GIFT OF 
 

 
Ccctcfyers' 
 Manual 
 
 (Elementary 
 Schools of 
 IDasfymgton 
 
 ISSUED BY THE 
 DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 
 
 R. B. 
 
 State Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
 
 OLYMPIA, WASH,: 
 
 C. W. GORHAM, PUBLIC PRINTER. 
 
 1905. 
 

 NORMAL SCHOOL BUILDINGS 
 ELLENSBURG, CHENEY AND BELLINGHAM 
 
TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 STATE OF WASHINGTON 
 
 EDITED BY THE 
 
 DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 
 
 Printed and for sale by 
 
 c. W. 
 
 PUBLIC PRINTER, 
 
 OLYMPIA, WIS". 
 Price, Postpaid, 30c. 
 
The Course of Study is the measuring rod, or rule, which 
 is used to determine at what point in the years' work in the 
 elementary course a pupil's work has arrived. It should not be 
 used as the Procrustean bed on which to stretch the work of the 
 school in order to secure uniformity. 
 
 FROM REPORT OF COMMITTEE OF TWELVE. 
 
. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The chief object of this Manual is to unify and har- 
 monize the school work of the state in accordance with the 
 provisions of the state constitution, requiring "a general 
 and uniform system of public schools," and the laws of the 
 state. 
 
 For the first time in the history of this state we have a 
 law permitting local selection of text-books. Heretofore we 
 have had state uniformity. The preparation of a new 
 Course of Study is necessitated by the new conditions. 
 The problem is not an easy one. Under the old system the 
 books were first selected and a Course of Study issued to fit 
 the books adopted. The new law provides for : (!) An out- 
 line or general course to be adopted by the State Board of 
 Education. (2) Selection of text-books by more than two 
 hundred separate boards of adoption. ( 3 ) The publication 
 of a Manual by the Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
 In the nature of things, this Manual must be sufficiently 
 broad to meet both the requirrnents of the State Board of 
 Education and the various text-books adopted by the several 
 boards. 
 
 It is hoped that the suggestions and instructions given 
 in the Manual will prove helpful, but it is not intended nor 
 desired that teachers shall slavishly follow them. The in- 
 dividuality of the teacher must be given ample opportunity 
 for development. Few radical innovations will be found by 
 any one familiar with the courses in other states. In the 
 preparation of this Manual free use has been made of ma- 
 
INTRODUCTION . 
 
 terial from other Courses of Study. This general acknowl- 
 edgement will explain the omission of quotation marks in 
 some parts of the Manual. It seemed to this department 
 that it would be the height of folly not to make use of the 
 experience of our sister states. A satisfactory Course of 
 Study must be an evolution. 
 
 The Superintendent wishes to acknowledge specially the 
 invaluable assistance given in the preparation of this Manual 
 by President T. F. Kane, A. H. Yoder, H. C. Sampson, F. 
 W. Eply, Miss Cora Bratton, B. W. Johnson, Miss Effie 
 Berkman, J. H. Morgan, D. R. Augsburg, L. L. Benbow, 
 0. C. Whitney, J. W. Shepherd, J. A. Tormey, T. A. Stiger, 
 P. A. Williams ; also, the authors of the Illinois, Maine, 
 Maryland, Nevada, Oregon and Indiana courses. 
 
 R. B. BRYAN, 
 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction. 
 OLYMPIA, WASH., Sept. 1, 1905. 
 
READING. 
 
 GENERAL DIRECTIONS. 
 
 Reading is the most wide-reaching acquisition made by the child in 
 school. No agency is capable of becoming so effective under wise 
 teaching, for at once disciplining and informing the pupil's mind. No 
 study, then, deserves more careful consideration or demands more 
 carefully elaborated plans than this. For in actuality no other study, 
 when unwisely presented, more widely and effectively conduces to bad 
 mental habits. 
 
 It must begin, and at every point proceed, on the basis of vigorous, 
 genuine thinking on the part of the child, and the life of such thinking 
 is constant, clear, vivid imaging. The reality and character of such 
 imaging, the teacher should unfailingly put to the proof in some way 
 by questioning, by requiring drawing or construction, by dramatization 
 or other form of expression. 
 
 These remarks lead to the following suggestions: 
 
 ( a } The reading matter must be chosen with wise discrimination, 
 as to its adaptation to the children's intelligence, taste and effort, alike 
 in thought, in spirit, in phraseology. 
 
 ( b ) Close alliance must be kept between the reading matter and the 
 children's active interest other studies, seasonal changes, attractive 
 elements of environment, experiences, etc. that is, if the books contain 
 selections bearing in a clear, stimulating way on the current work in 
 history, geography or science, or on outdoor phenomena, such selections 
 should be sought out and studied, where and when the association is 
 close and suggestive. Material for Thanksgiving, Christmas and other 
 special days may thus be accumulated; information on places and people 
 may be brought together when most needed. This is meant to correct 
 the mechanical use of the reader, by which the selections are taken in 
 order with no reference to bearing on strong general interests. ( Read 
 d carefully.) 
 
 (c) The material chosen for the reading hour should, as a rule, be 
 from the " literature of power " writings that by reason of their purity, 
 beauty and spiritual strength have become classic. 
 
 ( d ) Supplementary reading should be thought of and treated not 
 simply as increasing the bulk of reading matter and exercise in the 
 process of reading for this may perfect mechanical skill at the expense 
 of the disposition and power to image but rather ( a ) as enlarging the 
 range of selections for the regular exercise and (d) as furnishing a fund 
 from which to draw in enlarging and enriching the various studies of 
 the course history, geography, literature, science. Material of the 
 
6 *' TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 first sort should be in sets of books, sufficient in number to furnish each 
 one of the class a copy and like the regular reading matter, classic 
 literature as a rule. This should work in with the text-books, to give 
 specific selections where and when needed. (See). The second sort 
 may better be in single books or in smaller sets books of travel, of 
 description of industries and manufacturing processes, of science, of 
 history and biography, of good fiction, especially of historical fiction. 
 These are to be read for information on the topics in hand, either in 
 preparation for the recitation or in the recitation on the subject con- 
 cerned, pupils selected beforehand reading to the class. The power to 
 read is thus applied to a clearly perceived end, with sharply defined 
 immediative motive, and close and strong association. This is quite 
 important, if not essential to thought getting and to organizing what is 
 got for remembrance and use. 
 
 (e) Above the primary grades, the assignment of work must be 
 made in such a way as to make a definite presentation of things to be 
 accomplished: (a) words to be looked up for pronunciation or meaning; 
 (&} allusions to be explained; [c] questions of fact to be verified by 
 observation, reading, inquiry, or study; (d] questions to be thought of 
 and answered, bearing either on the meaning of more subtile or difficult 
 portions, or on the motives of characters, where these bear on the 
 general thought; (e) maps or diagrams or illustrative drawings to be 
 examined or made, and perhaps placed on the blackboard by one 
 of the class, for reference during the reading; (/) reviews of other 
 studies or elements of the selection in hand, needed to give the setting 
 or connection. 
 
 (/) No text-book in reading, which is not in itself a literary whole, 
 is to be taken selection after selection, in the order of the book. But 
 rather the contents of all the readers should be analyzed, and tabulated 
 or indexed together, and the selections assigned when and where they 
 respectively have a clear and significant bearing. ( See suggestions b 
 and of.) 
 
 (g} The voice should receive attention from the first, and all proper 
 effort made to help the child to control and improve it for expressing 
 thought his own or the author's thought. Drills for enunciation and 
 articulation will be needed in every grade. These are to be given on 
 words listed because so difficult as to need special attention and on words 
 on which the children are found to fail of good pronunciation. Drill 
 should be had on groups of words, to master difficult combinations and 
 to secure smoothness. In pronunciation make more of pitch of tone 
 than of stress to indicate accent. This enables the child to be very 
 deliberate and distribute his effort so as to give each syllable its full 
 value. The first few minutes of each exercise may well be given to a 
 vigorous exercise along these lines, especially on words occurring in the 
 immediate lesson. 
 
 (h] The voice is the instrument of thought and emotion. Clear, 
 sharp imagination is essential to either. This makes concrete presen- 
 tation and motor expression important; hence, in every grade selections 
 
READING FIRST YEAR. 
 
 appropriate should be acted out, that is, be given pantomimic and 
 dramatic representation. 
 
 ( /) The grades have been divided into four groups for presenting 
 these directions in more detail First and Second, Third and Fourth, 
 Fifth and Sixth, and Seventh and Eighth. The teacher is urged to 
 read all these directions carefully. Much will be found in common, and 
 yet the directions will be found quite distinct and characteristic for the 
 several groups. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 AIMS IN THE READING. 
 
 ( a ) To have the children, from the first, weld firmly together the 
 thought and the word or the sentence by which it is expressed. It is of 
 the utmost importance that accurate and clear mental pictures be form- 
 ed by the children as they read. To this end it is imperative that the 
 reading material be interesting. 
 
 ( b ) To lead the children to express the thought in clear, distinct- 
 tone, adapted to express the sentiment or the character represented as 
 speaking, and in easy, natural, vivacious manner, as if they were 
 thoughts, their thoughts. 
 
 (c) To help the children become independent readers by giving 
 them such instruction and training in the sounds of letters and groups 
 of letters and in other forms of word-building as will enable them to 
 make out for themselves the new words in their lessons. 
 
 SOURCES OF MATERIAL FOR READING LESSONS FOR BEGINNERS. 
 
 1. Room Management. 
 
 2. Games and Plays, 
 
 3. Literature. 
 
 4. Nature Study. 
 
 5. Objects and Pictures. 
 
 METHODS OF PRESENTING THESE LESSONS GENERAL. 
 
 The first lesson in reading should be given independently of any 
 book, and should be presented in writing on the blackboard. In these 
 lessons the writing should be large, clear, vertical script, swiftly 
 executed in order not to lose the interest and zest of the thought. 
 
 1. Room Management: After the direction "Stand" is given orally 
 to the children at a certain time each day for a few days, the teacher, 
 instead of saying "Stand," writes the direction upon the board and tells 
 the children to do what the chalk directs. The teacher may have to 
 tell what the chalk says the first time the word is written, and perhaps 
 several times. "Turn," "Rise," "March," u Sit" may be taught in the 
 same way. Gradually let other oral directions give place to the written 
 form. 
 
 2. Games: The children learn to play a game by following the 
 spoken directions of the teacher; e. g.> "Simon says, 'Thumbs up;' 
 Simon says, 'Thumbs down.' " After the children can play this well 
 from the spoken direction, the written direction is substituted. 
 
6 'TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 first sort should be in sets of books, sufficient in number to furnish each 
 one of the class a copy and like the regular reading matter, classic 
 literature as a rule. This should work in with the text-books, to give 
 specific selections where and when needed. (See b}. The second sort 
 may better be in single books or in smaller sets books of travel, of 
 description of industries and manufacturing processes, of science, of 
 history and biography, of good fiction, especially of historical fiction. 
 These are to be read for information on the topics in hand, either in 
 preparation for the recitation or in the recitation on the subject con- 
 cerned, pupils selected beforehand reading to the class. The power to 
 read is thus applied to a clearly perceived end, with sharply defined 
 immediative motive, and close and strong association. This is quite 
 important, if not essential to thought getting and to organizing what is 
 got for remembrance and use. 
 
 (e) Above the primary grades, the assignment of work must be 
 made in such a way as to make a definite presentation of things to be 
 accomplished: (a) words to be looked up for pronunciation or meaning; 
 (6) allusions to be explained; (c] questions of fact to be verified by 
 observation, reading, inquiry, or study; (d] questions to be thought of 
 and answered, bearing either on the meaning of more subtile or difficult 
 portions, or on the motives of characters, where these bear on the 
 general thought; (e) maps or diagrams or illustrative drawings to be 
 examined or made, and perhaps placed on the blackboard by one 
 of the class, for reference during the reading; (/) reviews of other 
 studies or elements of the selection in hand, needed to give the setting 
 or connection. 
 
 (f) No text-book in reading, which is not in itself a literary whole, 
 is to be taken selection after selection, in the order of the book. But 
 rather the contents of all the readers should be analyzed, and tabulated 
 or indexed together, and the selections assigned when and where they 
 respectively have a clear and significant bearing. ( See suggestions b 
 and d.} 
 
 (g) The voice should receive attention from the first, and all proper 
 effort made to help the child to control and improve it for expressing 
 thought his own or the author's thought. Drills for enunciation and 
 articulation will be needed in every grade. These are to be given on 
 words listed because so difficult as to need special attention and on words 
 on which the children are found to fail of good pronunciation. Drill 
 should be had on groups of words, to master difficult combinations and 
 to secure smoothness. In pronunciation make more of pitch of tone 
 than of stress to indicate accent. This enables the child to be very 
 deliberate and distribute his effort so as to give each syllable its full 
 value. The first few minutes of each exercise may well be given to a 
 vigorous exercise along these lines, especially on words occurring in the 
 immediate lesson. 
 
 (h] The voice is the instrument of thought and emotion. Clear, 
 sharp imagination is essential to either. This makes concrete presen- 
 tation and motor expression important; hence, in every grade selections 
 
READING FIRST YEAR. 
 
 appropriate should be acted out, that is, be given pantomimic and 
 dramatic representation. 
 
 ( i] The grades have been divided into four groups for presenting 
 these directions in more detail First and Second, Third and Fourth, 
 Fifth and Sixth, and Seventh and Eighth. The teacher is urged to 
 read all these directions carefully. Much will be found in common, and 
 yet the directions will be found quite distinct and characteristic for the 
 several groups. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 AIMS IN THE READING. 
 
 ( a ) To have the children, from the first, weld firmly together the 
 thought and the word or the sentence by which it is expressed. It is of 
 the utmost importance that accurate and clear mental pictures be form- 
 ed by the children as they read. To this end it is imperative that the 
 reading material be interesting. 
 
 ( b ) To lead the children to express the thought in clear, distinct 
 tone, adapted to express the sentiment or the character represented as 
 speaking, and in easy, natural, vivacious manner, as if they were 
 thoughts, their thoughts. 
 
 (c) To help the children become independent readers by giving 
 them such instruction and training in the sounds of letters and groups 
 of letters and in other forms of word-building as will enable them to 
 make out for themselves the new words in their lessons. 
 
 SOURCES OF MATERIAL FOR READING LESSONS FOR BEGINNERS. 
 
 1. Room Management. 
 
 2. Games and Plays. 
 
 3. Literature. 
 
 4. Nature Study. 
 
 5. Objects and Pictures. 
 
 METHODS OF PRESENTING THESE LESSONS GENERAL. 
 
 The first lesson in reading should be given independently of any 
 book, and should be presented in writing on the blackboard. In these 
 lessons the writing should be large, clear, vertical script, swiftly 
 executed in order not to lose the interest and zest of the thought. 
 
 1. Room Management: After the direction "Stand" is given orally 
 to the children at a certain time each day for a few days, the teacher, 
 instead of saying "Stand," writes the direction upon the board and tells 
 the children to do what the chalk directs. The teacher may have to 
 tell what the chalk says the first time the word is written, and perhaps 
 several times. "Turn," "Rise," "March," "Sit" may be taught in the 
 same way. Gradually let other oral directions give place to the written 
 form. 
 
 2. Games: The children learn to play a game by following the 
 spoken directions of the teacher; e. g. t "Simon says, 'Thumbs up;' 
 Simon says, 'Thumbs down.' " After the children can play this well 
 from the spoken direction, the written direction is substituted. 
 
3 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 In the color game, the teacher, holding up different colored ribbons, 
 one at a time, asks, "What is the color?" The answers, white, blue, 
 red, orange, brown, violet, are written and each child places a check by 
 the name of the color he wishes to wear. When all are named, the 
 game begins. The children stand in a row, each wearing a bow of the 
 color chosen, while the teacher bounces a ball on the floor, calling, 
 "red," "blue," or "yellow." The child wearing the color called for 
 catches the ball, or if he fails, gives up his color and goes to his seat, 
 the game continuing until all are seated. The child remaining last on 
 the floor wins the game. 
 
 3. Literature. Lessons based upon stories may be dealt with in the 
 same way. Select a familiar story; say to them, "Let us name the 
 parts to be taken." As the children name the different characters, the 
 teacher writes them upon the board, "Silverhair," "Father Bear," 
 "Mother Bear," "Baby Bear," etc. Then the child wishing to take 
 the part of Silverhair steps to the board and draws a line under the 
 word, at the same time saying, "I wish to be Silverhair." Another 
 child makes his choice in the same way, and so on until all the parts 
 are taken. The story is then acted. 
 
 Some stories may be recalled by the children under the teacher's 
 unobtrusive guidance in brief sentences, giving the strong simple lines 
 of the story. It is of importance that the children feel that these 
 sentences are theirs, the story of their telling. In this work abundant 
 opportunity will offer to recall the livlier and more valuable phraseology 
 of the classic used and work it into the children's vocabulary, to a large 
 extent. If the teacher can command the use of a hektograph or 
 mimeograph, sets of papers may be made, and used in the class. Some 
 times the children should be given each a copy to take home to read to 
 mama; or, if successive sections are used, the several sheets may be 
 made into books containing the whole story. 
 
 Nature Study. When based upon the Nature Study the teacher may 
 write, for example, the names of the spring flowers in blossom at the 
 time of writing, the children giving the names, and reading the lists 
 later. Daily observations of the weather may be used as a reading 
 lesson; as, 
 
 1. It is cold this morning. 
 
 2. I saw frost. 
 
 3. I saw ice, too. 
 
 4. Winter is coming. 
 
 5. Do you like winter? 
 
 6. I do. 
 
 7. Hurrah for the winterl 
 
 Or the teacher writes guessing games upon the board, e. g.i 
 I am not large. I have four legs. I have a fur coat. 
 I have short ears. I have sharp eyes. I have a bushy tail. 
 I run up trees. I eat nuts, What am I? 
 
 It is well after having much board work, that' the children should 
 have printed lessons on large sheets of manilla paper or card-board 
 
READING FIRST YEAR. 
 
 before beginning the use of the books. Small printing outfits are sold 
 cheap now from $1.50 up so that every school can afford one. The 
 first charts should be the reproduction in print of lessons already 
 familiar in script. If the children do not recognize the word in print, 
 refer to its written form on the board. 
 
 NOTE. For some time the lessons in print contain only such words as are familiar 
 to the children in script. 
 
 5. Objects and Pictures: A supply of objects and pictures furnish 
 material for many delightful and profitable reading lessons; such a 
 collection is particularly useful in teaching children who do not speak 
 English. 
 
 The first lessons are not truly reading lessons, but are language 
 exercises in which the toys are named over and over again by the 
 teacher, imitated by the pupils. As soon as the children can name any 
 one of the articles as the teacher selects it from the rest, then the word 
 is placed upon the board'. Then more conversation takes place; 
 directions are given, as, "Roll the ball," "Bring me the cup," "Put 
 the cup on the chair," etc. As soon as the spoken direction is under- 
 stood, it is written upon the board. 
 
 Suggestions in General: In reading from the board and in the early 
 reading from books, the children look thru a sentence (or paragraph ) 
 and know what it says before they try to give it to others; in this way 
 merely pronouncing words in place of reading is avoided. The children 
 are taught from the first not to attempt to read aloud what is not 
 perfectly clear to them. Encourage them to be free to ask what a word 
 or sentence means before they are willing to read it aloud. 
 
 In planning the lessons for the board, the teacher has before her a 
 list of the words which the children will meet in the fore part of their 
 first readers. Wherever these words can be used well, without in any 
 way detracting from the interest in a game, they are used, but many 
 words not in that list will also be used. These are all common words, 
 however, which the children will soon find in their reading. 
 
 As an aid in getting a new word, the children should be taught to 
 look at the word in its setting in the sentence; e. g., in the sentence, 
 "The squirrel lives in a hollow tree," the word "hollow" is not known. 
 When they come to this word they will not attack it at once, but will 
 look forward to the end of the sentence. They will discover that the 
 new word, in all probability, tells what kind of a tree the squirrel lives 
 in. Knowing the kind of trees squirrels choose, they will in most cases 
 give the word without more study. The teacher should write all words 
 upon the board that have not been instantly recognized by the pupils in 
 reading. At the close of the lesson two or three minutes may be given 
 to drill on this list, conducted in a lively, enthusiastic manner. 
 
 FIRST THREE MONTHS. 
 
 This is an important period in the child's experience; impressions 
 made here are not easily effaced. The teacher should plan the work 
 carefully and present it with zest. A great desire on the part of the 
 
10 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 child to learn to read will be of immense help to him in mastering the 
 mechanics of reading. If this desire does not exist, the teacher can 
 arouse it, but not thru uninteresting material, presented in a half- 
 hearted way, is this desirable state of mind awakened or maintained. 
 
 The work for the first six or eight, and with some classes, ten 
 weeks, the reading should be from the board. Then a primer may be 
 used, the teacher first putting the lessons on the board, line by line, 
 and the children finding the same line in the book and telling what it 
 says. This putting the lesson on the board first should be continued 
 only as long as the children actually need that help. 
 
 As soon as the lessons begin to be difficult, the book in use should be 
 put aside and another one begun, reading as much as the first third. 
 
 SECOND THREE MONTHS. 
 
 In these three months two primers may be completed, besides many 
 lessons from the board. 
 
 THIRD THREE MONTHS. 
 
 Two or three first readers may be completed, taking first the easier 
 portions of each. Guard against habits of stumbling, repeating and 
 monotonous reading. 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 
 Text-books Second Reader or Readers. 
 
 FIRST THREE MONTHS. 
 
 Begin with a first reader; if possible, one that has not been read, 
 and read it thru rapidly, taking only three or four weeks for its comple- 
 tion. Then the first few pages of a second reader may be used, that 
 giving place to another one, as the work grows difficult. Do not allow 
 pupils to struggle with reading matter far beyond their depth. One lesson 
 a day, at least, should be with material that is easily read at sight. 
 
 NOTE. A teacher who has but a scanty supply of reading material on hand can do 
 much to till the deficiency by collecting from children's papers, school journals, etc., 
 stories that may be mounted on cardboard, cut apart and given to the different mem- 
 bers of the class. These may be read in class with much profit and enjoyment. 
 
 SECOND THREE MONTHS. 
 
 Work continued, following the same plan in general as for the pre- 
 vious three months. Children may make some preparation of the lesson 
 before coming to the class, following such suggestive directions, as, 
 
 1. Read the lesson. 
 
 2. Write all the words on paper that are not known. 
 
 3. Read again ( if not too long ) and make a list of all words found 
 out that were not known at first. 
 
 4. Make list of words beginning with m; list ending in ing, etc. 
 
 5. Write the names of people and anirnals mentioned in the lesson. 
 
 6. Write all the sentences that ask questions. 
 
 THIRD THREE MONTHS. 
 
 Two second readers should be completed. Keep the expression good. 
 Give definite directions for studying the lesson as suggested above. 
 Encourage the reading of books aside from the text-book. 
 
READING THIRD YEAR. -Q 
 
 THIRD YEAR. 
 Text-books Third. Reader or Readers. 
 
 SUITABLE BOOKS. 
 
 Aesop's Fables Stickney 
 
 Danish Fairy Tales. Anderson 
 
 Robinson Crusoe McMurray 
 
 Little Classics 
 
 Fairy Tales Anderson 
 
 Alice in Wonderland Carroll 
 
 Legends of the Red Children Pratt 
 
 Seven Little Sisters Andrews 
 
 Cat Tales and other Tales Howliston 
 
 SUITABLE POEMS. 
 
 Robert of Lincoln Bryant 
 
 Hiawatha's Childhood Longfellow 
 
 The Lost Doll TKingsley 
 
 The First Snowfall Longfellow 
 
 Seven Times One Ingelow 
 
 Three Little Bugs Gary 
 
 How the Leaves Come Down Coolidge 
 
 The Mountain and the Squirrel Emerson 
 
 Also, all supplementary reading suggested in the outline on history, nature 
 study, geography, civil government, etc. 
 
 THIRD AND FOURTH YEARS. 
 
 Suggestions: In the lower primary the necessity for careful drill 
 and preparation is recognized, but in the grades just beyond, the 
 teacher too frequently fails to recognize the fact that the child is still 
 dependent in a degree. As a result the reading is often not as good in 
 the third and fourth years as in the first and second, and grows increas- 
 ingly poor. 
 
 In these upper primary and intermediate grades the child begins to 
 use books for language, arithmetic, and geography. Efficiency in these 
 subjects depends upon ability to get the thought from a printed page. 
 Thought getting is impossible without an intimate knowledge of words. 
 If the child in the third and fourth grades is not independent in the 
 mastery of new words, he should be given phonic drill daily. Do much 
 work in syllabication in the word drill. If the school as a whole is weak 
 make it a general exercise for a few minutes daily. It is as valuable 
 for seventh as for third grade. A word drill should precede every 
 reading lesson and every word drill should mark an increase in power 
 and independence. Write difficult or new words on the board, dividing 
 them into syllables. Then write other words containing the same 
 sounds. If the word round is in the lesson, hold the class responsible 
 for sound, bound, hound, etc. In these grades the child should be 
 taught the use of the dictionary. Every day part of the reading prep- 
 aration should be the looking up of certain words for pronunciation. 
 
12 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 The object of oral reading is to be heard, understood and felt. The 
 good teacher will keep this object in mind and will make the children 
 feel that they read to make others understand and feel what is read. 
 To be enjoyable, expression must be natural and sympathetic; articula- 
 tion must be distinct and enunciation clear. To say to a child, "Read 
 as you talk," is not sufficient. The natural speech may be slovenly. 
 He must be trained to listen to his own speech. He must be trained to 
 a habit of clear, careful enunciation, and a flexibility of tone, until he 
 is not afraid to hear his own voice expressing the emotion necessary to 
 a proper interpretation of the reading in hand. Too often the child is 
 told to read louder when it is meant that he should read more clearly. 
 The result is a high pitched, strained, unnatural voice, which is a 
 degree worse than the low muffled voice which comes through clenched 
 teeth and rigid lips. Give daily exercises to break up rigidity of lips. 
 A, e, i, o, u, rapidly pronounced is a good exercise for this. Vary the 
 exercise by rapidly pronouncing words which require much lip move- 
 ment. Drill on pronouncing words clearly, especially words whose 
 endings are often elided. Practice in painting words; i. ., pronounce 
 deep, immense, dreadful, grand, splendid, rushed, etc.. so that the idea 
 of the word is expressed by the tone. Do likewise with whole expres- 
 sions. Show the difference between the voice necessary for such matter 
 as, "Haste thee, nymph, and bring with thee jest and youthful jollity," 
 and "Bury the great duke with an empire's lamentation." Have 
 children say in concert many sentences simply for the voice. 
 
 Should the child in these grades read haltingly, employ the primary 
 device of reading the sentence first silently and then aloud. He will in 
 time come instinctively to read ahead. 
 
 Fluency depends upon ability to recognize and pronounce readily the 
 words as seen. Much easy sight reading gives the child confidence in 
 his ability. Sight reading must not take the place of the regular 
 reading lesson, however. The new words add to the child's vocabulary 
 and his thought is stimulated by the reading which is rather difficult. 
 Colorless reading may be brightened by questions. Varying expression 
 may be obtained if thought is put into the manner of questioning. John 
 went down town yesterday to buy a new hat. The child reads it with 
 about equal stress on each word. Notice the different expression you 
 may get. Who went? Went where? When? What for? What kind 
 of a hat? etc. In answering the question the child naturally gets a 
 good, natural expression. 
 
 It seems a good plan to read the lesson of the previous day before 
 reading the new one, since it gives one more chance to review the new 
 words of that lesson, and prepares the class for the new and difficult 
 reading. 
 
 When the children read clearly, fluently and feelingly, the probabil- 
 ities are that they will enjoy the reading period, then the teacher has 
 it in her hands to formulate a taste for good literature. She can draw 
 the boys and girls away from what is worthless and demoralizing by 
 creating a desire for something that is better. Good method in reading 
 
READING FIFTH YEAR. 13 
 
 will do much. If the children are led to think as they read, they will 
 come in time to care for thoughtful books, and the child who is in love 
 with good books cannot be led far away from what is sane and right 
 in life. 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. 
 
 Reading for Fourth Year Fourth Reader or Readers. 
 
 SUITABLE BOOKS. 
 
 Fifty Famous Stories Baldwin 
 
 The Bird's Christmas Carol Wiggin 
 
 Lincoln Cravens 
 
 Wonderbook Hawthorne 
 
 Timothy's Quest Wiggin 
 
 Arabian Nights Clarke 
 
 Sea Side and Way Side Wright 
 
 Stories Mother Nature Told Her Children. . .Andrews 
 
 SUITABLE POEMS. 
 
 The Leak in the Dyke Cary 
 
 The Death of the Old Year Tennyson 
 
 The Children's Hour Longfellow 
 
 Paul Revere's Ride Longfellow 
 
 The Sand Piper. ... Thaxter 
 
 The Nightingale and the Glow Worm Cowper 
 
 The Pied Piper of Hamlin Browning 
 
 Barbara Fritche J. G. Holland 
 
 Also, all supplementary reading suggested in the outlines on history, nature 
 study, geography, civil government, etc. 
 
 For directions and suggestions see Third Year. 
 FIFTH YEAR. 
 
 Reading for Fifth Year Fifth Reader or Readers 
 
 SUITABLE BOOKS. 
 
 Little Nell Dickens 
 
 At the Back of the North Wind McDonald 
 
 Black Beauty Sewell 
 
 Stories of Colonial Children Pratt 
 
 Wild Animals I Have Known Thompson 
 
 Myths of Old Greece Pratt 
 
 Mopsa, the Fairy Ingelow 
 
 Stories from the History of Rome Beesly 
 
 Stories of the Old World Church 
 
 Lives of the Hunted Thompson 
 
 SUITABLE POEMS. 
 
 The Beggar Lowell 
 
 The Village Blacksmith Longfellow 
 
 Seven Times One Ingelow 
 
 The Blue and the Gray Finch 
 
 Also, all supplementary reading suggested in the outlines on history, nature 
 study, geography, civil government, etc. 
 
14 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 FIFTH AND SIXTH YEARS. 
 
 Suggestions : Many of the suggestions for the first four grades apply 
 to these higher grades. A new element becomes paramount here. 
 Much time is given to reading as literature. 
 
 If the mechanics of reading have been well taught in the lower 
 grades, children in the fifth and sixth years should be able to pronounce 
 at sight all common words, using the dictionary for unfamiliar words 
 only, and for definitions. 
 
 The assignment of the reading lesson should be a matter of very 
 careful consideration. Definite directions should be given for the study 
 period, always making sure that the work assigned is within the power 
 of the child to accomplish within the given period. Correlate history 
 and literature as much as possible. If the class is studying the revolu- 
 tionary period, Paul Revere's Ride is pertinent reading matter. Miles 
 Standish is a fit accompaniment for the colonial period, as is the day of 
 the first snowfall a good time to read "Snow Bound." Many of the 
 beautiful portions of the reading matter should be memorized, and some 
 of the most striking descriptions 'should be vizualized, i. e., pictures 
 drawn, illustrating the scenes. 
 
 If the lesson is a poem, the following general plan may be suggestive: 
 The teacher should familiarize herself with the poems studied in pre- 
 vious grades and give the children frequent chance to review them, 
 that the melody and rhythm may become familiar. With the little 
 children, the poem is read by the teacher, and little preparation or 
 word study is necessary. Above the third grade a new poem should be 
 given every month, selected for some thought applicable to the partic- 
 ular time. 
 
 The source or story should be given first, then the poem as a whole. 
 Often the first reading may be given by the teacher, that the children 
 may more readily get the central thought and feeling of the poem. The 
 unknown words and expressions should be studied. Then the poem 
 should be read in class and parts discussed with reference to the beauty 
 of meaning. Questions may be written on the board to help the pupils 
 to a deeper appreciation. Let the children select the parts they most 
 enjoy, and memorize some of the more beautiful portions. If the poem 
 is one which tells a story, the children should write in their own 
 language what the poet has so beautifully expressed. If the writer is 
 one whose life makes a good sketch use this as another language 
 exercise. 
 
 SPECIFIC PLAN FOE POEM RHOECUS. 
 
 Story of the poem. 
 The thought of the introduction. 
 
 Relate the conversation between the Dryad and Rhoecus. 
 Why was Rhoecus willing to accept a " perilous gift ? " 
 Describe Rhoecus's character. 
 
 What is meant by "a faithful heart, but one that too much in the 
 present dwelt ? " 
 
READING SEVENTH YEAR. 15 
 
 Explain, "only the soul hath power over itself." 
 
 What was the cause of the remorse of Rhoecus? 
 
 Give me your judgment of the punishment he had to endure. 
 
 Was it too harsh ? 
 
 What kind of a spirit did the Dryad show? 
 
 Explain, "I can forgive, etc." 
 
 What kind of blindness is meant? 
 
 Under what obligation was Rhoecus to the Dryad? ( How would a 
 young woman feel today if a young man treated her as Rhoecus treated 
 the Dryad?) 
 
 Select the nature descriptions. 
 
 What part of the poem do you most enjoy? Who is the poet? 
 
 Write five quotations, illustrating three of them. 
 
 SIXTH YEAR. 
 Reading for Sixth Year Sixth Reader completed. 
 
 SUITABLE BOOKS. 
 
 George Washington Schudder 
 
 Ten Boys Who Lived on the Road from 
 
 Long Ago to Now Andrews 
 
 Grandfather's Chair Hawthorne 
 
 Tom Brown ; s School Days Hughes 
 
 SUITABLE POEMS. 
 
 The Building of the Ship Longfellow 
 
 The Daffodils Wordsworth 
 
 The First Snow Fall Lowell 
 
 The Bell of Atri Longfellow 
 
 The Old Clock on the Stairs Longfellow 
 
 Also* all supplementary reading suggested in the outlines on history, nature 
 study, geography, civil government, etc. 
 
 See suggestions and directions under Fifth Year. 
 
 SEVENTH YEAR. 
 
 Suitable Material: Sketch Book, Scott's Lady of the Lake (suitable 
 for dramatizing), Stories of King Arthur's Court, Evangeline, Bur- 
 rough's Birds and Bees, Holmes's Grandmother's Story of Bunker Hill, 
 Courtship of Miles Standish, Snowbound, Great Stone Face, Lamb's 
 Tales of Shakespeare, Captains Courageous. 
 
 Also, all supplementary reading suggested in the outlines on history, nature 
 study, geography, civil government, etc. 
 
 Memory Selections: The Gettysburg Address, Warren's Address, 
 Lines to a Waterfowl, The Heritage, The Psalm of Life, Blow Bugle 
 Blow, The Last Leaf, How the Old Horse Won the Bet, Death of the 
 Flowers, the Recessional, Chambered Nautilus, Old Ironsides. 
 
16 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 The general purpose of reading in these grades is to create a keen 
 appreciation for good literature and to strengthen individuality through 
 the oral expression of that appreciation. 
 
 1. The Physical Side oj Reading. Since voice and speech defects in- 
 terfere with good oral expression, an attempt should be made to correct 
 them. The most common of these are: 
 
 (a) A nasal quality. 
 () Huskiness. 
 (c) Lisping. 
 
 (a) May be cured by a few moments of vigorous drill, on words whose 
 correct utterance demands a great deal of action of the lips; e.g., bound, 
 round, found, friend, thrusts, fists, posts, ghosts, etc. 
 
 ( b ) May be cured by working with relaxed throat on metrical selec- 
 tions. 
 
 (c) May be cured by noting carefully the position of the tongue in the 
 formation of various sounds especially the sounds of the letter s. 
 
 In all reading clear cut enunciation must be insisted upon. Some 
 knowledge of the anatomy and physiology of the vocal organs should 
 be given here. 
 
 2. The Mental Side of Reading: Oral reading is thought-getting and 
 thought-giving from the printed page. It becomes effective only as the 
 words read become rich in meaning to the reader. The printed word 
 must call up a clear idea in the mind of the one reading and skillful 
 questioning on the teacher's part, must discover whether it is the cor- 
 rect idea. 
 
 Good expression will be more surely attained if certain specific things 
 are worked for. These should be: 
 
 1. Life in Reading: This comes from a mental arousing that mani- 
 fests itself in the form of energy of voice. The literature read should 
 be of a character to arouse the reader to a point of self-forgetfulness. 
 Here self-consciousness is overcome. Selections full of interest must be 
 used, especially those in which one central ideal dominates. 
 
 Thrilling incident, sprightly dialogue and vivid description will best 
 develop life in reading. 
 
 2. Smoothness in Reading: Here the rough edges are worn off, and 
 the life gained expresses itself in more beautiful form. 
 
 Selections'that appeal to the higher emotions will secure best results 
 here. One's love for the beautiful in literature will come to express 
 itself in beauty of the voice. 
 
 . 3. Directness in Reading: This demands that the one reading shall 
 in simple, direct earnestness, talk to and not at his hearers. This will 
 correct all stilted and unnatural reading and will do much toward per- 
 fecting enunciation. The literature used here should be the drama or 
 some powerful appeal. There is nothing better than Shakespeare's 
 plays. 
 
 Additional Suggestions: If the reader stands out before the class, his 
 mind and those of the listeners are stimulated to greater activity. He 
 
UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON, SEATTLE 
 Boys' Dormitory, Girls' Dormitory, Science Hall and Administration Building 
 
READING EIGHTH YEAR. 17 
 
 feels greater responsibility, grows in independence and unconsciousness 
 of self, and is helped to realize that oral reading is thought-giving- to a 
 hearer. 
 
 Students should frequently hear good reading by the teacher or the 
 very best reader in the class in order that the spirit of the same may 
 leave its impression. 
 
 The teacher should keep several sets of the penny classics for class 
 use, and distribute for the following purpose only: Sight reading, to 
 cultivate agility of mind, rapid seizure of thought, and clear, intelli- 
 gent rendering. These may be selections of minor importance, yet 
 worth knowing, a single reading of which, "a touch and go" acquaint- 
 ance with which, will suffice. 
 
 4. The Humorous Side: Let the teacher of reading not forget that 
 our boys and girls need educating in humor; lacking it, they feed upon 
 cheap smartness or questionable jest and their sense of fun partakes 
 mainly of the practical joking that disgraces so many of higher educa- 
 tional institutions. So let them read and have read to them selections 
 from Mark Twain, Holmes, Saxe, Hood, Stockton, Eugene Field, Arte- 
 mus Ward, Warner, and James Whitcomb Riley. In term of three 
 months two of the longer poems suggested can be read and studied, to- 
 gether with many lines and quotations from them memorized, and six 
 or seven of the shorter selections together with three or four of them 
 memorized. The memory work can be a part of the morning, or the 
 Friday afternoon exercises. 
 
 EIGHTH YEAR. 
 
 Reading Selections: Lowell's Vision of Sir Launfal and Other Poems, 
 Lincoln's Gettysburg Speech, Dickens' Christmas Carol, Burke's Ameri- 
 can Orations, Rolfe's Selections from English History in Prose and 
 Verse, Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Shakespeare's Merchant of Venice, 
 Webster's Bunker Hill Oration, the ancient Mariner, Man Without a 
 Country, the Bell's, The Forest Hymn, Thanatopsis, Psalm XIX and XC. 
 
 Also, all supplementary reading suggested in the outlines on history, nature 
 study, geography, civil government, etc. 
 
 For Suggestions, see Reading under Seventh Year. 
 
 Suggestions for teaching the Vision of Sir Launfal: The teacher of 
 any selection of literature must be familiar with the selection she is to 
 teach; she must know it in its bearings; she must have studied it 
 earnestly and critically and then have thought out and planned how she 
 can best present it to the class, so they can get the most out of it, 
 toward the development of their characters in a broader sense; for no 
 other study makes so great an emotional appeal and so enhances the 
 worth and glory of life and living as reading. 
 
 The theme of this poem is charity a universal theme. The founda- 
 tion of charity is our feeling of kinship. What stronger bond than 
 
 2 
 
18 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 blood kinship has existed in all the history of mankind! The idea 
 of spiritual kinship has grown out of blood kinship. Charity or 
 love is 
 
 "That thread of the all-sustaining beauty 
 Which runs through all and doth all unite." 
 
 The theme of Part I, except the last stanza, is selfishness, un 
 conscious selfishness under the guise of a noble deed. Note the 
 strong contrast. His own life was so bright, his heart could not 
 be opened to the leper, sorrow and reverses must touch him and 
 melt his selfishness. Unlike the bird, there was no song of sym- 
 pathy in the heart of Sir Launfal, and like the castle he rebuffed 
 the sunshine and the gloom apart, Sir Launfal gives alms only, the 
 gift of true charity must come from the heart. The Knight rode 
 to do a noble deed but he could have found the Holy Grail at the 
 castle gate had his heart gone with the gift. He was seeking the 
 husk instead of the grain. The castle is the embodiment of Laun- 
 fal and selfishness. It, too, was beseiged by the summer, but lay 
 like an outpost of winter dull and gray. 
 
 In Part II we have the inner beauty of life set over against the 
 external form. It requires the chilling influence of winter to 
 awaken the soul of Sir Launfal to the realities of life to enable 
 him to recognize his kinship to the leper. 
 
 The description of the little brook is as delightful as the June 
 day, and pictures Sir LaunfaPs present life. The reader feels the 
 joy of the fullness of the inner life independent of the external 
 circumstances. If your pupils fail to see the universal truths 
 here taught as good today as in the time of knighthood and as ap- 
 plicable to one individual as to another they have lost the best 
 in the poem. 
 
 Do not let the class leave the poem until they have stored their 
 minds with the beautiful quotations. The memory of the June 
 day description will bless and brighten and uplift them in after 
 life. 
 
 OUTLINE. 
 
 1. Tell story of poem. 
 
 2. Look up source of poem in old legends; read something of 
 mediaeval life; read accounts of the Crusades, of Richard, the Lion 
 Hearted; read Arthurian legends and Tennyson's Sir Galahad. 
 
 3. What is the connection in thought between the prelude and 
 the rest of the poem? Apply to our growth of character the line 
 in which the music is described as "beginning doubtfully and far 
 away until nearer grows the theme." What connection do you see 
 between this and Sir Launfal's youthful mistakes in feeling after 
 the right way until he comes to a better understanding of life's 
 purpose in later life? 
 
 4. Compare the first two lines of the second stanza with Words- 
 worth's Ode to Immortality. Does Lowell agree with Wordsworth? 
 
 5. Name the things in nature that the poet mentions in the 
 second stanza as inspiring us to better lives and what does he say 
 is the effect on each of us? 
 
READING EIGHTH YEAR. 19 
 
 6. Explain meaning: of the following expressions: "We Sinais 
 climb," "At the Devil's booth are all things sold." And what 
 things in life would you call "dross" and what "gold," and "bub- 
 bles," and "cap and bells"? 
 
 7. What sounds of nature are spoken -of in the fourth stanza? 
 What colors? What motion words in stanza 5? 
 
 PART I. 
 
 1. What lines in the stanza describing the castle show that 
 Sir Launfal had lived such a life that he would not have much 
 sympathy with a ragged, loathsome leper? 
 
 2. In our youth we expect only happiness and avoid the sight 
 of sorrow. How does Sir Launfal show this trait? 
 
 3. Underline the words in stanza 6 of Part I that should be 
 emphasized and tell why. 
 
 4. What is "The thread of all sustaining Beauty?" 
 
 PRELUDE TO PART II. 
 
 1. Mention all words in the first stanza that are descriptive 
 of winter. In the same stanza, write out all architectural terms 
 and show how they apply to the freezing over of a stream. 
 
 2. Mark the fine figures descriptive of an open fire in stanza 3. 
 
 3. Is any special wanderer meant in the second line of stanza 
 5? Who? 
 
 PART II. 
 
 1. Point out all figurative expressions in stanza 1 and explain 
 their meaning. 
 
 2. How does the removal of the cross from Sir Launfal's sur- 
 coat show change in his character? 
 
 3. Judging from stanza 3, where has Sir Launfal been in search 
 of the Holy Grail? 
 
 4. With whom is Sir Launfal comparing the leper in stanza 5? 
 
 5. What purpose do you think the poet had in using the word 
 "denied" in line 5 of this stanza? 
 
 6. What two words are used in stanza 6 to show his change from 
 pride to humility? 
 
 7. What in this stanza suggests the communion supper? 
 
 8. What in stanza 8 would make you guess the leper is the 
 Christ? 
 
 9. The soul must climb upward by the path of self-sacrifice 
 and forgetfulness of self to sympathy and helpfulness. How does 
 this poem show that? 
 
 10. What do you think is the best life lesson to be found in this 
 poem? 
 
 11. Which would you choose: the beauty and vigor and joy- 
 ousness of youth as seen in this poem, or the old man, decrepit of 
 body, sad with his weight of experience, but humble, sympathetic 
 and useful? Give reasons for choosing either side. 
 
 12. Was the long unsuccessful journey really unsuccessful? 
 
 13. Could he have sympathized with the leper finally if he 
 had not had the bitter experience he had? Was it worth while? 
 Give reasons. 
 
20 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 14. Plain unattractive duty near at hand is typefied by what in the 
 story? High desire to accomplish some great and interesting thing by 
 what? 
 
 15. Did the author make you forget that Sir Launfal was only 
 dreaming? How did he do it? 
 
 16. Compare this story with Henry VanDykes's "Other Wise Man," 
 with Hawthorne's "Great Stone Face," with the story of "The Widow's 
 Mite," with the parable of the man who fell among the thieves on the 
 road from Joppa to Jericho. 
 
 17. Memorize: Prelude to Part I, Stanza 6 of Part I, first three 
 stanzas of prelude to Part II, from line 7 in stanza 3 of Part II, stanza 8 
 of Part II. 
 
 SUGGESTIONS FOR THE STUDY OF SHAKESPEARE'S JULIUS CAESAR. 
 
 Before beginning the reading of the play, the teachers and pupils 
 should come into close sympathy with the Roman life at the time of 
 Julius Caesar by studying the manner of living, the homes, social life, 
 dress customs, and especially the government of the Roman people of 
 Caesar's time. The physical locations must be well understood draw- 
 ings may be made of the Roman Empire and of the citj 7 of Rome. 
 
 Suggestions: A careful reading of "The Story of Caesar," and 
 "Shakespeare's Julius Caesar with Introduction and Notes Explanatory 
 and Critical," and Lamb's "Tales of Shakespeare," would be excellent 
 preparation. The teacher is advised to read also, if possible, the 
 analysis of the funeral speeches of Brutus and Cassius, as given in 
 Principles of Vocal Expression. 
 
 When reading the play, try to develop insight into the first 
 essentials of dramatic writings; that is, that they deal with what men 
 do under the stress of temptation, struggle, or opportunity. And so 
 you can bring out the difference of the drama as compared with the 
 epic poem, or novel or short story. After the reading of the play is 
 commenced do not give the pupils so much reference work to do as to 
 retard needlessly and lead to vexatious interruptions. Rather, if 
 necessary, let the teacher give the information necessary to enable the 
 child to grasp the significance of unknown allusions. 
 
 After the play has been read and studied appoint leaders from the 
 class to prepare some scene or act from the play to be dramatized on 
 Friday afternoon. These leaders are to choose the pupils from the class 
 to take the parts of the different characters; to arrange the drills and 
 practice, and to become responsible for the careful learning of the 
 different parts. 
 
 If the class is large enough three or four leaders may be appointed, 
 each being responsible for a scene. 
 
 In the hands of a skillful teacher this creates great enthusiasm and 
 interest. Each leader will take pride in making the acting and drama- 
 tizing of his scene the best. 
 
 Do not leave the play without having the entire class commit to 
 memory the most frequently used quotations and two or three of the 
 orations, of which latter Mark Anthony's should be one. 
 
WRITING. 21 
 
 WRITING. 
 
 Writing 1 is taught chiefly for its utility. It is used to communicate 
 knowledge to another, as well as to preserve it. Both of these require 
 legibility. The rush of business and the economy of time demand 
 rapidity. 
 
 While writing is not usually regarded as a culture subject, the learn- 
 ing of it may help to strengthen the mind. If it is taught with the 
 higher aim in mind, the lower end is secured when the higher is at- 
 tained. In learning to write the pupil must think. After much practice 
 he does not think of the writing, but of what he expresses with the 
 writing. 
 
 The teacher should see that the pupil does not practice bad forms in 
 writing. The longer one practices wrong forms the more firmly do they 
 become fixed. 
 
 See that the pupil takes an easy position. See that he is supplied, in 
 the first grade, with good paper and a long lead pencil well sharpened. 
 When he begins to use pen and ink, see that both are good. 
 
 In writing, aim at uniformity of slant rather than any particular 
 degree of slant. 
 
 Before any one can make the letter a he must see it; i. <?., he must 
 picture it in his mind. The first step in writing should be to fix the 
 forms of the letters in the child's mind. There are many devices used 
 for this purpose. After placing before the child a perfect form he may 
 be asked to make it on his desk with a string or with pegs or with other 
 objects. The teacher may make the letter with a pencil on manilla 
 paper, and with a pin the pupil may make holes on the line far enough 
 apart for ordinary stitches in sewing. Then with sewing cotton of some 
 attractive color the pupil may sew the letter. The point in all this work 
 for writing is that the pupil is thinking the form of the letter. He makes 
 its acquaintance, as it were. He knows it at sight. He has also gained 
 some power in making it. These letters should all be large that he may 
 get a better idea of their form. But to write they must be made with some 
 object that will mark. In writing the aim is to secure legibility and rapid- 
 ity. If the pupil has "played" with these forms long- enough legibility 
 will come as soon as his hand executes what he sees. But it may be slow 
 work. He may not execute with ease and grace. So some devices must 
 be used to secure these elements. To help in this, pupils may be asked 
 to make the letters "in the air" by moving the hand, as if making the 
 capital stem, for example. He is greatly delighted when the teacher is 
 able to name the form he makes. Blackboard practice with the free 
 whole arm movement is also helpful. Tracing the forms of letters made 
 on the board or on paper by the teacher is a good device. The child 
 should know the forms of all the letters and how to make them at the 
 end of the second year at farthest, and the rest of the drill can be given 
 to an increase of skill and rapidity. 
 
22 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 Pupils should begin the script form of the letters, or words, at 
 once upon entering shool. 
 
 The writing should be done on paper and with long lead pencils 
 well sharpened. By the close of this year pupils should be able to 
 write sentences so that they can be easily read. Pupils in the first 
 year should be taught 
 
 1. All the small letters, 
 
 2. The combination of small letters in words occurring in the 
 
 lesson. 
 
 3. To write their own names. 
 
 4. To make the capitals which are used most frequently. 
 
 5. The proper height of letters, slant of lines and the turn. 
 
 6. To copy rapidly and accurately dictations. 
 
 7. To read writing. 
 
 8. To use Book No. 1. 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 
 In the second year pupils should review the work of the first 
 year, and should be taught 
 
 1. The elements and principles in small letters, single and con- 
 
 nected, and the capital letters. 
 
 2. To write their lessons. 
 
 3. Make their writing legible, graceful and rapid. 
 
 4. To use book No. 2. 
 
 THIRD YEAR. ^ 
 
 In the third year place larger stress on legibility. Make frequent 
 tests in written work and grade on legibility. Keep the writing of 
 each pupil in these tests, and make improvement the basis of the 
 grades. Introduce letter-writing. Use Copy Book No. 3 and drills 
 with practice paper. 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. 
 
 Copy Book No. 4. See instructions in other grades. Use a 
 great deal of practice paper, emphasizing movement and legibility. 
 
 FIFTH YEAR. 
 Copy Book No. 5. Observe directions in previous years. 
 
 SIXTH YEAR. 
 
 Copy Book No. 6. Observe directions in previous years. 
 
 In accordance with the recommendations of the report of the 
 Committee of Fifteen, formal instruction in penmanship should be 
 discontinued after the sixth grade. 
 
SPELLING. 23 
 
 SPELLING* 
 
 "I tell you earnestly, you must get into the habit of looking in- 
 tensely at words, assuring yourself of their meaning, syllable by 
 syllable, nay, letter by letter. * * * 
 
 "A well-educated gentleman may not .know many languages, may 
 not be able to speak any but his own, may have read very few books; 
 but whatever language he knows, he knows precisely; whatever word 
 he pronounces, he pronounces rightly. 
 
 "Let the accent of words be watched, and closely; let their mean- 
 ing be watched more closely still." John Ruskin. 
 
 The teaching of spelling has two objects: First. To teach the 
 pupil the correct spelling of his own vocabulary. Second. To make 
 the pupil familiar with the meaning and use of the words most 
 frequently used by well-educated business or professional men, to 
 add these words in as large a measure as possible to the pupil's 
 vocabulary, and to teach him their correct spelling. 
 
 There is a . wide diversity of opinion as to how spelling should 
 be taught. Shall we use word lists prepared by the teacher or a 
 carefully graded speller? Shall we teach spelling orally or shall 
 all the words be written? Shall we teach phonics and diacritical 
 marks? The following suggestions are offered for the consideration 
 of teachers: 
 
 1. Language has two forms, oral and written. In both there 
 should be systematic training. 
 
 2. The oral word appeals to the ear (sound) pronunciation. 
 
 3. The written word appeals to the eye (form) letters in 
 proper order. 
 
 4. Correct pronounciation is as important as correct spelling. 
 The large majority of people talk more than they write. 
 
 5. A word is a sign of an idea. Put meaning and life into the 
 spelling lesson. Studiously avoid the old-time, parrot-like, meaning- 
 less, deadening recitation which brought this subject into disrepute 
 in many localities. 
 
 6. Use such methods as will lead pupils to form the habit of 
 carefully studying all new words as they come to them in their les- 
 sons. Spelling cannot be taught incidentally. It must have the 
 systematic attention of the teacher as a separate subject and his 
 constant care in all written work. 
 
 7. Whatever method is used, the pupils must form the habit of 
 noting carefully every new word and fixing its form definitely in 
 mind. 
 
 8. The teacher should endeavor to prevent rather than correct bad 
 spelling. From the lowest grade to the highest every pupil should 
 be taught never to spell a word when in doubt, but to consult either 
 
24 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 the teacher or the dictionary. The eye must be trained. Correct 
 spelling must become an eye and muscle habit. Constant drill in 
 writing the correct form of a word is invaluable, but time must not 
 be wasted in useless repetition of words which the pupils know and 
 
 know well. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 The work in spelling for the first year is in connection with read- 
 ing. During this year the pupil will meet few if any words, whose 
 meaning he does not comprehend. There should be regular drill in 
 phonics. Teach the consonants in this order: f, d, m, r, s (soft) ; h, 
 w, n, p, t, b, v, y, 1, z, and s (hard) ; k and c (hard) ; j and g (hard) ; 
 sh, wh, ch, th (soft and hard), and g (hard). Teach the long and 
 short vowel sounds. Arrange the words that contain the same com- 
 bination of letters in groups, as fan, man, ran. Teach the combination 
 of letters an; such words as Dan, Nan, pan, can, will then be quickly 
 recognized. When a number of these combinations are known, the let- 
 ter analysis will give place to syllabic analysis, and a new word will 
 be recognized by combining its syllables. 
 
 This power to master new words should be acquired during the 
 first year. 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 
 The principal work for this year is learning the new words in the 
 second reader. Pupils should pronounce these rapidly and correctly 
 before reading. The pupil should master these word forms thor- 
 oughly. Additional words can be given from other work. The drill 
 in phonics should include diphthongs, triphthongs and the more dif- 
 ficult consonant blendings and vowel sounds. Attention should be 
 given to easy phonetic equivalents. 
 
 Dictation exercises employing words of the reading lesson, should 
 be given daily. Pupils should use pen and ink. Gradually the words 
 should be used in new connections. Pupils should be encouraged to 
 make original sentences, illustrating the use and meaning of the 
 words of their other lessons. 
 
 The syllable is the unit of pronounciation and careful attention 
 should be given to the division of words into syllables. In this grade 
 pronounciation of syllables in spelling is sometimes desirable. Pupils 
 should learn to indicate the accented syllable. 
 
 THIRD AND FOURTH YEARS. 
 
 The third and fourth grades should recite together in spelling in 
 those schools where the total number of recitations exceeds twenty. 
 Spelling in connection, with the regular reading lesson will be con- 
 tinued in each grade separately. 
 
 In the third grade, a spelling book will be in the hands of the pu- 
 pils and regular lessons assigned. It is true that the pupils may spend 
 too much time in useless repetition. This results from a misconcep- 
 tion of the function of the spelling book. This book is not intended 
 merely for purposes of drill. The lists of words are not columns of 
 
SPELLING FIFTH AND SIXTH YEARS. 25 
 
 figures and are not to be taught as the multiplication table is taught. 
 Every word has a meaning most words several meanings. The pupil 
 has now learned the form of most of the words familiar to him. 
 Henceforth he must learn the use and meaning of new words. Every 
 new word should become part of the child's working vocabulary. He 
 ought not only to understand its meaning, when he sees it in print or 
 when he hears it used by others, but he ought to become so familiar 
 with it that he can use it intelligently. Before the pupil is asked to 
 reproduce a word, he should have its form fixed in mind both through 
 the ear and the eye. His very muscles should be trained to reproduce 
 it unconsciously. To secure this result, mere repetition is worse than 
 useless. It deadens the faculties of the child instead of developing 
 them. Disgust takes the place of interest. Study of the use and 
 meanings of words, however, never fails to secure the attention of 
 pupils. Illustrative sentences should be given freely by both teacher 
 and pupils. Dictation exercises are valuable if properly conducted. 
 
 Make lists of homonyms (or homophones). Study their meaning 
 and pronounciation. Give dictation exercises, using these and similar 
 words: Adds, adz; bad, bade; be, bee; beat, beet; blew, blue; bail, 
 bale; bowl, boll; cent, scent; cellar, seller; dew, due; fair, fare; flea, 
 flee; forth, fourth; flew, flue; him, hymn; hole, whole; hart, heart; 
 hare, hair; heal, heel; hoes, hose; knead, ueed; knew, new, gnu; knot, 
 not; leak, leek; limb, limn; mail, male; mite, might; miner, minor; 
 mantle, mantel; nose, knows, noes; nay, neigh; pain, pane; pail, pale; 
 pole, poll; rap, wrap; ring, wring; sun, son; slay, sleigh; some, sum; 
 sew, sow, so, etc., etc. (See Illinois State Course of Study, or any 
 graded speller for additional words.) 
 
 The systematic study of synonyms and antonyms should be a feat- 
 ure of the work of these grades. Make lists of words and require 
 pupils to give words of like or opposite meaning. Be sure that the 
 pupils understand the meaning and use of synonymous words, but 
 close discrimination is not possible in these grades. 
 
 "Word building" is an exceedingly profitable as well as interest- 
 ing exercise. Pupils of these grades will surprise many a teacher by 
 their cleverness in the use of prefixes and suffixes. The pupils should 
 understand the meaning of these affixes. Exercises in "word build- 
 ing" in the third and fourth grades prepare the way for word analy- 
 sis in the fifth and sixth grades. Study the following affixes: er, 
 less, ly, ness, ous, dom, mis, ness, en, ful, some, ment, or fy. Note 
 changes of spelling due to use of suffix, such as changes from y to i, 
 (plenty, plentiful) ; the doubling of the final consonant, (rob, rob- 
 ber) ; dropping of the final e, (move, moving) . 
 
 Diacritical marking should be mastered in these grades. Primarily 
 and above all else, study the use and meaning of words. 
 
 FIFTH AND SIXTH YEARS. 
 
 The fifth and sixth grade pupils should recite together in spelling 
 in all schools in which there are more than twenty classes daily. 
 
26 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Before completing the work of the first four grades, a pupil should 
 have mastered the spelling of the words in his vocabulary; learned 
 the use and meaning of many new words from the speller; given con- 
 siderable attention to homonyms, antonyms and synonyms; become 
 familiar with the use of diacritical marks. Heretofore he has relied 
 largely on the teacher for explanation and definition of new words 
 with incidental use of the dictionary. He is now mature enough to 
 depend more upon his own resources. Henceforth he should use the 
 dictionary systematically and intelligently. Every pupil should have 
 a small desk copy, but he. should be encouraged to consult freely the 
 larger dictionary on the teacher's desk. The "dictionary habit" is 
 largely formed in these grades. Every reference to a dictionary 
 should be made with a view of grasping the full significance of a word 
 and never with sole reference to preparation of a single day's reci- 
 tation. Otherwise the reference must be made repeatedly. The pu- 
 pils should keep a list of these words and review them from time to 
 time. 
 
 In addition to the regular lesson from the spelling book, with con- 
 stant attention to the use and meaning of every word, the pupils 
 should be able to pronounce and spell all the technical and difficult 
 words in other lessons, grammar, arithmetic, etc. The time to fix 
 a word in memory is the time when it is first met. 
 
 Continue the study of homonyms. Study the pronunciation, spell- 
 ing and correct use of such words as the following: right, rite,t 
 wright, write; rough, ruif; seam, seem; roe, row; rowed, road, rode; 
 root, route; soar, sore; straight, strait; aught, ought; aisle, isle; air, 
 e'er, heir, ere; berry, bury; berth, birth; core, corps; cede, seed; none, 
 nun; oar, ore, o'er; ode, owed; plain, plane; raise, rays, raze; scene, 
 seen, seine; sole, soul; cite, sight, site; cord, chord; fain, fane, feign; 
 capital, capitol; currant, current; gamble, gambol; liar, lyre, etc. 
 (For other words -see Illinois Course of Study). Take fifteen or 
 twenty of these words a month. 
 
 Continue the study of synonyms, requiring pupils to note some of 
 the more obvious shades of meaning between words nearly synony- 
 mous. Amongst others study the following: fame, glory, distinction, 
 honor, notoriety, reputation; expense, cost; liberty, emancipation, 
 independence; science, art, knowledge; discover, invent; vexation, 
 mortification, chagrin; idle, indolent, lazy. However, the emphasis 
 in these grades should be placed upon finding words that express 
 practically the same meaning and not upon ferreting out the subtler 
 distinctions between such words. 
 
 Word analysis in these grades should supplement "word building," 
 begun in the third grade. The study of roots should not be exten- 
 sively undertaken before the seventh and eighth grades. Take a 
 word, as de-scrip-tion. What does the prefix mean? What does the 
 suffix mean? What does the entire word mean? Another word, as 
 post-pone-ment. Note the prefix and the suffix. Pupils should under- 
 stand the meaning of such prefixes as ad, ambi, ante, cata, circum, 
 
SPELLING SEVENTH AND EIGHTH YEARS. 27 
 
 contra, ex, in, inter, para, poly, post, pro, re, semi, sine, sub, syn, 
 ultra, un, and with such suffixes ar, able, aceous, acy, age, ance, ant 
 or ent, cule, dome, ee, eer, eace, eseence, ette, ic, ing, ism, kin, ling, 
 ment, ness, ory, tion, ule, ure, y, hood. 
 
 Write abbreviations of months, days, titles applied to persons, 
 states, arithmetical and geographical abbreviations, etc.; also a list 
 of common contractions and give words for which they stand. 
 
 SEVENTH AND EIGHTH YEARS. 
 
 The work of these years should be given together. The regular 
 spelling lessons and the learning of technical or difficult words in all 
 other lessons are to be continued. Waste no time in trying to learn 
 to spell any word, whose use and meaning are not comprehended. 
 This is fundamental and vital. It is recommended as part of the 
 regular work of these grades that the teacher require her pupils to 
 keep a list of misspelled words in a note book and that these words 
 be reviewd from time to time as opportunity offers. By this method 
 each pupil is shown his own mistakes; he has a special list of such 
 words as he has missed; he learns to spell through the eye; the 
 teacher ascertains exactly the kind of work being done by each pupil; 
 i!; affords an excellent opportunity for teachers to use the highest in- 
 centive in their efforts to secure good results. 
 
 The study of synonyms should be continued, giving increasing at- 
 tention to the nicer distinctions in the use of these words. Some one 
 has said that there are only two words in the English language that 
 are always and exactly synonymous, begin and commence; in other 
 words, commonly known as synonyms, there is a basis of meaning 
 common to all words, but each word has a significance peculiar to it- 
 self. Elegant English demands exquisite precision in the choice of 
 words. Study such groups of words as conceal, disguise, dissemble, 
 secrete; content, satisfied; clumsy, awkward, uncouth; error, mistake 
 and blunder; courage, bravery, gallantry, intrepidity, fortitude, hero- 
 ism; abstinance, temperance; calamity, disaster, misfortune, mishap; 
 account, narrative, description; cautious, wary, circumspect; speech, 
 address, oration, harangue, declamation; final, ultimate, conclusive; 
 beautiful, pretty, handsome; habit, custom; education, instruction; 
 economy, frugality, parsimony; order, command, direction; odd, sin- 
 gular, strange, peculiar, eccentric, erratic; history, biography, 
 memoirs, etc. 
 
 Word building and word analysis should be continued and com- 
 bined with a careful study of root words. This work is fascinating 
 and profitable. A fair idea of Roman customs and conditions will 
 be secured by a student who knows the full significance of such words 
 as conspiracy, plebeian, candidate, subjugate, submit, emancipate, 
 consul, civilization, corporation, legislate, tenant, pedagogue, etc. 
 This study of Greek and Latin roots should be carried on systematic- 
 ally. Take one root each week and compile lists of words derived 
 therefrom. Study both the literal and metaphorical meaning. Note 
 
28 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 the force of all affixes. The following roots are suggested: am (love) ; 
 aim (year; ag (do, drive) ; aud (hear) ; animus (mind) ; bonus 
 (good) ; bene (well) ; cap (head) ; earn (flesh) ; cap (take) ; cor 
 ^heart) ; clud (shut) ; cred (believe) ; civ (citizen) ; corpus (body) ; 
 diet (say) ; dignus (worthy) ; due (lead) ; doct (teach) ; fact (to 
 make) ; fin (end) ; frang (break) ; horn (man) ; jac (throw) ; locut 
 (speak) ; man (hand) ; mit (send) ; nom (name) ; pon (place) ; ped 
 (foot) ; recr (rule) ; script (write) ; tract (draw) ; temp (time) ; terr 
 (earth); ven (come); vert (turn); vid (see). Greek roots: auto 
 (self) ; chron (time) ; ge (earth) ; graph (write) ; log (speech) ; 
 meter (measure); phil (love); phon (sound); poli (city). 
 
 Write lists of words to illustrate the following rules: "The let- 
 ters f and 1, at the end of monosyllables and standing immediately 
 after a single vowel, are generally doubled." Note exceptions: "A 
 consonant standing at the end of a word immediately after a diph- 
 thong or double vowel is rarely doubled." "E final is silent when pre- 
 ceded by another vowel in the same syllable." "C is silent before k 
 in the same syllable." "Silent final e is retained when a suffix begin- 
 ning with a consonant is added." Note exceptions. 
 
 Make lists of words frequently mispronounced and drill on the 
 correct pronunciation of these words once a week. About ten lists 
 of twenty-five words each should be made and used in succession. The 
 following words are suggested for one list: Again, algebra, aunt, 
 been, bouquet, Asia, address, exquisite, courier, comrade, deaf, err, 
 poem, inquiry, launch, hearth, kettle, extra, lief, hostile, zoology, ro- 
 mance, salmon, pretty, patron. 
 
 At convenient intervals during these two years review diacritical 
 markings; the elementary sounds; interesting facts about the his- 
 tory of our alphabet; division of letters into capitals and lower case; 
 size of letters used in printing; use of hyphen in compound words; 
 classification of words on basis of number of syllables; use of 'silent 
 letters. 
 
 In conclusion every teacher should remember that the work in 
 spelling has in view the attainment of three results: 
 
 1. Habitually correct spelling. 
 
 2. Correct pronunciation. 
 
 3. Correct use and meaning of words. 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 29 
 
 LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 
 
 LANGUAGE LESSONS. 
 
 AIMS. 
 
 First: To secure facility in the correct use of language oral or 
 written. 
 
 Second: To secure skill in the mechanical construction of writ- 
 ten language spelling, capitals, punctuation, etc. 
 
 METHODS AND MATERIALS. 
 
 No schedule can give the vocabulary to be acquired in each grade 
 nor determine the degree of facility with which such a vocabulary 
 should be used. 
 
 It can only be said that as the pupil's stock of facts and ideas 
 grows through his study of other subjects, so his vocabulary and the 
 ability to use it in expressing these facts and ideas should grow 
 through the language lessons. 
 
 Further as there is progression in attainment both of knowledge 
 and thought, so there should be progression in the character of the 
 language exercises. This is shown in the outline given later. 
 
 In teaching the use of capitals and punctuation marks, teach that 
 which the pupil's work demands. As a standard to which the class as 
 a whole should measure up, use the following schedule: 
 
 FIRST GRADE. 
 
 First Half -Year: See that all sentences copied are mechanically 
 correct in spelling, the use of capitals and punctuation marks. 
 
 Second Half -Year: Continue copying sentences. Teach pupils 
 to write their name, town, father's name (Mr.), mother's name 
 
 (Mrs.), teacher's name. 
 
 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 First Half -Year: Use of capitals to begin statements, questions, 
 first word of each line of poetry. 
 
 Use of period after an abbreviation and at the close of a state- 
 ment. Use of interrogation mark after a question. 
 
 Use of common abbreviations: Mr., Mrs., St. Teach in connec- 
 tion with the number work use of in., ft., yd., pt., qt., gal. 
 
 All common errors in speech should have been corrected. Special 
 emphasis may now be laid on the correct use of is and are, was and 
 were. 
 
 Second Half -Year: Use of capitals to begin names of persons, 
 initials, days of week, names of months. 
 
 Use of exclamation point. 
 
 Use of abbreviations occurring jn the number work. 
 
30 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 THIRD GRADE. 
 
 First Half -Year: Continue the drill on the use of punctuation 
 marks, capitals, and abbreviations outlined for preceding grades. 
 
 Correct the errors of speech most frequently made by the class. 
 
 Second Half -Year: The work of the preceding grades will be 
 studied in a more formal way. A pupil completing this grade should 
 use capitals correctly to begin all sentences, proper names, initials, 
 names of months and days of week. He should use a period after an 
 abbreviation and a statement, an interrogation mark after a question, 
 and an exclamation point after an exclamation. He should be famil- 
 iar with the most used abbreviations, Mr., Mrs., St., names of months 
 and days of week, and terms taught in the number work. He should 
 make no mistake in the use of is and are, was and were, did and done, 
 saw and seen. 
 
 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 First Half -Year: Follow the course outlined by the elementary 
 language book. Insist on the correct use of 7 and me as subject and 
 object, and the use of the nominative form of the pronoun after is 
 and was. 
 
 In letter writing, drill on the addressing of the envelope, the 
 heading and closing of the letter. 
 
 Second Half -Year: Continue the use of the elementary language 
 book. 
 
 Insist on the correct use of the past tense and perfect participle 
 of common verbs: begin, come, do, eat, give, go, see, sing. Use cor- 
 rectly set, sit, lay, lie, learn, teach. 
 
 Continue the drill on the written forms of letter writing. A 
 large percentage of pupils leave school at the end of this year; they 
 should be perfect in the forms of letter writing. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 Review the language work of preceding grades. By the aid of the 
 exercises given in following outline train the pupil's imagination, 
 enlarge his vocabulary, drill on the choice of words, and confirm him 
 in the right use of capitals, punctuation marks, and paragraphing. 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 
 
 31 
 
 OUTLINE. 
 
 Oral Work. 
 
 Stories. 
 Picture Lessons. 
 
 f Picture Lessons. 
 
 Stories. 
 
 Written Work. 
 
 f Language-Lesson Pictures. 
 j Geography Pictures. 
 > History Pictures. 
 
 Biography Pictures. 
 
 Dialogue Pictures. 
 
 f For Reproduction. 
 ! For Combination of 
 Language Lesson 
 
 and 
 Spelling Lesson. 
 
 Dictation as a Language Exercise. 
 
 Quotations, or Memory Gems. 
 
 Figurative Language Exercises. 
 
 Paraphrasing Exercises. 
 
 Synonym Exercises with a Selection for Study in 
 
 Reading. 
 
 Fables and their Application. 
 Proverbs and their Application. 
 Action Lessons, Doing and Telling How. 
 
 THE SUPPLEMENTARY WORK OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 Some of this work has been compiled from sources of the highest 
 authority in artistic teaching; some has never been presented before, 
 but all of it is in actual and satisfactory use in many of the schools 
 of our State. 
 
 The text-book is only a book of texts upon which the teacher is to 
 build, by supplementary work, an ideal and properly developed series 
 of incidental results. Incidental results are most lasting in educa- 
 tional work. The unconscious tuition of life and school is the best. 
 The teacher whose ideal is highest and whose art is most perfect 
 values least the direct results of her teaching. A good and suggestive 
 text-book is very necessary for the teacher's orderly, logical, and con- 
 secutive presentation of any given branch of study; but it is the sup- 
 plementary work in that branch that gives tone, fibre, and value to 
 the developing educational processes of mind and character. 
 
 ORAL WORK. 
 
 Language is used in two ways orally and in writing. A thous- 
 and words are used orally to one used in writing. 
 
 The training of pupils in the use of oral language should begin, 
 of course, in the first year grade, and should be systematic, progres- 
 sive, and continuous throughout all the grades in our schools. 
 
 Language is an expression of thought; consequently, thinking must 
 precede talking or writing. 
 
 1. STORIES. 
 
 Pupils will learn to use language well by using it under such cir- 
 cumstances as will most likely fix* the habit of speaking or writing 
 
32 TEACHERS 7 MANUAL. 
 
 correctly. As they like stories, it will be well to adopt story-telling as 
 one of the devices for teaching language. 
 
 Stories, however, should be carefully selected. With the young- 
 est pupils, the story should be short, but it should be attractive. Some 
 fables and some fairy stories are very useful with the youngest 
 pupils. The story should be adapted, of course, to the age of the pu- 
 pil and to his ability to comprehend its details. Some of the stories, 
 at least, should be of such a character as will assist in the moral in- 
 struction of the pupils. A lesson in ethics, conveyed through the me- 
 dium of a story, is more likely to touch the sensibilities of a child 
 than the same instruction conveyed in any other form. 
 
 With older pupils, the stories may be selected from history, biog- 
 raphy, books of travel, etc.; thus incidentally helping forward other 
 work of the school, and at the same time giving variety to the lan- 
 guage work. 
 
 Assuming that proper selections have been made, and that the 
 teacher has a large and choice collection on hand, the work may go on 
 somewhat as follows: 
 
 Read the 'story to the pupils; or, better, tell it to them in a fa- 
 miliar way. Every teacher should cultivate the power of telling a 
 story well. Question the pupils carefully on all its details until they 
 are fully understood, as right thinking should always precede talk- 
 ing. Then call on the pupils to tell the story. One pupil may make 
 a beginning, another carry it a short stage, and a third may take up 
 the thread where it has been dropped. 
 
 In this way the interest of all can be held throughout the exer- 
 cise, and a proper arrangement of the story can be secured. 
 
 Criticism should be dealt out sparingly. A few pupils can en- 
 dure severe criticism, and their errors in language may be corrected 
 at once. Others are more sensitive, and criticism of their work should 
 be made at the close of their recitation. Most pupils need encourage- 
 ment, and every honest effort should be commended. 
 
 These oral exercises should be short, not exceeding ten or fifteen 
 minutes. Such exercises, however, should be frequent; if possible, 
 daily, as is done by the grade teachers in large schools. 
 
 You need have no apprehensions about keeping up interest on ac- 
 count of telling and re-telling the stories many times to the pupils in 
 the grade. An old story, if good and well-chosen, seems to have 
 peculiar and growing charms for a child. 
 
 The same story should not be told, however, after the language 
 becomes formal, or "bookish," this being a sign that the "danger 
 point" has been reached. 
 
 After a good beginning has been made, one new story of moderate 
 length for each two or three weeks of a school term is all that may 
 be needed. 
 
 It is not necessary, however, to confine the oral work to story- 
 telling. The reading lesson furnishes one of the best means for this 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 33 
 
 purpose. If the lesson is a new one, it will be well to require the 
 pupils to prepare it so that a fair outline can be given by them be- 
 fore the reading exercise begins. It is well, also, after the reading 
 of each paragraph or stanza, to require some one to give in his own 
 words the substance of the matter read. This is not only a good exer- 
 cise in language, but it compels each pupil to give individual attention 
 to the reading lesson so that he may gather the thought expressed. 
 In other words, reading becomes an exercise in which the pupils 
 learn to seek for ideas conveyed by words on a printed page. 
 
 Oral language work should not be confined, however, to the first 
 and second grades. For the third, fourth, and fifth grades, topical 
 recitations in geography and history will give variety to the lan- 
 guage work. Indeed, every recitation gives the teacher an opportun- 
 ity for requiring good oral work in language. 
 
 The teacher must constantly hold in mind that only clear and 
 well-arranged thought can be clothed in good language. If the ideas 
 of the pupil are confused or incomplete, the attempt to clothe ideas in 
 language will inevitably result in confusion or incompleteness. The 
 teacher, therefore, in geography or history, should make sure that the 
 pupils have received clear impressions of the subject under considera- 
 tion before calling upon them for what we term a topical recitation. 
 Let "question and answer" precede, under such circumstances, the 
 topical recitation, until the teacher is convinced that the pupils are 
 prepared for connected statements. 
 
 2. PICTURE LESSONS. 
 
 Every teacher should gather quite a large stock of pictures suit- 
 able for oral language lessons, for written language lessons, for geo- 
 graphy, history, biography, etc., language work. These pictures may 
 be selected from school periodicals, book catalogues, and the numer- 
 ous illustrated papers or magazines. In this work the pupils will 
 cheerfully aid and bring to the school many suitable pictures, both 
 large and small. 
 
 The proper plan is to keep the smallest language pictures un- 
 mounted so that they may be pasted on the top part of a cap paper 
 sheet when needed for written work. The others ought to be well 
 mounted, preferably on cardboard or pasteboard. This is work which, 
 though tedious at the time, really pays, as the pictures thus mounted 
 will last for years. 
 
 It is well to have the mounted pictures numbered on the back and 
 these numbers entered in a blank-book, with the title of each picture, 
 under each proper division of oral and written language lessons, 
 geography, history, biography, etc., language work. Thus a cata- 
 logue is made and the teacher is sure of his stock of pictures. 
 
 For oral work in the first and second grades one large mounted 
 picture should be used for the entire grade or division. For written 
 3 
 
34 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 work in the grades above these, each pupil may have a picture or all 
 may work from the same picture found in the geography or history. 
 
 The first lesson is one of Description, in which the imagination is 
 to have no part. The perceptive faculty is to be trained, and the 
 question to be answered is, "What do you see in this picture?" or 
 "What does this picture represent?" They must first be taught to 
 see, then to express their thoughts in a connected order. 
 
 The same pictures may now serve as the basis for a lesson on 
 Narration. The pupils are asked to tell a little story about the peo- 
 ple in the picture. 
 
 They are to think of names for the persons, etc., in the picture, 
 and tell where they are and what they are doing. 
 
 In order to train the younger pupils, in oral language work, into 
 habits of right 'seeing, and to express their thoughts in a connected 
 way, it will be found necessary to question the seeing into them in 
 the order of the importance of the character of individuals and ob- 
 jects, e. g., 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is the chief or most important figure in this picture? 
 
 What is the appearance of the lady? How is she dressed? 
 
 Does the picture show anyone else? 
 
 Describe the dog, or horse, so that I would understand you even if 
 I had not seen the picture. 
 
 What is the scene represented by the picture, or, what place is shown 
 us in the picture? 
 
 Shut your eyes, and see the picture in your mind just as you have 
 described it. Now who is willing to describe the picture to me, 
 without the aid of any classmate, as a continued story? (Hands. 
 If the attempt is made cheerfully, it will aid greatly in the strug- 
 gle.) 
 
 B. WRITTEN WORK. 
 
 During the first and second grades, the language training should 
 be principally oral. When the pupil reaches the third grade, however, 
 he should be able to write with a fair degree of skill. 
 
 Assuming that the pupils of a grade have this skill, the work in 
 language may become more varied. The oral exercises may be carried 
 on as before, but should be accompanied by written exercises. The 
 time given to language on any one day, however, should not be di- 
 vided between oral and written work. 
 
 When the writing is finished, a few of the slates or papers may 
 be read, a few hints or suggestions may be made, and such commen- 
 dation given as the results will warrant. A few exercises carefully 
 corrected with the grade will no more toward eradicating faults than 
 a much larger number examined by the teacher alone. 
 
 This part of the exercise should seldom continue longer than ten 
 minutes, and ten minutes given to such work every day will undoubt- 
 edly accomplish more than the hours usually given by teachers to 
 the examination and correction of papers and slates. 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 35 
 
 The papers and slates should, however, always be examined by 
 the teacher, not so much for the purpose of correcting them, but for 
 the purpose of noting the general faults and weakness of the grade, 
 and the special faults and weakness of its members. 
 
 1. PICTURE LESSONS. 
 
 For written work, the same general directions for the use of the 
 picture already given for oral work should be observed. First, the 
 description, for the training of the perceptive faculty, or the power 
 to see and observe correctly. Second, the narration, for the train- 
 ing of the imagination, and for the power to draw inferences in the 
 order of their importance. 
 
 (1) Geography Pictures. A geography picture may be used first 
 as a geography lesson; afterwards, the geographical knowledge may 
 form the basis for the written exercise. 
 
 It is important that the pupils be taught to outline the order to 
 be followed in the work. If the picture, for example, be a typical 
 one of life in some country, the outline might run somewhat as 
 follows : 
 
 (a) Situation of country. 
 
 (b) Description of country. 
 
 (c) Inhabitants: as to description, dress, occupations, posses- 
 sions, dwellings, etc. 
 
 (d) Scene in the picture: persons, animals, etc. 
 
 (2) History Pictures. Pictures representing historical subjects 
 are very useful when used for written work in language lessons. They 
 are especially valuable as review lessons. Pictures showing the cos- 
 tumes and customs of the period studied, are great aids in the his- 
 tory work. 
 
 (3) Biography Pictures. The teacher must collect every year 
 a large stock of pictures suitable for biography language work. The 
 pupils may work from large pictures; but for special work, a small 
 picture pasted on the top part of a cap paper sheet may be used. The 
 biography language work is especially useful in connection with the 
 "quotations" and other work of the school along the line of good lit- 
 erature and reading. 
 
 (4) Dialogue Pictures. A picture showing a number of people 
 is a very interesting text from which to write a dialogue. The writ- 
 ing of this style of language work teaches the pupils to give short, 
 concise sentences; and it gives them an opportunity to cultivate the 
 conversational powers. But the chief aim is to train the imagination, 
 and to develop dramatic power. 
 
 The pupils are to be taught the meaning of "Scene" and "Charac- 
 ters," also how to write and arrange the conversation. When the 
 names of the characters are given it is not necessary to use quotation 
 marks before or after the sentences. It would be well, at first, for 
 the teacher to write a short dialogue on the black-board showing the 
 desired arrangement; this the pupils copy before proceeding to orig- 
 inal work. 
 
 In this work, however, the pupils should be finally trained to con- 
 struct dialogues without the aid of pictures. The teacher should be- 
 
34 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 work in the grades above these, each pupil may have a picture or all 
 may work from the same picture found in the geography or history. 
 
 The first lesson is one of Description, in which the imagination is 
 to have no part. The perceptive faculty is to be trained, and the 
 question to be answered is, "What do you see in this picture?" or 
 "What does this picture represent?" They must first be taught to 
 see, then to express their thoughts in a connected order. 
 
 The same pictures may now serve as the basis for a lesson on 
 Narration. The pupils are asked to tell a little story about the peo- 
 ple in the picture. 
 
 They are to think of names for the persons, etc., in the picture, 
 and tell where they are and what they are doing. 
 
 In order to train the younger pupils, in oral language work, into 
 habits of right 'seeing, and to express their thoughts in a connected 
 way, it will be- found necessary to question the seeing into them in 
 the order of the importance of the character of individuals and ob- 
 jects, e. g., 
 
 QUESTIONS. 
 
 What is the chief or most important figure in this picture? 
 
 What is the appearance of the lady? How is she dressed? 
 
 Does the picture show anyone else? 
 
 Describe the dog, or horse, so that I would understand you even if 
 I had not seen the picture. 
 
 What is the scene represented by the picture, or, what place is shown 
 us in the picture? 
 
 Shut your eyes, and see the picture in your mind just as you have 
 described it. Now who is willing to describe the picture to me, 
 without the aid of any classmate, as a continued story? (Hands. 
 If the attempt is made cheerfully, it will aid greatly in the strug- 
 gle.) 
 
 B. WRITTEN WORK. 
 
 During the first and second grades, the language training should 
 be principally oral. When the pupil reaches the third grade, however, 
 he should be able to write with a fair degree of skill. 
 
 Assuming that the pupils of a grade have this skill, the work in 
 language may become more varied. The oral exercises may be carried 
 on as before, but should be accompanied by written exercises. The 
 time given to language on any one day, however, should not be di- 
 vided between oral and written work. 
 
 When the writing is finished, a few of the slates or papers may 
 be read, a few hints or suggestions may be made, and such commen- 
 dation given as the results will warrant. A few exercises carefully 
 corrected with the grade will no more toward eradicating faults than 
 a much larger number examined by the teacher alone. 
 
 This part of the exercise should seldom continue longer than ten 
 minutes, and ten minutes given to such work every day will undoubt- 
 edly accomplish more than the hours usually given by teachers to 
 the examination and correction of papers and slates. 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 35 
 
 The papers and slates should, however, always be examined by 
 the teacher, not so much for the purpose of correcting them, but for 
 the purpose of noting the general faults and weakness of the grade, 
 and the special faults and weakness of its members. 
 
 1. PICTURE LESSONS. 
 
 For written work, the same general directions for the use of the 
 picture already given for oral work should be observed. First, the 
 description, for the training of the perceptive faculty, or the power 
 to see and observe correctly. Second, the narration, for the train- 
 ing of the imagination, and for the power to draw inferences in the 
 order of their importance. 
 
 (1) Geography Pictures. A geography picture may be used first 
 as a geography lesson; afterwards, the geographical knowledge may 
 form the basis for the written exercise. 
 
 It is important that the pupils be taught to outline the order to 
 be followed in the work. If the picture, for example, be a typical 
 one of life in some country, the outline might run somewhat as 
 follows : 
 
 (a) Situation of country. 
 
 (b) Description of country. 
 
 (c) Inhabitants: as to description, dress, occupations, posses- 
 sions, dwellings, etc. 
 
 (d) Scene in the picture: persons, animals, etc. 
 
 (2) History Pictures. Pictures representing historical subjects 
 are very useful when used for written work in language lessons. They 
 are especially valuable as review lessons. Pictures showing the cos- 
 tumes and customs of the period studied, are great aids in the his- 
 tory work. 
 
 (3) Biography Pictures. The teacher must collect every year 
 a large stock of pictures suitable for biography language work. The 
 pupils may work from large pictures; but for special work, a small 
 picture pasted on the top part of a cap paper sheet may be used. The 
 biography language work is especially useful in connection with the 
 "quotations" and other work of the school along the line of good lit- 
 erature and reading. 
 
 (4) Dialogue Pictures. A picture showing a number of people 
 is a very interesting text from which to write a dialogue. The writ- 
 ing of this style of language work teaches the pupils to give short, 
 concise sentences; and it gives them an opportunity to cultivate the 
 conversational powers. But the chief aim is to train the imagination, 
 and to develop dramatic power. 
 
 The pupils are to be taught the meaning of "Scene" and "Charac- 
 ters," also how to write and arrange the conversation. When the 
 names of the characters are given it is not necessary to use quotation 
 marks before or after the sentences. It would be well, at first, for 
 the teacher to write a short dialogue on the black-board showing the 
 desired arrangement; this the pupils copy before proceeding to orig- 
 inal work. 
 
 In this work, however, the pupils should be finally trained to con- 
 struct dialogues without the aid of pictures. The teacher should be- 
 
36 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 gin by assigning the scene and characters, and suggest the line of 
 work, allowing the pupils to select a suitable title. 
 
 This is more difficult than picture dialogues, as the incidents or 
 plot are left to the imagination of the pupils, aided only by the sug- 
 gestions of the teacher. Stage directions may be given. If a par- 
 ticularly bright dialogue is written, it may be learned and recited on 
 a Friday afternoon, the author being allowed to select those who 
 are to take part. 
 
 In the higher grades, the selection of title, scene, and characters 
 may be left entirely in the hands of the pupils, thus making the work 
 original in every detail. A teacher of long and varied experience sug- 
 gests that personal remarks, or stories at the expense of classmates 
 should be strictly forbidden. 
 
 2. STORIES. 
 
 For written work, the same general direction already given for 
 oral work, as to length and character of itory, may be observed. 
 
 (1) Stories for Reproduction. Stories for reproduction should 
 be short, simple, and direct; otherwise the pupils will be unable to 
 grasp thought to express in their own words. 
 
 Before reading the story to the pupils, see that every one is in 
 the attitude of attention. One of the important objects in view in 
 giving these exercises is to train pupils in the habit of attention, to 
 cultivate the power to hear what is said as it is said. Hence it is 
 better to select something easily remembered, and to read but once. 
 
 Require truth-telling throughout the exercise. The expression 
 may be the pupil's own, but the thought must be that of the original 
 story. It is an important thing to be able to repeat a thing told us 
 without altering its meaning. A helpful exercise in training pupils 
 to listen well, is that in which the teacher reads a short sentence and 
 requores the pupil to repeat it verbatim. The sentences may be max- 
 ims, proverbs, lines of poetry, or be chosen from some paragraph. 
 
 If the pupils are not accustomed to these exercises, draw the 
 story from them at first by a series of questions. Commend those 
 who give the entire thought without question. They will soon be 
 able to reproduce the story without such help. 
 
 With pupils in the primary grades, oral reproduction should come 
 before the written. See that the pupils can tell the story well be- 
 fore you ask them to write. The written work involves all that is 
 included in the oral recitation, with the addition of the mechanical 
 execution, which demands care and practice. "Proceed from the sim- 
 ple to the more difficult." 
 
 Let some of the selections for written reproductin be in verse. 
 These should come after practice in prose. 
 
 Keep a scrap-book where you can collect newspaper items, anec- 
 dotes, etc., suited to your language lessons. Be judicious, however, 
 in selection. 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 37 
 
 It is seldom convenient for the teacher to correct all the exercises 
 of the pupils though it is well to do it occasionally. A good plan is 
 to correct one or two, with the help of the pupils, illustrating on the 
 black-board. The errors will be found to be in the same line, so that 
 this method is quite as helpful as individual corrections, while it 
 makes it possible to have these lessons more frequently. 
 
 Keep a few main points in view while correcting. Use of capi- 
 tals, punctuation, and the omission of unnecessary "ands" come first. 
 If the early criticisms are confined to these, they will be more effect- 
 ive than if they cover more ground. 
 
 Have new or difficult words occurring in the story, written on the 
 blackboard for reference; for it is better for the pupils to copy cor- 
 rect forms than to invent incorrect ones. 
 
 (2) Stories for Combination of Language-Lesson and Spelling 
 Lesson. In the ordinary written exercises, pupils use comparatively 
 few words, and these are the words of their ordinary conversation. 
 There are, however, many other words that are readily understood 
 by the pupils when they are heard in conversation or seen in the 
 books which they read. But such words are not sufficiently familiar 
 to be used in conversation or in written work. 
 
 The object should be to constantly enlarge the spoken and writ- 
 ten vocabulary of the pupils. This can be effectively done by exer- 
 cises in stories constructed by the pupil upon the plan of this com- 
 bination work. 
 
 The teacher should write upon the blackboard a list of words in 
 accord with the nature of a story and the object set forth above. 
 The written story must contain every word in the list. 
 
 This performance, in addition to the spelling, and enlarging the 
 spelling and writing vocabulary of the pupil, exercises such powers 
 of his mind as imagination, judgment, discrimination, and taste. It 
 stands out in contrast with the slight value to be derived by the pu- 
 pil in the assignment of a topic to be hunted up in books, when, after 
 reading himself full, he is to sit down and try to empty what he has 
 gathered upon paper. Such a performance is simply a memory ef- 
 fort to reproduce what he has read, or else a poor paraphrasing of 
 the authors he has dipped into. 
 
 3. DICTATION. 
 
 The dictation exercise is one of the most important helps in teach- 
 ing language. Few teachers fully appreciate its value. Any kind of 
 training or exercise to be valuable must key the mind to a high de- 
 gree of tension. Dictation exercises, when properly conducted, will 
 serve this purpose, and should occupy a large portion of the time 
 given to written language work. 
 
 For all grades the exercises should be short, and for the lower 
 grades especially should this be the case. A good plan, when the ex- 
 ercise embraces only thirty or forty words, is for the teacher to 
 write it carefully upon the blackboard before school. Sufficient time 
 
38 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 should be given for the study of this exercise by the pupils for whom 
 it has been prepared. Capital letters, spelling, punctuation-marks, 
 etc., should receive the attention which their importance demands. 
 Then the exercise on the blackboard is covered with the draw-curtain, 
 and the teacher dictates it to the pupils as they write it upon their 
 slates or tablets. This done, the teacher uncovers the exercise on 
 the blackboard that the pupils may see it written correctly. Each one 
 examines his own slate and reports his errors to the teacher, who 
 stands at the blackboard and furnishes whatever explanation is re- 
 quired. For five or six minutes every pupil will be interested in the 
 work, and will be benefited in proportion to his interest. After the 
 slates or tablets have been examined in this way, the exercise on the 
 blackboard may be required to be written again from dictation. 
 
 Another very valuable plan for conducting the exercise is for the 
 teacher to read a paragraph from one of the reading books used in 
 the school, and from a selection with which the pupils are already fa- 
 miliar. Now the teacher reads it a second time, a sentence or a piece 
 of a sentence at a time. The pupils, having slate and pencil, or pen- 
 cil and tablet, write as the teacher dictates. They have been in- 
 structed to use their judgment in regard to capitals, punctuation, 
 quotations, etc. When the paragraph is thus dictated, then each pu- 
 pil takes his book and corrects his mistakes from it. 
 
 Dictation involves a great deal in. exercising so many of the pu- 
 pils' mental powers. The senses that are brought into play are hear- 
 ing, sight, the movement of the hand; while attention, observation, 
 memory, imagination, judgment, reason, and will are all actively en- 
 gaged. The hand is trained to keep up with the memory in expressing 
 the ideas as they flow through the mind, the ear must catch each 
 sound, while the memory keeps them in place ready for use as the 
 fingers jot them down; the imagination, judgment, and reason are all 
 vigorously at work deciding where onp sentence begins and another 
 ends, while the will holds the mind to the subject in hand. 
 
 Dictation exercises show connected or related sentences, and the 
 careful attention the pupil is obliged to give to this class of work be- 
 gets in him the very habit that is so necessary to his future progress 
 in written language. To read to pupils a sentence or part of a sen- 
 tence at a time, the writer must think how he will write it, and then 
 the act of comparing his own effort with the work from which the 
 extract was read, forces him into the habit of seeing the logical con- 
 nection of sentences, and this passes over into the habit of logical 
 thinking and logical writing. Spelling, punctuation, a taste and feel- 
 ing for all the elements involved in good literary composition, and 
 without which no good writing is possible, all force themselves into 
 and become a part of the mental fibre of the pupil. Much practice 
 in this kind of composition will give the pupil a correct idea of what 
 good writing is, and thus almost imperceptibly a good style is ac- 
 quired. 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 39 
 
 Dictation exercises are not designed, of course, to supersede en- 
 tirely what is called original composition, or other formal language 
 work. They will always lack the stimulus of original thought. They 
 are especially helpful, however, in preparing the pupil for the me- 
 chanical work of composition, and should never be neglected. 
 
 A STUDY OF THE MENTAL OPERATIONS OF THE PUPIL INVOLVED IN DIC- 
 TATION AS A LANGUAGE EXERCISE. 
 I. 
 
 1. Sense perception through hearing and sight. 
 
 2. Revival of images and concepts previously associated with the 
 separate and individual words dictated. 
 
 3. Ideas received through sense percepts, and these ideas held 
 in relations (thoughts) in the process of combining dictated words into 
 sentences. 
 
 4. Judgment exercised in the process of reasoning as to where 
 one sentence begins and another ends. 
 
 n. 
 Conclusions from the study of items 1, 2, 3, and 4 of above: 
 
 1. The mental operations involved are complex and many-sided. 
 
 2. Attention is active in getting and keeping in memory sense 
 perceptions; and the imagination, in observing their proper relations 
 in the order of thought as the fingers jot them down. 
 
 3. The judgment and reason are active in the determining pro- 
 cesses of combining words into sentences, and sentences into para- 
 graphs. 
 
 4. The will is active in holding the mental operations involved 
 in propfcr balance for the performance of the subject in hand. 
 
 5. The sensibilities will be active in proportion to the ideal re- 
 lation of sympathetic harmony between teacher and pupils, and the 
 wisdom exercised in the selection of the dictation lesson. 
 
 4. QUOTATIONS, OR MEMORY GEMS. 
 
 Let the quotation for the day be written upon the blackboard be- 
 fore school, to be read aloud by the pupils after the morning exercises. 
 Give a short time to the study of the selection. If necessary, speak 
 of the author, the meaning of the lines, and any figure of speech that 
 may occur in them. Do not preach to the pupils, however; but let 
 the quotation of itself sink into the consciousness of the learner, and 
 bear its message and fruit in proper season. 
 
 Encourage older pupils to copy the quotations, as well as to com- 
 mit them to memory. This will stimulate them to add selections 
 found in their own reading. Let them find quotations for the school 
 occasionally. They will doubly appreciate a good thought which they 
 have found for themselves, and handed on for the benefit of others. 
 
 Use the quotations frequently, to fix them in the minds of the 
 pupils. Their value to them is in, the future as well as the present 
 good resulting from them; repetition will make memory more cer- 
 
40 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 tain. If any fail at an attempt to repeat, do not affix a penalty; for 
 such thoughts are not most helpful when associated in memory with 
 punishment. 
 
 It is well for pupils to learn a standard poem occasionally, in- 
 stead of detached quotations. 
 
 Some poems well adapted to concert recitation are: 
 
 Barefoot Boy, and selections from Snow Bound, by Whittier. 
 
 Planting of the Apple Tree, Lines to a Water Fowl, The Fringed 
 Gentian, by Bryant. 
 
 Psalm of Life, The Builders, Ladder of St. Augustine, The Child- 
 ren's Hour, by Longfellow. 
 
 The Chambered Nautilus, by O. W. Holmes. 
 
 Each and All, The Mountain and the Squirrel, by Emerson. 
 
 Step by Step, by Holland. 
 
 One by One, Maximus, by Adelaide Proctor. 
 
 These are only suggestive, and must be extended, of course, by the 
 teacher. 
 
 In the higher grades, devote a school term occasionally to the 
 study of some one poet. Let the quotations be chosen from his writ- 
 ings, and some of the supplementary reading as well. Talk of his 
 life, home, friends. Make him seem a reality, not a myth, to the 
 pupils. 
 
 5. FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 
 
 Figurative language can be made one of the most pleasing and 
 attractive exercises in language work, and may be taught incidentally 
 in the fifth and sixth grades in connection with grammar. The 
 teacher should use it as one of the means of interesting pupils in 
 their lessons by developing the imagination, and in order to lead 
 them to see and feel the beauty of the figurative language that 
 abounds in prose and poetry. 
 
 They need not be told that they are going to learn comparison, 
 simile, metaphor, personification, etc.; just teach them when giving 
 composition exercises and grammatical forms, by: 
 
 (1) Select a number of adjectives, as brave, timid, busy, comi- 
 cal, patient, fierce, dumb, agile, strong. Add, in another list, soldier, 
 hare, bee, monkey, tiger, ox, squirrel, lion. Apply the adjectives to 
 the people and make comparisons with animals, e. g., The soldiers 
 were as brave as lions. 
 
 (2) Write a number of selections like these on the blackboard: 
 Sharp knife, sharp tongue; foot of the child, foot of the mountain; 
 crown of the king, crown of the tree; wings of the swallow, wings 
 of the morning; the source of the river, the source of joy. Let the 
 class write: (a) the literal forms, (b) those that are figurative, (c) 
 then make sentences containing forms of speech. 
 
 (3) Ask questions like these: What flower is the symbol of 
 purity? of modesty? of beauty? What tree is the symbol of strength? 
 of grief? of peace? What season is compared to childhood? to old 
 age? Make oral sentences, lead the class to see the relation between 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 41 
 
 the symbol and the object, and give a reason for their decision in 
 sentences written in class on the blackboard. 
 
 (4) Explain what such phrases as, waving grass, moaning pines, 
 blinding lightning, glistening dewdrops, floating clouds, refreshing 
 showers, growing plants, etc., mean; and have pupils use them in de- 
 scriptive composition, adapted to their age and development. 
 
 (5) Change figurative language into literal as: His locks shone 
 silver-white; Fifty sail left the harbor; The whole human race is 
 mortal; A hundred willing feet answered the call; I shall never cross 
 his threshold again; The singing of the birds resounded from the 
 trees. 
 
 (6) Use proverbs for the sake of variety, and to arouse interest 
 by having pupils use them in conversation and on paper. Begin 
 with familiar ones, as : Many hands make light work ; Willing hearts 
 make swift feet; Diligence is the mother of good fortune; A bird in 
 the hand is worth two in the bush. 
 
 (7) Discuss orally such sentences as these: He had a heavy 
 heart; Her heart is not in her work; Do not set your heart on world- 
 ly things; We should learn some things by heart; Harden not 
 your heart against the unfortunate. Let the pupils use these expres- 
 sions in writing, always giving a reason for using this or that form. 
 
 (8) Again, take the words that have various meanings in common 
 use: head, eye, tooth, ears, tongue, as: Give the horse his head; 
 Don't lose your head when danger arises; I can make neither head 
 nor tail of it; The boy's head is turned; It is hard to make head 
 against the stream. After oral discussions, let pupils apply them to 
 the same person or thing in writing. 
 
 (9) Let pupils select figurative language from their quotations, 
 memorized poems, and reading lessons. 
 
 (10) Teachers can give appropriate selections applicable to his- 
 tory, geography, or elementary cience classes. 
 
 The New Testament, Shakespeare, Childe Harold, Emerson, and 
 all the poets contain numberless passages suitable for this grade 
 work, as well as for the more advanced. 
 
 6. PARAPHRASING EXERCISES. 
 
 In the lower grades, much supplementary work has been done by 
 the pupils in q-iving the life history of some living thing, (children 
 are more interested in animal life than plant life,) as that of a bee, 
 an ant, a squirrel, etc. Thus the pupil has been brought into sym- 
 pathy with these animals through a knowledge of their homes, their 
 troubles, their enemies, etc. The pupils have written something about 
 the animal selected, beginning somewhat as follows: I am a little 
 squirrel. My mother and I live just behind a wood-pile in Mr. 
 Jones' wood. Our home is lined with, etc. 
 
 In the higher grades, it will be found that the most satisfactory 
 work in paraphrasing can be accomplished through this same idea 
 of personality. Take, for example, "The Wreck of the Hesperus," 
 
42 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 by Longfellow. The pupils study and read the poem in class, and 
 then paraphrase. Tell them to imagine that they are on the light- 
 house at Norman's Woe, and write a friend giving an account of the 
 terrible storm in which the Hesperus, with all on board, went down 
 on the rocks. Allow sufficient play for the imagination, yet insist 
 upon holding to the truth. 
 
 Other poems that can be used, are "Paul Revere," with the pupil as 
 Paul; parts of "Hiawatha" and "Evangeline," many historical poems, 
 etc. 
 
 Another way to vary this work is to let the pupils tell the story as 
 though it were news brought by a post-rider to the village in which 
 they live. 
 7. SYNONYM EXERCISES WITH A SELECTION FOR STUDY IN READING. 
 
 This work is most valuable for exercising and developing discrim- 
 ination, judgment, (especially what Herbart terms the "aesthetic 
 judgment,") taste, etc. It ought to begin in the fifth grade, but it 
 is especially valuable for the grades above the fifth. 
 
 Do not use a book of synonyms, but let the pupils learn how to 
 use and utilize this part of the dictionary in the study of words. 
 
 In the study of the selection, the teacher designates for this ex- 
 ercise the words for which an appropriate synonym is to be used. In 
 the preparation of the lessons each day, the teacher may have each 
 pupil copy a stanza or paragraph, using synonyms for the words 
 which are designated by some mark, as a star. 
 
 As a review lesson in spelling, and the use of synonyms, pro- 
 nounce, the words marked with stars for pupils to write in a column; 
 and, being allowed a free use of the dictionary, then write synonyms, 
 in a second column, thus: 
 
 1. nature 
 
 2. holds 
 
 3. communion 
 
 4. visible 
 
 5. various 
 
 6. gayer 
 
 7. gladness 
 
 8. glides 
 
 9. dark 
 
 10. musings 
 
 11. mild 
 
 12. sympathy 
 
 13. steals 
 
 14. sharpness 
 
 15. ere 
 
 16. aware 
 
 creation, universe 
 
 sustains, carries on, continues 
 
 converse, intercourse 
 
 perceptible, apparent 
 
 diverse, manifold 
 
 merrier, livelier, more cheerful 
 
 joyousness, delightedness 
 
 moves gently 
 
 gloomy 
 
 meditations, ponderings 
 
 gentle, soft, calm, tranquil, tender, pleasant 
 
 compassion, tenderness 
 
 takes 
 
 keenness, acrimoniousness, bitterness 
 
 before, sooner than 
 
 appraised, informed 
 
 The above are the words marked by the teacher with a star, in the 
 Synonym Exercise for Study in Reading "Thanatopsis," first stanza. 
 
 8. FABLES. 
 
 A few authors of "Language Books" use a great many fables. 
 They are useful for "Lessons in Dictation," especially useful for 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 43 
 
 "Lessons in Reproduction." But the primary use is in the "Lessons of 
 Application." 
 
 After the pupils have become familiar with two or three fables, 
 simply as stories, they should be led to see that a truth is hidden be- 
 neath the mere story, and that the fable really means something and 
 is meant to teach a lesson. If this is well understood the pupils have 
 learned a valuable lesson; that of looking beneath the surface; of 
 reading with a desire to find the real meaning of books. 
 
 The pupils soon discover that fables are usually stories in which 
 animals talk, and take the place of men. The figure of speech called 
 personification may now be taught. Note: The use of capitals in a 
 personified noun is now left largely to the inclination of the writer. 
 
 When the implied meaning of a fable has been discussed and the 
 moral lesson drawn from it, this truth should be applied to some sim- 
 ple, practical story of everyday life. A fable treated in this way be- 
 comes an important factor in the development of original stories. 
 
 The pupils are asked what to look for in a story, and usually the 
 teacher draws forth the idea that a story should tell the time, and 
 the place of something that happened to certain people, of whom they 
 are talking. 
 
 An outline should be written on the blackboard and followed in 
 the composition of original stories. 
 
 The following order is given only as an example, and need not 
 be strictly followed by the teacher: 
 
 TITLE. 
 
 1. Time. 
 
 2. Place. 
 
 3. Characters. 
 
 4. Incident (or happening). 
 
 5. Result. 
 
 6. Conclusion Moral. 
 
 A fable should first be given as a lesson in reproduction before at- 
 tempting to apply it. After a discussion in the grade, as to the 
 probable meaning of the fable, the pupils might give orally several 
 short, original stories, following the ideas suggested by the grade. 
 In this way a train of thought will be started which may well be left 
 to sink into consciousness and progress in the minds of the pupils, 
 for one or more days. In lessons requiring thought and originality, 
 do not adopt a course of crowding. 
 
 After this preparation an interesting language lesson may be given. 
 
 Have pupils write the reproduction of the fable, and then on the 
 same sheet of paper, or on a different sheet, the application of it. 
 
 9. APPLICATION OF PROVERBS. 
 
 The same general treatment already given for fables and their 
 application may be adapted by the teacher to language lessons in 
 proverbs. The pupil must be familiarized with the character of the 
 work before beginning written exercises in the application of proverbs. 
 
44 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 After th'e pupils have been provided with and can recite a few 
 proverbs, the teacher selects one to be studied with them. They de- 
 cide that a proverb is a short saying that has become familiar by 
 constant use, and that has a two-fold meaning. That the words 
 taken literally mean just what they express, but hidden beneath the 
 apparent meaning, is another truth applicable to the incidents of the 
 daily lives of each one of them. It is this truth that they are to 
 look for and apply. 
 
 When the object of the lesson is well understood, the teacher may 
 assign a proverb to each pupil, if the grade is not too large to ex- 
 haust the stock of proverbs on hand, or the grade may work on two 
 
 or three of them. 
 
 10. ACTION LESSONS. 
 
 Teachers find that action lessons, doing and telling how, are very 
 useful as language work. 
 
 A pupil may be able to perform an action with skill and yet fail 
 in describing the process by which the work was accomplished. Many 
 actions either in school or home work will be found good subjects 
 for lessons of this kind. The most trifling details of school work 
 will be raised in the pupil's estimation by these lessons and con- 
 sequently will be performed with greater care. 
 
 The teacher will soon discover that these lessons give excellent 
 exercise in the highest powers of the mind, and that it is not an 
 easy thing to tell exactly how a thing should be done. The language 
 must be clear and concise. To vary the lesson let the pupil describe 
 or invent a game. The proof that the description is well given will 
 be the ability of the pupils to play the game from the given directions. 
 
 Many pupils come from homes where the aid of even those in the 
 lower grades is necessary. The subject for action lessons can thus 
 be drawn from many varieties of home work, and the exercises be 
 made decidedly practical. The teacher will find here an opportunity 
 to lead the pupils to see that a duty, even a humble one, well per- 
 formed is noble. 
 
 NOTE. During the first and second grades, the language training 
 is, of course, principally oral; but when written work is required, it 
 should be used afterward as a reading exercise The thoaght in this 
 work being that of the pupil, expression will come naturally. Pay 
 much attention to narration; but pupils should be asked to relate only 
 those events that they have witnessed or experienced within a short 
 time previous to their efforts at narration, or events that may be in- 
 ferred by inspecting pictures used for Constructive Reading Lessons. 
 
 Make all the language exercises brief; and, at the beginning, also 
 make them very simple, in order that both pupil, and teacher may be 
 spared the discouragement arising from the attempt to overcome too 
 rapidly the initial difficulties of composition, such as spelling, punctu- 
 ation, penmanship, formulation of thought, and the various conven- 
 tionalities of form. 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 45 
 
 GRAMMAR. 
 
 This course of study in grammar and composition is a broad, gen- 
 eral suggestive outline for teachers, and is planned to meet the re- 
 quirements of the many different texts adopted in our state. Teachers 
 will do well to study it carefully, to study the pupils carefully, and 
 then modify the course more or less, as the ability and needs of the 
 classes may demand. For further help and suggestions the teacher 
 will find of great value the following: 
 
 1. Prefaces and Introductions to the various grammars adopted 
 in the State. 
 
 2. Other State courses of study, as Indiana, Wisconsin, etc., free. 
 
 3. Various city courses of study, as Seattle, Tacoma, Spokane, 
 etc., free. 
 
 4. Committee of Ten Reports, American Book Co., 35c. 
 
 5. Course of Study for Common Schools, Hammond Bros. & 
 Stephens, Fremont, Nebraska, 25c. 
 
 6. Chubb's "The Teaching of English," The McMillan Co., $1.00. 
 
 7. Other Manuals. Other publishers. Generally free. 
 
 Every teacher of grammar and composition should bear in mind 
 the following: 
 
 All "rules of grammar," and principles, should be deduced by the 
 pupil under the guidance of the teacher from the reader, geo- 
 graphy, history, etc. They should not be memorized from the gram- 
 mar. 
 
 The text itself is to serve as a manual to direct the teacher what 
 to take up, and to give him suggestions, .illustrations, etc. It is to be 
 used by the student after the law has been developed, e. g., the 
 teacher finds, after consulting the course of study, that "capital let- 
 ters" is the next topic in his work. He turns to that subject in his 
 grammar and sees the various uses of capitals, suggestions, illustra- 
 tions, etc. Thus prepared, he wisely selects his similar illustrations 
 from the reader, etc., and from the pupil's own usage and knowl- 
 edge, and thus builds up or deduces the laws of capital letters. 
 Never should the teacher start with the general law of the text. 
 
 The teacher should always bear in mind the purpose of teaching 
 grammar. It is to help the child, 1st, to read and hear correctly, 
 with discrimination, and with understanding; 2nd, to speak and write 
 correctly, briefly, simply, with discrimination, and with force. In 
 every phase of grammar he presents to his pupils, the teacher should 
 ask himself if this particular thing fulfills one of these functions. 
 If it does not, little time should be given to it. The other things 
 which grammar gives to a student will take care of themselves. 
 Grammar for grammar's sake, is of minor importance. 
 
 The course of study attempts to suggest general topics for each 
 semester of the sixth to eighth years, and gives some idea of the de- 
 
46 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 tail work needed. It also calls special attention to those phases of 
 subjects that should be emphasized. 
 
 Probably three periods a week should be given to the study of 
 grammar. One period a week should be given to oral composition, 
 and one to written composition. 
 
 The subjects of compositions should be chosen half from the geo- 
 graphy, the reader, history, etc., and half from the child's own ex- 
 periences. They should also include letter writing. They should deal 
 with simple narrative and descriptive themes, e. g., "How I Spent 
 Tk-mksgiving," "How I Make Bread," "What I Did My Birthday," 
 etc. 
 
 Unless the errors in the compositions are carefully marked by 
 the teacher and corrected by the pupil, little good will come from this 
 work. 
 
 That reading goes hand in hand with grammar and composition, 
 must always be borne in mind. The reader is a source for the laws, 
 for illustrations, for authority in cases of doubt or question, and for 
 comparison and inspiration. 
 
 In all subjects, in all places the teacher should require good Eng- 
 lish. 
 
 SIXTH YEAR FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 Spend two to four weeks in reviewing the work of the fourth and 
 fifth grades, placing emphasis on the practical, useful principles 
 which the pupil needs in writing and speaking the English lan- 
 guage. Give one or two lessons on the purpose and value of the study 
 of grammar and composition. Take up the most common laws of 
 capital letters chief words in title of themes, beginning word of a 
 sentence, proper nouns, "I," "O," etc. Spend two or three days in de- 
 ducing from the reader, or other texts, the chief principles underly- 
 ing the paragraph. Study thoroughly the simple sentence with em- 
 phasis upon the subject and predicate, and their agreement. Hand 
 in hand with the study of the subject and predicate must go a little 
 study of the parts of speech, i. e., classification. Treat thoroughly, 
 too, the simple clause and phrases. Give frequent drills in dictation 
 work, to fix the above principles, in mind. In letter writing, study 
 particularly the simplest and briefest business letters. In composi- 
 tion, let half of the work be oral, half written. The oral may be re- 
 ports on current happenings, on material from the other lessons, etc. 
 The same themes can be worked up in written reports. Train pupils 
 to talk and write clearly and coherently. Teach every pupil to 
 overcome his own false syntax, as found in his themes. 
 
 SIXTH YEAR SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Deduce (and review) from the reader and other texts the more 
 simple points of punctuation, such as the period, the comma, the 
 question mark, etc. Show clearly that punctuation is solely to help 
 the reader understand exactly what the writer wishes to express 
 and that in general position of words in the sentence should be such 
 
LANGUAGE, COMPOSITION AND GRAMMAR. 47 
 
 that little punctuation is required. Teach the compound sentence 
 how to combine simple sentences, and how to separate the compound 
 into its parts. Study modifiers, participles, and infinitives. Study 
 the complex sentence. Do further work on the paragraph. See that 
 the pupil can arrange its content carefully, simply, and logically. In 
 composition see that the pupils use readily the principles already 
 learned in the grammar. In letter writing teach special forms of 
 business letters as applications for positions, etc. Continue the work 
 in dictation. In the main the semester should be a continuation of 
 the previous one. 
 
 SEVENTH YEAR FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 Review in a few lessons the essentials of the sixth year. Spend 
 a lesson or two in discussing what inflection is. Show that "declen- 
 sion," "comparison," "conjugation," are "inflections" of different 
 parts of speech. If you can, show that the English language is al- 
 most an "uninflected language," when compared with Latin or Ger- 
 man, which are highly inflected languages. Learn the inflection of 
 nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. In the noun, emphasize: sommon 
 and proper, how form plural, and how form possessive. In the pro- 
 noun emphasize: the correct case form, the right demonstratives, in- 
 ter rogatives, and relatives. In the adjective emphasize: the right ad- 
 jective, and a discrimination between adjective and adverb. Study 
 the friendship letter. Continue dictation work. Teach each pupil 
 his own errors in speech. In composition continue half oral, half 
 written. As subjects use current happenings, topics from the his- 
 tory, pictures, a synopsis of a story read by the pupil. Study speci- 
 mens of good narration and description from the various text-books, 
 magazines, etc. Outline these, deduce the principles governing them 
 and apply these principles in the class-room work. Emphasize sim- 
 plicity, brevity, and correctness. 
 
 SEVENTH YEAR SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Study the remaining "parts of speech." In the verb emphasize: 
 those irregular verbs in most common usage, as "do," "go," etc,; the 
 choice of right verb, the best verb. In other parts of speech empha- 
 size right adverb, best adverb, right preposition, best preposition, as 
 "in" and "into," "by" and "with," etc., and a wise discrimination in 
 the choice of conjunctions. With all this inflection, continue the study 
 of the sentence and the paragraph. In letter writing study the so- 
 cial forms. In "false syntax" and composition continue as first 
 semester. A little work on simple "explanation" may be given at the 
 last of the semester as, "How I Prepare My Lessons," or other such 
 
 subjects. 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 Make a thorough study of analysis, and with it whatever work 
 in diagraming is necessary to give concrete illustrations for difficult 
 sentences in analysis. Analyze paragraphs, chapters, poems, and 
 stories. Omit all puzzle sentences, and sentences with archaic or un- 
 
48 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 usual forms. Teach the three or four most simple figures of speech, 
 as the simile, metaphor, etc. Study short and long sentences, bal- 
 anced and loose sentences. In letter writing take up telegrams, and 
 other business forms yet untaught. In composition deal thoroughly 
 with description of types, as the "Chinaman," the Newsboy," etc., 
 and do a great deal with "explanation." Emphasize: accuracy, vari- 
 ety of sentence form, well-rounded paragraphs, well-organized para- 
 graphs, the topic sentence of paragraphs, and even more thoroughly 
 the deduction and making of plans for composition work. Have pu- 
 pils write original stories of a simple nature from outlines furnished 
 by the teacher. In all the work, place emphasis upon correct, simple, 
 brief, yet accurate form. 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Continue work of the first semester and spend four or five weeks 
 in a thorough review of the practical working principles of the en- 
 tire text. Emphasize those things in which the pupils show, by their 
 conversation and class and composition work, that they need further 
 help. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 In teaching, as in other work, there are immediate and ultimate 
 results and it is the latter that are of more consequence. The work 
 that the pupil is doing this year is of consequence only as it deter- 
 mines what he will do in years to come. To develop a taste for 
 geography and insure its careful study, not only through the pupil's 
 school days, but also through life; to make it a constant source of 
 knowledge, assistance and happiness is the end most to be desired. 
 
 In order to foster such growth or development we must begin by 
 making the subject a part of the learner's own observation and ex- 
 perience. It must be "Home Geography," or, in other words, the 
 first CONSCIOUS looking about of the child upon his surroundings. 
 The true order of geography study is: "First, see; next, produce; 
 and then study the productions of others." 
 
 Through a study of the physical forms, the industries and insti- 
 tutions of man as seen in and around his own home, the child forms 
 standards of comparison by which to gain a conception of the world 
 as a whole. 
 
 Give the child an opportunity to observe facts in nature. The 
 observing of them will be easy early in life, thinking about them 
 will be easy later. Begin the study of geography with field work, as 
 this gives the correct concepts of type forms and the surface of the 
 earth. Children thus learn the true meaning of geographical lan- 
 guage. They can compare what they learn from pictures and de- 
 scriptions of things that are distant and strange from home forms. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 49 
 
 Field work thus becomes the best preparation for the use of the text 
 book and atlas. Words without experience to explain them are with- 
 out value. Field work is therefore necessary in all departments of 
 geographical instruction, but it is needed in greatest . amount at the 
 beginning of the course and in the city schools. 
 
 The teacher who has the preceding ideas or principles well in 
 mind will make a few mistakes in applying them in practice, but ex- 
 perience gives ease in this as in all other work. 
 
 The following cautions and directions will aid the novice in field 
 lessons : 
 
 1. Be sure you have well in mind what you are to attempt to 
 teach in the field lessons, which you propose to give. Make a written 
 list of things, few at first, which you hope to accomplish. 
 
 2. Make the proposed trip first alone, or in company of another 
 teacher, and work out the plan of your entire lesson on the spot. 
 
 3. Take a small section of your class at first, you can take more 
 pupils after practice. 
 
 4. Remember that the object of the field lesson is to have your 
 pupils observe natural objects of phenomena which they have never 
 observed before. 
 
 5. Learn how to have most of the talking done by the pupils 
 without allowing the conversation to wander from the subject of the 
 lesson. 
 
 6. Have the pupils use as many senses as possible in the study of 
 an object. 
 
 7. Give due prominence to relations, cause, effect, comparative 
 position, weight, size,, usefulness, etc. 
 
 8. Teachers sometimes fail in field work because they attempt 
 to teach too much in one lesson. It is wiser to have brief lessons of 
 short duration and to develop one truth at each. 
 
 9. The language used must be simple enough for third grade 
 children while the science is as reliable as in the most elaborate phys- 
 ical geography. 
 
 10. Too great demands should not be made upon the pupil's power 
 of attention in the field any more than in the school-room. 
 
 11. Free and full reproductions of the work of the field lesson 
 are to be required from each pupil. These lessons or reproductions 
 may be either oral or written, or both. 
 
 The time and thought taken for a few field lessens a year does 
 not detract from the quality of work possible in the fundamental les- 
 sons of the school course, and brings rich returns in a larger knowl- 
 edge and better appreciation of natural life. 
 
 It is well to remember that physical geography is always more 
 interesting to the child than either local or political geography and 
 should precede it, for by giving the child what he likes best we are 
 working along the line of least resistance and will secure better re- 
 sults with less effort. 
 
 It is possible to classify the topics of home geography under a 
 few large heads, like, soil, hills, mountains, valleys, drainage, rain- 
 
50 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 fall, etc., and to take up the details of each group in succession, show- 
 ing the illustrations of each in the immediate environment. It does 
 not seem wise to do this for several reasons. In the first place class- 
 ification should not be introduced in the beginning, but rather de- 
 veloped as the work progresses. Another reason for not so arrang- 
 ing the topics is that it tends to take away from the subject its dis- 
 tinct personal flavor. We want our geography to be HOME geography 
 in fact as well as in name. In a school course, therefore, those top- 
 ics should be first introduced that influence most directly the largest 
 number of pupils in their out-of-school life. Out of school is associ- 
 ated with play and has already given the pupil many experiences that 
 can be used to good advantage. The school-room or school-yard may 
 be a fine field for geographical topics but it does not follow that 
 these are the only fields of introduction to the subject. 
 
 Every locality has its own peculiar home geography by which the 
 individual teacher must be guided. On the prairies of Nebraska or 
 the plains of Dakota soil is, perhaps, the leading topic for considera- 
 tion, especially in the country districts. This, however, does not hold 
 true in all localities. 
 
 The object of this work is to make it as personal as possible so 
 that each child may contribute his share of experience to the general 
 fund. With such a beginning it is easy to lead out to the conditions 
 of the vicinity and the home. The necessity for food, clothing, fuel, 
 lights, water, transportation, communication, streets, sewers, etc., are 
 all topics to be considered at this stage of the work. 
 
 When the more important home features influencing the life of 
 the children have been brought out and related, enlarge the field of 
 the subject radially until the whole world is sketched in its rela- 
 tion to the individual pupil. 
 
 By means of imaginary journeys the most important points in 
 the home county are visited and the occupations, productions, surface 
 and climate noted and compared with like conditions at home. The 
 means of communication and traveling are discussed, particularly 
 the uses and importance of roads, railroads, navigable rivers, oceans, 
 bays, harbors, lighthouses, the telephone, the telegraph, and the post- 
 offices, with occasional reference to the conditions that have deter- 
 mined the paths of the railroads, the position of lighthouses, the lo- 
 cation of harbors, etc. 
 
 While studying local geography the pupil is incidentally intro- 
 duced to relative and exact distance and direction. He learns to dis- 
 tinguish between a picture and a plan or map, hence is ready to work 
 intelligently on regions that are distant and strange. 
 
 The needs of the child and their fulfillment suggest the means 
 for carrying on this branch of the work. He is easily led from him- 
 self to a study of the agents needed to supply his wants. It is not a 
 long step for him to go from the food he eats to the farmer who 
 helps to provide it, or to the means employed in its transfer from the 
 
GEOGRAPHY THIRD GRADE. 51 
 
 farm to the home. Nor is it hard for him to combine the thought of 
 the busy miner toiling in the dark earth with that of his own warmth 
 and comfort. , 
 
 Through this work he realizes something of the great amount of 
 labor necessary to supply the needs of daily life and also some of 
 the physical conditions which determine this labor. He sees his de- 
 pendence upon others and the need of doing his share of the world's 
 work. He is gaining more than simply a superficial knowledge of 
 commercial and physical geography for his interests are broadened 
 and his sympathies deepened. 
 
 In passing from the home outward, those commodities in most 
 common use are dealt with first. As each commodity is considered 
 the people and lands that produce it are studied. No part of the 
 work in geography is so full of interest to the ordinary child as the 
 people of the world, how they dress, what they eat, how they live, 
 their manners, customs, productions and means of transportation. 
 These are live subjects. Children are much more eager to know how 
 John Chinaman lives when at home than to know where the Chinese 
 Empire is located. The condition of climate, surface, soil, transporta- 
 tion and labor that makes the commodity a possible product is thus 
 an objective point. In this way a casual study is made of the life 
 and of the varying conditions of the world. Casual geography may 
 be made very attractive to the children and by emphasizing it we 
 lay a broad foundation for future work. 
 
 THIRD GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 Surface features in immediate vicinity of school. 
 
 Study of atmospheric conditions through daily weather observations 
 and records. 
 
 Direction: (1) Relative, as "toward," "right hand," "left hand," 
 etc. (2) Exact, as how the sun shows direction; how the compass 
 shows direction; observation of the positions of the North Star 
 and the Big Dipper. 
 
 Distance: Necessity for standard of distance shown from use of 
 relative distance as expressed by "near to," "far from," etc. 
 These terms are too indefinite. An exact unit must be taken first 
 as the standard. Teach the mile as a unit, and from this start- 
 ing develop an appreciation of distances. Develop accurate ideas 
 of a minute, a ten minute period, half an hour, an hour, as units 
 of thought. Use these units of time as means of developing the 
 larger units of distance such as ten miles, twenty miles, etc. 
 Easy distances measured in paces and feet. 
 
 Plan of school room, school yard and of that part of the city or 
 country adjacent. 
 
 Natural phenomena: Rain, snow and hail; steam, mist, fog; clouds 
 form and work; dew where, when; frost; springs where, 
 why; rivers and brooks; wine? and its work. 
 
52 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Local Geography: Industries of home region as determined by its 
 surface, soil, climate, waterways and railroads. 
 
 Imaginary journeys to important points in home county, studying 
 each by comparing with home region as to similarities and differ- 
 ences. 
 Model and draw up map of county. Make progressive map while 
 
 conducting class through county. 
 
 THIRD GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Child life in other lands: 
 
 Our homes some other homes. Our clothing and food the 
 
 clothing and food of other children. 
 Our amusements other children's amusements. 
 Our schools the schools of other children. 
 Roads, paths and streets. 
 How we travel how our forefathers traveled how other people 
 
 travel. 
 
 FOURTH GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 The world as a whole: 
 
 Location of hot, cold and temperate parts of the world. 
 
 Land and water* in cold part. 
 
 Follow same order in teaching hot and temperate parts of the 
 
 world. 
 
 Position and form of Western Continent. 
 Position and form of Eastern Continent. 
 Position and form of each of the six grand divisions. 
 Map reading and making. To include progressive maps; relief, 
 
 temperatue, rainfall, production, population and transportation 
 
 maps. 
 
 Comparison of Western and Eastern Continents. 
 The great oceans. The inhabitants, of the sea. 
 
 FOURTH GRADE SECOND SEMISTER. 
 Local Geography: 
 
 Teach State of Washington as a whole showing relief, drainage, 
 
 etc. 
 Review work of third grade on home county, and teach the 
 
 counties of the state in detail. 
 
 Soil : How made ; work of water on soil ; brooks and soil ; germin- 
 ation. 
 
 NOTE. Work on soil and germination to be carried on experi- 
 mentally, by means of specimens, window boxes and school gardens. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 A general study of North America: 
 
 1. Location as to land masses. 
 
 2. Latitude and longitude. 
 
 3. Topographical study, with drawing of relief maps, or model- 
 
 in sand, clay or putty. 
 
GEOGRAPHY SIXTH GRADE. 53 
 
 Study of United States as a whole: 
 
 1. Location, form, size, indentions, projections, surface, climate, 
 
 productions, industries, transportation, cities, government. 
 
 During this study constant map drawing: (1) Relief maps 
 
 in black and white (2) product maps in color. 
 
 Study of United States in sections, with map making : Relief, product. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 United States dependencies: 
 
 Alaska. Porto Rico. Philippines. Hawaiian Islands. 
 A general study of South America, Europe, Asia, etc. 
 
 To be studied as above, with map making, to show surface, pro- 
 ductions, etc. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 Globe lessons: 
 
 Form and size of earth. 
 
 Motions: (1) Daily and results, (2) yearly' and results. 
 
 NOTE. Use lamp and globe in teaching earth's motions and 
 change of seasons; teach ellipse; foci of ellipse, meaning of de- 
 gree; zones; prime meridian and equator as base lines for meas- 
 urement of latitude and longitude. 
 Physiography : 
 
 1. Forms of land as shaped by work of atmosphere and water. 
 
 Mountains; valleys, young and old; plains, plateaus, soils, 
 divides, river basins. 
 
 2. The atmosphere. 
 
 Composition : Showing by experiment at least carbon diox- 
 ide, oxygen, water vapor. Develop properties of CO 2 
 and O. 
 
 Primary cause of winds by experiment (show rise of heated 
 air). 
 
 Study of .great wind systems of world. 
 
 Belt of calms, trade winds, prevailing westerlies. 
 
 NOTE. These are well shown in Physical Geography. 
 This study of the wind systems is fundamental to 
 the study .of climate.' If possible, study United States 
 weather maps. 
 
 Monsoons, ocean currents, climate of land as affected by 
 prevailing winds and nearness to water. 
 
 3. Distribution of plants, animals; races of men; kinds of gov- 
 
 ernment, religion; occupations of man. 
 North Ameria and detailed study of the United States. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 South America: 
 
 Location, extent, coastal features. 
 
 Physical features : Study and drawing of rapid relief maps. 
 Climate, productions; people, occupations. 
 
 Countries in detail, emphasizing more important, as Brazil, Ar- 
 gentine Republic, Chili. 
 
54 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Eurasia as a whole: 
 
 Position on globe, form, size, coast features, physical features 
 (emphasizing) : (1) Continuous great northern plain extend- 
 ing from Atlantic to Pacific and constituting Russian Em- 
 pire. (2) Great central highland, also extending from At- 
 lantic to Pacific). 
 Europe : 
 
 General idea of, from map reading: (1) Comparative size, re- 
 markable coast line. (2) Relief: Great lowland plain, high- 
 lands of Scandinavia and United Kingdom, Alps, Iberian pen- 
 insula, Italy, Carpathian region, Balkan peninsula, Caucasus 
 and Ural regions, plains of Hungary and the Po river. 
 
 Climate as affected by prevailing westerlies and ocean. 
 Europe in detail: 
 
 Teach countries in order given in text used, placing most empha- 
 sis upon British Isles, German Empire, France, and others 
 with which we are most vitally concerned. Teach Russia as 
 including Siberia, making a special point of Trans-Siberian 
 Railroad and its bearing on commerce. 
 
 NOTE. It seems logical to take up some discussion of the 
 foreign possessions of each country with the study of that 
 country. 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 Asia: 
 
 Situation relative to great Eurasian plain and highland. 
 Coast line; projections and indentations, adjacent islands. 
 Relief, with map work. 
 Climate: Especially monsoons of India, central deserts, extreme 
 
 temperatures of northern part. 
 Countries of Asia in detail. 
 
 Place most emphasis upon China, India and Ceylon, Japan, Ma- 
 lay Archipelago. 
 Africa : 
 
 On account of the undeveloped condition of this grand division, 
 
 it is best to teach it in its physical and commercial aspects. 
 Division as a whole. 
 
 Situation on globe, relief (emphasizing great river valleys), 
 
 coast, climate. 
 
 Northern, central, southern Africa (emphasizing Nile valley, Sa- 
 hara) . 
 
 Adjacent islands. 
 Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, Pacific Islands. 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 Comparative Geography: 
 
 Review and intensive study of State of Washington. 
 Relief, with map making. 
 
GEOGRAPHY SEVENTH GRADE. 55 
 
 Noting six divisions: Olympics, Sound Basin, Cascades, 
 Okanogan Highlands (region north of Columbia and 
 Spokane rivers), great lava plain, Blue Mountains. 
 Rivers and river valleys. 
 
 Climate: Contrasting that each side of Cascades. 
 Products: Making of maps embodying these. 
 Irrigated valleys and projects. 
 
 NOTE. Much valuable information on these subjects is to 
 
 be found in the first volume of the State Geological Survey. 
 
 Transportation: Commodities locally shipped; commodities 
 
 exported from state. 
 
 Dwell upon advantageous location of state for transpacific 
 
 and Alaska trade. 
 Important state railroad lines. 
 
 Counties, leading cities, state, institutions, government. 
 Review of United States in comparison with other countries. 
 
 Knowledge of the geographical features, natural resources and 
 development of our own country should be definite and broad. This 
 work should be something more than a mere review of the subject 
 as previously taken up. The pupil's knowledge of the country's his- 
 toray, together with his more matiired powers of observation, should 
 make the work more of a study of cause and effect and give results 
 in breadth of understanding, which could not be attained in the lower 
 grade work. The study of the continent should be introduced by a 
 discussion of the historical events that led to its discovery, settle- 
 ment, development and division into countries as we now find it. Its 
 geography physical and political should be carefully reviewed, 
 placing stress upon features that constitute important causes in its 
 development; such as navigable streams, harbors, mineral deposits, 
 climate, etc. 
 
56 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 HISTORY. 
 
 The question of instruction in history in the grades below the 
 high school is one that concerns the present condition of such instruc- 
 tion and also of an ideal condition towards which it, is possible to work. 
 
 About one-half of the states have a uniform course in history. 
 Those states that have a uniform course and are required to follow 
 it are among the most advanced in public education. 
 
 The formative influence of classic literature and good reading 
 upon young people is generally admitted. The reading of choice 
 books by boys and girls is an indication of intellectual and moral pro- 
 gress. Such a taste once formed is a great aid in the subsequent 
 work of education. But where does this taste begin and how may it 
 be fostered? The schools of today are not in the habit of meeting, 
 or do not generally attempt to meet, this problem until the children 
 are verging into manhood and womanhood, that is, until the seventh 
 and eighth grades. 
 
 What of the years from six to fourteen in which the great ma- 
 jority of the children get their whole school training? If there are 
 choice tales, myths, stories and histories, which have the power to 
 impress youthful fancy and feeling, let the early years reap the full 
 benefit. The school knows best how to open the door and lead the 
 children in; or at least it should be the pride of teachers to fit them- 
 selves for this duty. What books to select and how to best present the 
 stories to children can be better judged by thoughtful educators than 
 by parents. 
 
 The makers of our programmes have encouraged the public to 
 believe that the history of the United States is the only history worth 
 studying, in that it is, as a rule, the only history prescribed. It is 
 studied in the seventh grade from 1492 to 1789, and in the eighth 
 grade from 1789 to the present. This course gives but a warped, 
 narrow, corcumscribed view of history. It is history detached from 
 its natural foundation European history; it is history suspended in 
 mid-air; it is history that has no natural beginning. 
 
 It is indeed difficult to decide where the history of America should 
 begin. If with the period of discovery and exploration, then it is in 
 reality European history; if with the period of colonization, then it 
 is rather English history; if with the adoption of the Constitution, 
 then it is the history of a youth after he has attained his majority, 
 but whose past is in oblivion. If the instruction in history in France 
 and Germany is confessedly superior to that given in other countries, 
 it is in no small part due to the breadth of view gained through the 
 careful study of the history of other nations. The social unit, the 
 political unit, and the ecclesiastical unit, is constantly enlarging, and 
 the educational curriculum must widen its boundaries if it is to keep 
 pace with the evolution in other directions. 
 
HISTORY FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. 57 
 
 Any study of American history must be worse than barren that 
 demands the memorizing of a text-book, and leaves a boy in ignorance 
 as to what are the fundamental facts in American history ; that in- 
 sists upon detailed information in regard to the campaigns of the 
 Revolutionary War, but gives no notion of personal responsibility 
 to the government established through that war. 
 
 The history of the United States is usually studied during the 
 last two years of the grammar grade, when the boy or girl is from 
 twelve to fourteen years old. This means that valuable time has 
 been lost, for long before this age the interest of the child should 
 have been awakened and held by the pictures of the past. In many 
 instances the study of history is not correlated with either geography 
 or literature. Text-books are used many times without collateral 
 reading. 
 
 No criticism of existing methods is justified unless it carries with 
 it a recommendation of changes that will possibly bring improve- 
 ment. The following course is modeled after courses in some of the 
 best American schools, and in its preparation a careful study of the 
 programmes of work in history in the schools of England, France, 
 and Germany was also made. It is believed that the following scheme 
 of work in history can not only be justified by appeal to educational 
 theory, but that it can also be defended as practical, inasmuch as it 
 already carried out either wholly or in part in many schools. 
 
 FIRST AND SECOND GRADES. 
 
 FOLK-LORE AND FAIRY TALES. 
 
 Young children in the first grade are in the story loving period^ 
 and are delighted with stories. Stories should always employ ideals 
 ideals of courage, strength, wisdom, patience, generosity, unsel- 
 fishness, and kindness. Children imitate what they admire, and thus 
 an ideal becomes an unconscious influence upon character. Ideals are 
 the end as well as the center and source of our living. All the other 
 powers are but means by which we seek to realize our ideals in our 
 lives. 
 
 The plan for the first four years implies that the object is to 
 arouse interest; the method used is to be wholly the oral one; the 
 stories are to be united with lessons given in language and in geo- 
 graphy; the selections of myths and stories are to give universal 
 rather than particular notions; and the teacher is to have a suffici- 
 ent acquaintance with history and literature to be able to decide wise- 
 ly concerning the selections to be made. The following suggestions 
 have proved helpful in story telling: 
 
 1. Know the story. Read many books for the fullest possible 
 information. You must see all that there is in it if you are to lead 
 the pupil to see it. 
 
 2. Feel the story. You must jrst be touched by the story before 
 you can touch your pupil with it. Dr. W. L. Hervey, in his "Picture 
 
58 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Work" says: "The secret of story telling lies not in analyzing pro- 
 cesses, not even in imitating good models, though these are all neces- 
 sary, but first of all in being full full of the story, the picture, the 
 children, and then in being morally and spiritually up to concert 
 pitch, which is the true source of power in everything. From these 
 come spontaneity; what is within, must come out; the story tells 
 itself, and of your fullness the children all receive." 
 
 3. Shorten it, by cutting out details which do not intensify the 
 pictures. Brevity is the soul of story-telling. 
 
 4. Expand it, by giving a background of such details as are 
 necessary for a clear conception. 
 
 5. Repeat it, and have pupils repeat it. A good story is always 
 worth repeating. 
 
 LIST OF FAIRY TALES. 
 
 1. "The Old Woman and Her Pig" Scudder's Book of Folk 
 
 Stories. 
 
 2. "Little Red Riding-Hood" Grimm. 
 
 3. "The Anxious Leaf" Beeker's Norwood. 
 
 4. "The Three Bears" Scudder's Book of Folk Stories. 
 
 5. "The Lion and the Mouse" Aesop. 
 
 6. "Cinderella" Grimm. 
 
 7. "The Fir-Tree" Andersen. 
 
 8. "The Four Musicians" Grimm. 
 
 9. "The Straw, the Coal of Fire, and the Bean" Grimm. 
 
 10. "The Ugly Duckling" Andersen. 
 
 Many other stories may be selected from the following books: 
 Grimm's Fairy Tales. 
 Andersen's Fairy Tales. 
 Lang's Blue Fairy Tales. 
 Lang's Green Fairy Tales. 
 
 THIRD GRADE. 
 
 In this grade it is hoped that a few classical myths which belong 
 to the literature of Europe will be brought vividly before the chil- 
 dren. Two or three recitations a week may be set apart for the oral 
 treatment of classical myths. Are these simple charming stories 
 which have been sifted out of the early Grecian literature too difficult 
 for children from nine to ten years old? 
 
 Charles Kingsley in preparing the Greek myths for his children 
 wrote: "How I love those old Hellens they seem to me like broth- 
 ers. They are come to tell you some of their old fairy tales, which 
 they loved when they were young like you." Herbart, the philoso- 
 pher, looked upon the poems of Homer as giving ideal expression to 
 the boyhood of the race, and the story of Ulysses was regarded by 
 him as the boy's book. For the child of eight and nine years he 
 thought it the most suitable story. Hawthorne says of himself: "The 
 author has long been of the opinion that many of the classical myths 
 were capable of being rendered into very capital reading for chil- 
 dren. No epoch of time can claim a copyright on these immortal 
 
HISTORY FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADES. 59 
 
 fables. They seem never to have been made, and so long as man 
 exists they never can perish." 
 
 The astonishing brightness of fanciful episode and of pure and 
 clear-cut imagery has an indestructible charm for childern. They 
 soar into and above the clouds on the shining wings of Pegasus. 
 With Eolus they shut up the contrary winds in an ox-hide and later 
 let them out to plague Ulysses. In one form or another they intro- 
 duce us to heroes, at least to great and simple characters. These 
 myths bring children into lively contact with European history and 
 geography. The early history of Europe is in all cases shrouded in 
 mist and legend. 
 
 In order to present these myths in an acceptable manner, the 
 teacher must steep himself fully in literature of this class, and bring 
 her mind into familiar acquaintance and sympathy with its char- 
 acters. It is well to mingle oral narrative and description on the part 
 of the teacher with the fit reading of choice parts so as to better pre- 
 serve the classic beauty and suggestion of the author. A simple 
 reading of these stories for the entertainment of the children is not 
 enough. It should take the form of a school exercise, requiring not 
 only interest and attention, but vigorous effort to grasp and repro- 
 duce the thought. The result should be a livelier and deeper insight 
 into the story than would be secured by a simple reading for amuse- 
 ment. All that is expected is that this paradise of children may be 
 entered and a few of its choicest flowers plucked; and that a desire 
 may be created in the child to return again and again. 
 
 BOOKS FOR THIRD GRADE. 
 
 1. "Adventures of Ulysses," by Lamb Ginn & Co., price 35c. It 
 contains the chief episodes of the career of Ulysses. 
 
 2. "The Wonder Book of Nathaniel Hawthorne" Houghton, 
 Miiflin & Co., price 40c. It contains among others: The Gorgon's 
 Head, The Golden Touch, the Three Golden Apples. 
 
 3. "Kingsley's Greek Heroes" Ginn & Co. It contains the stor- 
 ies of Perseus, The Argonauts, Theseus and others. 
 
 4. "Jason's Quest," by Lowell. The Argonauts with many other 
 Greek myths woven into narrative. 
 
 5. "Stories of the Old World," by Church Ginn & Co., price 
 50c. Stories of the Argo, of Thebes, of Troy, of Ulysses, and of 
 Aeneas. 
 
 6. "Stories of Indian Children," by Mary Hall Husted Public 
 School Publishing Co., price 50c. Contains Indian myths in the 
 child's language. 
 
 Many other books might be mentioned. 
 
 FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADES. 
 
 The time given to history in the fourth grade may be limited to 
 two hours per week, and the method oral presentation. The entire 
 field of history should be covered in the form of biography. The fol- 
 lowing list of names are suggested, not as a final selection to be 
 rigorously adopted, but as indicating one way of arousing interest 
 
60 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 and of conveying historical information at the age when ideas of 
 time and place relations are only imperfectly developed, but when 
 interest in individuals is keen and active. The list may be entirely 
 changed, but the principle still remains: 
 
 GREECE Lycurgis, Solon, Darius, Leonidas, Socrates, Demosthe- 
 nes, Plutarch. 
 
 ROME Romulus, Cincinnatus, Regulus, Hannibal, Caeesar, Agri- 
 cola. 
 
 GERMANY Alaric, Gutenberg, Charles V., Luther, Bismarck. 
 
 FRANCE Clovis, Charlemange, Louis IX., Joan of Arc, Riche- 
 lieu, Napoleon/ 
 
 ENGLAND Arthur, Alfred, William I., Elizabeth, Raleigh,, Crom- 
 well, Pitt, Clive, Nelson, Gladstone. 
 
 SOUTHERN EUROPE Mohammed, Loyola, Isabella, Columbus, 
 Michel Angelo, Garibaldi. 
 
 NORTHERN EUROPE Robert Bruce, Henry Hudson, Eric the Red, 
 Adolphus, Kossuth. 
 
 AMERICA John Smith, Wm. Penn, La Salle, Patrick Henry, Boone, 
 George Rogers, Clark, Franklin, Lincoln, Washington, Lee, Fremont. 
 
 For splendid and helpful suggestions on the method or oral pre- 
 sentation see "Special Methods in History," by McMurry. 
 
 In the fifth grade use the adopted book. 
 
 BOOKS FOR FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADES.. 
 
 "Heroes o'f History," by Ida Prentice Whitcomb Maynard, Mer- 
 rill & Co. This is a splendid volume containing about seventy biog- 
 raphies. 
 
 "King Arthur and His Knights," by Maude L .Radford. Published 
 by Rand, McNally & Co. 
 
 "Famous Men of Greece," "Famous Men of Rome," and "Famous 
 Men of the Middle Ages," by Haaren and Poland. Published by the 
 University Publishing Co., price 50c each. 
 
 These books have been prepared to meet the requirements of 
 both the "Committee of Ten" and the "Committee of Fifteen." Each 
 book contains some thirty biographies written in as simple and as 
 interesting a manner as can be found anywhere. A few sets should 
 be in every school. These books should be read by or to the pupils. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE. 
 
 In the sixth grade use the adopted book, doing the work as out- 
 lined therein. In those districts in which a text in English history 
 has been adopted it is recommended that the following outline be 
 followed : 
 
 ENGLISH HISTORY. 
 
 On first thought the outline which follows on English history 
 may seem rather heavy, but it is given as a guide for the teacher as 
 to the general scope and nature of the work. A careful reading and 
 study by the pupil of some good English history, will be ample for 
 
HISTORY SIXTH GRADE. 61 
 
 the work on English history. This work in English history is an 
 invaluable preparation to the study of American history. 
 
 (1) Roman, Britain and Saxon England (55 B. C.-1066 A. D.) 
 Conquests: Roman, Saxon, Danish, and Norman. The chief 
 
 characters: King Arthur, Alfred the Great, and Canute. 
 
 (2) England under the Normans and Plantagenets (1066-1485). 
 The following wars and battles led to territorial expansion of 
 
 England, or set forth the warlike and aggressive spirit of the people: 
 The War with Wales, the Scotch Wars, Bannockburn, Falkirk, The 
 Hundred- Year War, Crecy, Poitiers, Agineourt, The War of the 
 Roses, Towton and Bosworth, the Crusades with causes and results. 
 The following characters are intimately associated with its his- 
 tory of this period: William the Conqueror, Gregory VII., Henry 
 II., Thomas A'Becket, Richard the Lion Heart, Edward I., Edward 
 III., Edward the Black Prince, Wallace, Bruce, Joan of Arc, Chaucer, 
 and Caxton. 
 
 (3) England under the Tudors (1485-1603). 
 
 During this period England touches America, and also comes in 
 vital contact with the continent. The exploits of the following are 
 to be studied: The Cabots, Raleigh, Drake, and Frobisher. This 
 also is the period of the Revival of Learning and of the Protestant 
 Reformation. Instrumental in bringing about these changes Were 
 Colet, Erasmus, More, Luther, Henry VIII., Wolsey, Edward VI., 
 and Elizabeth. The following names stand for the literary develop- 
 ment of the latter part of this period: Spenser, Shakespeare, and 
 Bacon. 
 
 (4) The House of Stuart (1603-1649). 
 
 This period marks the beginning of the colonial and commercial 
 expansion of England in both the New and the Old World. The 
 East India Company, and the struggle with Spain and Holland for 
 an East Indian Empire; the formation of the London and Plymouth 
 Companies with settlements in the New World; the great Puritan 
 migration, with settlements on the New England coast, are here im- 
 portant. The Stuarts' doctrine of divine right precipitated the strug- 
 gle between King and people, the chief events of which were the 
 granting of the Petition of Right (1628), the execution in church and 
 state of the principle of "Thorough," the Puritan exodus, and the 
 Civil War of the Long Parliament. Names intimately associated with 
 that period are Cromwell, Hampden, Winthrop, Carver, Laud, James 
 I., and Charles I. 
 
 (5) Period of the Commonwealth and Protectorate (1649-1660). 
 The struggle between the King and Parliament ended in the su- 
 premacy of Parliament and the execution of the King. The wars of 
 the period were with Ireland, Scotland, and Holland. 
 
 (6) England under the restored Stuarts (1660-1688). 
 
 England extended her control in the New World. Proprietary 
 grants of the Carolinas, New York, and Pennsylvania were made by 
 
62 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 the Crown. War with Holland resulted in che capture of New Amster- 
 dam. Close relations were established with the King of France by 
 the secret treaty of Dover. Adherence to the doctrine of divine right 
 cost James II. his throne in the revolution of 1688. 
 
 (7) The Orange-Stuart period (1688-1714). 
 
 England was closely connected with the continent. The War of 
 the Palatinate, called King William's War in America, closing by the 
 treaty of Ryswick; and the War of the Spanish Succession, called 
 Queen Anne's War in America, closing by the treaty of Utrecht, were 
 waged to preserve the balance of power. A closer union with Scot- 
 land was made by uniting the legislature (1707). 
 
 (8) England under the Hanoverians (1764). 
 
 The Act of Succession established the new dynasty. The prin- 
 cipal wars of this period were waged to extend or to defend England's 
 colonial empire, or her commercial power. The Seven Years' War, 
 or French and Indian War, was a contest for empire in both the 
 New and the Old World; the Boer War was a contest for empire in 
 Africa. In the American Revolution, England lost the major part 
 of her possessions in the New World. Fundamentally the Napoleonic 
 War was commercial on the part of England. The Crimean War 
 was waged to preserve the balance of power in Europe. Points of 
 especial importance are Berlin and Milan decrees; Sepoy Rebellion; 
 Monroe Doctrine; War of 1812 with America; abolition of slavery; 
 the Trent affair; Alabama Claims. The chief names of this period 
 are Walpole, Hastings, Clive, Wellington, Peel, Cobden, William Pitt 
 the younger and elder, Disraeli and Gladstone. Important dates are 
 1660, 1688, 1689, 1707, 1800, 1815. 
 
 SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES. 
 
 HISTORY AND CIVICS. 
 
 U. S. history as outlined in text adopted. 
 
CIVICS FIFTH GRADE. 63 
 
 CIVICS. 
 
 It is generally conceded that the fundamental purpose of the pub- 
 lic schools is training pupils for good citizenship. This does not 
 mean a study of the mere machinery of government; every political 
 boss or ward heeler is familiar with the machinery of government. 
 The training that is desirable is such as will lead to a greater love 
 for one's country, consideration for the rights of others, respect for 
 law because it is law; appreciation of the benefits of organized soci- 
 ety and good government. 
 
 No text-book is necessary for the competent teacher. Civics should 
 not be taught as a separate branch below the High School. Geo- 
 graphy, history, current events, the reading lesson furnish ample op- 
 portunity for instruction in civics. The following suggestive para- 
 graph is taken from the Maryland Course of Study: 
 
 ''For those who are afraid to undertake this idea of teaching 
 civics from history, from life in and about the school-room, and from 
 public events the convening of Congress, the passage of bills, the' 
 election of public officers, the reception of a German Prince as re- 
 corded from day to day in the press, the text-book especially prepared 
 for this work is indispensible. To those who can follow the plan as 
 herein outlined, such a book is most excellent for reference; but, as 
 in every other subject, the prime requisite is the teacher. Given all 
 the books and a dead book-enforcer, and you get little; given no books 
 and a live, sympathetic, intelligent co-worker, and you will get life 
 and living. He must, in this respect, be human, intensely human; 
 must know that there are many things the child doesn't know, and 
 some that he does ; know, and keep remembering, there are many things 
 he didn't know when he was a child; know, and not forget, there are 
 some, perhaps many, things he doesn't know even now; know there 
 is a difference between understanding and knowing; know that, in 
 days gone by, there were people and countries and constitutions, and 
 that in all of these ways are we but the outgrowth of the past; know 
 that, where our constitution touches the life of the individual, it is 
 easily appreciated, and that a penny or a canceled postage stamp 
 can do more to arouse interest on the part of the child in the power 
 of Congress than a dozen explanatory pages; know that, as the 
 power of the State as embraced within its constitution, cannot in- 
 terfere with the powers of the United States, so the principles upon 
 which the constitution of the latter is founded, must be within the 
 bounds of the "Higher Law" the divine law of justice and right. 
 And, knowing all this, be just human enough to make the child want 
 to know it through him, and god-like enough to make the child love and 
 respect him as well as his knowledge." 
 
 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 Pupils use note books in this and succeeding grades. The ability 
 to use a note book is invaluable to the student throughout his entire 
 school life. Definite results are thus obtained. Make a simple study 
 
64 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 of taxes what they are, how levied, how collected, for what purposes 
 they are spent. Get a tax receipt. Study the various items on same. 
 Get the pupils to make a list of things for which public money is ex- 
 pended. Why are these expenditures made? Note the divisions of 
 government as national, state, county, school district, road district. 
 Study the duties of school officers and other local officers. Investigate 
 the care of poor, insane, deaf, incorrigible, blind, feeble-minded. Ask 
 for names of persons holding district or county offices. Show that 
 every citizen owes certain duties to every other citizen and to his 
 
 country. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE. 
 
 Study the county officers, their duties, how chosen, terms of of- 
 fice, salaries, etc. A visit to the county court house or a description 
 of the county offices and county court will be interesting. Names 
 of the various officers. Study methods of nominations and elections. 
 What is meant by the Australian ballot, direct primaries, caucuses, 
 conventions, etc.? Grasp the essential difference between voluntary 
 organizations like clubs, lodges, churches, and the real government. 
 In connection with the geography of state, study the organization of 
 state government. What are the titles of the offices of executive de- 
 partments? How many members of the legislature? Duties of su- 
 preme and superior court judges? Location of educational institu- 
 tions? Parliamentary practice, rules of order, etc. 
 
 SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES. 
 
 Correlate civics with history. Study the town meeting in con- 
 nection with settlement of New England. Various kinds of colonial 
 government in connection with the several colonies. Study Declar- 
 ation of Independence in connection with events of that period; also 
 Articles of Confederation, Ordinance of 1787. Let the pupils study 
 the Constitution in connection with the Constitutional Convention 
 and the amendments as they were adopted. Why were these amend- 
 ments made? At opportune times, study such topics as the cabinet, 
 the spoils system, emancipation, internal improvements, the tariff, 
 election of President, veto, impeachment, treaties, coinage, declar- 
 ation of war, etc. Always refer to the provision of the constitu- 
 tion bearing upon these questions. Do not neglect a study of the 
 great social, industrial and political problems of the day. Systematic- 
 ally study current events. 
 
NUMBER AND ARITHMETIC FIRST GRADE. 65 
 
 NUMBER AND ARITHMETIC 
 
 GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. 
 
 Keep in mind the object of the work and the amount to be accom- 
 plished each half year. 
 
 Be sure the child has the idea of the number before you teach the 
 digit representing it. 
 
 The objective work is to give meaning to the process and should be 
 discarded as soon as it has served its purpose subject to being recalled. 
 
 If desirable, change the order of the outline. 
 
 Make all work intelligible to the pupil. 
 
 Use the equation whenever it serves a good purpose. 
 
 Have oral work throughout the entire course. 
 
 Strengthen weak points by timely, incidental if practicable, reviews. 
 
 Introduce the reason for each process as fast as the advancement of 
 the class will justify. 
 
 In drill work 1st, accuracy; 2nd, speed. 
 
 In all written work, neatness and legibility. 
 
 Introduce new terms when needed, and tell that which the pupil 
 cannot find out for himself. 
 
 The development of arithmetic is effected through comparison and 
 measurements. Hence the first steps should be objective, and as much 
 as possible judgment inducing. This suggests preliminary work in 
 sense training. Sense training is a basis for all lines of study, but 
 certain phases of it seem peculiarly adapted to the introduction of 
 number work. 
 
 FIRST GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 By means of objects (splints, rectangles, triangles, cubes, spheres, 
 books, etc.,) make plain the meaning of such terms as, longer than, 
 shorter than, larger than, smaller than, broader than, narrower than, 
 heavier than, lighter than, thicker than, thinner than, as large as, ( equal 
 to ) as small as, as long as, as short as, as thick as, as thin as, as heavy as, 
 as light as. 
 
 Familiarize children with inch length, foot ruler, yard stick, meter, 
 square, rectangle, triangle, circle, cube, oblong, sphere, semi-circle, 
 hemi-sphere, by handling, noting and comparing. 
 
 Teach numbers to 10, additively and subtractively, first presenting 
 each as a whole, so that children must count ( analyze ) to ascertain the 
 number. 
 
 To illustrate, suppose the number to be presented is 3. The splints 
 may be placed upon one another in such a way as to have a oneness in 
 
 appearance, as / ^^^^ or they may be in a pile close together, 
 
 7 
 
 , or three books in a pile., or any objects of uniform size. 
 
 5 
 
66 
 
 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 The child then in answer to the question how many, separates them 
 with the eye or hand ( counts ) answers one, one and one, two and one, 
 or three, if he knows the number name. If not, give it. 
 
 Next test by asking children to show 3 objects, take three steps, hold 
 up the hand 3 times, count 3, show 3 fingers, make 3 marks, etc. 
 
 Now ask, 2 cubes and 1 cube are how many cubes? 2 boys and 1 boy? 
 1 marble, 1 marble and 1 marble? 1 ball and 2 balls? If a boy has 3 
 apples and gives 2 to his mother, how many has he left? If he has 3 
 pencils and gives 1 to his sister, how many has he left? Etc. 
 
 Using an inch length as a unit of measurement, have children 
 measure lengths not exceeding 12 inches. Using a two-inch length as a 
 unit measure, lengths of even inches to 20. Similarly, using 3, 4, 5 and 
 6-inch lengths as units, measure lengths that are multiples of these, 
 the quotient not exceeding 10. Also use the foot ruler, yard stick, and 
 meter in measuring lengths that are multiples of them. Use the pint 
 as a unit and measure the quart, the half gallon, and the gallon. Use 
 the penny and the nickle in making change to 10 cents. Teach the days 
 of the week and the seasons of the year. Count sides of triangles, 
 squares, and other polygons. Find perimeter of triangles and rect- 
 angles, the children measuring each side of the triangles and each side 
 of squares and regtangles, until they discover that the opposite sides 
 are equal, putting down the results and adding. 
 
 Teach these signs, +, , =, and read them plus, more or added to: 
 minus, less or take away; equal, as many as, until idea is grasped, then 
 use only terms in italics. 
 
 Do abstract work in addition in these two forms, 
 
 / 
 
 6+3 = : and 
 
 subtraction in these, 6 3 = 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 Do not combine addition and subtraction in written form, as 4 2+3= 
 Working with splints, have the children find in how many ways they 
 can make 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10, and write the ways as they are 
 worked out, as 1+1+1+1=4; 2+1+1=4; 2+2=4; 3+1=4, etc. 
 Perform similar operations in subtraction. 
 
 FIRST GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Teach the $ and review some work of first semester involving it. 
 Teach these signs: Xi -*- 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 With this device, using splints if prac- 
 ticable, teach these multiplicative and di- 
 visive facts: 
 
 (a] (d) (c) 
 
 1X2= 2 -T- 2 = i of 2 = 
 
 2X2= 4-^2 = | of 4 = 
 
 3X2= 6-^2= i of 6 = 
 
 4X2= 8 H- 2 = i of 8 = 
 
 5X2= 10 H- 2 = | of 10 -- 
 
NUMBER AND ARITHMETIC FIRST GRADE. 
 
 67 
 
 
 (d) 
 
 M 
 
 Develop the idea of i by means of 
 
 O . O 
 
 iof 3 = 
 
 rcular card board or paper, creasing, 
 
 5^-2 = 
 
 iof 5 = 
 
 itting or coloring, before teaching 
 
 7--2 = 
 
 |of 7 = 
 
 ), (d) and (<?). 
 
 Q , O 
 
 iof 9 = 
 
 
 III 
 
 With this device teach : 
 
 
 III 
 
 III 
 
 ( 
 
 
 (*) 
 
 
 HI 
 
 in 
 
 1 V 
 
 3 
 
 o . o 
 
 Ill 
 
 III 
 
 III 
 
 2X 
 
 3 = 
 
 6-3 = 
 
 
 
 
 3 V 
 
 3 
 
 9 3 
 
 III III 
 
 III 
 
 mi 4 > 
 
 3 = 
 
 
 Develop the idea af (suggestions concerning |), then teach: 
 
 i of 3 = of 9 = of 3 =- of 9 = 
 
 i of 6 = i of 12 = f of 6 = f of 12 = 
 
 With this device teach: 
 
 (a) (3) (c] 
 
 1X4= 4-^-4= i of 4 = 
 
 2X4= 8 -f- 4 = of 8 = 
 
 3X4= 12-^-4= i of 12 = 
 
 Illl 
 
 Illl 
 
 Develop the idea of 
 gestions for .) 
 
 before doing (c). ( Sug- 
 
 Compare numbers learned directly and inversely as follows: 
 
 2 is i of 4, and 4 is 2 times 2 2 is i of 6, and 6 is 3 times 2 
 
 3 is i of 6, and 6 is 2 times 3 2 is J of 8, and 8 is 4 times 2 
 
 4 is | of 8, and 8 is 2 times 4 3 is i of 9, and 9 is 3 times 3 
 
 3 is i of 12, and 12 is 4 times 3 
 
 Count and write numbers to 20 incidentally beyond, if desirable in 
 connection with paging. 
 
 Do the following additions: 
 
 H + U - 
 H + 5* = 
 !*.+ * = 
 
 2* + 6i = 
 3* + 8i = 
 
 4* + 4* = 
 
 H + 2| = 
 H + 6* = 
 
 2* + 6| = 
 3* + 4i = 
 
 H -1- 3* == 
 
 H + 7| = 
 2| + Si = 
 2| + 7i = 
 3* + 5* = 
 4i + 8* = 
 
 Repeat after dropping fraction from first number. 
 Do the following subtractions: 
 2* - li = 
 
 H - H = 
 
 3* - 2| = 
 71 - 2i = 
 
 5* - 4| = 
 
 9* 4i = 
 
 41 H = 
 8i - H = 
 
 5| - 21 = 
 91 - 2^ = 
 
 7i - 61 = 
 
 5* - H = 
 91 - H = 
 
 8* - 3* == 
 
 7i 4| = 
 7i - 51 = 
 8i - 6| = 
 9* 8| = 
 
68 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Do the same subtractions after dropping the fraction from the minu- 
 end and retaining it in the subtrahend; reverse the process by dropping 
 the fraction from the subtrahend and retaining it in the minuend. 
 
 Add 2 to all numbers of first order (number represented by 1 figure). 
 
 Drill upon these additions: 
 
 Add 3 to all numbers of first order. 
 
 Add 4 to all numbers to and including 8. 
 
 Add 5 to all numbers to and including 7. 
 
 Add 6 to all numbers to and including 6. 
 
 Add 7 to all numbers to and including 5. 
 
 Add 8 to all numbers to and including 4. 
 
 Add 9 to all numbers to and including 3. 
 
 SECOND GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 Write, read and analyze numbers to 500, doing enough development 
 to give a working idea of them. Analyze as follows: 234 = 2 hundreds^ 
 3 tens and 4 units, and is read two hundred thirty- four. 
 
 Add 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9 to all numbers provided the sum does not 
 exceed 100. Examples: 
 
 12 + 2 = ; 22 + 2 = ; 32 + 2 = ; 42 -f 2 = , etc 
 
 13 + 2 = ; 23 + 2 == ; 33 + 2 = ; 43 + 2 = , etc 
 Teach multiplication and division tables of 3's and 4's to 36 and 5's to 
 
 40, using device suggested for first year. 
 
 Count by 2's, 3's and 4's to 36; by 5's to 40. In counting by 2's begin 
 with 2 and then with 1, and count down from 36 and 35; by 3's begin with 
 
 3, 2 and 1 and count down from 36, 35 and 34; by 4's begin with 4, 3, 2 and 
 1 count down from 36, 35, 34 and 33; by 5's begin with 5, 4, 3, 2 and 1 and 
 count down from 40, 39, 38, 37 and 36. 
 
 Do direct and indirect comparisons between \ and 5 times, within 
 limits of tables learned, as 2 is \ of 10 and 10 is two times 5; 4 is i of 12 
 and 12 is three times 4, etc. 
 
 Explain prime factor, and find prime factors of all numbers under 20. 
 
 Drill on single column additions in form vertical and horizontal, 
 emphasis on numbers under 6, as 34-2-j-3-|-4-f-l= , etc. 
 
 Use 10-cent piece in connection with pieces used the first year in 
 making change to 25 cents. 
 
 Teach weeks in a month; months in a year; things in a half dozen, 
 and a dozen; inches in a foot; find perimeters of triangles, quadrilaterals 
 and other polygons, increasing lengths of sides to conform to new num- 
 bers learned; measure aisles, desks, blackboads, etc. 
 
 Find \ of all numbers to 25; \ and f of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, Is, 21 and 24; i of 
 
 4, 8, 12, 16, 20 and 24; \ of 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25. 
 
 Do much concrete work in problems made by teacher and some made 
 by pupils. 
 
 Do all needed review work. 
 
NUMBER AND ARITHMETIC THIRD GRADE. 69 
 
 SECOND GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 Write, read and analyze numbers to 1,000. 
 Do abstract and concrete additions and subtractions, without carry, 
 
 235 965 
 ing, sums and minuends not exceeding- 1,000, as 421 , 724 
 
 656 241 
 
 Count by 2's, 3's, 4's and 5's to 60 and down, observing former direc- 
 tions for beginning. 
 
 Do the multiplication and division tables through the 5's to 12 times, 
 using suggested device when necessary. 
 
 Teach prime factors of all composite numbers to 25, and make list of 
 prime numbers to 25. 
 
 Do much drill work in single column additions, in both horizontal 
 and vertical form, using all numbers expressed by one figure. 
 
 Do concrete work involving the pint, quart and gallon; the pound, 
 the i pound and the i pound; making change to 50 cents; time of day 
 by the clock, fixing first the hour of 12, then 1, then 4, then 9, then 
 other hours, then half hours, etc. (incidentally) ; dimensions of room; 
 perimeters of triangles, quadrilaterals and other polygons, the lengths 
 of sides conforming to numbers learned; comparisons of lines, triangles, 
 quadrilaterals, cubes, parallelepipeds and prisms. 
 
 Do much concrete work in applied problems, that come within their 
 comprehension. 
 
 Develop objectively f, f, f, and f ; show that f equal . 
 
 Compare numbers between | and 5 times, within limits of "tables 
 learned. 
 
 Teach | of all numbers to 60; and of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 27, 30, 
 33 and 36 ; i and f of 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 28, 32, 36, 40, 44 and 48; |, f , f 
 and f of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55 and 60. 
 
 Keep a record of the day of the week and date of the month. 
 
 Do such as 3X2 dimes + 2 cents = 6 dimes and 2 cents = 62 cents. 
 
 3X2 dimes -f- 2 nickels = 6 dimes and 2 nickels = 70 cents. 
 3X2 quarts -f 1 pint = 6 quarts and 1 pint = 13 pints. 
 3X2 weeks -f 3 days = 6 weeks and 3 days 45 days. 
 
 Vary multiplier. Review. 
 
 THIRD GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 Read, write and analyze numbers to 5,000. 
 
 Do addition and subtraction with carrying, sums and minuends not 
 exceeeding 5,000. 
 
 9 29 
 
 Children are familiar with_8^ then they readily see _8^ Call atten- 
 
 TT "37" 
 
 tion to the 1 ten of the sum of 9 and 8 being added to the 2 tens. Then 
 
 123 observe this form: Eight, ten, thirteen (write the 3 units and 
 
 462 count the 1 ten in ten's column); three, six, twelve, fourteen 
 
 (write the 4 tens); six, seven, eleven, twelve (write the 2 hun- 
 
 dreds and the 1 thousand. 
 
70 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 In subtraction proceed as follows: 
 
 523 33 23 13 Eight from 13 leaves 5, eight from 23 leaves 
 
 246 8 15^ eight from 33 leaves 25, etc., calling atten- 
 
 277 25 15 5 tion to the taking 1 ten with the units each 
 time. Then six from 13 leaves 7, four from 11 leaves 7 and two from 4 
 leaves 2. ( Other methods may be as good as this, but little children 
 should know but one.) 
 
 Count by 2's, 3's, 4's and 5's to 12 times; by 6's to 6 times; by 7's to 5 
 times; by 10's to 10 times; by 11 's to 9 times. 
 
 Even and odd numbers explained in connection with counting by 2's. 
 
 Multiplication and division tables in accord with the counting above. 
 
 Short division without carrying, as: 
 2)46^ 2)82^ 2)486, 3)693, 3)369, 4)48^ etc. 
 
 Do direct and inverse comparison within the limits of the tables 
 learned. 
 
 Squares to 36 and square roots of same. Q With paper or card 
 board squares, each edge of which is 1 inch (tell children such is called 
 a square inch, and the No. 1 called a square), have them find by placing 
 small squares together the next square ( 2 ? No; 3 ? No; 4 ? Yes). Four 
 small squares may be so arranged as to make a larger square. Can 5 
 small ones? 6? 7? 8? 9? etc. ( They may discover the law.) Concrete 
 work in making change to $5; in finding number of inch cubes in ob- 
 longs and cubes; the number of square feet in a square yard. 
 
 Develop the idea of |, } and | objectively, and do work in part taking. 
 
 Add halves, as: + fc + + f+ 1 = ! =4. 
 
 Also thirds, as $ + f + f + + f , etc. 
 
 Also fourths and fifths in a similar way. 
 
 Do corresponding work from text-book adopted, for drill application 
 and reinforcement. 
 
 THIRD GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Read, write and analyze numbers to 10,000. 
 
 Continue practice in addition and subtraction, sums and minuends 
 not exceeding 10,000. 
 
 Count by 2's, 3's, 4's to 12's, beginning with 1, 2, 3, 4 to 12. 
 
 Do multiplication and division tables through the 12's. Do multipli- 
 cation with carrying, using one-figure multiplier until the process is 
 learned, then 10, 11 and 12 as one-figure multiplier, then two figures, the 
 product not exceeding 10,000. 
 
 Do direct and inverse comparisons within the limits of tables and 
 fractional parts learned. 
 
 Find squares to 144 and corresponding square roots. Make list of 
 squares learned. 
 
 Concrete work in making change to $10; in comparing lines; in find- 
 ing perimeters of triangles and quadrilaterals, and comparing them; in 
 finding number posts necessary to build fence around lots, and number 
 of boards of stated lengths and number boards in height necessary to 
 
NUMBER AND ARITHMETIC FOURTH GRADE. 71 
 
 build same; vary the length of boards, with reference to number feet 
 posts are apart, and the number of boards in height; in finding- the 
 number of square inches in square feet; in work in linear measure and 
 avoirdupois weight. 
 
 Develop $, J$, -^ and T V, and corresponding part taken within limits 
 of tables. 
 
 Do 
 
 such as: 
 
 21 
 
 X2 
 
 31 
 
 X2 
 
 41 
 
 x 
 
 51 
 X2 
 
 61 
 X2 
 
 x|* 
 
 
 31 
 
 X3 
 
 41 
 X3 
 
 51 
 X3 
 
 61 
 
 X3 
 
 71 
 X3 
 
 81 
 X3 
 
 xf 
 
 
 2i 
 X4 
 
 8t 
 
 X4 
 
 X4 
 
 X4 
 
 61 
 
 X4 
 
 etc.; 
 
 
 
 X5 
 
 21 
 
 X5 
 
 X5 5 
 
 X5 5 
 
 X5 T 
 
 etc,; 
 
 
 
 X6 
 
 3? 
 X6 
 
 4 
 
 X6 
 
 X6 6 
 
 6i 
 
 X6 
 
 7i 
 X6 
 
 etc. 
 
 Also such as: 
 
 104- 
 
 o . 
 
 13^-3 = 
 
 ; 14 -r- 
 
 4= ; 
 
 16 -f- 5 = 
 
 21 -j- 4 = ; 25 -i- 6 = ; 29 -f- 6 = , etc. 
 
 Do much abstract drill work in the multiplication tables. These 
 tables should be known by the end of the third year. 
 
 Do corresponding work of text-book adopted. 
 
 FOURTH GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 Write, read and analyze numbers to 1,000,000. 
 
 Continue practice in concrete abstract additions and subtractions, 
 developing as much accuracy and speed as possible. 
 
 Do short division with carrying, using 2 as a divisor until the process 
 is grasped. Then use 5, 10, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 and 12 as divisors. This 
 work demands proficiency in the multiplication tables, hence whenever 
 necessary review and drill on tables. 
 
 Continue abstract and concrete work in multiplication, multiplier 
 not exceeding three figures. 
 
 Continue comparing numbers directly and inversely, and introduce 
 aliquot parts as follows: Multiply 224 by 5, and divide 2240 by 2. Com- 
 pare results. Which is easier? Five is 1 of 10, and 10 is 2 times 5. Use 
 this knowledge to multiply by 21 (21 is i of 10); by 31 (31 is 1 of 10); by 
 121 (121 is 1 of 100); by 25 (25 is i of 100); by 50 (50 is 1 of 100). 
 
 In connection with work in factoring, teach how to determine whether 
 a number is divisible by 2, 5 or 10 without a remainder. Have class 
 make a list of all prime numbers to 30. 
 
 Teach squares to 256 and square roots of same, extending list of 
 squares. 
 
 Do little business problems requiring the making of change, and 
 those involving loss and gain. Continue work of finding number posts 
 necessary to build fences around lots, and the number of boards, and 
 cost at so much a piece; also in finding number inch squares in rect- 
 
72 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 angles, and inch cubes in cubes and oblongs. Do practical problems in- 
 volving rents, and others of a local nature. Do corresponding work in 
 text-book adopted. 
 
 FOURTH GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Teach long division, using 13 as a divisor, and graded diviends, until 
 the process is learned, as: 13)156 13)169 13)273 13)286 etc. 
 When the process is learned, then use as divisors 21, 31, 41, 51, 61, 71, 81, 
 
 91; 22, 32, 92; 23, 33, 93; 14, 24, 34 94, etc. ( This is to 
 
 enable the pupil to gradually grow into making the proper allowance 
 for the unit figure of the divisor in estimating the quotient figure.) 
 
 Do not permit pupils to perform work by the long process with a di- 
 visor less than 13. 
 
 Find squares to 400 and corresponding square roots. 
 
 Have pupils extend their list of prime numbers to 50. 
 
 Teach how to determine whether a number is divisible by 3 without 
 a remainder. 
 
 Do simple problems in wood measurement and finding cost by the 
 cord. 
 
 Develop the idea of percentage, and apply it to little problems in in- 
 terest for 1, 2, 3 or 4 years. 
 
 Show a board foot to the class, have them measure it, and then find 
 number board feet in boards 1 foot wide and 1 inch thick and 8, 10, 12, 14, 
 16, 18 or 20 feet long; then boards 1 foot wide, 2 inches thick and same 
 lengths; then 6 inches wide, 2 inches thick and same lengths; then 6 
 inches wide, 1 inch thick and same lengths. Do practical problems per- 
 taining to local vocations. 
 
 Teach decimals to two places in addition and subtraction. 
 
 Do corresponding work in text adopted. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 Add halves and fourths, using circular card board or paper and show- 
 ing that to add halves and fourths the halves must be 
 made into fourths. Use same device for other frac- 
 tions. Then add halves and sixths; halves and eighths; 
 halves and tenths; halves and twelfths; thirds and 
 sixths; thirds and ninths; thirds and twelfths; fourths 
 and eighths; fourths and twefths; fifths and tenths; 
 sixths and twelfths. 
 
 Next add halves and thirds (both must now be changed into sixths); 
 halves and fifths; halves and sevenths; thirds and fourths; thirds and 
 fifths; fourths and fifths. Call the attention of the class to the differ- 
 ence of these two classes. 
 
 Next add fourths and sixths; sixths and eighths; sixths and ninths. 
 
 Next develop the idea of multiple, common multiple and least com- 
 mon multiple. It may be done as follows: 
 
 Three inches. 
 
 Two inches. 
 
NUMBER AND ARITHMETIC FIFTH GRADE. 73 
 
 What lengths can be measured by a two-inch line? A.ns. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 
 12, 14, 16 inches, etc. These lengths are called multiples of a two-inch 
 length. Now tell me some multiples of a three-inch length. Ans. 3, 6, 
 9, 12, 15, 18 inches, etc. Can you tell some lengths that are multiples of 
 both a two-inch and a three-inch length ? Ans. 6, 12, 18 inches, etc. 
 These lengths are called common multiples of 2 inches and 3 inches, 
 You see the shortest one of these lengths is 6 inches, and it is called the 
 least common multiple of 2 inches and 3 inches. 
 
 Drill on numbers under 20 (omitting largest prime numbers) until 
 class can readily find least common multiples, then again take up the 
 last group of fractions added and show the use of L. C. M. in that con- 
 nection. 
 
 Treat subtraction of fractions in a similar manner. 
 
 Reduce fractions to lower and higher terms (latter involved in find- 
 ing common denominator). 
 
 Involve these cases in business problems, thus increasing drill and 
 application, chiefly with mixed numbers. 
 
 Also do work with decimal fractions involving tenths, hundredths 
 and thousandths, abstractly and concretely. 
 
 Continue work in interest, making the time years and months. (Use 
 aliquot parts for finding interest for 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 9 months.) 
 
 Continue work in lumber measurement and include flooring 1x4 and 
 even lengths, and 2x4's. Teach bill making. Put it into practice in 
 connection with problems involving the selling of lumber, groceries, 
 hardware, implements, fruits, berries and farm products, etc. 
 
 Do corresponding work of adopted text. 
 
 FIFTH GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Teach multiplication of common fractions, illustrating the process 
 objectively, and using no denominator greater than 20. Also teach 
 multiplication of mixed numbers by mixed numbers, changing to 
 improper fractions. Drill in abstract numbers. Apply to local prob- 
 lems involving mixed numbers. 
 
 Teach division of common fractions. Suggestive method. 1-f-f =f-j- 
 |=3 thirds-i-2 thirds=f . Compare the form of the quotient with that 
 of the divisor. ]-7-f=-^-f=4-f-3=f. Compare quotient and divisor 
 again. By this process lead class to see that in order to divide 1 by a 
 fraction, it is necessary only to invert the terms of the divisor. Next 
 drill orally as follows: I-H$=? l-f-f=? l-*-|=? 1 -*-$=? 1-*-$=? etc. 
 
 The next step is natural and easy. Since j- is contained in 1 f times, 
 it is contained in 2, 2 times f times or 3 times; in 3, 3 times f times; in 
 f, f of f times; etc. 
 
 Now drill abstractly, and relate clearly multiplication and division 
 of fractions. 
 
 Apply Jto problems involving mixed numbers. 
 
 Teach multiplication and division of decimals using 3 decimal figures 
 and deducing rule for same from common form. 
 
 Make a drawing of a section of land; i section; I section; an 80; a 40. 
 
74 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Find the number of rods in perimeter of each, and cost of fencing at 
 local prices, using: rails, boards, poles or wire. Note the shape of the 
 different parts; find cost of each at so much per acre, using aliquot parts; 
 buy and sell, and calculate loss or gain; plant to crops (imagination), 
 cultivate, harvest, sell, calculating all expenses, and find loss or gain. 
 Given number of acres in a field and the length in rods, find the width 
 in rods. 
 
 Find area of triangles 
 by relating them to rect- 
 angles. 
 
 Review everything necessary, especially in bill-making. 
 Do corresponding work of text-book adopted. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 With the beginning of the grammar school book the pupils should 
 obtain a firmer grasp of all subjects, see more of the reason for the 
 processes, and grasp a little of the logic of the subject. A general 
 review is provided for in the following of the arrangement of most any 
 good text by beginning at the first. 
 
 Do all the work of the adopted text including the reading and writing 
 of numbers, by words, figures and letters, and the four fundamentals, 
 noting underlying principles in all processes and supplementing the 
 work of the book when needful. It is important that pupils learn to 
 formulate principles. It tends to make them clearer. 
 
 Drill upon valuable short cuts in multiplication and division. For 
 example, to multiply by 10 or some power of 10; by 12$; by 25; by 37$; by 
 50; by 62$; by 75; by 87$; by 125; by 16|; by 33$; by 66; by 83$; by 333$; 
 by 98, 99, 198, 199, 998, 999, etc., and the reversing of some of these 
 processes in division. 
 
 Teach the process of dividing by the factors of the divisor, using the 
 short division, and then finding the remainder from the partial 
 remainders. To illustrate: 46725-^-42(2X3X7) 
 2 ) 46725 
 
 3 ) 23362 1 1 Bring out clearly the two-fold 
 
 7 ) 7787 1 : 2 nature of division. ( Division and 
 
 H12. 3.... .18^ Partition.) 
 
 21 
 
 Teach G. C. D. by factoring ( if you prefer to use the Euclidian 
 method, also, do not attempt explanation.) Give in addition to the 
 questions in the book, if necessary, examples that will illustrate the 
 uses of the subject. ( Practice in factoring numbers, reducing large 
 fractions of the common form to lowest terms, and finding the L. C. M.) 
 Do L. C. M., going deeper into the subject than in former grade and 
 emphasizing its use. 
 
 Classify fractions from both the standpoint of form and of use. 
 Drill in all practical reductions. 
 
NUMBER AND ARITHMETIC SEVENTH GRADE. 75 
 
 Do the fundamentals in common fractions, emphasizing the prin- 
 ciples, and endeavoring to have every question done intelligently. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Do the work of the book in the reduction and four fundamentals of 
 decimals, emphasizing the principles and reasons and supplementing 
 the work when needful. Do applied problems involving U. S. money, 
 whether in book or not. 
 
 Do compound denominate numbers, giving most attention to 
 Avoirdupois weight, linear, square, land, cubic, .and liquid measure, 
 and time measurement, and some attention to Troy and apothecary's 
 weight, and dry, paper, and circular measure. 
 
 In doing denominate numbers reduce up and down, involve the 
 four fundamentals and apply to practical problems. 
 
 In longitude and time show the correspondence between time and 
 distance; locate and explain the convenience of the day line; explain 
 standard (R. R.) time, illustrating hour belts; and do orally such 
 questions as these: When noon in E. belt, what is the time in R. Mt. 
 belt? It is 10 o'clock a. m. here; I am thinking of a place where it is 
 8 o'clock a. m. Where is it? Select other work from book. 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 Commence percentage. Review work in common and decimal frac- 
 tions, involving the principles of percentage. To illustrate: A offers 
 B i of a debt if he will collect it. If the debt amounts to $100 how much 
 will B get? If to $80? If to $60? If to $35? If to $18? if to $150? 
 How many hundredths does B get? Express it in the form of a common 
 and a decimal fraction. Now introduce sign % and drill on the three 
 ways of expressing it, as, 5 % =^=^=.05; i%=fffor == '005; 50%=i=.5. 
 
 Do problems of book. Apply to commission business, loss and gain, 
 and trade discount. Review and do more work in interest, making free 
 use of aliquoit parts in obtaining the rate or the interest. Do not 
 become the servant of a method. Make method serve you. 
 
 Teach the writing of different kinds of notes, receipts and checks, 
 emphasizing the salient points. Have pupils write notes, involve 
 partial payments (not more than 2) and settle same. Do work of book. 
 Also in fire and life insurance. 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE SECOND SEMESTER. 
 
 Do work in the following subjects: Measurements, including carpet- 
 ing, plastering, shingling, lumber in sidewalks, on walls of houses; a 
 review of land measurement; the mensuration of cubes, oblongs ( bins ), 
 and circles; ratio and proportion; involution and evolution (only square 
 root ) ; and some work in formal analysis. 
 
 In carpeting require pupils to make diagram of room and mark strips 
 until process in clear. Make clear allowance for matching and turning 
 under. In connection with shingling study roof of schoolhouse or some 
 other building. Likewise in calculating lumber used for siding. 
 
76 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 In ratio find the old friend in direct and inverse comparison of 
 numbers. Use proportion in measuring the height of houses, trees, etc. 
 from ratio of object to shadow. 
 
 In teaching involution use this process: 
 
 ( 36 ) 2 =( 30+6 ) 2 =( 30+6 ) ( 30+6 )=30~ 2 +2X30X6+6 2 . 
 When pupils are sufficiently familiar with process substitute t-\-u for 
 tens and units, and use / 2 +2^+w 2 . 
 
 Use this form for discovering the square root. 
 
 Do some work in formal analysis, supplementing the text when 
 needful. 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE FIRST SEMESTER. 
 
 Do work in the following subjects: Metric system, bank discount, 
 duties, taxes, partnership, exchange, mensuration of prisms, pyramids, 
 cylinders, cones and spheres, and formal analysis. 
 
 In teaching the metric system, have the meter, the liter and the 
 gram ( make them if necessary ) and have pupils make them. Mark 
 permanently a square meter on the floor, and the are on the play ground 
 or lawn. 
 
 In bank discount do not consider days of grace, there being none in 
 our state. 
 
 Explain the object of duties and taxes and in the latter case make 
 plain the manner in which the commissioners determine the rate. 
 
 In mensuration relate prisms to oblongs; pyramids to prisms; cylin- 
 ders to circles; cones to cylinders; the surface of spheres to circles; the 
 volumes of spheres to pyramids. Verify these relations by actual 
 measurement if possible. ( Hollow and tin made.) 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE SECOND SEMESNER. 
 
 During this semester do all needed review work, giving special 
 attention to business forms, such as the making of bills and receipting 
 them; the writing of notes ( different forms: time notes, demand notes, 
 negotiable notes, non-negotiable notes, interest-bearing notes, non- 
 interest-bearing notes, individual notes, joint notes, etc.), checks and 
 drafts, forms for orders, business letters, and the keeping of cash 
 accounts. 
 
 Require work in these forms to be done with pen and ink, insisting 
 upon neatness and legibility. In bill making put the pupils in the 
 position of the farmer, the lumberman, the groceryman, the general 
 merchant, the truck gardener, the coal dealer, the commission merchant. 
 
 When practicable, do old 8th grade examination questions and 
 teachers' examination questions. 
 
 In problem doing, go outside text books and do such local business 
 problems as arise in the community in which you teach. 
 
 Endeavor to give the class a connected idea of the processes of 
 Arithmetic. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 77 
 
 PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 Section 65 of the Code of Public Instruction, says: "Instruction 
 shall be given in physiology and hygiene with special reference to the 
 effects of alcoholic stimulants and narcotics on the human system." 
 Section 162 provides a penalty in case of violation. 
 
 EQUIPMENT FOR TEACHING THE SUBJECT. 
 
 The teacher should believe in the work; should show the class 
 that she considers the once-a-week oral lesson in hygiene as import- 
 ant as any period of the week. She should prepare for the recita- 
 tion by assigning points to be looked up, illustrations to be placed 
 upon the board, items of interest to be given. She should prepare 
 at least one interesting topic herself and give it as her contribution 
 to the exercise. The teacher must not dwaddle over the work in 
 physiology or hygiene. Make it a point to accomplish something in 
 each exercise, and last of all make it interesting. 
 
 Some illustrative material should be provided, usually by the 
 teacher. If the school has a microscope it should be made use of 
 often. If they have not it might be well to secure funds with which 
 to buy one. A small hand magnifying glass is of great value and 
 costs little. A chart for testing the eyes ought to be provided for 
 every school. A few specimens of skulls of domestic animals, bones 
 of various shapes, also sectioned bones, teeth, scales of fish, feathers, 
 shells of clams, etc., should be included. There should be two or three 
 glass dishes, a fruit jar, a couple of feet of small rubber tubing, some 
 glass tubing, an alcohol lamp. The few chemicals used in the experi- 
 ments may be obtained from the nearest drug store. The depart- 
 ments of biology in the state institutions are willing to give help. 
 Teachers should feel free to call upon them. 
 
 There should be a scrap book kept by the class, into which items 
 passed upon by the teacher may be placed. Have it indexed. Do not 
 hesitate to include a well-executed drawing by members of the class, 
 athletic records, etc. Such a book is a source of great enthusiasm. 
 Be sure to mark modestly on each gift the giver's name. The 
 teacher will find it profitable to keep such a scrap book for herself. 
 Certainly she should keep a note book on the subject. Have it in- 
 dexed also. 
 
 Try to get other texts than the one in use. Discarded books will 
 frequently be contributed. Each book has some special illustration, 
 chart, table or notes of use. Send to the various publishers for 
 their "Guides" or "How to Teach" the subject. These are always 
 cheerfully sent to teachers. Ginn & Co., D. C. Heath & Co., Mac- 
 millan Co., American Book Co., publish such guides. 
 
78 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 others, and (3) interest in public sanitation. It is difficult, very dif- 
 ficult, to impart the facts of hygiene and physiology to young child- 
 ren. They get so many erroneous ideas. One can usually recall 
 one's own misconceptions of the functions of the body. Be always 
 on the lookout to correct wrong impressions. The teacher should en- 
 deavor to know as much as possible of the approved data of the 
 subject, for even teachers have wrong impressions about this subject. 
 Instruction in the first five grades will be oral, fifteen minutes 
 once a week. In the sixth grade the pupils must be provided with 
 a text-book, largely devoted to hygiene. In the seventh grade there 
 must be one recitation each week. It should be largely a review of 
 the sixth grade work with additional illustration. In the eighth 
 grade the subject is one of the important studies, should be taught 
 each school day, and given as much time as any one subject as given 
 in the programme. The outline here does not apply to a particular 
 book, since there are a number of different texts in use in the State. 
 The order of topic here given is one order; the book in use may have 
 another equally good order. Follow the book always. However, the 
 work should begin with some, though not final, study of the cell. 
 
 THE ORAL WORK. 
 
 The fundamental principle in the oral work is to establish habits 
 of personal cleanliness clean faces, hands, teeth, ears, bodies, so far 
 as possible clean clothes, clean books, clean desks and though not of 
 this subject, clean hearts and clean lives. 
 
 After cleanliness has been impressen, take up as the second im- 
 portant principle, physical exercise. The play and the games be- 
 long properly to this division of school work. The teacher should 
 take a part in the games; it is profitable to her and to the pupils. 
 She should be ready to suggest games, and to give aid in their per- 
 formance. Play is much more important as a health producer than 
 any kind of calisthenics. The latter, however, has a place. This out- 
 line can not include a discussion of what exercises are best, but some 
 simple set of exercises which relieves the cramp of seat work, quick- 
 ens the circulation, allows additional ventilation, and has some life 
 and interest will suffice. There should be games for physical exer- 
 cise, as the various running games ; there should be games of skill, 
 as quoits. Ball games are always in order for the older pupils, both 
 boys and girls. 
 
 After cleanliness and games, the object is to teach consideration 
 for others through a knowledge of the effect of disease. There are 
 plenty of opportunities to relieve headache, tooth-ache, to remove 
 the cinder from the eye, to help the crippled or backward ones. An- 
 other part of this part of the work is to teach the older ones what to 
 do in emergencies, to give first aid to the injured. 
 
 After instruction in cleanliness, games, and comfort and first aid 
 work, comes instruction in the preparation and use of food. Hygiene 
 lessons introduce the average child to the subject of pure food. The 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 79 
 
 The purpose of the work in lower grades is to establish habits of 
 (1) cleanliness, (2) consideration for the health and comfort of 
 fifth and last consideration in the oral work is instruction in the na- 
 ture and effects of stimulants and narcotics. The five phases of the 
 subject must be carried on simultaneously, more or less, but in the 
 order of presentation and emphasis, follow the order here given. 
 First, a clean child, then an active child; after that, a child thought- 
 ful for physical comfort of others, then a child careful about what he 
 takes into his body, and last a pure child. 
 
 Teach the children what to do in case of accident, how to make 
 a litter, how to put on a bandage or a splint, how to use water and 
 mud in allaying a swelling from broken limbs, how to remove foreign 
 matter from the eye, how to put out clothes on fire, what to give for 
 poison, how to produce vomiting, how to treat a drowning person. 
 These things are much more important than fire drills without, how- 
 ever disparaging the latter. 
 
 Find out all you can about pure food and the laws of food produc- 
 tion in this State; discuss meat inspection, milk inspection, the de- 
 vices used by unscrupulous persons to preserve foods by means of 
 injurious chemicals. Discuss factory inspection and employment of 
 children in such places. Get into touch with the local board of health, 
 and find what efforts are being made to enforce laws in reference to 
 sanitation. -Get reports from the city and state boards of health; 
 they will help you. Discuss the sources of pure and impure water. 
 If you are able, make experiments with local water supply. Tell 
 children about candy adulterations and about the pure candy move- 
 ment in New York. Children really need sugar, but in order to get 
 it they many times have to eat a considerable glucose, starch, chemi- 
 cal and vegetable coloring matter and flavor. Teach children how to 
 make and flavor home-made candy. Shoy the harm of gum chewing 
 along with that of tobacco chewing. Condemn quack medicines. Show 
 how most of it is unfit for use, owing its effects to alcohol, opiates, 
 cocaine, etc. Teach temperance in eating and drinking good food. 
 
 Teach the nature of germ or contagious disease. Make a list of 
 diseases for which there is a quarantine provision. Let the child- 
 ren tell experiences of quarantine at home or on boats. 
 
 Teach children the danger of pulmonary diseases. Especially em- 
 phasize the danger of tuberculosis or what is commonly called con- 
 sumption. It is a menace to society and great efforts are being made 
 in nearly all parts of our country to check its increase. In Greater 
 New York there are 30,000 cases. It is contagious. If you wish in- 
 formation write Health Dept., Fifty-fifth St. and Sixth Avs., New 
 York, and a circular will be sent any teacher. The following is taken 
 from a short circular prepared by the Boston Relief Committee (to 
 be made into a chart by the children) : 
 
80 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Buffalo 
 
 Death 
 allcc 
 14.5 p 
 
 frc 
 mses 
 er ce 
 
 m F 
 Consu 
 nt. 1.5 p 
 1.5 
 1.5 
 2. 
 2. 
 2.25 
 2.5 
 3.5 
 
 rom 
 nipt 
 gr ce 
 
 on 
 
 in. 
 
 
 17. 
 
 
 20. 
 
 
 16.5 
 
 St Louis 
 
 18. 
 
 Baltimore 
 
 20. 
 
 New York . 
 
 20. 
 
 New Orleans... 
 
 .. 22. 
 
 THINGS BAD FOR WEAK LUNGS. 
 
 Dust and smoky or dusty places are bad. Dark, damp or crowded 
 rooms are bad. Dirty shops and stores, dusty kinds of business are 
 bad for weak lungs. To sit bent over one's sewing or books is bad. 
 Self-indulgence and intemperance are very bad. Vice which weak- 
 ens the strong kills the weak. 
 
 THINGS GOOD FOR WEAK LUNGS. 
 
 Fresh air in plenty prevents consumption. Sunshine kills the 
 germs. Choose sunny rooms. Open the windows and let the air in. 
 Keep the house clean. Be in the open air as often as can be. Out- 
 door work is vastly better than indoor work. Keep the feet dry. 
 Breathe with deep, long, full breaths, so as to carry the fresh air 
 to every corner of your lungs. Do this always for several minutes 
 in the morning and at night. Breathe through the nostrils, and not 
 through the mouth. 
 
 Spend your money for simple and well-cooked foods good fresh 
 meat, eggs, oatmeal, rice and other vegetables, and for bread and 
 butter, milk, and fruit. Do not spend money for beer or other 
 liquors or for quack medicines, or "cures." Live a regular life, and 
 keep the bowels regular. Get plenty of sleep. Bathe regularly. 
 Keep clean company and a clear conscience. Courage is very import- 
 ant. 
 
 Whenever any oue of your family has been ill, or seems weak or 
 run down, build up the strength at once with nourishing food, extra 
 rest, and fresh air. If any one has a bad cold or a cough, and it 
 does not grow better very soon, go at once to a physician. Don't wait 
 till it is too late. The doctor is worth ten times as much to help 
 ward off disease as he is to cure it. 
 
 Under the teachers' direction the older members of the eighth 
 grade should at the beginning and near the end of the term exam- 
 ine the eye sight of each pupil. Ask your board to provide you with 
 charts for that purpose. If they do not, apply to your County Super- 
 intendent, who will do so. Place the chart where a good light falls 
 upon it. Measure back twenty feet and make a permanent mark on 
 the floor. Place the front of a chair at this mark. Have the pupil 
 sit in the chair with one hand lightly over one eye. With the other 
 eye, read the letters, beginning at the top. Let him read until he 
 can no longer distinguish the letters. Note the number of the line 
 in which he began to make mistakes. Write that number under 20 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 
 
 81 
 
 as a numerator, i. e., the child reads line 40 well but fails on line 
 30; the test is L 20-30, meaning the left eye reads line 30 but with 
 mistakes at 20 feet. Test the right eye in the same way. If a 
 child is found who is very near-sighted, the chair must be moved up 
 to 10 or even 5 feet. In writing results make the fraction read as 
 before, i. e., with 20 as numerator. It is better to test a child alone. 
 With a tape line or string and a watch test the hearing of each 
 child. The teacher will find nearly all children normal in hearing. 
 If any are abnormal it will readily appear. 
 
 Habitual mouth-breathing must not be allowed. It leads to vari- 
 ous troubles, among which is enfeebled intellect. The children will 
 be greatly interested in weighing and measuring themselves to find 
 whether they are up to the standard of their age. The following 
 table will give a means of comparison: 
 
 AGE. 
 
 Weight 
 
 1 
 
 <W 
 
 (3 1 
 
 03 
 
 & 
 Ct> J+ 
 
 oq'a 
 
 C3-OQ 
 ct- 
 
 Span of 
 arms 
 
 Breadth 
 of head... 
 
 Breadth 
 of chest . . 
 
 Breadth 
 of waist. . . 
 
 
 IS 
 
 *a 
 
 Chest 
 expansion. 
 
 Sixteen years 
 Fifteen years 
 Fourteen years . . 
 Thirteen years. . . 
 Twelve years .... 
 Eleven years 
 Ten years 
 Nine years 
 
 116.38 
 103.29 
 87.41 
 78.32 
 72.55 
 64.89 
 61.28 
 55.15 
 
 64.45 
 62 25 
 59.45 
 57.10 
 55.25 
 53.10 
 51.55 
 49.55 
 
 33.55 
 32.15 
 30.70 
 29 60 
 28.95 
 28.20 
 27.60 
 26.80 
 
 66.25 
 63.15 
 60.00 
 57 50 
 55.30 
 53.40 
 51 20 
 49.10 
 
 5.95 
 5.90 
 5.85 
 5.80 
 5.80 
 5.75 
 5 75 
 5.70 
 
 9.85 
 9 30 
 8.95 
 8.70 
 8.50 
 8.25 
 8.00 
 7 80 
 
 9.15 
 8 65 
 8.25 
 7.95 
 7.70 
 7.45 
 7.20 
 7.10 
 
 21. .55 
 21.45 
 21.30 
 21.10 
 21.00 
 20 85 
 20 60 
 20 65 
 
 3.45 
 3.30 
 3.35 
 3.25 
 3.05 
 2.90 
 2 75 
 2 55 
 
 Eight years 
 Seven years 
 Six years 
 
 50.90 
 46.85 
 42 62 
 
 47.75 
 45.55 
 43 55 
 
 26.00 
 25.20 
 24 20 
 
 47 00 
 45.00 
 42 60 
 
 5.65 
 5.65 
 5.60 
 
 7.65 
 7.45 
 7 25 
 
 6.95 
 6.75 
 6 55 
 
 20 55 
 20.45 
 20 25 
 
 2.35 
 1.80 
 1 65 
 
 Five years 
 
 39 29 
 
 41 60 
 
 23 60 
 
 40 35 
 
 5 60 
 
 7 15 
 
 6 50 
 
 20 15 
 
 1 35 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 The above is the anthropometric table for boys five to sixteen 
 years of age, based upon the actual measurement of 5476 school 
 boys. The figures are in inches and hundredths of an inch. For each 
 age the date represents the average boy of that age. This table is 
 taken from Hasting's Manual of Physical Measurements of Boys and 
 Girls (Macmillan & Co.), the most reliable data available. 
 
 Myopia is seldom congenital. All experts agree that it is rarely 
 found in children less than five years of age; that it arises from too 
 steady application of the eyes to close objects during school age. 
 Cohn. 
 
 "I have examined a great number of Lapps, Calimucks, Patigoni- 
 ans, Nubians, Somolis, etc., but I have never found a single near- 
 sighted person among either children or adults." Kotelmann. 
 
 Dr. Cohn found in Germany that in village schools the percentage 
 of shortsightedness is very small, while in town the number con- 
 stantly increases with the grade of school. 
 
 Dr. Smith found myopia to increase as follows, in Chicago 
 schools: Six to 8 years, 4.09 per cent.; 8-10, 5.65 per cent.; 10-12, 
 10.98 per cent.; 12-14, 12.89 per cent.; 14-15, 16.17 per cent; 15-16, 
 6 
 
82 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 17.76 per cent.; 16-18, 23.26 per cent.; 18-19, 25.31 per cent.; 19-20, 
 27.08 per cent. 
 
 The result of the examination of over 26,000 cases shows: Near 
 sightedness originates as a rule during school life. The percentage 
 increases according to the length of school experience. Dr. Allport 
 tested 26,696 children and found 8,166 or 32 per cent, with defective 
 vision in some degrees; 6,451 eyes, 20-30; 2,256, 20-40; 1,214, 20-50; 
 745, 20-100; 447, 20-200; 43 practically blind; 4,472 had eye tire pro- 
 ducing headache. 
 
 The results of habitual mouth-breathing: (1) A voice without 
 ring a dead voice; (2) misarticulation of certain words; (3) air 
 to the lungs lacking in moisture and temperature; (4) temporary 
 teeth decay rapidly; (5) narrow alveolar arch and "hatchet face"; 
 (6) hearing becomes dull; (7) poorly developed chest; (8) mental 
 dullness. And this does not include all the ills which result. A 
 mouth- breathing child will take a contagious disease more readily 
 than a normal child. Call upon a nose and throat specialist for help 
 in such cases. 
 
 The teeth offer a good opportunity for careful study. They are 
 accessible, and they are so often the cause of suffering that nearly 
 every child from experience can give some information. Provide your- 
 self with various kinds of teeth, carefully marked. It is easy to se- 
 cure teeth of the cow, sheep, cat, horse, etc. Contrast the teeth of 
 the gnawers with cud chewers, etc. If possible, with a good saw 
 cut some large teeth into- two parts cut some in one section, others 
 in a different section. With a file or grindstone smooth down the 
 rough saw edges. Notice the structure of the teeth. Go to the 
 dentist for a few human teeth, especially those with cavities. Watch 
 the children for loose milk teeth which should be saved for future use. 
 The roots of milk teeth are absorbed, hence there is only the crown 
 left. Watch the eruption of permanent teeth. Do all animals have 
 two sets of teeth? How about the cat, dog, horse, etc.? Sharks, for 
 example, have many teeth, teeth being formed to meet the demand. 
 Have you known of a person who has more than two sets of teeth? 
 Do you know a grown person who still has a baby or milk tooth? Do 
 you know of any irregularities of the teeth? As the jaw of modern 
 man is growing smaller, there is much crowding of teeth. The den- 
 tist will explain the term, orthodontia, literally, right or straight 
 teeth. 
 
 There is great need for instruction in the care of teeth. Recent 
 investigations in both Europe and America have shown that 85 per 
 cent, of school children have or have had decayed teeth. Milk teeth 
 are important and should not be pulled; they help develop the jaws 
 and permanent teeth. Teach the young child to brush the teeth. 
 Consult parents about bad cases. The Care of the Teeth, by Sam 
 A. Hopkins (D. Appleton & Co), 75 cents, is an excellent book. 
 
 Send to A. C. True, Director U. S. Dept. Agriculture, Washing- 
 ton, D. C., for Farmers' Bulletin, No. 142, Principles of Nutrition and 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 83 
 
 Nutritive Value of Food, by W. O. Atwater. This pamphlet is the 
 best thing in print, and should be in the hands of every teacher. Say 
 you are a teacher and wish the bulletin to aid you in your work. In 
 addition to the above, No. 112, Bread and Principles of Bread-Mak- 
 ing; No. 182, Poultry as Food; No. 85, Fish as Food; No. 128, Eggs 
 and Their Uses as Food; No. 34, Meats, Confection and Cooking; 
 No. 74, Milk as Food. Also Circular No. 46, The Functions and 
 Uses of Food, and Care of Food as Related to Its Nutritive Value. 
 All these are valuable and possibly may be obtained at the same 
 time. Write to Director True for list of publications of the office of 
 experiment stations on the food and nutrition of man. 
 
 Notice the influence of different foods upon man and animals. 
 The kind and amount of food depends upon (1) age; children re- 
 quiring more, especially of proteids; old people cannot digest heavy 
 food; (2) climate; note the use of blubber, fruit, rice, etc., in differ- 
 ent climates; (3) sex; (4) occupation. 
 
 Study the ingestion of food in the case of amoeba. So up the ani- 
 mal scale, noting the increase in complexity of food and the alimen- 
 tary system. Classify animals according to the kind of food used. 
 Note how plants have been cultivated for man's food. Make much 
 of the work of Mr. Luther Burbank in transforming weeds into 
 useful plants, modifying plants, etc. M. Soyer "assures us that he 
 has from experience made up a scale of food for the day for a period 
 of 60 years, and it amounts to thirty-three and three-fourths tons of 
 meat, farinaceous food, vegetables, etc." Additional interest may 
 be given by discussing the various food cults, vegetarianism, un- 
 cooked foods, nut foods, etc. 
 
 In 1893 the Committee of Fifty was organized to investigate the 
 liquor problem. After several years of careful study this committee 
 made an elaborate report. The National Woman's Christian Tem- 
 perance Union took exception to the report, at least to that part 
 which deals with the teaching of hygiene and physiology in the public 
 schools. The committee's report is not accessible to the average 
 teacher, but the reply issued by the W. C. T. U. may be obtained by 
 addressing Mrs. Mary H. Hunt, Boston, Mass. This reply quotes so 
 extensively from the committee's report that one gets a fair notion 
 of its main points. Every teach'er should have the reply. No doubt 
 the local W. C. T. U. will be able to supply the paper. 
 
 Little is to be gained through teaching the details of the making 
 of intoxicants. It is the nature and effect of the stimulants which 
 must be impressed. The effect of teaching will always rest upon 
 moral rather than scientific grounds. A few experiments of known 
 scientific value should be introduced, but mainly the immorality inci- 
 dent to the use of stimulants should be emphasized. The procuring 
 of narcotics usually leads to (1) secrecy; (2) dishonesty; (3) 
 theft. Their use results in (1) hardening of moral sensibility; (2) 
 indifference to opinions of good people; (3) duplicity and deception 
 all infinitely worse than the physiological effect of the use of nar- 
 
84 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 cotics. The teacher should show the pupils that their use is (1) un- 
 necessary; (2) expensive; (3) dangerous; (4) harmful to growth 
 and strength; (5) immoral. Effort should be directed toward the 
 whole school in order to create a public or school sentiment in favor 
 of cleanliness and decency and against anything low, vulgar, and 
 dirty. Do not over emphasize the use of narcotics to the neglect of 
 bodily cleanliness, regard for the suffering- of others, etc. There 
 must be a unity in this work; upon such unity the final results largely 
 depend. It is not the purpose of such work to develop a few ex- 
 tremists, bitterly condemning one form of human indulgence, while 
 violating other principles of hygiene equally important. The teacher 
 may condemn drinking because of its very grave danger but there 
 should always be judgment, consideration and fairness even in con- 
 demnation. Be careful not to make statements which the older chil- 
 dren know to be illogical! there are enough facts to thoroughly con- 
 demn intemperance without exaggeration or misstatement. Dignity 
 in condemnation is a source of power. 
 
 The following simple experiments demonstrates all the import- 
 ant characteristics of alcohol. The affinity which alcohol has for 
 water is the cause of the thirst of the liquor drinker. Pour a little 
 alcohol into a clear glass vessel. Note its qualities. Put a little into 
 a saucer and apply a match. Note its manner of burning. Place 
 some white of egg in a saucer, cover it with alcohol. Note that it 
 turns white and hardens. This is due to the fact that the alcohol has 
 extracted the water in the albumin. Alcohol does not have so great 
 effect upon living tissue, but it does take some water even from such 
 tissue. 
 
 Put equal parts of alcohol and water each into a vessel by itself. 
 Take the temperature of each by emersing a thermometer; then add 
 the two mixtures and take the temperature. Notice that the tem- 
 perature of the mixture is higher than the average of the two sep- 
 arated. 
 
 Pour some alcohol on the back of the hand or bare arm. Notice 
 that the skin seems cooler, due to the rapid evaporation of the alcohol. 
 
 To one ounce of the spirits of camphor add two teaspoonfuls of 
 water. Notice that the liquid at once becomes whitish. The alcohol 
 unites with the water and leaves small particles of camphor afloat. 
 
 The teacher's most serious problem is cigarette smoking. Pro- 
 hibition only drives the boys to the woodshed or other place of con- 
 cealment, thereby adding greatly to the evil; then it is doubly wrong 
 physiologically and morally. Moral persuasion is most effective. 
 Sometimes to arouse ambition to own something desirable is to check 
 smoking through the effort to save money for a special purpose. 
 Again, smoking can be controlled through an effort to please the 
 teacher. The teacher should never confine her efforts to a few weak- 
 willed boys, but must attack the problem as a whole. 
 
 Geo. E. St. John thinks cigarette smoking is the cause of much 
 of the failures of school children. He finds upon investigation that 
 2.5 per cent, in second grade, 24 per cent, in third, 45 per cent, in 
 fourth grade, 54 per cent, in fifth grade, 55 per cent, in sixth grade, 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 85 
 
 64 per cent, in seventh grade and 55 per cent, in eighth grade smoke, 
 or have smoked, cigarettes. He thinks there is a relation of cause 
 and effect between smoking and dullness or incorrigibility. 
 
 BOOK WORK. 
 
 The following outline embraces suggestions concerning the teach- 
 ing of the bones, the blood, the circulation, and the nervous system. 
 The omitted topics are to be dealt with in the same manner: by com- 
 parison with the animal, especially those in which the physiological 
 functions are much simpler than in man, experiments by the teacher 
 and the class, the making of charts and diagrams, illustrations from 
 any reliable source. 
 
 Bones. Show the class, (1) fresh cartilage; (2) fresh bone with 
 the periosteum partly removed; (3) fresh bone sawed lengthwise; 
 *(4) crosswise; (5) dead or bleached bone. Compare with horn, 
 shaft of feather, bill of chicken, shell of a clam, etc. Distinguish 
 between endoskeleton and exoskeleton. Perform the time-honored ex- 
 periment of tieing a bone into a knot. Into a pint of water in a fruit 
 jar put 2 oz. muriatic acid. Select a leg bone of a chicken, or the 
 rib of a sheep. Watch the bone to see that acid is not too strong; 
 it may eat the bone. After about four days tie into a knot in pres- 
 ence of the class. Put an egg into a narrow-necked bottle if that will 
 add interest. Burn a bone carefully on a shovel in the fire; this 
 leaves only mineral matter, as the first experiments leave only ani- 
 mal matter. To demonstrate the superiority of the hollow cylinder 
 over the solid cylinder of the same weight, take two similar pieces of 
 heavy writing paper; roll one into a light, close cylinder; roll the 
 other around a piece of broom-stick; which remove. In both cases 
 fasten with a little paste. Stand on end in such a way as to sup- 
 port a teacup. Pour shot into this until the column breaks. The 
 same experiment may be done by supporting the ends, placing a string 
 around the middle, suspending a cup into which shot is placed. 
 Study the repair of a broken bone; the fontanels; the fincus bone. 
 Tell about the binding of Chinese feet, the flattening of the head by 
 certain Indian tribes; devices for strainghtening crooked limbs; ex- 
 plain the principles of osteopathy. 
 
 Blood. The cells of the body need nourishment. As most of 
 them cannot come into contact with the food material, some arrange- 
 ment must be made by which the food material is brought directly 
 to the cells.. Blood is liquid food; it goes directly to all parts of the 
 body. The following formula (Hutchinson) shows composition: 
 
 Fluid blood. Coagulated blood. 
 
 Plasma - - serum - - serum 
 
 " fibrin 
 Corpuscles - - corpus'cles - - clot 
 
86 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Get some fresh blood from the butcher or from a family where 
 there is to be a chicken dinner. (Do not allow children to kill ani- 
 mals for the sake of illustrative material.) Put some fresh blood 
 into a watch crystal and let it stand a few minutes. Notice the 
 bright red rim with the dark center. With three or four straws from 
 the broom whip up some fresh blood for three minutes. Notice the 
 thin plasma and corpuscles in the dish and the fibrin gathered on 
 the straws. 
 
 Data concerning blood: 7.5 per cent, body weight; 35 per cent, 
 corpuscles, 65 per cent, plasma. Red corpuscles, 65 per cent, water, 
 35 per cent, solid, the chief of which is hemoglobin, the red coloring 
 matter. Hemoglobin unites with oxygen, which it carries to the tis- 
 sues where it is given up. The presence of oxygen makes the blood 
 bright, red. In one cu. mm. there are 5 billion red corpuscles in the 
 male and 4.5 billion in the female. The number of red corpuscles is 
 greater in higher altitudes. Why? White corpuscles, or leucocytes, 
 have no constant shape; about 10,000 in one cu. mm. (500 red to one 
 white) . White corpuscles can pass through the walls of the capil- 
 laries into the lymph, a fluid which carries the food material directly 
 to the cells. 
 
 Prick the skin with a needle, put the drop of blood on a slide by 
 the side of the cover glass, which has been previously moistened with 
 pure water. By placing the edge of a blotter on the side of the cover 
 glass opposite the drop of blood, the blood will be drawn evenly under 
 the cover glass. Examine at once while there is movement among 
 the corpuscles. Compare the blood with sap in the plant. Is all 
 blood red? Is all blood warm? Notice the blood of lower animals, 
 as crayfish, clam, fish, frog. Can the blood of man be recognized by 
 certain characteristics? Make chart showing proportion of weight 
 of blood to body weight; composition of blood; the relative size of 
 corpuscles of various animals and man. 
 
 Circulation. If possible borrow from the local physician a steth- 
 roscope and allow the class to listen to heart beats. Notice systole 
 and diastole. Compare three conditions: 1, quiet; 2, exercise; 3, 
 running. To see the valves of the veins, bare the arm when body has 
 been well exercised, and rub the finger along a vein toward the hand 
 and the knots will indicate the location of the valves. 
 
 The movements of the artery in the human body as the pulse- 
 wave passes through it may be shown to consist in a sudden dilation, 
 followed by a slow contraction, interrupted by one or more secondary 
 dilations. In the absence of a sphygnograph, this demonstration may 
 be best made by pressing a small piece of looking glass upon the 
 wrist over the radical artery in such a way that with each pulse- 
 beat the mirror may be slightly tilted. If the wrist be now held in 
 such a position that sunlight will fall upon the mirror a spot of light 
 will be reflected on the opposite side of the room, and by its motion 
 upon the wall show that the expansion of the artery is a sudden move- 
 ment followed by slow contraction. Bowditch. 
 
PHYSIOLOGY. 87 
 
 Data concerning the circulation: The cardiac cycle lasts about 
 .86 second, divided as follows/ 1. Auricular systole, ventricles at 
 rest, .16 second. 2. Ventricular systole, ventricles at rest, 3 sec- 
 onds. 3. Pause, during which both are at rest, 0.4 second. Heart 
 beats per minute average 70, in children, first year 134, increased by 
 fever or excitement. Pressure in the left ventricle three times as 
 great as in the right. Rate of flow: In large arteries, 200 to 400 
 mm. per second; in capillaries, .6 to .8 mm.; in large veins a little 
 less than in large arteries. The time of complete circulation varies, 
 but it is supposed to be about 22 seconds. 
 
 "The entire quantity of blood passes through the heart about 
 three times per minute. Jegi. 
 
 Compare the circulation of blood with that of sap. Do all ani- 
 mals having blood have hearts? Note the lowest animals. Are all 
 hearts four chambered? Do some animals have more than one heart? 
 Again notice lower animals, as clam, earth worm, etc. 
 
 Respiration. Respiration is the process by which the oxygen of 
 the air is brought into contact with the cells of the body. The blood 
 carries oxygen as well as food. The plasma slightly absorbs oxygen 
 while the hemoglobin unites with it in a loose affinity, called oxy- 
 hemoblobin. In the capilliaries the affinity is easily broken down 
 and the oxygen unites with the tissues to produce body heat. 
 
 If the teacher wishes, let her procure a lung from some slaught- 
 ered animal, inflate it to its full size, tie, and put away to dry. After 
 it has become quite dry, with a sharp razor cut it into sections. With 
 an ordinary magnifying glass the class can get a fine idea of the 
 gross anatomy of the lungs. A better plan is to get the lungs from 
 a frog and put a very thin section under a low power of the micro- 
 scope. If a frog is sacrificed, be sure to save the trachea while fresh, 
 cut it open with a pair of shary scissors, spread it apart, lay a small 
 piece of cork on the exposed inner surface. Notice that it slowly 
 moves toward the mouth. 
 
 Look up the meaning of apnoea, dyspnoea, asphyxia. 
 
 Fill a fruit jar full of water; without spilling a drop invert the 
 jar in water; blow through a short rubber tube for a few seconds 
 while the other end is in the water, then place that end under the 
 jar. Take a breath, hold it half a minute until the air in the lungs 
 has been thoroughly changed; blow the jar full of air from the 
 lungs. Keep the mouth of the jar under the water all the time so 
 that no outside air can enter. Light a twisted paper; when it is 
 blazing well, lift the jar out and insert the burning paper. Notice 
 that the blaze is immediately extinguished as though placed in water. 
 It adds to the effectiveness to put the lighted paper into the jar when 
 full of fresh air and note that the blaze continues for some time. 
 It may crack the jar. 
 
 Make some lime water by putting a few small pieces of un- 
 slacked lime into a fruit jar filled with water. When dissolved pour 
 off top. Force air from the lungs, through lime water. Notice that 
 it becomes milky. 
 
88 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Data concerning respiration: Arterial blood contains 19.2 per 
 cent. 0. 39.5 per cent. CO2, and 2.7 per cent. N. Venous blood, 
 11.9 per cent. O, 45.3 per cent. CO2, 2.7 N. Under ordinary condi- 
 tions inspired air contains 20.96 per cent, oxygen, .04 per cent. C02, 
 while expired air has 16 per cent, oxygen and 4 per cent. CO2. The 
 average man inhales in 24 hours about 500 litres of oxygen and ex- 
 hales 450 litres of CO2. In the average adult the tidal air about 
 500cc. Complemental air by forced inspiration, about 2500 cc; sup- 
 plemental air is about 1500 cc. The three together make the vital 
 capacity about 4500 cc. The residual air is about 1200 co. Adults 
 breathe about 18 times per minute; babies, 40-45; children, 25; young 
 people, about 20. 
 
 When the school-room has been closed all day and you know 
 the air is impure, pour some fresh lime water into a plate and set 
 on your desk. Shake it or stir it with a spoon. Notice that it be- 
 comes milky. Hintj better ventilation. 
 
 Breathe on a cold surface, as glass or iron. Notice the moisture 
 from the breath. Breathe into a jar with glass stop and close it se- 
 curely. Set in warm place 24 hours; open under the nose. Notice 
 the odor. 
 
 Nervous System. The manifestations of life are: (1) Motion; 
 (2) irritability; (3) assimilation; (4) excretion; (5) reproduction; 
 (6) growth. Without a nervous system the individual cannot re- 
 spond to the changes in his environment, cannot escape danger, se- 
 cure food, etc. Notice the simple system of the lower animals; note 
 the appearance of a "brain" as the scale of life is ascended. Note 
 the evidence of segmentation as seen in the special senses and spinal 
 nerves. Learn something of the embryological condition of the human 
 brain and sense organs. If possible place before the class a chicken 
 or sheep brain, fresh and also hardened in alcohol. Secure an eye 
 from the butcher, and especially notice the crystalline lens. Show 
 the class that it will magnify print as will a glass lens. Have good 
 drawings made of parts of the sense organs. Give illustrations of 
 the effect of injuries upon the brain, mapping out the determined 
 areas and functions. Discuss paralysis, paraplegia, descussation, 
 ataxia, stuttering, relation of intelligence to brain weight. . Some 
 large brains are: Cuvier (naturalist), 64.5 oz.; Webster (states- 
 man), 53.5 oz. ; Abercrombie (g-eneral), 63 oz ; Agassiz (naturalist), 
 53.4 oz. The average brain weight in Europeans is 49.5 oz. male, 
 44 pz. female. Discuss idiocy, insanity, intelligence of animals, hyp- 
 notism, automatic action, items which tend to broaden the pupils in- 
 terest in the mind. If the teacher is able, there are many little ex- 
 periments which may be tried to illustrate the working of the mind. 
 For example, have class of ten to twenty take hold of hands, the 
 teacher forming one of the number. With a watch upon the table 
 in front of you, press the hand of your left-hand neighbor, who 
 presses the hand of his neighbor, and so on around until the teacher 
 receives the signal from the right-hand neighbor. Note the time, 
 measure the total distance, and you have a crude estimate of the 
 rapidity of nervous action. The rate of nervous impulse varies with 
 individuals and conditions. In the same individual it travels from 
 forty to one hundred feet a second. On a package of cards paint red 
 circles, red squares, blue triangles and blue crescents. Select a cer- 
 tain number of cards, say 50 or 100. Shuffle them well and deal 
 
NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE. 89 
 
 them off into two piles, without reference to what is on the cards. 
 Do this twelve times. Disregard the quickest and slowest record, 
 find average of the remaining ten, divide by number of cards. This 
 tells how long it takes to handle one card. Now perform twelve ex- 
 periments, separating the cards into red and blue piles; find the time 
 for one card. Again separate into four piles according to form. 
 These give the time of discrimination a very interesting bit of 
 information. 
 
 NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE* 
 
 NATURE STUDY, 
 
 "I am impressed with the fact that the greatest thing a human 
 soul ever does in this world is to see something, and tell what it saw 
 in a plain way. Hundreds of people can talk for one who can think, 
 but thousands can think for one who can see. To see clearly is 
 poetry, prophecy, and religion all in one." John Ruskin. 
 
 Intelligent observation of his environment, in order to understand 
 it and its relation to himself, is the first object of a child's activi- 
 ties. He must know the concrete before he can make abstractions, 
 and justification is no longer needed for detailed attention to that 
 line of study which not only includes the common facts of every- 
 day life, but which forms the basis of broader scientific investigations. 
 The imperative demand for sound reasoning and accurate judgments 
 cannot be supplied until stupid indifference to isolated facts gives 
 place to active, earnest searching for the universal law of life which 
 governs all expressions of life. Facts are necessary. In Nature 
 Study, we cannot have too many of them, if they are actual abso- 
 lute truths about nature; but, for a right perspective, they must be 
 so correlated that, like the convergence of lines, they meet at a com- 
 mon point, and prove all nature is one. Methods of instruction must 
 be adapted to the conditions of the pupil and the teacher needs to 
 carefully consider the subject-matter from the child's standpoint 
 and with the child's methods. Nothing false or assumed appeals to 
 children, and without spontaneity and honest, natural dealing with 
 this work, it becomes a mere "tinkling cymbal," stultifying and dead- 
 ening the eager activities which it is designed to quicken. 
 
 Infinitely deeper than outlined scheme of these lessons lies the 
 living central truth of each. Nothing less than finding and applying 
 it to the great life problem fulfills the law, in both letter and spirit. 
 
 PRIMARY GRADES. 
 
 SEEDS. 
 
 Material: Individual collections of seeds common to locality. 
 Keep in envelopes or mounted on cards. Prepare seeds of berries 
 by washing free from pulp, and drying slowly. 
 
90 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Comparison: Form, size, color, covering, uses, value, protection, 
 friends, enemies. Study shape of seed-box and fastening of seeds to 
 walls of box; how arranged, and why? Agencies of dissemination. 
 
 From the following list, select and study by comparison as many 
 as the class can learn to distinguish readily. (Add to the list from 
 your locality.) 
 
 Garden Vegetables and Fruits: Cabbage, cauliflower, celery, cu- 
 cumbers, lettuce, carrots, onions, tomatoes, sage, rhubarb, beans, peas, 
 squashes, lemons, mushrooms. 
 
 Weeds: Dandelions, thistles, dog-fennel, jimson weed. 
 
 Grasses: Timothy, red-top, wheat, barley, oats. 
 
 GERMINATION OF SEEDS. 
 
 Material: Several kinds of large seeds, preferably peas, and 
 squashes; if possible a good magnifying glass; also, a box of soil 
 found near the surface, and another box filled with earth that has 
 been buried several inches below. Place some of the seeds in dry 
 sand, some in sawdust, some in warm water. Vary position, depth, 
 moisture, and heat of those in good soil. Prove need of water, air 
 warmth, and that earth and light are not a necessity. 
 
 Comparison: (Dry and soaked.) Color, size, shape, hardness, 
 scar, opening. Remove coat of each and compare layers. Study 
 crumpled leaves, white point, jelly. 
 
 Invert in water a thin glass bottle that has been filled with dry 
 peas or beans, and note the result. Watch for the sprouting of any 
 seeds that may be in the boxes of soil, and discuss how they may 
 have been carried there. 
 
 ROOTS OF PLANTS. 
 
 Material: Examples of underground stems, and roots, and those 
 found above ground; a piece of turf. 
 
 Compare: Tap-roots, bulbs, etc., as to form, size, uses, protec- 
 tion from enemies, nourishment taken from soil. What roots help 
 each other? Hinder? 
 
 Study: Potato, onion, carrot, bean, buttercup, etc. Grasses, trees. 
 Show how bulbs may be forced into bloom in winter; how the root 
 feeds. 
 
 STEMS OF PLANTS. 
 
 Material: Individual collections which may be mounted or pre- 
 served for future use. 
 
 Comparison: Shape, size, color, smell, taste, sap, age, uses. What 
 enemies? Friends? Keep assortment of uniform length, and re- 
 view until there is ready recognition of each. Study may be made 
 of those plants selected for preceding lessons, if class need what 
 might be used as review; but if work under "Seeds" and "Roots" 
 has been thoroughly done, it would be better to learn new names 
 while comparing stems. 
 
 LEAVES. 
 
 Study by one of preceding outlines. Observe needles of pine or 
 
NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE. 91 
 
 fir, spines of cactus, etc. Show by experiment that leaves give out 
 moisture. Parts of a leaf: petiole, blade, veins. Why change of 
 color? Arrangement? 
 
 BLOSSOMS. 
 
 Parts of Flower: Calyx (seed-cradle), petals, stamens, pollen, 
 pistil, ovary (seed-basket), seeds. 
 
 FRUITS. 
 
 Kinds, appearance, parts, use of parts to plant, to man. Bril- 
 liant colors of some fruits. Why? Most common color? Which do 
 not change in ripening? Use collection of fruits for class to distin- 
 guish by feeling, smelling, and, when cut up in small, indistinguish- 
 able bits, by tasting-. 
 
 TREES. 
 
 Parts of a Tree: Roots, trunk, branches, flowers, fruit (that 
 which contains seed). Study evergreen trees in your locality. Dif- 
 ferent from other trees height, manner of branching, leaves, buds, 
 cones, etc. Use of resin or gum. Protection of trees. Enemies? 
 Friends? Clear lumber or knotty. Why? Use of leaves? Why do 
 some trees lose leaves? 
 
 WEATHER RECORD. 
 
 Make chart on blackboard or large sheet of cardboard. Fill rec- 
 ord near the middle of day; or find average of both morning and 
 afternoon periods. For direction of winds, let observation be made 
 at intermission and one pupil make observations from window at 
 the time for filing record. 
 
 Clouds: Layer, woolly, feathery, black. (For older pupils, third 
 or fourth grades, use the names stratus, cumulus, cirrus, and nim- 
 bus, for the cloud forms.) 
 
 Weather: Temperature, wind, direction of wind. (Mark with 
 arrow.) Date. Compare for diiferent months. 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 Give opportunity to observe, before week of lesson, influences af- 
 fecting bird life; arrival or departure; nest building; food. Let first 
 lesson not include more than observations made. Later, discuss the 
 bird that had teeth and left its picture in the rocks; why were teeth 
 needed then? Why not now? Compare likenesses and differences of 
 our birds to other animals; animals of flight, egg-layers, etc.; shape 
 of the body of birds and of fish. 
 
 Nests: Location, structure. 
 
 Eggs: Time for hatching; condition of young ones; care neces- 
 sary; food, movements. How do young birds learn to fly? Sing? 
 Which get food on the ground? Never on the ground? In flight? 
 Relation of birds to plants; how they help each other. 
 
 Food Supply: How can we increase it? Which are carnivorous? 
 Learn kinds of birds in neighborhood, as belonging to one of the prin- 
 
92 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 cipal groups. Sparrows, finches, etc. Prepare the way for inter- 
 mediate work by having clear-cut descriptions given, and quick rec- 
 ognition of the subject. 
 
 INSECTS. 
 
 Kinds: Beneficial, injurious. 
 
 Compare: Habits, size form, color, parts, movements, habitat. 
 Study life history of scale wings; egg, larva, pupa, insect. Collect 
 cocoons in early autumn, keep in cool place during winter, and study 
 in spring. 
 
 From outlined comparison, study flies, mosquitoes, ants, aphis. 
 How can neighborhood be rid of mosquitoes? Let class secure speci- 
 mens of eggs and wigglers from stagnant pools, pails, barrels, etc. 
 Arrange jar with gauze cover and observe moulting. When some 
 have emerged as adult mosquitoes, place a few drops of kerosene on 
 water, and note results. Have aquarium arranged for one minnow. 
 Let class observe while glassful of wigglers is poured in. Which 
 method is preferable? Note differences in animal life found in dark, 
 hidden places and that of the open air. Which insects are scavengers? 
 What flowers furnish food? Compare color of insect and flowers that 
 it visits. When do the brilliantly colored flowers appear? Insects? 
 Prove what can be learned of the senses of .insects. 
 
 EARTHWORM. 
 
 Material: Box of loose, damp soil containing a number of 
 worms. Sometime during the lessons, let the older members of class 
 place in wet dishes enough worms for individual study. Use pieces 
 of glass for covers to dishes. 
 
 Observe: Shape, color. Parts: Joints, skin, head, tail, mouth. 
 How does it move? Eat? What is its food? What does it eat? 
 What are worm casts? How do worms benefit plants? Distinguish 
 between larvae of insects, and worms. Note that the latter have no 
 legs. Test for seeing, hearing, smelling. Show that sense of touch 
 is perfect. 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 Material: Handful of sand, seive, piece of granite. Show parts 
 of granite. In third and fourth grades, teach names quartz, feld- 
 spar, and mica. Find gravel, silt, etc., in soil. Which is better for 
 plants? Why? What do leaves do for soil? What do roots of plants 
 take out of soil? Show what a drain tobacco is to the soil, exhaust- 
 ing its fertility, "wearing out" the land. 
 
 Kinds: Gravel, sand, clay, loam. Influence of trees in affording 
 shade, and protection from winds. 
 
 ANIMALS. 
 
 General characteristics and resemblances. How they benefit man 
 form land, prepare soil, remove decayed matter from water and 
 air, protect from insects, scatter seeds, etc. 
 
 What manufactured animal products? What animals are fear- 
 less; industrious, skillful; persevering; meek; watchful, obedient; 
 
NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE. 93 
 
 affectionate; sympathetic; unselfish. Discuss instincts of animals 
 to hide; know direction; flee away; know weather; plan; hibernate; 
 migrate. Animals protected by inconspicuous color; attractive 
 color; shell; odor; sting; pincers; claws; teeth; nose; horns; legs; 
 tail; voice; swiftness. Select domestic animals to observe and study. 
 Where did first originate habits, structure as adapted to life, care 
 of young; training. 
 
 FROG. 
 
 Material: Eggs kept in wide, well-aired dish. 
 
 Life-History: Egg, tadpole, trace changes to adult condition. 
 Habitat; parts ears (no outside opening), eyes, pupil of eye. (third 
 eyelid), nostrils, toes (no nails), gills, tongue, skin. Use of colors; 
 use of voice. Why do frogs bury themselves in mud? Live near 
 damp places? What do they eat? Useful or injurious? What about 
 the egg would indicate the intermediate state of development? 
 
 FISH. 
 
 Any live fish that can be kept for a time; wide dish, four to six 
 inches of water, covered with netting guard. (Only such food as 
 will be eaten entire.) Parts body, scales, head, eyes, (no lids), gill 
 covers, nostrils, mouth, lips, teeth, tongue, fins. 
 
 HEAT. 
 
 Evaporation: Show by experiment which air absorbs water 
 more rapidly, warm or cold. What is needed to turn a liquid to va- 
 por? Why is a breeze cooling? How is ice made in warm climates? 
 Ways by which plants keep out wet. Experiment: Balance an un- 
 cut fruit by a pared one; observe which loses more. Split open ends 
 of various woody twigs or stems. Note which dries fastest. 
 . . .Absorption and Radiation of Heat: Heated iron or bar; direction 
 of heat passing off; how radiators heat rooms; what becomes of radi- 
 ated heat. Hold object near heated iron; examine; how did it get 
 heat? How was heated iron affected by cold object? Effect of sur- 
 face, color, etc. Why heat tire of wheels, bolts, rivets, etc? Effect 
 or high polish upon a stove, shoes, bottom of kettles. Melting snow 
 which first, clean or dirty? Why? Effect of clouds upon frost ; 
 why will thin cloth protect plants? Observe ground under trees; 
 boards of walks, and nail heads. Where is frost seen? Why? 
 
 Conduction of Heat: Effect of touching bare foot to carpet, mar- 
 ble, etc. Blanket or sawdust on ice; fur and feathers to animals; 
 double windows; salt on ice about ice cream; iron handles tipped 
 with wood, etc. 
 
 CHRYSTALLIZATION. 
 
 Material: Salt petre, bule vitrol, alum, or sugar and common 
 salt. Using separate dishes, dissolve in boiling water, and set each 
 aside for slow evaporation. Strings may be stretched through one of 
 the solutions. By placing single crystals in fresh solution each day, 
 it can be enlarged. Ice and snow crystals; catch snowflakes on black 
 
94 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 cloth, note six points. Are they all alike in size and form? Give 
 history of snowflake. Use of snow to plants. Show purity of crys- 
 tals by mixing solution of alum and blue vitrol. When three-fourths 
 of the water is evaporated from the mixture, dip the crystals quickly 
 into ice-cold water and observe. Why did they separate? On a very 
 cold day, let the effects of freezing be studied. From dish containing 
 vinegar, coffee, or ink, remove frozen crust and note what Is left 
 under ice. 
 
 INTERMEDIATE GRADES. 
 
 FERNS. 
 
 Material: As many different kinds as can be found, cut with the 
 creeping rootstock attached. Note spore cases, green dust, etc. 
 When the spores are ripe, place some of the dust on moist earth and 
 cover with glass; keep moist, but not wet. The minute heart-shaped 
 plantlet which soon appears is the first state of fern's history. Ob- 
 serve Maidenhair; stem, color, branchlets, leaflets, rootstock, chaffy 
 scales, spore cases. 
 
 MOSSES AND LICHENS. 
 
 Material: Individual collections. Study capsules, spore cases, 
 stems. Note variety of location. Discuss value of other plants, and 
 importance of peat mosses to people of north food for caribou, etc. 
 Compare with ferns. 
 
 FUNGI. 
 
 Mushrooms, toadstools, puff-balls. How do they grow? Where? 
 Local conditions; differences. Examine umbrella shaped heads of 
 mushrooms; gills, or tubes; spores, tissue. Which are poisonous? 
 Edible? Find mycelium; how remains alive, etc. Make a spore 
 print by fastening mushroom, gills down, on paper, and shutting out 
 air. 
 
 MAGNET. 
 
 Bits of bar steel, 2^ inches long, maknetized on a dynamo or 
 with a large magnet. Make magnetic needle by using large sewing 
 or knitting needle. Suspend by silk thread. Study dip of needle; 
 positive pole; negative pole; compass; north magnetic pole; cause, 
 use; declination of needle. Test for iron and steel. Show that new 
 magnet is just the opposite of the end that touched old magnet; that 
 unlike ends attract; like ends repel. Make use of needle in determin- 
 ing direction. 
 
 LIGHT. 
 
 Let pupils make a prism if one is not at hand. Use three equal 
 strips of glass; seal seams with wax and cover bottom with triangular 
 pieces of tin; fill with clear water. Note spectrum on opposite wall 
 of sutiable screen. Colored rays straight or broken? In line with 
 sun light? Distinguish colors. What is meant by luminous body? 
 Non-luminous? Difference in visibility. Why? Good reflector? Com- 
 pare book and glass; irregularly reflected light, regularly reflected. 
 Primary colors? Why? 
 
NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE. 95 
 
 PEBBLES. 
 
 Individual collection. Assort them with respect to shape, color, 
 material, etc. Where found; distance from water; how deposited 
 water shallow or deep, running or still. Are pebbles like large rocks 
 found near? Surface; hardness. Experiment with strong vinegar 
 and limestone or pieces of shell. Try pebbles, piece of slate, clay, 
 sandstone. Use of "clean sharp" sand, mortar, cement, etc. Discuss 
 erosion; banks and bed of river, etc. Learn quartz, feldspar, mica; 
 effect of glacial action. Green due to plants; yellow presence of 
 iron which has rusted. 
 
 CLAY. 
 
 Odor, color, hardness; uses, preparation; where found? In red 
 bricks, iron oxide; effect of burning; disintegrated feldspar. Observe 
 feldspar in granite; lustre, hardness, cleavage. Moonstone; kaolin; 
 clay industries of Washington. 
 
 MICA. 
 
 Observe granite, mica schist, gneiss. Note hardness, structrue ; 
 flat, six-sided forms; thin, transparent, layers; distinguish muscovite, 
 or "white mica"; biotite, "black mica." Discuss uses of mica in soil, 
 in commerce. 
 
 QUARTZ. 
 
 Review crystillization. Study some form of quartz crystal, ob- 
 serving form of drusy quartz, or if possible, the sixsided right prism. 
 Learn forms; as amethyst, carnelian, opal, flint, etc. Colors, hard- 
 ness, uses. 
 
 Observe silica in grass, grain, etc., in pebbles, clay, glass, agates, 
 granite. 
 
 LIMESTONES. 
 
 Marble: Colors, structure, origin; test with vinegar or hydro- 
 chloric acid, proving carbonate of lime. Show carbon dioxide of 
 limestone identical with that used in soda water; exhalations of 
 plants and animals. Pieces of shells, oyster or clam; scale deposits 
 in tea-kettle; lime not soluble when CO2 is gone. Stalactites in Mam- 
 moth Cave; stalagmite; effect of iron in water; chalk (not sulphate 
 of lime which is used in schoolroom chalk). White Cliffs of Dover. 
 Manufacture of lime. Limestone in Kentucky. What effect on lux- 
 uriant vegetation? 
 
 SANDSTONES. 
 
 Kinds: Brown, red, light, conglomerates; etc. Which hard? 
 Soft? Why? Grains; fossils, stratification. Cement of iron; silica. 
 Test with acid. No effervescence without lime in cement. Effect of 
 pressure in conglomerates cemented by lime or iron. Let collection 
 be made of as many sandstones as can be found. 
 
 SHALES AND SLATES. 
 
 Stratified rocks formed in water. Study structure, color, odor, 
 fossils. 
 
96 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Distinguish schist; mica, hornblende, feldspar, chlorite, according 
 to mineral composing it. Thin or thick bedded? Note that shale 
 is found below all coal seams. 
 
 COAL. 
 
 Kinds; weight; luster; color, hardness; odor; flame. Compare 
 peat, coke, graphite, anthracite and bituminous coal. Cleavage, for- 
 mation; fossils; use of plants. Trace history, from peat to anthra- 
 cite. Coal mines of Washington, of the world. Relation of coal to 
 petroleum; the diamond. 
 
 IRON. 
 
 Kinds; color; formation; hardness; uses; value. Where found? 
 Cause of rust; presence in plants; stain of iron on cloth. 
 
 CATERPILLARS. 
 
 Collect various kinds and fasten in screened cage. Observe: 
 Colors, reason for colors; parts body, head, feet; rings, covering, 
 simple eyes, jaws, etc. Segments. First segment, second segment 
 size, color, appendages. Openings for breathing, twenty-two. Warm 
 or cold blooded? 
 
 SNAILS. 
 
 Shell: Whorls, apex, aperture, operculum. Animal: habitat, hab- 
 its, food use. 
 
 GRASSHOPPERS. 
 
 Habitat, habits, food, structure, life-history. Eggs: size, color, 
 shape. 
 
 From outline above study cricket or locust. Experiment by keep- 
 ing some in school room, and note food, amount and kind. Compare 
 with scale wings, and observe differences. Food for all common birds. 
 
 BEETLES. 
 
 Kinds; appearance, colors, covering, structure, life-history. Study 
 lady bugs, potato beetles, and borers. Where most abundant? Con- 
 trast wings of beetle and bee. Are there beetles that do not fly? 
 Examine mouth parts; compare with grasshopper, fly, spider. Find 
 organs of seeing and hearing. Enemies means of attack or defense. 
 Which are injurious to plants? Beneficial? Useful or harmful to 
 man? 
 
 DOMESTIC ANIMALS. 
 
 Parts: Body, skin, hair, head, ears, eyes, teeth, food. Habits: 
 Movements, disposition, training of senses. Why difference in move- 
 ments? Compare cat and dog ; horse and cow ; how feet are placed 
 in walking, trotting, galloping. Capacity of speed. Observe the legs 
 of rabbits, cats, squirrels, or mice. Which walk with feet parallel? 
 Toes diverging outward? Elect subjects and study from outline, 
 working out reasons for habits noticeable as being peculiar; effects 
 of domestication; value to man; dependence upon man; duty of man 
 to animals. 
 
NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE. 97 
 
 TREES. 
 
 Material:. Twigs, small branches, pieces of wood and bark. Keep 
 twigs in water until study is made of buds. Appearance, branchlets, 
 buds, bark, structure of wood, range. Buds that are naked; covered 
 with hairs; with varnish or resin; opposite buds; alternate. Class- 
 ify trees according to soil and locality. Where do we find willows and 
 poplars? Maples, oaks, spruce, firs, etc.? Life history of soft maple, 
 poplar, cottonwood, or trees that can be conveniently studied. An- 
 nual history effect of rain, snow, etc. branches, buds, mark, size, 
 shape. 
 
 SNAKE. 
 
 Have small snakes in clean glass jars for class to examine. 
 
 Parts: Head, scales, eyes, nostrils, mouth, skin, color. Renew- 
 ing of scales; casting skin; how? Bones, how connected? Food, how 
 swallowed? Observe teeth in single row; shape, points curved back- 
 ward. Note that poisonous snakes have flat, triangular heads, small 
 necks, and usually thick, stumpy bodies. Eggs: numerous, long, soft- 
 shelled. How hatched? Condition of young ones when hatched. 
 
 SPIDER. 
 
 Food, juices of insects; hibernates in nests of web. Examine webs; 
 eggs (laid in little bags of web in the cracks of boards, or scales of 
 bark, etc.). 
 
 Parts, habits, habitat. Study specimens brought by pupils; note 
 differences between spider and insect; spider and bug. Experiment 
 with spider placed so that it cannot escape but by spinning a web. 
 Distinguish different kinds; jumping spider, running spider, cob- 
 web weaver, orb weaver, crab spider. Interesting notes may be ad- 
 ded about trap- door spider and tarantulas of the South. 
 
 BIRDS. 
 
 Continue work begun under Primary Grades, learning traits, hab- 
 its, distinguishing features or song birds and birds of prey. 
 
 CLOVER. 
 
 Kinds: Red, white. Observe differences of corollas, calyx. Find 
 stipules, leaf stalks, keel, stamens. How fertilized? Why by long- 
 tongued insects. Why import bumble bees where red clover failed 
 to set seed? The beginning of a collection of plants should be made 
 in the grades; and with helpful suggestions pupils should be encour- 
 aged to press and preserve specimens. By learning characteristics of 
 family groups, and being able to distinguish them, they have a foun- 
 dation for a strong course in botany. 
 
 SHEPHERD'S PURSE. 
 
 Examine parts calyx, corolla, stamens, pollen, pistel, seed case, 
 etc. Shape of corolla, Greek cross, sign of Mustard family. Stamens, 
 4 long, 2 short. Observe seed pods. 
 
 7 
 
98 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Select twenty subjects found in locality, study and preserve. A 
 press may be kept at school and pupils have charge of the work. 
 
 METEROLOGY. 
 
 Continue weather record, as outlined, noting local conditions, pre- 
 vailing winds, cloud forms, etc. 
 
 Advantage should be taken of any peculiar specimen that may 
 be brought, to study it while having opportunity. An awakened, in- 
 terested class find many of these and the course as outlined is de- 
 signed only to begin that which the live teacher is quick to supplement 
 from her own environment. 
 Nature Literature : 
 
 Whittier's Child Life. 
 
 Longfellow's Hiawatha. 
 
 Lovejoy's Nature in Verse. 
 
 F. D. Sherman's Little Folks' Lyrics. 
 
 Mrs. Dodge's Verses Along the Way. 
 
 Margaret Sangster's Little Lords and Ladies. 
 
 Wiltse's Stories for Kindergartens. 
 
 Morse's First Lessons in Zoology. 
 
 Directions for Collecting Insects, (free), Smithsonian Insti- 
 tute, Washington, D. C. 
 
 Thirty-six Observation Lessons on Common Minerals, Clapp. 
 
 Nature Study and Life, Hodge. 
 
 Plants and Their Children, Mrs. Dana. 
 
 AGRICULTURE. 
 
 SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES. 
 
 It is not intended that this work shall be merely a repetition of the 
 Nature Study. Wherever a text-book is used, it is recommended that 
 the outline be followed, as given in text-book. 
 Study of Seeds. 
 
 1. How to test seeds. How to preserve seeds so that they will germ- 
 
 inate. 
 
 2. Germination of seeds in different soils and in different conditions 
 
 of soil. 
 
 3. Amount of seed to be sown. 
 
 ( a ) Relation of amount of seed to size. 
 
 (b } Relation of amount of seed to the manner of growth of crop. 
 
 Study of Roots. 
 
 4. Relation of root structure to soil cultivation. 
 
 (a] Whether deep or shallow cultivation is needed. 
 
 (b} Whether soil should be pulverized. 
 
 (c) Whether much or little moisture is necessary. 
 
NATURE STUDY AND AGRICULTURE. 99 
 
 5. Relation of climate to crops. 
 
 (a) How far are the crops of your section determined? (1) by 
 
 temperature; (2) by humidity. 
 () Atmospheric conditions in the relation to growing 1 crops. 
 
 6. Fertilization of soils. 
 
 Best fertilizers for the crops of your section. Why? 
 
 7. Study of the physical properties of soils and their relation to crops. 
 
 8. Study of insects. 
 
 (a ) Which are injurious, and how may their ravages be checked? 
 
 (b) Which are beneficial and how may they be preserved? 
 
 9. Study of birds (as above). 
 
 10. Study of weeds. 
 
 ( U ) Their habitat. 
 
 ( b ) Manner and time of growth. 
 
 (c). Structure of roots. 
 
 (d) Time of ripening. 
 
 with a view to determining the best mode of eradicating. 
 
 11. Trees, etc. 
 Grafting and budding. 
 Pruning and spraying. 
 
 12. Study of plant diseases and parasites. 
 
 13. Pollination of blossoms. 
 
 ( a ) What is pollination? 
 
 ( b ) Results of proper and improper pollination. 
 
 ( c) Comparison of self pollination and cross pollination. 
 
 (d) Means of pollination. 
 ( e ) Origin of hybrids. 
 
 14. Forestry and its relation to agriculture. 
 Domestic Animals. 
 
 15. Horses. 
 
 (a) Draft, (d) Saddle, (c) Carriage, (d) General purpose. 
 ( e) Care and treatment of common ailments. 
 
 16. Cattle. 
 
 (a) Beef, (d) Dairy. 
 
 ( c} Care and shelter. 
 
 (of) Feed. What elements needed in food. Balanced ration. 
 
 ( e ) Relation of care and feed to quantity and quality of milk or meat. 
 
 17. Sheep. 
 
 ( a } Mutton breeds. ( b ) Wool breeds. 
 
 ( c ) Care of ' Sheep. ( d ) Benefit to a farm. 
 
 18. Hogs ( as above ) . 
 
 19. Relation of domestic animals to other branches of agriculture as 
 
 carried on in your vicinity. 
 
 Teachers should secure for themselves and their pupils bulletins 
 published by the Washington State College and by the Department of 
 Agriculture, Washington, D. C. Pupils would be interested in the 
 instructions for judging live stock, fruits and cereals issued by Wash- 
 ington State College. It is intended that attention be given to the 
 
100 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 actual crops in cultivation in the pupil's own vicinity, and not to the 
 theoretical study of crops which he never or seldom sees. 
 
 Probably no school will be able to cover every subject indicated. 
 Those subjects most applicable to the agricultural industries of each 
 section should be studied by the pupils of that section. 
 
 DRAWING. 
 
 DISCUSSION. 
 
 Connect all study of form and drawing as closely and naturally as 
 possible with other lines of school work. Encourage especially all 
 attempts at sketching from natural objects. If a drawing is dis- 
 tinctly bad, try to cultivate more thoughtful observation. The trouble 
 is most likely to be a mater of imperfect observation. Have all 
 drawing entirely freehand, allowing no use- of rulers for straight 
 lines. Use eraser as little as possible. The object is not to get per- 
 fect results, on paper, but to train senses, mind and hand to work 
 together. 
 
 Make an effort to have good pictures on the walls and encourage 
 children to study and discuss them. 
 
 Encourage children to observe beautiful and appropriate forms 
 in everyday objects, furniture, household belongings, etc. Start them 
 in the habit of noticing how things are made and appreciating what 
 is especially well designed as to form and color. 
 
 OBJECT DRAWING IN THE PRIMARY GRADES. 
 
 The most effective means of teaching drawing to primary pupils 
 is by example. The teacher must lead, not push; must draw, not 
 talk; show how by doing, not explaining. How does a boy learn to 
 swim? (1) He sees other boys swim. (2) He wants to swim. (3) 
 He tries and swims. It is the same with flying kites, playing mar- 
 bles, jumping the rope, riding a bicycle, etc. They see; they have 
 the desire; they learn. Your pupils will learn drawing precisely the 
 same way if they have the opportunity. 
 
 Procure some simple objects, any simple form will do; leaves, box- 
 elder, seeds, simple flowers, etc. 
 
 (1) Give an object to each pupil and ask him to draw it on his 
 slate or tablet. Let the pupils begin work immediately. Teach them 
 to hold the object in one hand between the thumb and forefinger in 
 an easy position, to look at it and then draw, then to look again and 
 do the same. The try is what you are after, not the drawing. (2) 
 You step to the blackboard with the object between your thumb and 
 forefinger and draw it on the board. Don't talk, don't explain; don't 
 say a word; simply draw, and bright eyes will do the rest. Your 
 drawing is not for them to copy, but to show how, to lead, to encour- 
 
DRAWING. 101 
 
 age. The pupils see how you draw, see the drawing on the black- 
 board and try to do likewise. To be sure there will be more or less 
 copying of your drawing, but never mind, this is a tendency inborn 
 in the human race and is a force that will serve you well if rightly 
 directed, so when looking at the drawings of each do not judge 
 harshly those who have copied your drawing, but lead them to draw 
 what they see; to draw their own object and to use soft lines. 
 
 Turn the object over and draw it. There is no reason why pupils 
 shquld not draw from two to six objects in one lesson, and draw each 
 as well as if only one were drawn. Slow, laborious drawing in a 
 class of little ones is not desirable. 
 
 OBJECT DRAWING IN THE GRAMMAR GRADES. 
 
 How to Collect Objects. Do not ask your pupils for objects in a 
 general way, but be specific. Suppose you have twenty pupils, and 
 tomorrow wish potatoes for each pupil, ask "Who will bring twenty 
 potatoes tomorrow for the class in drawing?" From those who vol- 
 unteer choose one and hold him responsible for the twenty potatoes 
 on the morrow. Write on the blackboard a list of objects you want 
 and ask each pupil to pick out an object that he or she can bring to 
 school. Charge each pupil with the object he agrees to bring, and 
 hold him to the charge until the debt is paid. A good collection of 
 objects for drawing is very desirable. 
 
 The following objects that are generally suitable and procur- 
 able for drawing: 
 
 Summer and Fall Objects. Box-elder seeds, milk-weed pods, ear 
 of corn, head of wheat, peach stones, a squash, chrysanthemums, as- 
 ters and sunflowers. 
 
 Winter Objects. Pine cones, birds' nests, wasps' nests, cocoanut, 
 banana, lemons, leafless trees, etc. 
 
 Spring and Summer Objects. Buds of various plants, catkins, 
 leaves, grasses, roots, dandelions, pansies^ or violets, apple, peach and 
 cherry blossoms, crocus, radishes, strawberries, etc. 
 
 Old, Worn and Broken Objects. Bowl, teapot, pitcher, jar, jug, 
 oil-can, lamp, candle stick, bottle, bucket, keg, waste basket, berry 
 basket, umbrella, hat, baby's shoes, rubber overshoes, faucet, book, 
 roll of paper, broom, skates, blocks of wood. Mounted birds, animals 
 or reptiles are also good objects to draw from. Some small objects 
 suitable to hold in one hand and draw with the other are: A key, 
 fish-hook, scissors, top, knife, buton-hook, nail, screw, corkscrew, 
 toothbrush, padlock, buckle, spool. 
 
 Group of Objects. Hat, gloves and cane or umbrella; plaster of 
 paris models; teapot, cup and saucer; pitcher and glass or mug; vase 
 with a flower; basket of fruit; pumpkin cut in half; loaf of bread, 
 bowl and pitcher; group of fruil^s; candlestick and book; pail and 
 scrubbing brush; oil-can, paint pot and brush. 
 
102 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Use and Placing of Objects. If the objects are small, it is best 
 for each pupil to have his own object. This can be very easily man- 
 aged with such objects as leaves, buds, twigs, flowers, fruits, etc. It 
 is not necessary for the pupils to have the same kinds of objects; 
 each may have a different object and not at all interfere with the 
 effectiveness of the class. The most effective way of placing large 
 objects such as those under the head of "Old and Broken Objects," 
 is to procure boards about a foot wide; place these across the aisles 
 and place or group the objects in the middle of the board. In this 
 position from twelve to fourteen pupils can see the objects plainly. 
 Do not ask a large school to draw from one object placed on the 
 teacher's desk. 
 
 How to Draw Objects. If the object is long and slender, first 
 draw the medium line; second, with the unaided eye, choose points 
 of prominence; third, roughly mark in proportions; fourth, finish. 
 
 When an object consists of one large part and several small parts, 
 first, draw with light lines the large part; second, add the smaller 
 parts to it; third, finish. For instance, when wrawing the human 
 head, do not begin with the nose or face, but draw the head first, and 
 to the head add the smaller parts. The recognition of the shape of 
 the whole or part of the object is of great aid in drawing. For ex- 
 ample, in drawing a cat siting down, *recognize that the shape of the 
 body of the cat is oval; the head round, and the ears triangular. 
 This simplifies the drawing of it. These familiar shapes are quite 
 common in objects if you will but look for them, and when recognized 
 are great aids in getting the proportion. 
 
 One of the best methods of drawing irregular-shaped objects con- 
 taining considerable length and width, such as a hat, or shoe, is to 
 first take the length; second, find the width and block out the size 
 with light lines; third, find and mark the prominent points; fourth, 
 finish. Almost any point may be judged very accurately if the mind 
 is concentrated on that point. We fail when we try to take in two or 
 more points at the same time. 
 
 When drawing a group of objects such as named under the head 
 of "Groups," first choose a prominent point; second, from this point 
 locate several surrounding points with the unaided eye the draw- 
 ing of light lines from one point to another is a great aid in locat- 
 ing these points; third, lightly sketch in the shape of the objects and 
 locate the detail; fourth, finish. 
 
 Drawing Box-Shaped Objects. The object should be at least three 
 times its height away from you; it may be further away than this, 
 but if nearer the object will appear distorted. 
 
 Measuring. Procure a box (a crayon box is an excellent model) 
 and place it before you; hold your pencil at easy arm's length away; 
 clbse one eye; let the upper end of the pencil correspond with one 
 corner of the box, and with your thumb mark the other corner; this 
 gives a unit with which to compare other lines. In order to learn 
 
 v 
 
DRAWING. 103 
 
 how to measure make several measurements of lines and compare 
 them. In making measurements care must be taken to keep the pen- 
 cil the same distance from the eye and not let the pencil slant or re- 
 cede in the direction of the object. The pencil must be kept at right 
 angles with the arm at all times. This is the most important point 
 in measuring, .and it must be observed. The general process of 
 drawing box-shaped objects is as follows: First, draw the nearest 
 vertical line; second, find the remaining vertical lines; third, find the 
 courses; fourth, finish. First step: Place the object in position, 
 draw the nearest vertical line any length you wish; this line (line 
 1) when drawn, becomes the unit of measure of all other lines in the 
 drawing, and determines the size of the picture. Second step: Find 
 the position of vertical lines by comparing the length of line 1 with 
 the horizontal distance between other vertical lines, and make the 
 same comparison in your drawing. Draw the vertical lines lightly 
 and of indefinite length. Third step: To find the corners, hold your 
 pencil horizontally and pass it up line 1 on the object, not on the 
 drawing, note where it crosses the corner, that is, how far above the 
 botom or below the top of line 1 ; mark this point in your drawing on 
 line 1, and from this point draw a light horizontal line to intersect 
 the vertical line drawn in the second step (which is line 2). Where 
 this line crosses line 2 it will mark a corner; find other corners in 
 the same manner and draw lines from foot of line 1 to points of in- 
 tersection. From top of line 1 draw lines parallel with last men- 
 tioned lines and your drawing is complete. Any known point may 
 be found by finding how far to the right or left and how far above 
 or below it is of a given point in your drawing. For practice draw 
 boxes at the right of the eye, at the left, above, below, above and to 
 the right, below and to the left, etc. 
 
 In drawing a house, barn, shanty, shed, cabin, tent, etc., look at 
 it as a box with a roof added to the top. In general these objects 
 may be drawn as follows: First, take the nearest vertical line; sec- 
 ond, find other vertical lines as in the case of the box; third, find the 
 corners; fourth, locate the detail and finish. 
 
104 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 MUSIC* 
 
 A musical education can be gained only through the use of the 
 best music. A pupil will grow best in knowledge of musical ele- 
 ments through the recognition of his faculties in the order in which 
 they are developed, viz.: from intuitional mental activity to reflective 
 mental activity. 
 
 1. Musical experience should be the beginning of musical knowl- 
 edge; to make it plain, a child should learn by ear a great many 
 good, attractive songs, and be able to sing them well with the proper 
 expression before he is taught the problems that enter into the com- 
 position of the selections used. 
 
 2. The child's first study of musical problems should be based 
 on the songs that he has already learned in his earlier work. 
 
 3. The best songs make the best basis for the child's study, no 
 difference whether it be work in the lower or more advanced grades. 
 
 4. A music course based entirely on the scientific relation of 
 musical elements to each other is incorrect. The correct way to 
 teach a child to sing is by singing. Do not set him to learning a num- 
 bed of musical problems, such as the relation of keys and the build- 
 ing of scales, but by beginning with a number of songs embodying 
 the elements desired to begin with. 
 
 When a pupil has acquired a sufficient amount of skill in singing, 
 the staff should be introduced by drawing it upon the board, using 
 it as an aid in singing any song that he may know. The correct way 
 of studying musical problems is to encounter them in singing and 
 studying. In music training the child's knowledge of elements should 
 be gained by studying them in relation to familiar songs containing 
 them and not by comparing them with elements which they scien- 
 tifically resemble. 
 
 By familiarizing a child with musical elements as heretofore 
 pointed out he gains a musical knowledge of the different elements 
 of music and his singing will consequently be musical and artistic 
 throughout. In a word, the way to master the difficult problems of 
 music is to become familiar with them through musical experience. 
 This is the only correct foundation for musical knowledge. 
 
 The next step is to study them in their musical relation to other 
 problems that are similar to them in mathematical and tonal con- 
 struction. 
 
 Music has two distinct phases: The spiritual side, which brings 
 out all that is beautiful and artistic in the art of music, and the 
 formal side, which is definite and exact in the extreme. - 
 
 These two phases are so related that one, in order to have a 
 thorough education must have an abundant experience in each. 
 
MUSIC. 105 
 
 First of all, in the beginning of a child's musical education, the 
 songs should be sung as art forms. The child should sing with the 
 greatest freedom and in a very natural manner. He should not en- 
 counter any of the formal characteristics of music until after being 
 in school at least three months and even though he is led to execute 
 his tasks in an exact manner as to tone, length, etc., his work should 
 not apparently partake of this phase. 
 
 Although his work should be absolutely correct it should not 
 seem to be following any of the firm rules that must necessarily be 
 applied. Therefore, the work of the first few months must be purely 
 imitative. Much depends on the start that a child gets as to whether 
 his later work will be successful, and this is especially true in music. 
 In choosing songs and music material the teacher might well ob- 
 serve the following suggestions: The words and the music should be 
 of the very best recognized quality. The sentiment of the words 
 should largely be something that will appeal to the child and be 
 child-like in character. Nature, season and home songs should make 
 up the larger number of selections. The compass of all songs or ex- 
 ercises should be within easy reach of the child's voice from the low- 
 est to the highest tones. Any strained tone productions are harmful. 
 
 When singing without an instrument, as is usually the case and 
 should be, the sound of "one" of the scale should be given frequently 
 from the pitch pipe, in order to keep the pupils on the pitch. Do not 
 allow boisterous singing, as it is an injury to the voice and destroys 
 the proper production of tones. Insist on a light, free quality of 
 tone. 
 
 Owing to the fact that a limited space has been allotted to the 
 subject of music in this manual, only the briefest kind of a suggestive 
 outline of work can be given. 
 
 FIRST YEAR. 
 
 The work is begun with imitation singing and carried through the 
 entire first year. At times a few elementary facts regarding the 
 scales, tones and time may be taught as a part of the songs sung, or 
 as independent facts, but great care should be exercised not to under- 
 take anything that is beyond the grasp of the pupil. For example, 
 the scale may be sung as an exercise or a song, using the scale 
 names 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, the pitch names A, B, C, D, E, F, G, 
 A, and the syllables do, re, me, fa, sol, la, se, do. This exercise may 
 be applied to the songs instead of the words learned. 
 
 The child should be taught during his first year to observe the 
 rhythm of his song work. This will be an easy and simple matter and 
 it will be found that he will respond to this more readily than to 
 scale or interval singing. 
 
 The work of the first year should consist of learning about fifty 
 well-selected songs, on an average of five a month, ear-training, sing- 
 ing the scale and intervals, learning to find the key-note, note divi- 
 
106 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 sion of songs into phrases, note and mark the accented and unaccented 
 beats of a measure. No book should be placed in the hands of the 
 
 pupil during this period. 
 
 SECOND YEAR. 
 
 In a well-graded school a book may be placed in the hands of 
 the pupil at the beginning of the second year, but in a school not 
 closely graded the book should be withheld for another half year. 
 
 1. Continue singing songs by imitation. 
 
 2. Review the songs of the first year, after which new ones may 
 be taken up. About twenty or twenty-five songs should be learned 
 by rote during this period. 
 
 3. Study songs and technical forms. 
 
 4. Study the staff. 
 
 5. Sing the simpler elements of the songs in connection with 
 the songs of the previous year, but making more definite observations. 
 
 6. Notation that is, eye training. 
 
 7. Writing phrases or simple songs from memory. 
 
 8. Reading music from staff notation and inventing simple little 
 melodies. 
 
 9. After about three months' singing and practice in this period 
 a beginning should be made in sight reading by giving the pupil 
 some simple song or exercise in connection with any of the four 
 keys of sharps. The work of the teacher will be to gradually develop 
 the independent power of the child so that he may attack work con- 
 stantly increasing in difficulties. 
 
 THIRD YEAR. 
 
 1. Review previous work thoroughly. 
 
 2. Introduce new rote songs; about twenty during the year. 
 These songs may be used in connection with related study. 
 
 3. Sight reading. A large part of the work of this year should 
 be devoted to sight reading; about thirty or thirty-five songs or ex- 
 ercises should be used according to the ability of the class. 
 
 4. The work of previous years relative to observation, eye and 
 ear training, following the notation of familiar songs, writing simple 
 songs from memory and inventing simple exercises should be con- 
 tinued. 
 
 5. Study of keys continued and completed. 
 
 6. Study of the value of dotted notes. 
 
 7. Teach the divided beat; the unequally divided beat. 
 
 8. A study of sharp 4 should be made. 
 
 FOURTH YEAR. 
 
 1. Reviews of previous years should never be omitted. 
 
 2. Learn a few songs and exercises by imitation. 
 
 3. Compare and analyze songs and technical forms. 
 
 4. Sight reading. More than ever before the child's attention 
 is directed to sight reading, and song study except as he sings famil- 
 iar songs for the sake of properly balancing his musical development. 
 
MUSIC. 107 
 
 5. Take up about two new songs each month. Songs that will 
 introduce new and more difficult problems each time. 
 
 At the end of the fourth year pupils should be able to read at 
 sight any simple exercise in any of the nine keys, the work of the 
 chromatics being left for the grammar grades with the exception of 
 sharp 4. 
 
 In the grammar grades the child is directed largely in the study 
 of songs, but the teacher must always be on the alert to detect any- 
 thing in the work that has a tendency toward the mechanical in time 
 to arouse the true musical spirit by recalling familiar songs and 
 singing them over again as a standard of correct musical expression. 
 
 Never lose sight of proper expression and shading, which makes 
 music all that it really is. It has been said that "music is frozen 
 poetry" and without proper interpretation it must remain so. Not 
 less than thirty-five of forty songs should be studied in each one of 
 the grammar grades besides other work as more specifically laid down 
 in this outline. 
 
 FIFTH YEAR. 
 
 1. Review work of previous grades. 
 
 2. Continue sight reading with more difficult selections leading 
 into. 
 
 2. Chromatics. An abundance of songs and exercises should be 
 selected for this study. 
 
 4. Transposition. Simple exercises. 
 
 5. The study of triplets, ties, slurs. 
 
 6. Meaning of musical terms. 
 
 7. Definitions. 
 
 8. Simple two-part exercises taken up. 
 
 SIXTH YEAR. 
 
 1. Reviews. 
 
 2. Sight reading. 
 
 3. Transposition of more difficult exercises. 
 
 4. All necessary musical terms and definitions. 
 
 5. Any two-part songs to be sung. 
 
 6. All rythmical and tonal problems should be carefully re- 
 viewed, studied and analyzed, including the divided beat, the un- 
 equally divided beat, the beat and half note, twice divided beat, tie, 
 slur, triplet, chromatics, etc. 
 
 SEVENTH AND EIGHTH YEARS. 
 
 All that has been suggested for other grades should be carefully 
 considered as applicable for these periods, and especial stress and at- 
 tention should be given to really artistic production. Carefully watch 
 the expression, tone quality, shading and all such points as lend to 
 the proper interpretation of the songs. 
 
 The songs selected bay be one, two or three-part singing. Good 
 judgment should be shown in the use of the bass clef, that all tones 
 are easily within reach of the pupil's voice, not allowing any strained 
 eiforts either in range or in tone production. 
 
108 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING. 
 
 "Education comes through what the child does, and says, and 
 thinks, and feels in the presence of the environment which the 
 teacher supplies. The teacher teaches the child; the child educates 
 himself. In being taught, the child is passive; in being educated, he 
 is active. The thing to be stressed is that teachers educate more, even 
 if to gain the time necessary for it they have to teach less. Education 
 is self expression not impression alone. Every impression made by 
 teachers upon pupils should be followed by expression in some fashion 
 from the pupils." "Philosophy of Education," Herman H. Home. 
 
 1. School work should be so planned as to strengthen the founda- 
 tions of community life. 
 
 2. Both mind and body should be actively employed in education. 
 
 3. Expression subjects, such as writing, drawing, music, hand- 
 work, etc., should as far as practicable be used in expression and not 
 isolated from other work. 
 
 4. While the development of the subject matter is secondary to 
 the development of the child, the logical unfolding of the same is 
 an important means to the child's development. "Course of Study," 
 Nettie A. Sawyer, Primary Supervisor, Seattle. 
 
 The following outline is only suggestive. The wise teacher will 
 follow it only so far at it will, for her school, fulfill the underlying 
 principles given above. This course has been planned considering the 
 logical sequence of the subject and the best adjustment of the sub- 
 ject to the developing child. 
 
 MEANS. 
 
 As to means, the whole subject is in an experimental stage. The 
 consensus of opinion is to carry on all elementary handwork in the 
 regular class-room so long as the material and equipment will per- 
 mit, and have the regular teacher teach this handwork. There are 
 two good reasons for this: 
 
 1st. The cost of maintaining a separate room with special equip- 
 ment in every school is too great in the present adjustment of school 
 expenditures. 
 
 2nd. The purpose of the handwork, in the lower grades particu- 
 larly, is the opportunity it offers for expression; hence closer and 
 more real correlation is possible with one teacher in the regular class- 
 room under present conditions. 
 
 At the present time the division is made in most public schools 
 at about the fifth or sixth grade when bench work is introduced. 
 The age and size of the pupils is about right to handle larger tools 
 and to be able, unattended, to pass in groups from the school to the 
 shops or cooking room. The chief objection to working at a bench 
 with bench tools or attempting any work in cooking earlier than this, 
 
MANUAL TRAINING. 109 
 
 is the difficulty of providing the equipment and organizing the school 
 for it. Consequently in many of the cities and larger towns the 
 boys in the above grades leave the class-room for the shop and 
 special teacher and the girls remain to take up sewing with the class 
 teacher. 
 
 METHODS. 
 
 As to methods, the adjustment of any handwork to the public 
 school has met with most success in giving it, for the convenience of 
 organization, a definite place in the school programme, and devoting 
 a specified time to teaching the manipulation of form side of the 
 handwork, while not forgetting the content side, and the relation the 
 result of this activity has to the school life of the pupil. In a small 
 school the opportunity is much greater for a closer relation between 
 form and content, and the handwork can more easily be made the ex- 
 pression of a dominant interest arising in nature study, literature, 
 geography, history, arithmetic, etc., and all the child requires to know 
 of the "how" of the handwork may be taught at such a time. 
 
 TIME. 
 
 The time given to handwork and drawing should be about one- 
 seventh to one-tenth of the total time of the school session in the first 
 eight grades, and the major portion of this time, in the first four 
 grades, should be given to such forms of handwork as are based upon 
 the work in history, nature study, geography, English and number 
 work. In the high school about one-fourth the time required of the 
 pupil, who elects it, is given to drawing and manual training. The 
 organization of the present-day High School, with its various courses 
 and electives, is largely responsible for this time division, though 
 the nature of the work, its greater technical values and requirements, 
 naturally demand more time of the pupil. The time divisions given 
 above are only suggestive and should vary with the school conditions. 
 
 FORM. 
 
 The form of handwork possible for the elementary grades is only 
 limited by school conditions and the skill of the teacher. Any ma- 
 terial capable of being manipulated by small hands and with such 
 simple tools as the pencil, brush, scissors, needle and paste brush and 
 that has relative values is good. 
 
 The following outline is the one recommended for use in the 
 common schools of King county by former Supt. W. G. Hartranft. 
 
 It will be noted that the motive back of the handwork given, 
 comes from the other subjects of the course of study literature, his- 
 tory and nature study. For example, the things made in teaching 
 sewing are expressions of the study of history, the doll house being 
 the center of interest to acquaint the child with the significance of 
 the home interests. 
 
GRADE. 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING OUTLINE. 
 
 FIRST. 
 
 Paper folding and cutting.- 
 
 Sewing: Hemming, running blanket flannel stitches. 
 
 Make curtains, bed spreads, table covers for doll house. 
 
 Braiding raffia hats, belts, mats, covering pasteboard with raffla. 
 
 Weaving wools, raffla into rugs. 
 
 Story of wool use of shepherd. Manufacture of wool. 
 
 Industry of year doll house. 
 
 Designing wall paper, rugs, furniture. 
 
 Clay twice a week. 
 
 Drawing daily. 
 
 SECOND. 
 
 Raffla tying, bags, hammocks. 
 
 Weaving raffla warp or wool into rugs, hammocks. 
 
 Story of wool. 
 
 Sewing: Hemming, running, basting, gathering, overhand 
 
 stitches, flannel stitch. 
 Designing rugs, garments. 
 First idea of drafting given. 
 Industry dressing a doll. 
 Clay twice a week. 
 Drawing daily. 
 
 THIRD. 
 
 Raffla. Making coiled basket or lunch box. 
 
 Weaving rag rug. 
 
 Sewing: Hemming, running, basting, overseaming, gathering, 
 
 sew on loops, linen hem for handkerchief, darning, mending. 
 Story of cotton what is a square. 
 Drafting first lesson in drafting. 
 Designing basket, rug, garment. 
 Industry dressing a doll. 
 Clay twice a week. 
 Drawing daily. 
 
 FOURTH. 
 
 Raffla basket, belts, hats, bags. 
 
 Sewing: Hemming, running, basting, gathering, button hole 
 
 stitch, gingham pillow worked with raffla, darning, mending. 
 Story of flax thread. 
 Weaving wool or rag rug. 
 Drafting parallelogram, composition. 
 Industry making apron for sloyd work, bags, to utilize stitches 
 
 taught. 
 
 Designing basket, rug. 
 Drawing daily. 
 Clay wood work. 
 Construction once a week. 
 
 FIFTH. 
 
 Wood work: Construction, decoration, carving, pyrography. 
 
 Story of tree. 
 
 Sewing: Essential stitches for garment making, linen hem, 
 
 darning, mending, outline stitch, sew on buttons. 
 Basketry raffla and reed. 
 
 Weaving wool into rug, raffla into pillow, hat. 
 Drawing twice a week. 
 Clay once a week. 
 Designing basket, rug. 
 Drafting parallelogram, first garment. 
 
 SIXTH. 
 
 Like above with addition of bent iron work. 
 
 SEVENTH. 
 
 Wood work : Construction and decoration. 
 Evolution of tools. 
 Sewing: Essential stitches for garment making, linen hem, 
 
 felling, hem-stitch, darning, mending. 
 Raffla, basket, pillow, hat. 
 Designing basket, pillow, wood work. 
 Weaving card cases, purses. 
 Book binding, construction. 
 Drawing clay. 
 Result of year's work some completed garments, drafted and 
 
 made by pupils. 
 
 EIGHTH. 
 
 Woodwork: Construction, decoration. 
 
 Evolution of tools. 
 
 Sewing: Essential stitches, French seam hem stitch, button 
 
 hole, darning and mending. 
 Raffla, basket, pillow, hat. 
 Designing basket, pillow, wood work. 
 Result of year's work a completed garment. 
 Bead work: Weaving silkeline into purses, calling cases. 
 
MANUAL TRAINING. 
 
 As a help to teaching this course and understanding how and 
 what to teach and how much it costs, the following suggestions are 
 given : 
 
 All of our state' schools are now offering Summer Courses in the 
 forms of handwork here given. An attendance of one or two terms 
 would give an able teacher a good working knowledge of the hand- 
 work here outlined. 
 
 The following books will be found particularly valuable for in- 
 struction in the subjects they cover and give in most cases full de- 
 tails as to material and method required: 
 
 "The Place of Industries in Elementary Education," by Katherine 
 Dopp. The University of Chicago Press, $1.00. 
 
 This book does not give a course of work, but deals with the 
 underlying principles of handwork in the grades. "Instead of numer- 
 ous and narrow lines of often unrelated and specialized work, we 
 have here an appeal for the recognition of the physical and psychical 
 characteristics of the child, with its instincts and tendencies interpre- 
 ted through the experience of the race." 
 
 "Social-Industrial Education," by Wm. A. Baldwin. Milton Brad- 
 ley Co., $1.50. 
 
 "This book does not deal with courses of study, but deals with 
 the problems that have presented themselves at the Hyannis, Mass., 
 State Normal School, with suggestions as to possibilities in the vari- 
 ous handwork processes." Hammock making, basket work, clay mod- 
 eling and school gardens are some of the forms of handwork dealt 
 with in detail. 
 
 "The Normal Seminar," June, 1905, published by the State Normal 
 School, Cheney, Wash. 
 
 This number gives the syllabus of the course of study for the 
 training school. It is rich in suggestion for correlation and will be 
 of great help to any teacher in all branches of the curriculum. 
 
 "Industrial Work for Public Schools," by Holton & Rollins. Rand 
 & McNally Co. 
 
 "Primary Manual Training," by Caroline F. Cutler. Educa- 
 tional Pub. Co., Chicago. 
 
 The above are very good books of direction in detail, for the 
 work covered. 
 
 "First Years in Handicraft," by Walter J. Kenyon. Baker & 
 Taylor Co., New York, $1.00. 
 
 Gives work in paper and cardboard for pupils from 7 to 12 years 
 upon a very economical basis. 
 
 "Plan Book Paper Cutting," by Minnie George. A. Flanigan & 
 Co., Chicago, 111. 
 
 "Cardboard Construction," by J. H. Tryon. Milton Bradley Co., 
 $1.00. 
 
 "A suggestive course of forty models of useful articles designed 
 for use in the fourth and fifth grades." 
 
 "Raffia and Reed Weaving," by Knapp. Milton Bradley Co., San 
 Francisco, Cal. 
 
TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 "Practical and Artistic Basketry," by Laura Rollins Tinsley. E. 
 L. Kellogg & Co., New York, $1.00. 
 
 "A compact and helpful book for teachers. It contains an out- 
 line of a course in basketry for the elementary schools." 
 
 "Basketry," by Luther Weston Turner. The School Arts Book 
 (monthly) of April, May and June, 1905, 14c per copy. The Davis 
 Press, Worcester, Mass. 
 
 The directions are very close and concise and unusually well il- 
 lustrated. 
 
 "Hand-loom Weaving," by Mattie Phipps Todd. Rand & McNally, 
 Chicago, 111., 90c. 
 
 Modeling 
 
 "Social-Industrial Education," at the head of this list, gives di- 
 rections for clay modeling in a chapter on that subject. 
 
 Bent Iron. 
 
 A reprint of an article by Henry Turner Bailey that first ap- 
 peared in the School Arts Book, and is now distributed in an attrac- 
 tive booklet by Chandler & Barber, 124 Summer St., Boston, Mass. 
 
 Sewing. 
 
 "The Art and Practice of Needle Work," by Catherine F. John- 
 son. D. C. Heath & Co., Boston, Mass. 
 
 "Mrs. W'oolman's Sewing Course." Ginn & Co., Boston, Mass. 
 
 Drawing and Design. 
 
 "The Annotated Outlines," given monthly in the School Arts 
 Book, Henry Turner Bailey, editor. The Davis Press, Worcester, 
 Mass., $1.00 per year. 
 
 This little book should be in the hands of every teacher in Wash- 
 ington. 
 
 "Text-Books of Art Instruction" (new series). Prang Educational 
 Co., 113 University Place, N. Y. 
 
 "One book for each grade. Very fully and beautifully illustrated 
 in black and white and in color, the illustrations accompanied by 
 text to be read and studied by the pupil and adapted to his age and 
 capacity." 
 
 BENCH WORK. 
 
 All the handwork given in its course, except bench work, can be 
 carried on in the regular class-room by the regular teacher. Bench 
 work requires a special room and well-trained teacher. There is 
 not at present any book that covers the methods and material of a 
 course in bench work satisfactorily. "Bench Work in Wood," by 
 F. M. Ross, Ginn & Co., and "Working Drawings of Models in 
 Sloyd," Gustaf Larson, Boston, Mass., give a graded series of models 
 or exercises. 
 
 It is not wise to attempt bench work without a skilled teacher. 
 Such a teacher plans his own course to meet existing conditions and 
 should not be limited to a set course of models. 
 
 MANUAL TRAINING EQUIPMENT. 
 
 Bench work for the sixth, seventh and eighth grades and first 
 year High School. 
 
 The accompanying drawing of a model manual training room and 
 its equipment and the specifications of furniture, tools and supplies 
 are made as definite suggestions for the proper equipping and es- 
 tablishing of bench work in the public schools. 
 
SCHOOL EXHIBITS OF HANDWORK 
 
 AT THE 
 
 LEWIS AND CLARK EXPOSITION 
 
 Th\e accorqpanying er)gravirjgs are from 
 photos takeq of t[ l e different school exhibits 
 from the State of Washington, at the Lewis ar\d 
 Clark^ Exposition. Th\ey illustrate the different 
 forrqs of handwor^ outlined in, this course, and 
 also show in a measure what is being done with 
 hjandwork^ in, different parts of the State by 
 interested teachers. Every exhjbit h\ad some 
 handwork ir\ it, aqd n^uch th^at was exhibited 
 had a real relation, to the work of the school. 
 
WEAVING AND BASKET MAKING 
 SECOND AND THIRD GRADES, SEATTLE 
 
 Designs are original, and dyeing done by the children from roots and berries 
 Correlation with History and Language and Drawing 
 
 BENCH WORK 
 SEATTLE AND BALLARD 
 
 Small tables and screens, seventh and eighth grades, Ballard 
 Chairs, large table and lamp, seventh and eighth grades and High School, Seattle 
 
WEAVING, PASTING AND CUTTING 
 
 FIRST GRADE, BALLARD 
 Original valentine designs, given as language lessons before St. Valentine's Day 
 
 BENCH WORK 
 
 SEVENTH AND EIGHTH GRADES, SPOKANE 
 Mr. O. L. Whitcomb. Supervisor 
 
BENCH WORK 
 
 SEVEis 7 TH TO EIGHTH GRADES, WAITSBTJRG 
 Chair, table, stools, etc. 
 
 PAPER CUTTING AND BRUSH WORK 
 FIRST AND SECOND GRADES, CHEHALIS 
 
SUGGESTIVE HAND WORK 
 ELEMENTARY GRADES, WALLA WALLA 
 
 DOLL CLOTHES AND FURNITURE HANDWORK 
 THIRD TO FIFTH GRADES, CLARKE COUNTY. 
 
PAPER CUTTING 
 FIRST GRADE, ELLENSBURG NORMAL 
 
 The figures are cut out of the black paper and colored paper pasted on the back 
 
 of the opening; outgrowth of language work. Barn of card board. 
 
 Group work in the Kindergarten work on the wall, 
 
 the outgrowth of Thanksgiving work. 
 
 CLAY MODELING, WEAVING AND SEWING, BARK BIRD HOUSES 
 
 FIRST TO FOURTH GRADES, TACOMA 
 
 All material supplied by the pupils 
 

 
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OBJECT STUDY 
 FIRST GRADE, STATE NORMAL, CHENEY 
 
 This subject covers the home occupations, such as those 
 of the carpenter, blacksmith, farmer, etc. In connection 
 with the farmer's work the pupils studied the animals 
 kept upon the farm and their use to man. This chart was 
 made by the children to show the evolution of raw ma- 
 terial to the manufactured article. The weaving was 
 done by the children. 
 
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MANUAL TRAINING. 117 
 
 The consensus of opinion now places this phase of handwork in 
 the above grades. The question of equipment up to these grades has 
 not been a serious matter when considering the cost and mainten- 
 ance. With the introduction of bench work this item of first cost and 
 maintenance has proved a formidable stumbling block, for this work 
 requires a separate room and special equipment, and what is almost 
 of greater importance, a special teacher, one well trained in the 
 manual arts, skillful in method and matter, who knows the relation of 
 tools, their processes, to education and industrial life. 
 
 The equipment here given is complete in every particular and 
 sufficient for any work possible in the grades named in any school 
 system. The number of pupils to be accommodated in one center is 
 dependent upon the number of lessons per week, and their length. 
 Two periods of about 45 minutes a week is very desirable. If the 
 pupils come some distance, one period of 85 or 90 minutes is better, 
 as it does not require so much time in going to and from the center. 
 Three classes per day should be the maximum, though a strong 
 teacher could, under stress, handle four classes part of the time. 
 
 As to cost, the list of general tools is arranged according to their 
 importance, so that, when necessary, curtailment may be made with 
 least danger of impairing the efficiency of the equipment. Also if 
 a less number of benches than 24 were used, considerable economy 
 may be made in the number of duplicates ordered. 
 
 The benches shown are very simple, strong and durable, though 
 made of fir. A cheaper bench could be built, continuous, in a rough 
 hanner that would serve the purpose. The bench here given, cost 
 complete, "in the knock down" with ends glued up, and with wooden 
 vice, $6.00. An iron vice is much better (E. H. Sheldons, W. C. 
 Toles, or equal), but they cost more. Any handy boy can put it to- 
 gether. A well made bench is self evident economy and built singly 
 is an economy of floor space for the freedom and control of the class. 
 
 Further economies, dependent upon the service desired of the 
 room, could be practiced by the skillful teacher n storage facilities; 
 pigeon-holes for pupils, using simple shelves, teacher's desk, etc. 
 Also where the number of pupils to receive instruction is not suffici- 
 ent to occupy the full time of a teacher, the manual training teacher 
 may teach part time in the class-room the regular work of the school. 
 A teacher should be secured having skillful ability for double service 
 with that end in view. Another plan tried successfully in two or 
 more small adjacent districts, is to use one manual training teacher 
 part time in each school. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOR A MANUAL TRAINING ROOM. 
 
 Size: The area should be from 900 to 1,000 square feet for a class 
 of twenty-four pupils, the accepted number for one class. (See ac- 
 companying drawing for details and arrangement.) 
 
 Light: The windows should be numerous and of full length if 
 possible, placed in two adjacent sides or opposite sides of the room. 
 The light should shine on the back and right-hand end of bench or 
 
TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 on both ends. Artificial light should be provided, preferably electric, 
 in six groups or clusters near the ceiling, or one lamp properly 
 guarded may be suspended over each bench. 
 
 Heat and Ventilation: These should receive the same care and 
 consideration as in any other school room. The temperature of a 
 work room may be several degrees cooler than the class-room and 
 should be abundantly supplied with pure, fresh air. 
 
 Stock Room: This room may not be adjacent to the shop room, 
 but is preferably so; as indicated, 100 square feet is sufficient. It 
 may be long and narrow as it is wall space that is desired. Abundant 
 shelving should be provided and lumber racks as indicated for stand- 
 ing the stock on end on the floor and between the pegs placed vertic- 
 ally to the wall. 
 
 The teacher's closet is for private use and for the storage of any 
 finished work desirable to keep. It should be provided with hooks 
 and shelves and doors with locks. 
 
 Wash Bowl: A wash bowl should be convenient, if possible, but 
 it is not a necessity. 
 
 Tool Racks: These should be panels of board neatly made and 
 placed on the walls convenient for the pupils' use. About 30 square 
 feet is necessary. The tools may then be hung on hooks and cleats 
 fastened to these panels. A table shelf under one of these racks about 
 15 inches by 6 feet is for the use of oils, shellac and glue and for 
 the use of the oil stones. 
 
 Black Board: The black board should be about 4x10, placed as 
 shown, where it may easily be seen by the pupils when at their 
 benches. 
 
 Exhibit Board: About 4x12 may be suitably placed on the wall 
 and neatly made and covered with a dark green burlap. The various 
 models and other work may be hung here by means of small brass 
 screw eyes and hooks. This is a valuable adjunct to the shop, as it 
 may be a source of inspiration to the pupil. 
 
 Demonstration Platform: A demonstration platform is desirable 
 on which the class may be gathered for class work. The bench placed 
 in front of the platform is to be used by the teacher at such times, 
 and by the pupil at all other times. 
 
 Furniture: The furniture comprises 24 work benches (see draw- 
 ing), 24 stools 24 inches high, 1 teacher's desk of usual pattern with 
 chair. The supply closet about 15 inches by 8 feet by 7 feet, may be 
 built in with other shelving. The doors of same are to be provided 
 with locks. The pigean-hole cases (see drawing) may be built sep- 
 arately or in numbers to suit wall space and the number of pupils to 
 be accommodated. Three classes a day for five days is the maxi- 
 mum, or about 360 pupils per week, two pupils to use one pigeon- 
 hole. The curtain front serves as a protection against dust and should 
 be of extra good strong quality. 
 
MANUAL TRAINING. 119 
 
 Finish of Room: It should be finished as any other desirable 
 class room. If a basement room is used select one having the larg- 
 est windows with the best arrangement. A wooden floor is much the 
 preferable for pupils and teacher and admits of easily fastening the 
 benches to the floor. The passage to the room should be carefully 
 screened from the sanitaries. 
 
 Room or Center:. (See sketch and specifications.) 
 
 24 benches with 24 stools, 24 inch. 
 
 1 desk for teacher. 
 
 Closets, 75 ft. of shelving, exhibition panel 4x12 inches. 
 
 Wall shelves, 6 inch, with tool racks for general tools. 
 
 Cases of pigeon-holes. (See sketch.) 
 
 1 4x10 black board. 
 
 A washstand should be convenient and storage space for lum- 
 ber. 
 Tools for Each Bench: 
 
 1 No. 18 Stanley 2-ft., 2-fold rule, No. 2. 
 
 1 No. 50, 0, 2V 2 inch blade, Sloyd knife (Chadler & Barger cat.) 
 
 1 marking gauge, Stanley No. 65. 
 
 1 try-square, 6 inch, Stanley No. 20. 
 
 1 %-inch Buck's tanged firmer chisel, No. 2. 
 
 (Above handled and sharpened.) 
 
 1 10-inch Diston's back saw. 
 
 1 jack plane, Bailey No. 5. 
 
 1 block plane, Bailey No. 16. 
 
 1 maple bench hook. 
 
 1 bench brush, No. 20. 
 
 1 Springfield drawing kit, No. 2, 13x19. (Chandler & B. cat.) 
 
 I spring clip for holding drawings. "Bull Dog," large size. 
 Tools for General Use: (One set in each center.) 
 
 6 cross-cut saws, Disston's or Bishop's 10 pt. 8 D, 20-inch. 
 
 6 rip saws, Disston's or Bishop's 8 pt. 8 D, 22-inch. 
 
 12 No. 13 Maydole hammers. 
 
 6 braces, Spoffords, 7-inch sweep. 
 
 6 each, auger bits, R. Jennings, 4, 8. 
 
 3 each, auger bits, R. Jennings, 6, 10, 12. 
 
 1 set auger bits, R. Jennings, 13 bits, 4 to 16. 
 
 3 each, gimlet bits, 1-8, 5-32, 3-16, 7-32. 
 
 3 each, drill bits, 3-16, 7-32. 
 
 3 counter sinks, Rose (^-inch). 
 
 12 screw drivers, Champion R., blade 4-inch. 
 1 12-inch, 8 pas., Disston's compass saw. 
 
 1 doz. brad awls, handled, l^-inch Colliers or equal. 
 
 1% doz. extra blades, asorted, ^-inch, 1-8-inch, for Webb saws. 
 
 2 India oil stones, 1x2x7, mounted, (1 medium, 1 fine). 
 
 4 India slip stones, assorted. 
 
 1 set carving tool slips, India medium, (4 pieces in set). 
 
J20 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 3 brass oilers No. 0, Chase's pattern. 
 2 knurled nail sets, fine and medium. 
 
 2 Wing dividers, B and C or B. S. and W., 7-inch. 
 6 10-inch hand screws (Bliss). 
 
 4 hickory mallets (R. head 2%x5 inches). 
 
 4 each Buck's tanged firmer chisels, 1-8- inch, Ms -inch, 1-inch. 
 
 1 set Buck's tanged firmer gouges, 12 tools, (1-8 to 2 inches). 
 (Above handled and sharpened.) 
 
 12 Carver's skew chisels, %-inch, No. 2-S. J. Addis. Handled 
 
 and sharpened. 
 
 12 Carver's veiners, 1-8-inch, No. 39-S. J. Addis. 
 6 cabinet scrapers, 3 with concave and convex ends. 
 
 3 flat bastard files, (handled, 10-inch Nicholson's). 
 
 2 half-round bastard files, (handled, 12-inch, Nicholson's). 
 
 3 half-round cabinet files, (handled, 12-inch, Nicholson's). 
 2 No. 18 Stanley T. bevels, 8-inch. 
 
 2 steel squares ( nickle-plated, 12x8 inches. 
 
 2 draw knives, 8-inch razor blade, carpenter's. 
 6 iron clamps, Stearnes' Adj., 7-inch. 
 
 3 5-inch slim taper files, 1 handle, Nicholson's. 
 2 4-inch slim taper files, 1 handle, Nicholson's. 
 
 1 bit file, Nicholson's. 
 
 6 Bucks' tanged firmer gauges, %-inch. 
 (Above handled and sharpened.) 
 
 2 Bailey planes, No. 3. 
 1 Bailey plane, No. 7. 
 
 1 rip saw, Disston's, No. 12-5 pt. 28-inch. 
 
 1 C. C. saw, Disston's, No. 12-10 pt. 24- inch. 
 
 1 No. 3 11-inch Wentworth's saw vice. 
 
 1 No. 95 Morrill saw set. 
 
 1 grindstone with foot power, 24x2^ inches, Schofield or equal. 
 
 3 1^6 -inch shellac brushes, flat. 
 
 3 1 Ms -inch rubber bound varnish brushes, flat. 
 
 18 coping saws with saws, 6 doz. extra blades. 
 
 1 pair cutting pliers, Bernard's, 5^ -inch. 
 
 1 pair 4-foot clamps, E. H. Sheldon & Co., Chicago. 
 
 I Plumb's half hatchet, No. 2. 
 
 1 Clark's expansive bit, No. 2. 
 
 1 Langdon mitre box, No. 18. 
 
 1 pyrography outfit. 
 
 6 varnish cups with covers, (tin, pint size). 
 
 12 Eeagle school compasses, No. 576. 
 
 1 belt punch, 3-16-inch. 
 
 1 doz. plane bits, each No. 5 and No. 16 extra. 
 
 % doz. lever caps for each, No. 5 and No. 16 extra'. 
 
 1 small iron vise, 2^-inch jaw with horn (Cheney No. 10). 
 
 1-3 doz. whisk brooms. 
 
MANUAL TRAINING. 121 
 
 i 
 
 1 Stanley plane No. 78. 
 1 Stanley plane No. 48. 
 1 skein of chalk line. 
 1 pair tinner's snips, 10-inch. 
 
 Supplies for Eeach Center. (Estimate for 360 pupils for half year). 
 Hardware : 
 
 5 quires each sand paper, 00-1, l 1 /^. 
 
 20 Ibs. cotton waste. 
 
 1 ball twine, 1-16-inch. 
 
 2 large bottles Three-in-One oil. 
 
 5 Ibs. each wire brads, ^-inch No. 20; 3-8-inch No. 19; %-inch 
 
 No. 19; iy 4 -inch No. 17; IVa-inch No. 16; 2-inch No. 15. 
 
 3 Ibs. each wire finish nails, 6 d and 8 d and 4 d, 6d and 8 d 
 
 common. 
 1 gross each flat bright screws, %-inch No. 5; %-inch No. 
 
 6; 1-inch Nos. 5, 8 and 9; 1^-inch No. 10. 
 1 gross 5-8-inch cap hooks, brass. 
 1 gross screw eyes, brass, No. 1214. 
 1 gross screw eyes, iron, 208. 
 1 gross sq. screw hook, No. 110. 
 1 gross sq. screw hook, No. 114. 
 12 boxes cut steel thumb tacks (100 per box). 
 1 quart Le Page's glue. 
 1 Ib. No. 6 erasers. 
 
 6 boxes cut tacks, 4, 6, 8. 
 
 24 Springfield drawing pads (white) for No. 2 kit. (Chadler 
 and Barber.) 
 
 Paints and Oils: 
 
 1 1-lb. can lamp black in oil. 
 
 1 1-lb. can burnt sienna in oil. 
 
 1 1-lb. can burnt umber in oil. 
 
 1 1-lb. can burnt rose lake. 
 
 1 1-lb. can red. 
 
 1 1-lb. can blue. 
 
 1 1-lb. can white. 
 
 5 Ibs. putty. 
 
 1 gal. boiled oil. 
 
 1 gal. turpentine. 
 
 1 gal. coal oil in spout can. 
 
 1 2-gal. can Columbian spirits. 
 
 5 Ibs. shellac, orange. 
 
 1 %-gal. can white shellac. 
 
 1 1-lb. can floor wax. 
 
 1 Ib. pumice stone powder. 
 
122 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 Emergency : 
 
 1 4-oz. botle carbolic vaseline. 
 8 rolls l^-inch bandages. 
 1 4-oz. bottle carbolic acid. 
 1 bottle (small) liquid skin. 
 
 Supplementary Books: 
 
 1 Wood-Working for Beginners C. G. Wheeler. G. P. Put- 
 nam Sons. 
 
 1 Tools and Machines Charles Barnard. Silver Burdett & Co. 
 Vols. I, II, III, "Amateur Work," (Monthly), Boston, Mass. 
 
 2 catalogues of Chas. A. Strelinger (hardware), Detroit, Mich. 
 1 catalogue of Montgomery & Co. (hardware), New York. 
 
 1 catalogue of Hammasher, Schlemmer & Co. (hardware, New 
 York. 
 
 1 "Handbook for Lumbermen," Henry Disston & Sons, (saws), 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 1 catalogue E. H. Sheldon & Co., (tools and benches), Chicago. 
 1 catalogue Toles Co., W. C., (tools and benches), Chicago. 
 
 1 "The Arts and Crafts for Beginners," by Frank G. Sanford. 
 
 1 "Wood-Carving," by George Jack. D. Appleton & Co. 
 
 1 "Elementary Woodworking," Edwin G. Foster. Ginn & Co. 
 
 "The Manual Training Magazine," (quarterly), Peoria, 111. 
 
 "The School Arts Book," (monthly). The Davis Press, Wor- 
 cester, Mass. 
 
 1 "Mechanical Drawing," Anson K. Cross. Ginn & Co. 
 
 ESTIMATED COST. 
 
 12 pigeon-hole cases $ 60.00 to $ 75.00 
 
 24 benches with stools 150 . 00 to 150 . 00 
 
 Shelving, closets, black boards, teacher's desk, etc. 50.00 to 75.00 
 
 25 sets tools for each bench, at $6.00 144.00 to 144.00 
 
 General tools , ... 90 . 00 to 125 . 00 
 
 $494.00 to $569.00 
 
 Hardware supplies, about $ 14 . 00 
 
 Paint supplies 11.00 
 
 Emergency supplies, about 1.00 
 
 Lumber, about 150 . 00 
 
 Total for 360 pupils, one year $ 176.00 
 
 Salary of teacher 800 . 00 
 
 Ten per cent, depreciation on equipment 50 . 00 
 
 . Total for one year $1,026.00 
 
 The above is estimated from Seattle, for the past year. 
 
 B. W. JOHNSON, 
 Director of Manual Training, Seattle, Wash. 
 
MORALS AND MANNERS. 123 
 
 MORALS AND MANNERS. 
 
 The teaching of morals and manners differs in severaV respects 
 from that of other subjects. In the first place, these subjects, or, we 
 may say, this subject has not been accorded a place among the sub- 
 jects of the curriculum. To the pupil thinking of the school work, 
 either this subject does not occur at all or is thought of as secondary 
 and out of place. Even to mature people and parents, this work oc- 
 curs as something provided for in the Sunday school or the church or 
 the home or in all of these and as more or less of an intrusion on the 
 serious work of the public school. 
 
 This feeling is rather natural but serious reflection will lead prac- 
 tically all teachers and parents to agree on giving moral instruction 
 in the pupblic school. The purpose of the public school is to make 
 the strong man, good citizen and useful member of society. To this 
 end, no training, either in school or out, plays a more important part 
 than the training in good conduct and the inculcating of wholesome 
 principles of life. The public school training lasts through a period 
 in the pupil's life when his conduct and character are being fash- 
 ioned and the public school cannot escape the responsibility of a part 
 in this work and the teacher must not lose this opportunity. 
 
 Another respect in which this teaching differs from the work of 
 the regular curriculum is that it is dependent for its efficiency in so 
 large a degree on training and on teaching of which the pupil is 
 hardly conscious. 
 
 In a sense, moral teaching may have a secondary place on the 
 programme, in so much as it has a share in so nearly all of the work 
 and even the play of the school. It may well be less conspicuous 
 than the regular class work but, in the plans and purposes of every 
 teacher, it should have a place determined by its importance, which 
 is primary. 
 
 RELIGIOUS TEACHING. 
 
 Moral training, in the minds of many people, is inseparably associ- 
 ated with religious teaching. This fact will cause a certain degree 
 of prejudice against the thought of moral training in the school un- 
 til the nature of the work comes to be understood. In the present 
 religious organization of society, there is a deep-rooted fear that 
 harm might come, directly or indirectly, from religious teaching. 
 This fear is represented, possibly too severely, in our state by a law 
 not permitting any formal religious teaching or regular reading from 
 the Bible. The law should be observed strictly as a law, which act 
 itself is teaching morality, but further than this the discretion and 
 good judgment of the teacher should avoid arousing in any way the 
 fear or prejudice which this law represents. 
 
124 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 THE TEACHER. 
 
 If we are not to depend on religious teaching for effective moral 
 teaching, how is the moral influence to be wielded? It should be 
 understood, from the beginning, that the teacher is the determining 
 factor in the training of morals and manners in school. The teacher 
 is the big, factor in determining progress in all school work, but this 
 place is unusually large in moral training. A boy may learn arith- 
 metic after a fashion from a teacher whom he does not like or re- 
 spect, but taking in the spirit of moral principles is a subtler thing 
 and lack of respect for the teacher may mar and distort the effect. 
 
 That the teacher, to be effective in this work, must be a man or 
 woman of character is rather easily recognized. A few persons might 
 suppose, for a time, that a teacher might teach one thing in char- 
 acter and be another, might teach one set of principles in morals 
 and manners and practice another, but thoughtful teachers would 
 see that this work would be just as poor as the work in arithmetic 
 by a teacher who did not know the subject. 
 
 There is another essential, in importance second to the char- 
 acter only, of the teacher. The importance of this essential has often 
 been overlooked and not understood. This essential is that the 
 teacher must get a hold on his pupils as a teacher, before he can 
 wield a determining influence on their conduct and character. To 
 get this hold, the preparation of the teacher must command respect, 
 his devotion to his work must show his earnestness, his skill as a 
 teacher must win his pupils' esteem, his generous sympathy and 
 kindly interest must win the good will of all the pupils. In other 
 words, he must be successful in the best and fullest sense as a teacher 
 to gain this hold on his pupils essential to the effective moral in- 
 fluence. 
 
 Further than this, to wield the best influence in the school-room, 
 the teacher must command the respect and esteem of the parents of 
 the community and gain a generous place in their good will. The 
 school, if a peninsula, is not an island. The school is just one of 
 the important factors employed in our civilization to make men and 
 women of our children. Co-operation is the word. To gain this, the 
 teacher must command the confidence and good will among the men 
 and women of the community, as a man or a woman, a member of 
 the community. 
 
 INDIRECT MORAL TEACHING. 
 
 When once the teacher has gained this hold on his pupils and on 
 the community, an essential part, if not the most important part, of 
 the moral training of the school will be through indirect moral teach- 
 ing, the wholesome influences which the teacher can bring to bear 
 on the pupils' lives. While this teaching is indirect, the teacher must 
 realize its force and see that it is fully utilized. In the first place, 
 we can hardly over-estimate the example of the noble man or woman 
 in the school-room, when a strong hold has been gained with the 
 
MORALS AND MANNERS. 125 
 
 pupils. Who has not heard children playing school having difficulty 
 in deciding which one should be allowed to be Miss A or Mr. B in 
 the play school? This play suggests how much of Miss A or Mr. B 
 will be woven into their real mental and moral fabric. 
 
 Environment is another important factor in fashioning the tastes 
 and ideals of the pupils. A teacher cannot control environment alto- 
 gether but he is likely to be able to put the modifying touches on the 
 immediate surroundings that will remove depressing or detrimental 
 influence. It is fortunate if the school house can be a good one and 
 in a good location, if the grounds are good and large and well cared 
 for, if the school furniture is good and attractive. Some of these 
 things the teacher cannot control but he may be able to wield an in- 
 fluence in modifying. For instance, work on improving the appear- 
 ance of the grounds by the pupils themselves gives an impressive, 
 helpful lesson in good taste. In the school-room, however, the teacher 
 has control, in the main, and everything must be in good taste. 
 
 The strongest moral influence is for the teacher to succeed in 
 having a good school. By this we mean a good school as measured 
 by the ordinary standards; a school in which the teacher is easily 
 master of the situation, in which the class work is good, in which the 
 government and discipline are good, where the students are busy 
 with their studies, where play is active and full of life; a school, in 
 short, which would be generally pronounced successful. The busi- 
 ness-like atmosphere and spirit of such a school puts moral stamina 
 and a good wholesome spirit into the pupils. The pupils learn law 
 and order unconsciously and learn to work in harmony with the 
 other parts of the school community. 
 
 The teacher should have in mind the moral bearing of all these 
 different phases of school life. The recitation or class room should 
 be pervaded with a wholesome atmosphere. The work of the teacher 
 with the class must be masterful, his attitude generous and sympa- 
 thetic. His attitude should make the pupils independent, free from 
 fear and unnecessary restraint. His perfect honesty and frankness 
 with them should bring out the honest and independence on their 
 part, and his fairness and impartiality should maintain a feeling of 
 co-operation and good will. 
 
 The class work should be interesting and appeal to the pupil in 
 such a way^ that he will study in the preparation of his lessons. A 
 pupil interested in his work is free from a large part of the evils 
 so difficult to keep out of school life. 
 
 The government of the school must have for its immediate aim 
 the securing of conditions favorable to the working out of the pur- 
 pose of the school. The ultimate aim of government and discipline 
 should be voluntary good conduct on the part of the pupils and in- 
 dependent responsibility. 
 
 The teacher should also concern himself with the play of the 
 pupil. With the younger pupils, 'the play is a very large part of their 
 
126 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 school life. With all of the pupils, it is an important part of the 
 school life. Play will reveal to the keen teacher the characteristics 
 and individualities of the pupils which he may not understand in any 
 other way. Taking an interest in games or play or even taking part 
 in their play often furnishes an opportunity for determining the 
 spirit of the pupils and directing their attitude toward one another 
 winch is not furnished in any other way. 
 
 The associations of the pupils are among the important influences 
 on their characters in the school. The teacher may do much toward 
 determining the best associations for the individual pupils. 
 
 All of these things then, that go to make up a successful school 
 measured simply as a school, develop unconsciously to the pupil those 
 manly traits which form the basis of character. If the teacher feels 
 that he has not had enough time to give direct moral instruction, he 
 will find, at the end of the year, that helpful moral influence has 
 been exerted in doing the regular school work when done after the 
 highest standards. 
 
 DIRECT INSTRUCTION. 
 
 Besides the moral influence through the regular work of the school, 
 the teacher may help the students in their tastes and ideals by 
 methods of which he is more conscious. The most direct way is through 
 talks on topics of tastes and morals. Sometimes these talks may be 
 a little more formal, with a place in the programme reserved for them. 
 Sometimes they may be informal and suggested by some particular 
 action or circumstance. The object of these talks should be to give 
 the students a conscious understanding of the moral principles in- 
 volved in the conduct which they have been led to take on more 01 
 less unconsciously. 
 
 Each school and perhaps each teacher should determine the best 
 time and method of giving direct talks on themes of this kind. 
 
 A little less direct instruction may be given and yet given with 
 a conscious plan and, with the youngest students, various drills and 
 movements may be used which will give them self-control, community 
 of action and some of the simpler habits which they need. 
 
 Pictures may be used that will convey and impress their respec- 
 tive lessons of patriotism, self-sacrifice, heroism and the various vir- 
 tues. Some choice specimens, both in the way of pictures and works 
 of art, may be used in the room itself both to convey a lesson in its 
 meaning and also to serve as ornaments to cultivate go<5d taste. 
 
 To the same end, songs may be used in school. Part of the good 
 effects of singing in school is easily defined and there are even other 
 effects that are helpful and elevating in ways more difficult to define. 
 
 Attractive stories may be used with discrimination, which will 
 carry home to the pupil a teaching that might not reach him in a 
 more direct and abstract way. The teacher must fit the selection to 
 the pupils, making this distinction that he may use to good advantage 
 fairy tales, fables, mythology, maxims, proverbs and miscellaneous 
 stories, all eligible through their message. 
 
MORALS AND MANNERS. J27 
 
 In much the same way, though with the moral teaching taking a 
 more secondary place, the material of the lesson can frequently be 
 utilized. The work in history will be rather helped than hindered 
 by impressing the lessons of heroism, of patriotism, of devotion to 
 principle recorded in the text. Literature has foV its material the 
 hopes and sentiments and ideals, from almost every page of which 
 helpful lessons may be gleaned by the pupil under the direction of 
 the teacher. Science furnishes knowledge but also lessons of accur- 
 acy and truth, and so it is with practically all of the subjects in the 
 course. The themes that may be brought up in formal talks, supple- 
 mented by those that are suggested in the regular work, cover a wide 
 range of the principles of conduct and character which would be of 
 most benefit to the pupil in school. 
 
 Various celebrations, too, would supplement the regular work of 
 the school. Thanksgiving day would suggest its lessons and, en- 
 forced by the actions of the officials of the State and Nation, Arbor 
 day would have its suggestions of beauty and good taste and fore- 
 sight and public spirit. Memorial' day would give its teaching of 
 patriotism and the cost of a nation. 
 
 In direct teaching, the teacher should take certain caution against 
 things which might mar or annul the effect of the teaching. The 
 teacher should not "preach." The views expressed by the teacher 
 should be so generous and discreet as not to arouse prejudice. The 
 prejudice aroused by what was felt in the community, as biased re- 
 ligious teaching, might more than offset the good done by the teach- 
 ing. The teacher must not, either, have a stock of moral food which 
 he feels bound to work off on his pupils regradless of their needs and 
 regradless of what part of his teaching they are making their own. 
 
 THE CHILD. 
 
 In applying these various methods of moral teaching and train- 
 ing the first consideration is the child itself. As in the other work 
 of the school, it is difficult to meet the peculiar needs of the individual 
 pupil. That must be done as far as practicable and that will be the 
 test, more or less, of the success of the work, but there are many 
 things common to the average child, both on entering school and to 
 children in the respective grades of the school. The teacher then 
 should study the moral equipment of the child at these several stages. 
 It is noticeable that the child first entering school is largely actuated 
 by impulse and that its conscious sympathy goes little beyond itself. 
 Its knowledge of the whys and wherefores of conduct is very slight. 
 The work of the first grade then must be fitted to the child with 
 this meagre equipment and with the capacity revealed to the observing 
 teacher. A good environment will have its effect at this stage. Vari- 
 ous concert drills and movements will furnish their training. Sing- 
 ing in concert will leave its impress and the simple beginnings of 
 habits and conduct can be made. * 
 
j[28 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 With the same study of the pupil and its development in the differ- 
 ent stages, the work can be adapted to the needs of the different 
 grades.. The work of each grade, as in the regular lessons, should 
 be built on the work preceding. 
 
 Not only should observations be made as to what the equipment 
 of the child is on entering the school and at its different stages but 
 careful consideration should be given as to the equipment that the 
 child should have on leaving school. The child should be regarded 
 in all school work both as a child and as a prospective man or woman. 
 We wish the child to take on the virtues of life and avoid the evils, 
 form good habits and avoid bad habits and, finally, we want the 
 things that go to make up character. The character of today is the 
 positive character of force as opposed to the passively good. Good 
 moral character, too, should be marked by a willingness to conform 
 to the ideas of law and order with reference to society and to the 
 State. Character likewise should be secured by a knowledge of moral 
 principles and discriminating moral judgments and, further than 
 this, the man of moral character, should acquire an independence and 
 individuality capable of continuous growth. 
 
 Perhaps caution should be suggested in following out our plans of 
 teaching morals and particularly of teaching manners to our pupils. 
 The teacher should avoid making the pupils self-conscious and arti- 
 ficial in their bearing and conduct. With the younger pupils par- 
 ticularly, the conduct can be moulded in right lines while the child 
 preserves its naturalness. 
 
 MOTIVES. 
 
 The motives to be appealed to in the child in the different grades 
 of its development will have to be considered carefully. When the 
 child first enters school, its actions will be governed by the teacher's 
 authority, just as it has obeyed its parents. It does a given thing 
 because it is asked or told by the teacher. For a time it accepts a 
 thing as right because the teacher says the thing is right. This is 
 a security for the child, but its own faculties ought to be brought into 
 play as they develop. An appeal, at the first in simple matters, may 
 be made to the child's taste. It can distinguish between what is 
 pretty and what is ugly, between the attractiveness of what is clean 
 and of that which is dirty and, with some directing, between simple 
 actions that are becoming and those not becoming. 
 
 Personal interest may be appealed to. The child can be made to 
 see that it will profit by good conduct, by study, by obedience, by reg- 
 ular attendance, by truthfulness, by politeness. This is not the high- 
 est motive but it is an important one at all times and it will have 
 weight with pupils at a time when they do not take in the highest 
 motive, to do right because it is right. 
 
 The highest motive and the last to develop is that one of doing 
 right because it is right. 
 
 In dividing the work for the different grades, it is not so import- 
 
MORALS AND MANNERS. 129 
 
 ant what topic of conduct we are presenting to the pupil as it is to 
 understand by what motives he is capable of being actuated. 
 
 These various motives can be appealed to, first, in regard to 
 things which come in the child's experience. Abstract principles of 
 conduct or morals will not mean much to the child at first. The vir- 
 tues and vices considered should be largely those of the child's school 
 life. It will not mean much to the child of seven to present to it that 
 men should pay their honest debts but it can be brought to see rather 
 plainly that the pencil borrowed from the girl across the aisle should 
 be returned. Hence, in arranging topics for the different grades, 
 rather arbitrary and artificial at best, the topics for the earlier 
 grades should be confined to the child's experiences in school or at 
 the time of attending school. The topics of the later grades should 
 be suggested by these experiences or involve similar principles to be 
 illustrated or explained by the experiences and observations in school 
 life. 
 
 COURSE OF TRAINING. 
 
 No attempt is made here to have a complete list of topics in morals 
 and manners. Many things omitted are important but their omission 
 here is not so important. The important thing after all is to help 
 lead the pupil to desire to do what is right and becoming, to become 
 capable of sound moral judgments and good taste and he is then 
 ready to face new questions and situations as they arise. 
 
 RELIGIOUS TEACHING. 
 
 If the teacher should feel that he could do still* more good if he 
 felt free to read the Bible and conduct religious exercises in the 
 school, the corresponding opportunity may be taken advantage of, if 
 he will properly identify himself in the interests of the community. 
 If the teacher has the hold on the pupils that we have spoken of, 
 the mere fact that he attends church regularly will show his pupils 
 his attitude -toward the religious life. In addition to this, the op- 
 portunity will seldom be wanting for him to take part in the Sun- 
 day school work, through which he can influence directly the religious 
 life of the pupils. He may feel that he is not hired to do all these 
 things. He is right in that such things can never be specified in the 
 contract but, if he look upon the leter of the contract as a secondary 
 things and the opportunity for character building as the primary 
 things, then his whole serious thought will be of touching the lives of 
 his pupils in whatever way and at whatever time he may be helpful. 
 
 OUTLINE. 
 
 FIRST GRADE. 
 
 1. Environment, teacher's example (all grades). 
 
 2. Drills in marching, concert exercises, concert singing and ac- 
 tion songs, with object of teaching the ways of school, conformity, 
 self-control and obedience. 
 
 9 
 
130 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 3. Pupils occupied at their seats with pencils, cards, sticks, 
 straws and blocks one step removed from kindergarten. 
 
 4. Conversational talks for mutual acquaintance on obedience, 
 order, quiet and relations to other children. 
 
 5. Note: Method, directing rather than instruction or discussion. 
 
 SECOND GRADE. 
 
 1. Plan of procedure much the same as with first grade, with 
 variations in methods and appeals to additional motives. Work to be 
 based on results of first year. 
 
 2. Conversational talks, to understand individual pupils and win 
 their confidence, on politeness to their teacher, to one another, on 
 neighborliness and generosity toward one another, unselfishness, kind- 
 ness, gratitude and other qualities suggested by the school relations. 
 
 3. These talks, kept definite and concrete, are to be supple- 
 mented and reinforced by directing the pupils in doing things that 
 illustrate the principles taught, to loan one another a pencil or play- 
 thing, to wait for one another to use an eraser first, to give the one 
 called upon a full chance to answer a question and in the proper 
 conduct in school. 
 
 4. The talks might be supplemented further by simple stories. 
 
 THIRD GRADE. 
 
 1. Simple school virtues reinforced, as conformity to the ways of 
 the school, obedience, politeness in school, attendance, punctuality, 
 quiet, attention, business at the seats. 
 
 2. Direction to be given on behavior on the way to school, po- 
 liteness to strangers, to older persons, to guests at the school. 
 
 3. Children to be taught fairness on the playground, honesty, 
 truthfulness, frankness. 
 
 4. Simple moral stories and fairy tales may be used to illustrate 
 and impress moral principles. 
 
 FOURTH GRADE. 
 
 1. Definite instruction about cleanliness and neatness, with re- 
 ference to one's personal appearance, clothing, desk, school room. 
 
 2. Instruction in regard to care of property of the school, public 
 property and other people's property. For example, pupils should 
 not mark or cut with a knife on a desk, building or fence. 
 
 3. Pupils should be taught to be considerate toward one an- 
 other. No pupil should be rude toward any other pupil in school or 
 consciously hurt the feelings of any pupil, whether poorly clothed, de- 
 formed or dull. 
 
 4. Pupils might be put on their guard against tatling, bad lan- 
 guage and the vices incident to school life; the boys, for example, 
 against cigarette smoking. 
 
MORALS AND MANNERS. 131 
 
 FIFTH GRADE. 
 
 1. Practice of school virtues already learned, enforced by a 
 more prominent appeal to reason and judgment. 
 
 2. Pupils should be directed toward voluntary good conduct, 
 self-accountability and personal responsibility. 
 
 3. Explanations of the relations of good morals and good health. 
 
 4. Fables and stories illustrating individual virtues and vices. 
 
 SIXTH GRADE. 
 
 1. Courteous attitude toward teacher and helpful attitude to- 
 ward younger pupils. 
 
 2. Talks on study, industry, purpose, self-reliance. 
 
 3. Warning against envy, jealousy, talking about one another. 
 
 4. Good stories from biography and mythology. 
 
 SEVENTH GRADE. 
 
 1. Practice of school virtues, with more prominent appeal to 
 proper pride, self-respect and moral motives. 
 
 2. Explanation of difference between grades (marks) and attain- 
 ment, between reputation and character. 
 
 3. Ideas of justice, duties toward schoolmates, toward neigh- 
 bors, toward fellow-men. 
 
 4. Direct pupils in some elevating and interesting reading to 
 be done by themselves. 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE. 
 
 1. Qualities to be sought independence of conduct, self-reli- 
 ance, self-control, preparatory to entering High School, with bear- 
 ing which younger pupils may follow. 
 
 2. More formal explanation of the social usages and good forms 
 that would concern a boy or girl of thirteen or fourteen. 
 
 3. Increased confidence extended by teacher. 
 
 4. Higher grade of reading. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY. 
 
 How to Teach Manners in the School-room, by Julia M. Dewey, 
 Kellogg & Co., N. Y., 50c. Helpful in suggesting methods of hand- 
 ling this subject for the youngest pupils. 
 
 School management, White, American Book Co., $1.00. Good lists 
 of the virtues, outlines of moral lessons and lists of reading. 
 
 Moral Instruction of Children, Alder, D. Appleton & Co., $1.50. 
 Good discussion of duties and classification of reading matter to be 
 used in school. 
 
 Moral Education, Edward Howard Griggs, B. W. Huebsch, N. 
 Y., $2.00. Sane, sensible and practical teaching, with rather full 
 bibliography. 
 
132 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 GLEANINGS FROM THE REPORT OF THE COMMITTEEE OF FIFTEEN. 
 
 Reading : 
 
 "After the second year, one lesson each day for the entire eight 
 years." (p. 89.) 
 
 "After the third year, reading lessons should be given of selec- 
 tions from classic authors, with reference to (a) elocution, (b) 
 grammatical peculiarities, (c) literary contents." (p. 89.) 
 
 "In composition work, reading lessons will give matter for liter- 
 ary style, geography for scientific style, and arithmetic for a busi- 
 ness style." (p. 92.) 
 
 Language : 
 
 "The oral grammar lessons from the first year to the middle of 
 the fifth should deal chiefly with the use of language, gradually in- 
 troducing the grammatical technique." (p. 91.) 
 
 "The punctuation, spelling, syntax, penmanship, choice of words, 
 and style should not, it is true, be made a matter of criticism in 
 connection with the other lessons, but only in the language lesson 
 proper. But the pupil will learn language all the same, by the written 
 and oral recitation." (p. 91.) 
 
 "A frequent error is the practice of making every recitation a 
 language lesson, and interrupting the arithmetic, geography, history, 
 literature, by calling the pupil's attention abruptly to something in 
 the form of his -expression." (p. 96-7.) 
 
 "The faulty English should be criticized as showing confusion of 
 thought or memory, and should be corrected in this sense. But sole- 
 cisms of speech should be silently noted by the teacher for discussion 
 in the regular language lesson." (p. 102.) 
 
 "Technical- grammar can never educate the child in the use of 
 higher and better English." (p. 48.) 
 
 Literature : 
 
 "The chief esthetic training of the elementary school is the study 
 of fine selections of prose and verse. These may be intensified by the 
 use of pictures." (p. 48.) 
 
 "Literature is artistic according to the fullness with which it ex- 
 presses some phase of soul-experience." (p. 47.) 
 
 Miscellaneous : 
 
 "Grammar demonstrates its title to the first place in the seven 
 liberal arts by its use as a discipline in analysis, in logic, and in 
 classification." (p. 48.) 
 
 "Side by side with language study is the study of mathematics 
 in the schools, claiming the second place of importance of all stud- 
 ies." (p. 52.) 
 
 "The higher moral qualities of truth-telling and sincerity are 
 taught in every class that lays stress on accuracy of statement." 
 (P. 12.) 
 
GRAMMAR SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS. 133 
 
 "Natural science claims a place in the elementary school, not so 
 much as a disciplinary study, as a training in habits of observation 
 and in the use of the technique by which such sciences are ex- 
 pounded, (p. 69.) 
 
 "Thus the pedagogical order is not always the logical, or scientific 
 order. A first course should be given in botany, zoology, and physics, 
 so as to treat of the structure of familiar plants and animals, and 
 the explanation of the physical phenomena as seen in the child's play- 
 things, domestic machines, etc." (p. 69.) 
 
 "The overcultivation of the verbal memory tends to arrest the 
 growth of critical' attention and reflection." (p. 49.) 
 
 Staple Branches in Their Order: "Grammar, literature, arith- 
 metic, geography, and history are the five branches upon which the 
 disciplinary work of the elementary school is concentrated." (p. 67.) 
 
 "Most practical knowledge is knowledge of human nature." 
 (p. 47.) 
 
 GRAMMAR SCHOOL EXAMINATIONS. 
 
 Under legislative act of 1903 the office of Superintendent of Pub- 
 lic Instruction is given power to prescribe uniform rules and regula- 
 tions for grammar school examinations. Jn accordance with the 
 authority thus granted, the following regulations have been an- 
 nounced : 
 
 1. Three examinations each year will be held, as follows: 
 
 (a) The last week in August. 
 
 (b) The third Thursday in January. 
 
 (c) The third Thursday in May. 
 
 2. Pupils are expected to show County Superintendents that 
 they have completed the subject in which they take the examination. 
 For this and other purposes County Superintendents will require 
 from the teachers of the county a statement of the pupils' work in all 
 subjects covered by the eighth grade examinations. Superintend- 
 ents may require, in addition to this statement from teachers, such 
 other information or recommendations as they desire in regard to 
 the pupils. 
 
 3. Pupils will be permited to retain all grades of 80 per cent, 
 or above that they make at three consecutive examinations; but no 
 pupil shall be recommended by the County Superintendent for the 
 eighth grade diploma who does not show to the examining board that 
 the work in all subjects has been regularly and satisfactorily com- 
 pleted in the grades. 
 
 4. (a) The pupil must show conclusively that at least one of 
 the pupils' reading circle books has been read. 
 
 (In addition to the written review required by the questions, Su- 
 perintendents may make such local rules as they desire to insure that 
 the provisions of this rule are met.) 
 
134 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 (b) For August examination the reading of one of the books 
 adopted for the preceding year, will be sufficient. For the January 
 and May examinations, selections must be from the list adopted for 
 that school year. 
 
 (c) For the school year 1905-1906 the following list was adopted 
 in June, 1905, by the State Board of Education: 
 
 David Copperfield (any edition). 
 
 "The Western United States" (Fairbanks), D. C. Heath & Co. 
 
 "Story of Japan" (Van Bergen), American Book Co. 
 
 "Agriculture for Beginners" (re-adopted), Ginn & Co. 
 
 5. All examinations will be for a period of two days (Thursday 
 and Friday). County Superintendents should make programme con- 
 form as nearly as possible to that for teachers' examinations. 
 Places and conductors will be definitely arranged for, and conductors 
 should not be teachers of the eighth grade if it can be avoided. 
 
 [NOTE. It is believed by this office that if the above rules are 
 enforced by the County Superintendents, practically all the well- 
 founded objections to past regulations will have been met. It is not 
 intended to make the examinations easier, but it is intended to make 
 them more fair. Under the above rules subjects completed in the 
 seventh grade may be taken at the following August examination. 
 Rules 2 and 3, if carried into intelligent effect, should result in giv- 
 ing the actual school work and recommendation of teachers their 
 proper place in the system. It is confidently expected that if the 
 above provisions are faithfully followed, with proper grading by ex- 
 amining boards, the results will be much stronger grammar school 
 work, and consequently a greater educational value for the eighth 
 grade diploma.] 
 
 The law provides that the County Superintendent of Schools, or 
 assistants duly appointed by him, shall conduct the examinations; 
 that the manuscripts shall be graded by a county board of examin- 
 ers, consisting of four persons holding valid certificates; that the 
 names of successful applicants and their grades shall be reported 
 to the Superintendent of Public Instruction within ten days after 
 any meeting of the board of examiners. 
 
 No argument is needed to convince teachers and school authorities 
 that the system of grammar school examinations and graduation is 
 of direct benefit to the individual pupil, as it is also to the school and 
 the state system. It therefore should be unnecessary to urge upon 
 teachers the importance of encouraging pupils to complete the grades 
 and take the eighth grade diploma. The fact that this diploma in- 
 sures entrance to any High School of the State is an inducement to 
 be mentioned; but the greater good to the pupil of having completed 
 a definite work and the consequent influence upon his character should 
 be emphasized. The department of Public Instruction expects the 
 co-operation of all County Superintendents, of all graded school prin- 
 cipals, and of all teachers, to the end that the system of grammar 
 school examinations may be made thoroughly satisfactory and ef- 
 fective. 
 
OUTLINE COURSE OP STUDY. 135 
 
 COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 Extracts from the Code of Public Instruction: 
 
 "SEC. 27. The State Board of Education shall have power, and 
 it shall be its duty: 
 
 "First. To prepare and outline course or courses of study for 
 the primary, grammar and high school departments of the common 
 schools. 
 
 "SEC. 309. It shall be the duty of the principal of each school in 
 all districts of the first class to prepare and issue, under the direction 
 of the city board of education, or board of school directiors of the 
 district, a course of study for his schools, which course of study 
 must, before going into effect, be approved by the State Superintend- 
 ent of Public Instruction. Such course of study shall conform to the 
 manual, or general outline, prescribed by the State Superintendent 
 of Public Instruction,and all examinations and promotions under the 
 same shall be based upon the minimum credits in each study, as pre- 
 scribed by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction in his gen- 
 eral manual or outline course of study." 
 
 In accordance with the above provisions of the Code, Courses of 
 Study for the common schools and high schools of the State were 
 adopted on April 13, 1905. See following pages. 
 
136 
 
 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
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OUTLINE COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 137 
 
 OUTLINE COURSE OF STUDY FOR HIGH SCHOOLS. 
 
 Prepared by the Superintendent of Public Instruction and Approved by the State Board 
 of Education April 13, 1905. 
 
 y. 
 < 
 
 1 
 
 E 
 
 REQUIRED IN 
 ALL COURSES 
 
 SCIENTIFIC 
 COURSE 
 
 CLASSICAL 
 COURSE 
 
 COMMERCIAL 
 COURSE 
 
 BOTH SEMESTERS 
 
 |j 
 
 Physical Geogra- 
 phy 
 Option 
 
 Latin 
 Option 
 
 Commercial Arith- 
 metic or Bookkeeping 
 Option 
 
 Algebra 
 English 
 
 'B Is 
 s"S 
 
 Physical Geogra- 
 phy 
 Option 
 
 Latin 
 Option 
 
 Commercial Geogra- 
 phy or Bookkeeping 
 Option 
 
 SECOND YEAR 
 
 Plane Geometry 
 
 Rhetoric and 
 English Classics 
 
 First 
 Semester 
 
 Botany or Physi- 
 ology 
 Option 
 
 Latin 
 Option 
 
 Bookkeeping or Com- 
 mercial Arithmetic 
 Option 
 
 11 
 
 Botany or Zoology 
 Option 
 
 Latin 
 Option 
 
 Bookkeeping or Com- 
 mercial Geography 
 Option 
 
 ^* 
 
 g 
 P 
 
 English 
 Physics 
 
 First 
 Semester 
 
 Modern Language 
 Option 
 
 Latin 
 Option 
 
 Stenography and 
 Typewriting 
 Option 
 
 I 
 
 Modern Language 
 Option 
 
 Latin 
 Option 
 
 Stenography and 
 Typewriting 
 Option 
 
 1 FOURTH YEAR 
 
 U. S. History 
 and Civics 
 
 ll 
 
 Modern Language 
 Chemistry 
 Option 
 
 Latin 
 English 
 Option 
 
 Commercial Law 
 English 
 Option 
 
 Second 
 Semester 
 
 Modern Language 
 Chemistry 
 Option 
 
 Latin 
 English 
 Option 
 
 Economics 
 Advanced Stenogra- 
 phy and Typewriting 
 Option 
 
 NOTE. Options for any year may be filled by selection of any subjects prescribed in 
 any course provided for that year, or from the following subjects for the year designated. 
 
 FIRST YEAR: Ancient History, or European History. Drawing. Modern Lan- 
 guage. Manual Training, or Household Arts. 
 
 SECOND YEAR: European History, or Ancient History. Drawing. Modern Lan- 
 guage. Manual Training, or Household Arts. 
 
 THIRD YEAR: English History. Drawing. Higher Algebra. Solid Geometry. 
 Manual Training, or Household Arts. Geology. High School Arithmetic. U. S. 
 History and Civics (only for districts maintaining a three-year High School). 
 
 FOURTH YEAR: Drawing. Solid Geometry. Trigonometry. Manual Training, or 
 Household Arts. Geology. Astronomy. Psychology. High School Arithmetic. 
 
138 TEACHERS' MANUAL. 
 
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 
 
 The Superintendent of Public Instruction wishes to acknowledge the 
 courtesy of Hon. W. L. Stockwell, Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 of North Dakota, in permitting this department to make an extensive 
 extract from his course of study. 
 
 ILLINOIS COURSE OF STUDY. 
 
 The Illinois Course of Study is exceedingly valuable and should be 
 in constant use by the teachers of Washington. It is filled with sugges- 
 tions that will help any teacher. Published by C. M. Parker, Taylor- 
 ville. Price, 25 cents. 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction .- 3 
 
 Reading 5 
 
 Writing 21 
 
 Spelling -. 23 
 
 Language 29 
 
 Grammar 45 
 
 Geography 48 
 
 History 56 
 
 Civics , 63 
 
 Number and Arithmetic 65 
 
 Physiology 77 
 
 Nature Study 89 
 
 Agriculture 98 
 
 Drawing 100 
 
 Music ; 104 
 
 Manual Training* 108 
 
 Morals and Manners 123 
 
 Extracts from Report of Committee of Fifteen 132 
 
 Grammar School Examinations 133 
 
 Outline Courses of Study 135 
 
}.'>: :-.}.': - J- -A-j r : - .A- 
 
MEM OR A^ISTD^L. 
 
MEMORANDA. 
 
MEMORANDA. 
 
MEMORANDA. 
 

 
 This Manual is the property of 
 
 School District No , 
 
 County. 
 
GIFT 
 
 TEACHERS' MANUAL 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS OF 
 WASHINGTON 
 
 Supplement No. 2 
 Manual and Household Arts 
 
 By B. W. JOHNSON, Director of Manual Training 
 
 and MRS. ELLEN P. DABNEY, Supervisor 
 
 of Sewing and Cookery, Seattle 
 
 Public Schools 
 
 PUBLISHED BY THE 
 
 OK BDLJCAXION 
 
 HENRY B. DEWEY, 
 
 Superintendent of Public Instruction 
 
 OL.YMPIA, WASH,: 
 
 E. L. BOABDMAN, PUBLIC PRINTBB 
 
 1911 
 
MANUAL ARTS. 
 
 EIGHTH GRADE. 
 
 (Suggested Course for Boys and Girls.) 
 
 "Education is the conscious effort on the part of society to organize 
 its life, to the end that the pepole may be one body, wherein each may 
 perform his separate office, at once, for his own good and for the good 
 of all." Quotation. 
 
 "Education comes through what the child does, and says, and 
 thinks, and feels in the presence of the environment which the teacher 
 supplies. The teacher teaches the child; the child educates himself. 
 In being taught, the child is passive; in being educated, he is active. 
 The thing to be stressed is that teachers educate more, even if to gain 
 the time necessary for it they have to teach less. Education is self- 
 expression, not impression alone. Every impression made by teachers 
 upon pupils should be followed by expression in some fashion from the 
 pupils." "Philosophy of Education, 1 ' Herman H. Home. 
 
 AIM OP THE MANUAL ARTS. 
 
 The purpose of this work is to give educational direction to the 
 child's natural constructive tendencies by using forms that are of 
 interest to the pupil. These "forms" should be based upon interests 
 arising from life in home and school, in industry and in his play. The 
 forms chosen should come to the pupil as problems in construction to 
 be solved by him, and in the solution of which he will acquire skill, 
 the power to create, and an appreciation of the constructive work in 
 the world about him. 
 
 This diagram form of the schedule (aee pages 6, 7 and 8) is intended 
 to more closely direct the teacher in the accomplishment of this aim. 
 
 In the column "To Teach" are grouped in constructive sequence 
 the principles and related processes that must be learned in order that 
 the child might have proper means for putting into construction form 
 his awaking ideas. 
 
 Under the next heading, "Means," the teacher should select a 
 "suitable form" in which is involved the processes or principles to be 
 taught and by means of which the teacher can illustrate these pro- 
 cesses to the class, and the class in following out this instruction 
 make the "form," and then by this experience better understand, the 
 way it is done, why it is so constructed, the skill and workmanship 
 
Manual and Household Arts 
 
 necessary to do the work well and also the value of time and the worth 
 of material. All these elements are fundamental to an appreciation of 
 similar constructive efforts in life about him. 
 
 Great care must be taken to make it clear to the pupil that the 
 purpose of the process is to accomplish some definite end, and to 
 lead the pupil to reason out the further application of this knowledge. 
 Knowledge is for use. Additional power is sought, as well as accurate 
 results. 
 
 Now, class work should develop in the pupil power to do individual 
 work. This he is now ready to do, for in the class he has learned 
 how to use the tools and materials and to see the completed whole 
 from a drawing in the flat. The next step then, indicated by the 
 numbers 1, 2, etc., is to offer for the individual to choose from a 
 number of projects or problems similar in constructive principles to 
 the "class" or practice form used to teach all the children the applica- 
 tion of certain tools and processes. These projects are indicated under 
 the heading "Application in Constructive Problems." Here, as each 
 child completes his class piece, he at once selects a new problem, to 
 apply what he has learned in solving his own particular problem. 
 
 These numbers indicated the direction of the pupil's progress and not 
 the series of lessons. A number of lessons will often be required in 
 the working out of these problems. 
 
 This step in the pupil's progress is the most important one. Out 
 of this should come the habit of successfully meeting new problems, 
 new situations, a power to determine what to do and then do it 
 "initiative." 
 
 As a further guide in determining what problem to offer him for 
 individual selection, the three basic motives or interests that de- 
 termine our selection of life's needs, Home and School; Industrial, Me- 
 chanical; and Play, are indicated in columns, and under each is placed 
 the constructive problem that more nearly supplies that need. The 
 child's interests indicate the line of greatest effort. This division will 
 further help in keeping our course from becoming onesided or narrow, 
 by reason of the interests stimulated or awakened. 
 
 The column "Materials" indicates what materials are required for 
 the various exercises. The teacher should discuss with the class the 
 fitness of the material for the purpose intended; how to care for it; 
 what it costs; how produced. Ideas of economy are thereby engendered; 
 some knowledge given of the great industries that maintain thousands 
 of people. 
 
 The column "Drawing Required" is to indicate the method of 
 presentation to the class and the drawing required of the pupil. It is 
 very necessary that the pupil continually see constructive form rep- 
 resented in the flat, and thus become familiar with how to express 
 himself in constructive drawing. 
 
Manual and Household Arts 
 
 If understood, this method gives greater freedom to both teacher and 
 pupil: To the teacher, in that the field is not restricted and the 
 shaping of the course may be adapted to individual and local needs; 
 to the pupil, in that he may work as rapidly as his skill and interest 
 dictates and his own ingenuity devises. Thus the slow pupil will not 
 lose any of the instruction by making only the simplest forms. 
 
 Care should be taken that the pupil does not drop back in his 
 choosing, but selects a form or model (his own or the one suggested) 
 of the same general type as the "Practice Piece" given to instruct the 
 whole class. 
 
 Finally, this course presupposes a trained teacher who will take up 
 the work in the order given, but will select from this course according 
 to local need and conditions the best means for teaching the principles 
 here involved. 
 
Manual and Household Arts 
 
 CONSTRUCTION 
 
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Manual and Household Arts 
 
 COOKERY SCHEDULE. EIGHTH GRADE. 
 
 AIM: To Teach Simple Elements of Food Values and Some Simple 
 Fundamentals of Cookery. 
 
 TO TEACH. 
 
 CLASS WORK. 
 
 Recitation. 
 
 MATERIALS. 
 
 man body. 
 Classes of foods and their 
 uses in the body. 
 
 * ""I G^uKoffooasbycom.: Peabody's or other physio- 
 
 position as determined 
 from government bulle- 
 tins. 
 
 logy dealti 
 Government 
 
 _ with foods, 
 bulletin 142. 
 
 Dexterity. 
 
 Accurate measurements. 
 Control of heat. 
 
 Source and nutritive val- 
 ue of starch and sugar. 
 Time and temperature re- 
 
 Measuring liquids and dry 
 material to verify table 
 of measurements. 
 
 Management of stove, de- 
 termining amount of 
 fuel. 
 
 Table of measurements. 
 Meal, flour, sugar, water, 
 Heating stove with flat top 
 or small cook stove. 
 
 Cooking of cereals. 
 
 quired to cook starchy Cooking of dishes thicken- 
 
 material. 
 Use of sugar. 
 
 Methods and temperature 
 of cooking vegetables. 
 
 Low temperatures for 
 
 proteids. 
 Slow, long cooking 
 
 tough cuts of meat. 
 
 of 
 
 Care of food material. 
 
 Doughs and batters. 
 Leavening by air, baking 
 powder, soda and acid. 
 
 Leavening by yea'st. 
 
 ed with flour or starch. 
 Stewed fruits. 
 
 Double boiler. 
 Sauce pan. 
 Breakfast cereals. 
 Milk, starch or flour. 
 Rice, hominy, vegetables, 
 
 etc. 
 Sugar, fresh and dried 
 
 fruits. 
 
 Boiling, simmering, bak- j Berlin kettle, or sauce pan. 
 ing of such vegetables i Potatoes, dried beans, peas, 
 as may be convenient. , squash, pumpkin, etc. 
 
 Making of cream soups, t Government Bulletins 256, 
 121 and 295. 
 
 Cooking of eggs and egg 
 
 combinations. 
 Soup meats. 
 Stews and cheap cuts. 
 
 Government Bulletins 128 
 
 and 293. 
 Double boiler, sauce pan, 
 
 frying pan, Berlin kettle. 
 Meat. 
 
 Class recitation. 
 Study of government bul- Government Bulletin. 
 Care of materials and Farmers' Bulletin 375. 
 lunch baskets at school. 
 
 Separating gluten from 
 
 flour. 
 Making popovers, muffins, 
 
 biscuits. 
 
 Study of yeast. 
 Making light bread. 
 
 Government Bulletin 389. 
 Oven. 
 
 Flour, soda, baking powder, 
 milk. 
 
 Yeast flour, milk or water. 
 
Manual and Household Arts 
 
 References : 
 
 Farmers Bulletins. 
 
 No. 142 Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. 
 
 No. 375 Care of Food in the Home. 
 
 No. 391 Economical Use of Meats. 
 
 No. 256 Preparation of Vegetables for Table. 
 
 No. 34 Meats, Composition and Cooking. 
 
 No. 128 Eggs and Their Uses as Food. 
 
 No. 363 Uses of Milk as Food. 
 
 No. 63 Care of Milk on the Farm. 
 
 No. 121 Beans, Peas and Other Legumes as Food. 
 
 No. 295 Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. 
 
 No. 2-3 Canned Fruit, Preserves and Jellies. 
 
 No. 389 Bread and Bread-Making. 
 
 Elements of the Theory and Practice of Cookery Fisher and 
 Williams. 
 
 Chamberlain's How We Are Fed. 
 
 Home Science Cook Book Lincoln & Barross. 
 
 SEWING SCHEDULE. EIGHTH GRADE. 
 AIM: To Teach Elements of Plain Sewing. 
 
 TO TEACH. 
 
 Control of material. 
 
 Making of the different 
 stitches ; basting, run- 
 ning, hemming, back- 
 stitching, over-casting. 
 
 Application of stitches. 
 Meaning of term warp, 
 woof, selvage, bias. 
 
 Felling and French seam- 
 ing. 
 
 CLASS WORK. 
 
 Practice each kind of 
 stitch on piece of mus- 
 lin. 
 
 Making of school bag or 
 
 button bag. 
 Hemming towel. 
 
 Laundry bag or pillow 
 case, simple garment of 
 underwear. 
 
 MATERIAL. 
 
 Unbleached muslin, needle^ 
 thread, thimble. 
 
 Crash or other material. 
 
 Muslin, long cloth, print. 
 
 Blanket stitch. 
 Buttonhole stitch. 
 Sewing on of buttons. 
 
 Practice piece. 
 Scallop doily or towel. 
 I Buttonhole in some gar- ! White muslin. 
 
 ment. j Toweling or crash. 
 
 Sow on buttons. j Waisting. 
 
 Making a shirtwaist. 
 
 Repairing. 
 Darning. 
 
 Practice on piece of old 
 
 stocking leg. 
 Darning stocking or sock. 
 
 Patching hemmed, over- Practice on pieces of 
 
 hand, stitched. 
 
 gingham. 
 Patching child's own 
 clothes. 
 
 Worn stockings. 
 Gingham. 
 Any worn or torn 
 garment. 
 
 Reference: A Sewing Course, Woolman; Government Bulletins on 
 Flax, Cotton, Wool; Chamberlain's How We Are 
 Clothed. 
 
Manual and Household Arts 9 
 
 MEANS 
 
 The Teacher: The best results are only obtainable in this grade 
 with a separate room or rooms, specially equipped, and a well-edu- 
 cated and well-trained teacher. The age of the pupil gives him a 
 capacity for a rather high grade of performance. The processes and 
 the problems must be worthy of and command his highest efforts. The 
 teacher is the all-important requirement. The amount and variety of 
 the equipment, the character of the work planned and carried out, 
 its relations to the other school work and its vitality for the pupils 
 and the communities' needs are all dependent upon the teacher. 
 Such a teacher plans the course to meet the educational, financial 
 and social conditions of the community in which he or she works. A 
 good salary is necessary. If the number of pupils to receive instruc- 
 tion is not sufficient to occupy the full time of such a teacher, he or 
 she may teach part time in the regular school work, or two or more 
 adjacent districts may employ the same special teacher for part time in 
 each school. 
 
 THE EQUIPMENT 
 
 References: Economics of Manual Training, by Louis Rouillion, 
 Manual Arts Press, Peoria, 111., $1.50; Teachers' College Record, May, 
 1909, Columbia University, New York, 30 cents. 
 
 Sewing: The sewing course does not require a special teacher, nor 
 a special equipment or room. It is usually taught in the regular class- 
 room by the class teacher to the girls when the boys are away at bench 
 work. 
 
 In many of the larger towns of the country the sewing is taught by 
 the cooking or a special teacher. This is desirable, resulting in more 
 and much better work being done. It is, of course, correspondingly 
 more expensive. 
 
 Cookery and Bench Work: The cookery and bench work courses 
 require special equipments and should be used in specially fitted rooms. 
 Where the school is small and another room cannot be had, an equip- 
 ment to be used in the classroom is given for a course in cookery. 
 (See Appendix and figures Nos. 1, 2, 3 and 4). Such an arrange- 
 ment for bench work is not feasible, as the school desk is too low for 
 the use of carpenter's tools. It is possible in such an emergency to have 
 a few benches in one side of the room. The equipment lists that follow 
 are arranged for units of 6; a class usually numbers about 24. 
 
 Combination Centers: Another arrangement economical of the 
 pupil's time and of room space, and also in first cost, where the classes 
 are the usual size, is a combination center. The equipment in this 
 arrangement is so arranged that the same room and the benches are 
 used by the boys and girls at different times. (See Figures Nos. 5, 
 6, 7 and 8). 
 
 The floor plan given (Figure No. 8) shows the arrangement of such 
 a room. Gas or oil stoves may be used between the benches. When the 
 lessons in serving are given the .dining table is set in the open space 
 
FIG. 1. Macdonald Institute, Rural School Equipment. 
 
 FIG. 2. Macdonald Institute, Rural School Equipment. 
 
PIG. 3. Packing-Box Equipment for Cookery, Teacher's College, Columbia 
 
 University. 
 
 PIG. 4. Macdonald Institute, Rural School Equipment. 
 
PIG. 5. Combination Center. Benchwork Class. 
 
 Fig. 6. Combination Center. Cookery Detail. 
 
Fig. 7. A Combination Center. A Class in Cookery in a Portable, Using 
 
 Oil Stoves. 
 
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Manual and Household Arts 
 
 in the front of the room and is screened off from the rest of the room 
 by suitable folding or hanging screens. See (Fig. 13). 
 
 Bench Work Center: This floor plan would be the same for use as 
 a bench work center separate from cookery. The bench is the same, 
 except the drawer and lower compartment may be omitted if the bench 
 is used for woodwork only (See Fig. 14). This bench is of fir throughout 
 and can be made by a local carpenter or the boys themselves. The lead- 
 ing school supply houses furnish excellent benches of hardwood, but 
 more expensive. A satisfactory bench much cheaper than the above 
 could be built continuous in a rough manner similar to the ordinary 
 carpenter's bench. A well-made bench with a good vise is self-evident 
 economy, and built singly is an economy of floor space for the greater 
 freedom and controlof the class. 
 
 The other furniture given in the accompanying drawings may be 
 modified to meet varying conditions. 
 
 Cookery Center: When a separate room, the cooking tables are pre- 
 ferably built for that purpose and arranged to *form three sides of a 
 square, with gas or oil stoves on the inside edge of the table. (See Figs. 
 11 and 12). The photographs show a number of arrangements accord- 
 ing to conditions to be met with. Cooking tables are now listed in the 
 catalogues of school supply houses. The drawing given (Figure No. 9) 
 gives the details of a table built for four pupils. The bar gridirons 
 may be replaced with a gas hot plate and wooden legs on the tables 
 replace the iron pipe legs shown. 
 
 SPECIFICATIONS FOB A MANUAL TRAINING OR COOKING ROOM. 
 
 Size: The area should be from 900 to 1,000 square feet for a class 
 of twenty-four pupils, the accepted number for one class. (See ac- 
 companying drawing for details and arrangement). 
 
 Light: The windows should be numerous and of full length, if possi- 
 ble, placed in two adjacent sides or opposite sides of the room. The 
 light should shine on the front and left-hand end of the bench or on 
 both ends. Artificial light should be provided, preferably electric, in 
 six groups or clusters near the ceiling, or one lamp properly guarded 
 may be suspended over each bench. 
 
 Heat and, Ventilation: These should receive the same care and 
 consideration as in any other schoolroom. The temperature of a work- 
 room may be several degrees cooler than the classroom, and should 
 be abundantly supplied with pure, fresh air. 
 
 Supply Room: This room may not be adjacent to the shop-room, 
 but is preferably so; as indicated, 100 square feet is sufficient. It may 
 be long and narrow, as it is wall space that is desired. Abundant 
 shelving should be provided and lumber racks as indicated for stand- 
 ing the stock on end on the floor and between the pegs placed vertically 
 to the wall. 
 
 The teacher's closet is for private use and for the storage of any 
 finished work desirable to keep. It should be provided with hooks and 
 shelves and doors with locks. 
 
Fig. 11. Domestic Science, Olympia High School. 
 (Equipment made by the boys in the manual training classes.) 
 
 Fig. 12. A Class-Room Used as a Cookery Center. 
 (Speyer School, Columbia University.) 
 
16 
 
 Manual and Household Arts 
 
 Water: A sink or washbowl with running water is very necessary. 
 Hot water is then possible with a range with water back, or a separate 
 hot water heater may be used. 
 
 Blackboard: A blackboard may be fastened to the wall where it 
 may be easily seen by the pupils; or a movable board may be used as 
 shown, combining a screen and blackboard in one. (See Fig. 10). 
 
 Exhibit Board: The screen side may be used also for a display board 
 of finished work, though it is better to have a separate exhibit board 
 fastened to the wall and covered with a natural or dark brown colored 
 burlap. This is a valuable adjunct to a manual training room, if well 
 taken care of and the best work placed upon it, as a source of sugges- 
 tion and inspiration to the pupils. 
 
 The Furniture of the Room: Is indicated on the floor plan (Figure 
 No. 8) and in the accompanying drawings. 
 
 In addition to this, a dining table large enough to seat six, with six 
 plain dining chairs (See Fig. 14) ; 24 stools 24 inches high are required 
 for the use of the girls. They are not needed in a bench work center 
 if provision is made for the boy to stand up while drawing. 
 
 Finish of Room: It should be finished as any other desirable class- 
 room. If a basement room is used, select one having the largest win- 
 dows, with the best arrangement. A wooden floor is much the prefer- 
 able for pupils and teacher and admits of easily fastening the benches 
 to the floor. The passage to the room should be carefully screened 
 from the sanitaries. 
 
 Estimated Cost for a Special Room for Manual Training and Cookery: 
 
 Work bench, from $6.00 to $10.00 
 
 Lockers (each) 7.00 
 
 Tool closet 12.00 
 
 China closet 25.00 
 
 Pot closets (each) 10.00 
 
 Blackboard screen . 6.00 
 
 Dining table and six chairs. $12.00 
 
 Stools (each) 76 
 
 Paint and oil closet 3.50 
 
 Store room (shelving, etc.) 15.00 
 Plumbing, from $50.00 to 100.00 
 (Including sink and piping, 
 boiler, etc). 
 
 TOOLS AND UTENSILS. 
 
 BENCH WORK TOOLS. 
 
 Set for Each Bench: (Cost, about $5.00). 
 
 1 14-inch iron jack plant, No. 5. 
 
 1 10-inch Bishop's handy saw. 
 
 1 6-inch Stanley graduated all-iron try square. 
 
 1 Stanley patent adjustable point marking gauge. 
 
 1 Stanley No. 18, 2-foot, 2-fold boxwood rule. 
 
 1 each %-inch and %-inch firmer short socket chisels, handled and 
 sharpened. 
 
 1 Swedish Sloyd knife. 
 
 1 9-oimce all-bristle bench brush. 
 
 1 Springfield drawing kit, No. 2 (cost, about $5.00). 
 
 Set of general tools sufficient for six pupils and should be duplicated 
 for each additional six in a class, except in bit sets, which should be 
 added to in assorted sizes as required. (Cost, about $20.00). 
 
 1 set 13 auger bits, %- to 1-inch, inclusive. 
 
SOAJVO 
 
 S/oc: 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
Manual and Household Arts 19 
 
 1 8-inch Atkins' ratchet brace (alligator steel jaws, plated heads). 
 
 1 rosehead countersink. 
 
 1 forged steel screwdriver bit. 
 
 1 razor-blade 8-inch draw knife. 
 
 1 No. 52 iron spoke shave. 
 
 1 26-inch rip saw, Atkins No. 53, or equal. 
 
 1 22-inch cross-cut, Atkins No. 53, or equal. 
 
 1 6-inch coping saw with one dozen extra blades. 
 
 3 Atkins silver steel cabinet scrapers. 
 
 3 10-inch %-round cabinet files. 
 
 1 steel, 24-inch by 16-inch, framing square. 
 
 6 6-inch malleable iron clamps. 
 
 6 36-inch Sheldon spring steel bar clamps. 
 
 1 2-inch by 6-inch combination India oil stone. 
 
 1 3-inch bronzed oil can. 
 
 1 each gimlet bits 1-8, 5-32, 3-16. 
 
 1 drill bit, 3-16. 
 
 1 2%-inch by 6-inch mallet. 
 
 2 4-inch champion screwdrivers. 
 
 3 No. 13 Maydole hammers. 
 
 Set of general tools required for each class of 24 or less pupils. 
 
 1 saw vise. 
 
 1 No. 95 Morrell saw set. 
 
 1 grindstone or emery grinder. 
 
 1 pair cutting pliers, 6-inch. 
 
 1 pair turners snips, 10-inch. 
 
 Hardware : 
 
 The amounts are determined by the number of pupils and the amount 
 of time they spend in this work. 
 
 Sand paper (quires), Nos. 0-1 and 1%. 
 
 Cotton waste (Ibs.). 
 
 Wire brads, i/ 2 -in. No. 20, %-in. No. 20, 1-in. No. 18, 1^4-in. No. 18. 
 
 Glue, shell or liquid. 
 
 Nails, common and finish, from 2d to lOd. 
 
 Screws, flat-head and round-head, from %-in. No. 7 to 2-in. No. 12. 
 
 Screw, eyes and hooks. 
 
 Tacks, common and thumb. 
 
 Wire, soft iron. 
 
 Paints and Oils: 
 
 Coal oil, linseed oil (boiled), turpentine. 
 
 Denatured alcohol (for shellac). 
 
 Shellac, orange (in shell). 
 
 Floor wax. 
 
 Putty. 
 
 White lead, and a few simple colors in 1-lb. cans (ground in oil). 
 
 Wood stains. 
 
 "Three in One" oil in bottles. 
 
 Brushes, 1%-in. or 2-in. for paint and shellac. 
 
 Lumber: 
 
 The sizes and amounts are dependent upon local conditions. It 
 should be good, clear, soft and dry material, surfaced four sides for 
 the most part. It should be native material, when possible; in thick- 
 ness from %-inch to 1%-inch, in varying widths and suitable lengths 
 for convenient handling and storing. Hardwoods, the most commonly 
 found in furniture and cabinet work, should be used to acquaint the 
 boy with the difference in use, treatment, and cost of such materials, 
 and their habitat. 
 
20 Manual and Household Arts 
 
 COOKERY UTENSILS. 
 
 (One utensil for each pupil): 
 
 Plate, white enamel, 8%-inch. Fork, steel. 
 
 Bowl, yellow earthen, 1%-pint. Knife, steel. 
 
 Bowl, white enamel, 1-pint. Knife, paring. 
 
 Cup, measuring tin, ^-pint. Spoon, table. 
 
 Cup, measuring glass, %-pint. Spoon, teaspoon. 
 
 Cup, custard, earthen. Spoon, wooden, small. 
 
 Pan, sauce, hdl., 1%-pint. Cover, tin for sauce pan. 
 
 Pan, frying, 6-inch (00 Acme steel). Pie tin, 5-inch shallow. 
 
 Pan, dish, 8-quart. Strainer, 4-inch. 
 (Cost for one pupil about $2.50). 
 
 (One utensil for two pupils): 
 
 Pans, bread, 3-inch by 4-inch by 2-inch. 
 Pans, milk, enamel, 5-inch. 
 Pans, square shallow, 6-inch by 6-inch. 
 Pans, muffin, 6-hole. 
 Rolling pins, 12-inch. 
 Spatula, 5-inch. 
 Biscuit cutter (small). 
 Scrub brush. 
 Egg whip-wire. 
 Dover beater. 
 
 Soaper, white enamel, without back. 
 Oven, No. 0, 9-inch by 9-inch by 12-inch. 
 
 Two-burner gas plate or oil stove (blue flame. Cost, about $2.00 to 
 $8.00). 
 (Cost for two pupils, about $2.00, not counting stove). 
 
 Utensils for General Use: 
 
 1 food chopper, Universal No. 1. 1 sifter, flour, cycle. 
 
 1 clothes drier, Eureka. 2 trays, 15-inch. 
 
 1 coffee pot. 4 bowls, yellow, 3-quart. 
 
 3 jars, stone, 1-gallon, covered. 1 can opener. 
 
 24 jars, Mason, 1-pint. 1 cork screw. 
 
 12 jelly glasses. 1 knife, bread. 
 
 1 kettle, Berlin, 8-quart. 1 knife, butcher. 
 
 1 tea kettle, 6-quart. 1 knife, cake. 
 
 1 mop with pail, Erie self-wringing. 1 knife, French. 
 
 1 dust pan. 1 steel knife sharpener. 
 
 1 dripping pan. 1 spoon, large wooden. 
 
 1 garbage pail. 2 spoons, large enamel. 
 
 2 pitchers, white enamel. 1 salt box. 
 
 2 plates, 8-inch, white enamel. 1 skillet, 14-inch. 
 
 2 potato mashers. 1 double boiler, 4-quart. 
 
 1 scale, household, spring dial, 25-lb. 1 roasting pan. 
 (Cost about $25.00). 
 
 1 cook stove with water back (if running water is available). Cost 
 
 from $15.00 to $35.00. (The hot water boiler, 30 gallons, is 
 usually included in the plumbing). 
 
 Dining Room Service: 
 
 2 table cloths. 
 24 napkins. 
 
 6 knives, Wm. Rogers or equal. 
 12 forks, Wm. Rogers or equal. 
 
 6 dessert spoons, Wm. Rogers or equal. 
 12 teaspoons, Wm. Rogers or equal. 
 
 1 set semi-porcelain dishes, white. 
 (Cost, about $20.00). 
 
Fig. 13. A Sewing Lesson. 
 
 Domestic Arts Exhibit. 
 
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 Furniture for Cookery and Benchwork Centers. 
 
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 Furniture for Benchwork Center. 
 
A RURAL SCHOOL COOKERY COURSE FOR THE RURAL SCHOOL 
 THAT CANNOT AFFORD THE REGULAR EQUIPMENT. 
 
 COOKING EQUIPMENT. 
 Dry goods box with curtains and shelves for utensils. (See Fig. 3.) 
 
 1 Berlin kettle. 
 1 large sauce pan with cover. 
 1 small sauce pan with cover. 
 1 dish pan. 
 
 1 dripping pan. 
 
 2 large enamel bowls. 
 2 small enamel bowls. 
 1 wire toaster. 
 
 4 small bread pans. 
 
 1 ladle (enamel). 
 
 1 large spoon (enamel). 
 
 1 large fork. 
 
 1 French or butcher's knife. 
 
 1 egg whip. 
 
 1 double boiler. 
 
 1 white enamel pitcher. 
 
 1 tea kettle. 
 
 2 sets gem pans. 
 
 For serving Plates, cups and saucers, bowls (white enamel or semi- 
 porcelain) ; knives and forks, spoons. 
 
 (One teakettle, one Berlin kettle, one saucepan, with spoon, knife 
 and fork will answer for a start where more cannot be had). 
 
 A homemade fireless cooker. 
 
 A box cupboard for supplies. 
 
 In the hands of a resourceful teacher, the equipment, meager as it 
 is, would be sufficient to transform some communities. 
 
 If the school board would furnish (Figs. Nos. 1 and 2) a small 
 cook stove, sawhorses with smooth board tops for work tables, a cup- 
 board for supplies, a few more utensils to work with, a very interesting 
 and profitable course might be given and the entire school have some- 
 thing warm and palatable for lunch each day. 
 
 A few suggestions as to what may be prepared with the foregoing 
 equipment: 
 
 COOKERY COURSE. 
 
 SOUPS 
 
 _ Tomato, potato, pea, corn. 
 
 MEATS- 
 
 SOUP moat, brown stew, beef stew 
 with dumplings, chicken smothered, 
 chicken stewed with dumplings, 
 chicken fricassee. 
 
 Potatoes, carrots, onions, beans 
 (dried), peas (dried), pumpkins, 
 squash, etc. 
 
 POTATOES 
 
 Plain boiled, mashed, creamed, scal- 
 loped au gratan, cakes. 
 
 SOUPS (with stock) 
 Broth, vegetable, etc. 
 
 EGGS 
 
 Soft cooked, poached, stuffed, souffle, 
 omelet, cheese souffle. 
 
 WHITE SAUCE 
 
 Toast and white sauce, macaroni. 
 scalloped and creamed vegetables. 
 
 SALAD DRESSINGS 
 and sauce. 
 
 P.UKAD 
 
 Baking powder or soda and sour milk 
 
 breads. 
 
 Muffins corn, graham. 
 Whole wheat flour biscuits. 
 Tea biscuits. 
 
 EGG AND MILK COMBINATION 
 Boiled custard, bread pudding, tapi- 
 oca cream, puddings, Christmas fig. 
 
 T-> T C" 1 TO f 
 
 Plain, cooked with milk, cooked with 
 fruit, pudding. 
 
 FRUITS 
 
 Fresh fruits. 
 Dried fruits. 
 
 SALADS 
 
 Cabbage, potato, beet, apple 
 and celery. 
 
 Yeast bread. 
 
 Plain light bread rolls. 
 
Manual and Household Arts 
 
 WHAT OTHERS HAVE DONE. 
 TEACHERS' COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY. 
 
 PACKING Box EQUIPS KM. 
 (Teachers' College Record, May, 1909.) 
 
 Designed and used by students, Department of Domestic Science, 
 Teachers' College, Columbia University. This equipment is intended 
 to show what may be done in a district school where available funds 
 are limited. (Fig. 36). 
 
 The number of tables that could be used depends, of course, upon the 
 space in the schoolroom. If the space is small, even one table would 
 answer the purpose, if the teacher is sufficiently ingenious to fit in 
 the work of cooking with her other subjects. With a small equipment, 
 two or three children could work at a time, say one or two days a week. 
 
 Packing boxes can be obtained in almost any neighborhood, and the 
 painting, carpentry work and sewing done by the pupils in the school, 
 thus making the cost very low. In the winter the heater might be 
 used for cooking, if the top is flat. 
 
 UTENSILS FOR SIX PUPILS 
 (Prices from H. C. F. Koch, Now York City, and the 10-cent store, 1907.) 
 
 Cost 
 For one. For six. 
 
 Individual. 
 white bowl, 
 
 1 qt. 
 
 1 measuring cup 
 
 granite pan 
 sauce pan . 
 tin pail . . . 
 steel fork . . 
 steel knife . 
 tablespoon 
 
 2 teaspoons 
 
 1 oil stove 
 
 1 asbestos mat 
 
 $0.05 
 
 $0.30 
 
 .05 
 
 .30 
 
 .10 
 
 .60 
 
 .05 
 
 .30 
 
 .10 
 
 .60 
 
 .05 
 
 .30 
 
 .05 
 
 .30 
 
 .02% 
 
 .15 
 
 .01 2-3 
 
 .10 
 
 $0.49 1-6 
 
 $2.95 
 
 .70 
 
 4.20 
 
 .05 
 
 .30 
 
 For Class 
 
 3 bread boards $0.15 
 
 1 rolling pin. 05 
 
 3 baking powder can tops 
 
 (for cookie cutters) 
 
 1 flour sifter 10 
 
 1 large frying pan 25 
 
 1 double boiler 50 
 
 1 quart kettle 25 
 
 $1.24 1-6 $7.45 
 
 tea kettle $o.r>o 
 
 broiler 20 
 
 garbage can 25 
 
 pitchers 25 
 
 2 apple corers 10 
 
 1 chopping knife 10 
 
 1 chopping bowl 05 
 
 6 muffin tins at 2c 12 
 
Manual and Household Arts 
 
 ,$OJO 
 
 2 layer cake tins 
 
 3 dish pans 45 
 
 3 rinsing pans 30 
 
 1 strainer 05 
 
 6 china plates 30 
 
 3 mixing bowls 30 
 
 6 sauce dishes 15 
 
 6 cups and saucers 30 
 
 1 coffee pot 25 
 
 1 teapot 10 
 
 3 bread pans 15 
 
 6 quart jars .30 
 
 3 wooden pails with covers. . .30 
 
 6 dish towels 48 
 
 3 dish cloths 15 
 
 3 hand towels 15 
 
 1 broom 15 
 
 1 dust pan 05 
 
 1 brush . .10 
 
 1 scrubbing brush $0.05 
 
 1 scrubbing pail 10 
 
 1 Dover beater 05 
 
 1 pepper shaker 05 
 
 1 salt shaker 05 
 
 1 colander 10 
 
 1 baking dish .10 
 
 bread knife 25 
 
 coffee mill 25 
 
 corkscrew . .10 
 
 $15.50 
 
 Packing box table 1.00 
 
 Packing box cupboard 50 
 
 $17.00 
 Large blue-flame oil stove . . 10.00 
 
 $27.00 
 
 MA( nO.NALI) INSTITUTE RURAL SCHOOL EQUIPMENT 
 
 Designed by Miss Grace Greenwood, of Macdonald Institute, Guelph, 
 Canada. An effort has been made to carry out the plan of setting up 
 an inexpensive class-kitchen equipment to illustrate what can be done 
 in rural schools, or other places where gas stoves, plumbing, and sepa- 
 rate rooms are out of the question. An equipment of trestle tables, 
 cupboards, and utensils has been purchased and installed in one of 
 the rooms left vacant by the Manual Training department. It is 
 suitable for individual work with a class of twelve and is now being 
 tested by use with a public school class. Following is a list of the 
 equipment, showing the exact cost of each item. 
 
 Article. Cost. 
 
 12 bowls, brown $0.85 
 
 12 bread tins .95 
 
 12 teacups and saucers 1.25 
 
 12 tin measuring cups 1.25 
 
 12 egg beaters 30 
 
 12 forks 50 
 
 12 case knives 1.25 
 
 12 paring knives 1.25 
 
 12 plates 85 
 
 12 saucepans 1.68 
 
 12 tablespoons 50 
 
 24 teaspoons 40 
 
 12 wooden spoons 60 
 
 12 stewpans 2.40 
 
 Article. Cost. 
 
 1 2 strainers $0.65 
 
 2 trays 80 
 
 1 bowl, yellow 25 
 
 1 bowl, yellow 35 
 
 1 bowl, yellow .45 
 
 3 scissors 1.50 
 
 5 trestle tables 20.55 
 
 6 frying pans 90 
 
 3 tea strainers 15 
 
 3 match-box stands 24 
 
 i emery knife 20 
 
 3 soap dishes 25 
 
 12 pepper shakers 1.50 
 
 12 salt shakers.. 1.50 
 
Manual? and Household Arts 
 
 Article. Cost. 
 
 1 bell $0.50 
 
 4 lemon reamers 40 
 
 6 stoves, kerosene 6.00 
 
 12 plates, dinner 1.25 
 
 6 plates, soup 60 
 
 4 jugs 60 
 
 1 jug 45 
 
 1 butcher knife $0.30 
 
 1 French knife 60 
 
 2 spatulas 80 
 
 6 teaspoons 10 
 
 3 tablespoons 13 
 
 4 brushes 20 
 
 2 stove mitts 50 
 
 4 asbestos mats 20 
 
 1 corkscrew 25 
 
 4 egg beaters 60 
 
 4 wash basins 92 
 
 3 draining pans ' .69 
 
 4 dishpans 2.00 
 
 6 broilers . .48 
 
 Article. Cost. 
 
 cake tins $0.3.", 
 
 4 graters 
 
 3 strainers 
 
 24 pattie pans 
 
 2 tin dippers 
 
 2 fiber pails 
 
 1 colander 
 
 1 pail, enamel 
 
 1 pan, enamel 
 
 3 tea kettles 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 1 
 
 saucepan 30 
 
 saucepan 25 
 
 saucepan 23 
 
 saucepan 30 
 
 double boiler 85 
 
 1 kettle, covered 60 
 
 *1 stove (to burn coal or 
 
 wood) 30.00 
 
 Total $100.05 
 
 *The above may be replaced by a twenty-dollar wood stove or a ten-dollar 
 two-burner coal oil stove. 
 
 The whole equipment is attractive, and is capable of modifications 
 which will adapt it to the conditions of many schools. 
 
 EQUIPMENT OF SPEYEE SCHOOL (PRACTICE SCHOOL OF TEACHERS' COLLEGE, 
 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY ) 
 
 Cooking table with drawers for 18, 18 individual stoves, 2 large 
 stoves, utensils, and dining-room furniture (sink not included). 
 Equipped, year 1902-3. 
 
 Cooking tables $150.00 
 
 Stoves ( small ) 13.50 
 
 Stools : 13.50 
 
 Gas range 17.50 
 
 Coal range 13.50 
 
 Dining room 25.00 
 
 Refrigerator 
 
 Linen and china 
 
 Burners and tnbing, etc. 
 
 Utensils 
 
 Incidentals . 
 
 Plumbing connection . 
 
 10.00 
 10.00 
 5.00 
 98.00 
 10.00 
 
 $366.00 
 30.00 
 
 $396.00 
 
Domestic Science, Olympia High School. 
 
 Manual Training Benchwork, Olympia, Wash. 
 (The benches made by the boys In the manual training classes.) 
 
Manual Training Exhibit. 
 
 Manual Training Exhibit. 
 
Manual Training Exhibit. 
 
 Manual Arts Exhibit. 
 
Art* 
 
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY