ma X . A NATURAL SYSTEM OF MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. THE MIND OF MAN: BEING A NATURAL SYSTEM OP MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. ALFRED SMEE, F.R.S. FELLOW OF THE EOTAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS OF ENGLAND, FELLOW OF. THE CHEMICAL SOCIETY, FELLOW OF THE LINNEAN SOCIETY, MEMBER OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTION, MEDICAL OFFICER TO THE BANK OF ENGLAND, ETC. ETC. 'Learn me true understanding and knowledge.' Ps. cxix. 66. fcriijj LONDON: GEORGE BELL AND SONS, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN. 1875. All Rights reserved. TO THE THOUSANDS OF EEADEES AT HOME AND ABROAD, WHO HAVE CONSULTED MY PUBLISHED WORKS, &$z Holomje is ibbixatefc BY THEIR GRATEFUL SERVANT ALFRED SMEE. f ... . - PREFACE. THIRTY -FIVE years ago I conceived the idea of studying mental phenomena in connexion with the organisation of the human frame. An early study of the brain, nerves, and organs of sensation, exhibited to my mind the voltaic cha- racter of the nervous system ; and during this investigation, the beautiful method of injecting the smaller blood-vessels by carmine was discovered, which gave us the first exact knowledge of the dis- tribution of the capillaries through the brain and spinal chord. My attention was next given to the study of voltaic electricity, which led to the invention of the form of battery which bears my name, and to the development of my work on Electro - metallurgy which has been employed in the arts. The relation of Physical Forces was next studied, PREFACE. and as the result of those labours the doctrine of the Monogenesis of Physical Forces was developed and published in my treatise on the ' Sources of Physical Science.' After much consideration, and the bestowal of intense and concentrated thought over a long period, I developed my natural system of mental philosophy, wherein the laws of mental action were attempted to be ascertained by a consideration of the structure and functions of the brain, the nerves, and. of the organs of sensation, on the one hand, and by a study of the laws of electricity on the other. Later, a paper on the Human Mind was written, and the principles of mental phenomena were described in a popular form, in a treatise entitled ' Instinct and Reason/ For the purpose of studying more intimately the organs of sensation, vision was made the subject of particular attention, and the results of my experience were published in a monograph which particularly describes the researches on Binocular Perspective. The treatise entitled ' The Process of Thought adapted to Words and Languages' was next developed, which contains an account of the relational machine whereby most logical inductions and deduc- tions can be obtained by mechanism. PREFACE. IX A lecture delivered at the London Institution, in Finsbury Circus, on Education, and another on the Monogenesis of Physical Forces, completes the series of books which have been particularly noticed in this volume. The substance of these above-named works, so far as immediately appertains to this book, has been incorporated into the present volume, which thus comprises, either in detail or in general principles, nearly everything which I have written on the subject. Every treatise designed for the study of a natural system of the human mind must, of necessity, deal with natural religion ; and it will be ever an important matter to test by pure reason that which is taught by religion, that we may be confirmed in a sure faith. During the last half century we have passed through the greatest physical period which the world has ever seen. Electro-telegraphy, photo- graphy, electro -metallurgy, the steam locomotive, and the development of the laws of chemical combination and the physical laws of matter, have made great strides in the history of man. Indications now exist that a metaphysical period is at hand, which may be as great in the future for X PREFACE. metaphysics and moral philosophy as the past has been for physics. In view of the coming change, this treatise has been written as a contribution to mental philosophy, that we may conduct on a sure basis the discipline of our minds, the education of our youth, and the government of mankind. I am indebted to Dr. Stewart, Dr. Ferrier, and Mr. Jonathan Hutchinson, for some of the illustra- tions of the structure of the nervous system ; and to my daughter, Mrs. Odling, for the analytical Index. 7 Finsbury Circus, 18th February, 1875. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. ELEMENTARY IDEAS. PAGE Ideas from sensations Eye-sensations, extent of Ideas from two eyes Ear-sensations Number of notes heard Taste-sensa- tions Odour-sensations 7 Feeling-sensations Sensation-car- riers, or nerves All external forces become nervous in the body Combination of nervous impressions Changes of com- bination Idea of time from nature of change Cause Pleasure and pain Memory Reason of man Natural reason Reason by words . . . . . . . . 1 CHAPTER II. IDEAS ORIGINATING IN THE MIND ITSELF. Instincts Spontaneous ideas Ideas of states of matter, of modes of motion and of physical forces Ideas of modes of human actior. and of thought Ideas of infinity, of God, of heaven, ofheU .. 17 CHAPTER III. CONSCIOUSNESS. Consciousness Consciousness only during part of existence During sleep Perfect unconsciousness Deep thought and partial consciousness Dreams Anxiety Consciousness de- pends on physical state Mechanism of consciousness Origin of consciousness 22 Xll CONTENTS. CHAPTER IV. ON THE WILL AND LAWS OP HUMAN ACTION. PAGE Human action Automatic action Voluntary action Actions re- gulated by former ideas Will not altogether voluntary Laws of the will The action of man regulated by pleasure and pain Free-will and necessity . . . . . . 28 CHAPTER V. ON EDUCATION AND FACULTIES OP MAN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF LIFE. Faculties at different periods of life Diagram The mind in childhood In youth In manhood In senility Educa- tion through the organs of sensation Education by written knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 CHAPTER VI. DISCIPLINE OP THE MIND. The importance of using every organ The practice of the use of the organs of sensation Of memory The practice of ab- straction by thought, reflection, and comparison The value of books in testing our personal knowledge Value of conver- sation Contemplation Subjugation of our thoughts to moral laws Benefits of Christianity Evils of matter wor- ship Regulation of our actions . . . . . . 39 CHAPTER VII. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN MIND. Mind of man superior to that of other animals Evolution Hypothesis of the kinds of matter Hypothesis of evolution of mind Development from infancy to manhood Can matter produce organic beings, and organic beings man ? Expe- rience of evolution Limits of variation in organic beings Tendency of varieties to resume their original type Spirit The eoul Specific creations and evolutions . . . . 46 CONTENTS. X1U CHAPTER VIII. ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. PAGE Pleasure and pain regulate action Influence of one person on another Influence by personal statements, by anonymous writings Value of repetition of statements Imperfection of arguments Self -taught persons not liable to influence Modes of influencing the minds of others Sympathy Government of criminal classes Punishment of criminals Regulation of our own minds to withstand the influence of others . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 CHAPTER IX. ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. On words and language Substantives Adjectives Verbs Resolution of a verb or sentence as it was received by the brain Induction by words Deduction by words Laws of thought by words Relational and differential machine Relational and differential slate Human and Divine laws Value of the pronoun 'I' On evidence and testimony On quibbling by words . . . . . . . . . . 69 CHAPTER X. RELATION OP MIND TO GOD. Argument of design Fixity of laws of nature Fixity of moral laws Effect of prayer Power of prayer Nature of matter Origin of matter Creation of the universe Omnipre- presence of the Deity His omniscience His omnipotence . . 125 CHAPTER XL RELATION OF THE MIND TO RELIGIOUS THOUGHT. Influence of religious thought Influence of the Deity Of idolatry Of moral laws Spurious teachings Necessity for ' the eradication of heathenism Different appreciation of religion Danger of the period Religion and mental phe- nomena Physical and moral laws Difficult cases Exact definition of physical laws Want of definition of moral laws Necessity for prudent action Indications of future action 136 XIV CONTENTS. CHAPTER XII. RELATION OF THE MIND TO MORAL PHILOSOPHY. PAGE Action of one man to another Right and wrong Moral law the law of God Truth Absolute truth Moral law uni- versal Particular moral laws Duty Necessity for more exactness of moral laws Mode of proceeding of medical men Of lawyers Improved mode of thought of clergy . . 150 CHAPTER XIII. ON THE INFLUENCE OF FAITH ON THE MIND. Few ideas perfect Faith supplies imperfections Aisthenic faith Syndramic faith Exercise of faith supplies deficiencies of knowledge Faith not certain but probable Conditions of true faith False faith Noemic faith Pneuma-noemic faith Sure faith Law of true faith Examples of trust by faith Examples of distrust Faith demands reason Reason should discard false faith . . . . . . . . 157 CHAPTER XIV. FALLACIES OF THE HUMAN MIND. Aisthenic fallacies Syndramic fallacies Noemic fallacies Different qualities of ideas should have different words Pneuma-noemic fallacies Mnemonic fallacies Fallacies of judgment and comparison : of technical knowledge : of faith : of cause : of time : of pleasure and pain Dynamic fallacies 167 CHAPTER XV. THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. Mechanism of organs of sensation voltaic Nervous system a system of compound voltaic batteries Influence of voltaic electricity on the circulation of the blood Structure of the nervous fibres Theory of instinct Nervous system one organ Principles of the human mind in health and disease Defective states of mind Abstract ideas Mechanism of abstraction Mode of abstraction Difficulty of communi- cating abstract ideas Future conflict of ideas Importance of the study of abstract ideas . . . . . . . . 176 CONTENTS. XV CHAPTER XVI. VOLTAIC MECHANISM OP THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. PAGE Nervous system a voltaic circuit Essentials of a voltaic circuit Single voltaic circuit Compound circuit Simple nervo- voltaic circuit Hypothetical arrangement of the brain of animals of man as a voltaic apparatus Actual general structure of the brain Professor Ferrier's researches Micro- scopic structure Termination of nervous fibres in the organs of sensation in the body in the muscular system Termina- tions of the nerves in the brain and spinal chord High vascularity of tissues where nerves arise and terminate Various artificial voltaic circuits Electric fish . . 210 INDEX.. 245 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. PIG. PAGE 1 Rectangular square, divided into nine squares . . . . 3 2 Rectangular square, divided into 100 squares, to mark the retina . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 3 Representation of an inner court of the Bank of England, copied from a photograph which was made hy subjecting the plate one half the time required at one station, and the other half the time at a second station, two and a half inches from the first, whereby two pictures were formed exactly blended together, as man sees a picture with both eyes in nature . . . . . . . . opposite 5 4 Nest of Ploceus pensilis . . . . . . . . 18 5 Bowerbank's wasp's nest, illustrative of the effect of instinct 18 5* Diagram of the powers of man at different ages . . opposite 34 6 Acarus of Cross . . . . . . . . . . 51 7 Acarus of Weeks . . . . . . . . . . 51 8 Relational machine, one half closed, the other half open. By mistake one reading has been figured in error, but it was immediately detached on the next casual inspection. The readings used are the logical terms, a, all ; n, none ; s, some 94 9 Differential machine ; A, the magnitude used for the defini- tion of one statement on one side, and the similarity on the second ; B, the magnitude used for either side, when the matter is unknown ; 0, the magnitude when the second differs from the first statement . . . . . . 100 10 Diagram of the action of religion in particular instances, and the deduction of general laws for particular instances . . 107 11 Single voltaic circuit . . . . . . . . 211 12 Double voltaic circuit .. .. .. .. ..211 b XV111 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. no. PAGE 13 Single nervo- voltaic circuit . . . . . . . . 211 14 Triple nervo-voltaic circuit . . . . . . . . 212 15 Three nerves with their combinations . . . . . . 212 16 Theoretical nervous combination of lower animals . . . . 213 17 Theoretical nervous combination of man . . . . . . 213 18 No. 1 Anatomy of the fibres of the brain, after Mayo. A, the spinal chord ; f, posterior columns of spinal chord, into which the sensor nerves are implacted, and which are con- tinued into the cerebellum, B. From the cerebellum fibres are continued to the corpora quadrigemina, k I. Other fibres are continued from the spinal chord through the olivary bodies, c, by the olivary fasciculus, h, which are con- tinued to the cerebrum, ccc. From the cerebrum fibres converge to the pons, n, and from this point the fibres of the anterior fasciculus of the spinal chord spring, d, from which bundles the motor nerves arise (half diameter). No. 2 The ultimate vesicles of the brain, with nerve-tubes placed in the grey matter amongst the blood-vessels (highly magnified). No. 3 Ultimate structure of nerve-fibre (highly magnified) . . . . . . . . . . 214 19 Brain of man, showing the convolutions of the cerebrum overlapping the cerebellum . . . . . . . . 216 20 Brain of dog, showing how the cerebellum can be seen pro- jecting beyond the cerebrum. This is a general peculiarity of animals, though it has been disputed whether in the single case of a monkey the cerebellum has not been com- pletely covered . . . . . . . . . . 216 21 Nervous system of star-fish . . . . . . 217 22 Side view of brain of cat, to illustrate Professor Ferrier's re- searches. A, crucial sulcus dividing anterior convolutions ; B, fissure of Sylvius ; 0, olfactory bulb . . . . 217 23 Side view of brain of dog. A, crucial sulcus ; B, fissure of Sylvius ; C, olfactory bulb . . . . . . 219 24 Upper surface of brain of rabbit. A, cerebrum; B, cere- bellum ; C, olfactory bulb . . . . . . 220 25 Plexus of nerves from the spinal marrow, after Strieker, a, Nerve tube communicating with plexus . . . . 221 26 Cerebellum, showing the blood-vessels on the right-hand side descending vertically into the grey matter, and on the left the nerve-cells with nerve-fibres diverging from them, by Dr. Stewart 223 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. XIX FIG. PAGE 27 Ultimate nerve-fibres of the sympathetic nerve (highly mag- nified) 224 28 Terminations of the nerve of the retina, showing the rods and cones, after Strieker . . . . . . . . . . 224 29 General view of the layers of retina of man. 1, Membrana limitans interna. 2, Optic fibre layer. 3, Ganglia cell layer. 4, Internal granulated layer. 5, Internal granule layer. 6, External granulated layer. 7, External granule layer. 8, Membrana limitans externa. 9, Layer of rods and cones. 10, Pigment layer . . . . . . 225 30 Termination of the nerves of the skin. The spinal vessels are shown running from the perspiratory ducts. The nerve is depicted passing to the papillae, also delicate plexus of nerves between the papillae is shown, drawn by Dr. Stewart . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 31 Termination of the auditory nerve. 1, Cartilage of the wall of the ampulla. 2, Structureless basement membrane. 3, Doubly continued nerve-fibre. 4, Axis cylinder traversing the basement membrane. 5, Plexiform union of nerve- fibres with interspersed nuclei. 6, Fusiform cells with nucleus and dark fibre in their interior. 7, Supporting cells. 8, Auditory hairs (highly magnified) . . . . . . 227 32 Termination of the gustatory nerve of the frog, magnified 000 diameters . . . . . . . . 228 33 Terminations of olfactory nerve. A, a, Epithelial cells from the o^actory region of the proteus ; d, the processes ap- parently connected with them ; e, olfactory cells ; B, epi- thelium and olfactory cells from Max Schultze . . . . 228 34 Distribution of nerves on muscle, after Strieker. A, seen in profile ; pp, terminal nerve plate : s s, support of the plate with nuclei. B, the same in fresh muscle. C, the same after death . . . . . . . . 229 35 Artificial muscle, which distends in breadth, and contracts in length . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 36 Artificial blood corpuscule . . . . . . . . 229 37 Arteries and veins of the choroid coat of the eye . .$ . . 230 38 Yellow spot of Sommerring, the centre of perfect vision . . 230 39 Artery of the retina, from my own preparation . . . . 230 40 Blood-vessels of internal ear, from my own preparation . . 231 41 Blood-vessels of the nose, from my own preparation . . 231 42 Blood-vessels of the tongue, from my own preparation . . 231 XX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. F1S. PAGE 43 Blood-vessels of the skin, from my own preparation . . 231 44 Blood-vessels of muscles. The artery enters at right angles to the muscles, and they are distributed parallel to the fibres .. .. .. .. .. ..232 45 Blood-vessels of the grey matter of the spinal chord, from my own preparation, injected with carmine . . . . 232 46 Blood-vessels of the grey matter of the cerebrum, from my own preparation, injected with carmine (magnified) . . 233 47 Blood-vessels of the grey matter of the cerebellum, from my own preparation, injected with carmine (magnified) . . 234 48 A, from the electric organ of Mormyrus oxyrhyncus ; B, from the electric organ of Mormyrus dorsalis . . . . 235 49 Single battery cell, from a model in the Hunterian museum . . 236 50 A series of batteries, from a model in the Hunterian museum 237 51 Torpedo viewed from above, showing the brain and the enormous distribution of the eighth pair of nerves to the electrical organ. 11, Mnciferous organs; 10, openings of mucif erous ducts on skin . . . . . . . . 236 52 Transverse section of torpedo ; F, electric organs ; p p, ver- tical prisms ; 8, eighth pair of nerves to supply batteries ; L, electrical lobe ; o, ear ; F, mouth ; g, muscles of ex- tremity ; /, f ollicular organs . . . . . . . . 237 53 Artificial electrical fish-cell .. .. .. ..237 54 Lateral section of the electrical organs of electrical eel. a, Dorsal muscle ; 6, larger electrical organs ; c, lateral fin muscles ; d, lesser electrical organ ; f, spinal chord ; g, spinal chord ; h, fifth pair of nerves ; *, air-sac ; m, mem- branous septum ; n, edges of lateral fin muscles ; o, cut dorsal muscles ; p, body of vertebrae ; q, larger electrical organs ; r, lateral muscles ; t, lateral fin muscles ; u, fin . . 238 55 Transverse section of electrical eel. a, Skin ; b, aponeurosis, covering muscles and electrical organs ; d, larger battery ; e, lateral fin muscles ; /, lesser batteries ; g, edges of lateral fin ; *, the fin ; k, body of vertebrae ; m, vein ; , artery ; o, air-vessel, after Letheby . . . . . . . . 239 56 V-tube A .. .. .. .. .. ..241 57 Artificial nose . . . . . . . . . . 241 58 Double voltaic battery, showing the mode of detecting voltaic current in fluid 242 THE MIND OF MAN. CHAPTER I. ELEMENTARY IDEAS. Ideas from sensations Eye-sensations, extent of Ideas from two eyes Ear-sensations Number of notes heard Taste-sensations Odour- sensations Feeling - sensations Sensation-carriers, or nerves All external forces become nervous in the body Combination of nervous impressions Changes of combination Idea of time from nature of change Cause Pleasure and pain Memory Reason of Man Natural reason Reason by words. THE mind derives the most elementary ideas or mental pic- tures from all things existing in the external world through the medium of the organs of sensation. These may be con- veniently termed aisthenic ideas, from the word alaOiiais, sensation, and comprise those representations which are carried to the brain through the medium of the nerves from impressions made on the eye, ear, nose, tongue, aij^. skin. EYE SENSATIONS, OR OPSAFSTHENICS. The ideas derived through the eye are the most important, as a photographic image is formed on the retina, and the picture so produced is carried to the brain where it is indelibly fixed. When B 2 ELEMENTARY IDEAS. we look at an extensive prospect we are delighted at the perfect picture which we see. The minutest detail is accu- rately delineated, and the objects themselves appear to us in the various colours which comprise the spectrum. Never- theless when we minutely scrutinise the mental picture, we are as astonished at the limited range of the entire prospect which is revealed to us at one instant of time as we are with the perfection of that picture within the range for which the eye is adapted by nature to receive it. The eye sees without motion at a glance every object contained within a circle of the diameter of -^t-h of the dis- tance of the object from the eye ; that is to say, we see with- out a movement of the eye every object of one inch at twenty-five inches distance, or every object contained within the circle of a mile at twenty-five miles distance. In mathe- matical language, perfect vision is obtained over a range of 3 18'. Beyond this circle of complete vision objects are more indistinctly seen the farther they are removed from the centre, and in my treatise on the Eye exact details are given of the pictures formed in my own organs of vision. Within the range of perfect vision, however, the eye only perceives objects, or parts of objects, of a certain magnitude. For instance, at fifty feet distance the total range of perfect vision is contained in a circle two feet in diameter. At twenty-five inches the circle is restricted to one inch. Within this circle, and at that distance, we can discriminate parts not less than -^oth of an inch diameter. This limitation of visual power proves that any mental picture can only contain a definite number of parts. The picture on the retina is similar to patterns used by needle- women, though on a more minute scale. In the study of the mind it has been convenient to ELEMENTARY IDEAS. 3 assume that the limit of the perfection of vision is a square instead of a circle, and that this square if measured is the 2 Jjth of the distance from the eye. From this it follows that at 12 \ inches from the eye one square inch comprises the range of perfect vision, and the ultimate parts of which this square is composed are the ^-gth inch across. By multiply- ing 250 x 250, we have in this space of perfect vision 62,500 squares, which are visible, and on each of which an impression may be made and carried by the nerves to the brain. Now the visual square divided into its 62,500 parts, and impressed with a picture, resembles the pictures used by needlewomen. If a number be assigned to each ultimate compartment, the squares implicated in any picture may be designated, and the result communicated from one person to another, the minuteness of each ultimate compartment being the only barrier to an exact representation of any picture seen by one person being communicated to a second. For example, a rectangular square may be divided into nine parts, then we shall find if some are black and the remainder white, and if each is distinguished by a definite number, that if the following squares are black, 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, the letter D would be represented. If 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, the letter E ; if 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, H ; if 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, I ; if 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, L ; if 2, 4, 6, 8, ; if 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, T ; if 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, U ; if 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, X. The numbers of each ultimate compartment acted upon can be told to any other person at any distance or at any future time, when the particular spaces can be filled up in black, when a second picture can be made iden- tical with the first. By imitating the natural operation of ELEMENTARY IDEAS. the nervous system, a secret language could be used, which the genius even of a Young who was so skilled in deciphering secret languages, might have failed to have discovered. Each compartment might be described trigonometrically as well as arithmetically, as each compartment has a definite relative position to every other compartment. Not only letters, but distinct pictures, might be de- scribed, were it not too laborious ; in truth, any picture seen by the eye of one person could by assigning a designation to each compartment be so - described as to be .capable of being repeated, so as .to be understood by any other person, as in this diagram of one hundred parts. Whenever an object in the ex- Fig. 2. ternal world produces an image on the retina, of the eye, smaller than the ultimate compartments of which it is com- posed, it is invisible, unless the image is increased in size either by the telescope >or by the microscope, and that which is not depicted in the eye is not appreciated by the brain. Our knowledge derived by vision is therefore limited, as we can only obtain information from the eye when the object is of certain defined magnitude. Not only is our knowledge limited by the size of the object, but also our power of discriminating colours is limited to the rays which we designate red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet. Chemistry reveals that there are other rays less refrangible than the red rays, and more so than the violet, which are not visible to the eyes of men. The mind obtains information from the images formed in the two eyes, because the two eyes, being 2^ inches apart, are placed at two stations, and a somewhat different image is ELEMENTARY IDEAS. 5 formed in each. An inquiry on this matter, although proper in a treatise on the Eye, need hardly be continued in a work designed for a study of the mind further than to remark that the mental picture derived from the two eyes combined reveals more of each object viewed than the picture derived from one eye alone. The eye considered by itself is a mere optical arrange- ment or camera, containing lenses for the formation of the image, contrivances for adjusting the lenses to various dis- tances, and optical combinations to render the eye achroma- tic and to correct spherical aberration. In the manner in which the eye does its work, it is as far superior to the camera of the photographer, as all other works of nature are superior to the contrivances of man. The accompanying engraving of an inner court of the Bank of England is copied from a photograph, taken at one station for one half the time the process was required, and then at a second station, 2J inches distant from the first position. By this plan of operation two distinct pictures were formed and combined together to form a picture such as the two eyes see. From an examination of the finest pictures in many of the most celebrated galleries in Europe, I have been able to detect the method by which various distinguished painters represent what is seen by both eyes at once. For example, Paul Veronese most skilfully obtains the effect of solidity by the suggestion of a line more or less broken to conceal his artifice outside the limbs of the figures which he has re- presented. The picture formed on the retina by itself renders us no wiser for possessing an eye with all its marvellous contri- vances. Some change, however, during the act of vision, takes place, which occupies a period of time which has been 6 ELEMENTARY IDEAS. found to be T yh of a second. This sets in motion a force which my experiments have led to infer that it is of a voltaic character. By this the picture is carried by a separate nerve for every compartment of the retina to the brain, whereby the mind becomes cognisant of the picture formed in the eye, and we obtain a knowledge of the objects in the external world when lit tip by any one or all of the various colours of which light is composed. Light, there- fore, is that physical force which causes the pictiire to be formed upon the retina, and is the origin of the motive power by which a knowledge of that picture is carried to the brain where it is fixed for the mind to apprehend it. Man is not singular amongst animal beings for de- riving knowledge from the eye. It is, however, truly, his best sense, and deprived of it, he may say with Milton, ' Knowledge at one entrance quite shut off.' Some creatures, as birds, appear to possess the faculty of sight to a more perfect degree than any man with regard to the sixe and distance with which they can discriminate objects. Other beings, on the contrary, as the mole, the flea which lives on the mole, and the Proteus, have no perfect eyes, and cannot have those pictures of the works of nature brought to their knowledge which man has. To what extent animals can appreciate colours it is diffi- cult to tell ; but experience shows that the bull is ex- cited by the red flag, and the tortoise runs to the yellow flower. The mind is influenced to an important extent by the ideas obtained through vision ; but when deprived of sight, the sufferer might say with Milton, ' So much the rather thou, Celestial Light, Shine inward, and the mind through all her powers irradiate.' ELEMENTARY IDEAS. 7 EAR SENSATIONS, OR OUSAISTHENICS. The mind does not derive so many ideas through the medium of the ear as it does from the eye. The ear, however, is of great import- ance, and it is particularly noticed that the deaf man is liable to accidental injury. He is often injured by vehicles and horses, the noise of which he does not hear, and there- fore does not sufficiently quickly avoid. The range of musical sounds appreciated by the ear consists of about 12 octaves, and in each octave many per- sons can distinguish the ^d of a note. Upon this hypothesis the human ear can distinguish about 3200 musical sounds, and no more. At any one moment of time various sounds impinge upon the ear, as we may know when we hear the notes of a full orchestra. In the consideration of sounds conveyed to the mind by the medium of the ear, we must exclude conversations by words and language, which are really sounds used to repre- sent mental ideas, and which require special and separate consideration. There is no reason to suspect that the members of the higher animals are either much better or worse off than man in the appreciation of sounds, very high tones, however, greatly excite some animals. The importance of vision and hearing to the mind of man is so great, that when unfortunately born without both he is not competent to transact any business. TASTE SENSATIONS, OR GUMAISTHENICS. The mind does not obtain many ideas by the sensation of taste, the object of which appears to be to enable animals to distinguish food fit for use from that which is deleterious. It has never been attempted to ascertain how many specific savours man is competent to distinguish. ELEMENTARY IDEAS. ODOUR SENSATIONS, OR RHINAISTHENICS. Many animals far surpass man in the faculty of deriving knowledge by their nasal organs. The cat manifestly finds its prey by scent. The dog hunts by the power of smelling the tracks of the creatures it devours. It is manifest that the nose of the dog and cat is far more sensitive, and is capable of afford- ing a much larger knowledge to them, than the nose does to the human being. Nevertheless odours indicate to us the presence of various substances, and enable us to discriminate various states of the same substance, as fresh meat from that which is putrid. FEELING SENSATIONS, CGENAISTHENICS AND SOMAISTHE- NICS. The mind appreciates two distinct kinds of feeling sensations. One set of impressions which are derived from the action of physical force upon the skin, as when we receive a blow, or when the skin is acted upon either by heat or by cold ; a second set of impressions, when the changes going on within our own bodies are carried to the brain, and are recognised by the minds, as when our minds distinguish the amount of any muscular movement. Our capacity to appre- ciate the changes which are taking place within us are but limited in extent ; and it is possible to conceive that, had we but a higher mechanism for this purpose, we might have a more extensive knowledge of the changes which occur, although we must also admit that what we have is ample for our purposes. SENSATION CARRIERS, OR NERVES. The organs of sensa- tion are simply arrangements by which light, sound, odour, savour, heat, cold, act upon the body. By themselves these organs are useless, and if further mechanism did not exist they would not afford any ideas to the mind. In these organs of sensation some material change takes place on the action by their appropriate irritant which is not ELEMENTARY IDEAS. 9 exactly known. For instance, the nerves of the retina are affected by light, and this change produces an effect which is transmitted through carriers called Nerves to the brain. When these carriers, or nerves, are cut, no mental impression is produced, even though the organs of sensation remain entire, as it is essential that there should be a perfect nervous communication between the organs of sensation and the brain before any information can be conveyed to the mind. As the nervous terminations in each organ of sensation are limited in number, so also are the little tubes, or carriers, to the brain limited, although it has never been accurately ascertained how many of these little tubes carry the im- pressions of the external world from all the organs of sen- sation to the brain. Although light, sound, heat, odour, savour, act upon the senses designed to receive their respective impressions, yet the specific character of each of their physical forces is lost when the result of the change in the organs of sensation is transmitted through the nerves to the brain. At any one moment of one's life many terminations of the nerves are acted upon, and this combination may be termed Syndramic, and is the^ result of all the actions on the ultimate nervous fibrils at any one instant of time. When the brain is once impressed, the image formed on the organ of sensation, such as the eye, remains fixed in that part of the brain designed to receive the impressions of that organ, and may reappear to the mind at any future time. Impressions conveyed to the mind by the medium of the senses are more fixed and more decided than ideas which are communicated by other persons, by words either spoken or written. As good impressions may remain for life, and those which are bad cannot easily be neglected, it is a matter of paramount importance to subject ourselves to those 10 ELEMENTARY IDEAS. scenes which are capable of producing good and pleasing pictures hereafter. The mental combination of nervous impressions received at one instant of time is ever changing, and never remaining the same for a single instant. Some remain, others come ; the latter vanish, the second come again, and every possible variety comes into play. Take, for example, the picture of a garden formed on the retina. The general outline of the garden remains from year to year. In winter, however, the trees are leafless. In early spring birds sing, and flowers and leaves are added to the picture. The blossom passes away, and fruit is added to the scene, which passes away ; then the leaves are removed, when perhaps snow covering the branches is again added to that part of the picture which never changes. What a series of pictures is here realised by the mind, not two of which are exactly identical even on the same day, yet every one is presented to the mind like a needlewoman's pattern. The change of pictures, if narrowly examined, is but a limited change. As I sit in my room now writing, the articles of furniture and form of the room remain un- changed ; but one visitor enters and another emerges, so that whilst the greater part of the picture, formed in the eye and carried to the brain, remains the same, another portion of the picture has some part added or subtracted. An intel- ligent appreciation of the continued change of images, as we shall hereafter find, leads to our notions of time ; and pictures remaining without change involve much time, pic- tures with many changes little time for each event. Again, the mode in which the changes occur leads to the idea of cause. For example, we see a blacksmith with uplifted hand holding the ponderous hammer ; then another set of images of the arm and hammer in the act of falling ; then a ELEMENTARY IDEAS. 11 picture with the hammer against an object struck ; lastly, the object struck and changed in form. All these combinations of the actions on the primitive nervous fibres are simply vari- ations on the particular ultimate portions of the nervous expansions, which are acted upon by the forces of the ex- ternal world, and carried from thence by the nerves to the brain, where they either cause immediate actions or are avail- able for future mental reappearance and objects of thought. Whether the combination of the action on ultimate fibres in a combination of actions on the ultimate nervous fibres of the eye, the ear, the nose, or other sense, is immaterial to the study of this subject, because the moment the action is transferred to the brain it becomes a brain-impression, and loses its specific character. Each single brain-impression may be designated by a number, and upon the supposition that the ultimate nerve- terminations in the body amount to 100,000 units of sensa- tion, we should have an equal number of nerve-terminations in the brain, and any possible combination may be reported to the mind at any one inst'ant of time. The particular nature of the change which takes place in the brain, by which a material effect is produced in the bodily organisation is unknown, though physiologists are agreed that it takes place in the grey matter of the brain, which is abundantly supplied with blood-vessels, as my beau- tiful carmine injections have demonstrated. PLEASURE AND PAIN. Every action in the nervous system is attended with the sensation of either pleasure or pain. Every moderate action in the nervous system is plea- surable every excessive one is painful. Moderate light falling on the eye gives pleasure, the direct light of the sun gives pain. A genial warmth acting on the skin is attended with pleasure ; great heat causes exquisite pain. 12 ELEMEJSTARY IDEAS. Painful and pleasurable sensations depend upon degree, that is simply on the extent of action produced on the nervous terminations ; and, although so different in the effect conveyed to the mind, are merely differences of the intensity in which the external physical forces affect the organs of sensation. Pleasure and pain are the keys to human action. We all avoid pain and seek pleasure. Present pleasure, present pain future pleasure, future pain infinite pleasure, infinite pain govern all human operations. MEMORY. The pictures transmitted to the brain are not transient, but are fixed in the organisation and appear here- after. The first image was so registered on my brain at a very early period of my existence. I remember to have been taken from my bed to witness the illuminations at King George the Fourth's coronation, which occurred on the 19th July, 1821. As I was born on June 18th, 1818, I can fix an event as registered in the mind when only three years old. Before that circumstance, doubtless other facts which were impressed on the brain have their influence on the inind ; but I have no means of determining whether such ideas were received before or after that period. The registration of pictures is of paramount importance to mental phenomena. Without it the mind would be a dreary blank, as we could not compare a present with a past event, or judge in any way of the difference between them. Without it we could not exercise the power of reflection or imagination. Without it we should be deprived of the power of acting upon all the facts which we have learned during the whole of our lives. Without it we should be said to be fatuous, a state in which a man is lowered to the condition of a plant. When a new idea is communicated to the brain, it com- mingles, as it were, with all those ideas which have been received before, and modifies our subsequent thought. In a ELEMENTARY IDEAS. 13 state of rest, but yet awake, when we do not derive impres- sions from the external world, the mind is still active. For example, when we lie in bed the pictures which the mind has received from a garden reappear as plainly as though they had just been seen. From a consideration of them, we can form in the mind new ideal pictures which we can call to memory at a future time, and can go to any garden and con- struct in the external world at any future time. It is my custom to write books, as it were, in the mind as I move about in my ordinary avocations of life. When composed in the mind, it subsequently becomes a mere question of mechanical labour to transmit to paper those ideas when thought out ; and so mechanical is the act of writing, that I frequently find myself using the pen on im- portant matters whilst conversing with those around me on the ordinary trivial subjects of the day. The phenomena of memory should induce us all to register in our minds good images, for the occurrence of those which are pleasant constitutes a constant source of happiness and joy, whilst the memory of painful images is as frequently a source of misery and woe. The spontaneity with which pictures reappear is difficult of explanation, for we cannot really understand by what in- fluence the reappearance of the picture of a lovely plant or of a beautiful scene, which was seen perhaps months or years before, should come before the mind whilst we are sitting in our library miles away from the actual scene in the external world. Nevertheless we must admit the fact that whatever we have seen in the external world we can see again by the mind, and render available for future thought or for the control of our future actions. The mind takes notice of the sense with which knowledge has been acquired, and distinguishes whether information 14 ELEMENTARY IDEAS. has been received from either the eye, ear, nose, tongue, or skin, or from any possible combination of these organs of sensation. Without memory there can be no mind, as then the past can have no influence over the present nor be able to guide the future. In the reappearance of pictures before the mind, two or more somewhat dissimilar frequently appear together, when the examination of the likeness or difference between the two is termed comparison, and is a higher power of the mind than the mere registration of mental pictures for memory. After comparison comes selection, and the act of selecting and choosing it for action is called judgment. All these cases of mental action are common to all ani- mals. A dog compares two homes, selects one, and upon that judgment acts. In these reasoning powers the human mind is not superior to that of the lower animals. The intermediate state of the mind between the recep- tion of ideas and the action of the body, either to guide the arms or legs to motion or the tongue to speak, is not well denned. Sometimes the mind pauses for some time ; it dwells upon a subject, and defers action for a long period in the future. How we act in this intermediate state is extremely curi- ous, for the mind decides us to act, and yet the action may be delayed for an indefinite period. I determined to write this work some years since, actually wrote a considerable portion, but postponed the completion till the present time. The action upon the entire ideas existing in the brain may be likened to the resultant of mechanical forces. Some tend towards one line of action, some towards another, but the sum total produces a line of thought between the whole combined. When we come to a determination upon all the ELEMENTARY IDEAS. 15 ideas reflected in our minds, we are said to act from common sense, a faculty not sufficiently practised by any of us, as we are apt to be led to wrong conclusions by giving too great weight to special facts or to a part of the impression in our mind in place of bringing into operation all ideas which we have derived during the whole of our previous lives. Up to this point the mind does not differ from that of the brute beast, which sees, hears, feels, and remembers, what it has seen, heard, and felt, and which regulates its action after reflecting, comparing, and judging of the various ideas which it recollects. MAN REASON ; NOEMIC REASON. There is a jump in the powers of mind between the human reason and the reason of brutes. The mind deals with its various ideas, and forms abstract conceptions. It forms the notion of mankind apart from any particular man. The notion of heat apart from hot things ; of light apart from illuminated bodies. The capa- bility of using these higher abstractions confers upon all men powers not possessed by the lower animals. Mankind alone of all the animal creation uses words and language for the com- munication of ideas ; employs fire to cook food ; lamps to illuminate rooms ; electricity to convey intelligence, or tools by which mechanical force is regulated. The mind evidently reasons by two distinct methods. NATURAL REASONING. By natural reasoning the mind concentrates its attention by the organs of sensation upon a matter, and forms its conclusion by the immediate images presented to the mind in comparison and in combination with all other images previously received. This is perhaps the more common method of reasoning. The whole train of thought is performed without the use of words or language. The rapidity of the conclusion is not only remarkable con- sidering the large amount of premises on which it is based 16 ELEMENTARY IDEAS. but is more excellent than the slower and more tedious method of reasoning by words and language. The conclusion in these cases flashes before the mind, and is so indelibly impressed that it can be fought against any disputant at any future time. It is employed usually in medi- cal science. Occasionally I have been occupied hours in a journey to examine the state of a patient as to the progress of the case, and the conclusion has been formed in an incon- ceivably short space of time. Sometimes I should have been thankful to be relieved of the fatigue of the journey, but this has been required because of the difficulty of receiv- ing communications of the exact state of the case by words and language. Many medical men in large practice use the method of reason by their minds in this manner to such an extent that when placed in a witness-box to explain their train of thought, they so far break down that, though greatly eminent as medi- cal men, they appear before the court as stupid witnesses. The natural process of reasoning is far superior to the process by words and language, and all of us should practise its employment on all possible occasions. It constitutes the difference between the reason of the practical man and that of the man who has his knowledge from books and reasons by words. 17 CHAPTER II. IDEAS ORIGINATING IN THE MIND ITSELF. Instincts Spontaneous Ideas Ideas of States of Matter, of Modes of Motion and of Physical Forces Ideas of Modes of Human Action and of Thought Ideas of Infinity, of God, of Heaven, of Hell. VARIOUS ideas evidently come before the mind by the natural process of thought arising from the construction of the brain itself. In our earliest infancy we take food without expe- rience and drink because we are thirsty, although we have no knowledge that food will stop hunger or drink satisfy thirst ; we move about when we are restless and rest when we are tired. Although there may be several instincts of the above character, I never could detect, either in my own mind or in that of any other person, any instinct similar to that which exists in the bee to guide it to make its honeycomb, in the wasp to make its paper nest, in the beaver to build its home, in the bird to migrate at one season to distant lands and return at another season to its former abode. These and similar instincts appear to be distinct ideas implanted in the organisation of animals, and are applied in action in a perfectly automatic manner by the same species for thousands of years without variation, or only with that limit of variation which is noticeable in all the works of nature, except that the details may be somewhat modified by c 18 IDEAS ORIGINATING IN THE MIND ITSELF. the faculties of mind which are undoubtedly assigned to every living creature. The situation of a nest of a bird is chosen by reason, the nest itself is built upon a type or general design obtained by instinct, but modified by the Xest of Ploceus Pensilis. Wasps' Nest. Fig. 5. Fig. 4. materials which the bird is able to procure for its construc- tion, or by the form of the branches on which it rests. A pendulous bird's nest (fig. 4) is a good example of the result of instinct. A remarkable instance of the effect of instinct in regu- lating and modifying action may be seen in a nest of a paper-making wasp belonging to Mr. Bowerbank. The nest IDEAS ORIGINATING IN THE MIND ITSELF. 19 is invariably constructed tier by tier arranged vertically downwards. The branch on which the nest was fixed, by some accidental circumstance, broke, and the nest was thrown out of its position. True to instinct, the creature still formed its layers of cells working in horizontal layers, and thus the nest was constructed in two axes, one of hori- zontal layers of cells placed one above the other for a cer- tain distance, and then when their horizontal position was no longer maintained, by other layers laid horizontally at an angle from the first set of layers. This operation was an instructive example of pure instinct (fig. 5). Many ideas appear to arise spontaneously in the mind during the course of its ordinary operation. Thus the idea of matter is obtained from that which acts upon the organs of sensation, of number from the nervous filaments excited to action. So also the ideas of form, volume, composition, cohesion, crystallization, hardness, softness, solidity, fluid- ity, position, are derived from the manner in which the ultimate elements of the organs of sensation are acted upon by particular forms or conditions of matter when those actions are carried to the brain and registered therein. The mind recognises also modes of motion, which, as they occur, are called electricity, galvanism, magnetism, chemical action, heat or cold, light, colour, or darkness, sound or si- lence, and the general power by which matter influences other matter gives rise to the idea of force. The relative rapidity in the changes of matter originates in the mind the idea of time. The changes which occur in organic bodies suggest to us the idea of life and the absence of change death. From the different modes of human action ideas are formed of courage, cowardice, confidence, fear, rashness, prudence, justice. The state of the mind affords us the ideas 20 IDEAS ORIGINATING IN THE MIND ITSELF. of meekness, irascibility, arrogance, modesty. Differences in our conversation suggest the ideas of ability, folly, plea- santry, ribaldry, buffoonery ; of our mode of life suggest the notions of temperance, drunkenness, gluttony," abstinence ; and our conduct one towards another gives rise to the ideas of kindness, cruelty, liberality, prodigality, ostentation, meanness, magnanimity. The comparison of one set of mental images with another affords the ideas of truth, falsehood, error, conviction, belief ; and the further comparison involves the idea of conscience, by which we tell whether a thought or action is right or wrong. Accordingly, as extraneous matter acts upon the organs of sensation, we derive the ideas of plea- sure or pain, and from a consideration of painful or pleasur- able impressions the ideas of good or evil, of virtue or vice, of joy, happiness, or misery, come before us. There are a vast number of these ideas which appear spontaneously to the mind, to which there can be no occasion at the present time to draw particular and special attention further than to remark the fact that the ideas of these so- called principles are constituted by the mental operation of the mind itself. The totality of all actions on the nervous system appears to the mind as infinity. When this idea is associated with cause an Infinite Cause or God appears to the mind ; when associated with time infinite time or eternity appears. The association of infinite time and pleasure gives to us the idea of heaven of infinite time and pain of hell. These ideas occur in the ordinary operation of the mind, and come before us without teaching. They are, as it were, implanted in us by virtue of the mode of construction of our brain. "We cannot discard these thoughts, nor do I believe that any man of unimpaired intellect can separate them from himself during the whole period of his existence. IDEAS ORIGINATING IN THE MIND ITSELF. 21 It is quite true that, reasoning by words and language, men have sometimes denied the existence of a God, of a future state, of heaven, or of hell. To reason by words is inferior to the reason by the mind, and such special pecu- liarities of belief, contrary to the intuitive belief of all mankind, may be attributed rather to the imperfection of language than to any inferiority in the pure and natural action of the mind itself. 22 CHAPTER III. CONSCIOUSNESS. Consciousnses Consciousness only during part of existence During sleep Perfect unconsciousness Deep thought and partial conscious- ness Dreams Anxiety Consciousness depends on physical state Mechanism of consciousness Origin of consciousness. I HAVE traced the mechanism of the mind beginning with material objects in the external world, and then by examining the manner in which under the influence of certain phy- sical forces an action is produced on the organs of sensation, and from them transmitted by the nerves to the brain where some change takes place, which ever afterwards has its influence on the mental processes. This organisation appears to be purely physical, and to a certain degree intelligible on anatomical and physiologi- cal grounds ; but how do we distinguish between a thought and a reality ? How do we obtain our idea of consciousness ? How, in fact, do we know that we are here at all ? We do know it nevertheless. I have asked suddenly numerous indi- viduals, from the child to the old man, How do you know you are here ? The answer comes back ' I know it.' The answer is true, they do know it, but how ? All other operations of the mind can be traced to phy- CONSCIOUSNESS. 23 m sical causes depending upon material organisation, but this one idea of personal consciousness baffles our understanding. No combination of physical elements can produce conscious- ness, and no complication of mechanism can afford the idea of consciousness. None of us are conscious more than two-thirds of our entire time. During sleep we are all unconscious. In some states of the body consciousness is lost, as, for instance, during the coma of apoplexy, or during the continuance of an epileptic fit, when, although the heart beats, and the organs of sensation are perfect, and the nerves could carry the impressions to the brain, no effect is registered in that organ, and we are dead to the external world, and have, as it were, no existence, no self-knowledge. In a state of the most perfect consciousness and fullest wakefulness the mind sometimes attends to two matters at one time. Sometimes even three operations of the brain occur simultaneously, besides many slighter matters which the mind apprehends, but takes but little notice of, such as the ticking of a watch, the passage of a figure before the eye, an odour affecting the nose, or a slight pain or twinge in any part of the body. This duality or plurality of mental action or thought is a matter of habit. With me it is so constant that it is my custom to read or even to write upon one subject when my family are conversing upon another. Most of my published treatises have been written after having been thought out, when I have been talking with my family and friends upon the ordinary subjects which are discussed at a family gather ing on a winter's evening. At times the mind requires to isolate itself, as it were, from the external world, and concentrate thought upon the subject to be worked out. The ear must not hear nor the 24 CONSCIOUSNESS. eye see. This has been the case in the thought required for the development of this work. Many times I have been so thoroughly absorbed in developing the general scheme that, whilst walking the public streets I have found myself standing still to grasp, as it were, the relation of one part of the complicated details of the subject to another ; and one day when it poured with rain I was amused on passing a friend to find that I had said, ' A fine day,' so entirely was my mind engrossed by the consideration of the matter before me. There are times also when we are only partially con- scious and not fully and thoroughly alive to all which is going on around us. When our minds are fully conscious our friends say that we give them our attention ; but if we carefully examine ourselves it is surprising to find to how small an extent any of us are thoroughly attentive even when fully awake to every thing which is passing around. During sleep we are in the same way frequently not so fully asleep as to be entirely dead to the external world and lost to our own thoughts so that between the most perfect wakefulness, the most concentrated thought, and the most profound sleep, there are innumerable varieties of degree wherein consciousness is more or less perfect. Particularly under disturbances of the digestive organs fanciful images appear to our minds which eventually startle us from our sleep. When we awake we know that the ideas are but dreams, and our returning consciousness makes us aware that the pictures we have seen had no existence, and were but the fanciful creations of a disturbed mind, occurring probably from some error of diet and the concomitant irrita- tion in the brain. When the mind is distressed by anxiety the same subject appears again and again before us, the mind is unsettled CONSCIOUSNESS. 25 and sound sleep is prevented. We then do not become totally unconscious, and neither the mind nor the body are re- freshed to that extent which the loss of consciousness in sleep provides. During this partial sleep it by no means follows that the dominant idea should continue to appear, for in this disturbance of the mind ideas may appear having no relation to those which have distressed us. Dreams caused by some simple bodily irritation may bring before the mind distressing pictures having no relation to any circumstances at the time surrounding us. The dream of a fall down a precipice, and of multitudes of other nightmares which we might name, are familiar and frequent examples. The best remedy for sleeplessness from anxiety and the continual reappearance of painful ideas before our minds contrary to our desire, is the observation of the works of Nature. The study of natural objects exercises our bodies, employs the organs of sensation, exhausts our nervous sys- tem, and promotes the unconsciousness of sleep by which our bodily strength is rendered more capable of bearing up against any trouble which may oppress us. Returning consciousness after disturbed sleep shows that the ideas then presented to the mind are but dreams, and our returning consciousness makes us believe that conscious- ness is strictly referable to physical mechanism, but con- sciousness still remains the great unsolved problem, as we cannot perceive its relations to the mechanism of our or- ganisation. Without physical organisation there is no consciousness. Without physical organisation in its healthy state there is no consciousness ; so whilst we admit that the human mind cannot understand how a material organisation may pro- duce, or be associated with, consciousness, so we are com- 26 CONSCIOUSNESS. pelled to declare that consciousness is not manifested without a material mechanism. In all other respects our brain and nervous system are strictly analogous to a watch which shows us time, or to a machine which judges of the weight of coins, or to a steam- engine which exercises force ; but no inorganic material mechanism is conscious of its existence, nor can any com- plexity of mechanism produce any result in any way similar to consciousness. The nature of this self-knowledge has been unknown in all ages, is now unknown, and probably will ever remain unknown. How consciousness is affected by the material structure of the brain, and what relation there is between that structure and consciousness, is a matter which utterly baffles our understanding. Every other thought or act of reasoning, or effect of mental power, is strictly referable to physical organic mechanism ; but consciousness appears to be a power by which we view our structures from a point without our- selves, and yet we can only do so when the bodily structure is entire and evinces healthy action. The particular mechanism on which consciousness de- pends appears to be that which gives a knowledge of what takes place within us. It is the mechanism of somaisthenics or of bodily sensations in contradistinction to coenaisthenics, or sensations derived from external force. Sleep is the rest of the brain and the cessation of con- sciousness. How the brain ceases to act during rest, how con- sciousness during sleep is suspended, are phenomena as recondite as consciousness itself. Up to the present time from the study of external phe- nomena alone, we have no clue as to why matter generates CONSCIOUSNESS. 27 force, and likewise up to the present time we have no clue as to why organised creatures evince consciousness. As it is the province of inorganic matter to evince force by an inherent property, is it not possible that organic beings may exhibit consciousness also as an inherent property ? In- organic matter can only evince the power of attraction from a capability conferred upon it in the beginning by a su- perior power extrinsic to matter, so may not consciousness be conferred upon organic beings by the same extrinsic power, the Creator of all things ? 28 CHAPTER IV. ON THE WILL AND LAWS OF HUMAN ACTION. Human action Automatic action Voluntary action Actions regulated by former ideas Will not altogether voluntary Laws of the will The action of man regulated by pleasure and pain Free-will and necessity. AFTER receiving an impression through the medium of the senses, and comparing it with all other similar events which have come before the mind at a previous time and with all the moral laws which we have learnt or developed for our- selves, action ensues. The muscular action which is performed by the body is sometimes purely automatic, for when a sensor nerve is irritated, certain definite muscular movements are deter- mined, and really many of our muscular movements are of this character, and are not governed by mental action, that is to say, the particular muscular movements which are determined, are not regulated by mental action, but act automatically, without passing through the higher parts of the brain affected by all former knowledge there regis- tered. When a frog is deprived of a great part of the cerebral hemispheres it will continue to crawl up when balanced on the hand. This action involves a curious and complicated ON THE WILL AND LAWS OF HUMAN ACTION. 29 combination of muscular movements, which still take place after the active part of the brain is destroyed, so that they cannot be regulated by such general powers of mind as are bestowed on the frog. The actions which are governed by the mind are called voluntary, and are determined by two distinct causes. The one emanating from the external world ; the second originating in the mind itself. Man is incited to action, 1. By the immediate excitation of the nervous system, from an action originating in the external world which passes through the brain and is modified by all preceding experiences existing in the mind. This kind of action is rapid, and is regulated by the immediate impulse rather than by experience. It is called the impulse of the moment, and is frequently injudicious, because the mind has not had sufficient time fully to regulate the line of action. 2. By the occurrence of a thought spontaneously arising in the mind from images of actions registered in the brain, and regulated by all the impressions which have been before received, or by ideas which have been taught us since infancy. 3. By a spontaneity or desire for action arising within our organisation. This tendency to action exactly re- sembles the tension of a voltaic battery, and when suffi- ciently strong to cause action is regulated by all the ideas existing in the mind. This tendency to action, regulated by the mind, is the will. The will is an impulsion to action set in motion by the state of the nervous system, and there is no reason whatever to suppose that the will is something outside matter which sets in motion the body through the nervous system, as the parts of a puppet are moved by its wires. 30 ON THE WILL AND LAWS OF HUMAN ACTION. It is plain to me, though we may flatter ourselves that our minds are perfectly self-willed, and that we always act as we please, that we really in every case, more or less, do act not only on the immediate impression of the external worM, but on all the former experiences and moral laws existing in the mind. Our actions, regulated by our minds, run in a groove, as surely as the steam locomotive runs on the rails. To run out of a definite groove, a violent disturbance of the mind must occur, just as much a disturbance as would be required to cause the engine to leave the rails. The mind is governed by circumstances, the laws of the influence of which may be learnt by study and observation. The will is not a directing influence to act in any uncertain manner, but is the direction of the mode of action of which the entire mind is the regulator. Example 1. A man follows a suggested action when the action is itself attended with present pleasure, and is free from present pain; when experience of similar past actions proved them to be accompanied by pleasure and devoid of pain ; when from all known events registered in the mind the action may be supposed to lead to future pleasure and be devoid of future pain, and according to the infinite law will insure infinite future pleasure and avoid infinite future pain. Example 2. A man avoids a suggested action when it immediately produces pain and leads to no pleasure, when similar antecedent actions caused pain and were not ac- companied with pleasure. When the action may, from all known experience, lead to future pain without plea- sure, and when the moral law points out that the action will involve infinite enduring pain and prevent infinite enduring pleasure. To guide us to the knowledge how any individual man ON THE WILL AND LAWS OF HUMAN ACTION. 31 will act under any question submitted to him, we ought to be informed of the ideas existing in his brain as to whether the action would be attended with present plea- sure, present pain, past pleasure, past pain, infinite en- during pleasure, infinite enduring pain. Having this infor- mation we should know, with perfect certainty, his mode of action. The case is very simple when we have simply an af- firmation and negation of pleasure and pain in the pre- sent, past, future, and infinite ; but sometimes the idea existing in the mind is unknown, and then our forecast of action is a question of greater or less probability, and a judgment of the extent of that probability can only be inferred by the number of times pleasure occurs in relation to pain, as may be deduced from the following table : Present. Past. Future. Infinite. + + + + Decided action + + + Highly probable action 00 + + Probable action 000+ - + + + 0000 Unknown + 000 Probable action + +00 + + + + 00 Probable inaction + _ + Highly probable inaction No action + Pleasure . . Unknown . . Pain Perhaps it is fortunate that we have not so intimate a knowledge of the ideas existing in each other's mind, or we 32 ON THE WILL AND LAWS OF HUMAN ACTION. might know the course of action likely to be adopted by each, as surely as we calculate a sum in arithmetic. Different persons are affected in various degrees by these effects of pleasure and of pain. In some the immediate im- pression is more active in which case they are called impul- sive. In some the fear of the future is more active when they are called timid. Again, all considerations have their due weight when they are called thoughtful ; and, lastly, the consideration of the infinite governs the action of some who are called religious. If pleasure and pain in the present, past, future, and infinite, really govern men's actions, how important is pain in the government of mankind. It has been asked why pain should have been allowed by a beneficent God ; but, as man is created, it is a necessity for the protection of the creature. Pain helps to govern our action and protect our bodies from injury and death in this world. Pleasure, however, has more influence in the govern- ment of mankind than pain. The hope of pleasure is greater than the fear of pain ; but the utmost possible effect is produced on man by holding out the prospects of much pleasure, and, at the same time, holding out the fear of some pain. On a study of the laws of human action we find that the child is born with a will which is unrestrained and free to act in any manner. An impulse stimulated from the' ex- ternal world and outside of the body, or from a desire ori- ginating from within the body itself, leads to action without regulation or restraint. The child at birth has free will, subject only to natural instincts implanted in his organisa- tion. As soon, however, as the brain has received impressions from the external world, or from teachings of other persons, the will is no longer free, but is governed by necessity. The ON THE WILL. 33 conduct of the parent influences the child, experience regu- lates the will, so let us teach our children that they may be necessitated to do right, and that their wills may be re- strained by the perfect moral law of God, so that pain may be avoided and pleasure promoted both in the present time and for all time to come. CHAPTER Y. ON EDUCATION AND FACULTIES OF MAN AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF LIFE. Faculties at different periods of life Diagram The mind in childhood In youth In Manhood In Senility Education through the organs of sensation Education by written knowledge. I HAVE already noticed that the mind of man exhibits five great faculties, which are exemplified to a different extent at the different stages of life. The child is distinguished by the quickness of apprehension through the medium of its senses, which decreases from early youth to extreme old age, the boy for an aptitude for receiving ideas either from observation, or from communications received from other persons, a power which diminishes as years advance, the man for thought and design, which led him to brilliant actions, though both these powers vanish in senility, the old man for deriving his chief solace from the contemplation of the infinite, a property which diminishes at extreme age. The accompanying diagram illustrates the powers of man at different ages. It shows how each faculty of the mind is developed, arrives at maturity, and passes away. It points out the relative extent of the powers which man possesses at each period of life. When I had finished my drawing I was delighted with it, as it placed the subject vividly before ON EDUCATION AND FACULTIES OF MAN. 35 the mind. It speaks emphatically, more than volumes can teach, that at every period of life a different capability is conferred upon us. It cries out, trumpet- tongued, Lose not to-day, or to-morrow will suffer. This day will never return. The man cannot repair the omissions of the boy, nor age those of manhood. An untaught youth leads to an unskilful man, and unskilful manhood to imbecile age, when the eye can no more see, the intellect understand, nor the hands execute. The intellectual man passes away showing the outward form, but not the inward mental power. To the teacher it indicates how education should be con- ducted. In childhood the eye should be taught both accurately to see and to distinguish what is seen ; the ear to hear and know what is heard ; the nose to smell, and to dis- tinguish the character of the odours smelt ; and the tongue to taste, and the quality of the savour tasted. Childhood is eminently the aisthenic age, when knowledge is obtained directly from the organs of sensation. In early infancy the child obtains much knowledge of the external world, and remembers before it has any use of language. It knows, for example, a dog from a cat, an elephant from a horse, and one person from another. At a later period it can assign names to these external objects. It can by signs and gestures convey its desires to the mother or nurse, much in the same way as a pet animal does to its master, and it is only at a much later period it can use language to explain itself. In time, however, the brain be- comes developed, and in a very rapid manner the child speaks by words and not by signs, and shows the more noble qua- lities of man. In the period of youth, the knowledge of objects with the proper name to be assigned to each and the knowledge of simple facts is mostly acquired. The power of obser- 36 ON EDUCATION AND FACULTIES OF MAN AT vation increases with its exercise. The youth taught to observe bestows his attention on everything around him, whilst the untaught passes heedlessly by the most interest- ing objects, and takes no notice of the most striking facts. In youth the observation and registration of facts should be carefully cultivated and practised. Every fact may be regarded as an unit of knowledge, and those who acquire the largest number will have an advantage over those who possess less. In Germany, youths are taken as a recreation to the fields to be shown the flowers and plants, so that they may acquire botanical knowledge ; to the hills, to have the rocks, and stones, and soils indicated to teach them some rudimentary knowledge of mineralogy and geology. If England desires to rival Germany she must do as Germany does, by teaching her sons and daughters a know- ledge of natural objects before they study the abstract sciences at our great universities. Accurate syndramic knowledge is a department of education which requires cultivation in England. In manhood the higher powers of thought are exercised, and the faculties of the mind come into play. This is emi- nently the noe'mic age, in which the powers of the mind are shown. Mental power must have facts upon which to rely, and according to the extent and the vividness with which the ideas have been implanted in their youth, so will be their power to lead to noble conceptions and designs. It is by means of these conceptions and original designs that man is led to brilliant actions, which in the arts give rise to the great painter, sculptor, and architect; in literature, to distinguished authors and poets ; in the army and navy, to heroes ; and amongst professional men, to our brilliant philosophers, engineers, physicians, and lawyers. DIFFERENT PERIODS OF LIFE. 37 The noemic power is only potential in manhood, and vanishes in senility, when memory is defective, thought powerless, action impotent, and when the chief solace is a contemplation of the infinite. During the period of education teachers should always seize upon the more active faculties of the mind, and work from them to those which are less developed. Much loss of time and impairment of intellectual power often result from teaching abstruse grammars and dead languages to children at a period of life when their minds desire to obtain knowledge by their organs of sensation. This course greatly weakens the powers of the mind in after-life, as the mind does not have a proper and vivid impression of objects and facts in the external world on which future reason must depend. Personally, although I had the advantage of an edu- cation at that great seminary, St. Paul's School, which was founded by Dean Colet, and which ranked amongst its pupils Milton and Marlborough, yet my masters, whose kind friendship I ever retained, could not influence me to take advantage of their teaching, as my mind was thoroughly occupied from my early childheod with a love of the study of natural objects. At that time that knowledge of nature and of natural laws had to be obtained under difficulties and disadvantages. Whatever came before me I seized with avidity, and it is lamentable to contemplate how many minds there must be throughout England who now yearn for the means of acquiring a knowledge of natural objects and of natural sciences who are yet compelled to devote their entire time to the acquisition of the dead languages. From infancy to the present time I have ever remained he child. A new plant or a new animal delights me as 38 ON EDUCATION AND FACULTIES OF MAN. much, now as it did then, though I have found it necessary to study the use of language, the laws of thought, and other abstract sciences. Although some individuality appertains to every living being, as an instance of a variation between certain limits, yet the table of the faculties of the human mind at the different periods of life, may be taken as a fair average representation of the proportionate development of the powers of the human mind at the different epochs of life. In the education of youth, and in the regulation of our minds in later life, it is desirable so to divide our attention that we may continuously obtain knowledge directly from the observation of nature, whilst at the same time we re- ceive ideas through the medium of words, language, and pictorial representations. Nothing refreshes the mind so much as the observation of natural objects. It gives a freshness to our thoughts, improves our knowledge, quiets our passions, and imparts wisdom to our understanding. The people are happier and exhibit more mental power in proportion as they are afforded an opportunity of study- ing objects in nature, of viewing fine examples of art, and of reading the written knowledge contained in our choice literature. How far these opportunities may be afforded in the utmost extent to the multitude should ever in all countries be a source of anxious care to the governing authorities. 39 CHAPTER VI. DISCIPLINE OF THE MIND. The importance of using every organ The practice of the use of the organs of sensation Of memory The practice of abstraction by thought, reflection, and comparison The value of books in testing our personal knowledge Value of conversation Contemplation Subjugation of our thoughts to moral laws Benefits of Christianity Evils of matter worship Kegulation of our actions. As every complicated machine requires careful treatment, so the brain, the most intricate of all organised machines, demands at our hands the most careful discipline to enable it to perform its functions in the most perfect manner. It appears to be a province, and perhaps we are justified in saying that it undoubtedly is a peculiarity of all organic structures to improve by use and to deteriorate by rest ; hence it is necessary that the brain should be regularly exercised, and that the mind should be continually and judiciously employed. Firstly, with regard to the external world, all the organs of sensation should regularly be brought into use : the eye to see, the ear to hear, the nose to smell, and the tongue to taste. The extreme limits of the powers of the organs of sensation should be daily em- 40 DISCIPLINE OF THE MIXD. ployed, for only thus can the utmost delicacy and sensitive- ness of these organs by which we obtain a knowledge of the external world be secured. The powers of the organs of sensation having been in- tensified and perfected, the images carried to the brain and there registered should be carefully and repeatedly ex- amined to prove that each image is a true and correct representation of objects in the external world. When we regard a flower we should practise our mind to register an exact image of all the parts of that flower. When we inspect a picture we should register in the mind every fea- ture of that picture, such as the objects depicted, their rela- tion to each other, the colour of each part, and, in fact, every thing which, the picture can represent to the mind, so that it may reappear hereafter in all its perfection of original detail. When we accurately examine the images existing in our own minds, we find how imperfect all our observations are, how much we might have recorded which we have omitted, and how much we might have seen, heard, felt, or tasted, which has passed before us unnoticed by our senses and unheeded by our mind. In leisure moments images fixed in the brain should be recalled by an act of memory. This exercise of memory promotes the power to remember, and the image of the object itself registered is again more vividly implanted in the mind. Good photographs are a useful aid to the memory of that which has been seen by the eye, and it has been my custom to possess myself of the finest and most perfect photographs and representations of the most beautiful objects and lovely scenes which it has been my good fortune to observe, that I may recall to the mind the former scenes which have been witnessed, and thus enjoy the present by a memory of the past. Whilst we endeavour to DISCIPLINE OF THE MIND. 41 strengthen the impression of the beautiful, so we ought also to seek to efface the images of the ugly and bad, and as far as possible to throw them into a subordinate position that they may not recur to our mind to harass or annoy us. This discipline of our memory is unquestionably difficult, for the horrible will recur without great and constant care to sup- press and lower its power ; nevertheless, much may be done by constant vigilance and determination. As the images of former objects and events reappear before the mind they should be carefully compared one with another. Those which have properties in common should be associated together ;' those which have properties unlike should be separated, that our knowledge may be arranged and thus rendered more easy of access for the purposes of thought and of future action. Images and combinations of images registered in the brain and represented to the mind should by thought and reflection be compared with human knowledge derived from all sources, so that our own knowledge may be compared with that which has been obtained by other observers ; by this means any discrepancies or errors of observation may be detected, and, as near as possible, the absolute truth upon any one subject may be obtained. In making these comparisons, the attainment of truth and success entirely depends upon the value of the written know- ledge of other persons with which the comparison is made. Good literature leads to truth and an admiration of good literature ; bad literature leads to falsehood and a love for debased and degrading writings. Besides consulting books and the written records of other observers, all philosophers agree that part of our time should be spent in the company of other men, that by conversation we may ascertain how the same facts and images appear to 42 DISCIP1INE OF THE MIND. different minds, each having a separate experience. Social communications with the good, the great, and the learned, are powerful adjuncts to accurate thought. The resultant of the thoughts of two or more minds is generally more accurate, and more powerful than the single thoughts of one man ; and when the same opinion appears separately to the minds of two or more persons upon a deliberation of facts on the same subject, independently observed, then is the con- clusion as true as can be obtained with the state of our know- ledge, and experience shows that such judgment deserves the gravest attention. As we pass from the deliberation of more simple subjects to higher and more profound generalizations, a more intense mental effort is required. Deep thought and profound meditation is best* practised immediately after sleep, and especially before we rise from our beds in the early morning. Even during sleep itself we appear, if not in profound sleep, to exercise our minds. I have never found thoughts during even light sleep of any use. The images on the brain over- lap, and whilst I have tried to catch on many occasions a thought, I have never found it of practical value, as it always on close examination presented some deficiency or infirmity, and I have rarely had a trustworthy statement that the experience of others is different. Contemplation is undoubtedly favourably exercised amidst the works of nature whilst the body is in a state of repose, especially if the state of atmosphere is genial, and the scene around joyful, so that the mind is serene, and the bodily feelings comfortable. Contemplation amidst the works of nature should be kept well under subjection, or the works themselves may pass unheeded. A friend has told me that when amongst the works of nature beautiful passages from the poets appear before his mind, and as a consequence DISCIPLINE OF THE MIND. 43 many phenomena are lost to him whilst contemplating the observations of others. A dead silence and perfect stillness is not always favour- able to deep study, as the mind is then liable to be startled by the slightest noise. On the contrary, a slight general excita- tion of the nervous system, to which practically no attention is given, is more favourable to thought and deliberation. A prosy, dreary sermon, monotonously delivered, particularly stimulates thought in my own mind, to the utter neglect of the discourse itself ; and as a singular instance of excitement of thought, I may record that this chapter was designed and thought out whilst hearing a pleasing light operetta at Paris. The memory of the songs and scenes of the operetta which delighted me at the time, was totally lost, though this chapter was so deeply and powerfully impressed in my mind, that only the mechanical labour of writing was required to produce it two or three weeks afterwards. Not only ought we to rely upon thought and comparison to decide specific cases which come under our judgment, but by contemplation and the subjugation of our thoughts to infinite right and wrong, to infinite good and evil, we should so construct general laws, and have them ever before our minds, that we are ready at any moment to instantly adjudicate upon any question submitted to our judgment. By this plan alone can we obtain determination of character, and promptness of decision, and it is in this manner that religion, rightly used, has such important influence in producing constancy and fortitude. Christians not only regulate their thoughts on these higher considerations of right and wrong, but profess also to conduct their lives after the model of Jesus Christ, whom they recognise as the perfect man with whom to compare their own imperfect natures. Christians study the life of 44 DISCIPLINE OF THE MIND. Jesus Christ as detailed by the Evangelists and seek so to regulate their own lives that they may in some degree par- take of His glorious perfection. The experience of nearly 2000 years shows the importance of Christianity to the world. By comparison the Christian standard of human action is infinitely more perfect than that laid down hy any other person since the beginning of the world, and consequently is the best test for comparison. Christians may now rely upon the universal experience of mankind, and their minds accord- ingly would be affected by doctrine and experience. . Those who associate the infinite God with Jesus Christ, are more powerfully affected from their religious belief, by the ideas existing in the mind, but the moment the infinitely perfect man is recognised, in all his actions, which are in obedience to the laws of God, the effect on human thought is similar. Great as is the power of any perfect religion for good, great is equally the power of any materialistic religion for evil, and the experience of the world has shown the evil and degrading character of matter worship in any form, and how far the mind should be disciplined against its use. When a man by thought and deliberation has come to a conclusion after meditating on all the circumstances of the case he has a definite object to seek. When he prays that that object may be accomplished there is a high pro- bability that he will obtain it. For prayer to be effectual it should be made when every other thought of the mind other than the object solicited is absent, and when there is the fullest belief in the desirability of the end sought for. The mind having determined, after thought, upon a mode of action the act itself requires care and circumspection in its performance. It must be suited in time to the nature of surrounding circumstances, and its degree of energy must DISCIPLINE OF THE MIND. 45 be commensurate with the resistance offered. No more strength should be exerted than what is necessary. No more hurry than what is required. Calmness and gentleness should temper rashness and furiousness to obtain without passion the object which is desired. The different powers of mind should be subordinate one to another. Each should have its proper influence, none should be in the ascendancy, for if there be any variation in the relative position of any of the faculties of man, difficulties may anise. Every part of the mind should be brought into its regular exercise that each may attain an equal strength and none attain to an ascendancy to the detriment of the rest. "When any man uses any part of his mind to the neglect of any other part, the whole degenerates, and there is no longer that perfection of which the human mind is capable. When a man only exercises his organs of sensation he becomes sensual, and delights entirely in eating, drinking, and in the exercise of animal appetites and in- stincts. When his mind rests solely upon simple ideas he is a matter-of-fact man, without originality or thought, a bore to himself and everybody around him. When his mind is solely dedicated to musing upon his own ideas, he is dreamy and non-realistic ; but when every part of the brain is maintained in perfect efficiency of action, then does the human mind show its great and glorious perfection. 46 CHAPTER VII. i ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN MIND. Mind of man superior to that of other animals Evolution Hypothesis of the kinds of matter Hypothesis of evolution of mind Develop- ment from infancy to manhood Can matter produce organic beings, and organic beings man ? Experience of evolution Limits of varia- tion in organic beings Tendency of varieties to resume their original type Spirit The soul Specific creatures and evolutions. WE have hitherto observed that the human mind origin- ates in that physical structure of the human body called the brain. This organ in man is not heavier, relatively, to the weight of the entire body than the brain of some inferior beings is to their bodies, but, on the contrary, inferior creatures have in some instances a brain of higher relative weight than that of man ; nevertheless, the mind of man is incomparably superior to that of any other living creature. Some animals have the power of emitting light, others of electricity ; but not one can use artificial light, electricity, or any other material force, nor can any one use words and language in the manner in which we use them, either to record their observations or reason by them, although they may use the song of joy or cry of distress. No animal but man has the power of abstraction or of using abstract ideas. The first question which perplexes the minds of men at ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN MIND. 47 the present time, is whether the superiority of the minds of men has been the result of a slow progressively higher development from that of the lower animals, or whether man has existed as man from the earliest period, and was specifically created to manifest his superior faculties at the time he first appeared at the earth's surface. The doctrine of gradual development or evolution of the higher animals from the lower has received a great accession of support of late years from the labours of the great naturalist, Darwin, who has adopted some of the views of his distinguished ancestor, Dr. Darwin, of Derby, a powerful writer in the last century. Many learned men now adopt his hypothesis. Most of the rising young men of the universities accept it, though many of our natural historians, and of those who watch the habits of animals, entertain grave doubts on the question. My mind does not for one moment assent to the propo- sition, that the very complicated contrivances which exist in the works of nature are the result of spontaneous or acci- dental selection. Such a doctrine is really a caricature of reason, and widely differs from a development or evolution upon preordained and fixed laws. Nevertheless, there appear to be some persons who imagine, that every conceivable form of organic being is produced by chance, or a fortuitous concurrence of atoms; and of these all which, are not suitable for surrounding circumstances perish, and only those which are suitable for the circumstances live. When we regard the intricate complexity of many parts of organic beings, to say nothing of the requisite relation of one organic being to another, as for instance an insect to a flower, it requires a much stronger exercise of faith than such persons they themselves would like to admit, when they adopt 48 ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN MIND. a theory of chance where infinite contrivance and wisdom so abundantly abounds. In my ' Sources of Physical Science,' I have myself speculated that there is but one kind of matter composed of atomic particles, and that the various kinds of so-called elements are but different members of these particles aggre- gated together, so that they cannot again be separated. I further have ventured to suppose that these particles, when attracted together, constitute all the objects in the universe, and that the action of a new attraction on particles of matter before attracted together gives rise to all the phenomena of physical forces. The latter part of this hypothesis is capable in my judgment of full demonstration, to which I must refer in my lecture on the ' Monogenesis of Physical Forces ; ' but the former portion as to the nature of the elements of which all things are composed, is purely theoretical, as it has not been proved that any element can be separated analytically into other component parts, nor put together synthetically from any other elements. The extreme extent to which the hypothesis of Darwin might be carried, is to suppose that an organic being might have sprung from matter under the influence of physical forces, without any direct or specific act of creation by a power external to matter. If this organic being has been produced at any time spontaneously from matter acted upon by material forces, there would be no reason to deny that some such primitive beings might not now be in the act of production, and that new organic beings were now being formed. After an organic being appears it multiplies and gives rise to other organic beings. These successors of the primitive organic being present slight variations, such as is seen between the likenesses of any two men or of any two animals. It is further supposed that these variations occur ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN MIND. 49 in various directions, and each varied type or separate branch does, over a series of hundreds of thousands of mil- lions of years, continue to vary, and by a series of minute changes produce different genera and species ; so that all the plants and creatures now existing on the face of the globe, are said to have thus sprung from matter acted upon by other matter. They thus assume that no specific creation has occurred to construct man with his intellect, or the animal which walks the ground, the bird which flies in the air, the fish which swims in the water, the worm which burrows in the ground, or any other of the innumerable creatures which dwell on the earth. Philosophers who hold these views point to the analogy of evolution in the development of plants from spores and seeds, and of the growth of animals from ova, when member after member unfolds itself from apparently inert matter. To fully appreciate this wondrous unfolding of the members, break an egg every day from the commencement of the sitting of a bird. On the third day the marvellous heart with its vascular area appears, from which time day by day some part is evolved till the twenty-first day, when out comes the perfect chick, capable of running upon the earth and finding food for itself. Following these observations of the evolution of animals from ova, and of the stately tree from the minutest seed, we observe that the mind of man is developed step by step and day by day, from the infant which at birth scarce presents any trace of mental power till the man in whom the full intellectual qualities are exemplified. As a further corroboration of the argument, it is noticed in the examination of geological strata, that different kinds of animals, mostly now extinct, are found at different periods of the world's history adapted to their special surrounding 50 ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN MIND. circumstances ; and hence it is argued that animals arise adapted to any condition of the earth's surface. If par- ticles of matter could aggregate under any definite circumstances into a mass, which by a series of minute changes, extending over boundless epochs of time, could give rise by the influence of natural physical forces to the intricate and wonderful structures which we observe in plants and animals, and more particularly in the brain and nervous system of man, then we must concede that matter in the beginning must have been endowed by a power outside matter, with qualities and properties higher than those which hitherto had been assigned to it, the more especially as every particle of inorganic matter is at one time either in the solid, fluid, or gaseous state, whilst an organic being invariably is and can only exist in a partly solid and partly fluid state. We must all admit the boundless power of God, as exemplified in the wonderful works of nature. We cannot, therefore, limit that power to a requisition that each exist- ing thing should be particularly created by His Almighty Hand ; and we must admit that a Creator of infinite power might at the beginning have so endowed matter, that it should evolve life under any circumstance which might arise at any future time. The goodness, the greatness, and the omnipotence of God areas much shown whether He specifically created each organic creature, or whether He, ordained at the beginning that each creature should be evolved as it was required on the earth's surface. Great, therefore, is the blame to him who seeks to establish infidelity on the doctrine of evolution, and equally great is the blame to him who charges infidelity on its belief, for all things are possible with God. When we regard our own personal experience on the ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN MIND. 51 doctrine of evolution, we find that the spontaneous ap- pearance of even the lowest plant has never been clearly proved, but on the contrary, the most careful experiments have ever taught us not to accept the fact. It is true that some years ago acari were reported to have been gene- rated on the electrolysis of matter, and we had presented to public notice the acarus of Cross (fig. 6), and the acarus of "Weeks (fig. 7). I have no hesitation in stating that to my Fig. 7. Fig. 6. mind, according to my experience of electrolysis, which has been enormous, there was an error of observations and that these creatures were not formed tinder the circumstances stated. The argument of evolution derives no support from the recorded changes during the longest period which history unfolds. The most ancient delineations of man and of animals depict them as they now "exist, but it is fair to mention that the evolutionists consider this an argument for the necessity of minute changes to occur over series of hun- dreds of thousands of years. Although every man and every individual organic being differs in some slight degree from every other man and from every other organic being, the difference appears always to 52 ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN MIND. be restricted within certain limits of variation, and every breeder of cattle knows that this difference has a tendency to be lost, and that the deviating individual or successor has a tendency to revert to its original type. No practical man doubts that if our breeds of animals, which have been artificially selected with great care by the intelligence of man to suit some special want, were left to themselves, all would revert to the original typical form, and that the distinctive character would in a short time be utterly lost. In fact it requires unremitting care to maintain any deviation from the typical form. Our minds clearly perceive that all men are developed in a manner similar to the fowl from the egg, each member being formed by a continual progressive change to perfection ; and the brain, which is the material mechanism of the mind, is developed before the phenomena of the mind itself can be exemplified. There is no evidence whatever that there is anything beyond that mechanism which exists within us or about us to regulate our mental action or direct the brain how to work the muscles of the body ; nevertheless many good persons suppose that there is a something besides that organic struc- ture which is independent of it, and they believe that some- thing to be a spirit. Some believe that this spirit has the power of leaving the body of one person and of communing with the spirits of others who are living, or even with the spirits of those who have lived at a former time. Such opinions appear to be utterly unfounded in fact, and the supposed circumstances are doubtless acts of memory occurring in persons in a state of not thorough consciousness, when the image of the second person and of his former say- ings appear in combination with ideas already existing. ON THE ORIGIN OF THE HUMAN MIND. 53 The idea which the mind entertains of a soul is that of a personal individuality which we are forced to believe has an infinite existence. This idea of an infinite enduring personal identity which is ever before the mind is utterly incapable of demonstration as a fact either by experiment or experience. To those who refuse to admit that a personal identity can endure for ever, I have ever found that comfort could be afforded by demonstrating to them that no intuitive idea has ever been implanted in vain. The bee builds its comb upon a plan which never fails. The hen sits upon her nest and the chick comes forth from the egg. The child drinks and its thirst is quenched, and so we may trust with safety in the idea implanted within us, that our mind in its personal identity will endure for ever. Unquestionably with our present knowledge the doctrine of specific creations presents less difficulties to the mind than the evolution of the brain and mind of men from matter itself. Either theory equally points to the infinite power and wisdom of God, and we may say of both with the Psalmist who sung thousands of years ago upon the develop- ment of the members one by one, ' which day by day were fashioned, when as yet there was none of them/ that ' Such knowledge is too wonderful and excellent for me ; I cannot attain unto it.' 54 CHAPTER VIII. ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. Pleasure and pain regulate action Influence of one person on another Influence by personal statements, by anonymous writings Value of repetition of statements Imperfection of arguments Self-taught persons not liable to influence Modes of influencing the minds of others Sympathy Government of criminal classes Punishment of criminals Regulation of our own minds to withstand the influence of others. THE mind is influenced by the immediate impressions it re- ceives from the external world. It is also guided by the experience of the past, and also by the general principles and moral laws which have been communicated to the brain. It is as a resultant from all these considerations that man is guided to action : he seeks pleasure and avoids pain. In practice, very complex cases are presented for con- sideration. As a consequence of any particular line of action, we may receive pain at the present time and expect a con- tinuance of pain in the future. Thus, if we expose our finger to excessive heat, the present sense of burning would be highly painful, and ever afterwards we should be de- prived of the use of the finger. By another action we may incur immediate pain, but receive therefrom future ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. 55 advantage and pleasure: for example, it is a painful act to have a foreign body taken from the eye, though that would be attended with future pleasure by preventing damage to the eye and by preserving the sight, and who would not willingly suffer the one for the sake of the other. Again, by other actions we may receive immediate pleasure, but incur the certainty of future pain. All men who drink to excess derive, what they conceive to be pleasure at the moment, though drink lays the seeds of disease for the future, and thereby causes pain. By every possible manner that pleasure and pain can be associated, any definite act of life may be determined. When one person desires to affect the mind of another, it is necessary for him to consider what are the ideas which the person to be aifected already possesses. The experiences of one man are not those of a second, therefore, that which will influence one person will not affect another. Whilst it is necessary to study the ideas already existing in the mind of a person to be affected, so it should be a matter of care with all not so far to expose any weaknesses which they may have detected in their own minds, so that they themselves may be rendered liable to be improperly acted upon by designing persons. If once all the ideas existing in the mind of any person be accurately ascertained, then his mode of action under any definite circumstances can be predicated as certainly as though his brain were a watch or other piece of mechanical mechanism, for very few persons indeed deviate from an habitual course of action. A sudden impulse is always dangerous, because it is liable to control the actions of any man. An immediate prospect of benefit, which in philosophical language may be interpreted to be, the probability of immediate pleasure, is apt to captivate the 56 ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. mind, and cause it to neglect other experiences. This may be a source of danger to those who are to be influenced, but it is a source of strength to those who seek to influ- ence the actions of other persons. A sudden attack on the mind is but transitory in its effects, and to be powerful must be followed by immediate action ; for if once the new idea is received, it is commingled with the ideas which have before been implanted in the brain, and possesses no more special power than any former idea. It simply takes its proper place amongst all the notions which a man has at any time obtained. Reflection dispels the illusion of its particular importance, thought compares it with all former ideas, and its true value is rightly appreciated. To avoid the effects of a sudden impulse, time should, in all cases, be taken for decision. The action of to-day may be from impulse, that of to-morrow, after reflection, from pure reason, when the new idea will be associated with every other idea existing in the mind, and a deter- mination of the course of action will be regulated by a consideration of the whole case. A good rule which is very commonly practised, is not to come to any important decision without having slept upon the facts which have been presented to the mind in order that each may have its legitimate value. The mind on the return of consciousness after sleep is refreshed, and is then in the best condition to solve satisfactorily com- plicated problems submitted for its decision. When it is desired to affect mankind, it is important that vivid impressions should be brought before the mind, and especially that these impressions should be derived from examples in the external world which are observed by the person himself through his organs of sensation. ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. 57 What men see they are prone to believe, nevertheless, they often see what does not occur, or do not see all which has occurred, therefore a very grave discretion must be used in judging of the truth of that which is seen. A well-observed fact has a most important influence for good, a badly- observed fact an equally important in- fluence for evil. To affect mankind, therefore, any fact which men see for themselves has most influence, but the person to be influenced must well judge of the value of the observed fact. An appeal to the higher powers of reason does not affect many men very powerfully. The dogmatic or self-willed man is usually rendered more stubborn by any argument against his particular notions, and even with highly educated persons reason is of but little avail to change their views, as it frequently happens that the facts and arguments employed do not accord with the experiences and the reasonings of the person sought to be influenced, and the whole train of argument is discarded as fallacious. To affect any person by reason, the premises should be thoroughly appreciated and admitted by him, for when two persons have exactly the same antecedent ideas they come to the same conclu- sions ; hence little is practically done to influence mankind by reasoning processes apart from the facts upon which the reason is founded. There is generally less to fear that the human mind will not reason rightly from the facts presented to it than that the facts should have been wrongly appreciated either from erroneous interpretation of what the senses have apprehended, or from a distortion from their being communicated by other persons. Clergymen frequently do mischief in the pulpit to the cause which they advocate by injudicious reasoning, with- out properly estimating the character of the ideas existing 58 ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. in the minds of their hearers. A discordance is detected between the facts, which are true according to the expe- rience of his hearer, and the reasoning of the pastor. By this unskilful mode of proceeding perhaps more infidels are made by teachers, although earnest and well meaning, than by any arguments or writings of the professed sceptic. Every argument used which does not accord with the balance of the experience of any of a preacher's congregation, is calculated to have an effect contrary to that which is intended. The majority of educated persons are strongly governed by a sense of right and wrong and a desire to act con- scientiously. Not many of any class of society willingly violate their conscientious belief of what is right unless they are strongly led to a particular course of action by some violent impulse. So strong is this desire to act rightly and especially so sensitive are men to appear to act rightly, before their fellows that wrong is often done. This is one of the chief methods by which a right-minded man may be led to do wrong. There is no more forcible method of acting upon a man than to suggest that his proposed course of action does not look right before the world. This idea has to be controlled by every strength of mind, as there are times and circumstances when the truly conscientious man to do right must appear to do wrong before many persons. It is often stated that the courts of chancery in their anxiety to appear to do what is strictly equitable really promote fraud. The judges feeling that their function is to regulate right become so sensitive of implied falsity that when fraud is charged they incautiously decide wrongly to appear right before the world. When we desire to affect the public mind by our writings, we shall first consider what the minds of our readers will pro- bably, having relation to their existing thoughts, appreciate. ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. 59 We shall then select some prominent and strongly marked idea to serve as the basis of our arguments. We then shall endeavour to work from acknowledged and admitted know- ledge to that which is unknown or disputed, that the minds of our readers may be led by gradual stages. When we write upon any subject upon which the public think we are entitled to speak, assertions have the force of our personal belief and statement under the signature of our names. This is the most satisfactory of all writing, and carries the greatest weight with the public. In cases, however, where we think it desirable to affect the public upon matters in which the public would not consider that our own personal statement would give weight and authority to the fact, we have to rely upon printed documents, and trust to their internal evidence of truth. By this plan the question in debate is presented to our readers from a variety of aspects, and unquestionably some advantage is gained from ignorance of the source from whence the doctrines have been propounded. In a campaign to affect the public opinion of educated men, it is necessary to commence with the more unimportant facts and conclusions, and tentatively to watch their effect on the mind. The moment that it is found that one fact or one line of argument strikes home to the convictions of our readers, a point is attained from which success may be gained. The potent argument must be repeated over and over again, in fact, hammered into the minds of the public with such variations and new arguments as whilst they afford the appearance of novelty, shall only enforce the desired notion. Until some denned idea is received by the public all labour is in vain, but directly a single point is effective, victory is certain. In our relations with persons of the highest education, 60 ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. whose minds are not only influenced by their individual experience, but also by all which they have heard or been taught, the use of short documents, tending to lead to the desired conclusion repeated at intervals is most effective, be- cause the substance of the first is thoroughly registered in the memory before the second is read. When the second is received it is in accordance with the first. The third with the second. The fourth with the third. Every one repeti- tion of an assertion adds to the weight of any former asser- tion (if it has been received by the mind, but not otherwise), till the conclusion is determined, and the mind is led to action in the manner desired. Whilst I have sought to influence the minds of other persons on many points which I have thought right, so I have ever tried to protect my own mind from any improper attack from other persons. In every first attack it is im- portant to carefully weigh the premises, for if erroneous, every future argument built upon them intensifies the error and renders the mind more easily influenced. Experience shows that it is more difficult to influence the man who has derived his knowledge for himself from the external world. In fact, in practice, it is almost impossible upon any matter with which he is personally conversant to influence his opinion unless some new truth be brought before his mind in such a manner that he must admit it. People who obtain their knowledge from hearsay are uncertain in their convictions and mode of action. They are apt to go one way at one time, another at a second, and are more easily influenced for good or for evil than the man who has fortified his mind by the study of natural objects and of natural laws, and who by this preserves a freshness and vigour of mind which is ever a preservative against wrong and a confirmation of right. ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. 61 When circumstances are referred to me for a professional opinion, I have ever found that care must be taken in every written certificate to use every word in a sense which shall convey to the authorities to receive it an exact idea of the facts of the case, accompanied with a statement of the sur- rounding circumstances calculated to affect the judgment, so that the minds of my employers may be led to conclu- sions which the facts of the case ought rightly to suggest. The government of mankind by which the community as a whole, or particular men, are led to act in a defined manner, is not a matter of chance, but should be conducted on fixed principles ; for the mind of man may be guided to actions by laws, as sure as those by which heavy bodies fall to the earth, or light substances rise in water. The leading methods by which a man may be guided to act are but few in number, and for convenience may be tabulated under certain heads. The action of a man may be regulated : 1. By communicating a new idea which shall be an addition or a variation of those already existing in the mind. Exam. A man would act differently when he knew that metals could be worked by electro-metallurgy besides by the ordinary methods by fire. 2. By giving immediate pleasure for one action, and pain for another. Exam. When two glasses are presented to a man, one containing nitric acid, the other water. If the water be drunk, it would cause immediate pleasure by quenching the thirst; if the nitric acid, pain would arise from the destruction of the parts of the mouth, throat, and stomach. 3. By the promise of future pleasure, the threat of future pain. Exam. A servant is told that by doing his work he shall have a dwelling, food, firing, and wages ; but 62 ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. if he will be idle lie will be houseless, he will be starved, cold, and have no pay. * 4. By the promise of infinite pleasure in heaven, or the threat of infinite pain in hell, according to the ideas held. The Athanasian creed is an example of a promise and a threat of this character. 5. By physical restraint ; a man is compelled to act in a defined manner. Exam. The policeman daily regulates traffic, and compels men to follow a certain course ; and the prisoner is locked up so that he cannot practise his evil designs. The principles to be followed for the regulation of the human mind are plain enough, but in practice they are difficult to apply, because it has been wisely ordained by Providence that the human mind shall preserve its indi- viduality, and not be subject to an undue extent to the influence of other persons. Perhaps the great key for the application of the laws of government is sympathy. Rejoice when they rejoice, weep when they weep, enter into feeling with every feeling, whether of hope or fear, of pleasure or pain, and by degrees over a long time one mind may obtain such a knowledge and hold over another as to guide its actions. The high and strong-minded man holds off from too intimate association with his fellows, conceals the pleasures he receives, and does not descant of the pain he suffers. He keeps every other mind at a respectful distance. He does not too freely communicate his ideas, and does not allow any other mind to approach his too closely. Men frequently meet every day for years without having an intimate mental communion. Married persons will live together all their lives without thoroughly communicating their inner thoughts to each other. They have a certain ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. 63 influence over each other, the stronger to a certain extent ruling the weaker^ hut only to a moderate degree ; but there is nothing more charming in this world than to have a friend to whom a man can fairly disclose his sorrows and talk of his joys, and who will confirm or declaim against any course of action where from its difficulty or complexity a douht may exist as to its propriety. On the other hand, it is not unfrequent that an un- educated servant will watch every act and thought of his master to such an extent as thoroughly to know his inner disposition ; and hy a judicious exercise of a little persua- sion at any one time, as to he unobserved, and by a thorough sympathy with every thought, and participation with every sorrow or joy, be enabled virtually to govern his actions, as almost to reduce his mind to the action of a mere machine. It is fortunate for mankind that no man can control the actions of his fellows unless he entirely devotes himself to that object. Young men of immense wealth are sometimes attempted to be acted upon by designing men ; but it is noticed that before any person can approach the minds of other persons, to govern them, as either to modify their religion or take hold of their property, they must pander to their passions, assist their desires, and sympathise with their lowest vices. The government of the criminal classes is difficult, for their minds are chiefly actuated by immediate impulses ; religion, and the sense of right and wrong, influence them but little. To reason against the impropriety of their conduct is useless, as the theory of their action is comprised in getting the most advantage with the least inconvenience, irrespective of any other consideration. No thief would rob if the robbery was certain to be attended with greater inconvenience than the benefit which 64 ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. arises from obtaining the plunder which is taken. In practice, the criminal obtains an immediate advantage, by possessing himself of the goods of other people. He robs over and over again with impunity, with only so small a probability of conviction, and consequent inconvenience by reason of punishment, that it seems to his mind a bare possibility ; in fact, he regards punishment for his crime as an accident to be deplored, but like any other injury which may happen incidentally to mankind, beyond his control. To be punished for robbery is to his mind like being injured in a railway accident, or run over in the streets, an event which may happen to any man. A certainty of conviction for every offence committed, with its proportionate pain and punishment, is the true method to be adopted to restrain the criminal. As no man thrusts his hand into the fire, simply because he knows the pain which would arise from the burn, so no thief would rob if he knew the pain he would sustain by punishment would certainly outweigh any advantage he obtained from the theft. If a thief can rob a hundred times with impunity before, on an average of other thieves, one conviction is obtained, then his mind, as a matter of numerical relation, sums up the advantage to be on the side of the robbery. For this reason a man who constantly robs should, as an example to other ill-doers, have such a punishment as shall cause inconvenience enough to outbalance the advantage of all his previous robberies. Our present system is as useless as it is unphilosophical, as the professed thief goes to prison to come out and repeat his career as before. When the criminal inflicts personal pain to help him to obtain the goods of his victim, the certainty of as much personal pain to him self acts as a deterrent. The law for the ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. 65 flogging of garotters, which was produced by the publication of an anonymous pamphlet was immediately attended with an important diminution of the offence. As the punishment can only be inflicted a considerable time after the offence, the immediate deterrent influence upon the mind of the criminal must be sought in the future pain to himself being far greater than the immediate pleasure or benefit he is likely to derive in committing the act. Very heavy punishment, however, creates so much fear in the mind of the criminal, that he will do any act to protect himself. Murder has frequently been committed, not from any desire or wish to destroy the victim, but simply as a protection against the punishment of a murderer for other crimes. The thief reasons, ' Dead men tell no tales, if I kill the witness unseen I shall escape pain ; ' and hence a large number of murders are committed, not from any desire of destroying life, but simply as a supposed protection to the robber against his conviction for other offences. In accidental injuries, Lord Campbell's Act has had a similar influence, for where an accidental injury has hap- pened, the aggressor runs away and does not preserve life, not from any unconcern on his part, but to escape the consequences of his unintentional negligence, which may ruin his position in life from the civil liabilities which are entailed. In the lamentable disaster of an emigrant vessel off Dungeness, where the vessel was struck by another accidentally, three hundred lives were lost. Probably every soul might have been saved had the vessel which caused the collision stood by and saved the sufferers. The men on the steamer which caused the injury were frightened at the pecuniary liability which they had incurred, and steamed away, hoping that in the darkness of the night, and in the F 66 ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. confusion of the scene, the identity of the vessel would be lost, and that they might escape. The power to act upon criminals by religious influences appears to be slight ; we cannot readily render it available to control their actions. Having lived and practised for a long time a certain criminal course, their minds have become insensible of the impression of the higher powers of mind to restrain their criminal acts. Their minds are firmly imbued with the idea of immediate pleasure and gain from their thefts. They have too often enjoyed the produce of their theft without punishment or pain to be restrained by the consideration of any future pain as a result of their wrong- doing. The memory of this experience negatives the effect of any religious teaching which may be supplied to them. In the punishment of criminals with the view to their cure, the idea of pain must be associated with every distinct criminal act, till experience shall warn them in common language that 'honesty is the best policy.' The longer has been the criminal career the more certain and more powerful should be the pain or inconvenience to himself which should accompany the crime, so that the mind may be influenced to restrain the act for the future. In the extreme punishment of the worst criminals, the hope of future pleasure should never be withdrawn, for if once they hold the notion that they are submitted to per- manent and hopeless pain, there is nothing left by which their actions may be controlled. The moral law is absent. They have no present pleasure, no hope of future pleasure, and they give themselves up to insensate brutality. To restrain their actions the promise of some pleasure in the future must be held out, when according as their mind appreciates the importance of the idea their conduct may be reasonably expected to be influenced. ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. 67 The case is very different when a good man is subjected wrongfully to the punishment justly bestowed on the evil criminal. The hope of the future infinite pleasure in time and degree is ever a comfort to his mind. The idea of having done right is a satisfaction to him, and he submits to his persecution with resignation, trusting to an infinite power to protect him. Experience shows that the hope of pleasure is as powerful to regulate the action of the human mind as the fear of pain, nevertheless, the most powerful influence is obtained by the promise of pleasure for any defined line of action accompanied by the threat of pain if any other course is followed. In using arguments for the pursuit of any line of conduct, it is commonly noticed that both the ideas of hope and fear must be excited. Although in considering the influences on the nervous system, we ultimately resolve all sensations into those which are pleasurable and those which are painful, yet in common language the idea of pleasure includes that of convenience, advantage, or gain, and that of pain, inconvenience, disad- vantage, and loss. As the government of mankind is chiefly successfully conducted by regulating the nature of the ideas existing in every individual of the community, it demonstrates how the whole population should care for the mental culture of each, as it is far more practicable to confer right ideas in early life than to counteract evil ones at a later period. Every man who seeks to govern should so fortify his own mind that he is not himself improperly governed, and the resistance to improper impressions should at all times be equal to the strength of the attack to which the mind is exposed. It would be as practicable to have a case-book to record 68 ON THE GOVERNMENT OF MANKIND. modes in which the human mind is liable to be acted upon as it is usual for the medical man to have his case-book to record the manner in which experience demonstrates that the various parts of the body are affected by various medicines. Persons employed for specific purposes use over and over again similar reasons for different individuals. If a particular line of argument has proved successful towards one individual it is highly probable that it will be equally potent on another person under similar circumstances, and therefore we should ever remember that whilst we seek to regulate the actions of the minds of others, our own minds may in like manner be acted upon to our own benefit. 69 CHAPTER IX. ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. On Words and Language Substantives Adjectives Verbs Resolu- tion of a verb or sentence as it was received by the brain Induction by words Deduction by words Laws of thought by words Re- lational and differential machine Relational and differential slate Human and Divine laws Value of the pronoun I On evidence and testimony On quibbling by words. IN the preceding chapters I have stated that external objects act upon the organs of sensation ; that action is trans- mitted to the sensorium ; and is probably registered in a certain combination of nervous elements, to appear again on subsequent occasions, constituting an act of memory. For the purpose of communicating ideas from one per- son to another, or of recording them for the purpose of bringing the event again before the mind, we have recourse to various signs, sounds, or symbols, which is an artificial system which represents various images impressed on the brain. But from the amazing number of images which may be impressed upon the brain, the use of words becomes a complex phenomenon, because it would be impossible for us to assign a different word to every single image formed in our organization. 70 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. The first class of words which we employ comprises those which are termed substantives, and which, if carefully studied will be found to include or embrace a large range of objects under one term ; thus, when we speak of a man, we speak of an object which may give rise to a vast amount of images, as it comprehends white, red, and black men, good and bad men, men in health and sickness, &c. I showed that all our mental images were made up of actions on a certain aggregation or combination of nervous fibres, each of which might be designated by a certain number, letter, or word. Thus we may use certain letters of the alphabet to designate certain combinations of nervous fibres. The letters indicating the combinations may be further arranged in a geometric series, as in the subjoined diagram, and it will be immediately observed, that in the first line we have one letter, in the second two, in the third four, in the fourth eight, all having relation to each other. A 1 1 1 A 1 1 B 1 1 ! C D 1 1 1 a 'b i i e f g h In assigning the substantive word to any action, a com- bination which is common to, or forms part of, a great num- ber of images is commonly selected ; thus, if a b c d form a combination which is always present when a man is repre- sented to our senses, we may give to that combination the form man, or in symbolic language A, which will be found to include these letters. It will thus be seen that generally a substantive is a part of speech given to the action on a combination of nervous ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 71 elements, which are affected in eommon by a large class of objects, and is, therefore, in itself a very general term. The words man, dog, ground, star, may serve as an example of the noun or substantive. Grammatically a noun may be denned to be a word used for some action, real or imaginary, which has occurred in the brain, and really signifies an action of definite combination of nervous symbols at one moment of time. It is immaterial whether the images to which we have given the names of nouns are produced by actions through the organs of sensation, or whether they are mere thoughts, and have no external existence, as a word of the nature of a noun may be given to any action of the sensorium. A mere noun can convey little or no knowledge when used by itself ; for instance, the word man used apart from any other word, either implied or understood, would, by itself, communicate no real knowledge from one person to another, as it would neither express who the man was, where he was, what he was doing, or, in fact, any other circumstance concerning him, or even whether the image to which it referred was used to signify a thought or a reality. Great difficulties arise to persons who have never seen an object. It is almost impossible to make a child under- stand a hill when it has ever lived on a plain, and so it is impossible to communicate to a person who has never seen the sea, what the ocean is like. For the purpose of more accurately defining the noun, we add some word common to another combination of actions, or virtually we add a word, having some of the properties of a second noun, to it ; but the second word so added, we term the adjective. Thus if we speak of a good man, we have defined the character of the man, or limited our ?2 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. observation to a man who is characterized by some quality of goodness. If A represents a man, B comprises the com- binations of the actions of the brain, which we term goodness ; then if we speak of A with some portion of B conjoined, we have restricted or limited our observation to the com- binations of A, to which some of B are added. It will be perceived that there is nothing peculiar or definite in either A or B, which should entitle it per se to the name of a noun or adjective, for either might be the noun, and either might be the adjective, and yet the effect would be very different. In the one case we should have good man; in the other, manly goodness. In these cases, the combination to which we desire to call attention is the noun, and must be accurately defined, and the word by which the extent of the noun is limited, is called the adjective. When we used a word adjectively and couple it to a noun, the adjective implies that only a portion of the actions of the brain which led to the idea from whence the word is derived, is coupled with the noun; hence, as the amount varies, we have various degrees of the word used adjectively, as good, better, best. The information conveyed by an adjective, is not of that positive character which is conveyed by a substantive ; and when I say a good man, I should express it by symbols, by using A for man and B ? for some unspecified amount of goodness. If I said or wished to express manly goodness, I should use B for goodness and A ? for manly. It follows from the above remarks, that the adjective is a far less perfect part of speech and is unable to be used for the communication of those absolute ideas, which may be communicated by the use of the noun. There are other classes of words which require but ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 73 little comment ; thus we employ pronouns to prevent the repetition of nouns. These words have no meaning in them- selves, unless some noun, either expressed or implied, has preceded their use, and both grammatically and biologically they must be referred to the class of nouns. Various questions have been raised as to the use and signification of the articles a and 'the. It appears to me that, biologically considered, a is employed to signify any one or some unknown one. The word the seems to have the power of limitation to some particular one or some particular class. In accurate symbolic language wherever the is em- ployed, it is necessary that the additional description should be applied to the noun, to mark the individual or class to which the word the limits the application of the noun ; thus, a man signifies any man, the man, some one parti- cular man, and the word man, without any prefix, signifies all men. By the combined use of the noun-adjective and article, we are thus enabled to give a more or less correct picture of any real or imaginary object to a second person ; but it appears most especially necessary that these words should be used in the same sense by both persons, otherwise no true information is communicated, and both adjective and article limit the comprehensiveness of the word man. The mere use of the noun, however, gives us by itself no real information, because a second person would require to be informed whether any word represented a mere thought or image of the imagination, or a reality ; in fact, whether it referred to an object which existed in all its integrity in the external world, and which produced the action upon the organs of sensation. The words used to express this important part of the idea, are termed verbs. But a verb does more than this, it 74 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. signifies the relation of the thought or reality to other thoughts or realities. In fact, it marks the time of the occurrence of the thought or of the reality. Biologically, we may define a verb to be a word used to signify the successive changes on the sensorium of the respective por- tions of one image, and their relation to those of other images. To explain this definition, it is important to remember that the brain is one large organ, on which a series of impressions are being continually made, both from the action of external agents upon the organs of sensation, as well as from, the changes going on within our own frame. If a thought or reality occurs at the moment at which we are actually receiving the second impression, then we speak of the time present, and we say It is. Suppose A B C D to represent primitive nervous fibrils, and w x y z to represent other nervous fibrils, if the actions on B C and x y coincided at the moment when x y was being excited, we should state that the idea derived from B C existed at the present time, or in the language of the verb is or exists. Now if we examine the changes which are continually occurring in the mental images, we may express them in two series in the following manner : IstAB AB AB BC CD AB 2nd 1m mn no op qr st In the above diagram we perceive that the two series of changes take place unequally. It is from this double series of ideas that we derive our notions of time, for those combi- nations which change least energetically, are said to occupy the longest time. For practical purposes, we select one series of changes as those of a clock, or the changes produced ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 75 by the revolution of the earth as a standard, and refer all other changes to those. Practically, when we use verbs, we do not set out accu- rately the changes which actually take place, but we employ words to signify time present, time past, or time to come. All verbs may be conveniently arranged into two geometric series, the one signifying time past, the second, time to come, the two being divided by a line, denoting time present ; or we may unite the three together into one series signifying all time. Past. Present. Future. A P z I But most verbs show more than the time of the occur- rence of any idea ; or rather the relation of any one idea to any second idea; for if examined, they will be found to communicate some knowledge similar to that imparted by the noun ; and hence these verbs might be called substan- tive-verbs. If I say that John sits, it not only indicates John, and his existence at the present moment, but it goes further, it shows his posture. In like manner if I say, I think, it not only indicates time present, but it shows that the idea is an action of the brain, which has not necessary external existence. Substantive- verbs communicate even a far greater range of ideas ; thus, if I say that John came from Brighton, the words came from would not only represent that John was at Brighton and is now here, but they infer all those changes which occurred during the act of coming here. And if we regard the motion of the carriages, the change of the 76 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. view, the number of ticks of a watch, the pulsations of the heart, the occurrence of thoughts during the journey, the changes would be almost infinite in number. All these changes it would be too long and tedious to recount, and yet they are all included in the word came. A verb has essentially a reference to some change, for without change the verbs cannot be used ; and even when we mark the present time, that present has relation to the past and future. The adverb is another part of speech, which still further gives exactness to our descriptions, by limiting the scope of any observations. It is frequently used merely to assign the value or extent to an adjective or verb, as in the case of nearly, chiefly, exceedingly, very. Other adverbs perform the same functions to the verb as the adjective does to the noun; as in the words prudently, softly, when in these cases they limit the extent of the meaning of the verb, by adding to it a certain amount of the properties of prudence, softness, &c. Prepositions are used to show the mutual relation or position of separate ideas; as in the words above, below, behind. In these cases they show the manner in which the image is received by the senses. Biologically, they help in many cases to signify the particular combination which is represented to the mind ; thus, a man placed upon a horse would be represented by a different combination of nervous elements from that which would be produced by a man below, behind, or before a horse. A very different idea is signified when we say that a man came from Brighton to London, from that which is communicated when we say that a man came from London to Brighton. Conjunctions are employed either to compress two ideas into one, or to separate one portion from a more extensive idea. In the first case, the conjunction is called copulative ; ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 77 in the second, disjunctive ; conjunctions are, in fact, equiva- lent to the signs of plus and minus. Such is a brief resumd of the mode of communicating impressions made on the sensorium, from one person to another. In the first place, we use a noun, which is a sort of generic term given to certain combinations common to many ideas. This general idea is then limited by the adjec- tive, and still further by the adverb. The verb is then employed to signify the time of the occurrence of the idea, or to describe the changes which took place with it ; and these changes are more particularised by the use of other adverbs. We, however, introduce other nouns ; and their relations are more accurately detailed by prepositions and conjunctions. It is manifest that the whole system is artificial, and whilst we must deplore its insufficiency to communicate exact ideas, yet we must, at the same time, marvel at the great and glorious results which it has been the means of effecting. Resolution of a Sentence. From the observations which I have already made, we are now in a condition to resolve a sentence, or so to set it out, that it may appear on paper as it would have acted on the brain, had it been a reality instead of a mere description ; and this resolution would not be difficult were the idea confined to the same instant of time, but a variation of time involves a succession of ideas, which it is difficult to express. In the first place, we must arrange the substantives in their natural relations, and we must put those substantives, which are most comprehensive in their meaning, which contain the largest number of known parts, at the top ; then we may place successively lower all those which con- tain a smaller number of parts or specific combinations in the mind. 78 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. Upon this plan we should arrange the substantives, Ani- mals, Brutes, Man, Reds, Whites, in the following manner : Animals A Brutes B Man C D E RedsF Whites G In this case we have three degrees of magnitude in the specification of these words. Animals A may be said to consist of Man C of Whites Gr, and Reds express the same definition as Whites, and may be represented by F. Now the word Brute in this arrangement, has the same amount of definition comprehensively in relation to animals as that of Man, and may be expressed by B. 'In this case I have only assumed one letter for the specific qualities of each noun ; but if the signification of any word can possibly be disputed, then instead of one letter we must use a series of letters expressive of the qualities in such a way, that there can be no dispute upon the exact limit of the word, for until any two disputants agree precisely upon the signification of the word, any super- structure in argument based upon it may be rendered of no effect. When the meaning of any word is under dispute, it must be unravelled by other words, till the disputants have the same ideas for the same words. Naturalists use, in some respects, a similar mode of describing different animals ; as when they divide them into individuals, species, genera, orders, classes, &c. ; and chemists more accurately note the composition of substances by symbols in an analogous manner. When arranging substantives into their relative position, we should bear in mind any word which is appended to them to limit their signification, such as the adjective ; for instance, if I speak of ' a man,' ' a white man,' ' a happy ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 79 white man,' I have three different degrees of limitation in the three different cases. So also with regard to the adverb joined to the adjective, the meaning is more particularised, as ' a very happy white man ' bears a different amount of limitation to that ex- pressed by ' a happy white man.' As, moreover, prepositions have so far an effect upon the meaning of the noun, as to limit, or particularise its signifi- cation, we must also add their value to the noun in any formal resolution of a sentence, as different significations would be expressed by ' to London,' ' into London/ ' upon London,' ' above London/ ' below London/ ' around Lon- don/ ' about London.' When two nouns are joined together by a conjunction, they collectively form one idea, as ' John and Thomas/ Sometimes the idea is limited by their use, as 'all but Thomas/ where the meaning is lessened by the conjunction. In this way the copulative conjunction is equivalent to the sign plus, and the disjunctive to the sign minus. Perhaps, upon the whole, nouns having certain proper- ties in common, had better be divided into the geometric series, 2, 4, 8, 16 ; and thus every term might be distin- guished from every other term. By this arrangement, every word would signify the half of a word above it, and would conjoin the meanings of two words below it. This division appears to me well deserving the attention of naturalists, chemists, and other writers requiring the use of a large number of words. In application, partial difficulties would frequently arise, because practically odd numbers would interfere, but nevertheless, by a little management, such a division might doubtless be usefully effected. Having considered the best mode of arranging the nouns, we are naturally led to consider their mutual relations, 80 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. together with the effect of the verb upon them. Yerbs appear to signify a more complete set of actions than the noun, and in my ' Instinct and Reason,' I have shown that animals do not appear to have the power of appreciating their use. Some verbs simply show existence of an idea, as a thought, or a reality, at the time present. This hardly requires a sign for its designation ; for it might be under- stood, that when we say, 'John, here,' that he is here. But any idea, be it a thought, or be it a reality not now existing, must have either existed at some former period, or may exist at any future time ; and the time either present, past, or future, may be represented with accuracy in a series as before described. But the verb, besides describing the time at which the event occurred, expresses some substantive idea, then this addition must be appended to the noun to which it refers, as ' John runs ; ' the word runs gives two ideas, one that John is in the act of running or performing the motion of run- ning ; the second, that this action is now taking place. In many cases, verbs have relation to two substantives, as * John killed Thomas.' In this expression, we under- stand that at some time past, the act of killing was done by John on Thomas, the first individual performed certain actions which caused a second set of actions to supervene on Thomas. The verb here modifies the ideas which we derive of both nouns ; and the sentence gives us the idea of at least three different states. First, John and Thomas both alive. Second, John in action Thomas being acted upon. Third, John alive Thomas dead. These series of changes or sequences stand in relation as Cause to Effect, and in language may be rendered, that John caused the death of Thomas. ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 81 If we regard the origin of our ideas of Cause and Effect, we find that the idea of Cause is deduced from a change of matter acting upon other matter : the first change is called the Cause ; the second, the Effect. Thus when we say that the fire causes the water to boil, we mean that the coal is combining with oxygen, and the two are being converted into carbonic acid, which change acts upon the water and turns it to steam ; the first change being the Cause ; the second, the Effect. They may thus be regarded as primary and secondary changes. The limitation of the verb by the adverb, may be treated as we limit the signification of the noun by the adjective ; so, also, parts of a sentence coupled together or dissevered by conjunctions, may be treated as when used with nouns. We are now in a condition to express any definite sen- tence by a series of letters, and give to it a definite form, for the purpose of disputation or study. It is absolutely neces- sary to set out the meaning of each word, so that its signifi- cation may be accurately defined ; and hence, in some cases, it may be requisite to express a word by the combination of ideas which constitutes that word ; thus if we use the word John, it may be necessary in some cases to show that John is of a certain family, and that he is a citizen, a Londoner, a white, a European, a man, an animal, an organised being. In the resolution of a sentence we first set down the designation of the thing or person that first undergoes a change. This becomes a cause. The causality may be expressed by other letters, and designated according as we are enabled to communicate the manner of the cause. We next note the noun which is effected, and the value of the effect produced; and, finally, we designate the time at which the whole series of changes occurred. As an example of this mode of notation, we may set G 82 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. down, 'John and Thomas killed "William/ Let J stand for John, T for Thomas, C for causality, D for death, E for effect, W for William, P for the past ; which according to the natural process of thought would point to different distinct ideas having mutual relations, thus : JTC WED P In the first place, John and Thomas underwent certain changes, in consequence of which, in the second place, William underwent certain changes to death, the whole happening at some time past. This mode of notation may, at first sight, appear more complicated than ordinary language ; but if carefully studied, it will be found to afford us an artificial mode of reasoning, which, although immensely inferior to that which is in actual operation by the elaborate machine furnished us by nature, yet as far as it goes, may be conducted by fixed and immutable laws. In reality the various changes indicated by the verb occur at different times. In any process of thought arising therefrom, the whole appears to the mind at one time. This constitutes a great difficulty in the notation of a sentence by cyphers, and can only be effected by several series of geo- metrical arrangements. One would be required for the description of the object changing, another for the descrip- tion of the nature of the change, a third for noting the object effected, a fourth for the nature of the effect, and, lastly, we should require one series to denote the time of the whole series. This last had better be divided into three parts instead of two, to signify the past, the present, and the future. ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 83 5 M 1 " 1 A J_ b 2 C 1 3 E 1 4 G 1 R i 1 1 1 e f m n Induction. I have now to treat of the method by which the mind classifies a series of facts, so as to represent them by the shortest possible method. It is a faculty of great importance to man, inasmuch as by it he is enabled to com- municate a large number of facts in a few words. The process of induction consists in finding a definite and constant connexion between two or more parts of any images, or sequences of images. When, for instance, we find that every individual person dies, whether male or female, we learn a number of individual facts, or rather, we ascertain that a number of human beings have ceased to live, and taken on the various changes of death. We then ascertain that that which we call Humanity is common to all the cases, as one part of the fact ; and that that which we call Death, is common ; and this constitutes the second part of the fact : hence is induced that man is mortal, or, in other words, that humanity and death are invariably con- joined at one time or other. To illustrate the nature of induction, we may take a number of combinations of nervous elements, and call them by letters. If the combination A represents that part of an idea which is possessed by all men, and W the combination given by a sense of feeling, then, if we find that where A is present W is present, we have acquired a most important information ; for if A is present ten thousand times, there will W exist. If B represents that which is common to man, and we find it always conjoined with X, denoting rationality, then we know that all men are rational ; so if C represents that which is common to whites, and Y denotes 84 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. happiness, and D represents the peculiarities of Englishmen, and Z the characteristics of freedom, then by this series of inductions we have acquired most important knowledge. But we observe, that man partakes of the properties of A B, therefore, he is "W X, or is possessed of feeling and rationality. Whites possess the characteristic of A B C, and therefore manifest W X Y, that is to say, they feel, are rational and happy. Lastly, Englishmen being desig- nated by A B C D, manifest the properties of W X Y Z, or evince feeling, rationality, happiness, and freedom. The above statements may be also arranged as two geometric series, which for many causes are more convenient for study. 1 A I 1 a I 5 L 1 E F I JL n LM a i N (I II By this arrangement in the first series, A would stand for animal, B for man, D for whites, H for English. In the second series, it is manifest that feeling, rationality, happiness, and freedom, do not possess any immediate relation to each other, and therefore in the absence of any definite knowledge upon this matter, they may be arbi- trarily assigned the symbols of m, n, p, r, in the fourth row. It may be useful to consider a few specimens of induc- tions arranged in different classes, that we may the more properly estimate their value to man. For this purpose, we ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 85 may consider them under six heads : Absolute Inductions, Probable Inductions, Possible Inductions, Inductions of Means, Inductions of Limits, Hypothetical Inductions. Of absolute inductions we find good illustrations in the properties of numbers : thus, if one be added to one, it makes two; if two be multiplied by two it makes four. These instances are so familiar, that we are apt to forget that they are inductions ; but if I state that the square of any number is equal to the sum of as many consecutive odd numbers beginning with units, as there are units in that number, as thus, 6 x 6 = 1+3+ 5 + 7 + 9 + 11, there probably will be but few of my readers who would be aware of the fact, and would only believe it after they had satis- fied themselves upon the matter. Other examples of abso- lute inductions may be observed in our knowledge of the properties of geometric figures. The next class of inductions which we have to consider, may be termed Inductions of Probabilities, because we induce a law of probability from a certain number of facts. This induction will not express to us the absolute fact in any one particular case. As an example of a probable induc- tion, we may instance that of the sex of children, which for our present purposes we may assume to be half male and half female. From this induction our knowledge is so far incomplete, that we cannot tell when a child is about to be born, whether it will be male or female ; though we can calculate with tolerable certainty that out of a thousand children, five hundred will be males, five hundred females ; but we cannot tell from this knowledge which five hundred will be males and which five hundred females. Of possible inductions, we may take in illustration the following assumed fact : amongst a thousand children one is born with six fingers, and we have no information as to the 86 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. precise one which is the subject of the monstrosity. It is manifest that with this knowledge, it is possible that any one may be the subject of the disease. The Induction of Means is another kind of knowledge of considerable utility. This species of induction consists in ascertaining the sum of the values of a certain number of objects, when by dividing it by that number, we obtain the mean value. If we discover that four men weigh four hun- dredweight, then we know the mean weight of each of the four men, though we do not know in any one case the abso- lute weight. The Induction of Means is much increased in value when we have the limits of variation between the different individual instances ; thus, a mean of 4 may be obtained between the limits of 7 and 1, 6 and 2, or 5 and 3. There is yet one other mode of induction, which inves- tigators frequently employ with advantage. Having care- fully examined a single fact they assume a law from it, and they compare other facts to see how far they agree or dis- agree with that law. This is called a Hypothetical Induc- tion. This form of induction is most valuable if the inves- tigator never forgets that it is a mere Hypothesis ; but, on the contrary, if he bends his other facts to suit the Hypo- thesis, then this form of induction is in the highest degree dangerous, as tending to error. On Deduction. As by the process of induction we are en- abled to classify a large number of facts under one general rule ; so by deduction we are enabled to apply this induced knowledge to any particular instance. As an example of a deduction, we may take, as an illustration, the deduction : ' Man is mortal,' or, in other language, man A always suffers death Z. From this induction we rightly deduce that John A + B is liable to death, because John contains A, ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 87 the properties of a man, in his organisation; or we may express the fact by symbols, that A + B is conjoined withZ. Deductions are of two kinds, perfect and imperfect. In all cases of perfect deductions, the inference derived from the law is certain ; thus, if I have twenty pounds, and add thereto twenty pounds, I may of certainty deduce that I shall then have forty pounds, because I have previously learnt by induction that twenty and twenty make forty. Imperfect deductions may be divided into several depart- ments, for every deduction is imperfect in which the law which is sought to be applied is not absolute. From this cause it follows, that a deduction, or hypothetical induction, or an induction of means and limits when applied to any particular instance, is necessarily incomplete and unsatis- factory. As an example of an imperfect deduction, I will assume as a law, that amongst great masses of children half are boys, half are girls. From this law it follows deductively, that of one thousand children we should probably have five hundred of each sex ; but it by.no means follows that out of ten children we should have five of each, for it might happen that the boys and girls are grouped together in masses of each, and therefore the law would not apply to very small numbers. Laws of Thought. I have shown how every word may be expressed by a cypher ; and I have pointed out the man- ner in which we can express all ideas by this mode of notation. These symbols when rightly arranged as a geometric series, have certain properties to which the laws of thought are obedient, and are most important to be studied and thoroughly understood, and it will be now my business to endeavour to explain them. 88 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. Each symbol expresses something in nature which does not stand alone, but has certain relations to other symbols. If we arrange these symbols as a geometrical series, each letter would comprise the properties of a part of a symbol above it, and those of two symbols below it, and differ in some condition from those beside it : thus, let A represent animals, B brutes, C man, D blacks, E whites. A I D E F G In this case A possesses properties common to the whole symbols ; B, properties common to D E. These symbols, geometrically arranged, may be called higher, lower, and equal : the higher comprise those in which the characteristics are more general, such as A in rela- tion to B C ; the lower, those in which they are more spe- cific, as D in relation to B, as B to C ; and the equal, those of similar relation of definition. The laws of these relations constitute the entire laws of thought, and all which possibly can be learnt by the reason- ing powers from any given facts. 1. Symbols such as a letter or word denoting ideas, are limited in number, although that limitation is so enor- mous that no man will ever be cognizant of them all. 2. Each symbol denotes a positive action, or combination of actions, in the brain, as D may stand for a black man. 3. A mere negation only expresses that an action or a sym- bol is absent, as no B would denote the absence of B. 4. A positive symbol with a negative attached, limits the signification of the positive symbol, as if we used B E, or a minus of some subdivision of E. ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 89 5. Every symbol has something in common with every other symbol, as both D and G would have some property of A. 6. Higher symbols confer their entire power upon all their lower symbols, of which they are composed, such as what is affirmed of A is affirmed of B C D E F Gr. 7. Lower symbols confer some power upon all their higher symbols, as what is affirmed of Gr is partially affirmed of C and A. 8. Equal symbols do not directly affect each other, as what is affirmed of D does not necessarily affect G. 9. A combination of symbols possesses the combined powers of each separately, such as what is affirmed of D E F G combined, is affirmed of B C A. 10. A symbol partially affects some of the higher sym- bols of its equals. What is affirmed of D partially affects A. 11. A symbol does not affect the lower symbols of its equals. What is affirmed of B has no direct effect on EG. As the act of thinking by words consists in comparing the relations of symbols, so that of judgment determines whether the two sets of symbols agree or disagree. By judgment we determine Affirmation, Negation, Probability, and Possibility. 1. Affirmation consists in the absolute agreement between two sets of symbols ; thus, A B and A B are alike. 2. Negation, on the contrary, consists in a non-agreement between two sets of symbols ; as A is not A B, A B C is not A B, C is not A B. Cases of negation resolve themselves into three classes, first, those which com- prise cases in which the two sets of symbols agree, as far as they go, the second set being deficient in 90 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. amount ; secondly, those in which the symbols agree up to a certain point, but the second has something added ; and, lastly, those in which there is an entire non- agreement between the symbols. 3. Probability consists in the concurrence of all the known symbols in one set of symbols with those of a second set. Thus ABC plus some unknown, is probably A B C D. The degree of probability in different cases is inferred from the extent of the concurrence ; or rather we may say, from the proportion of the amount of unknown parts. 4. Possibility consists in the absence of any positive discord- ance between the unknown symbols of two sets. Thus, X Y plus some unknown may be possibly A B with some unknown, because both sets may consist of ABXY. 5. An answer is absolute when the two sets compared con- sist of known symbols. 6. An answer is only probable or possible if a probable or possible symbol enter into either of the two sets com- pared. 7 An answer is only to the average, if either set of symbols contains an average statement. I have now shortly detailed the laws of thought adapted to words and language, and exemplified by the use of sym- bols. For the purpose of studying these laws, the student is referred to the geometric series of symbols at page 91 ; and he will readily perceive their importance and truth. In all disputes and discussions, having once referred the words employed to their proper relation in the series, the legiti- mate deductions can be immediately learned, and thus a far greater certainty may be given to our mode of reasoning. 91 -K- -p- o -rt- -a- -PQ- -o- -w- -lit -o- o -bc-l. I fl PQ- c3 92 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. Relational and Differential Machines. From the laws which have been already detailed, it is apparent that thought is amenable to fixed principles. By taking advan- tage of a knowledge of these principles it occurred to me that mechanical contrivances might be formed which should obey similar laws, and give those results which some may have considered only obtainable by the operation of the mind itself. In order to induce a general law from specific instances, and deduce the application of a law to a particular case by means of mechanical contrivances, we must take advantage of the geometrical arrangement of words formerly described, and denote each word by a cypher, and lastly arrange them in such a manner that each cypher may bear its proper relation to every other cypher. The application of the geometric arrangement of cyphers may be best represented by any contrivance, the parts of which continually divide by a hinge joint into two portions. Nothing apparently can be more simple than this arrange- ment ; though, practically, for large series, the details are so troublesome, that it has required much more labour to bring it into a working form than I had originally antici- pated, owing to the difficulty which arises from the neces- sity of a large number of parts being compelled to move all upon the other parts of the contrivance, which is abso- lutely necessary to the construction of the machine. I have before me, whilst I write, seven or eight varieties of these contrivances, some of which have their fixed points at the top of the geometric series, and some at the other extremity of the same. Perhaps the construction of the latter may be illustrated by a number of lines and letters as in the annexed diagram for a series of sixteen, thus : ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. A 93 $ I 33 J L B < -i ' ] ) I L I ; D D : E ? C \ I a b c d e f g h i j k 1 m n In this case the fixed point of every line is at the bot- tom of the diagram, and each is represented as fixed upon a board. The whole is now shown as open, but it will be seen that when closed the act of opening any one of the lowest set would partially influence its corresponding cypher in the series above it. This form illustrates the principle exceedingly well, is simple in its construction, and by a proper use of readings is applicable in all cases. Upon the whole, however, perhaps the fixed point had better be placed at the upper part of the series, and as there are some difficulties in constructing it to work as a triangle, it may be arranged to shut up as a parallelogram. This kind of motion, requiring whole series of move- ments to move upon other movements, is a new requisite in mechanical contrivances ; or at any rate I am unac- quainted with its use amongst the machines which abound in this great metropolis. When the vast extent of a machine sufficiently large to include all words and sequences is considered, we at once observe the absolute impossibility of forming one for such an extended application, inasmuch as it would cover an area 94 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. exceeding probably all London, and the very attempt to move its respective parts upon each other, would inevitably cause its own destruction. Nevertheless, those lesser ma- chines containing but a few elements, exemplify the prin- ciples of their operation, and demonstrate those laws of RELATIONAL MACHINE. Fig. 8. induction, deduction, and relation, the right use of which cannot fail to render our thoughts more accurate, and our language more precise. I have also devised a relational slate which the student ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 95 may profitably use in the study of thought or for accuracy of reasoning. It is thus marked. If we examine the results which can be obtained from the use of the relational machine, we observe that an action represented by an opening at any point represents a similar action upon every other element placed below it in the series, and also a partial action of every element having relation to it at the higher part of the series, hence the value of every expression, and its relations to other expres- sions, can be read off. The machine, however, can do more than this ; for two or more facts, or two or more assertions, can be represented by actions in a similar manner. Like the human brain, it is competent to give the resultant of any number of pro- positions be they ever so numerous, and show their mutual bearings upon each other. If the machine were sufficiently extensive to comprise every fact or principle which has been ascertained, then when any new fact is learnt it might be appended, and its bearings upon more general instances, or more particular cases, would be immediately shown. It is thus apparent that this mechanism gives an ana- logous representation of the natural process of thought, as perfectly as a human contrivance can well be expected to afford ; yet we perceive how limited is the knowledge which it is competent to convey, when compared with that which is obtainable by the mind through the natural operation of the brain, In examining the relations derivable from a knowledge of sequences, we must have recourse to that artificial system of notation described in the chapter on the resolution of a sentence. We must record the substantive changing in one geometric series ; the nature of the change, in a seeond ; 96 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. the substantive acted upon, in a third ; and the nature of the changes which it undergoes, in a fourth. If all the words in each division were placed in their proper relation, then any action on the machine indicates every principle which is inducible, or every fact which is deducible from the assertion. In like manner, the resultant of any num- ber of assertions is immediately shown in the form of in- ductions or deductions. It is not necessary in practice to have a separate series for each subject, for the force of each word can be studied separately, together with its relation to other words, and their relation to the other subjects can be ascertained. Supposing that the machine could be made sufficiently extensive for all practical purposes, yet the labour of employing it would be so great, that persons would soon rely upon the abilities which it has pleased Providence to give to them, and not seek assistance from extraneous sources. The relational machine can also be employed, to a slight extent, as either an addition, subtraction, or multiplication machine, with all the advantages attached to the use of the functions of the geometric series. To all who understand the use of logarithms, this must be sufficiently apparent, without troubling my readers with a further description. The relational machine may be so constructed, that when one of the higher or more comprehensive symbols is exem- plified upon it by an action to an unknown extent, as in the general assertion of some, the deductions in the lower series, or more particular series, will exemplify the uncer- tainty as to the particular ones which are effected ; thus if we know that some men are short and some tall, then in the lower readings we shall find that it is impossible to indicate from that general principle, which particular ones are short or which are tall. ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 97 RELATIONAL SLATE. A A B A | B | D a 1 b | c | d e | f | jr 1 h a|b|c d | e | f | g | h i|k|l m | n | o | p | q The Relational Slate is divided into a geometrical series of spaces. For the purpose of ascertaining the effect which any statement may have upon other cases, the words ex- pressing that which contains the subject to be investigated should be inserted in any one compartment about the middle of the slate. All other words are then placed in relation to these in the following manner : Words bearing the same meaning must be placed in the same compartment. Words designating a portion of the objects which are described under the first word are placed in lower com- partments, each having its proper relation to the rest. These lower words obey the properties of lower geometrical symbols. Words which comprise a greater range of mean- ing than the first words are placed above the first words, and obey the properties of higher symbols. Words which are neither more comprehensive, nor more limited in their meaning, and of which no relation is known, should be inserted in some other part of the series, completely beyond the highest words whose relations are known, and obey the laws of extraneous geometrical symbols. Lastly, if no relation is known for a word, it may be inserted at any point with a query after it. Having placed the words in relation, the assertion is entirely true of all the lower words, and only partially true of all the higher words, and has no bearing upon the extraneous words. Example. Required to know the inferences deducible from the premisses All men die. Savages are a portion H 98 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. of mankind. All men who are not savages are civilised. Organised beings comprise animals. The New Zealanders are a portion of the savages. John is a civilised man. Cats are a portion of animals, but not of men. Stones are not a portion of organised beings. Flint is one of all stones. Plants are a part of organised beings. RELATIONS. ORGANISED BEINGS. I I Stonea Animals Plants Cats All Mint Civilised Savages I I I I I John New Zealander Answer. Savages, Civilised People, John, and New Zealanders are lower symbols, consequently they all die, Organised Beings and Animals are higher symbols, there- fore some of each die ; but Plants, Stones, and Flint are extraneous symbols, therefore nothing is stated with regard to their deaths. Example of a resultant of several Propositions. Civilised Men die. Stones are not organised beings ; Trees die ; Savages die; Plants comprise trees and other vegetables. All men are either civilised or savages. Those animals which are not men die. Plants and animals comprise the whole of organised beings. Required to know what infer- ence may be drawn from these premisses. ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 99 RELATIONS. ORGANISED BEINGS. Animals Plants Stones r iii All Men All Animals but Men Trees Civilised Savages Answer. Civilised men and savages confer their whole power on all men, therefore they die. All men, and all animals but men, confer their whole power on animals, therefore they all die. Trees confer some power on plants, some of which consequently die; and all animals, and some plants, confer a partial power on organised beings, some of which therefore only die. Stones, being extra- neous to the subject, are not affected by these premisses. By the natural powers of thought the mind also possesses a spontaneity, a power by which bygone impressions appear, constituting an act of memory. These the mind treats according to all the symbols impressed on the brain, and moulds them into one harmonious whole to constitute an act of imagination. This property, ever active in the fertile minds of our dramatic and novelist writers, is never exer- cised without due regard to the experiences which have been afforded of the natural sequences of events. The mere conception of an idea would be useless unless its relation to other ideas and other events was fully shown ; and the exercise of the faculties of remembering, combining, and comparing ideas, is amply shown in man, and indicates a power of adaptation in his cerebral organisation as given by Nature infinitely superior to any human contrivance how- ever ingenious. We thus perceive that, whether we study 100 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. the mechanical arrangements of the bones, the optical structure of the eye, the hydrostatic apparatus for the circulation of the blood, the acoustic arrangements for hearing, the mechanism of muscular motion, the generation of force, or that physical structure which is the instrument of the mind, we are equally astonished at the infinite per- fection of their design. This cannot fail to show to man his utter insignificance in his inventive skill, as displayed in his mechanical contrivances, when contrasted with the wonderful example of creative power which his own beautiful and perfect organisation affords, and must make him deeply feel the infinite perfection of Nature. Not only can we take advantage of the laws of induction and deduction, and exemplify them by mechanism, but we can also in the same way exemplify the laws of judgment by pieces of mechanism of a different description, which may be termed the differential machines. In estimating the differences between any two assertions by artificial contrivances, it is necessary to have some mechanism to represent each assertion. For this purpose we may take a wire or pin, and divide it by spaces, represented by certain symbols. Opposite to each symbol, which must represent some word or fact, we must have the means of noting whether the character of the subject is absolutely known, or unknown, by using some appendage of two different dimensions (A B, fig. 9). By this con- r L c -H r PL B|A| i n ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 101 trivance, we can accurately set out one side of the case. Opposed to this, we must use a second pin, with appendages competent to represent by three different sizes, ABC, either similarity, dissimilarity, or unknown ; then by bringing the two series together, an answer as to its actual, probable, possible, or negative concurrence may be obtained. For instance, if in a definite set of symbols the value of each is known, each would be represented by a space of one. If, on the other side, the value of each was similarly represented, then the two might shut together in the space of two, and the reading would be ' Yes.' If on either side some of the values of the cypher or the word were unknown, then the two when brought together would occupy the space of three, and the reading would be ' Probable ; ' but if for any one cypher the value on both sides was unknown, the space occupied would be four, and the reading given would be ' Possibly.' Lastly, if on the two sides any two symbols disagree, that want of accordance would be repre- sented by a contrivance occupying the bulk of four on the second side, and when brought together the amount would be five, for which the reading of ' No ' would be given. By the differential machine it would be possible on one side to arrange all the facts or principles which should direct a judgment on a given point, by which means, when specific facts were registered on the opposite side, the concurrence, non-concurrence, probability, or possibility, would be imme- diately shown. Perhaps this might be beneficially brought into use by those who use fixed and unchangeable creeds ; for if they be arranged correctly then any deviation from them would be immediately registered. It must be apparent that such a machine would not estimate the quality of the 102 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. creed, but only show whether any new creed, or portion of creed, coincided or not with the former creed. For whether the creed inferred a belief in the true God, in Mohammed, in ibises, crocodiles, or saints, the effect would be the same, as these beliefs being assumed as true, the truth of that which is compared with them is ascertained according to them. There are many other cases where such a contriv- ance might be beneficially employed ; for whenever passion or powerful feeling is likely to interfere with a sober and correct judgment, then the examination of each part sepa- rately is likely to be properly used when the mechanical answering upon the whole case will be, although immediately performed by a human contrivance, according to those principles which regulate the action of the brain in such circumstances. Nothing can show more usefully than this machine the futility of guessing at any decision without any or sufficient information upon which to form an opinion ; for if, at random, certain actions be rendered on both sides of the machine, then the almost ^ certain impossibility of ever arriving at a true concordance will be speedily found upon trial. What is true of this piece of mechanism is true of the mind, which sufficiently teaches how slow we should be to pass an opinion without a knowledge of all the facts which bear upon the question. By using the relational and differential machines to- gether, we are enabled to obtain the bearing of any facts, or to arrive at any conclusion to which the mind by itself is competent. From any definite number of premisses the correct answer may be obtained by a process imitating, as near as possible, the natural process of thought. It would be a great boon to the community if the Judges, notwithstanding their high integrity, would use such an ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. 103 instrument, as then what one calls right would not be called by a second wrong. A mechanical judge would be a boon to the whole civilised world. The Differential Slate is designed to illustrate the laws of judgment, and to show their application to complex instances. For this purpose lines are ruled upon the slate to form spaces in which to insert every statement in one of the cases with which a second is compared. Two lines are then drawn to give a small space for each case. Each of the two sets of statements is examined separately, and when a statement is known to exist, the number 1 is appended at the upper part ; if it is unknown, the number 2 is appended. When the same statement exists in the second case, the number 1 is placed in the second row; if it is unknown whether it exists or not, the number 2 is appended ; and if it certainly does not exist in the second case, the number 4 is inserted. The numbers are then added up. If all the added numbers are 2, the two statements are identical. If any one of the added numbers is 3, the statements are only probably the same ; and the number of 2s in proportion to the 3s deter- mine the degree of probability. If any number 4 is present, the second assertion is only possibly the same as the first, and the degree of possibility may be in some degree inferred from the proportion of the numbers 2 or 3 to 4. Lastly, if the number 5 is present, the second assertion is not the same as the first. Example 1. John is the only man who is tall, fat, fair, long-haired, wide-mouthed, has a limp in his gait, and a peculiar squeak in his voice. This morning a woman saw a man steal a leg of mutton, and she did not know his name, but she states that he was tall and fat, his countenance was fair, and his hair streamed over his shoulders. When she looked at him his mouth seemed to stretch from ear to ear. 104 ON WORDS AND LANGUAGE. As he walked lie limped in his gait ; and when she called after him he squeaked out a terrible oath. Required to know whether this man was John. . 4 r ido-mouth. 5 P. ! squeaking EH EH ^ i-q e fatuous. Ixiv. Sometimes the power of receiving impressions from the external world is diminished or lost, as in blindness, deafness, &c. Ixv. When parts of the body do not move by volition, they are said to be paralyzed. Ixvi. In old age, the brain loses its power to receive new images, to restore bygone impressions, to connect different images, or to apply general laws to specific instances. That which ennobles the man has passed away ; the outward form remains, but the inward structure has lost its power to act. Childhood again ensues not to acquire new ideas, but to forget those before implanted. All that is beautiful or desirable in this world has passed away ; the brain has lost * As a matter of jurisprudence it has been held by the Lord Chan- cellors, in the House of Lords, that the mind cannot be said to be partially deluded, inasmuch as it is one and indivisible. THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. 191 its power the mind ceases the very existence of the man is unknown to himself, till death gives rise to a new life, and discloses that new and glorious state in which our organisation teaches us that man will be immaterial and immortal. Ixvii. As individuals differ in their organisation, it follows that they differ in their capacity to perform various acts ; and we may presume that the mind, being one of the functions of the body, is of varying power in different individuals. Ixviii. The observations which apply to different indi- viduals apply with greater force to different races. To estimate the perfection of the mind, the organs of sensation should be carefully examined, to find whether the eye sees perfectly and correctly, the ear hears, the nose smells, the tongue tastes, and the skin feels, and besides, if a proper knowledge is obtained of the changes which take place within our own bodies. It is then necessary to ascertain whether proper pictures of objects in the external world produce a due impression on the brain, that they may be retained for future use, and be duly remembered. Comparison, thought, and judgment, must then be the object of attention ; for if one is defective, the action of the mind will be imperfect ; and in some states of disease we perceive that a man, otherwise learned and intelligent, can- not act upon all the facts of the case coupled with all other sources of information. The mind does not exhibit its high qualities when the faculty of inducing general laws, and deducing from them their effect in particular instances, is not perfect, and the 192 THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. mind exhibits great inferiority if it is not obedient to the moral law. As the brain is the regulator of the direction of action, it should be one and entire. There should be a proper balance between all its powers, so that healthy mental' action may be evinced. In the discipline of the mind, absence of mind should be sedulously avoided, and full attention should be given to surrounding impressions. Illusions of the senses should be avoided by close observation, and hallucinations prevented by strict discipline of the judgment. During contemplation and deliberation, long-continued absorption in the inner mental operations should be avoided, or we get a habit of what is called brown study ; and so, also, should we restrain the influence of those religious enthusiasts who would generate within us the pernicious action of religious ecstasy, wherein the mind becomes absorbed in its own imaginations and fancies, and neglects the proper effect of surrounding circumstances. It is ever painful to observe the feebleness of mind which such a course produces. Analogous mischief, but not to so great an extent, is caused by the habit of reverie, when a man neglects the information derived from his own mind, but continually excessively dwells upon beautiful ideas developed by men superior to himself, as Shakespeare, Milton, and other writers and poets, which are so superior that his own mind can hardly approach the noble sentiments which they have originated. In action, we should examine if the will is determined by a well-balanced mind, that our muscular movements should be regulated by a healthy brain, duly and properly exercised THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. 193 in all its departments. If action is so restrained, violent passion will be avoided. A definitive purpose will be exhibited in all our doings, vigour and determination will lead to success and brilliant action. In our muscular systems, when cramp, convulsions, sleep-walking, dreams, hysteria or catalepsy occur, they mark a derangement of the bodily functions; for to exhibit the full perfection of the mind in its natural and characteristic beauty, it is necessary to possess a ' mens sana in corpore sano.' Every man possesses individuality. He differs from every other man in some slight respect. These differences may be arranged in groups. Thus every family differs slightly from every other family, every race differs from every other race, and the people of every nation show their peculiar nationality. There is even a difference of mental capability in the two sexes ; and although the difference is ever before our minds, how difficult it is to distinguish the difference of the power of mind between any one man and any one woman, yet between all men and all women the mind possesses a perfect distinctness which we can recognise. Man exhibits the higher powers of thought and of construction, and is more daring in action. Ever ready to take command, he subdues by force. Woman deals with smaller matters, is loving, timid, and gentle in action ; ever ready to obey, she leans upon the man for guidance and protection. In a perfect state, a man and woman are two persons with one mind, their thoughts are interwoven together, they act upon one design, and both live for one common object and thtir common benefit. The perfection of creation, and the omnipotence of design, is in no instance o t 194 THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. more strikingly shown than in the mutual dependence of men and women. "Who then shall intervene between husband and wife to impair that unity of mind which nature has decreed ? Surely it is the most accursed of all human wickedness to seek possession of the thoughts of women to govern men, or to rule communities. Yet there are not found wanting, amongst some pretended religious communities, those who dare to attempt, by the confessional, to separate the minds of those who have been joined together by the inscrutable wisdom of the Almighty. When we examine the peculiarities of the mind of any one individual, we may employ the natural system of mental philosophy as detailed in this work ; we may divide man- kind, primarily, into five groups, the aisthenic, syndramic, noemic, pneuma-noemic, and dynamic, according as their respective faculties are developed ; and, moreover, we may group together any combination of these mental qualities, such as aisthenic noemic, syndraniic dynamic, etc. But each respective faculty of the mind admits of sub- division, such as the aisthenic into six, five of which represent the mental power derived from the respective organs of sensation, and one from knowledge derived from bodily feeling. We may further subdivide these divisions into the various functions which are assigned to each organ of sense ; thus a man may have a powerful vision for small objects, a great range of adjustment, a power for the appre- ciation of colours, a quickness in the perception of objects. Similar differences occur with every other organ of. sensa- tion, so that by this process we note a large number of mental peculiarities. But the syndraniic qualities of the mind not only com- THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. 195 prise all those which appertain to the aisthenic, but superadd to them the faculty of receiving information from the words and the writing of others ; and this second faculty again presents many varieties, from the classes of knowledge which the mind of any particular man is competent to receive, thus some men principally read of that which might be seen by the eye, others of that which may be heard by the ear. Again, the same impression affects one man with pleasure, another with pain. The same amount of light which is a delight to one man is a pain to another, so that the number of all the above varieties of mind are doubled by these considerations. Proceeding with the examination of the mind, we have to consider the noemic properties or powers of thought. These are still governed by all the lower subdivisions, but have characteristics superadded. The faculty of inducing laws and acting upon them, is highly important, as opposed to the property of vacillation, where the object to be obtained remains in doubt. We must next observe the pneuma-noemic qualities of the mind by which it is regulated by the consideration of the Deity, of the soul, of eternity, of heaven, and of hell. Further, the human mind is modified throughout all these subdivisions by memory or forgetfulness ; for a man is in a totally different position if he sees and does not recall to his mind what has been seen, or if he thinks and does not remember the thought, from the man who clearly remembers the image seen or the law thought out. There are, lastly, many varieties in the dynamic powers of the mind. Some persons are quick of action, others indolent. Some act from aisthenic impressions, others direct their actions by thought. Some are governed by religious 196 THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. impressions, others act solely from the immediate impres- sions of pleasure or pain. All these states of the mind are governed, not only as has been noticed before, by sex, but even by the age of the individual. The boy exhibits properties in the various departments of the mind different from those of the child, the youth from the boy, the adult from the youth, advanced life from the adult, and senility from advanced life. The perfect man perceives vividly by his organs of sensation, registers the images, recalls them for future use, obtains the knowledge received by other persons which they record by word of mouth or by their books, deduces laws and remembers them, thoroughly comprehends the moral law, and acts with energy, calmness, and decision, in every case presented to him. When a man so acts, does he not exhibit the glorious perfection of the noblest work in nature ? The danger, however, of using the mind so that one department of it comes into play to the exclusion of the rest, is great, and is shown in those states of semi-conscious- ness which can be brought on by practice, in which a person does not keep his mind in balance by the action of impressions on the organs of sensation being carried to the brain, but lets his imagination riot in thoughts which he cannot distinguish from realities. He then sees what he is pleased to call visions, and appears to have fanciful com- munications with other persons, living or dead. This, however, which is occasionally an epidemic, must be regarded as a state of disease rather than as an instance of a healthy mind. These states of mind should be carefully guarded against, as exposing the sufferer to be a prey of those who hold spurious religions. It has been already observed, that it is the peculiar THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. 197 province of man to abstract, by virtue of which he uses words and language, and induces general laws. We have now to consider by what mechanism and in what manner this high quality is to be attained. Perhaps but little difficulty attends the notion of a reception of an impression from the external world, its registration in the brain, and the consequent action of the muscles of the body. But it becomes somewhat more difficult for the mind to follow how the muscular action is determined, not only by the immediate impression, but also by impressions which have occurred, and which have been registered in the brain at some former time ; but it becomes extremely difficult to comprehend how action is controlled by abstractions, that is to say, by general laws obtained from all former impressions. The outlines of the material mechanism by which the nervous system acts, will be detailed in the last chapter of this work, and at the present moment our attention will be restricted to the probable mode of action of the brain in this particular. For this purpose it will be convenient to refer to the relational machine, which was invented in mimicry of the action of the brain, and it is so designed that a number of lower impressions, designated by small letters, may be represented by a single capital letter. The machine is constructed in the plan of a geometric series of the function of 2, but for our present purpose let us assume one of the function of 10. A H I K 198 THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. By this arrangement, \ve perceive that a is affirmatively affected if the first 10 filaments are acted upon, b for the second, &c., and that the large letter A is affirmatively affected when the whole 100 lower symbols are in action, and only partially when less than the whole are affected. To attempt to illustrate this action in a practical manner, we may assume that every morning we come down to break- fast and find a fire burning in the grate, that nervous filaments in the body numbering from 20 to 30 are acted upon by the fire, this would invariably affect b, and there- fore b would ever represent afterward heat, as an abstraction of the 10 nervous filaments excited to action ; and whenever afterwards we talk of b, we should always have before us the effect of heat on our bodies. The word abstract is offensive to ordinary minds, but it really signifies a composition of many ideas, so that many simple ideas may be repeated by a single higher idea, and the letter b, in the example given above, would always signify the actions of our primitive nervous fibrils numbered 20 to 30. To illustrate this abstract matter still further, let 30 to 40 represent the nervous fibrils excited by combustible mat- ter, which would be abstracted by c, and let d represent the abstraction of other matter with which c always combines to make heat, then the combination bed would always be affected when the fire burns. Following the illustration, supposing all the primitive nervous fibres governed by the letters abcdefghik are acted upon when all physical forces are present, and that no physical force is manifested, when^ none of the primitive nervous fibres from 1 to 100 are acted upon, then great A would be the abstraction of the mental action of all physical forces; and supposing, moreover, that when any one physical THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. 199 force is manifested, two kinds of matter are always present, which change either in position or character, then the mind forms the great comprehensive law that all physical forces depend upon a change of matter. Even in the latter illustration there is a change of images in the brain, for we must start with particles of matter in one state which during the manifestation of force become matter in another position or state. This is confessedly very difficult to follow, and for the mind thoroughly to appreciate the state it must be concen- trated within itself ; the difficulty arises from the number of parts of which the nervous circle is made up. It is, how- ever, one whole, and whenever a group of subjects is intelli- gently brought before the mind, we are enabled, by being master of this natural process of reason, to see all the bear- ings in an instant of time, though it may take hours to set out the whole train of thought by words. The relational machine and relational slate have been designed from a study of the mind, so that we may put down in writing the process of thought as it occurs to the mind, and it is useful to use them for mental practice. When a person receives a communication from another, his mind should at once perceive in every department exact ideas of the subject communicated ; for example, when we are told that heat melts lead, a large amount of intelligence is conveyed. First, we have to note what lead is, and the qualities of that kind of matter which is called lead, then the state of solidity in which lead generally exists. With- out a previous information having existed in the mind, the assertion would not convey any knowledge. Next, the change which occurs in a solid body in the act of melting, whereby a solid state is converted into a fluid state. 200 THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. Lastly, the impressions which exist in the brain as to the meaning of the word heat. Whenever heat is mani- fested, a change of matter is recognised hy the mind, such as the combination of coals with oxygen, in the process of combustion, or the union of zinc with oxygen, in the voltaic battery when the heat is caused by electrical action, and so on for the other physical forces which can set in motion heat. In the use of these three simple words heat melts lead how vast are the impressions registered in the brain which are affected ! Some aisthenic as we receive them from the external world, some syndramic or distinct images before fixed in the brain, and some abstract in the higher depart- ment of the organ of thought. The intelligence communicated is but partial knowledge if the brain is not acted upon in its higher, lower, and middle departments, with regard to the numerous portions of intelligence conveyed by the simple words, heat melts lead. So in the moral law, when we are told to love all men, what an extent of images already registered in the brain is mentioned ! We have black men, red men, white men, tall men, short men, middle-sized men, Englishmen, foreigners, rich men, poor men, princes, and peers. In like manner, what a number of actions are comprised in doing good, so that pleasure may be produced in the present and future, and pain avoided under every definite condition offered for our consideration in doing good. A man in the most perfect state of receptivity, when he has a verbal communication made to him, perceives in an instant of time the laws which are affected by the words spoken, the deductions downwards to all the specific parts of THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. 201 which the generalisations are made up, the inductions up- wards from particular instances affected, and the side rela- tions to all other branches of knowledge. For a man to exemplify these noble functions, he must train his mind to act from above downwards, and from below upwards. As an example, let us take another illustration of the mental changes which occur, to give us the idea of cause and effect. When an image is formed on the brain from an action in the eye, it would continue the same for ever, unless some- thing happened to change the picture ; for instance, we see a picture of an apple-tree with the apple on it. The apple falls to the ground when a picture is formed, the apple is on the ground, the apple-tree appears without the apple. This change of position is the effect or result, and the mutual attraction between the earth and the apple is the cause. Every change of picture before the mind results from some change effected on matter, such as its form, compo- sition, creation, position. This is always the result or effect, and every result or effect must have a cause to produce the effect. Now this cause always requires some other new attraction, which acts on the matter changed to give rise to the result. The ideas of cause and effect are the result of particles of matter changing or entering into new attractions, whereby other particles of matter are acted upon, to assume some changed state which is competent to form a new picture in the brain. This may be termed one event composed of three stages : 1, matter in some definite form or position ; 2, this matter in some other form or position ; and, 3, other matter, or 202 THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. even its own particles of matter, entering into a new attrac- tion to produce the new result. Whenever any change is presented to our mind, then we may search for the cause of that change, and we shall surely find that new attractions corresponding to the extent of that change have been set up to effect it. This is a most important doctrine, as it teaches plainly that out of nothing nothing can come, that every effect must have a corresponding cause, and whenever we observe an effect we should search for the cause. Sometimes when we see an effect or consequence, we see also the cause ; for instance, when we observe a pile being driven by the fall of a huge block of wood by its attraction to the earth. Again, we see the cause of water passing into steam over the fire which arises from the action of the coals entering into combination with the oxygen of the atmosphere. Sometimes, however, we perceive a result, and do not see the change of matter which produced it. For instance, we leave a tree laden with fruit at night, and in the morning find a denuded tree. The mind immediately seeks the cause, and naturally asks, has it fallen to the ground, have the birds carried it away, or the beasts eaten it, or what is most probable, has some visitor come and taken it away ? We know that according to the laws of nature that the fruit could not have gone away by itself, and the change of picture which the tree presented through the eye to the mind necessitated some other change of picture of some other matter as its cause which was unseen, because the eye was not there to see it. The mind runs great danger in estimating cause and effect. Matter may be changed in composition, in form, or position, and simultaneously other matter be changed in THEORY OF MENTAL ACT1OX. 203 composition, or form, or position, and yet in the two sets of pictures there may be no relation between one and the other. In fact, the two results may be really only concomitant. It is necessary in all cases that the cause should precede (even if the time be only infinitesimally small) the conse- quence or result. When oxygen and hydrogen are attracted together, the result or the production of water comes almost instantaneously on the new attraction being set up between the two gases, whereby the compound of water results. As a necessity of the voltaic construction of the nervous system every combination of the sensor nerves must be opposed to every motor nerve. The whole of the sensor nerves must be so arranged that the voltaic force may pass through any motor nerve. As that combination as a whole acts to some extent when any part of the lower series acts, it follows that the idea of totality must be ever before the mind as the result of our organisation. It is in this way probably that we obtain our higher metaphysical abstrac- tions. Thus, personality and infinity give us the idea of the soul, pleasure, and infinity of good; pain and infinity of evil, cause and infinity of God, time and infinity of eternity, infinity pleasure and time of heaven, infinity pain and time of hell. Personality and all the units of sensation give us the idea of the body ; personality infinity and time, of immortality ; personality and other totalities of senses give us the idea of the mind, thought and infinity of spirit. Lastly, action infinity and pleasure conjoined give us the ideas of virtue, action infinity and pain of vice. It is not within our power to define these ideas. That which is infinite must not be limited, time must not be con- founded with eternity, matter with space, the body with the soul, or material actions with God. In all these higher considerations of our mental know- 204 THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. ledge, man is apt to consider the abstractions as substantive realities. Hence it is common to hear men talk of gravity, and in former times of levity, of light, of heat, of electricity, of life, of good, of evil, as substantial existences. This is a very dangerous fallacy of the mind, as by it mankind has been led to mistake abstract ideas of certain actions on the brain for substantive realities. Contrariwise, men perceiving that all our knowledge is derived from actions of the brain, have been led to doubt whether the external world has any substantial reality. Both such notions are fallacious, for external matter acts on our brains, and the modes of action are grouped together, and receive general abstract names. It is extremely difficult to write on abstract ideas, to make our thoughts intelligible. It is also extremely difficult to comprehend what others write, and chiefly because the writer is at a loss to select words which shall clearly explain his meaning, and the reader is at a loss to attach a definite meaning to the written words. In the study of abstract ideas it would much promote exact thought if a series of words were used which should solely be employed in the higher departments of the mind, and should never be used for the lower or more elementary ideas existing in the mind. It is not so in the lower or elementary ideas of the mind. The lower classes of literature which pander to the passions of the million graphically describe murder or other horrid scenes for those who like to dwell upon the horrible with such exactness as correctly to represent the scene to their minds; and in like manner scenes of pleasure, such as these of festivals, are satisfactorily described to those who like the ideas of joy and happiness. But probably there is scarce one in a million of persons who enjoys and THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. 205 thoroughly comprehends that class of literature, who can be brought to form the smallest apprehension of the higher laws of abstract knowledge. Meditation on the higher abstractions and the develop- ment of our general laws from experience within our own minds is productive of great and unalloyed pleasure. If conducted solely for the cause of truth, all other pleasures are but phantoms to the pure pleasure of true reason. Never- theless its exercise cannot be carried to excess with impunity. If rest occupies one-third of our time, our inner and intimate thought should scarcely occupy two-thirds of the remainder, which should be devoted to observation, action, and refresh- ment. It is only by the balance of the action of all parts of the brain that the perfection of human reason can be secured. Every human being has, and probably at every past time, unless in a state of disease, has had some power of abstrac- tion, and even this power in the feeblest existence consti- tutes a clear and distinct jump from that possessed by the mind of any of the lower animals, although there are extensive variations in degree as to the power of mind of animals, as attentive examination discloses that there is no creature without some mind, and contrariwise a very few men with the highest order of mind. It is curiously note- worthy that whenever any person of the highest order of mind appears amongst us, there is hardly a sufficient popu- lation living at the period thoroughly to appreciate his supe- riority, and it requires the approbation of all the great minds, who live over a series of years intelligently to do justice to the works of the highest intellects ; and contrari- wise, whenever a man attains to great popularity at once, it is an indication, that he possesses an average, and not a greatly superior mental power. Every one who regards the signs of the times must per- 206 THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. ceive that a great conflict is approaching between true reason and mediaeval credulity, as to what is to be regarded as pure religion. Heretofore the great students of the higher branches of mental knowledge have been chiefly the pro- moters of religious impostures, designed to rule mankind and to control their property ; but in the coming conflict their combatants will be those who study mental processes for the sake of truth. The present position of the parties is inaction. Each side looks at each other aghast at its strength and is passive. An indiscreet partisan, now and then on either side, fires a random shot of words which have but little meaning and less effect. The fight may occur at any moment by the slightest spark. The kidnapping of a child, the seizure of a nun, the spoliation of the fortune of a silly young man, an insult to a prime minister, or to an ecclesiastic, or a fiery sermon, may fan the spark into a flame ; and happy will be mankind, if the next reformation be carried by a battle of words, and not by a deadly conflict between true knowledge and pure religion on the one hand, and fanatic credulity and false religion on the other. Races seem to determine religious belief, and so religion and race may fight side by side in the coming struggle. Nobody can tell how far he may be an actor in this great coming conflict, which now overhangs every European nation, and their younger sister America. Those who rely upon rational thought and purity of mind will be best equipped for the battle, and the present position particularly requires a study of the higher domain of thought. The ground lines of every department of knowledge are in chaos, but if Nature is interrogated in a spirit of earnest- ness and truth, and if men are determined to have true knowledge and a pure religion, they will surely be rewarded for their labours. THEORY OF MENTAL ACTION. 207 To illustrate the probable construction of the nervous system, the two following maps have been made to show the general mode in which the nerves are distributed to the muscles and organs of sensation on each side of the body ; and further, how the nerves of both sides pass through the brain, and are there interlaced before the nervous power acts through the muscles. Complicated as the nervous system appears in these two very general maps, yet even more complicated must it exist in reality. For some purpose not clearly understood, the nervous fibres on one side of the body are carried over from the opposite side of the brain, and thus, if the right side of the brain is injured by disease, the left limbs are paralysed, and not those of the side injured ; and this curious and complicated mechanism would have to be added to that indicated in the maps. It is worthy of special remark that our organs of sensa- tion are double, so that when one is injured the other is available, just as engineers put up two steam-engines and two steam-boilers where constant work is required ; but yet it is so beautifully contrived that when the two organs are at work they afford more perfect information than either would separately a fact which we have already particularly indicated with respect to binocular vision, and which has contrivances in the decussation of the optic nerves. As the organs of sensation are double, so are the most important parts of the brain double, the two halves being connected by great commissures of nervous fibres, so that the organ as a whole is one, whilst the parts are two. As thought is very exhaustive to the system, there appear to be special contrivances to enable ordinary move- ments to be made in a more or less automatic manner with- out their being subjected in all their detail to the ex- haustive process of thought. XERVO-VOLTAIC MAP (No. 1). AISTHENICS. _J Right Side. left Side. _ c > ^- . > m 1" ELECTROLYTE. ELECTROLYTE. H TJ a < ( o a o a 1 33 m .-< 3) S " oi ^ f a) so ,- -^ 'o '-*^ a so ,* -^ "o ^ z O NEGATIVE. H ^ a w ELECTROLYTE. O PI tr S r POSITIVE. POSITIVE. ) _ " gz { rif . ~ * 33 J> gs ^ f~ r- co co DYNAMICS. m 2 _I NEGATIVE. NEGATIVE. v TJ < . t ^~ Muscle. Muscle. 52 a H < ELECTROLYTE. ELECTROLYTE. H "^ 33 PI Q; ^ 1 > ^ ^^^ ^ ^* - -, i 3i ?. I Right Side. leftside. > NERVO-VOLTAIC MAP (No. 2). Right Side. Lett Side. EAE. a b c EYE. d e f NOSE. gb i MOUTH. J kl SKIN. in n o EAR. a b c EYE. d e f NOSE. g b i MOUTH. J k 1 SKIN. m n o AISTHENIC BATTERY. AISTHENIC BATTERY. a b c d e f g b i j kl m n o a b c d e f g b i j k 1 m n o Co mm issure. I I I I I r r r r r a b c d e f g b i j k 1 m n o a b c d e f g b i jkl m n o SYNDRAMIC BATTERY. SYNDRAMIC BATTERY. o e CM , I _ I c .a o f: ^2 *-^ J*.~-~A -*_'-~ a o c .0 o^:^ <*-,<_, ^i i^ ^a *o $ ** |h Ih Jk L V !^ ^. V. S. f S- S. ^ I , ?- 5" 5* ^ Comm issure. I i ^ / 1 - r r r r r A B C D E F G H IJKL M N P Q E S T A B C D E F G H IJKL M N P Q B S T AISTHENIC NOEMIC BATTERY. H V S T F AISTHENIC NOEMIC BATTERY. H Y S T F Comm issure LH LV LS LT LF SYNDRAMIC NOEMIC BATTERY. EH EV ES ET EF SYNDRAMIC NOEMIC BATTERY. abtir ijkl mnop qrst ijkl mnop qrst PMEUMA-NOEMIC BATTERY. Totality. DYNAMIC POLE. 123456789123456789 1 23456789 Muscular Substance. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 f Muscular Substance. V ! 9 Right Side. left Side. 210 CHAPTER XY. VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Nervous system a voltaic circuit Essentials of a voltaic circuit Single voltaic circuit Compound circuit Simple nervo-voltaic circuit Hypothetical arrangement of the brain of animals of man as a voltaic apparatus Actual general structure of the brain Professor Ferrier's researches Microscopic structure Termination of nervous fibres in the organs of sensation in the body in the muscular system Terminations of the nerves in the brain and spinal chord High vascularity of tissues where nerves arise and terminate Various artificial voltaic circuits Electric fish. THE voltaic construction of the nervous system, is confessedly difficult to be appreciated by the mind, because on the one hand a voltaic battery has to be understood as a whole, and on the other any voltaic apparatus in organised beings must be composed entirely of organic and fluid matters, and not of metallic plates with intervening fluid. It is essential to every voltaic circuit that it should con- sists of a compound fluid which must be a conductor of elec- tricity, and this it is not^unless it be capable of separation into its component parts. In the action of a voltaic battery, one element of the fluid is evolved at one place, the second at another place ; and it is necessary that the two points of decomposition should be connected together as in the follow- ing diagram (fig. 11). The above arrangement is an example of a single battery, but two or more batteries may be conjoined together to form a compound battery, as in fig. 12. VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 211 All batteries in animal bodies one battery being in the body, the moreover, it is not only a com- pound battery, but is also one in which its fibres interlace in a won- derfully complex manner only to be apprehended by the mind by the closest attention and the most careful study of all the parts. The most simple idea of a voltaic element in the nervous system would be obtained by a circle of one motor nerve and one Fig. 12. are compound batteries, other in the brain ; and, Fig. 11. Single voltaic circuit. F, Point at which new com- bination occurs with (1) one element of electrolyte, r ; e, point of evolution of second element (2) of elec- trolyte ; c, conductor by which circle is completed. Double voltaic circuit. sensor nerve (fig. 13), the termination of one end of the sensor nerve being situated in the organ of sen- Fig. 13. sation in the body, in aqueous matter in the tissues, and one end of the motor ^lerve being in contact with aqueous matter in the muscle. The other extremities of the two nerves are inserted in the moist tissue of the grey matter of either the brain or spinal chord, the two connecting Single 3 nervo-vol- nerves being insulated conductors, similar to the taic circuit. wires of our telegraphs, except in this respect, that the interior of the nerve fibre consists of fluid, whilst the connexions of telegraphs are made of metal. 212 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Fig. 14. t CD CD ^ CD rCDCD, kDCD 1 Triple nervo- voltaic circuit. Fig. 15. MOTOR Passing from the consideration of this simplest possible case, we may study a group of three sensor nerves arising from an organ of sensation and passing to the brain, and three motor nerves arising in the brain and passing back to complete the voltaic circuit to the muscles in the body (fig. 14). The above simple elementary voltaic cir- cles would be of no use by themselves, for it is necessary that the voltaic apparatus in the brain should have a regulating influence to determine what motor fibrils are to be active. For this purpose, we may assume, that the nervous terminations in the brain enter into combinations somewhat after this diagram (fig. 15). By this arrangement the excitement of any one sensor nerve, or of any combination of sensor nerves, may influence any motor nerve, or any combination of motor nerves in the body. From my experiments in voltaic electri- city, I found as a general law, with small quantities of electricity at low tension, that the voltaic force practically passed by the road of least resistance to the exclusion of all the rest. According to this law the action of the particular motor nerve is de- termined. The brain, therefore, is the mechanism by which the particular direction of the voltaic current is regulated, not only according to the immediate sensor nerves excited, but from all preceding actions which have occurred in the brair. SENSOR Three nerves in combination. VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 213 By the combinations of nervous fibrils the different pic- tures carried to the brain are registered : thus, if we have three fibrils, A B C, we have either A excited, or B, C, A B, A C, B C, or A B C. In practice, we do not form even a single image in the brain without hundreds or even thousands of nervous fibrils being excited, so that in nature a mental image is a very complicated phenomenon. Considering the more simple phenomenon of mental, action amongst the lower animals, we may assume a more simple structure than that of man. Such a simple form might be represented by the following diagram of three fibrils of each of the three more important organs of sensa- tion (fig. 16). Fig. 17. Theoretical nervous combi- nation of lower animals. Theoretical nervous combination of man. 1, Aisthenic ; 2, syn- dramic ; 3, aisthenic noeniic ; 4,syndramicnoemic; 5 ; pneuma- noeinic. VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. "When, however, the mind of man is considered, we may expect that the combinations are of a more complicated con- Fig. 18. 1. Anatomy of the brain of man, after Mayo. Spinal cord,!/"; posterior columns of spinal chord into which the sensor nerves are implanted, and which are continued into the cerebellum, B ; from the cerebel- lum, fibres are continued to the corpora quadrigeniina, k, I ; Other fibres are continued from the spinal chord through the olivary bodies, c, by the olivary fasciculus, h, which are continued to the cerebrum, c c c. From the cerebrum fibres converge to the pons, n, and from this point the fibres of the fasciculus of the spinal chord spring, and from which bundles the motor nerves arise (half diameter). 2. Representation of the fibres and cells in the grey matter of the brain. 3. Nerve fibre showing its insulatory character. VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 215 struction to provide for those higher abstractions, which it is the sole faculty of man to exhibit, and the diagram shows in the simplest manner how such abstractions might be formed. It must also be taken into consideration, that the human frame is composed of two symmetrical halves, so that the fibrils of each half are combined together in such a manner, that the nerves of one half, as a general rule, influence every motor nerve not only of its own side, but every motor nerve of the other half of the body also. This complexity of structure I have in some degree attempted to indicate in the two nervo-voltaic maps (pp. 208, 209), which I have arranged; firstly, that each sensor nerve should be represented in the brain (aisthenic) ; secondly, that the sensor nerves should be grouped together in combinations (syndramic) ; then the principal syndramic should be com- bined together (noemic), and the noemic end in one ter- minal group (pneuma-noemic). Such a scheme necessarily involves a vast structure of fibres in the brain, and, when we inspect the brain, we per- ceive clearly that a vast combination of nervous fibres really exists. Perhaps the best rough dissection of the brain was made many years ago by Herbert Mayo, a former Professor of Physiology at King's College, as it shows how the great mass of fibres pass upwards from one part of the brain to another, and have their terminations in the enormous extent of grey matter contained in the cerebral hemispheres (fig. 18). Notwithstanding the extraordinary complexity, which is revealed by this mode of examining the brain, it is plain that every possible combination of nervous fibres does not exist, for vast as the brain is it would not suffice for so ex- tensive a mechanism. It is probable, therefore, that nature VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. has made a selection of combinations of nervous fibrils, which lead to definite actions. To discover the exact course of the nervous fibres within the structure of the brain and spinal chord requires skill and high microscopic power. The convolutions of the cerebrum in man (fig. 19) are Fig. 19. Fig. 20. Convolutions of cerebrum of man. Brain of the dog. more extensive than those of any other animal, though the weight, relative to the weight of the body, is not greater than that of some other animals. The brains of the lower mammalia have a cerebrum not so extensive as that of man, and which does not, with hardly any exception, overlap the cerebellum (fig. 20). In all the lowest animals the nervous system is much less elaborate than that of the vertebrate animals, as may be observed in the nervous system of star-fishes (fig. 21). The higher vertebrate animals, as man, the monkey, the cat, the dog, have the convolutions of the cerebrum more or less developed. The rodent animals and birds have a smooth VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 217 Fig. 21. cerebrum, and have not so great an extent of grey matter. These convolutions of the brain are named by anatomical writers, and particular functions have been assigned to each portion of convolution. Dr. Ferrier has especially experimented on this sub- ject, and he stimulated vari- ous portions of the brain by electricity, when defined movements occurred in the limbs according to the por- tion excited to action. Al- though we must not assign an undue importance to these experiments, they are of value, as showing, that the combinations of certain portions of the brain lead, when excited, to definite actions, although we are hardly at present able fully to estimate the results. I am indebted to Dr. J. Crichton Browne for permission to use the woodcuts employed in the reports of the West Riding Lunatic Asylum, to illustrate Dr. Terrier's researches. ' In a cat, the application of the electrodes at point 2 Fig. 22. Nervous system of star-fish. Side view of brain of cat : A, crucial sulcus dividing anterior convo- lutions ; B, fissure of Sylvius ; c, olfactory bulb. (Fig. 22) caused " elevation of the shoulder and adduction of 218 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. the limb, exactly as when a cat strikes a ball with its paw ;" at point 4, " immediate corrugation of the left eyebrow, and drawing downwards and inwards of the left ear ; " at point 5, " the animal exhibits signs of pain, screams and kicks with both hind-legs, especially the left, at the same time turning its head round and looking behind in an astonished manner ;" at point 6, " clutching movement of the left paw, with pro- trusion of the claws ; " at point 13, " twitching backwards of the left ear, and rotation of the head to the left and slightly upwards, as if the animal were listening ; " at point 17, " restlessness, opening of the mouth, and long-continued cries as if of rage or pain ; " at point 18 (on the under side of the hemisphere, not shown in the figure), " the animal suddenly starts up, throws back its head, opens its eyes widely, lashes its tail, pants, screams, and spits as if in furious rage ; " and at point 20, " sudden contraction of the muscles of the front of the chest and neck, and of the depressors of the lower jaw, with panting movement." Similar results were so constantly obtained, with variations obviously depending upon the degree of excitability and the strength of the stimulus, that the localisation of the centres of these and other actions was placed beyond doubt ; the movements of the paws being centralised in the region between points 1, 2, and 6 ; those of the eyelids and face between 7 and 8 ; the lateral movements of the head and ear in the region of points 9 to 14 ; and the movements of the mouth, tongue, and jaws, with certain associated move- ments of the neck, being localised in the convolutions bordering on the fissure of Sylvius (B), which marks the division between the anterior and middle lobes of the cere- brum the centre for opening the mouth being in front of the under part of the fissure, while that which acts in closure of the jaws is more in the fissure. VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 219 ' A similar series of experiments on Dogs gave results that closely accorded with the foregoing. ' Thus when the electrodes were applied at point 9 (Fig. 23), " the tail was -moved from side to side, and ultimately became rigidly erect; " within the circle 10, the application " elicited only cries, as if of pain ; " at point 14 a continued application gave rise to the following remarkable series of actions : " It began with wagging of the tail and spasmodic twitching of the left ear. After the cessation of the more violent spasms, the animal held up his head, opened its eyes wide with the most animated expression, and wagged its tail in a fawning manner. The change was so striking, that I and those about me at first thought that the animal had completely recovered from its stupor. But, notwithstanding all attempts to call its attention by patting it and addressing it in soothing terms, it looked steadfastly in the distance with the same expression, and continued to wag its tail for a minute or two, after which it suddenly relapsed into its previous state of narcotic stupor." The application of the electrodes to point 21 pro- duced " drawing back of the head and opening of the mouth, Fig. 23. A. Side view of brain of dog : A, crucial sulcus ; B, fissure of Sylvius ; c, olfactory bulb. 220 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Fier. 24. with a feeble attempt at a cry or growl (the animal very much exhausted). Repeated applications of the electrodes to this point and its neighbourhood caused whining and growling noises," like those which a dog makes in its sleep, and which are supposed to indicate that it is dreaming. ' Similar experiments having been made upon rabbits, the results were again as accordant as it would be fair to expect ; especially considering the difficulty in exactly localising the dif- ferent centres, which arises from the absence of the landmarks afforded by the convolutions. It is curious that in this animal the centres of the mouth- movements seem to be the most highly developed ; when these (2, 7, Fig. 24) are electrified, " there are munching Upper surface of brain . . , . , of rabbit : A, cere- movements of the upper lip, and grind- eating vigorously." ; In an important lecture delivered at the London Institu- tion, Professor Ferrier detailed the results of his experiments on the monkey, which he now proposes further to elucidate, but which I need not further describe at the present moment. Professor Ferrier has further demonstrated that in the deeper parts of the brain the excitement of the corpora striata led to violent muscular movements, while that of the thalami optici produced no movements. Excitement of the cerebellum was followed by effects which led to the belief that it was in some way connected with the co-ordination of the movements of muscles. At the present time we are hardly in a position to tell the exact extent of the knowledge which the experiments of Professor Ferrier may teach us, though VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 221 it is believed that when electricity of lower tension is employed he will elucidate in an important manner the functions of the brain. The grey matter of the brain is evidently the part where the mental processes are carried out. It is the active part of the organisation. The white matter is evidently solely for the nervous fibres which carry the impressions, and is strictly similar to groups of gutta-percha covered wires. In the grey matter of the brain exist the small cells which receive the im- pressions from the external world, which are there registered, and appear again to the mind by the act of memory. The convolutions of the cerebrum especially appear to contain the grey matter where many ideas are fixed, and which contain impressions which lead to many definite actions. I have estimated the nerves of sensation at about 100,000, but it is impossible that every possible combination could be represented in the brain, as the cells which would be required would require thirty figures to represent the number. It is apparent, Fig. 25. therefore, as has been already suggested, that all could not be contained in the grey matter of the brain, and thus we may infer that nature has made a selection of those pictures best adapted for our wants. Probably nothing can afford us a more wonderful exhibition of the nerve - fibres of the grey matter than the accompany- . . " Plexus of nerves from spinal mar- ing diagram from btricker oi row . a, Nerve tube communi- cating with plexus. 222 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. a nerve plexus from the grey matter of the spinal marrow (fig. 25). The limitation of the number of combinations leads to the conclusion that a certain combination of sensor impres- sions produces a definite combination of movements through the motor nerves. The term reflex action is given to such movements which may be regarded as purely automatic. The word is so dangerous that I have not before used it in this book ; because if it be limited to cases which are so purely automatic that the brain as a whole that is to say, the mind does not exert any influence, then there are, com- paratively speaking, hardly any reflex movements ; and if the word is extended to cases where the automatic move- ments are strong, yet more or less regulated by the mind, then they would be so numerous as to involve the greater part of our actions. From the confusion of thought which the term reflex is likely to produce, from its being a mere variation of degree in which the actions are at one time reflex, at another regulated by the mind, the word should be either abolished or strictly limited to cases where mental action cannot at any time be detected, and if there are no such cases, then to such automatic actions where the least possible amount of mind is ever concerned. By these pre- arranged movements, nature has doubtless effected an enormous saving of brain-power. At the present time it is highly important to form a distinct idea of what we under- stand by reflex action, as it is not impossible that Professor Ferrier's experiments will lead some persons to extend unduly reflex action to cases considerably beyond their legitimate bearing. With our present vague idea of the term reflex action, almost every movement may be described as reflex ; and, contrariwise, scarcely any movement may be TOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 223 Fig. 20. placed in the same catagory, according as we define the words. The terminations of the nerves centrally in the brain are in the grey matter, which is abundantly supplied by blood- vessels. The nervous tubes terminate in contact with cells, in which probably the changes occur which cause the regis- tration of impressions of the external world, and from which their reappearance occurs to constitute the act of memory. (Fig. 18, No. 2, page 214.) I am indebted to Dr. Stewart of Thomas's Hos- pital for the accompanying drawing showing the distri- bution of the blood-vessels vertically into the substance of the grey matter of the cerebellum, and also of ter- minations of the ultimate nervous fibres in the same substance. (Fig- 26.) The nerves which con- vey the impressions to the brain, and the voltaic force from the brain to the mus- cles, are like metallic wires coated with gutta-percha. They consist of tubes hollow in the inside, and coated with a non-conducting fatty substance. (Fig. 18, No. 3..) Numbers of primitive fibres are grouped together in a manner similar to a group of coated wires, as used for electro-telegraphy. (Fig. 27.) w.c.s Cerebellum showing the blood- vessels on the right-hand side descending vertically into the grey matter, and on the left the nerve cells, with nerve fibres diverging from them. 224 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. The white matter of the brain consists of nervous tubes, which run from one part of the brain to another, to form TJ.-0. 27 that wonderfully compli- __ cated structure, by which = ^ images are combined toge- ther in the syndramic and Ultimate nervous fibres of the sym- noemic batteries. pathetic nerve, highly magnified. termmation of the nervous fibres in the body has been particularly the subject of investigation, and it is very difficult to make them out in a thoroughly satisfactory manner, because the tissues demand special processes of preparation, and a very high Fig. 28. Diagram of nervous fibres of retina, after Strieker. power of microscope for their exam- ination. To render their appearance in- telligible, they require to be magnified 500 to 800 diameters. Perhaps the best modern account is to be found in Striek- er's ' Human and Comparative Histology,' which has been translated by the new Sydenham Society. In the eye there is a curious appara- tus of rods and cones, but there is very great uncertainty as to their exact mode of action, from their very small size. The following diagram from Strieker may serve in some manner to demonstrate this structure in the eye. (Fig. 28.) I am much indebted to the kind- ness of Mr. Jonathan Hutchinson, the secretary to the New Sydenham Society, for lending me some of the engravings from Strieker's invaluable manual of human and comparative histology which VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 225 demonstrate the mode of termination of the nerves of the organs of sensation. The following is a beautiful diagram of the layers of the retina of man, magnified 400 dia- meters (fig. 29). Fig. 29. General view of the layers of retina of man. 1, Membranum limitans internum. 2, Optic fibre layer. 3, Ganglia cell layer. 4, Internal granulated layer, o, Internal granule layer. 6, External granulated layer. 7, External granule layer. 8, Membranum limitans exteraum. 9, Layer of rods and cones. 10, Pigment layer. Dr. Stewart has kindly made for me a diagram of tho Q 226 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. ultimate nervous fibres, as distributed to the skin. The dia- gram shows the curious corkscrew conduits of the perspira- tory glands, and the fine net-work of nerve-fibres, as well as the termination of the nerves in the papillae. (Fig. 30.) Fig. 30. Diagram of the minute anatomy of the skin. The termination of the auditory nerves is very remark- able. The nerves terminate in cells, and to these, fine audi- tory hairs are attached (fig. 31). Engelmann has given a good figure in Strieker's work of the termination of the gustatory nerves of the frog. It shows the ramification of a nerve-fibre in the nerve area, and a group of two goblet cells, one columnar and two forked ceUs (fig. 32). Professor Babuchin has figured the terminations of nerves in the nose in the epithelia layer (fig. 33). The circle of the nervous system is completed through the muscles. These are composed of ultimate muscular fibrils, con- tained in a sheath or envelope, called the sarcolemma. The VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 227 nerves are distributed to the outside of this sheath (fig. 34); and when the nervous power acts through the muscles, they swell transversely and contract longitudinally. The precise chemical change which takes place in the sarcous tissue during action is not exactly known ; but from the extensive waste which occurs during hard work, we might expect, but Fig. 31. Termination of the auditory nerve. 1, Cartilage of the wall of the ampulla. 2, Structureless basement membrane. 3, Doubly con- tinued nerve-fibre. 4, Axis cylinder traversing the basement mem- brane. 5, Plexiform union of nerve-fibres with interspersed nuclei. 6, Fusiform cells with nucleus and dark fibre in their interior. 7, Supporting cells. 8, Auditory hairs highly magnified, after Strieker. not necessarily, that the muscles act as the positive pole of the whole circuit. To determine this fact, it will be neces- sary to ascertain if the sarcous tissue combines with oxygen or hydrogen when it contracts. I have imitated the action 228 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Fig. 32. Termination of the gustatory nerve of the frog, magni- fied 600 diameters. of muscle by a portion of gut, which when distended contracts in length, but increases in breadth (fig. 35), on its being distended with gas. The terminations of the sensor as well as the motor nerves in the body are always in a highly vascular tissue, and their other terminations in the grey matter of the brain and spinal chord are also in a highly vascular tissue. Unquestionably the oxyge- nated bright arterial blood cor- Fig. 33. Terminations of olfactory nerve. A, a, Epithelial cells from the olfac- tory region of the proteus d, the processes apparently connected with them ; e, olfactory cells ; B, epithelium and olfactory cells from man, after Max Schultze. VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 229 puscule plays an important part in supplying the oxygen to favour chemical action, to set in motion the voltaic electricity at the positive pole, and also the arterial corpuscule plays an Fig. 34. S Distribution of nerves on muscle, after Strieker. A, seen in profile ; pp, terminal nerve plate ; * s, support of the plate with nuclei. B, the same in fresh muscle. C, the same after death. equally important part in combining with the hydrogen to assist the voltaic circuit at the negative pole. It is peculiarly Fig. 35. Fig. 36. Artificial muscle. Artificial blood corpuscle. the property of iron compounds to take oxygen when lowly oxydised, and to part with oxygen when highly oxydised. An artificial blood corpuscule may be made by placing a little persalt of iron in an animal membrane. On placing 230 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. this in a neutral apparatus arranged for a voltaic circuit, as two poles of iron in a saline solution, a voltaic circuit is im- mediately completed (fig. 36). The vascular tissue of the organs of sensation of the body has been the subject of examination by many authors. In the eye there is a layer of blood-vessels called the choroid, 'hich is an intricate network of arteries and veins (fig. 37). Fig. 37. J*r. ft The centre of vision is marked by a yellow spot containing much yellow pigment (fig. 38). Ffc. 39. Fig. 38. Artery of the retina. The so-called artery of the retina is probably not for any purpose of vision, but for the nutrition of the humours of the eye (fig. 39). VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 231 The membrane lining the internal ear is also highly vas- cular, and the following engraving is from one of my own carmine injections (fig. 40). Fig. 40. Blood-vessels of ear. Fig. 41. Blood-vessels of nose. The vascular membrane of the nose has an arrangement of vessels different from that of the eye or ear (fig. 41). The tongue has again a particular arrangement of vessels (fig. 42) of its own. Lastly, the skin has a vascular tissue with a different distribution of vessels from any of the other organs of sen- sation (fig. 43). Fig. 43. Fig. 4-2. Blood-vessels of tongue. Blood-vessels of skin. The distribution of blood-vessels in the muscular system is peculiar, as the main vessel enters at right angles to the 232 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. muscular substance, and the capillary vessels are arranged parallel to the muscular fibres (fig. 44). Fig. 44. Blood-vessels of muscles. The arrangement of the blood - vessels of an organ appears to be determined by convenience, according to its entire structure. However vascular may be the tissues existing in the body in which the nervous fibres terminate, yet the grey matter of the brain and spinal chord exhibits a greater com- plexity of capillaries. This was made especially the subject of investigation by Fig. 45. Blood-vessels of spinal chord. myself by the process of injecting with carmine. The grey matter of the spinal chord had never been injected before in VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 233 so perfect a manner, and the grey matter exhibits when in- jected the elaborate system of blood-vessels in the tissue where the ends of the nerves are implanted (fig. 45). Throughout the entire brain the process of injecting by carmine, demonstrates the intense vascularity of the grey matter. The grey matter of the cerebrum (fig. 46) is most beautiful when injected, and exhibits its innumerable vessels, and the grey matter of the lobes of the cerebellum shows its network of vessels (fig. 47) in the grey matter. Fig. 46. Blood-vessels of grey matter of cerebrum. The late Sir Robert Peel lingered over the preparation for a long time with intense delight, at a soiree at which I was ex- hibiting it under the microscope. He then sought out Guizot, and both remained descanting upon the wonderful plexus of vessels and large amount of blood required to carry on thought in the brain, and both expressed themselves as deeply impressed with the marvellous structure thus revealed (fig. 47). Whilst prosecuting my researches I discovered the very singular fact that the circulation of the corpuscules of the blood was instantly arrested by the voltaic force, and what 234 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. is even more remarkable, that the lymph corpuscules which crawl along by the walls of the vessels have in the same manner their motion arrested by the same force. This opens up a large field for inquiry as it demonstrates that the cir- culation of the blood is controlled by the nervous power, a fact which is also proved by the rise in temperature when the nerves of any part are cut. The waste of matter which occurs in the action of the nervous system must be alike in every battery, that is at Fig. 47. Blood-vessels of cerebellum, showing the vessels are almost exclusively in the grey matter. every termination of the nerves ; for instance, if a certain quantity of water is decomposed in the body, a similar quan- tity must be decomposed in the brain, hence mental action is attended with much exhaustion. We are not, however, in a position to state what are the precise changes of matter which take place either in the brain or in the body, by which the voltaic force is determined. The flow of arterial blood through the brain and the immediate suspension of con- VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 235 sciousness when its circulation is stopped demonstrate the necessity of the afflux of bright arterial oxygenated blood, and also for the removal of the deoxygenated venous blood. Of ail the distinct exhibitions of the voltaic force in living animals, none surpasses or even equals that which is Fig. 48. A, From the electric organ of Mormyrus oxyrhyncus, and also in the M. longipinnis and cyprinoides ; v , anterior, and h, posterior connective tissue septum ; a a, electric plates ; b b, nerves penetrating into their interior. -B, From the electric organ of Mormyrus dorsalis, and also as in the M. anguilloides, lettering as in A. produced by the electrical eel and electrical ray. These fish have the power at will of giving the most formidable elec- tric shocks by means of batteries which they possess for 236 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. Fig. 49. that purpose. These batteries are composed of cells largely supplied by nerves and blood-vessels. At will the creature can charge these batteries, when they inflict injury or death by their terrible electric shock. The creature has to expend consi- derable nervous power in charging the battery, and soon becomes much exhausted in the attempt. The precise mechanism is unknown, but if one plate of the cell was fur- nished with arterial and the other with venous blood sufficient effect would be produced, in series, from Single battery cell, from a model in Hunterian collection. Fig. 50. that cause alone, as my experiments have proved, and the nervous force might effect this change or some similar analogous change. There is one fact about all these electri- cal fish, which is worthy of all attention, and that is, the production of large quanti- ties of electricity by batteries, composed entirely of fluids and animal membranes, a condition essential in the general voltaic mechanism of the nervous system. Max Schultze has figured the terminations of the nerves in the electrical plates (fig. 48). In the electrical rays, found chiefly in the Mediterranean, the batteries are com- posed of a series of hexagonal cells ar- ranged (figs. 49 and 50) on each side of the head from above downwards, that is, from the upper surface of the fish to its under surface. The electrical organ is well supplied with blood (figs. 51 A series of bat- teries, from a model in Hun- terian collec- tion. VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 237 and 52), and has a large distribution of nervous force from Fig. 51. Torpedo viewed from above, showing the brain and the enormous distri- bution of the eighth pair of nerves to the electric organ. 11, Muci- ferous organs ; 10, openings of muciferous organs in skin. Fig. 52. Fig. 53. Artificial electrical fish-cell. Transverse section of torpedo ; r, electric organs ; P P, vertical prisms of batten' ; 8, eighth pair of nerves to supply batteries ; L, electrical lobe ; o, ear ; r, mouth ; g, muscles of extremity ; /, folli- cular organs. 238 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. the eighth pair of nerves, which are of prodigious size, and also from a portion of the fifth pair of nerves. I have in- a remote manner attempted to imitate a cell of an electric fish, by using a solution of prussiate of potash in Fig. 54. Lateral section of the electrical organs, a. Dorsal muscles ; b, larger electrical organ ; c, lateral fin muscles ; d, lesser electrical organ ; f, spinal chord ; g, spinal chord ; h, fifth pair of nerves ; i, uir-sac ; m, membranous septum ; n, edges of lateral fin muscles ; o, cut dorsal muscles ; p, body of vertebrae ; q, larger electrical organs ; r, lateral muscles ; t, lateral fin muscles ; u, fin. a glass vessel, containing a porous vessel with the same solution. On passing a voltaic current through this arrange- ment. The solution becomes altered in character, and one side becomes positive to the other, and a second voltaic battery, having no relation to the first, is set up (fig. 53). VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 239 The anatomy of the electric eel (Gymnotus Electricus), from the rivers of South America, was described by John Hunter in the Philosophical Transactions for 1755. The eel has later been dissected by Dr. Letheby. He estimates the number of cells of the batteries at 550,000. Every cell is supplied by blood-vessels, and a nerve; but in Fig. 55. Transverse section of electrical eel. a, Skin ; b, aponeurosis covering covering muscles and electrical organs ; d, larger battery ; e, lateral fin muscles ; f, lesser batteries ; g, edges of lateral fin ; i, the fin ; k, body of vertebrae ; m, vein ; n, artery ; o, air-vessel, after Letheby. this fish the nervous power is supplied by the spinal nerves, and not in the eighth pair as in the case of the electric ray. The batteries, two smaller and two greater, are arranged the length of the creature (fig. 54 and 55) in the 240 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. eel, whilst in the torpedo they are arranged vertically. Fara- day found that the anterior part of the eel was positive to the posterior. There are other electrical fish, such as the Silurus from the Nile, but it is sufficient for our purpose to notice the more remarkable and well-known species, which are com- petent to use the voltaic force, either for their own protec- tion or the destruction of other creatures required for food. In my early experiments I sought to ascertain how voltaic circuits could be formed, having properties analogous with those which are observed in the human frame. I found, that it was not difficult to form photo-voltaic circuits where the exciting cause of the voltaic force was light. The following solutions when part was exposed to light, and part retained in darkness, acted on the light side as the negative pole of a battery. 1. Mixed solutions of photo-sulphate of iron and nitrate of silver. 2. Mixed solutions of gallic acid and nitrate of silver. 3. Mixed solutions of oxalic acid and chloride of gold. 4. Mixed solutions of ferrocyanate of potash and ammonia, and per- nitrate of iron. 5. Mixed solutions of ferrocyanate of potash and ammonia, pertartrate of iron. 6. Mixed solutions of ferrocyanate of potash and potassio-tartrate of iron. Other solutions under the action of light excite a posi- tive photo-voltaic circuit, such as 1. Red ferrocyanate of potash and pernitrate of iron. 2. Bromine water, phosphorus water, and pernitrate of iron. The voltaic circuit which is set in motion by sound, is probably not directly excited by the vibrations of sound itself, but from the vibrations acting on the bones of the ear giving rise to mechanical force. VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 241 I An artificial voltaic circuit may be originated by savours by placing in a V tube (fig. 56) a little persalt of iron on one side, and an infusion of meat on the other, when the voltaic force is immediately demonstrated. An apparatus to exemplify the nose may be easily con- structed by a moist sponge separated into two divisions by a membranous diaphragm, when on applying odours on one side the voltaic force is immediately developed (fig. 57). For our sense of feeling it is easy to constitute voltaic circuits determined by heat. These I have called thermo- voltaic circuits, and may be exemplified in a variety of ways. Electro-voltaic circuits may also be easily formed for Fig. 57. V tube. Artificial nose. any voltaic force, and will set in motion the voltaic apparatus of the skin. In like manner pressure on the skin deprives the termi- nation of the nerve of the oxygenated blood corpuscle, and then voltaic force is exhibited. In the manifestation of the effects of memory, the action on the brain produces results which regulate or give rise to further actions ; this can readily be done in ordinary voltaic circuits, such as by passing a current of electricity through two iron wires, inserted in a solution of argento-cyanide of potassium. A deposit of silver would occur on the negative R 242 VOLTAIC MECHANISM OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. wire, and the arrangement would be ever after an active voltaic circuit. In the brain the change must be effected on some organic compound, possibly in the cells contained in the vascular grey matter. The nervous system of all animals, including man him- self, is a voltaic circuit. It is composed of a set of elements in the body, one of the poles of which is in the organs of sensation, the other in the muscular system. The voltaic force passes by the nerves to the brain, where the particular action of the muscle excited to contract, is regulated or determined according to all the former actions which have taken place in the brain. To thoroughly form an idea of such an arrangement, it is desirable that complex forms of voltaic circuits should be continually under the mental ob- servation and manipulation of those who would study The Natural System of Mental Philosophy. Fig. 58. Double voltaic battery, with mode of detecting the voltaic current in the fluid portion. 243 CONCLUSION. RELATION OF MAN TO THE UNIVERSE. , THE mind shows the wisdom and goodness of God : who has designed it to meet the wants of man. Whether directly formed by His creative power : or progressively evolved according to His inscrutable ordi- nances. The mind began by His Almighty Command : and must cease at His omnipotent will. By mind man seeks his food : and makes his raiment. He constructs habitations on the earth : and ships for the mighty deep. . He kindles fire for warmth : and employs all physical forces. He contrives words to convey his thoughts : and writings to communicate his experiences to posterity. He governs his family : and exercises dominion over every living thing. He obtains knowledge of the universe from the pebble which rolls on the ground : to the countless worlds which revolve in the firmament. He investigates nature : and his thoughts contemplate the Author of all things. 244 RELATION OF MAN TO THE UNIVERSE. He seeks a knowledge of the laws of God : that lie may obey the Divine will. He accepts the moral law : that he may act rightly to his fellows. He trusts to faith : to supply gaps in his knowledge. He has recourse to prayer : to strengthen his holy desires. He utters songs of praise : to mark the benefits he enjoys. He has pleasure for his good : and suffers pain for his protection. When he acts rightly he has joy : and the hope of ever- lasting reward. When he acts wrongly it leads to pain : and the fear of everlasting punishment. Who then would desire to limit the action of the mind : which proceeds from the noblest work of God. Surely no man who appreciates the goodness and great- ness of the Omnipotent : for he would rejoice in the works of the Almighty. Such a man would sing as long as he had breath : Glory be to God Most High. INDEX. Ability, 20 Absolute inductions, 85 truth, 150, 151 Abstinence, 20 Abstract ideas, 148 ideas, difficult to write on, 204 meaning of the word, 198 Abstraction by comparison, 38,42, 46 powers of, alone possessed by man and not by the lower animals, 197, 205 by reflection, 38, 43 by thought, 38, 41 Abstractions, fallacy of the mind to consider the, as substan- tive realities, 204 meditation on the higher, con- duces to pleasure, 205 metaphysical, 203 Acari, how generated, 51 Acarus of Cross, 51 of Weeks, 51 Acid, gallic, 240 oxalic, 240 Act of Lord Campbell, 65 Action, xxxv., xxxvi., 187 automatic, 28, 222 of the brain, 75, 77,. 102, 197 difference in persons, 195, 196 excitation to, of any motor nerve, 179 fallacies arise from our mode of, 175 chemical, 229 guided by impulse, 56 governed by moral laws, 128 ideas of, 203 guided by reason, 56 quibbles by, con joined with the use of words, 118 law of human, should be deve- loped, 145 of light upon the eye, 177 man's mode of, 30 of man, how excited, 29 of man regulated by pain, 32 of man, how regulated, 61, 62, 67 of one -man to another, 150 mental, 28 muscular, 28 of the moral law neglected at the present time, 154, 155 on organs of sensation, 73, 74 of the sensorium, 74, 77 practical, 155 specific, xxxvii.-xxxix, 187 reflex, explained, 222 substantives assigned to, 70 table showing the will and laws of human, 31 Action transmitted to sensorium, 69,71 Actions, combination of, of the brain, 72 or combination of, denoted by symbols, 88 on a certain combination oi nervous fibres, 70 of heat, 133 of light, 133 of man, not easy to control completely by others, 63 of man regulated by pleasure, 31 of mankind governed by reli- gious thought, 136,^37 of man, how influenced by prayer, 127, 128 material, 132 to 135 not to be confounded with mental, 28 of God, 203 regulation of, 105 regulated by pain, 32, 54 regulated by pleasure, 32, 54 regulation of our, 38 sound, 133 voluntary, 28, 29 Adaptation of animals, &c., to their special surrounding cir- cumstances, 49 Adjectives, definition of, 72, 77 Adverb, definition of, 76, 77 Affirmation, 89 laws of, 112 Age, noemic, 36 aisthenic, 30 Air-sac of electrical fish, 238 Aisthenic, 194, 200 age, 35 faith, 157, 158 fallacies, 167, 168 ideas, meaning of, 1 Almighty, the, 127, 194 attributes of the, 131, 132, 133- 135 beneficence and power of the, 137 eternity of the, 133-135 infinity and immateriality of the, 137 laws, 127 omnipotence of the, 134, 135 omnipresence of the, 134, 135 omniscience of the, 134, 135 Ammonia, 240 Ampulla, cartilage of the wall of, 227 structureless basement mem- brane of the auditory nerve, 227 Amusements, sensational, of the period, dangers of, 141 Anatomy of the brain of man, after Mayo, 214 of electrical eel, 239 of electrical fish, 235-240 Animal, the lower, how inferior to man, 205 Animals, batteries in the bodies of, are compound, 211 development or evolution of, 47 development of growth of, 49 effect of colours on, 5, 6 emit light, 46 experiments on, 177-179 instincts of, 17 hearing of, 7 how colours are appreciated by, 5, 6 lower, nervous system of, 216 mind of, 12-15 nervous system of, 242 nervous system of, a system of voltaic batteries, 178 ova of, development of, 49 propellent powers of, whether specifically created, rodent brain of, 216 receive simple ideas, 181 senses of, 1-9 sight of, 1-6 sense of smell, 8 taste of, 7 tendency of breeds to revert to original type, 52 theory of instinct in, 176, 182 vertebrate, brains of, 216 worship of, 171 Anonymous writings, influence of, 54, 59 Anxiety, 24 Aponeurosis, covering of, electric eel, 239 Apoplexy, 23 Argento-cyanide of potassium solution of, 241 Argument of design, 125 Arguments, imperfection of, 57 influence by, 57 by words, 109 Arithmetic, science of, 122 Arrogance, 20 Arterial blood, 235, 236 blood corpuscles, 229 Arteries of electric eel, 239 Artery of the retina, 230 Articles, definition of, 73 Artificial blood corpuscle, 22 electrical fish- cell, figure of- 237,238 muscle, 228 ; figure of, 22 nose, 241 reasoning, 82 246 INDEX. Artificial system, various images impressed on the brain, 69 to 77 system of notation, 95 voltaic circuits, 240-242 Athanasian Creed, 62 Atomic particles, 48 Atoms, fortuitous concurrence of, 47 of matter, 128-131 Attraction on particles of matter, 48 power of, 128-131 power of matter to generate, 130-135 Attributes of the Creator, 132- 135, 138 of the Deity neglected to be tanght from the pulpit, 137 of the immaterial, 133-135 Auditory hairs, 226, 227 nerve, axis cylinder traversing the basement membrane, 227 nerve.plexiform union of nerve- fibres with interspersed nu- clei, 227 nerve, structureless basement membrane, 227 nerve, doubly continued nerve- fibre in, 227 nerve, supporting cells, 227 nerve, fusiform cells with nucleus and dark fibre in their interior, 227 nerve, wall of ampulla, 227 nerves, termination of, 226, 227 Automatic action, 28, 222 Averages, doctrines of, fallacies Of, 172 Axis, cylinder traversing the basement membrane in au- ditory nerve, 227 Balbnchin, Professor, 226 Battery, 234-236 cells in electrical ray, figures of, 236 prisms of, in torpedo, figure of, 237 syndramic, or combination, structure of, 181 voltaic, 29, 200, 238 voltaic, brain, muscles, and organs of sensations, a, 180- 182 voltaic, muscle and skin, 180- 182 voltaic, double, with mode of detecting the voltaic current, 242 voltaic, experiments with, on animals and fish, 177-179 voltaic, how composed in or- ganised beings, 210-242 Batteries, cells of, in electric eel, 239 in animal bodies are compound, 211 voltaic, 178, 179 Beavers, instinct of, 137 Bee building its comb, 182 Bees, instincts of, 17 Beings, organic, 46-53 organic, complexity of the parts of, 47 organic, if produced in matter, 46-48, 50-53 Beings, organic, either solid, or only partly fluid, 50 organic, how produced, 47, 48 organic laws of, 153 organic, limits in variation, 46, 51,52 organic, multiplication of, 48 organic, relation of one to another, 47 organic, variation in, 49 organic, whether man pro- duced from, 46-53 organised, voltaic battery in, 210-242 Belief, 20, 50 of man, 21 Beliefs, fallacies leading to un- holy, 171 idle, often substituted for the moral law, 154, 155 Bible, 118 Birds, brain of, 216 the flight of, whether spe- cifically regulated, 49 eggs, development of, 49 instincts of, 17 ne-ts of, 17, 18 sight of, 6 Blindness, 190 Blood, arterial, 235, 236 circulation of the corpuscles of the, 233, 234 circulation of, in its relation to the mind, 100 influence of voltaic electricity on the circulation of the, 179 Blood-corpuscles, 2 corpuscle, artificial, 229 venous, 235, 236 Blood-vessels, 223 of cerebellum, 234 of ear, 231 of electric eel, 239 of muscles, 232 of nose, 231 of skin, 231 of spinal chord, 232 of tongue, 231 Bodies, olivary, 214 Body, ideas of the, 203 not to be confounded with the soul, 203 precise changes of matter in, i not known, 234 Bones, mechanical arrangement ' of, in relation to the mind, 100 Books, their value in testing personal knowledge, 38, 41 Bowerbank, Mr , 18 Brain, 111, 177 action of the, 75, 77, 102, 197 action of ideas in, 14 actions registered in, 19 action or combination of action denoted in the, by symbols, 88 actual general structure of, 210, 214, 215, 216 anatomy of, 214, 215 balance of the action of all parts on the, 205 blood-vessels of, 11 blood-vessels of cerebellum, 234 blood-vessels of grey matter of cerebrum, 233 of cat, 216, 217 cerebrum, 216, 233 cerebellum, 216, 233 Brain, certain ideas implanted ID its construction, 20 childhood, 35 definition of the, 74 development of the, 52 of dog, 216, 219 drawing of, by Dr. Stewart, 223 exercise of, 38 facts implanted in, 122 grey matter of, 221, 222, 223, 224, 228, 232, 242 human, 95 how it affects freewill, 32 how excited to action, 20 ideas simple in, of animals, 181 illustrations of the changes of images in the, 199, 201 impressions carried to it by medium of nerves, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6,9 impressions of feeling carried to, 8 impression of images on, 72, 74 impressions, 108, 109, 196, 197, 200 impressions, number of, 19 of lower mammalia, 216 of man, 46, 50, 216 of man when perfected, 49 of man, grey matter in, 214, 215 in manhood, 36 mechanism of the, 109 of the monkey, 216 microscopical structure of, 224 muscles and organs of sensa- tion, a voltaic battery, 180, 181, 182 natural operations of, 95 nerves of, 178 nerves of the eye to, 6 nervous fibres to, 179, 180, 181 organisation of, 26 precise changes of matter in, not known, 234 of rabbit, 220 registration of images in the, 40, 41, 42, 43 researches of Dr. Mayo on, 214 researches of Dr. Ferrier on, 217-222 resolution of a word or sen- tence as it was received in the brain, 69, 77 respect to consciousness, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 rodent animals, 216 should be acted upon in its higher, lower, and middle departments, 200 state of, in senility, 34, 37 structure of the, adduced to physical laws, 180 symbols impressed on the, 99 termination of the nerves in the, and spinal chord, 210, 228 theory of, 53 torpedo, 237 various parts explained, 221 weight of, in man, 46 weight of, in animals, 46 white matter of, 221, 222, 223, 224 in youth, 35 Breeds of animals, tendency to revert to original type, 52 Bridgewater Treatises, 126 INDEX. 247 Bromine water, 240 Browne, Dr. J. Crichton, 217 Brutes, reason of, 15 Buffoonerv, 20 Bull, excited by the colour red, 6 Csenaisthenics, 8, 27 Camera, optical arrangement of eye, 6 Capillary vessels, 232 Cardinals, 116 Carmine injections, 11 Carriers of sensation, 8 Cat, brain of, 216 nose of, 8 Cats, experiments on, 177, 178 Catalepsy, 193 Cause, 80, 81, 82, xvii, xviii, p. 185 and effect, ideas of, 201 fallacies of, 167, 173 first infinite, acknowledged by praise, 148 Celestial bodies, laws of the mo- tion of, 122 Cell fish, artificial electrical, 238 figure of, 237 Cells of the batteries of electric eel, number of, 239 of batteries in electric ray, 236 olfactory, 228 supporting, in auditory nerve, 227 Cellular tissues in rabbits, 176, 177, 178 Cerebellum, 214, 216, 220, 221, 223 showing distribution of blood- vessels into the substance of the grey matter of the, 223 blood-vessels of, 234 Cerebral, hemisphere of, in frog, 28 organization, 99 Cerebrum, 214, 215, 216, 220, 221 convolutions of, in man, 216 blood-vessels of, grey matter of, 233 Chancery, 117 Court of, 58, 143 judges in, 102 Changes taking place in the thoughts of men, 146 Character, determination of, 43 Chemical action, 19, 229 combination, laws of, 122 Chemists, notation of, 78, 79 Chick, 49 Child's senses, 34, 35 Childhood, faith begins in, 162 mind how weakened in, 37 organs of sensation in, 35 Children, duties of, to their pa- rents, 154 Chloride of gold, 240 Chord, spinal, division of, causes death, 178 Choroid, 177, 230 Christ, law of, 106, 152, 153 Christian communities, cause of disputes and errors in, 132 Christianity, 119 benefit of, 38, 44 doctrines of, 106, 107, 108, 153 practical, 154 Church, 106, 108 Established, who belongs to it, 140 Circuit, nervo-voltaic triple, 212 Circuit, electric voltaic, 241 photo-voltaic, 240 thermo-voltaic, 241 voltaic compound, 210, 211, 213 voltaic, of nervous system, 210, 211, 212, 213 voltaic, how formed, 240 voltaic, and nose, 241 voltaic, various artificial, 210, 229-242 voltaic, and sound, 240 Circulation of the blood, influ- ence of voltaic electricity on the, 170 of the corpuscles of the blood, 233, 234 Classes, 78 criminal, government of, 63 different, of men should asso- ciate more together, 106, 107 of inductions, 84, 85 Classical knowledge, effects of, on some minds, 32 Clergy, duties of their congrega- tion, 154 present duties of, to meet the requirements of the times,145 improved mode of thought, 150, 156 Clergymen, injudicious reasoning of, in pulpit, 57 Clock, 74 Cohesion, 19 Cold, 19 Colour, 19 Colours, how appreciated by animals, 56 power of discriminating, 4, 6 Coma, 23 Comb of bee or wasp, 182 Combatants, the, of the next re- formation, 206 Combination battery, structure of, 181 of senses, xi., xii., 184 Commandments, ten, 153 Committee of the House of Com- mons, 171 Commons, committee of the house of, 171 Communities, Christian, cause of disputes and errors in, 132 Comparison, practice of abstrac- of, 38 fallacies of, 172 Composition, 19 Compound voltaic circuit, 210, 211, 212, 213 Concomitance, 185 Conditions of true faith, 157, 159, 160 Confession, 194 Confidence, 19 Congregation, duties of, towards their clergy, 154 Conjunctions, copulative, 77 definition of, 76 disjunctive, 77 Conjure, 169 Conscience, 20 appealing to a man's, 121 Consciousness, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 xxii. to xxiv., 185 loss of, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27 mechanism of, 22 origin of, 22 to 27 Consciousness, partial, 23 to 27 perfect, 23 to 27 physical state, 23-26 Contemplation, 38, 42 Conversation, value of, 38, 41 Conviction, 20 Convulsions, 193 Copper, electrodes, 179 sulphate of, 179 Corpora quadrigemina, 214 Corpuscle, artificial blood, 229 blood, 229 of the blood, circulation of, 233, 234 Courage, 19 Courts of Chancery, 58, 143 of law, 143 Cowardice, 19 Cramp, 193 Creation of matter, 46-51, 132- 135 specific, 49 specific, doctrine of, 53 of the universe, 130, 131 of the universe, perfection of the design of, 126 Creative power, 128 power in man, contrasted with the insignificance of the in- ventive skill of man, 100 Creator, 50, 171 attributes of the, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 138 eternity of the, 134, 135 omnipotence of, 134, 135 omnipresence of, 134, 135 omniscience of, 134, 135 volition of, 133 to 135 Creatures not formed by electro- lysis of matter, 51 Credulity, mediaeval, and true rea- son, the coming conflict be- tween, 206 Creed, belief of God, 102 in belief of crocodiles, 102 in belief in ibises, 102 in belief of Mohammed, 102 in belief of saints, 102 of St. Athanasius, 62 Creeds, fixed and unchangeable, 101, 102 Crimes, 110, 111, 112 Criminals, 110, 112, 113 classes, government of, 63 minds of, 66 punishment of, 54, 64, 65, 66 religious influences on, 6d Cross, acarus of, 51 Crucial sulcus, 217, 219 Cruelty, 20 Current voltaic with mode of detecting the double voltaic battery, 242 Currents, electro-voltaic, laws of, 180 Cutaneous textures of skin, 180 Cyphers, 70, 74, 75, 82, 84, 87 101, 183 geometric arrangement of, 1 92 reasoning by, 109 used for words, 92 Danger of the period, 136, Darkness, 19 Darwin, 47, 48 Day, vice of the, 154 248 INDEX. Deafness, 190 Dean Colet, 37 Death, 19, 83, 84, xlvii. 188 uroduced by division of spinal * chord, 178 produced by the division of the sensor, and the motor nerves, 178 Deceit, 109 Deduction imperfect, 87 laws of, 94, 100 impressions of the nervons system, which act down- wards by, 105 perfect, 87 symbols, 87 words, 69, 86 Deeds, manner of drawing np complicated, 123, 124 Defective states of mind, 183-192 state of nervous system, Ix. to Ixviii., 189, 190 Deity, 195 attributes of the, 131, 132, 133, 134,135 attributes of, not taught from the pulpit, 137 eternity of the, 133 to 135 influence of the, on onr actions, 137 the omnipotence of, 134, 135 the omnipresence of, 132, 134, 135 the omniscience of, 134, 135 Delirium, 189 Deoxygenated blood, 235 Design, argument of, 125 Desire, xli., 188 Development, natural, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53 from infancy to manhood, 46 of pure principles of religion, 145 of the variors members of man, the Psalmist on, 53 Different appreciation of reli- gion, 136, 140 Differential machine, 100 figure of a, 100 futility of guessing shown by, 102 useful for criminal trials, 112 useful for the comparing of various creeds, 101, 102 comparative uses of, when used together, 102 imitation bv, of the natural process of thought, 103 Differential shite, illustration of the laws of judgment by means of, 103 application of, 97, 103-105 Difficult cases to define the moral law, 143, 144 Disinterestedness, 153 Dissenters, religion of, 140 Distrust of faith, 164 by faith, examples of, 164 Doctrine of averages, fallacies of, 172 of Christianity, 44 of the direct interference of Providence in the details of human affairs, on the, 127 of evolution, 50, 51 of faith, 142 of faith without reason is un- worthy of credit, 161 Doctrine of gradual development, of limits, fallacies of, 172 of means, fallacies of, 172 of natural development, 46-53 of predestination, 128 of preordination, 128 of specific creations, 53 of spontaneous or accidental selection, 47 Doctrines, Christian, 106, 107, 108 of Christianity, 153 entertained by Darwin, 47, 48 entertained by myself and others, 47, 48 heathen, intermingled in early ages with the moral law, 139 of religion, 141, 142 of religion how to be taught, 141 of religion, in conformity with reason, 105 Dog, brain of, 216 nose of, 8 Dogma, faith, definition of, 154, 155 Dorsal muscles of electrical fish, 238, figure of, 238, 239 Dreaming, 24, 45 Drunkenness, 20 Duration, what constitutes, 133, 184 Duty, 152, 153 Dynamic, 194 fallacies, 167, 174 powers of the mind, 195 Ear, acoustic arrangement of, in its relation to the mind, 100 blood-vessels of, 231 ideas derived through, 7 range of musical sounds, 7 sensations, 7 ultimate nervons fibres of, 9, 10 Earth, revolution of, 74 Education, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38 classical teaching, effects of, on some minds, 37 how it should be conducted in childhood, 35 of youth, 38 of youth, how practised in Germany, 36 natural objects should be taught, 38 syndramic knowledge, 36 Eel, air-vessels of, 239 aponeurosis covering, 239 electrical, 235-240 figure of, 239 muscles of, 239 veins of, 239 vertebrae of, 239 Eels, experiments on, 177 Effect, 80, 81, 82 of prayer, 125, 127, 128 Efficacy of prayer, 127, 128 Egg, development of, 49 Electric eel, anatomy of, 239 arteries of, 239 blood-vessels of, 239 electrical organs of, 239 nerves of, 239 organ of mormyrus cypri- noides, 235 skin of, 239 Electric organ of mormyrus oxy- rhyncus, 235 light, 160 shocks, 235, 236 Electric fish-cell, artificial, fig. of, 237, 238 figure of, 235 fish, 210, 235-240 fish, nerves of, 235-240 muscles of, 238, 239, 240 organs of ^electrical eel, 239 organs of electrical ray, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240 spinal chord of, 238 termination of nerves in the electrical plates of, 236 vertebrae of, 238 Electricity, 19, 46, 129, 187 produced by animals, 235 to 240 phenomena of, 132 voltaic, influence of, on the circulation of the blood, 179, voltaic, 229 Electrolysis of matter, 51 Electro-voltaic currents, laws of, 180, 241 Emphasis, quibbles by variation of, 118 Employed, duties of the, to their employers, 154 Employers, duties of, to their employed, 154 Engelmann, 226 Engraving to show picture form- ed by two eyes, 5 Epilepsy, 23 Epithelia layer in nose, 226 figure of, 228 Epithelial cells from the olfac- tory region of the proteus, 228 Epithelium and olfactory cells from man, after Max Schultze, 228 Equal symbols, 88, 89 Equity, 103 Error, 20 Essentials of a voltaic circuit, 210, 211, 212, 213 Established Church, who be- long to it, 140 Eternity, 20, 186, 195 of the Creator, 134, 135 of God, 133-135 infinity of, 203 not to be confounded with time, 203 Evangelists, 44 Evidence and testimony, 110 Evil, 20, 185 Evils of matter-worship, 38 Evolution, 46, 47 analogy in the development of plants and animals, &c. 49 of the brain and mind of man from matter, theory of, 53 doctrine of, 50, 51 experience of, 46 Exact definition of physical laws, 136,143 Example showing why religion and science must agree, 107 of single nervo- voltaic circuit, 211 of theoretical nervous combi- nation of lower animals, 213 of theoretical nervous combi- nation of man, 213 INDEX. 249 Example of trust by faith, 157, 163, 163 of cause and effect, 202 of a combination or syndramic battery, 181 of difficult cases for deciding between right and wrong actions, 143, 144 of distrust by faith, 157, 164 of evidence and testimony, and of the value of the pronoun ' I,' 110, 111, 112, 113 of inferences deduced from certain premises, 97, 98, 99 of the laws of judgment by means of the differential slate, 104 of how irrational faith is per- nicious to man, 160 of noemic words, 170 of pneuma-noemic words, 170 Exercise of faith shown in the idea of the true God, 160 of faith supplies deficiencies of knowledge, 157,159 of faith should be testsd by reason, 159, 160 of rational faith, 162, 163 Existence of the Creator of the universe, 126 of a God, 21 Experiments on animals, 177, 178, 179 on animals and fish with the magneto - electric machine, 179 on animals and fish with the voltaic battery, 177-179 on cats, 177, 178 on eels, 177 on eye, 177 of Professor Ferrier, 217-222 on fish, 179 on a frog, 178 on the nose, 178 on rabbits, 176, 177, 178 showing how voltaic circuits can be artificially formed, 240, 241, 242 External granule layer, 225 Eye, 111 action of light upon, 177 camera of, 5 choroid of, 230 effect of colours on, 4 experiments on, 177 and faith, 158 fallacies of, 167 figure of nervous fibres in structure of, 224 how ideas are produced from, to the brain, 1-6 ideas derived through, 1 image formed in, 4 lenses of, 5 Milton on, 6 of man, 1-6 nerves of, to the brain, 6 nerves of, 1-6 optical structure of, 100 optical arrangement in, 5 Paul Veronese and other pain- ters' method of showing what is seen by both eyes at once, 5 proteus, 6 range of, 2 retina of, 5 Eye, sensations or opsaisthenics.l ultimate nervous fibres of, 9, 10 use of light for, 6 Eyes of animals, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of birds, 6 of the flea, 6 of the mole, 6 showing the picture formed by two eyes, 5 how vision affects the mind, 6 Eyeball, muscles of, 177 Faculties of the mind, 34, 36 of inducting and acting upon laws, 195 at different periods of life, 34 Faith, 47 aisthenic, 157, 158 aisthenic, employed in the nse of the microscope or tele- scope, 158 begins in early childhood, 163 demands reason, 157, 164 distrust of, examples of, 164 doctrine of, 142 esteemed more than truth in some forms of religion, 152 exercise of, every moment of our lives, 163 exercise of, in reading or writ- ing histories, 163 exercise of, should be tested by reason, 159 to 161 exercise of, shown in the idea of the true God, 160 exercise of, supplies deficiencies of knowledge, 157, 159 fallacies of, 167, 173 false, 155, 157, 159, 160 in a dogma, or compensation for vice, 154, 155 in our fellow-creatures, 162, 163 in the omnipotence of God, and the immutability of His laws, 162 influence of, on the mind, 157 to 166 influence of, in the formation and application of general laws, 160 noemic, 157, 159 not certain but probable, 157, 159 pneuma-noemic, 160 practised, for gain, 142 rational, useful to man, 159, 160 religious, differences of in different persons, 161 sensational, 154 spurious, 165 supplies imperfections of ideas on the mind, 157 sure, confirmed by reason and religion, 147, 157, 161 syndramic, 157, 158 true, conditions of, 157, 159, 160 true, law for, 157, 161 true, and true religious thought act together, 161 trust by, examples of, 157, 162, 163 without reason unworthy of credit, 161 Fallacy, 118 of mind to consider the ab- stractions as substantives, realities, 204 in man of doubting the sub- stantial reality of the world, 204 Fallacies, aisthenic, 167, 168 1 arise from our mode of action, 175 of cause, 167, 173 caused from our feelings of pleasure and pain, 175 caused from the leading pro- perties of the mind, 176 different qualities of ideas should have different words to avoid, 167, 169, 170 dynamic, 167, 174 of faith, 167, J 73 of the application of the doc- trines of averages, of means, and limits, 172 of the human mind, 167 to 175 of judgment and comparison, 167-172 of mnemonic, 167, 171, 172 of noemic, 167, 169 of the organs of sensation, 168, 169 of pain, 167, 174 of pleasure, 167, 174 pnenma-noemic, 167, 171 syndramic, 167, 168 technical knowledge, 167, 172 time, 167, 173 False faith, 155, 157, 159, 160 should be discarded by reason, 156, 165, 166 religion, 141 Falsehood, 20, 109 Falsehoods, effect of, on the mind, 15 Fancy, 187 Faraday, 240 Fatuous, 190 Fear, 19 causes persons sometimes to act wrongly, 65 Feeling, 184 sensations, 8 sense of, 241 Feelings of pleasure and pain, contribute to fallacy, 175 Ferrier, Professor, researches of, 217 to 222 Ferrocyanate of potash, 240 Fish, experiments on, 179 electrical air-sac of, 238 cell artificial, electrical, 238, figure of, 237 electric, 210, 235 to 240 electrical muscles of, 238, 239. 240 electrical, membranous septum of, 238 electrical, nerves of, 237, 238, 239, 240, 235-240 electrical, spinal chord of, 238 electrical,termination of nerves in the electrical plates of, 236, fig. of, 235 electrical, vertebras of, 238 Fit, 190 Fixity of laws of nature, 125, 126, 127 of moral laws, 125, 126, 127 of physical laws, 127 250 INDEX. Flea, vision of; 6 Fluidity, 19 Folly, 20 Fooks, Mr. William Crawcroft, 123 Foot of frog, experiments on. 178 Force, 19, 183 generation of, 100 Forces, physical, 128 Form, 19, 183 what constitutes, 133 Free agency, xlv., 188 Freedom, 84 Freewill and necessity, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32 Frog, brain of, 28 experiments on, 178 termination of the gustatory nerve of the. 226, figure of, 228 Fusiform cells with nucleus and dark fibre in their interior in auditory nerve, 227 Gallic acid, 240 Galvanism, 19, 129 phenomena of, 132 Galvanometer, 177, 180 Ganglia cell layer, 225 Garotters, flogging of, 65 Genera, 78 General laws, 142, 153, 155, 160 of men, 164, 165 influence of faith in the forma- tion and application of the. 160 Geological strata, 49 Geometric figures, 85 arrangements of cyphers, 92, 93 arrangement of nouns, 79 series, 95, 96 indicating certain combination of letters, 70 indicating time present, time past, and time future, 75 to illustrate the nature of in- duction, 84 Geometrical series, 97, 197 of cyphers, 91 arrangements of sentences, 82 arrangements of words, 92 symbols arranged as a, 80, 87, 88,90 Geometry, science of, 122 Glands, perspiratory of skin, 226 Globulist, 173 Gluttony, 20 God, 20, 44, 105, 106, 107, 108, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149, 182, 186 attributes of, 132, 133, 134, 135, 138 boundless power of, 50 eternity of, 133, 134, 135 existence of, 21 exercise of faith shown in the idea of the true, 160 goodness of, 50, 149 greatness of, 50 immutable laws of, 148 infinity of, 203 infinite power and wisdom of how shown, 53 laws of, 44, 105, 127, 138, 139, 142, 153, 162, 163, 164 God, laws of, immutability of, 150, 151 physical law of, 156 mind the immediate work of, 110 moral laws of, 156 no comparison between the perfections in, with the natural qualities in man, 131 not to be confounded with material actions, 203 omnipotence of, 50, 108, 134, 135,140 omnipresence of, 132, 134, 135 omniscience of, 134, 135 relation of mind to, 125 our faith in His omnipotence, and the immutability of His laws, 162 whether He immediately'inter- feres in the course of the universe, 126 worship of, 171 worship of false, 171 Gold, chloride of, 240 Good, 20, 185 Government of criminal classes, 63 of man, 54-68 of man not chance, 61 of mankind, 54 of the mind, 196, 199 of the world, 130 Governments, the principles on which they should act to- wards one another, 154 Grey matter of brain, 221, 222, 223, 224, 228, 232, 242, matter of cerebrum, blood- vessels of, 233 matter of spinal chord, 232, 233 Gumaisthenics, 7 Gustatory nerve of the frog, termination of, 226, figure of, 228 Gymnotus electricus, 239 Happiness, 20, 84 Hardness, 19 Hearing, 184 Heat, 19, 129 actions of, 133 Heathen, spurious religion of, 141 Heathenism, necessity for the eradication of, 140 Heaven, 21, 186, 195 ideas on, 203 Hell, 21, 186, 195, ideas on, 203 Hen's nest, 53 Heresies, 132 High vascularity of tissues where nerves arise and terminate, 210, 228-232 Higher symbols, 88, 89, 96 Histology, human and compara- tive, by Strieker, 224, 226 Homoeopathic globules, 173 Hope and fear, xl., 188 Human action, will of, 28, 29, 30 action, laws of, 28, 29 action, modes of, 19 and comparative, histology by by Strieker, 224, 226 and divine laws, 105 Human affairs, direct interfer- ence of providence in the de- tails of, on the, 127 mind, origin of, 46, 131 mind, operations of, subject to laws moral, 126 mind, principles of, in health and disease, 183, 191 mind.reason perfection of, how secured, 205 mind, stimulated by sensational faiths, 154, 155 mind, study of, in relation to prayer, 127, 128 Humanity, 83, 84 Hunter, John, 239 Hunterian Society, 236 Hntchinson, Mr. Jonathan, 224 Hydrogen, 229 Hypothesis, 86 of evolution of mind, 46 of the kinds of matter, 46 Hypothetical inductions, 85, 86, 87 arrangement of the brain of animals, of man, as a voltaic apparatus, 210, 213 Hysteria, 193 Ideas, 82, 99, 122 abstract, 148 abstract, alone used by man, 46 abstract, confounded with sub- stantive relatives, 204 aisthenic, meaning of, 1 combination of, 81 communication of, from one person to another, 69, 82 composition of many, 198 connected with the Infinite, words to be printed in large capitals, 170 conveyed to the mind, 123 denoted by symbols, 88 derived through the eye, 1 derived through ear sensation, 7 different qualities of, should have different words, 167, 169 effect of, when communicated to brain, 12 existing in men's minds, 31 fallacious, 167-175 few perfect, 157 from eyes, 1 from two eyes, 6 from sensation, 1 how communicated, 13 how received by a boy, 34 imperfect, supplied by f aith,157 in brain, 30 in persons' minds, 55 insane, 142, lii. to lix. p. 189 intuitive, 53 mankind governed chiefly by regulating the nature of ideas in the person's mind, 54-68 man's action regulated by com- munication of new, 61 obtained by taste, 7 originating in the mind, 19 pneuma - noemic, or religious, 161 primary religions, 137 INDEX. 251 Ideas of ability, 20 of abstinence, 20 of action, 203 of arrogance, 20 of belief, 20 of the body, 203 of buffoonery, 20 of cause and effect, 81, 201 of cohesion, 19 of composition, 19 of confidence, 19 of conscience, 20 of consciousness, 22-26 of conviction, 20 of courage, 19 of cowardice, 19 of cruelty, 20 of crystallization, 19 of death, 19 of drunkenness, 20 of error, 20 of eternity, 21 of the eternal world, i. to viii., 183,184 of faith, when only to be re- ceived by the mind, 164 of evil, 20 of falsehood, 20 of fear, 19 of fluidity, 19 of folly, 20 of force, 19 of form, 19 of gluttony, 20 of God, 20 of good, 19 of happiness, 20 of hardness, 20 of heaven, 21, 203 of hell, 21, 203 of immortality, 203 of infinite enduring personal identity, 53 of an infinite future state of good, 125 of infinite future state of evil, 125 of infinity, 138, 903 of infinity of God, 203 of infinity of eternity, 203 of infinity of spirit, 203 of infinity of good, 203 of irascibility, 20 of joy, 20 of justice, 19 of kindness, 20 of liberality, 20 of life, 19 of magnanimity, 20 of man, on the Almighty, 137 of matter, 19 of meanness, 20 of meekness, 20 of the mind, 203 of the mind on the existence of the soul, 53 of the mind, importance of rational faith on, 160 of misery, 20 of modesty, 20 of number, 19 of ostentation, 20 of pain, 20, 203 of persons on a fortuitous con- currence of atoms, 47 of philosophers on analogy of evolution, 49 of pleasure, 20, 203 Ideas of pleasantry, 20 of position, 19 of prodigality, 20 of prudence, 19 of rashness, 19 of ribaldry, 20 of softness, 19 of solidity, 19 of the soul, 203 of temperance, 20 of thought, 203 of time, 19, 203 of the true God, an exercise of faith. 160 of truth, 20 of vice, 20, 203 of virtue, 20, 203 of volume, 19 received from ear, 7 recording of, 69, 74 religious ideas, 142, 165 simple, 45 simple only received by ani- mals, 181 syndramic, 158 syndramic words expressing, to be printed in small capi- tals, 170 where fixed in the brain, 221 Identity, personal, enduring for ever, 53 Idiot, 189 Idolatrous worship of matter dis- cordant with reason, 141 Idolatry, 107, 138, 147 Image formed in two eyes, 4 Images, 196 changes of, 184 change of, in the brain, 199 of the mind when affected by faith, 157, 158, 159, 160, 184 impression of, on the brain, 69, 74, in the brain, 200 mental, 74 mental, how made up, 70, 110 of the mind, 83 registered in the brain, 40, 41 Imagination, xxxiii. xxxiv., 187 act of, 99 based upon antecedent know- ledge, 164 Immaterial, 132-135 Immateriality of God, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135 Immortality, 53 ideas of, 203 and sure faith, 161 Imperfect deduction, 87 ideas supplied by faith, 157 Impressions, 184 on the brain, 108, 109 Impulse, 29, 32 effects of, on the mind, 55, 56, guides man's actions, 56 of minds of criminals 63 Incoherence, 189 Indications of future action in religion, 136, 142-149 Individuality possessed by man, 193 Individuals, 78 Induction, hypothetical, 85, 86, 87 illustration of, 83 impression of the nervous system from below upwards, by, 105 Induction of limits, 85, 87 laws of, 83, 84, 94, 100 nature of, 83, 84 nature of, illustrated by two geometric series, 84 process of, 83, 84 of means, 85, 86 possible, 85 probable, 85 by words, 69, 83 Industrial classes, religion of, the, 140 Infancy to manhood, develop- ment of, 46 Infidelity, 50 Infidels, how often caused, 58 made often by pastors, 141 Infinite cause, 20 enduring pain, 126 enduring pleasure, 126 not to be limited, 203 pain, 21 pleasure, 20 power, 125, 134 time, 20 words expressing ideas con- nected with the, to be printed in large capitals, 170 Infinity, 20, xiii., 184 of bad cause, 203 how man attains the idea of, 138 of eternity, 203 of God, 203 of good, 203 of spirit, 203 ideas of, 203 Influence, 54-68 by arguments, 57 of the Deity on our actions, 136, 137 of faith in the formation and application of general laws, 160 of faith on the mind, 157-166 by personal statements, 54, 56, 57,58 of one person on another, 54 55 of religious thought on the actions of mankind, 136, 137 of voltaic electricity on the circulation of the blood, 176, 179 value of repetition of state- ments to, 54, 56, 59 by writings, 54, 59 Influences of religion on crimi- nals, 66 on the nervous system, 67 Injections with carmine, 11, 231, 232, 233,234 Insane ideas, 142, lii. to lix., 189 Insects, vision of, 5 Instincts, xxvii., 186 of animals, 17 of hens, bees, etc, 53 Instinct and Reason, quotation from, 80 theory of, in animals, 176, 182 Intellect, whether created, 49 Internal granulated layer, 225 Intuitions, xxv., xxvi., 185, 186 Iron, pernitrate of, 240 persalt of, 229 pertartrate of, 240 potassio-tartrate of, 240 proto-sulphate, 240 252 INDEX. Irrational faith destructive to man, 159, 160 Irascibility, 20 Jesus Christ, 44 Joy, 20 Judges, 143 decisions of, 145 impartialitv of, 145 in Chancery, 58, 102, 117 Judge, a mechanical, 103 Judgment, xxxii., 187 fallacies of, 172 individual, 122 its use, 89 laws of, 100, 103 Judgments, how should be given, 103 in courts of Chancery, 58 Jury, 112, 113 Justice, 19, 152 Kindness, 20 Knowledge, deficiencies of, sup- plied by faith, 157, 159 how derived, 204 of the external world, i. to viii, 183, 184 of natural laws, 37, 38 of natural objects, 37, 38 of truth, 151 of various objects, 35 obtained from a study of lan- guages, , 112, 224 fibres, combination of, 180 fibres, combinations of nervous fibres, designated by certain letters or cyphers, 70 fibres of retina, figure of, 224 fibres, structure of, 176, 179, 180, 181 fibres, termination of, in the muscular system, 226, 227, 228 fibres, termination of, in the organs of sensation in the body, 224, 225, 226 fibrils, 74, 193, 213, 214, 216 fibrils, terminations of the ul- timate, in the grey matter of the cerebellum, 223 Nervous impressions, duration of, 9 symbols, 71 system, 20, 105 system of animals, 242 system in the lower animals, 216 system in respect to conscious- ness, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 system, defective state of, Ix. to Ixviii., 189, 190 system, excitation of, 29 system, illustration of the probable construction of the 207, 208, 209 system, influences on, 67 system of man, 50 system of man and of all animals, a system of com- pound voltaic batteries, 176, 178 system, operation of, 3, 9 system, one organ, 176, 182 system, voltaic construction of, 203 system, a voltaic circuit, 210 system, voltaic mechanism of, 210-242 terminations or fibres, 7, 8, 9, 10,11 tubes, 224 Nervo-voltaic circuit single, 211 circuit, triple, 212 maps explained, 215 Nest of birds, 182 of hens, 53 of ploceus pensilis, 18 Nests of birds, 17, 18 of wasps, 17, 18, New Forest, 174 Sydenham Society, 224 Testament, truthfulness en- joined in, 151 Nitrate of silver, 240 Noemic, 194 age, 36 faith, 157, 159 fallacies, 167, 169 power alone in manhood, 37 properties of the mind, 195 reason, 15 words, diagram of, 170 Nose, artificial, 241 - blood-vessels of, 231 epithelia layer in, 226 epithelial cells from olfactory region of the proteus, 228 epithelium cells, 228 experiments on, 178 fallacies of, 168 olfactory cells, 228 ultimate nervous fibres of, 9, 10 and voltaic circuit, 241 voltaic current in, 178 Noses of various animals, 8 Notation, 87 artificial system of, 95 of naturalists and chemists, 78, 79 of sentences, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82 Xoun-adjective, 73 Noun, definition of a, 70, 71 Nouns, geometric arrangement of, 79 limited, 78, 79 mutual relation one to another, 79 Nouns, qualified quibbles by, 114 Number, 19 what constitutes, 133 Numbers, 183 properties of, 122 \ Objects natural, 37, 38 Observation, 187 of external objects in youth, 36 Odour sensations, 8 Old age, 190 state of mind in, 34, 37 Old Testament, truthfulness en- joined in the, 151 laws of, 153 Olfactory bulb, 217, 219, 220 cells, 228 nerves, terminations of, 226 figure of, 228 Olivary bodies, 214 fasciculus, 214 Omnipotence of the Creator, 134, 135 of God, and the immutability of His laws, our faith in the, 108, 140, 162 Omnipotent power, 126 Omnipresence of the Creator. 132, 134, 135 Omniscience of the Creator, 134, 135 Opinions, how should be given, 103 Opinions, popular, of the present day, 146 Op.=ai.sthenics, 1 Optic fibre layer, 225 nerve and faith, 158 Optical arrangement in eye, 5 structure of eye in relation to mind, 100 Orders, 78 Organ electrical, of electrical ray, 236-240 of matter, 125, 128, 129, 130, 131 Organs electrical of Mormyrns anguilloides, of M cypri- noides, of M. dor?nlis, of M. longipennis, and of M. oxyrhyncus, figure of, 235 muciferous, of electrical fish, 237 electrical, of electrical fish, figure of, 238 electrical, of electrical eel, 239 importance of using every, 38, 40 of sensation, 19, 20, 22, 30, 56, 69, 73, 74, 148, 157, 158, 178, 194,231 of sensation, brain and muscles, and voltaic battery, 180, 181, 182 of sensation in childhood, 35 of sensation, fallacies of, 168, 169 of sensation in man, 196 of sensation, mechanisms of, 167 of sensation, mechanism of voltaic, 176, 177 of sensation, nervous fibres to, 179 of sensation, practice of the use of, 38, 40 INDEX. 257 Organs of sensation in the body, termination of nervous fibres in, 224, 225, 226 of thought or brain, structure of, adduced to physical laws, 180 Organic beings, complexity of the parts of, 47 either solid or only partly fluid, 50 how produced, 47, 48 if produced in matter, 46 limits in variation in, 46 multiplication of, 48 relation of, one to another, 47 limits in variation of, 51, 52 variation in, 49 Organic bodies, 19 Organic structure of the brain or mind, 52 Organisation, xlix. 189 of brain, 30 of man, 29, 32 Organised beings, voltaic battery in, 210-242 laws of, 153 Origin of matter, 125, 128, 129, 130, 131 Originality, 45 Ostentation, 20 Ousaisthenics, 7 Ova of animals, development of, 49 Oxalic acid, 240 Oxygen, 200, 229 Oxygenated blood, 235 Pagan religions, 165, 171 Paganism, 119 Pain, 20 fallacies of, 167, 174, 185, 200 future, man's actions regulated by threat of, 61 governs human operations, 11 ideas of, 203 infinite in hell, men's action regulated by threat of, 62 infinite enduring, 30, 126 man's action regulated by, 54, 61 necessity for, 32 past, 30 persons variously affected by, 3,31 present, 30 Painful sensations, 11 Paley, 125 Papal rule, 127 Papilire, termination of nerves in, 226 Parallelogram, 93 Paralysis, 190 Parents, duties of, towards their children, 154 Particles, ultimate, 128 Particular moral laws, 150, 152, 153 Passion, 45 violent expressions of, 174 Pastors of religion, 106, 107, 108 often make infidels, 141 Paul Veronese, his method of de- picting what is seen by two eyes at once, 5 Perfect deduction, 87 Pernitrate of iron, 240 Persalt of iron, 229 Persecution of men for religion, 141 Personal identity enduring for ever, 53 knowledge tested by books, 38,41 Personality, ideas of, 203 Persons act wrongly sometimes through fear, 65 difference of action in, 195, 196 differently affected by pain, 31 differently affected by plea- sure, 31 difficulty of explaining objects to, that have not seen by the person addressed, 71 duties of every, to every other, 154 educated, governed by the sense of right and wrong, 58 influence of one person upon another, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68 self-taught, not liable to in- fluence, 54, 60 sometimes do wrong to appear to do right, 145 differences of religious faith in different, 161 Perspiratory glands of skin, 226 Pertartrate of iron, 240 Phenomena of electricity, 132 of galvanism, 132 mental and religion, 142 of the mind, 52 of motion, 132 physical, 128, 129 Philosophers, 141 views of, on evolution, 40 Philosophies, ideas contrary to reason and religion to be discarded from our, 147 Philosophy, natural, teachings of, 131-135 relation of the mind to, 150- 156 natural theory of mental, 1 Photographs, use of, 40 Photo-sulphate of iron, 240 voltaic circuits, 240 Physical forces, 48, 128 forces, laws of the relation of natural, 50 forces, phenomena of, 48 and moral laws, 136, 143, 144 laws of God, 141, 143, 144, 156, 166 laws, structure of the brain adduced to, 180 laws, exact definition of, 143 laws, immutable, 127 laws of the universe, 139 restraint, man's action by, 62 science, 131 science, sources of, 48 teachers of religion, ignorant of, 106, 107, 108 phenomena, 128, 129 world, 129 Physicians, mode of proceeding of, 155 Pigment layer, 225 Pithings, produces death, 178 Plants, development of, from spores and seeds, 49 Pleasantry, 20 Pleasurable sensations, 11 Pleasure, 20, 200 and pain, xix., xx., 185 fallacies of, 167, 174, 76 future, man's action regulated by promise of, 61 governs human operations, 11 ideas of, 203 infinite enduring, 30, 126 man's action regulated by im- mediate, 61 necessity for, 32 past, 30 present, 30 regulates action, 54 variously affects persons, 31 Plexifonn union of nerve-fibres with interspersed nuclei in auditory nerve, 227 Plexus of nerves from spinal marrow, figure of, 221 Ploceus pensilis, nest of, 18 Pneuma-noemic faith, 160 fallacies. 167. 171 qualities of the mind, 195 or religious ideas, 161 thoughts, 160 words, diagram of, 170 Pons, 214 Poor, duties of the, to the rich, 154 Popular opinion of the present day, 146 Position, 19, 183 Possibility, 89, 90 laws of, 112 Possible inductions, 85 Potash, ferrocyanate of, 240 red ferrocyanate of, 240 Potassio-tartrate of iron, 240 Potassium, argento-cyanide of, 241 Power, creative, 128 of attraction, 128, 129, 130, 131 of discriminating colours, 4, 16 infinite, 125, 134 of man, 134, 135 of matter, 130, 131 motive, 160 omnipotent, 126 of prayer, 125, 127, 128 Powers of sensation and motion how annihilated, 178 reasoning of, 87 Practical action, 155 Christianity, 154 Praise, 148 Prayer, effect of, 125, 127, 128 efficacy of, 44 influence of, on the mind, 147 148 power of, 125, 127, 128 Predestination, what it leads to, 128 Premises, 97, 98, 99 Preordination, what it leads to, 128 Principles deduced from the moral law, under which, in every possible circumstance, governments and all kinds of persons should act towards each other, 154 of the human mind, in health and in disease, 183-191 religious, 164 Probability, 89, 90 Probable inductions, 85 S 258 INDEX. Problems best decided after sleep, 56 Process of thought, 199 of thought natural, 95 Prodigality, 20 Pronouns, definition of, 73 Pronoun ' I,' value of, 108-113 Properties of matter to attract, 133-135 of matter, 121-135 of numbers, 122 of symbols, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91 Propositions, definition of, 76 examples of a resultant of several, 98, 99 Protestants, 116 Proteus, epithelial cells from the olfactory region of the, 228 vision of the, 6 Providence, if direct interference of, in the details of human affairs, 127 Prudence, 19 Prus?iate of potash, solution of, 238 Psalmist on development of the various members of man, 53 Psalms, general tenor of, 126 quotation from, 53 Pulpit, mischief often done in the, through injudicious reasoning, 57 the attributes of the Deity neglected to be taught from the, 137 Punctuation, quibbles by a varia- tion of, 119 Punishments of criminals, 54, 64, 65,66 Punishment, effect of wrongful, on a good man, 67 Puns, quibbles by, 113, 114 Pure principles of religion, deve- lopment of, 145 religions, 165, 171 religion, desire for, 146 Purgatory, 140 Quacks, 117, 173 Qualified nouns, quibbles by, 114 verbs in a sentence, 80 Quibbles by action, conjoined with the use of words, 118 by begging the question, 119 by cause and eifect, 117 by changing the word for the same thing, 119 by circular reasoning, 110 by the constitution of words, 115 by denying the desire to do a particular act during the per- formance of it, 120 by exalting a probability, 118 by general principles with ex- ceptions, 116 by giving a right conclusion, but concealing, increasing, or altering the whole or part of the premiss, 120 by the inference of a fraudu- lent design in the motives of men, 117 by introducing hypothetical facts amongst direct asser- tions, 120 Quibbles by the question involv- ing two answers, 115 by a question involving a false premiss, 119 by multitudinous statements, 121 by qualified nouns, 114 by puns, 113, 114 by reasoning upon that which may be known, 119 by taking advantage of some abnormal state of the second party, 121 by a variation of punctuation, 119 by variations of emphasis, 118 by variations in number, 115 by the verb, 116 by words, 69, 113-121 by two words for the same thing, 116 by using words contrary to well-known principles, 117 used by controversial writers, 120 Quotation from Milton, 6 from the Psalms, 53 from Shakspeare, 148 from Young, 149 Rabbit, brain of, 220 Rabbits, experiments on, 176, 177, 178 subcutaneous cellular tissues of, 176, 177, 178 Range of sight, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of sound, 7 Rashness, 19 Rational faith useful to man, 159, 160 Rationality, 83, 84 Ray, electrical, 235-240 Reality, 185 Reason of brutes, 15 a caricature of, 47 conflict of, 140 doctrines of faith not to be be- lieved unless accepted by reason, 142 required by faith, 157, 164 should test faith, 159, 160, 161 should discard false faith, 157, 165, 166 laws of God in accordance with religion and, 142 laws of God taught from in- duction from particular in- stances by, 150 human, perfection of, how secured, 205 by language, 21 of man, 15, 146, 147, 148, 149 guides man's actions, 56 man not affected by the higher power of, 57 material or idolatrous wor- ship discordant with, 141 true, and mediaeval credulity, the coming conflict between, 206 by mind, 21 natural process of, 199 noemic, 15 how to affect persons by, 57 and religion, 142, 146, 147, 148 and religion not discordant, 105, 137 Reason and religion do not oc- cur in idol-worship, 138 by words, 21 Reasoning, artificial, 82 by cyphers, 109 by mechanical inventions, 109 natural, 15 powers, 14, 87 quibbles by circular, 119 by words, 109, 114, 122 Red ferrocyanate of potash, 240 Reflection, 56, xxviii.-xxxi. 116 practice of abstraction by, 38 Reflex action explained, 222 Reformation, the coming, 146, 206 the combatants of the next, 206 Regulation of our own minds to withstand the influence of others, 54-67 Relation, laws of, 94, of man to the universe, 243 of mind to God, 125 of the mind to moral philoso- phy, 150-156 of symbols, 89 of verbs to substantives, 74, 75, 80 of certain words to one an other, 97, 98, 99 Relational and Differential Ma- chine employed for language, 92-105 machine, analogous to process of thought, 95 machine, power of, extensive^ 95 employed for calculation, 96 deduction of probabilities, by use of, 96, 100-105 mechanism of, 92-105 geometrical arrangement of words by means of cyphers, 92 various results obtained from it, 92-105 employed for logarithms, 96 its use described, 69, &2, 93, 94, 95, 96 showing the action of th< brain by means of the, 197. 198 various forms of construction of, 92, 205 Relational slate, 94-105 mechanism of, 97 how designed, 199 Religion, 32, 43, 44, 105 should declare the works of God and the laws which govern the universe, 138 aim of some teachers of religion to rule mankind for theii; self -aggrandisement, 139 as frequently taught in the pulpit not the religion of the mass of the congregation, why? 108 importance of, in governing the actions of mankind, 136, 137 influences on criminals, 66 danger of the period from whence, 141 details of, religious belief often determined by the person's avocation in life, and by their position in society, etc. 140 INDEX. 259 Religion, development of the pure principles of, 145 of dissenters, 140 doctrines of, how to be taught, 141, 142 doctrines of religion brought into contempt by the vain conduct of idle ceremonies and discussions on frivolous garments instead of on the elucidation of the moral laws of God, 144 doctrinesof faith not to be be- lieved unless accepted by rea- son, 142 of Established Church, 140 examples showing that it is sometimes difficult to define what is right and what is wrong, 143, 144 and faith, 141, 153, 161, 165, 206 faith, aisthenic, 157, 158 faith, distrust by, 164 faith, examples of trust by, 157, 162, 163 faith, exercise of, shown in the idea of the true God, 160 faith, false, 157, 159,160,165, 206 faith, influence of, on the mind, 157-166 faith, influence of, on the for- mation and application of general laws, 160 faith should be tested by the mind, 159, 160, 161 faith, noemic, 157, 159 faith, our, in the omnipotence of God and the immutability of His laws, 162 faith, syndramic, 157, 158 faith, sure, 157, 161 faith.without reason dangerous to pure, 159 faith, pneuina-noemic, 160, 161 how to confirm a sure faith, 146, 147 faith held in some forms of religion higher than truth, 152 faith, the higher departments of thought, how affected by, 159, 160 faith used in our notions of spiritual ideas, 160, 161 faith, spurious, 165 faith, true, 157, 159, 160 faith, true, test for, 161 false, based on pneuina-noemic fallacies, 171 a sure test for false, 152 teachers of false, insist on faith being superior and indepen- dent of reason, and on truth being subservient to faith, 161 false, 141, 206 God, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149 God, attributes of, 136-149 God,laws of, in accordance with reason and, 142 God, laws of, taught, and their bearing on particular in- stances by, 150 ideas contrary to reason and religion to be discarded from our philosophies, 147 idolatry, 147 Religion, idolatrous or matter- worship, discordant with reason, 141 worship of idols, 171 immortality and faith sure, 161 indications of future action in, 144-149 of the industrial classes, 140 ideas of infinity, 138 importance of truth not exist- ing in all forms of, 152 cause of infidelity, 140, 141 insanity, 140 influence of prayer on men's minds, 147, 148 laws of God, physical, 166 laws moral, exact definition of, 143 man, 155 matter-worship, 141 men prone to fall away from the true belief, for the idea of some material object or idol, 138 men sometimes do wrong to appear to do right, 145 when it ceases to control men's actions, 138 and mental phenomena, 136, 142 necessity for prudent action in, 144-149 necessity of, for the eradication of heathenism, 140 omnipotence of God, 138, 140 our notion of, how obtained, 105 moral laws, 140, 141 the moral law tampered with in early ages, 139 pagan, 165, 171 many pagan superstitions con- tinued at the present time in our great, 165 pastors often make infidels, 141 persecution of men for, 141 physical laws, 140, 141, 143, 144 praise, 148 prayer, 147, 148 the primary truths of, on the minds of men at the present time, 137 pure, 165, 171, 206 pure, desire for, 146 pure, first element of, 137 purgatory, 140 and reason, 142, 146, 147, 148, 161 and reason not discordant, why ? 108, 137 relation of the mind to, 136-149 the coming reformation, 146 and science should be taught together in schools, 106, 107, 108 of scientific men, 140 spurious, 165, 196 spurious, of the heathen, 141 spurious teachings of, 139 superstitions, 165 teachers of, their duties to meet the requirements of the times, 145 teachers of, ignorant of the physical laws, which govern the universe, 106, 107, 108 teachers of, neglect to teach the primary truths of religion, 137 Religion.teachings cf St. Paul, 139 teachings of, for the future, 146, 147, 148 worship of false gods, 171 Religious belief, 44 doctrines in conformity with reason, 105 faith irrational, destructive to man, 159, 190 faith rational, useful to man, 159, 160, 162, 163 faith, differences of, in different persons, 161 faith, exercise of, should be tested by reason, 159, 160, 161, 164, 165, 166 ideas, 142, 165 laws of God, 162, 163, 164 laws, moral, 165 laws, physical, exact definition of, 143 or pneuma-noemic ideas, 161 principles, 164 teaching, 105-108 thought, 136-149 thought and true faith act to- gether, 161 thought and mental thought one, 136, 134 thought, acts from the general law to the particular in- stance, 136 worship of *God, 171 Researches with injection with carmine, 131-234 of Professor Ferrier, 217-222 Resignation produced by prayer, 128 Resolution of a sentence, 69, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82 of a word or sentence as it was received in the brain, 69, 77 Retina, artery of, 230 external granulated layer of ,225 internal granulated layer of ,225 of the eye, 6 fallacies of, 167 figure of the layers of man, 225 figure of nervous fibres of, 224 ganglia cell layer, 225 layers of rods and cones, 225 membrana limitans externa, 225 membrana limitans interna, 225 nerves of, 9 optic fibre layer of, 225 pigment layer of, 225 Rhinaisthenics, 8 Ribaldry, 20 Rich, duties of the, to the poor, 154 Right, 103 and wrong, 150 Royal Society for the Promotion of Natural Knowledge, ten- dency of, 106 St. Paul's Cathedral, 107, 108 school, 37 teachings of, 139 Sarcolemma, 226 Sarcons tissue, 227 Schisms, 132 Schools, religion and science should be taught together in, 106, 107, 108 Schultze, Max, 236 260 INDEX. Science of arithmetic, 122 of geometry, 122 physical, 131 and religion should be taught together in schools, 106, 107, 108 sources of physical, 48 teachers of, ignorant of the moral laws which govern the actions of mankind, 106, 107, 108 teachings of, 133-135 of trigonometry, 122 Sciences, natural, 37, 38 Scientific men, doubts of, 127 religion of, 140 Seeds of plants, development of, 49 Selection, natural, 52 spontaneous or accidental, doc- trine of, 47 Selfishness, definition of, 152 Senility, state of brain in, 34, 37 state of mind in, 34, 37 Sensation, ideas from, 1 and motion, powers of, how annihilated, 178 carriers, 8 derived from external force, 27 mechanism of, the organs of voltaic, 176, 177 nerves of, 105, 221 nervous fibres, organs of, 179 of nerves in skin, voltaic force in, 177 organs of, 1, 20, 22, 30, 45, 56, 69, 73, 74, 148, 157, 158, 178, 194, 231 organs of, in the body, termi- nation of nervous fibres in, 224, 225, 226 organs of, in childhood, 35 organs of, in man, 196 practice of, 38, 40 unity of, 203 Sensational amusements of the period, dangers of, 141 faith, 154 literature of the period, dangers of, 141 Sensations, 1 of the body, 27 of ear, 7 of eye, 1 of feeling, 8 of mea. frequently concealed froa others, 62 of odour, 8 organs of, brain and muscles, a voltaic battery, 180, 181 painful, 61, 67 pleasurable, 61, 67 pleasurable or painful, 19 of taste, 7 Sense, common, its derivation, 15 of duty, 153 of feeling, 83, 84, 241 Senses, 110, 203, ix., x., 184 of animals, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,9 of a child, 34, 35 combination of, xi., xii., 184 Sensor nerve opposed to motor nerve, 179 Sensor nerves, 28, 203, 211, 212, 214 and voltaic circuit in, 177, 178 Sensor and motor nerves, division of, produces death, 178 Sensorium, 69, 71, 74, 77, 110 Sentence, diagram showing by symbols or cyphers the ar- rangement of substantives in a, 78 diagram showing in symbols or cyphers cause and effect, 82 diagram showing by symbols or cyphers the resolution of a, 83 expressed by letters, 81 ideas, communication of, 77, 78, 79, 80 verbs, arrangement of, in a, 80 letters, 78 mind, combination in the, 77, 82 mind, images of the, 77 notation of chemists and na- turalists similar to that of sentences, 78, 79 nouns, geometric arrangement of, in a, 79 nouns limited, 78, 79 resolution of, 69, 77-83 resolution of a word or sen- tence as it was received in the brain, 69, 77 sensorium, action transmitted to, 77 substantives, arrangement of in, 77, 78, 79 substantives, geometric ar- rangement of, 79 thought, 80 verbs qualified, 80 Sentences, cause and effect, 80, 81, 82 arrangement of substantives in, 77, 78, 79 arrangement of verbs in, 80 geometrical arrangement of, 82 ideas on cause and effect, 81 ideas communication of, 81, 82 limitation of verbs in, 81 limited nouns, 78, 79 natural process of thought, 82 notation of, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82 relation of verbs to substan- tives, 74, 75, 80 Series, geometric, 80, 90, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 197 geometric arrangement of cyphers, 93 geometric, indicating certain combination of letters, 70 geometric, indicating time past and time future, 75 geometric, symbols arranged as a, 87, 88 Shakspeare, quotation from, 148 Shocks, electric, 235, 236 Sight of animals, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of birds, 5, 6 of the flea, 6 of man his range, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of mole, 6 of the proteus, 6 Sign minus, 79 plus, 79 Signs, 69 Silence, 19 Silver, nitrate of, 240 Single voltaic circuit, 210, 211 Size, what constitutes, 133 Skin, cutaneous texture of, 180 and mnscle, voltaic battery, 180, 181, 182 blood-vessels of, 231 of electric eel, 239 figure of the ultimate nervous fibres as distributed to the, 226 perspiratory glands of, 226 voltaic force in nerves of sensa- tion of skin, 177 Shite, differential, 97, 103-105 differential, illustration of the laws of judgment by means of, 104 relational, 94-105 relational, mechanism of, 97 relational, how designed, 199 Sleep, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 42 Sleep-walking, 193 Sleeplessness, 25 Smelling, 184 Society, Astronomical, 158 Hunterian, 236 New Sydenham, 224 present tendency of, to group together in classes, 106, 107 Softness, 19 Solidity, 19 Somaisthenics, 8, 26 Song of praise, 148 Sophistry, 109 Soul, 46, 53, 185, 195 ideas of, 203 not to be confounded with the body, 203 Sound, 19, 129 actions of, 133 vibrations of, 240 and voltaic circuit, 240 Sounds, 69 musical, 7 Sources of physical science, 48 Space not to be confounded with matter, 203 Species, 78 Specific action, xxxvii. xxxix. 187 creatures and evolutions, 46 creations, doctrine of, 53 Speech, various parts of, treated biologically and grammati- cally, 69-77 Spider's web, 182 Spinal chord, 214, 216, 228, 232 blood-vessels of, 232 division of, causes death, 178 of fish, electrical, 238 grey matter of, 232, 233 marrow, 221 termination of nerves in the brain and, 228 Spirit, 46 infinity of, 203 the material cannot affect, 135 and mind, 52 Spirits, 52 Spiritual ideas faith used in our notion of, 160, 161 Spontaneous appearance of plants, not proved, 51 thought, 141 Spores of plants, development of, 49 Spurious faith, 165 INDEX. 261 Spurious religions, 165, 196 religions, of the heathen, 141 Statements, value of repetition of, to influence persons, 54, 56, 59 Stewart, Dr., of St. Thomas' Hospital, 223, 225 Stone, worship of, 171 Strata, geological, 49 Strieker's diagram, 221 human and comparative histo- logy, 224, 226 Structure of the nervous fibres, 176, 179, 180, 181 of the organs of thought, or brain, adduced to physical laws, 180 of brain microscopical, 224 Study, what conduces to, 43 Sub-laws, 155 Substantive verbs, 75, 77 Substantives, 69, 70, 95, 96 definition of, 70, 71 geometric arrangement of, 79 limited, 78, 79 Sulphate of copper, 179 of zinc, 179 Superstitions, 165 mediseval, 108 Sure faith, 157, 161 Sydenham Society, 224 Symbol, absent in negation, 88 positive with a negation, 88 Symbolic language, 70. 72, 74, 75 Symbols, 69, 72. 74, 84, 87, 88-90, 101, 111, 112 combination of, 89 denoting action, or combina- tion of actions, 88 denoting ideas, 88 impressed on the brain, 99 geometric series of, 80, 90 of the charge, 111 equal, 88, 89 of the evidence, 111 explanation of, 87, 88. 89, 90, 91 arranged in geometric series, 88 higher, 88, 89, 96, 97 laws of the relations of, 88 lower, 88, 89 lower geometrical, 97 relation of, 89 Sympathy, 62 Syndramic, 9 battery, structure of, 181 faith, 157, 158 fallacies, 167, 168 ideas, 169 ideas of simple objects the words representing them to be printed with a capital initial letter, 170 ideas, words expressing ideas abstracted from, to be printed in small capitals, 170 images, 200 knowledge, 36 words, diagram of, 170 System, artificial, for repre- senting various images im- pressed on the brain, 69-77 logical, 113-121 muscular, termination of ner- vous fibres in, 226, 227, 228 nervous, 105 System, nervous, illustration of the probable construction of the, 207, 208, 209 nervous, influences on, 67 nervous, of animals, 242 nervous, operation of, 3 nervous, voltaic mechanism of. 210-242 nervous, voltaic construction of, 203 nervous, one organ, 182 of notation, artificial system of, 95 Theory of chance, 47 of Darwin, &c., 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53 of the evolution of brain and mind of man from matter, 53 of instinct in animals, 176, 182 of mental action, 176-200 Thermo-voltaic circuits, 241 Thieves, 63, 64, 65 Thought, 45, 71, 74, 80, 122, 185 amenable to fixed principles, 92 by words, 89 faith without reason dangerous to pure, 159 higher departments of, how affected by faith, 159, 160 how performed, 15 laws of, 87 laws of, amenable to fixed prin- ciples, 92 laws of, by deduction, 86-87 laws of, by indurtion, 83, 86 laws of, by words, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 mental, 136 natural process of, 82, 114, 109, 122 natural powers of, 99, 114 partial, 20 practice of abstraction by, 38, 43 process of, 82, 199 powers of, 195 relation of the mind to reli- gious, 136-149 religions, 136 religious and true faith act together, 161 spontaneous, 141 structure of organs of, or brain adduced to physical laws, 180 Thoughts, all mental, exercise faith, 157 frequently concealed from others, 62 government of, 160 of man on the Almighty, 137 of men, great changes are tak- ing place in the, 146 pneumo-noemic, 160 subjugated to moral laws, 38. 44 Thoughtfnlness, 32 Time, 19, 132, 133, xiv.-xvi., 184 fallacies of, 167, 173 future, definition of, 75 ideas of, 203 infinite, 20 not to be confounded with eter- nity, 203 our notions of, 74 past definition of, 75 present definition of, 74 Timidity, 32 Tissue, sarcons, 227 Tongue, blood-vessels of, 231 fallacies of, 168 Torpedo, figure of, 237 transverse section of, figure of, 237 Tortoise, affected by a yellow colour, 6 Totality, 184 Traditions, human, 108 Treatise, Bridgwater, 126 Trials, 110-113 civil cases, 110-113 defendant, 110-113 examples, 110-113 imperfection of, 110-113 jury, use of, 110-113 testimony contradictory, 110- 113 theoretical perfection of ,110-113 verdict generally only one of probability, 110-113 words, use of, 110-113 Trigonometry, science of, 122 Triple nervo-voltaic circuit, 212 True faith, conditions of, 157, 159, 160 law for, 157, 161 Trust by faith, examples of, 157, 162 Truth, 20, 107, 142, 165, 166 absolute, 150, 151 definition of, 151 importance of, 152 not held in such estimation in some forms of religion as faith, 152 Truthfulness, 151 Ultimate particles, 128 Unconsciousness, 22, 23, 24, 25, Unit, 183 Unity of sensation, 203 Universe, 132-135 creation of, 125, 130, 131 designed and created by an omnipotent power, 126 effect of prayer to control the laws of the, 128 formation of, on fixed laws, 128 laws of the, 138, 139, 146, 162, 165 material, 128 perfection of the design of the, 126 relation of man to the, 243 whether God immediately in- terferes in the course of the, 126 Vacillation, 195 Value of the pronoun ' I,' 108-113 of the pronoun ' I ' on evidence and testimony, 69, 108-113 Varieties, tendency of, to resume their original type, 46 Vascularity of tissues, where nerves arise and terminate, 210, 228-232 Veins of electric eel, 239 Venous, blood, 235, 236 Ventriloauist, 169 Verb, quibbles by, 116 limitation of, 81 Verbs, arrangement of, in a sen- tence, 80 arrangement of, to substan- tives, 74, 75, 80 262 INDEX. Verbs, definition of, 73, 74,75,76,77 Verdicts, sometimes given wrong- ly, reason for, 111, 112 Vertebrae of electric eel, 239 of electrical fish, 238 Vertebrate animals, basis of, 216 Vibrations of sound, 240 Vice, 20, 156, xlii. 188 compensation for, 154 of the day, 154 ideas of, 203 Virtue, 20, 152, 156, ideas of, 203 and vice, xlii, 188 Vision, 184 centre of, 230 extreme range of, 2 fallacies of, 168, 169 how it affects the mind, 6 faith, 158 of animals, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of the eye, 230 of insects, 6 of man, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 of mole, 6 of the proteus, 6 voltaic character of acts of, 6 Visions, 196 Visual power limitation of, 2 Volition of, xliv, 188, 177 of the Creator, 133, 134 powers of, 176 or will, the resultant of im- mediate impression in the body, 180 Voltaic batteries, 25, 179 180, 181, 182,200,235 Voltaic battery, experiments with, on animals and fish, 177, 178, 179 double, with mode of detecting the voltaic current, 24 how composed in organised beings, 210-242 of brain, muscles,and organs of sensation, 180, 181, 182 Voltaic character of acts of vision, 6 circuit compound, 210, 211, 212, 213 construction of the nervous system, 203 circuits, electric, 241 circuits, how formed, 240 circuit and sounds, 240 circuits, various artificial, 210, 229-242 current in the eye, 177 current between the muscle of the eye, and the choroid, 177 current of nerves, 179, 180 current in nose, 178, 241 current mode of detecting in double voltaic battery, 242 Voltaic current in sensor nerves, 177, 178 electricity, 229 electricity, influence of, upon blood corpuscles, 179 force produced by electrical eel, and ray, 235-240 force in nerves of sensation of skin, 177 laws, 178 mechanism of the nervous system, 210-242 mechanism of organs of sensa- tion are, 176 177 Volume, 19 Voluntary action, 28, 29 Want of definition of moral laws, 136, 143 Wasp's comb, 182 instinct of, 17 nest, 17, 18 Web of spider, 182 Weeks, 51 West Biding Lunatic Asylum, 217 White matter of brain, 221, 222, 223, 224 Will of human action, 28 laws of, 28, 29 not altogether voluntary, 28, 29 Will or volition, the resultant of immediate impression in the body, 108 Witchcraft, 165 Witnesses, 110, 111, 112, 113 Women, mental capacity of men and of, 193 Words, 111, 112, 113, 183 adjectives, 72, 77 adverb, 76, 77 argumenting, 109 articles, 73 conjunctions, 70 different, should be given to different qualities of ideas, 167, 169 expressing ideas connected with the Infinite to be printed in large capitals, 170 geometrical arrangement of, 92 how expressed on the rela- tional slate, 97 imperfect artificial mechanism of, 121 induction by, 83 pneuma-noemic,diagramof,170 quibbling by, 113-121 quibbles by actions conjoined with the use of, 118 quibbles by two words for ths same thing, 116 laws of thought by, 69, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96 and language, 69, 197 Words and language employed for deceiving human beings, 121 and language, fallacies arising in, 169 and language, the moral law, as a whole, can be worked out and set out in, 154 and language, use of, 122 and language, words imper- fect artificial mechanism of, 122 noemic, diagram of, 170 limited nouns in a sentence, 78, 79 pronouns, 73 prepositions, 76 reasoning by, 21, 109, 114, 122 relations of, 114 relation of, to one another, 97, 98,99 representing syndramic ideas of simple objects to be Erinted with a capital initial itter, 170 resolution of a word or sen- tence as it was received in the brain, 69, 77 substantives, 70 syndramic, diagram of, 170 thinking by, 89 time, how defined by, 74, 75 use of, 69 verbs, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77 Works of God, how perceived by a thoughtful man, 138 of nature, 125 World, the substantial reality of, sometimes doubted by man, 204 government of the, 130 physical, 129 Worms, the .burrowing, whether specifically created, 49 Worship of animals, 171 of false gods, 171 of God, 171 of idols, 138 of matter, 38, 141 of man, 107 of men, 171 of stone, 171 Wrong, 150 sometimes done to appear to have done right, 145 Young's discoveries, 4 Young, quotation from, 149 Youth, education of, 38 powers of observation in, 36 Zinc, sulphate of, 179 London : Printed by JOHN STBANGEWAYS, Castle Street, Leicester Square. 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