JC-NRLF 
 
 SB E57 ISh 
 
 A MANUAL 
 
 
J Henry Senger 
 

 
 
 \ A %r 
 
A MANUAL 
 
 OF THE 
 
 GERMAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 BY 
 
 AUGUSTUS KITOFLACH. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO: 
 PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR. 
 
 FOR SALE BY ALL BOOKSELLERS. 
 
IN 
 
 Entered residing to Act of Congress, in the year 1879, 
 
 BY AL'GTJSTIN KNOFLACH, 
 Tu t"'*e Cffa?e.af tlie. Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 
 
 All rights reserved. 
 
 Stereotyped by 
 PAINTER & CO., 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The best method of learning a foreign language is that by 
 which we learned our own mother tongue. The principle may 
 be expressed in three words: " Practice before Theory." 
 
 An American child speaks English long before it becomes 
 acquainted with the principles of the English language or 
 knows as much as the meaning of the word " grammar," and 
 "language" forms at first no more the subject of theoretical 
 instruction than eating or walking. 
 
 In the same natural way an American, a child or a 
 grown person, may acquire a foreign language. We no longer 
 commence by teaching grammatical forms before we use them 
 in practice, but we transform the class-room into a scene of 
 practical life, and by the aid of objects and pictures we pass 
 through its different phases as if we were actually living in 
 the country whose language we wish to learn. Reading and 
 writing must, of course, accompany the oral exercises. 
 
 The superiority of this method over all others has been 
 demonstrated by its astonishing results wherever it has been 
 carried out. I have been following it with my pupils for 
 some time, and while at first I imagined it to be, at least in 
 some of its features, original with myself, I have since had the 
 gratification to learn that it had been in successful practice 
 in many schools, and that it is the method approved by the 
 Prussian government for the instruction of Polish children 
 in the German language in the public schools of the province 
 ofPosen. 
 
4 PREFACE. 
 
 One of the oiur/v advantages of this method, and one not 
 to be undere'stimated, lies in its being pleasant to learners. 
 CliiHrea never become weary, nay, they often look disappointed 
 when the lesson is 'finished, and seem desirous to continue, 
 and to grown persons a lesson conducted in this practical 
 manner is a pastime rather than a study. 
 
 In transferring the class-room, as it were, to a foreign 
 country, some teachers would have English excluded entirely 
 from the course in the foreign language. I do not deny that 
 it may be practicable to teach a foreign language by using only 
 that same language, exclusively, in the class-room; but I have 
 found that much time may be saved, while no harm can be 
 done, by explaining in English every word or sentence spoken 
 in the foreign language, and I find that my experience is that 
 cf many other teachers. 
 
 The teaching of grammar may go hand in hand with this 
 practical course, provided that we do not teach principles 
 needing illustration by examples which are not familiar 
 beforehand to the pupils ; the forms and rules of grammar 
 must be derived from the practical knowledge acquired by 
 the pupils ; it is they who must be able to give the examples. 
 Thus, e. </., we must not teach rules on the " Formation of 
 the Plural," and then illustrate them by examples, but the 
 pupils must have spoken of hundreds of objects in the plural 
 number in the conversations, and must have seen the form 
 of the plural in the reading lessons, before we call their 
 attention to the formation of the plural from the singular; 
 even as an American child speaks of toys, dolls, picture-books, 
 horses, etc., long before it knows that we must " add an s to 
 the singular," or, in fact, long before it knows what an s is. 
 
 The amount of theory that may accompany the practice 
 depends, of course, entirely upon the age and advancement 
 
PREFACE. O 
 
 of the pupils. For children a mere outline is sufficient ; they 
 should learn the correct forms by hearing them and becoming 
 accustomed to their use in speaking rather than by remember- 
 ing a rule ; while grown persons, well versed in English 
 grammar, will be materially benefited by having the explana- 
 tions of the principles of the foreign language follow closely 
 upon the practical exercises. 
 
 For this part of the method, the grammar, I have long felt 
 the want of a book which I could use to advantage with my 
 pupils in the German language, one which would answer the 
 requirements of all classes of students. Many excellent works 
 have been published in this country for instruction in the 
 German language, but they generally follow a system of their 
 own, at least in their "practical" parts, giving one portion of a 
 part of speech here, and another there, thus making it im- 
 perative to follow their method from beginning to end, if one 
 expects to feel at home in the book, and they are consequently 
 not adapted for use with my method of teaching. 
 
 I therefore concluded to write a book for myself, and think- 
 ing that others may find it useful, I have published it. 
 
 This book contains no " new method " ; it is simply a plain 
 and, I hope, lucid explanation of the principles of the German 
 language, arranged in the order usually followed by English 
 grammars and therefore familiar to the American student. 
 
 I have carefully omitted all rules and classifications which I 
 deemed of no practical value; but what I have given may be 
 relied upon as being compiled carefully and in accordance with 
 good usage and the best authorities. 1 ) 
 
 The MANUAL is not designed to accompany, exclusively, my 
 method of teaching ; but, while* it is adapted to my purpose, 
 it may serve that of any other teacher, whatever his method 
 
 1) >ei)fc' cutfd)e cfyulcjrammcittf (annoer) was, in most cases, regarded as the 
 standard in the compilation of this book. 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 may be ; the arrangement of the book makes it practicable to 
 use any part of its contents, and to omit others or reserve 
 them for future reference ; it may, therefore, be used with 
 pupils in all stages of advancement; and students who have 
 followed other methods may find it a handy book of reference, 
 in which it is " easy to find things." 
 
 It is evident from the size of the book that it cannot con- 
 tain an exhaustive treatise on German Grammar. To claim 
 that for this little volume would be simply absurd ; yet I feel 
 confident that from the simplified way in which the principles 
 of the language are presented, the book will be found sufficient 
 for nearly all practical purposes. 
 
 If this little book should be favorably received, I shall publish 
 similar MANUALS for instruction in the French, Spanish, and 
 Italian languages. 
 
 For this work, I crave the indulgence of a forbearing public. 
 It is the first book on the German language ever published 
 on the Pacific Coast, and Pioneers do not claim perfection. 
 
 AUGUSTIN KNOFLACH. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO, CAL., February, 1879. 
 
A FEW WOEDS OF ADVICE 
 
 To those who wish to use this MANUAL for self-instruction. 
 
 In the preface I have given an outline of the natural method 
 of teaching foreign languages, which is now in successful practice 
 in many places and promises fair to supersede all others. It is 
 evident that such a method can only he carried out in public or 
 private schools, in private classes, or with such single students as 
 are prepared to devote the necessary time to the study of a language 
 under a teacher's instruction. There are, however, many persons 
 who find it desirable to learn a language by taking only a limited 
 number of lessons or relying entirely upon their private study. To 
 this class a few words of advice may be acceptable. 
 
 For persons who are thoroughly versed in the grammar of their 
 vernacular and. endowed with a talent for languages and who have 
 an earnest determination to persevere, it is quite practicable to learn to 
 read and understand a foreign language "from a book," without assist- 
 ance, but the success depends largely upon prosecuting the study in a 
 correct manner. 
 
 The principle "Practice before Theory" holds good here, to a 
 great extent, as well as in the oral method pursued in classes. 
 Head the MANUAL attentively, a few pages every day, and make 
 yourself acquainted with the prominent features of declension and 
 conjugation. You may find it very dry, but it will not take you long to 
 get through ; it is not a formidable volume at any rate, and, at least in 
 this respect, compares favorably with other German grammars. The 
 explanations are such as will be readily understood by any student 
 familiar with English grammar. At the same time procure a diction- 
 ary and make yourself acquainted with its arrangement ; the MANUAL 
 will assist you, as it explains, in the proper places, the features of 
 the dictionaries in common use. 
 
ADVICE TO LEARNERS. 
 
 Then take a German Reader, a book used by children in schools; 
 dozens of good German School-Readers have been published in this 
 country; take a Second Reader, because First Readers often con- 
 tain only spelling lessons. With dictionary and MANUAL you will 
 manage to interpret the sense of the little pieces, stories, etc., which 
 you find in the Reader. Take only the pieces written in prose ; the 
 poetry, however simple it may be, contains idioms which you cannot 
 understand without explanation. (By the way, it may be remarked 
 here that the learning by heart of pieces of poetry written for children 
 is excellent practice, but the explanations of a teacher are indispensable, 
 and poems can form 110 part of the " self -instruction " of a beginner.) 
 
 After having made some progress in the Reader, take a work of fiction 
 (one written for German children will be the best to begin with) and 
 procure an English translation. Most of these stories and fairy-tales, 
 and all the popular works of fiction by contemporary authors are 
 translated into English and sold by all booksellers. Read the book 
 that you may choose, with the translation by your side. All words 
 whose meaning is not apparent from the translation must be looked up 
 in the dictionary, and every sentence must be looked over until its sense 
 is understood without finding it necessary to refer to the translation. 
 At the close of every reading, the whole page or pages must be read 
 again, without looking at the translation, until it is thoroughly 
 understood, and when you have finished a story or a chapter, the 
 oftener you read it over, again and again, the better. Some persons 
 may object to the use of translations, but if you follow the above 
 instructions faithfully, the results will convince you of the practical 
 value of the plan. 
 
 Having read one or more books in this manner, you will be somewhat 
 familiar with German reading, and then is the proper time to study 
 the MANUAL. Take again a few pages at a time ; you will no longer 
 find it a dry and hard study, but you will recognize the forms in the 
 paradigms as old acquaintances and be able to illustrate the rules 
 by examples from your own experience in reading. At 'the same time 
 continue your reading and try to dispense with the translation, or refer 
 to it only when you find it impossible to understand complicated sen- 
 tences or peculiar idiomatic expressions. There are many who, in 
 reading a foreign language, are not satisfied with being enabled to 
 follow the sense, but want to understand every word. Now, although 
 
ADVICE TO LEARNERS. 9 
 
 thoroughness is very commendable, it may, like everything else, be 
 carried to excess. To handle a dictionary every few minutes makes 
 reading a very laborious task, and often discourages the student and' 
 makes him despair of ever being able to read anything "for pleasure". 
 If, in reading English, you were required to give a definition of every 
 word you read, you would often find yourself greatly puzzled. In the 
 mother-tongue one frequently passes an obscure sentence without 
 realizing its obscurity, as long as the general purport is understood, 
 while in reading a foreign language one seems bound to scrutinize every 
 word. This is wrong. I would therefore advise you, from my own 
 experience in studying English, to read as much as possible as soon 
 as you can follow the sense and be interested in what you read, and 
 make only a portion of your reading the subject of a thorough study 
 with the dictionary. By and by, the meaning of many words and 
 idioms will become apparent without dictionary by their occurring 
 repeatedly and in a different connection. 
 
 Good reading matter for beginners is furnished by the German 
 newspapers published in this country. Begin by reading the telegrams 
 and local news items ; being familiar with the events from your 
 English paper, you will find them easy reading ; and while the language 
 may not be the best, it is a source of encouragement to the student 
 to understand what is published for the German public. 
 
 In order to read German classics you will find it necessary to use 
 an edition with English notes, or a translation, or both. ' ' Put what 
 of that ? Where is the American who- understands Shakespeare at first 
 sight?" 
 
 Finally, I would say, that in pursuing a course of private study you 
 will find it more advantageous to study an hour or even half an hour 
 every day, than to devote several hours to the study at longer 
 intervals. * ' Nulla dies sine lima. " 
 
 While I have thus given it as my opinion, based upon experience, 
 that it is possible to learn to read and understand a language by 
 self-instruction, some assistance from a teacher will greatly facilitate 
 the study, and should be procured whenever practicable. In the first 
 place, you cannot acquire a good pronunciation of a foreign language 
 from a book, and supposing that you wish to acquire only a ' ' reading 
 
10 ADVICE TO LEARNERS. 
 
 knowledge", you may find it desirable to be able to read aloud. Then, 
 again, a teacher will help you over the difficulties which you will 
 encounter in understanding your Reader, and you will then much 
 sooner be able to read a book with the English translation by your 
 side; while it is evident that throughout the study a teacher's 
 guidance must materially further the student's progress. "With most 
 persons a course of lessons is desirable from a weakness of human 
 nature. To study a foreign language by ourselves alone is, at first, 
 very dry work, and with the best intentions we often find it impossible 
 to persevere and to devote a certain time every day to study, in the 
 face of business or other engagements ; but when we take a regular 
 course of lessons from a stranger, well, then we generally do what 
 we otherwise would probably not have done. 
 
 In learning to ivrite a foreign language we must, of course, have 
 a teacher correct our exercises and explain our mistakes. Advanced 
 students, however, will find it excellent practice to translate German 
 into English, and then, say in a day or two, retranslate their English 
 into German, comparing this translation with the original, and finding 
 their own mistakes. If, in following this course, they try to translate 
 the German, not literally, but into choice English, they will find that 
 such exercises will improve their style of writing and give them a 
 great facility of expression in their own language. 
 
 As to learning to speak German without devoting the necessary time 
 to a practical course under a teacher, the success depends mainly upon 
 the circumstances in which the student is placed. Decidedly the best 
 way is to go to Germany. Those who are unable or unwilling to do 
 so, will find in this country abundant opportunities of forming the 
 acquaintance of educated Germans and moving among them during 
 the hours of leisure; and, having first acquired the ability to read 
 the language, they will soon be able to understand and, by and by, 
 speak it. Do not feel discouraged if you find it difficult, in the 
 beginning, to understand the spoken language ; the ear requires 
 training ; and in trying to speak be not afraid of mistakes ; out with it, 
 in any way. He who dares not speak a language until he knows 
 how to speak it well, is like the man who did not want to go 
 into the water before he knew how to swim. If you have a friend 
 who will take the trouble to correct you, his assistance will prove 
 invaluable. Take advantage of every opportunity to hear public 
 
ADVICE TO LEARNERS. 11 
 
 speakers, in German. People who frequent places of amusement will 
 find the German theatres (in San Francisco and all other large cities 
 of the Union) excellent places to visit for hearing good German. 
 Occasionally, humorous plays are produced in the dialect of some 
 particular section of Germany, thus affording an opportunity to acquaint 
 the ear with provincialisms. 
 
 The value of reading, and, especially, of reading aloud, is generally 
 underestimated by those who direct their efforts toward speaking a 
 foreign language. You may often hear a person say : "I can read 
 German well enough, I want to speak it " ; but when you come to 
 inquire as to what has been actually read, you will generally find that 
 it does not exceed one volume. If one reads a dozen or two of interest- 
 ing works of fiction, aloud if practicable, he will notice how great an aid 
 reading is to speaking. 
 
 * ' How long will it take me to learn German ? " is a question with 
 which the ear of every teacher is painfully familiar. The only answer 
 which can be given is that the time required to learn a language 
 depends entirely on the application, intelligence, and linguistic talent 
 on the part of the student. While some persons make considerable 
 progress in the course of a few months and derive much practical 
 benefit from it, not only for reading, but for business, travel, etc., 
 others require a much longer period to attain any degree of proficiency. 
 
 That it is possible to master a foreign language without going to 
 the country where it is the vernacular has, in many instances, been 
 demonstrated by Americans who have succeeded in learning to read, 
 write, and speak German without leaving the United States. I know 
 a lady, Irish by birth, who not only reads the most abstruse German 
 works on Philosophy, Political Economy, the Sciences, etc., with the 
 greatest facility, as if they were written in English, but also speaks 
 the language with remarkable fluency, and who has acquired this 
 knowledge within the limits of the city of San Francisco. 
 
 THE AUTHOR. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 THE ALPHABET 15 
 
 PRONUNCIATION 18 
 
 Vowels, 20 ; Modified Vowels, 20 ; Diphthongs, 21 ; Consonants, 21 ; Com- 
 pound Consonants, 23; Syllabication, 24 ; Quantity of Syllables Accent, 
 25 ; Punctuation, 26. 
 
 THE NOUN AND ARTICLE 28 
 
 Gender, 28 ; Formation of the Plural, 30 ; Cases, 32 ; Declension of the 
 Article, 33 ; Declension of Nouns, 34 ; Proper Nouns, 40. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE 42 
 
 Comparison of Adjectives, 48. 
 
 THE NUMERAL 50 
 
 Cardinal Numbers, 50 ; Ordinal Numbers, 51. 
 THE PRONOUN 52 
 
 Personal Pronouns, 52 ; Possessive Pronouns, 54 ; Demonstrative Pronouns, 
 56 ; Determinative Pronouns, 57 ; Relative Pronouns, 59 ; Interrogative 
 Pronouns, CO ; Indefinite Pronouns, 62. 
 
 THE VERB G4 
 
 Auxiliary Verbs, 65; Regular Verbs, 72; Reflexive Verbs, 78; Impersonal 
 Verbs, 79 ; Compound Verbs, 80 ; Irregular Verbs, 83 ; List of Irregular 
 Verbs, 87 ; Remarks on the Verb, 98. 
 
 THE ADVERB 105 
 
 THE PREPOSITION 107 
 
 Government of Adjectives and Verbs, 110. 
 
 THE CONJUNCTION 112 
 
 THE INTERJECTION 114 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OP WORDS 115 
 
g f ^/ ef > 
 F f / O o 
 
 THE ALPHABET. 
 
 The German Alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, the 
 forms of which, capital and small, in print and in writing, are 
 as follows : 
 
 ta 
 
 A a 
 
 33 b ^: ^ ba 
 
 B b K k 
 
 & C l/?^ tsa 2 I r 'S el 
 
 C c LI 
 
 2) b ^^^ da 9S m 
 
 D d Mm 
 
 a j/f u ^x/c ^*. en 
 
 E e fO N n 
 
 o ,- ^ ^ P : ; 
 
 cr 7 ^- ^ ha i> V| ^^ koo 
 
 H h ^V^ Q q / / 
 
 3^ $ft Y ( ^? 
 
 I Q/ * e vl i ^xz, ^ er 
 
 I i E r 
 
 *) The marks used in showing, approximately, the names of the letters, in German, 
 are those used in Webster's Dictionary. 
 
THE ALPHABET. 
 
 ft 
 
 U 11 
 
 u u Y y Ion 
 
 
 MODIFIED VOWELS. 
 
 (Umlaute.) 
 
 a 
 
 Ae a Oe 6 
 
 Uefi 
 
 Tie ii 
 
 DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 at ^_ gi et 
 
 Ai ai Ei ei 
 
 fou ^^ tset 
 
 /I Z 
 
 ail 
 
 Au au 
 
 ffiit eu ^-_- aen dii 
 
 Eu eu 7 Aeu au. 
 
THE ALPHABET. 17 
 
 COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 
 
 @Dft> 
 
 Sp sp 
 
 ss /x sz 
 
 @t ft 
 
 St st 
 
 ty 
 
 th 
 
 Sch sch c ^x ' tz 
 
 REMARKS ON THE ALPHABET. 
 
 Nouns and words used as nouns begin with a capital, 
 proper adjectives begin with a small .letter; as, trie beutfcfjC 
 pracfje, the German language. Observe that pracfje, 
 language, being a noun, begins with a capital, while the 
 proper adjective beut[d), German, begins with a small letter. 
 Adjectives, however, which are derived from the names of 
 persons or places are often written with a capital initial ; as, 
 
 $onttfd)e s ]3()tlofopl)te, Kant's Philosophy; getpgiger s JJ?effe, Leip- 
 sic fair. All words beginning a sentence or a line of poetry 
 begin with a capital letter. 
 
 The long form of 6-, f, is used at the beginning or in the 
 middle of a syllable (see " Syllabication," page 24) ; at the end 
 of a syllable we use the short form, $ as, jo, so ; Ie fdt, to read; 
 at3, when, than. 
 
 Some writers use short in the middle of a syllable before t; as, cr Ue3t, he reads. 
 (See page 84.) 
 
18 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 There are two forms for double s, (f and {3 ; ff is used 
 between two vowels, if the vowel that precedes the double * 
 is short ; in all other cases we must use $ (commonly called fj, 
 es-tset; "sharp s" would be a more appropriate name); as, 
 toff en, to let; effen, to eat; tjiffen, to hoist; g;loffen, fins; 
 miiffen, to be obliged. In these words, the vowel preceding 
 double s is short, and we therefore use the form ff ; but in 
 beiften, to bite; fpafjjen, to joke; ftoften, to push, the vowel 
 is long, and we must use the form j}. The same form is 
 used in bd, that (conjunction), guf;, foot, 9iu, nut, er ijft, 
 he eats, etc., because in these words double s does not stand 
 between two vowels. 
 
 Some writers use ff in the middle of a syllable before t; as, ct lift, he eats. (See 
 page 84.) 
 
 Words like bci$felbe, the same; dilSfc^en, to expose, form no 
 exceptions to the foregoing rules, baSfclbe being a compound 
 of bd$ and felbe, mt^fe^en of au$ and fe^en, and words ending 
 in $ retaining that form of the s in composition. 
 
 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 The pronunciation of the German language presents few 
 difficulties when compared with the English. The spelling 
 is almost phonetic, i. e., every letter either retains its own 
 peculiar sound under all circumstances, or, where its sound 
 differs according to its position or combination with other 
 letters, we are governed by general rules; and the student, 
 under the guidance of a teacher, or by the aid of any educated 
 German, where no teacher be available, will find it very easy 
 to acquire a reasonably good pronounciation in. a very short 
 time. 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 19 
 
 By saying that an American will speak German with a "reasonably good " pronun- 
 ciation, we mean that he will be understood in all parts of Germany, and that his 
 pronunciation will not offend the ears of educated Germans, which is all that id 
 required of a foreigner or, in fact, of any native German. In regard to the sound of 
 certain letters, such as the open or closed sound of e, the sound of ch, g, r, s, and 
 others, and many other <l shades" in the pronunciation, we must say that the practice 
 is not uniform in tha different parts of Germany, and that there is no "standard," 
 no German Webster or Worcester to refer to in disputed cases. The difference in 
 pronunciation is not, as is often asserted, confined to the uneducated; the most 
 cultured persons and even professional speakers generally betray, by their enuncia- 
 tion, in what part of Germany they were born or educated, and, although it is 
 conceded that the pronunciation in the North of Germany is much better than it is 
 in the South, there is no one place whose inhabitants pronounce the language in a 
 manner which is acknowledged, by universal consent, ai the correct one, and as tho 
 one to be imitated, in every particular, by all good speakers. The same state of 
 affairs exists, more or less, in all countries of the European continent, and it is 
 an indisputable fact that the elements of language arid their formation by the organs 
 of speech have been tho subject of a much more thorough study by English and 
 American orthoepists than by the linguists of any other country. While it is thus 
 impossible for any teacher or grammarian to impart such a pronunciation of the 
 German language a3 would not be liable to criticism from some quarters, the 
 American student is, practically, not concerned by these local differences. He should 
 adopt the pronunciation taught by his teacher, or his grammar, and adhere to it. 
 A slight "provincialism" is, and in the absence of a standard must be, forgiven to the 
 most educated native German, and it will be the more readily excused in a foreigner 
 speaking the German language. 
 
 When comparing the sounds of the German with those of the English letters, 
 we must observe that the manner of producing the sounds of many letters which 
 are usually, in English-German grammars, classed as identical in both languages, 
 really differs to a remarkable extent; thus, e. g., German b, d, or soft s is not by 
 any means identical with English b, d, or z, respectively ; for the reason that the 
 German (or any other continental) language does not draw so accurate a line of 
 distinction between the aspirated and vocalized consonant sounds as the English lan- 
 guage, a fact which is in a great measure responsible for the "accent" betraying the 
 foreigners when speaking English. However, as this little volume is not a treatise on 
 orthoepy, and the space allowed to pronunciation must necessarily be very small, tho 
 foregoing remarks are only directed to those particularly interested in pronunciation ; 
 to the general student we will say : 
 
 When, in the following list, the pronunciation of a letter is 
 not commented upon, or when its sound is said to be the same 
 as in English, it is to be inferred that its pronunciation is very 
 similar to the English, if not identical in both languages. 
 
20 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 VOWELS. 
 
 21, Cl, lias always the sound of a \nfather; when. short, it retains 
 
 the same sound and must not be pronounced like a in 
 
 mid; gaben, thread; 33fatt, leaf. 
 S, C, has either a close sound, like English long a (without 
 
 the vanish in e), as the first a in Adriatic ; Ittefyr, more; 
 
 or its sound is open, like a in care ; toer, who. 
 
 Whether the e has, in a given word, its close or its open sound must be learned 
 by practice or by referring to a pronouncing dictionary. But as the pronunciation 
 of this letter is not uniform in the different parts of Germany, it is not of much conse- 
 quence whether it is sounded a trifle more close or open. 
 
 Short e sounds like e in ken ; f ett, fat ; C final has the same 
 sound, but is pronounced very short ; Gllbc, end ; C in the 
 middle of a final syllable is scarcely heard ; Icfen, to read. 
 
 Q, i, has always the sound of e in me ; OQCl, hedgehog; when 
 short, the element is the same; Shin, sense. An e follow- 
 ing t in the same syllable only lengthens the sound of i 
 and has no sound of its own; iebc, love. 
 
 O, 0, has always the sound of the English long o (without the 
 vanish in oo), as the first o in opinion. "When German 
 is short, it retains this sound and must not be pro- 
 nounced like o in on; 9tofc, rose; foitllttCU, to come. 
 
 U, It, when long, sounds like o in do ; ltt, hat ; when short, 
 like u in full ; wttb, dog. 
 
 9), t), is always a vowel, occurs only in foreign words, and is 
 pronounced like i ; (Styrilp, sirup. 
 
 MODIFIED VOWELS. 
 
 The letters a, 0, and u are liable to a " modification " of 
 their original sounds, which is called Ulttlciltt. This change in 
 sound is indicated by placing an c after them when they are 
 capitals, and by placing two dots or little strokes over them 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 21 
 
 when they are small letters : a, 0, it. Some use the dots 
 
 also on capitals. 
 
 2te, a, when long, has the sound of open C ; when short, that 
 of short e ; fpcit, late ; alter, older. 
 
 Oe, 0, has no equivalent in English. Its sound is similar to 
 that of the French eu, and may be produced by placing 
 the lips in the position for pronouncing long o, and then, 
 without in the least changing the position of the lips, 
 trying to utter the sound of a in ale ; the sound resulting 
 from this operation will be that of the German ; ()0ren, to 
 hear; opfe, pots. 
 
 Ue, it, has no equivalent in English. It sounds like the French 
 u y and may be produced by placing the lips in the 
 position proper for pronouncing oo, and then, without 
 altering the position of the lips, trying to utter the sound 
 of e; )itge{, hill; SDWtCer, miller. (See Webster's Un- 
 abridged Dictionary, Edition 1878, page 1634). 
 
 When, in this book, we state that in certain cases the root of words takes the Umlaut, 
 it is, of course, understood that this can take place only when the vowel of the root 
 is a, o, u (or au, see " Diphthong's"). 
 
 DIPHTHONGS. 
 
 2ft, at, and Gi, ei, sound like i in die; @mtc, string, ette, side. 
 2ltt, ait, has the sound of English ou in house ; au, house. 
 (Sit, Clt, and Sleit, CM, sound like oi in oil; (Me, owl; )aitfer, 
 houses. 
 
 CONSONANTS. 
 S3, b, at the end of a syllable sounds harder than English b, 
 
 but not so hard as p \ 8etb, body ; abgefyen, to go off. 
 (5, c, before e, t, a, 0, and t) is pronounced like ts (the German g) ; 
 
 Gtcett), Safar ; in all other cases like k ; Sato, OCtor. 
 
22 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 The spelling is not always uniform, and wordj not found in the dictionary under G 
 should be looked for under 3 or $, as the case may be,and vice versa. 
 
 ), b, at the end of a syllable sounds harder than English d, 
 but not so hard as t ; utlb, and ; finblttf), filial. 
 
 @, g, when not standing at the beginning of a syllable and 
 not preceded by n, is in many parts of Germany pro- 
 nounced like d) (which see under "Compound Consonants"); 
 ftg, day, is sounded like Z&d) ] we would recommend 
 that it should be always sounded like the English g in 
 get, except when it is preceded by i, and occurs either 
 at the end of a word or is followed by a consonant ; 
 pronounce $dntg, king, $OtttgtI)Um, royalty, as if they 
 were spelled fiontd), $onid)tf)imt ; but pronounce ^ontgitt, 
 queen, with the sound of g, not Sontdfytn. 
 
 ), f), at the beginning of a syllable is aspirated as in English ; 
 between two vowels, the aspiration is very slight or often 
 not heard at all ; fcfjen, to see ; in the middle or at the 
 end of a syllable it is silent, but serves to indicate that 
 the vowel standing before it is long ; fcf)t, very ; rof), 
 crude ; 9?atl), counsel. 
 
 Q, I, has the sound of English y consonant; {a, yes; jltltg, 
 young. 
 
 $, f, must be sounded before n ; $na&C, boy. 
 
 9?, n, has never the sound of n in finger ; the ng in the 
 German word finger must be pronounced like ng .in 
 singer. 
 
 9?, V, is always trilled; 3M)r, cane; fd)drrcn, to scrape. 
 
 Some Americans find it difficult to trill the r, especially at the end of a syllable. 
 Put the throat in a position as if you wanted to "gargle"; then, while forcibly 
 emitting vocalized breath through the inouth, not the nose, approach the tip of the 
 tongue to the palate, above the gums, and cause it to move in rapid vibration. By 
 repeating this exercise occasionally, you will soon be able to trill the r wherever it 
 may occur. 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 23 
 
 A vowel followed by r has always its original sound and 
 must not be pronounced like e in term, i in girl, etc. 
 
 (>, f, when it occurs at the beginning of a syllable and 
 is followed by a vowel, has the sound of English z ; as, 
 fettt, to be; @eele, soul. When it stands between two 
 vowels, it also has the sound of z, because it begins a 
 syllable (see "Syllabication"); lefcn, to read. Otherwise 
 it sounds like s; @ra$, grass. 
 
 5, t, followed by t and another vowel, sounds like ts, (the 
 German 3) ; 9?eftgnatton, resignation. 
 
 fy, tl), sounds like t, the English sound of th being unknown 
 in the German language. 
 
 33, t), sounds like f; tUCt, four; in words taken from foreign 
 languages like v ; 33etlC, vein. 
 
 28, ft), sounds like English v ; SBettt, wine. 
 
 Tho lower lip is not pressed so hard to the upper teeth as in English ; German n> 
 has in reality a sound lying between v and w, and is a sort of compromise between 
 the two ; " it is a v uttered with the lips alone without the aid of the teeth ". 
 (Webster's Unabridged Dictionary, Edition 1878, page 1G34, 30). However, you will 
 not materially injure your pronunciation by giving it the sound of English v. 
 
 3, 3, sounds like ts in prints; ^Prinj, prince ; ,3dljn, tooth. 
 
 COMPOUND CONSONANTS. 
 
 Sf), d), preceded by a, 0, or 11, has the sound of ck in the 
 Scotch word loch. When it begins a word, or is preceded 
 by any other letter, its sound is less guttural. 
 
 This difference in the pronunciation of d) is a natural consequence of the position 
 of the organs of speech in producing the sound that precedes the d) ; pronounce, e. g. t 
 ah, oh ooh, and aspirate the h as in the word horse, or as much stronger as you can ; 
 you will then produce the guttural d) as heard in the words nad), after; Iad)en, to laugh; 
 fiod), hole; podjcn, to knock; 23udj, book; fudjen, to look for. But if you say ah, eh, and 
 aspirate the h as above, the aspiration, i. e., the sound of d) will be moved fonvard to 
 tho palate, and you then have the d) as heard in redjt, right; id), I; Sidjt, light ; also in 
 olmdjen, little son; <K6Scfyeti, little rose. 
 
 The proper pronunciation of dj should be learned from a teacher. 
 
24 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 In words from the French, cf) is pronounced like sh ; Gfymfe, 
 
 chaise. In other foreign words it is generally pronounced 
 
 like k; Sfjarcrf'ter, character. 
 
 df)$ in primitive words sounds like x ; ad)$, salmon ; 
 ftddjfen, to grow; but in derivatives in which s forms 
 no part of the radical, the ft) has its proper sound * 
 tt>ad)fcmt, watchful, from toacijen, to watch ; also, e. g., in 
 ad)$ (abbrev. from acfye$), the genitive case of adf), 
 roof; but in !Dad)3, badger, the d)3 is pronounced like x. 
 
 <d), fcf), is pronounced like sh ; cfyiff, ship. 
 
 (f and $ have the hissing sound of s; et tftt, he eats, (ifre 
 f in cr tft, he is, although the same element, is not so 
 strongly hissed). 
 
 @p, fp, and St, ft, when they occur at the beginning of a 
 word, are pronounced somewhat like slip, slit, but the 
 sound of sh is much less full than the English sh, the 
 tongue remaining near the gums; fptelcn, to play; fteljCH, 
 to stand. This pronunciation is the standard accepted by 
 all actors on the German stage, but in many pails of 
 the North of Germany the f in these compositions is 
 pronounced with the sound of s, and ihe student may 
 decide for himself as to which pronunciation he wishes 
 to adopt. 
 
 is pronounced like g; 351% lightning. 
 
 SYLLABICATION. 
 
 The division of the syllables of a word follows certain rules, 
 without regard to the " root " or derivation of a word. 
 
 1. A consonant between two vowels forms a syllable with 
 the vowel following it ; as, 33cUreit, bears, although derived 
 from 33tiV, bear. 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 25 
 
 2. Of two consonants between two vowels, one forms a 
 syllable with the preceding, the other with the following 
 vowel ; 2tr*me, arms, (from 2{rm, arm) ; gam-mcr, lambs, 
 (from ?dmm, lamb). 
 
 Compound consonants are treated as simple ones ; as, <Sa=$e, thing; St=pfet, apple; 
 ttft^Ctt, to be useful, ff is a double consonant and is only classed with the compounds 
 to compare its use with that of ^ ; we therefore divide it between two vowels ; as, 
 eHen, to eat. 
 
 When the vowel preceding a consonant is short, the consonant is pronounced with 
 the first syllable (or, actually, with both) without regard to the above rule ; as, ftafcfyen 
 is pronounced ttafcf);en (wafcfysfdjen/ as washing in English); but when the preceding 
 vowel is long, the pronunciation coincides with the division of syllables in writing ; as, 
 nntsfdjen. 
 
 3. In compound words the component parts are separated 
 without regard to the above rules; as, Sluc^dpfel, eye-ball; 
 Olb-dtttfel, yellow thrush. This is the case with all prefixes ; 
 as, cr-tmtern, to remind. 
 
 QUANTITY OF SYLLABLES. ACCENT. 
 
 All syllables containing a double vowel, a diphthong, it, 
 or a silent I), are long; 2fol, eel; )eer, army; 33oot, boat; 
 n, without; retftett, to tear; gtotmb, friend; ptel, play; 
 !, number; SJJJlltf), courage. 
 All syllables containing a simple vowel followed by a double 
 consonant (or the compounds (f and ^) are short ; fatten, to 
 fall; )err, Mr., or gentleman; cffen, to eat; locfcn, to allure; 
 
 fei^cn, to place. 
 
 When it cannot be determined from these rules whether a 
 given syllable is long or short, its quantity is best learned 
 by practice or reference to a dictionary in which the pronuncia- 
 tion is marked. 
 
 The German language has a primary and a secondary accent 
 as the English. 
 
 The primary accent lies on the radical syllable of a word; as, tjc'boi, 
 give (you), from gebeit, to give ; and cbcf, prayer, from bcten, to pray. 
 
26 PRONUNCIATION. 
 
 EXCEPTIONS: Many foreign words; as 2tbofaf, lawyer; words with the prefix utt; 
 as, un'cjlurfltcfc, unhappy ; nouns ending in et, and a few other words ; as ^interei', 
 childishness, lefcen'btoj, alive ; verbs ending in iren ; as, fhibi'ren, to study ; verbs with 
 separable prefixes and words derived from such verbs ; as, an'fancjcn, to begin, 2ln'- 
 faiKjer, beginner; (see "Compound Verbs"). 
 
 Many words have, besides the primary, a secondary accent, especially 
 compounds of two nouns, which have the primary accent on the first, 
 the secondary on the second word; as, 23Iu"men3ar'ten, flower-garden, 
 @ar"tenblil'me, garden-flower. 
 
 The accent in German words presents no difficulty to the 
 American student ; it is learned from practice better than 
 from rules ; and all good dictionaries mark the accented 
 syllables, at least those having the primary accent. 
 
 PUNCTUATION. 
 
 The punctuation-marks are nearly the same as in English 
 and are used pretty much in the same manner. 
 
 At any rate, an elaborate treatise on punctuation is barred by the 
 size of this book. We shall only note two cases of the use of the 
 comma, in which it differs in German from the English, and in which 
 its omission or improper use would be particularly objectionable. 
 
 All subordinate sentences are, in German, set off by commas ; e. g. , 
 ber err, ben vgte fafjen, ift mem 23ruber, the gentleman that you saw 
 is my brother ; ic!) ttmg, bdfi er fommen ttrirb, I know that he will come. 
 We readily perceive that, in English, a comma before that, in either 
 of these examples, would be very much out of place. 
 
 In such expressions as: ber $atcr, bie 2ftittter nub bte $htber, the 
 father, (the) mother, and (the) children, no comma is placed before 
 Ullb (and). 
 
 The quotation marks have this form : " , the first part 
 being placed on the line of writing. 
 
 The German hyphen (*) is used to divide the syllables of a 
 word at the end of a line. Compound nouns, consisting of 
 one or more German nouns, are not usually divided by a hyphen. 
 The hyphen is only used when one or more parts of the composi- 
 
PRONUNCIATION. 27 
 
 tions are foreign words ; but it is difficult to give rules, because 
 the practice is not uniform. When two or more words are 
 compounded with the same word, the hyphen may be used to 
 
 avoid repetition; as, ber SMumen*, Dbft- unb emufegcirten, the 
 
 flower, fruit, and vegetable garden. 
 
 The German print has no italics; where in English the 
 italics are used, the Germans either "space" the letters or 
 use quotation marks, as the case may require. 
 
 The section-mark, , is called *iJ3(tt*CigrClpl)' } what is called 
 paragraph in English ("new line") is generally called 3lbfalj in 
 German. 
 
 A few abbreviations : 
 
 Slum Slnmerfung remark ; 
 
 iX I) bd3 I)dpt namely; 
 
 b. t bd$ ift that is; 
 
 b. -3? btefe$ $al)re$ of this year ; 
 
 b. 9Jf btefeS SKonatS of this month; 
 
 $r gr<W Mrs., lady; 
 
 )r. )err Mr., sir ; 
 
 I -Ke$ read; 
 
 Ob Ober or; 
 
 f fiel) see ; 
 
 It unb and; 
 
 u. bgl unb bergletcfjen and the like; 
 
 tt -f'f IWb [0 fort land so forth; 
 
 u. f. to.. .- unb fo toetter ; 
 
 JC etc. ; 
 
 g. S3 gum SSeifptel . ... for example. 
 
28 THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 
 
 THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 
 (S5a$ >aupttt>ort and )er 2lrttfel or )a$ efrfjlccfytSftort.) 
 
 GENDER. 
 
 The German language has three genders, as the English, the 
 masculine, feminine, and neuter; but while in English, as a 
 rule, the masculine and feminine genders apply only to animate 
 beings, in German many inanimate objects are masculine or 
 feminine and others neuter ; while, again, a few nouns desig- 
 nating persons are neuter. 
 
 It is of great importance to know the gender of a German 
 noun, for not only do the pronouns agree in gender with the 
 nouns in whose place they stand, as they do in English (in the 
 third person only), but articles, and adjectives also, have, in 
 many instances, a different form for the three genders and must 
 agree in gender, number, and case with the nouns they qualify 
 or limit. Thus, e. </., while the definite article the remains un- 
 changed without regard to the gender of the noun which it lim- 
 its, we have in German the form bcr for the masculine, blC for 
 the feminine, b&3 for the neuter. 
 
 The best, in fact the only way to learn the gender of nouns 
 is by practice or, in case of doubt, "by referring to a diction- 
 ary. All dictionaries give the genders of nouns, usually by 
 placing the letter m., f. or n. (masculine, feminine, or neuter) 
 after them. If we form the habit, in learning, never to men- 
 tion the German name of anything without accompanying it 
 by the definite article ber, bic, or ba3, as the case may be, our 
 ear will soon be trained to a perception of the proper gender. 
 To the question, e. cj.\ "What is table in German?" we must 
 not answer: " Ta&Je is ifd) ", but, " table is b e V Zi]d) " ; thus 
 also, "JMI is bte 3tber, book is ba3 33ud) ", and if we have 
 
THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 29 
 
 said, heard, or read a number of times bet tfd) for the table, 
 etc., our ear will tell us that it would be wrong to say b t e Zi\d) 
 or b a Stfd), etc. 
 
 " How is it," the beginner will ask, " that inanimate objects should have a gender 
 other than neuter?" " What sense is there in making table masculine, pen feminine, 
 and book neuter ? " This is a peculiarity of the German language, and it would be 
 wrong to give them another gender," is the only answer we can give you. And we may 
 ask, for instance, "Why do we, in English, speak of a ship in the feminine gender?" 
 
 " And are there no rules for determining the gender of nouns ? " Yes, there are ; 
 but we do not advise you to leani them and therefore omit them. All rules in regard 
 to gender will, invariably, bewilder the student instead of aiding him. They do not, 
 and can not, include all nouns of the language, and as far as they go, they are subject 
 to so many exceptions as to render them practically worthless ; nay, they are even hurt, 
 fill, because they lead the student to stop to think of a rule, where his ear alone should 
 guide him. 
 
 We hold that the gender of nouns, in German, offers neither more nor fewer diffi- 
 culties to the American student than are encountered by a foreigner in trying to master 
 the pronunciation of the English language. He may acquire a correct utterance of the 
 sounds, but only practice or the dictionary will teach him what sounds are represented 
 in a given word or how words spelled alike are distinguished in pronunciation. We 
 say, e. g.: "I tear the cloth ", and : " I shed a tear " ; why should we not say: " I tear 
 the cloth", and: "I shed &tedr'"! "Because it would be wrong, it would net be 
 English "an answer very similar to that given by us above in regard to the gender 
 of German nouns. 
 
 The following remarks only may be of practical value in regard to - 
 gender : 
 
 1. Names of males are masculine, names of females, feminine. 
 Exception : SDa 2Q3ei&, the woman, or wife. 
 
 2. Nouns with the suffix d)en or Kcttt are neuter, without regard to 
 sex. There is no exception to this rule. These suffixes impart a dimin- 
 utive meaning to nouns, and may be compared to the suffixes let, kin, 
 ling in the English words streamlet, lambkin, gosling, etc. ; as, b e r 
 @ol)tt, the son, b a 3 o!)nd)cn, the little (young) son ; b t e oii)tcr, 
 the daughter, b a 3 od)terlem, the little (young) daughter. 
 
 The root vowel of the noun usually takes the Umlaut (see "Pronunciation" page 
 20) when the suffix c&en or leitt is added. 
 
 The word 9J2dfcd)en corresponds to the English word girl, and is applied to grown 
 persons as well as little girls ; grduletn, to unmarried ladies. 
 
 3. Appellations of any species or kind of animate beings without re- 
 gard to sex may be masculine, feminine, or neuter, without rule to go 
 by; as, b e r SDtofd), man (human being, man or woman), b C r 2>ocjel, the 
 
30 THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 
 
 bird ; b i e ^erfon, the person, b i e 23atfc, the orphan ; b o S $ferb, the 
 horse. 
 
 Appellations of the young are neuter ; as, b a 6 $inb, the child ; b a 8 
 giillcn, the colt. 
 
 4 The names of cities and towns, infinitives used as nouns, and all 
 words considered merely as words are neuter ; also, the letters of the 
 alphabet; as, bag fcfjone $artg, the beautiful Paris; ba 6 efen, the read- 
 ing; ba Hbcr, the (word) "but;" ba<3 21, the (letter) "a". The car- 
 dinal numbers, when used as nouns, are feminine ; as, bie Sin?, bic 
 3tt>et, the (number or figure) one, two. 
 
 5. Compound words consisting of two or more nouns take, with few 
 exceptions, the gender of the last noun ; as, bic 2ftantlperjon', the man 
 (male person) ; baS 23eib?btlb, the woman ; because ^Serfou is feminine 
 and 23tlb neuter. 
 
 6. Many nouns designating males may be made to designate females 
 by adding to them the suffix in (or inn, plur. always innen) and gener- 
 ally taking the Umlaut (see " Pronunciation" page 20); as, bcr grcunb, 
 the gentleman friend, bic gicunbin, the lady friend ; bcr $od), the man- 
 cook, bie $od)in, the woman-cook ; bcr 2ftalcr, the painter (artist), bic 
 Sftalerin, the female artist (no Umlaut); ber S3aucr, the peasant, bie S3ciu* 
 crin, the peasant- woman. 
 
 Some nouns have more than one gender, but they usually change their mean- 
 ing with the gender ; as, bcr SBanb, the volume (of a book); ba3 33anb, the bond (of 
 friendship, &c.) or the ribbon ; bcr $ilb, the shield ; ba3 $tlb, the sign. 
 
 FOPtMATION OF THE PLURAL. 
 
 The definite article lias in the plural the form b t e for all 
 genders. 
 
 German nouns form their plural in either of the following 
 four ways ; viz., 
 
 1. Some retain the same form in the plural as they have 
 in the singular ; as, ber Gngel, the angel, btC Gngel, the angels ; 
 
 ba$ 2Rabcen, the girl, bie IWtibdjen, the girls ; ber SBaflen, the 
 
 wagon, bte 2Bdgen, the wagons. 
 
THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 31 
 
 Some of these distinguish the plural from the singular by 
 taking the. Umlaut (see " Pronunciation," page 20); as, ber 
 23atcr, the father; bie 93ctter, the fathers; tie 3Hlttter, the 
 mother, bte SJcitttcr, the mothers. 
 
 2. Others add C to the singular ; as, bcr $Wtb, the dog, bte 
 )imbe, the dogs; ba$ Sd)V f the year, bie Qatyc, the years. 
 
 Some of these, besides adding e, take the Utttfaltt (the fem- 
 inines always) ; as, bcr )Ut, the hat, bte )itte, the hats ; btC 
 )Ctnb, the hand, bte )tinbe, the hands. 
 
 3. Others add er to the singular and always take the Utttldltt; 
 as, ber 2Mb, the forest, bte SBtilber, the forests; bd$ )orf, 
 the village, bte )orfer, the villages ; bd 33ltd), the book, bte 
 33itd)er, the books ; bd$ )dltS, the house, bte )filtfcr, the 
 houses ; bd$ tnb, the child, bte Stnber, 1 ) the children. 
 
 4. Others, again, add e It or it to the singular and never 
 take the Umlaut ; as, ber )elb, the hero, bie elbett, the heroes; 
 bte 8TCW, the woman, bte graueit, the women ; ber $ttaIJe, the 
 
 boy, bte ihtaben, the boys. 
 
 Nouns ending in c or unaccented el, er, or or add only n ; as^ fcie 23Iumc, the flower, bie 
 SDIumcn ; tie @<$uffel, the dish, fcie <Sd)fi[feIn; tie geber, the pen, fcie gebern ; fcer 5)2ad)Car, 
 the neighbor, fcie ^CHfyfcarn. 
 
 All others add en. 
 
 Whether any given noun forms its plural according to one 
 or another of the four ways above indicated, is best learned 
 by practice or from a dictionary. For further information see 
 the remarks under " Declension." 
 
 !Der 3J2amt, the- man, has in the plural, fcie Scanner; but when it forms the second 
 part of a compound word, it is generally changed to Scute (people); as, fcer tfaufmann/ 
 the merchant, fcie ftcmflcute, the merchants. 
 
 Some nouns have more than one form in the plural, each with a different signifi- 
 cation ; as, fcer 33cmfc, the volume (of a book), fcie 23anbc ; fcaS 23anfc, the bond (of friend- 
 ship, etc.)/ fcie 23anfce ; fca3 53anb, the ribbon, bie 33anfcer. 
 
 1) See remark to " Modified Vowels," page 21. 
 
32 THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 
 
 CASES. 
 
 The German language distinguishes four cases, the nomina- 
 tive, genitive, dative, and accusative. 1 ) 
 
 1. The nominative case corresponds to the English nomi- 
 native. 
 
 2. The genitive case frequently expresses the same relation 
 as the English possessive, but it is often used where, in English, 
 we use the preposition of (after nouns denoting origin, posses- 
 sion, quantity, the part of a whole, etc.) While, in English, 
 we may say either, "The father's son," or, "the son of the 
 father," in German we must say : be$ 2?ater3 Sol)U, not, bcr 
 Sol)U DOlt bcm 3Satcr. More frequently, however, the genitive 
 case is placed after the nominative, bcr Soljlt bc3 3>dtcr3, 
 (literally: the son the father's, filius patris)', bfl3 QU# bc$ 
 2)Zannc3, the man's house ; etllC illttme (SelbcS, a sum of 
 money ; bd* )ccfcl be$ 33ucf)C$, the cover of the book. 2 ) 
 
 Certain verbs and adjectives "govern "the genitive case, while in 
 English they arc followed by a preposition ; as, eine3 23erbred)en an 
 tlagcn, to accuse of a crime (literally: a crime's to accuse); be obe8 
 ttKirbtg, worthy of praise (literally : the praise's worthy). 
 
 3. The dative case expresses the relation denoted in English 
 by the preposition to; as, id) gebc bent nabeit ba$ 33ud), I give 
 (to) the boy the book. We must not say, gu (to) bcm $nabcit, 
 but the form of the article bcm itself, and in many cases also 
 the form of the noun, expresses the relation denoted in English 
 by the preposition to. 
 
 The dative is, however, only used with certain verbs, especially such 
 as express gift, communication, transfer, etc. In other cases to is 
 generally translated by 311 ; as, I go to him, id) flede gll ifym. Some verbs 
 which, in English, have a direct object, "govern" the dative in Ger- 
 man ; as, I help the brother, id) fyetfe b c m 33riiber (1 help to the brother). 
 
 1) Corresponding to the same cases in Latin. 
 
 2) See also " Remarks " at the end of the chapter on the " Noun and Article." 
 
THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 33 
 
 Some adjectives also "govern" the dative ; as, e3 tft nt t r 
 it is agreeable to me. 
 
 4. The accusative case corresponds to the English objective 
 (direct object). 
 
 The objective case in English does not differ in form from the nomi- 
 native. In German, many masculine nouns have not the same form in 
 the accusative singular as in the nominative ; as, ber $nabe, the boy, 
 ben $nabett (ace). 
 
 Articles, adjectives, and pronouns, in the accusative masculine singular, 
 always differ in form from the nominative. 
 
 In the feminine and neuter genders, and in the plural, the accusative 
 has, without exception, the same form as the nominative. 
 
 The object of a preposition may .be either in the genitive, 
 dative, or accusative case. (See " Prepositions.") 
 
 DECLENSION OF THE ARTICLE. 
 1. DEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 
 MASC. 
 
 FEM. 
 
 NEUT. 
 
 
 ALL GENDERS. 
 
 Nom. 
 
 bcr 
 
 bie 
 
 bas 
 
 the 
 
 bte 
 
 Gen. 
 
 beS 
 
 ber 
 
 bes 
 
 of the 
 
 ber 
 
 Dat. 
 
 6 bem 
 
 ber 
 
 bem 
 
 to the 
 
 ben 
 
 Ace. 
 
 ben 
 
 bte 
 
 bas 
 
 the 
 
 bte 
 
 In committing these forms of declension to memory, the student should learn them 
 by columns, downwards ; as, bcr, be?, tern, ten jc., not first the nominative of all gen- 
 ders, bcr, bte, ba ; then the genitive, be3, ber, be3 jc. 
 
 The forms bcm and ba3 are frequently contracted with the preposition preceding 
 them ; for in bent, we may say im ; for auf ta8, auf3, etc. ; (also, for u ber, jur). 
 The contractions in common use are best learned by practice. 
 
 2. INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 
 
 
 MASC. 
 
 FEM. 
 
 NEUT. 
 
 
 Nom. 
 
 ein 
 
 erne 
 
 em 
 
 a 
 
 Gen. 
 
 ctne$ 
 
 enter 
 
 etne 
 
 of a 
 
 Dat. 
 
 etncm 
 
 etner 
 
 einem 
 
 to a 
 
 Ace. 
 
 etnctt 
 
 etne 
 
 ein 
 
 a 
 
34 THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 
 
 DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 
 
 SINGULAR. German nouns are declined, i. e. form their 
 cases, in either of the following two ways : 
 
 1. Some nouns form their genitive by adding e or $ to the 
 nominative ; as, ber fftfd), the fish, be$ 5ifdje3/ f the fish ; bcr 
 33ater, the father, be$ 23aterS, the father's. 
 
 The dative is formed by dropping the $ of the genitive; thus, 
 if the genitive takes e$, the dative retains an e, but if the 
 genitive takes only 3, the dative is the same as the nominative; 
 as, bem Stfcfye, to the fish, bent 33ater, to the father. 
 
 The accusative has the same form as the nominative ; as, 
 ben ?5ifd), ben >ater. 
 
 Nouns ending in a hissing sound add e3; others may take e3 or only S, euphony being 
 our principal guide ; as, ber 23aum, the tree, be3 33aume or 23aum3 ; but of ba3 sBucfy, 
 the book, the genitive be 23ud)c3 is preferable to be3 23ud)3, Nouns which retain 
 tho same ending in the plural as they have in the singular, add only ; as, ber Skater 
 (pi. SSater), fccS $ater3, not 2?atere ? 
 
 The c of the dative is often dropped in colloquial intercourse and even by writers, but 
 the beginner should not make a practice of dropping it from such words as must take 
 e in the genitive. 
 
 2, Other nouns add Ctt or n to the nominative, to form the 
 genitive, dative, and accusative, they haying the same form in 
 those three cases ; as, ber )Clb, the hero, be$ )elbeif, of the 
 hero, bcm )elben, to the hero, ben )elben, the hero; ber 
 
 $nabe, the boy, be$ $naben, of the boy, bent $naben, to the 
 boy, ben $naben, the boy. 
 
 Nouns ending in c or unaccented cr or at add only n ; as, ter Soire, the lion, be3 Sorcen ; 
 ber Sauer, the peasant, be3 93auern; ber llncjar, the Hungarian, be Ungarn. 
 
 All others add en. 
 
 NOTE. Nouns declined according to the first form (taking e3 :c.) are said by gram- 
 marians to belong to the Strong or Old Declension ; those declined according to the 
 second form (taking en jc.), to the Weak or New Declension. 
 
 Feminine nouns remain unchanged in the singular ; as, bte 
 )dnb, the hand, ber )anb, of the hand, ber )Cinb, to the hand, 
 bie )(Wb, the hand. 
 
THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 35 
 
 PLURAL. If the nominative plural does not end in it, an. n 
 is added in the dative, while the genitive and accusative retain 
 the same form as the nominative ; as, bte 25citer, the fathers, 
 ber Setter, of the fathers, ben latent, to the fathers, bte 23dter, 
 the fathers. But if the nominative plural ends in n, all cases 
 have the same form ; as, bte Ctrtett, the gardens, ber Cirten, 
 
 ben cirten, bte arteiu 
 
 How, then, are we to know whether a certain noun forms 
 its genitive by adding e$ (3), or by adding CU (it), and how are 
 we to know which of the four ways of forming the plural 
 applies to a given noun? 
 
 By training the eye and ear to the correct forms and, in case 
 of doubt , referring to a dictionary. 
 
 Remember only the following rule, which has no exception : 
 Nouns which add cit or n to form their genitive, take the same 
 ending in the plural, in other words, a noun which adds ctt or 
 U to form the genitive retains the form of the genitive in all 
 cases singular and plural. 
 
 We hold that other rules, with their numerous exceptions, tend to bewilder the 
 beginner rather than to facilitate the study ; while they are useless to the farther 
 advanced, who, in case of uncertainty, will refer to the dictionary, not the grammar. 
 Native Germans do not learn the declension of nouns from rules other than those which 
 we give here. 
 
 As, in Latin, we cannot be said to know a noun, unless we are also acquainted with 
 its genitive, and we therefore generally say, e. g., "father" is, in Latin, pater, pat ris ; 
 "law" is lex, legis, etc.; thus also 
 
 In German, we cannot consider ourselves conversant with a 
 noun, unless we are also acquainted with its genitive singular 
 and nominative plural, besides the gender. All good diction- 
 aries state, in the German-English part, these "Principal Parts" 
 of every noun, as we may call them, in the following or a 
 similar manner : 
 
36 THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 
 
 (mj?I, m.-$, pi.-, angel; i. e., (Snijel is of the masculine gender (ber 
 (Enjel), takes in the genitive. 6, be3 (SngelS, the plural is the same 
 as the singular, bie Cntgel, and the word means in English angel. 
 $aier, m.-?, pi. $ater, father; i. e., ber $ater, beS Waters, bie $ater. 
 m.-e5,-3, pL 23aume, tree; i. e., ber SBaiim, beS SBaumeS, or 
 
 bie SBaume. 
 
 .-c*, pL-sr, child; e. e., ba $inb, beS $tnbe3, bie inber. 
 grau, f.-, pi. -en, 'woman; bie grail, ber grait (feminines do not change 
 in the singular), bie grcuien. 
 
 The above examples will suffice for rendering the student 
 familiar with the use of a dictionary. It will be observed that 
 the little dash stands for the form of the noun in the nominative 
 singular, and that the terminations following the dash are 
 added to the iiom. sing.; when the plural takes the Untlftltt, it 
 is generally given in full. Dictionaries make use of the dash, 
 also, in place of any part of speech, to save space in giving 
 compound words, idiomatic expressions, etc. 
 
 A few nouns are declined in an irregular manner ; for instance, ba3 erj, the heart, 
 gen. te3 SjerjenS. Some foreign nouns take a foreign plural ; as, 2ftuftcit3, SOtfufici jc. 
 Such irregularities are found in every good dictionary. 
 
 crr, Mr., sir, gentleman, is usually written with n in the sing., with en in the 
 plural ; te3 errn, tie errcn. 
 
 In compound nouns, only the last part of the composition takes the forms of the 
 plural and declension. 
 
 The declension of German nouns does, not present so many 
 difficulties, as may appear at first sight ; and the beginner may 
 rest assured that after some practice he will bo able to tell the 
 correct forms of the greater part of nouns without referring to 
 his dictionary. 
 
 As a review, we give a Tabular Statement, accompa- 
 nied by examples, trusting that it will assist the student in 
 gaining a clear insight into the declension of German nouns. 
 Most students, however, will do better by contenting them- 
 selves with the explanations given heretofore and deferring the 
 study of the following Table and Paradigms to a later period, 
 
THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 
 
 37 
 
 when they will have acquired some practical knowledge of the 
 language from reading or conversation. 
 
 Nom. 
 Gen. 
 Dat. 
 Ace. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 CS or 8 
 e or 
 
 en or n 
 en or n 
 en or n 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 r~ 
 Nom. 
 
 e 
 
 er 
 
 Gen. 
 
 e 
 
 er 
 
 Dat. n 
 
 en 
 
 ern 
 
 Ace. 
 
 e 
 
 er 
 
 -en or n 
 -en or n 
 -en or n 
 -en or n 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. ber (Spiegel the mirror 
 Gen. be S>piegcl3 of the mirror 
 
 PARADIGMS. 
 
 1. 
 
 [, m.-8, pi.-, mirror. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 bie (Spiegel the mirrors 
 ber (Spiegel of the mirrors 
 
 Dat. bent ^Spiegel to the mirror ben (S x piegeln to the mirrors 
 Ace. ben (Spiegel the mirror bie <Sptegel the mirrors 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 
 
 L.-$, pi.-, baker $Iofter, n.-8, pi. Softer, cloister 
 
 SBrnber, m.-, pi. 23riiber, brother Sftabcfyen, n.-, pi.-, girl 
 
 genfter, n.-3, pi.-, window Gutter, f.-, pi. Sftiitter, mother 
 
 graulein, n.-3, pi.-, miss (Sdjliiffel, m.-, pi.-, key 
 
 artcn, m.-, pi. artcn, garden (Sctjneibec, m.-6, pi.-, tailor 
 
 e, n.-3, pi.-, building od)ter, f.-, pi. Xot^ter, daughter 
 
 a. -6, pi.-, cheese SBaffer, n.-,.pl.-, water 
 
 Sautter and Socfyter are the only feminine nouns that remain unchanged in the plural 
 (taking the Umlaut only). 
 
38 THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 
 
 2. 
 
 Xtjcf), m.-eS, pL-e, table. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Norn, ber tfd) the table bte Stfcfye the tables 
 
 Gen. be$ tjd)eS of the table ber tfcf)e of the tables 
 
 Dat. bem tfd)e to the table ben tfd)en to the tables 
 
 Ace. ben t(d) the table bie t|d)e the tables 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 
 
 Slltar', m.-c3,-3, pi. 2lftci're, altar ut, m.-c8, pi. itte, hat 
 
 3lrm, m.-e3,-3, pl.-C, arm Satyr, n.-e3,-6, pl.-e, year 
 
 ft, n.-c, pi. 8fo& c f ra ^ ^onig, m.-e f -, pl.-e, king 
 
 6, f.-, pi. anfe, goose 3Jionat/ m.-e,-^, pl.-e, month 
 
 n, m.-t%,-$, pL al)ne, rooster (>d)tcffal, n.-c,-6, pl.-e, fate 
 
 anb, f.-, pi. anbe r hand ag, m.-e5,-, pl.-e, day 
 
 t], n.-ffc, pL-ffc, obstacle Xljor, n-e6,-5, pL-c, gate 
 
 3. 
 t, n.-e6, pL flatter, leaf. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Norn. bo8 53Iatt the leaf bte flatter the leaves 
 
 Gen. beS SBIattc of the leaf ber flatter of the leaves 
 
 Dat. bcm 53Iatte to the leaf ben Slattern to the leaves 
 
 Ace. bag Stott the leaf bte flatter the leaves 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 
 
 S3 lib, n.-c, pl.-er, image ^leib, n.-eS, pl.-er, dress 
 
 ), n.-e$ f pi. 23iid)er, book Samm, n.-e6, pi. ammer, lamb 
 
 , n.-c, pL 2)ad^er, roof 2Jiann, m.-e-3, pi. Scanner, man 
 
 gelb, n.-e?, pl.-er, field 9^ab, n.-e, pi. SRSber, wheel [riches 
 
 .-e6 f pl.-er, ghost ^etdjtfjum^m.-es^-^^pl.^etdjt^umer, 
 
 t', n.-e,-5, pl.-er, sex SSatb, m.-e^, pL SSalber, forest 
 
 , n.-fel, pi. dufer f house SSetb, n.-e?, pl.-er, woman 
 
 Only masculine and neuter nouns form their plural by adding cr to the singular. 
 
THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 39 
 
 4. 
 $nge, n.-, pl.-tt, eye. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. ba $uge the eye bte 2lugen the eyes 
 
 Gen. bee 9luge of the eye ber lugen of the eyes 
 
 Dat. bent 2fnge to the eye ben togen to the eyes 
 
 Ace. bag $lnge the eye bte $ugen the eyes 
 
 EXAMPLES FOB PRACTICE 
 
 SBett, n.-e8, pi. -en, bed DIjr, n.-e$,-$, pi. -en, ear 
 
 3)oc'tor, m.-, pi. 3)octo'ren, doctor d)tner$, m.-e$, pi. -en, pain 
 3nfeft', n.-e3,-S, pl.-cn, insect @ee, m.-8, pl.-n, lake 
 ft, m.-e3, pl.-cn, mast (Staat, m.-e6 f pi. -en, state 
 
 5. 
 
 elb, m. -en, pi. -en, hero. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 Nom. ber elb the hero bte elben the heroes 
 
 Gen. be6 elben of the hero ber elben of the heroes 
 
 Dat. bem elbcn to the hero ben elben to the heroes 
 
 Ace. ben elben the hero bte elben the heroes 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 
 
 2lffe, m. -n, pi. -n, ape $ontgtn, f. -, pi. -nen, queen 
 
 SBcrier, m. -n, pi. -n, (the) Bavarian aft, f. -, pi. -en, burden 
 S3ar, m. -en, pi. -en, bear Sftenfd), m. -en, pi. -en, human being 
 
 SBitrg, f. -, pi. -en, castle Sftonard)', m. -en, pi. -en, monarch 
 
 (Eanbtbaf, m. -en, pi. -en, candidate Dper, f. -, pi. -n, opera 
 eftif)rte,m. -n,pl. -n, companion @d)Iad)t, f. -, pi. -en, battle 
 @raf, m. -en, pi. -en, count djtoefter, f. -, pi. -n, sister 
 
 afe, m. -n, pi. -n, hare I)or, m. -en, pi. -en, fool 
 
 3njcl, f. -, pi. -n, island 2Bal)r!)eit, f. -, pi. -en, truth 
 
 Only masculine and feminine nouns add en to form the genitive singular. 
 
40 THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 
 
 PROPER NOUNS. 
 
 Proper nouns wliicli cannot be used without the definite 
 article are declined like common nouns ; as, bcr arg, tne 
 
 Hartz,- be wrje8, bent arge, ben wrj ; bie Ufcr be3 a?l)ctn(c)8, 
 
 the banks of the Rhine; bie ebirge bcr SdjlDCij (btC (d)tt>CtJ, f.), 
 the mountains of Switzerland; greibnrg tm (for in bem) ^5rci3- 
 gait, Freiburg in Breisgau. 
 
 The definite article always precedes the names of mountains, rivers, etc., and the 
 masculine and feminine names of countries. 
 
 The neuter names of countries and the names of cities and 
 towns (which are always neuter) either add 3 to form the geni- 
 tive, or take the preposition t)0n (of) ; as, bie 2)id)ter cnt[d)- 
 lcmb$, Germany's poets; bie Saifer Don 3>lttfdjlanb, the emper- 
 ors of Germany ; bie StntDo^ner ^omburflS, or Don )ambnrg, 
 the inhabitants of Hamburg. 
 
 Those ending in a hissing sound cannot take 6; as, bie Straften ton $ari (not $arifc), 
 the streets of Paris. 
 
 Names of persons form their genitive by adding $ (some- 
 times ; 3, especially in the case of family names); as, Sarl3 ^!3nd), 
 Charles's book; 23ertl)a'$ Xante, Bertha's aunt; otfye'S 2Scrfe, 
 Goethe's works ; those ending in a hissing sound add cn$, 
 feminines ending in e add n3 ; as, 8rif3, Fred, -(JrifeenS ; i'Ontfe, 
 Louisa, &ntifcn$. 
 
 The dative and accusative are the same as the nominative. 
 
 Names of persons may, however, be preceded by an article 
 (or a word declined like an article), in which case they remain 
 
 unchanged; as, ber Sari, Charles, be$ Sari, bent Sari, ben Sari; 
 bie 93itd)er meincS ^?aitl, the books of my Paul ; bie (Jltcrn be$ 
 
 gntett 9SiIf)Clm, the parents of good William. 
 
 When a proper name is preceded by an adjective, the latter is preceded by the definite 
 article, except in addressing a person ; as, tcr gutc Cutuncj, good Lewis; but, i$\e\):, 
 lie&er Cubnnrj, bafj jc., I see, dear Lewis, that, etc. 
 
 Greek and Latin proper names were formeriy often declined as in Latin ; as, ScfratiS 
 Scfyuler, Socrates's scholars. Now, the prevailing practice ij to form their genitive 
 
THE NOUN AND ARTICLE. 41 
 
 by adding 6 (or '); as, (afar ftelbgftge, Csesar's campaigns; Gtcero'3 9?eben, Cicero's 
 orations ; or, if they end in 3, as in the former example, they are left unchanged or take 
 an apostrophe ; as, <5ofrate3 (or ofrateS') djiiler (or better, bte djuler be <o!rate). 
 
 Of 3efu3 C^rijluS the Latin genitive 3efu Gtyrtftt is generally used. 
 
 When tho name of a person is preceded by a title, without an article, the name only 
 is declined ; as, ^aifer SBUIjelmS Ofagteruncj, Emperor William's government ; but when 
 an article precedes the title, the latter is declined, not the name ; as, bte Dfocjierung be 
 $atfer3 SBifljelm. Only the word >err is always declined; as, >errn SKfttter'8 >au ; ba 
 >au beg crrn SKftttcr. 
 
 The plural of names of men is generally formed by adding e ] 
 as, bte >etntid>e, the Henrys; those ending in o add ne; as, bte 
 OttOlte, the Othos ; others remain unchanged ; as, bie Otlje, 
 btC 2d)t((cr. The dative takes \\ f if the nominative does not 
 end in n ; as, belt )Cinricfyen, to the Henrys. 
 
 The plural of names of women is formed by adding Ctt, tt, or 
 
 'n ; as, 2lbctt)eib, Adelaide, bte Slbelljetben ; Sottife, bie Soutfen ; 
 a, bie 
 
 REMARKS ON THE USE OF THE ARTICLE AND NOUN. 
 
 The definite article is employed : 1) When we use the name of an author for his 
 works ; as, id) fyabc ten fitter gefauft, I have bought Schiller's works. 2) Before a word 
 taken in its widest signification, including all of the kind denoted by it ; as, ber Sftettidj 
 tfl fterMid), man is mortal ; tcr Qu&n tft fu f sugar is sweet. 3) Before the names of 
 days, months, and seasons ; as, tcr 9ftotttag, Monday ; bcr Slpril', April ; ber 2Binter, 
 winter. 4) Before words denoting relationship ; as, bcr (or tnctn, :c.) SSatcr tft gu auje f 
 father is at home. 5) In the phrases : cr tfl in ber efyule, Sttvdjc, tabt x., he is at school, 
 church, town. C) Before words denoting weight, measure, or time, in such phrases 
 as, funfau3 spfenntge b a $funb, b i c Gfle, fift\- pence a pound, an ell ; brcimal b a 8 3a^r, 
 three times a year. 7) Before some other words, which are best learned by practice ; 
 as, ber Goncjrcfe', Congress ; caS Sfyriftentfyum, Christianity, etc. 
 
 The use of the definite article with proper nouns has already been commented upon 
 (see " Proper Nouns"). 
 
 The indefinite article is omitted in stating a person's occupation ; as, cr f fl $rjt, he is 
 a physician. 
 
 The article must be repeated before each of two or more nouns which arc not of the 
 same gender and number ; as, ber 33ater, bie SUhttter unb ba3 $tnb, the father, mother, 
 and child ; bte Gutter unb bie 5$ter, the mother and daughters ; but if they are all in 
 the plural, the article may be used but once ; as, bte ofyne (m.) unb od)tcr (f). 
 
 Nouns denoting number, measure, or weight, retain their singular form after cardinal 
 numbers ; as, getyn <S t u (f Slid), ten pieces of cloth ; brei I a 8 2Sein, three glasses of wine ; 
 gwet $ f u n b ^taffec, two pounds of coffee ; except the feminities, and those denoting 
 
42 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 periods of time, or coins ; as, brei GKen Suclj, three ells of cloth ; brci Sage, three days ; 
 adjt $fennicje, eight pence. But jefyn 2ftarf (not 2ftarfcn), ten mark(s), German coin. 
 $5cflar and Gent, also, are generally left unchanged in the plural ; as, fiinf Cottar, jeljn 
 Gent. 
 
 Nouns in apposition must agree in number and case ; as, ber 9a$bar, mein ^rcunb 
 92, the neighbor, my friend N ; ba au3 be3 Dfadj&arn, metneS greunbe 9?. 
 
 The English of is not translated in German, nor is its object put in the genitive 
 case: 1) Usually after nouns denoting measure, weight, etc. ; as, etn 23u$ papier, a 
 quire of paper ; etn Gentncr $eu, a hundred-weight of hay (see also the examples given 
 above, brei @la SBein :c.) ; but when the object of the preposition of is accompanied by 
 a limiting or qualifying word, it is put in the genitive ; as, ein Ia3 btefe SSeine-3, or 
 guten 23cine, a glass of this, or of good wine. 2) In such expressions as bie Stabt 
 SBerlin, the city of Berlin ; ber 2J2onat 3J2ai, the month of May; ber erflc 3unt, the first 
 o/June. 
 
 Of is usually translated by ton: 1) When its object denotes the material of 
 which something is made ; as, etn SJincj con (Mb, a ring of gold (a gold ring) etne $ctte 
 ton Gifen, a chain of iron (an iron chain) ; or, ein golbencr SZtng, cine ct)crnc Slettc. 
 2) When the noun following of is not accompanied by a determining word which, in 
 German, indicates the genitive case by its termination ; as, ein 2Sater on jen <6nen, 
 a father of ten sons. 
 
 The accusative is used in stating measure, weight, value, and time; as, bag 
 95rett mijjt jefyt unb ctnen ^al&en gup, c i{l etnen gup Oreit ; the board measures ten feet 
 and a half, it is one foot wide ; bie (Slccfe nriev3t ctncn Gentncr, or ifl ctncn Gentncr j^wer, 
 the bell weighs a hundred-weight, or is a hundred-weight in weight ("heavy"); ba3 
 3id) foftct cincn Staler, e3 ifl ctnen Staler wertty, the book costs a thaler, it is worth a 
 thaler; c3 bauerte ctncn Sa^, it lasted a day ; ba3 iltnb i]l brci unb etncn I;albcn v D2onat alt, 
 the child is three months and a half old ; ben $roolftcn 3unt, the twelfth of Juno ; an 
 ^ranctSco, ben 13. Sftarj 1379. The tini3 in which anything takes place is also often ex- 
 pressed by the genitive, or a preposition with its proper case; as, QKo^cnc, or am 
 2ftor{jcn, in tho morning ; <5onntaa,3, or am <Sonntage, on Sunday ; am folgenben Stage, on 
 the f allowing day ; etc. 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 (Das Sdbjectto, gigenfcijaitS* obcr Setoort.) 
 
 When an adjective is used predicatively,it remains unchanged, 
 as in English; as, ber SSatcr tft QUt, the father is good; bie Wut* 
 tcr ift f|ltt, the mother is good ; ba$ Stub tft gilt, the child is 
 good ; btC Gttcm ftnb gut, the parents are good. It Yv-ill be 
 observed in these examples that gut, being used predicatively, 
 
THE ADJECTIVE. 43 
 
 undergoes no change, be the noun masculine, feminine, or 
 neuter, singular or plural. 
 
 An adjective joined, attributively, to a noun, but placed 
 after it, instead of preceding it, remains also unchanged ; as, 
 etn 9fttter, ebet imb tapfer, a knight, noble and brave. 
 
 An adjective, however, when joined to the noun which it 
 qualifies, generally precedes that noun (as in English) and is 
 then declined, i. e., it adds certain terminations to its original 
 form in the different genders, numbers, and cases, and must 
 agree with its noun, in gender, number, and case. 
 
 The declension of an adjective is not the same under all 
 conditions, and depends upon what precedes the adjective. It 
 appears, at first sight, quite bewildering to beginners, but when 
 once understood, it will be found very simple. 
 
 Adjectives are declined in three different ways ; viz., 
 
 1. When not preceded by an article (or word declined like 
 
 an article) the adjective takes the same terminations as the 
 
 definite article. 
 
 Instead of ie (Me) the adjectives add only C, and instead of a (bag) 
 they add c. 
 
 The genitive singular in the masculine and neuter is now generally 
 formed by adding en instead of e$ (be8). 
 
 PARADIGMS. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. 
 
 good wine good soup good cloth 
 
 Norn, guter SSetn gute uppe gute 
 
 Gen. guteu (e6) SBetneS guter 6uppe gutcn 
 
 Bat. gutem SSeine guter ^ujtye gutem 
 
 Ace. guten SSetn gute <2tippe gtttes 
 
44: THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 ALL GENDERS. 
 
 good wines, soups, cloths 
 Norn. gitte SSetne, iippen, iid)er 
 Gen. guter SSeine, uft)cn, Siidjer 
 Dat. guten SScincn, @uppcn, iid)ern 
 Ace. gute 28etne, uppen, itd)er 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 
 DECLINE, in the singular only, 
 
 Ijartcr 2ta!;I, -c3, hard steel fdituar^e inte, black ink 
 
 ftarfcr aba:f, -3, strong tobacco tt>ctJ3e papier, -8, white paper 
 btoiie 3e&e, blue silk friic^cS 23rob, -e, fresh bread 
 
 DECLINE, in the plural, 
 
 grofcc 3ftatmcr, great men fdjonc graiicn, beautiful women 
 
 griinc 23aitmc, green trees blonbe aarc, blonde hair(s) 
 
 rcinc anbc, clean hands gliidltd)c ^tnbcr, happy children 
 
 This form of declension is called by grammarians the Strong or Old Declension of 
 adjectives. 
 
 Adjectives also follow this declension, when they are preceded 
 by limiting words which are not declined ; as, QCnitCJ, enough ; 
 
 ettnas, some; Diet, much; mel)r, more; toenig, little; allertet, all 
 
 kinds of, etc., and the cardinal numbers JlDCi, brei, Diet 2C. 
 
 3trei, tret, ticl, inc^r, trcni^, are sometimes declined (see "Numerals" and "Indefinite 
 Pronouns"), and then the adjectives follow the declension explained under 2. 
 
 When the adjective is preceded by a personal pronoun of the first or second person, 
 it is declined as above; as, id) armcr 2$ann, I, poor man; fcir gutcm 2^'eunte, to you(thee), 
 good friend ; eudj Iteben 93tufcern, to you, dear brothers ; though in the second person it 
 is customary to use the adjective and noun in the nominative case ; as, bir, guter greunb; 
 eudj, liebe 23riifccr. 
 
 2. When preceded by the definite article, the adjective adds 
 C in the nominative singular, and en in all other cases of the 
 singular and all cases of the plural; the same in all genders. 
 The accusative singular feminine and neuter lias, of course, the 
 .same form as the nominative (see "Accusative Case" page 33). 
 
THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 PARADIGMS. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. 
 
 the good father the good mother the good child 
 
 Nom. ber gute 2>ater bie gute Gutter ba6 gute $inb 
 
 Gen. be$ guten Setters ber guten Gutter beg guten $inbe3 
 
 Dat. bem guten Sater ber guten Gutter bem guten $inbe 
 
 Ace. ben guten Satcr bie gute Gutter ba gute ~' 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 ALL GENDERS. 
 
 the good fathers, mothers, children 
 JSTom. bie guten $ater, 2ftiitter, $inber 
 Gen. bcr guten Satcr, SMttcr, $inbcr 
 Dat. ben guten Sdtern, 3ftiittern, 
 Ace. bie guten SStitcr, Gutter, 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 
 DECLINE, in both numbers, 
 ber ftciftige d)iiler, the diligent bie rotlje 3ofc, the red rose 
 
 [scholar ba3 ftrenge efct3, the severe law 
 
 ber ftarte 2lrm, the strong arm ba3 Heine 2)orf, the small village 
 bie grane 2Jiau3, the gray mouse ba fdjone 5luge f the beautiful eye 
 
 Practice also on the examples given under 1. , after prefixing the 
 definite article; as, ber Ijarte taljl :c. 
 
 This form of declension is called by grammarians the Weak or New Declension of 
 adjectives. 
 
 Adjectives also follow this declension when they are preceded 
 by limiting words that are declined like the definite article ; 
 sucli words are btefer, this; jener, that; jeber, every; alter, 
 all; ehtiger, some; member, many a; etc. (see "Pronouns".) 
 Practice on the above examples by siibstituting btefcr, {end", 
 jebcr 2C V for the definite article. 
 
 After the words offer, einiger, manner, and after ctltdjetv some, mefyrere, several, tticle, 
 many, the adjective is often declined like the definite article (see page 43, 1. ) ; 
 as, mancfjcr guter 2ftann, many a good man ; cinige gute 2tepfcl, some good apples. 
 
46 
 
 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 3. When preceded by the indefinite article, the adjective 
 is declined in the same manner as when preceded by the definite 
 article, except that in the nominative masculine and neuter 
 (and accusative neuter) of the singular it takes the termina- 
 tions of the definite article, adding cr in the masculine and e3 
 in the neuter. 
 
 Tliis form is called by grammarians the Mixed Declension, having partly the form of 
 tho Strong and partly of the Weak Declension, 
 
 Adjectives also follow this declension, when they are preceded 
 by such words as are declined like the indefinite article ; viz., 
 the so-called possessive pronouns (see " Pronouns ") nicitt, my ; 
 betn, thy; feht, his or its; i^r, her or their; unfer, our; Clier, 
 your ; QljlC, your ; and the word fetn, no (not any). 
 
 These words have, like the indefinite article etn, the same 
 form in the nominative masculine and neuter (and the accusa- 
 tive neuter) singular, and the German idiom requires that in 
 those cases the adjective should take a termination indicating 
 the gender. 
 
 MASCULINE. 
 
 my good son 
 N. mein gutcr 2>olj 
 G. ntctnes gutcn 
 D. metncm gutcn 3o!me 
 A. mctnen guten 
 
 PARADIGMS, 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 FEMININE. 
 
 my good daughter 
 metnc gute 
 mctncr gutcn 
 mein:r guten Xoijter 
 meiue (jute Xodjtcr 
 
 NEUTER. 
 
 my good book 
 mcin Qiitc3 
 mcinc3 tjutcn 
 metncm guten iBudjc 
 metn 
 
 ALL GENDERS. 
 
 my good sans, daughters, boojis 
 N. mctne gutcn oljnc, Softer, 
 G. mciner gutcn Goljne, Softer, 
 D. meincn gutcn ^oljnen, od)tern, 
 A. meinc guten (Sblme, Xod)tcr, 
 
THE ADJECTIVE. 47 
 
 Decline, for practice, the examples given with the other forms of 
 declension, using the indefinite article cut, or one of the words 
 declined like it, before the adjective ; as, bettt (Jitter <>tal)t, iljrc bfdite 
 eibe, jein tneiges papier, cm Qrojjer Sftann :c. 
 
 The time spent in practicing the declension of adjectives is not wasted, ' 
 because by such practice the ear is trained to a proper perception of the 
 correct forms, and this is the end we should have in view in teaching or 
 learning a foreign language. Unless the students acquire an intuitive 
 "feeling", which enables them to discriminate, unconsciously, between 
 the correct and the incorrect, all rules and classifications are to very 
 little purpose. 
 
 Besides those given above, a largo number of other examples may be proposed by the 
 teacher or by the students themselves. 
 
 Those who have not the advantages of a teacher's help, may write a number of 
 declensions, have them corrected by a competent parson, and then commit them to 
 memory and recite them, aloud, until they " coma quita natural " to them. 
 
 REMARKS. Adjectives ending 1 in c drop it before adding the terminations required 
 in declension. 
 
 Euphony permits sometimes the elision of an c ; as, cbet, noble, ctn cbler. .(lor cbeler) 
 Sftcnfd), a noble man ; fyeifr (serene), am (an bem) fyeitcrn (for fycttcrcn) itnmel, in the 
 serene sky. 
 
 odj, high, drops the c when used attributively before a noun ; fcer IjoTje 23aum, the 
 high tree, bc3 I)ol)cn $8aume3, bic fyofyen 23dume jc.; but, bcr 23aum ift fyodj, the treo is high. 
 
 When more adjectives than ono precede a noun, they all follow the same form of 
 declension; as, guter, alter, 2Bctn, good old wine; bcr wcife, gute, atte 23?ann, the wise, 
 good, old man; ctn roeifciv gutcr, alter 2J2ann, a wise, etc. 
 
 Participles used as adjectives are declined as adjectives ; as, ber Iteknbe SSater, tho 
 loving father; ctn Itcfcenbcr Satcr, a loving father. 
 
 Adjectives used as nouns are usually declined as adjectives ; as, ber 1)eutf$c, the 
 German, bc3 eutfdjcit jc. ; ctn SJeutfcJjcr, a German ; but in some cases they are treated 
 as nouns ; as, cr fprtdjt ctn (juteS SDcutfdj (not 5eutfdjc6), be speaks (a) good German. 
 
 In English, adjectives used as nouns generally convoy a plural moaning ; as, tho rich 
 are not always happy ; in German, they may be used either in tlie singular or in tho 
 plural ; as, bcr SJetc^c i't mcfyt immcr glucHtu), or, bte Stfcidjen fmb nicfyt immer QlMIicf;. 
 
 German nouns are not used as adjectives ; when an English noun is thu.3 used, tho 
 Germans either employ an appropriate adjective or uso a compound noun ; as, a silk 
 dress, cin fcibcnc3 ftlcib ; the silk trade, bcr Seibcnfyanbel. Proper nouns derived from 
 names of places aro used adjectively, but aro not inflected; as, bcr $amSurgct >afcn, 
 Hamburg harbor ; bc3 ^amtwrgcr ^afenS jc. ; but wo say, ba3 <3$t"f bc3 >amftut<]c:3, 
 the ship cf the man from Hamburg, because here amlwrger is used as a noun. 
 
48 THE ADJECTIVE. 
 
 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
 
 Adjectives form their comparative by adding er, and their 
 superlative by adding eft, to the positive ; as, ntilb, mild ; 
 milber, milder; milbeft, mildest. 
 
 Adjectives ending in c drop it before adding 1 the termination. In the superlative, the 
 c of the termination cjl is droppel whenever euphony allows it ; as, reidj, rich, retcfyft, 
 richest. In some adjectives euphony permits the elision of an c from the root in the 
 comparative degree ; as, cbcl, noble, ctler, nobler. 
 
 Most monosyllables take the Umlaut in the comparative; as, 
 alt, old, alter, older, altcft, oldest ; JUUCJ, young, {linger, younger, 
 jihigft, youngest. (For exceptions see "Remarks", next page.) 
 
 efttnb, healthy, is the only adjective of more than one syllable that may take the 
 Umlaut ; gejunbcr, gefuntejl; but gefunber, gefunbcft, are also used. 
 
 Adjectives in the comparative and superlative degrees are 
 declined as in the positive; as, etlt reicfyercr Miami f a richer 
 
 man, chtcS rcWjcr(c)n SUZmmeS :c v ber reidjfte Miami f the richest 
 man, be3 retdjftcn 2)?auiie3 :c. 
 
 Participles, whose meaning admits of comparison, form their 
 degrees in the same manner as adjectives; as, bebeuteilb, impor- 
 tant, bcbeuteuber, bebeuteubeft or kbeutetibft. 
 
 The comparison of the following adjectives is irregular or 
 defective ; viz., 
 
 gut, good beffer, better bt]l, best 
 
 I>oi), high fyoljer, higher I)Wt, highest 
 
 na5, near ttafjcr, nearer niic^ft, nearest, next 
 
 bid, much mcfjr, more metft, most 
 
 wentj, little, tocnigcr, ) legg ^entoft, ) leagt 
 
 minber, j nttnbeft, ) 
 
 [wanting] cber, upper obcrft, upmost 
 
 " Ultter, under unterft, undermost 
 
 " duller, outer duftcrft, outmost, utmost 
 
 " timer, inner inuerft, inmost 
 
 " Dorber, fore Dorberft, foremost 
 
 *' [)tntcr, hinder ^tuterft, hindmost 
 
 *' mittler, middle mittelft, middlemost 
 
THE ADJECTIVE. 49 
 
 The last eight comparatives and superlatives in the list have no ad- 
 jective positive, being formed from adverbs. 
 
 roJ3,. great, large, generally takes the form groftt in the superlative, 
 instead of rjrofteft. 
 
 In sentences expressing equality of degree, as as is translated by 
 fo Vote, or cbenfo ttnc; as, er ift fo fteifilfl, one id), he is as diligent as 
 I ; al3 is often used instead of trie, especially when the comparison 
 relates to quantity, not quality; as, cr I)at fo Did (Mb, al6 v.1). The 
 word than must always be translated by al3 ; as, cr ift reiser, alG i.1) 
 (not one id)). Observe that tute, as well as al3, is preceded by a comma. 
 
 REMARKS. As before stated, most monosyllables take the Umlaut in forming the 
 degrees of comparison. The exceptions to this rule are best learned by practice ; 
 however, as dictionaries generally fail to give the degrees of comparison, we state 
 here all exceptions, not as a subject for study, but merely for reference in case of doubt. 
 Some of the adjectives given below will, from their nature, rarely, if ever, be found in 
 the comparative or superlative degree ; yet we include them, in order to make the list 
 complete. 
 
 1. The diphthong cm does not take the Umlaut in comparison ; as, fhu, dull, flauer, 
 flaueft ; laut, loud, lauter, lauteft. 
 
 2. The following adjectives may, or may not, take the Umlaut; viz., tang, fearful ; 
 blafj, pale; bumm, stupid; fromm/ pious; glatt, smooth; flar, clear; naji, wet; jart, tender; 
 although banger, bummer, frommer, Harcr, Barter, and the corresponding superlatives are 
 preferred by good speakers. 
 
 3. The following adjectives should not take the Umlaut; viz., 
 
 barfd), harsh 
 
 frolj, glad 
 
 nacft, naked 
 
 f^roff, steep 
 
 
 Man!, bright 
 
 f)ol)t, hollow 
 
 platt, flat 
 
 ftatr, stiff 
 
 
 blof), bare 
 
 olb, amiable 
 
 plump, clumsy 
 
 ftols, proud 
 
 
 brat), good, brave 
 
 fa$I, bald 
 
 rafci), quick 
 
 ftraff, stretched, 
 
 tight 
 
 bunt, variegated 
 
 faro,, scanty 
 
 rot), raw 
 
 ftumm, dumb 
 
 
 fcumpf, dull, close 
 
 fnapp, tight 
 
 runb, round 
 
 ftumpf, blunt 
 
 
 fabe, insipid 
 
 latym, lame 
 
 facfyt, soft, gentle 
 
 toff, mad 
 
 
 fal)l, fallow 
 
 lafj, weary 
 
 fanft, gentle 
 
 oH, full 
 
 
 falfc, fallow 
 
 lofe (loS), loose 
 
 fatt, satiated 
 
 waljr, true 
 
 
 fatf$, false 
 
 matt, tired 
 
 ft&faff, slack 
 
 tounb, sore 
 
 
 ffa$, flat 
 
 morfd), decayed 
 
 f^Ianf, slender 
 
 ja^m, tame 
 
 
50 THE NUMERAL. 
 
 THE NUMERAL. 
 
 CARDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 1. etns (etn, etne, etn) 
 
 20. jtDanjtg 
 
 2. gtt)ei 
 
 21. cin unb jtoonjig 
 
 3. bret 
 
 22. gmei unb gttmngig :c 
 
 4. iner 
 
 30. brctgtg 
 
 5. ftinf 
 
 40. t>ter$t(j 
 
 6. fedf)8 
 
 50. fiinf5tg 
 
 7. fteben 
 
 60. fedfjjig 
 
 8. arf)t 
 
 70. ftebjig 
 
 9. neun 
 
 80. ad)t3tg 
 
 10. gel)n 
 
 90. ncunjig 
 
 11. elf 
 
 100. I)itnbcrt 
 
 12. $tt)olf 
 
 101. Ijunbcrt unb einS 
 
 13. brct$clnt 
 
 102. (junbcrt unb gftet :c, 
 
 14 mcrjelnt 
 
 200. g\Detf)unbcrt 
 
 15. fiinf$cl)n 
 
 300. breiljunbert :c. 
 
 16. jedjjeljn 
 
 1000. taufenb 
 
 17. fteb^eljn 
 
 2000. jmcttaufcnb 
 
 18. acijtje^n 
 
 100,000. rmnbcrttaufenb 
 
 19. neunseljn 
 
 1,000,000. cine TOUicn'. 
 
 REMARKS. 1. AVhen simply counting, we use the form einS for one ; but when one 
 limits a noun and is not preceded by the article (or a similar word), it is rendered by 
 etn, einc, cin and declined like the indefinite article, from which we distinguish it, 
 when necessary, by laying a greater stress on it in speaking, arid by writing it with a 
 capital initial, or by underlining it (or, in print, "spacing" it); as, cin 3)2ann, a man ; 
 Gin 9J2ann or cin SJtann, one man. In all other instances it is declined like an aijec- 
 tive ; as, cincr tncincr ^Bruter, one of my brothers ; ber e in e SQtanti, the one man, etc. 
 
 The English one, placed after an adjective to avoid the repetition of a substantive, 
 is not translated in German ; as, Has he a new coat? at er etnen neuen 9?ocf ? Yes, he 
 has a new one, ja, cr I)at eincn ncucn. 
 
 2. When gtrct, two, and tret, three, are not preceded by an article (or a word simi- 
 larly declined) they add cr in the genitive ; as, tie 95riefe stretcr (fcreter) grcunfcc, the letters 
 of two (three) friends. The other cardinal numbers arc sometimes (tyuntert and taufenb 
 always) declined, when used as nouns ; as, tide >unberte, many hundreds ; auf often 
 SStctcn frtecfren, to crawl on all fours ; thus also jrcci and tret (in the dative) : idj l^obe e3 
 ober )reien gefagt, I have said it to two or three (persons). 
 
THE NUMERAL. 51 
 
 3. The English -fold is rendered by =fadj; as, einfad), single, jweifad), two-fold, etc.; 
 time in the expressions one time (once), two times, etc., is rendered by 2RaI, which is 
 usually suffixed to the cardinal numbers ; as, ctnmal, groetmal jc. 
 
 4. Ginerlei, of one kind ; jroeierlet, of two kinds, etc., are formed from the cardinals 
 by adding crlei. 
 
 5. In multiplying, the Germans generally use the verb in the singular number ; as, 
 brcimal brei i ft neun, three times three are nine. 
 
 6. untert and taujenb are used without an article ; as, tyunbert 'Solbaten, a hundred 
 soldiers. 
 
 ORDINAL NUMBERS. 
 
 The ordinal numbers are formed from the cardinals by adding t 
 from two to nineteen, and ft from twenty upwards; to those 
 letters are further added the terminations required by adjec- 
 tives, the ordinals being declined as such ; as, bcr DlCtte ftg, 
 the fourth day ; cut JtDCtter 2>erfud), a second attempt. )er erfte, 
 the first, and bet bdttC, the third, are irregular, and bcr ftdjte, 
 the eighth, does not add t (not acljtte). 
 ber crfte, the first bcr gttjjlfte, the twelfth 
 
 bcr Stoeite, the second bcr breijcljntc, the thirteenth 
 
 bcr brttte, the third bcr mer$ef;ntc, the fourteenth 
 
 bcr Dtertc, the fourth bcr jtDan^tgfte, the twentieth, 
 
 bcr fiinfte, the fifth . ber cin unb gttw^igftc, the twenty- 
 
 bcr fcd)8te, the sixth first 
 
 ber fiebcrttc, the seventh ber jtoct lino gtoanjigfte, the twenty- 
 
 bcr arf)te, the eighth second 
 
 ber nciintc, the ninth ber Ijunbertfte, the hundredth 
 
 bcr SdintC, the tenth bcr Jtucifjlinbcrtftc, the two-hundreth 
 
 ber elftc, the eleventh ber tailfcnbfte, the thousandth. 
 
 REMARKS. 1. Instead of ber britte, alette/ jwonjlgfle jc. SC^cil, the third, fourth 
 twentieth part, etc., v/e can use nouns formed from the ordinal numbers by the addition 
 of cl; as, cin 'Drittcl, Sicrtcl/ fj^cms^ftcl :c. 
 
 2. Half as an adjective ij IjalOet, e, c, and is preceded by the article ; as, ein fyalfccr 
 Gutbcn, half a florin ; a3 a noun it 13 bic $filftc ; as, bte alfte von tier ift jaci, the half of 
 four is two. 2InbcrtI)aI5 i3 one and a half; fcrittcfyalO/ two and a half , etc.; thcso com- 
 positions aro indeclinable ; as, nacfj anbertl)al& ^al)rcn, in a year and a half. Eut we 
 can say equally well, cm unb cin fyalb, jwet unb cin I; alb jc., in which case I;al& is declined. 
 
 3. Firstly, sacondly, etc., are rendered by erftenS, ^n>etten3, britteng, gwanjlgftenS jc.; 
 these adverbs are derived from the ordinals. 
 
 4. Scr ttrictticlftc? means ivho (or which) of the number? >cr wiemclfte ift I/cute? 
 What day of the month is to-day ? 
 
52 
 
 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 ^ronomen ober gurtoort.) 
 
 PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 
 
 FIRST PERSON. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. id) I 
 
 Gen. tttetncr of me 
 
 Dat. mir to me 
 
 Ace. mid) me 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 tt)tr we 
 
 itnfer of us 
 
 ung to us 
 
 un$ us 
 
 SECOND PERSON. 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 Nom. bll thou 
 
 Gen. bciner of thee 
 
 Dat. bir to thee 
 
 Ace. bid) thee 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 tljr you 
 
 eucr" of you 
 
 end) to you 
 
 cud) you 
 
 MASCULINE. 
 
 Nom. er he 
 Gen. feiner of him 
 Dat. ifjrn to him 
 Ace. iljtt him 
 
 THIRD PERSON. 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 FEMININE. 
 
 fte she 
 
 tljrer of her 
 
 tfyr to her 
 
 fte her 
 
 PLURAL. 
 ALL GENDERS. 
 
 Nom. fie they 
 Gen. ifyrer of them 
 Dat. ifjnctt to them 
 Ace. fie them 
 
 NEUTER. 
 
 e$ it 
 
 feiner of it 
 
 ifym to it 
 
 e8 it 
 
 The dative and accusative of the first and second persons, 
 mil*, tni(l) 2C., are often used reflexively, and must be rendered 
 in English by myself, etc. ; as, id) UnterftdltC mid), I amuse my- 
 self ; twr imterljaltCU IW3, we amuse oui-selves. 
 
THE PRONOUN. 53 
 
 In the dative and accusative of the third person we have in 
 German a reflexive form, fidf), which remains unchanged in all 
 genders and both numbers; as, 
 
 Dat. fid), to himself, to herself, to itself, or to themselves. 
 Ace. fid), himself, herself, itself, or themselves. 
 
 Observe its use in the following examples: 3o'f)amt faitft fid) cilt 
 SBtld), John buys (for) himself a book; but: 3of)Cmn tauft iljm cut 
 23ud), John buys a book for him (i. e. another person) ; cr fdjneibet fid), 
 he cuts himself ; cr fdjnetbct il)it, he cuts him (another) ; fie imterljalten 
 fid), they amuse themselves; fte untcrljalten fie, they entertain them 
 (their friends). (See also "Reflexive Verbs.") 
 
 In the plural, f i d) is often used in place of c i n a n b e r / one another (or each other) ; 
 aa, fie Itcten fid), they love one another ; but this practice is not recommended ; say, 
 fie licfcen e i n a n b c r for they love one another, and fie Uefcen f i d; or f i d) f e 1 6 ft for they 
 love themselves. 
 
 The word felbft/ self, is often used with the personal pronouns for greater emphasis ; 
 as, id) fciv3te c fclfcft, I said it (so) myself ; id) fenne mid), I know myself; id) fenne mid) 
 fclfcft, I know myself, with more emphasis. When the genitives feiner, tfyrer, are used 
 reflexively, fcl&ft is often added to avoid ambiguity ; as, cr fd)amt fid) feincv felfcft, he is 
 ashamed of himself ; er fd)amt fid) feiner, he is ashamed of him (another person). 
 
 Iii German, bit (sing., thou) and tfyr (plur., you) are used in 
 elevated style, in poetry, and in addressing near relatives, 
 intimate friends, and children. In addressing other persons, 
 te (they) is used, and the verb is put in the third person 
 plural, whether we address one person or more. To distinguish 
 it from jte, they, it is written with a capital initial. 
 
 EXAMPLES. In speaking to a brother, intimate friend, etc. , we say, 
 bit bt'Jt ftctfjicj, thou art diligent ; in speaking to two or more brothers, 
 etc., we say, iljr fcib fteigifl, you are diligent; in speaking to one or 
 more other persons (not relatives, intimate friends, etc.), we say, @ie 
 finb ffcifjig, (literally} they are diligent; while in English, in either 
 of those cases, we should say, you are diligent. 
 
 The address by b u and i T) r may be called the familiar address, that by i e the 
 polite address. Tho use of the familiar address towards strangers is a sign of ill- 
 breeding, and should be carefully avoided. 
 
 Among some of the German peasantry 3I)r is used in addressing one or more persons. 
 
54 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 Personal pronouns must agree in gender with the noun in 
 whose place they stand ; as, 2Bo tft bl6 3^ber ? Where is the 
 pen] @te tft aitf bem tfd)e, slw (not it) is on the table, 
 because geber is feminine; thus also, fyabcn Sic belt arteit 
 Have .you seen the garden 1 $a, id) Ijabe 1 1) 11 QG- 
 yes, I have seen him (belt artdl). 
 
 However, in the case of nouns denoting persons (except fca3 ^inb), the pronouns are 
 usually made to agree with the sex rather than the grammatical gender ; as, tro ifl ta 
 Sftafcdjen? Where is the girl ? <ie (instead of c ) ijl in ber Stufy, she is in the kitchen. 
 
 REMARKS. 1. The pronoun tcfy, I, when not beginning a sentence, is written with n 
 small initial. 
 
 2. The genitives of the personal pronouns aro contracted with the prepositions 
 tyalben, rccgen, um nriflcn (see "Prepositions"); the final r is then changed to t, and to 
 unfer and cucr t is added ; as, tneinetf>al&en, on my account, for aught I care ; 
 n, for his sake ; um unjertnritten, for our sake. 
 
 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 
 They are the following : 
 
 metn, my bein, thy fetn, his or its il)r, her 
 
 imfer, our euer, your ifyr, their (3fjr f your) 
 
 When a possessive pronoun is joined to a noun (as "possessive 
 adjective ") it agrees with it in gender, number, and case, and 
 is declined in the singular like the indefinite article, in the 
 plural like an adjective not preceded by an article (see para- 
 digm, top of page 44), as will be observed in the following 
 
 PARADIGM. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 MASC. FEM. XEUT. ALL GENDERS. 
 
 Nom. metn metnc mein my metne 
 
 Gen. metrics tnetner meines of my mctner 
 
 Dat. mcincm meiner meinent to my meinett 
 
 Ace. mctnen metne mein my metne 
 
 In the declension of unfer and cucr one e may be dropped ; thus we say: unfrc, nfer3 
 or unfre, undent or urifren jc. ; in the same manner, cure, citern or curen :c. 
 
THE PRONOUN. 55 
 
 The remarks (page 41) on the repetition of the definite article before two or more 
 nouns refer also to the possessive pronouns; as, mein 3Sater unb tnctne Gutter, my father 
 and mother. 
 
 When, however, a possessive pronoun is not joined to a 
 noun, but refers to a noun understood, and is not followed by 
 an adjective, it is declined, in the singular and plural, like an 
 adjective not preceded by an article (see page 43), and agrees 
 with the noun understood in gender and number ; as, 28 ef fen 
 
 ctrten ift fcfyoner, m e t n e r ober b e t n e r ? Whose garden is 
 
 finer, mine or thine'? ^ft ba$ few 35itrf) ober 1 1) t e $? Is that 
 his book or hers ? 
 
 Instead of this form of the possessive pronoun we may use 
 
 bcr, bte, ba$ meine (beine jc.), or ber, bte, ba$ meintge (beintge ic.). 
 
 In the foregoing examples it would be equally good to say : 
 
 SBeffcn artcn ift fdjoncr, ber metne (or ber metnige) ober ber 
 betne (or ber bcinige) ? 3ft ba$ feht 33ncf) ober ba$ tf)re (or ba$ 
 
 tfyrige) ? 2JJetne and metntge 2C. are declined like an adjective 
 preceded by the definite article (see page 45), and agree in 
 gender and number with the noun understood. Here follows a 
 list of the different forms in the nominative case : 
 tnetner, meinc, meine$ or ber, bte, ba metne or mcttttcje mine 
 barter, bchtc, beineg betne or betnige thine 
 
 fetner, (etne, femes feme or fetntae his 
 
 tfyrer, tl)re, tl)re t^re or tfjricje hers 
 
 unf(e)rer, unfre, nnfre unfre or unfrige ours 
 
 , ett(e)rer, cure, eitre^ cure or citrtge yours 
 
 tljrcr, t()re, tt)re6 ifyre or tfjrtge their 
 
 (31)rer, 3fjre 3^re 3^re or 3^rtgc yours) 
 
 REMARKS. 1. When a posses%ive pronoun stands in the predicate after the verb to 
 be, denoting simply ownership, it may be left unchanged like an adjective used predica- 
 tively ; as, bcr >ut ift mctn ; but this cannot be done, when the subject is expressed in an 
 indefinite manner, by e3, ba3, or fcie (see " Demonstrative Pronouns") ; as, rcem gel)6rt 
 btejer ttt? To whom does this hat belong ? er ift mein ; but, e (b a 3) ift meiner or fcer 
 ntcini{ie. 
 
 2. 1)a3 9ftetntgc, <Dcinu3C jc., may be used as nouns ; as, ify I;afce fca SOicintgc gct^an, 
 I have done my share; tote fcefinbett ftdj bte S^rtgen? How are the members of your 
 family? 
 
56 * THE PRONOUN. 
 
 3. The possessive pronouns must correspond to the form of address ; when 
 "familiar", we use bein in addressing 1 one person, cuer in addressing more psrsons ; 
 when "polite", we always use 3fyr writing it with a capital initial to distinjuish it 
 from ii)r t her or their; as, bu fyaft beine 33udjer, U;r fyafct cure 25ud)er, Sie I;afcen 3fyre 
 23udjer/ you have your books. 
 
 In letters, all personal and possessive pronouns referring to the person addressed 
 must begin with a capital initial ; as, 25u, >id), )ein, 3^r (you), Gud) :c. 
 
 4. The definite article is often usei in German, where in English we employ a pos- 
 sessive pronoun ; as, idj Ijalte tie 3-cber nut bcr redden anb, I hold the pen with my right 
 hand ; cr ^>at ben 5lrm gebrocfycn, or, reflexively, er fyat [id) ben 2lrm gefcrodjen, he has 
 broken his arm. This use of the article is, of course, admissible only when no ambi- 
 guity is likely to result from it. 
 
 5. Expressions like "a friend of mine" are rendered cin greunb won mtr or cincr 
 meiner greunbe. 
 
 DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 They are btefer, this ; jctter, that ; ber, this or that. Siefer 
 and jcucr are declined like adjectives not preceded by an article 
 (see page 43). 
 
 PARADIGM. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. ALL OENDEES. 
 
 Nom. btefer bicfc btcjeS this bicfe these 
 
 Gen. btejeS btejcr bte(e3 of this biejcr of these 
 
 Dat. l)tf fern btefer btefem to this btefcn to these 
 
 Ace. bicfcn btefe btefeS this btefe these 
 
 liefer is frequently used for the English that ; jener is used to denote remote objects 
 and as a contrast to biefer f especially when bicker and jencr express the English the latter 
 the former, thin one that one. 
 
 Instead of btefer or jener, we may use bcr, bie, bd3. When 
 joined to a noun, its declension is, throughout, that of the 
 definite article, from which it is distinguished by being pro- 
 nounced with greater emphasis ; when not joined to a noun, 
 it differs from the article in the following cases : 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 MASC. FEM. NEUT. ALL GENDERS. 
 
 Gen. beffen bercn beffen of this or that one bercn, of these or those 
 Dat. bcnen, to these or those 
 
THE PRONOUN. 57 
 
 The neuter biefe (usually the short form bte$), bd$, or the 
 personal pronoun e3 is often used with the verb to be as what 
 we may call an indefinite (or "anticipative") subject. These 
 words then retain the same form, whatever may be the gender 
 or number of the noun or pronoun in the predicate, while the 
 verb agrees with the latter in person and number ; as, bct bin 
 id), that is I; ba$ ftaret il)t, that was you; bte$ ift mcitt @ai> 
 ten, this is my garden; bd ift nnfere Scfyule, that is our school; 
 C3 ftnb bcine $reunbe, it i g y ur friends, etc. When e$ is the 
 subject, and a personal pronoun the complement, 03 is placed after 
 
 the verb ; as, Qd) bin e$, bn bift e$, er ift e$, toir ftnb e$, ifjr 
 feib c^, fie ftnb e$. 
 
 DETERMINATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 They are the following: berjenige, or ber, he (who) ; berfelbe, 
 the same ; and f old)er, such. 
 
 1. erjcnige (tt)el{^er) is the antecedent of a relative and 
 corresponds to the English he (who), bicjenige to she (who), 
 
 bci$jcntge to it (which). 
 
 It may stand alone or limit a noun (as, berjenige iUfenfd), 
 tt>cld)er, the "man who) and is declined as if its first part bet 
 were the definite article, and *jenige a separate adjective, as 
 will be observed in the following 
 
 PARADIGM. 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 MASCULINE. FEMININE. NEUTER. ALL GENDERS. 
 
 Nom. t)crjtemge biejemge basjenige btejentgen 
 
 Gen. bcejcnigcn berjemgcn bc6jcntgcn bcrjcntgett^ 
 
 Dat. bcmjcmcjcn berjcmgcn bemientgcn bcnjcntgen 
 
 Ace. bcnfemgm btejentge ba>jentgc btcicntqcn 
 
 Instead of berjenige K. f we may also use ber, bie, ba; when 
 it i>s joined to a noun, is declined like the definite article; 
 
58 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 when it stands alone, its genitive and dative is that of the 
 demonstrative pronoun ber, bte, bd$ (see page 56), except the 
 genitive plural, which is bcrcr instead of bcrcn. Be careful 
 never to use beret except when it is the antecedent of a relative ; 
 we say, c$ Qtbt b e r e It t)icle, there are many of them (L e. of 
 those we were speaking of) ; but, e gibt b C r e r triele, toddle 
 tmmer in 2lrmutt) leben, there are many of those who always 
 live in poverty. 
 
 Be careful, also, not to use berer before a noun, because ber, tic, ba, when joined to 
 a noun, is always declined like the definite article, as above stated; as, c3 (jibt ber 
 Airmen (not bercr ?lrmcn) mclc, rccldje immer in 9Zotfi. leben, there are many "of those" 
 poor people who always live in need. 
 
 2. 3)erfdbe, biefclbc, baSfelbe answers to the English the 
 same, and is declined like bcrjcntgc ; as, berfclbc, bcSfclbdt, pi. 
 
 btcfclbcn :c.; e. g., berfelbe (or berfelbc 3Kcmn), ben id) gcftcnt faf), 
 
 the same (the same man) that I saw yesterday. It need not ? 
 like bcrjenige, always be followed by a relative clause ; as, fair 
 
 iDofyntcn in bcmfclben (or bent ncmtlidjen) aiife, we lived in the 
 
 same house. 
 
 REMARKS. 2)erfelfce is often used in place of the personal and possessive pronouns 
 of the third person (cr, fie, e3, fetn, tf)r); viz., 
 
 1. Arbitrarily; as, tdj fennc >errn 92. unb ac^te benfelben (or ac^te ifyn), I know Mr. N. 
 and esteem him. 
 
 2. For the sake of euphony ; as, id) fyafoe greet <5<J)roejlern, fennen Sie bieyel^en (instead 
 of <Ste fte)? I have two sisters, do you know them? 
 
 3. To avoid ambignity ; as, ber SDtann Itebt jetnen greunb me^r, a(3 ben So^n begfelten, 
 or a!3 be]f en <Scf>n (bcffen=gen. of demonstrative pronoun ber), the man loves his friend 
 more than the latter's son ; for, if we said feinen <5ol)n, we should be in doubt as to 
 whose son is meant ; if we meant the man's own son, we ought to say feinen cicjcncn <5ol)n. 
 
 4. The substitution of berfelbe :c. should always take place : (a) When a possessive 
 pronoun of the third person refers to an inanimate object ; as, ba3 23udj ift uodj neu, 
 afcer^ber Cinfcanb be3feI6en (better than fein Gtnfcanb) ift befdjmukt, the book is yet new, but 
 Hs binding is soiled. (6) When a personal pronoun, governed by a preposition, refers 
 to an inanimate object; as, n?a tftun <2ie in it ber 9?abcl? what are you doing with the 
 needle? 3$ nafie mit bcrfelbcn (not mit i fir), I sew with it ; more frequently, however, 
 we use a pronominal adverb (see page 62), id) ndl}e b a in i t , I sew thercicith. 
 
THE PRONOUN. 50 
 
 3. Solder, foW)e, fold)e8, such, is declined like an adjective ; 
 as, cm foldjer 3J?enfd), foldje 2JJenfd)en, such a man, such men. 
 Sometimes it is abbreviated to fold), which is indeclinable and 
 followed by the indefinite article, as in English ; as, fold) Ctlt 
 
 The English as after such is rendered by the German relative weld)er (or bet) ; as, 
 fud)e joldje greunbe, incite bir im Ungliicf treu fcletfcen, seek such friends as remain true 
 to you in misfortune. But in case of a comparison between objects of the same kind, 
 as is translated by rote ; as, fie fjafcen jold)e ^cbern, ttne nnr, they have such pens as we 
 (have). 
 
 NOTE. The remarks (page 41) on the repetition of the definite article before two or 
 more nouns refer also to the demonstrative and determinative pronouns; as, 
 >au3 unb btcfer artcn ; bcrjcni^e 5ftann unb biejenige 
 
 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 They are toelcfyer, or ber, who, which, that ; fter, he who ; 
 and tt>d$, which. 
 
 1. 3BeI(^cr is declined as follows : 
 
 SINGULAR. PLURAL. 
 
 MASC. FEM. NEUTER. ALL GENDERS. 
 
 Nom. vuclcfycr UJclcfje tucIc^eS who or which toelcfye 
 
 Gen. be [fen bcrcn beffcn whose or of which beren 
 
 Dat. toelcfiem ireic!^er lt)el(^em to whom or to which benen 
 
 Ace. ft)eld)cn tDelcije H>el(^e6 whom or which toclije 
 
 Instead of H)eId)Cr we may use ber, Me, ba$. As a relative, 
 it is declined like the demonstrative pronoun bet, bie, bd$ (see 
 page 56), i. e., it is declined like the definite article, except 
 
 that the genitive is beffen, beren, beffen, pL beren, and the 
 dative plural benen ; as, bcr err, toeldjer (or ber) mid) 6efnd()te, 
 
 the gentleman who visited me; ber 3J?ann, beffen (Sarten t(f| 
 Ijente QCfcl)Cn ()Clbc, the man whose garden I have seen to-day; 
 
 bie ^ran, toeldjcr (or bcr) btefe^ a "^ flc^rt, the lady to whom 
 this jiouse belongs ; bie ^ftnber, beren SSater angefommen tft, the 
 
 children whose father has arrived, etc. 
 
60 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 2BeId)er and fcer may be used indiscriminately, except when the antecedent is a 
 personal pronoun of the first or second p3rson (or <Sie, polite address), in which case 
 fccr (not U5eld)er) must be used, and we either repeat the pronoun after the relative, or 
 use the verb in the third person ; as, id), fccr id) bid) lie&c, or id), fccr bid) lie&t, I who love 
 you ; Sic, fcer Ste mid) fennen, or Sie, fcer mid) fennt (addressing one gentleman), you 
 who know me. 
 
 SScUfccr has in the genitive ioeld)c, tocldjcr, ircld)e3, plur. gen. rccld)er, dat. rccld)en, when 
 it is joined to a noun (which is seldom the case) ; as, um&ctfct, n> c I d) c 3 ojropcn 2)ianne3 
 SScrfe id) gclefcn fyabc, literally: Huniboldt, "whose great man's" works I have read. 
 Do not mistake the relative n>eld)er for the interrogative, whose genitive is clwavs 
 lDcld)c :c. (see "Interrogative Pronouns"). 
 
 In German, the relative must not be omitted; as, the man I saw yesterday, fccr 
 2Eann, ro c I d) c n (or fccn) id) gcficrn fal). 
 
 The indeclinable fa, now obsolete, except in poetry, was formerly often used in place 
 of n)eld)er. 
 
 2. 33cr corresponds to the English he who, tDQ$ to what 
 (that which) ; antecedent and relative being expressed by one 
 word. They are declined as follows : 
 
 MASC. AND FEM. NEUTER. 
 
 Noin. rocr (he) who ftiaS what 
 
 Gen. tiJeffen whose ft>eJ3 of what 
 
 Dat. ftiem to whom [wanting] 
 
 Ace. ft) en whom ft) a 5 what 
 
 REMARKS. 1. 23cr has never an antecedent before it, but it is often followed by 
 the determinative frcr, fcic, fca?, in the principal sentence ; we may say, rccr jufriefccn ift, 
 i)l glurflid), or rccr jufricbcn i|l, fc c r tfl gliirfHd) ; but the determinative must be expressed, 
 when it is not in the same case as n?cr ; as, rccr jufriefccn ijr, fc c n ncnnc id) cjlurfltd), him 
 that is contente 1 I call happy ; or we may change the mode of expression and say 
 fccnjcntijcn, fccr (or n>cld)cr) jiifrtcbcn ifr/ ncnnc id) gtudltd). -Thus also with n>a3 ; ira id) 
 fajjc, ifl (or ba5 tfl) n?al)r, what I say is true; but, we must say, n?a3 id) fo$c, fcc |fen 
 Bin id) gcwtp, I am sure of what I say ; (not n>a id) facjc, &in id) gcwip). 
 
 2. SSa3 is use! for the English that, when it refers to an indefinite antecedent, 
 such as allcS, ntdHS, cttcaS, fca6 ic. ; as, attcS, n?a id) rccijj, all that I know ; id) crinncre 
 ir.icl) fccffcn, iras cr f.ijtc, I remember what he said ; fca3 93cflc, t^aS cr tbun fann, the best 
 (that) he can do. 
 
 3. The genitive tt>cy is seldom used, except in the compounds rce|$al&, tocfjrocgcn, 
 wherefore. 
 
 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 
 
 They are U)cr, who; ftaS., what; iDeldjer, iDCldjC, 
 which ; and \va$ fitr Ctlt, what kind of. 
 
THE PRONOUN. 61 
 
 1. 2Ber and tDd$ are declined like the relative pronouns 
 tt>cr and ti)d3, and correspond to the English interrogatives who 
 and what; as, tDCt ift ba ? who is there; tt)d$ fdgen <te? 
 what do you say 1 
 
 2. 2BeId)Cr, tDClcfye, tt)eM)e$ corresponds to the English which, 
 and is either joined to a noun or refers to a noun understood ; 
 
 as, tteldjer djiifer ift ber ffeifjtgfte? which scholar is the 
 
 most diligent ] etn S3rilber ttdr ()ter, your brother was here ; 
 ttteWjer ? which (one) 1 
 
 It is declined like biefer, biefe, btcfcS; viz., 
 
 
 SINGULAR. 
 
 
 
 PLURAL. 
 
 MASC. 
 
 FEM. 
 
 NEUT. 
 
 
 ALL GENDERS. 
 
 Nom. toetcfycr 
 
 toeldje 
 
 n)d^e 
 
 which 
 
 tt>eld)e 
 
 Gen. toeldjes 
 
 tt)eld)cr 
 
 tt)dc^e3 
 
 of which 
 
 tt>dd)cr 
 
 Dat. toelcfyem 
 
 ttjelc^er 
 
 melc^em 
 
 to which 
 
 tt)eld)cn 
 
 Ace. ft>elcf)cn 
 
 tt)Cl(^C 
 
 ttjelc^cs 
 
 which 
 
 tneUe 
 
 3. In tod fitr etn, what kind of, only the word em is 
 declined; when joined to a noun, it is declined like the indefinite 
 article, otherwise it is declined like an adjective not preceded 
 by an article (see page 43); as, IWS fiir etn 33aum ift bte$? 
 what kind of a tree is this ? (Sin Strnboum, a pear-tree ; ba 
 ftefyt Ctn 35aimt, there stands a tree; ft)d$ fiir Cttter? what 
 kind of "a one' 1 ? 
 
 Before nouns denoting material and before nouns in the 
 plural tt>d fiir is used without etn } ti>d$ fiir 53rob ift bteS ? 
 
 what kind of bread is this I $8d$ fitr SSdltme ftnb bte$ ? what 
 kind of trees are these. 
 
 The neuter w c Ic& e3 is often used as what we may call an " indefinite interrogative" 
 before jctit, to be, without regard to the gender or number of the noun following the 
 verb ; as, weldjeS ift fcer fdjcnfte 33cmm, toetdje3 ift btc fcefte g^fcer, n>eld)e3 finb tie fc^5n|lcn 
 95aumc jc. 
 
 PRONOMINAL ADVERBS. The adverbs ba, there, and ti)0, where, are 
 frequently united with prepositions (the forms bar and ftor being used, 
 when the preposition begins with a vowel) ; as, 
 
62 THE PRONOUN. 
 
 baran, at it, at them tnoran, at which 
 
 barauf, on it, on them tnorauf, on which 
 
 babiird), by it, by them tnoburd), by which 
 
 bartn, in it, in them tnorin, in which 
 
 bamit, with it, with them tiiornit, with which 
 bat>on, of it, of them, etc. ttxroon, of which, etc. 
 They correspond in form to the English adverbs thereat, thereon, 
 w lie re at, whereon, etc. 
 
 The compounds of bd are used in place of personal pronouns of the 
 third person (and demonstrative pronouns) governed by prepositions, 
 when the pronouns do not refer to persons ; as, id) fyabe etn iSild) nub 
 Icfc barin (or in bemjelben, not in il)m), I have a book and read in 
 it (therein) ; or in the plural, id) fyabe 23iid)cr unb leje barin (in them) ; 
 crr 9t. ift ttcrjdjrounbcn, fyabcn ie ntdits banon (for uon bem) gel)6rt? 
 Mr. N. has disappeared, have you heard nothing of it (i. e., of his 
 having disappeared) ? 
 
 In like manner, the compounds of tl>0 are used in place of relative 
 pronouns governed by prepositions, when the relatives do not refer to 
 persons; as, ba3 ift alleC<, tno mi t (for mit tncld)cm) id) 3Imcn bicncn fann, 
 that is all I can serve you with. However, when objects preceded by 
 the definite article are referred to, the use of the preposition with the 
 relative is preferable to the use of the adverb ; thus, ba-3 $au?, i n 
 in c I d) c m id) tnolnte, the house in which I live, is better than ba$ an$, 
 ID o r i n id) tnofyne, although either form is in common use. 
 
 Interrogatively, the compounds of tno are used in place of tnaS 
 governed by a proposition ; as, tnouon (for non tna3) fprid)t cr ? Of what 
 does he speak ? 
 
 INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 
 They are : ^eittcmb, somebody ; 9ttcmanb r nobody ; ^cbcr- 
 ItlCinn, everybody; indll r one, (the French on). 
 
 3cmanb, Daemanb and ^c^^^ann add 8 in the genitive ; the dative and accusative 
 arc the same as the nominative ; as, cr ifi v Jttcmant:?, 3cfccrmatm, greunb, he is nobody's, 
 everybody's, friend ; i<$ ^abe cs 3emanb gegcben, I have given it to some one, etc. The 
 forms Scmantem, Dltemanbem in the dative, and 3emanben, Dtieraanbcn in the accusative, 
 arc often used, but are not recommended. 
 
 OJtan is used only in the nominative singular, and is translated in English by one, 
 ice, you, they, people, or by the passive voice ; as, man faojt (on dit), one says, they say, 
 
THE PRONOUN. 63 
 
 people say, it is said ; man fagt auf beut fd), we say in German ; man fagt auf cnglifd), you 
 say in English. 
 
 OTHER INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 
 (Often named "Indefinite Numerals.") 
 
 alter, atle, aUe$, all manner, manege, mancfye^, many a 
 
 beibe, both ntd)t3, nothing 
 
 eintcjer, ctntge, etntges, some tnel, much 
 
 ctroa3, something toeldjer, roeldje, toetdjeS, some 
 
 jeber, jebe, jebe3, each, every ttjentjj, little 
 
 fein, fcine, tent, no, none 
 
 REMARKS. 1. Sitter is declined like bicfer; before a pronoun it may be abbreviated 
 to all; as, ad metne Slrbeit, all my labor. It is not followed by an article; as, otte 
 23ud)er, all the books. When all means whole it is translated by cjanj ; as, cr war ben 
 ganjen Stacj l)ter, he was here all day ; atte S^e means every day. The neuter atteS 
 means everythinj (sometimes everybody) ; it is generally written with a small initial, 
 although, in this sense, used as a noun; as, id) fyafce attc cjefcl)en, I have seen every- 
 thing ; attcS gcfyt aufS Sanb, everybody goes to the country. 
 
 2. 23eibe is declined like an adjective and often preceded by the definite article or a 
 pronoun ; as, beibe <d)roeftern, bie (or inctne :c.) beiben <5d)ir>cftcrn, both (my, etc.) sisters. 
 
 3. (5tn?a3 is often used as an adjective before a noun in the singular; as, id) fyabe 
 ctroaS 33rob, I have some bread ; usually, however, etroa is omitted ; as, id) fyafcc 23rcb. 
 An adjective in the neuter gender is often used. as a noun after etn?a3 and nid)tS ; as, 
 ctroa3 92cuc3, something new ; nid)t3 @utc, nothing good. Gtroa3 and ntd)t are indeclin- 
 able, and although, in the sense of something and nothing, they are substantives, they 
 are usually written with a small initial. Gtroag is sometimes abbreviated to rca3 f 
 
 4. 3eber is declined like biejcr and is sometimes preceded by the indefinite article ; 
 as, jebe3 Slinb, or cin jcbe $inb, every child ; ein ^eber, every one. Each, in the sense 
 of apiece, is rendered by ba3 <Stud! ; as funf Gent bag tfirf, five cents apiece. 
 
 5. ein is declined like the numeral ein, one; as, f)at er fein elb? Gr Ijat feineS; 
 has he no money ? He has none. 
 
 (5. SSicI and u>ema,, expressing quantity, are not declined ; as, tie! elb, much 
 money ; njcntcj clb, little money ; we may also say, c. g., ticl $inber cften me^r, aI3 iccnig 
 Etnber, many children eat more than few children, because here the children are spoken 
 of collectively. When wet or-cnicj express number, or are preceded by an article 
 or pronoun, they are declined like adjectives ; as, fciele ^inber finb unbantfcar gecjcn tl)re 
 Gltern, many children are ungrateful towards their parents ; tna icitt cr mit bem Dieten 
 elbc anfana,cn? What will he do with so much money? 
 
 S0Jel)r, more, is indeclinable in the singular ; the plural mefyre or mel)rere means 
 several and is declined like an adjective; as, tnet;rere greunbe, several friends; meift, 
 most, is preceded by the article ; as, bie mciften 9J2enfd)en, most people. 
 
 SBcmcjer (the comparative of tteniv3) should not be declined; as, id) fya&e irentger (not 
 ircniv3cre) ^reunbc, aI3 bu, I have fewer friends than you. 
 
 7. 2Beld)cr is often used, colloquially, for the English some, referring to a noun 
 previously expressed ; Ijafcen <te 93rob ? id) fyafcc roeld)e3 ; have you (any) bread ? I have 
 
64 THE VERB. 
 
 some; $at cr Stcpfcl? cr fcat rccldje; has he any apples? he has some; but the use of 
 einigcr :c., or the genitives bcfien, bcren is preferable ; as, id? fyabe cinige3, cr f>at bcren. 
 
 8. The English expressions not anybody, net anything, not any, must be rendered 
 by Dtfiemanb, mdjtS, fcin, respectively, not by ntdjt 3cmanb, tudjt etn?a3, m*t ctntgcS jc.; 
 as, I have not seen anybody (anything) idj ^abe SHiemanb (nidjte) gefefyen ; they have not 
 any money, fie tya&en fetn elb. Interrogatively, either form may be used, although it 
 does not always convey precisely the same meaning ; as, fyaben Sic nidit ^cmanb gefcfjen, 
 or fyabcn Ste 9?icmanb gcfel)en? Ija&en <3ie ntd}t ctroa3 (Mb, or fyafccn <5ie fetn clb? For 
 fein, in the sense of not a single one, we may always say nidjt ein ; as, er ftat nid)t cincn 
 Better, or cr fyat fetnen Better, 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 33erbum obcr ^ettmort.) 
 
 The German verb has five moods ; viz., the indicative, 
 subjunctive, conditional, imperative, and infinitive. The con- 
 ditional mood, present and present perfect, is merely another 
 form for the subjunctive, past and past perfect, respectively, 
 corresponding, in many instances, to the English potential 
 formed with the auxiliaries should and would. 
 
 For the use of the moods, and the German rendering of all foims of the English 
 potential, see the remarks on the "Use of the Moods", under "Remarks on the 
 Verb," following the list of irregular verbs. It will be found that the use of the sub- 
 junctive differs in the two languages, especially in the present (and present perfect), 
 while a future subjunctive is not known in English ; it is therefore impossible, in a 
 paradigm, to place an exact English equivalent opposite the German forms ; yet, as it 
 seemed desirable to use an English form which would be, in a measure, analogous to 
 the German, we have given, in the present and past, the subjunctive of the English 
 verb (after if), and in the future the English indicative. 
 
 The German verb has the same tenses as the English. 
 
 On their use, as far as it differs in the two languages, see the remarks on the " Use 
 of the Tenses," under "Remarks on the Verb," following the list of the irregular 
 verbs. 
 
 The German verb has no progressive form, and no auxiliary 
 corresponding to the English do; for, / am praising, I do 
 praise, the Germans have but one form, tdf) lobe (I praise) ; thus 
 also, do I praise ? lobe id) (praise I) ] I do not praise, tcf) lobe 
 md)t (I praise not) ; do I not praise? lobe id) lltcfyt (praise I not) ? 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 65 
 
 AUXILIARY VERBS. 
 
 The verbs fydbett, to have, few, to be, and toerbctt, to become, 
 besides being used as principal verbs, serve also as auxiliaries. 
 
 For the "Auxiliaries of Mood" see "Use of the Moods" under "Remarks on the 
 Verb." 
 
 Conjugation of the auxiliary verb 
 
 aben, to have. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 1) 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id) Ijabe 
 
 I have 
 
 id) fyabe 
 
 I have ") 
 
 bu fyaft 
 
 thou hast 
 
 bu fjaft 
 
 thou hast 
 
 er Ijat 
 tntr fjaben 
 ifjr fyabt 2) 
 
 he has 
 we have 
 you have 
 
 er ^at 
 tt)tr Ijaben 
 iftr I)abt 
 
 he has 
 
 - i, r3 
 *S we have 
 
 you have 
 
 fte Ijaben 
 
 they have 
 
 jte ^abeu 
 
 they have * 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PERFECT. 
 
 id) Ijatte 
 
 I had 
 
 id) ^atte 
 
 I had 
 
 bu Ijatteft 
 
 thou hadst 
 
 bu Ijatteft 
 
 thou hadst 
 
 er liatte 
 
 he had 
 
 er fyatte 
 
 he had r^ 
 
 tttr fyattcu 
 
 we had 
 
 tuir Ijatteu 
 
 ^3 we had r3 
 
 iljr Ijattet 
 
 you had 
 
 itjr Ijattct 
 
 you had 
 
 fie fatten 
 
 they had 
 
 fie Ijatteu they had 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 id) toerbe 3 ) 
 bu ttnrft 
 
 I shall > 
 thou wilt 
 
 id) roerbe " 
 bu ttnrft 
 
 I shall } 
 
 ^ thoU Wilt rrf 
 
 er VDtrb 
 tt)tr tnerbeu 
 ifyr toerbct 
 fte tnerben 
 
 S he will 1 
 J|. we shall PJ 
 you will 
 they will ^ 
 
 er itJtrb 
 tt)ir luerben 
 i^r tnerbet 
 fie trerbeu " 
 
 ^ he will [3 
 we shall ^ 
 
 $* -Tl ^ 
 
 ^j you will 1 A 
 they will - 
 
 1) The names of the tenses and a few other grammatical terms used in this book 
 are borrowed from William Swinton's "Grammar containing the Etymology and Syntax 
 of the English Language." 
 
 2) Or Ijabet. See remarks following the paradigms of the auxiliary verbs 
 (page 71). 
 
 3) See Remarks to the auxiliary verb roerfcen (page 71). 
 
66 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 id) f)abe (if) I have 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 bu fyabeft 
 er fyabe 
 ttnr tyabeu 
 ifyr fyabet 
 fie Ijaben 
 
 thou have 
 he have 
 we have 
 you have 
 they have 
 
 id) ptte 
 
 (if) I had 
 
 bu fjdtteft 
 
 thou had 
 
 er Ijdtte 
 
 he had 
 
 tt>ir ^citteu 
 
 we had 
 
 i^r ^cittct 
 
 you had 
 
 fie Fatten 
 
 they had 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 id) voerbe ^ I shall 
 
 bu roerfcefl thou wilt 
 
 er rocrbe I S he will 
 
 toir tvcrbeu i ^ we shall 
 
 il)r tDerbct you will 
 
 fie aoerbcn ^ they will 
 
 id) I)abe 
 
 I (if) I have 
 
 bu fyabeft 
 
 ithou have 
 
 er fyabe 
 
 *g he have 
 
 ttnr Ijabeu 
 
 "g we have 
 
 ifjr Ijabet 
 
 you have 
 
 fie Ijabeu 
 
 they have 
 
 PAST PERFECT. 
 
 id) fjatte 
 
 (if) I had 
 
 bu f)d'tteft 
 
 thou had 
 
 er Ijd'tte 
 
 ^ he had 
 
 ttnr fatten 
 
 ^ we had 
 
 iljr fjd'ttet 
 
 you had 
 
 fie f)d'tteu 
 
 they had 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 id) toerbe 1 
 
 I shall 
 
 bu tterbeft 
 
 , thou wilt 
 
 er ttierbe 
 
 ^3=f- he will 
 
 ttnr merbcn 
 
 we shall 
 
 
 CS 
 
 il)r roerbet 
 
 iT you will 
 
 fie ttjerbeu -* 
 
 they will 
 
 id) ttmrbe 
 bu noiirbeft 
 er ttmrbe 
 tt)ir ii>urben 
 il)r ttmrbet 
 fie ttmrbeu 
 
 PRESENT. 
 I should 
 thouwouldst 
 ; he would 
 . we should 
 you would 
 they would 
 
 CONDITIONAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id) ttmrbe ^j ^ I should ^ 
 
 
 bu miirbeft 
 
 thouwouldst r$ 
 
 er ttmrbe 
 
 he would 1 A 
 
 ttnr fDiirbcn 
 
 we should 
 
 
 
 i^r ttmrbet 
 
 ^ you would 
 
 1 
 
 fie ttmrben * ^ they would J 
 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 Ijabe (bu) have (thou) 
 
 l)abt (if)r) have (you) 
 
 fjabeu te have (you) 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 Ijaben to have 
 
 gefjabt ^abeu to have had 
 
 Ijabenb having 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 had 
 
THE VtfRB. 
 
 67 
 
 REMARKS. Ctbctt is used as an auxiliary to form the perfect 
 tenses of all transitive verbs in the active voice, of the re- 
 flexive, impersonal, and some intransitive verbs. 
 
 For the use of fdtt with other intransitives see Remarks 
 following the 
 
 Conjugation of the auxiliary verb 
 
 @em, to be. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id) bin 
 
 I am 
 
 id) bin 
 
 I have ^ 
 
 bu bift 
 
 thou art 
 
 bubift 
 
 ^ thou hast 
 
 cr ift 
 
 he is 
 
 er ift 
 
 S. he has 
 
 ttrir finb 
 
 we are 
 
 loir finb 
 
 we have 
 
 if)r feib 
 
 you are 
 
 iljr feib 
 
 you have 
 
 fie ftnb 
 
 they are 
 
 fte finb they have J 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PERFECT. 
 
 id) mar 
 
 I was 
 
 id) ttar 
 
 I had 
 
 bu nmrft 
 
 thou wast 
 
 bu tt>arft 
 
 thou hadst 
 
 er ttwr 
 
 he was 
 
 cr tucir 
 
 % he had 
 
 loir rcarcn 
 
 we were 
 
 loir inaren 
 
 we had 
 
 ifyr toaret 
 
 you were 
 
 il)r traret 
 
 you had 
 
 fie roar en 
 
 they were 
 
 fte toaren they had 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 id) tnerbe ' 
 
 I shall -| 
 
 id) tuerbe ^ I shall 
 
 bu tturft 
 
 thou wilt 
 
 bu lotrji thou wilt 
 
 er ttrirb 
 
 he will 
 
 er itjirb ! ^ he will 
 
 tt)ir vocrbcn 
 
 "S in 1 _Q 
 
 we shall 
 
 tt)ir mcrben | * we shall 
 
 U)r Voerbet 
 
 you will 
 
 iljr toerbet ^ you will 
 
 fie tocrbcn 
 
 they will < 
 
 fie tncrbcn J they will 
 
 J 
 
68 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 id) 
 
 fet 
 
 (if) I be 
 
 bu 
 
 feieft 
 
 thou be 
 
 er 
 
 fet 
 
 he be 
 
 ttnr feten 
 
 we be 
 
 il)r 
 
 feiet 
 
 you be 
 
 nc 
 
 feien 
 
 they be 
 
 PAST. 
 
 irf) 
 
 ttcire 
 
 (if) I were 
 
 bu 
 
 toareft 
 
 thou were 
 
 er n)dre 
 
 he were 
 
 ttrir rocircn 
 
 we were 
 
 ii,t 
 
 toaret 
 
 you were 
 
 ^ 
 
 ttiaren 
 
 they were 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 id) 
 
 ftierbe 
 
 I shall 
 
 bu 
 
 toerbeft 
 
 thou wilt 
 
 er aierbe 
 
 he will , a 
 
 ttir tt)erben 
 
 ^- we shall ^ 
 
 ifyr tuerbet 
 
 you will 
 
 fte 
 
 merbcn j 
 
 they will ' 
 
 cucim 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 Wft 
 
 toiirbe ^ 
 
 I should ^ 
 
 bu 
 
 tuiirbcft 
 
 thou wouldst 
 
 er miirbe 
 
 s he would 
 
 tt)ir iDiirbcn 
 
 %- we should 
 
 iljr 
 
 roiirbet 
 
 you would 
 
 fie 
 
 tniirben * 
 
 they would 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id)fei 
 
 ((if) I have 
 
 bu feieft 
 
 ^ thou have 
 
 er fei 
 
 he have 
 
 noir feten 
 
 g we have 
 
 iljr fetct 
 
 you have 
 
 fte feien 
 
 they have - 
 
 PAST PERFECT. 
 
 id) tncire 
 
 (if) I had 
 
 bu ttareft 
 
 thou had 
 
 er uocire 
 
 .- he had 
 
 tt)ir tDdren 
 
 g we had 
 
 ifjr Riaret 
 
 you had 
 
 fie ttjciren 
 
 they had 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 id) tnerbe 
 
 I shall 
 
 bu tuerbeft 
 
 S thou wilt 
 
 cr aierbe 
 
 7T he will 
 
 tuir tncrben 
 
 we shall 
 
 i^r tnerbet 
 
 g^ you will 
 
 fte tnerben ^ 
 
 they will 
 
 L MOOD. 
 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id) ftiirbe 1 
 
 I should ^ 
 
 bu triirbeft 
 
 5 thou wouldst 
 
 er miirbe 
 
 ^ ^ he would 
 
 tntr iniirben 
 
 "tr we should 
 
 i^r tniirbet 
 
 Z you would 
 
 fte tniirbcu 
 
 they would 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 fet (bu) be (thou) 
 
 fctb (ifjr) be (you) 
 
 feten tc be (you) 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 feiu 
 geinefen fetn 
 
 to be 
 
 to have been 
 
 feteitb being 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 gcti)cfcu been 
 
THE VERB. G9 
 
 REMARKS. Setn is used as an auxiliary to form the perfect 
 tenses of such intransitive verbs as imply a change of condition 
 or a motion from or towards an object or place \ as, id) bin 
 QCnefen, I have recovered ; er t ft gefomtuen, he has come. 
 
 Some verbs implying motion, however, are conjugated with I)dbett, 
 when it is not stated, from which place the motion started, or to which 
 it was directed, or how far it extended; as, id) fyabe ^tttet tiinben 
 gerttten, I have been riding two hours; but, id) bin nad) bet tabt 
 (jertttcn, I rode (have ridden, see ''Use of Tenses") to town ; id) bin 
 gtrei Sftetlen ttett gerttten, I rode two miles. 
 
 etn is also used with a few other intransitive verbs ; as, bleiben, to 
 remain, gelingen, to succeed, etc. 
 
 Some verbs which, as intransitives, are conjugated with fein, are 
 sometimes used with a transitive meaning, and then take tyaben as their 
 auxiliary. 
 
 Any further rules that might be given on the use of fyaben and fein 
 would bewilder the beginner rather than aid him. Practice will train 
 his ear to the use of the proper auxiliary. All good dictionaries insert 
 the word l)dben or fein (or the letter Ij or f) after each verb, or at least 
 they insert an f after those verbs that take fein as an auxiliary. Verbs 
 that may be conjugated with either fyabett or fein, as above stated, have 
 both I) and f attached to them, or they are given separately. 
 
 cut is also used to form its own perfect tenses and those of roerben; id? tin, war 
 gewefen, wcrbe gewefen fein; id) bin, war geworben, werbe geworfcen fein (see paradigms). 
 
 Conjugation of the auxiliary verb 
 
 SBerfaett, to become. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 PRESENT. PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id) luerbe 
 
 I become 
 
 id) bin 
 
 I have 
 
 bit ttrirft 
 
 thou becomest 
 
 bn btft 
 
 5=j thou hast 
 
 er ttrirb 
 
 he becomes 
 
 er tft 
 
 he has 
 
 unr tnerben 
 
 we become 
 
 toir ftnb 
 
 g we have 
 
 iljr nicrbct 
 
 you become 
 
 ifu* fetb 
 
 05 you have 
 
 ftc toerben 
 
 they become 
 
 fte ftnb they have 
 
70 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PERFECT. 
 
 id) tDiirbe !) I became 
 
 id) tDar ^ I had ^ 
 
 bit tDUrbeft thou becamest bu tDarft 
 
 ~ thou hadst 
 
 er tDiirbe he became 
 
 cr tDar 
 
 g he had S 
 
 tDtr tDurben we became 
 
 tDir tDaren 
 
 2 we had g 
 
 ifyr tDurbet you became 
 
 iljr tDaret 
 
 C3 you had 
 
 fie tDurben they became fie tDaren J they had J 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 id) merbe ^ I shall 
 
 id) tDerbe ^ I shall ^ 
 
 bu tDirjl ^ thou wilt 
 
 bu n?ir(l 
 
 '_ thou wilt S 
 
 cr tDirb i j he will 
 
 | er tDirb 
 
 g he will 
 
 tDir tDcrben I we shall 
 
 o tDir tDerbcn 
 
 we shall 
 
 ifjr tDerbet ~ you will 
 
 ifjr tDerbet 
 
 g you will 
 
 fie tDerbcn \ they will - 
 
 fte tDerben J ** they will J " 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id) tDerbe (if) I become 
 
 id) fei ^i 
 
 (if) I have 
 
 bu tDerbefl thou become bu fciefl 
 
 j- thou have 
 
 S 2 
 
 e-r tDerbe he become 
 
 er fei 
 
 -g he have = 
 
 tDir tDerbcn we become 
 
 tDir feien 
 
 2 we have | 
 
 ifyr tDerbet you become 
 
 ifjr feiet 
 
 09 you have 
 
 fie tDerbcn they become fie feien J they have ^ 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PERFECT. 
 
 id) tDiirbe (if) I became 
 
 id^ tDare ^ (if) I had ) 
 
 bu tDurbefl thou became bu tDarefl 
 
 c thou had 
 
 er tDiirbe he became 
 
 er tDare 
 
 f> he had g 
 
 tDir tDiirben we became 
 
 tDir uiaren 
 
 2 we had "^ 
 
 ifjr iDiirbet you became iljr tDdret 
 
 05 you had 
 
 fie tDiirben they became fie tDaren J they had 
 
 1) For tdj tcurbc/ tu wurbcfl, er wiitfe. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 71 
 
 tci) tterbe ^ I shall 
 bii roerbeft ^ thou wilt 
 et toerbe I 5 he will 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 tt)ir fterben i 
 ifyr tuerbct 
 fie tuerben ' 
 
 we shall 
 you will 
 they will 
 
 
 id) toerbe "] 
 
 e I shall ^ 
 
 
 
 bu tuerbeft 
 
 [S_ thou wilt 
 
 I 
 
 a 
 
 er roerbe 
 
 he will 
 
 
 
 8 
 
 s 
 
 nrir tterbett 
 
 ".0 
 
 g we shall 
 
 o 
 
 f3 
 
 ifyr toerbet 
 
 S you will 
 
 I 
 
 
 fte tterbcn ^ 
 
 39 they wiU 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 tc^ tuiirbe ^ I should 
 
 bu tniirbcft ^ thou wouldst 
 
 er uiiirbe I % he would 
 
 tt)tr ttjiirben we should 
 
 i^r ttiiirbct - you would 
 
 fte itmrben ^ they would J 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 roerbe (bu) become (thou) 
 
 tuerbet (t^r) become (you) 
 nierben ie become (you) 
 
 CONDITIONAL MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 icf) ttwrbe ^ ^ I should ^ 
 bit miirbeft I S thou wouldst 
 
 er tmirbe ! g he would 
 fair ttmrbett i we should 
 
 ifyr tDiirbet g you would 
 fte ttwrbeu J ^ they would 
 
 N 
 
 JI 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 UJerbcn to become 
 
 gettjorbcn fctn to have become 
 
 PARTICIPLES. / 
 
 tDcrbcnb becoming (jettjorben become 
 
 REMARKS. SBerbcit is used as an auxiliary to form the 
 future tenses, the conditional mood, and the passive voice of 
 all verbs. It corresponds, therefore, to the English shall, 
 (will), should (would), or to be; but, as all these different 
 meanings could not be given in a paradigm, we bad to render 
 it to become, tbe meaning it bas when used as a principal verb. 
 
 The forms ifyr Ijafcet (indicative), til feiefl, nrir (fie) feten, ^ tefl/ i$r roaret, tu 
 roarcft, if>r rcaret, may drop the e of the termination ; as, Ija&t, feifl, fein, roarft, wart, 
 ttjdrft, ludrt. Both forms are quite correct, hut, to avoid confusing the student by 
 introducing two forms in the paradigms, we have given those which are now more 
 frequently used. Generally speaking, the e is apt to be retained in solemn, and drop- 
 ped in familiar style. 
 
72 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 REGULAR VERBS. 
 oben, to praise. 
 
 PARADIGM. ACTIVE VOICE. 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id) lobe 
 
 I praise 
 
 id) fjabe ^ 
 
 I have 
 
 bu lobft 
 
 thou praisest bu Ijaft 
 
 thou hast 
 
 er lobt 
 
 he praises 
 
 er I)at i 
 
 ^ he has g 
 
 ttnr lobcu 
 
 we praise 
 
 ttrir I)aben 
 
 "j we have 
 
 il)r lobt 
 
 you praise 
 
 ifjr Ijabt 
 
 you have 
 
 fte loben 
 
 they praise 
 
 fte fyaben 
 
 they have 
 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PERFECT. 
 
 id) lobte 
 
 I praised 
 
 id) fyatte ^ 
 
 I had ^| 
 
 bu lobteft 
 
 thou praisedst bu fyatteft 
 
 thou hadst 
 
 er lobte 
 
 he praised 
 
 er ^atte 
 
 ^ he had s g 
 
 ttnr lobten 
 
 we praised 
 
 ttrir fatten 
 
 ", we had 
 
 tfyr lobtet 
 
 you praised 
 
 i^r ^attet 
 
 you had 
 
 fte lobten 
 
 they praised fte fyatteu J 
 
 they had * 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 id) tt>erbe 
 
 -| IshaU 
 
 id) ttjerbe ^ 
 
 I shaU ^ 
 
 -* ^ 
 
 bu ttrir ft 
 
 thou wilt 
 
 bu ttrirft 
 
 ^g thou wilt g 
 
 er ttrirb 
 
 1 g he will 
 
 ,| er ttiirb 
 
 ^ ^ he will 
 
 ttnr tocrben [ 3. we shall 
 
 tuir tt>erbeu 
 
 5 we shall 
 
 tfjr ttjerbet 
 
 you will 
 
 i^r ttocrbet 
 
 i-i i> 
 cj you will cs 
 
 fie toerben 
 
 ' they will J 
 
 fte tnerben J 
 
 they will * 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id) lobe 
 
 (if) I praise 
 
 id) I)abe 
 
 (if) I have ^ 
 
 bit lobeft 
 
 thou praise 
 
 bu Ijabeft 
 
 thou have 
 
 _ 
 
 er tobe 
 
 he praise 
 
 er Ijabe 
 
 ^ he have ! g 
 
 ttnr loben 
 
 we praise 
 
 tDtr ^abeu 
 
 ^ we have ' 
 
 ttjr lobet 
 
 you praise 
 
 tfyr Ijabet 
 
 you have 
 
 fte loben 
 
 they praise 
 
 fie ^aben 
 
 they have 
 
THE VEEB. 
 
 73 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PERFECT. 
 
 
 id) lobte 
 
 (if) I praised 
 
 id) Ijfitte ^i 
 
 (if) I had 
 
 
 bu lobteft 
 
 thou praised bu fjatteft 
 
 thou had 
 
 "d 
 
 er lobte 
 
 he praised 
 
 er ^atte 
 
 2| he had 
 
 L S 
 
 tt>ir lobteu 
 
 we praised 
 
 ttrir ^citteu 
 
 ", we had 
 
 ' 
 
 Ujr lobtet 
 
 you praised 
 
 iftr Wttct 
 
 you had 
 
 PH 
 
 fte lobten 
 
 they praised fte fatten J they had 
 
 
 FUTURE. 
 
 FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 
 id) uierbe 
 
 I shall 
 
 id) toerbe ^ I shall 
 
 
 bu toerbeft 
 
 thou wilt 
 
 bu tnerbeft 
 
 thou wilt 
 
 1 
 
 er voerbe 
 
 , g he will 
 
 . er merbe t 5- he will 
 
 i ' 
 
 ttir roerben 
 
 ^2 we shall 
 
 tt)ir tnerbeu F.S we shall 
 
 rpi 
 p 
 
 iljr toerbet 
 
 you will 
 
 i^r toerbet ^ you will 
 
 i 
 
 fie toerbcu J 
 
 they will ^ 
 
 fte toerbcn f they will 
 
 1 rCJ 
 
 CONDITIONAL MOOD. 
 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 
 id) ttmrbe "i I should 
 
 "\ tc^ tDiirbe ^ I should 
 
 
 bu unirbeft [ thouwouldst | bu tt)iirbeft 
 
 j3 thouwouldst 
 
 a 
 
 er ttwrbe 
 
 g he would 
 
 ! | erttjurbe 
 
 ?> he would 
 
 i-'S 
 
 unr roiirbeu 
 
 ^2 we should 
 
 tbir ttnirben 
 
 ,S we should 
 
 1 ft 
 s 
 
 tljr iiwrbet 
 
 you would 
 
 iljr ttjiirbet 
 
 * you would 
 
 1 
 
 fie ttwrbeu - 
 
 ' they would 
 
 fte triirbcn " they would - 
 
 ; ** 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 lobe (bu) 
 
 praise (thou) lobett to praise 
 
 lobt (iljr) 
 
 praise (you) 
 
 gelobt Ijabett to have praised 
 
 lobett @ie 
 
 praise (you) 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 lobcnb praising cjelobt praised 
 
 EEMARKS TO THE PARADIGM. The infinitive of every verb 
 in the German language, except fetlt, ends in en. Verbs like 
 l)dubcln, to act, ttmnbent, to wander, etc. are only abbreviated 
 
 from the old forms Ijcmbeleit, ttmttbereu K. 
 4 
 
74 THE TERB. 
 
 By dropping the termination en we obtain the root of the 
 verb ; thus lob is the root of lobcn ; and to this root the termi- 
 nations required in conjugating the verb are added. As will 
 be seen from the paradigm, the terminations are the following : 
 
 PRESENT 
 
 
 PAST 
 
 IXD. 
 
 SUBJ. 
 
 IXD. AND SUBJ. 
 
 e 
 
 e 
 
 (e)te 
 
 m 
 
 eft 
 
 (e)tefl 
 
 (e)t 
 
 e 
 
 (e)te 
 
 en 
 
 en 
 
 (e)ten 
 
 (c)t 
 
 et 
 
 (c)tet 
 
 en 
 
 en 
 
 (c)tcn 
 
 IMPERATIVE. PARTICIPLES. 
 
 enb 
 ge (c)t 
 
 (c)t 
 en 
 
 The e before ft or t may be dropped in the present indica- 
 tive, in the imperative, and in the past participle, whenever 
 euphony permits ; thus we may say, bit lobeft or lobft, cr lobct 
 or lobt, lobct (if)r) or lobt, fldobct or gdobt ; the abbreviated 
 form is now in general use, especially in the past participle, and 
 is therefore given in the paradigm. "When, however, a harsh 
 sound would result from the elision of C, or the termination 
 could not be distinctly pronounced without it, it must be 
 
 retained ; as, toartcn, to wait, bit ftartcft, cr inartct, QCftartct. 
 
 It is also retained in the present subjunctive, bit lobeft, if)r lobct. 
 In the past tense, the e before tc, tcft, etc., must be dropped, 
 whenever euphony permits, in the indicative, and is rarely 
 retained in the subjunctive; as, indicative, id) lobtc; subjunctive, 
 id) lobtC (same as indicative), more usual than lobetC. But, 
 as above, iDdttCte, iUCtrtctcft, etc. in both indicative and sub- 
 junctive. 
 
 When the root of a verb ends in cl or cr, the e of en, eft, et, is always dropped; 
 as, frantcln, t-> act. bu banbclft, cr f>anbclt, trir fyanbeln. In the first person of the present 
 indicative, iii the present subjunctive, and in the singular of the imperative, such 
 verbs generally drop the e of the root ; as, id? bantle (ind. and subj.) f til l?anbteft (suhj.), 
 fanble (fcu) JC. ; they always drop the c of the infinitive ending en ; in other verbs, 
 that c may be, but is not usually, dropped when preceded by a vowel or a silent ty ; as, 
 f d?rein for fcfrreien, to cry, glubn for gliiben, to glow. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 75 
 
 The past participle takes the prefix ge, except in the case of 
 those verbs whose first syllable is unaccented or has only a 
 secondary accent ; as, ftubt'teit, to study, ftubirt, not geftubift ; 
 
 bitcfyftabt'ren, to spell, bucfyftabtrt; Derlan'gen, to demand, &er* 
 langt ; iiberfe'^en, to translate, itberfe^t. 
 
 In compound "separable' 
 (see "Compound Verbs"). 
 
 verbs gc is inserted between the prefix and the verb 
 
 EXAMPLES FOR PRACTICE 
 bcmten, to thank ladjcn, to laugh 
 
 Cjfaubcn, to believe Icritcn, to learn 
 I)i5ren, to hear " lieben, to love 
 
 faitfcn, to buy rcben, to talk 
 
 fagen, to say 
 ftriclctt, to play 
 Derlangcn, to demand 
 toarten, to wait 
 
 In conjugating a verb, only the German forms should be recited ; as, id) lofce, bU 
 lofcfl, cr lofct :c., not trf) lobe,- 1 praise, bu lobft, thou praisest, etc.; of course, the meaning 
 of the German forms must be first studied and understood. 
 
 The American student will soon find that the conjugation of the G ~o~ular 
 verb does not present any difficulties. 
 
 PARADIGM. PASSIVE VOICE. 
 
 INDICATIVE MOOD. 
 
 PRESENT. PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 tc!) tterbe 
 
 | I am ) id) bin ^ 
 
 I have 
 
 
 bu unrft 
 
 thou art 
 
 ^ b -W 
 
 s~> thou hast 
 
 1 
 
 cr unrb 
 
 [ S he is 
 
 ertft 
 
 g he has 
 
 = 
 
 ttrir ttjerbcn 
 
 1^ we are 
 
 3 ttrir fittb 
 
 ^ we have 
 
 ^ 
 
 ifyr tuerbet 
 
 you are 
 
 i^r feib 
 
 > you have 
 
 2 
 
 fie voerbcn - 
 
 they are ^ fie fittb 
 
 they have * 
 
 
 PAST. PAST 
 
 PERFECT. 
 
 id) tmtrbe 
 
 II was "| id) 5 itmr ^ 
 
 e I had 
 
 
 bu tourbcft 
 
 thou Wast 
 
 ^ bu trarft 
 
 ^ thou hadst 
 
 1 
 
 er nntrbe 
 
 i ^ he was 
 
 _g cr mar 
 
 g he had 
 
 ' 
 
 mir itmrbcu 
 
 *S we were 
 
 ttnr tnarcu 
 
 we had 
 
 ? 
 
 if)r antrbet 
 
 you were 
 
 P< 
 i^r rnaret 
 
 ^ you had 
 
 s 
 
 fie txurbeu 
 
 they were ' fie tuareu 
 
 they had 
 
76 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 FUTURE. FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 id) iDcrbe 
 
 1^ IshaU 
 
 id) tt)crbe 
 
 |_ I shall 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 bu nrirft 
 cr urirb 
 ttnr mcrbcu 
 
 .0 thou wilt 
 | he will 
 g we shall 
 
 'g bu urirfi 
 /| er tntrb 
 p tt)ir tucrbcn 
 
 s thou wilt 
 
 
 
 ^2 he will 
 
 " O 
 
 2. we shall 
 
 I 
 1"! 
 
 iljr iDerbet 
 ftc tocrben - 
 
 ~ you will 
 they will * 
 
 ,0 i^r rocrbet 
 fie tuerben J 
 
 g you will 
 *, they will 
 
 1 
 J a 
 
 
 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. 
 
 
 PRESENT. PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id) tncrbe 
 bu mcrbcft 
 cr tncrbe 
 tutr wcrbcn 
 
 (if) I be 
 thou be 
 ^ he be 
 
 - o 
 
 ^ we be 
 
 id) fet 
 
 ^ bu fetcft 
 
 ^ S er ' c ^ 
 mir fetcn 
 
 (if) I have 
 2 thou have 
 g he have 
 S we have 
 
 s 
 
 a? 
 
 .1 
 
 P 
 
 ibr mcrbct 
 
 you be 
 
 if)r fctct 
 
 "o you have 
 
 
 
 _0 
 
 ftc tDerbcn - 
 
 they be ^ fte fctcn ^ they have - 
 
 |M 
 
 PAST. PAST PERFECT. 
 
 id) itmrbe ' 
 
 (if) I were 
 
 id) ware 
 
 (if) I had 
 
 
 bu tniirbcft 1 thou were 
 cr voiirbe 1 ^g he were 
 Votr inurbctl j ^ we were 
 ifyr trmrbct you were 
 
 ^ bu ma'reft 
 er marc 
 tptr iDa'rcn 
 il)r ma'rct 
 
 2 thou had 
 . f he had 
 we had 
 *o you had 
 
 4 
 
 i 
 
 $ 
 
 fte UJiirben ' they were * fte marcn J they had J * 
 
 FUTURE. FUTURE PERFECT. 
 
 id) tterbe 
 
 tf IshaU ^ 
 
 id) tterbe y^ I slia11 
 
 1 
 
 bu tncrbcft 
 cr vucrbe 
 tntr tt)crbcu 
 i!)r iDcrbct 
 ftc roorben 
 
 % thou wilt 
 | he will 
 *- we shall 
 ^ you will 
 they will 
 
 'g bu tterbeft i 
 cr tDcrbe 
 & *nrir ttjcrbcu 
 t^r mcrbct 
 ftc mcrbcu ' 
 
 g thou wilt 
 "2 he will 
 2 we shall 
 g you will 
 ^, they will 
 
 have been prai 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 77 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 tcf) ttwrbe "^ 
 bit ttwrbeft 1 % 
 er ttwrbe 1 g 
 ttrir ttwrben i 
 
 I should 
 thou wouldst 
 he would 
 we should 
 
 \ 
 
 tfyr ixjiirbet - 
 fte tuiirben -* 
 
 you would 
 they would ' 
 
 & 
 
 CONDITIONAL MOOD. " 
 
 PRESENT PERFECT. 
 
 id) ftiirbe I should 
 bu ttwrbeft "g" thouwouldst 
 er ttmrbe ^2 he would 
 
 o 
 
 tt)ir ttwrben fi we should 
 ifyr ttwrbet you would 
 fie ttwrben *, they would 
 
 IMPERATIVE MOOD. 
 
 uierbe gelobt be (thou) praised 
 tt)erbet gelobt be (you) praised 
 tt)erben@te(ielobtbe (you) praised 
 
 INFINITIVE MOOD. 
 
 getobt ttocrben 
 gelobt ttoorben 
 [fein 
 
 to be praised 
 
 to have been 
 
 [praised 
 
 PARTICIPLES. 
 
 git lobcnb to be praised 1 ) 
 
 gelobt praised 
 
 E/EMARKS. The passive voice of German verbs is formed by 
 means of the auxiliary verb toerbett, and the past participle of 
 a transitive verb. The past participle of trjerben, when used 
 as an auxiliary, is toorben, not gett)0rben. 
 
 The forms of the different moods and tenses will be readily 
 understood from the paradigm. 
 
 The auxiliary to be f however, in connection with a past 
 participle, is not in all cases rendered by Herbert, but must 
 frequently be translated by few. The following remarks will 
 explain the use of tocrben and feat. 
 
 1. A verb can only be considered as being in the passive 
 voice, when the subject is represented as acted upon by an agent 
 (expressed or understood), in which case we may convert the 
 passive into an active sentence conveying the same or a very 
 similar meaning; as, bread is baked in an oven, i. e., people 
 bake bread, etc.; or the bread is being baked (is baking) i. e., 
 
 1) See " Participles" under "Remarks on the Verb". 
 
78 THE VERB. 
 
 they are just baking it. Here, the verb is in the passive voice, 
 and to be must be rendered by tDCrbcn } as, bft3 S3rob ID t V b in 
 
 ctnem Of en gebacfcn, or ba$ Srob ID t r b cben gcbatf en. 
 
 2. When, however, the past participle expresses a state 
 which has been already attained by the subject, we cannot 
 consider to be with the participle as a verb in the passive voice, 
 but the participle is u.sed as a participial adjective and may 
 often be replaced by another adjective of similar meaning ; as, 
 the bread is baked, i. e., it has been baked, the baking is over, 
 the bread is ready ; to be is then rendered by fetn J as, bd$ 
 33rob tft gcbadm 
 
 Observe the difference in the use of tocrbcu and fetlt in the following 
 examples : 
 
 SaS Simmer totrb jebcn 2ftorgen gefegt, the room is swept every 
 morning, i. e., the servant sweeps it; baS 3i mi tter iff Qefcgt, the room 
 is swept, it is clean. 
 
 3i) mcrbe oft Don mctncn greimbeu eingelaben, I am often invited 
 by my friends, i. e., they often invite me; id) bin jum 9Jltttag6cf|cn 
 eingclabcil, I am invited to dinner, i. e. t I have an invitation. 
 
 3>te 5lrbeiter tncrbeu jeben 3lbcnb bejafjlt; the workmen are paid 
 every evening, i. e. 9 the employer pays them; bie $lrbeiter (tub bejafylt, 
 the workmen are paid, i. e. they have received their wages. 
 
 2)ie 33anfen to u r b e n Ijeute urn ein ll^r gefcfyloffen, the banks were 
 closed to-day at one o'clock, i. c., the bankers closed them ; bie 33anfcu 
 tnarcn geftcrn gefdjloffcn, the banks were closed yesterday i. e., they 
 were not open at all. 
 
 REFLEXIVE VERBS. 
 
 When the object of a verb is a personal pronoun which 
 stands for the same person or thing as the subject, the verb is 
 said to be used reflexively ; as, id) roafcfje mid), I wash myself, 
 bit lobft bid), you praise yourself, etc. 
 
 In English, there is only a limited number of verbs that 
 are always used reflexively ; as, to betake one's self, to perjure 
 
THE VERB. 79 
 
 one's self, etc.; in German, many verbs are used renexively 
 that are not accompanied by the reflexive pronoun in English ; 
 as, fid) freuen, to rejoice, fid) fcfyamen, to be ashamed, fid) fefynett, 
 to long, etc. 
 
 On the use of fid) see page 53. 
 
 In the conjugation of a reflexive verb, the object must agree 
 with the subject in person and number,,as shown in the follow- 
 ing 
 
 PARADIGM. 
 <Sid) freuen, to rejoice. 
 
 PRESENT INDICATIVE. PRESENT PERFECT INDICATIVE. 
 
 id) freue mid) 
 bu frcuft bid) 
 cr freut fid) 
 tm'r frcuen mis 
 iljr frcut cud) 
 fte freucu fid) 
 
 I rejoice 
 thou rejoicest 
 he rejoices 
 we rejoice 
 you rejoice 
 they rejoice 
 
 id) fyabe mid) 
 bu Ijaft bid) 
 cr Ijat fief) 
 tt)ir Ijaben un3 
 ifyr Ijabt cud) 
 fte fyabcn ftd) 
 
 I have 
 thou hast 
 2 he has 
 tr we have 
 
 03 
 
 you have 
 they have ' 
 
 The other moods and tenses are conjugated in the same manner ; as, 
 id) frelite mid), id) Ijattc mid) gcfreut, id) uierbe mid) frcuen, freue bid), freut 
 cud), freuen tc ftd) :c. 
 
 A few reflexive verbs take the object in the dative case and are 
 conjugated accordingly; as, fid) getraucn, to venture, id) cjetraue mir, 
 bu getrauft bir, er netraut fid) jc. (See the remarks on the "Govern- 
 ment of Verbs" i;nder "Prepositions".) 
 
 IMPERSONAL VERBS. 
 
 Verbs denoting natural phenomena are used in the third 
 person singular, as in English ; as, e$ recjttet, it rains ; e$ 
 fdjtlCtt, it snows; etc. Thus also, e$ tft iDttrm, it is warm; 
 C3 tft fait, it is cold; etc. 
 
 Many verbs are used impersonally in certain idiomatic 
 expressions ; as, e$ fdjldgt, it strikes (the hour) ; c$ fdjellt, it 
 (the bell) rings ; e l)dt QCffopft, it (some one) has knocked. 
 
80 THE VERB. 
 
 Some verbs used impersonally take an object in the accusa- 
 tive or dative; as, e$ freut mid), I am glad, C$ freitt bid), C3 ffCUt 
 
 tljtt jc.; e$ fyungert mid), or mid) fjmtgert, I am hungry; e$ gel)t 
 
 ntir QUt, I am doing well; C3 ift mtr Mt, I am cold; e$ 
 gelingt mir, I succeed; etc. Some verbs may be used imperson- 
 ally in the passive ; as, e tflitrbc gctflngt, there was dancing. 
 
 The pronoun e is often used as an anticipative subject, 
 corresponding to the English there ; as, e$ ift, e$ fitlb, there is, 
 there are ; e$ ttfCir etmtial ein Snabe, once upon a time there 
 was a boy ; sometimes it cannot be translated ; as, e^ tDtrb etn 
 (Sturm fommett, a storm will come. (See also page 57.) 
 
 The idiomatic uses of c with certain verbs are found in all good 
 dictionaries. 
 
 Impersonal verbs take the auxiliary fyabcit (see Remarks page 67), 
 except that such intransitives as may be used personally and are then 
 conjugated with fetn, take fcirt also when used impersonally ; we say, 
 e. g., cr ift gegangen; therefore, also, e ift mtr gut gegangen, etc. 
 
 REMARKS. G3 gibt (lit. " it gives ")/ followed bj r an accusative, is an idiomatic 
 expression, to be translated by there in, there are, and denoting existence in a general 
 sense ; as, c-3 {\ifct nicf)t3 92cue, there is no news ; c3 gtbt tttele Seute, tr*clc^c ntc gufrieben 
 finb, there are many people who are never contented. 63 ifl, c finb, are followed by 
 the (real) subject in the nominative (see page 57), and are employed, when definite 
 objects with reference to a particular place are referred to ; as, e3 ift etn arten Ijinter 
 bcm auje, there is a garden behind the house ; c3 ftnb bret SDidnncr an bcr 3:^ur, there 
 are three men at the door. It is, however, not practicable to give rules applying to 
 all cases ; the student must learn by practice as to when c3 gifct or e ifl (e3 ftnb) is the 
 preferable expression. 
 
 COMPOUND VERBS. 
 
 In German, many verbs are compounded with prefixes, as 
 in English. 
 
 Some compound verbs always remain united with their 
 prefixes ; as, befudjen, to visit, id) befucfye, id) kfudjte, id) fyabe 
 kfud)t ; t>erlangen, to demand, id) tierlange, berlangte, Ijabe 
 t)crtangt; uberfe^en, to translate, id) iibcrfe^e, uberfe^te, f)abc 
 itbcrfcfet; etc. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 81 
 
 Other compound verbs are, in German, sometimes separated 
 from their prefix ; as, anfommen, to arrive, id) fomme an ; 
 
 eitffaufcu, to purchase, id) fcmfe etn ; etc. 
 
 We have to speak, therefore, of separable and inseparable 
 compound verbs. 
 
 The prefix of a separable compound verb is detached from 
 the verb in the present and past tenses of the indicative and 
 subjunctive, and in the imperative. The ge of the past parti- 
 ciple (provided that the verb takes ge, see page 75) is inserted 
 between the prefix and the verb. 
 
 PARADIGM. 
 
 2lufl)breu, to cease. 
 
 INDICATIVE. SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 PRESENT. 
 
 id) fyore-auf (if) I cease 
 bit [joreft auf thou cease 
 er fybre auf he cease 
 
 ttrir fjbreu auf we cease 
 tf)r t)brct auf you cease 
 fte fyoren auf they cease 
 
 AST. 
 
 id) fybrte auf (if) I ceased 
 bu fyorteft auf thou ceased 
 er I)brtc auf he ceased 
 ttrir tybrten auf we ceased 
 il)r fjbrtet auf you ceased 
 fie Ijbrtcn auf they ceased 
 
 id) fybre auf 
 
 I cease 
 
 bu l)brft auf 
 
 thou ceasest 
 
 er l)brt auf 
 
 he ceases 
 
 ttnr tjbreu auf 
 
 we cease 
 
 i()r Ijbrt auf 
 
 you cease 
 
 fie pren auf 
 
 they cease 
 
 id) l)brte auf 
 
 I ceased 
 
 bu Ijbrteft auf 
 
 thou ceasedst 
 
 er fybrte auf 
 
 he ceased 
 
 tt)ir fybrten auf 
 
 we ceased 
 
 i()r l)brtet auf 
 
 you ceased 
 
 fte !)brteu auf 
 
 they ceased 
 
 PAST PARTICIPLE. 
 
 aufgef)brt ceased 
 
 IMPERATIVE. 
 
 I)bre auf cease (thou) 
 
 fybrt auf cease (you) 
 
 l)bren ie auf cease (you) 
 
 In a principal sentence, the prefix is generally placed at the 
 end of the sentence ; as, id) fyorte fjeitte Uttt ftebett tlfjr CWf, 
 I ceased to-day at seven o'clock. 
 
82 THE VERB. 
 
 Sometimes the prefix is separated from the vero even by a subordinate sentence ; 
 when, therefore, the beginner finds a word at the end of a complex sentence, and does 
 not know what to make of it, he will prefix it to the verb of the principal sentence 
 and look in his dictionary for the compound verb ; in most cases, the sense will then 
 become apparent. 
 
 In a subordinate sentence, in which the verb is placed at the 
 end of the sentence (see " Arrangement of "Words"), no separa- 
 tion takes place, and the prefix remains united with the verb ; 
 as, tnentt id) auffyore, when I cease ; iDCtl cr ailf f)0rte, because 
 he ceased ; etc. 
 
 When gu is used with the infinitive (see "Infinitive", "Use 
 of Moods ") it is inserted between the verb and the prefix ; as, 
 
 er kfatjl mtr, nm bier tlfyr aufjuljflren, he commanded me to 
 
 cease at four o'clock. 
 
 The question arises, then, which compound verbs are separa- 
 ble, and which inseparable 1 
 
 A II verbs compounded with an adverb or a preposition, hamnj 
 the primary accent on tJie prefix, are separable ; all other com- 
 pound verbs are inseparable. (For the few exceptions, see 
 "Remarks.") 
 
 It follows from this rule, that 
 
 1. All verbs compounded with prefixes which have no meaning 
 as separate words are inseparable; as, befien, to possess, id) bcfte; 
 cntQcljcn, to escape, id) cntgcfjc; ttcrfteljcn, to understand, id) Dcrftcfje; 
 even when such prefixes are placed before a separable prefix; as, bean'* 
 trarjcn, to motion, id) bcantragc ; unless the two prefixes form a com- 
 pound which has sense of itself ; as, bettor'ftefjcn, to impend, c3 ftcljt 
 bettor ; cntfjc'genfommen, to come to meet, id) fomme cntcjccjcn. 
 
 On the same principle the prefix ant, having no meaning of itself, is 
 inseparable, although it has the accent ; as, ant'morten, to answer, id) 
 anttnorte. 
 
 The prefix mifcf also, is rarely separated from the verb ; as, mijj'rerfletyen, to misunder- 
 stand, tcfy mipserflelje, not idj terftcfa inijj. The gc of the participle, however, is some- 
 times inserted after the prefix ; as, tntp'tonen, to be dissonant, mipgetcnt. 
 
 2. All verbs compounded with an adverb or a preposition, having 
 the primary accent on the verb, not the prefix, are inseparable; as, 
 
THE VERB. 83 
 
 fh'fyett, to resist, id) ttuberftelje ; iiber^cu'gen, to convince, id^ iibeqeuge ; 
 iiberfe'fcen, to translate, id) iibcrfc^c; itmge'f)cn, to evade, icf) nmgelje ; 
 but ii'ber[et3en, to cross over, id) fetje iiber; um'geljcn, to have intercourse, 
 id) gelje lim K. r because here the prefix has the primary accent. 
 
 As to whether the primary accent lies on the prefix or the verb, 
 must ba learned by practice or from the dictionary. The ear of the 
 student wLl, however, soon become trained to distinguish an inseparable 
 from a separable verb. 
 
 REMARKS. 1. Verbs compounded with adjectives are also separable, when the prefix 
 only modifies the meaning of the verb, without materially changing it ; as, acfytcn, to 
 esteem, fyodjadjten, to esteem highly, id) adjte fyod) ; but, fagen. to say, tualjrfagcn, to tell 
 one's fortune, id) roafyrfage/ because the compound tt>at;rfagen has a meaning quite, 
 different from the simple verb fagen. 
 
 2. Some verbs compounded with nouns are also separable ; as, fcanf fagen, to thank, 
 id) fage >anf ; but such nouns are better always written separately ; as, CDanf fagcn. 
 
 IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 We call irregular all verbs whose conjugation differs from 
 that of the regular verbs, as given in the paradigm of lobcit, 
 page 72. 
 
 The irregular forms of German verbs occur in the past 
 indicative, past subjunctive, past participle, the singular of the 
 present indicative, and the singular of the imperative. They 
 are contained in the " List of Irregular Verbs ", to which the 
 following remarks will furnish the necessary explanation : 
 
 1. Most irregular verbs change tbeir root-vowel (or diph- 
 thong) in the past tense, and many also in the past participle ; 
 they do not take the ending tc in tbe past, and add en instead 
 of (e)t in the past participle; as, MecjCIt, bog, gebogen, to bend, 
 bent, bent ; ritfcn, fief, QCrufen, to call, called, called ; fittgeit, 
 
 fang, gefungen, to sing, sang, sung. 
 
 The last example shows the analogy between the irregularities of some German 
 verbs and the corresponding English verbs. 
 
 In the past indicative, tbe first and third persons singular 
 
84 THE VERB. 
 
 do not add any termination, the second person singular and the 
 plural take the same terminations as the present indicative. 
 
 In the past subjunctive, the root-vowel takes the Umlaut 
 (if capable of it), and the terminations are those of the present 
 subjunctive. 
 
 The past participle takes or omits the prefix ge according to 
 the rule given for regular verbs (page 75). 
 
 PARADIGM. 
 
 iBiegen, to bend. 
 
 PAST INDICATIVE. PAST SUBJUNCTIVE. 
 
 icf) bog I bent id) bbge (if) I bent 
 
 bu bogft thou bentst bit bogeft thou bent 
 
 cr bog he bent er boge he bent 
 
 uiir bojcn we bent tt)ir bogcn we bent 
 
 t[)r bogt you bent ifyr bogct you bent 
 
 fie bogcn they bent fte bogcn they bent 
 Past participle, gcbogcn. 
 
 Most verbs with the root-vowel a (and Idtlfen, failfcit, ftofjcit, 
 see the List) take the Umlaut in the second and third persons 
 of the present indicative; as, fallen, to fall, bit fallft, CU fcitlt; 
 and most verbs with the root-vowel e (or d) change it to t or 
 1C in the same persons and in the second person singular of the 
 imperative ; as, brcd)CH, to break, bit brtdjft, Ct bricfjt, imper. brief] ; 
 befcfjlen, to command, bu bcfiel)lft, cr beficl)lt, imper. beficljl. 
 
 Some verbs which are otherwise regular in the imperative, may drop the final c ; a~, 
 Irtuf or laufe, from laitfen, to run ; fommen, to come, and lafien, to let, should always 
 drop the e (see them in the List). 
 
 When the past indicative ends ia ft, and the past participle has the same vowel as the 
 past indicative, that vowel is always short, and the jj must be changed to ft when a 
 termination is added (see page 18); as, beitjen, to bite, tip, gebifien; tu btficft, subjunctive 
 id) In fie :c. When e is dropped before i, some use fc, others ff ; tbr fctfct, or bint. In all 
 verbs not having the same vowel in the past indicative and past participle, the vowel 
 before p is long, and the p remains unchanged; as, m off en, to measure, tna, geateffCB; 
 tu mafceft, subjunctive i<f> mafce :c. 
 
 Tlie short form of s, g, is always changed to f on adding a termination ; as, lefcn, to 
 read, Ia ; bu tafejl, ic^ laie ; when the e is dropped before t, some use f or f, others 8; 
 as, if>r laVt, laft, or la^t. 
 
THE VERB. 85 
 
 The irregularities of some verbs are not confined to the vowel 
 
 of their root ; as, Ijattett, to strike, fyieb ; gdjen, to go, ciing, 
 gegangen; etc. They are conjugated like btegett. 
 
 Some verbs drop the terminatipn et in the third person of the present indicative; 
 as, fe$tcn, to fight, er ficfyt (for ft^tet). 
 
 2. Other irregular verbs undergo a change in their root, 
 but they at the same time take the terminations tC in the past 
 and t in the past participle and are conjugated, as regards 
 their terminations, like regular verbs; brhtgen, to bring, bradjte, 
 
 gcbradjt; miiffen, to be obliged, muftte, gentujH; fcnbcn, to send, 
 
 fanbte, gefanbt; etc. In the past subjunctive they take the 
 Utttlftilt; as, brtidjte, Utitjstc; unless another form is given in 
 the remarks at the foot of the page; see, e. g., fenben," sub- 
 junctive fenbete :c. 
 
 Some verbs of this kind are irregular in the singular of the 
 present indicative ; as, mitffett, trfj mufc, bit tttltjH, CV tttUJjj. 
 
 The foregoing general information on the irregularities of 
 German verbs will be found sufficient to enable the student to 
 use the alphabetical list and conjugate every irregular verb in the 
 language. 
 
 The irregular forms only are given; whatever does not appear 
 in the list, is regular, and conjugated like 1 b C It . In the past 
 tense, however, only the first person singular of the indicative 
 will be found, it being conjugated like bog, or if it ends in te, 
 like (obtC ; the subjunctive takes the UtttlCUtt and is conjugated 
 like boge or lobtc, respectively. 
 
 Only those compound verbs are given whose simple verbs are 
 not used by themselves or are not irregular. 
 
 To find the irregular forms of other compounds, the simple 
 verbs must be looked up; e. g., to find the conjugation of em* 
 
 pfangcn, sec fangcu :c. 
 
86 THE VERB. 
 
 NOTE. Verbs derived from nouns are regular ; as, Bc^erbercjen (from ^crfccroie), to 
 harbor; fcemttleiben (from SKitletb), to pity; fyetratfyen (from >eiratf)), to marry; lira; 
 ringcn (from dftng), to surround; ratfyfcfylajjen cr fceratbfcfclacjen (from SRat^cfclag), to 
 deliberate ; etc. These are not conjugated like bercjen, letfcn, rat&en, TUKjen, fdrtagen, 
 but like Icfcen; e.g., fce^erbcrgtc, fccmttleifcete jc. Dictionaries designate all irregular 
 verbs, usually by the abbreviation irr.; all verbs not marked in this or a similar 
 manner are regular. The student will find that verbs like the above are not designated 
 as irregular verbs. 
 
 The student should first conjugate a number of irregular verbs in all 
 their moods and tenses and then learn the irregular forms of all verbs 
 from the list, say half a dozen verbs at a time, and he will very soon 
 become familiar with all irregular verbs and will, after a little practice, 
 find them anything but difficult. To facilitate the task of the beginner, 
 we have marked with an asterisk (*) all verbs of frequent occurrence; 
 he may study these first and take the others when reviewing. If 110 
 teacher be available, the student may write out the full conjugation of 
 a few verbs, have them corrected by any educated German, and commit 
 them to memory, to train the ear to the proper forms. 
 
 NOTE. Grammarians generally classify German verbs as belonging to the Strong 
 (Old) or Weak (New) Conjugation. The weak conjugation comprises all regular verbs ; 
 the strong conjugation comprises nearly all irregular verbs treated by us under 1. 
 Irrejular they call only the verbs treated by us under 2. ; also ojefyen, ftefcen, tfyun, and 
 the auxiliaries fyaben, fetn, trerben. The verbs of the strong conjugation are further 
 divided into several classes, according to their change of vowel. 
 
 Far from disputing tke correctness of such classifications, we would only give it as 
 our opinion, based upon our experience in teaching and the assurance of many students, 
 that the dividing of verbs into two conjugations and the further subdivision into classes 
 are most confusing to beginners, instead of facilitating the study, and that they serve no 
 practical purpose whatever ; and although we are well aware that our way of presenting 
 the German verbs may be severely criticized, we prefer, independent of custom, to do 
 our dut} r by those who may use this MANUAL ; and therefore, in accordance with the 
 promise given in the preface, we present the verbs in a manner " familiar to the American 
 student"; he is accustomed to distinguish between regular and irregular verbs, and 
 to study the latter from an alphabetical list ; they might be divided into classes, accord- 
 ing to the change of vowel, termination, etc., as the German verbs. All we ask is a 
 fair trial ; study (or teach) the list according to our instructions, and you will be grati- 
 fied by the result, as compared with that obtained in following other methods. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 87 
 
 LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 
 
 ARRANGED IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER. 
 
 The asterisk (*) is used to mark verbs of frequent occurrence ; the 
 beginner should study these first, and take the others when reviewing. 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PART. 
 
 PRES. IXD. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 *bacf en, 1 ) to bake 
 
 but 
 
 gebarfen 
 
 bu bcicfft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er bcicf t 
 
 
 befeljlen, 2 ) to command 
 
 befal)! ' 
 
 befoljten 
 
 bu befterilft 
 
 befie^I 
 
 
 
 
 er befiel)It 
 
 
 bcfleijjen (fid)), to ap- 
 
 beflifi 
 
 befttffen 
 
 
 
 ply (one's self) 
 
 
 
 
 
 *bcgtnncn,3) to begin 
 
 bcgann 
 
 begomten 
 
 
 
 *bci(3en, to bite 
 
 big 
 
 gebiffen 
 
 
 
 berg en, to hide, save 
 
 barg 
 
 geborgen 
 
 bu birgft 
 
 btrg 
 
 
 
 
 er btrgt 
 
 
 berften, 4 ) to burst 
 
 barft 
 
 geborften 
 
 er btrfl 
 
 btrft 
 
 bett)egen,5) to induce 
 
 beroog 
 
 bctDogctt 
 
 
 
 bi eg en, to bend 
 
 bog 
 
 gebogen 
 
 
 
 bteten,6) to offer 
 
 bot 
 
 gebotcn 
 
 
 
 *b;nbcn, to bind 
 
 banb 
 
 gcbunben 
 
 
 
 *btttcn, to request 
 
 bat 
 
 gcbeten 
 
 
 
 blafcn, to blow 
 
 bites 
 
 geMafcn 
 
 bu blafeft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er bta'f't 
 
 
 *blctbcn, to remain 
 
 bttcb 
 
 gebltcben 
 
 
 
 *bfet(f)cn,7)tofade 
 
 bUrf) 
 
 .jebltc!)cn 
 
 
 
 1) When transitive, fcadcn is regular ; as, er fcacft, fcacfte fca 23rcb/ he bakes, baked 
 the bread ; but, fca 23rob 6dcEt> but/ the bread bakes, baked. The past participle is 
 always irregular, gefcacfen. 
 
 2) Past subjunctive, fcefoljte or tefdbte. 
 
 3) Past subjunctive, fcecjonne or begdnne. 
 
 4) The pres. ind. and imper. are also formed regularly. The past fcorfi, subj. 
 Ijorftc, is also used. 
 
 5) When it means to move (from one place to another) or to affect, it is regular. 
 
 6) The old forms tu fccutft, er fceut, imper. &eut, are found in poetry. 
 
 7) Generally used as a compound ; as, crbleicfyen, tterfcletdjen, to grow pale, etc. ; the 
 transitive fcleidjen, to bleach, is regular. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PART. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 bratcn, 1 ) to roast 
 
 brtct 
 
 3cbratcn 
 
 Dn brdtft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er brat 
 
 
 * bred) en, to break 
 
 brad) 
 
 3ebrod)en 
 
 Dn bridjft 
 
 brid) 
 
 
 
 
 cr bridjt 
 
 
 *brenncn, 2 ) to burn 
 
 brannte 
 
 3ebrannt 
 
 
 
 * bring en, to bring 
 
 bradjte 
 
 3ebrad)t 
 
 
 
 *bcnfcn, to think 
 
 badjte 
 
 gebadjt 
 
 
 
 bingen,3) to hire 
 
 bung 
 
 gebungcn 
 
 
 
 brefdjen, 4 ) to thresh 
 
 brofd) 
 
 gebrojdjcn 
 
 bu brt[ct)eft 
 
 brifc^ 
 
 
 
 
 er brtfd)t 
 
 
 bringcn, to urge 
 
 brang 
 
 gebrungcn 
 
 
 
 *0iirfcn, to be allowed 
 
 burfte 
 
 geburft 
 
 id^ barf 
 
 [wanting] 
 
 
 
 
 bu barfft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er barf 
 
 
 empfeljtcn, 5 ) to recom- 
 
 cmpfafjl 
 
 empfoljlen 
 
 bn empfie^lft 
 
 empfteljl 
 
 mend 
 
 
 
 er cmpfUl)lt 
 
 
 erlofd)cn, 6 ) to be ex- 
 
 crlojd) 
 
 erlofc^en 
 
 Du erltfd)cft 
 
 erltfd) 
 
 tinguished 
 
 
 
 cr crlifdjt 
 
 
 e,rid)rcicn,7) to be 
 
 erfdjraf 
 
 crfc^ro.tcn 
 
 bu erjd)rtcfft 
 
 crfdjrtcf 
 
 frightened 
 
 
 
 cr crfd)rtcft 
 
 
 *efen, to eat 
 
 a 6 
 
 gcgeffcn 
 
 bn iff eft 
 
 16 
 
 
 
 
 ertfet 
 
 
 *fal)rcn,8)todrive 
 
 fnljr 
 
 gcfaljren 
 
 bu fafjrft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er ftifjrt 
 
 
 /fallen, to fall 
 
 Pel 
 
 gefallcn 
 
 Du fa'llft 
 
 
 
 
 
 cr fallt 
 
 
 1) When transitive, it inaj- be conjugated regularly, but the past participle is 
 always gefcraten. (See the remarks to fcacfen.) 
 
 2) Past subjunctive, brcnntc or brcnnete. 
 
 3) The regular past Hncjtc is also used. 
 
 4) The past brafdj, subj. brdfdjc, is also used. The whole verb is found conjugated 
 regularly, except the past participle, which is always gc^rofdjen. 
 
 5) Past subjunctive, cmpfaWe or cmpfcMc. 
 
 6) The regoilar forms of the pres. ind., crlcfcfrcfl, crlef*t, and imper. erlcfdjc, are also 
 used. The simple verb I6fd>en, to extinguish (transitive), is regular. 
 
 7) When transitive, meaning- to frighten, it is regular ; thus also the simple verb 
 fdjrecfen, to frighten. 
 
 8) aSiUfafyren, to gratify, is regular; all the other compounds of fasten are irregular. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 89 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PART. 
 
 PRES. IXD. 
 
 IMPEB. 
 
 falten,i) to fold 
 
 
 gefalten 
 
 
 
 *rangen, to catch 
 
 ftng 
 
 gefangen 
 
 bu ffingfl 
 
 
 
 
 
 cr fangt 
 
 
 f ed)tcu, 2 ) to fight, fence 
 
 fodjt 
 
 gefoi^tcn 
 
 bu fid)tfl 
 
 Wt 
 
 
 
 
 er ftdjt 
 
 
 *fmbeu, to find 
 
 fanb 
 
 gefunbcn 
 
 
 
 f ted) ten, 3 ) to braid 
 
 flodfjt 
 
 geflodjten 
 
 bu f(idftt(l 
 
 fftd)t 
 
 
 
 
 er flidftt 
 
 
 *fltcgen, 4 ) to fly 
 
 fag 
 
 geftogen 
 
 
 
 *flie()en, 5 ) to flee 
 
 M 
 
 geftoljcn 
 
 
 
 *f(tc&cn,6) to flow 
 
 M 
 
 gcftoffcn 
 
 
 
 *freffcn, to eat, devour 
 
 frag 
 
 gefrcffen 
 
 bu friffeft 
 
 fng 
 
 
 
 
 er friftt 
 
 
 frteren, to freeze 
 
 fror 
 
 gcfrorcn 
 
 
 
 gafjren,f)to ferment 
 
 3f)r 
 
 jegoljren 
 
 
 
 gcbjircn, 8 ) to bring 
 
 gebar 
 
 geboren 
 
 bu gebtcrft 
 
 gcbier 
 
 forth 
 
 
 
 er gebicrt 
 
 
 *gcb:n,9) to give 
 
 3ab 
 
 vjcgcben 
 
 bu gicbrt 
 
 (jirt 
 
 
 
 
 cr gicbt 
 
 
 gebeifjeu, to prosper 
 
 gebiel) 
 
 jcbtcljen 
 
 
 
 *gcf)en, to go 
 
 3^8 
 
 gcgan^cii 
 
 
 
 geIm.qeH,!)to succeed 
 
 3daug 
 
 3ehmgcn 
 
 
 
 gslten,!!) to be worth 
 
 Raft 
 
 gegolten 
 
 DU giltft 
 
 gilt 
 
 
 
 
 er gttt 
 
 
 *gcucfcu, to recover 
 
 ]enae 
 
 3cncfcn 
 
 
 
 1) The regular participle gcfaltct is also used. 
 
 2) In the pres. ind. the regular forms bu fcdjteft, cr fedjtet, are also used. 
 
 3) In the pres. ind. the regn'ar forms bu Wteft, er fledjtet, are also used. 
 
 4) The old forms bu flcrujft, cr fleugt, imper. fteug, are found in poetry. 
 
 5) The old forms bu fleucfyft, er fteudjt imper. fleud), are found in poetry. 
 
 6) The old forms bu fleujjeft, cr fteujjt, imper. fleufe, are found in poetry. 
 
 7) The regular past gd^rtc is also used. 
 
 8) The regnlar forms $e&drft, gefcdrt, imper. gefedre, are also used. 
 
 9) Pres. ind. and imp. often written without c, gibft, gtbt, gifo. 
 
 10) Usually impersonal ; e3 getingt mir, I succeed, clungcn as an adjective has the 
 meaning of good, well done, etc. 
 
 11) Past subjunctive, gdtte or gofte. 
 
90 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PART. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 *gemeJ3cii, 1 )to enjoy 
 
 genog 
 
 gcnoffen 
 
 
 
 *gefd)cf)en, to happen 
 
 y\$rf) 
 
 gefcljefjen 
 
 c gcfd^icljt 
 
 
 *gcnrinnen,2) to win 
 
 ^etnann 
 
 gewonncn 
 
 
 
 *gieJ3en,3) to pour 
 
 906 
 
 gegoffcn 
 
 
 
 gletd)en, to resemble 
 
 gltci) 
 
 geglicljen 
 
 
 
 glcitcn, 4 ) to glide 
 
 glttt 
 
 geglitten 
 
 
 
 glimmcn, 5 )to glimmer 
 
 glomm 
 
 geglommcn 
 
 
 
 *graben, to dig 
 
 grub 
 
 gcgraben 
 
 bit grcibfi 
 
 
 
 
 
 er grcibt 
 
 * 
 
 *gretfen, to grasp 
 
 griff 
 
 gegriffcn 
 
 
 
 Ijaben,6) to have ; see 
 
 
 gcljaltcn 
 
 
 
 page 65. 
 
 
 
 
 
 *l)altcn, to hold 
 
 fn'elt 
 
 gcljattcn 
 
 bu pltft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er Ijalt 
 
 
 Ijanrjen,?) to hang 
 
 lung 
 
 geljangcn 
 
 bit Ijdngft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er Ijangt 
 
 
 fyaucn, 8 ) to strike 
 
 (n'eb 
 
 gcljaucn 
 
 
 
 *()ebcn, to lift 
 
 f)ob 
 
 gcl)oben 
 
 
 
 *[)CtJ3en, to call, bid 
 
 f)tcj3 
 
 gcljeifjcn 
 
 
 
 *I)clfen,9)tohelp 
 
 Iialf 
 
 gcljolfcn 
 
 Du Fjilfft 
 
 ;,iif 
 
 
 
 
 er l)tlft 
 
 
 let fen, 10 ) to chide 
 
 tiff 
 
 tjctiffcn 
 
 
 
 *fenncn, 11 ) to know 
 
 fannte 
 
 ]cfannt 
 
 
 
 ttteben, to cleave 
 
 ttob 
 
 getlobcn 
 
 
 
 1) The old forms tu gencu^efl, cr gcncu^t, impsr. gencu^, are found in poetry. 
 
 2) Past subjunctive, gcironnc or gerrannc. 
 
 3) Tlie old forms bu v3eufjcjlt / cr gcu^t, imp. geufj, are found in poetry. 
 
 4) 93c{jlciten, to accompany, is not a compound of gleiten and is regular. 
 
 5) Also used as a regular verb. 
 
 G) ^anbfyaOen, to handle, administer, is regular. (From ^anbfyabe, see top of page 86.) 
 
 7) angcn is an intransitive verb, meaning to hanj, i. c., to be suspended ; the tran- 
 sitive Ijancjcn/ to hang, to suspend, is regular, Bangle, gef)angt. 
 
 S) aucn, in the sense of to hew, forms its past regularly, fyaute; thus also fce^aucn, 
 to trim by hewing, jcrfiauen, to cut asunder, beTviutc, $cvfcaiite. 
 
 9) Past subjunctive, f)dlfe or I)ulfc. 
 
 10) Found also as a regular verb. 
 
 11) Past subjunctive, tennte or fenncte. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 91 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PASl PART. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 flirnnten, 1 ) to climb 
 
 flomm 
 
 gcflommcn 
 
 
 
 tfiitgen, to sound 
 
 Hang 
 
 geftun^cn 
 
 
 
 tnetfcrt, 2 )to pinch 
 
 miff 
 
 gefntffen 
 
 
 
 tneipen, 3 )to pinch 
 
 fmp|) 
 
 gehtippcn 
 
 
 
 *fommcn, 4 )to come 
 
 *am 
 
 gefommen 
 
 
 ?omm 
 
 *fbunen, to be able 
 
 fonnte 
 
 gefonut 
 
 id) tatm 
 
 [wanting] 
 
 
 
 
 bit fannft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er faun 
 
 
 frtedjen, 5 ) to creep 
 
 trod) 
 
 gc!rod)en 
 
 
 
 fiiren, to choose 
 
 for 
 
 geforen 
 
 
 
 fdben, c ) to load 
 
 tub 
 
 gelaben 
 
 
 
 *laffen,7) to let 
 
 ttefi 
 
 gelaffen 
 
 bit laffeft 
 
 lag 
 
 
 
 
 er idfit 
 
 
 *iaufcn, to run 
 
 lief 
 
 gelaufen 
 
 bit laufft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er laitft 
 
 
 Ietbcn,8)to suffer 
 
 Ittt 
 
 gcltttcn 
 
 
 
 leifjcn, to lend or to 
 
 lief) 
 
 gelietjen 
 
 
 
 borrow 
 
 
 
 
 
 *lefcn, to read 
 
 las 
 
 gelejen 
 
 bit Itefefi 
 
 Iic6 
 
 
 
 
 er Itef't 
 
 
 *Uegctt, to lie (recline) 
 
 lag 
 
 gclcgen 
 
 
 
 Ibfdjctt, to extinguish, 
 
 
 
 
 
 see crlbfdjcn 
 
 
 
 
 
 liigcn, 9 ) to lie (tell a 
 
 tog 
 
 gelogen 
 
 
 
 falsehood) 
 
 
 
 
 
 mat) ten, to grind (in a 
 
 
 gcmaljlcu 
 
 
 
 mill) 
 
 
 
 
 
 1) Sometimes conjugated as a regular verb. 
 
 2) Sometimes conjugated as a regular verb. 
 
 3) Now generally conjugated as a regular verb. 
 
 4) The forms fcu femmft, cr fommt, are also used. 
 
 5) The old forms bu Ireucljfl, er freucfyt, imper. tveud), are found in poetry. 
 
 6) In the pres. ind. the irregular forms fcu labft, cr lafct, and in the past the regular 
 forms id) labetc K. t are also found. 
 
 7) The compound wercmlaffen, to cause, is regular. 
 
 8) The compound vcrleiben, to render disagreeable, is regular. 
 
 9) The old forms bu leugft, cr leiK3t, imper. leucj, are found in poetry. 
 
92 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ' T E * 
 
 
 A T PA . 
 
 1 
 
 IMx ?v. 
 
 mcibcn, to shun, avoid 
 
 mteb 
 
 ]emtebcn 
 
 
 
 niclicn/Oto milk 
 
 molt 
 
 gcmolten 
 
 
 
 meffen, to measure 
 
 mafe 
 
 gemeffcn 
 
 bu miff eft 
 
 mt(3 
 
 
 
 
 er intjst 
 
 
 mtfjltngen, to fail 
 
 miglang 
 
 mijilungen 
 
 
 
 *mogen, to like, to be 
 
 modjte 
 
 gemodjt 
 
 tc^ mag 
 
 [wanting] 
 
 allowed 
 
 
 
 Du magft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er mag 
 
 
 *muffen, to be obliged 
 
 mugte 
 
 gemujst 
 
 id) mug 
 
 [wanting] 
 
 
 
 
 bu mntlt 
 
 
 
 
 
 cr muJ3 
 
 
 *nel)men, to take 
 
 naljm 
 
 genommen 
 
 bu nimmft 
 
 ntrnm 
 
 
 
 
 cr nimmt 
 
 
 *nenncn, 2 ) to name 
 
 nannte 
 
 gcnannt 
 
 
 
 pfcifcn, to whistle 
 
 Pfiff 
 
 gepfiffcn 
 
 
 
 pflcgcn,3)to entertain 
 
 Pft3 
 
 gcpflcgcn 
 
 
 
 pretfcn, to praise 
 
 pries 
 
 gepriefen 
 
 
 
 quelicn, 4 ) to spring 
 
 quotl 
 
 gequoUcn 
 
 Du qutllft 
 
 quill 
 
 [forth 
 
 
 
 cr quiUt 
 
 
 riid)cn, 5 ) to avenge 
 
 rod) 
 
 gerod)cn 
 
 
 
 ratfjcn, to advise 
 
 rtctl) 
 
 geratfjcn 
 
 bu ratf)ft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er rtitf) 
 
 
 reibcn, to rub 
 
 rtcb 
 
 gericbcn 
 
 
 
 *rcicn, to tear 
 
 rig 
 
 gertffen 
 
 
 
 *rciten, 6 ) to ride 
 
 rttt 
 
 gerttten 
 
 
 
 *rcnncn,")to run, race 
 
 rannte 
 
 gerannt 
 
 
 
 1) Also regular, mclfte, cjemelft. The irregular forms bu miUji, er miltt, imper. mitt, 
 are found sometimes, but are not recommended. 
 
 2) Past subjunctive ncnnte or ncnnctc. 
 
 3) Irregular only when meaning to entertain (e. g., friendship), to take (counsel), 
 etc. In the sense of to nurse, to be wont, etc. it is regular. 
 
 4) Regular when transitive, meaning to soak (e. </., pease). 
 
 5) Now usually regular, rdcfyte, v3erad)t. The irregular forms are met with in former 
 writers. 
 
 C) 23erctten, to prepare, is derived from fccrcit, ready, and is regular, fccrcitere, bercitet. 
 ^Bcrciten, to break a horse, etc., is conjugated like reiten. 
 7) Past subjunctive rcnntc or rennete. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 93 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PART. 
 
 PRES. IXD. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 *ried)cu, to smell 
 
 rod) 
 
 gerodjen 
 
 
 
 *ringeu, to wrestle 
 
 rang 
 
 gerungen 
 
 
 
 riuueu, 1 ) to run, flow 
 
 rann 
 
 geronnen 
 
 
 
 *ritfcn, to call 
 
 rief 
 
 gerufcn 
 
 
 
 falgcn, 2 ) to salt 
 
 
 gefatacn 
 
 
 
 *icwfcn, to drink (of 
 
 fofl 
 
 gefoffen 
 
 bu faufft 
 
 
 animals) 
 
 
 
 er fauft 
 
 
 fallen, to suck 
 
 fog 
 
 gefogeu 
 
 
 
 fdjaffeu, 3 ) to create 
 
 Mmf 
 
 gefdjaffen 
 
 
 
 fdjalieu, 4 ) to sound 
 
 fd)oU 
 
 gejdjollen 
 
 
 
 fdjeibeu, to separate 
 
 jdjteb 
 
 gcfdjicbcn 
 
 
 
 *fd)ciueu, to shine, 
 
 |d)teu 
 
 gefdjtencn 
 
 
 
 *jd)dteu, 5 ) to scold 
 
 fdjalt 
 
 gefdjoltcn 
 
 bu fdjiUft 
 
 Wilt 
 
 
 
 
 cr fdjtlt 
 
 
 fdjeren/ 5 ) to shear 
 
 fdjor 
 
 gcfdjoren 
 
 
 
 *jd)teben, to shove 
 
 jd)ob 
 
 gcfdjobcn 
 
 
 
 *id)teften, to shoot 
 
 W)8 
 
 gefdjoffcn 
 
 
 
 fd)tnbeu, to flay 
 
 fdjuub 
 
 gcfc^unben 
 
 
 
 *fd)lafen, to sleep 
 
 fdjHcf 
 
 ge(d)Iafcn 
 
 bit fdblfiffl 
 
 
 
 
 
 cr fdjlaft 
 
 
 *jd)lageu,7) to beat 
 
 fdjlug 
 
 gefdjlajen 
 
 bu jdjldgft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er fd)Iagt 
 
 
 fd)tcid)cn, to sneak 
 
 idjltd) 
 
 gefd)Ud)cn 
 
 
 
 fd)Ietfen,8) to grind 
 
 VWI 
 
 3cfd)Uffcn 
 
 
 
 fdjlctften, to slit 
 
 ttftfi 
 
 ]cfd)Itffcn 
 
 
 
 1) Past subjunctive tonne or rdnne. 
 
 2) The regular participle gcjaljt is also used. 
 
 3) Irregular only when meaning to create; otherwise regular; as, Derfc&affen, to 
 procure, provide, mfdjaffte, tterfdjafft, etc. 
 
 4) The regular forms fcfcaflte, gefd)attt, are also found. 
 
 5) Past subjunctive fcfycilte or fcfcolte. 
 
 6) The irregular forms bu fdjierft, er fd)tert are used sometimes, but the regular forms 
 bu fcfyereft, cr fcfyert, are preferable. 
 
 7) The compounds ratfyfcfylc^en and 6eratl)fdjtagen, to consult, deliberate, are regular. 
 (See Note, top of page 86). 
 
 8) Irregular only, when meaning to grind (sharpen), otherwise regular; as, bcc 
 gcinb fdjleifte bte ^eftung, the enemy razed the fortress. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PART. PRES. IND. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 *fd)ltctj:n, 1 )to shut 
 
 fofog 
 
 gefdjloffen 
 
 
 
 fd)(tngen, to sling 
 
 ,~d)(ang 
 
 gefdjlungen 
 
 
 
 fdjmeigen, to fling 
 
 [d)mtjj 
 
 gejdjmiffen 
 
 
 
 fd)inel3cn, 2 )tomelt 
 
 fdjmolg 
 
 gcfdjmol^cn 
 
 bii frfimtlgcfl 
 
 fdjmitg 
 
 
 
 
 er fc^mt^t 
 
 
 fdjncmbcn, to snort 
 
 fdjnoj 
 
 ge)'d)nobcn 
 
 
 
 *fd)neibcn, to cut 
 
 fdjnttt 
 
 geidjnttten 
 
 
 
 fd)raubcn, 3 )to screw 
 
 jd)rob 
 
 3e(d)roben 
 
 
 
 jd)recfcn, see crjdjre^en 
 
 
 
 
 
 *jd)rciben, to write 
 
 jdjrteb 
 
 gejd^rteben 
 
 
 
 *fd)retcn, to cry 
 
 jd)rie 
 
 gefc^ricen 
 
 
 
 fdjrettcn, to stride 
 
 [djrttt 
 
 ge|"d)rttten 
 
 
 
 fdjrotcn, 4 ) to bruise, 
 
 
 3efd^roten 
 
 
 
 fd)n)drcn, to fester 
 
 I'd) m or 
 
 gefdjttioren 
 
 
 
 *id)uicigcn, to be silent 
 
 jdjmtcg 
 
 gej^rotegen 
 
 
 
 jdjroeUen, 5 ) to swell 
 
 jdjuooll 
 
 gefc^tDolIcn 
 
 bu ftfittjiUfl 
 
 jdjmitt 
 
 
 
 [men 
 
 er fc^njiUt 
 
 
 *fd)unmmen, 6 ) to swim 
 
 |d)tt)amm 
 
 gcfd)trom= 
 
 
 
 
 
 [ben 
 
 
 
 {dirjinben, to shrink, 
 
 djtDCin') 
 
 gefdjnmn* 
 
 
 
 vanish 
 
 
 [gen 
 
 
 
 *[d)tt)i!igcn, to swing 
 
 i ijroong 
 
 
 
 
 fd)n)orcn,~)to swear 
 
 f.1)tt)or 
 
 3ejd)ttioren 
 
 
 
 *(cl)cn, to see 
 
 jal) 
 
 gefc^cn 
 
 DU ftefjft 
 .r 1tef)t 
 
 fte^ 
 
 fcnben,8) to send 
 
 fanbtc 
 
 gefanbt 
 
 
 
 fieben, 9 ) to boil 
 
 [ott 
 
 3efotten 
 
 
 
 1) The old forms bu f*:eu^cft, cr fcfylcujjt, imper. f^Icup, are found in poetry. 
 
 2) Regular, when transitive ; as, cr jinncljte ba6 @olb. 
 
 3) The regular forms f .^rau^tc, cjcf JrauOt, are now mostly used. 
 
 4) The regular participle v3cf;frotct is also used. 
 
 5) When transitive, it is regular ; as, ber 2Sinb f-fcrocflt, fdjroeUte ba3 Scv3d, the wind 
 swells, swelled the sail. 
 
 C) Past subjunctive fcfrtcemme or fdjiucimme. 
 
 7) The past fdjrour is alsj used. Past subjunctive fdjroure or f(^tcorc. 
 
 8) The regular forms fenbete, ^efenbet, are also used. The past subjunctive is always 
 fenbete. 
 
 9) Also found regular, fiebetc, gefiebet. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 95 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PART. 
 
 PRES. HID. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 *[mgcn, to sing 
 
 fang 
 
 qefuncjen 
 
 
 
 *finten, to sink 
 
 fan! 
 
 gejiinfcn 
 
 
 
 lumen, 1 ) to niuse 
 
 faun 
 
 gcfonncn 
 
 
 
 *ftt3en, to sit 
 
 W 
 
 gefeffen 
 
 * 
 
 
 *folleu, 2 ) to be obliged 
 
 
 
 tcfjfott 
 
 
 
 
 
 (bu foUft) 
 
 
 
 
 
 erfoll 
 
 
 fpaften,3) to split 
 
 
 cjcfpaltcn 
 
 
 
 focicu, to spit 
 
 fote 
 
 gefotccn 
 
 
 
 fotnncu, 4 )to spin 
 
 foann 
 
 gefoonncn 
 
 
 
 foleigeu, to split 
 
 \m 
 
 gcfoliffcn 
 
 
 
 *fored)eu, to speak 
 
 forad) 
 
 gcforod)en 
 
 bit fortd)ft 
 
 fond) 
 
 
 
 
 er foridjt 
 
 
 fortcJ3en, 5 )to sprout 
 
 forog 
 
 gcfproffcn 
 
 
 
 *foriugeu, to spring 
 
 forcing 
 
 geforungcn 
 
 
 
 *fted)cu, to sting 
 
 ftadft 
 
 gcftodjcn 
 
 bit fttdjft 
 
 fttd) 
 
 
 
 
 cr fttd)t 
 
 
 ftecten/Oto stick 
 
 m~~ 
 
 ^- . 
 
 
 
 *jhl)en,7) to stand 
 
 ftanb 
 
 geftanben 
 
 
 
 *ftel)Ien,s) to steal 
 
 fta()I 
 
 gcftoljlcn 
 
 bu fttcl)lft 
 
 fttcljl 
 
 
 
 
 cr ftieljtt 
 
 
 *ftctgeu, to rise, mount 
 
 [Keg 
 
 gcfticgcu 
 
 
 
 *fterbcu, 9 )to die 
 
 ftarb 
 
 geftorben 
 
 bu fttrbft 
 
 ftirb 
 
 
 
 
 er fttrbt 
 
 
 fticben, to disperse 
 
 ftob 
 
 gcftoben 
 
 
 
 *ftoJ3eit, to push 
 
 fttefi 
 
 gcftogcn 
 
 bu fto^efl 
 
 
 
 
 
 cr ftofit 
 
 
 ftretdjen, to stroke 
 
 ftrid^ 
 
 gcftrtd)en 
 
 
 
 1) Past subjunctive jonne or fanne. 
 
 2) Irregular only in the first and third persons singular of the present indicative. 
 
 3) The regular participle cjefpaltct is also used. 
 
 4) Past subjunctive fponne or f panne. 
 
 5) The old forms bu fpreufteft, ct fprcufjt, imperative fpreu^, are found in poetry. 
 C) Usually regular, fterf te ; always regular, when transitive. 
 
 7) Past subjunctive ftdnbe or ftiinfce. 
 
 8) Past subjunctive ftd^te or pfyle. 
 
 9) Past subjunctive fturfce or ftdrfce. 
 
96 
 
 THE VERB. 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PART. 
 
 PRES. IXD. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 *ftreitcn, to quarrel 
 
 ftritt 
 
 geftritteu 
 
 
 
 *tl)iin, 1 ) to do 
 
 tfat 
 
 getljan 
 
 
 
 *tragcu, to carry, wear 
 
 trug 
 
 gctragcn 
 
 bit trcigft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er tragt 
 
 
 *treffen, to hit 
 
 traf 
 
 getroffeu 
 
 bu triffft 
 
 triff 
 
 
 
 
 er trifft 
 
 
 *treibeu, to drive 
 
 trtcb 
 
 getrtcbeu 
 
 
 
 *treteu, to tread 
 
 trat 
 
 g^tretcn 
 
 bu trittft 
 
 trttt 
 
 
 
 
 er trttt 
 
 
 trtefcu, 2 ) to drip 
 
 troff 
 
 getroffen 
 
 
 
 *trin?eu, to drink 
 
 tranf 
 
 getrunfeu 
 
 
 
 triirjeu, to deceive 
 
 trog 
 
 getrogen 
 
 
 
 fcerberbcu, 3 ) to perish 
 
 ucrbarb 
 
 oerborbeu 
 
 bu ccrbtrbft 
 
 oerbirb 
 
 
 
 
 er tterbtrbt 
 
 
 kerbricgcn, 4 ) to grieve 
 
 ucrbrofi 
 
 ocrbroffcti 
 
 
 
 *uerge[fcu, to forget 
 
 uergafj 
 
 uergeffcu 
 
 bu ucrgiffcft 
 
 ocrgi6 
 
 
 
 
 cr uergiftt 
 
 
 *ucrttcrcn, to lose 
 
 ucrlor 
 
 ucrlorcu 
 
 
 
 *ttiac[)|"eu, to grow 
 
 ID lid) 6 
 
 getnadjfcn 
 
 bu ttdd)feft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er n)iid)ft 
 
 
 ttageu, 5 ) to weigh 
 
 tDog 
 
 gctt)ogen 
 
 
 
 *ttmf(i)en, to wash 
 
 mufd) 
 
 getnafcijcn 
 
 bu VDJifrfieft 
 
 
 
 
 
 er tncifd)t j 
 
 1) l)un (from the old t^ucn) drops the e before consonant ending's in the present 
 indicative (Icfy time, t>u tt)uft/ er tf>ut, n?tr t^un :c.), and retains it in the subjunctive (bu 
 tfyucft, rcir t^ucn jc.). Imperative t^uc (bu) ; in the plural the e may be dropped or 
 retained ; as, tfyu(e)t (ityr), t&u^e)n (Sie). 
 
 2) The old forms tu trcafft, cr tvcuft, imperative treuf, are found in poetry. 
 
 3) Past subjunctive fcerbcirfce or terburfce. When transitive, meaning to spoil, to 
 destroy, it is regular, tterterbre, t>crbcrtt. 
 
 4) The old forms e-3 t^erbreupt, imperative terbrcu^ are found in poetry. 
 
 5) SSagen i^ transitive, meaning to loeiyh (ascertain the iceijht of) something, 
 and is sometimes conjugated regularly, roc^te, vjewdjjt; the compound crrrdcjen, to 
 consider, is always irregular, erroocj, ernjogen. 2Biev3eti, to weigh, is intransitive ; as, 
 btefeS Stiicf Gifen wie^t ein $funb, this piece of iron weighs a pound ; it is always 
 irregular, rcoij, gercocjen. The transitive verb toiecjen, to rock, is regular ; as, cr unc<jre 
 ba3 ^linb, he rocked the child. 
 
THE VERB. 
 
 97 
 
 PRESENT INFINITIVE. 
 
 PAST. 
 
 PAST PART. 
 
 PRES. IND. 
 
 IMPER. 
 
 ttebcn, 1 ) to weave 
 
 ttob 
 
 gctt)obcn 
 
 
 
 ttetrfjcn, 2 ) to give way 
 
 raid) 
 
 cjctxitd)en 
 
 
 
 toetjen, to show 
 
 ones 
 
 getDtefen 
 
 
 
 tneubcn, 3 ) to turn 
 
 ttjanbte 
 
 gcaianbt 
 
 
 
 ftetbcu, 4 ) to sue for 
 
 marb 
 
 getnorben 
 
 bit tntrbft 
 
 ttitrb 
 
 
 
 
 er inirbt 
 
 
 *lt)crfen, 5 ) to throw 
 
 tx>arf 
 
 gctt>orfcn 
 
 bu ttnrfft 
 
 tt)trf 
 
 
 
 
 cr vnirft 
 
 
 ft>tcgcu, c ) to weigh 
 
 rcog 
 
 geroogcn 
 
 
 
 unnbeu, to wind 
 
 ttwub 
 
 geoiunbcn 
 
 
 
 *tt)tffeu, to know 
 
 mufjte 
 
 gettmgt 
 
 icf) toet(3 
 
 
 
 
 
 bu tt)eigt 
 
 
 
 
 
 er ttietg 
 
 
 *tt)oUen,7) to will 
 
 
 
 id) ttriU 
 
 [wanting] 
 
 
 
 
 bu ttiitlft 
 
 
 
 
 
 erttJtU 
 
 
 getfjen, to accuse of 
 
 ifd) 
 
 gqieljen 
 
 
 
 *gtel)en,8) to draw 
 
 m 
 
 gejogen 
 
 
 
 *$tt)higen, to compel 
 
 jtuang 
 
 gegtiDungcn 
 
 
 
 1) Sometimes regular, tuefctc, c 
 
 2) The transitive trci^en, meaning to soften, is regular, weidjte, ( 
 
 3) The regular forms roenbete, geroenbet, are also found ; the past subjunctive is 
 always roenbcte. 
 
 4) Past subjunctive nmrfce or tcdrfce. 
 
 5) Past subjunctive ttwrfe (rarely wdrfe). 
 
 6) See the remarks to rcdgcn. 
 
 7) Irregular only in the singular of the present indicative. 
 
 8) The old forms bu jcuc^fl, er jeudjt, imperative jcudj, are found in poetry. 
 
98 THE VERB. 
 
 REMARKS ON THE VERB. 
 
 USE OF THE MOODS. 
 
 The moods of the verb are not always used in German as in English ; 
 the following remarks will explain the principal differences: 
 
 1. The subjunctive is the mood expressing uncertainty or possibility. 
 It is therefore often used in subordinate sentences dependent on such 
 verbs as glanben, to think, believe; ttmnfdjen, to wish; fagcn, to say; 
 Iprcn, to hear, etc., when what is thought, wished, said, heard, etc. is 
 represented as possible, but uncertain. The German verb in the sub- 
 ordinate sentence is generally in the subjunctive present, present per- 
 fect, or future, even if the verb of the principal sentence is in the past 
 or past perfect; as, id) glaubte, bog cr abgeretft fet, I thought that 
 he had departed (did he not depart?); iff) fyorte, baft cr franf fet, 
 I heard that he was sick (is he, or was he, not sick ?) ; man glaubt, bag 
 er nid)t meljr luieberfommcn ftierbe, it is believed that he will not come 
 back again (but he may come back after all). If, in the foregoing sen- 
 tences, we should use the indicative, their meaning would be changed, 
 and they would express a certainty; as, id) glanbte, baft cr ab^ereift 
 tear, he had departed, and I believed it; id) fyortc, bag cr franf tnar, he 
 was sick, and I was informed of it; man glaubt, baft er ntd)t mefyr roieber* 
 tommen unrb, he will not come back, and people generally believe it 
 (no one doubts it). 
 
 The subjunctive is thus used especially in quoting the statements of 
 others; as, rr fagte, bag e8 ifyn frene, bag er fyter genjefen fet, bag cr 
 ttncberfommcn rocrbe :c. 
 
 The subjunctive is also used in indirect questions; as,' id) fragte 
 if)n, ob er morgen fommen rucrbe, I asked him if he would come to- 
 morrow ; also generally after bamif , in order that ; as, id) gab tljm elb, 
 bam it cr fid) eincn 9?o:f faitfe, I gave him money, that he might buy 
 himself a coat. 
 
 The past subjunctive is used when the present subjunctive has the same form as 
 the indicative; as, cr facjte, bafj fie elb fatten (fte I) a I) en is the same in the indicative 
 and subjunctive). 
 
 It is often difficult to decide whether the indicative or subjunctive 
 should be used, and only the reading of good authors will give the. 
 student that "intuitire perception" which is the best guide ; it may, 
 however, be said for his consolation that in many cases the use of the 
 
THE VERB. 99 
 
 indicative for the subjunctive is not considered a grave error and is one 
 often committed by native Germans in speaking and writing. 
 
 The subjunctive is often used in expressing a wish ; the present, 
 when we hope for the realization of the wish ; the past, when the con- 
 trary of what we wish is actually the case ; as, moge cr bdlb lomnien, 
 may he come soon ; id) tt)iinfd)te, er tt)ace I) lev, I wish he were here. 
 
 In conditional clauses the past subjunctive is used as in English ; as, 
 tt)cnn cr reid) tt) cite, if he were rich (which he is not); but the English 
 present subjunctive after if is rendered by the indicative ; as, if he be 
 diligent, tnenn cr ftetjjig tft (not fci). 
 
 2. As the conditional, present and present perfect, is only another 
 form of the subjunctive, past and past perfect, respectively (see page 64), 
 the latter may in all cases be substituted for the former ; as, U)enn cr 
 md)t frant rodrc, ttwrbe er l)ter fcin or rod re cr l)ier, if he were not sick, 
 ho would be here; but the conditional must not be used instead of 
 the subjunctive in the sentence beginning with uiClin (if), (the con- 
 ditional clause) ; in the foregoing example we must not say tt)cnn cr nid)t 
 Irani fcin ttiirbe. 
 
 NOTE. In English, will and would are used sometimes to denote what is or was 
 habitual ; as, he will (would) study for hours. When so used, will or would cannot he 
 rendered by the future or conditional, or by rcoKcn (see "Auxiliaries of Mood," below) ; 
 such expressions are translated simply by the present or past, or by pftecjen, to be 
 wont, or the like ; as, cr ftufctrt (ftubtrte) fiunbenlana ; cr pffe{jt (pflccjtc) ftunfccnlang ju 
 ftutiren. 
 
 3. The English potential is rendered by the German conditional or 
 subjunctive, or by the 
 
 4. Auxiliaries of Mood (sometimes called "potential verbs"). They 
 are 
 
 bitrfcn, to be allowed follcn, to be obliged 
 
 lonnen, to be able ttioEcn, to will 
 
 mbgen, to be allowed foffcn, to let 
 
 m tiff en, to be obliged 
 
 They are generally used as auxiliaries with the infinitive of a prin- 
 cipal verb, and are conjugated in all moods and tenses (in the imperative 
 laffcn only). They generally correspond to one of the English auxiliaries 
 can, may, must, shall, etc. , but where these are defective, the German 
 verbs must be rendered by expressions of a similar meaning ; thus, the 
 present of fitttncn, id) f ann, may be rendered by / can ; but for id) fyabc 
 
100 THE VERB. 
 
 gefonnt, we must say, I have been able, since can has no past participle 
 in English ; thus, also, the infinitive fonncn is rendered to be able. 
 
 For the conjugation of these verbs see " Irregular Verbs," 2. (page 
 85) and the List. 
 
 When used as auxiliaries, they take the form of the infinitive in the 
 perfect (present and past) instead of that of the past participle ; as, id) 
 I)abc e3 tfyun fonnen (not gefonnt), I have been able to do it. 
 
 Observe the idiomatic rendering of expressions like I could have done 
 it, etc., by id) [jdtte c tf)nn fonnen X. To better understand this version, 
 we change the English sentence to the equivalent one, / should have been 
 able to do it; we then render the perfect of the conditional / should 
 have been able by the past perfect of the German subjunctive, id) Ijattc 
 QCiOnnt, and on adding tf)iin, to do, we must change the participle 
 gefonnt to the infinitive fonnen; therefore, id) l)dtte c3 tfum fonncn. 
 Thus, also, er fyJitte c tierfcmfcn foEen, he ought to have sold it; fie 
 Ijdtten fptelen biirfen, they might have played (would have been per- 
 mitted to play), etc. 
 
 REMARKS. The proper use of the auxiliaries of mood must be learned by practice ; 
 the following- remarks may, however, furnish some assistance to the student : 
 
 1. )urfen corresponds to may or to be allowed; as, t-u tarfft jcfct fpielen, you may 
 play now ; trir titrfcn fca3 ntdjt tfyun, we are not allowed to (or must not) do that. 
 
 2. fonnen corresponds to the English can, may, etc.; as, id) fann fd)ttnmmen, 
 I can swim ; e3 fann fein, it may be. When not accompanied by an infinitive, it signifies 
 to know, understand, etc. ; as, id) fann meine Section, I know my lesson ; cr fann fccuti'd), 
 he knows (or speaks) German. 
 
 / (he, etc.) could, when meaning I was able, is translated by the indicative id) fonnte, 
 when meaning I should be able, by the subjunctive id) fonnte ; as, I could not come, 
 because I was sick, id) f onntc nidjt fcmmen, wcil id) front war; I could not come, even 
 if I wanted to, id) f onntc nirfit fommcn, tr-enn id) and) troflte. 
 
 3. SKecjcn often corresponds to may; in this sense fonncn and mccjcn are oftei) used 
 indiscriminately ; as, e-3 ma a, fetn, or e3 fann fetn, it may be. It often signifies to like, 
 to wish ; as, id) vnaoj ta ntd)t tfyun, I do not like to do that ; in this sense it may also be 
 used without an infinitive ; as, id) mag fctnen 23etn meljr, I do not wish any more wine. 
 
 4. 2ft u H en closejy corresponds to the English must, to be obliged. 
 
 5. Soil en is translated by shall (to be to); as, fatt id) geljen? shall I go (am I to go)? 
 or by should (ought to) ; as, cr foflte fletjjuier fein, he should (ought to) be more diligent. 
 Should in conditional sentences is also rendered by follen, as, if he should arrive, 
 tocnn cr anfommen fcflt?. SoUen is often used in the sense of it is said, man fa;jt(the 
 French on dit) ; as, cr {oft fefyr reid) jcin, he is said to be very rich; e jolt nid)t n?af>r 
 fein, they say it is not true. 
 
 6. 23 o Hen corresponds to the English principal verb to ivill ; it is used to render 
 the auxiliary ivill, whenever that may be replaced by to want to, to wish to, or similar 
 
THE VERB. 101 
 
 words ; as, id) n>ttt cm6getjcn, I will (want to, am determined to) go out (different from 
 idj tnetbe cwgel)ett, I shall go out, indicating futurity simply) ; cr unit Co nicfyt tfyuu, he 
 will not (does not want to) do it (differen tfroui c? njir|> e, jridtf tfwn, ho.will.not do it, 
 i. e., it is probable, or certain, that he will notj d<} $). ' SBo^h sometimes ^signifies to 
 pretend, to assert; as, cr will iljn gefetyen J)a6cn,1ie p'retends to have seen him. 
 
 7. 8af jcn corresponds to the English tv let, tff> f n$it, drt\3'i*, -eta. ;' as, $*J9$$&i>$ii<$ 
 f e in, let us be merry ; id) laffc ifyn jet rufyeityj'le^njrfc/parriiit hvii <wty>rs3heviV!iifen 
 <Sie il)n fommcn, direct him to come, or allow him to come. 
 
 fiaffen is also used idiomatically in the sense of to have in such expressions as id) laffe 
 mir bie aare jdjneiben, I have my hair cut; er Icijjt fid) ein neue au bauen, he is having 
 a new house built. 
 
 Safien is sometimes used as a principal verb in the sense of to leave ; as, lafj mil ba3 
 23ud), leave me the book. 
 
 5. Of the imperative mood, only the second person singular and plural 
 and the third person plural, polite address (see page 53), are given in 
 the paradigms. The other persons are taken from the subjunctive or 
 expressed by means of lajjcn, to let ; as, er gefye, laftt un$ (jcl)en. 
 
 The past participle is sometimes used for the imperative ; as, ftitt geftanben! stand 
 still. 
 
 When a command, wish, etc. is expressed indirectly, fottett is used ; as, cr facjte i^m : 
 ,/ (Sefyc ! " he said to him : " Go " ; cr fagte if)tn, cr fofle gefyen, he told him to go. 
 
 The pronouns of the second person are generally omitted; as, gcl)c (for gcl)e bu). 
 tc (polite address), being the pronoun of the third person (only used for the second) 
 must never be omitted. 
 
 6. The infinitive is often preceded by 311 (to), although that word is 
 not to be considered as a part of the infinitive, but as being required by 
 the word on which the infinitive depends. 
 
 3ll is omitted in the following cases, in many of which to is also 
 omitted in English, or the infinitive is expressed by the form in ing 
 (verbal noun or gerund) : 
 
 1) When the infinitive is used as the subject of a sentence ; as, 
 tabclit tft leicfyt, to blame is easy. 
 
 Sometimes, however, 5 u is employed, especially when the sentence is introduced by 
 the " anticipative " subject eS; as, c3 gcstcmt bcm <2>d;uler, flcijng 511 fcttt, it becomes the 
 scholar to be diligent. 
 
 The infinitive may be used as a noun of the neuter gender ; as, ba0 
 Sefcn gutcr 33ii(i)cr tft niit3Ud), the reading of good books is useful. 
 
 2) When the infinitive is used with the auxiliaries of mood, biirfcn, 
 fonncn :c. (see page 99), and with Ijctgen, to bid; nennen, to call; 
 Ijelfrn, to help; tefyrcn, to teach; lernen, to learn; macfycn, to make; 
 
102 THE VEHB. 
 
 as, id) fyetjje ifjit cintreteii, I bid him come in ; bag ncnne id) arbeitcn, 
 that I call working, etc. 
 
 3) After gome v^rbs (looting perception by the senses ; as, id) fcljc 
 if)tt fommttt,! see hio. coHiicg; rd) I)ore iljit fyredjcn, I hear him speaking ; 
 etc. tn 
 
 4)' IE, ''xTv^in.expres'sums^Uc vdtu bleibcn, to remain; (jeljcn, to go; 
 Ijaben, to have; reiten, to ride; tlnin, to do; etc. ; as, id) bleibe ftefyen, 
 I remain standing ; id) ijefye (reitc) fpa3iereil, I am out for a walk (ride) ; 
 er l)dt Ieid)t Iad)Cn, he is in clover (lit. he has easy laughing) ; fte tfjilt 
 nid)t al toeinen, she does nothing but cry. 
 
 3 U is generally used with the infinitive, when it depends on a 
 noun or adjective, or a verb not mentioned above ; as, id) fjabe uft 
 bicfeS au gu failfcn, I have a mind to buy this house ; biefer Itmftanb 
 ift Ieid)t gu erflaren, this circumstance is easy to explain ; id) tt)iinfd)c, 
 bid) 311 fcfyen, I wish to see you ; also, after the prepositions anftatt, 
 instead of, and oljne, without, and after the adverbs CjCHiig, enough, and 
 gu, too ; as, anftatt gu flcfyen, instead of going ; ol)ne 311 ttartcn, without 
 waiting; ret-i) Qenug, ba3 gu faufcn, rich enough to buy that; gu arm, 
 ba 311 faiifcn, too poor to buy that. 
 
 The German infinitive active is often used with a passive meaning- ; as, er ift 5 u 
 I ofc en, he is to be praised. 
 
 Instead of the English infinitive we must often use a subordinate 
 sentence in German ; as, I know him to be honest, id) iDcifj, bajj cv 
 ift; they thought it to be me, fie glaubtcn, ba(3 id) c fci. 
 
 USE OF THE PARTICIPLES. 
 
 The present participle is generally used as an adjective, joined 
 attributively to a noun ; as, bie liebettbe Hftiltter, the loving mother. It 
 is often accompanied (and preceded] by an object or adjunct ; as, be in 
 bid) innicj licbcnbcr greiinb, your friend who dearly loves you. It is 
 sometimes used as a participle ; as, fterbcnb Dergab er if)tn, dying he 
 forgave him ; but generally the English participle and the gerund (the 
 forms in ing) are, in German, rendered either by a subordinate sen- 
 tence, by a principal sentence connected by and, or by the infinitive ; as, 
 hearing of his being sick, I visited him, ba id) I)orte, bag er frant fci, 
 bcfudjte id) if)ii ; he went away, weeping bitterly, er ghifl fort imb Voeinte 
 luttcrlid). See also examples under "infinitive", (above). 
 
THE VERB. 103 
 
 The present participle is sometimes preceded by ju and then has a passive mean- 
 ing- ; as, cine ^u lofcenbe STfyat, a deed to be praised. 
 
 The past participle is often used as an adjective, joined attributively 
 to a noun, and may have objects or adjuncts depending upon (and 
 preceding] it; as, niettt geliebter greunb, my beloved friend; ba mtr 
 gc'tern tion meinem SBruber anttertraute @elb, the money confided to 
 me yesterday by my brother. The past participle is often used as an 
 adjective in the predicate, as in English. (See page 78. ) The past par- 
 ticiple is also often used as a noun ; as, bcr efancjene (from fangcn), the 
 prisoner. 
 
 JSIot only the auxiliaries of mood (see page 100), but also the verbs 
 tycifjcn, Ijetfen, tyorcn, fefycn (sometimes also leljrcn and Icrnen), when 
 used with the infinitive of another verb, take the form of the infinitive 
 instead of that of the past participle; as, er I)at mid) (jcfycn fyeijjcn (for 
 flcfyciften), he has bidden me go; id) fyabe tint rufcn fyoren (for gcljort), 
 I have heard him call. 
 
 After fommcn the past participle is sometimes used for the present participle ; as, 
 etn 2S5glctn fam geflogen, a little bird came flying. 
 
 USE OF THE TENSES. 
 
 The present tense is often used for the English present perfect in 
 speaking of an action or state as having taken place or existed in the 
 past, and continuing to take place or exist in the present ; the adverbs 
 jdjou or nod) usually accompany the verb ; as, i.i) arbcite frf)on cine 
 SSodjc barcm, I have been working at it ft week ; vote Icmrje ftnb <3ie 
 f d)on I)icr ? how long have you been here ? 3d) bin nod) nid)t lancje f)ter, 
 I have not been here long. 
 
 The present is often used instead of the past in speaking of a per- 
 son's nativity ; as, cr ift in 2)eutjd)Ianb QCborcn, he was born in Germany. 
 
 The present often stands for the future; as, id) cjelje IjCittc inS l)cater, 
 I shall go to the theatre to-day. 
 
 The present perfect is often used for the past, especially in relating 
 an occurrence of which the speaker was not an eye-witness ; as, fjcftcrn 
 ift cm $inb ertrunlcn, a child was drowned yesterday (as I see from the 
 papers). In colloquial style, however, the present perfect is frequently 
 used for the past by good speakers and writers (though inaccurately), 
 without regard to the speaker's being a witness of the occurrence or 
 not ; as, cr tjat mid) cjcficrn bcjndjt, he visited me yesterday ; id) bin am 
 3)iontaG in ber 0tabt gctDcjcn, I was in town 011 Monday. 
 
104 THE 
 
 The future is often used to express probability, supposition, etc. ; as, 
 cr ttnrb in fctncm 3tnnncr fetn, I think he is in his room. 
 
 REMARKS. 1. When two or more verbs, in one of the compound tenses, are con- 
 nected, the auxiliary may be expressed but once, as in English ; as, ify tyafce ifyn gcfcfyen, 
 gcfccrt :c. ; id) rcerbe augef)cn unb ifyn fcefudjen. 
 
 aben and fcin, however, at the end of a subordinate sentence (see "Arrangement 
 of Words," 3. ) may always be omitted, provided that no ambiguity results from the 
 omission ; as, nad)bem id) ifyn gefel)en (I)atte), ging id) fort. Sometimes the auxiliary is 
 omitted, to avoid its repetition; as, al3 id) ifyn gefetyen (fyatte), Ijatte id) nid)t3 wetter 
 ju tl)un. 
 
 2. In such expressions as, you have seen him, have you not ? Yes, I have, or tho 
 like, the auxiliary alone is used in English, the principal verb being understood. This 
 ellipsis of the principal verb is inadmissible in German ; we usually render have you 
 not, etc., by nidjt rcafyr, "not true"? (the French n'est-ce past)', as, Sic Ijafcen ifyn 
 gefcfycn, ntd)t rcatyr? In the answer, the Germans cither say simply ja, yes (netn, no), 
 sometimes accompanied by an adverb, as, ja trotyl ; ja, gennfc jc. ; or they repeat the 
 verb, ja, id) tyafce it;n gefetyen (not j a , id) 1) a b e). 
 
 AGREEMENT OF THE VERB WITH THE SUBJECT. 
 
 1. When the subject is a collective noun in the singular, the verb is 
 in the singular ; as, ba$ 35olf fyat fid) gerflrcut, the people have dispersed ; 
 but when a collective noun in the singular is followed by a plural noun 
 in the genitive, the verb is often used in the plural ; as, cine (jroge 
 Slnsaljl Solbaten finb anflefommcn, a large number of soldiers lias 
 arrived. 
 
 2. In Grerman, as in English, the verb is used in the singular with 
 two or more subjects connected by ami when unity of idea is conveyed; 
 as, ail3 linb $of ift Dcrfauft, hearth and home is sold ; but the German 
 idiom permits also, sometimes, the use of the singular when plurality of 
 idea is conveyed, especially when the subject follows the verb ; as, fca 
 ift bcr iBdtcr llttb bte flitter, there are father and mother ; even when 
 one of the nouns is in the plural, provided that it is not placed next to 
 the verb; as, ba ift ber 3>ater, bte Gutter unb bte $tnber. 
 
 When c, ba?, or btc, is used as an "anticipative" subject, the verb agrees with the 
 real subject (see page 57). 
 
 3. When the subjects are of different persons, the verb agrees with 
 the first person in preference to the second, and with the second in 
 preference to the third, as in English; as, id) unb bit finb ^unbe, I and 
 you (you and I) are friends; bit unb cr fcib 5 rcuu ^ e r vou an( l ne are 
 
THE ADVERB. 
 
 105 
 
 friends. It is customary, however, to use the plural pronoun of that 
 person which has precedence, before the verb; as, id) itnb bit, tnir ftttb 
 grettnbe; bit unb er, H)r fetb greunbe. 
 
 THE ADVERB. 
 
 ober 
 
 The following lists contain some of the adverbs most fre- 
 quently used ; viz., 
 
 balb, soon 
 btSfyer, heretofore 
 t>antal8, at that time 
 bann, then 
 e!)emal$, formerly 
 ettbUd), finally 
 crft, first, not before 
 cieftcrn, yesterday 
 (jletd), immediately 
 l)Cittc, to-day 
 
 ba, there, here 
 btcSfcitS, on this side 
 bort, there, yonder 
 fort, forth, away 
 Ijer, hither 
 Ijter, here 
 
 ADVERBS OF TIME. 
 
 tmtner, always 
 je f jtemat6 f ever 
 jet,3t, now 
 lattge, a long time 
 morgen, to-morrow 
 neiiltd), lately 
 nie, never 
 nod), yet 
 rtlttt, now 
 
 oft f often 
 fd)on, already 
 feltcn, seldom 
 fogfcid), immediately 
 fonft, formerly 
 ftet, always 
 lt>ann, when 
 Ititebcr, again 
 $Utt>ettcn, sometimes 
 
 ADVERBS OF PLACE. 
 
 1) lit, thither libcrall, everywhere 
 
 ()tntcn f behind untctt, below 
 
 trgcnbtDO, somewhere Dortt, in front 
 Jcnfett^^ontheotherside tro, where 
 
 ntrgcnbS, nowhere \t)o{)cr, whence 
 
 obcn, above mof)in, whither 
 
 ADVERBS OF MANNER, DEGREE, ETC. 
 
 beinal)c, almost 
 ebcnfo, just so, as 
 fa ft, almost 
 frciltd), indeed 
 gcnug, enough 
 Qcnt, willingly 
 ja, yes 
 
 taunt, hardly 
 
 natitrltd), of course 
 
 ttetn, no 
 
 tttd)t, not 
 
 ttttr, only 
 
 feljr, very 
 
 fo, so, thus, as 
 
 ttngefafjr, about 
 
 Dtc(Ieid)t, perhaps 
 
 n)te, how, as 
 
 n3ol)t, well 
 
 gtemltd), tolerably 
 
 $11, too (too much, not also) 
 
 gufamnten, together 
 
106 THE ADVERB. 
 
 Ill German, nearly all adjectives may be used as adverbs 
 without change of form; as, bie S^amc ift fdjtin, the lady is 
 beautiful; fie ift CWdj fd)01t gcfkibct, -she is also beautifully 
 dressed. 
 
 A few adverbs, and all adjectives used adverbially, whose 
 sense admits of comparison, may be compared like adjectives. 
 The superlative is preceded by am (an bdlt); as, am fdjonftcn, 
 most beautifully (of all), am bcften, best (of all). 
 
 The comparison of the following 1 two adverbs is irregular : 
 fcatb, soon efjcr, sooner am cfyeftcn, soonest 
 
 gcrn, willingly Itefccr, more willingly am Itebftcn, most willingly 
 
 When, however, a very high degree only is to be expressed, without 
 the idea of comparison, the so-called absolute superlative is employed, 
 i. e., we either place ailfS (sometimes gum or im) before the superlative, 
 or use its simple form without inflection or with the addition of en 3; 
 as, auf frcunbltdjftc, in a most friendly manner ; l)od)ft, extremely ; 
 fjcftiUiflft, most pleasingly ("if you please") ; l)od)ftcn$, at most. 
 
 REMARKS. 1. Some adverbs rarely or never occur alone, but only appear in com- 
 pound words, especially as prefixes in compound separable verbs (see page 80) ; as, 
 afc, off; ctn, in, into ; cmpor, up ; nicbcr, down ; etc. Here belong also Ijcr, hither, and 
 I;in, thither, and their numerous compounds; as, ^crctn, l)erau, tyerauf jc., fytnetn, 
 fyinauS, Ijinauf :c. cr expresses a movement towards the speaker, fyin a movement 
 from the speaker ; as, iro fommeu Sic fyer? where do you come from? n?o gcften Sic Inn? 
 where (whither) are you going? When inviting some one to enter a room, we say 
 femmcn Sie I) c rein' (or simply fycretnOf come in, if we are in the room; and gcfycn Sie 
 ty in cm', go in, if we are outside. 
 
 2. The adverb gcrn, willingly, in connection with an appropriate verb, is used to 
 render the English to like, the German verb stating what one likes to do ; as, id) ejje 
 gcrn Suppe, I like (to eat) soup; cr trtnft gern $affce, he likes (to drink) coffee ; id) Icfe 
 cjcrn, I like to read. To like somebody is rendered by gern Ijafeen; as, fte fyat itm gcrn, 
 she likes him. 
 
 3. The meaning of some adverbs, such as benn, bod), ja, nun, nur, fdjon, woM jc. 
 often varies with the connection in which they are used, and frequently they cannot be 
 translated by one corresponding English word, at least not by one which would hold 
 good in every instance. They are " puzzling little words ", as many students express 
 it, and it requires considerable acquaintance with the German idiom before they can 
 always be correctly rendered. Examples 2Bo ift crbcnn? where is he (/ would liks 
 to know)? Gr ift bed) ntd)t augcgangcn, he has not gone out (/ hope); cr ift ja Irier, ?''/'//, 
 he is here; nun, n?a rcolten Sic? well, what do you wish? fabren Sic nur fo fort, jttat 
 
THE PREPOSITION. 107 
 
 keep on in this way ; cr ttnrb f djon fommen, he will come (never fear) ; wo mag cr tool) I 
 fctn ? where may he be (/ wonder) ? 
 
 4. 9J o<2) before numerals is rendered by more or another ; nod) ctnmal, once more ; 
 gift mtr nocf) einen 9lpfel, give me another (i. e. one more) apple; gift mir cincn an kern 
 2tpfcl would mean, give me an apple differing from (or instead of) that one. 
 
 5. ,3 u, too (in the sense of more than enough) and f o, so, as, when used with an 
 article, are preceded by it ; as, ein ju grofjeS >au3, too large a house ; cm fo fleiner Sftann, 
 so small a man. 
 
 G. Now may be rendered by je^t or nun; jct refers to present time only, while 
 nun is more apt to be used with reference to existing circumstances ; as, n?aS ift nun ju 
 tfyun? what is to be done now (under these circumstances)? 3elt and nun are, however, 
 o.ten used indiscriminately. 
 
 THE PREPOSITION". 
 
 (Die ^rctyofitton or ba$ 3?ortnort.) 
 
 English prepositions always govern the objective, i. e., the 
 words depending on them are in the objective case ; while in 
 German some prepositions govern the genitive, some the dative, 
 others the accusative, others again, sometimes the dative and 
 sometimes the accusative. 
 
 The following lists contain all prepositions, classified accord- 
 ing to the cases which they govern, and the student will, after 
 some practice, have but little difficulty in using every preposi- 
 tion with its proper case. As regards the clioice of the proper 
 preposition in any given instance, we must say that this is 
 probably the most difficult part in the study of any language 
 (including the English, when studied by a foreigner), for the 
 reason that the different languages often use different preposi- 
 tions to denote the same relation. Thus, e. g., the English 
 preposition with is rendered in Grerman by lttit; but it does 
 not follow that in German we always use the preposition ttttt, 
 when in English we use with; as, I go with my father, id) gelje 
 
 in it metnem S3ater ; but, I dwell with my father, id) ir>ol)ne fret 
 
 (not mtt) mcincm ^Clter; thus, also, to is generally translated 
 
108 THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 by Jit (when not rendered simply by the dative) ; as, I go to 
 my father, id) CjeI)C Jit HtCtUCm 23atCV ; but, I am going to 
 London, id) gcfye Had) bonbon; on the other hand, we often use 
 another preposition in English, when in German we use g U * 
 as, JU i$n$, on foot; Jit )dufe, at home; etc., and thus with 
 many other prepositions. The use of the prepositions is idio- 
 matic, and must, like all idiomatic expressions, be learned by 
 practice. The student should rely on the training of his ear to 
 the use of the proper prepositions, as we advised him to do with 
 the gender, plural, and declension of nouns, etc. 
 
 Advanced students will find the use of the prepositions 
 exhaustively treated in large grammars (published in Germany, 
 as Heyse's, and others), which they may use as books of refer- 
 ence. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING THE GENITIVE, 
 
 anftatt, instead of ftott, instead of 
 
 cwftcrfyalb, without, outside trot3, in spite of 
 
 btesfett, on this side of um nnllen, for the sake of 
 
 entlang, along unfern, not far from 
 fyalb, fyalben, Ijalber, on account of ungeacijtet, notwithstanding 
 
 utnerfjalb, within, inside of unterijalb, below 
 
 jcnfeit, on the other side of uitnoett, not far from 
 
 trait, by virtue of ttermtttelft, by means of 
 
 Icings, along ttcrmbge, by virtue of 
 
 Idilt, according tttafyrcnb, during 
 
 mtttclft, mittcls, by means of ttcgen, on account of 
 
 obcrl)dlb, above gitfolcje, in pursuance of 
 
 NOTE. Gntlana, uncjcadUct, tsccjen, and jufolgc, may precede or follow their objects ; 
 tyal&en or futber alwaj-s follows its object. aI6 is rarely used except in the compounds 
 tcjjbalb, therefore, and rocjjfyallj, wherefore. The object of um tuiUen is inserted after 
 um; as, um bc3 j&immcIS irttten, for heaven's sake. 
 
 On the contraction of balben, irccjen, um nntten, with the genitive of personal pro- 
 nouns, see page 54. 
 
 Gntlano., Idt^, trcfc, and jufclge, are sometimes used with the dative ; jufolcjc always 
 governs the dative when it follows the object ; as, Hcfem Sefe^le jufot^e, in pursuance 
 of this order. 
 
THE PREPOSITION. 109 
 
 In such expressions as ben ftlujj enticing, along the river, the accusative must be 
 considered as the case used to denote measure, extent, etc. (see Remarks, page 42), 
 entlang being- used as an adverb. In the same way we must explain the use of the 
 accusative with other adverbs ; as, ben glujj tyinafc, down the river ; ben glup tyinauf, 
 up the river, etc. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING THE DATIVE. 
 
 cms, out of nad)ft, next to 
 
 auger, outside of, except iteb)t, together with 
 
 bet, near, "with ob, obcr (obs. ), over 
 
 btnncn, within fammt, together with 
 
 cntgefjen, towards, against feit, since, for 
 
 fjegeniibcr, opposite Don, of, from, by 
 
 flemajj, in conformity with gu, to 
 
 mit, with gunad)ft, next to 
 
 ttacf), after, to 3itttnbcr, against 
 
 NOTE, ecjenuber and gemcifj usually follow their objects ; entgegen and juwtbcr are 
 always placed after their objects. 
 
 PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING THE ACCUSATIVE. 
 bt$, till, as far as oljne, without 
 
 bnrd), through, by fonbcr, without 
 
 fiir, for um, around 
 
 (gen) toward n)ibcr, against 
 
 PREPOSITIONS GOVERNING THE DATIVE OR ACCUSATIVE. 
 an, on, at in, in, into untcr, under, among 
 
 auf, on, upon neben, near, by the side of t) or, before 
 
 In'nter, behind iiber, over, above gnrifdjen, between 
 
 These prepositions govern the dative when they answer the question 
 where? and the accusative when they answer the question whither? 
 Consequently, they govern the dative when the verb of the sentence 
 denotes a state of rest ; as, id) bin tm (in bcm) Dimmer, I am (where?) 
 in the room ; also, when motion within certain limits is expressed ; as, 
 id) (jelje itn 3^ mmcr ait f un ^ a ^ I walk to and fro (where ?} in the room. 
 They govern the accusative when the verb of the sentence expresses 
 motion towards a point; as, id) fjcljc inS (in ba6) 3intmer, I go (whither?) 
 into the room. Thus, also, ba$ 2fteffer liegt aitf betn Xtfdje, the knife 
 lies on the table, id) Icge beS SJleffer auf ben Sijrf), I lay the knife on the 
 
110 THE PREPOSITION. 
 
 table; id} ftelje gutter Mr, I stand behind you; id) ftellc micf) fyintcr bid), 
 I place myself behind you, etc. 
 
 When the relation denoted by any of these prepositions does not 
 refer to locality, the foregoing rule will, nevertheless, often guide the 
 student in the use of the proper case; as, icf) ttcfyme 5lntf)cU an tfym 
 (dat. ), I take an interest in him (the feeling of interest rests, as it were, 
 in my heart) ; iff) benfe immcr an tfyn (ace.), I always think of him (my 
 thoughts are directed towards him). There are, however, many instances 
 in which the foregoing rule cannot be applied; ail f and iiber are, then, 
 generally used with the accusative, an, in, n n t c r , and 3 tt> t f tf) c n , with 
 the dative case ; to which, however, there are many exceptions that 
 are best learned by practice. 3$ o r always governs the dative, except 
 when it refers to locality and answers the question whither? 
 
 GOVERNMENT OF ADJECTIVES AND VERBS. 
 
 It may be appropriate here to comment upon the government of 
 adjectives and verbs, already alluded to under "Cases" (page 32), 
 since this subject is kindred to the government of prepositions, and 
 our remarks will be so few as to make it unnecessary to open a separate 
 chapter for them. 
 
 In German, the genitive and dative often depend upon or, 
 as grammarians have it, are " governed " by adjectives and 
 verbs. The relation denoted by the genitive and dative is, in 
 many instances, denoted in English by the prepositions of and 
 to, respectively, and we then in German simply place the object 
 of the English preposition in the genitive or dative, without a 
 preposition; as, he is tired of life, cr tft bc$ 8ebcn Jttiibc ; 
 the children are obedient to their parents, btC $tnbcr fitlb ben 
 
 (SItcrn gcfyorfam ; they robbed him of his money, fie bcraubten 
 
 t()lt f ehtcS @elbe$ ; he brings (to) me (indirect object) my 
 books, cr brtngt mir mctnc 93iid)er. 
 
 But not with, all adjectives and verbs are we thus guided by 
 the English preposition in determining the case which they 
 govern ; frequently of and to must be rendered by German 
 
THE PREPOSITION. Ill 
 
 prepositions ; as, to die of a disease, an Ctlter Sranffyett ftetktt* 
 (For examples with to see page 108). On the other hand, 
 some adjectives and verbs, which, in German, govern the gen- 
 itive or dative are not followed by the prepositions of or to in 
 English ; as, be$ 8(Utbe3 fttnbtg, acquainted with the country ; 
 
 cr tft mtr bofe, he is angry with me; id) criunere midt) bc3 
 
 dQC$, I remember the day; etc, 
 
 Many verbs, especially, which correspond to English transi- 
 tives, take the dative .as their sole object ; as, 
 
 begeijncn, to meet l)dfcn, to help 
 
 btcncn, to serve pciffcn, to fit 
 
 folgen, to follow fdjabcn, to injure 
 
 gdiorcf)en, to obey fcfymctcfyeln, to flatter 
 
 geljorcn, 1 ) to belong ttnberfhljen, to resist 
 and many others, 
 
 Such verbs are, in Gj-erman, intransitive; but some may be used, 
 impersonally, in the passive ; as, e6 uwrbe ifym gefyolfcn, he was helped, 
 (not cr roitrbe gefyolfcn). 
 
 With somo JSnglish verbs, the indirect object in the active is made 
 the subject in the passive voice ; as, they gave him permission ; he was 
 given permission. In German, the indirect object must remain in the 
 dative; as, bte (Srlaubmjj nnirbe tljm gcgeben, or e tnurbe tljm bte (Srlaitb= 
 
 Some adjectives and verbs may be used with a certain case or with 
 a preposition; as, cr tft jebeS 23crbrecf)ctt3 fabtg or cr tft 311 jebcm 
 25crbrcd)cn \afy$, he is capable of every crime; ti) benfe betner or t^ 
 benfc an bid), I think of you. 
 
 Others may be used with either of two cases ; as, f cfjotte m e t U C r or 
 f d^onc m t d) , spare me. 
 
 The object of a German transitive verb is in the accusative. 
 
 1) When gef)6ren signifies to be a part of, the English preposition to is translated by 
 the German gu; as, biefer $art getyort ju fccrStafct, this park belongs to the city (is within 
 the city limits) ; He^r $arf gefyort bet <Stabt would mean that it is the property of the 
 city. 
 
112 THE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 The students will ask now : " How are we to learn which 
 case is required with a given adjective or verb ? " 
 
 The answer is : As the choice of the proper preposition to 
 denote a certain relation, thus also the use of the proper cases 
 " governed" by adjectives and verbs is best learned by practice, 
 even as a German studying the English language has to learn 
 the prepositions required in English. 
 
 In many dictionaries the cases governed by adjectives and verbs are 
 marked, in the following or a similar manner ; as, fltnbicj (gen.); bejCQUClt 
 (dat. ), etc.; or the case is apparent from idiomatic expressions given 
 with the word ; and large German grammars (used in Germany) contain 
 complete lists of all adjectives and verbs governing the genitive or 
 dative ; these may be referred to by advanced students. 
 
 TJIE CONJUNCTION. 
 
 (>ie Conjunction or ba nnbett)ort.) 
 
 The following are the principal 
 
 CO-ORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 abcr, but (je ) befto, (the) the 
 
 aUcin, but inbefjcn, meanwhile, however 
 
 djO, consequently jcbod), yet, however 
 
 and), also mitfjtn, consequently 
 
 balb balb, a t one time at another namlid), namely, to wit 
 
 bal)er, barum, therefore obcr, or 
 
 bcnn, for, than fonad), therefore 
 
 bcttnod), nevertheless fotibern, but 
 
 bei"ieitungead)tet, nevertheless fott)ol)t al, as well as 
 
 bcgfyalb, bcgmcgcn, therefore imb, and 
 
 bod), yet, still tocber nod), neither nor 
 
 entrcebcr ober, either or 
 
THE CONJUNCTION. 113 
 
 The following are the principal 
 
 SUBORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 
 
 d$, when, than, except fett, fettbem, since 
 
 dig ob, as if fobalb al, as soon as 
 
 ailf baft, in order that fo oft al$, as often as 
 
 bi$, until um JU (with inf. ) in order to 
 
 ba, as, since ftafyrenb, while 
 
 batmt, in order that tDCinn, when 
 
 baft, that tneil, because 
 
 d)C, before ttKlttt, when, if 
 
 falls, in case tt)cnn nid)t, unless 
 
 tnbem, as, while uicjjljaib, tDcftlDcgcn, wherefore 
 
 je ( bcfto) the (the) U50, where 
 
 nadjbem, after uiofern, if, provided 
 
 ob, whether 3fr>ar, indeed 
 
 obgletcf), obfcfyon, obtooljl, although 
 
 REMARKS. 1. SBann, al3 wcnn, when. SSann is an interrogative adverb and 
 only used as a conjunction in indirect questions ; as, fc^en @ic mir, warm @te ju >aufe 
 finb, tell me when you are at home. 2U8 is used when definite time is referred to and 
 the verb of the clause is in the past or past perfect; as, al^er mid) fcefud)te, bracfyte cr mir 
 biefeS 23ud), when he visited me, he brought me this book. In all other cases when is 
 rendered by ujettn ; as, id) effe, tcenn id) tyuncjrig bin, I eat when I am hungry ; also when 
 the verb is in the past or past perfect, but does not refer to definite time ; as, frfil)cr 
 frcute id) mid) immer, rcenn er jit mir Earn, formerly I was always glad when (whenever) 
 he came to me. 
 
 Observe that roenn is also used in the sense of if. 2Benn is often omitted, and then 
 the subject is placed after the verb (see "Arrangement of Words"); as, tcenn id) &\t 
 fycittc, or fydtte id) fy\t, if I had time. 
 
 2. CDcnn means for, in the sense of since, because. It is sometimes used instead of 
 al3, than (see page 40), though rarely, except in order to avoid the repetition of al3 ; 
 as, cr tft grower al Oftebner, b cnn at 8 ( 5d)riftftefler, he is greater as an orator than as an 
 author. 
 
 3. When a subordinate sentence, especially one beginning with a causal, con- 
 ditional, or concessive conjunction, such as weil, ba, roenn, ofcrooljt K., precedes the 
 principal sentence, the latter is often introduced by the adverb fo, which can not be 
 translated into English ; as, roetl cr arm ift, \ o I)at cr teine 5^ eun ^ e / because he is poor, 
 he has no friends; rccnn id) 3eit f>dtte, fo nwrbe id) <Sic oftcr befud)en, if I had time, 
 I should visit you more frequently. But we may also say roetl cr arm ift, f)at cr 2C. ; n?enn 
 id) 3eit tyatte, lofirbe id) ic.; without f o. However, when tuenn is omitted (see above), it 
 is better to use fo: as, l)atte id) Qtii, f o roft.bc id) :c., is better than 1)atte id) 3cit, wfirbc 
 id) jc. 
 
114 THE INTERJECTION. 5 
 
 4. Sifter, attetn, fcnbcrn, but. ?tfter is used when the English but may be replaced 
 by yet, still, or however ; \ onbcrn is used when the sentence introduced by but con- 
 tains a contradiction of the preceding statement, and but might be replaced by on the 
 contrary ; fonbetn is always preceded by a negation; as, cr ift arm, after efjrltd), he is 
 poor, but (yet) he is honest ; cr ift nicfyt reid), after er i)l fretvjefticj, he is not rich, but (still, 
 however) he is liberal; cr ift ntd)t reid), fonbern arm, he is not rich, but (on the contrary) 
 poor. Sometimes the use of after or jonbern depends on the emphasis laid on certain 
 words ; as, id) rcetjj e3 ntd)t ftefthnmt, after id) glaufte e, I do not know it for a certainty, 
 but I believe it; id) wetp e3 nidjt fteftimmt, fonbern id) glaufte e3 nur, I do not know it 
 for a certainty, but (on the contrary) I only believe it. <5onbern contradicts the pre- 
 ceding statement, after simply adds to it. 
 
 ^Ittetn restricts the foregoing statement, more so than after; but after may always 
 be used in place of attein. 
 
 5. 3Ifter, alfo, inbcffen, jebodj, and ndmltd), are often placed after the subject or after 
 the verb ; as, cr after ifl nidjt retdj, he, however, is not rich ; er ifl after nidjt retd), he is, 
 however, not rich ; etc. 
 
 THE INTERJECTION. 
 
 ()te Interjection or ba$ GmpfinbnngSmort) 
 
 The interjections in common use are found in every diction- 
 ary, and other parts of speech are frequently used as inter- 
 jections, as in English. 
 
 Here follo\v a few interjections by way of examples; as, 
 
 $d), af) ! ah ! o ttel) ! woe ! 
 
 ei ! why ! tfui ! fie ! 
 
 Ijalt ! halt ! stop ! plumps ! plump ! 
 
 l)e! Ijolla! holla! po^tcmjcnb! zounds! 
 
 letter ! alas, unfortunately fo ! so ! now ! that's right ! 
 
 o, ol) ! 0, oh ! topp ! agreed ! 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 115 
 
 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 
 
 ('Die SBortfoIge.) 
 
 The arrangement of words in the sentence is in German 
 much less arbitrary than in English and often widely differs 
 in the two languages. The principal differences will be here 
 explained, exceptional deviations from the usual order and 
 especially such inversions as are only used in poetry or poetical 
 style cannot be noticed in a work of this size. Whatever is 
 most important to a beginner is printed in italics. 
 
 1. In the declarative sentence, when the verb consists of 
 but one word, the order is, 1) the (logical) subject ; 2) the 
 verb ; 3) all other words belonging to the predicate ; as, er 
 tft f(eij}ig, he is diligent ; cr fditft Clit )CW$, he buys a house ; 
 
 cr gab ifym ein -Sud), he gave him a book. 
 
 When, however ', the verb consists of an auxiliary and a parti- 
 ciple or infinitive (in the compound tenses), all other words 
 belonging to the predicate are inserted' after the auxiliary, and 
 the participle or infinitive is placed at the end of the sentence; 
 the order is then, 1) the subject; 2) the auxiliary; 3) all words 
 which, beside the verb, belong to the predicate; 4) and last, the 
 participle or infinitive ; as, 
 
 er tft hnmer fteiftig ge toe fen, 
 
 he has always diligent been; 
 
 er f)at Ijciite ein an$ getanft, 
 
 he has to-day a house bought ; 
 
 er tturb if)in morgcn bas 33nd) gcben, 
 
 he will (to) him to-morrow the book give. 
 
 Not only fyaben, jetn, toerbcn, and the auxiliaries of mood, biirfcn, 
 fonncn K. f but all verbs which have an infinitive (without 511, see 
 infinitive, page 101) depending on them, are considered as auxiliaries, 
 as far as their place in the sentence is concerned; as, id) Ijalf ifjni IjClttc 
 jctnc ^lufrjabc mad) en, I helped him to do his task to-day. 
 
116 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 
 
 On the position of the prefix of a separable compound verb see " Compound Verbs" 
 (page 80). In such expressions as 2td?t geben, to pay attention, ju 2Hittag cfien, to dine, 
 ju tante bringcn, to accomplish, etc., the words Stdjt, ju 9#ttta;j, ju Stanbe, are treated 
 as separable prefixes, as regards their place in the sentence ; as, gib 9ldjt', pay attention ; 
 nrir cffcn um 12 Ufyr ju SRtttag, we dine at 12 o'clock ; er fctadjte e3 eufclidj p <tanbe, ho 
 accomplished it at last. 
 
 2. In the interrogative sentence the subject is placed after 
 the verb or, when the verb is in a compound tense, after the 
 auxiliary; as, ift er fletf^ig? is he diligent? cwft Cr eiu mt8 ? 
 buys he a house (does he buy a house, see page 64) 1 dt cr 
 ein )CW8 gdaitf t ? has he bought a house ] 
 
 This inversion also takes place in exclamatory and imperative sen- 
 tences, as in English. (On the omission of the subject in the imperative 
 sentence see page 101). 
 
 The subject is also placed after the verb (or auxiliary) when- 
 ever a principal sentence begins with a word which is not the 
 subject or an adjunct of the subject, or when the sentence is 
 preceded by a subordinate sentence; as, 
 
 fjejkrn toar cr fleigig, 
 
 yesterday was he diligent; 
 
 er tft iticfjt ftetgig, bafycr tntrb er ntc!)t3 lernen, 
 
 he is not diligent, therefore will he nothing learn 
 
 metn >au3 I) at cr nirfjt getauft, 
 
 my house has he not bought ; 
 
 al id) nad) aiifc fam, fanb ici) fetnen iBrief, 
 
 when I hcme came, found I his letter. 
 
 After the conjunctions nnb, ober, aber, allein, fonbern, and bcun, the 
 subject retains its place before the verb; as, cr ttnrb nicfytS (erncn, bcnn 
 cr ift ntd)t f(cifS^ f j; also after namlici) (which, however, is generally 
 placed after the subject, cr t"t namltd) K. f see j>age 114). 
 
 The subject is also placed after the verb in a principal sentence, 
 preceded by, or inserted in, another principal sentence which stands to 
 it in the relation of an object or complement ; as, id) Voerbe bid) nie 
 uertoffcn, fagte cr; or id) tterbc, fagte cr, bid) nie Derlaffen,! shallnever 
 desert you, he said. ,,9W)mt cue!) ntctncr Jtinber an!" maren fcinc 
 Ic 1,5 ten SBortc, take care of my children, were his last words. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 117 
 
 In the above examples, the sentences ,,id) toerbe bid) nie tterkffen", ,,nd)mt end) tneiner 
 $inber an", would be treated as subordinate substantive clauses by many English gram- 
 marians ; in German, they are called principal sentences ; the arrangement of words is 
 not that of subordinate sentences (see below, S. ). 
 
 The subject is placed after the verb, when the conjunction rcenn is omitted (see 
 page 113). 
 
 3. In the subordinate sentence the verb stands at the end, 
 and, in compound tenses, the auxiliary is placed after the par- 
 ticiple or infinitive ; as, 
 
 u3eU cr immcr fUtgtg ift, 
 
 because he always diligent is; 
 
 al$ er iljm ba$ SBucfo cjab, 
 
 when he him the book gave ; 
 
 ber Tlann, bcr bag au$ getcmft Ijat, 
 
 the man who the house bought has. 
 
 id) itjcijj, bag er Ijeute anfommcn urirb, 
 
 I know that he to-day arrive will. 
 
 When there are two infinitives, the auxiliary is placed immediately 
 before them; as, lreU id) eg nid)t fycitte tl)itn fotten, because I should not 
 have done it. 
 
 A subordinate sentence is introduced by a subordinate conjunction (see page 113), a 
 relative pronoun or adverb (see page 62), or an interrogative pronoun (provided the 
 question is indirect ; as, id) fragte ifyn, rccr ba gercefen fei.) 
 
 When bafe, that, is omitted, the arrangement is that of the declarative sentence ; 
 as, er jagte, bafj er geftern in bcr <2>tatt gercefen fei; er fagte, cr fei geftcrn in bcr tabt 
 geiucfen. 
 
 POSITION OF ADJUNCTS, OBJECTS, ETC. 
 
 1. The position of the adjective elements modifying the subject or any 
 other noun in the sentence is either the same as in English, or has been 
 already explained. (See "Genitive", page 32; "Adjectives", page 43.) 
 
 Adverbial modifiers sometimes follow an adjective when it stands in the predicate or 
 follows the noun it modifies ; as, metn ftreunb tear untroftlidj u&er ben 93crlfl, my friend 
 was inconsolable over the loss ; or, mein g'reunb, untrcftltd) fiber ben 33erluft, my friend, 
 inconsolable etc. But when the adjective is used attributively and precedes the 
 noun, it is itself preceded by all its modifiers ; as, mcin fifcer ben 23erluft untroft!td)cr 
 ftrcunb. 
 
 enug, enough, always follows the adjective it modifies, and must therefore be 
 rendered by a word of similar meaning when the adjective precedes a noun ; as, a rich 
 enough man, ein InnlcmgUd) reiser Sftann (not cin genug reidjcr $ftann). 
 
118 ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 
 
 Of several adjectives joined attributively to, and preceding, a noun, tho more 
 important or emphatic should be placed nearer to the noun than those of less impor- 
 tance ; as, mein alter, trcuer Wiener, my faithful old servant (my old and faithful servant). 
 In many instances, however, they may be arranged arbitrarily. 
 
 2. Of two objects, a direct and an indirect one, that which denotes 
 a person is generally placed before that which denotes a thing ; as, 
 cr fi)rcibt fetnem $ater etnen 53rtef, he writes a letter to his father ; jtc 
 brraubtcn meinen iBrnber feineS etbe?>, they robbed my brother of his 
 money. Prepositional adjuncts generally follow an object-noun; as, 
 c: idjretbt cincn 23rtef an fetnen 2>ater. 
 
 When both objects are personal, the accusative stands first ; as, i.1) 
 tyabe ben el)rer meinem greimbe emfefolilcn, I have recommended the 
 teacher to my friend ; unless that in the dative is emphasized (see 
 "Xote," next page). 
 
 When one of two objects is a personal pronoun, it precedes the other; 
 as, icf) (jab: c3 bem $naben gegeben, I have given it to the boy ; cr fyat 
 tljm ben e!)rcr cmpfofylen ; when both objects are personal pronouns, the 
 accusative generally precedes the dative or genitive; as, icf) fyabe C3 ifym 
 gejeijt, I have shown it to him; et fyat fid) feiner ertnnert, he has remem- 
 bered him. 
 
 Personal pronouns, used as objects of verbs, precede a!l adverbial elements. 
 
 3. The complement of an intransitive verb generally stands at the 
 end of the sentence (or immediately before the participle or infinitive) ; 
 as, er ift in bcr (Sdjule anf inert fain, ttnrb in ber Sdjule aufmcrffom 
 few. 
 
 4. The arrangement of the adverbial elements among themselves 
 and with objects is often arbitrary; at any rate, it is best learned 
 by practice. The following remarks on the usual arrangement may 
 be of some assistance : 
 
 Of the adverbial elements, those denoting time usually stand first, 
 then come those denoting place, and last those denoting manner, degree, 
 etc. ; as, id) Ijabe mid) fyeiite in ber tabt fefyr gut nnterfyaltcn, I have 
 amused myself very well in the city to-day. 
 
 Of two or more adverbial expressions of the same kind those making a more 
 particular statement usually follow the more general; as, icft ftanb Ticute urn funf Ufa 
 auff I rose to-day at five o'clock ; cr iflofmt in ber 9Jto$artflraBC, ?2o. !">, he lives at 
 Mozart Street. 
 
ARRANGEMENT OF WORDS. 119 
 
 Objects generally follow adverbial expressions of time and precede 
 those of manner ; as, id) Ijabe t)eute metnen greunb bcfndjt, I have visited 
 my friend to-day; id) Ijabe ba 23ud) mtt 23ergniigen gclefen, I have read 
 the book with pleasure. 
 
 Sfttdjt is usually placed at the end of the sentence, or before the participle (or 
 infinitive), except when it refers to a particular word, which it then precedes ; as, id) 
 einen sBruber fyeute tttcfyt gcfefyen; id) fyafee ifyn ttidjt Ijeute gefeljen, fonbern geftern. 
 
 NOTE. The position of a word or phrase in the sentence often 
 depends upon its relative importance, or even, cceteris paribus, upon its 
 length; emphatic words are placed after those of minor importance, 
 long words or phrases are placed after short words; as, id) beflld)te I)eute 
 metnen greunb; icf) befucfjte metnen greunb fyeiite, mcl)t geftern. 3d) 
 nrill jet^t (time) in meinem 3intmer (place) auf i^n toarlen; id) toitt i^n 
 l)tcr (place) um 5 il^r 5lbenb6 (time) crvoarten. 3^ lei^e 3fynen ba S3nd) 
 (object) mtt bem grbftten iBerflniicjen (manner); id^ letfje 3!jnen gern 
 (manner) btcfc fdjoite 33ud) (object). 
 
 This explains, also, whj r personal pronouns, not emphasized or preceded by a prep- 
 osition, are placed before all objects and adverbial elements. 
 
YB 01436 
 
 926693 
 
 THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY