UNIVERSM HISTORY OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL DUCATION IN FLORIDA THOMAS EVERKTTE COCHRAN A THESIS PKFSENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY PRESS OF rHE NEW (TRA PRINTiNT LANCA31CR, P, 1921 EXCHANGE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA HISTORY OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA BY THOMAS EVERETTH COCHRAN A THESIS PRESENTED TO THE FACULTY OF THE GRADUATE SCHOOL IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY PRESS OF THE NEW ERA PRINTING COMPANY LANCASTER. PA. 1921 DEDICATED TO THE FAITHFUL SCHOOL TEACHERS ADMINISTRATORS AND SUPERVISORS OF FLORIDA r\ PREFACE Since 1911, when I went to one of the colleges of Florida as professor of Education, I have been very much interested in the public-school system of that State. In 1916 I began a detailed study of its origin and growth, which has resulted in the preparation of this monograph. In making this investi- gation, my point of view has been that of a student of education and educational condiljons; and my purpose, to give an account of what has been accomplished in such a way that it will lead to a better understanding of present-day problems. The work has been prepared with the hope that it may be of real service in promoting public education in Florida. If, in only some small way, it will do this, I shall be more than gratified. The material for a study of this nature is found in a wide range of sources, and I gratefully record here my heavy ob- ' ligation to those too numerous to mention by name who* have aided me in collecting this material. I also desire to ex- press my thanks and acknowledge my great indebtedness to Dr. Frank P. Graves, of the University of Pennsylvania, and Dr. W. N. Sheats, state superintendent of public instruction in Florida; to the former for first stimulating my interest in the history of education, and to the latter for furnishing me with much valuable information, and to both for constant encourage- ment and scholarly advice given throughout the entire investi- gation. Finally, I gratefully acknowledge the many helpful suggestions from Professors Arthur J. Jones and Thomas Woody, of the University of Pennsylvania, who have read the entire manuscript and commented upon it to its betterment. They who have aided me, however, are in no sense responsible for the opinions expressed, nor for any errors that may appear. March 7, 1921. T. E. C. CONTENTS CHAPTER I. RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA i I. First Attempts at Public Education I A. Introduction I B. Florida Education Society I C. The Educational Society at St. Augustine 2 D. Educational Status of St. Johns and Mosquito Counties 2 E. Condition of Education in the Territory 3 F. Provision for a Manual-Labor School at Talla- hassee 3 G. Early Educational Legislation 5 1. Congressional Act of 1-29-1827 5 2. Legislative Act of 11-20-1828 6 3. Legislative Act of 2-11-1832 6 4. Legislative Act of 2-15-1834 6 5. Legislative Act of 12-26-1835 7 6. Legislative Acts of 1836 and 1837 7 7. Legislative Acts of 1839 8 8. Legislative Acts of 1843 an< ^ T ^44 8 9. Legislative Acts of 1845 9 H. Legal Organization of the School System in 1845. 10 I. Actual Gains to Public Education (1822-1845) . . n Summary 13 CHAPTER II. RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA Concluded 15 II. Beginnings of the Public-School System 15 A. Constitutional and Legal Provisions 15 1. Constitution of 1845 T 5 2. Legislative Acts of 1847 and 1848 16 3. School Legislation of 1849 16 4. Legislative Acts of 1850 and 1851 18 5. School Law of 1853 19 vii viii CONTENTS B. Results Actually Achieved (1845-1868) 22 1. Educational Accomplishment prior to 1861 . . 22 a. Regarding Schools and School Enroll- ment 22 b. Regarding Administrative Organiza- tion and Financial Support 24 c. Regarding Popular Interest in Educa- tion 26 2. Educational Accomplishment (1861-1868).. 27 C. Negro Education 28 1. Negro Education prior to 1865 29 2. Schools Conducted under the Auspices of Certain Northern Benevolent Associations. 29 3. Legal Provision for Negro Education 29 4. Schools Conducted under the Auspices of the State 30 5. Educational Accomplishment 31 Summary 32 CHAPTER III. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PRESENT PUBLIC- SCHOOL SYSTEM 34 I. Constitution of 1868 34 A. Article on Education 34 B. Its Provisions for School Organization 35 C. Its Provisions for School Support 36 II. School Law of 1869 36 A. Its Provisions 36 1. Respecting Administrative Organization. ... 37 a. The State Board of Education 37 b. The Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion 38 c. County Boards of Public Instruction. . 39 d. County Superintendents of Schools... 40 e. Local School Trustees 41 2. Respecting the Environment and Equipment of the Schools 41 3. Respecting the Teaching Force 42 4. Respecting the System of Public Instruction . 43 5. Respecting the Support of the School System. 44 CONTENTS ix B. Some Weaknesses in the Law 46 C. The People's Reception of the Law 46 D. The Law in Operation 47 Summary 47 CHAPTER IV. WORK OF THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM (1868-1884) 49 The Educational Situation in 1868 49 The Educational Revival under Chase (1868-1870) 50 Hindrances to Universal Education 53 Means of Support for the Public Schools 53 Educational Organization and Administration 58 The School Plants 65 The Courses of Study 67 Textbooks Used 69 The Population 72 The Teaching Staff 72 Evidences of Educational Progress 76 Summary 78 CHAPTER V. PROGRESS OF THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM (1884-1892) 79 I. Constitution of 1885 79 A. Article on Education 79 B. Changes in the Educational System 81 II. School Law of 1889 84 A. Changes in Administrative Organization 85 B. Changes in School Support 87 C. Result of the Changes 87 III. Progress of the Public-School System 88 A. Financial Support of the School System 88 B. Educational Organization and Administration 90 C. The School Plants 92 D. The Courses of Study 94 E. The Teaching Force 95 F. The System of Public Instruction 102 Summary 109 CHAPTER VI. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING (1892- 1920) in I. The System of Public Instruction m x CONTENTS A. Elementary- School Instruction 112 1. The Extension of Elementary Instruction. . . 112 2. Means Used in the Extension of Elementary Instruction 112 3. The Curricula of the Elementary Schools. . . 115 B. Secondary-School Instruction 121 1. The Extension of Secondary Education. ... 121 2. Means Used in the Extension of Secondary Education 122 3. The Curricula of the Secondary Schools 123 4. Present Secondary- School Advantages 131 Summary 139 CHAPTER VII. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING Con- tinued 140 C. Vocational Education 140 1. The Extension of Vocational Education. . . . 140 2. Commercial Departments 140 3. Commercial Courses of Study 141 4. Departments of Industrial Education 141 5. Industrial Courses of Study 143 6. Departments of Home Economics 143 7. Courses of Study in Home Economics 146 8. Agricultural Departments 147 9. Courses of Study in Agriculture 148 D. Special Types of Schools 149 1. The Extension of Special Education 149 2. School for the Blind, Deaf, and Dumb 149 3. Reform Schools 150 4. Kindergartens 151 E. Higher Education 152 1. Higher Education prior to 1892 152 2. Higher Education, 1892-1905 158 3. Consolidation of the Higher Educational In- stitutions in 1905 162 4. Higher Education since 1905 162 Summary 168 CHAPTER VIII. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING Con- cluded 1 70 CONTENTS x i II. The Environment and Equipment of the Schools 170 A. Buildings, Grounds, and Equipment 170 B. Hygienic Conditions 172 C. Textbooks Used 175 III. The Teaching Body 179 A. The Number, Qualification, and Experience of Teachers 179 B. The Preparation of Teachers 179 C. The Examination and Certification of Teachers. . 188 D. The Training of Teachers in Service 192 E. The Salaries^of Teachers 196 IV. The Financing of Public Education 197 A. School Expenditures 198 B. School Funds and Taxation 198 C. Apportionment of the School Funds 200 Summary 200 CHAPTER IX. SOME FACTORS FAVORING THE RECENT AD- VANCE OF EDUCATION 202 The Growth of Population 202 The Increase of Wealth 202 The Growth of Public Interest in Free Schools 203 Improved School Legislation 205 State Aid. 206 National Aid 208 Private Appropriations 208 The Influence of Education in Other States 209 Better Administrative Control and Supervision 210 Better Educational Leadership 211 Summary 212 CHAPTER X. CONSPECTUS OF THE PRESENT PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM 213 I. General Administrative Control and Supervision 213 A. School Officers 213 B. State Superintendent of Public Instruction 213 C. State Board of Education 214 D. State Vocational-Education Board 215 E. State Board of Control. . . 216 xii CONTENTS F. State Board of Examiners 217 G. State High-School Inspector 217 H. Rural School Inspectors 218 I. County Superintendents of Public Instruction 218 J. County Boards of Public Instruction 219 K. Local School Supervisors 221 L. Administrative Unit 221 M. Special-Tax School-Districts 222 N. Consolidated Special-Tax School-Districts 222 0. District Trustees 223 P. School- Attendance Officers 223 II. School Population and Attendance 224 A. Age Limits 224 B. School Census 224 C. Separation of the Races 225 D. Suspension from School 226 E. Place of Attendance 226 F. Time and Term 226 G. School Holidays 227 H. Meaning of School Year, Term, Month, and Day. 227 1. Compulsory Attendance 227 J. Consolidation of Schools and Transportation of Pupils 229 III. The System of Public Instruction 229 A. Extent 229 B. Classification of the Public Free Schools 229 C. Elementary- School Instruction 230 D. Secondary-School Instruction 233 E. Military Instruction and Training 237 F. Vocational Education 237 G. Special Types of Schools 238 - H. Higher and Professional Education 239 IV. School Environment and Equipment 239 A. Buildings and Sites 239 B. Health Regulations 241 C. Textbooks 241 V. The Teaching Staff 242 A. Examination and Certification 242 B. Appointment and Tenure 245 CONTENTS Xlll C. Salaries and General Duties 246 D. Training and Supervision 247 VI. Revenue for the Support of Public Free Schools 248 A. Sources of School Revenue 248 B. Apportionment of the School Revenue 249 C. Local Bonds and Indebtedness 250 D. Care of the School Revenue 251 CHAPTER XL RETROSPECTION AND FORECAST 253 I. Public Education in Retrospect 253 A. First Attempts at Public Education 253 B. Beginnings o the Public- School System 253 C. Inauguration of the Present System 254 D. Progress of the System (1868-1884) 254 E. Reorganization and Advancement (1884-1892).. 255 F. The Educational Awakening (1892-1920) 256 G. Some Results Actually Achieved since 1877 257 II. Public Education in Prospect 257 A. Some Unfinished Tasks 257 B. A Promising Future 260 LIST OF REFERENCES 261 INDEX . . 266 LIST OF TABLES I. Statistics of Education in Florida for 1840, 1850, and 1860 27 II. Statistics of Negro Education in Florida, 1865- 1868 31 III. Progress of School Fund and Expenditures, 1869- 1884 56 IV. Number of Counties Reporting to the State De- partment of Education, 1870-1884 59 V. Number of Counties Reporting Their Census Re- turns to the State Department of Education, 1870-1884 60 VI. The Number of Schools Operated and Total Value of School Property, 1869-1884 68 xiv CONTENTS VII. Statistics Concerning School Population, Number Enrolled, Average Daily Attendance, Length of School Term and Salary Paid the Teachers, 1869-1884 77 VIII. Progress of State School-Fund and Expenditures for Public-School Purposes, 1884-1892 89 IX. How the Counties Taxed Themselves for the Sup- port of Schools during the Period 1884-1892. . . 91 X. The Number of Schools Operated and Total Value of School Property, 1884-1892 93 XI. The Number of Teaching Positions Filled, 1884- 1892 96 XII. Total Population, School Population, Number En- rolled, School Attendance and Length of School Term, 1884-1892 108 XIII. Growth in School Population, School Enrollment, School Attendance, Length of School Term, and Educational Status of Youth Enrolled, 1892- 1920 H3 XIV. Progress in Providing Schools, Teachers, and Free Transportation for Pupils during the Period 1892-1920 116 XV. Progress in Public High-School Education during the Period 1892-1918 124 XVI. Number of Public High Schools on the Southern Accredited List in Each of the States in 1919. . . 138 XVII. Number and Kinds of Public-School Buildings, Number of Rooms, Patent Desks in Use, Square Yards of Good Blackboards, and Value of All Public-School Property, 1892-1920 173 XVIII. Statistics Relating to the Teaching Body, 1897- 1920 180 XIX. Teacher-Training Departments for the Year 1915- 1916 185 XX. Teacher-Training Departments for the Year 1916- 1917 185 XXI. Teacher-Training Departments for the Year 1917- 1918 187 CONTENTS xv XXII. Teacher-Training Departments for the Year 1918- 1919 187 XXIII. Teacher-Training Departments for the Year 1919- 1920 188 XXIV. Statistics Relating to the Number of Teachers At- tending Summer Schools and State Teachers' As- sociations and Taking Educational Journals, 1897-1920 196 XXV. Average Salaries of Teachers during the Period 1893-1920 197 XXVI. Growth of Public-School Expenditures since 1892. 199 XXVII. How the Counties Taxed Themselves for the Sup- port of Schools, 1892-1920 204 XXVIII. Some Achievements in Public Education since 1877. HISTORY OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA HISTORY OF PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA CHAPTER I RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA I. FIRST ATTEMPTS AT PUBLIC EDUCATION The history of public education in Florida may be said to date as far back as 1822, the year in which Florida was organized as a territory by Congress ; for that year every sixteenth section of land throughout the Territory was reserved by the General Gov- ernment for the purpose of aiding in the maintenance of primary schools. 1 But for nearly a decade no popular interest in the matter of education seems to have been manifested, except in connection with some Spanish mission schools maintained by the Catholics. Florida Education Society. On January 22, 1831, however, an educational society known as the Florida Education Society was formed at Tallahassee, with some of the leading people of Florida as its members. 2 This was an institution arranged upon very much the same plan as a state lyceum, though its primary object 3 was "to collect and diffuse information on the subject of education, and to endeavor to procure the establishment of such a general system of instruction as is suited to the wants and condition of the Territory." Persons were admitted to its mem- 1 Prior to this there is no record of any educational activity whatever in Florida. If any schools were maintained, they were probably all in the hands of the Catholic clergy, as the resident population of the Territory were largely of this denomination. 2 The officers of this society were : David Floyd, Esq., president ; Moses E. Levy, Esq., Dr. Edward Aiken, and B. D. Wright, Esq., vice presi- dents; D. Davidson, corresponding secretary; E. B. Perkins, recording secretary; Parsons O. Hays, treasurer; Joseph W. Field, Turbutt R. Betton, John Duval, William Williams, and Parsons O. Hays, directors. 3 See American Annals of Education and Instruction, Vol. I (May, 1831), p. 225; quoted from the Education Reporter of that year. 1 2 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA bership by election and upon the payment of a membership fee of two dollars. 4 The society met once every three months; its directors, once every month. 4 As we shall see in the following paragraphs, it had considerable influence in the way of arousing public interest in "the sacred cause of education." The Educational Society at St. Augustine. Auxiliary societies of the Florida Education Society were organized in various parts of the Territory. The most important of these was the St. Johns and Mosquito County Society, at St. Augustine, the object of which was to promote the educational welfare in the counties after which it was named. Like the other branches, it could ap- point delegates to attend the meetings of the parent society ; and the latter also could appoint delegates to its meetings. These delegates were entitled to all the privileges of membership in the society they were attending. Like the other branches, too, the St. Johns and Mosquito County Society was required to report to the parent society all the information it could obtain regard- ing the educational interests of its citizens. It seems to have been quite active, and to have helped considerably in awakening an interest in education in the counties for which it was formed. 5 Educational Status of St. Johns and Mosquito Counties. A report of the educational society at St. Augustine gives us the following information relative to the state of education in St. Johns and Mosquito counties for 1831 : 6 " The board, in attending to the state of education in both counties, have to say that, according to the census taken last year, there are 579 white children of both sexes under 15 years of age 238 of which are under 5 10 in Mosquito County and 569 in St. Johns. The number of children in our city (St. Augustine) the only one where a school is found is 463; that is to say: in Castle Ward, 105; in Custom-house Ward, 168; in Hospital Ward, 87; and in Barrack Ward, 103. Of these there are 137 children of both sexes which attend school daily. Of the nine schools, there are three containing 57 children, conducted by teachers qualified to impart elementary instruction in the respective branches of education. The rest may be considered as primary schools of all sorts, which, from the very reduced salary their parents can afford to pay, can- not much be depended upon for their stability. " Thus we see that out of the number of 341 children, between the ages of 5 and 15, there are but 57 who are likely to obtain elementary 4 Loc. cit, 5 See Amer. An. of Ed. and Ins., I, 225 and II, 94-96. 6 See Amer. An. of Ed. and Ins., II (Jan. 15, 1832), p. 95. RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 3 education ; 80 receive but precarious instruction ; and 204 are left to grow up in ignorance and its attendant consequences. From this number, how- ever, thefe are about 30 boys who have been receiving for the last three months two hours' daily instruction in spelling, reading, and even writing." Under the influence of the society just referred to " a subscrip- tion was set on foot for the establishment of a free school at St. Augustine," that being the largest school community of the district. 7 The committee having this in charge were at first greatly encouraged. They reported that interest in public educa- tion in that region was rapidly increasing. However, there is no evidence of the success"of the attempt. The public-school inter- est, of which the committee spoke so encouragingly, appears to have soon subsided. We hear of no more attempts to establish a free school at St. Augustine for over two years. Condition of Education in the Territory. From the report quoted above we also gain an insight into the educational status of the Territory from its cession until 1832. After speaking of the apathy and prejudices of the people of Florida respecting education, of the encouragement furnished by the educational prog- ress of the North, of the lack of interest in public education among the people of the South, and finally, of the importance of a system of education for a state and a nation as a whole, we are given this additional information on the condition of education in the Territory : & " But when the Floridian looks at home, the importance of a general system of education in a national point of view is lost sight of in the consideration of education in the Territory since the cession, among a large and increasing population, a large portion of which can neither read nor write, the indifference with which the want of education is viewed by a great majority, and the obstacles which the scattered popu- lation presents, rendering the establishment of even a limited system of common schools extremely difficult, if not impracticable." Provision for a Manual-Labor School at Tallahassee. About this time the manual-labor schools established by Fellenberg in Switzerland were being strongly recommended by many educa- tional leaders in the United States. A committee appointed by the Governor of the Territory to study the conditions of the schools 7 See Amer. An. of Ed. and Ins., II, 96. 8 Ibid., 94-95- 4 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA of the Territory and to report to the following legislative council the best system of education adapted to the educational needs of the people strongly urged the establishment of similar schools. 9 The Florida Education Society also urged the establishment of such schools. In 1831, some public-spirited citizens of Tallahas- see, acting upon the recommendation of this committee and that of the Florida Education Society, decided to organize a school similar to those of the Fellenberg type. Concerning this project we find the following record : 10 "Five individuals have agreed, if it can be done at an expense within their means, to purchase a small tract of land, and form a small manual- labor school, somewhere in the neighborhood of Tallahassee. A teacher is to be employed to take charge of a limited number of pupils; suit- able buildings are to be erected for the accommodation of the teacher and pupils, who are to board together, with as little connection as pos- sible with the inhabitants in the vicinity. The pupils will be required to devote a certain number of hours daily to agricultural and mechanical employments of the simplest kinds. No pupil will be admitted except with the consent of the teacher and each of the proprietors ; nor suffered to remain in the school unless he submits to its regulations. The studies, at the commencement, are to be confined to the usual branches of a good English education, including mechanics, botany, chemistry, etc." From a letter written by a person at Tallahassee to a corre- spondent of the American Annals of Education and Instruction, we learn that the project elicited so much interest that, in a few days, between six and seven hundred dollars were subscribed, to be paid annually, and as much land offered, in the best and healthiest situations, as might be needed. It seems that the people thought that they would soon be given the power to sell the lands which had been set apart by the General Government for com- mon schools and for a seminary or seminaries of learning, and that they would then have ample funds to establish a system of Fellenberg schools. 11 But, not obtaining this power, their inter- est in the movement appears to have died out. At any rate, we have no record as to the success of the new system. In fact, shortly after this the Florida Education Society ceased to exist ; and with it, to be sure, its branches. So, of course, the public interest that had been awakened in a general system of educa- 9 See House Journal, Territory of Florida, 1832, pp. 14-15. 10 See Amer. An. of Ed. and Ins., II (April i, 1832), p. 239. 11 See Amer. An. of Ed. and Ins., I (July, 1831), p. 328. RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 5 tion soon declined. But this decadence of public-school interest was quickly followed by some legislation with regard to schools, to which we shall now direct our attention. Early Educational Legislation. Educational legislation prior to 1849 was concerned principally with the public lands which had been reserved by Congress for educational purposes the sem- inary and the sixteenth-section lands. The laws dealing with these lands sought to make them a source of revenue for the seminaries and common schools, respectively; and, since the basis of the schools was money, it seems proper that we should examine these laws at least briefly. Thus we shall get a better idea of what was attempted with respect to public education. In doing this, however, we shall confine our attention to the acts dealing with the sixteenth-section lands, since these were the only lands used for public-school support. Congressional Act of January 2p, 1827. But, before examin- ing the acts of the legislative council, let us glance at an act of Congress in regard to the sixteenth-section lands. 12 As we have said, the Federal Government had already reserved every six- teenth section of land to the Territory for purposes of education. In making this reservation the Government evidently intended to create a permanent fund, to be inviolably preserved and ap- plied to the maintenance of public schools. As a guarantee of this, the Territory was restricted from the authority to sell or alienate these lands, except under the Government's immediate sanction. It was given the right only to rent them from year to year, the rental from each section to be used in the township alone to which it belonged. Accordingly, on January 29, 1827, Congress passed an act giving the governor and legislative coun- cil of the Territory the power to take possession of the lands reserved for the use of schools, to lease them from year to year, to appropriate the money arising from the rent of said lands to the use of schools in the township, and to pass laws for the pres- ervation of said lands from intrusion and trespass until the Territory was admitted into the Union as a state. 13 The fol- lowing year a law was passed by the legislative council author- izing a lease of the sixteenth-section lands during the continu- ance of the territorial government. 12 For this act see United States Statutes at Large, IV, 201-02. 13 See United States Statutes at Large, IV, 201-02. 6 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA Legislative Act of November 20, 1828.^ In November, 1828, while Florida was still a territory, an act was passed authorizing the governor and legislative council to appoint three suitable persons in each and every county in the Territory, to be known as trustees of the school lands, to take possession of the school lands in their repective counties and lease them from time to time, to collect all moneys and pay the same to the territorial treasurer, and " to select on each sixteenth section a suitable number of acres in one body, not to exceed 20, for the erection of a schoolhouse." These trustees were required "to transmit a detailed statement of all their proceedings annually to the legislative council." Their term of office was to be one year or until their successors were duly qualified ; and their compensation, " five per cent of all moneys secured by bonds." In some of the counties this act was put into operation ; but in others it appears never to have been. Only five sections of land were reported as having been leased, and these for only a paltry consideration, producing a total annual rent of but $ioi.5O. 15 The law was repealed four years later. Act of February n, 1832. In February, 1832, a law was enacted repealing the foregoing act, and conferring power on the people of the different townships to elect, on the third Mon- day in December of every year, three fit persons, to be called commissioners of the sixteenth sections, to take charge of the said sections in their respective townships, with the power to protect them from waste and intrusion, to rent them out for the term of one year for " the use of schools in said township," and, like the trustees authorized to be appointed under the pro- visions of the preceding act, to " select on each sixteenth section aforesaid a suitable number of acres in one body, not to exceed 20, as they may think proper for the erection of a schoolhouse." The compensation allowed these commissioners was "five per cent of all moneys collected." Act of February 15, 1834.^ In February, 1834, an act was 14 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1828, pp. 247-48. 15 See message of Governor R. K. Call, House Journal, Territory of Florida, 1843, p. 19; also in Senate Journal, p. 22. 16 See Laws of Florida, 1832, pp. 124-25. 17 See Laws of Florida, 1834, p. 37. RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 7 passed which authorized the judges of the several county courts to appoint two suitable persons, entitled commissioners of the sixteenth sections, to take charge of the said sections in their respective counties, with powers similar to those conferred on the commissioners authorized by the act of 1832. Whether this act, or that of 1832, was ever duly executed, we have not been able to ascertain. Speaking of the operation of the one for 1834, however, Governor R. K. Call, in his message to the legislative council of i843, 18 said: " How far this law has been carried into effect, does not appear from any data within my possession, but I have reason to believe that, in many of the counties, at least, no attention whatever has been paid to it." Act of December 26, 1835** In 1835 the register of the land office was duly authorized and directed to select and secure the various lands reserved by Congress " for schools, seminaries, and other purposes," and required to keep the different reservations distinct and separate in his accounts, in order that the rights and interests of one should not become mixed with the rights and interests of the others.'' Acts of 1836 and 1837. In 1836, by act approved February I3, 20 the territorial treasurer was charged with the duty of re- ceiving and demanding all money then due, or which might there- after become 'due, for the rent of any of the school lands within the Territory; and by an act approved February 12 of the fol- lowing year, 21 he was directed to seek out and prosecute all trespassers of any of the school lands, to get possession for the Territory of any of these lands that were illegally occupied, and to rent them out for the period of one year. He was also required by both of these acts to make an annual report of his proceedings to the legislative council. Neither of these acts seems to have been well executed. As Governor Call said, 22 the nature of the duties already imposed on the treasurer, whose office and presence necessarily had to be at the capitol, rendered it almost impossible for him to give the 18 See H. J., 1843, p. 19 ; also S. J., p. 23. 19 For this act see Thompson's Digest of the Statute Law of Florida, 1847, p. 40. 20 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1836, pp. 42-43. 21 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1837, pp. 24-25. 22 See his message to the legislative council of 1843. 8 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA attention to these additional duties which their importance required. Acts of 183$. The legislative council of 1839 was the first to undertake the actual establishment of a public-school system. On March 2, 1839, there was passed an act for perfecting a legal organization to utilize the benefits accruing from the six- teenth-section, or common school, lands. 23 This directed that three trustees be elected in each township to care for and lease the sixteenth-section lands of their township, to apply the income to the support of common schools in that township, and, in case there were no common schools in existence, to establish and maintain them. On the same day the foregoing law was enacted an act supple- mentary to it was passed, 24 entitled " An act to raise a fund for the education of poor children." This provided that two per cent 25 of the territorial tax and auction duties to be collected should be used " for the education of poor orphan children of the county to which the funds belong." The tax assessors were directed to take the census of the orphans in their respective counties and file the same in their county court for the informa- tion of the county. The county courts were to appropriate the funds annually " for the schooling of the poor orphans of their county, having a reasonable regard, as near as may be, to an equal distribution among all the poor orphans brought to the no- tice of the court . . . , and having also a due regard to the most economical disbursement of the funds." Acts of 1843 and 1844. I n *843, by act approved March I5, 26 the sheriffs of the several counties were entrusted with the du- ties which had been conferred on the trustees authorized by the school law of 1839, and with special instructions to look after the education of the poor children of their respective counties. On March 15 of the following year, however, there was enacted a law 27 giving the electors in each township the power to elect three school trustees and one treasurer, these trustees being au- thorized to lease the school lands of their township and to apply 23 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1876, p. 62. 2 * See Laws of Florida, 1839, pp. 15-16. 25 By act of February 25, 1840, this was increased to ten. 26 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1843, pp. 34-36. 27 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1844, pp. 61-65. RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 9 the rents or profits to the use of common schools in that town- ship. The townships were also empowered to unite with one another for the purpose of holding their school lands in common. Acts of 1845. On March 10, 1845, there was passed an act which made some changes and improvements in the school law. 28 Among other things, it provided that " the judges of the county courts of the several counties of the Territory " should officiate as " superintendents of common schools in their respective coun- ties." They were entrusted with partial supervision of the school trustees, and directed to perform some of the present functions of a county school superintendent. The trustees were required to make a report to the judges, on or before the first Monday in December of each year, on all matters committed to their charge. The judges were to consolidate these returns and forward them to the secretary of the Territory, who was to embody them in his report to the legislative council. On July 25 of that same year an act was passed 29 authorizing the governor to select, in accordance with the provisions of an act of Congress approved June 15, i844, 30 other lands in place of any sixteenth-section lands included in private claims. He was also authorized by this act to obtain from the treasury of the United States the money to which Florida was entitled by the congressional act of June 23, :836, 31 known as " An act to reg- ulate the deposits of public money," said money to be forever and inviolably pledged to purposes of education. 32 Under this same act, the net proceeds of all escheated estates were ordered to be invested and the income used for the benefit of public education. 28 For this act see Laws of Florida, Twenty-third Session (the last session under the territorial government), 1845, pp. 20-22. 29 For this act see Laws of the State of Florida, First Session, June- July, 1845, p. 40. 30 By this act the Territory had been given the power, where the six- teenth sections were covered by private claims, to select other adjacent lands, within the land district, which had been offered at public sale but remained unsold. For this act see United States Statutes at Large, V, 666. 81 For this act see United States Statutes at Large, V, 55. 32 The legislative council had been informed that Florida was entitled to the sum of $382,335.30 as her share of the surplus revenue in the national treasury (see House Journal, 1845, j,. 50-51) ; but as far as can be ascertained she never received any of the said revenue. 10 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA Legal Organisation of the School System in 1845. Summariz- ing the early educational legislation in Florida, we find that the legal organization of her school system in 1845 may be briefly outlined as follows: The administration of the schools was placed in the hands of a board of trustees for each township, the judges of the county courts, and the secretary of the Territory. The trustees, who were elected by popular vote, were directed to care for and rent out the sixteenth-section lands, appropriate the revenue to educa- tional purposes, establish and maintain schools, and to do what- ever was related to the welfare of the schools in their township. They were also directed to report annually to the judges of their county the number of teachers employed in the schools, the num- ber of children enrolled, the various subjects taught, and such other information as they might think expedient. The judges of the county courts were to serve as school superintendents in their respective counties. As such they were to see that the sixteenth-section lands were properly cared for, that the income derived from them was inviolably appropriated to the use of schools, and to have the oversight of all matters pertaining to the advancement of the schools. They were also to make an annual report to the secretary of the Territory concerning the condition of common-school education in their respective counties. There was no territorial board of education or school superintend- ent. The secretary of the Territory was the only territorial officer with any school duties, and his work in connection with the schools was simply to revise the reports of the county judges and lay the results before the legislative council. Beyond this there was no provision for any centralized control or supervision of the schools. The administration of the schools, therefore, was almost entirely local, the unit of organization being the township. The common schools were to be sustained by the income from four sources the sixteenth-section lands, the net proceeds of all escheated property, the funds to be obtained from the national treasury under the surplus revenue act, and ten per cent of all the territorial tax and auction duties that might be received, 33 33 The Territory also assisted education by means of lotteries. In 1834 Quincy Academy was authorized to raise twelve hundred dollars by this means (see Laws of Florida, 1834, p. 56). That same year the mayor RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA H the income from this last source to be used " for the education of poor orphan children." There seems to have been no pro- vision whatever for a tax for the support of schools. However, the income from the above sources appears to have been sup- plemented by tuition fees, which were charged all children except those of the poor; at any rate, there was no requisition that the schools should be free, except to the poor. There were no provisions regarding the erection and care of school buildings, the length of the school term, the branches to be taught, the textbooks to be used, the certification of teachers, and several other important matters. There was no provision even for the professional training of teachers, except that of an act approved February n, i838, 3 * making it the "duty of the county court, in each respective county of the Territory, immedi- ately upon the organization of the Dade Institute, 35 of Florida, to send one young man to the said institute, to be educated as a schoolmaster, from the county from which he shall be sent." Actual Gains to Public Education, 1822-1845. Having thus summarized the legislation in Florida relative to the sixteenth- section lands for the period from 1822 to 1845, an d having also noticed the form of legal organization that was perfected for utilizing the benefits to be derived therefrom, it now seems proper to review and take stock of the actual gains to the cause of public-school education during this period. As we have already seen, abundant legal provision appears to have been made for securing considerable public-school revenue from the sixteenth-section lands reserved by Congress for public- school purposes. Unfortunately, however, the laws respecting these lands seem never to have been faithfully executed. In fact, in many instances they were not even put into operation. Gov- ernor W. D. Moseley, in his message to the general assembly of 1846, said that the laws had been so poorly enforced that trespassers of the school lands had been enjoying, "without even reproach," their " ill-gotten gains." 36 He also stated that and aldermen of St. Augustine were empowered to raise ten thousand dollars by a like device for the establishment and maintenance of a free school (see Laws of Florida, 1834, p. 64). 34 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1838, p. 60. 35 This school was chartered the same day. For the act chartering it see Laws of Florida, 1838, pp. 64-67. 3 Vide H. J., 1846-47, P. 8; also S. J., p. 7. 12 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA the money which had been received from the rent of the school lands had been " not only wholly useless, but what is much more humiliating, shamefully neglected or criminally squandered." 37 It is quite evident, therefore, that very few, if any, of the town- ships got much benefit from their sixteenth-section lands. How- ever, as to the amount of money actually used for the support of schools, there appears to be no record. As we have also seen, by the close of the period a fairly good school law had been perfected ; but, like the other legislation that we have noticed, there were many townships in which it was never carried into effect. As far as can be ascertained, only a very few strictly public schools were ever established, 38 the principal ones being the Monroe County School, 39 located at Key West, and the Franklin County School ; 40 and but few of these were entirely free, except to the poor children. In con- sequence, they were probably of brief annual duration, and at- tended almost wholly by orphans and children of indigent parents. It may be asked: "Where did the children of the wealthier class of people receive their instruction?" Of course, some of them attended the common schools of Florida; but, for the most part, they were sent to schools of the Territory known as acade- mies, institutes, and so forth. And, as in the case of the common schools, the records of these institutions are very meager, but we have enough data to show their existence. It seems that they were mainly primary and secondary schools combined, and in most cases they were probably more primary than secondary. The leading ones, together with the date of their incorporation, were as follows : Leon Academy, 1831 ; Pensacola Academy, 1831 ; Jefferson Academy, 1832 ; Quincy Academy, 1832 ; Bethel Acad- emy, 1832; Marianna Academy, 1833; St. Augustine Free School, 1834; Calhoun Academy, Leon County, 1836; Gadsden Academy, 37 Ibid., pp. 7 and 6, respectively. 38 In 1840, according to the United States census report for that year, there were but 51 common schools, with an enrollment of only 925. 39 This school was incorporated March 14, 1844 (see act entitled "An act to organize the Monroe County School," in Laws of Florida, 1844). 40 This school was incorporated March 15, 1844 (see act entitled "An act to provide for the establishment of a public school in the county of Franklin," in Laws of Florida, 1844). It was "for the education in rudimental branches of the poor children of said county." Tuition was free. RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 13 1837; Southern College, St. Augustine, 1837; St. Andrews Col- lege, Washington County, 1838; Dade Institute, 1838; Oscilla Academy, 1839; Maccasukie Academy, 1839; Calhoun Academy, Madison County, 1839; Alachua Academy, 1839; St. Joseph Academy, 1840; Cherry Lake Academy, 1841; Hamilton Acad- emy, 1841 ; Salem Academy, 1841 ; West Florida Collegiate Institute, 1844; and Leon Female Academy, 1845. What then were the actual gains to public-school education in Florida during this period? Unfortunately we have very little data concerning the various phases of public education. In fact, as Dr. A. D. Mayo^tells us, 41 there appears to have been but little to report with regard to the result of the first attempts to plant the common school in Florida. And this is what one would naturally expect, considering the large amount of un- explored territory, the sparseness of the population, the lack of wealth, and the barbarous effects of the Indian war waged in the Territory. But the history of the public school in Florida from 1822 to 1845 is to be understood not so much by the results actually achieved, such as the number of schools taught, children enrolled, teachers employed, and the like, as by the growth of the idea of universal education. Viewed from this angle, we find, from the number of educational societies established, the legis- lation passed with respect to the school lands, and the school law that was evolved, that by 1845 Florida had at least taken a step in the direction of education for the masses; and this com- pares favorably with what was accomplished in any of the other Southern States. SUMMARY Very little, if any, public interest in education in Florida seems to have been manifested until 1831. That year some public- spirited citizens of Tallahassee, deploring the educational con- ditions of the Territory, organized what was called the Florida Education Society. The main object of this society, together with its branches, which were formed in several town? in the Territory, was to diffuse information on the educational status 41 Mayo, A. D., " The Organization and Development of the Amer- ican Common School in the Atlantic and Central States of the South, 1830 to 1860 " ; in the Report of the United States Commissioner of Edu- cation, 1899-1900, Vol. I, p. 491. 14 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA and needs of the people, and to pave the way for the establish- ment of a general system of instruction. These societies aroused an interest in education seldom seen in a new and sparsely settled region. A number of schools were immediately estab- lished, the principal ones being the schools at St. Augustine and the manual-labor school at Tallahassee. Unfortunately the ardor of this progressive spirit seems to have soon subsided. In a few years the societies themselves ceased to exist, and we have no record that any others were established in their place. Just what was attempted with reference to public schools in the territory of Florida can perhaps best be seen by noticing the school legislation. A number of laws were passed, the main ones being those pertaining to the sixteenth-section lands which had been reserved by Congress for common-school purposes. The first act of the legislative council for the preservation of these sixteenth-section, or common-school, lands was passed in 1828. Other acts regarding the preservation of these lands were passed in 1832, 1834, and 1835. But no attempt was made by the territorial authorities to utilize the benefits to be derived therefrom until 1839, when the first school law was enacted. This directed that three trustees should be chosen in each town- ship to care for and lease the school lands and to apply the in- come accruing from the same to the instruction of the children. Several amendments to this law were made, the principal one being that of 1845. That year there was authorized a partial supervision of the action of the township trustees by the county judges, who were to act as superintendents of common schools in their respective counties. The trustees were directed to report annually to the judges, who were to consolidate the returns and submit them to the secretary of the Territory, by whom the re- sults were to be laid before the legislative council. Just what was actually accomplished by the efforts to estab- lish a general system of instruction in the Territory of Florida, no one can say, on account of the meager records we have. As far as we can learn, only a few real public schools were ever es- tablished. The chief gain seems to have been in getting the people to see the importance of public education. CHAPTER II RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORID A -Concluded II. BEGINNINGS OF THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM Having noted the efforts that were made to plant a system of public schools in Florida, while it was still a territory, let us now turn our attention to a summary of the efforts made from 1845, tne y ear it became a state, until 1869, when the present public-school system was established. In the first place, let us examine the educational provisions of the constitution of the State and of various acts of the legislature. A. Constitutional and Legal Provisions Constitution of 1845. The first constitution of Florida, 1 adopted on the third day of March, i845, 2 na d the following provisions concerning education : 3 "'Section i. The proceeds of all lands that have been, or may here- after be, granted by the United States for the use of schools and a sem- inary or seminaries of learning, shall be and remain a perpetual fund, the interest of which, together with all moneys derived from any other source applicable to the same object, shall be inviolably appropriated to the use of schools and seminaries of learning, respectively, and to no other purpose. " Section 2. The general assembly shall take such measures as may be necessary to preserve from waste or damage all lands so granted and appropriated to the purpose of education." As may be seen, the constitution of Florida for 1845, like many of the other early state constitutions, gave but scant rec- 1 For this constitution see The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws (compiled and edited by Francis New- ton Thorpe), Vol. II. 2 It was framed by a convention which met at the old town of St. Joseph, in Calhoun County, from December 3, 1838, to January n, 1839; and was at once presented to Congress, but was not adopted until 1845. when Florida was admitted to the Union. 3 Article X. This article was repeated almost verbatim in the con- stitutions of 1861 and 1865. in 16 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA ognition to education. It contained only two brief passages on the subject; and these, like the early educational legislation of Florida, dealt almost exclusively with the public lands "granted by the United States for the use of schools and a seminary or seminaries of learning." The main object of its educational pro- visions was "to preserve from waste or damage all lands so granted and appropriated . . . ." Acts of 1847 and 1848. The sixteenth-section lands, 908,503 acres in all, 4 which the Federal Government had reserved not granted to Florida on its organization as a territory for the use of common schools, were granted to it on its admission as a state. The oversight and control of them, during both the ter- ritorial period and the first two years of statehood, was confided largely to the township trustees. But by an act approved Jan- uary 6, i847, 5 this power was placed almost entirely in the hands of the register of public lands of the state of Florida, an office established in December, i845. 6 As before, though, none of the sixteenth sections could be sold, but simply rented or leased. Now, the system of renting or leasing proved very unprofitable and unsatisfactory; so the legislature of 1847-48, complying with the recommendation of Governor W. D. Moseley, 7 memorialized Congress for permission to sell the said lands, on condition that the proceeds thereof would be invested in some permanent fund, and the proceeds of such fund applied to the purpose for which they were granted to the State, and to no other use or purpose whatever. This permission being granted, the following legis- lature, by an act approved December 28, 1848, directed that the sixteenth-section lands be sold by the register of public lands, and that the proceeds thereof be paid into the treasury of the State for the establishment of a permanent state common-school fund the first attempt to make public education a state affair. School Legislation of 1849. The first law, after the admission of Florida to the Union, to provide for a system of public in- 4 See The Public Domain; Its History, with Statistics (compiled by Thomas Corwin Donaldson), Chap. XIII. 5 For this act see Laws of Florida, 1846-47, pp. 47-49. 6 See Laws of Florida, 1845, Chap. 54. 7 See his message to the legislature of 1847-48, in the House Journal, State of Florida, 1847-48, pp. 14-15 ; also in the Senate Journal, pp. 12-13. 8 See Laws of Florida, 1848-49, Chap. 230. RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 17 struction was enacted January 10, 1849. This law authorized the establishment of common schools, whose doors were to be open to all white children of the State between the ages of five and eighteen. The overhead control of the system was entrusted to the register of the land office, who was directed to act as state superintendent of schools, the judges of probate, who were directed to act as superintendents of schools for their respective counties, and local boards of trustees, who were to be elected annually by the taxpayers of the various school districts. The duties of the state superintendent were: (i) to make an annual report to the governor; (2) to apportion annually the school moneys to be distributed among the different counties; (3) to certify each apportionment to the comptroller of the State, and to inform each county superintendent at once as to the amount and date of payment of the apportionment made to his county; (4) to have printed and distributed to the several counties forms and instructions on all matters relative to the schools; (5) to decide appeals and controversies due to the operation of the act ; and (6) to perform such other duties required of him. The chief duties of a county superintendent were: (i) to divide his county into a suitable number of school districts; (2) to apportion annually the school money received by him among the various districts of his county; (3) to examine and certificate teachers; (4) to visit the schools at least once a year, and en- deavor to promote an interest on the part of all in public-school education; and (5) to make a report to the state superintendent between July i and October i of each year. And finally, the principal duties of the school-district trustees were : ( I ) to make out the tax list for their respective districts, and, when deemed necessary, to call special meetings of the taxpayers; (2) to ap- portion among the different schools the moneys received by dis- trict taxation; (3) to purchase or lease sites for district school- houses; (4) to have custody of the school property; (5) to make out rate bills, or tuition fees; (6) to employ teachers and pay them their wages; and (7) to make an annual report to the county superintendent regarding (a) the length of time the various schools were taught, (b) the amount of money received and expended, (c) the number of white children of school age See Laws of Florida, 1848-49, Chap. 229. 18 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA residing in the district, on December i prior to the report, and (d) the number of children that attended school. On the day before the passage of the foregoing law, there was passed an act " for the increase, investment, safe-keeping, and disbursement of the common-school fund." 10 The aim of this act, of course, was to make better provisions for the support of the common schools. It directed that the five per cent re- ceived from the United States for the sale of public lands within the State, 11 the proceeds of all escheated estates, the net pro- ceeds " of all property found on the coasts or shores of the State, or brought into the State or its ports as wreck or derelict of the seas," and all other property thereafter granted for the purposes of common-school education, should be added to the school fund ; 12 that the proceeds of the fund should be paid to the treasurer of the State, who was " to keep a separate and distinct account of all receipts and disbursements on account of the school fund;" and that the comptroller should invest the same in either the state or United States stocks. The interest accruing from this fund, according to the law noticed above, was to be distributed among the various counties in proportion to the number of white children between the ages of five and eighteen attending school therein. Acts of 1850 and 1851. One of the weaknesses of the school law of 1849 was that it was too restrictive with regard to the investment of the school fund. It limited the power of the comptroller to invest in Florida and United States stocks. Now, as State Superintendent Beard pointed out, 13 Florida had no stocks, and those of the United States were so high that it was not expedient to purchase them. On December 31, i85O, 14 this weakness was remedied by the passage of an act which em- powered the comptroller to invest the school fund in the stocks 10 See Laws of Florida, 1848^49, Chap. 231. 11 Known as the " five per cent fund." 12 When the state common-school fund was first established, Decem- ber 28, 1848, it consisted only of the proceeds of the sixteenth-section lands, or of other lands selected in lieu thereof. 13 See Annual Report of the Register of Public Lands and State Super- intendent of Schools, in the House Journal, State of Florida, 1850-51, appendix, 51 ; also in the Senate Journal, appendix, 12. 14 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 338. RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 19 of Florida or other states of the Union, or to loan the same to qjty or county authorities within the State. Another weakness of the law was its failure to make adequate provision for the support of the schools. However, in 1851 three attempts were made to remedy this. The first was on January 6, when the counties were authorized, for the first time in the history of Florida, to levy a tax on both real and personal prop- erty for the support of the common schools ; but the amount levied could not exceed four dollars annually for each child of school age. 15 This limit seems to have been unnecessary for, as far as can be ascertained, only a few counties ever levied any school tax whatever. 16 The "second attempt was on January u, when an act was approved which required that the proceeds " derived from the sale of slaves under the act of November 22, 1829," should be added to the school fund. 17 This, however, was re- pealed two years later. And finally, the 'third attempt was on January 24, when provision was made for increasing the school fund from the state treasury. 18 The law enacted provided that in all counties where the money arising from the interest of the school fund was not sufficient to allow two dollars to be given annually for the education of each child the state superintendent should notify the comptroller of the amount of said deficiency, and also of the amount required by each county superintendent to make up the deficiency in his county ; and that the treasurer, on the warrant of the comptroller, should pay to the several county superintendents the amount of said deficiency. But in the distribution of this school money no share was to be allowed for any child who had not attended school for at least three months within the year just preceding the time at which the distribution was to be made. 19 School Law of 1853. On January I, 1853, another school law was enacted, 20 which was more detailed and specific than the 15 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 343. 16 See House Journal, State of Florida, 1854-55, appendix, 6-S ; also Senate Journal, appendix, 6-8. 17 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 341. 18 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 339. 19 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, Chap. 340. 20 See Laws of Florida, 1852-53, Chap. 510; also Laws Relating to Common Schools in the State of Florida (printed by order of the gen- eral assembly in 1860), pp. 3-7. 20 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA one of 1849. By this law the control and direction of the schools was given to the register of public lands, the county commissioners, the judges of probate, and local trustees. At the head of the system was the register of public lands, who was declared ex officio superintendent of schools for the State. As superintendent of schools, he had general supervision of all the common-school interests of the State. His chief duties were: (i) to ascertain, on the first day of July of each year, from the comptroller and treasurer of the State, the amount of school money to be distributed, and thereupon apportion it among the various counties; 21 (2) to certify the same, at once, to the comptroller, and also notify each county superintendent of the apportionment made to his county; (3) to have printed and transmitted to the several county superintendents such forms and instructions as he deemed requisite ; and (4) to make a biennial report to the governor as to (a) the condition of the schools, (b) the school receipts and expenditures, (c) plans for enlarging and administering the school fund, and for improving the schools in general, (d) the number of children in each county between five and eighteen years of age, (89 75 From taxation 776 From public funds 20 22,136 16,908 Illiterates over 20 3,859 5,341 Libraries : Public I 54 Volumes l.OOO 37. 12^ Sunday-school and church 4 4 860 4.250 School 2 8 800 5,000 Total libraries . . 7 66 Total volumes ... 2,660 46,375 Newspapers and periodicals: Number . 10 22 Circulation 5.750 15,500 Copies printed annually 319,800 I,08I,600 The figures given here are for whites only. 6 The number of inhabitants between 4 and 20 years of age. c Superintendent Corley gives $9,530.10 as the amount received from public funds, while the United States census report gives only $2,340 as the amount received. which has been prepared from figures given in the United States census reports of 1840, 1850 and 1860, and in State Superin- tendent Hugh A. Corley's report for i859~6o. 50 Educational Accomplishment from 1860 to i86p. Thus we have seen that by 1860 Florida had made a good beginning in the direction of establishing a public-school system. She had 50 For this report see S. J., 1860-61, app., 28 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA laid the foundation, and had commenced to build thereon. But with the outbreak of the Civil War, that which she had so well begun had to be discontinued until life had resumed a more normal course. The schools which had been in operation were brought to an end; and both the seminary and common-school funds were given the governor to be used in helping to defray the expenses of the war. 51 During the war some efforts were made to establish and maintain free schools, especially for the children of the soldiers ; 52 but very little was accomplished, as the attention of the people was absorbed in the preservation of the state and home. And just after the war there were some attempts at public education, particularly for the indigent children ; 53 but again little could be done, on account of the dreadful conditions that prevailed over the State. For by the close of the terrible conflict the educational facilities had, for the most part, been completely destroyed; the total principal of the common-school fund had been spent for arms, ammunition, and other objects, and the only really productive portion remaining was about 600,000 acres of unsold land; and, worse still, the property of the people throughout the State had been greatly diminished in value. In addition, the people had become very much alarmed by the fear that coeducation of the races would be forced upon them by a reconstruction legislature or a Congress possessed with millennial zeal for universal brotherhood. These and many other hindrances rendered public education practically impossible. So unfavorable were the conditions that almost nothing was ac- complished until the establishment of the present public-school system in 1869. C. NEGRO EDUCATION So far, in our treatment of the rise of the public school in Florida, we have confined our attention to the establishment of schools for white children only. But our study would be incomplete without specific mention of the efforts to educate the negroes. In closing this chapter, then, let us direct our attention to what was done in the way of establishing schools for negro children. 81 See Laws of Florida, 1860-61, p. 232. 52 See Laws of Florida, 1864, pp. 19-20. 53 See Laws of Florida, 1866, p. 50. RISE OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL IN FLORIDA 29 Negro Education Prior to 1865. Prior to 1865 the negroes received no education in terms of the school. In fact, laws were passed which made the establishment of negro schools impossible. For example, in 1832, while Florida was still a territory, a law was enacted prohibiting negroes to congregate for any purpose ex- cept for work or to attend divine worship at any place attended by white persons. 54 Again in 1846, one year after Florida be- came a state, a similar but more stringent law was passed. 55 Schools Conducted under the Auspices of Certain Northern Benevolent Associations. But in 1865, shortly after the close of the war, certain Northern benevolent associations, particularly the African Civilization Society, the Home Missionary Society of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, and the New York branch of the American Freedmen's Union Commission, began to estab- lish negro schools at different points in the State. Through these agencies thirty schools were in successful operation at the end of the year. 56 In regard to these schools, Hon. C. Thurston Chase, state superintendent of public instruction, in his report submitted to Governor Harrison Reed on January 9, i869, 57 has this to say: "Numbers of the ladies who assumed the duties of teachers were persons of wealth and high social position at home. Coming at a time when the freed children were cast suddenly at the threshold of a new life, unused to the responsibilities and ignorant of the duties thus thrust upon them, they were welcomed with great joy, and labored with sincere Christian devotion, amidst hardships and privations. The teachers have changed, but most of the schools are still maintained." Legal Provision for Negro Education. Early in the following year January 16 a law was passed providing for the creation of a public system of education for the children of the f reedmen. 58 It provided for the appointment, by the governor, of a super- intendent, who *' I33.260.00' c William P. Haisley William P. Haisley William P. Haisley William P. Haisley Eleazar K. Foster Eleazar K. Foster Eleazar K. Foster 1883-84 476,184.00* 2OI,82O.66 fc Albert J. Russell All the figures given here have been taken from the reports of the various state superintendents, excepting those relating to the invested school-fund in 1881, 1883 and 1884, and the amount expended during the year 1881-82, which have been taken from the reports of the state treasurer and the United States commissioner of education. 6 Approximately. c No data. d This was the amount of the state apportionment and the estimated schoo tax collected by the various counties. The state apportionment ($59,146.50) , however, was issued in warrants, and not all of it was realized; but just how much of it was realized it is impossible to say, owing to the lack of county reports. * Estimated from partial data. f See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1874, p. 37. See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1874-76, p. 88. h See report of state treasurer. ' Estimated at $117,532 by State Superintendent Sheats (see Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 62). * See Rep. of Com. of Educ., 1882-83, p. xix. * No reports from Calhoun, Dade, Escambia, and Holmes counties. The United States Commissioner of Education, in his report for 1883-84 (p. 48), gives $172,718 as the amount expended. But this is evidently wrong (see Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1882-84, p. 26). money spent for school purposes. This was due in a large measure, of course, to two causes. In the first place, it was due to the growth of public sentiment in favor of common schools. During this period the interest in common schools had WORK OF THE SYSTEM 57 so increased that instead of only eleven counties with an average school tax of but one and one-half mills, as was the case in 1870, there were in 1884 thirty-nine counties with an average school tax of a little over three mills. 25 In 1874 there were five counties which had levied a tax of six mills or more. 26 That year, however, a law was passed fixing five mills as the maximal rate for the county school-tax. 27 This, of course, did not have much effect upon the school receipts for the State as a whole, since there were so few counties affected. 28 But five years later the legislature enacted a law making two and one-half mills the limit. 29 This did affect the school receipts, and consider- ably, too, since the school tax in a majority of the counties at that tirre ranged from three to five mills; and, hence, it explains the decrease in school expenditures for the year 1879-80. Public interest in education, though, was so great that a law was passed in 1 88 1 fixing two and one-half mills as the minimal rate and four as the maxiftial rate. 30 Immediately twenty-one counties increased their school tax some to three mills, some to three and one-half mills, and still others to four mills. 31 Had it not 25 The total number. However, we are not certain concerning two of these counties, Dade and Hernando, as we have no record as to this matter; but we do know that they levied a tax of two and one-half mills the year previous. 26 Lafayette, 6 ; Marion, 6 ; Monroe, 6 ; St. Johns, 7 ; and Washing- ton, 8. 27 See Laws of Florida, 1874, Chap. 2030. 28 The decrease in school expenditures for 1875-76 may be explained partly by this limitation, but principally by the decrease in the assessed value of the property of the several counties and by the lack of contribu- tion from the Peabody Educational Fund. 29 See Laws of Florida, 1879, Chap. 3100. 30 See Laws of Florida, 1881, Chap. 3222. 81 These counties, together with their school tax, were : Alachua 3 mills Nassau 4 mills Bradford 3 mills Orange 4 mills Calhoun 3 mills Polk 3 mills Clay 3 mills Putnam 3 mills Duval 3.5 mills St. Johns 3 mills Franklin 4 mills Sumter 3 mills Hernando 3 mills Volusia 4 mills Lafayette 4 mills Wakulla 3 mills Levy 4 mills Walton 3 mills Marion ' 3.5 mills Washington 4 mills Monroe 4 mills 5 & PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA been for these two acts just mentioned, it is quite likely that the school tax in the different counties would have been even higher than it was at the end of this period. Anyway, the sentiment in favor of education for the masses had so grown that the tax-rate for common schools had more than doubled since 1870. But in addition to the interest taken in public ed- ucation, another cause for the steady and constant increase in the school expenditures was the growing prosperity of the State. During this period the wealth of the State had more than doubled. In 1870 the assessed value of the property of the State was only $29,700,022, while in 1884 it was $60,042,655. 32 This increase in wealth, together with the growing interest on the part of the people in the educational welfare of the youth, went a long way in overcoming the chief hindrance to progress in the public-school system. Educational Organisation and Administration. Another hin- drance to educational progress during this period was the lack of efficient organization and administration. This was due partly to certain defects in the common-school law, but chiefly to a failure on the part of the administrative officers to carry out faithfully and judiciously the provisions of this law. Some of these defects have already been indicated. 33 However, they are well worth a somewhat more detailed study. i. The state and county superintendents of schools were ap- pointed by the executive head of the State. Consequently, there was a temptation to play politics at the expense of the schools, and too often this temptation proved irresistible. Men were chosen, not on the basis of fitness for service, but with reference to party affiliation, thereby working disastrous results in respect to the educational welfare of the youth of the State. This was especially true from June 8, 1868, until January I, 1877, during which time the government of the State was in the hands of a political party that was neither elected by, nor in favor with, the majority of the intelligent voters and property-owning people of the State. Hence, there were a great many who did not co-operate in the educational movements as they would have 32 These figures have been taken from the Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 62-63. 33 Vide ante, p. 46- WORK OF THE SYSTEM 59 done, had they been in sympathy with the party in power. But with the beginning of the administration of Governor George F. Drew, a " conservative," as a member of the opposing party was then called, there was an increased interest, and, therefore, increased progress in the public-school system. 2. The county superintendents of schools were not compelled to keep proper records and to make complete reports to the state superintendent. As a result, many of the county superintendents failed to perform their duty in this respect. In nearly every report of the state superintendent of public instruction, especially during the first half of ttie period, this criticism was made, and in many cases it was suggested that a law be enacted compelling these officers to keep systematic records and to make satisfactory reports. No such law, however, was passed, but with the ex- ercise of greater care in the selection of the county superin- tendents, more accurate, reliable, and immediate records were kept, more satisfactory reports were made, and hence greater efficiency in the common schools was promoted. TABLE IV NUMBER OF COUNTIES REPORTING TO THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (1870-1884) 3 * Years No. of counties reporting No. of counties not reporting Years No. of counties reporting No. of counties not reporting 1870 1871 1872 1873 1874 1875 1876 1877 28 36 32 37 25 a ] b 39 ii 3 7 2 14 a b O 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 39 39 39 * 6 30 37 b \ b 9 2 No data as to the exact number, but Superintendent Hicks says that many failed to make any report. 6 No data. 34 The figures of this table have been taken from the reports of the various state superintendents of public instruction. Note the large num- ber of counties which failed to report previous to 1877. The reports that were sent in were unsatisfactory, being very unsystematic and apparently very incomplete. 60 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA 3. Provision was made in the school law of 1869 that the census of the school population in each county should be taken by the county tax assessor once every year. This was a duty which should have been required of an officer over whom the county board of public instruction exercised direction and con- trol, say, the county superintendent of schools; and instead of the enumeration being taken annually, it should have been taken about once every four or five years. But since this task was as- signed to one who had no such connection with this board, the cen- TABLE V NUMBER OF COUNTIES REPORTING THEIR CENSUS RETURNS TO THE STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION (1870-1884) 35 No. of No. of No. of No. of Years counties counties not Years counties counties not reporting reporting reporting reporting 1870 28 ii 1875 1871 26 13 1876 37' 2 1872 b b 1880 39" o 1873 2 4 C 15 1884 37 2 1874 25" 14 Several of the reports from these counties were incomplete. 6 The State Superintendent says that very few returns were forwarded to the state department of education. e The reports from two of these counties were incomplete. d Probably more. The State Superintendent says that very few returns were received. Many of those that were received later were very incomplete. * The returns from one county were deficient; from two, inaccurate. * The returns from some of these were incomplete and inaccurate. sus was oftentimes either not taken at all or the census records were very inaccurate and incomplete ; and since the enumeration was taken annually instead of quadrennially or quinquennially, it called for the expenditure of money which should have been spent for teachers' salaries and school buildings. A majority of the state superintendents of schools, and many of the county superintendents, suggested that the school law be amended so as to provide for the taking of the school census by the county 35 The figures of this table have been taken from the reports of the several superintendents of public instruction. WORK OF THE SYSTEM 5! superintendents; and many of them suggested also that the enumeration be taken every five years instead of once every year. Had such amendments been made, it would have resulted in greater accuracy and completeness in the census returns and a large saving in expenses. However, the law was amended in i874 36 so as to provide for the taking of the census in 1876, and quadrennially, instead of annually, thereafter. This resulted in somewhat more satisfactory census returns, lessened the school expenditures considerably, and, hence, made for greater educational progress. 4. The members of the board of public instruction in each county were appointed by the state board of education on the recommendation of the representatives of the county and the nomination of the county superintendent of schools; and the maximal number of the board was fixed at five. In 1882 State Superintendent Foster suggested that this mode of appointment should be changed. 37 Had they been selected in a different manner, say, elected by the qualified voters of the county, it would, in all probability, have resulted in better qualified mem- bers, since they would have been selected more with reference to their fitness for the work than with reference to the ones to whom they had given, or promised to give, their political sup- port. Also, had the maximal number been reduced to three in- stead of five, as was recommended by four of the state super- intendents, 38 this would have diminished the expense and, as ex- perience has shown, increased their efficiency. No such change was made in the law; but during the administration of State Superintendent Haisley, and apparently thereafter, the state board of education reduced the number of members of the various county boards from five to three, save in a few of the most densely inhabited counties. This plan, says Superintendent Haisley, 39 worked well, and saved the State nearly fifteen hun- dred dollars a year another aid to educational progress. 5. Instead of making the county treasurer of each county the treasurer of its school fund, the general provisions on schools 36 See Laws of Florida, 1874, Chap. 2008, p. 82. 37 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1881 and 1882, p. 23. 38 Beecher, Gibbs, Haisley, and Foster. 89 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, p. 3. 62 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA provided for the appointment of this officer by the county board of education. Consequently, this increased the school expenses more than was necessary. In 1877 a law was passed making the county treasurers of the different counties of the State the custodians of the school funds of their respective counties. 40 " This law," says Superintendent Haisley, 41 " has fully met my expectations, 42 and been a saving of at least twenty-five per cent to the school fund, as compared to the amount paid treasurers under the old law." This change was undoubtedly conducive to greater efficiency in the schools. 6. The qualifications of the county school superintendent were not defined. Hence, men were frequently chosen for this most important office in the public-school system who were almost entirely unqualified for the position. They were selected with- out any reference to their personal qualities, their academic and professional preparation, their sympathy with the system, and their practical experience in school work. Although some of them were well qualified, and were faithful and zealous in the performance of their duties, a great majority of them were totally unfit for the work, and altogether incapable of perform- ing the duties involved. This is quite evident from the letters and reports sent to the state superintendent. It is not sur- prising, then, that the schools did not, in many cases, attain a higher standard, and that quite a number of people regarded the office of county superintendent as useless and involving an unnecessary expense. In this connection Hon. Samuel B. McLin, acting superintendent of public instruction, in his report for the year ending September 30, 1874, uses the following language : 43 " One of the best methods of securing county superintendents would be to create a state board of examiners, and require of each aspirant for this office a certificate of merit from said board before making his appointment. It is a solecism in our school system, that while no teacher is employed or paid without due examination and licensure, no credentials or qualifications are required of the man who conducts the examination, and issues or refuses to issue the certificate. It is 'submitted that this is neither reasonable nor safe, for the wise provision of the law in requiring 40 See Laws of Florida, 1877, Chap. 2085. 41 See op. cit., p. 23. 42 It was Superintendent Haisley who recommended this change. 43 Vide pages 53-54- WORK OF THE SYSTEM 63 proof of the fitness and competency of teachers, is obviously liable under such conditions to be negatived and nullified in any county at any time. Some evidence of competency, some tangible proof of the possession of proper qualifications and capacity to discharge its duties, should be made a condition of eligibility to the office of county superintendent. Either let it be divested of its natural attributes and rendered worthless as an edu- cational force, or let the door be closed against worthlessness and in- competency." 7. And lastly, the unit of organization for administering the school system was the district, that is, a subdivision of the county having usually but one school. The administration of the ed- ucational affairs in this relatively small area was entrusted al- most entirely to a board of trustees consisting of not more than five members and appointed by the county board of education on the recommendation of the patrons. To this board was delegated such powers and duties as the erection, rental, and repair of school buildings, the employment of teachers, 44 the oversight of instruction and the disciplining of pupils powers and duties which should be given to none but competent men. As to the effects of this system, they were readily apparent. It is needless to mention them here, for they have been pointed out by our educators for the last fifty years or more. It may be said, however, that the men selected as trustees were usually very incompetent and inefficient; they were short-sighted, un- progressive, and, still worse, men of very low ideals. The system was unnecessary, expensive, and stood in the way of uniform educational progress. Such advancement as was made during this period was made, not because of, but in spite of, the district school trustees. Thus we have noticed the defects in the school law which constituted a hindrance to educational progress. But a greater hindrance than these, perhaps, was the failure to administer this law faithfully and judiciously. Speaking along this line, Gover- nor Drew, in his message to the legislature, January I, 1877, said : 45 44 The common-school law virtually gave the trustees the power to employ the teachers, for section 19, clause 4, of the law required that the county board of public instruction in each county should employ such teachers as were satisfactory to the trustees. 45 See Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1876, p. 65. 64 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA " Our public-school system, though a good one in the main, is not without its fault's and imperfections, among which may be named a tend- ency in its practical working to draw an undue portion of the funds to the towns and more densely populated localities, while the sparsely settled and remote portions of the large counties are deprived of the benefits. A plan is now under consideration which, it is believed, will lessen, if not remove, that defect. Other slight changes, with a view of lessening the expense of operating and increasing the fund for distribu- tion, may be made when it can be done to advantage. But where there can be no change without crippling or destroying the efficiency of the sys- tem, no change should be attempted. There has been more injustice done by failure to comply with and faithfully carry out the provisions of the law than from any defect of the system itself. Section 13, paragraph 6, of the common-school law requires the superintendent of public in- struction to apportion, annually, the interest of the common-school fund and the fund raised by the one-mill tax authorized by sections 4 and 5 of article 8 of the constitution among the several counties of the State, in proportion to the number of children residing therein between the ages of 4 and 21 years. General provisions on schools, section 38, provide that it shall be the duty of the tax assessor of each county, at the time of assessing the taxes of his county, to take the census of all the children of the county between the ages of 4 and 21. It appears from the accompany- ing report of the superintendent of public instruction that the census has not been taken since 1873. The work was begun in 1876, but not com- pleted. The census records of 23 counties only are found in the office cf the department. There must have been a large increase of scholastic population since 1873; consequently an apportionment made on 74,228, the number at that time, is incorrect." Another weakness in this connection was the great influence played by party politics in the selection of school officers and in the performance of their duties on the part of these officers. Too frequently men were chosen, not because of their compe- tency and worth, but because of their political opinions and party affiliations ; and oftentimes, so Hon. McLin tells us, 46 did the county superintendency fall into the hands of men who pros- tituted it to their political advancement or pecuniary gain. As he says, 46 " This should not be .... The interests involved are too weighty, the results too far-reaching, to be sacrificed to such base purposes." Public education should have no con- nection whatever with either sectarianism or partisanship; but all who are in any way connected with the public-school system should be chosen on the basis of their fitness to do the work required of them, regardless of their religious and political beliefs. 46 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub Ins., 1873-74, P- 53- WORK OF THE SYSTEM 65 Still another weakness was the lack of a strong bond and a helpful relation between the state and local educational authori- ties. Section 13, clause 3, of the school law of 1869 provided that the state superintendent of public instruction should call meetings of the county superintendents and other school officers for the purpose of imparting and obtaining information and suggestions on the practical workings of the school system. It appears from the annual reports of the state superintendents that no such meetings were held. However, in 1877 the state board of education, believing that a visit by the state superin- tendent to each county in the State would greatly promote the efficiency of the school system, decided to use the five hundred dollars per annum which had been appropriated up to that time as a contingent fund to the state superintendent's office in de- fraying the expenses of such a tour. Superintendent Haisley visited all the counties of the State once every two years, met with and instructed each of the county boards of public instruc- tion in respect to the proper construction of the law and their official duties, and thus strengthened the bond between the state and local authorities, and stimulated an interest and enthusiasm that could not have been brought about, perhaps, in any other way. His official tour of the State in 1877 was the first that had ever been made. His successors, however, did much along this line, and otherwise, in strengthening the bond of those en- gaged in a common work and in popularizing the public schools. Other weaknesses were the failure of the tax assessors to take the census of the youth, of the county commissioners to levy an adequate tax, and of the county superintendents of schools to make accurate reports to the state superintendent of public instruction. But with the exercise of greater care in the selection of these officers, the increase of public sentiment in favor of common schools, and greater effort on the part of the central authorities to be of help to the local authorities, these weak- nesses were almost entirely overcome by the close of the period. The School Plants. Still another obstacle to educational progress during this period was that arising from the want of suitable school plants. As a rule, the number of school buildings was entirely inadequate to accommodate the children of school age ; and what buildings there were, were exceedingly poor. Most 66 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA of them were small, built of indifferent materials, badly con- structed, unfavorably located, and almost completely devoid of necessary equipment. In 1869 there was almost a total lack of suitable school buildings and equipment. Speaking of the obstacles in the way of progress in the common schools for that year, the superintendent of Alachua County, Mr. S. F. Halliday, in his report to the state superintendent of public instruction, has this to say : 4T " The want of suitable school buildings is another serious obstacle. Several of the schoolhouses in this county are made of logs, and that in the coarsest and rudest manner. Some are destitute of fire-places or stoves. The pupils during the inclement weather being uncomfortable, of* course cannot apply themselves closely to their studies." In another place he says : 47 " It is estimated that there are still about six hundred youth, who are not attending school for want of suitable accommodations." Another superintendent, Mr. J. C. Emerson, of Nassau County, says in his report to the state superintendent : 48 "... There are seven schools in operation. . . . " Two are considered comfortable and convenient ; the others need fur- niture, blackboards, and most of the appliances usually employed as aids to instruction." Still another county school superintendent, Mr. James H. Went- worth, of Taylor County, speaking of the schoolhouses in his county, says in his report to the state superintendent of public instruction : 40 "The 8 in use are provided by the citizens free of rent. Each has a broom, a drinking-cup, and a well of good water. Four have water- buckets ; three have chairs and tables for the teachers ; one is well seated. None have any apparatus or blackboards. All are without outhouses. Very considerable repairs are needed." Many others could be quoted, but these quotations are enough to show the deplorable condition of the school buildings and equipment in the State for the year 1869. This condition of the school plants was due, of course, chiefly to apathy on the part of the patrons, the lack of finances, and 47 See Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1870, p. 18. 48 Ibid., p. 30. 4 Ibid., p. 33. WORK OF THE SYSTEM 57 inefficiency on the part of the school officers. So with greater interest in public education, increased prosperity of the people, and better qualified county school boards and county school superintendents, there was a decided improvement in both the quantity and quality of the school plants in the several counties. While there was never a time during the period in which there were adequate and suitable accommodations for all the children of school age, there were a number of counties in which much progress was made along this line. Mr. John F. Bartholf , county superintendent of Manatee County, in a letter to Jonathan C. Gibbs, state superintendent of schools, October 8, 1873, says: 50 " We are erecting some fine frame schoolhouses, well filled up with desks, seats, teacher's stand, etc., the first in this county as heretofore our schools have been kept in some old log outbuilding or other, badly exposed to the weather, and almost entirely destitute of proper desks and seats." Rev. W. Watkin Hicks, state superintendent of public instruc- tion, in his biennial report submitted to Governor M. L. Stearns on December 31, i876, 51 says that there were some excellent school buildings in Florida. Another county superintendent, Mr. A. Crenshaw, of Volusia County, in his report to the state superintendent, December 15, 1880, states that there was a dis- position on the part of the patrons to improve the school build- ings and to supply more needed furniture. 52 And Hon. E. K. Foster, state superintendent of public instruction, in his biennial report for the school years 1881 and i882, 53 says that in many localities excellent school buildings were being erected and fur- nished with a view to the health and comfort of the school children. The following table will partially show what was done during this period in the way of providing suitable school buildings. The Courses of Study. A fourth hindrance to progress in the common schools for this period was that arising from the lack of outline courses of study. For nine years there was absolutely nothing done, either by the state or local authorities, 50 See Rep. of Supt of Pub. Ins., 1873, P- 49- 51 See page 95. 52 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80, p. 53- 53 See pages 21-22. 68 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA TABLE VI THE NUMBER OF SCHOOLS OPERATED AND TOTAL VALUE OF SCHOOL PROP- ERTY ( 1869-1884)5* Years Number of schools Value of property Years Number of schools Value of property 186970 2 ^O 1877-78 992 $116,934'* 187071 *J 1878-79 ,050 187172 444 1879-80 .131 132,729* 18727"? eil i 880-8 i ,165 187^74 ^7 1881-82 ,234 187471; ;o8 6 1882-83 ,479 1875-76 l87677 675 C 887 1883-84 .504 210,115' Estimated from partial data. 6 No reports as to the number of schools from nine counties. Estimated at 664 by Superintendent Sheats. c No reports from fifteen counties. Estimated at 770 by Mr. Sheats. d See Rep. of Com. of Ed., 1878, p. xvi. * See Rep. of Com. of Ed., 1880, p. xxii. * See Rep. of Com. of Ed., 1883-84, p. xxi. in formulating suggestive courses or plans for the guidance of the teachers. 55 The content of the courses offered, therefore, differed greatly, not only among the different counties of the State, but also among the various schools in the same county. As a rule, the curricula were very narrow, consisting simply of reading, writing, arithmetic, and spelling ; a few schools, however, taught some geography and English grammar. The teaching of any other subjects was very much discouraged by some. Even State Superintendent Haisky recommended " that no other branches be introduced except in the cities and larger towns, where special charters have been granted to allow the citizens to tax themselves in order to support schools of higher grades." 5 vided for a district school-tax of not more than three mills; di- rected that the state board of education should consist of the governor, secretary of state, attorney general, state treasurer, and state superintendent of public instruction; directed that the state and county superintendents should be elected by the qual- ified voters ; authorized the legislature to provide for the division of any county into convenient school-districts, and for the election biennially of a district school-board of three members; required that the children of the white race and the children of the colored race should be taught in separate schools, but ordered that equal school privileges should be accorded to both races; demanded that all county and district school-funds should be expended for nothing but school purposes, and that no public- school funds should be used for the support of sectarian schools ; and ordered the following legislature to provide for not more than two normals. The school law of 1889, like the constitution, directed that the state board of education should be composed of the governor, secretary of state, attorney general, state treasurer, and state superintendent of public instruction. It directed that the county boards of education should consist of not more than three mem- 110 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA bers, no two of whom could live in the same commissioner's district, and all of whom were to be nominated by the state superintendent and appointed by the state board. It gave the county boards sole authority to employ and assign teachers; directed them to prescribe the elementary courses of study for their respective counties; and authorized them to establish and maintain county high schools. It provided for local school supervisors to take the place of the old local school-boards; made provision for special school-districts; and provided for county and district school-taxes. During this period considerable educational progress was made. There was a persistent and unabated growth of public interest in the work of the common schools, as is evidenced by the willingness of the people to support the schools. School organ- ization and administration became more efficient. More adequate and more suitable school plants were provided. Better courses of study were offered. A larger and more competent teaching corps was secured. And finally, the system of public instruction was greatly extended. CHAPTER VI THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING (1892-1921) We come now to the modern era of public education in Florida, which began in 1892. During this period of twenty-nine years there has taken place a remarkably rapid advance. The ed- ucational ideal has been very much expanded, the administrative organization has become much more efficient, the system of pub- lic instruction has been greatly extended, and the courses of study, textbooks, and methods of teaching have been consider- ably improved. More than ever before, the people of the State have come to believe in education for the masses. The elemen- tary schools have multiplied, and one or more good high schools have been established in every, county. The school receipts have become much larger, the school term has been considerably lengthened, and salaries have sufficiently increased to attract better officers and teachers. More adequate provision for the prep- aration of teachers has been made, better supervision of instruc- tion has been provided, and the inspection of schools has been made a part of the system. In this and the following four chapters we shall point out the progress that has been made in the public-school system of the State, mention some of the conditions that have been favorable to this progress, and finally, give a brief .outline of the system as it is at present. First, let us notice the evidences of educational growth and advance- ment. I. THE SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION One of the principal signs of the development of public ed- ucation in the State, it seems to me, is the advance that has been made with regard to the system of instruction. While there had been much improvement along this line, as we have found, by the close of the last period, there was still much need of greater extension and further humanization. During the present era, as will be shown, marked progress has been made in extending and humanizing the system of instruction, and in 111 112 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA bringing about a better adjustment between the various grades and divisions of the public-school system. We shall consider, and in the order here mentioned, the various parts of this system: (A) elementary-school instruction, (B) secondary- school instruction, (C) vocational education, (D) special types of school, and (E) higher and professional education. A. ELEMENTARY-SCHOOL INSTRUCTION The Extension of Elementary Instruction. During the last twenty-four years elementary instruction has been greatly ex- tended, the number receiving such instruction having considerably increased, and these for a much longer period. In 1897-98 there were but 108,455 children enrolled in the public elementary and secondary schools, of whom only 6,228 were in grades higher than the fifth; the average daily attendance was 74,004, or 48 per cent of the school population and 68 per cent of the enrollment; and the average length of the school term was 104 days. In 1919-20 there were 225,160 children enrolled, of whom 50,986 were in grades higher than the fifth; the average daily attendance was 165,720, or 54 per cent of the school population and 74 per cent of the enrollment; and the average length of the school term was 133 days. In other words, during this interval the average daily attendance increased 124 per cent, while the school population increased 103 per cent; the number receiving instruction beyond the fifth grade increased over 700 per cent; and the average length of the school term increased from 104 to 133 days. Table XIII, on the following page, shows the progress that has been made along these lines since 1892. Means Used in the Extension of Elementary Instruction. Various means have been used for the purpose of extending common-school instruction, some of the chief ones being com- pulsory school-attendance, educational campaigns, the formation of school-improvement associations, the provision of better and more adequate school plants, the employment of a more efficient and adequate body of teachers, and the transportation of pupils at public expense. The first of these, though discussed and urged by every state superintendent of public instruction, by nearly every convention of county superintendents, by numerous THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 113 O g r^or-- O O ^fr 00400 GO ro LO O O ON l>ooO O ON M rf TJ- rj- 04 M O t- t>> t oooiM Ot^O^tooO OO'tM 00>004OtOO 1 2 ON 0\ ON oo 10 to t^ t^ O ON HI 04 too C*5 M M 04 M to to o^ M Tt !> 6 00 04 O\O t- C^ ON 04 04 y 0) l E CO "^"ob *O too ON O i> O 00 04 O O O O0404 TfOtOOO .H S !3 5 M ON T}- O 00 ^f OO to ON 04 01 t|l r! 00 M ^b'o'b t^r^o 0400 O ON M 04 O >o 0^0 tOONOOM 1 i a 2 g*o 1 r^ M to t-*> i> ON O ON O S o 2 ^ ON t M PO ^T O l~- 00 Tf OO M C- T}- 00 t^ ON M d 111 3 |SS : 00 s M TS -3 -tt PO ON rf O4OO4 O4OOt O M 00 O4MM O O to t^ 04 rf > ON oo r^ 00 * ** oo O M 04 ON oooo O J> oo t O 00 *4- 'o. nToO ON >o oo OOO4ON ^tOtOO^tO OMON r^M0404ooi> MM O4tOlOt>ri-^ oo t^ ON M w -o c 2 S 5 . 2 3^.^ P- cfl g o 1 28^- ** o o ^r OO O 'b'o'o ONONO 000400 ON M oo O ON M 000 i>0 t>. 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C . 3 . . w '. i : 2 3 js ^"S i "S 2*0 1^ ilJiii*ilj :**?::: fc i g * 3 : : :Ia : :| : : ja ts g S g S"S S"S S 1 "3S i=eS2'SS2 O^4JO^3aJO-i-''tf 'l {|jijj|l!|H l&*w*i* A M js H d. ^ ^ g 2 2^ ^^ 2 o c^ S^^^S ri|P* ^H ft < I|s&lsastfi8 a, ^"S 60.2 OO ON "^f O\ *} ON oo ON t^ 10 o. 49 The object of its establishment was to reform young offenders of the law and restore them to the community with purposes and characters fitting them for good citizens, and with a trade fitting them for self-maintenance. 50 Until January of 1919, however, this institution was nothing 44 The enrollment for 1917-18. 45 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, II, 1244, 1250; Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1917, II, 661; and Bien. Rep. of the President of the Florida School for the Deaf and the Blind, 1916-18, 7-10, 29-37. 46 See the state superintendent's report for 1912-14, p. 308; 1914-16, p. 381 ; and 1916-18, p. 397. 47 In 1913 its name was changed to the Florida Industrial School for Boys (see Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6529). 48 See Laws of Florida, 1897, Chap. 4565. 49 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1898-1900, pp. 221-23. 50 See Laws of Florida, 1897, Chap. 4565, Sec. 4. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 151 more than a retention place for juvenile delinquents. 51 But since then it has made remarkable progress. Courses of study outlined for the regular public elementary and high schools, in- struction and training in twelve different industries, military training, a modern system of farming, and so forth, have been inaugurated; a teaching body of seven well-trained persons has been employed; and a building program looking to the erection of not less than fifteen new buildings has been adopted. 52 In- deed, it is rapidly becoming what it was intended to be a real reclamation school for delinquent boys. 53 A similar school for girls was provided for by the legislature of 191 5. 54 This institution, known as the Florida Industrial School for Girls, was located at Ocala, in Marion County, and was opened for the admission of students in 1917. From the beginning it has been what it was meant to be a reclamation school for girl delinquents. 55 Three teachers have been em- ployed throughout the year; and instruction has been given in reading, writing, arithmetic, spelling, language, story telling, history, geography, physiology, agriculture, home economics, and industrial work. 56 It has indeed rendered a splendid service to the State. With the erection of a new dormitory, hospital, laundry, and dairy, for which the legislature of 1919 made an appropriation, it promises to be of still greater service. 57 Kindergartens. Another special type of school for which legal provision has been made is the kindergarten. In 1905 the legis- lature passed an act which empowers any county board of public instruction or board of trustees of any special-tax school-district to establish and maintain kindergartens in communities that 51 Superintendent Frank E. McClane, in a letter written to me on January 26, 1920. 52 Superintendent McClane, in letter cited. 53 The enrollment for 1918-19 was 209. 54 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6840. 55 However, no girl is admitted who is pregnant. If such a one is re- ceived without knowledge of her condition, she is at once returned to the judge who committed her. 56 The number of students enrolled in 1918-19 was 40. 57 There is no printed report of the school. The information that I have concerning it has, for the most part, been obtained from its super- intendent, Miss Lumie B. Davis. 152 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA guarantee the attendance of twenty-five kindergarten pupils. Every kindergarten established must be a part of the public school in the same community, and under the direction and con- trol of its principal; and every teacher employed as principal of a kindergarten department must hold a certificate of grad- uation from a reputable kindergarten training-school. 58 As yet, however, not many public-school kindergartens have been es- tablished. 59 But, in view of the growing interest in this type of school, which I have observed among the people of several of the towns and cities, I feel that there will soon be quite a number of such schools in the State. E. HIGHER EDUCATION Higher Education Prior to 1892. Thus far, not much has been said in regard to higher education, because very little had actually been achieved along this line prior to the present period (1892-1921). However, the men who laid the foundations of the various institutions of the State were not guilty of over- looking the importance of such education. As early as 1823, only one year after Florida had been organized as a territory, two townships of land, known as seminary lands, were re- served by the General Government for the purpose of aiding in the maintenance of two higher educational institutions. 60 The following year the subject of higher education was discussed in the legislative council. In December, 1835, the register of the land office was authorized and directed to select and secure the seminary lands. 61 The next year a university was proposed, of which fourteen persons were named as trustees, in the act of Congress which authorized the sale of lands for its support. 62 Nothing, however, seems to have resulted from this proposal. In 1837, 1842, and 1843, legislative acts were passed providing for the preservation and leasing of the seminary lands, 62 the act of 1843 providing also for the lending of all sums obtained 58 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5387. 89 In 1914-15 there were but 10 reported, with a total enrollment of 535 (see Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1917, II, 15). 60 See United States Statutes at Large, Vol. Ill, p. 756. 61 See Thompson's Digest of the Statute Law of Florida, 1847, p. 40. 62 See Report on Seminary Lands, in House Journal, Adjourned Ses- sion, 1845, appendix. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 153 from this source on bond and mortgage at eight per cent. In 1845, when Florida was admitted to statehood, she was granted by the General Government two entire townships of land in addition to the two which had already been reserved, making a total of nearly one hundred thousand acres, 63 the proceeds of which were to be used for the establishment of two institutions of higher learning, one to be located east and the other west of the Suwannee River. 64 The state constitution adopted that year provided that such proceeds should be and remain a perpetual fund, and that the interest of this fund should be appropriated to no other purpose than the^one specified. 65 Two years later the register of public lands was authorized to protect and rent or sell these lands, and to invest the proceeds in United States stock. 66 The first step taken by Florida toward realizing the object of the foregoing Federal Grant was ' in 1846, when a board consisting of four members, two from each section of the State, was directed to give its views as to establishing the two educa- tional institutions. 67 The second step was in 1851, when a law was passed authorizing the establishment of two seminaries of learning, one upon the east and the other upon the west side of the Suwannee River. Their first object was to be 'the pro- fessional training of teachers; their second, the giving of in- struction in agriculture and the mechanic artb, " in the funda- mental laws, and in what regards the rights and duties of citizens." As soon as the buildings of either seminary were completed, half the interest that had arisen from the proceeds of the sales of the seminary lands was to be placed to its credit. 68 By an act approved January 6, 1^53, the seminary east of the Suwannee River was located at Ocala, in the county of Marion, as the result of an offer by the citizens of Marion County to give the State several town lots, with the buildings erected thereon, and one thousand six hundred dollars in money. 69 63 The exact amount received was 85,714 acres. 64 See congressional act of March 3, 1845. 65 See article ten. 66 See Laws of Florida, 1846-47, p. 47. 67 See Laws of Florida, 1846-47, p. 83. 68 See Laws of Florida, 1850-51, p. 97. 69 See Laws of Florida, 1852-53, p. 83. 154 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA This school, known as the East Florida Seminary, was opened in the fall of that year. Here it remained until 1866, when it was removed to Gainesville, 70 where for eleven years it continued to be, as before its removal, but little more than a local ele- mentary school. 71 But in June, 1877, Professor Edwin P. Cater was called to the principalship, which position he held for twenty- two years. 72 At once he began, and continued, to make im- provements. 73 That year the work was graded as thoroughly as possible, and the foundation laid for steady improvement along other lines. Gradually the elementary courses were dropped, and more advanced ones added ; 74 a more competent teaching force was employed; and better buildings and equip- ment were provided. From 1883 to 1892 the seminary did ex- cellent work, and was patronized by the entire State. However, it was not a college, but a high-grade secondary school with* the military feature and a commercial and a teacher-training department. The seminary west of the Suwannee River was placed at Tallahassee on January I, 1857, in consequence of an offer on the part of the citizens of that town to give the State ten thousand dollars, including the property of the Florida Institute, a school owned by them, and also to pay two thousand dollars per annum for the tuition of the children of said town. 76 This school, known as the West Florida Seminary, was opened the following month for the instruction of boys. No girls were admitted until the fall of 1858, after which instruction was given both the sexes, but in separate departments until 1882. Like the other seminary, this one was for the first fourteen years but little 70 See Laws of Florida, 1^65-66, p. 50. 71 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, pp. 24-25. 72 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1898-1900, p. 179. 73 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80, pp. 24-25, 56-58; 1880-82, pp. 15-16; 1882-84, pp. 10-12; 1884-86, p. 9; Annual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1887, P- 12; 1888, p. 14; 1889, pp. 12-15; 1889-90, pp. 12-15; 1890-91, pp. 11-12; and 1891-92, pp. 14-15. 74 The most important additions were the establishment of normal school work in 1880, the adoption of military training in 1883, and later the introduction of certain commercial subjects. 75 See Laws of Florida, 1856-57, p. 28. 76 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1880-82, p. 16. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 155 more than an elementary school for the children of the county in which it was located. 77 But from 1880 to 1892 considerable progress was made. In 1880 the primary courses were abol- ished. 78 Two years later coeducation of the sexes and military training were adopted, which helped to improve the work of the institution. 76 In 1883 the buildings were enlarged; new equip- ment was procured; a normal school established; and the num- ber of the faculty increased to seven, which was larger than it had ever been. As a result, there was also a larger enroll- ment than ever before, seventy-four students being enrolled, of whom fifteen were from beyond the limits of Leon County the county in which the school was located. 79 In August, 1887, when Professor George M. Edgar was called to the presidency of the institution, other improvements were inaugurated. For ex- ample, the work of the seminary was at once reorganized, the military feature being discontinued and the scope of instruction limited to four years of work two high-school and two col- legiate. 80 During the next four years the scope of instruction was extended, a splendid building erected, and better equipment provided. 81 In 1891-92 there were seven years of instruction offered three in the high-school and four in the collegiate department. The curriculum included courses in English, Latin, Greek, German, French, mathematics, history, political economy, philosophy, and natural science. That same year there was a faculty of five well-trained teachers and eighty matriculated students. Thus it is seen that considerable progress has been made since 1880. However, the seminary still lacked a great deal of being a standard college that is, in the sense in which the term is used today. Another legislative step toward the provision for higher educa- tion is found in the law passed February 18, iS/o, 82 and amended February 17, i872, 83 which provided for the establishment of 77 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80, pp. 23-25. 78 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1878-80, p. 59. 79 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1882-84, pp. 10-11. 80 See Annual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1887, pp. 9-12. 81 See Annual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1888, pp. 14-16; 1889, pp. 10- 12; 1889-90, pp. 10-12; 1890-91, pp. 10-11; and 1891-92, pp. 12-13. 82 See Laws of Florida, 1870, Chap. 1766. 83 See Laws of Florida, 1872, Chap. 1905. 156 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA a college to be known as the Florida Agricultural College in accordance with the terms of the congressional act commonly called the Morrill, or Land-Grant, Act of i862. 84 Having com- plied with the provisions of the congressional act, the State received from the General Government in 1872 ninety thousand acres of land, the proceeds from the sale of which were to be used for the support of the proposed college. 85 The next year a site for the institution was selected in Alachua County, but nothing further was accomplished. 86 In 1875 the location was changed to Eau Gallic, in Brevard County, where a temporary college building was completed the following year. 87 But, as before, no educational work was inaugurated. The place seems to have been entirely unfit. 88 Consequently, the new board of trustees, which was provided in March, 1877, appointed a com- mittee of three to decide upon a suitable location. 89 Nothing, however, was done until 1883, when the college was located at Lake City, in Columbia County, in consequence of its " central position and acknowledged healthfulness " and of a " generous and public-spirited offer " on the part of its citizens. 90 During the year 1883-84 an excellent building was completed, a faculty of five members selected, and a curriculum arranged. On No- vember i, 1884, the work of instruction was finally begun, with an enrollment of thirty-eight male students, 91 all of whom were in the preparatory department. 92 For the first two years this institution was but little more than a local high school with 84 For the Morrill Act see U. S. Stat. at L., 37th Congress, p. 503; and for an amendment to it see U. S. Stat. at L., 39th Congress, p. 208. 85 On December 21, 1874, this amounted to $80,000, with which the trustees had purchased $100,000 worth of Florida bonds (see Annual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1873-74, PP- 40-42). 86 See Annual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1872-73, pp. 17-31 ; and An- nual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1873-74, pp. 40-42. 87 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1874-76, pp. 96-106. 88 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, p. 56. 89 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1876-78, pp. 57-58. The au- thority for this was given by the legislature in November, 1877 (see Laws of Florida, 1877, p. 103). &0 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1882-84, pp. 12-13. 91 Women were not admitted until the fall of 1895. 92 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1884-85, p. 49. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 157 military training. 93 In 1886 the board of trustees, in order to effect an improvement, attempted to unite it with what was then known as the Florida University 94 under the name of the Uni- versity of Florida and Agricultural College. 05 Nothing, however, came of this attempt. But from 1886 to 1892 considerable im- provement was made. 96 For example, some of the elementary courses were dropped, and more advanced ones added; five new buildings were erected; better equipment was provided; and, in 1887, an agricultural experiment station was, in accordance with the terms of the Hatch Act, 97 established as a department of the college. In 1891-92 there were six years of instruction offered two in the preparatory and four in the collegiate de- partment. The curriculum included courses in English, Latin, mathematics, history, philosophy, physics, chemistry, biology, veterinary science, agriculture and horticulture, manual training and drawing, civil engineering, and military science and tactics. That same year there were over one hundred matriculated stu- dents, nearly fifty per cent of whom were in the college proper, 98 and a faculty of fourteen well-qualified professors. Thus it is evident that this institution was then providing fairly good opportunities for higher education; but, as in the case of the West Florida Seminary, it had been offering such opportunities 83 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1884-86, pp. 15-16. 94 This so-called university was organized by private enterprise under a liberal charter in February, 1883, Dr. John Kost being chosen as chan- cellor. It was proposed that the institution should embrace five different schools of instruction a college of literature and science, a college of medicine and surgery, a polytechnic and normal institute, a theological institute, and a college of law. The first two, however, were the only ones that were ever put into actual operation. The former was the West Florida Seminary; the other, the Tallahassee College of Medicine and Surgery. But these were conducted as branches of the university for only a brief duration. This scheme for a state university was soon dropped, Dr. Kost apparently its author becoming a member of the faculty of the Florida Agricultural College in 1886 (see Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1883-84, pp. 51-52; and U. S. Bu. of Ed., Circ. of Inf., No. 7, 1888, pp. 46-47). 95 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1884-86, pp. 14-15. 96 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1884-86, pp. 12-14; Annual Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1887, pp. 16-17; 1888, pp. 12-13; 1889, pp. 9-10 ; 1880-90, pp. 8-10 ; 1890-91, pp. 7-12; and 1891-92, pp. 9-12. " For this act see U. S. Stat. at L., Vol. XXIV, p. 440. 9 8 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, Vol. II, p. 1188. 158 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA only three or four years, and there were but few of the youth of the State who availed themselves of them. Still another step in the direction of higher education was taken in 1887, when a law was enacted providing for the estab- lishment of two state normal colleges one for whites and one for negroes." The former, known as the State Normal College for White Students, was placed at' DeFuniak Springs, in Wal- ton County ; 10 the latter, known as the State Normal College for Colored Students, at Tallahassee, in Leon County. 101 These schools were opened in October of that year for the admission of both sexes. From the very first both the work of instruction and the attendance were rather good. However, the courses of study were limited almost entirely to a review or completion of the common-school subjects and to the professional training of teachers for such subjects. Higher Education, 1892-1905. As we have just seen, Florida had accompjished very little in the field of higher education before 1892. She had made only a beginning. But during the years 1892-1905 there was considerable progress, as is evidenced by the increase in the number of students enrolled for higher educational work and by the improvement in the courses of in- struction, the teaching body, and the environment and equipment in each of the state institutions for higher learning. In the case of the East Florida Seminary 102 a more advanced curriculum was offered, some of the lower work being dropped and three years of higher work added ; 103 the number of teachers was increased from five to seven; and the buildings and equipment were improved, a girls' dormitory being provided, some much needed apparatus purchased, and several repairs made. In the 99 See page 99. 100 This school was maintained largely by annual state appropriations. 101 This school was maintained largely by a special congressional appropriation, tinder what is commonly known as the second Morrill Act, and annual state appropriations to meet the requirements not provided for by the congressional fund. 102 For an account of this school see the state superintendent's report for 1892-94, pp. 167-73; 1894-96, pp. 67-73; 1896-98, pp. 281-85; 1898- 1900, pp. 179-84; and 1900-1902, pp. 164, 173-78. 103 There is no record as to the exact number of students in the higher courses. However, there were probably sixty in 1900-1901, for there were ten in the graduating class that year. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 159 case of the West Florida Seminary, 104 known as the Florida State College after 1901, 105 additional courses were gradually provided 106 and the requirements for graduation slightly raised; the enrollment was greatly increased, there being but 73 students in 1891-92, only 25 of whom were in the collegiate department, and nearly 350 in 1904-05, over 150 of whom were in the col- legiate department ; 10T the faculty, also, was greatly increased, 108 there being but 4 members in 1891-92 and 17 in 1903-04 ; 109 and the school plant was considerably improved, a library build- ing and two commodious dormitories, one each for the young men and young women, being constructed, some additions and repairs made, and nearly 5,000 standard library books and con- siderable laboratory equipment procured. Thus it is seen that the growth of this institution was quite noticeable. But the growth of the Florida Agricultural College, known as the Uni- versity of Florida after I9O3, 110 was almost as great. 111 Some of the courses of study were greatly enriched, and several others added ; 112 the enrollment was a little more than doubled, there 104 F or an account of this school see the state superintendent's report for 1892-94, pp. 162-67; 1894-96, PP- 77-83; 1896-98, pp. 285-94; 1898- 1900, pp. 184-94; 1900-1902, pp. 163-64, 169-73; and 1902-04, pp. 189-92. 105 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, p. 163. 106 A department of science was inaugurated in 1898; a teacher-train- ing department, in 1900; a music department, in 1902; and a business de- partment, in 1903. 107 There were 15 in the graduating class in 1905. 108 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, II, 1141; and Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1903-04, II, 1473. 109 N O record for 1904-05. 110 See Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5272. 111 For an account of this institution see the report of the state super- intendent for 1892-94, pp. 137-62; 1804-96, pp. 87-107; 1896-98, pp. 269-81; 1898-1900, pp. 174-78; 1900-1902, pp. 164-65, 178-85; and 1902-04, pp. 182-89. 112 Four years' work in mechanical engineering, leading to the degree of bachelor of science, and two years' non-collegiate work in commercial branches, stenography, typewriting, and telegraphy were inaugurated in 1893 ; a group of courses specially fitted for training women, covering four years of work and leading to the degree of bachelor of science, was ar- ranged in 1895 ; and a group of courses in chemistry, civil engineering, and general science, each extending over four years and leading to the bachelor of science degree, and two years of non-collegiate work in mechanic arts were provided in 1901. 160 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA being no students in 1891-92, 49 of whom were regular college students, 113 and 225 in 1 904-05, 114 87 of whom were regular college students ; 115 the number of teachers was exactly doubled, there being 28 in 1904-05 ; 115 and many valuable changes and additions in the school plant were effected, several splendid buildings, including a dormitory, a science building, and a gym- nasium, being erected and equipped, a 238-acre farm purchased and improved, quite a number of teaching facilities added, and many minor improvements made. 116 Also, there was no little progress in the two state normals. In the one for white stu- dents, 117 the curriculum was extended to cover five years' work, instead of two, as was the case in 1891-92, and was placed on a more strictly professional basis ; 118 the enrollment was in- creased from 90 to 140 ; 11S> the number of teachers from 4 to 1 1 ; 119 and the environment and equipment were improved con- siderably, an excellent dormitory for young ladies, a new model school, a gymnasium, and a laboratory being built, three ad- ditional lots secured, and a few other valuable changes and ad- ditions made. And in the one for colored students, 120 which was moved to its present site 121 in 1891, the curriculum was greatly changed, there being added to it a richer and more varied con- tent, including courses in agriculture, home economics, and man- 113 See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed, 1891-92, II, 1188. 11* The enrollment for this year would have been larger, if the coeducational feature, established in 1895, had not been abolished in 1903. us See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1904-05, H, 690. i 16 The total value of the school property was increased from less than $200,000 to about $400,000. I IT For an account of this normal see the state superintendent's report for 1892-94, pp. 174-76; 1894-96, pp. 111-17; 1896-98, pp. 294-300; 1898- 1900, pp. 194-200; 1900-1902, pp. 165-66, 185-91; and 1002-04, pp. 193-200. 118 In 1904-05 courses in the following professional subjects were given: history of education, theory of education, school organization and super- vision, school management and discipline, psychology and child study, and practical pedagogy (see Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1004-05, II, 787). ii See Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, II, 200; and Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1904-05, II, 794. 120 For an account of this normal see the report of the state superin- tendent for 1892-94, pp. 177-80; 1894-96, pp. 121-28; 1896-98, pp. 301- 307; 1898-1000, pp. 201-206; 1900-1902, pp. 166-67, 208-11; and 1902-04, pp. 205-07. 121 Just a short distance from Tallahassee. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 161 ual work of various kinds ; the enrollment was nearly doubled, 122 it being 79 in 1891-92, and H3 123 in 1904-05; the teaching corps was increased from 6 to 19 members; 122 and the grounds, buildings, and equipment were made more adequate and suitable. In addition to the five mentioned, two other state institutions for higher education were provided during these years. These were the South Florida Military and Educational Institute, lo- cated at Bartow, and the St. Petersburg Normal and Industrial School, located at St. Petersburg. The former, 124 later known as the South Florida Military College, was established in May, 1895, an d placed under the direction and control of the state board of education. 125 One scholarship for each county was created therein, the beneficiary being given the benefit of a full four-year course of instruction without any charge for tuition, use of textbooks, arms and equipment, board, lodging, washing, fuel, and lights. The scholarships were awarded by the legis- lators of the respective counties. The school was supported almost entirely by legislative appropriations. It was tolerably well attended, the average attendance for the first eight years being fifty-five. Also a fairly good type of work was done, its graduates standing as high in business and professional life as those of any other school in the State. The second insti- tution, 126 as already pointed out, 127 was established about 1900. At first it was supported and controlled jointly by the town of St. Petersburg and Hillsborough County. But in 1901 it was made a state school, 128 after which it was supported and con- trolled by St. Petersburg, the county of Hillsborough, and the 12 2 See Kept, of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1891-92, II, 1284 ; and Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1904-05, II, 794. 123 This does not include the 131 students enrolled in the model and preparatory schools. 124 For an account of this school see the state superintendent's report for 1894-96, pp. 129-38; 1896-98, pp. 313-17; 1898-1900, pp. 206-11; 1900- 1902, pp. 167-68, 191-94; and 1902-04, pp. 175-85. 125 See Laws of Florida, 1895, Chap. 4334. 126 For an account of this school see the state superintendent's report for 1898-1900, pp. 315-19; 1900-1902, pp. 168, 195-99; and 1902-04, pp. 200-204. 127 See page 140. 128 See Laws of Florida, 1901, Chap. 4998; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, p. 199. 162 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA State. Here, too, the attendance was fairly good, and tolerably good work was done, especially in the way of training young men and women for elementary and high-school work. Consolidation of the Higher Educational Institutions. Thus it is quite evident that by 1905 Florida had made considerable progress in the field of higher education. However, she had made a mistake by endeavoring to maintain too many institu- tions a greater number than was warranted by her population and wealth. 129 She had also made a mistake by not requiring these institutions to make satisfactory differentiation among them- selves and to separate their work sufficiently from that of the high-school system. Consequently, the cost of their maintenance was disproportionate to the results obtained. None realized this more keenly than the educational leaders, who strongly urged the adoption of a policy of concentration and differentiation. As a result, the legislature of 1905 passed an act generally known as the " Buckman Act " providing for the adoption of such a policy. 130 The practical effect of 'this was to merge all the institutions for white students into two, the work of these being clearly differentiated from each other and that of the high schools of the State. The two newly created institutions were a university for men, known as the University of the State of Florida, located at Gainesville, and a college for women, known as the Florida Female College, located at Tallahassee. Higher Education since 1905. The remarkable advancement made by Florida in higher education since then has demonstrated the wisdom of the legislature in adopting the foregoing policy. There has been, as we shall see, a considerable increase in the number of students enrolled and a great increase in both the quantity and quality of work done, not only in the two insti- tutions for whites, but also in the one for negroes. The University of the State of Florida 131 was opened for the admission of students in the fall of 1905 in the buildings of 129 The .total population of Florida in 1900 was only 528,542; and the assessed valuation of all her property was but $96,686,954. 130 F or this act see Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5384. 131 For an account of this institution see the report of the state super- intendent for 1904-06, pp. 206-28; 1906-08, pp. 153-66; 1908-10, pp. 157-75; 1910-12, pp. 155-72; 1912-14, pp. 282-96; 1914-16, pp. 321-47; 1916-18, pp. 369-77; and the various catalogues of the institution since 1905. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 163 the former university at Lake City. Here it remained for one year, while buildings were being erected for its accommodation at Gainesville. That year the general organization and work were practically the same as they were the preceding year in the former university, the principal changes being that a distinct normal school, which offered courses leading to the degree of bachelor of arts in pedogogy, was maintained; that satisfactory completion of the eleventh-grade work was required for ad- mission to the freshman class; and that the agricultural ex- periment station was made .a separate division, although mem- bers of its staff continued to give instruction to the students and the president of the university acted as its director. The fol- lowing summer the university was moved to its new plant, which at that time consisted of about five hundred acres of land 132 and two splendid buildings. 133 During the first session here the organization and work were again but slightly changed. The normal school was abolished, the courses in education being transferred to the university proper; the members of the ex- periment station staff were required to devote their full time to agricultural research; and a university extension bureau was inaugurated. For the next two years there were also no changes of importance, except the rapid development of the extension work. In a short time this work included the offering of cor- respondence courses in agriculture for the public-school teachers, the holding of farmers' institutes, 134 public lectures by various members of the faculty, and the supervision of the high schools by the professor of secondary education. 135 But in 1909, when Dr. A. A. Murphree was elected president, steps were at once taken to reorganize the university, which at that time became known as the University of Florida. 136 By the next year its organization embraced the following eight divisions: (i) a graduate school, offering courses leading to the degrees of master of arts and master of science; (2) a college of arts and sciences, 132 All of this was given by the citizens of Gainesville. 133 These were worth about one hundred thousand dollars, of which the citizens of Gainesville subscribed forty thousand. 134 These were provided for by the legislature of 1907. 135 This chair was established in 1907, with the generous co-operation and support of the General Education Board of New York. 136 See Laws of Florida, 1909, Chap. 5926. 164 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA offering courses leading to the degrees of bachelor of arts, bachelor of science, and bachelor of arts in education; (3) a college of agriculture, offering courses leading to the degree of bachelor of science in agriculture; (4) a college of engineering, with curriculums leading to the degrees of bachelor of science in civil engineering, bachelor of science in electrical engineering, and bachelor of science in mechanical engineering; (5) a college of law, 137 with a curriculum leading to the degree of bachelor of laws; (6) a preparatory school, including courses for grad- uates of junior, or tenth-grade, high schools and short courses in agriculture and mechanical arts; (7) the agricultural experi- ment station; and (8) a university extension bureau. Since then there have been other important changes. In 1912 the teacher- training activities of the university were reorganized and a sep- arate division known as the Teachers College and Normal School was established. In 1913 the present academic requirement for admission to the freshman class went into effect, this require- ment being a satisfactory completion of the twelfth-grade work. That same year a summer school, intended primarily for teachers, but open to others also, 138 was established by act of the legis- lature. 139 The following year the co-operative agricultural-ex- tension work 140 provided for by the Smith-Lever Act of Con- gress 141 was inaugurated. In June, 1917, when the legislature of Florida accepted the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act, the university was designated as the institution for the training of white teachers of agriculture, trades, and industries, 142 and since then this vocational teacher-training work has been defi- nitely organized. It is evident, therefore, that since 1905 the university has made great progress in regard to its general organ- ization and work. During this same time it has also gained much in its material aspects. Approximately one hundred acres have 137 This college was established in 1909. iss This school has always been coeducational. 139 p or this act see Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6498. 140 This work included practical instruction and demonstrations in agriculture and home economics in the various communities of the State, and was carried on by the university in co-operation with the United States Department of Agriculture. "I For this act see U. S. Stat. at L., XXXVIII, 372. 142 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7376. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 165 been added to its domain; thirteen excellent buildings, worth about three hundred fifty thousand dollars, have been erected; and more adequate equipment and supplies have been provided. Its faculty and student body, too, have rapidly increased, the number of professors and instructors having increased from fifteen to sixty-five, 143 and the student enrollment from one hundred thirty-six to six hundred sixty-four. 144 Indeed, it -has grown into a real university, and promises to go on to still greater efficiency. The other higher educational institutions for whites, the Florida Female College, 145 was opened in the fall of 1905 also, in the old buildings of the former Florida State College at Tal- lahassee. 146 From the beginning the highest ideals have been fostered, as is shown by the mottoes of the new college seal Vires, Artes, Mores and Femina Perfecta. To realize these more fully there have been numerous attempts at improvement along all lines. During the first session the general organization was somewhat different from what it had been in the former college. It consisted of the following main divisions: a college of liberal arts and sciences, offering courses leading to the de- grees of bachelor of arts and bachelor of science; a school of industrial arts, with special emphasis on cooking and sewing; a school of fine arts, offering courses in music, both vocal and instrumental, drawing, painting, and expression ; and a school for teachers, which took the place of the abolished state normal at DeFuniak Springs. In 1906 the school of industrial arts was combined with the college and the school for teachers; and the school of fine arts was divided into three schools a school of music, a school of art, and a school of expression. In 1909 some 143 This does not include the numerous student assistants. 144 Including the summer school, the short courses for farmers, and the courses for the boys' clubs, the enrollment for 1919-20 was nearly thirteen hundred. 145 In 1909 its name was changed to the Florida State College for Women (see Laws of Florida, 1909, Chap. 5924). 146 p or an account of this institution see the report of the state su- perintendent for 1904-06, pp. 231-40; 1906-08, pp. 167-76; 1908-10, pp. 176-86; 1910-12, pp. 173-92; 1912-14, pp. 297-304; 1914-16, pp. 349-63; 1916-18, pp. 377-92; and the various catalogues of the institution since 1905. 166 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA extension work for the women and girls of the State was done by the director of the department of home economics. Two years later a regular extension division was established, the work of which, since 1914, has been conducted, for the most part, in co-operation with the University of Florida and the United States Department of Agriculture. In 1913 a summer school, de- signed for public-school teachers, but open to all students, 147 was established by legislative action. 148 Three years later a graduate school and a department of business were inaugurated. In June, 1917, when the provisions of the Smith-Hughes Act were accepted by the State, the college was designated as the institution to pre- pare white teachers of home-economics subjects. 149 To meet the demand for vocational home economics created by this Federal Act, there was organized the following year a school of home economics co-ordinate with the other schools of the college. Thus it is seen that since 1905 there has been a decided improvement in the matter of organization. Since then the plant, too, has been greatly improved. Six handsome brick buildings, modern in every respect, have been erected ; excellent equipment and sup- plies have been procured ; the campus has been enlarged and im- proved until it is one of the most beautiful in this country ; and a college farm consisting of nearly two hundred acres has been purchased and placed under cultivation. Also the teaching staff and student body have become much larger, the number of teachers having increased from about twenty to forty-five, 150 and the number of students from two hundred four to six hundred sixty-two. 151 And, as a result of these improve- ments, the standard of the college has been steadily raised. Since September, 1913, four years of standard high-school work, or its equivalent, have been required for admission to the fresh- man class. Since 1915 the college has been a member of the Association of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern States, an organization to which only colleges of first-class stand- 147 This school has always been coeducational. 148 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6498. 149 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7376. 150 This does not include the numerous student assistant's and those engaged exclusively in home-demonstration work. 151 Including the summer school, the enrollment for 1919-20 was over eleven hundred. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 167 ing are admitted, 152 and to which but few colleges for women be- long. Hence we see that it has become one of the very best colleges for women in the South; and, like the university, it has thoroughly justified the wisdom of the people of Florida in its establishment. Besides the institutions of higher learning for whites, the State has maintained one for negroes. 153 As already pointed out, 154 this was established in 1887 as a state normal, and was opened at Tallahassee in the fall of that year. Unlike the other higher educational institutions of the State, it was not abolished in 1905, but was continued as a state institution for the training and instruction of colored teachers, it becoming officially known as the Colored Normal School. 155 By that time the institution had made considerable progress. However, it was not yet a college, but a good secondary school with industrial, agricultural, home- economics, and teacher-training features. Since then it has made a great advance. For example, the plant facilities have been enlarged and improved, the number of teachers and students has been increased, the older courses of instruction have been modified and enriched, and several new ones added. At present the institution has twenty-two buildings; all of which are fairly good and tolerably well-equipped, a splendid campus, and over two hundred acres of excellent farming land. It has a faculty of forty-two well-trained men and women, and an enrollment of nearly three hundred fifty students. Its instructional ac- tivities include eight years of work four in the high-school 156 and four in the collegiate department. The collegiate work em- braces six groups of studies, each of which leads to a certificate or a bachelor's degree. These courses are in the liberal arts and sciences, vocal and instrumental music, teacher-training, 152 See Bull, of U. S. Bu. of Ed., 1917, No. 17, pp. 65-66. 153 For an account of this institution see the report of the state super- intendent for 1904-06, pp. 254-57; 1906-08, pp. 191-93; 1908-10, pp. 202- 06; 1910-12, pp. 193-95; 1912-14, pp. 312-16; 1914-16, pp. 395-405; 1916- 18, pp. 400-404; and the various catalogues of the institution since 1905. 154 See page 99. 155 In 1909 its name was changed to the Florida Agricultural and Me- chanical College for Negroes (see Laws of Florida, 1909, Chap. 5925). 156 The work in this department is practically the same as that of the standard four-year high schools of the State. 168 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA agriculture, mechanic arts, and home economics. During the past few years each phase of this work has gradually been enlarged and perfected. However, instruction in agriculture and home economics has been a special feature. In addition to the reg- ular courses in these subjects, extension work provided for by the Smith-Lever Act has been inaugurated, and, as President Young says, 157 has " developed most remarkably." The train- ing of teachers, too, particularly for vocational subjects, has been stressed. Vocational teacher-training work provided for by legislative and congressional appropriations, under the Smith- Hughes Act, has been undertaken. Special courses in agricultural, home-economics, trade, and industrial subjects have been organ- ized, and very satisfactory work is being given. 158 Also a two- months' summer school for active and prospective teachers, pro- vided for by the legislature of I9I3, 159 has been maintained. Thus it is seen that this institution has made rapid progress. For the last few years it has been, and still is, rendering an invaluable service to the State ; and, if the succeeding legislatures will be a little more generous in their appropriations, it is a safe prediction that it will render a still greater service. SUMMARY During the last two decades the movement for vocational ed- ucation in Florida has made considerable progress. Courses of instruction in commercial, industrial, home-economics, and ag- ricultural subjects have been introduced in quite a number of the public elementary and high schools, and some excellent re- sults accomplished. A regular department in one or more of these fields has been established in several of the high schools. Moreover, a number of the counties have introduced home- and farm-demonstration work, which is becoming more closely affili- ated with the work of the schools every year. During this time there has also been some advance in regard to special types of schools. The school for the blind and deaf- mutes, established in 1883, has been greatly improved. A reform 157 See Bulletin of the Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College, Series XII, No. 9 (September, 1919), P- 4- 188 See An. Rep. of Fed. Bd. for Voc. Ed., 1919, Vol. I, pp. 117-19- 159 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6498. THE PUBLIOSCHOOL AWAKENING 169 school for boys and one for girls, opened in 1900 and 1917, respectively, have developed into splendid reclamation schools for juvenile delinquents. Furthermore, legislative provision has been made for local kindergartens and some good schools of this type have been established. Since 1892 there has been notable advancement in higher education. Prior to that very little had been done in this field. But from 1892 to 1905 the five so-called higher educational in- stitutions already established were considerably improved, and two others provided. In 1905 a law was passed which reduced the number of institutions to three two for whites and one for negroes. Since then these have developed into real higher educational institutions, and, indeed, are rendering a great serv- ice to the State. CHAPTER VIII THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING Continued II. THE ENVIRONMENT AND EQUIPMENT OF THE SCHOOLS We have just noticed the advancement made with respect to the system of instruction as one of the chief signs of the develop- ment of public education during the present period (1892-1921). Another sign of this development is the advance that has been made with respect to the environment and equipment of the schools. Though there had been considerable progress along this line, as we have seen, 1 during State Superintendent Rus- sell's administration, there was, at the close of his administration (1892), still many deficiencies and needs for improvement. In this section we shall endeavor to show the progress that has been made since then in the way of removing the deficiencies and providing for the needs. In doing so we shall notice the following sub-heads: (i) buildings, grounds, and equipment, (2) health and sanitary conditions, and (3) textbooks used. Buildings, Grounds, and Equipment. Throughout the present period there has been a gradual awakening, especially on the part of school officers, to the importance of good, attractive, and well-equipped school buildings and grounds for all the children of the State. This is evident from numerous state- ments of state and county school officials. For example, in 1894 State Superintendent Sheats said that the policy of his admin- istration had been " better schools, and fewer, if necessary, to produce that result." 2 In 1897 Superintendent John C. Compton, of Lake County, speaking at the convention of county super- intendents, made this statement, which met the approval of the other members of the convention : 3 1 Vide pages 92-94. 2 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, p. 71. 3 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1894-96, p. 387. 170 THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 171 "... To make a school the most effective it should have a good, comfortable house, well lighted, ventilated and heated, and furnished with comfortable seats and desks. Our children should be as well pro- vided for as we ourselves are. ..." Five years later (1902) Superintendent Sheats reported: 4 " The spirit of school-house building is rapidly developing in the State, brick and neat frame buildings taking the place of improperly constructed and unsightly old structures. ..." Eight years after this (1910) quite a number of county super- intendents of public instruction stated that there was a growing disposition on the part of trie people to improve the school prop- erty, 5 the following statement by Superintendent T. W. Price, of Levy County, being quite typical of the others : 6 " For the past two years our people have been very active in im- proving their school buildings and grounds and making them more at- tractive and comfortable. ..." And three years ago (1918) Superintendent Sheats stated that since 1898 there had been a regular and continuous growth of interest along all material lines. 7 As a result of this awakening, and of new and improved legislation, 8 there has been a steady and persistent progress in 4 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, p. 38. 5 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1908-10, pp. 37, 38, 41, 43, 46, 49, 56, 59, 63, 66, 72, 75, 81, 87, 92, 94, 102, 104, 106, no, 116, 118, 130, 134, 135, and 154. 6 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1908-10, p. 102. 7 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 17 and 31. 8 There have been three legislative steps which have helped very much in the way of providing better school buildings and grounds. The first was taken in 1899, when an act was passed authorizing the board of pub- lic instruction of any county to contract debts for the purchase of real estate to be used for educational purposes (see Laws of Florida, 1899, Chap. 4682). The second was taken four years later, when the legislature passed a resolution proposing an amendment to the constitution fixing the maximum rate of millage to be assessed in each county for school purposes at seven instead of five mills. This amendment was ratified by the people at the general election in November, 1904 (see Bien. Rep. of Supt of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, p. 8). And the third step was taken in 1917, when the legislature passed a resolution proposing that the constitution be amended so as to fix the maximum rate of millage at ten mills. This amendment was adopted at the general election in November of the fol- 172 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA providing, improving, and equipping public-school buildings and grounds. The table on the following page will give us some idea of the progress made. Hygienic Conditions. There has been an awakening to the importance of the health of the school children, too. This may be seen by comparing the older reports of the various school officers with the more recent ones, the later reports having more to say with regard to the necessity of good health conditions. There have also been some important legislative requirements as to the health of the school children, the following being the principal ones: (i) that the teachers should offer instruction in hygiene to all children in the first six grades of the public schools; 9 (2) that they should teach the evils of alcoholic stim- ulants and narcotics to all public-school children between the ages of six and twelve years; 10 (3) that all school buildings should be provided with sanitary toilets; 11 and (4) that medical in- spection under the supervision of the state board of health should be provided for all pupils attending the public schools, the pupils being examined as to their physical condition at least once during each school year. 12 In consequence of these legislative requirements, and of recent interest in educational hygiene, there seems to have been con- siderable advancement in the school health movement. This appears from the fact that the reports of the school officers during the early part of the period had but little or nothing to say concerning hygienic conditions of the schools, whereas most of the recent reports call attention to many evidences of progress along this line. 13 They show, for example, that for the most lowing year (see Laws Relating to Education Enacted by the Florida Legislature of 1917 and 1919, compiled by State Superintendent W. N. Sheats, p. i). 9 See Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5206, Sees. 4 and 5. 10 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6832; supra, 120; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 78. 11 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6836. 12 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6829. 13 See, especially, the reports of the superintendents of public instruc- tion of Alachua, Bradford, Clay, Lafayette, Leon, Monroe, St. Johns, Santa Rosa, Volusia, and Walton counties, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, PP. 49i, 498, 507, 563, 572, 587, 609, 616, 632, 646; the re- ports of the superintendents of Broward, Calhoun, Dade, DeSoto, Duval, THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 173 00 00 Cl VO t CO M 000 CS VO t^ O *tO t PO M 00 O t- 00 M t vo O vo t^- M \O 006 t^vd M VOO O\ co oT Tj-00 vO O O O t VO M PO > >o M O VO O VO \O oo O <> VOM Tf 00 OOO t^MO TfNNNCOO\MO\N O t^cOtPOOO PON 00 O 00 M M O vo vo O M vo M C < too vo Oj .-..---, NI .- xi i-y w O O O O O \O N t O M O\ CO OO vo t^ PO t tNN'tPOM ^L' OOOOOxOt^-POVoOxONN O\OO\ t^O\t>-cOvot^cOPOO O\oOMOOMr COt^VONM MVOVO M^l> O\N>OMVOVOOOr^M Oi^hVOOOO NM CSM PON POOOVOPOW'itd'O^HT MO*VOI>CO O CONNMM PONOOO O\ O O M MOOPONNOvovoOrfMPOOOOvovoO Mft^rfvoO\t^O\oo OHiOvtO y^ MPOOOVOO\OVOPONMM OJ>PO ^-OPOO\OOOtO\Tj- (NMO\Nt>vo I M\OtMM OO^rf t^OO ^rfO'O^i'Nt^'Ovr* TJ-MNOOM C?M MM ciw NOOTfvO*POPOVorf VOO^O'VOPO 00 MMM POOJVONPO %> o N * " " ' ' ' ' ' ~* '' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' " ' ~- " " " * ' ' "t 0\ O vo M .- 00 cor^O w O\ NM 00 00 '* >> *:::l iii! M "o | : : :| 174 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA part the school buildings are better lighted, heated, and ventilated ; that they are provided with more comfortable desks, better water supply, and more sanitary toilets; and that more attention is given to the imparting of knowledge of hygiene, to the pro- viding of opportunities for play, and to the preventing of and caring for the physical defects of the children. 15 However, it should be pointed out that there are still many needs for improvement, the most common defects being the lack of prop- er lighting and suitable ventilation and toilet facilities. This is especially true in the small, isolated, rural schools. 16 Some of these schools have too limited amount of glass surface to admit sufficient light ; quite a number have windows facing the children ; and many of them have windows that are either poorly shaded, or else not shaded at all, the children being exposed to the direct rays of the sun, even in the hottest weather. Some of them have windows that are without weights or cords, and therefore no way of giving natural ventilation to the schoolrooms; quite a number have toilets or privies that are improperly constructed and poorly kept ; and some are " unsuitable from almost every standpoint." But in most cases the people are becoming dis- Gadsden, Hamilton, Holmes, Jefferson, Lake, Liberty, Madison, and Osceola counties, in Bien. Rep. of Supt of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, pp. 558, 560, 580, 595, 612, 629, 633, 644, 651, 659, 672, 675, 696; the reports of the superintendents of Franklin, Hernando, Hillsborough, Jackson, Marion, Okaloosa, Okeechobee, Orange, Pasco, Pinellas, and Putnam counties, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 608, 615, 620, 626, 657, 665, 668, 670, 687, 690, 709; and, also, the reports of the two state rural school inspectors, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 347- 58 and 359-67. 15 One county St. Johns maintains a dental clinic and provides free dental service to all public-school pupils in the county. This is made possible by the generosity of Mr. John T. Dismukes, of St. Augustine, who pays the dentist's salary (see Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 609; Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 711; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 713). 16 For an account of these defects see the reports of the state rural school inspectors for the calendar years 1917 and 1918, in the Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 347-67. Three years ago I had the opportunity of visiting quite a number of the public schools in nearly every county of the State. I found, as, stated in these reports, that as a rule the schools of the towns and cities had adequate provision for guarding the health of the children, while many of the country schools were quite deficient in this respect. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 175 satisfied with these poor conditions, and are spending consider- able time, thought, and money in removing them. Hence, it is quite probable that practically all the schools of the State will soon have adequate provision for guarding the health of the pupils. Textbooks Used. And, in the third place, there has been a great advance in the matter of textbooks. This has been due very largely to new and better legislation, the first advanced legislative step being in June, 1899, when a law was enacted providing for county uniformity of textbooks in the public ele- mentary schools. 17 This law fc required that the books constituting such uniform system in each county should be selected by the county board of public instruction, after consultation with the county superintendent and at least three leading teachers of the county; that the adoption of such system should be gradual, the entire adoption, however, consummated by July I, 1901 ; that the adoption should last for at least five years; that the county superintendent should see that the adoped books were used by the pupils; and that the teachers should use no other books in teaching. 18 As has been seen, 19 a law similar to this was enacted in March, 1883; but as it was omitted in the codification of the Revised Statutes, in 1892, the State ceased to have any law relative to the adoption of textbooks. Consequently, the county boards began to break away from the plan of making uniform adoptions, thereby reviving the old evils of poor quality, frequent changes, and multiplicity of textbooks. By 1898 it had become quite evident that another law upon this subject was needed. 20 No one recognized this more keenly than State Superintendent Sheats. In his report of July I, i898, 21 he recommended the enactment of a law requiring county uniformity. As pointed out in the preceding paragraph, such a law was enacted the following year. This law was put into operation at once in all the counties of the State, and remained so until 1911, when it was displaced 17 See Laws of Florida, 1899, Chap. 4680. 18 None of these requirements, however, could impair any entire or partial adoption already in existence in any county of the State (see section three of the law). 19 See page 72. 20 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1896-98, pp. 231 and 465. 21 See pages 36-37. 176 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA by a more advanced one. From the very first it gave satisfaction to nearly all the school officers and teachers and to a large majority of the patrons. 22 The only adverse criticism of it that I have been able to find was that it should have made the State, instead of the county, the unit for the adoption of text- books. 23 On May 23, 1911, an act was passed providing for state adop- tion. 24 This act constituted the board of commissioners of state institutions 25 a state textbook commission; and also created a subcommission of not less than nine members, four county superintendents and five teachers all of whom were to be ap- pointed by the governor for a term of four years. The com- mission was authorized and directed to select and adopt a uni- form series of textbooks for use in the public elementary schools, county boards of education still having the power to adopt high- school textbooks; but all books submitted were to be referred to the subcommission, which was directed to consider their merits without regard to price, and report on the same to the com- mission, indicating first choice, second choice, and so on, for each branch. The commission was further authorized and di- rected to award contracts for furnishing the books to be used in the public schools, no contract to be changed without the consent of four members of the commission and the publisher to whom it was awarded. All adoptions were to be for a period of five years, and after the first adoption not more than ten per cent of the books could be changed in any one year. The publishers were to maintain in each county of the State, if the commission thought advisable, and so demanded, "not less than one nor more than twelve agencies for the distribution of the books." The state superintendent was required to issue to the county superintendents a circular letter giving the list of books 22 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1898-1900, p. 45. 23 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, pp. 254, 264, 267, 270, 272, 297, 353, 359; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, pp. 73 and 92. 24 See Laws of Florida, 1911, Chap. 6178. 25 This board consists of the governor and the administrative officers of the executive department, and has supervision of all matters connected with the state institutions in such manner as may be prescribed by law (see Constitution of Florida, Art. IV, Sec. 17). THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 177 adopted, prices, location of agencies, method of distribution, and such other information as he deemed necessary. The books adopted were to be used to the exclusion of all others. Penalties were provided for the use of any book not upon the adopted list, for the failure of publishers to execute contracts within thirty days after being awarded them, for their failure to per- form them faithfully, and for overcharges on the part of both publishers and dealers. This act was soon put into effect in quite a number of the counties, and, like the foregoing act, gave almost universal sat- isfaction. 26 Superintendent Charles H. Gray, of Gadsden Coun- ty, reported : 27 "The uniform textbook law has proven a blessing, in that it has provided us with some excellent texts we were not then using, and in lowering the price generally. ..." Superintendent Marshall Moore, of Hillsborough County, re- ported : 28 " The uniform textbook law is working admirably well. ..." Superintendent H. H. Isler, of Leon County, stated : 29 "The uniform textbook law is just what we need, so as to be able to classify our schools in Florida. ..." And Superintendent W. T. Home, of Washington County, stated : 30 " The uniform textbook law is in full operation in this county. We are very much pleased with the results it brings. ..." 26 See the reports of the superintendents of public instruction of Baker, Bradford, Dade, DeSoto, Gadsden, Hamilton, Hillsborough, Holmes, Lake, Madison, Palm Beach, and Polk counties, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, PP. 496, 498, 5U, 521, 537, 540, 549, 555, 565, 578, 595, 606; and the reports of the superintendents of Brevard, Broward, Calhoun, Clay, Columbia, Duval, Lafayette, Lee, Leon, Liberty, Osceola, Suwan- nee, Volusia, Wakulla, and Washington counties, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, pp. 550, 558, 562, 571, 576, 612, 655, 665, 669, 672, 698, 745, 776, 786, 795. 27 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 537. 28 Ibid., p. 549. 29 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 669. 30 Ibid., p. 795. 178 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA The chief objections to this act were (i) that it did not go far enough, in that it failed to provide for state uniformity in the high schools; 31 and (2) that it did not make adequate pro- vision for distributing the books, thereby causing some incon- venience in a number of places. 32 To meet these and other objections the act was amended in 191 7, 88 and displaced by an entirely new one this year (1921). In 1917 the commission was authorized and directed to select and adopt a uniform series of textbooks for the high schools, also; and each of the publishers, or the several publishers combined, was required to establish and maintain a central book depository at some con- venient point in the State, to be designated by the commission, and, also, one or more agencies in each county for the distribu- tion of the books. A few other changes were made, the principal one being with reference to the subcommission. After that the subcommission was to be appointed by the governor, " upon the nomination of the state superintendent of public instruction"; and was to consist of ten members, " two county superin- tendents, two primary teachers, two grade teachers, two high- school teachers, and two teachers selected with reference to their experience in and knowledge of vocational subjects." As just stated, a new uniform textbook law was enacted by the last legislature. 34 Though this law embodies the main features of the old one, it differs from it in several particulars. The three chief differences are (i) that the subcommission shall be composed of " seven prominent educators actually engaged in school work in the State " ; (2) that all adoptions shall be for a period of eight years; and (3) that in any year when books must be adopted the adoptions shall be fully completed on or before March i. With these changes the uniform textbook law of Florida compares favorably with that of any other state. Another advanced legislative step was taken in June, 191 1, 35 when the legislature passed " an act to provide for furnishing school textbooks free to certain children." By the provisions 31 Ibid., pp. 546, 550, 553, 57i, 629, 656, 665. 32 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 676. 33 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7374. 34 See Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8500. 35 See Laws of Florida, 1911, Chap. 6163. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 179 of this act the county boards of public instruction are required to furnish textbooks free to all indigent children not over fifteen years of age ; however, when the children reside in a special-tax district the cost of the books is to be " charged against and paid for out of the funds to the credit of such district." It seems /that this act has always given general satisfaction, for I have been unable to find any adverse criticism of the same. It has certainly proven a great blessing, in that many poor chil- dren have been supplied with textbooks who otherwise would have been without them. Thus it is seen that there has been much improvement in the way of textbooks, those of today being better in quality, more sufficient in quantity, more conducive to proper classification of pupils, and at the same time less expensive than ever before. If this rate of progress is continued, the textbook conditions in Florida will rank with the best in the near future. III. THE TEACHING BODY Still another indication of the development of public education since 1892 is the advance that has been made in regard to the teaching body. In treating this topic we shall consider the following sub-topics: (i) the number, qualification, and experi- ence of teachers; (2) the preparation of prospective teachers; (3) the examination and certification of teachers; (4) the train- ing of teachers in service; and (5) the salaries of teachers. The Number, Qualification, and Experience of Teachers. There has been a notable increase in the number of teachers employed and in their qualification and experience. This is shown by the table on the next page, which has been prepared from figures taken from various reports of the state superin- tendent of schools. The Preparation of Teachers. As is seen in the following table, there has been a persistent increase, not only in the number of those engaged to teach, but also in their fitness for service. The importance of this has ever been recognized, especially by the school authorities. Consequently, better provision has been made for the preparation of those intending to teach. Additional agencies for the preparation of prospective teachers have been 180 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA TABLE XVIII STATISTICS RELATING TO THE TEACHING BODY (1897-1920) 1897- 98 1902- 03 1907- 08 1912- 13 1917- 18 1919- 2O 2,702 2,8ll r? CQ7 4.CQQ 6,ic,o 6 821 White teachers 2,108 2,175 2,7l6 3,5O9 5,062 ccc.4. Negro teachers .... 684 656 881 I,O9O 1,288 1,267 Certificates held by teachers: Both races 2,835 2,831 3,597 C 4,497 d 6,267* 6,291** White 2,151 2,716 3,464 5,049 5,096 Negro 684 881 1,033 i, 218 1,197 Total temporary 21 e 357 147 ci8 White 19 e 277 125 197 Negro 2 e 80 22 121 Total third-grade 82O 708 886 916 1,447 I,O26 White 497 410 486 529 818 645 Negro 323 298 400 387 629 l8l Total second-grade 1,460 1,281 1.396 1,834 2,371 2,l87 White 1,140 994 1,014 1,374 1,886 1, 8l7 Negro 320 287 382 460 485 C7o Total first-grade .... 512 693 795 i, 06 1 1,299 I.IlS White 471 640 736 973 1,240 I,o67 Negro .... 41 S3 59 88 59 71 Total life first-grade .... / / e 76 117 171 White / / e 59 100 141 Negro . / / e 17 17 28 Total primary . . . o o 76 118 112 White . . . o o 76 118 I2O Negro . . o o o o Total life primary . . IO e 41 105 112 White IO 41 105 no Negro . . o o o 2 Total special / / o 18 323 12S White / / o 18 319 112 Negro / / o o 4 11 Total state IO e 66 173 180 White 10 e 66 172 176 Negro o e o I Total graduate state / f / / 84 170 White / f / / 84 1 60 Negro / f / / o i Total life state 2 e 52 83 114 White . 2 e 51 82 III Negro o i i y Graduates of normal schools 117 i;8 614 964 778 oio White 2C8 274. 448 780 623 707 Negro CQ 84 168 184 155 122 Average experience in months . . 3Q 41 42 41 40 46 White males 47 CQ CO c? 42 62 White females . M ^2 14 16 T.A. 10 Negro males eg 71 89 101 90 no Negro females . . . . ^8 4.1 7Q IO 47 CT As is evident, some teachers held more than one kind of certificate. 6 This includes 149 certificates of other kinds than the first, second, and third grades. There is no record, however, as to how many of these were held by each race. c This includes 520 certificates of other kinds than the first, second, and third grades. Of this number 400 were held by whites, and 40 by negroes. d This is less than the number of teachers employed. Hence it seems that some of the teachers were not certificated. No data. f Not provided for at that date. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 181 provided, and existing ones improved. The first legislation in this direction was the act of May, 1901, which provided for the establishment and maintenance of one scholarship in the state normal at DeFuniak Springs for each county during the years 1901-02 and 1902-03, the beneficiaries to be given not only free tuition but also $12.50 a month for expenses. 36 The scholar- ships were to be assigned by the county superintendents and school boards of the respective counties, and only to young men and young women between the ages of eighteen and twenty-five who manifested teaching qualities and signed a pledge to teach for at least four years in the State or to return every dollar received. Two years later the sum of $9,000 was appropriated for the continuation of these scholarships during the years 1903-04 and I904-05. 37 The reports of this school show that the results of these appropriations were, indeed, very gratify- ing. 38 During the quinquennium 1900-1905 the enrollment in the teacher-training courses increased over forty per cent. In 1900-1901, it was 99; in 1901-02, 119; in 1902-03, 133; in 1903-04, 132; and in 1904-05, I4O. 39 Nearly all this increase was due to scholarship students, who for the most part possessed splendid qualities for teaching. Speaking along this line, Prin- cipal H. E. Bennett, in his report of 1904, said : 40 "... it is believed that the present scholarship students are of such character that they will fulfill the highest expectations." The legislature of 1901 also passed an act providing for an appropriation of $10,000 to assist in maintaining a normal and an industrial department in the St. Petersburg Normal) and Industrial School during the biennium 190103, for the creation of free scholarships in all the departments of the school, each member of the state legislature being entitled to select, under 36 See Laws of Florida, 1901, Chap. 4997. 37 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 196. 38 Ibid., pp. 193-200; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, pp. 185-91. 39 For these figures see the biennial reports of the state superintendent of public instruction for 1898-1900, 1900-1902, and 1902-04, and the an- nual reports of the United States commissioner of education for the years 1900-1905, inclusive. 40 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 197. 182 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA regulations and restrictions to be prepared by the state board of education, one beneficiary for each department, and for the furnishing of free tuition in the normal department to all stu- dents of the State preparing to teach. 41 Two years later the legislature made an appropriation for the carrying on of this same work during the biennium 1 903-05 , 42 As in the case of the state normal at DeFuniak Springs, the reports of this school show that the results of these appropriations also were very gratifying. 43 Principal Jos. E. Guisinger, in his report of 1904, said: 44 " Our normal school building is one of the best equipped school buildings in the State. ..." And in another part of his report he said : 45 " Success has crowned the efforts of those who have worked so faith- fully while endeavoring to build up a splendid educational institution at St. Petersburg during the past four years. The small sums of money which the legislatures of 1901 and 1903 appropriated to assist in main- taining this school have been used to the greatest possible advantage by the state board of education, and the result is a splendid school. ..." Another act of educational importance was the Buckman Act of 1905, which, as we have seen, 46 merged the six state higher educational institutions for white students into the Florida Fe- male College and the University of the State of Florida, thereby reducing the number of state institutions for higher education from seven to three two for whites and one for negroes. The remarkable growth of these institutions since then has demon- strated the wisdom of the legislature in effecting this merger. There has been quite an increase in the enrollment, and a great increase in the quality and quantity of the work. This has been particularly true in the departments of education. During the four years just preceding the consolidation the average annual enrollment in the teacher-training courses of all the 41 See Laws of Florida, 1901, Chap. 4998. 42 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 204. 43 Ibid., pp. 200-204; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, PP. 195-99- 44 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1902-04, p. 202. 45 Ibid., p. 204. 48 Supra, p. 162. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 183 schools, including the one for negroes, was but a little over three hundred, whereas the average annual enrollment for the last four years has been over four hundred. But the increase relating to standards has been even more marked, the work offered having become so enlarged and enriched that it com- pares favorably with that of the best schools of the country. But one of the most recent, and perhaps the most significant, pieces of legislation looking to the preparation of prospective teachers was the act of 1915 providing for county teacher-train- ing departments. 47 This act directed the state board of educa- tion to establish a teacher-training department in one high school in each county, but this department was to have at least 10 stu- dents in it. The board was directed also to appropriate $500 to each department, provided the county board appropriated an equal amount or more to secure a teacher to devote his en- tire time to the department. It also appropriated $25,000 for the maintenance of these departments for each of the two years beginning July I, 1915. On August 28, 1915, the state board of education, in com- pliance with section one of this act, prescribed the following rules and regulations for the establishment and government of these departments : 48 " Regulation I. The teacher of the teacher-training department shall not be the principal of the high school, nor shall the five hundred dol- lars ($500) appropriated by the State for such department be used in supplementing the salary of a principal, though the principal, or other capable teachers, may hear one or more recitations in said department. " Regulation 2. No person shall be selected as teacher of any teacher- training department who does not hold a valid Florida teacher's certificate, and the teacher of such department in every county high school may be nominated by the county board of public instruction, but must be approved by the state board of education before any appropriation will be made by said state board for the salary of the teacher of any such department. " Regulation 3. In the selection of teachers for su.ch training depart- ments preference shall be given to holders of Florida state certificates, or to regular graduates of standard normal schools who are legally certifi- cated in this State, presenting satisfactory evidence of having had success- ful experience as teachers; provided, that if it be necessary to employ teachers for such departments with less qualifications than above pre- 47 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6830. 48 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, pp. 73-74. 184 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA scribed, every such teacher shall be the holder of a valid first-grade Florida certificate and a special certificate on psychology, history of edu- cation, and .the theory and practice of teaching, the latter also taken in Florida. " Regulation 4. Any county seeking to establish a teacher-training department in any school within such county must appropriate from county school funds not less than five hundred dollars ($500) for the salary of the teacher of such department, which, with the appropriation by the state board of education, fixes the salary of such teacher at not less than one thousand dollars ($1,000) for eight months' service; pro- vided, that any county board of public instruction shall not be prohibited from making the salary greater than one thousand dollars; provided further, that more than one teacher may be employed for such department and be paid from county or district fund, one or both. "Regulation 5. The salary of the teacher of every teacher-training department shall be paid for the first four months from county funds. The five hundred dollars appropriated from state funds shall be trans- mitted to the county board of public instruction for the payment of the salary of the teacher for the last four months of the school; provided, that monthly reports of such department shall be made as required, on blanks furnished, to the state board of education and must show that the said department has met all the requirements of the law and of these regulations. " Regulation 6. Any school, before receiving state appropriation in aid of the establishment of a teacher-training department, must present evidence that not less than ten (10) teacher-pupils will regularly attend such department. Each of such pupils must be sixteen years of age, or over, and must have regularly and creditably completed the eighth grade of a school with a standard not lower than the average eighth- grade course of study of Florida, or must have taught a public school for not less than six months. " Regulation 7. The number of daily recitations by the teacher in a teacher-training department shall not be less than six, nor exceed eight, per day, and all such recitations shall be forty-five (45) minute periods; provided, that some recitations may be shorter than forty-five minutes and others as long as sixty (60) minutes, but the average shall not be less than forty-five (45) minute periods. One recitation daily of not less than forty-five (45) minutes shall be devoted to pedagogy and methods of teaching. " Regulation 8. The term of every school establishing a teacher- training department shall not be less than one hundred and sixty (160) days, or eight (8) months, of actual teaching in such department. " Regulation 9. A teacher-training department shall not be established in any school unless that school is recognized as a high school by the state board of education, and meets the requirements of a high school as prescribed by the regulations of said state board of education; provided, THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 185 that any county not having had a sufficient number of high-school pupils in any one school as to have hitherto obtained recognition as a high school, the state board of education may, however, establish a teacher- training department in such county with no present recognized high school, but which, by the close of the school year 1916-1917 shall have such recognized high school. " Regulation 10. All teacher-training departments shall be conducted in accordance with an advisory course of study submitted by the state board of education, until such course shall be perfected and made man- datory in all teacher-training departments of the State." TABLE XIX TEACHER-TRAINING DEPARTMENTS FOR THE YEAR 1915-16 49 County Location Enrollment Average attendance Alachua Gainesville. . t' j i DeSoto Arcadia. . . . 72 28 Holmes Bonifay . d6 21 Pasco Dade City 80 ^6 Pinellas St. Petersburg 10 16 Taylor Perry -3 e 22 Walton DeFuniak Springs AQ 3Q Washington Chipley 56 ^o Total 379 194 TABLE XX TEACHER-TRAINING DEPARTMENTS FOR THE YEAR 1916-17 50 County Location Enrollment Average attendance DeSoto Arcadia ... 24. 10 Duval Jacksonville . 27 21 Hamilton Jasper . . 26 "'O Holmes Bonifay JQ IO Jackson Marianna 21 14 Monroe Key West 17 12 Pinellas St. Petersburg 17 12 Polk Bartow 22 ier Santa Rosa. . . Milton 28 14 Taylor Perry 28 16 Volusia Daytona 19 17 Walton DeFuniak Springs 27 17 Washington Chirjlev 28 12 Total 3IO 100 49 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 75. 50 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 50. 186 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA The two foregoing tables show the counties which availed themselves of the benefits of the act in 1915-16 and 1916-17. As is seen, only eight counties qualified to receive the state appropriation in 1915-16, which was somewhat disappointing to the state board of education. There was an increase in 1916-17, but still the number was not as large as was expected. Several of the counties claimed that they did not have sufficient funds to appropriate $500 for a teacher-training department, while others claimed that they could not secure such teachers as were required by the state board of education. There was probably some truth to the latter claim, for Superintendent Sheats says that "the state department was given considerable trouble in getting all those who did teach in these departments to qualify with such certificates as the regulations of the state board of education demanded." 51 As most of the state appropriation made in 1915 for the purpose of helping to maintain county teacher-training depart- ments for the years 1915-16 and 1916-17 had not been used, the legislature of 1917 passed an act making it a continuing appropriation. 52 Table XXI, on the next page, gives the counties which availed themselves of the benefits of this act in 1917-18. As the following table shows, the number of counties that qualified to receive the appropriation in 1917-18 was one less than in 1916-17, the number being twelve. 53 However, the average attendance of the departments was considerably larger than it was in either of the preceding years, it being 194 in 1915-16, 199 in 1916-17, and 235 in 1917-18. As is shown in the next two tables, the number of counties qualifying to receive state aid in 1918-19 and 1919-20 was less than in any of the three previous years, the number for the former year being only seven, and for the latter only six. This decrease was probably due, to some extent, to the lack of teachers, for in 1918 Superintendent Sheats said that the school authorities were still having difficulty in securing duly prepared teachers for the departments. 54 But it was due mostly to the unwillingness of the county boards of education to match dollars with the 61 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 74. 52 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7371. 53 There were thirteen, but one failed to complete the term. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 187 TABLE XXI TEACHER-TRAINING DEPARTMENTS FOR THE YEAR 1917-18 5 * County Location Enrollment Average attendance DeSoto Arcadia 32 29 Jacksonville 30 26 Apalachicola 17 i"? TasDer 27 iq Tampa 1:7 44 Bradentown 27 22 Key West 14 'II Polk Bartow 2O 1C Milton 27 14 Taylor Perry 24 II Volusia ... Daytona 26 24 Chipley 18 II Total 315 235 State in support of the departments. 55 However, the figures of these five tables (XIX -XXIII), while not as large as was anticipated, prove the value of the law providing for teacher- training departments in duly approved high schools. If the county school authorities will avail themselves of the benefits of this law, they will have one of the very best agencies for the preparation of teachers for their elementary schools. TABLE XXII TEACHER-TRAINING DEPARTMENTS FOR THE YEAR 1918-19 56 County Location Enrollment Average attendance DeSoto Arcadia 30 25 Duval Jacksonville 33 27 Escambia . . Pensacola 14 ii Hamilton - . TasDer 25 18 Hillsborough Tampa 52 41 Polk Bartow . 12 10 Washington Chipley 21 ii Total 1ST 143 5 * See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 51. 55 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 42. 56 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 44. 188 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA TABLE XXIII TEACHER-TRAINING DEPARTMENTS FOR THE YEAR 1919-20 56 County Location Enrollment Average attendance DeSoto Arcadia 3Q 27 Duval Jacksonville 34 ^1 Hamilton TasDer 2"? 14 Hillsborough Tampa 48 18 Madison Madison 133 43 Polk Bartow 18 16 Total . . . 286 165 In addition to the above-mentioned agencies for the preparation of prospective teachers, others have been provided through non- state effort. I refer to the private normals and the teacher- training courses of the private and denominational colleges. Like the state institutions of higher education, quite a number of the private and denominational schools have rendered noteworthy service in promoting the educational development of the State. A department of education has been maintained at John B. Stet- son University since i897, 57 and practically all other non-state institutions of collegiate rank have given, almost from the time of their establishment, some excellent courses for the preparation of teachers. The Examination and Certification of Teachers. Another factor which has contributed considerably in raising the standard of the teaching corps has been the improvement in examining and certificating teachers. The first advance was made in 1893, when a law was enacted creating a state uniform system of ex- amination and certification. 58 This law provided for the granting of six forms of certificates third-grade, second-grade, first- grade, state, state life, and primary life. The first three of these were to be issued by the county superintendent, but only upon examination given in specified subjects and held on specified days, all examinations to be on questions prepared and sent out by the state superintendent and the papers of all examinees graded by a committee of three leading teachers selected by the county board of education. They were to be good for one, two, 57 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1896-98, p. 326. 58 See Laws of Florida, 1893, Chap. 4192. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 189 and three years, respectively, but only in the county issued, ex- cepting the first-grade certificate, which was to be good in any county when endorsed by the superintendent of that county. However, no teacher was to be granted more than one third- grade certificate, nor more than two second-grade certificates. The other three certificates state, state life, and primary life were to be issued by the state superintendent, the state certificate to be issuable only to persons who had at least twenty-four months' experience in teaching and had taught at least eight months in Florida under a first-grade certificate, the state life certificate only to eminently successful teachers who were en- dorsed by three persons holding state certificates and who had taught at least thirty months in a high school of the State under a state certificate, and the primary life certificate only to em- inently successful primary teachers who had taught three years in the State. These certificates were to be good in any part of the State, the first for a period of five years, and the last two for life. The law provided, also, that any of the six forms of certificates could be revoked by the authority granting it, whenever the holder proved unsuccessful, incompetent or im- moral. As in all pronounced reforms, particularly in educational affairs, the opposition to this law was at first very bitter, coming mainly from the non-progressive elements of the teaching pro- fession. 59 Construing this opposition as adverse public sentiment, the legislature of 1895 amended the law by stripping it of several of its progressive features. 60 It made the third- and second-grade certificates good for two and three years, respectively, and re- issuable indefinitely; struck out the provision for primary life certificates to eminently successful primary teachers, but without invalidating those already issued; and made the second-grade certificate, also, good in any county when endorsed by the super- intendent of that county. In addition to these amendments, a few others were made, but the only really progressive feature added was the provision for granting, without examination, a first-grade certificate to any graduate from either of the state normal schools. Despite the retrogressive features, however, the 59 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 81-86. 60 See Laws of Florida, 1895, Chap. 4331. 190 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA system of examination and certification was still considerably better than it had ever been prior to 1893. It continued to be, as it had been since 1893, a significant factor in improving the scholarship of the teaching body. 61 Since 1895 there have been many changes in the system of examining and certificating teachers, the first of any importance being in 1903, when the legislature passed another certification law. 62 This law repealed the provisions for aged teachers' cer- tificates, made in 190 1, 63 but without canceling those already issued. It made the third-, second-, and first-grade certificates good for two, four, and five years, respectively, instead of two, three, and four, as they had been since 1895, and all of them good in any county when endorsed by the superintendent of that county. It restored the primary certificate, which was re- pealed in 1895, making it issuable by the state superintendent to applicants furnishing satisfactory proof of peculiar fitness for primary teaching and making a grade of eighty per cent in an examination on primary studies and methods, and good for four years in the first, second, and third grades of the primary de- partments of regularly graded schools and in public kindergartens, or for life after four years of successful teaching under the cer- tificate and upon the endorsement of the state superintendent. It provided for a special certificate, making it issuable by the state superintendent, also, to applicants furnishing satisfactory proof of peculiar fitness for teaching any one or more branches not included in the requirements for a second-grade certificate and making a grade of not less than ninety per cent in an examination on such branch or branches, and good for five years in the special branch or branches for which issued. The requirements for the third-grade, second-grade, first-grade, state, and state life certificates were left practically the same as they had been since 1893. It provided for a first-grade life certificate, making it issuable by the superintendent of any county, without further examination, to teachers presenting satisfactory evidence of good moral character and of having taught successfully in the State for six years under first-grade certificates with an average of 61 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1894-96, p. 24. 62 See Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5204. 63 See Laws of Florida, 1901, Chap. 4995. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 191 not less than ninety per cent and issued since January I, 1894, and good in any county when endorsed by the superintendent of that county. It provided, also, for life extension of first-grade certificates, such extension to be granted by any county super- intendent, upon examination, to holders of such certificates pre- senting satisfactory evidence of good moral character and of having taught successfully in the State for twenty years, nine of these under certificates issued since January I, 1894. Another important change was made in 1913, when the legis- lature passed an act to enable all graduates of the normal or collegiate departments of tne University of Florida and the Florida State College for Women, and of any other college or university in the State that would submit to such inspection and regulations as the state board of education and the state board of control might prescribe, to secure from the state superintendent a state certificate, provided they had devoted one fifth of their time in the collegiate departments to professional training, and in the examinations at the close of the junior and senior years had made " a general average of not less than eighty-five per cent on all subjects, with a grade of not less than sixty per cent on any subject." 64 Four years later this law was considerably amended, 65 the principal amendment being the provision for the issuance of a life graduate state certificate by the state superin- tendent, without further examination, " to any teacher holding a graduate state certificate who has successfully taught in this State for a period of twenty-four months under a graduate state certificate, and who shall present satisfactory endorsement from three persons holding life certificates showing eminent ability in teaching and school government." Still another important change was made in 1915, when a law was enacted providing for the extension of certificates. 66 According to this act any unexpired Florida teacher's certificate may be extended one year by the holder thereof furnishing the state superintendent satisfactory evidence of having attended one of the state summer schools and having credit for work done therein, and such certificate may be extended one year for each succeeding session attended. 64 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6540. 65 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7373- 66 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6835. 192 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA But the most significant changes in the system of examining and certificating teachers were effected in 1917 by the passage of the new examination and certification law. 67 The various provisions of this law will be given in Chapter X. To avoid too much repetition, therefore, we shall notice only the chief one here the provision for a state board of examiners. This board is composed of three eminently successful teachers ap- pointed by the state board of education upon the nomination of the state superintendent. Its principal duties are to prepare all examination questions, to conduct all examinations, to grade all examinations except as may be provided by the state board of education, and "to report weekly to the state superintendent the name of each examinee with the grade made on each sub- ject and the grade of certificate to which each is entitled." The questions must be of such nature as to test " the ability to teach rather than verbal memory and a knowledge of specific facts," and the examinations must be "as uniform in the conduct, in the grading, and in the question tests as may be possible without repetition of the same questions." One examination must be held in four or more different sections of the State every month, and one in each county every year, and a printed schedule of the places and dates of all the examinations must be sent to each county superintendent in July of the preceding year. As Superintendent Sheats says, this system of examining teachers has already proven a success. It has helped to raise the quali- fications of the teaching body and to guard against those un- qualified for the profession. 68 The Training of Teachers in Service. Still another factor which has helped to increase the quality of the teaching force has been the improvement in facilities for training teachers while in service. During the first four years of the present period practically the only facilities for this training consisted of annual state teachers' associations of one week's duration, annual county teachers' associations or institutes of one or more days' duration, and a few teachers' summer training schools of one month's dura- tion, these schools being held, for the most part, under county 67 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372. 68 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 42; cf. Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, pp. 47-52. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 193 control and at county expense. 69 But, realizing the importance of better-trained teachers, and also the value of teachers' summer training schools as a " means of improving the work of those en- gaged in teaching," the legislature of 1897 passed an act to pro- vide for such schools for the teachers of both races. 70 The sum of $3,000 for each of the years 1897 an d 1898 was appropriated for this purpose, the schools to be of two months' duration, and to be held at such times and places as the state superin- tendent should designate. Similar appropriations were made by the legislatures of iSox), 71 i9oi, 72 and lo/^. 73 The schoofs that were provided were taught by the leading teachers of the State and were quite well attended by the teachers of both races. 7 * Another advanced legislative step along this line was the pro- vision for holding teachers' summer training schools at the three state institutions of higher learning. This step was first taken in 1905, when the state board of control was vested with this power. 75 The sum of $2,500 was appropriated for that and the ensuing year to carry out the provision. 76 For the continuation of these schools the legislature of 1907 appropriated $4,000 for that and the ensuing year. 77 Similar appropriations were made by the legislatures of 1909, 1911, and I9I3- 78 However, the summer school act passed by the legislature of 1913 differed 69 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 107-13 ; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1894-96, pp. 54-62. As these report's show, the sum of $4,500 was received from the Pea- body Fund to help maintain the teachers' institutes and summer training schools. 70 See Laws of Florida, 1897, Chap. 4566. 71 See Laws of Florida, 1899, cha P- 4 6Sl - 72 See Laws of Florida, 1901, Chap. 4996. 73 See Laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5208. 74 The annual reports of these schools, given in the various biennial reports of the state superintendent, show that the average annual enroll- ment for both races was 587, of whom 366 were whites and 181 negroes. The average attendance for 1897-1902, the figures for 1903 and 1904 not being given, was 410, of whom 289 were whites and 121 negroes. 75 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5384, Sec. 21. 70 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, p. 12. 77 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1906-08, pp. 301 and 312. 78 See the annual reports of these schools, given in the various bi- ennial reports of the state superintendent. 194 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA in many respects from those passed by previous legislatures. 79 It made the summer school for teachers a fixed and permanent institution. Such a school was established at each of the state institutions of higher education and placed under the control of the state board of public instruction. The board was author- ized and directed to hold sessions of one or more of these schools each summer, the sessions to begin not later than June 1 5th and to continue not less than eight weeks. 80 The president of the university of Florida and the president of the Florida State -College for Women were made president, respectively, of the summer school connected with each of said institutions ; 81 and the presidents of these two institutions, together with the state superintendent, were constituted a board to select the teachers for all the state summer schools, to prescribe the courses of study therefor, and to make such further rules and regulations govern- ing the same as they should deem proper. And finally, it pro- vided that any teacher could have his or her certificate extended one year by attending one of these schools and securing credit for work done therein. As one would expect, therefore, these schools, especially those held since 1913, have been well attended by the teachers of both races. 82 It may also be said that they have been taught by competent and well-trained men and women and have rendered valuable service to the puplic-school teachers of the State. Other agencies that have been provided for improving the work of those engaged in teaching have been the school inspectors or supervisors. Since 1907 the State has been provided with a high-school inspector, whose expenses have been borne largely 79 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6498. 80 Two years later the law was amended to make the sessions begin not later than June 28th and continue not less than ten weeks (see Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6835). 81 Two years later the president of the Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes was made president of the summer school con- nected with that institution (see Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6835). 82 The annual reports of these schools, given in the various biennial reports of the state superintendent, show that the average annual enroll- ment for both races during the five-year period 1914-18 was 857, of whom 737 were whites and 120 negroes. The average attendance for this same period was 747, of whom 642 were whites and 105 negroes. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 195 by the General Education Board. However, the person who has held this position has never devoted all his time to the work of visiting and supervising high schools, for he has also been professor of secondary education at the state university. Never- theless, as Superintendent Sheats says, he has done his work well and performed a valuable service to the high-school teachers of the State. 83 A similar provision has been made for the public elementary schools, also. The first step was taken in 1911, when the State was provided with an elementary rural school inspector, an officer whose expenses were borne entirely by the Southern Education Board. Professor George M. Lynch, whom the board selected for this important position, gave all his time to visiting and supervising the elementary rural schools, 84 By 1913 his services had proven so valuable that the legislature of that year passed an act providing for two rural school in- spectors. 85 These officers are appointed by the governor upon the nomination of the state superintendent. 86 They are required to devote all their time to the work of visiting and supervising rural schools and performing such educational work, when the schools are not in operation, as may be required of them by the state board of education. They are required, also, to work under the direction of the state superintendent. Their salaries 83 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, pp. 52 and 293. The first inspector was Prof. George M. Lynch, who resigned in 1911 to become state inspector of elementary rural schools. He was succeeded by Dr. John A. Thackston, who served until 1915, when he resigned to become professor of education at the University of Tennessee. Since then the position has been held by Prof. W. S. Cawthon. 84 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, pp. 243 and 294. 85 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6539. 86 The first appointees to these positions were Prof. George M. Lynch, who had been employed for two years in a similar work by the Southern Education Board, and Hon. Shelton Philips, ex-superintendent of schools of Levy County. Both began their work July i, 1913. Prof. Lynch resigned September i, 1915, to resume the work of teaching. He was succeeded by Hon. R. L. Turner, county superintendent of Citrus County. Mr. Philips, however, served in this capacity until July i, 1919, when he was appointed state director for vocational education. He was succeeded by Hon. W. B. Feagle, of High Springs. Mr. Feagle resigned October i, 1920, when Miss Christian McDonald, of DeFuniak Springs, was appointed to fill the vacancy. 196 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA and traveling expenses are provided for by annual state appropri- ations. As in other states, these officers have rendered invaluable service in improving the efficiency of the teachers of the rural schools. 87 In addition to the foregoing agencies for the improvement of those already engaged in teaching, valuable service has been rendered, also, by the annual state teachers' association, which has always been greatly stressed by the state superintendent, the summer schools for teachers that have been held by various county boards of education, and the educational journals which have been taken by the teachers. This is partially shown by the following table. TABLE XXIV STATISTICS RELATING TO THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS ATTENDING SUMMER SCHOOLS AND STATE TEACHERS' ASSOCIATIONS AND TAKING EDUCATIONAL JOURNALS ( 1897-1920) 88 1897- 98 1902- 03 1907- 08 1912- 13 1917- 18 1919- 20 Attending summer schools: Both races Q7^ 60 T 555 781 I 019 I 113 White 712 465 46l 658 Q-7Q 002 Negro 261 n8 Q4 I2< 80 211 Attending state associations: Both races 488 185 460 42 c; 58l 825 White . -2Q1 282 2^4 244 AC2 56l Negro 185 IO1 1^5 81 120 264 Taking educational journals: Both races 1,672 1,661 Ii5H 1,901 2,684 -2,270 White 1,255 1,225 1,126 1,510 2,185 2,688 Negro 417 4"?6 ^85 391 499 591 The Salaries of Teachers. Another important factor, partly a cause, and partly a consequence of the improvement that has taken place in regard to the teaching body, has been the large increase in the compensation of the teachers. The average monthly salary of teachers for 1893-94 was $34.50, and the average length of school term was 4.85 months. The average annual salary, therefore, was $167.32. The average monthly sal- 87 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1914-16, p. 55. 88 This table has been prepared from figures given in various reports of the state superintendent of public instruction. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 197 ary of teachers for 1919-20 was $79.80, and the average length of school term was 6.65 months. The average annual salary, there- fore, was $530.67. As is shown by these figures, the compen- sation of teachers has more than doubled since 1893. The progress along this line is well shown by the following table. TABLE XXV AVERAGE SALARIES OF TEACHERS DURING THE PERIOD 1893-1920 1893-94 1897-98 1902-03 1907-08 1912-13 1917-18 1919-20 Average monthly sal- aries of teachers: All teachers t-lA CO $0-7 7-1 $12 78 $44 6O $C2 57 $60 72 t 7O 80 White males White females . . Negro males .... Negro females . . Average length of school term in months: 6 Both races. . . . 38-25 35-25 30.00 28.75 A Re 38.66 33.96 28.85 26.73 S2O 45-49 32.13 30.50 20.92 52C. 67.90 44.26 37.65 27.22 f 4.0 74-40 53-00 37.38 32.04 6 oo 91.05 60.98 47-93 32.23 6 50 II9.8O 81.00 61.20 43.20 6 65 White 4'5 57O 5e e e no 6 70 7 TO 7 jo Negro 4-95 A QC A 7e 4 OC, 4 80 5 JO See Average yearly sal- aries of teachers: 6 All teachers 75 $167 77 $I7<>.40 $I72.IO $241.77 $-11 c.i8 $704 68 Je.7O.67 White males White females . . Negro males .... Negro females . . 189.34 174-49 142.50 136.56 204.90 179.99 142.81 132.31 252.47 178.32 144.88 99-37 380.24 247.86 186.37 134.74 498.48 355-10 179.42 153-79 646.46 432.96 244.44 164.37 850.58 575-10 339.66 239.76 The figures given here have been taken from the state superintendent's re- ports for the years for which the figures are given. 6 The figures given here have been obtained by dividing the average length of the school term in days, as given in the reports of the state superintendent, by twenty, which is the length of the school month in days. c The figures given here have been obtained by multiplying the average monthly salaries of the teachers by the length of the school term in months. IV. THE FINANCING OF PUBLIC EDUCATION Thus far, in evidences of growth and advancement in public education as revealed by the progress that has been made in the system of instruction, the environment and equipment of the schools, and the teaching body have been discussed. Another evidence that is deserving of mention is the progress that has been made in financing the public-school system. In discussing this 198 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA topic attention will be given to the following sub-topics: (i) school expenditures, (2) school funds and taxation, and (3) ap- portionment of the school funds. School Expenditures. The increase in the annual expenditure for public-school education in recent years is very significant. Since 1892 the increase for each pupil in average attendance has been from $8.71 to $42.25, or a gain of 385 per cent. For each pupil of school age the expenditure has increased from $3.76 to $22.65, or a gain of 503 per cent. The total annual ex- penditure has increased from $542,098.06 to $7,003,188.38, or a gain of 1,192 per cent. As is seen, the growth of this form of expenditure has been very rapid. It has also been constant, as is shown by the table on the next page. School Funds and Taxation. To meet the demands of the people for better schools and longer terms the school officers found it absolutely necessary to have more liberal provisions for the support of public education. During the years 1892-1904 the public-school income was entirely inadequate, many of the counties which had already levied the maximum school-tax being compelled to go in debt to defray the expenses of the schools that were provided. 89 As Superintendent Sheats said, further development of the public-school system was almost impossible without an increase in the public-school income. 90 To effect this development there have been a number of provisions looking to an increase in the annual income for public education. Three of these deserve mention. The first was in 1904, when a con- stitutional amendment was adopted raising the maximum rate of millage to be assessed in each county for school purposes from five to seven mills on the dollar. 91 The next was in 1912, when the constitution was amended to allow an additional school-tax of five mills on the dollar in any special-tax school-district where a majority of the qualified electors thereof have voted for the issuance of bonds for the exclusive use of public free schools within such district. 92 In 1918 another constitutional 80 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1900-1902, pp. 41, 47-48. 90 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1896-98, p. 38. 91 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, pp. -9. 92 See Digest of the School Laws of the State of Florida (compiled by W. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1915), pp. THE PUBLIC-SCHOOL AWAKENING 199 oo ^r 00 ON ON O M ro ro ^ ro M ro ON 8 "7! CJ > 0\ 1 0\ M q * > ro ro ON oo_ ro i ** to M ro r}- M r- cs ro to to O 6 1 1 ro N 0\ M 00 CM M 00 10 O to n c-i 10 r^ rf to f}- ON to t^ r*- TT CO O O S T3 o "^ CO OS ^ 0\ roo ro & M rf ** ^f (N^ C^T ro ro rt- o O 10 W MM vO N r ^' N n ro J> O O co ON ro o to H C OJ ?" I q '0 ^f oo oo rh to ro ro CM CM ro O r- O . to o to M \O 10 N d M to *- cs t^ ON ro O ^ ^f M M CJ 1 a ! 1 00 r M 10 to o 00 ON ON to o oo N 00 CO IO IO 00 t- t~ IO N "R "a IO M M CM O ** O CO rt ON CM NO a 1 1 I 00 h S 8 ON GROWTH o 1 1892-93 00 ON o . ri to oo 8 . 8 - ro >o to ' M oo' ' ' O 3 I . d a ' '^ ' * ' d Pi > ^ ;3 * a ' ' ' a ' ' * >> ^ 4-" ' ' ' S Q J^ OJ C 'C d 3 : : :g ... 3 a . . . CO 3 5j 0. 3 ' d d : : i-i oj T3 3 rt tfl Total expendit Both races. . White... Negro. . . . Expended per c tion: d 5 2 in n pgliil 1 P* 3*5; 1914-16, p. 320; 1916-18, p. 403; Catalogue, University of Florida, 1918-19, PP- 13- 14, 34, 77; and Catalogue, Florida State College for Women, 1918-19, pp. 21-22. 61 The proportion is probably larger now. 6 2 See Thirteenth Census of the United States, 1910, Vol. II, p. 315. 210 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA the United States. 68 It would indeed be difficult to evaluate the educational lessons that have been learned by the Florida students in these institutions and applied at home. Most of the leading educators of the State have been from among these students, or from among those who were called directly from educational institutions in other parts of the country. Thus it is manifest that the growth of education in Florida has been due, to some extent, at least, to the influence of education in other states. Better Administrative Control and Supervision. Again, with- out any extended discussion of this point it is safe to say that the educational advancement has been partly due to better ad- ministrative control and supervision. Several steps in this direc- tion have already been pointed out; for example, the provision for compulsory school attendance, 64 the free transportation of pupils to and from school, 65 the formulation of the elementary- and high-school curricula under the direction of the state super- intendent, 66 the provision for state adoption of textbooks for use in the elementary and high schools, 67 and the inspection of ele- mentary and high schools by state inspectors. 68 But there have been other steps, three of which deserve to be mentioned. In 1893 a l aw was enacted making the members o the county boards 63 During the year 1905-06 there were 103 Florida students attending institutions of higher learning in other states, these being distributed as follows: 12 at Cornell, Harvard, Princeton, and Yale; 8 at the University of Chicago, University of Michigan, and Northwestern University; 10 at the University of Virginia, Virginia Military Institute, and Washington and Lee University; 9 at the University of Arkansas, University of Ken- tucky, University of Missouri, and University of North Carolina; 9 at the George Peabody College for Teachers, University of Tennessee, and Vanderbilt University; 8 at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute and the University of Alabama; I at Tulane University of Louisiana; and 46 at Georgia institutions 18 at Emory College (now Emory University), 14 at the Georgia School of Technology, 2 at Mercer University, and 12 at the University of Georgia (see Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1904-06, pp. 215-16). 64 Vide supra, pp. 112 and 114. 65 Ibid., pp. 113-14. 66 Ibid., pp. 115-21 and 123-31. 67 Ibid., pp. 175-78. 68 Ibid., pp. 194-95. FACTORS FAVORING ADVANCE OF EDUCATION 211 of public instruction elective by popular vote. 69 It required that each county should be divided into three school-board dis- tricts with, as nearly as practicable, the same number of voters in each district; and that the members of the county board of public instruction should be elected biennially, one from each school-board district, by the qualified electors of such districts. 70 Contrary to the predictions of many, 71 the law has proven quite satisfactory. 72 Greater popular interest in education has been awakened, and more efficient school-board members secured. In 1899 an act was passed requiring the superintendent of public instruction of each county to take the census of the school popu- lation of his county before the fifteenth day of May in the year 1900, and every tenth year thereafter, and report such census to the county school board and the state superintendent. 73 Since 1889 this had been the duty of the local school supervisors, the law requiring the census to be taken in the year 1892, and every fourth year thereafter. 74 While the census should be taken oftener than every ten years, this change in the method of taking it was undoubtedly a move in the right direction. 75 In the third place, during the last few years some of the counties, without any legislative requirement, have secured an assistant superin- tendent to give additional supervision to the schools, particularly the rural. 76 As is patent, therefore, there has been an improve- ment in regard to the general oversight and control of education in the State ; and, as in business affairs, this is an important condition, as well as an index, of progress. Better Educational Leadership. Finally, better educational leadership has been a very important factor in the recent ad- vance of public education; for, as experience has shown, school 69 Vide Laws of Florida, 1893, Chap. 4193. 70 Since 1889 they had been appointed by the state board of education (see Laws of Florida, 1889, Chap. 3872, Sec. 3). 71 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1892-94, pp. 132-34. 72 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 555, 616, 628, 632, 637, 640, 658, 667, 674, 681, 706, 718, 726, and 731. 73 See Laws of Florida, 1899, Chap. 4679. 74 See Laws of Florida, 1889, Chap. 3872, Sec. 37. 75 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1894-96, pp. 21-22 ; 1896-98, pp. 33-34; and 1900-1902, pp. 444-45- 76 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 691. 212 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA systems, like all other human institutions, can achieve things only through capable leaders. Since January 3, 1893, tne State has been extremely fortunate in having at the head of its school system two splendid educational leaders Hon. W. N. Sheats and Hon. W. M. Holloway. Excepting the eight-year period 1905-13, when Mr. Holloway was state superintendent of public instruction, Dr. Sheats, the educational mentor of Florida, has held this position. Avoiding all invidious comparisons, one is safe in saying that he has done far more than any of his pred- ecessors for the movement for the advancement of education. He has been not only the author of practically all the constitu- tional and legislative provisions upon which progress in educa- tion is based, but also an efficient organizer, director, adviser, and inspirer of the public-school workers of the State. In fact, as a school administrator he has had but few superiors any- where; and as a man he has always stood above reproach. He is stern but absolutely fair, progressive but sane, keen in his thinking, straight in all his dealings, and helpful in his sugges- tions. If such a leader can be kept at the head of the public- school system, there is every reason to believe that there will continue to be a persistent and unabated advance of public edu- cation throughout the State. SUMMARY As shown in this chapter, there are at least ten factors that have favored the notable advance of public education in Florida since 1892. They are as follows: (i) the rapid and persistent growth of population in almost every part of the State; (2) the great increase in the amount of taxable property ; (3) the marked growth of public sentiment throughout the State in favor of universal education; (4) the new and improved school legis- lation that has been enacted; (5) the system of state aid; (6) the aid received from the National Government; (7) numerous private benefactions; (8) the educational accomplishment in other states; (9) better administrative control and supervision; and (10) greater educational leaders, the most conspicuous fig- ure being Dr. W. N. Sheats, who has been state superintendent of public instruction for twenty years. CHAPTER X CONSPECTUS OF THE PRESENT PUBLIC-SCHOOL SYSTEM This chapter contains an outline of the present system of public education in Florida. The different phases of this system are subsumed under the following six headings: (I) general administrative control and snpervision, (II) school population and attendance, (III) the system of public instruction, (IV) school environment and equipment, (V) the teaching staff, and (VI) school support. I. GENERAL ADMINISTRATIVE CONTROL AND SUPERVISION School Officers. The officers of the educational system of the State are a state superintendent of public instruction, a state board of education, a state vocational-education board, a state board of control, a state board of examiners, a state high-school inspector, two state inspectors of elementary rural schools, a superintendent of public instruction for each county, a board of education for each county, local school supervisors, district trustees, and school-attendance officers. State Superintendent of Public Instruction. The chief officer of the school system is the state superintendent of public instruc- tion, who has general supervision of all matters pertaining there- to. 1 He is elected quadrennially, at the general election in November, by the qualified voters of the State. 2 His salary is $3,600 a year. 3 His principal duties and powers are as follows : 4 (i) to have the school laws, and such blanks, instructions, and so forth, as he may deem necessary, printed and distributed 1 See Constitution of Florida, Art. IV, Sec. 25. 2 Ibid., Sec. 20; and Gen. Stats., Sec. 172. 3 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 145. 4 See Constitution of Florida, Art. IV, Sec. 27 ; Gen. Stats., Sees. 142- 44 and 335; Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372, Sees. 6, 13-16, 17 (as amended by Laws of 1919, Chap. 7942), 21, and 23; Laws of 1917, Chap. 7373, Sees. I, 3, and 4; and Laws of 1919, Chap. 7592, Sec. 6. 213 214 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA gratuitously to the school officers and teachers; (2) to hold conventions of county superintendents of public instruction and other school officers; (3) to assemble teachers in institutes and employ competent instructors therefor; (4) to apportion the interest of the state school- fund, and the fund raised by the one-mill state tax, among the various counties in proportion to the average attendance at school of children residing therein between the ages of six and twenty-one years; (5) to make such apportionment as seems just when the returns on which the apportionment should be made are defective or have not been received; (6) to decide appeals arising under the law, or refer the same to the state board of education; (7) to prescribe rules and regulations for the management of the department of public instruction; (8) to grant temporary, life, and graduate certificates ; (9) to issue all certificates recommended by the state board of examiners, keep a record of the same, and publish in his biennial reports the names of all living holders of valid cer- tificates; (10) to suspend or revoke certificates whenever the holders prove incompetent, unsuccessful, or grossly immoral; (n) to file and preserve certified copies of the monthly lists of persons who have paid their poll taxes; (12) to be a member and secretary of the state board of education; (13) to be a member and executive officer of the state board for vocational education; (14) to have a seal for his own official use; (15) to keep his office in the capitol; and (16) to make a biennial re- port to the governor as to his official acts, the receipts and ex- penditures of his office, and the requirements of the same. State Board of Education. This board consists of the follow- ing state officers: 5 the governor, who is its president; the state superintendent of public instruction, who is its secretary; the state treasurer, who is its treasurer; the attorney general, and the secretary of state. Its powers and duties are : 6 ( I ) to have charge of all the school lands; (2) to manage and provide for the safe-keeping and expenditure of all the school funds of the 5 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 3; also Gen. Stats., Sec. 335. 6 See Constitution of Florida, Art XII, Sec. 3 ; Gen. Stats., Sees. 336 and 350; and Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372, Sec. 20, and Chap. 7376, Sec. 3. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 215 State; (3) to determine appeals referred to it by the state su- cause; (5) to keep in view the establishment of schools on a perintendent ; (4) to remove any subordinate school officer for broad and liberal basis, the object of which being the giving of instruction in the higher branches not taught in the common schools; (6) to co-operate with the state superintendent in the management of the department of education; (7) to fill va- cancies in the county boards of public instruction upon the nom- ination of the state superintendent; (8) to approve rules and regulations suggested by the state board of examiners for con- ducting the examinations of all applicants for teachers' certifi- cates; and (9) to act as the board for vocational education in the State. State Vocational-Education Board. By act approved June 5, 19 1/, 7 the legislature of Florida made provisions for accepting the vocational-education act of Congress known as the Smith- Hughes Act. 8 The state board of education was designated as the board for vocational education in the State, and was charged with the following duties and powers: 9 (i) to co-operate with the federal board for vocational education in administering the provisions of the foregoing congressional act; (2) to admin- ister any legislation pursuant thereto enacted by the State; (3) to administer all federal and state funds provided for the pro- motion of vocational education in the State; (4) to formulate plans for the promotion of vocational-education subjects as a part of the public-school system, and provide for the preparation of teachers in such subjects; (5) to fix the compensation of officials and assistants necessary for the administration of both the federal and state vocational-education acts, and to pay such compensation and necessary expenses from funds appropriated by the State; (6) to make studies and investigations in regard to vocational education; (7) to aid local communities in the establishment of vocational schools, departments, or classes; (8) to prescribe qualifications for the teachers, directors, and supervisors of vocational-education subjects, and provide fof their certification; (9) to co-operate with local communities in 7 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7376. 8 Florida was the first state in the South to take this step. 9 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7592, Sees. 4 and 5. 216 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA the maintenance of vocational schools, departments, or classes, or establish such schools, departments, or classes under its own direction and control; and (10) to establish and determine the qualifications to be possessed by persons engaged in the training of teachers of vocational subjects. By act approved May 31, I9I9, 10 the state superintendent of public instruction was designated as the executive officer of the state board for vocational education, and was authorized to des- ignate, by and with the advice and consent of the board, such assistants as were necessary to carry out the vocational-education provisions of the State. Since then a state director for voca- tional education has been provided for, and also a full-time state supervisor for each of the three phases of vocational education agriculture, home economics, and trades and industries. 11 State Board of Control. This board is composed of five mem- bers, 12 all of whom are appointed by the governor for a term of four years. 13 Its chief powers and duties are as follows : 14 (i) to have jurisdiction over and complete management and control of the following state educational institutions: the Uni- versity of Florida, the Florida State College for Women, the Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes, and the Florida School for the Deaf and Blind; (2) to make all rules and regulations for the same not inconsistent with the gen- eral rules and regulations; (3) to appoint all managers, faculties, and other employees, and remove the same as it sees fit ; (4) to fix their compensation and provide for their payment; (5) to have full possession and control of all property of each of the said institutions; (6) to provide for the courses of instruction; (7) to visit and inspect the said institutions, and provide for 10 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7592, Sec. 6. 11 At present (1921) these officers are as follows: Hon. Shelton Philips, of Williston, state director for vocational education; Hon. E. A. Haynie, of Gainesville, state supervisor for agricultural education; Hon. T. H. Quigley, of Gainesville, state supervisor for trade and industrial education; and Miss Lucy C. Cushman, of Tallahassee, state supervisor for home-economics education. 12 One from east Florida, one from west Florida, one from middle Florida, one from south Florida, and one from middle south Florida. 13 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5384, Sec. 13. "/few/., Sec. 19. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 217 the proper keeping of accounts and other records thereof ; (8) to prepare all budgets of expenditures; (9) to audit and approve all accounts before they are paid; (10) to provide necessary grounds, buildings, and other property; (n) to care for and maintain the same; and (12) to perform other necessary acts, but at all times subject to the state board of education. State Board of Examiners. As we have already seen, 15 this board consists of three well-qualified teachers nominated by the state superintendent of public instruction and appointed by the state board of education. The annual salary of each member is $2,000 and traveling expenses not to exceed $8oo. 16 The duties of the board are: 17 (i) to prepare all questions to be used in the examination of applicants to teach; (2) to hold all examinations, both oral and written, under such rules and regu- lations suggested by it and approved by the state board of edu- cation; (3) to grade all examiners except as the state board of education may otherwise provide; (4) to make a weekly report to the state superintendent of public instruction as to the examinees' grades on the various subjects and the kind of cer- tificate to which each is entitled ; ( 5 ) to send every county superintendent of public instruction, in July of each year, a printed schedule giving the dates and places of all examinations for the ensuing year; and (6) to remit monthly to the state treasurer all examination fees collected, and make to the state board of education a statement of the same, attaching thereto a copy of the treasurer's receipt. State High-School Inspector. As already stated, 18 the profes- sor of secondary education at the University of Florida acts as the state high-school inspector. He gives about half of his time to this line of work, which consists in visiting, supervising, standardizing, and classifying the high schools of the State. His salary and traveling expenses are borne by the General Educa- tion Board 19 and the University. 20 15 See page 192. 16 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372, Sec. 24. 17 Ibid., Sees. 19^-20, 22, and 24. 18 See pages 194-95. 19 The board donates $1,750 annually for this purpose. 20 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 295. 218 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA Rural-School Inspectors. The State is provided with two rural-school inspectors. 21 These officers are nominated by the state superintendent of public instruction and appointed by the governor. They hold their positions subject to the state board of education. Each of them receives a salary of $2,000 a year and $1,250 a year for traveling expenses. Their duties are: (i) to visit and supervise the elementary rural schools, and promote in every way possible their development; (2) to perform such acts, when the schools are not in operation, as the state board of education may require of them; and (3) to make reports to the state superintendent of public instruction, under whose direction they must work. County Superintendents of Public Instruction. The principal educational officer of the various counties is the county superin- tendent of public instruction, who is elected for a term of four years, at the general election, by the qualified electors in each county. 22 The salary of this officer varies among the different counties, being based upon the total annual school receipts, 23 exclusive of borrowed money. In counties where the receipts are less than $14,000 the minimum salary is $50 a month ; from $14,000 to $20,000, $75 a month; from $20,000 to $40,000, $100 a month; from $40,000 to $70,000, $125 a month; from $70,000 to $100,000, $150 a month; from $100,000 to $120,000, $175 a month ; and from $120,000 to $200,000, $200 a month. 24 His chief functions are as follows : 25 ( i ) to act as secretary of the county board of public instruction; (2) to ascertain the proper places for the location of schools; (3) to visit and examine each school at least once each term, and give such ad- vice as he may deem proper; (4) to awaken an increased in- terest in public education; (5) to nominate suitable persons for local school supervisors; (6) to keep these supervisors supplied 21 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6539; also supra, p. 195. 22 See Constitution of Florida, Art. VIII, Sec. 6; and Gen. Stats., Sec. 172. 23 Except in counties having a population between 37,000 and 40,000 according to the state census of 1915, where it is $2,700 a year, payable in monthly installments (see Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8545, Sec 2). 2 * See Laws of Florida, 1907, Chap. 5658. 25 See Gen. Stats., Sees. 345 and 351; Laws of Florida, 1915. Chap. 6813, Sees, i and 3 ; and Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 20. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 219 with the school laws, decisions, blanks, and regulations of the state department of education, confer with them frequently, and see that they attend to their duties; (7) to keep a record of the location of each school and of his expenses incurred in visiting the several schools; (8) to furnish the state superintendent of public instruction the names and addresses of all county school officers; (9) to decide questions and disputes when submitted to him, and refer his decisions to the county board of public instruction; (10) to guard the interests of the county in its contracts, and see that all funds apportioned to or raised by the county are properly applied ; ( 1 1 ) to revoke or suspend teachers' certificates for cause; (12) to forward certified copies of the tax collector's monthly lists of poll taxes to the state superin- tendent of public instruction; (13) to take the school census of his county, and report the same to the county board of public instruction and the state superintendent; (14) to furnish the state comptroller, when called for, a financial report of the schools in such form as to set forth the condition of the county and district school-funds, and preserve in his office an exact copy of the same; and (15) to make an annual report to the state superintendent of public instruction. 28 County Boards of Public Instruction. The different counties are provided with a county board of public instruction composed of three members, one from each school-board district who are elected biennially, at the general election, by the qualified voters of their respective counties. 27 The compensation of the members is $4 for each day's service and ten cents for each mile traveled, 28 except in the counties having a population between 37,000 and 50,000 according to the state census of 1915, or between 50,000 and 150,000 according to the recent federal census, where it is $600 a year, payable in monthly installments. 29 The principal 26 Such report must be filed with the state superintendent on or before August 15 of each and every year, the penalty for not doing so being the withholding of further payment of his salary by the county board of pub- lic instruction until it is notified by the state superintendent that such re- port has been received and accepted (see Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8547). 27 See Gen. Stats., Sees. 172 and 329. 28 See Laws of Florida, 1907, Chap. 5656, Sec. i. 29 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7882, Sec. i; and Laws of 1921, Chap. 8495, Sec. i. 220 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA powers and duties of each board are : 30 ( i ) to acquire and hold all school property of the county, except the property of the special-tax districts; (2) to establish and maintain schools for the accommodation of all persons between the ages of six and twenty-one years during not less than four months each year ; (3) to appoint local school supervisors; (4) to select and pro- vide school sites; (5) to provide school buildings, equipment, and so forth, and establish schools of higher grades when re- quired by the patrons; (6) to employ and pay the teachers of all the schools; (7) to audit and pay all its accounts; (8) to keep an accurate record of all its proceedings and official acts, and also of all moneys handled, and report the same to the state superintendent when required; (9) to prepare and file with the clerk of the circuit court an itemized monthly financial statement, and cause the same to be published in one of the county news- papers; (10) to perform all acts necessary for promoting the educational interests of the county ; ( 1 1 ) to hold regular meet- ings by arrangement with the state superintendent, and convene a special session when requested by the county superintendent; (12) to prepare annually an itemized statement of the amount of money needed for school purposes for the next ensuing year, stating the amount in mills on the dollar of all taxable property, and furnish a copy of such statement to the county assessors; (13) to examine at least twice a year the records of the tax collector which relate to poll taxes, and require prompt settle- ment for all the said taxes ; ( 14) to divide the county into three school-board districts, so that each will have as nearly as prac- ticable the same number of legal voters, and so that no election district will be divided; (15) to change the boundaries of such districts; (16) to call an election, upon the petition of one- fourth of the legal voters of any subdivision of the county, for creating or abolishing a special-tax school district; (17) to re- move any district trustee for failure to discharge his duties; (18) to fill all vacancies occurring in the district boards of 30 See Gen. Stats., Sees. 347, 349, 400, and 407 ; Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Regs. 5, 16, and 17; Laws of Florida, 1911, Chap. 6163, Sec. i; Laws of 1915, Chaps. 6828 and 6833; Laws of 1917, Chap. 7376, Sec. 7; Laws of 1919, Chap. 7808, Sec. 5, and Chap. 7916, Sec. i ; and Laws of 1921, Chap. 8546. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 221 trustees; (19) to subdivide the county into convenient and per- manent school districts, and restrict the attendance of pupils to the school within their own districts; (20) to furnish free text- books to all children not over fifteen years of age who are finan- cially unable to procure them; (21) to borrow money at a rate of interest not to exceed eight per cent per annum for the pur- pose of paying the legitimate expenses incurred in operating the schools; (22) to employ county agents to conduct practical farm- and home-demonstration work; (23) to establish and maintain vocational schools, departments, or classes, giving in- struction of less than college" grade ; (24) to appoint all school- attendance officers, fix their compensation, and remove those who fail to perform their duties; and (25) to acquire lands for use in farm-demonstration work. Local School Supervisors. The various schools have a local school supervisor, who is appointed by the county board of public instruction upon the recommendation of the patrons ot the school and the nomination of the county superintendent. 31 The duties of this officer are: 32 (i) to supervise the work of the school, and report monthly to the county board of public instruction; (2) to oversee the erection, rental, repair, and im- provement of the school buildings, grounds, equipment, and sup- plies; (3) to procure a copy of the school laws, decisions, and regulations for the use of the teachers and for his own instruc- tion; (4) to co-operate with the teachers in elevating the con- dition of the school; and (5) to review all suspensions of pupils, and report the same at once to the county superintendent. Administrative Unit. The unit for educational administration is the county. 33 All the schools in each county, even those of the cities, are under the direction and control of one county board of public instruction. However, for purposes of local school supervision, the various counties are subdivided, the sub- divisions being designated as school districts. As stated above, each school district is under the supervision of a local school supervisor, who is appointed by the board of public instruction of the county. School districts which levy a school-district tax 31 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Para. 3, and Sec. 351, Para. 5. 3 2 Ibid., Sec. 352. 33 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 399. 222 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA are known as special-tax school districts. 84 As we shall see be- low, these are under the supervision of a district board of trus- tees, who, though not appointed by the county board of public instruction, must, like the local school supervisors, be governed in the discharge of its duties by the rules and regulations of this board. 85 Special-Tax School Districts. Upon the petition of one-fourth of the resident tax-paying electors of any city, incorporated town, community, or other subdivision of a county, the county board of public instruction must order an election to be held therein, at such time and place as it may direct, for the purpose of de- termining whether such subdivision shall become a special-tax school district. 86 However, the board may change the bounda- ries designated in the petition, but in no case may it include territory not already included, and must give notice of any such change in its notice of the election. 37 At such election there are three questions to be voted on: (i) whether a district school- tax shall be levied; (2) how many mills shall be levied for the two succeeding years; and (3) who shall be the school trustees of the district. These are determined by majority of the ballots cast by the legal voters, except that the three persons receiving the highest number are declared the district trustees. 38 Any subdivision formed into a special-tax school district continues as such until abolished or changed in the same way that it was formed, 39 but no district having any outstanding indebtedness can be abolished until the payment of such indebtedness has been provided for. 38 In 1919-20 there were 883 special-tax school districts in the state. 40 Consolidated Special-Tax School Districts. There is also a very recent law quite similar to the one above which makes provision for the consolidation of two or more contiguous special- 34 Schools of the said districts are known as special-tax schools. 35 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 408; also Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Regs. 25 and 28. 36 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 400. 37 Ibid., Sec. 401 ; and Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8555. 38 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5389. 39 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 401 ; and Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8555. 40 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 122. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 223 tax school districts. 41 It provides that upon the petition of one- fourth of the resident tax-paying voters of each of the districts proposed to be consolidated the county board must order an election to determine (i) whether such districts shall be con- solidated into a single special-tax school ditsrict, (2) the millage to be levied, and (3) who shall be the school trustees; the matter of consolidation being determined by a majority vote, the number of mills to be levied by a plurality vote, and the trustees of the consolidated special-tax school district being the three persons receiving the highest number of votes. District Trustees. As we have just seen, each special-tax school district is provided with a board of trustees consisting of three members. These are elected once every two years by the qualified electors of the district, the election being held as nearly as practicable on the anniversary of the original election creating the district, and under the direction of the county board of public instruction. 42 The position of local school supervisor is superseded by this board of trustees when a school district be- comes a special-tax district. Hence, it is required to perform the duties prescribed by law for the supervisors. 43 In addition, it is directed and empowered as follows: 44 (i) to nominate teachers for all the schools; (2) to direct the application of the school funds of the district; (3) to prepare annually an itemized finan- cial statement of the amount of money required for school pur- poses for the next ensuing year, certifying therein the rate of millage voted by the district to be assessed and collected for that year, and file a copy of the statement with the board of county commissioners, the state comptroller, 45 and the county board of public instruction; and (4) to permit non-resident children to attend the schools of the district. School-Attendance Officers. Each county has at least one school-attendance officer, who is appointed by the county board 41 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7913. 42 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 10; and Gen. Stats., Sec. 406. 43 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 407 ; also Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 28. 44 See Gen. Stats., Sees. 407-10 and 415. 45 If there are any railroads or telegraph lines in the district. 224 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA of public instruction, 46 and charged with the following powers and duties : 4T ( I ) to take an annual census of all children be- tween seven and eighteen years old, and file a copy thereof with the county and the state superintendent; (2) to serve notice of the illegal non-attendance at school of any child upon the parents or persons in parental relation thereto, and see that the child attends school as provided by law; (3) to furnish the principals and teachers in charge of the various schools with the names of all children in their respective districts who are required to attend school; (4) to enter any office, factory, or business houses for the purpose of determining whether or not any children are employed therein who should be attending school; (5) to make and file complaint in court against any person or persons violating the compulsory school-attendance law; (6) to perform such other duties as may be required of him by the county superintendent of public instruction; and (7) to keep a record of all services rendered, and make an an- nual report of the same to the county board of public instruction. II. SCHOOL POPULATION AND ATTENDANCE Age Limits. The public free schools of the State are open for the instruction of all children between six and twenty-one years of age, 48 and kindergartens may be established and main- tained by county boards of public instruction or district boards of trustees for the instruction of children below six years of School Census. A correct census of all the children in each county between the ages of six and twenty-one years, with a statement of those who are idiotic, insane, blind, or deaf, must be taken by the county superintendent of public instruction be- fore the fifteenth day of May in every year exactly divisible by ten, and reported to the school board of the county and the state superintendent on or before the first day of June of that year. Should he employ anyone to assist him in taking such census, the person or persons must make a sworn statement as 6 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7808, Sec. 5. 47 Ibid., Sees. 6-n. 48 See Gen. Stats., Sees. 313 and 314. 49 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5387. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 225 to the time and place of the same, and such statement must be filed with the county school-board as part of his report. His compensation for the performance of the duties herein required of him is three cents for each child included in the enumeration. The penalty for his failure to perform them is removal from office. 50 In addition, an accurate census of all the children in each county between seven and eighteen years of age must be taken in triplicate by the school-attendance officer or officers thereof dur- ing the month of June of every year; the said census including the following data for every child in the county: (i) name, (2) sex, (3) age and date of birth, (4) distance from the nearest school, (5) school grade completed, and (6) name of parent (father or mother), guardian, or other person standing in parental relation, with the post-office address thereof ; and, on or before the first day of July of the year in which such census is taken, one copy thereof must be filed with the county superintendent of public instruction, one with the state superin- tendent, and one retained by the attendance officer or officers. 51 Separation of the Races. Separate schools are maintained by the different counties for children of the negro race. 52 In fact, it is unlawful to conduct any public, private, or parochial school wherein white persons and negroes are instructed or boarded in the same building or taught in the same class. Any person violating this provision is subject to a fine of not less than one hundred fifty nor more than five hundred dollars or imprison- ment in the county jail of not less than three nor more than six months. 53 Also, it is unlawful for white teachers to teach in negro schools or for negro teachers to teach in white schools. Anyone violating this provision is subject to a fine not exceeding five hundred dollars or imprisonment in the county jail not ex- ceeding six months. 54 50 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 351, Para. 12. 51 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7808, Sec. 6. 52 The constitution requires this. However, it also requires that the negro children shall be given equal educational advantages with the chil- dren of the white race (Art. XII, Sec. 12). 53 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6490. 54 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6490. 226 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA Suspension from School. Any teacher may suspend pupils for ten days on account of gross immorality, misconduct, or per- sistent violation of the regulations, giving immediate notice to the parents or persons standing in loco parentis, and to the local school supervisor, of the suspension and the cause thereof. 55 Place of Attendance. The attendance of pupils in each county is restricted to the school within their own school district, unless allowed elsewhere in the county by special permission or regu- lation of the county board of public education. 56 But non-res- ident pupils of any of the special^tax school districts may attend school therein only by securing the consent of the district trustees, and also by paying a pro rata share of the cost. 57 However, all pupils of the county who are qualified may attend the county high school. 56 The children who desire to attend school in an adjacent county in the State may do so by the concurrence of the superintendents of the two counties, provided the pro rata share of cost is paid by the school board of the county in which the children reside ; 58 and children living in any county bordering on Alabama or Georgia who desire to attend school in an ad- joining county therein may do so, if suitable arrangements are made by the board of public instruction of their county with the school authorities of the other state. 59 Time and Term. The dates for opening and closing the school terms in the various counties are fixed by the county board of education, 60 but at least four months of instruction in each year must be provided. 61 However, none of the schools can open before the first day of July of the school year to which that term of school belongs, 62 and all of them must close by the last day of June. 63 Any school failing to complete its required term of four months by that date forfeits its proportion of the finan- 55 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 379, Para. 5- 56 See Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 17. 57 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 415. s*Ibid., Sec. 325. 59 See Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8546. 60 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 316. 61 Ibid., Sec. 347, Para. 2. 62 Ibid., Sec. 315. 63 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 316. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 227 cial apportionment unless the time lost is made up the ensuing year. 6 * School Holidays. The following are designated as school holidays : Independence Day, Thanksgiving Day, and the period from December 24 to January I, inclusive. On these days all the schools that are in session at the time are required to close, and none of the days can be counted as taught in the teacher's monthly report. 65 Meaning of School Year, Term, Month, and Day. The school year for all public schools extends from July i to June 30 of the ensuing year, and all "reports to the state department of education must embrace only such matters as take place within these limits. 66 A school day comprises not less than five nor more than six hours, exclusive of recesses, the exact length in each county being determined by the county board. 67 A school month consists of twenty days, excluding holidays 65 and the first and last days of the week. 67 A school term contains four school months; 67 and a school year, 68 two school terms. 67 Compulsory Attendance. All children in the State between seven and sixteen years of age are required to attend a public school each year for the full term for which the school is in session. However, the following classes of children are ex- empted from this requirement: (i) children who are properly instructed in a private or parochial school, or at home by a competent person, satisfactory proof of such instruction being furnished the county superintendent; (2) children who are men- tally or physically incapacitated to perform school duties, the proof of such incapacity being submitted to the school-attendance officer; (3) children who have completed the grammar-school grades; (4) children whose services are needed for the support of a widowed mother or other dependent person, such depen- dency being proven to the satisfaction of the attendance officer; (5) children under ten years of age who reside more than two miles, and children over ten who reside more than three miles, e 4 Ibid., Sec. 327. 65 Ibid., Sec. 318. 66 Ibid., Sec. 314. ilbid., Sec. 317. 68 As is seen, the term " school year " is used in two different senses. 69 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7808. 228 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA from a school, unless free transportation is furnished ; (6) chil- dren whose parents or guardians are unable to provide the nec- essary books and clothing, unless such books and clothing are provided by some other means; and (7) children who are ex- empted by the attendance officer for unusual causes. Also, oc- casional absences from such attendance, not exceeding four school days per month, may be allowed. Every person in charge of a child within the compulsory school-attendance ages, and not properly excused from attend- ance at school for some one or more of the above-mentioned exemptions, must require such child to attend school regularly dur- ing the full time the public school is in session ; and, on conviction for failing to do so, may be fined not more than five dollars for each offense ; 70 and for failure to pay such fine may be imprisoned not exceeding five days. However, any person in charge of a child within the compulsory school-attendance ages who presents satisfactory proof that he or she is unable to compel such child to attend school may be exempted from the penalties as regards non-attendance of such child; and such child, if a boy, may be committed to the Florida Industrial School for Boys, and if a girl, to the Florida Industrial School for Girls. The principal or teacher having charge of any public school is required to keep an accurate record of the attendance and non-attendance of all children enrolled therein, and report the non-attendance of any child to the school-attendance officer on Friday of each week during the school term, together with the reason therefor, if known; and for failure to do so his or her certificate may be revoked by the state superintendent of public instruction upon satisfactory proof of such failure. Also private teachers and principals or teachers of private or parochial schools are required to keep, a record of the attendance of children so as to enable the county superintendent to verify a child's at- tendance. As already pointed out, 71 the execution of the compulsory school-attendance law in each county is entrusted to the school- 70 Each day a child remains away from school after being notified by the attendance officer constitutes a separate offense. All fines collected are paid into the county school-fund of the county in which collected. 71 See pages 223-24. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 229 attendance officer, who, failing to perform his duties, may be removed from office by the county board of public instruction. All notices, forms, and blanks to be used in carrying out the provisions of this law are prescribed by the state superintendent and furnished by the county boards of the different counties. Consolidation of Schools and Transportation of Pupils. The law expressly forbids the establishment of schools, for the same race, nearer than three miles of each other, except for some local necessity. 72 Hence, the state board of education has made it the duty of the county boards af the counties in which such schools are maintained to combine two or more schools into one, when practicable, or otherwise re-arrange them so as to conform to the three-mile limit. 73 However, thus far there have been no statu- tory provisions looking either to the consolidation of schools or the transportation of pupils. Nevertheless, the movement along both these lines is making considerable progress. In 1919-20 the system of transporting pupils to and from school at public expense was in operation in 50 of the 54 counties, a total of 7,966 pupils being transported, and $216,689 spent for this pur- pose. 7 * III. THE SYSTEM OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION Extent. The public-school system of Florida is one continu- ous school system, extending from the elementary school to and through the state university. However, the uniform system of public free schools consists of only twelve consecutive school years of instruction. 75 Classification of the Public Free Schools. There are two classes of public free schools elementary and secondary. The elementary-, or common-school, system embraces the first eight years of instruction, each year being designated as a grade. The first two grades are commonly known as primary ; third to sixth, intermediate; and seventh and eight, grammar grades. 76 The secondary-, or high-school, system embraces the ninth, tenth, 72 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Para. 6. 73 See Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 15. 74 See page 116, above. 75 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5382, Sec. i; also Gen. Stats., Sec. 386. 76 See Laws of Florida, 1905, Chap. 5382, Sees. 2-3 ; also Gen. Stats., Sees. 387-88. 230 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA eleventh, and twelfth years of instruction. Schools which offer the first two are called junior high schools; the first three, in- termediate; and all four, senior. 77 Elementary-School Instruction. As has been pointed out ear- lier, 78 the elementary- and high-school courses of instruction pre- pared in 1918 by the commission appointed by State Superinten- dent Sheats have been adopted by the State. The courses of instruction for elementary schools include the subjects required by law, and also those which may be required by the various county boards of education where facilities for teaching are offered. The subjects required by law are reading, writing, number work, language, arithmetic, grammar, spelling, history, geography, physiology, hygiene and sanitation, civil government, agriculture, and morals and manners; and those that may be required by the county boards are hand work, manual training, home economics, nature study, music, drawing, and physical cul- ture. 79 The following is an outline of the program of studies by grades. 80 OUTLINE OF THE STATE PROGRAM OF STUDIES FOR ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OUTLINE FOR THE FIRST GRADE Subjects Alternating with Days per week Conditions^ Reading 5 R Number Work 5 R Language 5 R Spelling 5 R Nature Study Hygiene 2 R Hygiene Nature Study 3 R Drawing Hand Work 3 O Hand work Drawing 2 O Music 2 O Writing 5 R Morals and Manners 82 R 77 See supra, pp. 132-33- 78 See pages 118-19. 79 See Course of Study for Elementary and High Schools of Florida (rearranged edition; authorized by Chap. 7910, Acts of 1919), pp. 6-10. 80 For a presentation of this program in detail see Course of Study for Elementary and High Schools of Florida, pp. 14-169. 81 That is, whether required by law (R), or optional with the county boards of education (O). 82 This subject is given no regular place on the recitation schedule, but two or three periods of five or six minutes each are devoted to it every week at the opening exercises. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 231 OUTLINE FOR THE SECOND GRADE Subjects Alternating with Days per Week Conditions Reading 5 R Number Work 5 R Language 5 R Spelling 5 R Nature Study Hygiene 2 R Hygiene Nature Study 3 R Drawing Hand Work 3 Hand Work Drawing 2 Music - 2 O Writing 5 R Morals and Manners 83 R OUTLINE FOR THE THIRD GRADE Reading 5 R Number Work 5 R Language 5 R Spelling 5 R Nature Study and Home Ge- ography 84 Hygiene 4 R Hygiene N. Study and H. Geog. i R Drawing Hand Work 3 Hand Work Drawing 2 O Music 2 O Writing 5 R Morals and Manners 83 R OUTLINE FOR THE FOURTH GRADE Reading 5 R Arithmetic 5 R Language 5 R Spelling 5 R Geography Hygiene 4 R Hygiene Geography i R Drawing Hand Work 2 Hand Work Drawing 2 Music Drawing and H. Work i Writing 5 R Morals and Manners 83 R 83 See footnote eighty-two, above. 84 Nature study and home geography are taught together. 232 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA OUTLINE FOR THE FIFTH GRADE Subjects Alternating with Days per Week Conditions Reading 5 R Arithmetic 5 R Language 5 R Spelling 5 R Geography Hygiene 4 R Hygiene Geography i R U. S. History 5 R Drawing Hand Work 2 Hand Work Drawing 2 Music Drawing and H. Work I Writing 5 R Morals and Manners 85 R OUTLINE FOR THE SIXTH GRADE Reading Hygiene 3 R Arithmetic 5 R Grammar 5 R Spelling 5 R Geography 5 R Florida History 5 R Hygiene Reading 2 R Drawing Hand Work and Music I Hand Work Drawing and Music I Music Drawing and H. Work I Writing 5 R Morals and Manners 85 R OUTLINE FOR THE SEVENTH GRADE 86 Reading Sanitation 3 R Arithmetic 5 R Grammar 5 R Spelling 5 R Geography 5 R U. S. History 5 R Sanitation Reading 2 R Mechanical Drawing Manual Training 2 Manual Training Mechanical Drawing 3 Music Writing I Writing Music 4 R Morals and Manners 85 R 85 See footnote eighty-two, above. 86 Home economics is not mentioned here, though a course of study in this subject is provided in the state curriculum. It is understood that in schools with facilities for offering the optional courses the girls will take home economics, or something else, while the boys will take manual training. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 233 OUTLINE FOR THE EIGHTH GRADE 87 Subjects Reading Arithmetic Grammar Spelling U. S. History Physiology Civil Government Agriculture Mechanical Drawing Manual Training Music Writing Morals and Manners 88 Alternating with Days per week Conditions Spelling Reading Physiology U. S. History Manual Training Mechanical Drawing Writing Music Secondary-School Instruction. The course of instruction for high schools include English, history, advanced arithmetic, alge- bra, plane and solid geometry, plane trigonometry, general sci- ence, physiology, physical geography, botany, zoology, physics, chemistry, Latin, French, Spanish, social science, psychology, music, drawing, home economics, agriculture, manual training, commercial English, typewriting, shorthand, commercial arith- metic, and bookkeeping. The following is an outline of the program of studies by types of schools and years. OUTLINE OF THE STATE PROGRAM OF STUDIES FOR HIGH SCHOOLS 89 TWO-YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 90 First Year English Algebra Latin Ancient History Drawing Music Classical Curriculum Second Year English Plane Geometry Algebra Latin American History and Civics Drawing Music 87 See footnote eighty-six, above. 88 See footnote eighty-two, above. 89 See Course of Study for Elementary and High Schools of Florida (rearranged edition; authorized by Chap. 7910, Acts of 1919), pp. 171-78. 90 These curricula are for two-year high schools having at least one teacher giving full time to high-school subjects, but only one of them should be attempted. 234 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA Scientific Curriculum First Year English Algebra Physical Geography or General Sci- ence Ancient History Drawing Music Second Year English Plane Geometry or Algebra American History and Civics Zoology and Botany Drawing Music THREE-YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULA 91 First Year English Algebra Latin Ancient History Drawing Music English Algebra Physical Geography or General Science Ancient History Drawing Music Classical Curriculum Second Year English Plane Geometry or Al- gebra Latin Modern History Drawing Music Scientific Curriculum English Plane Geometry or Al- gebra Modern History Zoology and Botany Drawing Music Third Year English Plane Geometry or Al- gebra and Solid Ge- ometry American History and Civics Drawing Music English Plane Geometry or Al- gebra and Solid Ge- ometry Physics or Chemistry Drawing Music CURRICULUM FOR SMALL FOUR- YEAR HIGH SCHOOLS 92 First Year Second Year English Algebra Latin Phys. Geog. or Gen. Science History 3 English Algebra Latin *| Botany I Zoology J History 93 two Third Year English Fourth Year English 9 * Plane Geometry Plane Trigonom- Latin Physics or Chem- istry English History t ry an d Arithmetic Latin or Physics or Chemistry American His- tory and Civ- ics 91 These curricula are for three-year high schools having not less than two teachers giving full time to high-school subjects, but only one of them should be followed. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 235 FOUR- YEAR HIGH-SCHOOL CURRICULUM 95 First Year First Semester Required Subjects : English Algebra Ancient History One of the Following: Latin Physiology General Science Physical Geography Agriculture Home Economics Manual Training Commercial Arithmetic Shorthand Drawing Music Second Semester Required Subjects : English Algebra Ancient History One of the Following: Latin Physiology General Science Physical Geography Agriculture Home Economics Manual Training Commercial Arithmetic Shorthand Drawing Music Second Year Required Subjects: English Algebra or Plane Geometry Two of the Following: Latin Modern History Botany or Zoology Agriculture Home Economics Manual Training Commercial Arithmetic Bookkeeping Shorthand Drawing Music Required Subjects: English Algebra or Plane Geometry Two of the Following: Latin Modern History Botany or Zoology Agriculture Home Economics Manual Training Commercial Arithmetic Bookkeeping Shorthand Drawing Music 92 Schools having at least two teachers who give their full time to high-school subjects and a principal who teaches not more than four classes daily. 93 First- and second-year classes in history are combined. 94 Third- and fourth-year classes in English are combined. 95 This is for four-year high schools having not less than four teachers besides the principal giving their full time to high-school subjects. 236 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA Third Year First Semester Required Subjects: English Algebra or Plane Geometry Two of the Following: Latin French Spanish Chemistry or Physics Agriculture Home Economics Manual Training Commercial Arithmetic Bookkeeping Shorthand Drawing Music Second Semester Required Subjects: English Plane Geometry 96 Two of the Following: 97 Algebra Solid Geometry Latin French Spanish Chemistry or Physics Agriculture Home Economics Manual Training Commercial Arithmetic Bookkeeping Shorthand Drawing Music Fourth Year Required Subjects: English American History and Civics Two of the Following: Latin French Spanish Social Science or Psychology Chemistry or Physics Plane Trigonometry Manual Training Agriculture Commercial English Bookkeeping Typewriting Shorthand Drawing Music Required Subjects: English American History and Civics Two of the Following: Latin French Spanish Social Science or Psychology Chemistry or Physics Solid Geometry or Arithmetic Manual Training Agriculture Commercial English Bookkeeping Typewriting Shorthand Drawing Music NOTE. One science is required during the four years. 96 If not taken the second year. 07 Three if geometry is not taken. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 237 Military Instruction and Training. By act approved June 9, I9I9, 98 the state board of education is empowered and directed to prescribe a course in military instruction and training to be used in high schools having an enrollment of twenty-five or more boys in and above the ninth grade, and to prescribe the kind of uni- form and equipment to be used by those taking the course. The board of education for each county is authorized to designate the school or schools in which such course may be maintained, and to procure the necessary equipment, giving security therefor when leased or borrowed from the Federal Government. The students taking this course are required to furnish their own uniforms. Vocational Education. Any county board of public instruc- tion, or board of trustees of any school of less than college grade under public control, may make provision for instruction of less than college grade in home economics, agricultural pursuits, or trades and industries, and any such county board or board of trustees may use any moneys raised by taxation in the same way as moneys for other school purposes are used in establish- ing and maintaining public instruction of less than college grade." And, whenever any school offering such instruction has been or- ganized in accordance with the rules and regulations of the state board for vocational education, and approved by this board, it is entitled to share in the state and federal funds available for the promotion of vocational education 100 to an amount of at least fifty per cent of the moneys expended for the salaries of the teachers of vocational subjects therein. 101 In 1918-19 there were sixteen such schools in the State 102 one for trade and industrial work, five for home economics, and ten for agricul- ture. 103 98 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7911. "See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6833, Sees. 1-2; and Laws of 1919, Chap. 7592, Sec. 7. 100 For the appropriations for 1917-21 see page 208, above. 101 See Laws of Florida, 1919, Chap. 7592, Sec. 8. 102 As is shown above (pp. 140-49), there were other public schools which offered some instruction in vocational subjects. 103 See An. Rep. of Fed. Bd. for Voc. Ed., 1919, p. 214; also Bien. Rep. of St. Bd. for Voc. Ed., 1917-19, in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 772-80. For a detailed outline of the first two years' work 238 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA Special Types of Schools. Provision is also made for some special types of schools. 104 In the first place, there are three state institutions for special classes, namely, the Florida School for the Deaf and the Blind, at St. Augustine, the Florida Indus- trial School for Boys, at Marianna, and the Florida Industrial School for Girls, at Ocala. These schools are supported, for the most part, by state appropriations. 105 The Florida School for the Deaf and the Blind is for the care, education, and main- tenance of all the blind and deaf-mutes of the State between six and twenty-one years old, admission thereto being granted upon certificate from any board of county commissioners. It is under the management of the state board of control. 106 The other two institutions are reclamation schools for delinquent boys and girls, respectively, between the ages of ten and twenty- one. They are under the management of the board of commis- sioners of state institutions. 107 The courses of instruction and training in all three of these schools are designed to meet the needs and abilities of the pupils therein. In the second place, county boards of education and boards of district trustees are authorized to establish and maintain kindergartens in connection with the schools under their direction and control; provided, however, that the various communities shall guarantee the attendance of at least twenty-five kinder- garten pupils ; provided, further, that every kindergarten, when established, shall be under the supervision of the principal of the school with which it is connected ; and provided, still further, that no person shall be employed as principal of a kindergarten department who does not hold a certificate of graduation from a reputable kindergarten training school. And, in the third place, there is a very recent law passed by the last legislature which provides that wherever there are now required of these schools see Course of Study for Elementary and High Schools of Florida (rearranged edition; authorized by Chap. 7910, Acts of 1919), pp. 178-213. 104 See pages 149-52, above. 105 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6840, Sec. 13. 106 See page 216, above. 107 This board is composed of the governor and the administrative of- ficers of the executive department. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 239 fifteen children who, for any cause except mental or physical disability or the completion of the grammar grades, are exempted from regular school attendance at any school or schools three miles or less apart, and residing or employed within the regular attendance area of such school or schools, the county board of education is authorized and required to establish and maintain a part-time school or schools. Such school or schools must be in session at least one hundred forty-four hours each school year during regular employment hours, and furnish instruction in subjects designed to train the children for civic or vocational activities. 108 Higher and Professional Education. In addition to the three state educational institutions mentioned above, the State main- tains three institutions for higher and professional education, the University of Florida, at Gainesville, the Florida State Col- lege for Women, at Tallahassee, and the Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes, also situated at Tallahas- see, which may be said to form the culmination of its public- school system. As in the case of the Florida School for the Deaf and the Blind, these are under the management of the state board of control. 109 They are supported mostly by state appro- priations and the income from federal grants. As to scope and quality of instruction they compare favorably with corresponding institutions in most of the other states. 110 IV. SCHOOL ENVIRONMENT AND EQUIPMENT Buildings and Sites. The county boards of public instruction are authorized and directed to provide, as far as practicable, suitable school buildings and grounds, together with proper apparatus, for all children of school age residing within their respective counties and desiring to attend the public schools therein. 111 The site for each school must be healthful and pleas- ant; conveniently located for the accommodation of all children entitled to attend ; and contain at least one-half acre in the rural i 8 See Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8550. 109 p or the powers and duties of this board see page 216, above. 110 For this scope of instruction see pages 163-68, above. 111 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Paras. 2 and 5. 240 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA districts, and as nearly that amount as is practicable in the urban. 112 Should the school board of any county fail to supply such accommodations, the county forfeits its proportion of the state school-funds during such neglect. 113 Upon the request of the county board of public instruction of any county, after an affirmative vote of the qualified tax- paying electors thereof, the board of county commissioners may contract debts to provide school buildings and grounds, and bor- row money to discharge any debt incurred by the purchase of real estate for such purpose. 114 In addition, any special-tax school district, by a majority vote of its legal voters, at an elec- tion ordered by the county board of public instruction on petition of one-fourth of the voters of the said district, 115 may issue bonds for any exclusive use of its public schools. 116 However, if the bonds are for building purposes, the county board must, upon the recommendation of the school trustees of the district, perpare plans and specifications for the contract for constructing the same. 117 Every teacher is directed to see that the school building in which he or she teaches, and all appurtenances belonging thereto, are not unnecessarily injured. 118 Whoever injures such property without cause may be punished by imprisonment of not more than one year or by fine of not more than five hundred dollars. 119 And whoever places any obscene word, image or device on such property may be imprisoned not exceeding fifteen days or fined not exceeding one hundred dollars ; however, this does not apply to pupils subject to the discipline of the school. 120 "2 Ibid., Sec. 347, Para. 4. "3 ibid., Sec. 326. "* Ibid., Sec. 324. 115 Except when the district is located wholly or partially in cities of 25,000 population, or more, according to the recent federal census, in which case the petition may be dispensed with and the proposition of is- suing the said bonds may be initiated by the county board of public in- struction or by the trustees of the district, or by both bodies (see Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8543). 116 See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6542. 117 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6967. 118 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 379, Para. 3. "/Wrf., Sec. 3430. 120 /&/., Sec. 3541. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 241 All public-school buildings of two or more stories in height must be provided with adequate stairways or fire escapes by the board of public instruction of the county in which such building or buildings are located. 121 The state superintendent is directed to formulate and prescribe tactics of instruction for fire drills for all the public schools of the State, and each teacher is required to instruct the pupils of his or her school in such drills. 121 Health Regulations. There are five provisions looking to the promotion of the health of the pupils : ( I ) the school buildings must be located only in healthful places; 122 (2) they must be provided with sanitary toilets; 123 (3) a course of instruction in hygiene must be offered in the primary and intermediate grades; 124 (4) the teachers are directed to require all pupils under their control to observe personal cleanliness; 125 and (5) the state board of health is directed to make adequate provision for the physical examination of all school children in the State, every child being examined at least once each year. 126 Textbooks. The board of commissioners of state institutions, which is constituted a state textbook commission, is authorized and directed to select and adopt a uniform system of textbooks for the elementary and high schools of the State; 127 provided, however, that all books must first be submitted to a subcom- mission, which is composed of seven members appointed by the governor upon the nomination of the state superintendent of public instruction, and which is directed to examine all books submitted and to report on the same to the commission, indi- cating first choice, second choice, and on down to the fifth choice, for each subject; provided, further, that the said commission is authorized and directed to adopt one basal and not more than two supplementary texts on each high-school subject; provided, 121 See Laws of Florida, 1909, Chap. 5937- 122 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Para. 4. 123 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6836. 124 See Gen. Stats., Sees. 389-90. 125 Ibid., Sec. 379, Para. 2. 128 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6829. 127 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7374; Laws of 1921, Chap. 8500; also supra, pp. I75-7& 242 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA still further, that none of such textbooks shall contain anything of a partisan or sectarian character; and provided, still further, that all adoptions must be for eight years. Such books must be introduced and used as textbooks to the exclusion of all others in all public free schools of the State. However, supple- mentary books may be used, and books on a higher branch than those required by law; provided, that the supplementary books are prescribed by the commission, and that the higher branch is not taught to the exclusion of the required branches. The county boards of public instruction are required to furnish free of cost the textbooks necessary for the use of all indigent children in their respective counties who are not over fifteen years of age; provided, however, that when the children reside in a special-tax school district the cost of such books must be charged against and paid for out of the funds credited to the district. 128 V. THE TEACHING STAFF Examination and Certification. No person is permitted to teach in any of the public free schools of the State who does not hold a valid teacher's certificate covering the subject or subjects taught. There are in all fifteen different forms which may be issued, temporary, courtesy temporary, primary, third-, second-, and first-grade, special, state, life primary, life first-grade, life state, graduate first-grade, graduate special, graduate state, and life graduate state, all of which are valid in any part of the State, and for the time specified, though any of them may be suspended or revoked by a county superintendent of public instruction, or by the state superintendent upon his own motion, or upon the recommendation of the state board of examiners, where the holder proves incompetent, unsuccessful or grossly immoral. 121 As has been stated earlier, 130 all examinations that are required for the issuance of certificates are conducted by the state board of examiners. 128 See Laws of Florida, 1911, Chap. 6163. 129 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372; and Laws of 1919, Chaps. 7373, 7914, and 7942. 130 See supra, pp. 192 and 217. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 243 A temporary certificate may be issued without examination by the state superintendent of public instruction upon the request of a county superintendent in an emergency ; provided, however, that it shall be valid only until the state board oi examiners shall hold an examination within the county, or an adjacent county, in which the holder of the certificate is employed. A courtesy temporary certificate, valid for two months, may be issued by the state superintendent to any person holding a valid teacher's certificate issued in another state, when such holder is endorsed by the superintendent of the county wherein he or she has been employed to teach. A primary certificate, valid for four years in the first three grades of regular graded schools of four teachers or more, may be issued to persons who have received special instruction for at least one year in primary methods and practice teaching in a recognized normal school, or its equivalent, and passed an examination on the required branches. The third-, second-, and first-grade certificates, valid for one, three, and five years, respectively, may be issued to per- sons who have passed a satisfactory examination on the required branches. A special certificate, valid for teaching only the sub- ject or subjects covered by it, and for a period of five years, is issuable to applicants who have shown ability in teaching one or more subjects not embraced in the requirements for a second- grade certificate, and made a grade of ninety per cent in an examination on all the subjects covered by the same. A state certificate, valid for five years, is issuable only to applicants who have had twenty-four months of successful experience in teach- ing, and made an average grade of eighty-five per cent, with none below sixty, in an examination on geometry, trigonometry, physics, botany, zoology, Latin, rhetoric, English literature, psy- chology, and general history. A life primary certificate, valid during the life of the holder in the primary department of any public school, may be granted to any holder of a valid primary certificate who has taught successfully under such certificate for a period of thirty-two months in the primary department of a regular graded school of not less than four teachers. A life first-grade certificate, valid for life, may be granted to any holder 244 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA of a valid first-grade certificate who has taught twenty years in the public free schools of the State, the last ten being on first- grade certificates ; or to any holder of two first-grade certificates, each with an average grade of at least ninety per cent and the last one valid, who has taught six years on the two certificates held; or to any holder of a first-grade certificate who has had such certificate extended three times by attendance at either of the state summer schools, 131 and has taught six years on the certificate held. A life state certificate of perpetual validity may be granted to any applicant who holds a valid state certifi- cate, has taught successfully in a high school or college of the State for eighteen months on such certificate, and has the en- dorsement of three holders of life state certificates as possessing eminent ability both as a teacher and a disciplinarian. A grad- uate state certificate is issuable to graduates of the normal and collegiate departments of the University of Florida and the Flor- ida State College for Women, and of any chartered college or university which meets the requirements of the state board of education and the state board of control; provided, that such graduates have taken three-twentieths of the work required for graduation in psychology and education, and during their junior and senior years made a general average of not less than eighty- five per cent on all subjects pursued and completed, with no grade below sixty. 132 Graduate first-grade, graduate special, and also graduate state certificates may be issued to persons who have graduated since June 15, 1905, from any standard univer- sity, college, or normal school requiring four years of work for graduation, and have had twenty-four months of successful ex- perience in teaching since graduating, the form of certificate issued being determined by a commission consisting of the state superintendent and the president and dean of the normal de- partment of the Florida State College for Women. And finally, 131 See page 191, above, for the provision in regard to the extension of certificates. 132 However, in lieu of such time devoted to the study of psychology and education, twenty-four months' teaching experience in the public schools of the State may be accepted (see Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8544). CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 245 a life graduate state certificate of perpetual validity may be issued without examination by the state superintendent to any teacher holding a graduate state certificate who has taught successfully in the State for twenty-four months on a graduate state certifi- cate, and has the endorsement of three holders of life certificates as showing eminent ability in teaching and school government. By very recent legislation, 133 any applicant filing with the state superintendent a valid teacher's certificate from another state whose requirements are similar and fully equal to those of Florida are entitled to a Florida teacher's certificate of like grade, and the state superintendent is authorized and directed to issue the same; provided, first, that the certificate filed for substitution is equivalent to and not lower in grade than a Flor- ida first-grade or state certificate; second, that the applicant presents satisfactory evidence of having graduated from an ap- proved four-year high school, and, in addition, of having com- pleted from two to four years' work in a standard college or normal school; and, further, that he or she furnishes satis- factory evidence of good moral character and of having taught successfully for twenty-four months, submits a health certificate signed by a reputable practicing physician, and pays a fee of five dollars. Such certificate is valid for teaching in any public school of the State for a period of three years from its date, but in no grade above the tenth unless the applicant has com- pleted four years' work in a standard college or normal school, in which case it is valid for teaching in all the high-school grades. Moreover, all substituted certificates have all the rights and benefits as to life extension conveyed to the holders of sim- ilar certificates obtained by examination in the State, and are likewise subject to revocation. However, such certificates can be issued only to applicants from states which extend to Florida certificate holders these same privileges. Appointment and Tenure. The board of public instruction in each county is authorized and directed to appoint the teachers for every public free school of the county ; 134 provided, however, 133 See Laws of Florida, 1921, Chaps. 8511 and 8542. 134 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Para. 6; and Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 8. 246 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA that in special-tax school districts the trustees shall have the power to nominate the teachers; 135 provided, further, that in case of a vacancy in the teaching staff of any school between the regular meetings of the county board the county superin- tendent shall have the power to fill the same, subject to the ratification of the board at its next regular meeting ; 136 that in case of a leave of absence, not exceeding three days, the teacher on leave may secure a substitute, subject to the approval of the principal, the county superintendent, the trustees, or the local supervisor; 137 and that in case of a leave of absence of more than three days a substitute shall be secured by the county board, the county superintendent, or the trustees ; 138 and provided, still further, that no teacher shall be appointed for a term of service extending beyond his or her certificate. 139 Salaries and General Duties. The county boards of public instruction are also authorized and directed to contract with and pay the salaries of the teachers of their respective counties ; 14 provided, however, that no board shall contract with or pay any person for services as a teacher who does not hold a valid teacher's certificate; 141 provided, further, that no board shall issue a warrant to any teacher unless his or her monthly report is made on the blanks furnished and according to direction; 142 and provided, still further, that a substitute teacher, if employed for not exceeding three days, shall be paid by the teacher whose place he or she has taken; 143 and if employed for more than three days, by the county board or the trustees ; 144 and that all teachers absent without leave shall forfeit their pay during such absence, and also those absent on leave, if they are away over three days. 145 135 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 408. 136 See Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 24. 137 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 381. 188 7Wd., Sec. 382. 139 See Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 18. 140 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 347, Para. 6. 141 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chap. 7372, Sec. I. 14 2 See Regs, of St. Bd. of Ed., Reg. 6. * 43 See Gen. Stats, Sec. 381. i 44 Ibid., Sec. 383. s Ibid., Sec. 382. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 247 The general duties of every teacher are as follows : 146 ( I ) to labor faithfully and earnestly for the advancement of the pupils in their studies and moral development; (2) to require the pupils to keep clean, observe good manners, and refrain from bad habits; (3) to see that the school property is not unnecessarily injured; (4) to enforce needful restrictions upon the conduct of pupils in the school building and on the grounds, but avoiding at all times unnecessary severity and measures of punishment; (5) to suspend pupils for ten days on account of gross immor- ality, misconduct, or persistent violation of the rules, giving im- mediate notice to the parents or guardians and to the local school supervisor; (6) to hold a public examination at the close of each term; (7) to commemorate Mother's Day 147 with appro- priate exercises; 148 (8) to make a monthly report to the county superintendent of public instruction ; (9) to deliver the keys and all school property to the supervisor on suspending or closing the school; and (10) to conform at all times to the regulations of the state department of education. 149 Training and Supervision. For the professional training of teachers the State maintains a normal school and college of edu- cation in both the state institutions of higher learning for the white race and a normal department in the one for negroes. 150 In addition, it maintains a summer school at each of the three higher educational institutions, 151 and helps to maintain a county teacher-training department in several of the high schools. 152 For the maintenance of these summer schools and teacher-train- ing departments the State makes annual appropriations. 153 There are also provisions for the supervisory oversight of the teachers. As we have seen, there are three state supervisors one for the high schools and two for the elementary rural schools. These, of course, endeavor to supervise all the teachers of the 146 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 379. 147 The first Friday in November of each year. 148 See Laws of Florida, 1911, Chap. 6204. 149 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 384. 150 See supra, pp. 163-68 and 182. 151 Ibid., pp. 193-94. 152 Ibid., pp. 183-88. 153 See Laws of Florida, 1917, Chaps. 7279 and 7371. 248 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA type of work. For the most part, it is done by the county superintendents and the local school supervisors. However, there are a few counties which employ an assistant county superin- tendent to give additional supervision. VI. REVENUE FOR THE SUPPORT OF PUBLIC FREE SCHOOLS Sources of School Revenue. The public free schools draw their support almost entirely from five sources the interest on a permanent state school-fund, a state property tax, county and district property taxes, and poll taxes. The State has a permanent school-fund 154 which, at last report, 155 was $1,877,880. In addition, it levies an annual tax of one mill on the dollar of all taxable property therein. 156 The receipts from these two state sources in 1919-20 amounted to $427,507 $68,338 from the former and $359,169 from the latter 157 or about 7 per cent of the total income for that year. 158 Each county is required to levy annually a tax of not less than three nor more than ten mills on the dollar of all taxable property in the same, 159 and a special capitation tax of one dollar upon each male inhabitant between twenty-one and fifty- five years of age who has not lost a limb in battle. 160 The re- ceipts from these two county sources in 1919-20 amounted to $3>396,767 $3 2 5i,336 on property and $145*431 on polls 161 or 54 per cent of the total income for schools. 158 Furthermore, any special-tax school district, of which there were 883 at last report, 162 may levy an annual property tax up to three mills on the dollar; 163 and, if bonds have been issued for 154 F or it s sources see Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 4. 155 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 40. 156 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 6. 157 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 124. 158 Excluding receipts from loans, bond sales, and balance on hand from school year 1918-19. 159 See Laws Relating to Education Enacted by the Florida Legisla- ture of 1917 and 1919 (compiled by W. N. Sheats, State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1919), p. I. 160 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 508. 161 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, pp. 120-21. 162 Ibid., p. 122. 163 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 10; and Gen. Stats., Sees. 410-13. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 249 the exclusive use of public free schools, it may levy an additional tax up to five mills for the purpose of paying the interest on State. Moreover, each county makes some provision for this such bonds and of creating a sinking fund for the payment of the principal at maturity of the same. 164 Hence, a special-tax district may levy as much as eight mills on the dollar of all taxable property therein. In 1919-20 the revenue from district taxation was $I,4I9,I3O, 165 or 23 per cent of the entire school income. 166 The remainder of the revenue for the support of public free schools comes from quite a number of sources; 167 for example, dividends, interest on bank deposits and loans, sale of bonds, collections for payment of bonds, fines and forfeitures, and tui- tion of non-resident pupils. 168 In 1919-20 the revenue from these minor sources was $i,on,896, 169 or 16 per cent of the entire revenue. 166 Apportionment of the School Revenue. The annual income from the permanent school-fund, together with the annual state school-tax of one mill, is apportioned to the various counties 170 by the state superintendent of public instruction on the average daily attendance at school for the preceding year. 171 The moneys received from these two sources by the several counties, and also those raised or collected by them for school purposes, are disbursed in each county by the county board of education, as it sees fit, for the maintenance of the public free schools. 172 And the school funds of the special-tax school districts, which are derived, for the most part, from district taxes, are appor- i* See Laws of Florida, 1913, Chap. 6542 ; Laws of 1915, Chap. 6967 ; and Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1912-14, p. 38. 165 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 122. 166 Excluding receipts from loans, bond sales, and balance on hand from school year 1918-19. 167 These vary in the different counties. 168 See Biennial Reports of County Superintendents; in Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, pp. 547-769. 1 69 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, pp. 17 and 124. 170 The apportionments are made semiannually. 171 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 7 (as amended in 1894) ; Gen. Stats., Sec. 142, Paras. 4-5 ; also supra, pp. 200 and 214. 172 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 9. 250 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA tioned to the different educational purposes in each of the dis- tricts by the board of trustees thereof ; provided, however, that it shall make a fair and equitable distribution of the same among all the schools under its supervision. 173 Local Bonds and Indebtedness. As already stated, 174 the board of county commissioners of any county, after an affirm- ative vote of the legal voters thereof, and upon the request of the county board of education, is authorized to contract debts for the provision of school sites and buildings, and, if necessary, to borrow money for the payment of the indebtedness. In ad- dition, when there is no money in the county school- fund for paying outstanding warrants, the county board of education is em- powered to borrow money at not exceeding eight per cent interest to pay the same; provided, however, that it shall not borrow in any one year more than eighty per cent of the amount estimated by it to be required for the support of the schools. 175 In 1919-20 a total of $1,726,187 was borrowed by 49 of the 54 counties. 176 Also, as stated above, 174 any special-tax school district may issue bonds for the exclusive use of public free schools; pro- vided, however, that at least twenty-five per cent of the resident qualified electors of the district shall first petition the county board of education for the privilege of issuing such bonds, setting forth in their petition the amount of bonds desired and the purposes thereof; provided, further, that the county board shall determine the amount of bonds required, the rate of interest to be paid thereon, and the time when the principal and interest shall become due; and provided, still further, that a majority of the votes cast at the election ordered by the board 17 s See Gen. Stats., Sec. 409. 174 See page 240. 175 See Laws of Florida, 1915, 6828. By an act approved May 21, 1921, the county board of education is empowered also "to issue and sell interest-bearing coupon warrants in a sum or sums not to exceed the total amount of such outstanding and un- paid school warrants, notes, or other evidences of debt"; provided, how- ever, that such interest-bearing coupon warrants shall bear interest at a rate not to exceed eight per cent, and shall be issued to run for more than twenty years (see Laws of Florida, 1921, Chap. 8548). 176 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 124. CONSPECTUS OF PRESENT SYSTEM 251 shall be in favor of the bond issue. In 1919-20 the sum of $936,331 was raised by this means. 177 Care of the School Revenue. The educational funds of the State are entrusted to the state board of education. 178 The state treasurer, who is also the treasurer of the board, is authorized and directed to keep a record of the amount of money appor- tioned to and received by the different counties from these sources ; 179 and all officers having moneys which by law belong to such funds are required to pay the same to the said treasurer. 180 Prior to 1917 the school funds of each of the counties were entrusted to the county treasurer, who was also the treasurer of the county board of public instruction. But in 1915 a law was passed providing for abolishing this office in January, 1917, and designating the banks of the several counties as depositories for the county funds. 181 To qualify as a depository a bank must (i) file with the board of county commissioners or the county board of public instruction, or both, a written guarantee to pay the same two per cent per annum on all daily balances of more than two thousand dollars, and four per cent per annum on deposits for three months or longer, and (2) give a surety bond, or make satisfactory deposit to the credit of the county, in an amount as may be determined by the boards, to be approved by the state comptroller, and conditioned upon the safe-keeping, accounting for, and paying out on demand by proper authority all moneys that may come into its possession. The board of com- missioners and the school board are required to divide the funds under their care and control equally among the banks which have met these conditions; and in case there is none, among those of some other county. All persons receiving or collecting any money payable to the county funds, and not otherwise pro- vided for, are required to pay the same to the bank or banks which have qualified as county depositories. Each bank acting 177 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1918-20, p. 124. 178 See Constitution of Florida, Art. XII, Sec. 3; and Gen. Stats- Sec. 336, Para. 2 179 See Gen. Stats., Sec. 319. Ibid., Sec. 321. 181 See Laws of Florida, 1915, Chap. 6932. 252 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA as a depository shall receipt in triplicate for any money coming into its possession one copy to be kept by it, one to be given the person, and one the board, from whom the money has been re- ceived. It shall also keep two separate accounts for each board one for daily balances and one for time deposits. The boards must keep an accurate record of the amount on hand, the amount received, the amount spent, and the balance at the end of each month for every fund carried by them, and never draw a check or warrant in excess of the daily balance account. All moneys drawn from any depository must be upon checks or warrants signed by the chairman of the board issuing the same, and at- tested by the clerk or secretary of the said board with the cor- porate seal thereof affixed. Each bank is directed to file at the end of every month with the board or boards for which it is a depository a report regarding the funds placed therein. Each board is also directed to prepare and publish a monthly state- ment in regard to the funds under its control. And finally, all accounts, both of the banks and the boards, shall at all times be subject to the inspection and examination of the county auditor, the state auditor, and the state comptroller, or persons designated by him. CHAPTER XI RETROSPECTION AND FORECAST I. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN RETROSPECT The outline of the present public-school system which has just been given, together with. the account of the growth of public education in the preceding chapters, serves to show how far the State has progressed in educational ideals and practices, and affords many reasons for encouragement. Let us indulge for a while in retrospect, and notice the main characteristics of its educational experience. First Attempts at Public Education. Prior to 1845, while Florida was still a territory, there were several efforts toward public education, the most important perhaps being the enactment of legislation in 1839 looking to the establishment of public schools. However, no centralized control was provided. There was also practically no provision for their support other than the income accruing from the federal land grants, and in most instances this was " shamefully neglected or criminally squan- dered " by those authorized and directed to care for and control the same. Consequently, very few schools were established, the principal result being to arouse the people to a slight appreciation at least of the value of public education. Beginnings of the Public-School System. During the period 1845-60, a number of attempts were made in the direction of providing a system of schools for the entire State, the chief ones being as follows: the creation of a state school-fund; the authorization of a county school-tax, the maximum amount levied being four dollars for each child of school age; the pro- vision for an ex officio state superintendent of schools, also an ex officio superintendent and board of education for each county, and for three trustees in each school district ; the establishment of two seminaries, which had as their main object the training of teachers. As a result, considerable progress was made, es- 253 254 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA pecially in establishing free public schools, in getting the children to attend, and in awakening popular interest in education. Had it not been for the Civil War, this progress would doubtless have continued. As it was, practically all public-school efforts were brought to an end. Inauguration of the Present System. The present educational system of Florida was inaugurated under the constitution of 1868 and the school law of 1869, the principal provisions of which being the following: the creation of a permanent state school-fund; the provision for an annual state school-tax of one mill on the dollar of all taxable property; the requirement that each county should raise for the support of schools not less than half the amount apportioned to it from the state school- fund; the appointment, by the governor, of a state superin- tendent of public instruction; the provision for a state board of education, consisting of the superintendent, secretary of state, and attorney general; the appointment, by the governor and the state board of education, respectively, of a superintendent and board of public instruction for each of the counties; the appoint- ment, by the different county boards, of not more than five trus- tees for each school district; the examination of teachers by the county boards of public instruction, the certification of them by the county boards and the state superintendent, and the ap- pointment of the same by the county boards on the approval of the local trustees ; the requirement that negro children should be given educational advantages equal to those of the white, and that every county should maintain a school or schools for not less than three months in each year in order to receive its part of the state revenue for the support of free public schools. Progress of the System, 1868-84. Considering the inimical conditions under which the present public-school system was created, the chief ones being the apathy and poverty of the people and the lack of competent teachers and suitable school plants, the progress thereof from the very first was rather en- couraging. By 1884 all the educational hindrances had been partially overcome; a county school-tax ranging from two and one-half to four mills on the dollar of all taxable property had been required by law; a few high schools and 1,504 common schools had been established; the average length of the school RETROSPECTION AND FORECAST 255 term had been increased to 82 days, and the average daily at- tendance to about 43 per cent of the school population; county teachers' institutes of one or more days in length, teacher- training courses in most of the secondary and some of the best elementary schools, a normal department in both the sem- inaries, and a colored normal school of one month's duration had been organized; a state college, and also a school for the blind and deaf-mutes, had been inaugurated. In other words, Florida had laid the foundation at least for a real system of universal education. Reorganisation and Advancement, 1884-^2. During the years from 1884 to 1892, inclusive, there were several changes in the public-school system, the chief of which being as follows : the addition of the governor and state treasurer to the state board of education; the election of the state and county superinten- dents of public instruction by the qualified voters ; the reduction in the number of members in the several county boards of edu- cation, the limit being reduced from five to three ; the adoption of the county unit of organization for the administration of schools; the appointment, by the various county boards, of one supervisor for each school to take the place of the old local school-board of five members; the provision for special-tax school districts, and for the election of three school trustees for each district; the authorization of a district school-tax of three mills, and also the requirement of a county school-tax of from three to five mills, on the dollar of all taxable property; the requirement that the county boards of education should prepare the elementary courses of study in their respective counties; the delegation to them of the sole authority in the appointment of teachers; and the provision for county high schools and two state normals. During this period there was also considerable advancement in public education. For example, the annual free-school ex- penditure was nearly doubled, this increase being much greater than that of the total population or the wealth of the State; a few additional high schools and 270 common schools were in- stituted; the average length of the school term was increased to approximately 100 days, and the average daily attendance to 256 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA about 46 per cent of the school population; better and more adequate school plants were provided, the total value of the school property being increased more than 150 per cent; more suitable curricula were offered ; a larger and more efficient teach- ing force was secured; two state normals one for white and one for negro students >were inaugurated; and the four state educational institutions already established the two seminaries, the state college, and the school for the blind and deaf-mutes were considerably improved. The Educational Awakening, 1892-1921. But since 1892 there have been some very important changes in the school system of the State, the principal ones being: the appointment, by the state board of education, of a state board of examiners, which has almost complete control in the matter of examining and certifi- cating teachers ; the election of the county school-board members by popular vote; the fixing of the maximum county school-tax at ten instead of seven mills on the dollar; the authorization of an additional district school-tax of five mills on the dollar whenever bonds have been issued for the exclusive use of pub- lic schools; the apportionment of the state free-school revenue to the different counties on the school-attendance rather than the school-population basis ; the provision of compulsory school- attendance for all children of the State between seven and six- teen years of age; the adoption of uniform textbooks for the elementary and high schools; the furnishing of free textbooks, by the county boards of education, to indigent children of their respective counties; the adoption of the uniform elementary- and high-school courses of study formulated by the state de- partment of education; the provision for medical inspection of school children ; the providing of better facilities for the training of teachers; the inauguration of state elementary- and high- school supervision; the promotion of the teaching of vocational education; the provision for two state reform schools one for boys and one for girls; the authorization of the county boards to establish and maintain kindergartens; the merging of all the institutions of higher learning into two, one for men and one for women and placing them under the direction of a state board of five members. RETROSPECTION AND FORECAST 257 Since then there has also taken place a remarkably rapid ad- vance along all educational lines. More efficient school officers and teachers have been secured; the annual free-school expen- diture has been increased 1,192 per cent, this increase being more than ten times as fast as that of the school population; the number of common schools has been considerably augmented, and one or more good high schools have been established in every county; the average length of the school term has been increased to 133 days; more suitable school plants have been provided; the elementary- and high-school curricula have been made much broader and richer; and all the state educational institutions the school for the blind and deaf-mutes, the two reform schools, and the three institutions of higher learning have been greatly improved. Some Results Actually Achieved since 1877. As pointed out, there has been a constant progress in public education ever since the inauguration of the present system. However, since 1877 the year following the close of the reconstruction government in Florida this progress has been quite marked. The six sets of figures given in Table XXVIII, below, reveal in a con- vincing manner some of the achievements. II. PUBLIC EDUCATION IN PROSPECT For this rapid progress in public education, especially during the last two decades, the Floridians may well congratulate them- selves, and from it gather courage. However, they should not fail to take cognizance of the fact that there are still many hard, though glorious, educational tasks which lie before them, a few of which we shall notice. Some Unfinished Tasks. In 1917-18 the latest year for which statistics of the various state school systems are available the per cent of the children in the United States from 5 to 18 years of age enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools was 75.3, while in Florida it was 72.9; the per cent in daily attendance was 56.2 and 50.9, respectively ; the number attending daily for each 100 enrolled, 74.6 and 69.9; the average number of days the schools were in session, 160.7 an d 130; the average number of days attended by each child from 5 to 1 8 years of age, 90.2 and 66.2 ; the average number of days attended by each child enrolled, 119.8 and 90.9; the per cent 258 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA l X o * PJ t^ P M O O 00 I- O\ cs r^ cs t^ M \o t* ^" OOM<%^,M MOOTf O\ PO N s -g s^'^'a^ ^totcogou ^WflJC^u*- 1 ^ sfW&s.* lZ.s^gsi _2> ^^552.tj rt fe '3,'a^ ^ ^ "c ^|5ags|g s 1 I !j 11 z 5 2*3 3 w ti >> 33 kkk teachers employe data for 1887-88. II o> 1 .1 00 *O 00 ^} w c T3 JH g) w ^^D " O M hJ a feW - o o d TD **" JJ &!!* "" ni s g *o RETROSPECTION AND FORECAST 259 of the total school enrollment in secondary schools, 9.3 and 5.4; the per cent of rural-school buildings having only one room, 76 and 80; the value of all school property for each pupil en- rolled, $95.12 and $54.06; the average expenditure, for current expenses, per pupil enrolled, $30.91 and $18.82; the average expenditure, for current expenses, per pupil attending daily, $41.45 and $26.93; an d the average annual salary for teachers, $635 and $383.2 The figures for that year also show that there were 32 states with a larger per cent of the children between 5 and 18 years old enrolled in public elementary and secondary schools than Florida had; 35 with a larger per cent of them in daily attendance; 31 with a larger number attending daily for each 100 enrolled ; 43 with a longer school term; 42 with a larger average number of days attended by each child between 5 and 18 years old; 41 with a larger average number of days attended by each child enrolled; 37 with a larger per cent of the total school enroll- ment in secondary schools; 27 with a smaller per cent of one- room rural school buildings ; 35 with a larger amount of money invested in school property for each pupil enrolled; 35 with a larger average expenditure, for current expenses, per pupil enrolled; 35 with a larger average expenditure, for current ex- penses, per pupil attending daily; and 40 with a larger average annual salary for teachers. 3 Furthermore, during that year, the number of public free schools in Florida for negro children was only 837, or less than 30 per cent of the total number, 4 though the negro children of school age 5 constituted nearly 40 per cent of the total school population. The per cent of the negro school population enrolled in the public elementary and secondary schools was only 50; and the per cent in daily attendance, 35. The average length of the school term was but 102 days ; the average number of days attended by each negro child of school age, 35.7; and the average number of days attended by each 100 enrolled, 71.4. The number 2 For the figures of this paragraph see Bull, of U. S. Bu. of Ed., 1920, No. n, pp. 8, 10, 14, 42, 46, 47, 67, 69, and 108. 3 For the figures of this paragraph see Bull, of U. S. Bu. of Ed., 1920, No. n, pp. 8, 10, 14, 42, 46, 47, 67, 69, and 108. 4 There were but 4 negro high schools, the total enrollment of which was only 226 (see Rep. of U. S. Com. of Ed., 1917, II, 613). 5 From 6 to 21 years. 260 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA of negro teachers employed was but 1,288, or about one-fifth of the total number; and nearly one-half of these held only third- class certificates, representing preparation less than that usually given in the eighth grade. The value of the negro school property was only $725,457, or less than 7 per cent of the total value. The amount spent for negro education was but $443,600, this being about 5 per cent of the total expenditure, and but $3.59 for each negro child of school age. And finally, the average annual salary for negro teachers was only about $i8i. 6 As is patent from the three foregoing paragraphs, there is yet much to be done before it can be said that Florida has one of the best public-school systems in the United States. 7 The facts stated therein show that there are indeed some grave educational tasks confronting the people of the State. A Promising Future. But in spite of its many shortcomings, public education in Florida has, as Dr. W. N. Sheats has said, 8 " a most gratifying outlook." In fact, there is probably no depart- ment of historical life that is capable of giving the people as great encouragement to take a hopeful view of the future as the history of their public-school system. A backward glance over the way along which public education has come reveals three progressive features that have been more or less prominent from the be- ginning: first, the extension of centralized control; second, the humanization of the curricula; and third, the expansion of the public-school system in ever-widening circles of the population. Judging from these and other evidences of advance, particularly during the last few years, and also from the increase in the school funds, the recent growth of popular interest in the schools, and the progressive educational legislation recently enacted, there is every reason to believe that a new era of educational pros- perity has dawned, and that within the next quarter of a century or less Florida will rank among the leading states of the Union in matters of public education. 6 The figures of this paragraph are found in tables xiii, xiv, xvii, xviii, xxv, and xxvi, on pages 113, 116, 173, 180, 197, and 199, above, or com- puted from the figures found therein. 7 In 1917-18 three-fourths of the states, according to an investigation by Dr. Leonard P. Ayres, had a more efficient public-school system (see his An Index Number for State School Systems, p. 49). 8 See Bien. Rep. of Supt. of Pub. Ins., 1916-18, p. 18. LIST OF REFERENCES I. PRIMARY SOURCES Beard, John. Annual Report of the Register of Public Lands and State Superintendent of Common Schools, in House Jour- nal, 1850-51, appendix, rT. 51; also in Senate Journal, appen- dix, p. 12. Bonner, H. R. Statistics of State School Systems, 1917-18. Bulletin, 1920, No. n, of the United States Bureau of Edu- cation. . Bush, Allen H. A Digest of the Statute Law of Florida. Tal- lahassee, Charles H. Walton, State Printer, 1872. Catalogues of the State Educational Institutions, 1905 to date. Constitutions of the State of Florida, 1845, J 86i, 1865, and 1885. Corley, Hugh H. State Register's Report, 1860, in Senate Jour- nal, 1860-61, appendix, pp. 9-12. Corley, Hugh H. State Register's Report, 1865, in House Jour- nal, 1865-66, appendix, p. 8; also in Senate Journal, appen- dix, p. 8. Course of Study for Elementary and High Schools of Florida (rearranged edition; authorized by Chap. 7910, Acts of 1919). Tallahassee, Department of Education, 1919. Directory of Florida School Officers, High Schools and Other Educational Institutions, /p/p. Tallahassee, T. J. Appleyard, Printer. Duncan, E. B. Report of the Superintendent of Common Schools for Freedmen, 1866, in Senate Journal, 1865-66, appendix. Duval, John P. Compilation of the Public Acts of the Legis- lative Council of the Territory of Florida prior to 1840. Tal- lahassee, Samuel B. Sibley, Printer, 1839. General Statutes of the State of Florida (prepared under author- ity of, and adopted by, the legislature), pp. 257-89. St. Augustine, The Record Company, 1906. 261 262 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA Holloway, State Superintendent W. M. Digest of the School Laws of the State of Florida with the Forms, Regulations, and Instructions of the Department of Education. Tallahas- see, T. J. Appleyard, State Printer, 1911. Hood, William R., Weeks, S. B., and Ford, A. S. Digest of State Laws Relating to Public Education. Bulletin, 1915, No. 47, of the United States Bureau of Education. House and Senate Journals, 1832 to date. Journal of the Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of the State of Florida, 1868. Tallahassee, Edward M. Che- ney, Printer, 1868. Journal of the Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of the State of Florida, 1885. Tallahassee, N. M. Bowen, State Printer, 1885. Laws Relating to Common Schools in the State of Florida (printed by order of the general assembly). Tallahassee, Dyke and Carlisle, 1860. McClellan, James F. A Digest of the Laws of the State of Florida, 1822-81. Tallahassee, The Floridian Book and Job Office, 1881. Messages of the Governor, 1832 to date, in House and Senate Journals. Regulations of the Department of Public Instruction, 1889 to date. Reports of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1869 to date. Reports of the State Treasurer, 1845 to date. Reports of the State High-School Inspector, 1910 to date. Report of the Commission on Accredited Schools of the Associ- ation of Colleges and Secondary Schools of the Southern State, in The High School Quarterly (Athens, Georgia), April, 1919. Reports of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1870 to date. Reports of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, 1917 to date. Session Laws, 1828 to date. LIST OF REFERENCES 263 Sheats, State Superintendent W. N. Digest of the School Laws of the State of Florida with the Regulations of the State Board of Education and the Instructions and Forms of the Department of Education. Tallahassee, T. J. Appleyard, State Printer, 1915. Sheats, State Superintendent W. N. A Compilation of the Laws Relating to Education Enacted by the Florida Legislature of 1917 and 1919. Standard Course of Study for the Public High Schools of Flor- ida, with an Advisory Course of Study for Rural Schools (a pamphlet prepared by the high- school commission provided for in laws of Florida, 1903, Chap. 5206, Sec. 8). States Regulations Service Document 40 (Revised January I, 1919). Washington, Government Printing Office, 1919. Thompson, Leslie A. A Manual or Digest of the Statute Law of Florida, of a General and Public Character (digested and arranged under and in pursuance of an act of the general assembly, approved December 10, 1845). Boston, Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1847. Thorpe, Francis Newton. The Federal and State Constitutions, Colonial Charters, and Other Organic Laws (compiled and edited under the act of Congress of June 30, 1906), II, 664-85. Washington, Government Printing Office, 1909. United States Census Reports, 1840-1910. United States Statutes at Large, III, 654 and 756; IV, 201-02; V, 550 and 742; XXIV, 440; XXVI, 417; XXXIV, 1281 ; and XXXVIII, 372. Walker, David S. Report of the Register of Public Lands and Superintendent of Common Schools, 1852, in House Journal, 1852-53, appendix, pp. 111-17; also in Senate Journal, appen- dix, pp. 111-17. Walker, David S. Report of the Register of Public Lands and Superintendent of Common Schools, 1854, in House Journal, 1854-55, appendix, pp. 6-8; also in Senate Journal, appendix, pp. 6-8. Walker, David S. Report of the Register of Public Lands and Superintendent of Common Schools, 1856, in House Journal, 1856-57, appendix, pp. 12-13; also in Senate Journal, appen- dix, pp. 12-13. 264 PUBLIC-SCHOOL EDUCATION IN FLORIDA Walker, David S. Report of the Register of Public Lands and Superintendent of Common Schools, 1858, in House Journal, 1858-59, appendix, pp. 14-18; also in Senate Journal, appen- dix, pp. 14-18. II. SECONDARY SOURCES American Annals of Education and Instruction (published by Allen and Ticknor, Boston, I, 225 and 328; also II, 94-^96 and 239. Ayres, Leonard P. An Index Number for State School Systems. New York, The Russell Sage Foundation, 1920. Barnard, Henry. American Journal of Education, XVI, 381 ; XVII, 112-13; XIX, 336-39; XXIV, 158, 164, 240, 249, and 715; XXVII, 335; XXIX, 36-37. Blackmar, Frank W. The History of Federal and State Aid to Higher Education in the United States. Circular of in- formation, No. i, 1890, of the United States Bureau of Edu- cation. Bowker, Richard Rogers. The Library List (being a list of public libraries in the United States and in Canada of over 1,000 volumes, with classification by size and name of libra- rian). New York, Office of the Library Journal, 1887. Brevard, Caroline Mays, and Bennett, H. E. A History of Florida, with Questions, Supplementary Chapters, and an Outline of Florida Civil Government, pp. 226-31 and 252-54. New York, American Book Company, 1919. Bush, George Cary. History of Education in Florida. Circular of Information, No. 7, 1888, of the United States Bureau of Education. Capen, Samuel P. Accredited Secondary Schools in the United States. Bulletin, 1916, No. 20, of the United States Bureau of Education. Cubberley, Ellwood P. "State of Florida," in Monroe's Cy- clopaedia of Education, II, 620-23. New York, The Mac- millan Company, 1911-13. Dexter, Edwin Grant. A History of Education in the United States, pp. 96 and 138-39. New York, The Macmillan Com- pany, 1914. LIST OF REFERENCES 265 Donaldson, Thomas Corwin. The Public Domain; Its History, with Statistics to June 30 and December I, 1883 (prepared in pursuance of the acts of Congress of March 3, 1879, June 16, 1880, and August 7, 1882), Chap, XIII. Washing- ton, Government Printing Office, 1884. Green, Edwin L. School History of Florida, pp. 279-80, 321, and 331-32. Baltimore, Williams and Wilkins Company, 1898. Mayo, A. D. " The American Common School in the Southern States during the first Half Century of the Republic, 1790- 1840," in Report of the United States Commissioner of Edu- cation, 1895-96, Vol. I. Mayo, A. D. " Original Establishment of State School Funds," in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1894-95, Vol. II. Mayo, A. D. " The Organization and Development of the American Common School in the Atlantic and Central States of the South, 1830-1860," in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1899-1900, Vol. I. Mayo, A. D. "Common School Education in the South from Beginning of Civil War to 1876," in Report of the United States Commissioner of Education, 1900-1901, Vol. I. Rerick, Rowland H. Memoirs of Florida, Vol. I. Atlanta, The Southern Historical Association, 1902. Sheats, State Superintendent W. N. History of the Origin and Growth of Public Schools in Florida, in Biennial Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, 1892-94, pp. 5-63. Swift, Fletcher Harper. A History of Public Permanent Com- mon School Funds in the United States, 1795-1905. New York, Henry Holt and Company, 1911. INDEX Academies, early, 12-13; statistics (1840, 1850, 1860), 27. See Pri- vate schools. Administration of schools, 24-26, 63, 65, 9O-92, 2IO-II. Administrative control and supervi- sion, general, at present, 213-24. Administrative unit, 63, 92, 221. Age limits, 224. Agricultural education, 106, 107, 147-48, 164, Agricultural experiment station, 157, 164. American Annals of Education and Instruction, 2, 3, 4. American Journal of Education, 29 note, 30 note, 31 note. Attendance, school, number, 27, 77, 108, ii2, 113, 258; place, 226. Apportionment of school funds. See School funds, apportionment. Bartoff, John R, 67. Beard, John, 18, 22. Beecher, Charles, 49, 56, 69, 77. Benevolent associations, work of, 29, 33, 50, 51, 54- Bennett, H. E., 126, 181. Bibliography. See References, list of. Blind and deaf-mutes, school for, 104-06, 149-50, 238. Blount, W. A., 126. Bloxham, Governor, 88 note, 104. Board of commissioners of state in- stitutions, 176, 241. Bonds and indebtedness, local, 250-51. Buckman Act, 162, 182. Buildings, grounds, and equipment, 65-67, 92-94, 170-72, 239-41. Caldwell, William, 105. Call, Governor, 7. Cater, Edwin P., 97, 154. Cawthon, W. S., 195 note. Census, school, 6o-^5i, 211, 224-25. Chase, C. Thurston, 29, 46, 47, 49, 50, 51, 53, 56, 69. Civil War, public education during, 28. Commercial education, 140-41. Commission for preparation of state curriculum, 118. Compton, John C., 170. Compulsory attendance, 112, 114, 227-29. Conference of county superintend- ents and other school officers state, 38, 92, 112, 126, 214. Consolidation of schools, 229. Consolidation of special-tax school- districts, 222-23. Constitution of 1845, educational provisions, 15-16; of 1868, 34-36, 47-48; of 1885, 79-84, 109. Corley, Hugh H., 27. County boards of public instruction, 20, 33, 39-40, 48, 52, 61, 63, 85, 91-92, 2IO-II, 2IO-2I. County superintendents of public in- struction, 17, 20-21, 32, 40, 48, 52, 59, 62-63, 82^83, 92, 211, 218-19. Courses of study, 67-69, 94-95, 115-21, 122, 123-31, 230-37. Crenshaw, A., 67, 71. Cushman, Miss Lucy C., 216 note. Daily Herald, 83. Davis, Miss Lumie B., 151 note. Day, school, meaning of, 227. DeLand, H. A., 101 note. Denominational schools, loo-ioi. Districts, school. See School dis- tricts. Drew, Governor, 59, 63. Eagan, Superintendent, 71. East Florida Seminary, 51, 74-75, 97, 102, 153-54, 158. Eaton, John, 46. Education in other states, influence of, 209-10. Education in the Territory, condition of, 3- Educational administration and su- pervision, improvement in, influ- ence of, 210-11. 266 INDEX 26 7 Educational campaigns, 112, 114. Educational legislation, early, 5-9; first, for establishment of schools (1839), 8; of 1849, 16-18; of 1853, 19-22; of 1869, 36-46; of 1889, 84-88, 109-10; a factor in the public-school awakening, 205-06. Educational organization, under con- stitution of 1868, 35-36; under school law of 1869, 37-41; (1868- 84), 58-63; under school law of 1889, 84-88; (1884-92), 90-91. Educational progress, evidences of (1868-84), 76-78. Educational status of pupils (1892- 1920), 113; (1877-1920), 258. Emerson, J. C, 66. Enrollment, school, 12 note, 27, 77, 1 08, 112, 113, 124, 258. Environment and equipment of schools, under school law of 1869, 41-42. Expenditures, school, 56, 89, 124, 198, 199, 258. Farm-demonstration agents, 148. Federal aid, i, 5, 9 note, 16, 50, 54, 55, 152, 153, 156, 158 note, 208. Felkel, Henry N., 71, 97, 105. Five percent fund, 18. Florida Agricultural College, 98-99, 155-58, 159-61. Florida Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes, 167-^68, 194 note. Florida Association for the Promo- tion of the Education of the Deaf and Blind, 106. Florida Conference College, 101 note. Florida Education Society, 1-2, 4. Florida Industrial School for Boys, 150-51. Florida Industrial School for Girls, 151- Florida Normal and Business Insti- tute, 101. Florida State College for Women, 165-67, 182, 194. Florida University, 157. Foster, Eleazar K., 49, 56, 61, 67, 69, 76, 104. Franklin County School, 12. Freedmen's Bureau, 30, 55. Free textbooks, 178-79, 242. Future, promising, 260. General Education Board, 163 note, 194-95, 208. Gibbs, Jonathan C., 49, 56, 67. Graham, John A., 97. Graves, John Temple, 83. Gray, Charles H., 177. Guilliams, J. M., 100 note. Guisinger, Jos. E., 182. Haisley, William P., 49, 56, 61, 62, 68, 74, 75- Halliday, S. F., 66, 71. Holloway, W. M., 212. Hatch Act, 157, 208 note. Haynie, E. A., 216 note. Health conditions, 172, 174-75, 241. Higher and professional education before 1892, 152-58; (1892-1905), 158-62; since 1905, 162-68, 239. High-school commission, 126-27. High schools, 102-04, 121-39; classi- fication, 132 note ; courses of study, 123, 125-31; enrollment, 124; ex- penditures, 124; number, 122, 123, 124; on Florida accredited list, 131-35; on Southern accredited list, 135-39; value, 122, 123, 124. See Secondary education. Hindrances to universal education (1868-84), 53-7.6. Home-demonstration agents, 144. Home-economics work, 106-08, 140, 143-47, 166. Holidays, school, 227. Home, W. T., 177. Industrial education, 107-08, 140, 141-43, 164, 165. Inspectors, school, state, 194-96, 217- 18. Isler, H. H, 177. Jasper Normal Institute, 100 note. Journals, educational, 196. Kindergartens, 151-52, 23^-39. Kost, John, 157 note. Laws, school. See Educational leg- islation. Leadership, educational, a factor in the public-school awakening, 211- 12. Lynch, George M., 195. McClane, Frank E., 151 note. McDonald, Miss Christian, 195 note. McLin, Samuel B., 49, 56, 62, 64, 70-71, 73, 76. Manual-labor school, Tallahassee, 3- 5- 268 INDEX Mayo, A. D., 13. Military training, 237. Monroe County School, 12. Month, school, meaning of, 227. Moore, Marshall, 177. Morrill Fund, aid from, 156, 158 note, 208. Moseley, Governor, n, 16 Murphree, A. A., 163. Nashville University, 74, 97. Negro education, before 1865, 29; legal provision for, in 1866, 29-305 schools, 30-31; statistics of (1865- 68), 31. Normal schools, 75, 81, 97-98, 99- 100, 158, 181. Officers, school, present, 213. Orange College, 101 note. Organization, educational. See Edu- cational legislation. Part-time schools, 239. Peabody Educational Fund, 55, 73, 74, 97, 193 note, 209. Perry, Governor, 88 note Philips, Shelton, 195 note, 216 note. Popular interest in education, 26-27, 57, oq, 203-05. Population, school, 23-24, 27, 77, 108, 113. Population, total, 72, 108, 202. Population, white (1850), 22 note Price, T. W., 171. Private appropriations, 30, 50, 52, 54, 104, 153, 154, 163 note, 208. Private schools, 51, 100-102. See Academies ; also Denominational schools. Property, assessed value of, 90, 202. Property, school, value of, 68, 93, 122, 123, 124, 173. Prospect, 257-60. Public education, first attempts at, 1-14, 253; gains to (1822-45), 11-13; in 1868, 49-50. Public school, rise of, 1-33. Public Schools, classification of, 220-30; number of, 12 note, 27, 68, 93, 116, 123, 124, 131, 139, 258. Public-school awakening ( 1892- 1921), in-201, 256-57; some fac- tors favoring, 202-12. Public-school system, beginning of, 15-33, 253-54; icsults of (1845- 68), 22-28; work of (1868^84), 40-78, 254-55; progress of (1884- 92), 70-110, 255-56; results since 1877, 257, 258. Public-school system, present, estab- lishment of, 34-48, 254; extent of, 229; outline of, 213-52. Quigley, T. H., 216 note. Reed, Governor, 29, 36. References, list of, 261-65. Reform schools, 150-51, 238. Retrospect, 253-60. Revival, educational, under Chase (1868-70), 50-53- Rollins College, 101 note. Russell, Albert J., 49, 56, 76, 84, 88, 93, 97, 105, 107, 108, 109. St. Johns Conference College, 101 note. St. Johns and Mosquito counties, educational status of, 2-3. St. Johns and Mosquito County Society, 2. St. Petersburg Normal and Indus- trial School, 140, 141, 144, 161-62, 182. School-attendance officers, 223-24, 225, 228. School districts, 81, 82; special, 86, 222. School-fund, county, 80, 228 note. School-fund, state, amount, 56, 89; composition, 18, 19, 32, 34-35, 54, 80; first established (1848)^ 16; income, 19, 24-25, 52 ; provision for investing, 18-19, 32, 79^ 251 ; spent during Civil War, 50. School funds, apportionment of, 17, 18, 19, 20, 35, 36, 38, 45, 80, 200, 214, 249-50; present sources, 248- 49; provision for safe-keeping, 37, 39, 80, 251-52. S c h o o 1-improvement associations, 114. School laws. See Educational legis- lation. School records and reports, county, 59, 92. School statistics (1840, 1850, and 1860), 27; (1869-84), 56, 59, 60, 68, 775 (1884-92), 89, 91, 93, 96, 108; (1892-1920), 113, 116, 124, 138, 173, 180, 185, 187. 188, 196, 197, 199, 204; (1877-1920), 258. INDEX 269 School supervision, county, 211; local, 85-87, 211, 221, 223; state, 163, 194-96, 218. School system, legal organization of, in 1845, io-ii. School taxation, county, 19, 25, 26, 32, 35, 36, 52, 5<>-58, 80, 81, 87, 90, 198, 200, 203-05, 248; district, 81, 82, 87, 198, 204, 248-49; state, 35, 36, 39-40, 80. 81, 248. cho School term, length of, 77, 108, 113, 197, 226, 258; meaning of, 227; time of, 226. School treasurer, county, 61-62, 86; local, 8; state, 37, 85, 214. * School trustees, local, 8-9, 10, 14, 16, 20, 21 note, 32, 41, 81, 82, 86-87, 223. Secondary education, extension of, 121-22; means for extending, 122- 23; present advantages, 131-39; in school law of 1869, 44; in school law of 1889, 85. Seminary fund, 15, 50, 52. Seminary lands, 15, 152. Separate schools for negroes, 8r, 83, 225. Sheats, W. N., 83 note, 97, 99, 102, 106, 117, 121, 122, 171, 175, 186, 195, 198, 200, 212. Sixteenth-section lands, I, 5-9, 11-12, 16. Skipworth, J. L., 101. Slater Fund, 107. Smith-Hughes Act, 215. Smith-Hughes Fund, aid from, 142 note, 145 note, 208. Smith-Lever Act, 164. Smith-Lever Fund, aid from, 168, 208 note. South Florida Military College, 161. Southern Education Board, 195, 208. State aid, 18, 19, 50, 80, 81, 97 note, 101, 104, 161-62, 181-82, 183, 186, 1 93-96, 206-09, 238, 248. State board of control, 193, 216-17. State hoard of education, 35, 36, 37-38, 47, 48, 79, 82, 85, 183, 214- 15- State board of examiners, 217. State board for vocational educa- tion, 215-16. State Normal College for Colored Students, 09, 100, 102. State Normal College for White Students, 99-100, 102. State superintendent of public in- struction, 17, 20, 32, 34, 38-39, 47, 59, 79, 82, 213-14- State superintendents of public in- struction (1868-84), 49, 56. Stearns, Governor, 67. Summer schools, 164, 166, 168, 192- 94, 196. Supervision, school. See School su- pervision. Support of schools, 19, 24-26, 34-35, 36, 44-46, 53-58, 80-82, 87, 88-90, 197-200, 248-50. Surplus revenue, 9 note. Suspension from school, 226. System of instruction, under school law of 1869, 43-44; (1884-92), 102-09; since 1892, 111-69. Taxation, school. See School taxa- tion. Teachers, appointment, 21, 39, 85, 220, 245-46; duties and powers, general, 43, 247; examination and certification, 17, '39, 42, 95 note, 188-92, 217, 242-45; experience, 180; number, 96, 116, 122, 123, 124, 180, 258; qualification, 72-73, 95- 96, 122, 123, 124, 180; tenure, 245- 46; training, 73-76, 96-102, 179- 88, 192-96, 247. Teachers' associations, county, 113, 192; state, 113, 192, 196. Teaching force, under law of 1869, 42-43; (1868-84), 72-76; (1884- 92), 95-102; since 1892. 179-97. Teachers' institutes, 75-76, 192-93. Teachers' salaries, 77, 197, 258. Teacher-training departments, county, 183-88; in non-state schools, IOO-I02, 188; in the state institutions, 163, 164, 165, 167. Terrell, Park, 104. Textbook commission, state, 176-78, 241-42. Textbook sub-commission, 176, 178, 241. Textbooks used, 69-72, 175-79, 241- 42. Thackston, John A., 195 note. Transportation of pupils, 112, 113- 14, 1 1 6, 229. Treasurer, school. See School treas- urer. Turner, R. L., 195 note. Unfinished tasks, 257-60. Uniformity of textbooks, 70-72, 175- 79, 241-42. University of Florida, 159, 162-65, 182, 194. 270 INDEX Vocational education, 106-07, 140- West Florida Seminary, 51, 74-75, 49, 164, 167, 168, 215-16, 237. 97, 102, 154-55, 158-59. Walker, David S., 23, 25, 26, 31. Year, school, meaning of, 227. Wentworth, James H., 66. THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE STAMPED BELOW AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO SO CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.OO ON THE SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE. f W "ST SfP 2 I9F o ^ < "V JW. 28 l.'.j; i judges 1 fr& C D T_D 5 NOV 1956 v u & \ ^ IN STACKS APRS I960 v % 20101*64111 LD 21-100m-7,'33 . 55933 500,T_. UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY