LB 
 5011 
 
 3chool manafrement. . 
 
 Southern Branch 
 of the 
 
 University of California 
 
 Los Angeles 
 
 Form L-1 
 
 30\\ 
 
 llf'V''.?fc iff .'l ' iT7; - . TJMT'
 
 This book is DUE on the last date stamped below 
 
 AUG 4 192f 
 
 JUL ' 1925 
 
 ^^CT 2 8 1925 
 
 "AY 3 192b 
 2 5 1929 
 
 DEO 4 1952 
 DEC 2 4 f9l5f 
 
 DEC 2 
 
 ff£CO 
 
 DEC 3 1 REC» 
 
 Form L-9-2ni-7,'22
 
 SCHOOL MANAGEmT: 
 
 INCLUDING A FUlL DISCUSSION OF , ^ 
 
 %i\m\ €m\m% Scl]00l itycs, %i\m\ ioljentmcut, 
 
 PROFESSIONAL RELATIONS OF THE TEACHER. 
 
 DESIGNED FOR USE BOTH AS A TEXTBOOK AND AS A BOOK OF REFER- 
 ENCE FOR TEACHERS, PARENTS AND SCHOOL OFFICERS. 
 
 BY 
 
 A. N. RAUB, A.M., Ph.D., 
 
 Piesident of Delaware College, Kewark, Del., and Author of "Lessom 
 
 in English," "Practical English Grammar," "Practical 
 
 Rhetoric," "Studies in English and American 
 
 Literature,'" " Methods of Teaching," etc. 
 
 iiZZ 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 
 RAUB & CO 
 
 1889.
 
 Copyright, 
 
 ALBERT N. RAUB, PH. O., 
 
 1882. 
 
 Seventh and Cherry Streets, Phila. 
 
 Wkstcott & Thomson, 
 Slereotppers and Eledrotypers, PhUada.
 
 LB 
 30\\ 
 
 PREFACE. 
 
 ^' 
 
 The Author of this book believes that ixiaching is a 
 J science based on principles as firmly fixed, as readily de- 
 termined, and capable of being as thoroughly system- 
 atized, as those of either law, medicine, or theology. 
 
 He believes, also, that teaching is destined to rank 
 among the foremost of the learned professions, and that, 
 considered with reference to the magnitude and import- 
 ance of the work to be accomplished, this profession is 
 inferior to no other. 
 
 He believes, therefore, in the necessity of special prep- 
 aration for this calling as for other important callings in 
 f, life, and that no one should assume the duties and re- 
 \^ sponsibilities incident to teaching without a knowledge 
 ' of the human body, the functions of the physical organs, 
 and the laws of health, as well as a knowledge of the 
 o human mind, its faculties, and the methods of their de- 
 velopment and culture. He holds, also, that the teacher 
 should have a thorough knowledge of the best methods 
 of management, as well as be entirely familiar with the 
 most valuable methods of instruction and culture. With- 
 out this loiowledge the teacher can be only an experi- 
 menter who works at random ; with it, he is prepared to 
 win success and aid in elevating his calling to the dig- 
 nity which should characterize it as a profession. 
 
 3
 
 4 PREFACE. 
 
 It is the object of this book to discuss briefly, but as 
 thoroughly as possible, the subject of School Manage- 
 ment — including School Requisites; School Organization, 
 both temporary and permanent; School Work, its ob- 
 jects and the means of securing the best results ; School 
 Ethics ; School Government ; and the Professional Re- 
 lations of the Teacher, — a knowledge of all of which is 
 necessary to successful professional teaching. 
 
 Want of a knowledge of good management is a pro- 
 lific source of failure in school work ; and such know- 
 ledge is, therefore, specially important to the teacher. 
 
 This book aims to include the principles on which has 
 been based the successful experience of the best teachers 
 of this and other countries, so arranged as to make the 
 information available not only in the class-room, but 
 also to the private student, whether teacher, parent, or 
 school officer. 
 
 The Author advocates no untried theories. His aim 
 is to impart information such as is deemed valuable to 
 all who have control of children. He offers only such 
 suggestions as have been found valuable in practice, and 
 points out the faults and mistakes which his observation 
 has convinced him are the most frequent causes of 
 failure. He sincerely hopes that the book may prove 
 specially valuable to every earnest teacher desirous of 
 success in his calling. 
 
 A.N. R. 
 
 State Normal School, Lock Haven, Pa., \ 
 Aug. 24, 1882. i
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGR 
 
 INTRODUCTION 11 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 
 
 I. ScnooL-IIousES 13 
 
 1. Th& Location 14 
 
 1. Healtlifulness of the Site 14 
 
 2. Convenience of Access 15 
 
 3. Quiet 16 
 
 4. Beauty 10 
 
 2. The Size and Proportions 17 
 
 3. The Architecture 17 
 
 4. IntoTial Arrangement 18 
 
 II. Arrangement and Size of the Grounds 20 
 
 1. Size . . 21 
 
 2. Convenience of Arrangement 21 
 
 3. Beauty of the Grounds 21 
 
 4. Appurtenances 22 
 
 III. ScHooii Furniture and Apparatus 23 
 
 1. Desks 23 
 
 2. Blackboard 23 
 
 3. Erasers 24 
 
 4. Pointers 24 
 
 5. Reading-Charts 2o 
 
 6. Numeral Fraine 25 
 
 7. Geographical Apparatus 25 
 
 8. Cabinets 26 
 
 9. Dictionary 26 
 
 IIoAv to Secure Apparatus 26 
 
 5
 
 6 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAOR 
 
 IV. School Hygiene 27 
 
 1. Lujhting 28 
 
 2. Heating 29 
 
 3. Venlilation 31 
 
 4. Condilion of Floors and Walls 33 
 
 5. Posture of Pupils 34 
 
 6. Exercise 35 
 
 7. Play 36 
 
 8. Hyyienic Habits of Pupils 39 
 
 Suggestions on School Hygiene 42 
 
 V. ScHooii Grades 43 
 
 1. Advantages 44 
 
 2. Objection to Graded Schools 46 
 
 3. The Number of Grades 46 
 
 4. Manner of Grading 47 
 
 5. The Kindergarten 49 
 
 VI. School Aids 49 
 
 1. Textbooks 50 
 
 1. Tlie Objects of Textbooks 50 
 
 2. The Characteristics of Good Textbooks 51 
 
 3. The Abuse of Textbooks- 54 
 
 4. The Selection of Textbooks 55 
 
 5. Tl\e Ownersliip of Textbooks 56 
 
 2. The School Library 56 
 
 3. School Becords 58 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 
 
 Permanent Organization 66 
 
 1. School Classification 66 
 
 Advantages of Classification 67 
 
 Principles of Classification 68 
 
 2. Programme 72 
 
 Characteristics of a Good Programme 72 
 
 A dvantages of a Good Programme 74 
 
 3. School Signals 77
 
 CONTENTS. 7 
 
 PAGE 
 
 4. Hand Signals 79 
 
 5. I'/ie Openin'j and the Closing of School 80 
 
 6. Sealing 82>* 
 
 7. Becesses 82 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 
 
 I. Study 85 
 
 1. The Objects of Study 85 
 
 1. Discipline 85 
 
 2. The Acquisition of Knowledge 86 
 
 a, Expertness 87 
 
 4. Moral Culture 88 
 
 5. Aspiration 88 
 
 2. Conditions of Successful Study 89 
 
 3. Helps to Stxcdy 90 
 
 4. Incentives to Study 91 
 
 Proper Incentives 91 
 
 Unwise Incentives 97 
 
 5. How to Study 103 
 
 G. Attention 105 
 
 7. Rules for Study 109 
 
 II. Recitation Ill 
 
 1. Objects of the Recitation Ill 
 
 2. Methods of Recitation 115 
 
 1. The Socratic Method 116 
 
 2. The Topical Method 117 
 
 3. The Question Method 118 
 
 4. The Discussion Method 119 
 
 5. The Convei-satioual jNIethod 120 
 
 6. The Oral or Lecture Method 121 
 
 3. The Art of Questioning 122 
 
 1. Objects of Questioning 122 
 
 2. How to Put Questions 124 
 
 3. The Subject-Matter of Questions 126 
 
 4. The Form of Questions 127 
 
 5. Tlie ]\[amier of Putting Questions 128
 
 8 CONTENTS. 
 
 PAcn 
 
 4. Answeit ll^S 
 
 5. Orilicism • 136 
 
 6. Preparation for the Recitation 131 
 
 1. Tlie Teacher's Preparation 131 
 
 2, The Pupil's Preparation 133 
 
 7. The Teacher in the Recitation 134 
 
 8. The Pupil in the Recitation 137 
 
 III. Examinations 138 
 
 1. Objects of Examinations 138 
 
 2. Scope of the Examination 139 
 
 3. Frequency of Examinations 141 
 
 4. Method of Examining 142 
 
 5. Length of Examinations ■ 143 
 
 IV. Keviews 144 
 
 Frequency of Reviews 145 
 
 V. School Keports 146 
 
 VI. Graduation in Public Schools 149 
 
 Examination for Graduation 151 
 
 VII. A Course of Study for Country Schools 152 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 SCHOOL ETHICS. 
 
 1. Duties of the Teacher 153 
 
 1. To Pupils 153 
 
 2. To the Community 157 
 
 3. To his Profession IGO 
 
 4. To Himself 165 
 
 2. Duties of Pupils 1 66 
 
 3. Duties of School Ofliccrs 167 
 
 4. Duties of the Superintendent 169 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 
 
 1. Objects of School Government 171 
 
 2. School Control 173
 
 CONTENTS. 9 
 
 PAOK 
 
 3. Elements of Governinr/ Power ... 173 
 
 4. Causes of Disorder 185 
 
 5. Means of Avoiding Disorder 191 
 
 6. Rules and Meyulat ions 196 
 
 7. School Punishments 200 
 
 1. Objects of School Punisliment 200 
 
 2. Principles Governing Punishment 201 
 
 3. The Degree of Punishment 203 
 
 4. Kinds of Punishment 20G 
 
 1. .Judicious Punishments 206 
 
 2. Injudicious I'unishments 223 
 
 8. How to Detect Offenders 225 
 
 9. The Self-Eeportiny System 228 
 
 10. Pardons 229 
 
 11. Punishment of Offenses 231 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 THE TEACHER. 
 
 1. The Teacher's Physical Qualifications 243 
 
 2. The Teacher's Intellectual Qualificutions 245 
 
 3. T'he Teacher's Professional Qualifications 248 
 
 4. The Teacher's Moral Qualificatinm 254 
 
 6. Faults to be Avoided by Teacher 262
 
 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 School management is that department of educa- 
 tional science which treats of the management and con- 
 trol of schools. It includes not only school economy 
 jiroper, but also school government and school ethics. 
 It lias for its object the regulation of all school work in 
 such a manner as will meet the true end of education in 
 training the children of the land to be not only good 
 citizens, but also symmetrically-developed men and 
 women in an intellectual and a moral as well as a 
 physical sense. 
 
 School management and methods of instruction are to 
 some extent interwoven and dependent, and the teacher 
 who is successful in one is usually successful in tlie 
 other, because the same principles in a great measure 
 underlie both, and the same jjcrsonal qualities charac- 
 terize to a great degree the faithful, energetic teaclier 
 
 and the successful disciplinarian. 
 
 11
 
 12 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 The chief topics to be discussed iiudor the subject of 
 school management are — 
 
 1. School Requisites. 
 
 2. School Ouganization. 
 
 3. School Work. 
 
 4. School Ethics. 
 
 5. School Government, 
 
 6. The Teacher.
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 School Requisites. 
 
 Previous to the organization of the schocl there is a 
 certain amount of preparation necessary in order that 
 tiie school work may be well done. Among the requi- 
 sites dcmandino; attention are the following: 
 
 I. School-Houses. 
 
 II. Arrangement and Size of the Grounds. 
 III. School Furniture. 
 IV. School Hygiene. 
 Y. School Grades. 
 VI. School Aids. 
 
 I. School-Houses. 
 
 One of the first things to be considered in school 
 management is the school-house. The influence exerted 
 on the pupils, on the teacher, and on the community by 
 either a good or a poor school-house can hardly be esti- 
 mated. A good school-house, properly located, beautified 
 as it should be, and made comfortable, j)leasant, and in- 
 viting, ie in itself a teacher for good ; while a neglected 
 one, the reverse of all tliis, does an incalculable amount 
 of harm in counteracting efficient teaching and in mould- 
 ing for evil the character of a whole neighborhood. 
 
 The chief points to be considered in connection with 
 school-houses are the following : 
 
 2 13
 
 14 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1. The Location. 
 
 2. The Size and Proportions. 
 
 3. The Architecture. 
 
 4. The Internal Arrangement. 
 
 1. The Location. — The proper location of a school- 
 house is a matter of much importance. It must be 
 remembered that here, in a great measure, is moulded 
 the cliaracter of the future men and women of the 
 country. Here the tastes are cultivated and the habits 
 formed which are to mark the future citizens. Here 
 not only the intellectual, but also the moral and the 
 physical, nurture are to be given. 
 
 Among the chief considerations which should deter- 
 mine the location of a school-house in any district are 
 tlie following : 
 
 1. Healthfulness of the Site. 
 
 2. Convenience of Access. 
 
 3. Quiet. 
 
 4. Beauty. 
 
 1. Healthfulness of the Site. — It is evident that no 
 school-house should be located where pupils are placed 
 in danger of contracting disease. No school-house, 
 therefore, should be built near a SAvamp or near stag- 
 nant water, where malarial or miasmatic vapors may 
 endanger the health of both jDupils and teacher. Nor 
 sliould a school-house in a town or a city l)e so located 
 as to endanger the health of its occupants by causing 
 them to breathe the gases and effluvia arising from im- 
 properly drained streets, neighboring stables, or leaky 
 and defective sewers. Every precaution should be taken 
 to select tlie most healthful spot in the neighborhood,
 
 SCHOOL KEQUISITES. 16 
 
 tliat the pliysical welfare of the children may not be 
 jeoparded. 
 
 A sloping hillside, where the surface drainage is good, 
 is an excellent location for a school-house, particularly 
 if the grounds can be so arranged as to have the house 
 face to the south or the east. If such a site can be 
 found, with a briskly-flowing brook at the foot of the 
 hill, it will be all the more desirable. 
 
 Expense should be no consideration. The most health- 
 ful location is not too good nor too expensive when the 
 physical nurture of our children is to be provided for. 
 The school law of Pennsylvania, and possibly that of 
 other States, gives to School Boards the power to select 
 whatever site they may see fit, providing always that a 
 reasonable sum is paid to the landowner for the land 
 thus appropriated. 
 
 2. Convenience of Access. — The second important 
 consideration in the location of a school-house is con- 
 venience of access. In general, the school-house should 
 be located at such place as will make it convenient 
 for the greatest number, provided a healthful loca- 
 tion can be secured. But the question of healthfulness 
 should be the first to claim the attention of those having 
 the power to locate school-buildings. In sparsely pop- 
 ulated districts the location should usually be near the 
 centre of the district, but where the population is dense 
 and the distance to be traveled not so great, any location 
 may be selected that meets the requirements of health 
 and comfort. In the location of houses for primary pu- 
 pils care should be taken that the building be so placed 
 that as few as possible may be required to cross railways, 
 canals, streams, or much-traveled streets.
 
 16 SCHOOL MAXAGEMEKT. 
 
 3. Quiet. — Few appreciate the value of quiet sur- 
 roundings so liighly as does the student. School-houses 
 should be so located as to afford the best possible oppor- 
 tunity for study. The lociition should be such that no 
 noise or outside excitement may attract the attention of 
 the pu})ils or divert it from its proper object. Scliool- 
 houses should therefore never be located near noisy man- 
 ufactories, railways, railway -stations, mills, or other es- 
 tablishments likely to interfere with study. It is best 
 also that the school-house be placed back some distance 
 from the street, that the noise of passing vehicles may 
 not distract or divert the attention of those engaged in 
 study. 
 
 4. Beauty. — The beauty of the location, though 
 often receiving but little attention from school officers, 
 is one that should have its due influence in the selection 
 of a site. Beautiful surroundings have much to do in 
 creating a love for the beautiful. A school-house so 
 situated that the children are brought face to face with 
 the beautiful in Nature, and surrounded on all sides with 
 such scenery as must necessarily make them love the 
 beautiful from the very association, will have its bene- 
 ficial effects not only on the discipline and order of the 
 school, but also in the formation of the moral character- 
 of the pupils. Children coming from such a school can 
 not fail to have a more refined taste and a purer moral 
 character than those schooled amid surroundings which 
 lack every essential element of beauty. The teaching of 
 the beauty surrounding us is unconscious, but the lessons 
 learned are none the less pleasing and none the less valu- 
 able. Every mountain-slope, every verdant valley, every 
 winding stream, every charming landscape, has its in
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 17 
 
 fluence in forming character. Let children, then, always 
 be surrounded with the beautiful, that the life within 
 may be made to grow beautiful in harmony with the 
 life without. 
 
 2. The Size and Proportions. — The size of a school 
 building should of course depend on the number of pu- 
 pils to be accommodated. In general, at least ten square 
 feet of floor-surface should be allotted to each pupil, but 
 fifteen square feet would be better. Thus, a school-room 
 twenty feet by twenty-four might be made to accommo- 
 date from thirty-two to forty-eight pupils; one of twenty- 
 four feet by thirty, from forty-eight to seventy-two pu- 
 ])ils. The ceiling should be from ten to fourteen feet in 
 height, according to the size of the room. A room twenty 
 feet by twenty-four, and ten feet high, would give to 
 forty pupils each one hundred and twenty cubic feet of 
 air-space, while one twenty-four feet by thirty, and 
 twelve feet high, would allow each of sixty pupils one 
 hundred and forty-four cubic feet of air-space. A ceiling 
 more than fourteen feet in height is a disadvantage rather 
 than otherwise, as it makes a room more difficult to heat, 
 with no special advantage gained in any other direction. 
 
 The proportions here indicated — twenty feet by twenty- 
 four, twenty-four feet by thirty, and thirty feet by thirty- 
 six — are among the best, the width being to the length 
 in the proportion of about five to six. 
 
 When more than fifty pupils are to be accommodated, 
 a recitation-room should be attached for the use of an 
 assistant teacher. 
 
 3. The Architecture. — In the erection of a school- 
 
 2
 
 18 SCJIOOI. MANAOEMK.NT, 
 
 house Utility, beauty, aud comfort uuist be oonibined. It 
 is not more important that the school-house have a beau- 
 tiful location than that it be beautiful itself and in har- 
 mony with its surroundings. Too little attention has 
 been given lo our school architecture as regards both 
 beauty and comfort. 
 
 Neither beauty nor comfort necessarily makes the 
 school-house more expensive. Comfort and fitness in the 
 plan aud construction should be the first considerations, 
 but in connection with these beauty also should be taken 
 into account, and both the form and the color be made 
 to harmonize with the surroundings. 
 
 Plans. — A definite plan should be decided upon for 
 the school-house before the proper officers begin its erec- 
 tion. This plan can in general be best prepai'ed by an 
 architect or some other person who has made the subject 
 a study. When once the plan is fully adapted to the 
 Avants of the school, care should be taken that no changes 
 are made by the builders. The fee paid to the architect 
 for preparing the plan for a suitable building Avill be 
 money well expended. 
 
 Cost. — The additional cost in adapting the plan of a 
 building to the surrounding landscape is a matter of 
 small moment when we consider the attachment which 
 almost every child has for the school-house in which he 
 received his early training. The beneficial effect exerted 
 in both a moral aud an sesthetic sense is of vastly greater 
 importance than the few extra dollars expended in 
 making the school-house a pleasant and attractive place 
 and a source of pride to the community. 
 
 4. Internal Arrangements. — Closets. — Provision should
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 19 
 
 be made in every school-house for tlie storage of 
 luiich-l)asket.s, hats, shawls, etc. during school hours. 
 Couiniodious closets or special cloak-rooms — one for the 
 boys and another for the girls — should be provided, 
 wherein these articles may be kept. These rooms or 
 closets should always open into the school-room, that the 
 teacher may have the pupils in sight, and thus prevent 
 scuffling and unnecessary noise. These rooms ought to 
 be about six feet by eight or six feet by ten, with shelves 
 for baskets and hooks for hats and clothing. They may 
 consist of a tier of boxes about ten inches square, in- 
 stead of shelves. Each s])ace and each hook should be 
 numbered, and each pupil should have a number to 
 correspond. 
 
 Library and Apparatus Space. — If possible, a room 
 should be provided for the school library and appa- 
 ratus. Shelves or closets at least should be put in con- 
 venient places, where the school library may be kept, 
 the apparatus be stored, and a cabinet of minerals, 
 grains, grasses, etc. be arranged for use. Without such 
 provision the apparatus is likely to be neglected and be- 
 come damaged, and the specimens in the cabinet scattered 
 and lost. 
 
 Platform. — The platform may extend across the end 
 of the room, though a platform half as long as the 
 width of the room usually is sufficiently large. In 
 height it ought to be not less than eight inches nor more 
 than fifteen. 
 
 Space for the Blackboard. — Unless slate is preferred, 
 it is usually quite as well to prepare the wall-sur- 
 face at the ends of the room in what is known as 
 " hard finish " by the use of calcined plaster or cement,
 
 20 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 that it may afterward be covered with a coat of li<jiiid 
 shvtinjr or a mixture of alcohol, shellac varnish, and 
 lampblack. This space should be about five feet in 
 licight, and extend to within two feet of the floor. A 
 trough should be placed below each board to catch the 
 dust, and below this trough should be placed hooks ou 
 which to hang pointers and rubbers. 
 
 Arrangement of Seats. — Sufficient space for recitation- 
 benches should be reserved between the platform and 
 the first row of seats. The aisles between the rows 
 of desks should be sufficiently wide to allow the pupils 
 to pass back and forth readily without disturbing those 
 occupied in study at the desks. A small aisle should be 
 left in the rear of the back row of seats for the conve- 
 nience of both teacher and pupils. The desks shoukl be 
 arranged so as to face the platform, and those for the 
 smaller pupils should be placed nearest the teacher, 
 leaving the larger pupils to occupy the rear of the room. 
 
 Flues. — These are needed both for ventilation and 
 for carrying off the smoke and the gas generated by the 
 heating apparatus. They should be so placed in the 
 school-room as not to mar the beauty of the room, and 
 yet effectually introduce pure air and carry off the im- 
 pure as rapidly as possible. The ventilating flue and the 
 smoke flue should be placed side by side, with a thin 
 partition between, that the foul air may thus be heated 
 and carried off through the chimney. 
 
 II. Arrangement and Size of the Grounds. 
 
 The chief points to be considered in connection with 
 school-grounds are the following :
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 21 
 
 1. Size. 
 
 2. Convenience of Arrangement. 
 
 3. Beauty. 
 
 4. Appurtenances. 
 
 1. Size of the Grounds. — In cities, where land is liigh- 
 priced, it is rarely the case that pupils have sufficient 
 ground for either play or exercise, but in the rural dis- 
 tricts, where the cost of land is not so great, certainly 
 no excuse can be urged for being penurious in the matter 
 of providing a sufficiently large playground. No school- 
 house should have less than half an acre of ground at- 
 tached, but it would be much better if twice or three 
 times this quantity could be allotted, particularly where 
 there are several grades or several schools in the same 
 building. 
 
 2. Convenience of Ari'angement. — The play-ground 
 should be so arranged that each sex may have a pri- 
 vate play-ground in the rear of the house, where each 
 shall be free from the intrusion of the other sex. The 
 l)lay-ground in front of the house should be common 
 territory, where all may enjoy themselves under the eye 
 of the teacher. The school building should be so placed 
 that the larger portion of the school-grounds may be to 
 the rear of the house. The ground should be well 
 drained also, that it may be as dry as possible at all 
 times, and the walks should be so arranged as to lead 
 from the entrance of the grounds to each of the doors. 
 
 3. Beauty of the Grounds. — Not only may the school- 
 ground be used for exercise and play; some effi^rt should 
 be made to render it beautiful also by adorning it 
 with shrul bery, trees, and flowers. In planting trees
 
 22 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 tlioy should usually be arranged in groups, not in roM's. 
 Tlie same may be said of shrubbery. Nothing shows a 
 lack of taste more than the arrangement of shrubbery 
 in lines along the paths and walks. As to the flower- 
 beds, much may be left to the taste of the teacher and 
 his pupils. Any good horticultural newspaper or maga- 
 zine or floral catalogue will give more explicit directions 
 than it is possible to give here. 
 
 The teacher should call in the aid of his pu{)ils in or- 
 liamenting his school-grounds. He will thus not only 
 cultivate their love for the beautiful, but also gain such 
 a hold on their better nature as to make his discipline 
 comparatively easy. Every pupil should be made to feel 
 that he has an interest in preserving the beauty of the 
 school-grounds, and that he has a right at all times to 
 protect the shrubbery, the flowers, and other objects of 
 beauty from injury. 
 
 4. Appurtenances. — Every school-ground should of 
 course be supplied with the necessary out-buildings. 
 In addition to these, certain pieces of apparatus designed 
 to promote the physical education of the pupils should 
 be furnished. Among the most prominent of these are 
 horizontal bars, ball-alleys, swings, croquet sets, lawn 
 tennis, and footballs. As to bats, balls, jumping-ropes, 
 and hoops, the pupils will furnish these for themselves. 
 A set of bows and arrows with targets, to be used in a 
 private part of the grounds where all danger of hurt by 
 accident may be avoided, would also prove of great 
 benefit. All these will tend to make the school at- 
 tractive to children, while they at the same time will do 
 much to promote the j)h^sical welfare of the pupils. A 
 few rustic seats placed where those not engaged in play
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 23 
 
 may becjonie interested observers will add luiieli to the 
 attractiveness of the pkiy-gi-ounds. 
 
 III. School Furniture and Apparatus. 
 
 Each school-house should be fully supplied with all 
 the furniture necessary to make the school a pleasant 
 place and the teaching effective. 
 
 1. Desks. — The desks should be provided to accom- 
 modate not more than two pupils each, and in form they 
 should be so adapted to the shape of the body as to 
 make them as comfortable as possible. Hard- wood desks 
 are preferable to home-made pine desks, and they arc 
 also much cheaper when service is considered. The 
 desks should be graded in height and proportions to 
 accommodate the pupils of different sizes. The seats in 
 connection with the desks should be stationary. Loose 
 chairs for pupils' scats are not well adapted to school 
 work. Several chairs should be provided for the accom- 
 modation of visitors; also a suitable desk and a chair for 
 the teacher. 
 
 2. Blackboard. — This is one of the articles of school 
 furniture absolutely essential to good teaching and proper 
 management. A blackboard is necessary in the teaching 
 of every branch, and frequently it may be made a great 
 aid in management by having some of the pupils, par- 
 ticularly the smaller ones, employ a portion of their 
 time in drawing on it while others are busy in recitation. 
 
 Size. — The blackboard should not be less than four 
 and a half feet high, and it should extend so low that 
 even the smallest pupils may be enabled to use it. In 
 length it should occupy at least one end of the room, but 
 twice this quantity of board-surface is not too great.
 
 24 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Holo Made. — At present but little difficulty is experi- 
 enced in securing good blackboard surface. Liquid 
 slating is the best material. This may be placed directly 
 ou a smooth wall or board. Slated paper also may be 
 used. Where the plastering is too soft for other surface 
 the slated paper is particularly useful. Even good 
 heavy hardware paper, or muslin put smooth on the 
 wall, may be covered with slating or with a coat of 
 paint having sufficient grit, and thus a good surface 
 be secured. 
 
 Col(y)\ — As to color, there is room for choice, but green 
 seems least tiresome to the eye. A good surface can be 
 made by applying two or three coats of a mixture com- 
 posed of shellac, turpentine, and lampblack, with just 
 sufficient alcohol added to dissolve the shellac and enough 
 lampblack to give good color. This black surface should 
 then be covered with one or two coats of green liquid 
 slating. It will make an excellent and a pleasing 
 surface. 
 
 3. Erasers. — If possible, a sufficient number of erasers 
 should be furnished to allow one to each pupil at the 
 board. These erasers may be made of bits of sheepskin, 
 of blocks covered with brussels carpet, or of heavy felt 
 inserted in blocks similar to the Climax Rubber. Good 
 erasers, such as will clean the board without throwing 
 dust, should be used. 
 
 4. Pointers. — A number of soft-wood pointers should 
 form part of the furniture. When teachers and pupils 
 are required to furnish their own pointers they arc likely 
 to use any stick convenient at the time, and possibly 
 injure the board-surface or the polish on the maps. 
 Soft-wood pointers with smooth ends are the best, be-
 
 SCHOOL KEQUISITES. 25 
 
 cause they are less likely to injure the surface of either 
 blackboards or maps. 
 
 5. Reading -Charts. — A set of reading-charts for the 
 purpose of teaching primary reading should constitute a 
 part of the school furniture. These need not be elab- 
 orate or expensive, but simply such as will add variety 
 and interest to the textbook matter. 
 
 6. Numeral Frame. — No primary or ungraded schocl 
 should be without a numeral frame. Not only counting, 
 but also all the fundamental rules, may be taught con- 
 cretely by the aid of this important little piece of 
 furniture. 
 
 The chief remaining apparatus for illustrating mathe- 
 matical work are the following : 
 
 A set of Weights and Measures, to familiarize the pu- 
 pils with the practical part of Denominate Numbers. 
 
 A set of Metric Weights and Measures, to illustrate the 
 Metric System and compare its various units with the 
 system now in use. 
 
 A set of Geometric Forms, including cubes, cubical 
 blocks, cones, cylinders, spheres, prisms, etc. 
 
 7. Geographicai Apparatus. — For the purpose of teach- 
 ing geography properly Outline Maps, Globes, and 
 Gcoffrapkical Boards seem to be the most important. 
 
 Outline Maps are necessary for teaching the contour 
 and comparative size of the various countries, as well as 
 for teaching local geography. A State, and, if passible, 
 a county, map should form part of every set. Maps 
 should remain open as much as possible, that pupils may 
 become familiar with the outlines of countries, location 
 of capes, etc. by their constant presence. 
 
 A Globe is necessary in teaching the shape of the
 
 2G SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 earth, its motions, and the comparative size, as well as 
 the location, of countries, etc. oi\ its surface. 
 
 A Geographical Board, with a rim around the edge, 
 and containing on its surface sand, chiy, water, and rocks, 
 may be used to illustrate the natural divisions of land 
 and water. A board of two or three feet square is suf- 
 ficiently large. Pupils with a board of this kind will 
 spend many a pleasant hour in illustrating geographical 
 facts. 
 
 8. Cabinets. — These can probably be best secured by 
 the teacher. Pupils, when they find the teacher inter- 
 ested, will gladly assist in collecting minerals, plants, 
 leaves, grains, grasses, and other botanical, geological, or 
 zoological specimens for the purpose of making a cab- 
 inet. The interest Avhich may be awakened on the part 
 of pupils, and the culture of the observing powers thus 
 secured, are of the greatest importance. 
 
 9. Dictionary. — An unabridged Dictionary is one of 
 the important articles of school apparatus. The smaller 
 dictionaries are so limited in their definitions, and so un- 
 satisfactory, that they answer only partially the end for 
 which they are intended. It is best, therefore, to have 
 an unabridged, or at least what is known as a compre- 
 hensive, dictionary for school use. 
 
 How to Secure Apparatus. — It is unquestionably the 
 duty of Directors or School Trustees to provide from 
 the public funds all the necessary furniture and appa- 
 ratus for each school. In few instances, however, is it 
 likely these officers will furnish all the apparatus here 
 mentioned. In the event of their failure in this respect, 
 how may it be secured?
 
 SCHOOL, REQUISITES. 27 
 
 1. A Demand slioiild be Created. — The judicious teachot 
 by proper ellort may do much toward awakening not 
 only his school, but also the community, to the necessity 
 of Jiaving a better supply of apparatus. He can do this 
 partly by showing what may be done with simple appa- 
 ratus of his own construction. An address to the citizens 
 of the district, showing how much better the work of 
 teaching may be done with ap])aratus than without, will 
 do much to convince his patrons. 
 
 2. By Entertainments. — An entertainment given by the 
 school children will usually secure the attendance of 
 both parents and friends; and when it is known that the 
 proceeds are to be devoted to the purchase of apparatus, 
 the patrons will attend all the more willingly. This en- 
 tertainment may consist of a contest in Spelling, Geog- 
 raphy, History, or some other branch of study, or it may 
 consist of readings, declamations, music, etc., judiciously 
 intermingled. Now and then also a lecturer may be se- 
 cured who is willing to deliver an address for the benefit 
 of the apparatus fund. 
 
 3. By Subscription. — Another plan for securing funds 
 for the purchase of apparatus is by subscri])tion. Let 
 the subscription-list be headed by a few of the most lib- 
 eral citizens. This, accompanied by a personal appeal to 
 every citizen of the district, will rarely fail in securing 
 an amount sufficient to form the nucleus of a collection 
 of apparatus, or in adding to that already in possession 
 of the school. 
 
 IV. School Hygiene. 
 
 Nothing in connection with school management can 
 be of greater importance than the preservation of tli«
 
 28 SCHOOL MANAGKMENT 
 
 health of both teacher and })ui)ils. Kot only a know- 
 ledge of the laws for preserving health, but also a strict 
 compliance with these laws, is necessary. School hygiene 
 has special reference to the following in connection with 
 the school-house and the pupils: 
 
 1. Lighting. 
 
 2. Heating. 
 
 3. Ventilation. 
 
 4. Condition of Floor and Walls. 
 
 5. Posture. 
 
 6. Exercise. 
 
 7. Play. 
 
 8. Hygienic Habits of Pupils. 
 
 1. Lighting. — Light is an essential to health. Dark 
 rooms are never so healthful as those properly lighted. 
 Well-lighted rooms are also more pleasant and inviting 
 than those from which the light is to any great extent 
 excluded. Many diseases of the eye with which they 
 who work in-doors are often afflicted might be avoided 
 if the laws for the preservation of sight were properly 
 understood and observed. 
 
 The Windows of every school building should be high, 
 rather than broad and low. The nearer to the ceiling 
 the light enters the room, the more nearly will Nature be 
 imitated in giving us sunlight from above. The win- 
 dows should also be placed only on the sides of the room, 
 and never in such a position that the light will strike 
 either the teachers or the pupils in the face. 
 
 Curtains and Shutters should not be used for the pur- 
 pose of shutting out the light or the sunshine, but 
 rather for modifying it and preventing injury to the eyes
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 2 'J 
 
 by its glare. When curtains arc placed at school-room 
 windows, care should be taken that they be made of 
 such material as will intercept as little of the light as 
 ])')ssible. 
 
 Boolcs with Small Type should, as far as possible, be 
 avoided. One of the evils with which we have to con- 
 tend in this age of cheap books is the small type in 
 which so many are printed. Narrow pages and good- 
 sized type with ample light would do much to preserve 
 the eyesight of our children. 
 
 2. Heating. — The temperature of tlie school-room 
 should be such that every occupant is comfortably warm 
 whatever part of the room he may occiipy. With a 
 stove in the centre of the room this is almost impossible. 
 No more defective plan of heating a school-room could 
 be devised than this. The great difficulty, as every in- 
 telligent teacher knows, is tiiat while those in the im- 
 mediate vicinity of this central stove are frequently too 
 warm, those sitting nearer the walls are too cold ; and 
 thus, in either case, the foundation for disease is laid. 
 
 Steam-heating is not only the most comfortable, but 
 also probably the most healthful, for the reason that the 
 air is not scorched and robbed of its oxygen by this 
 method. For a large school building wuth a number of 
 departments or rooms it is also economical. In small 
 school buildings the expense of steam apparatus would 
 be proportionately too great. 
 
 An Open Fireplace is one of the most healthful and 
 pleasant ways of heating where wood is plentiful, and 
 the draft created is also beneficial in connection with the 
 proper ventilation of the room.
 
 30 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Ventilating Stoves, constructed on the plan of the open 
 fireplace, are equally eftective. Either plan requires a 
 large and constant supply of fresh air; and thus, while 
 the room is kept warm, the air is also comparatively 
 pure. 
 
 Hot-air Furnaces may be used in the heating of 
 school-houses where steam-heating is found to be too ex- 
 pensive. The furnaces should be located in the cellar, 
 and the radiating surface be constantly supplied with a 
 current of fresh air from without. Running side l)y side 
 with the heat flues should be ventilating flues, to carry 
 off the impure air of the room ; and these should be 
 open at or near the floor, that the carbonic acid gas float- 
 ing near the bottom of the room may be drawn in, 
 heated, and carried up the flue. The serious objection 
 to hot-air furnaces is, that the air becomes parched and 
 too dry, thus often causing very serious diseases of the 
 throat. 
 
 Stoves in most cases, particularly in rural districts, are 
 the usual means by which the rooms are heated. If 
 possible, these should be placed in the cellar in the same 
 manner as the hot-air furnace ; but if this is not possible, 
 they should be placed near the side or the end of the 
 room, and siiould be encased wdth sheet iron or some 
 similar material, so as to distribute the heat gradually. 
 Two small stoves in opposite corners of the room prove 
 nmch more effective than one large one placed either in 
 the centre or at the side of the room. If the stove be 
 encased, a flue conveying fresh air from the outside and 
 along under the floor may be made to open directly 
 under the stove, thus supplying not only heated air, but 
 also pure air.
 
 SCUOOL REQUISITES. 31 
 
 3. Ventilation. — Good school work needs pure blood, 
 and jmre blood needs pure air. The wonder is, not that 
 we do so little in our schools, but rather that we do so 
 much in an atmosphere so deficient in the essential ele- 
 ments of animal life, and so loaded with poisons and 
 effluvia. School-houses must be well ventilated in order 
 to have pupils do good work. A few hints only can be 
 given here on methods of ventilation. 
 
 Heat Flues. — Under these may be included open fire- 
 l)laees, ventilating stoves, and similar contrivances, by 
 which the lower stratum of air in the room is drawn di- 
 rectly into the fire and made to pass up the chimney. 
 In this last may be included also the ventilating flue 
 built in connection with the smoke flue, as previously 
 suggested. The separating partition between these flues 
 should be of sheet iron, so that sufficient heat may pass 
 through to rarefy the impure air and carry it out at the 
 top of the building. 
 
 Window Ventilation. — When not overcrowded, school- 
 rooms may be effectually ventilated by placing a close- 
 fittinp; board of five or six inches in width under the 
 lower .sash of each window. In this manner a flue is 
 made by the overlapping of the upper and the lower 
 sash, and a constant stream of fresh air is admitted, which 
 comes in at such a part of the room as to become heated 
 ])efore reaching the occupants. This plan may be used 
 in even the severest weather. 
 
 Outside Flues. — The plan of securing fresh air by the 
 use of an outside flue is similar in principle to the 
 method of window ventilation advised. The outside 
 flue is simply a box-flue or pipe open at the lower end, 
 and communicating at the upper end with the school-
 
 32 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 room at a pciint near the ceiliug. The heated air of the 
 room will not esGipe through this pipe, because it will 
 not descend ; cold fresh air will flow through the tube 
 into the room, and, meeting the warm air of the room, 
 will also become heated. ISTo possible draft can be cre- 
 ated. This outside flue may be from six to ten feet or 
 more in length, and may run up by the side of the win- 
 dow-frame, or it may be so built in the wall as not to 
 mar the beauty of the building. A wire screen should 
 be placed over the outside opening, so as to prevent 
 leaves, etc. from entering. 
 
 Pipe Ventilators. — These consist of ventilating pipes 
 running close by the side of the stovepipe, and opening 
 within a few inches of the floor close by the stove. The 
 air in the pipe becomes heated, a draft is created, the im- 
 pure air near the floor is drawn into the ventilating pipe 
 and carried near to the point where the stovepipe enters 
 the chimney ; here the ventilating pipe enters the stove- 
 pipe, and the impure air joins the smoke in its ascent to 
 the chimney-top. 
 
 Door Ventilation. — In school-houses consisting: of sev- 
 eral rooms the omission of carpet-strips under the doors 
 serves a good purpose in permitting the heavy impure 
 air to flow out. Opening the door for a few seconds 
 occasionally will do much toward purifying the air in 
 the school-room. In no case, however, should the door 
 be left open long enough to make any one uncomfortable. 
 It is better to open the door frequently for a moment at 
 a time than open it for a longer time but at greater 
 intervals. 
 
 During pleasant weather both windows and doors 
 may be left open much of the time. When the room is
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 33 
 
 ventilated in mild weather, it is best to raise the lower 
 sash and lower the upper at the same time, that the 
 danger of drafts may as much as possible be obviated. 
 Reflectors. — Where the top of the window-frame is 
 gquare a reflector may be attached in such a way as to 
 tiirow the air toward the ceiling as it enters. The only 
 objection to this plan is that the reflector will to some 
 extent interfere with the light. 
 
 4. Condition of the Floor and Walls. — So far as clean- 
 liness concerns the school-room, it has to do mostly with 
 the condition of the floor, the walls, and the desks. 
 
 Tlie Floor. — There seems to be no good reason why the 
 floor of the school-room should not be kept as clean as 
 that of one's own home, yet few school-room floors re- 
 ceive a thorough cleansing more than once a term. No 
 good housewife would permit forty or fifty little folks 
 to run over her kitchen floor six hours a day for a single 
 vreck ■without insisting upon giving that floor a thorough 
 cleansing; and yet Ave permit these same children to oc- 
 cupy the school-room in a similar manner for sometimes 
 three months or more, and are satisfied with a single 
 sweeping a day. Mud from the shoes, excretions from 
 the body, dust from the streets, and other filth are per- 
 mitted to accumulate on the floor, only to be stirred up 
 by each moving class, thrown into the air, and breathed 
 into the lungs of both teacher and pupils. 
 
 The bits of paper, nut-shells, apple-parings, etc. which 
 so often vex and worry the teacher are not half so detri- 
 mental to health nor half so objectionable as this filth 
 which is permitted to accumulate from day to day. 
 
 The Walls. — What has been said of the floor is equally 
 
 3
 
 34 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 true of the walls of the school-room. In many cases the 
 dust is allowed to accumulate dnring a wiiole term, and 
 in some eases for a much greater length of time. Here, 
 too, the germs of disease may accumulate, only to be dis- 
 seminated as the breezes of spring and summer are per- 
 mitted to enter the room and disturb them. To 5ay 
 nothing of the lack of neatness, this filth may in time 
 become the source of sickness. A good teacher will see 
 to it that the walls of the school-room are kept clean. 
 
 The Desks also should be ke})t as free from dust as 
 possible. Too often the sweeping is done in such a 
 manner as simply to shift a large part of the dust from 
 the floor to the walls and the school furniture, where it 
 is allowed to remain. Pupils should be trained to take 
 pride in the condition of their desks and the surround- 
 ing furniture. A word of commendation now and then 
 to those deserving it for keeping their desks neat and in 
 good order will do much toward securing both clean fur- 
 niture and good discipline. 
 
 5. Posture of Pupils. — Whether sitting or standing, 
 the posture of the pupil should be one of ease and 
 grace. In general a graceful posture is easy, and an 
 easy one is graceful and healthful. An erect posture, 
 with the chest well forward and the shoulders back, is 
 the most conducive to health. Under all circumstances 
 fitting in a stooping posture over the desk should be 
 avoided. In this position the chest becomes contracted 
 and the lungs cramped, so that they are incapable of per- 
 forming their work of purifying the blood, and the body 
 thus becomes enfeebled and diseased. 
 
 Comfortable Scats, of such a height that the feet of the
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 3b 
 
 children may rest comfortably and firmly on the floor, 
 are necessary. The backs of these scats should be curved, 
 so as to adapt themselves to the shape of the body and 
 give support at all points. The seats should also be a 
 little higher in front than at the rear, in order to support 
 the legs and prevent slipping forward. 
 
 The Height of the Desks should be made to conform to 
 the varying heights of the different pupils. With desks 
 too high incalculable damage may be done to the child in 
 causing such a curvature of the spine as to raise one 
 shoulder higher than the other, and thus produce a 
 lifelong deformity. Low desks are equally objection- 
 able, because the pupil is apt to lean forward and assume 
 an injurious stooping posture. 
 
 6. Exercise. — Exercise is necessary to health. With- 
 out exercise the body becomes enfeebled and sickly, the 
 various physical organs perform their functions imper- 
 fectly, the vital forces are diminished, and at last disease 
 lays hold on the organization and death ends the career 
 of the child. 
 
 Exercise is necessary to study. A sound mind needs 
 a sound body. The mind is to a great extent influenced 
 by the bodily health. ^A weak or enfeebled body is rarely 
 accompanied by a strong mind. But exercise is neces- 
 sary to strength and soundness of body, and therefore 
 necessary to strength and soundness of mind. 
 
 Calisthenic Exercises. — For in-door exercises probably 
 nothing is of more value than calisthenics, with or 
 without music, but music should accompany the exer- 
 cise whenever possible. For beginners these exercises 
 should be very simple, and of such a character that all
 
 36 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the cliiklren can readily follow the lead of the teacher, 
 Foi older pupils they may be more complicated. 
 
 The value of these exercises is very great. They can 
 Ije called into use at any time to wake up the school. 
 The movements, all being made in exact time, train to 
 ])romptness, while they also develop grace of body and 
 motion. They are interesting, and therefore they may 
 be made to take the j>lace of play. They promote har- 
 mony of action, and thus train pupils to act in concert in 
 the performance of other duties. 
 
 Gymnastic Exercises also are useful in promoting 
 health. These may be regulated, as in the case of a 
 march or a drill, or they may be unregulated, allowing 
 each to follow the inclination of his own will. In either 
 case they will prove of much benefit to the pupils if 
 conducted in such a way as to call into play as many 
 muscles of the body as possible. 
 
 The Place for Exercising. — As to the proper place for 
 exercising, little need be said. All exercise should be 
 taken in the open air when possible. When the weather 
 is such that exercise must be taken in-doors, calisthenics 
 or light gymnastics may be used, but pure air should be 
 admitted freely through the open windows while the ex- 
 ercise continues, unless the cold be too severe. 
 
 7. Play. — Play may be regarded as the most healthful 
 cf all exercise. It is the natural exercise for children. 
 'I'hey cannot help playing. No other form of exercise 
 can be profitably substituted for it. Richter says: "Play 
 is, in the first place, the working off at once of the 
 overflow of both mental and physical powers." The 
 play is in the child, and it serves the valuable purpose
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 37 
 
 of exercise and recreation at once, while it strengthens 
 anil develops the i)hysical powers and kee2)s them healthy. 
 To the student j)lay is what quiet and rest are to one 
 wearied by the performance of manual labor. 
 
 The Place for Play. — In pleasant weather all plays 
 should be carried on in the open air. This not only be- 
 cause there is more room, but because it if* much more 
 healthful. Wherever possible the school-house should 
 have a dry cellar or a basement story, where pupils may 
 enjoy their sport when the weather prevents their play- 
 ing out of doors. Should such a place not be provided, 
 the next best arrangement is to allow jmpils to play in 
 the school-room, but in every such case the teacher 
 should select the play. The play should be such as will 
 not cause the furniture to be injured or raise the dust 
 from the floor. A pleasant in-door play, in which both 
 boys and girls may engage, is that of tossing bags of 
 beans or corn from one to another. These bags should 
 be made to contain about a quart. There is no possible 
 danger of doing any harm to the furniture or the walls 
 should they happen to strike either. 
 
 The Time for Play. — The proper times for play are 
 usually the recesses or intermissions. How many re- 
 cesses a day the pupils should have, and how long these 
 periods should continue, must be left somewhat to the 
 judgment of the individual teacher. Two recesses each 
 half day, with at least an hour's intermission at noon, is 
 not too much play-time for the smaller pupils. For the 
 older pupils probably one recess each iuilf day in ad- 
 dition to the noon intermission Avould be sufficient. Now 
 and then a half or a whole holiday, with a short excur- 
 sion or a picnic, wouli be of great benefit. The tendency
 
 38 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 among all clnsscs of schools, tlic Kindergarten excepted, 
 is to do too much work and have too little recreation, 
 and the result is most unsatisfactory. 
 
 Character of the Play. — The faithful teacher will give 
 some attention to his pupils while on the play-ground as 
 well as when in the school-room. The boys will natur- 
 ally choose the rougher plays, while the tendency among 
 the girls will be to select those of a more quiet character. 
 Both extremes should be avoided. Any plays among 
 boys in which they are likely to do one another personal 
 injury, or plays which will train them to become rude 
 and rough, should be prohibited; and, on the other 
 hand, girls should be encouraged to engage in those plays 
 which will give them physical vigor and endurance. 
 The teacher who advises his girls not to engage in such 
 plays as Avill give them healthful physical development, 
 and who cautions them continually to be dignified and 
 observe the laws of decorum instead, commits a crime 
 for which his ignorance is no excuse. 
 
 The Teacher's Influence in Play. — If the teacher be wise 
 in his supervision of the children's sports, he will exert 
 a powerful influence in the formation of character. A 
 kind word of praise now and then will cause each par- 
 ticipant in the play to put forth extra exertions in order 
 to win the approbation of the teacher ; and the teacher, 
 on the other hand, will find his discipline a much less 
 difficult matter if his pupils feel that they really have 
 his sympathy in their plays. 
 
 Should the Teacher engage in Play? — Why not? If 
 his joining in the play will help to make it interesting, 
 there seems to be no good reason why he should not help 
 his pupils in their sports. The p'ay-ground is an excel-
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 39 
 
 lent place for the study of character. Of course the 
 teacher should not permit himself to be drawn into any 
 disputes with his pupils. Under no circumstances should 
 he forget that when off the ])lay-ground he is the teacher 
 and his playmates the pupils. If, however, the teacher 
 have not perfect control of his pupils in the school- 
 room, it would likely be unwise for him to make him- 
 self one of the participants in a game where evil- 
 disposed pupils might be inclined to degrade him or 
 take revenge. Should the teacher engage in play, it 
 would not be wise for him to reprove or punish while 
 on the play-ground. His example should be such as to 
 command the highest respect of his pupils. Should 
 anything improper occur, the reproof had better be ad- 
 ministered privately after the excitement of the game is 
 forgotten. 
 
 8. Hygienic Habits of Pupils. — Attention must be 
 given to the personal habits of pupils. Much of the 
 impurity of atmosphere in our school-rooms is caused 
 by improper ventilation, but much arises also from the 
 lack of personal cleanliness on the part of our school 
 children. Some of this negligence is due to ignorance 
 of hygienic laws, and much of it to the carelessness of 
 both parents and children. The special hygienic fea- 
 tures to which attention must be given are — 
 
 1. Cleanliness of Person. 
 
 2. Cleanliness of Clothing. 
 
 3. Correction of Offensive Personal Habits. 
 
 4. Supply of Food. 
 
 5. Abundance of Sleep. 
 
 6. Cheerfulness of Disposition.
 
 40 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1 . Cleanliness of Person. — A Avashbowl and a uumber 
 of towels arc among the essentials of school-room equi]>- 
 nients. The teacher should see to it that his pupils have 
 their teeth carefully brushed, their hair neatly combed, 
 and their hands and faces washed clean before they begin 
 the day's work. Not only this : he should insist that the 
 hands and faces be kept clean and the hair kept neatly 
 combed. If he could induce the children to have their 
 shoes and boots polished also, himself setting the example, 
 lie would be doin": a arood work. But more than this: he 
 should explain to them the importance of bathing fre- 
 quently, not only during the summer, but ali^t) during 
 the winter. Soa]) and water are friends to civilization, 
 and few men appreciate so fully the necessity for the use 
 of both as does the teacher of a district school. Pupils 
 should be taught that bathing is necessary to health and 
 physical vigor, and they should be advised to clean.se the 
 skin frequently also as a preventive of disease. 
 
 2. Cleanliness of Clothing. — But little less important is 
 the cleanliness of one's clothing. A frequent change of 
 underclothing should be advised, that the excretions of 
 the body may not be carried around for a week or more. 
 Pupils should also be requested to come to school with 
 their clothing brushed. They should be made to under- 
 stand that all wraps, shawls, comforters, scarfs, etc. should 
 be put aside when in the school-room, that they may serve 
 the proper purpose when worn out of doors. 
 
 3. Correction of Offensive Personal Habits. — Care should 
 be taken by the teacher to correct improper and offensive 
 personal habits on the part of his pupils. Spitting on 
 the floor or the stove should be condemned publicly, 
 and it would be in place to suggest that no one ought to
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 41 
 
 he without a pocket-handkerchief, nor ought he fail to 
 uric it wlien necessary. Offensiveness to one's associates 
 demands this, to say nothing of personal cleanliness. 
 Picking the teeth in company or in class ought to l)e 
 i-ebuked, at least in private, and any other person;jl 
 habits that offend should receive similar treatment. 
 
 4. The Supply of Food. — The teacher can do little here 
 except to recommend a proper diet. Food of proper qual- 
 ity should be supplied and in sufficient quantity, but with 
 this the teacher has notiiing to do. He can, however, ad- 
 vise his pupils as to the hygiene of eating so far as thor- 
 ough mastication or too rapid eating is concerned. He 
 ought also to break up the bad school habit of lunch- 
 ing at every recess, showing pupils the necessity of taking 
 meals at regular times. 
 
 5. Abundance of Sleep. — Sound sleep and plenty of it 
 is essential to hard study. Sleep is the time for repair. 
 The teacher should im})ress on the minds of his pupils 
 the importance of regularity of habit in the matter of 
 sleep. Seven or eight hours is not too long a period of 
 sleep for those who perform active mental labor, but the 
 hour of retiring and of rising should be as nearly as pos- 
 sible the same all the year round. It is not the "early 
 to bed and early to rise" so much as it is- the regularity 
 which "makes man healthy, wealthy, and wise." 
 
 6. Cheerfulness of Disposition. — Cheerfulness is con- 
 :lucive to health. The cheerful teacher's presence 13 
 worth more than the most learned and logical doctrines 
 of the man who relies on his grimness and dignity to 
 control his school. Of all places in the world, home 
 and school should be made the most cheerful. The 
 teacher who is cheerful will have a school of cheerful
 
 42 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 and animated pupils, and more good, honest luird work 
 will bo done in a school of this kind in a month than 
 could be done in one of an opposite character in a year. 
 A cheerless teacher should never be permitted to asso- 
 ciate with small children. The teacher whose august 
 presence frightens his pupils, and who controls them 
 by fear, is out of place in a school-room ; and no Board 
 of Directors should give employment to a person of such 
 a temperament. Youth is the sunshine of life, and no 
 clouds should be permitted to cast their shadows over 
 the ha])piues3 which God has implanted in the glad 
 young hearts of children. 
 
 Suggestions on School Hygiene. 
 
 1. Diplomas should not be secured at the expense of 
 health. It is better that our boys and girls should grow 
 up healthy men and women than that they should acquire 
 scholarship at the expense of physical prostration and bod- 
 ily deformity. 
 
 2. See that all your pupils exercise, and that the exer- 
 cise be pleasant, 
 
 3. Regulate the plays of your pupils in such a way as 
 to make them most beneficial physically and mentally. 
 
 4. Assign no lesson for home study to children under 
 ten years of age. 
 
 5. Suggest pleasant reading to your pupils as a mental 
 recreation. 
 
 6. Do not encourage precocious children by rajjid pro- 
 motion or over-praise ; rather hold them in check, 
 
 7. "When children are sick do not permit thera to 
 study. 
 
 8. See that your school-room is well ventilated, but be
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 43 
 
 careful that children are not subjected to unnecessary drafts 
 of air. 
 
 9. Give frequent talks to your pupils on hygiene in 
 such language as they can readily understand. 
 
 10. Explain to your pupils how to preserve their teeth. 
 
 11. Show them the importance of wearing their cloth- 
 ing loose rather than tight, and explain why the former 
 is more healthful. 
 
 1 2. Explain to them the importance of thorough mas- 
 tication of their food. 
 
 1 3. Explain to them the necessity of bathing frequently 
 and taking plenty of sleep. 
 
 14. Show them the importance of retiring and rising 
 at fixed hours. 
 
 15. Tell them what articles of diet are wholesome, and 
 what otherwise. 
 
 16. Show them that they can prevent sickness by ob- 
 serving the laws of health. 
 
 17. Have them assume such positions, whether sitting 
 or standing, as will permit the lungs to expand fully. 
 
 18. Impress upon them frequently the importance of 
 taking good care of their bodies and preserving the health, 
 oven at the expense of great knowledge. 
 
 19. Do not permit your pupils to hold their books in 
 such a way as to cause near-sightedness. 
 
 20. Recommend to them proper hygienic reading — 
 such books as will teach them to know themselves and 
 preserve their physical vigor undiminished. 
 
 V. School Grades. 
 
 A system of graded schools divides pupils according 
 to their attainments into several divisions, each of which
 
 44 SCilOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 is aocommodated in a separate room. Thus the more 
 advanced i)ni>ils are made to constitute a irrammar school 
 or a higli scliool, while the begiiuiers would properly be 
 known as a i)riinary school. 
 
 Advantages. — The chief advantages of graded schools 
 are the following: 
 
 1 . They Save Labor. 
 
 2. They are more Economical. 
 
 3. They are Productive of Better Teaching. 
 
 4. They are more Easily Governed. 
 
 5. They Prompt the Ambition of Pupils. 
 
 G. They Furnish Education in the Higher Branches. 
 
 1. Graded Schools Save Labor. — In a well-graded 
 school the number of classes is much smaller than in 
 ono ungraded. The experienced teacher discovers also 
 that a class of twelve or fifteen pupils is more inter- 
 esting and more readily taught than if the .same pupils 
 were distributed in two or more classes. A large class 
 requires no more time to teach than one having a smaller 
 number of pni)ils, and by this combination of classes 
 much labor is economized. 
 
 2. They are more Economical. — Since graded schools 
 require a smaller number of classes, the number of 
 teachers is diminished, and thus a saving in the cost of 
 teacliing is effected. Graded schools also save expense 
 in the purchase of apparatus and in the building of 
 school-houses, ])articularly in villages and larger towns. 
 
 3. They are Productive of Better Teaching. — The num- 
 ber of classes being reduced, the teacher in charge has 
 more time for the special preparation of the various
 
 SCHOOL, REQUISITES. 45 
 
 lessons to be taught. The number of branches taught 
 in the difFerent departments of a graded school is smaller 
 than that of a mixed school ; and here also time is 
 i^avcd, and the teacher is enabled to prepare himself 
 better for his work. It is true also that a teacher who 
 limits himself to the teaching of a few branches will 
 do much better work, especially if these are to his taste, 
 than if he attemi)t to teach all the studies of a school 
 course. 
 
 4. They are more Easily Governed. — In a graded school 
 the pupils are usually nearly of the same age; there are, 
 therefore, fewer causes for disturbance than would nat- 
 urally exist in a school where })upils of all ages associate 
 and recite in the same room. The easiest school to gov- 
 ern is usually that in which the children are most nearly 
 equal in age and attainments. In a graded school the 
 fear that they may, as the result of improper behavior, 
 negligence, or idleness, fall behind their classmates, is a 
 strong incentive to keep pupils obedient and orderly. 
 
 5. They Prompt the Ambition of Pupils. — Not only 
 does the fear of falling behind their classmates tend to 
 good order among pupils in a graded school, but there 
 is also a desire created to excel and prepare for promo- 
 tion to higher grades. Every pupil, having in his mind 
 this promotion from one grade to another, will strive 
 more earnestly to succeed and keep pace with his com- 
 jvinions in their efforts to reach higher departments. 
 
 6. They Furnish Education in the Higher Branches. — 
 Graded sdiools are not meant to take the place of acad- 
 emies, colleges, or other higher institutions of learning; 
 but, inasmuch as many of the brightest children are so 
 situated pecuniarily that it is impossible for them to
 
 46 . SCHOOL. MA^'AGEMKNT. 
 
 attend any higl. school under private control, the graded 
 sc'hool pro{)erly supplies a demand which exists in every 
 district. Talent is not the possession of one class of 
 society alone; and since it is to the advantage of the 
 state to develop all talent to its fullest extent, certainly 
 the graded school, because it offers opportunities for 
 higher education which could not be secured through 
 any other means, ought to receive the encouragement 
 of every one interested in the education of the whole 
 peoi)le. 
 
 Objection to Graded Schools. — The chief objection 
 urged against graded schools is that they suppress indi- 
 viduality. All the pupils being made to conform to a 
 certain line of study, it is urged that individual talent 
 must necessarily be neglected, and that this tendency to 
 uniformity will thus suppress the efforts of genius to 
 make itself felt. If the objection be sound so far as it 
 applies to graded schools, it must be regarded as sound 
 in its application to all schools that do not give special 
 attention to the development of special talents. But 
 public schools do not aim at making specialists. The 
 best they can do is to give the rudiments of a general 
 education, leaving special education to technical schools 
 which prepare for special callings. 
 
 The Number of Grades. — The number of grades is in 
 a great measure governed by the number of pupils. 
 Where the number of ])upils is less than one hundred 
 but two grades could be established. From one hun- 
 dred to one hundred and fifty pupils would require 
 three grades, and above that number at least four grades.
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 47 
 
 Til sonic cities the division is into Primary, Secondary, 
 Grammar, and High Schools. Others divide into Pri- 
 mal^', Secondary, Intermediate, Grammar, and High 
 Schools. By this latter arrangement two years may be 
 given to each of the divisions except the High School, 
 which ought to have a course of study covering three or 
 four years, thus making the school life eleven or twelve 
 years in length. 
 
 By subdividing each of these divisions into classes A 
 and B there is constant annual promotion from class to 
 class from the time the child enters the schools until he 
 quits them. Thus at the end of the first year, if his 
 work has been satisfactory, he may be promoted from 
 the B class Primary to the A class Primary ; at the end 
 of the second year he goes from the Primary to the 
 Secondary, and so on until he reaches the High School, 
 where, if he be diligent and studious, he ought to be 
 promoted from class to class until he has completed the 
 whole course of study. Thus there is a constant incen- 
 tive urging him forward from the beginning to the close 
 of his school life. 
 
 The number of grades must be determined partly also 
 by the course of study to be pursued, a fuller course re- 
 quiring usually a greater number of grades. It will be 
 found that the number of pupils in the primary grades 
 will be much greater than that in any other, and there 
 will be a gradual decrease in number up to the High 
 School. 
 
 Manner of Grading. — The two chief methods of 
 
 grading are the Union and the Separate Graded Schools. 
 
 The Union Graded Schools usually have all the pupils
 
 48 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 in one buikling, with a principal or a Superintendent, 
 wlio has charge of all the schools, but with an assistant 
 for each room. A modification of this plan, where the 
 number of pupils is sufficiently great, consists in having 
 a General Superintendent, with a principal for each de- 
 partment. Primary, Secondary, etc. This plan requires 
 an assembly-room for each department, with recitation- 
 rooms attached. 
 
 The Separate Graded System locates the various grades 
 in different parts of the district, the Primary School by 
 itself, the Grammar School by itself, and so on. In this 
 case also a separate principal may be ])rovided for each 
 building, with a General Superintendent for the whole 
 town or city. The lower grades under this system 
 should be located at the most convenient points, while 
 the higher grades should be placed near the centre of 
 the district, particularly if this be also the centre of 
 population. 
 
 Graded Schools for Country Districts should be formed 
 wherever the number of school children is sufficiently 
 large to furnish the material for two or more grades. 
 Many country districts might have a central Grammar 
 or High School, if so inclined, by placing the school- 
 houses for the primary pupils at the most convenient 
 points, and locating the Grammar School near the cen- 
 tre of the district, or where it would prove most conve- 
 nient of access to the greatest number. If, then, the 
 admissions to this school were made on merit alone, 
 as shown during the term and at examination of the 
 primary schools of the district, a powerful incentive 
 to study would be given to all the pupils of the 
 district.
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 49 
 
 The Kindergarten. — The Kindergarten — literally, a 
 "children's garden" — is a primary school intended for 
 children too young to enter upon the ordinary school 
 work. The Kindergarten system was first used by an 
 eminent German teacher, Friedrich Froebel, who had 
 been one of Pestalozzi's pupils. 
 
 TIic leading feature of Froebel's system was that of 
 directing the active play-principle of childhood into 
 useful channels. Children were brought together and 
 surrounded with such conditions that their own free 
 actions would lead them to the best self-development. 
 The teacher acted chiefly as a guide. Plays were so 
 arranged that each in its turn became instrumental in 
 furnishing the child new ideas and in developing new 
 activities. 
 
 Tile methods of the Kindergarten are mainly the wise 
 direction of play. The kind of play is selected by the 
 child, but the method is controlled by the teacher, and 
 is so directed as to convey some important lesson. 
 Singing constitutes one of the main features of Kinder- 
 garten work. The pupil finds his work pleasurable, and 
 thought is developed because the teacher tells little, and 
 allows the child under careful guidance to discover truth 
 for himself. 
 
 VI. School Aids. 
 
 A well-regulated school needs, in addition to the 
 apparatus heretofore mentioned, certain general aids 
 designed to promote study and good order. These are — 
 
 1. Textbooks. 
 
 2. The School Library. 
 
 3. School Records. 
 
 4
 
 60 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1. Textbooks. — Textbooks are a necessity in tlie work 
 of teacliiiiir. Oral instruction and lectures have their 
 proper place in a school course, but they cannot be sub- 
 stituted for the textbook. The mind is disciplined by 
 study, and the requisite study can be secured only in 
 connection with a properly-arranged book. Next to a 
 live, energetic, and interesting teacher, the textbook is 
 the most important educational agency for giving to the 
 child the proper mental discipline. The discipline af- 
 forded by the difficulties which the child overcomes in 
 his study of a good textbook is of vastly more import- 
 ance than the recitation or any possible course of oral 
 instruction. But it must never be forgotten that no 
 textbook can cover all of the ground, and that it is there- 
 fore tlie duty to supplement and add to the instruction 
 conveyed by the book. 
 
 The Objects of Textbooks. — 1. They give Reliable In- 
 fomiation. — The knowledge given by a good textbook 
 is not only put in such a shape as to make it at once 
 available to the learner, but it is also reliable, and the 
 information conveyed is stated in more concise language 
 than it would be if imparted wholly by oral instruction. 
 This is of great advantage to both teacher and pupil, as 
 it leads to clearness of thought. 
 
 2. They Secure System.— Under purely oral instruction 
 the language of the teacher as he states and restates his 
 principles must necessarily lead to looseness of thought 
 on the part of his pupils. This is particularly true in 
 the case of younger pupils. Clearness of statement and 
 logical arrangement of parts in a textbook will tend to 
 make pupils systcmaHc. Indeed, a well-arranged text-
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 51 
 
 l)o<jk is a s^roat aid to students in systematizing their 
 )uetljod.s of" tliou<2jiit and work. 
 
 3. They Employ the Time of Pupils.— In all kinds of 
 schools there must necessarily be much time in whicl) 
 the pupil is not engaged in recitation. The textbook 
 utilizes this by giving the pupil an opportunity to keep 
 himself busy and at the same time gain mental discipline 
 by systematic study. 
 
 4. They Aid the Teacher. — Few teachers indeed are 
 thoroughly competent to communicate the knowledge 
 claimed at their hands, or communicate it in so intelli- 
 gent a manner, as does the textbook, which aids the 
 teacher by presenting facts in a concise and systematic 
 way, relieves him of the necessity of making special 
 j)reparation to put liis knoMdedge in logical shape, and 
 saves much time which would be required to separate 
 the essential from the non-essential parts. 
 
 The Chapacteristics of Good Textbooks. — The clia- 
 racteristics of a good textbook are as follows : 
 
 1 . It should be Logically Arranged. — A properly-arranged 
 textbook is not only a great aid to the pupils in pursuing 
 a study, but it is also an important help to the teacher in 
 conducting the recitation. The principles and facts stated 
 should not be fragmentary. Each, so far as possible, 
 should be connected with knowledge previously acquired 
 or statements previously presented. A logical ly-arrange<l 
 textbook induces logical modes of thought, and thus in 
 it-elf furnishes valual>le discipline. 
 
 2. A Textbook should be Clear. — The language of a 
 textbook should be so clear that the learner cannot mis- 
 understand it. In the statement of principles or prob-
 
 52 SCUOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 loms the pupils should not be left iu doubt as to the 
 meauiug by any ambiguous construction wliich a sen- 
 tence may bear. Fac;ts should be stated in such clear 
 language that the learner may apprehend the meaning at 
 a glance. Textbooks of this character tend to simplify 
 greatly the work of both teaching and learning. 
 
 3. A Textbook should be Interesting. — Textbooks may 
 be made interesting by their arrangement as well as by 
 the matter they are made to contain. They ought not 
 to be a mere mass of dry facts ; the princij)les enunci- 
 ated should be illustrated by such examples as will at- 
 tract the attention of the learner, and at the same time 
 elucidate the subject treated in such a way as to make 
 him comprehend. The most important principles and 
 the most interesting facts should be given, and these 
 in such a way as to leiid the pupil to love "study. 
 
 4. The Textbook should be Brief. — A textbook is not 
 designed to present an exhaustive discussion of any sub- 
 ject, and it ought not, therefore, to be made too compre- 
 hensive. A suggestive textbook that leads the pupil to 
 original investigation or the consulting of cyclopaedias 
 and dictionaries is much more valuable than one which 
 attempts to be exhaustive in its treatment. True, a book 
 may present all the most important facts aiKl j)rinciples 
 of a branch of knowledge and be a good textbook, but 
 the best books always leave much for the teacher to add 
 or for the learner to find out for himself. 
 
 5. The Style of a Textbook should be a Model.— The 
 style in which a textbook is written should not only 
 be clear and the language such as the pupil can readily 
 comprehend, but the thoughts should be presented in 
 such a forcible and yet graceful way as to attract the
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 53 
 
 attention. It is too often the case that an author's style 
 is so labored or his language so obscure that the student 
 finds great difficulty in deciphering the meaning. The 
 language should be not oidy choice, but also correct. 
 Nothing will have a stronger tendency to throw doubt on 
 the statement of an author than the fact that he does not 
 use his own language correctly. 
 
 6. The Textbook must be Adapted to the Capacity of the 
 Student. — In general, they can write textbooks best who 
 best understand the operations of the child-mind, and 
 they understand child-mind the best who constantly 
 associate with children, and who, as teachers, observe 
 the mode of thought which the child follows. A book 
 written in such style or such language as is beyond the 
 ciipacity of the child to grasp is not only useless, but 
 it also is pernicious. In such case the child will either 
 commit the words of the book to memory without un- 
 derstanding what is meant, or become discouraged and 
 lose interest in the study. All textbooks, therefore, should 
 be adapted to the capacity of the class of pupils for whom 
 they are intended, and this both in style and language, as 
 well as in the matter presented. 
 
 7. A Textbook should be Attractive in Appearance.— 
 The chief requisites to a beautiful textbook are good 
 paper, attractive illustrations, and good-sized, clear type. 
 It is a serious mistake to use broad pages and small type 
 for any textbook. No one can estimate the injury done to 
 eyesight by textbooks of this character. When the page 
 exceeds three or three and a quarter inches in width it 
 tires the eye morQ or less in passing from one line to 
 another, and the broader the page the greater the injury. 
 The cost of manufacturing books with good type and good
 
 64 SfllOOIi MANAGEMEKT. 
 
 paptf is but little greater, comparatively, than that of 
 man ufac taring those of poorer material. Tlie same 
 rule of economy that is good elsewhere is good here 
 — that good goods, though higher in price, are the least 
 expensive. 
 
 The Abuse of Textbooks. — No greater educational fal- 
 lacy has been presented than that which urges teachers to 
 do away with the textbook. The ultimate result is found 
 to be a breaking up of habits of study and a destruction 
 of mental discipline. The only compensating result is a 
 mass of fragmentary knowledge which hardly deserves 
 the name. Even did teachers know everything in con- 
 nection with the subjects they teach, textbooks would 
 be a necessity in order that pupils might discipline their 
 minds by study. But, under the present condition of 
 things, to urge teachers to throw aside the textbook and 
 attempt to impart all instruction orally is worse than 
 absurd; it is criminal. The difficulty lies not in the 
 too frequent use of textbooks, but in their abuse. The 
 following evils may be named as the most important in 
 the use of the textbook : 
 
 1. Committiiig the Text to Memory. — There are certain 
 portions of every textbook which must be committed, 
 but one of the chief abuses of the textbook consists in 
 committing everything verbatim, and attempting to re- 
 cite in the exact language of the book. Definitions and 
 principles stated in exact terms by the author cannot likely 
 b} improved upon by the student, and it is better, there- 
 fore, that such of these as are important be committed. 
 But in the relation of incidents or the statement of facts 
 the pujtil ought to be permitted to use his own language
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 55 
 
 R-lieu it is correct. It is not the book, but the subjects, 
 whicii he studies and which lie Oilght to recite. 
 
 2. The Teacher's Use of a Single Textbook, with no 
 knowledge beyond, is to be condemned. The teacher 
 who goes before his class with no knowledge of anything 
 outside of the textbook used in school is not well fitted 
 for his position. He may be able to deceive his pupils 
 if he be well versed in the textbook used, but the know- 
 ledge he imparts will be of little consequence, and the 
 enthusiasm which a teacher ought to arouse among his 
 pupils will in his case be found wanting. 
 
 3. The Teacher should Supplement the Textbook. — It 
 is not enough that he teach only what is found in the 
 book, or that he take upon himself the duty of simply 
 asking questions on the text or as found on the printed 
 page. This ought to form but a small part of the reci- 
 tation. The teacher ought to encourage his pupils to 
 read other books on the subjects he teaches and observe 
 for themselves. But, above all, he ought to inform him- 
 self thoroughly on the subject-matter of the textbook 
 by consulting similar works, and give his pupils the 
 benefit of his reading, while he at the same time stim- 
 ulates the pupils to greater effort. He should make the 
 textbook matter the text or groundwork on which to 
 ba.se additional instruction. 
 
 The Selection of Textbooks. — This important duty is 
 left to the respective Scliool Boards. The teacher, how- 
 ever, should be consulted, and wherever possible his 
 recomuKMidation should be the guide for the Board's 
 action. Thi.s, too, for the reason that the teacher under- 
 stands best the Mants of both hiuiiclf and the pupils,
 
 56 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 and knows best whet style of book would render teach- 
 ing most efFective. Merit of course should be the gov- 
 erning principle which should decide for or against the 
 adoption. Changes in textbooks should not be made 
 frequently, but when worthless books are in use, and 
 better ones can be had at but little additional expense, 
 no false notion of economy or fear of narrow public 
 sentiment should for a moment deter a Board from 
 doing its duty in adopting the best books. 
 
 The Ownership of Textbooks. — By far the most eco- 
 nomical plan in the securing of textbooks is that of 
 having them purchased and owned by the school dis- 
 trict. Pupils and patrons purchase at retail rates, but 
 School Boards could make satisfactory arrangements 
 with publishers to secure textbooks at much less expense. 
 These books could be paid for out of the school funds of 
 the district. They should be charged to each pupil when 
 distributed, and credited to the same pupils at the end 
 of the term if returned in good condition. Payment 
 should be required for those damaged or lost. It would 
 be wise for the legislatures of the various States to enact 
 laws which would empower the various School Boards 
 thus to make school textbooks, as well as pencils, chalk, 
 and other school equipments, the property of the district. 
 
 2. The School Library. — 1. Its Importance. — Next to 
 the school itself, one of the most important educational 
 agencies in a conmiunity is the school library. But 
 comparatively few books find their way to the table of 
 the rural citizen. Nothing will so soon su])ply this 
 want as the establishment of a library in the public
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 57 
 
 school to which all, but particularly the children of the 
 district, may have access. The taste for reading created 
 in the child while at school will grow, and in the end 
 Ave shall have as the result broader culture and a higher 
 grade of citizenship. The study of textbooks alone, 
 while it will discipline the mind, will not give this 
 broader culture. It needs the reading of the best 
 thoughts of our great authors on literature, science, 
 and art. 
 
 2. The Books to be Chosen First are those which will 
 enable the pupils to gain knowledge outside of the text- 
 book. These will embrace — first, a dictionary, if one 
 be not included among the apparatus supplied by the 
 Board ; also cyclopaedias and other works of reference. 
 To the cyclopaedias should be added historical works, 
 treating not only of the United States, but also of Eng- 
 land, France, Germany, Greece, Rome, etc. Then should 
 follow the works of the most prominent British and 
 American poets, and with these the prose-writings of 
 Irving, Prescott, Dickens, Thackeray, Scott, Hawthorne, 
 Cooper, Macaulay, Carlyle, Holland, and others. A 
 taste could thus be created for the elegant in both prose 
 and poetry, while the vitiated taste created by the cheap, 
 flashy literature of the day might be anticipated and 
 supplanted. 
 
 3. How to Secure the Library. — The same suggestions 
 might be made here that were made with reference to 
 securing apparatus. The chief methods to be recom- 
 mended are entertainments and a subscription fund. 
 An apjieal to the School Board by the teacher and a 
 committee of prominent citizens would have great 
 weight. An appeal to the citizens to make donations
 
 58 SCHOOIi MANAGEMENT. 
 
 of boctks to the library might be effective. First of all, 
 however, an interest in establishing a library shonld be 
 aronsed and a demand for reading created. Much could 
 be done in this matter by an energetic teacher's making 
 direct personal appeals to his patrons. The library once 
 cstiiblished, the School Board should vote a small sum 
 annually for the purchase of new books and the rebind- 
 ing of old ones. 
 
 4. The Management of the Library. — During the 
 school term the management of the library should be 
 placed in the hands of the teacher. Books of reference 
 should of course be consulted in the room, and in no 
 case ought they to be carried to the pupils' homes. The 
 teacher should kindly consult with his pupils in the 
 selection of books, adapting the reading as far as pos- 
 sible to the taste of the individual minds. The pupils 
 should be required to handle the books with care and 
 return them in good condition. The books of reference 
 should be placed where they can be consulted at any 
 time, but all other books should be given out at a spe- 
 cified time, as Friday afternoon of each week. During 
 vacation it would be well to place the library in the care 
 of some citizen, who might keep the school-room open 
 on alternate Saturdays or on every Saturday for an hour. 
 It is quite as important that the library be used in vaca- 
 tion as during the school term, that the taste once acquired 
 for reading may not be lost. 
 
 3. School Records. — Among the aids to school man- 
 agement school records play an important part. The 
 chief forms which these records may take will be deter- 
 mined by the attendance, the deportment, and the class-
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 59 
 
 recitation, tliiis giving three forms of records. This 
 number may, however, be reduced to two, the first con- 
 taining a record of admission and attendance, and the 
 second a record of deportment and class-recitation. A 
 form for these registers need not be given here, as blank 
 forms are in many cases supplied by the State, and others 
 may be had at but small expense from publishing-houses. 
 The chief advantages of school records are as follows : 
 
 1. They are an Incentive to the Teacher. — The fact that 
 here is a daily record of the attendance and deportment 
 of each pupil, which may be compared with that of 
 other schools in the district, induces the teacher to put 
 forth special efforts to secure regular attendance and 
 proper deportment on the part of his pupils. The 
 records enable him also to systematize his work and 
 keep in mind more steadily the standing of his pu])ils. 
 AVith these records the possibility of his doing injustice 
 to the pupils is also in a great measure avoided. 
 
 2. They are an Incentive to the PupU. — The child who 
 feels that every absent-mark is recorded against him for 
 the ins})ection of any who may desire to consult the 
 record, and that his conduct and progress are registered 
 j^^o for inspection and future reference, will not fail to 
 put forth his best efforts to please the teacher, unless, 
 indeed, he be lost to all sense of shame. Every expe- 
 rienced teacher knows with what eagerness ho is ap- 
 proached by even young men and young women desirous 
 of knowing their class-standing at the close of an exam- 
 ination or at the end of a school term. A private note 
 sent home at the ( lose of the week or the current month, 
 giving the absent-marks and the class-standing of a 
 negligent pupil, will often have a good effect, not only
 
 60 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Oil the child, but also on the parents. The reading 
 aloud of the general average of each pui)il, when judi- 
 ciously done, may also occasionally have a good effect. 
 
 3. They Fumisli Information to Patrons. — One of the 
 chief uses of school records is to furnish information 
 to the patrons and the school officers, and thus enable 
 them to judge of the comparative progress and attend- 
 ance of the respective pupils. They also enable the 
 school officers to compare the relative standing of the 
 individual schools in a district, and judge of the com- 
 parative standing of the same school from year to year. 
 
 4. They Furnish Information to the New Teacher. — But 
 few schools are fortunate enough to have the same 
 teacher in charge for any great number of consecutive 
 years. New teachers taking charge without the aid of 
 school records and registers are compelled to work 
 blindly for a time. But where these records are well 
 kept and handed down from each teacher to his suc- 
 cessor, the incoming teacher is enabled to begin his 
 work intelligently and avoid loss of time. 
 
 The following are the chief objections urged against 
 the use of class records : 
 
 1. They Require too much Attention. — This objection 
 is not urged against the attendance roll, but chiefly 
 against the class record showing the daily progress or 
 class-standing. In small schools the objection is not 
 valid, but certainly in large schools, if pupils are 
 marked at each recitation, considerable valuable time 
 will be consumed in this way. Postponing the marking 
 until the close of the school for the day does not seem 
 to be a good plan, for the reason that it is alraosfimpos-
 
 SCHOOL REQUISITES. 61 
 
 siblc to remember distinctly the merit of each pupil's 
 individual recitations for the day. 
 
 2. Tke Judgment of Teachers Differs. — It is urged that 
 what would be considered a meritorious recitation by 
 one teacher would in the estimation of another more 
 rigid be deemed only passable, and thus the marks 
 would so vary as to lose all value. It is urged also 
 that a teacher is likely to mark differently according to 
 his moods and the condition of his health — that when 
 in a pleasant mood the marks will be higher than when 
 he is despondent or suffering from ill-health, consequent- 
 ly the register would not record accurately the progress 
 of the pupils. 
 
 There is some force in each of these objections, but 
 the advantages of school records so largely outweigh the 
 disadvantages that we think they ought to be used. Of 
 course they must be judiciously kept and the teacher 
 must be conscientious in his marking. If properly 
 used they will prove a valuable aid in school manage- 
 ment. •
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 School Organization. 
 
 School Organization consists in suc^h a systematizing of 
 the school employments as will enable the teacher and the 
 pupils to do the greatest amount of effective work with 
 the least friction and in the shortest possible time. A 
 complete organization is one of the essentials to success. 
 If the work of the scliool be systematized, and all school 
 api)liances and school machinery be so arranged as to do 
 the work most efficiently, the difficulties in discipline will 
 be reduced to a minimum and the labor of learning will 
 become a pleasure. The work of organizing an ungraded 
 school is a difficult task, even for an experienced teacher, 
 and in the hands of a beginner the task becomes doubly 
 difficult. To provide for the efficient education of the 
 child mentally, morally, and physically, is a work re- 
 quiring not only nuich careful thought, but also great 
 skill and patience. 
 
 The First Day of School is one of the most important 
 in the term. It is necessary to make a good beginning 
 and create a favorable impression on the pupils the first 
 time the teacher meets them. The trial is a serious one, 
 but it need not be feared if the teacher has made all the 
 necessary preparation to make a good impression and win 
 the pupils to him. Nor will the influence he wields be 
 limited to his pupils; these in turn will communicate 
 
 02
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 63 
 
 their opiuion of tlie teacher to the parents, and judg- 
 ment will be promptly rendered. 
 
 The Teacher should Visit the Neighborhood before tlie 
 opening of school. This he may do a week or tAvo in 
 advance or a few days in advance, but in either case he 
 should meet some of the most prominent Directors and 
 citizens, whose acquaintance he should cultivate and wliose 
 advice and friendship he should strive to secure before be- 
 ginning his responsible work. 
 
 The Views of the Community with reference to school 
 work should be among the first things to claim his atten- 
 tion. It will be a matter of prime importance for him to 
 know whether the citizens of tlie district are progrefesive 
 or otherwise, that his plans may be adapted to their educa- 
 tional wants in such a manner as to cause the least friction. 
 These facts he can be.st learn from the intelligent citizens, 
 while at the same time he is enabled to pave the way for 
 securing their co-operation in his work. 
 
 A second object of the visit is that of learning the meth- 
 ods of managevxent and teaching pursued by the previous 
 teacher. This can be best effected by consulting the pre- 
 vious teacher personally if he reside in the neighborhood, 
 and if not, then by consulting some of the most intelli- 
 gent school officers or citizens of the community. Hav- 
 ing once learned these methods, lie should be careful not 
 to criticise them or speak disparagingly of his predeces- 
 sor's work, but rather make such changes as he may 
 deem necessary in a quiet, unostentatious way. 
 
 A third object of the visit is that of ascertaining what 
 changes may be necessary or prudent, either in the man- 
 agement of the school or in the methods of instruction. 
 Previous to making such changes it would be wise for
 
 64 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 tlie tcaclier to submit them to the school officers and 
 influential citizens with 
 dorsement and support. 
 
 influential citizens with the view of securing their iu- 
 
 Suggestioiis. 
 
 Be Early at School. — If possible, the teacher should be 
 at the school-house and have everything ready for the 
 day's work before the pupils arrive. A few kind and 
 cheering words of welcome to each pupil as he comes 
 will do much to win for the teacher the friendship of 
 the children and make the first day's work successful. 
 
 Have your Plan of Work Ready. — No time should be 
 lost in wondering what to do first. The teacher should 
 have his plan of organization prepared, and make use 
 of it at once. As soon as the pupils have become seated 
 a few pleasant remarks may be made, showing that the 
 teacher is desirous of making the school pleasant and 
 profitable to the children and the community, and ask- 
 ing kindly their help. The better nature of the chil- 
 dren may be reached in this way, and the cases are 
 rare in which the teacher will not find his efforts sus- 
 tained by both pupils and parents. 
 
 Assign Work Promptly. — The classification of your 
 predecessor, even though defective, will be sufficiently 
 accurate for the first half day's work. Have your pro- 
 gramme arranged, so that classes may be called upon with- 
 out delay. Quite a good plan is that of assigning lessons 
 to the reading classes first, and when these are called upon 
 to recite, other work may be given to them which they can 
 prepare after returning to their seats. All may thus be 
 kept busy, and this in itself will be coniucive to good 
 order.
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 65 
 
 Be Cheerful and Patient. — Nothing will tend to secure 
 ready obedience on the part of the pupils so much as the 
 cheerfulness and patience of the teacher during the first 
 day's work. Do not become nervous and attempt to 
 accomplish too much. It is not possible to make the 
 machinery work as smoothly the first day as when the 
 school is fully organized, and it is folly for any teacher 
 to worry and fret because he thinks he is not accom- 
 plishing enough. 
 
 Seating. — In the choice of seats for the first day it is 
 best for the teacher not to interfere, unless some of the 
 smaller pupils should attempt to occupy the desks prop- 
 erly belonging to the larger ones. In that case a quiet 
 request will likely be all that is necessary to secure the 
 required change. It may be well to announce that the 
 pupils will be permitted to retain such seats as they have 
 chosen, so long as the occupants do not interfere with the 
 good order of the school, but that the teacher reserves the 
 right to make a change whenever the welfare of the school 
 makes it necessary. 
 
 Temporary Signals may be devised for the convenience 
 of both pupils and teacher. Thus, for the purpose of 
 asking permission to leave the seat or ask a question 
 the pupil may raise the hand and receive the assent of 
 the teacher. Some excellent teachers pursue the plan of 
 having a special signal for each request, as the raising of 
 one finger for permission to speak with a neighboring 
 pupil, two for permission to come to the teacher's desk, 
 three for permission to leave the room, and so on. 
 
 Temporary Rules. — The teacher must not make the 
 mistake of drawing up a series of rules for the govern- 
 ment of his pupils the first day of school. Indeed, the 
 
 5
 
 (j(j SCHOOL MA^IAGEMENT. 
 
 best management is that wliieh will postpone all neces- 
 sity for these nilcs indefinitely. Not until the conduct 
 of' the pupils becomes such as to justify the rules should 
 there be any mention made of them. One of the most 
 serious mistakes of inexperienced teachers is that of de- 
 pending upon a list of inflexible rules by which to gov- 
 ern a school. 
 
 Permanent Organization. 
 
 No school organization can be regarded as strictly 
 permanent. No teacher can foresee all the difficulties 
 with which he will have to contend, and in the nature 
 of things it will therefore be impossible for him to 
 anticipate them by any perfect scheme of organization. 
 The best he can do is to watch carefully the working of 
 his temporary organization, and adopt such features of 
 it as may seem to him worthy of being preserved per- 
 manently. He will need, however, to add such other 
 feiitures as may seem to him necessary to secure profit- 
 able and effective work. Among these will be proper 
 classification, a well-arranged programme, effective school 
 signals, and proper attention to the manner of opening 
 and closing school, the seating of pupils, and the re- 
 cesses. 
 
 1. School Classificiitiou. 
 
 School Classification consists in grouping pupils in 
 classes according to capacity or advancement for the 
 purj)ose of study and recitation. Close classification 
 puts each pupil in the same class in all studies, and 
 gives him an opportunity of equal advancement in all 
 branches. Loose classification permits the pupil to
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 67 
 
 recite hirf studies in different classes according to the 
 advancement he has made. 
 
 In the lower-grade schools the plan of close classi- 
 fi(3ation is much the better. Should pupils find them- 
 selves in advance of their classmates in some branches 
 and not equal to them in others, there is all the more 
 reason why they should devote less time to those studies 
 in which they are most proficient and more to those 
 about which they know least. 
 
 In the higher-grade schools it is often convenient to 
 adopt the plan of loose classification, particularly in the 
 case of such pupils as may have neglected the study of 
 some of the necessary branches while they were in the 
 lower grades, also in the case of such pupils as may 
 have but a short time to attend school, and are desirous 
 of giving special attention to a few studies only. 
 
 Advantages of Classification. — The ibllowing may be 
 named as the chief adv^antages of classification : 
 
 1. Classification Enables the Teacher to Estimate the 
 Comparative Progress of Ms Pupils. — In no way can 
 the teacher judge of the actual work of his pupils so 
 accurately as when they meet in class-recitation, where 
 all have the same work to perform. 
 
 2. Classification Makes TeacMng more Efi'ective. — An 
 explanation may be made as readily to a whole class as 
 to a few individuals. The teacher is thus enabled also 
 to make special preparation for each recitation — some- 
 thing which would be almost an impossibility in a poor- 
 ly-classified school or one wholly unclassified. 
 
 3. Classification Economizes the Time of both Teacher 
 and Pupils. — Particularly is this true in the case of the 
 teacher. An illustration or an explanation given to a
 
 gg SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 class is c(iuivak'iit to the same illustration or explanation 
 given tifteen or twenty times to as many individual 
 i)ui)ils. The recitation of a whole class need not con- 
 sume mucii more time than the recitation of a single 
 pupil, particularly if all the members are attentive. 
 
 4. Classification Stimulates Pupils. — Children will work 
 more diligently if they have classmates. The compe- 
 tition of classmates is an incentive to exertion. The 
 presence and the criticism of classmates also have a 
 beneficial effect in making the pupils anxious to recite 
 well and make proper progress in study. 
 
 5. Classification Makes Enthusiastic Teaching. — Small 
 classes are usually most easily governed, but larger 
 classes give a teacher inspiration and arouse enthusi- 
 asm ; and this enthusiasm is in turn almost sure to 
 make teaching successful. 
 
 6. Classification Cultivates Attention. — Pupils reciting 
 in groups or classes find an incentive to closer attention 
 in the fact that their work is likely to be criticised. 
 They become attentive also, because they are desirous 
 of criticising the errors of others; and, in general, the 
 desire to surpass their fellows will assist in leading them 
 to giv^e close attention to the preparation as well as to 
 the recitation of the lesson. 
 
 Principles of Classification. 
 
 Certain principles govern the classification of pupils 
 in all kinds of schools. Among these are — 
 
 1 . Age and ScholarsMp.— These are the chief criteria 
 for determining the class which a pupil should enter. 
 In general, scholai'ship ought to have most weight in 
 determining the classification, but it is often best to put
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 69 
 
 an older pupil who is backward in scholarship with 
 those near his own age, even though thej are in advance 
 of him, that he may not be discouraged. Older pupils 
 sometimes feel keenly the embarrassment of being 
 classed with those much younger than themselves, and 
 whenever it is possible such classification should be 
 avoided. 
 
 2. Advancement. — Care should be taken to adapt the 
 classification to the advancement of the pupil. If 
 classed too low, he is apt to become careless and indo- 
 lent; if too high, he may be discouraged in finding 
 himself unable to keep pace with his classmates. 
 Strong, healthy pupils may, as a general thing, be 
 classed higher tlian the more delicate, because capable 
 of harder work and greater endurance. 
 
 3. Average Ability. — Care should be taken to classify 
 according to tlie average ability of the child. Pupils 
 are rarely found to be equally advanced in all branches. 
 Some who are well advanced in arithmetic are deficient 
 in language, while others well advanced in language or 
 geography will be found deficient in mathematics. The 
 average ability in all these branches should be the basis 
 of classification. It is always best to have pupils give 
 close attention to those studies in which they are most 
 deficient, that the culture they receive may be as sym- 
 metrical as possible. 
 
 4. The Standard of Classification. — No definite rule 
 can be given as to what branches should be made the 
 standard of classification. Reading is an unsafe stand- 
 ard, for the reason that those who have had the advan- 
 tage of good libraries, children's magazines, and news- 
 papers at home, and who have read much silently, will
 
 70 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 be found much better readers than those not enjoying 
 these advantages, though probably not any farther ad- 
 vanced in the usual school studies tiian others of their 
 own age. Arithmetic is probably the safest branch on 
 which to base classification, for the reason that deficiency 
 in any ether branch may be remedied, but deficiency or 
 backwardness in arithmetic is difficult to overcome, and 
 it often greatly interferes with the pupil's progress in 
 other studies. 
 
 5. The Number of Classes. — The number of classes in 
 graded schools will be governed by the closeness of the 
 grading and the number of grades. Usually, two classes, 
 or at most three, will be found sufficient. In ungraded 
 schools the number of classes ought not to exceed five, 
 and in many schools the number might profitably be 
 limited to four. This of course supposes that all the 
 members of a class pursue the various studies of that 
 class, unless for some important reason they be excused. 
 Those in the lower classes will have fewer studies than 
 those more advanced, so that there will not be the max- 
 imum number of classes in each branch of study. 
 
 6. The Size of the Classes. — The size of the classes also 
 will be determined somewhat by the size of the school. 
 Medium-sized classes in public schools are best. Where 
 it is possible classes should contain from ten to twenty 
 pupils each. In primary studies a smaller class is not 
 objectionable, as the attention of the younger children 
 is more liable to wander, and with them the larger the 
 class the more difficult the task of holding the attention. 
 The class should never be so large that but a portion can 
 recite each day. If possi ble, every pupil should be reached 
 during every recitation.
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 71 
 
 Suggestions. 
 
 The following suggestions will be found useful In class- 
 ifying pupils: 
 
 1. Adopt the Classification of your Predecessor as a Tem- 
 porary Classiflcation. — This will furnish the basis to build 
 upon, and you will avoid criticism and difficulties in the 
 beginning. 
 
 2. Let it be Known that your First Classification is Tem- 
 porary. — Pupils will then be less dissatisfied when removed 
 from one class to another. 
 
 3. Do not Classify too High. — One of the mistakes of 
 ambitious students and misguided parents is that of de- 
 siring to advance too rapidly. Pupils belonging properly 
 in the Third or the Fourth Reader should not be pro- 
 moted to the Fifth until they are fully prepared. This 
 interferes with progress, and gives the pupil a mere smat- 
 tering of knowledge. 
 
 4. Avoid Conflicts with both Pupils and Parents. — Rat her 
 let pu])ils be classified too high at first than awaken the op- 
 position of both themselves and their parents. The pupils 
 will see their mistake in the daily recitation, and usually 
 they will be found willing after a short time to take their 
 proper places. 
 
 5. When Making the Permanent Classiflcation, Let it be 
 on Merit. — If parents or pupils object, explain to them 
 and convince them of their mistake. 
 
 6. Do not Compel Pupils to Pursue Studies to which their 
 Parents Object. — It is true you have the right to enforce 
 such compulsion, but it is neither wise nor necessary to 
 do so unless the omission of such study interferes ma- 
 terially with the progress of the pupil in other branches.
 
 72 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The wise plan is to remove the difficulty by convincing 
 the paront of his error. 
 
 7. Do not Give too many Studies. — The tendency among 
 pnpHs is to undertake the study of more branches than 
 they can pursue profitably. The teacher should so con- 
 struct his programme as to avoid this, and permit the 
 pupils to study oidy as many branches as they can study 
 well. More than this will defeat the end of study. 
 
 8. Let the Studies be such as will Give Variety. — This 
 will secure symmetrical culture and keep up interest. The 
 pupil will also be able to do more work with less fatigue, 
 just as the exercise of all the muscles will cause less 
 fatigue than the continued exercise of a single set. 
 
 2. Programme. 
 
 Among the essentials of good scliool mangement is a 
 a well-arranged programme. To make provision for all 
 the classes, assigning to each its proper place and fixing 
 for each its proper limit of time in recitation, is a work 
 of some difficulty. A good ])rogramme should have the 
 following charaderistioH : 
 
 1. A Definite Period must be fixed for each class-recita- 
 tion, for every intermission, for all interruptions, and for 
 study. All these must have their place, that the school 
 work may be well done. 
 
 2. The Length of the Recitations nuist be arranged 
 according to the size of the school and the number of 
 classes. The shortest time should be given to the smaller 
 pupils, and the longest to those more advanced. 
 
 3. The Frequency of Recitations must be provided for. 
 The primary pupils will need several recitations a day in 
 most of the branches, in order to keep them interested as
 
 SCHOOL, ORGANIZATION. 73 
 
 well as busy, wliile the more advanced pupils will need 
 but a single recitation in each branch. Some of tlie 
 liigher branches may even have recitations on alternate 
 days, but it Avill be found difficult to keep up a proper 
 degree of interest where the recitations are not heard 
 daily. 
 
 4. All Studies should Have their Proportionate Share of 
 Attention. — Neither arithmetic nor any other hobby of 
 teacher should be permitted to occupy a fourth or a 
 third of the time, leaving the remainder to be divided 
 among a half dozen other studies. 
 
 5. All Grades of Pupils must be Provided for. — The 
 smaller as well as the larger must receive due attention 
 in class-recitation, and a just proportion of time should 
 be allotted to each in the programme. 
 
 6. Studies to be Prepared in School should not be Re- 
 cited among the First. — In general it will be found most 
 convenient to prepare all mathematical work in school. 
 Classes in arithmetic should not, therefore, be among the 
 first to recite in the morning. The first recitations of the 
 day should be either the lessons prepared at home in the 
 evening or the classes in reading. 
 
 7. The School-day should not Close with severe Mental 
 Labor. — Classes in penmanshij), drawing, spelling, or 
 vocal music should end the day's work. Class exercises 
 needing steady nerves, such as writing or drawing, 
 ought not to follow a recess or any time of physical 
 exertion. 
 
 8. The Programme must Provide a Time for General 
 Business. — The teacher will frequently have remarks to 
 make to the school, reproof may need to be administered, 
 or cautions may need to be given. None of these ought
 
 74 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 to interfere with the recitations of the day. A special 
 time, therefore, for this general business should be pro- 
 vided in the programme, 
 
 9. The Programme should Provide for all the School 
 Work.— Let it be remembered that recesses are for rest 
 and recreation. Neither the pupils nor the teacher 
 should be employed in work at that time. Both need 
 the recess. Nor should recitations be heard after school. 
 To detain pupils beyond the regular school hours for the 
 recitation of lessons is both cruel and unwise. 
 
 Advantages of a Good Programme. 
 
 The chief advantages of a well-arranged programme 
 are the following : 
 
 1. It Leads to Regular Habits of Study. — Study be- 
 comes systematized, and students learn to do their work 
 according to a plan. 
 
 2. It Makes Systematic Teachers, — A fixed plan will 
 make the teacher systematic in his work, and the duties 
 of the school will be performed with less friction and 
 greater regularity. 
 
 3. It Saves Time. — No time is wasted in attempting to 
 recite half-prepared lessons. The pupils, knowing the 
 time when they will be expected to recite, are prepared 
 and ready. 
 
 4. It Makes Systematic Pupils. — It not only leads to 
 regular habits of study, but it makes pupils regular and 
 systematic also in all their other work and in their habits 
 of life. 
 
 5. It is an Aid to Systematic Orgauization. — Each new 
 teacher is enabkxl by the programme of his predecessor 
 to take up the work just where it wiis left at the close
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 
 
 75 
 
 of the preceding term, and carry it on without embar- 
 rassment or loss of time. 
 
 6. It Makes School Work Effective. — No time is lost. 
 Pupils know not only when they will recite, but also 
 Avhen lessons may be prepared to the best advantage. 
 The development is harmonious, and all jarring and 
 discord of conflicting classes are avoided. 
 
 In all cases when a new programme is to be used, it is 
 best to post it in some conspicuous place where the pupils 
 may consult it. 
 
 Probably no programme can be arranged to suit all 
 classes of schools, but the two following are offered as a 
 basis on Avhich to work. The first is designed for a 
 school of four classes, and the second for a school of 
 five. Either may be modified to suit the requirements 
 of the school in which it is used. In the following 
 model for a programme the first column denotes the 
 time for the opening and the close of each recitation ; 
 the second, the class which is to recite ; and the third, 
 the branch of study in which the recitation is to be 
 conducted : 
 
 PKOGRAMME. 
 
 Forenoon. 
 
 9.00 
 9.10 
 9.20 
 9.35 
 9..O0 
 10.10 
 10.25 
 10.40 
 10.5.0 
 11.2.') 
 11. .50 
 12.00 
 
 Opening Exercises 
 
 Reading and Spelling.... 
 
 Primary Geography 
 
 Primary Geography 
 
 History or Geography. 
 
 Language Lessons 
 
 Recess 
 
 Language Lessons 
 
 Language Lessons 
 
 Grammar 
 
 Numbers 
 
 Noon Recess 
 
 Aftermoon. 
 
 Roll-Call, etc. 
 
 Reading and Spelling. 
 
 Aritlinietic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Arithmetic. 
 
 Writing and Drawing. 
 
 Recess. 
 
 Object-Lessons or Reading. 
 
 Reading and Spelling. 
 
 Reading and Spelling. 
 
 Reading and Spelling. 
 
 General Exercises. 
 
 Dismission.
 
 76 
 
 S(;UOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 < 
 
 n 
 
 W 
 
 CO 
 < 
 
 O 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 o 
 
 » 
 
 
 
 ClCSOCsOOOOi— '1— iT-HC^J 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 1 1 
 
 •o o 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 o 
 
 
 o 
 
 o 
 
 I-^ 
 
 c^ 
 
 -* 
 
 = 
 
 e~i 
 
 ^r 
 
 •o 
 
 o 
 
 <M 
 
 -* 
 
 03 
 
 Ol 
 
 OS o» o» c 
 
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 ^ 
 
 ^- 
 
 I-- 
 
 r^ 
 
 *— ' 
 
 — 
 
 f— ' 
 
 I— •— ^r-(MC<I(MC^co :t CO : 

 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 77 
 
 3. School Signals. 
 
 A system of school signals, if not too complex or cum- 
 bersome, will tend to systematize the school work and save 
 muJi time. It will also be productive of good order and 
 tend to make pupils methodical. 
 
 The following prmciples should govern a code of 
 signals : 
 
 1. The Signals should be Few in Number. — Tiie tend- 
 ency is to use too many signals, and the result is con- 
 fusion. Many teachers themselves make their scliool 
 noisy by the too frequent use of the bell or by having 
 too complicated a system of signals. But few signals, 
 and only those which are readily understood, should be 
 adopted. 
 
 2. Each Signal should be Necessitated by the School 
 Work. — All arbitrary signals, or those used only for 
 display, should be avoided. 
 
 3. Each Signal should be Significant. — Every signal 
 should have its definite meaning, and should be used 
 for the same movement or request, without variation. 
 
 4. Promptness in Obeying Signals is Important. — Unless 
 pupils be trained to obey each signal promptly, the system 
 is useless. The movements should also be made quietly 
 as well as promptly. 
 
 5. The Signals should be Well Understood. — Pupils 
 should know definitely what is required of them, and 
 they should in time become so well acquainted with the 
 code that they act almost automatically in response to any 
 signal made. 
 
 The following simple code of signals will be found 
 useful ;
 
 78 SCHOOL. MANAGJiMENT. 
 
 I. In Caliing School. 
 In calling school, either in the morning or after any 
 of the recesses, two signals only are necessary : 
 
 1. The ringing of a bell to call pupils in; 
 
 2. A tap of the bell or a word to call them to order 
 preparatory to beginning work. 
 
 n. In Calling Classes. 
 
 In calling classes to recite three signals are sufficient : 
 
 1. The teacher's voice or a tap of the bell calling for 
 attention ; 
 
 2. A tap of the bell for the class to rise ; 
 
 3. A taji of the bell for pupils to pass to the recitation- 
 scats. 
 
 III. In Dismissing Classes. 
 
 In dismissing classes but two signals are needed : 
 
 1. A tap of the bell for pupils to rise and face their 
 desks ; 
 
 2. A tap of the bell for the pupils to pass to their 
 seats, or, if the class be not too large, it may be dismissed 
 without any signal whatever. 
 
 rv. In Dismissing School. 
 In dismissing school four signals may be used : 
 
 1. "Attention !" called by the teacher; 
 
 2. A tap of the bell for the pupils to arrange desks ; 
 
 3. A tap of the bell for the pupils to rise; 
 
 4. A tap of the bell for the pupils to march out by 
 sections. 
 
 If no means of having your pupils march to music be 
 at hand, either the teacher or one of the pupils may count
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 79 
 
 one, two — one, two, to ordinaiy march-time, and dismiss 
 the children in this way. Tht pupils will enjoy the march. 
 
 4. Hand Sigiials. 
 
 Special signals may be used by jiupils when desirous 
 of speaking to the teacher or to one another ; also when 
 desirous of asking or answering questions in class. 
 
 Thechief class-signal is thatof raising the hand — either, 
 '±. To express a willingness to answer; 2. To criticise or 
 correct; or, 3. To ask a question. 
 
 When a pupil is reciting no one should be permitted 
 to attract attention or confuse him by raising the hand, 
 and particularly the snapping of fingers should never be 
 tolerated. Many a pupil has been thoroughly confused 
 by the ill manners or the thoughtlessness of a classmate 
 who raised his hand or snapped his fingers while the 
 former was reciting. 
 
 Each pupil should be held responsible for every an- 
 swer. Therefore, if a mistake is made all the pupils 
 who noticed it should raise the hand when criticism is 
 called for. As soon as the teacher designates one to 
 make answer or criticise, the other hands should be 
 dropped. 
 
 Frequently, pupils may have occasion to ask questions 
 while at their seats. In such cases the pupil should raise 
 his hand before speaking, and should remain quiet until 
 the teacher recognizes the signal and permits him to speak. 
 Only in extreme cases should the teacher permit any one 
 to raise the hand while a class is on the floor reciting. 
 While pupils are reciting the teacher's whole attention 
 ohould be given to the recitation, and interruptions
 
 80 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 should be postponed until a change of classes takes 
 
 place. 
 
 Suggestions. 
 
 1. Avoid calling your pupils to class without any 
 system. 
 
 2. Avoid calling out your pupils to class one by one 
 as you name the numbers — first, second, etc. 
 
 3. Avoid permitting your pupils to scramble in a dis- 
 orderly Avay to the class for the purpose of securing a 
 clioice seat or a desirable position. 
 
 4. Avoid permitting your pupils to run to their seats 
 or to class. 
 
 5. Avoid permitting your pupils to crowd one another. 
 
 5. The Opening and the Closing of the School. 
 
 The simplest and least showy plans of opening school 
 are generally the best. The following plan has been well 
 tested and found successful : 
 
 Singing. — After the pupils have assembled, the teacher, 
 or, if he is not a good singer, one of the pupils, leads the 
 school in an appropriate hymn or song, in which all join. 
 This will cheer up the children and put them in a good 
 humor for the day's work. 
 
 Scripture Reading. — In communities where no serious 
 objections are raised the singing should be followed by 
 the reading of a selection from the Bible, without note 
 or comment. Should there be any pupils in the school 
 whose parents object to having their children present 
 when the Bible is being read, these should of course 
 be excused. 
 
 Prayer. — Nothing seems more appropriate than that 
 the Lord's Prayer, repeated in concert or chanted by
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 81 
 
 the whole school, should form a part of the opening 
 exercises. 
 
 Roll-CaU. — Following the foregoing exercises should 
 come roll-call. This need occupy but a short time. A 
 convenient plan is that of having each pupil numbered, 
 from one upward. When ready the teacher announces, 
 Roll! and the pupils, beginning with the first, respond 
 one, two, three, four, etc. The numbers failing to respond 
 may be placed on the blackboard, where mistakes may be 
 corrected. From this corrected list the teacher is enabled 
 to record both his tardy pupils and his absentees. 
 
 Intelligence Class. — Immediately following roll-call the 
 teacher may hold a short intelligence meeting of the whole 
 school. In this exercise important items of news may be 
 communicated by such of the pupils as may have gleaned 
 any; and to these should be added such as the teacher 
 may have gleaned since the preceding day. When news 
 is scarce the reading of a short but interesting story will 
 serve to attract the pupils and bring them to school in 
 good time. 
 
 The Afternoon Session may be opened with singing, fol- 
 lowed with roll-call, as at the morning session, but omit- 
 ting the remaining portion of the morning exercises. 
 
 The Manner of Closiag School is a matter of importance. 
 The day's work having been finished, it is highly import- 
 ant that every one leave the school-room in the best of 
 spirits. Let the teacher start a cheerful song, and have 
 all his pupils join. Make the exercise such that every 
 pupil may leave the school with the feeling that it is 
 a pleasant place, and with a hearty wish to return on 
 the morrow. At the close of the song a tap of the bell 
 or the teacher's voice will call the pupils to attention, and 
 6
 
 82 sciroor. management. 
 
 they may tlien be dismissed according to tlie signals here- 
 tofore suggested. 
 
 6. Seating. 
 
 1. Sex in Seating.— Discipline is sometimes secured by 
 scatino- the two sexes in alternate rows or sections, but the 
 inexperienced teacher will find the plan of placing the 
 girls on one side of the room and the boys (m the other 
 much the safest and the least likely to cause him annoy- 
 ance. The policy of seating boys and girls promiscuously 
 at any time while engaged in school work, unless it be in 
 recitation, is a doubtful one. 
 
 2. The Right to Change Seats. — The teacher should at 
 all times reserve the right to re-seat pupils. When a 
 pupil becomes talkative or troublesome to his neighbors, 
 he should be removed at once to a separate seat if possi- 
 ble. Various reasons may exist w^hy pupils should be 
 removed from one seat to another, and the teacher alone 
 has the right to make the change. 
 
 3. Discipline by Seating. — The teacher may often avoid 
 difficulties in discipline by seating properly. As far as 
 possible, one pupil only should be permitted to occupy a 
 desk. Two talkative })upils should not be seated together. 
 The weak should be placed with the strong. Troublesome 
 pupils should be placed where they can cause the least an- 
 noyance. All seating should be so arranged *as to secure 
 the best possible order. 
 
 7. Recesses. 
 
 Times for recreation are quite as necessary in the school 
 day as are times for labor. Long-continued work will ac- 
 complish less and tire more than worlc judiciously inter- 
 Bpersed with play.
 
 SCHOOL ORGANIZATION. 83 
 
 1 The Number of Recesses. — If possible, two short re- 
 cesses of ten miimtes each should be taken each half day. 
 If tliis cannot be done, then one of at least fifteen min- 
 utes should be substituted, and all should be permitted to 
 enjoy it. The teacher's discipline ought not to be so weak 
 that he finds it necessary at any time to keep pupils in 
 during the play-hour. 
 
 2. The Teacher at Recess. — The teacher needs the recre- 
 ation afforded by recess quite as much as the pupils do. 
 He should supervise the play of his pupils. It will 
 cheer him up, and fit him to do the work of the school- 
 room all the better because of the recreation. 
 
 3. Pupils and Teachers should Associate at Recess. — The 
 teacher should associate with his pupils during recess, and 
 join in pleasant conversation with them. He has no 
 higher duty than that of making school pleasant to 
 those placed in his care. His example as the com{)anion 
 and guide of his pupils should always be worthy of im- 
 itation. The wise teacher often exerts quite as powerful 
 an influence on the play-ground as in the school-room. 
 
 4. Merruption Recesses, — Provision should be made 
 for interruptions. There should be some fixed period, 
 as the time for changing classes, when two minutes, or 
 as much time as may be necessary, may be set apart for, 
 the purpose of allowing pupils to ask questions, receive 
 permission to leave their seats, or take a short rest. 
 
 5. Irregular Recesses. — Now and then the teacher will 
 find that with his most skillful efforts order cannot be 
 preserved. Confusion seems to reign supreme. The 
 very atmosphere seems to be saturated with anarchy and 
 discord. Any effort to make the discipline more rigid 
 seems only to make the confusion worse. Scolding and
 
 84 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 \vlii]>piiig serve only to increase the restlessness and 
 nervousness. What shall the teacher do? Let him give 
 the pupils some recreation, some rest, and enough of it 
 to overcome the effects of the disturbance. Occasionally 
 stopping all the regular exercises and joining in a calis- 
 thenic drill or a cheerful song or two will be all that is 
 necessary to bring every one under perfect control again. 
 Sometimes a five-raiaute recess will secure the same re- 
 sult, and bring order out of confusion.
 
 CHi^PTER III. 
 School Work. 
 
 The chief work of the school, so far as pupils are con- 
 cerned, is study. Education is not a pouring-in process, 
 in which the pupil is a mere passive receiver. The mind 
 needs culture, and it receives its best culture through study. 
 Many questions arise here : What are the objects of study? 
 How may pupils be trained to study? How may habits 
 of study be inculcated ? What are proper incentives to 
 study ? 
 
 I. Study. 
 1. The Objects of Study. 
 
 The chief end of education is development in the full- 
 est sense of the term — intellectual, moral, and physical. 
 One man is better educated than another only so far as his 
 powers are more fully developed and under better control. 
 
 The chief object of study is Discipline or Training. 
 To this may be added the subordinate ends of study — 
 Knowledge, Expertness, Moral Culture, Aspiration. 
 
 1. Discipline. — All man's powers, whether mental, 
 moral, or physical, need culture and training in order 
 that they may be strengthened and receive the highest 
 possible development. Discipline is the true end of 
 study. An undisciplined mind works at a disadvaatage, 
 and accomplishes but little. The knowledge gained 
 
 85
 
 86 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 durino- one's school life is of much less importance tlian 
 
 o 
 
 the systematic training which the mind acquires under 
 the wise guidance of a teacher who understands the true 
 enl of education, and how best to train and develop the 
 natural powers of both mind and body w^ith which God 
 has endowed the child. 
 
 TraiDlng to Think is the most important work that 
 the teacher has to perform. Thinking must be sys- 
 tematic. The pupil must be made critical and obser- 
 vant; his attention must be undivided; his memory 
 must be exact; his judgment must be clear. He must 
 be trained to see quickly, exactly, and sharply. The 
 branches tauglit must be used to give him self-discipline 
 and self-development. 
 
 The Pupil must be Tauglit How to Study.— The chief 
 work of the teacher is to guide and direct the pupil in 
 his efforts. The efficient teacher never does the work 
 of the pu]>ils for them. Patient efforts must be made 
 by the teacher to show his pupils how to study the va- 
 rious branches in a systematic way, so as to give the 
 best culture to the mental powers. It is a serious mis- 
 take to permit pupils to pursue their studies in an un- 
 systematic manner. Energy is thus wasted and time lost. 
 An occasional hint even as to what part of a paragraph 
 is important, and what may be omitted without disad- 
 vantage to the student, will prove valuable. But the 
 teacher can do better than this by watching constantly, 
 and directing the pupil how to pursue each study in 
 such a way as to afford the best mental development. 
 
 2. The Acquisition of Knowledge.— This is also one 
 of the objects of study. Knowledge is as essential to
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 87 
 
 tlie miud as is food to the process of physical growth, 
 but it shouH never be made the chief end of study. 
 The mind craves knowledge as the stomach craves food, 
 but in either case the ultimate end is development. The 
 l)hysical organs assimilate the food, and it is made to 
 supply the physical loss and strengthen the body. The 
 mind assimilates knowledge, and the mental powers sys- 
 tematize it and adapt it to the wants of mental develo])- 
 ment. 
 
 The great error in teaching is, that the acquisition of 
 facts and principles is the chief objecfc of education. 
 Even teachers sometimes make no distinction between 
 knowledge and education. A man may have a great 
 fund of knowledge, and yet be but indifferently edu- 
 cated. His knowledge may be of little avail to him, 
 because of his lack of power to use or apply it. Edu- 
 cation is not the mere process of communicating known 
 facts. Knowledge is a means of education rather than 
 an end. 
 
 3. Expertness. — Expertness is also an end of study. 
 Knowledge which we cannot apply is of little value. 
 The man who is unable to make his knowledge available 
 has but little force in the community. The mind of the 
 educated man is better disciplined, and therefore better 
 able to do the world's work. The educated man is a 
 power which makes itself felt, not only in business, but 
 also \n society. True education gives one that efficiency 
 which makes him a leader in everything that tends to 
 elevate his fellow-man. 
 
 A False Object. — The expertness spoken of here is 
 not that efficiency whicli one acquires in preparing him-
 
 S8 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 self to accumulate wealth. This, it is true, is by many 
 considered the jn-ime object of all education. The abil- 
 ity to drive sharp bargains, to make money, etc., is to 
 Bonae extent acquired by intellectual training, but it 
 should not be regarded as one of the objects of study. 
 The object of education is not to assist one to escape 
 from labor, but rather to make his labor skillful. An 
 ignorant man works like a machine, without thought 
 and without improvement, but educated labor is skilled 
 labor, and therefore intelligent. 
 
 4. Moral Culture. — This is also an end of study. 
 Fichte says : " The ultimate end of all education is to 
 lead men and human society toward their highest moral 
 destiny. Education must be based not on utilitarian 
 considerations, but purely on the considerations of hu- 
 manity." Character-building is one of the chief aims 
 of all education, and therefore of study. The discipline 
 which produces a well-balanced miud will have its due 
 effect in giving proper moral culture. 
 
 5. Aspipation. — Study gives purer ideals. Nothing 
 is more effective in awakening within the student those 
 noble aspirations to a higher life than the examples of 
 the great and the good with which he comes in contact 
 in his daily study. He builds imaginary castles, it may 
 be, but the work docs him good, even though they do 
 ^vanish into thin air" before the rude breezes of a 
 practical, every-day life. He sets for himself a high 
 mark, and, even though he may be powerless to reach 
 it, his efforts lift him above the plane he occupied before, 
 and give him a broader viewof life and his relation to
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 89 
 
 the world. His contemplation of these ideals gives a 
 charm to his life which ennobles him, and helps him to 
 appreciate more fully his relations to God and humanity. 
 
 2. Conditions for Snccessful Study. 
 
 Effective study requires proper conditions and sur- 
 roundings. The best work can be done only under the 
 most favorable circumstances. These have been par- 
 tially discussed in treating of School-Houses and School- 
 Furniture. The following conditions also are important: 
 
 1. Bodily Health and Comfort. — It is not only necessary 
 that the pupil have a sound body to insure a sound mind, 
 but it is necessary also that he be comfortable during 
 study-time. Pure air and correct hygienic habits are 
 essential. The room should be coaifortably heated and 
 the light properly modulated. The stouiach should be 
 free alike from the gnawings of hunger and the oi>- 
 pressed feeling of too full a meal. The head should 
 be clear and free from the effects of either a cold or a 
 disordered stomach. The whole system should be as 
 nearly in its normal condition as it is possible to put it, 
 and the teacher should see that the child is as comfort- 
 able as may be. 
 
 2. Favorable Surroundings. — It is necessary that the sur- 
 roundings of the pupil be such as to induce study. The 
 room should be pleasant and quiet should be preserved. 
 The old-time method of mumbling aloud over the lessons 
 is an abomination, and ought to be eradicated. Noise dur- 
 ing study-hours should not be tolerated. It is a mistake 
 to suppose that students will become so interested in their 
 lessons that their attention is not distracted by boisterous 
 noise whether in class-recitatiwi or elsewhere.
 
 90 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 3. Regular Time for Study.— This is one of the essen- 
 tials. The pupil who studies according to a programme, 
 devoting a special time to each branch pursued, will ac- 
 complish more than he who studies irregularly as the 
 mood may seize him. Study and rest should alternate. 
 Short periods of study for small children are best. In- 
 deed, short periods of study, less than an hour to each 
 branch, are best for all pupils. 
 
 4. Variety in Study. — Study should not be continued 
 on any branch for such a length of time as to weary the 
 pupil. The most effective workers are they who alter- 
 nate their work. When tired of one branch the pupil 
 should turn to another as a rest, and when tired of this 
 to still another, and so on, thus keeping up his interest 
 and resting his mind by the variety. Hard study will 
 do no one harm if he ])ursue a systematic plan which 
 gives him sufficient variety of both study and recreation. 
 
 3. Helps to Study. 
 
 The pupil who relies on the textbook alone as his guide 
 in study is apt to get only a partial view of the subject 
 he pursues. Other aids are necessary to make his schol- 
 arship broad and comprehensive. The following are some 
 «f the important aids to study : 
 
 1. Other Textbooks.— Different authors present subjects 
 in different lights and from different standpoints. The 
 pupil will find it greatly to his advantage, therefore, to 
 Btady a subject in various textlwoks, using all of them 
 to confirm the statements of the author he studies or gain 
 new views and widen his field of knowledge. 
 
 2. Reference-Books.— Every school should be supplied 
 with books of reference covering- the school course of
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 91 
 
 study. These should include an unabridged Dictionary 
 and a good Cj'clopffidia if possible. Even au abridged 
 Cyclopsedia will prove of great value to both pupils and 
 teacher. To these should be added a Pronouncing Gazet- 
 teer, a Biographical Dictionary, and A^'orks on history, 
 geography, science, and travel. 
 
 3. Cabinets. — These may be regarded in the light of 
 objective helps. A cabinet contribute<l by the industry 
 of the pupils will be useful. It should contain speci- 
 mens of the various minerals, metals, grains, woods, leaves, 
 grasses, etc. found in the vicinity of the school, or it would 
 be better still if it contained specimens of all these found 
 in the county. To this cabinet may be added curious or 
 valuable specimens from different parts of the world; 
 these will be found to add great interest and attractive- 
 ness to the collection. 
 
 4. Apparatus. — Good scliool apparatus, including sets 
 of weights and measures, cubical blocks and other geo- 
 metrical forms, will be found among the most useful 
 helps to study. 
 
 4. IncentiTes to Study. 
 
 Pupils being surrounded by proper conditions, and 
 having the desirable helps necessary to effective study, 
 it is proper to state here the incentives or motives which 
 should actuate them in the pursuit of knowledge. These 
 incentives may be divided into two classes — proper incen- 
 tives and unwise incentives. 
 
 Proper Incentives are such as may at all times be urged 
 upon pupils without danger of doing harm to other mem- 
 bers of the school. Tliey are suci as will promote tlie 
 welfare of each pupil, but never at the expense or to
 
 92 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the disadvantage of another. Among proper inceutivea 
 tlie most important are — 
 
 1. The Approbation of Conscience. 
 
 2. The Approbation of the Teacher. 
 
 3. The Approbation of Parents and Friends. 
 
 4. The Desire of Acquiring Knowledge. 
 
 5. The Gratification of Curiosity. 
 
 6. The Pleasure of Overcoming Difficulties. 
 
 7. The Attainment of an Honorable Position in School 
 
 8. The Hope of Success in Life. 
 
 9. The Approbation of Society. 
 10. The Duty of Self-Development. 
 
 1. The Approbation of Conscience. — The approval of 
 one's own conscience is a strong incentive to proper 
 effort, and no less so in the pursuit of knowledge than 
 in the regulation of one's conduct. We do things be- 
 cause we believe them to be right, even when we do not 
 stop to question the force of the obligation which impels 
 us forward. It is always safe, therefore, for the teacher 
 to appeal to the conscience of the child as a motive in 
 urging him to diligent study. 
 
 2. The Approbation of the Teacher.— The pupil who does 
 not desire to please the teacher, or who is not willing to 
 do so, nmst have sunk to a low level indeed, and the 
 teacher who does not command the respect and esteem 
 of his pupils can certainly never exert a healthful in- 
 fluence over his school. We all desire the approbation 
 of those for whom we labor, and a word of cheer or 
 Kindness from them will never fail to act as an incentive 
 to more earnest effort.
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 93 
 
 The teacher who desires to secure the best work from 
 his pupils must appreciate their work and give a word 
 of praise where due. The oft-quoted rule, " Corauiend 
 where you can, aud censure only where you must/' is 
 a good one and a safe one to follow, both in the school- 
 room and out of it. The teacher who is pleased with 
 nothing, who is given to faultfinding or scolding in- 
 stead of commendation, has passed his period of use- 
 fulness, and is no longer competent to do the teacher's 
 Avork. 
 
 Indiscriminate praise, however, is not to be employed. 
 The truthful teacher will not indulge in it. A kindly 
 look or an approving nod when a pupil has done work 
 deserving the attention and commendation of the teacher 
 will always be ajipreciated by the child, and it will 
 always have its due influence in urging him to greater 
 diligence. 
 
 3. The Approbation of Parents and Friends. — The 
 approbation of the parents and the friends of the pupil 
 is also a proper incentive to study. Few parents, in- 
 deed, have so little love for their children that they are 
 not anxious for them to succeed ; and there are few chil- 
 dren who are not anxious to win the commendation of 
 both their parents and their friends for the excellence 
 of their school work. The teacher will often be able 
 to promote study by inviting the parents of pupils 
 to visit the school for the purpose of inspecting its 
 work. 
 
 4. The Desire of Acquiring Knowledge. — This is one 
 of the strongest incentives to study. The desire for
 
 94 SCHOOL MANAGEMEJS'T. 
 
 knowledge is implanted in the child's nature. It eager- 
 ly seeks to learn, and it is left to the wisdom of the 
 teacher to place before it such knowledge as is best 
 fitted to give the mind the most symmetrical culture 
 and development. The teacher may cultivate and 
 strengthen this desire for knowledge by making his 
 instruction interesting, and by giving to the child such 
 facts as will lead him to investigate for himself the 
 truths with M'hich he comes in contact. 
 
 5. The Gratification of Curiosity. — Curiosity is charac- 
 teristic of childhood. Little folks eagerly inquire, Why 
 is this? what is the reason for that? The judicious 
 teacher not only arouses curiosity, but he teaches also 
 in a way to make children inquisitive and diligent to 
 find out for themselves. Much of success in teaching 
 lies in the ability to arouse the curiosity, the desire to 
 know, on the part of children. The desire for know- 
 ledge once having been awakened, the work of teaching 
 becomes easy. None are so easy to teach and so easy 
 to manage as those who want to know. 
 
 Tiie teacher should gratify the curiosity of children 
 whenever it is possible to do so, but when he is unable 
 to answer their questions he should not hesitate to tell 
 them so. He deceives no one more than himself when 
 he attem})ts to leave his pupils under the impression 
 that he knows everything. New questions should be 
 asked, and old questions should be put in a new way, 
 60 as to attract the attention and awaken the interest 
 of the pupils. Thus through the very desire to gratify 
 curiosity the pupil Mill arouse in himself au increased 
 desire for knowledge.
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 95 
 
 6. The Pleasure of Overcoming Difficulties. — To the 
 ambitious boy or girl probably no stronger incentive to 
 study could be presented than the desire to come off 
 victor in his contest with a matiiematical problem or a 
 complicated sentence in grammar. Children will run 
 races, play at ball, jump, wrestle, etc. for the mere 
 pleasure it gives them to vanquish some competitor or 
 surmount some difficulty. The " puzzle '' column in 
 the weekly newspaper or the monthly magazine is fre- 
 quently the most enticing department for young people. 
 Nature implants this desire to test one's strength, in a 
 mental as well as a physical sense, in the heart of every 
 child. 
 
 The teacher, then, should make use of this character- 
 istic in training the mind. Problems of such a charac- 
 ter should be given as are not beyond the children's 
 capacity, and yet sufficiently difficult to make them feel 
 that they have something to contend with worthy of 
 their strength. They should be encouraged to over- 
 come these difficulties for themselves, and help should 
 be given only when the ability of the child is found 
 unequal to the task to be performed. Placing before 
 pupils the biographies of such great men as have risen 
 to eminence through their own contest with difficulties 
 will greatly encourage the children and prompt them to 
 <lo better work. 
 
 7. The Attainment of an Honorable Position in School.— 
 This as an incentive appeals directly to the self-respeel 
 of the pupil. Every one feels it an honor to stand 
 high in his school and among the best in liis class. 
 Every pupil feels that it is worth years of hard mental
 
 96 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 labor to be able to say that he was the best scholar in 
 the school which he attended. This desire to attain an 
 honorable position is an excellent incentive to study, and 
 one that can be safely urged if care be taken that no 
 one's success be based on another's downfall. Indi- 
 vidual merit alone should be the basis of success. 
 
 8. The Hope of Success in Life. — The example of men 
 who have succeeded in business or who have risen to 
 distinction may safely be held before pupils as an in- 
 centive to study. The teacher should show that even 
 an ordinary laborer or a mechanic succeeds better when 
 educated to some extent, and that educated business-men 
 of all kinds are those who are most successful, unless 
 some weakness of character be present to prevent suc- 
 cess. Educated men are the ones who are called upon 
 to fill all important positions under the government. 
 They are the men who take charge of our manufactories 
 and railways, edit our newspapers, write our books, make 
 our laws, preside over our courts, teach our schools, 
 preach our sermons, and in general do the important 
 work of the world. 
 
 9. The Approbation of Society.— Scholars stand higher 
 in the esteem of every community than do the ignorant. 
 Scholarship and education are admired even by those 
 who do not possess them. The schoolboy who stands 
 higher than his fellows is a source of pride to the com- 
 nmnity in which he lives, and is respected because of 
 his knowledge. The approbation of the community, 
 therefore, is a proper incentive to urge upon pupils to 
 induce them to stud v.
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 97 
 
 10. The Duty of Self-Development— This appeals to 
 the conscience of the child, and as an incentive to 
 study it can be used to advantage with older pupils 
 only. The teacher should explain to his pupils the 
 importance of securing a symmetrical development of 
 both mind and body. He should show them how God 
 has endowed them with certain mental faculties and 
 physical powers which are designed to be perfected by 
 use and training. They should be made to feel that 
 they have the power within themselves thus to approx- 
 imate perfection, and that it is their duty to aid the 
 development of their mental and physical powers by 
 proper study and exercise. 
 
 Unwise Incentives. 
 
 It is not argued that the following incentives are 
 wholly improper at all times, but the doubt with which 
 most of them are surrounded makes the propriety of 
 ever using them at least questionable, if not unwise; 
 and none but the weakest teachers will find it necessary 
 to resort to their use. The following may be named as 
 the chief incentives of this class : 
 
 1. Prizes. 
 
 2. Merit-Marks. 
 
 3. Personal Emulation. 
 
 4. Fear of Shame and Ridicule. 
 
 5. Scolding. 
 
 6. Fear of Punishment. 
 
 1. Prizes. — Under the head of prizes may be included 
 anything of value — money, books, honors, etc. — which 
 is offered to such as excel their schoolmates either in 
 
 7
 
 98 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Study or in belmvior. No doubt good is effected by 
 offering jn-izes, but tlie question arises, Does not tlie evil 
 engendered overbalance the good? We give the cJiief 
 arguments on each side of the question. 
 
 The chief arguments in favor of prizes are — 
 
 1. Tliatthe Expectation of Winning the Prize Induces 
 the Pupil to Study more Diligently.— It is certainly true 
 that such pupils as have any prospect of winning the 
 prize will strive more earnestly, at least for a time. If, 
 in addition to study, general deportment is made one of 
 the requisites for gaining the prize, still greater efforts 
 will be made to win it, for here the difference in talent 
 and the natural advantages of one pupil over another 
 cannot have so much weight as where study or good 
 recitations alone are made the criterion. 
 
 2. That Profitable Competition is Promoted. — It is ar- 
 gued that the efforts made by individuals to excel one 
 another in a class strengthen each one, and that there- 
 fore the competition is profitable to those even who do 
 not win, as well as to the more fortunate members who 
 gain the honor. This is a strong argument in favor of 
 prizes if the teacher be such as can manage the class 
 properly and prevent jealousy and envy. 
 
 3. That the Use of Prizes has Proved them Beneficial. — 
 It is claimed that the use of prizes has been continued 
 80 long in the shape of honors in our higher institutions, 
 and in other forms in the lower, that certainly some 
 good must be aj^parent or the system would long since 
 have been abandoned. 
 
 The chief arguments against the use of prizes to pro- 
 mote study are —
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 99 
 
 1. That the Benefits to be Derived are Limited to a Few 
 Pupils. — Were prizes oiFered to the whole school, graded 
 according to actual merit, they would not be objection- 
 able, but then they would be rewards of merit, and no 
 longer prizes in the ordinary acceptation of the term. 
 Prizes being limited to a few in number, however, the 
 benefits of the system are also limited to those most 
 likely to compete, and these, while they may at first 
 constitute the whole class, decrease in number rapidly 
 until there are but few more contestants than prizes. 
 
 2. That Pupils are Injured rather than Benefited. — The 
 dull pupils, indeed all but the very brightest, soon be- 
 come discouraged in the contest and relapse into greater 
 lethargy than before, while the few participants who 
 continue the contest are unduly stimulated, and thus 
 have their powers overtaxed. Indeed, those who enter 
 the contest for a prize are usually the pupils who require 
 least stimulus, and who ought rather to be held back 
 than urged. 
 
 3. That Prizes Help to Disorganize the School. — It is 
 impossible to award prizes so as to please all. The 
 usual result is, that those who fail in the contest become 
 envious of the successful competitors, and the successful 
 ones regard tiieir less fortunate rivals with feelings no 
 more praiseworthy. Discord is thus awakened, and the 
 discipline of the school becomes much more difficult to 
 maintain. 
 
 4. That Prizes are Fictitious Rewards. — They have no 
 connection with study. The prize having been gained, 
 there is nothing beyond, unless another prize be offered. 
 The stimulus being withdrawn, the diligence no longer 
 continues, and the pupil's habits of study are destroyed
 
 100 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 nithcr than confinned. The student having notliing but 
 the prize in view overlooks the chief ends of study, and 
 studies not to understand, not to learn, but to recite well 
 and win the prize. 
 
 5. That there is Difficulty in Awarding Prizes Justly.— 
 In awarding a prize the question at once arises, Shall it 
 be on merit of recitation alone, or shall all incidental 
 circumstances — the difference of natural talents, the 
 home-surroundings, tlie age of the })upils, their advan- 
 tages in securing outside help, etc. — be taken into con- 
 sideration ? Shall it be for scholarship alone, or shall 
 deportment also be considered ? Shall it be to those who 
 study most industriously and recite but indifferently, or 
 to those who, being talented, study but little, and yet 
 make perfect recitations ? These and many other ques- 
 tions arise in the very outstart, and to the teacher the 
 act of awarding the prize to the most deserving is a 
 matter of much perplexity. 
 
 6. Great Harm is Frequently Done in Awarding Prizes. — 
 When recitation alone forms the basis of the award, 
 merit in study is frequently overlooked. One child 
 may have intelligent parents or brothers and sisters who 
 can aid him in his study ; he may have access to libra- 
 ries, or he may have plenty of leisure, with nothing to 
 distract his attention. All his surroundings are favor- 
 able to study. Another, equally talented, is placed in 
 circumstances just the reverse. He finds no one at home 
 to help him ; he has no library to consult ; much of his 
 time is taken up in doing chores ; his attention is dis- 
 tracted from study. These diflferences are not taken 
 into consideration in awarding the prize, and the award 
 is too often made to the less deserving of the two.
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 101 
 
 2. Merit-Marks. — Merit-marks have their use as an in- 
 centive to study. But to make them useful care must 
 be taken to do exact justice to all. A system of mark- 
 ing in which a record is kept of every pupil's compara- 
 tive success or failure in class-recitation will do much to 
 create an interest in study, particularly among the older 
 pupils. In this way also the school work may be better 
 systematized, and the class-standing of pu])ils be deter- 
 mined more accurately than by any other. 
 
 The chief objections urged against merit-marks 
 are — 
 
 1. That much Time is Consumed in Making the Record. 
 — To this it may be answered that in most schools a suf- 
 ficiently accurate record could be made at the close of 
 each day, or even at the close of each week. 
 
 2. Tiat Pupils Overlook Higher Objects of Study.— This, 
 in a measure, is true, but by continued application the 
 pupil will finally come to love study for its own sake. 
 Merit-marks differ from prizes in being a continuous in- 
 centive. 
 
 Suggestion. — Never permit demerits to cancel merit- 
 marks. When a pupil has earned a mark in recitation, 
 let it be recorded in his favor. Marks for conduct should 
 not be recorded against marks for recitation, nor should 
 deficiency in one branch be made to detract from excel- 
 lence in another. Each branch should be marked on its 
 own merits. This is the only fair plan. To demerit a 
 pupil for spelling in every branch recited is to demerit 
 him as many times improperly as there are branches 
 marked. Thus, to demerit him fifteen per cent, for spell- 
 ing in each of five branches, and twenty-five pei' cent, in 
 spelling itself, leaves him nothing whatever in that
 
 102 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 branch, vvhereiis his true mark should be seven :y-five 
 per cent. 
 
 3. Personal Emulation. — Emulation is properly the de- 
 sire to surpass or excel others. It may be said of emu- 
 lation as an incentive to study that its value depends 
 entirely upon the spirit which influences the student in 
 his pursuit of knowledge. If the spirit of emulation 
 be such as to induce pupils to strive for success at the 
 expense of others or by the downfall of others, it is 
 reprehensible. But if the rivalry among schoolmates 
 be generous, it may prove to be an excellent incentive 
 ♦ <=^ 'dy. ■ 
 
 This desire to surpass others and to excel is implanted 
 in our nature. We all measure our own success by the 
 success of others. Even in the games and plays of child- 
 hoo the same desire is always apparent. It is true we 
 become in a measure ambitious, but the ambition is not 
 necessarily harmful. Without this ambition to succeed 
 the world would stagnate. All that ambition needs is to 
 be wisely directed and controlled. 
 
 4. Fear of Shame and Ridicule. — This is not properly 
 an incentive to study, nor should it ever be used. The 
 pupil who can be reached by no more judicious or worthy 
 incentive than this fear had better be dismissed. The 
 teacher has no right to hold up any pupil to the ridicule 
 of liis fellows so long as that pupil can be reached in any 
 other way. Nor is the result satisfactory. Funny mis- 
 takes may occur in classes, but the wise teacher never 
 encourages laughter at the expense of the feelings of 
 sensitive pupils.
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 103 
 
 5. Scolding.-- To scold pupils for failure in lessons is 
 unwise. The best of pupils will in time become accus- 
 tomed to scolding, and the heedless never care for it ; so 
 that in either case it has no good effect. It is difficult to 
 see where any possible good can come from it. Pupils 
 must in time lose respect for a scolding teacher. 
 
 6. Fear of Punishment. — This also is an unwise stim- 
 ulus to study. The pupil who studies only because he 
 expects punishment for failure will have but little love 
 for learning. He may manage to recite well, but he can 
 have no permanent interest in his work, and no perma- 
 nent benefit should be expected from such enforced r'-^^^jt. 
 Fear of punishment may prevent wrong conduct, but good 
 teaching ought never to need an incentive of this character. 
 
 b 
 5. How to Study. 
 
 One of the chief duties of the teacher is to train his 
 pupils to correct habits of study, and thus make them 
 self-dependent, that the best results may be attained. 
 Study will thus be made interesting, the student will 
 soon learn to help himself, and diligent study will be- 
 come a life habit. The following suggestions will aid 
 the student in systematizing the work of study. 
 
 1. Read the Lesson Carefully. — There are few branches 
 of study in which it will not be to the advantage of the 
 pupils for the teacher to read over the lesson slowly and 
 carefully before assigning it for study, so that every idea 
 may be developed and be grasped by the pupil. Words 
 not familiar should be expressed in simpler language, and 
 principles not clearly explained should be made clear,
 
 104 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 that the pupil may be enabled to study the subject un- 
 derstandingly. 
 
 2. Tlie Essentials of the Lesson. — The teacher should 
 point out the essential parts of the lesson and call atten- 
 tion to them. Some parts of a lesson may profitably be 
 read wliich it would be useless to commit and attempt to 
 hold in the mind, while the main principles and the im- 
 portant definitions should claim the closest study and at- 
 tention. The teacher in reading over the lesson should 
 discriminate as to these, tliat the child may not waste 
 either energy or time. 
 
 3. A Clear Idea of the Lesson. — Having examined the 
 lesson in detail, the teacher should give the pupil a clear 
 idea of the topic treated as a whole. Tlie pupil will thus 
 apply each individual fact that illustrates the general idea, 
 and study each principle with that general idea constantly 
 in view. 
 
 4. Primary Study must be Inductive.— The student 
 should be trained to pursue the study of any subject 
 inductively — that is, from the particular facts to the 
 general laws or principles. Particulars should be illus- 
 trated, and the illustrations should be so simple that the 
 learner must understand. The general rule or law should 
 be given only when the individual cases and their appli- 
 cation to the general principle are fully understood. 
 
 5. Pupils must Study Understandingly.— The teacher 
 must be careful to see that pupils do not commit to 
 memory definitions, principles, or rules without first 
 understanding their full meaning. Eadi rule or prin- 
 ciple should be clearly understood by the student, and 
 he should be able to illustrate each one intelligently. In 
 such studies as geometry or grammar pupils are partic-
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 105 
 
 ularly liable to commit to memory the subject-matter of 
 the book without a clear comprehension of the meaning 
 of the words of the book. 
 
 6. Pupils should Study Alone. — We grow not by what 
 othei's do for us, but by what we do for ourselves. Self- 
 help is the only means by which we acquire power and 
 development. Assistance is of course well meant, but a 
 pupil never should accept it, even from a teacher, when 
 it is in his power to perform his own mental labor. In- 
 dependent study leads to independent thought and action 
 and intellectual strength. 
 
 7. Study by Outline. — Pupils should be taught to out- 
 line or synopsize the topics they study. The synopsis 
 will not only train them to be systematic, and show 
 that they have a comprehensive view of the subject, 
 but it will also aid the memory, and enable the pupils 
 to comprehend the relation between the various divis- 
 ions of a subject. 
 
 8. Thought must be Concentrated. — The pupil who per- 
 mits his thoughts to wander to a number of topics while 
 engaged in the study of a special one will rarely accom- 
 plish much. To study effectively, the mind must be 
 devoted to one thing at a time, and the more intense 
 the application the more effective, as a rule, will be the 
 study. 
 
 6. Attention. 
 
 Attention is that general power by which the mind 
 directs its thoughts voluntarily to some one object to 
 the exclusion of others. Without the aid of attention 
 no mental labor could be performed. On it depends 
 the activity of each of the distinct mental faculties.
 
 106 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Without it there could be no study. The importance, 
 therefore, of securing habits of attention is evident. 
 Among the requisites for securing attention the follow- 
 ing are important: 
 
 1. The Teacher must be Interesting. — The minister who 
 interests his congregation or the orator who interests his 
 audience never finds his hearers inattentive. For the 
 same reason, the teacher who interests his pupils not 
 only finds them easily controlled, but he also holds 
 their attention and induces them to study. The facts 
 presented by the teacher should be interesting. The 
 curiosity of the pupils should be aroused, and the 
 knowledge communicated should be of such a character 
 as to create a desire for more on the part of the pupil. 
 
 2. The Teacher should be Animated in Manner. — The 
 dull, heavy, plodding teacher never can expect to create 
 much interest in study, and the same is true of the 
 teacher who finds it necessary to refer constantly to the 
 textbook to determine the correctness or incorrectness 
 of a pupil's answer. In order to succeed, particularly 
 with small children, the teacher must be active, wide- 
 awake, and energetic. 
 
 3. The Teacher should Present that which is New. — 
 The child is always on the lookout for something nov- 
 el. Its curiosity is implanted in its nature for a wise 
 purpose. Great interest may be awakened by placing 
 before it new objects which it can examine for itself, 
 and presenting new truths with Avhich to arouse 
 thought. 
 
 4. Stories and Anecdotes should be Used in Teaching. — 
 Children are always awake to the power of illustration 
 by stories. The dry details and facts of knowledge
 
 SCHOOL WOEK. 107 
 
 may be made tenfold more interesting by associating 
 with them anecdotes, vivid descriptions, or stories. 
 
 5. The Teacher should Adapt his Teaching to the Ca- 
 pacity of his Pupils.— The teacher's language must be 
 such as his pupils can comprehend, and his illustrations 
 such as they will readily understand. His manner also 
 must be adapted to the age and capacity of the children. 
 
 6. The Teacher should Attract Attention by Good Elo- 
 cution. — Pleasant tones of voice, sufficiently distinct, 
 but not too loud, should be used in the school-room. 
 Pupils are attentive when natural tones are used. Fret- 
 ful or noisy speech irritates them, and interferes greatly 
 with their study. Monotone interests them but little 
 more than do the constant buzz and hum of machinery, 
 but lively, sparkling, conversational tones are always 
 attractive. 
 
 7. The Teacher should not Talk too Much. — He should 
 talk to the point, and say only what is necessary. Much 
 talking, and particularly useless talking, distracts the 
 attention of pupils. One statement to pupils, one read- 
 ing of a question, one pronunciation of a word in a 
 spelling class, ought to be sufficient. The teacher ought 
 not to encourage inattentive pupils by repetition. 
 
 8. The Teacher should Hold Attention by good Class 
 Management. — Let the class feel that any member is 
 liable to be called upon at any moment to recite. Noth- 
 ing can be more unsatisfactory than a plan of recitation 
 by which the teacher calls on his class-members to recite 
 in alphabetic order or in the order in which they are 
 seated. The pupils soon catch the trick, and prejoare 
 themselves only when they expect to recite. 
 
 9. Inattentive Pupils should be Called Frequently to
 
 108 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Recitb.--Tliis will train them to give their attention 
 duriucr the recitation. Those also who are inclined to 
 interest themselves during recitation in matters foreign 
 to the lesson should be called upon whenever their atten- 
 tion wanders. Persistence in this plan wnll cure the 
 worst cases. 
 
 10. The Teacher should Hold Attention by Variety in 
 Exercises. — He who knows but one method of present- 
 ing a subject, or but one means of conducting a recita- 
 tion, is prepared for his work poorly indeed. He is 
 nuich in the position of a physician who always pre- 
 scribes the same medicine to all his patients. The true 
 teacher should be prepared to put his statements in a 
 variety of ways, so as to adapt himself to the wants 
 and understanding of every pupil. 
 
 1 1 . The Teacher should be Vigilant, and Keep Ms Pupils 
 Vigilant. — If the members of a class become iuattenti\-e 
 because the teacher interests himself in one or a few, or 
 from any other cause, the recitation should be discon- 
 tinued at once, and not be resumed until all become 
 orderly and attentive. If a pupil be stubbornly inat- 
 tentive, it is best either to ignore him during that reci- 
 tation or dismiss him from the class for the time. It is 
 useless to convince him of his wroucj when in the kind 
 of humor which makes him stubborn and disobedient. 
 
 12. The Teacher should Show Ms Pupils that Attention 
 is the Condition of Success.— Their attention should be 
 called to successful citizens — merchants, mechanics, and 
 professional men — who have won success by giving 
 attention to business and doing their work well. Il- 
 lustrate to them, by notable examples from history — 
 Newton, Scott, Dickens, Bryant, Napoleon, etc. — that
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 109 
 
 prolonged attention wins success. Train theni to look 
 into their own life and there see the importance and 
 value of forming habits of attention in order to make 
 them successful. ' Mental strength is to a great extent 
 the result of continued attention. 
 
 The following brief Suggestions are made to teachers 
 with the view of aiding them in securing and holding 
 the attention of their pupils : 
 
 1. Have your pupils observe closely. 
 
 2. Arouse their curiosity. 
 
 3. Show that you yourself are interested in their 
 work. 
 
 4. Be cheerful. 
 
 5. Vary your methods of recitation. 
 
 6. Use the textbook as little as possible. 
 
 7. Let your position before the class be such that you 
 can look every pupil in the eye. 
 
 8. Read a story or a description occasionally, and then 
 have it reproduced by the pupils, either orally or in 
 writing. 
 
 9. Show your pupils that you expect to have them 
 ready to reproduce at any time whatever you may tell 
 them in recitation. 
 
 10. Cultivate attention by giving proper praise and 
 credit when pupils are attentive. 
 
 7. Rules for Study. 
 
 The following condensed directions for study may 
 assist both student and teacher : 
 
 1. Try to be Interested. — We make little progress in a 
 study which has no interest for us. 
 
 2. Study to Know. — The difficulty with many pupils
 
 110 SCUOOL MAisACiEMENT. 
 
 is tliat they study for tlie recitation. They commit to 
 memory where tliey ought simply to try to comprehend. 
 The result is that they forget readily, and their work is 
 fruitless. 
 
 3. Give Close Attention. — Close attention and close ob- 
 servation are necessary to give clear perception. Close 
 attention is necessary also to strengthen the memory, 
 and thus enable us to retain knowledge and recall it at 
 will. 
 
 4. Study Systematically. — Master each point as you 
 go. See that each principle is understood before you 
 study the next that depends on it. Go from the known 
 to the unknown. Make an effort to comprehend every- 
 thing as it comes to you in turn, so that when you finish 
 a book you understand everything in it. Systematic 
 study will save much valuable time. Systematize your 
 time also in such a way as will give to each study its 
 tlue proportion. 
 
 5. Use your Knowledge.— We know a thing better after 
 we have told it to another. We know it still better 
 after we have written about it. Nothing so firmly fixes 
 the knowledge in our minds as the attempt to commu- 
 nicate it to others. This is one of the chief objects of 
 the class-recitation, to get such a clear comprehension of 
 what we learn that we can tell it to others. 
 
 G. Think. — It is the man who thinks that makes his 
 mark in the world. Be sure of your knowledge. Think 
 for yourself. If you can give a different solution or a 
 different demonstration from that of your teacher or the 
 book, give it. Do not let a word or a definition pass 
 without comprehending its meaning fully. The men 
 who think clearly, qui-kly, and independently are the
 
 SCHOOL WOEK. Ill 
 
 ones whom the world recognizes as the great men who 
 are its masters. 
 
 7. Alternate Study and Recreation. — The bow always 
 Lent loses its elasticity. The mind constantly kept at 
 hard work must ultimately be weakened. Study and 
 recreation must alternate, that work may be performed 
 advantageously. Periods of study and relaxation ju- 
 diciously intermingled will greatly aid students in mas- 
 tering subjects, but constant study will prove of but 
 little more permanent benefit than constant play. Men- 
 tal recreation is quite as necessary as physical recreation. 
 
 II. Recitation. 
 
 The recitation is an important feature of school man- 
 agement. Here the teacher tests the work of his pupils 
 and ascertains their progress. Here he guides and di- 
 rects their powers, arouses their enthusiasm, and inspires 
 them by his example. Here he measures their minds, 
 and determines the he]}) that may be necessary to make 
 them successful students. 
 
 1. The Objects of the Recitation. 
 
 The chief objects of the recitation are — 
 
 1. The Mental Discipline of the Pupil. 
 
 2. Instruction Imparted by the Teacher. 
 
 To these may be added the following subordinate 
 objects : 
 
 3. To Enable Pupils to Express themselves Properly. 
 
 4. To Enable Pupils to Gain Self-Confidence. 
 
 5. To Enable Pupils to Fix in their Minds what they 
 Learn.
 
 112 SCHOOL MANAOIiMENT. 
 
 6. To Awaken Interest in Study. 
 
 7. To Make Pupils Inquisitive. 
 
 8. To Cultivate Habits of Attention. 
 
 9. To Enable the Teacher to Correct Errors. 
 
 10. To Enable the Teacher to Test the Preparation of 
 the Lesson. 
 
 1. The Mental Discipline of the Pupil. — So far as the 
 pupil is fonccniecl, this is the chief object of the reci- 
 tation. Private students, however diligent they may be 
 in the pursuit of knowledge, never receive that culture 
 and discipline of mind which come only from the com- 
 petition of classmates in the daily recitation. Kone of 
 us are quite sure we know a truth until we come to tell 
 it. We may think our comprehension clear, but there 
 is no certainty until we apply the test. Every recitation 
 develops mental power on the part of attentive pupils. 
 
 2. Instruction Imparted by the Teacher. — This also is 
 an important object of the recitation. The teacher who 
 can ask only the printed questions of the textbook is 
 not a teacher, and the one who can impart no additional 
 instruction to that given in the textbook is but little 
 better qualified to teach. It is the business of the 
 teacher to impart instruction aside from that found in 
 the book. It is his duty to make that of the book com- 
 prehended by the pupils. The best teachers are those 
 who bring themselves to the level of the child-mind, 
 and then put the knowledge to be imparted in such 
 shape as will enable the learner to grasp it most readily. 
 Here is the teacher's opportunity — not only to add new 
 and important facts, but also to give moral instruction 
 in an incidental way, and guide and direct th^ child's
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 113 
 
 powers in such a manner as to give the most symmet- 
 rical development. 
 
 3. The Recitation Gives Culture in Language. — It is 
 important that the pupil should be able to tell what he 
 I^nows, and tell it in good language. Nothing is of so 
 much help to him in this respect as the class-recitation. 
 It is no easy thing to think clearly while on one's feet. 
 Daily practice, however, will enable all pupils in time to 
 express themselves clearly and accurately. This is true 
 of the written recitation also. It is wonderful how rap- 
 idly pupils improve in composition and the use of lan- 
 guage by frequent written recitations. 
 
 4. The Class-Recitation Gives the Pupil Self-Confldence. — 
 The men who can rise before an audience and give their 
 opinions calmly and intelligently are comparatively few 
 in number. Indeed, it is true of many of our ablest 
 scholars that they find great difficulty in speaking be- 
 fore an audience, and this because of their lack of confi- 
 dence in their ability to do so. Class-recitation will not 
 only in a great measure overcome this, but with proper 
 criticism it will also help to repress the tendency man- 
 ifested by some to speak too much. 
 
 5. The Recitation Helps to Fix in the Mind of the Child 
 what he Leams. — We know a fact more thoroughly after 
 we have told it to another. Indeed, the very effort to re- 
 tain it in the memory in order that we may tell it helps to 
 strengthen that mental faculty, and helps to impress the fact 
 on the mind. Every repetition of it also serves to make 
 the impression all the deeper. Even the private student 
 will find it to his advantage to tell his knowledge to his 
 friends, or, in their absence, to the furniture in his r(>)m 
 as imaginary schoolfellows.
 
 114 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 G. The Recitation Awakens an Interest m Study.— Class 
 competition creates iuterest. In general, the smallest 
 classes are those most difficnlt to interest. But in me- 
 dium-sized classes, where there is a chance for every one to 
 tt^st his ability and compete with the other class-member?, 
 and where the criticism of both teacher and pupils is of 
 such a character as to keep all vigilant and active, inter- 
 est in study rises to its maximum. The additional know- 
 ledge imparted by the teacher during recitation will also 
 add greatly to the interest of the child ; and thus study 
 will be pursued with greater eagerness and under the 
 most favorable conditions. 
 
 7. The Class-Recitation will Make Pupils Inquisitive.— 
 This being true, they will be better prepared to receive 
 such instruction as the teacher may be able to impart. 
 Having become inquisitive and desirous of knowing, 
 the child places himself in the best possible of teacha- 
 ble conditions, and he will be led to search for knowledge 
 and think for himself — an end greatly to be desired in all 
 teaching. 
 
 8. The Recitation Cultivates Habits of Attention. — No 
 matter how heedlessly a pupil may have conned over his 
 lesson while preparing it, the moment he enters the reci- 
 tation he feels that his attention must be given not only 
 to his own assigned work, but also to that of his class- 
 mates and to the questions and instruction of the teacher. 
 However negligent he may be elsewhere, here he must be 
 attentive, and the influence exerted on him here will also 
 be felt elsewhere. 
 
 9. The Recitation Enables the Teacher to Correct Errors. 
 — The correction of pupils' mistakes by the teacher is a 
 recognized duty. If the pupils are competent and the
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 115 
 
 criticism be Idnd, they should be permitted to correct 
 one another's errors; but in the event of* their failurii 
 to do so, it becomes the duty of the teaciicr to be watch- 
 ful and make all proper corrections. Many errors never 
 can be detected except in class-recitation : tliis is true par- 
 ticularly of errors in pronunciation. 
 
 10. Tiie Recitation Enables the Teacher to Test the Work 
 Done by the Pupils. — Judicious questioning and judicious 
 methods of conducting the recitation will enable the 
 teacher in a very short time to detect the idle as well 
 as tlie studious in the class. Thus day by day also he 
 will be able to determine "which students are diligent 
 and which otherwise. He will be able also to determine 
 by the daily recitation not only the relative improvement 
 of the class-memberSj l)ut also the improvement of the 
 class as a whole. He thus becomes prepared from day 
 to day to assign work in advance, of such a nature and in 
 such quantity as will give his pupils healthy mental and 
 moral growth. The difficulties can be so simplified as to 
 bring them Avithin the mental grasp of the pvipil, and 
 such incentives can be placed before the child as will 
 arouse in him increased vigor and create a desire to cul- 
 ture himself to the utmost. 
 
 2. Methods of Recitation. 
 
 The methods of conducting class-recitations are many, 
 and each has its excellence. The ingenious teacher will 
 never fail to adapt his method to both the subject taught 
 and the peculiarities of his pupils. It may be said, 
 however, that sometimes this is a delicate task. We 
 mention here only the most important methods. They 
 are —
 
 116 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1 . The Socratic Method. 
 
 2. The Toi>ical Method. 
 
 3. The* Question Method. 
 
 4. The Discussion Method. 
 
 5. The Conversational Method. 
 
 6. The Oral or Lecture Method. 
 
 1. The Socratic Method. — The Socratic, named from the 
 Grecian philosopher Socrates, is that in which the pupil 
 is led by means of judicious questions to discover truth 
 for himself. The teacher so shapes his questions as to 
 lead his pupils to think for themselves, and thus gain 
 knowledge by their own eifort. By this method the 
 teacher acts constantly as a guide, but he imparts little, 
 and that little only where the pupil is unable to helj) 
 himself. In a similar manner the pupil is led to dis- 
 cover his own errors, and is thus placed in a position 
 to correct them. 
 
 Illustration.— The following will illustrate briefly the 
 Socratic method : 
 
 Teacher (who is desirous of showing the relation of a 
 surface one foot square to that of one three feet square). 
 If I draw a square whose base is one foot, liow large is 
 the figure? 
 
 Pupil. One foot square, or it is a square foot. 
 
 Teacher. If now I draw a. line a yard long, and on it 
 construct a square, how large will the figure be ? 
 
 Pupil. A yard square, or three square feet. 
 
 Teachei'. Is there, then, no difference between a yard 
 square and three square feet? 
 
 Pupil. None. 
 
 Teacher. Let us draw the figures.
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 117 
 
 The pupil, under the teacher's direction, draws a figure 
 a foot square and one a yard square, and then divides the 
 larger figure into nine equal smaller squares. 
 
 Teacher. Examine these squares ; how large is each ? 
 
 Pupil. Each is a foot square, or a square foot. 
 
 Teacher. How many are there ? 
 
 Pupil. There are nine, sir. 
 
 Teacher. How many square feet, then^ does a square 
 yard contain? 
 
 Pupil. Nine square feet. 
 
 Teacher. Then, what is the difference between three 
 feet square and three square feet? 
 
 Pupil. A figure three feet square contains nine square 
 feet ; it is therefore three times as large as three square 
 feet, or nine times as large as one square foot. 
 
 Teacher. That is correct. 
 
 Advantages. — The great advantages of the Socratic 
 method are, that pupils glean knowledge for themselves, 
 and thus in overcoming obstacles and surmounting diffi- 
 culties win their own victories. Every victory gained 
 is enjoyed, and the battle makes the pupil the stronger. 
 The knowledge acquired is of such an interesting nature 
 that the impression on the child's mind is strong, and 
 therefore lasting. This method makes the pupil the 
 worker, but the work is enjoyable, and therefore but little 
 is demanded from the teacher except judicious guidance. 
 Its sphere lies mostly in the primary or lower-grade 
 schools. 
 
 2. The Topical Method. — This consists in assigning to 
 as many of the pupils as possible each an individual 
 topic for recitation. Each may be required to tell all he
 
 118 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 can about tlie topic apsigned, or ho may be closely ques- 
 tioned on tlio topic, or both methods may be combiiu'd. 
 
 Advantages. — The advantages of this method are that 
 it trains pupils to study by topics, rather than for the 
 purpose of answering questions ; it also enables the pupil 
 to gain culture in language by making his statements in 
 connected discourse; and it affords an opportunity to 
 conduct a written and an oral recitation at the same time. 
 
 Disadvantages. — There is danger that the matter of 
 imparting instruction may be crowded out, and the time 
 of the class be used wholly in reciting. Pupils may 
 prepare themselves only on the topics most readily re- 
 cited. Habits of attention may be destroyed unless the 
 teacher is careful to assign topics frequently to those 
 most likely to be inattentive, or judiciously mingle ques- 
 tions with the topics. 
 
 3. The Question Method. — This is known also as the 
 " Question-and-Answer Method." It is the one in gen- 
 eral use. It differs from the true Socratic method in 
 this — that it makes no effort to search for new truth, or 
 even to correct error. It simply catechizes the pupil on 
 the subject-matter of the lesson, and this mostly for the 
 purpose of testing his preparation. 
 
 Advantages. — Questioning is an art which, when ju- 
 diciously used, will serve a good purpose, not only in 
 testing the pupil's knowledge, but also in arousing 
 thought. One of the chief advantages is that the 
 teacher can not only ascertain the pupil's preparation, 
 but also detect any errors which the learner may have 
 imbibed. He is enabled also to select only the essential 
 poijits, passing over those of minor importance.
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 119 
 
 Abuse. — No method is more liable to abuse. The in- 
 experienced teacher always adopts this motiiod^ partly 
 because it is easy to ask questions, and partly because he 
 knows of no better. When printed questions occur in 
 the book, he is apt to confine himself to these, and rest 
 satisfied if the answers of the book be given correctly. 
 But little if any effort is made to impart instruction ; 
 and the pupil comes to think that when he has answered 
 all the book-questions by the book-answers, he is a fin- 
 ished scholar in that branch of study. 
 
 4. The Discussion Method. — This method consists of 
 a statement of opinion by each pupil on the question to 
 be discussed, with the reasons for holding that opinion. 
 It is a method which can be used in only a portion of 
 the branches taught, except in an incidental way. It may 
 be used wherever there is room for difference of opinion. 
 Incidental questions spring up in connection with almost 
 every branch of study which may profitably be made 
 subjects of discussion. 
 
 Advantages. — This method develops thought. It acts 
 as an incentive to the thorough preparation of the lesson, 
 and also induces the student to search for knowledge be- 
 yond that furnished by the textbook or even by the 
 teacher. The student not only gleans the facts, but 
 also receives culture in the use of language as he states 
 them in the most forcible and convincing way. His 
 thoughts clarify, and when he expresses them he makes 
 an effort to put them in the most pointed language. 
 
 Abuse. — There is danger that some may talk too much, 
 or that the talk may not be to the point. There is dan- 
 ger also that trivial topics may become the basis of dis-
 
 120 SCHOOL MANAGEMEM. 
 
 cussioii, and valuable time be thus squandered. Some- 
 times, also, the debate may run to personalities, and the 
 feelings of some be wounded. The teacher must exer- 
 cise great caution that none of these be permitted to mar 
 the pleasure or interfere with the profit of the recitation. 
 
 5. The Conversational Method. — This resembles the 
 discussion method. The teacher, however, here takes 
 part, and expresses his opinions also. In truth, the pu- 
 pils spend the time mostly in asking questions, while the 
 teacher explains and answers. This method may be em- 
 ployed in almost every class to some extent, and it will 
 always be found of advantage where pupils are wide 
 awake and anxious to learn. The teacher permits all 
 relevant questions to be asked, and answers to the best 
 of his ability. The teacher may also ask such questions 
 as naturally grow out of the lesson. 
 
 Advantages. — This method is of special advantage 
 where professional instruction is to be imparted, as in 
 normal schools, medical colleges, etc., but it is of advan- 
 tage also in every other school in which the teacher is a 
 man of scholarship. Pupils may often learn more from 
 a genial and scholarly teacher than from textbooks. 
 This method of recitation has the advantage also of 
 giving students that knowledge which they most desire, 
 and that which it is most important for them to possess. 
 
 Abuse. — There is danger in the use of the conversa- 
 tional method that many questions may be asked which 
 do not relate to the subject of the lesson, or the teacher 
 may be too talkative and himself wander away from 
 the topic. There is danger also that the pupils may 
 Bet the teacher to talking, as wise college-boys often
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 121 
 
 have done, for tl/e purpose of avoiding the recitation 
 of the day. Teachers who attempt to use the conver- 
 sational method must feel that they have the knowledge 
 necessary to keep up the proper interest in class. 
 
 6. The Lecture Method. — This consists in the teacher's 
 presenting and discussing a subject, while the pupils sit 
 and listen and attempt to fix in their minds the leading 
 points, to be reproduced at some future time. 
 
 A variation of the method consists in having the 
 pupils take notes, which are to form the basis for future 
 study. 
 
 A second variation consists in having the teacher sub- 
 mit simply an outline of the subject, and at the same 
 time suggest the best method of study and the proper 
 books to be consulted. 
 
 Advantage. — The chief advantage of this method lies 
 in the fact that the lecturer can reach an audience of 
 hundreds at the same time, and thus present his know- 
 ledge without increased effort to a much larger number 
 than by any other method. 
 
 Abuse. — The method has many disadvantages and 
 dangers. Only those most closely attentive receive any 
 benefit. Even universities and professional schools find 
 it necessary to have frequent examinations on the sub- 
 ject-matter of the lectures, in order to derive any benefit 
 from the lecture method. The lecturer is unable to de- 
 termine who of his audience comprehend his statements. 
 Much repetition is necessary, that the few grains of 
 wheat in the large quantity of mental chaff may be 
 safely lodged in the mind of the learner. 
 
 In the lower-grade scliools the lecture method has no
 
 122 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 place whatever. It is worse than useless, and as a dis- 
 tinctive method in the higlier-grade schools it has but 
 little value unless associated with some of the more val- 
 uable methods. The chief value of oral instruction, as 
 ilistinguished from the lecture method of recitation, is 
 found in primary schools, where object-lessons form the 
 basis of instruction. 
 
 A Combination of Methods, and the frequent use of 
 the most valuable parts of each, will produce the best 
 results. The progressive and earnest teacher finds it 
 necessary to vary his methods constantly, so as to keep 
 up the greatest possible interest. 
 
 3. The Art of Questioning. 
 
 Questioning is an important part of every valuable 
 method of recitation, and the teacher who best, under- 
 stands the art of questioning will in general succeed 
 best, not only in awakening interest, but also in disci- 
 pline and in imparting knowledge. 
 
 Objects of Questioning. 
 
 1. The first important object of questioning is to give 
 proper direction to the efforts of the learner. Few pupils 
 know how to pursue a study to the best advantage. A 
 few judicious questions from the teacher will give his 
 j)upils-tUe key, and thus enable them to gain knowledge 
 by their ow\i independent effort. This is the valuable 
 feature of the Socratic method of imparting knowledge, 
 that it induces the pu})il, under the guidance of the 
 teacher, to search for truth for himself. 
 
 2. An important object of questioning is to detect and 
 correct error. Pupils do not always study understand-
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 123 
 
 ingly. Frequently they commit words, but fail to ac- 
 quire ideas. Often their comprehension is not clear or 
 their view is but a partial one. To many a pupil a 
 circle means the curved line, and not the space enclosed 
 within. All these errors can be b(\st reached by judi- 
 cious questions. The teacher should never rest satisfied 
 when the pupil gives the mere textbook answer, but he 
 should see that the child's comprehension of that answer 
 is clear and correct. 
 
 3. An important object of questioning is to test the 
 preparation of the lesson. There is danger that a pupil 
 may prepare his lesson only when he expects to be called 
 on to recite ; but when he feels that the teacher is liable 
 to call on him at any time or any number of times dur- 
 ing a recitation, the danger is obviated, because he makes 
 preparation for every recitation. 
 
 4. It is an important object of questioning to bring out 
 the essentials of a lesson. Often that which is of least 
 importance in a topic, as the illustrations and anecdotes, 
 will be found to be that which is most readily remem- 
 bered by the pupil. Judicious questioning will show 
 the pupil the application of these and impress the prin- 
 ciple on the child's mind. 
 
 5. It is an object of questioning to cultivate attention. 
 Next to the interest aroused by apt oral instruction, 
 nothing is so well calculated to keep awake the atten- 
 tion of a class as judicious questioning. The thoughtful 
 teacher will of course see that all pupils are questioned, 
 not in consecutive order, but promiscuously, and partic- 
 ularly when least attentive. 
 
 6. It is an object of questioning to train pupils to 
 think. The teacher who does not arouse thouy-lit in the
 
 121 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 niiucli of his pupils fails in an important part of his 
 work. This is indeed one of the chief objects of all 
 education — to make thinkers. Questions should be so 
 put as to lead pupils to think for themselves. Having 
 once been trained to think and reflect, the pupil learns 
 for himself, and the truths he discovers become his own. 
 
 How to Put Questions. 
 
 1. A Question may be Put to the Whole Class. — The 
 advantage in tiiis method is that the attention of all the 
 pupils is necessary. Various plans may be followed as to 
 the manner of receiving the answer : 
 
 a. The pupils may be permitted to think for a mo- 
 ment, and then some particular one be called upon for 
 an answer. 
 
 b. When the question is put, all that are able to an- 
 6wer may be permitted to raise the hand, and then the 
 teacher selects some one to recite. 
 
 C. Some one may be called upon to answer in part, and 
 suddenly another member of the class may be directed to 
 finish the answer. 
 
 d. The answer may be given in concert. 
 
 2. The Question may be Put to a Single Member of the 
 Class. — This plan also has its advantages, and the atten- 
 tion of all may be secured almost as well as by putting 
 the question to the whole class. Several variations of 
 this plan may be followed : 
 
 a. When one pupil has partially answered a question, 
 another may be called upon to finish it. 
 
 b. A pupil may be called upon to answer not only the 
 first question propounded, but also such otbei-s as may 
 naturally follow.
 
 SCHOOL ^VORK. 125 
 
 C. A pu])il having answered his question, as an occa- 
 sional exercise may be accorded the privilege of patting 
 a question to some other member of the class. 
 
 Cautions. — Tlie following cautions are important: 
 
 1. Do not question your pupils in alphabetical order. 
 
 2. Do not question your pupils in the order in which 
 they are seated. 
 
 3. Do not fall into the habit of permitting your pupils 
 to answer in concert. 
 
 4. Do not help your pupils to answer by suggesting 
 an important word here and there. 
 
 5. Do not depend on the textbook for question and 
 answer. 
 
 6. Ask your questions promiscuously. 
 
 7. Frequently call upon the inattentive to answer. 
 
 8. If some pupils remain inattentive, keep on asking 
 them questions, even if they receive the greater part of 
 lesson. 
 
 9. Put your questions in j^roper tones of voice. 
 
 10. Do not scold a pupil for ftiilure to answer. 
 
 11. Rarely repeat a question. Your pupils should be 
 attentive and hear it the first time. 
 
 12. Always give your slow pupils time to think. Pu- 
 pils vary greatly in their ability to express themselves 
 promptly. 
 
 13. Put your questions so as to make your jiupils dis- 
 cover truth for themselves. 
 
 14. Encourage your pupils to ask questions, and when 
 you have time let other pupils answer. 
 
 15. When you make an explanation, see that your pu- 
 pils understand it, and then call upon some of them lo 
 repeat it.
 
 126 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The Subject-Mattep of Questions. 
 
 1. The Questions sliould be Definite. — Obscurity in the 
 language of a question may lead to incorrect answers, 
 for Avliicli the teacher and not the pupil is responsible. 
 Questions siiould be pointed, and so definite in meaning 
 that the pupil will not fail to understand. 
 
 2. Questions should be Pertinent. — They should relate 
 to the subject. Irrelevant questions, or such as do not 
 pertain to the lesson, should not be given, though the 
 teacher will do well at any time to test the pupil's gene- 
 ral knowledge by asking questions which are not answered 
 by the statements of the textbook. 
 
 3. Questions should be Exhaustive. — The teacher should 
 see that every part of the lesson is understood. He can 
 best do this by making his questions exhaustive in cha- 
 racter, so that they may cover the entire ground of the 
 lesson. 
 
 4. The Questions should be Graded. — It is wise to grade 
 the difficulty of the question according to the capacity of 
 the pupil. There will be some in the class who can an- 
 swer every question, while others think more slowly and 
 find greater difficulty in expressing themselves. The 
 txiacher may venture on giving to the former any ques- 
 tion, but it may be necessary to encourage the slower 
 pupil by giving him frequently some of the easier work 
 to perform. 
 
 Cautions. — 1. Do not put questions to puzzle pupils. 
 
 2. Do not put irrelevant questions to show your own 
 learning. 
 
 3. Do not put questions that include too much. 
 
 4. Do not put silly question.s.
 
 SCIIOOI. WORK. 127 
 
 5. Do not put aimless questions. 
 
 6. Do not put questions whose language is ambiguous. 
 
 The Forms of Questions. 
 
 1. Questions should be Concise. — The language of the 
 question should be concise and express briefly what '.s 
 required. Tliis is particularly true of oral questions. 
 Too often in attempting to keep in mind the wording 
 of a question the pupils lose the idea. 
 
 2. Questions should be Clearly Stated. — The language 
 should be such that the pupil may understand just what 
 is required of him. The language should also be jjrecise, 
 so that the exact meaning may be expressed. 
 
 3. Questions should be Adapted to the Subject. — Ques- 
 tions in grammar must necessarily differ in form from 
 those given in geography or arithmetic, and thus, in 
 general, each branch of study must have the form of 
 questions adapted so as best to develop the thought and 
 test the knoAvledge of the learner. 
 
 4. Questions should be Varied in Form, so as to keep up 
 interest in the work. That teacher usually succeeds best 
 who by constantly varying his manner of instructing and 
 
 .questioning keeps up the most lively interest in his class; 
 and he who falls into the monotonous routine of present- 
 ing his questions all in the same form must eventually 
 find his pupils becoming dull and listless. 
 
 Cautions. — 1. Do not use leading questions; as, "Paris 
 is in France, is it not ?" 
 
 2. Do not put questions that can be answered by yes 
 or no. 
 
 3. Do not put questions which are alternate in form ; 
 as, "Is Presque Isle an island or not?"
 
 128 SCHOOL MANAGEMKNT. 
 
 4. Do not put questions in sucli a form as to suggest 
 the answer; as, "Was Washington the first President of 
 the United States?" 
 
 The Manner of Putting Questions. 
 Variety is necessary in the matter of conducting class- 
 recitations, that the interest of pupils may be kept fully 
 aroused. The teacher should change his manner from 
 day to day. The following methods will prove of ad- 
 vantage : 
 
 1. Give the question in a general way to the whole 
 class before calling on any particular one to recite. 
 
 2. Sometimes permit the pupils to ask the questions 
 while you recite. 
 
 3. Sometimes put all the questions to a single pupil 
 or two. 
 
 4. When conveying instruction, lead pupils to dis- 
 cover error as well as truth by such questions as will 
 lead them to think. 
 
 5. When testing knowledge, put the questions in 
 such a way as to draw out the full understanding of the 
 pupil. 
 
 G. Sometimes allow a pupil to take the place of th(i 
 teacher in asking questions of his fellows. 
 
 7. Permit pupils to ask all the questions they desire, 
 so long as they seek for information. 
 
 8. Be prompt to repress any questions asked for mere 
 pertness or a desire to puzzle. 
 
 4. Answers. 
 
 Answers must of course conform to the questions 
 asked, and they must be governed to some extent by the
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 129 
 
 same principles that apply to questions. Tlie following 
 suggestions are subniittetl: 
 
 1. The Answers should be to the Point. — They should 
 contain all that is implied in the questions, but no more. 
 
 2. They should be Concise. — No more words should be 
 used than are necessary to express the thought definitely. 
 
 3. They should be Clear. — The language of the answer 
 should not be ambiguous or liable to misconstruction. 
 
 4. They should be Comprehensive. — A partial answer 
 is not sufficient. The answer should be full and cover 
 all that is called for by the question, 
 
 5. They should be Given Understandingly. — The j^upil 
 should not be permitted to commit an answer to memory 
 and repeat it without fully understanding it. 
 
 6. They should be Correct. — This is true of both the 
 answer itself and the language in which it is expressed. 
 Errors either in fact or in language should be corrected. 
 Errors of fact may be corrected by the pupils, but errors 
 in language are generally best corrected by the teacher. 
 
 7. They should be Given in Proper Tones of Voice. — 
 Neither a monotonous drawl nor a high-pitched, rapid 
 enunciation should be permitted. Pleasant conversational 
 tones are the best suited to school-room work. 
 
 8. They should Usually be Given Singly. — Concert reci- 
 tations are not well calculated to test knowledge, how- 
 ever well adapted they may be for the purpose of drill. 
 
 9. They may be Given Orally or in Writing. — Both 
 Aiethods have their advantages. A change from one 
 method to the other is frequently advantageous. It is a 
 good plan also to have a portion of the class engaged in 
 writing answers while others answer orally to a different 
 set of questions.
 
 I3(j SCHOOL MANAGEiMEXT. 
 
 10. With Beginners the Answers should be in Complete 
 Sentences.— This will be of valuable aid to them in giv- 
 ing them language-cnlture, but it should not be carried 
 to extremes. 
 
 11. The Mode of Answering must be Adapted to the 
 Character of the Study. — Thus, the parsing of a word, 
 the analysis of a sentence, the solution of a problem, the 
 discussion of a topic in history, the reading of a para- 
 graph, and the answer to a question in geography, — all 
 must differ somewhat in form. 
 
 5. Criticism. 
 
 ICrror in answers should be corrected in class. The cor- 
 rections may be made by either the pupils or the teacher. 
 When possible, the pupil should be permitted to correct 
 his own errors. If the pupils are permitted to make the 
 corrections, they will become more observant of their 
 own mistakes. This plan also cultivates attention and 
 makes each one watchful. 
 
 Criticism should be Kindly in its Character. — Criticism 
 for the mere purpose of finding fault or exhibiting a 
 liupil's smartness should not be tolerated. Much injury 
 may be done to a diffident pupil by sharp and uncalled- 
 for criticism. 
 
 Criticism should be Discriminative. — A mere slip of the 
 tongue or a slight error in pronunciation is sometimes 
 deemed of more importance in the mind of the criti(! 
 than a misstatement of fact. Criticism of this kind 
 should be repressed. Care should be taken that timid 
 pupils be not discouraged by harsh or unwise criticism. 
 
 Criticism should Point out Merits as weU as Demerits. — 
 Great care must be taken, however, that pupils do not
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 131 
 
 fall into the habit of overpraising or praising indiscrim- 
 inately. Sucih praise soon loses its effect. To say of 
 each pupil as he recites, " You did well/' becomes mo- 
 notonous in the extreme, and quite as untruthful as 
 monotonous. 
 
 Criticism should be Made with the Purpose of Conveying 
 Information. — Wiiere there is danger that criticism by 
 pupils may be unkind or undiscriminating in its charac- 
 ter, the teacher should correct the mistakes, and in doing 
 so lead the pupils, when possible, to discover their own 
 errors and correct them, 
 
 6. Preparation for tlie Recitation. 
 
 i. The Teacher. 
 
 1. The Teacher should Prepare each Lesson by Fresh 
 Study. — No matter how well he may understand the 
 subject, new study will suggest new ideas and new 
 methods of illustration, by means of which the lesson 
 may be made more interesting and profitable. 
 
 2. The Teacher must be Familiar with the Subject- 
 matter of the Lesson. — We cannot teach that which we 
 do not know. A teacher may possibly suggest methods 
 of study in branches with which he is not thoroughly 
 familiar, but he surely cannot teach those branches, nor 
 any part of them, profitably unless he thoroughly un- 
 derstands them. 
 
 3. The Teacher Needs Preparation, that he may Add to the 
 Knowledge supplied by the Textbook. — A textbook is, after 
 all, a mere outline of the study to be pursued. Many 
 facts are to be added, many explanations of principles 
 are demanded, many illustrations are to be given, that
 
 ]32 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 (he juii)il inny fully understand and comprehend his 
 work. Hearing a lesson recited is not teaching. Teach- 
 ing in its proper sense demands close study on the part of 
 the teacher, that he may illustrate and explain, and tiius 
 interest and instruct. 
 
 4. The Teacher Needs Preparation, that he may Present 
 the Facts and Truths of the Lesson in their Proper Order, 
 — The natural order, or that in which pupils will most 
 readily grasp the truth, w^ill be found the best in wdiich 
 to present it. A heterogeneous mixture of disconnected 
 facts is almost valueless as knowledge. 
 
 5. The Teacher Needs Preparation, that he may be Able 
 to Show clearly the Relation of each Lesson to its Prede- 
 cessor. — Lessons cannot be profitably taught except as 
 they sustain and strengthen one another. The principles 
 and truths of science are valuable mainly through their 
 relations. Disconnect them, and they become a mere 
 mass of disjointed fragments which Iiave no relation 
 except in their application. 
 
 6. The Teacher Needs Preparation, that he may Have at 
 Command the Entire Subject-matter of the Lesson. — Nothing 
 will so confuse a teacher as to have his pupils drive sharp 
 (picstions at him when he is unprepared to answer ; and 
 nothing will so soon cause pupils to lose confidence in 
 that teacher as finding him unable to give them the in- 
 formation they seek. Everything with reference to the 
 lesson should be clear in his mind, that he may be able 
 to give information when it is desired. 
 
 7. The Teacher Needs Preparation, that he may be Ena- 
 bled to Present the Difficulties of the Lesson in an Intelligible 
 Manner. — The language of the textbook may be obscure 
 or the comprehension of a pupil in a measure dull. It
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 133 
 
 is for the teacher to explain the textbook in such terms 
 as the tlullest pupil can comprehend. Clear language 
 needs clear thought, and clear thought needs clear lan- 
 guage in which to express it. 
 
 8. The Teacher Needs Preparation, that he may be Able 
 to Conduct the Recitation without Loss of Time. — Wliere 
 apparatus is needed it sliould be in place before the reci- 
 tation begins. No time ought to be lost in hunting or 
 putting in place charts, maps, or other apparatus. The 
 same may be said of subsidiary questions likely to come 
 up in the lesson. There is no more pitiful sight than 
 that of a teacher who knows so little of a lesson that 
 he is compelled to hunt for the answer to his question 
 while the pupil is attempting to give it orally. 
 
 2. The Pupil. 
 
 The chief object of the assignment of lessons is that 
 pupils may both gain discipline of mind and acquire 
 knowledge while preparing to recite. This end is fre- 
 quently neither understood nor appreciated by either 
 teacher or pupil, and too often the preparation of the 
 lesson is made simply for the pur])ose of reciting well 
 and securing a high standing in class. The importance 
 of the pupil's preparation of the lesson seems so ob- 
 vious that it needs no argument. The following are tin 
 chief reasons why pupils should make preparation foi 
 recitation : 
 
 1. The pupil must study the lesson in order that he 
 may acquire knowledge. 
 
 2. He must study the lesson in order that he may 
 express himself clearly. 
 
 3. He must study the lesson in order that he may
 
 134 SCHOOL MANAGEMEXT. 
 
 seek information on points which he does not fully un- 
 (lerstiuid. 
 
 4. He must study the lesson in order that he may 
 fully understand the relation between the principles of 
 the branch studied. 
 
 5. He must study the lesson in order to gain dis- 
 cipline. 
 
 6. He must study tliat his knowledge may become 
 systematized in his mind. 
 
 7. He must study that he may make the truths pre- 
 sented by the textbook or taught by the teacher a part 
 of his own knowledge. 
 
 8. He should seek as little help as possible from either 
 his teacher or his associates. 
 
 7. The Teacher in the Recitation. 
 
 The success of the recitation depends much upon the- 
 manner in which the teacher conducts his work. A hasty, 
 irritiible, or thoughtless teacher may do much to put his 
 pupils in an unteachable frame of mind. Indeed, it 
 is no uncommon thing for a scolding or over- talkative 
 teacher to make his class so nervous and fretful that 
 steady thought with them is an impossibility. The same 
 may be said of an extremely nervous teacher in the class- 
 room. His nervousness and restlessness are imparted to 
 his pupils, and in either of the cases referred to here the 
 disorder of the class (and classes under the care of such 
 teachers are usually disorderly) is directly chargeable to 
 the teacher himself. 
 
 On the other hand, a dull, phlegmatic, easy-going 
 teacher is out of place in the class-room. If his pupils 
 do not become utterly heedless and inattentive, they will
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 135 
 
 at least take advantage of liis laziness ; and, again, the 
 result will be disorder and confusion. 
 
 Executive ability shows itself nowhere to better ad- 
 vantage than in the class. The teacher who gives faithful 
 attention to his class work, and at the same time success- 
 fully governs the remainder of his pupils, may be proud 
 of his success. It needs a rare combination of qualities 
 to be at the same time a good teacher and a successful 
 disciplinarian. 
 
 No two teachers will conduct a recitation in precisely 
 the same manner. No set of rules, therefore, can be 
 given which will apply to the action of all teachers, 
 but there are general pr^inciples which govern the work 
 of class-recitation that those who expect to engage in the 
 work of teaching would do well to heed : 
 
 1. The teacher while hearing a recitation should assume 
 such a position as will enable him to keep all his pupils 
 in sight. 
 
 2. In large classes it is best, when possible, for the 
 teacher to assume a standing position ; but Avhether sit- 
 ting or standing the position should be graceful. 
 
 3. The teacher's manners in the presence of his class 
 should be dignified and gentlemanly. 
 
 4. The teacher should be pleasant and affable in his 
 manner of teaching, and thus control his class by his 
 own example. 
 
 5. The teacher should so conduct his work as to keep 
 all in the class interested and busy. 
 
 6. The teacher should show by his manner that he 
 himself is fully interested in what he attempts to teach, 
 and thus awaken interest on the part of his pupils. 
 
 7. The teacher's language should be well chosen and 
 
 / 
 
 I
 
 136 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 correct, that his pupils may not lose respect for him be- 
 cause of his many errors of speech. 
 
 8. The teacher should be enthusiastic and energetic, 
 thus leading his pupils to feel the importance of the 
 work in which they are engaged. 
 
 9. The teacher should use pleasant tones of voice, and 
 thus avoid creating nervousness in either himself or his 
 pupils. 
 
 10. The teacher should be even-tempered, not per- 
 mitting trifles to ruffle him or provoke him to scold, and 
 thus make his pupils disorderly. 
 
 11. The teacher should be prompt in calling and dis- 
 missing classes, and prompt in his questions and general 
 class work. 
 
 12. Everything in the class-recitation should be me- 
 thodical and systematic, but not to such an extent as to 
 destroy interest. 
 
 13. The teacher's manner should be such as to en- 
 courage the timid and repress the impertinent. 
 
 14. The teacher should be quick to change his method 
 of recitation the moment the interest begins to flag. 
 
 15. The teacher should take as little of the recita- 
 tion-time as possible in reprimanding pupils. A simple 
 sha;ke of the head is more effective than a half hour's 
 scolding. 
 
 16. The teacher should move about occasionally among 
 his pupils even during recitation. This will tend to keep 
 all orderly and busy. 
 
 17. The teacher should not be too prompt to help a 
 pupil out of a difficulty by offering assistance. The reci- 
 tation is to be made by the pupil, not the teacher. 
 
 18. The teacher should be watchful that his pupils
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 137 
 
 use correct speech in asking questions aii'l in giving 
 answers. 
 
 19. The teacher's manner should be such as to en- 
 courage inquiry, though he may not be able to answer 
 all the questions asked. 
 
 20. The teacher should avoid the extreme of seem- 
 ing cold, dull, phlegmatic, and uninterested, as well as 
 the opposite of being excitable, nervous, and fretful at 
 the Aveakness or tardiness of ])upils. 
 
 21. The teacher should not laugh at the mistakes of 
 his pupils, or ridicule them. 
 
 8. The Pupil in Recitation. 
 
 Pupils will diifer in manner in the class-recitation as 
 well as in their general conduct, because they differ in 
 constitutional temperament; and the teacher must not 
 expect pupils of a nervous, sanguine temperament to con- 
 duct themselves in the same manner as those who are 
 dull and phlegmatic, any more than he should expect to 
 tame a gazelle and have it work side by side with a plod- 
 ding cart-horse. Pupils of different constitutional tem- 
 peraments need different treatment and discipline, though 
 the teacher should be impartial to each. The following 
 suggestions may be made with profit to all pupils : 
 
 1. Give your full attention while in class. 
 
 2. Come to class in a teachable condition. 
 
 3. Be determined to learn all you can. 
 
 4. Do not be discouraged because you occasionally 
 fail. 
 
 5. Be courteous and polite to your teacher and your 
 schoolmates. 
 
 6. Do not criticise for the purpose of finding fault.
 
 138 SCHOOI. MANAGEMENT. 
 
 7. When you correct a mistake, do it kindly. 
 
 8. Do not laugh at the mistakes of your schoolmates. 
 
 9. Give answers in your own language. 
 
 10. Never permit a classmate to help you. 
 
 11. Never prompt a classmate to answer. 
 
 12. Speak distinctly and deliberately. 
 
 13. Rise when you answer a question, particularly if 
 the answer be long. 
 
 14. Raise your hand when you desire to answer a 
 question or ask for information, but do not snap the fin- 
 gei*s to attract attention. 
 
 15. Do not speak without permission of the teacher. 
 
 16. Sit or stand erect in class. Do not lounge. 
 
 17. Pass to and from class promptly but quietly. 
 
 18. Never cheat yourself or the teacher by stealing an 
 answer from the book or copying from your neighbor. 
 
 19. Come to the recitation always with your lesson 
 well prepared. 
 
 20. Ask questions when you do not undei*staud or 
 when you desire information. 
 
 III. Examinations. 
 
 School examinations are a necessary adjunct to proper 
 school management. They have their use, but w^hen im- 
 properly conducted they are liable also to great abuse. 
 As an incentive to study they are among the strongest 
 and most effective. Unwisely managed, they may do 
 great injustice and arouse violent opposition. 
 
 1. Objects of Examinations. 
 
 1. To Test Ability.— It is important to determine the 
 comparative standing of .pupils and test their ability to
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 139 
 
 tell AvLal they know. This, it may be argued, can best 
 be done in recitation. The pupil it must, however, be 
 remembered, makes special preparation for the lesson, 
 and under a faulty system of teaching may forget within 
 a month most of what he seemed to know during the 
 time of reciting. The examination requires him to 
 know and continue to know. 
 
 2. To Act as an Incentive to Thorough Work. — The 
 student who expects an examination at the close of the 
 month or at any other time feels, even if he have no 
 higher motive for study, that his knowledge must not 
 only be thorough, but that it must also be retained. The 
 examination, to him, is one of the important ends of 
 study, and is a powerful incentive in urging him 
 forward. 
 
 3. To Secure Data. — While the examination is not 
 always a true test of ability, and does not always give 
 reliable data upon which to classify and make promotions, 
 it is nevertheless, in the main, useful in connection witli 
 the record of the pupil's class-standing during the term 
 as a basis on which to promote from one class to another. 
 
 4. To Arouse Interest. — In public schools, particularly 
 in rural districts, examinations are frequently found use- 
 ful in creating a school sentiment among the people. The 
 ordinary class exercises have little in them of interest to 
 the patrons, but let it be known that a sharp competitive 
 contest is in prospect, and both their curiosity and their 
 interest will be at once aroused. 
 
 2. Scope of the Examination. 
 
 The ends to be attained by school examinations deter- 
 mine in a measure the scope and character of these tests.
 
 140 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1. They should be General in Character.— They should 
 not (leal in teelnilealities and minor faets. The exam- 
 iner siiows not only his good sense, but usually also hi^ 
 sciiolarship, in the examination. The thorough scholar, 
 ^vll() has learned the valuable truth that tlie unimportant 
 facts and details in connection with every science are al- 
 most infinite in number and variety, confines himself in 
 Ins examination to questions on the general principles and 
 most inij)ortant fjicts, never calling for those of minor 
 importance. He leaves these to the man who, having 
 no comprehensive knowledge, builds his reputation on 
 liis recollection of mystic dates and figures, puzzles, and 
 technicalities. 
 
 2. The Examination should be Thorough. — It should be 
 of such a nature as to test the pupil's knowledge thor- 
 oughly as far as he has studied. The questions ought, 
 as in the recitation, to be put in clear, definite language, 
 that the pupil may have no difficulty in determining what 
 his answer should be. If problems, they should be simple, 
 but such as involve essential principles, omitting all such 
 as require tedious and complicated work, as well as those 
 on which authorities may be at variance. 
 
 3. They should Test the Pupil's Power as a Thinker. — 
 Students frequently memorize without thinking, and in 
 the haste of school work the teacher occasionally fails 
 to detect the error. Questions involving the same prin- 
 ciples taught to the pupils during the term should be 
 given from textbooks not in the possession of those to 
 be examined. Original questions also might be given, 
 but still such as embrace the principles taught, and which 
 would fairly test the pupil's familiarity witli those princi- 
 ples and his ability to make the application.
 
 SCHOOL WORK. HI 
 
 4. Examinations should be of such a Character as to 
 Prevent Special Preparation. — All s})ecial preparation for 
 examination tends to foster shallow scholarship, which is 
 worthless as soon as the examination has passed. Every 
 examiner should discourage this special training by ex- 
 amining Avholly on questions involving general princi- 
 ples. This cramming for examination defeats the most 
 important objects of education, and dwarfs the mind 
 instead of giving it culture. 
 
 5. Examinations should be of such a Character as to 
 Discourage mere Memory Culture. — The question to be 
 reached is not, Can the pupil tell what the book says 
 on this subject? but, Does he understand the subject, 
 and can he express his thoughts in appropriate lan- 
 guage? — not. Can he answer all questions given in the 
 book? but. Can he answer all questions that are based 
 on the principles he has studied? 
 
 'S. Frequency of Examinations. 
 
 The times for examinations must be regulated to some 
 extent by the character of the school. As to the question 
 of stated or regular time for examination, it is a debatable 
 one. The high-pressure principle of examining all the 
 schools of a district at the end of every month must be 
 the device of some one whose highest idea of the bus- 
 iness of a Superintendent is to worry pupils and send 
 teachers to premature graves. There is no good reason 
 why either pupils or teachers should be compelled to 
 suffer an indignity of this kind. 
 
 The objections to fixed times for examinations are that 
 B^^me pu])ilswill make special preparation in spite of the 
 greatest precaution of their teachers; that they are not
 
 N2 SCHOOL MANAGEMEXr. 
 
 usually well prepared at other times; that the auxicty 
 while awaiting the approaching examination of"ten works 
 serious harm to both mind and body of the suffering can- 
 didate. Many a student has become enfeebled for life 
 from the dread and feverish excitement incident to an 
 approaching examination. 
 
 The strong argument in favor of unannounced exam- 
 inations is that pupils must be prepared at all times, and 
 therefore their knowledge is more thorough than it would 
 be under other circumstances. Every lesson is studied 
 with the understanding that it may be called for at any 
 time, and both teacher and pupil become more thorough 
 in their work. The teacher ought to examine whenever 
 he feels that the school or the class will be benefited, but 
 the examinations ought not to be so frequent as to become 
 oi)pressive. 
 
 4. Method of Examining. 
 
 Examinations may be either oral or written, or both 
 oral and written. Each of these methods has its advo- 
 cates. The method must depend somewhat on the study 
 in which the test is to be made. 
 
 The oral metliod in small classes has this advantage 
 Dver the written, that it may be made much more search- 
 ing and thorough in a given time; but in large classes the 
 advantage in this respect is greatly in favor of the writ- 
 ten method. The Avritten method gives the examiner a 
 greater amount of work to do, and the work of ex- 
 amining and inspecting the papers sometimes becomes 
 oppressive. 
 
 A second advantage of the Avritten method of exam- 
 hiation is, that the same questions may be given to all the
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 143 
 
 j)iij)ils, and thus the comparative ability of tnc different 
 persons examined may be more accurately determined. 
 
 In general, the written method of examination is much 
 to be preferred to the oral, but a combination of the two 
 is advisable, particularly when spectators are present to 
 witness the work. 
 
 Caution. — Whatever the method pursued, the teacher 
 should insist rigidly that there shall be no help either 
 offered or received, and that the student who helps shall 
 be punished quite as severely as the one who receives the 
 help, both being guilty of wrong. 
 
 5. Length of Exainin.itions. 
 
 The length of time occupied in an examination will 
 depend somewhat on the ability of the teacher as an 
 examiner. A teacher who is an exjiert in the work of 
 examining will often give the candidates a fuller and 
 fairer test with ten questions than one less skilled would 
 with fifty. 
 
 Examinations usually are too long and tedious. Much 
 time might be saved to both teacher and pupils by short- 
 ening them. To spend a half day in the examination of 
 a class in a single branch is no less cruel than unwise. 
 Examinations never should be continued so long as to 
 tire those who are examined. When protracted to such 
 a length that pupils become nervous and fatigued, ex- 
 aminations become injurious and fail as a test, because 
 the pupils have not sufficient mental vigor to think 
 clearly. 
 
 Suggestions. — 1. Examine only on the main points; 
 do not dwell on particulars. Prepare your questions so 
 that they may be of a general nature.
 
 144 SCHOOL iMAXAGEMENT. 
 
 2. rrcvcnt s}X'cial preparation for examiuatioii by 
 giving no notice of the time. Hold your examinatious 
 at irregular intervals. 
 
 3. Let your pupils occasionally examine one another's 
 papers ; this saves work for the teacher and makes the 
 pupils critical. 
 
 4. Do not worry your pupils by telling them con- 
 stantly that thoy are likely to fail. 
 
 5. As the examination for promotion approaches, do 
 not crowd your pupils and excite them. Kather train 
 tlicm to be cool and confident. 
 
 6. Do not classify and promote on examination per- 
 centages alone. Some of the brightest fail on examina- 
 tion day on account of confusion and excitement. 
 
 7. Occasionally give a short oral examination of a 
 few minutes without any notice, that pupils may always 
 have their knowledge at command. 
 
 8. Do not make it your chief aim to promote all the 
 pupils in a class. Every class has its weak mem- 
 bers. 
 
 9. Do not be in a hurry. Give your pupils plenty of 
 time. Let them tJiink, and work slowly, so that they 
 may tell what they know. 
 
 10. Do not insist that they take up the questions in 
 order. Let them answer those they can answer most 
 readily first, and turn to the more difficult ones wheu 
 they feel they have more time. 
 
 IV. Reviews. 
 
 The chief objects of reviews are the two following: 
 1. They Make the Pupil's Knowledge more Thorough,— 
 Frequent reviews tend to make knowledge more thor-
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 145 
 
 oughly oiu" own. The mere recalling assists us to re- 
 member. But, in addition to tins, studying with the 
 view of having our knowledge recalled is an incentive 
 in itself to more diligent work. Reviews are beneficial, 
 theirefore, because they assist in fixing knowledge in the 
 mind. 
 
 2. They Test the Pupil's Knowledge. — Reviews are in 
 a certain sense a sort of examination, and by this exam- 
 ination the pupil's knowledge is constantly tested, the 
 frequency of the test being measured by the frequency 
 of the review. In some respects these review-tests are 
 really more beneficial than a formal examination. 
 
 Frequency of Reviews. 
 
 As to the frequency and regularity of reviews, there 
 is room for great difference of opinion. Many teachers 
 prefer a weekly, while others advocate a monthly, re- 
 view. There seems to be no good reason really why a 
 slight review should not take place daily. Every day's 
 acquisition of knowledge should be so clear in the mind 
 of the learner that he need not fear to be questioned on 
 the day or the week following. Unquestionably, the 
 most valuable reviews are those which are held daily, 
 though to these it may be well to add the weekly review, 
 in which only the essential and most important part of 
 the week's work should be discussed or examined. 
 
 There need be no formal method of conducting these 
 reviews, apart from the ordinary method of questioning, 
 though the teacher should always hold himself in readi- 
 ness to correct any errors he may detect or answer any 
 question that may be asked on points not fully or clearly 
 comprehended by the pupils. 
 
 10
 
 14G SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 y. School Reports. 
 
 The following may be claimed as the chief advan- 
 tages of school reports : 
 
 1. They are Valuable as Incentives to Study and Good 
 Conduct. — The pupil who feels that his standing for the 
 week or the month is to be made the basis of a report to 
 his parents or to the school authorities is cautious to 
 make an effort to secure the best report possible. 
 
 2. They are Valuable in Furnishing Information. — 
 Parents particularly have a right to know how their 
 children progress and how they behave while in school. 
 Reports are valuable in furnishing this information. 
 
 3. They are an Excellent Means of Interesting Parents 
 in School Work. — Few parents take so little interest in 
 their children's success as to care nothing for their wel- 
 fare and advancement. The report of a child's success 
 or failure is a spur to the parent, and he examines the 
 report and prizes the marked advancement quite as 
 highly sometimes as the child himself. 
 
 The Parties to Whom Reports Should be Made. 
 
 1. Directors or Trustees. — By the laws of some States 
 every teacher is compelled at the close of a school month 
 to make his report to the Board of Directors or Trustees, 
 through the Secretary, that these officers may have defi- 
 nite information relative to the school. 
 
 2. Parents. — This is probably the most important and 
 beneficial report that the teacher could make. Few, 
 liowever, find sufficient leisure from their school duties 
 to make a monthly report of this charactei'. 
 
 3. The Newspapers. — A conscientious report made to
 
 SCHOOL WOEK. 147 
 
 tlie newspapers of the town in which a school is located 
 often proves of much advantage to pupils. There 
 are few who are not anxious to find their names among 
 those deemed worthy of being reported to the public for 
 advancement and correct deportment. 
 
 4. The Superintendent. — It would be a good plan for 
 teachers, as an incentive to pupils, to report to the 
 County Superintendent or School Commissioner, at the 
 end of the month, the names of those reaching a cer- 
 tain standard. A record should be kept by this officer, 
 from which occasional reports could with profit be made 
 to the county newspapers, and tlie whole community 
 might thus be kept awake to the importance of edu- 
 cation. 
 
 These reports, which should contain a record of the 
 pupil's attendance, deportment, and class-standing, could 
 be made from the teacher's records. 
 
 Cautions. — 1. Mark on merit alone. 
 
 2. Give earnest effort its due importance in recording 
 the marks. 
 
 3. Mark those specially well who are original and 
 think for themselves. 
 
 4. Mark in the student's favor rather than against 
 him. 
 
 5. Do not be rigidly severe in marking. 
 
 6. Have no favorites when you mark. 
 
 7. Make allowance for unconscious errors. 
 
 8. ]\Iark each branch and each topic on its own merits, 
 not on neatness or spelling or some other hobby of your 
 own. 
 
 9. Mark on general questions and general principles, 
 not on technicalities or book-language.
 
 148 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 10. ^rnik on a fixed standard or basis. 
 As to ihe frequency of marking, observe the following 
 cdudons: 
 
 1. Do not M^nstc time by marking daily. 
 
 2. Do not let marking interfere with your proper 
 work, teaching. 
 
 3. Do not use the time of tT»<e class in stopping the 
 recitation to mark the standing of a pupil. 
 
 4. Do not mark so frequently that the pupils will 
 strive to recite for the marks they get. 
 
 5. Mark when 3'ou are free to give it your attention, 
 that you may not interfere with other school work. 
 
 Su^estions on School Beports. 
 
 1. Mark on some scale which can be converted to a 
 scale having 100 representing perfection. This is the 
 simplest and most satisfactory. 
 
 2. Pupils should not be permitted to examine the 
 record in order to see other marks than their own, 
 though it would be entirely proper to tell them their 
 own marks. 
 
 3. Should a number of pupils have low marks, it is 
 best not to show them the record, but sim])ly explain 
 to them that their work is not entirely satisfactory, and 
 encourage them to do better. 
 
 4. In sending reports to parents it is thought best by 
 many not to send the exact figures, but report simply 
 excellent, good, medium, or poor, keeping the figures or 
 marks for the information of the teacher alone. 
 
 5. Marking your pupils once a week will prove satis- 
 factory generally, and it will save much labor as compared 
 with the plan of marking daily.
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 149 
 
 6. Let the average of the pupil's work form the basis 
 of his marks for the week. 
 
 yi. Graduation in Public Schools. 
 
 None question the importance and benefits of gradua- 
 tion from high schools. May not graduation from rural 
 schools, when a specified course of study has been com- 
 pleted, be of equal importance, particularly as an incen- 
 tive to study and regular attendance ? In favor of such 
 a plan the following arguments may be advanced : 
 
 1. Graduation from Ungraded Schools will be an Incen- 
 tive to Regular Attendance. — A regular course of study 
 having been adoj^ted, the chance is open to every child 
 in the district to reach that stage of progress which shall 
 entitle him to graduation. Most pupils will appreciate 
 the fact that the best work can be done only when they 
 are regular in daily attendance at school. 
 
 2. Graduation Promotes Study. — The same arguments 
 urged in the preceding paragraph might be offered in 
 support of this proposition. The prospect of graduat- 
 ing is a powerful incentive to steady application and 
 diligent study. 
 
 3. Graduation Tends to Systematize the School Work. — 
 Pupils, feeling that they have an object to accomplish, 
 will be more apt to enter school at the beginning of 
 the term, their attendance will be more regular, and the 
 school work can be performed more nearly in accordance 
 with a fixed programme. 
 
 4. Graduation will Tend to Fix Limits to the School Work. 
 — There is nothing at present in the school laws of the 
 different States to prevent pupils entering school at five 
 or six years of age and continuing up to the age of eigh-
 
 150 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 teen or twenty. A course of study, with giaduation as 
 the crowning feature, will, through regularity of attend- 
 ance and diligent study, enable the pupils to do more be- 
 tween the ages of eight and sixteen years than is now done 
 between the ages of six and twenty. 
 
 5. Graduation will Increase the Efficiency of our Schools. 
 — This will be true, partly because the work will be bet- 
 ter done in a shorter time, and partly because the public 
 sentiment of every community will be in favor of more 
 thorough work. Hundreds in every district will be in- 
 duced to take a full course of study who under the present 
 system care for nothing but a superficial knowledge of any 
 of the branches. 
 
 6. Graduation wiU Cause Better Teaching and More Care- 
 ful Supervision. — Every competent teacher will, under the 
 new system, strive to compete with his associates. A ben- 
 eficial rivalry will exist in every district. Such has been 
 the case with the various ward schools in cities, and such 
 must necessarily be the result in rural districts. The 
 supervision of the work of teaching will also be more 
 thorough, because better systematized and capable of 
 producing better results. 
 
 7. A System of Graduation will Lead to the Establish- 
 ment of Township High Schools. — Pupils avIio have com- 
 pleted the course of study in the graded schools will in 
 general have acquired such a love for study and such 
 a desire for more extended knowledge that they will 
 demand something beyond the common country school. 
 The result will be the establishment of central high 
 schools in each township where the population is suffi- 
 ciently dense to justify it, at which a higher course of 
 study may be pursued and completed. The principal
 
 SCHOOL WORK. 151 
 
 of this school might act as General Superintendent of 
 the other township schools, thus affording a closer super- 
 vision of them and their work than is possible under the 
 present system, and relieving the County Superintendent 
 or other educational officer of a part of his duties. 
 
 Examination for Graduation. — The questions for exam- 
 ination preparatory to graduating from the public un- 
 graded schools should be prepared by the supervising 
 officer of the county. If possible, all the examinations 
 in a district should take place on the same day. It 
 would be profitable to appropriate the last two Saturdays 
 before the close of the school to this work, or where 
 schools close at irregular times, then the two Saturdays 
 near the time of closing the schools having the longest 
 term. 
 
 The examining committee should consist of disinter- 
 ested persons of intelligence selected by the School Board 
 of the district or by the county superintending officer. 
 The teacher or the members of the examining committee 
 should then grade the papers on which the questions are 
 answered, and their report should be submitted to the 
 county school officer, who should attach his signature to 
 a proper certificate or diploma to be presented to each 
 successful applicant for examination. Following all this 
 might come graduation day, when the pupils might cel- 
 ebrate the occasion by appropriate exercises, consisting 
 of declamations, recitations, readings, essays, music, etc., 
 for the entertainment of their friends, and then receive 
 their diplomas as evidence that they have completed the 
 course of study prescribed and have passed the exam- 
 ination with credit.
 
 152 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 YII. A Course of Study for Couuti-y Schools. 
 
 A system of graduation necessitates a course of study 
 to be pursued. This ought to be uniform, not only 
 throughout the township, but also throughout the county. 
 Indeed, if it were uniform throughout the State it would 
 be still better. There seems to be no good reason, for 
 instance, why each local high school in the various cities 
 should have its own course of study. This diversity of 
 the courses of study in the various cities makes the high- 
 school graduate an indefinite quantity. These courses 
 of study extend all the way from a grammar-school to a 
 college standard, so that the title has no definite meaning. 
 To make it have a definite significance there should be 
 uniformity. The same is true of the course of study to 
 be pursued in ungraded schools. It should be uniform 
 throughout the county, and if possible throughout the 
 State. The plan of adopting a course of study for a 
 county is not only feasible, but it has also been found 
 eminently practical and useful wherever the plan has 
 been tried.
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 School Ethics. 
 
 School Ethics treats of the rights and duties of all 
 persons connected with the school. It includes the du- 
 ties of teacher, pupils, and school ojica's. 
 
 I. Duties of the Teacher. 
 
 The teacher's duties are not only manifold, but they 
 are also of great importance. Taking upon himself for 
 the parents, as he does, the responsibility of training the 
 children under his care, he represents all the families of 
 the community, and his duties are chiefly those which 
 would otherwise devolve upon the parents. He has, 
 however, duties not only to the children as his pupils, 
 but also to the parents, to his profession, and to himself. 
 
 1. Duties to Pupils. — The duties of the teacher to pupils 
 consist in the general nature of care-taking and provid- 
 ing for their wants in an intellectual, a moral, a 'physical, 
 and an cesthetic sense. 
 
 1 Intellectual Wants. — Two of the chief intellectual 
 wants of pupils are Knowledge and Discipline of Hind. 
 These are, therefore, the wants which the teacher must 
 be prepared to supply. It is his duty not only to com- 
 municate knowledge, but to communicate such knowledge 
 as will be of most worth to the child as he grows to 
 
 153
 
 151 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 nianliood, and to communicate it in such a way tl)at tlie 
 child not only may, but also that he must, understand. 
 It is the teacher's duty also to discipline the mind of the 
 child. He must conduct his work of instruction and 
 recitation in such a manner as to develop the child's in- 
 tellectual strength. His methods must be such as will 
 train the child to think, ask questions, become inquis- 
 itive and anxious to learn, that it may thus be enabled 
 to acquire mental acumen. 
 
 2. Moral Wants. — The teacher owes it to his pupils to 
 make them good men and women. This is quite as im- 
 portant as to make them scholarly. It has been argued 
 against education that it makes men rogues, but this 
 cannot be said of the education that gives culture to 
 the child's moral as well as his intellectual nature. An 
 intellectual giant without a moral nature on which to base 
 his intellectual strength, and to serve as a guide and con- 
 trolling power, is an intellectual monstrosity. Such men 
 are dangerous to the life of a nation. 
 
 Moral instiniction is needed in all our schools. The 
 methods of imparting it are many. It may be imparted 
 in the shape of biography, holding up the example of 
 the good and great of all times for the emulation of the 
 children. It may be imparted by direct instruction, or 
 in the shape of short, interesting stories, in which the 
 moral to be taught is put in the practical shape of illus- 
 tration. In whatever manner the instruction be im- 
 parted, the lesson must be made interesting and impres- 
 sive ; and it will serve to elevate the child's nature and 
 prepare him for a fuller appreciation of his responsi- 
 bilities as a future citizen.
 
 SCHOOL ETHICS. 155 
 
 Religious instruction may be imparted in a similar 
 manner, but care must be taken that everything of a sec- 
 tarian or denominational character be strictly avoided. 
 Many an over-zealous Christian worker has defeated the 
 ■whole end of both moral and religious culture by thrust- 
 ing his own religious views in the face of his pupils, and 
 thus arousing the ire of all who belonged to other sects 
 and denominations. Where the religious views of the 
 teacher are likely to offend or cause discord in the school 
 work, it were better to leave them unexpressed. 
 
 3. Physical Wants. — The chief duty of the teacher as 
 to the physical wants of his pupils is to see that their 
 health is preserved, and that in their growth their in- 
 tellectual tasks be of such a nature as not to interfere 
 with healthy physical development. It is a matter of 
 the first importance that all children of our land should 
 have healthy physical organizations. No more pitiable 
 sight confronts us than that of intellectual strength de- 
 veloped at the expense of our children's health. It is 
 better that they should be good animals with moderate 
 intellectual culture than that intellectual streno-th should 
 
 O 
 
 be secured and health be lost for a lifetime as a result of 
 the acquisition. 
 
 Tlie school-house and its surroundings 'should be made 
 conducive to health. This will require that the teacher 
 give attention to the lighting, the heating, and the ven- 
 tilation of the house ; also, to the condition of the floor, 
 the walls, the furniture, and everything else connected 
 with the school that may by carelessness or neglect be 
 likely to interfere with the health or the comfort of 
 the pupils.
 
 156 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The personal habits of the pupils also will need the 
 attention of the teacher. The children will need con- 
 stiuit and oft-repeated caution with regard to their be- 
 coming overheated and attempting to cool oif suddenly; 
 also with regard to their sitting in the school-room with 
 wet or damp clothing, sitting in drafts of air, going out 
 of doors without proper protection from heat or cold ; 
 with regard to personal cleanliness, offensive personal 
 habits, such as spitting on the floor, picking the teeth, 
 and the like, — all of which ought to be avoided. They 
 will need urging at times to induce them to take proper 
 exercise and enough of it; and particularly will those 
 need most urging who have the most need of exercise 
 and the least inclination to exert themselves. 
 
 Studies should not Interfere with Health. — Care must 
 be taken that the children's intellectual tasks be not so 
 severe that the child's health is endangered, either by 
 overwork or by interfering with play and exercise. These 
 the child must have, whether he acquires intellectual cul- 
 ture or not. Care must be taken also that the intellectual 
 tasks be not permitted to break down the child's nervous 
 organization. Nothing tends more directly to this end than 
 the constant fret and worry incident to an approaching ex- 
 amination, particulai'ly when a fretful teacher adds to the 
 annoyance by constant predictions of failure. 
 
 4. Esthetic Wants.— ^Esthetic culture is necessary in all 
 schools, and possibly in no institutions is the need so in- 
 tensely felt as in our American schools. From the slab- 
 seated, plank-lined log school hut of a half century ago 
 to the handsomely curtained and beautifully ornamented 
 school-houses found in many districts at the present time
 
 SCHOOL ETHICS. 157 
 
 tlie distance is very great. Tlie imjirovenient is remark- 
 able, but it is only a foretaste of what we shall witness in 
 the future. 
 
 ^Esthetic Culture Aids in DisclpUne. — The child who 
 is surrounded by beauty grows to love the beautiful and 
 becomes respectful. Place him in a school-room with un- 
 painted pine benches and desks, and he is sure to mark 
 them with his pencil and practice on them with his jack- 
 knife, and they are excellent material for the purpose. 
 Give him neat furniture, polished and beautified, and 
 he keeps both knife and pencil in his pocket. He has 
 an inborn love for the beautiful, and he will not mar it 
 unless his nature has been degraded by his associations or 
 by faulty teaching. Surround a child with neat school fur- 
 niture and wall-decorations, such as will cultivate his taste, 
 and you Avill find that his nature will undergo a change 
 and he will act in harmony with his surroundings. 
 
 jEsthetiG culture has been neglected, partly because we 
 have been too busy to give our attention to the aesthetic 
 nature of our children. Our commerce, our railroads, 
 our manufactories, our greed to make money and become 
 rich, have taken up our time, and the aesthetic culture of 
 our children has had but little attention. "We need bet- 
 ter taste, but to possess better taste our love for the beau- 
 tiful must be cultivated. To cultivate a love for the 
 beautiful our children must be brought into the presence of 
 the beautiful, and both our school-rooms and our homes 
 must be beautified. The greed for money-getting must be 
 subdued for a while, and the beauty of both Art and Na- 
 ture must be made to miuistei' to the wants of our children. 
 
 2. Duties to the Community. — The teacher has duties
 
 158 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 to his jiatroiis and to the community in general. The 
 jxnrents of his pupils are often more deeply interested 
 in iiis work and the success of their children than are 
 the pupils themselves. His duties to his patrons include 
 in a certain sense his duties to his pupils, and these need 
 not here be repeated. What he owes to his pupils in the 
 matter of culture he owes to his patrons as their parents. 
 But he has also other duties to the community. 
 
 1. He should Interest the Commimity in the School Work. 
 — To succeed well in his work the teacher must interest 
 not only his school, but also the community in which 
 lie laboi's. This he can best do by interesting the chil- 
 dren, who in turn will interest the parents in the school 
 work. There are various ways in wdiich this may be 
 done, but probably none are so successful as that of 
 suggesting some interesting question occasionally, and 
 having the pupils ask their parents to help them iu 
 finding the answer. Any question that w^ill set the 
 parents to thinking will answer a good purpose. A 
 judicious teacher can in this way set the whole com- 
 munity to work in search of knowledge. 
 
 2. He should Cultivate the Acquaintance of the Citizens 
 of the Community. — The young teacher makes no more 
 serious mistake than that of keeping aloof from the 
 companionship of his patrons, and he can take no 
 shorter route for destroying his influence and his use- 
 fulness. Teachers should mingle with the people of the 
 neighborhood in which they teach. They can cultivate 
 the acquaintance of their patrons in no better way. The 
 teacher has duties to society Avhich he can put aside only 
 at the expense of his own welfare and standing. Teach- 
 ing as a profession would have more dignity and be more
 
 SCHOOL ETHICS. 159 
 
 respected if teachers felt more keenly the importance 
 of mingling with the people of the community, and cul- 
 tivating not only their acquaintance, but also their 
 friendship, 
 
 3. Teachers sliould Seek the Co-operation of their Pa- 
 trons. — Co-operation not only of the School Boards, but 
 also of the patrons, is essential to success. The teacher 
 should be willing to explain his plans to his patrons. 
 Surely they are interested in the success and welfare of 
 their children, and they will sanction and indorse plans 
 submitted by the teacher w'hich they would oppose and 
 condemn if carried into execution without consultation 
 with them. He may gain parental co-operation to some 
 extent also by cultivating the acquaintance and friend- 
 ship of his patrons, as suggested in the preceding para- 
 graj^h. Encouraging citizens to visit the school will also 
 have a good effect. 
 
 4. He should be Frank with his Patrons. — " Honesty is 
 the best policy." The parent has a right to know the 
 actual standing and progress of his child, and the teacher 
 has no right to be untruthful about it for the purpose of 
 either pleasing the parent or avoiding his displeasure. 
 Eight-minded parents appreciate the kindness of the 
 teacher who gives a faithful and truthful report, though 
 it may be an unpleasant one. The parent who inquires 
 concerning the progress or conduct of his child usually 
 makes the inquiry because he wants to know, and he has 
 a right to know, the exact truth. 
 
 5. He should Cultivate a School Sentiment in the Com- 
 munity. — This should be done in a modest way. He 
 should remember that though his patrons, as a rule, may 
 not be so well educated as himself, their experience in
 
 160 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 life may be quite as valuable to tlieui as his book-learning 
 is to him. Many of these patrons are persons of sound 
 judgment, and they will api)reciate modest worth and 
 merit without having their attention specially directed to 
 it. The modest teacher who anxiously and earnestly 
 does the best he can to create an educational sentiment 
 in the community will usually succeed. The teacher 
 should consult with the prominent citizens, invite them 
 to his school-room, seek their advice and aid, and through 
 them interest the commnnity. 
 
 3. Duties to his Profession. — Teaching is a profession. 
 The Greater has endowed man wath various mental 
 powers or faculties. These need training and culture, 
 that man may be properly developed, and that he may 
 acquire the full stature of perfect manhood, and thus fill 
 the place designed for him. To cultivate these faculties 
 is the work of the teacher, and it is a work requiring 
 not only as great learning for its proper performance, 
 but also as much skill, as that of either law, medicine, or 
 theology. Surely, there is no calling in life which has a 
 nobler work, nor any which requires a more intricate 
 knowledge of man's mental and physical organization. 
 It is true, many assume to teach who have neither the 
 requisite skill nor the requisite learning to do this work 
 properly. But no profession is without its quacks and 
 failures. Not every man that wields the scalpel is a suc- 
 cessful surgeon, nor every one that enters the pulpit a 
 successful preacher. Neither is every one that pleads 
 before the court a successful practitioner at the bar. It 
 would be unfair, therefore, to expect all teachers to rise 
 to the dignity of professors until all have the proper
 
 SCHOOL ETHICS. 161 
 
 ]iroparatorv training and scholarship to fit them for the 
 full and faithful performance of their duty. 
 
 The teacher has certain duties to his profession. The 
 chief of these arc — 
 
 1. He should Dignify it by his Scholarship. — No one 
 needs thorough scholarship so much as does the teacher. 
 Mere learning which lies in the miucl like so much dry 
 lumber stored in an attic will not suffice; it must be 
 knowledge which the possessor can recall and use as oc- 
 casion demands ; it must be a weapon which he can 
 wield with effect. His scholarship must be liberal, em- 
 bracing a knowledge of much outside of his special 
 work ; but as to all incident to his profession his knowl- 
 edge should not only be comprehensive, but also that 
 of a specialist. There should be nothing in connection 
 with his calling which he should not at least strive to 
 know. Much of this knowledge he must gain by close 
 observation and by exi)erience in the school-room, but 
 this effort at self-culture will make his knowledge all 
 the more reliable, because it makes him a thinker. 
 
 2. The Teacher should Diguify his Profession by Ms 
 Personal Character. — The men who engage in teaching 
 should be men whose personal character is worthy of 
 imitation. Not only should they be upright in conduct, 
 but also in speech. The principles they attempt to in- 
 still should be above question. No man whose teach- 
 ings cannot be strictly followed, or whose character and 
 habits cannot be profitably imitated, should be permitted 
 to enter the school-room as a teacher. 
 
 3. The Teacher should Avoid being Dogmatic. — Dealing 
 with the child-mind as the teacher dues, no one is in 
 greater danger than he of putting too high an estimate 
 
 11
 
 I(j2 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 on his own ability, and of asserting liis opinion in snch 
 a manner as to itssunie that it must be correct because he 
 says it. Teachers must avoid becoming opinionated if 
 they hope to have their profession respected. Great care 
 must be taken that they do not become egotistic, and 
 thus bring disgrace and disrepute on their calling. 
 
 4. The Teacher should Show Respect to Ms Fellow- 
 Teachers. — The interests of the profession demand this. 
 Every otlier profession is characterized by an esprit de 
 corps which lends dignity to that profession. Teachers, 
 possibly the quacks only, are too often willing that their 
 profession shall be made the subject of all kinds of 
 witless and silly jokes and disrespectful remarks. All 
 other professions defend the dignity and magnify the 
 importance of their work, and it is left for teachers 
 alone to hear their calling ridiculed and denounced with- 
 out defending it and themselves. Self-respect will make 
 us respect one another. All jealousy or envy at others' 
 success must he subdued. No one needs sympathy more 
 than does the teacher, and from no one ought he to ex- 
 ])ect sympathy more than from his fellow-teacher. The 
 interests both of the individual and the profession, 
 therefore, demand that there shall be a spirit of fellow- 
 ship and kindness among the members of that calling. 
 
 5. The Teacher should Seek to Elevate Ms Calling. — 
 This may be done in various ways. Prominent among 
 the moans of professional imjirovement are — 
 
 a. Normal Schools. — The object of tliese schools is the 
 pi'(!paration of teachers for their ])rofession. They bear 
 the same relation to teaching as the various professional 
 schools bear to the other learned professions. They do 
 not always make successful teachers and disciplinarians,
 
 SCHOOL ETHICS. 1G3 
 
 any more than do medical colleges always make success- 
 ful surgeons and physicians, or other professivmal schools 
 make adepts in the i)rofessions they teach ; but they never- 
 theless do a grand work in teaching the principles which 
 underlie the whole work of instruction and discipline. 
 They have not the power to reconstruct human organ- 
 ization or reverse Nature, and therefore cannot make 
 teachers of meu and women whose temperaments and 
 general mental characteristics do not fit them for this 
 profession ; and yet they can help even these. So im- 
 portant is the work they do and so fully are their merits 
 and efficiency appreciated that they have become recog- 
 nized as government institutions in nearly all the most 
 progressive states and nations of the world. 
 
 h. Teachers' Institutes.— These, in a measure, do similar 
 work to that of the normal schools, but being convened 
 for only a short time, and being usually unclassified, the 
 work must necessarily be of a more general character. 
 Much professional improvement may be gained from 
 the association of teachers in this manner, but more 
 important than this is tiie professional feeling which is 
 engendered and the esprit de corps which is established. 
 The comparison of views and methods, the mutual con- 
 sultation, and the enthusiasm awakened, are most ben- 
 eficial, not only to the teachers, but ultimately to the 
 schools also overM'hich tiiey preside. They give to young 
 teachers a higher estimate of the importance and mag- 
 nitude of the work in which they are engaged. 
 
 c. Teachers' Libraries. — The teacher who docs not read 
 at least some M'orks on the profession in which he is en- 
 gaged is merely a quack. Teachers ought to keep pace 
 with the times. The non-progressive teacher constantly
 
 ]G4 SCHOOL AlANAOEMEXT. 
 
 retrogrades, bei'uuse progress is onward. The methods of 
 teaehiiig and management to-day differ very greatly from 
 the methods and management of twenty-five years ago. 
 The teacher, therefore, who does not keep pace with the 
 times by reading educational works and educational jour- 
 nals does more toward degrading than toward elevating 
 his profession. There is no teacher, not even the most 
 learned or the most progressive, who may not learn some- 
 thing from the educational journals of the day. 
 
 d. School Visitation. — Professional information may be 
 gained also by visiting the schools of othei'S. It would 
 be economical for every School Board to give to each of 
 its teachers a half day every month for the purpose of 
 visiting other schools. No two teachers perform their 
 work in the same manner. Visitation would enable a 
 teacher not only to observe what is good in others' teach- 
 ing, but also to correct his own errors by witnessing the 
 errors of others. Faithful teachers are always anxious 
 to improve, and they find school visitation in every way 
 profitable. 
 
 c. Writing for tlie Press. — Other professions as well as 
 teaching have their journals, and the members of those 
 professions find it greatly to their advantage not only to 
 read these journals, but also to communicate their ideas 
 through them to the public. It would greatly aid in 
 elevating teaching to its proper place if all that origi- 
 nate successful plans or try successful experiments would 
 cause them to be knoAvn to their fellow-teachers through 
 the columns of educational newspapers. It is the duty 
 of successfid teachers to write for the press, and lend 
 every effort to elevate their profession to its proper 
 rank.
 
 SCriOGI, ETHICS. 165 
 
 4. Duties to Himself. — The two chief duties which the 
 teaclier owes to himself are The Care of his Health and 
 Self- Culture. 
 
 1. The Teacher's Care of his Health. — Few employments 
 are so exhaustive to both mind and body as is teaching, 
 and there are few callings in which good health is so 
 necessary. The nature of the work, combined with the 
 fact that the teacher is confined to the one room during 
 the day, without sunshine and sometimes in the foulest of 
 atmospheres, has certainly much to do with undermining 
 the teacher's health. If his personal habits conform to 
 the requirements of hygienic laws, and he preserve a 
 cheerful temper, there is little reason why any teacher 
 should be afflicted with ill health as the result of his 
 work in the school-room. Worry wears faster than work. 
 Let the teacher, therefore, preserve an even temper and 
 conform strictly to the laws by which health is preserved, 
 and he will have little cause to complain of the arduous 
 duties of the school-room. Exercise, food, sleep, air, 
 bathing, and dress will all need proper attention. 
 
 2. Self-Culture. — The teacher should strive diligently 
 to improve himself. The nature of his work demands 
 that his mind be constantly on the alert. He is the ex- 
 ample which his pupils will imitate, and for their sake, as 
 well as his own, his thoughts must be fresh and his mind 
 constantly supplied with the riches drawn from Nature's 
 storehouse of knowledge. It is often said that young 
 teachers are frequently the best,- because they are enthu- 
 siastic and anxious to learn, while those who remain in 
 the profession for a great length of time become in a 
 measure careless and indifferent. This may be true, but 
 certainly it ought not to be so. Every teacher ought to
 
 1G6 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 feci that he has a duty to hiinsclf in tlie matter of self- 
 culture and self-improvement, and that he must be pro- 
 gressive as a matter of self-interest. 
 
 II. Duties of Pupils. 
 
 The chief duties of pupils are — 
 
 1. Duties to Themselves. — These consist mainly of 
 study for the sake of improvement, care of their school 
 property, such as books, pencils, etc., care of their cloth- 
 ing, and care of their persons in such manner as to j)re- 
 eerve health. 
 
 2. Duties to One Another. — These consist in the respect 
 which they owe to the rights of others. They owe it 
 to their schoolmates to avoid all injury to either their 
 persons or their property. 
 
 3. Duties to the Teacher. — It is the duty of pupils to 
 be attentive, respectful, and obedient. The teacher's 
 property also must not be interfered Avitli by pupils. 
 They should also have regard for his personal comfort. 
 
 4. Duties to School Officers. — Pupils owe respect to the 
 officers who have charge of the schools. It is their duty 
 also to refrain from injuring the school property placed 
 in the care of these officers. 
 
 5. Duties to Visitors. — These consist mainly in show- 
 ing them respect and courtesy, and seeing that they are 
 made comfortable during their visits to the school. 
 
 6. Duties to the Community. — Pupils should avoid in- 
 terfering with the comfort of those living near the 
 school by refraining from excessive noise. They should 
 not trespass upon the grounds or property of the neigh- 
 bors, and should refrain from being imj^olite or dis- 
 respectful.
 
 SCHOOL ETHICS. 167 
 
 III. Duties of Scliool Officers. 
 
 The chief school officers who come in contact with 
 both tlie teaciier and the pupils are known variously in 
 different states as School Directors, School Trustees, and 
 Committee-men, Want of space will prevent a full 
 discussion of their duties here, hence we do but little 
 more than indicate them. 
 
 1. They should Select Proper School Sites. — This they 
 owe to the health and comfort of the children, whose 
 character is to some extent moulded by the school 
 surroundings. 
 
 2. They should Build Comfortable and Beautiful School- 
 houses. — These, too, have their influence in forming 
 character, and while comfort should have due consider- 
 ation, beauty must not be neglected. Beautiful school- 
 houses tend to create higher ideals and promote nobility 
 of character. 
 
 3. They should Adopt Proper TextbooKs. — It is a puz- 
 zling question sometimes among many excellent text- 
 books to know what to adopt, but school officers will 
 find the opinion of disinterested successful teachers 
 always the safest to follow. When good textbooks, 
 adapted to the wants of the pupils are to be had, it is 
 little less than criminal to keep inferior ones in use for 
 the reason that a change may cause some expense to the 
 district. No mechanic uses worn-out and worthless ma- 
 chinery when he can purchase new which will do his 
 work better and more satisfactorily. 
 
 4. They should Adopt Grades of Study. — A course of 
 study should be adopted, not only by the school officers 
 of towns and cities, but also by those of rural districts.
 
 1G8 SCIIOOr. MANAGEMENT. 
 
 System will do much toward improving tlio school. A 
 course of study not only for a district, but for a whole 
 county, is advisable. 
 
 5. They should Employ Competent Teachers. — The 
 toacliei-s should be well qualified in every sense, physi- 
 adly, intellectually, morally, and professionally. School 
 officers should secure the best teaching possible. If the 
 salaries they offer will not command the proper talent 
 and qualifications, there is only one remedy, and that is 
 to pay better salaries. Ijow salaries will always fill the 
 positions with incompetent and unworthy applicants. 
 
 6. They should Supervise and Visit the Schools. — 
 School officers are the representatives of the people, and 
 it becomes their duty to see that the school work is done 
 in the best possible manner. They should visit the 
 schools frequently, both for the purj)ose of witnessing the 
 teacher's work and for the purpose of giving teacher and 
 pupils encouragement. They should have the teacher 
 feel that their visits are friendly calls made for the pur- 
 pose of cheering and encouraging, not for faultfinding. 
 No man is so unfit to be a Director or Trustee as one 
 who feels it his duty to gnunble and find fault. 
 
 7. They should Encourage Educational Sentiment in the 
 Community. — No persons have greater power than school 
 officers to arouse an educational interest in the commu- 
 nity. If they indorse the teacher and his methods, the 
 people are satisfied that the work is properly done. 
 School officers should not only co-operate with the 
 teacher, but also secure the co-operation of the patrons, 
 and thus establish such entire harmony as cannot fail to 
 result in good to all.
 
 SCHOOL ETHICS. 169 
 
 IV. Duties of tlie Siiperiiiteudeut. 
 
 The chief duties to be performed by the Snpeiintend- 
 ent or School Commissioner are specified by law, and 
 they need not be mentioned here. Independent of these 
 are other duties which the welfare of the schools demand 
 of this officer. 
 
 1. He should Seek to Elevate Teadilng to its Proper 
 Rank as a Profession. — This he can do in various ways, 
 but especially by granting certificates to competent 
 teachers only. The standard of qualifications should 
 be advanced from year to year, and the day hastened 
 when all certificates shall be of the first grade and 
 strictly professional. No other profession grades the 
 standing of its members, and there seems to be no good 
 reason why teachers should be graded in this manner. 
 Ability and success should in teaching determine the 
 professional standing, as they do in other professions. 
 
 2. He should Harmonize School Interests. — The Super- 
 intendent ought to see that harmony prevails between 
 the Directors and the teachers, and between the teacher 
 and the patrons. A judicious Superintendent can do 
 much toward promoting harmony among the various 
 .school-workers, and thus add greatly to the welfare of 
 the schools. The school work of the county should be 
 well systematized, and the teachers and the Directors be 
 made to feci that all are working for the same purpose 
 and to tlie same end. 
 
 3. He should Create a Public Sentiment in Favor of 
 Good Schools. — This he can do by holding educational 
 meetings in the various school districts, at which educa- 
 tional addresses may be made, and in which also the pu-
 
 170 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 pils of the various schools of the district may be bronglit 
 together and unite in exercises of interest to both them- 
 selves and their parents. An energetic Superintendent 
 is capable of doing great good by arousing the patrons 
 of a district with meetings of this kind, and making 
 them enthusiiistic in the cause of good schools. 
 
 4. He should Encourage Good TeacMng. — The business 
 of the Superintendent is not faultfinding. He should 
 rather encourage. Where it is necessary to find fault 
 he should do so kindly, privately pointing out the errors 
 to the teacher, and showing at the same time how they 
 may be corrected. Where he finds good work done he 
 should give proj^er commendation, and when an opportu- 
 nity occurs to speak favorably of good teachers he should 
 never hesitate to do so. Such a course of conduct on the 
 part of a Superintendent will be beneficial not only to 
 the weak teachers by assisting them to be strong, but 
 it will also make the strong stronger.
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 School Government. 
 
 Government is the administration of laws for the 
 purpose of preserving order. School government is the 
 administration of school affairs in such a manner as to 
 secure proper discipline and promote the greatest ^yel- 
 fare of the school. It does not differ matei-ially from 
 family government. Its end is the same, that of making 
 good citizens. Family government is a union properly of 
 divine and civil government. This is true also of school 
 government. The teacher takes the place of the parent, 
 and assumes for the time all the rights and responsibilities 
 of that person. School government is, however, much the 
 more difficult of the two, because it represents an aggre- 
 gation of families, each with its own system, and in many 
 of which government is extremely defective. 
 
 1. Objects of School Government. 
 
 Among the objects of school government the following 
 are the most important : 
 
 1. To Preserve Order. — Order is necessary, that school 
 work may be performed to the best advantage, but order 
 does not necessarily mean absolute quiet. Quiet may be 
 secured by the enforcement of rigid penalties, but it is a 
 kind of quiet which is detrimental to the best interests 
 of the school. The machinery of the school-room when 
 in good working condition is quite as likely to produce 
 
 171
 
 172 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 some noise as tlie niacliinciy in well-regiilalcd inauu- 
 faetories; but-a degre^e of x[uict and regularity sufficient 
 to permit the gchool work to go on without interruption 
 must be observed at all times. One of ^the chief objects of 
 school government is to secure this order and regularity. 
 
 2. To Train to Self-Government. — Probably the most im- 
 portant object of school government is that of training 
 pupils to govern and control themselves. The children 
 in our schools represent the different varieties of family 
 government in the community, and the teacher who can 
 harmonize all these, selecting the strong points and dis- 
 carding the weak, performsa tiisk the magnitude of which 
 cannot be over-estimated. 
 
 y The power to govern well, to train pupils to self-control, 
 (iQ lift up the weak and fill them with self-respect, to curb 
 the wayward and lead them to the performance of their 
 duty, is the essential characteristic of every successful 
 teacher. Without this ability it is unwise for any one 
 to engage in the work of teaching. 
 
 Children are creatures of impulse. Many of them, 
 while not vicious, are heedless and thoughtless. Others 
 are not only heedless, but also merciless and tyrannical, 
 and they like nothing better than a contest with the new 
 teacher. Let him in this preliminary skirmish win the 
 day, and it is won for all time, but if he lose it he need 
 hope for little comfort in his efforts to manage that school 
 in the future. ^^ 
 
 With those pupils whose impulses are strong, and whose 
 moral powers are yet uncultured and untrained, self-con- 
 trol is necessarily weak. Control of self is the first lesson 
 they have to learn, and it is also in many respects the most 
 important. Tlie wise instruction of both the teacher and
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 173 
 
 tlic parent is necessary to teaeli it. Nor can the lesson be 
 learned in a few months. A school life is too short to 
 teach it thoroughly. The teacher must not therefore be 
 discouraged at seeming failure. 
 
 ^ 2. Scliool Control. 
 
 (The three chief officers to whom all school control is 
 delegated are the Teacher, the Directors or Trustees, and 
 the County Commissioner or Superintendent. The local 
 Trustees in some States are equivalent to the township 
 Directors in other States, and the office of County Super- 
 intendent in some is similar in a measure to that of County 
 School Commissioner in others. 
 
 Of these officers, the teacher comes in closest relations 
 to the pupils, though the authority of all extend over the 
 schools, and each office has its separate duties and re- 
 sponsibilities; and it is these duties and responsibilities 
 Avhich give to us a system of School Ethics in which vixji 
 included the duties of teacher, pupils, and school officers^ 
 
 3. Elements of Governing Power. 
 
 To be a good disciplinarian requires certain charac- 
 teristics in the teacher which are called for in no other 
 vocation or profession. His field for work is wider and 
 his responsibilities are greater than those of any other 
 calling. He represents all the families of the commu- 
 nity with all their diverse systems of government, and 
 his discipline must be such as not only wins absolute 
 success for him in the school-room, but also secures for 
 him the indorsement and approbation of his patrons and 
 school officers. 
 /The chief of these charaderistlcs are — -
 
 174 SCHOOL MA^■AGE.ME^■T. 
 
 1 . System. — To govern well, the teac-lier must bo system- 
 atic iu all he does. He should not only have his pupils 
 work according to a fixed programme, but he himself 
 should have his day's work mapped out and provided 
 for before he opens school in the morning. Every 
 movement of his pupils and every recitation should 
 be conducted in a systematic manner. He should be 
 prompt iu all he does, and thus be systematic as to time. 
 He should see that everything is in its proper place, and 
 tlius be systematic and orderly as to place. Nothing so 
 detracts from good discipline as the carelessness of a 
 slovenly teacher. 
 
 Orderly habits are to be commended, not only in the 
 teacher, but also iu the pupils. Orderly habits estab- 
 li.shed in the school-room become orderly habits for life. 
 The teacher should therefore encourage his pupils to be 
 neat and orderly in their dress, in the care of their books, 
 their desks, and the school furniture iu general. 
 
 2. Energy. — An industrious, energetic teacher finds lit- 
 tle difficulty in managing his pupils and keeping them 
 busy, which, after all, is one of the secrets of good dis- 
 cipline. The busy child is rarely troublesome or mis- 
 chievojis. It is the idler that finds time to annoy his 
 schoolmates and the teachers with his mischief. Energy 
 in the teacher makes the pupils energetic, and ovorconus 
 obstacles and difficulties which seem almost insurmount- 
 able. Energy is work, and work is genius, /v 
 
 3. Vigilance. — The successful disciplinarian is watchful 
 without being a si)y. Constant watchfulness is necessary 
 to preserve order and to detect the coming storms. All
 
 SCHOOL GOVERXMENT. 175 
 
 mischief and disorder is much more readily prevented 
 than corrected. It is best, therefore, to prevent mischief 
 rather than M^ait for it to occur, and then punish a child 
 for what the teacher might and should have prevented. 
 
 The Teacher should not be a Spy. — No persons are more 
 unfit to govern than they who show constant suspicion 
 and distrust of their pupils. The spying teacher usu- 
 ally finds all the disorder, confusion and trickery that he 
 is in search of, but in playing the spy he shows himself 
 unworthy of his office. The teacher can be watchful and 
 alive to all that is going on without playing the part of 
 detective. He should of course not close his eyes to 
 wrong-doing, but at the same time he should not mag- 
 nify small offenses and imagine them aimed at the good 
 order of the school. 
 
 The Vigilant Teacher should Encourage. — His mission 
 is not faultfinding. Many trivial offenses and faults are 
 overlooked because to call attention to them would give 
 them an air of importance which they do not deserve. 
 It is best to encourage and praise where it is possible 
 to do so, and find fault or c<^nsure only where the offense 
 is of such a character oi nas been so frequently repeated 
 as to interfere with the welfare of the school. 
 
 yf 4. Self-Control. — The man who hopes to teach his pupils 
 self-control must first be certain that he is able to control 
 himself. Self-control gives the teacher that quiet dignity 
 which is a necessity in order to secure and retain the re- 
 spect of the pupils. It gives him also that self-possession 
 which enables him to decide on all difficulties with prompt- 
 ness and certainty. It enables him to keep his powers 
 ready and quick to respond at call.
 
 176 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Tin Teacher should Avoid showing Anger. — The teacher 
 whose tenii)er becomes his master soon loses control of his 
 pnpils. Though at first his exhibition of auger may 
 frighten the children, the frequent repetition of these 
 fits of auirer makes him ridiculous, and he loses the 
 children's respect and love. Anger is justifiable only 
 when the pupil has attempted to interfere deliberately 
 and maliciously with the welfare of the school by com- 
 mitting some serious oifense. 
 
 The Teacher should be Patient. — Many things will occur 
 to vex and irritate him, and particularly is this likely to 
 be true when his nerves are unstrung by ill health or 
 overwoi'k. But it is his duty to be patient even under 
 these trying circumstances. Children learn slowly; they 
 are forgetful, and they thoughtlessly commit offenses 
 against which they have been warned again and again. 
 Through all these trials the teacher must be patient, and 
 thus will he win the respect and love of even the most 
 thoughtless and wayward. 
 
 The Teaclicr should be Cheerful. — Tlie cheerful teacher 
 succeeds best in his discipline. The man who can thwart 
 mischief by turning the joke on the perpetrator rarely 
 fails in discipline. The cheerful teacher is a power in 
 the school-room, and his influence is tenfold more potent 
 in securing proper discipline than all the rules and regu- 
 lations that can be enacted. He scatters joy and sunshine 
 where his grumbling neighbor distributes grief and shad- 
 ows; and his pupils leave him at the end of their school 
 career showering blessings on him and feeling grateful 
 for the work he has accomplished in making them worthy 
 men and women. 
 
 The Teacher should Avoid Controversy iviih his Pupils.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 177 
 
 — Antagonism between teacher and pupils lowers each in 
 the estimation of the other. Under no circumstances 
 should the teacher so far forget himself as to quarrel 
 or argue with a pupil in ill-humor. Nor should the 
 teacher under any circumstances permit pupils to reply- 
 to him in an insolent or impertinent manner. Dis- 
 cipline must be preserved at all hazards — by pleasant, 
 cheerful comnmnication with pupils if this be possible, 
 but if not by this means, then by letting the pupil un- 
 derstand that obedience to law is the first requisite. 
 
 5. Confidence. — The teacher who hopes to succeed must 
 have confidence — 
 
 In his TFo;'^.— The man who does not believe in the 
 nobleness of the teacher's work has no business in the 
 school- room. Those who regard teaching as a mere 
 stepping-stone by which to rise to other positions, and 
 to be occupied only until some calling more remunera- 
 tive claims their attention, are not teachers in the proper 
 sense of the term, nor do they ever succeed as does he who 
 devotes his whole energy to the work, and who has full 
 faith that he is engaged in a calling inferior in no respect 
 to any other which engages the attention and talents of 
 his fellow-men. 
 ^ In his Pupils. — In no way can the teacher secure 
 better discipline and more earnest hard work than by 
 showing his pupils that he has entire confidence in them 
 and their intention to do right. At no time should he 
 permit them to believe that he thinks them unworthy 
 of his confidence. It is the first step toward their ruin. 
 Let him trust his pupils, and they will show themselves 
 worthy of being trusted. Even the hardened criminal 
 
 12 
 
 r
 
 178 SCIIOOI. MANAGEMENT. 
 
 is elevated by showing him that you have faith in hia 
 hcnesty. 
 
 In Himself. — The teacher mast have confidence not 
 only in his work, but also in himself. He must feel that 
 he is competent to })erform the work which is placed be- 
 fore him. He need not and should not be egotistic, for 
 this will greatly interfere with his success, but he should 
 know how to esteem and measure his own ability. His 
 scholarship' should be such that he feels entire confidence 
 in his ability to teach all that may be required of him. 
 His knowledge of management and methods must be such 
 as to make him feel that he is entirely competent to per- 
 form the work of governing and teaching to the satisfac- 
 tion of both the school and the community. He should 
 have a due estimate of himself, and yet with it all he 
 must be modest and not inclined to dogmatism. Y^ 
 
 6. Culture. — Culture of mind, manners, and voice are 
 great aids in discipline. 
 
 Culture of Mind. — This includes not onljjRcholar- 
 ship, but also the ability to grapple firmly with difficulties 
 in study, and dispose of them promptly as they arise in 
 the daily school work. A well -disciplined mind, though 
 not equal, possibly, in scholarship to another undisciplined 
 and improperly cultured, will much more readily adapt 
 means to ends, and much more readily apply principles 
 in such a way as to win at once the esteem and confidence 
 of pupils. 
 
 Culture of Manners. — Pupils imitate their teachers. 
 A polished lady or gentleman in the teacher's chair will 
 in time produce ladylike and gentlemanly pupils. The 
 boorish teacher, with unpolished boots and soiled clothes,
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 179 
 
 will also have his imitators and followers. It is of the 
 greatest possilJe importance that the teacher be a model 
 ia his deportment and personal habits. Let him sit in 
 an awkward position, his pupils will imitate; let him be 
 addicted to offensive personal habits, his pupils will quote 
 him as an example ; let him, on the other hand, be pol- 
 ished and polite, lifting his hat to his pupils as he meets 
 them, the manners of the whole community will change 
 and he 'will find himself an object of respect. 
 
 Culture of Voice. — Culture of voice is also an im- 
 portant factor in discipline. The teacher should cultivate 
 pleasant tones of voice. In no case should he speak 
 hiu"shly, or louder than is necessary for his pupils to 
 hear bim distinctly. The teacher often makes his school 
 noisy by being himself noisy in manner and voice. He 
 should not talk too much. Discipline is gained often quite 
 as effectually by allowing the pupils to talk in recitation 
 while the teacher listens. The scolding and faultfinding 
 tone of voice is too prevalent in our school-rooms, even 
 at the present day, to be productive of good order. 
 
 7. Love. — Love is a ruling principle of discipline. The 
 ability to make our pupils not only respect us for our per- 
 sonal worth, but at the same time love us because of our 
 interest in their welfare and our kindness toward them, 
 is one that every teacher should possess. To command 
 this love and respect argues certain qualities in the teacher 
 Avhich aid him greatly in discipline. 
 
 He should Love his Pupils. — The teacher who loves 
 his pupils manifests that lov£ in his desire to benefit 
 them. He is kind and considerate. Feeling that he 
 is interested in their welfare, the pupils learn to love
 
 180 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the teacher, and the work of discipline is very greaily 
 
 lessened. 
 
 He should Try to 3Iakc his Pupils Happy.— The foith- 
 fiil teacher adds daily to the happiness of those in his 
 care. Sometimes he does it by offering a word of en- 
 couragement, sometimes by sympathizing with them, 
 sometimes by soothing, sometimes by adding to their 
 personal comfort, but through it all showing the loving 
 heart which dictates all this kindness. 
 
 Obedience is Won by Love. — The pupils placed under a 
 loving teacher, whose guidance they soon learn to estimate 
 at its highest worth, obey cheerfully because love dictates 
 cheerful obedience. The teacher is found to be a loving 
 friend rather than an arrogant despot, and obedience 
 becomes a pleasure. Indeed, it is not in the nature of 
 things to do otherwise than respect and obey those whom 
 we love. 
 
 8. Personal Magnetism. — There are men and women 
 who seem to have been born to influence and control 
 their fellows. What the latent element in their cha- 
 racter is which gives them this control and influence it 
 is difficult to say. For want of a better name, it is usu- 
 ally denominated personal magnetism. It is the power 
 which brings to a man friends and surrounds him with 
 associates, though he may have neither wealth nor posi- 
 tion to bestow. It is the power which enables many a 
 man to say commonplace things in a commonplace way, 
 and yet often please an audience far better than could 
 the profoundest Avisdom of the most revered sages and 
 philosophers. 
 
 The teacher who is possessed of this magnetic character
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. ISl 
 
 need have little fear of failure in discipline. His school 
 will in a great measure control and regulate itself. Pupils 
 will do right and strive to please him because they find a 
 pleasure in doing so. Patrons will sustain him because 
 they find their children pleased and ready to defend the 
 teacher. It is this same power that gave unlimited suc- 
 cess to Pestalozzi, Arnold, Page, and others who have 
 proved themselves the great teachers of the world. 
 
 9. Executive Power.— Closely allied to personal gov- 
 erning power is that talent which many possess of wisely 
 adapting means to ends, and thus winning for themselves 
 the power to govern. Many elements enter into this 
 power. The basis of all, however, is good judgment, 
 or what is usually known as good common sense. 
 
 There are those in every community toward whom 
 people turn for advice. They are men whose judgment 
 in a measure regulates the thought and action of that 
 community. These persons are born managers, and they 
 succeed in every calling in life in which sound judgment 
 is one of the requisites. We all feel that Ave can rely on 
 the counsel of a man whose judgment is cool and delib- 
 erate and whose action is well considered. Such men are 
 natural leaders, and in the history of the world they have 
 always asserted their power. 
 
 Judgment may be Trained. — Common sense may be in- 
 born, but there is no question that that faculty of mind 
 which we know as "judgment " may be cultured, and thus 
 acquire greater executive power. This culture needs cool- 
 ness and deliberation on our part. It needs the subduing 
 of temper and personal choice to some extent. It needs 
 at times the subordination of our own will to that of
 
 182 SCHOOL. MANAGEMENT. 
 
 others. It needs at times a temporary defeat, tliat we 
 may gain a final victory. It needs that we sometiiiies 
 seem to follow, while in reality we guide and direct. 
 
 WiseScIiool Government seelcs Co-operation— The teacher 
 who undertakes to conduct his school independent of the 
 wishes and opinions of the community meets not only with 
 opposition, but often with utter fLiilure. The wise teacher 
 seeks the co-operation not only of his patrons, but also of 
 his Directors or Trustees. He does not say decidedly, " I 
 shall do this," or, " I shall do that," but rather, " Had 
 I not better do this ?" or, " Had I not better do that ?" 
 He leads by seeming to follow. He meets the objector 
 on the threshold, takes him by the hand, welcomes him 
 cordially to the school-room, interests him in the exercises, 
 consults him on a point or two about the whole school, 
 and particularly about his own child, explains to him 
 the school plans, parts with him at the close of the 
 school day as a warm friend, and sends him out into 
 the community on a mission to convert others. This is 
 tact, executive talent, good judgment, wise management. 
 
 10. Will-Power. — Strength of will in the teacher is 
 essential to good government. The child must be made 
 to feel that law is necessary, and that the teacher is the 
 ruling power in the school-room. He must be made to 
 feel also that his own will must be curbed, and where the 
 interest of the school demands it be made to harmonize 
 with that of others. The teacher's will must of course 
 be supreme. He is the ruler, and if he be possessed of 
 the proper executive power and tact he will have little 
 difficulty in guiding and directing his pupils. 
 
 Tlie TeacJicr^s Will must be Firm. — A vacillating policy
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNiMENT. 183 
 
 is always weak. The teacher who at first refuses, then 
 relents, and at last consents, shows a weakness of will- 
 power which is not conducive to good government. But 
 the teacher who finds himself in error should never be so 
 cowardly a.s to fear making acknowledgment of his mis- 
 take. It is a grave error to think that we ought never to 
 reverse our judgment. Indeed, it is a plain duty to cor- 
 rect ourselves when in error, that our pupils may not fall 
 into the same mistakes. 
 
 Firmness and Kindness must be United. — The teacher 
 who depends wholly on his will-power and his firmness 
 is not well prepared to draw his pupils to him and con- 
 trol them by appeals to their better nature. He may rule 
 with a rod of iron, and thus secure order and quiet, but 
 it is a sort of rule which awakens no kindly sympathy 
 between teacher and pupils, and which in the end must 
 be productive oi" discord and friction the moment the 
 iron grasp is relaxed. Let kindness be associated with 
 firmness ; let pupils feel that the teacher is their friend, 
 and that whatever seeming arbitrary power he may exer- 
 cise is exerted for their welfare as individuals and for the 
 welfare of the school, and obedience will be recognized 
 as a duty. Pupils will obey such discipline cheerfully 
 where they chafe and fret under the iron rule of will- 
 power alone, or become reckless, uninterested, and list- 
 less under the government of one whose will-power is 
 weak. 
 
 11. The Teacher mils': have Power to Punish. — Human 
 nature has not yet reached that approximate perfection 
 which will permit us to govern without punishment. 
 There are stubborn natures which at times can be
 
 184 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 reached in no other way. It is idling time to argue 
 that all can be governed by moral suasion and by appeals 
 to be good. A teacher who possesses all the elements of 
 discipline here named will succeed in nearly every case 
 without resort to punishment, and yet so long as human 
 nature is imperfect we shall find some children in our 
 schools who must be governed by a firm hand, and who 
 can be reached at times only by inflicting punishment. 
 
 It is a mistake for school officers to deprive the teacher 
 of the power to punish. The teacher's influence is thus 
 weakened, and the insolence of evil-minded children is 
 capable not only of making his position unpleasant, but 
 also of rendering him incapable of accomplishing good. 
 It is wiser to give the teacher the power to punish, and hold 
 him responsible for the abuse of that power in punishing 
 too frequently or too severely. 
 
 12. TeacMng-Power. — One of the most important ele- 
 ments of good discipline is teaching-power. The ability 
 to arouse one's pupils, to interest them, and set them 
 to thinking for themselves, is a rare gift. Hearing 
 recitations is not teaching. Keeping good order in 
 school is not teaching. Teaching-power consists in the 
 ability to make your pupils feel the importance of the 
 work in which they are engaged, arouse their enthusiasm, 
 and create a love for learning. Its results are scholarship 
 and culture, not the ability only to state facts as recorded 
 in books without comprehending them. 
 
 Teaching-Power Creates Interest. — The power to teach 
 well means also the power to govern well. All things 
 else being equal, the teacher who can interest his pupils 
 rarely finds them inclined to do mischief or create dis-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 185 
 
 order. The interesting teacher directs the energies of 
 his pupils into proper channels, and thus secures work 
 instead of mischief. The pupils, who catch the enthu- 
 siasm of their teacher and follow his lead, rarely find 
 time for mischief, and when engaged in work the school 
 becomes largely self-governing and self-regulating. It is 
 a doubtful policy, however, to permit one's self to become 
 so enthusiastic as to forget that quiet and order are essen- 
 tial to study. The teacher who permits his enthusiasm or 
 that of his pupils to become so boisterous as to interfere 
 with the study of those not engaged in recitation does 
 quite as much harm as he who fails to govern because 
 of other incompetence. 
 
 13. Impartiality. — The teacher acts not only as a legis- 
 lator, framing the laws for his school, but also as a judge. 
 In this capacity he must be strictly impartial, dealing fairly 
 and justly with every pupil. He will of course love some 
 better than others, for the simple reason that some are 
 more lovable and more worthy of love than others; 
 but this must not interfere with his government. So 
 far as his school laAvs and discipline are concerned, he 
 must have no favorites. All should enjoy the same 
 privileges and receive the same impartial treatment. 
 Every decision he renders should be weighed in the 
 scales of exact justice to all. Judgments thus rendered 
 will serve to win for him the love and respect of his 
 pupils, and good discipline will be secured. 
 
 4. Causes of Disorder. 
 
 Independent of the restless activity of child-nature, 
 which often leads to disorder in school, th ire are causes
 
 1S6 SCHOOL MANAGEMi:>.T. 
 
 ■which produce disturbance and discord for which the pu- 
 pils are not directly responsible, and for which it would 
 be manifestly improper to punish them. The wise plan 
 is to remove these causes of disorder, and with them the 
 temptation to do wrong. The following are among the 
 chief: 
 
 1. Improper Ventilation. — There are few teachers who 
 have not learned the value of pure air in maintaining 
 good discipline as well as in securing effective study. 
 Students compelled to breathe impure air become rest- 
 less, and find it difficult to confine themselves to work 
 except under forced pressure. The teacher also finds 
 himself inclined to become irritable, and he gives atten- 
 tion to trifling interruptions and seeming offenses which 
 at other times would not claim a thought. The school 
 is a good barometer, showing the approaching storm by 
 the restless condition of both pupils and teacher. 
 
 2. Uncomfortable School-Houses.— School-houses improp- 
 erly heated, as well as those improperly ventilated, are 
 conducive to disorder. Pupils who are suffering with 
 extreme heat or extreme cold find it a matter of great 
 difficulty to forget tlieir bodily discomfort and fix their 
 attention closely on their study. Students under such 
 circumstances must become restless and disorderly. It 
 is a natural result of their bodily suffering. The evil is 
 beyond the reach of both pupils and teacher, and it can 
 be remedied only by the Board of Directors or Trustees. 
 
 3. Uncomfortable Seatings.— These have also much to 
 do with disorder in the school-room. Hard benches, 
 with straight backs ill adapted to the natural curvature 
 of the body, and so high that a child's feet cannot rest 
 comfortably on the floor, tend to tire the pupils and make
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 187 
 
 them shift position frequently in order to be comfortable. 
 High desks have the same eifect, and tliis desire to be 
 comfortable, and the consequent frequent changing of 
 position in a school of fifty or more pupils, must neces- 
 sarily j)roduce noise and consequent disorder. 
 
 4. ni-Healtli of Pupils.— The ill-health of pupils is a 
 frequent cause of restlessness. Defective ventilation and 
 excessive worry are both liable to cause headache, and this 
 in turn unfits the pupil either for effective study or for 
 preserving good order. Schools are frequently annoyed 
 also by the almost incessant coughing of such pupils as care- 
 lessly expose themselves to drafts of air, or who overheat 
 themselves and cool too suddenly, thus contracting colds. 
 
 5. Nervousness. — Nervousness of both pupils and 
 teacher, or of either, is apt to produce more or less 
 disorder in the school-room. The nervous teacher is 
 apt to become unnecessarily agitated, and thus cause 
 nervousness and excitement among the pupils. But 
 nervous pupils are apt to become restless under the 
 most even-tempered teacher. 
 
 6. Contagious LaugMer. — Nothing is so vexatious as 
 the disposition which pupils occasionally manifest to 
 giggle and laugh without any apparent cause. This 
 laughter, too, becomes contagious, and the trouble thus 
 begun is likely to continuQ indefinitely. Scolding on the 
 part of the teacher either makes it worse or changes the 
 laughter to anger. It would be entirely proper to dis- 
 miss a pupil from class if he persist in amusing himself 
 and disturbing others in this manner. Some teachers cure 
 this disposition to laugh foolishly by setting apart a few 
 minutes when the laugh is most likely to come, and devote 
 it to a laughing exercise in which only the laughers shall
 
 188 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 participate. It is a severe cure, but it is usually an effect- 
 ive one. 
 
 7. Whispering. — This is one of the puzzling questions 
 of school-management. Pupils will whisper, just as grown 
 folks will talk, when they find companions with whom 
 they may carry on a conversation. Whispering is a cause 
 of disorder, and it is sometimes annoying to both studi- 
 ous pupils and the teacher. What shall we do about it? 
 Shall we enact strict rules that there shall be no whisper- 
 ing on penalty of punishment ? Few teachers have found 
 such rules effective, and fewer still have found them less 
 annoying to the teacher than to the pupil. An inflexible 
 rule which visits punishment upon every offending one 
 that whispers makes no distinction between the vicious 
 and the thoughtless, and is therefore unjust. 
 
 Whispering is best subdued by requests. IiL,igid rules 
 only make the children deceitful, and train them to sub- 
 stitute deaf-mute alphabet signs or note- writing for whis- 
 pering, either of which takes more time and is more an- 
 noying than the whispering itself. Pupils should not be 
 left to understand that they dare whisper whenever they 
 please, but instead that whispering is discountenanced, 
 that it interferes with study, that it annoys the teacher 
 and the pupils, that it wastes valuable time, etc. If pu- 
 pils are at first unable to control their desire to whisper, 
 the teacher might with profit give a whispering recess of 
 a minute or so every hour, which would serve as an escape- 
 valve. Pupils will appreciate the kindness, and then 
 devote their time during the study-period entirely to 
 study. An over-rigid adherence to rule quite as often 
 causes mischief as does the whispering itself. Pupils 
 have a natural desire to talk and ask questions. It is
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 189 
 
 best to control and regulate that desire, rutlier than curb 
 it. The teacher is not wiser tlian Natnre, and he mnst 
 not take it for granted tlmt Nature is all wrong and that 
 she must be corrected. 
 
 Few teachers ever succeed fully in breaking up the 
 habit of whispering. There is more important school 
 work demanding the attention of teachers than the con- 
 stant watchfuhiess for culprits. liCt the teacher wisely 
 guide and direct the efforts of Nature, and success is 
 always within reach ; and this is the proper remedy for 
 whispering, as well as for all other school faults. 
 
 8. A Disorderly Teacher. — The teacher's personal con- 
 duct has much to do with the good order of his school. 
 Pupils are imitative. A bright, cheerful teacher has 
 bright, cheerful pupils, while one who is fretful will 
 annoy his pupils and worry them into fretfulness. A 
 noisy, disoixlerly teacher always has a noisy and disorderly 
 school. The maxim is old, but always true : "As is the 
 teacher, so is the school." The teacher therefore must be 
 orderly, that he may secure order. His manner of address 
 to the pupils must be pleasant and conversational ; his 
 manner of walking across the floor must be such as not 
 to attract attention. If he speak in loud tones, his pupils 
 will speak in loud tones, and if his movements about the 
 room be noisy, he will find ready imitators among the 
 ciiildren. 
 
 9. A Timid Teacher. — Pupils soon learn to appreciate 
 force of character, and they never fail to lose their re- 
 spect for a teacher who is so timid as to fear his pupils. 
 Let the pupils once discover that the teacher is afraid to 
 maintain his authority, and that authority is gone. We 
 often respect men because they respect themselves, but
 
 190 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the over- meek man, whose timiflity frighfens liim into 
 absolute Ininiilit}', wins the respect of neither men nor 
 children. 
 
 10. A Suspicious Teacher. — Possibly no teacher provokes 
 ]>upils to commit deeds of disorder more than one who is 
 constantly on the watch for mischief. Students like to 
 measure their ability to play tricks and escape the de- 
 tection of a teacher who is on the constant lookout for 
 evil. A suspicious teacher always finds himself in trou- 
 ble, for the simple reason that no one feels like commit- 
 ting mischief half so much at any time as when he knows 
 that he is suspected of wrong-doing. To win a victory 
 over a teacher who prides himself on keeping good order 
 because he is constantly on the scent for wickedness is a 
 glory which does good to the lieart of any boy. The 
 teacher should look for good, and show that he expects 
 it, and he will rarely find himself disappointed, 
 
 11. Threats. — Teachers should never threaten, but if 
 threats are made teachers ought to see them executed. 
 Threats as to what we must do and what we must not 
 do always tend to irritate us. They have much the same 
 eifect on children. Many a threat is regarded by the child 
 as simply a challenge, and often children are tempted to 
 wrong-doing by the mere threat which has suggested the 
 evil. 
 
 12. Unwi^Regulations. — Great care should be exercised 
 in the adoption of regulations, that none be included which 
 are likely to cause pupils to chafe and fret under their re- 
 strictions. All regulations that are likely to insinuate 
 that pupils cannot be trusted, or that interfere with 
 their personal freedom where such interference is not 
 necessary for the welfire of the school, should be ex-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 191 
 
 eluded. These are not only unnecessary, but also unwise, 
 because they seem unreasonable to the child, and cause him 
 to chafe under their requirements and question their util- 
 ity and justice. Many a rebellion against authority might 
 be obviated by discarding all such regulations as are not 
 needed for the wise government of the school. 
 
 5. Means of AToiding Disorder. 
 
 Disorder may to a great extent be avoided by wisely 
 removing the causes which lead to it, but the teacher does 
 not always have the necessary power to do this. He can 
 do little in the matter of improving either the school- 
 house or the seatings, and he finds his power limited 
 also in other directions. He may, however, by earnest 
 effort do ranch to turn the minds of his pupils from 
 wrong-doing and disorder and arouse in them a spirit 
 favorable to good discipline. Among the important 
 means of preventing disorder are the following: 
 
 1. The School should be Made Pleasant and Attractive. 
 — This is one of the first duties of the teacher. Efforts 
 to make the school attractive will prove effective not only 
 in drawing pupils to the school, but also in breaking up 
 irregular attendance and truancy, and in preserving good 
 order while pupils are in school. It is rarely the case 
 that pupils become truants unless they find the fields 
 and the streets more inviting than the school-room. 
 Pleasant employment should be given to every child 
 while at school, and the teacher's manner and instruc- 
 tion should both be so interesting as to attract and hold 
 the attention of the children. 
 
 2. The School-room should be Ornamented.— This is one 
 of the readiest and most effective nicans of makin^j the
 
 192 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 scliool pleasant. Engravings, tasteful pictures, charts, 
 and other ornaments should be hung on the walls. 
 AVhcrever it is possible pots of growing plants should 
 be placed at the windows, and where this is not possible 
 groups of autumn leaves, dried ornamental grasses, or 
 dried ferns, tastefully arranged, should be made to add 
 to the beauty of the room. The cabinets of leaves, 
 grasses, minerals, grains, etc. heretofore mentioned may 
 be made to serve the same purpose. Sets of ornamental 
 mottoes may be made to do double duty in beautifying 
 the room and at the same time instilling v^aluable moral 
 sentiments. 
 
 3. Pupils should be Encouraged. — No one can estimate 
 the full effect of kindness and encouragement. The 
 teacher, above all others, should be cautious to encour- 
 age at all times. The weak are thus strengthened, and 
 the strong made stronger. Many a failure to do good 
 w^ork is the result of faultfinding where kindness was 
 needed. Discouraged pupils find a short route to dis- 
 order. The teacher who speaks kind and encouraging 
 words to his pupils rarely finds government a difficult 
 task. 
 
 4. The Teacher should Cultivate a Pleasant and Cheerful 
 Disposition. — It is the teacher's duty to be cheerful in order 
 that the influence over his pupils may be right. The sour, 
 sullen, morose dyspeptic is out of place in the school-room. 
 It is the teacher's privilege, as well as his duty, to mingle 
 with his pupils and associate with them. His disposition 
 should be such, then, as will not tend to lead his pupils 
 to look on the dark side of life, but such rather as will 
 brighten their lives and cheer them on in their work. 
 The cheerful, energetic teacher with a kind word for
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 193 
 
 every one is a force whose power cannot well be over- 
 estimated. 
 
 6. Eternal Vigilance should be Preserved. — Teachers 
 must be wide awake, not only to detect culprits after 
 offenses have been committed, but also to prevent of- 
 fenses by anticipating mischief. The teacher, as has 
 before been said, should not be a spy, but he should 
 be alive to all that is going on in the school-room, and 
 the mere fact that he is wide awake and watchful to de- 
 tect mischief before it results in an offense will have a 
 powerful influence in preventing any violation of the 
 school regulations. 
 
 6. Pupils should be Kept Busy. — Idlers are the ones 
 who find most opportunities to be disorderly. Busy 
 children rarely have time to devote to mischief. The 
 secret of success in managing small children, as well 
 as larger ones, lies in giving them plenty to do. The 
 criminals who till our jails as convicts are not the busy, 
 industrious mechanics and laboring-men of a community, 
 however poor these may be, but they are the loungers and 
 idlers who have ample time to plan and mature their mis- 
 chievous plots and carry them into execution. 
 
 7. The Public Opinion of the School must be Made Un- 
 favorable to Disorder. — Public opinion is always powerful 
 in controlling the action of individuals, even where con- 
 science does not make known its disapproval. Every 
 child has more or less regard for the public sentiment 
 of the school. This public sentiment should therefore 
 be trained to indorse the right and condemn the wrong. 
 If such a sentiment can be aroused among the pupils of 
 a school, it will act as a powerful preventive of disorder. 
 
 8. The Teacher should Show his Pupils that he has Con 
 
 13
 
 19 4 SCHOOI. MANAGEMKXT. 
 
 fidenceintliem.' — Confidence begets confidence. We have 
 liiith in those wlio have fiiith in us. The teacher should 
 never for a moment show that he suspects his pupils of 
 any inclination to do wrong. He will rarely find his con- 
 fidence misplaced ; and even should such be the case, it 
 will be time then to let the children know that he has 
 lost faith in them. It is a rare thing indeed that a child 
 betrays the trust confided to him. Indeed, it is sometimes 
 wise to entrust children with the care of proi)erty or assign 
 them special work to do, simply to make them feel that 
 you have faith in them. It will give them a higher 
 opinion of themselves. 
 
 9. Tlie Teacher should be Courteous and Polite. — Polite- 
 ness in the teacher will find its counterpart in the pupil. 
 The teacher who meets his pupils on the street as well as 
 in the school-room with a pleasant smile or a courteous 
 bow will soon find himself surrounded by courteous and 
 polite pupils, who will rarely attempt to give him trouble 
 in school or elsewhere. Besides, this method of treatment 
 will have much to do with making ladies and gentlemen 
 of the children who otherwise would grow up rude and 
 uncivil. 
 
 10. The Teacher should Consent Cordially when Favors 
 are Granted. — Few of us care to be accommodated by 
 favors which are bestowed upon us grudgingly. We 
 prefer that those who favor us or comply with our re- 
 quests should do so cordially. Children do not differ 
 from us in this respect. They dislike to ask the consent 
 of one who accompanies the consent with a growl of re- 
 luctance. Indeed, such consent is but little preferable to 
 refusal. 
 
 1 1 . The Teacher should Permit the Pupils to do Favors.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 195 
 
 — Some of the M'orst cases of seeming incorrigibility may 
 be reached and cured by permitting the child, or eveu 
 requesting him, to do favors for you. The fact that 
 you place confidence in him gives him a more exalted 
 opinion not only of himslf, but also of you, and he 
 forthwith determines to be worthy of your good opinion. 
 When the school-room is to be ornamented or errands are 
 to be run, do not always give the w^ork to the good pupils; 
 the others will be quite as anxious to accommodate you. 
 One of the best plans to win the good opinion of the bad 
 boys is to permit them to favor you whenever possible. 
 
 12. Tlie Teacher should not Worry. — Worry wears faster 
 than work. A reasonable quantity of work hurts no one, 
 but all worry is more or less unreasonable and hurtful. 
 The worry and fretfulness of the teacher cause the pu- 
 pils to worry and become fretful. This lays the founda- 
 tion for disorder, and proper control and discipline of the 
 school are for the time lost. No one has yet succeeded in 
 doing everything he desired. The teacher must of neces- 
 sity leave much undone. His pupils will now and then 
 fail, and all he can do is to do his best. Overwork brings 
 on worry and excitement, which always prove harmful. 
 
 13. Co-education. — The co-education of the sexes is con- 
 ducive to good order. Boys become less rude and girls 
 less frivolous when in the society of each other. This 
 is particularly true where the two sexes study and re- 
 cite in the same room under the guidance of a judicious 
 teacher. The presence of each sex has a beneficial effect 
 on the other, not only in preserving good order, but also 
 in giving the members of each more confidence in them- 
 selves and greater breadth of thought and culture.
 
 196 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 G. Kules and Regulations. 
 
 System in school management is a necessity, and a few 
 general regulations may be demanded to preserve system 
 and make the school machinery work smootlily and with- 
 out friction. The following principles are important : 
 
 1. Few Rules should be Made. — All rules with penalties 
 attached are to be avoided as much as possible. They are 
 dangerous, and often suggest an offense to the pupil which 
 otherwise would probably never have been thought of. 
 The more rules the more difficult is the work of gov- 
 erning, for under the rule system every infringement 
 must necessarily be noticed and the proper punishment 
 be inflicted. 
 
 2. The Teacher should Seldom Refer to the Rules. — It 
 is sufficient to have the rules known in order that the 
 teacher may have something to resort to in justification 
 of administering punishment at times; but the rule gov- 
 erning the case should not be mentioned except when it 
 is broken. To refer constantly to the school rules is 
 simply to set your pupils to thinking about them and 
 to place temptation before them. 
 
 3. Rules should be Reasonable. — School rules should 
 be such as commend themselves to the sound judgment 
 of all. The influence of public sentiment is strong, and 
 if the teacher's rules be such as to win the favorable con- 
 sideration of both pupils and patrons, he need have little 
 fear that there will be any difficulty in enforcing them. 
 On the other hand, unwise or unnecessary rules tend to 
 chafe and fret the pupils and produce discord and dis- 
 order rather than prevent them. 
 
 4. Rules should be General in their Character.— School
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 197 
 
 rules must be general in their application. Special cases 
 can usually be met by special treatment, but in general 
 the rules should be made to apply to all. There may, 
 of course, be individual cases in which the rule should 
 be subject to exceptions, as where the enforcement would 
 be productive of great harm to a nervous or a deformed 
 child. Rules should be general also in their specifica- 
 tions, not pointing out individual offenses and attach- 
 ing specific penalties except where specially demanded. 
 
 5. Rules should Aim at Securing the Greatest Good. — 
 They are not to be made for the convenience and com- 
 fort of the teacher, but to protect the rights of the 
 pupils and preserve the order and harmony of the 
 school as a whole. Their aim should be to secure the 
 greatest good* to the greatest number. Such rules will 
 commend themselves and secure compliance to their re- 
 quirements, because they are reasonable and wise. 
 
 6. Special Rules should be Adopted only when they be- 
 come Necessary. — Tiie teacher who draws up his rules and 
 regulations in advance will find quite as much trouble in 
 attempting to enforce them as he experiences in control- 
 ling and directing the school. Indeed, the fewer rules 
 one attempts to enforce the more successful will be his 
 discipline. Pupils soon learn to recognize the fact that 
 the teacher is willing to trust them and has confidence in 
 them, but when they find themselves hedged in on every 
 side by specific rules the natural questions which arise are 
 not, Is this right? Will the teacher approve of it? but 
 
 > rather. Is this prohibited? Is there any rule forbidding it? 
 The teacher is entirely safe in going into school without 
 a single rule, and informing his pupils that he has faith 
 in them that they will try to do what they believe to be
 
 198 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 right. Each uccrled rule may theu be made when the 
 nocGssity for it arises. 
 
 7. Rules should be Such as can be Enforced. — Such rules 
 as are merely ornamental, and such as are placed in the 
 list merely to frighten pupils, are not only unwise, but 
 also absurd. Among rules of this character may be 
 mentioned all such as affix corporal punishment as a 
 penalty where ability to enforce the rule or administer 
 the punishment depends altogether on the physical de- 
 velopment and courage of the teacher. To permit rules 
 to remain on the list without attempting to enforce them 
 or punish when the rules are disobeyed is worse than to 
 have no rules at all. 
 
 8. Rules should not be Inflexible. — Xo rules are so mis- 
 chievous and absurd as those which measure* out certain 
 punishments for particular offenses, without taking into 
 consideration the motive or the circumstances which may 
 have led to breaking the rule. Thus, a rule which pro- 
 hibits all whispering, without inquiring into the motive 
 which caused the violation of the rule, is both unwise 
 and unjust. It recognizes no distinction between inno- 
 cent infringement of a rule and willful disobedience. 
 The teacher who insists upon inflexible rules, or rather 
 invariable punishments for the violation of rules, will 
 frequently find himself placed in the unpleasant dilemma 
 of being compelled to administer punishment when he 
 knows himself to be doing wrong, or permit a violation 
 of his rules to go unpunished. 
 
 9. The Pupils should be Permitted to Assist in Adopting 
 the Rules. — It is a good plan when a rule becomes neces- 
 sary to give the pupils a voice in its adoption. They will 
 rarely abuse their privileges, and when once the rule is
 
 scriooL GovEu^•ME^•T. 199 
 
 adopted they recognize it as a law of their own making. 
 Their obedience to such rules also becomes more cheerful. 
 The teacher should of course explain to them the neces- 
 sity for the rule, and lead them to vote for its adoption as 
 a matter of choice. Should there be a few pupils who 
 seem inclined to vote against it, a call of the roll and a 
 vote hjyes or no as each name is called will usually bring 
 them to the side of the majority. 
 
 10. The Teacher should not be Severe in Punishing a 
 Violation of the Rules. — He should always inquire nar- 
 rowly into the motive. The child's physical and men- 
 tal organization should be well considered. The teacher 
 should assure himself that the offense is not the result of 
 some taunt or some physical infirmity ; also, that it was 
 willful, and not the result of accident or thoughtlessness. 
 Teacher, see to it that you are cool. Look to all these 
 points; be reasonable and just, and in a majority of cases 
 you will find no necessity for the infliction of punishment. 
 
 Suggestions. — 1. In making or enforcing rules look 
 back to your own childhood; recall your own experiences, 
 your notions, your impulses. Put yourself in the place of 
 the child to be governed, then act. 
 
 2. Regard all pupils as trustworthy until you find them 
 otherwise. Children rarely forgive a teacher who suspects 
 them of wrong when they are innocent. 
 
 • 3. Encourage them to be truthful by remitting penal- 
 ties as far as possible when they make a full and free 
 confession. 
 
 4. Common sense and the ability to judge the guilt or 
 innocence of a pupil is a requisite in successful govern- 
 ment.
 
 200 SCHOOL I^fANAGEMENT. 
 
 5. Allow pupils the largest liberty consistent with their 
 welfare and the welfiire of the school, and when restric- 
 tions are placed on them explain the necessity for such 
 restriction. 
 
 6. Do not attempt to compel pupils to inform on one 
 another under threats of punishment. Rather let your 
 own tact govern you in the detection of an oifense. 
 
 7. Explain to your pupils the necessity of proper de- 
 portment and prompt obedience. 
 
 8. Do your own governing as far as possible; it weak- 
 ens your authority to call upon the Superintendent or the 
 members of the School Board for assistance. 
 
 9. Give no unnecessary commands. 
 
 10. Make only such rules as you are willing to enforce. 
 
 7. School Punishments. 
 Both divine and civil government recognize the neces- 
 sity of punishment as a penalty for wrong-doing. Without 
 the power to punish there can be no government, but the 
 necessity for enforcing punishment should be avoided as 
 far as possible by good school management. 
 
 The Objects of School Punishment. 
 
 These seem to be of a threefold character, as follows: 
 
 1. Reformation of the Offender. 
 
 2. Warning to Others. 
 
 3. Maintaining the Supremacy of the Law. 
 
 Punishments which have other than these ends in view 
 are manifestly improper. No teacher has the right to 
 punish for the mere purpose of gratifying his own 
 lemper. The punishment of an oiFeuder will deter
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 201 
 
 others from committing a similar oifcnse, -while at the 
 same time law and order will be maintained in the school. 
 All laws governing the school must be for the greatest 
 good, and each pupil must be made to feel that the law 
 Ls supreme and that each owes obedience. 
 
 , Principles Governing Punishment. 
 
 1. Punishments must be Certain. — It is the certainty of 
 punishment that prevents offenses. The certainty of even 
 light punishments is more effective than the severity 
 of those applied irregularly. This, too, is the law of 
 Nature. Offenses against our physical system are al- 
 ways attended with bodily pain and discomfort, while 
 those against our moral nature are followed by remorse 
 of conscience. 
 
 2. Punishments should Correspond to the Magnitude of 
 the Offense. — Here, again, both the moral and the phys- 
 ical laws set the example, and the teacher or the parent 
 who administers punishment will find either to be a safe 
 guide. Slight offenses demand slight punishments, while 
 the graver offenses demand greater severity. It is better, 
 however, in all cases to try the lighter penalties first, and 
 at all times avoid, if possible, great severity. With most 
 children the thought of punishment is often more effect- 
 ive than the punishment itself. 
 
 3. The Physical Condition of the Child should Modify 
 the Severity of Punishment. — The teacher who would 
 punish a frail, delicate child with the same punishment 
 that he would administer to one wdio is rugged and of 
 sound ])hysical constitution is little better than a brute. 
 On this same principle also the delicate, sensitive nature 
 of girls should protect them not only against corporal
 
 202 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 piinishraent, but also against all other forms that are 
 likely to make them feel that they have been clegraded. 
 
 4. Punisliment should be Modified According to the Kind 
 of the Offense. — For all violations of laws governing our 
 physical nature we suffer pain, ill-health, or physical dis- 
 comfort. Violations of laws governing our moral nature 
 bring upon us a different class of punishments and cause 
 us to suffer in a different manner. Here, again, we have 
 an example teaching us that each class of offenses should 
 have its own kind of punishment. At one period in the 
 history of education corporal punishment of some kind 
 was the cure-all for every sort of offense ; at another, the 
 dunce-cap was the favorite implement of punishment; at 
 another, detention after school ; at another, standing in 
 the corner; and so on. The teacher made no discrim- 
 ination as to the kind of offense committed, but punished 
 all alike, with but little variation in the degree of pun- 
 ishment and none in the kind. 
 
 5. Punishments are Related to Offenses as Effects to 
 Causes. — Here, again, natural laws give us the example. 
 Not only are violations of hygienic laws followed invari- 
 ably by physical discomfort or ill-health, but the infringe- 
 ment of each law brings its own kind of punishment as 
 the effect of violating that particular law. Undue expo- 
 sure causes cold, catarrh, pneumonia, and similar diseases. 
 Excessive eating causes indigestion and dyspepsia. Un- 
 due nervous excitement or mental application results in 
 nervous ]>rostration and possible insanity. Thus, too, each 
 school offense has its proper penalty, and the child should 
 be made to feel that the penalty is visited upon him as 
 <he natural result of his own misconduct, and not as the 
 arbitrary exercise of power vested in the t(,-acher as the
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 203 
 
 head of the school. The justice of punishraeuts inflict- 
 ed as the natural effect of the infringement of some school 
 regulation will be recognized by every pupil, who, if the 
 punishments are made certain, as they are in Nature, 
 cannot but feel that when an offense is committed its 
 a])propriate penalty or punishment must follow as the 
 result of a violation of law. 
 
 The Degree of Puuishment. 
 
 The degree or severity of punishment should not be 
 arbitrary or governed by the teacher's temper. Every 
 kind of offense should not only have its proper kind 
 of punishment, but every grade of the offense should 
 also have its proper degree of penalty to be inflicted. 
 The teacher should be governed by the following prin- 
 ciples in determining the degree of punishment: 
 
 1. The Degree of Punishment Depends upon the Nature 
 of the OfTense. — Slight offenses, or those of a nature not 
 likely to interfere with the welfare of the school or the 
 teacher, need but slight punishment, while those of a 
 more serious character and likely to lead to greater vio- 
 lations of the school discipline should be met promptly 
 with punishment of greater severity. 
 
 2. The'Degree of Punishment Depends upon the Motive 
 of the Offender. — Many seeming offenses are not meant by 
 the pupils as offenses at all, and therefore need simply a 
 caution and no punishment whatever. In a school of 
 fifty children the teacher must expect considerable life 
 and no little noise, but he must not think that every act 
 of thoughtlessness on the part of the children is meant to 
 interfere with either his discipline or his comfort. Such 
 offenses are without motive, and in any well-regulated
 
 204 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 school they must be expected as surely as we should ex- 
 poet lambs to frisk or birds to sing. The teacher who 
 would punish them with severity would prove himself 
 utterly unfit to have charge of children, and utterly in- 
 competent to fill the post of teacher. 
 
 On the other hand, the offense may be committed with 
 the purpose of annoying the teacher, breaking up the good 
 order of the school, injuring other pupils, or some equal- 
 ly malicious purpose. In every such case punishment is 
 necessary, and the severity must be determined not only 
 by the motive, but also by the magnitude and importance 
 of the offense. 
 
 3. The Degree of Punishment Depends upon the Frequency 
 of Repetition. — The teacher is sometimes unable to deter- 
 mine the motive which actuates a child in committing an 
 offense for the first time, but when the offense is frequently 
 repeated the question is not so difficult to solve. The first 
 offense, therefore, unless the motive,is clearly understood, 
 should not be punished so severely as the same offense 
 when subsequently repeated. The more frequent the 
 repetition also the more severe in general should be the 
 penalty. 
 
 4. The Degree of Punishment Depends on the Difficulty 
 of Detection. — The punishment in every case ought to 
 be governed to some extent by the difficulty which the 
 teacher experiences in detecting the offender. Conspir- 
 acies in school are always more difficult to detect than 
 open violations of law. They are also more dangerous 
 to school discipline, and the punishment visited upon 
 those who not only commit the offense, but also seek 
 to hide it and their connection with it, should necessa- 
 rily be more severe than if no effort were made to screen
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 205 
 
 themselvos and baffle the teacher in his tfforts at de- 
 tection. 
 
 5. The Degree of Punishment Depends on the Age and 
 the Sex of the Offender. — A moderate degree of punish- 
 ment to a hardy, well-developed youth miglit prove a 
 great cruelty if inflicted upon a small child or a tender 
 girl. In general, it will be found that mild corporal 
 punishment is much more effective with small children 
 than with older pupils ; to the latter an appeal to their 
 sense of honor, a reproof, deprivation of privileges, or 
 placing them where they cannot communicate with their 
 associates, is the most effective ])unishment. I doubt if 
 girls, particularly those beyond the age of twelve, ever 
 should be subjected to corporal punishment. They may 
 be corrected in other ways much less dangerous, and the 
 wise teacher will refrain from administering to them any 
 bodily punishment, the result of which may be lifelong 
 injury. 
 
 6. The Degree of Punishment Depends on the Temper- 
 ament of the Offender. — Tiie temperaments of children 
 differ as widely as their physical organization, and no 
 teacher can reach all by tlie same method of procedure. 
 The choleric and the sanguine cannot be governed in 
 the same manner as we would govern the lethargic and 
 the phlegmatic. A nervous, sensitive child requires dif- 
 ferent discipline from that which we would apply to one 
 of a dull, plodding, lethargic disposition. The degree 
 of the punishment, as well as the kind, must vary ac- 
 cording to the varying temperaments. To one whose 
 sense of honor is keen, and who is characterized by 
 great nervous energy, a word of reproof is of more 
 consequence than a sound administering nf corporal
 
 206 SCUOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 pdiiislimcni to one of an opposite temperament. It is 
 the (lull, plodding work-horse that needs the spur as 
 an incentive, and not the lithe-limbed, keen-eyed, fleet- 
 footed Arabian courser. 
 
 Kinds of Punislimeiit. 
 
 Punishments may properly be divided into two 
 cJasses : first, judicious punishments, which from their 
 nature are well adapted to secure the objects of pun- 
 ishment as heretofore stated ; and second, injudicious 
 punishments, or such as tend to defeat one or more of 
 the true ends of punishment. 
 
 1. Judicious Punishments. — Of judicious punishments 
 the following seem to be the most important: 
 
 1. Reproof. — This is of a threefold nature — general 
 reproof, private reproof, and public reproof. It mny 
 vary greatly in degree, but it should never degenerate 
 into scolding. When properly administered, it will usu- 
 ally be found effective in showing to the child his faults, 
 and at the same time influence him to correct them. 
 
 General Reproof is the first to be tried. It is also 
 the mildest in its nature, and in the hands of a good 
 disciplinarian it is usually eifective. It consists simply 
 in tlie nature of a general statement that a certain offense 
 has been committed, without the mention of any one's 
 name, but accompanied with the request kindly made 
 and the hope earnestly expressed that the offense will 
 not be repeated. It is wise often to go so far even as to 
 suggest the opinion that the offense was not committed 
 willfully, but was probably the result of thoughtlessness, 
 or possibly of accident. Pupils thus kindly dealt with 
 rarely fail to comply with the teacher's wishes, and the
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 207 
 
 ])lau is found to operate |iiite as satisfactorily with young 
 men and women in higher-grade schools as with children. 
 
 Private Reproof consists in a private interview with 
 the oifender, and it may vary very greatly in its charac- 
 ter. It may consist in showing to the pupil the nature 
 and gravity of the offense he has committed, with a de- 
 mand tliat he shall do better in the future, with an earn- 
 est statement also as to what the future consequences may 
 be if the offense is repeated; or it may consist of a kindly 
 talk in which the teacher convinces the pupil of his 
 friendship, takes him by the hand, offers to help him 
 avoid future trouble, asks him in behalf of himself, his 
 jiarents, and the school to do better, encourages rather 
 tl)an chides, points out the better way, and lends a 
 guiding hand to direct. What nature will not be sub- 
 dued by such treatment? What boy's heart, however 
 flinty, may not be softened by kind, gentle, and affec- 
 tionate advice? Private reproof kindly administered 
 cannot fail to win the esteem of the child. 
 
 Public Reproof should be administered only when 
 the offense conmiitted is of the gravest possible nature. 
 When an offense is committed in such a way as to defy 
 the authority of the teacher public reproof is permissible. 
 Public opinion of the school is powerful as a discipline, 
 and cases may occur where the position of the teacher 
 can be understood and appreciated only by a public 
 statement, in order that misrepresentations made by 
 the offender may be corrected. In such cases public 
 reproof becomes necessary ; also, where tliei e exists a 
 false sympathy with one who has openly defied the 
 scliool discipline. 
 
 In general, public reproof of a single individual is a
 
 208 SCHOOL MANAOEMENT. 
 
 dangerous punishment, and the teacher ought to avoid it. 
 Tlie pupil should be trained to self-respect, and great care 
 should be taken that the desire for the good opinion of 
 his associates be kept alive and active. Public reproof 
 should be resorted to only after general reproof and pri- 
 \'ate reproof have failed. 
 
 2. Reparation of Damages. — It seems but just that 
 when injury is done to property, whether public or 
 private, the person who does the injury should pay for 
 the damage done; and this same rule should hold in 
 schools as elsewhere. 
 
 3. Performance of Neglected Duties. — When duties are 
 neglected by pupils it is right and proper that they 
 should be performed during such time as may be ap- 
 j)ropriated to play or recreation. An unstudied lesson 
 should be studied, because of its connection with what 
 precedes or follows, and such study may justly be re- 
 quired of the pupil as a punishment for his neglect; and 
 thus also of other neglected work. 
 
 4. Deprivation of Privileges. — It is always proper 
 when privileges are abused that we should be deprived 
 of those privileges. In school life these privileges are 
 many, and this method of punishment becomes there- 
 fore of considerable importance. Restraint is as neces- 
 sary in school government as in the state, and the teacher 
 should have pow-er to apply it whenever necessary for 
 the general good of the school. Of the many j^rivileges 
 which the pupil may forfeit by improper conduct, the 
 following may be named as among the most important:
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 209 
 
 a. Recess. — Those who constantly annoy their play- 
 mates or interfere with the comforts of others during 
 play-time, as well as those who are apt to be profane or 
 vulgar in their use of language on the play-ground, 
 might with propriety be detained at recess, and be per- 
 mitted to have their recess after the other pupils have 
 returned to study. 
 
 6. Forfeiture of Seat. — This is a proper punishment 
 for those who annoy their neighbors by talking, shaking 
 the desk, or causing interruptions and annoyance by other 
 means. 
 
 c. Dismissal from Recitation. — The pupil ought to feel 
 it a privilege to recite with his classmates. Certain con- 
 duct is improper in the class-room because detrimental to 
 the interests of the class as a whole and to the individual 
 members. Among the kinds of improper conduct dur- 
 ing recitation may be named the following : Whispering, 
 prompting others, copying from othei^s, annoying classmates, 
 disturbing the class or the teacher by noise, rude and imper- 
 tinent answers, boisterous behavior, and inattention ; for all 
 or any of which the teacher may properly dismiss a pupil 
 from recitation, and demand a special recitation when he 
 is not engaged in other work. 
 
 Should the class be disturbed by ill-behaved pupils, it 
 is best for the teacher to act promptly, stopping all work 
 for the time until pupils become quiet and orderly ; and 
 if the disorderly ones do not become quiet at once, they 
 may be dismissed for the time. For continued miscon- 
 duct of this kind the pupil may properly be placed in a 
 lower class, and thus lose his class-standing, which is a 
 loss of privilege in itself. 
 
 d. Detention after School. — In the hands of a judicious 
 
 14
 
 210 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 tcaolicr this punishment may be used, but it is, to saj the 
 least, a dangerous form of punishment. For pupils who 
 are guilty of misconduct on their way home from school, 
 or who are inclined to quarrel with their schoolmates, 
 detention for ten or fifteen minutes, so as to deprive 
 them of the companionship of their associates, seems 
 entirely appro])riate. Pupils should not, however, be 
 detained after school hours as a general thing for mis- 
 chief committed during school hours or for failure of 
 lessons. There are other punishments more appropri- 
 ate to these offenses. When pupils are detained after 
 school the teacher should never leave the school-room 
 until all the pupils have first been dismissed and sent 
 to their homes. 
 
 Two serious objections may be urged against detention 
 after school. The first is that the school hours are already 
 too long for the health and comfort of the children; and 
 the second, that the detention of pupils necessarily in- 
 volves also the detention of the teacher. 
 
 e. Withdrawal of Favors. — The approval of the teacher 
 is always a strong incentive to good conduct. No more 
 severe punishment can be inflicted on the pupil than 
 the withdrawal of this approval. We are all glad to 
 be praised, and when this praise is withdrawn and cen- 
 sure made to take its place, we feel the punishment 
 keenly. This is a punishment to be inflicted only when 
 the pupil shows himself to be deceitful and unworthy of 
 confidence. 
 
 5. Private Apology. — It is always proper to apologize 
 for a wrong done. Every properly-disposed pupil will 
 recognize the justice of a punishment of this kini. If
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 211 
 
 he has done an injury to a fellow-pupil, either accident- 
 ally or purposely, it would be proper for him to apolo- 
 gize. If he does this freely, in many cases no I'urther 
 punishment should be administered,but where the injury 
 to another has resulted in loss to him it would be proper 
 also to make reparation for damage done. Private apol- 
 ogy to the teacher is also an effective punishment in many 
 cases where the qffense strictly merits a much more severe 
 form of punishment, but where greater good can be accom- 
 plished by substituting the milder for the more severe. 
 
 6. Public Apology. — This is a punishment which is 
 admissible in extreme cases. Most pupils would prefer 
 to leave school rather than rise to make public acknow- 
 ledgment of their wrong-doing and apologize for tlie 
 offense. Where a wrong to a pupil or the school has 
 been done publicly, justice demands that the offender 
 make a public apology; and yet even here a more judi- 
 cious form of punishment might be administered, and in 
 such a way as to benefit the guilty as well as the innocent. 
 Particularly is this a doubtful punishment to apply in the 
 government of students who have passed from the age of 
 childhood to that of youth. 
 
 7. Personal Chastisement. — In placing personal chastiser 
 ment or bodily punishment under the head of judicious 
 punishments I am aware that I shall meet with some 
 little opposition of sentiment: but with all the argu- 
 ments offered on both sides my personal experience war- 
 rants me in saying that the power to punish by the inflic- 
 tion of bodily pain is usually a great check on misconduct, 
 even though that power be but rarely exercised.
 
 212 SCHOOL MANAGEAfENT. 
 
 a. Definition. — Corporal punishment is the inflicting of 
 lunlily j);iin for the purpose of correcting offenses. It 
 may consist of punishment by means of a rod or otlier 
 instrument, tliis being the usual means, but it includes 
 all kinds of punishment \vhere the child is made to suffer 
 pliysical pain or discomfort as a means of reform. 
 
 6. The Right of the Teacher to Punish. — The law 
 recognizes the teacher as being in place of the parent. 
 AVhatever rights the parent has under the circumstances 
 are delegated for the time to the teacher. Neither dare 
 punish with undue severity without making himself 
 amenable to tlie law. Where no statute exists the law 
 of custom gives to the teacher the right and power to 
 punish within certain limits. By some local School 
 Boards, and indeed by some States, this power is denied 
 to the teacher. 
 
 c. The Law of Prohibition. — The law which prohibits 
 the teacher from using corporal punishment is of doubt- 
 fid expediency. It is true, many teachers punish unwisely 
 and with too great frequency, but there seems to be no good 
 reason why the hands of a faithful teacher should be tied 
 because incompetents abuse the power entrusted to them. 
 It were better to dismiss persons who cannot govern with- 
 out corporal punishment, and let this be held as the last 
 'reserve force to be used by the competent teacher, the 
 pupils understanding that the teacher has the power to 
 inflict this kind of punishment in extreme cases. 
 
 d. The Better Plan. — A better plan than that of pro- 
 hibiting corporal punishment by law would be to have 
 teachers report at the close of each month to the School 
 Board or to the Superintendent the number of cases in 
 which corporal punishment has been inflicted during the
 
 &CIIOOL GOVERNMENT. 213 
 
 niontli, togetlier with the oflTcnsc for which the pupil was 
 punished. Many a teacher would be ashamevl of his rec- 
 ord, and the number reported would grow rapidly less. 
 This would cause a practical abolition of corporal pun- 
 ishment, and yet the power and its moral effect would 
 remain as an incentive to good behavior, 
 
 e. Corporal Punishment of Doubtful Expediency. — This 
 kind of punishment is the weapon of the weak teacher. 
 One whose experience has taught him to govern by higher 
 and better motives rarely, if ever, finds it necessary to use 
 corporal punishment. It is always likely to provoke the 
 hostility of parents and involve the teacher in difficulties. 
 Indeed, there is great danger of losing the esteem and 
 good-will of both pupils and parents. There is prob- 
 ably no method of punishment liable to greater abuse, 
 or one where greater cruelty or revenge may be visited 
 upon a pupil under the disguise of kindness and neces- 
 sity. It is a matter of some difficulty to convince chil- 
 dren that you whip them because you love them and 
 because it is necessary, and it is quite as difficult some- 
 times to convince yourself of the fact. 
 
 /. Principles Governing the Use of Corporal Punishment. 
 — Corporal punishment should be used only in extreme 
 cases, and then only in accordance with the following 
 principles : 
 
 1. It should be Moderate. — The law wisely protects the 
 child from all manner of cruel punishment. If punish- 
 ment is administered as a corrective, there is no necessity 
 for extreme severity. The moral effect will be quite as 
 good though the pain be not so great. 
 
 2. It should be Administered in Private. — Private 
 punishment is more effective than j)ublic, but c( rporal
 
 214 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 punishment should be administered in the presiuice of 
 a witness or two, though it be administered privately, in 
 order that the child may not misrepresent both the teach- 
 er's manner and the severity of the punishment, as he 
 might if no witnesses were present. 
 
 3. It should be Deliberate. — The teacher should never 
 punish when angry. A day's reflection on the matter 
 may give him an entirely different view of the case, and 
 all necessity for punishment may possibly be avoided, or 
 the pupil may repent of his wrong and be willing to sub- 
 mit to any other proper punishment. AVhen angry the 
 teacher may punish too severely, and thus entirely de- 
 stroy the moral effect of the punishment. 
 
 4. The Instrument of Punishment should he Appropriate. 
 — The choice is usually a switch or a rod. Either of 
 these is liable, under the most favorable circumstances, 
 to leave marks and furnish the basis for prosecutions 
 and lawsuits. A better implement would be one which, 
 while it causes quite as much pain, does not leave ridges 
 or marks on the skin. A flat ferule or a piece of lath 
 answers the purpose admirably. 
 
 5. Punishment should be Administered on the Muscular 
 Parts of the Body. — This needs little argument. All 
 other parts of the body are liable to injury. Even 
 the shoulders are not a proper portion of the body to 
 receive punishment, because of the fact that punishment 
 applied here may cause serious nervous diseases. 
 
 6. Punishment should Never be Inflicted on the Head or 
 the Hands. — All punishment inflicted on the head or the 
 ears is cruel. Pulling the ears, striking the head with a 
 book, and similar punishments, are extremely dangerous. 
 Punishing on the hands is but little better. The haud^
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 215 
 
 as the organ of touch, is too sensitive to admit of punish- 
 ment without danger of lifelong injury. 
 
 Cautions ou Corporal Pimishment. 
 
 Observe the following cautions in administering coi- 
 poral punishment : 
 
 1. Be Certain of the Pupil's Guilt before Punishing. — 
 Never punish until you have looked on all sides of the 
 case and convinced yourself beyond a doubt that the 
 offender is guilty. If there be any doubt, give the 
 pupil the benefit of that doubt. 
 
 2. Postpone Punishment until You can Administer it 
 Coolly and Deliberately. — If you do not change your 
 determination entirely, your punishment will be at least 
 much more lenient and much more reasonable. 
 
 3. Consult with the Child's Parents if the Punishment is 
 to be Severe. — This may save you much trouble and future 
 embarrassment. The parent may be willing to inflict the 
 punishment himself, and thus relieve you of mueli respon- 
 sibility. Of course cases demanding immediate attention 
 must be an exception. 
 
 4. Appeal to the Sense of Honor First, — If there seems 
 a necessity for corporal punishment, it is always safe to 
 appeal to the child's sense of honor before deciding to 
 administer punishment. He may be thoroughly repent- 
 ant, and anxious to do better and make amends for his 
 offense, in which case the punishment becomes unnecessary. 
 
 5. Inflict Corporal Punishment Publicly only when the 
 Offense is a Willful Defiance of Authority. — In such case 
 the punishment may be administered without delay and 
 in the presence of the school. If the pupils are well- 
 disposed they will indorse your action.
 
 213 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 6. After the Punishment Treat the Pupil Kindly. — 
 Nothing will do more to convince him of his wrong 
 action speedily than showing him you punished not 
 from clioice, but from necessity ; and this you can best 
 show by restoring the offender to your favor immediate- 
 ly after the punishment. 
 
 8. Suspension. — Among the judicious punishments is 
 a temporary suspension from school privileges. This 
 is a punishment which is liable to do great injury to 
 the child, and it should be used among the very last. 
 A blot seems to go with the suspension which often 
 mars the record of one's life. 
 
 The chief caitses which loould justify suspension are the 
 following, but it is not argued that suspension should 
 take place in every case here cited : 
 
 1. Insubordination. — Pupils may be so unwilling to 
 to submit to the regulations of a school that they inter- 
 fere with its welfare. They may destroy, or seek to 
 destroy, its good name. They may be inclined to create 
 rebellion and strife, and enter into a conspiracy to break 
 down the teacher's authority. In such cases the teacher 
 has the undoubted right to suspend the offenders. 
 
 2. Truancy. — While a confirmed habit of irregular at- 
 tendance justifies the teacher in suspending the offender 
 on the ground of retarding the progress of the school, 
 great care should be exercised in applying the penalty. 
 The danger is that of suspending on too slight provoca- 
 tion. Every other means should be used to secure regu- 
 lar attendance and break up truancy before resorting to 
 suspension. Indeed, this is simply an acknowledgment 
 on the part of the teacher that he cannot secure regular
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 217 
 
 att€iKlance, and therefore prefers not to receive the irreg- 
 ular pupils. 
 
 3. Gross Misconduct. — Pupils of immoral thaiacter are 
 out of place in the ordinary school. Those possessed of 
 habits which in a grown person would send him to pris- 
 on ouo-ht to be consigned to reform schools or houses 
 of correction. We cannot be too careful as to the moral 
 character of the associates of our children. The seeds 
 of moral poison are often sown in the school-room and 
 on the play-ground without detection under the very eye 
 of the teacher. 
 
 4. Habitual Idleness. — Of this fault also it may be said 
 that while a teacher would be justifiable in suspending a 
 confirmed idler, it is of doubtful policy to use the power 
 so long as there is a possible means left of reclaiming 
 the child and interesting him in the school work. 
 
 The Power to Suspend. — This power belongs to the 
 teacher. He is the governor and ruler of the school, 
 and the power is rightly placed in his hands. Were it 
 otherwise, a faithful teacher might constantly be annoyed 
 by the utter worthlessness of some pupils, and yet be 
 powerless to conduct his school properly and rid it of 
 the disturbing elements, because of the negligence or re- 
 fusal to act on the part of those in whom the right of 
 suspension might be vested. The laws of some States 
 give to the teacher the right to suspend for an indefinite 
 time until the pupil is reinstated by the Board of Di- 
 rectors. 
 
 When the teacher finds it necessary to suspend a pupil, 
 it is better that it be done quietly and without the know- 
 ledge of the school. So far as the school is concerned, it 
 will have quite as beneficial an effect as if done publicly ;
 
 218 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 ami as regards the stutlent suspenied, a chance is given 
 liini to redeem himself in the future. The suspension 
 i-an of course be announced publicly, but the eifect is to 
 make a target of the unfortunate pupil, and the stigma 
 elings to him for a lifetime. Public defiance of au- 
 thority and vicious persistence, and but little else than 
 these, ought to be considered good ground for public; 
 suspension. 
 
 Length of the Sentence. — This must be governed largely 
 by the cause which leads to suspension. The sentence 
 should not be so brief as to make it of no effect, nor 
 should it be so extended as to bring the school or the 
 teacher into contempt and subject the latter to the charge 
 of suspending for spite. Reformation is what is desired, 
 and as soon as the pupil is willing to make proper ac- 
 knowledgments his sentence should be removed and he 
 be permitted to resume his place in school. Teachers 
 in public schools have not always the power to fix the 
 length of sentence; this, then, should be done by the 
 School Board, but always in such a way as to sustain 
 the teacher when he is ricrht. 
 
 When a pupil is readmitted the teacher should never 
 show, either by act or word, that the past in his conduct 
 is i-emembered. We wander too far sometimes from the 
 true Christian standard in condemning the one who lias 
 sii^ned. We should rather put out a helping hand to 
 him who is trying to redeem his reputation and regain 
 his place in the esteem of the teacher and the school. 
 
 9. Expulsion. — Suspension, as has been explained, is 
 a temporary sentence. Expulsion severs the pupil's 
 connection with the school permanently, unless the
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 219 
 
 school authorities should see fit to reinstate him by 
 withdrawing the sentence. Expulsion can hardly be 
 said to be a reformatory punishment, for the reason 
 that the sentence shuts off the pupil permanently from 
 all school privileges. It has for its object the good of 
 the school alone, as capital punishment has the good of 
 the state. 
 
 The offenses which may be taken as a just ca,use for 
 expulsion are of the gravest possible nature. The fol- 
 lowing are the chief: 
 
 1. Gross Immorality. — A student whose moral charac- 
 ter is so debased as likely to work evil to the remainder 
 of the school, or whose conduct is if such a character as 
 to be a pernicious example, ought not to be permitted to 
 remain in school. Particularly is this true if he be 
 found incorrigible. 
 
 2. A Constant Disregard for the School Regulations. — 
 All students are likely now and then to infringe school 
 regulations thoughtlessly. Occasionally there are stu- 
 dents who habitually disobey from a spirit of rebellion. 
 These should be met with firmness and be expelled at 
 once. No act is more justifiable than that of expulsion 
 for a determined opposition to the school's interests, 
 whether as the result of individual malice or of conspir- 
 acy and rebellion. 
 
 3. Dangerous Conduct. — Under the head of "danger- 
 ous conduct" may be included such malicious mischief 
 as impels a pupil to destroy the school furniture and do 
 injury to the school-house and the school property ; also 
 the habit of speaking evil of the school. Such conduct 
 on the part of a pupil as is likely to destroy the harmony 
 of the school, break down its regulations, interfere with
 
 220 SCUOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the riglits of other students to a great extent, is justifi- 
 able cause fbr expulsion. All such conduct is dangerous 
 to the school interests, and expulsion may be applied as 
 the punishment, though sentence should be passed only- 
 after all means of reform have on trial proved a failure. 
 
 Wlio may ExpeL — This power is reserved to the School 
 Boards in public schools. In normal schools, and some- 
 times, though rarely, in graded schools, the power is 
 vested in the principal and the faculty. Teachers in 
 ungraded schools may, under the laws of most States, 
 suspend, but not expel. 
 
 Cautions. — 1. Expulsion may do the student a lifelong 
 injury. The blot is difficult to efface. Never expel, 
 therefore, until all means of reforming the offender have 
 first been tried and found inefficient. 
 
 2. Do not publish to the world the fact that you have 
 expelled a student. Ii is ungenerous to put an obstacle 
 of this kind in the way of one who may afterward try 
 to redeem himself. 
 
 3. When necessary to dismiss a student from school, 
 do it quietly and without the knowledge of his school- 
 mates, unless the case is of such a character as to demand 
 exposure. 
 
 4. Notify other schools of the expulsion only when 
 you think it necessary for the purpose of protecting 
 them against a student of vicious habits or dangerous 
 character. 
 
 5. Be sure before you expel that your student is guilty 
 and dangerous to the welfare of the school. 
 
 10. Deportment Marks.— As to whether these constitute 
 a judicious punishment or otherwise is a debatable ques-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERXMEXT. 221 
 
 lion. Each side of this question is advocated by prom- 
 inent teachers. The objections against deportment marks^ 
 however, seem to be urged almost wholly against inju- 
 dicious and unjust marking. The system has its mej'its, 
 and these oug-ht not to be overlooked and set aside 
 because extremists abuse the system by marking down 
 for every conceivable offense, imaginary or real, inten- 
 tional or innocent. 
 
 The basis of this marking should be a percentage, 
 making 100 as the standard of perfect conduct ; between 
 90 and 100, exce/lent; between 80 and dO,good; between 
 70 and 80, medium; and below 70, unsatisfactory. In 
 reporting to the parent it is held by many teachers that 
 only the words perfect, excellent, good, medium, etc. 
 should be reported, so that the special percentages 
 may not be compared and thus create dissatisfaction 
 among the children or the families of the neighbor- 
 hood. 
 
 Dej)ortment marks are a strong incentive to good con- 
 duct. Many pupils obey the school regulations because 
 they desire to present a good report to their parents. 
 Let it be granted that the incentive is not one of those 
 to be highly commended, it still has the force of an in- 
 centive, as it wins for them the approbation of parents 
 and friends when the record is favorable, and the chil- 
 dren are induced to make a favorable record by good 
 conduct where higher motives might have no influence. 
 
 2. Injudicious Punishments. — The number of inju- 
 dicious punishments is very gieat. All of them ought 
 to be avoided under air circumstances. The following 
 may be named as the most prominent:
 
 222 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 1. Scolding. — This is never a proper punisv.raent. 
 Indeed, a scolding teacher soon loses the respect of his 
 l)upils. The less the teacher scolds and the less he 
 threatens, the greater the number of friends he will 
 have among his students, and the easier will he find the 
 discipline. When threats are made they should be ex- 
 ecuted without fail. Both scolding and threats soon lose 
 all force except to irritate a class and make it noisy and 
 disrespectful. 
 
 2. Ridicule. — The teacher has no right to ridicule 
 either the defects or the mistakes of a child. Such con- 
 duct makes a teacher deserving of all the contempt that 
 pupils can heap upon him. It is the teacher's business to 
 encourage, not to discourage — to help to correct mistakes 
 and train the pupils, instead of making sport of them. 
 Sarcastic remarks with reference to a pupil's ability, 
 calling him a dunce, a numskull, an ignoramus, or other 
 equally offensive names, is contemptible conduct in the 
 teacher. 
 
 3. Confinement. — Solitary confinement in a cell is 
 among the most severe of prison punishments, and it 
 is applied only to hardened criminals. Shutting a child 
 in a closet, putting him in the coal-cellar, and like pun- 
 ishments, are no less cruel. To a child of vivid fancy 
 or nervous organization serious injury may be wrought 
 by a punishment of this kind. Solitary confinement is 
 not only injudicious as a school punishment, but it is also 
 unwise. 
 
 4. Personal Indignities. — Among personal indignities 
 may be mentioned all those annoying punishments 
 which, though not severe in themselves, serve to irritate 
 a chiM, such as pulling the ears, snapping the head, pull-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 223 
 
 ing tlie hair, compelling the child to wear a dunce-cap, 
 and the like. All of them are improper. 
 
 5. Personal Torture. — All kinds of torture are im- 
 proper punishments. Many of the old-fashioned punish- 
 ments were little less than barbarous. Such punish- 
 ments-as compelling a child to stand on one foot, hold a 
 book at arm's length, kneel on the sharp edge of a piece 
 of wood, walk barefooted on peas, hold a nail in the 
 floor without bending the knee, etc., ought to belong 
 to the Dark Ages. 
 
 6. Performance of Tasks for Misconduct — No pupil 
 should ever be asked to study a lesson for misconduct. 
 There is no connection between the two, and a love for 
 learning is not instilled in this way. The boy who is 
 required to write two hundred words after school as a 
 punishment for pinching his neighbor or whispering in 
 school does not see the relation of the punishment to the 
 oifense, and he must come to regard his teacher in the 
 true light, as being either tyrannical or ignorant of the 
 art of school discipline. 
 
 7. Degradation of tlie Offender. — No pupil has ever 
 been reformed by degrading him. One of the chief ends 
 of punishment is reformation, but this end is directly 
 defeated by attempting to visit on the pupil a punish- 
 ment which will degrade him either in the eyes of his 
 associates or in his own estimation. His self-respect 
 must be cultivated, not destroyed. Teachers who sub- 
 ject pupils to degrading punishments are inhuman in 
 their nature, and they should not be employed in any 
 school. 
 
 8. Worrying a Pupil. — The teacher has no right to 
 worry his pupils by irritating or vexatious talk. The
 
 224 SCHOOL MANAOE^rEXT. 
 
 kind of grumbling in which some teachers indulge 
 hardly rises to the dignity of scolding. It is rather 
 of the nature of faultfinding. If the child makes a 
 mistake, the teacher is sure to complain. If he is 
 guilty of some trivial offense, the teacher has an un- 
 kind remark to thrust at him. His conduct toward the 
 pupil has a constant tendency to vex the child, and 
 make him feel that the teacher glories in his mistakes 
 and shortcomings. 
 
 9. Vindictive Punishments. — Here, again, the teacher 
 forgets the objects of punishment. The aim of punish- 
 ment is not to gratify one's ill-temper or revenge, and 
 the teacher must not punish in a spirit of this kind. It 
 is safe, therefore, to say that he should never punish 
 when angry, because all angry punishment is more or 
 less vindictive. 
 
 10. Crael Punishments. — All punishments that exceed 
 the limits of moderation must be avoided. The statutes 
 of most States make cruelty of punishment a penal 
 offense for which the teacher may be indicted. But 
 cruel punishments do harm also by lessening the respect 
 of both pupils and patrons for the teacher and his 
 methods of government. 
 
 Cautions. — 1. Do not make threats of punishment in 
 advance. 
 
 2. Adapt the punishment to the offense. 
 
 3. Do not try to make pupils learn by whipping for 
 unlearned lessons. 
 
 4. Never inflict a punishment which is likely to make 
 a pupil feel that he ought to resent it. 
 
 5. Seek to use the minimum of punishment. 
 
 6. Be patient with the shortcomings of your pupils.
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 225 
 
 7. Do your utmost to prevent faults, so as to avoid 
 the necessity of punishment. 
 
 8. Punish only for willful misconduct. 
 
 9. Do not reprove those who try but fail. 
 
 10. Do not expect perfect order in the school-room ; 
 children are children. 
 
 8. How to Detect Offenders. 
 
 The detection of offenders, particularly among older 
 pupils, is not only a delicate task, but sometimes also 
 one of great difficulty. Smaller pupils are usually open 
 and confiding in their nature, and an offense committed 
 by them is not difficult to detect. But among the larger 
 pupils there is a disposition to avoid informing on a 
 fellow-student — sometimes because of a false sense of 
 lionor, sometimes because the one who should inform is 
 afraid of making an enemy of the one on whom he in- 
 forms. This disposition to conceal the faults of others 
 makes the difficulty of detection all the greater. 
 
 Several methods of detecting offenders are here given, 
 each of which may be used under varying circumstances. 
 The duty of detection is unpleasant, but the teacher who 
 expects to sustain himself must at least make every 
 effort in his power to ferret out the guilty : 
 
 1. By Private Confession. — One method of detection is 
 to make before the whole school a statement of the 
 offense committed, and then invite the person guilty of 
 the offense to meet the teacher at his convenience and 
 confess to the fault, with the prospect of a full pardon. 
 Pupils who have confidence in the teacher, or who may 
 have committed the offense thoughtlessly, may often be 
 induced in this manner to confess. Much will depend 
 
 15
 
 226 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 on the way in Nvliidi tlic teacher receives the pupil who 
 conu\s to confess, and niudi also on tlie manner in which 
 the teacher presents the matter to the school. The pu- 
 pil who comes to confess a fault has already made rep- 
 aration. He needs no further punishment, and the 
 teacher should speak with him kindly and grant him a 
 full pardon. 
 
 2. By Negative Questions. — A very effective method 
 of detecting an offense is to ask of the whole school their 
 connection with the offense by putting the question in 
 the negative form. To illustrate : Suppose an offense 
 lias been committed ; the teacher should not ask, " Who 
 did this? Who committed this offense?" but rather 
 say, "Those who know nothing about this offense, or 
 who do not know who committed it, may rise." These 
 should be dismissed to some other part of the room. 
 Those who do not rise confess that they know some- 
 thing about it. The second question or statement should 
 then come as follows : " Those who did not commit this 
 offense or help to commit it may rise." There are few, 
 indeed, who would, if guilty, have the hardihood to 
 rise under such circumstances. Experience has proved 
 this to be one of the most satisfactory, and at the same 
 time certain, methods of detecting the guilty. 
 
 3. By Private Interview. — Should both of the pre- 
 ceding methods fail, the teacher may ask a private in- 
 terview with such students as circumstances seem to 
 point out as the guilty parties. There are always some 
 pupils in the school whose general character and conduct 
 is such as to lead them into mischief. There are others 
 also who are always conscientious in their observance of 
 the school regulations. The private interview need in-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 227 
 
 oludo the former class only, and in many cases, if the 
 teacher ])rocecd judiciously, asking questions but making 
 no direct charges, lie will reach the truth. Few will 
 have the boldness to make false statements and attempt 
 to adhere to them without cutau":ling themselves in 
 their testimony. 
 
 4. By Public Questions. — This plan proceeds by calling 
 each pupil in turn to rise, and, while looking the teacher 
 in the eye, answer such questions in the presence of the 
 scliool as the teacher may see fit to ask. Should the 
 teacher fail to detect the oflPender by this plan, he will 
 still secure considerable valuable evidence, if his ques- 
 tions be judicious, which will be of much service to him 
 in future efforts to fix the guilt on the proper person. Only 
 the gravest offenses justify this method of detection, and 
 the teacher should use it only when he finds all other 
 methods fail. 
 
 5. By Giving Time for Reparation. — This is not a 
 method of detection exactly, but rather a preliminary 
 proceeding by which the unpleasantness of searching 
 for the offender may sometimes be avoided. It consists 
 in making a public statement that a certain offense — as, 
 for instance, the taking of a book — has been committed, 
 and that a certain time will be allowed for its return, but 
 if not returned at the time specified, search will be made 
 and the guilty party receive such punishment as the of- 
 fense merits. 
 
 6. By Seeking Information of Well-disposed Pupils. — • 
 Tattling and tale-bearing are justly despised by pupils, 
 but that is a false sense of honor which induces pupils 
 to take the ground that they ought neither to confess 
 to their own guilt nor report the guilt of others. There
 
 228 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 are certain offenses wliioli when committed must interfere 
 more or less witli the welfare of n school, and ultimately 
 destroy its good name. These include all malicious mis- 
 chief, destruction of school furniture, theft, vandalism of 
 all kinds, conspiracy, rebellion, and other offenses equally 
 grave. No well-disposed student should hesitate for a 
 moment to assist the teacher in detecting the perpetra- 
 tors of such malicious deeds, and every teacher ought 
 to feel himself entirely safe in calling to his aid the most 
 reliable students of his school for the purpose of expos- 
 ing the guilty. Pupils should be trained to feel that where 
 the interests of the school are imperiled the honorable 
 course is to save the school and expose and convict those 
 who would be guilty of destroying it. 
 
 7. By Constant Vigilance. — Under certain circumstances 
 all the preceding methods may fail. There is then noth- 
 ing left but constant vigilance on the part of the teacher. 
 He need not be suspiciously watchful, but no opportunity 
 for gathering evidence should be ])ermitted to pass. The 
 teacher should keep his own secrets. The explanation he 
 confidentially makes to a trusted student may reach the 
 guilty one's ears in an incredibly short time. Silence 
 and vigilance should be his watchwords. In many cases 
 the guilt will come to the surface gradually, and when 
 every link in the chain of evidence is perfect the ex- 
 posure is sure to follow, 
 
 9. The Self.Reportiug System. 
 
 This system consists in having pupils at the close of 
 the day each rise as their respective names are called and 
 make a confession of the various faults they have com- 
 mitted during the day. By some teachers the partic-
 
 SCHOOL, GOVERNMENT. 229 
 
 ular faults to be confessed are specified ; as, for instance, 
 the number of times tlie child has talked to his associates 
 or the number of times he has made any unnecessary noise. 
 
 The System Unwise. — A serious objection to this system 
 is that the good pu])ils report faithfully, and are marked 
 accordingly, Avhile the evil-disposed report untruthfully 
 and receive greater credit than the good. 
 
 A second serious objection to this system is that it 
 trains the children to be liars. Feeling that those ^vho 
 report the fewest faults are tliey who M'ill receive the 
 best marks and reports, irrespective of conduct, it is a 
 short step, for even au honest pupil, from truth to false- 
 hood ; and even those who have always been accounted 
 truthful have such temptations placed before them that, 
 with the weakness incident to the moral nature of child- 
 hood, they in many cases become untruthful. 
 
 Confessing a Fault to the Teachei' should be encouraged, 
 but any system of confession which charges guilt to the 
 pupil who confesses, and credits the guilty with good 
 behavior, is to be condemned as faulty in principle and 
 vicious in practice. The schools are indeed few in which 
 weak human nature can stand such a strain on conscience 
 as is placed upon it by the so-called self-reporting system. 
 
 10. Pardons. 
 
 School government, from its very nature, must have 
 connected with it the power to pardon those who are 
 repentant. This power may of course be abused and 
 the teacher become too lenient, while, on the other hand, 
 he may be so anxious to show himself just, and may 
 adhere so rigidly to rules, that his government becomes 
 cruel. Justice should always be tempered with mercy.
 
 230 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 Two pupils may commit the same fault in school — the 
 first thoughtlessly and without any bad motive, the sec- 
 ond out of pure malice; the thoughtless pupil is sorry 
 for his deed, the second is malicious. Do both deserve 
 the same punishment? It would be an unjust teacher 
 indeed who would not jmrdon the first and punish the 
 second. The pardoning power must, however, be used 
 under certain conditions. These are — 
 
 1. That the Guilty Party give Evidence of Repentance. 
 — The pupil who manifests no sorrow for a wrong act 
 has, of course, no claims on the teacher for forgiveness 
 or pardon. Any repentance must be sincere and not 
 feigned in order to escape punishment. A feigned re- 
 pentance of one, and a consequent pardon, will be the 
 example which others will gladly imitate. 
 
 2. That he Apologizes to Those he has Wronged. — A 
 pupil who is repentant will not hesitate to apologize to 
 any one he may have wronged in committing an offense. 
 This is one of the evidences of repentance. The teacher 
 must not be too exacting as to the language in which this 
 apology is made. Should the child say of his own accord, 
 I am sorry, it may mean more than the profoundest apol- 
 ogy of one better skilled in the use of language. With- 
 out this apology to those he has wronged no pardon should 
 be granted. 
 
 3. That he Make Reparation of Damages. — There may 
 be circumstances where it is of course impossible to make 
 any reparation, as where personal injury is done to 
 another. In such case the offender's repentance and his 
 willingness to apologize must be taken as evidence of 
 his willingness to make reparation were such a thing 
 possible. In all cases, however, where reparation is
 
 S(;iIOOI. GOVERNMENT. 231 
 
 possible, as where injiiiy has been done to the school 
 property or the property of other pupils, it should be 
 made one of the conditions on which pardon is granted. 
 
 11. Puuislimeiit of OflFenses. 
 
 It will be sufficient here to name the chief offenses 
 which pupils may be likely to commit in school, to- 
 gether with the appropriate punishment to be applied 
 to each offense. Many other offenses may be committed, 
 but they will not vary in principle to any extent from 
 those here named, and the details of the punishment are 
 best left to the individual judgment and good sense of 
 the teacher. 
 
 1. Offenses against Property. — These may be against 
 school property or against the property of others. They 
 may also be either accidental or mali(uous. When the 
 injury is accidental the pupil may be required to restore 
 the property or pay for the damage done. His own 
 sense of honor will also lead him to apologize to the 
 owner. If the injury be done out of malice, it is not 
 only necessary that the pupil make proper reparation or 
 payment of damages, but he might also be made to 
 apologize for his offense, not only to the owner of the 
 j)ropcrty, but also to the teacher. Injury to his own 
 property is naturally followed by a punishment in the 
 loss of the property. In addition to this, reproof from 
 the teacher would be proper, and the offense should be 
 reported to the parents of the child which does the 
 wrong. 
 
 2. P3rsoual lujuiy.^-This may consist of a personal
 
 232 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 injury either to schoolmates, to visitors, or to the pupil 
 himself. A personal injury to a schoolmate may be 
 ppnished by a reproof if the injury be slight, and if of 
 a more serious nature by the deprivation of privileges. 
 Pupils Avho quarrel or fight at recess or at other times 
 may with propriety be shut away from their schoolmates 
 during playtime, on the ground that they are likely to 
 interrupt the harmony of the plays and do personal in- 
 jury. An apology required to be made to the person 
 injured would seem in the case of injury to schoolmates 
 to be an appropriate method of punishment. 
 
 Injury to strangers passing by, or to visitors, may be 
 punished in the same manner as personal injury to 
 schoolmates. Injury to one's self brings with it its own 
 punishment, and need have no correction, unless, indeed, 
 the offense be in the nature of disobedience as well as 
 personal injury. 
 
 3. Accessory to Injury.— Many offenses are committed 
 by those who are instigated by others more cunning than 
 themselves. The pupil who plots mischief, or who di- 
 rects or requests another to engage in mischief, is equally 
 guilty with the one who perpetrates the deed. Both, 
 therefore, should receive the same punishment in kind 
 and degree. 
 
 4. Temptation to Wrong-doing.— No one is more dan- 
 gerous to the welfare and harmony of a school than a 
 pupil who by his bad example or by personal influence 
 tempts other ])U])ils to do wrong. Young children usu- 
 ally imitate the elder ones in their vices much more cer- 
 tainly than th^y do in their viHucs. A vicious pupil
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 233 
 
 may do infinite harm by his example, and he needs pnn- 
 ishment, not only because of his offense, bat also because 
 by his offense he leads others into vice. It is mainly by 
 example that children learn profanity, vulgarity, lying, 
 and other evil habits equally offensive. A pupil who is 
 inclined to tempt others to do wrong ought to be de- 
 barred from associating with them. Should this pun- 
 ishment not prove effective, suspension from school 
 should be the next resort, and in extreme cases it would 
 be proper to expel. 
 
 5. Laziness and Inattention. — Under this may be in- 
 cluded negligence in the preparation of the lesson as 
 well as inattention in class. For the former it would be 
 })roper to punish by requiring the puj)il to prepare his 
 neglected lesson during playtime. For inattention in 
 class, if willful, dismissal from the class and requiring 
 the inattentive pupil to recite by himself usually effects 
 a cure; but in the milder form, where inattention has 
 become a habit, calling on the pupil frequently to recite 
 when he is least attentive often produces good results 
 and in time corrects the bad habit. 
 
 6. Uncoutli Manners. — This fault is usually the result 
 of associating with uncouth companions. Sometimes it is 
 the example of parents repeated in the child's life and 
 manners. Children that come from uncouth homes are 
 necessarily more or less impolite in behavior. Kindness 
 of teacher and pupils, with good example, will do much 
 to correct the evil. A quiet suggestion from the teacher 
 occasionally made in a friendly way will be appreciated 
 and complied with.
 
 234 scHOor. managemenf. 
 
 7. Improper Habits. — These are manifold. They in- 
 clude spitting on the floor, walking heavily, using to- 
 bacco, etc. The milder forms of these habits may often 
 be corrected by a mere suggestion on the part of the 
 teacher as to the impropriety of the habit. Some of 
 these evils, however, cannot be reached in this manner. 
 Among these is the habit of using tobacco in the school- 
 room. Both this and spitting on the floor may be cor- 
 rected by having the pupil either use a spittoon, to be 
 cleansed by him daily, or by requiring offenders to clean 
 the floor daily. Both of these offensive habits ought to 
 be thoroughly broken up, the teacher being careful to 
 set the example. 
 
 The habit of walking heavily over the floor is usually 
 the result of thoughtlessness. It may sometimes be cor- 
 rected by a mere request or a suggestion. If this fail, it 
 may be corrected by having the pupil go back to the 
 starting-point and walk across the floor several times 
 in succession until he learns to walk quietly. Pupils 
 who pass to and from class noisily will see the pro- 
 priety of their being sent back to come quietly every 
 time they commit the offense. 
 
 8. Immoral Conduct. — Possibly there are few schools in 
 which there is not some immorality. Some pupils are 
 guilty of vulgarity, some of profanity, some of intem- 
 perance. Each of these vices should be dealt with 
 promptly and firmly as soon as detected, and the pun- 
 ishment should be such as to leave no doubt as to the 
 teacher's disapproval and hatred of these offenses. The 
 first punishment to be applied is the deprivation of priv- 
 ileges. Vulgar anil profane pupils should be made to
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 235 
 
 understand that they are not fit associates for their 
 schoohnates, and consequently must be separated from 
 them. Personal chastisement of any kind rarely suc- 
 ceeds in correcting immoral conduct. Where separation 
 and reproof do not eifect a cure, it is better to lay the 
 case before the School Board and request the removal 
 )f the offending pupils. 
 
 9. Rude Behavior. — This includes all attempts at an- 
 noying either the school or the teacher, such as shuffling 
 the feet on the floor, unnecessary coughing, pushing other 
 pupils from the seat, answering in loud tones of voice, mak- 
 ing unnecessary noise with the chairs or the desks ; also, 
 incivility to strangers either in the school-room or on tin 
 street. In all such cases it would be proper to demand 
 an apology of the offender, to be made to the person who 
 has been uncivilly treated. Noise may be made without 
 the intention of annoying the school. In such cases a 
 slight reproof or a request that the noise be discontin- 
 ued will usually be sufficient. But where the noise is 
 indulged in purposely, the pupil, if in class, should be 
 dismissed and be directed to recite his lessons privately 
 at such time as the teacher may find convenient. 
 
 The teacher in class may often secure good order by 
 stopping class-exercises for a few moments until all be- 
 come quiet. In such cases he should be entirely dignified 
 and preserve his temper unruffled. Usually, a class will 
 become quiet at once, when he should immediately pro- 
 ceed with the lesson, without taking up a moment's time 
 to scold or refer to the interruption. In extreme cases 
 he may call u])on the offender in a quiet and dignified 
 way, mentioning the pupil's name and requesting that he
 
 236 SCHOOL managemp:nt. 
 
 keep quiet. If the teaeher is sure of tlie pupil's guilt, 
 he should permit no saucy or impertinent retorts, on pen- 
 alty of punishment for disrespect. Severe reproof may 
 be administered to those who purposely disturb the order 
 of the school. 
 
 10. Theft. — Pupils frequently appropriate to their own 
 use the property of others without appreciating the enor- 
 mity of the offense they have committed. In such rases 
 a mild reproof and a restoration of the property taken are 
 all that is required. When, however, the property of 
 others is taken with a full knowledge of the nature of 
 the wrong, the punishment should be more severe. The 
 property should of course be restored, or, if that be not pos- 
 sible, then its value instead. It would be appropriate also 
 that the oiFender should be required to make an apology. 
 Should the oifense be repeated, suspension would be a 
 proper punishment. Private reproof also should be 
 given in connection with the first oifense, so as to pre- 
 vent, if possible, a repetition. 
 
 11. Usurpation of Rights. — Trespassing upon the 
 rights of others should be promptly reproved by the 
 teacher. Trespassing upon the property of others may 
 be punished in a similar manner. If injury be done to 
 the property, whether intentional or otherwise, restitution 
 should be made, and when the privileges of another are 
 interfered with by a pupil he should be required to make 
 proper apologies. 
 
 12. False Accusation.— Pupils frequently, in order to 
 bring trouble upon others or escape punishment them-
 
 SCHOOL GOVERNMENT. 237 
 
 selves, falsely accuse those who are innocent. The offense 
 is a serious one, and the punishment should be })rompt and 
 effective. In all such cases it would be proper to deprive 
 the guilty one of such school privileges as permit him to 
 associate with his fellows. He should be made to feel 
 that he is unworthy to be their companion. Severe pri- 
 vate reproof, in which he should be made to understand 
 the cowardliness of his action, would also be appropriate, 
 and in extreme cases an apology should be made to the 
 one who has been wronged. 
 
 13. Defamation. — S})eaking evil of another for the pur- 
 pose of injuring his character, gratifying one's propensity 
 for gossip, or degrading another, is an offense which should 
 be met with prompt and severe punishment. It is an of- 
 fense to which the jealous and the envious are particularly 
 prone. The teacher should do all that is possible to im- 
 bue his pupils with a feeling that this offense is cowardly 
 and that it ought to be reprimanded wherever it is met. 
 A pupil who speaks evil of others ought to be shut away 
 from their society. Whenever he is detected in the of- 
 fense he might be required to ask pardon of the one 
 whom he has misrepresented or wiiose character he has 
 attempted to traduce. He should be made to feel that 
 no one but a coward speaks ill of another in his absence, 
 and, while the teacher administers to him severe private 
 reproof, the enormity and wickedness of his offense should 
 also be explained to him. 
 
 14. Speaking Evil of the School. — It is no less wrong 
 to slander the character of the .school than it is to slander 
 the character of an individual member of the scijool. A
 
 238 SCHOOL management. 
 
 pupil may rightfully couiplaiu to the teacher with ref- 
 orouce to what he believes to be weakness in a school, 
 and the teacher ought to be willing to correct the fault; 
 but the pupil has no right to misrepresent the school, 
 either to his schoolmates or to others. Reproof will 
 usually correct the evil, but if the offense be continued, 
 then suspension or expulsion must be the final resort. 
 
 15. Disrespect. — Every teacher should attempt to merit 
 and secure the respect of his ]>u]iils. Those who strive 
 to secure this respect by their own personal worthiness 
 and by their kindness to the pupils usually succeed. In 
 some cases, however, ill-disposed pupils are not won over 
 to the teacher, and they take every opportunity to annoy 
 him and show their disrespect for him and his authority. 
 In such cases private I'eproof would probably have lit- 
 tle effect. If reproof is desirable, it should first be given 
 in the shape of general reproof, and if this fail, then in 
 the shape of public reproof, that the teacher may turn 
 the public sentiment of the school against the offender. 
 Should all these fail, then a suspension from school priv- 
 ileges may be employed as the final punishment. 
 
 16. Disobedience. — This offense is of greater magni- 
 tude when willful than is that of disrespect, because it 
 embraces not only that offense, but also the open act of 
 defying authority. 
 
 Disobedience may be the result of thoughtlessness, 
 and in most cases this is the true cause. Children are 
 full of life, and we must not expect them to have the 
 dignity and judgment of men and women. Thoughtless 
 disobedience needs but little punishment. A simple re-
 
 SCHOOL GOVEUN.MENT. 239 
 
 minder of a neglected duty or a disobedient act will 
 ]>romptly bring forth the child's apology, "I did not 
 mean to do so." The teacher or the parent who })nn- 
 ishes no further will train that child to be thoughtful 
 and obedient, while he who administers severe reproof 
 and finds fault, or uses any other harsh punishment, will 
 have good prospect of succeeding in making the child 
 hate school and grow up heedless and thoughtless of all 
 authority. 
 
 When disobedience is willful the punishment should 
 be severe. Where pupils openly disregard and defy au- 
 thority corporal punishment is justifiable, and it may be 
 applied if the teacher possess the necessary physical 
 strength. When a pupil threatens to disobey, prompt 
 measures must be taken to compel obedience. If the 
 teacher be not strong enough to administer physical pun- 
 ishment, prompt suspension or dismissal from school 
 may be resorted to as a proper ])unishment. Should tlie 
 oifender continue to annoy the school, he should be dealt 
 with as any other outsider comniitting a breach of the 
 peace, by turning him over to the officers of the law. 
 
 17. Conspiracy. — One of the most serious offenses of 
 which pupils may be guilty is that of conspiracy. The 
 moment a pupil entei's into a conspiracy for the purpose 
 of destroying or interfering Avith school authority he 
 becomes a traitor. In all punisliments for treason it is 
 safe to adopt the maxim, " No compromise with trai- 
 tors." Conspirators must be compelled to submit or 
 leave the scliool. With pupils on one side plotting trea- 
 son and rebellion, and teachers on the other attempting 
 to establish and maintain authority, there ought to be no
 
 240 SCHOOL management. 
 
 question as to the final result. Any punishment becomes 
 justifiable at such a time, and the most severe measures 
 are not too harsh. Boards of Directors should be prompt 
 to respond to the appeals of the teacher and expel those 
 who plot the downfall of the school. If, however, the 
 conspiracy can be broken up by using corporal punish- 
 ment, it is better that this should first be tried, leaving 
 expulsion as the final punishment. 
 
 18. A General Disregard for the Good Order of the 
 School. — Thoughtlessness on the part of pupils will 
 always be the source of more or less disorder, and great 
 patience is consequently demanded of the teacher. Much 
 disorder arises, however, from a spirit of recklessness on 
 the part of pupils, and a disregard of what is demanded 
 of them in school. Self-enjoyment is uppermost in 
 tiieir minds, and this becomes the ruling motive of their 
 actions. As a, result, if they feel like talking, they talk ; 
 if they are inclined to quarrel, they quarrel ; and so on. 
 
 The kinds of offenses arising under this general disre- 
 gard for the order of the school are numerous. Among 
 them are loud talking, walking heavily over the floor, 
 calling to the teacher, making a noise with the chairs 
 and the desk-lids, throwing books forcibly upon the 
 desks, boisterous laughter, forced coughing, leaving the 
 seats without permission, etc., all of which have their 
 special modes of punishment, as heretofore suggested. 
 
 Talking pupils may be separated from the others; 
 those who walk heavily may be put to practice in light 
 walking ; those who call to the teacher may be made to 
 sit near him on the platform ; those who are noisy at 
 their desks may be deprived of the privilege of sitting
 
 SCHOOL, GOVERNMENT. 241 
 
 at d('sks ; those who throw books forcibly upon the desk 
 may be required to pick tlieni u]) again and lay them 
 down quietly; boisterous laughter and unnecessary cough- 
 ing may be quieted by a warning look from the teacher, 
 to be followed by a subsequent private reproof; leaving 
 the seats without permission may be punished by re- 
 fusing to permit the pupil to return to his seat, directing 
 him to the platform instead, — thus adapting the pun- 
 ishment in every case to the nature of the offense 
 committed. 
 
 19. A General Disregard for Study. — Pupils who are 
 inclined to waste time or who neglect to prepare their 
 lessons may be punished in various ways. Among the 
 most effective methods is that of making their class- 
 standing depend on their progress. Those who fail to 
 keep pace with their classmates because of idleness may 
 be required to join a lower class. Occasionally their 
 class-record may be read to the scholars, and the com- 
 parison be drawn between the studious and the idle, 
 showing the comparative progress of the two kinds of 
 pupils. Taking away the play-privileges from those 
 who fail to do their school work is also found to be an 
 effective mode of punishment. 
 
 20. Irregular Attendance. — When irregular attendance 
 is the fault of the parent, as it often is, it would be unfair 
 for the teacher to administer any punishment beyond that 
 which Nature inflicts in the loss of position in school and 
 class-standing. Not the child, but the parent, is the one 
 deserving blame. 
 
 Where irregular attendance is the result of the child's 
 
 16
 
 242 SCIIOOT. MANAGEMENT. 
 
 dislike for school or his aversion to study, the teachci 
 should meet the difficulty by trying to make school pleas- 
 ant and inviting and create in the pupil a love for study. 
 The child is punished for irregularity of attendance, partly 
 by his loss of class-position and partly by the greater dif- 
 ficulties he experiences in the study of disconnected les- 
 sons as the result of his absence from the school. Tn 
 addition to these, a proper punishment would be that 
 of putting him in lower classes as he is found to fall 
 more and more behind his classmates. 
 
 21. Truancy. — This offense adds deception to irregular- 
 ity of attendance. The same methods as heretofore advised 
 should be used to induce the attendance of the child at 
 school ; but there are depraved natures which cannot be 
 reached by even the greatest patience and kindness on 
 the part of the teacher. Truants deceive not only teach- 
 ers, but also parents. An effective means of breaking up 
 truancy is for the teacher and the parents to work in en- 
 tire harmony, the teacher reporting every absence as it 
 occurs, and the parent reporting to the teacher every 
 time the child is necessarily detained at home. Con- 
 stant vigilance is necessary on the part of both. 
 
 Where a truant's example proves injurious to the 
 school, and the teacher does not have the co-operation 
 of the parent, there seems to be nothing left, if the 
 pupil does not feel his class degradation, except suspen- 
 sion or expulsion. But the teacher should, before resort- 
 ing to either, exhaust every other means in his power to 
 reclaim the pupil and teach him self-respect.
 
 CHAPTER A^I. 
 The Teacher. 
 
 It is not necessary to argue that the teacher should be 
 qualified for the work which his profession imposes upon 
 him. The unqualified teacher is of course unfit for the 
 place he occupies. It is hoped that the time is past when 
 every one that chose could step from the position of 
 plough-boy or sewing-girl to the teacher's desk, and 
 without any preliminary preparation attempt to manage 
 the school-children of a community, and instruct, guide, 
 and direct the minds and mould the characters of -tlie 
 future citizens. The work is of too much importance 
 to permit its being placed in the hands of the untrained 
 and the inexperienced. 
 
 The Teacher's Qualifications may be said to have a 
 fourfold character — physical, intellectual, professional, and 
 moral. 
 
 1. The Teacher's Physical Qualifications. 
 
 1. The Teacher should Have Good Health. — He should, 
 if possible, be a person of good physical development 
 and sound constitution. Those whose nervous organ- 
 ization is weak, or whose health is such that they are 
 easily unbalanced by excitement, should not think of 
 becoming teachers. Good management and good teach- 
 ing need coolness and deliberation. Dyspeptics, if in- 
 
 243
 
 244 SCHOOL MANAGEMExNT. 
 
 clined to be moody and morose or ill-natured, ought not 
 i . teach. Their example is an unsafe one for children 
 to imitate, and for the sake of their own health as well 
 as that of their pupils they should engage in work of a 
 different character. 
 
 2. The Teacher should be a Person of Good Hygienic 
 Habits. — It is not enough that he enter upon his work 
 with good health ; it is necessary also that he preserve 
 his health by giving due attention to hygienic laws. The 
 person who takes upon himself the work of the school- 
 room will find that his duties are by no means light, 
 and that constant watchfulness is needed in order that 
 the physical system may not be caused to suffer. 
 
 The teacher must give heed to the following hygienic 
 suggestions: 
 
 1. He must give due attention to the ventilation of the 
 school-room, that the air may be as pure as possible. 
 
 2. He must take sufficient exercise in the open air, that 
 his blood may be made pure and life-sustaining. 
 
 3. He must eat healthful, nutritious food, and enough 
 of it to satisfy the demands of health. 
 
 4. He must take sufficient sleep and at regular times. 
 
 5. He must alternate work with recreation, that the 
 mind as well as the body may have its proper degree 
 of rest. 
 
 6. He must avoid the use of stimulants as a beverage, 
 also narcotics ; the teacher needs a clear brain. 
 
 7. He must give due attention to his clothing, that the 
 temperature of his body may vary as little as possible. 
 
 8. He must give proper attention to light when 
 engaged in study, that his sight may be preserved 
 uninjured.
 
 THE TEACHER. 245 
 
 9. He must preserve an even temper, that the noise 
 and worry of the school m^y not cause undue nervous 
 excitement and exhaustion. 
 
 10. He must give proper attention to bathing, that the 
 skin may be kept in a healthy condition. 
 
 11. He must give attention to social culture, both for 
 relaxation of mind and for the good it will do him to 
 become better acquainted with the community. 
 
 12. He must take regular physical exercise of some 
 kind, that his muscles may become strengthened, his 
 brain be kept clear, and his physical constitution re- 
 main vigorous. 
 
 2. The Teacher's Intellectual Qualifications. 
 
 1. His Scholarship should be Thorough. — The teacher 
 should feel that he has mastered the branches he at- 
 tempts to teach. A knowledge of the textbook in use 
 and its contents is not enough. He should know what 
 other textbooks contain, and in addition to this much 
 that is not to be found in textbooks. To illustrate, his 
 knowledge of the geography of a country must be broader 
 than is given in any textbook. Cyclopaedias, gazetteers, 
 newspapers, etc. should be consulted, that he may have 
 a fund of knowledge with which to illustrate and add 
 to the textbook matter. 
 
 2. His Knowledge should be Broad and General. — All 
 knowledge gives culture. The teacher whose know- 
 ledge extends beyond the branches he attempts to teach 
 will be more successful than he who knows only what he 
 attempts to impart to others. The teacher whose know- 
 ledge includes Algebra and Geometry will teach Arith- 
 metic better than one whose knowledge of mathematics
 
 246 SCHOOL. MANAGEMENT. 
 
 is limited to Arithmetic alone. Thus, alsc, one will 
 teach Reading much better by having a thorough know- 
 ledge of Grammar, Rhetoric, and Etymology, or Geog- 
 raphy better from a knowledge of History, Geology, and 
 Mineralogy. Each study helps to broaden our knowledge 
 of the others. The broader and the more extensive the 
 knowledge of the teacher the better the work he will be 
 enabled to accomplish. 
 
 3. His Knowledge should be Accurate. — Pupils repose 
 little confidence in the teacher whose knowledge is fre- 
 quently found to be inaccurate, and their confidence in 
 him will be still less if he is unwilling to acknowledge 
 a mistake when he is found to be in error. It is a hard 
 thing to acknowledge a mistake, but the teacher should 
 not hesitate for a moment to correct himself or admit 
 the error when his attention is called to it by the pupil. 
 It would be much better, of course, if he were to make 
 no errors. Should he find himself unable to answer a 
 question, he should be candid enough to say so frankly, 
 or offer to search out the answer for the pupil. 
 
 4. He should Keep Pace with Current History. — The 
 teacher who does not keep up with the progress of the 
 times necessarily retrogrades. No one should have a 
 more thorough knowledge of what is taking place at 
 present than the teacher. He needs this knowledge to 
 awaken interest, to illustrate, and to adapt his teaching 
 to the times in which he lives. This knowledo-e must 
 be not only of the current events of his own national 
 history, but also of other countries and nations. The 
 teacher must be a politician in the sense that he must 
 know thoroughly the history, both past and present, of 
 his own country.
 
 THE TEACHEK. 247 
 
 5. He must Have a Well-disciplined Mind. — Discipline 
 is the chief end of etlucatiou. The teacher who hopes 
 to train the minds of others and impart mental discipline 
 ranst himself possess a mind well disciplined. The teacher 
 must be a clear, logical thinker. Every thought must be 
 well defined. His knowledge must not be a mass of dis- 
 connected facts and details, but well classified and sys- 
 tematized as a whole. One whose knowledge consists 
 of disintegrated fragments is hardly prepared to give 
 systematic training to the minds of others. The teach- 
 er's knowledge should be so methodically arranged in his 
 mind that he may have it always at command. 
 
 6. His Knowledge should be Available. — A lack of men- 
 tal discipline makes one's knowledge unavailable. We 
 may pursue our studies in such a way as to gather a great 
 number of facts, and yet have none at command when 
 most needed. The teacher should be able to tell what 
 he knows, and tell it in such a way as to attract and in- 
 terest his j)upils. He must necessarily be able to put his 
 thoughts in good language also, not only that his pupils 
 may understand, but also that they may find his manner 
 of expression such as is worthy of imitation. Ability to 
 communicate our ideas readily and understandingly is one 
 of the essentials of successful teaching. 
 
 7. He should Have a Knowledge of the Human Mind.— 
 A knowledge of the mental faculties and their mode of 
 operation is of great benefit to every one who in any 
 sense finds it necessary to influence the minds of others. 
 In this respect the teacher and the orator find themselves 
 on a common level. But in addition to this the teacher 
 must know the relative order of development of these 
 faculties and the best methods of culture. The order
 
 248 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 of studies and the methods of teaching each individual 
 study must be harmonized with the order of mental 
 development. To attempt to teach subjects which re- 
 quire highly-developed reasoning powers at an age when 
 the child's reasoning faculties are yet undeveloped would 
 be not only useless, but also mischievous. The teacher 
 must be a student of psychology at least to such an 
 extent as will enable him to understand the operation 
 of the various mental powei-s, their order of develop- 
 ment, their proper methods of culture, and the studies 
 best adapted to the culture of each. 
 
 8. He should Have a Thorough Knowledge of the Hu- 
 man Body. — A knowledge of Human Physiology and 
 Hygiene is essential to every teacher, not only that he 
 may know how best to preserve his own health, but also 
 that he may know how to give the best physical training 
 to his pupils and care for their health and comfort. The 
 physical welfare of both pupils and teacher is quite as 
 important as their mental welfare, and no less preparation 
 should be made to promote tlie one than to promote the 
 other. It would be well for every teacher were he re- 
 quired to pass an examination in Physiology and Hy- 
 giene before being permitted to enter the school-room as 
 a teacher. This knowledge would aid him greatly also 
 in understanding the causes of disorder, and thus enable 
 him to manage the school more successfully. 
 
 3. The Teacher's Professional Qualifications. 
 
 Teaching is a science. Its principles are readily de- 
 termined and reduced to a system. Like most other 
 sciences, it is empirical. Its principles are the result of 
 observation and experience. School Management and
 
 THE TEACHER. 249 
 
 Methods of Culture and Instruction enilrace the prin- 
 ciples of this science, and they may of course be taught 
 to those preparing for the work of teaching. This is 
 properly the work of Normal Schools and Teachers' In- 
 stitutes. But no agency can implant in any mind those 
 elements of character which are essential to success in 
 this calling. 
 
 Aptness to Teach is the first great requisite to success. 
 Teachers are born, not made. Normal Schools may de- 
 velop latent talent, but they cannot change or displace 
 the elements of character which Nature has implanted in 
 the human mind. No medical school can make a skill- 
 ful surgeon of one who is awkward, however M^ell it 
 may teach the anatomy of the human body or deftly ex- 
 plain the principles underlying skillful surgical practice ; 
 nor can it make a kind, sympathizing physician of an 
 uncouth and brutal man. All it can do, and all any 
 professional school can pretend to do, is to develop and 
 train that latent power with which Nature may have en- 
 dowed the individual. It is the business of the Nor- 
 mal School to acquaint its students with the best methods 
 of teaching, culture, discipline, and all else that concerns 
 the great work in which they are to engage, but to pre- 
 tend to make expert teachers and disciplinarians of those 
 who by Nature are deprived of that aptness for teaching 
 and discipline which characterizes all successful teachers, 
 would be mere quackery. 
 
 This aptness or special fitness to teach embraces a 
 number of professional qualifications, each of which is 
 more or less important. 
 
 1. The Teacher should be Able to Manage Well. — In- 
 ability to manage a school is in most cases the chief
 
 250 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 source of failure. The teacher needs a thorough know- 
 ledge of humau nature. He nuist be ingenious, wide 
 awake, energetic, cool-headed, and have the skill neces- 
 sary to adapt means to ends. He must be a constant 
 student of child mind and character. He should ac- 
 quaint himself Avith the children's whims and caprices. 
 He ought to examine carefully into the experience of 
 others, and wisely shape his own work by their success 
 or failure. He should also study carefully the principles 
 of management, and modify them in his own practice to 
 suit the circumstances of each particular case. 
 
 The teacher needs tact. Child-nature is but human 
 nature, and it is much the same throughout the civilized 
 world. The teacher should study the art of management 
 thoroughly, and then have the tact necessary to adapt 
 his methods to the control of every case that may arise. 
 No man can less afford to enter upon his work without 
 this preliminary training than can the teacher. 
 
 2. The Teacher should Have a Full Knowledge of his 
 Work. — He must understand fully the objects of edu- 
 cation. He must understand not only the human mind, 
 but also how to give it proper culture. He should un- 
 derstand the capacities of the mind, and have definite 
 ends in view as to its training. He must understand 
 that the child is not a mere receiver into which he can 
 pour all sorts of knowledge, but rather that it is a being 
 capable of almost unlimited culture, and that his mis- 
 sion is not to impart knowledge so much as it is to place 
 the child in such a favorable position as will enable it to 
 gain knowledge by its own efforts. 
 
 3. The Teacher should be Acquainted with the Best 
 Methods of Teaching. — It is a grave error to think that
 
 THE TEACHER. 251 
 
 any one of good education can teach well. Teaching is 
 a profession in itself. Many years of experience have 
 developed new and valuable methods of imparting in- 
 struction, and the most successful teacher is he that 
 keeps pace with the progress of his profession in adoi)t- 
 ing as his own what he finds valuable in all methods. 
 The approved methods of the present represent the 
 thought, culture, and experience of centuries. The pres- 
 entation of a subject to the minds of children is no 
 longer a haphazard proceeding, but it is governed in- 
 stead by methods which have been fully tested and 
 which are based on well-fixed principles. 
 
 In addition to a knowledge of these methods the 
 teacher must have skillful practice. The beginner can- 
 not expect to succeed as does the one who has been prac- 
 ticing correct methods for a series of years. Practice 
 and experience give one faith and confidence in his 
 work. It is only continued practice tliat brings great 
 skill. 
 
 4. Tlie Teacher should Have a Thorougli Knowledge of 
 Educational Means. — He should understand the wants of 
 every individual child. He should not only know when 
 to punish, but also what punishment to inflict. He 
 should know not only what branches ought to be taught 
 to the child, but also when they should be taught. He 
 should know not only in what order the mental powers 
 are developed, but also what studies are best suited to 
 aid in that development. Ho should know not only 
 how to instruct, but also how to train, and how to use 
 the means in his power to accomplish the desired end. 
 
 5. He should Have the Ability to Impart Instruction in 
 an Interesting Manner. — The interesting teacher is always
 
 252 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 tlie successful teacher. He is also the teacher who at- 
 tracts pupils to liis school, and keeps them there. A 
 child that is interested never fails to love school and 
 to learn. The teacher, too, who succeeds in interesting 
 iiis pupils finds little to do in the matter of government 
 or management. Indeed, interested pupils find little time 
 to be mischievous or disorderly. An. interesting teacher 
 is therefore usually also a good disciplinarian as well as a 
 good instructor. 
 
 6. The Teacher miist be a Wise Legislator. — It will fall 
 to his lot to make many of the regulations by which the 
 school shall be controlled. These regulations should be 
 such as will \vin the approbation not only of the children, 
 but also of the community. It will often be found to be 
 the case that the teacher can secure the assent of the pu- 
 pils in the adoption of such regulations as may be judicious 
 and necessary. Great wisdom is needed in the adoption 
 of rules, that they be such only as are found necessary 
 for the best interests of the school. All other rules 
 are mischievous and calculated to do more harm than 
 good. 
 
 7. The Teacher should be an Efficient Executive. — He 
 must not only know how to make wise rules, but also 
 how to enforce them wisely and impartially. The teacher 
 must have no favorites when it comes to enforcing rules or 
 administering discipline. His judgment should be clear 
 and unbiased. He should look on all sides of an oifeuse. 
 He should clearly understand what motive prompted the 
 offender, and if punishment be found necessary he should 
 administer it impartially. Order should be preserved, 
 but it were better that ninety-nine guilty should escape 
 rather than that one innocent pupil should be unwisely
 
 THE TEACHER. 253 
 
 or unjuritly punished. The teacher ought to make no 
 mistakes in this direction. 
 
 The teacher must be eflSeient, not only in liscipline, 
 but also in the entire management of the school. Classes 
 should be promptly called and promptly dismissed, ques- 
 tions should be put promptly, and prompt answers should 
 be required in return. All the school work should be 
 done in good order and at the proper lime. The teacher 
 needs to be wide awake, prompt, and self-possessed at all 
 times. A school under the guidance of an efficient execu- 
 tive approaches as nearly as possible to self-government. 
 
 8. He should be Interested in the Advancement of Ms 
 Profession. — Teachers cannot afford to ignore the pro- 
 fession which they represent. They should rather be 
 active to assist in building it up. They should attend 
 Teachers' Institutes and Conventions, and assist in mak- 
 ing them practical and instructive. They should watch 
 carefully the progress of educational events, read educa- 
 tional journals, and, whenever possible, contribute to the 
 columns of these journals anything they may have found 
 of value in their own experience. They should contend 
 for the rights of their profession, and show its importance 
 to those who attempt to throw ridicule upon it. They 
 should advocate professional training for this calling as 
 for any other, but not at the expense of the children, as 
 is necessarily the case where a young teacher enters the 
 school-room without training, and practices on the pupils 
 for many years until he acquires by experience what he 
 might have learned in a year or two by tlie careful study 
 of educational handbooks or received by training and in- 
 struction at a well-conducted Normal Scliool. 
 
 9. The Teacher should be Progressive — He nmst be a
 
 254 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 dose stadoiit, keeping up witli the times not only in his 
 knowledge of current history, but also in that which most 
 closely concerns his own profession. He should visit the 
 schools of other teachers, and be a close observer of their 
 methods of instruction and management. He should con- 
 stantly strive for professional improvement. He should 
 not rest satisfied with knowing that he is esteemed a good 
 teacher, but earnestly strive to become as good as the best. 
 He should not condemn new methods, but carefully ex- 
 amine them and weigh their merits, and, if he find them 
 good, adopt them, unless he already has a better. 
 
 10. The Teacher should be Liberal in his Views. — He 
 should give the widest latitude to the thoughts of others. 
 He should not bind himself to any one method, and in- 
 sist upon that as being the only correct method. Rad- 
 ical ism in education is fanaticism of the narrowest type. 
 The liberal-minded teacher never rides hobbies, but, on 
 the other hand, sees good in what others do as well as in 
 what he himself does. The liberal teacher does not con- 
 demn new methods because they are new, nor, on the 
 other hand, does he adopt them because of their nov- 
 elty. He' considers their merits and demerits, tests them 
 in practice, judges of their results, and adopts or rejects as 
 he deems most wise. 
 
 4. The Teacher's Moral Qiialiiacatioiis. 
 
 Among the chief moral qualifications which should 
 characterize the good teacher are the following: 
 
 1. He shoidd be a Good Man. — The example of the 
 teacher is powerful in moulding the character of the 
 young. The teacher's moral character and his conduct 
 should be. entirely above reproach. He shouM be a
 
 THE TEACHER. 255 
 
 model that his pupils may imitate with profit. Not 
 only his teachings, but also his conduct, should be such 
 as to win the approbation of the community. He need 
 not be sanctimonious and solemn — indeed, he should not 
 be, for such traits of moral character are repulsive to chil- 
 dren — but his virtues should be of such a positive nature 
 as to guide his pujjils aright without even the aid of moral 
 teachings. 
 
 2. He should be Impartial. — No one more nearly fills 
 the position of legislator and judge in one than does the 
 teacher. He not only makes his own laws, but he also 
 expounds and executes them. Should he be partial in 
 his treatment of pupils or in the application of his laws, 
 the injustice will be detected at once by those who suffer. 
 In his judgments he must show no favoritism. All his 
 pupils, whether rich or poor, high or low, bright or stupid, 
 sliould have the same rights and privileges. He is not, 
 indeed, called upon to love all alike, but he must be im- 
 partial to all, unless some have by their conduct forfeited 
 all claims to respect; but even in such cases kind and im- 
 partial treatment will frequently reclaim those who have 
 been given up as lost, 
 
 3. He should be Friendly to Children. — Friendship is a 
 motive-power which influences all of us, and leads us to 
 do our work better than we \vould in its absence. We 
 do those things cheerfully for our friends which other- 
 wise we would leave undone or do only under a pressing 
 sense of duty. This rule holds also with children. For 
 those who have a kind word of commendation and for 
 those whom they regard as their friends they are ever ready 
 to be obedient and obliging. The teacher who can lead 
 his pupils to feel that he is their friend, and that every-
 
 256 SCHOOL MAKAGEMEXT, 
 
 thing he does is for tlieir ■welfare, has reduced the diffi- 
 culties of discipline to the minimum. But, independent 
 of the advantages which the teacher reaps from his 
 being friendly to children, it is one of his plain 
 moral duties to be friendly to all those who are placed in 
 his charge. It is not enough that he treat them impar- 
 tially ; it is not enough that he be a good man. Many a 
 good man, so far as worldly judgment goes, is strictly im- 
 partial and just, but at the same time austere, sullen, mo- 
 rose, and inclined to weigh in the balance every act of 
 childhood strictly according to justice, without showing 
 any disposition to be either merciful, kind, or generous. 
 
 The teacher whom the children regard as their friend 
 wields an influence in moulding character whose power 
 can scarcely be estimated. It was this which in a great 
 measure gave to Dr. Arnold almost unlimited power and 
 influence at Rugby; and it is this which in every case, 
 from the primary school to the university, brings to the 
 side of the teacher those warm advocates and adherents 
 who in both act and speech are ever ready to do battle 
 for his good name and the work on which his reputation, 
 is based. 
 
 4. The Teacher should Love Children. — The man or the 
 woman who has no love for children, no sympathy with 
 childhood, no disposition to overlook the little frailties 
 which have characterized children ever since the creation 
 of the race, ought to have no place in the school-room. 
 If there are persons who are totally and absolutely unfit 
 for the position of teacher, they are the men who have 
 no love for children, and no disposition to overlook and 
 excuse the shortcomings and the thoughtlessness of way- 
 ward childish impulses.
 
 THE TEACHER. 257 
 
 As has been said heretofore, no teacher probably will 
 have the same degree of affection for all the pupils of 
 his school. This is hardly possible, for the personal 
 character of pupils differs greatly, and we find the vary- 
 ing shades of character from amiability to selfishness so 
 distinct, and some faults so positive, that, in the nature 
 of things, while the teacher may love all, there are some 
 for whom his affection will be more marked than for 
 others. And yet even in such cases his love may prove 
 all-powerful in guiding and directing them aright. 
 
 5. Tlie Teacher should be an Agreeable Compamon. — 
 Few teachers wield so great an influence over their school 
 as do they who try to make themselves agreeable, pleas- 
 ant, and social)le with their pupils. The child who 
 feels that he can approach his teacher and have a social 
 talk M'ith him, or now and then relate a story or enjoy a 
 joke in his presence, is ready at all times to defend that 
 teacher, and he will at the same time hold him in the 
 very highest regard. 
 
 This pleasantness of manner should manifest itself 
 also iu the recitation. Of course the object of the reci- 
 tation is work, but if that work can be done in an 
 agreeable and i)leasant manner by both teacher and 
 pupils, it will be all the better. If the teacher can occa- 
 sionally relate an amusing anecdote which will serve to 
 create interest while it also amuses, let him do so. A 
 good laugh in class, or indeed a good laugh iu \Yhich the 
 whole school may join, will be quite as beneficial as if 
 the time were employed in hard study. 
 
 The teacher ought to be cheerful at all times, though 
 he should never be undignified, for clownishness does 
 not become a teacher. Tn the recitation he should be
 
 258 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 bright, lively, aud sparkling, and at recess or out of 
 school he should have a cheerful word for every one he 
 meets. He should let the pupils feel that he is interested 
 in their sports and that he enjoys their jjlays with them. 
 Indeed, if his discipline be such that his pupils thor- 
 oughly respect hira, it will be entirely approj)riate for 
 him to join in their plays, and thus heigliten the chil- 
 dren's enjoyment. 
 
 Even in the matter of refusing requests, the teacher 
 may do it in such a way that the pupil will thoroughly 
 respect him and see all the more clearly the necessity for 
 the refusal. The same is true in administering punish- 
 ment. If the pupil see that the teacher administers 
 punishment reluctantly, and with as little austerity as 
 possible, he will respect that teacher all the more and ac- 
 knowledge the justice of the penalty. But if the teacher 
 be gruff, and show by his manner that he is spiteful, 
 vindictive, and revengeful, the pupil at once loses respect 
 for liim, and the chief ends of punishment are defeated. 
 
 /f It is a serious mistake to supj^ose that because a 
 teacher calls attention to a fault good-naturedly the pupil 
 gives no heed to the reproof. Scolding accomplishes little 
 at any time, and in the end it simply makes the teacher 
 ridiculous, while it loses all possible good effect on the 
 pupil. It is a common subject of remark with reference 
 to a cross teacher, "Oh, you must get used to his scold- 
 ing ; it does not mean anything." WJiat shall be said, 
 however, of discipline which pupils seek to extenuate in 
 order to excuse a teacher's weakness of character ? Good- 
 natured reproof, on the other hand, is much the more 
 effective, and it also preserves the pupil's respect for the 
 discipline and personal fitness of the teacher.
 
 THE TEACHER. 259 
 
 6. The Teacher should be Neat in Person. — " Cleanliness 
 is next to godliness." One of the teacher's physical 
 qualifications is that he should be a person of good hy- 
 gienic habits. This is also to some extent a moral qual- 
 ification. The personal habits of the teacher will be 
 copied by his pupils, and this is true not only of his 
 habits, but also of his manner of dress. Let him be 
 untidy and slovenly, and his pupils will follow his ex- 
 ample. Let him be careful to keep his desk, his person, 
 and his clothing clean and neat, and without a word of 
 instruction one after another the pupils will acquire tlie 
 habit of neatness. 
 
 His influence is either for good or for evil ; and this 
 being true, it is not only expedient, but it becomes also 
 a positive moral duty, for him to set such an example in 
 both his dress and his manner as will be profitable for his 
 pupils to imitate. 
 
 7. The Teacher should be Honest and Truthful. — It seems 
 hardly necessary to argue the importance of this moral 
 qualification of teachers, and yet so many are untruthful 
 and dishonest in a certain sense that it becomes a matter 
 of serious import. It is necessary that the teacher be 
 honest and truthful — ■ 
 
 1. To Himself. — He has no right to overwork himself 
 and destroy his health in his enthusiasm and anxiety to 
 win a reputation or in his desire to succeed and make a 
 good impression on the community. His effort to do 
 good is laudable, but the claims of society and the claims 
 of his own health must not be ignored. 
 
 2. To His Pupils. — Independent of the culture an<l 
 instruction which the teacher owes to his pupils, it is 
 his duty to be truthful and candid in telling them their
 
 260 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 faults when such a course becomes necessary. It is both 
 wise and proper that be encourage them, but 1 e ought not 
 to encourage in such a way as to leave the pupils under 
 the impression that the work they are doing is good and 
 satisfactory when the reverse of this is the truth. 
 
 He must be honest in his work with them, doing all for 
 them that it is their right to expect. He must be truth- 
 ful as to his ability also in the matter of overcoming dif- 
 ficulties. He has no right to answer questions at random, 
 and then, when he finds himself in error, attempt to con- 
 ceal it by passing on hastily to something else or by 
 assuming that it is impertinent for his pupils to doubt 
 his statements. The teacher has no right to be untruth- 
 ful by design, and when he finds himself wrong uninten- 
 tionally it is but right to make the proper correction at 
 once. 
 
 3. To His Patrons. — The teacher has no right to de- 
 ceive his patrons by telling them falsehoods as to the 
 progress of their children. It is much easier to say a 
 good word of every child, however dull, than to state 
 the exact truth to the parent. But the i)areut is rarely 
 deceived by a false statement. No one knows the weak 
 points and the shortcomings of a child better than does 
 the parent. A false statement with reference to a child'?! 
 progress, therefore, simj)ly leads the patron to believe the 
 teacher untruthful and dishonest. 
 
 8. The Teacher should be Modest. — Especially should 
 he be modest with reference to telling of what he has ac- 
 complished. If he be a progressive and energetic teacher 
 who has done much good in a district, there will always 
 be many who will gladly speak words of praise in his 
 favor. Many, of course, will be envious and seek every
 
 THE TEACHER. 261 
 
 occasion to misrepresent him and his work. So long as 
 cynics and gossips exist we must expect them to find 
 fault, but it is not the good opinion of these that the 
 wise teacher seeks to win, and he need give them no 
 attention. Modesty will win friends for him among 
 those whose friendship is worth having, where a spirit 
 of boastfulness would tend to estrange and disgust 
 them. 
 
 9. The Teacher should be Industrious and Faithful. — 
 This is a requisite of success in every calling. The 
 industrious teacher who is faithful to his employers and 
 the interests of his school need have little fear of failure, 
 unless, indeed, there be some very grave defects in other 
 essential requisites of character. Lazy teachers ought 
 never to be employed. The work of teaching needs 
 energy, industry, and tact such as is not found in a 
 man who is indolent. In addition to this, the exam- 
 ple of a lazy teacher is pernicious in making the pupils 
 careless and idle. 
 
 10. The Teacher should be Conscientious. — This requisite 
 or qualification of the teacher embraces many of his other 
 moral qualifications, for a conscientious man wuU under 
 all circumstances strive to do his duty. A conscientious 
 teacher will do his duty not only to his pupils, but also 
 to the patrons and school officers of the district. He will 
 be careful also to see that the school property is well pre- 
 served. He will look well to the health as well as to the 
 progress of his pupils — to their physical and their moral 
 welfare as well as to their intellectual wants. He will 
 see to it that the governing principle which rules him- 
 self as well as the school is the desire to do right at all 
 times, and this principle will guide and direct him in all
 
 262 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 his work both while in the school-room arc! while engaged 
 in cultivating an educational sentiment in the community. 
 
 5. Faults to be Ayoided by Teachers. 
 
 There are few teachers who approximate perfection in 
 tlie matter of School Management. Even the best often 
 find themselves unconsciously making mistakes which 
 to some extent interfere with their progress and success. 
 Many of these mistakes may, with proper forethought 
 and caution, be avoided. The chief of them are named 
 in the following pages. Young teachers particularly 
 should give them careful consideration and avoid them 
 whenever possible. 
 
 1. Hobby-Riding. — The teacher may have hobbies 
 either in Management or in Methods of Instruction. 
 Both are alike objectionable, and both indicate a nar- 
 rowness of mind which ought not to be characteristic 
 of a teacher. Liberal-minded men are not given to 
 the riding of hobbies. 
 
 In Government the hobby-rider is either a strict advo- 
 cate of the old-time corporal punishment, to be adminis- 
 tered in such a way as will cause the culprit to keep it in 
 lively remembrance, or he is an advocate of moral suasion, 
 who believes that under no circumstances should a child 
 ever be subjected to physical punishment. There is no 
 middle ground for the hobby-rider; he must gravitate 
 from one extreme to the other. 
 
 In MefJiods the hobby-rider drifts rapidly from one to 
 another, being an advocate of each in turn. First he ad- 
 vocates no oral instruction, and, failing here, flies imme- 
 diately to the opposite extreme, and insists on it that 
 neither the teacher nor the pupil shall have anything
 
 THE TEACHER. 263 
 
 to do with textbooks. At one time he devotes the 
 greater part of his attention to oral spelling; suddenly 
 he is converted to a new method, and from that time 
 forward all recitations must be conducted in writing. 
 For a while his hobby is oral arithmetic, and he re- 
 gards the great object of it as being the ability to solve 
 all the puzzling questions of some textbook on that 
 branch ; then he becomes an ardent advocate of the policy 
 of discarding oral arithmetic entirely and solving prob- 
 lems by the v/ritten process alone. For a while his hobby 
 is object lessons, then it is oral instruction, then language 
 lessons, then the spelling reform ; and thus from one to 
 another, never stopping long enough to inquire into the 
 merits of any of his hobbies, but ever deserting the old 
 for the new. 
 
 Teachers should have no hobbies ; they should inquire 
 narrowly into the merits of all methods, and, having 
 wisely made their choice, steadily adhere to it until con- 
 vinced that something more valuable is within their 
 reach. 
 
 2. Adhering too Closely to Textbooks. — Textbooks are 
 meant to be an aid only, and the teacher should not in- 
 sist that the words of any book be memorized. Herbert 
 Spencer says, " The function of books is supplementary 
 — a means of seeing through other men's eyes what you 
 cannot see for yourself." The facts and the principles 
 are the important things to know, not the exact words in 
 which they are stated. I remember distinctly hearing in 
 my boyhood the following question and answer: 
 
 Teacha\ Why does blowing uj)on hot cofl'ee make it 
 cooler ? 
 
 Pupil Because the breath is cooler than the coffee,
 
 2(84 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 and the temperature of the two tends to become 
 equalized. 
 
 But tlie teacher was not satisfied with this original 
 and correct answer ; it was not the answer of the text- 
 book ; so the question was passed to the next pupil, who 
 informed the class that it was because the peculiar shape 
 of the mouth in blowing made the breath cooler. The 
 boy who gave the first answer lost his faith in that 
 teacher, and he had but little respect for his ability ever 
 after. 
 
 Teacher, if a pupil give you a correct answer in his 
 own language, acce])t it without question, though it be 
 neither so elegant nor so concisely expressed as it is in 
 the textbook. Show your pupils how to get the sense, 
 the meaning, out of the printed page. They can read 
 the words for themselves, but sometimes they do not 
 know how to use the textbook to the best advantage. 
 
 3. Teaching Words instead of Ideas.— This is one of 
 the chief errors of inexperienced teachers. Pupils 
 should understand Avhat they attempt to learn. The 
 mere memorizing of i^age after page without compre- 
 hension trains but one faculty of the mind, and that in 
 a way and to an extent not to be commended. A single 
 idea awakened in the mind of the child by a skillful 
 and suggestive teacher is worth more than a week's 
 memorizing. It is the business of the teacher to arouse 
 thought, to develop mind, to put the child in such a 
 state that he may gain knowledge and training by his 
 own effort, and not to crowd the mind and tax the mem- 
 ory with a collection of meaningless words. 
 
 4. Too Mucli Memorizing. — The tendency under the 
 older forms and methods of education was to train the
 
 THE TEACHER. 265 
 
 memory almost wliolly at the expense and to the neglect 
 of the other faculties. This was to some extent the re- 
 sult of the deficiency of books and printing. Libraries 
 were scarce, and even after the invention of printing the 
 price of books was so high that only the wealthy coulJ 
 indulge in the luxury of reading. Newspaj^ers had not 
 been introduced. As a consequence, the memory was 
 cultured to a much greater extent than at present, and 
 courses of study were arranged accordingly. In later 
 years Ave still have adhered somewhat to the old methods, 
 possibly because of the fact that the memory is that 
 power by which we are best able to make a disj)lay of 
 our knowledge. The best methods of culture train the 
 mental powers symmetrically, giving the memory its 
 due share of training, but not at the expense of the ob- 
 serving powers or any of the other mental faculties. 
 
 5. Educational Cramming. — The enthusiastic teacher is 
 anxious usually to do more in the way of imparting 
 knowledge than is really beneficial to the child. Some- 
 times also this educational cramming is the result of a 
 forced preparation for examination. Lessons are often 
 too long; too much haste is made to finish a book; too 
 many studies are undertaken ; and often certain branches 
 are taught at too early an age. Sometimes parents urge 
 upon the teacher the importance of spurring on the 
 children. The teacher is assured that the children have 
 plenty of spare time in the evening, and that it would 
 be better if they had more study to engage their atten- 
 tion at that time. The teacher becomes anxious, and 
 feels that he ought to require more work of the pupils, 
 and he therefore lengthens the lessons or adds more 
 studies to the schedule; and the final result is a super-
 
 266 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 ficial knowledge of many things, and no thorough know- 
 ledge of the principles of any study. 
 
 Til is cramming also partakes of the nature of useless 
 facts and details which we attempt to force into the minds 
 of our pupils. As a result, useful knowledge is sacrificed, 
 mental training is ignored, and the chief ends of educa- 
 tion are defeated in our effort to furnish our children 
 with knowledge and make them living cyclopaedias. 
 
 We should not attempt to train the faculties nor im- 
 part knowledge more rapidly than the mental growth 
 and development of the learner will permit. The 
 growth of the child's mind must be a healthy growth if 
 we desire to have the mind healthy in after life. 
 
 6. Attempting to Teacli Too Much. — The teacher should 
 not attempt to teach his pupils all that he himself knows. 
 Much must be left untaught. Pupils learn but slowly. 
 Their minds develoj) in accordance with fixed laws, and 
 normal growth cannot be judiciously hastened. The 
 teacher must therefore not hurry them, nor be discour- 
 aged because they do not seem to progress as rapidly as 
 he might desire. The number of studies for all grades, 
 but particularly for the younger pupils, should be lim- 
 ited to a few, at most four or five- 
 Many things which to the teacher seem easy are to the 
 pupils extremely difficult. The teacher should therefore 
 not confuse his pupils by suggesting various ways of 
 overcoming a difficulty until he first sees that they thor- 
 oughly comprehend a single one. Many a pupil has 
 been heartily discouraged because his teacher, in his anx- 
 iety to help the pupil out of difficulty, has simply con- 
 fused hini by attempting to teach too many things at 
 once, or by attempting to teach too many ways of se-
 
 THE TEACHER. 267 
 
 curing a result before the pupil had thoroughly compre- 
 hended any one way. 
 
 7. Striving after the Impossible. — Nature has fixed cer- 
 tain limits in the character of every mind, beyond which 
 it is useless for the teacher to attempt to reach. All the 
 liurry and worry of the teacher cannot push a child be- 
 yond its capacity. There will always be dull pupils 
 whom no teacher can brighten, there will always be slow 
 ones whose development no teacher can hasten. It is a 
 waste of time to attempt to accomplish what is impos- 
 sible. The bright pupils, the prodigies, are the excep- 
 tion, but the teacher's work with the dull, the thought- 
 less, and the careless is not therefore less valuable or less 
 productive of good results. 
 
 Quaint old Thomas Fuller gave this excellent advice 
 two centuries ago : " Wines, the stronger they be, the 
 more lees they have when they are new. Many boys are 
 muddy-headed till they be clarified with age; and such 
 afterward proved the best. Bristol diamonds are both 
 bright and square and pointed by Nature, and yet are 
 soft and worthless; whereas Orient ones in India are 
 rough and rugged naturally. Hard, rugged, and dull 
 natures in youth acquit themselves afterward the jewels 
 of the country ; and therefore their dullness at first is to 
 be borne with, if they be diligent. The schoolmaster de- 
 serves to be beaten himself who beats Nature in a boy 
 for a fault. And I question whether all the whipping 
 in the world can make their parts who are naturally 
 sluggish rise one minute before the hour Nature hath 
 appointed. All the whetting in the world can never set 
 a razor's edge on that wiiich hath no steel in it." 
 
 8. Suppressing Originality and Individuality. — One of
 
 268 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 the. greatest errors in teaching is that of trying to cast 
 all in the same moukl. Over-systematic teachers make 
 the mistake of insisting that all the members of a class 
 must be proficient in every branch they attempt to study. 
 The student should never be judged by his ability in all 
 branches, but rather on his average ability. There are 
 those to whom mathematics will always be distasteful, 
 and whose knowledge in that science must ever be 
 largely a matter of memory. There are others, again, 
 who have a great capacity for mathematics, but whose 
 talents for language and natural science are but medi- 
 ocre. To suppress these individual tastes, to attempt to 
 mould anew these minds, to try to bring them to an ar- 
 tificial and arbitrary standard or course of study, and 
 insist that each shall be jiroficient in all, and that indi- 
 vidual preference and individual talent shall not be 
 permitted to assert themselves, is to destroy individu- 
 ality itself. 
 
 Under our present school system of course all the 
 teacher can attempt to do is to give general instruction. 
 It is not his business, nor is it the business of the public 
 school, to make specialists. Special training is the work 
 of the technical schools. But, while his efforts should be 
 directed wholly in the line of giving this general know- 
 ledge and this general culture which our school system 
 contemplates, the originality which a child displays 
 should not be discouraged, nor should the individuality 
 which distinguishes each one from every other be sup- 
 pressed. It is, in reality, the men of original genius 
 and striking personality that rise to distinction and be- 
 come our leaders. The great work of the teacher con- 
 sists in leading, developing, and wisely directing genius,
 
 THE TEACHER. 269 
 
 rather thim in curbing and suppressing the efforts of in- 
 dividual talent. 
 
 9. Making the Chief Work of School the Masteiy of 
 Textbooks. — Textbooks are valuable in presenting the 
 salient points of a study, in systematizing the work of 
 teacliing, and in directing the learner to the proper 
 method of developing the branches of Avhich they 
 treat; but the teacher must not make the mistake of 
 supposing that when the textbook is mastered by his 
 pupils they are proficient in the branch of which it 
 treats. The mastery of textbooks is not the object of 
 school work, and yet there are [)r()bably few of us who 
 were not taught in our school-days to believe that the 
 great aim was to finish the books and be able to pass a 
 creditable examination. Indeed, the same fault exists to- 
 day in all except the very best schools. Discipline, train- 
 ing;, and all other ends of studv are fory-otten in the effort 
 to solve problems, demonstrate propositions, commit defi- 
 nitions, and acquire a fluent use of textbook language. 
 
 Many a boy considers his school work finished the day 
 he closes the book with the feeling that he has mastered 
 its contents. Very many have discovered their mistake 
 too late in life, when they have come to apply their 
 powers to the actual work of the world, and have found 
 their textbook knowledge and textbook ability of use only 
 in the school-room and in the study of special books. Un- 
 der no circumstances should they be allowed to imbibe 
 the notion that the knowledge of any one book is all 
 that they ought to possess. They should be made to feel 
 instead that a knowledge of principles is the great req- 
 uisite, and such a knowledge of principles as will enable 
 them to make the proper application in actual work.
 
 270 SCHOOL MA^■AGEME^■T. 
 
 10. Being Servile Imitators. — Tliis fault arises largely 
 from the lack of preparation for the work of teaching. 
 Young men and women without the professional training 
 necessary to engage in the work of teaching are likely to 
 take it for granted that the ways of their own teachers 
 are best, and they therefore imitate, and too often with- 
 oul the necessary tact to adapt their methods to the re- 
 quirements of the case. 
 
 It is a fault particularly liable to characterize the 
 High-School graduate, where no normal or training 
 «*lass exists, or Avhere no educational works are read and 
 studied. It is also one of the chief sources of failure, 
 because High-School methods of both management and 
 instruction differ widely from the methods to be em- 
 ployed in the Primary School, where the young and 
 inexperienced teachers, unfortunately, are usually em- 
 ployed. 
 
 The chief means of avoiding this error lies in the 
 preparation which every one ought to make before en- 
 tering upon the work of teaching. Not only a course 
 of professional study is advisable, but also close observa- 
 tion of the work of many successful teachers and con- 
 siderable preliminary practice umler the eye of an expert. 
 Our elementary schools ought not to be practice and ex- 
 perimental schools merely, in which the non-professional 
 teachei may gain experience, learn methods, and earn a 
 living at the same time. 
 
 The patience of our American people is great, and no- 
 «vhcre is it more pointedly exemplified than in the con- 
 stant employment of an army of raw recruits who enter 
 our schools, many of them Leing persons who are abso- 
 hitely iimocent oi^ any knowledge of the first principles
 
 THE TEACHER. 271 
 
 on wliich the science of teacliing is based. To tlie cm- 
 j)loynicnt of these undisciplined and non- professionally 
 educated persons is due in a great degree also the low 
 salaries of wliich teachers themselves compUiin so bit- 
 terly. The only remedy for both evils is the careful 
 preparation of teachers for their work before they take 
 up the profession. 
 
 11. Adhering to Old Methods. — Old methods that are 
 good and which aid correct mental development should 
 not be given up; but, on the other hand, those wliich 
 have proven non-condu(!ive to the requirements of men- 
 tal trrowth outi;ht to be discarded. The adherence to old 
 methods is not so often conservatism as it is stubborn- 
 ness and the result of ignorance. The teacher who holds 
 to a metliod because he knows of no better is of course 
 right so far as his knowledge goes, but he is not fit to be 
 a teacher if he is non-progressive or makes no attempts 
 to learn a better way. 
 
 Swett, in his Methods of Teaching, gives this admirable 
 l)icture of one who adheres strictly to old methods : " In 
 arithmetic he begins \vith definitions, continues in ab- 
 stractions and mechanical rules, and ends in puzzling 
 problems. In grammar he omits the actual use of lan- 
 guage in expressing thought, and devotes his attention 
 to the technicalities of parsing and analysis. In geog- 
 raphy he is content to have his pu})ils memorize regard- 
 less of ideas. In history he strings dates like wooden 
 beads upon the thread of memory. In reading he 
 trains pupils to call words without much reference to 
 meaning. In botany he takes books before flowers, and 
 in physics omits experiments. Object-lessons he regards 
 with disdain. In fact, he does not educate at all; that
 
 272 scuooL MAXA(;i:Mt:NT. 
 
 is, he (Iocs not awaken ciii'Iosity uov excite inquiry nor 
 develop discrimination." 
 
 12. Believing that Persons can Teach Well without 
 Preparation. — There are still many outside of the teaeii- 
 ers' ranks, and not a few within, who think it possible 
 for any one to teach well without special preparation. 
 Of those engaged in teaching wiio believe this to be 
 true there are very few, indeed, who arc successful teach- 
 ers in the true sense. They n)ay set tasks and see them 
 performed, they may assign lessons and hear them re- 
 cited, but they do not teach except in an irregular way; 
 neither do they secure that harmonious development of 
 the child-mind which is a part of the work of every 
 teacher. 
 
 Carlyle paints their picture graphically in the follow- 
 ing words : " jNIy teachers were hide-bound pedants, with- 
 out knowledge of man's nature, or of boys, or of aught 
 save lexicons. Innumerable dead vocables they crammed 
 into us, and called it fostering the growth of the mind. 
 How can an inanimate mechanical verb-grinder foster the 
 growth of anything, much more of mind, which grows, 
 not like a vegetable by having its roots littered by ety- 
 mological compost, but, like a spirit, by mysterious con- 
 tact with spirit-thought kindling itself at the fire of 
 living thought? How shall he give kindling in whose 
 own inward man there is no live coal but is burned out 
 to a dead grammatical cinder? My professors knew 
 syntax enough, and of the human soul this much — that 
 it had a faculty called memory, and could be acted on 
 through the muscular integument by the appliance of 
 birch-rods." 
 
 Many men and women, after constant practice and
 
 THE TEACHER. 273 
 
 without previous preparation, learn to teach, some of 
 them well, some passably, and some otherwise ; but who 
 shall reckon the fearful cost of all this preliminary 
 work ? Who shall be able to count up the failures and 
 the schools spoiled ? ' Who shall be able to estimate the 
 damage done to both mind and morals of the young 
 who are the innocent victims of an apprenticeship of 
 this kind? 
 
 13. Being Non-Progressive. — No teacher ought to be 
 willing to fall behind his a.ssociates. But in educational 
 matters he must go either backward or forward ; there 
 can be no standing still. Too many teachers, when they 
 have once secured a diploma or a life-certificate, are sat- 
 isfied to make no further progress. This should not be 
 the case. They ought continually to grow better. They 
 ought to be close observers of the methods of others. 
 They ought to be thinkers. They ought to pursue a 
 course of educational reading. They ought to keep 
 themselves well versed in the improvements in text- 
 books. If they feel that they can learn nothing at 
 Teachers' Associations, they ought at least to be willing 
 to do good to others by giving advice, by pointing out 
 errors, and by encouraging the inexperienced. The 
 teacher's calling ought to be progressive, and it should 
 be a source of pride, particularly to every professional 
 teacher, to promote its interests wherever possible. 
 
 14. Overwork. — The teacher's first duty is to take care 
 of his health. Without good health he can have little 
 success in teaching; but, independent of this, he is not 
 called upon to sacrifice his health in order to do good 
 work for his pupils. There is no adequate reason why 
 a teacher may not so arrange his work as to do full jus- 
 is
 
 274 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 tice to his pupils, and yet have plenty of time for exer- 
 cise and social recreation. Sooner or later, every one 
 must pay the penalty for infringing Nature's laws in 
 doing more work, either physical or mental, than i.« 
 compatible with the welfare of the human consti- 
 tution. 
 
 When the teacher leaves the school-room he should 
 leave his school cares and anxieties behind, and feel that 
 he is free to engage in such recreation as is most pleas- 
 ing or most beneficial. "When vacation comes let hira 
 go to the woods or the mountains or the seashore, which- 
 ever is most congenial to his tastes or whichever he feels 
 that he can best afford, and here let him throw aside all 
 cares and enjoy Nature to the utmost. 
 
 15. Striving to Please Everybody. — However well the 
 teacher may do his work, he will find many critics who 
 feel called upon to make unpleasant criticism and find 
 fault. Let him not be discouraged at this. No one has 
 always escaped criticism. Were one's school absolutely 
 perfect, he would still find some whose envy would in- 
 cite them to make malicious remarks with regard to his 
 success. Indeed, the more successful a teacher is in 
 building up a school, and the more nearly he brings it 
 to perfection, the greater will be the envy of his com- 
 petitors, and the more energetic they will be in their 
 efforts to say unkind and untruthful things of him and 
 his work. It ought not so to be, but human nature is 
 both vain and weak. 
 
 Let the teacher feel that he is doing his duty to him- 
 self and his patrons, that he is doing the best he can 
 with the material and the opportunities at command, 
 and he does well. He should not sacrifice the pupils in
 
 THE TEACHEE. 275 
 
 his charge in order that his school may enjoy a brilliant 
 record and thus be the pride of the community. Popu- 
 lar opinion is desirable, and the good opinion of all is 
 not to be lightly regarded, but if this good opiniou must 
 be secured as the result of injury to either pupils or 
 teacher, the price to be paid is too high. 
 
 16. Neglecting the Practical. — The teacher should not 
 confine his instruction to the actual school studies. The 
 student that leaves school knowing only what concerns 
 his textbook studies knows comparatively little. The 
 teacher has many opportunities for imparting valuable 
 practical knowledge, which ought not to pass without 
 an effort to improve them. Many valuable hints may be 
 given to the girls, and even to the boys, on the subject of 
 domestic economy. Many homes are unhomelike be- 
 cause of the ignorance of those who preside over them. 
 The good managers of homes are probably the exception, 
 but the condition of things might be much improved if 
 teachers were careful to make suggestions to their pupils 
 on topics of this kind. Let the teacher read extensively 
 on the subject of domestic economy, and then give short 
 talks every week on the most important parts of the 
 study. If such practice among teachers were to become 
 general, we should have a most powerful lever in ele- 
 vating the condition of the homes in our land. 
 
 The teacher should also make his instruction practical 
 as concerns the work of the boys. Let him instill into 
 their minds a respect for labor by showing that all of us 
 labor in our respective spheres ; that labor is not only 
 beneficial, but also necessary ; and that were labor to 
 cease the world would stagnate and become wholly de- 
 moralized He should show that labor is not degrading,
 
 276 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 but instead that it is elevating, and that it is in reality a 
 blessing. The judicious teacher can do much in cor- 
 recting the Avrong notions of boys in this respect, and in 
 leading them to look on education as something more 
 than mere textbook drudgery. 
 
 17. Having too Many Classes. — This is an error which 
 is likely to exist mostly in the ungraded school, and it 
 is one difficult to avoid where the school is overcrowded. 
 In a school of ordinary size, however, the true economy 
 is to have as few classes as possible. Age, capacity, and 
 size of classes ought all to be considered in making the 
 permanent classification of the school. If the school is 
 too large, then it will be best to alternate the recitations 
 of some of the classes, hearing them recite only every 
 other day. When the class has no recitation for the 
 day, let them still have their period of study, and let 
 them prepare their work on slates or on the blackboard, 
 or even write it out on paper for the teacher's inspection. 
 Recitations, however, should be so arranged that every 
 one may have something to do each day ; otherwise the 
 pupils will soon lose interest and the work of the teacher 
 will be fruitless. 
 
 18. Having too Many Rules and Regulations. — The 
 teacher should not go into the school-room with a list of 
 rules and regulations prepared. Let rules be adopted 
 only when the necessity for them arises. The wise plan 
 is for the teacher to say nothing about rules until the 
 behavior of the pupils makes it necessary to put some in 
 force, and then the plan heretofore suggested should be 
 used in their adoption. The fewer the rules the less 
 difficult will be the work of government, because the 
 fewer will be the violations.
 
 a HE TEACHER. 277 
 
 The great work of the teacher ought to be teaching, 
 not keeping an orderly school. Pupils ought to be -well- 
 behaved, and restrictions and rules ought to be for the 
 check of those only who are not inclined to do right. 
 It ought not to be expected of the teacher that he spend 
 any great part of his time in keeping order. Imagine 
 the new minister of a parish, when he takes charge of a 
 congregation, first laying down a set of rules with re- 
 gard to whispering, laughing, shufHing of feet, leaving 
 seats, etc. during sermon, and then imagine him, while 
 delivering that sermon, stopping occasionally to preserve 
 order. It would be something unprecedented, and yet, 
 barring the thoughtlessness of children, there ought to 
 be no more reason for adopting rules in the one case 
 than there ought in the other. 
 
 19. Giving too Little Attention to Manners and Morals. 
 — The teacher himself ought to be a person whose man- 
 ners and personal character are worthy of imitation by 
 his pupils ; but, independent of this, he ought to give 
 frequent instruction in an informal way on the subject 
 of good manners and correct morals. Much may be 
 done by reading anecdotes to the children — much also by 
 reading to them such stories as are found in Cowderry's 
 Moral Lessons, each of which illustrates some positive 
 moral virtue in such a way as to make it interesting and 
 easily comprehended by children. Excellent advice may 
 also be gathered from Gow's Good Morals and Gentle 
 Manners, a practical book on the etiquette of every-day 
 life which all pupils can appreciate. The teacher should 
 frequently read or relate stories illustrating both morals 
 and manners. The pupils will draw their own conclu- 
 sions, and in every instance some one will be touched
 
 278 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 and a good effect be wrought. Bain says, " A moral 
 lesson may be wrapped up in a tale and brought home 
 with an impetus. Stories of great and noble deeds have 
 fired more youthful hearts with enthusiasm than ser- 
 mons have." 
 
 An excellent plan is for the teacher to keep a scrap- 
 book, into which he should gather from time to time 
 such suitable anecdotes and stories as he may meet with 
 in his reading. They will always be found a convenient 
 medium by which to convey practical instruction in both 
 morals and manners. He should give advice also, as 
 opportunity may occur, in the choice of reading matter, 
 selecting at all times interesting and healthful books. 
 He ought under no circumstances, however, to mention 
 offensive books and caution pupils against reading them. 
 Next to advertising by praise, nothing is more effective 
 than advertising by condemnation. Let pupils be cau- 
 tioned against reading certain books as demoralizing in 
 their character, and there will always be a large percent- 
 age who will search out the condemned books and read 
 them for the mere gratification of curiosity. 
 
 20. Giving too Little Attention to Physical Culture. — 
 With most pupils but little difficulty will be experienced 
 in the matter of exercise. Nature has implanted in the 
 human constitution that same desire to play which is 
 characteristic of the young of all animal kind. But 
 children in school will gradually fall into habits which 
 may prove quite as harmful as the neglect of exercise, 
 and to these the teacher must give strict attention. They 
 include improper and ungraceful postures in both sitting 
 and standing, reading and studying with deficient or too 
 strong light, sitting in an uncomfortable roon, studying
 
 THE TEACHER. 279 
 
 80 intensely as lo cause headache, eating at irregular 
 times, lunching between meals, going out of doors with- 
 out sufficient protection ; and in fact all that may be em- 
 braced under the head of violations of hygienic laws. 
 
 It is vastly better that pupils should have correct 
 liygieuic habits and a thorough knowledge of their own 
 physical being than that they should have a knowledge 
 of all the other sciences of a school course. Horace 
 Mann, one of America's greatest educators, says: "At 
 college I w^as taught the motions of the heavenly bodies, 
 as if their keeping in their orbits depended on my 
 knowing them, while I was in profound ignorance of 
 the laws of health of my own body. The rest of my 
 life was in consequence one long battle of exhausted 
 energies." This, too, would be the testimony of most 
 great scholars — not that mental discipline and hard study 
 do harm-, but that the neglect of physical culture, and 
 the training of the mind at the expense of health, are 
 injurious in the extreme. 
 
 21. Giving too Mucli Help. — The mind, like the body, 
 grows stronger by exercise, and the best and most 
 profitable exercise is that which the child gets from his 
 own work. The teacher does the child a great wrong in 
 doing his work for him. The more a pupil does for 
 himself, the greater will be his self-dependence and the 
 more thorough his mental discipline. As well might we 
 expect a child to grow physically strong if continually 
 carried in the nurse's arms, as expect him to grow 
 mentally strong while receiving the constant help of 
 the teacher. It is what the child does for himself 
 that strengthens his mental faculties and fits him for 
 his subsequent work.
 
 280 SCHOOL MANAGEMENT. 
 
 The pupil should not be permitted, however, to waste 
 time in wrestling with difficulties beyond his strength. 
 He should have no direct help in doing that which he 
 can do for himself, but it is useless and unprofitable to 
 permit him to waste time in attempting to solve prob- 
 lems beyond his comprehension. When the teacher once 
 discovers that the child is unable to overcome a difficulty, 
 it is then time for him to give such suggestions as will 
 start a proper train of thought in the mind of the child, 
 and thus enable him to win the victory. 
 
 22. Assuming that Parents and Directors are the Teach- 
 er's Enemies. — It is a great mistake for teachers to as- 
 sume that both the patrons and the Directors are their 
 natural enemies ; and this mistake has caused in many 
 schools a great degree of difficulty which might have 
 been avoided to the advantage of both teacher and 
 pupils. When once fully convinced that the teacher 
 is working for the best interests of the school, no one 
 naturally feels a greater desire to promote the success 
 and progress of the pupils than does the parent. Wh}' 
 should he be an enemy ? Certainly it is to his advan- 
 tage that his own children make proper progress in 
 their studies, and that he give the teacher such en- 
 couragement as will lead him to work honestly and 
 faithfully for the best development of the children 
 under his control. 
 
 But should the teacher know that both patrons and 
 Directors are unfavorable to him at first, he should not 
 for a moment show that he believes such to be the fact. 
 Every effi^rt should be made to win them over — first, by 
 his good work in the school ; and, second, by his being 
 genial, pleasant, polite, and sociable when he meets
 
 THE TEACHER. 281 
 
 them. If he manifests this kind of spirit toward 
 them, he need have little fear of the final result. 
 
 23. The too Rapid Introduction of Reforms. — It is never 
 wise to attempt sudden changes or reforms on taking 
 charge of a school. A teacher may find many things in 
 his own work or in that of his predecessor which he 
 thinks ought to be otherwise, but he should proceed very 
 cautiously if a cliange is to be made. If improved 
 methods are desirable, let him first convince those whom 
 these methods most concern as to their value and im- 
 portance. If he once secures their assistance and co- 
 operation, the reform can readily be made; but if he 
 must make it against their opposition, it is better for 
 him to endure the evils which already exist than in- 
 vite those whose magnitude he may find still greater. 
 
 24. Casting Reflections on One's Predecessor. — The 
 teacher should be cautious not to make unfriendly re- 
 marks with reference to his predecessor, nor should he 
 by either word or manner encourage his pupils to in- 
 dulge in such remarks. His predecessor may have 
 made very serious mistakes, but the wiser plan will 
 be for the teacher to show these by the excellence of 
 his own work rather than, by calling attention to 
 them. 
 
 A very serious fault of this same nature is that of a 
 teacher's showing his lack of confidence in the work of 
 his predecessor by turning all back to the beginning of 
 the book. The custom is still a very general one in 
 most ungraded schools. It would be much better to 
 start where their previous teacher ended his instruction, 
 or at most turn back a few pages only, so that they may 
 Qot be discouraged. If their teaching has been defective 
 
 24 »
 
 282 SCHOOL, MANAGEMENT. 
 
 it will soon become manifest, and both teacrier and pupils 
 can then agree upon a plan which will make the instruc- 
 tion more effective. 
 
 25. Making Excuses to Visitors. — This sort of com- 
 plaint is usually made with the design of impressing 
 upon the minds of visitors that the teacher could do 
 very much better work if he only had a chance — that 
 is, if the Directors were better educated and could appre- 
 ciate good teaching, if the parents were not so ignorant 
 and prejudiced, if the school-house were more desirably 
 located, if the teacher had a better supply of apparatus, 
 if the preceding teacher had not spoiled the school, if the 
 pupils were not so stupid, and so on. 
 
 A teacher of this kind never looks at his own work 
 for the cause of failure. He would not for a moment 
 admit that it is his own deficiency that he is trying to 
 excuse in making these charges upon everybody else. 
 What he should do is, make the best of the situation 
 and do as Avell as he can, leaving the judgment as to 
 his work to the decision of others. 
 
 26. A Lack of Enthusiasm. — Enthusiasm makes the 
 successful teacher. All the learning in the world will 
 not win success in the school-room for the lazy teacher. 
 President Chadbourne says : " Without enthusiasm no 
 teacher can have the best success, however learned and 
 faithful and hard-working he may be. Enthusiasm is 
 the heat that softens the iron, that every blow may tell. 
 Enthusiasm on the part of the teacher gives life to the 
 student and an impulse to every mental power. When 
 this is accomplished, there is no more waste in lifting, 
 dragging, or driving. It was the enthusiasm of Agassiz 
 that clothed the commonest things with new life and
 
 THE TEACHER. 283 
 
 beauty — that cliariiied every listenci*, and transformed 
 the aged and the young, the ignorant and the learned, 
 into joyful learners." 
 
 27. Discouraging Pupils. — Dr. Arnold of Rugby says 
 that he never was so ashamed as when, after giving a 
 boy a sharp reproof, the latter turned to him and said, 
 " Why do you speak angrily, sir ? Indeed, I am doing 
 the best I can." Pupils should be praised rather than 
 discouraged. Many of them think but slowly, and the 
 teacher will need, therefore, to exercise great patience 
 with their seeming stupidity and dullness. Many a 
 teacher overshoots the mark in his teaching because 
 what to him may be very easy is difficult for his pupils. 
 This in itself greatly discourages them, and when, in ad- 
 dition to this, he complains of their inability to meet his 
 expectations, the burden becomes to them doubly griev- 
 ous. Let him bring his teaching down to their level, 
 correct his own faults, and praise where praise is due, 
 and both he and the pupils will be the better for it. 
 
 28. Wounding the Feelings of Children. — The teacher 
 should be cautious to make no remarks that are likely to 
 hurt the feelings of his pupils. It is not only unwise, 
 but also unkind, to refer to them as numskulls, dunces, 
 and the like. Nor should the teacher compare his pupils 
 with one another. The only result of such comparison, 
 when expressed before others, is to create antagonism be- 
 tween the parties compared, and no possible benefit can 
 result from the practice. 
 
 29. Being Arbitrary. — The teacher should not assume 
 that he is the only one interested in the work in which 
 he is engaged, and therefore he should not arbitrarily de- 
 cide every question as it may arise without consultation
 
 284 SCHOOL MANAGEMExNT. 
 
 with those whose business it is to supervise the scliool 
 w(.)rk. Many a teacher has brought trouble on himself by 
 assuming the rights and duties of both teacher and Direc- 
 tors. Nor should the teacher be arbitrary in his treat- 
 ment of pupils. Obedience will be secured much more 
 readily when the pupils see the justice and appreciate the 
 reasonableness of his demands. No one is so liable as 
 tiie teacher to become dogmatic and opinionated. The 
 very nature of his calling and his associations and sur- 
 roundings are such as to produce this result. 
 
 30. Gloominess. — Few are so repulsive to child-nature 
 as those who are gloomy. The teacher who is stiff and 
 pedantic, who is sullen and morose, who is gloomy and 
 dejected, is out of place in the school-room. Child-life 
 is joyous and cheerful, and no man or woman has any 
 right to throw clouds and shadows around it ; much less 
 should such a person act as teacher. None but those of 
 a cheerful temperament should enter upon the work of 
 teaching. 
 
 The teacher will find many things to try his patience, 
 many things to vex and cross him, many things that will 
 discourage and irritate him ; but through it all let him 
 keep a cheerful countenance. Let him join in a hearty 
 laugh whenever there is an opportunity. No one needs 
 more to look on the bright side of life. Some one has 
 said, "■ Whatever temper you have suffered to grow up 
 to the gradual habit of years, that will get a daily reve- 
 lation over your desks as visible as any maps on the 
 walls." If that habit be one of gloominess, what must 
 be the unfortunate influence on the children ! 
 
 Teacher, cultivate a cheerful disposition and a pleasant 
 countenance. You will relieve your work of half the
 
 THE TEACHER. 285 
 
 difficulties by which it is surrounded. Let your entrance 
 into the school-room be such as to convince your pupils 
 that you are both good-humored and good-natured. 
 Goldsmith expressed more pliilosophy than he dreamed 
 of in his description of the schoolmaster of "sweet 
 Auburn :" 
 
 "A man severe he was, and stern to view ; 
 I knew him well, and every truant knew. 
 Well had the boding tremblers learned to trace 
 The day's disasters in his morning face." 
 
 Let the effort of every teacher's life be to avoid fur- 
 nishing the text for a similar quatrain by some future 
 Goldsmith. 
 
 THE EISTD.
 
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 UNIVERSITY OF CAUFORNIA 
 LIBRARY 
 
 LOS ANGELES. CALIF.
 
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