the black- 
 board, it is not advisable to attempt an explana- 
 
 tion of it by the numeral frame; not, at least, 
 until the pupils have acquired a definite under- 
 standing of the relation between the value of 
 
 i!,. ir i-.-.T,- \. i- m iv-ard to other figures. 
 
 The most important uses of the numeral frame 
 are, to teach a class of pupils to count, and to 
 illustrate the value of numbers and figures; also 
 to teach the first steps in adding, subtracting, 
 multiplying, and dividing. For the fir>i M< ] - in 
 adding, let the pupils add balls on the numeral 
 frame, by ones as far as ten. When they can do 
 this readily, let them add on the blackboard a 
 column composed of Is; then let them add alike 
 column of figures on their slates. Subsequently, 
 teach them to add balls on the numeral frame by 
 twos : then to add a column of figure 2s on the 
 blackboard ; and then on their slates. When the 
 adding of Is and 2s has thus been learned, pro- 
 ceed in the same manner with threes, fours, etc. 
 After the pupils have learned to add threes as 
 above, they may be taught by these three steps 
 to add Is and 2s in the same column ; then to 
 add Is, 2s, and .'Is in the same column. In this 
 manner the pupils may be taught to add readily 
 and rapidly single columns composed of such 
 figures as t>, 7, 8, 9. To give children an idea of 
 subtraction, teach them to count backward on 
 the numeral frame from ten; thus, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 
 :">, 4. :i. 2. 1. 0. Subsequently, call on a pupil to 
 hold the numeral frame, to take one ball from 
 two balls, and tell how many remain; then one 
 ball from three balls, etc. Proceed in a similar 
 nianner with other numbers, taking care to ar- 
 range the exercises so as to give the pupils as 
 much actual practice as possible in taking balls 
 or other objects from a larger number of ob- 
 jscts. To illustrate the first ideas of multiplica- 
 tion to a class of young pupils, arrange the balls 
 on the numeral frame in groups of tints. Ilnvs, 
 etc. Place on one wire two groups of two each, 
 and lead the pupils to perceive that they may 
 say that, "two and two make four ;" or that 
 "two twos make four" ; also that "two times 
 two make four. " Place on another wire 
 three groups of two each, and let the pupils 
 observe that "two and two and two make 
 six;" or that " three twos make six," also that 
 'three times two are six." Proceed in a similar 
 manner with numbers, and so arrange the exer- 
 cises as to furnish the pupils as much individual 
 practice as possible. After each step has been illus- 
 trated by the numeral frame, place figures on 
 the blackboard to represent what has been thus 
 taught. To illustrate the first ideas of division, 
 arrange balls in groups of four, si.r. ci,jhl. ti'u.vU:.. 
 on the different wires. Lead the pupils to see that 
 each of these groups can be divided into groups 
 of twos. Then require them to divide the groups 
 thus and tell how many groups of twos can be 
 made from four balls, six balls, eight balls, etc. 
 Let the pupils also find how many threes there 
 are in six, nine, twelve ; and how many fours in 
 eight, twelve, etc. That which is learned in each 
 step may be represented by figures on the black- 
 board. — (See Number.) 
 
OU.IKCT TEACJIINIi 
 
 OBERLIN, Johann Friedrich, a noted 
 philanthropist, and the originator of infant 
 
 schools, was born in Strasbourg, Aug. 31., 1740; 
 died at Waldbaeh, in Alsace, June 1 ., 1 826. I le 
 was educated in his native city, was occupied as 
 private tutor for several years, ami, in 1766, be- 
 came Protestant pastor of a district in Waldbaeh, 
 which had been reduced to a condition of poverty 
 by the devastations of the Thirty Years' War. 
 His office as pastor of Waldbaeh, in the Ban de 
 la Roche, in which district the people had been 
 brought to a condition of helplessness by igno- 
 rance and want, enabled him to exercise the power 
 almost of a dictator ; but this power he used 
 solely for their good. I lis first measures were 
 purely philanthropic. He introduced better 
 methods of cultivating the soil, caused good 
 roads, bridges, and dwellings to be constructed, 
 and established schools, hospitals, and various 
 new branches of manufacture. With the in- 
 crease of material prosperity, the moral condition 
 of the people was steadily advanced, till, at the! 
 close of his sixty years' labors, the population, 
 originally 500, had increased to more than 5,000; 
 and the success which attended his efforts, led, 
 in after years, to an unquestioned recognition of 
 his claim to a place among the world's benefact- 
 ors. His distinctive educational work was the 
 establishment of schools, since known as infant 
 schools, but then termed asylums, resembling the 
 
 creche (q. v.). In these, he gathered I ither the 
 
 children of his parishioners for amusement and 
 instruction, while their parents were at work. 
 The idea of instruction seems originally to have 
 been secondary in ( Ibcrlin's mind, his first 
 thought being to occupy the children so as to 
 leave their parents free to carry out his plans for 
 the amelioration of their condition. The idea of 
 instructing them, however, must have presented 
 itself almost immediately; and his method, by 
 combining these two ideas, was productive of the 
 happiest results. In all his efforts, he was affec- 
 tionately seconded by his housekeeper, Louisa 
 Schepler. Memoirs of the life of Oberliu have 
 been published as follows: T. Sims, Brief Memo- 
 rials of Oberliu (London, 1830) ; Memoirs of 
 Oberlin, n-ilh a short notice of Louisa Schepler 
 (London, 1838 and 1852); and a biography by 
 II. Ware, Jr. (Boston, 18-15). 
 
 OBERLIN COLLEGE, at Oberlin, Ohio, 
 was opened in 1833 as the Oberlin Collegiate In- 
 stitute, and received its present title in 1850. It 
 is under < 'ongrcgational control. Both sexes have 
 been admitted from the first; and, in 1835, it was 
 resolved to admit colored students. It has valu- 
 able apparatus and cabinets, and libraries con- 
 taining about 14,000 volumes. The value of its 
 buildings, grounds, and apparatus is si 70,(Mio : 
 the amount of its productive funds. SI 1 5,000. The 
 tuition fees are small. The college embraces four 
 departments: (1) theology; ("J) philosophy and the 
 arts, with a classical and scientific course, a literary 
 
 course, and select courses; (3) preparatory instruc- 
 tion, including a classical and an English school ; 
 and (4) a conservatory of music. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 33 instructors. The number of stu- 
 dents was as follows: theological. 51; classical and 
 scientific, 147 ; literary. I 45 : select. 66; classical 
 schools, 250 ; English school. 379 ; conservatory 
 of music, 288 ; total, deducting repetitions, 1,216 
 (648 male and 568 female). The following are 
 the names of the presidents : the Bev. Asa Ma- 
 han. 1835—50; the Bev. Charles (i. Finney, 
 1851—66; and the Bev. James II. Fairchild, 
 the present incumbent, appointed in 1866. 
 
 OBJECT TEACHING, a method of instruc- 
 tion in which objects an- employed by means of 
 which to call into systematic exi i< ise the observ- 
 ing faculties of young pupils, with the threefold 
 object, (1) to cultivate the senses. (21 to train the 
 perceptive faculty, so that the niind may be 
 stored with clear and vivid ideas, and (3), simul- 
 taneously with these, to cultivate the power of 
 expression by associating with the ideas thus 
 formed appropriate language. The merit of 
 introducing object teaching as a special method 
 of elementary instruction, is usually attributed 
 to Pestalozzi; but Comenius, Locke, Bousseau, 
 liasedow. Bochow, and others basic] their systems 
 of education, more or less, upon the same prin- 
 ciple; that is, they recognized the necessity of 
 communicating ideas, or of affording to the mind 
 the means to grasp ideas from objects, by actual 
 perception, before attempting to teach the verbal 
 expression ot those ideas, and that, without such 
 ideas, mere "book-learning" is useless. Festalozzi 
 appears, low ever, to have had only a slight knowl- 
 edge of the works of those educationists. In- 
 spired by the nailing of Bousseau s £mile to 
 study the phases of mental growth, he arrived 
 at the conclusion that the teaching of his day 
 was fundamentally wrong, from its violation of, 
 or inattention to. the laws of mental develop- 
 ment. These laws he believed to be, (1) that 
 the knowledge of things should precede that of 
 words: (2) that, for the a. epiisition of this knowl- 
 edge, the only effective agents, in the first stages 
 of mental growth, are the senses, chief of which 
 is the eye ; (3) that the first objects to be studied 
 by the child are those immediately surrounding 
 it, and these, only in their simplest forms and 
 relations; and (4) that from these objects as a 
 center, the sphere of knowledge should be wid- 
 ened by a gradual extension of the powers of ob- 
 servation to more distant objects. The first in- 
 struction, therefore, according to this plan, should 
 consist in concentrating the attention upon con- 
 crete things, in such a way as to result in a 
 thorough training of the observing faculties, so 
 that the conceptions with which the mind is 
 stored may be as well defined, and as true to 
 nature, as possible. So impressed was Festalozzi 
 with the correctness, and the supreme importance, 
 of this method, that he declares in, Wie Gertrud 
 
OBJECT TEACHING 
 
 li.VJ 
 
 ihre Kinder lekrt (180G), that the sum of his 
 achievements in education is the establishment 
 of the truth that "the culture of the outer and 
 inner senses is the absolute foundation of all 
 knowledge — the first aud highest principle of 
 instruction." The failure of the first attempts of 
 Pestalozzi and his followers, however, in the 
 practical application of his theories, was dis- 
 couraging: and the faith of the progressive edu- 
 cators who had accepted them as a new gospel, 
 was seriously shaken. The reason of their fail- 
 ure, however, was that their practice was in con- 
 flict with the very principles which Pestalozzi 
 had enunciated as fundamental. The human 
 body, with which they began their instructions, 
 is not only highly composite in itsstructure, and 
 difficult of description in the language of the 
 child, but. by its very nearness, is rendered unfit 
 for an object of study by children, their senses 
 being most powerfully, and. indeed, almost ex- 
 clusively, turned to the observation of objects 
 external to themselves. By attempting, there- 
 fore, to name in detail and to describe the limbs, 
 their form, color, size, actions, and uses, the 
 new theory was exposed to the ridicule of its 
 enemies, and placed in serious peril. In all the 
 Protestant countries of Europe, however, and 
 especially in Germany, the leaven of truth con- 
 tained in the principles of Pestalozzi, wrought a 
 gradual but sure reform in the old method of 
 instruction. Attention having been turned to a 
 serious consideration of the new system, a num- 
 ber of pedagogical writers contributed, by their 
 discussion of its principles, to give definite form to 
 the truth of the theory, and gradually to improve 
 its practice. Among these writers, the names of 
 ITarnisch. Denzel, I •inter,] •iesterweg, Grassmann, 
 Graser, VTurst, Curtmann, Volter.and I littes, de- 
 serve mention, though sea re, ly any two of them 
 agree as to the order in which the objects should 
 be introduced, the relative importance of the 
 purposes for which they are used, or the extent 
 to which the exercises should be carried. Object 
 teaching became universal in the primary schools; 
 and the dignity and usefulness of the teacher 
 were increased by the very impossibility of pre- 
 scribing any one method in which the principles 
 should be applied, thus giving special prominence 
 to the fact that the determining cause in favor 
 of one method over another was the individual 
 ability of the teacher. Instead of one invariable 
 method, which might be unintelligently acquired 
 and mechanically applied, a variety of methods 
 now presented themselves, each dependent for its 
 success upon circumstances. The individuality of 
 the pupil suddenly acquired a new importance; 
 and the teacher's individuality, also, became, 
 more than ever before, an essential factor in the 
 successful conduct of the school. For the diffi- 
 cult work thus foreshadowed, a long and care- 
 ful preparation was necessary on the part of the: 
 student. The first step in this preparation was 
 the observation of the educational work of some 
 good teacher; then, a thorough study, in the nor- 
 mal school, of the subjects of pedagogy, psychol- 
 ogy, the history of education, the natural 
 
 sciences, universal history, mathematics, and arts; 
 aud, finally, a course of practical teachingin trial 
 lessons, under the supervision of model teachers 
 and the student's own associates. Among the 
 writers above mentioned, one of the principal 
 points of controversy was in regard to the neces- 
 sity of educating the senses. Many denied alto- 
 gether this necessity, and insisted that object 
 teaching should be reserved exclusively for exer- 
 cises in using and understanding language. The 
 senses, so they argued, take care of themselves. 
 whenever an interest in surrounding objects is 
 awakened by the necessities of daily life; and the 
 common school, they said, can present but few ob- 
 jects of interest on which the senses can be prof- 
 itably exercised. If. for instance, pictures of ob- 
 jects are presented — as is most frequently the case, 
 aud if these pictures are large and faithful copies 
 of the originals which is rarely the case — the 
 exercise is still confined to only one sense: and 
 experience proves that this is insufficient to 
 awaken a lively interest. The impression made 
 on the sight, therefore, is short-lived and feeble. 
 If, on the other hand, the objects themselves are 
 produced, as these are generally house utensils, 
 or articles of school furniture, only a languid 
 ; interest is aroused in the pupils' minds, because 
 | there is rarely any new feature to be observed 
 in objects so familiar. The incentive to any ob- 
 servation or comparison of qualities, therefore, is 
 utterly wanting: and any sharpening of the senses 
 is improbable. If, on the contrary, the exercises 
 upon objects be carried on for the purpose of en- 
 riching the child's vocabulary, and of storing his 
 mind with just and accurate conceptions, by 
 causing him to connect with every word its proper 
 idea, all will have been done to benefit the pupil 
 
 ject teaching for the exclusive purpose of the ac- 
 quisition of language, would overthrow that 
 fundamental principle of the system which dis- 
 countenances mere word learning. The correct 
 understanding and use of language, also, they 
 thought, could be learned as well from books and 
 conversation; while, if the child is made to under- 
 stand, that to talk fluently and correctly of ob- 
 jects is all that is required, and that a real knowl- 
 edge of those objects is of no consequence, clever 
 talk will always be more highly valued by him 
 than exact knowledge. According to their view. 
 the pupil firings with him to the primary school 
 only the raw material out of which objective 
 knowledge and the proper use of the senses may 
 be developed : his mental pictures are wanting 
 in definiteness and in order. These must be 
 taken to pieces, ('. e., analyzed, and recomposed, 
 
 ,yn- 
 
 .1 o 
 the exercise of the senses is lacking, it is the 
 teacher's duty to excite it; and this should be 
 easy with young children, if the teacher's inter- 
 est in the subject is lively enough to communicate 
 itself to them.— While the rapid progress of 
 science and art in our day infinitely augments 
 the mass of knowledge which it is desirable and 
 
 nthetized, at the sight, hearing, or touch, 
 of real objects. If the interest of the children in 
 
000 
 
 OP..IECT TEACHING 
 
 important for every liody to learn, the increasing 
 artificiality of our daily life tends to alienate us 
 from a spontaneous exercise of our senses; and 
 this di'lh-icncy must be supplied by education, to 
 enable us to compass the amount of knowledge 
 which it is desirable to acquire. The exercise of 
 the senses is not only practically useful, but it is, 
 in most cases, full of interest. To illustrate this, 
 let pupils be asked toestimate bysighf the length 
 of a pen-holder, the dimensions of a window pane, 
 distances on the floor or on the ground, the 
 weight of objects that can be held in the hand: 
 or to distinguish shades of color, and the differ- 
 ences in pitch or quality of musical sounds. Such 
 exercises are not only amusing, but useful : while, 
 on the other hand, there is abundant evidence 
 that the circumstances of daily life do not, of 
 themselves, educate the senses. Thus, let a 
 dozen countrymen be asked the length of a cer- 
 tain way over which they often travel, and 
 the probability is that a dozen different answers 
 will be given, many of them wide of the mark. 
 rnstances might be multiplied indefinitely to 
 show that the senses are not self -e lucative. Some 
 educators, while not objecting to any of the five 
 purposss to which object lessons may be applied; 
 namely, (1) the preparation of the pupil for 
 serious learning; (I!) the sharpening of the senses, 
 and the exercise of all the mental functions; 
 (3) exercise in language ; (4) the acquisition of 
 knowledge; and (5) moral training; still have in- 
 sisted that a distinction should be made between 
 object teaching and objective teaching; the former 
 comprising exercises in which the objects are 
 taught for themselves, i. e., for instruction in all 
 the properties which are peculiar to them ; the 
 latter, for the acquisition of that generalized or 
 fundamental knowledge which is common to 
 many widely different objects. The former, they 
 contended, should occupy only a part of the 
 time during the first year or two, after wdiich 
 it should cease ; but every branch of learning 
 should, in turn, be treated objectively. The 
 method of procedure should be, first, the presen- 
 tation of the object. This should be analyzed by 
 tile pupils, ami immediately reconstructed, tin' 
 teacher supplying nothing but technical terms 
 which are supposed to be unknown to the pupils, 
 but guiding them by conversation to observe, com- 
 pare, and reason correctly and in proper language, 
 to rise from the single features of the object to 
 its entirety, from similar features to generali- 
 zations, from the concrete to the abstract, from 
 facts to laws. The opponents of this view said 
 that the principle was good, but did not go far 
 enough. In the first place, there is a vast body 
 of knowledge that cannot be treated objectively. 
 All facts, for instance, in regard to the days of 
 the week, and the months, their names, number, 
 etc.; many facts in regard to time, such as the 
 number of seconds in a minute, the number of 
 minutes in an hour, etc., the names of the 
 seasons, the method of telling time by the 
 elock. — these and many other necessary facts 
 eannot be objectively presented, but must be 
 learned arbitrarily; while, at a later period in 
 
 sable; and all attempts to teach without them are 
 useless, and result in a waste of precious time. 
 While recognizing, therefore, the value of object 
 teaching in many branches, and its pre-eminent 
 value in a few, they assert that it has its natural 
 limitations beyond which memorizing and an 
 adherence to the text-book are the only proper 
 means to be relied upon by the teacher. At the 
 present time, this latter view — that a combination 
 of the two methods should be employed, is in the 
 ascendant. In Europe, especially in Germany, this 
 reactionary movement is thought to be fostered 
 from political and religious motives. In the United 
 States, the demand for teachers has so far ex- 
 ceeded the supply from the normal schools, with- 
 out a corresponding rise in salaries, that the 
 standard of qualifications for teachers has not 
 been maintained at the height which many edu- 
 cational reformers had hoped it would be. In short, 
 the principles and system of Pestalozzi cannot be 
 said, at the present time, to be fully carried out. 
 
 object teaching should be begun as early as pos- 
 sible, and in the manner of the kindergarten, 
 and should be followed by objective ami oon- 
 
 ceptive teaching, which should !»■ carried through 
 every branch of learning. The mental growth of 
 pupils, however, should not be retarded by a 
 superfluous use of this method. A Bafe criterion, 
 by which the teacher may know. at any moment, 
 whether he has made a proper use of the object 
 method, may be found in the self-activity of 
 his pupils, their ability to grasp, in their answers 
 to his questions, the general fact, proposition, or 
 law. The new method is justly called the devel- 
 oping method (q. v.), the pupils' minds being 
 made to develop themselves, the teacher only 
 suggesting what they are to discover. Every 
 pupil is. as it were, to rediscover every science in 
 the genetic method (q. v.), a difficult task for the 
 teacher, and apparently a circuitous way for the 
 pupil. But because of its thoroughness, it is the 
 most rapid way of learning ; and its results arc 
 indelibly fixed in the mind. This method, also, 
 if early begun, and consistently carried out, is 
 successful with every child, and saves precious 
 time, which, later in life, may be devoted to those 
 higher branches that lie beyond the common- 
 ■ school course, but which are every year becom- 
 ing, in many cases, highly desirable, and, in some, 
 indispensable. The literature of object teaching 
 is much too extensive to permit the enumeration 
 here of more than a few of the principal works. 
 Pestalozzi's complete works are now (187G) 
 undergoing, in Germany, a second revision. Die- 
 sterweg'smonthly, i?//c//(/.sr//cZ.V(i7A'/', contains, in 
 its long series. and in its continuation by \\ ichard 
 Lange, more information on this subject than 
 any other work. The latest German work of 
 a progressive nature is l'r. Dittes's Die Meikodik 
 ilri- i'ii//:s.«-//>i/i- iinf i/i-xi-hii-htlii-hrr <1 riiinllniie 
 (Leipsic,1874). In English literature, compare the 
 works enumerated under Kindergarten. See 
 
OBSERVING FACULTIES 
 
 also. Krdsi's Biography of Pestalozzi (Cin., 
 1875); Hailman, History of Pedagogy ( < "in.. 
 1874) : and. Outlines of Object Teaching | N. V.. 
 L867); N. A. Calkins, Primary 01 ect /. saws 
 (X. Y., 1873); Currie, Prh pies , d Practia 
 of Early School- hi cation 1,1m . L857 ; 
 Barnard, Object Teaching (N. F., I860). (See 
 also Color, Form. Ximrkr, and Pkstai.ozzi.) 
 
 OBSERVING FACULTIES. See Intel- 
 lectual Education, and Ohject Teaching. 
 
 OHIO, one of the central states of the Amer- 
 ican Union, at first a part of the North-west 
 Territory, was admitted into the Union as a 
 state in 1802, but not organized as such till 
 March, 1803. Its area is 3!),9(U sq. in.; and its 
 population, in 1870, was 2,665,260, of whom 
 63,213 were colored persons. 
 
 Educational History. The germ of public 
 education in ( thio is to be found in the ordinance 
 of July 13.. L787, enacted to provide a terri- 
 torial government for the region north- west of the 
 Ohio river. At that time, an association of peopli 
 of New England— chiefly soldiers of the Revolu- 
 tion — organized as the Ohio Company of Asso- 
 ciates, was lie- .datine- nrh ( ',,n..r.-s for a lafv 
 
 OHIO 
 
 001 
 
 the acknowledged lead, r .,i the movement, and 
 the Re\ ttanasseh I utler, 1. 1.. D . of Massachu 
 setts, was the agent to purchase the land. The lat- 
 ter was a man of broad and liberal culture; and. 
 at the time the ordinance was framed, was con- 
 sulted as to its provisions. It is believed that to 
 him more than to any other person an to 1 
 attributed those clauses winch have made the or- 
 dinance so famous and useful: the prohibition of 
 slavery,and the declaration that "religion, moral- 
 ity, and knowledge being nei i ssary to g 1 gov- 
 ernment and to the happiness of mankind, 
 schools and the means of education shall be for- 
 ever encouraged." By the contract afterward 
 signed by Dr. (.'utler and Winthrop Sargent, on 
 the part of the Ohio Company, and by the 
 Board of Treasury, Oct., 1787, it. was stipulated 
 that lot or section number sixteen in each town- 
 ship should be set apart for the maintenance of 
 schools, and also, that two complete townships 
 should be given perpetually for the purposes of 
 a university. Under this contract, a settlement 
 was made at Marietta. April 7., 1788. This was 
 the first organized white settlement within the 
 present hunts of Ohio. Stimulated by the 
 example of the Ohio Company. John Cleves 
 Symmes.of New Jersey, negotiated, in the lat- 
 ter part of the year 1787, for a tract of land 
 lying between the two .Miami rivers — the region 
 which now includes Cincinnati. In connection 
 with tlit- purchas \ < longress gave another town- 
 ship of I oi I t ii- a nniversity. Congress after- 
 ward gave th i sixteenth section in each township 
 of the ,ta'e. oran area equal to this, for (he sup- 
 port of common schools. Thus one thirty-sixth 
 part of all the land of the stale was devoted to 
 common schools, besides the three townships for 
 universities. The early schools in the state were 
 private schools. They were more numerous in 
 the settlements formed by immigrants from the 
 
 more enlightened port ion of the older .states. 
 Often graduates of Vale or Harvard were teach- 
 ers : but. as a rule, the teachers had little edu- 
 cation, and the range of instruction was very 
 limited. In the course of time, school-districts 
 were formed, and the small revenues from leases 
 of school lands were applied to the payment 
 of teachers. Thus the schools gradually were 
 changed from private schools to public schools 
 under legal control. The first general school 
 law was enacted in 1*21. This authorized the 
 division of townships into school districts, upon 
 a majority vote of the resident householders, the 
 appointment of these householders as school- 
 committee men, the erection of school buildings, 
 the employment of teachers, and the levying of 
 taxes upon all the parents and guardians of chil- 
 dren attending the si hools, who were able to pay. 
 Cnder this law, liowev, i. action on the part of 
 the people was lea obligatory : and the attitude 
 of charity assumed bj its provisions toward the 
 poor man caused it to become unpopular. In 
 L825, another general school law was passed by 
 which, for the first time in the history Of the 
 
 was directed to be levied. This law provided 
 
 com n education. It authorized 
 
 incut, by the court of common pie 
 niei-s of schools, whose dtttv it u 
 teachers' certificates to ssuch applic 
 
 county tax by an assessment of rate-bills on alV* 
 
 school patrons, in order to keep the s. hools o] en 
 for a reasonable period. The organization at 
 Cincinnati in 1831, of a college of teachers, 
 composed of the most prominent educators of 
 Ohio and the neighboring states, led to a gen- 
 eral awakening on the subject of education, and 
 to the need of a superintendent of common 
 schools. In U.'!7. accordingly, the office of 
 late superintendent was created; and statistical 
 information in regard to the schools was first 
 collected by the state 
 
 partly for that ] 
 port of the state 
 strumental in br 
 
 the school law of 
 fund of $200,001 
 2 mills, and local 
 houses were imp 
 were required, 
 tary of slate was 
 In the latter yeai 
 
 department created 
 'he first annual re- 
 ident was largely hi- 
 nt the enactment of 
 w hieb a state school 
 ed, a countj tax of 
 e building of school- 
 eports from teachers 
 i to 1853, the secre- 
 tate superintendent, 
 passed making each 
 
 township a school -disi rict, and creating i 
 ship board of education, whose dutj if ■ ■ to 
 make an estimate, annually, of the money re- 
 quired lor the schools, exec] it for ihe payment 
 of teachers: to establish high schools ill each 
 district, if deemed necessary by a majority of 
 voters — the latter to decide the amount of tax 
 to lie levied for the purpose: and to levy a tax 
 of not more than 2 mills on the dollar, for the 
 
662 OH 
 
 payment of teachers in such schools, or for the ' 
 purpose of extending the terms of the sub-district 
 schools beyond the time provided for by the 
 state funds. Every city or village of 300 in- 
 habitants, also, was constituted a separate school- 
 district. Various changes have been made in 
 the law from that time to 1873, relating prin- 
 cipally to the amount of the school tax, and the 
 manner in which it should be levied. In that 
 year, all previous school laws were codified ; and 
 a general law was enacted, by which the various 
 systems of local organization were made uniform. 
 Slight amendments were made to this law during 
 that and the following year. 
 
 State Superintendents.— Vast first state super- 
 intendent of common schools was Samuel 
 Lewis, chosen by the general assembly, March 
 31., 1837. He held the office until his resigna- 
 tion, m 1840 ; when it was abolished, its duties 
 being assigned to the secretary of state. Mr. 
 Lewis was a man of great earnestness and vigor, 
 eloquent in his addresses, and of rare good sense. 
 He did a noble work for the cause of popular 
 education. The secretaries of state had little 
 time to devote to the cause of education, and 
 generally did little more than refer to the sub- 
 ject in their annual reports. Samuel Galloway, 
 who was elected secretary in 1844, gave the sub- 
 ject much attention ; and, by his stirring ad- 
 dresses and reports, exerted a wide influence. 
 He held the office for six years. In L853, the 
 office of state superintendent was again made a 
 distinct one, under the title of State School 
 Commissioner, such commissioner to be elected 
 by tin' people, and to hold office for three years. 
 II. H. Barney was elected in the fall of 1853. 
 He was succeeded by Anson Smith, who held 
 the office for two terms,— from 1856 until 1862. 
 ('. \V. II. Cathcart succeeded him, but resigned 
 after holding the office nine months; and E. E. 
 White was appointed by the governor to com- 
 plete the term, which expired in 1*65. Hissucces- 
 sor was John A. X orris, who was re-elected for 
 a second term, but resigned in 1869 ; and W. D. 
 Henkle was appointed to till the vacancy. He 
 was succeeded by T. W. Harvey, who continued 
 in office one term. The present commissioner, 
 C. S. Smart, entered upon his duty in 1875. 
 
 School System. — The principal educational 
 officer of the state is the state commissioner of 
 common schools, who is elected for three years. 
 His duties are the following: to prepare annually 
 a statistical report, showing the condition of 
 the common schools ; to make such suggestions 
 or recommendations to the legislature concern- 
 ing the schools of the state as he may deem 
 proper ; to visit annually each of the nine 
 judicial districts of the state, "superintending 
 and encouraging teachers' institutes, conferring 
 with boards of education, and other school offi- 
 cers, consulting teachers, visiting schools, and 
 delivering lectures on topics calculated to sub- 
 serve the interests of popular education. "District 
 
 boards of education are elected by the ] pie. 
 
 They may authorize, for school purposes, a tax 
 not exceeding seven mills on the dollar, may di- 
 
 rect any language to be taught in the schools, 
 and are required to provide instruction in Ger- 
 man when it is demanded by 75 freeholders, on 
 behalf of not less than 40 pupils who intend to 
 study both German and English. They may 
 also establish evening schools for whites, and 
 separate schools for colored children, when these 
 are more than 20 in number. In most of the 
 cities and towns, the boards of education ap- 
 point superintendents, as officers of the local 
 school systems. These superintendents have a 
 general oversight of the public schools, but are 
 themselves subject to the control of the boards 
 of education. They visit the schools, give advice 
 to the teachers, and look after many matters 
 which would otherwise require the personal at- 
 tention of the board. If they are persons of 
 thorough culture, they elevate the literary char- 
 acter of the teachers and schools, and often exert 
 a very wide influence. In some cases, the super- 
 intendent does a limited work of personal in- 
 struction in the schools. A state board of exam- 
 iners, three in number, is appointed for two 
 years by the state commissioner, to issue life 
 certificates to teachers after strict examination. 
 County boards of examiners are also appointed. 
 The common-school fund of the state consists of 
 the amount derived from a one-mill tax on tax- 
 able property, and from the proceeds of the sales 
 of public lands. The lands set apart for common 
 schools were for a time leased, but have now 
 nearly all been sold. The proceeds of the sales 
 of these school lands constitute " an irreducible 
 fund for the support of the common schools 
 of the township or other district having credit 
 for the same." This fund yields an interest of 
 six per cent. To this should be added rents etc. 
 on unsold land, and the revenue from certain 
 fines and licenses. The chief support of the 
 schools, however, comes from direct taxes, state 
 and district. At present, each civil township is 
 a school-district, managed by a township board 
 of education : and this district is divided into 
 sub-districts for the convenience of the inhab- 
 itants. The title to grounds, school buildings, 
 and all other property, is vested in the township 
 board. The local directors of the several sub- 
 districts employ the teachers, purchase or lease 
 school-house sites, rent school rooms, buy fuel, 
 ami make all other provision necessary for the 
 schools. There are. besides these, city districts 
 of the first class, being cities with a population 
 of over 10,000. city districts of the second 
 class, containing a less population, and village 
 districts. In these districts, the boards of edu- 
 cation have somewhat enlarged powers. The 
 legal school year is 24 weeks ; the school age is 
 from 6 to 21 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The whole number 
 of township districts in the state, in 1875, was 
 1.337; of sub districts in townships. 10,433; of 
 city, village, and special districts. 005; and of 
 district divisions included in city, village, and 
 special districts, 701. The whole number of 
 
 school l ins was 14,868, of which 450 were 
 
 classed as high school rooms. The whole mini- 
 
ber of school-houses was 10,695, the total value 
 of which, including grounds, was estimated at 
 $8,037,446. The whole amount of school rev- 
 enue was as follows : 
 
 From interest 
 
 funds ..$215,718.85 
 
 Fr rents of school lands, ,. 22,283.19 
 
 Prom -tale school tax 1,560,397.93 
 
 From local taxes 0,153,442.63 
 
 From sale of bonds 489,408.32 
 
 From tines, licenses, etc. ... 270,160.94 
 
 Total $8,711,411.80 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries $4,787,903.76 
 
 For superintendents' salaries laK,77:j.G4 
 
 For sites and buildings 1,313,514.86 
 
 For fuel and contingent ex- 
 penses 1,31)1, 704.42 
 
 Total $7,651,950.68 
 
 The other important items of school statistics 
 are the following : 
 
 No. of children of school age, males, 522,418 
 females.495,308 
 
 Total.... 
 
 Total enrollment: male-,... 
 
 females, . 
 
 Total 712,129 
 
 Average daily attendance: male- 2'J."> ,."»:'. 1 
 females 209,918 
 
 
 Total 
 
 No. 
 No. 
 
 of teachers common sol Is: 
 
 males, 9,759 
 females, 12,092 
 
 of teachers in high schools: 
 
 males, 427 
 females, 214 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Ave 
 
 rage monthly salary, common schools, ma 
 
 22,492 
 
 es. $47 
 females,$31 
 
 " " " hii;li " male-, $72 
 
 females,$57 
 Normal Instruction. — There are, in Ohio, no 
 normal school.- under state control. Such schools 
 "have been officially recommended by governors, 
 ■school commissioners, etc., but the state has 
 never established them. To meet this want, 
 some of the cities have normal and training 
 schools as a part of their school systems; and 
 there are several private independent normal 
 .schools. The cities in which there are depart- 
 ments for training teachers connected with the 
 public schools, are Cincinnati, Cleveland, Hay- 
 ton, and Sandusky. The primary design of 
 these schools is to prepare teachers for their own 
 schools. Such teachers are generally graduates 
 of the city high schools, or of schools of a similar 
 grade. The students are not only instructed in 
 the general principles and methods of teaching, 
 but in the special methods in vogue in the 
 schools of their respective cities. As a general 
 rule, the graduates of these normal departments 
 are given a preference, by the boards of educa- 
 tion, in the appointment of teachers for the city 
 schools. They also receive a larger compensation 
 than teachers not so trained. — The private nor- 
 mal schools are the following : The McNealy 
 
 lO 663 
 
 Normal School, at ETopedale, Harrison Co.; the 
 National Normal School, at Lebanon, Warren 
 Co.; the Western Reserve Normal School, at, 
 Milan, Erie Co.; the Orwell Normal School, at 
 Orwell, Ashtabula Co.; the Northwestern Ohio 
 Normal School, at A. la, Hardin Co.; the Ohio 
 Central Normal School, at Worthington, Frank- 
 lin Co.; and the Southern Ohio Normal School, 
 at Pleasantville. Fairfield Co. 
 
 Teachers' Institutes. — The law authorizes the 
 teachers in each of the several counties to form 
 an association and to hold annually an institute 
 
 tion; and they are permitted t . > devote a week 
 to attendance at the institute without any de- 
 duction from their salary as teachers. The surplus 
 money derived from the examination fees paid 
 by all teachers when examined by the board of 
 county examiners, after tin' expenses of the 
 latter have been deducted, constitutes an insti- 
 tute fund. The county commissioners may add 
 to this fund, when necessary, a limited sum by 
 direct appropriation. The meetings of these 
 institutes are well attended, and are generally 
 conducted w it li spirit. Methods of teaching the 
 several branches of study, and of school man- 
 agement, are considered and discussed. In 1875, 
 there were 92 institutes held, with an aggregate 
 attendance of 10,125 teachers, at a total expense 
 of $18,988.— Besides these county institutes, it 
 has been customary, in several of the cities, to 
 hold, each year, a local institute for the special 
 benefit of the teachers of the city schools, the 
 first week of the school year being devoted to 
 this purpose. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The first graded 
 course of instruction was adopted in Cincinnati 
 soon after the year 1840. Since then, high 
 schools have gradually been introduced into the 
 cities and towns. The Cincinnati Central High 
 School, with a graded course, was established in 
 1*47. and classes were admitted from the lower 
 schools once each year. The schools of Cleve- 
 land, I iolumbus, Dayton, and Portsmouth adopt- 
 ed, in the order named, the graded system ; and 
 afterward the system met with general favor 
 in the larger places. These follow a graded 
 system of instruction and generally require four 
 years for the completion of the full course. 
 Pupils pass, by examination, to the high schools 
 from the grammar schools. In this way. there 
 is a perfect gradation, and the pupils are taken 
 through the progressive stages until they emerge 
 from the high school with an excellent education. 
 Eight years are spent in the common grades and 
 four in the high school — in all twelve years. 
 e largely displaced the old- 
 
 upon private foundations ; 
 doIs were good preparatory 
 
 schools for the colleges, there would be no further 
 need of academies in the state. Few of the high 
 schools have a sufficiently thorough course of 
 classical study to fit boys for the best colleges. 
 Greek is ofteu omitted altogether. Further- 
 more, iu order to obtain the classical training 
 furnished by the high school, it is generally neces- 
 
(361 01 
 
 sary to take all the other studies of the full four 
 years' course, some of which are included in the 
 usual college course. Hence, the high schools 
 do not, as a rule, serve as preparatory schools for 
 the better class of colleges, such colleges in Ohio 
 being obliged to organize preparatory depart- 
 ments of their own. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Three state institutions 
 for higher education have been established — the 
 Ohio University. Miami University, and the 
 Agricultural and Mechanical College. The state 
 has never directly aided any of them, their en- 
 dowments having been derived from lands 
 granted by the general government. 
 
 The state, under the first constitution, granted 
 college charters quite freely; and, under the pres- 
 ent constitution, adopted in 1851, colleges may 
 be incorporated under a general law without a 
 special charter. Some of the colleges are close 
 corporations, and are independent of state or ec- 
 clesiastical control. Western Reserve. Marietta, 
 and Oberlin, are of this class. The trustees ofthe 
 University of Cincinnati are appointed by the 
 city council. The larger part of the colleges are 
 under ecclesiastical supervision. Some of the 
 Ohio colleges are modeled after the best institu- 
 tions of the Eastern states, and are characterized 
 by thorough and exact scholarship. 
 
 The followin- table contains an enumeration 
 of all the important institutions of this grade in 
 the state. 
 
 [The names of those for f.nial.s ex. lnsnvly art- printed 
 in Itnlu:* ; those tor both s.-xos. in small oafs.] 
 
 NAME 
 
 location 
 
 S' 
 
 Religions 
 
 liALllwiN 1 I.I .''.-, 
 111. Hl.ll . 
 
 Capital 1 i 1 
 
 Cin. II 
 
 Hems ... |-,..v,iMty.. 
 
 . ,U, 
 Franklin foil- ...... 
 
 ll.i.l.'il.. i,. . 11 _■. 
 
 '/.'..'■' /..... CoUtgt 
 
 ^Hiram Coll- 
 
 "Kenyon Colh-^.- 
 
 MrO'lkl,. I'' 'II : 
 
 'MamttaC 11. - 
 
 Mt. St Mary's nt tin 
 ' West 
 
 Mt. Union College. . 
 
 MrsiiiN.iM College. 
 "Oberlin College 
 
 Ohio Ci nthal Coi i, 
 
 tlHIo r/MVI IMIV.... 
 
 Okie ii. ' ran /..... 
 OneStnd 5 1 niv, rsitj 
 
 OTTEEB] .I'm. 
 
 f^'ll." t ' 
 Uuiv. of \v.„...... 
 
 l'rl..iii;i Inn . ih 
 ffESTl .'. 10 II i:M 
 
 Yellotf Springs 
 
 College Hill 
 New Athens 
 
 Tiffin 
 
 Hillsboro 
 
 Hiram 
 
 Gambier 
 
 Blooinneld 
 
 Marietta 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 Mt. Union 
 v ... i loncord 
 Oberlin 
 Iberia 
 Athens 
 
 W, stirville 
 
 10. In ..1 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 ISM 
 1856 
 
 1850 
 
 is:u 
 
 1S47 
 
 1SU4 
 1850 
 1839 
 1867 
 
 1873 
 
 1851 
 1858 
 1867 
 1k;i:i 
 1854 
 
 1844 
 1889 
 
 ls:r> 
 
 1873 
 
 ISTU 
 1851 
 
 M Ejus. 
 Uuiv. 
 Ev. Lnth. 
 M. Epis. 
 Bap. 
 
 N..||.s..rt. 
 
 Un.Presb. 
 M. Epis. 
 It. .formed 
 M. Epis. 
 Disoiplcs 
 l'r. Epis. 
 Ass.Presb. 
 Non-sect. 
 
 II C. 
 M. Epis. 
 Non-sect. 
 Cong, 
 r. Presb. 
 
 M I pis. 
 
 K C. 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 New Ch'ch 
 
 Franklin having offered §300,000 to secure it. 
 The proceeds of the land grant of 1862, which 
 constitute its endowment, have already reached 
 the sum of $500,000. In addition to the neces- 
 sary buildings and apparatus, it has a farm of 
 320 acres. Its object is to supply a general and 
 scientific education rather than a professional 
 one; and to this end its provisions are ample, 
 consisting of well - equipped departments in all 
 the branches of natural science ordinarily taught, 
 supplemented by instruments, cabinets, and 
 laboratories. In the course of study, a union of 
 the obligatory and elective systems is followed. 
 A fixed preparatory course of 2 years is pursued, 
 at the end of which the student is permitted to 
 enter whatever department he may choose. The 
 number of instructors, in 1875, was !); the num- 
 ber of students, 65. The Toledo University of 
 Arts and Trades has been recently organized for 
 the purpose of affording instruction to young 
 men and women in the branches indicated by its 
 name. In 1874, one professor gave instruction 
 to 8!) students. The institution still hicks many 
 requisites for thorough efficiency, owing to its 
 \ei-\ ton-lit establishment. The Lane Theological 
 Seminary, at Cincinnati, was founded in 1829 by 
 the Presbyterians. It provides a •'! vears course 
 of study. ' In ls7 1.it had 5 redden) i I if ssors 
 and ID students. Instruction in theologj is also 
 given at the St. Mary's Theological Seminary 
 lit. C), at Cleveland: the Theological Seminary 
 nt St. i 'hailos Borromeo (R. C.J, at Carthagena; 
 the Heidelberg Theological Seminary I Reformed), 
 at Tiffin; the Theological Seminary of the Evan- 
 gelical Joint Synod of Ohio (Evang. Lutheran), 
 at Columbus; the Union I'iblical Seminary (In. 
 Brethren), at I>avt<.n; and the United Presby- 
 terian Theological Seminary, at Xenia. Several of 
 the secular colleges and universities of the state 
 also have separate departments for instruction in 
 theology. The Ohio State and Union Law Col- 
 lege was founded at ( 'levclaiid. in I Sou. Its aim 
 is to give each student a thorough theoretical and 
 practical knowledge of law. and to accomplish 
 him as an extemporaneous speaker. For the latter 
 purpose, weekly debates are held, and law cases 
 are provided in which the actual practice of the 
 court room is illustrated. In 1874, the number of 
 professors of all kinds was 8. There is also a law 
 
 school co i ted with Wilberforce University, 
 
 besides the Cincinnati Law School, formerly a de- 
 
 •al College, the Eclectic Medical In- 
 Ihio College of Dental Surgery, and 
 if Pharmacy, all at Cincinnati: the 
 ege and the Homoeopathic Hospital 
 
 lowland; and the Stai'lino Medical 
 
 Prqfesi 
 
 Ohio Agr 
 ope I. n 
 
 <.-i.;ili/,r Inst, ■ it, I ;,,,,.— -The 
 
 d Mechanical i !ollege was 
 ■ i 'olumbus, ih. limy of 
 
 of the colleges and universities. — Schoolsof draw- 
 iiie and design exist in connection with the Uni- 
 versity of ( 'inciniiatiaiidthe Mechanics' Institute. 
 The number of pupils in each is from 300 to 400. 
 
OHIO 
 
 Special Instruction. — The institutions for the 
 blind, and for the deaf and duinb, located at 
 Columbus, are, strictly speaking, schools. In 
 them are taught, in addition to the elementary 
 branches.all the studies of high schools, includ- 
 ing Latin. The instruction is thorough and 
 complete, and these institutions are an honor to 
 tin-Mil-'- There is also, at t 'oliiin Kits, an asylum 
 for idiotic and imbecile youth, which in its very 
 nature is a school. (If the whole number un- 
 der instruction in 1S7.">, 253 had been taught 
 to readand write. It has ben ascertained thai 
 one-third of the inmates can be so trained as to 
 be able to support themselves. 
 
 The Reform Farm for Boys, located near 
 Lancaster, Fairfield Co., is also a school. This 
 was the first reformatory in the United States 
 to adopt the "family plan" and has proved a 
 remarkable success. No walk, or cells, or iron 
 bars restrain the boys. They are grouped into 
 families under the care of "elder brothers", all 
 under the general supervision of the commissioner 
 in charge." Kindness, and appeal, to tl,.- hid,, r 
 and better nature, and to Christia i principles, are 
 the guiding and controlling forces, the object 
 being nurture rather than discipli te o: | anish- 
 metit. Of 704 boys, in 1875, only 30 attempted to 
 i return voluntarily. I lalt' of 
 
 OHIO CENTEAL COLLEGE 665 
 
 ferent publishers. In Dial, its name was changed 
 to 7'/,e Ohio Educational Month!,/; and, in 1801, 
 ii passed under the control of E.E. WhiteandCo., 
 Anson Smyth being the partner. Mr. Smyth 
 retired alter twoyears, and Mr. White continued 
 
 wh( 
 
 transferred to its present proprietor. W. I). 
 Benkle. In L870, Mr. White issued audition 
 of the Monthly for circulation within the state, 
 which was called the National Teacher. 'I Ins 
 journal has been the leading educational publica- 
 tion in the state since the day of its establish- 
 ment. In 1875, W, l». I!, iikb- commenced the 
 publication of the Educational Notes and Que- 
 rns, which supplies a want, and has already at- 
 tained a wide circulation. 
 
 Teachers' Associations. — In 1829, "some 
 
 escape. Many fugitive 
 each day is spent in i 
 work upon the farm a 
 learn useful tra les. S 
 discharged have beet 
 
 bre 
 
 her halt in 
 re the boys 
 have been 
 
 are group 1 
 he ordinary 
 
 •s' and Sail- 
 ■nia, ( irecne 
 The graded 
 dgh school. 
 
 valuable and elaborate addressee ami reports 
 were made by the more promini n1 ti ai hers and 
 friends of education of Cincinnati and of the 
 Ohio valley. In the fourteen years of its exist- 
 ence, more than three hundred such addresses 
 and reports were given. The first state conven- 
 tion for the promotion of public education was 
 held in Columbus, January l.'i., L836. Similar 
 convert - were held in L837 and in 1838. 'I he 
 
 Co., is a school as well asa hon 
 system is adopted, crowned with 
 Besides the above institutions supported by th 
 state, there are many of local character in which 
 instruction is given to the young.— The Cincin- 
 nati llouseof Refuge is a reform school, in which 
 study and work are combined. The Cleveland 
 House of Refuge is similar. The Industrial 
 School of Cleveland is a private enterprise, where 
 instruction in letters, as well as in sound moral- 
 ity, is given. There are in the state many homes 
 for poor ehil ben. supported, in whole or in part. 
 ■counties. In all these, the elementary 
 
 Akron. Dec 30., I- 
 i ontinued to the pp 
 most efficient aid in 
 popular education ii 
 and is conducted i 
 A somewhat similar 
 
 sulfation was formei 
 of many of the CI 
 Association of Ohio 
 
 are held. and the assi 
 In addition to these 
 
 at 
 
 bra 
 
 iff 'lent 
 
 cational journals have been pul 
 most were short-lived. The ft 
 was established by Dr. A. D. 
 published at Columbus. In t 
 School Friend was issued by \\ 
 of Cincinnati. Thesetwojour 
 L850, under the joint names, 
 in September, 1861. The Ohi 
 
 North-Eastern Ohio T. 
 the Central Ohio Teach 
 are ttlso many count} ti 
 History of Education i, 
 1876, as "a centennial v 
 general assembly oi th 
 
 ouii ■ 1 by a volu f Hi itorical 
 
 the Public S hoots, an 1 an ith i oi 
 Sketches of the Higher Educational i 
 OHIO CENTRAL COLLEGE 
 founded in 1854, is a non-sectarian 
 It comprises an KmdisI, dciiartuic, 
 
 \iiiiual meetings 
 
 ations, there are 
 r. sin h as the 
 Association, and 
 ociation. There 
 associations. A 
 ias published in 
 I iy order of the 
 
 dlv 
 
 Jo 
 
 al of Edu- 
 cation was issued in January, 1852, under the 
 
 auspices of the State Teachers' Association, with 
 Br. Lord as chief editor, assist,,! |, v several of 
 the leading educational men in the state. It has 
 had a long succession of editors and several dif- 
 
 Oesigncil tor those preparing to lie teachers m 
 
 the n hi schools; a preparatory department; 
 
 and a collegiate department, with a classical and 
 a scientific course. Roth sexes are admitted. 
 The cost of tuition ranges fr $18 to $24 pet- 
 year. The Rev. Wm. Maelareu. D.D., is (1876), 
 the president. 
 
OHIO UNIVERSITY 
 
 ONE .STUDY UNIVERSITY 
 
 OHIO UNIVERSITY, at Athens. Ohio, 
 was founded upon a grant of two townships of 
 land by the general government for the endow- 
 ment of a state university. This was the first 
 educational endowment by the general govern- 
 ment, being made in 1787. The lands to be de- 
 voted to the support of the university were 
 located in 1795 ; and, in 1802, an act was passed 
 by the territorial legislature, establishing the 
 institution under the name of the American 
 Western University. Nothing was done under 
 this act ; and. in ls04. the institution was char- 
 tered as the Ohio University. Instruction com- 
 menced in 1809 ; but a full faculty was not 
 organized till 1 822. The institution is supported 
 by the rents from its endowment and by tuition 
 fees. It has a cabinet, apparatus, and libraries 
 containing 8.000 volumes. The university com- 
 prises a preparatory department and a collegiate 
 department, with a classical course of four years, 
 and a scientific course of three years. Both 
 sexes are admitted. The cost of tuition is $18 
 a year in the preparatory, and $30 in the col- 
 legiate, department. One student from each 
 county of the state is admitted free of tuition. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were 6 instructors and LOO 
 students (46 collegiate and 54 preparatory). The 
 presidents have been as follows: the Rev. James 
 Irvine. A. M., 1H22— 4 ; the Rev. Robert G.Wil- 
 son, D.D., 1824—39; the Rev. William II. 
 McGuffey, T). D., LL. D., 1839— 43 ; the Rev. 
 Alfred Ryors, D. I)., 1848—52 ; the Rev. Solo- 
 mon Howard. I). D.. LL. D-, 1852— 72; and the 
 Rev. William II. Scott. A. M., the present in- 
 
 OHIO WESLEY AN UNIVERSITY, at 
 
 Delaware, Ohio, founded in 1842. is under Meth- 
 odist Episcopal control. The grounds consist 
 of 30 acres, and contain four college buildings. 
 There are cabinets of aivlueology. neology, min- 
 eralogy, and natural history, and libraries con- 
 taining 13,000 volumes. The university has au 
 endowment of $300,000; and the vdue of its 
 buildings, grounds, etc.. is $200,000. Scholar- 
 ships, admitting the student to all the studies 
 required for graduation, can be purchased at the 
 university at prices as follows: perpetual scholar- 
 ships, $500; for twenty years, $100; ten years, 
 $50; six years. $30 ; four years, $20 ; two years, 
 $15. There is a collegiate and a preparatory depart- 
 ment (with a classical and a scientific course), 
 and a teachers' course. In 1875 — 6 there were 
 10 instructors. 335 students (141 collegiate) , and 
 about Too alumni. The presidents of the univer- 
 sity have been a.s follows: the Rev. Edward Thom- 
 son, D.D., LL.D., 1844 -60; the Rev. Frederick 
 Merrick, M. A., L860— 73 ; the Rev. Lorenzo I). 
 McCabe, D. D., LL. It. (acting), 1873—6; and 
 the Rev. Charles II. Payne, I >.!)., LL.D., elected : 
 in L876. 
 
 OLIVET COLLEGE, at Olivet, Mich., was 
 founded in 1844. It is supported by tuition fees 
 of from $15 to $21 a year, and the income of 
 an endowment of $140,000. The library contains 
 about C.ooo volumes. The institution comprises 
 a collegiate department, with a classical, a scien- 1 
 
 ' tific, and a Indies' course ; and a preparatory 
 department, with a classical, an English, and a 
 - es course. Facilities are afforded for instruc- 
 tion in art, music, and normal school branches. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were 14 instructors and 317 
 students (124 collegiate and 193 preparatory), of 
 whom 151 were males and 1G6 females. The 
 presidents of the college have been as follows : 
 the Rev. M. W. Fairfield, 2 years ; the Rev. N. 
 J. Morrison. 8 years; the Rev. J. H. Hewitt 
 (pro tern.), 2 years; the Rev. Oramel Hosford 
 (pro tern.), 1 year ; and the Rev. II. Q. Butter- 
 field, I). D., the present incumbent (1876). 
 
 OLMSTED, Denison, a natural philosopher 
 and educator, born in Fast Hartford, Ct., June 
 18., 1791 ; died in New Haven. May 13.. 1859. 
 He graduated at Yale College, and shortly after 
 became a tutor there. In lsl7.be was appointed 
 professor of chemistry in the University of 
 North Carolina; and. while in that position, he 
 proposed and completed the first state geological 
 survey ever made in the United States. In 1825, 
 he was appointed professor of mathematics and 
 natural philosophy in Y'ale College, with which 
 institution lie remained connected till his death. 
 
 j In 1830, he published a theory of hail storms, 
 which, after much discussion. \\;is accepted as 
 a valuable contribution to scientific knowledge. 
 Three years later, he began an investigation into 
 the cause of the shower of shooting stats which 
 occurred in 1833. and made such suggestions in 
 regard to them as, followed up by astronomers 
 in this country and in Europe, have led to a great 
 addition to our knowledge of these singular 
 bodies. Professor Olmsted, besides being a fre- 
 quent contributor to scientific periodicals, has 
 been the author of many textbooks on natural 
 science, the principal of which are : Iittrmlnrlion 
 
 qphy (183 
 oky (1835 
 
 I 'hi I, 
 
 to Natural l'hih 
 Natural Phih 
 Astronomy 1 1 8i 
 (1841); Letters 
 diments of Ndt< 
 (1844). 
 
 ONE STUDY UNIVERSITY, at Scio, 
 Harrison Co., Ohio, under Methodist Episcopal 
 control, was opened in the fall of 1859. at Har- 
 lem Springs, Ohio, and was known as the Rural 
 Seminary, which name it retained until 1867, 
 when it was removed to New Market Station, 
 and the name changed to New Market College. 
 In 1*74. the legislature changed the name of 
 the village from New Market to Scio; and 
 the name of the college was then changed to 
 One Study University. The institution was char- 
 tered in 1*60; and since then. 111 students have 
 graduated. The distinctive feature of this in- 
 stitution is the plan of study. Each student 
 passes through the course by taking up and 
 thoroughly completing one study at a time. It is 
 claimed that "a practical test of six years shows 
 a great gain in scholarship, and a saving of about 
 one-third of the usual time." Both sexes are 
 admitted. There is a collegiate (classical and 
 scientific), a preparatory, and a normal course. 
 Facilities are afforded for musical instruction. 
 
The cost, of tuition in the classical and the 
 
 scientific course is $12 per quarter, of twelve 
 
 29inmusic). Alfred D. Lee, A ML, has' been 
 
 ONTARIO, the most populous province of the 
 Dominion of Canada, having an area of 107,780 
 sq. in., and a population, according to the census 
 
 jf It 
 
 of 
 
 I Iri-i 
 
 .Methodists: .'{.Ml. I 12 Presbyterians: 
 
 cppalians; and 274,162 Roman Cal 
 nally a part of the old province of Quebec,it was, 
 in 1791, organized as an independent province, 
 under the name of Upper Canada. In 1841, it 
 was reunited with Quebec : and, in 1867, it be- 
 came a part of the Dominion of Canada under 
 its present name. — The first settlers in Ontario 
 were chiefly from England and Scotland; and, as 
 most of them had received a good education at 
 home, they were anxious to provide good schools 
 for their children. As early as 1807, each of the 
 
 vided, had it. grammar school. In 
 islative assembly passed the first law 
 lization of primary instruction, and 
 
 that time divide 1. had it. gra 
 1816, the legislative assembly p 
 
 fort] rganization of primary 
 
 appropriated $6, I for carryii 
 
 Sir Peregrine Maitland obtained permission from 
 the imperial government to establish a board of 
 education for the province, with power to super- 
 intend the schools, and manage the university 
 and school lands. In 1H44. the Rev. Dr. Ryer- 
 -son was appointed superintendent of schools; and 
 before entering upon his office, he visited Europe 
 and the United States, and presented a report 
 in which he suggested the principles upon Which 
 
 at the head of the school system, the develop- 
 ment of which is chiefly his work. In 1850, the 
 comprehensive school bill, which was prepared by 
 him, became a law; and, in 1853, an amendment 
 •act was passed making several improvements in 
 the system. Separate Protestant and colored 
 schools were now permitted, as well as Roman 
 Catholic schools. A most important measure, 
 making all the public schools free, and introducing 
 compulsory education, was passed in 1871, and 
 somewhat modified in 1K74. The council of public 
 instruction consists of the chief superintendent, or 
 in his absence, of the deputy, eight members ap- 
 pointed by the crown, one member by each of the 
 colleges having university powers, one bymasters 
 and teachers of high schools, one by the public- 
 school inspectors, and one by the public and sepa- 
 rate school-teachers. Each member holds office 
 for two years, and is eligible to re-appointment. 
 The council prescribes text-books for the normal, 
 high, ami public schools, and makes rules and reg- 
 ulations for their government. It lias the ap- 
 pointment of the high-sehool inspectors, the cen- 
 tral committee of examiners, and the teachers of 
 the normal and model schools. It prescribes the 
 -qualification of, and grants certificates to, inspect- 
 ors, examiners, and teachers, prescribes library 
 and school books, and makes regulations for the 
 
 .BIO 007 
 
 superannuation of teachers, to whom pensions 
 are granted. The chief superintendent is ap- 
 pointed by the lieutenant-governor. It is his 
 duty to see that all moneys drawn from the pro- 
 vincial treasury are duly applied, and to have the 
 general supervision of the schools. The county 
 councils levy for teachers' salaries an amount equal 
 to the chief superintendent's apportionment; and 
 designate and pay the county's proportion of 
 the salary of legally qualified inspectors, each of 
 whom must have not more than 120 nor less 
 than 50 schools. Where French or German is the 
 language spoken, the inspector may have not less 
 than 40 schools; if there are more than 50 schools, 
 the county must have two or more inspectors. 
 The council is empowered to fill a vacancy in the 
 office of inspector, and to appoint not more than 
 four persons, who, with the inspector, form a 
 board for the examination of teachers. Township 
 councils form school sections with not less than 
 50 children. The township councils are also em- 
 powered to establish township school boards, if 
 two-thirds of the sections desire it, each board to 
 consist of five trustees; to levy sums required for 
 purchasing a township library, and for the support 
 of a township model school, of which the coun- 
 cilors are the trustees. City, town, and village 
 councils have the same powers and duties as 
 county and township councils. For every school 
 section, a board of three trustees is elected by the 
 people. Inspectors are appointed by county coun- 
 cils, or by city or town school boards, and may- 
 be dismissed for misconduct by the lieutenant- 
 governor, or by the county or town councils. All 
 the public schools are free; the rural trustees and 
 the municipal councils tx ing required to levy the 
 tax upon the taxable property, in order to defray 
 the school expenses according as the trusties 
 determine. No pupil can be compelled to join 
 in any exercise of devotion or religious study 
 objected to by the parents ; but pupils may re- 
 ceive such religious instruction as their parents 
 desire, subject to general regulations. The union 
 of the high and public school boards of a city 
 is called the Board of Education of that city, 
 and this board possesses the same powers as 
 the high and public school trustees. Parents 
 neglecting to have their children between the 
 ages of 7 and 12 years instructed for four months 
 in the year, are liable to a penalty ; but no I Io- 
 nian Catholic can be required to attend a public 
 school, nor a Protestant, a I Ionian < 'atholic school. 
 The clergy of any persuasion, or their represent- 
 atives, may use the school house to give religious 
 
 instruction to the pupils of their own church, 
 at least once a week, after 4 o'clock. The daily 
 exercises must be opened by reading a portion 
 of the Scripture, and by prayer; and the Tell 
 Commandments must be taught to all the pupils. 
 and be repeated at least once a week ; but no 
 pupil need be present at these exercises against 
 the written request of his parents. The master 
 of the school may suspend, or, with the consent of 
 the trustees, may expel a pupil. All teachers are 
 required to attend regularly the teachers' meet- 
 ings ; and any teacher may be absent two 
 
663 
 
 ORAL INSTRUCTION 
 
 days every half year for tin 
 other schools, and observin 
 tiued therein. The laws gov 
 lie separate schools are near 
 
 of the public schools. A 
 
 not 
 
 board of my 
 
 ity may establish an 
 chool for destitute, vagrant, and de- 
 praved children. The number of children between 
 the ages of 5 and 16 years, in 1874, was 511,003; 
 the number of schools, 4,758 ; the number of pu- 
 pils, 464,047 ; and the number of teachers, 5,736. 
 The amount expended from grants was $267,782; 
 and the amount raised and expended from local 
 sources. $2,597,550. The Roman Catholic sepa- 
 rate schools, which are included in the above, 
 were 166 in number, with 22,780 pupils. — By the 
 law of 1871, the former grammar schools were, 
 changed into high schools. The course of study 
 in these schools comprises the Knglish language, 
 arithmetic, algebra, geometry, natural philos- 
 ophy, French, (ieriuan, Latin. < J reek, chemistry, 
 botany, physiology, history, geography, book- 
 keeping, writing, drawing, and penmanship. The 
 governor may confer on any high school, the 
 name of collegiate institute, if four masters are 
 fully employed, and an averageof 60 male pupils in 
 the classics is maintained; and such institute may 
 receive an additional S750 per annum, while that 
 standard is maintained. The number of high 
 schools, in 1874, was 103. with 240 teachers, a 
 total enrollment of 7,871 pupils, and an average 
 attendance of 4,021. The expenditure, including 
 a grant of $78,494, was $286,593. Besides the 
 public schools, there were, in 1874, 280 colle- 
 giate and private school organized independently 
 of the school laws, with about 8,500 pupils and 
 540 teachers. The University of Toronto was 
 established, in 1827, as Kings College. The in- 
 stitution was inaugurated, and the first students 
 were admitted, in 1843. The university confers 
 the degrees of Master of Arts, and Bachelor of 
 \ its. Connected with the university then' is a 
 faculty of medicine and of law. a school of civil 
 engineering, and a department of agriculture, 
 each department conferring the usual degrees. 
 The Cniversity College of Toronto was original- 
 ly a part, of the university ; but was separated 
 from it in 1853. By this act, the university be- 
 came ih- examining boly. al-o conferring de- 
 grees in arts, law, and dicine ; and the college 
 
 was constituted a teaching institution for the 
 faculty of arts. The c se of instruction pre- 
 scribed by the university has been adopted by 
 the college, and its lectures are given on the sub- 
 jects appointed for candid; 
 B. A., or for the diplom 
 and agriculture. The Ui 
 uieler the control of the A\ 
 Church. It was opened ; 
 . m L836, and recei 
 powers, in L841, and its pn Bern m me. I 
 faculty of arts, a scientific department, a 
 
 theology. It confers the usual degrees 
 
 faculty. The Cobourg Collegiate School serves 
 as a preparatory department for the university. 
 Queen's University and College, in Kingston, 
 was established by an act of the legislature of 
 Upper Canada, in 1840, as the University of 
 Kingston. This act was disallowed; and, in 
 1841, the queen issued her letters patent, incor- 
 porating the institution. The first session was 
 opened in 1842, with 11 students. A faculty of 
 medicine was organized in 1854, but became a 
 separate school in 1800, under the name of the 
 Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons. It 
 has its seat in Kingston, and is connected with 
 the university. The faculty of law which was 
 opened in 1861, was discontinued in 1803. Since 
 the opening of the college, 871 students have 
 been enrolled, and 520 degrees have been con- 
 ferred. The university is under the control of 
 the Presbyterian Church. Trinity College was 
 established by an act of the legislature in 1851, 
 and was opened the same year. The Cniversity 
 of Trinity College was established by a royal 
 charter in 1852, and was empowered to confer 
 degrees in di\ inily. arts, law, and medicine. Ot- 
 tawa ( 'ollege, in Ottawa, was incorporated, and 
 empowered to grant university degrees, in 1800. 
 It is under the direction of the Oblate Fathers 
 of .Mary Immaculate. Albert University, in 
 Belleville, was incorporated in L857,as Belleville 
 Seminary, by t lie Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 It received limited university powers in L866, 
 and full powers, in 1871. It has faculties of arts, 
 law, music, tl logy, and engineering, and a de- 
 
 tor 
 
 thedegt 
 
 se of 
 
 
 of Victo 
 ,n Metl 
 
 idist 
 
 boll, 
 
 tion of the deaf and dumb, and the blind, for 
 orphans, and for vagrants and young criminals 
 
 are also provided. The number of Sunday-scl Is, 
 
 in 1874. was about 3,500, with 197.000 scholars 
 and 22.700 teachers. — See Marling, Canada 
 Educational Yearbook and Directory for 1876; 
 Lovell's Gazetteer of British Worth America, 
 (1873); Chauveau (formerly minister of instruc- 
 tion in the province of Quebec), in Schmid's En- 
 cychpadie, art. Canada (2d edit., 1870). 
 
 ORAL INSTRUCTION isatechnical term 
 in use ill the common schools of the United 
 States in denote instruction, without text books, 
 in the nature and uses of common objects, and 
 also in the elements of natural science. In a 
 certain sense. all instruction given by the teacher 
 in the classro , cither to supplenienf the text- 
 book, or by way of general explanation, may be 
 said to be oral ; and, considered in this sense, it, 
 belongs to every subject taught. Hut oral instruc- 
 tion, as it appears in courses of study, is limited 
 to a distinct channel of teaching, and, therefore. 
 is not to be confounded with' general class in- 
 
 ■ach have benefited by what 
 
 object teach- 
 
(IKAI. IXSTIirCTION 
 
 i;c,<» 
 
 ing. Tt has to do, moreover, with elementary 
 knowledge, and has been gradually narrowed to 
 instruction in natural science. As might be gath- 
 ered from the word oral, its leading or cardinal 
 idea is instruction without .. I xt-book. The 
 
 teacher is in the placeoi thel k. Theinforma- 
 
 tion given flows entirelj froml and the skill 
 
 with which he imjKirts this, is the measure of his 
 success. Closely allied ill importance to the fore- 
 gtmig. is the principle that the instruction shall 
 be familiar. In its methods, it must approach 
 closely those that are adopted in an intelligent 
 family circle ; it must emulate the kindliness, 
 patience, and watchfulness of a parent, or of 
 ;i deeply interested friend. With a clear idea as 
 to the kind and amount of instruction to be 
 given at each lesson, it must avoid mere amuse- 
 ment and puerilities, on the one hand, and the 
 danger of a mechanical and hard method, on the 
 other. The test of such familiar instruction is 
 the interest which the teacher creates and main- 
 tains; the want of life and animation on the part 
 of the pupils is an unfailing measure of the 
 teacher's short-coming. !!ut instruction to be 
 familiar must be fertile in illustration. In no 
 part of the teacher's work is there greater need 
 of versatility. It is in this that the vast advan- 
 tage of oral teaching over that which depends on 
 the text-book is apparent. Pliancy, variety, suit- 
 ableness to the particular wants of certain pupils. 
 or of the class as a whole, simple familiar allu- 
 sions and illustrations, all come into play. If ex- 
 periments are necessary, they should be always of 
 the simplest kind, and with the commonest mate- 
 rials, such as nearly every child can obtain, if he 
 can be induced to imitate the experiments. So far 
 as objects are needed, those that are easily obtain- 
 able are to be preferred. The approach to the 
 pupil's mind through his senses is carefully to be 
 kept open; most constantly of all. the avenue of 
 sight, although, of course, the other senses are 
 not to be neglected. As a natural result of this 
 familiar instruction, the interest of the pupils 
 will manifest itself in inquiries, and especially in 
 a desire to communicate the glimmerings of their 
 own knowledge. This will render the exercise still 
 more familiar, break down the barrier of reserve 
 on the part of the pupils, stimulate observation 
 and thought throughout the class, and react on 
 the mind of the teacher, compelling perhaps new 
 illustrations, a more carefully considered state- 
 ment, or fresh investigation outside of school. 
 From what has been stated, it will be seen that 
 •oral instruction is widely separated from lectur- 
 ing. The children are brought immediately in 
 •contact with the mind of the teacher, by means 
 of skillful questioning on his part, by requiring 
 from them connected statements, and by stimulat- 
 ing them with his approval when a happy answer 
 or statement has been made. This method never 
 loses sightof class instruction. and, therefore, can- 
 not be carried on without the assistance of the 
 class. Nor is it a recitation in the generally received 
 acceptation of the word. There is no lesson to 
 "be learned in the sense implied by a recitation, 
 nor any to be recited. The memory is of course 
 
 | taxed, but it is not taxed by any lesson to be 
 committed as a task. The measure of the pupil's 
 interest is the measure of his acquisition. What- 
 ever he learns is in nosense compulsory. Skillful 
 reviewing is. indeed, used to test the hold that the 
 oral instruction has kept on the pupil, and to 
 supplement what has been imparted, oy new or 
 more lively illustration. But repetition, in a 
 mechanical or rote sense, as understood to be an 
 underlying principle in text-book instruction, is 
 
 ! not used in oral instruction. The sul tjects to whi it, 
 oral instruction, as a special method, is usually 
 confined, are embraced, under the head of natural 
 science. While it does not aim to make the 
 
 | instruction in these subjects scientific, it does 
 aim to impart such instruction in a methodical 
 way, and with the most careful accuracy. Wher- 
 ever classifieai is necessary, such classifica- 
 tion, naturally, becomes more or less scientific. 
 Whenever definitions are necessary, they must 
 approach scientific accuracy. Hut the scientific 
 nomenclature, except in those cases in which it 
 has passed into common use. is carefully avoided. 
 Latin or Greek terms, therefore, being burden- 
 some to the young, however instructive to the 
 adult, are generally to be discarded, and familiar or 
 common names to be used. As a thorough 
 scientific classification is not the object of oral 
 instruction, neither does it endeavor to make the 
 treatment of the various subjects exhaustive. It 
 has done much of its true work when it has 
 
 idea of the simpler elements of the science, to 
 which the instruction has been confined. It has 
 done its full work when, in addition to this.it has 
 accustomed the pupil to express, in his own 
 language, what he has learned and retained, 
 without the painful halting and poverty of 
 language so often manifest in the class room. 
 With some approach to scientific accuracy, oral 
 instruction may be defined as the union of eon- 
 ceptive and objective training. It does not dis- 
 card objective illustration, nor does it depend 
 entirely on the development of perception to 
 furnish new ideas. It proceeds on the principle, 
 that, in the mind of every healthy child of eight 
 years of age, there is a vast number of tolerably 
 distinct conceptions, obtained through the 
 senses, as well as from conversation, from read- 
 ing, from home instruction, and from play; that 
 these conceptions are particularly abundant in 
 relation to natural objects; and that it is the of- 
 fice of the oral instructor to recognize their exist- 
 ence by using them to form more complex ideas, 
 or as the nucleuses around which to arrange the 
 new ideas imparted during instruction. As to 
 the age when this instruction should be given, as 
 well as its importance, the following words of 
 President Porter, in the Human Intellect, may 
 be cited. "The studies which should be first 
 pursued are those which require and discipline 
 the powers of observation and acquisition, 
 and which involve imagination and memory, in 
 
contrast with those which demand severe efforts 
 and trained habits of thought. Inasmuch also as 
 materia] objects are apprehended and mastered 
 
 early life with far greater ease and 
 than the acts and states of the spirit, objective 
 and material studies should have almost the ex- 
 clusive precedence. The capacity of exact and 
 discriminating perception, and of clear and re- 
 tentive memory, should be developed as largely 
 as possible. The imagination in all its forms 
 should be directed and elevated — we do not say 
 stimulated, because in the case of most children, 
 its activity is never-tiring, whether they be at 
 study, work, or play. We do not say, cultivate 
 perception, memory and fancy, to the exclusion 
 or repression of thought, for this is impossible. 
 These powers, if exercised by human beings, must 
 be interpenetrated by thought. If wisely culti- 
 vated by studies properly arranged, they will neces- 
 sarily involve discrimination, comparison, and 
 explanation. To teach pure observation, or the 
 mastery of objects or words, without classifica- 
 tion and interpretation, is to be ignorant even 
 to simple stupidity." Further on, the same author, 
 in speaking of the various studies to be prose- 
 cuted in childhood says -Natural history in all its 
 branches, as contrasted with the sciences of 
 nature, or scientific physics, should be mastered 
 with the objects before the eye — flowers, miner- 
 als, shells, birds, and beasts. These studies should 
 all be mastered in the spring-time of life, when 
 the tastes are simple, the heart is fresh, and the 
 eye is sharp and clear. But science of every kind, 
 whether of language, of nature, of the soul, or of 
 God, as science should not be prematurely 
 taught."— See How to Teach (N. Y., 1874); 
 Barnard, Oral Training Lemons in Natural 
 Science (N. Y., 1871); Youmans, The Culture 
 Demanded by Modern Life (N. Y.. L867); 
 Burton, The Culture of the. Observing Faculties 
 (N. T., 1865). 
 
 ORDER, in school management, implies 
 (1) the existence of a judicious system of regu- 
 lations, and (2) a uniform and habitual observ- 
 ance of them by the pupils. It is one of the 
 most important elements of a good school, since 
 it enables the teacher to concentrate all its edu- 
 cative agencies without embarrassment or inter- 
 ruption. The characteristics of good order are 
 (1) attention on the part of the pupils to the 
 legitimate work of the school, (2) obedience and 
 respect to teachers, (3) decorous deportment — 
 the absence of tumult, rudeness, frivolity, and 
 frolicsome actions, calculated to disturb the 
 school, and (4) propriety and exactness in the 
 school evolutions and drill. Order is the result 
 of skill and tact on the part of the teacher; but 
 it cannot be fully maintained unless he is vested 
 with suitable authority, so as to be able to cor- 
 rect disorder, as soon as it manifests itself. Gen- 
 eral disorder in a school can result only from 
 bad management, indicating incompetency on 
 the pari of the teacher. "If a school be well or- 
 ganized", says Wickersham, "its classes well ar- 
 ratiged. its work well systematized; if pupils be 
 properly employed iu study, in recitation, in ex- 
 
 OEEGON 
 
 ercise; if school-government be well understood 
 and wisely administered, a large proportion of 
 the offenses which now occur in school will dis- 
 appear." — (See Discipline, and Government.) 
 
 ORDER OF STUDIES. See Course op 
 Instruction. 
 
 OREGON, one of the Pacific states of the 
 American Union, originally a part of the ter- 
 ritory of Oregon, which was organized in 1848, 
 and comprised all the U. S. territory west of the 
 Rocky mountains and north of the parallel of 
 42°. From this, the territory of 'Washington 
 was formed, in 1853; and, in 18r>9. Oregon was 
 admitted into the Union, as a state, with its 
 present limits. Its area is 95,274 sq. m.: and its 
 population, in 1870, was 90,923, of whom 340 
 were colored persons, 3,330 Chinese. 
 
 Educational History. — As early as 1 850, while 
 Oregon was yet a territory, itslaws provided tor 
 the establishment of public schools; but the want 
 of teachers, and the unsettled character of the 
 population, made it difficult to organize any ef- 
 fective system. According to the census of 1850, 
 there were in the territory 32 academies; a flour- 
 ishing institute belonging to the .Methodists, near 
 Salem; and two female seminaries at Oregon 
 City. A general recommendation in behalf of 
 education was made by the first constitution of 
 the state, adopted in 1859; and certain specified 
 sources of revenue were assigned for the produc- 
 tion of a permanent school fund. No state super- 
 intendent or board of education was. however, 
 created, the governor being required to include 
 the care of the schools with his other duties: but 
 one of the section- provided that, after five y< are, 
 it should be competent for the legislature to pro- 
 vide for tin- election of a superintendent. In 1872, 
 a general school law was passed, which created 
 the office of state superintendent of public in- 
 struction, and provided for the election of county 
 superintendents and district directors. This law 
 is still in force. The first superintendent was 
 Sylvester C. Simpson, appointed, ad interim,}^ 
 the governor, hi 1873 ; and, in 18^4, L. L. Bow- 
 land was elected to succeed him. 
 
 School System.— By the law of 1872, which 
 went into effect in 1873, the state board of 
 education, consisting of the governor, secretary 
 of state, and state superintendent, is charged 
 with the care of the public schools. It holds semi- 
 annual meetings, at which it examines teachers, 
 prescribes a course of study for the public schools, 
 designates the text-books to be used, and lays 
 down general rules for the management of the 
 schools. The diplomas issued by the board are 
 of two kinds, life and state — the latter valid for 
 6 years throughout the state. It also issues first 
 and second grade certificates, valid for 2 years, 
 and (i months, respectively. The state super- 
 intendent if pub lie instruction is elected by the 
 people for 4 years, and is, ex officio, secretary of 
 the board of education, lie exercises a general 
 supervision over the public schools and over 
 subordinate officers; holds annually, at the cap- 
 | ital, a state teachers' institute, and local insti- 
 tutes in the judicial districts; and makes a report 
 
to the legislature once in 2 years. County super- 
 intendents are elected biennially. Their duties 
 are to divide their counties into school-districts; 
 to establish new districts when directed by a 
 majority of the legal voters: to apportion the 
 school fund ; to take charge of the school lands. 
 selecting in each township the 16th and 36th 
 sections ; and to examine teachers, granting cer- 
 tificates graduated according to qualifications. 
 They are, also, required to visit the schools under 
 their jurisdiction, and to make annual reports to 
 the state superintendent. Three i/is/rict directors 
 are elected, whose terms of office are 3 years, one 
 director being chosen annually in each district. 
 A district clerk, also, is annually elected, who 
 acts as the executive officer of the board of 
 directors. The permanent school fund consists 
 of the proceeds of all lands granted to the state 
 for educational purposes, except university lands; 
 all money accruing to the state by escheat and 
 forfeiture; all money for exemption from military 
 services; all gifts, devises, and bequests made by 
 any person to the state for common-school pur- 
 poses; all the proceeds of the lands granted to 
 the state by Congress, in 1841; and 5 per cent 
 of the proceeds of the land to which the state 
 was entitled on her admission into the Union. 
 In 1875, this fund, derived mainly from the sale 
 or rent of the 500,000 acres of lands given by the 
 general government, amounted to $564,000, be- 
 sides about $750,000 not then available. The in- 
 come from this was, at that time, $56,400. The 
 university land grant of 0(1,080 acres has, thus 
 far. yielded about $100,000. The school revenue 
 is further increased annually by a state 3 mill 
 tax, by county and district taxes, by rate-bills, 
 and by voluntary contributions. The legal school 
 age is from I to 20 years; the school year, 60 
 days; the school week. 5 days. The course of 
 study comprises orthography, reading, writing, 
 mental and practical arithmetic, English gram- 
 mar, geography, and modern history. In addition 
 to these branches, which arc obligatory, others 
 may be taught, up to, but not including, training 
 for college. In one of the schools, in every dis- 
 trict of not less than 10,000 inhabitants, instruc- 
 tion is directed to be given in the German lan- 
 guage, if applied for by 100 voters. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The whole number 
 of schools in the state, in 1875, was 594, of 
 which 4 were high schools, 31 were graded 
 schools, and 550, ungraded. The income was as 
 follows: from state tax. $30,273; from interest 
 on the permanent fund, $56,400; total, $86,673 
 Other items of school statistics are the following: 
 Number of children of school age: 
 
 males 23,2(55 
 
 females.... 21,396 
 
 11, Wl 
 
 ales. 
 
 females . 457 
 
 Total 953 
 
 Average duration of school, in days 105J 
 
 Average monthly salary of male teachers $51.45 
 
 " " " "female " $45.50 
 
 Estimated value of school property $350,000 
 
 >N 671 
 
 Ncyrmal Instruction. — Provision is made for 
 the professional education of teachers by the 
 Pacific University. Willamette University, and 
 McMinnville College. In the first, a course of 2 
 years is provided, admission to which is granted 
 after a satisfactory examination is passed in 
 arithmetic, penmanship, reading, spelling. En- 
 glish grammar, geography, the history of the 
 United States, and elementary algebra. A 
 limited number of teachers' institutes have been 
 held since the organization of the public-school 
 system. The State Teachers' Institute held a 
 meeting at Salem, in 1875. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Of the 4 high schools 
 existing in 1874, the most important is that at 
 Portland. Besides giving instruction in all the 
 higher English branches, it affords opportunities 
 for the study of Latin, Greek, French, and 
 German. Its course of study extends over 3 
 years. Five private schools and academies exist 
 in the state, and there are preparatory classes. 
 connected with nearly all of the colleges. The 
 commercial department of Willamette I 'ni versify 
 furnishes instruction to between 60 and 70 stu- 
 dents in a single year's course, in this respect 
 taking the place of the ordinary business college. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — A 
 few institutions of this class exist, the prin- 
 cipal being the Portland Academy and Female 
 Seminary (Methodist Episcopal), St. Mary's 
 Academy for Young Ladies (Roman Catholic), 
 and the Bishop Scott Grammar and Divinity 
 School (Episcopal). In all these, the grade of 
 instruction is secondary, or above; in one, the 
 course extending as far as the third year of the 
 
 college curriculum. The Chinese Mission Sel 1 
 
 of Portland was established by the Baptists, in 
 1874. While imparting religious instruction, it 
 also supports an evening school, in which music 
 and the ordinary branches of an English edu- 
 cation are taught. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The colleges and uni- 
 versities arc as follows: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 i,,„m'l' 
 ed 
 
 nation 
 
 Christian College 
 
 Corvallis College 
 
 McJImuville College... . 
 
 OregonStati Univ. reitj 
 Pari tie 1'inv and Tualatin 
 
 Philomath College! "".'.'.! 
 
 Willamette 1 nivei-sity.... 
 
 Monmouth 
 Corvallis 
 McMinnville 
 Eugene City 
 Forest Grove 
 
 Philomath 
 Salem 
 
 ISI',5 
 
 lHf.K 
 1872 
 1854 
 
 18GB 
 1853 
 
 Christian 
 M. K)i. S. 
 llajitist 
 N, n-seot 
 
 D Breth 
 M. Epis. 
 
 Of the above, the Oregon State University, 
 though founded in 1872, had not, up to 1875, 
 been opened; $25,000 yet remaining to be raised 
 by the county, in order to entitle the regents to 
 the use of the 660,000 already raised. In all 
 the other institutions enumerated in the table, 
 both sexes are admitted. St. Helen's Hall. Port- 
 land, is the only institution in the state for the 
 higher education of women exclusively. The 
 regular course of study occupies 5 years, but 
 academic degrees are not conferred. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — 
 Corvallis State Agricultural College (q. v.), 
 
072 
 
 ORPHAN ASYLUMS 
 
 ♦hough founded by the Methodists, has received 
 the congressional grant of 90,000 acres, and is 
 the only institution in the state in which in- 
 struction in agriculture is given. Though still 
 under sectarian control, it receives annually from 
 the state an appropriation of $5,000. There is, 
 also, a scientific department and a medical de- 
 partment in Willamette University. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Institution for the 
 Deaf and Dumb, at Salem, was founded in L870, 
 by an annual appropriation of §2.000 for2years. 
 In 1873, a further appropriation of $4,500 was 
 made, which was increased, in 1874, to $5,000. 
 It had, iu 1875, 3 instructors, and an average of 
 22 pupils. The Oregon School for the Education 
 of the Blind was founded at Salem, in 1*72. by 
 an appropriation of $4,000. It was opened in 
 1873 with one instructor and 7 pupils. The fol- 
 lowing year, the legislature authorized an an- 
 nual appropriation of $2,000 for its support. 
 In addition to instruction in the elementary 
 branches which are usually taught in common 
 schools, special instruction is given in pin-type 
 printing, music (vocal and instrumental), plain 
 sewing, and fancy work. 
 
 ORPHAN ASYLUMS, orOrphanHouses, 
 are institutions in which orphans are received 
 and educated. Although some arrangements for 
 tin' support of orphans are met with in the 
 history of ancient Greece and Home. and. to a 
 much greater extent among the Hebrews, the 
 establishment of special institutions for their 
 care and education is due to the influence of 
 Christianity. The first orphan houses (orphano- 
 trnptiia) appear to have been founded in the time 
 .if Constantine I.; and the church law expressly 
 placed them under the control of the clergy. In the 
 1 1th century, France had a confraternity whose 
 chief object was the support of orphans. The 
 number of special orphan institutions remained, 
 however, comparatively small, until A.ll. Francke 
 (q. v.) excited a more general interest in their 
 behalf, and gave a powerful impulse to their more 
 rapid progress. Among the rulers of Europe, 
 none gained so great a distinction for a kindly 
 and active promotion of orphan education as the 
 empress Maria Theresa of Austria. — The num- 
 ber of orphan asylums in the United States is 
 very large, nearly every state being represented 
 in the list. Girard College, in Philadelphia, is, 
 in every respect, one of the foremost orphan 
 houses of the world. Its founder, Stephen < Gi- 
 rard (born in Bordeaux, France, in 1750; died 
 in 1831, in Philadelphia), left by his last will 
 $2,000,000 for the erection of an institution in 
 which should be maintained and educated as many 
 white male orphans as might be in need of such 
 support. It was opened in 1848, with a class of 
 
 100 orphans, and, in 1875, contained 550 ; but, 
 in that year, the erection of additional buildings 
 had been resolved upon. TI13 permanent income 
 from the estate will support about 1,050 orphans 
 The large majority of orphan houses, both in the 
 
 Pnitcd States and in Europe, are charitable in- 
 stitutions, supported by endowments and volun- 
 tary contributions. Quite a number are main- 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 tained and controlled by each particular religious 
 denomination, a noble rivalry existing among 
 the churches of the civilized world, to provide in 
 an efficient manner for their own orphans. ( inly 
 quite recently have state and municipal govern- 
 ments begun to recognize the care of orphans 
 as a duty, and to make appropriations for their 
 education. Thus, there were, in 1874. in the 
 United States, 21 soldiers' and sailors' orphans' 
 homes, chiefly maintained by state appropria- 
 tions. — It is natural to expect that, in a great 
 many orphan houses, the instruction imparted 
 would be inferior to that which children under 
 the care of their parents usually receive at school 
 and at home. In poorly endowed schools, the 
 number of inmates is too large in proportion to 
 that of the instructors and other employes; and, 
 consequently, sufficient attention cannot be be- 
 stowed upon individual wants. It has been espe- 
 cially noticed that the too strict uniformity to 
 which orphan children are usually subjected in 
 their daily occupations, produces a lack of versa- 
 tility and sprightHness, which, when they are dis- 
 missed from the asylums, prejudices employers 
 against them. The hygienic condition of these in- 
 stitutions has also been found, in many instances, 
 to lie very unsatisfactory. As many orphans are 
 the offspring of depraved parents, there is great 
 danger from the admission of children of vicious 
 habits. It has, therefore, been proposed to bring 
 together only a small number of orphans (from 
 lit to 20) into a kind of family, and thus to fur- 
 nish the best attainable substitute for a good 
 home education. Others have recommended that 
 orphans should be committed, for their educa- 
 tion, to private families rather than to institu- 
 tions. Experience, however, has shown that even 
 these methods of providing for orphans are by 
 no means devoid of danger. A full and inter- 
 esting account, of the orphan asylums in the 
 United States is given in No. C> of the ( Hrcidars 
 of Lift intuition of the U. S. Bureau of Educa- 
 tion, containing Statement* re/a/iiir/ to Reform- 
 atory, Charitable, ami Industrial Schools for the 
 
 Young (Washington. 1875). The early history 
 of orphan houses is fully treated of by De Ge- 
 rando, in his work De la Bienfaisance Pub- 
 iique. (See also Foundling Asylums, Industrial, 
 Schools, and Reform Schools.) 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY, as a science, treats of 
 the representation of spoken language by visible 
 signs; it includes a systematic history of such 
 signs, and a discussion of the principles accord- 
 ing to which they should be made and used. 
 
 Picture writing is first used ; pictures of objects 
 are used as signs of the names of the objects, 
 then of initial syllables in such names, and final- 
 ly of elementary sounds. The pictures, meantime, 
 are abbreviated and modified to what we call 
 letters. The essential principle of alphabetic 
 writing is that a perfect alphabet must have one 
 character for each elementary sound in the lan- 
 guage, and only one. Subordinate rules are, that 
 the characters should be easy to write and to 
 distinguish. and shapely ; like sounds should have 
 like signs, and similar series of sounds should 
 
ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 Lave analogous sets of signs ; each character 
 should be so shaped as to suggest, to si. me extent, 
 the position of the organs of speech in form- 
 
 A„„bi<i, 
 Anqlo-S 
 
 rthography (Phila., 1858) j March's 
 m Grammar (N.Y., 1870) ; and the 
 ;lo-Saxon, and English, the Stdbtt 
 
 values. No nation has ever made any near ap- 
 proach to a perfect alphabet. The growth from 
 picture writing goes on without much guidance 
 from ideas: and all the qualities which are mere- 
 ly matters of history and symmetry, are of little 
 consequence in comparison with the essential 
 principle of phonetic convenience. A good his- 
 torical sketch of writing is to be found in Whit- 
 ney's Language and the Study of Language 
 {S.^- York. L867); see also Steinthal's Die Eat- 
 wichelung der Schrift Berlin, 1852). The Anglo- 
 Saxon language was reduced to writing in Ro- 
 man letters by the missionaries, who converted the 
 people to Christianity, ainl gave them a pretty good 
 alphabet. The letters were used in their Roman 
 values, or nearly so, and new characters were 
 added for the sounds of a in fut.th in tln-ir. (»tt) 
 th in thine, and. w. After the Norman conquest, 
 chaos came again with Anglo-Saxon, or rather 
 English, spelling. A large part of the words of 
 each race of the new people w.re difficult for 
 the other to pronounce. The scholars inclined 
 to spell in the old book fashion: but the Normans 
 dropped the special Anglo-Saxon discriminations, 
 ■and left many of their own letters standing which 
 were not pronounced by the people; and many 
 letters were inserted to no purpose in ill-directed 
 
 i the whole gamut, so 
 to speak, of the vowel sounds. The close vowels 
 changed under the accent into diphthongs by 
 taking an a sound before them. The old i as in 
 machine has thus changed to ai, as in mine; u 
 as in rule has given rise to an, as in house. The 
 open and mixed vowels have become closer: a, as 
 in far, changing to a (i. e., e) va.fa.te or wall, or to 
 o in home | A-S. hdmy, e as in ihey, changing to e 
 (i.e., ()in me; oas in foe. changing to <«<(/.<■., u) as 
 in moon (A-S. mdna). Single characters have thus 
 come to stand for diphthongs, and the long and 
 short sounds, which go in pairs in other languages, 
 are denoted in ours by different characters, and 
 come from different si inn vs. Intern tediate between 
 the old a (far) and e (met) has become established 
 a in fit. fare; between a (/ar).and o(note),oin 
 ■not and nor, and the sounds of u in but, burn. 
 have also arisen. All these have no special signs. 
 Four consonants sh, zh, th, <lh are in the same 
 condition. The people have long since ceased to 
 feel any necessity for keeping sounds and signs 
 together. Changes go on without auy record in 
 the writing: etymologists slip in new silent let- 
 ters, on the ground of imaginary derivations; old 
 monsters, fertile in the popular fancy, propagate 
 themselves in the congenial environment ; and. 
 altogether, we have attained the worst alphabet- 
 ical spelling in the world. For the history of all 
 /these changes, see Ellis's History of English 
 Pronunciation (London, 1^67); Sweet's History 
 of English Sounds (London, 1874); Haldemax's 
 
 (trtliogiapliy. in a narrow, i -.-n-, . i, the art of 
 
 language. It first demands the attention of teach- 
 ers as the art of inculcating the sp Uingoi English 
 
 according to the dictionaries of our langui _■ In 
 early times, there was no standard English spell- 
 ing. The printers added or subtracted letters for 
 convenience of spacing ; the same word will be 
 found spelt several different ways on the same 
 page. Dr. Johnson's Dictionary (1755) was the 
 first recognized standard. The common way of 
 teaching spelling, is to teach from a spelling-book 
 the form and name of each of the letters of the 
 alphabet; then to practice on combinations 
 of the letters in pairs, naming each letter and 
 then uttering the sound of the combination ; 
 then to practice in the .same way on combinations 
 of three letters : then on words of two syllables, 
 and so on. These syllables and. words are selected 
 with care ; similar sounds are grouped together, 
 and the groups arranged in a progressive order 
 of difficulty in spelling-books. '1 he first steps 
 of this process maybe made easier by using blocks 
 with the letters on them for the learner to name 
 and arrange into syllables; by setting him to 
 write the letters on the slate, the paper, or on the 
 blackboard; by adding pictures of the objects the 
 names of which are spelt; or by the use of rhymes, 
 and other contrivances of artificial memory. An- 
 other method is to begin with words as wholes, 
 and, after some ] .rogress has been made in reading 
 in that way, to direct attention to the separate 
 letters, their names, and sounds (u-onl method) 
 Teachers proceeding in this way often name the 
 letters by the sounds which they have in the word 
 to be spelt, and not by their proper names. This is 
 sometimes called the jilmuir methml. Scholars are 
 led on to more difficult words. Text-books of hard 
 words, more or less classified, with rides for the 
 most puzzliug groups, are prepared, and blanks 
 for written exercises in spelling. Some little help 
 may be gained by rides, and mnemonic contriv- 
 ances ; but the standard spelling of our language 
 is so irregular, that continual practice for many 
 years is necessary to make any approach to the 
 mastery of it. Among the most efficient helps 
 to the teacher is the spelling match, for which 
 sides are chosen which contend for the victory. 
 It should be noted that continual practice in read- 
 ing and writing is needed, or training to spell 
 aloud in ckiss will not save from mistakes in 
 writing. Further, the most important w . id Is f. >r 
 each person are his own vocabulary, — the words 
 which he uses in his own writing. Perfect ac- 
 curacy in these is the end most to be desired in 
 teaching. If this habit is once established, un- 
 usual words will be looked up, when the writer 
 has occasion to use them. With all aids and arts, 
 good spelling is one of the rare and costly accom- 
 plishments ; and, naturally, stress is laid on it as 
 the sign of a thoroughly educated person out of 
 all proportion to its real value. It is made prom- 
 
674 
 
 inent in all civil set 
 trance examinations 
 In the civil service ex 
 of 1,972 failures 1,86 
 inor. But it is said that the 
 
 ORTHOGRAPHY 
 
 ions and en- 
 1 universities. 
 England, out 
 ailed in spell- 
 ?nts prepared 
 by"the prime ministers of England show that no 
 one of them could have passed these examina- 
 tions in spelling. The best teachers in other 
 respects often fail in spelling. English orthog- 
 raphy is the opprobrium of English scholarship, 
 and the greatest, hindrance b> education and to the 
 spread of our language. Our children spend three 
 years in learning to spell a little: while German 
 children get further in a twelve month. There are 
 about 5,500,0(10 illiterates in the ("nitd States. 
 (See articles on Illiteracy and Phonetics.) 
 Millions of dollars are spent every year in printing 
 silent letters. Earnest efforts are now making for 
 reform. The philological associations of Eng- 
 land and America, teachers' associations, state 
 and national, in England and America, and some 
 state legislatures, have committees appointed on 
 the subject. Several schemes of reform have 
 been presented, the most important of which 
 are those of A.J. Ellis and I. Pitman, E. Jones, 
 A. M. Bell, and E. Leigh. Mr. Bell has invented 
 a set of characters wholly unlike our present let- 
 ters, which indicate by their form the position 
 of the organs of speech. It can hardly come into 
 speedy use in common 1 ks. Scholars have be- 
 gun to use it somewhat in scientific treatises. 
 {See Bell, Visible Speech, London. L867.) Mr. 
 Pitman has proposed an alphabet containing 10 
 new letters; and there is already quite a body of 
 literature in that alphabet. I le publishes a /'//..- 
 netic Journal, having a circulation of LO.OOO cop- 
 ies in various parts of the world. < 'harts for lect- 
 urers, and for school display, and other meanE of 
 instruction adapted to it. are at hand. 1 »r. E. I eigh 
 has combined a phonetic print, like Pitman's, 
 with the standard spelling. (See Leigh, Pro- 
 iiDiniriini Or//,,,,/,-'//,//!/, St. I.ouis. 1 sol. ami his 
 later publications in Xew York.) Elementary 
 books for schools, printed according to his 33 stem, 
 have been used for ten years in St. Louis. Wash- 
 ington. Xew York, Boston, and other cities, and 
 are said to save much of the time usually spent 
 in learning to read. Editions of most of the 
 elementary books (primers, etc.) published in the 
 United States are issued in Leigh's print (See 
 
 Phonetics.) Mr. Ellis and Mr. .1 s propose 
 
 systems based on the present spelling, using 
 always the same letters for each sound that are 
 now oftenest used to denote it. as follows: 
 (Mr. Jones's scheme) a as in at, aa {father), 
 ,11 [aid), '/" [taught), b,c [cat),ch [cliip^,d, e [met), 
 ee(eel) t f,g(go),h, i [in), ie (pie), j,l,m,n,ng 
 [sing), [on), oe [foe), oi [oil), 00 [ooze), ou [out), 
 p, r, s[sun), sh [ship), 1. th [their, thine), u [bun), 
 ice (hue),v, w, y, 2 [zeal). This scheme is de- 
 fective in giving the letters different values in com- 
 bination from those which the\ have when alone. 
 
 and in representing so man; elementary sounds 
 by digraphs. Besides, it does not serve to iiringour 
 spelling into harmony with other languages. Its 
 advantage is, that it can be set up from 
 
 printer's cases, and that it can be read by any one 
 who can read the old spelling. (See A. J. Ellis, 
 Early English Pronunciation, London, L867j 
 E. Joins, A Revision of English Spelling a Na- 
 tional Necessity, London. L875; E. 11. Burns, 
 . [nglo-Anu ricanOrtJiography, New York, 187G). 
 According to the principles laid down by the 
 American Philological Association, by the In- 
 ternational < invention for the Reform of English 
 Orthography, held in Philadelphia, August, 1876, 
 and by the Spell in;; Reform Association, which are 
 
 should be directed to using it with umtormity 
 and in conformity with other nations. The let- 
 ter's now used in nearly their Roman sound are 
 a (far),b,c(k),d,e(met),f,g(go),h,i(picB, 
 1. m. n, o (note), p, q, r, s (so). I. u (rude). To 
 these it is agreed to add r. w, y,z withtheircom- 
 inonest English power. Three new short vowels 
 need signs, those in fat, not. but; for easy intro- 
 duction, these should be slight modifications of a, 
 o, a. such as for example a, o-. u. The Romanic 
 languages have heretofore used one sign for a short 
 vowel and its corresponding long sound, adding 
 a diacritical mark when great precision is needed. 
 This would be acceptable in English for a (ask, 
 far), a (fat, fare), o (obey, note], o- (not. nor), 
 a (full, rude), u (but, burn). For e (let, late) 
 two characters are needed, a variation of e look- 
 ing like a is of good pr ise; such as, for example, 
 
 1; as in fate ; i in pick, pique, perhaps may stand. 
 Eor diphthongs there follow ni (by), tin (house), 
 07 1 in rise), in (music): but it is best to use for <d 
 some modification of i, and for in some modifi- 
 cation of a. such as, for example, [, i(. 
 
 The consonants s/i (as s in sugar), zh (as s in 
 pleasure), lli (as in their . ,11, (as th in thine), ng 
 (as in sing), and perhaps also tsh as ch in church), 
 ,/:// las ,/,/ in judge) call for single signs; but the 
 present notation will answer tolerably well, if car- 
 ried out with uniformity, though scholars seek to 
 revive the old signs for th and dh. Thus we have 
 described a complete alphabet, such as the prin- 
 ciples of the philologists would seem to call for. 
 
 A first step for teachers who favor this reform 
 is to cease to use the old names of the letters 
 which do not contain the sounds here given to the 
 letters, and call them by names having those 
 sounds; e. g., a should be called a(re) ; e should 
 be named as sounded in met, e as sounded in can. 
 Then drop silent letters, and finally spell all 
 words with these letters uniformly, according to 
 
 ml,,/ andLinguistic Studies, 2d Be N ¥.}>, 
 
 Proceedings of ffu American Philological Asso- 
 ciation, 1875, 1876; A,/,/,;;* to the American 
 Philological Association, by the President, V. A. 
 March (Hartford, L874); 8.S. II wihmw .\i„i- 
 ytic Orthography (Phila.,1858 : Pro di; gs of, 
 
 ill,- I„l.-,-„:,l„, 1,,,/ Cm,!-. ,,!,,.„ forth' Aii,.;„l„onl 
 
 ll„- S/ 
 
 I L876) j Pitman's Phonetic Journal (Bath, Eng.; 
 
OSKALOOSA COLLEGE 
 
 OWENS COLLEGE 
 
 OSKALOOSA COLLEGE, at Oskaloosa, I sum of £211,000, contributed partly for spe 
 
 Iowa, founded in 1856, is under the control of 
 
 the Christian den ination. The value of the 
 
 buildings, grounds, and apparatus is $50,000; the 
 amount of its productive funds, $30,000. It com- 
 prises a preparatory department, a collegiate de- 
 partment (with a classical course of four years 
 and a Indies' course of three years I, a Bible depart- 
 ment, and a commercial department. Facilities 
 are afforded for normal instruction, and for in- 
 struction in music, painting, and drawing. The 
 cost of tuition is $30 a year. In 1874—5, there 
 were 6 instructors and 200 students (deducting 
 repetitions); namely, irregular, 106; collegiate, 
 16 ; preparatory, .it': liible department. II ;'com- 
 mercial, 17. F. M. Bruner, A. M., is the pres- 
 ident (1875). 
 
 OTTEBBEIN UNIVERSITY, at Wester- 
 
 and partly for general, purposes. In ad- 
 i to this, Mr. Beyer's recent legacy will prob- 
 vieM £100,000 more. 1'he new college was 
 
 ■din 1*7.'!; anil, including the site and the 
 ical laboratory, which lias room for more 
 1(1(1 students, it cost above ,11 00.000, and 
 
 when complt 
 
 Afi 
 
 llde 
 
 upon the adjoining buildings of the medical 
 school, previously known as the Manchester 
 Royal School of Medicine, which was now, 
 for the first time, united with the college. Ac- 
 cording to the new constitution of the college, 
 the governors are 42 in number. Fourteen of 
 them form an executive committee, called the 
 council, which transacts the external business of 
 the college, while the senate, i. e., the body of 
 professors, transacts its internal or academic 
 
 bv tuition fees and the income of an endow- 
 ment of $80,000. The tuition fee, including in- 
 cidental expenses, is S'J t a year. The university 
 comprises a preparatory and a collegiate depart- 
 ment, with a classical, a scientific, and a ladies' 
 course. The last is especially designed for females 
 who, however, are also admitted to the other 
 courses. In 1874 — 5, there were 12 instructors, 
 and '2(11 students (72 collegiate and 12'J pre- 
 paratory). The presidents have I a as follows: 
 
 William R. Griffith (principal). 1847—9: the Rev. 
 William Davis, 1849—50 ; the Rev. Lewis Davis. 
 1850—57 ; the Rev. Alexander ( Iwen, 1858—60 ; 
 the Rev. Lewis Davis, D. D., 1860—71 ; the Rev. 
 Daniel Eberly, A. M., 1871—2; and the Rev. 
 H. A. Thompson. D. D., the present incumbent, 
 appointed in 1872. 
 
 OWENS COLLEGE (Manchester, England) 
 was founded by the bequest of Mr. John Owens, 
 a merchant of '.Manchester, who, at his death in 
 1846, bequeathed the bulk of his property, 
 amounting to nearly £100.000, to trustees to 
 found an institution for teaching such branches 
 of learning and science as were or might after- 
 wards be taught in the English universities. 
 After extensive inquiries, a college was founded 
 and opened in 1851, which, like University Col- 
 lege, London, was to be in connection with the 
 London University, and was to be absolutely free 
 
 from any religions disqualification. The terms was about £11,000, of which £6,000 was derived 
 of the original bequest allowed no portion of the from endowments, and £5,000 from students' 
 endowment to be expended on land or buildings, fees. This does not include the medical depart- 
 Accordingly, in the earlier years of the college, ment. It may be added that a proposal for 
 £24,000 was contributed by the trustees and the erecting Owens College into a university has 
 
 t 
 
 The college began with six professors, several 
 allied subjects being assigned to one chair. 
 There are now. 20 professors, and 22 assistants. 
 in arts, science, law, and medicine. The profess- 
 orships are endowed : one important result of 
 this is that it is possible to charge lower fees, and 
 to bring the benefits of the college within the 
 reach of much larger numbers. The more im- 
 portant chairs have an endowment generally of 
 £350 a year, to which a large proportion of the 
 fees is added. In L852, evening classes were be- 
 gun for the sake originally of school-masters; but 
 afterwards of all who chose to come. The AVork- 
 ing Men's College in Manchester was incorpo- 
 rated with these evening classes in 1 SCI, and the 
 result was a large increase in the number of stu- 
 dents. These students, in the session ending 
 in May. 1S75, numbered eT>3, including 35 who 
 were also students in the day classes. In the 
 same session, there were 375 day students with 
 159 medical .students, making a total of 1,362. 
 There are many valuable scholarships and ex- 
 hibitions in connection with the college. The 
 Rtunncy and Ramsbottom scholarships, with five 
 Whitworth exhibitions, were founded with the 
 design of enabling young artisans to pursue 
 scientific studies at the coliege for two or three 
 years. In 1872 — 3, the income of the college, 
 out of which it defrayed its general expenditure. 
 
 people of Manchester in aid of Mr. Owens'i. 
 bequest and for the foundation of scholarships. 
 The home of the college, for twenty -two years, 
 was in a large building in Quay St..' which had 
 formerly been a private house. But, in 1867, 
 the old buildings had become inadequate; and 
 an influential committee was formed to prepare 
 a scheme for the erection of new buildings in a 
 better part of the city, also for the endowment of 
 new professorships, and to make an appeal for 
 
 been widely discussed this year (1876), and has 
 met with considerable approval. 
 
 The first principal of the college was the late 
 Prof. A. J. Scott ; the second and present prin- 
 cipal is Prof. J. G. Greenwood. Students live 
 outside the college, and for the most part make 
 their own arrangements as to residence. — See 
 The Calendar of the college: Fifth Report of 
 the Hut/iil Cmimissiiiji mi Sririilith- fiis/rmj/ion 
 (1*74)' «•///< the Minutes ,,f Eridenre ,■ Letter by 
 
 the necessary funds. The response, in contribu- Principal Greenwood iii the Athenceum for 
 tions and legacies, down to July 1876, was the j April 10., 1875. 
 
076 
 
 OXFORD UNIVERSITY 
 
 OXFORD, University of, one of the two 
 
 great universities of England. legend ascribes 
 its origin to Alfred the Great, and University 
 College claims to date from A. D. 872; but of 
 this we have no proof. Oxford first became 
 famous as a school of learning in the reign of 
 Stephen, about 1140. From John it won its ear- 
 liest charters; and, under his successor, the num- 
 ber of students is said to have risen to 30,000 
 (though this included many attendants and me- 
 nials): at the end of the 14th century, it had fallen 
 to 15,000; after the Reformation, to 5,000; it is 
 now about 2.500. This popularity in the earliest 
 times was due mainly to the influence of in- 
 dividual teachers. Famous men. like Grosseteste. 
 Roger Bacon, Duns Scotus, and Occam. attracted 
 .students, who came from the universities of 
 Paris and Bologna to attend Lectures at Oxford. 
 Each teacher lived in a hall, or inn, with his 
 students, for colleges did not yet exist. The only 
 endowed teachers were the monks. But the rule 
 that every student should reside in a recognized 
 boarding-house, and the example of University. 
 Merton, and Balliol colleges, all incorporated 
 toward the end of the L3th century, gradually 
 effected the extinction of the halls, and brought 
 about the present college .system. The old chron- 
 icles tell us of the division of the students into 
 nations - North and South, of the quarrels 
 between them even on such questions as Nom- 
 inalism versus Realism, of their electing proctors 
 to protect their privileges against the chancellor, 
 of their long feud and many riots with the citi- 
 zens, and of the chancellor's summoning the citi- 
 zens in arms to keep the peace, thereby often ad- 
 ding fuel to the flames. In 120D, we read of a riot 
 so serious that the University incurred papal ex- 
 communication, and was forced, with the king, to 
 accept the pope's terms; and, after another great 
 tumult, subsequent to the Black Death, town and 
 university both put themselves into the king's 
 hands to "settle their differences, the settlement 
 made being greatly in favor of the latter. Al- 
 though, during the barons' war, in Henry the 
 Third's reign. and in the Lollard movement, under 
 Edwar 1 HI. and Richard II., Oxford had shown 
 popular sympathies, yet in the next century it 
 became decidedly ecclesiastical, and for some 
 time the lay element played but a small part in 
 it. With the revival of learning, came the fresh 
 stimulus of Fox's, Wolsey's, and Henry the 
 Eighth's patronage; and ten out of the twenty 
 colleges, as well as all the professorships, date 
 from 1500, or later. The principles of the Ref- 
 ormation were to be carried out by a commis- 
 sion sent down to Oxford by Edward VI., but the 
 quick succession of Mary prevented this; and we 
 find evidence of the < 'atholic reaction in the foun- 
 dation of Trinity (1554), and St. John's (1555). 
 Under Queen Elizabeth, Protestantism was def- 
 initely established (1571), the statutes of 1549 
 being enforced; butvery little change occurred ex- 
 cept in the matter of religion. Even the old rule 
 of enjoining celibacy on the fellows was retained. 
 The last contest between the tuitions took place in 
 this reign, in the election of Leicester's successor 
 
 to the chancellorship. James I. granted the par- 
 liamentary franchise to the universities in 1G0G. 
 and divided between them such church patn mage 
 as was still in the hands of Catholics. ( Ixford tak- 
 ing the south of England. Cambridge the north; 
 and, in 1617, he made adhesion to the Thirty- 
 nine Articles of the Church of England a neces- 
 sary qualification for the degree, which was after- 
 wards extended to the matriculation. In 1C28, 
 the election of proctors was taken out of the j 
 hands of the masters, and given to the colleges is 
 turn: and. in 1638, something like a real exami- 
 nation for degrees was introduced in place of the 
 merely formal disputations. In the civil wars. 
 Oxford sided with Charles I., and consequent!)' 
 suffered from Cromwell, though only slightly. 
 To Charles II, she was heartily loyal, but even the 
 firmest belief in "passive obedience'' was shaken 
 by his brother's measures. Nevertheless though 
 William was generally welcomed as a savior 
 of society, very many of the fellows continued 
 friendly to the old dynasty, and talked Jaeobit- 
 ism against the Hanoverians. 
 
 In considering the actual state and working 
 of the University nowadays, we must carefully 
 distinguish between it and the colleges. The lat- 
 ter are corporate bodies consisting of fellows and 
 scholars, possessing property and a building— 
 the college proper — where they and the unen- 
 dowed students reside. The University, while 
 technically described as consisting of the "chan- 
 cellor, masters, and scholars", consists practically 
 of certain fellows and heads of colleges who fill 
 various public posts, and administer public trusts. 
 Within their own walls, the members of a college 
 are independent, the fellows carrying out the 
 services, lectures, and organizatii id generally; out- 
 side the university, officers intervene, whether 
 the proctors to enforce public order, the profess- 
 ors to give public instruction, or the examiners 
 to test candidates for degrees, and the vice- 
 chancellor to confer them. To qualify for these, 
 a student must reside in a college or licensed 
 lodging-house 12 terms, i. e., three academic years 
 of 6 months each, and must pass three examina- 
 tions, — Responsions, Moderations, and Final 
 .Schools. The first is the same for every candi- 
 date; in the latter two, however, he has a choice 
 of either taking a pass degree, or going in for 
 "honors" in one or more subjects. The Honors 
 Schools in Moderations are only classical and 
 mathematical; but, in the Final, a choice is offered 
 between classics, mathematics, law, history, nat- 
 ural science, and theology. As the competition 
 in these subjects is strong, and as the result in- 
 fluences greatly a man's chances of getting a fel- 
 lowship, most 'candidates defer their final exam- 
 ination until their 16th or 18th term, the latter 
 being the latest allowed. 
 
 Fellowships are given upon examination, to be 
 held either indefinitely, or only if the holder be- 
 come a clergyman, and if, in either case, he re- 
 main a bachelor. Some few have, of late years, 
 been granted (or renewed) to married men. Their 
 value varies from £200 to £300 per annum; but 
 a resident fellow is generally a tutor also, and for 
 
OXFORD UNIVERSITY 
 
 that receives a proportion of the tuition fees paid 
 by the students. ' I'lic average total is then from 
 6600 to £800. The fellows manage the affairs 
 
 of the college entirely: one of their number is 
 
 I' 1 '' 
 
 the like — and he is allowed to marry. These are 
 all said to be "in the foundation', as are also the 
 scholars— with incomes of from £20 to £100, 
 granted by the college, and tenable 4 or 5 years 
 — and the exhibitioners, or holders of inferior 
 scholarships. Many colleges offer very valuable 
 rewards of this kind ; and many large schools 
 throughout the country confer similar scholar- 
 ships to last during a similar period. Such as- 
 sistance, of course, materially lessens a student's 
 expenses, which. on the average, may be reckoned 
 at £200 to £250 a year. A less sum, however, 
 will suffice, and frequently docs; as is shown by 
 the reported expenditure (£60 or even less) of 
 several "unattached ' students, that is, those who 
 attend lectures as members of the university, 
 but live always in lodgings, and are members of 
 no college. Such students were first admitted 
 in L868, specially to diminish the expense of ac- 
 quiring a degree. Their numbers have steadily 
 increased; and the object of their institution — 
 economy— is certainly gained. There are, also, 
 many scholarships offered by the university, in 
 contradistinction to the colleges, which are open 
 to all undergraduates, and some of which are of 
 considerable value. The most important of these 
 ■are the Ireland. Hertford. Craven, and Derby, 
 for classical excellence; the Junior and Senior 
 mathematical, in their own province; the Bo- 
 den in Sanskrit ; the Radeliffe Travelling Fel- 
 lowship and the Burdett-Coutts scholarship, in 
 science; the Pusey ami Ellerton, and the Hall 
 and Houghton, in divinity. Special prizes arc 
 given for essays in certain subjects: and one, 
 for poetry. The university, besides the award 
 of these honors, has also the charge of all 
 public examinations, of which it fixes both 
 the manner and the matter, appointing the ex- 
 edge. Within the last few years, it has exercised 
 its powers in creating separate schools — or ex- 
 aminations— for law and history (previously 
 united) and for theology. It elects ami defines 
 the duties of the professors, and its own officers. 
 I'Vtlie former, the oldest foundations date from 
 Henry VII [..who instituted the professorship of 
 Divinity, Civil Law. Medicine, Hebrew, and 
 (ireek. Before his time there was only one — the 
 Lady Margaret Divinity (1502); between 1619 
 and L624, five others were endowed, and the 
 rest are of later origin. Rattlers are also ap- 
 pointed in several subjects, and for modern lan- 
 guages teaehers t who hold a somewhat less dig- 
 nified position. The whole number of public 
 instructors is 50. Their lectures are, in some cases, 
 free; in most, a small fee is charged; and, though 
 but few command large audiences, their teaching 
 not being supposed to "pay" for the examinations, I 
 almost all give valuable assistance to the more 
 thoughtful and industrious students. — Of the I 
 
 university officers, it will be sufficient to men- 
 tion the chancellor, the high steward, the vice- 
 chancellor, and the proctors. The first was, in 
 old times, the ruling head of the University; he 
 was the nominee of the Bishop of Lincoln, and 
 the guardian of his rights and privileges. Gradu- 
 ally, the nomination fell into the hands of the 
 masters, the ratification only resting with the 
 bishop, till, in 1338, that too was taken away by 
 a papal bull. At present, he is little more than 
 an ornamental appendage; the practical duties of 
 his office being discharged by the vice-chancellor, 
 who is nominated annually by the chancellor 
 from the heads of colleges, and holds office gen- 
 erally for a term of four years; under him are 
 four pro-vice-chancellors, lie is the resident head 
 of the university, and presides in all its meetings; 
 and, being invested with the powers of a justice of 
 the peace, possesses civil and criminal jurisdiction 
 over its members. The proctors rank next in 
 importance. These are two in number, fellows of 
 colleges, elected according to a cycle of rotation, 
 for one year only. Their business is to maintain 
 discipline among the students outside their college 
 walls, to appoint public examiners, and to attend 
 meetings of the authorities; and, ex officio, they 
 
 university property and trusts. The high Reward 
 — who was once elected for his local influence 
 and power to protect the university — is now of 
 somewhat less importance than the chancellor, 
 his only duty being to try serious criminal cases, 
 
 high steward is the Earl of Carnarvon; the 
 chancellor, the Marquis of Salisbury. The rep- 
 resentatives in the Commons are the Bt. Hon. 
 Gathorne Hardy, secretary for war, and the lit. 
 Hon. .Mm Mowbray, both elected by( 'onvocation. 
 The assemblies governing —or, we might almost 
 say, forming the University, arc four: (1) The 
 lb u.-c ot ('oimre._ia.ioii : i-| The House of Con- 
 vocation : (3) 'J he i 'ongregation of the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford; and | I c|'|,e Hebdomadal Coun- 
 cil, constituted according to the act of 1854. 
 (1 ) Congregation consists of Regents {i.e., Masters 
 of Arts of a certain Standing) of all kinds, and 
 merely ratifies the nomination of examiners, and 
 the ordinary degrees. (2) Convocation consists 
 of Regents and Non-Regents (i.e. all admitted 
 
 ., elects to all university offices and 
 
 diooses the burgesses for parliament, 
 lbly. the vice-chancellor (or his dep- 
 3 right of veto on till proceedings 
 s; as have also the proctors if agreed. 
 , aim of (he University em- 
 it officials, and all members of Con- 
 ine' in I Ixford duririe the year. Its 
 
 passed on to ('onvocation for approval i ivje, 
 tion. (4) Lastly, we come to the Hebdomadal 
 Council, in which sit the chancellor, vice-chancel- 
 
tiTS 
 
 PACIFIC UNIVERSITY 
 
 lor and proctors, e.r otfiri,,, as ^\< -11 as fi Heads of 
 Colleges, 6 Professors, and 6 members of Convo- 
 cation, elected for a term of 6 years by the » !on- 
 gregation of the University. This assembly meets 
 we ikly, and initiates all legislation. 
 
 About twenty years ago, the two universities 
 Mailed -chemes' for the examination of boys — 
 unl-r the name of the middle-class local exami- 
 nati .ns. In the Junior Group, candidates were 
 to be under 16, in the Senior, under 18 years of 
 age; every thing was conducted by nominees of 
 the university ; perfect impartiality and a high 
 stan lard of merit were secured ; and the exami- 
 nations soon became popular. Scholar hips are 
 offered at three colleges in Oxford to the most 
 distinguished of the senior candidates. Such a test 
 has doubtless been of great service in improving 
 the teaching in middle-class schools, and in calling 
 forth the emulation both of masters and boys; 
 but it Ins brought with it the apparently inevi- 
 table result of "cramming" and overworking boys 
 of promise. It has lately been extended to ejirls. 
 by Cambridge and also by Oxford. The latter 
 university is behindhand, however, in that it has 
 not yet supplied anything analogous to the 
 Cambridge higher examinations for women (over 
 18 years of age), and to the lectures given by 
 Cn'nliihn in support of university extension 
 throughout the kingdom; but, at Oxford itself, 
 there has, probably, never been a period when 
 teaching was more careful and effective. or study 
 more earnest, and its results more highly prized, 
 than to-day. 
 
 The names of the colleges with the dates oftheir 
 foundation are as follows: I rniversitj . LD.872(?), 
 incorporated in 1 '_'. s lb from funds let t. in L249,by 
 
 Win. de Durham for 1 J poor masters tr Dur- 
 
 hamjJBalliol, 1263-^8; Merton, founded in 1264, 
 at Maldon, removed to Oxford in I'-'TI : Exeter, 
 L314; Oriel, L326; Queen's, L340 ; New, L386; 
 
 l.i In, 1 1:27; All Souls. 1 137; Magdalen,! 158; 
 
 Brasenose, L509 ; Corpus Christi, L516 ; Christ 
 ( ihurch, 1 546—7; Trinity, 1 554; St. John's, 1 555; 
 Jesus. L571 ; Wadham, 1609; Pembroke, 1624; 
 Worcester, 1714; Keble, 1870 ; Hertford. IsT 1. 
 'Hie Halls are : St. Mary's. L333 ; New Inn. used 
 as a mint under Charles I.; St. Albans; and 
 St. Edmund's, the last as an adjunct of Queen's 
 College. Of the colleges, the largest and richest 
 is Christ Church, begun by Wolsey under the 
 name of Cardinal College: completed and en- 
 dowed by HeniT VIII.; its under-graduates 
 number 249; those at Baliol.182. The most com- 
 plete is Xew College, which has. at its nursery. 
 
 PACIFIC METHODIST COLLEGE 
 
 Winchester School, founded by the same munif- 
 icent patron, Wm. of Wykeham, and proportion- 
 ately endowed. New College and Magdalen are 
 both famous for their handsome chapels and 
 grounds. The total number of undergraduates 
 m the calendar for 1876 is 2,542, of whom 213 
 arc unattached to anj college or hall'. The num- 
 ber of matriculations was. in the last academic 
 year. 718; of conferred degrees: Bachelors', 3,941, 
 and Masters', 254. The revenue of colleges and 
 university together is £420,000. — Besides the 
 above collegiate buildings, there are others of 
 great interest, also belonging to the university. 
 The oldest is the Divinity School, opened in 
 1480, and now used chiefly for conferring de- 
 grees. Close to it are the schools (1011 seq.), 
 in which examinations arc conducted; and the 
 Sheldonian Theater (built by Abp. Sheldon 
 from the designs of Wren, in 168.'!), in which 
 honorary degrees are given and prize composi- 
 tions read, at the annual commemoration. The 
 .Bodleian library was founded, in 1597, by Sir 
 Thomas Bodley, in place of the small library, 
 which had been scattered at the Reformation. 
 Bodley bought largely for it during the Thirty 
 Years' War : but its usefulness dates from 
 
 James I. Connected with it as areading-r i, 
 
 is the library built by Dr. Kaddiffe. founder also 
 of the Infirmary and the Observatory. The Asli- 
 molean museum (1632) is the property of the 
 university, which has also its own press. Founded 
 about 1672, it was extended iii 1711. chiefly 
 through the profits of Lord Clarendon's History 
 of the Civil Wars, the copyright of which he 
 presented to the university. It was removed to 
 new buildings in L833, and is now a very large 
 establishment, distinguished by the chancellor's 
 
 ian Institute, also, is of late date; it contains 
 licture gallery and has an endowment for en- 
 gaging the study of modern languages, 
 noiig the undergraduates then, selves, there are 
 iiv private clubs; but the only one of these 
 sessing buildings of its own is the Union 
 nb. which, besides the ordinary appliances of 
 
 ■ members meet for weekly discussions, during 
 
 / Tr, 
 
 )-,,„■ Book; The Student's 
 
 the 
 
 University and Colleges of 
 
 endon 
 
 Dress. Oxford). 
 
 PACIFIC, University of the, at Santa I courses: classical, 4 years; Latin scientific, 3 years; 
 Clara, Cal., under Methodist Episcopal control, and scientific. 3 years. There is also a prepar- 
 was organized in L851, and chartered in 1853. It ' atory and a commercial department. In 1875— C, 
 admits both sexes, [t has productive funds to the there were Hi instructors and 212 students (69 
 amount of $40,000, libraries containing about collegiate and 143 preparatory). The Rev. A. S. 
 2,000 volumes. Thecost of tuition varies from (iibbons. A.M., M.D.. is (1876) the president. 
 $8 to .$20 per term of 1 4 weeks, with modern Ian- PACIFIC METHODIST COLLEGE was 
 guages. The collegiate department has three I organized in 1861, at VacaviHe, Solano Co., Cal.; 
 
PACIFIC UNIVERSITY 
 
 chartered in 1862 ; and removed to Santa Rosa, 
 Sonoma < !o., in 1 870. It is under the control of 
 the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. Candi- 
 dates for a degree have the choice of four courses 
 of study. Two are for males — one in letters, and 
 one in science; two are for females — a special 
 course in letters, and a special course in science. 
 Females may also pursue the two former courses. 
 The college has a preparatory department, and 
 affords instruction in pedagogics, painting and 
 drawing, music, and commercial branches. The 
 regular tuition fees vary from §3(1 to $70 per an- 
 num. In 1S74 — 5, there were 9 instructors and 
 276 students, of whom 59 were of the collegiate 
 grade. A. L. Fitzgerald. A.M. (appointed in 
 1870) is the president (1876). 
 
 PACIFIC UNIVERSITY, at Forest Grove, 
 Oregon, chartered in 1853 — i, is under evangel- 
 ical, but not denominational, control. Connected 
 with it is the Tualatin Academy, chartered in 
 1849. It has an endowment of about $65,000, 
 and a library of 5,000 volumes. The university 
 has four courses: namely, classical, 4 years, leu ling 
 to the degree of A. B.; scientific, 3 years, leading 
 to the degree of B. S.; ladies' course, 3 years, 
 leading to the degree of M.S. (Mistress of Sci- 
 ence) ; and normal, 2 years. The cost of tuition 
 in these courses is $45 per year; in the academy, 
 $30. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instructors, and 
 lis students (13 collegiate and lll.l academic]. 
 
 PAGE, David Perkins, one of the most 
 useful and eminent of American educators, born 
 at Epping, N. II., duly 4., 1810 ; died at Al- 
 bany, N. Y., Jan. 1.. 1848. The first part of 
 his life was spent in agricultural labor on his 
 fathers farm : and it was not until his sixteenth 
 year that he was permitted to enjoy the ad- 
 vantages of any thing beyond an elementary 
 education. In 1826, he entered Hampton 
 Academy, where he spent two terms preparing 
 for the vocation to which he afterwards devoted 
 his life. His first service as a teacher was in 
 the district schools, from which, in a short time, 
 he became associate principal of the Newbuiy- 
 port High School, in which he remained 12 
 years. He distinguished himself also as a mem- 
 ber of the Essex County Teachers' Association, 
 before which he delivered several lectures that 
 elicited the highest encomiums from Horace 
 Mann and others. One of these, on The Mutual 
 Duties of Parents and Teachers, was espei tally 
 admired, more than 6,000 copies being printed 
 and distributed. As a speaker, Mr. Page was 
 fluent and impressive. "He possessed.' says 
 Horace Mann, "that rare quality, so indispen- 
 sable to an orator, the power to think, standing 
 on his feet, and before folks." " As a teacher," 
 says Barnard. " he exhibited two valuable quali- 
 fications, — the ability to turn the attention of 
 his pupils to the principles which explain facts, 
 and in such a way that they could see clearly 
 the connection ; and the talent for reading the 
 character of his scholars, so accurately, that he 
 could at once discern what were their governing 
 passions and tendencies — what in them needed 
 encouragement, and what repression." In 1844, 
 
 preparations were making to open the state ] 
 malscl I at Albany,N.Y.; and on the rec 
 
 idation of H< 
 shusetts, Mi 
 
 Mam, 
 
 prmcipawup. wli 
 
 The school conn, 
 fore the close of 
 increased to 100 ; 
 
 thers, in Mas- 
 ge was invited to assume its 
 •h he did the following year. 
 
 ■need with 2.1 pupils; but, be- 
 he first tern,, the number had 
 and. at the commencement of 
 the second term, there were 200 students. 
 Numerous obstacles, incident to every experi 
 ment, such as this was at that time, opposed its 
 progress; but the indefatigable energies, con- 
 summate ability, and devoted spirit of its prin- 
 cipal overcame them all; and every new term 
 increased the popularity and success of the 
 school Mr. Cages incessant labors, however, 
 had exhausted his vital energies; and at the 
 close of December, 1847, he was attacked with 
 
 moral and intellectual qualities which made him 
 truly a model teacher. "Of the hundreds of 
 teachers," says his biographer. " who were under 
 his care at Albany, there was not one who did 
 not look up to him with admiration and love; 
 not one who did not bear, to some extent at 
 least, the impress of his character and influence." 
 His Theory and Practice of Teaching, origin- 
 ally published in 1847, has been universally ad- 
 mired, and has had a very wide circulation. — 
 See Barnard, American Teachers and Educa- 
 tors (N. Y.. 1861). 
 
 PALAEONTOLOGY. See Geology. 
 
 PALATINATE COLLEGE, near the vil- 
 lage of Myerstown, Lebanon Co., Pa., founded in 
 1868, is under the control of the Reformed 
 Church. It has a commodious building situated 
 on high ground, amid fine scenery. The institu- 
 tion comprises tin elementary, an academic, a col- 
 legiate, and a musical department. Both sexes 
 are admitted. In 1874 .1. there v> ere 7 instruct- 
 ors and 208 students. The Rev. George W. 
 Aughinbaugh, 1». D., is (1876) the president. 
 
 PARAGUAY, a republic of South America; 
 area 56,715 sq. m.; population, about 221,000. 
 The inhabitants are elderly Indians, the Guarani 
 language being dominant throughout the repub- 
 lic, although Spanish is the official language. 
 The Roman Catholic is the prevailing religion. 
 Paraguay was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 
 I 530. It remained a part of the Spanish domin- 
 ions until 1811, when it declared its independence. 
 The early history of Paraguay presents one of the 
 most remarkable attempts ever made to educate 
 a barbarous nation. After missionaries of other 
 orders had been unsuccessful among the Gua- 
 ranis, the Jesuits entered the country, in 1557, 
 and met with wonderful success. 'I hey collected 
 the Indians in villages, which they called reduc- 
 tions, and enlisted their sympathies, by opening 
 to them profitable sources of employment, chiefly 
 by extending the commerce with mate, the so- 
 called Paraguay tea. At the same time they 
 strictly forbade them to hold any intercourse 
 with the Spanish colonists, and obtained from 
 Philip 111. a mandate forbidding every body from 
 
6S0 
 
 PARENTAL EDUCATION 
 
 entering their reductions without their permis- 
 sion. After these measures had been firmly es- 
 tablished, they began with a strong hand to put 
 their plans into execution. Every reduction re- 
 ceived two missionaries, one for religious and 
 the other for secular affairs. Every village was 
 built in the same style, having in the center a 
 large square, fronting on which were the church 
 and the school-house. The streets were wide and 
 regular. Every luxury, both in dress and habi- 
 tation, was strictly prohibited : but the churches 
 were decorated with gold and silver. The Jesuits 
 administered all property belonging to the vil- 
 lages, and governed by means of the native ca- 
 ziques, who, although chosen by the inhabitants, 
 were entirely dependent on the fathers. The 
 slightest infractions of the law were severely 
 punished. The instruction given by them con- 
 sisted in teaching to read and write, and to recite 
 the catechism ; but, owing to their seclusion 
 from the outer world, their acquirements availed 
 them but. little. Edgar Quinet, one of the most 
 bitter opponents of the Jesuits, recognized that 
 this method of education, "which would have 
 destroyed older nations, was admirably adapted 
 to a kind of grown-up children like the Guara- 
 nis" ; but, at the same time, he adds that " it 
 showed an unsurpassed ability to attract these 
 children by granting them every thing, but what 
 woidd have rendered them men." As their power 
 increased, the fathers grew more independent, 
 and finally broke off all connection with the 
 home government. In 1767, a royal decree 
 ordered their expulsion from the three provinces 
 of Buenos Ayres, Rio de la Plata, and Tucu- 
 man, to which they offered no resistance. Their 
 reductions gradually disappeared, while the Indi- 
 ans relapsed into barbarism. Under the dictator 
 Francia (1814 — 1840), who practiced the same 
 policy of seclusion that the Jesuit fathers had pre- 
 viously adopted, and under Lopez, schools were 
 founded, and education generally, though slow- 
 ly, advanced; so that, in 1861, Paraguay had as 
 many primary schools in proportion to her popu- 
 lation, as any of the other South American states. 
 But during the disastrous war that followed, 
 education was entirely neglected. Since 1870. 
 determined efforts have been made to extend the 
 benefitsof instruction. The amount appropriated 
 for schools, in 1874, was $34,860. The capital, 
 Asuncion, formerly, had a colegio, which was 
 founded in 1783, and in which, among others, 
 candidates for the priesthood w^ere educated. 
 Lopez founded a gymnasium under the name 
 Academia Literaria; but the course of in- 
 struction embraced only two subjects, Latin 
 and philosophy. Subsequently other subjects, as 
 mathematics, law. and theology were added. It 
 was-re-organized under the name Jnslilnln </>' Eu- 
 senanza; the establishment of several colleges in 
 provincial towns was resolved upon, and a num- 
 ber of young men were sent to France to be edu- 
 cated as professors. See I.e Roy, in Schmtd's 
 Enct/elopadie, art. Sudamerica. 
 
 PARENTAL EDUCATION. See Home 
 Education. 
 
 PASSOW 
 
 PAROCHIAL SCHOOL, an elementary 
 school which is united with a parish, and under 
 the control of its pastor. Schools of this kind 
 arose early in the middle ages. Although the 
 mass of the people did not yet appreciate the 
 value of school instruction, the popes repeatedly 
 urged the erection of parish schools in connec- 
 tion with the churches. Teachers of Holy Writ, 
 aud instructors in ecclesiastical obligations, were, 
 in particular, to be appointed in all parishes; 
 for it was not conceived that any person could 
 profitably take part in divine service, if he had 
 not received proper instruction. In France, 
 bishop Theodulph of Orleans admonished the 
 parish priests to instruct the boys gratuitously 
 in science. Charlemagne decreed that youths 
 should be educated in reading, singing, arith- 
 metic, grammar, and writing. A synod held at 
 Mavence. before the middle of the i)th century, 
 enjoined that the children be sent either to the 
 convent or to the parochial school, in order to 
 learn, at least, the creed and the Lord's Prayer 
 in the native tongue. — For many centuries, the 
 elementary schools grew and developed inclose 
 connection with the church. The Reformation 
 did not change this relation ; and, in Protestant 
 as well as in Catholic countries, the common 
 school continued to be a parochial school. More 
 recently, in most countries, state authorities 
 have assumed the chief control of the common 
 schools ; and the parochial character of such in- 
 stitutions has more or less disappeared ; although 
 many governments still delegate to the pastors 
 of the established churches certain rights of in- 
 spection, and maintain separate selwols for dif- 
 ferent denominations. In the United States, the 
 name parochial schools is now geni rally applied 
 to Roman Catholic and to Episcopalian schools 
 
 which have been organized inclose) lection 
 
 with the parishes ; because, in the opinion of their 
 founders, all elementary schools should provide 
 religious as well as secular instruct ion. and should, 
 therefore, have a strictly denominational char- 
 acter. (See Denominational Schools.) 
 
 PARSONS COLLEGE, at Fairfield, Iowa, 
 founded in 1855, is under Presbyterian control. 
 It has a campus of '20 acres, 2 handsome and 
 commodious brick buildings, philosophical and 
 chemical apparatus, and a library of about 700 
 volumes. Its productive fundsamount toSiM.nuo, 
 nearly. There is an academic department, with 
 a preparatory and a normal course, and a col- 
 legiate department, with a classical (4years),and 
 a scientific (3 years) course. The cost of tuition 
 is $30 a year in the academic, and $36 in the 
 ' collegiate department. Both sexes are admitted. 
 \ In 1875 — 6, there were 6 instructors and 63 stu- 
 dents (1 collegiate and 62 academic I. 
 
 PASSOW. Franz Ludwig- Karl Friedrich, 
 one of the foremost representatives of lexico- 
 graphic literature, born in Ludwigslust, Germany, 
 Sept. 20..1786 : died in Breslau, March 11., 1833. 
 He became, in 1807, professor at the gymnasium 
 of Weimar, in L810, director of the Conradinum 
 of Jenkaii. near Dantzic, and in 181 
 | at the university of Breslau. He t 
 
PATIENCE 
 
 thusiastic admirer of Creek culture, and not 
 only preferred the Creek- language and literature 
 to the Latin, but made a practical attempt, in the 
 school of Jenkau, to have the study of Creek 
 begun before that of Latin. His fame chiefly 
 rests on his Greek lexicon, which not only began 
 an entirely new era in the history of classical 
 dictionaries, but is generally regarded as one of the 
 most remarkable productions in the entire range 
 of lexical literature. The tir.-t edition of the work 
 [HandwSrterbuch der griechUchen Spracke, 
 2 vols., Leips.. 1819 — 24), appeared as a revision 
 of the <ireek-( lerman lexicon of Schneider: but. 
 in the following editions, it was so completely re- 
 written by him. that the 4th edition (1831) bore 
 only his name on the title page. Passow's work 
 constitutes the basis of the Greek- English lexi- 
 con of Liddell ami Scott. (SeeGREKK Language.) 
 The Prussian minister of education, A. Falk, 
 (q. v.), is a son-in-law of Passow. 
 
 PATIENCE, the calm endurance of neces- 
 sary toil or suffering. This quality, though 
 
 FEAIiOltY FOND 
 
 GS1 
 
 education in the College of Preceptors, the first 
 
 chair in any public institution 
 
 signed to that subject, lie dry. 
 
 in the prolonged effort 
 presupposes, differs from it 
 
 nilar to ps: 
 which its ex.' 
 chiefly in the 
 
 most important elements in the character of a 
 successful educator. Many occasions, indeed, 
 will occur, when patience will be the only virtue 
 which will command success. Its cultivation, 
 therefore, is desirable both on this account, and 
 because of its value in mental discipline. Its 
 possession, moreover, is necessary both to the 
 teacher and to the pupil. To the former, it is of 
 special use in his treatment of the varying dis- 
 positions with which he has to deal. The prov- 
 ocations to impatience and ill temper are so 
 many and so constant, that, without patience, 
 the teacher's life will be a continued series of an- 
 noyances. Impatience in children is the result 
 either of temperament or hereditary predisposi- 
 tion ; and, in dealing with it, the teacher should 
 remember that nothing so tends to develop and 
 foster it in his pupils, as a constant practical ex- J 
 hibition of it in his daily intercourse with them. 
 As nothing is so infectious as ill temper, so 
 nothing tends so rapidly to curb ill temper as j 
 that quiet forbearance which a patient spirit J 
 diffuses around it like an atmosphere. The 
 mental powers, also, act with much greater effect 
 when the calmness of the judgment is undis- 
 turbed by ill temper or impatience. Perseve- i 
 ranee may. indeed, exist without patience. and to 
 •a certain extent may accomplish its objects ; but 
 it is safe to say that more than half the good 
 results which perseverance aided by patience 
 might accomplish, are thrown away if patience 
 does not accompany it. 
 
 PAYNE, Joseph, one of the most noted 
 English educators of our times, born in 1808 ; 
 died April 30., 1876. lie received his educa- 
 tional training at the University of London, and 
 early distinguished himself as a teacher of En- 
 glish. For a number of years, he was connected 
 with his ahnu mater. In 1873, he was ap- 
 pointed to the newly-founded professorship of 
 
 England as- 
 ed himself, in 
 this position, and also by his writings, to the 
 promotion of education, making the improve- 
 ment of methods of teaching his special object. 
 lie was the author of Lectures <>» Education, 
 and numerous lectures and pamphlets on allied 
 subjects. He also took an active part in the 
 Woman's Education Union. -Mr. Payne con- 
 tributed several papers to the proceedings of the 
 Philological Society chiefly on English dialects 
 and the relation of Old English to Norman 
 French. Among his other publications, were 
 textbooks on English literature, entitled Stud- 
 ies in Kn,/lisli (5th ed., London. 1864) : Studies 
 in English Prose (1867); and Select Poetry for 
 Children, which had a very large circulation 
 (15th ed., 1868). 
 
 PEABODY, George, an American merchant 
 and banker, born in Danvers. Mass., Feb. 18. , 
 1795; died in London. Nov. 4.. 1869. Mr. Pea- 
 body's gifts to charitable and educational institu- 
 tions have been enormous, if not unequaled. < »f 
 the latter, the principal are the following : the 
 
 founded by a gift of $30,000, afterwards in- 
 creased to S'-'IIO. ; a similar institution in 
 
 Peabody Institute in Baltimore, Md., founded 
 by a bequest of $300,000, to which he added 
 $700,000; the Archaeological Institute of Har- 
 vard College, with an endowment fund of 
 $150,000; and the department of physical 
 science, in Yale College, with an equal fund. 
 
 The total a unt of his bequests to the cause 
 
 of education exceeds $5,365,000. 
 
 PEABODY FUND (Educational), an 
 
 I gi 
 
 ;. in the following words : 
 dollars for the encourage- 
 
 ntellectual. moral, and 
 industrial education among the young of the 
 more destitute portions of the southern and 
 southwestern states of the Union." Ten trustees 
 were selected by him to carry his wishes into 
 effect ; and. at a meeting held in New York, 
 March 1!).. 1867, a general plan was adopted, 
 and Dr. Harnas Sears was appointed agent. On 
 July L, 1869, Mr. Peabody added a sec 1 mil- 
 lion to the cash capital of the fund. Besides 
 this, there were donations of Mississippi and 
 Florida bonds amounting to about $1,500,000, 
 not realizing, however, any income. According 
 to the donor's directions, the principal must. 
 remain unchanged for 30 years, the trustees be- 
 ing enjoined from expending any portion of 
 it or adding to it any part of the accruing in- 
 terest. The manner of using the latter, as well' 
 as the final distribution of the principal, was 
 left entirely to the discretion of the trustees, 
 who are vested with authority to till vacancies 
 in their number. " Not a single Southern state," 
 says the agent, " had a modern system of public^ 
 
CS2 
 
 PEDAGOGY 
 
 schools when the trustees first entered upon 
 their work, and now (1875) no state is without 
 such a system, existing at least in law: and every 
 state has either already organized or is now 
 organizing its schools." While it is not claimed 
 by the trustees that all this has been done by 
 means of the distribution of the proceeds of the 
 fund ; it must be conceded that this great work 
 has been greatly aided and stimulated thereby. 
 The promotion of primary education for the 
 masses has been the chief object kept in view: 
 and, in the effort to accomplish it. the trustees 
 have followed the " sound maxim of giving help 
 to those, and only to those, who help themselves." 
 I leucc. whenever efficient measures have been 
 inaugurated by state, city, or town to estab- 
 lish and support a permanent system of schools, 
 and aid has been needed to meet the outlay 
 necessary at first, contributions have been 
 promptly and liberally made to supplement the 
 funds publicly raised. The rules followed in the 
 distribution have been as follows: ( 1 ) A 11 schools 
 aided must have at least LOO pupils, with a 
 teacher for every 50 ; must be properly graded, 
 and must be continued during ten months in the 
 year, with an average attendance of not less than 
 85 per cent ; (2) The trustees act in concert with 
 the state authorities, and with the co-operation 
 of the state superintendent in each; |3) The 
 largest sum given to a school of 100 pupils is 
 $300 ; to one of 200 pupils, §000, and to one 
 of 3IKI pupils, SHllMl ; but always on the condi- 
 tion that the district pay at least twice the 
 amount given from the fund. 
 
 PEDAGOGY, or Pedagogics (Gr. ircutSa- 
 ) ,,.; in, from Kali . iraiSdc, a boy, and ayur) ti< . lead- 
 ing or guiding), the science and art of giving in- 
 struction to children, particularly in school, or 
 as by a school-teacher (-euiSajujuc). This term 
 is more generally used in Germany than in the 
 United States or Great Britain, in which the 
 theory and art of the teacher or educator is de- 
 signated as instruction or education ; indeed. 
 the word pedagogue is, in these countries, used 
 as a term of reproach. For information in re- 
 gard to the various departments of pedagogy, 
 see Education, Instruction, Didactics, etc. 
 
 PEET, Harvey Prindle, a noted teacher 
 of the deaf and dumb, bom in Bethlehem. Gt., 
 Nov. L9., 1794; died in New York. Jan. 1., 1873. 
 The ordinary life of the country boy. working 
 on the farm in summer, and attending the district- 
 school in winter, when associated with an ardent 
 thirst for knowledge, is by no means an inap- 
 propriate school for the development of a self- 
 reliant character. Such was the early life of I >r. 
 Peet, with this additional advantage, that he was 
 surrounded by a society exceptionally refined and 
 cultivated for a country town. At the age of 21, 
 he began to teach; but, becoming ambitious for 
 a college education, he entered upon a course of 
 Study while he was teaching, and Having finished 
 his preparatory course at A ndover, Mass.. entered 
 Vale < iollege, from which he graduated in 1822. 
 He received an invitation to teach in the Amer- 
 ican Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at 1 lartford, 
 
 PEET 
 
 1 and entered there upon a career which he never 
 afterwards abandoned. His own qualifications, 
 and the society of several eminent and successful 
 
 ; instructors in this peculiar field, soon gave him 
 a proficiency that led to his appointment as 
 steward of the institution, and. shortly after- 
 wards, to his selection, by the directors of the 
 New York Institution for the Deaf and Dumb, 
 for the situation of principal. He entered upon 
 his new duties in 1831 . and found, in the neces- 
 sary re-organization of the institution, ample field 
 for all his energy. In the training of teachers 
 for the instruction of the unfortunate class with 
 whom he was associated, his peculiar ability and 
 patience were more particularly manifested. This 
 work of re-organi/.ati(in and instruction was long 
 and an Luous; but the marked improvement which 
 followed placed the institution on a higher level 
 of usefulness and reputation, that afterwards led 
 to the rebuilding of it on an enlarged scale, and to 
 its incorporation by the state. Dr. Peet becoming 
 its president. This position he continued to hold 
 till his death. — His peculiar service in the cause 
 of deaf-mute instruction deserves not only com- 
 mendation but careful study by all engaged in 
 that peculiar field of educational labor, in 1844, 
 Horace Mann, after an extended examination of 
 the school systems of Europe, made the assertion 
 that the institutions for deaf-mutes in Prussia. 
 
 I Saxony, and Holland were decidedly superior to 
 any existing in America;the ground of this asser- 
 tion being that while the American system taught 
 pupils to converse by signs only, the systems 
 in those countries taught the pupils actually to 
 speak, as well as to understand spoken language, 
 and that this hitter was the only way in which 
 their defect could be thoroughly remedied. Mr. 
 Manns great reputation, though not shaking Dr. 
 I'eet s belief in the superiority of his favorite 
 method — that of signs, made it necessary to 
 answer this charge in the most conclusive way. 
 To this end, Dr. Weld, of the Hartford Asylum, 
 and Dr. Day, of the New York institution, were 
 sent to Europe on a tour of investigation; and, in 
 the New York institution, a class of the most. 
 promising pupils was formed for practice in artic- 
 ulation and lip-reading. After a year's exper- 
 iment, the class proved a failure, and the ex- 
 haustive report made by Dr. Day, on his return 
 from Europe, did not sustain Mr. Mann in his 
 assertions. Dr.Peel regarded uneducated deaf - 
 mule, ;,s children iii intelligence; because, of the 
 avenues through which intelligence is increased 
 and perfected, two hearing and speech — are. 
 closed from birth. An evidence of this childish 
 condition is found in the fact that their minds 
 are engrossed by concrete ideas to the almost en- 
 tirc exclusion of abstract ones. I laving satisfied 
 himself of this, therefore, instead of attempting to 
 impose upon these immature minds complex and 
 abstract ideas, such as only a person in the full 
 possession of his faculties can entertain, he placed 
 himself on their level, and endeavored to watch 
 the very birth of thought, following the processes 
 by which perceptions become conceptions, and 
 studying the nature of the conceptions so formed. 
 
PEET 
 
 This led him to adopt a strictly natural method 
 in the instruction of deaf-mutes — a method 
 which should conform to the natural, in the kind 
 of objects first presented for observation, and in 
 the order of presentation. According to this 
 plan, the first to be employed arc .simple, tan- 
 gible, or sensuous, objects, the abstract ideas, 
 formed by a generalization of these, having no 
 existence till the concrete ideas have become per- 
 fectly familiar by long usage. As to the means 
 to be employed for communicating with deaf- 
 mutes during instruction, his position was always 
 that articulation, except in its most elementary 
 stage, being an arbitrary method for the com- 
 munication of thought, can he learned, with any 
 degree of accuracy, only by persons in possession 
 of the faculties of hotJi car and speech; that deaf- 
 mutes, therefore, i. e., born deaf-mutes, will only 
 lose time and patience by attempting to acquire 
 the facidty of speech; and i hat their efforts should 
 be turned to the developing and perfecting of 
 the sign language as their most efficient means 
 of conversation. Exceptions to this are made 
 in the case of semi-mutes, by which term he 
 meant those who had lost the faculty of hearing 
 after they had learned to speak or read, the 
 semi-deaf , and a few deaf-mutes of exceptional 
 ability; but as these constitute only about fifteen 
 percent of the whole number of the deaf, the 
 method to be pursued should be that which will 
 benefit the remaining eighty-five percent. While, 
 however, he considered the sign language the 
 only one natural to deaf-mutes, and therefore 
 the fittest for the development of their minds, 
 it was necessary to keep constantly in view, not 
 only the means by which they were to com- 
 municate with each other, but more especially the 
 means by which they were to communicate \\ ith 
 the world around them, with the members of 
 which they were to associate, as nearlj as possible, 
 on terms of equality, for this purpose, the defi- 
 ciency of the sign language is at once evident. 
 In the investigation of the causes of this defi- 
 ciency, Dr. Peet discovered that the natural lan- 
 guage of signs had a syntax of its own, which dif- 
 fered from spoken English principally in the fol- 
 lowing particulars; (I) the order of expression 
 
 is inverted; (2) the time is marked one ,lv. as 
 
 in the Hebrew; (3) of the radical elements, there 
 are no variations corresponding to parts of speech; 
 
 (4) there arc no inflections to denote gender, 
 number, person, case, voice, mood, or tense; 
 
 (5) particles and pronouns are seldom used. 
 Methodical or arbitrary signs, were, therefore, 
 necessary to supply these deficiencies, and the 
 extent to which these should be used, and the 
 method of using them, became a subject not only 
 of difficulty but of controversy. Dr. Peet looked 
 upon the deaf-mute, while learning written 
 English, as in the condition of an English boy 
 learning any foreign language — Latin, for in- 
 stance. To such a boy. the English word and 
 the Latin word were both, he thought, direct 
 representatives of the idea. His opponents held, 
 on the contrary, that only one of these — the En- 
 glish word — was the direct representative; and 
 
 PE1KCK 
 
 i;s;; 
 
 that the Latin word represented the idea indi- 
 rectly. /. c. through the English (inc. Holding, 
 
 therefore, as he did, that the written word and 
 the sign were equally direct representatives of 
 the idea, lie considered that, in the use of lan- 
 guage, the sign should be dropped as soon as 
 possible, and the idea attached directly to the 
 written word. Acting on these views, Dr. Peet 
 prepared, for use in his institution, a course of 
 instruction, arranged to embody two other prin- 
 ciples; namely, that ideas should he taught before 
 words, and that difficulties should be gradually 
 and singly overcome. It is not necessary, how- 
 ever, to describe the manner in which these ideas 
 are practically illustrated, in his series of text- 
 books, or to trace their further development in 
 subsequent works. Enough has been said to in- 
 dicate the distinctive character of his system ; and 
 the success which has attended the use of it in 
 the institution which he conducted so many 
 years, and which is, at present, under the care of 
 Ids son, Isaac LewisPeet — trained under parental 
 care for the work — appears to be an ample vin- 
 dication of its correctness. Of the place Dr. 1'eet 
 should hold in the ranks of those noble men who 
 have given their lives to the work of education, 
 of his high place among the exceptional men 
 who have devoted their energies to the difficult 
 task of lifting the veil from intelligences clouded 
 by misfortune, there can be no question. The 
 essentially Christian character of the work un- 
 dertaken, the ability and patience with which 
 it was pursued, and the success with which it 
 was attended, must always claim our admiration 
 and demand for Dr. Peet a place among the 
 benefactors of his race. Besides his Course of 
 Instruction, and. JJixlon/ of the United States 
 (1869), Dr. Peet's published works are to be 
 found in articles furnished to various periodicals. 
 
 .hiSOWB rose 
 
 Gerando, Si 
 
 the results reached 
 
 and (iuyot were first brought to the attention of 
 the English-reading public. Perhaps, his most 
 valuable contribution, however, was the Report 
 on the Legal Rights and Liabilities of 'the Deaf 
 and Dumb, published in the Herald <•/' Health 
 (New York. L868). It will be seen at once that 
 deficiency of intellect on the part of .leaf-mutes 
 raises important questions in regard to their legal 
 rights. This report furnishes valuable infor- 
 mation on marriage, the disposal of property, 
 the comprehension of the oath, and many other 
 subjects; and being unique in kind, and sup- 
 plying, as it docs, information not hitherto at- 
 tainable, it will long be quoted as an authority. 
 — SeeBARNAKii, American Teachers and Edu- 
 cators; Sylb, Summary of the Recorded He- 
 searches and Opinions of II /'■ Peet (Wash- 
 ington, L873), reprinted from American Annals 
 of the Deaf and Dumb. 
 
 PEIRCE, Cyrus, a noted teacher, born in 
 Waltham, Mass.. August L5., 1790; died in West 
 Newton, Mass., April (1., 1860. He was edu- 
 cated in the district school of his native place, 
 and in Harvard College, from which he graduated 
 
084 
 
 PEIEOB 
 
 i school in that 
 wo years. At 
 the invitation, 
 take charge of 
 
 in 1810. For two years, he taught school in 
 Nantucket, but. in L 81 2, returned to college to 
 prepare himself for the ministry. After three 
 years spent in the study of theology, the per- 
 suasions of his former patrons at Nantucket in- 
 
 ilu 1 him to return to the charge of the school 
 
 he had relinquished there; and, for three years 
 more, he devoted himself to the work of teach- 
 ing. At the end of that time, he entered the 
 ministry, in which he continued eight years. Sus- 
 pecting, however, that his want of a pleasing ad- 
 dress was preventing him from using his energies 
 to the best effect morally, and that the faults he 
 sought to correct in adults, could be dealt with 
 more successfully, if taken at an earlier period, 
 he determined to abandon the pulpit for the desk 
 of the teacher. Accordingly, he associated him- 
 self with a relative, ami opened a school at North 
 Andover, but their want of agreement as to dis- 
 cipline and methods of teaching led to a sepa- 
 ration after four years; and, in 18151 , he returned 
 to Nantucket where, for six years, he conducted 
 a large and Houri.-hingscl 1. One of his st use- 
 ful measures was tin.- grading of the public schools 
 of Nantucket. This led, Bhortly after, to his ap- 
 pointment as principal of tin 
 place, which position he held 
 the end of that time, he acce 
 extended by Horace Maun 
 the normal school at Lexington, the establish- 
 ment of which had been decided upon as an ex- 
 periment by the state board of education. Only 
 three pupils presented themselves at the opening 
 of the school, and the prospect was most dis- 
 heartening. The thoroughness of Mr. Peirce's 
 instruction, however, and his ardent devotion to 
 his work soon attracted attention; the apathy 
 with which his labors were regarded by a large 
 majority of the friends of education gradually 
 gave [place to confidence : and the superiority of 
 the graduates of his school to ordinary teachers 
 soon placed the new system in the pathway of 
 assured success. I luring the three years of his 
 labors at Lexingt on, more than fifty teachers were 
 graduated, and the testimony generally given as 
 to their fitness for the profession was cordial and 
 almost uniform. In connection with the normal 
 school, he established a model school, in which 
 the methods he taught were pul to a practical 
 test under his own supervision. From 1842 to 
 the close of his life, his time was passed in teach- 
 ing, and writing essays on education. The prin- 
 cipal characteristics of Cyrus Feirce were his 
 deep moral convictions, unwearied patience, and 
 conscientious devotion to duty— the deepest im- 
 pression left on the minds of all with whom 
 he was associated being that of his unswerving 
 integrity. As the principal of the first normal 
 school in America, specially chosen for the work 
 by one so eminent in the educational annals of 
 the United States, and justifying that choice by 
 self-sacrificing and effective work, at a critical 
 moment, his name will always be accorded a 
 prominent place among American educators. — 
 
 See Barnard, American Teachers and Educa- 
 tors (New York. L861). 
 
 PENMANSH1F 
 
 PENMANSHIP, writing with the pen; al- 
 though the term is sometimes used to indicate 
 
 pen being the most important instrument for 
 writing. The ability to write is one of the two 
 fundamental characteristics of an educated per- 
 son, the inability to read and write constituting 
 what is technically called illiteracy; and yet, in 
 advanced education, a legible or elegant style 
 of handwriting is not considered of great im- 
 portance ; for the cases are very few in which a 
 candidate either for admission to a college or 
 university, or for a graduating diploma, is re- 
 jected for not being able to write, any scrawl, 
 however illegible or inelegant, being usually ac- 
 cepted as evidence of such ability. The conse- 
 quence is, that good penmanship has not been 
 the distinguishing feature of college graduates, 
 but rather the reverse. When the value of this 
 accomplishment, in every sphere of life, is con- 
 sidered, it will be obvious that the policy of thus 
 disparaging penmanship as the accomplishment 
 of a scholar is an entirely mistaken one. It is 
 irue that it cannot be considered as an element 
 of superior instruction : but those who have the 
 direction of that grade of instruction, should al- 
 ways insist upon the completion of the inferior 
 grades as an indispensable prerequisite for ad- 
 mission to higher studies. In elementary schools, 
 penmanship constitutes a very important branch 
 of instruction; and, in these, sufficient time 
 should be given to it to insure, at least, a respect- 
 able degree of excellence to each of the pupils. — 
 
 There are various so-called systems of teaching 
 penmanship, but the underlying principles are 
 the same in all. the difference chiefly consisting 
 in a diversity in the arrangement of the elements 
 of the letters, with slight modifications in their 
 forms and mode of execution, and in the exer- 
 cises for practice. In order to write well, the 
 pupil must have (1) a thorough knowledge of 
 the forms of the letters, and (2) a command of 
 the pen to execute them. These two fundament- 
 al acquirements must be made simultaneously, 
 except that some previous elementary instruction 
 and practice in drawing will aid the pupil very 
 
 the 
 
 Hienlty /,.,/■/ ,-«■« with the 
 and arm. The proper posi- 
 ilie correct mode of hold- 
 " ile prerequisites to 
 
 m 
 
 a careful analysis of the elementary 
 forms of the letters; and. in this respect, systems 
 greatly differ. They have, however, many points 
 in common— -indeed every thing that is essen- 
 tial. Commencing with straigbl line-;, to lie made 
 at the proper slope. and with perfect parallelism, 
 
 the pupil advances progressively to the pot-hook, 
 
 the loop, the ellipse, as iii the letter o, etc., till, 
 by practicing these and their combinations, he 
 has mastered all tin' small letters of the script 
 alphabet, when he proceeds, in a similar manner, 
 with the capitals, from which he passes to words,. 
 
PENN COLLEGE 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 phrases, sentences, and paragraphs. The copy- 
 book should not be used after the pupil has be- 
 come thoroughly familiar with the proper forms 
 of the letters, and thus acquired a fair style of 
 writing. -Much time is frequently lost in com- 
 pelling pupils, year after year, to write copies. 
 Quantity as well as quality .should be required ; 
 excellence in penmanship consisting both in cor- 
 rectness and speed of execution. Many useful 
 exercises may be blended with practice in pen- 
 manship, as the learning of the forms used in 
 business, such as bilk, receipts, modes of super- 
 scribing and addressing letters, etc. Practice in 
 calligraphy, or artistic penmanship, is also of 
 use, but should not be carried to an extreme in 
 schools. The remarks of an experienced teacher 
 may here be cited : "Constant vigilance, and 
 continual correction of errors, are indispensable 
 to the formation of a good hand. To know how 
 to execute well, then, is the grand requisite in 
 the teacher ; the next, to furnish good models ; 
 and the third, to have a quick eye to detect 
 faults, and a persistent determination for their 
 correction. These conditions existing, and the 
 principle carried out. your pupils will write well, 
 with a reasonable amount and duration of prac- 
 tice." (Gideon F.Thayer, in Barnard's Journal 
 of Education.) — See also Payson, Dunton, etc. 
 Theory and Art of Penmanship (N T . Y., 1863) ; 
 Wickebsham, Methods of Instruction (Phila., 
 1865) ; How to Teach (N. Y., 187-1). 
 
 PENN COLLEGE, at ( Iskaloosa, Iowa, under 
 the control of the Friends, was incorporated in 
 1866 as Iowa Union College Association of 
 Friends. The name was changed in 1873. It 
 has an endowment of $5,000, and a library of 
 about 2,000 volumes. The cost of tuition is $30 
 a year. The institution comprises a collegiate 
 (a classical and a scientific course), a preparatory, 
 a normal, and a business department. Both sexes 
 are admitted. In 187-4 — 5, there were 12 in- 
 structors, and 38 collegiate, 183 preparatory, 41 
 normal, and 32 business students, of whom some 
 belong to more than one department. John W. 
 Woody, A. M., is the president (1876). 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, one of the largest and 
 most important of the thirteen original states of 
 the American Union. Its area is 46,000 sq. m., 
 and its population, in 1870, was 3,522,050, of 
 whom 65,294 were colored persons. Its popula- 
 tion in 1875, was estimated at 3.941,400. 
 
 Educational History. — This subject will be 
 treated under the following heads : (I) The 
 Colonial period :. (II) Under the constitution of 
 1790; (HI) Under the constitutions of 1838 
 and 1873. 
 
 I. The Colonial Period. — From the founding 
 of Penn's colony on the banks of the IMaware, 
 may be said to date the beginning of Pennsyl- , 
 vania's educational history. The first plan of the 
 proprietary government drafted by Penn before 
 leaving England, in 1682, stipulated that "the | 
 governor and provincial council shall erect and 
 order all public schools, and reward the authors 
 of useful sciences and laudable inventions in said 
 provinces." During the following year, a law | 
 
 was enacted by the council of the province, which 
 provided that a Bchool should be established for 
 tfie education of the young. Immediate steps 
 were taken to put this enactment into execution. 
 
 The gover 'and the council, perceiving "the 
 
 great necessity there is of a school master, for the 
 instruction and sober education of youth." elect- 
 ed one Enoch Flower, a teacher of several years 
 experience, to open a school. The branches re- 
 quired to be taught were, reading, writing, ami 
 the easting of accounts. According to the most 
 authentic records, this was the first school estab- 
 lished within the present territorial limits of 
 the state. In different parts of the province, 
 other schools were organized. In 1692, a school 
 was opened at Darby (now in Delaware Co.) ; 
 and in 1698. the Society of Friends established 
 a school in Philadelphia, where all the children 
 and servants, male and female, "might be taught, 
 and provision made that the poor might be 
 taught gratis." The motto of the school, "Good 
 instruction is better than riches," was selected 
 by Penn. In 1701, the charter of this Friends' 
 School was confirmed by a new patent from 
 Penn, bearing date. October 25., 1701, and, also, 
 by another, in 1708, whereby the corporation 
 was " forever thereafter to consist of 15 discreet, 
 religious persons of the people called Quakers, 
 by the name of Overseers of the Public School, 
 founded in Philadelphia at the request, cost, and 
 charges, of the people called Quakers." Another 
 charter was granted by Penn, in 1711, for ex- 
 tending the rights and privileges of the corpora- 
 tion. This was the first public school in Penn- 
 sylvania ; and the design of the governor and 
 council in establishing this institution is best set 
 forth in the preamble of the last charter, which 
 reads as follows : 
 
 " Whereas the prosperity and welfare of any people 
 depend in a great measure, upon the good education 
 of youth, and their early introduction in the principles 
 of true religion and virtue, and qualifying them to 
 serve their country ami themselves by breeding them 
 in reading, writing, and learning et languages and use- 
 ful arts and seieiiees, suitable to their sex, age, and 
 degree; which cannot be affected, in any manner, so 
 well as by erecting Pcblic Schools for the purpose 
 aforesaid." 
 
 As the early settlers pushed their way west- 
 ward, the progress of education was accelerated 
 by the prosperity of the thrifty colonists. Thus 
 far, the schools established had been chiefly 
 under the direction of the governor and pro- 
 vincial council ; though no special provision was 
 made by the authorities regulating the number 
 of schools in accordance with the number of 
 families in each settlement, as was done in some 
 other colonies. — It should be distinctly under- 
 stood that the school established by the Society 
 of Friends in 1698, and supported by them and 
 conducted under their direct and exclusive con- 
 trol, was open indiscriminately to persons of all 
 religious denominations, and was, for more than 
 half a century, the only public school in the 
 province. In the mean time, new settlements 
 had been formed in various parts of the province; 
 and the school, by reason of its location as well 
 
r,st3 
 
 PKXXSYLYAX1A 
 
 as the want of accommodations, had long bees 
 inadequate to meet the educational necessities 
 of the province. Private schools were there- 
 fore, called into existence, "whenever the colonists 
 could find means and the opportunity to provide 
 for them. — Among tin- early German settlers the 
 proper instruction of their youth was a subject 
 of deep concern. As early as L755, they num- 
 bered 30,000 souls; and, wherever a sufficient 
 number were settled, the church and the school- 
 house were erected. From I TliO until the close 
 of the Revolution, the vicissitudes of the colony 
 were so great as to prevent the establishment 
 of any educational system whatever. Ai tin- 
 close of the Revolution the first fundamental 
 law adopted by the people recognized the 
 right to provide schools and defray the expense 
 thereof, to a certain extent, from the public 
 funds. 
 
 II. Under the Constitution of 1790. -The con- 
 stitution of 1790 required that the legislature 
 should " provide by law for the establishment of 
 schools throughout the state in such a manner 
 that the poor maybe taught gratis;" and, also, 
 that "the arts and sciences shall be promoted in 
 one or more seminaries of learning." The con- 
 stitutional convention of 1 7!M), however, did not 
 contemplate the establishment of a system of 
 common schools which should be free to all the 
 children of the commonwealth, nor, prior to 
 1830, was the establishment of such a system 
 recognized by many as a legitimate object of 
 strife legislation, or even regarded as a matter of 
 great public concern. 'I'll • opinion which long 
 prevailed was. that this duty belonged exclusive- 
 ly to parents and guardians; and when the legis- 
 lature, soon after the adoption of the constitu- 
 tion, took action on thesubject, nothing more was 
 
 d than to make provision whereby the poor 
 
 children in every district were to be enrolled for 
 the purpose of attending school if they wished. 
 their tuition to be paid out of the county funds. 
 Laws of the same import were enacted in I -<<-. 
 'I. and 1809. Thatof Ihelastdatewasentitlel 
 /^ "An act to provide for the education of the poor 
 gratis." and remained in force up to the time of 
 the adoption of the first common-school system, 
 / in 183d. The new system was called by those 
 wdio disliked it the "pauper system." as H drew 
 a line of distinction between the rich and the 
 poor, the children in all the schools being divide 1 
 into two classes known as pay scholars and 
 paupers. The whole numberof children who were 
 brought into the schools, in the year 1833, the 
 last in which these acts were in force, was only 
 17.4117. and the whole amount expended in their 
 behalf. .^ts.ii;i;.'j."i. < ippositiou to the /./»/.•;■ 
 systt in manifest, d ;■-. It tVom the beginning; but 
 many years elapsed before the friends of a 
 broadei and b fci i system, were able to make 
 their influence felt in the legislature. This in- 
 fluence was increased in L818, when Phila- 
 delphia was exempted from the operation of 
 the pauper system, by the pa sage of a special 
 act, which provided for the education of its 
 children at the public expense. This same 
 
 act, with a few changes, is still in force in 
 that city. In 1827, a number of citizens, re- 
 siding in the city and county of Philadelphia, 
 formed an association for the promotion of edu- 
 cation in the state, by the establishment of a 
 system of public schools ; and. after considerable 
 agitation, the measure, being strongly urged by 
 George Wolf, then governor, was adopted by the 
 legislature, April 1., L834. The ad passed was, 
 however, defective, and encountered the most vio- 
 lent opposition. During the legislative session 
 of 1S34 — 5, thousands of petitions were pre- 
 sented, asking for the repeal of the law. and few 
 of the representatives had sufficient courage to 
 defend it openly. Notwithstanding this, it was 
 defended by 'I haddetis Stevens, then a represent- 
 ative from Adams County, who, at this critical 
 moment, made one of his most eloquent appeals 
 in its behalf, and thus saved the system. Accord- 
 ing to the report of James Findlay, secretary of 
 the commonwealth, and superintendent of com- 
 mon schools, ex officio, only 93 districts, out of 
 900, accepted the system during the first year it 
 was in operation. The average length of the school 
 term at that time was 3} months; the number 
 of schools, -l."d : and the number of pupils in at- 
 tendance, 19,864. The average salary paid to 
 teachers was not epiite $16 a month. ( ^position to 
 the law creating the system, continued to in- 
 crease as its defects became more apparent, t hie 
 of the first official acts of Governor Eitner, in 
 1835, was to appoint as secretary of the common- 
 wealth Thomas II. Burrowes, who, by virtue of 
 his office, became superintendent of common 
 schools. He remained, through his whole public 
 career, a steadfasl friend of the system. In 1 s:;.., 
 a new bill was presented "to consolidate and 
 amend the several acts in relation to a system of 
 education by common schools," in securing the 
 passage of which both Mr. Stevens and Mr. Bur- 
 rowes rendered valuable assistance. The accept- 
 ance of the new law was made optional with 
 each district, the citizens being allowed to \ote 
 on the question of the continuance of the public 
 schools every third year. The great work now to 
 be done was to secure the adoption of the system 
 bj the people, and to put it into operation. Mr. 
 Burrowes, the superintendent, undertook this 
 work. Be visited nearly all the counties in the 
 state, delivered addresses, explained the law, pre- 
 pared the necessary forms. — and succeeded in 
 placing the system upon a firm basis. His suc- 
 cess was so great that, in the third and last re- 
 port made 'luring his term of office under Gover- 
 nor Ritner, he was able to present the following 
 statistics: accepting districts. 840; number of 
 schools, 5,269 ; number of teachers, fi.732 : num- 
 berof pupils. 174.7:13. The state appropriation, 
 also, had reached the sum of $308,819;a tax had 
 been raised for the support of schools, amount- 
 ing to $385,788; and the average school term 
 ths. 
 e time of the or- 
 
 had been e 
 
 Forty yi 
 
 ganization 
 tion of the 
 
 however, be inferred that, during 
 
 vcrmnent to the adop- 
 
 svstem. It must not 
 
 period 
 
PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 there was no legislation relating to education ;' its abolition. Principally, however, through the 
 such as there was. however, was generally in the efforts of the stair superintendent. Mr. I lickok. 
 
 teachers' institutes were legalized in all thi 
 counties of the state, and authority was givei 
 to the state superintendent to issues high gradi 
 
 interest of private schools. 
 
 lie policy of the 
 
 legislature seemed to be, toes 
 
 abliah, first, acad- 
 
 emies, colleges, and universit 
 number of arts passed mostly 
 
 D behalf of SUCh 
 
 institutions, was 186; and thi 
 
 whole ;, mount of 
 
 appropriations, in money or i 
 
 s equivalent, be- 
 
 stowed chiefly on corporate 
 
 bodies, including 
 
 academies, colleges, and uni 
 
 rersities, reached 
 
 nearly $300,000. In 1833, ther 
 
 • were '1 universi- 
 
 ties. 8 colleges, and 50 acadei 
 
 ies, all of which 
 
 had been liberally aided by thi 
 
 
 III. Education und r fa Co 
 
 stituiions of 1838 
 
 and 1873.- in 1-.:- i ven 
 
 ion met inPhila- 
 
 delphiato revise the constitu 
 
 ion of the state. 
 
 On the subject of education, 
 
 it recommended, 
 
 without change, the provisions 
 
 found in the con- 
 
 stitutionof 1790. Th an 
 
 m-school system 
 
 had now been in operations 
 
 veral years, and 
 
 was gradually commending its 
 
 « to the ! pie. 
 
 Important changes in the law 
 
 took place ft 
 
 time to time. In 1848, th s pi 
 
 ople having pre- 
 
 viously, in the triennial electdo 
 
 ,m every part -it 
 ance of the sys- 
 
 tern' an act was passed extendi 
 
 ig it over the en- 
 
 commonwealth were enrolle 
 
 1 in the public 
 
 schools, and taught ab ml five i 
 
 onthsinthe year, 
 
 at a cost of about $600,000. 
 
 In 1849, all the 
 
 laws relating to schools were c 
 
 fleeted and codi- 
 
 tied. In January, 1852, Thoi 
 
 las II. Burrowes 
 
 commenced the publication i 
 
 f an educational 
 
 journal, the title of which, at 1 
 
 ie end of the first 
 
 half year, was changed to 1 
 
 ie /',;>)ts,/lr,.mi l t 
 
 School Journal; and, in 1855 
 
 it became the of- 
 
 ficial organ of the school depa 
 
 ■tinent. In 1870, 
 
 James P. Wickersham, the sta 
 
 e superintendent. 
 
 became its editor; and, since 
 
 that time, it has 
 
 gained largely in influence am 
 
 circulation. On 
 
 the 28th of December, 1852, a 
 
 Bmall number of 
 
 prominent teachers and friend 
 
 of education met 
 
 a1 Harrisburg and organized I 
 
 e State Teachers' 
 
 Association, which hasconven 
 
 id annually since 
 
 that time. In 1854, a genert 
 
 1 school law was 
 
 passed which created the offici 
 
 of county super- 
 
 intcnd.nt. abolished committei 
 
 s in sub-districts, 
 
 
 ities to school di- 
 
 w-t,r.'r,uJllori/.e'l ,, th,.'ap". a .iui 
 
 uent of a deputy 
 
 state superintendent, introduc 
 
 id uniformity of 
 
 text-books iuto the schools of ( 
 
 ich district, fixed 
 
 the minimum school term i 
 
 t 1 months, and 
 
 authorized boards of school .1 
 
 rectors to levy a 
 
 special tax annually for buildii 
 
 g purposes. April 
 
 17., 1855, the Lancasl ir Cou 
 
 nv Normal Insti- 
 
 tute was opened in Millersyille 
 
 by J. P. Wicker- 
 
 sham, who was then superintei 
 
 lent of the above 
 
 named county. In 1857, the 
 
 normal school act 
 
 was passed, also a law sepan 
 
 ing the office of 
 
 the Commonwealth! and creat 
 
 ■,i,.'. at the same 
 
 time, the department of conn 
 
 ion schools. The 
 
 county superintendence which 
 
 had just been put 
 
 in operation, under the new 
 
 law, was, at this 
 
 time, so unpopular, that, at ti 
 
 lies, it seemed as 
 
 if its enemies would succeed 
 
 in bringing about 
 
 years of ace. and E 
 ■ast $1,000,000 foi 
 us,, of any of thi 
 •tarian schools, ai 
 
 ' t ll;\ til ■ :f 
 
 The follow 
 of schools sta 
 
 ti; T. II. Bun 
 
 )_41 ; A. V. 
 
 diaries M< 
 
 The state 
 lows : James 
 1836—8; F 
 sons, 1841 
 
 Jesse Miller, 1846 8; Townsend Haines. 1849 
 —50; A. L. Russell, 1851—2; V. W. Hughes, 
 1853—4; C.A. Black, 1854- -5: A. G. Curtin, 
 1856—7. The persons above named filled the 
 office of superintendent, by virtue of holding 
 the office of secretary of the commonwealth. 
 In June, 1857, the Department of Common 
 Schools was organized; and. since that time, the 
 following named persons have been commis 
 sinned as superintendent: II. ('. Hickok, 1858 
 — 60 ;T. H. Burrowes, 1860— 63; C.R.Coburn, 
 1863—6; J. P. Wickersham, from 1866 to the 
 presenl time (1877). 
 
 School System.— The educational interests of 
 
 the senate. His term of office is 4 years. Hi 
 duties arc to decide all controversies between 
 school officers ; to give advice and explanation 
 
PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 relative to the common-school law, the duties of 
 school officers, and the rights ami duties of 
 parents, guardians, teachers, and pupils ; to sign 
 all orders on the state treasurer for the payment 
 of the state appropriation to the several districts, 
 and for salaries of county superintendents: to 
 prepare blank forms for the use of school officers 
 and the department of public instruction; to 
 commission county, city, and borough superin- 
 tendents ; to appoint trustees for normal schools, 
 and committees to examine annually the grad- 
 uating classes of the state normal schools ; to fill 
 all vacancies among county superintendents ; and 
 to make an annual report to the governor and 
 the state legislature. — The school directors of 
 each county meet in convention at the county 
 seat, on the first Tuesday of .May, every third 
 year, and elect a county superintendent for a 
 term of three years, and lix his salary for the 
 same time. He must be a legal resident of the 
 county ; and must have one of the following 
 documents: a diploma from a college, a diploma 
 from a state normal school, a professional or 
 permanent certificate, or a certificate of com- 
 petency from the state superintendent. He 
 must, also, have skill and experience in teach- 
 ing. — The duties of the county superintendent 
 are, to examine teachers and give certificates, 
 setting forth the qualifications of applicants; to 
 visit the schools as often as possible, and give 
 instruction in teaching and school government ; 
 to see that orthography, reading, writing, arith- 
 metic, geography, and grammar are taught in all 
 the schools; to hold annually a teachers' insti- 
 tute which must remain in session 5 days ; to 
 annul certificates of teachers for incompetency, 
 cruelty, negligence, or immorality ; to examine, 
 affirm, and forward to the state department the 
 annual reports of the several boards ; and to make 
 an annual report to the state superintendent. 
 Cities and borouglis having not less than 7,000 
 inhabitants, may elect superintendents of their 
 own. The duties and powers of such officers 
 are similar to those of county superintendents. 
 The state is divided into school-districts; each 
 township, borough, and city constituting one 
 district. School directors, generally six in num- 
 ber, are elected in each district by the people 
 for a term of 3 years, and constitute the district 
 school board. The officers of each of these boards 
 are a president, a secretary, and a treasurer. It is 
 the duty of the president to issue warrants for 
 the collection of taxes ; to sign all orders, deeds, 
 and contracts ; to attest by oath or affirmation 
 the correctness of the annual statement of ex- 
 penses, liabilities, etc.. which must be presented 
 tn. ami accepted by, the department of public 
 instruction before a warrant for the annual state 
 appropriation is issued. The duties of the secre- 
 tary are to keep minutes of all the proceedings 
 of the board ; to prepare duplicates for the tax 
 collector; to prepare and forward the annual 
 district report and certificate : to examine and 
 approve monthly reports of teachers: and to keep 
 in charge all valuable papers. The treasurer 
 receives all moneys, disburses the school moneys 
 
 on proper orders ; and settles his accounts an- 
 nually with the board and auditors. The school 
 boards must organize each year within ten days 
 after the first Monday in June. Their duties 
 are to establish a sufficient number of schools ; 
 to fill vacancies in the board ; to levy a tax for 
 school and building purposes : to select sites for, 
 and erect, school houses ; to fix the length of the 
 school term ; to appoint teachers and fix salaries; 
 to grade schools when necessary ; to direct what 
 branches shall be taught ; to decide what text- 
 books shall be used ; and to visit the schools at 
 least once a month. These boards, also, may dis- 
 miss teachers for cruelty, negligence, incompe- 
 tency, or immorality. They pay all expenses by 
 order on the treasurer, and publish annually a 
 statement setting forth the receipts and expend- 
 itures of the district. The scliool revenue is 
 derived from the following sources : (1) a state 
 
 appropriation of not less than $1,000,< to he 
 
 anuually distributed among the several districts 
 upon the basis of the number of taxable citizens; 
 (2) a school tax not to exceed 13 mills on each 
 dollar of the assessed valuation, to be levied and 
 collected annually, to pay teachers' salaries and 
 other necessary expenses of the schools; (3) a 
 "building tax'' to be levied and collected annually, 
 if the school board deem it necessary, but not to 
 exceed the amount levied for school purposes. 
 This tax is used in paying for sites for school- 
 houses, and the erection and repairs of school 
 buildings. The studies to be pursued in the 
 common schools, not being strictly designated 
 by law, have been left, by the interpretation of 
 the state superintendent, to the discretion of the 
 local boards, who are governed in their decision 
 by the wants of their districts. These boards, 
 also, may establish separate schools for colored 
 children, whenever they can be so located as to 
 accommodate 20 or more pupils. The school 
 age is from G to 21 years ; the school year, 
 5 months of 22 days each. 
 
 Kilm-iitiuiKit Cuuilitiiiii. — The number of 
 school districts in the state is 2,103 ; the num- 
 ber of schools, 17,497, of which 5,957 are graded. 
 The school revenue, exclusive of $28,000 for nor- 
 mal schools, for the year ending June 1., 1876, 
 was as follows: 
 
 From local tax $8,659,73S.67 
 
 " state appropriation.. . 972,000.00 
 
 Total. . . .7777 $9,631,738.67 
 
 The expenditures for common-school purposes 
 were as follows : 
 For tuition $4,856,888.91 
 
 For fuel, contingencies, etc. 2, +71,890.90 
 
 Total $9,063,928.68 
 
 The principal items of school statistics for 
 1870 are as follows: 
 Number of children enrolled in public schools. 902,34.1 
 
 Average daily attendance 578,718 
 
 Number of teachers, 20,192 
 
 \vcra"C IllontMv sal. n V d in.il' I a hn , «:: 7- 
 
 " " " female " $30.42 
 
 Estimated value of school property $26,265,925.2S 
 
PENNSYLVANIA 
 
 Normal [iisfn 
 ■enacted in 18.">7 
 
 ■ normal school law, 
 e state into 12 dis- 
 diool in each. Nine 
 
 I'he whole 
 state nor- 
 e number 
 issors and 
 
 I he libra- 
 
 tricts. allowing one normal scl 
 have already been organized, a 
 under this act. Philadelphia 
 school, which was opened in 
 number of students who attei 
 mal schools during 1S7.">. was 
 of graduates, 191 ; the numbe 
 teachers. 1 14; the number of VI 
 ries, 13,000 ; the value of buildings and grounds, 
 $940,000; the whole amount appropriated to all 
 ' the schools. $350,000. The entire income from 
 all sources (luring the same time was $357,996.91; 
 total expenditures for all purposes, $350,173.83. 
 
 Teachers' Institutes. — In lsc>7, a law was 
 passed requiring a teachers' institute to be held 
 once a year in each county, to continue in ses- 
 sion 5 days. To defray the expenses, superin- 
 tendents are entitled to draw from the county 
 treasury a sum of money not exceeding $200. 
 The attendance of teachers in l£75, was L3,523; 
 the number of school directors, 1 .Hi 2 ; the num- 
 ber of instructors and lecturers, 4:!5 ; the whole 
 amount expended was $21,160.54. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The number of pub- 
 lic schools in the state in which instruction in 
 the higher branches was given in 1875, was 1,601. 
 Besides these, there were 88 academies and sem- 
 inaries, that reported to the U.S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, and also 7 preparatory schools, and 10 
 business colleges. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The following is a list 
 of colleges and universities in the state : 
 
 [The names ol those for females exclusively are print- 
 ed in italics; those for both sexes, in Small Caps.] 
 
 For further information in regard to these in- 
 stitutions, sec the respective titles, in other parts 
 of this work. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction.— 
 Many of the institutions enumerated under the 
 head of superior instruction have special depart- 
 ments in winch professional or scientific instruc- 
 tion is given. The principal schools of each class 
 arc enumerated in I In- following tables: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 char- 
 
 Denomi- 
 
 
 Meadville 
 
 1811 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 
 Allentown 
 
 1807 
 
 Kef. 
 
 Dickinson College.... 
 
 Carlisle 
 
 1783 
 
 M. Epis. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1853 
 
 Kef. (Ger.) 
 
 Havei-lonl College. . . . 
 
 Haverl'ord Coll. 
 
 1833 
 
 Friends 
 
 lrviiu) Female College. . 
 
 Meohanicsburg 
 
 1857 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Lafayette College.. .. 
 
 Eastou 
 
 1820 
 
 
 La Salle College .... hiladeiphia 
 
 |sc,;l 
 
 R C. 
 
 Lebanon vail s Col] Innville 
 
 1807 
 
 Un. Broth. 
 
 LehlghUniversitj ... So. Bethlehem 
 
 1800 
 
 Pr. Epis. 
 
 'l.i 10 1 „■>., 1. .!!,-..,■< ... 
 
 1854 
 
 
 M, ccerabiu I U - M rcersnurg 
 
 
 Kef. 
 
 MOBOKGAHELACotL . Ii It r-n 
 
 1807 
 
 Bap. 
 
 Muhlenberg College.. Ullentown 
 
 1807 
 
 Luth. 
 
 'NewCasttj Co i Ni n Castle 
 
 
 
 PAI.ATIMII 1-..I 1.1 OK. Mv.TstoWIl 
 
 lM',8 
 
 Kef. 
 
 "P. ,.1,-M . ,..,-; 
 
 is: 12 
 
 Ev. Luth. 
 
 Perm. Female Co \ 1 . i . i 1. 
 
 1 •-..; 
 
 
 I'm,,. Female Ci - 
 
 
 
 IVnn. Mihtarv V a.l i-li strr 
 
 
 
 'PUUtm, ,■• i i I Pit -i.urgh 
 
 
 
 St Iran. iaCol Loretl 
 
 
 
 Tst.JoBi ph'aCoUege .. Philadelphia 
 
 
 
 SI \|1, ■ : i -. Uegi . .■ i. 
 
 
 R C. 
 
 'SwAisnni. ..i . .. i , ... s .nil, mm .re 
 
 1804 
 
 
 Thi.l College Greeneville 
 
 1870 
 
 Ev. Luth. 
 
 ^Usiv. at l.l.ui-l.ria. . I.. ui-Ihu" 
 
 1846 
 
 Bap. 
 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 1755 
 
 
 
 
 1800 
 
 Ref. 
 
 Villanova College 
 
 Villanova 
 
 1848 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Washington and Jef- 
 
 
 
 
 ferson College 
 
 
 1802 
 
 Presb. 
 
 . Wayneslnirg College. 
 Western t'niv.ofPenn. 
 
 Waynesburg 
 
 18511 
 
 Cu.Presb. 
 
 Pittsburgh 
 
 1810 
 
 Noll-Bert. 
 
 Wkstminster Coll... 
 
 NewWilmingt'n 
 
 1852 
 
 PH. Presb. 
 
 Wilson College 
 
 Chambersburg 
 
 1869 
 
 Presb. 
 
 
 Mfi 
 
 FOAL Schooi 
 
 
 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Location 
 
 £% 
 
 : jj | 
 
 z s 
 
 o S 
 
 ll.iliuolnali 
 
 Med. Col- 
 ladelphia. 
 d.College 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 1848 
 1825 
 
 13 
 
 17 
 
 140 
 500 
 
 Si, ,■■■,,>.. 
 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 1856 
 
 20 
 
 90 
 
 PhSZDeni 
 
 d-Coiieg, 
 
 Philadelphia 
 Philadelphia 
 
 1822 
 1863 
 
 3 
 
 21 
 
 .110 
 105 
 
 oi Pi mi J 
 
 vania 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 1850 
 
 14 
 
 75 
 
 
 Schools op Science. 
 
 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 p-s 
 
 11 
 
 £ 2 
 
 'l^'s. 
 
 Institute 
 lie College of 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Philadelphia 
 State College 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 1824 
 
 1854 
 1855 
 
 144 
 i SOO 
 
 to 
 
 Aii:'ii>!ilii;i!i (olli-e 
 
 ot \ illauova 
 
 Crozer Theological 
 
 Theol. Seminary i 
 
 ('has. Borroi > 
 
 Thei.l.Soiiiinnryof the 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Bap. 
 
 Prot. Epis. 
 
 Moravian 
 
 Unitarian 
 Evan. Luth. 
 R. C. 
 R. C. 
 
 It. C. 
 
 Ref. 
 
 Evan Luth. 
 
 Evan. Luth. 
 
 Dn. Presb. 
 
 Allegheny 1844 Presb. 
 
 Sp.-r,,,/ I Hornet inn. — The Pennsylvania Insti- 
 tution for the Deaf and Dumb was founded at 
 Philadelphia, in 1821. The minimum age for 
 admission is 10 years. It combines with a i ourse 
 of elementary instruction in common school 
 branches, special instruction in industrial pur- 
 suits, principally shoe-making and tailoring. The 
 number of instructors, in 1875, was 17 ; the 
 number of pupils, 338. The number of gradu- 
 ates, since the organization of the institution, is 
 1,566. There is a day school for deaf-mutes at 
 
 Ref. Chi 
 Tlieol.Senuiiar\ of Ev 
 
 Luth. Church 
 
 Theol Seminary of Ev 
 
 Luth. Church 
 
 Theol. Seminary of 
 
 Villanova 
 
 Upland 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Lower Merion 
 
 Lancaster 
 
 Gettysburg 
 
 Philadelphia 
 
 Allegheny 
 
090 PENNSYLVANIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 Pittsburgh, which was founded in 1869, as a part 
 of the school system of that city, and is supported 
 partially by a small appropriation from the city 
 school fund. The Pennsylvania Institution for the 
 instruction of the Blind, at Philadelphia, was 
 founded in 1833, as a private institution, but has 
 been for some time in receipt of a state appro- 
 
 oer 01 mecnanicai ami niausrriai pursuits. ine 
 number of instructors and employes, in 1876, 
 was 63 ; the number of pupils, 207. Since its 
 foundation, 885 pupils have been admitted. Tin- 
 Pennsylvania Training School for Pet-ble-M hided 
 Children was established, in L853, at Media. In 
 187"), the number of instructors and employes 
 was 60; the number of pupils, 225. Of '■'•'^ 
 children admitted since 1 8(14, about 247 have 
 been dismissed in an improved, and 49 in a self- 
 supporting, condition. The three institutions 
 above mentioned are open to inmates from the 
 two adjoining States, Xew Jersey and Delaware. 
 
 Girard College was established . in 1848, for the 
 
 benefit of white male orphans born in Pennsyl- 
 vania. The course of study covers from 8 to 9 
 years, and includes common-school branches, and 
 such additional studies as fit for progress in prac- 
 tical or business life. The Educational Home for 
 Boys, and the Lincoln Institution, both in Phila- 
 delphia, are intended principally for orphans ; the 
 latter, for those of soldiers especially, though 
 others are admitted. Elementary instruction is 
 given in both. The Aimwell School Association, 
 in Philadelphia, was incorporated in 1859, its 
 origin being traced to the efforts of Anne Parish, 
 a Friend, wdio resided in Philadelphia in 1796. 
 The association formed by her numbered at first 
 only three members, but. in 1799, had increased 
 to eighteen. Their object was to teach poor girls 
 the common Knglish branches and sewing. The 
 association now numbers 119 members. In- 
 struction of an elementary grade, or in special 
 branches, is also given in 2 reform schools, and 
 more than 30 orphan homes and industrial 
 schools in various parts of the state. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, University of, in 
 Philadelphia, comprises four departments: the de- 
 partment of arts, the Tow ne scientific school, the 
 department of medicine, and the department of 
 law. It grew out of a charitable school established 
 by subscription in 1745, became an academy in 
 1749, and was chartered, in 17f>f>, as The ( 'ollege. 
 Academy, and ( 'haritable School of Philadelphia. 
 It was created a university in 1779: and. in 1 79 1 . 
 the present organization was established. The med- 
 ical department elates from 1 765, and the law de- 
 partment from 1 789. In 1865, an Auxiliary [''acuity 
 of Medicine was constituted, for the purpose of 
 supplementing the ordinary course of medical in- 
 struction by lectures given during the spring 
 months on certain collateral branches of science. 
 The university buildings, situated in the portion 
 of the city known as West Philadelphia, are new, 
 and comprise a hall for the departments of arts, 
 science, and law. the medical hall, and the uni- 
 
 PA. MILITARY ACADEMY 
 
 versify hospital. The institution has extensive- 
 chemical and physical apparatus, cabinets of fos- 
 sils and minerals, and valuable medical cabinets. 
 The libraries contain about 20,000 volumes. The 
 endowment amounts to about $1,000,000, of 
 which only one half is, at present, productive. 
 ' The cost of tuition in tin- departments of arts and 
 
 sciei is $150 a year. The regular course in the 
 
 department of arts, comprising the usual collegiate 
 branches, is four years. The regular courses in 
 
 the scientific scl 1. each of four years, are: 
 
 (1) analytical and applied chemistry and min- 
 eralogy; (2) geology and milling; (3) civil en- 
 gineering; (Ij mechanical engineering; (5) draw- 
 ing and architecture; (6) general course. There 
 is also a post-graduate course. In 1875—6, the 
 number of professors was as follows : department 
 of arts. 13; science. It; medicine, 7; medicine 
 (auxiliary faculty), 5; hospital 12; law. 5; total, 
 deducting repetitions, 13, besides which, there 
 were 5 lecturers and other instructors. There 
 
 and 136 pupils. Charles. I. Stille. LI,. 1)., is 
 (1876), the provost of the university. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE, at Gettys- 
 burg, Pa., founded in 1832, is under Lutheran 
 control. It grew out of the Gettysburg Gymna- 
 sium, an institution that had been established for 
 the preparation of young men for the Lutheran 
 ministry. It is supported by tuition fees and the 
 income of an endowment of : $140,000. The col- 
 lege has an astronomical observatory, chemical 
 and philosophical apparatus, a chemical laboratory, 
 and a botanical and a mineralogical cabinet. The 
 libraries contain 19.550 volumes. There is a clas- 
 sical and a special scientific course, and a prepar- 
 atory department. The cost of tuition, in the 
 college, is $50 a year ; in the preparatory depart 
 nieiit. $39. In L874 —5, there were 12 instructors 
 and 152 students (83 collegiate and 69 prepar- 
 atory). The presidents have been as follows: the 
 Rev. Charles Philip Krauth. D.D., 1834— 50; the 
 Rev. Henry Lewis Baugher, I). P.. 1850— 68; and 
 the Rev. Milton Valentine, D. D., the present in- 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA MILITARY ACAD- 
 EMY, at Chester, Pa., was founded in 1862, 
 and is designed for resident cadets only. It has. 
 commodious buildings situated on an elevated 
 site, the grounds comprising 25 acres, in part 
 tastefully laid out and ornamented with trees. It 
 has astronomical, chemical, mathematical, and 
 physical apparatus, and a library of 1,200 
 volumes. The cost of tuition, board, etc., is 
 $550 a year, with music extra. The courses of 
 instruction are the English (2 yrs.), collegiate 
 preparatory, scientific (4 yrs.), civil engineering 
 (4 yrs.), chemical and mining engineering (each 
 1 yr.), designed for graduates in civil engineering, 
 and collegiate or classical (4 yrs.). The degrees 
 conferred are S. B., C. E., Ph. B., M. E., and A. 
 B. Military instruction, theoretical and practi- 
 
PA. WESTERN UNIVERSITY 
 
 cal, is given. The former is optional ; the latter 
 
 is required of all. and consists of drills in in- 
 fantry and artillery taeties etc. In 1876- 7. 
 there were 10 instructors and 126 students 
 (scientific course, 113; English course, 13). The 
 number of graduates (all 0. K |, including those 
 of 1876, is 76. Col. Theodore Hyatt, M. A., is 
 (1876) the president. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA, The Western Uni- 
 versity of, at Pittsburgh. I 'a., was founded 
 in 1819. It is unden inational, and is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees, ranging from $72 to $100 
 a year, and the income of an endowment of 
 $275,000. It has a well-equipped astronomical 
 observatory (situated in Allegheny ). a cab- 
 inet containing over 10,000 choice specimens in 
 geology, conchology, mineralogy, and zoology, 
 extensive philosophical and chemical apparatus, 
 and libraries containing about 6,000 volumes. 
 The university has a collegiate department, with 
 a classical course of I years, two scientific courses 
 of 3 years each, and two engineering courses 
 (civil ami mechanical) of 4 years each, leading 
 respectively to the degrees of A. 1!.. Ph. B. or S. 
 B., and. C. E. or M. E., besides, a preparatory 
 department, with a classical and an English 
 course of 3 years each. In 1875 — (i, there were 
 10 instructors and 272 students, of whom 186 
 were preparatory and 80 collegiate (2!) unclas- 
 sified, 11 engineering, 28 scientific, and 18 clas- 
 sical). The present chancellor is (1870) Gejrge 
 Woods. LL. D., appointed in 1858. 
 
 PENSIONS, Teachers'. The justice and 
 expediency of granting pensions to teachers of 
 public elementary schools, on retiring after a 
 long and faithful service, have frequently been 
 urged ; and, with others, the following arguments 
 have been advanced in support of such a meas- 
 ure : (1) The office of elementary teacher re- 
 quires an amount of bodily and mental vigor, 
 patience, tact, and elasticity of spirit, rarely met 
 with in any one who has spent twenty or thirty 
 years in a harassing profession; (2) the salaries 
 received by such teachers afford them no suffi- 
 cient margin by means of which to make ade- 
 quate provision for old age; (3) there is no 
 prospect that the salaries of teachers will be in- 
 creased to any great extent in the future ; since, 
 by means of normal and training schools, the 
 supply of teachers is generally greater than the 
 demand ; (4) since, therefore, teachers cannot 
 themselves make due provision for old age, the 
 government employing them should do so ; be- 
 cause, if it does not, the service will suffer by 
 the retention of aged and worn-out teachers 
 beyond the period of superannuation. In view 
 of these facts, the Committee of Council on Edu- 
 cation, in England, by a minute dated Dec. 21., 
 1840, enacted the following : " That a retiring 
 pension may be granted by the Committee of 
 Council to any school-master or school-mistress 
 who shall be rendered incapable, by age or in- 
 firmity, of continuing to teach a school efficient- 
 ly ; provided that no such pension shall be 
 granted to any school-master or school-mistress 
 who shall not have conducted a normal or ele- 
 
 PERSIA 
 
 691 
 
 mentary school for fifteen years, during seven, 
 at least, of which such school shall have been 
 under inspection." This minute was afterward 
 modified, and the amount to he annually ex- 
 pended in pensions was limited, Aug. 6., 1851, 
 to £6,500; but, subsequently, even this was 
 
 i have, however, claimed that the gover ent 
 
 having held out the inducement to persons to 
 enter upon and continue in the sen ice as teach- 
 ers, is morally bound to grant thepensrions thus 
 virtually promised. In L872, a select committee 
 of the Bouse of Commons, appointed to con- 
 sider the matter, reported against the teachers' 
 claims; but the code of 1876 permits the payment 
 of pensions. In 1876, a law permitting such 
 pensions passed the assembly, in the state of 
 New York, hut failed in the senate. — In Prus- 
 sia, teachers of public schools, being regarded 
 as state officers, are entitled to pensions. Every 
 teacher, however, is required to make an annual 
 contribution to the pension fund (from 1 to 2 
 per cent of his annual salary), and has also to 
 pay into the same one-half of his first years 
 salary. Special funds have been established, by 
 private munificence, in connection with many of 
 the schools, for the support of the widow* and 
 orphans of deceased teachers. The Pesialozzi- 
 verein of Germany is a society one of the spe- 
 cial objects of which is to aid superannuated 
 'teachers. — In France, the pensions of school- 
 teachers and their widows are regulated by the 
 law of June 9., 1853. All (he pensions are 
 entered in the grand book of the public debt. 
 In aid of the pension fund, contributions are 
 made from the following sources: (1) a deduc- 
 tion of 5 per cent of the regular salary ; (2) one- 
 twelfth of the first year's salary, and of every in- 
 crease of salary ; (3) all deductions made in con- 
 sequence of absence, and all fines imposed upon 
 teachers. A teacher begins to lie entitled to a 
 pension when he is CD years of age, or after hav- 
 ing been in office 30 years. The amount of the 
 pension is based upon the average of the incomes, 
 subject to the above deductions, received during 
 the last six years of service. (For a full account 
 nl' l-'iciich legislation on this subject, see ( i heard. 
 La legislation de VInsiruciion Primaire, vol. 
 in.) — In Servia, in 1875, regulations were 
 adopted granting to teachers who resigned after 
 ten years' service, 40 per cent of the salary pre- 
 viously received, and 2 per cent more for every 
 additional year's service, for 35 years, after 
 which the teacher, of whatever grade, is entitled 
 to his full salary as a pension. 
 
 PERCEPTION, or Perceptive Faculties. 
 
 See INTELLECTUAL Eril'l'ATION. 
 
 PERSIA, a country of western Asia, having 
 an area of about 038,000 sq. m„ and a popula- 
 tion estimated at 5,000,000, nearly all of whom 
 are Mohammedans. 
 
 I. Ancient Persia. — Among the Indo-Ger- 
 manic tribes west of India, the Bactrians were 
 the first to attain any considerable culture. 
 They were, however, soon reduced in impor- 
 tance by the neighboring and kindred na'iou, 
 
692 PERSIA 
 
 the Medes, and subsequently still more by the 
 Persians, who in the 6th century B. C, under 
 Cyrus the < Treat, overran a large ]>art of west- 
 ern Asia. While China had its family educa- 
 tion, and India that of caste, education in Per- 
 sia was decidedly a national institution. There, 
 as in India, the people were divided into sev- 
 eral distinct castes ; but the separating line 
 was not strictly drawn; and, before the king, all 
 were equal. The state, as represented by the 
 king, was the highest object of veneration; and 
 all interests, whether of caste, of the family, or 
 of children, were subordinated to it. The edu- 
 cation of the people was like their life. In 
 Persia, the child was born and educated for 
 the state ; and, for that reason, we see here, for 
 the first time, physical combined with mental 
 education. The national education of the Per- 
 sians comprised the first twenty-four years of 
 life. Very little was done for the education of 
 girls, since they occupied, as among most of the 
 oriental nations, an inferior position. Boys re- 
 mained, up to their 7th year, with the women; 
 but after that, the national education began. In 
 all the larger towns, there were public educa- 
 tional institutions in which the boys lived to- 
 gether. These schools were open to every one, 
 as any Persian could legally occupy the highest 
 offices. In their schools, they were instructed 
 to practice truth, justice, and self-command, and 
 were trained in riding, the use of the bow and 
 arrow, and other weapons. Reading and writing 
 were also taught, but in a limited degree. On the 
 completion of his 15th year, the boy was regarded 
 as entering upon the age of a young man. The 
 bond connecting the parents and the children was 
 now dissolved ; for the young man, now belong- 
 ing to the state, must pre] >are himself, by suitable 
 physical exercises, for the chase and for war. 
 On completing his 25th year, the youth became a 
 man and a citizen. I Ie accepted tin.' duties which 
 he had to perform up to his 50th year, after which 
 he was obliged to care for the general welfare by 
 supervising or conducting the education of the 
 boys. Persian education was, on the whole, an 
 effort to impart moral and physical perfection. 
 School instruction seems to have been neglected. 
 probably because the state needed, at first, only 
 moral and physical excellence in its citizens; for 
 when the Persians had become a great nation, 
 they regarded the preparation for citizenship as 
 the grand object of education ; and, if in this 
 they partly lost sight of the individual, they, 
 for the first time in history, recognized educa- 
 tion as a matter of public concern — a duty of 
 the state. This principle was, however, not fully 
 carried out ; for the female sex were almost en- 
 tirely excluded from public education, and the 
 great mass of the people had no time for it, be- 
 ing forced to work in order to support the king 
 and his servants, or to expose their lives in war. 
 Xenophon tells us that, besides the general edu- 
 cation, there was a particular education for 
 the higher classes. In the dialogue Alcibiades 
 (which is ascribed to Plato), the education of 
 the kings is described as follows : "At the com- 
 
 pletion of his 7th year, the boy learns to ride 
 and to hunt; and, in his 14th year, he is handed 
 over to the so-called royal preceptors. These are 
 four noble Persians, selected for their virtues, 
 and known as the wisest, the most just, the most 
 temperate, and the bravest of men." 
 
 II. Modem Persia. — According to the in- 
 stitutions of modern Persia, the boy. in his <ith 
 year, is consigned to the care of a private teacher, 
 or is sent to school. It was formerly considered 
 unnecessary to educate girls; but, at the present 
 time, in Persia, female education is steadily gain- 
 ing ground. For the poorer classes, there are 
 mixed schools, in which instruction is given for 
 a certain small compensation; but all schools are 
 private institutions, and any man able to write 
 may open a school. As soon as the children 
 possess a knowledge of the alphabet, and can 
 spell with some facility, the Koran is taken up, 
 which is read by the teacher with an Arabic ac- 
 cent, and is repeated and learned by heart by 
 the children, without being translated or under- 
 stood by them. At the .same time, the most im- 
 portant and most difficult study, writing, is be- 
 gun. The teacher writes a line as a model, and 
 the children are required to imitate the char- 
 acters on a piece of paper. AVhen the Koran 
 has been read several times, the children are 
 given Saadi's Gulistan to read; and they read 
 the numerous tales contained in this work with- 
 out understanding their meaning, and learn its 
 epigrams by heart. This is considered the high- 
 est attainment of education ; for the Persians 
 like to spice their conversation with quotations. 
 On completing their 10th year, the poorer boys 
 enter the business of their father, or accept the 
 position of page. The wealthier boys, however, 
 are consigned to the care of a teacher, who in- 
 structs them in grammar and letter-writing, ex- 
 plains to them difficult passages from the legends 
 and the laws, and reads with them the Slmh 
 Nameh {Book of Kings) of Firdousi, the odes of 
 Hafiz, and other works. This generally com- 
 pletes their education, and, at the 15th or lGth 
 year of age, they enter the civil or military 
 service of the state. Recently, high schools or 
 colleges have been established in the principal 
 cities, on the European plan. The studies pur- 
 sued are astronomy, astrology, rudimentary 
 chemistry, alchemy, logic, metaphysics, mathe- 
 matics, theology, and the Arabian and Persian 
 languages. In the government college, in Teheran, 
 instruction is given in French and English. 
 Shiraz has the largest number of colleges (ten), 
 but the most extensive college is at Ispahan. For 
 a full account of the educational system of mod- 
 ern Persia, see I'oi.ak, /', rsien. JJas Land und 
 .-../„ ■ lU'ti-ol/iier (U-ipsic, 1SG5). 
 
 PERU, a republic of South America, having 
 an area of 510,000 sq. m., and a population of 
 about '2,500,000. Of the inhabitants. 57 per 
 cent are Indians. 22 per cent, half-breeds, 14 per 
 cent, whites, and 7 per cent, negroes and their 
 descendants. Nearly all the inhabitants be- 
 long to the Roman Catholic Church. Peru 
 was first discovered by Francisco Pizarro, who, 
 
PERU 
 
 PESTALOZZI 
 
 O'J.'i 
 
 lonquest of the country for 
 and. in less than twenty 
 rule was completely estab- 
 
 in 1531, began the 
 
 the king of Spain 
 
 years, the Spanish 
 
 lished. Among the Spanish provinces ol soutn 
 
 America, which, during the firet part of the 
 
 19th century, achieved their independence. Peru 
 
 final victory over the Spaniards, by the capture 
 
 of Callao.— Under the incas, the nam.- ruins 
 of Peru, the people made con.-.ideral>le advanco- 
 ment in education; but they remained, in this 
 respect, inferior to the Aztec's. The Spaniards, 
 soon after their conquest of the country, began 
 to introduce their educational system. The uni- 
 versity of Lima was founded in 1551; and. in 
 L571, its faculties were regularly organized. In 
 1650, it had over 20 professors of the Spanish 
 and Quichua languages, law, medicine, philoso- 
 phy, and theology. Besides the university, 
 there were in Lima several other institutions of 
 learning, one of which was particularly devoted 
 to giving instruction in Latin and literature. 
 The elementary schools were free, and even 
 furnished the children with books and writing 
 materials. Owing to the numerous civil wars, 
 education was. for a long time, at a stand-still 
 in the republic. In 1855, public instruction of 
 all grades was placed under the supervision of a 
 direction general de < studios : and, since that 
 time, it has made steady progress. 1 'resident 
 Pardo. in his message of 1S74. states that "ad- 
 mission to the universities is now confined to 
 such as arc quite prepared to enter upon uni- 
 versity studies. A number of competent teacher.; 
 have been engaged in Europe, and the services 
 of many more will be engaged. Arrangements 
 are likewise on foot for the establishment of 
 suitable normal schools. The departmental coun- 
 cils arc authorized to institute correctional agri- 
 cultural schools for uneducated children, to be 
 supported out of certain branches of the ordinary 
 contributions." According to the latest accounts, 
 there were in the republic 790 elementary or pri- 
 mary schools. Of these. 502 I 150 for boys, and 52 
 for girls) were public, and 288 (206 for boys.and 
 82 for girls) were private. The number of pupils 
 was 34,326, of whom 29,687 were boys, and 4,639 
 were girls. The normal school for primary 
 teachers, in Lima, had 300 pupils; of whom, 3(1 
 were supported by the state. In order to improve 
 female education, the Peruvian congress, in L873, 
 passed a law that every community of more than 
 500 inhabitants, should establish a school for 
 girls. There are 5 universities — in Lima, Trujillo, 
 Ayacueho. Cuzco, and I'uno. These universities. 
 however, only confer degrees, the studies being 
 pursued in co/er/ins. of which there were, accord- 
 ing to the latest accounts. 30, and of these, .'twere 
 for girls. The largest of these were the Colegio 
 de San Carina, and the Colegio de In Tndepen- 
 dencia, both in Lima, the latter of which is con- 
 sidered the best medical school in South America. 
 There are also 38 private colegios, of which 14 
 are for girls: and. in the principal cities of the 6 
 dioceses, there are so-called xfminarios contilia- 
 res, in which, besides theology, mathematics and 
 
 I law are taught. There is. also, in Lima a mil- 
 itary school, a school of navigation, and a school 
 of midwifery. — Sec Le Roy in Schmid's Ency- 
 
 PESTALOZZI, Johann Heinrich, one of 
 the greatest of modern educators, was born Jan. 
 12., L 746, at Zurich. Switzerland, and died at 
 Neuhof, Febr. IT.. 1827. As he lost, when only 
 | six years old, his father, who was a physician 
 of modest means, his training depended chiefly 
 
 •-pi 
 
 and degraded, a love of children, 
 promising sense of justice. In compliance with 
 the wish of his grandfather, who was a Protestant 
 clergyman, he studied theology; but his very 
 first effort at preaching proved such a decided 
 failure, that he turned directly to the study of 
 law. About this time (1764), Rousseau's £tnile 
 fell into his hands, and gave him the hope that 
 his longings for the improvement of his country's 
 lower classes could be successfully satisfied. He 
 had come to realize that the principal cause of 
 the misery of the multitude was their ignorance, 
 which prevented a proper and advantageous use 
 of the political rights they enjoyed. His fun- 
 damental conclusion, therefore, was. that where 
 the masses are stupid and brutalized, democracy 
 can produce no blessings: and. hence, that his first 
 effort should be to aid in the rearing up of good 
 citizens, the preparing of devoted hearts and 
 manly intellects for his country. He proposed 
 to effect this result not simply by instruction 
 but by a judicious blending of industrial, intel- 
 lectual, and moral training. He rightly saw that 
 it was not enough to impart instruction to chil- 
 dren, but that their moral nature should be par- 
 ticularly eared for, and habits of activity instilled 
 into them through agricultural and industrial 
 labors. To his way of thinking, the great draw- 
 back on the side of industry was the weakening 
 of the natural affections and the development of 
 the mercantile spirit, without having the moral 
 resources and consolations afforded by rural oc- 
 cupations. He, therefore, preferred to withdraw 
 to a farm, there to gather about him the children 
 of the poor, and to foster, in the coming men and 
 women, the taste for domestic life and the senti- 
 ment of human dignity. Previous to the purchase 
 of land in order to put his scheme into practice, 
 he retired to the estate of a friend, celebrated for 
 his improved methods of cultivation, and there 
 prepared himself for his new task with his usual 
 zeal. In 1769, he bought a tract of about loo 
 acres, and named this possession Neuhof. In 
 the same year he married a lady of means and 
 culture. By 1775, the place was ready for the 
 realization of his projects. He opened what may 
 be considered the first industrial school for the 
 poor. He gathered about him a. number of 
 ragged and half-starved children, and lived with 
 them the life of the poor, in order to teach them, 
 in their poverty, how to become active members 
 of the great human family. He soon found, 
 however, to his great sorrow, that these vagabond 
 
t','.)4 
 
 PESTALOZZI 
 
 children could never be made to accommodate 
 themselves to the laborious and regular life 
 he desired, as long as their parents were not far 
 removed ; for the latter had but too frequently 
 encouraged vagabondage as a source of income. 
 In 1780. his own straitened financial circum- 
 stances obliged him to abandon the enterprise. 
 His experience he embodied in the publication 
 Evenings of a Recluse (1780), which proves 
 that, in' the midst of his failures, he had profited 
 by important discoveries in the realm of human 
 knowledge, and in the principles which underlie 
 all true processes of education, — results which 
 have transmuted his individual disappointments 
 and failures into blessings for the world. He 
 published, in this little treatise, a programme 
 for his future exertions, surveyed the mode of 
 life of the people, and laid bare their defi- 
 ciencies, indicating the only remedy ; namely, 
 a return to nature ami to truth. The general 
 favor with which his views were received in- 
 duced him to follow with other writings in 
 their advocacy. Of these publications, his Lien- 
 hard u,i,l Qerirud (Basel, 1781—9, 4 vols.)— 
 a popular tale, presenting a picture of exalted 
 virtue in the midst of crime and error — created 
 quite a sensation. It circulated far and wide, 
 and was translated into many languages. The 
 government of Berne decreed him a gold medal, 
 which he was afterwards obliged to turn into 
 money to supply his family with the necessaries 
 of life. Not until I "98, did Festalozzi's oppor- 
 tunity come again to put his theories into practice. 
 In this year, his friend Legrand, one of the Swiss 
 Directory, appointed him to establish an orphan 
 school at Stanz, in the canton of Unterwalden. 
 The French revolution had given rise to turbu- 
 lence and anarchy. Stanz had been sacked by the 
 French troops, and stood in flames. Thousands 
 were homeless. Many a child saw itself bereft 
 of parents and friends. Of such children, Pes- 
 talozzi gathered eighty in the Ursuline convent, 
 which had been spared; and alone (his wife hav- 
 ing remained at Neuhof) he cared for them, lived, 
 played, and prayed with them, and earnestly in- 
 structed them. He "manifested an amount of 
 vigor, self-forgetfulness, and enthusiasm such as 
 the world has seldom seen combined in the soul 
 of one frail mortal" (KruSi). "I had to act," 
 says he himself, "amidst a confusion of elements, 
 and amidst unbounded misery; but the zeal that 
 urged me on to seize the possibility of realizing, 
 at last, the dream of my entire life would have 
 transported me to the summit of the highest 
 Alps, and through air and tire." I lis aim was 
 to impart to the school the character of a family. 
 Being without books and without apparatus, he 
 directed his whole attention to those natural ele- 
 ments which are found in the mind of every 
 child. He taught numbers, instead of figures; 
 living sounds, instead of dead characters; deeds of 
 faith and love, instead of abstruse creeds; sub- 
 stance, instead of shadow ; realities, instead of 
 signs. His main object sinned to be, to ascertain 
 the kind of instruction most needed by the 
 children, and how to base it upon their previous 
 
 knowledge. When he saw them interested, he 
 pursued the same topic for hours, and left it only 
 when the interest flagged or the point was 
 gained, lie gave them no lessons to commit to 
 memory, but always something to investigate. 
 They gained little positive knowledge, but their 
 love of knowledge and power of acquiring it in- 
 creased daily. Being without assistance, he was 
 driven by necessity to set the elder and better- 
 taught scholars to teach the younger and more 
 ignorant ; and thus he struck out the mutual in- 
 struction system, which, about the same time, 
 Lancaster (q. v.) was, under somewhat similar 
 circumstances, led to adopt in England. At the 
 end of a single term, the result of this course of 
 instruction was manifestly great. r l he children 
 had improved so much, both physically and 
 morally, that Festalozzi said : "They seemed en- 
 tirely different beings from those 1 had received 
 six months before, neglected, ragged, and filthy." 
 But yet the troubles of that agitated period 
 would not allow him to continue his benevolent 
 labors. Already, in 1799, the orphan house was 
 converted into a military hospital, and Festalozzi 
 left Stanz. A vacancy in a school at Burgdorf, 
 in the canton of Berne, was offered him shortly 
 after, and he promptly engaged to fill it, though 
 a very inferior position for a man who had made 
 all Europe talk about his theory of education. 
 But, even from this humble position, he was dis- 
 missed in a very short time, the head-master per- 
 ceiving that Festalozzi had succeeded in gaining 
 the attention and affection of the children in a 
 higher degree than he himself. Fortunately, 
 another school in the town, taught by an old 
 dame, made room for him; and, in this obscure 
 place, he taught until the vacant chateau was 
 placed at his disposal for the establishment of a 
 normal school. Several well-known educators, 
 Kriisi. Tobler. and Buss, joined him in the en- 
 terprise; and it was not long before the celebrity 
 and success of the school led the government to 
 adopt and support it. In 1803, when the castle 
 was needed by the Hernese authorities. Festalozzi 
 was assigned a deserted monastery in Munchen- 
 Buchsee, near Hofwyl, and was invited to co- 
 operate with Fellenberg (q. v.), who had sus- 
 tained a similar establishment at that place for 
 nearly 'H> years. The two educational reform- 
 ers failed, however, to agree in plans: and Festa- 
 lozzi was. in ISO.",, permitted to occupy the va- 
 cant castle of Yverdun, canton of Vaucl. There 
 he met with his greatest success. Celebrated 
 men and women of the refined nations of the 
 world visited the institution, and went away 
 speaking.only words of praise. I lis corps of in- 
 structors had been strengthened, from time to 
 time, until it contained 22. Among the pupils 
 of Yverdun, nearly every nation of Europe was 
 represented. Many of the students were of 
 mature mind, and were graduates of other 
 schools. The school was, of course, a home. 
 The pupils were made to rise early, their food 
 was good but plain, and special attention was 
 paid to physical exercise. The contemplation of 
 nature and her laws was regarded as first in the 
 
PESTAL02ZI 
 
 •curriculum of study, and from it a basis was 
 secured for formal exercises in language and 
 composition. According to Pestalozzi's plan, 
 composition comes licfoiv analysis, and the use 
 of language before rules. Mathematics was the 
 branch in which the pupils made the greatest 
 progress; and that because the science of num- 
 bers could be must easily brought within the 
 laws of progressive development, which form 
 the basis of the I'cstalozzian philosophy. His 
 principle was: "The organism of the human 
 mind is subject to the same laws that nature 
 universally observes in the development of her 
 
 edge on perception, and demanded that, by a 
 progress as uninterrupted as possible, and with a 
 constant incitement lit' the pupil to self-activity, 
 he should be made to advance from what had 
 been already acquired by him to higher results, 
 these results being arrived at as consequences 
 following from what had been previously estab- 
 lished. Objects themselves became, in Pesta- 
 lozzi's hands, the subjects of lessons tending to 
 the development of the observing and reasoning 
 
 ijeets. For the sue- 
 s pm pose, he classi- 
 to the work of in- 
 lalogy from nature 
 
 powers — not lessons 
 cessful accomplishing 
 lie.l all science in its 
 struction, and adopt 
 the doctrine of farm and number as universal 
 educational means, and to these added, ultimately, 
 that of sound. 'Phis continues, to our day. the 
 guide of objective teaching, though improve- 
 ment has been made in classification. He as- 
 signed to form the subjects drawing, writing. 
 
 and g oetry : to number, arithmetic, in all its 
 
 departments; and to sound, speaking, reading, 
 singing, and all the possible exercises of the 
 organs of speech. He placed under sound, 
 geography, history, and natural science; but 
 modern object teachers have provided a special 
 class, called that of place. Special attention, 
 however, was directed by Pestalozzi to moral 
 and religious training as distinct from mere in- 
 struction. His object was to lead the pupil to 
 the living source from which spring humility, 
 self-devotion, and tin active striving for perfec- 
 tion of character. And here, too, gradation and 
 a regard to the nature and susceptibilities of 
 children were conspicuous features of his sys- 
 tem. The one great fundamental principle of 
 
 . is thi! natural, progres- 
 di r ' lopment of all the 
 
 •' the human being. This 
 
 listed as an intellectual 
 of philosophers, and had 
 
 proverbs and apothegms; 
 , showed, by nat- 
 
 ms pe lagugicai sysueii 
 sive, ■ ■' symmetrica 
 
 Power. a fa ilti - 
 
 great truth ha 1 long i 
 conviction in the mind 
 even been expressed in 
 but it was Pestalozzi 
 
 ural experiment, how n might be made 
 basis ot universal education, and the means by 
 which humanity might be elevated. (For a crit- 
 icism on Pestalozzi's system, see Kruesi, Pes- 
 ialozzi: His Life, Work, and Influence) 
 
 Unfortunately for the material success of 
 Pestalozzi. dissensions arose among his teachers, 
 in which he himself became implicated. The num- 
 ber of his pupils rapidly diminished, the estab- 
 
 PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS 695 
 
 lishment became a losing concern, and Pestalozzi 
 was again involved in debt, which even the pub- 
 lication of his works in a collected form (Stutt- 
 gart and Tubingen. 15 vols., 1819— 26) failed 
 to liquidate. In lsi'.'i, he retired from his 
 laborious duties to Neuhof, where his grandson 
 
 then resided. His good wife had died in 1815; 
 and, in great despondency and mortification, he 
 spent his remaining days. A gnat many insti- 
 tutions bear his name ; and the first centennial 
 anniversary of his birth was celebrated, in L846, 
 with appropriate ceremonies, not only in Switzer- 
 land but till over Germany. At his grave, a 
 monument was erected by the canton of Aargau, 
 The best biography of Pestalozzi in German is 
 that by l.loeliinann (1846 . the latest by Morf 
 (1864). In French, the most complete is by 
 ( havanne (1853). In I nglish, the latest is by 
 
 York, 
 
 PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS. The 
 
 healing art has, for ages, embraced both the ap- 
 plication of therapeutical knowledge and the 
 supply and preparation of remedial agents; and, 
 until the separation of these branches as the arts 
 of medicine and of pharmacy, at a comparatively 
 recent time, the history of medicine, and of med- 
 ical Bchools and literature, embodied that of 
 pharmacy; while, on the other hand. at an earlier 
 period, both medicine and pharmacy were 
 merged, to a large extent, in the pursuits and 
 history of alchemy. Aside from the earliest 
 traditionsof the first crude stages of medical and 
 pharmaceutical science in Egypt.at so remote an 
 age as the I nth century 1!. (J., as recorded in the 
 Papyrus Ebers, the art of pharmacy, as a spe- 
 cial branch of that of medicine, seems to have 
 been first practiced among the Arabs; and 
 establishments, recognized for the supply of re- 
 medial agents, are said to have been tirst insti- 
 tuted in Bagdad, in the year 754 A. D. The 
 
 tion and classification of recognized f.rmnla- is 
 
 cian and 
 
 Sabor 
 
 latter part of the 9th century. In conjunction 
 with medicine, pharmacy was first taught, as a 
 branch of university instruction at the celebrated 
 scl I at Salerno. During the following cent- 
 uries, the establishing of pharmacies and meas- 
 ures for a legal regulation of the art. of pharma- 
 cy extended into western Europe; and the 
 new lv established universities became centers of 
 research and learning. Yet the absorbing prob- 
 lems of the transmutation of base metals into 
 gold, and of the existence of a universal remedj . 
 potent to avert disease, to heal sickness, to main- 
 tain or restore youth, and to prolong life, for 
 centuries engaged the aims and inspired the ef- 
 forts of the wisest and most learned men, in a 
 search throughout nature for the " philosopher's 
 stone" and the " elixir of life." The long pur- 
 suit of these phantoms, and the visionary but 
 most productive speculations of alchemy, re- 
 sulted in the accumulation of a vast amount of 
 
PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 chemical and physical knowledge, and in the most 
 important discoveries in the domain of chem- 
 ical operations, processes, and products. These 
 added largely to the compass of the materia 
 mediau and contributed much to prepare that 
 revolution in the intellectual world, no less than 
 in the material resources of men, which, at the 
 close of the last century, culminated in the over- 
 throw of old ideas ami systems. and laid a foun- 
 dation for the modern theories of chemical philos- 
 ophy, for the subsequent wonderful strides in 
 their practical applications to all the affairs of 
 industrial and social life. and for their productive 
 influence upon the advanceinc.it of physiological, 
 pharmaceutical, and analytical chemistry. -Dur- 
 ing the struggles of this remarkable revolution, 
 which, among its other results, separated medi- 
 cine and pharmacy as independent correlative 
 branches, the latter was the leading and most 
 successful cultivator of chemistry, and attained 
 at that time, and especially at the close of the 
 last and the first half of the present century, in 
 continental Europe, its culmination. It supplied 
 from among its ranks the newly-created chairs 
 both of chemistry and of pharmacy, and fre- 
 quently of botany also, at the universities and 
 special schools for medicine, pharmacy, agri- 
 culture, and kindred arts; the increasing 
 branches of chemical industry and manufacture, 
 too, were largely and successfully occupied and 
 cultivated by pharmacists. Pharmacy emanci- 
 pated itself more and more, in the civilized coun- 
 tries, from co-education with, and subordination 
 to, medicine ; special schools, or at the univer- 
 sities, special chairs, for instruction in pharma- 
 ceutical chemistry and pharmacognosy, were es- 
 tablished ; and both the standard of qualification 
 and the practice of pharmacy, like that of med- 
 icine, were restricted and controlled by the 
 state. Since the middle of the present century, 
 by the rapid strides in the progress and applica- 
 tion of the physical sciences, particularly of 
 chemistry in its various relations, the position 
 of pharmacy has somewhat changed. < Ihemistry 
 has risen to a commanding station among the 
 physical sciences, and in the industry and wealth 
 of nations ; its application in the manufacture 
 and supply of all chemical products cheaply on 
 a commercial scale, has largely deprived the 
 pharmacist of one of the original and most im- 
 portant and instructive objects of his pursuit, - - 
 the preparation of medicinal chemicals and many 
 of the pharmaceutical products. On the other 
 hand, pharmacy is losing scope by the decrease 
 in the use of medicines, in consequence of the 
 general increase of hygienic knowledge, and the 
 progress of medical science. The former pre- 
 eminently professional character of pharmacy 
 has, in consequence, gradually given way to a 
 more mercantile and trade aspect. Hut. notwith- 
 standing the diminution of its resources and of 
 its former scope of application, the requisite 
 standard of proficiency is, as yet, every-where 
 maintained ; and. in countries of a growing civi- 
 lization, pharmaceutical education is continually 
 and correspondingly raised. Most countries, there- 
 
 fore, at present, cither have special schools for the 
 higher education of pharmacists, or else afford 
 instruction in the pharmaceutical branches at 
 universities, or medical or technical institutions. 
 In the amount of the preparatory education 
 required, the high standard of scientific and 
 practical qualification, and the restrictions en- 
 forced by law and controlled by the government, 
 Germany ranks highest. The candidate for 
 apprenticeship must have attained maturity for 
 the second class ( <)ln-r-Se<:nti<lti) of the gymna- 
 sium, or must have passed through a real school. 
 The apprenticeship must last three years: during 
 which time the pupil's progress, and the obliga- 
 tory instruction by his master, are controlled 
 by annual examinations by a delegate of the 
 district government. At the close of the appren- 
 ticeship, and after successfully pa.-singan exami- 
 nation before a board, also appointed by the 
 district government, the candidate has to com- 
 plete his practical experience by serving for three 
 years more as clerk ; and he is then entitled to 
 enter upon the obligatory course of university 
 study at any one of the 20 German universities. 
 He is free to attend such lectures as he may 
 choose ; and, at the close of each lecture term, 
 he may select another university, according to 
 his option ; while the state requires, with un- 
 compromising severity, the satisfactory passage 
 of a comprehensive final examination. To this 
 the student is only admitted after having at- 
 tended the lectures and laboratory instruction 
 for at least three lecture terms (H years) ; and, 
 upon passing it. the state grants him a license for 
 the practice of pharmacy throughout the empire. 
 Many graduates choose to acquire, by a continu- 
 ation of university and laboratory studies, and 
 b\ the sul si quent passage of an examination be- 
 fore the J hili >.-i, pineal fat ulty of a university. the 
 degree of Ph. D.- Similar, and nearly equally 
 strict, is the course of pharmaceutical education 
 and qualification in Austria. Hungary, Russia, 
 Switzerland, Sweden, Norway, and Denmark; 
 but somewhat less strict in Roumania, Italy, and 
 Greece. In France, pharmaceutical education is 
 controlled by the state so far that students, after 
 a more or less brief experience in drug-stores, 
 have to attend, for one or two years, the lectures 
 at one of the pharmaceutical schools at Paris, 
 Nancy, or Montpellier, or at the medical and 
 pharmaceutical schools at Nantes or Marseilles, 
 and subsequently must pass an examination. 
 Upon the satisfactory passage of this. the student, 
 receives, according to the time of his study and 
 the price he is able to pay. the diploma as a. 
 pharmacien of the first, or of the second class. 
 The former is entitled to establish himself indis- 
 criminately, while the latter is allowed to do so- 
 only in small cities. The standard of pharma- 
 ceutical education is somewhat higher in Rel- 
 giuiu and the Netherlands. but perhaps less strict 
 in practical proficiency. The student has first 
 
 to examination ami subsequently to practice. In 
 Spain and Portugal, the course of pharmaceutical 
 
PHARMACEUTICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 education, ami the qualification required on the 
 part of the state, seem to be similar to those in 
 France. 'The three Spanish universities in Mad- 
 rid, Barcelona, and Granada, and the medical 
 schools at Lisbon, Oporto, and Coimbra, in Port- 
 ugal, afford lectures to pharmaceutical students. 
 Education in this department, in Turkey, while 
 it is not uniformly obligatory, embraces an ap- 
 prenticeship of ihi'"e yeais, and a subsequent 
 attendance upon the lectures at the Imperial 
 Institute, in Constantinople, which also lias 
 the direction of the examination, and grants 
 licenses to those who apply for and pass it suc- 
 cessfully. In Great Britain, the state has exert- 
 ed an obligatory influence on the qualification 
 of pharmacists since 1868; but it leaves this 
 control to the Pharmaceutical Society of Great 
 Britain, and to the Privy Council. The only re- 
 striction consists in a registry statute, requiring 
 two successive examinations: a preliminary one 
 for registration as " apprentice or student", and a 
 minor examination, for a license as "chemist and 
 druggist", or a major examination for a license 
 as " pharmaceutical chemist." The state of 
 pharmacy, and the standard of pharmaceutical 
 education, in the various countries of Spanish 
 and Portuguese America, is comparatively little 
 known. In several of them, as for instance, in 
 Mexico. Brazil, Peru, and others, the state exer- 
 cises a more or less strict, although not uniform- 
 ly efficient, control; while, in other states, either 
 the qualification for the practice of pharmacy is 
 not restricted, or the control is more nominal 
 than real. Pharmaceutical education and prac- 
 tice in Canada stand in close relation to those of 
 Great Britain and the United States. 
 
 The standard of pharmacy and pharmaceu- 
 tical education in the United States is not uni- 
 form, because it is not obligatory; and until 
 recently it has been left entirely to individual 
 option and efforts. While sporadic attempts to- 
 ward some kind of legal regulation have mostly 
 failed of virtual effect, yet a strong and increas- 
 ing body of accomplished pharmacists, largely 
 strengthened by the immigrated < iennan element, 
 has grown up ; and, by its influence ami efforts. 
 has contributed gradually to raise the standard 
 of pharmacy, and to attain, in several states, and 
 in a number of the largest cities, some authori- 
 tative control of the qualification of pharma- 
 cists. Chartered local associations (colleges of 
 pharmacy) have been established in these cities 
 and states, and they have, in pursuit of their 
 aims and objects, founded schools of pharmacy. 
 Chartered schools of pharmacy were in existence. 
 in 1876, in the following cities : Philadelphia 
 (founded in 1821); New York (1831); Balti- 
 more (1855) ; Chicago L859); Boston (1867); 
 Ann Arbor il.-ii.-i; Cincinnati 1870); St. Louis 
 (1871); Louisville (1871 |; San Francisco (1872); 
 Washington. D. C. (1873); Nashville (1873). 
 These institutions grant, upon their own mutual- 
 ly recognized authority, diplomas with the de- 
 gree of Graduate of Pharmacy, to those candi- 
 dates, without regard as yet to their preliminary 
 education, who have had experience in drug- 
 
 stores for four years, have attended at least two 
 courses of lectures at one of the pharmaceutical 
 schools, or at some medical or kindred college, 
 
 College of Pharmacy. The colleges and schools 
 of pharmacy in the United States have thus far 
 acted harmoniously in their voluntary and suc- 
 cessful efforts for a gradual and uniform eleva- 
 tion of the scope and the standard of education 
 and proficiency among pharmacists. The most 
 serious drawback to general and permanent re- 
 sults consists in the absence of any authoritative 
 national or state restriction and control of the 
 practice of pharmacy, and in a consequent excess- 
 ive and detrimental overcrowding of the pro- 
 fession, and for causes previously stated, in a 
 general decrease in the compass of legitimate ap- 
 plication, and in the resources and material pros- 
 perity of the art of pharmacy. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, the chief city of the 
 state of Pennsylvania, and the second in popu- 
 lation in the United States, the number of its 
 inhabitants, in 1870, being 674,022, and the es- 
 timated number, in 1876, 750,000. 
 
 Educational History.— The first school opened 
 in the city of Philadelphia was the private En- 
 glish school of Enoch Flower, in 1(183. Recom- 
 mendations in favor of education had been pre- 
 viously made by William Penn, but bad not 
 been acted on. In 1(189, the Society of Friends 
 established a pubKc school — not public, however, 
 in the modern acceptation of the word, since it 
 was founded "at the request, costs, and charges, 
 
 of the people called Quakers." This scl I is 
 
 still in existence. In 1750, a charitable school 
 for young men was founded by Franklin : and, 
 by 1752, the number of schools in the colony of 
 Pennsylvania— and probably, therefore, in Phil- 
 adelphia — must have considerably increased, as 
 the legislature, in that year, found it expedient 
 to appoint trustees and managers for them. The 
 provisional constitution of the state, adopted in 
 1776, declares, iii its 4 1th section, that " a school 
 shall be established in each county by the legis- 
 lature, for the convenient instruction of youth, 
 with such salaries to the masters, paid by the 
 public, as may enable them to instruct youth at 
 low prices ;" but no immediate steps appear to 
 have been taken to make this provision of any 
 practical value. In 1786, a tract of 60,000 acres 
 of land was set apart by the legislature for the 
 public schools of the state: and the 7th section of 
 the constitution of 1790 provides that "the legis- 
 lature shall, as conveniently as may be,] in ivide by 
 law for the establishment of schools throughout 
 the state, in such manner that the poor may be 
 taught gratis." The dissatisfaction, however, 
 caused by this law, rendered it inoperative for 
 several years. In 1809, another act for the free 
 education of the poor was passed; but the same 
 dissatisfaction caused the law to remain a dead 
 letter, the rich objecting to being taxed in behalf 
 of the poor, and the poor being too proud to ac- 
 
PHILADELPHIA 
 
 cept as a gift the education of their children. 
 These objections on the part of the two classes 
 appear frequently in the early legislation of the 
 colonies in regard to free public schools. \\ hen 
 it became apparent that the law of 1809 was of 
 no practical value, a supplement was procured in 
 favor of the city of Philadelphia, by which the 
 commissioners of Philadelphia County, with the 
 approval of the councils and commissioners of 
 districts, were directed to establish public 
 schools. Under this system, 2,000 children re- 
 ceived instruction in L816, at an expense of 
 $23,000. Serious objections to this system, 
 however, were made, on account of its class dis- 
 tinctions, and its want of economy, which re- 
 sulted in the formation of the Society for the 
 Promotion of Public Economy, of which Rob- 
 erts Vaux was chairman. In 1818, this society, 
 both composed of, and aided by, the ablest 
 and most influential citizens of Philadelphia, 
 procured the passage of an act which provided 
 for the free education of all the children of the 
 city, and which did not contain the objectionable 
 features of previous acts. This erected the city 
 and county of Philadelphia into a separate 
 school-district, each district of the city being de- 
 nominated a section. Sectional directors were 
 appointed by the several councils, as well as con- 
 trollers, one from each section, to be known as 
 the Board of School Controllers. Of this board, 
 Roberts Vaux was the first president. This act 
 is generally regarded as the foundation of the 
 present common-school system of Philadelphia. 
 It applied, however, to that city alone ; and the 
 people, failing to discriminate between its pro- 
 visions and those of the law of 1809, which was 
 still in force in the remainder of the state, in- 
 cluded them all in their condemnation. The 
 friends of the Philadelphia law, therefore, formed 
 an association known as the Pennsylvania 
 Society for Promoting Public Schools, with 
 branches in various parts of ihs state ; and de- 
 termined, if possible, to procure the passage of 
 a new common-school law, which should extend 
 the advantages of the local law over the state. 
 This was accomplished in 1834, when a general 
 law was passed providing for the free education 
 of all persons in the state between the ages of 6 
 and 21 years. Faults were soon found, hi iwever, 
 with the practical operation of this measure-, and 
 attempts were made to repeal it. but failed, 
 owing largely to its able advocacy by Thaddeus 
 Stevens, then a member of the legislature. In 
 the session of L835— 6, an improved law was 
 passed, after an animated contest in the legis- 
 lature, and remained in force substantially till 
 1854. Shortly after the establishment of the 
 schools on a permanent basis, it was discovered 
 that the elementary character of the instruction 
 given was inadequate to the wants of the city. 
 In 1838, accordingly, the Central High School 
 was opened, with 4 teachers and 63 pupils. 
 Tliis was followed. in 1840, by the establishment 
 of the Girls' High and Normal School, an in- 
 stitution which, in 1875, reported an average 
 attendance of 641 students. The growth of the 
 
 schools is best shown by the following figures: 
 attendance in 1820, 5,309 ; in 1830, 5,371 ; in 
 1840, 23,192 ; in 1850, 48,056 ; in 1860, 63,530; 
 in 1870, 82,891 ; in 1875, 95,552. 
 
 School System. — The city constitutes one school 
 district, known as the First School- District of 
 Pennsylvania. The control and management of 
 the public schools is intrusted to a board of 
 public education consisting of 31 members, one 
 from each ward, with a subordinate board for 
 each ward. The members of the board are ap- 
 pointed for 3 years by the judges of the court of 
 common pleas, and of the district court. They 
 exercise a general supervision over the common 
 schools, making such rules for their own govern- 
 ment and for that of the schools, as they deem 
 expedient. They appoint a secretary and an 
 assistant secretary, whose powers are limited. 
 There is no city superintendent. The schools are 
 supported by a city tax. T hey are divided into 
 primary, secondary, grammar, and high schools; 
 audit is claimed that this distinction was first 
 made in Philadelphia. There are. also, consol- 
 idated schools and night schools. The number of 
 the schools, in 1875. was 224 primary, 127 sec- 
 ondary, 29 consolidated, 63 grammar, and 2 high 
 
 The principal items of school statistics are ax 
 follows : 
 
 Total attendance in 1875 95,552 
 
 Average " " " &2,'J75 
 
 " teachers, males 77 
 
 " females 1,£01 
 
 Number i 
 
 T"tal. 
 
 The studies, taught in the primary schools, are, 
 reading, spelling, penmanship, arithmetic— -men- 
 tal and practical — and music, accompanied by 
 exercises in dictation, object lessons, and gymnas- 
 tics, and by instruction in morals and manners. 
 To these are added, in the secondary schools, ar- 
 ticulation and pronunciation, drawing, composi- 
 tion, definitions, and geography, and a general 
 review of the studies pursued in the previous 
 grade. The studies peculiar to the grammar 
 schools, are grammar and history, with instruc- 
 tion in, and reviews of, previous studies. Pupils 
 from the grammar si hools are admitted to the 
 Central High School and to the Girls' Normal 
 School semi-annually, upon a satisfactory ex- 
 amination by a committee of principals of the 
 boys' and girls' grammar schools. '1 he Central 
 High School, in addition to the studies usually 
 pursued in schools of this class, gives instruction 
 in Latin, German, the natural sciences, the higher 
 mathematics, and mental and moral philosophy. 
 It is authorized to confer upon all students who 
 complete the 4 years' course, the degree of Bach- 
 elor of Arts, and that of Master of Arts upon 
 till graduates of not less than 5 years' standing 
 who shall be entitled to it. The number of stu- 
 dents in attendance, in 1875, was 601. The Girls' 
 Normal School grants diplomas to its pupils at 
 graduation. The average number of students in 
 attendance, in 1875, has been previously stated 
 
PHILADELPHIA 
 
 to be 641 ; the number in its graduating class I 
 was L35. Annual examinations of applicants for 
 the position of teacher, <>r special examinations, 
 
 I .mini, 
 
 Central High School, luo grades nl ecrtihcates 
 — principals' certificates and assistants' certifi- 
 cates — are issued, the first, to persons not under 
 -i) years of age who pa s a satisfactory exam- 
 ination in the studies prescribed by the board; 
 the second, to persons not under 17 years of 
 age who obtain, in the same studies, a stated 
 average somewhat less than that necessary for 
 the position of principal. I he holder of a prin- 
 
 PHONETICS 699 
 
 ant Episcopal Church ; the Evangelical Lutheran 
 Theological Seminary ; the Jefferson, the Eclec- 
 tic, the Hahnemann, and the Women's .Medical 
 colleges; the Pennsylvania College of Dental 
 Surgery; the Philadelphia Dental College ; and 
 the Philadelphia College of Pharmacy. There 
 arc also, a philosophical and a historical society, 
 academies for science and art, and many libraries. 
 PHILANTHROPIN, or Philantbropi- 
 num, the name of an educational institution, 
 founded in 1774. by Basedow (q. v.). It soon 
 became so famous that its admirers, who were 
 called I'hilanthropinists, expected from it an 
 
 year's teaching, is eligil 
 cipal of a primary schoi 
 to that of a secondary ( 
 teaching, to that of a gr 
 of an assistant's certific 
 of assistant in any pul 
 years' teaching, may bi 
 mary or secondary schc 
 ants' certificates are alt 
 of the < iirls' Normal 
 public evening schools i 
 20 for males, 11 for fei 
 and 6 for colored peopl 
 mainedopen 4 months, 
 
 lis and assist- 
 the graduates 
 e number of 
 
 }f 
 
 ischools. 
 
 Educational Reform, 
 PHILOLOGY. : 
 PHONETICS (( 
 
 14). 
 
 from <purr/, 
 ut only the 
 
 but the arts 
 leir sounds), 
 heir sounds). 
 
 the city, may be mentioned. The first was the 
 offer of the trustees of the University of Penn- 
 sylvania to receive into its scientific department 
 
 annually, for a four years' course. II) pupils from 
 the public schools free of expense, i he second 
 was a similar offer from the directors of the 
 Philadelphia School of Design -10 female pupils 
 being offered free instruction in art for the pre- 
 scribed course, of 4 years. The third event of im- 
 portance was the examination made, during the 
 summer, by a committee of the board of educa- 
 tion anil a corps of scientists, into the sanitary 
 condition of the schools of the city. The results 
 of their inquiries have been arranged ill tabular 
 
 form, and publish 
 upon the schools of c 
 not fail to be of pe 
 The number of pri 
 
 ,nd, 
 
 lg as they do 
 nd states, can- 
 ■est and value. 
 inational, and 
 
 on tin 
 by thi 
 very : 
 much 
 graph 
 besl p 
 from 
 
 plioneti 
 
 c. I 'honology is related, 
 'ogy, as far as the organs 
 
 i. are concerned ; and, 
 being now recognized 
 jlogists as lying at the 
 science, and hence of 
 than any mere ortho- 
 
 are, also, numerous, chief among which may be 
 enumerated, in addition to those given under 
 the title Pennsylvania (q. v.), Girard College, 
 
 which, though not. strictly speaking, an educa- 
 tional institution of a superior grade, but an or- 
 phan asylum, provides an 8j years' course of study 
 for the children and youth under its care ; the 
 Polytechnic College, incorporated in 1853; the 
 Franklin Institute ; the Wagner Free Institute 
 of Science ; the Divinity School of the Protest- 
 
 presented. The Knglish language contains nearly 
 all the sounds needed for a full outline of pho- 
 nology; and, moreover, in Webster's and Worces- 
 ter's dictionaries mow very generally accepted as 
 standards of reference.— in the United States. 
 universally adopted as such), there is to be found 
 a complete analysis of these sounds— one in 
 which they fully agree, though neither presents 
 
 them in their natural order, giving then irely 
 
 ■as the particular sounds of the letters. In ar- 
 
700 PHONETICS 
 
 ranging them according to the latest results of \ the order of the sounds as judged by the ear, 
 phonetic science, we may take these distinctions corresponds to that of the movements of the 
 we find them in the dictionaries, where they ; tongue, as perceived by the muscular sense. The 
 
 ectly made : ( 1 ) the sixteen simple vowel 
 sounds heard in the following words : fate (same 
 as ei in veil), fat, care, far, ask, all, what (same 
 as o in not) ; mete (same as i in pique), met, fin, 
 note, whole [recognized as an English sound, but 
 not sanctioned in orthoepy], rude, pull, ua, teen. 
 These naturally arrange themselves in the fol- 
 lowing order, with the addition of ii and ii from 
 the German to complete the scale : 
 
 VOWELS. 
 Full Vowels. Stopped Vowels. 
 
 Long, when accented. St<ura/<> or exploded. 
 
 Brief, when unaccented. Always short in English. 
 
 FRONT MIDDLE BACK 
 
 pull 
 
 
 
 Goethe note 
 
 care her all 
 
 Boecke whole 
 
 The full and stopped vowels occur in pairs, 
 and in three corresponding series, as shown in 
 the following table : 
 
 kuhn Kunste 
 
 
 
 rude pu] 
 
 It It 
 
 
 
 U U 
 
 Goethe Boecke 
 
 
 
 note whole 
 
 
 
 
 
 e 
 
 fat her us 
 
 all 
 
 what 
 
 j a od 
 
 e 
 
 V 
 
 
 No distinction is made in these tables between 
 the sound of e in term or i in girl, and that of 
 u in urn or in furl. These sounds, however, 
 though kindred, are distinguishable, and are so 
 marked by Webster, who says, "The vulgar uni- 
 versally, and many cultivated speakers both in 
 England and America, give the e in such words 
 the full sound of u in urge, as murcy for mercy, 
 turm for term, etc. But, in the most approved 
 style of pronunciation, the organs are placed in 
 a position intermediate between that requisite 
 for sounding u in furl and that for sounding e 
 in met, thus making (as Smart observes) 'a com- 
 promise between the two'." The vowel sounds, 
 as arranged in the above tables, may be thus de- 
 scribed. Starting from the fundamental sound, 
 a in far (or a in ask), they branch upward in 
 (1) a front series, with the tongue rising upward 
 and forward, to i in pique; (2) a middle series, 
 with the tongue rising to it, directly upward, 
 and not pushed forward or backward ; and 
 (3) a back series, with the tongue rising upward 
 and backward to U in rude. The succession in 
 
 diphthongs are arranged below the simple vowels 
 according as they terminate in the upper front 
 vowel i or the upper back vowel it. The rela- 
 tions of the full and corresponding stopped vow- 
 els to each other, as affected by quantity, may 
 be further studied by the aid of the following 
 arrangement of words, in which they respective- 
 ly occur in accented and unaccented syllables 
 (the double letters indicating prolonged sounds): 
 eat I eternal kiiin Kunste prude I prudentia 
 
 
 it 
 
 
 
 
 wood 
 
 ii 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 uu 
 
 11. 
 
 mate 
 
 maternal 
 
 Goethe 
 
 Bocke 
 
 oak 
 
 location 
 
 ee 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 
 met 
 
 
 spoken 
 
 ee 
 
 e 
 
 
 
 00 
 
 
 
 care 
 
 clairvoyant 
 
 cur 
 
 curtail 
 
 aught 
 
 authentic 
 
 a? a? 
 
 ae 
 
 QZ 
 
 8 
 
 vv 
 
 V 
 
 
 carry 
 
 
 curry 
 
 
 not 
 
 13 1? 
 
 I! 
 
 99 
 
 a 
 
 ■oo 
 
 V 
 
 
 part 
 
 partak 
 
 
 
 
 (1(1 
 
 * 
 
 
 
 It may be observed that the stopped vowels 
 do not, aud cannot, rise quite so high in the 
 scale as their corresponding full vowels; but 
 this difference is reduced to a minimum in the 
 fundamental pair, a a, and in the lower front 
 pair, a? 13- 
 
 The following is a synoptical arrangement of 
 consonant sounds, the German guttural ich be- 
 ing added. [", indicates aspirates ; ^.subtonics; 
 «, nasals ; /, liquids ; v, vowel consonants] : 
 CONSONANTS. 
 
 
 LIP 
 
 LIP- 
 
 TONGtlE- 
 
 TIP- 
 
 TOP- 
 
 ROOT 
 
 
 
 TEETH 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 »P 
 
 
 
 (one 
 
 clim 
 
 cat 
 
 (a) 
 
 P 
 
 be 
 
 
 
 t 
 
 ch 
 
 jar 
 
 get 
 
 W. 
 
 b 
 
 
 
 d 
 
 j 
 
 g 
 
 
 
 V 
 
 thin 
 
 us 
 
 she 
 
 ich 
 
 (a) 
 
 
 f 
 
 th 
 
 S 
 
 sh 
 
 I'll 
 
 
 ueil 
 
 this 
 
 zone 
 
 usual 
 
 Ta„ 
 
 (0 
 
 
 V 
 
 till 
 
 Z 
 
 zh 
 
 
 
 
 me 
 
 
 
 no 
 
 serior 
 
 eing 
 
 (») 
 
 m 
 
 
 
 11 
 
 Jet rare 
 
 n 
 
 ng 
 
 (0 
 
 
 
 
 1 rj 
 
 
 
 wAat 
 
 
 
 
 
 he 
 
 (a) 
 
 h\v 
 
 
 
 
 
 h 
 
 For an account of the development of th& 
 present method of indicating theses mnds in the 
 
PHOXKTirs 
 
 English language, tlio reader is referred to the 
 article on Orthography. 
 
 II. Phonetic Print.— The elementary sounds 
 of the English language are usually represented 
 in dictionaries bj diacritical marks"; but various 
 methods of phonotypic notation, other than this, 
 have been employed. That of Dr. Edwin Leigh 
 has been extensively used for school purposes, 
 and hits attained a considerable degree of pop- 
 ularity. An ingenious system of representation 
 approximating to the diacritical, is used in 
 Shearers ( bmbtnation 8p> ■ ■ r I New York, 1>7I. 
 The notation employed in the above vowel and 
 consonant scales, using only the common letters 
 of the alphabet for temporary and critical use, 
 is in substantial accordance with the plans of 
 Dr. Thornton (1790), of the Dutch alphabet, of 
 Mr. Ellis in the Alph ibetqf Mature 1844), and 
 Palceolupe (1868), of Prof. Haldeman (1860), 
 and of S. P. Andrews (1876 . It is not incon- 
 sistent with those of Pickering, Lepsius, and 
 others, which have been used in printing Asiatic 
 and new languages. It harmonizes these various 
 plans, and is in very exact accordance with a 
 phonotypic plan that is. perhaps, as good as any 
 yet proposed, and has. moreover, a good and 
 facile script corresponding to both. 
 
 III. Phonography, or phonetic writing, in its 
 more general sense, would include any script in 
 which the letters are used to denote sounds ; but 
 it is now appropriated, in a special sense, to Pit- 
 man's particular system of phonetic short-hand. 
 For an account of various efforts to construct a 
 phonetic long-hand script, for the English and 
 other languages, see the publications of Isaac 
 Pitman and Elias Loyly. For a history of 
 short-hand (>/■ /<,<//■,</, //vi. see a valuable treatise 
 by Mr. Pitman published in connection with his 
 " Fonotypic Journal," in 1847, in which he 
 describes 120 systems, and gives the alphabets 
 of 86 A-B-0 systems, from that of Tyro — 
 Cicero's freedman — ( I!. ( '. 60), down to those of 
 Gurney (1753), Byrom (1767), Taylor (1786), 
 Mayor (1789), Lewis (1815), and Floyd (1818) ; 
 giving, also, specimens of passages written in the 
 seven most successful systems, and adding the 
 alphabets and specimens of the seven phonetic 
 systems from Tiffin (1750) to Sproat (1846).— 
 Pitman's phonography was invented in 1837, 
 and so thoroughly matured by its author before 
 bst4, that its main features remain unchanged; 
 though, with the co-operation of leading phonog- 
 raphers in England and America, some of its 
 minor details have been improved or modified. 
 It can be studied in Pitman's manuals, especially 
 those of I860 and L865 ; or as it appears in the 
 text-books of Andrews and I'.oyle (Boston, 1846); 
 Longley (Cincinnati. 1851), Graham (N. Y., 
 1858), Ben Pitman (Cincinnati, 1-55), Marsh 
 (San Francisco. 1868), Munson (N. Y„ 1866), 
 and E. V. Burns (X. Y., 1872). In connection 
 with any of these (especially those prior to 1 Still), 
 Parkhurst's Slenophonographer (N. Y„ 1852— 
 76) can be used, and will give to the investigator, 
 teacher, or practical reporter, the history and 
 discussion of the various improvements, proposed 
 
 or made, since 1852. — Phonography, notwith- 
 standing its many advantages over the ordinary 
 script, has made but little progress since that 
 
 schools, or for the special purposes of preparing 
 for the occupation of the reporter. 
 
 IV. Phonetic teaching now quite generally 
 constitutes a part of the lowest grade of ele- 
 mentary instruction, its object being to facilitate 
 the teaching of children to read. (See Phonic 
 Minion, By means of phonetic exercises, the 
 vocal organs of children are trained to clearness 
 and correctness of enunciation, while the ear is 
 cultivated so as to be able readily to distinguish 
 sounds. At the same time, children necessarily 
 acquire a better idea of the use of letters and of 
 the sounds which they are employed to denote. 
 .Most educators, at the present time, recommend 
 this mode of teaching : although there is some 
 diversity in the manner in which it is applied. 
 Mcgimiing with simple words in which single 
 letters are used to denote simple sounds, and in 
 which no silent letters occur, the child is led to 
 perceive the use of the letters, and to associate 
 with them their proper sounds, the teacher 
 passes progressively to more complex and ir- 
 regular combinations, until the pupil is able to 
 analyze words into their component sounds, and 
 state how these sounds are represented. After 
 such preliminary exercises, in order that the 
 pupil may fully understand the relations of the 
 sounds to each other, and be systematically 
 drilled in their utterance, all the elementary 
 sounds must be presented synoptically. This is 
 done by phonetic charts, which should exhibit. 
 (1) a logical enumeration of the elementary 
 sounds, illustrated by their use in well chosen 
 words; and (2) the letters of the alphabet with 
 their various sounds, and diphthongal combina- 
 tions. Very many of the faults in articulation 
 so frequently met with may be prevented or re- 
 moved by persistent drilling in the elementary 
 sounds. These phonetic drills may comprise 
 exercises in the vowel sounds by themselves; 
 but the consonant sounds are often most effect- 
 ively practised in combinations with vowels. In 
 teaching persons, whether children or adults, to 
 pronounce a foreign language, this training is in- 
 dispensable. Of course.it should be preceded 
 by a careful investigation into the particular 
 defects which constitute what is called the 
 "foreign accent." so that the elementary sounds 
 involved may be made the special subject of the 
 drill. Phonetic analysis should not cease in the 
 lower grades, but should, at every stage, consti- 
 tute a part of the regular reading or eloeution- 
 
 i ary exercises. Like the fingers of the pianist or 
 violinist, the vocal organs need constant tech- 
 
 : meal exercise in order that they may perform 
 their office most effectively. The enunciation 
 
 J of the open vowel sounds constitutes a most 
 important part of vocal training. (See Voice, 
 
 I Culture of the.) 
 
PHONIC METHOD 
 
 PHYSICAL KIH'CATION 
 
 PHONIC METHOD, a term applied to a \ in any given direction becomes almost automatic, 
 method of teaching reading, in accordance with ! as is seen in the case of the skillful oarsman, 
 which pupils are taught, in pronouncing words, rider, or swordsman ; or in adepts in athletic 
 games, such as those of ball and cricket. All 
 such means of physical culture become of special 
 
 to use the sounds of the letters, instead of their 
 names, so that they may at once perceive the 
 result of the combination, and thus without dif- 
 ficulty give the correct pronunciation. For ex- 
 ample, when the pupil ' 
 the word 
 
 gives to each" letter the proper sound, phoneti- 
 cally, and thus at once pronounces the word dog 
 as the necessary product of the elements thus 
 combined. This method is considered by teach- 
 ers to possess many advantages over the old- 
 fashioned way of compelling the pupils to learn 
 the names of the letters of the alphabet, and 
 then teaching them to read by spelling exercises. 
 (See Orthography.) 
 
 PHONICS. See Orthography, and Phonet- 
 ics. 
 
 PHRENOLOGY. See Character, DISCERN- 
 MENT OK. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION may be defined 
 
 as that systematic training of the bodily powers 
 which tends to render them, in the highest pos- 
 sible degree, efficient in their several functions. 
 The necessity for this training is generally ac- 
 knowledged, as a basis for the higher depart- 
 ments of education. Among the ancients — the 
 Persians, the Greeks, and the Romans, especially, 
 the highest respect was accorded to physical cult- 
 ure ; and the means employed were generally 
 well adapted to the purpose, although merely 
 empirical ; but, at the present time, the re- 
 
 value, as bringing the powers of the body under 
 the immediate control of the will ; and, hence, 
 
 2 pupil is required to pronounce under the name itthlrtics, they have been gener- 
 he does not say de-o-ge, dog, but j ally encouraged by those who have the direction 
 of superior education. In the same category, are 
 to be placed the exercises which regard the due 
 development of other physical powers, as the 
 senses, the vocal organs, the lungs, and. in a closer 
 relation to intellectual education, the brain. 
 Kducators err greatly in forgetting that the 
 brain is a physical organ, and that its exercise is 
 subject to the same laws and to the same limita- 
 tions as other bodilv organs ; and that, therefore, 
 physical considerations should have a controlling 
 weight in determining the means and, to some 
 extent, the methods of intellectual training. (See 
 Brain.)— Many are inclined to regard the direc- 
 tion of physical training as unnecessary. They 
 think that the physical powers of children and 
 youth receive, in the instinctive and irrepressible 
 exercises natural to that age, a sufficient educa- 
 tion for ordinary purposes. From this view 
 arises a neglect which is fraught with serious 
 injury. Not only does the individual fail to act 
 appropriately and energetically at every trying 
 period of his life ; but, in most cases, his action 
 falls somewhat below what is required for effect- 
 ive results, through want of the full co operation 
 of the bodily powers! and, toward the close of life, 
 
 5- a far better decrepitude is accelerated by the partial atrophy 
 ective system ■ occasioned by imperfect development and by 
 
 searches of science ought to ! 
 and more accurate basis for an i 
 
 of bodily training. — Physical education looks to disuse, 
 two objects : (1) to encourage a normal devel- CI) To check morbid growth or to prevent dis- 
 opment of bodilvpowers ; and (2) to check mor- i ease, careful attention must be given to the sur- 
 bid growth. Incidentally to these, of course, roundings of the child, particularly in school: 
 the preservation of health, that is, protection , as there he is subjected to constant restraint, 
 against disease, is an important object ; since a and, hence, cannot exercise his natural instincts 
 condition of health is the foundation upon which which would prompt him to escape from such 
 all physical culture must rest ; indeed, if chil- ' surroundings. The preservation of children 
 dren are successfully protected from morbid in- > from morbid influences in school depends upon 
 fluences and disturbances, normal development a great variety of circumstances, for a full enu- 
 must result. meration of which, see Hygiene, School. — The 
 
 (1) The application of appropriate means to | practical aim of physical education, under the in- 
 stimulate or guide the development of the bod- fluence of modern fife, is almost always intellect- 
 ' ual. (lymnastics and calisthenics, however, in- 
 directly exert a moral influence which, of itself,, 
 makes their practice desirable. This is that 
 magnanimity which is produced in generous 
 minds by the consciousness of bodily health and 
 power, and a disposition to use that power 
 worthily. A feeling of inferiority has always 
 associated with it an element of immorality, 
 which leads its possessor to acts of duplicity and 
 meanness to preserve his equality. There is still 
 another phase of physical education to be con- 
 sidered — that which relates to the joint action 
 of the mind and body through the medium of 
 the senses. (See Bar, Bye, and Senses, Kdica- 
 tion of.) The minute subdivision of labor char- 
 acteristic of the age in which we live, by giving 
 a utilitarian value to the cultivation of the 
 
 ily powers constitutes what is called j>lit/sic<il 
 training. This training maybe (1) general, or 
 (2) special. Up to a certain age, all physical 
 exercise must have for its object general develop- 
 ment ; beyond that, the special purpose of the 
 training must dictate the nature of the exercise 
 to be employed. Military drill, it is true, is 
 often employed in schools to promote general 
 development, but there is very much required in 
 military discipline that is quite unnecessary for 
 ordinary physical culture. The importance of 
 systematic exercise has been considered in the 
 articles calisthenics and gymnastics (q. v.). Such 
 exercise, however, must not look exclusively to 
 muscular development ; but to the prompt use 
 of muscular power in obedience to the dictates 
 of mind. Such power systematically exercised 
 
PHYSICS 
 
 senses is rapidly constituting tins an element of 
 increasing importance. Already, the Buccess of 
 numerous trades and employments is dependent 
 upon a nicety of discrimination by means of the 
 eye, the ear, the taste, or the touch; and the number 
 of these is steadily increasing. The cultivation 
 of the senses, therefore, is desirable from a merely 
 utilitarian point of view ; while for general cult- 
 ure, such as is required in many of the arts, its 
 absolute necessity is manifest. Many considera- 
 tions aud interests, therefore, conspire to make 
 the subject of physical education one of con- 
 stantly increasing importance. 
 
 PHYSICS. Sec Science. 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY (Gr kc, nature, and A<Syoc, 
 
 discourse', the science which treats of vital 
 phenomena — as contradistinguished from anato- 
 my, which treats of the structure of living 
 bodies and the materials of which they are com- 
 posed. In the course. if education, it presup- 
 poses some preliminary knowledge of chemistry, 
 physics, anatomy, and especially of microscopic 
 anatomy, or hist cilngy: and. in tuni.it precedes the 
 study of hygiene, or the laws of health, and that 
 of pathology, or the science of abnormal function. 
 As a science, physiology is of recent origin ; though 
 the name has been inuse from antiquity. Like all 
 other natural sciences, as Dalton observes, ■■there 
 is only one means by which physiology can be 
 studied ; that is, by the observation of nature." 
 It has been built up by experiment : and many 
 of its most essential truths, and these in their 
 practical results the most important to man- 
 kind, have been gained through vivisection. As 
 the principal foundation of hygiene, it is obvi- 
 ous that its principles should be so far made an 
 element of general education as may conduce to 
 a just appreciation of nature's sanitary code. 
 How this may best be accomplished is a question 
 that has hardly received the attention it deserves. 
 School physiology, in many cases, consists of a 
 smattering of anatomy: in others, of a still more 
 unsubstantial fabric 'of information regarding 
 function ; or. in still others, of a blending of the 
 two with hygienic doctrines, often based not on 
 a wide conception of biological truths, but on 
 the meager knowledge gained by personal ex- 
 perience. The difficulty has always consisted in 
 attempting to build upon too narrow a founda- 
 tion, and that by means of an erroneous method. 
 Thus, the attempt is made to teach the elements 
 of physiology without a sufficient groundwork 
 of chemistry and physics, and exclusively from 
 books, instead of from practical experience in 
 the laboratory. The results have been— as those 
 of book learning and lecture teaching in natural 
 science, without observation and experiment, 
 always must be — unreal and evanescent ; hence, 
 by such instruction the true nature of vital 
 phenomena is never clearly apprehended; and 
 the hygienic deductions are, of course, corre- 
 spondingly illogical. Doubtless, a great amount 
 of knowledge has been imparted, in these later 
 days, to the people in general on this subject; 
 but the advance that has been made in sanitary 
 practice is. probably, due not so much to the 
 
 rnYSIOLOGY 703 
 
 results of school education, as to the improved 
 
 education of 1 lical men. and to their advice 
 
 spoken and written to communities, learning by 
 practical experience the penalty of infringing 
 hygienic laws. The real requisite in general 
 education on this subject, appears to lie. that, 
 when a sufficient foundation has been laid, a 
 practical course of biology should be employed 
 to elucidate the general laws of life : and then 
 the habit of scientific thought and reasoning, 
 formed by such training, will lead to a coiTect 
 application of general principles to the special 
 conditions of human life. Some such course of 
 liinliigical study as .1 ' 'uursr if I'rarlual fiislr ac- 
 tion in Elementary Biology, by Huxley and Mar- 
 tin, might properly form a part of the curriculum 
 of cveiv e.illegiate institution: and. in all schools 
 of a lower grade, as much preparation should be 
 made for Mich a course as is practicable. Ob- 
 
 disse 
 
 such simple practical suggestions as arise tr.nn 
 the interpretation of the mechanical arrange- 
 ments of the body, may be early commenced ; 
 but, in all cases, this foundation should be laid 
 systematically, with a definite end in view, and 
 by instructors who have qualified themselves to 
 teach, by following a complete practical course, 
 such as is above suggested, 'leaching merely frem 
 text-books and by pictures, will be almost useless, 
 because superficial ; and no demonstrations, even 
 from the best models, can ever be so effective 
 as those from actual dissections of the lower ani- 
 mals. A pupil will gain a better idea of the 
 appearances presented by his own organs, and of 
 their own relations to one another, from seeing 
 a demonstration of those of a rabbit or a dog, 
 for example, than from any rigid, and necessarily 
 unreal, model, however skillfully constructed and 
 colored. Such models, however, admirably sub- 
 serve secondary demonstrations. The educator 
 who contemplates laying a foundation for physi- 
 ology should refer to A Course of Elementary 
 Practical Physiology, by Foster and Langley — a 
 work intended to succed that of Huxley and 
 Martin, above mentioned. From this guide to 
 laboratory work, he will learn what physiological 
 investigation implies and requires; and he will 
 realize upon what basis rests the information 
 contained in the re-organized physiological text- 
 books; such as Dalton 's Treatise on Human 
 Physiology, Flint's Physiology of Man. and 
 
 the- m. 
 lluxk 
 Daltoi 
 and I 
 
 aid hi 
 
 cllool 
 
 
 I 'hi 
 
 i Anatomy and Physiology. To 
 
 lemonstrations of the dissections of 
 the lower animals, he should have at hand a 
 trustworthy treatise on human anatomy, such 
 as Monvlls S/m/,;,r.< Manual of Comparative 
 Anatomy ami Guide t<> Dissection, and Mivart's 
 Lessonsin Elementary Anatomy. Every teacher 
 should.alsn.be familiar with Carpenter's Prin- 
 
 ciples of Mental 
 thor. Principles 
 Principles of H 
 
 /7///s 
 
 lso.lc 
 
 lie sameau- 
 
 rc I'hysioloi/i/.nml 
 ogy. (See Science.) 
 
704 
 
 PIABISTS 
 
 Fathers of the Pious 
 
 PIARISTS, 
 
 Schools, a religions order in the Roman Catholic 
 Church, the members of which are specially de- 
 voted to tlie gratuitous instruction of youth. This 
 order was founded by Joseph of Calasanza, or 
 < 'alasantius. a Spanish priest, by the opening of 
 a free school, at Koine, in 1597. A large Dumber 
 of children were soon gathered in this school, 
 under the instruct ion of Calasanza and his asso- 
 ciates; and, by a decree of Paul V., the association 
 assumed the rank of a religious congregation. 
 Soon afterward (1622), it was made a religious 
 order. Calasanza being its first general, and 
 soon spread through Germany, Poland, Italy, 
 and some other countries. In I860, the Piarists 
 had 33 houses in Germany, 28 in Italy, 32 in 
 Hungary, 14 in Poland, and at least 30 in Spain. 
 In Italy, thsy have since been suppressed ; and 
 
 the only country in which they c luct, at 
 
 present, educational institutions of note, is the 
 Austro - Hungarian .Monarchy. In Oisleithan 
 Austria, in 1870, th -y had 29 houses, with 2!)7 
 members; include I in which were 4 under-gym- 
 nasia. (Se ■ Roman Cmimijc Ciiitroh.) 
 
 PICTURE 3. One of the earliest efforts of 
 the human mind, after spoken language, appears 
 to be the communication of ideas by tangible ob- 
 jects. The use of pictures and images is com- 
 mon among savages every-where. It is no less 
 characteristic of the infant mind among civilized 
 races, chililren being not only interested in look- 
 ing at pictures, but, by a natural prompting, at- 
 tempting to imitate them. The first ideas which 
 the child takes from objects being concrete, 
 its means of expressing them takes the concrete 
 form— its first effort being, as near as possible, a 
 reproduction of the objects themselves. Not till 
 a higher development has been reached, is it 
 fitted to make use of a system in which purely 
 arbitrary forms are employed. This early and 
 almost universal instinct, therefore, involving, as 
 it must, th-3 ability to understand ideas so com- 
 municated, suggests the peculiar fitness of this 
 method for use in the instruction of children. 
 This form of expression being attended with so 
 much pleasure, it finds its natural place in the 
 kindergarten system ; and we find, accordingly, 
 various exercises there for the employment of it. 
 It is even extended into the ordinary school sys- 
 tem in the sua] f object lessons. (Jut this 
 
 method, useful as it is at certain stages, has its 
 limitations. It should not be forgotten that, 
 with children, the object itself, for purposes of 
 instruction, is always better than any represen- 
 tation of it. As the picture of an animal, for 
 instance, is only one phase of the form of that 
 animal, and docs not usually take into con- 
 sideration size, color, and many other essentia] 
 qualities, only a very imperfect impression can 
 be gained from it. This fact should suggest the 
 limitations mentioned. These have reference 
 principally to the end to be attained, to the cor- 
 rectness of the picture, and the number and 
 nature of the objects represented. As to the 
 correctness of the picture, little need be said; as 
 modern publications, in this respect, show a 
 
 PIO NONO COLLEGE 
 
 1 constant improvement, and leave little to be de- 
 sired. The number of objects represented in 
 each picture should be limited, single figures 
 being, at first, given ; afterwards two or three. 
 The objects represented, also, should be familiar 
 things, and several of a kind, inasmuch as, by 
 the contemplation of these, the child's conceptive 
 faculty, or imagination, and powers of general- 
 ization are exercised. In this respect, also, the 
 right method in primers and elementary books, 
 is, as a rule, instinctively taken — though not al- 
 ways. The value of this last restriction, at a 
 later period, may be easily illustrated. If the 
 object be to give an idea of seme animal never 
 seen — the camel, for instance — the task is made 
 comparatively easy from the child's having seen 
 illustrations of somewhat similar objects with 
 which it is familiar ; as the horse, cow. etc. It 
 seizes at once upon the points of resemblance, 
 and, immediately after, upon the points of dif- 
 ference, and thus makes a positive addition to 
 its knowledge. But let the same child be con- 
 fronted with a picture of a star-fish, or a print- 
 ing press, and the probability is, if it has never 
 seen these or any similar objects, that it will 
 get only a very imperfect idea of either. The 
 reason is obvious. With no previous prepara- 
 tion, it is called upon to establish in its mind an 
 entirely new conception, solely from the picture, 
 without any corresponding tangible basis in its 
 experience. The result is a thwarting of the 
 tendency to generalization — so strong with chil- 
 dren always — and a confusing of the mind by 
 an indistinct conception, invariably accompanied 
 with a loss of interest. The special uses to 
 which pictures are put, whether as diagrams in 
 illustration of particular studies, or as part 
 of a higher, artistic education, need not here be 
 considered. 'I he publication of the Oi-bis Sen- 
 sualium Pictus, by Comenius, was, probably, 
 the earliest attempt to use pictures as a direct 
 and systematic means of instructing children. 
 (See Comenius.) 
 
 PIO NONO COLLEGE, at St. Francis Sta- 
 tion on Chicago and North-western Railroad, 4 
 m. from Milwaukee. Wis., was founded in 1871. 
 It is under Roman Catholic control, and admits 
 none but Catholics. It is supported by tuition 
 fees, which, including board, tuition, etc., are $55 
 per quarter of 21 months. For music, telegraphy, 
 and phonography there is an extra charge. The 
 course of study embraces thorough instruction 
 in the English, German, and French languages, 
 mathematics in all its branches, book-keeping 
 and history. The number of pupils, in 1875 — 6, 
 was about 60. The firs! president was the Rev. 
 Joseph Salzinann, D. D., who was succeeded by 
 the present incumbent (1876), the Rev. Theo- 
 dore Bruner. The normal school at the same 
 place, for the education of teachers and organ- 
 ists for » 'atholic schools and churches, has been, 
 since the organization of the institution, under 
 
 I the same presidency as the college. In 1876, 
 this school had 70 pupils. A Catholic deaf and 
 dumb institution, in connection with the normal 
 
 I school, was founded in 1876. 
 
PITTSBURGH 
 
 PITTSBURGH, a large and important city 
 
 of Pennsylvania, having a population, in l^iO, 
 of 121,215, which, in 1876, was estimated to 
 have increased to 130,000. The town was laid 
 out in 17(14, incorporated as a borough in 171)4, 
 and as a cit v in L816. Since thattime, its bound- 
 
 an 
 
 ih., i 
 
 drawing, music, and calisthenics. In order to 
 succeed in this examination they must give, on 
 
 law of 1834 (see Pennsylvania ; and. the next 
 year, a public school was opened, which com- 
 menced with an enrollment of only 5 pupils. 
 From that time till 1855, the Pittsburgh schools 
 
 were under the control of the state, and each 
 ward board had full control of the educational 
 and financial interests of its own school ; but, at 
 the latter date, the legislature, by a special act, 
 consolidated the several wards into one school- 
 district, placing the management of the schools 
 under the control of a central board of educa- 
 tion, composed of one member from each ward. 
 or sub-district, to be electe 1 by the ward board. 
 The following year, the first public high school 
 was established. In 1868, in pursuance of an act 
 establishing the office of city superintendent of 
 schools, George J. Luckey was elected to that 
 office, to which he has several times been re- 
 elected, his fourth term expiring in May, 11 
 Previous to his election, there was great diversity 
 in school management and methods ; but, under 
 his earnest and efficient administration, a good 
 degree of uniformity has been established. The 
 following shows the growth of the public schools 
 since their consolidation in one school-district, in 
 1855. In 1856, the enrollment of pupils was 
 6,724 : in I860, it was 7,608 ; in 1865, it had in- 
 creased to 8,743; in 1870. to 12,883 ; in 1875, to 
 20,483; and, in 1876, to 21,488. 
 
 School System. — The general management of 
 the system is vested in the Central Board of 
 Education, consisting of 36 members, one from 
 each district, and holding office for three years, 
 one-third of the board being changed each year. 
 There are, besides, sub-district boards, one in 
 each ward, each consisting of 6 members, having 
 the same tenn of office as the members of the 
 central board, and one-third retiring annually. 
 Each of these ward boards appoints its own 
 teachers, and levies the tax necessary for the 
 payment of janitors and other expenses ; but the 
 central board appoints the teachers of the high 
 school, fixes the salaries of all the teachers em- 
 ployed in the city, and levies the tax necessary 
 for their payment. It has the exclusive control 
 of the high school, and prescribes the text-books 
 to be used in all the schools. — The course of in- 
 struction prescribed for the ward schools com- 
 prises the usual common-school branches, in- 
 cluding music and drawing. There are I 3 grades, 
 embracing a 7 years' course. Pupils, in passing 
 from the ward schools to the Central High 
 School are required to pass an examination in 
 reading, spelling, grammar, composition, arith- 
 metic, algebra, geography, history, and the ele- 
 ments of natural philosophy, besides writing, 
 
 ,,gy. p 
 
 zoology, geology, general history, 
 and rhetoric, mental and moral 
 mechanical and free hand drawing. 
 
 philo 
 
 elocu 
 
 the course consists of arithmetic and" algebra ; 
 
 English gra ar, literature, and composition ; 
 
 L'nited States; drawing and music; physiology 
 (by lectures); elements of chemistry, geology, and 
 physics ; theory of teaching, and two or more 
 weeks' practice in the same. The commercial 
 course includes the department of theory (3 
 months i. the intermediate department (3 months), 
 and the department of practice (4 months). — 
 The superintendent has authority by law to call 
 teachers' institutes, and. like the county super- 
 intendents, to draw from the county treasury 
 moneys for their support; also to elect a com- 
 mittee on permanent certificates for the city of 
 Pittsburgh. Four stated sessions of the teachers' 
 institute are held annually in the city ; namely, 
 on the third Friday evening and the following 
 Saturday forenoon of the months of January, 
 March, May, and October ; and a three days' 
 session during the week preceding the annual 
 opening of the schools. The stated meetings are 
 devoted to professional lectures and discussions, 
 and practical exemplifications of methods by the 
 introduction of actual classes of pupils, who re- 
 ceive lessons in the presence of the institute. — 
 Examinations for teachers' licenses are held by 
 the superintendent, assisted by a board of ex- 
 aminers, in accordance with the general law of 
 the state. 
 
 School Statistics. — Besides the Central High 
 School, there are 39 ward schools, each of which, 
 in pursuance of the law of 1869 consolidating 
 the wards, is known by a distinctive name, in- 
 stead of a numerical designation. There are also 
 evening schools. The other items of importance, 
 for 1876, are as follows : 
 
 Number of pupils enrolled 21,488 
 
 Average monthly enrollment 17,180 
 
 Average daily attendance 14,50] 
 
 1 : 1 1 r. j 1 1 1 1 n-ii t in evening tchools 4.0m; 
 
 Attendance in evening schools 1,769 
 
 Number oi teachers in day schools. 419 
 
 Total tax levied lor seliooi purposes $602,941.37 
 
 Total valuation of school property $1,904,500.00 
 
 Cost per pupil, on annual enrollment $16.00 
 
 There are 9 secondary schools, including 2 
 commercial colleges, and 1 school of design, em- 
 ploying 4."i teachers, and attended by 2,297 pu- 
 pils. The Roman Catholic parochial schools are 
 attended by 8,073 pupils. — For information in 
 regard to higher institutions of learning, see the 
 article on Pennsylvania. 
 
706 
 
 PLATO 
 
 PLATO, one of the greatest of the Greek 
 philosophers, was born at Athens, 42!) or 430 
 B. 0., and died about 348. lie was of illustrious 
 descent, on both his father's and his mother's side; 
 but very little is definitely known regarding his 
 early life. From his own writings, we learn that 
 he intended to enter public life, but became dis- 
 gusted with the corruption and general depravi- 
 ty of the times, and turned his attention to the 
 study of philosophy. When he was twenty years 
 old. he became a pupil of Socrates; and, for eight 
 years, he constantly attended his great teacher. 
 After the death of Socrates, Plato made ex- 
 tended journeys, and, about Ms!), spent a short 
 time at the court of the tyrant Dionysius, in 
 Syracuse. After an absence of twelve years, he 
 returned to Athens, and founded a school for the 
 instruction of youth in the principles of philos- 
 ophy, hi a small garden in the Acadt mia, a pub- 
 lic grove or park which Academus had given 
 
 for gymnastic exercises; and hence, Plato's scl 1 
 
 w;i- called the Academy. Adorned with statues. 
 temples, and sepulchers, surrounded with high 
 trees, and intersected by a gentle stream, it af- 
 forded a delightful retreat for contemplation. 
 How much Plato valued mathematical studies. 
 as a preparation for higher speculations, appears 
 from the inscription he put over the entrance of 
 his private house, in which he gave instruction to 
 a few select disciples: Let no one ignorant of 
 geometry enter here. He was attended by a crowd 
 of hearers of every description. Among them 
 were many who became celebrated as statesmen 
 or as philosophers. Even women attended, and 
 people of distinction did not hesitate to be his 
 hearers. (See Athens, and Academy.) He was 
 surnamed the Divine, because of his wisdom and 
 learning. Statues and altars were erected to his 
 memory, and the day of his birth was long cele- 
 brated as a festival. Under his name we have 41 
 dialogues, 13 letters, and a collection of philo- 
 sophical definitions ; but only the dialogues have 
 been positively ascertained to be genuine. Plato, 
 alone among the pupils of Socrates, had carefully 
 studied all the philosophical systems of antiquity 
 as far as they were accessible to at J reek inquirer; 
 and, in his dialogues, he considers the various 
 theories in turn, and develops his own system 
 only in his strictures in relation to them. As 
 with Socrates, so with Plato, ethics, i. e., the 
 metaphysical idea of the good, is the principal 
 subject of philosophy. The highest good is not 
 pleasure, nor knowledge alone, but the greatest 
 possible likeness to the Divinity, as the absolute 
 
 g 1. Virtue is the imitation of God, or the free 
 
 effort of man to attain to a resemblance to his 
 original, or, in other words, a unison and har- 
 mony of all our principles and actions, according 
 to reason, whence residts the highest degree of 
 happiness. Virtue is one, but compounded of 
 four elements: wisdom, coinage or constancy, 
 temperance, and justice; these are otherwise 
 termed the four cardinal virtues. They arise 
 out of an independence of, and superiority to, 
 the influence of the senses; they are the product 
 of the health and beauty of the soul. — The state, 
 
 POETRY 
 
 being a society of individuals, is, therefore, sub- 
 ject to the same obligations on a large scale. 
 Its end should be liberty and concord; its highest 
 mission, the training of the citizens to virtue. 
 The education of youth should be regulated by a 
 consideration of the duties which they are ex- 
 pected to perform in the state. In the ideal 
 state, each of the three principal functions and 
 corresponding virtues of the sold is represented 
 by a particular class of citizens: (1) the rulers, 
 whose virtue is wisdom; (2) the guardians or war- 
 riors, whose virtue is valor; and (.'!) the manual 
 laborers and tradesmen, whose virtue is obedience 
 and self-restraint, and whose training should be 
 only in their particular trades. The education 
 of the other or higher classes is to begin as early 
 as the third year of age, and to continue until 
 the sixth, by the narration of myths ; to be fol- 
 lowed, from 1 to 10, by gymnastics ; from 10 to 
 13, by reading and writing; from 14 to 16, by 
 poetry and music; from 10 to 18, by mathe- 
 matical sciences; and from 18 to 20, by mili- 
 tary exercises. At this last age, the first sifting 
 takes place — those of inferior mental capacity 
 but valorous, to become warriors; the rest to 
 continue until the age of 30, learning the 
 sciences in the more exact and general form 
 becoming their maturity. Next, the talent for 
 dialectics is tested ; and then follows a second 
 sifting. The less promising are given practical 
 public offices ; the rest pm-sue the study of dia- 
 lectics until the age of 35, and are then intrusted 
 with positions of authority, continuing in the 
 study of philosophy, so as to become, finally, the 
 best fitted in the state for its highest offices. 
 Regarding a good teacher as one of the agents 
 most essential for the formation of good pupils, 
 Plato lavs down rules by which to distinguish 
 between a good and a bad teacher, and recom- 
 mends those in power to exercise the utmost scru- 
 tiny and care in the selection of instructors to be 
 employed by the state. — This theory of educa- 
 tion, principally set forth in his Republic and in 
 his Laws, was probably never fully reduced to 
 practice; yet the spirit of all his doctrines seems to 
 have exerted a powerful influence over his coun- 
 trymen for centuries. For an account of Plato's 
 attempt to establish a model government in Syr- 
 acuse, sec (irotk, Uistnri/ </ '•'/'<, c,\ vols. x. and 
 xi. The best English edition of ['hita's Dialogues 
 is by Jowbtt (Oxf. and N.T., 1871). For litera- 
 ture on Plato's Philosophy, and the different 
 editions of his writings, we must refer i 
 
 weg, Histon of Philosophy ; on his a 
 
 Ueber- 
 anal 
 qUc, 
 
 vol. i.; \\\vi;l'l.tt,,„s I .,:,■/, imgslehre IMinden, 
 
 1S33-; 1Im«i:m k. f-:„t „■;■■/.■■■/ I'.l.rl'hil.nasrhea 
 
 Erziehungslehr, (Rottweil, L854J : Wittmaiw, 
 /_',■ iehung und Unterricht bet Plato Giessen, 
 L868); Cramer, Gesckichte der Erziehi ng im 
 Alterihum (Elbert'., L838) ; Draper, Intellectual 
 "Development of TEurope (rev. edit., 1876). 
 
 POETRY,' or the written expression of 
 beauty, is an important instrument in certain 
 departments of intellectual culture, besides aid- 
 ing in the education of the emotions and l 
 
ities, and in the cultivation of taste. (See Esthete 
 Culture.) — The pupil's first knowledge of writ- 
 ten poetry is usually obtained from the school 
 reader. The manner of its presentation there. 
 however, is susceptible of improvement. The 
 free use of figures of rhetoric, and of obsolete or 
 unusual words and phrases, renders poetry in- 
 appropriate to the minds of children till after 
 the usual modes of expression have become 
 familiar. Its proper time for presentation, there- 
 fore, is when rhetoric is studied — that is. during 
 the latter part of a high-school course, or in 
 the college. Yet nothing is more common than 
 to find a highly-involved passage from Shake- 
 speare, or an abstruse paragraph from Words- 
 worth, in a reader intended for pupils of from 
 ten to fifteen years of age. — Some vague or half- 
 considered idea that these passages are. in some 
 way. to serve as models, by being thus presented, 
 or are necessary for elocutionary purposes, is 
 | probably in the mind of the compiler. But \\ li.it 
 
 I should we think of the music teacher who should 
 present a symphony of Beethoven, as a model, to 
 a beginner practicing the scales? The parallel 
 case is quite as absurd. The result is bad in 
 two ways: (1) the unintelligibility, to the child, 
 of such a poetical selection deprives it of all 
 use as a model ; and (2) the disgust thus occa- 
 sioned becomes permanent, and leads the pupil, 
 even in manhood, to avoid a reperusal of the 
 author thus used. How many persons, of mature 
 years, date their dislike to Milton, for instance, 
 from an enforced use of his works as reading or 
 parsing exercises in early youth ! The introduc- 
 
 I tion of poetry into the school curriculum should 
 follow the natural plan, the first poems used 
 being exceedingly simple, containing no words 
 
 II beyond the vocabulary of the child, and treating 
 I of subjects and objects of every-day familiarity. 
 
 I An excellent plan would be to place, as an intro- 
 ductory lesson in reading, a paraphrase in prose 
 of the poem to be used. In this way, the pupil. 
 
 [ being possessed beforehand of the meaning of 
 wdiat he is approaching, is at liberty to give more 
 attention to the poetical mode of expression, 
 
 ' this being the principal thing to be considered : 
 for, if the meaning were the principal thing, 
 
 •I prose would be preferable — it being more direct 
 
 j and in more familiar language. — The fact that 
 
 rhythmical language is, in many cases, of assist- 
 
 I ance to the memory, indicates its peculiar fitness 
 
 I for certain educational purposes. By its aid. 
 abstract truths and arbitrary rules may often be 
 fixed in the mind, in a way not possible by any 
 other. Moral truths, also, may often be better 
 
 ■ retained in the memory by their expression in 
 rhythmical form. The experience of most 
 persons will probably furnish illustrations of this 
 fact. There appears to be a limit to this use of 
 rhyme, however, determined partly by the nat- 
 ure of the things to be remembered, and partly 
 by the esthetic effect produced by such use. It 
 may be said, in general, that all concrete ideas 
 
 ■ and relations. — those which, upon suggestion, 
 call up in the mind material images — do not 
 require the aid of rhyme to fix them in the | 
 
 TOY 70T 
 
 memory; while ideas and relations of an es- 
 sentially abstract c,r arbitrary nature, are more 
 easily retained in the memory by a rhythmical 
 expression of them. As an illustration of a vio- 
 lation of the first proposition, may In- mentioned 
 a rhymed text-book on geography. In the study 
 of geography, the definitions, descriptions, etc., 
 bring always accompanied by pictures and maps, 
 are firmly fixed in the mind by the eye— the 
 iii''-' effective of all the agents used in acquir- 
 ing knowledge. To call in the aid of the ear, 
 therefore, is superfluous, and tends, rather, to 
 distraction. If there had been originally any 
 vagueness of conception left by the image ad- 
 dressed to the eye. the ear might, with propriety, 
 be called in to aid it ; but. from the nature of 
 things, this is impossible. The picture of a 
 material object will always present to the mind 
 a clearer idea of it. than any verbal description. 
 A further objection, in this case. is. that the 
 rhymed version, degenerating, as it is almost sure 
 to do. into grotesque doggerel, familiarizes the 
 mind of the pupil with the most degraded form 
 of poetry, and tends to unfit it for an appre- 
 ciation of the higher. In regard to the second 
 proposition mentioned above, it may be said that 
 we naturally seek some short, succinct form for 
 expressing generalizations, and abstract and ar- 
 bitrary relations, which shall make them conve- 
 nient for use ; and that form is often found. If 
 the poetic form would enable us to remember 
 them more distinctly, and if no objection to its 
 use could be raised, it would be allowable ; but 
 if this form, besides adding little to our ability to 
 remember, is open to the additional objection 
 that it presents to the undiscriminating mind of 
 the pupil a bad poetical model, it would seem 
 that it ought not to be used. It can hardly be 
 claimed that rhymed versions of the Lord's 
 Prayer, or of the" Proverbs, for instance— of the 
 propositions of geometry, or of the rules of 
 arithmetic, have helped us materially to learn 
 more readily or appreciate more fully the truths 
 contained in them. The very nature of some 
 truths is averse to ornament: arid the use of it, in 
 such cases should be discountenanced. — A fre- 
 quent result of the appreciation of the beautiful, 
 which underlies all poetry, is the attempt of 
 youth sooner or later to write poetry. Every 
 teacher's experience will supply instances of this. 
 This inclination usually makes its appearance 
 between the ages of 15 and 20. in minds that 
 have a natural taste for beautiful objects, after 
 a considerable command of language has been 
 obtained, and before the realities of life have 
 come to darken, with their shadows, the bright 
 sky of youth. As not one in a hundred, how- 
 ever, of those who write verses, at this age, will 
 become a poet, the teacher's course is plain. His 
 method of cure should be, unsparing criticism, 
 but applied in a kindly spirit. It will require only 
 a few exposures of bad rhymes, false similes and 
 metaphors — and of these, the most preposterous 
 will generally be found to be the most cherished 
 by the writer — to recall the woidd-be poet to a 
 more sober and useful pursuit. 
 
708 POLITENESS 
 
 POLITENESS. See Manners. 
 
 POLITICAL ECONOMT. See Social 
 Economy. 
 
 POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. See Scien- 
 tific Schools. 
 
 POPULAR EDUCATION. See Educa- 
 tion, and National Education. 
 
 PORTUGAL, a country in the south-west of 
 Europe, having an area of 35,813 square miles, 
 and a population, in 1872, of 4,367,o82, nearly 
 all of whom belong to the Roman Catholic 
 Church, and speak the Portuguese language. 
 
 Educational History. — The first ruler in 
 Portugal to exert himself actively in behalf of 
 education wasP/om Diniz, in the 13th century. 
 In 1290, he founded the University of Lisbon, 
 ■which, after several changes of locality, was 
 finally settled at Coimbra; he also established 
 elementary schools for the poorer classes. In 
 1540, the Jesuits were called to Portugal, and 
 gradually obtained an almost complete control of 
 secondary instruction ; but, in the 18th century, 
 they were expelled from the country byPombal. 
 At the same time, a decree was issued to secu- 
 larize instruction, and faculties of philosophy 
 aud mathematics were added to the University 
 of Coimbra. No record in relation to elementary 
 instruction is found until the 18th century; and 
 the number of primary schools, previous to L772, 
 was only about 400, while Creek and Latin were 
 taught only iu convent schools. Pombal estab- 
 lished 257 Latin primary schools, and founded 
 and provided for 21 professorship of rhetoric 
 and history, besides schools of philosophy, logic, 
 metaphysics, and the moral sciences. He also 
 gave his attention to the endowment and super- 
 vision of seminaries for the priesthood, and re- 
 organized the University of Coimbra after the 
 model of the Italian universities. With the 
 overthrow of Pombal, the clergy and nobility 
 again resumed control of public education. Dur- 
 ing the wars and revolutions of the first half of 
 the present century, education was necessarily 
 neglected. In 1836, a general system for the 
 re-organization of the public schools of all grades 
 was prepared by I>e Compos, vice-rector of the 
 Coimbra University. This was modified by the 
 regulations of 1844. In 1875, a new law was 
 prepared by the minister of the interior, which 
 is now in force. 
 
 Primary Instruction. — According to the law 
 of 1875, there must be two classes of primary 
 schools, — the elementary, and the higher element- 
 ary schools. Instruction is free only in the 
 former. Every parish must have separate ele- 
 mentary schools for boys and for girls; but, in 
 very small parishes, mixed schools are allowed. 
 Every nrrondissemi'id must have a higher ele- 
 mentary school. Teachers are appointed by the 
 communal council, upon the nomination of a 
 school commission. This commission consists of 
 three members of the communal council, a rep- 
 resentative of the charitable institutions of the 
 commune, and the sub-inspector of the arron- 
 dissement. The communal council can remove 
 teachers, but only in connection with the signer 
 
 PORTUGAL 
 
 of the contract of appointment, after a trial of 
 the accused, and after the school commission 
 has passed a unanimous resolution to that effect. 
 At the head of the educational system, is the 
 supii'ine council of studies; with the minister of 
 the interior a- president, aud the rector of the 
 university of Coimbra, or his delegate, as vice- 
 president. It is, furthermore, composed of eight 
 regular judges aud a large number of irregular 
 judges. The regular judges are men distinguished 
 for learning and good character; while the irreg- 
 ular judges are professors at Coimbra. or grad- 
 uates from that university. Candidates for the 
 position of teacher must be twenty-one years of 
 age, and possess a certificate of health and mor- 
 als, signed by the pastor of their place of resi- 
 dence. They must pass a public examination, 
 which is intended to ascertain their maturity of 
 mind, rather than their actual acquirements. 
 Teachers are of two degrees. Those of the first 
 degree are appointed either for life or for three 
 years; those of the second degree, for life only. 
 Instruction is given in the primary schools daily, 
 except on Sundays and holidays; but when there 
 is no holiday during the week, Thursday is free. 
 The daily sessions are from 8 to 11 o'clock in the 
 forenoon, and 2 to 5 in the afternoon, from Oc- 
 tober till Easter; the rest of the year, from 7 to 
 It) A. M. and from 3 to (i P. M. The study com- 
 missioners may also authorize teachers to form 
 evening classes for adults. Every year the study 
 commission publishes a list of all children of 
 
 scl 1 age. The names of those parents who fail 
 
 to have their children registered, are read by the 
 minister from the pulpit, and a list of them is 
 nailed to the church door. Upon repeated of- 
 fenses, fines are imposed. In the same manner, 
 regular attendance is enforced. The branches of 
 instruction in the elementary schools comprise 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, language, mi irals, and, 
 for girls, sewing. In the higher elementary schools, 
 there are taught, in addition to these branches, 
 linear drawing, history, the elements of the nat- 
 ural sciences, and agriculture. Five seminaries 
 are to be established for male, and two for female 
 teachers. In 1869, there were, 1,997 schools for 
 boys and 3G2 for girls, making a total of 2,359. 
 The number of pupils enrolled was 117,305, of 
 whom 99,358 were boys, and 17.947 girls. The 
 number of pupils attending the schools was 
 C2.937, of whom 52,720 were boys, and 10,217 
 were girls. Resides these, there are many ex- 
 cellent private schools in the principal cities. 
 There were also 5 normal schools for males, with 
 1110 students, and one for females, with 20 
 students. 
 
 Secondary Instruction.- — Secondary instruc- 
 tion is imparted in lyceums, which correspond 
 pretty much to the French institutions of that 
 name. At some of the lyceums, agriculture and 
 rural economy are taught; and, at Funchal, 
 Madeira, and other places on the islands belong- 
 ing to Portugal, French and English; while, in 
 other places, the course of studies comprises 
 chemistry, natural history, mechanics. book-keep- 
 ing, trigonometry, mathematical geography, and 
 
other branches. Greek, German, and English are 
 
 not obligatory; but a knowledge of these lan- 
 guages is advantageous at the final examination. 
 Candidates for the appointment of professor in 
 a lyceum must he at least '-'."> years of age. The 
 examination is both oral and written. Graduates 
 of the Coimbra university are preferred, and tin' 
 appointments are made for life, and in the name 
 of the king. Besides the lyceums of the state, 
 there are private colleges, the teachers of which 
 must also possess a license to teach. They are 
 likewise subject to inspection by the government. 
 Teachers in the lyceums. as well as in the pri- 
 mary schools, are exempt from taxation and mil- 
 itary duty. Independently of the lyceums. the 
 government may establish Latin classes in 120 
 of the most important places near the capitals 
 of the several districts. These classes are in- 
 structed in public buildings, have each a library, 
 and are provided with the necessary books of 
 instruction. The number of lyceums, in 1869, 
 was 21, with 3,744 students. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Superior instruction 
 is afforded in the University of Coimbra, which 
 has five faculties : theology, medicine, math- 
 ematics, and philosophy. In 1859, Dom Pedro V.. 
 in order to excite a greater interest in education, 
 opened, at his own expense, a faculty of helles- 
 hares, with five professorships, which hold the 
 same rank as those of the university. The Univer- 
 sity of Coimbra has from 900 to 1,000 students. 
 
 Special Instruction. — Special instruction is 
 given in the following schools: 19 theological 
 schools and courses, one polytechnic school at Lis- 
 bon, and one at Oporto, 3 medico-surgical schools, 
 one school of veterinary surgery, one general 
 agricultural institute, one commercial school, five 
 industrial schools, two academies of fine arts, one 
 conservatory of music, an army school, a navy 
 school, and a military college, in Lisbon. — See 
 Schmid, Padagogische Encyi lopadii .art. Portu- 
 gal- Bkachei.i.i. Die Staaten Europa's; Ghronik 
 'lies Vblksschvlwesens, L875; Report of the U.S. 
 Commissioner of Education for 1873. 
 
 POTTER, Alonzo, an American educator. 
 born in Beekman. N. V.. duly 6., L800; died in 
 San Francisco, Feb. 4., 1'865. He graduated 
 with first honors at Union College in 1818, be- 
 came a tutor there in 1819, and. in 1821, was 
 made professor of mathematics and natural phi- 
 losophy. While holding the latter position, he 
 declined the presidency of ( ieneva College. He 
 was rector of St. Paul's church. Boston, from 
 1826 to 1831, which position he resigned in the 
 latter year to accept that of professor of moral 
 philosophy in Union College, of which institu- 
 tion he became vice-president in 1838. He was 
 made bishop of Pennsylvania in 1845, which po- 
 sition he held till his death. He was the author 
 of a treatise on logarithms, and one on descrip- 
 tive geometry, both prepared for the use of his 
 classes while professor in Union College, but not 
 published. His most noted educational work 
 was that published in connection with <i. B. 
 Emerson, entitled The School and the School- 
 master (1842). Besides this, he was the author 
 
 PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OF 709 
 
 of many addresses, discourses, etc.. upon subjects 
 connected with education. Interesting notices 
 of his life and works may be found in Bishop 
 
 Stevens's funeral sermon (Oct. 19., 1865), and in 
 1/. moirs of the Life and Services of the Rl. Rev. 
 A. Potter, It. D., 1. 1.. !>.. by the Rev. Dr. M. 
 
 w 
 
 See Ti 
 
 PRACTICE, Schools of. 
 
 Seminaries. 
 
 PRAXIS ((Jr. -paii,-, from - r ,,m:,r. to do), 
 a particular form of exercise designed to afford 
 practice to the pupils ; as a praxis for parsing or 
 analv.-is. in teadiinir grammar. 
 
 PRECEPTORS, College of (London), is a 
 body founded in 1846 to enable teachers, partic- 
 ularly in private schools, to acquire a sound 
 knowledge of their profession, and to give 
 them the opportunity of obtaining certificates 
 attesting their attainments and fitn.-.-s to teach. 
 The first promoters of the college, deploring 
 the incompetency of so many teachers, desired 
 that every one entering the profession should 
 provide himself with such a certificate, as a 
 guarantee to the public and to his fellow- 
 teachers. The movement (which had originated 
 at Brighton) spread rapidly: and, within a year, 
 there were 1(100 members. (As to the qualifica- 
 tion for membership, see below.) These were 
 formed into a corporate body, in 1849. The 
 lowest diploma which the college grants is 
 that of Associate, next come those of Licen- 
 tiate and Fellow. Candidates for all these 
 diplomas are examined in the science and art of 
 education; and are excused the other subjects, if 
 they have previously passed elsewhere what is 
 recognized as an equivalent examination. One 
 peculiarity of the examination for those who 
 have to pass in all the subjects, is. that each sub- 
 ject may be taken up separately, and the rest 
 when the candidate pleases. This is very con- 
 venient for hard-worked teachers who have 
 little leisure. There is not, however, a very 
 large demand for these diplomas. The number 
 of pel-sons, male and female, at present holding 
 them is 338. of whom 49 are Fellows, 130 
 Licentiates, and 159 Associates. Unfortunately, 
 in regard to the membership, the very error, 
 for many years, was committed which the 
 college was founded to do battle against. The 
 promoters intended to include among the first 
 members all persons of respectability, both males 
 and females, who were at the time engaged 
 in teaching, and paid a yearly subscription of 
 one guinea. But they also intended, at no 
 distant date, but a date not assigned, to sub- 
 ject all candidates for membership to examina- 
 tion. Amid the pressure of other business, 
 however, and of crippled resources, the latter 
 intention was lost sight of. It would seem, also, 
 that there had been some laxity in the grant- 
 ing of diplomas. The consequence was that 
 A. C P.,L.C.P.,F.C.P. with M.C.P. became 
 involved in one common depreciation. It must 
 be understood that the college, in its documents, 
 had always drawn a clear distinction between 
 examined and unexamined members — a distinc- 
 
HO PRECEPTORS, COLLEGE OP 
 
 tion which the general public could not be ex- 
 pected to bear in mind or even to apprehend. 
 
 The investigations of the Schools inquiry 
 Commission, along with a general movement on 
 the part of various learned bodies for stricter 
 conditions of membership, drew the attention of 
 the more active members of the college to the 
 necessity of reform ; and, since the spring of 1 870. 
 no member has been admitted without either be- 
 ing examined by the college, or showing that he 
 has passed, elsewhere, one of the examinations 
 specified in the regulations. The college, there- 
 fore, was never in a more healthful and hopeful 
 state than at the present time. The stricter reg- 
 ulations have not diminished the number of 
 applications for membership, there being 976 
 members in Nov., 1876. Of these, 243 are also 
 holders of diplomas. The remaining 95 holders 
 of diplomas are not members, and do not share 
 in the government of the college. — The journal 
 of the college, which publishes reports of its 
 proceedings, is the Educational Times, which 
 was commenced in Oct., 1847, and is published 
 monthly ; but, though the official organ, it is not 
 the property of the college. 
 
 In 1K72, a professorship of education was 
 instituted ; and the late Joseph Payne was 
 appointed to the chair. He commenced his first 
 course, at the beginning of 1873, to a class of 
 about 70 teachers, most of whom wn-e ladies. 
 The office has since been held by the Rev. R. 
 II. Quick, author of Essays on Educational 
 Reformers (London ami Cincinnati); by Mr. 
 Meiklejohn, lately appointed to the new chair 
 of education at St. Andrews, Scotland; and by 
 Mr. ( 'room Robertson, professor of logic at Uni- 
 versity College, London. 
 
 There are other kindred duties, in addition to 
 those at first contemplated, which the college has 
 undertaken. At Christmas, 1850, it conducted 
 its first examination of schools; and the system 
 was in full operation in 1854, two years before the 
 scheme of the Society of Arts, and four years be- 
 fore that of the University of Oxford. These 
 examinations are held every half year at various 
 centers, simultaneously ; and certificates, with 
 prizes for the most distinguished, are bestowed 
 upon the successful boys and girls. The number 
 of candidates at these examinations, in 1875, was 
 about 2,800, coming from about 150 schools. 
 
 There is also a system in operation for the 
 examination of schools by visiting examiners ; 
 under which the examiner makes an official 
 report of the state of tin.' school, but no certifi- 
 cates are granted. The College, moreover, con- 
 ducts the preliminary examinations in arts, for 
 various medical corporations. The number of pu- 
 pils at these examinations is about 5,800 a year. 
 
 In June 1801, were commenced the monthly 
 meetings of members and their friends, at which 
 papers on educational subjects are read and dis- 
 cussed. These meetings tend to "corporate feel- 
 ing and helpful union," for those members, at 
 least, who live in London or its vicinity. The 
 papers, many of them of great value, are gener- 
 ally reported at length in the next number of the 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 Educational Times. There is an educational 
 library of nearly 4,000 volumes, to which con- 
 stant additions are made, mostly by gift. — 
 The college is managed by a council of 48 
 members, twelve of whom retire every year. 
 They are elected at a general meeting of mem- 
 bers. In addition to these 48, all ex-presidents 
 of council become members of it for life. Among 
 the presidents .if the council, have been Dr. 
 Jacob, late of Christ's Hospital: Dr. Kennedy, 
 late of Shrewsbury; and Dr. Haig-Brown, of 
 the Charterhouse. At present Dr. J ex- Blake, of 
 liughv. is the president. 
 
 The college is doing a good and useful work 
 for middle-class schools, and its further useful- 
 ness is hindered only by its want of funds. It 
 needs a more complete educational library, a 
 more commodious home than its present one (at 
 42 Queen Square, Bloomsbury), and an endow- 
 ment for its professorship, for this last purpose 
 between £400 and £500 has been contributed up 
 to the present time. In 1875, the members' sub- 
 scriptions yielded £521; the net profits from the 
 examinations produced a sum perhaps somewhat 
 larger than this ; and there seem to be no other 
 sources of income. — Sec a paper by J. Payne on 
 the history of the college in the Educational 
 Times, July, 1868; Th&Charter,Begulations,aaA 
 other documents of the College; Speech of Dr. 
 Jex-Blake, in the Educational Tunes for Feb., 
 1876; Demojkst and Montucci, De I'Enseiijne- 
 ment Seconduire en FAngleterre, vol. i ; Schools 
 Inquiry Commission, vols. i„ iv., vn., ix. (1868). 
 
 PREPARATORY SCHOOLS, schools for 
 
 pared for admission to the college or university. 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS, a denomination of 
 < 'hristiaiis distinguished by their support of asys- 
 teniof church government by presbyters, in oppo- 
 sition, on the one hand, to Episcopalians (q. v.), 
 and, on the other, to Congregationalists (q. v.). 
 The Presbyterians, in this respect, agree with 
 the Reformed churches (q. v.), and were, like 
 them, modeled after the plan laid down by Cal- 
 vin, in his Institutes. The Presbyterians con- 
 stitute the established church in Scotland, and 
 are a numerous body in all other parts of the 
 British Empire, as well as in the United States. 
 Both in Europe and in the United States, they 
 are divided into a number of independent or- 
 ganizations. In 1875. delegates from a large 
 number of Presbyterian and Reformed churches 
 met in London, England, to form an Alliance of 
 Reformed Churches throughout the World, 
 which is to be a voluntary and co-operative, but 
 not an organic union. We treat in this article 
 (I) of the Presbyterians in the British Empire; 
 and (II) of the Presbyterians in the United 
 States. 
 
 I. Presbyterians in the British Empire. — 
 (1) The bulk of the population of Scotland has 
 been I'resbytcrian since the middle of the 16th 
 century ; and, at present, the aggregate number 
 of the different Presbyterian bodies exceeds 85 
 per cent of the total population. The established 
 church, called the Church of Scotland, has about 
 
PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 1.300 congregations ; the Free Church of Scot- 
 land (organized in 1843), 900; the United 
 Presbyterians, 000; ami, besides these, there are 
 several smaller bodies. The progress of edu- 
 cational institutions of all classes has, therefore, 
 been, to a great extent, under the influence of 
 the Presbyterian Churches. (See Scotland.) 
 No church in Europe has taken more prompt 
 and energetic steps for the general diffusion of 
 school education than the Presbyterians of Scot- 
 land. As early as 1695, it was enacted "that 
 there be a school founded and a school-master 
 appointed in every parish by advice of the pres- 
 byteries, and to this purpose that the heritors 
 do, in every congregation, inert among them- 
 selves, and provide a commodious house for a 
 school, and modify a stipend to the school- 
 master, which shall not be under 10 merks 
 (£6 13 s. 4d.) nor above 20 merks". As almost 
 all the population of the country is Presbyterian, 
 the common-school system has preserved a pa- 
 rochial character. When, in 1843, the Free 
 Church of Scotland was organized, it was re- 
 solved to erect schools in connection with the 
 congregations of the Free Church, and the edu- 
 cational scheme which, in consequence, has 
 sprung up, is co-extensive with the parochial 
 system of the Established Church. In 1873, of 
 2,108 schools inspected by the government in- 
 spectors, 1,379 belonged to the Established and 
 577 to the Free Church ; while, of non-Presby- 
 terian schools, there were 86 belonging to the 
 Episcopal, and 00 to the Catholic Church. — The 
 Scottish universities of Edinburgh, Glasgow, 
 and Aberdeen are in organic connection with 
 the Church of Scotland, by means of theological 
 professorships ; while, at St. Andrews, an entire 
 college, St. Mary's, is appointed solely to the 
 
 teachingof theology and the languages mecte 1 
 
 with it. The Free Church lias established a 
 divinity school in Edinburgh, c.dle 1 the Xew 
 College of the Free Church. This college, which 
 was complete! at a cost approaching £40,000, is 
 provided with a more complete staff of profess- 
 ors than any similar institution in Scotland, 
 and with more effectual means of training an 
 educated ministry than is to be found elsewhere 
 in Great Britain. The Free Church has also built 
 a divinity hall in Aberdeen. It has also two 
 normal schools, — one in Edinburgh and one in 
 Glasgow, for the training of school-masters. The 
 teachers receive a salary from a general fund, 
 which is raised by monthly contributions in all 
 the congregations, and which is divided, at the 
 end of the year, according to a certain scale, 
 proportioned to the qualifications of the re- 
 spective teachers. — The United Presbyterians 
 have likewise a divinity hall. The number of 
 their Sunday-schools is 12,129, with 92,502 
 scholars. 
 
 (2) In Ireland, the Presbyterians constitute 
 about 8 per cent of the total population, and are 
 almost confined to the province of Ulster. In 
 the schools of the National Board of Education, 
 the Presbyterian children, in 1S74, numbered 
 115,258, equal to about 11 per cent. — A Pres- 
 
 byterian college (Magee College) was opened 
 at Londonderry, Oct. 10., 1865. In 1846, Mrs. 
 Magee, widow of the Rev. William Magee, a Pres- 
 
 authorized, by a decree of the Lord Chancellor, 
 to M-lect a veiiient site at or near L Ion- 
 deny. The Irish Society have granted an an- 
 nual endowment of £250 to the chair of natural 
 philosophy and mathematics, and £250 for five 
 years toward the general expenses of the col- 
 lege. The Rev. RichardDill, who died in L858, 
 bequeathed £5,000, to establish two professor- 
 ships. The appointment of the trustees is vested 
 in the General Assembly. The professors are 
 required to sign the Westminster Confession of 
 
 Faith, but no religious test is prescribed for 
 students. — The majority of the Irish Presby- 
 terian ministers are educated in the General As- 
 sembly's '1 heological ( 'ollege. at I'elfiist. Previous 
 to the passing of the Irish ( lunch Act, in 1 869, a 
 parliamentary grant of £1.750 per annum suf- 
 ficed for the maintenance of six professors, at 
 £250 each, leaving £250 to defray the expense of 
 management. The government, on the passing 
 of the act. granted a sum of £43,970 as compen- 
 sation; and the interest of this sum, together 
 with that on £5.000 subscribed by frieiidsof the 
 institution, and the fees of the students, makeup 
 the annual income. Patronsdiave recently adcl- 
 ed prizes, worth from £20 to £50 per annum. 
 
 (3) In EitylaHil, the first presbytery was 
 formed in 1572; and, for a time, the Presby- 
 terians formed the leading Puritan element in 
 the Church oi England. At the time of the "West- 
 minster Assembly, Presbyterianism was, for a 
 short time, even raised to the position of the 
 established religion of England. The Presby- 
 terians having been overthrown politically at the 
 Restoration, and crushed ecclesiastically by 
 their ejection from the national church, a large 
 portion gradually merged into Congregationalism 
 or Unitarianism. The scattered fragments of the 
 old orthodox Presbyterianism of England form- 
 ed, in 1836, the English Presbyterian Church, 
 which, in 1870, numbered 157 congregations, 
 and 29,045 communicants. It had also 2,920 
 Sunday-schools, with 27.(100 scholars. By a union 
 with the United Presbyterians of England, con- 
 summated in 1.-70. the number of the Congre- 
 gations was raised to 203. and that of members. 
 to 50,000. The I 'lunch has a theological college 
 at London, which is partially endowed, and is 
 under the charge of three professors. 
 
 (4) liritixli Dependencies. — In the Dominion 
 of Canada, the Presbyterians are, in point of 
 numbers, the third among the religious denom- 
 inations, being only exceeded by the Roman 
 Catholics and the ('hurch of England. The four 
 provinces of Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and 
 New Brunswick, had, in 1871. a population of 
 107,259 connected with the Church of Scotland, 
 and 437,439 persons connected with various 
 Presbyterian bodies. Ontario has a Presbyterian 
 
712 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 university at Kingston, called Queen's University 
 and College, which received a royal charter in 
 1841, and contains the four faculties of theology, 
 
 law, medicine, and arts, hi Quebec, there is 
 McGill University, at Montreal, with several 
 affiliated colleges, and, in Nova Scotia, a Pres- 
 byterian college, at Halifax. In Australia, the 
 colony of Victoria had, in 1876, 3 Presbyterian 
 colleges —Scotch College at Melbourne, Geelong 
 College, and Ballarat College. 
 
 II. The Presbyterians in the United States in- 
 clude several bodies, here considered separately. 
 
 (1) Presbyterian Church in the United Suites 
 of America. — Presbyterian churches had been 
 established in Maryland before the close of the 
 17th century. In 171(i, the first synod was 
 formed, and in 1788 the General Assembly was 
 organized. The Cumberland Presbyterians se- 
 ceded in 1810; and, in 1838, the Church divided 
 into the Old School and the New School, which 
 reunited in 1871. The churches in the South- 
 ern States withdrew in 1861, and have since 
 maintained a separate organization. In 1876, 
 there were under the jurisdiction of the General 
 Assembly 4,744 ministers, 5,077 churches, and 
 535,210 members. The Presbyterian Church, 
 from the earliest period, has been .an earnest 
 Worker and strenuous advocate for education : 
 and one of the chief causes of the secession of 
 the Cumberland branch was the tenacity with 
 which the General Assembly insisted on high 
 educational qualifications for ministers. As 
 early as 173!). a proposition was brought before 
 the Synod of Philadelphia for the erection of a 
 school or seminary of learning. The synod ap- 
 proved of the design and appointed a 
 committee to carry it into effect, and in 
 1744, a synodal school was established. The 
 < 'olli-ge of New Jersey, at Princeton, chartered 
 in 174(i and opened in 1747, was founded 
 under the auspices of the Synod of New 
 York. Other institutions have been organ- 
 ized under Presbyterian auspices, as follows : 
 Washington and .Jefferson College. Washington. 
 Pa., 1802; Hamilton College, Clinton, N. Y., 
 1815; Maryville College. Marvville, Tenn., 1819; 
 Centre College, Danville, Ky., 1823; Hanover 
 College, Hanover, hid., 1827; Lafayette College. 
 Easton, Pa., 1831; Wabash College, Crawfords- 
 ville, hid.. 1832 ; Lincoln University, Oxford, 
 Pa., 1853; University College, San Francisco, 
 Cal., 1859; Blackburn University, Carlinville, 
 111., 1867; King College, Bristol,' Tenn., 1868 ; 
 University of Wooster, Wooster, O., 1870; 
 Evans University. Evans, Col., 1874 ; and Par- 
 sons College. Fairfield, Iowa, 1875. Three colleges 
 are jointly under Presbyterian and Congrega- 
 tional control; namelv. Knox, at Galesburg. 111., 
 1841 ; Beloit, at Beloit. Wis , 1847 ; and Olivet, 
 at Olivet, Mich.. 1 828. The academies and female 
 colleges under the auspices of the denomination 
 are numerous. The Church has 13 theological 
 seminaries, as follows : at Princeton, X. .T., 
 1812 ; at Auburn. X. Y .. 1820; Western, Alle- 
 
 fheny City, Pa.,1825; Lane. ( 'incinnati. O., 1832; 
 inion,N. Y. City, 1836; at Danville, Ky., 1853; 
 
 Hie l, : ; ,,1- •, nrivoftb: Xorthvast Chicago, 
 111., h-59: Blackburn I "ni\ >-i.-itv (theological 
 
 department . L867; at San Francisco, Cal., 1869; 
 
 l ninian. Newark. N..I.. Im'i'.I; German, Dubuque, 
 la., 187(1; Lincoln University (theological de- 
 partment), 1871; and Biddle Memorial Institute 
 (theological department), Charlotte. X. C. 1867. 
 Of these, the last two are for colored people, and 
 the two immediately preceding them, for Ger- 
 mans. In 1875 — 6, they had. in all. 56 professors 
 and 578 students. The number graduating that 
 year was 134. The board of education of the 
 Church, in 1876, received 872,040, and gave 
 financial aid to 458 students (222 theological. 21 8 
 collegiate, and 18 academical). In the same year, 
 the Church maintained, for freedmen, 39 day 
 schools, with 65 teachers and 3.176 pupils, and 
 5 higher schools, with 903 students, of whom 
 43 were preparing for the ministry. The foreign 
 mission field of the Presbyterian Board embraces 
 — besides several Indian tribes in the United 
 States — Mexico, the United States of Colombia, 
 Brazil, Chili. Liberia and Gaboon (Africa), 
 India, Siam, China. Japan. Persia, and Syria. 
 The mission schools had 13,501 pupils in 1876. 
 
 (2) The Presbyterian Church in the United 
 States, frequently, also, called The Presbyterian 
 Chvrch South.— Oa the 1th of December 1861, 
 commissioners from all the presbyteries of the 
 Presbyterian Church within the Confederate 
 States met in Augusta, Ga., and organized as a 
 Genera] Assembly. The style and title chosen 
 for the Church was. The Prestniterimi I'lmreh 
 
 of the Confederate States of America; but after, 
 the capitulation of the Confederate armies, the 
 name was changed as above. After the close 
 of the war. the presbyteries in Kentucky and 
 Missouri, with a large majority of the con- 
 gregations and people, united themselves with 
 the' Southern Church. 'I his Church now (1876) 
 consists of 12 synods, 62 presbyteries, 1.821 
 churches, 1,079 ministers, and 112,183 commu- 
 nicants. The moneys contributed for all the pur- 
 poses in the last ecclesiastical year amounted to 
 |1,138,681. The General Assembly, through 
 committees of its appointment, maintains for- 
 eign missions in the Indian Territory, Mexico, 
 South America, Greece. Italy. India, and China; 
 and domestic missions in new and destitute 
 localities in the South. It also aids in the educa- 
 tion for the ministry of young men of limited 
 means. and in the publication and dissemination 
 of a religious and doctrinal literature. It has a 
 publishing house in Richmond, Va. The Pres- 
 byterian Church declares, in its constitution, that 
 " because it is highly reproachful to religion, 
 and dangerous to the Church, to intrust the holy 
 ministry to weak and ignorant men, the presby- 
 tery shall try each candidate, as to his know ledge 
 of the Latin language, and the original languages 
 in which the Holy Scriptures were written. 
 They shall also examine him in the arts and 
 sciences." The first written text required of the 
 candidate is "a Latin e.rnjesis on some common 
 head in divinity." The common requirement in 
 its presbyteries is equal to the curriculum in 
 
PRKSBYTKKIAXS 
 
 713 
 
 most American colleges. The demands of the 
 Church for the education of its ministry and its 
 own youth have every-wherc made it the patron- 
 ess of learning and engaged it in the founding of 
 institutions for higher education. It has been 
 the pioneer of education in nearly all the older 
 Southern communities. During the civil war, 
 many of the institutions of learning founded 
 and endowed by the Presbyterian Church in the 
 South, perished by the loss of endowments in the 
 general financial wreck. Among them, were 
 Oglethorpe University, <ia., Oakland College 
 Miss.. La Grange College, Tenn., and other 
 valuable institutions of 1 'ss prominence. Centre 
 College, Ky., was lost through decisions of the 
 United States courts in favor of a minority ad- 
 hering to the old Assembly. Others were sus- 
 pended by the enlistment of the students in the 
 armies, and were crippled by the partial loss of 
 endowments. The following, founded and en- 
 dowed by Presbyterians, survived the disasters 
 of the war, and now. under Presbyterian control 
 or auspices, are rendering valuable service to the 
 country: Hampden Sidney College, Va., David- 
 son College, N. C, Stewart College, Term., West- 
 minster College, Mo., King College, Tenn., and 
 Austin College. Texas. Central University, at 
 
 fully opened since the war. The synods of Nash- 
 ville, Memphis, Alabama. Mississippi. Arkansas, 
 and Texas, conjointly, have also projected a uni- 
 versity (the South-Western) to be strictly under 
 Presbyterian control, for which they are now 
 soliciting an endowment It has been located 
 at ( 'larkesville. Tenn. Stewart ( 'ollege has been 
 merged in it. The financial prostration of the 
 South since the war, has rendered the endow- 
 ment of its institutions of learning slow and dif- 
 ficult. — Of academies and schools, competent to 
 prepare boys for college, or young men for the 
 university, or to give a good mathematical and 
 classical education, thorough as far as it goes, to 
 those whose means do not admit of more elaborate 
 courses, there is a great insufficiency throughout 
 the South. Those which had previously ac- 
 quired success and reputation, were generally 
 broken up through the disastrous effects of the 
 war, and the poverty and depression of the people 
 have operated to the discouragement of efforts 
 to establish others. Of such institutions, there 
 are some of a high character, maintained under 
 Presbyterian allspices ; as. the Bingham School, 
 Mebanesville, N. C, Pleasant Ridge Academy. 
 Green Co., Ala., Edgar Institute, Paris. Ky., 
 Military and Classical Institute, Danville, Ky„ 
 Finlay High School, Lenoir. N. C and Kemper 
 •Institute, Booneville, Mo. — The Southern Pres- 
 byterian Church has two theological seminaries. 
 each endowed and furnished with buildings, 
 libraries, and four professors of eminent ability 
 and learning: Union Seminary, at Hampden 
 Sidney, Va.. and Columbia Seminary, at Colum- 
 bia, S. C. It has recently established a third, at 
 Tuscaloosa, Ala., for the education and training 
 of colored men for the ministry; and for this, it 
 is now gathering an endowment. There are no 
 
 Presbyterian schools or colleges for girls in the 
 South endowed bey I the provision of build- 
 ing.-, apparatus, and librarii s; but there are many 
 
 are many female colleges, collegiate institutes, 
 and seminaries which afford a high grade of in- 
 struction, and are widely esteemed for general 
 
 The work of education for the ministry is con- 
 ducted by the General Assembly, through an 
 executive committee located at Memphis. Tenn. 
 In the last ecclesiastical year, the committee 
 received from the churches, for this purpose, 
 $15,131, from which '.)■< young men, prosecuting 
 their studies at various colleges and theological 
 
 (3) The Cumin 
 
 •land Presbyterian Church. — 
 
 This Church was 
 
 organized February 4., 1810, 
 
 in a log cabin, in 
 
 Dickson Co.. Tenn.. by three 
 
 Presbyterian min 
 
 -tei>. It grew out of the cou- 
 
 troversies incident 
 
 rt to the < ireat Western Revival 
 
 of 1 SOU. which is 
 
 ■egarded by many as oneofthe 
 
 most important n 
 
 ligious movements in the his- 
 
 tory of the Prot 
 
 estant Church of the Tinted 
 
 Slates, as it firmh 
 
 fixed the people of the Valley 
 
 of the Mississippi in the < hristiaii faith. After 
 ten years of anxiety and distress, the new Pres- 
 byterian Church was organized upon what is 
 claimed to be a medium ilieology,a& between the 
 
 feel at home. The 
 
 'I he Minutes of the 
 
 My, 1876, show 26 
 
 ico, and reaching from 
 ns on the east, to the 
 t. The following sta- 
 imately correct: minis- 
 80; candidates, 220; 
 
 the 
 
 ■lull ■ 1. 
 
 S.'ifill.dOO. The following are the principal institu- 
 tions of learning under the control of this ( 'hurch: 
 Cumberland College, Princeton, Ky., founded in 
 1829. discontinued in 1861; Cumberland Univer- 
 sity, Lebanon, Tenn., founded in 1842, which has 
 the leading law school in the South ; Bethel Col- 
 lege, McKenzie, Tenn., 1S47; Waynesburg Col- 
 lege, Waynesburg, Pa., 1850; McGee (ollege. 
 College Mound. Mo., 1853, now suspended; 
 
 I.i iln University, Lincoln. 111.. 1866; Trini- 
 
 tv I'nivei>itv. Tehuacana. Texas. 1876: Cane 
 llill College.' Uoonshoro. Ark.ls.VJ. TheOeneral 
 
 .Use 
 
 ■lit 
 
 of a Union Medical College, in connection with 
 the three universities of the Chinch, namely, 
 Cumberland, Lincoln, and Trinity. It is to be 
 located at St. Louis, or some other large city. 
 
714 
 
 PRESBYTERIANS 
 
 Waynesburg, Lincoln, and Trinity, admit young 
 ladies on equal terms with young men. There 
 are also several institutions exclusively for girls, 
 owned by, or under the patronage of, the < hutch. 
 
 (4) Tin- United Presbyterian Church of North 
 America was founded, in 1858,by the Union of 
 the Associate, commonly called Sivrtlrr, Church 
 (which originated in the secession of the Erskincs 
 and others from the established church of Scot- 
 land, in 1733. and sent its first missionaries to 
 America, in 1753), and the Associate Reformed 
 Church, which was formed, in 1782, by the 
 union of part of the Associate Church and part 
 of the Reformed, or Cnrniuulrr. Church, which 
 organized its first presbytery in America in 
 1770. The Church, in 1870, had 8 synods, 57 
 presbyteries, 77,414 members, and 638 Sabbath 
 schools with 53,364 scholars. 
 
 Previous to the Revolutionary war. the As- 
 sociate ( 'hurch in Scotland, and that in America, 
 were not two churches but one; and its ministers 
 "were educated in Scotland. Erom the first, the 
 ministers wen; well educated, most of them hav- 
 ing received university degrees. Even when the 
 churches in the colonies suffered from a scarcity 
 of clergymen, they did not propose to license the 
 uneducated, but in provide for an education as 
 thorough as that of a So ittish university. In 1704, 
 the Presbytery (organized in 1754) made a re- 
 quest for more ministers, and for one able to teach 
 "the languages and philosophy", which brought 
 from Scotland, the Rev. John Smith, who, for the 
 next four years (177s — 1782), by appointment 
 of the Presbytery, "directed the studies of such 
 as were pursuing a c< mrse with a view to the holy 
 ministry." The way was prepared for ecclesi- 
 astical as well as for political independence. The 
 reception of a minister from a division of the 
 Seceder Church (Burgher), different from that 
 (Anti-Burgher) by which the ministers of the 
 American Presbytery had been sent out, pre- 
 pared the way for a separation, which was prac- 
 tically effected in 17s 1. when the Presbytery of 
 Pennsylvania prepared and adopted a "Narra- 
 tive and Testimony" in addition to the Confes- 
 sion of Faith, without consultation with the 
 home synod. Although, after this, many of its 
 ministers came from Scotland and Ireland, often 
 with a formal appointment, yet from this date, 
 more than before, the (.'hutch proposed to edu- 
 cate its own clergy. In 1702, a log-house was 
 built for a theological seminary; a good num- 
 ber of books, contributed largely by friends in 
 Scotland, w.re place, 1 in Eudolpha Hall ; and 
 the Rev. Dr. John Anderson was elected pro- 
 fessor. The first of its ministers educated in the 
 United States was licensed in 1 795. At the time 
 of the union, the \ sociate Church had 253 min- 
 isters, almost all educated in its own seminaries. 
 The Associate Reformed Church was independ- 
 ent of the mother churches from the beginning. 
 In 1790. its synod resolved to establish a fund 
 to sustain a professor of theologv. and to assist 
 students. The fund (85,000), with avaluable li- 
 brary, was collected, for the most part, by the 
 Rev. J. M. Mason, D.D., in Scotland and England. 
 
 The seminary was established in New York City 
 in 1804. At the time of the union, it had 231 
 ministers, almost all American by birth and edu- 
 cation. Now (187(5) the United Presbyterian 
 Church has three theological seminaries: one at 
 Xenia, Ohio (1855). the legal successor of those 
 at Service, Pa. (1792—1819), at Philadelphia 
 (1821— d), at Canonsburg (1821—55), at Ox- 
 ford. Ohio (1839—58), at Monmouth, 111. (1858 
 -74); a second at Newburg, N. Y., which was 
 at first in New York City [1804 — 21), and was 
 removed to its present location in 1829, where, 
 except an interval of 9 years (1858 — 67), it has 
 continued in operation ; and a third at Alle- 
 gheny < 'it y, Pa., which has received students every 
 year since its establishment, in 1825. Over 500 
 students have been educated in the third, and 
 j over 800. in the others. The endowment fund 
 of Xenia is $30,000; of Newburg, $50,000; and 
 of Alleghenv, Smi.ooo. All have good buildings 
 and libraries, numbering 6 000, 5,000, and 8,000 
 volumes, respectively. Previous to 1852, the As- 
 sociate and Associate Reformed churches made 
 no attempt to found independent colleges. Their 
 members joined with other Presbyterians in 
 establishing and endowing colleges, as in the 
 case of Jefferson. Canonsburg. Pa. (1802 — 65), 
 often taking a leading part in the enterprise, 
 and frequently furnishing the presidents, most 
 of the professors and students, and the largest 
 share of the funds. A Presbyterian College was 
 started in Washington, Iowa (1855 — 64), but was 
 soon abandoned. Ohio Central, at Iberia, Ohio, 
 was, for a time (1867 — 75), under the control of a 
 presbytery of the United Presbyterian Church; 
 and, under another presbytery, was placed Lin- 
 coln College |L*72i. Creenwood. Mo., Westmin- 
 ster ( 'ollcge. New Wilmington, Pa. (1852), estab- 
 lished by the Associate Church, and Monmouth 
 College,' Monmouth, 111. (1855), by the Associate 
 Reformed Church, became the property of the 
 United Presbyterian Church in 1858. These in- 
 stitutions have been open, from the first, to both 
 sexes, as Well as to colored students. Knoxville 
 (Tenn.j ( lollege (1876), costing §20,000, is for the 
 education of colored students. The Ereedman's 
 Board of the U. P. ( 'hurch. organized soon after 
 the slaves were emancipated, reported, in 1876, 
 its receipts for the previous year as amounting 
 to S 1 2,388. The cc illege at Knoxville is sustained 
 by this board, and is designed to furnish teach- 
 ers and preachers for the l'reednien. In the U. P. 
 foreign mission stations, a large number of boys 
 and girls (about 3.0IHii are under instruction 
 every day. The Training College. Osiout, Upper 
 Epypt, in 1874, had an attendance of 84 art 
 students and 10 theological students, the whole 
 number being 237. It has also a building and 
 an endowment fund.— No ladies' seminary has 
 been endowed in the U. P. ( 'hurch. but many 
 excellent schools have been conducted and 
 patronized by the members. The Church has a 
 board of education, which reported to the Gen- 
 eral Assembly, in 1876, that its total receipts 
 for the year had been §2,673. This board aided 
 20 young men in preparing for the ministry. 
 
 
PRIMARY INSTRCCTION 
 
 PRIMARY INSTRUCTION. See Bdu- 
 
 PTJBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 :i5 
 
 PRIMER 1 1 
 
 ittle book 
 
 Church, bo called because used at prime prima 
 Tiara the first hour), originally a small book of 
 prayers, or for elementarj religious instruction, 
 but, at the present time, an elementary reading- 
 book of the lowest grade, The literature relating 
 to primers, or A-B-C books, is very curious and 
 
 interesting, s e of these books having had great 
 
 fame on account of their lung and extensive use. 
 One of the very earliest vras Luther's (or Melanch- 
 thon's) Child's Little Primer, containing the 
 Lord's Prayer, etc. (See Luther.) In L534, a 
 Prymer in Englyske with certain prayers, etc., 
 was printed by John Byddell; and. in L545, King 
 Henry Vni. ordered an English Form of Public 
 Prayer, or Prymer, to be printed; and to be 
 ••taught, lerned, and red'' throughout his domin- 
 ions. Bienrod's primer, containing an illustrated 
 alphabet, was the earliest publication of this kind 
 in German, dating back to the middle of the 
 Kith century. The horn-book was the simplest 
 and most Doted of primers. (See Horn-Book, 
 and Christ Cross Row.) The Royal Primer 
 of Great Britain and the New England Primer 
 also had great fame.— See Barnard's Journal, 
 vol. xii., art. A-B-C Books and Primers. 
 
 PRINCE EDWARD ISLAND, a British 
 province of North America, formerly (until 17!)*.)) 
 called St. John, having an area of 2.1 7"> square 
 miles, and a population, according to the census 
 of 1871, of !)4,0'21. It was under French rule 
 until 1 7 < i 3 , when it was ceded, by the treat) of 
 Paris, to the British. In 1873, it became a mem- 
 ber of the Dominion of Canada. 
 
 The free-school system dates from 1853; but 
 the existing law went into operation in 1868. The 
 lieutenant-governor appoints a board of educa- 
 tion, consisting of 11 members, including the 
 two provincial examiners. This board may can- 
 cel a teachers license on proof of misconduct, 
 may alter a school site on the requisition of two- 
 thirds of the householders, and may also alter 
 district boundaries. There are five trustees for 
 each district, elected by the resident householders. 
 Two trustees are elected and two retire annually. 
 The trustees may allow the schooUiouse to be 
 used as a place of worship, and may also permit 
 the teacher to hold an evening school therein. 
 Exclusive of grammar-school masters, there are 
 two classes or grades of teachers. Those of the 
 lower grade must be qualified to teach book- 
 keeping, English grammar, reading, arithmetic, 
 and geography; while those of the higher grade 
 are expected to be proficient in algebra, geom- 
 etry, trigonometry, mensuration, surveying, nav- 
 igation, and the use of the globes. If the 
 school of his own district is not in operation, a 
 child may attend the nearest school, unless the 
 attendance there exceeds f>0. All residents from 
 5 to 17 years of age are entitled to attend the 
 district school. The normal school is under the 
 control of the board. A grammar school may be 
 ■established for two adjoining districts, instead 
 
 I of district schools ; but the teacher must be 
 competent to teach Latin. Greek, and French. 
 The salaries of the teachers range from £40 to 
 £100 a year, paid from the provincial treasury. 
 In L874, there were 355 schools in operation, of 
 which l> wei-e grammar schools. The number 
 of pupils was 111, LI!):;, and of teachers 453. The 
 number of teachers licensed during the year was 
 46. besides whom the normal school had 27 pupil- 
 teachers. In addition to the public schools, there 
 are several private institutions. A higher educa- 
 tion is provided fo.iutu lieges, Prince of 
 
 Wales College (Protestant Episcopal), and St. 
 Dunstan's (Roman Catholic). — Sec Marling, 
 Canada Educational Directory for 1876 ; 
 Lovell's Gazetteer of British North America. 
 | PRIZES. Sec Kmi i.ation. 
 
 PROGRAMME. See Si hool M in -.cement. 
 
 PROMOTION. See School Management. 
 
 PRUSSIA. See Germany. 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS, Free Schools, or 
 Common Schools, are designations applied to 
 schools established for the free elementary edu- 
 cation of all the children in a community or state. 
 The support of such schools, either wholly or in 
 part, by the stall', presupposes that it is for the 
 general interest of every community to promote 
 the diffusion of education among all classes. (See 
 National Education.) In ancient times, this 
 principle was recognized by free or democratic 
 states. Sparta based her safety and prosperity 
 upon the proper education of every child in the 
 community : and Athens had public schools for 
 all classes of he? free citizens. It was, however, 
 reserved for modern times,and for the free states 
 of the American 1'nioii to carry out this principle 
 to the fullest extent, providing gratuitous edu- 
 cation, of every grade, for all classes— making 
 common schools not eleemosynary institutions, 
 but seminaries in which the children of the rich 
 and the poor might meet together in common. 
 and share alike in the blessings and advantages 
 of education. Free schools, so called, that is, 
 "schools for the gratuitous instruction of poor 
 children can be traced back," says Barnard, "to 
 the early ages of the Christian Church. Wher- 
 ever a missionary station was set up, or the 
 bishop's residence, or seat [cathedra, hence 
 cathedral) was fixed, there gradually grew up a 
 large ecclesiastical establishment, in which were 
 concentrated the means of hospitality for all the 
 clergy, and all the humanizing influences of 
 learning and religion for that diocese or district.'' 
 Connected with these, were the song scoles, 
 where poor 1 n lys were taught to chant, and lecture 
 scoles, where clerks were instructed in reading, 
 and subsequently, grammar schools, for classical 
 instruction. Convent schools, connected with the 
 monasteries, were the germs of the universities; 
 and the endowments which these schools received 
 from princes and prelates enabled them to afford 
 an education to the children of the indigent as 
 well as to those of the wealthy. (See Cathedral 
 Schools.) Royal grammar schools were founded 
 out of the old endowments by Henry YHI. 
 (See Grammar Schools.) " The free schools in 
 
716 PUBLIC SCHOOLS 
 
 England," says Barnard, "were originally estab- 
 lished in towns where there was no old convent- 
 ual, cathedral, royal, or endowed grammar schools. 
 With very few exceptions, these schools were 
 founded and endowed by individuals, for the 
 teaching of Creek and Latin, and for no other 
 gratuitous teaching. The gratuitous instruction 
 was sometimes extended to all the children born 
 or living in a particular parish, or of a particular 
 name. All not specified and provided for in 
 the instruments of endowment paid tuition to 
 the master." (See England.) For the history 
 of public or free schools in other countries, and 
 in the several states of the American Union, see 
 under the respective titles. — One of the most im- 
 portant questions in regard to public schools is. 
 whether the education afforded should be wholly 
 free, or whether, in the case of all children whose 
 parents are able to pay, a tuition fee should 
 be demanded, gratuitous instruction being given 
 to those only who are in indigent circumstances. 
 In many countries, the latter system is in oper- 
 ation. The arguments against it were clearly 
 and forcibly summarized at a meeting of the 
 Birmingham (England) school board, in June, 
 1875, acting in behalf of the free system: 
 "(1) Because compulsory education is enforced 
 in the interest of the whole community, and will 
 be most effectually and economically carried out 
 under a free system; (2) because the cost of this 
 education is unfairly distributed by any other 
 plan ; (3) because the fees act as a direct tax 
 upon attendance, and tend accordingly to prevent 
 the result for which the schools are established, 
 the expense incurred, and the compulsory laws 
 enforced; ( I) because the alternative practice of 
 partial exemption is calculated to pauperize great 
 numbers of persons who have hitherto escaped 
 any form of charitable relief." In defense of a 
 free system, many citations, both of opinion and 
 fact may be made. Talleyrand said : "The chief 
 object of the state is to teach children to become 
 one day its citizens. It initiates them, in a man- 
 ner, into the social order by showing them the 
 laws by which it is governed, and giving them 
 the first of their means of existence. Is it not 
 just. then, that all should learn gratuitously what 
 ought to be regarded as the necessary condition 
 of the association of which they are to become 
 members? This elementary instruction seems to 
 be a debt which society owes to all, and which 
 it must pay without the slightest deduction." 
 This sentiment has been repeated by scores of 
 the best and most liberal thinkers. It is con- 
 tended that the establishment of free schools by 
 the state is not only proper as an act of justice, 
 but expedient as a measure of policy. England, 
 it has been said, pays for pauperism and crime 
 five times as much as for education; while 
 Switzerland pays seven times as much for edu- 
 cation as for pauperism and crime; and, it is 
 contended that wherever free education prevails, 
 there is more freedom, more public and private 
 virtue, and more social and political stability. — 
 It has been said, on the other hand, that uni- 
 versal education unfits the members of a com- 
 
 PUPIL TEACHER 
 
 munity for the lower and more laborious pur- 
 suits of life; at any rate, that it reduces the 
 ranks of the mechanic and day-laborer, and in- 
 ordinately increases those of the professions, and 
 of those connected with commercial life, thus 
 diminishing the producers and increasing the 
 non -producers. But to this, it is replied that 
 
 (1) the education of the masses will, under all 
 circumstances, not extend beyond elementary in- 
 struction, which will be beneficial in every pur- 
 suit, however humble; (2) those who from lowly 
 stations rise to positions of eminence by means 
 of free education, must do so by means of talents 
 the proper exercise of which must be beneficial 
 to the community; and (3) many of those who 
 are denominated non-producers are often the 
 persons who, by their inventions and discoveries, 
 increase the producing power of labor sometimes 
 a hundred-fold. The inventorof the steam-engine, 
 the cotton-gin. or the sewing-machine, might 
 never have done » day's labor in his life; but he 
 certainly would not have been a non-producer 
 on that account. Scotland offers an instructive 
 example of the effects of a free system of edu- 
 cation. Dr. I,. Playfair, in a speech delivered 
 June 20., 1870, said : "Every peasant in Scotland 
 knows that it is his own fault if he does not ac- 
 quire such knowledge in his own school as will 
 enable him to aspire to the university. Out of 
 3,500 students at the Scotch universities, about 
 500 are the sons of wage-making artisans or 
 peasants." A similar state of things exists 
 in nearly all of the United States. There is, 
 however, no lack of peasants or farmers in either 
 country. (See Mopley. TI/rS/ni,/,//r/or National 
 Education, London. 1873.) The educated intel- 
 ligence and industrial skill, not merely the mus- 
 cular power of its people, constitute the most im- 
 portant and most productive part of a nation's 
 capital; and this the free school is the most 
 effective instrumentality in maintaining and en- 
 larging. (See Crime and Education.) 
 
 PUBLIC SCHOOLS, English. See Eno- 
 
 LAND. 
 
 PUNISHMENT. See Corporal Punish- 
 ment, and Fear. 
 
 PUPIL-TEACHER, a term used, chiefly 
 in England, to designate a boy or a girl employed 
 to perform certain duties connected with the 
 teaching and management of a school. The 
 English Elementary Education Art of i - v 7 ' > . re- 
 quires that "pupil-teachers (1) be not less than 
 13 years of age, at the date of theirengagement; 
 
 (2) be of the same sex as the certificated teacher 
 under whom they serve, except that, in a mixed 
 school, female pupil-teachers may serve under a 
 master, and may receive instruction from him 
 out of school hours, on condition that some re- 
 spectable woman, approved by the managers, be 
 invariably present during the whole time that 
 such instruction is being given; (3) be presented 
 to the inspector for examination at the time and 
 place fixed by his notice; (4) pass the required 
 examinations anil produce the proper certificates; 
 (5) that not more than four pupil-teachers are 
 engaged in the school for every certificated 
 
PYTHAGORAS 
 
 teacher serving in it. — Such a system is favorable 
 to economy, hut cannot be productive of the 
 best, results in the teaching of the school. It is 
 
 an offshoot of the dtorial system (q.v.)i and, 
 
 to some extent, is Bubiect to the same obiections. 
 
 the system, that ''pupil-teachers are regarded too 
 much as teachers, and too little as pupils." A 
 
 correspondent of the Schoolmaster i London.July 
 17., 1875). writing from personal experience, 
 says: "Schools can frequently be found where 90 
 or 100 children are placed under a master, who. 
 instead of being supplied with teachers compe- 
 tent to instruct the several classes into which the 
 scholars must necessarily be divided, is only 
 furnished with one. or perhaps two lads, whom 
 he is expected to instruct in the art of teaching, 
 in addition to the ordinary duties of the school." 
 Of course, the pupils, in such a school, must be 
 very imperfectly taught. In December, 1874, 
 there were employed in the public schools of 
 England and Wales, 20,162 certificated teachers, 
 1,999 assistants, and 27.321 pupil-teachers. The 
 engagement of pupil-teachers is for five years, at 
 the end of which time they may be admitted 
 into a training college, on passing the required 
 examination. — The system of pupil-teachers 
 formerly prevailed in some of the cities of the 
 United "States, notably in the city of New York, 
 in which it was continued, in the schools of the 
 Public School Suciety, for many years. These 
 pupil-teachers, called monitors, were, as in the 
 English schools, apprentices, and were expected 
 to attend a Saturday or evening normal school ; 
 and, on passing a final examination, were em- 
 ployed as full teachers. This system has ceased 
 to exist in most of the American schools. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS, a celebrated Creek philos- 
 opher, born on the island of Sanios, in 580 B.C.; 
 died in Metapontuni, in southern Italy, about 
 500. He was so enthusiastic in his search for 
 knowledge that he spent 30 years (as is said) in 
 travel, in order to obtain it, visiting Egypt, 
 Phoenicia, Arabia, Babylonia, India, and even 
 Gaul. Too modest to take the title ompoc; (wise 
 man), he was the first to assume that of <j>u.6aoi{>oc 
 
 QUEBEC 
 
 17 
 
 (lover of wisdom). "He was. "says Schmidt (His- 
 tory of Education), " the first Greek in \\1 the 
 
 spirit of the East was united with that of the 
 West, and in whom the culture of Babylon, 
 Egypt, and westernmost Asia combined to de- 
 velop that of the Greeks in a new and glorious 
 form." At Croton, in southern Italy, whither 
 he emigrated about 530 1!. ( '.. he established his 
 famous school, and enunciated the doctrines of 
 his peculiar system, the fruit of his researches 
 and contemplations. Of this system, the metemp- 
 sychosis was a cardinal principle, co-ordinate with 
 that of the purification of the soul (nadapms), 
 since the former was the necessary agency for 
 effecting this purification ; and the latter, in its 
 ultimate consummation, was designed to bring 
 man into a fit condition to hold communion with 
 the Deity (6fu7xlv n.» <>..,,;). Self-knowledge 
 he regarded as the indispensable condition for 
 self-improvement — as the basis of all culture, 
 the highest aim of which is to obtain a full 
 understanding of the essence and relations of the 
 objects around us, and to live in harmony with 
 them, and with the true end of man's being. 
 Music (/lovaiK)/ naiitia) was in itself one of the 
 most important instruments of this culture, em- 
 bodying and typifying the harmony of the uni- 
 verse, as well as aiding the soul in its efforts to 
 bring itself into the same harmony. Religious 
 devotion was an important means to consum- 
 mate this result ; and hence he based education 
 upon religion. The good of society could be pro- 
 moted only by such education, the fruit of 
 which would necessarily be civil and political 
 liberty, because it would produce nobleness of 
 soul in every citizen. His practical system, there- 
 fore, comprehended special means for the educa- 
 tion of children, as well as the instruction of 
 adults. His school at Croton was, however, 
 designed only for the latter ; and its peculiar 
 rules, practices, and arrangements deserve a care- 
 ful study. — See Schmidt, History of Education 
 (N.Y.,1872);Grote. I Union/ <>f<! recce; Schmidt, 
 Geschickte der Padagogik, vol. i.; Zeller, Die 
 Pyihagorassage (Lei'psic, 1865) ; Ueberweg, 
 History of Philosophy, trans, from the Cerman 
 (N. Y., 1872). 
 
 aUADRXVITTM:. See Arts. 
 
 QUEBEC, a province of the Dominion of 
 Canada, having an area of 193,355 sq. miles; 
 and a population, in 1871, of 1,191,516. (See 
 Ontario.) 
 
 Educational History. — The first school in the 
 province was that of the Franciscan Father Du- 
 plessis. at Three Pavers, founded in 1616. In 1632, 
 the Jesuits, who afterward exercised great in- 
 fluence on education, opened their first school in 
 Quebec for the instruction of the Indians; and, in 
 1635, they founded the Seminary of Notre Dame 
 des Anges. which afterward became the Jesuit 
 college of Quebec. For over a century, education 
 remained almost exclusively in the hands of the 
 
 Catholic clergy. Among the larger schools estab- 
 lished during this period, were the convent of 
 the Ursulines, founded in 1639, the Seminary of 
 Quebec, in 167s, and the theological seminary in 
 Montreal, in 1647. In 1653, Sister Margaret 
 Bourgeois founded the order of the congregation 
 of Notre Dame at Montreal, an. 1 established a 
 number of schools. The Recollets and Jesuits 
 also supported many primary schools. In 1737, 
 the Christian Brothers undertook the task of 
 popular instruction, but were unsuccessful, owing 
 to the apathy of the government and of the set- 
 tlers. In 1774, the order of Jesuits was sup- 
 pressed in Canada, and its estates vested in the 
 Crown. It was not, however, until 1831 that 
 
718 
 
 QUEBEC 
 
 
 these estates were surrendered to the provincial 
 parliament for the support of education. In 
 1801. an act was passed providing for the estab- 
 lishment of free schools, under the Royal Insti- 
 tution for the Advancement of Learning. This 
 act produced but slight results : and the Royal 
 Institution, at present, lias charge of very little 
 else than of the McGill institutions, and these 
 only by the special desire of their founder. 
 
 ScL,, ,,! l.nir. — The principal provisions of the 
 present school law are as follows : The estates 
 of the Jesuits form the so-called Superior Edu- 
 cation Investment Fund, the revenues of which, 
 together with other moneys appropriated for the 
 purpose, form an income fund, to be distributed 
 among the universities, and all other educational 
 institutions, except the elementary schools. To 
 this fund. $20,000 is annually added from the 
 revenue of the province: and a sufficient amount 
 must be added from the common-school fund, 
 so as to make up the sum of $88,000. The 
 council of public instruction is appointed by 
 the lieutenant-governor, consisting of 16 Roman 
 Catholics and 8 Protestants. The superintend- 
 ent is president, ex officii), and a member of both 
 committees, with a vote in that of his own 
 religion. The council makes rules for schools 
 and examiners, and selects, or causes to be pub- 
 lished, the books to be used, except those on 
 religion and morals ; and it may hold the copy- 
 right thereof, the profits accruing from which 
 go to the income fund. It may, also, revoke a 
 teacher's certificate for sufficient cause. Every 
 municipality elects a board of five commission- 
 ers, who hold office for five years. The religious 
 minority in any municipality may dissent ; and 
 may nominate, in writing, to the chairman of the 
 commissioners three trustees, who may exercise, 
 in respect to the dissentient schools, the same 
 powers that the commissioners have in regard 
 to the common schools. The commissioners ap- 
 point the teachers, and regulate the studies, fees. 
 etc. No other Looks than those prescribed by 
 the council can be used ; but the run', priest, or 
 officiating minister has the exclusive right to des- 
 ignate the books for religious instruction to lie 
 used in the schools of his faith. The schools 
 are open for children from 5 to 16 years of age; 
 but a fee may lie charged only for those from 7 
 to 11. Separate schools for girls may be estab- 
 lished. Inspectors are appointed by the lieuten- 
 ant-governor : and, in their visits, have the power 
 of the superintendent, from whom they receive 
 
 instructions. The resident clergy of the de - 
 
 ination to which the school belongs, the superior 
 judges, the members of the legislature, resident 
 justices of the peace, the warden or mayor, the 
 senior captain and superior resident officers of 
 militia and the superintendent, arc school visit- 
 ors, and. as such, may take part in the exami- 
 nations of teachers, and have access to all docu- 
 ments. In Quebec and Montreal, the corporation 
 appoints six Roman Catholic, and six Protestant 
 
 commissioners, one-half to be renewed rally. 
 
 Otherwise, the same law applies to these cities as 
 to the rest of the province. Any fabrique, i. e. 
 
 I the cure and church-wardens of a parish, may 
 establish one school for every hundred families, 
 and acquire and hold, for each school, property 
 not exceeding $400 in value. Such schools may 
 be placed for one or more years under the school 
 laws, if the fabrique and school commissioners 
 agree : and the vinv or church-warden of any 
 fabrique contributing not less than $50 a year 
 to a school under commissioners, may hold the 
 office of commissioner ; but no fabrique or 
 school can be united with the schools of com- 
 missioners of another faith. 
 
 Primary Schools. — In 1873, there were 3,254 
 
 elementary schools under the sel 1 laws, with 
 
 141,990 pupils; 4 normal schools, with 246 pu- 
 pils; 156 independent schools, with 6,261 pupils; 
 220 dissentient schools, with 7,665 pupils: 129 
 teaching convents, with 24.236 pupils, and 343 
 model schools, with 28,588 pupils. Of the dis- 
 sentient schools, 186, with 6,156 pupils, were 
 Protestant; and 34. with 1,509 pupils, were 
 Roman Catholic. During the same year. 662 
 candidates for teachers' certificates were ex- 
 amined, of whom 58 were rejected. There 
 were, in 1874, three normal schools; the Jacques 
 Carrier, with 43 male pupils, and the McGill 
 school, with 6 male and 106 female pupils, both 
 in Montreal; and the Laval school, in Quebec, 
 with 43 male and 56 female pupils ; making, in 
 all. 254 pupils for the three normal schools. 
 
 Secondary Schools. — There are two classes of 
 colleges. — classical and industrial, which occupy 
 a position similar to the high schools of Ontario. 
 They are chiefly boarding-schools, although a 
 few day scholars are also admitted. The course 
 of studies in each comprises those usually taught 
 in high schools The time necessary to complete 
 the course, varies from 4 to 1(1 years. The total 
 number of colleges, in 1873, was 37. with 7,113 
 students. 
 
 1'niri-rsities. — There are three universities. — 
 McGill College and University, in Montreal; the 
 University of Laval, in Quebec; and the Uni- 
 versity of Bishop's College, in Lennoxville. 
 McGill College was established by a bequest of 
 James McGill. a merchant of Montreal, whodied 
 in 1813. By royal charter, which was received 
 in 1821, and amended in 1852. the governors, 
 principal, and fellows of McGill College con- 
 stitute the corporation of the university; and, 
 ! under the statutes framed by the governors, 
 ! have the power of granting degrees in all the 
 arts and faculties in Met iill < lollege, and colleges 
 affiliated with it. These are Morrin College, in 
 Quebec: the Congregational College of British 
 North America, in Montreal ; and the Pres- 
 bvterian ( 'ollege of Montreal. Teachers trained 
 in the McGill Normal School are entitled to 
 provincial diplomas. McGill University had. in 
 1ST::. 12 professors and 42 students in the legal 
 faculty. 12 professors and 130 students in the 
 medical faculty, and 10 professors and 290 stu- 
 dents in the faculty of arts. The University of 
 Laval, in Quebec, was founded in 1852, and re- 
 ceived the royal charter the same year. It 
 is governed by the Roman Catholic Church. 
 
 
QUESTIONING 
 
 RAIKBS 
 
 719 
 
 the collegiate depart- 
 The university had, 
 : the 
 
 the 
 
 The Quebec Seminary 
 ment of Lava] University, 
 in 1873, 5 professors and 54 
 theological, 5 professors and 37 studi 
 legal,!* professors and SS students in the niedical 
 faculty, and 19 professors and 97 students in 
 the faculty of arts. The University of Bishop's 
 College, in Lennoxville, is governed by the Prot- 
 estant Episcopal Church. It was opened in 
 1845, and. in 1853, received the royal charter 
 which gave it university powers. It had. in 
 187.3. a theological faculty, with 5 professors and 
 54 students, and a faculty of arts, with 9 pro- 
 fessors and 88 students. A medical faculty has 
 been organized since that time. There is also a 
 large number of professional colleges and col- 
 legiate schools. — See Maeling, Canada Educa- 
 tional Directory and Yearbook for 1876; 
 Lovelt.'s Directory of British North America 
 (1873) ; Chauveatj (formerly minister of public 
 instruction in Quebec), in Schmid's Encyclopddie 
 (2d ed., 1876), art. Canada. 
 
 QUESTIONING. See Interrogation. 
 
 QUINTILIAN ( Quintilian us), Marcus Fa- 
 bius, a Roman teacher and educational writer, 
 
 was born probably in Calagurris. Spain, in 40 
 A. D.; died about 118. He was the first 
 public teacher of oratory at Home, receiving a 
 regular salary from the iuperia] treasury, and 
 
 
 •t p 
 
 questions. I le insisted 
 child should begin \\ itl 
 teach the child a coi 
 strongly recommended public schools in prefer- 
 ence to private schools. The study of Greet 
 should begin before that of the native language 
 (Latin) ; and the course of instruction should 
 embrace reading, writing, grammar, music, and 
 geometry. Elocution should be taught by an 
 actor. The educational principles commend.',! by 
 Quintilian, have, however, only the training of 
 good rhetoricians in view. — See Ptlz, Quintilian, 
 ein Lehrerleben aus der rbmischen Kaiserzeii 
 (I.eipsic, 18(13); Barnard's Journal of Edu- 
 cation, vol. x. and xi. 
 
 RABANUS ( Hrahan us or Rhaban us) Mau- 
 rus, one of the greatest scholars of the middle 
 ages, born about 776, died in 856. He re- 
 ceived his education partly in the monastery 
 of Fulda, and subsequently studied at Tours, 
 where he became the favorite pupil of Alcuin. 
 Having returned to Fulda. he assumed the direc- 
 tion of the convent school. When he was elected 
 abbot of Fulda, in 822, he gave up the instruc- 
 tion of the non-clerical, but continued that of 
 the theological, students. The school of Fulda 
 became, through him, one of the most famous 
 of the age. Young men from Germany, France, 
 and Italy flocked to it in great numbers, and its 
 pupils were eagerly sought for as good teachers. 
 Rabanus has frequently been called the first 
 teacher of Germany (primus praeceptor Oer- 
 ii ion oik not only because he instructed large 
 numbers of young men, through whom learning 
 was spread throughout that country, but 
 also because he was the first to instruct in the 
 German language, and to establish a school for 
 other than clerical students. Among his nu- 
 merous works, was a kind of encyclopedia of 
 knowledge, entitled Be Universe, which exerted 
 considerable influence upon the progress of edu- 
 s. — See Kunstmann, 
 turns (1841); Bach, 
 / '* >' ' Sjifer des deut- 
 Spengler, Leben des 
 
 cation 
 
 in the mi 
 
 Raban 
 
 r. ' ■■ 
 
 is Magna 
 Rabanus V 
 
 he,:, 
 
 Racine. Wis.. 
 
 RACINE COLLEGE 
 founded in 1852, is under Protestant Episcopal 
 control. It has a classical and a scientific course, 
 with a classical and a mathematical school as 
 preparatory institutions. The regular charge for 
 tuition, board, etc., is $400 per year. 
 
 The 
 
 library contains 3,000 volumes. In 1874: — 5, 
 there were 18 instructors and 180 students (35 
 classical, 10 scientific. 102 in the classical school, 
 and 33 in the mathematical school). The Rev. 
 James De Kovcn. I>.1>„ is (1877) the warden. 
 
 RAGGED SCHOOLS. See Reform 
 Schools. 
 
 RAISES, Robert, an English printer and 
 philanthropist, born at Gloucester, 1735 ; died 
 April 5., 1811. His attention was specially di- 
 rected to the condition of the children of the 
 poor, on taking a walk one Sunday through the 
 suburbs of his native place. He engaged four 
 women, keepers of dame schools, to instruct as 
 many children as he should send to them on 
 Sunday, for which they were to receive a shilling 
 each. The children came in large numbers, caus- 
 ing a marked improvement in the manners and 
 morals of the place. In these efforts, he was greatly 
 aided by the Rev. T. Stock. This was the origin of 
 our present Sunday-school. By means of publica- 
 tions, notably that of a letter of Mr. Raikes in 
 the Gentleman's Magazine, in 1784, public at- 
 tention was called to' his scheme ; and the system 
 was adopted in all the principal towns and cities. 
 and spread rapidly through Great Britain, even 
 attracting the attention of the queen, who ex- 
 pressed her approbation to Mr. Raikes in person. 
 The first obstacle he encountered was a want of 
 funds to pay the teachers. This was soon over- 
 come by the teachers' offering their services 
 gratuitously. The secular teaching, which was a 
 part of the original Sunday-school system, was 
 discontinued, with the exception of reading which, 
 for a long time, held its place. In course of time, 
 however, week-day schools becoming general, 
 this was given up ; and the Sunday-school, as we 
 
720 RANDOLPH MACON COLLEGE 
 
 now know it, took its place among recognized I 
 educational agencies. From that time, its spread 
 has been rapid and uninterrupted : and through- 
 out Great Britain and the United States, the 
 Sunday-school is now the constant attendant 
 of the church. — See Sketch of the Life of 
 Ruhert Raikess undthf Ilistuni of Suiidiii/Schnuls 
 (New York) ; and W. M. < Iorneix, Life of Rob- 
 ert Raikes (New York, 1864). (See also Sunday- 
 Schools.) 
 
 RANDOLPH MACON COLLEGE, at 
 Ashland, Va., chartered in 183 - 2 and or- 
 ganized in 1834, is under the control of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, South. It has 
 productive funds to the amount of $25,000, ex- 
 tensive philosophical and chemical apparatus, a 
 cabinet of minerals, and libraries containing 
 1 1 .000 volumes. The course of study is distributed 
 into separate schools, including schools of Latin, 
 Greek, English. French, German, pure mathe- 
 matics, applied mathematics, natural science, 
 chemistry, physiology and hygiene, moral philos- 
 ophy and metaphysics, Biblical literature, and 
 oriental languages. The degrees conferred are 
 Graduate in a school, Bachelor of Science. 
 Bachelor of Arts, and Master of Arts, the last 
 three- requiring graduation in several schools. 
 A handsome new lecture hall has recently been 
 erected. This, with the other buildings, now 
 planned, and an additional endowment fund, 
 will considerably increase the facilities of the in- 
 stitution. The tuition fee for three or more 
 schools is $75 per year. Candidates for the 
 ministry are exempt from the payment of 
 tuition fees. In 1875 — 6, there were 11 instruct- 
 ors and 235 students. The Rev. James A. 
 Duncan. A. M., D. D., is (1876) the president. 
 
 BATICH, Wolfgang-, a distinguished Ger- 
 man educator, was born in 1571, at Wilsten. in 
 Holstein, and died in 1635, at Rudolstadt. A 
 difficulty in his speech compelling him to give up 
 the design of becoming a preacher, he applied 
 himself to the study of the Hebrew and Arabic 
 languages, and mathematics. He claimed to be 
 the inventor of a new system of instruction, 
 vastly superior to the prevailing ones. In 1612, 
 he addressed a memorial to the Diet at Frank- 
 fort in behalf of his system, in which, he as- 
 serted, that not only could old and young in a 
 short time easily learn Hebrew, Greek, Latin. Ger- 
 man, philosophy, theology, and the arts and scien- 
 ces, but that uniformity of language and religion 
 coul 1 be introduced into the whole empire. Sev- 
 eral princes were led to interest themselves in his 
 scheme. Professors Helwigand Jung, of Giessen, 
 and Granger. Brendel, Walter, and Wolf, of Jena, 
 were invited to investigate it. They judged it 
 excellent in theory, and made a favorable report 
 upon it. Ratich agreed with Prince Ludvvig. of 
 Anhalt-Kbthen, and Duke John Ernest, of Wei- 
 mar, to instruct children by his new system, and 
 also by it to qualify teachers to give instruction 
 in any language in less time, and with less labor, 
 than by any other method uscil in Germany. A 
 printing-office was furnished him in Kothen, 
 and bis books were printed in six languages. A 
 
 RAI7MER 
 
 school was estabhshed for him, with 135 schol- 
 ars. But Ratich proved incompetent to give 
 practical effect to his theories. He became un- 
 popular, and, being an earnest Lutheran, fell 
 under the ban of the religious prejudices of 
 a community attached to the Reformed faith. 
 His school failed, in a short time. Prince Lud- 
 wig quarreled with him, and, in 1619, impris- 
 oned him ; but released him in 1020, upon his 
 giving a written declaration that "he had 
 claimed and promised more than he knew, or 
 could bring to pass." His system was now 
 attacked by some who had been his friends. 
 The Countess Anna Sophia von Schwarzburg- 
 Rudolstadt, however, recommended him to the 
 Swedish chancellor Oxenstiern ; and, at the re- 
 quest of that statesman. Prs. Bruckner, Meyfart, 
 and Ziegler having examined his method, made 
 a favorable report upon it, in 1634. — Katich, 
 without doubt, had a practical conception of the 
 objects of education. He preferred to give in- 
 struction in those branches which could be made 
 useful in life, rather than to pay so much atten- 
 tion to the dead languages. In his memorial to 
 the Diet at Frankfort, he held that the child 
 should first learn to read and speak the mother- 
 tongue correctly, so as to be able to use the 
 German Bible. Hebrew and Greek should then 
 be learned, as the tongues of the original texts 
 of the Bible, after which Latin might be studied. 
 His views were embodied in a number of rules, 
 or principles, the chief of which are : (1) Every 
 thing should be presented in its order, a due 
 regard being always had to the course of nat- 
 ure ; (2) Only one thing should be presented at 
 a time; (3) Each thing should be often repeated; 
 (4) Every thing should be taught, at first, in the 
 mother-tongue ; afterward, other languages may 
 be taught; (,"i) Every thing should be done with- 
 out compulsion ; (6) Nothing should be learned 
 by rote; (7) There should be mutual conformity 
 in all things; (8) First the thing by itself, and 
 afterward the explanation of it ; that is to say, 
 a basis of material must be laid in the mind before 
 any rules can be applied to it ; thus, in teaching 
 grammar, he gave no rules, but began with the 
 reading of the text, and required that the rules 
 should be deduced from it ; (9) Every thing by 
 expression, and the investigation of parts. In 
 his Method us, he has left minute directions to 
 teachers concerning the details of the course, and 
 the proper methods of instruction ; but they are 
 very prolix, and impose an immense amount of 
 labor on the teacher, without seeming to call for a 
 corresponding degree of exertion on the part of 
 the pupil. Comenius, after reading his book, re- 
 marked that he " had not ill displayed the faults 
 of the schools, but that his remedies were not 
 distinctly shown." Ratich s works were written 
 in Latin, and are diffuse, tedious, and some- 
 what pedantic. 
 
 RAUMER, Karl Georg von, a German 
 professor and author, born in Worlitz, April '■>., 
 1783 ; died in Erlangen, June 2., 1 865. 1 le was 
 educated at Gottingen, Halle, and Freiberg, and 
 was appointed to a position in the mineralogical 
 
bureau in Rerlin. in 1811 : and. shortly after, to 
 that of professor of mineralogy in the university 
 uf Breslau. He acted as aid to Gneisenau in the 
 
 one case, the mental association required is sim- 
 ple and direct ; in the other, it is complex and 
 indirect. It is true that, by long and diligent 
 
 fessor of natural history and mineralogy in tin 
 university of Krlangon. lie is chiefly known b; 
 his geographical and theological works: but hi; 
 
 ./-•/■ J'wh, 
 
 Hi: 
 
 [In- 
 
 1 translation of the larger portion 
 ! appeared in Barnard's Journal 
 of Education; also, separately, under the title 
 German Educators. 
 
 READING, as the basis and instrument of 
 all literary education, is the most important 
 branch of school instruction. After the child 
 has learned to talk, he may be taught to under- 
 stand, and to give vocal expression to, such writ- 
 ten language as is adapted to his degree of men- 
 tal development. To do this involves an asso- 
 ciation, in the mind, of the printed form of the 
 word 1 1 ) with its proper sound, or pronunciation, 
 and (2) with the idea which it is intended to 
 express. In teaching children to read, the first 
 of these processes requires the principal atten- 
 tion : but, as progress is made, the second con- 
 stantly increases in importance. The word, and 
 not the letters composing it, is the true element 
 in reading. No one can be said to know how 
 to read who is obliged to stop at the word, and 
 
 study its composition, before he can pi unee 
 
 it. The due meaning and pronunciation of every 
 word must be immediately recognized by the 
 mind, without pause or hesitation, in the act of 
 reading. But the word is made up of separate 
 characters, representing elementary sounds ; and 
 hence arises a diversity of methods in teaching 
 children to pronounce words. The alphabet 
 method, or A-B-G method (q. v.), requires that 
 the child should learn the names of all the letters 
 of the alphabet, and then, by means of a spelling 
 process, learn the proper pronunciation of their 
 combinations. This process is condemned by 
 most teachers of the present time, as long and 
 tedious, as well as illogical ; the method most 
 generally preferred being that denominated the 
 icon/ method (q. v.), by which the child learns 
 at once to pronounce short words, and is taught 
 the sounds and names of the letters, by an anal- 
 ysis of them. When the sounds of the letters 
 are used instead of the names, the process has 
 been called the phonic method (q. v.), which, in 
 modern didactics, is most generally approved. 
 Certainly, it is more rational to expect that a 
 child will perceive the true pronunciation of a 
 word through an analysis of the sounds, of the 
 letters, than by using their names, many of which 
 afford no key to the sound. For example, if the 
 word be cat, the child reaches the pronunciation 
 at once by enumerating the sounds k-a-t ; while 
 by spelling, he is obliged to say se-ri-te, introdu- 
 cing sounds entirely foreign to the word. In the 
 
 phonetic m,th,.,l. ill which the ab.-.ir,l contradic- 
 tions of the alphabet are removed by using the 
 letters slightly modified, so as to have a character 
 for each separate sound, and each sound repre- 
 sented by one, and only one, character. (See 
 Orthography, and Phonetics.) These various 
 methods are dictated by what may perhaps be 
 called the mechanics of reading ; but. in con- 
 nection with that, the teacher must always bear 
 in mind, that what the child is learning to pro- 
 nounce is a symbol of thought: and. hence, ai 
 every step, the pupil's understanding is to be ad- 
 dressed. Heading, a.s a part of education, has a 
 twofold object : (1) to understand what is read ; 
 and (2) to give proper oral expression to it ; 
 that is to say. reading is either for the purpose 
 of gaining information for one's self, or for im- 
 parting information to others. To teach a pupil 
 to read properly implies far more than correct 
 elocution. It implies the development of that 
 judgment and spirit which, being brought to the 
 perusal of useful books, or other reading matter. 
 will enable the student to gather up information, 
 and, in every available manner, make the realm 
 of books tributary to his own mental wants. 
 Hence, as auxiliary to reading, the proper mean- 
 ing of words, phrases, and idioms must be taught ; 
 and exercises must be employed for the purpose 
 of ascertaining to what extent the pupil has re- 
 ceived correct ideas from what he has read. 
 When the object is to teach the pupils elocution, 
 the exercises should be specially adapted to that 
 end. Thus, the pupil, having read in order to 
 understand for himself, should be required to 
 read the same passage for the information of his 
 fellow pupils. For this purpose, it has been rec- 
 ommended, in class teaching, to permit only 
 the pupil reading to use the book, all the others 
 being required to listen; because, in this way. 
 the pupils will be on the alert to hear and know 
 the meaning of what is read, and will, besides, 
 better appreciate the true end of reading ; while, 
 on the other hand, the one reading will endeavor 
 to pronounce correctly, enunciate distinctly, and 
 emphasize naturally. 1 leading-books should be 
 ci instructed with a special reference to the accom- 
 plishment of this object ; and hence, the lessons 
 should be adapted, at each stage, to the mental 
 status of the pupils. Moreover, the material 
 should not consist of mere fragments, without 
 any logical continuity; but should be of Mich a 
 character as to discipline the mind in connected 
 thinking upon suitable subjects, and to awaken 
 an interest in the minds of the pupils. Usually, 
 this essential object of reading in schools is de- 
 feated by the use of extracts from essays on dif- 
 ficult, abstract subjects, or from authors whose 
 style is too complex, and whose vocabulary is too 
 
722 
 
 REAL SCHOOLS 
 
 ponderous for children. Simultaneous reading 
 is commended by some teachers as an elocution- 
 ary drill, as being useful (1) to impart habits of 
 distinctness of enunciation, (2) to remove the 
 habit of too rapid or too slow a style of reading, 
 (3) as a means of voice culture for elocution. — 
 See (A'rrie, Principles and Practice of Com- 
 mon-School Eduratimi ,■ AVickersham, Methods 
 of Instruction; How to Teach (X. V., 1874). 
 (See also Elocution, and Voice.) 
 
 REAL SCHOOL, or Real Gymnasium, 
 the name used in < lerniany to designate a kind of 
 high school. This term was used as early as 1706; 
 but the first permanent real school wa3 founded 
 by .1. .1. Hecker in 1747. (See Germany, and 
 Becker.) The real schools are utilitarian in char- 
 acter, and aim to teach, like the scientific depart- 
 ments of the American college, only those branches 
 designed to develop the practical man. They are 
 strictly the people's schools, and aim to tit espe- 
 cially for occupation in trade and industry. Hence 
 they are sometimes called higher burgher schools. 
 Their course of study is more advanced than that 
 of the elementary and common schools : and they 
 should always bear the name, as they do in some 
 instances, real gymnasia, because they are the 
 preparatory schools for institutions affording to 
 the would-be merchant, artist, artisan, etc., ad- 
 vantages like those offered by the classical gym- 
 nasia to the future theologian, lawyer, physician, 
 etc. The realists claim that the gymnasium is a 
 preparatory school for the patient toiler in in- 
 vestigation, giving a training unfit for practical 
 life ; but that the real schools meet this want by 
 educating the boy to become ^.practical man, not a 
 srlinlm: They pay less regard to verbal knowl- 
 edge, but more to mathematics and its appli- 
 cation to the arts, and arrange the whole course 
 so as to facilitate the development of those 
 mental habits which are favorable to the highest 
 practical success, and yet provide an adequate 
 intellectual culture. According to the Prussian 
 school regulation, their purpose is to afford a 
 scientific preparatory training for those higher 
 pursuits which do not absolutely require academ- 
 ical studies under any special faculty. The Prus- 
 sian government, though it has refused to sup- 
 port these schools, obliging the towns in which 
 they are located to maintain them, has recog- 
 nized their efficiency by permitting, since 1871, 
 graduates of those of the first order to be re- 
 ceived into the different branches of the civil 
 service, and to be relieved from military duty, 
 like gymnasia students, after one year's service, 
 instead of three, with the privilege of advance- 
 ment to the commissioned ranks in case of mobil- 
 ization. Since the unification of the German 
 nation, the schools of this order in the different 
 states are being brought to a standard harmonious 
 with the Prussian. Those of northern Germany 
 are quite well regulated ; those of southern ( ler- 
 many are slowly but steadily improving. — The 
 general division and management of the real 
 schools of the first order are the same as those of 
 the gymnasia. The course of study extends over 
 nine years and through six classes. The average 
 
 ' age of admission is nine years, and of discharge. 
 
 ' eighteen. The attention which the gymna- 
 sium gives to the elassieal languages, the real 
 school pays to the modern. \\ bile the former 
 schools teach only French, and merely enable 
 the learner to read it without a dictionary, and 
 to compose in it with moderate ease: the latter, 
 substituting English for 'ireek. give the learner 
 a good knowledge of both French and English. 
 Thus, the same familiarity which the classical 
 student acquires with the history of ancient litera- 
 ture, the realist acquires with modern literature. 
 
 I AVhile ancient history is not ignored, the events 
 of the last three centuries, and the political 
 changes which brought about the present status 
 of civil society are carefully considered. Far 
 greater attention, also, is paid to the exact scien- 
 ces. There are some real gymnasia whose students 
 
 ! are exempt from the restrictions put upon the 
 graduates of the real school. They teach Greek, 
 though less of it than the classical gymnasia, 
 and permit the substitution of a modern for a 
 classical language, in the last two years of the. 
 course, or, at least, for Hebrew, which is an 
 elective study in all the Prussian gymnasia. Of 
 the real schools of inferior order, the so-called 
 higher burgher school has a course extending 
 through only seven years, the prima, or highest 
 class, alone requiring two years ; while all other 
 classes require one years attendance. The real 
 schools of the second grade provide, in their 
 lower classes, for elementary and common- 
 school training. They also permit a deviation 
 from the regular course, ami provide for elective 
 studies, among which is Latin ; but some ex- 
 clude Latin altogether. These schools are 
 certainly misnamed ; they are, really, of the 
 third grade, and the higher burgher schools are 
 of the second grade. In 1875, an effort was be- 
 gun to modify the course of the gymnasia so as 
 to admit, of a choice of classical or scientific 
 study, in order to do away with the real schools; 
 but the probability is that the last -named schools 
 will continue in their present organic form, pos- 
 sibly so modifying their course of study as to 
 ignore the wants of the civil service, to which 
 hitherto more or less attention has been paid, 
 and to secure greater efficiency of training for 
 mechanical and commercial pursuits. In Ger- 
 many, there are now about Sou real schools of 
 the first order, and 600 of the inferior grade. 
 In the German provinces of Austria, there are 
 37 of the first grade, and about loo of an inferior 
 grade. Real schools have been generally estab- 
 lished in Switzerland, the Netherlands, and very 
 recently, in Russia, where they are rapidly in- 
 creasing. — See Mager, Diedeutsche Burgerschule 
 (Stuttgart, 1840) ; Loth, Die Reakchul-Frage 
 (Leips., 1870) ; Kreissio. Ueher h'ea/isinus und 
 Kealschulwesen (Berl.. 1872), fair, critical, and 
 complete; Gaixenkamp, Die Reform der ho'he- 
 ren Lehranstatien (Perl., 1874) ; Schmidt, Ge- 
 schichte der P&dagogik, vol. n.; and, especially, 
 Barnard, Gerinan Teachers and Educators. 
 Against their maintenance, see Laas, Gymna- 
 sium und Realschide (Berl., 1875). 
 
 
RECESSES 
 
 RECESSES. See Hygiene, School, and 
 
 Sc Management. 
 
 RECITATION, a term used in American 
 
 colleges and win mis, to denote the rehearsal of a 
 lesson by pupils before their instructor, or the 
 repetition of something committed to memory. 
 The maimer in which the teacher should con- 
 duct the daily recitations of his class is a matter 
 of very great importance, since apparently perfect 
 recitations may be gone through with which not 
 only have little educative value, but may even be 
 productive of positive harm to the mind of the 
 pupil. The surest guide, in this respect, is that 
 which is derived from a consideration of the es- 
 sential meaning of the word education, no method 
 of recitation having any value which does not 
 keep constantly in view the development of the 
 pupil's mental powers. It should always be re- 
 membered by the teacher that the supreme ob- 
 ject of the recitation is to accustom the pupil, by 
 daily practice, to use the faculties of which he 
 is possessed. Many a so-called recitation results, 
 by too much explanation on the part of the teach- 
 er, in a reversal of the functions of the teacher 
 and his class — the former reciting to the latter, 
 instead of the latter to the former. The passive 
 attitude of mind in which pupils listen to a long 
 explanation is the very attitude from which 
 they need to be roused. There are two stages 
 in the development of a mental power as pro- 
 duced by the exercises of the class room: (1) the 
 knowing what to say; and (2) the saying of it. 
 The first stage the pupil is supposed to have 
 reached by the study of the lesson; the second, 
 and most important one. is not passed through 
 by the pupil in the case above supposed. Of far 
 greater service is it, therefore, to the pupil, to be 
 allowed to state the result of his study in his 
 own language, halting and imperfect though it 
 be, than to compel him to listen to an exposition 
 by the teacher. Under the first condition, it will 
 be apparent, at every step, whether he really 
 understands his lesson; and, if he does, everyday 
 will add to the copiousness of his vocabulary, 
 and his ease of mental action, and give to his 
 recitation its highest educative result; while, 
 under the second — the condition of a "passive 
 recipient'', — there will always be apparent to 
 every discerning person, an inexact apprehension 
 of the thought presented, a certain degree of 
 insincerity, strengthened into a mental habit 
 through fear of ridicule, and mental powers 
 "rusting in disuse". Even apt pupils, under such 
 conditions, will become, at best, theorists or 
 dreamers — critics, ready to pass judgment upon 
 others' performances, but powerless to act for 
 themselves. The utmost that can be claimed for 
 this method is, that a single faculty, that of 
 memory, has been cultivated; while "this culti- 
 vation has been accomplished not only by the 
 neglect, for the time being, of the other powers, 
 but at their expense; since the pupil is daily be- 
 coming confirmed in the idea that they are 
 properly exercised, and, by pursuing all future 
 studies in the same way, acts to their permanent 
 injury. It is not intended by this to diseouu- 
 
 lUX'ITATION 
 
 72:! 
 
 tenance the explanation of those difficult points 
 which will always occur, sometimes through a 
 feebleness of the pupils understanding, and at. 
 others through a failure of the textbook to sup- 
 ply a link necessary to the continuity ofthought, 
 Such explanations are legitimate, and should be 
 made in language suited to the pupil's compre- 
 hension; the most thoughtful educators agreeing 
 in this, that one of the gravest errors on the part 
 of the teacher is an explanation in terms so un- 
 familiar as to be unintelligible, or so as to leave 
 on the mind of the pupil only a vague and un- 
 satisfactory impression. One of the most con- 
 spicuous merits of an able teacher is his ability 
 to explain, in concise and simple language, the 
 difficulties which necessarily beset the paths of 
 his pupils. But it must always be borne in 
 mind that one of the greatest merits of a recita- 
 tion is to compel the pupil to discover and present 
 for himself the difficulties which he has encount- 
 ered. — The method of simultaneous recitation is 
 open to the objection that by it the errors of 
 backward pupils — and those, therefore, who are 
 most in need of instruction — are concealed tinder 
 the readiness of the more forward. The result 
 usually anticipated from this method, i. e., a 
 quickening of the mental powers of backward 
 pupils under the spur of emulation, does not ap- 
 pear in practice. Says an eminent teacher, 
 "Simultaneous recitation may sometimes be use- 
 ful. A few questions thus answered may serve 
 to give animation to a class, when their interest 
 begins to flag; but that which may serve as a 
 stimulant must not be relied on for nutrition. 
 As an example of its usefulness, I have known a 
 rapid reader tamed into due moderation by 
 being put in companionship with others of 
 slower speech, just as we tame a friskful colt by 
 harnessing him into a team of grave old horses. 
 I !nt aside from such definite purpose, 1 have seen 
 no good come of this innovation." Though this 
 method is resorted to often from necessity in 
 large schools, its operation should be carefully 
 watched. It is open. also, to the objections com- 
 mon to all rote teaching, the answer committed 
 to memory from the book being never so sure an 
 indication of the pupil's apprehension of the 
 meaning, as his answer, before the class, in his 
 own language. This latter furnishes not only an 
 accurate register of the pupil's real progress, but 
 is a mental exercise of the highest value, since it 
 leads to accuracy of conception and expression, 
 and increases the power of continuous thinking. 
 (See Concert Teaching.) — The first requisite 
 for skillfully conducting a recitation is a thor- 
 ough preparation by the teacher for the partic- 
 ular lesson he is to hear, so that he may be able 
 to follow each step taken by the pupil, and may 
 stand ready, at any moment, to supply the needed 
 word in which the pupil is striving to embody 
 his thought. This word, in case the pupil's con- 
 ception of the idea is correct, but its expression 
 unfamiliar, will usually be some simple generic 
 one for which the special or technical word may. 
 properly be substituted by the teacher. Another 
 point to be remembered is the order m which the 
 
i-l 
 
 BECITATIONS 
 
 different parts of a subject are presented. Where 
 these parts depend upon each other by a natural 
 progression, as they frequently do, a skillful 
 teacher will so order the recitations of a class 
 that those parts of the subject which are the 
 natural stepping-stones to other parts, shall be 
 presented first, such an arrangement conducing 
 powerfully to a correct comprehension of the 
 subject as a whole. In some studies — in the 
 natural ami exact sciences, almost always — this 
 method is absolutely necessary; but, while in 
 other branches its value is not so apparent, the 
 advantage to be derived from its adoption is 
 generally considerable. — A thorough compre- 
 hension by the pupils of the subject under con- 
 sideration will insure the maintenance of three 
 other conditions necessary to success in teaching, 
 and usually quite strenuously insisted on by 
 writers on the subject; namely, animation, at- 
 tention, and a natural tone. When pupils under- 
 stand what they are reciting, their attention and 
 animation are. by that fact, made certain; and a 
 natural tone is instinctively adopted. In youth, 
 the appetite for new truths is so eager, the ex- 
 ultant feeling which accompanies the conquest of 
 difficulties is so keen, that the reflection of this 
 in the voice and manner of the pupil is a matter 
 of certainty. Indeed, their opposites, — inat- 
 tention and want of animation, are generally 
 considered by educational writers as an indica- 
 tion of a want of comprehension — as the sure 
 test by which the teacher may, at any moment, 
 judge of the success of his instruction. The length 
 of recitations has been more carefully considered 
 during the past few years than ever before, the 
 weight of authority having constantly inclined 
 to a diminution of the time considered proper 
 for this purpose only a generation ago. Currie, 
 for example, considers that fifteen minutes is the 
 proper medium for classes of very young children, 
 twenty being the maximum; while half an hour 
 is the average for classes generally, the fixing of 
 the attention for a longer period not being at- 
 tended with profit. In classes of older children, 
 ami in advanced instruction, the time of recitation 
 may, of course, be considerably prolonged beyond 
 these limits, the principle, however, being still 
 carefully observed. — D. P. Page says on this 
 subject : "Asa motive for every teacher to study 
 carefully the art of teaching wellat the recitation, 
 it should be borne in mind that then and there 
 he comes before his pupils in a peculiar and 
 prominent manner; it is there his mind comes 
 specially in contact with theirs, and there that he 
 lays in them, for good or for evil, the foundations 
 of their mental habits. It is at the recitation in 
 a peculiar manner that he makes his mark upon 
 their minds; and as tin- seal upon the wax, so his 
 mental character upon theirs leaves its impress 
 behind." — See 1). P. Page, Theory and Practice 
 of Teaching [N. Y„ L854); Currie, Common 
 School Education, and Ear/i/ and. Infant School 
 Education (Edinburgh, 18'57); l.t'Vu-x. The 
 Science and Art of Teaching (Toronto, 1875); 
 and J. P. WickershaMj School Economy (l'hila.. 
 1868). 
 
 REFORM SCHOOLS 
 
 REFORM SCHOOLS, or Reformatories, 
 
 claim 
 
 of: 
 
 ilrcn wlio. tnmi various causes — 
 neglect, early subjection to evil influences, innate 
 depravity, etc., — have entered upon a career 
 of vice or crime. Such schools strive not only 
 to prevent the youth from committing offenses 
 which must be dealt with by law, but to edu- 
 cate him so that his influence shall be active 
 for good. Though the name reform school has 
 been somewhat loosely applied to various houses 
 or institutions for reclaiming children or youth 
 from evil courses, an important distinction exists 
 between such institutions and the reform school 
 proper. Notwithstanding this strict definition, 
 however, the term will be used in this article to 
 designate all institutions whose object is. In- 
 active educational means, to reclaim their in- 
 
 this 
 
 tmg ( 
 
 ■ity 
 
 and philanthropy. The history of refi 
 
 in Germany begins with the iielonii.it ion, when 
 work-houses were established in Amsterdam. Ley- 
 den, Hamburg. Lubeck.and other cities, for the 
 purpose of giving occupation to those who were 
 prohibited from vagrancy by laws then first en- 
 acted. Young thieves were placed in the care of 
 the magistrate to receive religious instruction, 
 and every work -house was provided with a special 
 department in which refractory children were 
 placed for discipline. Parents were permitted 
 to send there obstinate or froward children to 
 undergo treatment, either gratuitously or for a 
 small charge, which entitled them to certain priv- 
 ileges. The benevolent movement thus begun 
 soon led to the establishment of houses of correc- 
 tion, industrial schools, orphan houses, and kin- 
 dred institutions. all differing somewhat from the 
 reform school and from each other, but all spring- 
 ing from substantially the same idea — the rescue 
 of children from a condition, actual or prospect- 
 ive, of vice or crime. The originator of the mod- 
 ern reform school in Germany was J. 1). Falk, 
 who formed a society, called Friends in Need, 
 which, in 1818, had found homes for 300 chil- 
 dren, to whom elementary instruction was 
 given in religion and industrial branches. The 
 institution thus founded at Weimar was named 
 Lutherhof, and was followed by the establish- 
 ment of similar ones in Erfurt, Goldberg, and 
 Liiben. Contemporaneous with the institution of 
 Falk were those of ( Iverdyk and Diisselthal, 
 founded by Counts Adalbert and Werner von 
 der Bicke, which are still in existence, and have 
 an average attendance of 300 children. There- 
 form school of Kcuggen. in the southern part of 
 Baden, was founded in 181 (i. It was the first 
 school of the kind in southern Germany, and was 
 followed by one in Neuhof, and a reform school 
 for girls in Erlangen. The first reform school 
 in Berlin was opened in 1 825, and has recently 
 been very much enlarged. It is the model on 
 which similar institutions have been organized at 
 Memel, Frankfort on the Oder, Posen, Konigs- 
 
REFORM SCHOOLS 
 
 725 
 
 berg, and Stettin. The foundation of bouses of 
 correction, however, by the government, has 
 caused the disappearance of all these later in- 
 stitutions except that at Stettin. A house of 
 correction was founded in Hamburg, in 1829. 
 At the present time, there are L2 houses of this 
 class in Prussia, 3 in Saxony. 1 in Wurtemberg, 
 1 in Hamburg, and 1 in Bremen. A reform 
 school was established in I.ichtenstein, in 1830, 
 and another in Tempelhof, in 1843 — both in 
 connection with the normal schools iu those 
 places. There is also a central school of this 
 class at Reutlingen. with 7 associated schools or 
 branches. It appears that Wiirtemberg has 
 done more in this direction than any other Ger- 
 man state. In 1867, it contained 32 reform 
 schools : 2(i Protestant, 5 Catholic, and 1 Jew- 
 ish, with accommodations for 1,067 children, and 
 an actual attendance of 1,269. Many societies 
 exist for the purpose of bringing neglected chil- 
 dren into homes and schools, all of which work 
 under the direction of a central coinmitl if char- 
 ity. In Switzerland, 7 farm and reform schools 
 were established between 1810 and 1830; from 
 1830 to 1840, L2 more were founded: from 1841 
 to 1846, 10 more : and from that to the present 
 time, 15; so that now Switzerland lias 44 schools 
 of this kind, with 1,543 pupils. In Baden, in 
 1843, a Protestant school was founded at Dur- 
 lach, and a Catholic one at Mariahof, the pupils 
 in each numbering about 50. The most cel- 
 ebrated of these reform schools, however, was 
 the Rauhes llaus. formed in Hamburg by J. H. 
 Wichern. in 1833. As this has been for a long 
 time a model for schools of the kind, a short ac- 
 count of its organization and management will 
 not be out of place. In 1833, . I. 11. Wichern 
 went, with his mother, to live on a small, rude- 
 ly cultivated farm near Hamburg, taking with 
 him, in accordance with a vow made to compan- 
 ions in a home missionary society, 12 boys gath- 
 
 was their lot, and devotion to duty their only 
 reward, went out into the world as missionaries, 
 
 particularly among thej r. From its foundation 
 
 to 1867, the Rauhes llaus had received and edu- 
 cated nearly 800 children, the average annual 
 attendance being about 120. The numberof per- 
 sons connected with the establishment, in the 
 year mentioned, was 450. The whole number of 
 reform schools in Germany, in 1867, was 354. 
 The influence of the Rauhes llaus has been very 
 great, reformatory institutions on the family plan 
 having been established in Russia. Switzerland, 
 
 i France, Belgium, Sweden, England, and in many 
 of the states of the American Union —The first 
 reform school-in England was founded near Lon- 
 don by the Philanthropic Society, in 1 7,«s. This 
 was followed by one in Warwickshire, in 1818. 
 in which outdoor labor was first made a part of 
 the training. In 1830, another school was estab- 
 lished by Captain i'renton, who believed that no 
 person under the age of 16 should be sent to 
 prison. His institution, however, and that in 
 Warwickshire were closed for want of support. 
 In 1834, a reformatory school for girls was estab- 
 lished at Chiswick, to which the name of The 
 Victoria Asylum was given. In 1 838, a separate 
 
 j prison was established at Parkhurst for prisoners 
 under the age of 16, the discipline in which was 
 reformatory rather than penal. The institution 
 founded by the Philanthropic Society at St. 
 
 G ■ge'sin the Fields became, through lack of 
 
 interest in its success, ai first a poor house, and 
 
 aft 
 
 Ilardw 
 Saltley. 
 was pas 
 in it to 
 
 ercd from the worst haunts of vice and misery in 
 the city. The organization naturally suggested 
 to him by the circumstances, was that of the 
 family; his mother personating the mother of the 
 family, and himself the father. Here the boys 
 r< ived elementary instruction, mental and re- 
 ligious, and were trained to labor on the farm. 
 The project attracted general attention; and, from 
 time to time, other cheap houses were built, some 
 for boys, and some for girls, each to accommodate 
 about the same number of inmates, till, in time. 
 the rough farm was converted into a little village 
 with its church, school-house, workshops, and 
 gardens. This was the origin of the "family plan." 
 since adopted in reformatory institutions in many 
 parts of the civilized world. The fundamental 
 idea of the Rauhes llaus. however, originally pro- 
 claimed and never lost sight of. was that of mis- 
 sionary work among poor ami neglected children. 
 It became at once a training school for mission- 
 aries. The heads of families, teachers, overseers 
 of workshops, deformed a religious brotherhood 
 known as the Brotherhood of the Rauhes Haus, 
 the members of which, after serving an apprentice- 
 ship in this simple community, where poverty 
 
 the largest reformatory in England. 
 at time, schools have been established at 
 •ke Court. Kingswood. Stoke harm, and 
 Iii 1854, the Reformatory Schools Act 
 sed, magistrates being authorized to corn- 
 reform schools youths under 16 years of 
 
 age, for not less than 2 nor more than 5 years, 
 making an allowance in each case for their main- 
 tenance. In Scotland, industrial schools were es- 
 tablished, at the same time, for destitute and 
 vagrant children under 14 years of age. In 1856, 
 there were 34 reform schools in existence in 
 Great Britain; and. in I si;;',, then- wen' 111 in ex- 
 istence, with an attendance of 4,677, of whom 
 1,000 were girls. The English law divides reform 
 schools into two kinds: reform schools proper, 
 intended for correction; and industrial schools, 
 intended for prevention, admission to one or the 
 other being determined by differences in age and 
 previous condition in regard to crime. In ]>',:',, 
 there were in Great Britain 45 reformatories for 
 boys, and 20 for girls, with 4.424 inmates in the 
 former, and 1,15] in the latter. The number of 
 industrial schools at the same time was 100, with 
 an attendance of 7,598 boys, and 2,587 -iris. - 
 In England and Scotland, there is another class 
 ed raqqedsch 's, designed 
 
 
 children generally boys, and thus prevent them 
 from falling into vice and crime. The idea of 
 such schools is attributed to John Pounds, a 
 
7 '26 
 
 REFORM SCHOOLS 
 
 poor shoe-maker of Portsmouth, who. in 1819, 
 commenced to gather around him the ragged 
 children of his district, in order that he might 
 instruct them as he sat at work; and in this 
 benevolent task, he continued till his death, in 
 1839. A mure effective movement in that direc- 
 tion was commenced by Sheriff Watson, of Aber- 
 deen, in which city a ragged school was opened 
 in 1 841 : but there was a large Sunday-school of 
 this kind in London, in 1838; and the Field 
 Lane school was opened in 1843. Through the 
 Systematic efforts of the Ragged School Union 
 of London, a large number of such schools have 
 been established. These include day and evening 
 schools and Sunday-schools. Similar schools 
 under different names have been organized in 
 other countries. 
 
 In France, reform schools are known as cor- 
 rectional and penitentiary colonies. Some are 
 founded and supported entirely by the state. 
 others, by individuals, under government sanction. 
 The maximum age is 16. The penitentiary colony 
 receives children who have committed crime 
 through ignorance, and who are acquitted, there- 
 fore, from want of evidence of criminal intent, 
 but are thought to require special training, and 
 young prisoners sentenced for more than 6 months 
 but not more than 2 years. The correctional colony 
 receives prisoners sentenced for more than 2 years, 
 and insubordinates from the penitentiary colony. 
 In L862, there were 36 colonies for boys, and 25 
 for girls ; the number of inmates being 6,604 
 boys, and 1,878 girls. The most successful of 
 the French reform schools is that at Mettray, 
 founded by Demetz, in 1839. The inmates 
 are divided into families of 50; the average 
 number in the school or colony being, at the 
 
 present time, 700. Agricultural and mechanical 
 labor is carried on, the colony Vicing, in large 
 measure, self-supporting. Less than 4 per cent of 
 those who have left the colony have relapsed into 
 crime. The success of the school is largely attrib- 
 uted to the correspondence and supervision kept 
 up between it and the pupils after they have left. 
 The number of similar organizations founded 
 afterthe example of Mettray is 411. — In Belgium, 
 agricultural reform schools exist at Ruysselede, 
 Wynghene, and Beernem. They form practically 
 one institution, the object of which is the rec- 
 lamation of juvenile delinquents of both sexes, 
 who are not criminals. — In the United States, 
 the name usually given to the reform school is 
 house of ref ufii'. The oldest institution of the kind 
 is that on Randall's Island. X.Y., which wasfound- 
 ed in 1825. It isthe largest reformatory of its class 
 in the United States, the average number of its in- 
 mates being 800. They are of both sexes, and are 
 sent to the institution upon conviction for petty 
 offenses. Their discipline consists of daily labor 
 for 6 or 8 hours, and study for about 3 hours. 
 The period of detention depends upon their con- 
 duct; and. on their discharge, homes are found for 
 the more deserving. The house of refuge in Boston 
 was opened in 1827; that in Philadelphia, in 
 the following year; and that in New Orleans, in 
 1847. The establishment of reformatories as 
 state institutions was first made in Massachusetts, 
 in 1848, the state reform school at Westborough 
 being then established. Since that time, individ- 
 uals, cities, and several of the states, have estab- 
 lished schools, many of them on the family plan. 
 A list of such institutions existing at the present 
 time in the United States, is given in the sub- 
 joined table : 
 
 Reform Schools in the United States. 
 
 NAME 
 
 Nation 
 
 When 
 
 1'nuinied 
 
 Control 
 
 O't d (' 1 ldu trial School 
 
 Sa K an- 9co Cal 
 
 1858 
 1870 
 1854 
 1863 
 1871 
 1874 
 
 18(18 
 
 1805 
 1850 
 Is;, 2 
 1 855 
 1873 
 1866 
 1856 
 1827 
 
 Is 74 
 1851 
 I860 
 1870 
 1848 
 1863 
 1861 
 1856 
 
 1 854 
 
 
 
 
 Corporate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^:,;: 1 ::, i k, 1 ;:;::' '^ 
 
 
 
 
 Municipal 
 Municipal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 n.iltiiuoiv. Mil 
 
 Municipal 
 Corporate 
 
 
 
 C|ty"n| lln-tnli VltM-ll ■ -•■-, „ i| 
 
 
 Municipal 
 Municipal 
 
 Ilmisr til K.'h.niKih „i .1 u\ mil.; Utimd./] ^ 
 
 
 
 
 Municipal 
 Municipal 
 
 
 
 
 
 Hi,::,:, T |- ..HM >■ h::Cl 
 
 s.i Lin, Mass 
 
 Private 
 
 
 
 Municipal 
 Municipal 
 
 
 Detroit, Mich 
 
 Liui-iii!.', M icli 
 
 St. Paul. Minn 
 
 St. Louis, Mo 
 
 
 
 
 House oi Refuge 
 
 
REFORMED CHURCHES 
 
 Reform Schools in the United States (continued). 
 
 NAME. 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 founded 
 
 Control 
 
 New Hampshire State [tetotin School 
 
 Manchester. N. II. 
 
 1855 
 18G7 
 1871 
 1857 
 18G8 
 18(58 
 1870 
 1854 
 1867 
 1857 
 1866 
 1825 
 1845 
 1867 
 1846 
 1863 
 1850 
 1868 
 1870 
 1869 
 1857 
 1869 
 
 Is:, 4 
 1826 
 1850 
 1854 
 1st:: 
 1S50 
 1865 
 
 stall- 
 
 State Industrial School (girls) 
 
 l:i >Imi. -N. V. 
 
 E. New York, N.Y 
 
 N.-w York.N. V 
 
 Municipal 
 Municipal 
 Municipal 
 
 
 
 'House of the Holy Family ^.ssociatiou etc. . . . 
 
 
 Trustees 
 
 
 
 House ,.f tile (inuil Shepherd 
 
 Ti.iith- for Fallen and Friendless Girls. 
 
 
 Randall's Island, X. Y. '.'.'.'. 
 
 Managers 
 Corporate 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Rochester, N. Y 
 
 Westchester, N. Y 
 
 
 
 Municipal 
 Municipal 
 
 
 
 
 
 Cleveland, 
 
 Municipal 
 
 
 
 
 State 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Municipal 
 
 
 
 
 Philadelphia, Pa 
 
 Pittsburg, Pa.. .'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.". 
 
 Managers 
 
 
 W te, II ,,-.■... Refuge 
 
 Managers 
 
 
 
 Municipal 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Reform School ol the District ol Columbia.. 
 
 Washington, D.C 1^7:: 
 
 •• 1869 
 
 Trustees 
 
 Ten id. rial 
 
 REFORMED CHURCHES.— After the j Olevianus. n disciple of Calvin, and Ursimis. a 
 rise i if the Reformation, in the 1 6th century, it disciple of Melanchthon. The tenets of the Re- 
 was for a time common to divide the Protestants formed Church were also accepted in Bremen, 
 of Europe into two large bodies, the Lutheran ' Nassau. Anhalt, Lippe, Hesse. Cassel, and by the 
 Church (q. v.) and the Reformed Church. The Elector of Brandenburg; but were never enter- 
 latter included all the ecclesiastical organizations tained by more than a small minority oi Ihe ( Ser- 
 which regarded Zwingli and Calvin as their man I'rotestants. 'I'hev are elo.-elv allied to what 
 earliest and foremost leaders. In the liriti.-h has been called, in history. Melanclithonian I.u- 
 Isles, these churches assumed the name Presby- theranism. The university of Heidelberg was the 
 terians (q.v.); and the name Reformed Churches most famous school connected with the German 
 was henceforth only applied to the churches of Reformed Church. (2) In Holland, the Reformed 
 this type on the continent of Europe. When Church became early the prevailing religion, and 
 the Evangelical Church was formed, by the union greatly distinguished itself by its interest in both 
 of the two sister churches in Prussia, in 1817, popular and university education. The eager 
 and afterward in other parts of Germany, the He- choice of a university, in preference to a perpet- 
 formed Church entered heartily into the union, ual annual fair, by the people of Leyden, in 
 ceasing to exist in name, but not in spirit or life. 1574, is a well-known incident. A free univer- 
 In Switzerland, the Netherlands, Austria, Hun- sity was also established at Franeker, in 1585. 
 gary, France, and Russia, the Reformed Church The universities of Groningen and Utrecht were 
 
 •r its old na In the 
 
 of the German Reformed 
 
 founded, 
 
 continues to exist un 
 
 United States, offshoot 
 
 and Dutch Reformed 
 
 inent place among the 
 
 This subject will 'be distributed under the folio 
 
 ing heads: (I) The Reformed Churches of K 
 
 rope; (II) The Reformed Churches in the Nt 
 
 World. 
 
 I. The Reformed Churches of Europe.- 
 (1) The Reformed Church of Germany proper 
 commenced its history in the Palatinate in tl 
 year 1563, when the Elector Frederick publish,- 
 
 for the use of his scl Is and churches, the lb 
 
 delberg Catechism, which had been prepared by found the system 
 two professors of the university of Heidelberg— I lished in Holland 
 
 in 1614 and 1636. In 
 f the ante Revolu 
 
 tl,. h: 
 
 cause of education in Holland was identified 
 with that of Protestantism. At the Synod 
 of Port (1618 — 19), decrees were passed in 
 behalf of education, and parochial schools were 
 established throughout Holland. Intelligence 
 so rapidly increased in this little state that she 
 was called compendium orbis. Motley says thai 
 the New England pilgrims had previously 
 free schools already estah- 
 The Reformed Church, as 
 
T-JS 
 
 REFORMED CHURCHES 
 
 the church of the majority of the people and of 
 the government, has exerted, and still exerts, a 
 considerable influence upon the entire educational 
 system of the country, although the school law 
 sanctions the principle of unsectarian instruction. 
 A theological faculty is connected with each of 
 the universities of Leyden. I'trecht. and Gron- 
 ingen, which, in 1874, had an aggregate of 10 
 professors and about 300 students. The Church, 
 in 1875, had 1,340 congregations, 1, GOO clergy- 
 men, and, in 1869, a population of 1,956,593 
 souls. The Christian Reformed Church, which 
 separated from the state church, on the ground 
 that the latter was subject to Rationalistic in- 
 fluences, in 1875, had 3 in congregations and 240 
 ministers; and, in 18159, a population of 107,123 
 souls. This Church has a theological seminary 
 at Kampen. (See Netherlands.) (3) InSwitz- 
 erland, the Reformed Church is still, as in the 
 Netherlands, the church of the majority of the 
 people (about 1,500,000, or 58 per cent of the 
 population), and is the state or national church in 
 all the Protestant cantons. As such, it is directly 
 or indirectly connected with educational institu- 
 tions of all grades. (See Switzerland.) The- 
 ological faculties are connected with the univer- 
 sities of Zurich, Hern. Basel, and < ieneva. As the 
 church is without self-government, but is entirely 
 ruled by the state authorities, Free Churches 
 have been organized in a number of cantons, 
 which have established theological schools at 
 Geneva, Lausanne, and Neufehatel. (4) In 
 Austria proper, Hungary, France, and Russia, 
 the Reformed Church constitutes only a small 
 minority of the population', but has been re- 
 organized and supported by the state govern- 
 ments. In Austria proper, the Reformed popula- 
 tion amounts to 112,000 (0.51 percent); in Hun- 
 gary, to 2,143,000 (13 per cent); in France, to 
 4()7,II0(I (1.29 percent); and, in Russia, to about 
 260,000 (0.3 per cent). The school laws of these 
 countries provide for some kind of co-operation 
 by the clergy of the recognized religions in all 
 schools supported by the state; and the theolog- 
 ical schools are, to a much greater extent than in 
 Switzerland, under the control of church boards. 
 The church of Austria has, in common with the 
 Lutheran Church, an evangelical theological fac- 
 ulty at Vienna; Hungary has Reformed colleges 
 at Pesth, Saros-l'atak. Kecskemet, Debreczin, 
 and Nagy-Euyed ; France has a Reformed fac- 
 ulty of theology at Moutauban. 
 
 II. Reformed Churches in the New World- 
 There are two branches of the Reformed Church 
 in the United States. After the nationality of 
 the colonies in which they originated, they were 
 formerly called the I hitch Reformed Chureh and 
 the German Reformed Church; but, of late, 
 both have changed their official names, and the 
 former now calls itself the Reformed Church in 
 America; the latter, the Reformed Church in the 
 United States. The former, in 1876, consisted of 
 506 churches, 546 ministers, and about 75,000 
 communicants, anil represented a population of 
 about a quarter of a million. The latter had 650 
 ministers, 1.350 congregations, and a member- 
 
 ship of 150,(100, representing a population of 
 about 250,000 souls, in the former, the Dutch 
 language has. in all the old congregations, given 
 way to the English; in the latter, the same is the 
 case, in a majority of the congregations, in respect 
 to the German ; though, owing to the extensive 
 immigration of Germans, the number of Ger- 
 man-speaking congregations is still on the in- 
 crease, and 2 of the 6 synods into which the 
 church is divided, 4 of the 16 periodicals, and 2 of 
 the literary institutions, are exclusively German. 
 (1) The Reformed Church in America, for- 
 merly known as the Rcformnl Dutch Church, is 
 the oldest body of the Presbyterian form of gov- 
 ernment and doctrine in the United States. This 
 denomination consisted originally of the Dutch 
 and Walloon colonies, planted by the 'West India 
 Company on the Hudson and Delaware rivers, 
 and on Long Island. The West India Company 
 repeatedly promised to provide and support min- 
 isters and school-masters in New Netherlands, 
 though these promises were often forgotten. The 
 people, at such times, though poor, taxed them- 
 selves. School-masters were obliged to undergo 
 an examination before the classes; and the office 
 could not be assumed voluntarily. The yet un- 
 published voluminous correspondence between 
 the Dutch churches in America and the parent 
 church in Holland, has frequent references to the 
 subject of schools. While parochial schools in con- 
 nection with the Dutch < Lurch have not become 
 genera] in America, nevertheless the church of 
 New York has maintained such a school from 
 1633 to the present time. (See Dunshee, His- 
 tory of the School of the Hutch Reformed Church 
 of New York.) A Latin or high school was. 
 also founded as early as 1659. — The English gov- 
 ernors were naturally opposed to the Dutch 
 schools, and sought to anglicize the whole popula- 
 tion. It became increasingly difficult, to secure 
 ministers from Holland. This fact forced the 
 subject of American institutions and the need of 
 an American trained ministry upon the attention 
 of the people. Those who had been trained in 
 the universities of Europe, thought that no ade- 
 quate education could be provided in America; 
 but the churches must nevertheless be supplied 
 with ministers. The debate grew very warm, and 
 divided the church into parties for 17 years. In 
 the mean time, about a dozen American youths 
 were sent to Holland for education; and about 
 as many were trained by pastors in this country 
 before 1771, when the denomination became ec- 
 clesiastically independent of Holland. An effort 
 was made (1755) to found a theological chair for 
 the Dutch in King's (Columbia) College, by an 
 amendment to the charter of that institution} 
 
 but the plan was not acceptable to the , pie 
 
 A charter was secured, in 1766, for a distinctive- 
 ly Dutch institution in New .Jersey, but this was. 
 thought to be un-American. A charter upon 
 the most liberal principles, and capable of in- 
 definite expansion, was finally secured (in 1771) 
 for Queen's (Rutgers) College, situated at New 
 Brunswick. Union College, at Schenectady, was. 
 also organized, largely under Dutch patronage, 
 
 
 
REFORMED CHURCHES 
 
 729 
 
 i may be seen from the fact that it has given 
 ore than 1 DO ministers to the Reformed ( I »utch) 
 brarch. Hope College was organized in L863, 
 
 Holland, Michigan, t.i meet the necessities of 
 
 the 
 
 the college.— Efforts were made ^immediately 
 after ecclesiastical independence I 771 i. to found 
 a theological seminary. The Revolution delayed 
 
 ston, a graduate of the University of (Jtrecht, 
 and the last of the American youths who had 
 
 gone to Holland for education, was appointed 
 professor of theology: and Dr. H. Meyer was 
 appointed, at the same time, professor of the 
 sacred languages. In I si 0, this seminary was lo- 
 cated permanently at New Brunswick, and was 
 united with Rutgers College until 1864. It has 
 sent forth (1784—1876) (157 ministers. If to 
 these be added 27 American youths, educated 
 here or elsewhere before 1784, and about 50 in 
 Hope College, we li:i\ . .i total of 7.'U persons edu- 
 cated directly by this church for her own min- 
 istry, besides those educated for other professions. 
 The Theological Seminary now has property at 
 New Brunswick, N. J., amounting to almost 
 9350,000, and four well-endowed professorships. 
 Hertzog Hall is a spacious residence for students : 
 Suydam Hall contains lecture rooms and a fully 
 equipped gymnasium ; and Sage Hall contains a 
 library of about '27.0011 volumes, and is receiving 
 constant additions, A board of education (or- 
 ganized in L828) affords aid to needy students. 
 Its own and other educational funds under 
 the control of the denomination, amount to 
 $160,000, with direct yearly contributions, from 
 the churches, of from $10,000 to $15,000 more. 
 (2) The Reformed Church in live. VhitedSt Ut s, 
 originally called the Herman Reformed Church. 
 was founded by emigrants from Switzerland. Hol- 
 land, and the Palatinate, iu Germany, in the early 
 part of the last century. As the fathers of the 
 
 Reformed Church were accustoi 1 to parochial 
 
 schools in Germany, when they emigrated to 
 this country, they sought, at an early day, to es- 
 tablish such schools in connection with their con- 
 gregations. The school and the church belonged 
 together; and the teacher, accustomed to play the 
 organ and to ci induct the singing in the sanctuary, 
 was next in rank to the minister in public esti- 
 mation. The schools, of course, were all religious 
 and Christian, and in them the New Testament, 
 the psalter, and the Heidelberg catechism were 
 used as text-books. This was generally the case in 
 both branches of the German Church. Reformed 
 and Lutheran; but. as the country was new and 
 many of the people poor and scattered, they were 
 often unable to sen re even the services of the 
 ministers of the gospel, much less school-masters 
 to instruct their children. Then- was. therefore. 
 a sad decline, for a time, both in religious and 
 educational interests. Rutin 1746, Rev. Michael 
 Schlatter came to Pennsylvania as a missionary 
 under the direction of the Reformed Church of 
 Holland, and proceeded not only to organize 
 churches, but also to establish schools. He was 
 
 shocked at the ignorance prevailing among the 
 young people, and did much to improve their 
 con. li l ion, I lc collected money in ( Germany, Hol- 
 land, and England for the establishment of 
 schools and the support of teachers, in which 
 good work he was assisted by the authorities of 
 the province and many patriotic citizens. In many 
 places he succeded in building up schools which 
 continued to nourish for a long time, and hence 
 may be regarded as the first superintendent of 
 public instruction in the state. In 1787, the 
 legislature of Pennsylvania granted a charter for 
 the establishment of Franklin College, at Lan- 
 caster. Pa., and, in addition, made a grant of 
 10.000 acres for this object from the public 
 domain; which grant, although at tirst more ex- 
 pensive than profitable, became in the course of 
 time valuable. The project originated with a num- 
 ber of reputable citizens of Herman extraction ; 
 and. as it was intended more particularly for the 
 benefit of the Herman population, "through whose 
 industry and patriotic services the state had 
 arisen to such a high degree of prosperity, " it was 
 in effect placed under the control of the Lutheran 
 and Reformed people. It excited considerable in- 
 terest at the time and enlisted the warmest 
 sympathies of such patriots as Rush and Frank- 
 lin, of Philadelphia. It received its name from 
 the latter, who was president of the state. In- 
 tended from the tirst to be an institution of a 
 high order, .something like a German university. 
 
 the free-school system when it was tirst broached 
 in Pennsylvania, because it did not make ad- 
 equate provision for the religious education of 
 youth, seeming to eliminate the religious ele- 
 ment altogether. They were, from the beginning, 
 supporters of parochial schools, and were then, 
 as they are still, wedded to the idea that educa- 
 tion and religion ought to go together. They 
 yielded at last in their opposition, because com- 
 mon schools seemed to be the best that could be 
 had under the circumstances. Their German gov- 
 ernors, Wolf and Ritner, the one of Lutheran and 
 the other of Reformed persuasion, under whose 
 administration, and by whose support, the pres- 
 ent free-school system was introduced into the 
 state, had much to do in reconciling them to the 
 new order of things. With the consolidation of 
 this system, the old parochial schools, in a gnat 
 measure, passed away. As far as the Reformed 
 Church is concerned, however, it may be said. 
 that while it supports public schools as a ne- 
 cessity and a great public benefit, it would gener- 
 ally p refer a system of parochial schools, if they 
 could be maintained in a flourishing condition. 
 It may also he said, judging from some of the 
 recent ecclesiastical utterances, that it is probable 
 the church will yet revive these schools in some 
 degree, not iii opposition to the public schools, 
 but to serve as their proper supplement, and as 
 a vindication of the theory of Christian edu- 
 cation. 
 
730 REFORMED CHURCHES 
 
 In the year 1825, the Synod of the German 
 Reformed Church, in order to increase and im- 
 prove the character of its ministry, established 
 a theological seminary at Carlisle, Pa., under the 
 charge of Dr. Lewis Mayer, in close connection 
 with hii'kinson College: but. as the seminary 
 was removed to York, Pa., in 1829, it soon be- 
 came evident, that, in order to give it the neces- 
 sary efficiency, a classical school was needed. Such 
 a school was, therefore, established in connec- 
 tion with the seminary ; and, under the care of 
 Dr. Frederick Augustus Rauch. a ripe scholar 
 from the father-land, who took charge of it in 
 1832, and Prof. Samuel \V. Budd,a graduate of 
 Princeton College, it flourished, and accomplished, 
 for the time being, the work of a college for the 
 Church. In the fall of 1835, it was removed to 
 Mercersburg, Pa., where, having received a charter 
 from the legislature, it was converted into a reg- 
 ular college, under the name and title of Mar- 
 shall College. Dr. Rauch was its first president; 
 and to him it owes its German- American charac- 
 ter, that of an American institution pervaded with 
 the spirit of German science and literature. In 
 the year 1841, at the early age of thirty-five, he 
 died, in the midst of his rising fame, deeply la- 
 mented by all who knew him. Dr. Ranch's place 
 in the college was ably filled by the Rev. John 
 Williamson Xevin, from the year 1841 to 1853, 
 ■who during the same time served as the regular 
 professor of theology in the seminary, which had 
 been removed to Mercersburg soon after the re- 
 moval of the high school. Dr. Nevin labored to 
 promote the interests of the college with much 
 energy and self-sacrifice, and gave it a national 
 reputation; but, whilst it flourished internally, 
 and performed important service in the cans,.. 
 of education, letters, and sound learning, it suf- 
 fered from the want of an adequate endow- 
 ment, which at times made even its permanence as 
 an institution problematical. Accordingly, when 
 the trustees of old Franklin College, at Lancaster, 
 which had an endowment of over $50,000, but 
 was without college classes or college arrange- 
 ments, proposed to unite the two institutions, the 
 proposition was favorably received; and they 
 were consolidated by an act of the legislature, 
 under the name of Franklin and Marshall Col- 
 lege. This arrangement went into operation iu 
 1853, since which time the college has pursued 
 a successful career in the midst of a large ( lerman- 
 American population, upon whom it has acted as 
 an educational stimulant with greater influence, 
 perhaps, than any purely American institution 
 could have exerted. The German language is a 
 regular branch of study, as much so as Latin and 
 Greek. In its philosophical course.the college seeks, 
 in accordance with the idea of its first president. 
 Dr. Rauch, to unite the practical spirit of this 
 country and England with the speculative and 
 idealistic tendencies of the father-laud. At the 
 same time, much stress is laid on the religious 
 training of the students. To accomplish this ob- 
 ject, the students and the families of the professors, 
 in the seminary and college, are organized into a 
 regular congregation under the direction of classes. 
 
 REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY 
 
 The students serve as deacons and elders; and the 
 professors — such as are clergymen, as pastors. 
 Collections are taken up for benevolent purposes 
 every Sabbath, and students are prepared for 
 confirmation yearly by a course of catechetical 
 lectures. The college has, thus far, performed a 
 very important service for the cause of education 
 among a large and intelligent class of people. 1 're- 
 vious to its organization, in 1835, comparatively 
 few young men of German extraction went to 
 college at all; and but few of the German-Amer- 
 icans, even in the ministry, had enjoyed the ben- 
 efit of a classical training. Now college graduates 
 from this source, filling important positions in 
 society, are counted by scores or hundreds. Many 
 of them, in turn, have been active in founding 
 other colleges and classical schools in different 
 parts of the country. 'I he Reformed Synod of ( Uiio 
 has a flourishing literary (Heidi /'■■ rg ' Megt ,q.v.) 
 and theological institution at Tiffin, I Ihio. Mer- 
 cersburg College, which grew out of a high school 
 that was established after the removal of Mar- 
 shall College to Lancaster, is a young and vigor- 
 ous institution. Jt is the child of the Mercersburg 
 Classis. Catawba College. at New ton, N.< '..under 
 the jurisdiction of the North Carolina Classis, 
 although it suffered ninth in the loss of its en- 
 dowment during the war. has been revived, and 
 shows signs of returning prosperity. Palatinate 
 College, at Myerstown. Pa., carries its students 
 as far as the junior class. It is located in a 
 populous German section of the state, and is per- 
 i.,i ming a good work. It is also a church insti- 
 tution, and is owned by the I ebanon Classis. 
 Ursinus College (q. v.), at Collegeville, Mont- 
 gomery Co., Pa., was opened a few years ago. by 
 the Rev. J. II. A. Boinberger, and others who 
 sympathized with him in his theological tenden- 
 cies. It has manifest.. I considerable energy, but 
 is not under any direct ecclesiastical control. 
 Clarion Collegiate Institute, at Rimersburg. Pa., 
 and Blairstown Academy. Blairstown, Iowa, are 
 classical high schools, established by the classes 
 within whose bounds they are located. The for- 
 eign German population of the Church have two 
 institutions under their care : Calvin Institute, 
 at Cleveland. Ohio: and the Mission House, at 
 Howard's Grove. Wis. The one is a classical 
 school ; and the other, a theological seminary. — 
 While the growth of institutions for the educa- 
 tion of young men has been encouraged, female 
 education has not been overlooked in the Re- 
 formed Church. The East Pennsylvania < lassifl 
 has established the Allentown Female Seminary, 
 at Allentown, Pa., under the presidency of 
 Rev. W. R. Hofford, A. M. In the Maryland 
 Classis, Rev. Geo. I,. Staley has a seminary of 
 a high order, for females, at Knoxville, Md. ; 
 Rev. J. Hassler A. \L. has another at Mercers- 
 burg, Pa.; and Lev. Lucian Cort, A. M.. has also 
 the management of one at Greensburg, Pa. These 
 institutions are. at present, in a thriving condition 
 and give promise of being well patronized by the 
 people of the Reformed Church. 
 
 REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY. 
 See New York. 
 
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 
 
 RELIGIOUS EDUCATION is that which 
 as for its special object the cultivation of that 
 iculty of the human soul by means of which it 
 
 enabled to realize the existence and constant 
 resence of the Deity.to know Him, and to com- 
 iune with llim in worship and prayer. Some 
 live designated this tin- rrli./intis sat'/i/io'iit ; but 
 
 degrees of culture, shows that there are what 
 may be called religious intuitions, common to all 
 minds of whatever grade of development ; but 
 that while these may prompt to worship, yet, 
 without religious instruction, they can lead only 
 fci superstitious and debasing practices. The re- 
 ligious or spiritual instinct does not necessarily 
 involve any act of the intellect ; for those whose 
 intellectual education and endowments are quite 
 inferior, often show a surprising degree of spirit- 
 ual insight and religious fervor. This fact, how- 
 ever, does not supersede the necessity of appeal- 
 ing to the understanding in imparting a knowl- 
 edge of those religious "truths which have been 
 communicated by divine revelation ; but, in re- 
 ceiving these truths, the intellect assumes the 
 attitude of faith rather than of inquiry ; that is 
 to say. having become satisfied of the authentici- 
 ty, or the authority, of the source whence these 
 truths, or dogmatic teachings emanate, it does 
 not exercise its powers to establish their validity. 
 but only to conceive them in their true import 
 ami relations. Hence, the intellect, is not to be 
 cultivated by means of religious instruction; al- 
 though its exercise cannot wholly be dispensed 
 with. The specific office of religious education 
 is thus twofold: (1) to cultivate the religious 
 instincts; and (2) to impart religious truth. The 
 one is acconi] dishc. 1 by means of devotional exer- 
 cises ; the other, by dogmatic teachings. —In the 
 first stages of religious education, appropriate 
 exercises constitute almost the only agency 
 needed, nothing but the simplest religious truths 
 being requisite (such as are usually contained in 
 the catechism); but, in the more advanced period 
 of culture, the importance of dogmatic instruction 
 increases. Simple prayers and hymns, with just 
 enough teaching to enable the child to realize 
 their" full significance, are the usual and the 
 most effective means of exercising the religious 
 faculty. It must, however, be borne in mind, 
 that the mere saying of a prayer, or the singing 
 of a hymn, will not necessarily give this exercise. 
 any more than merely committing to memory a 
 definition or a rule will exercise the intellect. The 
 mechanical repetition of prayers, in religious 
 education, is just as useless as rote-teaching in 
 intellectual education. By an inattention to this 
 principle on the part of parents and religious 
 teachers, no doubt, many children become dis- 
 gusted with religious devotion, while others 
 imbibe the notion that religion is only a matter 
 of forms and ceremonies, or the repeating of 
 the catechism. In either case, the religious in- 
 stinct becomes dormant for the want of due 
 
 KKICIII.IN 
 
 Vol 
 
 The relation of moral and religious education 
 should be carefully studied. In brief, it may be 
 said that the former deals with the relations 
 which mankind sustain to each other; and the 
 latter, with those which man as a spiritual being 
 sustains to the Infinite Spirit, the Creator and 
 Preserver of all things. In the one, the principle 
 addressed is thai of conscience (q. v.), the sense 
 of right ; in the otlier.it is the religious principle, 
 the spiritual instinct, by which man is brought 
 into communion with his Maker. (See Moral 
 Eoucation.) In a certain sense, these two de- 
 partments of education are independent; for 
 conscience operates independently of religion ; 
 but a religious sanction is the strongest founda- 
 tion for moral precepts. For this, the Christian 
 revelation affords the fullest authority, the "first 
 and great commandment" being to love God ; 
 and the second, "to love thy neighbor as thyself." 
 The several departments of education are not to 
 be divorced from one another, but all are to be 
 carried on together, so as to produce a harmonious 
 development of character. (See Harmony of De- 
 velopment.)— In imparting religious instruction, 
 the same principles arc to be applied as in intel- 
 lectual education, as far as language is the vehicle 
 of the instruction. Very much of the religious 
 teaching given in the Sunday-school is of no 
 value, because of the neglect to observe these prin- 
 ciples. Committing to memory formulated dog- 
 mas, verses from the Kiblc. doctrinal Ic.-m.iis. etc.. 
 
 most important part m this kind of teaching; 
 and Bible expositions, when clear, definite, and 
 illustrative, always prove the most effective as 
 well as the most attractive means of instruction. 
 — The questions as to the relation of religious and 
 secular instruction are considered in the article 
 on Denominational Schools. — (See also Bible. 
 
 REUCHLIN, John, one of the foremost 
 
 representatives ami promoters of classical studies 
 in the 1 :~>th and Kith centuries, was born at Pforz- 
 heim, in I4.">5, and died at Stuttgart, June 30., 
 1522. His lectures on Greek authors, delivered 
 at the university of Basel, are regarded as 
 the first of the kind. He disagreed with Eras- 
 mus in regard to the true pronounciation of 
 Greek, and those who adopted his views, were 
 called Iteuchlinists. (See Greek Language.) The 
 Hebrew grammar, published l>v him in 1506,, 
 under the title Rudimenta Hebraicce Linguae, 
 was largely instrumental in introducing the 
 study of this language into the sphere ol ordi- 
 
 titioncl to order all the books of the .lews de- 
 stroyed except the Old Testament. Ileuehliii was 
 directed by the Elector of Mayence to declare 
 what should be done in the matter. He decided 
 that only those books that directly attacked 
 Christianity should be destroyed. He was now 
 subjected to active persecutions. His enemies 
 
732 
 
 REWARDS 
 
 declared him to be a heretic, and accused him of 
 being secretly inclined to Judaism. He was tried 
 by Hoogstraaten, at Mayence, and his writings 
 were condemned to the flames. He appealed to 
 the Pope; and the case was referred to the Bishop 
 of Spiic, who decided in Reuchlin's favor. Au 
 appeal from this decision was taken to Hume. 
 but was never directly acted upon. A league of 
 Reuchliuists (so called) was formed to take the 
 part of Reuchlin. It assumed the champion- 
 ship of the cause of classical learning, as opposed 
 to the scholasticism which had prevailed, and en- 
 listed the co-operation of many of the most dis- 
 tinguished men <>f Germany. In 1519, Franz 
 von Sickingen ordered the Dominicans to make 
 good to Reuchlin all the costs of court which 
 lie had incurred in consequence of their pro- 
 ceedings against him, and to give security 
 against his further prosecution ; and they did 
 so. In 1520. Reuchlin read lectures at Ingol- 
 stadt, under the patronage of the Duke of Ba- 
 varia, on Hebrew grammar and the /'/»/«.< of 
 Aristophanes, to more than three hundred hear- 
 ers. A few months before his death, he was 
 invited to teach Hebrew and the <! reek gram- 
 mar in the university of Tubingen. 
 
 REWAUDS, as an instrument of family or 
 school discipline, are benefits or privileges con- 
 ferred to incite children to well-doing. Primarily, 
 the offer of a reward, as an incitement to effort 
 on the part of the pupil, appeals to hqir, as pun- 
 ishment does to/ear (q. v.): but there are other 
 elements of individual character also addressed. 
 depending on (1) the nature of the reward of- 
 fered, and ('_') the individuality of the pupil. 
 Thus, the pupil who is particularly fond of praise, 
 if offered a valuable gift as an inducement to do 
 right, would strive to obtain it as a striking 
 token of his teacher's approval: while one who 
 was naturally acquisitive, or eager for gain, 
 would regard only the intrinsic value of the 
 reward. Hence, in one ea-e. the pupil's approba- 
 tiveness would be stimulated; and. in the other, 
 his acquisitiveness; but in neither would the 
 sense of duty be cultivated. The necessity of ex- 
 ercising great care in offering rewards will, 
 therefore, be obvious. While an appeal to hope 
 as an incentive to do right, is in most cases, if 
 not always, preferable to an appeal to fear: yet, 
 it must be borne in mind that rewards as well as 
 punishments constitute only a temporary expe- 
 dient in the discipline of children, and should, as 
 soon as possible, give place to a direct appeal to 
 conscience, or the sense of right. [See Con- 
 science.) When rewards are offered to a number 
 of pupils, to be conferred upon those who excel 
 all the others, they become /irizes, and are liable 
 to all the objections which have been urged 
 against the prize system ; but when rewards 
 [premiums), whether gifts of money, books, pict- 
 ures, or other articles of value, or merely tickets 
 or certificates <>f merit, are offered to all who 
 reach a certain specified standard of merit, either 
 in study or behavior, these objections are ob- 
 viated; as, although the mercenary spirit may 
 still be addressed, there is not the same liability 
 
 to injustice, or the same cause of envy and 
 jealousy. Rewards may. however, consist merely 
 of special privileges conferred upon meritorious 
 pupils: such as dismissal before the usual time 
 for closing school, permission to occupy some post 
 of honor or authority in connection with the 
 management of the school or class, or to engage 
 in some special sport or recreation planned by the 
 teacher, as a means of encouraging well-doing. 
 All these, doubtless, have their place in a proper 
 scheme of school discipline ; and, when used 
 with discrimination, are beneficial. — A system of 
 rewards has been objected to as appealing to the 
 lower, rather than to the higher, motives; but an 
 educator must not be led astray by any tran- 
 scendental view of human nature. He must rec- 
 ognize the moral imperfections of his pupil, and 
 
 i strive to lift him gradually to a higher plane of 
 thought and action. In this connection, it has 
 been properly remarked, "whatever may be pos- 
 sible in the mature man, in the line of that sub- 
 lime abstraction, virtue is its own reward, the 
 child is neither equal to such abstractions, nor 
 are they demanded of him. They may, it is true, 
 be gradually wrought by instruction into the 
 body of his thought, for the sake of their ulti- 
 mate effect on his principles as a man: but. em- 
 braced, as he is. in a world of perceived realities, 
 and only capable of attaining the subtler ideals 
 by passing to them through the fine gradations 
 of a progressively reducei I and sublimated reality, 
 it is absurd and tyrannous to rob him of the 
 stimulus, guidance, and aid of proper rewards as 
 outward realities foreshadowing the ideal of 
 absolute virtue, ami rendering possible both its 
 conception and attainment.'' — See Jewell, 
 School Government (New York. 1866); Mor- 
 rison, Manual of School Management, s. v. 
 Disri iilii ,<• 1 5th eii., (ilasgow, 1874). 
 
 RHETORIC (Gr. faropin^, art of oratory) 
 was originally applied to that branch of study in 
 which students were trained for public speak- 
 
 , ing. In Greece and Rome, the orator was di- 
 rectly the most powerful exponent of truth and 
 opinion. As a teacher, as well as a persuader, 
 his influence was. to a great extent, confined to 
 his hearers; and eloquence was. therefore, in the 
 greatest request. But. even in the writings of 
 the three greatest of the ancient rhetoricians, — 
 Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, there is evidence 
 that rhetoric embraced compositions not intended 
 for delivery in public. In modem times, rhet- 
 oric as an art treats of all composition, whether 
 spoken or written. It has been well defined as 
 the art of discourse, and discourse itself as " the 
 capacity in man of communicating his mental 
 states to other minds by means of language." It 
 embraces poetry as well as prose " because." as 
 Campbell says, "the same medium, language, 
 is made use of; the same general rules of com- 
 position, in narration, description, and argumen- 
 tation, are observed; and the same tropes and 
 figures, either for beautifying or invigorating 
 the diction, are employed by both. The versifi- 
 cation is to be considered as an appendage rather 
 than a constituent of poetry." In the most 
 
■cent treatises on rhetoric 1 , elocution, or the art 
 5 delivery, has been omitted. Day very justly 
 ivs, "thai this mode of communication is not 
 
 pressioii of thought, is imt, ao-ordinglv, a ne.vs- 
 Sary part of rhetoric." In Whately's treatise 
 [Elements of Rhetoric), however, a work con- 
 siderably used by students, a large part is de- 
 voted to elocution. — It has often been observed 
 that there must have been orators before there 
 were rules in oratory ; and this is often used as 
 an argument for undervaluing the study of rhet- 
 oric, just as kindred arguments are advanced 
 against the study of logic and grammar. But 
 there can be no question that immense progress 
 has been made through the critical study of 
 
 OBIC 733 
 
 these two divisions, the second is dependent on 
 the first. In a cyclopaedia, where the span' is 
 necessarily limited, it will not be expected that 
 
 ire is ii" dispute as 
 hetoric as an art, it 
 whether it ran be 
 
 wit- 
 
 to emulate. In its best sense, rhetoric presup- 
 poses an acquaintance with logic — the science 
 anil art of reasoning: because conviction and 
 persuasion are two of the great objects present 
 in the minds of speakers and writers. It also re- 
 
 ing the proper arrangement of words and sen- 
 tences. Rhetoric may be regarded from two points 
 of view: (1) as a purely critical study; and 
 (2) as the constant practice of an art. To the 
 extent that either of these views becomes more 
 prominent in the teacher's mind, will the 
 character of his instruction be affected. It is 
 quite possible to prepare students to recite well 
 in the statement of principles ami definitions; 
 and yet the same students may be veiy deficient 
 in the development or expression of spoken or 
 written thought. The condition of such stu- 
 dents may lead us to say with Butler : 
 
 In the celebrated treatise of Blair, Lectures on 
 Rhetoric and Belles Lett res, taste and style arc- 
 so treated as to occupy a very large part of 
 the subject. It is largely so with Campbell's 
 Philosophy of Rhetoric. Whately drew par- 
 ticular attention to the subject of invention ; 
 but he follows style with a chapter on elocution. 
 The practice, at present, which seems to be in- 
 creasing in favor with teachers, is to omit elocu- 
 tion, or the trainiug in mere delivery, and to ex- 
 tend the importance of invention even beyond 
 that assigned to it by Whately. The two great 
 divisions of rhetoric are thus invention and 
 style. There can be no question as to the im- 
 portance of invention in rhetoric. The arrange- 
 ment of the thoughts according to their logical 
 dependence must be the foundation of the 
 art of discourse. Good thinking must always 
 precede good writing. The office of invention 
 is to train the pupil to habits of correct think- 
 ing. It does more than this ; it seeks to sup- 
 ply the thought. Thus, invention is naturally 
 divided into two parts, — the supplying of the 
 thought, aud its proper arrangement ; and of 
 
 this again dc 
 of mind. T 
 art of influ 
 
 truths 
 insist) 
 alwav. 
 
 Hands some considerable maturity 
 
 ic preparation of argu nts, or the 
 
 nc ing the will by discourse, is a 
 ivelopmenf of which goes on past 
 but it is a power that cannot be 
 
 rai 1 in very early years. The 
 
 in teaching this particular division 
 that it may be made too ,-ciciil ilic. 
 r young minds so trained, or of such 
 as to be capable of dwelling long, 
 ic-tit, upon even well enunciated 
 lefiiiitions; but. even where it is 
 ind continued, the results are not 
 rial. 
 
 Pe 
 
 d division of rhetoric — style 
 larly with the form of the 
 no word has given more dif- 
 ficulty to define. Without speech, " thought is 
 not possible in reality." Though so endlessly 
 variable in its form, so subtle as almost to defy 
 minute analysis, so subject to the moods of 
 thought, and yet so plastic as to conform to its 
 most sinuous and involved movements, we soon 
 realize by a little study, how completely it is a 
 part of the thinking. The thought and the 
 style are thus seen to be one living body. Asa 
 subject of study, it is that part of rhetoric which 
 has always created and maintained the gn atesl 
 interest in the minds of young students. Treat- 
 ing of the form of the sentence, and also of its 
 component words, it depends, to some extent, on 
 grammar, and may be said to follow it. in a nat- 
 ural order of study. It is, therefore, to young 
 minds more suitable than the other division — 
 invention. The practice which it requires in 
 the substitution of words, the inversion of sen- 
 tences from grammatical to rhetorical forms, 
 the use of rhetorical figures, the expansion and 
 contraction of language, furnishes a constant 
 stimulus to mental exertion. Such exercises in 
 style show the student how powerfully the thought 
 is" influenced by the vehicle of thought, how it 
 may be modified by the substitution of a clearer 
 word, or remarkably affected by a different 
 position of the same words. 
 
 The advantage of sentential analysis in the 
 careful study of style can scarcely be overrated. 
 The arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses, 
 peculiar to the great English writers, affect most 
 powerfully the turn of the thought, and are open 
 to investigation through this analysis. The 
 kind of sentences they use, aud the variety iu 
 
734 
 
 RHETORIC 
 
 which they indulge, give that harmony of move- 
 ment »i indescribably pleasing. We. thus, av 
 from what arise the clearness and greatness of 
 Hume, the energy and brilliancy of Macaulay, 
 the L'nice of Irving, the manly vigor of Sydney 
 Smith, the philosophic calmness of Helps, the 
 incomparable plasticity and fire of Byron's prose. 
 Perhaps no part of rhetoric offers a finer field 
 for both teacher and student than the application 
 of sentential analysis to an investigation of the 
 striking peculiarities in the style of great -writers. 
 ■ — In no branch of study, is there greater necessity 
 for abundance of practice on the part of the 
 student. In none is there greater necessity that 
 the student, and not the teacher, should do the 
 chief part of the work. The value of rhetoric, 
 as a branch of study, is to be tested by its prac- 
 tical utility, by what it contributes towards de- 
 veloping clearness, force, and beauty of expression 
 in language. Any tiling els-, however scientific. 
 in this branch must prove to the young student 
 a comparatively barren and irksome task. In 
 this light, the constant application of a few 
 simple principles to the criticism of great writers 
 is an admirable part of the training. In Blair's 
 Lectures on Rhetoric, there is a series of papers 
 from Addison illustrating this view; and it is to 
 be doubted whether mo lent treatises on rhetoric, 
 aiming at a more philosophic treatment of the 
 subject, while they have gained in scientific ar- 
 rangement, may not have lost some of this crit- 
 ical training. Accuracy, as well as force of ex- 
 pression, purity, propriety, grace, are, to most 
 students, the result of constant, careful practice', 
 combined with criticisms on distinguished writ- 
 ers. Franklin, in his autobiography, gives a 
 most interesting account of what can be accom- 
 plish 'd under limited opportunities, without a 
 teacher, by careful criticism and revision. The 
 various steps, related in his remarkably simple 
 English, are worthy of the notice of those en- 
 gaged in the instruction of youth. — In the two 
 leading American colleges. Harvard and Yale, 
 the time allotted to the study of rhetoric is. in 
 the former, a part of the sophomore and junior 
 years; in the latter, the senior year, although 
 lectures on rhetoric arc delivered to the sopho- 
 more clas3. Supposing the average age of stu- 
 dents, at the time of admission, to be 17 — and 
 this is. probably, below the true average — it 
 may be said that rhetoric, as a distinct branch of 
 study, is pursued by the students in their twen- 
 tieth year. This age gives some degree of ma- 
 turity. By a thorough course in the classical or 
 modern languages, students are, to a certain ex- 
 tent, prepared to enter upon the study of inven- 
 tion and the criticism of style. — See K iMES, Ele- 
 ments of Criticism; A 1 1 ms, «, Essays on Paradise 
 L«t inthe.s/.ee/,,/.,,-.. p., uR.Lectures on Rhetoric 
 
 ilml />'e'/e.s- />/OVS ; ( ' \ M I'BKI.L. /'// ilnsi i/i/i If i if 
 
 Rhetoric; Whatelt, Elements of Rhetoric; De 
 Quincey, Rhetorical and Critical Essays, art. 
 
 *(,,!,■: Herbert ScRxoer. K.<s,n/s. Moral, Polit- 
 ical, and /Esthetic, art. Stole; II. X. Day, The 
 Art of Discourse (N. Y., 1869). (See also 
 Bei.i.es-Lettres.) 
 
 RHODE ISLAND 
 
 RHODE ISLAND, one of the original 
 states of the American Union, and the smallest 
 of all now composing it. having an area of 1,306 
 sq. m., and a population, according to the cen- 
 sus of 1870, of 217,358. 
 
 Educational History. — It is claimed by Rhode- 
 Islauders that the first school established by 
 public vote in New England, was at Newport, 
 R, I., in 1(140. The early town records are very 
 defective: but it appears, from CaUender's His- 
 torical Discourse (1738), that, in 1640, Mr. 
 Robert Leuthal was, by vote. " called to keep a 
 public school for the learning of youth," and, 
 further, that an appropriation of one hundred 
 acres of land was made for the permanent sup- 
 port of a school. " for encouragement of the 
 poorer sort, to train up their youth in learning." 
 This school tract of 100 acres was allotted in 
 what is now the town of Middletown; but, in 
 1661, was exchanged for a tract afterwards 
 known as Newtown, or School-land. In 
 1 663, this tract was ordered to be divided into 
 lots ; and the income arising from the sale or 
 lease of them was to constitute a fund for the 
 "schooling and educating of poor children.' — 
 The first public act in behalf of education in 
 Providence was in May. 1663, when the pro- 
 prietors voted that 100 acres of upland and 
 acres of meadow should be laid out as school 
 lands, and " reserved for the maintenance of a 
 school in this town.'' The earliest allusion to a 
 school-house is made in 17o2 : and it is probable 
 that the town simply allowed the school-master 
 the use of the building, at a fixed rent, the pu- 
 pils paying him for his services. At a town 
 meeting held Dec. 2., 1767. the citizens voted to 
 build -three school-houses for small children 
 and one for youth, to provide instructions, and 
 pay the expense from the treasury, and these 
 schools to be under the supervision of the school 
 committee." A plan for the organization of 
 the schools was reported by the committee, 
 through Governor Jabez Bowen, and may be 
 found in the pages of Staples s Annals if l' roe- 
 idence. It is an admirable report, and is based 
 upon this wide provision: - I hat every inhabi- 
 tant of this town, whether they be free of the 
 town or not, shall have and enjoy an equal right 
 and privilege of sending their own children, and 
 the children of others that may be under their 
 care, for instruction and bringing up. to any or 
 all of said schools." This beneficent plan was, 
 however, defeated , on grounds thus stated by- 
 Moses Brown, another member of the com- 
 mittee : 
 
 " 1768. Laid before the town by the committee, 
 but a number of the inhabitant (and wliat is must 
 surprising and remarkable the plan of a Free School, 
 supported bv a tax, was rejected by the Poorer sort 
 of the people,) being straneely led away not to see 
 their own as well a> the public interest therein, (by a 
 few objectors at first.) either because they were not 
 the projectors, or had not public spirit te execute so 
 laudable a design, and which was tirst voted by the 
 town with great freedom. M. II." 
 
 The town, at last, built a school-house, con- 
 jointly with private proprietors, the town owning 
 only the lower story, but having the supervision of 
 
 
RIIOllK ISLAND 
 
 private and public schools, through a school 
 
 In Bristol, the original proprietors, in 1680, 
 
 a dozen scholars in each. Their books were the Dibit' . 
 spelling-book, and primer. One was kept by John 
 
 Foster, Esq., in liisi.llice, one bv Dr. P.enjaniin West. 
 
 recorded act of the citizens of Bristol in regard 
 to schools is dated in September, 1682, when 
 
 in town ready 
 the week for 
 isler, and the 
 e estate shall 
 ie year. The 
 
 ■hoolmaster and 
 the cape money 
 ber, Ids l, voted 
 fticiating in the 
 
 use their endeavor to obta 
 granted for such an end." 
 £24 the year for Mr. Cobl 
 place of n schoolmaster in tl 
 
 These seem to have been the main attempts 
 at popular education in this state, before 
 the Revolution. There were, also, some local 
 efforts for the instruction of the Indians, 
 beginning with a gift of land made by .fudge 
 Sewall, of Massachusetts, for that purpose. In 
 regard to the colored population, then quite 
 numerous in Rhode Island, the Newport Mer- 
 cury, of March 29., 1773, had the following : 
 
 "Whereas a school was established, several years 
 past, in the town of Newport, by a society of benev- 
 olent clergymen of the church of England, in Lon- 
 don, wilh a handsome fund for a mistress to instruct 
 thirty negro children in reading, sewing, etc. And 
 when-.,, it has hitherto been fonnd difficnll to supply 
 
 in the town, to send their young blacks, to the num- 
 ber of thirty; And, provided, that the number can- 
 not be nearly kept up for the future, the gentlemen to 
 whose care ai tl direction the said school has been en- 
 trusted will be obliged to give it up entirely at the ex- 
 piration of six months." 
 
 There were many reasons why popular edu- 
 cation met with less general support in Rhode 
 Island than in Massachusetts. The population 
 was far more scanty — not exceeding 7, nun. in 
 1680, and being only 17,935 in 1730. Over 
 much of the territory, there was no settled gov- 
 ernment, there being boundary disputes in sev- 
 eral directions. Rhode Island was a peculiar 
 sufferer by the Indian wars, and the continued 
 existence of slavery was a fatal obstacle to pub- 
 lic schools. Finally, there was no such power- 
 ful body of clergymen as existed in Massachu- 
 setts, sustaining by potent influence the whole 
 system of schools. There was, on the contrary, 
 a strong reaction against this clerical influence, 
 anil against the traditional institutions of Mas- 
 sachusetts and Connecticut. It was due to all 
 these reasons that public schools, though planted 
 so early in Rhode Island, flourished less than in 
 these other states. The reminiscences of Samuel 
 Thurber, an aged citizen of Providence, record 
 the general condition of education, before the 
 Revolution : 
 
 "As respects schools, previous to about the year 
 1770, they were but little thought of; there were in 
 my neighborhood three small schools perhaps about 
 
 Manning did great things in the waj "I enlightening 
 
 and informing the | pie. Schools revii Ibyi - 
 
 of his advice and assistance. Previous to him it was 
 not uncommon to meet with those who could not 
 write their names." 
 
 This testimony links Brown University with 
 the history of common-school education in Rhode 
 Island. I ir. .Manning was president of what was 
 then Rhode Island College, when it was removed 
 to Providence, in 1770; and the impetus given 
 by him would, doubtless, have borne more im- 
 mediate fruit, but for the absorbing excitement 
 of the Revolution. A colony which saw one of 
 its chief towns long held by the enemy, could 
 not give much attention to schools. The con- 
 flict left the young state terribly depleted and 
 impoverished. It had hardly recovered itself, 
 when it was urged on to the adoption of a pub- 
 lic-school system, through the far-seeing energy^ 
 of one man. The real founder of public schools 
 in Rhode Island was John Howland, who was 
 born in Newport, in 1753, and was sent to Prov- 
 idence at thirteen, to be a barber's apprentice. 
 ile was afterwards a soldier of the Revolution, 
 and was then for many years a barber in Prov- 
 idence. He was also a member of the Me- 
 chanics' Association, founded in 17S9. Mr. How- 
 land has left fully on record the successive steps 
 in the agitation which resulted in the establish- 
 ment of public schools: and it is a curious fact 
 that, by his showing, it met with no opposition 
 from the wealthy, but only from the very class 
 it was especially designed to benefit, it was 
 warmly approved in Providence, and was en- 
 dorsed in Newport, but was regarded with in- 
 difference in the country towns. In these, in- 
 deed, it had been but little agitated, a fact to 
 which the early repeal of the measure was mainly 
 due. The bill establishing public schools was 
 enacted in the February session, 1800. Its vital 
 provisions were as follows : 
 
 " Section 1. Be it enacted by the General Assem- 
 bly, andtlie avthorities tJiereof, and it is hereby en- 
 acted; — That each and every town in the State shall 
 annually cause to be established and kept, at the ex- 
 pense of such town, one or more free schools, for the 
 instruction of all the white inhabitants of said town, 
 between the ages of six and twenty years, in reading, 
 writing, and common arithmetic, who may stand in 
 need of such instruction, and apply therefor." 
 
 "Sec. 2. And be it further en, tried. That it shall be 
 the duty of the Town Council of e\evy town, to divide 
 said town into so many school-districts as they shall 
 judge necessary and convenient." 
 
 It was further provided that each town might 
 retain, for school purposes, twenty per cent of 
 its state taxes, so long as the sum thus retained 
 did not exceed $6,000. In case any town failed 
 to establish the schools required, this allowance 
 was to be forfeited ; but there was no other 
 penalty imposed, nor was action made obliga- 
 
736 
 
 RHODE ISLAND 
 
 tory. As a result, the law was an absolute fail- j 
 Tire, except as regarded the city of Providence, j 
 No other community carried it into effect, and j 
 the law itself was rejected in 1803. 
 
 In organizing the schools of Providence, John 
 (lowland was made one of the committee ; and 
 so thoroughly was his work done in his own 
 city, that the school system was there sustained 
 after the repeal of the general law, and the 
 schools of Providence remained, until within a 
 few years, far in advance of all the rest of the 
 state.— For twenty-five years after the repeal of 
 John Howland's law, there was in Rhode Island 
 no slate system of schools, even on paper; 
 though the local schools of Providence were well 
 sustained at the public expense, and there were, 
 at Newport and elsewhere, some endowed schools, 
 most of them established by lottery- In 1827, there 
 were petitions for a school system ; and. in 1 828, 
 a law was passed, authorizing towns to appoint 
 school committees, and to tax themselves for 
 schools; and providing that sums paid into the • 
 general treasury by lottery dealers and auction- 
 eers should be appropriate! to the support of 
 public schools, to an amount not exceeding 
 $10,000. This act was the foundation of the 
 present school system of the state ; and though 
 its provisions seemed in some respects unsatis- 
 factory, it was yet a great step forward. During 
 the next fifteen years, the system underwent 
 some important modifications, especially as to 
 the plan of distribution of the school money, 
 which was at first allotted to each town in pro- 
 portion to the number of inhabitants below the 
 age of sixteen; but. afterwards, according to 
 (f) the number of white persons under sixteen, 
 
 (2) the number of colored persons under ten, 
 
 (3) five-fourteenths of the colored persons be- 
 tween ten and twenty-four. This complicated 
 method remained in force from 1832 to 1845. — 
 The first document answering to a general school 
 report was prepared by Oliver Angel, a veteran 
 teacher, in behalf of a committee appointed at a 
 public meeting in Providence. It was printed in 
 pamphlet form, and dated .May 17., 1832. The 
 most important statistical facts contained m 
 this report were the following : 
 
 Whole number of public schools in the state.. . 323 
 
 Whole number of scholars taught in them 17,034 
 
 Number of male teachers employed 31s 
 
 Number of female teachers employed 147 
 
 Number of srhoolsoontinucd through the year 20 
 
 Average time of the others 3 months. 
 
 Whole amount appropriated by the towns for 
 
 the support of schools $11,490 
 
 Amount drawn from school fund $10,000 
 
 Whole amount expended for support of public 
 
 schools $21,490 
 
 Number of private schools continued through 
 
 the year, under male teachers 30 
 
 Number of private schools continued through 
 
 the year, under female teachers 88 
 
 (In Tuarlv .ill the country towns, the private schools 
 may be considered as the public schools continued by 
 individual subscription, from three to six months.) 
 Whole number of scholars taught in them (ex- 
 clusive of the Friend's Hoarding- School, 
 
 Providence) 3,403 
 
 Total estimated expense of private schools, . . .$<<1,375 
 Expended for support of schools for one year. $102,865 
 
 Some strange facts may be gathered from 
 these statistics. It appears that, in 1832, Prov- 
 idence had five times as many public schools as 
 private; Newport. sixteen times as many: and the 
 amount expended on private schools throughout 
 the state was four times that spent on public 
 schools. Only twenty public schools were con- 
 tinued through the year, the average time of the 
 others being but three months; and men out- 
 numbered women, as teachers, almost two to one. 
 In 1843, a bill was introduced into the Rhode 
 Island assembly, by William Updike, of South 
 Kingston, to authorize the governor of the state 
 "to employ some suitable person as agent;" and, 
 in advocating its passage, he boldly declared the 
 school system, as it then existed, to be "not a 
 blessing, except in the city of Providence, and 
 possibly, a few other towns." He asserted that 
 Khode Island was behind the other New England 
 states, and that the remedy for this was the ap- 
 pointment of a commissioner to revise the whole 
 system, to codify the laws, and to visit and ex- 
 amine the schools throughout the state. The 
 bill was passed, and Henry Barnard was ap- 
 pointed the school agent, in December, 1843. In 
 May. the following year, he made his report of a 
 school law, which was passed June 27., 1845. 
 This law created the office of commissioner of 
 pulic schools, to be appointed by the governor, 
 made provision for the financial support of the 
 schools, defined the powers and duties of towns 
 in regard to public education, provided for school- 
 districts, and trustees of schools therein, and also 
 for the examination and legal certification of 
 teachers. Mr. Barnard's labors and services were 
 very great; and he must stand second only to 
 1 1 in ace Mann among the school reformers of New 
 England. In his very first report, for 1845, lie 
 made a searching review of the school buildings 
 and school methods prevailing in the state. Like 
 Horace Mann, he strongly urged the employment 
 of women as teachers, and spoke with satisfaction 
 of the fact that he had caused the employment 
 of more than fifty additional female teachers 
 during the past year. He had also, he reported, 
 seen more than fifty new school-houses built, 
 mostly on plans furnished by himself. It was 
 declared by the teachers of the state, on his retire- 
 ment from office in 184!). that he had effected a 
 "revolution" in school architecture; and the 
 amount of printed matter circulated by him, was 
 very great. More than 16,000 educational pam- 
 phlets were distributed by him gratuitously, ex- 
 clusive of the official documents of the state, and 
 the Journal of the Institute of Education. Dur- 
 ing one year, not an almanac was published in 
 Rhode Island without at least sixteen pages of 
 educational matter, added to it. During his five 
 yearsof administration, more than eleven hundred 
 educational meetings were held, at which more 
 than fifteen hundred addresses were made. These 
 facts are stated by Rev. Edwin M, Stone in his 
 history of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruc- 
 tion, an organization which was formed in Jan- 
 nary. L845, and rendered the most important aid 
 to the labors of the commissioner. Mr. Barnard 
 
 
RHODE ISLAND 
 
 retired in 1840, on account of ill health, and was 
 succeeded by Elisha R. Potter, now Judge Totter, purpose"; (3) that 
 This gentleman's legal experience was of the of public schools o 
 greatest benefit to the school legislation of the 
 ^tate. He secured the gradual abolition of the 
 rate-bill system, which in many towns assessed 
 
 vested and remain a perpetual fund for that 
 'all donations for the support 
 
 the 
 
 idle 
 
 ih- 
 
 position that, under the Rhode Wand constitu- 
 tion, the school committees had no right to pre- 
 scribe religious exercises for a school ". Mi,, matter 
 was to be settled by general consent: but no child 
 could be compelled to take part in any religious 
 exercise, in opposition to lie wishes of his par- 
 ents. Accordingly, in the local school laws of 
 this state, the school committees usually "recom- 
 mend" that the schools be opened with 'the read- 
 ing of the Bible, but do not require it. Other im- 
 portant services rendered by Mr. Totter were the 
 recommendation (in 1850) of a state board of 
 education, and the persistent advocacy of a nor- 
 mal school. Through his efforts, a normal depart- 
 ment was first established (1850) in Brown I'ni- 
 versity. and was placed underthe charge of Prof. 
 S. S. Greene, then superintendent of the Provi- 
 dence schools, but whose title in the university 
 was Professor of Didactics. To this arrangement, 
 
 •sue, led ,in }-:<■ a private normal sel 1. in 
 
 Providence, tan-lit by Messrs. Creene. Russell. 
 Colburn.and Ouyot: and finally mi ls.Mi.a state 
 normal school, under Dana T. Colburn. This 
 school was afterward removed to Bristol, and, 
 after Mr. Oolburn's death, was placed under 
 Joshua Kendall's charge. It was, however, abol- 
 ished in 1865, but was re-established at Provi- 
 dence in 1871, under the care of J. C. Green- 
 ough. who still remains its principal. The suc- 
 cessors of Mr. Potter in the office of school com- 
 missioner have been Robert Allyn (1854 — 7), 
 John Kingsbury (1857—9), Joshua B. Chapiu 
 h.859 — 61, and' again 1863—9), Henry Rous- 
 manicre (1861—3), T. W. Bicknell (1869—75), 
 and Thomas B. Stockwell, the present incumbent, 
 elected in ls7:>. 
 
 A state board of education was created in 
 1870; and there have been various improvements 
 in organization since that time, including the 
 extension of the term of school committees from 
 one to three years, and the authorization of a 
 school superintendent in every town. Women 
 have also been occasionally elected members of 
 school committees, ami have performed their 
 duties with marked success. Evening schools 
 have also received particular attention, being 
 especially important in a manufacturing state 
 like Rhode Island. 
 
 School System. — The constitution of the state 
 provides (1) that "it shall be the duty of the 
 general assembly to promote public schooLs, and 
 to adopt all means which they may deem neces- 
 sary and proper to secure to the people the 
 advantages and opportunities of education"; 
 (2) that "the money appropriated by law for 
 the establishment of a permanent fund for the 
 support of public schools shall be securely in- 
 
 missioner of public schools, (3) trustees of the 
 state normal school, ii) town school committees, 
 (5) town superintendents, (6) district trustees, 
 and (7) district clerks, treasurers, and collectors. — 
 The state board of education is composed of eight 
 members, the governor and the lieutenant-gov- 
 ernor being members, ex officio, and each of the 
 five counties of the state being entitled to one 
 member, except Providence, which is entitled to 
 two. The members are elected by the general 
 mbly for three yt 
 
 general supen 
 
 id control of the public 
 
 schools, its particular duties being to hold quar- 
 terly meetings, to prescribe and enforce general 
 regulations, and to make an annual report to tin- 
 general assembly. The governor of the state is 
 the president of the board, and the commissioner, 
 secretary. — The commissioner of public schools 
 is elected annually by the board of education, 
 and is the chief executive officer in the admin- 
 istration of the system. His duties are to advise 
 with school officers and teachers in all matter's 
 pertaining to education; to visit and inspect the 
 schools; to deliver addresses in the several towns 
 on subjects pertaining to the progress of the 
 schools; to arrange for and conduct teat hers' in- 
 stitutes; to secure, as far as is desirable, a uni- 
 formity of text-books; to assist in the establish- 
 ment of school libraries: to draw orders on the 
 treasurer for the school moneys to which the 
 towns are entitled; and to make an annual report 
 to the board of education on the last Monday in 
 I lee. lnl.er of each year, lie also decides disputes 
 and controversies arising in the administration 
 of the school laws; but, if requested, he must lay 
 a statement ot the facts of the ease before one 
 of the justices of the supreme court, whose de- 
 cision is tinah The trustees of the normal school 
 consist of the members of the board of education 
 and the commissioner of the public schools, and 
 have the control, management, and general super- 
 vision of the nial school. They also examine 
 
 candidates for teachers' licenses, and give certifi- 
 cates to such as are found qualified. — School com- 
 mittees, each composed of not less than three 
 members, are elected in the towns for the term 
 of three years, one retiring annually. Their duties 
 are to meet for consultation at least four times a 
 year, to fix the boundaries of school-districts, to 
 locate school-houses, to examine and license ap- 
 plicants to teach, and to revoke licenses when 
 necessary; to visit, by one or more of their num- 
 ber, every public school in the town at least 
 twice during each term, to make rules for the 
 management and instruction of the schools, and 
 to draw all orders for the payment of the school 
 moneys. They are at all times subject to the 
 supervision of the commissioner. In towns under 
 the district system, the trustees have the care of 
 the district-school property, and make contracts 
 
RHODE ISLAND 
 
 with teachers; while the school committee exer- 
 cises all other authority over the schools. School 
 superintendents, elected by the voters of the 
 towns, or, upon their failure to do so, by the 
 school committees, perform such duties and ex- 
 ercise such powers as may be assigned to them 
 by the school committees. District trustees, one 
 or three for each district, as the latter may de- 
 cide, are annually elected by the voters of the 
 districts, but receive no compensation unless the 
 district vote to levy a special tax for that pur- 
 pose. They have the custody of the school prop- 
 erty, and employ the teachers; and they are re- 
 quired to \ isit the schools twice each term, and 
 to report to the school committee. — District 
 clerks, one for each district, are elected by the 
 voters of the district to keep the records of all 
 meetings in tin- district, and of the boundaries of 
 the school-districts. — District treasurers keep 
 the school moneys, pay it out on proper orders, 
 etc.; and district collectors are appointed to col- 
 lect the taxes levied in the district for the sup- 
 port of schools.— The permanent school fund of 
 the state, in 1875, amounted to $265,142.51, 
 only the income of which may be appropriated 
 to public schools. The annual fund for distri- 
 bution among the schools, arising from state and 
 local taxation, interest on permanent fund, and 
 other sources, amounted to $761,796.92. The 
 state appropriates annually 8:10,000 for the sup- 
 port of public schools — $03,000 to the several 
 towns in proportion to the number of children 
 under the age of 15; and $27,000 according to 
 the number of school-districts in each town. The 
 money thus appropriated — called teachers' money 
 — can be used only for the payment of teachers' 
 salaries. No town can receive any part of such 
 state appropriation, unless it raise by tax. for the 
 support of schools, an amount equal to what it is 
 entitled to receive from the state. There is also a 
 special state appropriation for evening schools. — 
 Kvery district is required to maintain a school: 
 and, if it neglect for seven months to open one, 
 the town committee may establish a school, and 
 employ a teacher. Two or more districts may 
 unite to maintain a school for older children. — 
 No minor under 1 5 years of age may be employed, 
 under a penalty of $20. in any manufacturing 
 establishment, unless he has attended school at 
 least three months during the preceding year, 
 nor may any such minor be employed for more 
 than nine months in any year. Towns may 
 enact truant laws. 
 
 Educational < 'ondilion. — The number of pub- 
 lic day schools in the state, in 1875, was 737 (grad- 
 ed. 436; ungraded. 3(11); of evening schools, 39; 
 and the number of school-houses, 426, the esti- 
 mated value of which was$2,360,017. The receipts 
 for the support of the schools were as follows: 
 From state appropriation for 
 
 day schools $90,000.00 
 
 From state appropriation for 
 
 evening schools 2,495.00 
 
 From town appropriations.. . 6GG.75G II 
 
 " district taxes 47,626.43 
 
 " other sources 54,919.35 
 
 Total. '. $761,796.92 
 
 The expenditures for the same year were as 
 follows : 
 
 Fur teachers' salaries. clay schools $3*3 .284.14 
 " " " evening " 15,350.50 
 
 " sites, buildings, and furniture 27l.32U.41 
 
 '• school supervision 11,681.02 
 
 " other purposes 80,001.07 
 
 Total $764,643.74 
 
 The school statistics, for the year ending April 
 30., 1875, are the following : 
 
 No. of children of school age (4—16) 53,316 
 
 " " different pupils enrolled in day schools. . 38,5.54 
 
 Average number belonging 30,102 
 
 Average daily attendance 26,163 
 
 Number enrolled in evening schools 4,600 
 
 Average attendance " " 2,256 
 
 Number of teachers employed, males 195 
 
 " " " " females.. 861 
 
 Total 1,056 
 
 Average monthly salary of teachers, males $85.18 
 
 Average length of school term 9.38 mo. 
 
 In the following cities and towns, the town 
 system of school management has been adopted 
 wholly or in part : Providence, Bristol, East 
 l'rovidence, Newport, Warren, Woonsocket, 
 I'awtucket. Harrington, and North Providence. 
 — The commissioner's annual report for 1875 
 gives the following brief summary of what is 
 now attempted in the public elementary schools: 
 "An examination of our scl Is shows that read- 
 ing, spelling, penmanship, arithmetic (mental and 
 written), and geography are taught in all the 
 schools of the state of an intermediate and gram- 
 mar grade. United States history and English 
 grammar are taught in most of' our grammar 
 schools. Vocal music is practiced in many of our 
 schools, and taught in a few, particularly in those 
 of all grades in Providence and Newport. Draw- 
 ing is taught in the intermediate and grammar 
 grades of Providence and Newport. Sewing is 
 taught in a few of the schools in Providence." 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The Rhode Island State 
 Normal School, at Providence, from its opening, 
 September 1871. to January, 1876. gave instruc- 
 tion to 521 pupils, of whom 184 graduated from 
 the institution. While fitting teachers for schools 
 of a higher grade, it especially aims to prepare 
 for teaching elementary schools, — primary, inter- 
 mediate, and grammar. The whole number of 
 pupils taught, during the year 1875, was 159. 
 Three teachers' institutes were held under the 
 direction of the state commissioner. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — There are 13 cities 
 and towns which have separate high schools, or 
 schools of that grade, either public or private, as 
 follows : Providence, Newport. Woonsocket, 
 I'awtucket. Hopkinton, Bristol, Warren, West- 
 erly, Lincoln. Last Greenwich. Barrington, Scit- 
 uate, and East Providence. In his report for 
 1875, the commissioner remarks: "In the high 
 schools, we find the pupils pursuing the studies 
 of natural philosophy, chemistry, astronomy, 
 botany, algebra, trigonometry, book-keeping, 
 general history, mental and moral philosophy, 
 English literature, and Latin and Greek." Three 
 private academies anil seminaries reported to the 
 U.S. Bureau of Education, in 1875. a total of 
 
RHODE ISLAND 
 
 269 students, of whom 130 were pursuing a clas- 
 sical course; 4(i, a course in modern languages; 
 and 32 were preparing for colleee. The whole 
 
 It was the germ of Brown University, under 
 whose control it still is, and for which it has 
 prepared nearly 300 students. The East Green- 
 wich Academy is connected with Boston Uni- 
 versity. The Friends' Academy, Mowry and 
 Goff's English and classical school, and Dr. Stock- 
 bridges school for v. .mi" -ladies, all in Providence, 
 arc scl Is of hi h repute for efficiency. It 
 
 i;iciiTi:ir 
 
 739 
 
 Shoul 
 
 Sc 
 
 of th 
 in its 
 to tin 
 
 Nc- 
 
 conditions, tor the establishment,,! a hi._di.-cl 1. 
 
 Four schools in the state for the preparation of 
 students for college, in 1875, reported 33 teach- 
 ers and 465 pupils. Two business colleges reported 
 to the U. S. Bureau L9 teachers and 605 pupils 
 — tllo day scholars and 200 evening scholars. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — This grade of education 
 is represented by Brown University (q. v.), first 
 established at Warren, but, in L770, removed to 
 1'rovi lence. This institution contains an agricult- 
 ural and scientific department. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The onlv institution of 
 this character in th,. state is the Reform School, 
 at Providence, in which both boys and girls are 
 well cared for, being provided with the means 
 for acquiring a common-school education, and 
 trained ill habits of neatness, order. and industry. 
 In L875, the whole number of inmates was 197, 
 —boys, 102; girls, 35. 
 
 Teachers' Associations.— The Rhode Island 
 Institute of Instruction held its thirtieth annual 
 session at Providence, in January, 1875. This 
 association, during its long career, has numbered 
 among its members the must distinguished edu- 
 cators of the state, anil lias exerted a most im- 
 portant influence upon the progress of every de- 
 partment of education. 
 
 Educational Journals. — The first educational 
 journal published in the state was the Journal 
 of the Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, 
 which was continued about three years, till 1849. 
 Under the administration of commissioner Pot- 
 ter, the Rhode Island Educational Maaazine 
 
 ,/■■ /, 
 
 ». England 
 in Boston, 
 
 II,. 
 
 Publ 
 
 /■:,/„ 
 
 Rhode Island fn 
 authority of the Hoard of Education, and edited 
 by Thomas B. Stockwell. ( 'ommissioncr of Public 
 Schools (Providence, 1876). This volume includes 
 
 A History of the Public School System of Rhode 
 Island, by Thomas Wentworth Higginson. 
 
 RICHARDSON, Charles, an English lexi- 
 cographer, born in duly. 1775 ; died at Kcltham 
 Middlesex, Oct. 6., 1865. Little is recorded of 
 his early life or education. After some study of 
 
 business ot his lite. Ills prin. 
 Illustrations of English Phi 
 1815); ZVeui Dictionary of the E 
 (1837); and On the Study of La 
 It is on his dictionary that his 
 
 ter and Webster its reception at the time of 
 its publication was remarkably cordial ; and crit- 
 ical notices, almosl without exception, mentioned 
 it with praise. (See Dictionary.) 
 RICHMOND COLLEGE, at Richmond, 
 
 1*44. It is supported by tuition fees and the 
 income of an endowment of $100,000. The value 
 of its buildings and grounds is $150,000. Its 
 
 is reipur 
 lg degrees 
 
 ,ls; 
 
 -e any of 
 to attend 
 are con- 
 
 libraries contain abou 
 lege is composed of , 
 namely, of Latin. (Jr. 
 glish. mathematics, ph 
 ophy. The students 
 these schools, but eve 
 at least three. The i 
 
 ferred, according to the number and character of 
 the schools attended: B. L. B. 8., A. P... and 
 A. M. The tuition fee varies from #50 per an- 
 num upward, according to the number of schools 
 attended. In 1875 — (i, there were 7 instructors 
 and 150 students. The presidents have been as 
 follows: the Rev. R. Kyiand. D. D.. 1844—66; 
 the Rev. Tiberius G. Jones, D. D.. 1866—9; 
 and B. Puryear. A. M. (chairman of the faculty), 
 from 1869 to the present time (1876). 
 
 RICHTER, Johann Paul Friedrich, an 
 illustrious German author, popularly known as 
 
 life as a private tutor, his condition, during 
 much of that time, being one of extreme 
 poverty. While occupied as a teacher, he 
 wrote several works ; but. for a long time, 
 was unsuccessful in finding a publisher, and was 
 still longer in finding readers, the extravagance 
 and oddity of his thought and style baffling 
 popular comprehension, and d,-],ri\ ing his genius 
 of that recognition which it afterwards secured. 
 The turning-point in his fortunes came at last, 
 however; and. from L793 to L798, he published 
 several ,,f his best works, which rapid!] raised 
 
 him to a position ai _ the mosl celebrated 
 
 authors ,,f his day. His view- on education are 
 embodied chiefly iii his Levana, oder Erzieh- 
 lehre, published in Brunswick, in 1807, and in 
 Stuttgart, in 1861; an English translation of 
 
740 
 
 RIDGEVILLE COLLEGE 
 
 which was issued in Boston, in 1863. It is 
 characterized by just and profound views ex- 
 pressed in striking language; and many of its 
 aphoristic sayings have long since passed un- 
 questioned into the literature of education. 
 
 RIDGEVILLE COLLEGE, in Ridgeville, 
 Ind„ under the patronage of the Freewill Bap- 
 tist denomination, was founded in 1867. for the 
 education of both sexes. It is supported by the 
 income of a small endowment and by tuition 
 fees, varying from $18 to $30 a year. It pro- 
 vides the following courses : classical, scientific, 
 practical (of 3 years, intended to be equivalent to 
 an ordinary high-school course), classical prepar- 
 atory, and a general preparatory course. In 
 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors and 111* stu- 
 dents: classical, 1; scientific. 14: practical course, 
 5; classical preparatory, 1 ; general preparatory, 
 85; in instrumental music. 0. The Rev. Samuel 
 D. Bates, A. M., is (18711) the president. 
 
 RIPON COLLEGE, at Kipon, Wis., was 
 founded in 1851, and organized as a college in 
 1863. It is non-sectarian. It has an endowment of 
 about $50,000, a library of over 3.800 volumes.a 
 cabinet of minerals, and chemical and physical 
 apparatus. The regular tuition fees vary from 
 $21 to $24 a year. There is a collegiate de- 
 partment (with a classical and a scientific course) . 
 a preparatory, and a musical department. Both i 
 sexes are admitted. In 1875 — 6, there were 13 
 instructors, and 358 students (165 male and 193 
 female), of whom 69 were of collegiate grade, 
 241 preparatory, and 45 were studying music 
 only. The Rev. William E. Merriman, D. D., was 
 president of the college from 1863 to 1876, 
 when he was succeeded bv the Rev. Edward II. 
 Merrell, A. M. 
 
 ROANOKE COLLEGE, at Salem. Va., 
 founded in L852, is under the patronage of the 
 Lutheran ( 'hurch, though not by its charter de- 
 nominational. It derives its support from the 
 fees of students ($50 a year). The college 
 has a library of 14,000 volumes, extensive chem- 
 ical and philosophical apparatus, a mineral 
 cabinet containing over 11,000 specimens, and a 
 museum of curiosities. There is a collegiate, a i 
 normal, and a preparatory department, besides a 
 select course designed to afford a good business 
 education. In 1875 — 6, there were 7 instructors 
 and 171 students (4)3 collegiate, 31 select, and 47 , 
 preparatory). The Rev. 1). F. Bittle, D. D., has 
 beeu the president from the opening of the 
 college. 
 
 ROCHESTER, University of, at Roches- 
 ter, N. Y., under Baptist control, was founded 
 in 1850. It is supported by tuition fees and 
 the income of an endowment of $212,000. Its 
 unproductive property (land, buildings, etc.) is 
 valued at $378,662. It has extensive collections 
 in geology aud mineralogy, and a library of 
 12,500 volumes. The cost of tuition is $75 a 
 year ; but there are fifty scholarships affording 
 free tuition. The university has a classical and 
 a scientific course, each of four years, leading 
 respectively to the degrees of A." B. and B. S. 
 Eclectic courses are provided for those not can- 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 
 
 didates for a degree. In 1876 — 7, there were 8 
 professors and 1 63 students. Martin Brewer 
 Anderson. LL. P., elected in 1853. has been the 
 only president. 
 
 ROCK HILL COLLEGE, a Boman Catho- 
 lic institution at Ellicott City, Md., under the 
 direction of the < Ihristian Brothers, was organ- 
 ized in 1857. and chartered in 1865. It has a 
 geological and mineralogical cabinet, containing 
 about 1,000 specimens; a herbarium, containing 
 about 2.500 specimens ; aud a library of 6,500 
 volumes. The cost of tuition, board, etc., is $260 
 a year ; of tuition alone, $80. The college 
 comprises a preparatory and a collegiate depart- 
 ment, the latter having a commercial course 
 (2 years), a scientific course (4 years), and a 
 classical course (4 years). In 1875 — 6, there were 
 29 professors and other instructors and 165 stu- 
 dents (137 preparatory and 28 collegiate). The 
 presidents have been as follows: liro. Aphraates, 
 Bro. Tobias, Bro. Lucian, and Bro. Bettelin (for 
 the last 12 years). 
 
 ROD. See Corporal Punishment. 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH is the 
 name popularly given to the body of Christians 
 who are in communion with the bishop of Rome 
 and recognize him as their spiritual head. The 
 Roman Catholic Church is by far the most 
 numerous division of Christendom. The follow- 
 ing table gives an estimate of the proportion, at 
 present (1877), of Roman Catholics to the Prot- 
 estants and to the total population of the world: 
 
 Europe 
 
 Australia and Poly- 
 
 S.-...VJII.1 
 
 :lii'.i.isu.(iim 
 
 SJ.V ,-,.-,il. mm 
 
 Total 1,423,920,000 200,900 
 
 It will be seen, from this table, that the Roman 
 Catholic Church embraces a majority of the total 
 population of America, and nearly one-half of 
 that of Europe ; and that it exceeds the Prot- 
 estant population in Asia, but is exceeded by 
 it in Africa, and in Australia and Polynesia. 
 France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Belgium, the 
 larger portion of Austria and Ireland, the Polish 
 districts of Germany and Russia, a number of 
 Swiss cantons, all the states of South and Cen- 
 tral America and .Mexico, are almost wholly in- 
 habited by Roman Catholics. — From the down- 
 fall of the Western Roman empire toward the 
 close of the 5th century, down to the 16th, the 
 progress of education in all the western states 
 of Europe was chiefly controlled by the Catholic 
 Church. For a long time, the schools of the Bene- 
 dictines, the convent, and the cathedral and col- 
 legiate schools, all of -which were not only found- 
 ed, but exclusively conducted, by priests, were 
 the only institutions to which the rising genera- 
 tion of the new European states were indebted 
 for their education. Charlemagne was the first 
 monarch who conceived the idea of organizing 
 a system of popular education ; but he was so 
 
ROMAN CATHOLIC CIH'P.CH 
 
 far from anticipating any conflict of jurisdiction 
 between state and church that he spent his ener- 
 
 in most states, Protestant as well as Catholic, 
 the authorities of the Catholic Church have 
 
 town and burgher schools, which assumed large 
 dimensions after the L2th century, and, later, 
 the rise of the universities, marks the beginning 
 of the organization of schools which, though they 
 had to conform their teaching strictly to the 
 creed of the church, were partly or wholly man- 
 aged by boards not exclusively consisting of 
 church functionaries. The separation of a large 
 
 portion of Europe fr the Catholic Church, tit 
 
 the beginning of the 16th century, led, on the 
 one hand, to the establishment of Lutheran and 
 Reformed, and later of Congregational, Baptist, 
 
 and other denominational scl Is. and, on the 
 
 other hand, caused even the government in < !ath- 
 olic countries, to take a more direct part in edu- 
 cational matters. The Jesuits hoped, by means 
 of superior schools, to preserve the Catholic 
 Church from further losses and to recover the 
 lost ground: and the extraordinary efforts made 
 by them in this direction, led to' the establish- 
 ment of numerous colleges which excited the 
 admiration of many patrons of education, even 
 among Protestants, and which occupy a con- 
 spicuous place in the annals of education. The 
 laurels won by the Jesuits as e lueators. proved 
 a spur for the other religious orders of this 
 Church; and not only did the Benedictines, I'ia- 
 rists, and other orders, vie with the Jesuits in 
 the establishment of learned institutions, but a 
 large number of orders and congregations spe- 
 cially devoted to teaching arose, which, from that 
 time until the present day. have constituted a 
 very large proportion of the instructors of Cath- 
 olic schools of all grades.— In the course of the 
 18th century, the government in many countries 
 began to look upon the general introduction and 
 popular education, as a state 
 ■st importance. Special state 
 
 pears, how." 
 
 toward a \\ i 
 
 diet; since 
 
 olieaswell , 
 
 01 legislation. ine prog- 
 tion litis led to numerous con- 
 governments and the Cath- 
 articles in this work on the 
 
 n have been 
 i Europe ap- 
 
 IVtilll 
 
 ■h that extensive control over 
 
 the schools supported bv the state, whiell she 
 
 claims as belonging to her by divine right. No- 
 where litis the conflict between the state and the 
 t Jatholic I Lurch assumed Buch proportions as in 
 Germany, and especially in Prussia. (See Falk, 
 
 SO tl 
 
 d al 
 
 onty 
 
 llees- 
 
 tsof 
 
 portant demands of the < lunch. 
 of the. Reicksratk, however, viewe 
 sions thus made as derogatory to 
 
 passed which did not meet with the approval of 
 the Catholic bishops.— In the Syllabus of the 
 Principal Errors if our Time, which Pope 
 Pius IX., in his Encyclical Letter of Pec. 8., 
 
 •y of making 
 in the state 
 an essential 
 
 organization ot | 
 affair of the high 
 boards were intrui 
 seminaries for the 
 lished; and. from 
 necessity of elemt 
 European states ; 
 the instruction of 
 obligatory. As i 
 part of the course of instruction in every coun- 
 try, the government generally endeavored to 
 Secure the co-operation of the church author- 
 ities in the management of the elementary 
 schools. In some cases, severe conflicts arose. 
 a.- in Austria during the reign of the emperor 
 Joseph II.. against whose educational reforms 
 the Catholic Church entered an earnest protest: 
 
 church authorities in the instruction and man- 
 agement of the state schools was secured. During 
 the 19th century, the government of nearly 
 every European country has endeavored, more 
 and mole, to centralize in its own hands the [ 
 direction of schools of every kind; and though, ! 
 
 1867, communicated to till the Catholic bishops 
 of the world, the following theories are stigma- 
 tized as contrary to the teaching of the Catholic 
 Church: "(45) The entire direction of public 
 schools, in which the youth of the Christian 
 states are educated, except (to a certain extent) 
 in the case of episcopal seminaries, may and 
 must appertain to the civil power, and belong 
 to it so far, that no other authority whatever 
 shall be recognized as having any right to inter- 
 fere in the discipline of the schools, the arrange- 
 ments of the studies, the taking of degrees, or 
 the choice or approval of the teachers. (46) .Much 
 more, even in clerical seminaries, is the course 
 of study to be adopted subject to the civil 
 authority. I 17) 'I he best theory of civil society 
 
 c,pn 
 
 open to ,|„ 
 
 ally, all nubl 
 
 and the prevalent opinions of the age, (48) This 
 system of instructing youth, which consists in 
 separating them from the Catholic faith, and 
 from the power of the church, and teaching ex- 
 clusively, or at least primarily, the knowledge of 
 natural things and the earthly ends of social life, 
 alone may be approved bv Catholics. ' 
 
742 
 
 ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 
 
 In opposition to the theories stigmatized in the 
 papal syllabus as the fundamental errors of our 
 time, the Catholic bishops in all countries ad- 
 here to the following principles. < 'atholic youth, 
 in schools of all grades, from the primary 
 
 school to the university, should l.c brought up in 
 conformity with the teaching of the Catholic 
 Church, The Church should not be hindered 
 in establishing free schools of all grades. When 
 a state government organizes a system of public 
 instruction, separate schools for Catholic youth 
 should be establishe 1 ; and. in the Catholic 
 schools, the Catholic Church should concur in 
 the management and superintendence, in order 
 to exclude or keep off all influences not in full 
 accordance with the ( 'atholic religion ; and the 
 religious instruction and education of the pupils 
 should be placed under her control. As the 
 school regulations relate chiefly to the primary 
 schools, the negotiations between state govern- 
 ments and the Catholic Church aiming to bring 
 about an amicable co-operation in the manage- 
 ment of the schools, concern chiefly schools of 
 that grade. In many countries, a co-operation of 
 this kind exists ; although, in but few countries 
 has a perfect and lasting understanding, as in 
 Belgium, been attained. (For information on 
 this subject, the reader is referred to the articles 
 on the several large countries.) Where the t 'lunch 
 has found it impossible to secure the establish- 
 ment by the state of separate schools for ('atholic 
 children, it has endeavored to supply the want 
 by opening free parochial schools. (Sec I ^nomina- 
 tion u, Schools.) 
 
 As the establishment of colleges, gymnasia, 
 academies, and other institutions of this grade 
 liv the state is far from being so general as that of 
 primary schools, the attention of the < 'huivh. in 
 this field, has been less directed to a co-opera- 
 tion with the state authorities than to the estab- 
 lishment of free secondary schools. Among the 
 Catholic schools of this class, the colleges of 
 the Jesuits occupy the first rank. (See Jescits.) 
 Numerous colleges and academies are also con- 
 ducted by other religious orders ; and the higher 
 education, especially of ( 'atholic girls, is, in many 
 countries, to a great extent, carried on in con- 
 vent schools, many of which have also a con- 
 siderable number of Protestant pupils. The 
 Catholic Directory of England for 1877, men- 
 tions 22 Roman Catholic colleges in England, 
 
 for the univer.-itics and public examinations. 
 
 'athi. 
 
 the 
 
 Tuam, Clane, Armagh, Carlow, Athlone, Tulla- 
 
 more, Thurles, Castlek k. Kilkenny, Fermoy, 
 
 Longford, and Ennis.— In the United States. 
 there were, in 1875, according to the Report of 
 the Commissioner of Education, .j2 chartered 
 
 Catholic colleges or universities, situated in the 
 following states and territories : Alabama, 1 ; 
 California, 5; Illinois. 4: Indiana,.'!; Kansas, 1; 
 Kentucky, 2; Louisiana. 2; Maryland. 3; Mas- 
 sachusetts, 2; Minnesota, L; Mississippi, 1; Mis- 
 souri. 1; New Jersey, 1; New York, 7: Ohio, 2; 
 Pennsylvania, 5; Tennessee. 1 : Texas, 2; Wis- 
 consin, 2; District of Columbia, 2; Washington 
 Territory, 1 . 
 
 The ( hurch has now but little influence upon 
 the great universities of Europe, which, in the 
 middle ages, were almost entirely under her 
 control. '1 he factdties of Catholic theology, have, 
 however, remained so far under her direction that 
 the bishops may forbid the attendance of the 
 students at any lectures which appear unsound 
 in faith. The total abolition of the theological 
 faculties in Italy and Spain, which may ere long 
 be imitated in other countries, indicated a tend- 
 ency to disconnect still more the university from 
 the Church. In order to afford to Catholic stu- 
 dents, in high schools purely Catholic, the same 
 facilities for study which are afforded by the 
 state universities, the Catholic Church, in several 
 of the countries of Europe, has begun to estab- 
 lish free Catholic universities. The lead in this 
 movement was taken by the bishops of Belgium, 
 who founded, in lH35,the university of Louvain. 
 Following then- example, the Irish bishops 
 founded, in L854, the Catholic University of 
 Dublin: and the English bishops, in 1875, the 
 Catholic University College, at Kensington. A 
 grand movement of this kind has taken place in 
 France, where, up to the close of 1876, three 
 ( 'atholic universities had beeu organized. The 
 I kiininion of ( 'anada possesses a similar institu- 
 tion in the University of Laval, at Quebec. 
 
 In addition to the theological faculties of the 
 universities, there are schools of theology con- 
 nected with most of the episcopal sees. More- 
 over, every male religious order supports schools 
 of theology for its own members. (For a fuller 
 account of these institutions, see Tiieolooical 
 Schools.) The Council of Trent enjoined upon 
 all bishops to establish special preparatory 
 schools for such boys as intended to devote 
 themselves to the study of theology. In many 
 countries, these semitiaria puerortim (boys' 
 seminaries) are in successful operation, and 
 educate almost the entire clergy : in others, 
 they are almost unknown. In addition to the 
 priests' and boys' seminaries, the Catholic 
 
 ( 'hureh possesses a number of missionary scl Is, 
 
 for educating Catholic missionaries for pagan 
 and non-Catholic countries. 'I he most famous 
 of these i tfa Coll ge i I the Propaganda [Col- 
 legium d propaganda fidi .in Rome. During 
 
 collc-,.> h.ivcheeii toimdo.1 a- All Hallows, near 
 Dublin, and St. Josephs College, of the Sacred 
 Beart, for Foreign Missions, in England. The 
 missionaries, in their turn, have established, in 
 connection with their missions, a large number 
 of colleges and schools, in pagan and uncivilized 
 countries, many of which have gained, to a high 
 degree, the confidence of the native population 
 
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 
 
 and the admiration of tourists. — In England, 
 the United States, and Belgium, the Catholic 
 Church has established a number of teachers' 
 seminaries, independent of all state control: 
 while, in other countries, as in Germany, the 
 state concedes to the Catholic Church some de- 
 gree of co-operation in the control of Catholic 
 institutions of this class. In the schools which 
 
 are under the absolute ntrol of the Church, a 
 
 very large proportion of the teachers are mem- 
 bers of religious orders. The educational efforts 
 of the Benedictines, Hieronymians, Jesuits, and 
 Piarists have already been referred to. When 
 the organization of elementary schools, in all the 
 communities of civilized countries, assumed larger 
 dimensions, La Salle (KI70) founded the first 
 organization of school brothers, called the 
 Brethren of the Christian Schools. (See La 
 Salle.) None of this order are allowed to en- 
 ter the priesthood, or to hold any ecclesiastical 
 
 ROMANIC LANGUAGES 
 
 r48 
 
 who 
 
 congregation. How rapidly this congregation 
 has grown, may be inferred from the fact that, 
 while, at the death of the founder (1719), the 
 congregation had 27 houses, '271 brethren, 122 
 classes, and 9.885 pupils, in 1869, it had 1.117 
 houses. 9,930 brethren, 7,435 class s, and 395,458 
 pupils. In the United State-. 323 brethren gave 
 instruction to about 15,000 pupils. The congre- 
 gation of La Salle was followed by a number of 
 similar congregations, most of which have houses 
 in the Unite! States. The majority of these con- 
 gregations arose like the Brethren of the Chris- 
 tian Schools in France. As the school regula- 
 tions drawn up by La Salle provide that at least 
 two brethren must be sent to any locality in 
 which there is a desire to intrust to them the 
 elementary schools, many small pla les were un- 
 able to obtain their services. For the purpose of 
 providing schools for such places. Abbe dean de 
 la Mcnnais founded, in 1820, in Brittany, a con- 
 gregation which, in 1822, was sanctioned by the 
 French government under the name of the Con- 
 gregation of Christian Instruction. The Supreme 
 Council of Instruction authorizes every member 
 who holds a certificate from the Superior < reneral 
 of the congregation, to give instruction. The 
 congregation, in 1*75, hail 15(1 houses, with about 
 800 members. The chief seat of the congrega- 
 
 congregation of Xaverian Brothers was founded 
 at Bruges, in L839,byTh odore Sacques Ryken, 
 with tiie special view to establish and conduct 
 
 schools in the United Mate,. They had. in 1>7">. 
 several houses in Kentucky and Maryland. In 
 Ireland, the liev. K. Rice, of Waterford, founded 
 the order of the School Brothers of Ireland, whirl, 
 closely resembles the Brethren of the Christian 
 Schools, and which has spread from Ireland to 
 England, as well as to several of the English 
 colonies. The female congregations which devote 
 themselves to instruction are even more numer- 
 ous than those of the School Brothers. The 
 
 earliest, and still one of the largest, is that of the 
 Ursulines. which was founded, in the Kith cent 
 ury, by Angela Merici, of Brescia (died 1540, 
 canonized 1807), and the members of which, at 
 the beginning of the 1 7th century, assumed, in 
 addition to the three usual monastic vows, a 
 fourth vow to instruct young girls gratuitously. 
 The Ursulines spread from France into many 
 countries of Europe and America, and. in 1875, 
 had, in the United States, houses in New York. 
 Ohio, Illinois. Georgia, Louisiana. Texas. Ken- 
 tucky, and Missouri. The order of the Sisters of 
 Notre Dame, or the School Sisters of the Blessed 
 Pierre Fourier, was founded in France by Pierre 
 Fourier (q. v.), at the close of the 16th century. 
 I he largest number of their houses is still found 
 in France, but they have also spread to many 
 other countries, and were, in 1875, represented 
 in nine states of the American Union. — The 
 Ladies of tiie Sacred I leart. an order founded in 
 
 France in lsoo.are chiefly devoted to th luca- 
 
 tim, of young ladies. The growth of this order 
 has been very rapid, the number of its establish- 
 in the United Stales, to 2L- In Canada, the 
 Gray Nuns, or Sisters of ( harity, of Montreal, 
 an order founded in 1745, in 1*75 had 24 houses 
 in the Dominion of Canada and the United 
 
 
 ROMANIC LANGUAGES, , 
 
 Languages, the collective name o 
 era languages which, after the dovt 
 Western Roman Empire, were gra 
 oped from the lingua Romana n 
 gar Latin, by the admixture of Ge 
 and other idioms. The independt 
 
 r Romance 
 
 those mod- 
 nfall of the 
 luallv dcvel- 
 
 stica, or vul- 
 
 man. Celtic, 
 nt Romanic 
 
 languages are the 
 Wallachian or Da 
 
 ^-Roumanian). 
 
 Portuguese, 
 (also called 
 In the five 
 
 of south-western !■' 
 
 e of the t iermanic conquerors 
 trope has left marked traces ; 
 
 while the Roumanian language has been con- 
 siderably influenced by Slavic tongues. 'Hie lan- 
 guage, called RomirnscJi, which is spoken in some 
 districts of the Swiss canton of Grisons and 
 the Tyrol, is not regarded by Diez as an in- 
 dependent Romanic language. The most im- 
 portant among the Romanic languages are the 
 French, the Spanish, and the Italian, the his- 
 tory and study of which are treated in special 
 articles of this work. The Comparative Gram- 
 
 mar, and the Kliiu, 
 Romanic languages, 
 only universally rec 
 on 'the subject, but a 
 
 
 y. of the 
 . are not 
 
 linguists 
 of com- 
 
 parative philology. The derivation of the Ro- 
 manic languages from the Latin has been fully 
 
 treated l>\ 1 " 1 1 ■ 1 1 - If,. I! ■,„,'.-//■„ Sj„:ir/,r',t 
 
 ,,, ihrem Verhaltniss turn Lateinischen, Halle, 
 L845), and by Pott, in Hofei - Zeilschrifl fur 
 Wissenschafl der Spracke, in Aufreeht's and 
 Kiilm's Zeitschriftfur vergleichen.de Spraclir 
 fomcJnntr). and in the Zeitschvift fur die Altrr- 
 ihumswissenschaft 
 
744 
 
 ROME, the capital of tl 
 founded, iii 7.">H B. ( '.. liy tl 
 
 ■ient world, was 
 
 irtreas of Latiuin, on the 
 Etruscan march. But that border fortress grew, 
 step by step, to be the head of Latium, the head 
 of Italy, the head of the whole Mediterranean re- 
 gion, the mistress of the world. "It is in Rome", 
 says Freeman (Comparative Politics), "that all 
 the states of the earlier European world lose 
 themselves ; it is out of Rome that all the states 
 of the later European world take their being." 
 Rome gathered unto itself the traditions of all 
 that had ever been great and illustrious in the 
 human race. — Assyrian, Egyptian, Persian, He- 
 brew, Phoenician, Greek, Etruscan; and extended 
 its sway over the multitudinous western tribes 
 — Italian. Gallic, Iberian, and Teutonic, the latter 
 as yet only known as warriors. The civilization, 
 the" arts and sciences, the laws and institutions, 
 the poetry and philosophy, the accumulated liter- 
 ary treasures of all past generations, were grad- 
 ually merged in Rome. Its history, then, is that 
 of the whole civilized world, down to the modern 
 period. And yet, the history of Roman educa- 
 tion is neither as interesting nor as valuable as 
 that of Greece. In the latter country, a love for 
 the esthetic predominated, the Greek taking a 
 peculiar delight in the beautiful; but, with the 
 Roman, the practical prevailed, and the beautiful 
 was simply an esthetic amusement. He was 
 harder, coarser, delighting more in power and 
 less in beauty, more in facts and less in specula- 
 tion, more in the real and less in the ideal. 
 Rome's chief object was conquest, extension of 
 power ; and. hence, the education of her youth 
 aimed to fit them for citizenship and for war. — 
 Among the Latins and the Etruscans, though 
 they ha 1 teachers, as we learn from Livy, literary 
 training cannot have prevaile 1. as they wen- too 
 much animated by warlike zeal. The priests culti- 
 vated religious science, and the principal Bubject 
 of instruction was probably dirinuti-m. In the 
 early days of the Republic, education was en- 
 tirely domestic ; and the amount of intellectual 
 culture was very scanty. Plutarch regarded it 
 as a deficiency in the Roman laws thai thej di I 
 not. like those of the Spartans, prescribe a cer- 
 tain system of regulations for the education of 
 youth; but, in fact, the manners and customs 
 of the people replaced that want. For, first, edu- 
 cation was not regarded, a - in Athens and Sparta, 
 as a duty of the state : and. secondly, woman 
 had a much higher place than in the Greek 
 states. Rome honore I her vestal virgins, and the 
 wife was not. as in Greece, the servant, but the 
 companion of her husband, and was revered by 
 him as the mother of his children. Maternal 
 duties were considered sacred; and the care- 
 ful nursing of infants, the needful occupations 
 in the household, and the imparting of the rudi- 
 ments of education, were regarded as the most 
 prominent points of womanly merit. Tin' so- 
 called /, ilri.i potestas gave to each head of a fami- 
 ly an unlimited authority over all its members. 
 But that tremendous power— which was felt 
 and acknowledged to be a natural right — was 
 
 never abused. The father was regarded with 
 reverence and respect, though, probably, not al- 
 ways with very strong affection; for the Latin 
 word pietas, which expressed the feeling of the 
 dutiful child toward his parent, hardly implies 
 much of love. After boys had attained the 
 age when their mothers considered another 
 instructor desirable, they were placed under the 
 care of the pcedagogus. Frequently, these pceda- 
 gogi were liberated slaves. Sometimes, however, 
 the father would himself assume this task, as, e. 
 f/., Cicero and < 'ato ( Vnsorinus. who taught their 
 children to read and write. Cato also trained 
 his sons in gymnastics, the use of weapons, 
 boxing, horseback riding, and even swimming, 
 but never bathed with them, in order not to 
 offend their modesty. The boys were also taught 
 songs commemorating the courageous and heroic 
 d e Is of their ancestry, and were obliged to com- 
 mit to memory the laws of the 12 tables. These 
 were the usual subjects of instruction. The boys 
 of wealthy parents had sometimes several poeda- 
 gogi.—The first schools in Rome were private, 
 "and were located in public booths or shops ; 
 hence, the name trivium. They were also char- 
 acteristically called litdi, because their work was, 
 in distinction from other practice, regarded 
 simply as a recreation, or play. The first teach- 
 ers were not paid any fees, which were not 
 introduced until 2(11 T>. C. The boys were con- 
 ducted to these schools, which existed as early 
 as 449 B. C, by capsarii, ?'. c, slaves who car- 
 ried the books, writing materials, etc. Vacations 
 occurred only during harvest time. The first 
 teacher was called the literati,]-. He taught 
 reading and writing, proverbs, and arithmetic, 
 the latter being, on account of its usefulness, 
 more esteemed by the Romans than by the 
 ( I reeks. A second course devolved on the gram- 
 miitistn, who taught language, grammar, and com- 
 position. This work was completed by the rhetor 
 in a more skillful manner. It was necessary, in 
 order to be a well-educated Roman, to be a fin- 
 ished orator; and. therefore, very great stress was 
 laid on correctness and pureness of expression. 
 Mock-trials were of common occurrence, and at- 
 tendance at the Forum was regarded as an ob- 
 ligation. The most distinguished teachers were 
 either natives of the colonies or provinces, 
 or freedmen of Greek extraction. Resides re- 
 ceiving instruction at home, the youth not un- 
 frequently went to Alliens, Rhodes, or Alex- 
 andria to complete their education.— The first 
 favor bestowed by the government upon the 
 teachers was under •! ulius ( 'a-sar. who gave them 
 the right of citizenship : and Augustus added 
 exemption from all public duties and occupa- 
 tions. During his administration, several new- 
 schools of high repute were established in the 
 provinces; among them, those of Mitylene, Mas- 
 silia (Marseilles), and ( 'ordnba, to all of which 
 students flocked in great numbers. To keep the 
 young men at Home. Augustus gave Elaccus 
 'Catiline's house, and paid him a salary of 
 
 I mii. i sesterces ($3,600), and. besides, gave 
 
 prizes to diligent scholars. Vespasian recognized 
 
ROTE-TEACHING 
 
 the entire system of educational institutions as 
 an integral element in the organism of the state. 
 Existing schools, both elementary and higher, 
 were strengthened as far as seemed necessary, 
 and new facilities for instruction wnc added 
 to those already in use. The first school re- 
 sembling a college, called the Athena <. was 
 founded, professors of Greek literature were ap- 
 pointed, and tin irse of study wasextended, 
 
 after the Alexandrian model, to embrace the 
 circle of theories libi rales -grammar, dialectics. 
 rhetoric, geometry, arithmetic, astronomy, mu- 
 sic — and drawing. Vespasian's successors, Had- 
 rian, the two Antonines. Marcus Aurelius, and 
 Alexander Severus — in a word, all the most vir- 
 tuous, and not a few of the most sanguinary and 
 atrocious, among the Caesars, showed great zeal 
 in the promotion of learning, in all its various 
 forms, throughout the empire. The age of Mar- 
 cus Aurelius is especially distinguished for the 
 complete endowment of what may well be 
 called the University of Athens. This munifi- 
 cent liberality of the Roman Caesars was not 
 without many happy effects upon literature and 
 learning in the declining ages of the empire. 
 Thus Athens, e. rj., became again the focus of 
 learned activity in an age which, marred as it was 
 by an increasing tendency to pedantry and affec- 
 tation, still succeeded in reviving some reminis- 
 cences of the nobler past, and exhibited what has 
 not inappropriately been described as the after 
 summer of Greek genius. — Among Roman edu- 
 cational theorists are M. Terentius Varro, "the 
 most learned man in Rome" (lit! — 27 B.C.), 
 and author of Capys, aut de liberis educant lis ; 
 Cicero, who treats of education incidentally in 
 his DeOffi its; I'... it ii- in /' Oraloribus, com- 
 monly attributed to him ; an 1 Quintilian | to — 
 118 A. D.),in the first book of his InstUutio Ora- 
 torio. — See Bernhardt, Grundriss der ro'mi- 
 scken Literatur; Champagny, Les Cesars, and 
 Les Antonines (Paris. 1871); Friedl^nder, 
 Sittengeschichle Roms, vol. ra. (1th ed., Leips., 
 1874), Teoppel, Hist, of Roman Literature 
 (Lond., 1873) ; Pfeiffer. Brziehung bei den 
 Griechen und RSmern (Wien, 1867); Ilistor,/ 
 of Munition (N. Y.,1874). 
 
 ROTE-TEACHING, or Teaching by 
 Rote (Ft. route, road, whence routine), a method 
 of giving instruction by means of constant repe- 
 tition, particularly of certain forms of speech. 
 with little or no attention to their meaning. 
 Hence, such teaching is often described as 
 mechanical, that is. impressing the memory 
 through the car ami the eye, but not exercising 
 the understanding. Rote-teaching may be re- 
 
 Ass, 
 
 in a depressed state. Although the 
 -of 1864 makes attendance compulsory, 
 Is have, nevertheless, very fevi pupils. 
 
 The 
 rally 
 nany 
 
 875, 
 ublic 
 lized 
 
 almost every community has 
 ol. The total number of pu- 
 in 1875, was about 55,000 ; 
 if teachers of all grades was 
 iv are 8 seminaries for the 
 
 lasses), 
 district 
 
 m real 
 
 I gym- 
 ate of 
 
 iml 
 
 for scientific and professional instruction arc 3 
 agricultural scl I... 7 industrial schools, 7 com- 
 mercial schools, s seminaries for Greek theology, 
 a Roman Catholic seminary tor priests, iu.lassy, 
 a school for engineering, a military school, in 
 Bucharest, two art scl,,,,,]., ,„ Jassy and Bucha- 
 rest; and the central school of agriculture and 
 forestry, in Ferestren. Besides these schools, 
 
 colleges. — See Clironik des Vblksschidwesens, 
 (1875); Reporiof U.S. Commissioner of Edu- 
 cation fur is 74. 
 
 ROUSSEAU, Jean Jacques, a celebrated 
 French author, born in Geneva, dune 28., 1712; 
 died at Krmcnonville. near Paris, July 2., 1778. 
 Ee calls for notice here chiefly from an educational 
 point of view. I lis father was a. watch-maker, and 
 
 ROUMANIA, a dependency of Turkey, 
 having an area of 46,7111 sq. m., and a popula- 
 tion of 4,500.000, mostly Roumans, but com- 
 prising also 1 50,000 Jew's and 200,000 gypsies. 
 About 90 per cent of the inhabitants belong to 
 the Greek Church. Roumania was formed, in 
 1859, by the union of the two principalities of 
 Moldavia and Wallaehia. — Education in Rou- 
 
 nine; sei i icu in rue 
 of a visionary, resl 
 
 ess ill.-] 
 
 osition;' and h 
 
 "V "as 
 1 sickly 
 
 habit soon led to hi.. 
 
 separal 
 
 on from other. 
 
 hildren 
 
 of his age, and d( 
 
 veloped 
 
 in him a fond 
 
 less for 
 
 works of fiction. A 
 
 
 era! years of wander- 
 
 ing and of desultoi 
 
 y work 
 
 the latter co 
 
 isistllle; 
 
 of apprenticeships 
 
 loin \\1 
 
 lich he invariably ran 
 
 away, a priest at 
 
 ( 'oufigi 
 
 on, in Savoy 
 
 intro- 
 
 duced him to Mini 
 
 de \\ ; 
 
 reus, at Anne 
 
 V. who 
 
 sent him to a char: 
 
 
 1 in Turin. Fr 
 
 mi this 
 
 place, also, he ran 
 
 away. 
 
 
 •ame a 
 
 wanderer. After an 
 
 ither in 
 
 erval of adven 
 
 ure, he 
 
 returned forsheltei 
 
 , in 1 7'J 
 
 l, to tile roof o 
 
 ' Mine. 
 
 le Warens.uho.se 
 
 It him t 
 
 .'a theologies 
 
 semi- 
 
 nary al Annecy, fr 
 
 unfitted for tile ] 
 
 riesthoi 
 
 h he was ili-in 
 
 ssed as 
 
 
 ( Iv. he 
 
 accepted a position 
 
 as tuto 
 
 in a private 
 
 family 
 
 in Lyons, where he 
 
 remained two or thret 
 
 years, 
 
 and. in 1741, went 
 
 to Par 
 
 s. Here he became 
 
746 ROUS 
 
 intimate with Diderot, Grimm, D'llolbach, and 
 Mine. d'Epinay, the last of whom, in 1756, pro- 
 vided a retreat for him in the vicinity of Paris, 
 called the Hermitage, lie maintained now for 
 many years, by musical and literary labor, a doubt- 
 ful Btruggle with a Iversity. In L760, he published 
 Julie, ou La NouveUe HeloXse, which, by its 
 idealization of Mine. d'Houdetot, offended his 
 patroness Mine. d'Epinay, and led to his retire- 
 ment from the Hermitage. The duke and duchess 
 of Luxembourg now received him, and induced 
 him to take up his residence at Montmorency, in 
 one of their chateaux. While there, he wrote 
 Emile, and the Contnii Social. The former was 
 condemned bythe parliament, and he was obliged 
 to leave the country to escape arrest. He went 
 to Geneva, then to Hern, and finally to Neuf- 
 chatel, where he was befriended by the governor, 
 Lord Keith. In 17l>7, he returned to France; 
 and, after living in several places, settled again in 
 Paris, in 177(1. The hostility of the philosophers 
 
 Sllllj 
 
 upon his health, which was now utterly broken. 
 In 1778, he accepted the invitation of M. de Girar- 
 din to visit him at his country-ssat at Ermenon- 
 ville. where he died. His fame, however, suffered 
 no diminution by his death, but steadily in- 
 creased. In 1794, his remains were removed to the 
 Pantheon at Paris, where a statue of him ha 1 
 been erected; and, in 1 815, the allied sovereigns 
 exempted Ermenonville from the payment of 
 war taxes, in honor of his memory. — The character 
 of Rousseau has been a puzzle to moralists. In 
 him, the affectionate, sensitive nature of the girl, 
 the subversive spirit of the communist, and the 
 shamelessness of the libertine, were united. His 
 writings have been the fruitful source of contro- 
 versy, the bitterness i if which has been aggravated 
 by the errors of his life. The subtle beauty of 
 his style, which has always commanded for him 
 a place among the most illustrious of French 
 prose writers, has served to place in stronger 
 relief the radical and dangerous theories which it 
 served to introduce. The virulence with which 
 his writings were assailed during his life-time has 
 not yet ceased, after the lapse of more than, a 
 hundred years. 
 
 Eniilr. ou de V&bieation was published in 
 1762, and was the last product of the twelve 
 years of his literary activity, nothing of the first 
 importance being afterwards written by him, with 
 the exception of the Confessions. It appeared 
 at the time of the suppression of the Jesuits in 
 France, when education, therefore, was a general 
 theme; and nothing was more natural than that 
 Rousseau, from his own point of view, should join 
 in the discussion, and show how man. who in the 
 stateof nature was entirely good, might by educa- 
 tion be preserved from the prevailing degenera- 
 tion. We can give but the barest outline of the 
 work. The parent is warned that nothing can 
 compensate for the lack of his own time and at- 
 tention in his children's education, and is assured 
 
 repent of this neglect in the bitterness of sorrow, 
 and never be comforted. But, in case a wealthy 
 parent should not have sufficient time, he is 
 directed in the choice of a governor or tutor, to 
 one who should be the guide, philosopher, and 
 friend of young Emile from his tenderest years 
 to the time of his marriage. Why this shadowy, 
 unreal personage should be set forth, as Emile 's 
 only source of instruction rather than his par- 
 ents — why the exceptional case, rather than the 
 general one, should be so fully worked out, can 
 be explained only by the fact that Rousseau neg- 
 lected so notably his own parental responsibil- 
 ities. — From his second to his twelfth year, Emile 
 is to live a life of healthy objectivity. There 
 are to be no books, no moral discussions. He is 
 not to be lectured or reasoned into submission, 
 but must learn to bow to a law of necessity: his 
 tutor must be firm with him. Punishment, also, 
 that it may not seem arbitrary, is to be such 
 only as naturally springs from his actions them- 
 selves. This period, therefore, is to be one of 
 physical development mainly, only such moral 
 notions being communicated as relate to the 
 pupil's actual state. If we wish to see Emile in 
 an English dress, we have but to turn to Harry 
 Clinton, in Henry Brooke's Fool of Quality 
 (1st ed., 17o'G; last edition by Charles Kings- 
 ley), or to Harry Sandford, in Sandford and 
 Mcrton (lsted., 1783). 
 
 From the age of 12 to that of 15, the notion 
 of utility plays an important part in Emile's 
 education. He is happy who keeps a due pro- 
 portion between his desires and his powers. 
 Pesires may be for things necessary or unneces- 
 sary. Emile must, therefore, be accustomed to 
 limit his desires to real needs: and his education 
 must be such as will fit him, out of his own re- 
 sources, to satisfy these needs. 1 le must now learn 
 geography, physics, and chemistry, but only so 
 far as he can be brought to see their utility, and, 
 therefore, to feel an interest in what he is doing. 
 He is to read Robinson Crusoe, that he may 
 learn to prefer the useful to the ornamental. He 
 must even learn a trade, such a one as Crusoe 
 found of most service on his desert island (namely, 
 that of a carpenter). — In the fourth book. Emile 
 learns to know his fellows, from whose contami- 
 nating influence he has hitherto been most care- 
 fully kept. As a preparative to entering into 
 society, he reads Plutarch's Lives, and studies 
 history. Now. also, when he is between 15 and 
 20 years of age, does he. for the first time, hear of 
 (hid. and receive religious instruction. It is here 
 that the v.c!!-known profession of faith of the 
 Savoyard vicar is inserted. In connection with 
 Emile's marriage, in the fifth book, Rousseau deals 
 with the education of woman. His view is briefly 
 this: that as woman exists only for man. her 
 education must be entirely relative to him. — 
 The groundwork of Emile is to be found in 
 Locke: but Rousseau treated the subject with 
 such interest as to provide a powerful stimulus 
 for the educational workers of his time. His in- 
 fluence is distinctly seen in Basedow, Pestalozzi, 
 
 that, should these be wanting, he will certainly i and Richter, in Germany; and in Richard Edge- 
 
■worth and Thomas Hay. in England. — Mr. Morley 
 writes forcibly of two great deficiencies in Emile's 
 education: Rousseau, who was himself not strong 
 on the intellectual side, as compared with the 
 emotional, has not in his scheme made any ade- 
 quate provision for thorough intellectual disci- 
 pline; and, by keeping Smile in seclusion until 
 he is on the verge of manhood, he has made it 
 impossible for "a passion lor justice" to develop 
 itself. The merit of Emile, indeed, does not lie 
 in its being a body of incontestable doctrine on 
 education, but rather in its method, and in its 
 sympathetic observation of children's ways from 
 their earliest years. Any one who, like Thomas 
 Day. should follow the directions in Emile, could 
 not but be involved in ludicrous results (as may be 
 seen very notably by referring to the life of Pay's 
 friend. Edgeworth); whilst William Cobbett, an- 
 other reader of ltuusseau.but one who mixed some 
 common sense with what he read, has left us, in 
 his Advice, a. picture of family life and home edu- 
 cation which is truly charming. "Not Rousseau's 
 individual rules", says Richter. in the preface to 
 his L--r iii'i, "many of which may be erroneous 
 without injury to the whole, but the spirit of 
 education which tills and animates the work, has 
 shaken to their foundations and purified all the 
 school rooms, and even the nurseries in Europe. 
 In no previous work on education, was the ideal 
 so richlv and beautifully combined with actual 
 observation as in his." — M. Alphonse Esquiros 
 in his half-story, half-essay, entitled L Emile du 
 diahneuvieme Siecle (Paris, 1870), has followed 
 in Rousseau's track, and considered from a pres- 
 ent-flay point of view the various problems in 
 education from infancy onwards. — See Rousseau's 
 Emile, particularly bks. i.. n.. in.; Mori.ev's Life 
 of Rousseau, especially ch. xin. ; Jules Paroz, 
 Histoire Universelle de la Pedagogic (Paris, 
 lSli'.h; Quick. Ediicntinmil llefitrmer.t; Girardix, 
 Rousseau, sn Vie ft sv.s- Uiirrnges (Paris 1H75). 
 
 RUSSIA, an empire in eastern Europe and 
 northern and central Asia, having an area of 
 8,563,421 sq. m..and a population of 86,486,000. 
 The area of the Russian empire is inferior only 
 to that of the British empire; while its con- 
 tinuous territory is larger than that of any other 
 nation in the world. More than two-thirds of 
 its population belong to the Greek Church ; but. 
 in the former kingdom of Poland, the Catholic 
 religion prevails ; and, in Finland and the Baltic 
 provinces, the Lutheran Church is predominant. 
 Mohammedanism is still the ruling religion in 
 the new possessions in central Asia, its adher- 
 ents numbering, in the entire empire, more than 
 7,000,000. The vast majority of the population 
 of Russia belong to the Slavic race, the chief 
 representatives of winch are the Russians com 
 prising about 52,000,000. Of the other Slavic 
 tribes, the Poles, numbering about 5,000,000, arc 
 the most numerous. 
 
 Educational History. — Until the beginning 
 of the Kith century, no schools appear to have 
 existed in Russia, except in a few convents. 
 Ivan III. called foreign artists and scientists into 
 the country ; but no progress of importance 
 
 3SIA 747 
 
 ! could be made in education, because of the con- 
 tinual wars both foreign and intestine. Ivan IV. 
 established schools in the cities, and, in 1564, 
 founded the first Russian printing-office in Mos- 
 cow. In 1588, the patriarch Jeremiah established 
 a school in Kief, for instruction in reading and 
 in the service of the church, -which was gradually 
 enlarged into the first theological academy. 
 With the accession of Peter the Great, a new 
 era began for education. He forbade any noble- 
 [ man to marry who did not possess a knowledge 
 of the elements of reading, writing, and arith- 
 metic, and established, in all the cities, arith- 
 metic schools, which imparted instruction in 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, and the elements of 
 geometry. 'I licit original object was to prepare 
 young men for the service of the state ; and 
 hence they were almost exclusively attended by 
 children of government officers, who, upon leav- 
 ing, were required to give the teacher one ruble. 
 In L719, arithmetic schools for children of all 
 classes were opened, and also schools for the 
 army, the navy, and the priesthood. Peter the 
 Great also founded an academy of sciences, in 
 connection with a gymnasium and a university. 
 Under his successor, Catharine 1., the Academy 
 of Sciences was opened in Moscow, in 1755. The 
 empress Anna allowed no private soldier or non- 
 commissioned officer to be promoted who could 
 not read, and the- empress Elizabeth imposed fines 
 on parents who allowed their children to grow up 
 without any education. Catharine II. proposed 
 to organize educational institutions throughout 
 the country, according to a uniform plan : 
 but, after experimenting for twenty years, she 
 found that nothing of importance had been ac- 
 complished. She then determined to establish 
 schools like the Austrian model schools ; and, 
 at her request, the Austrian government sent 
 Von Jankowicz. the director of the lllyrian 
 normal schools, to Russia. A commission of 
 three was appointed to govern the schools estab- 
 lished, which were to be of three kinds : higher 
 schools, in the capitals of governments; inter- 
 mediate schools, in the capitals of circles : and 
 elementary schools, in small towns and villages. 
 In every government, a school board was to be 
 appointed, while the schools of the circles were 
 to be governed by a director. A teachers' semi- 
 nary was established in St. Petersburg; and. in 
 the university of Moscow and the three theolog- 
 ical academies, a three years' course was pre- 
 scribed to prepare pupils for the seminary. The 
 emperor Paul took an interest only in the prog- 
 ress of the higher schools. Alexander II. in 
 
 has. in recent years, been considerably discussed 
 
 In order to makeabeginning.it was resolved, 
 in ls75, to establish in St. Petersburg a suffi- 
 cient number of schools, at the expense of the 
 city, and to carry into effect the compulsory edu- 
 cation of all children between the a^'es of 8 and 
 12 years. According to the calculation of themin- 
 
748 RU! 
 
 istry, it will be necessary, to this end, to estab- 
 lish lf>7 primary schools, in addition to those 
 existing at present. These schools will be gov- 
 erned by a school board of six members, besides 
 the chief officer of the city government, who is 
 to preside. For the absence of children, unless 
 excused, parents are to be lined ; and, when the 
 offense is repeated, are to be imprisoned. ( >ne of 
 the principal troubles under which the Russian 
 schools are laboring at present, is the absence of 
 unity in their government, every ministry having 
 a number of special schools under its control. 
 
 Primar;/ Instruction. — According to the new 
 school law of 1874, the elementary schools com- 
 prise (1) the primary schools, under the direction 
 of the clergy ; (2) the primary schools, under 
 the ministry of public instruction, both public 
 and private ; (3) the elementary schools, under 
 other ministries, which are supported by the 
 communes ; and (4) Sunday-schools. The course 
 of instruction comprises reading, writing, the 
 four fundamental rules of arithmetic, the cate- 
 chism, Bible history, and, as far as possible, 
 singing. The language used in giving instruc- 
 tion must be the Russian. Religious instruction 
 is confided to the clergy ; while, otherwise, the 
 superintendence is given into the hands of the 
 nobility. The ecclesiastical schools consist of 
 four animal courses, imparting free elementary 
 instruction to the children of priests, but are open 
 to other children for a small fee. The subjects 
 of instruction are religion, the Russian and old 
 Slavic languages. Latin and Wreek, geography, 
 arithmetic, spelling, ami church history. Private 
 schools may be established, with the consent of 
 the director of the circle, either as day schools or 
 boarding schools. This class of schools also com- 
 prises the schools of all other denominations. All 
 private schools are divided into three kinds, hav- 
 ing respectively the rank of a gymnasium, of a 
 district-school, and of elementary schools. The 
 numerous Jewish population of the western and 
 southern governments, for a long time, possessed 
 a complete system of private and public institu- 
 tions, which were, up to 1864, left strictly to 
 themselves. In that year, they were placed un- 
 der the general school council, and were divided 
 into three classes: elementary schools, intermedi- 
 ate schools, and schools for rabbis. In spite. 
 however, of the exertions of the government, 
 these schools are decidedly unpopular with the 
 .lews. Quite n ntly a desire for -the estab- 
 lishment i if in- lust rial schools has been evinced by 
 the middle ami lower classes of the people. These 
 schools are rapidly increasing, and now comprise 
 independent industrial schools, industrial schools 
 in connection with district and communal schools, 
 and industrial schools in connection with char- 
 itable institutions. In the Polish provinces, the 
 Sunday-schools are also industrial schools. The 
 lust Sunday-schools were opened in Kief.in L859, 
 by students who desired t<> instruct the laborers 
 on Sundays and holidays. Shortly after this, 
 similar schools were opened in St. Petersburg, 
 and spread rapidly; so that, in 1862, there were 
 already 300 schools, with about 20,0110 pupils. 
 
 Unfortunately, they did not exist long; for, in con- 
 sequence of disturbances in two of these schools 
 in St. Petersburg, the government ordered that 
 all should be closed, with the exception of those 
 in the school-district of I *orpat. — The schools in 
 the circles must be regarded as an intermediate 
 link between the elementary schools and the 
 gymnasia. The law of 1828 provided that a dis- 
 trict school should be established in the capital 
 of every circle for the children of the merchants, 
 the trades-people, and other inhabitants of the 
 cities. The course of study comprises three an- 
 nual classes; and the studies taught arc n ligion, 
 the Russian language, arithmetic, geometry, 
 geography, and Russian and general history. In 
 some of these schools, Latin, and in others 
 French, is taught. These schools have consider- 
 ably decreased in number, owing to the fact 
 that some have been changed into progymnasia, 
 and others into city schools. The education of 
 teachers for primary schools is provided for in 
 various ways. Special teachers' seminaries and 
 teachers' institutes, have recently been estab- 
 lished. The oldest seminary is that of Porpat, 
 founded in 1828. Since then, a number of sem- 
 inaries have been established, partly by the gov- 
 ernment, partly by provinces and private endow- 
 ments. Teachers' institutes have been estab- 
 lished in connection with the city schools, the 
 students in the highest classes being trained to 
 instruct, under the supervision of their teachers. 
 The normal number of pupils in each of these 
 institutes is 75, of whom 60 are completely sup- 
 ported at the expense of the ministry of public 
 worship; and the remaining 15, by funds from 
 private perse ins. the government, the city, or other 
 sources. The students, in return, are obliged 
 to serve six years in a city school, wherever 
 the government may send them. Besides, special 
 courses of instruction for the training of school- 
 teachers have been established in connection 
 with a number of circle schools, gymnasia, and 
 
 other institutions. F 
 ers for the Mohammed 
 in the < rimea. there a 
 and SimpheropoL In 1 
 schools, with 30,616 schi 
 
 af teach- 
 te Fast, and 
 ils in Easan 
 421 district 
 53 popular 
 
 schools, with !>:i3.'.)0M scholars I7-IS.KC6 boys and 
 185,034 girls). Included in this number are the 
 church scIk « .Is. the village schools of the Haltie 
 
 provinces, and the industrial scl Is. i. p., all the 
 
 schools under the minister of public instruction. 
 There were, also, in that year, 54 teachers' semi- 
 naries and institutes, with 25,552 students- The 
 number of private schools, of all three grades, not 
 belonging to any church, in 1869, was 88(1, with 
 31,500 children; and the number of denomina- 
 tional primary and district schools not belong- 
 ing to the Greek Church, was 121, with 24,291 
 pupils. The number of ecclesiastical schools for 
 the children of the clergy, in 1868, was 187, with 
 25.0(10 pupils. The number of ecclesiastical 
 elementary schools, in 1868, was 16.287, with 
 390,049 pupils, of whom 335,130 were boys, and 
 54.919 girls. The statistics of the Jewish schools 
 for Jan., 1 ., 1869, show the following : There are 
 
;i«.i 
 
 2 schools for rabbis and Jewish school-teachers in 
 Wilua and Schitomir, 5 schools of tin- second 
 class, similar to the district schools, with 220 
 
 Jewish religion, Russian and Hebrew, and arith- 
 metic and penmanship, are taught; 5] reading and 
 writing schools, in the school-districts of wilna 
 and Warsaw, with 1,982 pupils; 2 female schools, 
 with 260 pupils, and a number of female read- 
 ing and writing schools. Besides these schools, 
 under the control of the government, there are 
 a number of private schools, with about 26,500 
 pupils. In 1870, thec were about 50 industrial 
 schools, with about 3,000 pupils, and. in 1874, 
 115 Sunday-schools, with 8,565 male pupils and 
 22 female pupils. The following table gives the 
 ratio of the number of schools, and of the num- 
 ber of pupils, to the total population, in each of 
 the nine school-districts into which Russia is 
 divided : 
 
 mathematics and the natural sciences, were the 
 principal studies. In 1872, the real gymnasia were 
 
 changed into real schools, of from two to six 
 
 classes, in which the ancient languages were 
 entirely abolished. The progymnasia, of four 
 classes, correspond to the four lower classes of 
 the gymnasium. — Very little wasdone for female 
 education in Russia previous to the middle of 
 the la.st century. In 1764, the first institute for 
 
 «y. 
 
 School-districts 
 
 Ratio of 
 
 schools to tota 
 
 Rati,, of 
 pupils to total 
 
 population 
 
 
 1 : 930 
 1 : 2,248 
 1 : 2,339 
 1 : 3,814 
 1 : 3, Kill 
 1 : 4,364 
 1 : 4,076 
 1 : 3,708 
 1 : 5,845 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Odessa 
 
 Wilna 
 
 1 : 81 
 1 : 8.5 
 
 
 
 Kief 
 
 Moscow 
 
 1 : 144 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — In the beginning of 
 the present century, there were, in the whole 
 empire, with the exception of the Baltic and 
 Polish provinces, only 3 gymnasia. Catharine II.. 
 in 1776, established in the capitals of the govern- 
 ments people's high schools, and in the other 
 cities lower people's schools, the former to con- 
 sist of four the latter of two classes. In 1804, 
 Alexander I. ordered that every capital of a 
 government should have at least one gymnasium. 
 The change of the people's high schools into 
 gymnasia extended over twenty years; and fi- 
 nally, in 1825, 56 gymnasia, with 9,682 pupils, 
 were established, making an average of 132 
 pupils to each gymnasium. The highest average, 
 448, was in the Wilna school-district; and the 
 lowest, 69, in Kasan. In 1828, a reform was in- 
 troduced. The gymnasia comprised seven an- 
 nual classes, which had for their basis the study 
 of the ancient languages. Latin was taught in 
 all gymnasia, and in all classes; while Greek, 
 which was not obligatory, was gradually intro- 
 duced. In 1849, a new change was introduced, 
 with the object of bringing the instruction in 
 closer connection with practical life. Instruction 
 was either general, in three lower classes, or 
 special, in the other classes. In consequence of 
 these changes, the gymnasia were divided into 
 three groups: 36 gymnasia, in which natural 
 sciences and law were taught; 29, in which law 
 only was taught; and 12, in which Greek was re- 
 tained. In 1864, an imperial decree classed all 
 gymnasia as classical or real gymnasia. In the 
 former, the classical languages, in the latter, 
 
 schools. As they pursued a particular object, how- 
 ever, and as they thus became separated from 
 the general school system, they have always been 
 under the particular charge of the reigning em- 
 press, and are known as the schools of the em- 
 press Maria. But not until the beginning of the 
 reign of Alexander II.. did the ministry of public 
 instruction establish female schools for secondary 
 instruction. These schools were of two grades, — 
 schools of the first grade, corresponding to the 
 gymnasia; and those of the second grade, cor- 
 responding to the district schools. By a law of 
 1870, the schools of the first grade wire changed 
 into gymnasia, and those of the second grade in- 
 to progymnasia. In some of the former, a special 
 course, of one year, was instituted for those pupils 
 who wished to become governesses or teachers. 
 The course of study comprises religion, tin- Rus- 
 sian language and literature. French or German, 
 history, geography, natural history, arithmetic, 
 geometry, the elements of pedagogy, drawing, and 
 penmanship. English is taught for an extra fee 
 of 5 rubles per year, 'this law, however, is only 
 for the purely Bussian provinces. In the Dorpat 
 school-district, there are female schools with a 
 higher and lower course, in which instruction is 
 given by means of the German language. An ex- 
 ception to this rule is the female gymnasium in 
 Biga. During the last decade, female gymnasia 
 have also been established, in which girls of all 
 ranks are admitted. In 1874, the number of 
 gymnasia was 123, with 36,268 pupils; of pro- 
 gymnasia, 44, with 5,454 pupils; and of real 
 schools, 30, with 4,275 pupils. In 1874, there 
 were 195 female gymnasia and progymnasia, 
 with 23.S51 pupils, and 28 female institutes with 
 5,453 pupils. The number of gymnasia belong- 
 ing to the schools of the empress, in 1870, was 
 57, with about 10.000 pupils. There were, also, 
 in 1869, six gymnasia, with 1,61 7 male and 844 
 female pupils, belonging to other churches than 
 the I ireek church. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The first effort to 
 provide superior instruction in Russia was 
 made by I'eter the Great, who, in 1723, decreed 
 the establishment of an academy of sciences and 
 a university, at St. Petersburg. The academy 
 was not opened until 1726, the year after the 
 emperor's death; while the university only ex- 
 isted in name, as there were no students for it. 
 Indeed, it was not until 1755 that the first Bus- 
 sian university was established at Moscow, by 
 
750 RU! 
 
 the empress Elizabeth. It consisted of three 
 faculties, and was entirely modeled after the 
 German universities. Under Catharine II., after 
 the division of Poland, the Wilua Academy was 
 added to the higher institutions of learning; and. 
 in 1803, it was raised to the rank of a university. 
 In 1802, the Dorpat University, founded by 
 Gustavus Adolphus in 1632, was entirely re- 
 organized; and, in 1804, the universities of 
 Kharkof and Kasan were founded. On account 
 of the poor condition of the schools for secondary 
 instruction at that tune, the number of students 
 
 and of g 1 professors, was at first very small; 
 
 and more than one-half of the latter were for- 
 eigners. The native prof essors were educated in 
 the principal pedagogical institute, which was 
 founded at St Petersburg, in 1804. This insti- 
 tute did not have a long existence; for, in 1819, 
 it was changed into the University of St. Peters- 
 burg. In 1832, on account of political disturb- 
 ances, the Wilna University was closed, with 
 the exception of the medical faculty, which con- 
 tinued to exist as the Medico-Surgical Academy. 
 In its place, the St. Vladimir University of Kief 
 was formed from the lyceuin, which shortly be- 
 fore had been transferred to that place from 
 Kivnienets. Ill 1835, a new university law was 
 passed, which withdrew from the universities the 
 supennteiidei.ee of the other schools, and gave to 
 a particular inspector the discipline of the .-.in- 
 dents. A dec- f the emperor Nicholas, in 1849, 
 
 limited thenumberof students in each univer- 
 sity to 300; but this decree was revoked in ls.Mi. 
 In' 1863, a new general law for the imperial uni- 
 versities was published, intended for all except 
 that of Dorpat. which continued to be governed 
 by its special charter of 1820. In accordance 
 with this law, in 1865, the Russian university of 
 Odessa, previously a lyceum, was established ; 
 and, in 1869, Warsaw University, previously a 
 high school. According to the new law. every 
 university must be composed of at least four 
 faculties: of history and philology, of natural 
 philosophy and mathematics, of law, and of 
 medicine. Prom this order, however, there are 
 many deviations. Thus the University of St. 
 Petersburg lias no medical faculty; but, instead 
 thereof, a faculty of oriental languages. In the 
 University ot Odessa, the medical faculty has not 
 yet been opened; in that of Dorpat, there is, in 
 addition to the four mentioned above, a faculty 
 of I 'n itestant theology. A candidate for admis- 
 sion to the university must be, at least, 11 years 
 of age, and must possess a certificate of gradu- 
 ation from a gymnasium. The entire university 
 course comprises 5 years in the medical faculty, 
 and l in all the others. 
 
 In 1804, Alexander I. ordered that the course 
 of instruction of some of the gymnasia should be 
 extended, and that gymnasia for the higher sci- 
 ences should be established, as stepping-stones 
 
 time, four mch institutes were founded, chiefly 
 
 a1 the expen E private persons: (1 1 that of 
 
 Y.iroslav. in 1805, which was changed into a 
 l\c, a, n in 1833; (2) the Volhyniau gymnasium, 
 
 founded at Kremenets, in 1805, changed into a 
 lyceum in 1820, transferred to Kief in 1832, and 
 subsequently changed into a university ; (3) the 
 Lyceum Richelieu, founded in 1817, and after- 
 ward changed into a university ; and (4) the 
 Gymnasium for Higher Learning, founded in 
 Nezheen, in 1820. which received the name of 
 lyceum in 1832. The lyceums under the minister 
 of public instruction have three classes, each for 
 one year ; a lyceum belonging to the Schools of 
 the Empress Maria lias four classes, of one and 
 one half years each ; while the Lyceum of the 
 Grand-duke Nikolai, in Moscow, has an eight 
 years' course. 
 
 The following table presents the statistics of 
 the universities for 1875 : 
 
 Universities 
 
 Insmicrs 
 
 *— 
 
 
 97 
 65 
 
 72 
 42 
 63 
 
 75 
 
 
 Moscow 
 
 1,473 
 
 Kasan 
 
 Kief 
 
 522 
 859 
 
 
 
 Warsaw 
 
 830 
 
 Of the total number of students, 36 per cent 
 study law; 31 per cent, medicine; 14 percent at- 
 tend the course of mathematics and natural phi- 
 losophy ; 9 per cent are free hearers, but only 8 
 per cent attend the historical and philological 
 faculty. The remaining 2 per cent are made up 
 of the theological students in Dorpat and the 
 students of oriental languages in St. Petersburg. 
 The number of lyceums, in 1874, according to 
 the Russian Annals, was 5, with about 600 
 students. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The special schools be- 
 long to different ministries. The following sta- 
 tistics are for dan. 1., 1874. There are 4 higher 
 theological schools, with 178 professors and 446 
 students; 51 intermediate theological schools. 
 with 789 professors and 13,103 students ; and 
 187 lower theological schools, with 1,375 profess- 
 ors and 26,671 students ; 7 higher. 25 interme- 
 diate, and 31 lower military schools, with 1,416, 
 (1.330, and 6.863 students, respectively ; 7 naval 
 schools, with 1,109 students; 3 higher and 16 
 lower agricultural schools, with 293 and 1,025 
 students, respectively; 6 higher technical schools, 
 with 2,666 students,' 12 lower technical schools, 
 5 schools of art and drawing, 3 schools of music 
 and the drama, 4 business colleges, 1 law school, 
 with 320 students, and 3 schools of philology. 
 
 ( 'aucasia. — The schools of Finland (q. v.) and 
 of the Caucasus are the only schools in the whole 
 empire that are not subject to the Russian govern- 
 ment, but to their own school authorities. Cau- 
 casia forms one school-district, the inspector of 
 which is responsible to the governor only. In 
 1862, there were, in Caucasia, 4 gymnasia, 20 
 district schools, 1 progymnasium, 18 elementary 
 schools, 31 private schools, and 13 schools belong- 
 ing to the church, making a total of 87 schools, 
 
RUTGERS COLLEGE 
 
 with 7,362 pupils. — See Scram, Pddagogische 
 Efocuclopadie; Routs and Pfister, Real-En- 
 
 of Education, L874 j UkrontM ties VoUcsschvJr 
 toesens, 1875. 
 
 RUTGERS COLLEGE, at New Brunswick, 
 N.J., under the control of the Reformed Church 
 
 in America, was founded in I 770. It is supported 
 by tuition fees and an endowment of about 
 6400,01)11; the value of its buildings, grounds, and 
 apparatus amounts to about the same sum. Its 
 cabinets and apparatus are extrusive; the libra- 
 ries contain about 9,500 volumes. There are 
 two departments: the classical or college proper, 
 and the scientific (state college of agriculture 
 and the mechanic arts, endowed with the con- 
 gressional land grant). The latter department has 
 three courses : civil engineering and mechanics, 
 chemistry and agriculture, and a special course in 
 chemistry. There is an extensive model farm. 
 The tuition fee iu both departments is $75 per 
 annum. There are a number of beneficiary funds 
 for the aid of students intended for the ministry; 
 and 40 students, resident in the state, are ad- 
 mitted to the scientific department without 
 charge. In 1875 — 6, there were 13 professors 
 and 188 students (131 classical and ."'7 scientific). 
 The Rev. Wm. Henry Campbell. 1). D., LL. It- 
 is , L876) the president. 
 
 RUTHERFORD COLLEGE, at Happy 
 Home, Burke Co., N. <!., was commenced by 
 its present and only president, the Rev. 1!. L. 
 Abernethy, A. M., in 1854, and was chartered as 
 Rutherford Academy in 1 858. In 1861, under 
 the title of the Rutherford Seminary, it was given 
 
 SAINT CHARLES'S COLLEGE 751 
 
 the right to confer degrees; and, in 1870, it was 
 made a college. It is a college for young men. 
 with a ladies department. Each sex has its own 
 curriculum ; but the females recite nn ith the males 
 
 in ..II those classes in which tl ourses of study 
 
 are the same. The college is composed of six 
 regular schools : Latin, Greek, mathematics, En- 
 glish literature and rhetoric, natural science, and 
 mental and moral philosophy. I he libraries con- 
 tain about 3.5oo volumes. The cost of tuition 
 ranges from SI to S-"> a month. The children 
 of ministers of all denominations of Christians, 
 as well as all indigent orphans, are instructed 
 free of tuition charges. In 1874- 5, there were 
 19 instructors and 31'.) students (229 males and 
 90 females!, mostly of the preparatory grade. 
 
 RYERSON, Adolphus Egerton, a noted 
 Canadian clergyman and educator, born at 
 Cliarlotteville. near Victoria, in the province of 
 Ontario. March 24., 1803. He at first taught 
 school, but in 1825 entered the Wesleyan min- 
 istry, and. in 1 -'.".I. assumed the editorship of the 
 Cliristian Gfuardiati, a Methodist journal, estab- 
 lished by himself. In 1842, he was appointed 
 principal of Victoria College. Cobourg, C. W., 
 and two years afterward, chief superintendent 
 of education for Upper Canada, now Ontario, 
 which position he still occupies. Mr. Ryerson's 
 services as a superintendent have been quite dis- 
 tinguished. The public-school system which is 
 under his supervision was organized upon a plan 
 
 arranged by him, in 1849; and hisscl I reports 
 
 have uniformly presented very valuable material. 
 He has also published a history of Canada, and 
 has written a history of the British UnitedEmpire 
 Loyalists, who emigrated from the United States 
 to British America in 1783. 
 
 SAINT AUGUSTINE, Missionary Col- 
 lege of, at Benicia, ( 'al., an Episcopal institu- 
 tion, was founded in 1867, and incorporated 
 in 18G8. The course of study is arranged for 
 eight forms or classes, in three departments; 
 namely, primary, grammar school, and collegiate 
 (in which ancient and modern languages are 
 optional). The students are under military dis- 
 cipline, and instruction is given in infantry, caval- 
 ry, and artillery tactics. The regular charge for 
 board, tuition, etc., is from $350 to $370 per 
 annum. In 1875, there were 12 instructors, and 
 89 students. The Rt. Rev. J. H. It. Wingfield, 
 D. D., LL. D., is (1876) the rector. 
 
 SAINT BENEDICT'S COLLEGE, at 
 Atchison. Kan., a Roman Catholic institution 
 under the superintendence of the Benedictine 
 Fathers, was founded in 1859, and chartered in 
 1868. It has a preparatory, a commercial, and a 
 classical department. The regular charge for tui- 
 tion, board, etc., is 890 per sessii in of five months; 
 for tuition alone, 825. The library contains 2.000 
 volumes. In 1874 — 5, there were 6 instructors 
 and 79 students. The Very Rev. ( tswald Moos- 
 mueller, O. S. B., is (1870) the president. 
 
 SAINT CHARLES COLLEGE, at Grand 
 Coteau, l.a..a l: an Catholic institution, under 
 
 was founded in 1830. and incorporated in 1k.V_\ 
 The course of instruction embraces Latin, Creek, 
 English, French, poetry, rhetoric, history, geog- 
 raphy, mathematics, natural and mental philos- 
 ophy, with the addition of the usual commercial 
 branches. It had the highest number of stu- 
 dents in 1861, just before the breaking out of 
 the civil war. Recently the numbers have de- 
 clined, owing to the impoverished state of the 
 country. The libraries contain 5,500 volumes. 
 The regular charge for board, tuition, etc., is 
 8250 a year. In 1876, the number of students 
 was 35. The Rev. R. Ollivier , S. J., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 SAINT CHARLES'S COLLEGE, near 
 Ellicott City, Md., under Roman ( latholic control, 
 was chartered in 1830, and organized in L848. It 
 was founded by Charles Carroll of Carrollton, 
 and forms the petit seminaire and classical de- 
 partment of St. Mary's University and Theolog- 
 ical Seminary of St. Sulpice. Baltimore. The 
 course of instruction is a full classical one, re- 
 
752 ST. FRANCIS XAVIER COLLEGE 
 
 quiring a period of 6 years for those who 
 complete it, and embracing all the branches 
 preparatory to the higher ecclesiastical studies; 
 such as Latin. English. Creek, French, German, 
 belles-lettres, mathematics, sacred and profane 
 history, Christian doctrine, plain chant, and 
 church ceremonies. The libraries contain 4,500 
 volumes. The charge fur tuition, board, etc., is 
 $90 per half session of five months. Jn 1875—6, 
 there were 12 instructors and 17."' students. The 
 Rev.S. Ferte, D. D., is [1876] the president. 
 
 SAINT FRANCIS XAVIER, College of, 
 in New York City, a Roman Catholic institution 
 conducted by the Fathers of the Society of 
 Jesus, was founded in L847, and chartered in 
 1861. It is supported by a tuition fee of $60 
 per annum from each student. Its library con- 
 tains 16,000 volumes. It has a post-graduate 
 course of one year, leading to the degree of A. 
 M.; an under graduate course of four years, lead- 
 ing to the degree of A. 1!.; a grammar course of 
 three years, preparatory to the preceding; a com- 
 mercial course of three years; and a preparatory 
 or elementary course, for beginners. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 26 instructors and 456 students. The 
 following have been the presidents of the college: 
 the Rev. John Larkin, the Rev. John Ryan, the 
 Rev. Michael Driseol. the Rev. Joseph Durthaller, 
 the Rev. Joseph Loyzance, and the Rev. Henry 
 
 SAINT IGNATIUS COLLEGE, in San 
 Francisco. CaL, was opened in I s.">5, and char- 
 ter,'! in L859. It is a Roman Catholic institution, 
 conducted by the Fathers of the Society of Jesus. 
 The course of studied embraces the Greek.Latin, 
 and English languages, } try. rhetoric, elocu- 
 tion, history, geography, arithmetic. 1 I, keeping. 
 
 penmanship, mathematics, chemistry, and mental, 
 moral, and natural philosophy. The study of the 
 French and Spanish languages is optional 'I here 
 is also a preparatory department. The regular 
 tuition fee ranges from $3 to $8 a month. In 
 1H7.1 — (>, there were 22 instructors and 758 stu- 
 dents. The Rev. A. Masnata, S. J., is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 SAINT IGNATIUS COLLEGE, in Chi- 
 cago, 111., a Roman Catholic institution conducted 
 by'members of the Society of Jesus, was founded 
 in 1870. It possesses a library of 10,000 volumes; 
 and a museum containing a rare and valuable 
 collection of minerals. It comprises a classical 
 course of six years, corresponding to the prepar- 
 atory and collegiate departments of most col- 
 leges, a commercial course of four years, embra- 
 cing all the branches of a good English education; 
 and a preparatory or elementary course. The 
 cost of tuition is $60 a year. In 1874— 5, there 
 were 11 instructors and 21 I students. The pres- 
 idents have been as follows : the Rev. A. Damen, 
 S. J., 1870—72; the Rev. F. Coosemans, S. J., 
 1872 — 4; and the Rev. J. De Blieck, S. J., since 
 1874. 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE, at Fordham, 
 New York City, was founded by the Rev. John 
 Hughes, first Roman Catholic archbishop of New- 
 York, and was opened in 1841. It was chartered 
 
 SAINT JOHNS COLLEGE 
 
 in 1846, and the same year was transferred to the 
 Jesuits, by whom it has since been conducted. 
 It is supported by the students' fees for board 
 and tuition, amounting ordinarily to $300 per 
 annum ; the charge to day scholars is $60 per 
 annum. The college library contains 20,000 vol- 
 umes, besides which the students have the use of 
 a circulating library of over 5,000 volumes. There 
 are valuable chemical and philosophical ap- 
 paratus, and a geological and niineralogical cabi- 
 net, with about 2,500 specimens. The college 
 combines the ordinary features of preparatory, 
 grammar, and commercial schools with those of 
 a university. There are also several supplement- 
 ary classes. Students are received at any age. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were 21 instructors and 178 
 students. The presidents have been as follows: 
 the Rev. John McCloskey, now Cardinal Arch- 
 bishopof New York; the Kev. Ambrose Manahan, 
 I ).I).; the Rev. Roosevelt Bayley, now Archbishop 
 of Baltimore ; the Rev. James Early, A. M.; the 
 Rev. Aug. J. Thebaud, S. J. ; the Rev. John 
 Larkin, S.J. ; the Rev. Remigius J. Tellier.S. J.; 
 the Rev. Edward Doucet, S. J.; the Rev.William 
 Moylau, S. J. ; the Rev. Joseph Shea, S. J.; and 
 the Rev. William Gockeln, S. J., the present in- 
 cumbent (1876). 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE Brooklyn, 
 N. \'., a Roman Catholic institution, conducted 
 by the Priests of the Congregation of the Mis- 
 sion, was founded in 1 870. It has a full classical, 
 an English, and a commercial course, including 
 French and German. The cost of tuition is $15 per 
 quarter. In 1875- 6, there were instructors, 
 and 145 students. The Rev. P. M. O'Regan, 
 C. M.. is (1876) the president. 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE, at Annapolis, 
 Md., was chartered in 1784, and opened in 1789. 
 From I 861 to 1866, it was closed in consequence 
 of the civil war. It is supported chiefly byjstate 
 appropriations, at present amounting to $25,000 
 a year, in return for which 150 students (6 from 
 each senatorial district) are entitled to room rent 
 and tuition free ; and 50 of these (2 from each 
 senatorial district) are entitled, in addition, to 
 gratuitous board. These latter are required to 
 teach school within the state for not less than 
 two years after leaving college. For those not 
 holders of scholarships, the annual charge for 
 tuition, board, etc., is $275; for tuition alone $60 
 in the preparatory, and $90 in the collegiate 
 department. The library contains 5,000 volumes. 
 The collegiate department embraces an under- 
 graduate course of four years, leading to the 
 degree of A. B.; a post-graduate course of two 
 years, leading to the degree of A. M.; and select 
 courses. In 1875—6, there were 11 instructors, 
 including those in music and gymnastics, and 
 121 students (69 collegiate and 52 prepar- 
 atory), of whom, including the 50 who receive 
 gratuitous board, about two-thirds were in- 
 structed free. The number of alumni was 481. 
 The principals of the < Jollege have been as fol- 
 lows: John McDowell, LL. D. (appointed in 
 1790);the Rev. Bethel Judd, D. D. (1807); the 
 Rev. Henry Lyon Davis, D. D. (1820); the Rev. 
 
AIXT JOHNS <'<)!, LKGE 
 
 ST. LOUIS 
 
 William Rafferty. 1>. I>. (1824); the Rev. Hector 
 Humphreys, 1>.I>. (1*31): the Lev. Oleland K. 
 Nelson, D. D. (1857); Henry Barnard, LL. D. 
 (1866); .lan.es ( '. Welling, LL. D. (1867); and 
 James M. Garnett, M.A., LL.D. (1870). 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE, 4 miles from 
 St. Joseph, Stearns ( !o., Minn., a Roman I 'atholic 
 institution, conducted by the Benedictine Fathers, 
 was founded in L857, and chartered the same 
 
 753 
 the 
 
 Mauritius Klostermann. ( >. S. F„ is [1*7 
 rector of the ( lollege. 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE, in Buffalo, 
 N. Y, a Roman Catholic institution conducted 
 by the Christian Brothers, was founded in 1861. 
 It is supported by the fees of students, the reg- 
 ular e ha rue fur hoard and tuition being 8200 a 
 year; for tuition alone, from $16 to $50 a year. 
 The institution comprises three departments: 
 year, under the name of St. John's Seminary, primary, 2 years; preparatory collegiate, 4 years; 
 hut it is better known as St. John's College. I!y and collegiate, I years. There is a commercial 
 an act of the legislature, approved March 5., 1869, course, and facilities are afforded for instruction 
 his "authorized to confer such degrees and giant in music and drawing. The library contains 2,500 
 such diplomas as are usual in colleges and uni- volumes. In L875- 6, there were II instructors 
 versifies." It is supported by the fees of students, and 318 students. The Rev. Bro. Joachim is 
 the regular charge for tuition, hoard, etc., being J (1876) the president. 
 
 $90 per se-siou of five months. The institution ST. LAWRENCE UNIVERSITY, The, 
 comprises an ecclesiastical, a classical, a scientific, at Canton, N. V„ chartered and organized in 
 a commercial, and an elementary course. The 1856, is under Universalist control. It comprises 
 libraries contain about 2,000 volumes. In 1*7-1 — 5, a college of letters and science, and a theological 
 there were L 5 instructors and 168 students (30 school, independent of each other in their faculties, 
 ecclesiastical, and 138 classical and commercial), and in the instruction and government of their 
 The Rt. Rev. Alexius Edelbrock, O. S.B., D.D., students. Its productive' funds amount to 
 is (1876) the president. $165,000,and its libraries contain 7. 366 volumes. 
 
 SAINT JOHN'S COLLEGE OF AR- j Roth sexes are admitted to each of the depart- 
 KANSAS, at Little Rock, was chartered in ments. The college has a classical and a scientific 
 1850, and opened in 1859. It was founded by the course, each of four years. In 1875 — <i, it had 8 
 Masonic Fraternity of Arkansas, and has been instructors and 54 students (28 males and 16 fe- 
 sustained by the Grand Lodge since itsopening. It males); the theological school had 3 professors 
 was suspended from May. 1861, to October, lsin. and 2s students. The Lev. A. G. Gaines, D.D., 
 
 is $50 per annum, except to sons of Masons with- 
 in the jurisdiction of the Grand Lodge of Ar- 
 kansas, who are instructed without charge. The 
 college has a preparatory course of three years, 
 a course for A. B. (4 years), a course for Sc. B. 
 (3 years), and a course for Ph. B. (2 years). In 
 1875—6, there were 3 instructors and 55 stu- 
 dents. R. H. Parham, Jr., A. M.. is (1876) the 
 president. 
 
 SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE, atTeutop- 
 olis, 111., was founded in 1861, under the auspices 
 of the Rt. Rev. H. D. Yunker, I). I)., Roman 
 Catholic bishop of Alton, and is under the direc- 
 
 >) th. 
 
 ST. LOUIS, 
 
 ident of the college, and tin' 
 '.!)., is the president of the 
 
 he chief city of Missouri and 
 i valley, having a population, 
 64, and an estimated popula- 
 50.000. 
 
 Edt 
 
 History.— On the 13th of June, 
 1812, the Congress of the United Stales passed 
 an act to set apart certain lands in St. Louis 
 and other town- in Missouri, "for the support of 
 schools in the respective towns or villages afore- 
 said." In lsl7.au ad was approved by which 
 a board of trustees for the schools of St. Louis 
 was incorporated. The first business of the 
 hoard was to define and take possession of the 
 school lands previously given. This was amat- 
 tion of the Franciscan Fathers. The course of ter of some difficulty, as the original act convey- 
 studies embraces the Greek. Latin. English, ing the land contained a proviso to the effect 
 French, and German languages ; rhetoric, poetry, that the rights of claimants should not be vio- 
 
 composition, history, geography, book-keeping 
 arithmetic, mathematics, natural philosophy 
 natural history, drawing, penmanship, and in- 
 strumental ami vocal music. The study of Ger- 
 man (for English students), French, book-keep- 
 ing, drawing, and music, is optional. It is an 
 ecclesiastical seminary (designed to prepare can 
 
 and such claimants 
 tin 
 
 by action in the 
 
 of the land for 
 
 iplementary acts of 
 
 compelled them to 
 
 comprised a little less than •">(» 
 acres, and is the land now reported annually by 
 
 didates for the priesthood for the study of phi- the board of public schools, as "real estate helil 
 losophy and theology), and admits only Catholic for revenue.' A new school board was created 
 pupils; but the course also furnishes a qualifica- j in 1833 by the legislature, styled the •• Hoard of 
 tion for secular pursuits. There are two prepar- I President' and Directors of the St. Louis Public 
 atory and four collegiate classes. The charge for Schools." An election took place, the same year, 
 tuition, board, etc.. is $75 per session of five which resulted in the choice of six school direct- 
 months to those studying for the priesthood, and ors, Fdward Bates being of the number. 
 Slid to others. In 1875—6, there were 10 in- The first money from the rent of the school 
 structors and 112 students. The Very Rev. P. I lands was received in 1834 ; and, the following 
 
754 ST. I 
 
 year, the money was loaned, by permission of 
 the legislature, the time for establishing schools 
 not yet having arrived. In 1837, two school- 
 houses were built — the south and the north 
 sell. ml -house — the former of whirl) is Mill stand- 
 ing on the corner of Fourth and Spruce -tints. 
 The latter was abandoned in 1842, and was 
 afterwards burnt. In April, 1838, the first 
 school was opened ; and, shortly after, the sec- 
 ond. In 1S41. the third school-house -was built 
 at a cost of $10,925, an expense which the 
 board was very much embarrassed to meet 
 In 1845, two inure school-houses were built, and, 
 the following year, occupied. Other schools 
 followed. In 1849, two evening schools were 
 opened. The first high school was established 
 in 1853, with an attendance of over 70 pupils. 
 On the first .Monday in June, 1849, the question 
 of supporting the public .schools by taxation was 
 voted upon by the people, the legislature having 
 so directed, in answer to a petition from a com- 
 mittee of the school board. The anxiety felt by 
 the friends of popular education in regard to 
 this election proved to be unnecessary, as the law 
 was endorsed by a large majority; and the first, 
 tax under it, amounting to SIS.OOO, was col- 
 lected the following year. At the session of 
 1853 — 4, the legislature repealed the law by 
 which St. Louis was prevented from participation 
 in the state school fund. This law had been 
 passed on the erroneous supposition that the 
 special grant of land made to the city by Con- 
 gress, in 1.812, would be ample for sel 1 pur- 
 poses. On the establishment of the high school, 
 the same opposition to it was encountered thai 
 has been observed in other cities during the first 
 half of the century. This opposition arose from 
 a conception, common at that time, that it was 
 unjust to tax the people generally for any thing 
 beyond elementary instruction. In the school 
 board, fortunately, were several men of sufficient 
 foresight and firmness to disregard the clamor 
 of the hour, and to provide for the new- school 
 in the most efficient manner. The wisdom of 
 their action is proved by the fact that, in the 
 words of the present superintendent, " no other 
 measure ever adopted by the Hoard has had so 
 powerful an influence as this in popularizing and 
 strengthening the public schools." In 1855, the 
 school buildings were found insufficient to ac- 
 commodate the children of the city, and primary 
 schools were established in leased bouses. The 
 success of the schools of St. Louis now attracted 
 attention throughout the state, and a law was 
 passed by the legislature, appropriating 25 pier 
 cent of the state revenue to the support of free 
 schools. Hy this apportionment. St. Louis re- 
 ceived $27,456.51, in 1854. The schools had 
 now been in operation about 20 years, and the 
 increase in the number of pupils caused the 
 want which always attends this increasi — that 
 of trained teachers— to be severely felt In 1857, 
 accordingly, the first normal sel I was estab- 
 
 li !i< I a in I Ira Hivoll became superintendent of 
 schools. The city had now gone so far in the 
 completion of its school system, that the remain- 
 
 ing steps were easy. The Franklin school-house 
 was begun in 1857, but was not finished till the 
 following year. It was built on the Lancasteriau 
 plan, then' extensively used in nearly all of the. 
 large cities of the I uion, and was the last house 
 SO built by the city, the era of graded schools, 
 which required a different plan, having begun. 
 In the summer of 1857, the new superintendent 
 went upon a tour of observation through the 
 principal eastern cities, and on his return, drew 
 up a comprehensive plan for the reorganization 
 of the school system, in every thing that related 
 to the construction and size of school-houses, 
 the style of furniture and appointments, 
 the mode of organization and classification, 
 methods of instruction, etc.; and the principles 
 then discussed and agreed upon were made 
 the basis upon which an entire reconstruction 
 of the system was begun. It was ordered that 
 the school-houses should be built thereafter 
 according to the plan for graded schools, that 
 they should be, as nearly as possible, of uni- 
 form size, and that tluv should be the property 
 of the city: that pupils should be classified 
 according to attainment ; ami that there should 
 be but one organization and one principal teacher 
 for each building. The city, at that time, con- 
 tained 135,000 inhabitants, of whom 25,000 
 were children of school age; yet the schools 
 could accommodate only 5,3(11. This insuffi- 
 ciency of the school accommodations was forci- 
 bly presented to the board by Mr. Hivoll in his 
 report for 1858. and the erection of several new 
 buildings was urgently recommended. Eight 
 new school-houses were, accordingly, begun, and 
 shortly after, four of the old buildings were re- 
 constructed, and made to conform to the new 
 plan. The changes went steadily on till all 
 
 ll Id sel 1-1 louses were adapted' to the graded 
 
 system. The German language was introduced 
 into five of the public schools of the city, in 
 1 S('i4, as an optional study for pupils who had 
 advanced in English as far as the •■Second 
 Header and Primary Geography." A serious 
 difficulty immediately presented itself — that of 
 finding teachers properly qualified to give such 
 instruction. Several were obtained, however, 
 from the German-American schools of Cincin- 
 nati ; and the first year, 450 German children 
 received instruction in their native language. 
 The following year, this study was introduced 
 into two more schools, and the office of German 
 Assistant Superintendent was created. In 1866, 
 the organization of German classes was author- 
 ized in any school containing 100 German-speak- 
 ing pupils who requested it, and its introduction 
 in the study of object lessons only, was directed 
 in all schools of the lowest grade. This action 
 met with considerable opposition on the ground 
 that the homogeneity of feelings and interests be- 
 tween German residents and natives required 
 that the children of the former should have the 
 whole time during the first year in school to be- 
 come familiar with English. It was pointed 
 out, on the other hand, that the absence of the 
 study of German was having the effect of 
 
keeping German children out of the schools. 
 Whatever the cogency of these opposite views 
 may have been, the study of German spread 
 rapidly till, in 1870, the number of pupils re- 
 ceiving instruction in it was more than 6,000. 
 About this time, also, the study of German and 
 geography was made optional with the pupil in 
 the highest grade of the district school, and 
 American pupils were permitted to com- 
 mence the study of German in any grade. This 
 led to an increase in the number of Amer- 
 ican pupils studying German, the number. 
 in 1872, being, L,356. The German language is 
 now taught in every school in the city except 
 the colored schools. 1 difficulties have, from time to 
 time, arisen from the introduction of this study, 
 the first being in regard to the comparative 
 grades of German and English classes ; but this 
 was met by a rule of the board which required 
 that pupils studying Herman should belong, in 
 this branch of instruction, to the same grade a < 
 in their English studies. The system of parallel 
 grading thus adopted, supplemented by improve- 
 ments looking stca lily towards a practical rather 
 than a theoretical know ledge of the language, has 
 produced an increased interest in the study, 
 till, in 1875, this department contained over 
 17,000 pupils, one-third of whom were Amer- 
 icans, taught by 7,'i teachers. — Another im- 
 provement, due to the foresight and energy of 
 Mr. Divoll, is the Public School Library, which 
 was founded in 1865. Beginning at that time 
 with a miscellaneous collection of 453 volumes, 
 it numbered 3(5,507 volumes, in 1874, with an 
 annual membership of 5,477. The establish- 
 ment of a kindergarten in connection with the 
 public schools, was decided upon between the 
 years 1872 and 1873. The experiment was 
 made at the Des Peres School, and proving suc- 
 cessful, was soon repeated in two others. Two 
 difficulties were at once encountered : the apathy 
 towards the schools of the poorer classes, for 
 whose benefit they were established, and the 
 comparative costliness of this kind of school. The 
 first difficulty was soon overcome; the second 
 remains, as it always will, a stumbling-block to 
 those who consider the mere question of expense 
 in dollars and cents, and take no account of the 
 kind of instruction imparted, as compared with 
 that furnished at a cheaper rate. The advantages 
 derived from the kindergarten, as stated in the 
 published reports, are a readier submission to 
 school discipline, an increase of average intel- 
 ligence, and a special aptitude for arithmetic, 
 drawing, natural science, and language — the last 
 shown in a quicker comprehension and greater 
 ability to express ideas. — The first superintendent 
 of schools was John W. Tice (1854 — 7) ; the next 
 was Ira Divoll (1857 — 68) ; his successor was 
 William T. Harris, the present incumbent, who 
 was appointed in lsils. 
 
 8b ! System. — The entire control and man- 
 agement of the public schools is committed to 
 The Board of President and Directors of the 
 St. Louis Public Schools. This board consists 
 of 26 members — two from each ward — who are 
 
 )UIS 755 
 
 elected for 3 years, one-third going out of office 
 each year. A s>ipi-,-i,/i, „,/,■, ,t of juiblic schools 
 is elected annually by the board, whose dutj it 
 is to exercise a general supervision over the public 
 schools of the city, visiting and examining them 
 for this purpose, and reporting upon their con- 
 dition quarterly, or whenever required by the 
 board. He appoints two assistant superintend- 
 ents, one of whom must be able to speak Ger- 
 man. The school revenue is derived from a 
 state school fund, rent of lands given by the 
 general government, a four or five mill tax (the 
 amount varying from year to year) on each 
 dollar of the city property, and fines in criminal 
 cases. The two sexes are educated together. 
 All religious or sectarian instruction is prohib- 
 ited. The length of the school year is 40 weeks; 
 the school age is from 6 to 16 years. The school 
 system comprises three grades of schools — the 
 district, the normal, and the high school, the 
 former composed of a primary, an intermediate, 
 and a grammar department, all in the same 
 building. Owing to the overcrowding of the 
 schools, in 1866 and subsequently, a system of 
 half-time sessions was begun in the first year of 
 the primary school in some districts, and is still 
 on trial. Hy this arrangement, in crowded dis- 
 tricts, a slight addition to the teaching force is 
 all that is needed to supply the necessary in- 
 struction, one set of pupils coining in the morn- 
 ing, and another in the afternoon. As its action 
 is to diminish the school hours of the smallest 
 children only, it is thought to be beneficial. The 
 course of study in the district school comprises 
 reading, spelling, writing, drawing, vocal music, 
 descriptive and physical geography, mental and 
 written arithmetic, English grammar, history 
 and constitution of the United States, composi- 
 tion, and outlines of physics and natural history. 
 In the high school, the course of study is a gen- 
 eral and classical one of 4 years; in the normal 
 school the course covers a period of 2 years, the 
 branchespursni d beingprincipallyadvanced stages 
 of the district-school Indies, with the addition of 
 Latin, elocution, human anatomy ami physiology, 
 algebra, general history, geometry, mental philos- 
 ophy. English literature, practical instruction in 
 tliete.iclimeof allot these. and general iiiMni' tion 
 in the theory and art of teaching. In the even- 
 ing schools, and the O'Fallou Polytechnic In- 
 stitute, which serves as a high school for them. 
 the course of study inclines toward elementary 
 English branches and technological instruction. 
 The session of the evening schools is 4 months. 
 The rapid growth of these schools — the increase 
 being from 1,149, in 1861, to 5.751. in 1875— is 
 attributed to their intimate relation to the 
 Public School Library, a year's membership in 
 which is granted to each student who attends 
 an evening school punctually 60 evenings of the 
 course, and maintains a satisfactory standing 
 therein. The certificate of such membership is 
 equivalent to one-third payment of the cost of 
 life membership. Certificates of the former kind 
 are thus obtained annually by more than 1,000 
 students. 
 
rr>(j 
 
 SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY 
 
 The number of schools in the city is as fol- 
 lows : district schools, 44 ; high schools and 
 branches, 6; normal school, 1; evening schools, 
 2 i ; colored schools. 6 ; kindergartens, 12 : total, 
 93. The principal items of school statistics for 
 1875 are as follows : 
 
 Number of children ofBchool age 95,539 
 
 " •< " enrolled 41,692 
 
 Average daily attendance .24,43s 
 
 Number of teachers, male-; 00 
 
 females 594 
 
 Total • 654 
 
 .... $849,513.24 
 .... $815,413.89 
 ., .$2,386,620.44 
 
 Ticceipts (IsT.Vi 
 
 Expenditure* (ls7j) 
 
 Total value of school property. 
 
 There are about 70 denominational schools in 
 St. Louis under the control of the Roman Cath- 
 olic and other churches, and a number of private the 1 
 
 SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE 
 
 number of students, in 1876, was 320. Bro. Justin 
 
 ST. MARY'S COLLEGE, at St. Mary's, 
 Marion Co.. Ky.. a Roman Catholic institu- 
 tion, conducted by ecclesiastics of the Congrega- 
 tion of the Resurrection of Our Lord, was 
 founded in 1821. It is supported by the fees of 
 pupils. The regular charge for board, tuition. 
 etc., is $200 a year ; for tuition alone Sill. It 
 has a preparatory, a commercial, ami a collegiate 
 course. In 1875 — 0. there were 8 instructors 
 ami 10.'! students. The Rev.D. 1'enncssy, C.R., 
 
 SAINT MEINRAD'S COLLEGE, at 
 St. Meinrad, Spencer I !o., Ind.. founded in 1854, 
 
 St. M< 
 
 schools and academies. In ; 
 stitutions for special and high 
 tioned under the head of Mi 
 
 sessed of a library of 3,000 volumes and a large 
 museum; the Missouri Historical Society, found- 
 ed in 1 hi;5 ; and three public libraries, special 
 ami general, with an aggregate of nearly 80,000 
 volumes. 
 
 SAINT LOUIS UNIVERSITY, in St. 
 Louis, Mo., a Roman Catholic institution, con- 
 ducted by members of the Society of Jesus, was 
 founded in 1829, and chartered' in 1832. It is 
 supported by the fees of students, the charge for 
 tuition, board, etc., being $280 a year, and for 
 tuition alone, from S 10 to SCO. It has a classical 
 course of 6 years, corresponding to the prepara- 
 tory and collegiate departments of most colleges, 
 and a commercial course of 4 years, embracing 
 all the branches of a good English education. 
 There is also a preparatory or elementary class. 
 The library belonging to the institution numbers 
 over 1.6,500 volumes. The select libraries, open 
 to the students, form a separate collection of 
 over 8.000 volumes. In 187o— 6. there were 22 
 instructors and 353 students. The presidents of 
 the university have been as follows: the Rev. P. 
 
 J. Verhai u. S.J., 1829—36; the Rev. J. A. 
 
 Elet, S. J., 1830 — 10 ; the Rev. J. Vandevelde, 
 S. J., 1840—43; the Rev. G. A. Carrell, S. J., 
 ] 8411—7 ; the Rev. .1. B.Druyts, S. J.,1847— 54 ; 
 the Rev. J. S. Verdin, S..I., is.". I 9; the Rev. 
 P. Coosemans, S. J., 1859—02 ; the Rev. T. 
 O'Neil, S. J., 1862—8; the Rev. P. II. Stunte- 
 beck, S. J., 1868—71 ; the Rev. J. Zealand, S. J., 
 1871 — 4; the Rev. L. Bushart. S. J., since 1874. 
 
 SAINT MARY'S COLLEGE, a Roman 
 Catholic institution in San Francisco, Cal., con- 
 ducted by the Christian Brothers, was founded 
 in I si;::. ' It is supported by the fees of .students. 
 the regular charge for board, tuition, etc., per 
 ter f five months being $125, It has a pre- 
 
 panitorv. a commercial, and a collegiate depart- 
 in it. the last with a classical and a scientific 
 course. The library contains 3,000 volumes. The 
 
 bey, and is 
 Fathers of 
 supported 
 
 to $90 per 
 
 tuition. It 
 
 by the fees of students, amounting 
 session of five months for board and 
 is the seminary of the Roman Catholic Diocese 
 of Yineennes, in which the priests of that dio- 
 cese are educated, and offers a full curse of En- 
 glish, commercial, classical, and theological stud- 
 ies. The library contains 6,000 volumes. The 
 number of students, in 1876, was 80. The ab- 
 bot, or superior.of the monastery is the principal 
 of the college ; he appoints one of the Fathers 
 to act as president, or prefect of studies and 
 morals. The present prefect (1876) is the Rev. 
 O. Isidore llobi. U.S. I'... appointed in 1871. 
 
 SAINT STEPHEN'S COLLEGE, at An- 
 andale, Dutchess Co.. N.Y., was founded in 1860. 
 It is an academic body composed i if religious men 
 — trustees, professors, and students — who are 
 communicants of the Protestant Episcopal 
 ( 'hurch. The religious culture of the students is 
 a prominent object. Its special design is the 
 classical education of candidates for the ministry 
 of the Church. It is chiefly supported by the 
 contributions of friends. The only charge to 
 students is $225 per year for board, etc. The 
 college has valuable philosophical apparatus, and 
 a library of 2,000 volumes. In L875— 6, there 
 were 8 instructors and 74 students (45 collegiate 
 and 29 preparatory). The presidents have been 
 as follows : the Rev. Geo. F. Seymour, D. D., 
 1860— 61; the Rev. Thos..Richey, D.D., 1861— 3; 
 and (1876) the Rev. Robert B. Fairbairn. D. D., 
 LL.D., since 1863. 
 
 SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE, at Cape 
 Girardeau, Mo., a Roman Catholic institution 
 conducted by the Priests of the Congregation of 
 the Mission, was chartered in 1843. It has a 
 theological and a collegiate department. The 
 curriculum of studies in the collegiate depart- 
 ment covers five years, and embraces a complete 
 couisc of English and classical literature. Ger- 
 man. French. Italian. Spanish, and instrumental 
 music are optional. I Ihristian doctrine is taught 
 throughout the course. The library contains 
 5,500 volumes. The regular charge for tuition, 
 board, etc.. is S2.".0 a year: for tuition alone. $40. 
 In 1-7.' 6, there were L 2 instructors, and 125 
 students (10 theological). The Rev. J. \V. Hickey, 
 C. M.. is (1876) the president. 
 
SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE 
 
 SAINT VINCENT'S COLLEGE, at Beat- 
 
 ty, Westmoreland Co., Pa., 2 miles from Latrobe, 
 is a Roman Catholic institution, founded in 1846 
 by the Rt. Rev. Boniface Wimmer, 0. S. B-, of 
 St. Vincent's Abbey, and incorporated in 1870. 
 It is conducted by the Benedictine Fathers, 
 under the immediate supervision of its founder. 
 There are four distinct courses of study: the 
 theological, the philosophical, the classical, and 
 the commercial, besides an elementary school for 
 beginners. In all these, special attention is paid 
 to religious instruction. The German, French, 
 Italian, and Spanish languages are optional. 
 The regular charge for tuition, board, etc., is 
 $00 per session of live months. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 37 instructors and .'{(Mi students (ec- 
 clesiastical course, 38; philosophical, 30; classical, 
 152; commercial, 04; elementary. 22). The Rev. 
 Hilary Pframgle, O. S. B., is (1870) the director 
 of the college. 
 
 SAINT XAVIER COLLEGE, in Cincin- 
 nati, Ohio, was established in 1831, by the Rt. Rev. 
 E. D. Fenwick, 1). I)., the first Roman Cath- 
 olic Bishop of ( lincinnati, under the name of The 
 Athenaeum. In 1840, it was transferred to the 
 Fathers of the Society of Jesus, who have con- 
 ducted it ever since under its present title. It 
 was incorporated in 1842. The college library 
 numbers about 12.000 volumes. There are, also, 
 select libraries for the use of the students. The 
 course of instruction embraces four departments: 
 the collegiate, academic, commercial, and prepar- 
 atory. The regular tuition fee is 800 a year. 
 In 1875 — 0, there were 1 I instructors and 202 
 students (54 collegiate, 101 academic. 90 com- 
 mercial, and 17 preparatory). The presidents, 
 since L840, have been as follows: John Elet, 
 7 years; Jno. De Blieck, 3; [si lore Boudreaux, 3; 
 John Blox, 1; George A. Carrel, 2 ; Maurice 
 Oakley, 5 ; Jno. Schultz, 4 : Walter II. Hill. 3 ; 
 Thos. O'Neil, 2; Leopold Bushart, 3; and the 
 Rev. Edward A. Wiggins. S. J., the present in- 
 cumbent (1876), since I 374. 
 
 SALADO COLLEGE, at Salado, BeU Co., 
 Tex., was founded in 1859 by a joint stock 
 association. It is not denominational. It is 
 supported by tuition fees, which range from $10 
 to .525 per session of five months for the regular 
 branches. It admits both sexes, and has a pre- 
 paratory and a collegiate department. In 1874 — 5, 
 there were 5 instructors and 204 students (112 
 males and 92 females). The presidents of the 
 college have been as follows: James L. Smith, to 
 1874; Samuel I). Sanders, 1874—6; and 0. IL 
 Jlc'lmber, A. M., since June 1876. 
 
 SALZMANN, Christian Gotthilf, one of 
 the most distinguished educators of Germany, 
 was born June 1., 174 t. at Sommerda, and died 
 Oct. 31., 1811. Having studied theology, he 
 became pastor, in 1768, of a Lutheran church al 
 Rohrborn, near Erfurt; and. in I 772, of one of 
 the churches in the city of Erfurt. The writings 
 of Rousseau and Basedowmade a strong impres- 
 sion on his mind; and, in 1781, he resigned his 
 pastorate, in order to connect himself with the 
 Philanthropin (q. v.). In consequence of the 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 757 
 
 dissensions and confusion which arose in the 
 Philanthropin. he left it in L784, and established, 
 at a villa purchased by him at Seimepfenthal. 
 near Gotha, a new educational institution, for 
 the sons of persons belonging to the higher 
 classes of society. The literary reputation which 
 Salzmann had already acquired by the publica- 
 tion of several pedagogical works, the efficient 
 co-operation of an excellent wife and of several 
 eminent educators, as Gutsmuths (q. v.), I.enz. 
 Weisscnliorn. and the three brothers Ausfeld, 
 soon made this institution one of the most fa- 
 mous in all Germany, and attracted pupils from 
 all parts of Europe. In course of time, his son, 
 Karl Salzmann. and several of his daughters and 
 sons-in-law took an active part in the management 
 of the institution, which thus, to a degree rarely 
 equaled in the history of education, possessed 
 the character of an enlarged family circle. After 
 Salzmann's death, his son Karl assumed the 
 direction of the school; and, in 1848. he was 
 succeeded by Wilhelm Ausfeld. a grandson of 
 the founder. A collection of the educational and 
 juvenile works of Salzmann, which are highly 
 esteemed, has been published at Stuttgart, in 12 
 vols. ( I 845—6). Salzmann was by far the most 
 successful among the Philanthropinists, Wing 
 especially distinguished for common sense, mod- 
 eration, and perseverance. The school established 
 by him, is the only one among the original Phil- 
 anthropinic institutions which has survived to 
 the present day. His first pupil at Seimepfen- 
 thal was Karl Kittcr.tl, - founder of comparative 
 geography, who always gratefully remembered 
 the indelible impressions which he had received 
 from Gutsmuths, his teacher in geography. 
 
 SANDWICH ISLANDS. See Hawaiian 
 Islands. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, the metropolis of the 
 state of California, and the largest city on the 
 Pacific coast, having a population, in 1870, of 
 149,473, estimated, in 1*75. at 234,000. 
 
 Educational History. — The first systematic 
 instruction given in San Francisco was that at 
 the mission Dolores, which was founded by the 
 Franciscan Brothers, in Oct., 1776. This instruc- 
 tion, however, was chiefly religious, and was 
 given to a favored few. The first English school 
 in the city was opened in April. 1847, in a 
 small shanty erected on the Plaza. It was a 
 private institution, and was supported by tuition 
 fees and voluntary contributions. Nearly all 
 the children in the city (20 or 30 in number) 
 received instruction there. This school was con- 
 tinued but a few months, however: and. in the 
 autumn of the same year, the citizen.- - 
 a public school. This was opened in a small, 
 one-storv building, which %vas used for various 
 purposes till Is is, when the discover} of gold in 
 
 '3d 
 
 All 
 
 :t school in his church, which ho 
 a few months. This was followed bj 
 
 if J. C. I'elton. who i lucted ii as 
 
 iterprise from t >ctober, 1849,^0 April, 
 
758 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO 
 
 1850, when it was marie a public school by an 
 act of the common council. This school opened 
 with only 3 pupils, but the number increased 
 rapidly till 1850, when the disastrous fires of that 
 and the following year broke up the school. The 
 Happy Valley school, situated near the corner 
 of Second and Minna streets, was opened in 
 July, 1850. This soon became a flourishing 
 school of about 100 pupils, but the great tires of 
 1851 caused its suspension. It was supported 
 by tuition fees and voluntary contributions; but, 
 as it received a small appropriation from the 
 common council, the children of the poor re- 
 ceived free instruction there. Another school of 
 the same kind, i. e., partly private and partly 
 public, was established in Spring V alley, in 1 !-C> I . 
 This is now the Spring Valley Primary School. 
 A few other small schools were taught during 
 1850 and 1851, and several large Catholic 
 parochial schools were also established. — The 
 first extended provision for a system of free 
 schools was made September 25., 1851, when 
 the common council passed an ordinance author- 
 izing the organization, support, and regulation 
 of common schools. Under this ordinance, 
 Thomas J. Nevins was appointed superintend- 
 ent, and James Denman the first teacher. The 
 first board of education was elected in October 
 following ; and, at the end of the school year in 
 November, 1852, seven schools had been estab- 
 lished, with an attendance of 791 pupils. At 
 that time, the number of children in the 
 city between the ages of 4 and 18, was 2,050; 
 and the average number attending the schools 
 was 145. In 1853, the amount expended for 
 the support of the sehools was So5,040,the aver- 
 age number of pupils being 1,182. The first 
 high school was opened August \i'<.. 1856, with 
 80 pupils — 35 boys and 45 girls. The usual op- 
 position to this school, on the ground that the 
 people's money should be spent for elementary 
 instruction only, was at once encountered, but 
 rapidly passed away upon an exhibition of the 
 substantial benefits conferred by the school. In 
 June, L864, this school was divided into a boys' 
 and a girls' school, in separate buildings. During 
 the same year, the city was divided into 7 gram- 
 mar-school districts; and the classes in each were 
 placed under the supervision of a grammar 
 master, for the purpose of securing greater uni- 
 formity and ellirieney in classification and in- 
 struction. In 1867, a normal training class for 
 teachers was organized ; but, for want of ap- 
 preciation by the board of education, it was dis- 
 continued. In 1868, graded evening schools 
 were established. In l> s 7'J 3, instruction in 
 Flench and Ocnnan was introduced into nearly 
 all the public schools, the study of one or the 
 other language, in some eases, and in others, of 
 both, being compulsory; but, in February, 1874, 
 the study of any language but English was pro- 
 hibited, except in the Cirls' and the Boys' High 
 School. In July of the latter year, the study of 
 l-'ivnrh and German was again introduced into 
 four primary and four grammar schools. A 
 Chinese school was organized in 1859, but was 
 
 never popular with the class it was intended to 
 benefit. In 1860, it was converted into an even- 
 ing school, and as such was continued till 1871, 
 when it was suspended. Two colored schools 
 were established — one in 1854, the other in 1871; 
 but, in 1875, all colored schools were abolished, 
 and their pupils were transferred to the other 
 schools of the city. Evening schools, on the 
 contrary, have steadily grown in public favor, 
 till they are now regarded as " the most useful 
 and prosperous schools in the city." The city 
 superintendents have been as follows : T. J. 
 Nevins, 1852—4; W. H. 'Grady, 1854—6; 
 E. A. Theller, 1856—7; J. C. Pelton, 1857—8; 
 H. B. Janes, 1858—60 ; J. Denman, 1860—62; 
 G. Tait, 1862—6; J. C. Pelton, 1866—8; J. 
 Denman, 1868—70 ; J. H. Widber, 1870—73; 
 J. Denman, 1873—5 ; and H. N. Bolander, the 
 present incumbent, who was elected in 1875. 
 
 School System. — The city constitutes but one 
 school-district, parents being permitted to send 
 their children to any school they may choose. 
 The management of the schools is intrusted to a 
 board of ediccalion composed of 12 members, 
 elected, at large, biennially, by direct vote of the 
 people. This board has all the powers usually 
 conferred upon such bodies. The superintendent 
 of common schools is, also, elected biennially by 
 the people, and may appoint an assistant. The 
 support of the schools is derived from state and 
 city taxes, the latter being fixed bylaw at an 
 amount equal to $7 for each actual attendant. 
 The school age is from 5 to 1 7 years. There are 
 33 primary, 13 grammar, and 2 high schools, and 
 one evening school. 'I he system contemplates a 
 course of 4 years in the primary schools, I in the 
 grammar, and 3 in the high schools, pupils con- 
 tinuing one year in each grade. The course of 
 study in the high schools is such as to prepare 
 students for the state university. In the gram- 
 mar and the primary schools, it does not differ 
 materially from that of other large cities; and in- 
 cludes industrial drawing, vocal music, French, 
 and German. To the two latter, where taught, 
 li hours a day for each class are given, 30 spe- 
 cial teachers being employed for the purpose. 
 
 The principal items of school statistics, for 
 1875, are as follows : 
 
 Number of children .if sc1mi.i1 ;i"-e 37,583 
 
 enrolled in public schools. .31,128 
 
 Average daily attendance 21,014 
 
 Number of teachers, males C3 
 
 females 447 
 
 Total 
 
 ,ln 
 
 Expenditures. $707,445.36 
 
 The number of private schools and colleges, in 
 1875, was about 100, about one-fifth of which 
 are managed by the Koman Catholics, and a 
 considerable part of the remainder, by other 
 denominations.* In size and character, they range 
 from the small family school of a few pupils, to 
 the flourishing college which numbers its students 
 by hundreds" The number of pupils attend- 
 ing such institutions, in 1 875, was reported at a 
 little over 6000. Among the agencies for 
 
SANTA BARBARA COLLEGE 
 
 higher education, the city contains an academy 
 of sciences. For an enumeration of the institu- 
 tions for superior and special instruction, see 
 California. 
 
 SANTA BARBARA COLLEGE, at 
 Santa Barbara, Cal, was incorporated in L869. 
 It is not denominational. Both sexes are ad- 
 mitted. It contains six departments : (1) math- 
 ematics, (2) languages. (3) literature and history, 
 (4) natural science and physics, (.">) art, (ill mu- 
 sic. There are three courses of study: juvenile, 
 preparatory, and academic: a collegiate course 
 is also to be established. The regular charge for 
 tuition, board, etc. ranges from $150 to SI 75 
 per term of five months ; for tuition alone, from 
 $5 to §10 a month. In 1874 — 5, there were 
 8 instructors and L20 students. Kllwood Cooper 
 is (1876) the principal. 
 
 SANTA CLARA COLLEGE, at Santa 
 Clara. Cal., a Roman Catholic institution under 
 the superintendence of the Fathers of the Soci- 
 ety of Jesus, was founded in 1 >.">1 , and chartered 
 in L855. It is supported bythe tees of students, 
 the regular charge for tuition, board, etc., being 
 §350 a year; for tuition alone, from $4 to $5 a 
 month." The library contains over 10,000 vol- 
 umes. The plan of instruction embraces two 
 distinct courses, the classical and the scientific. 
 There is, besides, a preparatory department. In 
 1875 ti. there were 26 instructors and 257 
 students. The presidents have been as follows: 
 Rev. John Nobili, 185] (i : Rev. Nicholas 
 Congiato, 1856—8 : Rev. Felix ( 'icaterri, 1858— 
 61 : Rev.Burchard Villiger, L861— 5; Rev. Aloy- 
 sius Masnata, 1865 8; Rev. Aloysius Varsi, 
 1868—76; Rev. Aloysius Brunengo, since 1876. 
 
 SANTO DOMINGO (sometimes called San 
 Domingo, or the Dominican Republic), a republic 
 in the West Indies, occupying the eastern and 
 larger portion of the island of llavti (q.v.). It 
 has au area of 20,600 sip m.; and a population of 
 about 175,000. The greater part of the popula- 
 tion are a mixed race of Spaniards, Indians, and 
 negroes. They speak the Spanish language, and 
 belong to the Roman Catholic Church. — Public 
 instruction can scarcely be said to exist. Spain, to 
 which Santo Domingo formerly belonged, never 
 cared for the education of the natives; and nearly 
 all the priests, physicians, officers, and teachers 
 came from the mother country. At present, 
 there is freedom of instruction; but, with tin- 
 exception of a few private schools in the cities, 
 which charge exorbitant fees, there are no ele- 
 mentary schools, and, consequently, the wealthy 
 classes still continue to semi their children to 
 Europe to be educated. In 1860, thi re was bu1 
 one public primary school in the entire northern 
 and eastern part of the republic; and but little, 
 
 if any. improvement has been made i thai 
 
 time. Special branches of study, like law, medi- 
 cine, pharmacy, and architecture, are taught ex- 
 clusively by private teachers. 
 
 SARMIENTO, Domingo Faustino, a 
 South- American statesman, born February 15., 
 1811, in San Juan de la Frontera, now a western 
 province of the Argentine Republic. He be- 
 
 SCHMIDT 
 
 f59 
 
 came director of a school in the province of San 
 
 larly as 
 
 bin 
 
 purpose 
 
 of til. 
 
 ici-t of the t Lilian eoverninelit. he 
 
 ipe and the United States for the 
 ibserving the primary-school systems 
 ose countries. Subsequently, he again took 
 up his residence in the Argentine Republic, and 
 was made, successively, minister of the interior, 
 colonel in the Argentine army, governor of San 
 Juan, and minister of public instruction of the 
 republic, from 1864 to 1868, he was minister 
 plenipotentiary to the United States from that 
 country; and. in October of the latter year, was 
 inaugurated president of the Argentine Repub- 
 lic, which ofliee he continued to hold six years. 
 In this position, his efforts, always directed to- 
 wards the development of the resources of his 
 country, and the improvement of her people, 
 were remarkably successful. The introduction 
 and extension of railroadand telegraph facilities, 
 the encouragi ment of immigration and foreign 
 commerce, and the establishment of si hools and 
 colleges, were the principal events of his adminis- 
 tration. The foundation of the national observ- 
 atory at Cordoba, under the supervision of 
 Prof. B. A. Gould, an institution which has 
 alreaiU rendered important service, is chiefly 
 ilue to President Sarinieiito. His principal edu- 
 cational works arc the following : Be la Educa- 
 i-iiiii jnijiiil,ir. and Lux is «. las. the latter pub- 
 lished in New York. 
 
 SAXONY. 
 SCHMIDT, 
 
 See IrKRMAXV. 
 
 Karl, a < lerman educator, was 
 9, and died Nov. 8., 1864. After 
 y and philosophy at the univer- 
 nd Berlin, he was appointed, in 
 the gymnasium of Kothen. In 
 minted director of the teachers' 
 liool councilor at Gotha, and in 
 u was called upon to re organize 
 i of the duchy. I le wrote a large 
 tional works, some of which are 
 iging to the best part of < lerman 
 most important of his works is 
 of pedagogies ((intrhirhh- •/ r 
 '-'. I vols. ; 3d ed., revised b\ 
 l v 72 — 5, 4 vols.). Among his 
 '.'. ... hit lite '■'• r Erziehung und 
 - >0 /' - Buch </■ /■ Erzii I, nun 
 sialpddagogik 1 357 . Zur /.< 
 ■seminar, i i ' r Volksschule 
 
 d the 
 
 dequate foundation of peda- 
 1 the theories of Gall (q. v.) 
 Hid himself made notable con- 
 ?velopment of phrenology. 
 
760 SCHOLASTICISM 
 
 SCHOLASTICISM, a name generally ap- 
 plied to the Christian philosophy of the middle 
 ages, though there is no agreement among schol- 
 ars as to its exact definition. In its first period, 
 which extends from the 9th to the 11th century, 
 philosophical speculations were limited to theo- 
 logical problems. Among the greatest, represent- 
 atives of scholasticism are Scotns Krigena, Ger- 
 bert (Pope Sylvester II.), and Ansehn of Can- 
 terbury. About the middle of the 12th century. 
 the controversy between the Realists and Nomi- 
 nalists led to the full development of scholasti- 
 cism, which denied to philosophy any right to 
 extend its speculations beyond the tenets of the 
 Church, but assigned to it the task of systema- 
 tizing the doctrines of the Church, and of defend- 
 ing them (philosophic! theologies ancilla). Thus, 
 the scholastics were led to cultivate chiefly logic 
 and dialectics. Among the greatest scholastics, 
 during the classic period of the system, were 
 Alexander de Hales, Albertus Magnus, Thomas 
 A.quinas,and I Min- Scotus. In the 15th century, 
 scholasticism began to decline; and, though sub- 
 sequently iii" Jesuits tried to revive it. and 
 havepartlj retained its method of teaching to 
 the present day.it has never been able to recover 
 anywhere its mediaeval supremacy. Its impor- 
 tance in the history of education depends chiefly 
 on thi' influence which it exerted, during the 
 middle ages, upon all schools, but more especially 
 upon the cathedral and convent seln»ik Among 
 the best works on the history of scholasticism, 
 are Haue6au, De la philosopJii a i istique 
 (2 vols., 1850) ; K u i.i. ii. Geschichte </• r scho- 
 lastischen Philosophii (1853 ; Stxei k Ges hichte 
 derPhilosophiedesMitielalters(3Y6ia.,lS64^-6); 
 IIvi.i.am, Introduction In the Literature if 
 Europe. 
 
 SCHOOL (Lat. scJiola, from Gr. axo%!], lei- 
 sure, especially for literary studies, and hence 
 applied to the place where such studies were pur- 
 sued, — a school), a term now applied to an educa- 
 tional establishment, particularly of the primary 
 or secondary grade; as a primary school, a gram- 
 mar school, a high school, a classical school, etc. 
 Schools of the secondary grade are, however, of- 
 ten designated academies, seminaries, etc. The 
 term school is not applied to an institution of 
 learning i >f the superior grade, but institutions for 
 scientific: or professional instruction are usually 
 called schools; as theological schools, medical 
 schools, law schools, polytechnic schools, art 
 schools, etc. For information in regard to each 
 kind of schools, see under the respective titles. 
 
 SCHOOL AGE, or Scholastic Age, the 
 age fixed by law, during which pupils may at- 
 tend the public schools. This varies consider- 
 ably in different countries, both as to its < i- 
 
 mence u1 and termination. Thus, in Prussia, 
 
 the school age is from 5 to 11 years ; in France, 
 from 7 to L3; in Switzerland, from 6 to 1.'!, and 
 in England, from :: to 18. In the latter coun- 
 try, the rule is as follows: - Attendances may 
 not he reckoned for any seh. ilar above 18, or in 
 a day School, under 3, or. in an evening school, 
 
 under 12 years of age." The legislation on this 
 
 SCHOOL BOARD 
 
 subject in the different, states of the American 
 Union, also presents considerable diversity, as is 
 shown by the following table : 
 
 Alabama. . . 
 Arkansas. . . 
 California. . 
 Colorado. . . 
 Connecticut 
 Delaware. . 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia.... 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas. . . . 
 Kentucky 
 
 5-21 
 G-20 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina. 
 Ohio 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania . . 
 Rhode Island. . . 
 South Carolina 
 Tennessee 
 
 \ ermont 
 
 West Viiejtiu 
 
 *— 16 
 
 6— 1G 
 
 G-21 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts. 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 It will thus be seen that the school age begins 
 at 4 years iu five states ; at 5 years, in seventeen 
 states ; at 6 years, in fifteen states ; and at 7 
 years, in only one state ; also, that the school 
 age ends at 21 in twenty-two states; at 20, in 
 six states; at 18, in five states; at 17, in one 
 state ; at 16, in three states ; and at 15, in only 
 one — Massachusetts. 
 
 The statistics showing the age of the children 
 who actually attend school, is very meager, but 
 few of the state school reports giving any infor- 
 mation on the subject. It has been estimated 
 that the vast majority of children leave school 
 before the age of 15 years. The average age of 
 pupils in the evening schools must, however, be 
 much higher. In the rural districts, the average 
 
 age of pupils in the public sch Is must be higher 
 
 than in the large cities, especially in the winter 
 term. After a comparison of ail available sta- 
 tistics, Francis Adams, in Free School System 
 of the United States, remarks, "There can be no 
 doubt, however, that, as a general rule, children 
 remain at school much later in America [United 
 Slates] than in England." It is also stated by 
 the same writer that, " in England and Wales, 
 the percentage of children over II, in schools re- 
 ceiving grants, in 1874, was 0.99." The age 
 fixeil by most compulsory attendance laws, is 
 from s to 1 1 years. 
 
 SCHOOL BOARD, the name generally 
 given to the body of school commissioners, di- 
 rectors, trustees, etc. constituted by law to have 
 the care and regulation of schools in states. cities, 
 towns, districts, etc. Such a board is often 
 called the Board of Education, on Board of 
 Publi i Tns£ru<$ion. In most of the New Eng- 
 land .-tat. -. the school board is called the School 
 Commi e Formerly, in Nevs England, the 
 usual term was Prudential Committee, which 
 title is still retained in some places. State boards 
 of education usually havea paramount authority 
 in all educational matters in the state. In Eng- 
 land. School Board is the name given by the 
 " Elementary Education Act" of 1870, to the 
 
SCHOOL BROTHERS 
 
 constituted school authority in each district, sub- 
 ject to the Education Department of the govern- 
 ment. 
 
 SCHOOL BROTHERS. See Roman Cath- 
 olic Church. 
 
 SCHOOL CENSUS, in its wider sense, is 
 an official census relating to school affaire, and 
 embraces the number of schools, teachers and 
 pupils, children of school age. school libraries. 
 etc. The great progress of statistical science, 
 in late years, has led, in different countries, to 
 much more minute inquiries into school affairs. 
 and is preparing the way for a much fuller and 
 more comprehensive school census than has been 
 accessible in the past. 1 [eretofore, a school census 
 has commonly been understood in a narrower 
 sense to denote an enumeration of all the chil- 
 dren of scl 1 age residing in any country, state, 
 
 city. etc. This enumeration lias always formed a 
 part of the general decennial census of the United 
 States, and of the state enumerations. In some 
 states, an enumeration of the children of school 
 age is taken annually, as the appropriation of 
 state aid for public schools is based upon it. Such 
 a census is of great importance, as showing the 
 numberof children to be educated, in comparison 
 with the school attendance. The following table 
 shows the number of white and colored children 
 between the ages of 5 and 1 9 in each of the states 
 of the Union, according to the census of 1870 : 
 
 School Census of the United States. 
 
 SCHOOL CENSUS 76 
 
 School Census of the United States. 
 
 IC'OLomoi >.i 
 
 
 AVI IITES.) 
 
 
 
 5 to 9 
 
 10 to 14 ' 15 to 17 
 
 IB to 19 
 
 Alabama 
 
 BO 166 
 
 I I 
 
 25 1 19 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 
 
 
 California ... 
 
 60,18! 
 
 49,523 21,074 
 
 12 902 
 
 
 
 
 
 Delaware 
 
 12,751 
 
 
 
 Florida 
 
 12,6 ■ 
 
 13,4 3 6,718 
 
 4. tol 
 
 Georgia 
 
 
 
 
 Illinois 
 
 
 
 
 Indiana 
 
 
 220 1 'ii 112,64] 
 
 72 17 ' 
 
 Iowa 
 
 164,72 
 
 
 
 Kansas 
 
 
 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 152,681 
 
 147,3 75,7? 
 
 46,306 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 
 
 15 003 
 
 
 
 
 
 Maryland. 
 
 71.71 1 
 
 
 25,435 
 
 Massachusetts 
 
 138,706 
 
 
 57,826 
 
 Michigan 
 
 1 13,8 1 
 
 138,42 70,861 
 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 
 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 1 , .1 
 
 
 18,0 i 
 
 Missouri 
 
 
 
 
 Nebraska .... 
 
 15,143 
 
 13,04 e III 
 
 4 216 
 
 Nevada 
 
 
 
 
 N. Hampshire 
 
 
 31,806 1- 641 
 
 12,839 
 
 , New Jersey . . 
 X6H New Ynik'. 
 
 
 
 
 17 ,673 
 
 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 
 
 
 Ohio 
 
 
 
 
 Oregon 
 
 12,348 
 
 1 1 .: 2 5,35! 
 
 2,947 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 
 
 South Carolina . 
 
 
 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 123,40! 
 
 
 
 Texas 
 
 
 
 
 Vermont. 
 
 ::i 16 
 
 ; I . : 13 
 
 
 Virginia 
 
 83 701 
 
 93 061 i 
 
 
 West\ lrginia. 
 
 
 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 1 ! 
 
 139,611 67,94 
 
 12,21 i 
 
 Total 
 
 1,105,742 
 
 1,095,386 2,114,625 
 
 1,3 13,289 
 
 Alabama 
 
 (17,7)47 
 
 i,.;.:;ss 
 
 30,221 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 1 1,64 
 
 15,702 
 
 8,193 
 
 California 
 
 383 
 
 385 
 
 ISO 
 
 
 766 
 
 91 
 
 575 
 
 Delaware 
 
 2,960 
 
 2.91s 
 
 1. 136 
 
 Florida 
 
 13,442 
 
 12,011 
 
 . 
 
 Georgia 
 
 79,091 
 
 74,4!>: 
 
 35,502 
 
 Illinois 
 
 3,044 
 
 3,11 7 
 
 1,722 
 
 Indiana . 
 
 3,01? 
 
 3,1IH(, 
 
 1,(149 
 
 
 625 
 
 nil 
 
 :;..:; 
 
 
 2,137 
 
 2,237 
 
 1,120 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 31,181 
 
 31,975 
 
 be 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 44,871 
 
 42,32! 
 
 20,493 
 
 
 115 
 
 111! 
 
 129 
 
 Maryland 
 
 22,274 
 
 22,574 
 
 II,:, 1 
 
 
 1,075 
 
 1,201 
 
 782 
 
 Michigan 
 
 1,579 
 
 1,485 
 
 7iis 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 62 
 
 
 39 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 62,152 
 
 59,09! 
 
 28,308 
 
 Missouri 
 
 16,761 
 
 17,133 
 
 8,328 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 65 
 
 si 
 
 47 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Is 
 
 15 
 
 5 
 
 New Hampshin 
 
 .14 
 
 57 
 
 41; 
 
 New Jersey... 
 
 3,217 
 
 3,45s 
 
 1,952 
 
 New York 
 
 4,5511 
 
 4,'is-i 
 
 2,972 
 
 North Carolina. 
 
 54,775 
 
 54,4s: 
 
 26,581 
 
 Ohio 
 
 7.5 4 s 
 
 7,638 
 
 4.222 
 
 Oregon 
 
 33 
 
 34 
 
 12 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 6,271 
 
 6,960 
 
 4,020 
 
 R le Island . 
 
 3114 
 
 tall 
 
 309 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 57,792 
 
 55,324 
 
 26,508 
 
 Ten,, 
 
 43,637 
 
 45,688 
 
 22,1112 
 
 Texas 
 
 38,345 
 
 34,239 
 
 111,054 
 
 Vermont 
 
 117 
 
 92 
 
 (12 
 
 Virginia 
 
 67,908 
 
 69,352 
 
 33,894 
 
 Wesl Virginia 
 
 2,277 
 
 2,383 
 
 1,155 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 •ill 
 
 20s 
 
 112 
 
 Total 
 
 I155,s;,4 
 
 i;40,4lls 
 
 152,318] 
 
 1.031 
 3,945 
 
 22,7011 
 
 690 
 9,738 
 
 13,709 
 
 530 
 57 
 
 Is, 203 
 5,44S 
 
 1.37S 
 2,300 
 17.0S7 
 3,053 
 
 826 
 
 202, 72S 
 
 The Bchool age, in some of the states, extends 
 to •_'! years; bill. practically, the above table 
 includes all the children who attend school. 
 
 In the countries of Europe, the school age (4. 
 v. 1 generally extends only to the 1 1th. 13th, or 
 12th year of age. The following table exhibits 
 tin- number of schools and pupils, and the pro- 
 portion of the latter to the entire population, in 
 the several countries of Europe : 
 
 Alsace and Lor- 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 
 Great Britain an 
 Ire. and 
 
 
 Nllllll"! 
 
 of 
 public 
 schools 
 
 Number 
 
 Year 
 
 of 
 
 1871-2 
 
 5,088 
 
 412,789 
 
 1872 
 
 56.000 
 
 ;. 9100 
 
 1S71 
 
 644 
 
 28.437 
 
 1ST! 
 
 6.5112 
 
 243 '.ll'.'.l 
 
 
 8.12S 
 
 606 876 
 
 187S 
 
 3,791 
 
 
 1867 
 
 3.064 
 
 220 1179 
 
 1872 
 
 70,17! 
 
 
 1872 
 
 5.67S 
 
 618 937 
 
 1870-72 
 
 31.1169 
 
 ;.2s;,.4sr, 
 
 1871-4 
 
 22,578 
 
 2.S4S.2115 
 
 1S73 
 
 27,761 
 
 1 3S1 :>72 
 
 1873-4 
 
 42.921- 
 
 . 3 i 
 
 
 1 227 
 
 81,449 
 
 
 
 76.477 
 
 1871 
 
 
 no, nun 
 
 187! 
 
 2.221 
 
 
 
 
 
 i . 
 
 23 1.-. 
 
 1.1109.037 
 
 pupils 
 
702 
 
 sriIooL-PISTRKT 
 
 SCHOOL-DISTRICT, a district formed by 
 the division of a town, or township, for the pur- 
 pose of establishing, managing, and supervising 
 schools. It is usually tin- -~in.-tli--.~i territorial sub- 
 division of a state. The oldest law, in the United 
 States, establishing school-districts and the dis- 
 trict system, was that passed in Massachusetts, in 
 1789. In most of the states, at the present time, 
 the district system has been wholly or partly 
 superseded by the township system, which has 
 been found to have many advantages over it. In 
 Massachusetts, the district system was, in the 
 main, abolished in 18o!) ; and the change is 
 strongly commended. The system still exists to 
 some extent in the western part of the state, elic- 
 iting the following comment from one of the 
 state agents, in his report of December, 187a : 
 "With little or nothing of consideration in its 
 favor, with a troop of evils attendant upon it, 
 with many peculiarly incident to its existence, 
 it would seem that it should be abolished at 
 once, and forever, by legislative enactment." In 
 some of the other New England states, permis- 
 sory laws have been passed, allowing the inhabit- 
 ants to accept the township system instead of the. 
 district system. — Each school-district has a 
 trustee, or a board of trustees, or, as styled in New 
 England, a school i-nmiintU;-, elected by the in- 
 habitants, and authorized to have the safe-keep- 
 ing of the school-house and other school property, 
 to hire ami pay the teacher, or teachers, and to 
 make all necessary regulations for the manage- 
 ment of the school. The mo 1c of forming school- 
 districts, and of changing their boundaries, varies 
 in the different states. — The objections to the 
 district system seem to be based upon the small- 
 ness of its area anil its consequent inadequate 
 resources to support suitable schools. "Little 
 money, poor school-houses, short schools." said the 
 state superintendent of .Maine, in 1872, -arc the 
 necessary attendants of this system." This cir- 
 cumstance has led, in New York, to the establish- 
 ment of Union free-school ilistrir/s, formed by 
 uniting two adjoining districts for the purpose 
 of establishing and supporting a better school 
 than the resources of either by itself would per- 
 mit. In the English Education Act, the parish 
 is constituted the school-district, in relation to 
 which F. Adams remarks, in The Free School 
 System of the United States, "it lias been sug- 
 gested that in selecting the parish .-is the school- 
 district, we have select I too anal] a division. 
 We have, however, happily steered clear of the 
 system which, in the united States, has been 
 very prejudicial to harmonious and efficient 
 action.' Fur information in regard to srliuol- 
 districts in the several states, sec under the re- 
 -| 1 1\ ■• titles. 
 
 SCHOOL ECONOMY, a general term ap- 
 plied to the collective body of principles and 
 rules by which the keeping of schools is regu- 
 lated. In its widest sense, it embraces all that 
 pertains to the construction and furnishing of 
 the school-house the proper apparatus to be em- 
 ployed in carrying on the processes of instruc- 
 tion, the various modes of school organization 
 
 SCHOOL FESTIVALS 
 
 and administration, including a consideration of 
 the length and arrangement of school sessions 
 and terms, the proper records to be kept, the 
 course of study, programme of daily exercises, 
 and the modes of discipline, management, and 
 instruction. The treatment of all these various 
 matters will be found in this work under the re- 
 spective titles. 
 
 SCHOOL FESTIVALS, like the vacation 
 and holidays, are an interruption of the regular 
 school work; but while the latter only aim at a 
 cessation from work in order to gi\e to teachers 
 and pupils time for rest and recreation, school 
 festivals are intended to substitute enjoyment 
 for mental labor. Ancient Koine had at the be- 
 ginning of March, a school festival, called the 
 quinquatria, at which the teachers collected 
 presents. In order to give to this festival a 
 Christian character. Pope Gregory IV. (827 — 
 41) appointed the 12th of March (the day on 
 which the Church commemorated the death of 
 I'ope Gregory I.) as a special festival for the 
 schools of Rome. r l he ' Iregorian festival spread 
 throughout Italy. France, and Germany, and to 
 other countries : and, in some places, has main- 
 tained itself to the presentday. — Next to the 
 day of St. Gregory, the festivals of the Apostle 
 Andrew, of the Innocent I bildren,of St. Nicho- 
 las, and others, came early into general use. 
 Among these, the virgalum-gehen may be nicn- 
 ti id. (See< Jermant.) Processions and masquer- 
 ades were a common feature of all these fes- 
 tivals. — In GermanyTas well as in the Scandina- 
 vian countries, there were also Mil/ festivals, 
 to celebrate the departure of winter and the 
 advent of spring. The pupils of the schools, in 
 solemn procession, marched around the field, 
 and, in the evening, were treated to a common 
 banquet. This festival is still in common use in 
 Bavaria and Wiirtemberg. The most celebrated 
 among the school festivals in Germany, are the 
 Kirschenfesl, at Naumburg, and the Rnthenfest, 
 at Ravensburg. The celebration of these usually 
 draws a large concourse of people. Where the 
 public schools have a denominational character, 
 great church holidays are frequently the occa- 
 sion for special school festivals. Thus, in many 
 Protestant schools of Europe, it is common 
 to celebrate annually the introduction of the 
 Reformation. Monarchical governments have 
 made the celebration of the birthday of the 
 sovereign obligatory in all the schools of the 
 country, in order to implant sentiments of loyal- 
 ty and submissiveness in the minds of the rising 
 gi ■ncrai i ii- Some of the German educators who 
 are favorable to school festivals, have, by way 
 of experiment, organized them on the grandest 
 scale. Thus Froebel spent, in 1850, several 
 months in preparing a school children's and 
 people's festival, which was held in a castle of 
 the duke of Saxe-Meiningen. It is quite com- 
 mon for the elementary schools in Germany to 
 spend at least one day of the year in an excur- 
 sion, during which the children amuse themselves 
 with the national games. To close the school 
 year with appropriate festivals, is quite common 
 
SCHOOL FUND 
 
 in civilized countries. The best known among 
 the school festivals of the Inked States are those 
 connected with the college commencement. (See 
 Commi set mi sr.) Among schools of all grades. 
 
 scl 1 exhibitions and receptions have become 
 
 very popular, and rarely fail to be numerously at- 
 tended by the relatives and friends of the pupils. 
 School picnics are more frequently held during the 
 summer vacation than in the midst of the school 
 year; but. without regard to the season, are sure 
 to delight tin' scholars. —Educators are generally 
 agreed that Bchool festivals, if well arranged and 
 superintended, exert a beneficial influence. 
 
 SCHOOL FUND, property or money set 
 apart by legislative enactment for the support of 
 schools. In the United States, the school fund 
 in each state has been chiefly derived from na- 
 tional and state appropriations, particularly of 
 lands. Of the latter, the 16th section grant is 
 an example. The <7. S. Deposit Fund, some- 
 times called the Surplus Revenue Fuml. was 
 also a national grant. (See United States.] 
 The mode of apportionment varies in the dif- 
 ferent states ; it is, however, wholly or partly 
 based upon the number of pupils, in each town 
 or district, of the legal school age. For an ac- 
 count of the amount of the school fund in each 
 state, see under the respective titles. 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. Under tins head 
 will be considered (1) desks and seats; ('J) plat- 
 form ; (,'i) blackboard ; and (4) miscellaneous fur- 
 niture and apparatus. 
 
 Desks and Seats.— In the matter of health, 
 these are, perhaps, the articles of the greatest 
 importance in the school room. Notwithstanding 
 their importance, however, as deciding the pu- 
 pil's position for several hours of the day, and 
 thus determining, in a great measure, his future 
 health and bearing, school authorities are not yet 
 entirely agreed as to their style, dimensions, or ar- 
 rangement ; each civilized country using its own, 
 on account of some peculiar advantage, the rela- 
 tive value of which is determined by observation 
 from its own stand-point. The first consideration, 
 in the construction or arrangement of desks and 
 seats, should have regard to their influence upon 
 the health of the pupils; the second, to the con- 
 venience of the teacher and pupils, in the ad- 
 justability of the desk and seat for different 
 exercises, or for purposes of school government, 
 which last would be determined principally by 
 the arrangement, and the means afforded for 
 facilitating the cut ranee or exit of the pupils. 
 Of the comparative advantages of different 
 styles of desks or seats, it is not necessary 
 here to speak, the subject being treated exhaust- 
 ively in the works referred to at the end of this 
 article. The hooks that have been written on 
 this subject in different countries form almost a 
 library of themselves. Perhaps the best form 
 yet devised is that described in the report of M. 
 Buisson, French commissioner to the Exposition 
 at Vienna in 1873, which was selected for special 
 commendation, after an examination of all the 
 styles there presented. It is known as the Bapte- 
 rosses desk and seat, from the name of the in- 
 
 SCIIOOI, FURNITURE 
 
 TG3 
 
 ventor, who designed it for use in his factory at 
 Briare. It has recently been introduced into the 
 
 normal school at Auteuil. The chair is single, 
 the Beat being of wood, round or square in shape, 
 and supported by an iron leg which slides up or 
 down in a sheath, or hollow cylinder, the base of 
 which is firmly screwed to the floor. The leg and 
 .■-heath together form the support of the seat, 
 which is checked at any height, in its upward or 
 downward motion, by a thumb-screw. The back 
 of the chair is of the ordinary pattern, and is 
 slightly inclined. The desk is stationary, and is 
 supported by a cast-iron upright. Its upper sur- 
 face is divided into two parts in the usual man- 
 ner — a narrow horizontal part at the back, and 
 a sloping part, much larger, and nearer the pupil. 
 It is provided either with a lid which converts 
 the desk into an ordinary box, or, if the top is 
 not movable, with compartments which open 
 laterally. A small leaden pipe, extending the 
 whole length of the desk, under the horizontal 
 part of the upper surface, serves as an inkstand. 
 It is provided with a vent at each end, secured 
 by a copper cap. and, opposite the pupil, is pierced 
 to receive a small copper funnel of sufficient size 
 to allow only the point of the pen to enter. By 
 this arrangement, the pupil can neither dip his 
 pen too deeply, so as to get too much ink, nor 
 upset his inkstand. Near the foot of the leg of 
 the desk is a foot-rest, which may be raised or 
 lowered by the same di vice of slide ami thumb- 
 screw that is used for the scat. The thumb- 
 screws used on the chair and desk are so arranged 
 that they cannot be turned except by a key, 
 which is kept by the teacher. The principal ad- 
 vantage of this desk is. that it can be adapted 
 to pupils of different heights; its other recom- 
 mendations are obvious. An improvement, per- 
 haps, might be made by providing the desk with 
 two supports instead of one, thus securing a firm- 
 ness which desks supported by one central pillar 
 do not usually have. The single desk should be 
 2 feet long, from 25 in. to 29 in. high, and 18 
 in. wide ; the double desk should be 4 feet long, 
 the other dimensions being the same as those of 
 the single desk. The seats should be from 12 in. 
 to 16 in. high. Recitation seats as well as desk 
 seats should be provided with backs. It should 
 not be forgotten, however, that no arrangement 
 of desk or scat, however ingeniously adapted to 
 the pupils comfort, can take the place of that 
 frequent change of position which is a necessity 
 of his being. ( >f the dimensions of desks and 
 seals. Etobson says, after a careful comparison of 
 the works of Zwey, Falk. Frey. Colin. Kleiber, 
 and Virchow. ••The weight of opinion is to the 
 effect that the height of the scat should corre- 
 spond to the length of the scholar's leg, from 
 the knee to the sole of the foot. There must be 
 no stretching of muscles: therefore, the sole of 
 the foot must rest on the floor or upon some flat 
 surface. If the seat be too high, the swinging of 
 the foot in the air causes a compression of the 
 blood-vessels and nerves of the hinder part of 
 the leg and knee ; if it be too low, the thighs of 
 the scholar are pressed against his stomach to the 
 
764 
 
 school Fri:\rru:i'. 
 
 disadvantage of health. * * * In order to prevent 
 I h.- seliolars slipping forward, the seat should he 
 slightly deelined backward. The height of the 
 desks should be so arranged, that the under part 
 of the arm may rest comfortably on the desk-top, 
 and that the powers of vision may not be strained, 
 or, in other words, that the normal distance of vi- 
 sion may be preserved. Desks which are too low 
 cause, by the bending of the scholar, a pressing 
 on the chest and lower part of the body ; while 
 those which are too high cause the right shoulder 
 to be so lifted, as to remove the upper part of 
 the arm so far from the body, that the lower arm 
 cannot be laid flat on the table, thereby causing 
 the arm to be unsteady and easily tired." Much 
 ingenuity has been exercised in devising seats 
 capable of transformation into a variety of forms. 
 The tendency in this respect is frequently to- 
 wards a mechanism so complicated that it de- 
 feats its own object by becoming easily disar- 
 ranged; and, even if this were not the case, many 
 of the transformations will usually be found to 
 be useless. The really desirable changes of form 
 are very few. Says an eminent educator : " If 
 seats could be so contrived as to remain firm 
 when placed horizontally, to allow the pupil to 
 lean forward easily to write upon his desk, and 
 then could be made in have an inclination back- 
 ward when the pupil desires to read or study, 
 it would add much to his comfort in sitting, and 
 something, perhaps, to the comeliness of his 
 figure.' Concerning the distance of the seat from 
 the desk, a considerable difference of opinion ex- 
 ists, some teachers considering only one inch nec- 
 essary, others as much as three. On this point 
 Dr. U'iese says : "It is, therefore, desirable, that 
 the inner edge of the desk should be distant from 
 the front of the scat only about one inch." Rob- 
 son says : " The scholar wdio sits too far from the 
 desk, either bends too much, ami thereby hurts 
 his chest and eyes, or he glides too far forward on 
 his seat, and so gets an unsteady position. * * * 
 It is recommended that the vertical distance from 
 the desk to the seat-top should be the length 
 of the fore-arm. or one-sixth the size [height] of 
 the body of the scholar. Too great a distance 
 encourages crooked growth: for the scholar, while 
 writing, has his body weighing on one arm, in- 
 stead of having the arm naturally resting on his 
 body. If the difference in height between desk 
 and seat be too slight, then the chest sinks, and 
 the back is bent out so as to encourage stooping." 
 Of the arrangement of desks, many methods 
 have been advocated, and different ones prevail 
 in different countries; but the weight of author- 
 ity seems to be in favor of seating the pupils in 
 pairs, this method hciic_' economical as to space, 
 and more advantageous for both teacher and 
 pupil in the efficient carrying out of the daily 
 exercises. Its superiority, also, in the matter of 
 ingress ainl egress of the pupils is manifest. The 
 arrangement of desks in regard to space and light 
 has been considered in the article Hygiene, 
 School. Many other considerations present 
 
 themselves in this i nection, the chief of which 
 
 are the following : the form and height of the 
 
 back of the seat ; its attachment to. or inde- 
 pendence of. the desk immediately behind it ; the 
 variation in the height of seats and desks as ar- 
 ranged on the same level for pupils of different 
 sizes ; t lie slope of the floor, or its construction in 
 steps, for the same purpose : the movable desk or 
 seat as compared with the stationary; the mount- 
 ing of desks and seats on casters ; the varying 
 slope of the desk-top for different purposes ; the 
 space between the desks ; the breadth of aisles, 
 etc. These are all considered, however, in works 
 specially written for the purpose ; and the merits 
 of each for different purposes are fully set forth. 
 The Platform.- 'I his is now considered high- 
 ly desirable, if not indispensable, in the school 
 room. On all public occasions, whether of ex- 
 amination orexhibition.it is indispensable; while 
 there are many occasions in the usual routine 
 of the school, when it is exceedingly useful. It 
 should be not less than (i feet wide. and 15 inches 
 high, and should be divided into two levels or 
 risers. In schools in which all the exercises tire 
 conducted in one room, closets for the storing of 
 school apparatus are often placed at each end of 
 
 the 
 fitted 
 
 stand 
 77, 
 
 atioii rooms are usually 
 latforms, the tea. hers' desk 
 
 'eo,-./ At the back of the plat- 
 form, against the wall, and facing the school or 
 class, is placed the blackboard. It should extend 
 the entire length of the platform, should be at. 
 least 4 feet wide, and extend to within 3 feet of 
 the floor. It should be provided with a frame all 
 around, and a trough at the lower edge for the 
 i halk. and to catch dust, and should have hooks, 
 on which pointers may be hung. The material 
 of blackboards is of three kinds: wood, slate, 
 and a kind of slate surface made to lay directly 
 on the wall. r l he last, by combining in a medium 
 the best qualities of the two others, is the most 
 desirable, i Sec Blackboard.) 
 
 Miscellaneous Furniture mnl Apparatus. — 
 The principal consideration under this head is 
 not so much the comparative values of different 
 articles, but what articles tire indispensable or.at 
 least, highly necessary. Among these, may be 
 mentioned a clock, a small bell for the calling 
 and dismissing of classes, chairs for visitors, clos- 
 ets or wardrobes, provided with wrought-iron 
 hooks and pegs, a thermometer, sets of maps and 
 charts, a terrestrial globe, an abacus, or numeral 
 frame, and a collection of miscellaneous articles 
 to be used in giving object lessons. The extent 
 
 the 
 
 ever, furnishes a toler.iOly complete outfit for a 
 primary school. One consideration remains to he 
 
 insisted on; namely, the exercise of good taste in 
 
 the selection of furniture and articles intended 
 to be iii constant sieht of the pupils, tin this 
 subject, the architect of the London School 
 board remarks: "The furniture of the school 
 room should be graceful in form, and good in 
 quality and finish. Children are particularly BUS- 
 
SCHOOL GROUNDS 
 
 ceptible of surrounding influences, ami their dai- 
 ly familiarization with beauty of form or color, in 
 the simplest and most ordinary objects, cannot 
 fail to assist in fostering the seeds of taste,just 
 as daily discipline tends to promote habits of 
 order. Furniture finished like good cabinet work 
 is more likely to be respected, even by the mis- 
 chievous school boy, than that of an unsightly or 
 rough character." For further information on 
 this subject see RoBSOK, School Architecture (Lou- 
 don, 1874); Wickersham, S 4c n Economy 
 (Phila., L868); Currie, Common-School Educa- 
 tion (Edinburgh, L857) ; Buisson, Rapport sur 
 rinstruction primaire a Vexposition universelle 
 de Vienneen 1st:! (Paris, 1875). 
 
 SCHOOL GROUNDS. See Hygiene, School. 
 
 SCHOOL-HOUSE.— Of the first importance 
 in any system of public instruction, is f/,,,,,1 
 architecture, including every thing that relates 
 to the building in which the instruction is to be 
 imparted. All matters that concern the health 
 of the school; namely, the situation of the school- 
 house, its furniture, the temperature of the 
 rooms, and the means for wanning, lighting, and 
 ventilating them, are considered either in sepa- 
 rate articles in this work, or under the head of 
 Hygiene, School. It is designed here specially to 
 treat of (I) the construction of the school- 
 house, and (II) its internal arrangement. 
 
 I. Construction of the School-House.— What 
 material should be used in the construction 
 of a school building depends entirely upon its 
 location and the means at command. Owing to 
 the improved modern methods of building, wood, 
 brick, or stone may be used indifferently, as far 
 as healthfulness is concerned, economic consider- 
 ations alone deciding which is to be employed. It 
 may be said, in general, that these considerations 
 point to the use of stone or brick in cities and 
 towns, and of wood, in the rural districts, except 
 in old and thickly-settled countries where wood is 
 scarce. The increased attention bestowed upon 
 the appearance of the school-house at the present 
 time is one of the most encouraging proofs of 
 the general and permanent interest aroused in 
 the welfare of schools, since purely esthetic con- 
 siderations are generally the last to make them- 
 selves felt. The rudeuess of the district-school 
 building is proverbial ; yet, the expression of 
 the cherished memories that cluster around it, 
 forms a part of the choicest literature of every 
 civilized country. U the transfiguring power of 
 early association, therefore, renders it an object 
 of affection through life, in spite of its uncouth- 
 ness, how much stronger would that affection be 
 if the matured taste of later years confirmed the 
 preference of childhood ! Not only the testimony 
 of eminent writers, but the unwritten experience 
 of every observing person, bears abundant wit- 
 ness to the subtle and enduring influence of 
 early associations ; and now. when the subject of 
 education is receiving so large a share of careful 
 thought, with a view to discover all available 
 ways to perfect its means and methods, it 
 would seem that this powerful agent should not 
 be neglected. Without squandering money, 
 
 SCHOOL-HOUSE 765 
 
 therefore, to make the school-house pretentious, 
 or a perfect specimen of one of the conventional 
 orders of architecture, pains should betaken that 
 it should not be an often.-.'' to the eve, or out of 
 harmony with the landscape. Since this can 
 generally be done. also, without any, or with 
 only slight, additional cost, the educational 
 value, moral and esthetic, of the appearance of 
 the school-house, may properly be included in 
 the plans of the architect. As to the solidity of 
 the school building in all its parts, it is not too 
 much to say that no financial objections which 
 would impair this, should, for a moment, be en- 
 tertained. The contingencies which may hap- 
 pen at any moment where large numbers of chil- 
 dren are gathered together, are so momentous 
 in their character, as to render this imperative. 
 The size of the school-house should be deter- 
 mined, of course, by the number of pupils it is 
 intended to accommodate. An eminent author- 
 ity says that, a building designed for an ungraded 
 school to be taught by a single teacher, should 
 contain, at least, '.Mill sip ft. of floor-space; be- 
 ing intended to accommodate from 50 to ho pu- 
 pils. In regard to the proper size of class rooms, 
 see I Iygiene, School. 
 
 II. Internal Arrangement of the School-House. 
 — Every district-school house should have a 
 vestibule, a main room, and one or more class- 
 rooms, unless the school is taught by only one 
 teacher. The vestibule should lie commodious, 
 dry. well-lighed, and properly supplied with 
 pegs for hats and outer garments, mats, wash 
 basins, and all means for ensuring personal 
 cleanliness. In mixed schools, it should be 
 divided into two rooms. The best authorities 
 are almost unanimous in the opinion that the 
 shape of the school room proper should be that 
 of an oblong about twice as long as broad, the 
 size being determined by the probable attend- 
 ance. The ceiling should be from 12 to 15 feet 
 in height, the controlling consideration being that 
 each pupil should have not less than HIS cubic 
 feet of air space. The door and the teacher's 
 desk should be at opposite ends of the room, the 
 former, when practicable, at the southern ex- 
 tremity, the northern being without windows, 
 and provided with a shallow platform about 15 
 inches high. This arrangement enables the 
 teacher to survey the school, and is simple and 
 convenient for examination or exhibition pur- 
 poses. Very large school rooms are not ex- 
 pedient, experience having shown that a large 
 number of pupils may be supervised and taught 
 to better advantage in two rooms of medium 
 size, the teacher having an assistant for the pur- 
 pose, than in one large room. A separate class 
 room is indispensable in all schools, except the 
 smallest, the number being increased according 
 to the size of the school. In its construction, 
 the classroom shotdd conform proportionally to 
 the school room, and should, if possible, be in 
 immediate connection with it. but separable from 
 it completely as far as noise is concerned. The 
 teacher's room, in small schools, could be utilized 
 as the school library, or as a temporary storing 
 
70(3 
 
 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT 
 
 place for such delicate apparatus as required 
 special care. .Schools of other grades and sizes 
 will, of course, require a different arrangement 
 of rooms. Nearly every civilized country, in 
 fact, has its own plans for the construction of 
 school-houses, and the arrangement of school 
 and class rooms, determined by the peculiarities 
 of its school system, or by national character- 
 istics. Interesting exhibits of these are made at 
 every world's fair ; and the comparison there in- 
 stituted will, probably, result in a retention and 
 general diffusion of the best. It is possible here 
 only to refer to the subject, and to cite a few 
 standard works which open the door to a vol- 
 uminous literature. (See Buisson, Rapport sur 
 TinstrucKon primaire a ^exposition universeUe 
 de Vienne en 1873 (Paris, 1875); Barnard, 
 School ArcJdtecture (N. T., 1863); Johonnot, 
 Country School-Houses, (N. V.. L858); and Our 
 School-Houses (N. T., 1873); Eveleth, School- 
 House Architecture (N. T., 1874). (See also 
 the references at the end of the article School 
 Furniture.) 
 
 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT is a department 
 of the teacher's profession which includes (I) the 
 organization of the school, and (II) its conduct. 
 Under the former, must be considered (1) the 
 classification (see Class) ; (2) the distribution. 
 as to order and time. of the brandies to be taught, 
 (course of instruction and programme) ; and 
 (3) the proper assignment of the work of instruc- 
 tion (in a graded school) to the several teachers, 
 either in accordance with the class system or with 
 the departmental system (q. v.). The conduct 
 of the school has reference (1) to instruction, 
 and (2) to discipline. Great care should betaken, 
 by means of a carefully constructed programme, 
 or daily order of exercises, to. secure to each subject 
 its proper amount of time, according to its place 
 in the course of instruction, as well as to insure 
 an equable advancement on the part of the pupils 
 in each subject of the grade, as preliminary to 
 j, run ml/, hi. The promotion of pupils is a matter 
 of great practical importance in the management 
 of a school. One of the most serious errors made 
 by teachers is the too rapid advancement of their 
 pupils. Promotions should always be based upon 
 a careful examination ; and, in a graded school, 
 care should be taken that every grade is passed 
 through in a legitimate manner, that is, without 
 hurry or cramming. When the school is un- 
 graded, the advancement of individual pupils is 
 to be considered ; but there is the same need of 
 avoiding haste, so as to secure thorough proficien- 
 cy, as the basis of promotion. Government is, 
 also, an important department of school manage- 
 ment; since, without efficient government, all 
 attempts at effective school instruction must be 
 fruitless. (See Course of Instruction, Disci- 
 i'i.ine, and Government.) 
 
 SCHOOL RECORDS are of great impor- 
 tance, both in connection with the management 
 of the school itself, and for the purpose of af- 
 fording a means of obtaining accurate and valu- 
 able returns to be embodied in a genera] system 
 of school statistics. These records are, therefore. 
 
 SCHOOL RECORDS 
 
 to be arranged from a twofold stand-point r 
 
 (I) What are needed as auxiliary to the keeping 
 and instruction of the school itself ; and 
 
 (II) What are required for a proper administra- 
 tion of the school laws, as well as to show the 
 condition of the system to which the school be- 
 longs, and the progress of education in the 
 town, city, and state in which it is located, as 
 compared with other places. 
 
 I. For the carrying out of the first object, 
 there should be an accurate registration of each 
 pupil's name and age, his parent's name, the 
 date of his admission into the school, of his suc- 
 cessive promotion from grade to grade, and of 
 his discharge, with the cause of the same, thus 
 presenting a history in outline of the pupil's 
 whole career in the school. The register kept 
 for these items should be in such a form as to be 
 easy of reference, cither by a numerical designa- 
 tion of the pupils in the order of their admis- 
 sion, or by an alphabetical arrangement. Aux- 
 iliary to the school register, there may be (in 
 large schools, should be) an admission hunk, and 
 a i/isi:h,ir,/,i honk, the entries being first made in 
 these books, and transferred ;it stated times 
 (weekly or monthly) into the register. The ad- 
 mission hunk should contain a statement of the 
 antecedents of the pupil, and the discharge book, 
 the cause of his leaving the school. and his desti- 
 nation. There should, also, be books showing 
 the school history of the pupil more in detail, as 
 his daily attendance, conduct, merit and de- 
 merit marks for recitations, etc. One book, 
 usually called the roll hook, may be used for all 
 these particulars, there being. in a graded school, 
 one such book for each class, and kept by the 
 class teacher. In this book may also be entered 
 the place of residence of each pupil, in order to 
 facilitate communication with the parents. The 
 sclwol diary is auxiliary to this, containing 
 transcripts from the roll book, with summaries 
 of marks and a .statement of class standing, the 
 pupil being required to take this diary home for 
 the inspection and signature of his parents. 
 Other records, besides those enumerated, may be 
 kept for special purposes; but. ordinarily, these 
 are all that arc indispensably requisite to carry 
 on the internal operations of the school. 
 
 II. The records made necessary by the pro- 
 visions of law under which the school is es- 
 tablished and supported, will vary, of course, 
 with the nature of those provisions, and with 
 the organization of the system to which the 
 school belongs. But there are certain common 
 and indispensable features, inasmuch as there 
 are facts which all school records for this pur- 
 pose should aim to show, among which may be 
 mentioned the following: (1) The number of 
 pupils enrolled during the year; (2) The average 
 enrollment, or "average number belonging"; 
 (3) The number in attendance at each session of 
 the school; and (4) the number of pupils of 
 each grade, and of certain specified ages. — No 
 attempt is made in this article to present the 
 forms of these records, as there is a wide diver- 
 sity of form in different places, and as the form 
 
SCHWARZ 
 
 is of secondary importance to the presenting of 
 the required farts. — See Morrison, Manual of 
 
 iScl/iuil Mniiiii/riiifii/.a.Y. Hf'iistrntiuit (Idasgow 
 
 and London, 1874) ; Wickersham, School Econ- 
 omy (Phila., 1868); Wells, The Graded 
 School (New Fork, L862). 
 
 SCHWARZ, Friedrich Heinrich Chris- 
 tian, an eminent (Jcrman educationist, born in 
 1776, at Giessen; died at Heidelberg, in L837. 
 His chief work is Erziehungslehre | Voctrine of 
 Education), of which the first part appeared in 
 L802 ; the fourth and last, which was issued in 
 1813, contains the Geschichte der Erziehung 
 [History of Education), a work of permanent 
 
 value. -An g teachers," says Hides [Schule 
 
 der PadagogU . " the /■• hrbuch </< r Padagogik 
 tend Didaktik (1805) of Curtmann is better 
 known than the ErziehungsleJire." He, how- 
 ever, asserts that, while Schwarz has not given so 
 clear an exposition of the principles of education 
 and instruction as Xiemeyer, his writings are 
 more replete with practical observations and 
 suggestions. 
 
 SCIENCE, The Teaching- of. In this ar- 
 ticle, the treatment will refer to the teaching of 
 science (I) as a branch of elementary instruction, 
 and (II) as a department of higher education. 
 
 I. This subject is one into which great con- 
 fusion has been introduced by the use of the 
 words science and scientific in two different 
 senses. In the strict sense of the term, the scien- 
 tific knowledge of a subject is a knowledge of the 
 laws which harmonize and explain its various 
 phenomena. Science goes beyond mere appear- 
 ances, and finds that, amidst endless variety, 
 there is unity; and. amid apparent discord, there 
 is"harmony. In this sense, it is the highest out- 
 come of intellectual effort. The human mind 
 deals first with the concrete. For a lung time it 
 scarcely rises above the information of the senses. 
 It then groups the impressions of the senses into 
 more comprehensive unities, and in this process 
 gams a certain power of abstraction. But science 
 supposes that the mind lias been long practiced 
 in that power of abstraction and generalization. 
 It views in succession the principal facts in any 
 department of nature as a w hole, and it seeks to 
 find the invisible order which pervades them all. 
 In this sense of the term, also, all subjects admit 
 of scientific treatment ; as there can be no doubt 
 that law pervades all phenomena, there must be 
 a science of mental phenomena as well as of 
 physical phenomena; and. therefore, no single 
 phenomenon can exist which has not its own 
 place in the systsm of the universe. But, from 
 various considerations, the term tcir/ic has been 
 often restricted to the explanation of the laws 
 which regulate matter, and tins is the sense in 
 which it is used in this article. Now it is plain 
 that, in the strict sense of the term, children can- 
 not be taught science. If the scientific stage is 
 the highest in the development of the intellectual 
 faculties, we cannot expect to find it in the 
 school. It belongs to the university. But we 
 may lay the foundation of it at an earlier period. 
 Indeed, we cannot help doing something toward 
 
 SCIENCE 
 
 161 
 
 this work; but we may do it awkwardly and un- 
 consciously, or skillfully and consciously. The 
 latter is the function of the educated teacher. 
 We must, therefore, inquire more minutely into 
 the mode in which the foundations of science are 
 laid. For this purpose, we shall quote the words 
 of the late Professor Payne, to whom the prep- 
 aration of this article for the Cyclopaedia of 
 Education w;is first assigned. (See Payne, J.) 
 Science, he defined, as "organized knowledge", 
 and, after explaining the meaning of organized 
 in this definition, he proceeds: "Returning to the 
 other factor of the definition, knowledge, we ob- 
 serve that there are two kinds of knowledge — 
 what we know through our own experience, and 
 what we know through the experience of others. 
 Thus, I know by my own knowledge that I have 
 an audience before me, and I know through the 
 knowlei Igi i of others that the earth is 25,000 miles 
 in circumference. This latter fact, however. I 
 know in a sense different from that in which I 
 know the former. The one is a part of my ex- 
 perience, of my very being. The other 1 can only 
 be strictly said to know when I have, by an 
 effort of the mind, passed through the connected 
 chain of facts and reasonings on wdiich the dem- 
 onstration is founded. Thus only can it become 
 my knowledge in the true sense of the term. 
 Strictly speaking, then, organized knowledge, or 
 science, is originally based on unorganized know- 
 ledge, and is the outcome of the learner's obser- 
 vation of facts through the exercise of his senses, 
 and his own reflection upon what he has observed. 
 This knowledge, ultimately organized into science 
 through the operation of his mind, he may with 
 just right call his own ; and, as a learner, he can 
 properly call no other knowledge his own. "What 
 is reported to us by another is that others, if 
 gained, at first-hand, by experience; but it stands 
 on a different footing from that which we have 
 gained by our own experience. He merely hands 
 it over to us; but, when we receive it, its condition 
 is already changed. It wants the brightness, def- 
 iniu nrss. and certainty ill our eyes, which it had 
 in his; and, moreover, it is merely a loan, and not 
 our property. The fact, for instance, about the 
 earth's circumference was to him a living fact; 
 it sprung into being as the outcome of exper- 
 iments and reasonings, with the entire chain of 
 which it was seen by him to be intimately — in- 
 deed, indissolubly and organically — connected. To 
 us it is a dead fact, severed from its connection 
 with the body of truth, and, by our hypothesis, 
 having no organic relation to the living truths 
 we have gained by our own minds. What I in- 
 sist on. then. is. that the knowledge from ex] e- 
 rience — that which is gained by bringing our own 
 minds into direct contact with matter — is the 
 only knowledge that, as novices in science, we 
 have to do with. The dogmatic knowledge im- 
 posed on us by authority, though originally 
 gained by the same means, is really, not ours, but 
 another's — is, as far as we are concerned, unor- 
 ganizable, and, therefore, though science to its 
 proprietor, is not science to us. To us it is merely 
 information, or hap-hazard knowledge." — The 
 
account here given contains the very 
 matter, and cannot be too deeply pot 
 impressed on the mind; and we shall 
 
 lie notices 
 u he finds 
 
 objects, he 
 the same 
 first effort 
 
 tell 
 
 ih:il 
 
 seen the individuals and noticed the similarity, 
 the generalization would be of no real use 
 to him. Out of this fact flow some of the prin- 
 cipal rules in regard to the method of teaching 
 .science: (1) The pupil must be brought face 
 to face with nature ; he must see the indi- 
 vidual ; he must himself make the experiment. 
 (2) He must make the generalization, himself; 
 he must be a discoverer. It is here, however, that 
 the skillful teacher can wisely interfere. The 
 child, if left to himself, might be too long 
 in making the discovery, for he might not 
 stumble upon individuals which contain sim- 
 ilarities. The teacher, therefore, takes care to 
 bring similar individuals before his pupils in 
 sufficient number. He sternly checks his own 
 wish to shorten the work by telling the generali- 
 zation; but he prepares the way for the pupils 
 making it by adducing instance after instance, 
 until the similarities cannot but become visible 
 to the pupil's mind. And this rule suggests an- 
 other, — that, wherever it is possible, the pupil 
 .should be lei I alnng the road over which mankind 
 traveled in making the discovery originally. He 
 must.of course, commit many blunders before he 
 reaches the truth; yet. under a skillful teacher. 
 such a process is eminently educative. But, 
 besides the making of generalizations, there is 
 also the faculty of observation to be cai fully 
 cultivated. Indeed the cultivation of the faculty 
 of observation is essentially necessary to the for- 
 mation of correct generalizations. At first, the 
 child makes his generalizations unconsciously. 
 He sees a tree, and then another tree, and then 
 another, and somehow they impress him as 
 being like; but he has no accurate conception in 
 regard to the points in which they are like. — 
 Even when he becomes conscious of the points 
 of resemblance in objects, he may find that the 
 resemblances in them are on the surface, and that 
 there are greater differences separating the ob- 
 jects from each other. He is now i ling nearer 
 
 the stage in which he can deal with a subject 
 scientifically. For observation has to furnish, as 
 the basis of scientific conceptions, a more accurate 
 knowledge than that possessed by the ordinary 
 observer. The pupil has to notice qualities which 
 ordinarily escape observation. The teacher again 
 must take the utmost care that the pupil Iris 
 really observed the peculiarity before lie tolls bim 
 the special name given to it. Else the pupil's 
 mind will be crammed with a number of t, cli- 
 
 nical terms of the meaning of which he probably 
 will have no clear conception; and even should he 
 have a clear conception of their meaning when 
 lie hears it from his teacher, he will be sure to 
 forgot it very soon. In one word, the pupil must 
 conquer every step in science by personal obser- 
 vation and experience. He must find out every 
 thing himself. The teacher has simply to arrange 
 the order in which the facts of nature are to be 
 presented to the pupil, and to lay before him 
 only those phenomena which it is important for 
 him to observe. From what has been said, it is 
 plain that the plan of going through all the 
 principal phenomena of a science is not to be 
 adopted in schools. This is a method appropri- 
 ate only to the last stage of scientific instruction. 
 The teacher must select the portions of science 
 which will be most educative; and he will treat 
 them in such a way as to interest the pupil, and 
 make him take an active part in ascertaining the 
 facts of nature. At the same time, lie will take 
 care to make his various lessons bear on each 
 other. Though he does not disclose a law, but 
 leave it to dawn upon the pupil's mind from the 
 presentation of instances, he will sec to it that 
 
 i each lesson adds to tin- structure which the pre- 
 vious one has helped to raise, lie will have a fixed 
 plan in his own mind; and he will look forward 
 to the intellectual result which he is to produce, 
 in process of time, by the examples and experi- 
 ments which he makes the pupil observe and 
 
 ! perform. — In all these considerations, we have 
 been looking at science as a subject worthy of 
 bring Btudied for its own sake. This is unques- 
 tionably true. The intellectual powers of man 
 are an essentia] feature of man's nature, and they 
 demand exercise. This exercise is invariably ac- 
 companied by an intense pleasure. Now, the 
 scientific knowledge of nature is eminently cal- 
 culated to call the intellectual [powers into aetiv- 
 
 pure and lasting enjoyment. But theteai 1htiii.iv 
 
 look on the knowledge of science fro ther 
 
 points of view. Man is corporeal, and his physical 
 well-being depends on his coming into proper 
 relations with physical nature. It is important 
 for him to know these relations, and the teacher 
 of youth will endeavor to enlighten the mind of 
 his" pupil in regard to them. At the same time, 
 these relations arc most deeply impressed on tile 
 mind, when the facts of science are taught ac- 
 cording to the laws of education. If 1 inform a 
 boy that carbonic acid gas is dclcti rious. the im- 
 pression is of the faintest nature, and will not 
 lead, in nine cases out of ten, to any action; but 
 if I show the boy how to produce carbonic acid 
 gas by the union of its component elements, that 
 is. if I lead him to make experiments by which 
 the truth will be forced upon his mind without 
 my telling him that it is injurious to life; and if, 
 in addition to this, I make him discover that he 
 is continually exhaling this gas. he will be deeply 
 impressed with the necessity of ventilation, and 
 will make every effort to procure it. Then. 
 again, nature presents herself not merely as the 
 embodiment of law but also as the embodiment 
 
of beauty ; and the teacher should, therefore, en- 
 deavor to bring out this feature occasionally. 
 He will point, for example, to the exquisite 
 structure of flowers : he will lead the child to 
 feel the loveliness of landscapes; he will interest 
 him in the habits of animals ; in fact, he will try 
 to make nature reveal herself to him in her con- 
 crete loveliness and variety. 
 
 Among the questions keenly discussed in con- 
 nection with science teaching are (1) the order 
 in which the sciences should be taught, and 
 (2) what sciences are suitable for schools. Opin- 
 ions on these subjects will necessarily differ until 
 agreement as to the meaning of terms is reached. 
 The fact is, as we have seen, that all the sciences 
 call for processes c if thought which can be reason- 
 ably expected only in mature minds; but it is 
 true, at the same time, that separate facts, in all 
 these sciences, tending towards a unity, may be 
 discovered by a child of eleven or twelve years 
 of age. Faraday said that chemistry could be 
 taught to a boy of eleven; others denied that it 
 could; and in a certain sense, both were right, 
 from their respective points of view. At the 
 same time there is no doubt that the facts of 
 some sciences, in the average, are much more 
 complicated than those of other sciences ; and, 
 therefore, there is wisdom in teaching them in a 
 certain order. Botany, for instance, is among 
 the simplest of the sciences. It calLs into play 
 the power of minute observation. The child is 
 interested in examining the structure of the 
 plant and the growth of the various parts. An 
 appeal is also made to his [lowers of grouping or, 
 in other words, of classification. And the pupil 
 has a large field in botany for these two activities. 
 (See Botany.) The same is true of the other 
 science of classification, zoology ; but the processes 
 are a little more complicated. It should, there- 
 fore, naturally follow botany. From these, the 
 pupil should proceed to some department of 
 physics, and from that, advance to chemistry. 
 The one should go before the other; because the 
 processes of chemical motion are much more dif- 
 ficult to observe accurately than those of me- 
 chanical motion. And the course of science might 
 well end with physiology, in which many of the 
 modes of reasoning employed are abstruse, and 
 the student is continually liable to be misled by 
 appearances and analogies. 
 
 II. One of the most important aims of the 
 educator is to lead man to recognize how to 
 live most successfully for himself ; to realize the 
 responsibilities of his position, and, by seeking 
 to comply with these responsibilities, to attain to 
 the greatest possible happiness. In this process 
 of education, the student must be led to recognize 
 the material and physical conditions of his ex- 
 istence ; to know himself, not as an independent 
 being, but as one dependent upon the multifa- 
 rious conditions of the vast scheme of nature, and 
 as one, who, alike in what he is and in that of 
 which he is capable, is strictly under the control 
 of natural law. In other words, man can only 
 know himself by comparison with other objects 
 in nature, — can only know Ms powers by com- 
 
 I parison with the forces by which other forms of 
 I matter are controlled. Again, as a mere question 
 [ of material prosperity, the st udy of natural science 
 [ is forced upon our consideration. No thoughtful 
 man warn lering through the aisles of a great inter- 
 : national exhibition can fail to see that all prog- 
 I ress in applied science and the arts must be based, 
 in the first place, upon an exact knowledge ol 
 natural resources, material ami physical. It will 
 lie admitted that knowledge of all kinds is fun- 
 damentally based upon the evidence of our senses, 
 but such evidence is apt to mislead, unless checked 
 by experiment; experiment, to be of real utility, 
 must be exact and systematic. The reasoning that 
 draws conclusions from such experiments must 
 be logical; and language, at once ample and exact, 
 is required as an implement, only of value when 
 wielded with precision, to widen the fields of in- 
 quiry with the utmost economy of mental labor. 
 We are compelled to make these remarks because 
 the true importance of a scientific study of nature 
 has not been recognized by the greater part of 
 those who are engaged in education. A knowl- 
 I edge of the leading truths of natural science is. 
 j however, essential to education, (1) because of 
 their fundamental character, and (2) because of 
 the method by which such sciences are pursued, 
 which method is the same as that which ought to 
 obtain in every action of our every-day lives. 
 Comparing the training given by language and 
 mathematics with that given by natural science, 
 we see that, whilst language cultivates the mem- 
 ory, and mathematics trains the reasoning facul- 
 ties, neither affords any means for the cultivation 
 of observation and experiment. Turning to the 
 natural sciences themselves, we find that the 
 physical branches cultivate observation, experi- 
 ment, and inductive reasoning; while the material 
 branches, including the natural history sciences, 
 cultivate especially the faculties of observation 
 and systematic classification. But. in addition 
 to this, from the multitudinous data with which 
 the latter deal, and the impossibility of obtain- 
 ing complete series of such data, these studies in- 
 evitably lead the inquiring mind to a constant 
 consideration of probabilities, or, in other words, 
 to a habit, of the utmost importance to us prac- 
 tically, of justly weighing circumstantial evidence. 
 In view of the vast mass of facts accumulating 
 more and more rapidly each day from the various 
 fields of scientific investigation, it is impossible 
 that any human mind can grasp all the details of 
 even a single branch. The follow ing considerations 
 are, however, important in this view of education: 
 I I ) that, by experience in some two sciences, I In- 
 one physical and the other relating to the forms 
 assumed by matter, the student should learn the 
 principles on which these natural sciences are 
 pursued, and therefrom be able to appreciate the 
 value of scientific training and knowledge ; 
 ('!) that he should understand the general scope 
 of the various sciences ; (3) that he should be 
 familiar with the broad generalizations of science; 
 (4) that he should not be ignorant of such com- 
 mon scientific details as occur to us every day, 
 and have an immediate and direct connection 
 
770 SCIENCE 
 
 with our welfare and success in life; and (5) that 
 he should be taught how to obtain information 
 by reference, and how to weigh the trustworthi- 
 ness of authorities. In order that the second 
 and third of these requirements may be intelli- 
 gently obtained, they must logically be preceded 
 by the first, and simultaneously the acquisition 
 of the knowledge implied by the fifth may well 
 be commenced. In the physical branches of 
 scientific inquiry, qualitative analytical chemistry 
 theoretically best meets the requirements of the 
 ease ; in the materi il sciences, we may sele t one 
 of those which are called natural history sciences. 
 Under this hea I, certain of the natural sciences 
 which treat of the living forms of matter were 
 formerly include I: but the term is a must indef- 
 inite one. and must cease to be used at all, if con- 
 fined to its old signification. The sciences espe- 
 cially included under it. botany and zoology,have 
 been placed upon altogether new and broader 
 foundations as branches of biology, so that they 
 now cover morphological and physiological 
 ground never contemplated in the old use of the 
 term. There would seem to be a propriety in 
 using the term to express that pursuit of nature 
 which is essentially out-of-door in its character, 
 — the study of the external relationship of beings 
 to each other ; and in this view we should cer- 
 tainly need to include geological investigations. 
 At the same time, it will be apparent to every 
 naturalist that the scope of such a term could 
 not be rigorously defined. There can be no 
 doubt that an out-of-door study of nature ought 
 to be an essential element of education. It may 
 be long before it is generally introduced into the 
 courseof school education, but it should certainly 
 be enforced upon the community as a duty at 
 least in home culture. It should be used to cul- 
 tivate habits of close, exact, tu id systematic ob- 
 servation, commenced in the field and continued 
 in the laboratory; of judiciously collecting, care- 
 fully preserving and classifying, s e one or 
 
 more series of natural objects; and of referring 
 for information not to be obtained by personal 
 inquiry, regarding the objects observed and col- 
 lected, to trustworthy sources. By well-judged 
 training in either botany or any one of the 
 branches of zoology, the ends above indicated 
 may be attained : w hilst the general spirit of ob- 
 servation an inquiry in the wide field of natural 
 science thai will be encouraged, will lead to a 
 breadth and liberality of mental tone. Nor need 
 this general and more desultory observation be 
 dreaded, as apt to lead to hasty, unfounded, and 
 inexact acquirements, if the mind is duly drained, 
 as had been suggested, in vigorous methods of 
 thought by the evict pursuit of some special suli 
 ject of scientific study. If there be any truth in 
 the suggestions just- thrown out, it will be ap- 
 parent that such training in the natural history 
 sciences cannot be commenced too early in life, 
 because the spirit of the training is such that it 
 should imbue the entire mental culture of the in- 
 dividual; and, furthermore, if this early training 
 has been neglected, the study of science in an 
 advanced period of education, will not be so suc- 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS 
 
 cessful, because it will lack the vivid conceptions 
 which can only be acquired by the exercise of 
 the observing faculties in early life. It only 
 remains to add that, as all teaching by the very 
 nature of these sciences must be objective, the 
 duty of the instructor, at every stage of science 
 teaching, is to supplement nature and not to 
 take her place, not to impart information but to 
 guide the pupil in the .self-acquirement of knowl- 
 edge. Books, similarly, are only to be permitted 
 as dictionaries to explain such ] mints as the pupil 
 cannot elucidate by his own efforts.- See Payne, 
 
 The True. Foundation of Sbi -Teaching 
 
 (London!; Wilson, Essay on Teaching 
 
 Li I, 
 
 the r 
 
 /■:./-: 
 
 „/, /;/., 
 
 ttural 
 
 Edu- 
 on of 
 [.. On 
 
 (L 
 
 Modern Life (New York, 1867); Spencer, 'FPfca* 
 
 Knowledge is of Most Worth in Education: In- 
 
 teUectual, Moral, aneZPAysiW (NewYork,1866). 
 
 SCIENCE OF GOVERNMENT, the 
 
 name given to a branch of instruction in pri- 
 mary or secondary schools, which is designed to 
 impart to the pupils a knowledge of the political 
 system under which they live, and to make 
 them, as far as requisite, familiar with the dif- 
 ferent functions of government, and the mode 
 in which they are performed. It. generally, in- 
 cludes a consideration of the constitution of the 
 country or state, the qualifications and duties of 
 the principal officers of government, the legal 
 restrictions imposed upon citizens, and an out- 
 line of civil and municipal regulations. Many 
 excellent treatises have been prepared for this 
 
 purpose for 
 
 there can be i 
 
 elementary schools; and, 
 on of the value of this de- 
 m for all classes of pupils. 
 schools, one of the most 
 irhich is to prepare for in- 
 
 payment ot instruct 
 particularly in publi 
 important obji el- ot 
 telli-ent and useful atizensnip. 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS are higher insti 
 
 and theoretical, is t 
 chide polytechnic sc 
 rious branches of scii 
 schools, such as those 
 — In Europe, they 
 the state. The real 
 are essentially scienti 
 In Austria Hungan 
 nic institutes iha\ in<_ 
 327 instructors and 4.40") pupils); namely, in 
 Vienna, Buda-Pesth, Prague (one German and 
 one Bohemian), Grata, Lemberg, and Briinn. 
 The oldest are those in Prague, founded in 180G. 
 That in Vienna, founded in 1815, has five de- 
 partments (one of general science, and schools of 
 engineering, architecture, mechanical engineer- 
 ing, and chcmi.strvi: the others lack one or more 
 of these departments.— The German Empire 
 has K» scientific institutes (having, in the winter 
 of 1875—6, 498 instructors and fi,(!44 pupils); 
 namely, the Academy of Architecture (Ban- 
 
 taught i. and special 
 
 ng. engineering, etc. 
 rally supported by 
 q. v.) in Germany 
 Is of a lower grade, 
 ire seven polyteeh- 
 winter of 1875 — (i. 
 
SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS 
 
 771 
 
 akademie) in Berlin; the Technological Academy 
 (Oewerbe-Akademie) in the same place, with de- 
 partments of mechanics and engineering, of chem- 
 istry and metallurgy, and of naval construction; 
 and' the polytechnic schools in Hanover, Aix-la- 
 C'hapelle, Munich. Dresden, Stuttgart. < 'arlsruhe, 
 Darmstadt, and Brunswick. The last, founded 
 in 1745, is the oldest. The Berlin academies 
 were founded in L799 and 1820, respectively. 
 The polytechnic schools have several depart- 
 ments : that in Munich includes one of agri- 
 culture; that in Dresden, one of mathematics 
 and physical science for teachers; that in I 'arls- 
 ruhe, one of forestry ; and that in Brunswick, 
 one of pharmacy, and one of forestry. Common 
 to must of them, as branches of instruction, are 
 mechanics, engineering, architecture, mathemat- 
 ics, physics, and chemistry. — In France, the 
 Polytechnic School in Paris is organized on a 
 military basis, and has for its object the prepa- 
 ration of engineers, and candidates for positions 
 in the artillery, the navy, the public works, mines, 
 the general staff, the powder and saltpeter facto- 
 ries, the telegraphic institutions, and the tobacco 
 administration. It was founded in 1795, and, 
 in 1873, had 426 pupils. It is, properly, only 
 preparatory to higher special institutions, mili- 
 tary and civil. The latter include the < 'entral 
 School of Arts and Manufactures (£co!e centrale 
 ties arts et mamifactures), designed for the in- 
 struction of civil engineers and directors of fac- 
 tories and metallurgical establishments; the 
 School of Bridge and Road Building (tlcole des 
 pants et chaussees); and the Conservatory of 
 Arts and Trades ( Conservatoire des arts <■/ me- 
 tiers). These are all in Paris. The last-named has 
 a collection of machines, instruments, products 
 of agriculture and industry, and a library. There 
 are thirteen scientific courses in techuical sub- 
 jects, political economy, industrial legislation, 
 and statistics, and, also, an inferior school of 
 drawing and descriptive geometry. The Museum 
 of Natural History in Paris affords instruction 
 to students. — In Italy, there are scientific schools 
 in Milan, Turin, Naples, Rome, Padua, and 
 Palermo, the last three being connected with 
 the universities in those places.— In Russia are 
 found the Technological Institute, the Engineer- 
 ing Institute, and the School of Architecture, 
 in St. Petersburg, and polytechnic schools, in 
 Riga, Moscow, Lodz, and Eelsingfors (Finland). 
 The last, in 1872—3, had 118 students; the 
 others, in 1874, 2,570. The institution in Riga 
 has seven departments: an agricultural, a chem- 
 ical, a surveying, an engineering, a mechanical 
 engineering, an architectural, and a commercial 
 department. — In Bel;/inm. scientific schools are 
 
 connected with the universities. Switzerland 
 
 has a polytechnic school in Zurich, with eight 
 departments : an architectural, an engineering, 
 a mechanical, and a chemical department, a 
 school of agriculture and forestry, a depart- 
 ment for the education of special teachers of 
 mathematics and natural sciences, a general 
 philosophical and politico-economical depart- 
 ment, and a preparatory mathematical course. 
 
 This institution was founded in 1854 ; and. in 
 1.S75—G, had 92 instructors and 912 students. 
 There is, besides, a scientific department in the 
 Academy of Lausanne, and an architectural de- 
 partment in the Lyceum of Lugano. I he othei 
 continental nations also have scientific- schools. 
 In Great Britain, there are no polytechnic 
 schools. There are, however, private associations 
 that offer instruction in science; and the South 
 Kensington Museum in London, which possesses 
 rich collections in art, natural history, and sci- 
 ence, also maintains schools. Lectures are also 
 given on scientific subjects in the universities 
 of London. Glasgow, Edinburgh, and Dublin. 
 The Royal College of Science, hi Dublin, and 
 the Royal Mining School, in London, may also 
 be mentioned. 
 
 In Europe, there are numerous special scl Is 
 
 of agriculture and forestry. Austria has a school 
 of vine culture and pomology at Klosterueuburg. 
 The principal milling institutions of the conti- 
 nent are as follows: in Austria-Hungary, the 
 mining academies at Leoben, Pribram, and 
 Schciniiitz. and eight milling schools: in Ger- 
 many, the mining academies" in Merlin, Claus- 
 thal, and Freiberg (opened in 17Gfi), and 14 
 mining schools ; iu France, the National Mining 
 School in Paris (of a higher grade), and the 
 mining schools at St. Etienneand Alais; in Italy, 
 the mining schools at Caltanisetta and Agordo. 
 and the special e tool for quarrying and working 
 marble, at Carrara : in Russia, the Imperial In- 
 stitute of Mining and Metallurgy, in St. Peters- 
 burg, and seven intermediate and lower mining 
 schools; in Sweden, the mining department of 
 the Technological Institute of Stockholm ; in 
 Belgium, the special school of mines in the Uni- 
 versity of Liege, and the provincial school of 
 trades, industry, and mining, at Mons. 
 
 In the United Stales, the Commissioner of 
 Education reports, in 1875, 74 schools of science 
 mining, en-in. . i hi-.agiicuftural, etc.), including 
 separate inMitutioiis and departments of colleges 
 and univei'siti. -. with 7. - instructors and 7,157 
 students. Of these, 41 are endowed by the na- 
 tional land grant as agricultural colleges; but 
 most or all of them have one or more additional 
 courses, as of general science, engineering, etc. 
 i For their special features, see Agricultural 
 Colleges.) The terms of admission to Amer- 
 ican scientific schools vary somewhat in the dif- 
 ferent institutions, but include arithmetic, ele- 
 mentary algebra and geometry, geography, En- 
 glish grammar and composition, and history. 
 The course generally covers four, sometimes oidy 
 three years, and leads to the degree of Bachelor 
 of Science, or appropriate special degrees (as 
 Civil Engineer. etc.). The curriculum commonly 
 embraces the higher mathematics, English lan- 
 guage and literature, history. French and Ger- 
 man, chemistry, drawing, physics, natural his- 
 tory, astronomy, mental science, and political 
 economy, besides special branches appropriate to 
 the particular course pursued. Of separate in- 
 stitutions, the oldest is the Rensselaer Polytech- 
 nic Institute in Troy, N. Y., founded in 1824, 
 
772 
 
 SCIENTIFIC SCHOOLS 
 
 and re-organized in 1849. It has a course in 
 civil engineering (understood to include mechan- 
 ical or dynamical engineering, road engineering, 
 bridge engineering, hydraulic engineering, etc.). 
 Other prominent institutions are the .Massachu- 
 setts Institute of Technology (opened in L861), 
 in Boston, with 10 courses (civil engineering, 
 mechanical engineering, mining engineering, 
 architecture, chemistry, metallurgy, natural his- 
 tory, physics, science and literature, philosophy); 
 the Illinois Industrial University (1867), at Ur- 
 bana, III., with courses in agriculture, horticult- 
 ure, mechanical, mining, and civil engineering, 
 architecture, chemistry, natural history, English 
 and modern languages, ancient languages, mili- 
 tary science, commerce, and domestic science 
 and art (for women); the Stevens Institute of 
 Technology (1871), in Hoboken, N. J., a school 
 of mechanical engineering; Purdue University 
 (1874), at Lafayette, Ind., with a course in gen- 
 eral science, and courses in agriculture, horti- 
 culture, civil engineering, industrial design, 
 physics and mechanics, chemistry aud metal- 
 lurgy, and natural history ; the State School of 
 Mines (1874), at Golden, Col.; and the New 
 Market Polytechnic Institute, at New Market, 
 Va., with a mechanical-engineering, a civil-en- 
 gineering, a chemical, and a classical course. 
 Among scientific departments (for mention of 
 which see the articles on the institutions to 
 which they belong), may be instanced the Law- 
 rence Scientific School (Harvard University), 
 the Sheffield Scientific School (Yale < 'ollegei, the 
 School of Mines of ( lolumbia ( iollege, the « 'hand- 
 ler Scientific Department and the Thayer School 
 of Civil Engineering (Dartmouth College), the 
 John C. Green School of Science (College of 
 New Jersey), the Scientific School of Rutgers 
 College, the Engineering School of LTnion Uni- 
 versity, the Pardee Scientific Department of 
 Lafayette College, and the Missouri School of 
 Miues and Metallurgy (University of Missouri). 
 Cornell University and some other institutions 
 have various scientific courses, without a distinct 
 organization. The Worcester County Free In- 
 stitute of Industrial Science, at Worcester, 
 Mass., was opened in 1868. It offers instruction 
 in mechanical engineering, civil engineering, 
 drawing, physics, chemistry, English, French, 
 and German. The course occupies three and a 
 half years for those preparing to become mechan- 
 ical engineers, and three years for all others. 
 Much attention is given in this institution to 
 practice, it being designed to impart sufficient 
 practical familiarity with some branch of ap- 
 plied science, to secure to its graduates a liveli- 
 hood. At the middle of the first year, every 
 student (except the mechanical section) chooses 
 some department, under the advice of the in- 
 structors, and devotes ten hours a week and the 
 month of July, to practice in that department 
 until his graduation, that is, for two and a half 
 years. The mechanical section practice in the 
 machine shop from the beginning, that is, for 
 three and a half years. Students who select 
 chemistry, work in the laboratory ; the civil en- 
 
 SCOTLAND 
 
 gineers, at field work or problems in construc- 
 tion ; and the designers, at problems in design. 
 The shop is managed as a manufacturing estab- 
 lishment, in order that the students may always 
 work in the wholesome atmosphere of real 
 business. 
 
 SCOTLAND, the northern part of the island 
 of Great Britain, aud an important division of 
 I the United Kingdom of the same name. Its 
 | area contains 30,463 sq. ni.; and its population, 
 according to the census of 1871, was 3,3611,(118. 
 Educational History. — The system of com- 
 mon schools, under which Scotland became cel- 
 ebrated for the general diffusion of education / 
 among its people, was founded in 1695, by the 7^* 
 law which required that a school should be 
 established and "a school-master appointed in 
 every parish by advice of the presbyteries." (See 
 PitKsnvTKRiAXs.) The fundamental principle of 
 free schools was recognized in this act, thus en- 
 titling Scotland to the credit of having first 
 established schools for primary instruction to be 
 supported at the public expense. Indeed, as early 
 as 1617, King James visited Scotland to oblige 
 the privy council to establish parish schools. In 
 I 696, the system was completed by an act of par- 
 liament. The minimum of salary to be paid the 
 teacher was fixed, and the proprietors were re- 
 quired to meet, and vote the requisite funds.which 
 if they failed todo.the commissioners of taxes were 
 required to levy the school tax. It is the effect of 
 this law, and of the parish schools that it created, 
 which has been said to be. "beyond contradiction, 
 one of the most memorable examples of the 
 action which the diffusion of knowledge exerts 
 upon the morality and well-being of nations." 
 In 1803, the salary of the school-master was 
 fixed at £16 13s. 4d. as a minimum ; and, in 
 1828, it was again raised, to £25 13s. In addi- 
 tion to the salary fixed by law, the teachers re- 
 ceived a small fee from each pupil. Besides the 
 parish schools, many others have been estab- 
 lished by the Society in Scotland for Propagat- 
 ing Christian Knowledge, as well as by the 
 Established Church, and other religious denomi- 
 nations. But. while the parochial system was 
 most beneficent in its operation for many gener- 
 ations, it was found inadequate for the wants of 
 the great modern towns. There was, however, 
 no difficulty in regard to religion ; because, in 
 every class of schools, the religious views of 
 parents were carefully respected. Hence, Roman 
 Catholic children often attended the Presbyte- 
 rian schools, which constituted the great major- 
 ity of all the schools in the country. By the 
 act of Aug. 0., 1 872, a new system was inau- 
 gurated, built on the old parochial system. 
 
 frimiiiy Iiitilrm-lidii. According to the law 
 of 1872, "to amend and extend the provisions 
 of the law of Scotland on the .subject of educa- 
 tion," the management of that department of 
 state affairs is intrusted to the Committee of 
 Council on Education. The provisions of law 
 here referred to are those of the several laws of 
 1696, 1803, and 1828, already referred to, and 
 the laws of 1837, 1838 (to facilitate the founda- 
 
tion and endowment of additional schools), and 
 1861 (the Parochial and Burgh School-masters 
 Act). A board of education has been temporarily 
 established, consisting of five members, appointed 
 by the queen, but to be responsible to the Scotch 
 Education Department. The national system 
 organized under the law of 1H72, is, in its main 
 features, similar to that established in England 
 by the law of 1870. The denominational system, 
 however, is more thoroughly interwoven with it ; 
 but parliamentary grants cannot be made "for 
 or in respect of religious instruction." The "con- 
 science clause" provides that every public school 
 shall be open to children of all denominations, 
 and any child may be withdrawn by his parents 
 from any religious observance in the school, 
 which must be practiced, if at all, at the be- 
 ginning or at the end of the session. A school 
 board, consisting of not less than 5 nor more 
 than 15 members, is elected in each parish and 
 burgh; and the electors consist of all persons 
 on the latest valuation roll, as owners or Occu- 
 piers of "lauds or heritages of the annual value 
 of not less than £4, situated in the parish or 
 burgh. Every voter is entitled to as many votes 
 as there are members to be elected, and may 
 distribute them among the candidates as he 
 thinks fit. These school boards have the charge 
 of the schools, and appoint and dismiss the 
 teachers ; but theyare not required to make any 
 restriction as to religious teaching beyond the 
 provisions above stated. All the teachers must be 
 certificated, after an examination by examiners 
 appointed by the school board ; and such exam- 
 iners must be "professors in a Scotch university, 
 or teachers of distinction in a higher-class public 
 school." The revenues of the school consist of 
 (1) contributions payable from the common 
 good of the burghs in which they respectively 
 exist ; (2) all endowments applicable to the gen- 
 eral purposes of the respective schools; (3) en- 
 dowments for the promotion of instruction in 
 particular subjects, or for the benefit of teachers of 
 particular branches in the respective schools; and 
 (4) fees paid by scholars. The schools are not 
 free, except to indigent pupils, the fees for whose 
 instruction must be paid out of the poor fund 
 of the parish or burgh, on the order of the school 
 board. The compulsory clause prohibits any 
 person from employing a child under the use of 
 13, who has not attended school regularly, for at 
 least 3 years, between the ages of 5 and 13, and 
 is unable to read and write, unless he makes pro- 
 vision for the education of the child. To exempt 
 such employer from prosecution under this 
 clause, an inspector's certificate of the child's 
 ability to read and write must be shown. The 
 general provisions of the Scottish Education Code 
 are similar in character to those of the English 
 code. (See England. )— The chief items of school 
 statistics for 1875 are as follows : 
 
 Number of children of school age (5—13) 629,254 
 
 " " pupilsonrolled in the public scliools.2!io,N74 
 
 Average daily attendance 212,21111 
 
 Number of schools under school boards 2,303 
 
 " " certificated teachers 3,K54 
 
 " " pupil-teaoliers 2,475 
 
 .AND 773 
 
 In 1874, the whole number of pupils enrolled 
 in the schools was 344,628, of whom 46,276 
 were under 6 years of age ; 252,521, between 
 6 and 12 ; and 45,831,above 12. The aggregate 
 average attendance was 263,748; and the num- 
 ber of certificated teachers, 3,165. Accommoda- 
 tion was afforded for 372,000 pupils at 8 square 
 feet of superficial area per child. In 1876, the 
 annual grants schools showed an average at- 
 tendance of 304,000. The average attendance 
 all over Scotland is about 75 per cent of the 
 enrollment. The number of schools inspected 
 in 1874 was 2,609, of which 221 did not fulfill 
 the conditions permitting annual grants. There 
 were 102 night schools, attended by 5,555 
 scholars above 12 years of age. There were 6 
 training colleges, attended by 822 students. 
 There were 12 reformatory schools, with 791 
 boys and 257 girls; and 27 industrial schools, 
 with 2,493 boys and 992 girls. The compulsory 
 education of system of Scotland is represented 
 a.s being remarkably efficient and satisfactory, 
 having increased the attendance, from L872 to 
 1875, to the extent of 42 per cent. The inspec- 
 tion is similar to that of England, the grants 
 being allowed only on results as shown by 
 passes under the inspector's examination. To 
 this system much objection is made, the teach- 
 er's success and pay depending too much on the 
 judgment, and, as is said, sometimes on the 
 caprice, of the inspector. 
 
 Educational Associations. — There are several 
 educational associations in Scotland, especially 
 
 distinguished a ng which is the Educational 
 
 Institute of Scotland, of comparatively recent 
 establishment, which has its branches in various 
 parts of the country, its roll of members now 
 numbering about 2,000. The Parochial Associa- 
 tion forthe Advancement of Education, recently 
 organized at Rogart, under the auspices of the 
 Duke of Sutherland, aims at the advancement 
 of education in the parishes by means of an an- 
 nual distribution of prizes, and the awarding 
 of bursaries to promising pupils of the element- 
 ary schools, so as to enable them to obtain a 
 higher education. The Edinburgh Ladies' Edu- 
 cational Association has rendered valuable ser- 
 vice in improving the opportunities of their sex 
 for a higher education. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — In many of the large 
 country parishes, subsidiary schools have been 
 established, which provide for secondary as well 
 as primary instruction. The chief representatives 
 of secondary instruction are, however, the high 
 schools and academies. Among them, the 1 1 igh 
 School and the Academy of Edinburgh, the High 
 School of Glasgow, and the academy i if I 'erth.are 
 specially distinguished. The High School of Kdin 
 burgh is mentioned, even in 1519, as the Gram- 
 mar School of the City. It was re-organized in 
 1598. and received from King -lames VI. the 
 name Sckola Regia Edinburgensis. It prepares 
 its pupils, who at the time of their admission 
 must be 8 years of age. either for the university 
 or for business life, and, therefore, corresponds 
 partly to the German gymnasium, and partly to 
 
the real school. The branches of study are 
 partly compulsory or imperative, as Latin, the 
 English language and literature, history and 
 geography, and natural history; and partly op 
 
 inch, German, mathematics, 
 ring, and gymnastics. The 
 ny was opened, in 1824, by 
 
 book-keepi 
 Edinburgh 
 
 Sir Walter Scott, it consists of 
 likewise comprises a classical and a scientific 
 course (Classical Side and Modern Side). It be- 
 longs to a stock company, which elects from its 
 own midst 15 directors, who appoint the rector 
 and the other teachers, regulate, conjointly with 
 the rector, all the affairs of the school, attend 
 the examination, and distribute the prizes. The 
 classical course prepares for the university; the 
 scientific course, for the civil and military ser- 
 vice, and for commercial life. —The -Madras Col- 
 lege, at St. Andrews, owes its origin to the 
 liberality of Dr. Andrew Hell (q.v.), who be- 
 queathed the sum of £45,000, in three per cent 
 stock, for the erection of a seminary, on a com- 
 prehensive plan, in this, his native, city. The 
 seminary affords instruction gratis to the poor, 
 and the fees are very low even for others. It is 
 one of the best attended schools of this class in 
 Scotland, having more than 1.000 pupils. The 
 grammar school of Perth, formerly the most 
 celebrated in Scotland, is attended by pupils 
 from all parts of the kingdom. The Jesuits 
 have a college (St. Aloysius'), at Glasgow. The 
 education of women lias long been on a higher 
 level in Scotland than in England. Of late, 
 some important improvements have been made. 
 
 The I'liin-rsi/ir.t. Scotland has four univer- 
 
 confirmed by papal decree in 111 I : Glasgow, 
 founded in 1450 ; Aberdeen, founded in 1494; 
 
 and Edinburgh, founded in loo-. The three 
 former were established by papal authority: that 
 of Edinburgh, by king .lames VI. In regard to 
 their organization, the Scotch universities have 
 always resembled more those of the continent of 
 Europe than those of England. The students 
 were divided into four miliim*. as they still are 
 in Glasgow and Aberdeen. They do not live in 
 the college halls, like the students of the En- 
 glish universities,, but. the jurisdiction of the 
 iiiiner-ilv authorities over them ceases when 
 they are beyond the walls of the university. 
 In 1858, a uniform constitution was given them 
 by the university act. Each of the universities 
 has three governing bodies, — a senatus aca- 
 i/e/itienn, a university court, and a general coun- 
 cil. The senate which consists of the principal 
 (elected for life by the I Town) and the professors. 
 
 takes charge of instruction, of discipline, and of 
 the finances of the university. It.- decisions are 
 
 the rector, its president, the principal, and as- 
 sessors i limited respectively by the chancellor. 
 
 the rector, the general council, and the senate. 
 In Glasgow, the dean of faculties, elected an- 
 nually by the senate, is also a member; and, in 
 Edinburgh, there are two additional members,- 
 
 ■d Provost 
 
 of the City, and an assessor, 
 
 by the eit. 
 
 corporation. It is also the 
 
 f the univ' 
 
 reity court, to fix the fees, to 
 
 tend the , 
 
 ofessors, and. if necessarj . to 
 
 . suspend. I 
 
 r deprive them of office. The 
 
 
 hich is composed of all the 
 
 ■ed graduat 
 
 s and alumni, and is a merely 
 
 itive body. 
 
 discusses all questions con 
 
 ■ the interei 
 
 ts of the university, and sub- 
 
 icm to tb 
 
 • decision of the university 
 
 The genu 
 
 al council elects a chancellor 
 
 for life, who becomes its president, and, in turn, 
 appoints a vice-chancellor. The general coun- 
 cils of St. Andrews and Edinburgh, and also 
 
 rech.r. an ollicc which is of a merely honorary 
 character, and usually conferred upon distin- 
 guished non-residents. The Scotch universities 
 confer the degrees of .Master of Arts. Bachelor 
 of Divinity, Doctor of Divinity. Bachelor of 
 Medicine, Master in Surgery, Doctor of Med- 
 icine, and Doctor of Laws. At Glasgow, the 
 degree of Bachelor of Science is also conferred; 
 at St. Andrews and Edinburgh, the degrees of 
 
 Bachelor of Sci 
 versity medical ( 
 
 nee and Doctor of Science; and. 
 
 Edinburgh, the degrees of Bach- 
 Doctor of Law. Besides the uni- 
 egrees,lii ens sareissui din Scot- 
 
 land by the l;„, 
 
 of Surgeons (in 
 
 and the bacilli) 
 Glasgow (incorj 
 of St. Andrews 
 
 ll s. St.Salvi 
 
 its, the two f, 
 1717. when the 
 pulled down. ' 
 
 al College oi 1 bysicians (incor- 
 1, Edinburgh, the' Royal College 
 
 .,1 Physicians and Surgeons of 
 ■rated in L592). The university 
 
 originally consisted of three col- 
 dor's, St. Leonard's, and St. Ma- 
 rnier of which were united in 
 buildings of St. Leonard's were 
 
 tinct. The United College is appropriated to 
 the study of languages, philosophy, and science; 
 and St. Mary, to that of theology. The United 
 College, in 1876, had lb ami St. Mary's, 4, pro- 
 fessors. He number of matriculated students 
 was 143, of graduates, 20; the proceeds available 
 for bursaries, prizes, and schola 
 
 dh 
 
 to about £2.000.- 
 
 -Aberdee 
 
 i had formerly 
 
 ■ii t 
 
 iversities. in each 
 
 lunded. Thatoi 
 
 if Which 1 
 
 d Alienle 
 
 tie college had 
 
 n was founded 
 
 I'.i 
 
 hop William Kip 
 
 tinstone, i 
 
 i 141)4. under 
 
 
 il bull of Ale.vi 
 
 der VI.; 
 
 and early re- 
 ge. instead of 
 
 ved 
 
 
 
 that ol ilit- \ ii-in .Marv, to whom ii was origin- 
 ally dedicated. The other was established in 
 New Aberdeen, in L593, and called Marisrlial 
 College, from its founder I leorge Keith. Karl 
 Marisrlial. The two foundations were united 
 by Charles I. under the name of King Charles's 
 University of Aberdeen, but retained their 
 character of distinct colleges till 1860, when 
 they were finally incorporated as the University 
 of Aberdeen. In 1876, the university had 21 
 professors, 3 "Murray lecturers," 1 "Murtlelect- 
 
SCOTLAND 
 
 SELF-EDUCATION 
 
 -urer" (on the evidences <if Christianity), and 
 1 " Fordyce lecturer." The total number of 
 matriculated students was 845; of graduates, 211; 
 
 an annual public competition for bursaries, and, 
 in 1886, the sum of £4468 was held in bursaries 
 
 M:i 
 
 in 1700) embraces a medical school, mechanics' 
 
 classes (the first established in the empire), and 
 
 Bishop Turnbull. En 1460, James Lord Ham- 
 ilton bequeathed for the use of the college a 
 tenement in the High Street, with four acres of 
 land adjoining ; and. in buildings on this side, 
 the university classes met for 410 years. In 
 1577, James VI. made provision for the support 
 of a principal and three regents. In 1870, the 
 classes of the university were transferred from 
 the old buildings in the 1 [igh Street to a magnif- 
 icent edifice erecte 1 in Gilinorehill, in the west of 
 Glasgow, the estimate 1 cost of which was about 
 £350,000. The curriculum is divide I int.. the 
 four faculties of arts, divinity, medicine, and 
 law. There were, in L876, "JT professors and 1 
 lecturer; the number of matriculated students 
 was ll'.lll; of graduates, 17-s of registered mem- 
 bers of the General Council, 2,835. The total 
 university income amounts to £15,756. — The 
 University of Edinburgh was chartered by 
 •lames VI. in 1582: and. in 1583, the college 
 was opened with 1 professor, or regent, and 48 
 
 nd. 
 
 L87 
 
 losophy, law, medicine, and divinity. The 
 medical faculty has long been celebrated as one 
 -of the bast medical schools in Europe, and still 
 continues to have the largest number of stu- 
 dents. Its library contains over 126,000 printed 
 volumes, and Too volumes m manuscript. Re- 
 cently, a chair of the Theory of Teaching has 
 been established in this university, like that of 
 the Theory and Practice of Education in the 
 University of St. Andrews, in order to afford 
 instruction in practical pedagogy. 
 
 Special and Professional Instruction.— (1) The 
 ministers of the Established Church of Scotland 
 are required to study at one of the four Scotch 
 universities, all of w Erich have theological prof ess- 
 orships. Attn- devoting four years to a literary 
 and philosophical curriculum, they are admitted 
 into the divinity hall, and spend four other ses- 
 sions in prosecuting the study of theology. The 
 Free ( Ihurch has a large divinity school at Edin- 
 burgh, called the New ('..liege of the Free 
 Church; it has also divinity halls tit Glasgow 
 and Aberdeen. The United Presbyterians have 
 a •• divinity hall." the CongregationaJists a ''theo- 
 logical hall" (established in 181 1 |, in Edinburgh ; 
 the Baptists likewise have a theological institu- 
 tion. The Roman Catholic St. Mary's College, 
 Blairs, Aberdeen, was established in 1829.— 
 (2) Anderson's University, or Andersonian In- 
 stitution, in Glasgow, founded by Dr. John An- 
 derson, professor of natural philosophy (died 
 
 Tin 
 
 ml. 
 
 sible; Voigt, Mittheilimgen uberdas Unterrichts- 
 wesen Englands undSchotllands (2d edit., 1863). 
 
 SECONDARY INSTRUCTION, that 
 grade of instruction which is usually afforded 
 in high schools, academies. etc.. or in institutions 
 above the ordinary grade of a common or pri- 
 mary school. 'I his grade of instruction is 
 intermediate between primary instruction and 
 superior instruction, or that afforded in colleges 
 and universities. (See Education, and High 
 Sen i.s.) 
 
 SELF-EDUCATION, that developmenf of 
 the powers whii h is carried on by the individual 
 himself, without the aid of ..tin rs. To a certain 
 extent, this education is not only unconscious, 
 but inevitable. The constant recurrence of like 
 
 c utions or actions, the knowledge of which is 
 
 conveyed to the individual by the senses, (hiring 
 the growth of mind and bo.lv. isalwavs attended 
 
 of boll,, whie 
 
 i, of itself, constitutes an education. 
 
 II: l ii ... nts 1 
 
 which this knowledge is converted 
 
 into an unoor 
 
 scious education are chiefly habit 
 
 creased ease i 
 
 t action under like circumstances, 
 
 and thus rem 
 
 ering the individual more capable; 
 
 the other ena 
 
 iling him to systematize his knowl- 
 
 edge, and to i 
 
 se it as an instrument for further 
 
 acquisition. 
 
 I'., determine, in all cases, just 
 
 where this ed 
 
 ication ceases, and voluntary self- 
 
 education bt g 
 
 us, would probably be very dim- 
 
 cult : y. t. in 
 
 general, it may be said that the 
 
 active interve 
 
 it i. -ii of the will i* the most obvious 
 
 feature by w 
 
 hich self education may be distill- 
 
 lion which is carried on intentionally. oiitM.le. or 
 beyond the influence, of the school. Even here. 
 however, the definition is imperfect; for it must 
 always !«■ difficult to estimate at its true compar- 
 ative value the strength of each of two impulses 
 which act thus at the same time and invisibly; but, 
 probably, a truer conception of the two powers, 
 self-education and school education, may be ac- 
 quired by supposing the difference between them 
 (..be one of function rather than of degree — 
 school education serving rather as a director or 
 Bystematizer of power, while self-education must 
 often be looked upon as identical with innate 
 power, from our inability to separate the one 
 from the other. We know what training the 
 
776 
 
 SELF-EDUCATION 
 
 school gives ; and, though we cannot analyze the 
 results it produces with sufficient accuracy to as- 
 sign to the school and to the individual the 
 proper share due to each, we know from many 
 comparisons made between countries with schools 
 and those without them, that the advantage lies 
 decidedly with the former. That the school is 
 rather a director of power than a creator of it, is 
 shown by contrasting the large number of men 
 who have enjoyed its advantages without mani- 
 festing special ability afterward in any walk of 
 life, with those who have risen to the highest po- 
 sitions without this privilege. In every civilized 
 country, the number of eminent self-educated 
 men is large enough to justify the paradoxical 
 saying of Emerson, that one of the chief values 
 of a college education is to teach its worthless- 
 ness. Whatever truth there may be in this remark 
 is due to the fact that education is of two kinds, — 
 practical and theoretical, the first based princi- 
 pally upon facts and experience, and dealing 
 largely with human nature ; the other, acquired 
 from books, and concerning itself in great measure 
 with abstractions and theories which, though val- 
 uable enough for purposes of general culture, are 
 of little use in practical life, and. if exclusively 
 pursued, produce a positive disqualification for it. 
 Of these two kinds of education, it is hardly too 
 much to say that the former is the more avail- 
 able, in the ordinary affairs of life, in a vast ma- 
 jority of cases. Hence, it should never be forgot- 
 ten by the educator, that the facilities for mental 
 acquisition which he offers the pupil by system- 
 atic instruction, too frequently result in vacilla- 
 tion, or feebleness of purpose, and are almost in- 
 evitably accompanied with a loss, on the part of 
 the latter, of that vividness of apprehension 
 which experimental acquaintance gives. The only 
 amends, therefore, he can make is to render his 
 instruction as practical, and as far removed from 
 mere book-learning, as possible. Knowledge and 
 "rote-learning have often a wonderful resemblance, 
 while, essentially, they may have nothing in com- 
 mon. The picture of a Lincoln, hastily gathering 
 book-knowledge by the light of the cabin fire; or 
 of a Franklin, finding in the intervals of his work 
 in a chandler's shop and a printing-office, an 
 equivalent for the school, should be a sufficient 
 admonition to every teacher, that the privileges 
 of the school room are not indispensable to the 
 most brilliant success. It is not necessary to 
 multiply instances of self-taught men ; the ranks 
 of greatness have been almost exclusively filled 
 from this class. Three most valuable attributes 
 are strengthened, if not created, by a course of 
 self-education : self-confidence, independence of 
 judgment, and perseverance. He only who has 
 always depended upon himself, knows accurately 
 the limit of his powers, measures beforehand 
 every difficulty, and does not look, at the last 
 moment, for extraneous aid; while the habit of 
 self-reliance thus cultivated, lays the foundation 
 for a solidity of character which, in critical 
 moments, is not swayed by fitful or transient in- 
 fluences. The third attribute, perseverance, is 
 the necessary result of such an education. Having 
 
 SEMINARY 
 
 always been accustomed to encounter obstacles, 
 and having always overcome them, the joy of 
 conflict and the joy of conquest, become, to self- 
 taught men, synonymous. The atmosphere of 
 difficulty is as the breath of life, and the result is 
 never doubtful to those who gather strength from 
 opposition. These are the most essential elements 
 of success, and, in practical matters, weigh more 
 than all the advantages of the school. On the 
 other hand, the commonest error of the self- 
 taught man is a depreciation of all studies or 
 pursuits which have no practical bearing. Geueral 
 culture — knowledge for itself alone, with all the 
 pleasures and consolations which it brings — is 
 underestimated. Accustomed always to see his 
 thoughts followed by tangible results, the moral 
 aspect of thought is lost sight of ; and his ideal 
 standard never rises above this utilitarian level. 
 This narrowness of mind leads almost inevitably 
 to a want of sympathy with liberal pursuits, and 
 sometimes to a kind of hardness or positiveness 
 of character which bears the appearance of ar- 
 rogance. Weakness being scarcely understood 
 by the successful, self-taught man. want of char- 
 ity is a natural fruit of his habits of thought. 
 These defects, however, are frequently removed 
 by age; and, even at their worst, can hardly be 
 said to be so serious as those which have been 
 cited as incident to misdirected education in the 
 school. Of the two kinds of education— self- 
 education and school education it may, there- 
 fore, be said in general, that the former is of 
 greater value than the latter ; that for all prac- 
 tical action in the familiar matters of daily 
 life, all great emergencies, whether of peace 
 or war, which require independence of judg- 
 ment, promptness of decision or action, and 
 inflexible perseverance, the self-taught man is 
 vastly the superior; while, in purely speculative 
 pursuits, in researches or projects undertaken 
 without hope of immediate or material result,' 
 the man of the schools, whose education has been 
 conducted with that broader outlook upon life 
 which leads directly to culture solely for its own 
 sake, manifests a far greater zeal and activity. 
 Neither kind of education is to be commended 
 by itself ; since the deficiencies of one need to 
 be supplied by the advantages of the other. 
 Their relation is well expressed by De Gerando, 
 in Self-Education: " If all the means of educa- 
 tion which are scattered over the world, and if 
 all the philosophers and teachers of ancient and 
 modern times were to be collected together, and 
 made to bring their combined efforts to bear 
 upon an individual, all they could do would be to 
 afford the opportunity of improvement" — i. e., 
 self-education. (See Gerando.) 
 
 SEMINARY (Lat. semiwtrinm, a place 
 where seed is sown, from semen, seed), a term, 
 used in education to denote an institution of 
 learning of any grade, though oftener applied to 
 one of secondary grade. It is also applied to 
 certain kinds of professional schools; as a theolog- 
 ical seminary, a teachers' seminary, etc., the idea 
 intended to be conveyed by the term being that- 
 of preparation for subsequent usefulness. 
 
SENECA 
 
 SENECA, Lucius Annseus, the last great 
 representative of the Stoic philosophy, bom in 
 Corduba (Cordova), Spain, about T B.C.; died 
 in Rome A. D.65. He was the son of Marcus 
 Annasus Seneca, a noted Roman rhetorician, 
 and the author of Oratortan et Rhetorum Sen- 
 tentice, etc., a work containing the memorable 
 sayings which he had heard from the orators and 
 rhetoricians of his time. The first studies of the 
 younger Seneca were eloquence and the affiliated 
 sciences; but, later, he developed a taste for 
 philosophy, in which he enjoyed the instructions 
 of Papirius Fabianus, Attains, Demetrius, and 
 Sotion. His connection with the imperial court 
 caused him much misery, and gave a tone of 
 sadness and weariness to his whole philosophy. 
 He was banished to Corsica by the emperor on 
 false charges, and remained in exile eight years ; 
 at the end of which time he was recalled, through 
 the intercession of the empress Agrippina. who 
 hoped, by this means, to gain favor for her son 
 Nero with the citizens, who held Seneca in high 
 esteem. On the accession of Nero, Seneca, who 
 had served him as tutor, became his adviser; 
 but he was unable to restrain the emperor's 
 monstrous excesses and crimes. He, therefore, 
 endeavored to withdraw entirely from the Ro- 
 man court, offering to the emperor to surrender 
 to him his property : but this was refused. He, 
 however, succeeded in keeping himself in seclu- 
 sion, but could not escape the cruelty of Nero, 
 by whom he was condemned, on a false charge 
 of complicity in Piso's conspiracy, and ordered 
 to commit suicide. His death was painful but 
 heroic, and his last words were. To Jove the Lib- 
 erator. ' — Surrounded by the dissipations of a 
 corrupt age. Seneca, with great earnestness, ad- 
 vocated the education of youth in pure morals, 
 self-control, and truthfulness. He believed, that 
 human nature, from birth, tended to evil, but 
 that God, who is the soul of the world, inspires 
 every man with thoughts upright, just, ami pure. 
 Seneca recognized, however, the great variety of 
 infantile individualities, rendering it necessary 
 for the educator to accommodate himself to par- 
 ticular cases. He recommended a just medium 
 between severity and remissness. He insisted 
 that boys should learn what is useful and prac- 
 tical in life ; and. from his complaint that the 
 youth of his times were studying not for life, but 
 for the school, the well-known maxim has been 
 deduced, Non scholce, se</ vittv discendum est. 
 His remark that the teacher himself advances 
 in knowledge by imparting instruction, has 
 given rise to another maxim: Docendo discimus. 
 — The recent literature in regard to Seneca is 
 fully reviewed in an exhaustive article in the 
 Methodist Quarterly Review (1876), by Hurst, 
 An edition of Seneca, designed for schools and 
 colleges, and embracing his principal essays, epi- 
 grams, epistles, alleged correspondence with St. 
 Paul, and parallels with sacred writers, by Hurst 
 and Whiting, appeared in New Tork. in 1*77. 
 
 SENSES, the Education of the. Edu- 
 cation, through the senses, has received a great 
 amount of attention in recent times, and a spe- 
 
 SKNSES 
 
 777 
 
 cial effort to systematize it, is made in the kin- 
 dergarten (q.v.); but comparatively little thought 
 has been given to the training of the senses 
 themselves. And. yet, there is ample experience 
 to prove that much can be done in this direction. 
 In cases where special senses have been called 
 into the most vigorous action, they have attained 
 capabilities which could scarcely have been 
 dreamed of. It may not be advisable to attempt 
 to cultivate each sense in every individual to 
 the same degree of acuteness that has been 
 reached in these extraordinary instances ; but, 
 there is no doubt that the neglect to train the 
 senses, now almost universal, is not justifiable. 
 The special attributes which we may assign to 
 the senses, are quickness in receiving impressions, 
 strength in taking hold of the impressions, and 
 vivacity in noticing not merely the unity which 
 is presented to the mind, but in remarking the 
 various details which compose or characterize 
 this unity. These three qualities are quite dif- 
 ferent from each other. If an object is held up 
 before a number of children, some will be found 
 able to form an impression of it much more 
 than others, while some will be very 
 to catch a notion of it. So. again, they 
 will differ in the strength of grasp with which 
 they seize hold of the object. On some it will 
 produce but a feeble impression, and that im- 
 pression will, consequently, soon die away ; but 
 by others the object will lie grasped firmly, and, 
 consequently, held firmly. Many, too. that may 
 be able to take strong impressions, may be sur- 
 passed by others of less strength in the capacity 
 to catch the multiplicity of details which are 
 presented to the view. In fact, the strong sense 
 is generally absorbed in the unity : but the less 
 vigorous notices the details along with the unity. 
 Now, these qualities are inborn with the senses; 
 and it is likely that the original difference, in 
 these respects, which exists in different minds, 
 is sufficient, to account for the mental differences 
 that ultimately appear among human beings. 
 Circumstances will explain the rest of tin' phe- 
 nomena ; but these qualities arc capable of cul- 
 tivation, being intensified in proportion to the 
 healthy exercise of the senses. In attempting 
 to train the senses, the most essential process is 
 isolation. The blind man becomes singularly 
 expert in the sense of touch, because he brings 
 it into continual play, and trusts much to it, 
 He must voluntarily follow the course which 
 necessity compels him to follow. Science has 
 not thrown much light, as yet, on the lower 
 senses; and, therefore, little can be done for 
 their training. The vital sense is so closely con- 
 nected with processes which take place in un- 
 consciousness that little can be made of it, 
 Somewhat more can be done with the senses of 
 taste and smell. If the child were asked to shut 
 his eyes, and determine, by taste, what objects 
 were presented to him, the sense might become 
 much more perfect and much more useful. At- 
 tention could be called to the general harmony 
 th.it rxists between the taste and healthfulness 
 of objects, and the child might thus learn, in 
 
;rs 
 
 SENSES 
 
 many cases, to choose the good and reject the 
 evil. The same remarks apply to the sense of 
 smell; but a wider range could be given to its 
 activities. The child, for example, might be re- 
 quired to determine flowers by their smells. I'.ut 
 it is when we come to the higher senses that 
 much can be done by isolating practice. In re- 
 gard to the sense of touch, there are three ex- 
 ercises which may be usefully practiced, hirst, 
 the sense of touch over the body may be rendered 
 much more acute; and. in consequence, what 
 are called the sensory circles, very much nar- 
 rowed. Experiment has proved this fact most 
 conclusively. Then, from touch we derive the 
 sense of pressure. Here the child may find in- 
 teresting exercise in trying to estimate the 
 weight of an object from its pressure on the 
 hand, or on other parts of the body. This con- 
 stitutes one of the peculiar exercises of object 
 teaching (q. v.). Moreover, touch gives the 
 notion of temperature ; and here again the child 
 might be taught to come very close to the exact 
 degree of Fahrenheit by the sense of heat which 
 lie has in his touch. The training which may 
 be given to the sense of hearing, is also various. 
 The child might be exercised in ascertaining 
 from what direction sounds come. He might 
 be taught to distinguish various sounds, and, es- 
 peciallj . musical sounds ; and he might learn to 
 analyze complex sounds. Some think, that the 
 last exercise should always be preliminary to 
 learning to read. Thus, the instructor utters a 
 word, and draws the child's attention to the 
 fact that it consists of several sounds. The 
 child is then asked to analyze the sounds: and 
 the child does not commence to learn to read 
 until he is able to analyze short words into their 
 simplest sounds. Spelling, in the sense of ana- 
 lyzing the sounds, according to this method, 
 precedes reading. According to the phonic 
 method, the analysis of sounds is employed to 
 facilitate the pronunciation of words, and. hence, 
 as auxiliary to reading, i See Phonic Method.) - 
 The sense of sight is the one through which edu- 
 cation takes place most of all. It is. therefore, 
 brought into continual activity, and thus re- 
 ceives greater training. In the object-teaching 
 system, this is accomplished in various ways, 
 but, particularly, by the use of color (q. v.). l)is- 
 tinct colors are first brought before the child's 
 eye. and In' is gradually practiced m distinguish- 
 ing them, so as. ultimately, to be able to note 
 the minutest sha les of difference. Then, again, 
 the child is taught to form from sight an ac- 
 curate idea of size ami distance. — The space 
 here does not admit of more than a mere glance 
 at this important subject: and only in connec- 
 tion with the training of children. But, while 
 there is no doubt lliat the greatest good can be 
 done in the earliest, years, the training may 
 profitably be continued throughout the whole 
 period of education. The organization of meth- 
 ods for such training has still to be discussed by 
 educationists. Moreover, physiologists are still 
 in great uncertainty as to many points. Great 
 discoveries have been recently made by the re- 
 
 SERVIA 
 
 searches of Weber, Wundt, Helmholtz, and 
 others; but we may expect still more important 
 discoveries from the investigations now going 
 on ; and there is no doubt that such discoveries 
 will throw light on the proper method of train- 
 ing the senses. — See G. Wilson, The Five Gate- 
 ways of Knowledge (Ith ed., London, 1663); 
 Wyld, Physics and Philosophy of the Senses 
 (London, isa(i) ; .Iri.irs Berxstkix, The Fire 
 Senses of Mm (New Fork, 1876). (See also 
 Ear, and Eye.) 
 
 SENTENTIAL, ANALYSIS. See Anal- 
 ysis, Grammatical. 
 
 SERVIA, a dependency of Turkey, having 
 an area of 1(1. si 7 square miles, and a population 
 of about 1,338,000. The large majority of the 
 inhabitants belong to the Servo-Croatian branch 
 of the southern Slaves, and are members of the 
 Greek Church. 
 
 Educational Legislation. — Fifty years ago, 
 Servia had no public primary schools, but owing 
 to the interest taken in the cause of education 
 by the ruling house of Obrenovitch, and by the 
 Skupshtina. the national assembly, elementary 
 instruction has, of late, made considerable prog- 
 ress. The public school system is under the con- 
 trol of the ministry of education, composed of 
 the minister, a chief of section, 4 secretaries and 
 3 actuaries. The four secretaries, with the chief of 
 the section, form a school board which is presided 
 over by the minister, and publishes all school 
 laws and regulations. 
 
 /'/-, 
 
 •!v sii 
 
 the 
 
 is (1,1 
 
 cct of the 
 
 circle, the minister being the highest. Education 
 is compulsory, and is free to all. in the hiilicst as 
 well as in the lowest schools. Every teacher who 
 has served ten years, and has become unfit for 
 further service, is entitled to a pension equal to 
 III per cent of his salary, and each additional 
 year entitles him to an increase of 2 per cent. 
 After .'i."i years' service, he receives his entire sal- 
 ary as a pension. The salaries of teachers are the 
 same in large and in small communities, being 
 about $250 a year. In 1874. there were 517 
 public schools, with 650 teachers and 23,278 
 pupils. Most of the schools have, thus far, had 
 three classes: but a law. passed in 1875, provides 
 that in future all schools shall have four classes. 
 The number of private scl Is is small. A nor- 
 mal school was established, in 1872, at Kraguye- 
 vatz, which, in 1873, had 59 pupils. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruction 
 is under the immediate control of the minister 
 of education. The secondary schools comprise 
 gymnasia, sub-gymnasia, real schools, and sub- 
 real schools. The gymnasia and real schools, 
 had, in 1*75. five classes, the sub-gymnasia, four 
 or three : and the sub-real schools, two. In 1875. 
 the Skupshtina passed a law. providing for the 
 establishment of a real school in the capital of 
 each circle. In 1873, there were 2 gymnasia and 
 5 sub-gymnasia, with an aggregate of 72 teach- 
 ers and 1,323 pupils, and 1 real school and 8 sub- 
 real schools, with an aggregate of 40 teachers and 
 
STIURTLKFF COLLEGE 
 
 .79 
 
 436 pupils. There is. also, for tin- instruction of 
 girls, one secondary school, with 238 pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The high school in 
 Belgrade, the only institution for superior in- 
 struction, is. like the secondary schools, under the 
 direct control of the minister of education. It 
 had, in 1873. three faculties,— of law, technology, 
 and philosophy, with El teachers and 207 stu- 
 dents. All the lectures axe public, and no fees 
 
 Special and Professional Schools.— Special 
 instruction is imparted in a school of forestry 
 and agriculture, a theological seminary of the 
 Creek Church, an artillery .school, and a military 
 school. Sec Chronikdes Volksschulwesens, Is;:',, 
 
 SETON, Samuel Waddington, eminent as 
 
 connection with the pul.'lic schools of tlie 'city 
 of New Vork. was horn in that city Jan. 23., 
 1 789; and died in the same. Nov. I'll.. 1870. His 
 father was the first president of the Bank of 
 New York, then the second banking-house in 
 the country. By the decease of both his parents, 
 he was left an orphan at an early age. Afn r re- 
 ceiving an academic education, he entered upon 
 a commercial life, and, aided by John Jacob 
 
 was unsuccessful ; and. on his return to New 
 York, in L807, he obtained an appointment in 
 the Bank of New York, where he remained some 
 years. In 1823, he was elected by the Public 
 School Society a trustee of the schools ; and, in 
 1826, at considerable pecuniary sacrifice, he ac- 
 cepted the appointment, from the hoard of trust- 
 ees, of aue.it of the society, virtually, super- 
 intendent of the schools, the duties of which 
 
 of character and active beneficence : and. having 
 never married, he was able to devote Inn. elf 
 
 wholly to his benevolent efforts to improve the 
 
 condition of his race. II,- was a fertile and taste- 
 ful writer both in pro.se and verse- the filler 
 
 viving as models of the kind. He was also sin- 
 gularly effective in his a Idresses to the young, 
 m ingl i ng informal ion, impressed with the quaint- 
 est and most humorous of illustrations, w ith pas- 
 sages of the m.isi touching pathos His dying 
 request breathed the spirit which had pervaded 
 
 among the children !" — and, accordingly, his grave 
 was made in the center of the children's plot, in 
 Greenwood Cemetery, over which a monument 
 waserected by the public-school teachers of the 
 city, bearing the appropriate epitaph: Peace I 
 ■See I ;, .■ i. \r. //,*/,„■!/ <>f the Public School 
 
 Ne< 
 
 l-e|,; 
 
 the 
 
 the society, in 1853. In 1854, he was elected by 
 the Board of Education of the city an assistant. 
 superintendent, in which office he continued un- 
 til his death. He also took great interest in 
 Sunday-school instruction, having had, at I he time 
 of his death, the charge of a Baptist Sunday- 
 school (though himself an Episcopalian i for ell 
 years uninterruptedly, during which period, it is 
 said, he was absent from his self-imposed duty 
 only twelve Sundays, and this in consequence of 
 sickness or absence from the city. Mr. Seton 
 w;ts peculiarly qualified for In- duties as a super- 
 intendent of schools particularly primary 
 schools, by his gentle, losing spirit,his sympathy 
 with children, and his ardent zeal in behalf of 
 early education. This subject he had studied 
 with the deepest interest: and his suggestions 
 were eminently wise and practical. In titis work, 
 he was the active associate of Josiah Holbrook 
 (q. v.) and Joseph Curtis ( < j. v.), as well as many 
 I others, whose efforts, at that time, were given 
 to improving the methods of common-school in- 
 struction. His annual reports are replete with 
 valuable information for teachers of young chil- 
 dren. His philanthropic zeal was not confined 
 to the schools, but extended to all the poor and 
 helpless within his reach. Few lives have been 
 so strongly marked by purity and disinterestedness 
 
 SETON HALL COLLEGE, at South 
 Orange. N. J., under Roman Catholic control, 
 was founded at Madison.in 1856, removed to its 
 present location in 1860, and incorporated in 
 1861. It is supported by the fees of students, 
 the charge for tuition, board, etc., being $400 
 a year. The library contains 8,000 volumes. 
 There is a commercial, a preparatory, a col- 
 legiate, and a theological department. In 1875 
 - 6, there were 15 instructors and 140 students, 
 of whom 39 were iii the theological department. 
 The presidents have been the Rt. Kev. B. J. 
 McQuaid, D. D., 1856—68, and the Rt. Rev. M. 
 A. Corrigan, ]>.]>.. since 1868. 
 
 SEX IN EDUCATION. See Co-Education. 
 
 SHAW UNIVERSITY, at Holly Springs, 
 Miss., founded in 1870, is under Methodist 
 Episcopal control, and is supported by the Freed- 
 men's Aid Society of that Church. It was designed 
 especially for colored youth.but is open to all with- 
 out distinction of race or sex. It has an English, 
 a normal, a preparatory, a collegiate, a theological, 
 and a law department. Tuition, except inlaw and 
 music, is free. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 instruct- 
 ors and 1 13 students (38 of the collegiate grade). 
 'I he presidents have been the Kev. A. C.McDon- 
 ald, L870— 74, and (he Rev. W. AY. Hooper, 
 since 1874. 
 
 SHAW UNIVERSITY, at Raleigh. N. C, 
 founded in 1865, and chartered in L875,is under 
 Baptist control. It is supported by a small 
 charge upon the students, and by contributions 
 from friends in the North. It was especially de- 
 signed for colored youth; but none are excluded 
 on account of race or sex. The university has 
 tin elementary, a normal, a collegiate, and a the- 
 ological department. In 1875 — G, there were 8 
 instructors and 23IJ students. The liev. II. M. 
 Tupper, A. M., is (1870) the president. 
 
 SHURTLEFF COLLEGE, at Upper Al- 
 ton, III. under Baptist control, was established 
 as Alton Seminary, in 1832, and chartered as 
 Alton College, in 1835. Soon after its establish- 
 ment, the Bock Spring Literary and Theological 
 Seminary, organized in lS'27. and likewise under 
 Baptist control, was removed to this place, and 
 
780 
 
 SICARD 
 
 merged in this college. The Rev. Hubbell Loomis, 
 who was the principal of the seminary from 
 1832 to 1835, contributed largely to the estab- 
 lishment of the college, which, by virtue of its 
 origin in 1827, is claimed to be the oldest insti- 
 tution of the kind in the Mississippi Valley. 
 The name was changed, in 183(5, in honor of 
 Benjamin Shurtleff. M. D., of Boston, who had 
 donated $10,000 to the institution. It consists 
 of an academic and preparatory department, the 
 college proper, and a theological department. 
 Students of both sexes are admitted to the col- 
 lege, as well as to the academic and preparatory 
 department. The college has a classical and a 
 scientific course of four years each, and a three 
 years' Latin course. It has au endowment of 
 $125,000, and its libraries contain 10,000 volumes. 
 The cost of tuition ranges from $36 to $48 a 
 year: but in the the 'logical department it is free. 
 .Ministerial students arc assisted by the Illinois 
 Baptist Education Society. In 1875—6, there 
 were 12 instructors and 189 students (deducting 
 repetitions), namely: theological, 6; collegiate, 54; 
 preparatory and academic, 131. The presidents 
 of the college have been as follows : the Rev. 
 Washington Leverett, A. M.. 1835—41; the Rev. 
 Adiel Sherwood, 1). 1)., 1841—5; the Rev. 
 Washington Leverett, A. M., again. 1846 — 9; the 
 Rev. Norman N. Wood, D. D., 1850—55 ; the 
 Rev. S. T. McMasters, LL. D. [pro tern.), 1855 
 —6; the Rev. Daniel Read, LL.D., L856 -71 : 
 and the Rev. A. A. Kendrick, D. D., since 1872. 
 SICARD, Roch Ambroise Cucurron, abb. 1 , 
 a French philanthropist and teacher of the deaf 
 and dumb, born in Fousseret. September 2(1.. 
 1742; died in Paris, May 10., 1K22. He was edu- 
 cated for the ministry, at the university of Tou- 
 louse, and was made vicar-general of Condom and 
 canon of Bordeaux.^ 1 laving received instruction 
 from the abbe de l'Epee, he opened a school for 
 deaf-mutes in Bordeaux, in 1 786; and, three years 
 after, succeeded Ins teacher in the management of 
 a private school of that kind, which the latter had 
 opened in 1760. Two years after, he succeeded 
 in causing its adoption by the government.' It is 
 now known as the Imperial Institution of Paris. 
 Owing to his connection with the church, he 
 became an object of suspicion to the revolution- 
 ists, in 1792, and was thrown into prison, barely 
 escaping with Ins life. He was afterwards ban- 
 ished. In 1815, he made a visit to England, 
 taking with him his pupils Massieu and Laurent 
 Clerc, the latter of whom formed the acquaint- 
 ance there of Dr. Gallaudet, whom he accom- 
 panied to the United States in 1816. The dis- 
 tinctive work of the abbe Sicard was his enlarge- 
 ment of the resources of the deaf-mute language 
 taught by De l'Epee by the addition of signs for 
 metaphysical ideas. lie constructed an elaborate 
 analytical system of visible signs, for the purpose 
 of conveying to deaf-mutes the functions and re- 
 lations of words in sentences, and thus succeeded 
 in making them acquainted with the principles 
 of grammar — an achievement which, from its 
 ingenious and imaginative methods, secured for 
 him the title of "the painter of syntax and the 
 
 SINGING-SCHOOLS 
 
 poet of grammar." His principal works are 
 Theorie des Siqnes and Cours d 'Instruction. 
 (See Deaf-Motes.) 
 
 SIGNS, LANGUAGE OF. See Deaf- 
 Mutes, and Pkf.t. II. P. 
 
 SIMPSON CENTENARY COLLEGE, 
 at Indianola, Iowa, founded iuls67, is under 
 Methodist Episcopal control. It is supported by 
 tuition fees ranging from $24 to $30 a year, and 
 by the income of an endowment of about $70,000. 
 It comprises a preparatory department and a 
 collegiate department, with a four years' classical 
 course and a three years' scientific course. Facil- 
 ities are afforded for instruction in music, teleg- 
 raphy, book-keeping, penmanship, phonography, 
 and Hebrew. Both sexes are admitted. In 1875 
 — 6, there were 16 instructors and 259 students 
 (under-graduates, 60; preparatory students, 169; 
 pursuing special studies. 30). There is also, at 
 Des Moines, a law department (the Iowa College 
 of Law), organized in 1875; and a medical depart- 
 ment is about to be organized there. The Rev. 
 Alexander Burns, D. D., has been the president 
 of the college since its foundation. 
 
 SIMULTANEOUS INSTRUCTION. See 
 Concert Teaching. 
 
 SINGING-SCHOOLS. From the days of 
 St. Ambrose and Gregory the Great to the pres- 
 ent age, singing-schools and classes have existed, 
 for purposes of instruction in elementary vocal 
 and choral exercises. ( ihiefly through the efforts 
 of ecclesiastics and choirs of an earlier period, 
 (hose substantial and permanent forms of church 
 music, — the single chant, the hymn, and the 
 choral, have been preserved to warm and enliven 
 the sacred services of a later time. There was, 
 undoubtedly, a very strong and direct effect pro- 
 ilm-ed through the instrumentality of men and 
 boys, uniting their voices within a limited com- 
 pass, associatingthcir music with words of solemn 
 anil living import, and uttering their hymns of 
 praise under the direction of a religious leader. 
 (Juido Aretino (1020 A.D.) must have perceived 
 the necessity of a certain order in conducting the 
 musical exercises of his classes, since portions of 
 his method have lasted eight centuries ; the staff, 
 completed to nearly its present state, and the 
 syllables <?, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, improve- 
 ments of his and introduced under his immediate 
 eye, being still in full and vigorous use. The Ref- 
 ormation, with Martin Luther for one of its 
 musical as well as one of its ecclesiastical guides, 
 gave the choral and the special hymn to all the 
 people. Subsequently, not only Germany, but 
 Great Britain, and the United States of America, 
 greatly encouraged the cultivation of vocal mu- 
 sic, in its higher relations, among all classes of 
 people. It is the opinion of some, however, that 
 the people of the United States are a century 
 behind the more powerful and influential of the 
 European nations in a systematic 6 istering of the 
 science and art. of music by the.state; but. through 
 the more general diffusion of knowdedge by 
 means of schools, the press, and other agencies, 
 the individual efforts of Americans are wide- 
 spread, toward imparting a more thorough un- 
 
SINGING-SCHOOLS 
 
 781 
 
 tlerstandiug of that which is. to the vast ma- 
 jority of people, an unknown language ; namely, 
 the secret of the independent reading of vocal 
 music with facility. 
 
 The origin of the staff, and the use of the syl- 
 lables H, Be, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, seem to have 
 been nearly contemporary. These, together with 
 the clefs, notes, and chromatic signs, constitute 
 the written language of music as recognized by 
 every civilized country ; and it is not possible 
 to change them for the letters only, valuable 
 as these are in certain relations, without disas- 
 trously revolutionizing the whole written system 
 of modern music, and all its magnificent acces- 
 sories. Large numbers of most valuable works 
 upon harmony, counterpoint, and orchestral ef- 
 fects have been written, besides innumerable 
 scores, with all of these well known musical signs, 
 and with the employment of the syllables Ut, Re, 
 Mi, etc., as denoting absolute pitch constantly in 
 view; and to reduce them to the dimensions 
 of lettered signs simply, and require singers and 
 players to translate them into music agreeable 
 to the ear, would be an interminable and tedious 
 task. The modern Italian method of present- 
 ing the scale through the familiar syllables Do, 
 Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, has the merit of being 
 direct and of appealing to the ear; and it is. also, 
 quite unique, since the syllables are at once the 
 vehicles of variations of sound required in render- 
 ing the scale, and the signs denoting absolute 
 pitch, like the letters to the Germans and to the 
 English. So that, by this method, the pupil 
 has to remember only one particular syllable, 
 either in naming a key-note or in singing it. To 
 the Italians and to the French, and to very 
 many others who have been taught by this 
 method, this association of a certain syllable with 
 a certain key-note, that particular syllable being 
 the very vehicle for the production of the tone 
 desired, is deemed, in many respects, an advan- 
 tage. The fixed and immovable Bo becomes the 
 middle C of the system. All other tones of that 
 octave, diatonic and chromatic, revolve around it, 
 as the planets around the sun. The major scale, 
 with its intermediate half-tones, becomes the 
 nucleus of the entire tonal system. In exact pro- 
 portion as the scholar acquires a thorough knowl- 
 edge of the scale, by regular degrees, by intervals 
 small and large, by chromatic as well as by dia- 
 tonic progression, and by all the varieties of me- 
 lodic andharmonic effect of wdiieh it is suscep- 
 tible,will his succeding study be made satisfactory 
 and available. Multiply this knowledge of the 
 resources of one scale within the compass of one 
 octave by twelve, the number of independent 
 key-notes included within the limits of the chro- 
 matic scale, and thereby are obtained the changes 
 of progression possible in all the twelve keys, 
 in the circle of harmony, through the transposi- 
 tion of the key-note. Now this may seem com- 
 plicated to the uninitiated ; but it is quite clear 
 to all who have mastered the changes obtainable 
 within the compass of one octave, and afterward 
 have learned the rule of transposition to the suc- 
 ceeding eleven keys. This, indeed, is the first di- 
 
 rect business of the faithful musical instructor 
 and his pupils. There is no escape from travel- 
 ing this well-known and well-beaten road, if 
 accuracy and a full comprehension of the 
 groundwork of music be really desired. In 
 schools where the very tender age of the pupils 
 hardly admits of any extended course of vocal 
 musical instruction, it is now positively ascer- 
 tained that the association of the sounds of the 
 major scale with the numerals 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8, 
 is of direct and permanent use. Practicing frag- 
 ments of the major scale, ascending and descend- 
 ing, by regular degrees and in wider intervals, 
 with frequent recurrence of the key-note 1 or 8, 
 and unisonant passages, has the effect of locating 
 the sounds of the scale in their exact order, and 
 immediately secures the attention and the active 
 participation of the pupils, because the order of 
 the numerals is already familiar to them ; and, 
 in this way, each sound of the scale becomes 
 gradually associated with its corresponding nu- 
 meral. If to the use of the numerals be added 
 that of the syllables Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Si, 
 which are more musical in themselves than the 
 numerals, there are obtained three indicators of 
 the different sounds of the scale ; namely, the 
 letters, the numerals, and the syllables, all of 
 which are useful for special purposes: the letters, 
 for denoting absolute pitch and the location of 
 the key-notes, changeable only with the clefs ; the 
 numerals, for drilling in the plain sounds of the 
 scale, and ultimately for practical use in the 
 study of harmony, one and eight being used as 
 key-notes in one or all of the twelve keys ; and 
 the syllables, for sol-faing, used according to 
 the Italian method. (J being always the fixed and 
 immovable Bo. It is at this point that this 
 Italian method, which recognizes the syllables as 
 necessary indicators of absolute pitch, and at the 
 same time as necessary in sol-faing for the pro- 
 duction of an equable and yet varied effect, dif- 
 fers from three other methods which are in ex- 
 tensive use : (1) from that of the Germans, who, 
 with a special name for every plain sound of the 
 scale, and for every augmented or depressed in- 
 terval thereof, rely chiefly upon vocalizing with 
 different vowels to secure accuracy in all chro- 
 matic as well as diatonic progressions ; ('-') from 
 that of the United States, which quite generally, 
 but not entirely, employs a movable Do as the 
 starting-point or key-note of the major scale, the 
 key-note for any relative minor becoming La ; 
 and (3) from that of the Rev. J. Curwen, the 
 success of wdiose method in England has been 
 quite remarkable, — a method, which is identical 
 with that so extensively practiced in the I'nitcd 
 States, in the use of a movable Bo, but which 
 substitutes the syllable Te for Si ; the names of 
 Mr. Curwen's syllables being Boh, Ray, Me, Fall, 
 Soh, La, Te. This method of lettered and nu- 
 meral abbreviations, as substitutes for the staff, 
 clefs, chromatic signs, bars, measures, and time- 
 table of the present musical sign-language will 
 be more minutely considered further on. — To re- 
 turn to the two methods which are chiefly em- 
 ployed in the United States, it is, really, very 
 
7S2 
 
 SINGING-SCHOOLS 
 
 important to the beginner that he adhere to 
 one method until it is thoroughly acquired. It 
 is the united testimony of experienced teachers 
 of vocal music that good readers are educated by 
 both of these methods, provided the teacher be- 
 gins, continues, and nils the work of strict read- 
 ing by adopting only one method at a time The 
 pupil may afterward become acquainted with all 
 other methods, and vith advantagr ; since Mill- 
 sequent experience will enable him to test the 
 merits of the method which he most thoroughly 
 understands, and which he can make most ef- 
 fective. To attempt to teach, or to learn, both 
 methods at the same time, produces a confusion 
 of associations, and a consequent bewilderment, 
 which should be avoided. It has been the ex- 
 perience of the writer to be required to teach 
 contemporaneously according to both of these 
 methods; and, while it must be admitted that the 
 method which retains the immovable Do has a 
 unity and ('(insistency which demand time for 
 their thorough appreciation and practical use, it 
 is easier, in the first stages of instruction, to 
 change the Do with each successive key-note of 
 the entire twelve. By the former method. Do 
 is invariably associated with a certain letter and 
 a certain line or space; by the latter, Do becomes 
 the key-note, or numeral one or eight, of even- 
 one of the major scales. — One or the other of 
 these ways of using the syllables being accepted, 
 the natural and ordinary divisions of elementary 
 vocal teaching into those of tune, time, and e.c- 
 /i/'c.«i'i» | . i ■'■-■' 1 1 1 themselves ; tune, or melody, 
 addressing itself more directly to the soul than 
 time or rhythm, is certainly first in order in the 
 musical education of the young. By common 
 consent, the major scale, in great variety, is now 
 practiced with numerals and with syllables in the 
 primary departments of schools, as a preparation 
 for the presentation of the staff, clefs, notes, etc., 
 at a later period. It is a matter of no conse- 
 quence whether the scale be based upon one par- 
 ticular line or space in preference to another, if 
 the movable Do be used ; but if it be the teach- 
 er's design to employ the Italian method, with 
 its Do immovably fixed upon middle 0, it is 
 conducive to a clearer understanding of the sub- 
 ject of the /rans/iosi/iim. of the key-note to start 
 from this point. If another letter be selected as 
 the base of the scale iu the earlier lessons, it is 
 necessary to return to middle when the sub- 
 ject of /rniisjiositio/i is introduced, and the ordi- 
 nary rules for changing the place of the key-note 
 by help of the sharps and fiats, are fully ex- 
 plained. After some familiarity with the sounds 
 of the major scale is acquired, a division of the 
 class should be made, whereby singing in two 
 parts can be attempted. This phase of "element- 
 ary vocal instruction may be postponed, in teach- 
 ing children, until a considerable knowledge 
 (if the diatonic intervals of the major scale has 
 bee i le familiar to them. With adults, how- 
 ever, the natural division of the class of mixed 
 voices arising from the selection of the soprano, 
 alto, tenor, and base voices, each to sing in a com- 
 pact body, and in a separate location, is obvious- 
 
 ly necessary as a measure of interest and advan- 
 tage to all four of these parties, alter the quality 
 of tone and compass of each voice have been as- 
 certained. Beating time should be introduced 
 and rigidly enforced as soon as the staff and its di- 
 vision into measures by bars have been explained, 
 especially in the simpler forms of twofold, three- 
 fold, and fourfold measure. The department 
 of < ;<■ si ". with its more apparent varieties 
 
 may accompany the performance of the simplest 
 exercises, and grow with the growth and 
 strengthen with the strength of the pupil as he 
 advances toward the execution of more elaborate 
 examples in melody, rhythm,andharmony. They 
 who clog the wheels of musical progress with 
 dull and incompetent ears must gradually dis- 
 appear. This is a rule without exception. 
 
 Allusion has l,e,„ made to the success of the 
 Rev. J. Curwen's Tonic-Sol-Fa system in Eng- 
 land, of which Miss Sarah A. Glover, with her 
 so-called tetrm-lmrdnl nn-lhod, was the forerunner. 
 It is claimed that it is better suited for vocal 
 practice than the ordinary signs, and many of 
 Mr. Curwen's di.-eiples consider it available for 
 the presentation of every possible variety of 
 music, instrumental as well as vocal. The syllables 
 Dok, Ray, Me, Fah, Soh, Lah, Te, are pro- 
 nounced as they arc spelt. Te being substituted 
 for Si, to avoid confusion with S<Ji when only 
 the initial letter is used, as in the printed music 
 the initial only is employed. To indicate the 
 higher or lower octaves, figures are placed by the 
 sides of the letters which stand for notes, as 
 d 1 , d$, m3,and S 2 ,M S , d 2 . The tune America 
 is presented thus : | <l d r 7, d r m m f m r d r 
 dt 1 ,etc. Different key r notes are announced by 
 letter at the beginning, as key G, key A, etc. 
 The key-note of the relative minor is always Lah. 
 Changes of key are effected by what are called 
 bridge tones. The note, or rather the letter indi- 
 cating a certain sound, is placed side by side with 
 the letter indicating the pitch of the letter in the 
 key approached, and pupils are taught to think 
 and sing the sound of the first note or letter and 
 to call it by the name of the second. Thus d r m 
 f sd t d would show a modulation to the key of 
 G. Tonic-Sol-Ft litis consider that this affords an 
 easier mode of making modulations and transi- 
 tions than the older system. The chromatic scale 
 is named by adding the vowel e to the initial of 
 sharped notes, and a (aw) to flatted notes. Thus 
 de, re,fe, se, are respectively d, r, /, s sharp; and 
 ma (maw) In. in, are in, 1. 1 flat. The sharp or aug- 
 mented sixth of the minor scale is called bah, to 
 distinguish it from fe, the sharp or augmented 
 fourth of the major scale. Time and accent are 
 indicated by measurement across the page, thus : 
 
 I : I : I : I 
 
 the space between one sign and the next repre- 
 senting the beat ; the line showing the stronger 
 accent, and the colon the weaker. Short divisions 
 are indicated on halving the measure by one dot 
 | . : and commas are used to divide the 
 measure into quarters, and other divisions are 
 similarly shown. A stroke, through a beat or 
 
SINGING-SCHOOLS 
 
 pulse, means that a previous sound is to be con- 
 tinued. Sol-Foists esteem this mode of measur- 
 ing time a great advantage over the elder nota- 
 tion. The first line of ['levels hymn is thus 
 written : | m : s | r : . m \ f : r \ m, etc. 
 
 The method cannof easily be understood with- 
 outreference to the 7' s Fa arrangement 
 i. <•., the distinctive plan of teaching the musical 
 facts indicated by the lettered nutation. It is the 
 result of laborious inquiry and experience on 
 the part of .Mr. Curwen ami his fellow laborers. 
 Great importance is attached to the doctrine of 
 what is called mental effect, but which has been 
 previously named more properly emotional effect, 
 by which is meant a certain coloring or impres- 
 sion produced by eaeli sound of the scale when 
 
 sum.' >l.>uly. Thus ,/,,/, i s , sidered firm; te, 
 
 sharp an 1 piercing; lah, sorrowful \fdh, gloomy; 
 soh, bright and clear, etc, Teaching by pattern 
 is also require 1 ; the scale is taughl in the follow- 
 ing order: ill the notes of the tonic common 
 chord d, m. s, or doh me soh, and their replicates; 
 (2) the notes of the dominant common chord 
 s, /. r,or soh, te, ray; (3) the common chord i if the 
 subdominant /, /, </, or /ah, lah, doh, — which 
 are simply the fundamental harmonies of the 
 scale, embracing all its sounds, and giving birth 
 to the name of the system. Tauic-Sol-Fo. The 
 backbone of the system, however, is the Modu- 
 lator, without a proper use of which the method 
 cannot be taught, 
 
 r' s d f 1 
 
 SOCIAL ECONOMY 
 
 783 
 
 1 
 
 r 
 
 s 
 
 -DOH 1 - 
 
 TE — 
 
 f 
 
 3 
 
 d 
 
 f 
 
 ta la 
 
 
 
 t, 
 
 m 
 
 -LAH = 
 
 r 
 
 f 
 
 
 
 la se 
 
 
 m 
 
 1, 
 
 r 
 
 -son - 
 
 ba fe 
 
 d 
 tj 
 
 d 
 
 s i 
 f 
 
 d 
 t x 
 
 -FAH 
 
 -ME - 
 
 \ 
 
 t l 
 
 in j 
 
 1, 
 
 BAY — 
 
 g 
 
 h 
 
 r i 
 
 Sj 
 
 DOII - 
 
 ti - 
 
 f 
 m 
 
 This Modulator is a mi 
 sounds to be read in an as e 
 the scale, its minor, its chro 
 closely related keys or seal 
 
 the use of this chart, tb 
 
 QF 
 
 musical 
 
 . s-I i, .w ing 
 
 i its more 
 
 liliarity in 
 
 ' and down- 
 
 ward motion of the notes all on one level, is 
 gradually learned by the pupil. Syllables are 
 used to show the length of the notes according to 
 the French Cheve system. So taa is the name 
 of one beat, taa-iai of a half-heat, and ta-fa-ie-fe 
 of quarter beats. Continuations of any kind are 
 met by dropping the consonant. Sol-Faists con- 
 sider that the inure intricate and refined of di- 
 vided beats can be sooner learnei 1 in this way than 
 in any other. But this 7'.,,,/, >,„'-/■•,, ,1,'ethod. 
 more than any other, requires the livii \ teachei 
 to illustrate the meaning of its signs : and it fol- 
 lows, of course, that the teacher of any particular 
 method of imparting musical instruction will 
 best succeed with that which he most thoroughly 
 understands. 
 
 SMITHSON COLLEGE, at Logansport, 
 
 Ind., founded in 1872 for the edncati f both 
 
 sexes is under Universalisf control. It is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees and the income of an 
 endowment of S20.IHKI. The regular tuition fee 
 is §30 a year. The institution comprises a pre- 
 paratory, a commercial, a philosophical, a col- 
 legiate, ami a normal department. In 1876 — 7. 
 there were 8 instructors and 5(1 students. The 
 presidents have been the Rev. Paul R. Kendall, 
 1S72— 4. and the Rev. R. N. John, since 1875. 
 
 SOCIAL ECONOMY. The place actually 
 held by the science, of social or political economy, 
 in modern education, presents a Strang- contrast 
 with that which its importance demands. If the 
 object of education is to fit the young to become 
 self-supporting citizens in a progressive society, 
 conducing at once to the happiness of all. while 
 securing their own, then must the science whose 
 special function is the elucidation of the condi- 
 tions of man's well-being in society, rightfully 
 claim a foremost place in every school cur- 
 riculum. It is, nevertheless, to be noted that, up 
 to the present time, instruction in this science 
 has been limited to the few who attend colleges 
 and universities, and to the pupils of a small 
 number of schools, of which further mention will 
 be made in the course of this article. A part of 
 the difficulty popularly experienced in appreciat 
 ing the proper position of thi 
 course of stud 
 to be ascril 
 ferent 
 
 I n appropriate 
 
 t winch have been su-'-estei] 
 
 lamination, to be thatunder 
 -abject is here treated, — that is, the 
 ice which treats of the manner in which are 
 . the affairs that relate to man iu 
 ty, a meaning fully suggested by the etymol- 
 ogy of the words. Nevertheless, this term, as 
 (veil as the allied name politico is apl 
 
 to suggest to the unprepared mind a s> i> n< e deal- 
 ing with a very different set of ideas from those 
 of which it treats.— The dissatisfaction which has 
 thus arisen with the name social economy has 
 led to the attempt to adopt various other forms 
 of expression to designate the science, of which 
 attempts the happiest perhaps has been the pro- 
 posal to call it the "science which teaches the 
 
(84 
 
 SOCIAL ECONOMY 
 
 conditions of human well-being." But this 
 title is not without objection. In the first place, 
 it is wanting in that terseness which is a main 
 requirement in nomenclature; and. secondly, it 
 is wanting in precision. This expression would 
 logically include many other sciences ; as, for in- 
 stance, hygiene, a due regard to the laws of 
 which is assuredly a condition of human well- 
 being. If the science had to do solely with the 
 production and distribution of wealth, the term 
 originally employed by Adam Smith, the father 
 of the science, namely, the wealth of nations, 
 would be specially appropriate ; but, even this is 
 inadequate ; for, although the laws of the pro- 
 duction and distribution of wealth influence 
 in a material degree the conditions of human 
 well-being, the science which we have called 
 social economy includes also most of the moral 
 elements that enter into the economy of society. 
 The diversity of names that, from time to time, 
 have been suggested, has, not unnaturally, given 
 risetothe idea that there must be something espe- 
 cially abstruse in a science the professors of which 
 have been unable to agree even upon the name by 
 which it should be known. The difficulty prob- 
 ably arises from the modern use of the term 
 economy, which has, to some extent, lost its 
 original and etymological signification. Another 
 cause of the misapprehension pf the proper place 
 of social economy in education, arises from the 
 intimate relations into which every person un- 
 avoidably enters with the subjects it elucidates, 
 at nearly every instant of his industrial life ; so 
 that all persons are unavoidably possessed, of 
 some notions on the subjects of which it treats. 
 Now, as there is an infinite number of modes 
 of error and only one of truth, it is only by 
 starting rightly, and proceeding, systematically 
 or scientifically, from the known to the un- 
 known, that error can be avoided; hence, the no- 
 tions taken up in the course of practical life 
 are, in the absence of systematic study, gen- 
 erally erroneous. But it is usually the most 
 ignorant who wrangle and dictate with the loud- 
 ption of knowledge ; and, hence, people 
 ' ■ • is a difference of 
 long the students 
 of the science, and re, the subject 
 
 ' by children. 
 It is, neverthi .. . "irds the 
 
 elements of the science, liffer- 
 
 ence of opinion among , h 
 
 systematic study to it, than It. 
 students of mathematics upon 
 principles of geometry. Another 
 serious obstacle to the introduction i 
 economy, as a subject of instruction for the), 
 is the following. Owing to the extremely on.: 
 plex nature of human society, it is impossible to 
 take all of its factors into account when inves- 
 tigating its elementary principles; But it is also 
 true that the geometrician disregards the breadth 
 of the line, and the mechanician the weight of 
 the mechanical powers, when investigating the 
 laws of magnitude in space, or the relations of 
 forces ; but as soon as the geometrician or the 
 
 mathematician begins to apply the principles of 
 his particular science to practical engineering, 
 these discarded factors form data in his prob- 
 lems ; and their effects are estimated by means 
 of the very laws which were established while 
 disregarding their existence. So with the laws 
 of man in society. The laws of the produc- 
 tion and distribution of wealth were investigated 
 by rigorously excluding the sympathetic side of 
 man's nature and looking upon him as purely a 
 self-seeking being ; but the principles of social 
 economy can only be understood by regarding 
 him from both points of view. This was well 
 understood by Adam Smith, whose Tlieory of 
 the Moral S nlinn nts treats of man as a sympa- 
 thetic being, ami is complementary to hialnqiiii-y 
 into tin 1 Wealth of Xatioitn. Most of the followers 
 of this great master, have, since his time, lost 
 sight of the fact of this artificial exclusion, and 
 while pursuing with great zeal and intelligence 
 their researches into the one half of the subject, 
 have forgotten that, after all, it was but one half, 
 and that the other half, which they neglected, 
 was of little less moment to man's happiness than 
 that which they were investigating. It was, in 
 great part, owing to this forgetfulncss on the part 
 of the votaries of the science, that it acquired, 
 among persons of large sympathy but small 
 knowledge, the nickname of the dismal science; 
 and as the investigation of the self -regarding half 
 of the laws of human well-being, divorced from 
 the sympathetic, would be apt to chill those 
 sentiments of generous sympathy with our kind 
 which, in youth, should be encouraged rather 
 than suppressed, a not unnatural disinclination 
 was felt to fortify the self-regarding side of our 
 nature by exhibiting it to the young as the basis 
 of a science on which to build up the structure 
 of human well-being. This well-grounded ob- 
 jection has been removed by the correlation of 
 these two aspects of our nature into one body 
 of science, — a correlation first illustrated by 
 the teachings of William Kllis. which has been 
 more or less successfully followed up by his dis- 
 ciples ; so that, to-day, the science, when prop- 
 erly taught, instead of warping the minds of its 
 students into a one-sided egoism, develops a 
 largeness of views, a generosity of sentiment, and 
 a soundness of judgment perhaps unattainable 
 through any other study. — All educators have 
 agreed that the earlier years of youth must be 
 directed to concrete, before proceeding to abstract, 
 studies — to observation rather than to causation. 
 While, speaking generally, this rule is sound.it is 
 i be understood as requiring the exclusion 
 ■soiling process from even infant minds; 
 the reasoning faculties are compar- 
 uit in early youth, knowledge should 
 hrough observation (as for instance 
 in iry) :and from the facts thus ob- 
 
 tai should be trained to reason logic- 
 
 ally. Nov I • this purpose, social economy 
 presi ■ i ■•■ vantages, and this hardly less 
 
 asam ne than for the knowledge it 
 
 imparts. But the teaching of science to the very 
 young s, ' 1 ahwtys be in connection with facts 
 
SOCIAL ECONOMY 
 
 785 
 
 or subjects presented to the senses. For instance, 
 suppose a lesson is to be given upon bread to 
 children 8 or 9 years of age. After the children 
 have observed those properties which are directly 
 cognizable by the senses, the judicious teacher 
 will proceed to the more elementary of those facts 
 relating to it which physics, chemistry, and 
 physiology have made known to us, and will not 
 shrink from gradually introducing the pupils, 
 notwithstanding their youth, to the terms used 
 by men of science in speaking of those facts. 
 Instruction of this kind has, for a' long while, 
 been given by the best teachers, in what are 
 termed object lesson*; and they have now only to 
 add the facts relating to bread which are made 
 known to us by the science of social economy to 
 complete their course. They will rind it far 
 easier to adopt this course with the social bear- 
 ings of objects than with those which relate to 
 physics, chetiiistry, or physiology, because many 
 of the social facts will have been spontaneously 
 and unavoidably noticed by the children them- 
 selves; and when once they perceive that what goes 
 on around them at home, in the workshop, and 
 in the store, has a scientific value and importance, 
 and that an observation of surrounding facts and 
 events can be used in school work, and have a 
 fitting place found for it, as a help to further 
 knowledge, their observation will be suddenly 
 and wonderfully awakened, and fresh facts and 
 events will be poured upon the teacher by the 
 children themselves. By this method, long before 
 children have passed out of the primary grades, 
 they may have acquired a knowledge of not only 
 the fundamental laws of the production of 
 wealth, but morals also, as well as many of the 
 consequences of the division of labor, and other 
 matters connected with the interchange of com- 
 modities. At an age even earlier than that at 
 which it is now deemed proper to commence 
 the study of geometry, that is to say, 11 or 
 12 years, social economy may be taught as a 
 special subject; but the opportunities afforded 
 by object lessons, of observing the social aspects 
 of the objects under consideration should always 
 be made available. In teaching social econ- 
 omy, as a special branch, to scholars of from 
 11 to 12 years of age, the subject should, as far 
 as possible, be introduced in a manner analogous 
 to that of object teaching. Attention should be 
 called to the comforts enjoyed by the children, 
 and by people in general, in the country in which 
 they live, — things to which they have perhaps 
 become so accustomed thai they have given no 
 thought to the means by which they have been 
 provided at the time and place at which they 
 are needed to be used and enjoyed. With chil- 
 dren who have not before received any instruction 
 in the science, some simple object of their daily 
 use should be noticed, and its history examined, 
 from the first preparation for the production of 
 the raw material of which it is mainly composed, 
 down to its distribution in the form in which it is 
 required to be ready for their consumption. Such 
 an examination will bring vividly before the 
 minds of the pupils the fact -that nearly all the 
 
 u lividual as " 
 
 d the division of In 
 esulting enormous 
 
 lforts of life are produced by 
 :he name wealth, bj which 
 ,bor are to be thenceforth de- 
 al to them. Industry, econ- 
 id skill will next be evolved as 
 - general well- 
 Ub examined, 
 
 duetiveness of labor. Tl 
 then be taken to exhibit the ground! ssm oi 
 prevailing prejudices in regard to the relative 
 honor to be attached to one class of labor over 
 another, and to point out that those by whom 
 household labors are performed are as much en- 
 gaged in the business of production as other 
 laborers. The pupils will now be ready to ob- 
 serve with understanding the simpler phenomena 
 of interchange ; and then the paramount impor- 
 tance of honesty, truthfulness, and thorough trust- 
 worthiness on the part of all will be evolved and 
 made apparent. — While carefully avoiding all 
 appearance of dogmatism, the teacher can hardly 
 devote too much time to multiplying illustrations, 
 and iv\ iewing the investigations of the pupils, 
 upon this head. The various forms of untrust- 
 worthiness. and the con;-.' qucncvs thereof, should 
 be made very clear, nor should the subject be 
 left until the pupils have arrived at a hearty 
 detestation, not only of unsuccessful, but still 
 more of successful, dishonesty. The natural laws 
 regulating the relations of employer and i mployed 
 will next be Studied; and, either now or at a 
 later period, the rules of trades-unions, and the 
 effects of strikes and of combinations, should 
 be closely examined ; nor should the subject 
 of wages be left until the pupils see clearly, 
 that the wages which they, as sellers of their 
 labor, are destined to earn, will depend almost 
 exclusively on the productiveness of their labor, 
 and that all those rules of trades -unions etc. 
 which tend to diminish the productiveness of 
 labor, of necessity, lower also the wages of labor. 
 The laws determining the administration of 
 capital will next engage their attention; the idea 
 of profit will be evolved, and its nature determined 
 with precision; the mischievous results of com- 
 binations among capitalists, both to themselves 
 and to the community, will be investigated. until 
 it becomes apparent that the profit of the 
 capitalist is the reward paid him by society for 
 the services he has rendered, of which services it 
 forms also, in most cases, an accurate measure. — 
 Property in land will next claim attention, the 
 justification for its adoption, as well as its just 
 limitations, being ascertained, and the principle 
 of rent, determined. — As the next step in the 
 course of study, the idea of exchangeableness, and 
 the name -value, will be evolved. The laws which 
 regulate value will then be investigated, and 
 the necessity of precision, alike in ideas and in 
 the use of words, will be again impressed upon 
 the minds of the pupils, and forcibly illustrated 
 by as many examples as possible. It will now 
 be time to examine into some of the means 
 which have been adopted to facilitate inter 
 change, among which money will be seen to hold 
 
7SG 
 
 SOCIAL ECONOMY 
 
 a prominent place ; the reasons fur selecting gold ( 
 or silver for money will be examined ; the im- 
 possibility of fixing the relative values of the 
 two metals, and, consequently, the want of wis- 
 dom shown inenaoting lawsmaking both metals 
 a standard of value for the same contract, will 
 be readily perceived ; nor will it be difficult for 
 the pupils to discern the only proper function to 
 be fulfilled by a mint. The causes of fluctuations 
 in the value of money will be next investigated, 
 and the phenomena of />ria> and its fluctuations 
 observed. The use and functions of credit will 
 now be inquired into, and the unhappy con- 
 sequences of its abuse traced to their source. 
 Now. or at a later period in the course, the 
 causes of the so-called "tightness in the money 
 market", of business derangements, commercial 
 crises, and of panics, will be rigidly investigated 
 and their only remedy discerned, namely, greater 
 trustworthiness and honesty, to be secured by the 
 improved teaching and training of youth. The 
 policy of laws for the recovery of debts may now 
 be profitably inquired into, as also the function 
 which, at best, governments may hope to perform 
 in the economy of society.— Bills of exchange, 
 rates of exchange, the par of ■ cckange between 
 distant countries, rates of interest, banks and 
 banking, may all now, in turn, be discussed, and 
 the want of wisdom shown by legislatures in the 
 enactment of usury laws, and of laws which at- 
 tempt to control or regulate banking, may be 
 made apparent. Paper money, and the promise 
 made by the issuers thereof, the dishonesty 
 evinced in breaking the promise thus made, and 
 the duty incumbent upon those who have either 
 dishonestly or ignorantly broken such promises, 
 should be dwelt upon, and illustrated by examples 
 drawn from history. Foreign commerce may 
 next be illustrated, its origin and the cause of 
 its existence observed, and the want of wisdom 
 shown by those legislatures which have attempted 
 improperly to interfere with it. — The proper 
 mode of raising revenue, to be deduced in great 
 part from the truths discovered when consider- 
 ing the phenomena of rent and of its progressive 
 increase, will next be investigated ; and the 
 wisest methods of expenditure, both public and 
 private, may then be discussed. — With the con- 
 sideration of all these questions, and mainly in 
 the order in which they are here sketched, the 
 school course of study in social economy may 
 be closed. Not, however, without warning the 
 pupil that he has, by no means, mastered all 
 the truths of the science, but that, if he has 
 thoroughly assimilated the lessons he has re- 
 ceived, they will suffice to direct his path in in- 
 dustrial life. — The course as sketched in these 
 pages should occupy from two to four years of 
 the school curriculum, — two years, if the knowl- 
 edge to be acquired is to be learned from books; 
 but about four years, if tin; Socratic methodhe 
 adopted by the teacher. Another method of in- 
 struction, and one which, like that already in- 
 dicated, has been successfully practiced, is the 
 division of the science into progressive problems, 
 demonstrating these either on the Socratic plan 
 
 SOCRATES 
 
 or by a deductive process, as in the study of ge- 
 ometry. The former of these two plans is that 
 chiefly followed in the admirable Hirkbeck schools 
 
 of London, sel Is founded and endowed by 
 
 William Kllis (q. v.), of that city, for the special 
 purpose of introducing the science of social econ- 
 omy as a branch of school teaching, especially 
 for the children of mechanics and laborers. 
 Since the year 1848, this instruction has been 
 continued in these schools, and their example 
 has, at last, been followed by the London school 
 board. — See Ellis. Outlines of S ■ ■■ E ti my 
 (a text-book for schools); Progress} I 
 in Social Science (for teachers); Introduction to 
 the Study of the Social Sciences (Loudon); 
 Phih-Socrates (London); Lessons on the Phe- 
 nommaofIndtistrialLife,etc.,editedhytheT)em 
 
 on Political Economy (N. V.); E. M. Leverson, 
 Common Sense, or First Stepsin Political Econ- 
 omy (N. V. and Denver, L876). 
 
 SOCRATES, a celebrated Creek philosopher 
 and teacher, born in a village near Athens, about 
 469 B. C; died in that city 399 Ii. ( '. He was 
 trained in his father's art, that of sculpture, and 
 pursued it for several years. At the same time, 
 lie devoted himself to study, and attended the 
 lectures of Anaxagoras ami other eminent phi- 
 losophers at Athens, and gained a reputation as 
 a man of superior intelligence. Indeed, one of 
 his friends asked the oracle at Delphi whether 
 Socrates was not the wisest man living, and was 
 answered in the affirmative. This answer sur- 
 prised and perplexed Socrates, who was deeply 
 impressed with his own ignorance ; but he was 
 incited by it to continue in his career as a phi- 
 losopher. In this, however, he assumed the 
 character of an ignorant person asking for in- 
 formation. Accordingly, he entered into con- 
 versation with the most eminent men in .Athens, 
 particularly the Sophists; and soon was con- 
 vinced that their claims to superior wisdom were 
 without foundation. He adopted a peculiar 
 method of questioning (since called the Socratic 
 method), by which, under the guise of seeking 
 information, he convinced the person whom he 
 questioned of ignorance, and showed him the 
 truth. He passed much of his time wandering 
 about the streets of Athens in meditation, or 
 mingling, in the school and in the market place, 
 with people of all ages and conditions, and of both 
 sexes, and sought to engage them in conversation, 
 his g I humor and brilliant powers as a dis- 
 putant charming all classes. Lu his walks, he 
 was constantly attended by a crowd of persons 
 who were commonly lex iked upon as his disciples; 
 though he never opened a school, or assumed 
 the name of teacher. He selected, however, a 
 few as his special disciples and companions, 
 among whom were Plato and Xenophon ; and 
 to these he was particularly endeared. The 
 unselfishness of his aims is shown by the fact 
 that he never accepted payment for the instruc- 
 tion he gave, never sought public influence or 
 place, and only once in his life occupied a polit- 
 ical office ; while he frequently, in the interest 
 
of justice, defied popular clamor, when acquies- 
 cence in its demands would have lir.ii to his ad- 
 vantage, if Ins designs had been ambitious, lie 
 acted constantly as if under the sense of a divine 
 commission. He professed to hear a super- 
 natural voice, proceeding from what he called 
 his genius [dai/t&i •>> i, which exerted over him a 
 restraining, but never an inciting, influence. His 
 unsparing irony towards, and contempt for, the 
 Athenian rulers, and his demonstration of the 
 ignorance of men prominent in all walks of life, 
 which he made plain to others by his unrivaled 
 skill in questioning, created finally an intense 
 opposition to him, particularly on the part of 
 the Sophists. A conspiracy against him was 
 formed by an orator, a poet, and a demagogue 
 (Lycon, Melitus, and Anytus), who made a pub- 
 lic accusation against him that his teaching had 
 brought contempt upon the national gods, that 
 he had sought to introduce other gods in their 
 stead, and that he had corrupted the Athenian 
 youth. He approached his trial in the same 
 spirit of independence and defiance that he had 
 always exhibited. With no expectation of ac- 
 quittal, he yet defended himself to the extent of 
 showing the falsity of the charges brought 
 against him. and declaring exactly what his 
 teaching had been. A court composed of citizen 
 judges, variously estimated at 557 to 567 mem- 
 bers, condemned him to death by a very small 
 majority. It is thought that the fearlessness of 
 his defense led to his condemnation, as the pros- 
 ecution was intended rather to humble than to 
 destroy him. After his sentence, he passed 30 
 days in prison, and ended his life by drinking 
 poison, according to the sentence of the court. 
 From a moral stand-point. Socrates has been 
 considered the type of the highest virtue at- 
 tainable by man when unaided by the spirit of 
 Christianity. The immediate and inevitable 
 product of his method, as an instrument of in- 
 tellectual research, is clearness of conception — 
 the most important prerequisite to precision of 
 thought. The result of his teaching, therefore, 
 was comprehensive and radical, leading to an 
 entire reconstruction of fundamental ideas in 
 many departments of human inquiry. The 
 sophistry which constantly enveloped every sub- 
 ject, under the methods pursued by the ancients 
 for centuries, was dissipated by his merciless 
 questioning. The practical character of his 
 mind, also, in regard to natural science, is re- 
 markable, considering the age in which he lived; 
 in this respect, forcibly recalling the similar 
 characteristic of Franklin. Thus, he would have 
 had the men of his time know only so much of 
 arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, as would 
 be of use to them in the daily occupations of 
 life, on the ground that the vast realm of human 
 nature, with its characteristics and duties, was at 
 that time unexplored, and was a more appro- 
 priate field for investigation than what he called 
 the divine phase of philosophy, by which he 
 meant wdiat is now understood by speculative 
 science. In his estimate of the proper subjects 
 for investigation, this strongly practical bias is 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 always apparent, insomuch thai Xenophon says, 
 "he continued incessantly to discuss human 
 affairs." and Cicero impressively declares that 
 "lie called philosophy down from heaven to 
 the earth." The career of Socrates as a teacher 
 was a remarkably illustrious one. ft was, also, 
 eminently successful. Those who listened to his 
 instructions always felt their minds enlarged, 
 and their virtuous inclinations strengthened. 
 Certainly, no teacher lias ever presented a more 
 complete example of what should be the aim of 
 instruction, and none has ever employed a 
 method so well calculated to develop in the 
 minds of his pupils the ideas and truths wdiich 
 he designed to impart. — See Grote, History of 
 Greer,', chap.i.xvin. 
 
 SOLON, the author of the Athenian system 
 of education, was born at Athens in 639 B. C; 
 and died, in 55;i. on the island of Cyprus. He 
 was one of the noblest men of his age, and was 
 reckoned among the seven sages of Greece. A 
 modern historian (Duncker. Qeschichte des 
 AMerihums) calls him the greatest political 
 genius of antiquity. Having been called to 
 the archonship, in 594 B. C, by all parties, with 
 authority to confirm, repeal, or modify the Dra- 
 conian laws, he gave to the Athenians a new- 
 constitution, which educated the people to a 
 higher degree of culture than had been attained 
 by any nation before that time. The eminence 
 which Greece occupies in the history of educa- 
 tion, is chiefly due to the laws of Solon. (For 
 an account of the educational legislation of 
 Solon, see Athens.) 
 
 SOUTH, University of the, at Sewanee, 
 Tenn., is under the control of the Prot- 
 estant Episcopal Church. It was chartered in 
 1858, but was not opened until 18tiS, its organ- 
 ization being interrupted by the civil war. It is 
 situated on the Sewanee Plateau, a spur of the 
 Cumberland Mountains. 2,000 ft. above the sea, 
 and 1,000 ft. above the surrounding country. 'I he 
 university domain comprises nearly 10,0110 acres. 
 The value of its grounds, buildings, and apparatus 
 is $150,000; the amount of its productive funds, 
 $50,000. The library contains 6,000 volumes. 
 The university consists of 10 schools; namely, 
 civil engineering and physics, mathematics, mod- 
 ern languages and literature, theoretical and ex- 
 perimental chemistry, metaphysics and English 
 literature, geology and mineralogy, ancient lan- 
 guages, history and political science, commerce 
 and trade, moral science and evidences of Chris- 
 tianity and theology. There is also a grammar 
 or preparatory school. The charge for tuition, 
 board, etc.. is $310 a year. In 1875. there were 
 12 instructors and 243 students (92 preparatory). 
 The vice-chancellor, who is the administrative 
 head of the university, is (lSTfiJ (Jen. J. Uorgas. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA, one of the thirteen 
 original states of the American Union, having 
 an area of about 34.000 sq. m.; and a population, 
 in 1870, of 705,606, of whom 289,667 were 
 whites, and 415,814 colored persons. 
 
 Eiluni/iiiiKil IFialnn/. — The first constitution 
 of the state was silent on the subject of educa- 
 
788 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 tion, the custom at that time being to leave 
 elementary education in the hands of parents. 
 In Is 1 1 , the legislature created a free-school fund, 
 the use of which was to be confined to the poor 
 in case of its inadequacy for all. This proviso, 
 imparting a sort of charity phase to the state 
 effort to promote education, has always proved 
 ah obstacle in its way by alienating from it the 
 support of the wealthier classes. An effort was 
 made in 184H to revive an interest in the sub- 
 ject, but without permanent success. From the 
 earliest times, the city of Charleston has been 
 the recipient of benefactions for educational 
 purposes, but these have been limited in amount, 
 and their influence has not extended over the 
 state. Good public schools, however, existed in 
 that city previous to 1861. In 1868, a new consti- 
 tution was adopted, which provided for a uni- 
 form system of public schools, to be supported 
 by an annual tax on property and polls, for the 
 establishment of a state normal school, a state 
 reform school, a state university, and educational 
 institutions forthedeaf and dumb, and the blind. 
 It also provided that all schools, colleges, and 
 universities, supported wholly or in part by 
 public funds should be free to the children of 
 the state, regardless of color; but this provision. 
 together with one compelling the attendance at 
 school of all children in the state between the 
 ages of 6 and 16, has been disregar led. Separate 
 schools arc now generally provided for colored 
 children. No state superintendent of public 
 infraction was chosen in .South Carolina till 
 186s, when J. K. .lillson was elected, lie was 
 re-elected in Istl' ; and was succeeded by John 
 E. Tolbert, elected in 1876. 
 
 Softool System. -The present school system of 
 the state was established in 1870, the act which 
 established it receiving some slight modifications 
 the following year. The general supervision of 
 the schools rests with the state, sup'-rinte,/, /,■„/. 
 He is elected for four years, is required to secure 
 uniformity in the textbooks used in the schools, 
 and to discharge all other duties usually pertain- 
 ing to the office. The state board if education 
 consists of the superintendent, and the several 
 county school commissioners. It convenes an- 
 nually in regular meetings at the capital, or in 
 special meetings at such other times and places 
 as the superintendent, who is its chairman, may 
 direct. County school commissioners are elected 
 biennially, one in each county. They direct the 
 expenditure of the school funds, appoint teachers, 
 and manage the schools, generally with entire 
 independence of the state superintendent, whose 
 powers are chiefly advisory. County school ex- 
 aminers, two in number, arc appointed by the 
 county commissioner, the three constituting a 
 board, of which the county commissioner is chair- 
 man, for the examination of teachers, and the 
 appointment of district trustees. In addition 
 to these officers, the governor, the chairmen of 
 the committees of education in the two houses 
 of the legislature, and two others one appointed 
 by each house, constitute a committee of five 
 to choose a uniform series of text-books for the 
 
 schools of the state. The school revenue is 
 composed of the state school tax. the poll tax, 
 and district taxes. The first is derived from a 
 levy of two mills on every dollar of taxable 
 ■ property. District taxes are subject to the will 
 of the people. Owing to the failure of the gen- 
 eral assembly to pass specific laws, as intended 
 by the constitution of 1868, various matters 
 necessary to give definiteness to the school law 
 and make it effective, are undetermined. The 
 school age is from 6 to 16 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts in the state, in 1875, was 428; 
 the number of free schools, 2,580. The only 
 graded schools in the state are in the city of 
 Charleston. The school revenue for the year 
 1875 was as follows : 
 
 From state school tax $240,000.00 
 
 •■ district taxes 130,721.17 
 
 " poll tax 63,443.42 
 
 other sources 55,378.16 
 
 Total $4*9,542.75 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries $3i;0,685.21 
 
 Iimhliug ami repairing 
 school-houses, etc 31,459.15 
 
 Expense of enumeration of 
 
 school children 7,245.13 
 
 For all other purposes ls,07:j.5(l 
 
 Total $426,462.99 
 
 This statement of expenditures is only ap- 
 proximately correct, as complete returns from 
 some parts of the state had not been received by 
 the superintendent. 
 
 The chief items of sc7/oo/ statistics, for the 
 year 1875, are the following: 
 Population of the state, of school age: 
 
 Whites 85,566 
 
 Colored 153,698 
 
 Total 239,264 
 
 Number of children attending school: 
 
 Whites 47,001 
 
 Colored 63,415 
 
 Total 110,416 
 
 Teachers employed, males, white 1,090 
 
 " females " 786 
 
 " " males, colored 683 
 
 " " females, " 296 
 
 Total 2,855 
 
 Monthly average paid to teachers, males $31.64 
 
 " " '.' " " females.... 29.21 
 
 Average number of months of school session. . 4.5 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The State Normal 
 School at Columbia was opened in 1874. It 
 provides a two years' course of study in two de- 
 partments ; the first, a training class for fitting 
 teachers for lower-grade positions; the second, 
 for fitting them for positions in the higher 
 schools. The board of regents determines the 
 number of students to be admitted annually, and 
 these are apportioned among the counties of 
 the state according to the number of represent- 
 atives of each in the general assembly. The can- 
 didates so apportioned, pass through a competi- 
 tive examination, conducted by the county school 
 commissioners and board of examiners, the com- 
 
SOUTH CAROLINA 
 
 missioner recommending the candidates accord- 
 ing to their standing in the examination, ex- 
 cept in cases of special aptitude for teaching on 
 the part of the applicant. They are then re-ex- 
 amined by the president of the normal school, 
 and if found qualified, are admitted upon a 
 pledge of intention to teach in the public schools 
 of the state. Certificates and diplomas are 
 granted according to the degree of proficiency 
 attained. During the first year of the school. 
 39 students were registered, G males and 33 fe- 
 males. The report for L875 stated that the 
 school was in a flourishing condition. — Six 
 teachers' institutes were held during the year 
 1 875 : but the system has not yet been developed 
 sufficiently to affect materially the educational 
 interests of the state. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The institutions for 
 supplying this kind of instruction, are few in 
 number. In 1875, only 7 academies and sem- 
 inaries made reports to the U. S. Bureau of 
 Education, — 1 for boys. 2 for girls, and 4 for 
 both sexes. They employed 22 teachers, and 
 had an attendance of (!(i3 pupils. The number 
 of pupils in the public schools pursuing higher 
 studies, was 2,752. There are no high schools 
 organized outside of Charleston. There is a 
 preparatory school at Orangeburg, having, in 
 1875, an attendance of 209 pupils. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Instruction. 
 — The denominational schools in the state are 
 not numerou's. the instruction usually given in 
 such institutions, being furnished, as demanded, 
 by schools of other grades. 
 
 Superior Instruction. - -The colleges and uni- 
 versities of the state are as follows : 
 
 R. liL^io:: 
 
 t inniL-. 1'iiri; 1^70 M. Epis. 
 
 Charleston 1789 Non-sect. 
 
 Erskine College .... Dm West 1839 Hf. Presb. 
 
 9reenville 1851 Baptist 
 
 Walballa 1858 Luth. 
 
 Columbia IsOo N<> i s.-.-r 
 
 Spartanburg 1853 M. Epis.S. 
 Profession, i! and Scientific instruction. — De- 
 partments for furnishing this kind of instruction, 
 are in operation in many of the colleges and 
 universities of the state, but there are, in addi- 
 tion, special institutions, as follows: The South- 
 ern Baptist Theological Seminary, at Greenville, 
 with 5 instructors and 66 students, in 1874 — 5 ; 
 and the Theological Seminary of the General 
 Assembly of the Presbyterian < 'hurch, at Colum- 
 bia, with 5 instructors and 57 students. 
 
 Special Instruct ion. — The South Carolina In- 
 stitution for the education of the deaf and 
 dumb and the blind, located at Spartanburg, is 
 a state institution. It has been closed, since 
 October. 1873. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA, University of, at. 
 Columbia, S. C. was chartered as South Caro- 
 lina College in 1801, and was organized in 1805. 
 It became a university in 1865. it is a state in- 
 stitution, supported by legislative appropriations. 
 Instruction is free to all, and there are no 
 
 S. W. BAPTIST UNIVERSITY 789 
 
 charges for rent of rooms or matriculation. The 
 campus and grounds are in the center of the 
 city. They cover four squares, including eighteen 
 acres, and are adorned with shade trees. Within 
 the enclosure are the library building, recitation 
 rooms, dormitories, society balls, and residences 
 of the professors. The university has a museum 
 of mineralogy and geology, and a library of over 
 26,000 volumes. It comprises an academic depart- 
 ment, preparatory school, law school, and medical 
 school (suspended). In the academic department 
 there are two quadrennial courses, the classical, 
 leading to the degree of A. B., and the modern, 
 leading to the degree of Ph. B. The preparatory 
 school is designed for instruction in the higher 
 English branches, as well as to fit boys for the 
 college courses. Colored as well as white youth 
 are admitted to all the courses, The legislature, 
 in the session of 1873 — 4, established 124 bene- 
 ficiary scholarships, open for general competition, 
 each yielding 8200 a year to the successful ap- 
 plicant. They are apportioned to the counties ac- 
 cording to the number of representatives to w Inch 
 each is entitled in the lower branch oi the general 
 assembly. The scholarships are tenable tor four 
 years, or until graduation : and the holder may 
 pursue either of the quadrennial courses. In 
 January, 1876, there were 12 instructors and 19G 
 students (11 law. 88 collegiate, 97 preparatory). 
 Of the college students. 35 were pursuing the 
 classical course, and 53 the modern course. The 
 Rev. Anson W. Oummings, A.M.,D.D.,is(1877) 
 the chairman of the faculty. 
 
 SOUTHERN UNIVERSITY, at Greens- 
 boro', Ala., chartered in 1858, and organized in 
 1859, is under the control of the Methodist Epis- 
 copal < 'hurch. South. It has productive funds to 
 the amount of $51,000 : the value of its grounds, 
 buildings, and apparatus is S'.mi.iiiii. Before the 
 war. its endowment was over S'Jiiu.liiNl. The li- 
 brary contains upward of 2,000 volumes, and the 
 laboratory is well supplied with apparatus, chem- 
 ical and philosophical. It was originally organized 
 on the plan of the University of Virginia, and, 
 besides the ordinary collegiate schools, has schools 
 of law. medicine, and Biblical literature. In 
 1870 — 7, there were 14 instructors and about 
 LOO students. The Rev. A. S. Andrews. D. D., 
 was the chancellor until .lulv. 1*75. when he was 
 succeeded by the Rev. Luther M. Smith, 1). 1)., 
 the present incumbent (1877). 
 
 SOUTHWESTERN BAPTIST UNI- 
 VERSITY, at Jackson, Term., was founded in 
 1874, by the Baptists of the south western 
 States. It is supported by tuition fees ran- 
 ging from SI 21 to S30 per term ol 
 and by the income of an endowment of $60 000. 
 The value of its real estate is $50,000. The 
 academic department consists of a primary school 
 and a grammar (or preparatory) school. The 
 university comprises two departments : (1 ) liter- 
 ature and science ; (2) law. The department of 
 literature and science comprehends the seven 
 schools, as follows: (1) Latin; (2) Greek; 
 (.'Si mathematics: [ 1) natural science; (5) moral 
 science ; (0) English; (7) German and Erench. 
 
790 S. W. PRESB. UNIVERSITY 
 
 Two auxiliary preparatory schools are to be es- 
 tablished : one for East Tennessee, at Mossy 
 ('reek, and one for Middle Tennessee, in Mur- 
 freesboro, which will be component parts of the 
 university. In L875 -6, there were 1 instructors 
 and 191 students (52 collegiate, 11 grammar, 95 
 primary). The presidents have been: Geo. W. 
 Jarman, A. M., 1874—5 : Win. Shelton, D. D., 
 1875 — 6 ; and Geo. W. Jarman, A. M., again, 
 since 1876. 
 
 SOUTHWESTERN PRESBYTERIAN 
 UNIVERSITY, at Clarksville, Tenn., char- 
 tered in 1 875, was established by the Presbyterian 
 synods of the South-west. It succeeded to the 
 property and funds of Stewart t Jollege, which was 
 continued on the existing plan, until the formal 
 organization of the university proper. The uni- 
 versity now has an endowment fund of $100,000, 
 24 acres of laud, with commodious college build- 
 ings, and a considerable building fund, besides 
 large and costly cabinets of minerals, fossils, and 
 shells, and a valuable scientific library, presented 
 by Prof. Wm. M. Stewart, after whom Stewart- 
 College was named. The liege received its name. 
 
 in 1855, when the buildings, grounds, etc, of the 
 Masonic University of Tenn. (founded in 1850 
 by the Masonic Fraternity of the state) were 
 purchased in behalf of the. Synod of Nashville. 
 It was suspended during the civil war, and re- 
 opened some time after its close. It has a sub- 
 COllegiate and a collegiate department, and con- 
 fers the usual degrees. A Biblical course is pre- 
 scribed through the four college classes. The 
 cost of tuition ranges from S 10 to $70 per an- 
 num. Eree tuition is provided for all candidates 
 for the ministry, and tor all sons of Presbyterian 
 ministers. In 1875 — G, there were 6 professors 
 and 131 students. The Rev. J. B. Shearer, D.D., 
 is (1876) the president. 
 
 SOUTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY, at 
 
 Willi 
 
 control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 South, was opened as Texas University in 1874, 
 and chartered under its present title in 1875. In 
 it were merged Rutersville College, at Ruters- 
 ville, chartered in 1840; Wesleyan College, at 
 San Augustine, 1844; Sonic University, at Chap- 
 pel Hill, 1856; and McKcnzie College, at Clarks- 
 ville, I860; all controlled by thesame church. It 
 is supported chiefly by tuition fees, but has an 
 endowment of 12,000 acres of land. The tuition 
 fee is $30 for one term of five months, or $50 
 for one session of ten months. The university 
 comprises 12 schools ; namely, mental and moral 
 philosophy, Latin, Greek, pure mathematics, ap- 
 plied mathematics, German, Spanish, English 
 language and literature history and political 
 economy, chemistry and geology, a commercial 
 school, and a preparatory school. In |s7"> -ii. 
 there were 6 instructors and 78 students. The 
 Rev. E. A. Mood, D.I)., formerly president of 
 Smile University, is now (1870) regent of this 
 university. 
 
 SPAIN, a country of Europe, having an 
 areaof 195,774 sq. m., and a population, in 1x70. 
 of 16,835,500. With the exception of the Basques, 
 
 SPAIN 
 
 in four of the northern provinces, almost all 
 the inhabitants are Spaniards, and speak the 
 Spanish language. Until quite recently, the 
 only form of religion allowed by law was the 
 Roman Catholic. 
 
 History of Education. — Education, in Spain, 
 may be said to have begun with the establish- 
 ment of the Roman power, in the 2d century 
 before ( Ihrist. The progress made by the natives 
 was so great that Strata found no difference be- 
 tween a Roman and an Iberian youth. The 
 schools of Cordova, especially, were, during the 
 first centuries of the Christian era, in a flourish- 
 ing condition, and educated some of the best 
 representatives of the later Roman literature. 
 It is noteworthy that the two Romans, who, un- 
 der the reign of the emperors, achieved the 
 highest reputation as writers on education — 
 Seneca and Quintilian, were both natives of 
 Spain. The invasion of the German tribes, for 
 a time, checked the progress of education ; but 
 the scholarship of the Spanish monasteries was 
 soon worthy to be compared with that of other 
 Christian countries. Some of the Gothic kings, 
 too, began to show an interest in education, 
 which was well calculated to raise great hopes 
 for the future. The conquest of Spain by the 
 Arabs raised the country to the foremost rank 
 among the nations of the earth in regard to edu- 
 cation. The religious toleration of the Moham- 
 medan rulers allowed Christian and Jewish 
 scholars to teach in the schools side by side 
 with Mohammedans, and produced a literary 
 emulation which was followed by the most 
 beneficial results. Pozy, in his History of the 
 Mohammedans in Spun/, shows that primary 
 schools were numerous and well conducted, 
 and that, while in the Christian countries only 
 the priests possessed a moderate knowledge, in 
 Andalusia the bulk of the people were able to 
 read and write. Aristotle became better known 
 to Christian Europe from translations made by 
 .Mohammedan Arabs : and Cordova and other 
 seats of Mohammedan learning attracted the 
 most gifted students from all parts of Europe. 
 One of the most learned of the Popes of the 
 middle ages, Sylvester 11.. was chiefly indebted 
 for his scholarship to Mohammedan teachers. 
 When the power of Mohammedanism declined, 
 and the Christian kings began to recover the 
 lost ground, Spain found a distinguished patron 
 of education in king Alfonso X.. surnamed the 
 Wise (1252 — 84), who, in his remarkable code 
 of laws, entitled Las Siete Partidas, devoted 
 one chapter I o Estudios Generates. Salamanca 
 became the most famous university of Christian 
 Europe, having, at one tunc, over 10.000 students. 
 Uniing the 16th and 1 7th centuries, the cause of 
 education visibly declined. In thesecond half of 
 the 18th century, Charles III. re-organized the 
 universities of Salamanca, AJcalade Henares.and 
 Granada, and established elementary and higher 
 schools in all the market towns and villages. 
 Under Charles IV. (1788 -1808), the Pestaloz- 
 zian system was introduced ; but it did not lead 
 to any lasting improvement. The new consti- 
 
tution of 1312 favored the development of edu- 
 cation, but no real progress could be made dur- 
 ing the illiberal reign of Ferdinand VII. Sev- 
 eral attempts tip re-organize the educational sys- 
 tem were made during the regency of Chris- 
 tina, the reigns of Isabella and Amadeo, and the 
 short repubnean administration ; but. in i se- 
 quence of the ensuing civil wars, no reform of 
 importance has as yet been carried into effect. 
 
 Primary Instruction. — Primary instruction 
 is compulsory, and, since 1809, free to all. Iiy 
 the law of L857, it was divided into an element- 
 ary and a higher grade. The course of studies j 
 of the elementary schools comprised religion. 
 Scriptural history, reading, writing, the elements 
 of .Spanish grammar, and the rudiments of 
 arithmetic. In the higher primary schools, the 
 same subjects were taught and. in addition, tin; 
 elements of geometry, of linear drawing and 
 surveying, history and geography i particularly 
 of Spain), natural philosophy, chemistry, and 
 natural history. The law of L868 abolished the 
 above distinct ion.and divided the schools into four 
 classes: (1) As.v/.V.is </.< , ntrt hi. for communities 
 of from 500 to 1,000 inhabitants ; (2) Escuelas 
 '/■' jirim to naiviniii, for communities of from 
 2,000 to 10,000 inhabitants ; (3) Escuelas de se- 
 gundoascenso, for cities of from 10.000 to 20,000 
 inhabitants; and (4) /•.'<.•».'/,« //<■ tcrwiuo. for 
 the chief towns of provinces and cities of more 
 than 20,0011 inhabitants. The course of studies 
 generally agreed with that of the law of 1857, 
 but required for the girls' schools practical in- 
 struction in needle work, and recommended the 
 introduction of music wherever possible. The 
 law of 1857 declared all those schools public 
 schools, which were sustained wholly or in part 
 by the state, by charitable institutions, or by 
 funds specially appropriated for this purpose. 
 The law of 1808 added to these all schools 
 sustained by religious corporations, but the re- | 
 publican government deprived the religious 
 corporations of all privileges formerly possessed , 
 by them. An elementary school for boys is re- 
 quired to be established in every village of 500 
 inhabitants, and also one for girls, though nei- 
 ther need comprise, in the course of studies, all 
 the subjects enumerated above. Similar schools 
 for boys only, are admissible in communities 
 •with less than- 500 inhabitants. Every town 
 of 2,000 inhabitants must have two complete 
 schools for boys and two for girls ; and, for every 
 additional 2,000 inhabitants, there must be an 
 additional school for boys, and one for girls. 
 Private schools are accepted, but one-third of 
 the schools of a town must be public. In the 
 chief towns of provinces, and in cities of more 
 than 10,000 inhabitants, one of the public 
 schools must be of a higher grade. Schools for 
 children from two to seven years of age must be 
 kept in cities with more than 10,000 inhabitants. 
 At the same places, are evening schools and 
 Sunday-schools for adults. By the law of 1808, 
 only the normal school at Madrid was retained ; 
 while, in the provinces, it was deemed sufficient 
 to permit the candidates for the office of teacher 
 
 lIN 791 
 
 to attend the model schools in the chief towns. 
 The normal schools, however, were re-opened by 
 the revolutionary government. Every capital 
 
 of a province is require,] to lia\e: rmal school, 
 
 with a model school attached, which is generally 
 
 the higher school of the town. The d I in 
 
 Madrid is called the Central Normal School. In 
 order to become a teacher, a candidate must be 
 20 years of age, possess a good moral character, 
 and must have passed the prescribed examina- 
 tion. Teachers can be removed only by the 
 government upon the recommendation of the 
 supreme council of study. The salaries of the 
 teachers are very small ; but, owing to the com- 
 plete exhaustion of the Spanish treasury, even 
 these are not regularly paid. The schools of the 
 kingdom are under the supervision of a supreme 
 council of study, consisting of 24 members who 
 are appointed by the king. This council is divided 
 into three sections : one for primary, special, and 
 art schools, one for secondary schools, and one for 
 superior schools. Every province has a provincial 
 junta for the schools of that province; and every 
 town has its local junta, consisting of the princi- 
 pal officers of the province or town, a priest . and 
 at least two heads of families. At least one in- 
 spector is appointed for every province, by the 
 king; and sometimes two are appointed ; Mad- 
 rid is entitled to three. The inspectors visit 
 all the schools in their district, with the excep- 
 tion of the primary normal schools, which are 
 left to three general inspectors. In 1872, there 
 were 22,625 public schools, of which 16,294 were 
 for males (infants, boys, and adults), and 6,331 
 for females. The number of private schools was 
 5,135, of which 2.901 were for males, and 2,234 
 for females; making a total of 27,700 primary 
 schools. The number of male pupils in the 
 public schools was 745,686 : and of female pu- 
 pils. I II .77:! ; making tin total number of pupils 
 in the public schools 1,187,459. The private 
 schools had 90.75.'! male and 97,760 female pu- 
 pils, or 194,513 pupils of both sexes. The total 
 number of pupils in the primary schools was 
 1,381,972. The number of normal schools was 31. 
 Secondary Instruction. — Secondary instruc- 
 tion is imparted in institutes, which are divided 
 into three classes according to the population 
 of their localities, that in Madrid being of the 
 first class ; those in the provincial capitals and 
 at the seats of universities, of the second ; and all 
 the rest, of the third. Every province has one 
 provincial institute; and Madrid, two ; while 
 local institutions are opened wherever they are 
 needed. Goli rios, or boarding-houses, have been 
 established in connection with most of the in- 
 stitutes: while private colegios maj be opened 
 by any Spaniard of good repute and over 25 
 years of age. who holds the degree of licentiate 
 from a university. The law of 1857 prescribed 
 that all teachers in secondary schools should be 
 24 years of age, and should hold the degree of 
 Bachelor of Arts. This provision was abol- 
 ished by the revolutionary government, which 
 required a competitive examination. The in- 
 stitutes are under the control of the rectors of 
 
792 
 
 SPANISH LANGUAGE 
 
 the university districts, to whom the directors 
 of the institutes must furnish a monthly finam 
 cial report. If no university is near, the report 
 is made to the minister. The course of instruc- 
 tion in the institutes is divided into general and 
 applied studies. The former comprise religion 
 and Scriptural history, reading, writing, uni- 
 versal and Spanish history, modern languages, 
 Spanish and Latin grammar and composition, 
 the rudiments of Greek, logic, psychology, and 
 drawing. The course of general studies com- 
 prises two periods, of two and four years re- 
 spectively, and prepares the student for the de- 
 gree of Bachelor of Arts. The applied studies 
 prepare the student to be an expert, in mercan- 
 tile affairs, mechanics, chemistry, or survey- 
 ing, and cover a term of three years. They 
 comprise linear and object drawing, mercantile 
 arithmetic, and all such branches as can be applied 
 in agriculture, in the arts, in trades, and in com- 
 merce and navigation. The number of insti- 
 tutes, in 1S72, was (13, with about 30,(100 pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction. —Superior instruction 
 is imparted in the universities. There are five 
 faculties; namely, philosophy and literature; 
 mathematical, physical, and natural sciences ; 
 pharmacy; medicine; and laws. These faculties 
 however, are not all represented in each uni- 
 versity. Three degrees are conferred, — the 
 baccalaureate, the licentiate, and the doctorate. 
 The universities, in 1873, were as follows: 
 Barcelona, with 55 professors and '2.440 students; 
 Granada, with 47 professors and 1,404 students; 
 Madrid, with 76 professors and 6,496 students; 
 Oviedo, with 15 professors and 223 students: 
 Salamanca, with 41 professors and 419 students; 
 Santiago, with 28 professors; Seville, with 35 
 professors; Valencia, with 37 professors and 
 1,693 students; and Valladolid, with 31 profess- 
 ors and 1,050 students. 
 
 Special Instruction. — Special instruction is 
 imparted in schools of agriculture, of architect- 
 ure, of fine arts, of commerce, of engineering. 
 and of mining. There is also a. conservatory of 
 music, at Madrid ; a school of forestry, at Villa- 
 viciosa de "don, and four schools of veterinary 
 surgery, — at Madrid, Cordova. Leon, and Sara- 
 gossa. The total number of students receiving 
 special instruction, in 1872. was 1,372. See 
 Sciimii), P&dagogis'he Eh-ii -/n/Kiilii'; He/inrt 
 of U. S. Cmmis'sioH,',- of E-'hirotio,, fur 1 S73. 
 
 SPANISH LANGUAGE. The Spanish 
 language has but little claim to a place in tin- 
 regular course of instruction, in schools and col- 
 leges, in comparison with the French and 
 German languages. As Spanish, however, is 
 not only the language of one of the nations of 
 Europe, but is spoken in all the countries of 
 South America, except Brazil : and also in 
 Central America, Mexico, and even in some 
 parts of the United States, and is thus the 
 vernacular language of a1 I as1 60 millions 
 
 of people, practical considerations eon nd 
 
 its study to thousands of persons -indents 
 and others, in preference to either German or 
 French. Independently of this consideration, 
 
 the Spanish language, as a school accomplish- 
 ment, is not without attractions. It ranks, in- 
 deed, among the most euphonious of modern 
 languages, being even preferred, by some linguists, 
 to the Italian ; and its literature contains many 
 works of enduring interest and value. Among 
 historians, Mariana, and among poets, Lope de 
 Vega and Calderon, deservedly hold a very high 
 rank ; while Cervantes, the immortal author of 
 Don Quixote, has scarcely been surpassed for 
 humorous description and lively satire. The 
 Spanish language, like the French and the Italian, 
 is one of the so-called Romanic languages (q. v.); 
 but there are some words in it which may be 
 traced either to the ancient Iberians, the ruling 
 race before the invasion of the Romans, and an 
 offshoot of whose language is supposed to sur- 
 vive in the Basque, or to the Celts who overran 
 Spain as well as other parts of western Europe. 
 The remarks made in the articles of this work on 
 the derivation of the French and Italian from 
 the Latin apply in a. large measure also to the 
 Spanish. When the Visigoths had established 
 their rule in tin- country, they gradually adopted 
 the vulgar Latin, which had already become the 
 language of the bulk of the population. They 
 retained, however, and introduced into the com- 
 mon language, a number of terms designating 
 their political institutions and war customs. 
 The use of the definite article, also, and the 
 employment of auxiliary verbs in the formation of 
 the past tenses of the active voice, and in all the 
 tenses of the passive, passed from the language 
 of the Teutonic conquerors into the new language 
 of Spain, as likewise into those of France and 
 Italy. The Arabs, with whom the Spanish 
 Christians, for nearly 800 years, bad to wrestle 
 for the control of the country, introduced 
 into the language a number of words relating to 
 industry, science, and commerce; and some of 
 these words, especially those beginning with the 
 \ rabic articl is almanac, < hi /.etc.). have 
 
 passed, through Spanish, into the modern lan- 
 guages oi I aro] e in - i i ral. While the Spanish 
 language pn ents a considerably larger number 
 of non-Latin elen ents than eitb< I French or 
 Italian, it deviates but little from these two sister 
 languages in its structure and gianin ar. In the 
 pronunciation of the xowcls.it entirely agrees 
 with the Italian. The two double consonants tl and 
 n are peculiar to the Spanish : and of the English 
 consonant sounds, z (as in zone)i$ entirely want- 
 ing. Though substantives have only two genders, 
 masculine and feminine, the article has three, 
 el, la, and lo; the last, which is the neuter form, 
 being used to change adjectives into substantives 
 (lobueno, that which is good). The Spanish is 
 richer than either French or Italian in auginent- 
 atives and diminutives; and the reflexive form 
 of the verb is used more extensively, perhaps, 
 than in any other language of Europe. The sub- 
 junctive has two more tenses than the Italian 
 or French [amare, future : amara, second condi- 
 tional). In words derived from 1 at ill. the e and 
 o of the accented penuliiiiia have frequently been 
 developed into ie and ue, a change which, in 
 
igu 
 
 SPARTA 
 
 this class of words, gives to the Spanish an un- ' 
 doubted superiority in euphony (Spanish tk'inpn, 
 ftterli'; Flench 1,-nqix.fiui; Ital. tempo fork ■ 
 The proper method of teaching Spam-hdoe- not 
 differ from that of teaching the /■>,. ■' 
 (q. v.) A few lessons in comparative etymology 
 will greatly facilitate the study of this as of every 
 lage. If, for instance, the pupil learns that 
 combinations as cl, fl. pi etc. in English 
 words of Latin origin are often changed into // 
 [llamar, clamor; llama, flame: liana, plain), a 
 large number of words will, at once, be familiar 
 to him. — The first grammar, as well as the first 
 dictionary, of the Spanish language, was pub- ! 
 lished in 1 192 by Antonio de Lebrija. Thegram- 
 lnar and dictionary of the Spanish Academy 
 (first published in 1771) at once became, and 
 have since remained, standard authorities. The 
 dictionary of the Academy has received many 
 valuable additions and corrections from Salva, 
 who has also written the best Spanish grammar 
 for natives. Etymological dictionaries have been ' 
 published by Covarrabias (1G74) and Cabrera 
 (1837). 
 
 SPARTA, one of the principal states of 
 ancient Greece, dates its important history from 
 the regency of Lycurgus (q. v.), who devised a 
 peculiar system of education, designed to foster, 
 as the highest virtue, a contempt of life and of 
 worldly goo, Is, and, as worthy of the highest, 
 honor, the habit of prompt obedience to all the 
 demands of the state. The central idea of his 
 system was, that the interests of the state are 
 paramount to every consideration of individual 
 rights or feelings. Hence, according to it, the 
 child was the property of the state, and its 
 officers alone had the right to decide its destiny, 
 even from its birth, infants physically incapable 
 of the prescribed training not being permitted 
 to live. In the early period of its life, the in- 
 fant was allowed to remain with its mother, who 
 was required to adopt every possible means to 
 invigorate its body. With the 7th year of age, 
 the state education began. The boys were com- 
 mitted to a public educational establishment (a 
 sort of military school); and, by living thus 
 apart from their friends, were made to realize 
 early their membership in the state organism, 
 with common interests and aspirations. The 
 general direction was entrusted to a superin- 
 tendent (-«(Wc//,o). who was selected from 
 among those who had been previously invested 
 with the highest political dignities. Under him, 
 were officers whose duty it was to guide the ex- 
 ercises of the boys. The Spartan system aspired 
 to establish a perfect harmony between the will 
 of the individual and the interests and demands 
 of the state, as expressed by the laws. It pro- 
 vided a gradual transition from obedience to the 
 exercise of authority, on the principle that those 
 onl}' know how to command who have learned 
 to obey. Thus, the elder boys were permitted 
 to participate in the training of the younger ; 
 and the latter were obliged to wait upon the 
 former at table. As the purpose of the Spartans 
 was to rear warlike citizens, physical training 
 
 ;<•:; 
 
 constituted the chief part of a youth's education. 
 Every possible means was resorted to in order 
 to cultivate fortitude, and the habit of enduring 
 hardship and pain. The youths' diet was not 
 only plain lint scanty. They were permitted to 
 steal the provisions necessary to satisfy their 
 hunger, but if caught, were severely punished; 
 as the intention was to develop cunning, agility. 
 and dexterity — qualities requisite in war. The 
 boys wore neither head nor foot covering up 
 to the age of manhood. At the 1 2th year, every 
 kind of under-gai-ment was laid aside, a long 
 cloak (\iti.ii') being the only article of clothing 
 worn, and that at, all seasons. Their bed was 
 hard, being prepared of the rushes that grew on 
 the banks of the Eurotas. Corporal punishment 
 was not only used as a means of discipline, but 
 was deemed to be indispensably requisite for the 
 formation of a manly disposition. The intel- 
 lectual cultivation of the Spartans was very 
 slight ; but, on account of their political life, 
 they were obliged to possess some learning. 
 They, therefore, acquired by oral instruction a 
 rudimentary knowledge of arithmetic and some 
 other branches. They also learned to dance, 
 sing, and play on some musical instrument, 
 especially the flute and lyre (Kitiapa), and com- 
 mitted to memory the laws of lycurgus. Girls 
 studied the same subjects as boys, and also 
 practiced gymnastic exercises to promote health 
 and beauty. (See Greece.) 
 
 SPENCER, Herbert, an English philos- 
 opher and author, born in Derby, April 27., 
 1820. At the age of seventeen, he became a 
 civil engineer; but, at the end of eight years, 
 during whii h he was a contributor to the Civil 
 Engineers' and Arc) -' J vrnal, he relin- 
 quished his j rofession, and engaged in study. In 
 Is I'J, he 1 , gaii the publication, in the \- » ' '• « 
 formisl, of a series of papers, entitled, The 
 ' /V<7» /• Sflf ,■<• (f <■'"/■■ rumen!. From 1848 to 
 ls.V_'. lie was a regular contributor to the Econ- 
 omist, xnA furnished reviews and criticisms on 
 various subjects to other periodicals. In 1854, 
 the theory of evolution, a belief in which, as the 
 cause of the present diversity in the animal 
 kingdom, had gradually become strengthened in 
 his mind, suggested itself to him as a universal 
 process; and subsequent study has only served 
 to confirm the truth of the suggestion. This 
 view of evolution, as the method of nature in 
 every department, is reflected in the only dis- 
 tinctively educational work he has published— a 
 small volume, entitled. Education: / 
 Moral,and Physical (London and New York, 
 1860). This work, based upon the latest dis- 
 coveries and conclusions of science, confirms the 
 most important results of Montaigne, Locke, 
 Rousseau, Isaac Taylor, and others — results 
 reached only by an acute observation of mental 
 J phenomena, but without a perception of the reason 
 j or order of their development. It goes beyond 
 them, however, in its attempt to lay down a 
 complete scheme of education in accordance 
 ! with the doctrine of evolution. The dominant 
 ! idea of the method of Pestalozzi. discovered by 
 
794 
 
 STATE AND SCHOOL 
 
 hira empirically through his strong sympathy I 
 for children, is in this work shown to be the 
 true one ; while his errors in the application of 
 the method — errors which he himself acknowl- 
 edged — are explained. Two of the distinctive 
 features of the system proposed by Mr. Spencer 
 are, that the concrete should precede the ab- 
 stract in all early instruction, and the corollary 
 which follows from this ; namely, the superior 
 uses of science as an educator : and the use of 
 pleasure or interest as a test of the efficacy of 
 the instruction. The gradual abandonment of 
 corporal punishment, the disuse of rote-teaching, 
 and the substitution of the direct appeal to nat- 
 ure, the increased attention given to physical ed- 
 ucation, and the general acceptance of the idea 
 of mental growth by inherent power, in place of 
 the artificial expansion produced by purely ex- 
 terior forces, seem to indicate a practical accept- 
 ance of the doctrines of Mr. Spencer, whatever 
 theoretical objections may be made to them. 
 
 STATE AND SCHOOL. In all civilized 
 countries, the control of public schools is looked 
 upon as one of the most important and difficult 
 branches of public administration. Many states 
 have a special ministry of public instruction ; 
 while others have established a bureau of edu- 
 cation, connected with one of the ministries. (See 
 Ministry of Public Instruction.) As has been 
 shown, in the articles on the history of education 
 and on the several countries of the world, ancient 
 and modern, the relation of state authorities to 
 school affairs has widely differed in different 
 times and countries. Even at the present time, 
 there is not only a vast diversity in the school 
 laws of different countries, but fundamental 
 questions in regard to the powers of state author- 
 ities, in educational affairs, are still warmly dis- 
 cussed. Generally, however, it is conceded that 
 the state has the right to require that every 
 child in the country should receive a certain de- 
 gree of elementary education. (See Compulsory 
 Education, and Public Schools.) But one of the 
 greatest educational controversies of the present 
 time is, whether the state authority has the sole 
 Tight to arrange a course of studies, without re- 
 gard to the different religious views existing in 
 a community. (See Denominational Schools.) 
 Another controverted question is the right of 
 the state to support by the public money any 
 schools higher than those of an elementary grade. 
 
 STEPHANI, Heinrich, a German educator 
 and Protestant clergyman, born at Gemiind, in 
 Bavaria, April 1 ., 1761 : died at Gorkau, in Sile- 
 sia. Dec. 24., 1850. After having been for a few 
 years at the head of the schools in the little state 
 of Castell, he was, in 1808, after the incorporation 
 of Castell with Bavaria, appointed school coun- 
 cilor at Augsburg. Subsequently he held the same 
 position atEicltstiidt and Auspach; and. in 1818, 
 he became dean at Gunzenhausen. Prom the 
 latter position, he was removed in 1834, on ac- 
 count of his rationalistic views. His Fibel ( 1 802) . 
 and several works on an improved method ol 
 teaching to read, contributed more than any 
 
 STEPHENS 
 
 other work to the progress of the phonic method 
 (Lau/irmelhuile) of reading German. He pub- 
 lished several works on national education 
 (Grundlinien </■ r Staatserziehungswissensi h"/t 
 (1797); and System der dffenUichen Erziehung 
 (1 SOoj.in which he took the ground that the school 
 should In' separated from the church, and placed 
 tinder the exclusive control of the state author- 
 ities, but that parents should have liberty to send 
 their children to cither state or private schools. 
 
 STEPHENS, Henry (Lat. Stephanus, Fr. 
 Estienne or Etienne), was bom in Paris in 1528, 
 and died in Lyons in 1598. He was the grand- 
 son of Henry Stephens, who was the founder of 
 a remarkable family of scholars and printers, 
 which, for three generations, maintained its 
 peculiar eminence. He was distinguished by 
 the scholarly ability, but was wanting in the 
 worldly prudence, which characterized his an- 
 cestors. He continued the business of his 
 father in Paris and Geneva successively, publish- 
 ing, among other works, those of yEschylus, 
 Herodotus, Horace. Plato, Virgil, Pliny, and 
 Plutarch. In 1572, he issued his Thesaurus 
 Lingua Greece, an abridgment of which was 
 made by Scapula. The costliness of this work, 
 by confining its sale to the wealthy, involved 
 him in pecuniary difficulties, which ended only 
 with his life. His remarkable ability as a clas- 
 sical scholar secured him the approval of the 
 learned, ami would alone entitle him to an en- 
 during reputation. See Leon Feuoere, Essai 
 sur la Vie vt les Outrages de If. Estienne, 
 (Paris, lw.">3) ; A. A. Renouaed, Annates de 
 Vimprimerie des Estienne (Paris, 1*37— 43). 
 
 STEPHENS, Robert, the father of the 
 preceding, born in Paris in 1503; died, in 1559, 
 in Geneva, to which city he had removed on 
 account of persecution for his advocacy of the 
 doctrines of the Reformation, The occasion for 
 his persecution was found by his enemies in his 
 edition of the Bible and of the Greek Testament, 
 the former published in 1545, the latter, in 1549. 
 He was considered one of the most excellent 
 scholars of his time. As early as his 20th year, 
 he published an edition of the New Testament 
 in Latin, with corrections by himself, and, in 
 1532, began the publication of the most famous 
 of all his works, his Dictionarium » " Thesaurus 
 Linguce Latince, a work which maintained an 
 acknowledged superiority for more than two 
 hundred years, new editions appealing, in London 
 and Paris, as late as the present century. In 
 1543, he compiled the first Latin-French dic- 
 tionary, a work which was received with great 
 favor, lie was at once author, printer, and 
 publisher ; and from his press were issued many 
 editions of the Bible and of the Creek and Latin 
 classics, all of which were marked by accuracy of 
 scholarship and an artistic excellence which sur- 
 passed any thing that had been published, up to 
 that time, in France. The division of the New 
 Testament into verses, the method now generally 
 employed, was first introduced by him. See A. 
 P. Didot, in the Nbuvette Biographie Generate ; 
 and London Quarterly Review for April, 1865. 
 
STEWART COLLEGE 
 
 stcrm 
 
 795 
 
 STEWART COLLEGE, Olarksville, Tenn. 
 See Southern Presbyterian University. 
 
 ST02TE, William Leete, ail American 
 author, born at New Paltz, N. Y., April 20., 
 1792; died at Saratoga Springs, .Vug. 15., 1844. 
 He began life as a printer, but at 18 beeana- an 
 editor — editing successively various journals, but, 
 from I >21 until bis di-.-nli. the V )'. I bmmeri i il 
 Advertiser. For some years, he was one of the 
 school commissioners of New York City: and, 
 during the years 1843 — 4, was the superin- 
 tendent of the common schools. He will long be 
 remembered on account of his famous discussion 
 with Archbishop Hughes in relation to the use 
 of the Bible in the public schools, his last letter 
 to whom — occupying three columns of fine type 
 in the Commercial Advertiser — was dictated ou 
 his death-bed but one week previous to his de- 
 cease. Although Col. Stone's influence was 
 widely extended throughout the country, it 
 was felt more particularly in New York City. 
 For many years, he was identified with all her 
 interests ; and she has reason ever to bold his 
 name in kindly remembrance. The religious 
 enterprises and benevolent associations of the 
 day commanded his earnest efforts in their be- 
 half ; and, at home, the Institution for the Deaf 
 and Dumb, and the Society for the Reformation 
 of Juvenile I Minquents. found in him a steadfast 
 supporter. "Col. Stone," writes Harvey P. Peet, 
 the president of the New York Deaf and Dumb 
 Asylum. ■■ entered with characteristic energy into 
 the effort to build up a superior institution for 
 the Deaf and Dumb in New York ; and I ascribe 
 much of the success which crowned my labors 
 to his ready sympathy and encouragement and 
 his intelligent and zealous co-operation." Indeed, 
 it may be truly said that to the cause of edu- 
 cation he gave his whole energies and spared 
 not his decaying strength. "As Superintend- 
 ent of Common Schools." said Mr. Clark in 
 announcing the fact of his decease to the Board 
 of Education, at a special meeting called for the 
 purpose, " his loss is irreparable, and from any 
 knowledge I possess of the qualifications of 
 others, I fear it will be long before his place 
 will be fully supplied. 1 lis qualifications for that 
 office were pre-emiuent." His published works 
 are quite numerous, but mostly on subjects per- 
 taining to American history. Of these, perhaps 
 the most admired are Life of Joseph Brant; 
 Tliti-wii-ili-ite-iira il-.:-.. new edition edited 
 by W. L. Stone, Jr. (Albany, 1865); Border 
 Wars of the American Revolution | L837); Life 
 of Red-Jacket — Sa-go-ye-wai-ha 1 1835), new edi- 
 tion with life of the author by his son. W. L. 
 Stone (Albany. 1866). 
 
 STOWE, Calvin E., an American clergy- 
 man, born at Natick, Mass., April 6., 1802. lie 
 graduated at Bowdoin College, in 1824, and at 
 Andover Theological Seminary, in 1828; and. in 
 the latter, he was immediately made assistant 
 professor. From 183(1 — 33, he was professor of 
 Latin and Greek in Dartmouth ( iollege ; and in 
 1833, of languages and Biblical literature in the 
 Lane Theological Seminary. He visited Europe in 
 
 1836, to examine, for the State of Ohio, the pub- 
 lic-school system of the German States, and pub 
 lished Elementary Public Instruction in Europe 
 L83 . « hii h u. ..i .■ \\ circulated in ( lliio 
 by direction oi the leg lature. He published 
 reports, also, on the Edu> ition of Immigrants, 
 and the Course of Instruction in the Primary 
 S 'ioo's if /'russia. In ls."(l, he was made pro- 
 fessor of natural and revealed religion in Bow- 
 doin College, Me., and, in 1852. professor of 
 Biblical literature at Andover Theological Semi 
 nary. This position he resigned in 1 86 I. He 
 has published, also, a History of the Hebrew 
 Common u-ea'th. a translation from the German 
 of Johann Jahn (l82S), Lectures on tin- Sorrel 
 Poetry of the Hebrews (1829), Introduction 
 to the Criticism and Interpretation of the Bible 
 (183.")), Origin ami History of the Books of 
 the Bible (Part I., New Testament, 1867).- 
 See Barnard, American Teachers and Educa- 
 tors i New Fork, 1861). 
 
 STRAIGHT UNIVERSITY, in New 
 Orleans, La., founded in 1869, is under Congre- 
 gational control. It was especially designed for 
 colored youth, but none are excluded on account 
 of race or sex. It has an endowmeut of §10,0(10. 
 but is mainly supported by the American Mis- 
 sionary Association. The library contains nearly 
 2,500 volumes. It has now in operation a theo- 
 logical, a law, a normal, a classical, a preparatory, 
 and an English course, and elementary depart- 
 ments. In 1875 — i i, there were 10 instructors 
 and 24fi students. The presidents have been: the 
 Rev. Joseph W. Healy, 1869—71 ; the Rev. 
 Samuel S. Ashley, 1871 — 4; and James A. 
 Adams, A. M., since 1875. 
 
 STURM, Johann, one of the foremost edu- 
 cators of the KJth century, born at Schleiden 
 (now in Prussia), in 1507 : died in 1589. After 
 teaching several years at Louvain ami Paris, he 
 was, in 1538, appointed rector in the newly- 
 established gymnasium of Strasbourg, where his 
 success was so great, that the city was called 
 the 2few Athens; and pupils were sent there 
 from many parts of Europe, among them the 
 sons of noblemen and princes. In 1578, the in- 
 stitution contained more than a thousand pu- 
 pils. In 1560, the emperor Maximilian II. con- 
 ferred upon it the dignity and privileges of an 
 academy, and Sturm was appointed recto?- per- 
 petuus, in which position he continued till 1581. 
 I lis title to fame rests upon his conception of an 
 educational system, the record of his work in the 
 gymnasium at Strasbourg, and the impulse 
 which he gave to the establishment of classical 
 
 sel Is. His educational system is clearly set 
 
 forth in his treatise on the best modi of op ning 
 institutions of learning i I >■ ir ,.,/•- 
 
 aperiendis), written in 1539, and published in 
 his Epistohr classico? (Strasb., 1565). Sturm 
 was generally regarded as the greatest educator 
 connected with the Reformed Church, in the 
 times of the Reformation ; and, like Melanch- 
 thon, he received the title Prceceptor Germaniai. 
 — See Barnard, German Teachers and Educa- 
 tors (N. Y"„ 1863) ; Schmidt, La vie et les tra- 
 
7 'JO 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 
 
 vauoc de Jean Sturm (Strasb., 1855) ; Loos, Die 
 Padagogik des Johannes Sturm (Berlin, 1872); 
 Ktjeckelhahn, Strassburg's erster Sdhvlrector 
 (Leips., 1S72). 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOLS, although of com- 
 paratively recent origin, and even yet in a condi- 
 tion of partial development, are already entitled 
 to be ranked among the most important educa- 
 tional agencies of modern times, no less than 
 among the voluntary activities of the Christian 
 Church. In the latter character, they have been 
 extensively established throughout Great Brit- 
 ain and the United States, and everywhere, even 
 beyond their primary objert of moral and religious 
 influence, their incidents] results have entitled 
 them to a high appreciation. They have given rise 
 to new and important improvements in church 
 architecture, ami til -y have <• lib- 1 into existence 
 an extensive literature emit em plating their special 
 wants and use, while they have enlisted teachers 
 by hundreds of thousands, and scholars by mil- 
 lions. In the United States, more particularly, 
 they have claimed, and in fact assumed, a rela- 
 tion to public (week-day) schools corresponding 
 to that which the sabbath holds to the secular 
 days of the week. In this relation, they Beek to 
 supplem -lit public an I general education with 
 the moral and religious influences of ( Ihristianity. 
 For this object, they secure the attendance of 
 scholars from the higher as well as the lower 
 classes of the community, and enlist for their in- 
 struction a quality of talent and an amount of 
 effort which money c luld never hire. The sub- 
 ject of Sunday-schools will be here considered 
 under the three follow ins li -i Is: (1) Their origin 
 
 Wig / ttar , History Since Sunday- 
 schools became popular, various efforts have 
 
 been made to fix their origin further back than 
 the period to which it is usually assigned. The 
 most that such efforts liave been able to accom- 
 plish has been to point out a few sporadic be- 
 ginnings somewhat analogous to I hit of Robert 
 Raikes; but, in no other instance than his. can 
 an actual historic connection be traced down- 
 ward to the existing system of Sunday-schools. 
 The effort of Raikes began in » ilouecsfer, Kngland, 
 in the year 17*1. It was purely philanthropic in 
 its design, and only contemplated local results. 
 Gloucester was a focus of pin manufacturing, at 
 which children were gathered together in great 
 numbers in order to be employed in the light 
 work of the factories. As most of them were 
 wholly uneducated, and many without parental 
 restraint or supervision, they naturally fell into 
 disorder and vice, especially on the Lord's day, 
 when they were not employed in work. The 
 attention of Mr. Raikes, a worthy printer of thai 
 town, was arrested by a condition of things so 
 distressing to a person of Christian sensibilities. 
 His own account of the origin of his efforts to 
 establish Sunday instruction for those neglected 
 children has a permanent interest. It was 
 furnished in a letter to Col. Townley, and pub- 
 lished in the Gentleman's Magazine, of Loudon. 
 
 Gloucester, June 6th, 17s4. 
 
 "The utility of an establishment of this sort was first 
 
 suggested by a group of little miserable wretches, wIk.iii 
 
 I ii1i,itvo(1 ;,„(. day in the street, where many people 
 
 "1 was ■ \|,ie-Mie_- mv concern to one, at their for- 
 lorn and neglected state ; and was told, that if 1 were 
 
 to pass tliroinrh th.it -toil upon Sundays, it would 
 
 were spending that sacred day in noise and riot, to 
 the extreme annovaiu-e of all decent people. 
 
 "1 immedialelv determined to inahe-eme little effort 
 to remedy the evil. Hn\ nj t..im.l lour persons, who 
 
 had 
 
 with an injunction, to go home without making a noise, 
 and by no means to play in the street. This was the 
 general outline of the regulations. R. Raikes. 
 
 The terms in which the above letter was 
 couched prove conclusively that the writer was 
 describing something new. and il may be deemed 
 fortunate" that so intelligent an account of a 
 project, then in its infancy, was placed upon rec- 
 ord. So obvious was the utility of the schools- 
 thus founded by Mr. Raikes, that they immedi- 
 ately began to be imitatedin surrounding towns. 
 The period was favorable to their diffusion. 
 Other philanthropists seized upon the idea. The 
 want of such schools was found to be urgent in 
 every large town, and in many smaller places. 
 A Sunday-school society was formed, and so 
 general an interest was awakened on the subject, 
 that, in the course of a few years. Sunday-schools 
 were opened in nearly everj part of England. 
 But they did not become universal till a higher 
 idea than that of mere philanthropy took posses- 
 sion of their promoters. As in the case of Mr. 
 Raikes, most of the early Sunday-schools were 
 taught by hired teachers. This arrangement 
 made it necessary to raise considerable sums of 
 money which would need to be increased in 
 proportion to the multiplication of the schools. 
 Besides, it was found that persons engaged in 
 the task of teaching in them from motives of an 
 inferior if not mercenary character: and. hence, 
 even the philanthropic design of the instruction 
 was marred. 1 1 w as. therefore, a grand improve- 
 ment upon the project of Mr. Raikes when 
 gratuitous instruction from persons who served 
 from Christian motives became generally intro- 
 duced into the rising Sunday -schools. Perhaps 
 no one individual was more instrumental in 
 promoting this gnat improvement than the Rev. 
 John Wesley, who was then in a most influential 
 position at the head of a growing religious or- 
 ganization, and accustomed frequently to traverse 
 England from end to end. lie early conceived 
 the idea of making these schools ••Nurseries for 
 Christians", and encouraged good people to work 
 in them as teachers without pecuniar} reward. 
 -The idea of gratuitous instruction on the 
 Lord's day to poor children, when once brought 
 to the minds ami hearts of the Christian people 
 
SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 
 
 797 
 
 of Great Britain, was seen to be so perfectly in 
 accord with the Saviour's command, "(Jo teach 
 all nations", thai il was adopted with a zeal 
 and a universality that astonished the most san- 
 guine of the original supporters of Sunday- 
 schools. From that period, the success of the 
 Sunday-school enterprise was assured. It crossed 
 the Atlantic as early as 1786, during which 
 year Bishop Asbury organized Sunday-schools 
 in Virginia, in South Carolina, and in other 
 parts of the South. In America, the system of 
 gratuitous instruction has prevailed, with very 
 few exceptions, from the first. It must, however, 
 be acknowledged that the circumstances of 
 society in the Tinted States were very unfavor- 
 able to the general establishment and mainte- 
 nance of Sunday -schools at that early period. The 
 country was but thinly settled, and was just 
 eiiicrvjiiu from its colonial condition under the 
 heavy burdens of the Revolutionary war. More- 
 over, in the Southern States, where Sunday- 
 schools were first introduced, an active prejudice 
 began, almost from the first, to develop itself 
 against the instruction of colored children, lest 
 they should be unfitted by it for the condition 
 of slavery. From these and other causes, some 
 twenty-five or thirty years elapsed before Sun- 
 day-schools sprung up extensively in America. — 
 Sunday-schools in England were for a long 
 period burdened with the task of teaching let- 
 ters and the lowest rudiments of knowledge to 
 the mass of their scholars. This was indispen- 
 sable as a means of preparing them to read the 
 Scriptures, and to comprehend moral and relig- 
 ious truth. The same necessity prevailed in 
 some sections, and classes of the population, in 
 the United States ; but, throughout the larger 
 portions of that country, the great majority of 
 children gathered into Sunday-schools were those 
 who received elementary, and indeed contin- 
 uous, instruction in the public schools. In both 
 countries, Sunday-schools have done not a little 
 toward elevating general intelligence and stimu- 
 lating secidar study; but it is only where a good 
 system of public instruction has prevailed that 
 they have been able to do their best work. — As 
 Sunday-schools are for religious instruction on 
 the Sabbath, the Bible is the foundation and 
 central text-book of all proper Sunday-school 
 teaching. But as the word of God admits of 
 elucidation from all branches of sound learning, 
 it follows that the more knowledge persons, 
 whether young or old, bring to its study, the 
 greater progress they may be expected to make 
 in the comprehension of its truths. The recent 
 even more than the early history of Sunday- 
 schools corroborates this view, in the fact that 
 they have nourished most, and with the best 
 results, where their scholars were most intelligent. 
 Nevertheless, from first to last, they have shown 
 the capacity of adaptation to all phases of society 
 and all grades of intelligence. They have proved 
 of inestimable value among the most degraded 
 populations of great cities, and a fitting religious 
 counterpart to the highest and most progressive 
 secular schools. 
 
 Leading Agencies. — The whole history of 
 Sunday-schools illustrates the voluntary principle 
 in education, government aid having never been 
 sought in their support. The instruction given 
 in them has always been free; and, there- 
 fore, whatever Sun. lav-schools h.n 
 been the voluntary gift of the friends of religious 
 education. The gratuitous bestowing of "time 
 and effort on the part of teachers has remained 
 no less a gift of value than the money by which 
 rooms, fixtures, books, and apparatus have been 
 provided. Associated effort may be designated 
 as the generic agency by which the vast sum of 
 money has been obtained which has been fur- 
 nished in aid i^f Sunday school instruction. As- 
 sociated efforts in behalf of Sunday -,-cl Is have 
 
 assumed two forms : (1) local; (2) general: each 
 correspondent and supplementary to the other. 
 j Local associations, whether in neighborhoods or 
 in churches, have, from the first, been necessary 
 to found and maintain individual schools. Gen- 
 eral associations were also, from an early day, 
 seen to be important, for the purpose of diffus- 
 ing information, and awakening public interest, 
 both as to the necessity and the means of in- 
 structing the young in religious truth. They 
 also did much to enlist and direct individual and 
 local effort in the work of organizing schools ; 
 while, at the same time, they practically served 
 as a bond of union between individual* schools 
 not locally connected. — A brief enumeration of 
 the principal agencies and movements of the 
 latter class will illustrate the progress and ex- 
 pansion of the Sunday-school idea both in Eng- 
 land and America. In 1785, " The Society for 
 Promoting Sunday-schools in the British Domin- 
 ions", was organized in London, under the leader- 
 ship of William Fox, who had previously proved 
 himself to be a true philanthropist, by his zeal 
 and liberality in efforts to educate the poorer 
 classes of his countrymen. This society, during 
 the first sixteen years of its existence, expended 
 £4,000 in paying for the services of hired 
 teachers. In 1700, the first official church action 
 of a general character in behalf of Sunday- 
 schools took place ata conference of the Method- 
 ist Episcopal Church, held at Charleston, S. C, 
 in February of that year, under the presidency 
 of Bishop Asbury. That good bishop and the 
 ministers associated with him, had evidently seen 
 such fruits following the establishment of Sun- 
 day-schools in various placesduring the previous 
 four years, that they then sought to make them 
 universal by the enactment of the following 
 church rule : 
 
 "Let us labor, as the heart and soul of one man, to 
 establish Sunday-schools in or near tie place ,,f 
 public worship. Let persons be appointed by the 
 bishops, elders, deacons, or preachers to teach gratis 
 all that will attend and have a capacity to learn, from six 
 o'clock in the morning till ten, and In.m two o'clock in 
 the afternoon till six, where it does not interfere with 
 
 In 1791, the First-day or Sunday School So- 
 ciety was formed in Philadelphia. This society 
 embraced persons of various denominations of 
 
70S 
 
 SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 
 
 Christians, and contemplated the payment of | 
 teachers for their services. In 1797, the Gratis 
 Sunday School Society was established in Scot- ' 
 land. In 1802. the Sunday School Committee of 
 Wesleyans was organized in London, for the 
 purpose of correspondence and other efforts to 
 promote the organization and improvement of 
 Sunday schools in the Wesleyan societies of 
 Great Britain. In 1803, the London Sunday 
 School Union was formed, a society still exist- 
 ing and in efficient action, though limited by its 
 plan to the city and its immediate vicinity. In 
 L809, the Hibernian Sunday School Society-was 
 formed. In 1816, the New York Sunday School 
 Union was formed; and, in 1817, the Philadel- 
 phia Sunday and Adult School Union. The 
 latter was merged in the formation of the Amer- 
 ican Sunday School Union, in 1824. In 1826, 
 the Sunday School Union of the Protestant 
 Episcopal Church was organized in New York; 
 and, in 1827, the Sunday School Union of the 
 Methodist Episcopal < 'hurch, in the same city. 
 Since that period, several other Sunday-school 
 societies and unions have* been formed in the in- 
 terest of different denominations of Christians, 
 both in America and iif Europe. Prominent 
 among them maybe Darned the Massachusetts 
 Sunday School Society, located in Boston, and 
 supported by the Congregational churches of 
 the United States. The enlistment of the press 
 as an agency of help to Sunday-schools, was an 
 event of the highest importance. For a con- 
 siderable period, all efforts in their behalf were 
 made at great disadvantage, for lack of suitable 
 books of every kind, nut excepting copies of the 
 Sacred Scriptures. The formation of the Brit- 
 ish and Foreign Bible Society, in 1804, and. 
 subsequently, of numerous other societies of a 
 similar design, tended to a gradual supply of the 
 Scriptures, in forms an I at prices adapted to ex- 
 tensive use in Sunday schools. Aside from Tes- 
 taments and Bibles, and the elementary instruc- 
 tion books preparatory to their use. the first 
 publications extensively introduced into Sunday- 
 schools were used as rewards. They were small 
 tracts and story books, in paper covers, of a very 
 int'enurquality, only such being then attainable. 
 A In mi I s I it. the Religious Tract Society of Lon- 
 don began issuing children's books of an im- 
 ■ proved style as to paper, cuts, and matter, with 
 special reference to Sunday-school patronage. 
 The demand for such books increased with their 
 production, so that the society named has gone 
 on to the present day, constantly enlarging the 
 list and improving the quality of its publications 
 designed for the young, and also for teachers and 
 adult persons engag I in Sunday. schools. In 
 
 respei 
 
 it has done a work of inestimable 
 
 iday-schools of Great Britain.— 
 
 It is, however, in the United States that the 
 
 greatest work has been done in the preparation 
 
 and publication of Sunday-school literature. 
 
 There. circulating libraries and juvenile religions 
 
 books were first extensively adopted as auxil- 
 iaries of Sunday-school work. There, too, not 
 only Sunday-school library books, but period- 
 
 icals and requisites of every description have 
 been published in the greatest profusion, as well 
 as with great elegance and cheapness. Not only 
 have the Sunday-school unions made a specialty 
 of such publications, but various other religious 
 publication societies, e. g. the American Tract 
 Society of the Presbyterian and Baptist Boards 
 of Publication; and, indeed, many private pub- 
 lishers have issued large lists of books designed 
 for youth and children. In fact, the Sunday - 
 school libraries of the United States have become 
 so numerous and important, as to secure enu- 
 meration in the official census of the govern- 
 ment, with the following result, in 1870 : Sun- 
 day-school libraries. 33,580 ; volumes, 8,346,153. 
 This aggregate, large as it is. does not include 
 the State of Connecticut, and, for other reasons, 
 is evidently far below the facts in the case at 
 the present time. No other libraries are so 
 widely diffused as those of Sunday-schools. 
 They are not. only found in cities, where most 
 great libraries are located, but in the remotest 
 sections and neighborhoods of the land, and 
 every-where circulated without charge to those 
 who desire to read them. In so vast an aggre- 
 gate of volumes, it would not be strange, if there 
 were some of an indifferent and, possibly, even 
 of a bad character. But such would prove only 
 exceptions to the general rule that Sunday-school 
 libraries furnish wholesome as well as attractive 
 reading to millions of children and youth, thus 
 projecting the influence of the schools into the 
 week-day life of the scholars who attend them. 
 Most of the American Sunday-school unions 
 not only publish books, but maintain depart- 
 ments of missionary effort for the purpose of 
 founding new and aiding needy schools. In this 
 manner, they ,are constantly enlarging the 
 sphere of Sunday-school work and influence. 
 The sums of money expended by these societies 
 are, in the aggregate, very large, but yet small 
 when compared with the larger amounts locally 
 contributed for the same objects. — To pass from 
 external to internal agencies which have contrib- 
 uted largely to the success of Sunday-schools, 
 mention may be made of music, infant classes, 
 and measures for the training arid special quali- 
 fication of teachers. The practice of devoting 
 a considerable portion of the time allotted to 
 Sunday-schools to the singing of hymns, origi- 
 nated very early, and has been continued to the 
 present day. It has proved at once a meaDS of 
 attracting children to the schools, and an easy 
 and pleasant method of impressing sacred truth 
 upon their memory. — In 1788, the Rev. John 
 Mosby recorded in his journal the opinion that 
 there were not to be "found together in any 
 chapel, cathedral, or music room within the four 
 seas, such a set, of singers, as the boys and girls 
 selected out of our Sunday-schools in Bolton, in 
 which they had been accurately taught." — " Be- 
 sides." said he, in concluding his record, "the 
 spirit with which they all sing, and the beauty 
 of many of them so suits the melody, that 1 defy 
 any to exceed it, except the singing of angels in 
 I our Father's house." The venerable man had 
 
SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 
 
 79i> 
 
 evidently caught the enthusiasm which pervaded 
 the children, and which, from that day to this, 
 has been a great source of power throughout the 
 Sunday-school world. In later years, hymns and 
 tunes specially designed for the young have been 
 composed and published in great numbers, and 
 their use has become so common and so popular, 
 as to have greatly influenced the singing in the 
 churches of all denominations of Christians. — ■ 
 Iiit'aiit-i lass instruction has had. by far. its widest 
 field and largest success as a branch of Sunday- 
 school effort. By means of oral instruction, 
 simple music, and diversified object lessons, it 
 has been found practicable to secure the regular 
 attendance of vast numbers of children of in- 
 fantile years, and to hold them under profitable 
 instruction till of sufficient age to be promoted 
 to higher classes. --For a long period, the most 
 that was thought possible to be done for the 
 training and special instruction of Sunday- 
 school teachers, was sought to be accomplished 
 through pastors' and superintendents' Bible 
 classes. But after the establishment of teachers' 
 institutes for the higher instruction of the teach- 
 ers of public schools, the query was raised 
 whether something analogous might not be de- 
 vised for the special improvement of Sunday- 
 school teachers. With a joint reference to that 
 design, and the kindred one of deepening and 
 widening public interest in the Sunday-school 
 enterprise, a system of conventions was projected, 
 which, from small beginnings, has grown to grand 
 proportions. In these conventions, lectures are 
 given on important topics, apparatus and new 
 publications are exhibited and explained, and 
 model and normal classes are taught by skilled 
 instructors. Wherever practicable, as in small 
 towns or villages. Sunday-school teachers are in- 
 vited to attend in mass. ( 'onventions for larger 
 districts, counties, ami states are composed of 
 delegates who are supposed to be representative 
 persons from their several localities. So en- 
 couraging have been the results following Sun- 
 day-school conventions, that they have been ex- 
 panded so as to transcend even the bounds of 
 large states, and to enlist national and even in- 
 ternational representation. A world's convention 
 met in London in 18G2, and a German national 
 convention in Hamburg in 1874. In the United 
 States, in 1875, twenty-one state conventions 
 were held, besides one national and one inter- 
 national convention. One result of these large 
 conventions has been the extensive adoption, 
 since 1 872, of a system of international lessons 
 for Bible study. Uniform schemes of simul- 
 taneous study had been previously adopted, to 
 a considerable extent, both in Great Britain and 
 America. The international use of systems 
 prepared by joint committees has, undoubtedly, 
 given increased interest and impetus to Scriptural 
 studies throughout the Protestant world. This 
 kind of simultaneous study has been further 
 popularized by the publication of notes and 
 comments on the uniform lessons in hundreds of 
 periodicals throughout various countries and in 
 different languages. The one serious defect of 
 
 the convention system is the brevity of time 
 during which conventions can be held. Kfforts 
 have been made, within a few years past, to 
 remedy this, by holding Sunday-school as^em- 
 blies to continue in session from one to three 
 weeks at a time. The Chautauqua Sunday- 
 School Assembly has now held three successful 
 and largely-attended annual sessions, at which 
 hundreds of persons have participated in thor- 
 ough and systematic Bible study, with a degree 
 of enthusiasm which has so far become con- 
 tagious, as to result in permanent arrangements 
 for similar annual assemblies, at summer resorts, 
 in various parts of the United States. Should 
 these assemblies become a permanent feature of 
 the American Sunday-school enterprise, as now 
 seems probable, they will go far towards form- 
 ing a parallel with the normal schools of the 
 various states for the training of public-school 
 teachers, and thus largely contribute to the con- 
 tinued elevation of the character, and increase of 
 the efficiency, of Sunday school instruction. — It 
 is, perhaps, difficult to determine whether Sun- 
 day-schools are more indebted to modern archi- 
 tecture for helps toward their development, or 
 modern church architecture to Sunday-schools 
 for the material improvements they have de- 
 manded in recognition of the wants and welfare 
 of children. Certain it is that no church edifice 
 is now considered complete, or properly adapted 
 to its objects, that does not embrace, within it- 
 self, or some contiguous structure, ample rooms 
 and fixtures for the accommodation of infant 
 classes, youths' classes, and Bible classes, includ- 
 ing a general assembly room for the Sunday- 
 school, as a whole. These provisions already 
 exist in thousands of beautiful churches, which 
 thus stand as monuments of the Sunday-school 
 idea, and are. also, suggestive of other improve- 
 ments likely to be introduced hereafter. 
 
 Past Progress and Present Position of Sun- 
 day-Schools. — There are two modrs of indicating 
 the progressive advance of Sun. lay-schools and 
 the position to which they have now attained. 
 The one is by general statements, and the other, 
 by the comparative showing of such numerical 
 statistics as are available. As neither of these 
 modes is fully adequate, both will here be em- 
 ployed to a limited extent, in order that they 
 may, as far as possible, supplement each other. 
 Going back to the beginning of 1781 — less than 
 100 years — we find no such institution as the 
 Sunday-school known in any part of the world. 
 At the present time. Sunday-schools are found 
 in active operation in all Protestant countries 
 and missions throughout the world. They have 
 also been adopted by Roman Catholics and 
 Jews, in all Protestant countries. Not to speak 
 of the influence of Sunday-schools, in the relig- 
 ious bodies last named, it is safe to say that the 
 great majority both of the members, ministers, 
 and missionaries of the Protestant world are, at 
 this time, the alumni oi Sunday-schools, and are 
 found among their grateful and active support- 
 ers. In passing from general though significant 
 statements like these, to such showings as may 
 
SUNDAY-SCHOOLS 
 
 be made in figures, it seems to be 
 explain that .Sunday-school statistics as minute 
 and comprehensive as are now seen to be desir- 
 able, are not in existence. Governments have not 
 been interested to collect them, and comparative- 
 ly few of the promoters of Sunday-schools have 
 recognized their importance. Hence, even up to 
 this time, there has been little uniformity in 
 methods, and still less co-operation in making up 
 comprehensive exhibits of numbers and results. 
 The most, therefore, that has been as yet pos- 
 sible in the way of such exhibits, has been to 
 form estimates based upon accurate statistics 
 taken within certain districts or churches, and 
 to extend the pro rata outward. The earliest 
 Sunday-school estimate on record is that of the 
 Sunday School Society of London, which, in 
 1 "si!, live years after the opening of Raikes's first 
 school, estimated that 250,000 scholars were al- 
 ready enrolled in Sunday-schools. About 40 
 years later (1827), the American Sunday School 
 Union estimated that the number of Sunday- 
 school scholars in different countries reached the 
 number of 1 ,250,000. From about that period, 
 the growth of the Sunday-school enterprise was 
 more rapid than previously, so that the second 
 quarter of the current century witnessed re- 
 markable progress in it. About the middle of 
 the century, an effort was made in England un- 
 der government sanction to ascertain the num- 
 ber and attendance of the Sunday-schools in 
 that country. On a given Sunday, the 30th of 
 March, 1851, the Sunday-schools of England and 
 Wales were simultaneously inspected; and there 
 were found, in 23,514 schools, 302,000 teachers 
 and 2,280,000 scholars. The number of enrolled 
 scholars was 2,407,409, or about three-fifths of 
 the number of children enumerated by the cen- 
 sus of the country, between the ages of five and 
 fifteen. A similar proportion of children in 
 American Sunday -schools, at the same period, 
 would have reached the number of 3,000.000. 
 If to those aggregates, the probable number of 
 Sunday scholars in Scotland, Ireland, and other 
 countries, at the same date, be added, it seems 
 quite safe to believe that there were in Sunday- 
 schools throughout the world, at the end of 
 1850, not less than 6,000,000 of scholars. Simi- 
 lar estimates made at the end of another quarter 
 of a century, indicate that, at the end of 1875, 
 there were in operation, in all countries, 110,000 
 Sunday-schools, embracing 1,500,000 teachers 
 and 10,000,000 scholars. One statistician of 
 some prominence has estimated that there are, 
 in the United States alone, not less than N1,N58 
 Sunday-schools and (i,8(i9,fi96 scholars. On that 
 basis, the above aggregate for all countries might 
 safely be enlarged. Unquestionably, the propor- 
 tion of Sunday school scholars to the population, 
 or to the membership of churches, is greater in 
 that country than in any other. Hence, it seems 
 appropriate that there should exist in New York 
 a Foreign Sunday-school Union, having for its 
 design the promotion of Sunday-schools abroad, 
 particularly on the continent of Europe. That 
 society, though of recent origin, is in vigorous 
 
 SUPERVISION 
 
 operation, and hopeful of increasing results from 
 year to year. 
 
 SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION, a term used 
 to denote instruction of the highest grade, or 
 that given in colleges and universities, both in 
 the academic course, or in special or post-graduate 
 courses. 
 
 SUPERVISION, School, constitutes one 
 of the most essential elements of an efficient school 
 system. The supervision which is necessarily 
 given by the principal of the school to the work 
 performed by his assistants is not here referred 
 to, but that which is usually assigned to a super- 
 intendent of schools, whose special function it is 
 to see that every school under his jurisdiction is 
 efficient both in discipline and instruction. As 
 a general rule, no extensive work employing a 
 large number of operatives, each performing cer- 
 tain prescribed duties, which contribute toward 
 the accomplishment of a general result, can be 
 carried on efficiently without constant supervi- 
 sion. School supervision is needed for two pur- 
 poses : (1) to enforce the general rules and reg- 
 ulations prescribed by school authorities; and 
 (2) to see that the proper methods of instruction 
 are employed, ami that the teaching is made ef- 
 fective. To attain these objects, the schools must 
 be both iiifsjierlnl and r.rnminril By inspection 
 the superintendent keeps himself informed in re- 
 gard to the discipline of the school and the 
 methods of instruction employed by the teachers; 
 by formal examinations at stated periods, he is 
 enabled to ascertain, to a certain extent, the 
 actual result of the teaching, that is, its effect 
 on the pupils' minds, both as to imparting in- 
 formation and training. Both of these are con- 
 sidered indispensable. "An inspection," says 
 Superintendent I'liilbrick. of Boston, "is a visita- 
 tion for the purpose of observation, of oversight, 
 of superintendence. Its aim is to discover, to a 
 greater or less extent, the tone and spirit of the 
 school, the conduct and application of the pupils, 
 the management and methods of the teacher, and 
 the fitness and condition of the premises. Good 
 inspection commends excellences, gently indicates 
 faults, defects, and errors, and suggests improve- 
 ments as occasion requires. * * * An examina- 
 tion is different from an inspection, both in its 
 aims and methods. An examination isathorough 
 scrutiny and investigation in regard to certain 
 definitely determined matters for a specific pur- 
 pose." The best methods of teaching, if not uni- 
 formly and diligently employed, will not impress 
 the pupils' minds ; and on the other hand, the 
 pupils may gain considerable knowledge of the 
 prescribed branches of study, but not in such a 
 way as to cultivate proper habits of thought. 
 Regular examinations, besides ascertaining the 
 merits and qualifications of the teachers, afford 
 a wholesome stimulus, when judiciously and 
 skillfully conducted, and afford a definite aim 
 toward which their efforts may be directed. On 
 the other hand, if attempted by incompetent and 
 indiscreet persons, supervision of this and every 
 other kind may do much harm. The qualities 
 necessary for a good examiner are well defined 
 
SWARTHMORE COLLEGE 
 
 by Supt. Philbrick : "In the first place, he should 
 be independent, or, to speak more precisely, he 
 should not be dependent upon the teaching 
 corps. He ought to have had experience in 
 teaching; ami if he has had experience in grades 
 similar to those in which he examines, so much 
 the better. His mind ought to be liberalized 
 by a wide range of educational reading and 
 study. He ought to have a good deal of practical 
 common sense. I le should be more inclined to 
 look on the bright side of things than on the 
 dark side. He should look sharper for merits 
 than for demerits. He should fear only two 
 things: he should fear to do injustice, and he 
 should fear himself . lie. should be eminent for 
 good breeding, as a guaranty of respectful treat- 
 ment from teachers and pupils. And to make 
 sure of the requisite sympathy, like Burke's law- 
 giver, he ought to have a heart full of sensibility. 
 In one word, for the successful exercise of this 
 delicate and most useful function, the very best 
 educators are demanded." The objection has 
 sometimes been urged against examinations of 
 this kind, that they encourage cramming ; but 
 this will, of course, depend upon the character 
 of the examinations themselves. — See Payne, 
 "School Supervision (Cin. and X.V., L875); Thir- 
 lieth Semi-Annual Keporto/lhe Superintendent 
 of the Pvblic Schools of Boston (Boston, 1876). 
 (See also Examinations.) 
 
 SWARTHMORE COLLEGE, at Swarth- 
 more, Elelaware Co., Pa., was founded in 1869, 
 for the education of both sexes, who here pur- 
 sue together the same courses of study, and re- 
 ceive the same degrees. It is under the control 
 of the Society of Friends. It is supported by 
 the fees of students, and the income of an en- 
 dowment of about $75,000. For resident stu- 
 dents, the price of board and tuition is $350 a 
 year. For day scholars thj price is $200 a 
 year. The libraries contain about 3,000 vol- 
 umes. The institution embraces a preparatory 
 and a collegiate department. The latter has a 
 classical section, with an ancient course leading 
 to the degree of A. B., a modern course, lead- 
 ing to the degree of Bachelor of Literature; and 
 a scientific section, with a chemical and an en- 
 gineering course, each leading to the degree of 
 B. S. In 1875 — 6, there were 19 instructors 
 and 237 students, of whom 90 (56 classical, 26 
 scientific, and 8 pursuing an irregular or partial 
 course) were of collegiate grade. The presidents 
 have been Edward Parrish, 1869 — 71, and 
 Edward H. Magill, A. M., since 1871. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY, two king- 
 doms iu Europe, united under one sovereign, 
 but otherwise independent of each other in their 
 constitution. Conjointly with Denmark, they 
 constitute the Scandinavian branch of the Teu- 
 tonic or Germanic nations. Nearly the entire 
 population of both kingdoms belong to the 
 Lutheran Church. The area of Sweden, is 
 171,761 square miles, and, in 1876, its popula- 
 tion was 4,383,291 ; the area of Norway is 
 122,280 square miles, and its population, accord- 
 ingly the same census, was 1,802,882. 
 
 SWEDEN AND NORWAY 801 
 
 T. Sweden. — Educational History.-— During 
 the middle ages, Sweden compared favorably, in 
 
 regard to education, with the countries of central 
 and southern Europe. A larger proportion of 
 boys and girls than in most other countries re- 
 ceived an education in convenl schools, and 
 home education was of a superior character. In 
 the Hith century, the cause of education began 
 to make rapid progress,, and many common 
 schools, called pcedagogia, were established, 
 which were at first of the primary, but soon of 
 a higher grade. The church order of 1571 con- 
 tained a chapter entitled. " How schools should 
 be taught," which must be regarded as the first 
 Swedish school law. Gustavus Adolphus estab- 
 lished the first gymnasium. His daughter, the 
 learned < 'lnistina. promulgated, in 1643, a school 
 order, dividing the schools into children's (ele- 
 mentary) and higher schools. In addition to 
 these, there were so-called "writing classes," 
 which may be regarded as the germ of the 
 burgher and real schools. The school order of 
 1693 provided that no one should be permitted 
 to marry, without a knowledge of Luther's small 
 catechism. This largely increased the demand on 
 the part of the peasantry for the establishment 
 of more schools. Teachers, however, as well as 
 schools continued in an unsatisfactory condition 
 until the beginning of the present century. In 
 1820, the consistories and the clergy were in- 
 structed to see that no unfit persons were ap- 
 pointed teachers; and, in 1824. a new school 
 order provided for the introduction of the Lan- 
 casterian system. In 1842, the present school 
 law was introduced. It provides for the estab- 
 lishment of a stationary school in every church 
 district or parish ; but, in case of the extreme 
 poverty of a parish, or when other local circum- 
 stances prevent the establishment of a station- 
 ary school, instruction may be imparted in a 
 migratory school. Attendance at school is obli-.\ 
 gatory for all children of school age. A teach- 
 ers' seminary is to be established 'in the chief 
 town of every diocese. In 1858, the support of 
 a higher elementary school was made obligatory 
 in villages and districts having more than 60 pu- 
 pils. A system of state supervision was provided \ 
 for in 1851. In 1864, the Peasants' or People's 
 High Schools were established on the plan of the 
 Danish schools of that name. (See Denmark.) 
 
 Primary Instruction.— According to the law 
 of 1842, primary instruction is imparted in 
 stationary and migratory schools, besides which 
 there are schools for young children, generally 
 under a female teacher. Besides the school 
 board of the district, there are one or more in- 
 spectors for each diocese, who are appointed by 
 the minister of instruction. The local manage- 
 ment of the rural schools is in the hands of a 
 committee, of which the oldest clergyman is the 
 chairman, whose vote in the election of a teacher 
 counts as much as one half of all the votes cast. 
 In the cities of Stockholm, Gothenburg, and Norr- 
 kdping, the schools are governed by special laws ; 
 and, in each of the cities, they are under the man- 
 agement of a board of education. The salaries 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY 
 
 of the teachers are very small. The course of 
 studies in the teachers' seminaries extends over 
 three years, and comprises religion, the Swedish 
 language, arithmetic and geometry, history, geog- 
 raphy, natural science, pedagogy, penmanship, 
 drawing, music, gymnastics, military drill, gar- 
 dening, and fruit culture. In every seminary, 
 there is a rector and at least three assistant 
 teachers, besides special assistants for music, 
 drawing, gymnastics, and military drill. In 1875, 
 there were 8,123 primary schools, with 606,876 
 children. The number of teachers' seminaries in 
 1875, was 10. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The secondary schools 
 are either higher or complete schools, with 7 
 classes, or lower or incomplete schools, with 2, 
 3, or 5 classes each. From the first class up, 
 counting the lowest class as the first, the schol- 
 ars are separated into two departments, — the 
 classical and the real, of which the former cor- 
 responds to the Latin school and the gymnasium; 
 and the latter to the real school. The school 
 year comprises 36 weeks, and scholars are ad- 
 mitted only at the opening of the schools in the 
 autumn. All pupils must be at least nine years 
 of age. The immediate direction of the schools 
 is in the hands of the rector and the council of 
 teachers. The bishop, as ephorus of all the 
 schools in his diocese, stands above the council 
 of teachers. All matters that cannot be decided 
 by these authorities must be submitted to the 
 ministry of instruction, and by the ministry to 
 the king for a final decision. The king is, there- 
 fore, the highest school authority, and possesses, 
 in school matters, both legislative and executive 
 power. All matters pertaining to secondary 
 schools are arranged by the bureau of the min- 
 istry of instruction, the chief of the bureau acting 
 as inspector-general of all the secondary schools 
 in the kingdom, which he must visit from time 
 to time. For the two lower classes, there are 
 class teachers, for the two highest, teachers of 
 special subjects; and, in the intermediate classes, 
 a mixed system prevails. The course of studies 
 comprises religion, Swedish, Litin, ({reek, lie- 
 brew, French, German, English, mathematics, 
 general history, natural philosophy and mechan- 
 ics, chemistry and mineralogy, history, geog- 
 raphy, mental philosophy, penmanship, and, draw- 
 ing. Of these, the ancient languages are not 
 taught in the real department ; nor are chemis- 
 try and mineralogy taught in the classical de- 
 partment. English and Hebrew are optional in 
 the chemical department, no special time being 
 assigned for them. During the last few years 
 the study of German has made great progress. 
 In 1872, there were 98 schools, with 12,356 pu- 
 pils and 076 teachers. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Sweden has two uni- 
 versities,— at Upsal and at Lund, with 1 68 pro- 
 fessors and 2,080 students, in 1871. Of these. 
 409 studied theology, 207 law, 188 medicine, 
 and 1,276 philosophy. 
 
 Sp:-i,,l Instruction.— \n 1871, Stockholm had 
 an industrial school, with 1,765 students, the 
 Royal Technical Institute, a college of pharmacy, 
 
 a royal college of surgery, an academy of fine- 
 arts, and a royal academy of music. There were 
 also 2 academies of agriculture, at Ultuna and 
 Alnarp, 2!) lower agricultural schools, an acad- 
 emy of forestry, 7 lower schools of forestry, 9 
 schools of navigation. 5 technical schools, 4 ele- 
 mentary technical schools, 2 elementary schools 
 of mining, the Chalmers Industrial School in 
 Gothenburg, 2 schools for nurses, 2 schools of 
 veterinary surgery, and various military schools.. 
 The military schools are under the direction of 
 the ministry of war ; and the other special 
 schools, partly under the ministry of the interior, 
 and partly under that of finance. 
 
 II. Norway.— Educational History.— lAttle 
 was done for public instruction in Norway prior 
 to the 18th century. In 1736, a royal decree 
 provided that no children should be admitted to 
 continuation, who had not been instructed in 
 the elements of Christianity. A school law, 
 based on this provision, was passed in 1739, but 
 modified in 1741. Since the establishment of 
 Norwegian independence, in lsl4. the Storthing, 
 or national legislature, has been actively engaged 
 in promoting public instruction. A compre- 
 hensive school law was promulgated in 1827 ; a 
 special law on city schools appeared in 1848. In 
 1860, the schools were re-organized under a new 
 law, which, with a few additions, made in 1869, 
 is still in force. Children must attend school 
 from their eighth year until they are confirmed. 
 Those wdio receive private instruction, must at- 
 tend the examinations of the schools, and, if 
 found deficient, must attend school. 
 
 Primary Instruction. — Primary schools are 
 divided into loircr schools and higher schools. 
 Norway is divided, for school purposes, into 591 
 communities, of which, in 1875, 57 were city, 
 and 434, country communities. The communi- 
 ties are again subdivided into circles, of which, 
 in 1874, there were 6,371. Wherever 30 chil- 
 dren can attend school, a separate school-house 
 must be procured for them. Whenever the 
 houses of a circle are too far apart, or if, for any 
 other cause, a permanent school does not seem 
 advisable, a migratory school must be supported. 
 This is particularly the case in the numerous 
 valleys on the coast, which are virtually shut off 
 from each other. The studies pursued in the 
 primary schools, are reading, writing, arithmetic, 
 religion, music, and gymnastics and military 
 drill, wdierever the latter is possible. All chil- 
 dren must attend school 12 weeks in the year, 
 or in some migratory schools, 9 weeks. Children 
 who have reached the fourteenth year, and are 
 backward in their education, must receive special 
 instruction, until they are prepared to enter the 
 schools; and the necessary expense must be borne 
 by the parents. The school authorities may also 
 establish infant schools and industrial schools. — 
 Hi'jInT schools maybe organized either in con- 
 nection with lower schools, oi in connection with 
 teachers' seminaries, or independently. Whenever 
 the course of study extends over more than two 
 years, the school must be divided into two de- 
 partments, the first of which comprises the first 
 
SWEDEN AND NORWAY 
 
 two years, and the other, the remainder. When- 
 ever necessary, the two departments may be situ- 
 ated in different parts of the district Besides 
 the studies of the lower school, there are taught 
 in the higher school the native tongue (Danish), 
 geography, history, natural sciences, drawing, 
 
 and surveying. In the higher depart nt, are 
 
 still further added, mathematics, agriculture, 
 and a foreign language, where it is desirable. 
 No child under 12 years of age is admitted to 
 the higher school. The schools in a community 
 are under the direction of a school board, of 
 which the clergyman is chairman, which board 
 has charge of all school mattei's, while the clergy- 
 man, in particular, must superintend the instruc- 
 tion given in the schools. The board has also 
 power to appoint agents, who must see thai 
 all children of school age attend schools. The 
 provost has charge of the schools in his district: 
 and the directory of the stift, or ecclesiastical 
 province, of the schools in the cant. The kino; 
 appoints a number of inspectors. The inspector 
 is entitled to a seat in the directory of the stifl, 
 whenever school matters are under deliberation. 
 The direct supervision over the schools of a stift 
 is exercised by the inspector in conjunction with j 
 the bishop. Burgher and real schools are. in 
 some ca-ies. but little above the higher common 
 schools; in others, they correspond to the Ger- 
 man realschulef one. the Latin and real school 
 at Frederiksstad, prepares its pupils for the uni- 
 versity. Of teachers' seminaries, there are two 
 classes: higher or stift seminaries, and the so- 
 called teachers' schools. In the higher seminaries, 
 the course of study comprises religion, the native 
 tongue, arithmetic, music, geography, history, J 
 natural sciences, penmanship, drawing, gymnas- 
 tics, and pedagogics. A model school exists in 
 connection with each seminary. In the Teachers' 
 Schools, the course of study requires from 1 to 
 1 J years. In 1874, there were in Norway, ex- 
 clusive of Christiania, 4.277 permanent common 
 schools. 2.094 migratory schools, 131 work schools 
 for girls, 4 general work schools, and 1 3 infant 
 schools. The number of children of school age 
 was 213,908 ; the number of children in per- 
 manent schools, 109,737; in migratory schools, 
 36,577 ; the number of children instructed out- 
 side of the district schools. 3,235 ; and children 
 not attending school, 4,419. The expenditures 
 for primary schools amounted to $673,052, to- 
 ward which the state contributed $91,875. The 
 number of burgher and real-schools, in 1867, was 
 35, with 159 teachers and 2.531 pupils. The 
 number of stifl seminaries, in the same year, was 
 6, with about 300 pupils; and the Teachers' 
 Schools were 15, with 217 pupils. Besides these, 
 a seminary for female teachers has been estab- 
 lished in Christiania. Pen aunts or People's Uinh 
 Seliiuils have been recently established in Norway 
 on the same plan as those in Denmark (q. v.). 
 Of these, in 1870, there were 11. In 1867, there 
 were, also, 20 Sunday-schools, with 1520 pupils, 
 and 27 asylums, with 2,876 children. 
 
 Seeiim/nr// lustre, tit, a. - -Secondary instruction 
 is imparted in middle schools and gymnasia. 
 
 SWITZERLAND 
 
 so:; 
 
 The latter are divided into Latin and real gym- 
 nasia. The middle schools prepare scholars for 
 
 the gymnasia. The course of study prises 
 
 religion, the native tongue, German, Latin, En- 
 glish, French, history, geography, the- natural-sci- 
 ences, mathematics, drawing, and penmanship. 
 In the Latin gymnasia, the studies comprise re- 
 ligion, the native tongue, ancient Norwegian, 
 Latin, Greek, French and English, history, and 
 mathematics. In the real gymnasia, Latin and 
 Greek are omitted; while geography, natural 
 sciences, and drawing are added. and more atten- 
 tion is paid to mathematics and the modern lan- 
 guages. Besides the state schools, there are 
 also private schools for secondary instruction. 
 There were, in 1875, 16 secondary schools, with 
 160 teachers and 2.099 pupils. The number of 
 private scl Is. in 1870, was fi. of which I. with 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Norway has one uni- 
 versity, at Christiania. which was founded in 
 1811. It had. iii 1874, 978 students. Connected 
 with the university is a library, also large scientific 
 collections, and an astronomical and a magnetic 
 observatory. The lectures are entirely gratui- 
 tous, and matriculation at the university is made 
 dependent upon a previous examination. 
 
 Special Instruction. — Agricultural schools are 
 found in almost every province, supported by 
 the provincial authorities ; while a higher agri- 
 cultural school is supported in Aas, near ( Ihris- 
 tiania. by the government. The navigation 
 schools, of which there are 6, necessarily occupy 
 a prominent place in a country situated like 
 Norway. Besides these, there is a military high 
 school, a military and naval school, a polytech- 
 nic school, in Norten, and a drawing school, in 
 Christiania. — See Schmid, Encyclopadie ; Bar- 
 nard, National Education, vol. n.: Report on 
 the Systems of Public Instruction inSweden and 
 Norway, published by the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation (Washington, 1871); and Report of the 
 I". S. i bmmissioner of Education for 1873 nml 
 
 SWITZERLAND, a federal republic of 
 Europe, having an area of 15.992 square mill's. 
 and a population, in 1870, of 2,669,147. It is 
 composed of 22 cantons, 3 of which are each 
 subdivided into 2 sovereign half-cantons. About 
 59 per cent of the population are Protestants, 
 and almost 41 per cent, Catholics. The majority 
 of the inhabitants (about 69 per cent) are of 
 German nationality; nearly 24 per cent speak 
 French ; the canton Ticino and a part of the 
 canton Orisons are Italian. In the latter canton, 
 there are also about 9,000 families that speak 
 Romansch. 
 
 Educational History. — At the beginning of 
 the middle ages, we find within the present 
 boundaries of Switzerland some of the most 
 famous monasteries of the Benedictine order. (See 
 Beneoicttnes.) Later, the university of Basel 
 occupied a high rank among the earliest univer- 
 sities of Europe. After the Reformation in the 
 Kith century, the canton Zurich took the lead in 
 the regulation of school affairs by forbidding any 
 
SWITZERLAND 
 
 one to keep school without permission of the 
 city council. Several other cantons could, in 
 the Kith century, boast of good schools ; but 
 down to 1830, there was a lack of efficiency in 
 the organization of the public-school system ; 
 and schools, more than in many other countries, 
 were left to private enterprise. At the begin- 
 ning of the 19th century, the educational 
 achievements of Pestalozzi, Felleuberg, Wehrli, 
 Girard, and others attracted the attention of the 
 civilized world. Not only were hundreds of 
 pupils sent to Swiss institutions from various 
 countries, even from America, to obtain a good 
 education, but young teachers repaired there, in 
 large numbers, to study the new educational 
 methods. On the shores of the lake of Geneva, 
 a large number of private institutions arose to 
 supply the universal demand at that time for 
 instruction in the French language. The increase 
 of these institutions stimulated an eagerness to 
 educate boys and girls as private tutors and gov- 
 ernesses; and for a long time, French Switzerland 
 furnished Europe with a larger supply of this 
 class of teachers than any other country. — Great 
 progress began to be made, about 1830, in most 
 of the Protestant and mixed cantons. In addition 
 to the mediaeval university of Basel, new univer- 
 sities, after the German model, were established 
 at Zurich and Bern; and, in French Switzerland, 
 the academies at Geneva, Lausanne, and Neuf- 
 chatel endeavored to rival th^ best institutions 
 of the kind in France. — In 1848, the federal con- 
 stitution of Switzerland, for the first time, took 
 notice of educational affairs, which until then 
 had been under the exclusive jurisdiction of the 
 cantons, by providing for the foundation of a 
 federal university. In 1877, this project had not 
 yet been executed. In 1851, the federal assem- 
 bly resolved to establish in Zurich a federal poly- 
 technic school. Since then, a growing desire has 
 been evinced, especially among teachers, that the 
 federal government should exercise an authority 
 in school matters. Accordingly, the new federal 
 constitution, adopted in 1874, contains the fol- 
 lowing provision in regard to schools : " The 
 Bund (confederation) is authorized to establish, 
 besides the existing polytechnic school, a univer- 
 sity and other higher institutions of learning, or 
 to aid such institutions. The cantons shall pro- 
 vide satisfactory primary instruction, which 
 shall be under the exclusive control of the govern- 
 ment. Primary instruction shall be obligatory 
 and free in all the schools. The public schools 
 shall be open to children of all creeds. Cantons 
 that fail to observe these provisions shall be pro- 
 ceeded against by the Bund. No one shall be 
 forced to receive any religious education or 
 to perform any religious ceremony. The religious 
 education of children, up to the age of 1G, shall 
 be left to their parents or guardians." 
 
 Primary Schools. — The primary schools in 
 the Swiss cantons are generally under the con- 
 trol of the communities. In 1871, there were, 
 in all Switzerland, 5,088 primary schools, with 
 411,760 pupils (205.228 boys, 200.532 girls) and 
 5,750 male and 1,72 1 female teachers. Of these 
 
 schools, 3,924 were mixed; 578, boys' schools ; 
 and 58(i. girls' schools. In 58.1 per cent of the 
 schools, the German language is the medium of 
 instruction; in 31 per cent, French ; in 9.0 per 
 cent, Italian; and in 1.3 per cent, Romanseh. The 
 expenditure for primary schools amounted, in 
 1871, to 900,000 francs. In most of the can- 
 tons, the elementary-school systems have been 
 re-organized by school laws enacted since 1870. 
 According to the new school law of Zurich, pro- 
 mulgated in 1872, which has served as the basis 
 of a number of school laws in other countries, 
 the communal school comprises nine annual 
 classes, instead of six classes as before that 
 time. The chief branches of instruction in the 
 primary schools of Switzerland are language and 
 object lessons, the latter receiving more attention 
 than in most other countries of Europe. The 
 other studies of a primary school are religion, 
 reading, writing, arithmetic, drawing, singing, 
 and gymnastics. The real schools add to these 
 studies geometry, history, natural history, and 
 composition. Industrial schools, in which boys 
 learn the elements of a trade or of agriculture, 
 and girls are instructed in needle-work, are 
 numerous in every part of Switzerland. For the 
 education of teachers, there were, in 1875, 32 
 teachers' seminaries, the course of studies in 
 which embraces pedagogy, religion, German, 
 French, arithmetic, geometry, history, geography, 
 natural history, singing, playing on a musical 
 instrument, penmanship, drawing, gymnastics, 
 military exercises, and agriculture. The larger 
 institutions have four annual classes. In the can- 
 tons of Zurich, Vaud, Bern, and Aargau, pen- 
 sions for superannuated teachers are obligatory; 
 in Schaffhausen, Glarus, and the city of Basel, 
 they are only permitted. The following table ex- 
 hibits the number of schools, and the number of 
 male and female teachers; also the proportion of 
 to the total population: 
 
 
 No. 
 of 
 
 te N ac 
 
 of 
 
 J: : | 
 
 (£ bi'~ 
 
 Cantons 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 Zurich 
 
 369 
 
 163 
 
 29 
 74 
 26 
 24 
 32 
 28 
 303 
 127 
 
 74 
 
 70 
 16 
 302 
 324 
 334 
 185 
 440 
 670 
 404 
 188 
 70 
 
 665 
 
 1.098 
 
 249 
 
 37 
 
 57 
 
 16 
 
 65 
 41 
 248 
 1S7 
 48 
 111 
 115 
 86 
 18 
 406 
 388 
 505 
 240 
 209 
 
 281 
 146 
 
 604 
 
 15 
 9 
 44 
 2f 
 17 
 
 22 
 89 
 6 
 10 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 13 
 
 64 
 
 33 
 
 2 
 
 266 
 
 205 
 169 
 
 54 
 
 156 
 
 
 
 
 128 
 
 
 
 
 150 
 
 6. Unterwalden, Upper. . 
 
 7. Unterwalden, Lower.. 
 
 8. Glarus 
 
 134 
 126 
 152 
 
 
 164 
 
 
 154 
 
 
 66 
 
 13. Basel Country 
 
 195 
 
 192 
 
 13. App.iizell. Outer lib... 
 16. Appenzell, Inner Ith. . 
 
 188 
 133 
 156 
 
 
 166 
 
 
 158 
 
 
 185 
 
 
 142 
 
 
 142 
 
 
 172 
 
 
 
 23. Geneva 
 
 72 
 
SWITZERLAND 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The gymnasia and 
 real schools of a higher grade are very differently 
 organized in the several cantons of Switzerland. 
 The state institutions in which a complete gym- 
 nasium is combined with a real school, under 
 one direction, are called cantonal schools. In 
 1873, there were, in Switzerland, 07 gymnasia, 
 colleges, and pro-gymnasia, with an aggregate of 
 4,900 pupils: and 41 industrial and real schools 
 of a higher grade, with 3,800 pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Switzerland hail, in 
 1876, four universities, — those of Basel. Zurich. 
 Bern, and Geneva. That of Basel was founded 
 in 14G0; of Zurich, in 1833; of Bern, in 1834. 
 Geneva has had a higher institution of learning 
 since 1559 ; but it did not become a complete 
 university until 1K75. The number of students, 
 in 1876, was, in Zurich, 328; in Hern, 385; in 
 Basel. 158; and in Geneva, 235. All these uni- 
 versities have the four faculties of theology, law. 
 medicine, and philosophy. The the. .logical faculty 
 of each of the universities belongs to the 
 Reformed Church; Bern has also, since 1874. an 
 Old Catholic faculty of theology. At the uni- 
 versitiesof Zurich and ( Jeneva, the philosophical 
 faculty is divided into two sect ions: one com- 
 prising philology, philosophy, and history; and 
 the other, mathematics and natural science. In 
 Bern, the medical faculty is divided into a med- 
 ical and a veterinary section. — Besides the uni- 
 versities, there are 3 academies, or incomplete 
 universities, — at Lausanne. Neufchatel, and 
 Pribourg. That of Lausanne has faculties of 
 Reformed theology, law, science, and literature ; 
 that of Neufchatel. law, science, and literature: 
 that of Fribourg, ( 'atholic theology and law. The 
 universities of Bern and Zurich were among the 
 first in Europe to admit female students ; and 
 their example has been followed by the university 
 of Geneva. In 1875, Bern and Zurich had an 
 aggregate of 63, and Geneva, 24 female students. 
 Among those in Bern and Zurich, 39 were 
 Russians, 8 Americans, 5 Austrians, 4 Germans, 
 and 3 Servians. 
 
 Special and Professional S. hools. — The Poly- 
 technic School, at Zurich, is the only Swiss 
 school under the control of the federal authorities. 
 It comprises eight departments : architecture, 
 civil engineering, industrial mechanics, industrial 
 chemistry, agriculture and forestry, a normal 
 school of mathematics and natural sciences, a 
 school of literature, moral sciences, and political 
 economy, and a preparatory course in mathe- 
 matics. The other technical schools are the 
 technical department in the academy of Lau- 
 sanne, and the depart men! of architecture in the 
 lyceum of Lugano. The lyceum of the Bene- 
 dictines, at Einsiedeln. has a philosophical and a 
 theological department. There is, also, a philo- 
 sophical department, connected with the lyceum 
 of Lugano. There are six Catholic theological 
 seminaries; a Reformed theological faculty, at 
 Neufchatel ; and theological schools of the Free 
 Evangelical Church, at Lausanne and Geneva. 
 There is a veterinary school at Zurich ; an in- 
 dustrial school of higher grade, at AVmterthur ; 
 
 SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY 805 
 
 a school for watch-makers, at Geneva ; several 
 
 commercial schools ; seven agricultural scl Is ; 
 
 and a school of fine arts, in Geneva. There 
 were also, in 1875, 13 institutions for deaf- 
 mutes, with 233 boys and 159 girls; two in- 
 stitutions for the blind, in Zurich and Bern, 
 with 58 boys and 54 girls ; and one asylum for 
 the blind, in Lausanne. — See Schmid, Encydo- 
 pddie, art. Schweiz ; Barnard, National Edu- 
 cation, vol. ii. ; Beer, Das Unterrichtswesen der 
 Schweiz (Vienna, L868) ; Kinkki.in, Statistik 
 i/rs Unterrichtswesens in der Schweiz im Jahre 
 1871 (Basel, 7 vols., 1874, seq.); Wibth, AUge- 
 meine Beschreibung und Statistik der Schweiz, 
 vol. „,.: Das Unterrichlswesen; also the annual 
 reports on the educational condition of Switzer- 
 land, in the /W./ 7 '«/<se/„T .lahrcshcrichl. 
 
 SYMPATHY, an instinctive feeling of in- 
 terest in and affection for others, which prompts 
 a correspondence of emotions. Persons in sym- 
 pathy readily discern the mental states of one 
 another, and evince by their actions that they 
 suffer, mentally, the same distress, and feel the 
 same joy. It is difficult to ascertain and define 
 the source and basis of this sympathetic relation- 
 ship ; but personal influence greatly depends 
 upon it. It is natural to some persons to be in 
 sympathy with others; they seem to exert a 
 kind of positive influence, drawing and binding 
 all around then i to themselves. ( It hers, on the con- 
 trary, seem to be negative in their influence; they 
 repel instead of attracting. They are cold and 
 indifferent to others; or. if otherwise, uncon- 
 sciously show- that their apparent interest is 
 feigned, not felt, proceeding from asenseof duty, 
 not from natural warmth of feeling. — The 
 teacher, above all others, should be sympathetic, 
 because so much of his success depends upon 
 personal influence. He should habitually strive 
 to cultivate this quality, feeling assured that the 
 measure of his professional skill and efficiency 
 is the degree of sympathetic regard with which 
 he inspires his pupils. (See Antipathy, and 
 Love.) 
 
 SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, in Syracuse, 
 X. Y., chartered in 1870, is under Methodist 
 Episcopal control. Genesee College, at Lima, 
 chartered in 1849, was merged in it. It is sup- 
 ported by tuition fees and the income of an en- 
 dowment of $150,000. The value of its buildings 
 and grounds is $300,000. It has valuable mu- 
 seums, and libraries containing 9.000 volumes, 
 The university consists of (1) The College 
 of the Liberal Arts, opened in 1871 ; (2) The 
 -Medical College, opened in 1872; (3) The 
 College of the Fine Arts, opened in 1873. 
 Other colleges are contemplated by the charter. 
 All the colleges of the university are open for 
 the admission of women on the same terms as 
 men. The following seminaries, in different parts 
 of the state, have entered into the relation of 
 gymnasia or preparatory schools to the universi- 
 ty : The Hudson River Institute and Female 
 College, at Claverack ; The ( lazenoi ia Seminary, 
 at Cazenovia ; The Ives Seminary, at Antwerp; 
 The Amenia Seminary, at Amenia ; and The 
 
806 TABOR COLLEGE 
 
 Onondaga Academy, at Onondaga Valley. The 
 courses in the College of Liberal Arts, with the 
 degrees conferred on their completion, are as fol- 
 lows: classical, A. B.; Lttin-scieutific and Greek- 
 scientific, Ph. B.; scientific, B. S. The College of 
 the Fine Arts is intended ultimately to include in- 
 struction in all the fine arts, consisting of (1) the 
 formative arts, — architecture, sculpture, paint- 
 ing, engraving, and the various forms of indus- 
 trial art, and (2) the sounding arts, — music, 
 poetry and belles-lettres, and oratory. At present, 
 courses of instruction in architecture, painting 
 and engraving are all that have been organized. 
 For the advanced degrees, in either college, a 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTE , 
 
 post graduate course of one year may be pursued. 
 The cost of tuition in the College of Liberal Arts 
 is S60 a year (to children of clergymen, $30); in 
 the other colleges tuition is $100 a year. The 
 number of instructors and students, in 1876 — 7, 
 was as follows : Liberal Arts, 11 instructors and 
 155 students; Fine Arts, 9 instructors and 24 
 students; Medical School, 15 instructors and 
 58 students ; total, 35 instructors and 237 stu- 
 dents. — The number of pupils in the gymnasia 
 preparing for college was 165. The chancellors 
 of the university have been as follows: Alexander 
 Winchell, LL. D., 1872—4, and the Rev. Erastus 
 0. Haven, D. D., LL. D., since 1874. 
 
 TABOK COLLEGE, at Tabor, Fremont 
 Co., Iowa, chartered in 1854, is controlled by 
 Congregationalists. It was opened aa an acad- 
 emy in 1857, and as a college in 1866. It is 
 supported by the income of an endowment of 
 $50,000, and by tuition fees, ordinarily from 
 §20 to $25 a year. It has a library of 3,500 
 volumes, and embraces the following depart- 
 ments: (1) College Department, including a 
 classical and a scientific course of four years 
 each; (2) Ladies' Department, with a four 
 years' course ; (3) Teachers' Department, with a 
 two years' course ; (4) Preparatory 1 >epartment, 
 with facilities for fitting for the higher depart- 
 ments; (5) Musical Department. Females are 
 also admitted to the college department. In 
 1874 — 5, there were 14 instructors and 246 stu- 
 dents ; namely, college, 24; preparatory, 104; 
 ladies" department, 89 ; teachers' department, 
 15 ; music, 15. The Rev. Wm. M. Brooks, A. M., 
 is (1877) the president. 
 
 TALLADEGA COLLEGE, at Talladega, 
 ' Ala., chartered in 1*69, is under the control of 
 the American Missionary Association. It is 
 supported chiefly by contributions from the 
 Congregational churches in the North. It was 
 established, especially, for colored youth of both 
 sexes, and comprises a primary, a normal, a pre- 
 paratory, a collegiate and a theological depart- 
 ment. In 1875 — 6, there were 12 instructors 
 and 247 students : preparatory , 1 5 ; theological, 
 14; normal, 46; grammar, 25; intermediate and 
 primarv, 147. The Rev. E. P. Lord, A. M.. is 
 (1877) 'the principal. 
 
 TASMANIA. See Australian Colonies. 
 
 TAYLOR, Isaac, an English author, born 
 in Lavenham, Aug. 17., 1787 ; died in Stanford 
 Rivers, June 28., 1865. He was educated a 
 artist, but relinquished that pursuit and devoted 
 himself to literature. In 1818. he began his 
 literary career by contributions to the Eclectic 
 Review, and, in 1865, he contributed to Good 
 M'on/s. The Natural Ifistori/ of Enthusiasm, 
 which appeared in 1829, was published anony- 
 mously, and was received with extraordinary favor. 
 In 1 836, appeared Home Education, a work of 
 unusual interest to educators by reason of its 
 correct analysis of the human mind, and its illus- 
 
 tration of the true order of the development of 
 its powers. It is hardly too much to say that 
 this book is invaluable to the teacher who would 
 learn the right method to be pursued in educa- 
 tion, or the rationale of that method. Its general 
 conclusions are universally accepted by modern 
 educators ; while the detailed methods given for 
 the cultivation of the mental faculties, and the 
 illustrations of their unconscious exercise, are 
 exceedingly suggestive and interesting. Mr. 
 Taylor was the author of several other works, 
 among which may be mentioned Tlte Elements 
 of Thought (1822), and Tlte Work! of Mind 
 (1857). 
 
 TEACHER, a person who ussists another in 
 
 ■quiring knowledge or prac- 
 -t cachet's office is, for the 
 
 tical skill. A scl 
 most part, confined to aiding the pupil in acquir- 
 ing knowledge, with the twofold object of 
 (1) mental discipline, and (2) imparting valuable 
 information. \ft Inch of these is to be considered 
 of primary importance depends upon the grade 
 of the instruction and the subject taught. Al- 
 though teaching is only a part of education, the 
 teacher should be an educator, since he is re- 
 quired to perforin an office which bears an im- 
 portant relation to the general development, or 
 education, of the child ; and, consequently, he 
 should clearly understand the nature of that re- 
 lation. In other words, no person can be merely 
 a teacher ; he must, to be truly efficient, educate 
 while he teaches. Indeed, he cannot but do so. 
 His example, and his personal influence of every 
 kind, will necessarily educate — will tend to 
 form, permanently, the character of his pupil, 
 either for good or evil. This consideration should 
 determine the qualifications of the teacher, which 
 should not consist merely in scholarship, book- 
 learning, or intellectual culture, but that assem- 
 blage of personal qualities and accomplishments 
 (including scholarship) which will render his in- 
 fluence in every respect effective and salutary. 
 (Sic Didactics, Education, and Instruction.) 
 
 TEACHERS' INSTITUTE, the name 
 given, in the I 'nited States, to an assemblage of 
 teachers of elementary or district schools, called 
 together temporarily for the purpose of receiv- 
 ing professional instruction. Such meetings are 
 
TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 
 
 SOT 
 
 licld under the direction of the school authorities, 
 usually the state, county, or town superintend- 
 ent ; and quite often there is a provision of law 
 requiring the teachers employed in the common 
 schools to attend, and permitting a continuance 
 of their salaries during such attendance. Ateach- 
 ers' institute is usually conducted by an experi- 
 enced teacher, having special skill for the work. 
 This requires a good knowledge of the practice 
 and theory of teaching, especially as applied to 
 the ordinary branches of common-school educa- 
 tion ; it also needs ability as a lecturer. Teach- 
 ers' institutes are designed to serve as a substi- 
 tute for, or as complementary to, normal in- 
 struction ; and as such they constitute a valuable 
 agency in connection with a system of common- 
 school instruction. — See Bates, Method of 
 Teachers Institutes (New York), and Institute 
 Lectures (New York); Fowi.e, The Teachers' 
 Institute (New York) ; Phelps, The Teachers' 
 Hand-Book (New York). 
 
 TEACHERS' SEMINARIES. Schools for 
 the education and training of teachers are called 
 teachers' seminaries in Germany, Russia, Fin- 
 land. Norway, Sweden, Denmark, and the Ger- 
 man cantons of Switzerland; traiiiimj seliool.;, 
 in Austria and the Netherlands; preparatory 
 schools, in Hungary; and normal schools, in 
 France, Great Britain, Italy. Spain. Portugal, 
 Greece, Roumama, the French cantons of Switzer- 
 land, and the United States. In Great Brit- 
 ain, the name train ing college is very generally 
 used. — The first establishment of the kind of 
 which there is any accurate account, was the 
 Institute of the Brothers of the Christian 
 Schools, founded, in 1681, by the abbe de la 
 Salle, canon of the eathedr.il at Reims. — In 
 16!)T, August Hermann Francke, in connection 
 with his orphan school at Halle, founded a 
 teacliers' class, composed of poor students who 
 assisted him in the work of instruction in return 
 for their board and lodging. From this class he 
 .selected, in 1704, twelve pupils who exhibited 
 'the right basis of piety, knowledge, and aptness 
 to teach", and constituted them his seminarium 
 prceceptorum. These pupil-teachers were trained 
 for two years ; and such was their aptitude for 
 teaching that their fame was spread over the 
 greater part of Germany, and hundreds flocke I 
 to Francke's school to study his improved 
 methods and superior organization. Johann Ju- 
 lius Hecker, a pupil of Francke's, established a 
 teachers' seminary at Stettin, in Pomerania. in 
 1735, and another in Berlin, in 1748. Hecker 
 worked under the patronage of Frederick the 
 Great, who issued a royai ordinance that all 
 vacancies in the schools on the crown-lands 
 should be filled by teachers trained in the Berlin 
 seminary. In addition to this, he granted an 
 annual stipend to twelve of the graduates, a 
 number afterwards increased to sixty. The 
 teachers' seminaries at Rekahn, in Brandenburg, 
 became the model schools of Germany. From 
 Prussia, the system gradually spread over the 
 greater part of Furope. It was introduced into 
 Hanover in 1757; into Austria in 1767; into 
 
 Switzerland in 1805 ; into France in 1808 ; into 
 Holland in 1816; into England in 1842; and 
 into Belgium in 1843. Since then, it has been 
 introduced into the remaining countries of 
 Europe; into North and South America ; and 
 into British India and Japan. — As Prussia was 
 the first nation to adopt and enforce the special 
 training of teachers, the following provisions of 
 the Prussian law of 1819 will serve to explain 
 the aims and purposes of teachers seminaries, 
 not only in Prussia itself but in all the counties 
 into which they have been introduced : (1) No 
 seminary for teachers in the primary schools 
 shall admit more than seventy pupil-teachers. 
 (2) In every department in which the number of 
 Catholics and Protestants are about equal, there 
 shall be, as often as circumstances will permit, a 
 teachers' seminary for the members of each de- 
 nomination ; but where the inequality is very 
 marked, the teachers of the least numerous de- 
 nomination shall be obtained from the teachers' 
 seminaries belonging to that denomination in a 
 neighboring department, or from smaller estab- 
 lishments, in the same department, annexed to an 
 elementary primary school. Teachers' seminaries 
 for the simultaneous education of persons of dif- 
 ferent religious belief shall be permitted when 
 the pupil-teachers can obtain, close at hand, suit- 
 able instruction in the doctrines of their own 
 church. (3) '1 he teachers' seminaries shall be 
 established, whenever it is possible, in small 
 towns, so as to preserve the pupil teachers 
 from the dissipations, temptations, and habits 
 of life which are not suitable to their future 
 profession, but without subjecting them to a mo- 
 nastic seclusion ; but the town must not be 
 too small, in order that they may profit by 
 the vicinity of several elementary and superior 
 primary schools. (6) No young man can be 
 received into a teachers' seminary who has not 
 passed through a course of instruction in an ele- 
 mentary primary school : nor can any young man 
 be received, of the excellence of whose moral 
 character there is the least ground of suspicion. 
 The age of admission into the teachers' semi- 
 naries shall be from sixteen to eighteen years. 
 
 (7) As to the methods of instruction, the direct- 
 ors of the teachers' seminaries shall rather seek 
 to conduct the pupil-teachers by their own ex- 
 perience to simple and clear principles, than to 
 give them theories for their guidance: and, with 
 tills end in view, primary schools shall be joined 
 to all the teachers' seminaries, where the pupil- 
 teachers may be practiced in the act of teaching. 
 
 (8) In each teachers seminary, the course of in- 
 struction shall last three years, of which the first 
 shall be devoted to the continuation of the 
 course of instruction which the pupils com- 
 menced in the primary schools ; the second, to 
 instruction of a higher order: and the third, 
 to practice in the primary school attached to 
 the establishment. From the law of 1819, and 
 truth tin- general regulations, the following pro- 
 visions have been gathered : No young man is 
 allowed to conduct a primary school until he 
 has obtained a certificate of his capacity to fulfill 
 
TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 
 
 the important duties of a school-master. The 
 examination of the candidates for these certifi- 
 cates is conducted by commissions, composed of 
 two laymen and two clergymen, or two priests. 
 The provincial consistories nominate the lay 
 members, the ecclesiastical authorities of the 
 respective provinces nominate the clerical mem- 
 bers for the examination of the religious edu- 
 cation of the Protestant candidates; and the 
 Roman Catholic bishop nominates the two priests 
 who examine the Roman Catholic candidates. 
 The members of these commissions are nomi- 
 nated for three years, but they can afterward be 
 continued in office if advisable. These certifi- 
 cates are not valid until they have been ratified 
 by the superior authorities, that is, by the pro- 
 vincial consistories. Tin' provincial authorities 
 can re-examine the candidates, if they think that 
 there is any reason to doubt what is specified in 
 the certificate granted by the committee of ex- 
 amination, and can declare them incompetent; 
 and they can require the local authorities to pro- 
 ceed to another examination, if they are not 
 satisfied with the character of any of the can- 
 didates. Young women who are candidates for 
 the situation of school-mistress arc obliged to 
 submit to the same kind of examination "before 
 they can obtain the certificate enabling them to 
 take charge of a girls' school. — The provincial 
 consistories have the power to send any master 
 of a primary school who appears to be in need 
 of further instruction, to a teachers' seminary for 
 the time that may appear requisite to give him 
 the necessary additional instruction. During his 
 absence, his place is supplied by a student 
 from the teachers' seminary, who receives a 
 temporary certificate. The expenses of the mas- 
 ters who attend for a second time the teach- 
 ers' seminaries are generally defrayed by the 
 educational authorities. The school-masters are 
 encouraged to continue their education by the 
 hope of preferment to better situations, or to 
 superior schools ; but before they can attain this 
 preferment, they must pass a second examina- 
 tion, conducted by the same authorities that eon- 
 ducted the former. — Teachers who show them- 
 selves entitled to promotion to the position of 
 directors of teachers' seminaries, are authorized 
 to travel, both in Prussia and in other countries, 
 for the purpose of extending their knowledge of 
 the organization, instruction, and discipline of 
 schools. A valuable ordinance, passed in 1826, 
 and renewed in 1846, requires every director of 
 a teachers' seminary, once a year, to visit a 
 certain portion of the schools within his circuit. 
 He thus makes himself acquainted witli the 
 condition of the schools, listens to the instruc- 
 tion, takes part in the same, and gives to the 
 teachers such hints for improvement as his ob- 
 servation may suggest. The results of In- yearly 
 visits, he presents, in the form of a report to 
 
 the sel 1 authorities of the province, — To 
 
 render the efficacy of the teachers' seminaries 
 more complete, it is provided that, at the end of 
 three years after leaving the seminary, young 
 teachers shall return to pass a second examina- 
 
 tion. — Before a young man is eligible for exam- 
 ination to enter a teachers' seminary, he must, 
 forward to the director or principal (1) a certifi- 
 cate signed by a priest or minister, certifying 
 that his character and past life have been moral 
 and blameless, ('-') a certificate from a physician 
 attesting his freedom from chronic complaints 
 and the soundness of his health ami constitution, 
 (3) a certificate of his having been vaccinated 
 within two years, (4) a certificate of his baptism 
 (if a Christian), and (5) a certificate, signed by 
 two or more teachers, of his previous industrious 
 and moral habits and sufficient ability for the 
 teacher's profession. The subjects in which the 
 candidates are examined are Biblical history, 
 the history of Christianity, Luther's catechism, 
 writing, reading, arithmetic I mental and written), 
 grammar, geography, German history, natural 
 history, the first principles of physics, singing, 
 and the violin. A\ hen the examination is fin- 
 ished, a list of the candidates is made out in the 
 order of their standing ; and from this, as many 
 of the highest are elected students of the semi- 
 nary as will fill the vacancies of that year, 
 occasioned by the departure of those who have 
 left to take charge of village schools. The course 
 of instruction is twofold. — intellectual and in- 
 dustrial. The intellectual course consists in a 
 review of, and a continuation in, the subjects 
 above mentioned, to which are added botany, 
 pedagogy, drawing, Latin and French, and very 
 often English also. A knowledge of these lan- 
 guages is not required for a teat hers diploma; 
 but. without a thorough familiarity with the 
 other subjects of study, he cannot be licensed to 
 I each. The industrial training consists of the per- 
 formance of all the ordinary household work, — 
 preparing the meals, taking care of the sleeping 
 apartments, pruning the fruit-trees and culti- 
 vating, in the lands always attached to the semi- 
 naries, the vegetables necessary for the use of the 
 household. At the end of the third year, the 
 young men are examined, and marked 1, 2, or 3, 
 ur are rejected. Those marked 1 are entitled 
 to teach as principals ; and those marked 2 or 
 3 are only permitted to act in the capacity of 
 
 The increase in the number of teachers' semi- 
 naries in Europe, during the past twenty-five 
 veal's, has been very marked. The number report- 
 ed, in 1875, in the different European countries, 
 British India, and the British Colonies, was as 
 follows : 
 
 
 . 64 
 . 63 
 .101 
 . 73 
 
 .'lis 
 
 . IE 
 
 '. 10 
 . 7 
 
 '. 6 
 
 
 Hungary 
 
 
 Luxemburg 
 
 < Itlitr (i.Tinau statrn 
 
 Prance 
 
 Italy 
 
 Russia 
 
 Finland 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Norway 
 
 Kntil .ml 
 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Rmimania 
 
 Suit/erlaiul 
 
 British ('..lenieB 
 
 Ireland 
 
 Total t 
 
 Normal Schools in the United States. — Massa- 
 chusetts was the first state of the American 
 Union to introduce the system of teachers' semi- 
 
TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 
 
 naries, or normal schools. The people of New 
 England became familiar with the Prussian sys- 
 tem through the exertions of the Rev. ( 'haiics 
 Brooks who had obtained his knowledge of it 
 from Ur. Julius, whose acquaintance he had ac- 
 cidentally formed while crossing the Atlantic 
 Ocem. Dr. Julius had been sent to the United 
 , States by the Prussian government to study pris- 
 on discipline ; and it was while on a voyage to 
 Europe that he explained to Mr. Brooks the 
 method of training teachers for the country 
 schools. Mr. Brooks was so impressed and inter- 
 ested that he resolved to investigate for himself 
 the Prussian system of teachers' seminaries. This 
 he did with great care and attention to all the 
 details. After his return to the United States, 
 he devoted three years to the diffusion of his 
 ideas concerning the necessity and importance, 
 of institutions for the education and training of 
 teachers. He enlisted in the cause a considerable 
 number of able men, among whom were John 
 Quincy Adams and Daniel Webster. Finally, 
 the legislature of Massachusetts was prevailed 
 upon to establish a state board of education, 
 with Horace Maun as its secretary, and to make 
 an appropriation to institute two state normal 
 schools. Mr. Mann became the ardent advocate 
 of teachers' seminaries, institutes, ami all other 
 means of educating and training teachers for their 
 work. Early in the present century, De Witt 
 Clinton recommended the establishment of teach- 
 ers' seminaries in the state of New York. The 
 Public School Society of the city of New York 
 founded, in 1834, a Saturday Normal School for 
 teachers ; but this was only a high school in 
 which were taught the elementary branches of 
 an English education. The first public normal 
 school established in the United States was the 
 one opened at Lexington (afterwards removed 
 to Framingham, Mass.), July 3 , 1839, under the 
 principalship of Cyrus Peirce (q. v.); although S. 
 R. Hall (q. v.) had opened a teachers' seminary of 
 a private character as early as 1823. From that 
 time till 1850, only seven schools were founded : 
 three in Massachusetts, and one each in New 
 York, Maine, Ohio, and Illinois. During the next 
 decade, from 1 Sol) to lsiill, but twelve normal 
 schools were established, three in Ohio, two in 
 Massachusetts, two in Illinois, and one each in 
 Connecticut. Michigan, Missouri, New Jersey, 
 and Pennsylvania. Between 1860 and L870, 
 fifty-two schools for teachers were established ; 
 and, from 1870 to the close of 1875, sixty-six 
 normal schools were founded. Very many of 
 these schools have connected with them model 
 schools, or schools of practice, sometimes called 
 training schools, in which the students of the 
 normal school proper are afforded an oppor- 
 tunity, under the supervision and direction of 
 experienced teachers, of putting in practice 
 to some extent, the pedagogic principles and 
 rules which they have acquired theoretically, so 
 as to be invpared for actual work on emerging 
 as graduates from the normal school. Such schools 
 constitute a part of the means of professional 
 training, as indispensable to the teacher as the 
 
 hospital and cliitiqite to the young and inexperi- 
 ' enced physician. The following table exhibits 
 the statistics of normal schools in the United 
 States for L876. 
 
 NAME 
 
 Alabama 
 
 
 
 
 
 Kansas 
 
 >• 
 
 Louisiana '. 
 
 
 Mas'-arlmsetts 
 
 
 
 
 V.l:,,sk, 
 
 New York..'.'.'.".'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'. 
 North Carolina K. 
 
 
 
 Rhode Ulaii.l 
 
 
 411 
 
 13 
 
 782 
 
 2-1 
 
 :t.,l 
 
 9 
 
 1 -71 
 
 72 
 
 •J' 'J 
 
 7 
 
 1 ... 
 
 !► 
 
 2<i! 
 
 1(1 
 
 4 l..s 
 
 
 
 16 
 
 :i,24* 
 
 S3 
 
 351 
 West Virginia fi 734 
 
 Wisconsin 5 1,027 
 
 District of Columbia 3 104 
 
 Utah Territory . 
 
 Total' .... 137 2»,0ua 1,046 
 
 Teachers' seminaries have exercised the most 
 beneficial influence in the communities in which 
 they exist. The moral effect of the instruction 
 of trained and educated teachers on the rising 
 generation is incalculable. The gaiu in time, 
 the better and simpler methods of teaching, the 
 knowledge of the children's physical. mental, and 
 moral nature, the good order, thorough organiza- 
 tion, and general spirit of harmony and humanity 
 \\ hich are the results of a thorough study of the 
 theory and practice of teaching, combine to con- 
 stitute the teachers' seminary one of the most 
 useful and economic institutions of modern civil- 
 ization. The teachers' seminaries of Prussia 
 have filled the country schools of that nation 
 with school-masters whose education, talents and 
 attainments have caused them, in the words of 
 an enlightened English traveler, "to be respected 
 by the whole community." Prior to the estab- 
 lishment of such seminaries, these country 
 schools were taught by "ignorant tailors, shoe- 
 makers, common soldiers, and old women." To 
 a great extent, the normal schools of the United 
 States have exercised a similar influence in till- 
 ing teachers' positions with a superior class of 
 
 men and women. Although the normal scl Is 
 
 of the United States cannot yet furnish one- 
 tenth of the number of teachers required for 
 
810 
 
 TEACHERS' SEMINARIES 
 
 the common schools, they exercise a powerful, 
 though indirect, influence in creatiiigaik'iiiand for 
 better teachers, and in imparting and diffusing 
 a knowledge of better methods of instruction. 
 Intelligent statesmen in Europe and America 
 have used their best efforts to establish teachers' 
 seminaries, wherever the state has undertaken the 
 education of the masses at public expense, as a 
 measure of wisdom and economy. Experience 
 has demonstrated the fact that, owing to the 
 material on which the teacher operates — the 
 childish mind — the profession of teaching dif- 
 fers from other professions, and cannot fall under 
 the law of supply and demand, but requires the 
 special interposition of private corporations or 
 of government itself. 
 
 The following table shows the location etc. of 
 the normal schools in the United States. 
 
 Normal Schools in the United States. 
 
 Stat.i Ni.rmal School 
 
 Rust Normal Institute. . . 
 
 Lincoln Normal Univ 
 
 N. D., Talladega College.. 
 
 5 N. D., Arkansas Ind. Univ. 
 
 6 Pino Bluff Normal Inst. . . 
 
 7 State Normal School 
 
 ! State Normal School 
 
 of Delaware College 
 
 Del. St ,lo Normal Univ.. 
 N. D. of Atlanta Univ 
 
 Normal School 
 
 Evan.Luth.N irmal School 
 Southern 111. Normal Univ 
 Chicago Normal School. . 
 " D. of Rock River I'niv. Dixon, 111. 
 
 ik Co. Normal School. . Englewood, 111.. 
 EngliahN.S. Galena. 111. 
 
 ormal. Ill 
 
 Peoria, 111 
 
 Goshen, Ind 
 
 Kentlaud, Intl.... 
 La Grange, Ind, . . . 
 Terre Haute, Ind.. 
 Valparaiso, Ind... , 
 
 Salem. Iowa 
 
 Concordia, Kan 
 
 Emporia, Kan 
 
 Leavenworth, Kan. 
 
 Berea, Ky 
 
 Carlisle, Ky 
 
 Louisville, Ky 
 
 Slate Norni.il University 
 
 Peoria Co. Normal School. 
 
 Normal and Class. School. 
 
 N.W. Normal School 
 
 La Grange Co. Nor. School 
 Ind. state Normal School. 
 N. Ind. Normal School and 
 
 Business Institute .... 
 E. Iowa Normal School. . . 
 Chair of Didactics, Iowa 
 
 State University 
 
 Nor. Inst. (Wnittier Coll. 
 Kan. State Normal School 
 
 State Normal School 
 
 Leavenworth St. N. S 
 
 N. D. of Berea College 
 
 Kentucky Normal School. 
 LouisvilleTraiuingS. !,,,, ] 
 Miiidcnllig'il'nbli, s, Cool Minden.La, 
 N. D., New Oilcans Univ..|New Orleans, La... 
 N. D„ Straight University New Orleans, La. . . . 
 
 Peabody Normal Sent New Orleans, La 
 
 Eastern State N. S c'astine. Me. 
 
 State Normal School Farniington, Me,... 
 
 D., Main Central Inst.. Pittsfield, Me....... 
 
 D., Oak Grove Seminars \ assalboro. Me.. 
 
 It. N.S.forCol. Teachers Baltimore, Md 
 
 M. Stato Normal School.. Baltimore, Md 
 
 St. Catherine's Nor. Inst. Baltimore. Md 
 
 Boston Normal School... Boston, Mass 
 
 Mass. Normal Art School. Boston, Mass 
 
 State Normal School Bridgewater, M:iss. 
 
 Framitigham Stat.- N.S... Franiingham, Mass. 
 
 Stato Normal School Salem, Mass 
 
 Westfield State N.S Wcstneld, Mass.... 
 
 State Normal School Worcester, Mass. 
 
 Michigan State N.S Ypsilanti, Mich 
 
 54 State N. s. at Maukato Mankato. Minn... 
 
 r..-. state X. s. at St. clou. I... St. Cloud. Minn ... 
 5li First State Norma] School Winona, Minn. . . 
 
 57 Mississippi state N.S Holly Springs. Mis 
 
 . r >s Tougaloo I'll. ,v state N. S. Tougaloo, Miss. . . 
 
 59 Normal Institute Bolivar, Mo 
 
 60S. E. Missouri State N. S. Cape Girardeau, M 
 
 61 N. C. Univ of Missouri. . Columbia, Mo 
 
 62 Fruitland Normal lust... Jackson, Mo......! 
 
 63 X. D., Lincolu Institute.. Jefferson City, Mo. 
 I'd N. Missouri State N. S. . . . Kirksville, Mo 
 
 65 Normal School St. Louis, Mo 
 
 66 State N S. District No. 2 Warrciisburg, Mo. 
 
 67 Nebraska State N. S Peru, Neb 1867 « 
 
 68 N. H. State Normal School I lvmouth. N. H 1870- 
 
 C.'.i State Normal School Trenton, N.J 1855- 
 
 7UN.Y. State Normal School Albany. NY 1844 . 
 
 71 State Normal School Brockport. N. Y 1867- 
 
 .72 State Normal School Buffalo, NY 1871 ■ 
 
 73 State Normal and T. S . . . Cortland, N. Y 
 
 74 State Normal and T. S... Fredonia, N. Y 
 
 75 State Normal and T. S. . . . Geneseo, N. Y 
 
 76,Female Normal College.. . New York. N. Y 
 
 77 Oswego State Nor amlT.S. Oswego, N. Y 
 
 78 State Normal and T. S... . Potsdam. N. Y 
 
 79 Ray's Normal Institute.. Kernersville. N. C. 
 8il EHeiidale Teachers' Inst Little River, X.c. 
 
 81 Shaw University Raleigh. N. C 
 
 82 Tilstou Normal School Wilmington, N. C... 
 
 S3 Xorthwestern Ohio N S.. Ada, Ohio 
 
 84 Ohio.N.K.,v Business Inst Bloomnigburgh.Oh 
 
 85 Cincinnati Normal Si hool cincmiiati, Ohio 1868 
 
 so Hopedale Normal S.l 1 Hopedale, Ohio 1852 
 
 87 National Normals, 1 . I.i.iii,,.,,, Ohio 1855 
 
 88 Western Rescue N s. Milan. Ohio 1852 
 
 S'.i N. D. Mt. Unii. . ,1. _■■ Mt Onion, Ohio.. .. ."7 1846 
 
 '.'"Orwell Normal Ii.-titut. orw.ll. Ohio 1865 
 
 'Jl .Southern Ohio N s Pleasantville, Ohio. 
 
 '.'J Republic Norm.ds. I,.., l K, ,.lll.l l c, Ohio 
 
 S3 Ohio Central N. s Worthington, Ohio 
 
 94.X. S. of Wilberlorc. Dnil X.nia. nlin. 
 
 96 Allegheny Normal Inst.. . Allegheny ( 'it v, Pa.. 
 
 '.'7 Bloomsburg State N.S... Blooinsbiirg 'pa... 
 
 98 Northwestern State X 
 
 '■instate Normal School. 
 Ill" Keystone state N. S.. 
 101 Central N. S. Association. Lock 
 
 I".' state Normal School Mansfield, Pa 
 
 111! Southwestern N. C Sagamore, Pa 
 
 1114 State Normal School... , Millers ville, 1 
 
 1115 Snyder Co. Normal Inst Selin's Grove. 
 me riimb. Valley State N 
 
 Edenboro', Pa. 
 
 Indiana. Pa 
 
 Kutztown, Pa. 
 
 Shipponsburgh. Pa... 1873- 
 
 Hi; Westchester State 
 
 108 Rhode Island N.S Providence, R. I. 
 
 109 Avery Normal Institute.. Charleston, S. C. 
 llii State Normal School Columbia, S. C. 
 
 111 Nor.orT.S. for Fre.dmeii Kuoxville, Tenn 
 
 112 Freedmeiis Normal Inst Maryville, Tenn. 
 
 113 New Providence Institute 1 
 
 | MaryviUe College Maryville, Tenn. 
 
 114 Le Movne Normal School. Memphis. Tenn... 
 115.N. D. of Fisk Umversitv Nashville, Tenn.. 
 116N. D. Central T.nn. Coll . Nashville, Tenn. . 
 117 State Normal University. Nashville. Tenn. . 
 
 lis State Normal School . .'. . (astleton, Vt 
 
 119. Johnson Normal s. hool. Johnson, Vt 
 
 PJllState Normal S, 1 1 Randolph, Vt 
 
 121 HamptonXormalaudAgri 
 
 cultural Institute Hampton. Va 
 
 122 Richmond Normal School Richmond. Va.... 
 
 123 Fairmouut State X. S Fairmouut. W. Ye 
 
 1875 
 
 1867 — 
 1867 
 
 ill. 
 
 1839 l..,s,.,,, Normals,! I , Whitewater. Wis... 
 
 1V,4 131 Km.lercart. ., N. S Washington, D. C. 
 
 1S39 ' 135 N. D, Howard Iniversitv Washington. D. C. 
 1774 136 Washington Nor. School . Washington. D. C. 
 1852 | 137 St. George's NormalSchool St. George, Utah.. 
 
 . 1868 — 
 1.1873 
 . 1870 — 
 . 1871 — 
 . 1866— 
 . 1875 
 . 1870 
 . 1868— 
 
 .' 1867 
 . 1873 
 . 1875 
 
 
TECHNICAL EDUCATION 
 
 811 
 
 TECHNICAL EDUCATION has fur its 
 object the improvement of the various arts and 
 trades by imparting the requisite scientific 
 knowledge and practical skill for their successful 
 prosecution. Two great classes of t rades to which 
 it may be applied, may be noticed: (1) work- 
 ing trades (including chemical trades, as dyeing, 
 tanning, etc.; mechanical trades, as watch-making, 
 carpentry, etc.; artistic trades. as of the decorator, 
 jeweler, engraver, etc.) , and (2) commercial trades, 
 as of the iron-monger and retailer of glass, ce- 
 ramic wares, etc. 'Hie higher branches, — those in 
 which the value of the product consists rather 
 in the labor and skill bestowed than in the ma- 
 terial used, and those involving the exercise of 
 taste, have been naturally found to exhibit most 
 improvement, under a proper system of instruc- 
 tion, and, in this aspect, may be said to need 
 most a special training. The International Kx- 
 hibition in London, in 1851, which revealed the 
 superiority of the Continental nations in all 
 that relates to the application of art and beauty 
 to manufactures, gave a special impulse to tech- 
 nical education. This superiority was traced 
 directly to the facilities for special instruction 
 afforded to manufacturers, artisans, anil others, 
 especially in France, Germany, and Switzerland, 
 (the need of which has been increasingly felt 
 with the progress of modern inventions), the ad- 
 vance of science, and the decay, in England, of the 
 system of apprenticeship. A theoretical knowl- 
 edge of principles, in addition to mere manual 
 dexterity and empirical insight, has become 
 more than ever necessary. Among the branches 
 generally requisite, are drawing, geometry, and 
 chemistry. Experience has proved that, to be 
 in the highest degree efficient, technical educa- 
 tion must begin in the primary school, and be 
 based on general literary culture. In continental 
 Europe, technical schoois are generally supported 
 by the government, either local or general. The 
 means of instruction include lectures, evening 
 schools and Sunday-schools, museums, etc. In 
 Great Britain, mechanics' institutes are a prom- 
 inent feature. These generally have a library, a 
 reading-room, and evening classes in various 
 branches. In Germany, there are, among inferior 
 institutions, handicraft schools, further-improve- 
 ment schools, etc., in which, sometimes, the com- 
 mon-school branches are taught to apprentices 
 and journeymen, and, sometimes, instruction is 
 given in geometry, drawing, and other special 
 branches, as a qualification for the practice of the 
 lower trades. The higher institutions impart tech- 
 nical instruction calculated to aid in the pursuit 
 <ji the higher trades. They generally presuppose 
 such a training as is given, for instance, in the 
 higher real schools. Some are connected with the 
 real schools as their higher classes; some are 
 separate institutions, with three or four classes or 
 courses, either similar to gymnasia, or between 
 these and the universities ; others are, in form, 
 technical universities on the plan of the Poly- 
 technic School of Paris. The branches taught 
 are mathematics, mechanics, physics, chemistry, 
 natural history, technology, di awing, modeling. 
 
 etc. There are many special schools for appren- 
 tices on the Continent (giving instruction to 
 weavers, watch-makers, machinists, etc.. according 
 to the needs of the locality), in which labor per- 
 formed under the direction of expi rienced work- 
 men occupies a large part of the time, while the 
 rest is devoted to studies immediately bear- 
 ing on the art or industry taught. In West 
 Flanders, Belgium, there are communal schools 
 for apprentice weavers, in jwhich primary and 
 religious instruction is joined with manual labor. 
 In the power-loom weaving school of Mulhouse. 
 Alsace, instruction is given of a grade to prepare 
 superintendents of factories. The most impor- 
 tant agency in the direction of technical educa- 
 tion in Great Britain is found in the numerous 
 art schools that have sprung up in various parts 
 of the kingdom, at the head of which are those 
 of the South Kensington Museum. These have 
 been instrumental in diffusing a knowledge of 
 industrial drawing, and their effects have been 
 widely felt. The establishment of a central 
 technical university (with subordinate colleges, 
 etc., in regular gradation) has been advocated. 
 In the United States, but little has been done to- 
 ward technical education. There are mechanics' 
 associations in various cities, which afford, to a 
 greater or less extent, means for the general or 
 technical improvement of the working classes, and 
 numerous business colleges, in which a knowl- 
 edge of book-keeping and other business opera- 
 tions is imparted. Industrial training is given 
 in Girard College, Philadelphia. The Worcester 
 County Free Institute of Industrial Science (see 
 Science, Schools of) may be classed as a tech- 
 nical school. Industrial art is taught in the 
 schools of the Cooper Union (New York), in 
 the Philadelphia School of Design fur 'Women, 
 and in various scientific schools. In 1870, the 
 state of Massachusetts provided by law that 
 " Any city or town may. and every city and 
 town having more than ten thousand inhabitants 
 shall, annually make provision for giving free 
 instruction in industrial or mechanical drawing 
 to persons over fifteen years of age. either in 
 day- or evening-schools, under the direction of 
 
 the school-committee." Under this act, < sider- 
 
 able progress has been made. A similar law was 
 enacted in the state of New York in 1875. 
 Among Euro] ican institutions, the following may 
 be mentioned: in Austria-Hungary, the Imperial 
 Royal Commercial and Nautical Academy, in 
 Triest, the Commercial High School, in Vienna, 
 the commercial academics in Prague. liratz, and 
 Buda-Pesth. the Imperial Royal Technical In- 
 stitute, in Cracow, the School of Industrial Arts 
 and the School for Architects and Machinists, in 
 Vienna, the schools for artisans in Gratz, Prague, 
 Briinn, Bielitz, Czernowitz, and Kaschan, the 
 Higher Weaving School, in Briinn, and numer- 
 ous inferior schools, special and general, for arti- 
 sans, etc.; in Germany, the higher commercial 
 institutions in Berlin. Breslau. Dautzic. Coblentz, 
 Frankfort, Hanover, Augsburg, Leipsic, Dres- 
 den, Chemnitz, Gera, Rostock, Brunswick, Ham- 
 burg, and Lubeck. the technical schools in Fran- 
 
812 TEMPER 
 
 kenberg and Mittweida, the 30 royal and pro- 
 vincial schools of trades in Prussia, the superior 
 school for artisans in Chemnitz, the commercial 
 and industrial art schools in Munich and Nurem- 
 berg, the art-industry school in Offenbach, the 
 8 art and architectural schools in Prussia, the 
 14 architectural schools in the other states, 
 the 8 superior weaving schools, the royal school 
 of pattern drawing in Berlin, the school of 
 modeling and ornamental and pattern drawing 
 in Dresden, the 21 navigation schools, and the 
 numerous inferior schools of commerce and 
 trades; in France, the 12 professional schools 
 (ecoles prqfeKniiiiiiu'lli'it), the schools of arts and 
 trades (ecoles des arts el metiers) at Aix, Angers, 
 and Ohalons-sur-Marne,the courses of instruction 
 in the application of the sciences to industry, and 
 in drawing, in various cities, the watch-making 
 schools at Cluses and Besancon, the school of 
 tobacco-manufacture and the superior commer- 
 cial school in Paris, numerous inferior commer- 
 cial schools. and the 42 hydrographic schools 
 (for the instruction of seamen for the mercantile 
 marine) ; in Italv. the 71 technical or trades in- 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 is opposed to peevishness and sullenness, which 
 seem to be characteristic of certain minds. As 
 good temper predisposes to docility, so ill-temper 
 is directly antagonistic to it ; hence, the educator 
 must cultivate the former in the mind of his 
 pupil, and strive to eradicate the latter. In 
 dealing with this fault, the utmost patience is 
 requisite ; since any exhibition of ill temper on 
 the part of the educator will, from the force of 
 example, as well as from the additional irritation 
 caused by it. aggravate the difficulty, and foster 
 the natural failing in the pupil's mind into a 
 confirmed vice. Allowance must always be 
 made for the natural peculiarities of children ; 
 since these cannot be immediately or forcibly re- 
 pressed, but must, by careful training, be brought 
 under self-control, which is one of the earliest 
 lessons to be taught, but one of the last objects 
 attained in education. Discouragement may 
 sometimes take the form of ill temper ; and, in 
 such a case, the teacher must make concessions, 
 and give special attention to remove the feeling 
 and restore confidence. A violent, irascible, or 
 stubborn temper in the pupil is to be met with 
 calmness and firmness on the part of the teacher; 
 and very often the marked contrast between his 
 manner' and that of the pupil will serve to recall 
 
 special trades: in the Netherlands, the 42 inter- 
 mediate schools for the working classes, the 30 
 drawing and handicraft schools, the school of 
 
 trade and industry in Amsterdam, the scl I 
 
 for architects at Bois-le-Duc, and the 9 naviga- 
 tion schools ; in Belgium, the superior i mer- 
 
 cial institute in Antwerp, the 26 industrial 
 schools (including the pi 
 
 sell. 
 
 riliur 
 
 tlon schools m .\ 
 land, the technii 
 watch-making school in Geneva, and the com- 
 mercial schools in various places. According to 
 the regulation of March 21., 1870, the Prussian 
 schools of trades thereafter organized, consist 
 of three classes (each with a course of one 
 year), two Jower and one higher ; the last is the 
 special class, and embraces four departments 
 (one for the instruction of candidates for higher 
 technical institutions, one of architecture, one 
 for mechanical trades, and one for chemical 
 trades). The complete technical institutes in 
 Italy have four departments (physico-mathemat- 
 
 ical, agricultural, commercial, and 1 k-keep- 
 
 ing); a few have a fifth dep; 
 
 j._?ll mi „i 1? • ■ 
 
 feelingof shame at his haste o 
 
 
 will tend so strongly as this 
 
 to cure the vice, 
 
 our ii really li ails the child 
 
 to punish himself 
 
 for his fault. Ill temper that 
 
 talcs the form of 
 
 obstinacy, is the most difficult 
 
 to deal with ; and 
 
 it is this that Locke reserves 
 
 IS the special and 
 
 only case for the use of the 
 this should not, however.be 
 Will scarcely ever be needed, i 
 
 rod. A resort to 
 
 hastily made, and 
 the circumstances 
 
 the educator. In school, un 
 not always the case, the tea 
 
 if another Kind by 
 ortunately, this is 
 her being obliged 
 
 promptly to choose between t 
 quest of his stubborn pupil. 
 
 ie immediate con- 
 
 tion of his school. (See Cow 
 
 >ral Punishment.) 
 
 TENNESSEE, one of t 
 
 ie southern states 
 
 of the American 1 nion, admi 
 
 tted in 1796. Its 
 
 area, according to the feden 
 
 census, is 45,000 
 
 square miles ; and its popula 
 
 ion, in 1870, was 
 
 
 re whites. 322,331, 
 
 colored persons, and 70, India 
 
 is. 
 
 Educati dEistonj.- Th< 
 
 first incorporated 
 
 seminary of learning in the vi 
 
 lley of the Missis- 
 
 sippi was founded at Nashvilli 
 
 .in 1785. In 1806, 
 
 trial. Those at Fabriano anc 
 of mechanics and construction 
 Girgenti has a department fi 
 dustry. — See Walter Smith 
 Scholastic and Industrial (Boi 
 
 '/:/,, 
 
 ,,! r, 
 
 ,,/ /■;/» 
 
 and I 'n ieles B. Stetson, 
 (Boston, I S7(i). 
 
 TEMPER, the disposition or constitution of 
 the mind, in relation particularly to the affec- 
 tions and the passions. Good temper implies a 
 serenity of mind, and a natural or habitual 
 cheerfulness, which is not easily disturbed. It 
 
 ward, Greene College. In 1795, Washington 
 College was founded. In 1806, an act of Con- 
 gress provided that the state should appropriate 
 100,000 acres for the use of two colleges to be 
 established, one in cast, and one in west Tennes- 
 see; 100,000 acres /or academies, and 640 acres 
 in each trad 6 miles square, when existing claims 
 would permit it, for the use of schools. The first 
 attempt to create a school fund was made in 1823, 
 when the vacant lands north and east of the 
 
 
TKNNF.SSKK 
 
 813 
 
 congressional reservation line were sold, and the 
 money was paid into the Bank of Tennessee, to 
 ••remain and constitute a perpetual and exclusive 
 fund for the establishment and promotion of 
 common schools in each and every county in the 
 state." The taxes on these lands were, also, to 
 form a part of this perpetual fund. < lonsiderable 
 additions were made to the school fund by the 
 act of 1827. In 1835, the revised constitution 
 declared it to be the duty of the state to preserve 
 the school fund inviolate, and to "cherish litera- 
 ture and science; knowledge, learning, and virtue 
 being essential to the preservation of republican 
 institutions." By the acts of 1837 and 1838, 
 and those of subsequent years, the school fund 
 was made a part of the capital of the Bank of 
 Tennessee; and $18,000 of the dividends was 
 annually set apart for the use of academies, him! 
 $100,000 for the support of common schools, 
 the faith of the state being pledged for such an- 
 nual appropriations. An act, passed in 1844 and 
 amended in 184C, directed that certain school 
 lands iu the state should be sold, and the pre >< v> ■> U 
 paid into the Bank of Tennessee. The principal 
 
 was to be invested by the bank in the I Is of 
 
 the state, if obtainable at par value or less, 
 the interest paid by the bank or realized upon 
 the investment, to be annually paid over to the 
 districts or townships to which the lands belonged, 
 according to the amount of deposits belonging to 
 each. In 1858, the amount of the school fund 
 to be made a part of the capital of the Bank of 
 Tennessee, was limited to sl .."ion. 000 ; while the 
 fund was increased by the sale of lands for taxes, 
 escheated lands, etc. The annual distribution, 
 however, of the interest of this fund, which 
 amounted to about $90,000, was not productive 
 of much good, owing to the want of a proper 
 school system, with competent officers to super- 
 intend it. In 18(13, according to the last state- 
 ment of the Bank of Tennessee, this fund con- 
 sisted of $663,752.65 in gold and silver. This, 
 amount, "put up in kegs and boxes, and sealed", 
 was removed from the state during that year, 
 and nearly all of it was deposited in the different 
 banks of Augusta, Ga. ; and the committee ap- 
 pointed by the legislature to investigate the re- 
 moval of the fund, reported that §50.000 of it 
 must be looked upon as lost. It was further 
 shown that, by the failure of the Tennessee 
 National Bank", 6200,000 of the $612,250 in 1". 
 S. 7-30 bonds, deposited as a part of the school 
 fund, in 1866, was also lost.— The first attempt 
 toward a well-considered public-school system 
 was made in 1867 ; but, owing to the disturbed 
 political condition of the state, it did not prove 
 acceptable to the people. Under the law of 1867, 
 four kinds of school officers were created, — 
 school-fund commissioners, a state superintend- 
 ent, county superintendents, ami district directors. 
 Teachers were examined and paid by the county 
 superintendent, on the order of the district clerk. 
 Separate free schools were maintained for white 
 and colored persons between the ages of 6 and 20 
 years, the money for their maintenance (consist- 
 ing of a yearly tax and the interest of the per- 
 
 manent fund) being paid by the state treasurer to 
 the county superintendents. Whatever additional 
 money was needed was to be raised by district 
 taxes, or in any way which did not interfere 
 with free tuition, prevention of which constituted 
 a bar to the state appropriation. Many obstacles 
 existed to the carrying out of the provisions of 
 this law. chief among which were the want of a 
 school census, the lack of reports of previi ius 
 
 systems, the. poverty of the people, the al st 
 
 utter want of trained teachers, and the great 
 destruction of school property caused by the war. 
 The legislature, accordingly, in 1MI9 — 70, re- 
 pealed the act of 1867 ; and the state returned 
 io the "county system", by which each county 
 was empowered to establish and maintain schools 
 or not, according to its pleasure. The school 
 fund, at that time, exclusive of interest, amount- 
 ed to SI >s7.1 54.36, of which $3*7.1 54.36 was 
 derived from the sale of school lands. By an 
 act subsequent to that passed by the legislature 
 of 1869 — 70, the state treasurer was made state 
 superintendent, ex officio; but as no special duties 
 were assigned to liim.andashe had no authority. 
 the office was of little practical value. Aided, 
 however, by the trustees of the Peabody fund, 
 he engaged an assistant, who, in 1872, endeav- 
 ored to awaken public interest on the subject of 
 education. His report showed that, while in some 
 counties considerable attention was given to the 
 schools, not one-fifth of the educable children of 
 the state had any facilities for acquiring even an 
 elementary education. Inl873,itwasdirecti d thai 
 the school fund, amounting to 82.51 2.500, with 
 the unpaid interest thereon to January I .. 1873, 
 the whole estimated to amount to $3,269,606, 
 should be funded into one bond, bearing 6 per 
 cent interest payable semi-annually by the state 
 treasurer. At the same time, a new school law 
 was passed, which has continued in force to the 
 present time. — The state superintendents have 
 been, William Morrow, until 1873 ; John M. 
 Fleming, from 1873 to 1875 ; and Leon Trous- 
 dale, noV in office, appointed in 1875. 
 
 School System- By an act of the legislature 
 approved March 23., 1875, the governor is 
 directed "to appoint, a state board of education 
 to consist of six members, two of whom shall be 
 appointed for six years, two for four years, and 
 two for two years ; and after the expiration of 
 their first terms of office, their successors shall 
 be appointed for six years. The governor of the 
 state shall be, ex officio, a member, and president 
 of said board." It shall be the duty of the board 
 to make a report to the assembly of the condi- 
 tion of the schools. The principal school officer 
 is the stale superintendent of public instruction, 
 who is appointed by the governor for two years. 
 He is required to discharge all the duties usually 
 devolving upon that officer, and to make an- 
 nually "a detailed report of his official proceed- 
 ings." The county courts elect biennially county 
 superintendents, whose duty it is to visit the 
 schools in their respective counties, keep the 
 school records, and see that the rules laid down 
 by the state superiutendent are duly enforced. 
 
814 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 The salary of the county superintendent is fixed 
 by the county court, and. therefore, varies con- 
 siderably, sometimes to such an extent as to 
 amount to a virtual annulment of the office. 
 This undue power of the county court, in this 
 and in other respects, enables it to thwart the 
 general school law. District directors, three in 
 number, are elected for three years, in each dis- 
 trict. They employ teachers, exercise a detailed 
 supervision over the schools, and disburse the 
 school moneys apportioned to their districts. The 
 total annual income of the permanent school 
 fund is about §600,000. To this is added a poll 
 tax of $1, and a tax of one mill upon every 
 dollar of taxable property in the state. When- 
 ever the money derived from the school fund 
 and state tax is. not sufficient to keep a public 
 school for five months in the year, in any school- 
 district, the county court is required to levy an j 
 additional tax for the purpose, or may submit 
 the proposition to do so to a vote of the people. 
 He may also levy a tax to prolong the schools 
 beyond the five months: hut this must not exceed 
 the entire state tax. The schools are free to all 
 persons between the ages of 6 and 18 years, re- 
 siding within the school-district, the only distinc- 
 tion between the races being that "white and 
 colored persons shall not be taught in the same 
 school, but in separate schools, under the same 
 general regulations as to management, usefulness, 
 and efficiency." Colored children are counted 
 alike with the white children in the apportion- 
 ment of the school money ; and adult colored 
 persons are eligible as teachers, school directors. 
 and county or state superintendents. The school 
 course comprises orthography, reading, writiug, 
 arithmetic, grammar, geography, elementary 
 geology of Tennessee, history of the United 
 States, and vocal music, the last being optional. 
 A feature peculiar to the school system of this 
 state is that of consolidated schools, or schools in 
 which the branches prescribed by law for the 
 common schools are taught free of expense, in 
 connection with other and higher branches, for 
 which a tuition fee is charged. This method has 
 tended to popularize the common schools by 
 keeping them before that class of the people who 
 ordinarily would send their children to distant 
 localities for more advanced instruction. Of 
 such schools. 174 were in operation in 1875. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 schools in the state, in 1875, was 3.942, of which 
 3,127 were for white children. 770, for colored 
 children, and 45, unclassified. The school revenue 
 was as follows: 
 
 From the state t212.840.57 
 
 " enmities :t<;o.:;i;:i.s7 
 
 " other sources 167,106.19 
 
 Total $740,316.63 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries $582,918.11 
 
 Building and repairing 
 
 schooMiouses 44,406.44 
 
 Salaries, if county super- 
 intendents 16,384.64 
 
 Other expenses.. 
 
 Total 
 
 The principal items of school statistics for the 
 same year are the following : 
 
 Number of children between 6 and 18 years 426,612 
 Number of pupils enrolled in public schools 199,058 
 
 Average attendance 136,805. 
 
 Number of teachers white, male 2,561 
 
 " female 823 
 
 " " colored, male 564 
 
 " female 217 
 
 " " unclassified 45 
 
 Total 77. 4,21<T 
 
 Average monthly salary of teachers $30.85 
 
 Normal Instruction. — By the law of March, 
 1875. the state board of education is required to 
 establish a normal school or schools ; no pupil 
 must be admitted therein who is under ID or 
 over 30 years of age, and who has not passed 
 such examination as may be prescribed by the 
 board of education. City superintendents, or 
 county superintendents, on consultation with the 
 directors of the school-districts of their respective 
 counties, may recommend certain pupils of the. 
 public schools for admission to the normal 
 schools ; and the pupils so recommended, on 
 passing a satisfactory examination, have prece- 
 dence over all other applicants. Separate normal 
 schools tor white and colored students are author- 
 ized by the law. The Normal University, estab- 
 lished under this law, was opened Dec., 1., 1875, 
 at Nashville. The trustees of the Cniversity of 
 Nashville gave the use of their college buildings, 
 grounds, etc. for two years, and also the income 
 of their permanent fund, and that of the Mont- 
 gomery Bell Academy, amounting in all to 
 $6,000 per annum, on condition that the academy 
 should he made a model and training school to 
 the proposed university. To this was added an 
 annual appropriation of $6,000, for two years, by 
 the agent of the Peabody fund. Normal instruc- 
 tion for colored students is afforded in the Nash- 
 ville Normal and Theological Institute, the 
 Freedmen's Normal Institute, at Maryville, Fisk 
 University, the ( 'cntral Tennessee College, at 
 Nashville, and the normal and training school, 
 at Knoxville. A normal school for the training 
 of colored teachers has recently been established 
 at Jonesboro, the building previously occupied 
 by the Holston Male Institute having been pur- 
 chased for its accommodation. There are, be- 
 sides, normal classes in many of the higher in- 
 stitutions of learning in the state. — Though no- 
 provision is made by law for the support of teach- 
 ers' institutes, they have been organized in sev- 
 eral counties. There is also a state teachers' as- 
 snrintitm which holds annual meetings, and which 
 has already exerted an important influence upon 
 the progress of popular education in the state. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — There are many high 
 schools and academies in the state, chiefly in the 
 cities ami larger towns; Nashville. Memphis. 
 Shelbyville, Chattanooga, Gallatin, and Mur- 
 freesboro.each containing such schools or depart- 
 ments. There arc many other secondary schools 
 in the state, chiefly private schools or prepara- 
 tory departments of colleges. There are, also, 
 several business colleges. 
 
TENNESSEE 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The chief colleges and 
 universities of the state are enumerated in the 
 
 following table : 
 
 TEXAS 
 
 815 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Denomi- 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 
 
 
 °ed " 
 
 
 Beach Grove College. . . 
 
 BeachGrove 
 
 l 869 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Bethel College 
 
 McKenzie 
 
 1847 
 
 Cumb. Pres. 
 
 Central Tennessee Coll. 
 
 Nashville 
 
 1866 
 
 Meth. Ems. 
 
 ^Christian BrothiTsVoll. 
 
 Memphis 
 
 1K7-2 
 
 R. C. 
 
 'Cumberland university 
 
 
 1842 
 
 Climb. Prcs. 
 
 East Tennessee Univ.... 
 
 Knoxville 
 
 1840 
 
 Non-sect. 
 
 Tiast Tenn. Wesl. Univ.. 
 
 Athena 
 
 
 Meth. Epis. 
 
 Fisk University 
 
 Nashville 
 
 l.si'ii; 
 
 Nou-sect. 
 
 Greeueville and Tuseu 
 
 
 
 
 lum CoUege 
 
 Greenevillo 
 
 1868 
 
 
 Jliwassee College 
 
 Sweetwater 
 
 IS. Ml 
 
 M.E.. South 
 
 
 
 1868 
 
 Presb. 
 
 Manchester Culleeo 
 
 Manchester 
 
 
 
 TVIarvville Col] .... 
 
 JUos'hcim M and 1'. Inst 
 
 Marywlle 
 
 1 870 
 
 Presb. 
 
 S. W. Bapt.s: 1 in. 
 
 
 
 
 S. W. Presb. 1 toll 
 
 
 
 
 'Stewart College 
 
 
 
 
 University of Nashville 
 
 
 
 
 University of the South 
 
 Si W.lliee 
 
 
 Pmt. Enis. 
 
 Vanderbilt University. . 
 
 Nashville 
 
 1873 
 
 M. E. South 
 
 There are several institutions for the higher 
 education of women in the state ; of which, 17 
 reported, in 187"), to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, 119 instructors, and 1.467 students, 91(3 
 of whom were pursuing collegiate studies. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction.— -The 
 Tennessee Agricultural College was established. 
 in 1869, as a part of the East Tennessee Uni- 
 versity (q. v.). The average attendance is 300. 
 The Nashville Normal and Theological Institute 
 was opened by the American Baptist Home 
 Mission Society in 1866. It is specially intended 
 for colored pupils of both sexes. Theological in- 
 struction is also given in Vanderbilt University, 
 at the Central Tennessee College. at Cumberland 
 University, at Fisk University, and at Nashville 
 Institute. A law school is maintained in Vander- 
 bilt University, anil at the Cumberland Univer- 
 sity ; and a medical and surgical school, in con- 
 nection with the University of Nashville and 
 Vanderbilt University. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Tennessee School 
 for the Blind was established at Nashville in 
 18-13, by an annual appropriation of $1,500 for 
 2 years. This was increased by private contri- 
 butions ; and, in 1846, a law was passed making 
 two annual appropriations of S-.oOO. In 1848, 
 the sum of $5,000 was directed to be paid out of 
 the state treasury for two years. The civil war 
 not only put a stop to further pi-ogress, but al- 
 most obliterated the school by entirely destroying 
 the school building. In 1806, however, it" was 
 re-established by the general assembly; and, by 
 liberal appropriations since then, it has been 
 placed among the first institutions of the kind in 
 the country. It has a library of 1 ,000 volumes. 
 The Tennessee School for the Deaf and Dumb 
 is located at Knoxville. It was established in 
 1 844, and was maintained, for a long time, chiefly 
 by voluntary contributions. It is now chiefly sup- 
 ported by an annual state appropriation of §5,000, 
 and an additional allowance for each indigent 
 pupil admitted. It can accommodate 1 50 pupils. 
 
 , one of the southern states of the 
 American Union, originally a part of Mexico, 
 but acknowledged as an independent republic in 
 183(i. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. 
 Its area is 274,356 sq. m. ; and its population, 
 in 1870, was 818,899, of whom 253,475 were 
 colored persons. 
 
 Educational History. — Six years before the 
 admission of Texas into the Union, measures 
 were taken to establish schools by setting 
 apart a portion of the public lands in each 
 county for school purposes. The first constitu- 
 tion of the state directed the legislature to pro- 
 vide for the establishment of schools, and created 
 for their maintenance a permanent fund by con- 
 finning all previous grants of land and funds. 
 In 1858, this fund was further increased by the 
 sale of public lands; but the act authorizing 
 this sale was subsequently repealed. The con- 
 vention of I8(j(i made provision for the appoint- 
 ment or election of a board of education and a 
 superintendent of public instruction ; and the 
 new constitution of the state, adopted in 1869, 
 directed that the legislature should make suitable 
 provision for the support of a system of public 
 schools, "for the gratuitous instruction of all the 
 inhabitants of the state, between the ages of 6 
 and 18 years." It also provided that a superin- 
 tendent of public instruction should be appointed 
 by the governor, with the consent of the senate 
 for one term of four years, and afterwards should 
 be elected by the people. Under this law, a 
 nomination was made by the governor, but was 
 not agreed to by the senate. The school bill, 
 also, was rejected by the same body. Under 
 the school law of August 13.. 1870, each organ- 
 ized county became a school-district, and the 5 
 justices of the peace composing the county court, 
 were constituted, ex officio, a board of school 
 directors. They were required to appoint a 
 board of school trustees and a board of exam- 
 iners, in each county, to divide the county into 
 as many sub-districts as might be necessary, 
 to locate school-houses, and to levy a tax not ex- 
 ceeding one per cent on all taxable property, for 
 the purpose of building school-houses. The in- 
 action of the county courts, however, led to the 
 enactment of a new law, April 24., 1871, by 
 which the superintendent of public instruction, 
 with the consent of the governor, was charged 
 with the appointment of 35 supervisors of edu- 
 cation, each of whom was intrusted with the 
 control of a district composed of several coun- 
 ties. Each supervisor was authorized to appoint 
 a board of school directors for each county in 
 his district, the duties of such boards being pre- 
 scribed by the state board of education. The 
 duty of subdividing the counties into school- 
 districts was vested in the supervisor. This law 
 remained in force till 1873, when a new law was 
 substituted which contained so many uncon- 
 stitutional features that it failed to receive the 
 governor's approval. In 1874. the law was 
 again changed, but the result was still unsatis- 
 factory ; and, August 19., I87<i, an entirely new 
 law was passed, which remains in force at the 
 
!S16 TE 
 
 present time. The first state superintendent 
 ■was J. C. De Gress, appointed in April, 1871 ; 
 his successor was O. N. Ilollingswoitii. who was 
 appointed in January, 1874, for 4 years. 
 
 School System. — The state board of education 
 consists of the governor, comptroller, and secre- 
 tary of state. The governor is. ex officio, presi- 
 dent of the board, its only other officer being a 
 secretary who is appointed by the board, " if, in 
 their judgment, the educational interests of the 
 state require" it, at an annual salary of $1,500. 
 Upon this board devolve all the duties .usually 
 performed by such bodies, as well as those dis- 
 charged in other states by state superintendents. 
 In all matters pertaining to the schools, this 
 board deals directly with the teachers and local 
 school officers, except in the disbursing of the 
 school moneys, which is done through the county 
 treasurers. Within the several counties of the 
 state, school communities are permitted to be 
 organised for the purpose of availing themselves 
 of the benefits of the public-school fund. These 
 communities consist of any number of parents 
 and guardians of children to be educated. They 
 are required to make out and sign, in person, a 
 list containing the names and ages of children to 
 be instructed, and to send it with an application 
 to the county judge. This officer, on satisfactory 
 evidence that the list is correct and the applica- 
 tion made in good faith, must sanction " the 
 establishing of said school community, and des- 
 ignate it by its name and number." Any in- 
 corporated city or town, however, may have ex- 
 clusive control of the public schools within 
 its limits, provided it is so determined by a 
 majority vote of the property tax-payers, in 
 which case the council or board of aldermen is 
 invested with exclusive power to maintain, reg- 
 ulate, control, and govern all the public free 
 schools established within the limits of said city 
 or town. Three trustees are appointed in each 
 school community by the county judge, whose 
 duties are to employ teachers, and look after 
 the general interests and management of the 
 under- their charge. County boards of 
 ', also appointed by the county 
 judge annually. They consist of " three well- 
 educated citizens of the county," who are re- 
 quired to examine applicants for the position of 
 teacher, the certificate resulting from such exam- 
 ination being given by the county judge on rec- 
 ommendation of the board of examiners. The 
 available school fund is declared to consist of 
 one-fourth of the "occupation and ad valorem 
 taxes" assessed since March 30., 1870 ; one-fourth 
 of all the "ad valorem and occupation taxes" 
 that may hereafter be collected, each exclusive 
 of the cost of collection ; all poll taxes due since 
 March 30., 1870, or collectable thereafter; the 
 interest arising on any bonds and funds, and all 
 the interest derivable from the sale of lands, pre- 
 viously set apart as a permanent school fund, 
 and all conveyances, devises, and bequests of 
 property, made by any one for the benefit of 
 the schools. Separate schools are provided by 
 law for white and colored children, the available 
 
 school fund being divided between them pro 
 rata. Sectarianism is strictly prohibited. The 
 selection of text-books is left with the teachers, 
 •■ subject to the approval of their community 
 trustees, and having due regard to the conveni- 
 ence of the parents in respect to books already 
 purchased." The daily school session is 7 hours, 
 but may be extended by agreement between the 
 teacher and trustees. The school year is for the 
 same reason indefinite. All children between 
 the ages of 8 and 14 years are entitled to the 
 benefits of the public schools. 
 
 Educational Condition. — During the year 
 1875, public schools were maintained in 130 
 counties; but reports were received from only 
 97. In the latter, there were 2,024 schools, and 
 the number of school-houses built during the 
 year was 158. Owing to the vast extent of ter- 
 ritory, the sparseness of the population, the in- 
 difference to the public schools in some parts of 
 the state, and the want of reports from school 
 officers, the items of school revenue for the year 
 1875 are not accurately reported. Two items only 
 are given by the state superintendent to aid in 
 making an approximate estimate of what the 
 receipts should be : 
 
 Annum! 1-vied by boards of school directors. $244,879 
 Additional amount necessary to be b \ ii d to 
 meet outstanding liabilities due teachers 
 
 for the year $50,598 
 
 The agent of the Peabody fund has also dis- 
 tributed to six public schools the sum of $2,250. 
 The expenses incurred were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries $030,334 
 
 " sites, and building, repairing, and furnish- 
 ing school-houses 59,358 
 
 For other expenses 36,544 
 
 Total .$726,236 
 
 The other principal items of school statistics 
 for 1875, are as follows : 
 Estimated enrollment of school children (6 to 
 
 18 years) 1st, 705 
 
 " average attendance 125,224 
 
 number of schools 3,898 
 
 " " "teachers 4,030 
 
 Actual enrollment in 97 counties 124,567 
 
 Average attendance " " 84,415 
 
 Number of teachers " " 3,100 
 
 Number of schools " " 2,924 
 
 Average teachers' salary per month $53 
 
 Normal Instruction. — No system for the 
 training of teachers has yet been devised by the 
 state. The only institution which furnishes nor- 
 mal instruction is Wiley University, at Marshall, 
 which has a department for the training of col- 
 ored teachers. A state teachers' institute was 
 organized in 1872, at the close of the educational 
 convention held that year at Austin. This led 
 to the organization of 25 county institutes the 
 same year. Since that time, institutes have been 
 held occasionally. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — In 1875, twelve acad- 
 emies and seminaries were known to exist in the 
 state, furnishing employment to 20 instructors, 
 and instruction to 1,106 pupils. Preparatory 
 schools existing independently of, or in connec- 
 tion with, the colleges of the state, reported. during 
 the same year, an attendance of 1,350 students. 
 
TEXT-BOOKS 
 
 Superior Instruction.-— Tim principal colleges 
 and universities of the state are enumerated in 
 the following table : 
 
 Austin roller lluiitsvilli' 
 
 " iversity.. • 
 
 < 'nil,-. 
 
 IM'.I 1'1-,-j.l.. 
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS 81 T 
 
 selection of books, so that they may be suited to 
 
 the mental status and grade of culture (if liis 
 
 pupils in regard to the following points: (1) lan- 
 guage and style ; (2) arrangemenl of topics and 
 general treatment of the subject, and (3) adapt- 
 ability to the time and general opportunities of 
 
 often entirely defeated bva disregard .if the first 
 
 bey 1 the 
 
 less, but p< 
 either beco 
 neglects it a 
 
 Wiley University .Marshall I is?:. M. Epis. 
 
 In 1875, there were nine institutions in the 
 state for the superior instruction of women, 
 three of which conferred degrees. Among the 
 principal institutions of this kind, are the An- 
 drew Female College of lluntsville. the Bryan 
 Female Seminary of Bryan, the Chapel Hill 
 Female College, the Lamar Female Seminary of 
 Paris, the Galveston Female High School, and 
 the Austin Collegiate Female Institute, the Bay- 
 lor Female College of Independence, the Waco 
 Female College, and the Nazareth Convent of 
 Victoria. 
 
 Scientific ami Professional Instruction.— The 
 only institution for instruction of this kind, 
 aside from that furnished by special depart- 
 ments in the colleges anil universities, is the 
 Agricultural anil .Mechanical College of Texas, 
 which was established a few years since at Bry- 
 an. Some progress was made toward erecting 
 buildings for its use; but, a discovery being made 
 of defects in the law concerning it, work was en- 
 tirely suspended in 1871. The Texas Medical 
 College and Hospital at Galveston was incorpo- 
 rated in 1871. The American Dental College is 
 situated at Austin. It was opened in 1873. In- 
 struction in theology is also given in a special 
 department of Baylor University. 
 
 Special Instruction. — The Texas Institution 
 for the Deaf and Dumb was opened in 18;")". at 
 Austin. It is open for the education of every! 
 deaf-mute resident of the state between the ages 
 of 10 and 21) years, if of sound mind, good char- 
 acter, and general good health. Hoard and tui- 
 tion are furnished gratuitously by the state. The 
 term of instruction is seven years, the branches 
 taught beinj those which are common to such > 
 institutions. The Texas Institution for the Edu- 
 cation of the Blind is situated at Austin, where 
 it was founded in L856. 
 
 TEXT-BOOKS, for educational purposes, 
 are books designed to be used by pupils in 
 connection with the instruction given by the 
 teacher. Their purpose is threefold : (1) to aid 
 the teacher, by affording to the pupil independ- 
 ent sources of information and instruments of 
 study ; (2) to aid the pupil, in acquiring habits 
 of self-reliance in study ; and (3) to enable the 
 pupil to learn how to use books, as a means of 
 self-culture. These objects dictate the mode of 
 constructing school text-books; and should all 
 be carefully kept in view by the teacher hi the j 
 
 sgusted with the study and 
 
 ■ book, under the impression 
 ng knowledge; and thus his 
 
 owing cautions should be par- 
 
 by teachers in the use of text- 
 ik should not be permitted to 
 ler, its use being always pre- 
 1. and supplemented by oral 
 
 in the pupils mind, to the subject. the impression 
 being constantly inculcated by the teacher that 
 it is the subject that is studied, and that the 
 book is only an instrument of the study, or an 
 auxiliary to it; (3) it should not be allowed to 
 supersede the necessity of acquiring knowledge, 
 as far as possible, by personal experience, par- 
 ticularly in elementary education. In advanced 
 instruction, it will always be found that those 
 will use text-books most effectively who have ac- 
 quired the most knowledge without them. (See 
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS.— The earli- 
 
 est i 
 
 win. 
 
 sof 
 
 for 
 
 then 
 the i 
 
 struetion in I 'hristian theology sprung up accord- 
 ing to ecclesiastical tradition, about the close of 
 the apostolic period. At the close of the 2d cent- 
 ury, the school of Alexandria began to be cele- 
 brated throughout the Christian world. (See 
 Alexandrian School.) Other schools of the kind, 
 though of less prominence, existed during the 
 
 \i 
 
 cia. 11 
 ■ '■tit in 
 
 1 Carthage. At the end of the 5th 
 ,- all of the schools of the East had 
 greatly declined, or had become extinct. In the 
 West, the monasterium dericorum, founded by 
 Augustine, at Hippo, was the beginning of a 
 diocesan seminary, and as such marks a consider- 
 able progress in the history of theological schools. 
 A number of similar institutions arose in various 
 countries of southern Europe, and served as the 
 chief agency for training candidates for the sec- 
 ular priesthood ; while the convent and cloister 
 schools supplied whatever education was given to 
 persons subjecting themselves to monastic vows. 
 
 The chief study in the theological schools of this 
 period was ecclesiastical Latin. Greek and He- 
 brew being rarely studied. A considerable 
 improvement begins with the establishment 
 of universities, after the middle of the J 3th 
 century. The appointment of faculties of theol- 
 
818 
 
 THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 ogy in the principal universities had the effect 
 to improve greatly the general education of the 
 clergy ; but, at the same time, it reduced to com- 
 parative unimportance the schools of the bishops 
 and of the convents. Nevertheless, from that 
 period to the present, the Roman ( latholic < Ihurch 
 has continued to recognize the three kinds of 
 theological education already named. Faculties 
 of catholic theology are at present (1877) con- 
 nected with 8 universities of Austria and Hun- 
 gary ( Vienna, Gratz. Innspruck, Prague, Lemberg, 
 Cracow, Pesth, and A gram) ; with 7 of the Ger- 
 man Empire (Breslau. Bonn, Munich, Minister. 
 AVurtzburg, Tubingen, and Freiburg); with 1 in 
 England (the new Catholic university of London, 
 founded in 1875) ; with 1 in Belgium (the free 
 Catholic university <>f I.om.tim: with 1 in France 
 (the new free Catholic universities in Paris. An- 
 gers, Lyons, and Lille) ; and with 1 in Portugal 
 (Ooimbra). In France, there are, moreover, 6 iso- 
 lated faculties under control of the government. 
 At the Italian and Spanish universities the theo- 
 logical faculties have been abolished. Beside these 
 faculties of theology, there are a number of in- 
 dependent theological schools, of which especially 
 the Collegia Romano, in Rome, attracts students 
 from all Roman Catholic countries. Episcopal 
 seminaries in which theology is taught are con- 
 nected with nearly all episcopal sirs, and every 
 order of monks has one or several theological 
 schools for its own novices. In the United States, 
 according to the Report of the Commissioner of 
 Education for 1875, the Catholic Church had 
 18 theological seminaries, or theological depart- 
 ments of colleges. A faculty of Old Catholic 
 theology has been established in connection with 
 the university of Bern; and. in 187(1. the ma- 
 jority of the Catholic faculty at the university 
 of Bonn, were likewise Old Catholics. (See Ro- 
 man Catholic Church.) 
 
 In the Greek Church, the standard of theolog- 
 ical education is very low, not only among the 
 monks, but among tin 1 secular clergy. The only 
 faculties of theology connected with complete 
 universities, are at Athens (founded in 1837) and 
 at Czernowitz in Austria (founded in 1875). 
 None of the Russian universities has a faculty of 
 Greek theology, which is taught in the five eccle- 
 siastical academies of St. Petersburg, Moscow, 
 Kasau, Kief, and YVilna. anil in the seminaries 
 connected with the episcopal sees. Of schools of 
 Greek theology, mostly in connection with the 
 episcopal sees, there are, moreover, 1 in Austria, 
 5 in Hungary, 4 in Greece, 8 in Roumania, 1 in 
 Servia, 1 in Montenegro, and a large number in 
 Turkey. 
 
 Theological education among the Protestants 
 of Europe has been not a little diversified as to 
 method. In all the countries iu which great uni- 
 versities have existed, professorships of various 
 branches of theology have been maintained since 
 the days of the Reformation. 1 fence, the clergy 
 of the state churches have usually gone to the 
 universities to obtain theological instruction. In 
 the ( rerman Empire, faculties of Protestant theol- 
 ogy are attached to the universities of Berlin, 
 
 Bonn, Breslau, Erlangen, Giessen, Greifswald, 
 Gottingen, Halle, I leidelbcrg, Jena. Kiel, Konigs- 
 berg. Leipsic, Marburg. Rostock, Strasbourg, and 
 Tubingen. In Holland, there are three, at (iron- 
 
 in N. 
 
 pat : and in Switzerland 4, at Basel, Zurich. Bern, 
 and < leneva. France lias a faculty of Protestant 
 theology supported by the state, at Montauban, 
 and a free theological school at Paris (founded 
 in 1S74) ; and Austria. 1 at Vienna. Switzer- 
 land has .'i theological schools, at Lausanne. Neuf- 
 chatel, and Geneva. Germany leads not only in 
 the number, but also in the prominence and in- 
 fluence of the theological schools, which, to a 
 larger extent than the schools of any other 
 country, are visited by students from all parts 
 ,4 the Protestant world While the evangelical 
 churches in the Cited States. England, and 
 other countries readily acknowledge the superior 
 scholarship of German theological schools, they 
 deplore the departure of many of them from the 
 creed of the Reformation, and from what they 
 regard as the fundamental doctrines of Christian- 
 ity. In England, the theological instruction given 
 at the universities of Oxford and Cambridge has 
 been more uniform and conservative, but far less, 
 influential, than that of the German universi- 
 ties. In fact, owing to the peculiar organization 
 of the English universities, each one being an 
 aggregation of a number of colleges, there has 
 been a lack of concentration and control in refer- 
 ence to theological study which has tended to- 
 keep the standard very low. In neither of the 
 universities named has there been an organized 
 theological faculty or a well-planned, obligatory 
 course of instruction. As in literature and 
 science, so in theology, the actual teaching has 
 been mostly done by tutors. There have been, 
 in both universities, professors of divinity and 
 Hebrew since the 16th. century, but the profess- 
 ors, as such, have had little to do with instruc- 
 tion or discipline. Attendance on their lectures 
 was not obligatory, except in a few merely formal 
 instances. For the purpose of being admitted to- 
 holy orders, it was necessary for Bachelors of 
 Arts, to attend the lectures of the regiw pro- 
 fessor of divinity for a short time, unless they 
 obtained a dispensation. In 1842. professorships 
 of ecclesiastical history and of pastoral theology 
 were established at Oxford. The university of 
 Dublin was organized under a charter from 
 Queen Elizabeth, very much after the model of 
 the English universities. A regius professorship 
 of divinity was founded in 1607, a professorship 
 of Hebrew, in 1637, and a king's lectureship in 
 divinity, in 1718. In 1838, a professorship of 
 Biblical Greek was added, and. in 1850, a pro- 
 fessorship of ecclesiastical history. 
 
 The fact that the English universities ex- 
 clude from their advantages all students not 
 members of the Establish) 1 Church, has made 
 it necessary for the various sects of Dissenters 
 that desired theological instruction for their 
 ministerial candidates, to establish institutions. 
 
THEOLOGICAL SCHOOLS 
 
 of their own. 'Phis has boon done by the In- 
 dependents, the Wesleyans, the Baptists, and. per- 
 haps, some other religious bodies, In nearly all. 
 if not all. institutions thus established, provision 
 is made for preliminary classical instruction. The 
 
 Scottish universities, with il sception of that 
 
 of Edinburgh, were founded before the Reforma- 
 tion. After that event, a scheme of theological 
 education was proposed, at the university of St. 
 Andrews, which was theoretically a great im- 
 provement upon the irregular and incomplete 
 methods of theological instruction previously pre- 
 vailing in the universities everv-where. St. Mary's 
 College was appointed solely to the teaching of 
 theology and the languages connected with it. 
 The course of study was to be completed in four 
 years, under the instruction of a principal and 
 four professors, each of the professors having 
 under his care only the students of one year. 
 The students were required to attend the lect- 
 ures of three professors every day during the 
 continuance of their theological course. Although 
 this scheme was not found in all respects practi- 
 cable, yet it had its influence upon the other 
 Scottish universities, at Glasgow. Aberdeen, and 
 Edinburgh, in each of which, several professor- 
 ships of divinity and auxiliary topics have been 
 constantly maintained, with some effort towards 
 systematic instruction. After the disruption of 
 the Established Church of Scotland, the Free 
 Church established a divinity school in Edin- 
 burgh, called the New College of Free Church. 
 
 A prime object recognized in the foundation 
 of the earliest colleges in the United States, 
 such as Harvard and Yale, was to provide general 
 education for candidates for the university. No 
 professors of divinity were appointed, nor were 
 theological topics introduced into the courses of 
 study ; but the presidents of the colleges were 
 usually ministers of distinguished ability, who 
 were expected, by their presence and their 
 preaching, to exert a wholesome religious influ- 
 ence upon their students generally, and to be 
 able to give timely and special counsel to any 
 young men among them who might contemplate 
 devoting themselves to the work of the ministry. 
 Dr. Dwight, at Yale College, taught theology in 
 his Sunday sermons which were so prepared and 
 arranged as to form, when completed, a body of 
 divinity. Some candidates for the ministry went 
 directly from the college into ministerial service, 
 and others, without having attended college at 
 all. But the more general custom was for minis- 
 terial candidates to pursue a limited course of 
 theological reading and study, uuder the di- 
 rection of some influential pastor. 
 
 As society became more settled, and the 
 wants of the older churches became better de- 
 fined, the necessity of schools specially devoted 
 to theological instruction began to be felt almost 
 simultaneously in several denominations. The 
 first actual experiment in public theological in- 
 struction was commenced by the Rev. Dr. John 
 M. Mason of New York, in 1804. Dr. Mason 
 had, after graduation at an American college, and 
 about a year spent in the private study of theol- 
 
 THERMOMETRY 
 
 Sl'J 
 
 ogy. gone to Scotland to pursue a more complete 
 course in one of the universities. As a result. 
 he. subsequently, when a pastor in New York 
 city, felt called upon to devote a portion of his 
 time to the systematic instruction of ministerial 
 candidates, in the original languages of the Hible. 
 He, also, delivered lectures on the standard 
 1 topics of divinity. For years he carried on this 
 i course of instruction almost single-handed, in 
 t fact until disabled by failing health. The first 
 regularly organized "theological seminary in the 
 United States was that formed by the Congre- 
 gationalists at Andover, Mass., in 1808. A foun- 
 dation had previously existed at New Brunswick, 
 X. J., uniler the auspices of the Reformed Dutch 
 Church, Imt it remained for a long time unoc- 
 cupied. In 1812, the Presbyterians commenced 
 their theological seminary at Princeton. Inl817, 
 the General Theological Seminary of the Protest- 
 ant Episcopal Church was founded in New York. 
 Since the dates named, most of the larger 
 Churches of the United States have founded 
 theological schools. The total number of theo- 
 logical departments and seminaries in the Cnited 
 States, according to the Report of the U. S. 
 Commissioner of Education for 1875, was 123, 
 having G15 instructors and 5,234 students. 
 
 As to the methods pursued in the theological 
 schools of the United States, it may be remarked 
 that no uniformity, but a general similarity, pre- 
 vails. In nearly all. primary attention is given 
 to the study of Hebrew and New Testament 
 Greek, as the foundation of an enlightened 
 Scriptural exegesis. In the departments of eccle- 
 siastical history, and systematic and practical 
 theology, instruction is given largely by lectures, 
 with references to text-books, and collateral 
 reading. In all the fully-organized seminaries, 
 the course of study extends through three years, 
 and is planned in reference to the attainments 
 of graduates of colleges, although partial-course 
 students atv admitted on specified conditions. 
 
 THERMOMETRY, Educational. Human 
 thermometry is the art of measuring the heat 
 evolved by the body, and the science of calcu- 
 lating thereby a person's vitality and working 
 power. Physicians now use thermometers to 
 ascertain mathematically the existence and prog- 
 ress of disease, instead of depending upon con- 
 jecture, as formerly. The same may also be done 
 by teachers, in order to appreciate exactly the 
 working capacity of their pupils ; to prevent the 
 spread of contagious diseases in the school, and 
 to warn ignorant or thoughtless parents of the be- 
 ginning of illness in their children ; and. more- 
 over, to discover the existence of disease when 
 it is purposely concealed. The means of doing 
 this is afforded by thermometry and thermog- 
 raphy, the instruments employed being a ther- 
 mometer and a thermograph, to indicate and re- 
 cord the degree of heat. There are several kinds 
 of thermometers. That is. however, of special value 
 in education, the scale of which is based on some 
 physical phenomenon, as the melting of snow. 
 In the physiological thermometer, the health- 
 point is marked zero or norme, as seen in the 
 
THERMOMETRY 
 
 'owing scheme 
 
 ofh 
 
 itman temperature (tak 
 
 the physiological scale). 
 
 
 7° 
 
 Only two alleged cases. 
 
 
 6° 
 
 (ienVrally fatal. 
 
 Above 
 
 
 Often fatal. 
 
 THE 
 
 4° 
 
 High fever. 
 
 NOKME 
 
 3° 
 
 Considerable fever. 
 
 
 2° 
 
 Moderate fever. 
 
 
 1° 
 
 Suspicious. 
 
 The Norme 
 
 Standard of health 
 
 r o.5° 
 
 Subnormal. 
 
 Below 1° 
 
 Depression. 
 
 THE \ 2° 
 
 Collapse. 
 Algid collapse. 
 
 NORME 
 
 3 o (0 
 
 [i"-6° Fatal. 
 There are different instruments adapted to dif- 
 ferent thermometries! researches : (1) the physi- 
 ological thermometer, which, when introduced 
 into a natural cavity, as the mouth, or into an 
 artificial one. as the closed axilla, indicates the 
 rate of evolution of the central heat ; (2) the 
 surface thermometer, used to differentiate the 
 superficial heat of two bodies, or of two parts of 
 the surface of the same body ; (3) the ther mo- 
 scope, which, in a few seconds, renders evident 
 differences of temperature which could not other- 
 wise be perceived (unless with the help of some 
 very expensive thermo-electric apparatus ; (4) the 
 hand, an absolutely inexpensive apparatus, but of 
 inestimable value to those who have early ap- 
 preciated the importance of educating the senses. 
 The trained hand can be used as a central or as 
 a surface thermometer. It cannot, of course, 
 give its findings in figures : but it adds, to a 
 pretty accurate idea of the heat evolved, an esti- 
 mate of the depth or superficiality of the in- 
 flammation, of the tension of the tissues, and of 
 other signs that are like commentaries to the 
 uslion (feverish burning). The hand has, morever, 
 above every instrument, the advantage of being 
 used, at will, for the most informal and unsus- 
 pected diagnosis, in greetings, etc. ; and when 
 such desultory exploration has revealed an anom- 
 alous degree of temperature, the thermometer 
 may be used to ascertain the exact condition. — 
 Thermograph;/ is the method of recording the 
 phenomena of usttoii. in the order most favorable 
 to show their significance. Normalthermography 
 is the work of the mother ; pathological thermog- 
 raphy, of the physician, aided by the mother or 
 nurse ; and school thermography, of the teacher, 
 who thus contributes his share to the natural 
 history of his pupils. — Human thermometry 
 should constitute a part of every system of ped- 
 agogy studied in the normal school ; so that every 
 teacher may conduct his school, and teach his 
 pupils, on this uiathcmatico-physiological basis, 
 ascertaining constantly the power of endurance of 
 every pupil during the various exercises ; for, 
 since mental force is but converted physical force, 
 it is measurable by the expenditure of caloric 
 found necessary for the various intellectual proc- 
 
 ; of Children (1871) : Prevention of the 
 I of Contagious Diseases among Children 
 by the Indications of Thermometry (London. 
 L873); Manual of Thermometry for Mothers, 
 Nurses, 'Teachers, etc. (N. Y., 1873). 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE 
 
 THIEL COLLEGE of the Evangelical 
 Lutheran Church, at Greenville, Pa., is under 
 the care of the Pittsburgh Synod. It was found- 
 ed by Lewis Thiel. as an academy, at Philips- 
 burg, in 1866, chartered as a college, in 1870, 
 and removed to its present site, in 1871. Its 
 permanent endowment is over $60,000, chiefly 
 derived from the benefactions of its founder. It 
 has a library of nearly 4,11110 volumes. The cost of 
 tuition is §4(1 per annum. It hasan academic and 
 a collegiate department. A lailii's' course has been 
 also established, embracing the studies of the 
 collegiate department, except that Greek is op- 
 tional, and French may be taken in the place of 
 German. In 1875 — 6, there were 6 instructors 
 and 70 students (21 collegiate and 49 academic). 
 The Rev. Henry W. Roth, A. M., is (1877) the 
 president 
 
 TOPICAL METHOD. See Catechetical 
 Method. 
 
 TOUGALOO UNIVERSITY. at Tougaloo, 
 Mis;., near Jackson, was founded in 1869, and 
 chartered in 1871. It was especially designed 
 for the education of colored youth of both sexes, 
 but is open to all. The expenses, including tui- 
 tion, board, etc., are less than $12 a month. A 
 farm of five hundred acres attached to the uni- 
 versity, is cultivated mainly by the labor of stu- 
 dents, who thus pay a portion of their expenses. 
 It has in operation a normal, an intermediate, 
 and a primary department, its normal depart- 
 ment being recognized as one of the state normal 
 schools. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors 
 and 217 students (normal and intermediate, 
 125 ; primary, 92). Prof. L. A. Darling is (1877) 
 the president. 
 
 TRAINING, a department of education, in 
 which the chief element is exercise, or practice; 
 the object being to impart practical skill, or 
 facility in any bodily or mental operation. No 
 teaching can be effectual that is not supplemented 
 by training ; that is to say. not only is the under- 
 standing of the pupil to be addressed, but the 
 principle of habit to be appealed to. (SeeHABlT.) 
 
 TRAINING SCHOOLS. See Teachers' 
 Seminaries. 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE, in Hartford, Ct., 
 under Protestant Episcopal control, was char- 
 tend as Washington College in 1823, and 
 opened in 1 824. 1 he name was changed in 
 1845. It has property to the value of over 
 SI. ooo.ooo. a library of 18.000 volumes, and a 
 valuable cabinet. '1 here is a large number of 
 scholarships, nearly all designed to aid students 
 in preparing for the ministry of the church. 
 Besides the classical course, in which the studies 
 are all prescribed, there are special courses, lead- 
 ing to the degree of B. S. In 1875 — 6, there 
 were 13 instructors and 83 students. The presi- 
 dents have been as follows: the Rt. Rev. Thomas 
 C. Brownell, D. D., 1824—31 ; the Rev. N. S. 
 Wheaton, D. D., 1831—7; the Rev. Silas Tot- 
 ten, D. 1).. 1837— 48; the Rt. Rev. John Wil- 
 liams. D. D., 1848—53; the Rev. Daniel R. 
 Goodwin, D.D., 1853—60 ; Samuel Eliot, 1861 
 — ±; the Rt, Rev. J. B. Kerfoot, 1864—6 ; the 
 
TRINITY COLLEGE 
 
 "Rev. Abner Jackson, D. P., who was succeeded 
 by the Rev. T. 1!. Pynchon, D. 1)., the present 
 incumbent (1876). 
 
 TRINITY COLLEGE, at Trinity. Ran- 
 dolph Co., X. C, founded in 1852, is under the 
 control of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
 South. The name of the post-office is the same 
 as that of the institution. The college is supported 
 by tuition fees (040 to $60 per annum) and funds 
 contributed by the North Carolina Conference. 
 It has property to the value of $45,000, and 
 libraries containing 10,000 volumes. The chapel 
 for public exercises is said to be perfect in acous- 
 tics, and the finest auditorium in the Southern 
 states. The whole course of instruction is em- 
 braced in eleven schools : Latin, Greek, mathe- 
 matics, English literature, natural science, mental 
 and moral philosophy, modern languages, theol- 
 ogy, engineering and architecture, analytical 
 chemistry, and law. The studies of any school, 
 or any special study, may be pursued exclusively, 
 if desired. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 instructors 
 and 140 students. The Rev. B. Craven, D. D., 
 LL. D., has been the president from the organi- 
 zation of the college. 
 
 TRINITY UNIVERSITY, at Tehuacana. 
 Tex., under the control of Cumberland Presby- 
 terians, was organized in 1869, and chartered in 
 1370, its principal design being to furnish an edu- 
 cated ministry. It has an endowment of $15,000, 
 and libraries containing about .'(,0011 volumes. It 
 comprises a collegiate, a preparatory, and a com- 
 mercial course, open to both sexes. In L875— 6, 
 there were 13 instructors and 372 students (197 
 preparatory and 1 7."' collegiate). The Rev. W. 
 E. Beeson, 1). !>., is (1876) the president. 
 
 TRIVIUM. See Arts. 
 
 TROTZENDORF, Valentine Friedland, 
 a distinguished German educator, born at Trotz- 
 endorf in Silesia, in 141)0; died in 1556. His 
 father's name was Friedland, which he changed 
 into the name of his birthplace. After studying 
 the classical languages at Leipsic, and spending 
 five years with Luther, he entered, in 1523, 
 the school at Goldberg as a teacher, and ulti- 
 mately became its rector, in which position he 
 continued till within two years of his death. 
 Under his direction, the school of Goldberg be- 
 came one of the most famous educational insti- 
 tutions of the age, being attended by scholars 
 from many countries of Europe. It was emi- 
 nently a classical school, German, the real stud- 
 ies, and mathematics occupying a subordinate 
 place in the curriculum. Assistant teachers 
 were seldom employed, teachers for the lower 
 classes being generally selected from among the 
 students in the upper classes. Biographies of 
 Trotzendorf have been written by Pinzger (Hei- 
 delberg, 1825), and Loschke (Breslau, 1856). — 
 See Barnard, German Teachers mill Educators. 
 
 TRUANT LAWS, legislative enactments 
 having for their object to prevent truancy from 
 school. Such laws, particularly in large cities, 
 have been of great service, especially in connec- 
 tion with compulsory attendance legislation. 
 (See Compi-lsory Education.) 
 
 TURKEY 
 
 821 
 
 TUFTS COLLEGE, in Medford. Mass., 
 chartered in L852, and opened in L854, is under 
 Universalis! control. It is supported by tuition 
 fees ($70 a year), and the income of an endow- 
 ment of over W.ooo.ooo. The library contains 
 over lli.HOO volumes and 5,000 pamphlets. 
 There are also good collections of minerals, 
 shells, birds, and botanical specimens, 'there 
 are twenty-seven scholarships in the gift of the 
 college, fifteen of $60, and twelve of $100 each. 
 It has a classical course of four years, a course 
 for the degree of Bachelor of Philosophy, also of 
 four years, and an engineering course of three 
 years. A divinity school was organized in 1867. 
 The theological students receive tuition and the 
 use of rooms free. In 1875 — 6, the collegiate de- 
 partment had 10 professors, 1 instructor, and 73 
 students; namely, classical course, 56; engineer- 
 ing, 12 ; philosophical, 2 ; resident graduates, 3. 
 The divinity school had 3 professors, 1 instruct- 
 or, 3 lecturers, and 23 students. The whole num- 
 ber of alumni of the college was 225 ; of the 
 divinity school, 21. The presidents have been as 
 follows; the Rev. Hosea Ballou, 2d, 1). P., 
 1853—61; the Rev. Alonzo A. Miner, P.P., 
 LL. !>., 1862—76; and the Rev. Elmer I!. 
 C apen, si:ice 1876. 
 
 TURKEY, an empire, embracing extensive 
 territories in Europe. Asia, and Africa, with an 
 aggregate area of about 2,230,000 square miles, 
 and a population of about 40.000,000. The 
 greater part of the population of the whole em- 
 pire are Mohammedans; but, in European Turkey 
 ( 'hristianity predominates. The chief dependen- 
 cies of the empire, — Servia, Roumania, and 
 Egypt, are treated of in special articles of this 
 work. 
 
 Educational History. — Up to Is Id, public in- ' 
 struct ion was wholly left to the several religious 
 denominations; but since then, the government 
 has made some efforts to promote the cause of 
 education, and especially to organize a school 
 system for the Mohammedan population. A 
 radical reform was attempted by means of a 
 comprehensive school law. issued in 1869; but 
 most of the provisions have, thus far, remained a 
 dead letter. 'I he M ohammedan schools, in par- 
 ticular, have hardly been improved in any way. 
 The schools connected with the Greek churches 
 have received sonic good teachers, educated at 
 the university of Athens, or in the academies of 
 Greece. The Armenian schools, have been greatly 
 benefited by the educational efforts of the Prot- 
 estant American missionaries. The religious 
 order of the Mekhitarists, which belongs to the 
 United Armenian Church, and has its chief 
 seats at Venice and Vienna, has done much for 
 the education of the numerous Armenian pop- 
 ulation; and has. in particular, educated some of 
 the best Turkish scholars in the government 
 employ. French and Italian missionaries have 
 established a number of ( 'atholic institutions of 
 different grades. The Jews of Turkey, with the 
 aid of wealthy co-religionists in other countries, 
 have also increased the number and improved 
 the condition of their schools ; and the progress 
 
822 UNION CHRISTIAN COLLEGE 
 
 of the Christian ami .Jewish schools has given a 
 great impulse to educational progress among the 
 native Turks. The provisions of the educational 
 law of 1869 are as follows : Primary instruc- 
 tion is made obligatory for boys from 6 to 11, 
 and for girls from 6 to 10 years of age. Every 
 village and every ward of a town is required 
 to have at least one primary school. Primary 
 schools are of two kinds, — common primary and 
 superior primary. Whenever the number of 
 pupils is sufficient to warrant it, separate schools 
 are to be established for Mohammedans and for 
 Christians, for boys and for girls. Religious in- 
 struction in the Koran, or in the Christian re- 
 ligion, constitutes a part of the regular course. 
 The school system is under the control of the 
 Imperial Council of Education. The school 
 authorities in the provinces and departments 
 are composed of Mohammedans and of persons 
 of other religious belief, the number of each be- 
 ing equal. 
 
 Primary Schools. — Primary schools, of some 
 kind, are quite generally met with in towns, and 
 even in villages ; but reliable statistics in regard 
 to them are wanting. The city of Constantinople 
 had, according to the latest accounts, 454 primary 
 schools, of all denominations, with 33,000 pupils. 
 The total number of superior primary schools 
 in Turkey was 95, with about 7,600 pupils. The 
 establishment of normal schools was also pro- 
 vided for in the law of 1869, previous to which 
 time teachers generally received their education 
 in the superior primary, or in secondary schools. 
 
 UNION UNIVERSITY 
 
 Secondary, Superior, and Special Schools. — 
 The law of 1869 also provides for a complete 
 system of secondary schools. Of these there 
 are two kinds, — preparatory schools, and lyce- 
 ums. Every town with more than 1,000 houses 
 is required to have a preparatory school ; and 
 the chief town of every province, a lyceum. The 
 course of instruction in the former lasts 3 years; 
 in the latter, 6 years. The lyceum has a gram- 
 mar division for 2 years, and a superior (4 years') 
 division; the latter is again divided into a liter- 
 ary and a scientific section. The lyceum at 
 Galata-Serai is under the direction of French 
 scholars, and the medium of instruction is 
 French. Various secondary schools have also 
 been established by several Christian denomina- 
 tions. A university, organized after the model 
 of the universities of continental Europe, and 
 embracing, for the present, three faculties 
 (literature, law. and natural science and mathe- 
 matics), was opened, in 1870, in Constantinople. 
 The medium of instruction is the Turkish lan- 
 guage ; but the use of French is permitted. 
 Constantinople has a school of surveying and 
 architecture, a school of engineering and artillery, 
 a medical school, a law school, a military school, 
 and a school of military surgery. On the island 
 of Chalki, there is a naval academy. There are 
 numerous schools of theology in connection with 
 the mosques, for Mohammedans, and. in connec- 
 tion with Episcopal sees and monasteries, for the 
 education of priests of the Creek, Catholic, and 
 Armenian churches. 
 
 UNION CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, at 
 
 Merom, Ind., founded in 1858, is under the 
 control of the Christian denomination. It has 
 an endowment of $100,000; of which $20,000 
 is at present non-productive. The cost of tui- 
 tion is from $18 to 824 a year. Both sexes are 
 admitted. The curriculum embraces an academic 
 course, requiring 2 years, a scientific course, 4 
 years, and a classical course, 6 years. A prepara- 
 tory school is also connected with the college. 
 There is a course in normal instruction, also in 
 music and book-keeping. In 1875 — 6, there were 
 9 instructors and 130 students. The presidents 
 have been: Rev. N. Summerbell. I). 1)., 1860 
 —65; Rev. Thomas Holmes, D. I)., 1865— 75; 
 and Rev. T. C. Smith, M. A., since 1875. 
 
 UNION UNIVERSITY, in the state of 
 Xew \ ork, incorporated in 1873, comprises 
 Union College, with its preparatory classical in- 
 stitute and school of civil engineering, in Sche- 
 nectady, and the Medical ( 'ollege. the Law School, 
 and the Dudley Observatory, in Albany. Union 
 college was incorporated in 1795, and was so 
 called because several religious denominations 
 co-operated in its establishment. It is supported 
 by tuition fees (from $75 to $100 a year) aud 
 the income of endowments, amounting to about 
 $428,000. It has a library of 18.000 volumes, 
 and valuable chemical and philosophical ap- 
 
 paratus and collections in natural history. 
 Numerous scholarships have been founded for 
 the benefit of indigent students. There is a 
 classical, a scientific, and an eclectic course. The 
 engineering school was founded in 1845. The 
 extensive garden and farm of the college afford 
 facilities for instruction in agriculture. Military 
 drill and gymnastic training were early intro- 
 duced. The Medical < 'ollege was established in 
 1838, and the Law School in 1851. The Dudley 
 Observatory, incorporated in 1852 and inaugu- 
 rated in 1856, is furnished with the best astro- 
 nomical instruments, and has a meteorological de- 
 partment. The number of instructors and stu- 
 dents, in 1875 — 6, was as follows : Collegiate, 
 18 instructors and 175 students; engineering 
 school, 4 instructors and 35 students : medical 
 college, 16 instructors and 123 students; law- 
 school, 6 instructors and 93 students ; total, 
 44 instructors and 426 students. The following 
 have been the presidents of the College and Uni- 
 versity : the Rev. John Blair Smith, D. D., 
 1795 — 9; the Rev. Jonathan Edwards, D. D., 
 1799 — 1801 ; the Rev. Jonathan Maxcy, D. D., 
 1802—4; the Rev. Eliphalet Nott, D. I)., 1804 
 — 66; the Rev. Lawrence P. Dickok, D. D., 
 1866—8 ; the Rev. Charles A. Aiken, D. D., 
 1869—71 ; and the Rev. Eliphalet Nott Potter, 
 D. D., since 1871. 
 
UNITARIANS 
 
 UNITARIANS are a body of Christians 
 -who reject the doctrine of the Trinity, and assert 
 the absolute unity of God. They deny the deity 
 of Christ and his equality with God the Father, 
 but do not reject his divinity, or any exalted 
 rank consistent with his subordination to God. 
 They reject the doctrine of total depravity and 
 moral inability, and of the necessity of a vicarious 
 atonement. 'They have no written creed, and in- 
 dividual Unitarians differ greatly on many 
 points. Arianisni, originating in the 4th cent- 
 ury, was the parent of Soeinianism. in the 16th ; 
 and from the latter. [Tnitarianism has descended. 
 Persecution confined Socinianisni.at the close of 
 the 17th century, to Transylvania, where there 
 are now over LOO congregations of Unitarians, 
 with nearly 60,000 members. They have a col- 
 lege at Klausenburg. They are governed by an 
 ■ecclesiastical council and a bishop. In England, 
 the growth of the denomination warranted the 
 foundation, in 1825, of the British and Foreign 
 Unitarian Association. In the United King- 
 •dom, there are now not far from 400 congrega- 
 tions. The Unitarians have a college in Lon- 
 don, and another in Manchester. The American 
 Unitarian Association was also organized in 
 1825. It was incorporated in 1847, and has its 
 headquarters in Boston. The National Confer- 
 ence of Unitarian and other Christian Churches 
 was organized in 1865. In the United States, 
 the Unitarians separate. 1 from the Congregation- 
 .alists. They have about 350 or 360 congrega- 
 tions throughout the country, the denomination 
 being most numerous in Massachusetts, especially 
 in Boston and its vicinity, where it took its rise. 
 Except in Transylvania, the Unitarians have a 
 congregational form of church government. In 
 the United States, the denomination has always 
 been largely constituted from the most highly 
 •educated portion of the community; and its 
 members have been noted for their public 
 spirit, and their interest in educational and 
 benevolent affairs. The Society for Promoting 
 Theological Education (headquarters in Boston) 
 was organized in 1816,and incorporated in 1831. 
 It aims to enlarge the apparatus of theological 
 instruction, and to afford assistance to merito- 
 rious theological students. The American Uni- 
 tarian Association has a committee on theolog- 
 ical education, and aids young men in preparing 
 for the ministry. The Unitarian Sunday-School 
 Society (Boston) was instituted in 1*27. Since 
 the early years of the century, the authorities of 
 Harvard University have been largely Unita- 
 rians, but the institution has never been under 
 denominational control. The Harvard Divinity 
 School was systematically established in lslO. 
 In 1876 — 7. it had 4 professors, 5 other instruct- 
 ors, 23 students, and a library of 17.00(1 vol- 
 umes. The Meadville Theological School, at 
 Meadville, Pa., was chartered in 1846, and 
 organized in 1847. In 1876 — 7, it had 4 res- 
 ident and 3 non-resident professors, 12 students, 
 and a library of 12,000 volumes. Unitarians 
 have a share likewise in the control of Antioch 
 College, Yellow Springs, Ohio. 
 
 UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST 823 
 
 UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST. 
 
 This church was founded by Philipp Wilhelni 
 Otterbein, a minister of the German Reformed 
 Church, who was born .lime 4., 1726, at Dillen- 
 linrg, Germany, and, in 1752, came to the United 
 States, being one of the six young men who ac- 
 companied the Rev. Michael Schlatter, the 
 pioneer missionary of the German 1,'eformed 
 Church. (See Reformed Church.) The church 
 which owes its foundation to him, originated in 
 no doctrinal disputes, but was the result of the 
 growth of vital piety in individual members. 
 The name arose from the circumstance that, at 
 a great revival meeting, when both Otterbein 
 and Martin Boehm. a minister ot the Mennonites, 
 were preaching, Otterbein clasped Boehm in his 
 arms, with the words, " We arc brethren." In 
 L800, the words -in Christ" were added to 
 •• United Brethren," in order to distinguish the 
 church from the Moravians, who were also 
 called United Brethren. The church, in 1876, 
 had, in 43 annual conferences. 1,952 ministers 
 and L43.88] members. — When Otterbein, in 
 1774, organized, in Baltimore, an independent 
 church, wdiose doctrines and discipline, with 
 some slight modifications, became the doctrines 
 and discipline of the United Brethren in Christ, 
 one of the articles of the church provided for 
 the establishment of a German school. The 
 fathers of the church had, for a long time, 
 serious doubts about the expediency of establish- 
 ing denominational institutions for higher edu- 
 cation ; but, in L845, the General Conference 
 almost unanimously resolved " that proper meas- 
 ures be adopted to establish an institution of 
 learning." In 1846, the Scioto Annual Con- 
 ference appointed a committee to purchase from 
 the Methodist Kpiscopal Church the Blendon 
 Young Men's Seminary, at Westerville, O., and 
 thus, Otterbein University (q.v.).the first col- 
 lege of the church, was established. In 1847, 
 the Allegheny Conference resolved to establish 
 an institution at Mount Pleasant. Pa., or Johns- 
 town. It was finally located at Mount Pleas- 
 ant ; but, in l*5s, the buildings were sold, and 
 the interests transferred to Otterbein University. 
 The seed thus planted rapidly took root. In ad- 
 dition to the institution already mentioned, the 
 following have since been established : Harts- 
 ville University, Hartsville, Ind. (1851) ; West- 
 ern College. Western, Iowa (1856); Westfield 
 College. Westfield. 111. (1S65); Green Hill Sem- 
 inary, Poolsville. Jnd. (1869); Avalon Academy, 
 Avalon. Mo. (1869); Smithville High School, 
 Snuthville, O. ; Roanoke Classical Seminary, 
 Roanoke. Ind. (1869); Lebanon Valley College. 
 Lebanon, Pa. (1866); Lane University. Lecomp- 
 toti.Kan.; Philomath College. Philomath.* Iregon; 
 and KIroy Seminary, Elrov. Wis. (1874). The ag- 
 gregate number of students in these institutions, 
 during the year 1875 — 6, was over 1,000 males, 
 of whom about 125 were preparing for the 
 ministry, and about 600 females ; the wholo 
 number, since their foundation, is about 15,000; 
 and the total number of graduates, 300. The 
 aggregate number of volumes in their libraries 
 
24 UNITED BRETHREN IN CHRIST UNITED EVANGELICAL CHURCH 
 
 was 6,000; the endowment funds, collected and 
 promised, amounted to §300,000. Co-education 
 of the sexes has been the uniform rule in all the 
 institutions of the church. As the fathers of 
 the church had an impression that college edu- 
 cation had a tendency to make men indolent, 
 they connected a man mil labor i/ijuir/meHtv/ith 
 two or more of the institutions ; but the project 
 was soon found to be impracticable, and was, 
 consequently, abandoned. — A still greater op- 
 position than to the establishment of denomina- 
 tional colleges and high schools, was, for a long 
 time, made to the establishment of theological 
 schools. The opponents of these schools took 
 the ground that men cannot and should not be 
 "trained for the ministry," and the special 
 schools of theology were represented by them as 
 " priest factories." This feeling, however, has 
 gradually lost ground, and has now almost died 
 away. In 1847, the Allegheny Conference re- 
 solved that thereafter " a good theoretical and 
 practical knowledge of English grammar, a gen- 
 eral knowledge of geography, history (profane 
 and ecclesiastical, ancient and modern), and 
 theology should be a test for admission into the 
 itinerancy." Soon after, a " course of reading for 
 applicants to the ministry" was provided ; and 
 they were annually examined upon this, and pro- 
 moted and ordained, provided their progress 
 would permit. This course was enlarged and im- 
 proved from year to year, and is still the policy 
 of the church. In 1865, the bishops, in their report 
 to the General Conference, suggested that some 
 plan superior, if possible, to the present " course 
 of reading" and imperfect method of examina- 
 tion, should be adopted, and enjoined upon the 
 conferences. The committee of the » ieneral < !< in- 
 ference on education reported in favor of recom- 
 mending to the trustees of Otterbein University 
 the propriety of connecting with that institution 
 a theological department as soon as practicable ; 
 but, as this plan appeared to many too radical 
 an innovation, the General Conference com- 
 promised on a recommendation to the trustees 
 of the several colleges to connect with these 
 schools biblical <:/-iss"x, embracing the course 
 of reading recommended in the discipline of the 
 church. In 1869, the General Conference ar- 
 ranged for a board of education, and instructed 
 this board to establish a Biblical Institute. In 
 1871, this school was opened at Dayton, 0., un- 
 der the name of the Union Biblical Seminary. 
 The sentiment in favor of a theological school 
 increased so rapidly, that by the meeting of the 
 General Conference, in 1873, every one of the 
 annual conferences had endorsed it. Aboard 
 of education was appointed in 1873. It is to 
 make annual reports of the condition of the 
 educational work of the church, with such rec- 
 ommendations as may seem best for all its in- 
 terests. The United Brethren have a well- 
 oigainV.ed Sabbath-scl I department. The num- 
 ber of Sabbath schools, in 1876, was 2,854, 
 with 163,43!) pupils, officers, and teachers. The 
 denominational book concern in Dayton, 0., 
 publishes several periodicals, specially adapted 
 
 to Sabbath schools. Nearly every conference 
 is connected with some one of the colleges, 
 and aids in its maintenance. A collection is 
 annually taken up in each church for gen- 
 eral educational purposes; while the colleges, 
 through instrumentalities of their own appoint- 
 ment, are annually adding to their resources. 
 The number of students in attendance is in- 
 creasing ; the ministers are making better prep- 
 arations for their work ; and the college gradu- 
 ates occupy influential positions in the church. 
 Much of the credit of the educational progress 
 of the church is due to the Rev. Lewis Davis, 
 I). I)., for eighteen years president of Otterbein 
 University, and now ( 1 s77) senior professor in 
 the Union Biblical Seminary. 
 
 UNITED EVANGELICAL CHURCH, 
 the name of a Protestant state church in Prus- 
 sia and most of the German states. It was 
 formed, in 1817, by the union of the Lutheran 
 and Reformed churches; and, in 1871, the en- 
 tire population formerly connected with those 
 churches, except about 60,000 Lutherans, be- 
 longed to it. Although the church has now 
 been in existence for more than half a century, 
 there is still a very great diversity in the views 
 entertained in regard to the nature and extent 
 of the Union. A large portion of the Luther- 
 ans, in particular, look upon it not as a new 
 church, but merely as an administrative con- 
 federation of the existing Lutheran and Re- 
 formed churches. The church in Prussia was 
 wdiolly under the administration of consistories 
 appointed by the state until 1874, when the 
 government began to carry into effect the prin- 
 ciple of ecclesiastical self-government, by circle, 
 provincial, and national synods.— As the recog- 
 nized state church in Prussia and other German 
 states, the United Evangelical Church co-oper- 
 ates with the government, to a very large 
 extent, in the control of primary, and, to some 
 extent, also, in that of secondary schools. (See 
 Germany.) The faculties of Protestant theol- 
 ogy (see Theological Schools) in all the Ger- 
 man universities, except Rostock, Leipsic, and 
 Erlangen, are in official connection with this 
 church ; and it is universally admitted that, 
 through them, the church has theological learn- 
 ing at its command not surpassed by that of 
 any other church. — Besides the theological facul- 
 ties, through which candidates for the ministry 
 receive their scientific education, the church has 
 established a number of preachers' seminaries, 
 some of which are connected with the theo- 
 logical faculties, while others are independent of 
 them. — The church, during the short period of its 
 existence, has displayed a remarkable zeal in the es- 
 tablishment of reformatory sch< >< 'Is. aim >ng which 
 theSaukes Haus, founded by J. H.Wichern, now 
 a member of the Supreme Ecclesiastical Council 
 of Merlin. Ins gained a world-wide reputation, 
 and served as a model for numerous other insti- 
 tutions in and out of Germany. Another of the in- 
 institutions which owe their origin to thischurch, 
 is that of the Protestant deaconesses, founded by 
 Dr. Flieduer, in Kaiserswerth, who, though chiefly 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 S25 
 
 devoted to the nursing of the sick, are also con- I 
 ducting a number of reformatory, industrial, 
 and missionary schools. — In Europe, the United 
 Evangelical Church is confined to Germany; 
 but, in 1840, a branch was established in the 
 United States, which, in 1874, had 300 ministers 
 and 10,000 communicants. The German lan- 
 guage is still exclusively used in all the congre- 
 gations. The church has a theological seminary ] 
 in Wan-en Co.. Mo., and another educational 
 institution at Ehnhurst, 111. 
 
 UNITED STATES of America, the must 
 powerful nation of the Western Hemisphere, and 
 the largest republic in the world, having an area 
 of more than 3,600,000 sq. m.. and a population, 
 according to the last decennial census, in 1870, 
 of 38,925,598, consisting of 33,592.245 whites. 
 4,886.387 colored persons, 03,254 Chinese, and 
 383,712 Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The character of the i 
 early colonists of North America, courageous, 
 independent, and intolerant of oppression, would 
 of itself furnish presumptive evidence that the 
 cause of education in the New World was not 
 neglected. Positive evidence on this point, how- 
 ever, is not wanting. The earliest records of the 
 colonies attest the solicitude of the settlers for 
 the proper instruction of their children. This 
 is particularly true of the New England colonies ; 
 and a forcible illustration of it is afforded in the | 
 early school legislation of Massachusetts, partic- 
 ularly in its famous school law of 1647. (See 
 Massachusetts.) A comparison of this law, 
 which enunciates, as an important principle, the 
 joint obligation of the family and the state to 
 provide an education for the young, with the 
 school legislation of the foremost European 
 countries in the 18th century, entitles Massa- 
 chusetts to a place in the front rank among the 
 enlightened communities of that period. The 
 history of some of the other colonies presents 
 facts equally interesting and creditable. The 
 most striking feature of the colonial school sys- 
 tems was the connection of the school with the 
 church, the clergyman, in many cases, being the 
 school-master. The Puritans, the Huguenots, 
 the Cavaliers, the Dutch settlers, and others 
 brought this principle with them to their new 
 homes; and the strength of their religious con- 
 victions tended to perpetuate it. (Fora fuller ac- 
 count of the educational history of the colonies, 
 see the articles on the thirteen original states.) — 
 When the independence of the United States 
 was established, education was not among the 
 subjects which were committed to the control of 
 the national government ; but each individual 
 state engaged, in its own way, in the work of 
 establishing and developing an educational sys- 
 tem. Massachusetts, in the new constitution of 
 1780, and Connecticut, by its establishment of 
 a school fund, in 1705. re-asserted the principles 
 which had been proclaimed in the 17th century. 
 and made it the duty of legislatures and magis- 
 trates to cherish the interests of public schools, 
 grammar schools, colleges, and universities. New 
 Hampshire, when amending its constitution in 
 
 1784, expressed its entire concurrence in the 
 constitution of Massachusetts ; and Vermont, in 
 1793, declared that asufficient number of schools 
 should be maintained in every town. Rhode Is- 
 land, which remained under the colonial charter 
 until 1840, and Maine, which was admitted into 
 the Union in 1820, have since indorsed the same 
 principles ; so that the people of New England 
 may be said to have been unanimous in their 
 views ami in their legislation on the subject of 
 public education. In' New York, the progress of 
 the common-school system was not so rapid as 
 in New England. The constitution of 1777 
 made an allusion to schools; but, in 1785, the 
 legislature created the Board of Regents of the 
 University of the State, designed to promote the 
 establishment of academies and colleges ; and. in 
 1795, Governor George Clinton laid the founda- 
 tion of the common-school system, of which 
 Horace Mann, in 1845, could say, "the great 
 state of New York, by means of her county 
 superintendents, state normal school, and other- 
 wise, is carrying forward the work of education 
 more rapidly than any other state in the Union, 
 or any other country in the world." Pennsyl- 
 vania, in 1 790, required the legislature to pro- 
 vide for the establishment of schools throughout. 
 the state, in such a maimer, that the poor might 
 be taught gratis. New Jersey, in 1816, created 
 a school fund, but a general system of state. 
 county, and town supervision was not adopted 
 until 1846. The new states of the North-West 
 and on the Pacific have each built up a common- 
 school system on the New England basis ; and 
 the plan includes, in every state except Ohio, a 
 university or high seminary of learning. In the 
 southern states of the Union, the progress of 
 educational institutions has been less satisfactory. 
 Thomas Jefferson, in 1779, drafted a bill pro- 
 viding a public-scl 1 system for Virginia, but 
 
 it was not adopted til 1796, and then with a pro- 
 viso which "completely defeated it." 'Hie con- 
 stitution of 1851 applied one equal moiety of 
 the capitation tax upon white persons to the 
 purposes of education in primary and free 
 schools; but, neither in Virginia, nor in any other 
 Southern state, were there schools, of any grade, 
 which could compete, in number or efficiency, 
 with the best schools of the North. When the 
 civil war broke out. in 1861, several of the 
 Southern states were still entirely without any 
 system of common schools. The rapid growth of 
 the slave population for which no education was 
 provided, placed the Southern states among the 
 most illiterate countries of Christendom. After 
 the close of the civil war, school systems rapidly 
 developed in that section, most of them fully rec- 
 ognizing the essential principles of free popular 
 education. Virginia. Tennessee. Kentucky, and 
 Missouri have Cspecially made progress in the 
 organization of effective systems of public in- 
 struction ; while, in most of the others, consider- 
 able progress has been made. — At the time of 
 the Declaration of Independence, the schools of 
 New England generally, and the great majority 
 of the schools in the other original states, were 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 of an exclusively Protest ant character ; and the 
 reading of the authorized version of the Bible, the 
 singing of hymns, the saying of the Lord's Prayer, 
 or other religious services, at the teacher's dis- 
 cretion, constituted a part of the scholastic ex- 
 ercises. When the vast influx of Irish ami ( icrman 
 immigrants had given to many of the states a 
 numerous Roman Catholic population, two ob- 
 jections were raised to the prevailing school sys- 
 tem. Protesting against Catholic pupils' being 
 obliged to listen to the reading of a sectarian ver- 
 sion of the Bible, and to the use of hymns and 
 forms of prayer not sanctioned by their Church, 
 and arguing that, according to the principles of 
 the Catholic Church, religious and secular instruc- 
 tion should go hand in hand, the Catholics asked 
 for a division of the school fund, and thus com- 
 menced a heated controversy which is not yet 
 ended. (See Denominational Schools.) This agi- 
 tation has, on the one hand, led to the abandon- 
 ment of all religious exercises in the public 
 schools, except the reading of the Bible without 
 note or comment; and even this now meets with 
 considerable opposition, and, in some places, has 
 been abolished. (See Bible.) On the other hand, 
 the expression of public opinion has been very 
 decided against the support of denominational 
 schools by public moneys, and in favor of the 
 continued support and encouragement of the 
 common-school system on a free secular basis. 
 The president of the United States, in his mes- 
 sage to ('.ingress. Dec. 7.. 1ST."), advised, "that a 
 Constitutional amendment be submitted to the 
 legislatures of the several states for ratification, 
 making it the duty of each of the several states, 
 to establish and forever maintain full public 
 schools, adequate to the education of all the 
 children in rudimentary branches, within their 
 respective limits, irrespective of sex, color, birth- 
 place, or religion ; forbidding the teaching, in 
 said schools, of religious, atheistic, or pagan ten- 
 ets, and prohibiting the granting of any school 
 fund or school taxes, or any part thereof, either 
 by legislative, municipal, or other authority, for 
 the benefit or in aid, directly or indirectly, of 
 any religious sect or denomination" ; but this 
 recommendation was not acted on. Properly 
 speaking, the United States has no public-school 
 system, the function performed by the general 
 government having always been that of fostering 
 public education without assuming any control 
 of it. i See Bureau op Education.) 
 
 Congressional Land Grants. — The earliest 
 action of this nature, was that of the ordinance 
 for the government of the North-West Ter- 
 ritory, passed in 1 785. By this the sixteenth 
 section (one square mile) in every township 
 was set apart for the maintenance of common 
 .schools, this action being accompanied with the 
 declaration that " religion, morality, and knowl- 
 edge being necessary to good government and 
 the happiness of mankind. schools and the means 
 of education shall be forever encouraged." The 
 states which have received the Kith section under 
 this law, are Ohio, Louisiana, Indiana, Missis- 
 sippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, Missouri, Ar- 
 
 kansas, Michigan, Florida, Iowa, Texas, and 
 Wisconsin. In 1787, this ordinance was re- 
 newed, and the grant was increased by two town- 
 ships of land to be given to each state "for the 
 purpose of a university." In 1789, after the 
 adoption of the federal constitution, this or- 
 dinance was confirmed ; and, accordingly, every 
 slate that has been organized since the begin- 
 ning of the present century, has received at least 
 two townships for the encouragement of higher 
 education, while Ohio received three — one while 
 in its territorial condition, and two as a state; 
 and Florida and Wisconsin each received four. 
 In L806, the first appropriation was made for 
 the education of the Indians ; and, from that 
 time to 1870, the sum expended for this purpose 
 has been §8,000.(1(10. In 183(i, the surplus fund 
 in the United States Treasury, amounting to 
 about §15,000,000 was loaned indefinitely to the 
 older states for educational purposes; and, in 
 many, this now constitutes a permanent school 
 fund (United States Deposit fund). By the 
 act of 1841, sixteen states have received each 
 500,000 acres of land, as follows : Alabama. Ar- 
 kansas, California. Florida. Illinois, Iowa, Kan- 
 sas, Louisiana. Michigan. Minnesota, Mississippi, 
 Missouri, Nebraska. Nevada, Oregon, and Wis- 
 consin. A large portion of the proceeds of the sale 
 of these lands was devoted to common-school pur- 
 poses. From the beginning of the present century 
 down to 1848, each state admitted into the 
 Union has received the 10th section for the sup- 
 port of common schools. In that year, the 3b'th 
 section was a Ided to the Kith for the same pur- 
 pose, the territory of Oregon being the first to 
 receive it. Since that time, each new territory 
 and state has received two sections. Under the 
 acts of 184JI, 1850, and 1800,apart of the public 
 domain, amounting to 62,428,413 acres known 
 as "swamp lands", was given to the states of 
 Alabama, Arkansas, California. Florida. Illinois, 
 Indiana, Iowa, Louisiana. Michigan, Minnesota, 
 Mississippi, Missouri. Ohio, and Wisconsin. A 
 portion of the proceeds of this land, also, was 
 devoted to the cause of education. The land 
 granted by the general government, from 1785 
 to 1862, amounts to nearly 140,000,00(1 acres; 
 the proceeds of nearly all of which have been 
 devoted to school purposes. In 18(!2, a further 
 grant was made, each state receiving 30,000 
 acres for each senator and representative in 
 Congress, the amount derived from the sale of 
 such lands to be converted into a perpetual 
 fund for the maintenance of at least one college 
 in each state, in which the distinctive object 
 should be. "without excluding other scientific 
 and classical studies, and including military 
 tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are 
 related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, in 
 such manner as the legislatures of the states may 
 respectively prescribe, in order to promote the 
 liberal and practical education of the industrial 
 classes in the several pursuits and professions of 
 life." The amount, of land subject to the dis- 
 posal of the states by this law. is 9,510,000 acres. 
 Thirty-seven states have thus far (1877) taken 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 827 
 
 advantage of the liberal provisions of this law ; 
 and many institutions have been opened, in most 
 cases, independently, but in some, as departments 
 of colleges or universities existing at the time. 
 These are the institutions usually known as 
 agricultural colleges; though erroneously, since 
 the law for their foundation does not exclude 
 classical studies, hut expressly declares that the 
 intention of the Government is to promote the 
 "liberal" as well as practical education of the in- 
 dustrial classes. (See Agricultural Colleges.) 
 
 Bureau of Education, etc. — In 1867, the na- 
 tional bureau was established "for the purpose of 
 collecting such statistics and facts as shall show the 
 condition and progress of education, in the several 
 states and territories, and of diffusing such in- 
 formation respecting the organization and man- 
 agement of sell. ml systems and methods of teach- 
 ing as shall aid the people of the United States 
 in the establishment and maintenance of efficient 
 school systems, and otherwise promote the cause 
 of education throughout the country." (See 
 Bureau of Education-.) — In 1865, the Freed- 
 men's Bureau was established by the government, 
 for the purpose of watching over the interests of 
 4.000,001) slaves freed by the proclamation of 
 emancipation, and preparing them for citizen- 
 ship. In 1869, the Bureau was abolished, ex- 
 cept the educational department, which was con- 
 tinued till 1870. The result of its five years' 
 work has been the establishment of many in- 
 stitutions for the superior instruction of the 
 freedmen in the Southern States, mention of 
 which is made under their respective titles. The 
 field abandoned by it has since been occupied 
 by several societies and associations, chiefly re- 
 ligious. (See Freedmbn's Schools.) 
 
 Free-School Systems. The idea of providing 
 public instruction' for all children at the expense 
 of the community is by no means novel, for we 
 find it in the celebrated school law of Massachu- 
 setts, already referred to ; but the complete pre- 
 dominance of the principle is a fact of recent 
 date. In 1*05. rate-bills were in use in 
 New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, Rhode 
 Island, and Michigan; but a vigorous agitation 
 against this system ensued; and, in 1871, 
 the rate-bill had entirely disappeard. But 
 while free common schools are now found 
 throughout the American I'nion. and the citizens 
 may be said to be practically unanimous in their 
 support, a radical difference of opinion continues 
 to prevail in regard to the extension which 
 should be given to the application of the system. 
 While in many states secondary and even su- 
 perior schools are included within the plan, the 
 restriction of state support to elementary schools 
 has many supporters. — In the New England 
 states, in Illinois, Indiana, Iowa. Missouri. Ohio, 
 and some other states, the township has always 
 been the political unit upon which has devolved 
 the obligation to make provision for education ; 
 but, in most of the states, the township, for a 
 time, almost disappeared as an element in the 
 organization of the school system, the only di- 
 visions being (1) the county, and (2) the 
 
 school-districts into which the county was divid- 
 ed. After an extended trial of the district 
 system, most of the states have re-organized their 
 school systems on the township plan. 1 hi town- 
 ship schools are under the control ot local boards 
 which are variously styled school committees, 
 school visitors, school directors, school trustees, 
 school commissioners, school boards, and pru- 
 dential committees. These boards are generally 
 elected by the people, but in some <;,>,>. 1 1 1. \ are 
 appointed by the governor of the state. Of 
 late, compulsory education laws have been passed 
 in a number of the states : but while the principle 
 appeal's to gain favor, it is found to be difficult 
 to enforce the laws. Twenty-three states, in 
 1875, had each a state board of education for 
 the general regulation of their public school 
 system.- : and ail the states and territories (Dela- 
 ware, since 1875) have state superintendents of 
 public schools.— The expenses for the support of 
 the public schools are defrayed (1) from state 
 school funds (in 1875. $81;486,158 in the states, 
 and $323,236 in the territories), accumulated, 
 for the most part, from Dational grants of lands 
 and from appropriations made, from time to 
 time, by tile state legislatures; (2) from state 
 school taxes, which are raised in a majority of 
 the states, and apportioned among the school 
 districts; and (3) chiefly from local taxes. To 
 these regular sources of income, must be added 
 another which occupies an important position in 
 the school finances ; that is (4) donations. The 
 total income of the states, according to the report 
 of the Commissioner of Education for 1875, was 
 $87,527,278, and of the territories. $1,121,672. 
 There is an immense difference in the amount 
 of expenditure for the schools of different states, 
 ranging from S-- /«•/■ vtrpittioi the school popu- 
 lation, in some states, to $1 in Florida. Virginia, 
 South Carolina. Tennessee, and ( Georgia. In the 
 number and amount of gifts for the promotion of 
 learning, this country is unequaled by any other 
 on the globe. In 187;"), the sum total of donations 
 reported to the Bureau of Education in Wash- 
 ington was .$4,120,502 ; in 1874, §0,053,304 ; in 
 1872, $11,226,977.— The total school population 
 of the states and territories amounted, in 1875, 
 to 14,007,522. The number enrolled, which in 
 the public schools naturally comprises chiefly the 
 population between the ages of 5 or 6 and 15. was 
 8,756,659;theaveragedailyattendance, 1,251,808. 
 The private schools in the states, as far as they 
 were heard from, reported 180.635 pupils. In 
 the northern and western states, there are but 
 few native American children who do not attend 
 school during any part of their lives; and. in most 
 of these states, the enrollment of children (includ- 
 ing those of private schools) exceeds the whole 
 number between the ages of 5 and 15. (For detailed 
 statistics, see School Census.) — The total num- 
 ber of teachers reported in 1875, was 249,262, a 
 large majority of whom were females. The 
 necessity of schools for training teachers is 
 of comparatively recent recognition, but now 
 the number of normal schools is rapidly increas- 
 ing. (See Teachers' Seminaries.) They are sup- 
 
828 
 
 UNITED .STATES 
 
 plemented especially by Teachers' Institutes, 
 which have become a prominent and universal 
 feature of the American school system. The 
 highest average monthly compensation of male 
 teachers is $113 (in Massachusetts), the lowest 
 S27 (in Alabama); the highest compensation of 
 female teachers $100 (in Arizona); the lowest in 
 Maine, $18. Alabama,. Delaware, Kentucky, 
 Nevada, and Texas report the same payment 
 of salaries for male and female teachers. 
 
 Grades of Instruction. — The division of 
 schools into the three grades of primary, sec- 
 ondary, and superior schools does not fully cor- 
 respond, in the United States, to that usual in 
 most of the European states. American colleges 
 and universities, which are designated as superior 
 schools, correspond, on the whole, to the higher 
 classes of the gymnasium rather than to the 
 university of continental Europe. (See Col- 
 lege, and University.) The boundary line 
 between secondary and primary schools is not 
 sharply drawn; and the difference in the names 
 applied in different states and cities to the sub- 
 divisions of elementary schools renders an 
 account of primary and secondary instruction of 
 the United States' exceedingly difficult. In New 
 York < 'ity, the elementary schools are divided in- 
 to primary and grammar departments. In Phila- 
 delphia, the schools are divided into four grades 
 or departments. — primary, secondary, grammar, 
 and high. In Boston, Cleveland, and Chicago, 
 tin- departments of the schools are high, grammar, 
 and primary: in Cincinnati, they are known as 
 high, intermediate, and district; and in St. Louis 
 as high, normal, and district. In nearly all the 
 cities, the several departments of elementary in- 
 struction are divided into grades; and, even 
 in the smaller towns, grading is quite commonly 
 adopted, though some states report that the prog- 
 ress of the grading system is but slow. The 
 kindergarten is rapidly gaining favor as an insti- 
 tution for preparing young children for the pri- 
 mary school; and. at the close of 1875, the num- 
 ber was reported as 95, against 42 in 1873, with 
 2,809 pupils, against 1,272 in 1873.— Within the 
 last twenty years, the public high school, both for 
 boys and girls, has become the favorite method 
 of securing secondary instruction ; and, in the 
 western states, it is now almost the exclusive 
 method. (See High Schools.) In Michigan and 
 Indiana, the public high schools already have 
 a recognized position as proper feeders of the 
 freshman classes in the universities of these two 
 states; and several others of the western states 
 are taking measures to adopt the same system ; 
 while, throughout the eastern states, the public 
 high school is supplying a demand which 
 it is beyond the power of the endowed or tuition 
 schools, usually known as academics, to meet. 
 In New York and Maine, an alliance has been 
 effected between a number of academies and the 
 state and city systems, and the same is now at- 
 tempted in Texas. The total number of sec- 
 ondary (endowed or tuition) schools reported to 
 the Bureau of Education, at Washington, in 1S71 , 
 was 638, with 80,227 pupils ; in 1873, 944, with 
 
 118,570 pupils ; in 1875, 1,143 with 108,235 pu- 
 pils. Of the 1,143 institutions, in 1875, there 
 were 215 for boys, 311 for girls, and 617 for 
 boys and girls together. The number of prepara- 
 tory schools reported in 1875 was 102, with 12. '.154 
 pupils. The schools for the superior instruction 
 of women have increased with a rapidity which 
 is one of the most marked features of the edu- 
 cational progress of the United States. The 
 number of institutions rose from 33 in 1870 to 
 222 in 1875 ; the number of teachers, from 378 
 to 2,405 ; the number of pupils, from 5,337 to 
 23,795. The aggregate number of graduates in 
 1875 was 17,379; and the number of degrees 
 conferred, 490. — The number of universities and 
 colleges is also rapidly increasing, being, in 
 1875, 355, against 266 in 1870. The number of 
 instructors, in the same time, rose from 2,823 to 
 3.999; and of pupils, from 49.163 to 58,894. An 
 elevation of the standard for admission was 
 proposed, in 1873, by some of the leading col- 
 leges, and has since made considerable progress. 
 There is, at the same time, a strong disposition 
 to relinquish the rigid uniformity of the old 
 college curriculum, and to allow the pupils a 
 greater liberty in the selection of their studies. 
 An organization for holding annual intercol- 
 legiate contests in oratory was formed, in 1874, 
 in Illinois; and, in 1875, a kindred association 
 was organized among the students of some of 
 the eastern colleges. (See College.) 
 
 / 'rqfessional and Special Schools.— All classes 
 of professional schools are now increasing in the 
 United States with great rapidity. In 1870, 
 there were 17 schools of science, with 1,413 stu- 
 dents; while, in 1875, there were 74, with 7,157 
 students. The schools of theology, in the same 
 period, increased, from 80, with 3.254 students, to 
 123, with 5.234 students ; the law schools, from 
 28 to 43; the schools of medicine, from 63 to 106. 
 There were, in 1875, also 41 institutions for the 
 deaf and dumb, with 5,087 pupils; 29 institu- 
 tions for the blind, with 2.054 pupils; 154 or- 
 phan asylums, with 14.118 inmates; 17 soldiers' 
 orphans' homes, with 2,382 inmates; 12 infant 
 asylums, with 2,816 infants; 24 industrial 
 schools, with 5,268 inmates; 47 reform schools, 
 with 8,111 male and 2,559 female inmates. 
 (For a fuller account of these institutions, see 
 the articles Agricultural Colleges, Blind, 
 Education of the, Deaf-Mutes, Industrial, 
 Schools, Law Schools, Medical Schools, Or- 
 phan Asylums, Pharmaceutical Schools, Re- 
 form Schools, Scientific Schools, and Theo- 
 logical Schools.) 
 
 Educational Periodicals. — A list of all the 
 educational periodicals which appeared after 
 1811 and prior to 1865, is given in Barnard's 
 Journal qf Education, 1865. In 1876. 116 edu- 
 cational periodicals were issued in different parts 
 of the Union. 
 
 Literature. — One of the most valuable sources 
 of information for the history of education in 
 America is Barnard's American Journal of 
 E,l,„;,iio„ (begun in 1856 ; 24th vol.,1876). Since 
 1867, the official reports published by the U. S. 
 
UNIVERSALISTS 
 
 Bureau of Education present the material for 
 a knowledge of the educational condition of the 
 country with a completeness which leaves little to 
 be desired, and are worthy of a comparison with 
 the official publications of any country of Eu- 
 rope. See also (in. max. Education in America, 
 1776—1876, in North American Review, 1876; 
 Lawrence, Educational Progress, in Harper's 
 Monthly, Nov., 1875. Ajnong foreign works 
 on education in the United States may be men- 
 tioned the report made to the English government 
 by the Rev. James Fraser, who, in 18(55, spent six 
 months in studying the educational institutions of 
 the country; Lwai.i \r. /.' /,■(.<■'/■»■ //■// < ■/«/■. »/..'. .• 
 Hippeau, L'Instruclion publique aux tUats 
 Unit; Wimmer, Die Kirche und die Schide in 
 2ford-Amerika(Lsiipa.,18a3);Si hut. Amerika, 
 
 ill,' jiil/i/ise/,eii, s,iei,ll. II inn! hii-rl, i "' ' . ; ; 
 
 Zustande (Berlin, 1854) : l>n,,v. Ueber Mule, 
 deutsche Schide, amerikanische Sell ■ und 
 deittsch-canerikanische Schule (Leips., 1866); 
 Troschel, Vblkscharakter und Bildungsanstal- 
 
 ten der Xiirilmiii-rikiiiirr I Berlin. l.siiT): I-'iivn- 
 cis Adams, The. Free School System of Ae 
 United States (London, 1875) ; Rio.:. National 
 Education (London, 1873). — On the peculiar 
 features of the American school system, see A 
 Statement of the Theory cf Education in the 
 United St ,/,,<,/ America (Washington. Is74b 
 
 UNIVERSALISTS are distinguished from 
 other Christians by their belief in the final sal- 
 vation of all human souls. Rev. John Murray, 
 who came from England in 1770. is regarded as 
 the founder of the denomination in this coun- 
 try ; but no general denominational organization 
 -was made until 1785. The organization and 
 government of the body are essentially congre- 
 gational. Societies and churches are in many 
 respects independent. The present organized 
 strength of the denomination is exhibited in the 
 following summary for the United States and 
 Canada : 1 general convention ; 22 state con- 
 ventions ; 69 associations ; 880 parishes, em- 
 bracing 41.029 families; 656 church organiza- 
 tions, having 32,947 members ; 640 Sunday- 
 schools, having 59,463 teachers and pupils ; 756 
 church edifices, with a property, above indebted- 
 ness, of $7,465,495 ; and 706 ministers, includ- 
 ing licentiates and the superannuated. The 
 early preachers of the denomination were not 
 generally men of liberal education. They even 
 looked with distrust upon colleges and divinity 
 schools, because of the support which these in- 
 stitutions gave, directly or indirectly, to religious 
 doctrines, which Universalists deemed false and 
 pernicious in their influence. The free-school 
 system of instruction received, however, the 
 hearty approval of the growing denomination, as 
 being in perfect harmony with its cherished be- 
 lief in the common nature and common destiny 
 of man. Universalists have ever, therefore, been 
 steadfast and zealous in their defense and sup- 
 port of common schools. Many faithful and 
 laborious school superintendents and teachers 
 are found among the clergy and educated lay- 
 men. They would retain the Bible in the schools, 
 
 but would be unwilling that it should be used and 
 interpreted in the special interest of any denomina- 
 tion. They would have education Christian, but 
 not narrowly sectarian. In the first efforts of 
 Universalists to establish schools under their 
 control and patronage, thev were mainly desirous 
 of founding institutions which, while tliey should 
 be Christian, should be kept free from obnoxious 
 religious teachings and hurtful superstitions. 
 Thev detested illiheralit y and bigotry, and were 
 tardy,. perhaps, in comprehending the full duty 
 which, in the matter of education, a Christian 
 denomination owes alike to itself, to the church, 
 and to the world. In later years, they have 
 manifested much interest and zeal in founding 
 and endowing denominational schools. In not a 
 few cases, schools have been commenced and 
 continued fora time, and then closed from lack 
 of patronage or endowments. Sometimes, enter- 
 prises begun have been merged in others that 
 promised a higher and better success. As the 
 result of many efforts. — some abortive, and 
 others partially successful. — Universalists have 
 now under their control, seven academies, five 
 colleges, and two divinity schools. — The first 
 successful movement to found an institution of 
 learning, was made in the state of Maine in 1830, 
 under the guidance of the Rev.Wm. A. Drew, and 
 the Rev. S. lirimblecoin. men of high culture, and 
 experienced teachers. It resulted in the incor- 
 poration ot Westbrook Seminary, in 1831, and 
 in the opening of a school for both sexes, under 
 the instruction of the Rev. 8. Brimblecom, in 
 1834. After many struggles, the seminary was 
 permanently established, and its accommodations 
 were made ample. It has earned and enjoys a wide 
 reputation. The female department is collegiate 
 in character, and degrees are conferred upon 
 female graduates by state authority. In the same 
 year, ls.'ll. through the exertions of the Rev. 
 Stephen R. Smith. Clinton Liberal Institute was 
 incorporated, in the state of New York, and 
 funds were raised to erect a suitable building. It 
 was opened for both sexes in 1832. two years be- 
 fore the Westbrook Seminary was put in opera- 
 tion. It offers superior opportunities to students. 
 The female department occupies a separate 
 building. Loth departments have been effective 
 in educational work. Funds have recently been 
 raised to erect a large edifice for the accommoda- 
 tion of both sexes. The other academies of the 
 denomination are: in Vermont, the Green Mount- 
 ain Perkins Institute, incorporated in 1848, and 
 Goddard Seminary, chartered in 1863: in Mas- 
 sachusetts, 1 lean Academy, chartered in 1865; 
 in Wisconsin, Jefferson Liberal Institute, incor- 
 porated in 18(56; and. in Iowa. Mitchell Semi- 
 nary, chartered in 1871. Males and females are 
 admitted to all. The denomination has no acad- 
 emy for one sex only. Goddard Seminary 
 has a very pleasant location. The school build- 
 ing is large, of commanding architecture, and 
 affords excellent accommodations for students. 
 Bean Academy is. in its buildings and ap- 
 pointments, unsurpassed by any institution of 
 its grade in New England. Dr. Oliver Dean, 
 
UNIYERSALISTS 
 
 whose name it bears, left a large bequest for its 
 endowment. — Tufts College, in Massachusetts, 
 chartered in 1852, and organized under the Rev. 
 Hosea Ballou, 2d, D. 1)., its first president, in 
 1854, was the first college founded by Univers- 
 alists. Its appointments and courses of study- 
 are those of an American university. Lombard 
 University, in Illinois, was chartered as an acad- 
 emy, by the name of The Illinois liberal Insti- 
 tute, in 1851. It was opened for students in 
 1852, received college powers by legislative en- 
 actment in 1853, ;nid the name of Lombard 
 University, with university powers, in 1857. 
 St. Lawrence University, in Canton, N. Y.. was 
 chartered in 1856. Its collegiate department 
 was opened and placed under the charge of the 
 Rev. J. S. Lee, D. D., in 1859. The preparatory de- 
 partment was given up in I8fi4. IJuehtel College, 
 in Akron, Ohio (assets .-=:!0n,000) the Rev. S. H. 
 McCollester, P. D.. president, and Smithson Col- 
 lege in Indiana (assets SI 00,00(1) were chartered 
 in 1S71. They have elegant and commodious 
 buildings, with superior school accommodations. 
 — Before theological schools were instituted by 
 Universalists. young men desirous of entering 
 the ministry, were accustomed to avail them- 
 selves of the instruction and libraries of influen- 
 tial clergymen. The first theological school 
 known in the denomination, was the enterprise 
 of a single individual, and was temporary in its 
 duration. It was opened, in 1845. by the Rev. 
 Thomas J. Sawyer, D. D., at that time principal 
 of Clinton Liberal Institute. It was continued 
 by him till 1854, during which time about 25 
 students were carried through systematic courses 
 of theological study, and inducted into the 
 Christian ministry. Among them, are some of 
 the most highly esteemed clergymen of the order. 
 St. Lawrence Theological School, a department 
 of St. Lawrence University, was the first per- 
 manently established divinity school. It was 
 chartered in L856,and opened in 1858, underthe 
 charge of the Rev. Ebenezer Fisher, I> D., who 
 still continues in the position. It has a gooil 
 endowment, a large library. :! professors, and, at 
 the present time, has in attendance 25 students. 
 Tufts Divinity School, connected with Tufts< 'ol 
 lege, was chartered in 1x57. and organized in 1868, 
 — the Rev. Thomas J. Sawyer. I). D.. principal. 
 It has 4 regular professors, and 3 non-resident 
 professors or lecturers ; the present attendance 
 of students, is 33. — The amount of property de- 
 voted to denominational schools. — including acad- 
 emies, colleges, and divinitv schools, is estimated 
 at $2,385,000. The number of teachers con- 
 nected with them, is 99; and the number of 
 students, 1,036. — Sunday-schools— reported as 
 numbering 640 — are, as a rule, maintained in 
 connection with all the churches, and a deep in- 
 terest is fell and manifested in them. The at- 
 tendance of pupils is generally large, and the 
 classification complete. Instruction is made 
 easy and effective by the use of catechisms 
 adapted to pupils of different ages, uniform les- 
 son and other papers, and well-selected libraries. 
 State and other Sunday-school organizations, the 
 
 normal training of teachers, public meetings, 
 celebrations, exhibitions, and concerts manifest 
 and intensify the interest felt by young and old 
 in this class of schools, which are regarded as an 
 effective means of imparting religious instruc- 
 tion. There is. at the present time, no organiza- 
 tion called an education society, c ected with 
 
 the Universalist body of Christians : but each 
 ' state convention is. by constitutional provision, 
 required to devote special attention to the edu- 
 cational interests of the denomination, within its. 
 territorial limits, including Sunday-schools and 
 the best methods for their management ; and the 
 trustees of the General Convention are directed 
 to present in their annual report "a general 
 Statement as to the condition and wants of the 
 church, with respect to education and whatever 
 else concents its interests, with such suggestions 
 as they may deem proper." It is also provided 
 that "every school, academy, or college, main- 
 tained at its expense, or conducted under the 
 management of Universalists. shall send a copy 
 of its annual report to the secretary of the state 
 wherein it is situated, and to the secretary of its 
 convention. T he General Convention controls, 
 also, the expenditure of the income from the so- 
 called Murray Centenary Fund, of $120,000, 
 which is appropriated to aid in the education of 
 the clergy, and for other purposes connected 
 with the extension and upbuilding of the < hurch. 
 The amount of convention aid rendered to stu- 
 dents in 1876, was $7,200. The denomination 
 has been honored by the services of teachers 
 of distinguished ability, great experience, and 
 wide reputation. The Rev. T. Clowes, LL. D., 
 one of the early principals of Clinton Liberal 
 Institute was a superior scholar, and noted for 
 critical and learned research : the Rev. D. M. 
 Knapen is the author of a work on mathematics, 
 and Prof. George Robert Perkins, LL. D., the 
 author of valuable mathematical text-books. The 
 Rev. H. B. Maglathlin is known as the editor of 
 the Creenleaf series and of other mathematical 
 works. The Rev. Otis A . Skinner. I >. 1 >.. second 
 president of Lombard University, as a teacher, 
 and as a superintendent of schools, and for emi- 
 nent services in raising funds for the establish- 
 ment of Tufts ( 'ollege. is held in grateful re- 
 membrance. Prof. J. V. N. Standish, of Lom- 
 bard University, is widely known as a teacher 
 of mathematics, and as a conductor of teachers' 
 institutes. The Rev. J. S. Lee, 1 >. P.. a graduate 
 of Amherst < 'ollege. in 1845. has. in various ca- 
 pacities, given 28 years to educational work in 
 the Universalist denomination. The Rev. James 
 I". Weston. D.D., has, also, been 28 years a teacher 
 in denominational schools. The Rev. Alonzo A. 
 Miner. D.D., LLP., is distinguished as a divine 
 and a reformer, as well as a veteran educator. 
 Be opened, and successfully taught for several 
 years, the Unity Scientific Military Academy, and 
 was the second president of Tufts College, retain- 
 ing the position for 12 years. As a member of 
 the Massachusetts Board of Education, and as a 
 lecturer, he has also rendered valuable service to 
 the cause of education. 
 
rxiVF.iisnv 
 
 UNIVERSITY, a name first given, in the 
 middle ages, to institutions for superior instruc 
 tion. In" the second half of the 12th century, a 
 free union of students of medicine was forine.l 
 in Salerno (1150), ami another of students of 
 law in Bologna 1 1 L58). The students had equal 
 rights with the professors in these unions; 
 which soon attracted such crowds that, in 
 Bologna, the studies of medicine and theology 
 were added; and, in Salerno, those of law and 
 
 philosophy. 'Phis was the origin of the [em 
 
 European university. At the university of 
 Bologna, as well as at the universities of Padua 
 
 and Naples, which were early established, the 
 study of law remained predominant, ecclesias- 
 tical and secular bra •■/■ reta and leges, being 
 
 eagerly studied in order to obtain high oiliees in 
 church and state. — In Paris, a university arose 
 from the cathedral school, and, as the chief seat 
 of scholasticism, soon attained the rank of the 
 foremost university of western Europe. The 
 formation of nations and of faculties exerted 
 a decisive influence upon the further develop- 
 ment of the university. As scholars from all 
 parts of the Christian world flocked to Paris ' 
 in large numbers, and the government of the 
 state took no notice of them, they found it I 
 necessary to form national groups for the pur- 
 pose of self government. Thus, the four nations 
 of the Gallicans (including Spaniards. Italians. 
 Greeks, and Orientals), the Pieards. the Nor- 
 mans, and the English (including Germans and 
 
 Northmen) were for 1. The formation of 
 
 special faculties was caused by the Mendicants; 
 orders, which early recognized the importance of 
 the rising university, ami. as teachers of theology 
 and ecclesiastical law, assumed, in regard to the 
 nations, an independent position. In conse- 
 quence of the complications which were pro- 
 duced by their teaching, the professors of theol- 
 ogy (about 1270). and, somewhat later, those of 
 medicine and of ecclesiastical law, formed a 
 union, and in this way organized three distinct 
 faculties. The faculties represented, therefore, 
 special sciences ; while the four nations, as a 
 continuation and enlargement of the former 
 cathedral school, represented the Iriviwm and the 
 quadxivium, or the preparatory sciences. Fol- 
 lowing, at length, the example of the other facul- 
 ties, the nation* gradually transformed them- 
 selves into the faculty of the liberal arts, which, 
 for a time, occupied a position inferior to that 
 of the older faculties. These developments 
 made the university of Paris the great literary 
 center of Europe ; and, at times, it was attended 
 by more than 20,000 students. — In Germany, 
 the first university was founded by the emperor 
 Charles IV. at Prague, in 134-8. It was fol- 
 lowed, in the course of the 14th and 15th cent- 
 uries, by many others, as follows: that of Vien- 
 na (1365), Heidelberg (originallv founded in 
 134fi,but not opened until 1 3s(i). ( 'ologne (13SS), 
 Erfurt (1392), Wurtzburg, Leipsic, Rostock, 
 Greifswalde, Freiburg. Treves, Tubingen, and 
 Mayence. The German universities, which owed 
 their establishment to the liberality of princes, 
 
 became the chief nurseries i if the humanist ie stud- 
 ies, and thus prepared the way for the K I, hum 
 
 tion in the 16tl nturv. The new high schools 
 
 were called universitates (universities no1 orig 
 inally as universitates literarum, embracing the 
 universality of sciences bul as i nivi -< ttes ma 
 
 teachers and scholars). 'I hex were nol regarded 
 
 
 ie universities 
 
 were entirely independent corpi 
 
 •ations. The 
 
 nations, as well as the faculties. 
 
 ad their own 
 
 Statutes, seals, and treasuries. At 
 
 the head of a 
 
 nation, was a procurator: at the 1 
 
 ■ad of the en- 
 
 tire university, a rector. The sti 
 
 dents lived in 
 
 special halls called colleges (in Gei 
 
 r^/:::.,;'. 
 
 ofh^raSrS^ThSitS 
 
 a,: 1 sup: rin 
 
 tended in their daily life. Instruction was im- 
 parted by means of lectures and disputations. 
 The independence of the universities led to the 
 organization of a system of academic degrees, in- 
 tended to mark the various steps from the ma- 
 turity of the student to the qualification of the 
 academic teacher. At the Italian universities, 
 the students, for a long time, chose their own 
 professors; but, gradually, the authorization to 
 teach was limited to those who had been duly 
 licensed, or acquired the degree of licentiate. 
 After the Reformation in the 16th century, the 
 number of universities in Germany rapidly in- 
 creased, as every prince was anxious to have his 
 own. and as there was, moreover) a rivalry be- 
 tween the Catholic, Lutheran, and Reformed 
 churches. The Protestant universities, having 
 no connection with the Pope, became altogether 
 national institutions; and. gradually, the Cath- 
 olic universities were likewise regarded by the 
 state authorities as being exclusively subject to 
 state jurisdiction. In the case of the faculties 
 of Catholic theology alone, some rights of super- 
 intendence were conceded to the bishops of the 
 
 until the time of the French Revolution, a con- 
 siderable number of privileges; and a remnant of 
 academic jurisdiction lias, in some countries, 
 maintained itself to the present day. — The 
 Latin language continued for a long time to be 
 exclusively used in the lectures of the university, 
 but. from the beginning of the 1 Jth century, it 
 gradually gave way to the native tongues. By 
 this change, the universities became more in- 
 timately associated with the entire literary and 
 educational progress of the European countries, 
 and began to exert a more direct influence upon 
 primary as well as secondary instruction. — While 
 the European universities maybe said to have 
 been the leaders in the wonderful progress which 
 the world's literature, in all its departments, has 
 made during the 18th and 19th centuries, their 
 
s:j2 
 
 UNIVERSITY 
 
 course of studies has been steadily expanded. 
 Though the mediaeval division into four facul- 
 ties has been generally retained, the number of 
 subjects taught in each faculty has been greatly 
 enlarged. In some universities, the faculty of 
 arts or of philosophy has been subdivided into 
 two sections ; in some, new faculties (of political 
 economy, or of natural sciences) have been added 
 to these four traditional ones ; in some, there 
 are two distinct theological faculties (one Prot- 
 estant and one Catholic) ; in others, the theolog- 
 ical faculty has been abolished. — It is generally 
 agreed that, in the present century, the univer- 
 sities of Germany have attained the highest stage 
 of development. Recently, however, the Catholic 
 Church has availed herself of the new educatii inal 
 law to establish a number of free ( 'atholie univer- 
 sities which, as schools of superior instruction, 
 have the same organization as those in other 
 countries of Europe. All of them are under the 
 sole and absolute control of the state government, 
 and they represent the highest or superior stage 
 of the system of instruction which the state 
 organizes for the rising generation. The uni- 
 versity, as a school of superior instruction, is 
 sharply distinguished from the secondary school, 
 or gymnasium. The state requires that many 
 classes of its officers should have spent three or 
 four years at a university ; and admission to the 
 university is made contingent upon passing a 
 successful examination at one of the state gym- 
 nasia. (See Germany.) The universities of Switz- 
 erland, Austria, the Netherlands, Belgium, the 
 Scandinavian kingdoms, Russia, and <i recce, 
 also those of Italy. Spain, and Portugal, agree 
 substantially with the German institutions, 
 having four or more faculties, and being schools 
 of superior instruction. Those of recent origin, 
 like the universities of Athens and Christiania, 
 have been wholly fashioned after German mod- 
 els. The universities in the British isles, and in 
 the British possessions, materially differ from 
 those of continental Europe, and some of them 
 confine themselves to examinations and the con- 
 ferring of degrees. (See England, Scotland, 
 Ireland, Cambridge, London, and Oxford.) — 
 The universities of France were abolished in 
 1793; and, in the school legislation of Napoleon I.. 
 the name University of France was used in a 
 different sense, being applied to the entire sys- 
 tem of public instruction. (See France.) The 
 states of Central and South America have a 
 number of institutions called universities, but 
 most of them have nothing in common with the 
 universities of Europe except the name. In 
 Turkey, China, Japan, and a number of other 
 countries, efforts have recently been made to 
 organize, or re-organize, Bohools of superior in- 
 struction after the model ol the European univer- 
 sities; but all those in.-tiiiitions are still in their 
 infancy,or, at least, are not yet worthy of acom- 
 parison with universities. In the United States, 
 the term university is generally used in the same 
 sense as that of college. (See Colleges.) Infor- 
 mation in regard to the universities of the United 
 States is given in the special articles in this work 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE 
 
 on important institutions of that class. The 
 Johns Hopkins University, at Baltimore, which 
 was opened in 187(1, is to be conducted after the 
 ( ierman plan. The establishment of a National 
 University, at "Washington, to be, in the fullest 
 sense of the won), an institution for superior in- 
 struction, has been for several years agitated. 
 An account of the universities of each impor- 
 tant country of the world, embracing the latest 
 statistics, is given in the articles in this work 
 upon the several countries. The articles on the 
 different classes of professional schools (Theo- 
 logical, Law, Medical, Pharmaceutical, etc.) 
 refer to the development of the different facul- 
 ties.— See Malden, Origin of Universities and 
 AcademicI>egrees(laiidon,lS3o); II. von Syisel, 
 THedeulschen unddieausw&rtigenDhiversitaten 
 (Bonn, L868); Db Vibtviixe, Hisloire des uni- 
 versites en France (Paris. 1847); Barnard, His- 
 tory of German Universities, translated from 
 Karl von Raumer (N. Y., 1859) ; Sciiaff, Ger- 
 man,,, its Universities etc. (Phila., 1857); Hart, 
 German Universities (N.Y.. 1874). 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE (London) was 
 opened in Oct., 1828, under the title of The 
 University of London. The object of its pro- 
 moters was to found, in the metropolis, a seat of 
 learning where all, without distinction of creed, 
 might obtain a liberal education, whilst remain- 
 ing under the care of their parents or friends 
 at home. No religious instruction is given with- 
 in the college walls, that being regarded as a 
 home matter, for which parents and guardians 
 must hold themselves responsible; and thus it 
 has been found possible to admit on terms of 
 perfect equality all races and creeds. 
 
 If the original intention had been adhered to, 
 the college would have resembled a Scotch uni- 
 versity, in which the teaching body and the body 
 that grants degrees are the same ; but, when, 
 year after year, the application to the govern- 
 ment for a charter giving the right to confer de- 
 grees, was resisted by the older universities, and 
 by various medical bodies in the metropolis, a 
 compromise was at length agreed to, in 1836. By 
 this compromise, the institution which is now 
 known as University ( 'ollcge, resigned its first 
 title of University of London in favor of a new 
 body to be created by the Crown, which should 
 confer degrees upon students coining up to be 
 examined from such colleges, in town and coun- 
 try, as might, from time to time, be affiliated to 
 the university. The close connection originally 
 existing between University College and the 
 University proper, has been maintained, about 
 thirty-two per cent of the '2. 665 degrees held by 
 graduates at the end of 1873, having been con- 
 ferred on students from the college. 
 
 In University College, there are faculties of 
 arts, of laws, of science, and of medicine, with 
 an engineering department, and a fine arts de- 
 partment. These are served by about 44 profess- 
 ors. In the session ending midsummer, 1875, 
 there were 565 students in the faculties of arts, 
 of laws, and of science, including the fine arts 
 and the engineering departments, and 335 stu- 
 
UNIVERSITY COLLEGE 
 
 dents in the faculty of medicine. In 1832, a 
 school for boys was established in connection 
 with the college, and placed under the head- 
 mastership of the late professors Key and -Mai- 
 den. In this school, there were, in 1874—5, 
 706 pupils, the greatest number in anyone term 
 that session being 589. Among the professors 
 in the college, there have been many men of 
 high eminence. Of these may be mentioned 
 Augustus De Morgan, who, for 34 years, was 
 professor of mathematics. Many of his pupils 
 afterwards, at Cambridge, achieved the highest 
 honors, four, at least, becoming senior wrang- 
 lers, among them, Todhunter and Routh. 
 
 The entire government of tin liege is vested 
 
 in the council, a body of 'J t gentlemen who are 
 appointed by the members of the college from 
 themselves, and of whom 6 retire every year; 
 but the senate, which consists of the professors 
 presided over by a member of council, often 
 exerts, by its advice, great influence upon the 
 decisions of the council. The presidents of council 
 have been successively Lord Brougham, George 
 Grote, and Lord Belper. 
 
 The college, as yet, has received no help from 
 the public funds. It originated entirely in the 
 efforts of private individuals. Its capital was 
 subscribed in £100 shares, of which, in 1843, 
 there were 1,710, the number of subscribers be- 
 ing 1.072. The original deed of settlement pro- 
 vided that the share-holders might 
 
 UPPER IOWA UNIVERSITY 833 
 
 | ics, and chemistry. In 1875 — 6, these classes 
 numbered 17. and were attended by 394 ladies. 
 Very few of the professorships are endowed; 
 
 many of the 
 ■Iv on fees, are r 
 
 j rely 
 royal 
 
 the college sll 
 grants, both t 
 teaching of seit 
 
 count amo 
 
 amounted to £2,978. 
 
 part, to special purp 
 professorships). Th 
 in 1874—5, was ov. 
 from the school for 1 
 
 dividend not exceeding 4 per cent; but. as a 
 matter of fact, no dividend was ever paid, and, 
 in 1869. an act. of parliament was obtained which 
 divested the college of its proprietary character, 
 and enlarged its powers by enabling it to give 
 instruction in the fine arts, and to teach women 
 as well as men. The subscribers, or those to 
 whom they have transferred or bequeathed their 
 shares, constitute, with the fellows and life- 
 governors, the members of the college, and, at 
 their annual meeting, till the vacancies in the 
 council. In the course of years, many of the 
 shares had been ceded or forfeited, and lapsed 
 shares were bestowed upon distinguished grad- 
 uates of the college, styled fellows, or upon per- 
 sons of eminence who might advantageously be 
 associated in the government of the college, and 
 who were styled life-governors. The first fellows 
 were chosen in 1843; the life-governors are of 
 much more recent origin, having been appointed 
 subsequently to the act of parliament. 
 
 The fine art or Slade scl Is (called into exist- 
 ence by the munificent bequest of Mr. Felix 
 Slade) have been very successful, so that already 
 the accommodation provided is not sufficient. 
 The number of students, male and female, in 
 1874 — 5, was 220. Ladies are. for the present, 
 admitted equally with gentlemen to the classes 
 of political economy, jurisprudence. Roman law, 
 and geology. A ladies' association, with the 
 concurrence of the council, arranges separate 
 classes also for ladies (taught, for the most part, 
 by the professors) in the following subjects: 
 French, German, Greek, mathematics, Latin, 
 Italian, history, hygiene. English literature, phys- 
 
 ssors. 
 
 share capital of the college, 
 
 d bequests have been added. 
 
 expenditure on capital ac- 
 
 i, appropriated, for the most 
 
 •s (as to scholarships and 
 
 amount received in fees. 
 
 £27,000, nearly one-half 
 
 ys. These figures refer to 
 
 every part of the college except the hospital. 
 
 The eastern portion of the buildings, about 
 400 feet in length, was erected first. In the center 
 of this, is a handsome Corinthian portico, with 
 a dome. During the last eight years, the south 
 wing, which is occupied by the school, has been 
 commenced, and nearly completed. By means 
 of the Slade bequest, a portion of the north 
 wing has also been built. The hospital, on the 
 opposite side of Gower street, completes the quad- 
 rangle; it was opened in 1834. At University 
 Hall, near the College, are rooms for 30 students; 
 this is connected with the college, but under dif- 
 ferent management. — See Penny Cyclopaedia, 
 art. University CoUege; yearly Reports and Cal- 
 endars of the College; Fifth Report of the Royal 
 Commission on Scientific Instruction (1874).' 
 
 UNIVERSITY COLLEGE of San Fran- 
 cisco, CaL, founded in 1859, is under Presby- 
 terian control. It embraces a primary, a higher 
 English, a classical preparatory, and a collegiate 
 department. Females arc admitted to the lower 
 departments. The cost of tuition ranges from $6 
 to SI 5 a month; but there is an extra charge for 
 modern languages, book-keeping, drawing, and 
 music. In 1*71 5, there were 7 instructors and 
 principals have been as fol- 
 o. Burrows, I). D.; the Rev. 
 . D.; the Rev. Win. Alexan- 
 Kev. .lames Matthews, D.D., 
 
 UPPER IOWA UNIVERSITY, at Fay- 
 ette, Iowa, under Methodist Episcopal control, 
 was opened as a seminary Jan. L. 1857, and 
 chartered as a college in I860. It is supported 
 by tuition tees and the income of an endowment 
 of $15,000. It has libraries containing about 
 2,000 volumes. Both sexes are admitted. There 
 are six departments : collegiate (with a classical 
 and a scientific course), preparatory, English, 
 commercial, of music, and of fine arts. In 1875 
 — 6, there were 9 instructors and 243 students 
 (deducting repetitions), as follows : collegiate, 
 3d; preparatory, 56; English, 115; commercial, 
 48; music, 50; painting, 16. The presidents 
 have been as follows : the Rev. "William II. 
 
 the I 
 V. Vi 
 '.!>.; : 
 
s;U 
 
 URBANA rMYEliSITY 
 
 UTAH 
 
 Poor, A. M., 1856—7 ; the Rev. Lucius H. Bug- 
 bee, D. D., 1857—60; the Rev. 'William Brush, 
 D. D., 1860— 9 ; the Rev. Charles X. Stowers, 
 A. M., 1869—70; Byron W. McLain, Ph. D., 
 1870—2; the Rev. Rhoderic Norton. A. M.. 
 1872—3; the Rev. J. W. Bissell, A. M. (vice- 
 president) L873 I ; and the Rev. J. W. Bis- 
 seU, A. M., president, since 1874. 
 
 URBANA UNIVERSITY, at Urbana, 
 Ohio, founded in 1 *.",(). is under Swedenborgian 
 control. It had a large attendance of pupils of 
 both sexes during the first ten years. At the 
 outbreak of the war the attendance fell off, and 
 the collegiate department was discontinued. The 
 college was re-established, and the faculty re- 
 organized in 1871. " The Union of Revelation 
 and Science upon the basis of the theology given 
 in the writings of Emmanuel Swedenborg is the 
 distinctive principle of the New Church Uni- 
 versity." It is supported chiefly by tuition fees 
 and annual contributions. It has an invested 
 fund of § 10.000. and about §20.000 subscribed 
 toward an endowment of $50,000. There are 
 extensive botanical collections, a cabinet of min- 
 erals and fossils, apparatus, and libraries contain- 
 ing 5,000 volumes. The university embraces 
 three departments: the grammar school, the 
 college, and the school qfiheology. The school/or 
 girls is to be re-organized as soon as the means 
 can be provided. The college .has a classical 
 course of four years, and a scientific course of 
 three years. The cost of tuition is from $36 to 
 $60 a year. In 1875 — li, there were 6 instruct- 
 ors and 34 students (17 collegiate and 17 belong- 
 ing to the grammar school). The presidents !ia\e 
 been: Mil,,' Q. William. A.M.. L853 -7; the Ret 
 Chauncey Giles, A. M.. 1858—69; the Rev. 
 Frank Sewall, A. M., since 1870. 
 
 URSINUS COLLEGE, at Freeland, Mont 
 gomery Co., I'a.. chartered in L869 and opened in 
 1870, is under the patronage of the Reformed 
 (German) Church. The post office is College- 
 ville. The college is chiefly supported by tuition 
 fees (from 8 10 to Sis a year) and contributions. 
 The institution has an academic or preparatory 
 department, a collegiate department (classical 
 course of four years and scientific course of ,'i 
 years), and a theological department. The libraries 
 contain 6,500 volumes, In 1876 — 7, there were 
 10 instructors and 122 students (15 theological, 
 41 collegiate, and 66 academic). The Rev. J. 
 II. A. Bamberger. 1). I)., is (1877) the president. 
 
 URUGUAY, a republic of South America, 
 having an area of Oil, soil square miles, and a 
 population of about 300,000. The state religion 
 is the Roman Catholic, to which almost the 
 whole population belongs, but other creeds are 
 tolerated. Uruguay has been an independent 
 state since 1828. 
 
 The instruction given in the government 
 schools, which are few, is of a very inferior kind. 
 The foreigners, Germans, French, English, and 
 others, have their own schools, which are of a 
 much higher order. A female school exists in 
 connection with the convent of the order of 
 Saint Francis of Sales, in Montevideo. 
 
 Serimthirii iiinlfin-limi is in a similarly de- 
 pressed state. The Colegio of Montevideo forms 
 a part of tiieUniversidad -mayor dela TtepvMiea. 
 
 ontevideo.- Bee 
 imerika; Woys 
 ile undkirchlicJ 
 
 V.UI.LVM. La 11 
 
 ii. Mit 
 uLebei 
 
 the majority of the students are only youth, 
 
 numerous degrees of LL. I), are granted every 
 
 year. The university is tree, and is well attended. 
 
 There is also, in connection with the university, 
 
 a free primary school for poor children. Another 
 
 colegio has been recentlj established in La Union, 
 
 a short distance from M 
 
 Encyclopadie, art. Slid, 
 
 theilungen uber das sozi: 
 
 in Uruguay (1864) : ' 
 
 Oi-ientaldel Uruguay (Montevideo. 1873). 
 
 UTAH, one of the territories of the United 
 States, forming a part of the land acquired, in 
 1848, from Mexico. Its area is 84,476 sq. m. j 
 and its population. in lsTO.vuis sf,.7st;.of whom 
 118 were colored persons, 445, Chinese, and 179, 
 civilized Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The first step taken 
 1>\ the people of the territory for the promotion 
 of education, was an act passed by the provi- 
 sional government in 1851, incorporating the 
 University of Deseret, with an annual appropria- 
 tion of §5,000. This contemplated not only the 
 founding of a university, but the establishment 
 of primary schools in connection with it. In 
 1851, the chancellor and board of regents of the 
 university were authorized to appoint a superin- 
 tendent of primary schools, to be under their 
 supervision, and to be paid by them a salary of 
 not more than §1,000. Owing to limited pat- 
 ronage and want of funds, the university had 
 only a nominal existence till 1867, when it was 
 re-organized, and conducted as a commercial 
 college. At the time of the organization of the 
 territory, in 1850, the 16th and 36th sections of 
 land in each township were set apart by Con- 
 gress for educational purposes; and $5,000 was 
 appropriated for the purchase of a library for 
 the use of the inhabitants. In 1852, the assem- 
 bly petitioned the general government for an 
 appropriation of §24,000. for the use of schools; 
 but it was not granted. The same year, Con- 
 gress was petitioned to make for this territory the 
 same donations of land, to settlers, and for edu- 
 cational purposes, as were made to the territory 
 of < Iregon in 1850. This also was refused. The 
 rejection of a similar petition for aid in establish- 
 ing schools, in 1854, led to the approval, by the 
 territorial governor and legislature, of an act, 
 which made it the duty of the chancellor and 
 board of regents of the university to appoint a 
 territorial superintendent of common schools, 
 who should make an annual report to the re- 
 gents of the number and condition of the 
 schools. It was further provided that county 
 courts should divide their respective counties 
 into school-districts, each of which should elect 
 3 trustees, who were to collect a tax on all tax- 
 able property in the district, at such rate as the 
 voters at the district meeting should determine. 
 
With the funds thus collected, the trustees 
 to establish and maintain the necessary mi 
 of schools, and make an annual report of 
 official proceedings to the boards oi examin 
 of their respective counties. The duties of 
 boai'ds, which were appointed bj the a 
 courts, were to examine teachers, and mal 
 annualreport of the conditionand statistics i 
 schools, to the superintendent of common scl 
 
 every vcai 
 
 strict 
 tally. 
 
 he build 
 
 mt the 1 
 
 :ased, 
 f the 
 t per 
 
 ing lands for .el Is 
 
 finances prevented 
 of ( Jongress, grant- 
 iiniversity purposes, 
 was passed in 1855; and, to make it effective, the 
 assembly, in 1859, passed an act for the selection 
 of land equal to two townships, for the establish- 
 ment of a university. In 1864, the collection of 
 certain moneys for the maintenance of the 
 schools was authorized by tin- assembly; and 
 this was followed, in L865, by an .art " consol- 
 idating and. amending the school law,-.' These 
 two acts were superseded, in 1866, when a new 
 school law was passed. Congress was again in- 
 effectually petitioned, in 1 867, for a donation, to 
 the territory. < if the lands included in the recorded 
 plots of the several cities, towns, and villages of 
 the territory, to aid in laying the foundation of 
 a common-school fund. In 1868, the assembly 
 passed au act giving greater definiteness to the 
 meaning of the school law. The same year, and 
 again in 1870, attempts were made to obtain aid 
 from Congress for educational purposes, but 
 without success. In 1874, the assembly passed 
 au act appropriating annually 815,000, for two 
 years, for school purposes; ami this, with the 
 various enactments extending hack to 1 ,-i'iii.ron- 
 Stituted the school law of the territory till Feb- 
 ruary 18., 187G, when the present school law 
 was approved. The first superintendent of 
 common schools in the territory was Elias Smith, 
 who was appointed under the act of October, 
 1851. His successor was William Willes, ap- 
 pointed in 1866. In 1862, R. L. Campbell was 
 appointed to the office by the chancellor and 
 regents of the university, and held the office till 
 1866, when he was elected territorial superin- 
 tendent, which office he held till his death in 
 1874. His successor was < ). II. Riggs, the pres- 
 ent incumbent (1877). 
 
 School System. — The new school law, enacted 
 in 1876, provides for the election of a territorial 
 superintendent of district schools for 2 years, 
 wdiose duty it is to exercise a general super- 
 vision similar to that usually devolving on this 
 officer. He is required to call a convention, to 
 be composed of himself, the county superintend- 
 ents, and the president of the university, for the 
 purpose of determining what text-books shall be 
 used in the schools, such books to remain un- 
 changed, unless for sufficient cause, for 5 years 
 from the time of their adoption. Conn/// superin- 
 tendents are elected at the same time, and for 
 the same term, as the territorial superintendent. 
 They are required to visit the schools at least 
 
 upon a two-thirds vote of the ret 
 
 district, to a sum not exceeding 3 
 
 annum. There is a board of examination, con- 
 sisting of .'! persons, appointed annually in each 
 county, by the county court, for the purpose of 
 examining teachers and granting certificates. 
 The legislature is required to make an annual 
 
 the district .-eho,.l.,.aud.<..lli'0forthernivrrsitv 
 of Deseret, provided the .-aid university instruct, 
 in its normal department, free of charge, 40 pu- 
 pils, apportioned equally among the counties of 
 the territory, Mel, pupils pledging themselves to 
 teach in the district schools of their respective 
 counties, if required by the county superintend- 
 ents, as many years as they may have received 
 free tuition. The legal school age is from 6 to 
 16 years. The school year varies according to 
 the district, the county superintendents and 
 trustees in each prescribing its length. The 
 studies pursued are spelling, reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, geography, grammar, book-keeping, 
 history, music, and drawing. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts, in 1875, was 236 ; the number 
 of schools, 296. 
 
 The receipts for the support of schools, for the 
 year 1875, were as follows : 
 
 From territorial tax $15,000.00 
 
 " rate bills and other sources 95,532.70 
 
 " local tax 20,267.28 
 
 " district tax 4:>,50S.87 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 For general school purpo-es..$13ii,7!i!l.9K 
 " buildings, repairs, etc 53,018.87 
 
 S180,368. 
 
 The school statistics for the same year are : 
 Number of children of school age ( t to 16 years) 35,696 
 " " " enrolled in | . 1 1 1 > lie schools. . 19,278 
 " " " •' " private schools. 3,542 
 
 Average attendance in public schools 13, 4112 
 
 '• " " private schools 2,4:17 
 
 Number of teacher-, males and females 4JS 
 
 Average monthly salary of teachers $17.:'.s 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The normal department 
 of the University of Deseret was established 
 August 23., 1875, to continue one year, the fund 
 for its maintenance being derived from appro- 
 priations made by the county courts. Applicants 
 for admission must be over 16 years of age, 
 must have a fair knowledge of reading, writing. 
 spelling, grammar, geography, and arithmetic, 
 and -one' natural tact for imparting instruction. 
 The course of study gives a prominent place 
 throughout to the theory and practice of teach- 
 ing. Ten counties are, thus far, represented 
 
836 VANDBRBILT UNIVERSITY 
 
 among the students, the average daily attend- 
 ance being 30. The first teachers' association 
 was organized in Salt Lake City in 1860. Since 
 that time, teachers' institutes have been organ- 
 ized in several counties, but they have not yet 
 been permanently established by law. The Terri- 
 torial Teachers' Association, of which the terri- 
 torial superintendent is president, ex officio, was 
 organized in 1870, and holds semi-annual sessions 
 in Salt Lake City. A territorial normal in- 
 stitute was convened by the superintendent in 
 the University of Deseret, in August, 1875, at 
 which special attention was directed to the best 
 methods of imparting instruction. 
 
 Seciiiii/nri/ Instruction. — The number of in- 
 stitutions which afford anything beyond element- 
 ary instruction is very limited. A number of 
 select and mission schools and academies exist 
 in the territory. Of these, the mission and 
 denominational schools give instruction annually 
 to about 1,250 pupils. The Methodists have 
 six, — one each in Salt Lake City, Ogden, 
 Tooele City, Provo, Nephi, and Beaver. The 
 Episcopalians have one in Salt Lake City, one 
 at Ogden, and one at Logan. The Presbyterians 
 have one each at Salt Like City, Mt. Pleasant, 
 and Bingham. The Catholics have one at Salt 
 Lake City. A commercial college was opened 
 
 YASSAR COLLEGE 
 
 in the winter of 1875, in Salt Lake City. The 
 total number of Latter Day Saint Sunday- 
 schools, in 1870, was 162, with 2,588 teachers and 
 20,411 pupils. 
 
 Superior Instruction . — The University of Des- 
 eret is the only institution in the territory 
 established for the purpose of affording oppor- 
 tunity for higher education. It is non-sectarian, 
 and provides 3 courses, — a preliminary, a scien- 
 tific, and a classical preparatory. It has a well 
 supplied laboratory, a cabinet of several hundred 
 specimens, valuable mathematical, philosophical, 
 and chemical apparatus, and a library of 3,000 
 volumes. Youth of both sexes, who are unable 
 to bear the cost of tuition, are admitted free of 
 charge, on application to the president. In 
 1875, the number of instructors was 4, and 
 the number of students 294, — 171 male, and 
 123 female. The Timpanogos branch of the 
 university was established at Provo City, in 
 1870. It was suspended in 1875 ; but was re- 
 organized the same year under the name of the 
 Brigham Young Academy, the building and 
 grounds, valued at $15,000. having been donated 
 to the county by Brigham Young. It was opened 
 in January, 1870. with 70 students, since in- 
 creased to 125. This is the only school in the terri- 
 tory in which instruction in theology is afforded. 
 
 VANDERBILT UNIVERSITY, at Nash- 
 ville, Tenn., is under the control of the Metho- 
 dist Episcopal Church, South. It was chartered 
 
 in 1872 as The < entral University of the .Meth- 
 odist Episcopal Church, South ; the name was 
 changed, in 1873, in honor of Cornelius Vander- 
 bilt, of New York, who gave the institution 
 $500,000, to which he afterward added $200,000. 
 The university was opened in October, 1875. 
 The grounds and buildings cost $400,000. The 
 site is at the west end of the city, half a mile 
 from the corporation line. The library contains 
 0.000 volumes. There are cabinets of fossils, 
 minerals, and rocks, an astronomical observatory, 
 and valuable philosophical and chemical appara- 
 tus. The university is organized with four dis- 
 tinct departments, as follows: (1) the depart- 
 ment of philosophy, science, and literature ; 
 (2) the Biblical department; (3) the law depart- 
 ment ; (4) the medical department. The first 
 department comprises 10 schools ; namely, Latin, 
 Greek, modern languages and English, moral 
 philosophy, philosophy and criticism, mathemat- 
 ics, physics and astronomy, chemistry, natural 
 history and geology, and engineering. The usual 
 degrees are conferred. The annual tuition fees 
 are as follows : Academic courses, $70 ; Biblical 
 department, free ; law, $120 ; medical, $65. 
 There are several scholarships entitling the hold- 
 ers to free tuition, and fellowships are to be 
 established. In 1875 — 6, there were 20 instruct- 
 ors (academic department, 1 ; Biblical, 3 ; 
 law, 3; medical, 10). and 307 students, including 
 52 in theology. 25 in law. and 115 in medicine. 
 
 Landon ( '. Garland, LL. D., has been the chan- 
 cellor of the university since its organization. 
 
 VASSAR COLLEGE (for women), at 
 Poughkeepsie, N. Y., was chartered in 1861, 
 and opened in 1805. It was named after Mat- 
 thew Ynssar, of Poughkeepsie, its founder, 
 whose gifts to it amount to about $778,000. It 
 is not denominational. The name was Vassar 
 Female College till 1867. The buildings are 
 situated on a farm of about '200 acres, two miles 
 cast of t lie city. The unproductive property is 
 valued (July 1., 1876) at $081,280 (real estate, 
 $515,311 ; personal property, $105. 075); the 
 amount of productive funds (for library, cab- 
 inets, lectures, aid of students, and repairs), at 
 7 per cent, is $281,000. The salaries and other 
 current expenses are paid from students' fees. 
 The charge for board is $300 per annum ; for 
 tuition, $100. Liberal aid is afforded, either in 
 gifts or loans, to students of high character and 
 superior scholarship in the regular course. The 
 college has valuable apparatus and cabinets, an 
 art gallery, an astronomical observatory, and 
 a library of over 10,000 volumes. The regular 
 course is for four years. All applicants for ad- 
 mission must be at least 16 years of age. The 
 curriculum embraces Latin. Greek, French, Ger- 
 man, mathematics, botany, zoology, mineralogy, 
 geology, astronomy, physics, chemistry, physiol- 
 ogy. English literature, rhetoric, history, mental 
 philosophy, moral philosophy, etc. The arts taught 
 in the college are vocal and instrumental music, 
 drawing, painting, and modeling in clay or wax. 
 Students sufficiently mature and advanced may 
 
VENEZUELA 
 
 take eclectic courses. Those who complete the 
 regular course receive the first or baccalaureate 
 degree iu arts. A candidate for the second de- 
 gree in arts must pass an examination in studies 
 which have been approved by the faculty as 
 equivalent to a post-graduate course of two full 
 years. There is also a preparatory department. In 
 187.i — II. there were 29 instructors 1 7 males) and 
 370 students, of whom 205 were of the collegiate 
 grade (2 resident graduates. 1*3 pursuing the 
 regular course, and 20, special courses). The 
 presidents have been Milo P. Jewett, LL. I)., 
 1861—4 ; and John II. Raymond, LL. D., since 
 1864. 
 
 VENEZUELA, a republic of South Amer- 
 ica, having an area of 368,000 square miles, and 
 a population of about 1.500,000. The religion 
 of the people is the Roman Catholic, but others 
 are tolerated. 
 
 The education of the lower classes is very 
 much neglected. Primary instruction is left to 
 the care of the provincial deputations; but, 
 owing tn their indifference, the law requiring 
 every voter to be able to read and write, is in- 
 operative. The number of primary schools was 
 reported, in 1 875, as 5 1 1 . of which only 141 were 
 government schools. The attendance at the for- 
 mer was 7,064: at the latter, 11,017. The new 
 constitution of 1876 provides that all moneys 
 formerly appropriated for ecclesiastical purposes, 
 shall henceforth be devoted to education. It also 
 provides that no minister or priest, of any de- 
 nomination whatever, shall be employed as a 
 teacher in the public schools. The education of 
 girls was for a long time entirely neglected by 
 the government. Recently, however, the govern- 
 ment has paid considerable attention to this 
 subject. A higher female school has been estab- 
 lished; and. in 1870, a junta inspectora was ap- 
 pointed in Caracas, preparatory to the establish- 
 ment of a national female college. 
 
 Secondary as well as superior instruction is 
 in a much more satisfactory condition, owing to 
 the labors of the Jesuits, who, upon their expul- 
 sion, left a prosperous college in Maraeaybo. in 
 which the Spanish language, the ancient lan- 
 guages, poetry, rhetoric, and philosophy were 
 taught. The university of ( 'aracas was founded, in 
 1696, as a colegio, and raised to the rank of a uni- 
 versity in 1722. For a long time, the colegio 
 of Meriila. which served as a university during 
 the 18th century, competed successfully with 
 the university of Caracas. At present, both of 
 these institutions, as well as the medical school 
 of Caracas, are under the control of the state. 
 The university of Caracas had. in 1874. 19 pro- 
 fessors and 165 students: and that of Merida. 12 
 professors and about 1 50 students. The revenue 
 of the endowment fund of the university of 
 Caracas amounts to about $30,000.— Secondary 
 instruction is imparted in 13 colegios nacionales, 
 the total endowment funds of which amount to 
 about $260,000. Law is taught at Barcelona; 
 and. at Maraeaybo, law, anatomy, physiology, 
 and navigation. Besides the government schools, 
 there are also the following private institutions : 
 
 837 
 I aracas ; the 
 
 the same city; 
 n I a Guayra ; 
 science, and a 
 
 VENTILATION 
 
 A colegio for poor students, in 
 Colegio de la Independt 
 the ' 'olegio de la Praia 
 
 an elementary school for 
 school for drawing and 
 
 VENTILATION. Probably n.,' subject con- 
 nected with the improvement of schools has. of 
 late years, been more fully and earnestly dis- 
 cussed than that of ventilation. Unfortunately, 
 however, the results reached have by no means 
 corresponded in importance to the length or 
 vigor of the discussion. Notwithstanding the mi- 
 nute and elaborate experiments made b\ modern 
 science on this subject, it is hardly too much to 
 say that the only point of agreement is, that 
 ample ventilation is of paramount importance 
 in ili oiioiny of the schoolroom. Any recom- 
 mendation of particular methods of effecting 
 this, or any appeal to statistics or experimental 
 , details, becomes at once the occasion for fresh 
 dispute. The subject will lie considered here under 
 the following heads: (I) The c litions favor- 
 able to proper ventilation: ill- The methods 
 employed to utilize those conditions: illl) Some 
 of the ways in which ventilation i.- preu-nted. 
 
 I. Under this head, will be considered (1) the 
 sources from which a proper supply of fresh air 
 for the school room is to be obtained, and the 
 quality of the air so obtained ; and (2) the de- 
 termination of the quantity needed by each pu- 
 pil for purposes of respiration. That the great 
 reservoir of the outer air which surrounds the 
 school room is the only proper source of supply 
 for the lungs of its inmates, requires no demon- 
 stration : the only question being that which 
 concerns its purity. The direct and intimate con- 
 nection which has been ascertained to exist be- 
 tween the air which we breathe and the blood, 
 has been found to extend to the brain, and 
 healthful intellectual activity and pure air are 
 now almost convertible terms. Whatever causes, 
 therefore, tend to vitiate the air surrounding 
 the school building should be carefully eliminated. 
 (I lonceming the proper site of the school build- 
 ing, as regarded from a sanitary stand-point, see 
 Hyoiexe, School.) Another cause which, in 
 certain sites, and. at certain seasons of the year, 
 in any site, may affect the quality of the air in- 
 troduced into the school room, is the height 
 above the ground from which it te drawn. The 
 danger to be apprehended from malarial fever. 
 one of the most insidious foes of the human 
 race detected by modern sanitary science, has 
 led recent writers on the subject of ventilation 
 to recommend that the inlet for fresh air be 
 placed as high as possible, so that the lower 
 stratum of air — that near the ground or from the 
 cellar — be not admitted. — Much of the difficulty 
 which attaches to the subject of ventilation, 
 arises from the fact that medical men who have 
 given special attention to the matter, are by no 
 means agreed as to the amount of pure air 
 needed by each person for purposes of respira- 
 tion : their estimates of the number of cubic 
 feet of space required by each pupil in the 
 
VENTILATION 
 
 school room where the ventilation is ample, vary- 
 ing from 300 to 1 .200 From a comparative 
 examination of various estimates, it appeal's that 
 the average amount of fresh air required by each 
 individual hourly is a1 least L ,000 cubic feet. In 
 school rooms provided with adequate means of 
 ventilation, this requires, according t" most sani- 
 
 pupil.^This, though hardly above tl 
 exceeds, probably, in a majority < 
 most liberal allowance male by 
 officers who pride themselves on the 
 
 from the fire, and. by warming the column of 
 air in the ventilating flue, causes it to ascend, 
 tending thus to produce a vacuum, which the 
 vitiated air of the room flows in to fill. The 
 ventilating flue has two registers, one near 
 the floor, the other near the ceiling, both of 
 which can be controlled at pleasure. A more 
 
 than lln cubic feet. The qi 
 admitted by the ventilating 
 constant relation to the size o 
 Dr. A. N. Bell on this po 
 the space, the greater the necessity for, and the 
 larger the opening required for, the admission 
 of fresh air. * * * It has been calculated that, 
 with ordinary exposure, an open space equal to 
 5 inches in the square, will admit the passage of 
 2,000 cubic feet hourly: this, of course, implies 
 that there should be an equal amount of open 
 space for the escape of the air displaced. ". 
 
 II. In considering the different methods of 
 ventilation, attention should, at the Bame time, 
 be given to the method of wanning the school- 
 room ; since the two subjects arc almost in- 
 separably connected. The entrance of warm air 
 into a, room for breathing purposes, is inevitably 
 attended by. and naturally suggests, a corre- 
 sponding exit of vitiated air, and points unmis- 
 takably to the resulting current as the t I effi- 
 cient means for ventilation. If the question 
 were merely that of determining the easiest way 
 of replacing a certain amount of impure, bj a 
 
 corresp ling amount of pure, air, the problem 
 
 would be one of easy solution : since the differ- 
 ence of temperature which generally exists be- 
 tween the outer air and that of the school room 
 furnishes the condition most favorable to venti- 
 lation, the only agent needed being a connec- 
 tion between the two. which is readily supplied 
 by an open door or window. In summer, this 
 method, which may be called the natural one. is 
 in almost universal use, and is accompanied gen- 
 erally with satisfactory results. In winter, how- 
 ever, the violent displacement of one atmosphere 
 by the other, which results from the greater dif- 
 ference in their temperature, and which immedi- 
 ately begins when a connection is made between 
 them, makesitself felt in the shape of dangerous 
 drafts. The problem for the inventor, therefore. 
 
 minimum, 
 
 Sgt„e m « 
 
 to^chfol 
 
 along its middli 
 
 EP£ 
 
 air space aroun 
 stove pipe to tl 
 
 the stove is use 
 
 us, bears a 
 torn. Says 
 he smaller 
 
 room is warmei 
 the amount of 
 the account of 
 
 rded 
 
 expense incurred should not 
 violation of the laws of economy, but rather as 
 an observance of the provisions of that true 
 economy which does not look for immediate and 
 petty results, but is fundamental in its action. 
 and conducive to the permanent benefit of teacher 
 
 ing purposes, in small school rooms, the open 
 grate fire has many advantages ; but, of course, 
 it should be carefully screened, for more elab- 
 orate methods of ventilation, with modifications 
 to suit circumstances, sec the works quoted at 
 the end of thiB article, in which the subject is 
 
 of effective veliti 
 
 Hyp. 
 
 for. These are principally two: (1) a ventilating 
 apparatus, originally inadequate in size, or, if 
 adequate, the ineffective working of it. through 
 frequent derangement ; (2) the overcrowding 
 of the school room after the originally liberal 
 estimates for air supply, based on a smaller 
 number of pupils, have been made. Insufficient 
 apparatus, from either the first or second cause 
 mentioned above, is one of the commonest diffi- 
 culties with which intelligent school officers 
 have to contend: so easy is it for any one, in the 
 absence of decidedly bad results, to lose sight of 
 the essential conditions of a healthy school room. 
 and so clamorous is the tax-payer usually for 
 
 so many 
 
 admirable. Oneof the simplest and t 
 
 methods of ventilation is used it 
 nil li I lie method of warming des 
 the head of school hygiene. (& 
 School.) It consists of a chiiun 
 Hues, one for the fire, the other fc 
 The latter is separated from the for 
 tition of metal which becomes heated by the air perhaps fatal, manner. 
 
 In the .vcond ease -that of 
 ame deleterious effects fol- 
 paci being the evil in both. 
 .hers are, in this way, fre- 
 'hc number of pupils is in- 
 that the evil is for a long 
 nd not till its effects have 
 in some unmistakable, and 
 is attention called to the 
 
as been said, the air pro- I 
 imposes should be drawn 
 
 probable cause.- 
 vided for breat 
 from oufc-of-doo 
 sufficient to preclude all danger from exhalations, 
 
 opposite end from th.it at which the impure aii 
 passes out. ami at the top of the room, but in 
 such a way as to prevent drafts. This is best 
 done by providing a number of small apertures 
 the air from which passes through the vitiated 
 air of the room in numerous small currents 
 which are imperceptible, and which cause the 
 fresh air to be evenly diffused. If warmed by a 
 cellar furnace, it should not be introduced into 
 the room by floor registers, since these are always, 
 more or less, traps for dust, which thus, in some 
 shape, is liable to be taken into the lungs, The 
 
 terrain whether its working sustains the theory 
 of its construction, and should be carefully exam- 
 
 measure, optional; but, as the government became 
 settled in its methods, and the number of the 
 towns was increased, the legislature adopted a 
 
 different tone, and, in 1797, co anded the 
 
 u>\\ ns to support schools, and later, in 1 82 1 . pro- 
 vided that the grand jury of each county should 
 impure annually, whether the several towns in 
 
 1 raised and properly expended 
 
 tv delinquent town 
 
 and i rei 
 
 ined, from time to ti 
 its constant efficier, 
 book of Hygiene a 
 1873);Parkbr,J 
 (4th ed., London, 
 and Ventilation o 
 
 ith the view to I 
 
 Wilson, A I/,, 
 
 at Washington, January 27. and 2s., 1875; 
 Buissox, Rapport sur l''i instruction primaire a 
 Vexposition universelle de Vienne (Paris,1875); 
 The School Board Chronicle (London. March 
 and May. 1875); Robson, School Architecture 
 (London, 1874). 
 
 VERMONT, one of the New England states 
 of the American Union, into which it was ad- 
 mitted in 1791. Its area is In. '212 sq.m.; audits 
 population, in 1870, was 330,551. 
 
 Education,,! History.— La 1761, after the ex- 
 pulsion of the French from the valley of Lake 
 t'hamplain and from ( lanada had given a feeling 
 of security to the settlers. Vermont began to be 
 rapidly filled with immigrants. In 1777, it was 
 declared to be an independent state ; a constitu- 
 tion was adopted, in 1 778, and a government or- 
 ganized. Some of the towns had already estab- 
 lished schools. Previous to L 763, the people of 
 Bennington had raised a school tax; and. ( tetober 
 5., in that year, the to* n granted money to each 
 of the three school-districts to aid in building 
 school-houses. The first constitution of Vermont 
 declare:! that a school or schools should be estab- 
 lished in each town, by the legislature, forthe 
 instruction of youth. The first law of the state 
 relating toschopls was enacted October 22., 1782, 
 by which towns were empowered to form school- 
 districts, and to elect trustees. The districts were 
 authorized to choose officers, to hoi I property. 
 to establish schools, build school-houses, etc. 
 
 From this beginning, the scl I system has been 
 
 gradually developed, without radical change ai 
 any time. By the first school law. the aetioti 
 of the towns in regard to the school was, in great 
 
 latum mi the subject 01 schools gave to the town 
 power to divide its territory into school distrii I 
 and to alter the same: but otherwise the district 
 
 was independent of the town, and it has since 
 
 come under the supervision and control of the 
 town only by a slow process. The first step in this 
 direction was a requirement that the town, in 
 the annual division of the public money, should 
 withhold the share otherwise due. from a district 
 that had not supported a school during the pre- 
 vious year. Next, came the provision, introduced 
 in 1827, that persons employed as teachers must 
 be licensed by town officers. The provisions re- 
 quiring the selectmen of the town, in certain 
 cases, to set up a school, and even to build a 
 school-house, in and for a district, and to assess 
 and cause to be collected a tax on the inhabitants 
 contained in the grand list of the district, in or- 
 der to pay for the same, left but a single step 
 further in that direction. This was taken in the 
 law of 1870, which permitted the (owns to 
 abolish the districts, and to intrust the manage- 
 ment of the schools to a committee chosen by 
 the town.' Under the first school law, the dis- 
 tricts had power to raise money by a tax on the 
 grand list or on the scholar; consequently, the 
 question, shall the school, after expending the 
 public money, be supported wholly by a tax 
 based on the grand list, and thus be wholly free, 
 annually arose for decision in every school- 
 district in the state. This question, probably, 
 has been more widely and fully discussed, through 
 a long period, than any other before the people 
 of Vermont; and the history of the legislation on 
 the subject is proportionally important. The law 
 of 1782 gave to the prudential committee of the 
 district power to assess a tax, according to the 
 grand list of the district, sufficient to pay one- 
 half of all the school expenses, and to the district 
 the power to vote the other half on the basis of 
 the grand list, or on the scholar. The revised 
 school law of 17H7 provided that the district 
 might vote the entire sum on either ba fa 
 
 1827, however, the power of the district to raise 
 money on the scholar to build and repair school- 
 houses, and, in 1850, the power to raise money 
 in a similar way to pay the wages of teachers, 
 were revoked; and. in 1864, it was enacted that 
 "All expenses incurred by school districts for the 
 support of schools shall be defrayed by a tax 
 il] the grand list of the district.'' The deter- 
 mination of the people, after eighty-two years of 
 discussion, was. that the public schools should be 
 wholly free. In the law of 1782, no enumeration 
 of studies to be pursued in the common schools 
 
840 VER3 
 
 was made. In 1797, English reading, writing, 
 and arithmetic were specified as subjects to be 
 taught; in LS27. orthography. English grammar, 
 geography, history of the United States, and 
 good behavior were added. Until 1841, no legal 
 provision existed for the maintenance of more, 
 or other, than one common school in each school- 
 district. Instruction of the grade between that 
 furnished by the common school and that fur- 
 nished by the college, was provided for only in 
 private schools, which existed at that time in all 
 parts of the state. Contiguous districts, retain- 
 ing their separate organization, privileges, and 
 duties in reference to supporting each a school 
 for the smaller children, were allowed to unite, 
 and constitute one school-district, for the purpose 
 of maintaining a school for the larger children. 
 Three yeais later, districts having more children 
 than could be well provided for in one school, were 
 authorized to establish any required number and 
 grade of schools. Later still, towns were empow- 
 ered to establish districts for the support of high 
 schools, and towns adopting the town syst em were 
 permitted to establish schools of any needed grade. 
 The growth of high and graded schools, during 
 the last thirty-four years, is the most important 
 feature in the recent educational history of 
 Vermont. Within that period, public schools, 
 free to the inhabitants of the town or district 
 supporting them, in which instruction in the 
 higher branches of learning is regularly provided 
 for and given, have been established in at least 
 twenty-seven towns ; while, in more than a score 
 of others, schools of two or three departments 
 are regularly supported. While, before that time, 
 no student could be prepared for college in 
 a public school, to-day as many students are 
 preparing for college in the public schools as in 
 the private schools. — The supervision of schools 
 by the town is involved in the requirement that 
 public money be distributed to such districts 
 only as support schools ; and supervision by the 
 state is very clearly implied in the requirement 
 that the grand jury in each county shall ascer- 
 tain whether the several towns of the county 
 have raised and properly expended the state 
 school tax. In 1827. it was enacted, " that each 
 town in this state shall choose a superintending 
 committee who shall have the general charge of 
 all the public schools in said town." The law 
 further made it the duty of said committee to 
 require full and satisfactory evidence of the good 
 moral character of all instructors employed in 
 said town, and to satisfy themselves, by personal 
 examination, of their qualifications for teaching, 
 and their capacity for the government of schools; 
 and declared that no instructor should be entitled 
 to any compensation for teaching in the public 
 schools, unless he had obtained from the superin- 
 tending committee, or a majority of them, a cer- 
 tificate of qualification. The superintending com- 
 mittee were required to visit the schools and to 
 make careful examination thereof, to determine 
 the class books to be used in the aeveral schools, 
 and to make returns to the secretary of state. 
 The law requiring the election of a superintend- 
 
 ing committee was repealed in 1833, but was 
 revived in 1845 by an act which provided for the 
 election of town superintendents, with powers 
 and duties very similar to those already described. 
 — The school law of 1827 required the secre- 
 tary of state to collect school statistics from the 
 towns ; and the same law provided that there 
 should be annually chosen by the legislature a 
 board of commissioners, consisting of five per- 
 sons, to be denominated the Board of Commis- 
 sioners for Common Schools. The board of com- 
 missioners were to meet at least once a year. They 
 were to prepare a list of text-books, and to ad- 
 vise the superintending committees to select 
 from the same for the use of the schools; to ex- 
 amine the effect of the school laws of the state, 
 and if, in their opinion, alterations in said laws 
 were necessary, to specify the same, in their an- 
 nual report to the legislature. The board of 
 commissioners made a report in 1828; and, in 
 1833, all laws concerning the supervision of 
 schools were repealed.— A\ ith the restoration of 
 town supervision, in 1845. came the restoration 
 of state supervision by a state superintendent of 
 common schools, annually elected by the general 
 assembly, whose duties were essentially the same 
 as those of the secretary of state and board of 
 commissioners under the law of 1 827,except that 
 he was not required to recommend text-books. 
 Six annual elections of state superindendent, and 
 six annual reports by that officer, followed the 
 enactment of this law ; but, in 1851, the general 
 assembly refused to choose a superintendent, and 
 thus, through legislative neglect, state super- 
 ■ ision of the schools ceased. It was revived, how- 
 ever, under a new law, in 1856, which provided 
 for a board of education. To this board were in- 
 trusted substantially the same powers as those 
 granted to the earlier board of commissioners, 
 
 This officer was to keep a record ol' the official 
 
 statutes, to visit all pails of the state and deliver 
 hi noes on subjects pertaining to education, to 
 confer with town superintendents and visit 
 schools with them, to collect statistics, and to re- 
 port annually. Afterward, the supervision of the 
 normal schools, provided for in 1866, was com- 
 mitted to the board of education and their 
 secretary. — 'I he control and supervision of the 
 schools by a board of education continued till 
 1-71. when it was replaced by the present 
 system. — The state superintendents have been as 
 follows : (under the title of Superintendent of 
 Common Schools) Horace Eaton, 1845—50; 
 Charles G. Burnham, 1850—51; (as Secretary of 
 the Board of Education) J. S. Adams, 1 856—67; 
 A. E. Rankin, 1867—70; John H. French, 
 1870 — 74; las Superintendent of Education) 
 
 School System. The supervision and control 
 of the public schools of the state are committed to 
 a superintendent of education, who is elected 
 biennially by the legislature. His duties are 
 those discharged by the secretary of the board of 
 education previous to 1874. Town superintend- 
 
enls are chosen annually by the people. They 
 are required to visit the schools at least once a 
 year, to hold two examinations of teachers each 
 year, to grant certificates, and to report to the 
 
 state superintendent v a year, Knrh district 
 
 has a moderator, a clerk, a collector of taxes, a 
 treasurer, one or three auditors, ami a prudential 
 committee, consisting of one or three voters re- 
 siding in the district. These are all elected an- 
 nually. The public money belongs to the 
 towns, and is by them distributed to the dis- 
 tricts, where these exist. It is derived from 
 lands reserved for the use of schools in the orig- 
 inal grants of the townships, from gifts to the 
 towns, from the income derived from the United 
 States deposit fund, which is apportioned to the 
 several towns according to their population, and 
 from taxation. Each town using the district sys- 
 tem, is required to appropriate annually as public 
 money for the use of schools. Buch a sum as 
 would he raised by a tax of nine cents on each 
 dollar of the grand list of the town, increased l>y 
 one half the income from the United States de- 
 posit fund. Towns using the town system, are 
 required to appropriate as public money all in- 
 come for school purposes, derived from any of 
 the sources mentioned above, except taxation ; 
 and, in these towns, the selectmen may appropriate 
 for the support of schools sums not exceed- 
 ing the amount that would be raised by a tax of 
 fifty cents on a dollar of the grand list of the 
 town. All other moneys raised for school pur- 
 poses must be voted by the towns or by the dis- 
 quiets. Vermont has no state school fund. Each 
 town is required to support a school or schools, 
 the organization of which according to the town 
 or district system, is optional. The school-dis- 
 trict being the creation of the town, is subject, 
 in every respect, to town control. The public 
 schools are free to the inhabitants of the towns 
 or districts supporting them, and ample facilities 
 are furnished for the establishment and support 
 of graded and high schools. The studies pursued 
 by law in the common schools, are reading, spell- 
 ing, writing, arithmetic, English grammar, geog- 
 raphy, the history and constitution of the United 
 States and of Vermont, and good behavior. The 
 legal school age is from 5 to 20 years ; the 
 school year, 5 months or more. For children 
 between the ages of 8 and 14 years, and for a 
 period of 3 months, education is compulsory ; 
 and no child of this age. -who has resided a year 
 in the state can, without violation of the law, be 
 employed in any mill or factory, unless he has 
 attended a public school for 3 months during 
 the preceding year. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 organized school-districts, in 1874, was 2,224; 
 the number of fractional districts, 530 : the 
 number of common schools. 2,782. The amount 
 of money received during the school year ending 
 March 31., 1876, was as follows : 
 
 From local tax $42,5,958.69 
 
 " permanent fund 14,193.83 
 
 " other sources 10,006.05 
 
 Total $t-ii, I-.-. ii7 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 For salaries of teachers 1 137,471.27 
 ■• sites, buildings, and fur- 
 niture 67,010.83 
 
 •• fuel and incidentals 60,562.47 
 
 Total $565,044.57 
 
 The other chief items of school statistics are : 
 
 Number of children of school age '.i'V.77 
 
 enrolled in con 
 
 Average daily attendance 39,474 
 
 Number of teachers, males 665 
 
 females 3,448 
 
 Total 4,113 
 
 Normal Instruction.— There are three normal 
 schools in the state— at Castleton, Randolph, 
 and Johnson. Their financial management, and 
 the employing of teachers for them, is committed 
 to local boards of trustees. The arrangement of 
 
 of study is intrusted to the respective 
 boards of trustees and the superintendent of edu- 
 cation. The graduation of students is controlled 
 by aboard of examiners, and the teachers em- 
 ployed must be nominated and approved by 
 the state superintendent. The graduates from 
 these schools are licensed to teach in the state for a 
 term of years. An annual appropriation of 
 $1,500 is made by the state to each school.— The 
 Chittenden County Teachers' Association, organ- 
 ized in 1847, and the Vermont State Teachers' 
 Association, organized in 1848, hold annual 
 meetings. 
 
 Secondary and Denominational Instruction. 
 — In a few of the huge towns, the Roman Cath- 
 olics have established schools for the separate edu- 
 cation of their children, and movements tending 
 to the same end, are said to be in progress in other 
 towns. Private schools, incorporated as academies, 
 grammar schools, seminaries, etc., exist in all 
 parts of the state. The number of incorporated 
 academies, county grammar schools, and academic 
 departments of graded schools is about 100. 
 The number of pupils pursuing higher studies 
 was reported, in 1875, as 7,334. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Three institutions of 
 this grade exist in the state as follows : 
 
 Mi.MIi-bury College.... 
 Norwich University. . . . 
 University of Vermont. 
 
 Location four 
 
 Ml.Mlrliin'N 
 
 Northneld 
 Burlington 
 
 The Vermont Methodist Seminary and Fe- 
 male College, at Montpelier, is the only institu- 
 tion in the state exclusively devoted to the su- 
 perior instruction of women. The value of its 
 property is estimated at $80,000. Inl875.it 
 had 8 instructors and llili students. The Uni- 
 versity of Vermont also furnishes instruction to 
 women on the same conditions as to men. 
 
 Professional and Scu ntifi Instruction.— The 
 agricultural and scientific department of the 
 University of Vermont constitutes the State 
 Agricultural College, established in 18(15. It has 
 three regular courses. — one in theoretical and ap 
 plied chemistry, one in civil engineering, and one 
 in metallurgy and mining engineering. There is. 
 
842 
 
 VERMONT UNIVERSITY 
 
 also, a literary and scientific course, and a labo- 
 ratory course, the latter for students in the med- 
 ical department, and for teachers in academies 
 who are required to give instruction in chemistry. 
 [n 1875, the number of instructors was 7. and 
 the number of students, 'ill. Instruction in sci- 
 ence is also given iii tin' scientific department of 
 Norwich University, and instruction in medi- 
 cine, in the department for that purpose in the 
 University of Vermont. 
 
 ■in! Listriirtiiiii.— The Home for Destitute 
 
 Children, at Burlington, was founded in 1805, 
 its origin being a small private asylum, opened 
 at that time for seven indigent children. In 
 1867, a permanent fund of nearly $50,000, was 
 raised by subscription, and. in 1875, a new 
 building' was dedicated and opeued. 
 
 VERMONT, University of, at Burling- 
 ton. \'t.. was chartered in 1791, and opened in 
 1800. In 1865, the congressional land grant to 
 the state, for the support of an agricultural and 
 mechanical college, was transferred to it, and it 
 was incorporated as the University of Vermont 
 and Stale Agricultural College. A medical de- 
 partment was organized in 1809. Itissupported 
 
 other departments). The university has a library 
 of 17,000 volumes anil a valuable cabinet of 
 natural history. In the academic department, 
 there is. besides the classical course, a literary- 
 scientific course, embracing Latin, the modern 
 languages, and various branches of science, phys- 
 ical, political, mental. and moral. In the agricult- 
 ural and scientific department, there are courses 
 in agriculture, in chemistry, in civil engineering, 
 and in metallurgy and mining engineering. In 
 each department, special courses may be pur- 
 sued by those not candidates for a degree. Both 
 sexes are admitted to the academic and scien- 
 tific departments. In L875 -6, there were '21 in- 
 structors (12 in the medical department) and Ills 
 students (76 medical). The presidents of the 
 university have been as follows : the Rev. Daniel 
 Clarke Sanders, D. D., 1800—14 : the Rev. Sam- 
 uel Austin, D. D., 1815—21 ; the Rev. Daniel 
 Haskel, A. M., 1821 — 4; the Rev. Willard Pres- 
 ton, D. D., 1825—6 ; the Rev. James Marsh, 
 D.D.. |h'.;i;— 33; the Rev. John Wheeler, D. D., 
 1833—49; the Rev. Worthington Smith, D. D.. 
 1849—55; the Rev. Calvin Pease, D. D., 1855 
 —61 ; the Rev. Joseph Torrey, D. D.. L862— 6; 
 James Burrill Angell, LED'.. 1866—71; and 
 Matthew Ibnry Duekham, A. M., since 1871. 
 
 VILLANOVA, Augustinian Colleg-e of 
 St. Thomas of, coimnoiilv called Vilhimiru 
 
 by the tecs of stude 
 tuition, board, etc. 
 five months. The 1 
 umes. In the classi 
 necessary for gradual 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 preparatory classes, and four, to the collegiate. 
 The scientific course requires six years. There 
 is a commercial course of two years. The the- 
 ological department has a four years course. In 
 1875 — 6, there were 17 instructors (2 theological) 
 and 79 students (13 theological). '1 he presidents 
 have been as follows; (1) Fatricius Eugene 
 Moriarty, O.S.A.; (2) Jno. I". O'Dwyer, U.S.A.; 
 (3) Win'. Harnett. U.S.A.; (!) Ambrose A. Mul- 
 len, 0. S. A. ; (5) Patrick A. Stanton. U.S.A.: 
 
 (0) Thomas Galberry, U.S.A.; (7) the Very Rev. 
 Thomas C.Middleton, D.D., U.S.A.. the present 
 incumbent (187 1 ). 
 
 VIRGINIA, the oldest of the thirteen orig- 
 inal states of the American Union, having an 
 area of about 45,000 sq. m., and a population, 
 according to the federal census of 1870, of 
 1,225,163, of whom 712.089 were whites, and 
 512,841 colored persons. 
 
 Educational History, — The history of educa- 
 tion in Virginia may be divided into periods 
 marked by the ureal political epochs of the stale: 
 
 (1) From 1607 to 1776; (II From 1 770 to 1865; 
 (III) From 1805 to the present time. 
 
 J. From 1607 tu 1770. — Among the first cares 
 of the Virginia colony was the provision for 
 education. As early as 1 01 9, some provision was 
 made for a college, and for a free preparatory 
 
 Bel I; but the massacre of 1022 destroyed 
 
 these nascent institutions, and left education 
 without any organized form until the creation 
 of the College 'of William and .Mary, in 1693. 
 During the first three quarters of the 18th 
 century, this college served well its objects, 
 whilst the lower branches were taught by clergy- 
 men, parents, and chance teachers. The germs 
 of Washington College and Hampden Sidney 
 College were planted near the close of this pe- 
 riod. Some abortive efforts were made to edu- 
 cate Indians and negroes. 
 
 II. From 1770 to 1805.— The education of 
 the people was an object of solicitude with the 
 Virginia legislature, even during the Revolution- 
 ary war, as was evinced by the report of an able 
 committee, with Mr. Jefferson at its head, in 
 favor of a scheme of public instruction. The 
 plan reported was finally adopted in 1790, with, 
 however, an important modification, which, by 
 changing it from a mandatory state system to an 
 optional comity system, occasioned its failure. 
 '1 he next public movement was the creation of a 
 literary fund in 1810, the interest of which was 
 at first devoted exclusively to the education of 
 
 B , and yielded an animal revenue of about 
 ,000, of which $80,000 was apportioned 
 g the counties for paying the tuition of 
 uior children, chiefly in private schools, 
 the- remainder was' ultimately given to 
 tat.- University and the Military institute. 
 
 embrace a period of 
 
 seven years, three of which are devoted to the i their tuition fees at a certain fixed rate, whic 
 
varied at differ* 
 Multitudes of 
 30,000 in one 
 who otherwise < 
 of receiving thi 
 But badly qui 
 ployed, the poo 
 
 ; from 4 to 8 cents a day. 
 - sometimes more than 
 ere thus sent to sehool, 
 ive had no opportunity 
 t elements of education, 
 lachers wire often em- 
 mced a feeling of humil- 
 iation, ignorance was but slightly diminished, 
 and the working of the system was so unsatis- 
 factory that, every few years, efforts were made 
 to provide something better. In 1829, an act 
 was passed by the legislature, looking to a com- 
 bination of 'private and public means for the 
 maintenance of schools five to all. To this end, 
 the school commissioners in any county were 
 authorized to district the county, and to offer to 
 contribute two-fifths toward the cost of the 
 building of a school-house in each district, and 
 one hundred dollars towards maintaining a 
 teacher, if the people would do the rest by vol- 
 untary contribution. Ina few counties, the ex- 
 periment was tried vigorously, but not with 
 much success any where. Soon after the census 
 of 1840 hail revealed, for the first time, the large 
 proportion of illiteracy existing among the 
 whites, a stroii-- an. 1 well-nigh successful move- 
 ment was made to establish a slate system of 
 public free schools; but, in passing through the 
 legislature, the scheme was marred, as Jefferson's 
 had been before it. by giving it the shape of sim- 
 ply authorizing any county to adopt a free 
 school system for itself. This act was passed in 
 1846, and nine counties by popular vote adopted 
 the system; but, owing to defects, it was not 
 satisfactory anywhere. The "Pauper System'' 
 still prevailed until the revenues of the literary 
 Fund were applied to the military defense oi the 
 state. — Unsatisfactory as was tin' condition of 
 primary education during this period, the higher 
 branches, on the other hand, were studied by an 
 unusually large proportion of the Virginian 
 youth. Many "young men sought a liberal edu- 
 cation at Harvard and Yale, and especially at 
 Princeton college, while s< 
 William and Mary, II.- 
 Washington colleges sup) 
 vanced education in the 
 opening of the State 1'niv 
 sequently were added Hal 
 and Henry, Richmond, and Roanoke colleges 
 of which a more particular account is given else- 
 where. A constantly increasing number of sec- 
 ondary schools existed in the state, and some 
 of them were conducted by highly educated 
 men.— In 18.1s. an institution was founded by 
 the state for the instruction and maintenance oi 
 the deaf and dumb and the blind, and was en- 
 dowed with an annuity of $35,000. The only 
 special provision for female education consisted 
 
 of private and de [national academies. 
 
 HI. From 1865 to 1875.— At the .lose of 
 the civil war. in 1865, schools of all grades were 
 prostrate within the territory remaining to Vir- 
 ginia; but immediate efforts were made to revive 
 them, and the census showed that the general 
 school attendance in 1870 was not greatly below 
 
 crossed the ocean. 
 len Sidney, and 
 the means of ad- 
 e previous to the 
 
 that of ls<;0. ]!y this time, however, about one- 
 sixth of the pupils were colored, owing to the 
 
 .-idles and bv the I'reediuci,, I. mean. Increased 
 poverty and' the failure oi revenue from the 
 Literary Fund occasioned the tailing off of at- 
 tendance among the whites.— In L869, the new 
 state constitution prepared by the convention of 
 1867—8, assembled under ' the Congressional 
 Reconstruction Acts, became the organic law of 
 the state. This constitution provided for a 
 system of public free schools to be supported b\ 
 taxation, slate and local, and by the interest 
 derived from the Literary Fund. The .system 
 was to be administered impartially as between 
 the races, and to be in full operation by 187G. 
 The first legislature which met after the adop- 
 tion of the constitution promptly took up the 
 subject, chose a stale superintendent of public 
 instruction, and, on the 11th of July. 1870, 
 passed a complete school law, embodying a 
 thorough and effective public free-school system, 
 which was immediately put into successful oper- 
 ation, and has grown steadily in strength and 
 usefulness. — Before the establishment of the 
 public-school system in Virginia, we ascertain, 
 from the census of 1860 and other sources, that 
 there were aboul 67,000 children attending school 
 in the present limits of Virginia, of whom 31,500 
 were pauper children, whose instruction was paid 
 for out of a portion of the interest of the Liter- 
 ary Fund. The entire amount expended on 
 these pauper children was $80, 
 i i ist 1 1 id ion received was very rut 
 has been no great change in the aggregate of 
 population of the counties now constituting V ir 
 ginia since 1850. It may, therefore, be instructive 
 to observe the school 'attendance iii all schools, 
 public and private, at different periods: 
 
 I;. L850 51,808 (U. IS. Census) 
 
 " 1860 (17,024 
 
 " INTO ->s,074 
 
 " 1875 207,771 (Va. School Returns) 
 
 (If these, the colored pupils were about 10,000 
 in 187(1. and 58,760 in L875.— 
 
 Almost immediately on the establishment of 
 the public-school system, in 1870, the number 
 of pupils attending the public schools alone was 
 more than twice as great as the total number 
 
 the 
 y. There 
 
 I Is. 
 
 ng the privates 
 
 to the I . S. census. 
 uberof pupils enrolled 
 58,974 ; in 187(1— 71. 
 341, or an increase of 
 
 . The en roll nt of 
 
 led, while the colored 
 
 both 
 bites 
 
 increased from 89,734, in L871, to L29,54o, in 
 1875; that of the colored pupils, from 38,554, 
 in 1871, to 54,941. in 187.=).— About $25,000, 
 more or less has been annually distributed in the 
 
844 VIRG 
 
 state from the Peabody fund. The object and 
 conditions of distribution are the same in Vir- 
 ginia as in the other Southern States. The money 
 has been exceedingly useful, far more than would 
 have been the same amount forming part of the 
 ordinary local funds. There has been but one 
 state superintendent in Virginia, — William 
 II. Ruffner, LL. 1)., elected inT^O, and still in 
 office (1877). 
 
 School Si/stem. — The system is administered 
 by a state* board of education, a superintend- 
 ent of public instruction, county and city 
 superintendents of schools, and district trustees. 
 The board of education consists of the gov- 
 ernor, the superintendent of public instruction, 
 and the attorney-general. It controls the state 
 school fund, appoints and removes county and 
 city superintendents, and also district trustees, 
 the latter absolutely, and the former subject 
 to confirmation by the senate. The city school 
 trustees are appointed by the city councils, but 
 are removable by the state board. There are no 
 popular votes in reference to either school offi- 
 cers or taxation. The state board is the final 
 tribunal for the decision of all appeals from the 
 action of the state superintendent. It is also 
 charged with regulating uniformity of text- 
 books, and all other matters of detail not ex- 
 pressly provided for by the law. The super- 
 intendent of public instruction is elected by the 
 legislature for four years, and receives a salary 
 of §'2,0(10, and §.">00 additional for traveling ex- 
 penses. He is provided with an office in the 
 state capitol, and has two clerks. He is the chief 
 executive officer of the school system. His duties 
 are to see to the enforcement of the school laws 
 and regulations, and to promote an educational 
 spirit among the people, to interpret the school 
 laws, to decide appeals from the action of the 
 county superintendents, to instruct and super- 
 vise the school officers, to provide blanks, to ap- 
 portion state school funds, to make tours of in- 
 spection, to require reports of local officers, and 
 to make an annual report, which goes to the 
 legislature through the board of education, and 
 is printed at state expense. County and city 
 superintendents are appointed for four years; 
 their pay is graduated according to population 
 ami number of schools, but outside of the cities 
 no superintendent can receive more than $700 
 a year, to be drawn equally from state and coun- 
 ty funds. They are charged with the usual 
 duties of such officers in the most approved 
 school systems. There are three district school 
 trustees in each magisterial district (which cor- 
 responds to the township in other states). 
 Besides the district boards, there is a county 
 school board, composed of all the district trustees, 
 with the county superintendent as president. 
 The county board annually examines the records 
 and vouchers of the district boards, and furnishes 
 to the supervisors of the county estimates for 
 the amounts wanted for school purposes. Teach- 
 ers are examined and licensed by the county 
 superintendent, and appointed by the district 
 boards under written contracts. The six primary 
 
 branches, reading, spelling, writing, arithmetic, 
 grammar, and geography, are required to be 
 taught in all the public schools, and other branches 
 are allowed in the rural districts under restric- 
 tions. The law imposes no restriction on studies 
 or the general management in the larger cities, 
 the subject being regulated by the city school 
 boards. The schools are free to all children be- 
 tween 5 and 21 years of age, residing in the dis- 
 trict, without charge for tuition, except that a 
 monthly charge of §2.50 may be made for the 
 higher branches, which are taught, under pre- 
 scribed regulations, in some of the schools. Equal 
 educational privileges are si 'cured by law to white 
 and colored children, but they must be taught 
 in separate schools. The minimum school term 
 is 5 months, and 1 ."> is the minimum number of 
 pupils prescribed to constitute a school. School- 
 houses are provided and furnished at the expense 
 of the district. School/tends arc derived from the 
 state, the county, and the district. The state funds 
 embrace the interest on the Ijterary Fund, a 
 capitation tax of one dollar on every male citizen, 
 and a tax of one mill on every dollar's worth 
 of property in the state. Out of the state funds 
 are paid the expenses of the central office, and a 
 portion of the salaries of the county and city 
 superintendents ; the rest is apportioned among 
 the counties and cities to be used exclusively for 
 the payment of teachers, except that the county 
 superintendent's salary may be supplemented 
 from this source in an amount not exceeding 
 that received from the state. District funds 
 (where they do not exceed a property levy of 5 
 cents on the §100) are used exclusively for school- 
 houses, furniture, incidental expenses, and for 
 buying books for indigent children. Local funds 
 are raised by the supervisors on the presentation 
 of estimates from the school boards, but the 
 estimates may be cut down by the supervisors. 
 Cities having more than 10,00(1 inhabitants are 
 allowed to manage their own school affairs in 
 most respects. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The wdiole number 
 of school-districts in the state is 458 ; of public 
 schools, 4.185. The graded system has been 
 adopted in all the cities and towns, and in many 
 thickly-settled country places ; so that, in 1875, 
 there were 155 of such organizations, each hav- 
 ing from 2 to 13 teachers. Some of the higher 
 branches are usually taught in the upper grades. 
 The schools are, with some exceptions, for both 
 sexes. 
 
 The most important school statistics (for 1875) 
 are the following : 
 
 Whole number of pupils enrolled 184,486 
 
 " " " " in average attendance. 103,927 
 
 Percentage of school population enrolled 38.2 
 
 No. of teachers in public schools 4,262 
 
 Average number of months schools were taught 5.59 
 
 Value of public-school property $757,181 
 
 Entire expenditure for public education. . . .(1,021,396 
 
 Average monthly salary of teachers $30.48 
 
 Win ilc in i. of pupils in public a ml pi, yatc schools 207,771 
 " teachers " " " " 5,581 
 
 Normal Instruction. — Legal provision has not 
 yet been made for normal instruction . There 
 
are three colored normal schools supported by 
 foreign means ; and normal courses are supplied 
 by some of the colleges. This is the case in 
 Roanoke College, at Salem, and (for females) in 
 Hollin's Institute, and Marion Female College. 
 The Hampton Normal and Agricultural Insti- 
 tute is accomplishing an important work in the 
 education of colored teachers. In 1875, it had 
 
 Is instructors and 243 students. — Tcochcrs' in- 
 stitutes are held in most of the counties of the 
 state ; and the larger of these receive assistance 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — Three cities have 
 public high schools, separated from the lower 
 grades, and organized somewhat differently. But, 
 commonly the higher branches form a mere con- 
 tinuation of tin' lower, and are somewhat inter- 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The important insti- 
 tutions of this grade are enumerated in the fol- 
 lowing table : 
 
 Km. tv \ Hi my Cull.. 
 Hampden Nidm v I nil. 
 Kamli'li'li .Mai-mi lull. 
 Kii'linniud College. .. 
 
 Itoani'ki' College 
 
 University of Nirginia 
 Washout. ill \ Lee Uii. 
 William A- Mar; foil. . 
 
 npplo 
 
 1874, 
 
 menting the public funds, a law, passed in 
 allows a tuition fee to be charged of $2.50 per 
 month, which is the only fee allowed in con- 
 nection with the public-school system. Efforts 
 are making to define the limits of secondary 
 education, both public and private. 
 
 Private and Corporate Schools.— /Taking all 
 grades of education, about 25,000, or less than 
 one-eighth of the school-going population, are 
 now educated outside of tin- state schools. The 
 number of private schools (exclusively primary) 
 is about 050. They arc chiefly alphabet schools, 
 or those intended for children of from five to 
 ten years of age. Then' are also from l(i0 to 175 
 private schools, called academies or classical 
 schools, nearly every one of w hich has a primary 
 department in which a majority of the pupils are 
 found. A few schools (including Mime orphan 
 asylums) are supported by church contributions, 
 the most of which are ( latholic or Episcopal. A 
 large proportion of the academies, particularly 
 those for girls, are under some special denomi- 
 national influence. Superior teachers are often 
 found iu these schools, both for females and for 
 males. Female incorporated academies are 
 more numerous, and generallj better provided 
 for than those for males, and some of them are 
 called colleges. But as respects college education 
 proper, there has been no provision made for 
 girls from either private or public means, to be 
 compared with that made for boys. The higher 
 branches are taught, to a greater or less extent. 
 in about seventy female schools, twenty of 
 which are incorporated. There are about sixty 
 private male schools for secondary instruction, 
 only six of which are incorporated. Some of the 
 corporate academics have small endowments, but 
 the great majority of the schools are wholly de- 
 pendent on tuition fees and board bills. Besides 
 the academies for one or the other sex, there are 
 about 40 in which girls and boys are taught to- 
 gether. There is a very small number of elee- 
 mosynary boarding-schools, supported by the an- 
 nual interest of funds given by benevolent indi- 
 viduals. The number of pupils in private 
 schools, both primary and secondary, in 1875, 
 was 23,285, of whom 19,466 were white, and 
 3,819, colored children. 
 
 Emory | 183S |M. E. S. 
 
 Hainii. Sulney 177-i Preab. 
 Ashland j 1832 M. E. S. 
 
 Richmond \ 1841 Baptist 
 
 Salem ls',3 Lnth. 
 
 Charlottesville Isl'j N..11 seet. 
 Lexington 1749 Non Beet. 
 
 Williamsburg 1693 Non Beet. 
 For further information in regard to these institu- 
 tions, see under their respective titles.) 
 
 There were '.) institutions for the superior in- 
 struction of women that reported to the United 
 States Bureau of Education in 1875, as follows: 
 Albemarle Female Institute (non-sectarian), at 
 Charlottesville; Farmville College (Meth. Epis. 
 S.),at Farmville: llollins Institute (Baptist), at 
 Botetourt Springs ; Marion Female Institute 
 (Evangelical Lutheran), at Marion: Martha 
 Washington College (Meth. Epis.). at Abingdon; 
 Petersburg Female College (Methodist), at Pe- 
 tersburg ; Southern Female College (non-sec- 
 tarian), at Petersburg; Virginia Female Institute 
 (non-sectarian), at Staunton; and Wesleyan 
 Female Institute (Meth. Epis. S.j.at Staunton. 
 Most of these institutions are authorized to 
 confer degrees. 
 
 Professional and Scientific Instruction. — The 
 institutions which afford instruction in science, 
 theology, law, and medicine, are enumerated 
 below : 
 
 Schools of Science. 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 'i\ 
 
 H 
 
 y.J 
 
 Hampton Normal and Agri- 
 cultural Institute 
 
 New Market Polytechnic In- 
 
 Hampton 
 
 New Market 
 
 Blaeksburg 
 Lexington 
 
 1870 
 
 1872 
 1839 
 
 20 
 7 
 
 208 
 
 Virginia Agricultural and 
 
 Mechanical College 
 
 Virginia Military Institute. 
 
 222 
 221 
 
 The Hampton Normal and Agricultural In- 
 stitute is a manual labor school, and a reproduc- 
 tion of the I^ahainaluna School in the Sand- 
 wich Islands. It is intended for colored stu- 
 dents of both sexes. The boys are taught 
 (besides the ordinary elementary and academic 
 branches) farm work and carpenter work, and 
 the girls, sewing and domestic work. It was 
 established by northern people, in conjunction 
 with the Freedmen's Bureau, and has received 
 probably $500,000 from sources beyond the 
 state. The Virginia Agricultural and Mechan- 
 ical College was opened in 1S72, and is sup- 
 ported almost exclusively by the proceeds 
 of two-thirds of the land scrip donated by 
 Congress, the other third having been as- 
 signed to the colored school at Hampton — the 
 entire proceeds of the scrip amounting to 
 about $30,000. The state legislature has given 
 $45,000 for buildings, and 820,000 was paid by 
 
Sir! 
 
 VIRGINIA 
 
 the county where it is located (Montgomery). 
 The scheme of the college fixes it at about the 
 grade of a high school, with special scientific 
 and practical developments. It has a three 
 years' curriculum, bifurcating after the first year 
 into a special agricultural and a special mechan- 
 ical course, each of two years. The Virginia 
 Military Institute was opened at Lexington, in 
 1839, on a plan similar to that of West Point, 
 and at once became popular. The annuity, 
 originally $6,000, was subsequently increased ;o 
 $15,000; and the number of cadets, before tne 
 war was about 250 (50 of them being state 
 cadets). The buildings were burned in 1864; 
 but since the war they have been restored, and 
 the institution has been more flourishing than 
 ever. The academic staff consists of 1 1 profess- 
 ors and 9 assistants, the course of study, which 
 is chiefly of a military and scientific character, 
 being arranged for four years. Instruct inn in 
 industrial chemistry, civil and mining engineer- 
 ing, and agriculture, is also given in special de- 
 partments of the University of Virginia, and in 
 civil and mining engineering in Washington and 
 Lee University. 
 
 Schools of Theology. 
 
 Name 
 
 Location 
 
 When 
 
 Religions 
 denomi- 
 
 Kichmnml Institute.. 
 Kt.Jnhu-sTheul s.-m. 
 Thrnl. Si-m.of the Ev. 
 
 Luth. Church 
 
 Thr.il. Sem. of the 
 
 Prot. Epis. Church. 
 Union Tlin.l s.-iii. "I 
 
 the Gen. Assembly. 
 
 Richmond 
 Norfolk 
 
 Salem 
 
 Fairfax Co. 
 
 Hampden Sidney 
 
 1868 
 
 1831 
 1823 
 1824 
 
 t::i|illst 
 E.C. 
 
 Luth. 
 
 Pr. Epis. 
 
 Presb. 
 
 The Richmond Institute was established for 
 the purpose of preparing colored young men for 
 the ministry, or for teaching. The qualifications 
 for admission are a good moral character and fair 
 intellectual ability. The number of instructors, 
 in 1875, was 3 ; the number of students, 45. 
 The Theological Seminary of the Evangelical 
 Lutheran Church, in 1875, had 3 instructors 
 and II students; the Theological Seminary of 
 the Protestant Episcopal Church, during the 
 sameyear.had 5 instructors and 51 students; and 
 the Union Theological Seminary of the Pres- 
 byterian General Assembly. 4 instructors and 74 
 Students.— Law is taught 'in the Law School of 
 the University of Virginia, and the School of 
 Law and Equity of Washington and Lee Uni- 
 versity. In the tor r. t lie number of instruct- 
 ors, in 1875, was 2 : the number of students, 93; 
 in the latter, 2 instructors and 1 7 students. — 
 The Medical College of Virginia, at Richmond, 
 is the only medical school in the state not con- 
 nected with a college or university. It was 
 founded in 1851, and, in 1875, had 18 profess- 
 ors and instructors and 37 students. The 
 course of study covers 2 years. Instruction in 
 medicine is also given in the medical depart- 
 ment of the University of Virginia, ■which pro- 
 vides a course of a year, and, in L875,numbered 
 50 students and 5 professors. The equipment 
 of the latter department for medical instruction 
 
 VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 is very complete, and, in some respects, its facil- 
 ities for this purpose are unequalled. 
 
 Sjicci'il /ttxtriirliiui.—'lhv Institution for the 
 Education of the I leaf and Dumb, and the 
 Blind, was opened in 1838, at Staunton. In- 
 struction is given in the elementary branches of 
 an English education, and in several trades and 
 mechanical pursuits. There were 7 instructors 
 and 100 pupils in the deaf-mute department, in 
 1875; and in the department for the blind, 8 
 instructors and employes, and 1"-' pupils. The 
 .Miller .Manual Labor School had not been 
 opened up to the summer of L876 ; hut it has 
 an endowment of £l,lMill.(l(>o left tor its founda- 
 tion by the will of Samuel Miller, of Lynch- 
 burg, who died in 1869, leaving also the sum of 
 $300,000 for founding and maintaining an 
 orphan asylum at Lynchburg, and SI 00.000 to 
 the University of Virginia for an agricultural 
 department. The Manual Labor School, in the 
 county of Albemarle, is for the benefit of the 
 poor orphan white children of that county. 
 
 Educational Literature. — 'I he Educational 
 Journal (monthly) is published jointly by the 
 state association of teachers and the superin- 
 tendent of public instruction, 1 2 pages of which 
 are official, and paid for out of the school funds. 
 A copy of the journal is sent to each county 
 superintendent, and also to the clerk of each 
 district school board. 
 
 VIRGINIA, University of, in Albemarle 
 Co., Va., a mile and a half west of Charlottes- 
 ville, was chartered in 1819 and opened in L824. 
 It owes its organization, plan of government, and 
 system of instruction to 'I nomas Jefferson. It is 
 partly supported by an annual state appropri- 
 ation of $30,000, and partly by tuition fees. In 
 consideration of the appropriation, the university 
 receives, free of tuition in the academic schools, 
 students from the state over 18 years of age who 
 have a suitable preparation. The tuition fees are 
 ordinarily from §75 to $110 per year. The uni- 
 versity library contains 36,000 volumes. Appli- 
 cants tor admission must be at least 16 years of 
 age. In establishing the university of Virginia 
 Mr. Jefferson, for the first time in America, 
 threw open the doors of a University, in the true 
 sense of the name, providing, as amply as the 
 available means would permit, for thorough in- 
 struction /// iinh'jiciiili-iit srhmils, in all the chief 
 : branches of learning. Every student may select 
 the schools he will attend, but in the academic 
 department he is required, as a rule, to attend at 
 least three. The professors are paid in part by 
 salaries, and in part by tuition fees from pu- 
 pils who attend their several schools. The 
 schools in operation are as follows : 1 , Latin ; 
 2, Greek; 3, modern languages ; 4, moral philos- 
 ophy; 5, history, general literature, and rhetoric; 
 (i. mathematics; 7, natural philosophy (including 
 mineralogy and geology) ; s, general and applied 
 chemistry; 9, applied mathematics, engineering, 
 and architecture : 10, analytical and agricultural 
 chemistry; 1 I. natural history, experimental and 
 practical agriculture ; 12, comparative anatomy, 
 physiology , and surgery; 13, anatomy and materia 
 
medica; 14, medical jurisprudence, obstetr 
 and the practice of medicine ; 15, chemistry ; 
 pharmacy; L6, common and statute law; 
 equity, mercantile, international, constitute 
 and civil law, and government. The acade 
 
 careful use of the young voice, at home, in 
 school, in the church, and wherever there is any 
 
 vocal exercises should be within a limited com- 
 pass, neither too high nor too low. All for- 
 
 of il Proficient, tor satisf 
 
 ctory attainments 
 
 in certain subjects of study 
 
 (2) Graduate in a 
 
 school; (3) Bachelor of Lett* 
 
 ts; i 1 1 Bai helor of 
 
 Science: (5) Hah,.],,,- of Art 
 
 ; and (6) Master of 
 
 Arts. The professional degri 
 
 ■s are Bachelor of 
 
 Law, Doctor of Medicine, Un 
 
 il Engineer, Mining 
 
 
 
 
 
 fixed time is required for tl 
 
 ■ ■ attainment of a 
 
 degree; but, in some of the p 
 
 
 course ci lonly occupies 1 h 
 
 
 —6, there were 17 instructor 
 
 and 330 students. 
 
 James F. Harrison, M. 1)., is 
 
 (1877) the chair- 
 
 man of the faculty. 
 
 
 VOICE, Culture of the. 
 
 The human voice 
 
 tance th; 
 
 id as the audible expression of 
 
 hysieal characteristics of its pos- 
 sfore, no means employed in the 
 if c lucation are of more impor- 
 that have regard to its culture. 
 [ts powers are often widely misunderstood and 
 misapplied, som •times abused and destroyed. 
 In the very beginning of education, large num- 
 bers of hoys, in addition to marked inherited 
 pei-uliaritii'S, such as defe. 'five ears, weak limes, 
 asthmatic and husky bronchial tubes, contracted 
 chests, elongated palates, and inflamed, swollen 
 tonsils, are permitted to indulge in the perni- 
 cious habit of loud shouting and hurrahing, and 
 in the baleful and distressing use of the chest 
 tones, so frequently heard in the singing of male 
 pupils. Every hoy should be made to under- 
 stand that if he thus abuses his voice, he must not 
 expect to overcome his constitutional defects, or 
 retain a tone which, even by assiduous practice, 
 will become agreeable to his audience, in read- 
 ing, declamation, or vocal music. Girls, while in 
 ini!i\ instances they have all the inherited dis- 
 advantages above referred to, present, through 
 their more delicate organization and guarded 
 habits, far more promising material for the pro- 
 duction of purely musical effects. Parents and 
 teachers may well take warning, also, in the 
 education of either boys or girls, against a long- 
 continued strain upon their vocal chords. Many 
 a young voice has been completely ruined 
 by this untimely forcing of the powers of the 
 youthful candidate for declamatory or musical 
 honors. A child five years of age, for example, 
 is placed on a chair, to amuse a large audience, 
 by speaking or singing in a forced utterance, 
 and with an unnaturally loud chest tone, entirely 
 beyond its years, or powers of endurance. Such 
 a tax upon its vocal chords, if long continued, 
 i.s exceedingly injurious. The medium or fal- 
 setto tone, that most mellow, most musical, most 
 sweet and expressive part of the female voice, or 
 of the unchanged voice of the boy, gradually de- 
 teriorates, and is finally lost by this injurious 
 process. The remedy for this destruction lies 
 in the eaily protection of the health, and in the 
 
 ;; s;::'i 
 
 ng^Ton 
 
 f it.-.lf 
 
 itactwi 
 
 h a sul.u 
 
 ousbody, 
 
 
 me deer, 
 
 •at least, 
 
 ££ 
 
 Which 1 
 
 le. All 
 
 in, i ml,. 
 
 mltivated 
 
 tl ugh 
 
 S, and of 
 
 shoulder braces, trusses, and abdominal sup- 
 porters. Exhaling involves that careful use of 
 the diaphragm, which keeps the intercostal 
 nerves and muscles in a state of tension, in or- 
 der that the lungs may have their fullest play. 
 To know when and where to inhale and to 
 exhale, is as necessary to the speaker, in his 
 written or extemporaneously delivered sen- 
 tences, as it is to the singer, in the enuncia- 
 tion of his musical phrases; and, in such case, 
 it assumes the dignity of consummate art, — 
 an indispensable and prime necessity to the con- 
 scientious interpreter of either classic language 
 or classic music. Without ease, sustained repose. 
 and a method made effective through long habit, 
 in the management of the breath. all subsequent 
 attention to details in the art of speaking or 
 singing is measurably lost. Demosthenes, with 
 pebbles in his mouth, declaiming to the winds 
 and waves on the seashore, and Braham, lifting 
 up his voice amid the hills and forests of North- 
 umberland, may profitably be remembered and 
 imitated by all students who desire to remedy 
 defects, and to acquire new breathing power. — 
 A graceful attitude, and thorough skill in the 
 proper use of the breath being gained, the close 
 sympathy always existing betwei n the bronchial 
 tubes and the stomach next demands attention. 
 A rapid and complete digestion is esteemed by 
 all intelligent persons the greatest of physical 
 blessings; and to no one is it a more necessary 
 condition of success than to the public speaker 
 or singer. So important is this to the pro- 
 fessional vocalist, that those times, in the daily 
 routine of duty, which find the lungs and 
 bronchial tubes freest from the oppression aris- 
 ing from sympathy with the stomach, in its 
 process of digestion, should be selected for prac- 
 tice. Proceeding upward toward the organs of 
 articulation, we arrive at the trachea, or wind- 
 pipe, the larynx, and the pharynx. It is a pro- 
 lific subject of discussion among speakers and 
 singers, whether the character of the tone de- 
 
848 
 
 VOICE 
 
 pends as much upon the size of the lungs, the I chromatic, using the medium, veiled, or somber 
 bronchial tubes, the windpipe, the larynx, and tone, will gradually change this objectionable 
 the pharynx, as it does upon the condition of habit. There are not wanting cases, also, of 
 the muscles and nerves, and more remotely still , contralto voices which have been destroyed by 
 upon the general organization, temperament, attempts to cultivate the tone and compass of 
 will, and endurance of the speaker or singer. It the soprano, — a process absurd and unnatural 
 is surprising to notice the compass and the to the last degree. Notwithstanding the efforts 
 variety of tone which the larynx can produce, of some late authors to ignore the division of 
 by using the vowels alone. Beginning with the the female voice into at least three different 
 lowest sounds of the base voice, and ascending registers, namely, the chest, the medium or fal- 
 in regular order through its limits, of one and a setto, and the head ; these registers are now gen- 
 half or two octaves; through the compass of erally recognized by the highest and most 
 the baritone, with a similar register, though competent authorities. Elaborate methods and 
 somewhat higher in pitch; ami. successively, studies for the development of the. contralto, 
 through the registers assigned to the tenor, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices have been 
 contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices, devised with these three divisions constantly 
 there is embraced a compass of four octaves of in view. Some even assert that there are five 
 available tones, susceptible of cultivation to an distinct registers, requiring as many different 
 almost infinite degree of excellence. Base voices modes of producing the tone, — a condition of 
 confine themselves mainly to the use of the the larynx and pharynx suggesting an expert- 
 chest tones throughout their entire register ; but ness in the management of the voice which may 
 the baritones, by a prudent use of the somber well be deemed bewildering. It is, however, too 
 tone, and of the medium register, greatly increase ■ certain to admit of a doubt, that the voices of 
 the pure quality and flexibility of the higher , the most accomplished female vocalists living 
 portions of their voices. For the orator or have been trained by recognizing this division 
 declaimer, there is no quality of tone compar- \ into the chest, medium or falsetto, and head 
 able to that of the orotund base or barytone registers, and are, moreover, preserved in their 
 voice ; and, in the oratorio and opera, it is as- , wonted availability by adhering to the same 
 signed to characters of inherent dignity and | method. Allusion has been made to the phar- 
 force. The tenor voice, undoubtedly, demands j ynx, or arched chamber immediately back of the 
 a combination of native and acquired qualities, palate, a most important modifier of the voice 
 which, in some countries, are exceedingly rare, in its passage from the larynx, and the expan- 
 In its uncultivated state it is thin, reedy, and J sion and contraction of which gives greater or 
 somewhat nasal ; but steady, persevering prac- i less volume of tone, especially if the root of the 
 tice upon the open vowels ah, oh, and oo, soon tongue be not artificially enlarged, so as to 
 corrects this defect, and renders the tenor, of all : produce an impure throaliness of tone, frequent- 
 male voices, the most tender and expressive. | ly heard in voices imperfectly cultivated and 
 Great care should be exercised by tenor voices, lest badly managed. To know the important in- 
 the clear timbre of the chest tone be carried too fluence of a healthy pharynx under complete 
 high, thereby crushing out the delicacy of the control, it is only necessary to compare the voice 
 real medium register, which is the most flexible of one possessing it, to that of a vocalist suffer- 
 and available part of the tenor voice. The ing with a cold in the head, or with a catarrhal 
 contralto, mezzo-soprano, and soprano voices en- affection and swollen tonsils. The difference in 
 counter a similar difficulty, at the very outset of j the clearness of the vibrations, and in the dif- 
 their practice, in combining the chest with the : fusive character of the tone, is very perceptible 
 falsetto or medium voice. While this difficulty and marked. — A clear knowledge of the organs 
 - which are employed in producing a vocal tone, 
 
 occurs in the higher register of the male voice, 
 it is found in the lower register of the female 
 voice, and presents obstacles in the way of 
 cultivation, which nothing but long and per- 
 sistent practice can overcome, though the strain 
 upon the nervous system is far less than 
 that experienced by the male voice. The 
 contralto yields to no other female voice in 
 depth and richness of tone, as is clearly evident 
 after listening to singers like D'Angri and Al- 
 boni. Naturally not so flexible as the soprano 
 or mezzo-soprano, it is yet endowed with a won- 
 derful power in causing effects replete with the worth remembering, unlc 
 most ardent passion, and with the most noble the meaning of the words 
 
 and of the proper combination of the registers 
 to secure power, purity, and equality throughout 
 the entire vocal compass being gained, the organs 
 of articulation present themselves for particular 
 consideration; and this leads directly to the sub- 
 ject of musical elocution. System and facility 
 in breathing, the employment of all the proper 
 organs, in their healthy condition, for the pro- 
 duction of a pure tone, expertness in reading 
 music, and the minutest attention to attitude 
 and gesture, will all fail to produce an impression 
 true conception of 
 id music, a bold 
 
 womanly feeling. There is a great temptation I enunciation, a distinct articulation, a well- 
 to abuse the lower register of the contralto , rounded phrasing, and an accurate intonation 
 voice by indulging in the disagreeable habit of be added to the acquirements of the finished 
 forcing the chest tones to a point bordering \ vocalist. Conception relates to both words and 
 
 U] asculineness, if not positive coarseness, music. If it be necessary for the speaker to 
 
 The practice of descending runs, diatonic and , study well the signification of words, in order to 
 
get at the true meaning of the poet, it is even 
 more necessary for the singer to do so, since the 
 effect of melody and harmony upon all per- 
 sons, is such as tn deprive them, measurably, 
 of the power, for the time being, of judging of 
 the signification of words'. The singer who rests 
 upon the simple effecl of his melody, is certainly 
 as weak as the Bpeaker who relies upon his man- 
 ner of uttering tine language, rather than upon 
 the strength of the ideas involved. A true con- 
 ception, it is hardly necessary to add, is the 
 rarest of possessions : >ng modern vocalists. 
 
 only implies that .■•uiij.-i.it ion. . .r careful throw- 
 
 < JE 849 
 
 tive. nor the adjective from the noun, by a sepa- 
 
 be separated. Long diatonic or chromatic runs, 
 
 1 1 r i H , ii ii< is. trills, anil e,»/. n:ns. must. however, lie 
 
 is well as 
 
 »1 ,ih, 
 
 which, n.it particularly recognizing the inflec- 
 tions of reading or declamal is entirely ab- 
 sorbed in the far mure permeating channel of 
 sound, a melo ly or recitative song according to 
 a given key or scale. I >r. Bush alludes to this as 
 the special advantage which the singer has over 
 the speaker. Slowness and quickness of utter- 
 ance are also controlled, to so great a degree, in 
 music, by the relations of the notes, the bar, the 
 fractional measure-marks, and words indicating 
 varieties of movement, that there is Left less lib 
 ertj to .he singer than to the speaker, in many 
 respects. Butsuch curtailment ofliberty (which 
 liberty, by the way, is often a clog to inex- 
 perienced speakers), and, by consequence, greater 
 concentration upon the characteristics of the 
 melody, only tie the singer to a more vivi.1 con- 
 ception of the subject, and to a more distinct 
 pronunciation of the words. For the correction 
 of marked inelegancies of pronunciation, w hether 
 of foreign or native growth, no means are so 
 effective as the careful study of the classic lan- 
 guages, together with the study of the principal 
 modern languages taught by native professors. 
 Of these latter, the Italian is' most musical in it- 
 self, and, therefore, is most useful to the sical 
 
 student, whose pronunciation of his native lan- 
 guage, particularly if he he English or German, 
 will be vastly improved by often reading and 
 singing in the most euphonious of modern lan- 
 guages. Of distinct iiiiiriilntinn . it may in gen- 
 eral be said, that the vowels only are sung, while 
 
 the i sonants are articulated; in other words, 
 
 that the vowels are smnj. and the consonants are 
 spoken. In vocalizing alone, the larynx. obedient 
 to the mind and will, performs unassisted, save 
 by the lungs, trachea, pharynx, and diaphragm, 
 all those changes which promote power, puritv. 
 
 sweetness, an 1 flexibility of tone. S Light 
 
 chano is in the position of the jaws, tongue, and 
 lips are necessary in vocalizing with ah, ee, oh, 
 and i«) .■ but only the consonants, as initial, in- 
 termediate, or final letters, require a constant 
 and vigorous use of the tongue, teeth, and lips, 
 which are the chief agents in acquiring an effect- 
 ive articulation. Full respirations should be 
 the rule, and partial respirations the exception. 
 In plain music, where one or two notes are ap- 
 propriated to a syllable, the article should not 
 be separated from the noun or qualifying adjec- 
 
 npncs eooil 
 
 sinning: such a knowledge of the composer's idea 
 on I he part nt the singer, as shall not mar. to say 
 the least, cither the poetic or musical .symmetry 
 of what is sung. The singer should be able to 
 analyze the phrases he sines, in order that, in 
 melodic and harmonic construction, he may dis- 
 
 where they end.' Hut. if he cannot do this, he 
 should be able, intuitively to grasp a musical 
 passage to the fullest extent of its melodic 
 proportions, and spontaneously to present it 
 with such accessories as shall make it appear his 
 own. All the bright coloring which may be im- 
 parted by a vivid conception, a good pronuncia 
 tion and articulation, will be seriously dimmed 
 by defective phrasing, last, but byno means 
 least, there must be the accurate intonation 
 which is the result of a correct ear. Some per- 
 sons do not hear correctly, concords becomiiie to 
 
 ~\X\ 
 
 hat 
 
 with the 
 ability. The 
 
 g music 
 without 
 iv hear- 
 
 defective ears are by no means 
 of curse, to imitate musical 
 voice, in such cases, is an im] 
 commonness of the defect im i 
 eeed low in the scale of social be 
 where, in addition to poverty a 
 
 dation. there is superadded the ] 
 sence of youthful opportunities . 
 well sung or played. < 'mild all 
 exception, be gladdened, when 
 ing music correctly sung and played, the num- 
 ber of those who pass through life unmoved " by 
 the concord of sweet sounds." would be much 
 diminished. It is important, also, that the sounds 
 heard by children, be correct both as to melody 
 and rhythm, if it be expected that such children, 
 when grown, shall have a so-called good ear for 
 music. In remarking upon articulation, the 
 value of the vowel sounds ah, ee, nh. and oo was 
 noticed : and it is known that a thorough scale, 
 and rhythmical use of these, combined with all 
 the consonants as initial and final letters, will 
 not only develop a more distinct articulation, 
 but also a purer, more effective, and manageable 
 tone. For standard authorities, on this subject. 
 
 see Rush, Philosophy of the H I - - 
 
 (Phila.,1833); E ird Foi bnij eu Pi <tiol ri> 
 
 dekiVoixetde la Parole \ Paris, L866 ; Emani i i 
 bu;. ii. ]'.,,, I, ■, hi CI, ,nit i l.oiid.mi: 1 ! \ssim. , \rt 
 of Singing (Boston, 1856) : New Method (B 
 ton, L869); Emma Seilee, The Pi 
 (I'hila.. 1868). 
 
850 
 
 WABASH ('( ILL1K i K 
 
 WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVERSITY 
 
 WABASH COLLEGE, at Crawfordsville, I 
 Lid., chartered in 1833, is under Presbyterian 
 control. It has productive funds to the ami unit 
 of $240,000, and libraries containing 17,000 
 volumes. It has an English and commercial, a 
 preparatory, and a collegiate department, the ! 
 latter with a classical and a scientific course. 
 The cost of tuition is from $24 to $30 a year. 
 There are several scholarships. In 1875—6, 
 there were 12 instructors and '220 students (104 
 collegiate, 04 preparatory, and 52 English and 
 commercial). The Rev. Joseph 1\ Tuttle. D. [>., 
 is (1877) the president. 
 
 WACO UNIVERSITY, at Waco. Tex., 
 founded in 1861, is under Baptist control. ' 
 has a small endowment, but is supported chiefly 
 by tuition fees, the regular charge ranging from 
 $15 to $25 per term of five months. The libra- 
 ries contain about 2,500 volumes. It has a pre- 
 paratory department, a collegiate department 
 for females, and a classical and a scientific col- 
 legiate course for males. In 1875 — 6, there 
 were 11 instructors and 279 students (157 males 
 and 122 females). The Rev. Rufus C. Burle- 
 son, D. I)., is (1877) the president. 
 
 WAKE FOREST COLLEGE, inWake 
 Co., N. C. founded in IS.'U. is urn 
 control. It is supported by tuition fees ($: 
 per term of five months) and the income of an 
 endowment of $25,000. The libraries contain 
 about 8.000 volumes. The course of study com- 
 prises six schools — Latin, Greek, modern lan- 
 guages, mathematics, natural science, and moral 
 philosophy. There is also a preparatory and a 
 commercial course. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 pro- 
 fessors and 91 students. The presidents have 
 been: the Rev. Saml. Wait, D.D.; the Rev. Wm. 
 Hooper, LL. I).; the Rev. .lolm B. White: and 
 the Rev. W. M. Wingate, 1). 1)., the present in- 
 cumbent (1877). 
 
 WASHINGTON. See District of Columbia. 
 
 WASHINGTON COLLEGE, at Wash- 
 ington, Alameda Co., Cal., founded in 1872, for 
 the education of both sexes, is a non-sectarian 
 institution. It has a preparatory, and an academic 
 department with a four years' course. French, 
 Spanish, German, Greek, and Latin, instrumental 
 and vocal music, painting, drawing, etc. are op- 
 tional studies. The institution is supported by 
 the fees of students, the charge for tuition being 
 from $50 to $80 a year. In 1875—6, there were 
 10 instructors and 176 students. Silas S. Har- 
 mon, A. M., has been the principal since the 
 opening of the college. 
 
 WASHINGTON COLLEGE, at Chester- 
 town, Md., founded in 1782, is a non-sectarian 
 institution. There is a preparatory and a col- 
 legiate department. The cost of tuition, except 
 to holders of scholarships, ranges from $40 to 
 $60 a year. The library contains about L,300 
 volumes. In 1875 — 6, there were 3 instructors 
 and 37 students (10 preparatory and 27 col- 
 
 legiate). The presidents have been the Rev. Dr. 
 Wm. Smith, the Rev. l*r. Colin Ferguson, Dr. 
 Clowes, the Rev. I>r. Waters. II. W. Ringold, 
 
 the Rev. A. J. Sutton, R. C. Berkeley.and Wm. 
 .1. Rivers, the latter since 1873. 
 
 WASHINGTON AND JEFFERSON 
 COLLEGE, at Washington, Pa., under Pres- 
 byterian control, was formed, in 1865, by 
 the consolidation of Jefferson College (at Can- 
 onslmrg. chartered in 1802), and Washington 
 College (chartered in 1806). The former grew 
 out of the Canonsburg Academy, opened in 1791; 
 the latter had its origin in the Washington 
 Academy, chartered in 1787, and opened in 
 1789. The consolidated institution has an en- 
 dowment of $220,000, a cabinet, and libraries 
 containing 9,000 volumes. Tuition to holders 
 of scholarships is free ; to others the fee is $24 
 a year. There is a preparatory and a collegiate 
 department, the latter haying a. classical and a 
 scientific course. In 1875 — 6, there were 8 pro- 
 fessors and 175 students (140 collegiate and 35 
 preparatory). The presidents have been as fol- 
 lows: the Rev. Jonathan Edwards. D. D.. LL. D., 
 1866— 9; the Rev. Saml. J. Wilson. D. D.. LL. D. 
 (pro tern.), 1869 ; the Rev. James J. Brownson, 
 D.D. (pro tern.), 1870; and the Rev. Geo. P. 
 Hays, D. D.. since ]s70. 
 
 WASHINGTON AND LEE UNIVER- 
 SITY, at Lexineton. Va.. was chartered in 1 7K2. 
 Its germ was a mathematical and classical school, 
 
 In L776, the name was changed to Liberty Hall. 
 After several removals, it was located near Lex- 
 ington, in L785; and. in 1803, it was finally re- 
 moved to its present site, within the limits of 
 the town. The first commencement was held 
 in 1785. In 1796, Washington donated to the 
 institution the 100 shares of stock in the old 
 James River Company, which the legislature 
 had given him. and the name was changed to 
 Washington College. In 1803, the Cincinnati 
 Society appropriated their funds, nearly $25,000, 
 to the college. During the civil war, the insti- 
 tution was" suspended. Soon after the death 
 of Gen. Lee, in 1870, the present name was 
 adopted. The university is supported by tui- 
 tion fees (generally $70, a year, in the aca- 
 demic departments, and $85, in the professional 
 departments), and the income of endowments 
 amounting to $200,000. It has a library of 
 12,000 volumes, mineralogies!, geological, and 
 zoological cabinets, and valuable philosophical 
 and chemical apparatus. The distinguishing 
 features of the university are : (1) The arrange- 
 ment of the course of study into distinct elect- 
 ive schools or departments; (2) The adaptation 
 of the several departments to certain courses of 
 study, to each of which is attached a correspond- 
 ing degree. No degrees are conferred in course; 
 but all are based upon actual attainments in a 
 
WASHINGTON TERRITORY 
 
 completed course of study. The full course for 
 Bachelor of Philosophy is 3 years ; for Bache- 
 lor of Science and Arts, and Civil and Mining 
 Engineer, I years. In 1876, there were 15 in- 
 structors and 196 students. The presidents have 
 been as follows: the Rev. Win. Graham, A.M., 
 I 782 96; Samuel I, < lampbell, M. 1 >.. L796 - 9; 
 George A Baxter, D. D., 1799—1829; Louis 
 Marshall, M. D.. ls:{ii_:;t: Benry Vethake, 
 I.I..H.. 1834—6; Henry Ruffner, D.D., LL.D., 
 1830—48; George .lunkin. D. D., 1848—60; 
 Gen. Robert E. Lee, 1865 — 70; and Gen. G. 
 \V. ( histis Lee, since 1871. 
 
 WASHINGTON TERRITORY, one of 
 the north-western territories of the United 
 States, originally a pint of Oregon, but organ- 
 ized as an independent territory in 1853. Its 
 area is 69,994 sq.m.; its population, in 1870, 
 was 37,432, of who,,, 22.1!):. were whites, 207 
 were colored persons. 234, Chinese, and 14,796, 
 Indians. 
 
 Educational History. — The first educational 
 act of the territorial assembly was in 1862, when 
 the University of the Territory of Washington 
 was established, two townships of the public; 
 lauds having been previously set apart by Con- 
 gress for its endowment. Special legislation for 
 the advancement of school interests has, from 
 time to time, taken place, but no law securing 
 uniformity in the administration of the schools 
 was enacted till 1872, when the foundation of 
 the present school system was laid by the enact- 
 ment of a general law. The first territorial 
 superintendent was Nelson Rounds, who was 
 appointed in 1872. His successor was J. P. 
 Judson.the present incumbent (1870), appointed 
 in 1874. 
 
 School System. — A territorial superintendent 
 of common schools is appointed biennially by 
 the governor, with the consent of the council. 
 His duties are those usually devolving upon 
 general superintendents. Count /superintendents 
 are also elected biennially. They are required 
 to possess the qualifications of a teacher, before 
 being eligible. Three school directors,m each 
 district, are elected, one each year. They make 
 out tax lists for assessments, build school-houses, 
 employ teachers, and visit the schools twice each 
 session. The permanent school fund is prospect- 
 ive only, being derivable from school lands which 
 cannot be sold till the territory becomes a state. 
 The schools are maintained by an annual four- 
 mill tax on every dollar of taxable property, a 
 county tax of not more than eight mills, a dis- 
 trict tax of three mills, fines under criminal 
 statutes, and private contributions. Districts. 
 also, may levy a tax of ten mills for building 
 and repairing school-houses. Sectarian instruc- 
 tion in the common schools is forbidden by law. 
 The school month consists of 4 weeks of 6 days 
 each : the school age is from 4 to 21 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts, in 1875, was 207; and the num- 
 ber of districts in which schools were kept was 
 219. The amount of school moneys for distribu- 
 tion, in the same year, was §53,557. 
 
 WAY LAND 
 
 851 
 
 The principal items of school statistics, for 
 
 1874 — 5, are as follows: 
 
 Number of children of school age 8,360 
 
 " " " enrolled in schools 6,699 
 
 " " teachers 220 
 
 The principal schools are at Olympia, Port 
 Townsend, Vancouver, Seattle, and Tacoina. 
 Teachers' institutes have been held in some 
 counties, and a teachers' association has been 
 organized. The university at Seattle provides a 
 preparatory, an academic, and a collegiate de- 
 partment, to all of which both sexes are ad- 
 mitted. Holy Angel's College fq. v.). at Van- 
 couver, is controlled by the Roman Catholics. It 
 has two ( ■nurses.- a preparatory, and a collegiate. 
 
 WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY, at St, 
 Louis, Mo., was incorporated in 1853 and for- 
 mally inaugurated in 1S57. The charter provides 
 that the institution shall be non-sectarian. It is 
 supported by the income of an endowment of 
 $500,000, and by tuition fees ranging from $50 
 to SI 00 a year. There are several scholarships, 
 entitling the holders to free tuition. The uni- 
 versity comprehends five departments : the 
 academy, Mary Institute (founded in 1859), the 
 college (organized in 1859), the polytechnic 
 school (1857). and the law school (1867). The 
 course of instruction in the academy extends 
 through five years, and includes those studies 
 which are preparatory to the College and the 
 Polytechnic School of the University. It has 
 also a primary and a commercial class. Mary 
 Institute is a female seminary. Its grounds and 
 buildings are distinct from those of the other 
 departments ; but the chancellor exercises a 
 general supervision : and instruction in the 
 languages, the higher mathematics, and the nat- 
 ural sciences is in part given by the professors of 
 the college and the polytechnic school. r l he in- 
 stitute affords various grades of instruction from 
 primary to collegiate. The course in the college 
 (4 yrs.) leads to the degree of A. B. The poly- 
 technic school (O'Fallon Polytechnic Institute) 
 has six regular courses of study (4 yrs. each), as 
 follows: (1) civil engineering: (2) mechanical en- 
 gineering: (3) chemistry; (4) mining and metal- 
 lurgy; (5) building and architecture; (6) a 
 general course. The Polytechnic Institute also 
 carries on a free evening school for instruc- 
 tion in the elements of technology, under the 
 immediate supervision and control of the board 
 of directors of the public schools of the city. 
 The law school (St. Louis Law School) has a 
 library of over 2 500 volumes. The university 
 library contains 3,000 volumes. In 1875 — 6, the 
 number of instructors in all the departments was 
 G5 ; of students, 902. The chancellors of the 
 university ha\e been Joseph Cibsun Hoyt, 1859 
 — 03; Win. Chauvenet, 1863 — 71; and Wm. 
 Greenleaf Eliot. D. D., since L871. 
 
 WAYLAND, Francis, an American clergy- 
 man and educator, born in New York, March 11., 
 1796; died in Providence, R.I., Sept. 30., 1865. 
 He graduated at Union College in lsl3, studied 
 medicine, and was licensed to practice: but. mean- 
 while, his purpose was changed ; and, in 1816, 
 
352 
 
 WAYLAXD 
 
 he entered the Andover Theological Seminary. 
 The instructions of Prof. Moses Stuart enkindled 
 in his mind an intense enthusiasm for study; but 
 poverty compelled him to leave the institution. 
 During the next four years, he was a tutor in 
 Union College; and, in 1821, became pastor 
 of the First Baptist Chureh.in Boston. In 1826, 
 he was appointed professor of mathematics and 
 natural history in Union College, and. earlv in 
 1827, was chosen president of Brown University, 
 and entered on what was to be the work of his 
 life. The college was in a depressed state. The 
 funds were inconsiderable; there was scarcely 
 library, cabinet, or apparatus; and the standard 
 of character, discipline, and scholarship was low. 
 The new president sought, first of all, to raise 
 the standard. In the recitation room, he intro- 
 duced thoroughness, exactness, self-dependence, 
 and freedom of inquiry, lie aimed to teach, not 
 the text-book, but the subject. He encouraged 
 questions germane to the topic. Finding that 
 
 the text-1 ks in use were inadequate, he taught 
 
 by lectures, till in time he created text-books in 
 the different branches, lie next sought to in- 
 i'Iv.i-i' ! In i Material means of instruction. A fund 
 
 of $25, was raised for the increase of the 
 
 library and the apparatus ; a library building, a 
 laboratory, and a house for the president were 
 erected; the library was also increased by special 
 subscriptions outside of the fund; and several new 
 departments of instruction were created. Vet, 
 
 with the lapse of time, the convict grew in 
 
 the mind of the president that the college was 
 not fulfilling its destiny. His dissatisfaction 
 with the American college was expressed in his 
 little book. Thoughts on the Present Collegiate 
 System in tin- United States (1842 ; but no 
 remedy was suggested. Gradually, his mind 
 worked itself clear; and. in ls.,0. his L'r/,,,,-/ In 
 the Corporation of Brown University indicat- 
 ed both the evil and the remedy. The Amer- 
 ican colleges were not meeting the demands of 
 the American people. They were molded by 
 the traditions of the middle ages rather than by 
 the wants of the L9th century. They were 
 offering an education suited only to a limited 
 class, to the members of the learned professions, 
 especially the ministry, and were ignoring the 
 large and increasing industrial classes. They 
 were setting at naught the diversityof character 
 ami Meeds on the part of young Mien. They 
 were crowding a vast number oi studies into a 
 limited period of time, and were precluding the 
 
 Th^pr^entproStoeiuTrgrtLSp^S 
 
 Collc-C . bv oife MM". II, a Uailta-.es to e\ , l\ cla.-s. 
 
 and not compelling ai 
 
 studies again,! his will 
 the st in lent the means i 
 in whatever departmei 
 
 WEHRLI 
 
 ' liberal. — The labors attending the re-organization 
 of the university had been exhausting in the 
 extreme; and, in 1855, Dr. Way land felt com- 
 pelled to resign the presidency. In 1857 — 8. he 
 acted for sixteen months as pastor of the First 
 Baptist Church in Providence. The remainder 
 of his life he passed in retirement, in study, and 
 
 Strength allowed. In addition to the works 
 
 Qamed above, he published MoralScience (1835); 
 Politi, ■ Econom , 1837 ; Limtial s of Hit- 
 
 WAYNESBURG COLLEGE, 
 lung. Pa., founded in 1850, is und 
 land Presbyterian control. It is supp 
 
 ciplesof the Report were carried into practice, 
 not indeed as , ipletely as the president de- 
 sired, but far enough to afford marked and satis- 
 factory results. Dr. Wa.vlands views of theo- 
 logical education were similarly practical and 
 
 bv tuition fees and partly bv the inc if its 
 
 endowments, amounting to $50,000. The cost 
 of tuition is $20 a year. The libraries contain 
 about 2,000 volumes. It has a classical, a sci- 
 entific, a ladies', a normal, and a commercial 
 ionise In 18*75 — 6, there were 10 instructors 
 and 297 students (hi 1 collegiate. 1 1 5 preparatory, 
 and 10(1 unclassified). The presidents have been 
 as follows : the Rev. Joshua Loughran, A. M., 4 
 v.ar.,; the Rev. J. P. Weethee, A. M., 3 years; 
 John C Flennckeii, 1 year ; and the Rev. A. B. 
 Miller. D. D., the present incumbent, 17 veal's. 
 
 WEAVERVILLE COLLEGE, at Weav- 
 erville, 9 m. X. of Asheville, X. ('., chartered in 
 1873, is a non-sectarian institution. It is beauti- 
 fnlU situated in one of the most picturesque re- 
 gions of North America. It has a primary, a 
 preparatory, and a collegiate department, to all 
 of which both sexes are admitted. The cost of 
 tuition ranges from $6.50 to $18 per session of 
 five months. In 1875 — 0, there were 7 instruct- 
 ors and 1'_'3 students (collegiate, 21 ; scientific 
 and preparatory, 71 ; academic and primary, 28). 
 The Rev. James S. Kennedy, D.D., is (1877) the 
 president. 
 
 WEHRLI, Johann Jakob, a celebrated 
 
 Swiss teacher of poor-scl Is. was born atEsehi- 
 
 k.iven. November II.. 17110. and died at Andwyl, 
 .March 15., 1855. lie taught a small school at 
 l.eiiienegg duriiie two winters, working in part 
 
 ant to I-'ellenbeig. in his school at 1 1 of wyl, where 
 he remained twenty-three years, bestowing the 
 most a.,,iduon, care upon the poor children and 
 scholars. (See HopWYL.) When an advanced 
 
 course for teachers was established on the plan 
 
 of the poor-school. Wehrli was appointed the 
 conductor of it. He had become acquainted with 
 Pestalozzi, and interested in his theories of edu- 
 cation, and now applied himself with zeal to the 
 study of the principles of pedagogy, as well as 
 to his own culture. In order to make the ad- 
 vanced course of benefit to poor teachers, he 
 arranged that instruction should be given them 
 during the morning and evening hours, so that 
 they might work on the farm during the day. 
 for their support. Many persons from abroad 
 visited llotwyl. and became acquainted with 
 Wehrli; pupils from the school became teachers 
 
WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY 
 
 or founded schools in other countries, and thus 
 his nam.' became well known outside of Switzer- 
 land. He received several invitations to found 
 an institution in Germany, but preferred to re- 
 main in his own country. 
 
 In 1833, on tlir invitation of the government 
 of Thurgau, he undertook the management of a 
 
 be permitted to establish a self-supporting semi 
 nary on Felleiiherg's plan. In this school, a way 
 close union of labor with instruction was at- 
 tempted. Each student had a parcel of land to 
 cultivate, in the planting of which he was ex- 
 pected to show good taste, and had also to per- 
 form his part of the routine duties of the farm. 
 Wclirli exercised his scholars in practical teach- 
 ing by causing them to take the part of the 
 questioner, himself going through the lesson 
 with them. Mis position as director of the 
 seminar gave him many opportunities to im- 
 prove the general eireinnstaiie s of the teachers. 
 He was consulted by the council of education 
 on important occasions, and exercised, as a mem- 
 ber of the commission of examination, no insig- 
 nificant influence upon the enactment of the 
 school laws, lie took part in conferences and 
 conventions for the elevation of the condition 
 of the peasantry. His scheme, however, for 
 making the institution self-supporting, through 
 the combination of instruction and labor, failed: 
 new views on education began to prevail, while 
 his own fell into disfavor. Changes were pro- 
 posed in the management of the seminary, which 
 he could not consent to advance, lie resigned 
 his charge at Easter 1853, and remove 1 to 
 Guggenbiihl. in the parish of Andwyl. followed 
 by twenty teachers and pupils, wh ;re, at the age 
 of sixty years, he undertook to establish a new 
 seminary; bin his physical strength was broken, 
 and he was not equal to the moderate exertions 
 that were require 1 of him. lie decline 1 steadily 
 till his death, about two years afterwards. 
 
 WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, a; Middle- 
 town, ft., the oldest college in tie- United 
 States under the patronage and control of the 
 Methodist Episcopal Church, was organized in 
 1830, and chartered in 1831. Since 1872, its 
 courses have been open to both sexes. It has 
 an endowment of about $400,000, extensive 
 astronomical, physical, and chemical apparatus, 
 a valuable museum of natural history, ami a 
 library of over 26,000 volumes. The cost of 
 tuition is $75 a year. There arc three regular 
 courses, each of four years : a classical course, a 
 Latin-scientific course, and a scientific course ; 
 and in each there is a considerable range of 
 elective studies. There are also special and post- 
 graduate courses. In 1875 — (1, there were 14 in- 
 structors, and 176 students ('.» females i. The presi- 
 dents have been as follows: the Rev. Wilbur 
 Fisk, D. D., 1831—9; the Rev. Stephen Olin, 
 D. D., 1839—41; the Rev. Nathan Hangs. It. It.. 
 1841— 2; the Rev. Stephen Olin, D.D.,1842 51; 
 Augustus AYm. Smith. 1852—7; the Rev. Joseph 
 Cummings, D. I)., 1857—75; and the Rev. Cyrus 
 Foss, D. D., since 1875. 
 
 WESTFIELD COLLEGE 
 
 S;j3 
 
 WESTERN COLLEGE, at Western. I.inn 
 Co., Iowa, was founded in 1856 by the Church 
 of the United Brethren in Christ, which still 
 controls it. It has an endowment of $16,000, 
 
 but lias been chiefly supported by contributions. 
 The college and society libraries conlain 1500 
 volumes. The tuition and incidental fees arc 
 $25.50 a year. Both sexes arc admitted. There is 
 a classical' and a scientific course, and a prepara- 
 
 therewere 11 instructors and 219 students (132 
 males and 87 females), of whom ,'!7 were of col- 
 legiate grade. The presidents ha\c been as fol- 
 lows : the Rev. Solomon Weaver, 185(1 — (14: the 
 Rev. Wm. Davis. 1864—5; M. W. Bartlett 
 (principal), 1865- 6; II. R. Page, 1866—7; E. 
 ('. Ebersole, A.M. (principal), 1867—8; and the 
 Rev. Ezekiel B. Kephart, A.M.. since 1868. 
 
 WESTERN MARYLAND COLLEGE, 
 at Westminster, Md., was founded in 1S07 and 
 incorporated in 1868. It is under the special 
 patronage of the Maryland Annual Conference 
 of the Methodist Protestant Church. It is sup- 
 ported by contributions and the fees of students. 
 
 Tin st of tuition is from SIT. ell to $30 a year. 
 
 The institution has libraries comprising 3,500 
 volumes. Moth sexes arc educated, but in separate 
 departments, though mainly by the same pro- 
 fessors. The collegiate use for males extends 
 
 over 4 years, and for females. .'! vears. Facilities 
 arc also afforded for theological instruction. In 
 1876—7, there were 13 instructors and 113 
 students (66 male and 17 female. 65 collegiate 
 
 and 48 preparatory). The Rev. J. T. Ward, 
 
 I), lb, has been the president from the com ncc- 
 
 n.cnt of the institution. 
 
 WESTERN RESERVE COLLEGE, at 
 Hudson, ( Ihio. was chartered in 1 826, and opened 
 the same year. It is not under ecclesiastical 
 control, but its trustees and professors are all 
 connected with the Congregational or Presby- 
 terian denomination. It is supported by tuition 
 fees (from $25 to $30 a yean, and the income of 
 an endowment of $210,000. It has an astronom- 
 ical observatory, valuable apparatus, and libraries 
 containing 11,000 rolumes. There is a prepar- 
 atory ami a collegiate department. Both sexes 
 are admitted. In 1876 7. there were 11 in- 
 structors and 126 students (72 collegiate and 54 
 preparatory!. The Cleveland Medical College, 
 established in Cleveland in 1844,18 a depart- 
 ment of the institution. The presidents of the 
 college have been as follows: the Rev. Charles 
 B. Starrs, 1830 33; the Rev. George E. Pierce, 
 D.D., 1834 — 55; the Rev. Henry I.. Hitchcock, 
 I). I).. lSo.-,— 71 ; and the Rev. Carroll Cutler, 
 I). I)., since 1871. 
 
 WESTFIELD COLLEGE, at Westfield, 
 111., under the control of the United Brethren in 
 Christ, was chartered in 1865, growing out of 
 the Westfield Seminary, founded iii 1861. Roth 
 sexes are admitted and graduated on an equal 
 basis of scholarship. It has an endowment of 
 $85,000. The regular charge for tuition is $24 
 a year. There is a preparatory, a normal, a sci- 
 entific, and a classical course. Facilities are 
 
854 WESTMINSTER COLLEGE 
 
 also afforded for instruction in art and music. 
 In 1876 — 7, there were 9 instructors and 193 
 students (34 collegiate). The Rev. Samuel B. 
 Allen. D. D., has been the president since 1869. 
 
 WESTMINSTER COLLEGE, at Fulton, 
 Mo., founded in 1853, is under the control of 
 the Presbyterian Church, South. It is support- 
 ed by tuition fees (from $30 to $50 a year) and 
 the income of an endowment of $86,000. The 
 libraries contain about 5,000 volumes. There is 
 a classical and a scientific course (with a col- 
 legiate and a preparatory department), special 
 courses, and an English course. In 1876 — 7, 
 there were 6 professors and 99 students (clas- 
 sical, 43; scientific. 15; special, 15; English, 
 26). The presidents have been : the Rev. S. S. 
 Laws, LL. 1).; the Rev. John Montgomery, D. D.; 
 the Rev. N. L. Rice, D. !>.; and the Rev. M. M. 
 Fisher. D. D., the present (1877) incumbent. 
 
 WESTMINSTER COLLEGE, at New 
 Wilmington, Pa., chartered in 1852, is under 
 United Presbyterian control. It has productive 
 fuiids to the amount of 874,0(10, raised by the 
 sale of scholarships the owners or hirers of which 
 are entitled to tuition. The libraries contain 
 3,600 volumes. There is a classical, a preparatory, 
 and a scientific department. No distinction of 
 color or sex is made in the admission of students. 
 In 1875—6, there were 8 instructors and 165 
 students (71 classical. 48 preparatory, and 46 
 scientific). The presidents have been as fol- 
 lows : the Rev. James Patterson, 1). I)., lsfi.'i — 
 66; the Rev. R. A. Browne, I). D., 1867—70; 
 and the Rev. E. T. Jcffers. I>. I)., since 1872. 
 
 WEST POINT, the seat of the United 
 Stat's Military Academy, is a village in Orange 
 ( 'o.. N.V.. on the W. bank of the Hudson river.at 
 its passage through the Highlands, 52 in. above 
 New Fork City. The grounds over which the 
 United Stat -s has jurisdiction, and on which are 
 the principal buildings, occupy the plain of West 
 Point, 160 to 180 ft. above the river, and are 
 flanked on the west by abrupt hills and mountain 
 spurs from 500 to 1,500 ft. high. The point pro- 
 jects into the river with bold, rocky cliffs on the 
 east and north-east, and a more gentle slope on 
 the north. A large area is arranged for tactical 
 instruction and parades. The academy was 
 established at West Point by the act of March 
 16., 1802. Under the present law, each congres- 
 sional district, each territory, and the District of 
 Columbia is entitled to have one cadet at the 
 academy, and ten are also appointed yearly at 
 large. The appointments at large arc conferred 
 by the president; those from each district and 
 territory, by the secretary of war, on the nomi- 
 nation of the representative or delegate in Con- 
 gress. Candidates must be between 17 and 22 
 years of age, must be well versed in arithmetic, 
 reading, and writing, including orthography, and 
 must have a knowledge of the elements of En- 
 glish grammar, of descriptive geography, partic- 
 ularly of their own country, and of the history of 
 the United States. Upon entering, they agree to 
 serve eight years in the U. S. army, unless sooner 
 discharged. Each cadet receives 8540 a year. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA 
 
 against which are charged his expenses, including 
 board, clothing, books, and stationery. For the 
 purposes of military police, discipline, and in- 
 fantry drill, the cadets are organized into a bat- 
 
 armv officer, stvlcd Commandant of Cadets, the 
 battalion staff and the subordinate officers being 
 cadets. Each company is commanded by anarmy 
 officer, styled Assistant Instructor of Infantry 
 Tactics. 'I lie course is for four years. From about 
 dune 20. to Sept. I., a period corresponding to 
 the vacation of other institutions, the cadets live 
 in tents and devote themselves to military du- 
 ties, riding, sword exercise, practical military en- 
 gineering, etc. On graduation, they are commis- 
 sioned in the engineers, ordnance, artillery, in- 
 fantry, or cavalry, according to their qualifica- 
 tions. The academy is under the care of an army 
 officer, styled Superintendent, who has a military 
 staff of live officers. There are professors of 
 drawing; of mathematics; of chemistry, miner- 
 alogy, and geology ; of the Spanish language ; 
 of natural and experimental philosophy; of the 
 French language ; of military and civil engineer- 
 ing ; of law ; and of geography, history, and 
 ethics (the chaplain). There arc also instructors 
 of artillery, cavalry, and infantry tactics (the 
 commandant of cadets); of practical military 
 engineering, signaling, and telegraphy; and of 
 ordnance and gunnery ; a music teacher, and a 
 sword master. Most of these have several as- 
 sistants. In 1877, there were 51 officers and 300 
 cadets. The number of graduates from 1802 to 
 1876 was 2,640, being less than half of those 
 who entered the academy during that period. 
 
 WEST VIRGINIA, one of the states of 
 the American Union, organized, in 1862, from 
 a portion of Virginia, and admitted into the 
 Union as a separate state in 1863. Its area is 
 23.000 sq. in.; and its population, in 1870, was 
 442,014, of whom 17,980 were colored persons. 
 
 Educational History. — The school history of 
 the state is of course identical with that of Vir- 
 ginia ' q. v.j. up to the time of their separation. 
 ( Ine of the conditions under which the state was 
 admitted to the Union, provided for the creation 
 of a school fund, for the organization of a free- 
 school system, and the appointment of officers 
 necessary for its proper supervision and main- 
 tenance. In 1865, this system was established, 
 and remained in force till 1872, when the new 
 constitution, then adopted, made several changes. 
 In 1^73. the legislature amended the school law, 
 giving it its present form. — The first statesuper- 
 intendepi was A. D. Williams, from 1865-9; 
 and his successors were C. S. Lewis, from 
 1869—71; W. K. Pendleton, from 1871—2; 
 and B. W. Byrne, the present incumbent (1877) 
 elected in L872. 
 
 School System. — The supervision and man- 
 agement of the state are entrusted to a state 
 superintendent, who is elected by the people 
 every four years. He is required to give direc- 
 tions to the county superintendents, and to per- 
 form all the duties usually pertaining to the office, 
 making an annual report to the legislature. 
 
WEST VIRGINIA 
 
 ■County superintendents are elected for two 
 years. The organization of the schools is com- 
 mitted to these officers, with power to exercise 
 a general supervision over all subordinate offi- 
 cers. District boards of education, consisting of 
 a president ami two commissioners, are elected 
 for two years. They have genera] control of the 
 district schools in all that relates to the building 
 and repairing of school-houses, the employment 
 of teachers, the determination of their number 
 and salaries, and the limiting of the school ses- 
 sion. District trustees are electe I for two years. 
 They act under the direction of the district 
 board. They employ teachers, and report an- 
 nually to the board. Boards of ■ ■ ,,„,„■ rs.each 
 consisting of the comity superintendent, and two 
 teachers appointed by the president ol the district 
 board, are convened iu every county for the 
 purpose of examining teachers and issuing certif- 
 icates, valid for one year iu the comity where 
 issued. These are authorized to grant certificates 
 of five grades. A itate board if examiners, 
 consisting of the state superintendent and two 
 professional teachers appointed by the governor, 
 also issues professional certificates, which entitle 
 the holder to teach anywhere in the state dur- 
 ing life, such certificates being revocable by the 
 state superintendent for good cause. The school 
 revenue of the state is derived from (1) the in- 
 terest on the invested school fund ; ('_') a poll tax 
 of §1 on all male citizens ; (3) a state tax of 10 
 •cents on every $100 of real and personal 
 property ; (4) a district tax for a school fund; 
 and (5) a district tax for a building fund. The 
 last two are subject to a majority vote of the 
 
 people of the district. The e ity sheriff acts 
 
 as treasurer of the school funds, collecting and 
 disbursing "all school money for the several 
 districts and independent districts therein." 
 Mixed schools for white ami colored children 
 are prohibited; the establishment of separate 
 schools for the latter being provided for, when- 
 ever the number in a district exceeds 25. The 
 legal school age is from 6 to 21 years. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The number of 
 school-districts, in 1874, was 321 ; the number 
 of sub-districts, 2,845; the number of independ- 
 ent districts, 38. 
 
 The school revenue, in 1874 — 5, was : 
 I'n, in -tute tax $194,791.32 
 
 " local '• 541,090.98 
 
 Interest on permanent fund. . . 17,595.20 
 
 Total $753,477.50 
 
 The expenditures were as follows : 
 
 For teachers' salaries $541,358.83 
 
 " sites, buildings, ai'.d (limit. l'Jl .IP47.3S 
 " other expenses. . 5-J.754.3s 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The state normal 
 school, known as Marshall College, at ilunt- 
 
 into a model school, and an academic and a 
 normal department, and will accommodate 200 
 students. The school at West Liberty has ac- 
 
 lts. 
 
 The appropriation from the Peabody fund for 
 these five schools, in 1S75. was £2.500. — Teach- 
 ers' Institutes have been organized, principally 
 by the agent of the Peabody fund; and their 
 influence, in calling the attention of teachers to 
 improved methods of teaching and school gov- 
 ernment, has been very beneficial. A state 
 teachers' association is also in existence, which 
 holds annual meetings. Normal institutes, of 
 from 2 to I weeks' duration, were held, during 
 1874, in 15 counties. 
 
 & condary Instruction. — The establishment of 
 high schools is dependent upon a three-fifths 
 vote of the citizens of each district. The num- 
 ber of these institutions is not large. The 
 Harper's Ferry High School for colored pupils 
 was, in 1868, chartered as Storer College, but 
 the course of instruction hardly goes beyond 
 that of the ordinary primary school. Many 
 grammar schools exist, and the studies usually 
 pursued in high schools are, to some extent, pur- 
 sued in them. Besides these, there are several 
 private schools and academies in which secondary 
 
 Total $715,160.59 
 
 The principal items of school statistics are 
 as follows : 
 
 No. of children of school age 179,897 
 
 " " " enrolled 115,300 
 
 Average daily attendance 79,002 
 
 Number of teachers, males 2,H77 
 
 " " females 784 
 
 Total 3,461 
 
 ■ of male teachers $35.03 
 
 "female " $30.77 
 
 Averaee monthly 
 
 instruction is given, ."-even pr 
 
 rate schools of 
 
 this grade reported to the U. S. Bureau of Edu- 
 cation, in 1875, a total of 32 teachers and 873 
 pupils. Two of the colleges, also, have prepar- 
 atory departments. 
 
 Denominational and Parochial Schools. — 
 Several of these arc in existence, principally un- 
 der the auspices of the Roman Catholics, and 
 the German Protestants. Five are reported in 
 Wheeling alone,— 3 Roman Catholic, and 2 Ger- 
 man Protestant. 
 
 Superior Instruction. — Three institutions for 
 education of this kind exist, as follows: 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 \\ li, n 
 ized 
 
 Religious 
 
 Bethanv ('"11,'ge 
 
 West \ irgi ia Collegi 
 
 Wist Virginia Univ.. . 
 
 Bethany 
 1 1, mingl 
 Morgantown 
 
 Isln 
 
 1867 
 
 christian 
 Free W.B. 
 
 There are two colleges for women.— the Park- 
 ersburg Academy of the Visitation, and the 
 Wheeling Female College. The former was 
 established by the Roman Catholics, in 1866. 
 Connected with it is a preparatory school in 
 which instruction in common-school branches is 
 given gratuitously. The academy is well sup- 
 
856 WEST VIRGINIA UNIVERSITY 
 
 plieil vvitli apparatus and all the means for im- 
 parting ,-i higher education. It liad, in 1875, 
 12 inatructors, in all the departments, and 80 stu- 
 dents pursuing the college course. The Wheel- 
 ing Female College provides a regular college 
 course .it I years. he-ides special courses. It was 
 established in L865, is non-sectarian, and has a 
 corps of 13 instructors - I male and It female— 
 and 139 students in all the departments. 
 
 Prof essimial and Scientific Instruction.— -The 
 agricultural department of the West Virginia 
 University, at Moigantown. is the state institu- 
 tion for instruction in agriculture. It was en- 
 dowed by Congress with land scrip to the value 
 of $100,000, to which the citizens of Morgan- 
 town have added from time to time. It also re- 
 ceives an annual appropriation from the legis- 
 lature. It lias rive departments : preparatory, 
 
 WHITTIER COLLEGE 
 
 College, Oxford, was elected fellow in 1811, and 
 became Bampton lecturer in 1822. In 1825, he 
 was appointed principal of St. Alban's Hall, Ox- 
 ford : in 1 soil, professor of political economy; 
 and. in 1831, archbishop of Dublin. In the hit - 
 ciiergetic in all ques- 
 welfareof Ireland. He 
 if the board of national 
 ch he held till 1853, re- 
 
 terposraon.ne was vi 
 tions which affected th 
 was one of the member 
 
 education, a position w 
 signing it then because 
 of the board from the 
 nil to that time, acted. 
 
 Ian on which they had. 
 His activity in all char- 
 enterprises, and his energy as an author, 
 cry marked. I lis educational works are : 
 
 /'„/„ 
 
 ■ Wirt, 
 
 Lit. 
 
 literary. 
 
 uilic 
 
 agricultural, and military.. WHEATON COLLEGE, at Wlieaton. 111. 
 
 Optional courses arc permitted. Nine regents 
 constitute the board of management, and two 
 cadets from each regent's district are entitled to 
 gratuitous instruction. St. Vincent's College, al 
 Wheeling, was established by the Roman Cath- 
 olics, in 1865, for the purpos > of affording instruc- 
 tion in thcoloev. It is now teinporarilv suspended. 
 WEST VIRGINIA, University of, at 
 Morgantown, W. \'a... was founded in 1867. It 
 has an endowment of s| 10.000, including the 
 proceeds of the lands granted by Congress for 
 the support of a state college of agriculture and 
 the mechanic arts. It is supported by the in- 
 come of the endowment, together with tuition 
 fees and annual state appropriations. Four 
 cadets from each judicial circuit of the state are 
 educated free of cost for tuition, books, station- 
 ery, etc. Military drill is required of them. For 
 others, the tuition and contingent fees vary from 
 $21 to .|30 a year. The institution has a iibrarv 
 ot 1,000 volumes. A United States Bignal sta- 
 tion has been established at the university. The 
 instruction is embraced in six departments: 
 classical, scientific, agricultural, engineering, and 
 military; and a preparatory department. The 
 agricultural course is for two years; the other 
 courses are for four years, [n the military de- 
 partment, besides tactics, etc.. the studies ale 
 
 those oi the classical scientific, or .other depart- 
 ment. In 1875 6, there were II instructors 
 and 96 students (39 collegiate and ."'7 prepara- 
 tory). The Rev. -I. W. Scott. 1). ]>.. I.I,. D., is 
 
 (1877) acting president. 
 WEST VIRGINIA COLLEGE, at Flem- 
 
 ington, Taylor Co., W. Va.. founded in 1868, is 
 under the control of Free Will Baptists. It is ! 
 supported by tuition fees, ranging from $24 to 
 $40 a year. It has a preparatory, a commercial, 
 an academic, a normal, a college preparatory, I 
 and a collegiate course. Both sexes are ad- 
 mitted. In 1876 7, there were 5 instructors 
 and 75 students. The presidents have been the 
 Rev. A. D. Williams. A.M.. L868 70, and the 
 Rev. Win. Colegrove, A. M., since 1870 
 
 WHATELY, Richard, archbishop of Dub- 
 lin, bom in London, Feb. 1., 1787; died in 
 Dublin, Oct. 8., 18G3. I Ie was educated at Oriel I 
 
 was organized in 1858, and chartered in 1860. 
 It was founded by Wesleyan Methodists, but is. 
 
 now under tin trol of Congregationalists. 
 
 It I las productive funds to the amount of $30,000; 
 the liuildings. grounds, and apparatus are valued 
 at SI 00,0011; and the libraries contain about 2,500 
 volumes. The cost of tuition is from $2 | to $30 
 a year. There is a classical, and a ladies' col- 
 leaiate course. Dreparatory courses, and an En- 
 
 ■h-h 
 
 sic, 
 
 i LBia— b, there were |, instructors and 213 
 
 iideut,. 'the Rev.. athan Blanchard is (1877) 
 
 ie president. 
 
 WHEWELL, William, an English philos- 
 iher and educator, born in Lancaster, May 24., 
 794; died in Cambridge, March 5., 1866. He 
 
 •isuistry. 
 
 the latter ye 
 
 pon his ap 
 
 pointment as vice-chancellor of the University 
 of Cambridge, he resigned his professorship. 
 His great mental activity is shown by the con- 
 stant accessions to his stock of knowledge, his 
 varied attainments, and the amount of literary 
 labor which he performed, in the shape of inde- 
 pendent works, besides reviews, criticisms, anil 
 translations. To this activity, his uninterrupted 
 good health contributed not a little. Ilis edu- 
 cational works are: Astronomy and General 
 Physics (1833); Thoughts on the Study of 
 Mathematics (1835); On the Principles of En- 
 glish University Education (1837) ; History of 
 
 the Tnductivi & s (1837); Philosophy of the 
 
 Inductive Sciences (1840) : On Liberal Educa- 
 tion (1845 -52); Lectures on tin- History of 
 Moral Philosophy in England (1852) ; Of the 
 Plurality Of Worlds (1853); TJie Platonic Dia- 
 logues for English 'Readers (1859—61); and 
 Lectures on Political Economy list;:!). 
 
 WHITTIER COLLEGE AND NOR- 
 MAL INSTITUTE, at Salem, Henry Co., 
 Iowa, founded in 1867, is under the care of the 
 
WIOHERN 
 
 Society of Friends. It is open to botli sexes, 
 and is supported by tuition fees varying from 
 S2 I t,is;;i) a year. It has a collegiate, a normal, 
 and a business department. The course of study 
 in the firsl and sen ■ml years of the collegiate de- 
 partment is regarded as preparatory to the sci- 
 entific course. The third year completes the 
 scientific course, the ancient languages being 
 elective. This course is soon to be increased, 
 and arrangements are in progress to extend both 
 courses so as to constitute a complete college 
 curriculum. The classical course extends through 
 the fourth year. In 1875 — 6, there were 5 in- 
 structors and 200 students in all the depart- 
 ments. Win. I Ynn < 'lark is (1877) the president. 
 WICHEEN, Johann Heinrich, a German 
 philanthropist and educator, was born in Ham- 
 burg, in 1 SOS. lie studied theology, engaged ;ir 
 tively in the different departments of benevolence 
 connected with the home missionary work of 
 the Evangelical Church, and especially interested 
 
 himself in the care of \ r children, and in the 
 
 ameliorate f the inmates of hospitals and 
 
 prisons. He has founded a number of institu- 
 tions, the most important of which is thai called 
 the Rauhes Hans (das Rauhe Hans), al Horn. 
 near Hamburg, a house of refuge for 1 leless 
 
 WILLIAM AND MARY COLLEGE 857 
 
 of schools, finally occupying the principalship of 
 
 a female se arj a1 ffiddlebury, \ t. After 
 
 her marriage, she withdrew from the school room 
 fora nine: but, in 1814, she resumed her voca- 
 t bj opening a boarding-school at Middle- 
 
 . N. V 
 on a J 
 
 that st; 
 
 mod.I upon which niauv other institutions ot the 
 kind havebeen organized. , Sec Uitokm Schools. 
 
 WILBERFORCE UNIVERSITY, near 
 Xenia. ().. founded in 1863, is under the control 
 of the African Methodist Episcopal Church. It 
 has a small endowment. The cost of tuition 
 ranges from $4.75 to .SG.75 per term of 14 weeks. 
 The library contains l.iNMl volumes. The insti- 
 tution is esj ially designed for the education of 
 
 colored youth of both sexes. It embraces a 
 preparatory, a normal, a collegiate 'classical, and 
 scientific), a theological, and a law department. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were 12 instructors and 1. 'is 
 students (96 preparatory, 5 normal. <i collegiate, 
 and 30 theological). The Rt. Rev. Daniel A. 
 Payne. D.D., is (ls77) the president. 
 
 WILEY UNIVERSITY, at Marshall. 
 Tex., was established, in L873,by the Freedmen's 
 Aid Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church. 
 for the especial benefit of colored youth of both 
 sexes, though open to all without regard to race 
 and color. It is supported by the Society. 
 Tuition is free. Then' are the following courses : 
 primary, 2 years ; intermediate, 2 years ; aca- 
 demic and normal. 2 years ; preparatory, 2 years; 
 collegiate, 4 years ; theological. 3 years. In 
 ls7.i — G, there were 4 instructors and 248 stu- 
 dents. The presidents have been the Rev. 
 Francis C. Moore, 1873 — 5, and the Rev. Win. 
 II. Davis, since 1875. 
 
 WILLARD, Emma, a celebrated American 
 educator, born in Berlin, Ct., in 17S7 : died in 
 Troy, N.Y., in 1870. After many struggles to 
 obtain a liberal education, she commenced to 
 teach at the age of 17 : and her fitness for that 
 vocation was so marked that, at the age of 20, 
 she received many invitations to take the charge 
 
 afterward visited the schools of Germany, Switz- 
 erland, France, and other countries. Mrs. Wil- 
 lard's improvements in text-books were numer- 
 ous and valuable. In geography, she separated 
 wdiat is to be learned into two parts, thai which 
 can be learned through the eye, i. e., from the 
 map, and that which is to be learned from the 
 text. The latter she treated comparatively, the 
 length ot rivers, for instance, of one country be- 
 ing studied in connection with the same feature 
 in other countries ; then the size of continents, 
 islands, height of mountains, etc.. in the same way. 
 She al-o invented a peculiar kind of time map 
 to assi.-t in the study of history. The pl;n e \\ In. ii 
 Mrs. Willard will occupy in the annals of edu- 
 cation in America, must always be a prominent 
 one, not only from the fact that almost the whole 
 of her long life was spent in its service, and that 
 
 ot her sex troin a participation m the advantages 
 of a higher education, and for a long time. In- 
 voice and pen, was then- earnest, and almost ex- 
 elusive advocate. Very largely to her. and to her 
 school, standing as an evidence of the feasibility 
 of her demands, is the cause of female education 
 indebted, for the victory it has won over moss 
 grown prejudice and error. How great that 
 prejudice was. let the record of her first triumphs 
 attest, when we are told that the examination of 
 her first female pupil in geometry caused "a 
 
 \V: 
 
 ils 
 
 hln 
 
 ■ /,,, 
 
 Hi. 
 
 ml. 
 (he 
 
 UnUed'States (1828); Universal History in Per- 
 spective (1837) ; Tempi of Timi 1844); Last 
 Leaves of American History (1849); Morals 
 for the Young (1857), besides numerous ad- 
 dresses, pamphlets, letters, and poems. 
 
 WILLIAM AND MARY, College of, 
 at Williamsburg, Va.. next to Harvard, the old- 
 est college in the United States, was formerly un- 
 der Protestant Episcopal control, but at present 
 is not connected with any religious denomination. 
 In 1GG0 — 61, the colonial assembly passed an act 
 for the establishment and endowment of a col- 
 
358 WILLIAM AND MART COLLEGE 
 
 lege; and, in 1693, a royal charter was granted, 
 the name being derived from the reigning king 
 and queen. This was the only college charter 
 given in the colonies by any of the English 
 monarchs. The first commencement exercises 
 were held in 1700. In 1776, it was the wealth- 
 iest college in the colonies; but the Revolution 
 deprived it of its chief endowments. In 1781, 
 the exercises were suspended, and the buildings 
 were alternately occupied, before and dining the 
 memorable siege of Yorktown, by the British 
 and the French and American troops. While 
 in possession of the latter, the college building 
 was injured, and the president's house was de- 
 stroyed by fire. The latter was afterward rebuilt 
 at the expense of the French government. The 
 college was, probably, not closed more than a 
 year. Early in May. 1861, the existence of war 
 at its threshold rendered it necessary to suspend 
 the college exercises, and to close its doors. The 
 college was reopened at the close of the war; 
 but the building was not restored, nor the faculty 
 fully re-organized, till L869. The college is sit- 
 uated just outside of the city limits. It has 
 an endowment of about $60,000, good chemical 
 and philosophical apparatus, and a library of 
 5,000 volumes. The cost of tuition is $40 a 
 year. For meritorious young men in limited 
 circumstances, fifteen scholarships, exempting 
 those admitted on them from the payment of 
 tuition fees, have been founded. In addition to 
 the above, each professor has the power to 
 confer, as a reward of merit, a scholarship on 
 two students, selected annually. The instruction 
 is comprised in eight departments: Latin; 
 Greek; mathematics; French; German; natural 
 philosophy and mixed mathematics; chemistry, 
 geology, mineralogy ; and physiology : moral and 
 intellectual philosophy and belles-lettres. I here 
 is also a preparatory department. In 1875 — (i, 
 there were 7 instructors and 80 students (71 col- 
 legiate and 15 preparatory). Thomas Jefferson, 
 James Monroe, John Tyler, Chief Justice Mar- 
 shall, Peyton Randolph, the president of the first 
 American Congress, John Randolph of Roanoke, 
 and Wiufield Scott were graduates of this col- 
 lege. The Visitors and Governors are the gen- 
 eral governing body of the college; and these 
 choose one of their number rector. The fac- 
 ulty, which is the corporation, appoints some 
 suitable person chancellor, who is the titular 
 head of the institution. The internal manage- 
 ment is in the hands of the president and fac- 
 ulty. Until 1776, the chancellors of the college 
 
 were the bishops of I, Ion. excepting in 1704, 
 
 when the office was conferred on the carl of 
 Hardwicke. George Washington was chancellor 
 from 17ss to 1799, and ex-president John Tyler 
 from L859 to 1*0'.!. I hiring the intervening 
 periods, the office was not filled. The present 
 chancellor (1877). Hugh Blair Grigsby, LL. D., 
 was elected in 1871. The presidents have been 
 as follows : the Rev. James Blair. D. D., 1 693— 
 1743; the Rev. William Dawson, 1743—52; 
 the Rev. William Stith, 1752—5; the Rev. 
 Thomas Dawson, 1755—61 ; the Rev. William 
 
 WISCONSIN 
 
 Yates, 1761 — 4 ; the Rev. James Horrocks, 
 1764 — 71 : the Rev. John Camm, 1771 — 7 ; the 
 Rt. Rev. James Madison, 1777—1812 ; the Rev. 
 John Bracken, 18L2 — 13 ; Dr. John Augustine 
 Smith. 1814—20; the Rev. Win. II. Wilmer, 
 D.D., 1826—7; the Rev.Adam P. Fmpie, D. D., 
 
 I 1827—36 ; Thomas R. Dew, 1836—40 ; Robert 
 Saunders, 1847—8 ; Benjamin S. Ewell, 1848— 
 9; the lit. Rev. John Johns, 1849—54; and 
 Benjamin S. Ewell, LL. D.. since 1854. 
 
 WILLIAM JEWELL COLLEGE, at 
 Liberty, Mo., founded in 1849, is under Baptist 
 control. It is supported by tuition fees (from $30 
 
 . to §40 a year) and the income of an endowment 
 of $100,000. It has a library of 3,500 volumes. 
 The college has a preparatory and a collegiate 
 department, and embraces eight schools: Latin, 
 Greek, mathematics and astronomy, modern 
 languages, English and history, natural science, 
 moral philosophy, and theology. In 1875 — 6, 
 there were 6 instructors and 137 students, of 
 
 wl i 16 were connected with the school of 
 
 theology. The presidents have been as follows: 
 E. S. Dulin, D. D., LL. D.; the Rev. R. S. Thom- 
 as, A. M.; Win. Thompson, LL. 1).; Thomas 
 Iiambaut, I). It., LI, D.; and W. R. Rothwell, 
 It. D., the present incumbent (1877). 
 
 WILLIAMS COLLEGE, at Williamstown, 
 Mass., owes its origin to the will (1755) of Col. 
 Ephraim Williams. 'Hie property bequeathed 
 was allowed to accumulate till 1785, when a 
 free school was incorporated, which was opened 
 iulT'.ll. A college charter was obtained in 
 17'.)."., and the first commencement was held in 
 
 control. Its productive funds exceed .S.'iOO.OOO, 
 and its funds for the aid of needy students 
 amount to $90,000. It has a large cabinet 
 of natural history, chemical, physical, and 
 astronomical apparatus, and a library of 
 17,000 volumes, besides the society libraries. 
 The cost of tuition is $75 a year. It adheres 
 strictly to the old college curriculum. In 1875 
 — 6, there were 13 instructors and 170 students. 
 The presidents have been as follows : the Rev. 
 Ebenezer Fitch, 1793 — 1815; the Rev. Zephaniah 
 Swift Moore, 1815—21 ; the Rev. Edward Dorr 
 Griffin, L821— 36; the Rev. -Mark Hopkins, D. 
 H.. LL. D., L836 -72; and the Hon. Paul Ansel 
 Chadbourne. D. D., LL. D.. since 1*72. 
 
 WILMINGTON COLLEGE, at Wil- 
 mington, Ohio, under the control of the Society 
 of Friends, was organized in 1870, and chartered 
 in 1 875. Both sexes are admitted. It has a 
 small endowment, being supported chiefly by 
 tuition fees ($39 a year). There is a preparatory 
 and a collegiate department, with a classical and 
 a scientific course. In 1875 — 6, there were 4 
 instructors and 90 students (1!) collegiate and 71 
 preparatory). The presidents have been Lewis 
 A. Estes, 1870 — 74, and Benjamin Trueblood, 
 since 1874. 
 
 WISCONSIN, one of the western states of 
 the American Union, originally a part of the 
 territory of the same name, which was formed in 
 I 1836, of lands previously embraced in the terri- 
 
WISCONSIN 
 
 tory of Michigan. It was admitted into the 
 Union as a state in 1848 ; but, the following 
 year, its limits were changed by transferring a 
 portion of it to the territory of Minnesota. The 
 area of the state i- 53,924 Bq. m. ; and its pop- 
 ulation, in 1870, was 1,064,985, of whom 2,113 
 were colored persons, and 1 1,521, Indians. 
 
 Educational History.- — The earliest schools 
 held in the state, are believed to have been con- 
 ducted by the French Jesuits ; but the school at 
 Green Bay. of which James Porlier was teacher, 
 iu 1791, is the first of which there is any definite 
 information. Post schools, also, were established, 
 in the early part of this century, near the torts 
 of the United States, at which instruction was 
 given to the children of officers, soldiers, and 
 settlers. Usually, they were conducted by the 
 post chaplains: hut oneof theearlicst mentioned 
 — that at Prairie du Chien — was taught by a 
 sergeant of the garrison. A few years after, 
 Indian schools were opened by religious denomi- 
 nations; and, in 1832, a clause of the treaty con- 
 cluded between the Winnebago Indians and the 
 United States, stipulated that the latter should 
 maintain for 27 years a school near Prairie du 
 Chien. for the education of such children as the 
 tribe might send to it. In 1830, the first school- 
 house in the lead district was built at .Mineral 
 Point. This was followed by others; but they 
 ■were not numerous, the attention of the in- 
 habitants being, in great measure, absorbed by 
 their occupation as miners. The principal im- 
 pulse given to the founding of schools, came 
 from the settlers from the eastern states, who 
 sought the territory after the financial distress 
 of L837. The first organized action taken by 
 the territory in regard to schools, was in l83li, 
 when a bill was introduced into the assembly, 
 -to prohibit persons from trespassing on the 
 school lands." This was followed, shortly after, 
 by another, to " regulate the sale of school 
 lauds, and to provide for organizing, regulating. 
 and perfecting common schools." In L839, this 
 law was revised, so that every town of not 
 less than ten families was constituted a school- 
 district, and was required to provide a teacher. 
 County commissioners were authorized to ap- 
 point inspectors in towns which refused or 
 neglected to choose them, the duties of these in- 
 spectors being to lease the school lands, take 
 charge of the school-houses, and make reports 
 to the county commissioners of the number of 
 pupils. Trustees might be elected iu each district, 
 to perform the duties ordinarily assigned to the 
 inspectors. A tax of one-fourth per cent also 
 was authorized to be raised for the building of 
 school-houses and the maintenance of the schools. 
 In 1840 and 1841, the sch h >] laws were amended. 
 The office of town commissioner was restored, 
 superseding that of inspector ; five officers, — 
 a clerk, a collector, and three trustees, were 
 chosen in each district ; and taxes were assessed 
 in each for the building of school-houses. By 
 this time, the interest of the people in the sub- 
 ject of schools had become very general. In 
 1845, a free school — the hrst in the state — was 
 
 founded at Kenosha, by Col. M. Frank. The 
 idea— since so familiar in the older states — of 
 taxing all assessed property for the support of 
 common schools, was then new. and met with 
 strenuous opposition on the part of property 
 holders who had no children to educate. After 
 many public meetings and lectures, devised for 
 the purpose of enlightening the public mind on 
 the subject, a bill embodying this idea was intro- 
 duced by Col. Prank into the territorial legis- 
 lature.and passed in 1845. In the constitutional 
 convention held in 1846, for the purpose of 
 forming a constitution for the prospective state, 
 and again in the convention of 1848, the subject 
 of education created much discussion. In 1849, 
 three commissioners were appointed to revise 
 the school laws, and reduce them to one system 
 uniform in its action throughout the state. The 
 earliest school fund was derived from the sale of 
 lands granted by the general government for 
 school purposes. These were the sixteenth sec- 
 tion in every township, any grant the purposes 
 of which had not been specified by the general 
 government, and the 5lMl,(l(MI acres granted by 
 the act of 1841. This was further increased, in 
 1856, by the addition of three-fourths of the 
 proceeds of the swamp lands granted to the state 
 by act of Congress iu 1850. This, however, was 
 subsequently diverted to the normal-school and 
 drainage fund. The school fund was also in- 
 creased in other ways, till, in 1875, the total in- 
 come from it amounted to $184,624.64. The 
 first state superintendent was Eleazer Root (1849 
 — 52) ; and his successors were Azel P. Ladd 
 (1852— 4); H. A. Wright (1854- 5);A.O.Ban3 
 (1855—8); Lyman C. Draper 1858 60 : J.L. 
 Pickard (1860 64 ; J. G. M Mynn (1864- 8); 
 A. J. Craig (1868—70) : Samuel Fallows (1870 
 
 7 1) : Edward Searing, since ls74. 
 
 School System. — The general supervision of 
 educational interests is vested by the constitu- 
 tion in a state superintendent, who is elected 
 biennially. In addition to the duties usually 
 devolving upon state superintendents, he is in- 
 trusted with some that are ordinarily delegated 
 to state boards of education, lie is, also, a 
 member, ex officio, of the board of regents of 
 the state university and of the normal school. 
 County superintendents arc chosen biennially. 
 They have an oversight over school pro] erty, in 
 spect the schools, conduct teachers' institutes, 
 examine teachers, and grant certificates of three 
 grades. In 1875, the law was so amended as to 
 open the office of county superintendent to 
 women, and several have since been elected. An 
 independent system of supervision and manage- 
 ment exists in the cities, by which city superin- 
 tendents are appointed, with powers ami duties 
 similar, in most respects, to those of county 
 superintendents. Boards of education are elect- 
 ed in the cities, which, for school purposes, 
 have been erected into independent districts by 
 charters from the legislature. These boards 
 choose a president, a clerk, and a superintend- 
 ent, establish schools, and adopt rules for their 
 inanageiuent. The superintendent examines and 
 
WISCONSIN 
 
 licenses teachers, visits the schools, and makes 
 an annual report. The schools are supported 
 by the income of the state school fund, and 
 by a tax levied in each county to the amount 
 of one-half of that received from the state 
 for school purposes. Special school taxes, also, 
 maybe authorized by the county boards of su- 
 pervisors. No sectarian instruction is permitted 
 in the schools. Five months constitute the legal 
 school year; and 20 days, the school month. The 
 
 EdwxiMonal Condition. — The number of school- 
 districts, not including cities with separate sys- 
 tems, is 5,423; the number of public schools, 
 5,260; the number of graded schools, 394. The 
 
 school revenue for 1875 was as follows : 
 
 From the school fund $178,072.00 
 
 " county taxes 1 ,637,579.00 
 
 " " supervisors' taxes 241,020.00 
 " all other sources 200,616.00 
 
 Total $2,258,187.00 
 
 The expenditures were as follows: 
 
 For teachers' salaries 81,350,784.00 
 
 " building, repairing, and 
 
 furnishing school-houses .".71 ,:i'.n;.00 
 " all other purposes L>41.7, 7.00 
 
 state certificate. A similar countersigning of 
 the diploma renders it equivalent to a permanent 
 state certificate. County and city superintend- 
 ents nominate six representatives from each as- 
 assembly district for admission to the normal 
 schools, tuition in which is free to all. In Sep- 
 tember, L875, the pe 
 
 Total $1,063,957.00 
 
 The principal items of school statistics are as 
 follows : 
 
 Number of children of school age 4ill,N29 
 
 " " " attending public schools. ..279,854 
 " " teachers employed in the schools. . 6,22 I 
 Average monthly salary of teachers in counties: 
 
 males $43.50 
 
 females . . $27.13 
 Average monthly salary of teai hers in cities: 
 
 Normal Instruction. — The first constitution 
 of the state provided for the establishment and 
 
 the theory and practice of teaching. In 1857, 
 the legislature directed that 25 per cent of the 
 income of the swamp-lands fund should be ap- 
 plied to the uses of normal institutes and acad- 
 emies. In 1865, one-half of the swamplands 
 fund was set apart as a normal-school fund, the 
 income of which, with the exception of one- 
 fourth, was to be used to establish and support 
 normal schools. In 1870, the fourth which had 
 been excepted, was restored. In 1866, a board 
 of regents of normal schools was incorporated; 
 and the Platteville Normal School was opened 
 in October of that year. The Whitewater Nor- 
 mal School was opened in IsOS; the Oshkosh 
 Normal School, in 1871; and the River Palls Nor- 
 mal School, in 1875. In all these schools, there 
 are two courses of study, an elementary course of 
 2 years, and an advanced course of I. Certificates 
 are given on the completion of tie- first ; diplomas, 
 on completion of the second. When the holder 
 of a certificate has taught successfully one year 
 after graduation, the superintendent of public 
 instruction is authorized to countersign his cer- 
 tificate, which makes it equivalent to a 5 years' 
 
 Mi 
 
 t fund 
 
 forthesup- 
 
 vaoliei 
 
 the sum of 
 
 tion is 
 
 also given in 
 
 d in t 
 
 he Seminary 
 
 of the Holy family, at St. Francis Station. 
 
 Teachers' Institutes. — An annual expenditure 
 of §5,000, by the board of regents, is author- 
 ized, for the support of teachers' institutes, of 
 which 57 were held during the year L875, the 
 number of teachers attending being 3,668. The 
 average number of days they were in session, 
 was 12. The law of 1871 provides for the hold- 
 ing of normalinstitutes, of not less than I con- 
 secutive weeks each, and appropriates annually 
 for their support a sum not exceeding $2,000. 
 
 Teachers' Associations- The Wisconsin State 
 Teachers' Association holds an animal and a 
 semi-annual meeting. There are also comity and 
 district associations, which hold meetings at 
 stated times. 
 
 Secondary Instruction. — The need of high 
 schools, intermediate between the primary schools 
 and the Stat : University, bad long been felt; and 
 an attempt was made, in 1874, to supply the de- 
 ficiency. The graded schools of the state, in- 
 cluding those in the cities, number about 400. 
 The law of 1872 provides that "all graduates of 
 any graded school of the state, who shall have 
 passed an examination at such graded school 
 satisfactory to the faculty of the university, for 
 admission into the sub-freshman class and col- 
 lege classes of the university, shall be, at once 
 and at all times, entitled to free tuition in all 
 llie colleges of the university." Under this law, 
 13 graduates entered the 'university in 1874; 
 but only a few graded schools in the state are 
 yet qualified to act as preparatory schools for 
 the university. Under the new law, admission 
 to the high schools wherever established is 
 granted after a satisfactory examination, the 
 minimum standard for which has been prescribed 
 by the state superintendent. Three courses of 
 instruction, also, have been laid down by him: 
 two designed for the high schools of towns- 
 having a population of 6,000 or more, and com- 
 prising 4 years ; the third, of 3 years, and in- 
 tended for districts having each a. population of 
 less than 6,000. — The number of pupils attend- 
 ing private schools and academies, in 1875, was 
 III, 733. .Many such institutions are known to 
 exist in the state; but their independence of 
 the school system renders it difficult to procure 
 statistics in regard to them. Seven business col- 
 leges, located in the principal cities, in 1875. 
 reported to the U. S. Bureau of Education an 
 attendance of more than 1300 students, under 
 the instruction of 26 teachers. The prepar- 
 atory departments of 10 colleges reported an 
 aggregate attendance of 1,359 students, — 1,007 
 males and 352 females. 
 
WISCONSIN 
 
 Superior Instruction. — The following are the 
 
 chief colleges and universities ii 
 
 the state : 
 
 
 
 When 
 
 Religions 
 
 NAME 
 
 Location 
 
 ed 
 
 denomi- 
 
 Beloit College 
 
 B.-l..it 
 
 1845 
 
 Cong. 
 
 c'arn.ll roll,.-,-. .. 
 
 
 1846 
 
 
 GalesyilleTJniv 
 
 Gales ville 
 
 1859 Meth. Epis. 
 
 l.uvi'i ace Uuiv 
 
 
 1847 
 
 ■\I. t li . Ki.is. 
 .th Iiavlitn 
 
 Milton College 
 
 Milton 
 
 1867 
 
 
 
 1864 
 
 Luth. 
 
 Pi . Nono i ill. ] 
 
 
 
 I: .' 
 
 K.i mi. . He . 
 
 
 1852 
 
 Prot. Epis. 
 
 
 
 1855 
 
 Cong. 
 
 
 Prairie dnChien 
 
 1878 
 
 R. C. 
 
 Dnlv.ofWlsc msin. 
 
 Madison 
 
 lSi- 
 
 Son-sect. 
 
 WISCONSIN UNIVERSITY 
 
 various mechanical and industrial pursuits. The 
 
 number of instructors ami employes is 'J I : the 
 
 Inst 
 
 or the 
 i L852. 
 
 mi it "t pupils, »: 
 
 Deaf ami Dumb was, 
 In 1862, it was incorporated as a state institu 
 ti.in. Like the institute for the blind, it is nu- 
 clei- the management of ."> trustees, appointed by 
 the governor for 3 years. Board and tuition are 
 free to all deaf and dumb children over 10 years 
 of age. who reside in the state. Clothing and in 
 cidental expenses are the only items for which 
 
 pupils are charged. The course of ins ition 
 
 occupies 5 years, and is of T grades. The same 
 
 stl 
 
 The second and third of these are. as yet. doing 
 only preparatory or academic work. The .Mil- 
 waukee Female College, the Wisconsin Female 
 College, at Fox Lake, and the St. Clara Acad- 
 emy, at Sinsinawa Mound, are the only institu- 
 tions for the superior instruction of women, in 
 the state. The first was organized in 1852. It 
 has a preparatory and a collegiate course, and, 
 in 1875, reported 17 instructors and 106 stu- 
 dents. It is non-sectarian. The second was 
 organized, in 1856, by the Congregationalists. In 
 1875, the number of its instructors was 6 ; the 
 number of students, li."). The third i- under 
 
 Roma 
 
 and, in lsT.".. hud 1 5 
 
 Profess, mat and S U nttjk Instruction.— -The 
 
 state agricultural ell .ge exists as a department 
 of the state university, the grant by < longress, 
 in 1862, having been applied, in 1866, in this 
 way. Bonds to the amount of $40,000 were 
 issued to the state by Dane County, for the pur- 
 pose of purchasing an experimental farm. This 
 farm, containing 2llil acres, adjoins the university 
 grounds: and a four years' course of study is pro- 
 vided in that institution, comprehending all the 
 branches that relate to the practice of agricult- 
 ure. The agricultural college fund was. in 1875, 
 $236,133.90. Th ire are -nil upward of 52,000 
 acres of agricultural college lands uns .1 I. The 
 Nashotah Theological Seminary was founded. 
 near the Nashotah Lakes, by the Episcopalians, 
 
 in 1842 
 
 prov, 
 
 es the course of instruction 
 
 to such institutions. The Seminary of 
 St. Francis of Sales, at St. Francis, was founded 
 by the Roman Catholics, in L856, for special 
 instruction in theology. In 1875, the number of 
 its instructors of all kinds was 12; the number 
 of its students, 245. A school of science, called 
 i he I '"llc_. ■ i ,i \ i , . i partment of 
 
 university, which also provides for an 
 advanced course in law. 
 
 Special Instru Hon The Institute for the 
 Blind, originally a private school, at JanesviHe, 
 was. in ls.'ib, adopted by the state, and is sup- 
 ported by annual appropriations. It is managed 
 by 5 trustees, appointed by the governor for 3 
 years. It is intended for residents of the state 
 between the ages of 8 and 21. It has 3 depart 
 ments : one furnishing instruction in the ordi- 
 nary branches of an English education; the 
 second, in vocal and instrumental music, and the 
 theory of musical composition ; the third, in 
 
 the medium of instruction for all, with the ex- 
 ception of a special class of 20 in articulation. 
 Two trades are taught, — cabinet-making and 
 shoe-making. The number of instructors, in 
 1875, was9; the number of pupils, 181. The In- 
 dustrial School for Hoys was opened at Wau- 
 kesha in 1860. - It is designed as a " place ot 
 confinement and instruction for all male children 
 between the ages of In and 16 years, who shall 
 lie legally committed ly any competent court as 
 vagrants, or on conviction of any criminal 
 otfeii.-e. or for incorrigible or \icioiis conduct. 
 
 'I li. 3i I I is divided into s families, each with 
 
 its separate building, play-ground, etc School is 
 held II months of the year, the branches of a 
 common-school education being taught, A farm 
 of -J::;: a, res, under good cultivation, is connected 
 with the school. An annual appropriation by 
 the state is the chief support of the institution: 
 but something is derived from the sale of the 
 product.- ..I its work-hops and farm, a ml from the 
 payments made "by counties for the maintenance 
 
 of 'cert: hisses of inmates. The nun 
 
 in..- shelter and instruction, is annua Hv about 2110. 
 WISCONSIN, University of, at Madison, 
 was founded in IMS. Its product he funds be- 
 ing the proceeds of lauds granted by Congress 
 to the state for the support of a university and 
 of an agricultural and mechanical college, amount 
 
 to al i $460,000. The institution issupported 
 
 by the income of these funds, and b\ state ap 
 propriations. Tuition is free to all residents of 
 the state. The buildings and grounds of the 
 university are valued at $300,000. The legis- 
 lature has appropriated a tax of one-tenth of a 
 mill on the valuation of the state to the univer- 
 sity. This tax now yields S42.nno. The whole 
 income of the institution is about Ssn.liOO. The 
 appliances for instruction in the physical sciences 
 are very superior. The university ha- c\t. usive 
 and valuable geological and mineralogical cab 
 inets ami collections in natural history: well- 
 selectcil philosophical and chemical . 
 and a library of 7,600 volumes. It comprises 
 1 1 a college of arts, embracing the de] 
 of general science, agriculture, civil engineering, 
 mining and metallurgy, rued,, 
 and military science: (II) a college of letters, with 
 a department of ancient classics (embracing the 
 
AVITTENBERC COLLEGE 
 
 ancient classics, mathematics, natural science, En- 
 glish literature, and philosophy, and intended to 
 be fully equivalent to the regular course in the 
 best classical colleges in the country), and a de- 
 partment of modern classics, in which German 
 and French take the place of (■reck : (III) a de- 
 partment of law. There is a preparatory and a 
 post-graduate course. Both sexes are admitted. In 
 1875 — 6, there were 27 instructors (7 in the law 
 department) and 34") students (collegiate, 200; 
 preparatory, 71 : special students, 40; law, 25). 
 John H. Lathrop, 1,1,. P., was the chancellor 
 from is is to 1858, and Henry Barnard, LL.D., 
 from 1859 to 1861. Sine- the re-organization of 
 the university, in 1867, the chief officers, styled 
 presidents, have been as follows: Paul A. ( ha !- 
 bourne, M. P., LL. D.,- 1867— 70 ; John H. 
 Twombly, P. P., 1871—4: and John Bascom, 
 P. P., LL. P., since 1874. John \V. Sterling, 
 Ph. P., was dean of the faculty from L860 to 
 1805, and vice-chancellor from 1 *<;."> to lsi',1); 
 Mine L870, he has been vice-president. 
 
 WITTENBERG COLLEGE, at Spring- 
 field, Ohio, founded in 1845, is under the control 
 of the English Evangelical Lutheran Church, as 
 represented by the < feneral Synod. It is support- 
 ed by tuition fees ($30 a year) and the income 
 of an endowment of SI 25,000. Its libraries con- 
 tain 8,000 volumes. There is a tl logical, and a 
 
 collegiate (classical and civil engineering) course, 
 and a preparatory department In 1 875 — 6, there 
 were 10 instructors and 164 students (18 the- 
 ological, 80 collegiate, and 66 preparatory). 
 Both sexes are admitted. The presidents have 
 been as follows: the Rev. Ezra Keller, P. P., 
 4 years; the Rev. Samuel Sprecher, I). P., LL. I)., 
 25 years; and the Rev. J. 15. Helwig, P.D., the 
 present incumbent, 3 years. 
 
 WOFFOBD COLLEGE, at Spartanburg, 
 S. C, chartered in 1851 and opened in L854, is 
 under the control of the Methodist Episcopal 
 Church South. It owes its origin to the will 
 of the Rev. Benjamin Wofford, who bequeathed 
 $100.0(10 to found it. It is supported by the in- 
 come of an endowment of $50,000, by tuition 
 fees (from $44 to $64 a year), and by assess- 
 ments on the Methoi lists of the state. Its libraries 
 contain 15,000 volumes. In 1875 — 6, there were 
 7 instructors and 125 students (95 collegiate and 
 30 preparatory). The presidents have been as 
 follows: the Kev. W. M. Wightnian, D. D., 1854 
 —60; the Rev. A. M. Shipp, P. P., 1860— 75; 
 and James II. Carlisle, A. M„ LL. P., since 1875. 
 
 WOMEN, The Higher Education of (in 
 
 Great Britain). This subject has already 1 a 
 
 treated in the articles on Co- Education and 
 
 Female Education, in which the progn f the 
 
 recent movement in favor of the higher educa- 
 tion of women in the United States, is treated 
 with considerable fullness. The movement in 
 Great Britain has some peculiar features which 
 it is the special design of this article to describe. 
 
 England. The numerous educational ad- 
 vantages offered to women are the results of a 
 remarkable and spontaneous movement, which 
 has bad a rapid growth. It commenced about 
 
 WOMEN 
 
 the year 1863, when, at the request of an in- 
 fluential committee, the Cambridge University 
 Senate permitted an experimental examination 
 for girls in connection with the junior and 
 senior local examination for boys. The results, 
 if contrasted with those of the entrance exam- 
 ination for Bristol College, in 1876, will show 
 the improvement in the education of women. 
 during 13 veins. In 1863. half the juniors 
 passed, but 35 out of II seniors failed in pre- 
 liminary arithmetic ; at the Bristol examination 
 for scholarships, in L876, the women took two 
 out of three open scholarships, in addition to 
 
 a government Schools I nquiry Commission was 
 appointed, "to inquire into the state of educa- 
 tion of boys and girls of the upper and middle 
 classes." The report on private, endowed, ami 
 
 proprietary scl Is was published in 1868, in 
 
 20 volumes, of which only one-twentieth referred 
 to girls. The inspectors appointed by the com- 
 mission had visited private schools for girls, by 
 the coi rtesy of the owners. They reported even 
 the best as too small in numbers, and the teach- 
 ing as wanting in thoroughness, arithmetic and 
 other mathematics, and Latin, being mostly neg- 
 lected, and French and German taught super- 
 ficially. — Endowed schools were reported as 
 few: principally orphanages, and with instruction 
 scarcely raised above the elementary, "the en- 
 dowments hearing an infinitesimal proportion to 
 similar endowments for boys." — Under the head 
 
 of Proprietor! 
 
 ham School, ( ( 
 Miss Buss'sNi 
 two schools at 
 was commendi 
 
 1 Colic 
 Ehooha 
 
 t Liverpool. In these, the teaching 
 
 led. Several ladies — amongst them 
 Miss Ilii^s. Miss I '.'ivies, and Aliss lieale — were ex- 
 amined by the < missioncrs, and confirmed the 
 
 unfavorable verdict of the inspectors on tin' gen- 
 eral state of girls' education. They advised the 
 establishment of public schools for girls, and the 
 opening of university examinations to girls and 
 women. ( In tin • publication of the report, various 
 efforts were commenced to secure endowments for 
 girls' schools. In 18 71, Miss Buss made her North 
 London School a public school. She placed it 
 in the hands of trustees, and opened a second- 
 grade school under the same trust. In 1875, these 
 schools received an endowment of £16,000 for 
 buildings, from the Brewers' Company, and be- 
 came endowed schools; and, in 1876, the number 
 of pupils was 800 ; 400 in each school. Several 
 scholarships are held in theschools. Intheabove- 
 nientioned year i IsTl I, the Women's Education 
 Union was formed, at the suggestion of Mrs. 
 
 this 
 
 company, called 
 Company Limit 
 (since increased 
 provide schools i 
 uncles above tl 
 
 72, started a 
 Day School 
 of £12,000 
 
 eratecosl for girls of all 
 ntary." — In framing a 
 
 seliool scheme, the eouneil of the company were 
 aided by schemes already published, although 
 
 not enfor 1 until later by the Endowed Schools' 
 
 Commission, appointed after the inquiry, and by 
 
the scheme for Miss Buss's school. The Com- 
 pany's first schools were opened in 1873, at J 
 
 vanced instruction in science, languages, history, 
 and literature.— In the College of Physical Sci- 
 
 Cloydon, Norwich. Ilaeknev. Bath. Nottin-ham, 
 Oxford. St. John's "Wood, and Gateshead ; and 
 one middle school, at Clapham. In 1876, there 
 were upward of 1,400 children in attendance. 
 Every school is placed under the charge of a head- 
 mistress. There are examinations by independent 
 examiners, and a fair proportion of girls have 
 passed in the Oxford and Cambridge local and 
 higher local examinatic ins: one. from Notting 
 Hill, has obtained a scholarship at Newnham 
 
 HaD.— The school buildings, with oi rtwo 
 
 exceptions, arc arranged to hold from 200 to 300 
 girls ; the numbers, therefore, will probably in- 
 crease, and it is expected that the company will 
 be successful, financially as well as educationally. 
 Companies have also been formed at Leeds, 
 Manchester, Plymouth, Devonport, and Grant- 
 ham, for the establishment of high schools. 
 Simultaneously with the improved provision for 
 the education of girls, colleges have been opene 1 
 for women, and lectures established throughout 
 the country, by voluntary effort. In 1868, con- 
 tributions were solicited' for the establishment 
 of a college for women, "designed to hold to girls' 
 schools and home teaching, a position analogous 
 to that occupied by the universities toward pub- 
 lic schools for boys.'' A temporary building 
 was opened at Hitchin, in 1869, with 6students. 
 The regulations of the University of Cambridge 
 were enforced upon the students, and professors 
 came from Cambridge to give class teaching. In 
 1870, five students were, on application, exam- 
 ined informally for the previous examination: 
 but. since then, through the kind permission of 
 the senate, and the courtesy of the examiners, 
 many of the students have been examined, some 
 in the classical, mathematical, and moral science 
 triposes; seven have taken honors, and three have 
 passed the examination for the ordinary B. A. 
 degree. — In 1873, the college was removed to 
 Girton, near Cambridge, to premises built at a 
 cost of £16,000, and since then enlarged at a 
 further cost of .£6,000. In 1 S76, there were 33 
 resident students. Scholarships have been held 
 amounting to £2,38o, and £600 additional will 
 be given in 1877.— In 1871, Miss Clough opened 
 a house at Cambridge for students attending tin- 
 lectures of the Association for the Higher Edu- 
 cation of "Women, or certain university lectures 
 open to women. The accommodation soon be- 
 came insufficient; and, in 1874, Newnham Hall, 
 Cambridge, was built by a company to receive 
 Miss Clough 's students. In 1876, there were 29 
 students (some holding scholarships), all studying 
 for the Cambridge higher local examinations. — 
 In previous years, students have been examined 
 informally in the papers of the mathematical, clas- 
 sical, and moral science A-/'/>n.-.-c.s-.— (Eor Lnivcr- 
 sity College. London, sec I'xivehsity College.) 
 I 'Diversity College. Bristol, was opened in 1876, 
 with 301) students, about one-half women, and was 
 intended to supply, to persons of both sexes, ad- 
 
 lie establishment ol lectures and classes toi 
 vomen: but the necessity for separate organiza- 
 ion will probably be superseded by tin- s, In me 
 or university extension adopted bv tin- I 'ain- 
 iridge senate, in 1874, at the suggestion of .Mrs. 
 I. ones Stuart. — By means of this scheme, uni- 
 ersity graduates are sent to the various country 
 owns, to rive lectures and form classes, open to 
 
 ced 
 
 rapidly extended. Colleges will be built, in con- 
 nection with it. at Nottingham and Sheffield. 
 In London, lectures are open to women at the 
 Science and Art Department, South Kensing- 
 ton, the Birkbeck Institution, etc. Instruction to 
 music, with numerous scholarships, is given at 
 the National Training School. South Kensing- 
 ton, opened in 1876. — The following examina- 
 tions have been arranged: university examina- 
 tions open to girls and women, in 1 876 — for girls 
 under 18 ; local examinations of the universities 
 of ( 'ambridgc , Oxford, and Durham — fi >r women 
 over 18; higher local examinations. Cambridge; 
 examinations for women, at the University of 
 London, and at Oxford (commenced in 1877); 
 and government examinations in science and art, 
 Science and Art Department. The University 
 of London, in 1877, decided to admit women to 
 medical degrees. 
 
 Scotland. — The education of women has long 
 been on a higher level in Scotland than in Eng- 
 land : girls have received some higher education 
 with boys, in the common schools of the country; 
 and they have also attended high schools with 
 boys, in towns, and special girls' classes in the 
 large cities. Therefore, the same urgent need for 
 reform has not existed, as in England; yet two 
 important improvements may be named. By act 
 of parliament, in 187(1, the rich endowments of 
 the Edinburgh Merchants Company, of the an- 
 nual value of £2(1.8(10, were appropriated to the 
 education of boys and girls, and three large 
 girls' schools w< ire < ipeni -d . A lso a complete course 
 of study for women has been established by the 
 Ladies' Educational Association in Edinburgh, 
 assisted by the professors of the university. — 
 Examinations for girls and women are held in 
 connection with the University of Edinburgh. 
 
 Ireland. — See 1 relax d. 
 
 Lot-further information on tl,issul.|cci ,v /,' 
 
 portqfS : ofe' Tnq > u n; the si 
 
 abridged by D. Beale ; Hodgson, Education of 
 (xirls; Year-Book of W< men's Work; Journals 
 and Pamphlets published by the Women . Iso- 
 lation Union (London). (See also Co-edocahon 
 of the Sexes, and Female Education'.) 
 
30-4 
 
 WOoDRRIDCE 
 
 WORD METHOD 
 
 WOODBRIDGE, William Channing, an 
 American teacher ami educational \vi iter, born in 
 Medford, -Mass., Dec. 18., 1794 ; died in Boston, 
 November, 1845. Though he was of feeble con- 
 stitution, his unusual mental ability, aided by 
 the instruction of his father, who was a teacher, 
 enabled him to enter Yale College when he was 
 between 13 and 14 years of age. He graduated at 
 the age of 17, and went to Philadelphia, where 
 he entered upon a further course of study. In 
 1812, he became principal of the Burlington 
 Academy in New Jersey, remaining there two 
 years. Uis enthusiasm for study led him to re- 
 turn to New Haven, in the winter of 1814 — 15, 
 to attend lectures, principally on natural science; 
 but, while there, he entered upon a course of 
 theological study, which he complete. 1 at the 
 theological seminary in Princeton, N. J. While 
 at the latter place, he received an invitation to 
 assist in the establishment of the American 
 Asylum for the Deaf and Dumb, at Hartford, 
 which he accepted. His labors there, in teaching 
 at the Asylum, and preaching in various places 
 on Sunday, seriously affected his health, and 
 made a voyage to the south of Europe desirable. 
 This was undertaken in L820. lie returned in 
 1821; and, in the beginning of 1822. finished his 
 liii'liui'-iils i if (r,-ii : /rnj,J/i/. This was followed, 
 in L824, by Universal (Geography. (See Geog- 
 raphy.) Shortly after, failing health again led to 
 his relinquishment of active work, and to a sec- 
 ond voyage to Europe. There he visited many 
 educational institutions, giving particular atten- 
 tion to that of Fellenlierg. at Hofwyl, where he 
 spent three months, giving the first description 
 of it to the American public. (See Hofwyl.) In 
 1821), he returned to 1 lartford for the purpose of 
 enlisting the sympathies of influential friends in 
 a plan for the general improvement of education 
 in the United States, and the establishment of a 
 school for teachers. Ill health, however, and the 
 labor necessary to keep his geographical text- 
 books up to the standard of the new requirements 
 produced by the discoveries of science, prevented 
 the realization of his hopes. In 1831. he pur- 
 chased the American Journal qf Education, 
 changedits name to the Annals of Education, 
 and be I i e i ;< litor. 1 1 e conducted this journal 
 over six yi are, spending his small income freely 
 in its behalf, contributing constantly to its pages 
 articles in which were embodied the educational 
 theories and systems matured by himself, in- 
 brought under his observation during his Eu- 
 ropean travels. Sickness, howevi r,again thwarted 
 his plans: and, in L836, he resigned the active 
 editorship of the journal, and again embarked 
 for Europe. Previous to his death, however, in 
 1844, he returned to the United States. As an 
 earnest friend of the cause of education, Mr. 
 Woodbridge is entitled to special mention. He 
 was one of the first to recognize the necessity of 
 
 inal schools; and the introduction of vocal 
 
 music asa part of elementary instruction, now 
 so largely adopted in the schools of towns and 
 cities, is. in great measure, due to his zealous 
 advocacy. (See -Mason, Lowell.) 
 
 WOODSTOCK COLLEGE, at Woodstock. 
 Baltimore ( 'o.. Mil., was chartered in 1867. It is 
 a Roman Catholic institution, devoted exclusive- 
 ly to the younger members of the Society of 
 J esus. I ts course of studies embraces three years 
 of philosophy, and four years of theology, to- 
 gether with the accompanying blanches of the 
 natural sciences. Its faculty numbers ,'i professors 
 of dogmatic theology. 2 of special metaphysics, 
 and 1 each for the remaining chairs of moral 
 theology, Sacred Scriptures, ecclesiastical history, 
 Hebrew, general metaphysics, chemistry, math- 
 ematics, and natural philosophy. During the 
 scholastic year 1*73 — 1, the number of students 
 in regular attendance was 1112. of whom 42 were 
 engaged in the study of philosophy and CO in 
 the course of theology. The Rev. James Perron, 
 S. J., is (1877) the president. 
 
 WOOLSEY, Theodore Dwight, an Amer- 
 ican scholar and educator, born in S'ew Y'ork, 
 Oct. 31., 1801. lie graduated at Yale College 
 in 1820, and from 1823 to 1825, was a tutor 
 there. From 1827 to 1830, he studied in Ger- 
 many. and on his return was appointed professor 
 of Greek in Yale College, and. in 1846, was 
 chosen president, which office he resigned in 
 1871. His opinion is frequently sought on 
 questions of international law. He has published 
 valuable editions of several classical authors, 
 among which may be particularly mentioned 
 The Mrrslix „f Euri[,Uh<s\\*X.\y, f lie Antigone 
 of Sophocles (1835); The Electro of Sophocles 
 HoT) ; The Prometheus of JCseJu/lns (1837); 
 and the Gorgias qf Plato (1842). 
 
 WOOSTER, University of, at Wooster, 
 Ohio, founded in 1866, and opened in 1870, is 
 under Presbyterian control. It is supported by 
 tuition fees ($30 to $45 a year) and the income 
 of an endowment of $250,000. -V handsome 
 building, costing over 8100,000, has been erected, 
 and contains, besides ample recitation rooms, a 
 large cabinet and museum, a valuable telescope 
 with many philosophical and chemical instru- 
 ments, a chapel, and halls for literary societies. 
 It has a library of about 4,000 volumes. Both 
 sexes are admitted. There is a collegiate, a pre- 
 paratory, and a medical department, the last at 
 < levelaud. The collegiate department has three 
 regular courses: classical, philosophical, and 
 scientific. In 1875 — 6, there were 28 instructors 
 (13in the medical department ) and 350 students 
 ( 170 collegiate, 1 00 preparatory . and 811 medical). 
 The pre.-ideiits have been : the Rev. Willis Lord, 
 I). D., LL. D„ 1870—73, and the Rev. A. A. E. 
 Taylor, I). 1).. since L873. 
 
 WORD METHOD, a term applied to the 
 
 analytic method of teaching children to read. 
 
 he process consists of using short words instead 
 
 of letters in the first I 
 to recognize and pronoi 
 i line, to read easy Bentei 
 names of the letters W 
 of words have been lean 
 their composite characfc i 
 and sounds of the letters 
 learning the alphabet. 
 
 the pupil learning 
 nee these words, some 
 ••■>. before learning the 
 
 i sufficient number 
 
 il. the pupil is shown 
 
 and taught the names 
 which form them, thus 
 
 In this process, care 
 
should In' taken to select :q>| m i]iriate words, and 
 present them in a progressive manner; as, cat, 
 rat, hat, mat, — man, fan, can, — dog, log, etc. 
 The pupil, in this way, perceives the power of 
 eaeli letter, and soon learns to spell an. I pro- 
 nounce words, alter which the synthetic method 
 may be employed. 
 
 WORDS, "Analysis of. The analysis or 
 resolving of words into their elementary parts, is 
 an important branch of the study of languages, 
 the native as well as foreign. In ordinary school 
 parlance, this branch is usually styled eti/molngi/, 
 since the analysis comprehends not only an ex- 
 planation of the meaning of each of the parts 
 of a word — botli root and affixes, but a knowl- 
 edge of the derivation of these. For elementary 
 school purposes, however, it should be borne in 
 mind that the latter is of secondary importance. 
 In the study of the native tongue, it will be 
 acknowledged, the importance of training pupils 
 to analyze compound and derivative words can 
 hardly be overestimated. The fact that the En- 
 glish language derives about one-half of the 
 words in ordinary use from Latin, renders ex- 
 ercises in word analysis, of far greater necessity 
 for the study of English, than for that of most 
 other languages. That, without being trained 
 in this analysis, pupils will scarcely be able to 
 grasp the true meaning of English words, prob- 
 ably no experienced teacher, at present, will be 
 inclined to dispute. To very many of the pu- 
 pils who are merely drilled in spelling and read- 
 ing, the force even of the most common Anglo- 
 Saxon prefixes, like a, be, en, etc., and of suffixes, 
 like dom, hood, ship, etc., must remain unknown. 
 How many, for example, will be able to infer 
 the meaning of for or fore in forswear and 
 forego ? The knowledge of the Latin prefixes 
 and suffixes, even in the words of ordinary life, 
 will be acquired with still greater difficulty by 
 pupils not sufficiently trained in word analysis. 
 On the other hand, only a slight knowledge of 
 the simplest Latin prefixes, as, ad, con, pre, pro, 
 sub, etc., affords a key to the distinctive meaning 
 of a large number of words. It is, therefore, a 
 matter of gratification to find that, at present, 
 this branch of study is scarcely ever entirely 
 omitted from the common-school course of in- 
 struction. — In regard to the method of teaching 
 word analysis, it may justly be said that there 
 are few subjects taught in elementary schools to 
 which the fundamental principles of the devel- 
 oping method can so easily, and with so much 
 advantage, be applied as to this. At whatever 
 stage of the pupil's progress the instruction may 
 begin, provided a knowledge of reading and writ- 
 ing has been acquired, the number of words 
 already learned, will be found ample for the first 
 and easiest exercises. Hardly any arbitrary 
 memorizing is needed, since, if the teacher fol- 
 low a natural course, he will only have to de- 
 velop the knowledge already in the child's mind. 
 Thus, children, even in the lowest grades, know- 
 ing the meaning of words like teacher and 
 preacher, will not find the least difficulty in un- 
 derstanding that er, in both these words, means 
 
 one u-ho, and in perceiving that these words 
 mean, respectively, one who teaches, and one 
 trim /irraches. Nine-tenths of a class of pupils, 
 of ordinary intelligence, will now readily find, 
 among the words they are accustomed to use, 
 several others in which the sufiix er has the same 
 meaning. They will not only fully comprehend 
 this initiatory lesson, but they will feel a manifest 
 delight that one simple explanation has mi great lv 
 added to their knowledge of the meaning of 
 words. The intelligent teacher will not fail to 
 
 commodate his teaching to the knowledge of the 
 words which belong to the pupils' own vocabu- 
 lary, the more rapid will be their progress, and 
 the more intense will be the interest which 
 they will take in the new study. It is obviously 
 a point of great importance that the first ex- 
 amples of prefixes or suffixes that are presented, 
 should fully illustrate their general meaning. 
 Thus, the word teacher would be a better selec- 
 tion for this purpose than grocer ; sailor, better 
 than tailor; and repay, better than n ■• ■ ive. In 
 the further progress of the study.it is important 
 that the most common prefixes and suffixes 
 should be learned before those of rarer use. It 
 shows a great lack of pedagogical tact in a 
 teacher to drill his pupils on preter, subter, and 
 retro, before they know the meaning of su/i. con, 
 and in. A more difficult stage of this branch 
 of study, is that which treats of the Latin roots, 
 and their use in English words. Here, also, a 
 strict adherence to the principle that we should 
 proceed from the "known to the unknown" — 
 from an analysis of what is already in the pu- 
 pil's mind to that which is new, will guide the 
 teacher with unerring certainty on the right 
 path. For example, a judicious teacher who 
 desires to familiarize his pupils with the deriv- 
 atives from the Latin root due or duct (from 
 duco), will not, at first, select such words as in- 
 duct, inductive, superinduce, etc., or even words 
 like adduce, conduce, deduce, before his pupils 
 have learned to analyze words of a more ob- 
 vious meaning; as introduce, produce, reduce, 
 aqueduct, viaduct, etc. What is here meant is, 
 that the first lessons in this kind of analysis 
 should concern only those words the meaning of 
 which may readily be explained by showing the 
 meaning of their parts. In every subject of in- 
 struction, the order of presenting the various 
 matters which are to be learned by the pupil, is 
 of vital importance ; but in none is it more es- 
 sential than in the etymological analysis of words. 
 The numerous class of words which cannot be 
 explained, except by the history of their forma- 
 
 eh as amhi 
 
 ,/,,/,, 
 
 chancellor, 
 
 •die-. *iBDsyccp>.Z3zi ,,, U juaraniine ate) 
 
 should lie reserved for a higher grade of this 
 study. — The analysis of words derived from the 
 Greek, should follow that of words derived from 
 Latin roots ; and the discussion of the etymo- 
 logical affinity of the words of different lan- 
 guages should be reserved for that stage of the 
 course of studies which comprehends compara- 
 tive philology. — For the teaching of this subject, 
 
866 WORKING MEN'S COLLEGE 
 
 important hints may be derived from the fol- 
 lowing; works: Trench, A Select Glossary of 
 English Words etc. (N. V., 1859); also, On the 
 Study (if Words (N. Y., 1859); Hai.dkman, Af- 
 fixes in their Origin mid Application (Phila., 
 1865); De Verb, Studies in English (N. Y., 
 1867). (For other works on this subject, see 
 
 WORKING MEN'S COLLEGE (London). 
 founded in 1854. resembles, in intention and or- 
 ganization, the Birkbeck Institution, founded in 
 1823. The Rev. F. I). Maurice was its principal 
 up to the time of his death, in 1872. After a 
 short interval. Thomas Hughes, author of Tom 
 Brown's School Days, became, and still is, the 
 principal. It provides instruction, at the small- 
 est possible cost (the teaching being almost 
 wholly unpaid), in the subjects with which it 
 most concerns English citizens to be acquainted, 
 and thus tries to place a liberal education with- 
 in the reach of working men. The college is 
 situated in Great Ormond Street, London. Six 
 class rooms have recently been built, at a cost 
 of more than £2.401). There is a museum and 
 library; and a coffee and conversation room is also 
 provided. Classes are formed in art, history, lan- 
 guage and literature, mathematics, and physical 
 science. These compose the chief work of the 
 college ; but classes in singing and other sub- 
 ordinate subjects are also formed. 
 
 The college year commences about the begin- 
 ning of October, and consists of four terms of 
 eight or nine week each, and a vacation term of 
 eight to ten weeks. — The ordinary classes meet 
 for one or two hours a week. General lectures 
 are delivered on the ordinary subjects of the col- 
 lege on Saturday evenings, to which the public 
 are admitted. There are also practice classes for 
 supplementary tuition, conducted for the most 
 part by certificated students. — Other advantages 
 connected with the college, are a Natural His- 
 tory Society and Field Club, which holds weekly 
 meetings, and arranges geoli igical and botanical 
 excursions; an adult school, under the special 
 superintendence of the secretary, for teaching 
 the subjects required for entrance to the college; 
 and a night school, held twice a week, for boys 
 under 17. — The fees are as low as possible, and 
 the conditions of entry are, that students must be 
 above 17 years of age, must know the first four 
 rules of arithmetic, and must be able to read and 
 write. — Examinations are held in the last week 
 of December. Certificates of honor, and schol- 
 arships or associateships arc granted to success- 
 ful candidates who have attended the requisite 
 number of terms. The council of the college is 
 composed of founders, teachers, and elected 
 members, among whom are many who originally 
 joined it as students. The average number of 
 students is 360. At an early date, the college 
 was affiliated to the Ixmdon University, and 
 some of the students have taken their degrees. 
 As the scheme of the Working Men's College 
 did not admit women, another institution of a 
 similar kind was founded in 1864; and another 
 Working Men's College was organized in 1868. 
 
 WYOMING 
 
 WRITING. See Penmanship. 
 
 WURTEMBERG. See Germ \ny. 
 
 WYOMING, one of the territories of the 
 United States, funned, in 1868, from portions 
 of Utah, Idaho, and Dakota. Its area is 97,883 
 sq. m.; and its population, in 1870, was 9,118; 
 but in 1875, it was estimated at 24,000. 
 
 Educational History. — In 1869, an act was 
 passed by the territorial legislature, which pro- 
 vided for the organization of schools, and this 
 was amended in 1K70. At that time, the num- 
 ber of schools of all kinds was 9. giving employ- 
 ment to 15 teachers, and instruction to 364 
 pupils. In 1873, all previous school laws were 
 repealed, and a new law was substituted, under 
 which the schools are at present organized. The 
 first superintendent of public instruction was 
 •I. H. llayford. who became such in 1869, by 
 virtue of his position as territorial auditor. He 
 was succeeded, under the last law, by John 
 Slaughter, the present incumbent, who, as ter- 
 ritorial librarian, is. <:r officio, superintendent of 
 j public instruction. 
 
 School System. — The care of the public schools 
 of the territory is intrusted to the superintend id 
 if /in/ilic instruction, whose term of office is two 
 years, and who, in addition to the usual duties 
 pertaining to his office, apportions the school 
 fund, and makes a report direct to the assembly, 
 on the first day of each regular session. A 
 comity superintendent is elected biennially in 
 each county, and three district directors are an- 
 nually elected in each district. The duties of 
 these are almost identical with those of similar 
 officers in other parts of the country. The 
 public schools are open to all children between 
 the ages of 7 and 21. When there are 15 or 
 more colored children in any district, a separate 
 school may be organized, for their instruction, 
 bythe district directors and the county superin- 
 tendent. The schools are supported by a two-mill 
 tax levied annually in each county, school-dis- 
 tricts assessing themselves for additional amounts 
 when necessary. In the employment of teach- 
 ers, no discrimination can be legally made on ac- 
 count of sex. All children in good health are 
 compelled by law to attend school at least three 
 months each year. The schools are elementary in 
 character; but graded schools may be established 
 in any district, upon the decision, to that effect, 
 of the district directors and the county superin- 
 tendent. The territorial superintendent and the 
 several county superintendents are required to 
 hold annually a teachers' institute, not less than 
 four nor more than ten days in length, at which 
 a uniform series of text-books, for three years, 
 throughout the territory, is designated. The 
 length of the school year is 10 months. 
 
 Educational Condition. — The following are 
 the principal items of school statistics for 1875 : 
 
 Number el' srliool-houaes 13 
 
 " pupils enrolled 1,222 
 
 " " teachers 23 
 
 Total expenditures $16,400 
 
 Value nf s.'lmol property (net includmsr land) .$32,500 
 
 No provision for superior or special instruction 
 of any kind has yet been made. 
 
XENIA COLLEGE 
 
 XENTA COLLEGE, at Xenia. Ohio, char- 
 tered in 1850, and organized 1851, is under 
 Methodist Episcopal control. It was originally 
 organized for females only, but was soon thrown 
 open to young men also. It comprises a collegiate 
 course (classical and scientific), and a preparatory, 
 a primary, and a normal department. Facilities 
 
 YALE COLLEGE 867 
 
 are also afforded for instruction in music. The 
 regular tuition fees vary from $26 to $36 a Mar. 
 In 1875 — 6, there were 9 professors and other 
 instructors and 230 students (83 collegiate. 1!) 
 preparatory, 30 primary, and 98 normal). Wil- 
 liam Smith, A. M., is (1877) the president of 
 the college. 
 
 YALE, Elihu, an American merchant, the 
 patron, though not the founder, of Yale College, 
 was born in New Haven, April .">., 1648; and died 
 in London, Eng., July '22.. 1721. In 1678, he went 
 to the East Indies, and, from 1687 to L692, was 
 governor of Fort St. George, Madras. He was 
 afterward made governor of the East India 
 Company, and a fellow of the Royal Society. 
 His gifts to the institution which afterwards 
 bore his name, were estimated at £500. At 
 first, only the new* building, which had lien 
 erected in Xew Haven, was named after him: 
 but, by the charter of 1745. this title was ex- 
 tended to the whole institution. A synopsis 
 of his life may be found in the Yale Literary 
 Mnquziiie, April. 1 ->-. 
 
 YALE COLLEGE, in Xew Haven, Ct., is 
 one of the oldest and most important educa- 
 tional institutions in the United States. In 
 1701, the general assembly granted a charter for 
 a " collegiate school," and the trustees selected 
 Saybrook as its site. The first commencement 
 was held in 1702. The instruction seems to 
 have been given partly at Saybrook. and partly 
 at Killingworth and Milford, where the first 
 two rectors resided. In 1716, the trustees voted 
 to establish the college permanently at Xew 
 Haven, and. in 171s, a huil ling was completed 
 there, which, in honor of Elihu Yale, a bene- 
 factor, was named Yale College, a design .n inn ,-n 
 first confined to the building, but authoritatively 
 applied to the institution as a whole, by the new 
 charter of 1745. The principal buildings .«•- 
 cupy a square of about eight acres, west of i 
 the public green. They are 16 in number. The 
 two buildings of the Divinity School, the two 
 buildings of the Scientific School, and the .Med- 
 ical School are off the main square. The Law 
 School is in the county court-house. The in- 
 vested funds, in 1875, amounted to SI ,550, ; 
 
 the income was $235,465, including $107,000 
 from students. The institution possesses valu- 
 able museutns, cabinets, and apparatus. The 
 departments of instruction in Yale College are 
 comprehended under four divisions, as follows : 
 the faculty of theology i organized in 1*22) : of 
 law (1824); of medicine (1812); and of philosophy 
 and the arts. Under the last-named faculty are 
 included, the courses for graduate instruction, 
 the under-graduate academical department, the 
 under-graduate section of the Sheffield Scientific j 
 School (1847), and the School of the Fine Arts 
 (1866) — each having a distinct organization. In 
 the academical department, the course is for four 
 years, and leads to the degree of A. B. The ! 
 
 charge for tuition and incidentals is $140 a year. 
 The sum of SI 1,000 and upward, derived partly 
 from permanent charitable funds, is annually 
 applied by the Corporation for the relief of stu- 
 dents who need pecuniary aid. especially of those 
 preparing for the Christian ministry. About 
 100 thus have their tuition either wholly or in 
 part remitted. There are two fellowships, the 
 holders of which are required to pursue non- 
 professional post-graduate studies in Xew Haven. 
 Tile catalogue of 1876 — 7 shows some changes in 
 the course of studies published in that of 1875 — 6 
 (from which the statement in the article College 
 was taken), especially in the greater range of 
 elective studies. There are professorships of 
 moral philosophy and metaphysics; natural phi- 
 losophy and astronomy: geology and mineralogy; 
 Latin language and literature; mathematics; 
 Greek language and literature ; rhetoric and 
 English literature ; history ; molecular physics 
 and chemistry ; modern languages ; German 
 language and literature: political and social sci- 
 ence. The Sheffield Scientific School received 
 its name in 1860, when it was re-organized upon 
 a move extensive scale through the munificence 
 of Joseph E. Sheffield, of Xew Haven. In 1863, 
 it received the congressional land grant, and be- 
 came the College of Agriculture and the Me- 
 chanic Arts of Connecticut. The under-graduate 
 courses of instruction, occupying three years, are 
 arranged to suit the requirements of various 
 classes of students. The first year's work is the 
 same for all ; during the last two years, the in- 
 struction is chiefly arranged in special courses. 
 The special courses most distinctly marked out 
 are the following : (1) in chemistry ; (2) in civil 
 engineering; (3) in dynamic (or mechanical) en- 
 gineering; (4) in agriculture; (5) in natural his- 
 history ; (6) in the subjects preparatory to med- 
 ical studies; (7) in studies preparatory to mining 
 and metallurgy ; (8) in select studies preparatory 
 to other higher studies. These courses lead to 
 the degree of Ph. B. The charge for tuition is 
 §150 a year. There are professorships of miner- 
 alogy; civil engineering; astronomy and physics; 
 dynamic engineering: theoretical and agricultural 
 chemistry ; agriculture ; mathematics ; botany ; 
 English; paleontology; political economy and 
 history; analytical chemistry and metallurgy; 
 zoology; chemistry: and comparative anatomy. 
 The School of the Fine Arts has for its end the 
 cultivation and promotion, through practice and 
 criticism, of the arts of design ; namely, paint- 
 ing, sculpture, and architecture, both in their ar- 
 tistic and esthetic aims. The design is, (1) to pro- 
 
vide thorough technical instruction in the arts of 
 painting, sculpture, and architecture ; and (2) to 
 furnish an acquaintance with all branches of 
 learning relating to the history, theory, and 
 practice of art. The course of technical in- 
 struction covers three years. No provision has 
 been made for instruction in the departments of 
 sculpture and architecture ; but it is hoped that, 
 before long, this will be provided. There is a 
 professor of painting, a professor of drawing, 
 and an instructor in geometry aud perspective. 
 The chairs of sculpture, architecture, aud anat- 
 omy are unfilled. The school is open to both 
 sexes. The charge for tuition is $36 for three 
 months. In the departments of philosophy and 
 the arts, there are various post-graduate courses, 
 which may be pursued by candidates for the de- 
 grees of A. M., Ph. 1)., and civil and dynamical 
 engineer, or by graduates not candidates for a 
 further degree. In the theological department, 
 there is no charge for tuition or for room rent. 
 There are several scholarships for the aid of 
 needy students. In the law department, the 
 undergraduate course is two years. There is a 
 post-graduate, course of one year for the degree 
 of Master of Law, and of two years, for the 
 degree of Doctor of Civil Law. The libraries of 
 the institution contain 11 7.000 volumes; namely, 
 college library (exclusive of pamphlets), 80,000 ; 
 Linoniau and Brothers (society) library, 20,000 ; 
 
 libraries of the professional schools, 17,000. The 
 Peabody Museum of Natural History was 
 founded, in 1K66. by Ceorge Peabody, by a gift 
 of $150,000. One wing of the building has been 
 completed. In 1876 — 7, there were 87 instructors 
 in all the departments, besides special lecturers. 
 The students were as follows : theological. 95 ; 
 law, 60 ; medical, 36 ; department of philosophy 
 and the arts, 8611 (graduate students, 67 ; special 
 students. 2; academic under-graduates, 569; sci- 
 entific, 206; fine arts. 16); total, deducting rep- 
 etitions. 1 .021. The number of degrees conferred, 
 prior to 1875, was 10,605, including K70 honor- 
 ary degrees ; the number of academic alumni 
 was 8,464. The government of the college is ad- 
 ministered by the president and 1* fellows, of 
 whom the governor and lieutenant-governor of 
 Connecticut are, ex officio, two. Six are elected 
 by the alumni; and the remaining ten. who are 
 Congregational clergymen, are chosen by the 
 fellows themselves. The rectors and presidents 
 have been as follows: Abraham Pierson, 1701 
 — 7 ; Samuel Andrew (pro tern.), 1707 — 19 ; 
 Timothy Cutler, 1719—22: Samuel Andrew 
 (pro tern.), 1722—5; Elisha Williams. 1725- - 
 39; Thomas Clap, 1739—66; Naphtali Dag- 
 gett, 1766—77; Ezra Stiles. 1777— -95 : Timothy 
 i »wight. 1795— 1 si 7 ; Jeremiah Day. 1817—46; 
 Theodore Dwight . Woolsey, 1846 — 71 ; and 
 Noah Porter, since 1871. 
 
 ZOOLOGY (Or. ;,mv, an animal, and /USyoc, 
 a discourse) treats of the structure, classification, 
 habits, etc., of animals. It is an important 
 branch of descriptive natural science, or natural 
 history, and usually forms a part of the course 
 of study in various grades of schools. In ele- 
 mentary instruction, it constitutes, with its sister 
 science, botany, one of the most effective and 
 available subjects for training the observing fac- 
 ulties ; and, hence, is often comprised in the 
 course of instruction prescribed for common 
 schools. This subject has peculiar attractions 
 for children ; since, as is well known, they in- 
 variably manifest a deep interest in animal life. 
 The principles by which the teacher should be 
 guided m giving instruction iu this, as in other 
 branches of natural science, have been to some 
 extent explained in previous articles. (See 
 Astronomy, aud Botany.) In teaching zoology, 
 care must be particularly taken to exhibit as 
 much as possible the natural objects themselves ; 
 and, in elementary teaching, this comes first. 
 That is to say, the pupils are not to be required 
 to commit to memory dry definitions and for- 
 mulated statements ; but their minds should be 
 brought in contact with the living realities. 
 (For a full synopsis of topics aud methods for 
 
 elementary instruction in this subject, see How 
 to Teach, N. Y., 1874.) In the higher grades 
 of instruction, the three different departments 
 of the science — morphology, physiology, and 
 distribution, should systematically be treated. 
 In every grade of instruction, however, the 
 teacher or professor cannot too closely follow 
 the principle laid down by Huxley : "The great 
 business of the scientific teacher is to imprint 
 the fundamental, irrefragable facts of his sci- 
 ence, not only by words upon the mind, but by 
 sensible impressions upon the eye, and ear. and 
 touch of the student, in so complete a manner, that 
 every term used, or law enunciated, may after- 
 wards call up vivid images of the ] particular struct- 
 ural, or other, facts which furnished the demon- 
 stration of the law, or the illustration of the term." 
 Moreover, every teacher shoidd bear in mind that 
 a good share of his own knowledge should be at 
 first-hand — acquired by his own observation, not 
 simply gleaned from books — or he will not suc- 
 ceed in awakening an interest in the minds of 
 his pupils. The proper method of teaching this 
 subject has been clearly shown by one of its great- 
 est masters. (See Huxley, On the X/udu of Zool- 
 ogy, in Tlie Culture demanded la/ Modern Life, 
 
 N. Y., 1867.) (See Science, The Teaching of.) 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX. 
 
 It i 
 
 (I, Aaidemir 
 
 A-Il-C Hook— 1 
 
 A-B-C Method — seo Alphabet 
 
 Method 
 Abecedarian — 1 
 
 A-B-C Shooters— 1. See also 67 
 Abedard, Pierre — 1 
 Abercronibie, John — 1 
 Abingdon College — 2 
 Absenteeism — 2 
 Abstract mid Concrete — 2 
 Academy— its origin and ordinary 
 
 meaning. 2 : secondary 
 
 Accomplishments — distinguished 
 from culture, kinds of, 3 ; tend- 
 ency in regard to, at the present 
 time; proper object of, 4 
 
 Acquisition — 4 
 
 Arroamatic Method— 1 
 
 Adam, Alexander — 4 
 
 Adams, John — 4 
 
 Adrian College— 5 
 
 Adults, Schools for— in Germany, 
 in Austria, in the United Status. 5 
 
 Adventists— 5 
 
 .Esthetic Culture — see Esthetic 
 Culture 
 
 \ fleet at ion— 6 
 
 Agassiz, L. J. K — 6 
 
 Age, in Education — 6 
 
 Agrlcola, Kodolphus— biographical 
 sketch, educational works and 
 views — 8 
 
 Agricultural Colleges — congres- 
 sional land grants for, 8; progress 
 of, state appropriations for, 9 ; 
 laboratories, workshops, farms, 
 etc., expediency of grants for, 10; 
 " study in, European 
 
 schools. 11; statistical tabic, 12 
 Ann, J. F.— 14 
 Ainsworth, ltobert- 
 
 Alabama— area ami p 
 
 and special 
 
 Alabama, I Diversity of— 16 
 
 Albion College— 17 
 
 Alcott, A. B — 17 
 
 Alcott, W. A.— 17 
 
 Alculn— 17 
 
 Alexandrian School— 17 
 
 Alfred the Great — biographical 
 sketch, influence on education, 18 
 
 Alfred University— 18 
 
 Algebra — definition of, literal nota- 
 tion, 18 ; positive and negative, 
 19 ; exponents, methods of dem- 
 onstration, 20 ; range of topics 
 embraced, 21; class-room work, 22 
 
 Algeria— education in, 2-4 
 
 Allegheny College— 24 
 
 VI ma Mater— 24 
 
 Alphabet— Greek and Latin alpha- 
 bets, etc.. origin of the English 
 alphabet, imperfections in it, 
 table of vowel elements, 25. See 
 
 Uphahet Method--!'. 
 
 ; College— 26 
 
 Analysis, Grammatical — definition 
 of, 26 ; parsing, value of analysis 
 as a mode of teaching, 27; diagram 
 system, 28 
 
 Analysis, Mathematical — see 
 Mathematics 
 
 Analytic Method of Teaching— 28. 
 See also 336 
 
 Andrews J. V.— reforms introduced 
 by, 28 
 
 Anglo-Saxon — origin of, modifica- 
 tions of by other languages, pe- 
 culiarities of, its value in com- 
 mon schools, 29 ; in the high 
 school or academy, in normal 
 schools, in colleges and univer- 
 sities, 30; text-books for the study 
 of, 31 
 
 Anselm, of Canterbury— 31 
 
 Antloch College— 32 
 
 Antipathy— 32 
 
 Aphorisms, Educational —value of 
 education, 32; scope of education, 
 teacher and pupil. 33 ; training 
 and habit, development of the 
 faculties.language.self-education, 
 34 ; moral education, discipline 
 and government, 35 
 
 Apparatus, School — 35 
 
 Apportionment— see School Fund 
 
 Arabian Schools— 36 
 
 Archaeology — 37 
 
 Architecture— see Fine Arts 
 
 Architecture, School — see School- 
 Argentine Republic— area, popula- 
 tion, religion, etc, 37; history, 
 political and educational, schools 
 and universities, :;s 
 
 Aristotle— his early lil'e,38;appointed 
 teacher of Alexander, the peri- 
 patetic school, method of teach- 
 ing, theory of education, ante- 
 natal influences, habit as an edu- 
 cator, when instruction begins, 
 classes of subjects to be taught, 
 mechanical work, fine arts, vi- 
 olent exercises opposed to 
 growth, 30 : antagonism of bml- 
 ily and menta] Bctb it \ . music, 
 
 totle, 40. See also 32, 33, 34, 471 
 Arithmetic— faulty method oi t. m h- 
 ing, 40; what should constitute 
 
 the course in, 41; principles anil 
 maxims to be kept in view. 43; 
 reasons for the rule in short di- 
 vision, pure and applied arith- 
 metic. 44 ; stages of mental de- 
 velopment to be kept in view in 
 teaching arithmetic, 45 
 Arizona — organization, area, and 
 population, educational history, 
 school system, educational 
 
 state, educational his- 
 tory. 46; state teachers' associa- 
 tion, 47; state superintendents, 
 school statistics, present law; 
 elementary, normal, superior, 
 and special instruction; educa- 
 tional journal, etc., 48 
 
 University- 
 Army Schools — see Military 
 
 Schools 
 Arndt, E. M.— 49 
 Arnold, Thomas— 49 
 Arnold, Thomas K.— 50 
 Art-Education— necessity of, con- 
 dition of among the ancients, po- 
 litical value of. 50; history ot in 
 the U. S., methods of art-instruc- 
 tion, 51; art-schools in the U. 8., 
 table of art institutions in the 
 U. S. ; instruction in drawing, 
 52 ; mode of establishing art- 
 schools, importance of art-edu- 
 
 Tceh- 
 
 Educatlon i 
 nical Education 
 
 Arts, Liberal— 53 
 
 Asehani, Roger— 54 
 
 Association of Ideas — 54 
 
 Astronomy— claims of in education, 
 54 ; practical uses of, proper 
 method of teaching, elementary 
 course in, 55; diagrams and ap- 
 paratus, religious aspects, 56 
 
 Atbeneum— 56 ^ 
 
 Athens — Athenian education dis- 
 tinguished from Spartan, gram- 
 matist and critic, writing, use of 
 ink and stylus. 56; music, gym- 
 nastics, baths, education of girla 
 and orphans, 57 
 
 Atlanta University— 57 
 
 Atlas— 57 
 
 Attendance, School — annual aver- 
 age, how found, 57 . table of, in 
 the U. S-, school age in different 
 
 Attention— great value of, interest 
 the chief agent, not to be ex- 
 ercised too long, memory de- 
 pendent upon, 59 ; attention de- 
 pendent upon physical condi- 
 tion, proper time for its exercise. 
 
 Austin College— 61 
 
 Australasian Colonies — area and 
 
 population, educational systems. 
 New South Wales, Victoria, 61 ; 
 South Australia. West Australia, 
 Queensland, Tasmania, New Zea- 
 land, 62 
 
 Austria — area and population, 62; 
 school history, present school 
 system, school statistics, 64; edu- 
 cational periodicals. 65 
 
 Authority— its twofold application, 
 its dual nature, limits of. mode 
 of enforcing, description of. 65 ; 
 its use in intellectual instruc- 
 tion, excessive use of hurtful to 
 mental growth. 66. See also 374, 
 
 376 
 
Han -hauls — +.7. See also 1 
 
 Bachelor— 67 
 
 Bacon, Francis — early education, 
 appointed lord high chancellor, 
 Novum Organum, convicted of cor- 
 ruption, philosophical views, 67; 
 experiment. Inst au ratio Magna, 
 Essays, influence on education. 08. 
 See also 175*, 307, 494 
 
 Baden— see Germany 
 
 examination and <jualiti.at n >n of 
 teachers, 69 ; industrial educa- 
 tion, training of teachers, 70 
 
 Baltimore City College— 70 
 
 Baltimore Female College— 70 
 
 Baptists— sects of, early history, 70; 
 principal colleges in England 
 and Wales, history of in America, 
 colleges and theological semi- 
 naries in America, 71; epochs in 
 educational work, distinguished 
 Baptist educators, 72 
 
 Barbauld, A. L.— 72 
 
 Barnard, F. A. P.— 72 
 
 Barnard, Henry— his early life, edu- 
 cational works— 73 
 
 Basedow, J. B.— his early life,73;edu- 
 cational views and publications. 
 Elemmtanverk, the philanthro- 
 pic its failure, his death, his in- 
 fluence— 74 
 
 Bates College — 74 
 
 Bavaria— see Germany- 
 Baylor University— 75 
 
 Beach (irove College — 75 
 
 Bebiau, R. A. A— 75 
 
 Bede— 75 
 
 Belgium— area and population, 75; 
 educational history, primary and 
 
 in-lriirti..n 
 
 
 llustration of the 
 
 tymology of single 
 partnient 
 of belles-lettres, 80 
 Bcloit College— 80 
 Benedictines, Schools of the— their 
 peculiar features of 
 
 struct ion 
 
 famous. Hi 
 Beneke, F. E.— Rl 
 Benevolence — 81 
 Bengel, J. A.— 81 
 Bent ley, Richard— 82 
 Berea College— 82 
 Bernhardt A. F.— 82 
 Bethany College -82 
 
 Bethel Colleare— 82 
 Bible— diffen nceinthi 
 
 80, list of the most 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Blind 
 
 ne-tleiilsot instruction. *»>. music. 
 
 mechanical training, government 
 and discipline, systems of print- 
 ing and notation, 87 
 
 Blochmann, K. J.— 88 
 
 Blue-coat School — see Christ's 
 Hospital 
 
 Board of Education — see School 
 Board 
 
 Boarding-school— its status in dif- 
 ferent countries, relation to pub- 
 Bolivia— area and population, 88, 
 condition of education in, 89 
 
 Bonet, J. 1*.— 89 
 
 Bonnycastle, John— 89 
 
 Book-keeping— single and double 
 entry, 89; philosophy of, increase 
 of number of schools for, 90 
 
 Hook-manual— 91 
 
 Borgi, Giovanni— 91 
 
 Boston— population, school history, 
 school system, 92; salaries, pri- 
 vate schools and other institu- 
 tions, 93 
 
 Boston College — 94 
 
 Boston University — 94 
 
 Botany — the educational value of, 
 method of studying. 95; simplic- 
 ity in manner of teaching, sys- 
 tematic botany, herbarium, mi- 
 croscope, identification of plants 
 nut the rhiel object, utility of, 96 
 
 BowdolU College— 97 
 
 Boys. Education of— objects to he 
 
 kept in view. '.'7. systems of the 
 
 Braidw I. T 
 
 Braille, I 
 
 Brain - 
 Brazil ai 
 
 ooklvn -tii-t tree public schools 
 established there and in New 
 
 Burgher School— 108 
 Burlington I' ni versify— 109 
 Bushy, Richard— 109 
 
 Business Colleges— their origin and 
 
 progress, improvements in, lu'.i; 
 
 Bible History— si Cadet -see Military Schools and 
 
 Birch— 84 Naval Schools 
 
 Blackboard —substitutes for, its \ Cadets* College— 110 
 
 uses, 84 California —organization. education- 
 Blackburn University— 85 al history, 110; state superin- 
 Bllnd, Education of the- statistics tendeiits, school system. 111; 
 of the blind, first public asylum educational condition ; normal 
 for, first attempts at teachings;., and secondary instruction, de- 
 institutions for. in the U. s. , lioininatioual schools, superior 
 
 California 
 
 instruction, list of colleges and 
 universities, special instruction, 
 teachers' associations, 112 ; edu- 
 cational literature, 113 
 California College— 113 
 California, University of— 113 
 Calisthenics — definition of, 113; 
 value of, proper time for, precau- 
 tions to be taken, 114 
 Calisthenium— 114 
 Calligraphy— see Penmanship 
 Cambridge, University of— history, 
 organization. 114; professorships, 
 terms, members of colleges, de- 
 grees, examinations, triposes, 
 
 leges, uuder-grad nates, university 
 buildings. 115; societies, 116 
 
 Campe, J. H — his educational the- 
 ories and works. 116 
 
 Canada, Dominion of— 116 
 
 Cane Hill College— 116 
 
 Capital University— 116 
 
 Carleton College— 116 
 
 Carthage College— 117 
 
 Catechetical Method — its limits, 
 true uses, superseded by the 
 topical method, 117. See also 229 
 
 Catechetical School — see Alexan- 
 
 Catechism — definition and origin. 
 
 Catechumen— 118 
 
 Cathedral and Collegiate Schools 
 
 —their history, 118 ; scope of, 
 
 decline of, 119 
 Cecilian College— 119 
 Census. School— see School Census 
 
 Central America— area and popula- 
 tion, educational condition of 
 Guatemala, Honduras, 119 ; San 
 Balvador, Nicaragua, and Costa 
 Rica, 20 
 
 Central College— 120 
 
 Central Tennessee College— 120 
 
 Central University— 120 
 
 Centre College— 120 
 
 Certificate — see License, and In- 
 centives, School 
 
 Chapsal, C. P.— 121 
 
 Character, Discernment of — neg- 
 lect of, harm resulting thereby, 
 sacrifice of the individual to the 
 mass, temperament, how to dis- 
 cern it, 121; phrenology, 122 
 
 Charlemagne — his educational 
 
 Charleston, t olh-geof— 123 
 
 Chart— 123 
 
 Cheever. Ezekiel— his life. 123; hiB 
 
 Cheke. Sir John— 124 
 
 Chemistry— its practical value, habit 
 of memorizing, 125; three meth- 
 ods, lectures, text-book study, ar- 
 rangement of material, sensa- 
 tional experiments. 126; proper 
 method illustrated, 127 
 
 Chicago — population, school statis- 
 tics and system. 128; examina- 
 tion, licensing, and appointment 
 of teachers, salaries ol teachers, 
 private schools, 129 
 
 Chicago. University of— 129 
 
 Childhood-see Age 
 
 Chili —area and ]■■ dilation, educa 
 
 ti.'.i'i. 1 ■ 
 u:l IT.. 
 
 
 :tinl population, 
 igion, alphabet, 
 
 i:il;' W.i 
 
 
 mat.- of ethica- 
 lools, 133: lect- 
 
 flu.-ii.-e 
 
 instrih t 
 
 un.l'uiv 
 
 ins on Chinese 
 Tsity of Peking. 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Christ Cross How— 134 
 
 Christian Brotliers.College of— 131 
 
 Christian Brothers' College 111 
 Christian College— 134 
 Christian Uiilwrslty— 134 
 Christians— 134 
 Christ's liospital-i;;:. 
 Chronology — sii-i- History 
 
 Conienius 
 
 lustructiiiil of Loth sexes, educa- 
 tion and development identical, 
 physical education, school rooms 
 and play-grounds, words to ho 
 
 learned 
 
 with 
 
 see Science of 
 
 , - d. Mil. I ■■!! .'I. 137; Size atld 
 institution of. Lasts "1 clas-lti- 
 
 atiou. teaching Ly classes 
 tlbjeets, 133; 
 
 classification, 
 
 Classical Studies — Latin. Greek 
 139; decline in study of, 
 ject for which taught, 
 teaching, 
 
 ttiod of 
 oks. translations. 
 141. See also 224, 225 
 Classics, Christian— history of, 142; 
 peculiar value of, 143 
 
 I I issilh.itiou— sec Class 
 
 Cleveland— population, educational 
 
 hl>tor\ , 143. school svsteui and 
 
 statistics. 144 
 Cllulq.ue-144 
 Clinton, I)e Witt — biographical 
 
 sketch, political career, his aid to 
 
 the cause of education. 114; Le- 
 president of the Societj 
 
 lor l'-t 
 
 
 Bocietj i r I . Pi tion of the 
 
 Education oi Youth, the Infant 
 
 School Society of New York. New- 
 York Hospital. New York Ulster- 
 ieal Society, estimate of his abil- 
 ity, 145 
 
 Coach 
 
 Co-Edm 
 
 rega 
 
 145 
 
 1st,, 
 
 the U. S.. 147. • Sect ol the ordi- 
 nary college course on the health 
 of women, progress of co-educa- 
 tion in Europe. 148 
 
 Colburn, Warren— 149 
 
 Colby University— 149 
 
 College — history of iu France. 150; 
 in Great Britain, Ireland, and the 
 U. S..151: Harvard. Yale, 152; table 
 of colleges in the U. 8., conven- 
 tion of college presidents iu the 
 U. S. in 1874. 153 
 
 Collegiate Schools— see Cathedral 
 Schools 
 
 Colombia. United States of— area 
 and population, educational his- 
 tory, school system, 154 
 
 Color — value of instruction in. 
 method of teaching, harmony of 
 colors, 155 
 
 Colorado — organization, area and 
 population, educational history, 
 school system. 15G; educational 
 condition, secondary and other 
 instruction. 157 
 
 Colorado College — l.i 7 
 
 Colored schools — their number, er- 
 
 gardto. .. ., 
 Columbia I ollege i .- 
 Columbia. District of-s.-c District 
 
 of Columbia 
 Columbian University— 159 
 ■Conienius, .1. A.— his early life. 159 
 
 Janua linffuarum reserata, Didac 
 
 crndi iirtif'f:ituu. Orbis smsuah'un 
 pictus, and other works, his posi 
 
 connection 
 language to be 
 learned Ly practice, anniversary 
 of Conn-muss death, statue 
 erected, 161. See also. 33, 34, 24s, 
 720 
 
 Commencement— 161 
 
 Commercial Colleges — see Busi- 
 ness Colleges 
 
 Commissioner of Education— see 
 Bureau of Education 
 
 Common schools— 162 
 
 Companionship— necessity of, 162 
 
 Competitive Examinations —see 
 Examinations 
 
 Composition— oral composition, ac- 
 curacy of expression, method i 
 
 correction ot compositions, rhet- 
 oric, 164 
 
 Compulsory Education— first inti- 
 mation of, lust. ,r> ol. li'.l. school 
 age first defined bj law. 166; pres- 
 ent aspect of. 167. See also 154 
 
 Comstock, J. L.— 167 
 
 Conception— the concept, predouu- 
 nance of couceptive faculty dur- 
 ing infancy, basis of judgment, 
 ends to he kept iu view, value of 
 object teaching, illustrations, 
 108: conceptions dependent upon 
 feelings, 169 
 
 Concert Teaching — a kind of rote 
 teaching, memorizi 
 rote teaching in.iu 
 voice in responses, 
 
 Concord College— 17o 
 
 Concordia College — 17 
 
 < ongregalioiiali-ts- I 
 
 Connecticut -area and population, 
 educational history, 171; taxes, 
 172; tuition fees, permanent tiind. 
 
 Corporal Punishment 
 
 statistics, 1SH; present practice of 
 the civilized world, legal aspects, 
 
 id spet nil, - It- 
 riil culture, 197 
 rsity— 197 
 
 19S. See also 390 
 
 176; ed 
 Conscicnc 
 
 precepts not in 
 vator of, 177 
 
 Constitution of U. 
 
 Convent Schools — their history, 
 178; influence of Reformation on, 
 basis and distinguishing features 
 of, 179 
 
 Conversation— its uses, 179 
 
 Conversational Method — its value 
 in early education, 180 
 
 Cooper Institute— see Cooper, Pe- 
 ter 
 
 •essanly a culti- 
 S.— 178 
 
 of Si 1 
 
 , 181 
 Coote, Edward— 1H2 
 Copy-Books— see Penmi 
 Copying— 182 
 Cnrderius, Mathurill— It 
 Cornell College— is:) 
 j Cornell University— 188 
 Corporal Punishment - 
 
 Dalgarno, Ceorge — 200 
 
 Dame Schools— 200 
 
 Dancing and Dancing Schools- 
 history of, the '■jumping proces- 
 sion." religious character of, so- 
 cial aspects of, 201 
 
 Dana, J. 1).— 202. See also 580 
 
 Dartmouth (ollege— 202 
 
 Debating— J" '■ .1. b.it:n 
 
 Decimal Notation— 2i)7 
 Declamation— 207 
 Definitions— 207; How I. 
 Degerando- - I era in 
 Degrees— on, 
 tory, 
 
 Do; tor 
 
 
 
 la ware— urea and popu la: ion. edu- 
 cational history, school system. 
 210; educational condition, school 
 
 Bnperior, professional, and seen. 
 
 Denison University— 212 
 Denmark— area and popnl.i'ioii, his- 
 tory. 212; history ot public in- 
 
 in.-tru. tion. I. land. 21.', 
 Denominational Schools — 215; 
 
 i! ■ for, rd<hup»jischfs 
 
 U.iiflbtirh, 216; Dr. Rigg, oppo- 
 sition to ilelioiiilllilt.oiial schools 
 
 in the U.S.. advocacy of Ly the Ro- 
 man Catholics. W. H. Seward, 217; 
 Bishop Hughes, 218 
 Dentistry. Schools of— see Med- 
 ical Schools 
 Departmental System — 318 
 Depravity— see Moral Education 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Des Moines, University of— 218 
 Detroit — population, 218; educa- 
 tional history, city superintend- 
 ents, school system, school statis- 
 
 Developing Method — definition of, 
 Herbart, Beneke, improvements 
 in, self-consciousness, 220; the 
 teacher is the school, phonetic 
 spelling, Graser. Vogel, reading 
 in concert, value of number, 221; 
 the developing method as an 
 
 Kelig- 
 
 Devotional Exercises- 
 lous Education 
 
 Diary, School— 222 
 
 Dickinson College— 222 
 
 Dictation— 223 
 
 Dictionary— definition and history 
 of, 223; in England, France, Ger- 
 many, 224 and 225 
 
 Didactics— 225; general and special, 
 226 
 
 Dlesterweg, F. A. W 226; his op- 
 position to the union of church 
 and school, 227— see also 433 
 
 Diffidence — its nature, Cowper, 
 Washington, means for correct- 
 ing, 228 
 
 Diligence— 228 
 
 Dllwoith. Thomas— 228 
 
 Dinter, G. F.— 229 
 
 Diploma— 229 
 
 Disciples of Christ— 229 
 
 Discipline— intellectual and moral, 
 
 Ills 
 
 Public 
 
 S, he 
 
 Dittes, Friedrich — 234. See also 
 
 335, 401 
 Diversions — during childhood and 
 
 youth, athletics, 234 
 Doane College— 235 
 Doctor — see Degrees 
 Docderlcln, l.udwig— 235 
 Donaldson, J. W.— 235. See also 594 
 Drawing — definition of, usefulness 
 
 siLeessiul t . ■ :i- 1 1 ' ii ;_' . programmes 
 for instruction in different grades 
 of schools, 238 
 
 DrUl— 239 
 
 Drury College— 239 
 
 Dublin University — see Ireland 
 
 Dull Scholars— 239 
 
 Dunce— 239 
 
 Duiiaiiloup— F. A. P.— 239 
 
 Duisrh, M. G 240 
 
 Dnruy, Victor— 240 
 
 Dwlght, Francis— 240 
 
 Dwight, Timothy — 240. See also 
 
 -definition of, 243; kinds 
 , history of educa- 
 tion, 244; idea of. among the au- 
 cients. among the Hebrews, ad- 
 vent of Christianity. 245; school 
 of Alexandria, christian schools, 
 
 schools, peripatetic schools, Mo- 
 hammedanism, ttie Ketorniation, 
 247 ; Jesuit schools, the Pietists, 
 Comenius, Locke, Humanists and 
 
 Realists, le'llsseiill. [Jase-lMW. l'es- 
 
 talozzi, Froebel, Herbart, Beneke. 
 Spencer. 24M; histories of educa- 
 tion, theory of education, 249 : 
 physical, intellectual, and emo- 
 tional education. 251; religious 
 
 education, educ; 
 See also 56. 226, 
 
 aal works". 253. 
 
 305, 321, 332. 372, 377, 383, 399, 
 
 417, 4111. 497. 5115. 695, 70S. 717, 
 
 744, 746, 777, 793, 794 
 Education, Female — see Female 
 
 Education 
 Education and Crime — see Crime 
 
 Egypt 
 
 and his- 
 
 Klalioratlvc Faculty— 257 
 Klemclltary Schools— 257 
 
 Elementary Science — see Science, 
 
 Teaching of 
 Ellis, William— 257 
 Elocution— 257 
 Elphlnstuii. .lames— 257 
 Emerson, G. B.— 257. See also 149, 
 
 187,304 
 Eminence College— 258 
 Emory College — 258 
 Emory and Henry College— 259 
 
 Elliot inns— 259. See also 252 
 Empirical Methods.— 259 
 Emulation — definition of, expedien- 
 
 cy 
 
 260 
 
 , 260 
 Ear. Cultivation 
 
 East Tennessee i ni\ ecsil \ 
 
 East Tennessee Weslevau 
 
 versity— 242 
 Economy, School 
 _ Economy 
 
 " population. 242; 
 
 School 
 
 ary.i 
 
 tion, 243 
 Edgeworth, Maria— 243. See also 
 
 196, 303, 399 
 Edinburgh, University of — see 
 
 Scotland 
 
 Ellc ou cage incut- 261 
 
 England— area and population, 261; 
 educational history, endowed 
 schools eoiiino-sioii, 262; co&di- 
 
 27(1; theological colleges, mils of 
 
 court, etc.. 271. See also 287 
 England, Church of— see Epis- 
 copal Church 
 English, The Study of— early study 
 in infant schools, etc., to speak 
 well, learning to read. 272; gram- 
 idy in high 
 
 Episcopal Methodist College— 282 
 
 Equation — see Algebra 
 
 Erasmus, Desiderius— life and in- 
 fluence. 282; educational views, 
 283. See also 33, 304 
 
 Erigena, J. S 283 
 
 Ernestl, J. A 284 
 
 Erskine College— 284 
 
 Esthetic Culture— the esthetic ele- 
 ment among savages, taste, 284; 
 seuse of the beautiful to be cul- 
 tivated practically, drawing to be 
 taug\t before writing, love of 
 the beautiful, music, poetry, 
 esthetics of the school room, 528. 
 See also 252 
 
 Etlenne or Estlenne, Henry and 
 Robert— see Stephens 
 
 Eton -College— see England 
 
 Etymology— 286. See also, 225, 275 
 
 F:ureka College— 286 
 
 Evangelical Association — 286 
 
 Evening Schools — objects of their "" 
 
 different countries, organization 
 
 and management, delects of in 
 
 New York, 287 
 Everett, F;dward— 288 See also 1, 
 
 33. 34, 35. 243, 422 
 Examinations — 288; of schools, of 
 
 teachers, college and university 
 
 examinations, 289; in Germany. 
 
 comparative values of written 
 
 and oral examinations, 290. See 
 
 also 133, 800 
 p;xample, The Influence of— 291 
 Exchanges. Educational— see Hol- 
 
 brook, Josiah 
 Exhibitions, School— 292 
 Expulsion — 292 
 
 school methods, 293 
 
 Factory Schools — English legisla- 
 tion in regard to, legislation on 
 the Continent, 294; in the D. S., 
 295 
 
 Faculty— 295 
 
 Fagging— 295 
 
 1 alk, .1. D 295 
 
 1 alk, P. I,. A.— 295 
 
 Farmers' College— 297 
 
 Fear— its relation to education, 297; 
 the method ot nature, 21's 
 
 Felbiger. J. I. von— 298. See also C3 
 
 1 c llonbeig. I'. E. von— 299— see 
 
 history, 
 
 . .1 stl 
 
 eaku 
 
 htc. .1. G.— 306 
 
 ?tion. Works of— interest of chil- 
 dren in, 305; educational uses of, 
 errors to be avoided, 307 
 
 Enthusiasm— 280 
 Epeo, C. M. Abbe de 1'— 280 
 Episcopal Church— Church of Eng- 
 land, 280 ; Church of Ireland. 
 Protestant Episcopal Church in 
 the U. S., 281 
 
 Finland — are:i andpopulatioii, educa- 
 tional history, school system, 308 
 
 lisk University— 309 
 
 Flattich, J. F.— 309 
 
 Florida— area and population, edu- 
 cational history, 309; state super- 
 intendents, school system, 310; 
 school fuud, educational condi- 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 Florida 
 tlon, 
 struetion, educational literature. 
 
 343 
 
 Fort Wayne College— 313 
 
 Foundling Asj lums— 313 
 
 Fourier, Pierre— 314 
 
 Fractions— see Arithmetic 
 
 France — area, population, and terri- 
 tory. 314 ; educational history, 
 315, 316; primary instruction. 317. 
 318; secondary and superior in- 
 struction. 319; special and profes- 
 sional instruction, 320 
 
 Franc Isean College— 321 
 
 Francke, H. A. — educational and 
 charitable labors, institutions 
 founded by hini, educational 
 views. 321 
 
 Franklin College (Ind.)— 322 
 
 Franklin College (Ohio)— 322 
 
 Franklin and .Marshall College— 
 322 
 
 Frederick ( ..liege— 322 
 
 Free Schools — see Public Schools 
 
 Freed men's Schools— 323 
 
 Freewill Haptists— 323 
 
 French Language— its origin, 324; 
 prevalence. 325; methods of 
 teaching it, 326: text-books, 327 
 
 Friends, Society of— 327 
 
 Froebel, Frledrich — life and labors, 
 the kindergarten, 328 
 
 Furmall University— 328 
 
 Furniture, School — see School 
 Furniture 
 
 Galosvillo University— 329 
 
 Gall, F. J.— 329 
 
 Gallaudet, T. H.— 329 
 
 (James— 329. See also, 235 
 
 Gaume, J. J:— 330 
 
 Gedlke. Frledrich— 331 
 
 Genetic Method— 331 
 
 Geneva College— 331 
 
 Genius— 331 
 
 Geography— its scope. 332: element- 
 ary instruction in, history of, 
 333; first text-books, 334: mental 
 faculties exercised by. stages of 
 instruction. 335; proper age to 
 begin the study of, 336; methods 
 
 Geology— its claim to reeogi 
 
 elementary schools, basis at, 338; 
 mental powers cultivated o> the 
 
 study of, improper methods of 
 teaching, 341 
 Geometry — 341 : how to be approach- 
 ed by the learner, a mechanical as 
 well as a logical science, 342: ar- 
 rangement of subject matter, 343; 
 
 elass-r n work, :U1; geoinetrie.il 
 
 invention, changes in demonstra- 
 tion, 345 
 Georgetown College (D. C.)— 345 
 Georgetown College (Ky.)— 346 
 Georgia — area, population, and edu- 
 cational history, state superin- 
 tendents. 346 ; school system, 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics, 347; normal, secondary, 
 superior, special, and professi, mal 
 instruction, 348 
 Georgia, University of— 349 
 Gerando, J. 31. de — 349. See also. 35 
 German- American Schools— 349 
 German College— 350 
 German Language — comparative 
 value of, 350; its origin and his- 
 tory. 351; German philology. 352; 
 prevalence of German, method 
 of studying in England and Amer- 
 ica, 353: pronunciation of. juve- 
 nile literature, study of. German 
 in the U. S., 354; views of school 
 
 German Language 
 
 superintendents in regard t 
 arguments against. 
 
 .356; 
 
 See ais., 
 106, 129, 136,~144, 530, 579, 614, 649, 
 754, 75S 
 German Wallace College— 356 
 Germany— historical sketch of, edu 
 eational historj 
 
 school 
 
 the /'„ 
 
 i.Pes- 
 
 of — see Femn 
 
 talozzi, Fi.iite, 362; Bailer, Die- 
 Bterweg, Froebel, primary in- 
 struction. 363; school statistics 
 364; Prussian school administra- 
 tion, secondary instruction, 365; 
 course of study in the gymnasia 
 teachers' seminaries. 366; uuiver- 
 sities. 36.7; professional, technical 
 and scientific instruction, mili- 
 tary academies, educational pub 
 lications, 369 
 
 Gesner, J. JI 370 
 
 Gifts, Kindergarten— 370 ' 
 
 Glrard, Grelgoire— 371 
 
 Girls. Education " 
 Education 
 
 Globe, Artificial— its construction, 
 371; history and advantages of, 
 372. See also 336, 337 
 
 Goethe, .1. W. von— his theory con- 
 cerning education, 372 
 
 (o.nigraph— 373 
 
 Gonzaga College— 373 
 
 Goodrich, s. G.— 373 
 
 Governess — 373 
 
 Government. School— 373; its nat- 
 ure, rewards, 3.4 . efficacy of, sug- 
 gestions to the teacher, occupa- 
 tion one of the most effective 
 agents in school government, 375 
 
 Grade— 375 
 
 Graded Schools— 375 
 
 Graduate— 377 
 
 Graefe, Heinrlch— 377 
 
 Graham, Isabella — 377 
 
 Grammar— 377. See also 140. 336. 
 352, 391, 420, 512, 514, 560, 602 
 
 Grammar, Fugllsh — its function. 
 distinction between the science 
 and the art of grammar. 37s : his- 
 tory of, 379; methods of instruc- 
 tion, language lessons, science of 
 the sentence, scheme for teach- 
 ing grammar, 3so : analysis and 
 parsing, errors in teaching. 381. 
 See also 27. 273. 277 
 
 Grammar Schools— 3*2 
 
 Graser, J. B 383 
 
 (Jreat Britain and Ireland, The 
 United Kingdom of— 383 
 
 special instruction, 388 
 
 Greek Church— 388 
 
 Greek Language — origin and his- 
 tory, 389 ; the Greek alphabet, 
 rivalry with Lath 
 
 inethoils 
 
 icons. 
 
 50. 301. 363, 420, 681 
 
 Greeneville and Tusculum Col- 
 lege— 392 
 
 Grimm, J. L 392 
 
 Grimm, W. K.— 393 
 
 Grlscom, John— 393 
 
 Grtscom. J. H — 393 
 
 Groot, Gerard — see Hieronymlans 
 
 Grounds, School — see School 
 G rounds 
 
 Guatemala — see Central America 
 
 Gulzot, F. P. G 393 
 
 (..itsmuths, J. C. F — 394 
 
 Guyot, A. H.— 394. See also 334 
 
 Gymnasium— history of, 394; mod- 
 ern meaning of in Germany and 
 
 Gymnastics — agonistics and ath- 
 letics, games and exercises. 396; 
 gymnastics as a part of education. 
 397. See also 153. 3IMJ, 384. 394. 
 
 Habit— 397; its power, had habits, 
 teacher's duty toward, good hab- 
 its, proper time tor forming. 398 
 
 Hadlev, .lames— 399 
 
 I L, ,-l, ii J. F 399 
 
 Mall- lime Schools— 399 
 
 Hall, S. K 400. See also 260 
 
 Hamilton, James— 400 
 
 Hamilton College — 100 
 
 Hamiltonlan Method— see Hamil- 
 ton, James 
 
 Hampden Sidney College — 401 
 
 Hannibal College— 401 
 
 Hanover College — 101 
 
 Harmony in Development — the 
 most important aim in educa- 
 tion. 401; abnormal development 
 destroys happiness and impairs 
 intellectual effort, 402 
 
 Harnlsch, C. W — 402 
 
 Hartlib, Samuel— 403 
 
 Hartsville University— 403 
 
 Harvard. John— 403 
 
 Harvard University — departments 
 of, history of, 403 ; buildings 
 and property, the curriculum, 
 404; tuition fees, degrees, etc., 
 405; presidents. 407, s, ,- also 611 
 
 Hatty, Valentine— 107 
 
 Haven, E. O.— 407 
 
 llaMifoi.l College — 107 
 
 Hawaiian Islands— area and popu- 
 lation, educational history, 407; 
 school system and statistics, 408 
 
 Hayti— 408 
 
 Hazing— 408 
 
 Heart, Education of— see Moral 
 Education 
 
 Hebrew Language— origin and ear- 
 ly history, alphabet, scientific 
 study of Hebrew. 409; philology, 
 method to be pursued in the stu- 
 dy of, 410 
 
 Hebrews. Education among the— 
 education among the ancient He- 
 brews. 411; Simon ben Shetach, 
 schools held in high estimation. 
 412; organization and mode of in- 
 struction, subjects of study, edu- 
 cation of girls and women,413; ed- 
 ucation under the Mohammedan 
 rule. 414 ; decline of education 
 from the 13th to the 17th centu- 
 ry, educational history in recent 
 times, 415. See also 345 
 
 Heeker. J. J.— 416 
 
 Heddlng College— 417 
 
 Hedge-school— 417 
 
 Hegel. G. \V. F.^17. See also 35 
 
 Hcgius. Alexander— 417 
 
 Heidelberg College— 418 
 
 Helnicke, Samuel— 418 
 
 . See also 
 
 205 
 
 Henderson College — 418 
 
 Henry Joseph — 118. See also 34 
 
 Herbart, J. F, — 418: his psychology 
 and educational views, 419. See 
 also 8, 220 
 
 Herder, J. G. von~419 
 
 Hermann. Gottfried— 420 
 
 Hesperian College— 420 
 
 Hessus, Eobanus— 420 
 
 Heyne, Ch. G.— 420 
 
 Hieronymlans— 421 
 
 High Schools— 421 
 
 Higher Education — sea High 
 Schools, Secondary Instruc- 
 tion, and Superior Instruction 
 
 Highland University— 423 
 
 Hillsdale College— 423 
 
 Hiram College— 423 
 
 History — 423; proper mode of teach- 
 ing, stages of, 424; 
 
 
VI 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 History 
 
 ods, 425; dateB, lectures, kind of 
 material for elementary study, 
 420; the philosophy of history, 
 value of testimony, criticism, 427 
 Hiwassee College — 128 
 Hobart College— 123 
 Hofwyl, Schools of — description of, 
 428; Wehrli. 429. Sec also 11, 299 
 Holbrook, Josiah— 120 
 Holiday— sec School Festivals 
 Holland— see Netherlands 
 
 school education contrasted. 431. 
 
 See also 234. 245, 291 
 Home Lessons — 432 
 Hope — see Incentives, Prizes, and 
 
 Rewards 
 Hope College— 433 
 Hopkins, Mark— 433. See also 257 
 
 Schools 
 Howard College — 434 
 Howard University— 434 
 Howe. S. G.— 484 
 
 Kef-uni 
 
 Hnet, 1'. I).— 435 
 
 Humanities— 135 
 
 Humboldt, K, W. von-435 
 
 Humboldt ( ,, liege— 435 
 
 Hungary — 135; area and population, 
 educational history, 436 ; school 
 system, primary instruction, sta- 
 tistics, 437; secondary, superior, 
 
 _ and special instruction, 438 
 
 -site of school 
 
 ill. hi, 
 
 heating, temperature, fin 
 . discipline and sehool mat 
 
 the playground, 412 
 
 Idaho— area and population, educa- 
 tional history, school system. 442; 
 school statistics, school fund, 
 
 ber of idiots in the eivilized 
 world, 445 
 
 Illinois— area and population, 445; 
 educational history, school sys- 
 tem, 446; school fund, teachers' 
 certiticates.educational condition, 
 statistics, 447; normal, secondary, 
 superior, terhnieal, ,nid prof.'s- 
 sional instruction, 448; special 
 instruction, educational associa- 
 tions, 449 
 
 Illinois College— 449 
 
 Illinois Wesloyan University— 449 
 
 Illiteracy— definition .if. influence 
 
 India — area and population, early I 
 history. 455; ancient and modern 
 India. 456; educational condition 
 and statistics, 457 
 
 Indiana— area and population . du- 
 cational histoid f .7 s, |,,,. 1 su- 
 perintendents, school SVtelH. 45s; 
 
 Indiana Ashur, 1 niversity — 16" 
 Indiana ! niversity— 461 
 Indians, American— 461 
 Indian Territory— area and popula 
 
 tion. educational condition.!, ,2 
 Individuality— 462 
 Indo-Gormanie Languages— 404 
 Inductive Method— 465 
 
 and Germany. 465; in the IT. S., 
 466 
 Industry — 167. Sen also 332 
 Infant Schools— see Kindergarten 
 Inspection, School— see Supervi- 
 sion 
 Institutes. Teachers'— see Teach- 
 
 . lie ' n. early phases. 467; getl- 
 
 which instruction should he 
 given, 468. See also 419, 473, 4S7, 
 488, 720 
 Intellectual Education — the intel- 
 lect only a part of the mind, the 
 senses, ideas, conception, 469; 
 association, generalization, 470; 
 resemblance, classification, 471; 
 
 
 emory, lmagina- 
 
 Interest— 473. See also 250. 289. 665 
 
 Intermediate Schools— 473 
 
 Interrogation — 473 
 
 Intuitive Method — see Object 
 Teaching and Pestalozzl 
 
 Iowa —area and p pulafi. n. , lu, a- 
 tional history . t: ■ * .' , i- 
 intendents. school s; stem, si lie.. 1 
 
 ondary instruction, 475 ; superior. 
 technical, professional, and special 
 instruction, educational journals. 
 476 
 Iowa College— 476 
 Iowa, State University of — 476 
 Iowa Wesleyan University— 477 
 Ireland — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, 477; national 
 
 (national aysfa D |, 178; other edu- 
 cation, d agencies secondary and 
 
 ge— its relativ 
 
 pro 
 
 portance, siiecial motives for the 
 study of. 4sn ; philology, 481 
 Italy— area and population, historic- 
 al sketch, edm ational history, 
 
 481; school statistics, pivsclltsys- 
 
 tries. 152. See also 323. Jacobs, C. F. W.— 487 
 
 Imagination. Culture of— necessity .lacotot. .Joseph — is7; his method 
 for its cultivation, its early devel- j of teaching, maxims, 488 
 
 opment. methods of cultivation. Japan— area and population, earlv 
 453: the fivnig of the attention a history. 4ss ; educational history, 
 
 prerequisite, studies into which 489; present school system, 490 
 
 it particularly enters, works of Jefferson College — 190 
 
 Action, 454. Sec also 3117, 335, 345 Jersey < ity— population.educational 
 Imitation — 454 history, city superintendents, 
 
 Incentives, School— 455. See also school system, school 
 
 Jesuits— their educational work. 492; 
 school system, 493; their influ- 
 ence, schools and colleges in the 
 U. S.. 494. See also 330 
 Johns Hopkins University— 194 
 Judgment, Training of— 495. See 
 also 335, 427 
 
 school system, 
 495: educational condition, school 
 statistics normal, secondary, and 
 sup. riot instruction, 496; profes- 
 sional, scientific, and special in- 
 struction, 497 
 Kansas, rniverslty of— 497 
 Kant Iminaniiel — his philosophical 
 system, his 
 
 education, 
 497; his influence, 498. See also 
 32, 33, 34, 35 
 Kentucky— area and population, 
 educational history, 498; school 
 system, educational condition; 
 normal, secondary, and superior 
 instruction. 499; professional, 
 scientific, and special instruction: 
 society for the advancement of 
 education; state teachers' associ- 
 ation, 500 
 Kentucky I'nlversity— 500 
 Kentucky Military Institute— 501 
 Kentucky Wesleyan College— 501 
 Kenyon College— 501 
 Kindergarten — Froehel's theory, 
 501 : amusement the principal 
 medium for the education of 
 the child, family education alone 
 
 begin early, tin first teacher 
 
 tion of kind- rgart. n in, ticks. 
 > the 
 
 M> 
 
 231 
 
 492 
 
 the public school, reception in 
 the U. S.. 503; condition of in 
 Germany, skillful preparation of 
 the teacher necessary, 504. See 
 also 241, 293. 445 
 
 Kindermann, Ferdinand— 504 
 
 King College— 505 
 
 King's College— 505 
 
 Knox College— 505 
 
 Lafayette College— 506. See also 31 
 l.a (.range College— 506 
 
 Lancaster, Joseph — 506; opens a 
 school in Southwark. Dr. Bell, 
 success of Lancaster, modes of 
 punishment, decline in the pop- 
 ularity of his method, 507. See 
 also 145, 263, 594 
 
 Land Grants, Congressional — see 
 United states 
 
 Lane University— 508 
 
 Language — its varieties, compara- 
 tive study i " " 
 
 modern languages. 510. See also 
 
 274, 293. 352 
 La Salle. J. 11.— 510 
 La Salle College— 510 
 Latin Language — its derivation. 
 
 tthe 
 
 Hicat, ii. 
 
 composition 
 513 ; history 
 614. See also 142. 143. 357, 493 
 
 Latin Schools— 515 
 
 Law Schools — their early history, 
 515 ; recent history iu England 
 and the IT. S.. 516; statistics, or- 
 ganization, course of study, ad- 
 mission, length of course, gradu- 
 ation. 518; table of law schools in 
 
Lawrence University of Wiscon- 
 sin— 519 
 
 Lebanon Valley College— 519 
 
 Lectures — lecture denned, diflfer- 
 ence between>a lecture and a les- 
 son, in what grades of schools 
 used as a means vf instruction, 
 520. See also 426 
 
 Lehigh University -52U 
 
 Loland University— 520 
 
 Leslie. Sir John — biographical 
 sketch, his chief publications, 520 
 
 Lewis, Dio— 521 
 
 Lowlsburg, University at— 521 
 
 Lewis College— 521 
 
 Liberal Kducat ion — 521 
 
 Liberia— area and population, its 
 settlement, the native tribes, thy 
 Maudingos, their schools, the 
 Veys, mission Bchool, system of 
 
 Libraries— t 
 
 l.ranrs 
 
 een.rall 
 
 if, Legislation 
 libraries, 523 ; 
 
 tea, public Li- 
 
 I. utilitj of 
 
 License, Teacher's — defined, how 
 usually conferred, the object of, 
 law in relation to, state certifi- 
 cates, standard for, incompetent 
 examiners, proper conditions for 
 awarding teachers" certificates. 
 522; how conferred in New York, 
 provisions of the English Ele- 
 mentary Education Act, of the 
 Scotch Education Act, require- 
 ments in Austria, in France, 
 Sweden, Denmark, and other Eu- 
 ropean countries, 523 
 
 Lieber, Francis — biographical 
 sketch, his principal publica- 
 tions, importance of his labors, 
 523 
 
 Lily, William— his earh life, edu- 
 cational works, his Latin gram- 
 mar — Brevissima Institutio seu 
 
 Ratio (JntiuiHi.ttir.s I ■<>,,<>"■■•■•> whr, 
 
 524 
 Lincoln College— 524 
 Lincoln University (111.)— 524 
 Lincoln University (Pa.)— 524 
 Lindsley, Philip— 524 
 
 Ling, P. H 524 
 
 Linguistics— sec Language 
 Locke, John— biographical sketch. 
 
 524; educate, oal Tie* 526 3* 
 
 also 6, 33. :i4. 35, 66, 195, 196, 197, 
 
 234, 291, 3 10, 124, l 14 
 
 Lombard University— 521". 
 London, University of— 526 
 Lorinser, K. I 528 
 
 Louisiana — area and population, 
 educational history, 52* : school 
 system, educational condition, 
 school statistics, normal and sec- 
 ondary instruction, 52'.»; superior. 
 scientific, professional, and spe- 
 cial instruction, 530 
 
 Louisiana State University— 530 
 
 Louisville — population, 530; educa- 
 tional history, school system, 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics, 531 
 
 Love— 532. See also 251 
 
 Loyola College— 532 
 
 Luther, Martin- " U. S also ;;i, 
 104 
 
 Lutheran Church — its history, 
 number of adherents, the General 
 Synod, the General Council, the 
 Synodical Conference, the South- 
 ern Synod, 533; educational iu- 
 
 Lyceum — 534 
 Lycurgus — 535 
 Lyon, Mary— 535 
 
 > in the U. S., 534 
 
 ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 McCorkle College— 535 
 
 McCosh, James— 535. See also 10 
 
 McGuffey, W. H.— 535 
 
 M'kendi-ee ( ollege— 536 
 
 McMinnville College— 536 
 
 Madison University— 536 
 
 Madras System — sec Monitorial 
 System 
 
 Madvig, J. N.— 536 
 
 Mager Karl— 536; the geneticmeth- 
 od. his views of, 537. See also 
 221 
 
 Maine— area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 637; taxes, income 
 of permanent funds, supervision 
 
 Of Schools, School system, 638; 
 
 educational condition, 5:i',l; school 
 
 statistics, normal and secondary 
 
 parochial » nods sup. ri ir, pro- 
 fessional, and scientific tnstruc- 
 
 educational literatim , 541 
 
 Manhattan College— 541 
 
 Manitoba— area and population, edu- 
 cational condition, 541 
 
 Mann, Horace— early life and educa- 
 tion of, 541; secretary of the board 
 of education. 542; liis work, 543. 
 See also 33, 35, 187. 188, 297, 679 
 
 Manners — 543 
 
 Manual Labor Schools— see Indus- 
 trial Schools 
 
 Map-Drawing— see Geography 
 
 Marietta College— 544 
 
 Mercer University— 565 
 Mereersburg (ol lege— 565 
 Methodists— (heir origin and distri- 
 
 . atioiial 
 
 proles*,] 
 
 tions, 546 
 Maryville College— 547 
 Mason, Lowell— 547 
 
 Massachusetts -- ana and popula- 
 tion, educational history, 547; in- 
 dividual gifts, tuition fees, taxes, 
 income of permanent funds, 549; 
 special appropriations, supervi- 
 
 . of the c, 
 
 schools, tru- 
 ; edu- 
 
 
 MasterofArts-^e |»eg 
 Mastery Method— see L 
 
 guage 
 
 Mathematics — what i 
 hends, definition of, 
 mental training, 553; to what ex- 
 tent it should be pursued in pri- 
 mary schools, 555; principles gov- 
 erning methods of instruction in, 
 mathematical literature, 556 
 
 Matriculate— 557 
 
 Medical Schools — earliest accounts 
 of, 557; organization of in differ- 
 ent countries, history of in the 
 U.S., 558; list of medical schools. 
 dental colleges, etc., 560. See also 
 
 its > 
 
 population, edu- 
 
 Bchool SVstem. 
 
 1 condition and 
 
 French 
 
 militar 
 
 Milton, Jo 
 
 al views. 57S. Sec also 33, 99 
 
 Milton College— 578 
 
 Milwaukee- population, 578; educa- 
 tional history, city superintend- 
 ent*. school Msti in and statistic-. 
 579 
 
 Mineralogy— definition and general 
 view of; minerals, rocks, lov.-il.-. 
 crystalline forms. 5MJ; impor- 
 tance from an educational stand- 
 point, at what stage to be pur- 
 sued, litnology, 581 
 
 Mines, School of — see Scientific 
 Schools 
 
 Ministry of Public Instruction— 
 581 
 
 Minnesota — 581; area and popula- 
 tion, educational history, school 
 system, educational condition. 
 school statistics, 582; normal and 
 sii'ondar\ instruction, deuomina- 
 
 perior instruction, 5s:i ; profes- 
 sional, scientific, and special in- 
 struction, educational literature, 
 584 
 
 Minnesota, University of— 584 
 
 Mischievousness — 584 
 
 Mississippi — 584; area and popula- 
 tion, educational historv, school 
 system, edw ational condition, 
 school statistic;-, normal mstruc- 
 
 ening, 562; repetition, strength Mnemonics— see Memory 
 
 of memory dependent Bomewhal Model Schools — see Normal 
 
 on bodilv health, relative value Schools 
 
 of thing-, to be lvuiemh. n .1. ,-.r..i Modern Languages— 591 ; French, 
 
 Kant's distinctions, mnemonics, I English, and German, the oriental 
 
 Mrmoria T-.-hnira. system of Fan- languages, proper time in tho 
 
 vel-Gouraud. 5C4: Alex. Mackay's ' school course to introduce the 
 
 * i 723 study of modern lan-ua, . ■ . I h.n 
 value as compared with the das 
 
ANALYTICAL IXI>KX 
 
 Modern Languages 
 
 sieal,592; comparative linguistics, 
 methods of teaching, 593. See 
 also 224, 225 
 
 Monitorial System — its history. 
 Bell, Lancaster, 594; its peculiar 
 features, 595 
 
 Monmouth < ollcge— 595 
 
 Montaigne, Michel— his educational 
 views. 595. See also 33, 35, 185 
 
 Montana. — area and population, edu- 
 cational history, school system, 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics, normal instruction, teach- 
 ers' institutes; secondary, supe- 
 rior, professional, scientific, and 
 special instruction. 596 
 
 Monro's Hill College— 596 
 
 Moral Education — 597. See also 177, 
 291 
 
 
 umiiKirv . 
 
 Moravian Brethren— tl 
 
 ancient church, 598 
 Brethren's Church, primary 
 schools, boarding-schools, 599; 
 classical schools and colleges, 
 theological seminaries, special 
 schools, schools in the mission- 
 ary provinces, principles 
 cation. 600; statistical su 
 601 
 
 Morocco — 601 
 
 Mother- sec Home Education 
 
 Mother-Tongue— 601 
 
 Mount Saint Mary's College— 602 
 
 Mount Saint Mary's Seminary of 
 the West— 602 
 
 Mount I'nlon College— 602 
 
 Muhlenberg College— 602 
 
 Murray, Llndley— 602 
 
 Music— history and general view of. 
 603. 604; harmony, 604; musical 
 education, 606 ; conservatories. 
 606, 607, 608, 609. 610; musical in- 
 i schools and colleges, 
 
 610. 611. See also 2 
 Mutual System - 
 System 
 
 Monitorial 
 
 Nashville, University of— 612 
 
 National Education— 612. See also 
 264, 692 
 
 National Language— 613 
 
 Natural Science— see Science, The 
 Teaching of 
 
 Nautical Schools— 615 
 
 Naval Schools— 615 
 
 Nebraska— areaand population, edu- 
 cational history, school system, 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics, 616 ; normal instruction, 
 teachers' institutes, educational 
 journal; secondary, superior, sci- 
 entific, professional, and special 
 
 . 617 
 
 Nebraska, University of— 617 
 
 Nebraska College— 618 
 
 Needle- Work— see Female Educa- 
 tion, and Industrial Schools 
 
 Netherlands— an a and population, 
 educational history, 618; primary 
 and secondary instruction, 619 ; 
 superior and special instruction; 
 Luxemburg. 620 
 
 Nevada — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 620; school system, 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics; normal, secondary, supe- 
 rior, professional, scientific, and 
 special instruction, 621 
 
 Newark — population, 621 ; educa- 
 tional history, school system, sta- 
 tistics. 622 
 
 Newberry College— 623 
 
 New Brunswick — an -a and popula- 
 tion, educational condition. 623 
 
 New Castle College— 624 
 
 Newfoundland — area and popula- 
 tion, educational cunditiou, 623 
 
 New Hampshire— ana and popula- 
 tion, educational history, 625 ; 
 school system and revenue, 626; 
 educational condition, school sta- 
 tistics; normal, scrnndary. denom- 
 inational, and superior instruc- 
 tion, 627; teachers" association. 62H 
 
 New Jersey — area and population, 
 educational history 028 ; school 
 system, educational condition, 
 school statistics, 630; normal, sec- 
 ondary, private, denominational, 
 superior, professional, scientific, 
 and special instruction, 631 
 
 New Jersey, College of— 632 
 
 New Jerusalem, Societies of the— 
 632 
 
 New Mexico — area and population. 
 educational history, 632; school 
 system, educational condition, 
 school statistics, private and pa- 
 rochial schools, 633 
 
 New Orleans — settlement of, 633; 
 educational history, school sys- 
 tem and statistics, 634 
 
 Newspapers — as means of instruc- 
 tion, 635. See also 332 
 
 New York (State)— area and popu- 
 lation, educational history, (\M\; 
 state superintendents, 639 ; edu- 
 cational system, 640; regents 
 
 the 
 
 641 ; 
 
 ondary, superior, scientific, and 
 
 professional in-trnrl ion. 644; spe- 
 cial iiiHtructii.il, . ducati.'ii.il a—..- 
 ciations, 645. s.lwl i ■ uru.il-, op; 
 
 New York (City}— educational his- 
 tory, 646; county and city su- 
 perintendents, school system. 648; 
 school statistics, private and de- 
 nominational schools, 649 
 
 New York, College of the City of 
 
 New York, University of the City 
 
 of— 650 
 New Zealand — see Australasian 
 
 Norma! School— 650. See also 221 
 North Carolina — area and popula- 
 tion, educational history, school 
 651; taxes, school system. 
 
 Northern Illinois College— 65:1 
 Northwestern Christian Univer- 
 sity— 654 
 Northwestern College — 654 
 Northwestern I'nlversitv (111. I ~- 
 
 654 
 Northwestern University (Wis.)— 
 
 Norway— see Sweden 
 Norwegian Luther College— '.."4 
 Norwich University — 654 
 
 Notre itame I)u Lac, 
 
 i'1-sit: 
 
 Nott, Ellphalet— 655 
 
 Nova Scotia — area and population. 
 
 educational history, 655; school 
 
 system, 656 
 Novels— see Fiction 
 Number— 656 
 Numeral Frame— 657 
 
 Oberlln, J. F.— 658 
 Oberlin College— 658 
 Object Teaching— history of. Pesta- 
 lozzi, 658; views of educators 
 
 concerning. 65*,i ; present status, 
 660. See also Ids, 'HI, 272, 313. 
 
 Observing Faculties — see Intel- 
 lectual Education, and Object 
 Teaching 
 
 Ohio — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 661; state super- 
 intendents, school system, edu- 
 cational condition, 662; school 
 revenue and statistics, normal in- 
 struction, teachers' institutes, 
 secondary instruction, 663; supe- 
 rior, professional, and scientific 
 instruction. 664; special instruc- 
 tion, educational literature, teach- 
 ers' associations, 665 
 
 Ohio Central College— 665 
 
 Ohio University— 666 
 
 Ohio Wesleyan University— 666 
 
 Olivet College— 666 
 
 Olmsted, Denison— 666 
 
 One Study University— 666 
 
 Ontario— area and population, edu- 
 cational history, present school 
 system, 667 
 
 Oral Instruction— definition of, 668; 
 proper use of, 669 
 
 Order— 670 
 
 Order of Studies — see Course of 
 Instruction 
 
 Oregon— area and population, edu- 
 cational history, school system, 
 670; educational condition, school 
 statistics; normal, secondary, de- 
 nominational, superior, profes- 
 sional. 
 
 atific 
 jstruction, 672 
 
 78fi 
 
 orthography -definition of, 672; 
 t il. . i . i \ii J.> -Saxon and Norman 
 on the English alphabet, syn- 
 onymous with spelling, 673 ; dif- 
 ferent systems.of phonetic spell- 
 ing proposed, improvements sug- 
 gested by the International Con- 
 vention of 1876, 674 
 
 Oskaloosa College— 675 
 
 Otterbein University— 675 
 
 Owens College— 675 
 
 Oxford, University of— history of, 
 organization. 676 ; political rep- 
 resentatives of, government of, 
 677; list of subordinate colleges, 
 
 Pacific, University of the— 678 
 
 Pacific Methodist College— 678 
 
 Pacific University— 679 
 
 Page, D. P.— 679. See also 35, 66, 
 187, 188, 192.374,375. 433, 723, 724 
 
 Palirntoiogy— see Geology 
 
 Palatinate College— 679 
 
 Paraguay — area and population, 
 educational history. \\\r, ■ educa- 
 tional condition, 680 
 
 Parental Education — see Home 
 Education 
 
 Parochial School— 680 
 
 Parsons College— 680 
 
 ', F. L. K. F.— 680. See also 
 
 391 
 
 Patience i'.sl 
 
 Payne, Joseph— 681. See also 767 
 Peabody, George— 681 
 Peabody Fund (Educational)— 681 
 Pedagogy— 692 
 
 Peet, H. P. — his early life, made 
 president of the N. Y. Institu- 
 tion for the Deaf-and-Dumb, his 
 theory regarding deaf-mutes, 682; 
 his method, syntax of the natural 
 language ■ 
 
 See also 
 
 Penn College— 685 
 
 Pennsylvania— area and population. 
 educational history, the colonial 
 period, 685; under the constitu- 
 tion of 1790, 686; under the con- 
 stitutions of 1838 and 1873, table 
 of progress, state superintend- 
 
ANALYTICAL INDKX 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 ents, school Byatem, 687; educa- 
 tional condition, m-liool statistics, 
 
 Pennsylvania tolley 
 Pennsylvania Mllita 
 
 of— 090 
 
 Pensions, Teachers i.'i s, , .ii-.> 
 Perception— sec Intellectual Kdn- 
 
 Persia— aren and population, ancient 
 Persia. 691; educational history, 
 modern Persia, educational his- 
 tory. 692 
 
 Peru— area and population, 692; edu- 
 
 Pestaloz/i, .1. II.— early life. . lu- 
 
 lus SUCCes... IV.I4; his tlle,.r> .'1 IN 
 
 24s, 2'MK 307. i.r.s 
 
 Pbarmaceutieal Schools — early 
 history of. r.'.C); innuen vol' chem- 
 istry on, recent progress of, con- 
 dition of in Europe, r>'.'u, in the 
 U. S.. 697 
 
 Philadelphia — population, e luca- 
 tional history. 697; school sys- 
 tem, statistics. 69S 
 
 Philanthropin— 699. See also 68, 
 299, 362 
 
 Philology— see Language 
 
 Phonetics — definition of, phonology. 
 699: phonetic print, 700; phonetic 
 writing and teaching. Till. Sr t; 
 also 275, 673 
 
 Phonic Method— 702 
 
 Phonics — see Orthography, and 
 Phonetics " 
 
 Phrenology— see Character, I>is- 
 
 702. See also 234, 251, 441. 521 
 Physics— see Science, The Teach- 
 
 Physiology— its place and value as 
 a part of education, 703 
 
 Plarists— 704 
 
 Pictures— 704. See also 453, 659 
 
 Pio Nono College— 704 
 
 Pittsburgh — population, etc., edu- 
 •> cational history, school system, 
 etatistics.secondary and parochial 
 schools, 705 
 
 Plato— biographical sketch, the Acad- 
 emy, his system of philosophy, 
 educational views, 706. See also 
 32. 33, 34, 330 
 
 Poetry— its use in the school, 703 
 
 Politeness s.'<- Manners 
 
 Political Economy — see Social 
 Economy 
 
 Polytechnic Schools — see Scien- 
 tific Schools 
 
 Popular Education —see Educa- 
 tion, and National Education 
 
 Portugal— area and population, edu- 
 
 Pract ice. Schools of— see Teachers' 
 
 Seminaries 
 Praxis— 709. See also 344 
 Preceptors, College of (London) — 
 
 709 
 Preparatory Schools— 710 
 
 Presbyterians — definition of. con- 
 dition of in the British Empire— 
 710, 711; Presbyterian Church in 
 
 Presh.Merians 
 
 the United States of America, 
 Presbyterian Church South, 
 712; Cumberland Presbyterian 
 Church. 713: United Pre.sb\ tenau 
 Church of North America, 714 
 
 Primary Instruction— see Educa- 
 tion 
 
 Primer— 715 
 
 Prince Edward Island— area and 
 population, educational condi- 
 tion, 715 
 
 Promotion— see School Manage- 
 
 Prussia— see Germany 
 Public Schools — definition, an- 
 cient history of. 715 
 
 state to free schools. 716 
 Public Schools, English— see Eng- 
 
 Punishment— see Corporal Pun- 
 ishment, and Fear 
 
 Pupil-Teacher — definition of, En- 
 glish law concerning. 716 
 
 Pythagoras— 717. See also 34 
 
 Quadrivium — see Arts 
 
 Quebec — population, educational his- 
 tory. 717; school law, primary 
 and secondary schools, universi- 
 ties. 71S 
 
 Questioning— see Interrogation 
 
 Qulntiliau — - life and educational 
 views, Institutions Oratories, 719. 
 See also 33, 98,121, 431, 432 
 
 Relnim 
 
 Kabanus, Mauriw— 719 
 
 llaclne College— 719 
 
 Ragged Schools — s 
 Schools 
 
 Raikes, Robert— 719. See also 796 
 
 Randolph Macon College— 72i» 
 
 Ratich, Wolfgang — biographical 
 sketch, rules for instruction. 720 
 
 Raumer, K. G. von— 720. See also 
 8,231. 302.312,482 
 
 Reading— the alphabet method, the 
 word method, the phonic and tho 
 phonetic method, twofold object 
 of reading, proper and improper 
 reading-books. 721. See also 132. 
 221. 272. 2-1 .;:.l. 4- 
 
 Real Schools— d< timtion of, Prus- 
 
 Kccitathu 
 
 preparation on the part ot the 
 teacher necessary, order in which 
 the parts of a subject should be 
 presented. 723: tests of the efficacy 
 of a recitation, length of recita- 
 tions, 724. See also 344. 473 
 Reform Schools— definition of, ori- 
 gin of in Europe, the modern re- 
 
 form school, Falk. 
 
 "J4: 11 
 
 imbcrof 
 
 Switzerland, the 
 "Wienera. influence 
 Haus in other co 
 schools in En. 
 
 ''',"',' 
 
 ':'■ "' 
 
 
 
 
 Franca and In thi 
 form schools in tl 
 
 Lti 
 
 t cnu'n'; 
 
 Holland. 727 : in Switzerland. 
 Austria. Hmigar\ . France. Russia, 
 and the New World, the Relormed 
 Church in America (Reformed 
 
 Reformed Churches 
 
 Dutch Church), 72* I R, i,,i ,,„ d 
 Church in the I'mied Stati a (Gel 
 man Reformed Church), 729; col 
 leges and seminaries m the U.S., 
 
 University 
 
 730 
 Regents of 
 
 fold ..Hi, ,■ ,,i relie[,,us education, 
 faulty methods of instruction, 
 731. See also 263, 372 
 
 wards' 'a- ue ansol discipline, 732 
 
 letnric — r> ,tl ■ leu in 
 meaning of the word, its later 
 
 ldiode Island— area and population. 
 education il history i A Bchool 
 Bystem, 737 - du iti, nal i ondi 
 
 secondary n.-tru. t h i. 7.1- supo 
 
 al journals, 73'.' 
 
 Richardson. Charles— 739 
 
 Richmond College— 739 
 
 Rlehter, J. 1>. F 739. See also 34, 
 
 35, 66. 146, 747 
 
 Ridgowlle College— 740 
 
 Hipon College— 740 
 
 Roanoke College— 740 
 
 Hochester, University of— 740 
 
 Hock Hill College— 740 
 
 Kod — see Corporal Punishment 
 
 Roman Catholic Church— number 
 of its adherents, its control of 
 education in the middle ages. 740; 
 the Jesuits, conflict between 
 church and Stat. , the papal By] 
 
 labus of lsc,4, 741 ; educational 
 
 prmcipl- s ,,t the Catholics, col- 
 
 the univi rsitj at tie- present 
 time. 742: establishment of teach- 
 ers' seminaries, educational soci 
 
 ties and orders, 713. See also 133, 
 206. 477. 024 
 Romanic Languages — 743 
 
 Rome — foundatit 
 
 t school 
 
 Rote-Teaching— 745 
 
 Koumania — area and population, 
 educational condition, 745 
 
 I. .1. — biographical 
 sket.h, 71" s\ li. ■ J - - 1 - ..1 Emilr, 
 746. Seeals...;. 
 
 Rutgers Colle 
 Rutherford Cc 
 Ryerson, A. E 
 
 St. Augustine, Missionary College 
 
 of— 751 
 St. lienodlct's College— 751 
 St. Charles College (La.)— 7.71 
 St. Charles's College (Md.)— 751 
 St. Francis Xavicr, College or— 752 
 St. Ignatius College (Cal. 1—752 
 St. Ignatius College (111.)— 752 
 St. John's College (Fordham, N. Y.) 
 
 —7.72 
 
 St. John's College (Brooklyn, N.Y.) 
 
 —752 
 St. John's College (Md.)— 752 
 SI. John's College (Minn.)— 753 
 St. John's College of Arkansas— 
 
 753 
 St. Joseph's College (I1D— 753 
 St. Joseph's College |N. Y.)— 753 
 St. Lawrence L'nlverslty — 753 
 
ANALYTICAL INDEX 
 
 school si 
 St. Louis University — 7511 
 St. Mary's College (Oal.)— 75i'i 
 St. Mary's College (Ky.)— 7ai; 
 St. Mcinrad's College— Tali 
 St. Stephen's College— 755 
 
 • College— 757 
 Salaclo College— 757 
 Salzmanu, C. Ci.— 757. Sec also 4B5 
 Sandwich Islands — sec Hawaiian 
 
 San Francisco — p .j. illation, educa- 
 
 met] 
 
 tional hi.-t .ry.757, school system. 
 
 Sniitlis, 
 
 
 Social 1 
 
 Kanla liarliara 1 oilcgi — 759 
 
 
 Santa Clara l ollogc— Tj'j 
 
 
 Santo Domingo— T.v.i 
 
 
 Sarmiento. n. F.— 759 
 
 Sml 
 
 Saxony — see Germany 
 
 Nad 
 
 Sclnnidt, Karl— 75.1. Sec also 8, 717 
 
 
 Scholasticism — 700. s :i] . ■■ I 
 
 in so 
 
 ■ U. S., 760 
 School Board-760 
 School Brothers — see 
 Catholic Church 
 
 School < 'ensus— tables of in 
 
 ■ I'.S. 
 
 an 1 1 
 
 7C1 
 
 School District— 762 
 
 School Economy— 762 
 
 School Festivals— 762 
 
 School Fund— 763 
 
 School Furniture — desk a and Beats, 
 763; the platform, the blackboard, 
 niiscellan-ous furnitur ■ and ap- 
 paratus, 764 
 
 School Grounds — see Hygiene, 
 School 
 
 School-House— construction and in- 
 ternal arrangement of, 765. See 
 
 School Management— 766. Seo also 
 2H7, '19-2, 376. 493 
 
 School Records— 766 
 
 Schwarz, F. H. Ch.— 767. See also 8, 
 34, 99, 302, 303 
 
 Science, The Teaching of — its 
 place in elementary instruction, 
 767 ;»eneralization,proper method 
 of t ;acb.ing it, 768; the order in 
 whi.-h s ■i.-ui'i 1 should be taught, 
 Bcience as a branch of higher edu- 
 
 Scotland — area, population, etc., 
 educational history, 772; element- 
 ary instruction. 773; secondary 
 instruction. 774 ; superior and 
 special instruction, 775 
 
 Self-Education— 775 
 
 Seminary— 776 
 
 Seneca, E. A.— 777 
 
 Senses, The Education of the— 
 mental impressions received 
 through the senses of varying 
 strength, necessity of cultivating 
 object teaching. 
 
 the ph..i 
 See also 1 
 
 method, enh.r, 77s. 
 
 Sentential Analysis— see Analy- 
 sis, Grammatical 
 
 Servla— area and population, school 
 legislation, primary schools, sec- 
 ondary instruction, 77H; superior 
 instruction, special and profes- 
 sional schools, 779 
 
 Seton, S. W.-779. See also 694 
 
 Seton Hall College— 779 
 
 Sex In Education — see Co-Educa- 
 tion 
 
 Shaw University (Miss.)— 779 
 
 Shaw 1'nlversity (N. C.)— 779 
 
 Shurtleff College— 779 
 
 SIcard, B. A. C— 780 
 
 Signs, The Language of— see Deaf- 
 Mutes, and Peet, H. P. 
 
 Simpson Centenary College— 780 
 
 Simultaneous Instruction — sec 
 Concert Teaching 
 
 Singing-Schools— earlv history of, 
 7*0; origin ,,f the staff ami musi- 
 cal syllables, modern Italian meth- 
 od of notation, substitution of 
 numerals for musical syllables, 
 
 South Cam 
 Southern 1 
 
 K.M.I isl 
 
 ns method 
 miiujuiry. 
 
 eiv.iy 
 
 Southwestern Presbyterian Uni- 
 versity— 790 
 Southwestern University— 790 
 Spain— area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 790; primary and 
 secondary instruction, 791 ; su- 
 perior and special instruction, 
 792 
 
 Sparta — educational system of Ly- 
 
 curgu.8,793 
 Spencer, Herbert— 793. See also 
 
 66, 177. 194 
 State and School— 794 
 
 Stephaili, llellllieh 791 
 
 Stephens, Henry— 794 
 
 Stephens, Robert— 794 
 
 Stewart College — see Southern 
 
 Presbyterian University 
 Stone, W. L.— 795 
 Stowe, C. E.— 795. See also 34 
 Straight University— 795 
 
 Sundav-Sr 
 the cob 
 
 . arly hi~*..r> . K ■)<■ rl Iiaikes. J..]ni 
 Wealey, 796; rapid spread of Sun- 
 day - schools, hading agencies, 
 William Fox. Bishop Asbury, 797; 
 prominent Sunday-school socie- 
 ties, their dates of organization, 
 Sunday-school literature, tracts, 
 libraries, etc.. singing in the Sun- 
 day-school, 798; infant-class in- 
 struction, Sunday-school conven- 
 tions; county, state, international, 
 and world's conventions ; past 
 progress and prrs.-ut condition of 
 Sundav-seools. 799; statistics, 800. 
 See also 287, 307 
 Superior Instruction— 800 
 Supervision,, School— its, necessity 
 inspection and examination, 800. 
 See also 264 
 
 swart hmore- College — 801 
 Sweden and Norway — area and 
 
 population (Sweden) educational 
 history, primary instruction, 801; 
 secondary, superior, and special 
 instruction (Norway) educational 
 history, primary instruction, 802; 
 normal, secondary, superior, and 
 special instruction, 803 
 Switzerland— area and population, 
 educational history. 803; primary 
 schools, tabular statement of 
 schools. 804; secondary, superior, 
 special, and professional inatruc- 
 
 Tabor College— 806 
 Talladega College— 806 
 Tasmania — see Australasian Colo- 
 Taylor. Isaac— 806. See also 34, 138, 
 
 L68, 234, 432. 471 
 Teacher — 806. See also 57. 132, 
 
 221 222. 226. 22S. 2:11, 2'19. 261.^5. 
 2*6. 2-7, 2-S9. 290, 291. 293. 297,298, 
 299, 331, 333, \\W-,:.-.<* 401, 453, 623, 
 
 iual schools in the U. S., 808; 
 Charles Brooks. Horace Mann, 
 De Witt Clinton, Cyrus Peirce, 
 S. R. Hall, increase of nor- 
 mal schools in the U. S., table 
 showing the number of such 
 schools, and teachers and students 
 iu the C. S. in 1876, influence of 
 normal schools, 809; list of nor- 
 mal schools in the U. S-, 810. See 
 also 229. 709 
 
 Technical Education— its object, in- 
 creasing importance of, branches 
 usually taught, laws concerning 
 in Massaehusets and New York, 
 list of European schools, 811 
 
 Temper— 812 
 
 Tennessee — area and population, 
 educational history, 812; school 
 system. 813; educational condi- 
 tion, school statistics, normal and 
 secondary instruction, 814 ; su- 
 perior, professional, scientific, and 
 special instruction. 815 
 
 Texas — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 815; school sys- 
 tem, educational condition, sehool 
 statistics, normal and secondary 
 instruction, 816; superior, scien- 
 tific, professional, and special in- 
 
 See also 342, 343, 
 
 Text-Books— 817. 
 
 399, 427 
 Theological Schools — early history 
 
 of, 817; Roman Catholic schools 
 in Europe and the U. S-, schools 
 of the Greek Church, Protestant 
 schools, want of uniformity in 
 theological instruction in Eng- 
 land, 818; method pursued in 
 Scotland, rise and progress of 
 theological schools in the U. S., 
 819. See also 282. 567 
 
 Thermometry, Educational — its 
 use in the school, instruments 
 employed, 819; the hand a nat- 
 ural thermometer, thermography, 
 820 
 
 Thiel College of the Evangelical 
 
 llh.' 
 
 ( IMI 
 
 Topical Method— see Catechetfc 
 
 Method 
 Tougaloo University— 820 
 Training— 820 
 Training Schools — see Teachei 
 
 Seminaries 
 
ANALYTICAL INDKX 
 
 Trinity College («.)— 820 
 Trinity Colic 
 Trinity Univ 
 
 Trotzendoif. 
 
 Turkey— are, i and i„,pulatioti, edu- 
 cational history, 821 ; primary, 
 secoudarv, superior, and special 
 schools. 822 
 
 Union Christian Collegi — 822 
 Union I'lilversity— 822 
 Unitarians— 823 
 United Brethren in Christ— how 
 
 founded, schools and colleges. 
 
 „.l-. 11,1,1,, .1 
 
 Vaiidci-blll University— 836 
 Vassal- College J86 
 Venezuela — area and population, 
 primary instruction, aecondarj 
 
 University — origin of, the Univer- 
 sity of Paris, establishment of 
 universities in Germany, and 
 Italy, their increase afi :r il, 
 
 Unlvei-silv College 1, .ti.l,. Ill .-,1. 
 joct for win. h I. .in. i I, it- i., e 
 ties, 832; i . ■ i . the Sla le 
 schools, admission of women, do- 
 
 Unlversity College (San Francisco, 
 
 Cal.)— 833 
 Upper Iowa University— 888 
 
 Urbana University— 834 
 
 Ursinus College— 834 
 
 Uruguay — area and population, edu- 
 cational condition,-834 
 
 Utah — area and population, educa- 
 tional history, 834 ; school sys- 
 tem, educational condition, school 
 statistics. normal instruction. 835; 
 Becoudarv and superior instruc- 
 tion, 836 
 
 ion, educational 
 
 Wabash College— 850 
 
 Waco University— 850 
 Wake lores! College— 850 
 Washington— see District of Co- 
 lumbia 
 Washington College (Cal.)— 850 
 Washington College (Mil.)— 850 
 Washington and .Iclt'erson Col- 
 lege— 850 
 Washington and Lee University 
 
 Washington Territory— area and 
 population, educational history. 
 
 ditiou, selu, ..1 statistics, teachers' 
 
 institut. - and associations, 851 
 
 Washing! iiivorslty— 851 
 
 Wayland. Francis - biographical 
 
 sketch. --,1 . re-or| mization oi 
 
 Brown liner-, t • 
 
 Waynesbuxg < ollege — 52 
 
 Wi-hrli. .1. .1. biogra] 
 
 . nt. is II cwvl. s.-.j ,.p,n- the 
 normal b boo] at Kn nzlingen, 
 
 establish. - a le w -..miliary at 
 Guggenhulil. 85:). See also 11 
 
 Wcsleyan University— 853 
 
 Western College— 853 
 
 Western Maryland College— 853 
 
 Western Reserve College— 853 
 
 Westneld College— 853 
 
 Westminster College (Mo.) —854 
 
 Westminster College (Pa.)— 854 
 
 West Virginia— area and popula- 
 tion, state superintendents, school 
 system, 854; educational condi- 
 tion, school statistics, normal, 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 secondary, denominational, and 
 
 superior instruction, 855; profes- 
 sional and sneiititic instruction 
 
 Virginia, University of - 
 
 Wheaton College— 866 
 
 Win-well, William— 866. See also 
 264, 289 
 
 Whitticr College and -Normal In- 
 stitute— 856 
 
 Wlehern, J. H.— 857. See also 725 
 
 Wtlbcitorcc University— 857 
 
 Wiley University- 867 
 
 Wlllard, Emma - aphii ,i 
 
 sketch, h.'- (dan for th,- higher 
 education oi womi n, the Troy 
 Female Seminary, improvements 
 
 in tcxt-1 ks, 867. s, e also lit, 
 
 187, 303, 334 
 
 William and Mary, College of— 
 
 history and organi/al ,,,li. S5S 
 William Jewell College— 858 
 Williams College— 858 
 Wilmington College— '58 
 
 Wisconsin — ar. a Mil p .] .illation, 
 
 
 olldl- 
 
 ); superior, profes- 
 sional, scientific aud s| ml in- 
 struction. 801 
 
 Wisconsin, University of— 861 
 
 Wittenberg College— 862 
 
 Wofford College— 8112 
 
 Women, The Higher Education of 
 — in England. 862; m Scotland 
 and Ireland, 863. See also 209, 
 212, 290. 301, 574. sue, 
 
 Woodbrldge, W. C— 863. See also 
 17, 334. 547 
 
 Woodstock College — 865 
 
 Woolsey, T. I) — 965 
 
 Wooster, University of— 865 
 
 Word Method— 865 
 
 Words, Analysis of— ,t\ , l 
 
 importance in elementary in- 
 struction, Latin prefixes and suf- 
 fixes in the English language, 
 method ol t,a, lung, appheation 
 of the developing method to this 
 
 subject. 805 
 Working Men's College si.l, 
 Writing— s • 1'i-u in:iii-lii p 
 Wurieiiiboi-g — German; 
 Wyoming— area, p ; on, etc., 
 
 educational !n-t..r\ -. hool svs- 
 tem and statistics. 806 
 
 Xenia College— 867 
 
 Zoology— its plac and value 111 
 cation, what principles ar. I 
 observed in teaching it, si'.s 
 
14 DAY USE 
 
 I RETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED 
 
 This book is due on the last date stamped below, or 
 
 on the date to which renewed. 
 
 Renewed books are subject to immediate recall. 
 
 nt?p'Mr 
 
 SESSIONS 
 
 ty"" ' 
 
 fiECIUD DEC? 
 
 72 '10 PUT 12 
 
 General Library 
 
 University of California 
 
 Berkeley 
 
YD 1 204 
 
 CDblDS7b3fi 
 
 5 mm 
 
 UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY 
 
 
 >%> > ;>>■?> Z> :>:» ~> -> >f> ^> Z> >^» ^>