Q .•:;^^i&,^=P>^-. ii M • ' \ / Pf-"^ = : ^-"-'■'-V-StS7^ \V*V^s^i ¥^SS^>1/ 1 -w ^^^R^):/'' i [i/a* THE LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LOS ANGELES Jif THE WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES THE WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES A MEDICO-TOPOGRAPHICAL AND GENERAL ACCOUNT OF MARWAR SIROHI JAISALMIR BY LIEUT.-COLONEL ARCHIBALD ADAMS I.M.S., M.D., M.Ch., F.R.I.P.H., F.R.C.S.I. Administrative Medical Officer in Rajputana W/ TH ILL US TRA TIONS JUNIOR ARMY ^ NAVY STORES, Limited YORK HOUSE, REGENT STREET LONDON, S.W. 1899 Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson Sf Co. At the Ballantyne Press 7^ HI Lf?^ PREFACE Having been officially directed to write a Medico-Topo- graphical Account of the Western Rajputana States, I have endeavoured to lighten it for general readers by a brief history of the rulers of the country, and a reference to some of the customs and modes of thought of an interesting people, among whom I have worked for eighteen years. Particular attention has been given to the fauna and flora of the country ; also to the legends and superstitions of the people. My best thanks are due to the Marwar Darbar for publishing the work, and to the gentlemen who have kindly assisted me in its preparation. JODHPORE, ^rd August 1899. <^' CONTENTS Introductory ......... I. ]\rARWAR OR JODHPORE StATB, GENERAL DESCRIPTION OP THE Country ...... SiROHi, General Description of the Country Jatsalmir, General Description of the Country Mount Abu, General Description of Sands, Salt, Fossils, and Lime Short History of Marwar Short History of Sirohi Short History of Jaisalmir . List of Residents, Western Rajputana States Capital Town of Marwar (Jodhpore), Short Descrip TION OF ....... , Capital Town op Sirohi, Short Description of Capital Town of Jaisalmir, Short Description op Religions, Superstitions, and Omens Marwari Proverbs . Sights worth Seeing Recreation .... Imperial Service Troops . Mints and Currencies in the Western Rajputana States .... II. Public Instruction . Water Supply' .... Drainage ..... Lighting ..... Roads, Railways, and Tramways Slaughter-Houses III. Division of States into Parganas Principal Fairs History op Famines Disposal of the Dead PAGK I 3 13 21 30 40 42 61 69 74 75 86 87 91 96 98 107 109 III 114 117 124 125 126 129 130 ^37 143 154 Vlll CONTENTS IV. Markets and Food Food Grains Game Big Game . Feathered Game Fishes Domestic Animals of the Western Rajputana States V. Preservation of Health ...... Birth-Rate in Jodhpore, Sirohi, and Jaisalmir Diseases ......... Medical Diseases ....... Surgical Diseases ....... Sickness and Mortality ...... Epidemics ......... Medical Aid Residency Surgeons, Western Rajputana States . Vaccination ........ Sanitation ........ Dispensary Towns in Jodhpore, Sirohi, and Jaisalmir Jails in Jodhpore, Sirohi, and Jaisalmir Insanity in Jodhpore, Sirohi, and Jaisalmir Meteorology VI. Birds Insects Locusts Lac . Lepidoptera Forests and Flora Ferns and Flowers Vegetable Gardening Fruit The Village and Villager Books of Reference Glossary .... Index .... PAGE 156 160 163 i68 177 185 189 196 202 207 210 240 248 251 254 265 266 277 283 301 307 310 352 373 375 388 391 397 423 426 427 429 446 447 449 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS His Highness Maharaja Sardar Singh of Jodhpore Frontispiece His Highness Maharaja Jaswant Singh, G.C.S.I., OF Jodhpore ....... to face page i GiRDiKOTB Market and Fort, Jodhpore . . „ 3 Temples, Jodhpore ...... „ 4 City Tanks and Fort, Jodhpore .... „ 11 His Highness the Maharao Kesri Singh of Sirohi, K.C.S.I „ 13 His Highness the Maharawal of Jaisalmir . „ 21 Part of Palace, End op Fort, and Eiding-Camels, Jaisalmir ....... „ 22 Dewan's House, Jaisalmir ..... ,, 24 Dewan Council and State Servants, Jaisalmir . „ 27 Riding-Camel and Street Boys of Jaisalmir . „ 28 Villagers, Jaisalmir ...... „ 28 Lake, Mount Abu (showing Toad Rock) , . „ 30 Mount Abu — General View ..... ,, 32 Church, Mount Abu „ 34 Jain Temple, Mount Abu ,, 37 Stone Carving in Jain Temple, Mount Abu — Ceiling ........ „ 38 His Highness Maharaja Takhat Singh op Jodhpore ....... ,, 51 Sirohi Palace ....... „ 61 City Gate, Jodhpore, with Water-Carrier's Bul- lock AND Carrying-Camel .... ,, 75 Temples and Dhanmandi, Jodhpore ... „ 77 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Temple, Jodhpore City Fort, Jodhpore Palace, Jodhpore . Street, Jaisalmir . Fort, Jaisalmir Temples, Jaisalmir Fort and City, Jodhpore Temples, Jodhpore City Maharaja Ajit Singh's Monument or Chattri Mandore ...... Jubilee Offices and Courts, Jodhpore Palace, Jaisalmir Colonel Maharaj Sir Pratap Singh, G. C.S.I. Hbwson Hospital, Jodhpore (see ^?. 260) Officers, Imperial Service Cavalry Balsamand Lake, Jodhpore .... Jodhpore City Street, Jodhpore City Sambhbr, Chiloe, Black Pig-sticking — The Kill Pig-sticking — The Bag, Temple, Jaisalmir . Big Game — Tiger, Bear Teal Grouse . Partridge Jungle Fowl . Bustard, Houbara, and Snipe Quail Pochards Ducks and Cranes Fish from Banas, Abu Marwari Horse Sanchong Milch Cow Elephant Saddled for an Ordinary Occasion Buck, and Red Buck Jodhpore Panther, and Crocodile Florican . Road to face page 79 81 85 86 88 J> 90 98 100 105 106 109 no no 117 124 156 163 164 164 166 168 177 177 178 178 180 180 182 182 184 184 189 190 190 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS XI Jaswant Women's Hospital and Temple, Jodhpore Palace and Chattris ..... Mosque, Nagore ...... Dispensary, Temples, and Mosque, Merta . Garden, House, and Temple .... Old Palace, Jodhpore City .... Butterflies, Abu ...... Locust {Acridum succinctum) .... Jain Temples, Mount Abu .... Mount Abu, with Lake and Barracks, Kbsidency AND other Houses ..... Lake and Dispensary, Mount Abu Maharawal, Sardars and Attendants, Jaisalmir Temple ........ The Nautch Musicians and Dancing-Girls, Jaisal MIR ........ Jain Temple, Mount Abu .... Garden, House, and Temple, Jaisalmir Dewan's Carriage, Jaisalmir Jaisalmir Country ..... Nomadic Aborigines ..... Group Monuments of Border Fight between Villagers Monuments or Chattris .... E to face page 254 i> 283 1} 286 >> 286 i> 352 »> 373 j> 376 »> 376 J) 397 3 423 >t 424 ' >> 429 >> 430 >» 432 JJ 434 >1 436 )> 436 >> 438 >> 440 >> 440 >I 442 >> 442 THE WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES INTRODUCTORY The Western Rajpiitana States comprise Marwar, Sirohi, and Jaisalmir ; their respective position and area are as follows : — Marwar, or, as it is sometimes called, after its capital, Jodhpore, is the largest in extent of the Rajputana States. It is bounded on the north by Bikanir ; on the north-east by the Shaikhawati district of Jeypore ; on the east by Jeypore and Kishengarh; on the south-east by Meywar and Ajmere-Mer- wara ; on the south by Sirohi and Palanpur ; on the west by the Rann of Kutch and the Thar and Parkar districts of Sindh; and on the north-west by the State of Jaisalmir. It lies between latitude 24° 36' and 27° 42' N., and longitude 70° 6' and 75° 34' E. Its greatest length north-east and south- west is about 290 miles, and its maximum breadth 131 miles. It contains an area of 35,061 square miles. The population in 1891 was 2,528,178. Sirohi lies between latitude 24° 22' and 25° 16' N., and between longitude 72° 22' and 73° 18' E. Its area is 1964 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Marwar ; on the east by Meywar ; on the south by Palanpur, Edar, and Danta ; and on the west by Marwar. The population in 1891 was 190,836. A 2 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Jaisalmir lies between latitude 26° 5' and 28° 23' N., and between longitude 62° 29' and 77° 15' E. It measures 173 miles in greatest length by 1 3 6 miles in greatest breadtb, and has an area of 16,062 square miles. It is bounded on the north by Bahawalpur ; on the east by Bikanir and Marwar ; on the south by Marwar and Sindh ; and on the west by Khairpur and Sindh. Its population in 1891 was 1 15,701. o MARWAR OR JODHPORE STATE GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY Physical Aspects. — The most marked feature in the physical aspect of Marwar is the River Luni, which flows in a south- westerly direction through the State, losing itself finally in the marshy ground at the head of the Rann of Kutch. In heavy floods it overflows its banks in the Mallani districts ; the local name of this overflow is rel, and fine crops of wheat and barley are produced on the saturated soil. Such floods, however, are only occasional, and they make a wonderful change in the aspect of the country in the wheat season. The Luni attains its greatest breadth in the Sanchore and Mallani districts. Its water is, as a rule, saline or brackish ; but when it filters into the wells, some twenty or thirty yards away from the banks of the river, it is comparatively sweet and drinkable. The most important lake in Marwar is the famous salt lake of Sambhar, on the borders of Jodhpore and Jeypore. Three other considerable salt depressions exist in Marwar, viz., one in the N.E. at Didwana, one S.W. of Jodhpore at Pachbhadra, and one at Bhatki in the Sanchore district, near the Rann of Kutch and termination of the Luni river, which covers an area of forty or fifty miles in the rainy season, and the bed of which, when dry, yields good crops of wheat and gram. There are small depressions of less importance at Sargot, Kuchawan, Phalodi, Pohkaran, and Bilara, from which salt is easily procured. Geology. — The geological characteristics of the country are rather complex. The south-eastern boundary, viz., that 4 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES portion of Merwara and the Aravalli range within the frontier of the State, consists principally of metamorphic or transition rocks, rising precipitously from the plains, and in some in- stances attaining an elevation of 3000 feet. These rocks are chiefly gneiss, hornblende, quartz, and mica-slate, with, in the higher ranges, bands of basalt and porphyry, and occasionally granite. Passing from the Aravallis to the west, the surface is sandy, with a substratum of gneiss, hornblende, quartz, and mica-slate, which here and there rise up through the sand, in some instances to a height of 800 to 1000 feet. The aspect of the country, therefore, as far as the Luni river, which divides the State into two unequal parts, is that of a sandy plain, dotted with bold and picturesque conical hills or mers, chief of which are those at Nadolai, Sojat, Bhadrajun, Jalore, Jasole, and Sanderao. Immediately around these hills the ground is hard and stony, but gradually passes into sand, which becomes more heavy as the eastern and northern districts are approached. After crossing the Luni, or at about one-thii'd of the breadth of the State, these conical hills are less numerous, and sandstone appears, but the metamorphic rocks continue to occur until the range is passed on which Jodhpore, the capital city, is situated. The country to the north of Jodhpore city is one vast sandy plain or thai, broken by sandhills or tehds, which, commencing in Marwar, stretch north into Bikanir, and west and south into Jaisalmir and Sindh. In the Mallani district these tcbds sometimes rise to 300 or 400 feet, and this part of the country resembles an imdulating sea of sand. In the rainy season most of the tebds get fahly covered with grass and crops of hajra. Water is exceedingly scarce throughout the thai or sandy desert, and is often from 200 to 300 feet below the surface. Cases occa- sionally occur when it is nearer the surface, and it is sometimes even at a greater depth. Minerals. — This part of the country is rich in salt, which is MARWAR OR JODHPORE STATE 5 obtained in large quantities, chiefly from the natural salt lakes of Sambhar and Didwana, but also from artificial pits at Pachbhadra, and from depressions at Phalodi, Pohkaran, Bhatki, and many other places. The salt jhils of Sargot and Kuchawan possess unknown capabilities for salt manufacture, and Bilara is abundant in salt, although it is not now manu- factured at these places. The method of obtaining the salt at Sambhar, Didwana, and Phalodi is very simple, viz., by evaporation after the rainy season. The process at Pachbhadra is as follows : — Oblong pits of various sizes are dug, a supply of brine percolates through the pit bed, and when that has become sufficiently concentrated, so as to show signs of crystallisation around the pit edge, branches of a thorny shrub, called morali, a species of mimosa, are sunk in it. On these branches salt crystals form and continue to grow for two, or sometimes three years At the end of that period the salt crop is extracted, usually in this way : men enter the pit, and with an iron chisel, wedge-shaped, and having a handle five feet long, they cut through the thorny branches, and break up the salt which is caked on the bottom. By shaking the branches the crystals are detached. The salt thus broken up is drawn to the sides by a broad iron hoe, and is removed in baskets to the top of the pit. Marble exists in abundance at Makrana, about twelve miles from Sambhar Lake, and also in smaller masses near Ghanerao, on the south-east border. Sandstone as well as gypsum (khadi) is found in abundance in many parganas. Multani mitti, or fuller's earth, is found in considerable quantities at Kapuri ; it is used by natives of all castes for washing the hair. The earth is taken for sale to Umarkote in Sindh, to Jodhpore, and Bikanir. It sells on the spot at about two annas a bullock-load. Poimlation. — The population of Marwar comprises the usual elements of the general Hindu community — the military 6 WESTERN RAJFUTANA STATES (mainly represented by tlie Rajputs, who are the lords of the soil), the industrial, mercantile, sacerdotal, and servile classes. The Marwaris are naturally enterprising and industrious, and are well known all over India as a singularly business-like set of men. The Rajputs are a specially manly and chivalrous class of people, who still retain the noble instincts and high ambitions of India's ancient aristocracy. The Charans, a sacred race, hold large religious grants of land. The Bhats are by profession genealogists, but are also engaged in trade. The Minas, Baoris, and Bhils are the chief predatory classes, but are now being settled down to agriculture. Belonging to the Charan caste is the Darbar poet lam-eate, whose office is hereditary. He also keeps the records and compiles the history of each reigning chief. The present occupant, Kavi Raj Mm-ar Dan, grandson of the great Banke Das, has given much assistance in determining some doubtful historical points. In the sandy portion of Jodhpore and throughout Mallani the houses are mostly beehive-shaped huts, with the excep- tion of the Thakar's and trader's residences, which, in small villages, are generally of bricks or mud, with a tiled or thatch roof. The village huts are generally enclosed within a strong fence. In advanced parganas the middle-classes dwell in houses constructed of mud, with thatch roofs, while those of Mahajans (traders) are frequently built of stone and mortar. In many villages, however, the Thakar's house is a handsome, well-constructed residence. The lower classes are generally temperate, laborious, and economical ; their dress is of the most simple kind ; as a rule, they partake of two meals a day, consisting of bread, vegetables, curds, and milk. Their houses usually contain nothing but a few cooking utensils and sleeping cots ; carpets and rugs are rarely used, the people sitting on the bare ground. The majority of the cultivators are Jats, Sirvis, Bishnois, Patels, Rajputs, and Mahomedans of the MARWAR OR JODHPORE STATE country, also Kaim Khanis, who enjoy grants of land, and were originally Rajputs, but forcibly converted to Islam during the Mahomedan rule. The total population of Marwar, as enumerated in 1891, amounted to 2,528,178. The agricultural class is the pre- dominating element, being nearly 60 per cent, of the total population. The area of the State is 35,061 square miles, and the relative density of population per square mile is 72.1. Excluding Sambhar, which belongs in part to Jeypore, and the details of which are not known, the number of occupied houses is 504,1 15, and that of villages and towns together 4225 ; the average number of persons per house is 5.02, and per village 5.36. Of the total population 89.4 per cent, are rural and 10.61 per cent, urban. Many of the cultivators live in their fields in dhanis or small villages of three or four houses. By religions, the proportions per cent, are — Hindus Mahomedans Jains Aryas Christians PArsis Sikhs 86.27 7.07 6.64 .005 .002 .001 There were 534 male and 302 female insanes, and 5195 males and 7505 females returned as blind at last census. This blindness is greatly due to dust and glare, which aggra- vate outbreaks of ophthalmia and increase the tendency to glaucoma. Of the total population, it was found at last census that — 977,803 belonged to the agricultural classes. 602,907 belonged to the professional classes. 100,032 were commercial. 725,032 were artisans and village menials. 73,492 were vagrants, minor artisans, and performers. 38,681 were miscellaneous. WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES The five most numerous castes in Marwar are — Jats . Rajputs Brahmins Mahajans Bhambi 315,443, mostly cultivators. 244,563, mostl}'^ landowners or soldiers. 211,396, mostly priests, beggars, and officials. 232,351, mostly traders. 183.082, coarse cloth makers. Agriculture, — The principal rain crops are millets and pulses, hajra, jowar, moth, and til. In the fertile portion of the State bordering the Luni, wheat and barley are produced in large quantities, also in Godwar, Sojat, Jaitaran, and Marothe, which are among the most fertile parganas of Marwar. Cotton is largely produced. Tobacco and sugar-cane are also grown on a small scale. The soils of Jodhpore have been classified under the follow- ing heads : — Baikal, the most prevalent, is a light sand, having little or no earthy admixture, and only fit for the production of hajra, moth, til, sesamum, water-melons, and other cucurbi- taceous plants ; chikney, a clayey fat black earth, producing chiefly wheat ; pili, a yellow sandy clay, adapted for barley, tobacco, onions, and vegetables ; safedi, a soil of siliceous nature, only productive after heavy rains ; khari, alkaline earth, poison- ous to all vegetation. In the sandy parts of the State the rain sinks into the soil, so that a very small rainfall suffices for crops. Irrigation works have of late years been extensively carried out in various parts of the State. The chief of these is the Jaswant Sagar lake in Bilara pargana, constructed by Mr, Home. Its depth is 5 4 feet at the main bund, and it irrigates an area of 10,000 acres, on which are fifteen villages, by means of canals. Its circumference, when full, would be about twenty- one miles. It has raised the level and sweetened the water of wells on the banks of the river Luni for about a hundred miles below it. The bunds that the Darbar has constructed are in themselves wholly dependent on rains, as they are mere embankments against the rain streams, and are not fed by any MARWAR OR JODHPORE STATE 9 perennial river. The average rainfall is only 14 inches, which is just sufficient to produce a crop in the monsoon season, kharif being, therefore, the chief mainstay of the country. Although there are tanks at many villages, few of them hold water throughout the year, but many of them supply deep wells, dug in the deepest part, from which the village gets its water. Industries. — The chief articles manufactured in the country are brass utensils, iron vessels and tools, marble vessels, gold and silver ornaments, felt rugs, camel saddles, shoes, coarse cotton and woollen fabrics for ordinary clothing, embroidered shawls, called dawnies, blankets, turbans, dyed and printed cloth, a,nd jamdanis. Some of the outlying and backward parganas of Mallani, Sanchore, Shergarh, Sheo, and Sankra are dependent for then* industrial supplies on the more advanced parganas of Bali, Nagore, Merta, Jodhpore, and Didwana. Blankets and coarse cotton cloths are made in every district for ordinary wear. Exports and Imports- — The principal exports are salt, from which a large portion of the revenue of the State is derived, horned cattle, sheep, goats, horses, camels, cotton, wool, dyed cloth, hides, pomegranates, marble, marble manufactures, and grinding-sLones. Much of the prosperity of Marwar is due to the young Banias (dealers), born in the country, who, on attaining manhood, go all over India, and even beyond its borders, to engage in trade. These traders keep up connection with their villages in Marwar, and return from time to time in search of health, to marry their families, and to rest when they have accumulated wealth. Many of them keep up fine houses, and leave theu' families m their villages in Marwar, while they go great distances in search of gain ; and this benefits the State enormously, as much money earned abroad is sent into the country. The bulk of the imports is paid for from this money made abroad by MarAvaris engaged m outside trade. 10 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES The chief imports are gur (unrefined sugar) and hhdnd (re- fined sugar), rice, and opium. From Bombay come English piece-goods, silver and copper ; from Gujerat spices, dates, gum arable, borax, cocoa-nuts, silk, sandal-wood, and dyes. Trade is carried on chiefly by Marwari Banias in the markets at Jodhpore city, Pali, Merta, Parbatsar, Nagore, Didwana, Pach- bhadra, Phalodi, Jalore, Pipar, and Balotra, the principal to^vns of the Jodhpore State. Climate. — The climate is at all seasons dry, due to the posi- tion of the State, the geological nature of its soil, and the absence of forest. The Aravalli range separates the State fi'om the more fertile districts of Oodeypore. The country is beyond the range of the full force of the south-west monsoon from the Arabian Sea, and it is also remote from the influence of the south-east monsoon from the Bay of Bengal. The clouds from the south-west, before arriving over Jodhpore, must float above extensive arid treeless districts, such as the sandy tracts of Northern Gujerat, Kutch, the Rann, and the desert districts of Umarkote and Parkar, and they are consequently very high, and generally carried away beyond Marwar by a strong mon- soon breeze. This results in a very small rainfall, which, taking the centre of the country, Jodhpore, for observation, does not often exceed the average of 14 inches. In 1893 the rainfall was unusually heavy, gauging over 29.72 inches at Jodhpore city. The Luni river, except during the monsoon, contains only scanty pools of water, and its tributaries are dry during the greater part of the year. The sandy soil, the brackish water found nearly everywhere, and the prevalence of the saline efflorescence, known as reh, are the principal reasons why there is so little of either wild jungle growth or of cultivated ground. Thus all conditions unite in producing that extraordinary dry- ness characteristic of Marwar. The next most striking pecu- liarity of the climate is the extreme variation of temperature which occurs during the cold season between night and day. MARWAR OR JODHPORE STATE 11 This depends in a great degree on the dryness of the atmosphere : the heat given off by the earth at night passes freely through dry an-, whereas it is absorbed and retained by the damp par- ticles of a moist atmosphere. Thus it happens that on the sandy soil of Jodhpore, while the nights may be sufficiently cold for ice to form, the days are often marked by a tempera- ture of 90° F. in the shade of a tent. Similarly, although hot winds prevail with great violence in the months of April, May, and June, the nights are generally fairly cool. During the winter months, from the middle of November to the middle of March, the climate of Jodhpore is cold and bracing, and well- suited for Europeans ; at this time European children thrive well, and regain much of then- complexion and vigour. The hot months are fairly healthy, but the heat becomes so intense, on account of the sandstone hills, that it is very trying, especially to European children, who should be taken away by the end of March at latest. The intensely hot wind which then blows over the desert throughout the day, and sometimes during part of the night, is extremely severe on the constitution. When, however, the sandstone hills become well cooled down by the monsoon rains, and the blowing sands steadied by moisture and sprouting vegetation, the climate is often pleasant towards the end of July, throughout August and September; but a second hot weather is not infrequent in October, and the first half of November is often un- pleasantly hot. Medical Aspects. — The prevailing diseases are malarial fevers, especially in the autumn, when the extremes of temperature are first experienced and the ground is rapidly drying after the rains. Skin affections are also very common, probably owing to bad water and indifferent food, among the lower classes, and partly from their dirty habits, due to some extent to scarcity of water. Dyspeptic diseases prevail, probably from the excessive use of hajra as food. Guinea-worm and 12 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES mycetoma are endemic. Of epidemics, small-pox was formerly common, but has been considerably subdued by vaccination. Cholera, however, is comparatively rare, especially in the western part of the State. Bronchitis and pneumonia are often prevalent in the cold months, on account of the extremes of temperature which exist, and the insufficient clothing of the people. Syphilis and leprosy are met with, though not very prevalent diseases, "Bubonic plague" raged severely in Pali in 1836-37: indeed, it has for this reason acquired the name in Europe of " the Pali or Indian plague." But it was probably imported from China in silk, then extensively dyed at Pali. Since 1896 cases of bubonic plague have from time to time been imported into Marwar and Sirohi, but the disease has fortunately not spread in the former State, and the out- break in the latter only lasted from November 1897 till April 1898, as the infected villages were promptly vacated and the people induced to co-operate in stamping out the disease by hygienic measures. SIROHI GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY Configuration. — The country is much intersected and broken up by hills and rocky ranges, which completely cover certain tracts. Its main feature is the almost isolated mountain of Abu, lying off the Aravallis, near the southern border, about twenty miles in length at the base, and separated by a narrow pass from a connecting range of lower hills, which runs in a north-easterly dh-ection, up to within a short distance of the cantonment of Erinpura, on the northern border of the State, thus dividing the territory into two not very unequal portions. The western half being comparatively open and level, is more thickly populated and better cultivated. Both portions on each side of these ranges of hills are intersected by numerous water channels, which run with considerable force and volume during the height of the rainy season, but are dry for the greater portion of the year. The whole country, too, is dotted over with low rocky hills, for the most part covered with dense jungle, consisting principally of the smaller cUidu tree {Ano- geissus pendida), Mr tree {Zizzyphus jujuha), a species of euphor- bia {Phyllanthus emblica), babul (Acacia arabica), and other mimosse. The somewhat elevated plain west of the northern point of Abu, and the low range of hills crossing the eastern valley at Pindwara, and nearly in line with the town of Sirohi, form two lines of watersheds, from which the streams run north-west and south-west to join the Luni and the western Banas respectively. The Aravallis form a clear wall on the east, and the lower slopes of the range are covered with dense jungle. 14 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Viewed from the top of Abu, the country shows wide tracts of low woodland, broken here and there by patches of cultivation. Siib-surface Water. — The sub-surface water in this State is, for the most part, good, and is rarely brackish, but the depth at which water stands in the wells varies considerably. In the north-eastern portion of the State, adjoining Marwar, water is found only at a considerable depth (90 to 100 feet, and more), and is generally brackish. There are also but few wells here, and irrigation is not much practised ; so that the cultivators are greatly dependent on a heavy rainfall for raising crops. In the Khuni pargana, to the north-west, the wells are of rather less depth (70 to 90 feet). In the eastern parganas, between Abu and the Aravalli range, along the course of the Bands, and in the southern parganas, the water is of good quality, and is much nearer the surface, varying from 60 to 15 feet. To the southward the wells, as a rule, are of even less depth. In the western parganas bordering Marwar, the wells are again of considerable depth (60 to 70 feet). At the town of Sirohi itself, and in its neighbourhood, water is sometimes scarce in the hot season, and it then dete- riorates in quality. The depth of the wells varies from 60 to 100 feet. Climate. — The climate of Shohi is, on the whole, dry and healthy, and there is a general freedom from epidemic diseases, both in the hills and plains. The climate of the high hills is cool, even in the hot months, and there is much cold wind and frosty weather in January and February. Even in the plains the heat is never so intense as in the North- Western Provinces and the Punjab. But, on the other hand, the cold season is of much shorter duration, and less bracing than in the Upper Provinces, except on the high lands. Although the climate of Sirohi is good, the hot months in the plains are severe on Europeans, and especially on European SIROHI 15 children, who should be taken away at that season, if possible. The temperature during the rains is better suited to them, and if they do not get malarial fever, which is then somewhat prevalent, they generally thrive fairly, and the cold weather, which is pleasant although not bracing, enables them to re- cover their vigour and complexion to some extent. Rainfall. — In the southern and eastern parganas there is generally a fair amount of rain, but over the rest of the district the rainfall is more often scant than otherwise. This is to be accounted for by Abu and the Aravalli mountains drawing to themselves the greater portion of the clouds as they are driven up from the sea-coast by the south-west monsoon. For in- stance, on Abu the average rainfall is about 64 inches, whereas at Erinpura, fifty miles distant to the north, there is only an average of about 20 inches. The prevailing wind is south- westerly in hot weather and rains, and from the north-east in the cold season. Medical Aspects. — As regards diseases, malarial fevers are the most prevalent ; dysentery and diarrhoea are met with, especially at the close of the rains and in the early part of the cold season. The jungle tracts round the base of Abu are specially malarious, but there is no known fever of an intense type answering the jungle fever of the Terai. Other prevalent diseases are pneumonia, mostly of a malarial type, rheumatism, guinea-worm, and small-pox, which is now being much mitigated by efficient vaccination. Epidemics of small- pox were formerly of very common occurrence, both at the capital and throughout the State. Cholera epidemics occur from time to time, and are frequent around the base of Mount Abu, the germs being often imported by pilgrims. Epidemic cholera has never been known on Mount Abu, and there is only one imported case on record on the hill. Droughts and Floods. — The Shohi district often suffers from droughts, more or less severe. The years 1746, 1785, 18 12, 16 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES and 1833 are recorded as having been years of famine, and there was the late great famine of 1868—69, during which the whole of Rajputana suffered very severely. It can scarcely be said that there are ever floods in this district, but there are occasional seasons of extraordinarily heavy rainfall (such was that of 1875), when the rivers and mountain streams over- flow, more or less flooding any low-lying lands, carrying away Persian wheels near the banks of streams, and causing- con- siderable damage to the rain crops. The wheat and barley crops are occasionally damaged by frost, or by a black fungus called giro, which is apt to come on if cloudy weather prevails in the spring, when the crops are in ear. Locusts caused much damage to the rain crops in 1869, but they visit this State much less frequently than the deserts of Marwar and Jaisalmir. Rivers. — The only important river in Sirohi is the Western Bands, which rises near Saimar in the Aravallis, and pursuing its course over the western declivities of the range, flows by Pindwara and along the eastern base of Abu, in a south- westerly direction. After flowing to the south-east for some distance, it resumes its south-westerly course, and then, passing the site of the once celebrated city of Chandravati, it finally passes the cantonment of Deesa, and loses itself in the sand at the head of the Rann of Kutch. Within Sirohi limits the stream is not perennial, as it usually ceases to flow about the beginning of the hot season, leaving pools of water here and there. The bed of the stream is sandy and rocky, and the banks are never high. This river, like all mountain streams, is subject to occasional flushes during the rains, but these rapidly subside, leaving the stream fordable. Near Manpm-, a little north of Chandravati, the Banas is joined by a small tributary called the Batrisa, There are several streams in Sirohi State which contain water for many months, and, after a heavy rainy season, con- SIROHI 17 tinue to flow nearly the whole year. Among these may be mentioned the Jawai, which rises in the Aravallis, and even- tually joins the Luni ; the two Siikris, which take the western drainage of the Sirohi range and flow north-west to the Luni ; the Sukli or Kaleri, Nadi, and the Thara Awdra, near Madar, which turns south-east and joins the Bands. Lakes. — There are some fine bunds in Sirohi State, but none of the tanks hold much water after the monsoon ends, except the lake at Mount Abu. Minerals. — The general character of the geological forma- tion of the Aravalli range within Sirohi is primitive granite, with a general dip to the east, on massive compact blue slate, the latter rarely appearing much above the surface. Variegated quartz and a variety of schistose slate of varied hue are found in abundance in the internal valleys, and rocks of gneiss and syenite appear at intervals. The hilly tract known as Bhakar is made up of primitive and metamorphic rocks, schist, and limestone. Mica is found in large quantities near Gudh and Dildar. The celebrated Jain temples at Dilwara on Mount Abu are said to have been built with marble quarried from the mines at Jariwao, on the south-eastern frontier of the State. The chief components of the numerous hilly ranges of this district consist of granite, quartz, clinkstone, and a kind of rotten slate. Limestone is also found in various parts of the district, one of the principal quarries being at Kasibal, near Sirohi. Abu is mainly composed of greyish, large-grained granite, which often contains distinct veins of quartz, trap, greenstone, gneiss, and schist. Fragments of mica and a hard crystalline limestone are met with in different parts of the mountain. Fine specimens of rock-crystal are also occasionally found. The compact blue slate stone is principally used for flooring and roofing, as it is strong and durable. The Abu granite is much used for building purposes. B 18 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES There are two marble mines on the hill, one in the lands of Achalgarh, named Vansvalla, the other at Utraj. Copper, silver, iron, sulphur, arsenic, antimony, and lead are found in small quantities in various parts of the State. Afjricultiire, — There are the two usual crops in Sirohi, viz., the spring crops or rabi, and the rain crops or kharif. The principal unali or rabi crops are wheat, barley, gram, and sarson. The principal rain crops are Indian-corn, which is largely grown, mong, moth, urad, hulath, gudr, cotton, til, jowar, and lajra. Crops are irrigated by means of the Persian vfheel, called aratli in Sirohi. The principal kinds of soil, as distinguished by the Sirohi cultivators, are — (i) Singam, the soil just outside the village, which is light and rich, being manured by cattle and sheep. (2) Mdr or mattial, a rather stiff, good soil, in which wheat, barley, and cotton are grown. (3) Bhiiwr, a rather light-brown earth, good for the rain crops. (4) Rdi, nearly pure sand. (5) Khdri, land impregnated with salts, in which nothing will grow. Exforts and Invports. — The principal exports of Sirohi are cattle, sheep, ghee, til or sesamum seed, honey, samber horns, sword-blades, spears and knives, also drugs, viz., aoida and lahera or myrabolams, dkrooi, nissot, lirami, acacia, and other gums. The principal imports are grain, rice, sugar, dal, spices, cocoa-nuts, tobacco, dates, English piece-goods, country cloths, silk stuffs, iron, copper, and ivory. The imports are chiefly from the Bombay side. Salt is obtained from Pachbhadra in Mar war, and opium from Malwa. Population. — The population of Sirohi consists chiefly of Hindus, Jains, and Mussalmans, the latter bearing a very small proportion to the whole. Brahmins and religious mendicants SIROHI 19 are numerous, and they were much fostered by Ummed Singh. Banias and Mahajans form a very numerous class, and they are mostly followers of the Jain religion. There are Rajputs of many clans, but the ruling family belongs to the Deoras, who are also the most numerous. Grasias, Minas, and Bhils, taken together, form a great portion of the inhabitants, of which Grasias are principally confined to the hilly tract in the south-east corner of the State. The Grasias were formerly great plunderers, but have now settled down to agriculture, and seldom give trouble. They are said to be the descendants of Rajputs married to Biiil women. Bhils and Minas are the principal criminal classes of this State. They are always troublesome, having a hereditary taste for strong drink, plundering, and cattle-lifting. They are naturally idle and thriftless, and have consequently never settled down to agriculture, as they dislike the steady, hard work of irrigating fields ; but they cultivate rain crops, as this entails but little labour. Speaking generally, the Minas may be said to occupy the north, and the Bhils the west part of Shohi. There are no very wealthy classes in Sirohi. The Jagir- dars are mostly poor, and generally in debt ; but among the Mahajans and traders there are some rich men. The culti- vators are all poor, and, as a rule, completely in the hands of the money-lenders (Bohras). The better class of inhabitants live in houses built of burnt bricks and mud, with tiled roofs. The cultivators live in mud huts, the roofs being generally tiled. The Bhils and Minas live in beehive huts, made of stakes and mud, and thatched. In villages located at the foot of hills, the huts of these classes are so situated as to allow of a ready escape to the hills in cases of emergency. In the hills the Grasias, who are the principal inhabitants, live in scattered hamlets. Wheat and lajra form the chief articles of food of the hotter classes ; barley, maize, lajra, hulath, &c., that of the poor. 20 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES The inliabitants of Sirohi generally go abroad armed, and the Bhils and Minus still carry bows and arrows, the latter caste having, in addition, a formidable dagger called katdr. The total population of Sirohi, as enumerated in 1891, amounted to 190,836. The area of the State is 1964 square miles, and the relative density of population per square mile is 97.2. The number of occupied houses is 42,317, and that of villages and towns together 369. The average number of persons per house is 4.42, and per village 457. Of the total population 95.4 per cent, are rural and 4.6 urban. As regards religions and religious sects, 163,626 are re- turned as Hindus (which sect is the most numerous). 18,513 as Jains, and 5183 as Mahomedans. The five most numerous castes in Sirohi are as follows: — Mahajans 19,008 ChaiuArs 17,500 Rajputs 16,577 Bhils .... 16,238 Brahmins 13,031 Of the total population it was found at last census that 63,217 belonged to the agricultural class. 19,149 belonged to the professional class. 19,534 were commercial. 45,950 were artisans and village menials. 35,287 were vagrants^ minor artisans, and performers. 4,839 were miscellaneous. There were 50 male and 35 female insanes, 446 males and 7 1 6 females returned as blind at last census. There were only 47 lepers, of whom 35 were males and 12 females. JAISALMIR GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE COUNTRY ConfigiLration. — The country is mostly a sandy desert, but there are many rocky plateaus and elevated ridges, with alluvial valleys between. The country around Jaisalmir is very stony, being a continuation of the hills of Balmer, in Mallani. These extend about forty miles north of the city, with a breadth of ten or twelve miles. Fossils are found on this stony plateau ; they are ammonites, belemnites, and terebratulse, embedded in the limestone rock, which forms the greater part of the plateau on which the Jaisalmir city and fort stand. Tlie plateau ex- tends for a considerable distance around the city. These fossils are also sometimes found embedded in a dark ferrugfinous matrix of sandstone, and this variety is most common near Lodorva. Due east from Jaisalmir there is also a rocky ground, indicated by stony hills, appearing at intervals in the sand, as far as Pohkaran and Phalodi, in Marwar. Near the city the ground is very stony, with comparatively little sand and no alluvial soil. Low ridges of limestone and sandstone rock, many miles in length, rise up through the sand and form long valleys, w^iich are fertile when rain falls, and in which grass is to be found nearly every year. In many places sandstone hills project above the surrounding country; these are often ferruginous and destitute of vegetation. The general aspect of the country, in many parts, is an interminable sea of sand- hills, of all shapes and sizes, mingled in inextricable confusion, some rising 150 feet above the general level of the country. Those in the western portion of the country are covered with 22 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES pliog (Calligonum pohjgonoides), Idnd, and khejra (Frosojns spici- gera) bushes ; in the eastern, with large tufts of long grass. The Avestern portion of the country, around and to the south of Shahgarh, is one of the most desolate tracts that can well be seen. In the ordinary desert, the sandhills are clothed to a certain extent with shrubs and coarse grass, and, around the villages, these afford pasture to the flocks and herds. But in this part there are large extents of shifting sands, locally termed " dhrian." These vary in size from two to three miles across to ten or twelve. On them there is no trace of vegetation, and their surface is ever changing, as the Avind heaps the sand into hills or scoops it into deep hollows. They are very diffi- cult to cross, the path shifting daily. The inhabitants say that they are travelling slowly northwards. They swallow up and occupy a large portion of the country, depriving the inhabi- tants of much of their wretched pasture-ground, and causing them to be poorer, and to have a harder struggle for life than the rest of their fellow-subjects. The people subsist chiefly on milk, with a little hajra, which they obtain from Sindh in ex- change for sheep. The stony sections of the country are two : one would be comprised within a line drawn from Vinjorai, on the southern frontier, through the villages of Khaba, Kathori, and Mohangarh, to the border village of Chanu, north-Avest by north of Pohkaran, in Mar war ; the second section Avould be betAveen the MarAvar frontier to the south-east, and a line draAvn from the above-mentioned village of Chanu, in a north-eastern direction, through Nokh, to the border of the Bikanir State. The Avest of the State is a vast expanse of sand in innumerable Avaves, covered Avith a very scanty vegetation, and it is very thinly populated. A country could hardly present a more desolate appearance ; the villages are feAv and far apart, and consist generally of some circular huts collected round a well of brackish water. Towards Tanot and the Avestern portion of the country there is little of any cultivation. In the east, ^ JAISALMIR 23 near the large villages of Nokh, Bikampur, and Barsalpur, there are many fields in the valleys formed by the sandhills, where, when the season is favourable, the inhabitants grow jowar and hajra. In several places there is a kind of sandstone and in- ferior limestone, which comes to the surface in the valleys. All over the country water is scarce, and generally brackish. The wells are very deep ; one measured at the village of Choria, thirty-two miles south-east of the capital, was 490 feet deep. Most of the villages have small ponds, in which the rain-water collects, in a good season sufiicient to last for seven or eight mouths; but, as a rule, owing to the scanty rainfall, the supply fails in from four to six months. The villages have then to obtain their water from long distances (sixteen to eighteen miles). The poorer classes, who cannot afford to get their water from a distance, drink the brackish water (a well or two of which every village possesses), mixed with a little '•' dalii " (curds), the acidity of which in a measure counteracts the brackishness of the water. The average depth of wells is said to be about 250 feet. In the north-eastern portion of the country, each village has its " tankas" or circular holes in the ground, lined with fine polished chunam, in which water collects during the rains, and is kept for use when the other supply fails. Scarcity of Water. — The rainfall is very scanty indeed, and water is very scarce, except at a few favoured localities. In the sandy desert water can generally be obtained if wells are dug ; but in some portions of the stony desert, especially in the north-eastern corner of the State, it is so far below the surface that the springs cannot be tapped by wells, and the nature of the surface soil is such that it is extremely difficult to prevent drainage water, collected in tanks, from being absorbed by the soil. For instance, between the villages of Bap and Chanu, a distance of nearly forty miles, there is but one village at which water can be obtained during the hot season, 24 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES and during years of drought even the tank of that locaHty dries up, and the whole track is deserted. The excavation of a well was attempted in this part of the State ; it was dug to a depth of nearly 500 feet without tapping the springs, and was at last abandoned in despair when a stratum of sand was reached. It may be imagined that, in such a country, salinity of soil would be rare, and, in fact, tracts of salt are only met with at the two oases, where depressions occur, and water is near the surface. Soils. — Almost the whole of the soil of Jaisalmir may be described as sandy. It is favourable to some grains, notably to hajra, of which good crops are sometimes grown. The capital of Jaisalmir is built on a hill, which furnishes a lime- stone more valuable than even the red sandstone of Marwar ; it is of a dull yellow colour, takes a fah polish, and is good for lithograph blocks. There is another variety of yellow lime- stone, with large quantities of an iron substance, like red ochre, blended with it, produced at Habur, a few miles from Jaisalmir, and there are extensive pits of a yellow unctuous clay, resembling Fuller's earth or Multani mitti, which is largely exported, and used as soap for washing the hair. Minerals. — Yellow marble of excellent quality, easily pol- ished and carved, is met with at Jaisalmir. The plateau on which the capital stands is principally composed of this j^ellow marble ; it is very extensive, and from it most of the building- stone used for carving and roofing is now taken. This stone is also largely exported. In Khuiala pargana, at Habur village, thirty miles from Jaisalmir city, a marble is obtainable which is considered sacred, and is used in flooring temples. Sand- stone of good quality is obtainable from the plateau, also from Bhadasar and many other places in the State. The Bhadasar sandstone is hard, and used for making grinding- stones. Carbonate of lime, in the form of Jcankor, is common throughout the country, although deeply embedded in sand in JAISALMIR 25 many places. Sulphate of lime is met with twelve miles from the city. It is probable that coal is to be found in Bap district, and that the seam recently discovered in Bikanir runs into Jaisalmir. There is also iron, and lignite in some places, in small quantities. There are four quarries of Fuller's earth in Jaisalmir, viz., at Mandhu, Nedi, Ramgarh, and Mandai, from which exports take place. Salt of fair quality is found in abundance in four parganas, viz., Jaisalmir, Dewa, Nokh, and Bap on the Phalodi border. It is, however, manufactured at Kanode only, and is not ex- ported, as the Marwar salt is of superior quality, more easily manufactured, and conveniently located for exportation. Climate and Rainfall. — The climate of Jaisalmir is essen- tially dry, bracing, and healthy, akin to that of the north-west of Marwar. As regards temperature, the heat is greatest in the months of May and June, when hot winds prevail with much violence. The temperature generally ranges between 64° and 1 15° F. As soon as rain falls, the weather becomes cool and pleasant ; the coldest times are from the middle of December to the middle of February, when the thermometer falls very low, with a good deal of frost and ice. In January the ther- mometer always reads below freezing-point during the night. During the few cold months the climate of Jaisalmir is both bracing and invigorating, and ideal for Europeans. The sky is then clear, the thermometer low, and the air crisp and stimulating ; consequently unusual exertions can be made without fatigue, and sound sleep enjoyed throughout the night. The hot weather is very prolonged, and the heat very intense and trying to the constitution of Europeans. Then there are years when the rainfall is so light that it is insuffi- cient to cool the country much, even for a short time. How- ever, when the rainfall is good, there are two or three months of pleasant weather during the monsoon season. The rainfall was very scanty in 1898, viz., 3 inches 26 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES 87 cents. The monsoon consisted of a few days of light showers, which barely wet the ground, and put very little into the tank. The average rainfall for the twelve years ending 1898 was 7.34 inches, and this includes an unusual rainfall, namely, that of 1893, in which 15.24 inches were registered. General Character of the, People. — Notwithstanding the many difficulties of existence in this barren country, the Jaisalmir people always seem bright and happy ; even scarcity of water and food in bad years does not seem sufficient to depress their buoyant spirits. They are naturally hardy and healthy, take life easy, and labour very little. The soil is so unproduc- tive and the seasons so capricious, that they can never rely on their sowings being followed by a harvest ; so they depend more on their flocks and herds to supply them with the necessities of life than on agriculture. General Character of the Country and the Soil. — The country shows signs of a greater population than there is at present, and there are many deserted villages to be seen throughout the districts, with substantially built stone houses, some of which exhibit considerable carvino- and ornamentation. These villasfes were occupied by Palliwal Brahmins, who left the country about a hundred years ago on account of the oppression of Salem Singh, the then minister. Many of the houses would now require very little repairs to make them habitable, so sub- stantially were they built in the prosperous age of the country. These Brahmins were excellent cultivators, and it is said that all the long valleys between the stony ridges and sandhills were then cultivated, and that the country teemed with wheat and other grains grown by them. They made dams across these valleys to prevent the rain from running off, and in this Avay improved the fertility of these depressions, locally called " khdrins." Some of these khdrins are still cultivated, but many of them only produce grass, and the dams have mostly disappeared from want of care. Some of them are now being JAISALMIR 27 repaired, but there is no population to restore to the Jaisalmir State its original prosperity, and the monsoon is supposed, by many of the inhabitants, also to be less favourable to this than formerly. Medical Asi^eds. — Epidemics are of rare occurrence. People suffer chiefly from mild malarial fever, pneumonia, and bron- chitis, on account of scanty clothing ; skin diseases, guinea- worm, and small-pox. There is a saying that " neither mud, mosquitoes, nor malaria is to be found in these regions," and malarial fevers are neither so common nor so severe as in other parts of India. Small-pox, the great scourge of the juvenile population, is being mitigated by vaccination, and the germs of cholera and plague have never yet been able to survive the hardships of the desert ; so these diseases are still unknown in Jaisalmir. Elvers and Lakes. — There are no perennial streams in Jaisalmir, but two small rivers, one called the Ldthi-ka-Nadi, flow through the State during the monsoon rains. The former L'ises in low ground belonging to the villages of Kotri, Gohira, and Latabana, and after flowing a distance of twenty-eight miles, spreads over a large space of flat ground, and forms a lake called the Bhuj Jhil. In years of exceptionally heavy rainfall this river often deviates from its usual course, and forms a rinn or salt lake, extending to a distance of fourteen or fifteen miles beyond Bhuj. The Lathi-ka-Niidi flows in from Marwar, divides itself into two branches, which again unite about eight miles to the east of Lathi, and takes a western course for about twenty-four miles, where it forms a lake near the village of Mohangarh, which sometimes covers an area of twenty or thirty miles. These lakes become rapidly reduced by leakage and evaporation after the rains, and Avheat is then grown over the greater part of the depressions ; but there is sufficient rainfall for this only once in ten or twenty years. 28 AVESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Agriculture. — Rain crops, such as hajra, moth, til, &c., are chiefly grown. The soil being light and sandy, good crops of hajra are produced after a very slight fall of rain. Crops of wheat and barley are rare, but they are grown in favourable seasons in the depressions around tanks, and in other valleys locally known as " kharins." In the sandy parts of Jaisalmir the rain sinks into the soil, and does not flow off the surface, so that a very small rainfall sufiices for good crops of hajra and moth. The produce of the country, in a favourable season, is more than sufficient for the immediate wants of the people, and hoards are then made ; but storage is unfortunately difficult, as the burnt earthen vessels, necessary to keep the grain in good condition for a length of time, have to be brought from long distances. The ka7'hi or hajra stalks, which make excellent food for cattle, are little heeded in good years, when rich grass is plentiful, and little of either kai^hi or grass is cut and stacked to stand against bad seasons. Consequently many of the advantages of a bumper year are lost by the careless habits of the people. When wheat or grain is grown, the Darbar's share from the cultivators is from a fourth to a sixth, and of the rain crops, such as hajra, moth, til, &c., from a seventh to an eleventh of the produce. These heavy dues in kind have anything but a stimulating eftect on agriculture in a country so subject to the caprices of the monsoon. Consequently the people rely greatly on their herds and flocks for maintenance, and many of them on a few months' labour every year with the Zemindars, who cultivate the fertile banks of the Indus. Population. — The total population of Jaisalmir, as enume- rated in 1 891, was 1 15,701, with a densit}^ of 7.2 per square mile, as compared with 108,143, with a density of G.y, in 1 88 1. The area of the State is 16,062 square miles. Of the total population, 9 1 per cent, are rural and 9 per cent, urban. Riding-camel and Street Boys of Jaisalmir. \'illiigcrs, Jaisalmir. To face piige 28. JAISALMIR 29 The most numerous castes in Jaisalmir are : — Rajputs ....... 28,329 Bhambis 7,555 Chaindrs ....... 7)976 Mahdjans ....... 6,762 The folio whig clans of Rajputs are represented in Jaisal- mir : — Bhati, to which the ruling family of the country belongs ; Rathore, Kachawah, Chohan, and Sliishodia. The different kinds of Brahmins are Pushkarnd, Srimali, Joshi, and Palliwal. The last-mentioned caste were much more numerous before the time of Dewan Salem Singh, under whose tyranny they suffered much, and many of them left the State on that account ; they were good cultivators, and Jaisalmir has sustained a great loss in them. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF MOUNT ABU Mount Abu is a detached hill of the Aravalli range, somewhat south-east of the centre of the Sirohi State; it is separated from this range by a valley about fifteen miles wide ; it is principally solid granite, in many places well covered with soil, and well wooded, especially its valleys and watered slopes. The shape of the mountain is long and narrow, being about fourteen miles in length by two to four miles in breadth on the top. The base is about twenty miles in length by eight miles in breadth at its widest part. The direction of the hill is from south-west to north-east. Its principal peak, Guru Sikhar, towards the north end, is the highest in Rajputana, being 5653 feet above the level of the sea. The station of Mount Abu is about 4000 feet above sea-level ; it is built on an irregular plateau, sur- rounded by several projecting peaks and elevated ridges, topped by huge boulders, some of which present very fanciful shapes. Among these are the " Nun " and " Toad " rocks, which present, on a very large scale, a remarkable resemblance to a nun and a toad. The Nun rock was struck by lightning in 1890, and a piece of stone, resembling a long straight nose, detached. There is still, however, much resemblance to a nun in the stone taken tout ensemble. Uria, another considerable plateau, is about five miles from Abu station; it is 500 feet higher than Abu, and lies below the main peak of Guru Sikhar, and somewhat south of that elevation. This plateau is surrounded by low ridges. It con- 30 MOUNT ABU 31 tains three small tanks, wliicli hold water a great part of the year, and has some good wells close to the villages on it. It is cooler than Abu, and would be a good site for a sanitarium if sufficient water could be assured. Lakes and Tanks. — The Nakhi Talao or Abu Lake is situated close to the station, on the west side of the bazaar ; it is about half a mile long by a quarter of a mile broad. It is very shallow on the east side towards the bazaar, but is twenty to thirty feet deep towards the dam on the west. Although this lake has, according to the local legend, been excavated by the nails of saints (whence its name), there is little doubt of its being of volcanic origin ; but it has been considerably deepened and enlarged by a dam on the Anadra side. It is most picturesquely situated between high hills with projecting peaks. The slopes and ravines adjacent are well wooded, especially on the south and west, and there are several rocky islands in the lake, which add greatly to the picturesque beauty of the scene. Some of them are partially covered with bushes and grass. There is an overflow from the lake for a considerable time after the monsoon season, but this generally ceases before the end of the hot weather, and the water level sinks considerably below the top of the bund before the rains set in to again replenish it. The water of the Abu Lake is not potable, and even the wells in its vicinity, at certain seasons when it is low, or when the decay of vegetable matter around its edges is at its height, smell heavily, are full of organic matter, and unpleasant to the taste, which is not the case with most of the station wells at a distance. This lake is held sacred by Hindus, who per- form pilgrimages by walking round it, by drinking from it, and by washing ill it. Occasionally individuals weary of life, from some incurable disease or from some other cause, resort to it for suicide, in the hope of immediate transportation to a better land, where they would be free from their malady. 32 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES A large tank is being completed by the Sirolii Darbar above tbe Dilwara temples, about a mile and a half from Abu, which will hold about 50,000,000 gallons of water. This will be collected from high ground, and be of much superior quality to that of the lake. It is proposed to distribute this water to the station by pipes, and it is hoped it will completely remedy the scarcity which takes place every year during the crowded season, when the best wells become low, and restrictions have to be put on the quantity drawn from them. During the monsoon season the edges of the lake are sur- rounded by green grass and weeds, and there is very little marshy ground even in the wettest weather. Nevertheless, the houses in its vicinity are more malarious than in other parts of the station, and boating on it, or walking too fre- quently by its edges, after the rains have stopped, has been considered sufficient to account for severe attacks of malarial fever. During: the hot weather, when the water level of the lake has generally fallen considerably, and when its shores are dry and free from rank vegetation, the same unhealthiness does not seem to exist, and the roads and paths about it are then very favoured resorts for those in search of fresh air and exercise. Climate and Rainfall. — The climate of Abu, for the greater portion of the year, is very agreeable and healthy. The seasons do not dift'er in time from those usually experienced in the plains, except that the temperature is always 10 to 20 degrees lower. During the hot season, which commences about the middle of April, the midday temperature is at times unpleasantly high, especially after seasons of insufficient rainfall, when it sometimes rises to 96° or 97° F, in the shade, and on one or two occasions it reached 100° F. ; which is, however, very unusual. The thermometer seldom exceeds 90° or 94° in the hottest days, and owing to the dryness and lightness of the atmosphere, and to the absence of hot winds, the heat at this "^ MOUNT ABU 33 period of the year is not generally trying to the constitution of Europeans. Punkhas are seldom used, the doors of houses are kept open, and the constant south-west breeze, which crosses the desert as a hot wind, becomes cool by the rapid expansion of the ah as it ascends the hill, and this moderates the temperature, which would otherwise doubtless be in- tense on the rocky surface of Abu in summer. The nights and mornings are almost invariably cool, fresh, and invigo- rating. During the rainy season the temperature is always pleasant, but the air is then damp, and fires are required in the houses to keep them dry. During December, January, and February, frosty nights are frequent, and a cold north-east wind gene- rally blows over the hill at that season. From the middle of October to the end of November there is sometimes a good deal of malarial fever, especially among the natives, who are badly housed and badly clothed. Years of light rainfall are, as in the plains, less feverish than years of a heavy monsoon. It is my experience that a heavy downpour of rain at the beginning of the monsoon, which washes the hill thoroughly before everything becomes welded to the sm-face by the rapid growth of vegetation which takes place after the soil becomes moistened, lessens the fever of the season ; the early appear- ance of frost has also a good effect in this direction. Hardly any season passes without cases of enteric fever among the Europeans in Abu, and it is not uncommon among the natives, especially children. Soldiers, convalescent from the disease, come up the hill in early spring and carry the germs of enteric into the sanitarium and station. It is supposed that the temperature on Abu has increased since the hill was first occupied as a sanitarium, owing to the reckless way in which many of the peaks have been cleared of timber, and the consequent drying up of several springs and streams at an early time of the year. Forest regulations have C 34 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES been in force for the last five years, and the destruction of the best timber is now prevented. The time at which the rains set in varies ; they usually commence, with thunderstorms, about the middle of June, and there are generally passing showers in the last week of May. The rainy season, as in all hill stations, is rendered some- what unpleasant by the prevalence of fog and drizzle, and the intense moisture of the atmosphere. But the temperatm-e is cool and pleasant, and there is none of the stifling damp heat of the plains ; the climate, too, is healthy at this season. The rainfall is generally heavy, but not excessive, and varies greatly from year to year. The average during the last twelve years has been 66.28 inches, but there have been years of unusual rainfall, such as 1862, in which 123, and 1893, in which 130 inches were registered; again, in 1868, 31, and in 1898, 36 inches only were recorded. In 1893, 201 inches were regis- tered at the Railway School, where the rainfall is generally much greater than in the station. However, only 46 inches were registered there during 1898. The average fall of June is about 8 inches, of July about 25 inches, of August about 20 inches, and of September about i o inches. The monsoon rains usually cease, as they begin, with thunderstorms, about the middle of September, after which, for a few weeks, an occasional shower falls, and there are generally a few heavy showers during the cold weather about Christmas. A short interval of warmer weather follows the monsoon, and during the period of the drying-up of the rains there is a good deal of malarial fever, especially among the natives ; but the disease is not often of a very severe type. From the middle of October to the middle of November is generally the most unhealthy time of the year. Duringf the cold season, from December to March, the climate is very healthy and bracing, and fires are required in the houses ; but the cold is not excessive, as the temperature , iHnm r-nm iBMimmmo mmmmmr. Church, Mount Abu. To face fa^e 34. MOUNT ABU 35 seldom falls below 40°, and the average is 60°. Hoar-frost often covers the ground, sometimes remaining in the shade till nearly noon, and then ice forms on any still water. On the whole, Abu may be considered as possessing a very good climate, combined with the advantage of beautiful scenery. European children located on Mount Abu keep in good health at all seasons. They maintain their vigour and retain much of their bright complexion. Sanitation. — The sanitary arrangements of Mount Abu are well directed by the Magistrate, advised by the Local Municipal Committee and the Residency Surgeon, Western Rajputana States. Much attention is given to drainage, conservancy, and the prevention of over-crowding, to which there is a great tendency in the hot weather. The town of Kerari, at Abu Road, has recently been well drained by the Sirohi Darbar, and great attention is now given to conservancy there. Water Supply. — Considering the hilly nature of the surface on the summit of Abu, perennial springs of water are singularly few and small. This is doubtless owing to the generally im- pervious nature of the rock preventing deep percolation. But, for the same reason, water can be got in almost every valley, within twenty or thirty feet of the surface, by sinking wells through the clay. Many of the basins retaining these collec- tions of water are small and shallow, so that the supply is soon exhausted, and towards the end of the dry season the wells in them cease to yield much ; those situated lowest in the valleys nearest the deepest part of the basin lasting longest, and always giving the most. The water in all these wells, although un- certain as to quantity, is of good quality. UartJiquakes. — Earthquakes are very frequent at Abu at uncertain intervals. The shocks are generally very slight, and have an undulatory motion, but are accompanied with much rumbling noise. From information derived from local 36 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES sages, tliere appears to have been a severe shock in Sambat, 1881 or 1882 (a.d. 1825 or 1826), which caused damage to houses, and cracked some of the arches of the Dilwara temples; also a somewhat severe earthquake in 1849 or 1850. Again, in 1875 there was a considerable shock, accompanied by a very loud and alarming noise. This shock was felt at Jodh- pore, about 150 miles away. From these instances it would seem that the more severe shocks occur at intervals of about twenty-five years. The great earthquake of June 1897, which did so much damage in Calcutta, Assam, and other parts of India, was hardly perceptible in Abu. No year passes without earthquakes of some sort on Mount Abu, but they are gene- rally nothing more than a slight underground rumbling. The legend is that holy Abu rests on the horns of a great bull, and that when he is displeased by the sins of the people, he shakes his head, thereby producing an earthquake. The importation of beef is said to be always followed by an earthquake. Beef is forbidden on the hill by treaty, but is sometimes smuggled in by cooks. Epidemics. — It is remarkable that Abu, notwithstanding the great flow of pilgrims, is unusually free from epidemic disease. Cholera is almost unknown on the hill, only one imported case having been seen there within the memory of the oldest inhabitant. Plague found its way to the foot of the hill, but fortunately it was intercepted there. Small-pox alone, of this group, makes occasional ravages among the aborigines, who manage to evade vaccination. Typhoid fever is frequently seen, both among Europeans and natives, and this is only what might be expected, as many of the young soldiers are barely convalescent from the disease when they are sent up the hill for change. Civil and Military Station. — Abu is the head-quarters of the Local Government of Rajputana, and the principal sani- tarium for the British troops of the Bombay command. The MOUNT ABU 37 Lawrence School for soldiers' children, and Railway School for children of Railway employes and others, are located on the hill. Abu is also the summer head-quarters of the Western Rajputana States Residency, and several of the chiefs of Rajputana reside on the hill durmg the hot months. Abu sanitarium includes barracks for about 150 troops, quarters for women and children, and a station hospital; also houses and quarters for ten or twelve officers. Invalid and con- valescent soldiers come up the hill early in March, and many of them get permission to return to their regiments in the plains in July, as they dislike the damp of the monsoon season; others only go down at the beginning of the cold weather, or in time to catch the home transports. Population. — The population varies very much, according to the season of the year. From the middle of March to the middle of July the season is at its height. There are some- times about 400 to 500 Europeans on the hill — officers, their families, soldiers, and children — and the native population is at this time greatly increased by the influx of servants, trades- people, and workpeople. During the rains the population diminishes, but it again increases towards the end of Sep- tember, when the second season begins. From November to March the population is at its lowest ; even the bazaar is then somewhat deserted; and the school children take their holi- days about Christmas, so this further depletes the winter population. There are several small villages on Abu inhabited by Rajputs, Bhils, Brahmins, and Banias; the latter are princi- pally residents of the Abu bazaar, where they are mostly connected with the supply trade of the hill. Temples and Shrines. — There are many temples and shrines on Moimt Abu, and these attract a continuous stream of pilgrims from various parts of India. The Jain temples at Dilwara — a small village outside the Abu station — are the 38 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES most celebrated. They are about 700 years old, and two of tbem have beautifully carved ceilings and columns. They are visited by many hundreds of Jains annually, and Abu is one of the four principal places of pilgrimage of this sect. Gau Mukh, Guru Sikhar, Achalgarh, Achleswar, and the shrine of Adhar Devi are all regularly frequented by batches of pil- grims, which come and go throughout the year. Roads. — There is now a good metalled road from Abu Road Station to Mount Abu, 17 miles in length, and on the other side of the hill there is a zigzag path connecting the station with the old Ahmedabad-Ajmere highway. There is a good road from Abu to Uria, which passes the Dilwara temples. All these roads have been much improved during recent years. There are also made paths to all the important shrines and objects of interest on Mount Abu. Recreation. — There are a good polo ground, racket, tennis, and badminton courts, a cricket ground, a racecourse, and a golf links on the hills. Visitors to Mount Abu are much indebted to the local chief, and to some of the other liberal chiefs of Rajputana, who have contributed largely to the funds from which these pleasure grounds have been made out of hard and rugged upheavals, that almost defied dynamite. Fairs. — There are no fairs of any importance held on Abu, but great bands of pilgrims, called " Sangs " — mostly Jains and Vishnus from parts of India — frequent the hill. On these occasions the Dilwara and other Jain temples on Abu benefit largely from the pilgrims' donations, and, owing to the sanctity of the hill and the number of shrines and temples on it, pilgrims are always coming and going ; but a special pilgrimage, called " Singat," occurs every twelfth year, when thousands of people throng the hill. A pilgrim-tax is levied by the Darbar of Sirohi on Mahajans, Sunars, and Kalals of all districts who come from places outside Sirohi. Medical Institutions. — There is a hospital for the Rajputana MOUNT ABU 39 Agency Staff and the Agent Governor-General's escort, and a charitable dispensary for the poor, on Mount Abu ; and there is a second charitable dispensary at Abu Road Station. The charitable institutions are partly supported by private subscrip- tions, collected by the Residency Surgeon, Western Rajputana States, from residents and visitors on Mount Abu during the season. Government gives medicines and hospital assistants free, and the Sirohi Darbar provides the dispensary house at Abu Road free of rent. In 1897, 31 in-patients and 4632 out-patients were treated in the Abu Charitable Dispensary, and 10 major and 134 minor operations performed in it. In the Abu Road Dispensary, 71 in-patients and 16,999 out-patients were treated, and 48 major and 619 minor opera- tions performed in 1897, As the population of Abu and Abu Road bazaars is princi- pally engaged in the food supply of Mount Abu, most of the attendance at these institutions is in the summer months, there being fewer people resident in the cold weather. SANDS, SALT, FOSSILS, AND LIME There is no doubt in tlie minds of scientific men regarding the sands of Jaisalmir, tliat they must have been left there by the rolHng ocean, of which there are still many well-marked indications imprinted on the country. Moreover, sea-shells, fossil terebratula, and other fossilised marine invertebrata, can be readily picked out of the sandstone rocks or collected from the ground, which sets the question beyond dispute. It is, however, different with Marwar, and there are but few traces of the sea, which could not have come much beyond the mouth of the Luni, before it is lost in the Rann of Kutch. Mr. T. La Touche, of the Geological Survey, is of opinion that the sands of Marwar have been mostly blown up from Kathi- awar, by the steady south-west wind, during countless ages, and that this has been supplemented by grains of sand worn off the rocks by the same prevailing wind. The sands of Marwar contain fossils of extinct foraminifera, which are found in abundance in the sands of Kathiawar, and the grains of this sand are sharper and have less rounded ends than those of sea- sand, which become blunted by being rolled together. The calcified protozoa, or fossil foraminifera, account for the abun- dance of carbonate of lime in the form of kankar, which is found in the subsoil of Marwar. The monsoon rains dissolve out the lime of these minute shells ; it filters through the sand in solution, and as evaporation takes place in the dry season, the lime is deposited below, and kankar is thus formed. When sandhills grow to a certain height, their bases become stationary, but their tops are blown forward from time to time SANDS, SALT, FOSSILS AND LIME 41 and re-formed by the sand brouglit up from behind ; this con- tinues indefinitely. The salt, manufactured at Pachbhadra and other places, by digging pits in the sand and allowing crystallisation to take place under evaporation, is dissolved out and washed down from the hills during the monsoon season. The solution per- colates slowdy through the sands, and by evaporation during the dry season the chloride of sodium is eventually deposited in the soil, where it remains until it is collected in the above way. SHORT HISTORY OF MARWAR THE EARLIER RAJPUT PERIOD The ruling family of Marwar are Rathores, of the Surajwansh or Sun family, and claim their descent from Kush, the second son of Rama, the celebrated king of Ajodhya. The word " Rathore " is said to be derived from " Rashtwar," which means " blessed of Rashtar Sena," the falcon of the world, which was the insignia adopted by Mansa Devi, the family goddess of the rulers of Marwar. Kanauj is said to have been conquered by Nenpal of the Rathore clan in 470 A.D. He was succeeded by Bharat, who had thirteen sons, from whom sprang many branches of the Rathore clan. They ruled here for seven hundred years, and formed one of the four great Rajput kingdoms among whom India was divided at the time of the first Mahomedan invasion. Kanauj was situated on the Kali Nadi. In its prosperous days it was a very large town, having a circumference of thirty miles. Jai Chand, the last king of Kanauj, picked a bitter quarrel with Prithvi Raj Chohan, his cousin, and the last of the Hindu kings of Delhi. He called on Shahabuddin Ghori for help, with whose aid the Delhi king was defeated, taken prisoner, and eventually killed. The Mahomedan conqueror then led his army against the city of Kanauj and besieged its fortress. Jai Chand and his men fought very bravely, but were severely defeated ; and thus both the great Hindu king- doms of Delhi and Kanauj were brought to ruin in 1 1 9 3 a.d. Siaji and Saitramji, the two grandsons of Jai Chand, roamed about as outlaws against the Mahomedan rule for SHORT HISTORY OF MARWAR 43 eighteen years, till at last, in 1 2 1 1 , they left their mother- country with only two hundred followers, and proceeded on a pilgrimage to the holy shrine of Dwarka, Avhere they slew Ldkha Phulani, a notorious robber. Saitramji was killed, but Siaji continued his march into Marwar, and conquered Mehwo and other districts, till he reached Pali, then held by Palliwal Brahmins, who were constantly harassed by Mairs and Minas. Against them the Brahmins sought the assistance of the brave Siaji, who, with his followers, succeeded in putting to the sword a larg-e number of the Mair and Mina freebooters. On the entreaties of these Brahmins, Siaji agreed to settle among them as their protector. Shortly after, at the instance of a Solankhi Avife, he destroyed these Brahmin Jagirdars and became master of Pali. From that date he assumed the title of Rao, and made Pali the principal seat of his government. His son and successor, Asthanji, conquered the land of Kher from the Gohil Rajputs, while Sonig, the younger brother of Asthanji, took Edar. Chonda, tenth in descent from Siaji, and successor to Rao Beeramji, conquered Mandore from Parihar Rajputs in 1395 ; the seat of the Rathore Government was then transferred from Pali to Mandore. He then conquered Nagore, and took Nandole and many other places ; the time of Rao Chonda may, therefore, be reckoned the actual conquest of Marwar. In 1409 A.D. Rao Chonda was succeeded by his son, Rao Rirmal, a giant in size and strength, according to local history and legends. He seized Ajmere, and restored it to Meywar, and he was also the first to enforce the equality of weights and measures throughout his dominions. He was slain while attempting to seize the throne of Meywar. Rao Jodha, the eldest surviving son of Rao Rirmal, suc- ceeded his father. He conquered Sojat in 1455, and laid the foundation of the city of Jodhpore (in 1459 ^-D.), which he made his capital. He had fourteen sons. By this time the 44 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Rathores had conquered in three centuries more than 70,000 square miles of land. They were exceedingly prolific, and already numbered 50,000 cavaliers, descendants of one father. Three chiefs alone, Jodhd, his father and grandfather, produced fifty-two sons. Rao Jodhd was succeeded by his eldest son, Sdtal, who shortly after lost his life, in 1492, in a fight with the Pathans, who had carried off 140 maidens from a fair then being held at Pipsir. Dooda, the fourth son of Rao Jodhd, established himself on the plains of Merta, while Bikd, the sixth son of Jodha, founded Bikanir. After Rao Sdtal came Rao Suja, the second son of Rao Jodha. He occupied the gaddi of MarwAr for twenty-seven years. Rao Sujd's son, Baghji, died during his father's lifetime, and the succession therefore devolved upon Sujd's grandson, Gangd. It was during his reign that the Rathores fought under the standard of Meywar, led by Rana Sangd against the Mogul emperor, Babar, in the fatal field of Biana, in 1528, in which the Rao's grandson, Rai Mai, and many other brave Rajputs, lost their lives. Rao Gcingd, dying in 1531 or 1532, was succeeded by Maldeo, during whose reign Marwar attained to its zenith of power, territory, and independence. He greatly extended his dominions by conquests from neighbouring States, and before his death ruled thirty-eight districts. When Humdyun was driven from the throne of Delhi by Sher Shah, he sought the protection of Maldeo, but in vain. Humayun was then forced to cross the desert of Sindh, and his son Akbar was born at Umarkote at that time. Soon after Sher Shah marched against Maldeo with an army of 80,000 men, and succeeded in defeating him ; but the Rathores fought so desperately that at the end Sher Shah is said to have exclaimed that he had SHORT HISTORY OF MARWAR 45 nearly lost the empire of Hindustan for a handful of hajra, in allusion to the poverty of the country he had unwisely invaded. In I 5 6 1 , Akbar, in revenge for Maldeo's inhospitable treatment of his father, invaded Marwar, and took Merta and the im- portant fortress of Nagore, both of which places were then conferred on the chief of Bikanir. At the close of his life the old Rao had to stand a siege in his capital, and was obliged to yield homage, and pay it in the person of his son, Udai Singh. Chandarsen, though a younger son, succeeded his father, Maldeo ; but, in the third year of his reign, Akbar captured Jodhpore, and held it till 1583, when it was restored to Udai Sino-h, the Emperor's favourite. Udai Singh ruled from 1583 to 1594. He was the first chief of Marwar who received the title of Raja from Akbar. The Emperor not only restored to Udai Singh all the posses- sions, excepting Ajmere, that he had wrested from Maldeo, but several rich districts in Malwa. Udai Singh ruled with a strong hand, and chastised the feudal lords who had espoused the cause of his brother Chandarsen. He was very unpopular with the Charans, as he confiscated some of their villages ; he had seventeen sons and the same number of daughters. Raja Sur Singh, who succeeded his father in i 594, attained to high honour with Akbar, for whom he conquered Gujerat and the Deccan. For his services he held five fiefs in Gujerat and one in the Deccan, in addition to his native dominions of Marwar, and he had also the title of Sawai Raja conferred on him by the Emperor. Raja Gaj Singh succeeded his father, Sur Singh, in 16 19, and ruled till 1638, He was made viceroy of the Deccan, and served with distinction in the wars of the empire. When Prince Khurram rebelled, he marched with the Emperor Jahangir to put down the rebellion. In 1638 a serious rising broke out in Gujerat, and Gaj Singh was sent to suppress it. In his endeavour to put down the rebels Gaj Singh lost his- 46 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES life. He had two sons, Amar Singh and Jaswant Singh, of whom the elder was disinherited and declared incompetent to occupy the throne of Marwar. After the death of Gaj Singh, the succession devolved upon the second son, Jaswant Singh, who ruled for forty-two years, from 1638 to 1678. Local chronicles describe him as a sove- reign unsurpassed in all princely virtues by his predecessors and contemporaries. During his long reign ignorance and darkness were dispelled from Maroo land, while learning and arts made great progress under his encouragement and patronage. He served in the war of Gondwana, where he led a force of twenty-two contingents under Aurangzeb. However, during the first twenty years of his service he played a comparatively sub- ordinate part in the government of the empire until the illness of the Emperor Shahjehan in 1658, when Dara, as regent, appointed him Viceroy of Malwa. It was at this juncture that the civil war of succession broke out among the sons of Shahjehan, and Jaswant Singh was sent to oppose Aurangzeb near Ujjain. He could have easily crushed him, but, over- confident of the capabilities of his army, he gave him time to join with his brother Murad, so that he might have the glory of conquering two princes m one day. He was, however, over- sanguine, and failed in the task he had unwisely undertaken. Maharaja Jaswant Singh hated the Mahomedans, and Aurang- zeb most of all ; so his whole life was spent in an attempt to ruin the Moguls, he cared not whether by force or fraud. With this object in view, he joined Aurangzeb against his brother Suja, and when the battle began he turned upon Aurangzeb's army, cut it to pieces, plundered the imperial camp, and succeeded in bringing much spoil to Jodhpore. He then joined Dara against Aurangzeb, but the Emperor offered Jaswant Singh the viceroyalty of the Deccan, which he accepted. When he reached the Deccan, he planned the death of the king's lieutenant, and then stirred up Prince Muazzam to rebel SHORT HISTORY OF MARWAR 47 against Aurangzeb. When another Viceroy was sent there, he had to fly for his life, and was pursued by the prince and Jaswant Singh beyond the border. In order to get rid of this powerful foe, whom he could not subdue openly, the Emperor pretended friendship with Jaswant Singh, and appointed him to the viceroyalty of Kabul ; but he had his son and heir, Prithi Singh, murdered at Delhi as soon as the father was out of the way. The legend is that the boy was enveloped in a poi- sonous robe, from which he absorbed the noxious drug and died. The cold climate of Afghanistan killed Jaswant Singh's two remaining sons ; the veteran Rathore warrior then died of grief in a foreign land, and his chhattri is still preserved at Jamrood. After the death of Maharaja Jaswant Singh, his wife, who was with him, was in her seventh month of pregnancy ; she made up her mind to become Sati, but was forcibly prevented by one of the late Raja's clansmen. On their return journey to Jodhpore, she gave birth to a posthumous son at Lahore, who afterwards ruled as Ajit Singh. When the infant prince was a few months old, the guardians resumed their journey to their native country via Delhi ; but Aurangzeb commanded that the infant should be surrendered to his custody, in the hope of being able to destroy him. However, the Rajputs in charge became suspicious of the Emperor's intentions, and, without delivering their infant chief into his hands, they managed to escape beyond Delhi, after a severe battle, during which the infant prince was saved by being concealed in a basket, such as that carried by snake-charmers. Gokal Das Khichi, in the garb of a snake-charmer, carried the infant prince off, and intrusted him to Prohit Jagguji, whose Dhani was at Kalindri, in Sirohi, in which place he protected the young prince for seven years, after which he was taken away and concealed in the Siwana hills known as " Chhappan-ka- Pahdr." Here he was visited from time to time by his clans- men, who continued to harass the Mahomedans located in the 48 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES country. After the battle at Delhi, Aurangzeb invaded Marwar, took and plundered Jodhpore. He also sacked all the large towns, destroyed the Hindu temples, and commanded that all Rathores should be forcibly converted to Mahomedanism, with the result that the Rajputs combined against him, and in the wars which ensued Aurangzeb gained little, either in honour or power. The chief leader of the Rathores, and the most faithful adherent to the infant Maharaja Ajit Singh during the critical time of his minority, was Durga Dass, a very valiant Rajput, who sacrificed everything in the service of his lord. Colonel Tod, in his annals, informs us that it was with rare fortitude, patience, valour, and devotion that such a handful of Rathores could hold their own for so long a time against such a powerful monarch as Aurangzeb. In 1 680-81 he suf- fered a disastrous defeat at the hands of the Rathores, who supported his fourth son, Akbar, in his rebellion against his father. Years of anarchy then followed in Marwar, and the Rathores were much subdued, in consequence of the occupation of their capital by Mahomedans, when Ajit Singh, at the age of twenty-one, in 1 70 1 a.d. put himself at the head of a large body of the clan, and marched on Jodhpore city, from which he expelled Aurangzeb's governor and killed hundreds of his garrison. The city was again taken by Bahadur Shah in 1708, and held till 17 10, when it was restored to Ajit Singh by Shah Alam. Maharaja Ajit Singh was, however, not even at this period allowed to rest at his capital undisturbed. It was in- vested by the Sayyads, who carried off his son, Abhai Singh, as a hostage, but they were finally defeated by the Maharaja and compelled to retire from Jodhpore. Maharaja Ajit Singh was much mixed up in the intrigues of the Imperial Court ; he was as brave as he was wise, and eventually came into great favour with the Emperor. He is said to have made and un- made seven successive Emperors of Delhi before he died at Jodhpore in 1724, leaving behind him five sons. SHORT HISTORY OF MARWAR 49 Abhai Singh succeeded to the gaddi and ruled for twenty- five years ; he was a great athlete, the best swordsman in Rajwara, and he was given Nagore and Edar by the Emperor. He rendered great service to Mohammad Shah in subduina* Sherbaland Khan, the rebel of Ahmedabad. After this he returned to Jodhpore with the spoils of Gujerat, which materially helped him in strengthening his forts and garrisons. He also, with the aid of his brother, Bakhat Singh, gained a great victory over Jai Singh, the chief of Amber. Maharaja Abhai Singh died in 1750, and was succeeded by his son, Ram Singh. Many battles were fought between Ram Singh and his uncle Bakhat Singh for the gaddi of Marwar; but at last the latter conquered and was made Maharaja, although Ram Singh had the help of the Mahrattas to sustain his claims. Maharaja Bakhat Singh was a chief of great personal prowess and a great leader ; his extraordinary exploits are still recounted by Charans, and he is assigned a very high place among the rulers of the Rathore clan, both on account of his strict justice during the long period he governed Nagore, and also for his warlike achievements. Bakhat Singh was succeeded by his son, Bijai Singh, who ruled with much difficulty, at first on account of a combination made against him by Ram Singh and Jai-appa Scindia. The united forces defeated his army at Merta, compelled him to cede Ajmere to the Mahrattas, and to pay a triennial tribute for the murder of Jai-appa Scindia, which afterwards took place in Marwar. Ram Singh died in exile in 1773; after this Marwar was free from war for a considerable time, although much harassed by Mahratta freebooters. The Raj- put States were, about that time, much irritated on account of frequent raids by Mahrattas; consequently Meywar, Marwar, and Jeypore joined armies and gained a victory over Scindia and De Boyne outside the town of Merta, from which place and from Ajmere they were driven out with great loss. D 50 WESTERN RAJPUT AN A STATES However, Scindia soon rallied liis army, recaptured Ajmere, and imposed a fine of sixty lakhs on the Rajputs. Bijai Singh was a vegetarian and also strictly forbade the use of liquor and other intoxicants; he died in 1794, leaving a reputation for great piety behind. At the time of Bijai Singh's death, his grandson, Bhim Singh, was at Jaisalmir ; he galloped to Jodhpore and seized the vacant gaddi, the rightful heir to which was Zalim Singh, the eldest surviving son of Maharaja Bijai Singh. Bhim Singh, being afraid of the rightful heir and of other pre- tenders, slew or drove into exile all who could lay any claim to the throne. Man Singh, who took refuge within the walls of Jalore fort, however, evaded his tyranny, although Maharaja Bhim Singh made several unsuccessful attacks on the stronghold, and endeavoured in vain to seize the person of Man Singh. Maharaja Bhim Singh died in 1804, and it is remarkable that there was no famine or scarcity during his time — a period of ten years. Maharaja Man Singh succeeded Bhim Singh to the gaddi in 1804, and ruled nearly forty years, although discord and confusion prevailed during his time. The leading nobles of Jodhpore produced a posthumous son of Maharaja Bhim Singh, and, with the aid of Jeypore, nearly succeeded in wresting the State from Man Singh, who, however, with the help of Amir Khan, defeated his enemies. The nobles then left the country and took refuge at the courts of MeyAvar, Jeypore, Bundi, Kotah, and Bikanir, where they intrigued against and occasionally organised attacks on Marwar. Maha- raja Man Singh early refused to take any part in State affairs, and nominated his eldest son, Chatar Singh, as his regent. In 18 1 8, at the commencement of the Pindari war, a treaty of alliance was concluded between the British Government and the chief of Marwar, Chatar Singh died suddenly, whereupon his father resumed the administration. Internal SHORT HISTORY OF MARWAR 51 dissensions and misrule, however, continued ; the Naths con- trolled the affairs of the State and held the Maharaja as a mere puppet in theu- power till 1839, when the British Government had to interfere, in order to save the State from being Avholly made over to them. A British force under Colonel Sutherland held Jodhpore for five months, till order was restored. Maharaja Man Singh, the last descendant of Abhai Singh, died without heirs, and Maharaja Takhat Singh of Ahmednagar was adopted and put on the throne in 1843. Owing to con- stant disputes between the Darbar and the Thakars, the affairs of Marwar remained in an unsatisfactory state for a time. Maharaja Takhat Singh was, however, a loyal chief, and did good service in the mutiny of 1857, when many European ladies found a safe asylum in his fort at Jodhpore, and during which troublesome period he did his utmost to assist the Government. He was famous for his hospitality and the excellence of his wine. Maharaja Takhat Singh died in 1873, and was succeeded by his eldest son, Maharaja Jaswant Singh, G.C.S.I., who was born at Ahmednagar in 1837, before his father was adopted into Marwar ; he succeeded to the gacldi of Jodhpore in 1873, and died in October 1895. He was a typical Rajput chief, dignified, courteous, genial, and generous in a high degree ; he was a keen sportsman, very fond of horses, a great patron of the turf, and any broken-down jockey or needy racing man, who came to Jodhpore in his time, could rely on his sym- pathy and assistance. Although a strict Hindu, he was very broad-minded in ecclesiastical matters, and held that all re- ligions were good and deserving of support. He was very charitable, and many who had met with misfortune existed on his bounty. Under Maharaja Jaswant Singh's rule much progress was made in administration in Marwar ; the law courts were reformed, boundary and revenue settlements 52 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES made, outlawry and dacoity put down, and a good water supply provided for the capital. In his time many new tanks were made and old ones improved throughout the State ; the rail- way was constructed, and the roads around Jodhpore metalled. Inland customs were regulated, and transit duties abolished. The two regiments of Imperial Service Cavalry, the State's quota to the defence of the empire, were recruited and trained, and are now well mounted, thoroughly equipped, and able to take then' place in the field against any enemy to British supremacy in India. Arboriculture and forestry received par- ticular attention, and the trees planted under the immediate supervision of His Highness have done much to improve the surroundings of Jodhpore city, and to steady the sand that formerly drifted as in the open desert, but which is now covered with trees and grass, and is fairly stable at all seasons of the year. Nearly all the hospitals adorning the capital and the dispensaries, which confer so much benefit on the sick poor of the out-districts, were established during the lifetime of Maharaja Jaswant Singh. Vaccination was made general throughout the country, and sanitation received consideration and made considerable progress during his time. Education was particularly fostered, and many schools were established, the pupils of which are largely employed in the railway and other departments of the State. Scholarships for Marwar boys were given at some of the Indian universities, and two medical studentships for female students were founded in the Agra medical school by the Maharaja, who was always pleased to advance any cause likely to benefit his own subjects or the people of India generally. Maharaja Jaswant Singh was born outside Marwar, and this gave rise to a dispute on the death of Maharaja Takhat Singh. Maharaj Zorawar Singh, the second brother of His Highness, and the first-born of Maharaja Takhat Singh in Marwar, claimed to succeed his father, but his claim was not SHORT HISTORY OF MARWAR 53 recognised by the British Government, nor upheld by the Sardars of the State ; so the pretender accepted the inevitable and settled down under the rightful heir's rule, giving no further trouble during the rest of his lifetime, o For many years before the death of Maharaja Sir Jaswant Singh, Colonel Maharaj Dhu-aj Sir Pratap Singh, G.C.S.I,, carried on the government of the State ; but the chief was ever ready with good advice when it was needed, and he had abso- lute confidence in the loyalty of his younger brother. Conse- quently good government was established out of comparative anarchy, and marked progress took the place of a tendency to decay. Maharaja Jaswant Singh's influence was great among the ruling chiefs of Rajputana, and he did much to improve the relations between the different States ; his judgment was con- sidered sound, and he was often consulted by his contemporary rulers, both within and beyond the borders of Rajputana. His loyalty to his suzerain was, under all circumstances, staunch and unflinchinsf, and this had a good effect on the malcontents and restless in many parts of India. Maharaja Jaswant Singh had his salute increased to twenty- one guns, as a personal distinction ; he received the G.C.S.I. from the Queen-Empress, and the outlying and once turbulent district of Mallani was restored to Marwar, on account of the strong and sound government established during his lifetime. His Highness Maharaja Sardar Singh succeeded his father, Sir Jaswant Singh, on the 24th of October 1895, and was invested with full powers on the i8th of February 1898. He is now in his twentieth year, and promises to have many of the sterling and generous qualities of his distinguished father. He is an excellent horseman, a good polo-player, and has already shown considerable ability in dealing with the adminis- tration of his State. 54 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Principal Events of His Highness the Mahaeaja Jaswant Singh's Reign. March 1873 . — His Highness succeeded to tlie gaddi. 2^rd December 1875. — His Highness visited His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales at Calcutta ; he was then invited to attend the Grand Chapter of the Star of India, and deco- rated with the G.C.S.I. by His Royal Highness on behalf of Her Majesty. 1877. — His Highness attended the imperial assemblage at Delhi, and had his salute increased from seventeen to twenty- one guns (ist January). — The chiefs of Jodhpore and Oodey- pore interchanged visits at Delhi, although these houses had long been at variance before this. 1877-78. — Marwar suffered from scarcity of grain and a grass famine of unusual severity. 2yth January 1878. — A son and heir was born, who shortly afterwards died. 1878—79. — Maharaj Pratap Singh was appointed minister, and he accompanied Sir Neville Chamberlain on his mission to Kabul, for which he was subsequently created a C.S.I. His Highness's loyalty was evinced by his readiness to place his troops at the disposal of Government, both on the occasion of the Malta expedition and the Afghan war. 1880. — Major P. W. Powlett took over political charge of the Western Rajputana States (2nd January), and, with Maharaj Pratap Singh, commenced the reforms which have done so much to establish good government in Marwar. — A son and heir (the present Maharaja) was born (iith February) to His Highness, who set a good example in having his infant, the Maharaj Kunwar, vaccinated, in spite of much opposition from within the palace. 1 88 1. — The Jodhpore Railway was commenced (i6th Feb- ruary). — Captain W. Loch was appointed boundary settlement officer, and afterwards took charge of the revenue and customs. 1881-82. — The combined political charge of the three SHORT HISTORY OF MARWAR 55 Western Rajputana States was denominated the Residency. — A complete reform of customs duties introduced into Marwar by Mr. Hewson. 1882. — Mr. Home was appointed manager of the Jodhpore Railway (17th April), and shortly after took charge of the whole Public Works Department of the State. 1883. — The head-quarters of the Resident were moved from Erinpura to Jodhpore. — Lala Hardyal Singh was appointed to Jodhpore (August). 1884. — A Municipal Committee was formed with the Resi- dency Surgeon as president (July). — His Highness proceeded to Calcutta on a visit to His Excellency the Marquis of Ripon, and to welcome the Earl of Dutferin, the new Viceroy (Novem- ber). — The Khalsa villages were made over to Captain Loch for summary settlement and management. 1884-85. — The powers of Jaghdars, within their respective jagirs, to try civil and criminal cases were defined. 1885 . — His Highness proceeded to Oodeypore on a con- dolence visit after the death of Maharana Sajjan Singh (January). — His Excellency the Viceroy, Lord Dufferin, visited Jodhpore (i6th November). 1885-86. — The old postal arrangements were abolished, and the imperial system introduced at all pargana headquarters. 1886. — The Maharaja paid a visit to His Royal Highness the Duke of Connaught at Poona (September). — K.C.S.I. was conferred on Maharaj Pratap Singh. 1887. — The Jubilee of Her Majesty's reign was celebrated with brilliant display (i6th February), and his Highness gave Rs. 111,000 to the Imperial Institute. The Luni-Pachbhadra extension of the Jodhpore Railway was opened for traffic (23rd March). — Maharaj Sir Pratap Singh sailed for England (ist April), to represent His Highness the Maharaja at the Jubilee of the Queen-Empress. He was made an honorary Lieutenant-Colonel in the British army, and an A.D.C. to His Royal Highness the Prince of Wales. — Maharaj Sir Pratap Singh returned from England (August). 1887-88. — Under the presidency of Maharaj Sir Pratap 56 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Singh a Council, consisting of eight members, with Pandit Sukhdeo Prashad as its judicial secretary, was appointed, — Two new dispensaries, one at Jalore and the other at Merta, opened. 1888. — His Highness the Maharaja of Mysore visited Jodh- pore (3rd February). — His Highness opened the Hewson General Hospital in person ( i 5 th February). — His Highness made an offer to Government of ten lakhs of rupees for frontier defence. 1888-89. — -^ Forest Department was established. 1889-90. — Four of the principal Jagirdars, viz., Pohkaran, Ku chaw an, Asope, and Nimaj, were admitted to the Jodhpore Council. — Balsamand tank and canal completed. 1890. — His Royal Highness Prince Albert Victor visited Jodhpore (February). — The Darbar completely abolished transit duties (April). — His Excellency Lord Lansdowne visited Jodh- pore (November). 1 89 1. — His Imperial Highness the Cesarewitch of Russia visited Jodhpore (January). — The sister of His Highness the Maharaja of Jodhpore was married to the Maharao of Bundi (February). — The Grand Dukes Alexis and Sergius of Russia visited Jodhpore (April). — ^His Highness the Gaikwar of Baroda visited Jodhpore (2 ist August). — The civil administration of the district of Mallani was made over to the Darbar (August). 1 891—92. — An elaborate system of supervision for the con- trol of Minas, Baoris, Kolis, Bhils, and Bagris was established, the import duty on rice from Sindh abolished, a new Resi- dency completed and the old one at Sursagar abandoned, the nobles' school at Jodhpore converted into a preparatory school for the Mayo College. — For the first time for generations. His Highness the Maharaja of Bikanir visited Jodhpore. 1892. — Pandit Sheonarain, the private secretary to His Highness, died (8th February), and was succeeded by his son, Pandit Dina Nath. — The marriage of His Highness the Maha- raja's son and heir took place with the sister of His Highness Maharao of Bundi (20tli February), and on this occasion ten ruling chiefs visited Jodhpore. 1892-93. — The boundary settlement was finished. — The Maharana of Oodeypore, the Maharao of Kotah, the Maharaja SHORT HISTORY OF MARWAR 57 of Kolapore, and His Imperial Highness the Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria visited Jodhpore. — His Highness the Maharaja of Jodhpore paid a visit to Bikanir, and a condolence visit to Ulwar after the death of the chief there. August 1893. — The Jaswant College was affiliated to the Allahabad University in Arts, up to the Intermediate Standard. 1893-94. — The Bigori system of revenue settlement was successfully introduced. I 894. — The new jail was completed and occupied (March). — The Maharaj Kunwar was appointed secretary to the Musahib Ala on the death of Munshi Hardyal Singh (July). 1894-95. — The chiefs of Bikanir, Kotah, Bundi, Ulwar, Jaisalmir, and Narsingarh visited Jodhpore. I ith October 1 895. — His Highness the Maharaja Sir Jaswant Singh, G.C.S.I., died at the age of fifty-seven. His Highness ascended the gaddi in 1873, and had, therefore, ruled over Marwar more than twenty-two years. 2^th October 1895. — The late Maharaja was succeeded by his only son, His Highness Maharaja Sardar Singh, who was then in his seventeenth year. 1895-96. — The Jaswant Sagar tank, costing about nine lakhs of rupees, was completed. — The chiefs of Oodeypore, Jeypore, Bikanir, Kotah, Bundi, Kishengarh, Dholepore, Jais- almir, Patiala, Rutlam, and Sailana paid condolence visits to Jodhpore. 1896. — Her Excellency Lady Elgin opened the Jaswant Hospital for Women, founded in memory of the late Maharaja, Sir Jaswant Singh (24th November). — His Excellency the Viceroy, Lord Elgin, opened the new Rajput school at Mandore (25th November). 1896-97. — The revenue settlement was completed. — A B.A. class was established in the Jaswant CoUesfe. o 1897. — Maji Panwarji, the mother of His Highness the Maharaja, died (ist February). — A new dispensary at Bhatki was opened (ist February). — Lieutenant -Colonel Maharaj Dhiraj Sir Pratap Singh proceeded to England (29th April) to represent the Jodhpore Imperial State Cavalry on the 58 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES occasion of the Jubilee celebration in London. He was in- vested by Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen, Empress of India, with the insignia of a Knight Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India, and had also the degree of LL.D. conferred on him by Cambridge University. On both occasions of his visits to England, Sir Pratap Singh was highly gratified with the kindness he received from the Queen-Empress, and everybody there. He considers Her Majesty a most wonderful woman, and well worthy of her very exalted position, apart from right of birth. Her capacity for work and ceremonial, her dignity and authority, her kindness and consideration have quite overcome him, and made him give up all his early prejudices against women as being unfit for rule and command. The city guilds, the banks, the manufacturing centres, the shipping, the navy, the public schools and universities, all brought home to him the great- ness of the country. However, on his first visit, he was utterly surprised and astonished at the poverty of " the East-end " community ; he had never previously realised that there were poor in England. He thought Englishmen were made up of two classes, the " Sahibs " and " Chhota Sahibs," the latter being " Mr. Atkins " and " the Jockey Log," both of whom he had always seen in comfortable circumstances here. He attributed the poverty of East London to the want of fields to till, and it never occurred to him that any Britisher should have a natural aversion for work. He thought that it would be good, both for Marwar and England, if the Great Unemployed were drafted from "the East-end" into Marwar, and settled as cultivators here. " There is land and to spare for the whole of them under His Highness the Maharaja of Jodhpore, and why should they not have it ? " The desert would no doubt soon smile with abun- dant harvests, and commodious and comfortable homesteads would rapidly replace the present beehive huts, when in the hands of an industrious, honest, and thrifty English population. The question of providing for the congested slums would then be satisfactorily and finally settled, with advantage both to India and England. We do not think the gentle Brahmin SHORT HISTORY OF SIROHI The present reigning family of Sirohi are Deora Kajputs, a brancli of the Chohdn Rajputs, and are said to be immediately descended from one Deoraj, the son of Manji or Siirang, a descendant of Prithvi Raj , the Chohdn king of Delhi. Very little is known of the early history of Shohi State. From the records it appears that the original inhabitants were Bhils. Following the Bhils, the Gehlots were the first Rajputs to settle in Sirohi. They were shortly succeeded by the Pra- mars, who had their capital at Chandravati, on the banks of the Bands, a few miles to the south-east of Abu, and ruled south to the Narbada, and west to Umarkote and Sindh. The ruins of that once magnificent city are still to be found, buried in a dense and desolate iuncrle. The Pramars were succeeded by the Chohans, who, about a.d. i i 5 2, established themselves along the western border of Sirohi, where Sohi Rao, the Chohan leader, took Bhinmal and Sanchore. Sohi Rao was the son of the famous Lakhamsi, Raja of Nadole in Marwar. The Chohans appear to have gradually established themselves in theu' newly acquired territory ; and Rao Geynhu, the sixth in succession from Sohi Rao, the grandfather of Deoraj, the founder of the Sirohi house, built the fort of Jalore, which has since fallen to the Rathores, and is now in Marwar territory, a short distance from the north-west border of Sirohi. We now come to the birth of Deoraj, the first of the Deora clan of Rajputs, who may be considered as the founder of the Sirohi house. Nothing particular is recorded in regard to Deoraj, but his son Agarsen is said to have taken Chandravati 61 62 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES from the Pramars in a.d. 1302. The latter had constructed extensive fortifications on Mount Abu, and rendered it an impregnable stronghold, in order to gain possession of which the Deora Chohans had to resort to treachery, A proposal was sent to the Pramars that they should bring twelve of their daughters to be married into the Chohan tribe, and thus estab- lish a friendship between them. The proposal was accepted, and the twelve girls, daughters of this clan, were accompanied down the hill by nearly all the Pramars, when they were set upon and slaughtered by the Deoras, who followed the few survivors back to Abu, and gained possession of the place. The people styled Lok, who still inhabit Abu, are descended from the Pramars who survived, and on account of this evil act on the part of the Chohans, they never allow their daughters to go down to the plains to be married. In 1405 Rao Sobhaji built the town of Sirohi, situated in a bay of the hills near the site of the present capital. He was succeeded by his son Rao Sains Mai, who, in a.d. 1425, built a new city on the slope of the hills, which was also called Sirohi, and is the present capital of the State, During the reign of Sains Mai, Rana Kumbhaji of Chittor, with the permission of the second son of Sains Mai, took refuge on Mount Abu from the Delhi emperor's army. When the danger was past, the Rana refused to leave, whereupon Deraji, the eldest son of Sains Mai, marched to Abu with a force and expelled the Rana and his men from the hill. In consequence of this affau', the Rao swore that no Raja should ever be allowed to ascend Abu. The oath was kept till 1836, when, at the inter- vention of Colonel Spiers, the then political agent of Sirohi, the Maharana of Oodeypore, was permitted to proceed to Abu on a pilgrimage, and since then many chiefs of Rajputana have visited Abu. The chiefs of Marwar repeatedly attacked Sirohi, but the natural defences of the country, and the inherent heroism of SHORT HISTORY OF SIROHI 63 its valiant defenders, baffled their attempts for a long time. Sirohi was the maternal home of Rao Maldeo of Marwar, who invaded it with a large army, came out successfully, and left a garrison there. In 1565 Rao Sultan Singh came to the gaddi of Sirohi. He ruled fifty-one years and fought fifty-two battles. In 1572 an imperial army, under the command of Mir Mahmud Khan, marched against Sirohi, but without any great results. Akbar then came down in person to Sirohi, to assume command of the army. The Rajputs fought very bravely, and the Rao did not then acknowledge the supremacy of the Mogul Emperor. Raja Sur Singh of Marwar next invaded Sirohi at the head of a large army on behalf of the Emperor. He plundered the country, but could not conquer it. Sub- sequently, Kunpawat Mukand Dass, a vassal of Marwar, was intrusted with the command of a large imperial army and ordered to march against Sirohi. The Rathore commander succeeded in capturing the Rao while asleep in one of the mountain retreats of his country, Mukand Dass first took the Rao to Jodhpore and thence to Delhi, Before he was admitted to the Emperor's presence, the Rao was asked to observe the etiquette of the court ; but he replied that his life, and not his honour, was in the Emperor's hands, and that he would never bow his head even at the peril of his life. The Emperor was much pleased with his undaunted bravery. Rao Sultan Singh was a valiant and reckless prince. The hostilities between the Sirohi and Marwar princes grew more bitter day by day, till at last the Rao was compelled to sue for peace by offering the hand of his daughter in marriage to Maharaja Abhai Singh, At the beginning of the present century, in the time of Rao Udai Bhan, Sirohi suffered much from wars with Marwar and the maraudings of the wild Minas, The State became 64 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES too weak to protect its subjects, and was nigh being dis- membered, as many of the Thakars threw off their allegiance. It was under these circumstances that, in 1817, Rao Sheo Singh sought the protection of the British Government. A long inquiry was made by Captain Tod, then Political Agent, Western Rajputana States, and in September 1823 a treaty was concluded between Sheo Singh, regent of Sirohi, and the British Government. In 1843, by consent of the Rao of Sirohi, Government established a sanitarium on Mount Abu. In 1854 affau's had become so alarming that, at the urgent request of the Rao, the British Government had to advance a loan of two lakhs, and take over the administration for eleven years. This was rendered necessary by the bad condition to which the State was reduced owing to the constant rebellions of the Thakars, and the raids of Bhils, Minas, and other freebooters, who found a secure refuge in the hills and forests of the country. In 1 861, in consequence of the incapacity of Sheo Singh, the general control of affairs was made over to his second son, Ummed Singh, the old Rao retaining the dignities and honours of office till his death on the 8th of December 1862. Rao Sheo Singh had a long reign of forty-four years. He did good service during the Mutiny of 1857, in consideration of which his tribute, previously fixed at 15,000 Bhilari rupees, was reduced by one-half. His Highness the Rao Ummed Singh was, on the ist September 1865, under the sanction of the Government of India, invested with full authority throughout his State. Being priest-ridden, easy-going, and intensely conservative, the Rao soon let his State drift into debt and difficulties. In other respects the late Rao was a kind and well-meaning ruler, free from vices and peculiarly happy in his domestic relations. The principal events of his time were : the great famine of 1868-69; the outlawry of Nathu Singh; and the SHORT HISTORY OF SIROHI 65 frequent incursions of the Bhils and Minas from the Marwar border. The famine of 1868-69 killed 75 per cent, of the cattle. Numbers of people also perished, although relief works were kept up by the Darbar at Erinpura, Abu, and Anadra. Grain rose to 4h seers per rupee, and in 1869 the distress was increased by a visitation of locusts. The outlawry of Nathu Singh proved a great misfortune to the State. All the measures taken for his apprehension failed, and during his time freebooting Bhils and Minas made con- stant incursions into the Sirohi State, plundering in his name, and terrifying the peaceable inhabitants. At one time, the main road through Sirohi to Ahmedabad was so unsafe for travellers and merchandise, on account of these robbers and outlaws, that traffic on it practically ceased. Finally, Colonel Carnell was vested with special powers, and, with the aid of the Erinpura force, reduced the whole country to a condition of peace and order. Nathu Singh died at a village in Marwar near the Sirohi border towards the end of 1870. His son, Bharat Singh, with the remaining members of the band, con- tinued in outlawry till the middle of 1 8 7 1 , when they were called in and re-settled. The late Rao Ummed Singh died at Sirohi on the i6th of September 1875. He had only one Rani and two children ; one, a daughter, and the other a son, the present Maharao, Kesri Singh, who succeeded his father. The present chief of Sirohi, Maharao Kesri Singh, K.C.S.I., succeeded his father, Rao Ummed Singh, and was invested with full ruling powers on the 24th of November 1875. He had the title of Maharao conferred on him by the Queen- Empress in 1889, and was made a K. C.S.I, in 1895 for his good services to his State. His Highness Maharao Kesri Singh, K.C.S.I., has done much to improve the condition of the Sirohi State, Good E 66 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES government lias been established out of comparative anarchy ; regular courts of justice have been formed. With Colonel Powlett's assistance, the Bhils and Minas were settled down some years ago. Boundaries have been demarcated, and much waste land has since been brought under cultivation. A jail has been built on modern hygienic principles; hospitals have been founded, and vaccination has progressed. Pkincipal Events of His Highness the Maharao Kesri Singh's Reign. 3fay 1876. — His Highness the Rao was married to a daughter of the Rana of Danta. 1877. — The assumption of the title of Empress of India by Her Majesty was proclaimed in full Darbar at Sirohi, before a large assembly, and the day was observed as a general holiday by all classes. — The Rao started on a pilgrimage, taking with him his late father's ashes (June). He visited Benares and other holy cities, and then went on to Calcutta, which made a good impression on the young chief. 1877-78. — A grain as well as grass famine occurred. 1 6th February 1887. — The Jubilee of Her Majesty's reign was celebrated in the capital of Sirohi, and contributions made to the Imperial Institute and Countess of Dufferin's Fund. 1887-88. — Owing to the increase of revenue and general prosperity of the State, the Darbar was able to grant to the Abu mimicipality an annual sum of Rs.3000, thereby relieving the British Government of its grant in aid. — The bridge over the Bands river was commenced, and the road leading over it from the railway station towards Abu metalled. 1888—89. — Two sons were born to His Highness the Maharao of Sirohi ; one of whom died, and the other is his heir-apparent. 1889. — The Agent to the Governor-General held a Darbar at Sirohi for the purpose of presenting the chief with the sanad of the hereditary title of Maharao, conferred by the Queen- Empress (March). — The bridge over the Banas river, near Abu SHORT HISTORY OF SIROHI 67 Road railway station, was completed at a cost of Rs. 100,995, subscribed by the principal cbiefs of Rajputana. 1890. — On his way to Bombay, His Royal Highness Prince Albert Victor Avas the guest at Abu Road of His Highness the Maharao of Sirohi. — His Excellency the Viceroy, Lord Lansdowne, was the guest of His Highness the Maharao of Sirohi, and visited Mount Abu (November). 1890-91. — Forest conservancy was started in the Sirohi State, in the immediate neighbourhood of Abu. March 1891. — The Agent to the Governor-General visited Sirohi, and laid the first stone of a new jail. March 1892. — An influential body of Minas assembled at Sheoganj, near Erinpura, to enter into an agreement to give up raiding and settle down to agriculture. Rules were also then made for the curtailment of marriage expenses, and the settlement of disputes among the tribes. 1892-93. — The new jail was completed and occupied. — Another son born to His Highness the Maharao of Sirohi. 1893-94. — The notorious dacoit, Kalia Rabari, was cap- tured. — A new dispensary opened by the Darbar at Sheoganj. 1894-95. — A Forest ofiicer was appointed. — The registra- tion of vital statistics commenced. I st January I 8 9 5 . — His Highness the Maharao of Sirohi was created a K.C.S.I. 1895—96. — The Sirohi-Me3^var border line was settled. 1897, — The Diamond Jubilee of Her Most Gracious Majesty the Queen-Empress of India was celebrated (22nd June). — Sir Robert Crosthwaite visited Sirohi, and formally opened the new Crosthwaite Hospital (December), the founda- tion-stone of which had been laid by him in the previous December. — The revenue for this year was consderably in excess of that for 1896, viz., Rs. 421,587 against Rs.382,325. A new dispensary building was constructed at Sheoganj. — The staff of vaccinators increased, and the State divided into vaccination circles. His Highness Kesri Singh, K.C.S.I., the Maharao of Sirohi, is entitled to a salute of fifteen guns. 68 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES GENEALOGICAL TREE OF THE RULING FAMILY. Takhat Singh. Jagat Singh. Bairi Sal. Udai Bhan. Sheo Singh. L I i , Umed Singh. Three others. Kesri Singh (the present IMaharao). SHORT HISTORY OF JAISALMIR The ruling family of Jaisalmir are Yadu Bhati Rajputs, descended from Yadu or Jadu, whose progenitor was Bud ha, the founder of the Chandarwansh or Lunar race, and whose power was paramount in India at a very remote period of the world's history. According to the chronicles of Hindustan, Prayaj and Mathura (Allahabad and Muttra) were the ancient capitals of the Chandarwanshi kings at the time they ruled the greater part of India. Shri Krishna, the deified leader of the Yadus, was the forty-sixth in descent from Yadu, and ruled at the famous city of Dwarka. On his death the tribe became broken up. Two of his sons proceeded beyond the Indus and settled there. Some time after this, one of their de- scendants, Gaj, twelfth in descent from Shri Krishna, founded the town of Gajni (Ghazni) in Afghanistan, and called it after himself. Gaj was defeated and killed in a battle with the kinsf of Khorasan. The tribe was then driven southward into the Punjab, where Saliwahan, eighty-eighth in descent from Shri Krishna and son of Gaj sen, built Saliwahanpur close to Lahore, and conquered the whole country around. The grandson of Saliwahan, named Bhati, ninetieth in descent from Shri Krishna, was a great warrior, and conquered many of the neighbouring princes. From him the patronymic was changed and the tribe was thenceforth called by his name. Shortly after this Mahmud of Ghazni made one of his great expeditions into India against the Bhatis, and again they were driven southward. Crossing the Satlaj, they found refuge in 70 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES the great Indian desert adjacent to Jaisalmir, wliicli for 900 years has been then- home. The early history of the Jadu Bhati race shows that they are undoubtedly a very ancient family. The Bhatis, subsequent to their entry into the desert tract, were engaged in constant struggles with the neighbouring tribes, whom they gradually overcame. The capitals of their desert kingdom were successively Tanot, Deorawal, Lodorva, and Jaisalmir. The fortress of Tanot was built by Rao Keharji, who named it after his son Tanuji, and fixed the capital there. TAvelve years after the birth of Deoraj, which occurred in the year a.d. 836, his father and 1300 of his kinsmen were treacherously massacred by the Barahas, a neighbour- ing tribe, during a marriage festival. Deoraj escaped. He founded Deorawal in a.d. 853, and afterwards headed an army of his clansmen which captured Lodorva, the principal town of the Lodra Rajputs, which he made his capital. Deoraj took the title of Rawal, and established the Bhatis in the desert; so he is counted the real founder of the Jaisalmir family. He is said to have died at the very advanced age of a hundred and thirty-eight. The Bhatis gradually extended then* possessions south- wards, and many of them became freebooters, a character they have sustained up to the present. In i i 5 6, Jaisaldeo, the sixth in descent from Deoraj, founded the fort and city of Jaisalmir, at a distance of eight miles from Lodorva, as the site was more easily fortified. The princes who followed Jaisaldeo were warlike, and constantly engaged in battles and raids. So the Emperor Alaudin on two occasions, in 1 2 94 and shortly afterwards, despatched against them an imperial army, which captm-ed and sacked the fort and city of Jaisal- mir, and for some time it remained completely deserted. In the sixteenth century the Bhatis formed an alliance with the SHORT HISTORY OF JAISALMIR 71 Amirs of Sindh against the Rathores of Marwar, and gave the latter much trouble. The tAventy-fifth prince in descent from Jaisaldeo was Rawal Sabal Singh, who was the first Jaisalmir prince to acknowledge the supremacy of the Delhi Emperor, Shah Jehan. During his reign the territories of Jaisalmir extended to the banks of the Satlaj in the north, to the borders of the Indus in the west, to the outskirts of Marwar in the south, and to the boundaries of Marwar and Bikanir in the east. The Thakar of Pohkaran, now the chief noble of Marwar, was then under the Jaisalmir raj. Sabal Singh was succeeded by his son Amar Singh in 1 66 1, a wise and a valiant prince, who defeated an army sent against him by Anup Singh of Bikanir. After the death of Amar Singh, Jaswant Singh was placed on the gaddi in 1703. He was neither wise nor valiant, and during his reign the Rathores wrested many districts from Jaisalmir. After the death of Jaswant Singh, his brothers and son, Akhai Singh, contested the gaddi, which was won by Akhai Singh in 1722. He was, however, a weak ruler, and so lost a great portion of his dominions before his death. Akhai Singh died in 1762, and was succeeded by Mul- raj , who ruled till 1820. During his lifetime the State was left in the hands of Salem Singh, his Dewan, who devastated the country by his cruelty and barbarity. He drove out the Palliwal Brahmins, who were famous cultivators, and whose well-built villages still stand deserted, to mark an era of pros- perity in the Jaisalmir State which can hardly ever be again attained. In 18 18, Jaisalmir acknowledged the supremacy of British power, and on the 12 th December of that year con- cluded a treaty therewith, by which the gaddi was secured to the heirs of Mulraj. Jaisalmir was the last State in Rajputana to receive the protection of the British Government. 72 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Rawal Mulraj died in 1820, and was succeeded by liis grandson Gaj Singh, who, Hke his predecessor, was a mere tool in the hands of his minister, Salem Singh, till the latter died in 1824 of poison, administered by his own wife. During the Sindh war of 1838-39, Rawal Gaj Singh supplied camels to the British for transport, and was rewarded by the restoration to him of Shahgarh, Garsia, and Gatuda, which had been wrested from Jaisalmir by Amir Ali Murad of Sindh. Rawal Gaj Singh died in 1846, and was succeeded by an adopted chief, Ranjit Singh, the son of Thakar Kesri Singh, a member of the reigning house. In 1862 a sanad was granted by the Supreme Government, which authorised the chiefs of Jaisalmir to adopt in the absence of male offspring. Ranjit Singh died in 1864, and was succeeded by his younger brother, Maharawal Bairi Sal, who died in 1891 without issue. The present chief of Jaisalmir, Maharawal Saliwahan, is only thirteen years of age. He was adopted by the Maharani from the house of the Lathi Thakar, a near relation of the late Maharawal. He is a promising boy, and is now resident in the Mayo College, where he has the advantages of high education and thorough training, which were not possible for any of his predecessors. Chief Events of His Highness Maharawal Bairi Sal's Reign. 1864. — Maharawal Bairi Sal succeeded his brother, Maha- rawal Ranjit Singh, in his sixteenth year, having been adopted by the Dowager-Queen. 1868-69. — The great famine of 1868-69 affected Jai- salmir, but in a less degree than more densely-populated coun- tries. Many of the men were engaged with their camels in importing grain from Sindh to Marwar, and in this way tided over a bad time. SHORT, HISTORY OF JAISALMIR 73 December 1873.— His Highness the Maharawal was married to a daughter of the Rawal of Doongarpore. 1887. — A Darbar was held by the Maharawal in honour of the assumption by Her Majesty the Queen of the title of Empress of India. Everything was done by His Highness to show his appreciation of the occasion, and the day was ob- served as a holiday in the distant capital of the Bhatis. 1877-78. — Like Marwar, Jaisalmir suffered from deficient rainfall and famine. 1889-90. — During the cold weather of this year 141 miles of the Marwar-Jaisalmir border were demarcated. 1890. — Dewan Jag Jewan Rai Bahadur, who has done much to improve the Jaisalmir State, was brought from Kutch Bhuj, and appointed Dewan by the late Maharawal, which office he still holds. loth March 1 891. — His Highness the Maharawal Bairi Sal died, and Maharawal Saliwahan, a boy of five, son of Thakar Khushal Singh of Lathi, was adopted, and recognised by Government as his successor. 1892. — A dispensary was established. 1894. — The young Maharawal and his brother Dan Singh joined the Mayo College, Ajmere. The Maharawal of Jaisalmir enj oys full civil and criminal powers, and is entitled to a salute of fifteen guns. The family deity of the rulers of Jaisalmir is Swanjiji. Swanj was an invincible spear, belonging to Jura Sandh, king of Maghaddesh or Behar. Kalka Devi obtained the spear from him, and wielded it to help the Jadus or Jadons, who thenceforth worshipped her under the above-mentioned title. Genealogical Tree of the Bhati Ruling Family. Deoraj, Mudhji, Wachuji, Dusaji, Bijaya Raj, Bhojdeo, Jaisaldeo (a.d. i i 56), Saliwahan (11 68), Bijalji (i 190), Kelanji (1191), Chachakdeoji (1208), Karanji (1243), Lakhansenji (1271), Punpalji (1275), Jetsiji (1276), Mool Raj (1293), Dudaji (1300), Garhsiji (13 17), Keharji (1335), Lakhmanji 74 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES (1395), Bersiji (1440), Chachakji (1450), Devi Das (1457), Jet Singh (1479), Lunkaran (1530), Maldeoji (15 51), Hairajji (1562), Blaimji (1578), Kalyan Dass (1624), Manohar Dass (1634), Ram Chandra (1648), Sabal Singh (165 1), Amar Singh (1661), Jaswant Singh (1703), Budh Singh (1708), Akhai Singh (1723), and Mool Raj (1762), Gaj Singh (1820), Ranjit Singh (1846), Bairi Sal (1864), Sahwahan (1891) (the present Maharawal). The Marwar Agency was first estabhshed by Government in 1840. The Sirohi Agency was first estabhshed in 1823, and Jaisalmir was placed in charge of the Political Agent, Jodhpore, in 1869. In February 1880, the combined political charge of Marwar, Sirohi, and Jaisalmir was denominated the Political Agency, Western States, Rajputana, and afterwards Political Residency, Western Rajputana States. List of Residents, Western Rajputana States No. I Name. From To Remarks. Major P. W. Powlett 3rd Jan. 1880 24th Aug. 18S0 2 Major A. R. T. M'Rae 25th Aug. 1880 I St Nov. 1880 Temporary 3 Lieut. -Col. W. Tweedie 2nd Nov. 1880 14th Dec. 1881 Officiating 4 Lieut. -Col. P. W. Powlett 15th Dec. 1 88 1 24th Sept. 1884 5 Lieut. -Col. C. A. Baylay 25th Sept. 1884 24th Dec. 1884 Officiating 6 Lieut. -Col. P. W. Powlett 25th Dec. 1884 4th April 1886 7 Lieut.-Col. H. P. Peacock 5th April 1 886 loth Dec. 1886 Officiating 8 Colonel P. W. Powlett nth Dec. 1886 19th Aug. 1889 9 Major W. Loch 20th Aug. 1889 19th Nov. 1889 Temporary 10 Col. P. W. Powlett, C.S.I. 20th Nov. 1889 9th April 1S92 II Lieut.-Col. H. B. Abbott loth April 1892 3rd May 1893 12 Lt.-Col. W. H. C. Wyllie, CLE. 4th May 1893 2nd Nov. 1893 Officiating 13 Lieut.-Col. H. B. Abbott 3rd Nov. 1S93 2 1st Mar. 1895 14 Lieut.-Col. J. H. Newill 22nd Mar. 1895 26th June 1895 Officiating 15 A. H. T. Martindale, Esq., C.S. 27th June 1895 27th Oct. 1895 Officiating 16 Lieut.-Col. H. B. Abbott 2Sth Oct. 1895 17th Dec. 1S95 17 Lieut.-Col. A. Adams, I.M.S. iSth Dec. 1895 17th Jan. 1896 Temporary 18 Col. H. B. Abbott 1 8th Jan. 1896 13th April i8cj7 19 A. H. T. Martindale, Esq., C.S. 14th April 1897 1 6th Mar. 1898 20 Major T. C. Pears 17th Mar. 1898 24th April i8q8 Temporary 21 Lt.-Col. C. E. Yate, C.S.L.C.M.G. 25th April 1898 nth Dec. 1898 Officiating 22 Lt.-Col. W. H. C. Wyllie, CLE. 1 2th Dec. 1898 nth April 1S99 23 Lt.-Col. C E. Yate, CS.L, CM.G. 1 2th April 1899 Present time Officiating ^ t? o o CAPITALS OF STATES JODHPORE. JoDHPOEE, the capital city of Marwar or Jodhpore State, lies in latitude 26° 17' N. and longitude 73° 4' E. It has an area of about two square miles within its walls, and is distant west from Calcutta 1 1 2 8 miles ; south-west from Delhi 358 miles. It was founded in a.d. 1459 by Rao Jodha, and since that date it has been the seat of the Government of Marwar. It is situated on the south-eastern slope of a small broken range of hills about twenty miles in length, running north-east and south-west, chiefly of red sandstone. The peak or rock on which the fort is built is sandstone, with an acid lava formation underneath, which projects to the surface in a few places ; on the northern side it has cones of porphyry and volcanic masses of various descriptions, placed in juxtaposition to the sandstone, and it rises to the height of about four hundred feet. The layers of sandstone rock are usually parallel with the horizon, and they generally rise abruptly out of the sand below, but they are sometimes visibly supported by trap or metamorphic rock. In some places porphyritic trap is ranged in stairs, and has apparently been thrown up at a later date than the sandstone, without having materially damaged the stratification of the latter, The city lies close below the fort, and surrounds it on all sides, except the north. It rests on an irregular sloping ground, continuous above with the base of the rock on which the fort stands, the higher part of the site being solid stone, the lower deep sand. The north side of the base of the fort 76 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES rock being wholly occupied by a rugged neck too much broken to afford good building ground, is therefore without any popu- lation or houses, excepting six or seven temples and a few 'Chhattris. There are four bunds or dams on that side, the chief of which are Dev Kund and Bhawani Kund. The surrounding wall of the city is massive and strong, generally composed of large blocks of cut stone cemented together with lime. It is 24,600 feet long, 3 to 9 feet thick, and 15 to 30 feet high, strengthened in many places by towers, buttresses, and ram- parts for artillery, supporting a complete line of battlements, and having loopholes, barbicans, and bartisans for defensive operations. This wall is much higher, thicker, and stronger nearer the city gates on the low ground than on the high rocky ridges, which are in some places scarped and steep, and naturally well suited for defence. There are about a hundred towers and seven gates in this wall. Each gate bears the name of the place to which it leads, viz., Mertia, Sojatia, Jalori, Siwanchi, Chandpole, and Nagori. The seventh gate has been built up for many years, having never been much used, as it has always been considered a weakness in the defences of the city. The first or the main gate, situated in the east of the city, is Mertia. It is built of huge blocks of cut stone, cemented together, flanked by massive towers, and surmounted by defen- sive battlements. It has chambers for guards, and a protecting wall running from one side across the front to protect it from artillery and rushes on it from without. Its height is about 3 5 feet. It has a dome on the top, and a door of considerable strength, iron-clad, studded with strong pointed spikes of iron, to protect it against elephant-ramming in time of war. The city is extending outside this gate, and there is now a con- siderable suburb in this direction with shops and temples, and the Jubilee offices are not far distant. The Sojatia, which is hardly a less important gate, is very similar to the Mertia in construction, but it is a little stronger CAPITALS OF STATES 7T and higher, and has three dome-like chambers on its top instead of one. It is situated in the south side of the city, and the suburb beyond it is now increasing with great rapidity, so that it Avill shortly be well within city limits. The road leading from this gate passes the Jaswant College, Darbar High School, jail, ice and soda-water factories. The Jalori gate, situated in the south wall, is similar in shape, but less massive than those already described. It is in the direction of the railway station, and has a rapidly growing suburb without, principally private houses of important officials. There are several free Sarais in this direction, and also the Diik bungalow. The Siwanchi gate, looking south-west from the city, is smaller, though somewhat similar to those already mentioned, and it has no important suburb or road leading from it. The chief Hindu cremation ground — " Bhandelao " — is outside thi& gate, and there are some artistic monuments adjacent to it. The Chandpole gate (Chanel = moon, and Pole = gate), which is so named on account of the new moon being visible in that direction, looks south-west from the city. It is similar in shape although smaller in size than the other main gates.. It is situated on the high ground under the fort, and has now an extensive suburb beyond it, with shops, temples, a public bath, and private houses. The principal temples are Ramesh- war, Mahadeo-ka-Mandar, built by the first Maharaja, Jaswant Singh, and dedicated to Rameshwar Mahadeo or Shiva; Panchwa Maji-ka-Mandar ; and lastly two old temples of Barwasan and Jiwan Mata, chiefly attended by Kayasths. Near this gate is an excellent square well — Suraj Kund — which contains sweet water throughout the year. It is surrounded by subterranean rooms, known as " Hamams," built by Maharaja Sur Singh as cool retreats for the hot months. In the northern side of the city wall, at its eastern angle, is located the Nagori gate, which resembles the other main. 78 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES gates in all its details. There are several temples and gardens outside, and Mahamandar, the town of the Naths, is adjacent. Close to this gate is the seventh entrance to the city, which was closed by Maharaja Abhai Singh in order to strengthen the city against attack. There is a large cremation ground, called Kaga, for Rao Rajas and Sardars, the chhattris of which now form a Leper Asylum ; there are also Shitla Mata's temple, a garden noted for its pomegranates, a sacred kund, and a well of good water. The thickest part of the city wall, close to this gate, is said to have been built by Maharaja Abhai Singh, and the rest of the wall completed by his younger brother, Maha- raja Bakhat Singh, within six or seven months. A strong tower near this gate, and the walls and towers at the Nagori gate, show the marks of cannon-balls left by the besieging armies of Jeypore and Bikanir, who, with Amir Khan and some of the forces of other Rajas, marched on Jodhpore to support Dhonkal Singh, posthumous son of Maharaja Bhim Singh, against Maharaja Man Singh, then on the gaddi. During this siege the Bikanir force gained access to, and mounted a gun on, the Singhoria-Jd-BhaJcri (a small hill within the city wall, on the north side, opposite the fort), which was then within their range, and the marks of their shot are still visible on the base of the rock and the door of the small gate of the fort known as " Khandi " or " Lakhna " Pole. However, a skilled Marwara gunner levelled his gun on to that of the enemy and smashed it to pieces, at the same time killing the gunner engaged in loading. This fortunate circumstance was soon followed by further success on the part of the defending army. Amir Khan changed over to their side, and the com- bined forces of Jeypore and Bikanir were soon driven off with considerable loss and great ignominy. It is evident, from the configuration of the streets and open spaces, that little attention has been given to laying out the city, and that it has been built up bit by bit without any CAPITALS OF STATES 79 regard to proper thoroughfares. The streets are therefore narrow and irreguhir, and, in many quarters, blocked at one end; wheel traffic is consequently difficult in most of them, and impossible in some. The main street, locally known as " Ooba Bazaar," runs almost due east and west through the city from the Mertia gate. The most important shops are found here, viz., those of perfumers, grocers, Pansaris, cloth-sellers, Halwais, Patwas, shroffs, Kaseras, betel and fresh fruit sellers, hardware goods, shoe-shops, &c. ; there are also town residences of many im- portant officials and others ; several important temples, viz., Kunjbihariji, Bageliji, and Tija Maji-ka-Mandars, and a very old Darga of Khjis-ka-Pir. " Ada Bazaar," another important street, runs from the Jalori gate across " Ooba Bazaar " to Ranisar and Padamsar tanks, on the west side of the fort. There are numerous shops, temples, an unfinished mosque, and many fine private houses along this route. The post-office, Jaswant hospital for women, the girls' school, first branch dispensary, mint, and DhAnmandi can be entered from this street. Near Chawriji-ka-Mandar, a temple built by Maji Chawriji, another fairly wide street crosses the main bazaar, and leads from the Sojatia gate to the fort. Several fine private houses with well-carved fronts may be seen along this route. The above-described principal streets have numerous small streets and lanes opening into them, many of which are very narrow and dark, and all are unpaved, except at places where they pass over high rocky grounds. These lanes in turn branch into others still smaller, thus forming a sort of network throughout the whole city. As most of the thoroughfares are deeply embedded in sand, wheel traffic is not much in use within city limits. Consequently the people ride horses and camels, and bullock-draught is in general use for both carriage people and goods. 80 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES The population of the city, as enumerated in 1891, was 61,849, of which 3^y7^^ were males and 30,143 females; and that of the suburbs 18,646. The population is increasing rapidly, especially in the suburbs, as already referred to. Within the city wall the Hindus numbered 42,990, Mahome- dans 13,676, Jains 5040, and all others 143. The Oswals are the wealthiest citizens, but some other Mahajans, also Brahmins and Kayasths, are well to do. There are several villages and hamlets around the city, which are chiefly occupied by Malis and low-caste people. Mahamandar is a small town of the Nathji Maharaj, the descendant of the spiritual guide of Maharaja Man Singh ; it contained 577 houses and 2547 souls in 1891 ; it is the largest suburb of Jodhpore, and is situated less than half a mile outside the Nagori gate in the north-east direction. It is fortified, being enclosed by a thin stone wall, a mile and a quarter in circumference, supported by bastions, and set out with battlements and loopholes for defence. The area is an irregular quadrangle, having a gateway in each of its four sides. There is a well within, that has never been known to become exhausted, and the water of which is celebrated for its sweetness. The Mahamandar, or " the great temple," contains two beautifully carved palaces, one where the Nathji resides, and the other reserved for the spirit of his great ancestor, with a magnificent bed laid out in the principal state chamber, which is said to be regularly used by the celestial. The city of Jodhpore is on the Jodhpore-Bikanir Railway, which is connected with the Rajputana-Malwa Railway at Marwar junction and Kuchawan road. The railway station of Jodhpore is within a few hundred yards of the city wall, and it is very conveniently placed for trajffic through the Jalori and Sojatia gates. The Jodhpore fort attracts the eye from afar, standing out in great magnificence on an isolated rock, about 400 feet above CAPITALS OF STATES 81 the sandy plains on the east and south. From the top of the palace a good view of the broken range of hills on the west and north, from which the fort rock is detached, can be obtained. The city lies around the base of the rock on three sides, in the form of a horse-shoe, and adds to the picturesque view which may be had from the palace within the fort. The peak on which the fort is built is scarped on all sides, except at the north-east corner, where it is approached by a metalled road. The surrounding wall, which is from 20 to 120 feet high, and from 12 to 70 feet thick, encloses an oblong space about 500 yards in length by 250 in breadth at its widest pa,rt. This enclosure is almost completely covered by build- ings, viz., palaces, barracks, and magazines. It has two main entrances, one at the north-east corner leading in from the road, the other at the south-west extremity leading up from the city, and between these are other gates and inner walls for purposes of defence. The top of the outer walls on the east and south-east sides has been formed into a wide rampart for working artillery, and on the other sides the walls are sur- mounted by a complete chain of battlements, with towers here and there to support heavy guns. The palace displays much stone-carving in its arches, windows, balustrades, and balconies, many of which are both elegant and beautiful in design and finish. The masonry is very solid and substantial throughout, the walls of both the fort and palace being of heavy cut stone, well cemented, and sometimes pinned together with iron spikes. To give additional strength to the outer walls, they are in many places strongly buttressed, and the masonry spiked to the rock on which it rests. The fort was built by Rao Jodha, the founder of Jodhpore city, in a.d. 1459, and a man — Rajia Bhambi — was interred alive in its foundations, to invoke good fortune on its defenders and to ensure its impregnability. Rajia's family had some land — Raj bagh — bestowed on them, and they were for ever exempted Irom pressed labour by the F 82 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES chief, in consideration of tlie sacrifice of their ancestor. Rao Maldeo added much to the fort, and Maharaja Abhai Singh still further strengthened it ; indeed, most of the chiefs since Jodha have done something to enlarge or renew some part of it. The drainage and sanitation have during recent years been much improved ; a force-pump has also been put up by Mr. Home, which raises water from the Ranisar to the top of the palace, and saves the attendants infinite toil in carrying the required supply from below. There are eight gates, but only two of them communicate directly with the outside, viz., Fateh Pole, the entrance from the city, and Jey Pole, the entrance from the main road. Fateh Pole, or Gate of Victory. — This gate was built by Maharaja Ajit Singh, in commemoration of his victory over the Moguls in 1707, when, on the death of Aurangzeb, the Rathores expelled many of the Mahomedans from Jodhpore, and killed many more. At this time, Mulkihs and other Mahomedans holding office, having assumed the garb of " Sadhus," left the country in disguise, and Hindus who had been forcibly converted to Mahomedanism returned to their original faith. The gate is approached by a road leading up from one of the main streets of the city, which runs to the Jalore gate in the south wall. Amriti Pole. — This gate was built by Rao Maldeo to in- crease the space within the fort. Jodhaji-ka-Phalsa. — This gate was the extreme limit of Rao Jodha's fort. Sardars have to alight here from their horses or chairs before entering the fort proper, the Maharaja alone remaining mounted in a procession passing through this gate. Loha Pole. — The front portion of this gate was built by Rao Maldeo, but the gate was not completed till the time of Maharaja Bijai Singh. Munitions of war are kept within this gate, and on its pillars are to be seen the handmarks of many CAPITALS OF STATES 83 " Satis." " Satis " ceased after the time of Maharaja Man Singh, on whose funeral pyre six of his widow ladies became sati, and were cremated with him. This gate has recently been much strengthened and enlarged. Suraj Pole, now called " Mardani Dori," was built by Maha- raja Sur Singh. Jey Pole. — This gate was built by Maharaja Man Singh in commemoration of his victory over the Jeypore army, whose attack on the fort in a.d. 1809 was repulsed with great loss. The door of this gate was brought from Ahmedabad, during his reign, by the Thakar of Nimaj, from whom Maharaja Man Sinofh obtained it. Lakhna or Khandi Pole is a small gate lying close to the Amriti Pole ; it was built by Rao Maldeo, and bears marks of the siege of 1 809. Gopal Pole. — It was built by Kiladar Oor Gopal Dass, Thakar of Karno, in the reign of Rao Maldeo. The fort contains the following palaces, viz. — Moti Mahal, the most important palace, built by Maharaja Sur Singh, but completed by Maharaja Takhat Singh ; it is handsomely decorated with fresco portraits of the ruling family, Hindu plays, and pictures of Hindu deities ; its ceiling and pillars are beautifully gilded. Idiahg ah -ka- Mahal has been set apart as the sleeping apartment of the chief; it was built by Maharaja Ajit Singh, and some additions and alterations made to it by Maharaja Takhat Singh. Phool Mahal was built by Maharaja Abhai Singh, but alterations have since been made ; it has many artistic decora- tions on its walls and ceiling, among which are Dassera and hunting scenes. Fateh Mahal was built by Maharaja Ajit Singh to signa- lise the retreat of the Mogul army from Jodhpore ; the State jewellery is now kept in this apartment. 84 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Taklmt Bilas was built by Maliaraja Takhat Singh, as its name implies. Daulat Khana, the abode of wealth, was built by Maha- raja Ajit Singh; its ceiling is supported by a number of short massive columns, arranged in parallel rows about 1 2 feet apart. Chowkelao Mahal was built by Maharaja Ajit Singh, and additions have since been made. Silch Khana. — The armoury, in which many old arms are kept, some of which have been taken in battle, and others from time to time presented by the Paramount Power to the chiefs of Jodhpore. A new Sileh Khana is now under construction. Kanivar-iJade-ka- Mahal was built by Maharaja Takhat Singh for his eldest son, the late Maharaja Jaswant Singh. Ajit Bilas was built by Maharaja Ajit Singh as a place of residence, but it was afterwards turned into the temple of Murli Manoharji by Maharaja Bijai Singh. In the Sahha Mandap Choh, near the entrance to the " Flower Palace," the marble chair called " Singar Choki " is located on a marble platform. This " Choki " is used for the Raj " tilah " ceremony on the accession of a new chief. The ceremony corresponds to the coronation. During this cere- mony the new ruler is seated on this marble chair, which is elevated on a marble platform, while the Bagri Thakar puts a " tika " or mark of blood or ochre on his forehead, and binds on the sword of office. The new chief then receives the congratulations of his friends and the " nazars " of his subjects. The office of applying the ''tika" and investing the chiefs of Marwar with the sword of office is hereditary, and the ceremony can only be performed by the House of Bagri. This hereditary office dates from the time of Rao Suja of Marwar, and was brought about as follows : — On the occasion of the death of Rao Suja there was a dispute among the Sardars as to which of his grandsons should succeed, and one party found it necessary to hasten the installation ; but CAPITALS OF STATES 85 no "roli" was available to make the required red mark on the forehead. However, the Bagri Thakar, with great presence of mind, cut his thumb and applied it bleeding to the fore- head of the younger prince and then handed him his sword, thereby establishing his candidate in power, to the discomfiture of the elder brother and his party. It is believed that the Bagri Thakar took the side of the younger prince on this occasion, and hastened the " Bajtilak " ceremony as an act of revenge on the mother of the elder prince. On a previous occasion this Thakar with his followers, much fatigued and hungry, arrived at the palace at night to inquire after Rao Suja's health. He asked for food, when the lady above referred to replied haughtily that she was not an innkeeper to supply food at that hour ; whereas the mother of the younger prince treated the weary travellers hospitably, and afterwards received an ample reward in the succession of her son. The Bagri Thakar holds a large jagir, which he formally gives up on the death of one chief, to be returned to him on the accession of a successor as a reward for the efficient discharge of this ceremony. The largest and most powerful guns in the fort are KilJccda and Shimbhubdn, brought from Ahmedabad in 1 7 3 1 by Maharaja Abhai Singh when he was sent there by the Mogul Emperor to suppress the rebellion of Sherbaland, Subadar of Gujerat. The fort is supplied with water from Rani Sdgar, a tank constructed by Rani Hadiji of Rao Jodha for the use of the city, but Rao Maldeo had it enclosed within the fort. The water is lifted to the top of the fort from this tank by a steam force-pump erected a few years ago, and distributed over the buildings by pipes. There are two wells within the fort, one called Patalia, near " Jharna," the depth of which is said to be about 450 feet, and another m Chowkelao, which is believed to be even deeper. 86 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES There is a small fortress called Fatehgarhi situated about five hundred paces west of Siwanchi gate, and another named Takhatgarh on Machia Bhakar, built by Maharaja Takhat Singh. There are many forts throughout the State, the principal ones being at Jalore, Nagore, Phalodi, Sojat, and Merta. SmOHI. The capital, Sirohi, situated at the western base of the range of hills north of Abu, is twenty-three miles distant from Erinpura, 171 from Ajmere, and contains about 8000 inhabi- tants. It is naturally well drained and healthy, although hot at certain seasons on account of its being under the hill and having the breezes shut out thereby ; it has a good and abundant water supply from both wells and tanks. There is no great trade in Sirohi ; the manufacture of sword-blades and knives is the speciality of the place. There are fifteen Jain and four Hindu temples in the town, none of which call for special comment. They are not much resorted to by pilgrims, so they are only of interest from their age and good state of preservation, as they are said to be between five and seven hundred years old. A new temple is now under con- struction by Her Highness the Maharani. The palace of His Highness the Maharao is substantially built, and has been greatly enlarged during recent years ; it is picturesquely situ- ated on the hillside overlooking the town, to which it adds considerable grandeur. About two miles from Sirohi towards Erinpura is the shrine of Sarneshwar, the tutelary deity of the chiefs of the State, located on the slope of the same range of hills as the capital. The temple is built at the site of a Tiund or fountain, said to be efficacious in cutaneous diseases, but resorted to for cure principally by local people, as it has now no wide reputation for healing. There is no architecture worthy of note in the temple, which probably dates from the ■^ CAPITALS OF STATES 87 foundation of Sirohi, some five liundred years ago. The temple is dedicated to Shiva and contains the usual phallic emblem. The entrance is guarded by two stone elephants, and outside there is a large trident about 1 2 feet high, said to be com- posed of seven metals. The place is surrounded by a fortified wall, built by one of the Mussalman kings of Mandu, Avho is said to have been cured of a leprous disease called " horh " by bathing in the fountain. On the plain below the temple are the cenotaphs of the former chiefs of Sirohi, none of which display anything extraordinary in architectural beauty. JAISALMIR. The capital city of Jaisalmir, founded by Rao Jai Sal in A.D. 1 1 56, lies between lat. 26° 56', long. 70° 58', and contains about 3400 houses, with a population of about 13,000 souls. It has a substantially-built stone wall around it, about three miles long, 10 to 15 feet high, and 5 to 7 feet thick, supported by bastions and corner towers, and includes the fort, which occupies a hill on the south-west side. There are two main entrances to the city of Jaisalmir, viz., the Amarsagar gate, leading from the west, and the Garrisar gate, leading from the east. These gates are strongly built of blocks of cut stone, cemented together with lime and arched overhead ; they have recesses for a guard on either side, and a metalled and paved road passes through them from one end of the city to the other, which is the main street of the city. This street is fairly wide at most parts, and near the custom-house it opens out into an irregular space which is the principal market of Jaisalmir. At this spot there is some little appearance of traflic, as well as in one or two contiguous streets, but there is little of the bustle of a large city in any part of it, except perhaps about the time of lamp-lighting, or again at those times when the women of the city stream out by hundreds 88 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES to fill their pitchers, morning and evening, with the water of a large tank called Garrisar. The main street passes the entrance to the fort, and many of the secondary streets open into it in an irregular way. The other streets of the city are mostly narrow and dusty passages between rows of houses, and they are narrowest where some of the finest houses stand, the well-to-do having been able to encroach on them when they rebuilt and improved their houses. Two gates of less importance than those mentioned, viz., Kishenghat-ka-Pole and Malka Pole, look towards the east and north, and are away from the main thoroughfare. The houses are all substantially built of stone and mortar, and flat-roofed. Most of them have beautifully carved fronts, to which the yellow marble of the hills in and around Jaisalmir lends itself, as it is easily chiselled when first quarried, and be- comes harder on exposure. Some of the houses of the Seths have such beautifully carved fronts, that it is at first sight diffi- cult to realise that the work is in stone. Nearly every house of any importance in the city has a carved balcony, balustrade, or latticed window, and ornamented porches and columns sup- porting ornamented projections of stone are very common. The house of the notorious Dewan Salem Singh, who devas- tated the country nearly a hundred years ago with his extor- tion and cruelty, is magnificently carved, and towers above the rest of the city ; it is a very grand edifice of six storeys of cut stone, with cupolas and much ornamentation, especially on the top storey. Nath Mai, the late Dewan, during his time of office, built himself a fine house, on the front of which much beautiful carving is displayed. The late Maharawal, Bairi Sal, built a new palace and erected a carved edifice on it in the form of a watch-tower, which displays some of the finest workman- ship of Jaisalmir in stone. A new house for the present Maharawal is approaching completion ; it is built of the yellow marble of the place, having its windows and chhaUris hand- CAPITALS OF STATES 89 somely carved and of beautiful design ; when completed, it will add to the architectural beauty of the place. Around the city are many fine houses and chhaUris of the same yellow stone, minutely worked into a great variety of designs. The streets and roads in and around the city have recently been greatly improved, and the water supply has been much increased by enlarging and deepening the tanks, which should now, when properly filled, contain a two years' supply. In the fort there are some good wells, which are said never to fail, although their water deteriorates somewhat after consecutive years of little or no rain. The fort stands on a hill which overlooks the town from the south. This hill runs almost from south to north. It is about 250 feet above the surrounding country, and about 500 yards long by 2 5 o wide at its greatest diameter. It is entirely covered by buildings and defences, and the base is surrounded by a buttress wall of solid blocks of stone, partly embedded in earth, about fifteen feet high, and above which the hill projects and supports the ramparts, which form a double line of de- fence. The bastions are in the form of half towers, surmounted by high turrets and joined by short thick walls; the towers, turrets, and joining walls support battlements, those of the towers being continued along the joining walls and forming a complete chain of defence, about thirty feet above the hill. The turrets, which form the second line of defence, are about fifteen feet above the towers on which they are supported. The fort is approached by one entrance on the town side, which has four gates, viz., Akhai Pole, Ganesh Pole or Suraj Pole, Bhuta Pole, and Hawa Pole. The first gate, or Akhai Pole, encloses a small irregular space in front of the main entrance to the citadel. It was built long after the fort, and is merely a strong corbelled arch (with recesses for a guard), in which no artistic beauty or grandeur is displayed. 90 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES The Suraj or Ganesh Pole is the main entrance to the fort. It is a massive corbel of solid blocks and beams of stone, pinned and cemented together, with guardhouses on either side and on the top. Fine towers command the approach to it. The Bhuta Pole is a fine massive entrance, built of large blocks of stone, and surmounted by a building which displays much carving and artistic beauty. The Hawa Pole is a massive gateway, surmounted by the palace, the lattices and porches of which are handsomely carved and designed. There are four Vishnu and eight beautifully carved Jain temples within the fort. They greatly resemble those at Mount Abu, but the columns and figures are of yellow instead of white marble. The carved pillars, arches, and figures are very elaborate, and many of the designs are very tasteful, and so varied that they baffle description. The Jaisalmir stone lends itself to this kind of sculpture, and the stone-carvers, even of the present day, are celebrated for their finished and handsome work. The prospect from the rampart is not attrac- tive. The foreground presents a succession of sterile rock- bound ridges, barely clad with a few stunted bushes ; whilst on the horizon the low undulations seem to mark the com- mencement of the still more arid desert and sandhills. The fort also contains about 700 houses of Brahmins within its precincts, and derives its water supply from three or four sweet wells. Lodorva, ten miles north-west from Jaisalmir, was for a time the capital city of the Bhatis, but it is now in ruins. There is, however, an ancient Jain temple still standing. Tanot, founded in a.d. 73 i by Rao Keharji, was the first seat of power of the Jadu Rajputs on their settlement in the desert. The principal forts in the State are those of Kishengarh, Ghotaru, Bikampur, and Nochna; whilst those of Baisalpur, Deora, Lathi, and Shahgarh are of less note. '^^ ^ RELIGIONS, SUPERSTITIONS, AND OMENS The Hindus of these States are much given to observances dictated by Brahmins ; they are essentially a religious people, and very tolerant of other sects, giving freely to the support of their own temples and caste institutions, and having no desire to make converts. Even Mahomedans brought up here have lost much of their fanaticism by contact with the tolerant Hindus of the country, and they observe some of the Hindu customs, attend some of the Hindu fairs, and join regularly in the Dassera procession. Vishnu, Shiva, and Shakti (corresponding with Jupiter, Mars, and Bellona) are the principal deities of the Rajputs, and many of the other Hindus of these States. Most of the in- numerable Hindu deities receive some attention, besides many local saints who are worshipped on certain occasions, such as Ramdeo, Mallinath, and Pabu. The Kaimkhanis, a numerous sect of Rajput origin, who were forcibly converted to Mahomedanism during the Mogul Empire, still retain many of their Rajput customs and Hindu observances, which they combine with Mahomedanism. Hindus of these States give much in charity, and ascetics are liberally supported. Some of them beg in towns and villages, others reside in monasteries, caves, and places of seclusion, where they are fed by the women and children. These ascetics are very numerous, and their maintenance must be a great tax on the people ; besides, most of the Srimali and many other Brahmins live on charity. There are hundreds 92 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES of Brahmins in Jodhpore city, well clotlied, well fed, and possessing much jewellery and money, who have no other means of livelihood than begging. Charans have much free land, and get great support from the landed aristocracy, in praise of whom they compile histories and make odes. Even the lowest caste beggar is rarely turned away from the door without a dole. The liberality to beggars of the dealing classes, who are unusually hard in their mercantile trans- actions, is very striking. Most of the Sadhus or ascetics, who reside in the secluded corners of the hills about Jodhpore and throughout these States, lay claims to superior knowledge of the occult in medicine, astronom}^, prophecy, &c. They all profess great piety and self-denial. Many of them can perform great feats of endurance, some never requiring to sleep in the recumbent position, others being able to withstand all weathers without clothes, lie on sharp points, perform long journeys without food or water, and a few, though endowed with speech, never making use of the faculty, but communicating by signs. Most of them claim some power over evil spirits, and to be able to bring about a change in destin}'^ by intercession with the gods for those whom they may consider worthy of it. Some of the people have much faith in these ascetics, and consult them on all important occasions ; they also obtain remedies for disease from them, and invoke their blessings on their children, themselves, and their property. In some of the monasteries the ascetics sing at certain times, when the people attend and make offerings ; other inferior ascetics sing at the doors of the houses, in the to\vns and villages, where they wait the dole of flour or grain by which they fill their bags. The curse of the ascetic is much dreaded, while his blessing is much courted. The superstitions of the people are numerous and deeply rooted ; they take many of their omens for good or bad luck from birds, beasts, and dreams. RELIGIONS, SUPERSTITIONS, AND OMENS 93 It is considered unlucky to meet a stingy man in the early morning, and there are many individuals of this class whose names would not be mentioned by villagers before breakfast, lest misfortune or ill-luck should follow. Many of the people believe that the evil eye is very powerful to do injury to those on whom it is fixed, and that evil spirits can he swallowed accidentally while yawning. However, snapping the fingers prevents this misfortune, and retainers of great men, who have no other duties to perform, justify their being kept in employment by performing the finger-snapping, when their master yawns in his fits of ennui. The stiras or crane is considered a bird of good omen when met with on the left, flapping its wings. The brown dove is considered a very ominous bird, and if it breed in the house, it is unlucky for the owner. If the young dove sit on a person's head, the person will die within six months, and any object occupied by it for the first time will also be destroyed within that period. The cooing of the white dove is auspi- cious. The black robin, which builds its nest of twigs, grass, &c., can indicate famine by a predominance of grass over other materials in the nest ; if its nest be high, the hdjra will be long, if near the ground, short. The peacock, passing the traveller on the left, is a good omen. The blue jay is a bird of very good omen, if seen when starting on any business or project. The owl is generally a bird of bad omen, and it brings death and calamity to the house on which it sits. The partridge, calling on the right, when proceeding on any project, indicates success ; and on the left when returning, it is an assurance of the continuation of good luck. The " Roopa rail " is regarded as a bird of good omen ; if seen flying with food in its mouth on the left, while going on any project, and on the right when returning, success is assured. When about to undertake a journey, if the kite scream on the left, success is assured. The small owl screaming on the right indicates 94 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES success ; on tlie left, disaster. The tree-magpie is the lucky bird of Shikaris, and if it appear, sport is certain. The monkey crossing the path from right to left is auspicious, and the same is believed of the deer ; but if they cross from the opposite direction, they indicate failure. The howling of the jackal on the left is a good omen. The hedge- hog on the left is indicative of good. A cat crossing the path from any direction indicates disaster, unless the name of Raja Ramchandar is invoked. A dog flapping his ears is a bad omen, but the fox and hare crossing from left to right are good. The bellowing of a bull and the braying of an ass on the left are good. The wolf and hysena crossing from left to right are very unlucky. To see a cart loaded with grain, or fire in the hand, is inauspicious for commencing a journey. A female gardener, with a basket of green vegetables on her head, is a good omen. The arrival of a guest on Akhatij is considered a very good omen. It is very unlucky to meet a goldsmith, unless the chest be beaten at the first sight. To meet a funeral without mourners is auspicious, but a cart full of corn and a ghara full of ghee, flour, or fuel are inauspicious. To meet a woman with a ghara of water is a good omen, also a woman with her child on her arm, unless she be a widow ; but to meet a woman with dishevelled hair is unlucky. A Brahmin, with tilak on his forehead, and a Rajput with a sword on his shoulder, are very good omens. A widow is always inauspicious, but women who are ornamented and have husbands are auspicious to meet. Sneezing before undertaking any project is unlucky, but a sneezing person behind is lucky. Three men going on the same errand together cannot have success. Dreaming of camel-riding is inauspicious and a laughing dream is unlucky, while weeping in dreams is a good omen. Dreaming of gold, copper, and iron is inauspicious, but of silver and sweetmeats auspicious ; however, eating the latter RELIGIONS, SUPERSTITIONS, AND OMENS 95 in dreams indicates misfortune. Dreaming of a beautifully dressed woman is very auspicious, but if she appear to sing, it denotes misfortune. Dreams of fl3ning in the sky and of elephants are indications of prosperity ; but to dream of snake-bite, fire, or water is bad. MARWARI PROVERBS 1 . Ani cliuka bisa ho = A moment once lost is lost for ever, 2. Aj aman ne kal taman = To-day me, to-morrow thee. 3. Ap aprai ghar men sara Thdkar hai = Every one is lord in his own house. 4. Utawla so bawla = A rash man is no better than a mad man. 5. Ek bar thagayan sains budh awe = Once cheated, ever watchful. 6. Ochhi ojri men bat nahin pachai = A little pot is soon hot. 7. Kunbar kunbari sun bas nahin awai jarai gadheri ra kan khainchai = Since the potter dare not pull his wife's ear he pulls the donkey's. 8. And hero tanduro Ramdeoji bajawai = God guides the blind. 9. Andhan men kano Rao = A one-eyed man is a chief among the blind. 10. Karola so pawola ne bavola so lunola = You will be done to as you will do, and as you will sow so you will reap. 1 1. Kal sun howai jiko bal sun nahin howai = Tact pre- vails where strength fails. 12. Kai batawan sun kar batawano batto howai = Deeds are better than words. 13. Kothai howai jiko hotai ai rawai = What is in the mind will be on the lips. 14. Khad khinai jinai kuo tayar = One who digs a pit for others finds a trap ready for himself. 1 5 . Gugaryan ra gothia ne khay pi ne uthya = When money is lacking friends will be packing. MARWARI PROVERBS 97 1 6. Ghar men liowai nana to bind parnijai kana = A bride will not object to marry a one-eyed man so long as he is rich. 17 Chuttar nai samjawno soro ne miirakh nai marno soro = A nod for the wise, a rod for a fool. I 8. Chhotai mundai moti bat = Small mouth, big talk. 19. Thotho chino bajai gano = An empty vessel makes much noise. 20. Dupti dekhnai pag pasaro = Cut your coat according to your cloth. 2 1 . Pet papi hai = The stomach teaches all arts. 22. Bina man-ka pawna ghee ghalun kai tel = Uninvited guests seldom meet welcome. 23. Jin-ri lathi unri bhens = The man with the stick can make the buffalo leave his way (might is right). 24. Sanch nai kadai ne lagai anch = Truth seeks no hiding corner. Couplets 1. Bajrika sogra mothan ki dar Akre ki jhonpri phogan ki bar Dekhi Raja Man Singh teri Marwar = " Bread of hajra flour and dal of moth, huts of akra with fences of fog, Raja Man Singh, such is your Marwar." 2. Hitmen chitmen hathmen khatmen matmen khot Dilmen darsawai daya pap liyan sir pot = "His (the Bania's, the dealer's) friendship, his mind, his dealings, his bonds, his principles, are all full of deceit. He pretends to be merciful, but is a great sinner." 3 . Pahle pet ne pache Seth Pahle Raj ne pache Biaj = " From a ryot's earning he means first to provide his own livelihood and then the claims of the Bohra (lender), but he finds the Raj demand is first to be met, and then the interest." G SIGHTS WORTH SEEING The Fort. — In the city the central and first object of interest is the fort, which has ah-eady been fully described. Besides the fort there are many other objects of interest within the city, viz., old temples, palaces, and buUdings, with handsomely carved sandstone fronts, some of which will now be particularised. The following are the principal ones : — Gangshamji-ka-Mandar, the chief temple in the city, was built by Maharaja Bijai Singh, but the idol of Shamji placed in it was brought here by Kao Ganga from Sirohi on the occa- sion of his marriage there with Rani Deoriji. He placed it in an old temple (built by himself), which is now known as Ghun- shamji-ka-Mandar or Panchdevria-ka-Mandar. Maharaja Bijai Singh removed this idol to his own temple, which in this way came to be called, after Rao Ganga, " Gangshamji-ka-Mandar." Kunjbihariji-ka-Mandar, the best carved and finest temple in Jodhpore, was built by Gulabrajji (of Maharaja Bijai Singh's time), who also built the Gulab Sagar tank, the Girdikote, and Mailabtigh, which is now the Hewson Hospital. Temples of Balkrishnji, Dauji, Mahaprabhuji, and Madan Mohanji are of Maharaja Bijai Singh's period. These temples belong to the Ballabhcharaya sect, the chief devotee of which was the Maharaja himself. Tiji Maji-ka-Mandar was built by Maji Tija Bhitianiji, widow of Maharaja Man Singh. Two fine temples, known as Bagheliji-ka-Mandars, were built by the Bagheli Ranis. There are two very old temples, one dedicated to Chawandd SIGHTS WORTH SEEING 99 Mataji and the other to Juwdla Mukhiji, situated close to each other, on the south-west extremity of the rock on which the fort is built. The Chawandd Mata or Devi, a female deity, is worshipped by the rulers of Marwar, and a bufifalo is annually sacrificed at this temple on the Dassera festival, and also goats on other important occasions. In a.d. 1857, on Nagpanchmi fair, after midnight, lightning struck the fort magazines, which lie some feet below this temple, near Chiriya Nathji-ka-Paglya under the fort rock on its west side, and caused an explosion which blew up the roof of Chawanda Mata-ka-Mandar, and did great damage to life and property. Cbirianathji was a famous ascetic, who lived before the foundation of the city and fort of Jodhpore, in a small cave of this rock, which was then known as " Chiria Bhakar." The place is still known as " Chirianathji-ka-Paglya," meaning foot- prints engraved on a marble slab. Before Rao Jodha changed his capital, he examined several hills around Mandore, and at one time intended to lay the foundation of the fort on the Masuria-ka-Bhakar, which is well situated and high. The famous ascetic, however, advised him to build where the fort now stands, and assured him that it would be impregnable. While acting on his advice, Rao Jodha thought it proper to remove the ascetic to some other place ; so he sent his men to do so ; whereupon the ascetic collected his dhooni (lighted sticks), placed them in his cloth, which they did not burn, and went away cursing and declaiming that "no water would be procurable in the country." When Rao Jodha was informed of the ascetic's miracle and curse, he followed him to Palasni, a distance of eighteen miles, where he had the curse reduced to " a severe drought on the land every third year," which is held by many to account for the diminished rainfall of Marwar up to the present time. Jawalaji, literally " huge fire," is a form of Devi or Mata, chiefly worshipped by the Kayasth community. 100 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Achleshwar Mahadeo-ka-Mandar is one of the oldest temples, dedicated to Achleshwar Mahadeo, a form of Shiva. In its compound there is a large Baori, built by Rao Ganga. Nij Mandar, overlooking Gulab Sagar, Udai Mandar, and Maha Mandar, all of which were built during the reign of Maharaja Man Singh, are the principal temples belonging to Naths. Rama-nund-Kote, overlooking Fateh Sagar, contains temples- and a garden of the late Dewan, There are two chief palaces in the city, viz., Taleti-ka- Mahal, built by Maharaja Sur Sing, and Raj Mahal. The latter, built by Maharaja Takhat Singh, overlooks Gulab Sagar, and was his favourite residence within the city. The largest Haweli in the city contains above two hundred rooms, many of which have handsomely carved ceilings, bal- conies, and columns ; it belongs to Byas Bheron Das, the court Guru, and it stands at the junction of the streets leading to the Sur Sagar and Padam Sagar. Mandore, named after Mandu Rishi, is the ancient capital of the Rathores. It was taken by Rao Chonda about A.D. 1395 from the Parihar Rajputs of the Eenda clan. It is about five miles north of Jodhpore city. Most of the old city has crumbled away, but there are still some occupied houses in good repair, and the principal burning-ground is surrounded by many fine Dewals to mark the place. Most of the fort wall is level with the ground, but there remains still in good preservation an old gateway the arch of which has recently been repaired. A nice garden has recently been laid out, and an old palace turned into the Rajput Elgin school, A streamlet named " Nagadari," across which a dam has recently been erected for bathing purposes, flows close to the site of the old capital. Visitors to Mandore will view with interest the grand specimens of sculptural art in the " Hall of Heroes," of which SIGHTS WORTH SEEING 101 a. very brief account is given below. These figures have been carved in sandstone and covered with polished marble plaster : — ( 1 ) Chdwandaji — Goddess of the ruling family. (2) Bhaisa surji — A Hindu goddess famous in war. (3) Gusainji — A high priest, still represented at Chopasni, where he has a temple, village, and free lands. No animal life is allowed to be taken in Chopasni, and meat is not eaten in the village. The Gusainji is said to bathe in cold water twelve to twenty-four times a day ; and his daughters are not allowed to leave the family after marriage, the sons-in-law being provided for by the Gusainji. I was asked to see an aged and moribund Gosainji of Chopasni, but I was only allowed to look at him across a wall, and was told not to feel his pulse or examine him, and that he was so holy that he could not take anything prescribed, nor could he even apply medicines locally. I therefore left, stating my regret at being unable to work miracles, and the patient died unrelieved after a short time. (4) Mdllindthji — The founder of the house of Mallani, in whose honour the Mallani fair is annually held, continues to be worshipped as a saint by his descendants and other Hindus of the country. There is a local legend that he did not die, but departed from this world on horseback, and that his wife Rupa was also taken up to heaven from her carriage, while on her way to commit sati after her husband's disappearance. ( 5 ) Pahuji — A Rathore hero whose memory is still held in great esteem on account of his having brought the camel into general use ; he was also a great protector of cows. (6) Bamdeoji — A distinguished Rajput hero and a truthful man, who is said never to have told a lie ; he took samadi (interred himself alive) in a.d. 1458, and still has worship done to his memory. (7) Herluji — A favourite of Rao Jodhaji, and a saint. 102 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES (8) Gogaji — A very charitable man. When Feroz Shah invaded his town in a.d. 1296, he fought gallantly and was killed on the field of battle. (9) Mehaji — A warrior of local repute, of whom the Charans still chant. (10) Brahmaji — Brahma. (11) Surajji — The sun. (12) Ram Chandarji — Rama. (13) Kanaiyaji — Krishna. (14) Mahadeoji — Shiva. (15) Nathji — Jalandhar Nathji, an ascetic, one of whose successors was Deonath, the founder of Mahamandar and an absolute pope in the reign of Maharaja Man Singh, who would have made over the entu-e State to him if he had not been prevented from doing so. In the Mahamandar palace there is still a sacred bed to which the spirit of the great departed Nathji is said to retm^n regularly to take rest. The present representative of the Nathji of Mahamandar has a considerable income from villages and lands, but both his temporal and spiritual authority have steadily waned from the time of Maharaja Man Singh, until they are now of no consequence. The cenotaphs to the memory of the former rulers of the country are also objects of great interest to visitors. The principal ones are : — (a.) Rao Maldeo-ka-Dewal — This Dewal is near the Baori in the south of the burning-ground. Rao Maldeoji died in A.D. 1562, and his monument was erected by Mota Raja Udai Singh in a.d. i 5 9 i . (&.) Mota- Raj a- Udai Singh-ka- Dewal was built by Raja Sur Singh in a.d. 161 i. The Mota Raja died in a.d. i 594. (c.) Sawai Raja Sur Singh-ka- Dewal was built by Raja Gaj Singh in a.d, 1622. Sawai Raja Sur Singh died in a.d. 16 19. {d.) Raja Gaj Singk-ka-Dewal was built by Maharaja Jaswant Singh I. in 1649. Raja Gaj Singh died in a.d. 1638. SIGHTS WORTH SEEING 103 (e.) Maharaja Jasivarit Singhji-ka-Dewal. — Maharaja Jaswant Singhji died at Jamrood in Peshdwar in a.d. 1678. Maharaja Jaswant Singhji was a great soldier, and fought for Shah Jehan in the Deccan. On his return from the Deccan he was given the title of Maharaja in 1653, and, although Aurangzeb dis- trusted and disliked him, he was so powerful in his time that he was made Subadar of Gujerat and sent again to the Deccan, and afterwards to Kabul to fight. He finally died at Jamrood in A.D. 1678, having lost his three sons: one at Delhi from poison, administered at court, and two at Kabul from the severity of the climate. The cenotaph to his memory was erected by Maharaja Ajit Singh in a.d. 1720. (/.) Maharaja Ajit Singh-ha-Deival was commenced by Maharaja Abhai Singh but was not completed during his reign; it was finished by Maharaja Bhim Singh in a.d. 1797. This is the most imposing of all the Dewals ; it possesses much boldness of design, as well as great architectural grace and beauty. Maharaja Ajit Singh died in a.d. 1724. {g.) Maharaja Takhat Singh-ka-Tharra. — This monument was built by the late Maharaja Jaswant Singh, G.C.S.I., in A.D. 1875. Maharaja Takhat Singh died in a.d. 1873, and the chhattri will be completed by his grandson, the present Maharaja. (h.) The late Maharaja Jaswant Singhji was cremated at Deokund, near the fort, instead of at Mandore; the place is more convenient and the site is better for monuments, on account of its elevation and proximity to the fort and city. Maharaja Jaswant Singh died on the i ith of October 1895. Kailana. — A tank in the hills and the Shikarkhana of Jodhpore. Pig abound here, but on account of the rough sandstone hills which surround the tank, they readily escape from their pursuers and multiply to replenish the plains below, where they wander in search of food, and give the hunter frequent opportunities for good sport. The bund of 104 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES this tank has lately been raised, and its depth is now 64 feet. There is an old palace on a bund which is now often sub- merged, and a garden with fine trees adjacent. This is one of the principal reservoirs outside Jodhpore. Sursagar. — It lies to the west of the city, about a mile from the Chand Pole gate. The British Residency was for- merly located here. The tank has not held water for many years, since the sandstone rock on which the bund rests was fissured by an earthquake. The old Residency and Residency Surgeon's house were originally built by Maharaja Sur Singh as his special palace. There are gardens with some fine trees and pleasure grounds attached to these buildings, which are now used as a Sardar school. Balsamancl (" the child of the sea ") owes its name to Parihar Balak Rao, who had it constructed in a.d. i i 59, and is a fine artificial lake about three miles from the city, on the way to Mandore. Maharaja Sur Singh enlarged the first bund of this tank and built a palace on it, which has since been enlarged. During the reign of the late Maharaja, Mr. Home raised the dam 1 5 feet, giving the tank a capacity of 56,000,000 of cubic feet; it is nearly 40 feet deep, and supplies the city with water through a canal running into the Gulab Sagar and Fateh Sagar tanks. The railway and the bungalows in that direction are also suj^plied with water from this tank. About two and a half miles west of the city is an old garden attached to a small tank called Akherajji-ka- Talao, which was built by Singhi Akheraj, one of the chief State officials in the reign of Maharaja Man Singh ; this garden is resorted to by city people on holidays. Jodh23ore Abu, a hill known as Bara Bhakar, the highest peak of the sandstone range adjacent to Jodhpore, where the Darbar has built two fine bungalows, and from which there is a commanding view of the country, is approached from f5 SIGHTS WORTH SEEING 105 two directions by a semicircular metalled road, which passes through picturesque valleys laid out as gardens, and stocked with fruit and other trees. Several small tanks can be seen in the monsoon season from this elevation, and many watered nooks in depressions in the hills are always visible, with temples, gardens, and trees cultivated for their shade by the numerous ascetics, who live in secluded corners and subsist on the charity of the city. Bijolai, a small tank not far from Jodhpore Abu, was one of the favourite residences of Maharaja Takhat Singh, who built a palace there, where the natural scenery is picturesque. The Rdikabagh and the palace of the late Maharaja, with its hundreds of stables, are very interesting. The Public Offices, built by Mr. Home in 1886-90 from Colonel Jacob's design, are very handsome, and beautifully finished in every detail of workmanship. The Maharaja's new palace, lighted by electricity, the Residency, and other official bungalows, designed and constructed by Mr. Home, are all fine buildings and add considerably to the appearance of the suburbs of Jodhpore. The Cavalry lines, the Sir Pratap School, the Post- Office, the Railway employes lines, the Dak bungalow, the Railway Station, and many of the private houses in the suburbs are good specimens of the solid work which is now being done in Jodhpore. Adjacent to the Dak bungalow is a handsome Serai which adds to the appearance of that quarter, and the cost of which has been defrayed by the Dowager Maharani Jarechiji. The numerous new aqueducts, leading from all directions towards the capital, are specially interesting to those long resident in the desert who are able to thoroughly appreciate a good water supply. In and around Jodhpore there are many other temples and houses on which are displayed much architectural beauty and artistic design in general structure and the finish of then- arches, doors, and balconies. The sandstone on which the 106 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES city rests is easily quarried and carved into stately columns and beautiful facades. This has been taken advantage of by builders from the earliest period in the history of this capital of the desert, and the effect has been excellent. Jaisalmir is well worth a visit to those who do not fear the discomforts of desert travelling ; and the sights most worth seeing in and about the city are the fine stone carved palaces and houses ; the fort, and the beautifully carved temples within it, some of which rival those of Mount Abu ; Bari, where the handsome chhattris of chiefs stand, Maharawal Gaj Singh's and the late Maharawal Bairi Sal's being the finest ; Amar Sagar and Mool Sagar, where there are gardens and palaces. The capital of Sirohi is picturesquely situated in the hills, and the palace, which commands the town, is fine and hand- some; some of the tomples are worth seeing, as they are of great antiquity. RECREATION JoDHPORE. — In Marwar horse exercise is taken by almost eveiy one who can afford to keep a horse, and the Rathore is an accompHshed horseman, whether born in the palace or in the village. He, like the Arab of the desert, loves his horse, and will stint himself to feed his steed. Polo is much played at the capital, where there are several good polo-grounds, made at considerable cost, regardless of the floating sands. There are also six or seven racecourses around Jodhpore city, and these are in daily use to keep both horses and riders in condition. Cricket is also in much favour, and schoolboys can be seen practising in various places on the sand ; there is a cricket-ground at the palace, and His Highness the Maharaja Sardar Singh is a proficient at this game, as at polo. Rackets, football, tennis, billiards, and golf are all played at Jodhpore. Most of the Rathores are keen on guns and field-sports, when they can afford to shoot and hunt. They all take readily to games, whether of the East or West, and this makes them particularly companionable and friendly. The ordinary Indian outdoor games are much played by the boys and young men throughout the country, viz., "Mardari," " Miyan-ki-ghori," " Kabdi," " Thia Dari," "Jel Dari," " Sota Dari," " Kundalo Dari," "Bheron Doto," "Dota Dari " (English game of hockey), " Dhunna," and " Guli Danda." SiROHi. — Cricket is played at the Sirohi capital, and His Highness the Maharao Kesri Singh, K.C.S.I., is fond of his gun. Many of the upper classes in Sirohi State are keen horsemen, 107 108 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES and horse exercises are in great favour throughout the country. Indian outdoor games are keenly contested, both at the capital of Su'ohi and throughout the State, viz., " Bathal Kundd," "Ankh Chhipdni," " Lattu-ka-Khel," " Miyan-Kighori," " Guli Danda," '• Kabdi," and " Tangri-ka-Khel." Jaisalmir. — The camel is the most favoured animal in Jaisalmir, on account of its endurance. It is ridden for pleasure as well as to accomplish journeys, and camel-racing is often resorted to as a pastime by the people of the country. His Highness the Maharawal and his brother, who are now at the Mayo College, Ajmere, have been taught cricket and polo, and these games will no doubt be introduced into the far desert very shortly, to supplement the ordinary games of the country, which are at present played with considerable zest. Colonel Maharaj Sir Pratap Singh, G. C.S.I. Imperial Si-ii'ice Cavalry Uniform. To face page 109, IMPERIAL SERVICE TROOPS ( 1 ) These troops, whicli consist of two regiments of cavalry,, are locally known as the Sardar Risala, and were commenced to be raised in 1889. (2) The progress has been steady throughout. One regi- ment was at first raised, then the Jodha and Kaimkhani squad- rons of the second regiment, and finally the two regiments, each consisting of 600 sowars, were completed. (3) In both regiments there are — Squadron officers Eisaldars . Jamadars . Kote DafFadars Daffadars . Sowars Total 8 16 16 16 96 1058 (4) The division of squadrons is by clans. Clans. Squadrons of 1st Regiment. Squadrons of 2nd Regiment. Jodhas 1 Khichis Mertias 1 Gogades ^ ..... Kaimkhaiiis 1st. 4th. 2nd. 3rd. I St. 4th. yd. I St. 2nd. They are all inhabitants of Marwar. (5) Out of a total of 1200 horses, 779 are Arabs, 98- Rathores. 109 110 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Walers, and 322 country-bred, whicli give a percentage of 64.93 Arabs, 8.22 Walers, 26.84 country-bred, and .01 Englisb bred. (6) The lines consist of small rooms with verandahs, and the horses stand picketed in front of each man's quarters. The pay of officers, non-commissioned officers, and men is as follows : — Squadron officers, Rs.250 per month. Risaldars, Rs.8o, 90, 100, and 125. Jamadars, Rs.70, 65, and 60. Kote Daffadars, Rs.44. Daffadars, Rs.37. Sowars, RS.30S. Trumpeters, sowars, and farriers are given an allowance of Rs,5 extra. The men of this corps are all recruited locally ; they are mostly hardy Rajputs of the desert, fond of horses, and accus- tomed to ride from boyhood ; they stand privation well, are light, active, and ideal horse-soldiers. An assistant-surgeon and a Rajput hospital assistant have medical charge of the corps under the Residency Surgeon. Maharaj Dhiraj Colonel Sir Pratap Singh, A.D.C., G. C.S.I., commandant of the corps, served on the staff of General Lockhart in the late campaign, and had with him some of the officers and men, of whom all, except two, returned in good health. The officers and men stationed at Rawulpindi also returned in good health, and only lost one man during thek absence of five months. The hospital for the Imperial Service Corps is well located, and built on the approved standard plan for native troops ; it is well equipped and well looked after. Hcwson Hospital, Jodhpore {see page 260). f* c^-iLJlJj A sH^-^ Officers, Imperial Service Cavalry. 7 face page 110. MINTS AND CURRENCIES IN THE WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Marwar. — There are seven mints in Marwar, viz., at Jodh- pore, Pali, Nagore, Sojat, Jalore, Merta, and Kuchawan ; but only those at Jodhpore, Pali, Nagore, and Kuchawan are now working. Gold is only coined at the Jodhpore city mint. Mohrs, half mohrs, and quarter mohrs are coined, and largely used of late years as coat-buttons by the well-to-do. They are rarely met with beyond Marwar limits. The weight of a full Jodh- pore gold mohr is 169.9 grains troy, and it is made of pure gold. The silver coins of the State are the rupee, half rupee, and quarter rupee pieces. The weight of the original Bijeshahi rupee, which was struck about a.d. 1761, and which bears the name of Shah Alum, is 176.4 grains troy, of which 6.5 grains is alloy. In 1858 Maharaja Takhat Singh substituted the name of Her Majesty the Queen for that of Shah Alum, Since then the inscription has more than once undergone changes, still bearing the name of the Queen-Empress. Hitherto the Bijeshahi rupee has been equal to, or of more value than, the British or Kaldar rupee ; but since the closing of the Indian mints, about iio Bijeshahi rupees are required to exchange for 100 Kaldar rupees. There are numerous marks on the Jodhpore coins, placed by Darogas in charge of mints, or by other State officials ; but the special marks of the State are the " Jhar " or the " Turra " of seven or nine branches, and the " Khanda," or the sword. 112 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES The original copper coin of the State was the Bijeshahi, which was also called " Dhabbushahi," on account of its great weight. Maharaja Bhim Singh increased its weight, and called it Bhimshahi, after his own name. The weight was again reduced to its original standard, viz., from 320 to 310 grains. The copper coin is now known here as Dhabbushahi, and about fifty-six are equal to Rs. i Bijeshahi. The Ku chaw an mint coins no gold or copper. The silver coins struck there are called " Ektisundas." They weigh about 168 grains, and are worth 10 or 12 annas Bijeshahi. Jaisalmir. — The Jaisalmir mint was established in a.d. 1756 by Maharawal Akhe Singh, after whose name the coins are called " Akheshahi." The old Akheshahi rupee weighed 168.75 grains, and contained only 4.22 grains of alloy; but the present Akheshahi rupee weighs only 162^ grains, and is worth about i 5 annas Bijeshahi. SiROHi. — There is no mint in Sirohi, where the Jodhpore copper coin known as Dhabbushahi, and the Kaldar and Bhilari (Meywar) silver coins are current. Kaldar rupees are current everywhere, also British copper coins and koris are in use in the bazaars. 4 koris or shells make i ganda. 2^ gands ,, I damri. 2 damris ,, i chhadam. 2 chhadams ,, i adhela. 2 adhelas ,, i paisa (Dhabbu). 3^ paisa ,, I anna. 16 annas ,, i rupee (Bijeshahi). Table of Weight. 3^ paisa make I chattack. 2 chattacks „ I adp4o. 2 adpaos ,, I pAo. 2 paos ,, I dd-seer. MINTS AND CURRENCIES make i seer.^ 2 ad-seers 5 seers lo seers 20 seers 30 seers 40 seers I panchheri. I pAo-man. I dd-man. I pun-man. I man. Land Measure. 20 Biswansis make i Biswa. 20 Biswas ,, I Bigha. 113 ^ The Jodhpore seer weighs over two pounds, viz., 100 tolas or Kaldar rupees, while the British seer weighs only 80 tolas or two pounds. H PUBLIC INSTRUCTION JoDHPORE. — Under the management of Pandit Suraj Pra- kash, M.A., this Department has recently been much improved, and Mar war boys are beginning to be able to take high places at the University examinations. The following are the educational institutions in Marwar : — Jaswant College, Jodhpore. Darbar High School, Jodhpore. Girls' School, Jodhpore. The Sanskrit School. The Hindi Pathshala. Eight Anglo -Vernacular District Schools. Twenty Vernacular District Schools. The Survey Class, Jodhpore. The Telegraph Training Class, Jodhpore, The Jaswant College was established in 1893 as a memorial to His Highness the late Maharaja Jaswant Singh, G.C.S.I. The course of instruction in the college was raised to the B.A. standard and the college staff strengthened in 1896. The Darbar High School was opened in 1869, and is the oldest English educational institution in the State ; the course is up to the entrance standard. Since its establishment many boys have successfully passed the entrance examinations of the Calcutta and Allahabad Universities from it. Most of them are now in Raj service, in the railway and other departments. The Girls' School was established in 1886, and it has already done much to improve female education, especially among Brahmins, whose children attend in considerable numbers. 114 PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 115 The Sanskrit School was established in 1886. The num- ber of scholars in regular attendance is not large, but it is use- ful to those who appreciate this classical language, principally Brahmins. The Hindi Branch School is largely attended by boys of different castes, but Mahajans and Brahmins predominate. The Pargana Schools are eight Anglo-vernacular and twenty primary vernacular ; most of them have a considerable attendance of Brahmins and Banias. The Survey Class is attached to the Jaswant College, and certificates are granted for proficiency after two years' study and examination. The Telegraph Training Class was opened in 1891 in the Darbar High School, to prepare boys for telegraph work on the railway. The Noble School was established in 1886, with a view to give instruction to Rajput nobles, among whom education was then very backward. The scheme has had considerable success. The Elgin Rajput School was established in 1896, for poor Rajputs unable to give their sons a primary education. The boys now educated at this school are intended as recruits for the Imperial Service Troops ; they are mostly from small villages where no course of instruction, even in elementary subjects, could be obtained. The Darbar contributes Rs. 5 0,000 annually to support these schools. Besides these State educa- tional institutions, there are many private vernacular schools in the city of Jodhpore and in large towns, principally sup- ported by the trading classes for the use of their children. The Oswals support the Sardar School, the Kayasths main- tain the Sir Pratap School, the Arya Samaj has its own school, Brahmins and Mahs have also some schools of their own. SiROHi. — Education is making fair progress in Sirohi. There is a school at the capital, maintained by the Darbar, in which Enghsh, Urdu, and Hindi are taught. There are also Darbar 116 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES . schools at two of the principal towns, viz., Madar and Rohera, and in many villages Hindi schools are kept up. Jaisalmir. — During recent years education has made con- siderable progress at the Jaisalmir capital, where two schools are supported by the Darbar, viz., one Anglo -vernacular and another Hindi. In the larger towns throughout the State, Hindi schools are kept up by private subscription. WATER SUPPLY JoDHPORE. — Up to the year 1870 the inhabitants of Jodh- pore obtained their water supply from wells and the neighbour- ing hills, from which it was run off into the city and stored in tanks. There were several of these reservoirs, but some being then imperfect and out of repair, only two could be relied on, viz., the " Gulab Sagar " and the " Fateh Sagar," and even these were not annually filled. Moreover, when the rainfall was sufficient to fill them, they only afforded a year's supply to half the city. Jodhpore did not then possess sufficient water storage space for twelve months' provision, and thus the inhabi- tants were compelled to go long distances to the wells, mostly outside the city walls, for the quantity necessary for their requirements. The water in the tanks having become ex- hausted, the wells adjacent soon ceased to give a sufficiency to the crowds who swarmed to them, often fighting fiercely in their endeavours to help themselves to a '' ghara" of water. The consequence was, that the women had to suffer much toil and hardship in bringing water from great distances, or they had to pay exorbitantly for it to the " hhishtis" who brought it in on camels or bullocks for sale. The wells here are very deep, and most of them are more or less brackish, often con- taining an appreciable amount of salt ; indeed, some are so briny as to be quite unpotable, except by those inured to salt water. By 1874 some improvement had taken place, but the water supply of Jodhpore had always been deficient, both because of the want of space for storage, and also on account of 117 118 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES the small annual rainfall. To remedy this, some important works had then been undertaken. Hitherto, much of the available water had been lost from bad collecting arrangements, and there had seldom been nearly enough run into the tanks to suffice for twelve months' consumption. In January 1875 the tank water had already failed, so that until the next monsoon the people of the city had to fetch their water from wells outside the walls, and sometimes from great distances. The Darbar was put to a considerable monthly expenditure in raising the water, as the wells are very deep. One large tank, the " Baiji-ka-Talao," situated near the Jalore gate, was completed during this year, but it leaked greatly from want of a lime floor. For years this large reservoir was left in this inriperfect condition, although a plentiful supply of water was brought into it from the hills south-west of Jodhpore by a masonry aqueduct. The flooring- was afterwards improved at a considerable cost, and it has since been useful for the water supply of that side of the city. Another large work of the same kind was commenced by Maharaja Bakhat Singh, but never completed, viz., the " Bak- hat Sagar " tank, which lies to the south-west of the city. The bund is of large extent, and has a considerable catchment from the hills on the west and south-west of Jodhpore city, but water does not remain in it long after the rains have ceased ; it, however, keeps the wells in the neighbourhood at a higher level. By 1889 the water supply had been improved in quality, and more attention has since been given to the preservation of its purity. In 1890 the water supply was greatly increased by new canals, and further efforts were made to protect the reservoirs from pollution by preventing animals from entering them. The water supply of Jodhpore at present is mainly derived from two tanks in the city, the " Gulab Sagar " and the " Fateh Sagar," mostly excavated from solid rock, now holding each WATER SUPPLY 119 about 1 0,000,000 cubic feet. This supply can meet the demand of the city for about fifteen months. Besides these, there are other tanks of smaller size, viz., the " Ranisar," the " Padamsar," the Baiji-ka-Talao, referred to above, and the " Pratap Sagar," constructed by Colonel Sir Pratap Singh to the memory of his wife ; and also two bathing tanks, viz., the " Phulerao " and " Gangelao." The Gulab Sagar is an old work, and was made by " pardayat " Guldbrajji (aheady referred to) of Maharaja Bijai Singh. The Fateh Sagar was built by Maharaja Bhim Singh, and named after his father. Fateh Singh. The Gulab, Fateh, and Pratap Sagars are supplied by a canal, which runs round the base of the adjacent hills for a distance of three miles to the " Balsamand." This canal was made in the years 1883 to 1885, and was originally intended to fill the tanks from the Balsamand ; but it has been found that the water caught from the intervening hills is generally sufficient for a year's supply, and the Balsamand has only been indented on once or twice during recent years. The Balsamand water, however, is run through a filter, and supplied in pipes to the Raikabagh, the Cavalry Lines, Jail, Railway Station, Residency, and the bungalows of the other Europeans. This tank holds, when full, about 56,000,000 cubic feet, and has a catchment area of six square miles of rock surface. The following is the analysis of the Balsamand water :- — tec c 2 c c ce .2§ s M 3 ■c to 11 •ati c n^ 5p. o'S (a S kt 3 C ^ ^ ^& *• tc ^g. 4)' :« bo ^ 2 o > > O -= -in > CD ^ Si; 2 -o > < <1 ►^ a» -, -> g o ^ s r- - H "" Soil J3 00 O O (N O M O M M H ?i M 00 T}- I>, lO CO m w H CO Tf IN 00 — '"— —"^ '-'^ >. kl M ^ 0) 2> Is C,i^ ! . ery heal ery heal alurial f uiihealt hmalari ry unhe Uiihealt alarial f uiihealt lirly h rish ; ery he i>>s s^ s fe ^> ^ f^ -» to : : ; : : : • oj ^ 'bo fe bo 1 : : : i ; i : : : -a ^ ffi3W w^ "CO N "1 0\ ON ' lO VO OS VO CO M lO 01 w ON 04 CO ON O H H 00 00 ^ H N lO CO lO M ON O M to 00 O O M N 00 OO ON On ON CO CO 00 00 00 CO ^ >n vO tv.00 ON On on On 0^ On 00 00 00 00 00 CO FOOD-GRAINS 161 CO OQ .a 1 I O .> ^ crt p^ (U 5 be r^ ;h O •-. ^ 1 s '3 Heavy. Very heavy. Above average. Little below average. Below average. Vei-y low. 1 00 Very healthy. Little malarial fever. Very healthy. Not so healthy. Unhealthy. Very unhealthy. Fairly healthy. Fairly healthy. Healthy. Very healthy. 1 C3 Low. Highest. Very high. High. Low. P, i Dear, except maize. Dear, wheat average. Cheap. Dear. Dear. Average. Very cheap. Above average. Very dear. Below average. Cheap. £ 00 -^oo fO Th in •^00 O O H f> O gwMlNMMHCrXNHlHN CO M 00 IN !N HI oo M 03 0) 2 > CO CTv O w <^ rO •* UOVO t^OO toSoooococooocooooooo 'ci 2 u 0) t> •s ^ S ^ o a) tj CO CO eS O f-t CC '^H 11 o ^ ■33 ^ bc 13 ^ ^ ^ ci ^ > ,a . ,a > ,a " !-" "^ "=« [>, s oj « S 3 t»^ '^ 3 t^ "' >■ o > t>«2 i d SP C Ph t- ,J= ^ O Q !> !> k ;> M T)- -J- (N CO On CO j3\D Ot^.^OtvO'J- CO CO M OhOOONCOM 00 ^ ^' J= =? bO bO rt : : -G ,d a) fe ^ '■■■■■■■■■■ t: t^ to ^ 1-] p > t> o o M \0 CO OS o N CO "+ lO SO t^ on 00 t^ a\ o\ OS OS c^ OS o^ o 00 CO M CO H 00 H oo M 00 00 M 00 CO CO M H ^ s ^ >. >^ i ^" a a > o 0) o o o 3 3 < a « Q 3 3 3 *J-1 < 3 3 >-5 ,3 >> s o CO •<*• ^ NO tN 00 ON o „ CI 1 " " o S -o s o Q 3 Sh a 1^ 3 i > o r3 (=5 o 6 a CD 2 3 3 SD 3 „ CI CO r}- to NO tN CO On o w C4 M " H lO o o O to m n n n lO o t-^ CO o o o IN tN o O o tN o oj -o m J_J o. ,_, lO 00 CO ON 00 CI CO bo On t^ VO NO lo LO IN o M o CS M M H > *. 00 ^ o VO CO C-l NO CI i_i N VO t^^ 00 « N CO oo tN CO IT) VO cn (N N N Ci N CI T^ Ti- •*■ ui 00 IN tN w NO lO U-) N lO H H M H H H N 00 iH M t^ CI M NO 00 ON C\ LO M o CO ^ *"* H Months. 3 a ►-5 5 3 «1 2 3 1-5 3 1-5 3 s -CI a "S. o O ^.1 01 a a) > o a ^ o S04. WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES have generally been high, and the same circumstance has been observed in Bikanir. A study of the last column of the table shows that conception is most frequent during the cold months, and least during May, June, July, August, September, and October, which may be considered the season of greatest heat and also of after malarial influences. SiROHi. — Nearly the same system of registration of births and deaths is followed in Sirohi as in the other Western Raj- putana States; it was commenced in 1894, both for the capital and for rural circles, and although regular returns are furnished, they are not yet accurate. However, in course of time better results are expected. In the following table of birth returns for Sirohi city there is one feature more or less constant for the whole period under consideration, viz., that the births in the last six months of the year generally exceed those in the first six months, excepting January, which stands high as regards birth-rate, and this clearly points out that conception more frequently takes place during the cold months. Jaisalmir. — Nearly the same system for recording births and deaths is followed in Jaisalmir city and State as that in Jodhpore and Sirohi. As in the tables of Jodhpore and Sirohi, so in the Jaisalmir returns (p. 206), it mil be observed that the births in the last half of the year generally exceed those in the first, with this difference only, that the month of June is an exception and stands higfh as regards birth-rate. The same table also tends to prove that conception takes place more frequently during the cold months than during other seasons of the year. BIRTH-RATE 205 00 o H o\ oo o >^ H I— I o o (—1 O f» m Eh w I— ( 5 rfj e HWCO-^lOvOtNOOOsOHW H H H sa o S3 P. !• en (N o vd CO (N co" co" t^ e COOOONOCNC^vONHThHlO .a mt^W O\VO0000 lOOO '^•VO CO H B 00 rH .ci •^^0 O I-l cntN'O ■^M 1000>0 e COvOOWOlCOUlHHtNNTh 1896. ■d rj-M uICOhOO t^iOC; 0) COIN H H e ooMtNChDcou-iooaMTj- 00 I-l .o t>.0\lOlOO C»5U1VO lOt^u^O ON e H H M t 00 IH ■O : : : : :«'-iuivoHO\Ht^ M H I-l 8 : : : : : t^ ^o lo ro -i- ci ^ 1 ^ ^ .■ ■ ■ ■ • ^- 1 s 1 1 1 206 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES ON CO o H -^ 0\ oo o Pi H 1— I O 1-3 < CO I— I o 12; H w Q^ ^ >, >> 0) t4 s ria S > o 1 <1 a OP o o s > a P. rO s O 02 o o o 2 S" s bO s s o o o LO o o ^r> 8 u^ o "1 t^ to 0) o 01 o o 0) 01 lO tN ►a CO t>. CO -t lO N ^ lO •1- rT\ 00 00 to 0) 01 d c^ o CO CO CO 01 04 CO 01 cj S-t > ■< e VO On CO M O CO 'i- 01 01 lO H NO " M ID O CO NO „ OD -* ,_, VO t^ ■* lO o H ON o 01 01 ^ ON lO H M M M w ^ ^• cS ^ N t^ lO N On CO K 00 f^ NO LO (N CO o CO CO M M CO 01 01 00 ID ON t^ M „ NO t^ "-) 01 1^ NO „ O O M N n CO 01 t 01 CO CO « •* 00 8 lO On M vO M "^ t^ H 0^ CO 01 t^ N 00 VO NO NO ON n- „ „ o-> 01 01 o M N o M W CO CO CO CO CO • s •-5 3 S S 02 X> S o 01 s 1 3 o o DISEASES The following tables of reference are given : — Mortality tables of Jodhpore, Sirobi, and Jaisalmir cities, from 1894 to 1897. Statements sbowing strength, admissions, deatbs, &c., in jails. Returns of patients treated in the hospitals and dispensaries. Mortality Table, Jodlipore City, from 1894 to 1897. Years. Cholera. ^?)i^' Fever, pox. Bowel Com- plaints. Snake- bites. Injuries. All others. Total. 1894 . . . 1895 . . . 1896 . . . 1897 . . 1 I '.'.'. 88 12 1590 1 106 852 778 73 23 28 "3 I 20 19 17 25 300 208 191 103 1985 1356 II76 931 Total loi 4326 137 I 81 ! 802 j 5448 Mortality Table, Sirohi City, from 1894 to 1897. Years. Cholera. ^"^^^J Fever. Bowel Com- plaints. Snake- bites. Injuries. All others. Total. 1894 . . . 1895 . . . 1896 . . . 1897 . . . 3 18 82 2 107 1 I 78 17 52 \ 5 I I 6 5 12 27 90 113 III 103 Total . . 21 319 25 2 5° 417 207 208 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Mortality Table, Jaisalmir City, from 1894 to 1897. Years. Cholera. Small- pox. Fever. Bowel Com- plaints. ^^^: |i-i--. ot^ek Total. 1894 . . . 1895 . . . 1896 . . . 1897 . . . 6 46 153 180 161 82 51 56 67 23 - i 'I 1 16 I ! 13 ..■ 1 23 117 lOI 103 78 342 353 391 206 Total . . ... j 52 576 197 I 67 399 1292 Mortality from all Diseases in Jodlipore City, for each Month, from 1894 to 1897, Months. Deaths. Total Percent- 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. of Four Years. Mean. Total Mortality. January , . 132 131 133 65 461 115-25 8.46 February . , 151 72 108 72 403 100.75 7.40 March . . . 153 104 103 64 424 106.00 7.78 April . . . 175 107 75 67 424 106.00 7.78 May . . . 153 80 97 72 402 100.50 7.38 June . . . 95 61 83 75 314 78.50 5.76 July . . . III 46 73 40 270 67.50 4.96 August . . 235 94 98 65 492 123.00 9-03 September 235 195 137 118 685 171.25 12.57 October . . 245 107 116 123 591 147.75 10.85 November 185 184 85 108 562 140.50 10.32 December . . "5 175 68 62 420 105.00 7.71 Total . . 1985 1356 1 1 76 931 5448 1362.00 100.00 o I.— RETURN OF PATIENTS TREATED AT THE HEWSON HOSPITAL, JODHPORE, from 1890 to 18 I. 2. 3. 4. „. UoDtlu. Gknebal DiHEASEa. - 1 1 a i i 1 1 1 1 1 1 J 1 1 1 i i 1 , Jl if i 1 i 1 1 J 1 1 = 1 ii if 1 31 ii i J 1 1 3 i 1 i i , 1 6 1 11 r 1 1 If 1 tl ii 1 1 5 l! 1 1 1 i ^ ,. J..U.^ . . . . .. U3 ,.<2. 60 94 ■14 8 18 201 376 19 98 27s 294 383 21 79 fk>5 70 251 " 605 160 I 39 ■04 3 64 42 .58 352 .,216 2. 261 22 7,946 J Ftbraiuy -„ 1 ,., l.S 982 988 S6 64 69 86 'S 29 ■SS 467 ,' 29 104 303 259 404 39 ,j ■IS 407 8s 182 46 579 806 100, 74 J 89 ' 83 90 43 207 28. 322 ',.Z 10 45 6.944 4. April. . 147 778 86 72 111 ■■ 106 181 443 19 ■51 301 343 40s 40 ■7 333 87 327 57 856 ■33 ; 56 8s ... 89 38 223 340 1,066 200 18 362 78 7,647 !■ M.y . . 30 .36 752 69 69 143 ■s 174 w S29 27 163 341 306 463 45 13 63 287 104 36S 61 844 127 I 76 64 ... ■23 94 354 324 ■.172 57 14 276 90 7,920 i. j™, . . 735! "3 691 83 108 21 loS 142 ,60 ISO 317 24S S14 38 13! 93 382 45 7.5 93 6, ■ 67 ... 81 77 429 240 ,,040 56 IS 310 101 7,940 7. J% . . S90| "7 1,060 121 79 84 ,6 86 ■S8 473 14 150 2S0 345 601 30 IS 27 251 164 354 41 9,' 46 ... 58 ... 1 47 49 470 408 1,12. 60 ■3 360 95 8.797 8. Angurt . 6| 3S7 3,182 103 7i 89 24 70 171 SOI 16 131 33( 560 681 19 37 371 3ii 346 44 838 96 51 1 57 ... 83 41 462 5^3 I.4S3 39 16 316 57 ■■.475 » 199 387 6,208 6S 70 74 10 62 21s 48S IS ■S7 32« SSI 60s 27 21 355 229 338 38 933 ■95 58 80 72 48 4.6 503 ■,3^2 40 25 388 66 ■4.497 la Ociob., . 115 259 7.314 ss 63 76 ■7 38 206 474 ■ S ISi 3"» 375 528 50 13 20 592 117 287 49 929 240 SO 50 ■ S3 43 3»4 374 1,203 39 28 203 58 14.729 I,. Ko.™l»r '59 4.863 45 6! 62 20 30 201 407 14 106 33S 296 399 56 40 692 101 278 75 781 265 66 53! 4 42 46 278 344 99° 40 20 200 24 ■ >,409 .1 T.U1 - 1 ■ ■« 2.831 " 65 79 * 'J .94 337 ' " 31S 290 382 ■3 43 716 87 282 S3 641 244 34 69 84^ 4 T 53 225 385 .,0,2 36 24 260 .4 9.154 3 1.685 2.269 31.271 882 872 1,130 195 7SS ' 2,143 5,374 67 2>S ■.S98 3.746 4.209 S.796 392 123 639 5.242 1,568 3,711 625 9.234 1,872 663 3 15 898 628 3,907 4,507 ■4.354 567 225 3.356 666 ■■6,253 J..™.-,, . 0.00 ! 1.45 ! 1.9S 26.90 0.76 0.7S 0^7 0.17 a65 1.84 4.62 0.06 1 18 _!f. 1^ 3.62 4« _^ °-" o-SS ^ _^ 3.19 0.54 7.94 ■.62 O.S7 o.«. a72 1 0.0. .77 ■^54 3-36 3.88 ■2.3s 0.49 .„ 2.S9 0.57 99.99 3 II.— RETURN OF PATIENTS TREATED IN THE CENTRAL JAIL, JODHPORE, from 1890 to 1897 I. a. 3 4. — 1 - »«.. 0^™.D„^^ OAL DiaKA9». f:i:i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 , 1 i j! i 1 1 1 1 hi Jl ! II 1 1 1 1 J, jl 1 1 i jl it J 1 II 1!" If it I i 5 1 \ 1 H =1 % f i 1 ,. j.™„ . . . .-. ' ... ' 43 93 9 6 4 2 7 > 'S 3 1 1 27 72 50 5 =6 2 ■s .6 ■ ■6 475 ,. Mra.,y . . ... 1 ... , 34 !7 1 7 2 14 8 2 26 ' 63 38 ' =5 10 10 8 3«9 3, M..ch . . . ... ... 1 4) 75 3 5 ' » 11 .3 4 a 35 48 46 3= "4 " ■ 413 ,, April . . . 39 7<1 7 5 3 17 33 2 15 6 2 11 1 34 5= 30 ■■ 16 430 S. M., I 1 ... 2» 54 2 5 ' 4 4 15 "5 23 ■3 ■3 4 1 8 1 20 58 " 39 3 8 ... 20 ■ 4m 6. .1™ . . . ... ! IS 37 S9 6 ' 3 s 16 2 24 14 ■ 7 24 59 33 3 19 23 I ' 4!0 7. July . . . 13 n 112 I 14 19 1 24 15 13 j 42 114 29 3 32 ■ .0 33 ■ 3 ■ OjO 8. Au^t . . ■34 176 1 ! 2 14 12 ... 25 32 7 I " 99 41 3 22 2 4 2 13 38 2 10 68, 9. 8«pt«ii>lMr . no !33 5 , I ■9 IS 1 I« .6 9 1 45 127 ■9 23 1 ' 18 15 10 712 10. MAa . . 74 ■75 3 2 1 1 17 1. I ■ 5 15 1 ■ 1 42 91 3 20 .7 6 a 2 546 [ 48 108 21 5 ... ■7 8 i 2 IS 4 3 22 44 52 28 7 12 2 443 ,...„.. 1 ... 1 .. 46 „4 ' 3 S ■ 20 20 10 7 4 ' * 44 'I 3' » 16 ' ' " .0 » 420 . ^ 7.. 1.352 68 56 3. 28 .5 189 „, ,0 3 .73 7, 159 2i 8 220 483 8>3 '73 .5 326 25 S3 77 169 77 ■95 8 .■0 ,3 5.947 PacDUg. . 0.01 M7 11.96 -.73 ...4 »94 '" 0.47 0.25 3.18 3.=. ..17 0.0s =■" ,„ 2.67 0.42 0.13 0.08 3.70 8,2 .3.84 2.,, 0.2s 5.48 0,,2 0.89 1.29 , 0.2, 0.49 2.84 1.29 3.2S ,.ss 0.22 99.97 idO ^^ III.— RETURN OF PATIENTS TREATED AT PALI, NAGPORE, MERTA, JALORE, BILARA, POHKARAN, JASOLE, DIDWANA TOWN. JODHPORE (FIRST BRANCH AND SECOND BRANCH) DISPENSARIES, from 1890 to 1897 1. 2. a. 4. »-"'■'■«»-• »OAL D.SK48K. i . . ,- i H i s.- i 1^ 1 1 fl< h = 1 s i- 38 . J i ? I 1 1 1 ft 1-" 1 \ 1 ii 1 I g i 1 || § «L II 1 If II fl Ii i 1 i 1 i 1 1 1 i i a 1 i 3' 1 1 1 1^ 1 1- 1 1 i i^ 1 11 'i 1 il r 1 1 1 1 1 J..u.„ , . 39= 4.ii» =63 >39 340 44 ■ ■2 363 ..220 33 32 272 862 .,805 {.,9,4 .■9 54 559 .,7.. 524 454 ■'4 2, 074 329 .78 8 1 176 ■ ■9 434 756 2,383 5,391 „ 95 81. 96 28.464 K.br,.,, . ,, 334 a,739 3.067 .39 274 S8 ■67 263 987 " ^ 236 366 692 873 .,763, .,544 2,765 1 .,760 89 87 40 4'3 'Zt, 548 575 87 . 98 2 872 3SO ■73 .86 ,85 ,j 1 Is^ 100 373 380 78S 2 687 1 4.878 02. 1 5.4.7 64 87 87 89 641 897 239 23,010 !■ Apnl . . M., . . . 460 363 1790 J67 ■ 70 333 313 S4 353 306 ..238 26 " 346 362 825 833 2,862' ,,798 2,125 ■,9»4 .09 30 328 287 985 844 324 636 89 2 578 .91 236 6 !0S 1.5 479 9^5 ■ 80. 879 4.78. 4,.58 107 .23 76s 498 538 26,968 2*420 S. im . . . r.009 326 .,969 "S .62 291 43 408 302 i,'8. 27 21 340 773 .,7.3 2,120 89 45 224 703 539 687 96 2 458 '89 276 9 .9. .22 St* ■,243 ■ 966 4,264 ,3, 75 92. 664 26,347 7. Jul, . . 388 S73 W! !iO 152 289 65 356 292 ■,'77 28 ■9 3'2 8'3 2,57. 2,55s 67 24 ■8. 704 802 83s 522 '75 28. .1 .99 II .14 5.^ ■ ,456 2 343 4,570 ... 100 905 631 29.0,0 «• Augufl . m 906 VI9 214 143 279 55 284 269 ','5' " ■8 838 4,0.9 2,68, 9. 34 225 782 ■,067 767 49S ■99 339 5 204 .1 124 432 1,086 1 2 S72 5,3.9 96 83 925 429 33,820 9. September . =75 9"3 W372 203 148 2SS 55 ■89 261 ■ .097 ■4 20 329 803 3,368 2,2,3 85 204 770 903 647 ■03 1 2 453 234 252 4 ■79 120 434 858|2 486 4,633 ■04 87 763 39s 36.346 10. October . . ... «, 6i3 '5,417 496 n.M ■93 ,98 ■03 2,6 59 "5 307 1,036 20 '' 347 80s 2,.o3; ',76s .,588 1 1,687 .37 36s .,20s 588 6.9 569 20^ 401 196 184 „ ■43 .0 .00 383 342 959} 2 829 2 078 4,117 79 95 789 685 329 1S8 38,648 32,985 "■ D«.»l« . „ ( ... 404 1 «,896 "' ■23 267 3' 88 35' ',09. " T8 =53 746 ■,693' ..673 107 33 461 ',6'8 573 96 2 062 350 196 8 ■59 ■■4 373 753 2, .59 4,364 98 71 67S ■13 28,766 T.t.l . 37 [2.35. 6,263 Ws!0 2,799 ■,657 3.433 633 2,656 3.723 13,489 267 243 3,760 9,633 28,375 j23,857 427 3,950 .3,184 7,772 7,539 ■ ,22I ,28 205 3,006 2,67. 99 2,.74 .,34. 5,072 11,095 25,863 55,680 .,157 1,06. 9,698 4,224 358,525 PerceDtage . 0.0, , 0.66 ..7S ' .,: 0,78 0.46 0,96 °" J!l ,.04^ 3-76 ^ ^ '05 J.69 "'l'1 ..34 0.,2 '"■ 3.7. ^ 2.10 t.34 87 0.84 074 ^ ^ 0.02 ^ 3.09 j 7 2, 15.53 0-32 .30 2,70 ...8 99.99 3 DISEASES 209 Mortality from all Diseases in Sirohi City, for each Month, from 1894 to 1897.* Deaths. Months. Total Percent- 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. of Foui' Years. Mean. Total ilortality. January . . 16 7 5 28 9-33 6.72 February 14 6 17 37 12.33 8.87 March . 18 9 6 33 11.00 7.91 April , 6 2 5 13 4.33 3.12 May . 6 14 10 30 10.00 7.20 June . 5 5 5 8 23 5-75 5-52 July . 7 5 II 5 28 7.00 6.71 August 9 8 II 7 35 8.75 8.39 September 9 6 15 14 44 11.00 10.55 October . 26 13 8 10 57 14.25 13.67 November 18 6 9 8 41 10.25 9.83 December 16 10 14 8 48 12.00 11.51 Total . . 90 "3 III 103 417 104.25 100.00 * The vital statistics commenced in Sirohi State from xst June 1894. Mortality from all Diseases in Jaisalmir City, for each Month, from 1894 to 1897. Deaths. Months. Total Percent- 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. of Four Years. Mean. Total Mortality. January . . 30 27 82 16 155 38.75 12.00 February 41 29 33 18 121 30.25 9-37 March . 71 40 45 19 175 43-75 13-54 April . 41 32 57 23 153 38.25 11.84 May 30 23 33 16 102 25.50 7.89 June . 10 34 24 17 85 21.25 6.58 July 15 59 21 12 107 26.75 8.28 August 20 20 25 15 80 20.00 6.19 September 12 20 22 13 67 16.75 5.19 October . 17 17 13 15 62 15-50 480 November 31 22 18 13 84 21.00 6.50 December 24 30 18 29 lOI 25-25 7.82 Total . . 342 353 391 206 1292 323.00 100.00 MEDICAL DISEASES These diseases will be considered in the order given in the preceding tables. Small-pox. — Before the introduction of vaccination into these States, small-pox epidemics were frequent and widely spread, and the mortality among children was then, un- doubtedly, enormous. Marks of the disease, contracted in childhood, are still visible on nearly every adult in the country, and many of them suffer from lost or impaired vision, due to this dire malady. A reference to the article headed "Vaccination," and the tables given there, should be made. When vaccination was first started it met with much opposition from the people, and the limited number of vaccinators, available for carrying out the protection, was a further diflSculty. It was not till 1889-90 that a full stafi of vaccinators was entertained in Marwar; the work done since has been excellent, and most of the juvenile popu- lation has been once vaccinated. In the twelve years 1887-98, 866,960 children have been vaccinated in the Jodhpore State. The mortality from small-pox in Jodhpore city, during the four years 1894-97, has been 10 1 out of a total of 5448, or a percentage of 1.85 of the total deaths. The most fatal months are usually April and May; next come March and June, and very few cases, i.e. only one and two, have been recorded in February and July, respectively. The remaining six months, viz. the first and the last five months, have had no deaths registered during the period under review. The greatest number of deaths occurring in any one year was in 1896, viz., 88; in 1897 there were 12 : 210 MEDICAL DISEASES 211 in 1894, one; and in 1895 there were no deaths from this disease. The statistics available for this table extend over only a very few years, and consequently it is difficult to give much information on the subject, as memory has to be greatly relied upon. Registration is still imperfect, and little is known in the hospitals and dispensaries regarding these outbreaks, as the people are averse to treatment for this disease, which they consider a visitation of the deity called "Sitla Mata." They rely on certain religious ceremonies, and the fate of the individual attacked, to effect recovery. The sufferer is placed in a dark room, air is excluded by thick curtains, and prayers are regularly attended to. Should the child recover, it is taken to Mata's shrine and thanks- giving offerings are made. The mortality among young children from small-pox under this system is always very great, and much blindness and impaired vision ensue. The virulence of the disease has, fortunately, been much reduced during recent years by vaccination. Cholera. — The following mortality tables for the Jodhpore State are available only from 1889 to 1897, and for Sirohi from 1890 to 1897, both years inclusive. The mortality for the city of Jodhpore is given from 1891 to 1897, and for the Sirohi city from 1893 to 1897, inclusive. Mortality Table, Cholera, of Jodhpore State, from 1889 to 1897. Months. 1889 1890 1 1891 1892 1893 1894] 1895 1896 J1897 Total. Average. .January Februai March April May June July August Septem October Noveml Decemb y • ■ )er )er er. . 203 17 I 19 2 ^55 257 128 25 ... 145 1744 4849 1040 19 55 i i 2 181 I ■83 119 554 859 765 13 I 16 ... 5 7 16 7 4 269 2,319 5,891 2,171 323 191 41 88 I 0.44 29.89 257.67 654-56 241.22 35-89 21.22 4-56 9.78 0.1 1 Total . . 220 I 586 7852 3 1 2 1 272 2327 35 ".298 1255-33 212 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Mortality Table, Cholerc (, of Sirohi State, from 1890 to 1897. Months. 1890. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. Total. Average January . . February ... March ... ... April . . . . ... May . . ... 17 17 2.13 June . . 10 51 10 37 108 13-50 July . . 84 8 S 97 12.12 August . 12 I 7 7 27 3-38 September 10 10 I.2S October . S 5 0.62 November December Total . . 96 9 37 51 17 54 264 33- 00 Mortality Table, Cholera, of Jodlipore City, from 1891 to 1897. Months. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. Total. Mean. Order. January February March April . May . June . July . August Septembe October Novembe Decembei r r 44 19 266 243 3 90 ... I • • • ■ [ 19 266 243 3 90 44 I I 2.71 38.00 34-71 0.43 12.86 6.29 0.14 0.14 I 2 3 4 8 12 II 7 10 9 5 6 Total . . 44 621 I I 667 95.28 Mortality Table, Cholera, of Sirohi City, from 1893 to 1897. Months. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. Total. ' Mean. January February March April May . June. July . August Septemb October Novemb Decembt r er 3r jr 2 . ■ 2 Total .... 2 ... ... ^ MEDICAL DISEASES 213 The total number of deaths recorded from cholera in Marwar during the nine years 1 889-1 897, as shown in the first of the above tables, was 1 1,298, and in the city of Jodh- pore, during the seven years 1891-97, d^y. The total number of deaths recorded from cholera in the Sirohi State during the eight years 1890-97 was 264, as shown in the second table, and only two cases occurred in the capital during the period 1893—97. For Marwar the years 1890, 1893, and 1894 may be con- sidered as non-cholera years, as only one, three, and two deaths occurred from this disease respectively during those years. In the city no cases occurred in three out of seven years, and there was only one death in 1893 and one in 1895 ; so these years may also be said to be non-cholera. The only very bad season was that commencing in May 1892, and ending in September of the same year. The months of greatest mor- tality in the State were June, May, July, August, and April, and in the city June stands first for mortality, July coming next. The statistics for the districts cannot be considered very reliable, but those of the city give a fair idea of the mortality from cholera. In the Sirohi State 1894 and 1897 were non- cholera years, and the city escaped almost completely during the period given in the table. There is no official record of cholera in these States before 1872. In April of that year cholera is said to have commenced at Chandawal, on the main road between Pali and Ajmere, and to have spread considerably throughout the country, though the total cases and deaths which occurred are not recorded. In 1 875— 76 a few cases of cholera were reported in Marwar and Sirohi, but the outbreaks do not appear to have been severe. Cases occurred in June 1875 and in August 1876. One imported case occurred at Mount Abu, the only case of cholera known on that hill. In 1878 cholera broke out in Jodhpore city on the 214 WESTERN RAJFUTANA STATES 29th August, and 827 deatlis were reported up to the 4tli of October of the same year. In 1883 there was an outbreak of cholera at Abu Road, in Sirohi State ; it began among the carrying cooHes on the 29th of June, and continued till the 30th of August of the same year. There were 102 cases and 51 deaths reported, but the disease does not appear to have spread much through the surrounding country. In 1884 cholera broke out in Pali, in Mar war, on the 5th of July, and 438 cases, with 134 deaths, were reported. The town of Pali was then in a very filthy condition. The disease extended to Sojat and other towns on this occasion, and continued till the 25 th of September. It was, however, of a mild type, except at the beginning, in Pali town. In 1885 cholera was carried up from Central India by the Ramdeora pilgrims, and it broke out in a virulent form at Ramdeora and Pohkaran, places about ninety miles north- west of Jodhpore city. As soon as the disease became established at the fair, the pilgrims bolted in the Jodhpore direction. The year was one of short rainfall in the western desert, and the Ramdeora tank was very low when the fair commenced. Water was scarce all along the route taken by the pilgrims, and they perished in numbers, of thirst and cholera, as they were driven from the wells and villages by the people. Some of the pilgrims found their way into the Sursagar village, near Jodhpore, and infected the Residency wells adjacent. The Resident's escort and office establish- ment were attacked, as well as many people in this village ; two men of the escort died of acute cholera, and the rest were sent out at once to a well two miles off, after which no other cases occurred among them, although the disease continued long in Sursagar village, and spread to the city, where many people fell victims to its virulence. This epi- demic lasted from the 1 6th of September till the 9th October, MEDICAL DISEASES 215 but only 518 cases with 398 deaths were reported from Jodhpore city and suburbs ; however, I am satisfied that this was far below the actual numbers who became victims to the disease in and around the city, and the village mortality must have been very great, although few reports of it were received. In November 1886 cholera was carried into Jodhpore city and a few villages by pilgrims from Pushkar fair, but it did not assume epidemic proportions ; 1 8 cases with 3 deaths were recorded in the city, and 1 5 cases with 6 deaths in villages. In 1887 there was an epidemic of cholera which began in Marwar on the 29th July, and which would appear to have extended into this country, both from the Sirohi and Jeypore directions. During July of that year 52 cases and 2 5 deaths were reported from Sirohi ; from Jodhpore city 547 cases and 203 deaths were reported, and from the districts 3632 cases and 19S9 deaths. The infected area extended over a great part of the State, and the disease was specially virulent among the Srimali Brahmins of Jodh- pore city, who were then notorious for their opposition to all sanitary measures. The outbreak used to lull and then increase with light showers which fell during August and September of that year. In 1888 cholera was prevalent in some villages of Marwar and Sirohi during July and September. It did not appear in Jodhpore city, but 11 36 cases and 703 deaths were re- ported from villages in Mallani, and that direction of Marwar. There were 22 cases with 5 deaths in the Sirohi city, and 47 cases with 14 deaths in adjacent villages of that State. In 1889 there were 745 cases and 220 deaths from cholera reported in Marwar, most of which occurred in Sanchore pargana in the south-west ; but there were also a few cases at Sambhar, near the north-east corner of the State. 216 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES In 1890 only one cholera case (fatal) was reported in Mar war, but there were 131 cases and 96 deaths from the disease in Sirohi State between the end of June and the end of August. Eight villages of this State were attacked, but the capital escaped. In 1 89 1 cholera appeared in the Nagore, Pali, Merta, Pachbhadra, Bilara, Nawa, and Jodhpore parganas of Marwar, between the 3rd of May and the end of October. During this time 906 cases with 586 deaths were reported from villages, and 125 cases and 44 deaths from the Jodhpore city. The disease appeared at Chanwan on the Jodhpore- Bikanir Railway, where it had not been known for many years ; it was of a virulent type, 6 5 deaths having occurred out of 75 attacked. The first case occurred in a Sadhu, back from a pilgrimage to Hardwar. Five of the station employes were attacked, and they all died. In May and August of this year 95 cases and 9 deaths occurred in Sirohi. In 1892 a severe epidemic of cholera occurred in Marwar, between the 3rd of April and the end of September ; between these dates 13,532 cases with 7852 deaths were reported from out towns and villages, and 1586 cases and 621 deaths from Jodhpore city. The disease first began at Sambhar, and spread to 424 towns and villages in the State. Between the 8th of June and i8th of September three villages of Sirohi and Abu Road Station had 8 1 cases and 3 7 deaths. In 1893 there was an outbreak of cholera in Sirohi State, between the 4th of June and the 3rd of July. In six villages of this State 1 1 5 cases and 5 i deaths occurred, and besides there were 8 cases and 2 deaths in Sirohi city. Three cases and 3 deaths were reported in Marwar during this year ; one of these occurred in Jodhpore city, but no epidemic followed. In 1 894 only two cases of cholera were reported in Marwar, and these were both fatal. They occurred in March in Sheo, MEDICAL DISEASES 217 a pargana in tlie western deserts, and they were most probably not cholera but poisoning by unwholesome food. In 1895 cholera appeared in both Marwar and Sirohi dur- ing the early part of the cold weather. It was supposed to have been imported into Marwar by camel-men who came from Berar. Three cases and one death occurred in Jodhpore city, and 404 cases with 272 deaths in the western districts. There were 60 cases reported from five villages of Sirohi, with 17 fatalities in the same year. In 1896 cholera appeared in epidemic form at Nawa, on the Sambhar lake, on the 6th of April ; it extended into sixteen parganas, and attacked 1 1 5 villages. Between the above date and the end of October 3931 cases and 2327 deaths were reported. The disease was imported from Bikanir by some coolies who had come in search of employment to the Sambhar lake, where extensive works were then being carried out. It soon spread to the town, from which many people bolted, panic- stricken, and in this way hastened the spread of the epidemic. In the same year there were 116 cases and 54 deaths from cholera reported from five villages of Sirohi State between the 8th of May and the 25th of June, In 1897 there were 123 cases with 35 deaths from cholera reported from the famine-stricken districts of Marwar. They probably originated from unwholesome food, as during years of scarcity the poorer classes are compelled to use much old grain which has been long buried in the ground, till a year of scarcity makes it saleable to those who can- not aflford to pay the enhanced prices which new grain then commands. No case of cholera was reported in these States in 1898. The year was one of fairly abundant food, on account of the great importations of grain which took place from adjacent provinces, where it was very plentiful. Water was very scarce towards the end of the year. Most of the crops failed, or were 218 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES very light, and tlie grass famine, which now exists, was being felt before the end of the year. Influenza has, during recent years, been very frequently met with in epidemic form, and, unlike the other diseases of this class, one attack does not confer immunity against a recurrence. Consequently some susceptible people suffer every time an outbreak appears, and become much reduced in health thereby. Lung complications are frequent, bronchitis being common, and pneumonia occasionally seen. The old and enfeebled suffer most severely, and many of them are carried off by this disease. Great depression and debility characterise the attacks, and a troublesome cough often remains long after the other symptoms of the disease have disappeared. Dysentery. — There were 1 6, i 5 5 cases of dysentery treated in the hospitals and dispensaries of the Western Rajputana States, including those of jails, during the period of eight years, 1890-97, of which 12,489 were in Marwar, 16 19 in Sirohi, 852 in Jaisalmir, and 1195 in Abu and Abu Road. The disease is not a very common one in these States, nor is it often seen of a very severe type, being generally sub-acute in the first stage. It is frequently brought on by the use of bad grain and unwholesome fruits, but impure water is undoubtedly the most important factor in its production ; exposure to damp and chill in the rains and cold weather also sometimes brings on the disease. Of 2269 cases treated in the Hewson Hospital, 327 were seen in August, 387 in September, and 259 in October. It is always most prevalent in the damp season of the year, and it is frequently connected with and aggravated by malarial fever. Malarial Fevers. — In a dry climate like that of these States, with few rivers, tanks, and marshes, also with the sub-soil water at a great distance from the surface during most of the year, and where mosquitoes are not very plentiful, malarial fevers and their complications are essentially less common than in MEDICAL DISEASES 219 many other parts of India. These affections are, however, even here the common aihiients of the people, and hardly any one escapes an annual attack of fever, while many suffer fre- quently. Some always present the visible signs of malarial cachexia (the result of the malarial plasmodium in their blood), viz., great ansemia, lassitude, emaciation, and enlargement of the spleen. The cases seen at the hospitals and dispensaries are not a tithe of those attacked ; most of the people are so accustomed to suffer from malarial fever that they think little more of it than of a cold, and they have their own domestic remedies on which they rely ; while others are too apathetic to seek relief, looking upon the disease as a visitation of the Deity which must be endured, and taking to their bed till it has worked itself out, or in extreme cases ended fatally. Many of the villagers of these parts think that a sharp attack of malarial fever clears the system, and leaves them lighter and better for the rest of the year, just as an annual drastic bleed- ing was at one time considered salutary in the West. Some of the better classes are, however, taking to the use of quinine, which they now accept as a potent remedy against malarial fevers, and it is hoped the sale of the drug at post- offices will facilitate theh obtaining it when required. The attendance at the hospitals and dispensaries further demon- strates that relief from these diseases is being sought by many. In the Marwar hospitals and dispensaries during the eight years' period, 1 23,837 cases were treated for these affections, out of a total of 592,834. It is further well known that the hos- pital assistants and practitioners are much more called in for the treatment of fevers than formerly, and that their instruc- tions for the relief of the disease are also better carried out. Cases of malarial fevers are met with at all times of the year, but the period of maximum prevalence is from August to November, October being generally the most feverish month here. Of 68,520 cases of malarial fever treated in the ten 220 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES principal dispensaries of Marwar during the eight years' period, 15,417 were seen in October; and of 31,271 cases treated in the Hewson Hospital, Jodhpore city, during the same period, 7314 were also in October. In Mount Abu and the hill country malarial fevers generally set in a little later, the end of October and November being the most feverish time, and the prevalence sometimes continues into December. Of a total of 8453 cases treated during three years in Abu and Abu Road charitable dispensaries, 1521 were m October, 1305 in Novem- ber, and 1005 in December. The period of greatest exemption from fever is March to July, the hottest months having the fewest cases of malarial fever, and June being generally the month of greatest exemp- tion from the disease. As soon as the rains set in, whether in the hills or plains, fever begins to increase, and runs steadily up to the maximum in October. The delta and districts of the Luni river are the most feverish parts of Marwar, and in years of heavy rainfall, when this river overflows its banks, the prevalence of fever is so great, and it continues so long into the cold weather, that I have frequently seen the entire population suffering more or less from its effects, and hardly able to sow the wheat, although very little more than scattering the seed over the vast area fertilised by the silt carried down in the monsoon floods was required from the husbandman to produce an excellent crop. The most malarious parts of Sirohi are the villages at the base of the hills in the densely wooded country, and the inhabitants of some of these villages seem to have deteriorated in physique on account of fever. The degenerating effects of this disease may also be readily ob- served, if the well-grown and vigorous inhabitants of the high, barren lands of Mallani and Jaisalmir, who have to struggle for food, be compared with the dwellers in the low-lying delta of the Luni, where wheat is abundant and always cheap, MEDICAL DISEASES 221 but where, nevertheless, the physique is generally poor and the temperament phlegmatic. The researches of Major R. Ross, I. M.S., have demonstrated that some species of mosquito harbour the malarial parasite during a part of its existence, and that they are potent factors in the distribution of malarial poison and in the communi- cation of malarial fevers to man and animals liable to these diseases. This has been accepted by Laveran, the discoverer of the malarial plasmodium, and the experiments made by Ross have been confirmed by Grassi and other scientific authorities on the continent of Europe and here. Moreover, it is in accordance with the ways of nature for the mosquito to make use of the malarial plasmodium as an irritant to bring the blood it wants to the surface. A bad biting by mosquitoes has long been known to produce malarial fever in new arrivals in the country. It must, therefore, now be accepted that the Indian spotted-winged mosquito, and some other varieties, can implant malarial virus in the system, and that this is one if not the only source from which malarial fevers are derived. The stagnant pools and water-logged locaHties in which these mosquitoes are bred have long been recognised as the great malarial producing places. However, dense forests and overgrown tracts, where there is much decayed vegetation and where the sun and air cannot gain access to the soil, have always been known to be very feverish districts, and the thorough ventilation and exposure of the soil to sunlight dissipate the malaria of such places, as if the decaying vegetation were necessary for its production. Further, many of the people of this country believe that they take in the malarial poison with impure drinking water, and they will even fix the source and refer to the draught of water which brought on the attack. I have known of malarial fever contracted at sea, three miles from the coast of Africa, where mosquitoes could not reach, and where it WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES was supposed to be due to direct infection from the many sufferers on board the hospital ship there. A disease so widely distributed over the globe, and so prevalent in many places, is not unlikely to have several ways of gaining access into the system, and its germs may have an independent existence in vegetable matter and in water, where the mosquito may play a further part in its distribution when it returns to the water to leave its larvse and die there. However, although the subject has not yet been worked out sufficiently to satisfy all the observations of experienced clinicians, the researches of Ross have thrown a new light on malaria, which it is hoped will lead to the complete solution of the problem at no very distant date. The Europeans here and most of the well-to-do of the country live under better hygienic conditions than the poor, and in consequence suffer less from malarial fevers. Experience has shown that much can be done to lessen the prevalence and reduce the severity of these diseases, even among the poorer classes of the country. Habitations should be located on high, dry sites, the sub-soil water thoroughly drained off, and stagnant pools must never be allowed near dwellings. A supply of pure drinking water is of the greatest importance, and this is too often overlooked by villagers. Dense under- growth requires to be regularly cut away from the vicinity of villages to allow the sun and air to gain free access to the soil ; the lower branches of trees should also be removed, so as to admit of thorough ventilation and sunning of the ground under them. Houses ought to be built on well-raised plinths, and the floors should be of wood, lime, or stone instead of clay when practicable. High roofs are essential for pure air, and they ought to be absolutely waterproof. Ventilation must be thorough, and windows to admit plenty of air and sunlight are essential. Marsh miasma should be shut off from villages hy growing belts of trees on any available land between, and MEDICAL DISEASES 223 ventilation at night made from the opposite side of the dwell- ing. Sleeping on beds or " charpais," instead of on the groimd, is a safeguard against fever; and those who have to spend their nights out of doors watching their crops, should have raised " machdns " or resting-places to keep them above the malaria. Upstair rooms should be occupied when possible during the fever season, and chills should be avoided by the wearing of proper clothes, and by keeping within doors after sunset during the unhealthy months, as malarial fevers are more readily contracted out of doors than within at the time of year when the poison is active. Attention to diet and avoidance of over fatigue are wise precautions during the fever season, as anything which lowers the system tends to give the germs of disease an advantage over the provisions of nature for the removal of noxious matter from the blood. Those liable to fever will derive much benefit from the use of a prophylactic during the unhealthy months, such as quinine or arsenic, and a dose of quinine is a useful precaution when great exposure to night air or damp has to be undergone. The people of the country rely greatly on infusions of the leaves and shoots of " nim " {Melia indica), and many of them take this beverage every morning during the fever season, with much benefit to their health, and it is both prophylactic and curative in malarial fevers. Decoctions of ginger, black pepper, and "nimgiloe" are other remedies, with a high reputation throughout the country for prevention and cure of malarial fevers. Many of the people have much faith in tea to ward off or cut short attacks of fever, and opium is much relied on to prevent and cure these diseases. Although quinine is undoubtedly the first remedy against malarial diseases, many of the people of this country compare it unfavourably with their own remedies, and say that it increases their headache, gives them constipation, a dry skin, and palpitation. It should, therefore, be prescribed with remedies which counteract 224 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES these sensations in order to make it popular. Antifebrin, plienacetin, and remedies of this class are becoming popular in many of the towns as fever remedies ; and although they are less curative, they bring about perspiration and a feeling of ease, which makes them grateful to the fever patient. They should, however, be taken with caution, as they are lowering, and sometimes give rise to alarming sjnnptoms. Venereal Diseases. — These diseases are fairly common among the people of these States ; but a very severe type of syphilis is only occasionally met with, and this is often due to the abuse of mercury, which is prescribed to excess by ignorant and unqualified practitioners in the form of " Ras Kaphur " (Hy- drargyri perchloridum). Gonorrhoea is very common, as might be anticipated from the customs of the country. Early treat- ment is generally resorted to, and when this is not successful at home many people seek advice at the hospitals and from practitioners. Primary and secondary syphilis are common diseases, both at the hospitals and in private practice. They are mostly treated by mercury in the early stage ; not un- frequently, however, this drug is given to excess, with detriment to the patient. Tertiary syphilis is met with, and the hereditary form is also sometimes seen ; the latter gives rise to a consider- able mortality among infants. In the period of eight years, 5747 cases of gonorrhoea, 4351 of primary and 3558 of secondary syphilis were treated in Marwar hospitals and dispensaries. Scurvy. — In eight years there were only 195 cases of scurvy treated in the Hewson Hospital, and only 1 1 8 3 in all the hospitals and dispensaries of Marwar. It cannot therefore be considered a very prevalent disease in this part of the country. My experience is, that it is only met with among the underfed and poorer classes, and that it is hardly seen in years of plenty. Although vegetables are never very plentiful in these States, where water is mostly scarce, the people in MEDICAL DISEASES 225 some way manage to get radishes, leeks, mint, wild leaves and roots during certain seasons of the year, which they eat raw, and which are in this condition strongly anti-scorbutic. Limes, tamarinds, and preserved mangoes are in common use, and these do much to make up for the scarcity of fresh vegetables. Worms. — Guinea- worm is very common all over this part of the country, and many of the contracted limbs and stiff joints seen are due to the irritation set up by this parasite, which finds its way into the body through the use of foul tank water. Thread-worms are common in children, but round and tape- worms are only occasionally seen. Guinea-worm is readily extracted by some of the dressers and compounders at the hospitals, and by village specialists in this branch; but the operation must be undertaken before the blister forms at the point of exit. Debility and Anaemia. — Malaria is responsible for much of the debility and anaemia met with. Want of sufficient nutritious food, dyspepsia, bad teeth, and old age may also be mentioned, and uterine diseases not unfrequently also bring this condition about. Great mental depression is often seen among some of the sufferers from these affections. Mental worry, heavy pecuniary losses, family misfortunes, the death of a near and dear relation, and shock bring about a listless and debilitated condition, which in some people of this country runs on to a fatal termination, as if the individual no longer desired life. Debility is also sometimes induced by parsimonious habits, the individual being too fond of saving to spend sufficient on his diet. I have known cases of this sort in a regiment, where a portion of the sepoy's monthly pay had to be given to the " Bania" who provided the proper amount of food, which would have been wasted if the men had not eaten it. This remedy has generally had the desired eftect of getting such men into proper condition and health. Bheumatic Affections. — Chronic rheumatic affections, both of p 226 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES joints and muscles, are common in tlie cold weather and rains, but acute rheumatism is of rare occurrence. It is incumbent on Brahmins and strict Hindus to bathe in cold water in the early morning; consequently they leave their warm houses and go to the nearest well, where they pour cold water over their bodies, and dry themselves in the cold wind, after which they wash their loui-cloths and reapply them in the damp state. This drives the blood from the surface, and perverts secretion, so an attack of lumbago or a joint affection often follows, especially in the old and feeble. Some of the poorer classes, who have no change of clothes, sit in the wind to dry themselves after they have become drenched by a shower, and this is another frequent cause of rheumatism. Camel-men, who carry across the desert, are exposed to great ranges of temperature, the day being always hot, the night intensely cold; they are generally under-clothed, and therefore suffer much from rheumatism. The actual cautery is still sometimes resorted to by the people for the cure of some of these severe rheumatic ailments ; but oil-rubbing is generally relied upon as an external remedy, and opium is taken, both for cure and prevention. Tuhercular Diseases. — There have been 573 cases of tuber- cular disease treated in all the Marwar hospitals and dispen- saries during the period of eight years; 166 in Sirohi during the same period ; 3 3 in Abu and Abu Road in three years ; and only 3 in Jaisalmir in five years. The disease is not common in these States, and what is seen is mostly among females who live greatly within doors. Milk is rarely a vehicle for the communication of tuberculosis to man in this country, as cows live mostly in the open, and are not subjected to infection, like the house-fed dahy animals of Western cities. Leprosy. — There is a leper-home at Kaga (already referred to), outside Jodhpore, where most of the lepers of the surround- MEDICAL DISEASES 227 ing country congregate and are fed by the people. The disease is not common in these States, and only 215 cases have been seen in the Hewson Hospital during the eight years' period. There is no reason to believe that the disease is on the increase, so far as can be ascertained from the leper-home here, although this was at one time feared, and the statistics given by the Administrative Medical Officer in Rajputana for 1897 show a decrease for the whole province. Cases of leucoderma are sometimes seen, and treatment is sought on account of the disfigurement produced by the disease, more than on account of any other inconvenience it gives rise to. All other General Diseases. — Epidemics of measles, typhoid fever, and chicken-pox are of occasional occurrence, and I am of opinion that most of the children of this country get over typhoid in their childhood. Enteric fever is sometimes diffi- cult to diagnose in Orientals ; but I have seen numbers of undoubted cases, and most of them in young people. Diph- theria is very rare in these States, but hydrophobia is seen from time to time, both from dog and jackal bite. Typhus fever is unknown, and erysipelas is extremely rare ; but epidemics of influenza have become common during recent years, and it runs the same course as in the West. Whooping-cough appears in epidemic form, but it receives little notice from parents, and is never very severe. Diseases of the Nervous System. — Neuralgia is very common in the anajmic, especially women, and it is often of malarial origin. The hemicranial variety is most frequently seen, but facial, sciatic, and other varieties are not uncommon. Epilepsy is seen from time to time, also shaking palsy. Partial paraly- sis is frequently met with, consequent on apoplexy, syphilis, and other lesions due to disease or injury. Muscular atrophy and locomotor ataxy are not common, and chorea is compara- tively rare in the children of these States. Diseases of the Eye, Ear, and Nose. — These diseases con- 228 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES tribute largely to the dispensary returns, but as they sometimes require surgical aid, they will be shown under that heading. Diseases of the Circulatory System. — Diseases of the heart and blood-vessels are very rare as compared with what is seen in the West. Rheumatic fever is uncommon here, and the placid temperament and temperate habits of the Oriental save his circulatory system much strain ; consequently aneurism is hardly ever met with, and even varicose veins are not very common. Functional diseases of the heart are met with in the anremic, especially among women who have been reduced in health by prolonged lactation and want of fresh air. Diseases of the Limgs and llespiratory System. — There were 5881 cases treated in the Hewson Hospital during the eight years' period under this heading. There is an infectious form of pneumonia sometimes prevalent in the cold weather, and the disease is often complicated with, and consequent on, severe malarial poisoning; the pneumococcus and malarial plasmodium being undoubtedly able to accommodate themselves in the same system and with great detriment to the patient ; consequently this compound disease is often fatal. Supporting and stimu- lating treatment combined with good nursing are required for these pneumonias ; but both religious prejudices and caste customs get much in the way in this country. Most of the people refuse to take milk when suffering from lung affections, and many Hindus are strict vegetarians ; so, when they are ill, they subsist on gruels and millet waters with little or no sustenance in them, and nothing to support the system against an exhausting fever. Alcohol is forbidden to most Hindus and all good Mahomedans, and even medicinal tinctures and fluid medicines are refused. These people are generally nursed^ even in hospitals, by their relations, as they object to the hospital servants, who have to be general, and are employed ta take care of some of the lower castes. It will therefore be understood that nursing is still in a primitive condition here, MEDICAL DISEASES 229 and that the patients must often suffer from want of skill in their nurses, however attached to them their relations may be, and no matter how much devoted to the duty which devolves upon them in consequence of an illness in their own family. The want of skilled nursing among the people is not less felt in dealinsr with cases of enteric, and this disease is also rendered unnecessarily fatal by caste and religious prejudices, which make proper dieting and treatment an impossibility. Many of those suffering from enteric are fed solely on millet water for a time, and then put on coarse bread long before they are able to digest solid food, often with a result that is anything but satisfactory. Live flies are given as an aid to diagnosis, and to assist in driving the disease from the system ; this treatment often produces a severe retching which is not readily recovered from, and which lowers the patient to an alarming extent, in most instances when support is needed. Acute bronchitis is sometimes met with as a complication of influenza, and the chronic variety of the disease is common enough in the cold weather among the old and feeble. Asthma is not an uncommon complaint in this part of the country, and the dry air impregnated with fine sand often adds to the sufferer's distress. Pleurisy of an uncomphcated kind is rare. Disorders of the Digestive System. Diarrhoea is common during the monsoon season both in children and the advanced in years, and it is not unfrequently fatal. Damp clothes, chills, and perversion of the normal secretions, unripe and unwholesome fruits which come into the bazaars at that season, bad grain and impure water, are all potent causes of this malady, and both the severity and fatality of this disease are enhanced by malaria, which is ever ready to work evil in the system reduced below par, no matter what the first cause of this may be. 230 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Dyspepsia is a common ailment of the poor, because they are irregularly and also underfed ; and of some of the well-to-do because they are overfed, and then- diet too rich and too highly spiced. Women suffer greatly from this affection on account of being so much indoors and from want of exercise. Diseases of the Liver. — Congestion of the liver is not un- common, especially in those addicted to alcohol and very hot curries ; it is also seen with malarial poisoning. Hepatitis is met with in the same classes, but it rarely runs on to suppura- tion, and I have only seen three cases of abscess of the liver at the native hospitals, two of which recovered after operation. Diseases of the Spleen. — Enlarged spleen is common in all the malarial districts, even in children. It may be found hard or soft, and sometimes it is enormously enlarged and compli- cated with ascites. It only yields satisfactorily to treatment when the patient can be removed in the early stage from the malarial influences. Splenectomy has not been tried, and the people of these parts would not submit to it under any circum- stance. Diseases of the Lymphatic System. — Enlarged lymphatics are not common; they are sometimes removed, and sometimes reduced by local applications. Goitre. — This disease is uncommon ; only three cases have been seen in the Hewson Hospital in eight years, and I have seen only two others outside. Plague. — Plague broke out in Pali about the middle of July 1836, and extended from there to Jodhpore city, Sojat, Kherwa, and many other towns of Marwar, also to Sakola and two or three other villages of Meywar. Pali, where the disease broke out first with great virulence, is on the main road between Ahmedabad and Ajmere. The town is built on a stiff clay soil, the drainage is bad, and at certain seasons, when the tanks are full, it is water-logged. The tanks during the monsoon season are filled from a river MEDICAL DISEASES 231 which has a dam about three miles above the town to divert the water, and the site of the town is considerably lower than that of the dam. The principal streets of Pali are fairly wide, but the side streets are all narrow. The houses are substan- tially built, mostly of burnt bricks, and the principal inhabi- tants are well to do, as there has always been a prosperous trade carried on in cloth-stamping and dyeing. At this period the population of Pali is supposed to have been about 25,000 souls, although it is now under 18,000, and trade has considerably diminished in it during recent years. Plague was supposed to have been imported in silks from China, or brought to Pali from Southern Gujerat by a large party who had been with Zorawar Mai Seth on a pilgrimage to that part of the country, and who halted for some days in Pali on their return. The disease broke out in Pali shortly after the departure of this party from the town, but it has not been established that the party had the disease among them, nor even that plague was then present in any part of India. The disease first broke out among the cloth-stampers, and it was reasonably supposed by some that it might have been introduced through the imported silk cloths. Most of the materials imported to be stamped were from England, but silks were imported from China and abroad, and all importations were vid Bombay. The disease rapidly spread from the cloth- stampers to all other classes and castes, but Malis, Chamars, and Telis are said to have suffered less than Mahajans and Brahmins — the former lived more in the open. The epidemic was at first fatal to nearly all attacked, and fifty or sixty a day died in this town. Wood for burning- corpses became so scarce and expensive on account of the enormous mortality that cocoa-nuts and ghee were used for this purpose. As soon as the disease became well established the people got panic-stricken, and fled from Pali to Sojat, Jodhpore, 232 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Kherwa, Chandawal, and other towns, where they communi- cated it to the inhabitants. Many of the people left their property behind, they were so terrified. When Assistant- Surgeon Maclean, of the Merwara battalion, then stationed at Beawar, visited Pali, about the second week in October 1836, there were not more than a thousand people in the town. The disease continued to work great havoc among this reduced population, and only died out about the end of October, when the town was almost deserted. Sojat was early attacked. It was then a town of 15,000 or 20,000 inhabitants. It is on the main road, twenty miles from Pali, and many of the refugees from Pali settled in it. Dr. Maclean visited Sojat, and found that the Pali refugees had started the disease there, and that the deaths were from twenty to forty a day. In Jodhpore city the disease broke out with great virulence a short time after some Pali people had settled there. The population was then about 50,000. The people are said to have died at the rate of sixty to ninety a day, and about 600 or 700 had perished before the middle of October 1836. There was an abatement in the disease for a short time, although it does not appear to have ceased during the cold weather, and it only finally disappeared at the beginning of the hot season of 1837. Lung complications were more general, and spitting of blood was a more common symptom of the disease in Jodhpore than in Pali, while buboes were less common in the former than in the latter outbreak. The epi- demic in Jodhpore was attributed by some to a strong south wind, and the recrudescence is said to have been brought about by a return of this wind. The disease prevailed in many villages of Marwar from October 1836 till March 1837. It was introduced into Sakola in Meywar by an astrologer, who went from Pali and put up in the house of a Brahmin of that town. The Brahmin, MEDICAL DISEASES 233 his wife, and otlaers died in tlie house after the death of the astrologer. The disease spread and nearly depopulated the town. Kankroli, another village of Meywar, suffered severely, but there is no record of plague having got into Oodeypore city, nor did it reach Ajmere, although the Pushkar fair and dargah were both held during the time it was prevalent in Marwar. Dr. Maclean, who visited both Sojat and Pali during the epidemic, satisfied himself that the disease was plague ; the attack generally came on suddenly, with rigours, headache, pain in the back and loins, and sometimes nausea ; the skin became hot and dry, the pulse quick and soft, frequently running up to 150; the tongue was coated, often brown ; vomiting uncommon, but sometimes painful retching; the abdomen was generally hard, and there was no diarrhoea ; the eyes became suffused, and the countenance heavy and anxious early in the disease ; buboes formed in the groin, armpits, or neck on the first or second day of the fever ; and pneumonia, with distressing cough, rusty sputum, and dyspnoea was a common complication. Coma generally set in before death, which often occurred on the third day of the disease. If the patient got over the third day there was a chance of recovery, and large suppurating buboes were considered favourable. The buboes were most common in the groin, and they were more general in the Pali than in the Jodhpore outbreak, in which pneumonia was a very frequent complication, consequent on the lower temperature at the season when the outbreak occurred in Jodhpore. Many precautions were taken against the spread of the disease towards Ajmere. Quarantine posts were established, and both people and goods were stopped on the border between Ajmere and MarAvar. The Maharaja of Jodhpore was asked to prevent his people from attending the Pushkar fair, and also to keep healthy villagers from communicating with 234 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES infected, and many of the people protected their own villages by not allowing refugees from plague-stricken places into them. It was remarkable that many of the small villages around Pali and other infected towns escaped, and this was believed to have been due to refugees not having gone into them, and to the small communities having agreed to keep away from plague-stricken towns. Money was received by many people from the infected in cups of vinegar to prevent contagion. Quarantine posts were established on the Bombay roads, and traffic was greatly interfered with on all sides of Marwar, though not completely stopped. Fumigation was resorted to at some posts, but does not appear to have effectually carried out. Goods traffic was even more dreaded as a means of dis- seminating the disease than people. So articles were fre- quently burnt, and the ashes, both of these and of corpses, were ordered to be deeply buried, as the virus was believed to remain potent even after burning, and to be spread by the ashes being blown about. Dogs and cats were supposed to carry the poison from house to house, and also rats, which died in numbers during the epidemic. There was little done in the way of treatment ; once lung complications appeared, the case was considered hopeless, and both vaids and hakims fled from the infected places, and declared they knew nothing of the new and terrible disease, nor of its treatment. Infusions of nim {Melia indica) leaves, infusion of onions, and the urine of the ass, were given internally ; poultices of nim leaves, onions, and red pepper {Ca2)sicicm fastigiatum) were applied to buboes ; bleeding from the arm and leeches to the buboes were resorted to, but without effect. Escarotics were applied to the buboes, with no better results than the other remedies. The body was rubbed with oil or ghee, both as a MEDICAL DISEASES 255 curative remedy and as a prevention against infection. The wearing of oilskin while in contact with people suffering from the disease was believed to be a useful precaution. Dr. Maclean was of opinion that there was no danger of infection in the open air, and that the people contracted the disease in the badly ventilated houses, which had become saturated with the poison. European methods of treatment were unknown in Marwar at that time. The Pali iplsLgue, (/hanth-ki-mandagi ov ghanth-hi-jvMr, which destroyed the rats in great numbers, and carried off thousands of the inhabitants, is still remembered by some old people in Marwar, and it was undoubtedly the same disease which recently prevailed in Bombay and other adjacent parts of the country. During the months of October, November, December 1896, and January 1897 thousands of people fled from Bombay and other places in that direction to Marwar, Bikanir, Sirohi, Jai- salmir, and Ajmere, in order to escape from plague. Sixteen deaths from plague and suspected plague were reported, viz., four at Abu Road, two at Jawalia, three at Marwar Junction, one at Beawar, two at Ajmere, one at Phalera, two at Jeypore, and one at Nadbai, near Bhurtpore. An undoubted case of plague recovered in the segregation camp at Bandikui; the subject was a sepoy of the 13 th Bombay Infantry, who was taken from the train en route from Deesa to Bhurtpore on leave. The disease was then prevalent in Palanpur, and in some other villages near Deesa. Four recoveries from undoubted plague occurred in the camps at Abu Road and Marwar Junction, and many suspected cases, taken from trains, recovered in the different plague camps on the line of railway throughout Rajputana. Segregation camps were established at all the important stations along the lines of railway which run through Rajputana, and great vigilance was exercised, both by the medical officers on special plague duty at Ajmere and Bandikui, and by the 236 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES medical subordinates in charge of the other camps, to keep people suffering from plague from travelling. This undoubtedly did much to prevent the spread of the disease. The Marwar and some other Darbars issued orders to their officials to keep refugees from infected areas in quarantine outside the towns for ten days after their arrival, and although this was not invariably carried out, it roused the people to a sense of danger and to assist in the protection of their houses, producing a good effect generally. The season was greatly against the spread of plague in Rajputana. The monsoon rains were over early, the winter rains were unusually light, and the country was in consequence exceedingly dry; the hot weather also began earlier, and the heat was more intense than usual; so all these conditions were unfavourable for the multiplication of the plague germ and the spread of plague among the people. Whenever a suspicious death occurred among the Bombay refugees in Marwar, the house in which it took place was evacuated, and disinfected or burnt down. The occupants were put into quarantine outside the town for a period of ten days. Reports on the health of the to-\vnspeople were made during this time, so that any outbreak could have been dealt with early. During the epidemic in Palanpur, on the Rajputana border, many people fled to Abu Road, Marwar Junction, Ajmere, and Jeypore. They were kept in the quarantine camps at these places for a time, and then sent back to their districts without being allowed into the towns. The Sirohi villagers were warned against communicating with Palanpur and the infected villages in that district, and a guard was placed on the main road leading from Palanpur into the Sirohi State to prevent intercourse. The pilgrim traffic between Mount Abu and Abu Road was completely stopped, and quarantine of ten days was imposed on people coming to Abu from infected districts : this measure MEDICAL DISEASES 237 eifectually prevented the overcrowding which always takes place in the Abu bazaar during the hot weather, and no doubt saved the place from an invasion when plague was epidemic in Palanpur, two stations from Abu Road on the main line. 1897-99. The Rajputana border has been extensively exposed throughout the Bombay epidemic to plague infection on account of its position. Moreover, the enterprising character of the Marwari takes him all over India to enoaae in trade : and although these traders spend most of their lives abroad, they keep up houses and family connections in their original towns and villages in Rajputana. Consequently, when plague broke out in Bombay and the Deccan, then- return in thousands was only what we anticipated, and extensive observation camps had to be arranged all along the lines of rail and road, as well as outside the cities, towns, and villages throughout the province, to ensure their thorough disinfection and prevent their carry- ing the germs of the disease into their homes, either in their persons or clothes. Occasional deaths from plague occurred among the refugees. There were thirty cases and twenty-two deaths among Bombay passengers, taken from the train and segregated along the lines of railway. In the middle of November 1897 a wealthy Seth found his way into the village of Teuri in Sirohi State, and died there of plague. His funeral ceremony was well attended, and it was very soon followed by an outbreak of indigenous plague in this and three other villages adjacent. The villages were early vacated and disinfected, and the outbreak seemed to stop after this ; but the weather was extremely cold at the time, and the people could not be kept out of their houses ; so other cases soon occurred after reoccupation. At the same time Poena 238 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES refugees were attacked in the town of Kalindri, which had a population of over 4000 inhabitants, and was only two miles distant from one of the villages early infected. Plague was at first confined to Poona refugees and their families and connections, but it afterwards spread to others in the towns, and even to some of those residinsr at their wells some distance away. As soon as the recrudescence took place the towns were all again promptly vacated and the people kept out in camps. The encampments were widely scattered over the fields. The huts were burned, and the sites changed when cases occurred in them. Those exposed to infection were freely disinfected, and the sick and their attendants were carefully segregated. Nevertheless cases continued to occur till the hot weather had well set in. Between November 1897 and the 25th April 1898, there were 166 indigenous cases and 143 deaths in five villages of Sirohi State. The disease was of the pneumonic type, and very rapidly fatal at first ; but afterwards glandular swellings were common, and some recoveries took place. Little was attempted in the way of treatment, as the people were imbued with a strong belief that the authorities wished to poison all those attacked, to prevent the spread of the epi- demic, and some of them even considered the doctor's touch fatal. There was no recrudescence of plague in the Sirohi villages after April 1898, but during the cold weather of 1898 and 1899, fourteen cases, of which thirteen proved fatal, were im- ported into Marwar and Sirohi from the infected area on the Bombay side. They were segregated as soon as they arrived, consequently the disease did not spread. During the outbreak of plague in Sirohi, Captain J. W. Grant, I.M.S., lived alone in the infected area for many months, MEDICAL DISEASES 239 and the suppression of the epidemic was mainly due to his untiring zeal and management of the people. Hill Diarrhcea is occasionally met with on Mount Abu in epidemic form. It is often the result of chill due to damp, or the neglect of warm clothing in new arrivals from the heated plains, also sometimes to a relaxed condition of constitution and perverted action of the liver. New arrivals at hill stations should guard against the sudden suppression of perspiration, which invariably • takes place if warmer clothing than they have been in the habit of wearing below be not adopted until acclimatisation has been accomplished. Sleeping out of doors has also to be avoided by those new to the hills, on account of both this ailment and a rheumatic condition brought on by night exposure. Hill diarrhoea generally yields to antiseptic remedies, and a return to the plains or the seaside is only occasionally necessary. At the request of the editor of the " Indian Medical Kecord " I published a detailed account of this disease in the January number of that Journal for 1895. SURGICAL DISEASES Before proceeding with surgical diseases, I may point out that there were only three out-dispensaries in Marwar up to the year 1888, after which new dispensaries were opened from time to time, and there are now twenty- two of these institu- tions. During eight years, from 1891 to 1898, there were 54,828 operations performed in the hospitals and dispensaries of Marwar, Sirohi, and Jaisalmir, with sixty-seven deaths from all causes, including deaths from incurable diseases. Of the total operations performed, 2 1 9 were lithotomies, with 22 deaths, or 10 per cent., and eighty-two litho- lapaxies with five deaths, or 6 per cent. Lateral lithotomy has generally been performed ; the supra-pubic operation has only been done when the stone has been unusually large. There has been a low mortality, both from lithotomy and litholapaxy, although many of the people of these States put off the operation unusually long, and make other difficulties against recovery. Mothers will sometimes carry their children off from the hospital to a long distance after the operation has been done, and some of the men will wander about the town in the night after litholapaxy. Recently, when I had performed litholapaxy very satisfactorily in an old man, an habitue of hemp and opium, the patient left the hospital stealthily in the night, broke his thigh by a fall, and sat out in the cold till morning. There were ten deaths after ampu- tation of limbs ; of these, three followed thigh, and seven, leg, shoulder, arm, forearm, and foot amputations, in cases where 240 SURGICAL DISEASES 241 there had been great injury and shock. Two deaths followed removal of the foetus from the uterus, on account of septic poisoning, and eleven followed tapping of the abdomen for dropsy ; these deaths were all due to disease rather than to operation. Tapping the bladder has been twice fatal, but the patients were both moribund on admission. Tumours} — Non-malignant tumours are common, but the people resort to all sorts of local applications and the actual cautery before they allow them to be removed. However, this is mostly done successfully when they subject themselves to the knife after they have failed with other applications. Mycetomatous tumours are very common, especially in Marwar. 278 operations were performed for this disease in eight years, and both the dark and pale varieties are met with. Fatty tumours are also common, 172 having been removed during the eight years' period, besides 102 fibromatous, 49 sebaceous, 44 cystic, and 4 adenoid. Abscesses. — During the eight years' period there have been opened 6486 abscesses of all kinds, 210 of which were in the thigh and three in the liver. Many of the people are very dilatory in having these affections treated ; however, our results have generally been very satisfactory. OiJcrations on the Eyeball and its A'pjjendages. — During the eight years' period there have been 1386 operations on the eyeball and its appendages, of which 1084 were extractions of the lens for cataract, 6 for staphyloma, 65 iridectomies for glaucoma, 13 for artificial pupil, i for solution of lens, 7 for hypopion, i for tattooing of cornea, i for laceration of opaque capsule, 31 for pterygium, 28 for lachrymal fistula, i for epiphora, 26 for trichiasis, 97 for entropion, 3 for new growths, 3 for symblepharon, and 5 for granular lids. The important points in the extraction of the lens for cataract are to make a large iridectomy, and to remove the ^ Figures for this part of the " Note " are only for Marwar. Q 24.2 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES lens in its capsule if possible, always under the influence of cocaine. The escape of a httle vitreous does no harm, and the removal of the capsule ensures a clear eye and lessens the chance of inflammation. It is better to remove both lenses at the same time if they be ripe or nearly so, and the iridectomy should be done at the time of extraction. When one lens has been removed before the other, the eye is always irritable during the second operation and the lens much more difficult to extract ; moreover, the patient is always more sensitive and cocaine does not act so well. Operations on Head and Face. — The nose is sometimes cut off as a punishment for infidelity, and also for revenge. I have done lo rhinoplastic operations for restoration of the nose in the eight years' period. I never divide the pedicle, and this prevents atrophy of the flap and gives elevation to the organ at the base, materially improving the shape. 1 1 7 foreign bodies, and 3 1 nasopharyngeal polypi have been re- moved, and 1 6 pluggings of the nares performed for epistaxis. Elevation of depressed pieces of bones of the skull have frequently been done ; one trephining performed, and portions of the jaws removed. The tongue has been partially ampu- tated; plastic operations for cleft palate performed, and the tonsils three times excised. Operations on Arteries.— lAgBXAne of arteries for disease is not common, and, as has already been explained, aneurism is very rarely met with. On seven occasions arteries have had to be tied after injuries from wild pig. Varicose veins are rare, and have only twice been operated on. Operations on Respiratory Organs. — Tracheotomy is very rarely necessary ; paracentesis of the thorax is uncommon, as there are few cases of pleurisy with effusion or empyema. Operations on the Digestive Organs. — 219 operations have been performed during the eight years' period, the principal of which were as folloAvs : — Operations for imperforate anus, 4 ; SURGICAL DISEASES 243 removal of hsemorrlioids, 33 ; paracentesis of the abdomen, 105 ; removal of cancer from rectum, i ; radical cure for inguinal hernia, 1 8 ; and fistula in ano, 1 3. Reduction of hernia and of prolapsus of the rectum has been frequently done. Ascites is treated more frequently by sulphate of magnesia than by tapping, as the after effects are generally more satisfactory. The patient is made to fast for a day and also to abstain from fluid ; then two ounces of the drug are given, and this removes much of the fluid and generally relieves dyspncea. Hernia. — Hernia is frequently seen, inguinal being the most common, and cases of strangulation have occasionally been treated, both in the hospitals and outside. Taxis has generally been found sufficient for reduction, but the radical cure has been performed whenever the patient has allowed it. Operations on the Urinary Organs. — During the eight years' period 1053 operations have been performed on the urinary organs, of which 186 were lateral, i suprapubic, and 4 median lithotomies. 8 1 Htholapaxies have been done in the same time, mostly in the Hewson Hospital, and 30 urethral calculi have been removed. Perineal section, urethrotomy, and dilation of the m-ethra have been performed in 61 cases, and the bladder tapped through the rectum three times. Calculus in the bladder is fairly common in these States, especially in young boys of the poorer class, who are much exposed to cold and fed on millet. Litholapaxy is now performed in preference to lithotomy, unless the large size of the stone or the narrow- ness of the urethra contra-indicate it, in which case cutting is resorted to. Stricture is much rarer here than in the West, and its division from outside has been found to be the most satisfactory way of dealing with it, especially when it is hard or the urethra much constricted. Operations on the Male Generative Organs. — Phimosis and paraphimosis are common, and circumcision, either for elon- gated prepuce or disease, is often required. The radical cure 244 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES of hydrocele is frequently needed. Amputation of the penis for cancer is occasionally required ; hypospadias and extro- version of the bladder are rare. During the eight years' period 271 operations were performed on these organs as follows: — Tapping of hydrocele with iodine injection, -"^y , and without injection, 5 ; operations for phimosis, 69, and for paraphimosis, 14; amputation of penis for cancer, 15 ; reduc- tion of protruded testes after injury, i; scarification of scro- tum and penis for oedema, associated with orchitis and balanitis (often caused by insect bite), 130. Operations on the Female Generative Organs. — Only one ovariotomy has been performed by me, and that successfully. Ovarian disease is rarely met with, and the people are averse to undergoing serious operations, attended with risk, which can be put off without immediate danger. Obstetric Operations. — These operations were as follows : — Delivery by forceps, 5 ; podalic version, 5 ; decapitation, 4 ; craniotomy, 2 ; and csesarean section, i. The local unquali- fied female practitioners have hitherto done most of this work, but some of it is now falling into the hands of the stafi' of the women's hospital at Jodhpore. Some of the local " Dais " are being trained in obstetrics. Operations on the Breast. — The breast has been eighteen times removed in part or whole for malignant disease, and mammary abscess and fistula have been frequently treated by operation. Operations on Bones and Joints. — During the eight years' period there have been 395 operations on bones, viz., setting compound and simple fractures, excision for caries and anchy- losed joints, and removal of sequestra from different bones. There were 456 reductions of dislocations performed, as follows: — Lower jaw, 160; clavicle, 6; shoulder-joint, 133; elbow-joint, 33; hip-joint, 20; knee-joint, 9; patella, 3; thumb, I ; ankle-joint, 6 ; and metacarpus, 7. Guinea-worm SURGICAL DISEASES 245 gives rise to many of the stiff joints seen, for so long as some of these people are able to get about, they are averse to operation. Chloroform. — They dread the knife and anaesthetic very much, althouerh there has not been a death from chloroform in these States, and only three patients have shown alarming symptoms. These three cases occurred on cold mornings, when the patients were depressed by a low temperature ; and I believe the difference in temperature will account for the greater mortality from chloroform in cold countries when compared with hot. It is, therefore, of great moment to have the patient warm before chloroform is administered, and the operation room heated up to at least 75° F. Under a high temperature the patient's breathing soon becomes shallower and the chloroform expanded, consequently it is taken into the lungs slowly and in a diluted condition ; it is then regu- larly distributed throughout the system, and produces quiet sleep and anaesthesia instead of poisonous narcosis. Amimtations. — During the eight years' period 195 ampu- tations were performed (not including such amputations as those of the toes and fingers). The following are the causes which led to the operation : — Leg, for mycetoma, 9 2 ; thigh, for mycetoma, 5 ; hand, for mycetoma, i o ; foot, for myce- toma, 21; total for mycetoma, 128; arm, for injuries, 12; for gangrene, i ; for caries, 5 ; for cancer, i ; at shoulder- joint, for injury, i ; forearm, for injuries, 10; for necrosis, i ; at elbow-joint, for injury, i ; thigh, for injuries, 4 ; for gangrene, 7 ; leg, for necrosis, 2 ; for injuries, 12; for gan- grene, 3 ; through metatarsus, for injuries, 7. It will be observed that amputation for mycetoma is frequent, notwithstanding the fact that the fungating tumour is often excised in the early stage before amputation is necessary. Mycetoma is a disease of the sandy desert, common among 246 WESTERN KAJPUTANA STATES people connected with cattle. It usually begins in the foot, rarely in the hand. I have, however, seen a few of the hand cases among water-carriers, as if it required moisture to enable it to attack the skin. Its existence outside the human system is unknown. The fungus begins in the skin as a speck enclosed in a bag, which grows to the size of a walnut, and eventually bursts, discharging a thin watery pus. Other cysts containing the fungus form close to the parent, to which they are connected only by their thick fibrous walls. The limb attacked becomes thickened and enlarged, and the muscles, bones, and fibrous tissues invaded and softened by numbers of these cysts, filled vnth a cauliflower-like fungus, mostly black, sometimes pale pink. The whole limb eventually becomes implicated, and the skin perforated with numerous openings, from which the fungus and watery pus are discharged. It readily passes through joints, and when it attacks a long bone will run rapidly up the medullary cavity and soften the whole bone after a short time. Operations on the Skin. — There were 4563 operations per- formed on the skin. Carbuncle is not infrequently seen and operated on. Skin-grafting is sometimes necessary after am- putation of the breast, or in cases of large intractable ulcer. Poisoning. — Opium-poisoning is occasionally seen, but the drug is in such common use that much of it can be taken without fatal results, and the people understand the use of some of the antidotes. Permanganate of potash has recently been tried as an antidote with success. Arsenic is the common poison used by criminals, and clhatura is usually adminis- tered by dacoits to enable them to plunder. Opium is given to most of the children of these States until they are over their early teething. The mothers have implicit faith in the drug, and accidents from excessive doses are not common. The custom of giving opium to children is of very early date among these people ; it was probably commenced to keep SURGICAL DISEASES 247 them quiet while the mothers worked, and it does not seem to do them any harm, the habitues being generally well nourished and healthy in appearance. It is no doubt useful during the cutting of the early teeth. It is given up when the teething difficulties are over, and when the children can run about. Many of those accustomed to the drug in childhood never take to it again, except on great occasions, when hospitality is being dispensed, for which it is in general use. Skin Affections. — Skin diseases are very commonly seen in this country, where water for washing and bathing is often scarce, and these affections are very varied in character and class. There were 96,000 cases treated in these States in eight years, of which 82,559 were in Marwar, 4802 in Sirohi, 7084 in Abu and Abu Road, and 1549 in Jaisalmir. The above figures only represent a small proportion of the ailments of this class throughout the States, as many of the people seek no relief from complaints which do not interfere with the daily round required to obtain their food. General and Local Injuries. — These are not of common occurrence. There are no steam-factories, and the trains are not run with great rapidity or frequency ; consequently colli- sions are unknown and railway accidents rare. Injuries from domestic or wild animals are occasionally seen. Children, and even adults, sometimes fall from upper storeys and into wells and sustain severe injuries, but such are not common, as the people of this country are cautious and easy-going. Carriages are not much in use, and they are not driven so fast as to cause frequent accidents. Accidents sometimes occur from powder and firearms, and at the Dewdli and Dassera festivals from fireworks and explosives. Free fights occasionally occur over border and other village disputes, when swords and sticks are used, sometimes resulting in serious injuries. SICKNESS AND MORTALITY In discussing the sickness and mortality of the different months of the year, the following tables have been used : — (i.) Returns of patients treated in hospitals and dis- pensaries. (2.) Mortality tables. (3.) Meteorological tables. Health of each Month. — As I have already shown, malarial fevers are the most common ailments of the people, and, although registration of vital statistics is of such recent date in these States that no satisfactory tables can be produced to prove this, it is well known that the death-rate from these fevers far exceeds that of any other disease, and that Sep- tember, October, and November are the months of highest mortality as well as highest admissions to hospital. In the Jodhpore Central Jail, during the eight years' period 1890-97, thirty-six deaths occurred from malarial fevers, and twenty-one of these were in the three months mentioned, viz., September, October, and November. January. — This month is the coldest of the year, and many of the poorer classes suffer much from insufficient clothing. In the Hewson Hospital (Jodhpore) returns, January stands seventh for admissions, and, in the table of vital statistics, fifth as regards mortality. It is sixth for rainfall, and there are generally showers some time during the month. It is, on the whole, a healthy month for those who are well fed and warmly clothed, but the poor suffer a good deal at this time from lung affections. 248 SICKNESS AND MORTALITY 249 February. — This is the healthiest month, and stands twelfth in point of admissions, ninth in point of deaths, and tenth in point of rainfall ; it only rained on two occasions in this month in twelve years. Lung and respiratory diseases are always less prevalent in this month. March. — This month stands tenth for admissions, sixth for deaths, and twelfth for rain ; slight showers occurred only on two occasions during this month in twelve years. This is generally a fairly healthy month, but the extremes of day and night temperature are very great, and colds and coughs are often prevalent ; it stands highest for lung affections. Ajyril. — This is a healthy month, although the temperature is generally high throughout. It stands eleventh for admis- sions, seventh for deaths, and eleventh for rainfall ; two slight showers having been recorded in twelve years. There is little malarial fever in this month, but liver affections begin to be prevalent. Hay. — This is always a very hot month ; it stands ninth for admissions, tenth for deaths, and fifth for rainfall. Liver diseases are prevalent during this month, also dyspepsia, but malarial fevers are nearly at their lowest. June. — This is generally the hottest month ; it stands eighth for admissions, eleventh for deaths, and fourth for rainfall. Malarial fevers and dysentery are less prevalent during this month than at any other time of the year. Jidy. — This month stands sixth for admissions, twelfth for deaths, and second for rainfall. It is hot at the beginning, and the monsoon becomes general all over the country about the middle of the month. Malarial fever increases during this month, and diarrhoea is often prevalent. August. — This month stands third for admissions, fourth for deaths, and it is the month of highest rainfall. It is generally cool and pleasant ; but it is an unhealthy month throughout; malarial fevers then begin to be prevalent, and 250 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES there is more diarrhoea than at any other season of the year. September. — This is also an unhealthy month. It is second for admissions, first for deaths, and third for rainfull. Malarial fevers are always prevalent, and there is much diarrhoea and a good deal of dysentery. October. — This month is always unhealthy ; it stands first for admissions, second for deaths, and seventh for rainfall. The day temperature rises, and the nights begin to get cool. It is the month of greatest prevalence of malarial fevers, and diseases of the respiratory system increase. November. — The early part of this month is unhealthy ; the days are then hot, the nights very cold, and the poor begin to suffer from want of warm clothing. It stands fourth for admissions, third for deaths, and eighth for rainfall. Malarial fevers become less prevalent, lung and respiratory diseases increase, and liver diseases, especially congestion, are common. December. — This is a cold and healthy month, but the poor suffer considerably on account of want of warm clothes and fuel. It stands fifth for admissions, eighth for deaths, and ninth for rainfall, even occasional showers being rare during this month. There is always a marked fall in malarial fevers in this month, and the young improve greatly in health and vigour. EPIDEMICS 253 The western tracts of these States are subject to famines and frequent scarcities, which sometimes assist the spread of epidemic disease. When rehef works are started, a hospital assistant, from a neighbouring dispensary or from the reserve Hst, is placed in medical charge of the people on the works. He attends to the sanitation of the camps, and also to the sick among the workpeople. MEDICAL AID Befoee the introduction of European methods of treatment, the practice of medicine in these States was principally in the hands of four classes of medical men, viz. — I. Sadhs or Ascetics, who, by virtue of their great piety and abstinence, are believed to have obtained power over disease, and also over evil spirits, to which disease is often attributed in this part of India. These Sadhs or Ascetics use incantations, charms, and symbols. They impose restrictions of diet, as well as other strictures on pleasures and indulgences, and also many other rigid observances for the cure of disease. Besides, most of them claim a knowledge of occult remedies, principally vegetable products, but sometimes mineral, and even animal substances are prescribed by them. Many of these Sadhs seem to be careless of comforts and of worldly wealth, and to live up to their profession. There are not a few of them, however, who merely pretend rigid asceticism, and also practise much knavery for gain and admiration. II. Balds or Hindu physicians are the ordinary medical practitioners of these States, and many of them still enjoy large practices. They generally inherit their profession, and ancient medical books are often passed down from generation to generation among this class. III. Hakims or Mahomedan physicians are mostly of the Unani school, and the profession generally passes down from father to son. Some of these Unani Hakims have still a high reputation, especially those who have come from Delhi. Many of them travel about towns and villages to obtain a livelihood, MEDICAL AID 255 while others hold practices in large towns, or are salaried by the Darbars or wealthy citizens. IV. Pansaris or Attars are prescribing chemists who know the appearance and properties of drugs, and prescribe to assist their sales of medicine. None of these practitioners are highly educated, and they know little of anatomy, and nothing of modern pathology. They often depend on the price of their drugs for fees, and consequently resort to deception in prescribing costly articles never compounded. They prescribe gold, silver, and pearls, and in this way extort money from their patients. These Vaids and Hakims are said to be so jealous of their remedies that they often fail to disclose them to their sons and successors before they die. In this way many potent cures are supposed to have been lost. Surgery has from ancient times been greatly in the hands of barbers, but Zurrahs or Mahomedan surgeons have had some practice in these States, and amputations were often performed by Rajput swordsmen, who could cut through a limb with one sweep. The stump of a limb so amputated was put into boiling oil to stop the hasmorrhage. This practice is now happily discontinued, but the barbers in remote places still open abscesses and set fractures in their own rude fashion, often with much detriment to the limb. The establishment of dispensaries has, however, done much to bring ignorant prac- titioners into disrepute. The barbers' setting of a fracture is now mostly looked upon as a temporary appliance to enable the patient to be conveyed in some comfort to the nearest dis- pensary, and many of the Hakims and Baids who held State appointments have disappeared before advancing medical science. There are still practitioners of surgery and medicine who flourish to some extent in these States, viz., the Sojat Sathias, who practise couching for cataract, as well as the treatment of 256 WESTERN RAJPUT AN A STATES diseases in general. These Marwar Satliias are Hindus of the Kdyasth caste, and have a great reputation throughout Rajputana and many other parts of India. They travel about, prescribe, and operate for cataract in the streets and lanes. To perform the operation of couching with their very rough instruments, an incision is made through the cornea at the sclerotic margin, and a blunt hook introduced to depress the lens. The patient sees at once, pays his fee, and is bandaged up. The result is sometimes good, but in a large percentage of cases the lens either returns to the centre of the pupil and obstructs vision again, or produces inflammation which com- pletely disorganises the eye. In these States the people are very conservative and adhere with great tenacity to their ancient institutions, and as the S;lthias have had some success, it has been difficult to supplant them. They are, however, yearly losing ground, and many people now resort to the hospitals for the cure of cataract, instead of intrusting them- selves to the Sojat Sdthias. I performed 746 cataract opera- tions during 1898, of which 96.34 per cent, were successful. It has, however, taken much time and trouble to get up a satisfactory eye department here, partly on account of the want of proper hospital accommodation and also on account of the conservativeness of the people, and their great faith in their ancient institutions. The following are some of the old remedies still in use in remote districts, and at one time ofeneral throus^hout these States. Abscess. — (a) Seed of Rohira {Tccoma undulata) one chattack, with half a pao of " ata," sugar and root of " Bordi," all to be mixed and plastered on the abscess. (&) To apply a red-hot iron on all sides of the abscess firmly. (c) A plaster of ashes with water and honey given by a priest of Hanumanji — a charmed poultice. Acidity. — («) Ajma Umbel {Carum carui) two tolas, and salt one chattack ; to be taken as powder with pure water. MEDICAL AID 257 Apoplexy. — {a) " Kalimirach. " {Piper nigrum) two tolahs, " Malvi gul " (unrefined sugar) a pao, ghee half a pao ; to be mixed and taken thrice daily. (5) To apply a red-hot copper pice to the temple. Asthma. — {a) Gum {Acacia arabica) and honey, one tolah each, juice of "Akra" {Calotro2ns procera) quarter of a tolah, and fine " Pili earth ; " to be taken as pills thrice a day. {h) Decoction of the seed of " Andijhara " (Ficus virgata) to be boiled in a seer of water and taken thrice daily ; half a pao with three or four " Tulsi " {Dehregeasia bicolor) or betel leaves. (c) To apply the crust of a smoking " chillum " on both sides of the chest. (d) To frequent holy places, as Bhahuta Sidh, and to wear a silver anklet in the name of that saint till the shrine can be visited. Bite of Mad Bog. — {a) " Birami " {Pncraria tuherosa) root and " Saler " {Boswellia. thurifer) root, a pao each, with a pao of well-powdered " Moth " {Papilionacea motha), to be taken as pills thrice daily. (b) Red chillies {Capsicum fastigiatum) a pao, one tolah of camphor, and a pao sugar, to be mixed and taken thrice daily ; one chattack of the mixture at a time. (c) Cauterisation of the bitten part. Bite of Snakes. — {a) Alum, ghee, onion, half pao each, with half a seer of pure milk, to be taken at once. (h) Bhurat {Cenchrus catharticus), "Malwi tobacco" {Nico- tiana tabacum), white " Jal seeds " ( Vihirnum stellulatum), and sugar-candy, a chattack of each, to be taken thrice daily. (c) Wrapping the body in a cloth, and pouring cold water on it till the patient shivers. " Mesmerism " or " passes," and sucking the blood from the bitten part. Charms and munters. B 258 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES (d) Pilgrimages to holy shrines as a prophylactic, such as the shrines of Ramdeoji, Mataji, Bhabuta Sidh ; also appl5dng ashes mixed with water from the sacred pot. Catarrh, Colds, and Bronchitis. — (a) Leaves of " Nim " (Melia indica), thorn of " Babul " (Acacia arahica), a pao of each to be boiled in a seer of water till it becomes one pao, and taken with a pao of " Gul " (brown sugar) at once. (b) Juice of " Akra" {Calotropis ^rocera) half a pao, and oil of turpentine two pao ; to be taken mixed, and also as an external application. (c) Worship of Hanumanji and Pabuji. Cholera. — {a) " Nim " (Melia indica) leaves, sugar-candy, ghee, half a pao each ; asafoetida, camphor, " Lassan " (Alium sativum), half a tolah each ; to be mixed well and taken as pills every two hours. (h) Hot " chillum " to be applied over the abdomen. (c) Worship at Ramdeoji, Mataji, Bhabuta Sidh, and at the same time to drink ashes with the sacred water. Diarrhoea. — (a) Powdered bark of " Kair tree " (Capparis aphylla) half a pao, to be taken with curd and garlic (Alium sativum), one chattack each. (h) To apply a hot " chillum " (coarse earthenware pipe) on the centre of the abdomen or " Navi " (navel). (c) Visits to holy places, viz., Ramdeoji, Bhomiaji, Karniji, Mallinathji, &c. Typhoid Fever (acute Motijara nihala). — (a) " Sanai " (Senna indica), sugar-candy, and " Dhana," a tolah each, to be taken at once; powdered gmgQx(Amomum zingiber), "Kalimirach" (Piper nigrum), cloves (Caryophyllus aromaticus), " Ajma " (Carum carui), " Hurr " (Myrobalans), and " Sambhar salt," one tolah of each, to be taken thrice daily ; juice of " Gular " (Ficus glomerata), one chattack, to be mixed and taken twice. (5) Blood of hare's liver, ten to twenty drops, to be taken with cotton-tree seeds (Bombax malabaricum), once daily ; egg MEDICAL AID 259 of the " Batbur " (Fterocles exushcs), one to be taken once a day, and house-flies till they produce vomiting. (c) Worship, and drink sacred water with sacred ashes of Eamdeoji, Mataji, Pabuji, and Bhatianiji. Mts. — (a) " Kalimirach " {Piper nigrum), one tolah well powdered, with half a pao of the juice of " Thor " (Uujjhorbia royleana), to be taken as snuff. Convulsions. — {a) Opium {Pcqjaver somniferum) fomentations. Gravel.— (a) Worship of Ramdeoji only. Gonorrhcea. — (a) Milk and water to be mixed in equal parts and taken. (6) "Kewalia katha," "Elaychi chhoti," " Kapilo," " Sital mirach," " Ghora nisode," and alum, a tolah each, to be boiled in a seer of water and used as an injection. " Gvjrati " (Fnemnonia). — (a) Juice of " Akra " {Calotrojjls procera), " Bar "' (Ficus indica), " Kair " {Gapparis aphylla), a tolah each, with some pieces of castor (Kicinus communis) or " Bar " (Ficus indica) leaves, to be taken thrice daily. (b) Steel and powdered horn of " Samber," a pao each, to be boiled 1 08 times, and when it becomes gelatinous it should be eaten. (c) Worship of saints, such as Ramdeoji, Karniji, Bhatianiji, &c., &c. Itch. — Sulphur, Til oil, gunpowder, curd, calves' urine, given both internally and applied locally. Jaundice. — " Passes " (mesmerism), and frequent visits to Ramdeoji's shrine; also mercury in different forms. Bysmenorrlu&a. — (a) Three stalks of " Bajra," with half a tolah of the root of " Gurinda " {Frinsepict utilis), to be mixed and taken thrice daily. (&) It is treated with the water in which the clothes of a pure man have been washed. Leprosy. — (o) To worship the "Khejra" tree (Frosopis spicigera). 260 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES (b) Mercury, strychnia, phosphorus, and cantharides are frequently prescribed, often to excess, and generally with detri- ment to the patient. JoDHPORE. — There are the following hospitals and dis- pensaries at Jodhpore, viz. : — Hewson Hospital. Jaswant Hospital for Women. Residency Hospital. Jail Hospital. Imperial Service Troops' Hospital. First and Second Branch Dispensaries. The Jodhpore Railway Dispensary, for the staff of the Jodhpore-Bikanir Railway. There is also a Mission Hospital, supported by the Scotch Presbyterian Mission Society. The Hewson Hospital has taken the place of the old main dispensary, which was the first dispensary established in Jodh- pore; the latter was opened in 1853, ^^^ '^^^ merely an Hospital Assistants' house, with a couple of small rooms for the sick, and a small surgery. The former was opened in February 1888, and has been considerably added to since then, a new wing and an operation-room having just been completed. This hospital can now accommodate eighty in- patients, and there is an out-patient department attached to it. Part of the building is old, and was at one time a town-house ; most of the old building is used for stores, compounding-room, office, and dispensary. Three double-storied blocks of build- ings have been added from time to time since the adaptation of the building for hospital purposes, and the enclosure has been laid out as a garden and pleasure-ground. The hospital has been named after Mr. Hewson of the I.C.S., who was for some time lent by Government to the State as guardian of His Highness the Maharaja. The building is convenient for MEDICAL AID 261 the townspeople, as it is in the centre of the city ; but it is otherwise for the Residency Surgeon, who has a ride of about six miles to and from his work there. In 1897 there were 411 in-patients and 17,351 out-patients treated, and 1277 operations performed, of which 141 were extractions of the lens for cataract, 1 5 litholapaxies, 1 5 lithotomies, and 5 radical hernias. In 1898, after the opening of the new wing above referred to, 719 in-patients were treated and 1657 operations performed, 692 of which were major; of the latter, 5 00 were extractions of the lens for cataract, 3 8 litholapaxies, 5 lithotomies, 2 radical hernias, and i ovariotomy. The number of cases treated at this hospital during the twelve years 1886-97 is shown in the following table, together with the number of operations, major and minor, performed in the same period. Table shoioing the Number of Cases Treated at the Hewson Hospital in the Twelve Years 1886-97, together with the Number of Operations Performed in the same Period. Year. Cases Treated. Operations. Out-Patients. In-Patients. Major. Minor. 1886 6,658 95 61 375 1887 6,134 74 52 446 18S8 7,132 151 77 469 18S9 7,688 155 94 605 1890 7,911 133 86 748 1891 9,335 162 89 1,443 1892 14,810 168 86 871 1893 17,213 246 78 1,013 1894 16,335 313 79 1,009 1895 15,458 307 87 907 1896 16,655 402 253 998 1897 17,351 411 312 965 142,680 2,617 1-354 9,849 Tota 1 145,297 11,203 262 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES The Jaswant Hospital for women was originally an old palace ; it is situated in the centre of the city, and has been adapted for a " purdah " hospital ; it can accommodate fifty in-patients, and there is an out-patient department. Miss Adams, M.D., is superintendent, and there is a qualified female hospital assistant in residence. This hospital was opened in November 1896, and has been named after the late Maharaja Jaswant Singh, G.C.S.L During 1897, 6054 out- and 229 in-patients were treated, and 259 major and 368 minor opera- tions performed. The Residency Hospital is for the use of the Resident's staff and escort ; it is in charge of an hospital assistant, who marches with the Resident, and it is supported by Govern- ment. The hospital assistant in charge, while on tour, is encouraged to treat villagers, and to make himself useful to the people of the neighbourhood when they require his services. During the year 1897 there were 2616 out-patients treated in this hospital, and 4 major and 44 minor operations performed. The two branch disj)ensaries at Jodhpore are located at a considerable distance from each other and from the Hew- son Hospital. Out-door patients principally attend these dis- pensaries, and they are a great convenience to those of the public who reside too far from the main hospital. The first branch dispensary is situated in a populous part of the town, in one of the principal markets. During 1897 there were 10,099 out-patients treated at this dispensary, and 800 minor operations performed in it. The second branch dispensary is located outside one of the city gates, on a main thoroughfare, and it is very convenient for the workpeople, who pass in great numbers in that direc- tion. In 1897 there were 146 indoor and 5829 outdoor patients treated at this dispensary, and 80 major and 831 minor operations performed. MEDICAL AID 263 There is a fine hospital for the Imperial Service Troops situated in the open plain, between the cavalry lines and the parade ground. It is in charge of an Assistant-Surgeon under the Residency Surgeon. The Jodhpore Railway Dispensary was opened on the 23 rd October 1896, and there were 2232 out-patients treated, and 87 operations performed in it in 1897. The Mission Hospital in Jodhpore city was opened on 14th July 1885. During the year 1897, 7294 new cases were treated, 109 of which were indoor patients; 1477 operations were performed, of which 105 were major, and several of these were lithotomies. The Mission Surgeon and his assistants visit many people at their own houses in and about the city, and they sometimes go into the district, where they treat patients, the outwork being included with that done at headquarters. Annexed is a table showing attendance at the various Jodhpore hospitals up to the year 1897. Another table is also given to show cases treated, average daily attendance, and operations performed at the Marwar Dispensaries in the twelve years 1886-97. Table I. — Slioioing Attendance at the Jodhpore Hospitals up to the Year 1897. Hospital or Dispensary. Number of Years. In and Out Patients (New Cases). Kemarks. Main Dispensary, now \ Hewson Hospital . . \ First Branch Second Branch .... Central Jail Jaswant Female Hospital | Residency Hospital . . 24 24 24 24 I year and l\ months. 6 216,022 169,475 59,951 16,325 1 6,651 j 8,081 Opened on Nov. 24, 1896. Records only from 1892. 264. WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Table II, — Showing Gases Treated, Average Daily Attendance, and 0];)erations Performed at the Marioar Disjyensaries in the Tioelve Years 1886-97. Years. 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 1893 1894 1895 1896 1897 Total Number of Dispensaries. 6 6 10 10 II 13 13 14 15 15 17 Total Treated. 23,257 22,945 33,898 38,620 42,585 48,846 66,072 70,492 71,939 70,470 84,093 102,691 Average Daily Attendance. 675,908 289.32 280.17 382.12 415.60 481.27 509-33 559.82 635-43 731.61 685.06 814.82 969.85 6754.40 Operations. Major. Total. 83 1,784 85 1,752 157 2,630 176 2,866 221 3,139 238 4,403 211 3,890 222 4,166 192 4,373 232 4,705 612 5,975 1,048 7,627 3,477 47,310 SiROHi. — The Sirohi dispensary was opened in the capital in February 1868, by an old Compounder who had long been employed in Abu. He was replaced by a qualified Hospital Assistant in 1883. In 1897, 187 in-patients and 5392 out- patients were treated, and 36 major and 433 minor operations performed in it. The Crosthwaite Hospital has now been completed and opened, to take the place of the Sirohi dispensary, and give the increased accommodation which has been long needed for in-patients. It is situated in a suitable open space between the Palace and the Residency bungalow. It is well planned, substantially built, and well ventilated ; it supplies to the people of Sirohi a long-felt want. It contains accommodation for twenty-four in-patients, and there is an out-patient depot attached. It has been named after Sir R. Crosthwaite, K.C.S.L, late Agent to the Governor-General for Rajputana. MEDICAL AID 265 Jaisalmir. — There is only one dispensary in the whole State, and it is located at the capital. It was opened on the 13th April 1892, and a building has since been added, so there is now a good hospital in which much medical and surgical aid is given both to the people of the city and surrounding country. In 1897, 33 in-patients and 4618 out- patients were treated, and 25 major and 231 minor operations performed in it. List of Government Medical Officers of the Jodhpore Political Agency and Residency. Names of Oflacers. From To Assist.-Surgeon W. J. Moore .... Surgeon H. Eddowes (officiating) . . Assist.-Surgeon W. J. Moore .... Surgeon G. King . Assist.-Surgeon J. H. Newman . . . Assist.-Surg. T. H. Hendley (officiating) Assist.-Surgeon J. H. Newman . . . Surgeon J. M. Brereton (officiating) , . Surgeon J. H. Newman Surgeon-Major Spencer^ Surgeon A. Adams Brigade-Surg. Lt.-Col. ffrench-Mullen . Surgeon Lieut.-Colonel A. Adams . . Surg. Lieut.-Col. P. A. Weir (officiating) Lieut.-Colonel A. Adams, I. M.S. . . . May 6, 1862 December 26, 1862 February 22, 1862 December 24, 1867 April 14, 1S69 February 20, 1872 March 19, 1873 October 19, 1877 April 10, 1878 May 10, 1S79 April 10, 1881 November 30, 1893 March 29, 1S95 May 16, 1896 November 2, 1896 September 5, 1862 February 21, 1 863 July 10, 1S67 December 10, 1868 August 27, 1S71 March 18, 1 873 March 15, 1877 March 15, 1878 September 15, 1878 February 15, i88i October 29, 1893 March 28, 1895 May 2, 1896 November i, 1896 Present time ^ Now Surgeon-General Spencer, C.B., P.M.O. Punjab Army, and Officiating Director-General, I.M.S. VACCINATION Marwar. — There is no record of vaccination in Marwar before 1 867, when three vaccinators were employed, who in that year performed 5043 vaccinations, of which 2992 or 59.33 per cent, were successful. There was no change made in the number of vaccinators till 1870, when H.H. the Maharaja Takhat Singh consented to an increase in the staff to nine and to the appointment of an inspecting vaccinator, on the recom- mendation of Dr. Moore. In 1873 these vaccinators per- formed 5519 vaccinations, 51.68 per cent, of which were successful; a very small percentage of success, and indica- tive of apathy on the part of the vaccinators, as well as of obstruction from the people. H.H. the present Maharaja was vaccinated when a child, and this gave a great impetus to the work among the upper classes. The vaccination staff was increased to eleven a few years later, and remained at that till 1885, when they were raised to 50 and regularly distributed over the country in circles set apart for each. During this year, vaccination mad^ a good start; 40,457 operations were performed, 97 per cent, of which were successful, and some re-vaccinations were done. The Thakars of Marwar were induced to keep their own vaccinators about this time, but the scheme did not work well, as the vaccinators were never paid until the Residency Surgeon made a visit of inspection to the Thakars' capital, when arrears were promptly liquidated. This system was abandoned on account of the difficulties it entailed in super- vision and in obtaining regular payment of the staff. The VACCINATION 267 Thakars then agreed to contribute towards the maintenance of a staff of vaccinators according to their villages and lands, and a similar contribution was levied from other villages by the Darbar. In this way ample funds were provided for vaccination. In 1889-90, the whole system Avas re-organised, and Marwar re-divided into circles for vaccination and supervision. A Deputy-Superintendent of vaccination was appointed under the Residency Surgeon, and under him six Assistant-Superin- tendents, to take charofe of six vaccination districts into which the State had been divided for convenience of supervision. The vaccinators were increased to 84, to meet the further requirements of the State. A female Brahmin vaccinator was appointed to work among the close-purdah families, and to leave no objection possible on the part of the people against having the work carried out thoroughly. Sweeper-vaccinators were then appointed to work among the low castes, as people objected to sweepers being vaccinated by the ordinary staff. Brahmins were found the most successful vaccinators, as they could readily gain influence with the people ; so preference was always given to this caste when vacancies occurred, and nearly all the vaccinators in Marwar are now Brahmins. The female vaccinator has been found very useful, and she has been able to carry the work into the zenanas, where concealments would otherwise take place. Another female vaccinator has recently been employed to assist her, and they do much work which could not be done by the male staflf. Vaccination is now general throughout the country, and it has already done much to mitigate the ravages of small-pox, which have hitherto been so frequent and fatal to young life. More- over, most of the people have now come to recognise the great benefits conferred by vaccination, and there is hardly any opposition to it, even among the ignorant, except in a few Mina villages in wild districts. Many people call for regular attend- 268 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES ance of the vaccinators at their villages. At present the vaccination staff in Marwar consists of: — i Deputy Superin- tendent, 7 Assistant Superintendents, 8 i vaccinators, of whom two are female and two sweeper vaccinators. They are all under the Residency Surgeon, who superintends much of the work, and without whose supervision the department would readily lapse into disorder and abuse, and probably soon be a disadvantage rather than a benefit to the people. It is impera- tive to have as much European supervision of vaccination as possible, until the people have become thoroughly accustomed to it, and abuses must be carefully guarded against. During the official year of 1897-98, 88,764 vaccinations were performed, of which 8 8 ,0 1 2 were successful, and of these 10,093 were verified by the Residency Surgeon. The following are the tabular statements of vaccination seen and done in the State during the eleven years 1887—98 : — Statement (No. i) slwiving Vaccination Work Lisjjected hy the Superin- tendent [Residency Surgeon) from 1887 tij) to the end of Season 1898 (315^ March). Years. Successful Cases. 5^ Total Seen. Remarks. Three Good Marks. Two Good Marks. One Good Mark. Total. 1S87 . . 1888 . . 18S9 . . 1889-90 . 1890-91 . 1891-92 . 1892-93 . 1893-94 . 1894-95 . 1895-96 . 1896-97 . 1897-98 , Total . 159 209 101 192 1S2 119 155 20 45 535 354 501 2,112 2,238 1,049 3,561 3,879 2,717 2.545 612 1,351 12,601 9,592 8,017 2,894 2,886 1,586 2,700 2,387 1,483 1,279 227 229 3,506 1,297 1,434 385 648 236 555 449 303 260 74 74 978 405 458 5.391 5,772 2,871 6,Si6 6,715 4,503 4,084 913 1,654 17,085 11,294 9,909 161 181 75 192 178 88 98 24 15 260 214 184 5,552 5.953 2,946 7,008 6,893 4,591 4,182 937 1,669 17.345 11,508 10,093 \From Jan. to / Dec. jfJan., Feb., and \ March only. From 1st April 'to 31st March. 2,572 50,274 21,908 4,825 77,007 1,670 78,677 VACCINATION 269 Statement (No. 2) shoiving Vaccmation Work Inspected hy the Native Super- intendents {No. varying from i to 1) from 1887 up to the end of Season 1898 (316-^ March). Years. to . Successful Cases. 9 jj Total Seen. Remarks. Three Two One Og Good Good Good Total. «« |zi Marks. Marks. Mark. l§o 1887 . 449 4,640 6,847 662 12,149 355 12,504 \From January / to December. 1888 . 604 7,210 7,681 632 15.523 207 15.730 1889 . 271 3,661 2,071 239 5.971 85 6,056 f Jan., Feb., and \ March only. 1889-90 1,328 22,291 7,943 1,527 31,761 1,005 32,766 N, I 890-9 I 2.577 43,100 12,882 3,168 59,150 1,464 60,614 1891-92 2,637 38,846 11.365 2,115 52,326 1,375 53.701 1892-93 2,206 27,370 8,510 1,911 37.791 1,480 39,280 From 1st April "to 31st March. 1893-94 2,669 32,339 9,429 2,228 43.996 1,256 45,252 1894-95 2,241 30,034 7.407 1,651 39.092 933 40,025 1895-96 2,976 39,585 6,021 1,470 47,076 714 47.790 1S90-97 2,552 39,822 5.394 1,370 46,586 657 47,243 1897-98 Total . 3,601 48,352 6,942 1,820 57.114 1.239 58,353 24,111 337,250 92,492 18,793 448,535 10,779 459.314 Statement {No. 3) shoiving Total Numher Vaccinated in Marioar from 1887 to the end of March 1898. Year. All "Vaccinations. Male. Female. Total. 1887 . . . . 32,224 27,928 60,152 ~\ From January to 1888 . i 28,698 26,063 54,761 J December. 1889 . 16,340 14,567 30,907 /January, February, \ and March only. 1889-90 1 42,557 37.963 80,520 % 1890-91 43.541 39.204 82,745 1891-92 44,569 39.744 84,313 1892-93 1893-94 35,172 41,690 30,627 36,261 65,799 77,951 From 1st April to 1894-95 40,134 35,619 75.753 1895-96 46,629 40,990 87,619 1896-97 40,825 36.581 77,406 1897-98 47.573 41,191 88,764 Tota 1 459.952 406,738 866,690 270 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES It will be observed that during the eleven years under con- sideration the Residency Surgeon inspected y^,6yy cases, and of these, 77,007 were at the time of inspection successful, or a percentage of 97.88 of successful cases. During the same period, 459,314 cases were inspected by the Native Superin- tendents, of which 97.65 per cent, were successful cases. The third table has been given to show the amount of work done by the vaccinators in the State during the same period. Of this total of 866,690 cases, rather more than a half has been inspected by the seven Native Superintendents, and less than an eleventh by the Residency Surgeon. The cost of vaccination, for the above period, has been as nearly as possible 2 annas and 2.53 pies. The following tables of small-pox mortality in the Jodh- pore, Sirohi, and Jaisalmir cities, for the four years 1894-97, previous to which records are not available, are given : — Small-Pox Mortality, 1894-97, Jodlipore City. Months. 1894. 1895. 1896. January .... ... February I March . 10 April 26 May 39 June 12 July August . September October . November December Total . I 88 1897. Four Years. 42 12 2 Order of Mean. Month hi Mortality. 0.25 6 3-25 3 7-75 2 10.50 I 3.00 4 0.50 5 25.25 Registration of births and deaths in the Jodhpore State has only recently been commenced, so the mortality of Jodlipore city for a few years only has been given. However, it is well known that the thorough vaccination now established through- out the State has done much to mitigate the ravages of small- pox. VACCINATION 271 SiROHi. — One vaccinator lias been employed in the Sirohi State for about eighteen years, and a second for ten years. There has also been a vaccinator at Mount Abu, attached to the charitable dispensary there, during the last seventeen years. The Sirohi vaccinators have recently been increased to four, and the State divided into five vaccination circles, one of which is worked by the Abu vaccinator. This will ensure regular work and facilitate the inspections, which have mostly to be done by the Residency Surgeon, Western Rajputana States. Vaccination in and around Abu is also regularly superintended by him, and the work is more advanced in the hill villages than below, as the staff set apart for the duty in Shohi has not till very recently been able to carry it out thoroughly on account of the size and difficulty of the country. Much vaccination is now, however, being done, and the juvenile population will soon be as well protected as in Marwar. The following are tabular statements of vaccination seen and done in the State from 1887 to 1897-98: — Statement (No. i) slioiving Vaccination Worh inspected hy the Superin- tendent [Residency Surgeon) from 1887 uj) to the end of Season 1898 (318^ March). Years. so - ci-i Successful Cases. B a 5" Total Seen. Kemarks. Three Good Marks. Two Good Marks. One Good Mark. Total. 1887 . . . 1888 . . . 1889 . . . 1889-90 . . 1890-91 . . 1891-92 . . 1892-93 . . 1893-94 . . 1894-95 1 • 1S95-96 . . 1896-97 . . 1897-98 . . Total . . 6 10 10 8 II 5 9 I 25 14 32 51 158 267 139 266 154 139 39 600 498 1,201 20 61 lOI 77 120 62 TOO 23 182 158 484 3 13 35 18 30 22 28 4 36 28 122 74 232 403 234 416 238 267 66 818 684 1,807 5 8 7 10 7 5 10 2 17 13 24 79 240 410 244 423 243 277 68 835 697 1,831 \From Jan. to / Dec. /Jan., Feb., and \ March only. Fromist April ■to 31st March. 131 3,512 1,388 339 5,239 108 5,347 ^ No inspection was made. 272 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES The above table sbows that, during the ten years of inspec- tion, the Residency Surgeon inspected 5347 cases, of which 108 were found unsuccessful, or 97.98 per cent, successful cases. The other table is attached to show the amount of work done by the vaccinators in the State. Table Shotving Total Number Vaccinated in Sirohi State from 1887 to the end of March 1898. Year, All Vaccinations. ! Male. Female. Total. 1887 1,304 1,030 2,334 1888 . 2,311 1,9^3 4,274 1889 . 1 1,029 831 1,860 1889-90 1 1,623 i>355 2,978 1890-91 2,004 1,826 3,830 1891-92 2,263 1,883 4,146 1892-93 2,089 1,726 3,815 1893-94 2,154 1,776 3,930 1894-95 2,094 1,775 3,869 1895-96 2,293 1,93' 4,224 1896-97 2,250 1,901 4,151 1897-98 1,812 1,602 3,414 To tal . • 23,226 19,599 42,825 The cost per vaccination for the above period, taken to- gether, has been as nearly as possible i anna and 5.14 pies. Small-Pox Mortality, 1894- 97, Sirohi City. Months. 1894. 1896. 1896. 1897. Four TIT p„„ Years. *^ ^^" Order of Month in Mortality. January , February March . 2 13 2 2 0.50 13 3-25 2 , 0.50 2 I 3 April May June ::: I I I '• 0.25 I ' 0.25 5 6 July August . September October , 1 ... ... ... November ... December 2 2 0.50 4 Total I ... J ... 3 18 21 5.25 VACCINATION 273 Jaisalmir. — Vaccination was commenced in Jaisalmir in 1890, and the children of the capital, as well as in some of the towns, are now well protected. It will, however, take much time to make it general in a country of over 16,000 square miles in area, with a semi-nomadic population, and little money to spare for such a purpose. Four vaccinators are now employed, under the Hospital Assistant as superintendent, and the Residency Surgeon, Western Rajputana States, supervises much of the work on the way to and from Jaisalmir city, when he makes his annual visit to that capital. The following are tabular statements of vaccmation seen and done in the State from the year 1890-91 to 1897-98. The first table shows that, during the seven years of inspection, the Residency Surgeon inspected 1597 cases, of which 28 were found unsuccessful, or 98.25 per cent, success- ful cases. The second table is given to show the amount of work done by the vaccinators in the State. Statement {No. i) showing Vaccination Work Inspected hy the Super- intendent {Residency Surgeon) from 1890-91 up to the end of Season 1898 {2,1st March). Year. Successful Cases 1§ §02 Total Seen Remarks. Three Two Que Good ' Good Good Total. m M Marks. Marks. Mark. ^6 1890-91 . 52 8 7 67 I 1 From 1st April 1891-92 . I 26 22 6 54 31 I 1892-93 . 1893-94 1 . 3 15 12 4 4 53 35 1 to 31st March. 1894-95 • 1895-96 . I 9 45 245 3 69 I 17 49 331 I 6 50 337 1896-97 . 12 171 30 9 210 4 214 838 1.597 1897-98 . Total . 18 644 150 33 827 i I 46 1,198 294 17 1.569 28 ^ No inspection was made. 274 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement shoiving Total Number Vaccinated in Jaisalmir State from 1890-91 to the end of March 1898. Year. 1 All Vaccinations. Male. Female. Total. 175 1 1890-91 .... 88 87 1891-92 125 123 248 ! 1892-93 1 353 301 654 1893-94 1 958 864 1,822 1894-95 : 1.775 1,443 3,218 1895-96 1,372 1,048 2,420 1896-97 671 52« IJ99 1897-98 1 990 767 i>757 Tota L f 6,332 5.I6I ii>493 The cost per vaccination for the above period, taken to- gether, has been as nearly as possible 2 annas and 2.08 pies. Small-Pox Mortality, 1894-97, Jaisalmir City. Months. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. Four Years. Mean. Order of Month in Blortality. January . Febriiary March 4 I •• I ... 5 I 1.25 0.25 ... 3 5 April May June I 30 12 I 30 13 I 7.50 3-25 0.25 I 2 6 July . August . ... 2 2 0.50 4 ... September October . '.'.'. November December 1 Total 6 46 i 52 13.00 VACCINATION 275 General Remarks on Vaccination. Arm-to-arm vaccination has been greatly practised in these States, but buft'alo lymph is now supplanting the old method, and the people like it better, as many of them have a strong objection to giving lymph from then* children to others. They think the taking away of lymph weakens the protection, and saps the strength of the infant to an injurious degree, and it sometimes makes the child cry, which appeals to parents and works against it. Arm-to-arm vaccination is, in my experience, when care- fully done, rarely followed by bad results. Specific disease is not readily communicated through lymph, and can never be communicated in this way when proper care is exercised. It gives a stronger vesicle and a better mark than buffalo lymph, especially when the latter is preserved in glycerine, and it still remains to be demonstrated that glycerine calf lymph affords equal protection from small-pox. The vaccination season commences at the end of September and ends at the beginning of April, as the hot weather and rains are not well suited for the work. In the hot months it is difficult to keep the lymph in the very dry, high temperature which prevails, and, in the rains, ulceration at the seat of vaccination often occurs; besides, flies irritate the children, and often carry the lymph to other parts of the body, and produce ulcers and inflammation wherever there is an abrasion. Lymph is kept up in some cool place during the hot weather and rains, so as to be available for the early season, but no attempt is made to push vaccination further at these times, on account of the unsatisfactory results above mentioned, Re-vaccination has not been much practised in these States, as the people are more opposed to it than to the primary protection. They have been long accustomed to 276 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES inoculation, which no one would think of repeating, so they are unable to realise that a second vaccination could be called for, and it will take a long time to get them over this prejudice. Inspection of vaccination is carried out as much as possible during the cold season by both the Residency Surgeon and the other inspectors, and the people have quite got over the objection of showing their children when asked to, as most of them now recognise the good effects that vaccination has had on small-pox epidemics. SANITATION JoDHPORE. — A Conservancy system for Jodhpore city was attempted in 1875 under two Darogas, but it was not a success. It was again reorganised in 1882. However, the Residency head-quarters were then at Erinpura, and Httle was done till 1884, when an advance was made and a Municipal Committee appointed by Colonel Sir Pratap Singh, with the Residency Surgeon as President, to look after the public health and the cleaning of the city, to settle disputes, to prevent encroachments on the public streets and thoroughfares, and transact other municipal business. A Municipal Secretary was appointed, a grant of Rs. 1500 per mensem placed at the disposal of the Municipal Committee, and a staff of sweepers engaged ; rubbish carts were purchased, and latrines for males and females, as an experiment, erected. The system worked well, and was steadily extended. In 1885 carts for the conveyance of rubbish and filth were in daily use, and the city was then described as " now fairly clean." The Committee made the following bye-laws during the same year : — 1. Respectable citizens to carry lights and go unmolested at night. 2. Camels carrying stones for building purposes to be allowed to enter the city from 1 1 a.m. to 3 p.m. 3. Shopkeepers to erect iron shades instead of the grass chhappars, as now in use, in front of their shops. 4. Dundnees to have permission to remove the urine from their houses at night according to custom, provided they do 277 278 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES not create a nuisance or cause inconvenience in the neigh- bourliood. 5. Adulterated sugar found in the possession of confec- tioners and traders to be confiscated and the owners fined. 6. Large slabs and stones not to be allowed to remain on the public roads, and all building materials to be removed as soon as the buildings or repairs have been completed. 7. Halwais having fires outside their shops to be compelled to remove the ashes, or to pay the Committee for having this done. By the end of the next year, six sets of latrines on an extensive scale had been opened. These were well kept and much appreciated by the people. The night-soil was regularly removed to fields some two miles away from the city, on both its east and west sides, and there trenched into the soil. Ten more latrines were opened in 1887, and the ten conservancy carts then in use reinforced by twenty more. In 1888 the sets of latrines rose to eighteen, and were used by all classes except Srimali Brahmins. In 1889 their number was raised to twenty ; and in this year the proposal to have a light railway for the more complete removal of refuse was taken into consideration. By the end of 1890 two new sets of latrines had been added to those abeady in use in the city ; the Fort had been cleaned, and its drainage put into a better sanitary condition. Ten new municipal carts were purchased, and the staff of sweepers made up to the present strength. The light railway has recently been completed ; it is working very satisfactorily, and has done away with the difiiculty, so long experienced, of obtaining buftalo carriage. It also allows of the night-soil and debris of the city being carried well beyond city limits. The Jodhpore cultivators will not make any use of night-soil, as they say it burns up the crops in this dry climate. The problem of its disposal has therefore been rendered somewhat difficult. It is proposed to use incinerators SANITATION 279 to consume the rubbish, as soon as they can be provided, and this will effect a considerable saving in carriage. The Conservancy staff is now regularly paid, and the Municipal Committee, consisting of a secretary and twenty- three influential members, presided over by the Residency Surgeon, with the City Kotwal as vice-president, take con- siderable interest in sanitation. Consequently the progress, made during recent years in this direction, has been marked and steady. For purposes of conservancy, the city and suburbs are divided into four circles, and these into two subdivisions each. There are one Daroga, three Jamadars, twenty-four sweepers, and three buffaloes set apart for each circle. In addition to this, a special staff is also kept up for the palace, bungalows of officials, and other houses outside municipal limits ; and there is a gang of sweepers and Belddrs employed under a Daroga and Jamadar on the trenching grounds, which are about five miles from the city. Four Jamadars are employed specially to look after the private or " Birat " sweepers, and to punish them for any neglect or infringement of municipal rules. The principal bazaars and suburbs are daily cleaned by municipal sweepers ; the lanes, enclosures, and private latrines by " Birat " sweepers. The city sweepings are removed by both municipal and " Birat " sweepers to the nearest public latrines, and loaded into waggons to be taken off to the trenching grounds. Some of the sweepers use buffalo-car- riage, others carry the refuse in baskets, as the streets are in many places too narrow for carts. There are at present thirteen double sets of public latrines for males and females within municipal limits, with a total of 701 seats for males and 658 for females. Srimali Brahmins still hold that it is contrary to their religious views to use latrines ; so a place has been set apart by the Committee to 280 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES which they generally resort for purposes of nature, and the ground is regularly cleaned. Notwithstanding the latrine accommodation provided in convenient localities throughout the city and suburbs, some of the people, especially the Pushkarna Brahmins, are still averse to using them. A careful watch has therefore to be kept over such people, to prevent the infringement of muni- cipal rules. The excreta from the public latrines is removed to the tramway collecting station in closed-up waggons drawn by buifaloes, and thence conveyed to the trenching ground by a steam-engine, when a train has been made up from these and the " Birat " sweepers' collections. The ■' Birat " arrangement is not so perfect nor so satis- factory as it ought to be ; but any other would be attended with great expense, which could not be borne by municipal funds. These " Birat " sweepers are paid very little in money for their labours by the owners or occupiers of houses. They mostly get refuse food from theh masters. Some of the well- to-do, however, pay a monthly salary and give old clothes in addition. At certain seasons all sweepers receive small money allowances. The tramway runs round the city walls in two directions, and emerges fi-om it on the south side. A short distance from the city wall, through which it passes, there is a changing station in an open space where the trains are made up. Buffalo draft is used up to this station, as it would endanger the safety of the people to take the engines inside the city. The trains are made up at the changing station twice a day, and taken off to a distance of nearly five miles, where the refuse is burnt and the night-soil trenched into the ground. On the return of the trains the waggons are taken back by buffaloes to sidings near the public latrines to be refilled. The waggons are taken out from the latrines in the early morning and late SANITATION 281 at night, so as not to disturb the citizens. On account of the scarcity of water for irrigation, and the prejudices of the people, no advantage has yet been taken of the trenching grounds for crops. In order to prevent rabies, the Municipahty take charge of stray dogs, which are fed by the townspeople at a place without the city, where they are confined and the sexes separated. The grant of Rs. 1 5 00 per mensem has recently been increased by the Darbar to Rs.2000, to meet the increasing sanitary requirements of the city of Jodhpore. The following are the chief items of expenditure : — Rs. T. Head office and Municipal Secretary 140 2. General cleanings .... 577 3* Public latrines ..... 242 4- Tramway and trenching grounds . 317 5- Preservation of city tanks 40 6. Suburbs ...... 309 7- Conservancy workshop .... 50 8. Englisb coal ..... 50 9- Repairing public latrines and making pans 200 10. Miscellaneous items .... 75 Total 2000 There is a Darbar grant of Rs. 1 00 per mensem given for the sanitation of Pali, an important town forty miles from Jodhpore on the Jodhpore- Bikanir Railway ; and this, augmented by subscriptions from the people, keeps up a staff of sweepers, carts, and animals for the conservancy of the town. Some of the well-to-do in other large towns in Marwar contribute towards the sanitation of their towns, but village sanitation is mostly backward. However, in most places greater atten- tion is now being given to the protection of drinking-water, and to many other sanitary precautions than hitherto ; and 282 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES it is hoped that the spread of education among the people will have a good effect in this direction. The vaccination staff is trained in elementary sanitation, to advise the villagers (among whom their ordinary work lies) in the protection of the water supply, the prevention of epidemics, and other matters connected with public health. The Resi- dency Surgeon travels a good deal in the district, and points out to the officials and headmen sanitary defects which can be remedied. Sanitation in Sirohi and Jaisalmir is still in a very primi- tive state. Most of the people resort to the jungle for purposes of nature, and there is no well-organised sanitary staff, although cleaning-up is done in both capitals. The house-latrines are regularly cleaned by " Birat " sweepers, and the streets receive some attention on special occasions. However, the burst of the monsoon is too often relied upon to thoroughly clean the streets and lanes. In 1891—92 steps were taken to improve the sanitary arrangements at Sheoganj, on account of the proximit}' of the Erinpura cantonment, and this town is now fairly clean. The sanitary arrangements of Mount Abu and Abu Road are under well-organised departments, already referred to. DISPENSARY TOWNS IN STATES JODHPORE STATE. Pali. Pali, the commercial capital of Marwar, is situated forty miles south-east of Jodhpore, on the main road between Ahmedabad and Ajmere ; it has long been the chief commercial mart of Western Rajputana. The principal trade carried on is that of dyeing woollen, silk, and cotton cloths. Cloth-stamping is carried on, and there is considerable work in ivory. The town is built of burnt bricks, no stone being readily procurable in the neighbourhood. It now contains about 20,000 inhabitants, but it had a much greater population at one time, and silk- dyeing was then largely carried on. It has acquired an unen- viable notoriety as the place of origin of the rat-fever or Indian plague of 1836 {vide "Note on Plague"). In the civil wars that formerly raged in Marwar, the pos- session of Pali, from the commercial character of its inhabitants, was of great importance, and at the desire of the trading classes a fortification was raised, which still exists, although in places broken down. As an emporium its reputation is of an ancient date, and politically it is connected with the establish- ment of the reigning family of Marwar. A community of Brahmins at one time held Pali in grant from the princes of Mandore, whence comes a numerous class termed Palliwal Brahmins, most of whom follow mercantile pursuits. It was at the beginning of the thirteenth century that Siaji, the founder of the Rathorc dynasty, and son to the Raja of Kanauj, 284 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES passed Pali on his return to Dwarka from a pilgrimage to the Ganges, The Brahmins sent a deputation to ask him to relieve them from two great enemies to their repose, namely, the Minas of the Aravallis and the lions, which were then very numerous. Siaji relieved them from both, but the oppor- tunity to acquire land was too good to be lost, and on the festival of Holi he put the leading Brahmins to death and took possession of Pali. The climate is fairly good; the water supply good and abundant. Many of the people are very well-to-do, but malarial fevers are somewhat more prevalent than in the dry and sandy parts of Marwar. The Pali Dispensary was opened in February 1865. In 1897, 21 in-patients and 7363 out-patients were treated, and 447 operations performed in it. Jasole. Jasole is a town of about 4000 inhabitants, situated on the Luni river, two miles from Balotra Railway Station. Most of its people are engaged in agriculture. The town is naturally well drained, as part of it is located on the slope of a hill ; the subsoil is hard, and the water supply is good and abundant. Kher, the ancient capital of Mallani, was situated a short distance from the site now occupied by Jasole, and there are ruins of another once important town adjacent, viz., Nagar. Jasole rose as these towns decayed, and it now con- tains the descendants of some of the earliest Rathore settlers in this country. Rao Asthanji conquered this part of Mallani shortly after the Rathores settled at Pali, and occupied Kher and the adjacent country. Tilwara, where the great Mallani fair is annually held, is about ten miles from Jasole, up the Luni river. This fair lasts a fortnight, and great sales of bullocks, camels, and horses are effected at it. The water of DISPENSARY TOWNS IN STATES 285 the Luni is believed by many to become sweet during the time of the fair, for the convenience of the large gathering of people which takes place there to do honour to the memory of Mallinath, as well as for purposes of business and pleasure. The fair is held at the end of March, and then the bed of the Luni is dry, except in a few places where there are brackish pools. Abundance of good water can, however, be obtained at this season, by digging holes in the bed of the river at Til- wara, and during the fair each party has its own well within its camp — a very unusual convenience in Marwar ; conse- quently the legend of the sweetening of the water. Epi- demic disease very rarely breaks out at this fair, both on account of the good and abundant supply of water, and of the dryness of the surrounding country at the season when the fair is held. The Jasole Dispensary was opened in 1870; there were 69 in-patients and 4839 out-patients treated in it in 1897, and 289 operations performed. Every year, during the time the Mallani fair is being held, a branch dispensary from Jasole is opened in Tilwara for the convenience of the people there assembled. Nagore. Nagore, situated on the Jodhpore-Bikanir Railway, about ninety miles due north of Jodhpore, is a large, walled, irregu- larly built city, formerly the capital of the northern portion of Marwar, and still containing the fort and palace of the former rulers. At least one quarter of the city is now in ruins, pre- senting a confused mass of fallen houses and of debris, such as one might expect to encounter in some city of the dead, but scarcely to be seen in a town containing some 20,000 inhabitants. There are several handsomely carved sandstone houses, generally the property of merchants engaged in amass- ing wealth elsewhere. 286 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Various sanguinary encounters have taken place at Nagore. Rao Chonda successfully attacked the Imperial garrison then located there, in the latter part of the fourteenth century. Again, in 1407 a.d., Rao Lakhman of Jaisahnh pre- tended to offer a daughter in marriage to Chonda, and went so far as to say, if he suspected aught unfair (there had long been a feud between the two families), he would, though con- trary to custom and his own dignity, send the Bhati princess to Nagore. The offer was accepted, and the wedding-party set out ; but the carriages supposed to convey the bride's corUge contained armed men. Chonda having come out to meet (as he thought) his bride, found out his inistake and commenced to retreat, but too late. The secreted men rushed out from their carriages, and Chonda was killed at the gate of Nagore. In A.D. I 561 Nagore was captured by Akbar, but was after- wards restored by him to the Rathores for services rendered by the chief. The manufacture of iron and brass pots and pans, locks, agricultural implements, camel-saddles, and many articles in domestic use, is still carried on in Nagore. There is a brisk export trade in these things. There is a good and fairly abundant water supply adjacent to the town. The climate is considered good, although the extremes of temperature are very great, the heat being intense in summer and frost common in winter. A dispensary was established at Nagore in July 1874; there were 80 in-patients and 5650 out-patients treated in it, and 305 operations performed in 1897. DiDWANA. The town of Didwana is the head-quarters of the Hakim of that district, and a great salt manufacturing centre. It is situated 140 miles north-east of Jodhpore, adjacent to a large Mosque, Xagore. Dispensaiy, Temples, and Mosque, Merta. I'o face page 2S6. DISPENSARY TOWNS IN STATES 287 salt lake, and is a large Availed town, said to contain about 12,000 inhabitants. There are no manufactures of importance except salt, which is largely produced for export, and the people depend greatly on this industry for their livelihood, supplemented by agriculture. The town is surrounded by a substantial stone wall, and the houses are well built of stone and lime. There are several good wells of sweet water with- out the walls, and on the south-west side of the town, opposite the salt lake, there is a small fresh- water tank, which lasts eight or nine months of the year. The town has fairly good natural drainage ; it is healthy, and comparatively free from malarial fever. The town dispensary of Didwana was established on the I St of January 1884; 3 in-patients and 1608 out-patients were treated, and 73 operations performed in it in 1897. There has been a N.I.S.R. Department Dispensary at the salt settlement since April 1878, and the Hospital Assistant in charge works the town dispensary as a branch, his other duties being very light. This dispensary is of great advantage to the villagers of this remote district, and it is worked at little cost to the Marwar Darbar. Merta. Merta, a walled town of about 8000 inhabitants, is the capital of Eastern Marwar. It was founded by Rao Dooda, fourth son of Rao Jodha, and added to by Rao Maldeo, who reigned from a.d. 1532 to a.d. 1569, and built the fort, called, after him, " Mai Kot." Merta has been the scene of many a hard fight, and the country around is covered with stone pillars erected to the memory of the gallant who fell in battle. It was at Dangarwas, about two miles distant, that, in a.d. 1790, the Mahrattas, under De Boigne, fought the Rathores. The great battle took place on the bund of a tank called Dangolai, and there is still to be seen a tomb erected to the 288 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES memory of a Frenclaman, a captain of infantry, wounded in the service of Maharaja Scindia on the iith September 1790, who died of his wounds on the 1 8th of the same month, aged sixty-one. The inscription is in French, on a white marble slab, still in a good state of preservation. Water is plentiful at Merta, there being numerous tanks all round the city, and wells are in abundance for irrigating gardens and fields. Merta was at one time a great trade centre, and there are still many fine stone carved houses, now vacant, although in good preservation, which were formerly occupied by merchants whose descendants have settled in Ajmere. The chmate is somewhat malarious and unhealthy at certain seasons, especi- ally after the monsoon. The soil is rich and very productive, and the population, now considerably reduced, are mostly engaged in agriculture. Country cloths, blankets, woollen mats, earthenware toys and vessels are the principal manu- factm'es. There are a handsome mosque and some fine temples in the town ; the fort is still well preserved. The Merta dispensary was established on the i st of January 1888. In 1897, 57 in-patients and 6859 out-patients were treated, and 328 operations performed in it. There is another dispensary at Merta Road (an important junction on the Jodhpore-Bikanir Railway) for railway em- ployes. It was opened on the ist of January 1897, in which year there were 1220 out-patients treated and 66 operations performed. The site of this settlement is very free from malaria and healthy, there being an abundant supply of good well-water available throughout the year. POHKARAN. The fort of this important town, the capital of the chief Thakar of Marwar, is said to have been constructed by Rao Maldeo, out of materials brought from Satelmir, an old town about two miles from Pohkaran, which he dismantled. DISPENSARY TOWNS IN STATES 289 Satelmir was built by Satal, the eldest son of Rao Jodha (after whom Jodhpore is named), on the top of a low ridge of hills. There is nothing left of the town now, except the ruins of an old Jain temple and a few old walls. Pohkaran is the chief town of the appanage of the premier baron or Thakar of Jodhpore, who holds the post of Pardhan to H.H. the Maharaja, which entitles him to hold the " morchhal " or peacock " chhaori " and to a seat in the " khawass " or behind the Maharaja on an elephant on all state occasions. All docu- ments, being grants of lands, villages, and substantial rank, granted by the Darbar, require the signature of this Thakar before they become absolute. His ancestors came from Bhinmal to Pohkaran in the time of Maharaja Abhai Singh, The present Thakar of Pohkaran was educated at the Mayo College, Ajmere. He is the only Thakar in Marwar who keeps up a dispensary, and his administration is advanced. The town is healthy ; the water supply good and abundant ; the population is about 10,000, a large proportion of whom is engaged in cultivation. The present Thakar of Pohkaran opened his dispensary on the 1st of January 1888; there were 4384 out-patients treated in it in 1897, and 327 operations performed. Jalore. Jalore, the chief town of the Southern Parganas of the Jodhpore State, is situated on the southern border of the vast sandy plain of Marwar, which stretches away for full 300 miles — broken only occasionally by low ranges of rocky hills — to the Indus on the west and the Satlaj on the north. It is a place of importance, famous in former ages for the strength of its fort and the many long and gallant sieges it withstood, defying the Mogul and other invaders. It was built early in the Christian era by the Pramtira dynasty, then all-powerful T 290 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES in Western India. Its walls, composed of huge masses of cut stone strongly cemented together by pure lime, remain in perfect preservation. The fort is about 800 yards in length and 400 in width. It crowns a rocky hill of an altitude of 1200 feet above the surrounding plain, and commands the town, which hugs the northern slope of the hill, on which the fort stands out in great magnificence. The main entrance of the fort lies on the town face of the hill, and leads up a steep slippery stone roadway, passing three distinct lines of defence, all of considerable strength, and having mounted guns directed from the outer face of the fort. A single rampart wall, about 20 feet in height, capable of supporting artillery, protects the fort on the side away from the entrance. This fort is amply supplied with sweet water from two excellent tanks within its walls. Jalore is eighty miles south of Jodhpore, on the banks of a small river, the Sokii. The original name of the town was Jallundar, and it was once the capital of the Chohan Rajas. The town, like the fort, is well supplied with water, and being situated on the slope of the hill, it is well drained except at one corner, below which it is damp and malarious. The population is about 10,000, engaged chiefly in agriculture and export of grain seeds, cotton, and wool. There are no manu- factures of importance, but country cloth, camel -saddles, some iron implements and domestic utensils are made in the town. The Jalore dispensary was opened on the ist of January 1888. In 1897, 106 in-patients and 3160 out-patients were treated, and 308 operations performed in it. Vesical calculus is a common ailment in the district, which in other respects is generally healthy, and fairly free from inalarial fevers, except after the monsoon season. DISPENSARY TOWNS IN STATES 291 BiLARA. Bilara, a walled town, is situated about forty-five miles east of Jodhpore city, near Banganga river. It is the headquarters of the district, and also of the Dewan Sahib, the spiritual head of the Sirvi community. Here he has his palace and some of his gods, and the magnificence of his court, as well as the money he brings to the town, adds greatly to its importance. There are several depressions adjacent to Bilara, and there was formerly considerable trade in salt in this town ; but the manufacture has been stopped, so the 13,000 inhabitants are now mostly engaged in ordinary trade and agriculture. The soil is productive and water plentiful in the district, which produces wheat, cotton, and seeds in abundance. The Luni river has had a dam thrown across it (by Mr. Home) where it passes through low hills about four miles from Bilara, and this has produced one of the finest artificial lakes in Rajputana. The town of Bilara is low-lying and at times water-logged. There is much irrigation about, and in consequence malarial fevers and spleen diseases are common ; but the people are well fed and prosperous, which enables them to withstand the malarial influences. The Bilara dispensary was opened in March 1890; there were 78 in-patients and 4056 out-patients treated, and 270 operations performed in it in 1897. Nawa. Nawa, the capital of the district and headquarters of the Hakim, is a walled town situated on the Sambhar lake. 140 miles north-east of Jodhpore. It is intimately connected with the salt trade of Sambhar, and has a population of 5126, many of whom are traders and bankers. The town is badly drained, and at certain seasons of the year outlying portions of it are flooded 292 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES with brackish water from the salt lake. There are some good wells in and about the town, and it is on the whole fairly healthy, probably owing to the salubrious breezes from Sambhar salt lake, There are no manufactures of any im- portance carried on in this town, and most of the people depend on the saltworks for a livelihood. This town has had a railway station for a long time, for the export of salt, which is large, and the Jodhpore-Bikanir Railway joins the Rajputana- Malwa Railway outside the town. A dispensary was opened at Nawa in 1891 ; there were 47 in-patients and 4791 out-patients treated in it in 1897, and 246 operations were performed. Jaswantpura. Jaswantpura (formerly Lohiana) is a small town at the foot of the Lohiana hill, a detached portion of the Aravallis, west of Mount Abu, and rising to a height of nearly 4000 feet above sea-level. The site of the town is rocky and fairly drained, but the adjacent ravines and parts of the hill are densely wooded. There is a good and abundant water supply from wells fed by a small stream adjacent. Nevertheless the in- habitants, numbering about 4000, suffer a good deal from mala- rial fevers and spleen diseases, on account of the proximity of the town to the hill. Anaemia and malarial jaundice are not uncommon. The houses are mostly substantially built of bricks with tiled roofs, and as the town is new, it has wide streets regularly laid out, and better ventilation than some of the older villages. The old town was destroyed a few years ago on account of the predatory habits of the Thakar and his Bhil following. The new town built in its stead is situated a little farther away from the hill, to render escape from it difficult. The people of the district are principally a wild variety of Rajputs and hill Bhils. They have only lately taken DISPENSARY TOWNS IN STATES 293 to agriculture, and would still prefer to live by brigandage, as they have done for generations. They are a hardy race, fond of strong drink and drugs, and have no great need of a dispensary. This is, however, useful to the many settlers who have been attracted to the place since the establishment of law and order, and to the large police force quartered there in their interests. A dispensary was established in the town in November 1 8 9 1 ; there were 3 9 in-patients and 3183 out-patients treated, and 256 operations performed in it in 1897. Balmer. Balmer, the present capital of Mallani and the head- quarters of the Hakim of the district, was founded by Bara Rao in the thirteenth century. It is a substantially built town on the side of a rocky hill, about sixty miles from Jasole, on the Pachbhadra-Umarkote Railway ; it contains about 6000 souls, is well drained on account of its position on the hill, and very healthy. The Rathores, long settled here, are so prolific that some of the best families have divided and sub- divided their lands till many of the descendants of Mallinath now hold ancestral estates of little more than " three acres and a cow." The Balmer Rajputs are of fine physique and features, and are good horsemen. They are little given to excess in wine and opium, and they live a great deal in the open air, which has no doubt helped to keep them well grown and healthy. There are no manufactures of any importance carried on in Mallani. Cattle and horse breeding is the most profitable industry, except on the banks of the Luni river, where wheat is grown in abundance. A dispensary was opened on the 23rd of May 1893 ; there were 12 in-patients and 2529 out-patients treated, and 190 operations performed in it in 1897. 294 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES The ruins of an ancient fort crown a hill above the town, which was of use as a refuge long ago. Phalodi. Phalodi, the headquarters of the Hakim of the district, is a large and flourishing town of about 1 2,000 inhabitants, situated eighty miles north and a little east of Jodhpore. This town at one time belonged to Jaisalmir, and afterwards to Bikanir, before it came into the hands of the Marwar Raj. It has a good water supply, is well drained and very healthy. Most of the houses are substantially built of stone and mortar, and some of them have beautifully carved sandstone fronts. There is' a fort of considerable strength, with well preserved battlements, in the centre of the town. It was built by Rao Hamira Nirawat, great-grandson of Rao Suja. There is a house still in the fort called by Hamira's name. The fort was added to by Rao Maldeo, who succeeded to the gaddi of Marwar in a.d. 1532, and it is now in good order, having been recently repaired. Many of the Banias of this town are very enterprising, and trade beyond the borders of India, bringing back much wealth to the town. Most of the women and children of Phalodi are unusually fair and good-looking. They dress well, and present a prosperous appearance. There is a salt marsh eight miles from Phalodi, where large quantities of salt were formerly manufactured and exported ; but the export trade has been discontinued, and little salt is now collected. There are no manufactures of importance carried on in this town, only a little work in camels' hair, wool, leather, and metal vessels. A dispensary was opened m Phalodi in September 1894, and before this there was a salt dispensary at the saltworks. In 1897 there were 24 in-patients and 4431 out-patients treated, and 395 operations performed in the town dispensary. DISPENSARY TOWNS IN STATES 295 Bali. Bali, a walled town, the capital of the Bali district in Godwar, is the headquarters of the Hakim, and is situated about eighty miles south-east of Jodhpore, near the Aravalli range of hills ; its population is about 6000. The district is very fertile, and many of the inhabitants are engaged in the cotton and grain trades. The town is fairly drained ; it has a good water supply, and is healthy. The houses are mostly substantial brick buildings with tiled roofs, and the people are generally well-to-do. There are line temples, beautifully carved, at the foot of the Aravalli range, not far from the town, to which many pilgrims resort. They are dedicated to Rampuri, and are almost unrivalled in carved figures. A dispensary was established in this town in March 1896. It has been well attended during the short time it has been opened, and promises to be of great service, both to the people of the town and the surrounding country. In I S97, 1 7 in-patients and 4 1 66 out-patients were treated, and 318 operations performed in it. Bhatki. Bhatki is a very small village near the Rann of Kutch, on the south-western border of Marwar ; the district is marshy and very malarious in many parts, as the Luni river overruns the country at this place during the monsoon. There are many salt marshes here, and formerly salt was exported from this part of the country; but this is now prohibited, and there is a salt revenue post here to prevent the manufacture of the article for export. A dispensary was opened at Bhatki for the use of the district in February 1897, and there has been a salt dis- pensary for the use of the people of the N.I.S.R. Department 296 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES there for a long time. One hospital assistant takes charge of both, and gets a small local allowance from the Marwar Darbar in addition to his Government pay for medical charge of the salt department. In 1897 there were 160 in-patients and 397 out-patients treated, and 5 3 operations performed in the district dispensary. The population is too sparse to give a large attendance at the dispensary. SOJAT. Sojat is a walled town of about 13,000 inhabitants, forty- five miles south-east of Jodhpore, and six miles from the Rajputana-Malwa Railway Station, loiown as Sojat Road. The surrounding country is productive, and there is consider- able trade in the town, which is healthy and naturally well drained. The houses are of stone and mortar, substantially built and well roofed. The handicrafts are the manufacture of saddles, swords, daggers, knives, scissors, and razors ; there is also trade in cotton, wool, grain, and drugs. The town is very old, and was once depopulated ; it suffered severely from plague in 1836, when it was infected by hundreds of refugees fi'om Pali after the outbreak of the Pali plague there. A dispensary was opened in this town in September 1897, and many people have already taken advantage of this, although the Sojat Raids, Hakims, and couchers are far famed for their great success in the healing art. These couchers travel all over Rajputana, Central India, Kathiawar, Sindh, and other parts, to perforin operations for cataract, with in- struments of the rudest manufacture. They operate in the lanes and streets under most adverse circumstances ; still they have some success in couching, although they destro}' numbers of eyes which might be saved under antiseptic precautions. Many of the people have absolute faith in their skill, and pay them considerable fees for performing operations which they DISPENSARY TOWNS IN STATES 297 could have properly done free of charge at the dispensaries > such is the force of habit and the disinclination to change among the people of this country. In 1897, 5 in-patients and 986 out-patients were treated, and 43 operations performed in the dispensary. Shergarh. Shergarh was long held in j'ajiri by Deorajot Rajputs, but it is now khalsa, and the headquarters of a Hakim. Its original name was Serra, called after a well sunk by Seroori, a maid-servant of one of these Rajputs. Shergarh is situated forty-six miles north-west of Jodhpore ; it contains 275 houses, of which 40 belong to Mahajans and 150 to cultivators, principally Rajputs. There is a good well in the town, which is worked by bullocks ; it is about i 5 o feet deep. The soil is dry and sandy, and sandhills, known as " tibas," surround the town. There are two temples in the town, one of which has only recently been built, and the new dispensary recently opened is the most imposing feature of the place, as most of the people live in huts. Desuri. Desuri is a walled town situated about sixteen miles to the east of Bali in Godwar, at the foot of a hill of the same name. It was at a very early period in the possession of Baorecha Chohans, who were expelled by Solankhi Rajputs. The latter ultimately became the Jagirdars of the Rana of Meywar, and the ancient buildings, some of which still exist, are said to have been erected by these Solankhi Rajputs. This village was confiscated and made khalsa in Sambat, 1927 (a.d. 1 871), previous to which it was held by the Thakar of Rupnagar. It is now the headquarters of a small 298 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Hakumat which was lately established there, owing to the predatory habits of the Minas of the surrounding country. Its population is about 4000, consisting chiefly of Mahajans, Sirvis, Srimali Brahmins, Bhils, and Minas, mostly cultivators. The soil is rich clay, but it is hard and requires copious rains ; the well-water is sweet. The natural drainage of this town is fairly good and the people are generally healthy. A small river passes the town and feeds a number of wells used for irrigation. Desuri was the favourite Shikargah of the late Maharaja. It has a small fortress on a hill above the town, a garden, and a bungalow, sometimes occupied in the shooting season. A dispensary is shortly to be opened there. BRITISH INSTITUTIONS IN MARWAR STATE. Western Rajputana States Residency Hospital. It is the oldest institution, having been established in 1840. (For further particulars vide " Hospitals and Dispensaries at Jodhpore,") N.I.S.R. Pachbhadra Dispensary. Pachbhadra is a flourishing town on the Jodhpore-Bikanir Railway, about sixty miles south-west of Jodhpore city. Its population is about 8000, and there is considerable trade carried on in it on account of its proximity to the salt tract. A dispensary was opened at the salt station in January 1879, for the use of the officials and employes there, and arrange- ments have since been made to allow the hospital assistant in charge to treat any villagers who apply for medical aid. In 1897 there were 1434 out-patients and 6y in-patients treated, DISPENSARY TOWNS IN STATES 299 and 79 operations performed in it. There is a Government observatory at this station, in charge of the hospital assistant. It is one of the hottest stations in India. The fresh-water supply fails nearly every summer, and water has then to be carried by trains from a distance of ten or twelve miles. N.I.S.R. Bhatki Dispensary. The salt dispensary at Bhatki was opened on the ist of April 1 89 1. There were 55 indoor and 269 outdoor patients treated, and 7 operations performed in it in 1897^ (For further particulars vide, " Dispensary Towns in Marwar State.") N.I.S.R. DiDWANA Dispensary. The Didwana salt dispensary was opened on the ist of April 1878. There were 41 indoor and 582 outdoor patients treated, and 23 operations performed in it in 1 897. (For further particulars vide " Dispensary Towns in Marwar State.") SIROHI. Sheoganj. — Sheoganj (besides the capital) is the only dis- pensary town of the Sirohi State, and it is situated outside the Erinpura cantonments. It was founded by Sheo Singh in 1854, and has a population of about 5000, There is con- siderable trade in this town on account of its proximity to Erinpura cantonment. The natural drainage of the town is fairly good, and there is a good and abundant supply of well-water. The houses are mostly brick built with tiled roofs ; the prin- cipal streets are wide, with rows of well-grown nim (Melia indica) trees running from end to end ; but there is no archi- tectural beauty in the town, the houses being mostly only substantial brick buildings of the plainest design. 300 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES A dispensary was opened in Sheoganj in 1893, in sucli a house as could be obtained ; but a new dispensary building has now been completed which will give good accommodation for in-patients, and an improved out-patient department is also attached. In 1897, 1903 out-patients were treated and 82 operations performed. Most of the important operations are performed in Erinpura cantonment by the medical officer and subordinates of the Erinpura Irregular Force. JAILS JoDHPORE. — Before 1874, prisoners at Jodhpore were ex- ceedingly badly accommodated. The jail was a part of the Kotwali, situated in the centre of the city, the space allowed to each prisoner being about enough to allow him to lie down. Little light or fresh air found admission into the reeking yard, in which generally over 300 men were huddled together, and there was no arrangement for washing, cooking, or conservancy. In fact, nothing more dreadful could be conceived, and the whole was an opprobrium to the State. In 1874 all this was completely remedied. The Political Agent brought the matter to the notice of His Highness the Maharaja, who at once agreed to the construction of a new prison, the necessity for which he saw. A large octagonal building, which had been erected for stables, was chosen, standing some 1000 yards outside the Sojat gate of the city. By running up partition- walls from the angles of the octagon to meet a central ring, wards were obtained, and a central tower and passage were constructed at the junction. Of the eight wards, seven were occupied, the other was fitted with a gate and porch for the entrance to the prison. Each division consisted of a large open yard with a series of deep sheds or roofed-in arcades in which the prisoners slept ; these dormitories were 118 feet long by 1 8| feet wide, and 9! feet high. Cook-houses and latrines were provided in the enclosures, and, later, a supply of water was procured from a well sunk outside the jail walls for drinking and washing purposes. In 1884 the refuse water from the jail was utilised for a garden at a short distance from the 301 302 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES prison, and from which some country vegetables were obtained for the prisoners. Bathing phitforms were built in each en- closure a short time afterwards, and the night-chain, which was run through the top ring of the fetters of each prisoner, tying the entire population of each dormitory together, was abolished in 1887. This was a marked advance in jail man- agement, and it was followed by the formation of a hospital and a separate ward for female prisoners. An experienced Daroga from Allahabad jail was retained, as the next step forward, to introduce discipline and industries amongst the convicts, who were now fed on regular rations at the expense of the Darbar, and some of whom were at first employed in making a new road round the city. Medical aid was afforded from the Second Branch Dispensary ; 457 jail patients were treated in the first year, the mortality being 65 per mille, which was an improvement on previous years. This adap- ted jail was in use as the State prison for about fifteen years, when it became so overcrowded and unhealthy that it had to be abandoned, and a new one built on modern hygienic principles, which now affords greater and better accommoda- tion. By 1892 barracks for a large new jail had been con- structed, but several subsidiary buildings were still required before they could be occupied. There had been overcroAvding throughout the year in the old jail; the death-rate was 62.46 per 1 000. Dysentery, diarrhoea, and lung diseases were so pre- valent that it was imperative to get the prisoners out of it as soon as possible. The new jail was taken into occupation in March 1894, and the health of the prisoners soon showed improvement. It was described then by a local authority as one of the finest jails in Rajputana, well situated, Avell con- structed, and able to accommodate 1000 prisoners. The hos- pital was at that time still outside the main prison wall, but it is now included. Pipe water from Balsamand reservoir was laid on to all sections of the jail, and an improved jail garden JAILS 303 was started. The result of the transfer to this jail, as well as of the improved water supply, was a material improvement in the health of the prisoners; the death-rate fell from 43.35 in 1893 to 30.04 per mille in 1894. The provision of accom- modation for prisoners appeared to be ample when the jail was built. The jail population has, however, been rapidly- increasing; in 1894 it averaged 765.57 per diem; in 1895 it rose from 794.70 in January to 849.22 in December, averag- ing 814.10 for the year; and in 1896 the average daily strength in the first quarter was 858.38; in the second, 934.04, and for the third quarter, 1013.44. Additional accommodation was then asked for to provide ( i ) a ward for under- trial prisoners; (2) a ward for female prisoners, with an hospital attached; (3) cook-rooms; and (4) store-rooms. In the meantime, the excessive population of the new jail was accommodated in the old jail. In 1897, the Jubilee, the birthday of the Queen Empress, and the birthday of His Highness the Maharaja had all been taken advantage of to reduce the jail population. Still it continues to be excessive, and more accommodation must now be provided. The Mallani prisoners were confined in a jail at Jasole till 1895, when, on the recommendation of the Residency Surgeon, they were removed to the new jail at Jodhpore. This jail was badly planned, ill-ventilated, and incapable of accommodating more than half the prisoners usually confined in it. So its abolition has been an undoubted advantage to the prisoners of that district. A table is given showing average strength of prisoners, admissions into hospital, deaths, &c., for the thirteen years 1885-97- 304 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement of Strength, Admissions into Hospital, Deaths, Sfc, in Jodhpore Jail, from 1885-97. Carpets, darries, paper, blankets, towels, and cane chairs are made in the jail, and the Marwar printing-press and ice machine are worked by prisoners. The insanes, formerly confined in the jail, are now treated in a lunatic asylum set apart for themselves, and this is an advance of much importance. SiROHi. — The Su'ohi jail is a new building, constructed on modern hygienic principles, and capable of accommodating 300 prisoners. It is located on a healthy site, well away from the town. It is well supplied with water, and has a good vegetable garden attached. A table is given showing average strength of prisoners, admissions into hospital, deaths, &c., for the thu'teen years 1885-97- The Sirohi prisoners were formerly confined in an old and ill-ventilated stable under the fort, so the new jail is a marked improvement. JAILS 305 Statement of Strength, Admissions into Hospital, Deaths, ^c, in Sirohi Jail, from 1885-97. Years. Average Strength. Admis- sions into Hospital. Admis- sions per Mille of Strength. Average Daily Sick. Deaths. Deaths per Mille of Strength. Remarks. 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 ! 1892 1893 1894 189s 1896 1897 . 47.55 61.99 63.62 68.81 77.68 92.02 93-36 117.32 127.50 131-15 124.57 133-43 102.5s 1241.55 95-50 143 192 190 167 283 356 294 213 137 154 155 126 83 3007.36 3097.27 2966.48 2426.97 3643-15 3868.72 3149.10 1815-55 1074.51 1174.23 1244.28 944-32 809.36 6.49 8.92 7.42 6.81 12.39 17.94 II. 61 8.61 6.37 8.40 9.08 8.10 4-85 4 3 4 I 4 3 6 8 8 64.52 38.61 43-46 10.71 34.09 23-53 45-75 64.22 59.96 Tota Aver age 2493 191.77 29221.30 2247.79 116.99 9.00 41 3-15 384.85 29.60 Jaisalmir. — All tlie prisoners of the State are confined at the capital. The building occupied by the prisoners was not originally built for a prison, but it has been adapted from time to time, and is now fairly comfortable, well ventilated, and well kept. It is in the form of a quadrangle, with the dormitories along two sides ; there is a considerable open space between them and the fort wall, which forms another boundary. It is a great improvement on the cells in the basement of the fort which were formerly set apart for criminals. A table is given showing average strength of prisoners, admissions into hospital, deaths, &c., for the four years 1894-97. The insanes have been removed from this jail, and a lunatic asylum provided outside, which affords superior accom- modation for these helpless creatures. u 306 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement of Strength, Admissions into Hospital, Deaths, Sfc, in Jaisalmir Jail, from 1894-97. ' AveraM AdmiS- Years. ^ren^th ^»o»^ i'^*^" strength. 1 Hospital. Admis- sions per mile of Strength. Average Daily Sick. Deaths. Deaths per Mille of Strength. Remarks. 1894 . . ' 46.33 156 1895 . . 32.94 19s 1896 . . 46.11 205 1897 . . \ 41- 1 1 59 3367-15 5919-85 4445.89 1435-17 7.40 6.16 8.08 3-38 3 65.06 Total . 166.49 1 615 Average 41.62 \ 153.75 1 1 15168.06 3792.01 25.02 6.25 3 0-75 65.06 16.26 INSANES JoDHPORE. — The amount of insanity in Marwar is small ; insanes, according to the census of 1891, numbering only 836 (534 males and 302 females), or .0003 of the entire popula- tion. Female lunatics are 36.12 per cent, of all lunatics in Marwar. The number of insanes in Paro^anas ranged from I in 870 in Bilara Pargana to i in 24,000 in the Jodhpore By castes insanes were found as follows : — Pargana, Jd,ts . Mahajans Brahmins Rajputs . Mussulmans Kumbars Sddhs . Bhils ChAkars . Chdrans . Other castes 85 83 78 76 67 49 25 25 31 16 Males. Females 49 36 52 31 50 28 55 21 45 22 33 16 20 5 17 8 18 13 9 7 186 115 The census disclosed no insanity among Gujars, Chhipas, and Khatis. The forms of insanity most frequently met with appear to be mania, melancholia, and dementia. Idiocy does not very frequently present itself. The predisposing causes of insanity are said to be mainly drugs and sexual excess, and probably also financial difficulties. As regards treatment, insanity being looked upon by the upper classes as detrimental to the family name and matri- monial prospects, their insanes are often kept quite secluded, 307 308 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES and, when necessary, under restraint ; but, on the whole, they are kindly treated. Among the lower classes the insanes are found chiefly amongst beggars, mendicants, and Sadhus, addicted to drugs, particularly hemp. If not a public nuisance, such persons are left alone to subsist on the charity of their friends or of the public, and are not ill treated ; but if they prove a nuisance, they are placed under restraint, and detained in quarters specially prepared for them in the old jail building. Part of this building has recently been changed, and adapted for a lunatic asylum, with male and female warders appointed to administer to the wants of the inmates. The expenses of these lunatics are defrayed by the State, and they are made as comfortable as possible. SiROHi. — There are but few insanes in Sirohi State, and for financial reasons dangerous lunatics have hitherto been con- fined in a separate compartment in the jail. A new lunatic asylum, with accommodation for male and female insanes, is now about to be built, and the jail will cease to be used for them. Harmless insanes are generally taken charge of by their rela- tions, but some are allowed to go about and depend on the charity of the people ; they are iiiostly kindly treated. The insanes, according to the census of 1891, number only 85 (50 males and 35 females), or .0004 of the entire population. By castes insanes were found as follows : — Mali . Thakar Mina . Grasia Brahmin Charan Bhdt . Mahajan Sonar Males. I 4 I I 2 I 10 3 Females. INSANES Males. Females Lohar 2 I KhAti 2 Darzi . 2 Rabari 2 Teli . 3 2 Kunibar 5 4 Chamar I 2 Sil^wat Unspecified 2 12 13 mi Total p^ • 5° 1 1 35 r-1 i 309 Jaisalmir. — There are few insanes in this State, and they are generally taken charge of by their relations, or allowed to beg about the bazaars. A new building, with accommodation for both males and females, has now been completed, and insanes found wandering about the streets will, in future, be confined in it, and humanely treated. Insanes, according to the census of 1891, numbered only 44 in the whole State, (33 males and 11 females), or .0004 of the entire population. By castes insanes were found as follows : — Rajputs Brahmins . Mahajans Unspecified . Males. 6 Females 2 4 2 2 21 7 Total 33 METEOROLOGY There are three meteorological observatories in these States, viz., one at Mount Abu, one at Pachbhadra, and one at Jodh- pore. The two former are maintained by the Government of India, the latter by the Jodhpore Durbar. The observatory at Jodhpore was established on the loth October 1896, and since that time regular observations have been recorded. It is situated in an open plain, 788 feet above sea-level, and is connected with the Jaswant College, The wind blows almost persistently fi'om north-east from the month of November to February, but is variable during the months of March and April ; while a regular south-west wind prevails, as a rule, from May to October. Most violent hot winds blow in the months of May and June. Dust and thunderstorms are frequent during May, June, and July. The highest wind velocity in the year 1897 in twenty-four hours was 296.8, while the lowest was 20.7 miles in the same time. The barometric pressure, since the establishment of the observatory, has ranged between 29.546 inches and 28.776 inches. The hottest period is from the middle of May to the middle of June, and the coldest month is January. In 1897 rain fell in the months of June, July, August, September, and October, giving a total of 15.64 inches of rain for the year; while in 1898 it rained in the months of June, July, September, and December, giving only a total of 9.15 inches. The country is very subject to a capricious rainfall. 310 METEOROLOGY 311 All tlie Parganas of Marwar are now supplied with rain- gauges, and returns regularly submitted to the Secretariat Office of the Musahib Ala. In Jaisalmir State there are also rain-gauges in some Parganas, but the returns appear to have been very care- lessly kept. Weather records are kept at Erinpura, which is adjacent to Sirohi, and the rainfall recorded there may be taken for the Sirohi State. The following tables show daily readings of the maximum and minimum dry thermometers and the dry and wet bulbs from loth October 1896 to 30th November 1898 at Jodhpore. Daily readings of the solar and grass radiation thermometers from 14th October 1896 to the end of the year 1898 at Jodhpore. Daily readings of the barometric pressure from loth October 1896 to 30th November 1898 at Jodhpore. Seven tables showing the amount of rainfall registered in twenty-three Parganas of Marwar for the years 1891-97, and a table showing rainfall of Jodhpore city for the twelve years 1887-98. Five tables showing the amount of rainfall registered in three Parganas of Jaisalmir for the years 1895—97, and two Parganas for 1894-97 — the only records available. Statements showing rainfall, barometer, mean temperature, and wind direction for the ten years 1889-98 at Mount Abu. A statement showing mean temperature and rainfall for the ten years 1888-97 at Erinpura. Statements showing rainfall of Sirohi and Jaisalmir cities for the seven years 1891-97. 312 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement slwicing the Maximum and Minimum Temperature Oct. 1896. Nov. 1896. I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 »3 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 Max. Min. j Max. Min. Dec. 18 99.0 70.9 98.3 64.4 98.3 65.0 99.3 68.9 X00.9 61. s 99-9 61.5 100.4 65-5 98.5 66.8 98.9 66.7 97-9 63-9 99.6 62.4 97-3 64.1 97.0 69.1 97-7 67.4 97-5 69.8 98.2 66.1 99.1 64.0 99-3 62.0 98.5 64.0 96.7 63-5 95-4 62.3 94.0 62.0 92.4 93-1 91.4 91.4 93-8 97-3 98.1 96.0 94-7 95-7 96.8 97.0 97.1 93-2 93-2 90.9 90.9 90.8 91.9 90.0 79.0 61.0 63.0 72.0 75-5 79.0 83-9 85.2 85.1 83.1 Max. i Min. Jan. 1897. Feb. 1897. Max. Min 65.6 66.0 60.0 59-1 59.8 59-9 64.2 69.5 68.0 70.3 68.5 69.5 67.9 69-3 65.0 62.6 ' 64.0 64.6 65.6 65.4 57.8 58.0 53-0 j 55-6! 56.0 60.8 58.1 62.9 60.0 56.9 79-5 80.8 82.9 83-4 83.1 83-9 S3. 1 83.5 85.8 85.2 85-9 79-9 80.8 79.1 78.9 82.8 80.5 79.0 79.4 78.1 76.9 79-9 79.1 79-2 73-9 74.0 74.0 66.2 73-8 72.1 69.9 52.9 47-5 48.7 54.6 53-4 56.0 55-9 57-3 48.9 49.2 49.0 50-4 49.1 53-1 48.9 48-5 47.8 49.6 51-7 50.8 49-7 50.7 46.1 53-9 38.3 47.0 48.9 52.5 47-9 42.9 44.1 70.3 71.2 72.9 73-2 74-8 81.7 81.9 81.0 85.9 86.9 87.8 79-7 77-7 76.9 60.6 62.6 59-9 64.4 76.9 70.1 71-5 71.9 74.2 76.1 81.5 79-7 79.0 76.8 76.9 79.0 81.S 46.9 47.2 49-5 51-7 50.1 47-4 55-7 58.7 54-3 52.0 58.4 47.6 48.8 53-5 34-5 39-1 38.5 46.5 45- 1 47.8 50.0 48. S 48.9 55-1 49-5 58.1 47-9 46.0 48.9 52.8 53-0 Max. i Min. March 1897. Max. Min 79.6 75-9 77.7 76.0 76.9 81. 1 82.0 76.9 80.3 79-9 81.7 80.5 74-5 76.1 78.0 79.8 81.7 80.0 82.9 85-5 87.9 91.8 91.7 91.9 75-1 76.8 81.0 82.9 52.8 53-4 5'. 3 54.0 55-9 50.4 58.0 54-0 56.2 56.5 48.4 45-1 49-4 52.0 52.7 48.2 46.3 56.2 52.1 48.8 48.1 49-9 52.0 59-5 40-3 49-9 44-5 47.6 84.4 84.9 81.7 88.8 92.0 88.9 93-8 91.4 90.0 84.1 82.8 83.5 84.9 92.7 96.9 97.8 96.9 94-7 96.9 97-3 93-7 87.7 S6.4 89.7 71. 1 95-5 96.8 91-5 87.3 92.3 95-4 METEOROLOGY 313 in Shade from loth October 1896 to ^otli September 1897. April 1897. Hay 1897. Max. 1 Min. Max. Min. 95-3 67.7 105.8 71.0 95-3 66.2 109.7 75.0 96.6 64.6 III. 4 80.2 97.1 69.8 II3.0 79.0 97.0 73-2 IIO.O 78.5 90.7 66.4 105.8 76.2 93-9 61. 1 102.4 79-1 97.8 59-5 103.0 76.5 102.2 65.8 107.5 73-4 I03-3 65-3 109.9 79.0 104.8 70.0 109.6 82.1 102.9 73-8 109.6 82. 8 103. 1 64-5 III. 4 83.5 106.6 69.8 109.8 83.1 106.8 76.3 III. 4 83.3 109.9 76.5 "3-4 83-4 III. 2 75-5 111.5 83.2 III. I 77-9 112. 7 81.8 109.4 77.0 106.6 82.1 108. 1 76.5 106.9 83.8 95-9 63.2 106.5 82.1 100.8 70.0 108.9 81.5 99-9 76.9 107. 1 80.8 98.3 69.1 109.9 80.2 98. 8 77.1 107.6 81.2 103.0 77.8 108.2 85.8 103.S 73-5 112.4 87.5 98.2 70.6 114.0 90.5 99.8 74-4 114.2 86.7 102.0 70.1 III. 9 81. 1 ... 1 10. 5 85.2 June 1897. Max. Min. July 1897. Aug. 1897. Sept. 1897. Max. Min. Max. Min. 106.6 109.0 106.0 105.9 105.5 III. 2 iiS-o I18.3 "9-3 120.9 III. 9 109. 1 111.9 107.4 104.0 104.2 99.8 107.3 1 10.7 1 10. 1 109. 1 108.2 I05-5 103.0 104.0 lOI.I 103.2 104. 1 102.2 102.2 79-5 102.9 84.9 103. 1 80.8 102.5 77-9 101.2 85.0 1 00.0 85.9 101.8 83.7 105. 1 88.7 106.0 88.9 108. 1 91.7 IIO.O 85-7 104.7 83.6 94-4 85.2 91-3 84.1 90.8 83.5 90.1 77-5 94-5 79.4 96.3 88.2 98.7 85.0 89.7 85.7 86.8 85.8 93-5 85.6 95-5 82.5 93-3 81.8 86.9 81.6 97-9 84.1 94- 83.8 91-5 80.6 98.0 79.6 98.9 79-7 101.9 100.3 80.9 81.6 81.3 98-3 96.9 97.8 81.8 99.7 85.0 j 100.2 85-5 86.1 86.1 84.9 83.2 80.1 78.7 77-9 78.1 78.8 79.1 79.1 82.6 79-5 77-5 80.0 81.2 79.8 77-9 81.6 79-5 78.2 81.7 81.8 82.0 80.7 I 97.6 ! lOI.O '■ 95-3 100.7 86.7 91-5 91. 1 93-9 95-6 84.0 91.0 93-0 80.2 85-5 89.9 85.2 83.1 85.0 90.0 91.7 95-0 95-6 97.1 97.6 96.0 95.8 Max. 80.7 81.8 81.5 79-7 79-9 84.0 77.8 82.9 79.6 79-7 78.3 78.9 80.5 81.2 77-9 79.0 78.7 76.0 76.1 74.2 76.6 76.8 74-9 76.1 76.0 81.0 80.5 77.8 79-9 78.9 94-7 94.0 91.0 91.6 91.8 91. 1 92.3 95.0 95-9 97-4 101.9 1 00.0 99-9 86.7 89.0 87.2 94-5 93-0 94-7 96.5 90.2 94.2 97-5 98.4 97.2 94.8 96.9 94.1 95-8 95-8 Min. 79.0 76.8 75-9 74-7 76.0 73-8 75-6 76.0 74.2 80.0 79-4 81.0 75-8 77-5 77-4 76.4 75.0 74.8 77.8 75-9 75-3 76.6 75-4 83.1 80.9 79.2 79.2 75.2 75-9 75-9 314 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement showmg the Maximum and Minimum Temperature 1 Oct. 1897. Nov. 1897. Dec. 1897. Jan. 1898. Feb. 1898. March 1898. April 1898. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. I 95-9 76.9 93-6 58.6 85.2 49.0 77-9 47-4 88.8 54. 93-9 57.7 100.2 65.8 2 95-6 74.5 93- 62.8 85.4 49.2 80.0 47. 5 83.9 53.8 87.0 43.8 100.8 71.8 3 93-5 77.0 ; 91.0 65.0 84.9 49.0 81.1 56.2 84.1 55.2 68.0 40.9 100.2 68.8 4 99.2 70.9 91.9 58.1 84.2 49.6 76.9 44.2 83.1 51-3 72.0 44.5 99.2 65.0 5 98.4 72.2 92.0 57- 83.0 54-4 68.8 40.6 1 82.1 48.1 78.1 51-4 102.3 67.8 6 97-9 73-4 90.4 57-9 83.0 57.3 70.1 37.0 ' 82.0 50.0 83.2 55-4 103.5 71.0 7 94.2 72. 5 91.0 58.S 82.0 54-8 73-7 37-9 I 82.3 54.3 89.5 52.0 100. 73.0 8 94.0 73-5 89.8 58.2 1 84.8 50.9 77.0 41.7 81.9 56.8 91.3 62.8 100. 64.8 9 89-3 70.0 90.3 83.7 Si.i 83-3 47.3 81.3 56.0 95-3 64.7 100. 62.6 lO 92.7 70.8 90.6 53.8 83.0 58.5 83-5 50-7 69.0 52.9 91.4 63.0 105.0 71. 5 II 94- S 67.9 93- 53-4 82.7 56.0 86.1 52.0 66.8 49.8 87.6 63.1 107.0 81.S 12 96.1 66.2 93.5 56.0 82.0 48.6 85.1 48.1 [ 68.1 50-3 91.1 61.9 108.3 70.8 13 9S-6 66.7 ; 93.1 55-8 73-5 46.0 84.9 51-4 74.0 Si.i 94.8 67.9 108.7 69.0 14 95-5 67.2 91.8 69.7 43-0 82.8 50.0 77.1 57- lOI.O 62.8 IIO.O 83.1 IS 96.9 67.2 92- S 56.7 70.8 37.0 85.2 54.9 ' 80.8 60.7 97.5 67.1 109.9 79-4 i6 96.7 64.2 91. 1 55-5 74.0 39.5 82.1 49-1 75.0 1 59.3 96.2 63.0 IIO.O 79.4 17 96.2 62.3 91.0 54.3 76.0 46.8 82.7 i 50.8 i 83.0 58.0 97-5 65.1 107.6 73-4 18 95- 58.9 89.0 53.0 79-5 47-3 83.2 52.3 I 82.7 57.1 100. 1 65.8 107.4 77.1 19 93-1 57.8 89.8 81.5 50.4 1 84.6 48.9 ! 74.4 52.4 92.0 61.6 108.0 74-4 20 94.0 57-1 87.9 54.9 83.0 49.8 35-2 54-3 74.1 43.8 86.4 68.8 108.9 72.7 21 93- S 58.2 85.1 53.3 85.0 48.1 84.8 53-7 j 81.8 52. 5 89.2 53.0 109.3 79-3 22 93-7 55-8 89.0 S3-0 84.9 1 55.2 84.1 58.6 83.0 52.5 89.1 55.6 108.0 78.2 23 94-3 53-6 84.9 53-5 80.6 51. 1 87.0 53- 78.0 52.0 96.0 62.4 107.7 74.0 24 92.7 55-2 84.1 52. 1 81.7 56.0 90.0 58.9 76.3 48.6 lOI.I 64.0 107.2 84.0 25 92.8 S3-0 84.1 54.4 80.9 52.9 85.5 55-0 78.8 55-6 lOI.O 69.0 109.2 87.5 26 9I-S 56.1 83.2 54-5 77.1 51.2 76.9 45.8 84.5 53-3 100.6 63.9 no. I 80.7 27 91.0 60.8 83-9 51.0 77-9 50-7 79.0 46.2 86.4 55.2 I 99- 65.7 IIO.O 79-8 28 92.2 58. 5 84.3 53- 77.9 48.0 86.1 51.3 92.6 53-9 1 lOO.O 68.0 108.3 82.8 29 93- 57- 2 83-2 54- 3 79.4 48.9 1 87.2 52.5 IOI.9 69.0 1 10. 1 82.0 30 92.7 59- 1 83.1 47.0 80.1 54. 89.9 50.6 103.6 71.2 109.8 85.0 31 92.3 58. 2 80.3 ' 46.4 90.0 51.1 1 ... t 102.8 68.1 METEOROLOGY 315 in Shade from ist October 1897 to ^oth November 1898. May 1898. June 1898. July 1898. Aug. 1898. Sept. 1898. Oct. 1898. Nov. 1898. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. Max. Min. 109.9 81.7 108.2 81.8 99-5 82.8 93.3 78.2 99-3 75.0 97.0 72.1 96.9 64.0 108. 1 75-6 107.0 1 81.4 100. 83.0 95- 78.0 81.0 74.9 99-1 70.7 97.0 63.8 109.8 78.7 109.4 81.2 99.0 83.8 96.0 78.8 89.9 77.2 100. 1 1 69.0 94.0 51.0 109.9 76. 5 IIO.O 81.1 103.0 83.8 96.7 78.7 94-7 77.3 1 ' 101.7 68.8 90.8 61.0 112.2 76.4 107.5 81.8 106.2 79.0 97-7 77.9 92.1 78.0 103.0 68.0 89.4 63.4 "3-3 82.8 106.7 80.0 99.8 84.2 95-8 77.2 93-2 78.3 102.3 66.9 85.0 60.0 113. 8 77.2 106.9 80.2 102.2 82.0 94.8 76.1 91.2 75.3 103.7 69.4 85.1 54.6 IIO.O 77.0 106.5 80.1 98.0 76.0 94.0 78.2 94-3 76.1 1 104.2 67.2 83.2 54-6 102.2 76-5 106.0 83.0 94-3 78.9 90.7 77-2 97.5 78.6 103. 1 64.0 84. 5 58.0 103.3 77-5 105.0 86.5 94.8 81.2 90.1 76.1 99-9 80.8 103.0 64.2 86.9 63.0 102.3 76.1 106.0 88.1 98.7 79- S 93-6 76.1 100.5 79.6 102.4 64.9 91.8 62.9 98.8 '78.1 III. 2 85-5 93-1 79.0 94.0 76.0 102.0 76.9 100. 1 68.0 93.0 61.0 98.8 77- 106.8 85.0 94.0 79.8 95-1 73-9 100.6 74- 99.2 66.3 93-1 50.2 99.2 71.7 107. 1 85.0 97-8 81.0 96.2 73-9 91.0 75-4 100. 1 64.5 93.0 58.9 99-7 69.8 106.3 83.8 lOI.I 77.8 96.7 75-2 92.3 76.8 101.8 69.6 93.3 66.4 101.5 78.6 106.5 87.2 95-7 78.5 96.0 75-1 89.0 75-1 lOI.I 65.0 93-2 54-9 101.3 80.4 109. 1 84.9 96. 5 78.1 96.8 79.0 94-7 76.1 98.8 69.9 92.6 59-5 100.7 79.1 IIO.O 84.6 96.2 79.7 96.0 78.1 94-3 74.0 97.7 68.5 94.1 66.0 94-7 71- S 108.5 83.6 99.0 76.0 98.4 81.7 94.1 72.4 98.1 69-5 91.8 52-9 98.8 76-5 106.7 82.7 76. s 74.0 97.0 77-S 92.9 69.2 100. 1 73-8 88.2 56- 1 104.0 82.4 105.4 81.7 84.1 76.2 92.3 80.0 90.3 71.9 100.2 66.3 90.2 54-6 108.0 83.6 104.8 79.3 92.3 76.0 97.1 80.4 93.0 72.0 99.0 62.2 90.9 54.5 1 10. 5 84-3 100.8 80.5 93.5 79.8 95-5 81.3 i 94-4 1 72.0 98.3 63.0 91.2 61.0 III. 5 85.1 99.6 81.2 94-5 79-4 97-9 81.9 95-8 1 74-9 97.9 64.2 90.8 58.6 112.5 83.5 100.8 82.0 98.0 80.0 97.2 78.0 98.3 73-7 97.3 62.5 89.6 64-5 III. 3 84.4 99.9 81.4 100.8 82.9 94.6 77-9 99-5 76.3 94.2 60.1 89.0 58.7 108.8 80.0 lOI.I 84.1 ' 103.6 84.0 91.9 80.5 99.6 69.2 93-2 57.4 89.8 ! 52. 1 107.8 86.4 102.0 83.5 101.2 ' 82.5 93.7 76.5: 98.8 i 1 72.4 93.6 58.0 86.8 ' 62.5 109. 1 87.0 loi.s 98.91 80.8 9S.X 77.1 97.8 72.5 94-9 1 57.9 85.0 ' S3-0 "3-4 88.9 99.0 82.4 i ! 94-7 1 77.0 95-8 77.0 97.1 69.0 95-5 59-3 86.8 52.8 1 12. 8 83.1 ... ! 93-1 78.7 97.0 80.0 96.0 57-9! 316 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement shoicing Dry and Wet Bulbs at 8 a.m. Local Oct. 1896. Nov. 1896. Dec. 1896. Jan. 1897. Feb. 1897. March 1897. i Dry Wet. Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet. ! Dry. Wet. I 73-5 54.8 56.4 44-9 52.S 45-8 54-7 49.2 63.8 59- 2 73-5 52.8 58.8 47.0 50.4 44-7 55-5 49.0 ': 60.0 51.0 3 71.2 52. 1 58.9 47.8 50.8 44-4 56.0 48.8 60.5 50.0 4 1 72.6 52-9 61.8 49-7 54-1 46.2 57-3 49.0 1 67.0 51.2 5 72.9 54-1 60.0 48.9 54-9 45-1 59-6 49.0 66.0 Si-7 6 •• ! 70.0 56.1 60.8 47-9 53-9 46.7 56.8 48.1 65.6 49-7 7 70.9 58.0 59.8 48.1 59-9 49.8 60.7 51-7 66.9 55-8 8 74-3 58.2 61.6 49-9 I 60.8 50.8 57-0 50.0 69.8 62.9 9 75-8 57.8 57-3 48. 5 59.0 50.8 61. 1 50-3 67-5 63.0 lO 79.8 6 2.8 76.6 58.8 58. 1 48. 1 58.0 49.0 59- 48.0 64.8 45-8 II 77.4 6 4.0 74.8 58.0 59.8 48.8 61.5 57.2 58.8 50.0 634 49.0 12 77.0 6 4.9 75.0 59-9 57-7 ; 47-8 52.8 49.0 53-1 43-7 63.0 47.8 13 79.9 6 5-5 73-1 58.8 57-8 i 47-0 53-9 48.9 54.7 47.0 65-3 48.8 14 75.0 6 2.0 73.9 58.4 57-0 j 45-2 53-9 52.0 55-3 47.0 69.6 511 15 74-8 S 9.6 71.8 55-0 55-1 44-9 39-9 37-7 57.0 46.0 69.8 52.3 i6 78.2 6 4.4 69.1 54.2 58.0 47.3 41.7 39-4 58.8 47.0 71.0 54-7 17 79.0 6 3-9 70-3 55-2 60.4 45.8 41-5 37.8 55-6 44.8 70.1 57.0 i8 82.0 e )I.O 70.4 55-9 57-7 44-9 49-5 40.9 61.0 45-9 72.4 57-9 19 74.8 ! 8.7 70.5 56.0 54-8 42.4 52.0 46.9 62.7 47-1 75.2 55-7 20 75-4 ^ >i-5 67-5 52-5 54.8 42.0 50.8 43-3 58.0 46.8 75-5 55-2 21 77-7 ( 53-9 57-6 57-0 53-7 41.2 52.0 44.4 62.8 46.8 71-5 62.0 22 79.8 e 57.5 58.9 57-7 54.0 42.1 51.0 42.0 62. s 47.2 64.0 50.0 23 77.8 ( >6.i 61.0 59-8 55-0 44.0 52-3 42.1 62.2 51.6 71.4 53-6 24 79.0 ( 37.6 61.9 59.0 55.8 42.5 57-5 45-7 62.0 56.7 71.0 54- 25 77.9 ( 56. 61. 1 56-9 48.2 39- 55-8 47.8 51-5 41.0 73.9 55-4 26 75-0 < 32.7 66.2 58.8 50.9 39-9 59- 48.0 54-8 41.7 77-7 59-2 27 75-5 < 5i.o 66.1 60.9 52.0 41.9 50.1 43-8 56. 5 43-7 70.9 59-0 28 78.9 ( 54.1 69.7 65.0 51-9 50.7 55-3 46-3 57-8 44.1 68.6 61.0 29 76.3 57.8 65-5 54-3 53-7 50.0 54-9 43- ... 67.3 47.8 3° 76.0 57-5 60.1 48.0 45-5 45- 57.2 44.8 1 71.9 52.4 31 72.4 54-5 1 1 Sii 46.1 1 57.0 45.1 ! - 76.6 56.1 METEOROLOGY 31T Time, from loth October 1896 to ^oth September- 1897. April 1897. May 1897. June 1897. July 1897. Aug. 1897. Sept. 1897. • Dry Wet. Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet. 77-7 Dry. Wet. 78.0 58.4 91.7 64.0 88.2 71.0 85.2 74-3 ! 83-7 80.9 77.6 77-5 ' 56.0 90.3 62.8 88.2 69.4 85.2 75-4 84.6 77.1 78.8 73-8 77.1 56.0 90.7 66.0 85. 74-3 83.3 74.2 83.8 76.8 77.2 74.0 78.1 58.6 88.1 70.8 85.0 72.8 84.0 73-0 i 84.5 74.0 78.0 72.8 74-4 55-0 84.7 75-2 92.7 69.4 86.1 75-6; 81.7 74-9 79.0 73-0 i 74-9 59-0 83.1 70.0 96.0 67.2 86.8 75-7 1 84.0 76.7 77.1 72.6 78.5 58.2 82.7 74.7 98.6 67.9 89.8 76.8 80.8 78.0 80.1 74-4 77.1 55-9 92.3 64.8 103.6 67.8 91.8 77.0 88.1 80.0 So. 8 75-0 82.8 57-1 89.1 62.6 103.9 68.7 86.9 79.8 80.6 79.0 81.0 74-7 81.8 58.0 86.3 65.8 93-6 74.1 87.1 79-7 80.3 77.8 85.7 74-7 81.8 62.0 85.9 71.2 87.9 76.6 85.1 81.0 79-7 78.0 86.2 73-4 83.8 61.0 88.4 69.9 86.4 76.2 80.0 78.0 81.8 78.9 88.0 79.1 81.8 59-3 88.1 76.4 87.8 78.1 79-9 77.0 82.3 79-3 78.0 75-9 83.1 62.1 87.9 75-9 87.8 77.1 78.7 77.1 82.2 80.0 79-5 75-9 85.8 62.8 89.2 75.0 86.2 77.1 82.6 76.1 80.8 78.0 80.1 77.3 87.7 61.9 88.2 76.0 82.8 73-1 81.7 75-7 80.0 78.2 80.0 76.7 93-1 63.6 89.7 70.1 87.7 74.1 83.8 78.6 78.3 77.3 78.7 75-9 87.7 61.7 87.7 66.7 94-3 73.8 84.6 78.7 76.7 76.2 80.3 76.3 85.1 63-9 84.5 72.0 86.8 78.0 83.8 81.0 80.0 75-4 82.8 76.0 81.3 66.3 86.2 75.0 87.9 77.0 79.1 77-7 78.1 77.0 So.o 76.0 77.0 55.9 86.2 74-7 87.6 77.6 84.5 80.2 75-4 75-1 81.3 77.2 84.0 61.9 84.8 75.6 88.0 77.1 82.6 78.9 77-5 76.0 83-3 77.3 80.7 67.7 84.8 76.0 86.1 76.1 82. 5 80.4 78.4 75-2 82.5 77-7 78.9 67.2 85.0 76.0 85. 75-1 81.7 80.0 78.7 74.6 85.1 75-4 85.1 67.9 84.0 76.2 84.6 74-7 84.1 80.0 79-5 75-6 86.1 75-9 84.0 68.0 91.8 74-3 86.7 75- 1 84,2 78.8 81.2 75-7 82.5 77.0 78.0 65.0 92.8 76.1 83-9 74-9 83.0 78.0 84.7 78.8 82.0 77.0 80.2 60.9 9S-0 72.8 84.1 ; 72.8 86.3 ! 79-0 87.4 80.1 80.0 77.0 81.7 62.2 i 94-5 64.0 83.9 74- 86.2 79.0 82.9 78.4 81. 1 77.2 86.2 61.7 ! 89.1 87.7 70.6 74-1 84.0 ! 1 73.7 1 86.0 82.6 78.3 77-7 82.9 83.1 77.1 78.6 80.9 75-4 318 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement showing Dry and Wet Bulbs at 8 a.m. Local 6 n Oct. 1897. Nov. 1897. Dec. 1897. Jan. 1898. Feb. 1898. Mar. 1898. April 1898. Dry. Wet. Dry. - Wet. Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet. Dry. |wet. Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet. I 83-3 77-4 70.9 58.9 58.6 49.0 53-0 47.3 61.0 :55.6 t 66.1 53-1 76.2 63.7 2 81. 1 76.6 68.7 ,59-2 '58.S 48.8 53-8 47.8 59-5 j 53.0 46.9 35-0 79.0 61.0 3 81.0 76.9 70.8 65.8 :56.9 47-7 59-2 56.8 62.1 i 50.1 47-1 36.1 77.7 61.4 4 78.9 73-7 67.5 55-7 62.0 52.0 47.6 38.8 56.9 j 47-9 52.7 40.0 77-9 59- 5 78.1 70.1 69.7 55-7 61.0 52.0 45-9 38.7 56.2 |45-9 57.8 43-0 78.9 57.1 6 78.7 72.8 70.8 58.0 60.4 50.1 45-7 37.6 55-3 44.0 62.3 46.2 79.0 61.9 7 80.0 74-3 67.7 55- 62.1 51-2 46.9 37-3 57-3 49.2 62.9 48.2 79.1 57.6 8 76.4 74-9 70.9 57- S6.8 49-7 48.3 38.6 59-4 50.2 65.6 50.0 76.2 54-8 9 77.0 72.7 69.6 57-3 60.4 52.4 56.0 43- 56.8 54-8 69.2 53-6 78.8 SS-8 lO 76.4 69.1 67.0 56.2 60.2 52.0 57.0 44.1 55-2 54-8 66.9 55-7 81.9 57.9 11 77- 68.7 66.8 56.0 59-9 52.8 57-7 45-2 50.8 50.8 65.6 52.1 88.3 66.6 12 77.0 66.0 69.9 55- 1 55-0 51.0 56.7 45-6 54-6 52.3 71.8 51.8 83.8 59- 13 76.7 66.0 66.0 54.8 56.0 45-1 56.9 46.6 57- 53-4 75- 55-1 86.8 61.3 14 78. s 66.2 65.1 56.1 48.9 46.5 57.0 45-6 59-1 53-2 70.8 55-1 91.7 66.2 15 76.1 65.2 63.0 54- 45-4 40.2 59. 1 47.0 64.2 59-9 73-3 56.6 84.2 63.0 16 75- 1 61.9 66. s 55-0 50.4 42.5 55-2 45-7 63-3 63.1 72.5 59- 87.0 68.0 17 75-5 58.6 63-7 53-2 54-2 43-0 59-1 47.2 63.0 61.8 74.0 57.1 86.8 62.9 18 75.6 59-6 63.8 54- 55-6 44.0 58.6 46.9 61.1 52.1 73-3 57.8 87.2 63-7 19 71.S 57-3 63.0 52.8 57-5 45-1 56.1 46.0 55-5 40.0 66.9 54-9 86.8 63.1 20 74-3 56.9 66.0 S5-0 58.0 48.3 62.7 49.6 51-2 42.1 70.8 51-2 86.2 61.2 21 72.1 SS-8 64.0 53-0 56.1 47.0 60.8 48.8 61.1 46.2 63-7 49.9 86.8 66.0 22 68.1 53-3 61.6 50.8 58.4 50.0 64.2 51-0 58.0 45-7 70.0 52.4 86.2 66.2 23 66.2 53- 62.6 51.6 56.6 46.8 61.4 51-6 56-9 44-7 71.1 54-8 86.5 65.0 24 66.9 S4-0 63.5 51.0 56.8 48.0 63.2 53- 54-9 42.3 74.2 57-9 90.1 63.1 25 69.2 55-7 61.9 50.2 57-0 47.0 58.1 54-1 61.6 45.4 76.0 61.0 91.8 62.3 26 69.1 58.1 60. s 49.1 54-0 44.8 50.4 43-9 62.6 46.3 71. 1 55-9 91.0 62.7 27 7I-S 62.7 60.0 48.9 53-5 43-9 54-9 45-2 65-1 48.7 75-7 57-7 go.o 60.8 28 70.2 59-0 61.0 49.8 53-6 44-9 57-8 45-8 65.1 50.8 81.0 59-2 91-3 \ 60.8 29 70.0 58.8 62.9 50.5 57- 48.3 62.7 48.2 81.8 60.1 91.7 63.8 30 68.8 57-1 57.8 49.0 58.5 49.2 57-1 49.0 78.6 59-1 91.4 61.2 31 730 59-7 51-5 46.5 59-5 51.3 78.5 58.7 ... METEOROLOGY 319 Time, from ist October 1897 to 2,0th November 1898. May 1898. June 1898. July 1898. Aug. 1898. Sept. 1898 Oct 1898. Nov. 1898. Dry. Wet. 64.2 Dry. Wet. 75-1 Dry. Wet. Diy. Wet Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet. Dry. Wet 87.9 85.2 85.1 75-6 81.2 76.8 75-1 74.6 80.9 66.8 72.8 55- 1 84.9 67.0 85.5 71-5 85-4 75-2 80.1 74.0 76.8 751 80.3 65.8 70.0 53-9 89.2 61.7 87.4 71.8 86.1 76-3 81.3 75- 81.4 76.9 81.3 68.7 68.9 52.7 96.0 63.6 87-3 74.6 87.0 76.9 80.5 74.0 82.7 76.9 80.2 66.2 66.7 56.9 94-3 61.9 85.0 74.0 80.2 76.9 80.0 73-3 79-5 74.6 84.1 63-9 68.0 54- 91.7 65.0 83.6 76.0 86.2 1 77-7 80.3 71.7 81.6 74-9 78.4 63-9 65-7 50.2 87.4 69.6 83.6 76.8 85.6 78.6 79.2 730 80.7 74.0 81.0 64.7 64.7 47-7 82.0 72.1 843 76.9 80.3 ' 75- 1 79-5 73- 82.9 75- 79.6 62.1 63.3 48. 8 82.2 73-1 85-9 76.1 82.1 76.8 78.0' 73- 85.2 74.8 80.7 63.2 66.3 50.1 81. 1 73-9 88.6 76.0 85.0 76.2 79-7 73- 85.3 75-8 79-9 62.4 70.0 53-6 81.9 72.2 92.2 78.1 84.0 75-9 78.1 72.9 84.7 76.0 77-9 61.4 71.9 56-9 83.7 73- 90.1 79.1 82.8 75.8 79-5 72.8 81.4 76.3 80.2 63.7 72.1 59.8 81.9 71-3 89.2 79-9 83.6 77.1 79-3 71.9 77.1 74-9 77-9 61.7 67.1 51.0 81.8 66.8 87.9 79-7 82.7 75-2 79.8 72.1 79.6 75.8 75-8 60.1 68.3 58.2 79.8 70.0 88.6 75-8 81.8 77.0 80.8 71.7 79-8 76.1 79-3 63.x 73-9 59.6 83.0 71.0 89.0 78.8 80.8 73-9 79.2 72.7 78.6 76.3 74-3 59- 1 68.3 51.8 84.9 72.1 90.1 78.1 82.0 72.8 82.3 74.2 79.1 74.6 76.8 64.9 69.7 54-7 81.8 72.6 88.0 79.0 83.0 75-3 82.9 73-9 77-9 72.6 76.3 70.6 74-7 58.8 78.1 70.8 86.5 77.2 75-9 75-4 81.7 72.0 78.0 72.0 79-7 61.2 66.7 51.7 86.5 69.9 86.6 76.1 76.1 74.8 81.4 72.7 77-7 70.7 75.8 56.8 65.8 50.2 87.9 73-5 86.3 74.0 78.8 76.7 83-7 73-6 77 -S 71. 1 74.2 57-7 65.8 50.8 89-5 73-1 85.2 73-3 78.3 75-1 81.9 71.9 79.8 70.0 75- 58.6 63.6 50.6 89.8 70.6 i 85.8 74.0 81.S 79.0 83-7 74.2 78.2 70.2 74-5 59-4 67.7 53-8 89.9 70.8 84.1 74.1 85.2 79-3 82.7 73-7 78.1 70.3 77-9 60.1 68.3 57.0 go.o 68.1 83.2 75- 87.2 80.7 80. s 74.1 77.8 67.9 73-3 54-7 71-5 S7.0 88.4 70.5 84-5 7S-0 90.7 81.4 80.3 74-3 83-9 67.1 70.0 :530 68.2 55.8 87.9 : 72.8 87.2 77.0 87.9 78.1 82.7 ,74.0 81. 1 69.2 71.2 52-7 61.3 51.3 89.2 75-2 85-9 74-9 87.8 80.6 i79-8 72.9 79.1 ' 68.8 70.7 1 52.2 65.8 51.7 93- 70.6 85-5 75-0 84-5 81.0 79.8 72.8 80.2 73-2 72.7 :S3-2 65.0 48.9 93-1 66.9 84.8 74.6 80.3 76.7 78.3 72.3 79- S 63.2 74.0 56-3 63-3 49.2 85-3 76-5 80.8 76.7 83.2 j75-7 73-0 IS4-7 320 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement sliowing the Solar Radiation and Gt-ass Radiation Thermometers for the Month of January. Date. 1896. 1897. 1898. Bemarks. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. I 124.0 3S-0 II9.9 36.0 2 124.0 36.5 II9.4 37.1 3 - i 124.3 39-7 120.2 50.0 4 1 ■■• ' 125.6 43-0 115. 31-5 5 126.5 38.9 IIO.9 26.5 6 ... 130.8 35-3 III. 8 25-4 7 j 135.5 44.0 II5.0 23-5 8 138.2 50-5 II9-5 20.8 9 ••• 1 134.8 41.7 123.5 35-7 lO 1 i 136.3 41.8 124.0 38-3 II ... ! ... j 1364 47-8 126.0 37-9 12 ... j ... I 129.8 38-2 125.0 36.2 13 132-5 36.4 123.4 37-9 14 136-5 50.4 122.7 40.3 ^5 I17.1 21.6 124.9 ' 44-0 i6 119. 5 29-4 121. 5 35-5 17 II 7.0 31.8 122.9 1 38.0 i8 ... 121. 5 40.5 124.0 38.9 19 130.3 33-5 125-3 35-3 20 124.8 39-5 126.0 42.5 21 130.6 43-6 125.0 41.9 22 125.8 43-4 124.0 47-9 23 129.0 41-5 124.8 44-3 24 133-0 49-7 128.5 52.0 25 132-5 38.0 123.8 49.0 26 ... 133.7 54-2 118.3 33.4 27 133-2 35-4 121. 6 35.2 28 131-0 ' 33-0 126.9 38.0 29 1350 34-0 1 18. 5 40.6 30 136.0 40.0 131. 39-9 • 31 1 137-0 41-3 129-5 39-4 . METEOROLOGY 321 Statement sliowing the Solar Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometers for the Month of February. 1896. 1897. 1898. Date TRpvyifll'lrc; Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. ^VdlJdllVOa I 139.0 47-1 129.0 43-0 2 130-3 46.0 124.5 43-1 3 131-7 43-0 125.0 44-3 4 133-8 46.5 126.4 40.9 5 134.8 46.3 123.5 35-0 6 139-3 38.0 125.7 35-8 7 139.0 52.5 125-3 47-0 S 133-8 46.8 124.5 53-2 9 138.7 46.5 122.0 54-0 lO 135-8 47.0 105.6 46.0 II 137-0 37-3 119.0 44.2 12 139.2 31-5 1 10. 5 43-0 13 133-7 38.6 120.0 43-0 14 133-0 44-8 120.0 48.9 15 136.0 45-0 126.0 57-3 i6 138.0 34-0 1 19. 7 53-7 17 139-3 32.8 123. 1 46.6 i8 I39-0 42.0 122.2 530 19 141. 33-2 117.4 46.0 20 143-8 34-2 "7-5 30.0 21 144-3 35-0 124.9 39-3 22 147.4 37-8 127.3 48.1 23 147.0 44.0 122.2 44-2 24 146.0 54-7 122.3 41-9 25 134-5 35-8 122.0 49-0 26 136.8 38.8 129.4 40.6 27 140.7 31-4 130.8 43-7 28 144.2 35-2 135-3 42.0 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement showing the Solar Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometer for the Month of March. 1896. 1897. 1898. Date. Remarks. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. I 141. 2 46.6 134-5 46.0 2 139.0 46.0 128.9 34-3 3 142.4 43-4 II2.3 28.0 4 144.0 47.8 II9.0 30.2 5 146.2 42.0 125.0 30.0 6 147-8 42.5 129.4 42-9 7 1 50. 1 43-4 I35-0 41.2 8 145-9 51-3 135-3 54-0 9 149.6 56-9 139.0 57-3 lO 140.5 40.2 136.0 59.2 II 145-2 37-6 135-7 58.9 12 143.8 35-3 I35-0 54.0 13 145.0 38.0 137.2 58.4 14 1 166.8 44.0 147.6 53-0 15 162.6 47.0 144.0 54-0 i6 162.0 47-5 143.0 52.0 17 153-5 59-6 142.0 55-0 i8 152.0 54-2 142.5 55.0 19 153-^ 64.0 135.2 56-5 20 156-9 51.0 134.0 59-0 21 I53-0 57-9 136.0 39-0 22 149.6 45.0 137.9 45-5 23 149-3 66.0 139.0 51-7 24 147-8 52.0 144.9 55-0 25 149-5 47.0 145.2 57-9 26 159.0 61.0 147.5 52.2 27 152.9 63.0 144.7 57-3 28 148.3 61.0 145.0 54.2 29 146.0 48.0 147.2 55-5 3° 154-9 48.9 147-8 66.0 ... 31 157-8 60.4 145.0 57.0 1 METEOROLOGY 323 Statement shoioing the Solar Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometers for the Month of April. Date. 1896. 1897. 1898. Remarks. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. I 155-8 55-9 142.0 57-8 2 156. 1 55-1 144.0 65-1 3 157.4 51-8 145-4 59-2 4 158-5 63.0 145.0 54-0 5 160.8 71.0 147-5 55-8 6 146.0 53-0 148.0 66.1 7 150.8 47-7 144-5 65.0 8 155-8 45-2 146.3 56.3 9 159.6 50.9 145.9 50.7 lO 162.0 49.0 148.7 62.9 II ... 161. 7 57-9 152.0 72.0 12 161. 8 58.0 152-3 60.1 13 161. 5 52.2 153-0 57-3 14 164.2 59-6 151-9 73.5 15 163.7 64.7 152-3 71.7 i6 166.8 64-3 152.8 70.0 17 169.8 65.0 152.4 60.2 i8 169.8 67.8 152.8 71.0 19 16S.2 69-9 153.1 61.0 20 166.2 66.8 153-3 61.2 21 156.0 51-1 154.1 69.4 22 160.8 59-4 152.0 71.8 23 163. 1 69.9 151. 5 66.0 24 165-5 61.6 150.2 71.3 25 162.7 68.8 152.8 83.3 26 165.9 71-3 154.1 73.8 27 155.0 66.4 156.0 81.0 28 153. 1 54-8 158.0 67.8 29 157.9 60.4 157.9 78.4 30 160.4 57.1 165.8 80.4 , 324 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement showing the Solar Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometers for the Month of May. 1896. 1897. 1898. D&tt; Remarks. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. I 163.8 60.0 1 152-7 79.0 ... 2 165. 1 j 62.1 164.0 66.4 3 165.3 70.0 [ 153-8 75-9 4 167.2 ; 73.6 154.2 65.0 5 166.8 i 68.0 ; 159.0 65-3 6 162.3 69.7 159- 1 79-9 7 158-5 76.9 158.8 73-0 8 157-0 64.1 154-4 75-5 9 165.4 1 60.7 144.6 75-8 lO 165-9 74-5 149.5 75-9 II 164.9 78.8 147-8 75-5 12 164.2 78.9 143- 1 77-2 13 166.2 j 79.8 147.0 75-9 14 164.8 79-7 144.7 63-7 15 166.4 80.7 144-3 64.0 i6 t 167. 1 72.6 149.9 71.8 17 164.2 78.9 146.5 74-2 i8 165.2 76.2 147-5 73-0 19 161. 79-5 144.2 66.5 20 162.8 78.8 143-7 68.5 21 157-3 78.8 155-0 78.2 22 163-5 78.5 155-8 79-4 23 162.5 78.3 155.0 75-5 24 164.9 76.9 155-5 82.4 25 i 164.5 78.7 156.0 81.4 26 1 163.2 80.2 153-8 81.0 27 1 i 164. 1 82.3 153-5 77.1 28 i ... 168.8 86.9 152-7 81.3 29 1 , ... 170.0 79.1 152-5 84.7 30 168.0 74-0 158.4 86.8 ! 3^ 166.2 82.0 157.2 82.7 METEOROLOGY 325 Statement shoioinrj the Solar Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometers for the Month of June. 1896. 1897. 1898. Date. ■RpTnnrlfc; Solar. Grass. Solar Grass. Solar. Grass. JI\'CUAal jxsi* I ■■ 161. 69-9 154-3 80.2 2 ... 164.7 77-8 159-9 78.8 3 161. 1 72.0 151-3 82.8 4 159-2 69.0 152.5 82.6 5 159.6 75-0 150-5 81.3 6 173-2 75-0 149.4 78.3 7 170.8 73-4 148.4 78.4 8 174.0 78.2 149.0 79-2 9 I75-0 75-9 148.9 82.2 lO 177.0 8S.0 147.2 78.9 II 163-3 84-5 147.4 S7.0 12 162.0 81.9 158.2 85.0 13 164.5 84.7 153-7 79-5 14 82.5 159.0 83.8 Not observed. 15 158.0 82.5 I53-I 82.5 16 158.8 73-2 152.8 87.0 17 71.8 155-5 84.1 Not observed. 18 162.0 80.8 159-5 84.0 19 167-5 81.2 152.5 83.2 20 163-7 83-9 150.8 82.0 21 161. 8 84.8 150-5 80.8 22 161. 8 84.9 149.6 79.2 23 156.0 80.5 144.8 80.7 24 78.8 144-0 81.0 Not observed. 25 159-6 78.8 144-3 82.0 26 155-8 83-3 145.3 \ 80.0 27 157.1 82.7 144.6 82.1 28 158.4 79.0 145.0 83-0 29 157-8 77-3 146.0 80.6 30 156.8 77.0 150.8 81.7 326 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement slioioing the Solar Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometer for the Month of Jidy. 1896. 1897. 1898. Date. Remarks. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. I 158.2 78.6 150-5 82.0 2 158.2 78.7 149.0 82.3 3 156.9 79-5 150.3 83.8 4 157-6 79-2 151. 2 83-5 5 160.3 80.3 148.3 75-7 6 158.0 82.5 152-5 82.3 7 • 165.4 82.8 156.3 79-5 8 164.8 80.6 150.9 75-0 9 168.0 80.2 147.0 77.2 lO 80.0 144.0 80.5 Not observed II __ 169.2 73-0 146.5 79-3 12 154-9 77-4 138-9 79.0 13 149.9 76.1 137-6 78.5 14 152.5 76.8 150-3 81.0 15 147.6 77.0 153-4 75-3 16 153-7 77-3 144. 1 77-0 17 156.6 75-6 142.3 76.8 18 157-5 79-3 146.5 78.3 19 148.9 75-7 152.3 75-6 20 143.2 74-3 107.5 73-4 21 i 165.0 77.0 133-5 73-9 22 161. 5 78.1 148.0 74-5 23 154.0 77-2 148.3 76.0 24 145-9 73-1 147-3 76.3 25 _ 157-8 77.6 148.2 75-0 26 155-3 75.6 153-7 77-3 27 153-2 73-1 149-3 80.1 28 166.0 77-1 153-9 78.3 29 164.7 77.2 156.7 77-8 30 160.0 80.0 167.0 75-0 31 161. 4 79.1 149. 1 77-6 METEOROLOGY 327 Statement showing the Solar Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometer for the Month of August. 1896. 1897. 1898. Date. Remarks. Solar. Grass. Solar. l6i.o Grass. Solar. Grass. I 78.3 148.0 76.8 2 155-0 79-9 148.9 76.9 3 I55-I 80.0 139-2 77-3 4 I57-0 78.0 145-3 77-7 5 155-7 78.4 144-5 76.2 6 154-4 81.9 146.0 74.8 7 159.6 78.5 142.0 69.8 8 161. 78.9 143-8 76.7 9 164.0 76.5 144.0 77.0 lO 76.2 144-3 74-0 Not observed 11 156.0 76.9 150.0 74-9 12 160.8 76.0 143-9 72.8 13 161. 8 76.3 144-5 70.5 14 162.3 77-9 144-3 71.9 15 74-2 144.0 71-3 Not observed i6 154.0 76.0 145.6 71.0 17 167.8 76.5 143.8 71-5 i8 83.6 75-5 144.0 70.4 19 137-9 73-4 145-3 80.0 20 155-8 76.0 150-5 74-5 21 146.7 73-3 136.9 76.2 22 136.4 75-2 143-8 75-4 23 73-5 147.9 80.0 Not observed 24 150.0 70.8 144.0 80.5 25 153.0 7.3-0 148.0 76.3 26 152.8 71-3 142.9 77-5 27 154.2 76.5 144.0 78.9 28 157-4 78.3 144.8 74.0 29 157-3 74-5 143-5 73-9 3° 158.9 78.5 143-9 74-6 31 ... 160.0 77.0 144.8 76.1 328 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement showing the Solar Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometer for the Month of September. Date. 1896. 1897. 1898. Remarks. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. I ; 161.5 78.5 148.0 76.0 2 151.8 74-9 134.5 73-9 3 150.7 73-5 142.9 73-0 4 154.8 72.2 144.0 73-2 5 I53-0 74.0 144-3 75-0 6 147.6 70.7 137.5 73-6 7 147- 1 70.2 142.8 68.5 8 155-6 69.0 140.3 66.9 9 153-6 67.8 141.5 70.5 lO 162.3 76.0 142.0 73-4 II 162.0 69.8 143.0 73.2 12 156.8 77-9 146.5 73-9 13 160. 1 73-8 142.0 70.9 14 142.0 74-0 137-8 72.8 IS 147.8 75-0 145.0 71.5 i6 137- 1 73-0 142.0 72.6 17 154.0 71.4 140.0 73-0 i8 1 54- 7 72.0 135-8 68.0 19 155-0 75-3 145.0 66.1 20 154.0 72.0 136.9 60.0 21 149.2 71.0 134.8 64.2 22 IS3-6 72.0 136.9 639 23 151. 8 69.0 137.2 62.0 24 154.0 77.8 137-8 67.0 25 155-8 75-5 140.0 65-1 26 156.3 73-6 146.5 67.2 27 154.2 74-9 142.3 60.0 28 151. 69.0 143-0 64.0 29 149.2 70.7 141. 5 63.2 30 1 149.9 72.2 141.7 60.4 METEOROLOGY 329 Statement shoiving the Sular Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometer for the Month of October. 1896. 1897. 1898. Date. Remarks. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. I ... 156.9 72.0 143.6 56.0 2 158.7 68.8 143-9 62.3 3 147-3 70.2 143.0 60.0 4 153-7 62.6 144.9 Not observed. 5 151. 6 62.9 146.0 55-9 6 149.8 66.8 143-8 56.0 7 148.9 67.1 143-9 56-5 8 ... 152.9 68.3 145-8 55-6 9 141. 5 63.0 146.3 52-9 lO 136.8 62.3 146.0 51.0 II 143.0 590 145-1 53-9 12 152.6 56.0 143.0 56-2 13 148.0 58.0 142.0 55-0 14 152.0 49.9 148.3 57.9 141. 8 52-3 15 153-2 51.2 157.8 57.9 143-5 60.0 i6 151.0 57.0 149-5 55-6 142.7 53-8 17 150.2 57.0 149.0 50.0 139.0 64.0 i8 151. 56.0 149.3 45-5 138.2 60.3 19 150.7 51.8 148. 1 45.6 138.9 5S-0 20 151. 50.1 148.2 42.0 140.7 65.0 21 149.0 54.0 148.3 43-9 142.0 54-2 22 151-7 60.0 147-5 44.0 140.3 52.9 23 147. 1 57.6 147-3 40.2 140.8 54.8 24 147.8 61.8 1 145.6 43-2 138.2 53-0 25 1540 56.4 143.0 42.0 140. 1 50.9 26 149.0 54.0 136.2 54-5 135-0 45-3 27 150.0 52.0 48.9 136.2 42.8 Not observed. 28 1 148.5 54.4 i 47.0 136-5 40,0 Do. 29 146.3 51.2 ' 145.9 47-1 136-7 44-0 30 144.2 49-4 152.5 49.0 I37-0 45-9 ^' 144.5 48.0 1 144.2 48.2 136.9 48.3 3S0 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement showing the Solar Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometer for the Month of November. 1896. 1897. 1898. Date. ' Remarks. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. ' I 144.0 55-0 145-7 48.8 138.0 53-8 2 143-5 58.6 143.2 53-7 136.0 55-2 3 142.8 44-1 142.0 59-0 135-9 40.3 4 142.8 44.4 142.9 47.8 133-8 44.2 5 144.0 47.0 142.7 46.0 129.0 46.5 6 146.0 46.6 141. 6 47.2 127-5 53-0 7 86.0 50.7 140.0 45-2 127.8 44-5 8 142.2 63.0 140.3 46.5 125.0 46.0 9 132.9 58.0 141-5 44.9 125.7 45-0 lO 143-2 61.6 140.6 43-3 127.9 57-8 II 113.0 58.2 138.4 44.0 132.0 ! 54-5 12 144.0 61.0 143.0 45-1 130.8 51-9 13 135-0 56.8 139.2 48.0 131-5 38.9 14 142.5 61.2 45-3 131-3 50.0 Not observed. 15 129.6 51-3 140.2 132-5 55-7 Do. i6 135-3 50-9 141-5 45-0 131-9 44.0 17 80.8 54-0 141-7 43-9 132.8 49-3 i8 134.0 56.2 39-8 133-0 53-5 Not observed. 19 134.8 55-3 130-5 40.0 130.0 39-0 20 79.0 59-0 43-7 128.5 40-3 Not observed. 21 83-9 54-1 42.0 131-9 41.7 Do. 22 62.0 1 56-0 ... 41. 1 131-6 43-5 Do. 23 64.0 44.0 43-5 128.8 48.0 Do. 24 83.0 44-6 1 126.5 39-0 128.5 48-3 25 106.6 43-1 124.2 41.0 127.6 57-1 26 71.0 53-1 124.9 40.0 127.8 44.0 27 78.0 47-3 124.8 38.2 130.0 41.8 28 133-4 54-8 123.0 41.8 126.5 j 44-9 29 78.8 49-1 123.8 41.0 124-3 j 40.5 30 99-6 52.8 1 123.0 36.0 128.2 39-4 METEOROLOGY 331 Statement shoming the Solar Radiation and Grass Radiation Thermometer for the Month of December. 1896. 1897. 1898. Date. Kemarks. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. Solar. Grass. I 106.5 43-4 123.9 38.1 126.3 42.1 2 127.0 32.6 126.7 37-5 126.8 39-5 3 33-6 126.5 39-2 40-3 Not observed. 4 36.8 123-5 38-9 124-5 37-2 Do. 5 36.2 122.9 42.7 120.7 40.9 Do. 6 40.5 123.8 44-5 105.0 44.6 Do. 7 39-1 125.2 45-8 97-9 52-3 Do. 8 44-5 124.5 42.7 76.8 56.5 Do. 9 36.7 122.9 42.0 100.3 54-0 Do. lO ... 35-3 121. 9 115-4 43-8 Do. II 35-7 122.0 45-4 116. 2 58.8 Do. 12 35-7 121. 9 41.8 1 10.9 46.8 Do. 13 34-8 II4.2 41.2 117.2 42.4 Do. 14 39-3 IIO.9 33-5 115.0 33-8 Do. 15 36.9 114. 1 27.0 114.9 31.0 Do. t6 ... 33-2 116. 5 26.0 116.5 30.8 Do. 17 42.2 I16.3 30.0 120.0 37-6 Do. i8 33-6 "9-5 32.3 122.4 35-0 Do. 19 37-3 122.0 36.1 128.7 47-5 Do. 20 ... 37.5 121. 2 37-8 117.8 46.6 Do. 21 131.I 35-7 124. 1 35-6 121. 34-5 22 131-8 37-9 122.9 47-4 113.0 38.9 23 130.2 30.6 121. 5 36-3 1 16.4 42.0 24 130.7 45-0 122.6 44-5 1 14- 5 44.8 25 127.8 24.7 121. 41.0 119.2 46.0 26 127-5 39-2 117. 43-2 131-7 37-4 27 127.9 43-5 118.5 38.0 1 16. 8 36.0 28 1 10. 5 43-8 122.9 36.5 114.9 36.8 29 122.7 35-0 1 19. 7 38.0 116. 1 42-7 30 126. 1 33-8 "9-5 41.0 121. 46.5 31 121. 29.8 119. 1 36.5 114.6 32-6 332 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement slioioing the Barometric Pressure at 8 a.m. Local Date. October 1896. November 1896. December 1896. January 1897. February 1897. March 1897. I 29.376 29.398 29.504 29.308 29.236 2 29.396 29.364 29.446 29.350 29-450 3 29.382 29.362 29-494 29. 360 29.364 4 29.380 29-374 29.472 29.330 29.140 5 29-314 29.408 29.392 29.320 29.230 6 29.280 29.460 29.396 29-336 29.230 7 29-330 29.468 29.416 29.368 29.120 8 29-350 29.436 29-358 29-370 29. 106 9 29-334 29.390 29.326 29.388 29.170 lO 29.278 29.332 29-434 29.266 29.270 29. 306 11 29.278 29.320 29-444 29.270 29.178 29-336 12 29.316 29.280 29.426 29.264 29.280 29. 290 13 29.320 29.292 29.470 29. 240 29-388 29.290 14 29.324 29.320 29.464 29.112 29-330 29.308 15 29.304 29.316 29.420 29-336 29.312 29.316 i6 29.326 29.320 29.436 29.420 29.300 29.312 17 29.308 29-338 29.392 29.422 29.346 29.256 i8 29.328 29-344 29.330 29.288 29.278 29.290 19 29.336 29.378 29.416 29.332 29.286 29. 198 20 29-338 29.320 29.422 29.426 29.248 29.110 21 29-334 29.254 29.416 29.478 29.296 29. 104 22 29.320 29.190 29.404 29-534 29.320 29. 128 23 29.316 29-250 29.372 29.470 29.208 29. 198 24 29.346 29.322 29.368 29-370 29. 168 29.266 25 29-394 29-392 29.478 29.340 29-354 29.250 26 29.398 29-324 29.546 29.368 29-330 29. 140 27 29.364 29.316 29.426 29.340 29.228 29.050 28 29.360 . 29.316 29.284 29-352 29.190 29.100 29 29-356 29.456 29.410 29.284 29.296 30 29-348 29-494 29.378 29.280 29.252 31 29.348 29.440 29.218 29.164 METEOROLOGY 333 Time, from lotli Octuher 1896 to 2,ot1i September 1897. April 1897. May 1897. June 1897. July 1897. August 1897. September 1897. Remarks. 29.210 29. 102 29.050 28.996 28.852 29.070 29. 208 29.100 29.066 29.068 28.950 29.004 29.168 29.096 29.020 29.020 28.960 29.044 29.264 29.036 29.024 28.938 28.896 29.004 29.254 29.014 29.080 28.934 28.864 29.006 1 29. 306 29.032 29.072 28.968 28.860 29. 140 ! 29. 296 29.044 29.002 28.948 28.880 29. 140 29. 260 29.116 29. 000 28.920 28.888 29.130 ! 29. 192 29. 140 28.992 28.832 28.892 29. 148 29.174 29.094 29.110 28.S64 28.898 29.128 29. 260 29. 100 29.050 28.804 28.934 29. 108 29.254 29.020 28.930 28.790 28.946 29.128 29.246 29.080 28.820 28.820 28.914 29.138 29.200 29.090 28.866 28.828 28.896 29.130 29. 224 29. 106 28.880 28.880 28.924 29.098 29.244 29.046 28.900 28.952 28.540 29.058 29. 220 29.004 28.916 28.934 28.920 29.070 29. 198 29.000 28.916 28.826 28.940 29. 144 29. 200 29.016 28.870 28.S50 28.946 29.128 29.160 29.040 28.868 28.906 28.946 29.160 ■ 29.210 29.034 28.818 28.936 28.972 29.160 j 29. 204 29.030 28.776 28.978 28.940 29. 1 70 29.170 29.048 28.828 28.990 28.988 29. 198 29. 200 29.070 28.896 28.976 29.038 29.208 29.274 29. 100 28.916 28.976 29.012 29.136 29.156 29. 144 29. 006 28.936 29.010 29.090 29.232 29.118 29.026 28.930 29.048 29.220 29.328 29.076 29.000 28.920 29.028 29.220 29.210 29.046 28.990 28.894 29.040 29. 200 29.126 29.050 29.036 28.936 28.856 28.808 29.120 29.130 29.230 334 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Statement slwioing the Barometric Pressure at 8 a.m. Local Date. October 1897. November 1897. December 1897. January 1898. February 1898. March 1898. April 1898. I 29.204 29.366 29.288 28.388 28.218 29.212 29.126 2 29.190 29.240 29.316 29-378 29.234 29.294 29. 200 3 29. 1 50 29.280 29.312 29.260 29.220 29-454 29.238 4 29. 126 29.380 29.332 29.396 29.110 29.360 29.204 5 29. 1 06 29.400 29.408 29.468 29.128 29.340 29.160 6 29.192 29.384 29.502 29.450 29.250 29.310 29.100 7 29. 204 29-350 29-434 29.390 29.260 29.316 29.244 8 29.182 29.376 29.368 29-354 29. 204 29.270 29. 250 9 29.234 29.340 29-356 29.428 29.090 29.272 29. 200 lO 29.276 29.312 29.390 29.476 29.020 29-340 29. 184 II 29.316 29.262 29.296 29.472 29.174 29. 290 29.128 12 29.270 29.250 29-384 29-394 29.314 29.294 29.150 13 29. 200 29.238 29-344 29.360 29.238 29.270 29.224 14 29.214 29.284 29.478 29-354 29.152 29.254 29.272 15 29.236 29-344 29.446 29-376 29. 198 29. 220 29. 204 i6 29.280 29-334 29.378 29.400 29.180 29.242 29.150 17 29.280 29-354 29.366 29.406 29.180 29.240 29.058 i8 29.276 29.376 29.388 29-444 29.110 29.250 29.090 19 29.266 29.364 29.422 29.440 29.160 29.226 29.150 20 29.324 29.364 29.436 29.438 29.086 29.266 29.170 21 29.318 29-350 29.392 29.392 29.144 29.282 29. 194 22 29.264 29-352 29.406 29.372 29. 290 29.196 29.112 23 29. 224 29.382 29.418 29.380 29-450 29.256 29.156 24 29. 206 29.384 29.460 29.310 29.352 29.256 29.192 25 29.210 29.424 29.474 29.388 29.320 29.232 29.136 26 29.276 29.400 29.442 29.366 29.312 29.188 29.070 27 29.384 29.366 29.382 29.332 29.310 29.216 29.090 28 29-356 29.396 29-378 29.370 29-314 29.210 29-134 29 29. 284 29.368 29.436 29.410 29.226 29. 1 64 30 29.360 29.290 29.500 29. 282 29. 260 29.138 31 29.392 29.464 29.200 29. 206 METEOROLOGY 335 Time, from ist Odoher 1897 to ;^ofh November 1898. May 1898. June 1898. July 1898. August 1898. September 1898. October 1898. November 1898. Kemarks. 29.076 29. 090 28.936 28.900 29.068 29. 204 29. 260 29.000 29.130 28.936 28.900 29.082 29.224 29. 190 29.006 29.118 28.932 28.950 29.094 29.250 29.202 29.056 28.990 28.934 28.926 29.060 29. 192 29.278 29.032 28.964 28.920 28.890 29.030 29. 204 29-364 29.000 28.950 28.848 28.870 29.030 29.204 29.364 29.020 28.966 28.830 28.880 29.040 29.220 29.384 29.000 28.978 28. 900 28.890 29.080 29.220 29-354 28.964 28.948 28.928 28.922 29.080 29.266 29.346 29.010 28.920 28.8S4 28.926 29.070 29.270 29.340 29.026 28. 894 28.908 28.950 29.040 29.244 29.316 29.028 28.896 28.926 28.940 29.042 29.230 29.280 29. 124 28.938 28.906 28.940 29.024 29.170 29.224 29. 222 28.840 28.896 28.980 29.050 29.214 29. 204 29. 206 28.868 28.960 29.020 29.040 29.240 29.296 29.128 28.850 28.914 29.042 29.052 29.224 29.320 29.070 28.806 28.856 29.070 29.090 29.160 29.304 29.110 28.840 28.928 29. 100 29.136 29.236 29.324 29.216 28.876 28.890 29.082 29.124 29.324 29.348 29. 200 28.900 28.850 29.056 29. 104 29.318 29-352 29.106 28.886 28.942 29.076 29. 166 29.310 29.318 29. 108 28.916 28.910 29.060 29.174 29.288 29.250 29.128 28.870 28.940 29.040 29. 184 29.288 29.224 29.118 28.936 28.962 29.054 29.200 29.310 29.232 29.088 28.970 28.940 28.968 29.240 29.328 29.322 29.092 29.062 28.928 28.984 29.244 29. 300 29-356 29.132 29. 100 28.894 29. 100 29. 180 29-334 29.404 29.136 28.982 28.880 29.090 29.230 29.312 29.460 29.072 28.894 28.890 29.100 29.240 29.278 29.446 28.972 28.966 28.854 29.070 29.230 29. 240 29.460 29.000 28.888 29.080 29.246 1 336 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Rainfall of i2>gi i cS .i U a" Months. •a =3 1 '3 .a c3 73 3 rt .a ^ .a .a a bo a "0* 2 c5 2 C3 OS i-s Ph Pm s Pi 02 S5 f^ t» s l-» !^ . ri ?; m 00 .a a .a a .a fl f. a a a a "o a .a .a a a J fl I— ( 6 a a a a a " u a a a Jan. . 33 17 29 26 35 97 32 37 81 ... 37 Feb. . «S March 21 ... 46 10 61 28 66 ,S7 42 I 15 25 44 29 April . ... ... 4 15 May . 74 54 43 I 37 97 25 2 63 31 ! June , ... 9 3.^ 70 18 I July . 81 9 2S 9 7« 3 7 15 3 «3 3 53 4 13 9 «3 4 9b 2 94 I 31 Aug. . «5 31 7 2 93 7b 3 79 I 23 23 8 ... 19 37 2 14 Sept. . 3S ... 34 30 I .S8 4b 2 10 52 8b I 20 30 30 3 24 Oct. . 4 6 ... 33 16 Nov. . Dec. . ... Total 8.33 11.07 11.06 10.23 9-97 12.67 913 6.01 12.26 6.51 4.90 7.83 Average for tuhole Rainfall of 1892 i i .a . a Months. 73 3 P4 .a Ph '2 P •2 t S GQ so a "3 1^ I 2 n S •3 1-5 m m «; m m «• «• i n ji a JS a .a a ,a "S .a a ,a a a f> ■^ •3 a a f, a .a a a a 6 a " a a a u a a cS a I— 1 s a 6 Jan. . 27 S2 9 53 39 83 77 13 80 I 35 35 22 Feb. . 8 8 2 5 March ... ... April . ... ... May . 93 ... I 25 27 2 I bo 38 2 23 20 28 63 June . 61 50 2 63 I 64 I 3 I 69 2 19 74 68 22 I 79 July . 4 S4 2 62 2 88 5 b9 3 41 10 50 5 4 5 14 5 13 7 56 5 98 7 32 Aug. . 8 14 6 74 3 33 b 5 8 bi 12 24 3 57 5 47 7 20 9 83 9 99 II bo Sept. . 4 27 7 16 2 4 35 2 15 13 98 3 72 5 90 12 41 6 18 6 lb 8 23 Oct. . 38 ... .^ 17 Nov. . Dec. . Total 29 I 15 38 9 I 80 24 19.05 17-54 13-41 18 99 17 -98 39-95 17-52 19-85 26.42 25.42 24.27 28.17 Average for whole METEOROLOGY 337 for Marwar. 20 j ... , 10 ...... 15 32 II 62 45—130 52 ... !66 93 14.05 12.42 12.93 State, 9.51 inches. 14 50 16.17 9.01 9 76 .. |6o ••ji5 10.51 80 90 11.80 5.01 5.24 I 8.95 2.76 Months. H 5-24 Jan. 1.6s Feb. 5-73 March. .29 April. 1 10.30 May. 2.38 June. 148.15 July. 22.14 Aug. 21.08 Sept. •93 Oct. Nov. •93 Dec. 218.82 Total. for Marwar. © i , .q j3 1 Cm S is p ft 02 a d 33 2 .id 3 s p 1-5 1 "3 1 Mouths. i -g g a s a "o 1 tn a> .a -2 J 1) .a a 6 1 1 6 0) c IS "3 13 a +3 s a a 43 81 ... 55 9 24 30 37 57 ;;• 18 53 14 ... ... 10.37 •32 Jan. Feb. March. 55 62 45 I 55 I 55 2 42 80 6S ■jl 25 18.00 April. May. I 34 54 1 U 1 31 8 I 85 9S 53 22.08 June. 10 92 16 83 30 n 8 i; 6 12 5 30 2 45 3 35 2 96 3 8 10 23 5 31 13 20 139.96 July. Ausr. 59 15 ^7 17 19 4 b5 4 89 8 13 3 27 8 88 P 60 2=; 188.25 146.26 4.88 y y 8 12 07 12 lb 2 10 50 I 40 2 48 8 35 V 10 30 4 6 43 4 48 90 Sept. Oct. ... , ... 1 Nov. JJ, , ... 30 35I bS I 5 59 I 59 16 8.67 538.79 Dec. Total . 34.81 1 28.44 37.26 43-43 12 34 14.72 12.60 1 11.77 30.89 20.88 23. 08 State, 23.43 inches. 338 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Rainfall of 1893 Months. o3 u o -3 Is 6 u '2 . Nawa. •a s OS c4 m S .n . •?, a B f, a ^ a ■f? fl ■g ■s s .d a -s a •S a ■S fl -S a P ^ OJ J" r" u U M u " u u U " u u HH U Jan. . I 41^ ... .30 I 49 55 83 96 46 ... 10 ... 76 I Feb. . ... 17 ... 52 25 54 53 18 i6|... 33 March 12 ... ... 64 31 64 26 45 April . ... 6 2 II ... ... 1 ... May . 90 I 1.3 10 I 94 I 40 2 22 93 42 24 I 61 57 June . 2 4S 4 IS I 30 I 67 6 36 2 34 4 II 5 19 3 (59 1 5 37 6 33 2 II July . 7 .31 2 7 6 22 5 86 12 65 10 27 4 76 6 35 5 68; 5 72 6 62 6 84 Aug. . 8 20^ 2 76 I 47 .S 4 5 60 6 65 4 52 2 90 2 42 6 36 5 32 6 9 Sept. . 8 .39 4 70 I 3 99 17 51 3 «3 2 93 10 75 I 5 4 21 2 20 I 61 Oct. . ... 24 2 10 ... Nov. . I 92 2 40 I 7 I 32 I 75 90 I 40 90 2 10 2 2 I «3 Dec. . 25 66 28 12 25 . ... ! ... ... 5 Total 31-19 17-45 11.07 23-50 45-75 28.88 20.53 27.75 14.24 26.72 23-51 19-53 .4i7era(7e for tvliole Rainfall of [894 Months. u p< -3 if. t t c« c3 'i t-3 =3 PL| -t3 P "o-d 0; Pm 1 bo 03 "3 'S S ;? 1 . .£3 a .s a •s a a M a .a .c a 7^ ■S rC a a .a a •s a a a .i" a .." u HH u HH a u Jan. . 28 22 70 66 86 48 I 10 10 7 34 66 Feb. . 9 10 10 March 10 43 52 35 ... 25 ... 27 ... April . ... 12 ... 15 5 ... 5 ... 15 May . ... ... 5 28 I 75 31 I ... ... June . 6 86 6 42 68 2 34 4 «3 .3 63 3 46 2 75 6 65 7 23 6 70 2 II July . 5 49 9 61 25 4 24 10 30 8 2 6 81 I 18 13 35 10 57 7 7 4 66 Aug. . I 43 4 I 92 4 69 2 90 6 13 3 20 I 80 «3 I 85 2 52 4 43 Sept. . I «3 I 54 30 I 73 2 47 2 97 I 35 I 40 3 39 I 74 4 91 3 23 Oct. . 49 ... 25 15 Nov. . Dec. . Total 47 96 88 77 3 64 I 39 6 70 I 24 64 2 53 16.55 23.68 7-52 15-29 22.53 26.62 17.94 8.69 24 ■99 23 27 21 84 17 62 1 Average for whole METEOROLOGY 339 for Marwar. o S 1 . 1 1 a i 6 i C8 2 "3 2 Months. CU m i-= m CQ 03 03 r^ 1-3 m H »• . i m m ^ m S m- ^ a f, J4 +j a J3 a a .a a ^ a 13 a J2 a a a u a "^ u a Q a u a a S M I 12 52 I 5 57 ... 10 80 44 40 90 25 46 ... 55 I 8 40 74 61 si 10 ... 13-524 6.52 3-57 ■44 Jan. Feb. March April. 2 91 76 I 48 7 74 I 97 12 10 I 32 20.93 May. I 5 2 8 10 87 9 44 3 62 I 96 2 58 4 22 3 54 3 90 5 53 93.86 June. 6 i6 4 13 7 94 14 55 8 22 5 55 7 8b 50 7 43 10 2 7 98 160.69 July. 3 38 2 72 5 33 I 15 5 76 I 5 4 3 80 5 25 I 40 I 10 92.274 Aug. 2 ... 60 5 92 23 31 5 24 7 35 I 33 I 10 3 II 95 38 96 162.93 •36 Sept. Oct. 2 25 _ 21 I 83 36 3 30 50 80 3 45 - 65 10 41 ... 40 45 3 17 29 2 35-47 4.92 Nov. Dec. 19-39 12.12 35-07 52.72 25.98 22.09 16.85 11.20 22.42 31.96 55-57 595-49 Total. State, 25.89 inches. for Marwar. i . _^- ^ .«- 1% C3 bo c3 a d 2 a i .a a "is Months s & pq 1-5 00 S ^ ^ s t-5 & H m If. ^. .a a a .a a ■s a •s a •s a •s a a ja a •^ a .a a a 76 37 C ... a <0 20 a 14 22 ... a 37 a 23 32 a t-4 33 22 fl 22 ^ a 6 10 6.93 2.81 •52 3-98 Jan. Feb. March. April. May. 2 35 2 62 4 49 4 59 2 89 4 90 I 96 41 2 10 2 98 4 32 87.27 June. 3 98 i 30 5 18 10 92 6 33 3 50 I 34 I 70 I 84 7 8 4 10 133.82 July. 6 46 3 39 I 26 I 15 3 80 I 45 3 25 .1 12 82 4 65 I 31 65-37 Aug. 3 57 2 60 4 49 I 70 4 I 45 I 44 I 41 2 30 I 53 I 59 6 2 54-96 •93 Sept. Oct. Nov. 3 22 I 65 69 26 ... I 95 29 21.34 Dec. 20.71 12.56 16.31 18.66 14.83 11.66 8.51 8.08 8.46 61.59 15-85 37S.76 Total. ^tat e, ] [6.4 7 2 nch es. 340 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Rainfall q/" 1895 Jodhpore. Pali. 1 Didwana. r .a S 'A 1 'o" Bilara. Jaitaran. Nawa. Months. ! .J 1 1 1 1 1 1 -2 1 1 i 1 -2 J3 -s' 0) a i ■a ■2 ^ J2 1 a a "a £ 0|M s l-H a|S 5 ;0 a ,s M 6 5 U M 50 Jan. . 35 i ■•■ 23 I 53 80 67 ...63 12 9I... ... Feb. . ...! 7 ... 6 • •• 1 4 ... Mar. . 35 ••■ 63 20 ...84 75 35 ... 25 20 50 ... 45 April . 1 ... 6 57 ... 23 36 May . 11 20 ... ... 1=; 6 ... 21 5 June . 4 3« I 9 ... 60 2 32 I 27 I «3 2 20 I 20 45 - 64 July . 4 271 4 17 89 5 63 I 30 4 «7 I 20 4 33 4 5 6 6 4 9 3 7 Aug. . 7 26! 2 23 2 3 8 9Si 5 86 8 30 7 65 2 73 I 40 5 55 2 90 5 b5 Sept. . io[... 32 34 ... 29 7 ••• Oct. . ... ... ... 1 ... S6 ... Nov. . ... ... 1 ... Dec. . ... ... ' 4 10 ... 7 ••• ...i^^ 1: Total 12.68 7-73 4.64 1775 11-74 16.59 12.40 963 6.65 12.72 1 8.44 1 9.22 Average for tvhole Rainfall of i 896 "j 1 . d ds ^' i A a .a 13 5 S St s ^0! 1 w. 1 1 ■3 S 1 '0 S ce 03 !25 Months. 1 ! 1 i i 1 ■ .2 "o a a 1 1^ .a a CD to ' ^ i-S a 1 a 1 ■§ a 1 a 1 .2 a 1 a 1 s 5 5 S jS 5 |o a 1-1 M a [s l-H ® 1 a U : h-i 1 u a s s W a Jan. . ... 1 14 4 2 j ... ... Feb. . ... 4 ... 1 ... 28 6 Mar. . 22 2 47 ... April . ... May . 14 94 II ... ... 60 June . 3 i6[ 3 98 68 I 77 6 56 i 2 60 3 96 2 43 2 72 I 33 4 3« 2 32 July . 5 20' 5 59 5 51 3 72 2 75; 4 74 3 64 2 43 10 26 6 36 8 93 4 49 Aug. . 4 99I 7 96 I 40 2 42 4 10 2 40 62 5 51 5 62 2 71 1 80 Sept. . ... 26 2 95 5 49 Oct. . 18 20 Nov. . ... 80' I 141 70 25 I 17 32 45 30 I 40 I 40 I 50 Dec. . ^'•^ 26 3 ■■• 12 12 ... 10 ... ^ 25 Total 1 14.26 19.10 7.73 9-95 13.69 15.24 9-31 10.82 19.00 11.80 14.71 11.45 Average for ivhole METEOROLOGY 341 for Marwar. State, 9.61 Indies. for Marwar. <6 i ^ *■ £ ! .0 wan ura. rgai s . i i ° 1 -s C3 £ i C8 •^ Ph n 1-5 i 03 OJ 02 02 !^ i-s X 1 Total. Months. m m . n w d <» .• « a 5 6 a a S c 18 2 4 23 ... 16 9 1.72 0.03 Jan. Feb. ... ... 0.27 March. 41 _ 63 43 2 58 70;... 18 20 30 I 7 1.69 2.10 8.48 April. May. June. 4 IS 4 41 14 69 II 52 4 79 5 2 3 SO 2 6 S3 6 71 6 96 137-77 July. 4 27 6 8 3 91 8 92 4 12 5 19 2 84 4 96 3 98 12 80 3 69 139-33 Aug. I 70 I 82 3 17 3 58 21 1 2 7 40 I 61 I 13 3 57 3 48 43-50 Sept. I 15 33 ... I 83 90 2 7 79 22 10.66 Oct. Nov. ... 1 ... ... Dec. 10-53 14.27 22.55 26.49 10.05 '' 12.46 7.80 8.57 14.21 25-03 14-35 345-55 Total. State, 15.02 inches. 344 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES 00 00 ■^ 0^ m t^ N li-> ro 00 „ •* VO C?. 00 r^ ro N o o O N irl iri OV 00 O " "S- ■* " Tl- rr VO N r'l ^ Tj- o n ON c/0 ro r-. „ "3 t^ 00 M vO I--. ON ro M CM O ro N N 00 'i- ON PI CM 0) ri 00 H " »i-i iO CM vO CO o „ t~t lo IT) 00 IH o N •* o •>4- l-l vO CM ON VO O O „ 1>> T^ CM ON ro CM ON VO 00 1-t N CO N '- lO 00 *o VO O O s 00 Cs VO m 00 ro ro 'I- CM l-H o O OO 00 VO S N t^ ro CM "1 • fO CM t-~ lO ■^ ■<1- VO lO 00 ON iv-1 00 'l- M VO Tl- iH rr, '-' m rn '^ 00 t-^ 00 r^ n t>. 00 VO VO r^ „ O ■^ t^ ro CM CD M ■>* l-H ai -d- l-l lo Ov •* ro 00 rH ro ■* ro CM ro t>. p« " ^ 00 „ i-ri •* ON On ro \o - Tf ON ro 00 • t.1 ro vO " ti N ■LT, lO Ov iri vO s ro ■t ■i 0} c3 a; *" a 3 1-5 43 J2 a a> a. 0) «2 }-i CD o S a> > o P H METEOROLOGY 345 Rainfall as Recorded at Ba}) for Four Years, from 1894 to 1897. Months. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. Total. Average. Remarks. January February March April May June July August Septembe October Novembe Decerabe r r 0.22 ... ! ... 0.31 ... ! 0.84 3.68 ; 0.58 2.13 4-35 0.16 • ... '■■ i "■ 0.02 1-73 2.54 0.50 0.04 0.23 0.32 0.02 2.27 7.18 0.98 0.45 0.31 0.32 2.59 9.07 14.16 I.14 0.06 O.I I 0.08 0.08 0.65 2.27 3-54 0.28 0.0 1 Tota 1 5-99 i 6.30 4.81 11.00 j 28.10 7.02 Rainfall as Recorded at Devi Kote for Four Years, from 1894 to 1897. Months. - 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. Total. Average. Kemarks. January . 0.03 0.03 0.0 1 • February March 0.50 0.50 0.12 April ... 0.50 0.50 0.13 May o-SS 0-55 0.14 June 0.55 2.71 3.26 0.82 July 1.59 1.32 0.80 1.30 5.01 125 August . 4.19 0.15 2.99 2-95 10.28 2.57 September 1.61 2.44 4.05 1. 01 October . 0.06 0.06 0.0 1 November December ... Tota I 7-39 3.10 6.56 7.19 24.24 6.06 346 WESTERN RAJPUT AN A STATES Monthly Statements of Rainfall, Barometer, Mean Temperature, and Wind Directio7i for the Ten Years 1889-98 at Mount Aim. u 4 1 8 A.M. Baro- meter. 4 P S3 la n _• .3 § .a" a 3 1 2 CO 26.155 a p. la Mean Wind Direction, Jan. 0.07 26.154 60.7 N. 29° W. r Jan. ; 0.78 60.9 S. S2°W. Feb. 0-59 ■131 61.5 N. 31° W. , Feb. , 0.03 .088 63.1 N. 73° W. Mar. .158 70.9 N. 27°W. [' Mar. .070 73-5 N. 36° W. April ■053 78.5 N. 5o"W. 1 April .077 80.9 N. 67° W. May 4.87 .019 79-2 N. 61° W. ! Jlay 1.92 76.1 S. 76° w. d< June 13-70 25.860 75-6 s. 79° w. i. June 4.14 ?25. 780 75-9 S. 59° W. 00 July 9.11 .826 71.0 S. 78° w. 00 July I 19.64 p 71.1 S. 48° w. Aug. 29.92 •854 67.9 S. 8s" W. Au?. 38.22 ? 68.3 S. 79° W. Sept. 0-43 .996 71-5 S. 88° W. Sept. 34-63 5 68.5 N. 47° W. Oct. 26.079 71.0 S. 83° W. Oct. 0-59 68.9 N. 62° E. Nov. .142 65-3 N. 3i°W. Nov. ? 63-3 N. 24° W. Dec. .183 63-7 N. 12° W. I Dec. 0.18 p 59-6 N. 62° W. Jan. ? ' . .Tan. 0.37 26.072 54-3 N. 14° W, Feb. 26.137 64.0 N. 43° W. Feb. 0.78 .080 52-5 N. 4° W. Mar. 0.17 .044 67-5 N. 76° W. Mar. ^ 0.40 .083 65-7 N. 2°AV. April 0.54 .041 77.1 N. 8i°W. April .044 77-6 N. 62° W. May *2S-953 t79-3 N. 74° W. May 2.03 25-964 75-7 S. 78° W. s. June S-Si .829 74.8 S. 57°W. 00 June 24.15 .846 74-4 S. 64° \v. 00 July 28.35 .784 67.9 S. 63° w. July 39-73 .822 67.1 S. 61° \v. Aug. 27.87 .890 65.8 S. 61° w. Aug. 8.47 .885 67-9 S. 83°W. Sept. 2.17 •979 69.4 N. 79° W. i Sept. 50-31 .927 66.7 S. 62° W. Oct. 27. 107 71-3 N. 37. W. Oct. 0.76 26.098 68.1 N. 49° E. Nov. .167 66.2 S. 73° E. Nov. 3-30 .168 63-4 N. 69° E. . Dec. 0.02 •145 59-6 S. 67° W. Dec. .190 61.4 N. 9° E. Jan. 1.14 26. 158 57.6 N. 22° W. Jan. a6o 26. 120 57-6 S. 87°W. Feb. •14s 57-4 N. i3°W. i Feb. .123 62.7 S. 88° W. Mar. 0.66 .092 63.0 N. 31° W. 1 Mar. 0.48 .084 67.9 N. 77° W. April .075 76.0 S. 88° \T. April 0.02 .030 77.1 S. 72° w. May O.II .001 79.0 N. 87° W. May 0.52 25-979 77-7 S.57°W. M June 1-52 25.924 77-4 S.7o°W. -f 00 June II. 16 .823 73-1 s. 48° ^y. 00 July 26.00 .807 72.0 S. 7i"W. July 49.20 .787 67.7 s. 49° w. Aug. 10.31 .890 68.2 S. 56° w. Aug. 8.67 .841 66.3 S. 5i°W. Sept. 2.28 •983 69.9 N. 80° W. Sept. 8.25 •959 69.6 N. 87° W. Oct. 0.02 26.143 71.7 N. 51° W. Oct. O.II 26.072 70.4 N. 33°W. Nov. .289 66.5 N. 37° E. Nov. .191 64.9 N. i°E. Dec. 1 1 .218 62.2 N. Q-W. ' . Dec. 0.84 1 .146 58.7 S. 70° w. * Mean of 23 da ys. t M ean of 2 I days. METEOROLOGY 347 Mo7iMi/ Statements of Rainfall, (^i\ (rontmtied) .a "S o 'S K 8 A.M. Baro- meter. Q 53 Mean Wind Direction. a >< c 3 1 8 A.M. Baro- meter. Mean Daily Temperature. Mean Wind Direction. Jan. O. lO 26. 1 1 1 56.1 N. 30° E. t 1 ' Jan. 0.37 26.118 56.5 ;S. 8o°W. Feb. o .105 61.9 S. 8°E. 'l 1 Feb. .081 59. 8 N. 70° W. Mar. 0.66 .080 68.7 In. 88° w. J i Mar. -054 66.9 N. 89° W. April 0.13 .041 77.2 ^S. 86°"W. 1 April 0.08 .076 76.4 S. 82°W. May O.OI 25-994 80.7 'S. 7i°W. ' ■ May 25-977 82.1 S.S9°W. June 6.32 -8S7 75- 1 \ S. 39° AY. j ^ ^ June 0.42 .868 79-2 S. 58°W. 00 - July 17-93 .850 70.7 S. 42° W. 1 ^ July 20.25 .802 72.4 S. 28° W. Aug. 24.56 .849 67. 1 ; S. 46° W. Aug. 20.87 .838 69.8 S. 48° w. Sept. O.S4 26.015 70.8 S. 73°W, 1 Sep. 13-30 .981 70.0 S. 8° W. Oct. O.IO .100 71.2 ' N. 79° E. I Oct. 2.54 26.099 68.3 N. 79° W. Nov. .189 68.9 N. 88°W. :nov. •153 65-1 N. 6° E. Dec. .170 60.1 N. 13° W. ! Dec. .178 60.2 N. 81° W. f Jan. 26. 143 60.7 N. 83°W. ; . Jan. 26.180 63-5 N. 38°W. Feb. .114 61.6 S. 84°W. 1 i Feb. 0.64 .017 59-4 S. 79° W. Mar. .088 70.3 iN. 79° W. Mar. -093 70.1 N. 88° W. April -034 79.9 S. 89°W. April -035 80.9 N. 86° W. May .006 80.1 S. 65°W. , May 1. 01 25.967 79-4 S. 72° W. oo - M June July 12.69 13-99 25.829 .822 75- S 70.2 S.S4''W. S. 46° w. CO June July 3.00 19-45 25.844 7-95 75-8 70.2 S. 46° W. S.48°W. Aug. 23.19 .876 67.2 S. 5i°W. Aug. 1-63 .858 67.6 S.47°W. Sept. 3-94 26.015 67.9 S. 37°W. Sept. 6.25 -965 69.7 S.55°W. Oct. .149 73.2 N. 87"W. Oct. 26. 106 74.0 N. 21° E. Nov. 2.71 .128 66.8 N. 40° W. Nov. •131 68.3 N. 21° W. ^ Dec. 1 0.43 .181 60.3 IN. i8°W, ■ I 1 Dec. 1 1-73 •133 59-2 S. 7i°W. 348 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES 1^ 00 00 00 « ^ 8 ^ I ■ajnjBiadniax i-i M en •9iiHBJ3dtn9x jCjiECI uBaH ■9jn}BJadm9X •ajn^tijadoiax iCirea i"'9H ■sjtUBjadraax O 00 w " •sjninjsduiax "TTSJtiii'a "ajiHiijadraax Xnt'fl UB3K M m CO M •aatUBjadmax •airnuisdiuax •ajnjBjadiaax illBQ UB9K vo >o 0\ Tl- CO CJv CO '^ 00 M CO •eanjTUadraax tj^ ON vo VO lO VO CO ►^ Xlj^a UBSH 1 \o VO VO vo v^^ tN vo vg^ METEOROLOGY 349 Rainfall as Recorded at Sir oM for Seven Years, from 1891 to 1897. Months. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. Total. rage. Remarks. Jan. . 0.52 0. 50 0.32 0.06 0. II 1. 51 0.22 Feb. . . 0.59 ... 0.59 o.oS March . 0.40 0. 50 0.12 0.40 1.42 0.20 April May . . 3-35 0.50 : 0.40 4.25 0.61 June . 0.45 0.40 13.23 3-41 3-35 4-. 32 0.30 25.46 3-64 July . . 14.44 5.52 : 10.38 15-77 4-52 5- .57 7-«3 64.03 9.15 Aug. . . 1-34 12.69 ! 3-29 3-3° 4-05 9.69 5-. 35 39-71 5-67 Sept. . . 0.62 16.79 11-43 1-97 0-45 6.28 37-54 5-.36 Oct. . . 0.20 0.32 0.74 1 1.26 0.18 Nov. . 2.9 1. 21 1 3-30 0.47 Dec. . . Total . 0.65 0.15 0.80 0.1 1 21.24 36.40 42.11 25-54 13.09 21.00 20.61 1179-87 25.69 Rainfall as Recorded at Jaisalmir for Seven Y ears, from 1891 to 1897. Months. 1891. 1892. 1893. 1894. 1895. 1896. 1897. Total. rage. , Remarks. i Jan. . . 0.20 0.96 0.29 1.32 0.17 0.15 3-09 1 0.44 1 Feb. . . 0.44 0.50 0.02 0.96 0.14 i March . 0.66 0.12 0.71 0.03 1.52 0.22 April 0.62 0.92 1.54 0.22 1 May . . 0.12 0.33 I.2S 0. 19 1.92 0.27 June . 0.47 2.07 1.94 0.84 0.64 0.18 6.14 0.88 July . . 2.45 5.89 7-53 1.89 0.42 1.85 2. II 22.14 3-i6 Aug. . . 0.41 .3-16 2.21 5-30 0.43 I. II S.28 17.90 2.56 Sept. 0.7 0.17 1.27 0.52 0.23 2.49 4-75 0.6S Oct. . . Nov. . . 0. 10 0. 10 O.OI Dec. . . j Total . 0.16 0.05 0.21 0.03 4-53 II. 14 15.24 11-59 3-01 3.63 II. 13 60.27 8.61 350 WESTERN RAJPUT AN A STATES Rainfall as Recorded at Khabafor Three Years, from 1895 to 1897. Months. 1895. 1896. 1897. Total. Average. , Remarks. January . 1 February March 0.05 0.05 0.02 April O.IO O.IO 0.03 May 0.02 0.02 O.OI June O.I I 0.76 0.87 0.29 July 1.27 0.96 2.19 4.42 1.47 August . 2.38 1.22 6.33 9-93 3-31 September 2.15 2.15 0.72 October . November December Tota 1 3-78 2.99 10.77 17-54 5-85 Rainfall as Recorded at Ramgarli for Three Tears, from 1895 to 1897. Months. January February March April May June July August September October . November December 1895. 1896. 1897. 1.24 0.37 1-57 0.67 0.70 ' 0.20 I 1.78 ... ' 3.90 0.70 Total. Average. | Remarks. 0.03 1.94 j 0.65 2.3s t 0.78 5.47 I 1.82 1.37 I 0.46 Total 3.85 0.90 6.48 11.23 •74 Rainfall as Recorded at Deica for Three Years, from 1895 to 1897. Months. 1895. 1896. 1897. Total. Average. Remarks. January . 0.15 0.15 0.05 February ... March . 0.03 0.03 O.OI 1 April 0.19 0.19 0.06 1 May i June 0.07 0.50 0.50 1.07 0.36 I July 0.80 0.56 1.84 3.20 1.07 August . 0.77 0.07 7.88 8.72 2.90 September 1. 16 1. 16 0.39 October . November December ... Tota I 1.64 I-I3 11-75 14-52 4.84 METEOROLOGY 351 From the foregoing tables for Marwar it will be observed that there is a great difference throughout the year between the day and night temperatures. It is intensely hot during the day in the summer months, while the nights are generally fairly cool. During the winter months the weather is delight- fully cool and bracing. The climate is extremely dry. The average annual rainfall in Marwar for the seven years 1891-97 was 16.09 inches, and, if 1893 be excluded, when the rainfall was abnormally heavy, the average would be 14.46. The heaviest rainfall was in 1893, viz., 25.89 inches; and the lightest in 1 8 9 1 , viz., 9. 5 i . Jas wantpura is the most favoured of the Parganas, having an average rainfall of 26.54. Tl^^ average in Bali, Sanchore, and Jalore is 22.47, 19-69, and 1 7.7 1 respectively, while Sankra has an average of only 7.5 1 inches, the lightest rainfall recorded. The rainfall of Jodhpore city varies as much as that of the Parganas; 29.72 inches were registered in 1893, and only 6.96 in 1887. BIRDS The birds of these States have unusual advantages in both cHmate and food, and they are, consequently, very numerous and varied. During the cold weather there is mostly abundance of food and water in the desert, and birds of almost every sort flock to the fresh feeding-grounds, which have been compara- tively deserted by the feathered tribes throughout the hot months. Again, when water and food become scarce and the heat uncongenial to them, they repair to the adjacent hills, where they find plenty of fruit and a cool climate. Many of the small birds which nest on Mount Abu and the Aravallis would leave this part of the country during the summer if it were not for the superior climate of these hills. Mount Abu is favoured with many song-birds, and most of the summer visitants wear their best plumage Avhile on the hill, and nest there. The blackbird {Merula nigroinlcus) whistles regularly from early May till the end of the rains, and it is quite equal in song to Mei^ula musica of the old country. The cuckoo {Citculus micropterus), like Cuculus canorus of Europe, leaves the hatching and care of its offspring to a foster-mother, and, instead, devotes much time to call. This cuckoo calls con- tinually in Mount Abu from the end of May till August, and although a smaller bud than the home variety, its note is not less clear and distinct. Robins, wrens, and warblers innumer- able join in song at early dawn throughout these hills ; and honey- suckers, bee-eaters, spider-hunters, fly-catchers, bulbuls, finches, oriols, and tits, of the most brilliant and varied hues, throng the glens and shady nooks throughout the day, and 352 BIRDS 353 many of them visit the gardens in the mornings and evenings in pursuit of food. Cinm/ris Asiatica, the small purple honey- sucker, is the commonest about gardens, but there are others of this species often seen. The classification laid down in Butler's Catalogue will be adhered to, as far as possible, for the ordinary birds, and his nomenclature will also be followed. The game birds, of which most are winter visitants, have been given in accordance with Hume and Marshall's nomenclatuie. In years of very light rainfall game birds are scarce, and other birds less plentiful also ; but when the tanks fill, waterfowl are abundant, and, when the grass is good, Imperial sand-grouse, crane, bustard, hobara, and the feathered tribes in general abound throughout the desert, as well as in the fertile parts of these States. RAPTOEES (Birds of Prey). Fam. VuLTURiD^ (Vultures). — Suh-Fam. Vulturin^ (True Vultures). Oto(jyps calvus : The Black Vulture. Permanent resident. Met with in these States in considerable numbers at times ; at other times they are rarely seen, as if they migrated when food supplies fail. Gyps palleseens : The Long-billed Brown Vulture. Permanent resident. Met with at Abu and along the Aravallis. Pseudogyps hengalensis : The White-backed Vulture. Permanent resident, though not very common. Suh-Fam. ]S^ovBB.o^mM (Scavengers). Neophron ginginianus : The White or Indian Scavenger Vulture. Permanent resident, seen at every village. Fam. Falconid^ (Falcons). — Suh-Fant. FalconiNvE (True Falcons). Falco peregrinus : The Peregrine Falcon. Cold weather visitant. Falco peregrinator : The Shaheen Falcon. Permanent resident, seen throughout the States. Falro Jugger : The Laggar Falcon. Permanent resident, common everywhere. Z 354 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Buteo desertorum : The African Buzzard. Winter visitant. Falco szihbuteo : The European Hobby. Winter visitant, only occasionally seen. Sometimes used for sport — hawking. Astur pahmiharius : The Goshawk. Winter visitant, and sometimes trained for sport. Gerclmeis tinnuncuhis : The Kestrel. Cold weather visitant. Sometimes trained for shikar. Cerchneis Naumanni : The Lesser Kestrel. Cold weather visitant. Cerchneis amurensis : The Eastern Orange-legged Hobby or Kestrel. Cold weather visitant. Sub-Fam. Accipitrin^ (Hawks). Astur badius : The Shikra or Indian Sparrow-Hawk. Permanent resident in most parts of the region. It is met with throughout the country at all seasons, and is often trained for sport. Astur soloensis : The Sooloo Falcon. Winter visitant. Seen in Godwar in the cold weather. Accipiter nisus : The European Sparrow-Hawk. Cold weather visitant. Captured and trained for sport. Accipiter virgafus : The Besra Sparrow-Hawk. Permanent in the Aravallis ; it is trained for sport. Sub-Fain. AQUiLiNiE (Eagles). Aquila Vindhiana : The Indian Tawny Eagle. Permanent resident. Generally seen about the higher hills. Nisaetus fasciatus : Bonnelli's Eagle. Permanent resident. Limnaetus cirrhatiis : The Crested Hawk -Eagle. Permanent resident. Circaetus gallicus : The Common Serpent-Eagle. Probably a permanent resident in the hills. Spilornis melanotis : The Lesser or Southern Indian Harrier-Eagle. Permanent resident. Butasiur teesa : The White-eyed Buzzard. Permanent resident. Buteo Plumipes : The Harrier-Buzzard. Met with about the hills. BIRDS 355 Suh-Fam. MiLviNJ:: (Kites). Haliastur indus : The Maroon-backed or Brahminy K^ite. Permanent resident. Seen throughout these States. Milvus govinda : The Common Pariah Kite. Permanent resident Seen at every village. Milvus melanotis : The Large Pariah Kite. Permanent resident. Lives about the hills in the hot months. Pernis ptilorliynclms : The Crested Honey- Buzzard. Permanent resident. Elanus roiruleris : The Black- winged Kite. Permanent resident, though rare in these States. Fam. Strigid.e (Owls). — Sidi-Fam. SiRiGiNiE (Owls). Strix javanica : The Indian Screech Owl. Permanent resident. Found about old buildings and hollow trees ; sits on the house-top and makes a noise at night. Strix Candida : The Grass Owl. Permanent resident near the hills. Suh-Fam. SYRNiiNiE (Hooting Owls). Syrnium indranee : The Brown Wood Owl. Met with in the Aravalli range and Abu hills. Buho coj-omandus : The Dusky Horned Owl. Permanent resident. Syrnium ocellatum : The Mottled Wood Owl. Permanent resident. This bird is of ill omen when it sits on or about the houses at night, repeating its doleful note. It lives in clumps of trees adjacent to towns, and visits gardens and compounds frequently in search of mice and rats. Suh-Fam. Bubonin^ (Eagle and Scops Owls). Bulio hengalensis : The Rock-horned Owl. Permanent resident. Ketupa ceylonensis : The Brown Fish Owl. Permanent resident, although rare in these States. ScojJS vialahariciis : The Malabar Scops Owl. Permanent resident. 356 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Suh-Fam. Surniin/E (Diurnal or Twilight Owls). Carine hravia : The Spotted Owlet. Permanent resident. Common about old buildings in the desert. Ninox scutulata : The Brown Hawk-Owl. Permanent resident in the Aravallis. Glaucidmm malaharicum : The Malabar Owlet. Permanent resident. Met with in the high wooded lands. INSESSORES (Perching Birds). rn6e— FISSIROSTRES (Wide Gape ; usually feed on the wing). Fam. HiRUNDiNDi.E (Swallows, Martins, and Swifts). — Sub-Fa7n. HiRUNDixix^E (Swallows and Martins). Hiinindo rustica: The Common Swallow. Cold weather visitant, but very common then. Hirundo filifera : The Wire-tailed Swallow. Permanent resident, thought not very common. Hirundo erythropygia : The Red-rumped or Mosque SAvallow. Permanent resident. Hirundo flitvicola : The Indian Cliff Swallow. Permanent resident. Not common in these States. Cotyle sinensis : The Indian Sand Martin. Permanent resident, and very common in some parts near rivers and streaiaas. Ptyonoprogne concolor : The Dusky Crag Martin. Permanent resident and common. Ptyonoprogne rupestris: The Mountain Crag Martin. Cold weather visitant. Chelidon urhica : The English House Martin, Seasonal visitant. Sometimes seen in great numbers. Suh-Fam. CvPSELLiNiE (Swifts). Cypsellus ajfmis : The Common Indian Swift. Permanent resident, and seen in great numbers in many places. Cypsellus hatassiensis : The Palm Swift. Permanent resident. Met with in a few places only in Sirohi. Dendrochelidon coronata : The Indian Crested Swift. Permanent resident. BIRDS 357 Fam. CAPRIMULGIDJ5 (Nightjars or Goat-suckers). — Suh-Fam. CAPRiMULGixiG (Nightjars). Caprimulgus indiacs : The Jungle Nightjar. Permanent resident throughout the hills and wooded parts of these States. Caprimulgus Kelaarti : The Nilgiri Nightjar. Seen throughout the wooded parts of these States. Caprimulgus atripe7inis : The Ghat Nightjar. Capriimdgus asiaticus : The Common Indian Nightjar. Permanent resident, and common where there are trees and bushes. Fam. TrogonidvE (Trogons). Harpades fasciatus : The Malabar Trogon. Permanent resident. Found only in the wooded regions. Fam. MEROPiDiE (Bee-eaters). Merops viridis : The Common Indian Bee-eater. Permanent resident. Seen on Mount Abu and about the lower hills. Merops sroinhoii : The Chestnut-headed Bee-eater. Seen in the hills. Fam. CoRACiAD^ (Rollers). Coracias indica : The Indian Roller. Met with in many places during the cold weather ; takes to the the hills and wooded regions in the hot season. A handsome bird, sometimes mistaken for the blue jay. Fam. Alcedinid^ (Kingfishers), Alcedo bengalensis : The Common Indian Kingfisher. Permanent resident. Met with at all tanks and streams, but common only in the cold weather and rains. Alcedo heavani : Beavan's Kingfisher. Rare. Ceryle rudis : The Pied Kingfisher. Permanent resident, and common in some parts at certain seasons, only when water is abundant. 358 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Fam. BucBROTiDiE (Hornbills). Dichoceros ravafus : The Great Hornbill. Met with in the wooded parts only. TocTius griseus : The Jungle Grey Hornbill. Permanent resident. Seen in the Aravallis and Aim hills. Tnie— SCANSORES (Climbers). Fam. PsiTTACiu^ (Parrots). — Suh-Fam. PalsRorninse, (Parrakeets). Palasornis torquatus : The Rose-ringed Parroquet. Permanent resident in the hill country. Loriculus vernalis : The Indian Loriquet or Green Parrot. Resident in the hills in the hot weather all over the country ; in the cold, in flocks. Palseornis purjmreus : The Rose-headed Parroquet. Met with in the hills and wooded lands adjacent. Pals&ornis columhoides : The Blue-winged Parroquet. Met with in the hills mostly. Palseornis schisticeps : The Slaty-headed Parroquet. Met with in the hills here during the hot weather. Fam. P1CID.E (Woodpeckers). — Suh-Fam. Picinm (Typical Wood- peckers). PicMS mahrattensis : The Yellow-fronted Woodpecker. Permanent resident in the wooded parts of these States. Suh-Fam. CAMPEPHiLiNyE (Woodpeckers). Chrrisocolaptes stridus : The Southern Large Golden-backed Woodpecker. Permanent resident in the well-wooded regions and hills. Suh-Fam.— ■G'E.Gi^i'SM. Gecinus striolaf.us : The Small Green AVoodpecker ; and Chrysophlegma chlorigaster : The Yellow Woodpecker, are also met with. Brachypternus pundicollis : The Lesser Golden-backed Woodpecker. Permanent resident. Microptermis plixoceps : The Rufous Woodpecker. Permanent in the hills. BIRDS 359 Fam. Megal^mid/E (Barbets). Megalai^na inornata : The Western Green Barbet. Common throughout the hills and ■wooded regions, and found in the Khejra belts of the desert in the cold weather. Megalaema viridis : The Small Green Barbet. Permanent resident. Mostly seen in the high lands in the summer ; common in Godwar. Xantholxma lis&macephala : The Crimson-breasted Barbet or Copper- smith. Permanent resident. Fam. CucDLiD^ (Cuckoos). — Suh-Fam. Cuculin.e (True Cuckoos). Cuculus mir-optenis : The Indian Cuckoo. This Cuckoo is common on Mount Abu and some of the adja- cent hills. It begins to call about the end of May and continues throughout the rains ; it lays its eggs in the nest of another bird, like Cuculus canorus, the English Cuckoo, which it resembles, although smaller. Its note is clear and distinct. Cacomantis jjosserimis : The Indian Plaintive Cuckoo. Found in the forests at certain seasons. Evdynamis honorata : The Indian Koel. Permanent resident in some districts, met with most frequently adjacent to the low hills. Suh-Fam. CsNTROPODiNiE (Coucals and Sirkeers). Centrococcyx rufipennU : The Common Coucal or Crow-Pheasant. Permanent resident. Met with about gardens and wooded lands adjacent to villages. Tnit'— TENUIROSTRES (Soft-billed Birds). Fam. ]S"ectarinid.e (Honey-Suckers and Spider-Hunters. Suh-Fam. NECTARININ.E. Arachnothera longirostra : The Little Spider-Hunter. Rare. Found in the wooded hills only. (Ethopyga vigorsi : The Violet-eared Red Honey-Sucker. Permanent resident. Seen in the hills and wooded places with the other varieties ; sometimes abundant about gardens in Abu. 360 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Cinnyris zeylonka : Amethyst-rumped Honey-Sucker. Permanent resident. Cinnyris ininima : The Tiny Honey-Sucker. Permanent resident. Cinnyris asiatica : The Purple Honey-Sucker. Permanent resident. Common on Mount Abu about gardens ; may be seen going about flowers and thrusting its beak into them. Suh-Fam. Dic^iNiE (Flower-Peckers). Dicxum erythrorhynchum : The Small Flower- Pecker. Permanent resident. Mostly on or near the hills in the hot months. There are three or four varieties, and some of them are handsomely marked. Fani. IJpuPiDiE (Hoopoes). — Suh-Fam. Upupin^ (Hoopoes). Upupa ceylonensis : The Indian Hoopoe. Common in the south of India, and seen here. Upupa epops : The Eurojiean Hoopoe. Permanent resident. This well-known and pretty bird is found all over the country from September till April, when it disappears almost completely from these States, and is hardly seen in the hills till the cold weather begins. A few may remain in the hills, as I have seen them late in the year. rn/;e— DENTIROSTRES (with a tooth near the tip of the bill). Fam. Laniad^e (Shrikes or Butcher-Birds). — Sub-Fam. LANiANiE (True Shrikes). Lanius lahtora : The Indian Grey Shrike. Lanius erythronotus : The Indian Eufous-backed Shrike. Permanent resident in mo.^^t localities. Common everywhere. Lanius vittaius : The Bay -backed Shrike. Permanent resident in many localities. Common. Lanius isabellinus : The Desert Shrike. Common in many parts of these States. Suh-Fam. j\Ialaconotin.e (Wood Shrikes). Tephrodornis sylvicoJa : The Malabar Wood Shrike. Not common. BIRDS 361 Teplirodornu pondicerianus : The Common Wood Shrike. Permanent resident. Hemipus picxitus : The Little Pied Shrike. Not common. Stch-Faiii. CAMPEPHAGiNiE (Cuckoo Shrikes and Minivets). Volvorivora syl-esi : The Black-headed Cnckoo Shrike. Not common. Perirrocohis Jiammeus : The Orange Mini vet. Permanent resident. Mostly seen about the low hills. Pericrocotus peregrinus : The Small Minivet. Permanent resident. Met with in numbers in Sirohi State. Ppricrocrotus erytliropygius : The White-bellied Minivet. Rare. Pericrocotus Solaris : The Yellow- throated Minivet. Sometimes seen. Sub-Fam. Dicrurin^e (Drongo Shrikes or King-crows). Bitcliamja atra : The Common Drongo Shrike or King-crow. Common in most parts of the country. Buchanga longicaudata : The Long-tailed Drongo. Permanent resident in the hills and wooded high lands. Buchanga ceerulescens : The White-bellied Drongo. Permanent resident in the Aravalli range. Chaptia cenea : The Bronzed Drongo. Permanent resident in the high, wooded lands. Dissemurus paradiseus : The Malabar Racket-tailed Drongo. Permanent resident. Found in the bamboo jungles and low hills. Chibia hottentotta : The Hair-crested Drongo. Seen in the hills. Fam. MusciCAPiDiE (Fly-catchers). — Suh-Fam. Myiagrin^ (Fly-catchers and Fantails). Muscipeta paradisi : The Paradise Fly -catcher. Met with in the hills and high wooded lands. Hypothymis azurea : The Black-naped Blue Fly-catcher. Met with in the high and wooded lands, and in the desert in cold weather. 362 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Leiicocerca aureola : The White-browe J Fantail Fly-catcher. Rare. Leucocerca leucogaster : The White-spotted Fantail Fly-catcher. Permanent resident. Sub-Fam. Muscicapin^ (Fly-catchers, Redbreasts, Bluechats, &c. Alseonax latirostris : The Southern Brown Fly-catcher. Cold "weather visitant. Stoporala melanops : The Verditer Fly-catcher. Cold "weather visitant. Cyornis tickelli : Tickell's Blue Redbreast. Permanent resident in the forest districts and high lands. Cyornis rujicaudus : The Rufous-tailed Fly-catcher. Cold "weather visitant. Bare. Cyornis pallipes : The White-bellied Blue Fly-catcher. Probably only a cold weather visitant. Rare. Erythrosterna parva : The White-tailed Robin Fly-catcher, Cold weather visitant. Fa7n. Merulid^ (Thrushes). — Sub-Fam. MyioxHERiNiE (Ground Thrushes, Wrens, Hill Wrens, Shortwings, Whistling Thrushes, Water Ouzels, &c.). Myiophoneus horsjieldi : The Malabar Whistling Thrush. Permanent resident in the hills. Pitta hrachyura : The Indian Ground Thrush. Permanent resident in the hills, seasonal in the low lands and desert. Petrophila cinclorhynclia : The Blue-headed Chat- Thrush. Cold weather visitant. Geocichla cyanotis : The White-winged Ground Thrush. Permanent resident. Geocichla citrina : The Orange-headed Ground Thrush. Cold weather visitant. Merula nigropileus : The Black-capped Blackbird. The Abu Blackbird. Permanent resident in the hills. It begins to whistle in May and continues throughout the rains ; its note is very like that of the English Blackbird, Merula mvsica, and its appearance is also much the same. Although smaller, it has the yellow beak, flight, and appearance of the English song-bird. BIRDS 363 Sub-Fam. Timalin.e (Babbling-Thrushes, Finch-Thrushes, Tit-Thrushes, Jay-Thrushes, Strike-Thrushes, Wren-Babblers, Scimitar-Babblers, Laughing-Thrushes, Bar- Wings, Sibias, Bush-Babblers, Eeed-Bab- blers, Marsh-Babblers, Grass-Babblers, and Keed-Birds). Pyctoris sinensis : The Yellow-eyed Babbler. Permanent resident. Met with throughout these States. Alcippe atriceps : The Black-headed Wren-Babbler. Common in many parts of these States. Dumetia hyphei-j/thra : The Rufous-bellied Babbler. Permanent resident. Dumetia albogularis : The White-throated Wren-Babbler. Permanent resident. Pomatorliinus liorsfieldi: The Southern Scimitar- Babbler. Permanent resident. Argyd malcolmi : The Large Grey Babbler. Permanent resident. Layardia sidn-ufa : The Rufous Babbler. Permanent in the hills. Fajn. Brachypodid^ (Short-legged Thrushes). — Sub-Fam. PrcNONOTiNiE (True Bulbuls). Hypsipetes ganeesa : The Ghat Black Bulbul. Permanent resident. Found near the hills in the hot weather ; at other seasons more widely distributed. Criniger ictericus : The Yellow-browed Bulbul. Permanent resident. Turdi7ius Ahbotti : Abbott's Thrush- Babbler. Uncommon. Ixus luteolus : The White-browed Bush Bulbul, Permanent resident. Rubigula gularis : The Ruby-throated Bulbul. Common on Mount Abu and the higher hills in summer, met with in many places below during the cold season. BracJiypodius poiocephalus : The Grey-headed Bulbul. Permanent resident. Otocompsa fuseicaudata : The Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul. Permanent resident. 364 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Suh-Fam. Phtlloknithin^ (Green Bulbuls). Phijllornis jerdoni : The Common Green Bulbul. Permanent resident. lora tiphi'a : The Black-headed Green Bulbul. Permanent resident. Suh-Fam. Oriolix^ (Orioles). Oriolus kundoo : The Indian Oriole. Permanent resident in many of the well-wooded plateaus, but not common ; occasionally seen away from the heavy forests. Oriolus indicus : The Black-naped Indian Oriole. Occasionally seen. Oriolus melanocephalus : The Bengal Black-headed Oriole. Rare. Fam. Sylviad^ (W3ixh\eY&).—Sidj-Fam. Saxicolin^ (Stonechats, Wheatears, Indian Robins, Bushchats, Rockchats, &c.). Copsychus saidaris : The INIagpie Piobin. Permanent resident throughout the country. Cercotrichas macrura : The Shama. Permanent resident. Seen in both hills and plains. Thwmiolna fvlicata : The Indian Black Robin. Permanent resident. Met with about houses and old ruins, where it builds. Omens are taken from this bird. If it build its nest high up, millet will be long ; if it use much grass for its nest, there will be a grass famine. Pratincola caj^rata : The White-winged Bushchat. Permanent resident. Pratincola indicus : The Indian Bushchat. Cold weather visitant. Suh-Fa7n. Ruticillin^ (Redstarts, Bluethroats, &c.). Ruticilla rufiventris : The Indian Redstart. Cold weather visitant. Larvivora sujoerciliaris : The Blue Woodchat. Cold weather visitant. Probably permanent in the hills. BIRDS 365 Suh-Fam. DRYMOiciNiE (Wren- Warblers, Indian Tailor-Birds, Grass- Warblers, and Hill- Warblers). Orthotonus sutorius : The Indian Tailor-Bird. Permanent resident in most of the fertile districts. It suspends its carefully sewn nest to a branch and lines it witli some soft sub- stance such as wool or cotton. Prinia socialis : The Ashy Wren- Warbler. Permanent resident. Seen everywhere, but commoner in the hills than below during the hot months. Prinia gracilis : Franklin's Wren- Warbler. Permanent resident. Cistieola rursitans : The Rufous Grass- Warbler. Permanent resident. Drymoeca inornata : The Earth-brown Wren-Warbler. Permanent resident. Seen among the low bushes throughout the country. Drymoefa rnfescens : The Great Rufous Wren- Warbler, Probably a permanent resident in the well-wooded high lands. Suh-Fam. Phylloscopin.e (Tree-Warblers, &c.) Hypolais rama : Sykes's Warbler. Cold weather visitant. Phylloscopus magnirostris : The Large-billed Tree-Warbler. Cold weather visitant. Phylloscopus nitidus : The Bright Green Tree-Warbler. Cold weather visitant. Phylloscopus affinis : Tickell's Tree-Warbler. Cold weather visitant. Phylloscopus indicus : The Olivaceous Tree- Warbler. Cold weather visitant. Megidoides superciliosus : The Crowned Tree-Warbler. Cold weather resident. Suh-Fam. Sylviin^ (Grey Warblers, comprising Black-caps and White Throats). Sylvia jerdoni : The Black-capped Warbler. Cold Aveather visitant. S66 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Suh-Fam. Motacillin^ (Wagtails, Pipits, Titlarks, &c.). Mofacilla maderasjmtensis : The Large Pied Wagtail. Common throughout the cold weather. Motacilla inrsonata : The Black -faced Wagtail. Cold weather visitant. Common. Motacilla dukhunensis : The Indian White-faced Wagtail. Cold weather visitant, and seen in the rains. Budytes cinereocapilla : The Slaty -headed Yellow Wagtail. Cold weather visitant, returns early. Budytes vielanocepliala : The Black-cap Field Wagtail. Cold weather visitant. Budytes Jlava : The Grey-backed Yellow Wagtail. Cold weather visitant. Zimonidromus i7idv:us : The Black-breasted Wagtail. Rare. Gorydalla rufida : The Indian Titlark. Permanent resident. Seen all over the desert. Fam. Ampelid^. — Suh-Fam. Leotrichin^ (Thrush-Tits, Hill Tits, Shrike-Tits, and Flower-Peckers). Zostero]}s imlpehrosa : The White-eyed Tit. Permanent resident. Suh-Fam. Paring (Tits or Titmice). Parus nipalensis : The Indian Grey Tit. Permanent resident. Seen near the hills in the hot weather ; throughout the desert in the cold. Machlolophus aplonotus : The Southern Yellow Tit. Permanent resident. Tn^e— CONIROSTRES (Thick-billed Birds). Fam. CoRViDiE (Crows, Magpies, &c.). — Suh-Fam. Corvine (Ravens, Crows, Rooks, Jackdaws). Gorvus macrorJiynchus : The Indian Bow-billed Corby or Carrion Crow. Permanent resident. Met with throughout the States, except in the wooded high lands. Gorvus splendevs : The Common Indian Grey-necked Crow. Permanent resident. Seen about all villages in numbers. BIRDS 367 Corvus lawrencei : The Indian Raven. Met with about towns and houses, often in numbers, and known by its large size and hoarse note. Sub-Fam. DENDRocixTiNiE (Tree-Crows or Magpies). Dendrocitta rufa : The Common Indian Magpie. Permanent resident in the woods here. The Shikari is always pleased to see this bird, as it omens well for sport. Dcndrucitta Bayleyi: Bayley's Blue Tree-Magpie. Common in the hills here. Cissa diinensis : The Green or Blue Jay, well known everywhere on account of its handsome plumage. Common throughout these States in the cold weather ; per- manent in the hills in the hot weather. This is a bird of good omen, and the people dislike its being shot. Fam. Sturkid^ (Starlings, Mynas, &c.). — Sub-Fam. STURNiNiE (Starlings and Mynas). Acridotheres tristis : The Common Myna. Permanent resident and very abundant. An'idotJieres fuscus : The Dusky Myna. Permanent resident. Seen everywhere. Pastor roseus : The Rose-coloured Pastor or Jowari Bird. Cold weather visitant, when it may be seen in great numbers about the villages where grain is being winnowed. Fam. Fringillid^ (Finches) — Suh-Fam. Polcein^ (Weaver-Birds). Ploceus Javanensis : The Common Yellow Weaver-Bird. Permanent resident. It is common throughout the country, and its nest may be seen suspended from the Ivhejra tree in many places in the desert. Amadina punctulata : The Spotted Munia. Permanent resident in some districts. Amadina striata : The White-backed Munia. Permanent resident. Estrelda amandava : The Red Waxbill or Common Amidavad is met with throughout the cold weather in the desert, and believed to be a permanent resident in the hills. Estrelda formosa : The Green Waxbill, another species of Amidavad, is also common at times, and may be seen in great numbers together 368 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES with the above variety. These birds roost in the Nim trees at Jodhpore, and at times, when food is abundant, they come in great numbers with Munias of various kinds, some of which are also very pretty little birds. Suh-Fam. PASSBRiNiE (Sparrows). Passer domestictis : The Indian House-Sparrow. Permanent resident. Met with in too great abundance through- out the desert and everywhere. Suh-Fam. Fringillin^ (Bullfinches, Rose-Finches, True Finches, &c.). Garpodacus erythrinus : The Common Rose-Finch. Cold weather visitant. Met with on Mount Abu in the hot weather when the mulberries are ripe, Suh-Fam. Alaudin^ (Larks, Bush-Larks, Finch-Larks, &c.). Mirafra eri/throptera : The Red-winged Bush Lark. Permanent resident. Ammomanes phcenicura : The Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark. Permanent resident. Pyrrhulauda grisea : The Black-bellied Finch-Lark. Permanent resident. Spizalauda deva : The Small Crown -crested Lark. Permanent resident throughout the desert. Spizalauda malaharica : The J^orthern Crown-crested Lark. Permanent resident throughout the unwooded parts of these States. Alauda gidgula: The Lidian Skylark. Permanent resident. Seen in all grass lands. GEMITORES (Pigeons). Fam. TreroniDyE (Fruit Pigeons). — Suh-Fam. TRERONiKJi (Green Pigeons). Crocopus chlorigaster : The Southern Green Pigeon. Permanent resident. These birds frequent fig trees of all sorts, and may often be found in large numbers on banyan trees. They are excellent eating, especially if their tough skins be removed before they are cooked. BIRDS 369 Osmotreron malaharica .■ The Grey-fronted Green Pigeon. Is also met with, and sometimes in considerable numbers, when fruit is plentiful. Siih-Fam. Columbine (Rock Pigeons, Stock Pigeons, &c.). Columha intermedia : The Common Indian Blue-Rock Pigeon. Permanent resident, and common at every village throughout the desert where there is water and shade. Suh-Fam. Turturin^ (Turtle-Doves and Ringdoves). Turtur pidchratus : The Indian Turtle-Dove. Common everywhere. Turtur meena : The Rufous Turtle-Dove. Not common. Turtur suratensis : The Spotted Dove. Permanent resident in Abu and the hills, but not common in the desert, Turtur risorius : The Common Ringdove. Permanent resident. Very common in the hills and plains. Turtur senegalensis : The Little Brown Dove. Common everywhere on the high lands, and seen in great num- bers in the desert also. The principal game birds have been given in a separate chapter, so they will not be referred to here. GRALLATORES (Waders and Shore Birds). Trifte— LATITORES (Coots, Rails, &c.). Fam. RallidyE (Water-Hens, Coots, Rails, &c.). — Sid)-Fam. Gallinulin.e (Coots, Water-Cocks and Water-Hens). Gallinula cJdoropus : The Common Water-Hen Probably a permanent resident in some parts of the region. Fa7n. CuRSORiDiE (Courier Plovers). Cursorius coromandelicus : The Indian Courier Plover. Common everywhere except in the wooded high lands in the cold months. 2 A 370 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Cursorius gdllicus : The Cream Courier Plover. Common except in the hottest months. Charadrius fulvus : The Indian Golden Plover, ^gialitis asiatica and JEgialitis dtihia, the Ring Plover, and yEdiconemus scolopax, the Stone Plover, are met with as winter visitants. Suh-Fam. Yanellin^ (Lapwings). Chettusia gregaria : The Black-sided Lapwing, Winter visitant. Lobivanellus indicus : The Red-Wattled Lapwing, or " Did-you-do-it." Very common everywhere. Suh-Fam. Totanin^ (Sandpipers, Greenshanks, Redshanks, and Stilts), are met with throughout the cold weather, and Porphyrio jpolio- cephalus, the Purple Coot, is common. Erytlira phmiiicura : The White-breasted Water-Hen, 2Vi6e— CULTIROSTRES (Storks, Herons and Ibises). Fam. CicoNiD^ (Storks). Leptoptilus argalus : The Adjutant or Gigantic Stork. Seasonal visitant. Ciconia nigra : The Black Stork. Cold weather visitant. Dissura episcopa : The White-necked Stork. Although a permanent resident in India, it is only met with here in the cold weather. Fa77i. Ardeidj: (Herons, Egrets, Bitterns, and Night-Herons). Ardea cinerea : The Common Blue Heron. Common in the cold months. Herodias torra : The Large Egret or Large White Heron. Cold weather visitant. Herodias intermedia : The Little White Heron. Only met with after the rains and in the cold weather. Ardeola grayi : The Poud Heron. Met with after the rains and throughout the cold weather. Botaurus stellaris : The Bittern. Cold weather visitant. Common in all overgrown marshes. BIRDS 371 Fam. TANTALiDiE (Ibises, Shell and Pelican Ibises, Spoonbills, &c.). Stib-Fam. TantalinyE (Pelican Ibises). Tantalus leucocephalus : The Pelican Ibis. Cold weather visitant. Sub -Fam. Ibisin^ (Ibises). Ibis vielanocephala : The White Ibis. Cold weather visitant. Inocotis papillosus : The Warty -headed or Black Ibis. Cold weather visitant. Falcinellus igneus : The Glossy Ibis. Cold weather visitant. NATATORES (Feet more or less webbed; legs far back). Jn7;e— LAMELLIROSTRES (Flamingoes, Swans, Geese, and Ducks). Fam. Ph^enicopterid/E (Flamingoes). Phxnicopterus antiquorum. : The Flamingo. Cold weather visitant. Seen in great numbers on the Sambhar Lake. Tn6e— MERGITORES (Divers, Grebes, &c.). Fam. PoDiciPiD^ (Grebes). Podiceps minor : The Little Grebe or Dabchick. Permanent resident where the water lasts ; it is found in the Abu Lake (throughout the year), where it nests. j-n/je— VAGATORES (Comprising Petrels, Gulls, and Terns). Fam. Larid^ (Gulls and Terns). — Sub-Fam. Larin^e (Gulls). Lanes affinis : The Slaty Herring Gull. Cold weather visitant. Seen about the Sambhar Lake at times. Sterna seena : The Large River Tern. A seasonal visitant. Seen at Sambhar occasionally. Steima melanogastra : The Black-bellied Tern. Seen occasionally. 372 WESTERN RAJPUT AN A STATES Tribe — PISCATORES (Web-footed aquatic birds that perch on trees or rocks, and feed chiefly on fish). Fam. PELiCANiDiE (Pelicans). — Suh-Fam. Pi.OTiNiE (Snake-Birds). Plotus melanogaster : The Indian Snake-Bird. Common everywhere in the winter. Met with on Mount Abu in the lake in the summer. INSECTS Winged and crawling things are troublesome here, especially in tlie monsoon season, when they disturb rest, retard work, and worry in endless ways. Only a few of this numerous division of the animal kingfdom can be referred to here, and most of these are pests of man and domestic animals, CoLEOPTERA or BEETLES. — Of tliis Order Byrrhidm or pill- beetles are the best known. There are m^ny varieties of brown beetles met with, and the large black beetle is nearly allied to them. They are mostly harmless, except that they are troublesome in flying to the light at night. Their larvae are destructive, and eat up many things in domestic use. Rhynchophora (weevils) are the most destructive of all beetles, and there are many varieties of this species. They destroy grain, biscuits, fruit, vegetables, and timber by boring into and eating up these things. Coccinellidce (lady-birds and lady- cows) are of the Coleoptera order ; they are harmless, and some of them prettily coloured, but the larvse are very destructive and eat up woollen and silk materials, also skins and hair cushions. Packing in dried Nim leaves is the best remedy for these destroyers, and the articles should be well exposed to sunlight and air before they are shut up. Some of the Coleoptera have very brilliant elytra, which are used for decorating dresses, scarf pins, and other ornamentation. Lytta Vesicatoria (the blister-beetle or Spanish-fly) is a hand- some insect of this class, with green elytra. It is of great value in medicine, both as an internal remedy and an external application. It is very common in the grass here during the 374 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES rains, and it may be seen at other seasons. Florican feed on this beetle during the monsoon season, and they are then undesirable for the table, as the eating of their flesh at this time is followed by great irritation of the urinary tract and painful symptoms. Elater noctilucus (the firefly) and Lampyris nodiluca (the glow-worm) are both met with here in the damper regions. They are nmch more luminous during the monsoon season than at other times of the year. LOCUSTS Order Orthoptera. — Suh-Order Saltatoria (Grasshoppers and Crickets). Acridum peregrinum. Locusts visit these States every four or five years and over- run the country, committing much havoc on crops and trees, and sometimes even denuding the sands of grass. They are not, however, indigenous in the tibas or sandhills of Mar- war and Jaisalmir, as supposed by Moore and Cotes. They generally die out in the second or third year after their arrival, and I have satisfied myself that the country is absolutely free from them at times, and that reinvasion of the country is due to new flights from outside. I am of opinion that locusts come from beyond the frontier, probably from the Baluchistan and Afghanistan hills, or from Africa; and I have, on one occasion, seen them on board a P. & O. steamer in the Red Sea. They may also sometimes leave the deseru after they have exhausted the food, and return again to deposit their eggs. I have seen them on one occasion come up by Abu from Ahmedabad in the cold weather; they deposited their eggs in many parts of Rajputana in the end of the following hot weather, and the young brood overran this part of the country in the rains. Locusts generally come into these States near the end of the hot weather, deposit their eggs as soon as rain falls, and then disappear. It is supposed they die after this, like butter- flies, but I have never seen them dead in large numbers, and 375 376 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES I have known them to fly away in good condition, having left then- eggs behind. They may, however, eat up the weakly ones as they begin to drop out of the flight, as the young larvae invariably turn on their disabled companions and devour them greedily. The female locusts deposit their eggs in holes in the sand about an inch deep, made with their ovipositors. The eggs are stuck -together by means of a mucous secretion in masses of fifty to a hundred ; the mouth of the hole is sealed with the same substance, and then covered over with sand, so as to protect the eggs from rain, and prevent their being eaten up by insects and bu'ds. The young larvse are hatched in about a fortnight or three weeks in Avarm weather ; but the eggs would somethnes appear to lie dormant when deposited at an untimely season, as young broods have sometimes been seen long after the winged insects had disappeared. The larvse are very small at first and black in colour. They moult frequently, taking on several new and enlarged coverings before they attain full size. It requires over a month for them to develop wmgs and take to flight. As soon as they emerge from the ground they eat enormously, and, when they have grown a little and developed their muscles, they begin to hop and move forward, devouring every leaf that is green on the sands, and leaving the country behind them barer than it is in the hot weather. It is rather startling to see these creatures in some of the gardens between the bare hills at Jodhpore. They crowd into the gardens over walls, ditches, and houses, like thousands of swarms of bees, and denude every bush and plant in a few hours. I have seen them in such numbers, when there was little green vegetation in the country, that one could not walk about without killing many of them, and as soon as they were disabled or dead, their companions rushed into my footprints and devoured them greedily. Indeed, they were so ravenous and numerous, that I often thought they Butterflies, Abu. Loeust [Acriditiu siicciihtuni). 'Jo faci' pagi 376. LOCUSTS 377 could have eaten me up very quickly, if they had only known how to begin. They continue in this onward march of destruc- tion, always taking a route through the greenest parts of the country, till they have developed their Avings, when they take to flight, forming enormous clouds, sometimes obscm'ing the sun like an eclipse or huge dust-storm. They then attack trees and standing crops, breaking the branches of the former and denuding them of their leaves, and, when the hajra, jmvar, and maize are in ear, they hardly leave a single seed before they fly off in search of new pastures. They are, when fully grown, at first pinkish in colour, then they become yellowish, and finally brownish. They often wander about in the desert during the whole of the cold weather, resting on bushes in a semi-torpid condition during the night, and flying away to new ground during the day. In the second year they are generally active and lay eggs, but in the third they deteriorate in physique, and, in my opinion, do not produce eggs. They are then inactive, often hardly taking to wing, and when they rise only flying for a short distance. At this period they are diseased, and become the prey of birds and beasts, very soon after disappearing from the country completely. I saw the Acridum succinctum in the Deccan at Jalna in 1878, and I have no doubt that the variety met with in the desert here is dis-. tinct, viz., Acridum peregrinum, the locust of the Bible, which I once saw on board a P. & 0. steamer in the Red Sea. In the deserts of Marwar and Jaisalmu* locusts are at times much used as food ; they are relished by many of the people of these parts of the country, Mahomedans, Rajputs, and other castes. The saying is, that those fed on locusts daily grow visibly fatter and fatter. I have been through the desert in years when the great bulk of the population subsisted on locust and bread made from burnt grass-seed, and I found them well nourished. During the cold weather the locusts settle at night in the hor, hhair, and mimosa bushes, and they 378 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES become semi-torpid with the cold, when they are easily caught in the early morning. The people throw blankets and clothes over them, and then push them into bags, or tie them up in bundles, and carry them ofP on camels to be eaten in the fresh state, or salted up in tiers in the huts for future use. They are boiled in salt water, curried, and cooked in other ways to suit tastes. Curry made from the fresh insect is not unpala- table to the hungry traveller. In years of scarcity the un- winged locusts are also eaten, but in years of plenty only the mature insect is used for the table, and even these are never so much in use when grain is abundant, although they are considered a delicacy when they first come in. The people of these States are generally averse to destroying life, and even flesh-eaters become, from associations, averse to killing more than is necessary ; consequently, little is done against invasions of locusts. The people have an idea that a locust year will always be one of abundant harvest, and that the little taken away by these insects will not be missed ; a year of flies is also always expected to be a year of abundant crops. With regard to locusts, the idea is sometimes falla- cious, as I have seen them take away the whole hajra crop just as the seeds were forming, leaving the stalks standing, but of little or no use for cattle, as they absorb so much nitre from the soil when thus early denuded of their millet that they are unwholesome as fodder. On the other hand, locusts are mostly abundant in years when the crops are good, and they some- times leave enough to give a bumper harvest. At times they only top-dress the hajra, so that it sprouts unusually when the rain falls seasonably, and produces many stalks, which, in due course, grow into fine beads of millet. The husbandman then reaps many hundredfold more than he otherwise would have obtained by his own industry. The population of the desert is sparse, and the number of locusts to be dealt with prodigious ; nevertheless, much LOCUSTS 379 could be done to mitigate their ravages if the people had their hearts in the work of extermination and began it early. The eggs could be dug up and destroyed, and the larva3 could be entrenched, burnt, and beaten to death. However, many of the villagers would rather starve than take part in a campaign of destruction such as that recognised, and the most that they do is to drive the young larvte away from their fields, with brooms made of twigs, and shout at the Hying insects in the hope of making them alight in another's field instead of in theirs. Driving larva3 into trenches and burying them has been found useful; but this measure should be early adopted to meet with success, as the active hopping young locusts are difficult to deal with in this way. A cloth screen, from two to three feet high, made slip- pery at the top, with a bit of oil-cloth (as used in Cyprus), might be found a useful addition to the trenching system, to direct into and retain the larvae in the trenches. Driving the young into lines of burning straw was found efficacious in Madras, and beating with besoms of twigs was considered the best way of destroying them in Bombay. Bags with openings at the side have been successfully tried ; the young larvfe are driven into a bag eight or ten feet long by five or six wide, which is then twisted until they are killed. Poisoning with arsenic has been found successful in dealing with locusts in Aroentina, and it can be done with dilute solutions which would not be injurious to man or animals ; it is, therefore, not attended with any danger, and it is also inexpensive. The necessary mixture is made by heating four gallons of water to boiling-point, and then adding one pound of caustic soda to which one pound of arsenic is added. The mixture should be well stirred and boiled for a few minutes, care being taken not to inhale the fumes, which are poisonous. Half-a-gallon of this mixture should be added to four gallons 380 WESTERN RAJPUT AN A STATES of treacle and well mixed. Should treacle not be available, ten pounds of brown sugar mixed Avith four gallons of water will do instead. The dilute mixture should be thrown about the fields with a large whitewash brush, or hajra stalks could be dipped in it and then scattered for the locusts, which are attracted from considerable distances by the treacle. They eat the mixture with great avidity and die, and are eaten by their fellows, which die also ; and this goes on until they are exter- minated. The treacle mixture would have a strength of a little less than one grain of arsenic to the ounce of mixture, so it could not injure man or animals when scattered about the fields as directed above. Dr. Edington, of Cape Colony, has cultivated a fungus which is very destructive to locusts, and which grows rapidly in the dead bodies of the insects, so that if they be thrown about where locusts feed, the disease is rapidly disseminated and the flights destroyed. The natives collect the dead insects, keep theiii in heaps for four or five days, when the fungus has fully developed throughout their bodies ; they are then ground up and the meal mixed with sugar and water and placed on healthy locusts captured for the purpose, which are again set free to spread the disease among the flights throughout the country. The artificiall}^ cultivated fungus is distributed in tubes, and it is sufficient to break the tubes under shade and keep the place damp for the infection to spread to the flights of locusts about. The tubes are also broken in water and locusts dipped in the mixture, when they carry it away to their fellows, and thus spread the disease. This method is the most natural that has yet been adopted against locusts, and it should, if properly carried out, be suffi- cient to protect this country against them. I am indebted to Rao Bahadur Pandit Sukhdeo Pershad for the following account of the operations carried on against locusts in Marwar during 1898 : — LOCUSTS 381 Last year particular attention Avas given to remedial measures, which consisted of dealing with (i) eggs, (2) larvse, (3) full-grown flying locusts. On the 29th July a flight of locusts passed over to Baru near Jodhpore. They alighted at 5 p.m., and flew aAvay after depositing eggs on the following morning. The area on which they rested during the night consisted of drifting sand and sandy ground with some grass roots and mimosa shrubs. The insects avoided the drifting sand and deposited their eggs in the stable ground. For purposes of observation the area containing the newly-laid eggs was divided into four sections. The first was ploughed deeply to prevent the hatching of the eggs, but without any very marked effect, although many of the eggs must have been injured and disturbed. Nevertheless, numbers of larvae came out of this portion of the ground in a healthy condition. The second division was allowed to remain undisturbed, and hatching on a complete scale took place in it. The eggs were dug up and destroyed from the third section ; however, this process proved very tedious and impossible for a large area. The fourth section was flooded with water without effect, as larvae came forth from it in great numbers. The larvae came out on the loth of August, and soon began to hop about, eating up the blades of grass then sprouting. In order to ascertain how they would be aff'ected by want of air, trenches, six, nine, and twelve inches deep, were dug and larvae buried in them. The trenches were opened twenty-four hours afterwards. With the exception of a few which had been injured and killed in the act of burying, they were all alive. This experiment was repeated, and it was found that about forty-eight hours elapsed before they died under this process. Deeper trenches were dug and larvae driven into them by the villagers. The trenches were half filled, and sand was 382 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES then thrown on them to keep them down. Larvae were driven into heaps of dry thorns and bm*nt. Both these methods were effectual, and they could be readily carried out by the villagers. However, lack of co-operation on their part is the principal drawback to prosecuting this plan of extermination. A solution of one pound caustic soda and one pound arsenic m four gallons of water was prepared over fire. Haif- a-gallon of this liquid, mixed with four gallons of water and ten pounds of unrefined sugar {jaggree), was sprinkled over shrubs and grass in the affected area, in the hope that the locusts would eat it, die, and then be devoured by their fellows while any remained unpoisoned. This method suc- ceeded well in a cage in which captured locusts were confined, but it did not answer the pui-pose in the open plains, as the free insects were not much attracted by the sweetened poison, and theu' fellows did not wait to devour them after they did. Rectangular pieces of cloth, twelve inches by three inches, were held erect, with the lower edges touching the ground, and the locusts driven into them and killed by twisting the cloths. This system was fairly satisfactory, and as it requires only two men and a piece of cloth it is very easily worked. The locust-catcher, as used by the Agricultural Depart- ment, was successfully tried ; but it was found that if the bullocks were yoked close to the bag they diverted the larvai from it, and to overcome this traces of twenty-five feet were necessary. This apparatus consists of a log of wood on wheels, drawn by bullocks, with twigs inserted into it to sweep the insects into a long bag attached in front of the log. When the bag fills it is taken off and the larvae destroyed. Fires were lighted at night to attract the young locusts, but this scheme was unsuccessful. Dr. Edington's fungus was obtained and cultivated. It LOCUSTS 383 was put into water, and mature locusts captured and dipped into the solution, after which they were allowed their liberty ; but they died without following up the flight to which they were intended to carry the contagion. The natural enemies of locusts in this part of the country are very minute weevils, which perforate their eggs and re- move the fluid from the shells ; ants, which attack, disable, and devour larvae ; crows, kites, and other birds which subsist on them while they remain in the country, and follow them up for long distances. The adjutant {Lcptoptilus argala) is the most formidable enemy of these insect pests. These birds encircle flights and crawhng swarms of locusts, drive them together in huddled masses, and then devour them with great avidity. Damp is the natural enemy of the locust, and a damp season is always fatal to their existence in the desert, as it produces disease among them which soon exterminates the flights. Crryllidce (grasshoppers), Achetidw (crickets), and Blattidce (cockroaches), of which there are several varieties of each species, belong to this order. The two latter are very de- structive in Indian houses, and should be kept down with arsenic, which they readily eat if it be mixed with dough. They have a great dislike to Nim {Melia indica), and if the leaves of this tree be packed with clothes, they protect them against destruction by these troublesome domestic pests and their larvae. Mantis religiosa (the praying mantis) is a familiar insect of this order, which visits when the night-lights are up, and rids the bungalow of many winged intruders. Order Aphaniptera {Sarcopsylla 'penetrans or Pulex ;penetrans, the Chigre or Chigoe). The chigoe, vulgarly called "jigger," is a species of flea, which passes part of its existence on the ground like other fleas, but the female of which penetrates into the feet, gene- 384 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES rally under the toe-nails, where, producing its eggs, it swells out to the size of a pea, and lives by suction from the tissues in which it is embedded. It is difficult to detect at first, but it must be completely dug out of the tissues when it is dis- covered, without breaking the egg sac, otherwise diffuse in- flammation follows. This insect is at present attracting much attention on account of the rapidity with which it is spreading, and the trouble which it is giving in Africa. It was intro- duced into Africa from the West Indies, and is rapidly over- running the whole continent. It has lately been seen in Bombay, in coolies returned from Africa, and it attacked some of the Bombay sepoys recently on service in Mombassa. Great precautions against its importation into India are necessary, as the climate would suit it, and it would certainly spread rapidly throughout the country if introduced, giving rise to much suffering both in man and animals. The Sarcoptes hominis or Acarus scdbiei (" itch mite ") is the only other insect which be- haves in the same way as the chigoe. However, it is more easily dealt with, and it does not spread rapidly under ordinary precautions and cleanliness. In this case, too, the female pene- trates under the skin, but she differs from the other in laying her esfgrs in the burrow she makes. A species of Pulicida3 {Pidex irritoMs or common flea) is found in many large towns in India ; but it sticks in the skin only till it has satisfied its hunger, and therefore is not formid- able. Most of this family feed and move on. They can be kept out of houses, even in the hills, with proper attention to ventilation, sunlight, and cleanliness. Order Hemiptera. This order is represented by one of the most undesirable of domestic pests — Aca7ithia lectidaria or Cimex lectularius (the bed-bug), for which Keating's powder is occasionally LOCUSTS 385 necessary, especially in the hills, where it is difficult to keep under in the rains when sunlight is often wanting, as the houses are then shut up to keep out the damp. Coccus cacti (the cochineal insect) of this order may be seen during the monsoon season. It is used in medicine and the arts as a colouring agent. Associated with the Hemiptera are Pediculi (lice), a degraded and aberrant group, which formerly were classified as a distinct order, the Anoplura. They eschew cleanliness, and should not be known " in places sacred to neatness and repose." Order DiPTERA. The genus Culex of this order is formidably represented in mosquitoes, gnats, and sand-flies, of which there are many varieties here. The mosquito has always been a troublesome lodger ; but since Ross has placed on it the onus of harbouring the malarial plasmodium, and implanting fever poison in the human system, it has become a more dreaded foe, and greater interest has been added to the study of its life and habits. Siimdmm nocivum,, the sand-fly, is a worse biter in the desert than the mosquito, but its attacks are not followed by any serious consequences. The spotted-winged mosquitoes of this country and Anopheles clavigar of Italy are the dangerous varieties of the species. However, it is well to avoid being bitten by any of these blood-sucking enemies of mankind, especially in warm climates, where there is rarely any super- abundance of the vital fluid in the body. The use of mosquito curtains is therefore recommended as a protection both against fever and disturbed rest, especially for the young and unseasoned. Musca domestica (the house-fly), 3fusca voniitoria (the blue- bottle-fly), Hipp)6bosca equina (the horse-fly), GasteropMlus equi (the bot-fly). Oestrus ovis (the sheep-fly), and CEstrus hovis (the cattle-fly), are all of the Diptera order and common pests here. Bots, due to the eggs of Gasterophihcs equi, are common 2 B 386 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES in horses, and are best treated by the seeds of the Dhak tree {Butea frondosa), ground up and administered with the food. Good sanitation is the best remedy against house-flies, and carboHc acid or phenyle sprinkled about poisons some of them ; also mixtures of arsenic and sugar, and quassia and sugar, when fly-papers are not available. Order Hymenoptera. Apis indica. There are three well-known varieties of bee in these States. The most common, Ajns indica, resembles Apis mellifica of Europe, and is found in large colonies in trees, attached to rocks, and occasionally in holes in walls. A larger variety of bee, which frequents the hills away from dwellings, is darker in colour, and builds mostly in rocks, where it is diflScult to approach, both on account of its fierceness and the inaccessi- bility of the position it usually selects for its habitation. The third variety is very small, and found mostly in banyan trees at the foot of the hills, often close to villages. The large bee is by far the most fierce ; it will attack almost without provo- cation, and, once it is roused, follow up its victim for long distances, stinging fearlessly until it leaves its sting behind. The best way to avoid bees is to get into a green bush, when they quickly desist from their attack. All the varieties here store up honey in considerable quantities, and combs can be found in good condition in May and June, and also in October and November, The honey is, however, sometimes coarsely flavoured, especially that stored on rocks by the larger black bee. This honey is sometimes even said to be poisonous when collected from certain flowers. The best honey is found on branches of trees, and it is sometimes of very fine flavour. The Bhils take it away during the night, or by smoking out the hive with burning grass on a pole. Honey is LOCUSTS 387 sometimes offered for sale at Abu, and it is exported from some villages adjacent to the hills. The smaller varieties of bee could be cultivated and improved; but they produce a good deal of honey without trouble, and the people here are satisfied with a little without labour. The large bee is too fierce for domestication. It has been found more profitable to import Italian bees than to domesticate any of the wild varieties of India, and no attempt has been made at bee- farming in these States. The Bhils, however, collect much of the honey both for sale and domestic use. and it is largely used in country medicine here. Many of the most disagreeable flying insects belong to the Hymenoptera order, such as Vespa indica (the Indian wasp), Vespa crahro (the hornet), Formica fidiginosa (the black ant), Formica sanguinea or rubra (the red ant), also varieties of Cijnipidce (gall-flies), Siricida3 (saw-flies), &c. Neuroptera. This order is well represented here, and the best known and most troublesome are the Termites or white ants. Perlidce (stone-flies and many water-flies useful for fishing), Libellulidce (dragon-flies, some of which are very handsome), belong to this order. White ants are so very destructive that they require to be kept down, and arsenic is the best remedy. It should be put under the plaster in houses where these troublesome pests come up through the floors and walls, as the drug is poisonous and irritating to the eyes and bronchi if inhaled with dust, which must occur if it be left on the surface. White ants will not attack the wood of the Nim tree (Melia ijidica) until it becomes very old and decayed, and wood saturated with salt- water, creosote or tar is also unpalatable to them. Kerosine oil keeps them back for a time, and it is also a good remedy against black ants {Formica fuliginosa), which sometimes invades Indian houses in the rains. LAC Coccus Lacca (the Lac Insect). Oi'der H^MOPTERA. — Sub-Order MoNOMERA. — Family CocciD^. (Scale Insects.) Throughout the Aravallis and fertile lands in the neighbour- hood of the hills of these States there are many trees which grow with sufficient vigour to support the lac insect (Coccus lacca). The intensity of the hot weather, the long dry season which follows the monsoon, and the frost, which is always considerable in December and January, are unfavourable to the cultivation of lac here, as the insects are sensitive to both intense cold and great heat, and they require some moisture in the an* to enable them to work vigorously. Two attempts have been made to introduce the lac insect into the forests of the Aravallis, but without success. How- ever, a third effort will shortly be made, as it is believed that, if once well established, it could surmount all difficulties and produce lac of good quality. The lac insect was obtained from Kewa and placed on 2 5 o Dhak trees — Bidea frondosa — in November 1895. About 2000 twigs, received with incrustations on them, were made up into bundles of six or seven each, and fixed to the crowns of trees which appeared sufficiently vigorous to support the insect. This was done at the right time, viz., when the larvae were about to come out, and, by the end of a week, the young insects had all left the incrustations and fastened themselves on to the bark of twigs by means of their proboscides. The 388 LAC 389 insects did not show much power of locomotion or desire to take up new fields ; they attached themselves to new twigs in contact with the old ones, and many of them were observed to perish in the struggle for existence on account of having re- mained too near home. Once they had fixed their suckers into the bark, they had to remain there permanently, and those which failed to obtain a good position perished from inanition. Before the larvse left the incrustations of their mothers they sucked up all the red colouring matter, leaving only a dessicated, colourless film behind. By the end of a month the surviving larvse had grown considerably, and their bodies had become distended. The three filaments, essential to the female for respiration, ex- cretion, and fecundation, had grown long, and lac incrustations began to be formed, so everything seemed to be doing well. Some of the shoots on which the insects were fixed were, hoAv- ever, killed by frost in December and January, and the insects perished with them. The hot weather of May and June dried up some of the incrustations, and reduced the stock still further. Then ants and monkeys devoured many more, leaving very little prospect of a reward for the labour be- stowed on the enterprise. The males of the survivors de- veloped wings, and new larvse appeared in July; but the crop was far from an abundant one. The insect found its way accidentally on to a pipal tree (Ficus religiosa), and larvae developed on it simultaneously with those of the other trees ; but some of them were brilliant red, while others were yellow, as if they were in a more advanced stage than those bred on other trees. A planting out on fresh trees of some of the larvte bred in Marwar was effected in July 1896, but they were mostly washed away by the heavy monsoon rains before they had become firmly fixed to the bark of the young shoots taken up by them, and what remained of them died during the frosty weather which ensued in December and January 390 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES The experiments of both years failed, and although some of the imported larvae developed and produced lac, it was not in sufficient quantity to admit of twigs being rolled and the wax clarified to ascertain if it were of good quality. Both the seasons in which the experiments were made turned out unfavourable ; the winter frosts were unusually severe, and the monsoon set in untimely for the planting out of the home- cultivated larvte. The followmg are the trees that have been set apart for lac cultivation in Marwar, viz., Uhak {Butea frondosa), Ber {Zizyijhus jujuha), Babul {Acacia arahica), Sal (Shorea rohusta), Khejra (Prosopis spicigera), Bur (Ficus indica), Gular (Ficus fjlomerata), Khair {Acacia catechu), Karunda {Carissa carandas), Pangara {Erythriiut indica), and Am {Mangifcra indica). Besides the ordinary writing-table and office application of lac, it is largely used in these States for colouring wooden toys and other woodwork, also for making wrist and neck ornaments for women and for ornamenting idols. LEPIDOPTERA Rhopalocera or Butterflies, of which the following are the best known : — List of Butterfiies collected hy the Boys at the Railway School, Mount Abu. I. Royal Emperor. 33- Charcoal Tij). 2. Common Emperor. 34- Asia Tip. 3. Royal Tiger. 35- Swallow Tail. 4. Bengal Tiger. 36. Glassy. 5. Tortoise-shell Tiger. 37- Cartridge. 6. Tiger. 38. Brown Cartridge. 7. Peacock. 39- Sailor. 8. Two-tailed Peacock. 40. Brown Sailor. 9. Four-tailed Peacock. 41. Tortoise-shell. 10. Tibetian Peacock. 42. Brown Tortoise-shell 11. Rose Peacock. 43- Cabbage. 12. Mourning Peacock. 44. Curry and Rice. 13. Limey. 45- Red Sky. 14. Two-tailed Limey. 46. Blue Sky. 15. Four-tailed Limey. 47. Tibetian. 16. Wilkinson's. 48. Bouncer. 17. Eggie Wilkinson's. 49. Olive. 18. Eggie' s. 50. Leopard. 19. Gentleman's Fancy. 51- Cheetah. 20. Lady's Fancy. 52. Pepper and Salt. 21. White Orange Tip. 53- 1st Class Watcher. 22. Yellow Orange Tip. 54- 2nd Class Watcher. 23. Yellow. 55- 3rd Class Watcher. 24. Zebra. 56. Silver Leopard. 25. Mangoe. 57- Macaroni. 26. Bluebell. 58. Blotted Olive. 27. Dumb-bell. 59- Olive Leaf. 28. Spotted Bell. 60. Devil. 29. Bare Back. 61. Evening Leaf. 30. Rocky. 62. Map Butterfly. 31. Scarlet Tip. 63. Oak Leaf. 32. Salmon Tip. 64. Coff"ee. 391 392 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES List of Moths {Heterocera) collected hy the Boys at the Railway School, Mount Abu. I. Common Moth. 7- Wall Moth. 2. Atlas Moth. 8. Ash Moth. 3- Moon Moth and 9- Charcoal Moth. Half-Moon Moth. lO. Bark Moth. 4- Korunda Moth. II. Silkworm Moth. 5- Death's Head. 12. Brush-tailed Moth 6. Cottage Moth. Bomhyx mori, the silkworm moth, is met with on Mount Abu and in some of the other hills, and it Avould be possible to cultivate it here. However, the dry season is so prolonged that it might not be a profitable enterprise. Arachnida. Spiders (Arachnida), like lizards, are great benefactors in the house, as they rid it of many noxious insects, such as flies, mosquitoes, and gnats. Spiders are considered lucky here, as in Europe, and the people of the country always protect them. The tarantula (Lycosa tarantida), a large species of spider found in Indian houses, is a useful insect for keeping down noxious vermin, and it will even attack and devour scorpions. It only bites when hurt, and its bite is not poisonous, so it should not be injured. Belonging to the same class, but very different in habits from spiders, with which they have little in common struc- turally except four pairs of legs, are the following parasites of the order Acarina or Monomerosomata : — Sarcojytes hominis or Acarus scabiei (the " itch " mite of man), Acarics communis (the dog-tick), Acams major (the cattle-tick), Acarus equus (the horse- tick), and Acarus ornothis (the fowl-tick). All are common here. Except Acarus scabiei (which requues special treat- ment), they are easily kept down by lime-washing, frequent LEPIDOPTERA 393 renewing and burning of the floors of houses occupied by domestic animals. Kerosene oil, also, is a good application, and it should be rubbed into the woodwork of fowl-houses to destroy these pests. Helminthology. The parasites which inhabit the alimentary canal of man and the lower mammalia are not wanting here. Most of these obnoxious Entozoa find their way into the system through food and water, and several of them exist in meat in a larval or immature state. Some of them are encysted in a membranous or calcareous covering. This enables them to resist high tem- peratures, and to remain potent for evil after the cooking of the meat, in which they lie dormant till they have been liberated by the action of the gastric juice, when they begin a new period of activity. Cestoidea, or Tape-Worms. — There are three varieties of this species, viz., Tcenia solium, Tcenia mediocanellata, and Bothriocephcdus latus. The larvae of the first-named variety, Tcenia solium, is derived from pigs' flesh. The pig eats up the eggs with garbage; they are acted on by the gastric juice, which dissolves the capsule and liberates a minute proscolex, which bores its way into the blood-vessels of its host, and gets carried to a suitable nidus in the tissues. It develops further into the Cysticercus celhdosce or " measle " of pork, and remains encysted until it is liberated by digestion again, after which it grows into a tapeworm and remains a parasite in the intestines. The larva? of the second variety, Tcenia mediocanellata, is found in the flesh of the cow ; and of the third, Bothriocephahis latus, in fresh-water fish. Both these varieties go through much the same stages of existence as the Tcenia solium. Nematoda, or " Bound " and " Thread Worms." — There are four well-known varieties of these parasites, viz., Ascaris lumbricoides, Oxyuris vermicularis, Trichocephalus dispar, and 394 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES Anchyolostomum duodenale. The life-history of these parasites is not so well known. The ova may, in some instances, be taken into the stomach in vegetable food or water, and in others there may be an alternative host for the first stage of development. Trichina spiralis. — This parasite develops in the ali- mentary canal after the ingestion of pigs' flesh containing the encysted embryos. A young brood is produced, and these larvae find their way through the circulation into the muscles,. Avhere they become encysted after they have injured much of the muscular fibre. Filaria sanguinis hominis. — This worm is found in the human blood and lymphatics, where it gives rise to a group of diseases resembling elephantiasis, not often seen here. The embryo of this nematode is found only in the blood-vessels of the skin during the night ; and it has, in consequence, been named Filaria nocturnis. This entozoon, like many of the others, requires an intermediate host, and Dr. Manson has demonstrated that the mosquito acts in this capacity, to facilitate the full development of the parasite. The mosquito draws up the Filarise with the blood it sucks, and enables it to return to the water, where it dies, thus acting as a temporary host during its lifetime, and providing for their further exist- ence by dying in the water, which is a suitable medium, after their liberation from the mosquito's body. Filaria onedinensis {Guinea-tvorm) is a common parasite in these States. The larva finds its way into the body through water, most probably drinking-water. The female develops to a considerable length in the areolar tissues of the body, mostly of the legs. She produces young, and then endeavours to gain an exit through the skin for her offspring, after which she dies if left in the body, producing much irritation and in- flammation of the tissues in which she is embedded. When free, the larvae seem to exist in water for a time. But it is LEPIDOPTERA 395 believed that they have alternative hosts in fresh-water crusta- ceans ; and, like some of the other parasites of this class, they pass through one or more metamorphoses. Trematoda or " Flukes." — These parasites pass through a complicated metamorphosis, varying with the host they occupy and the conditions about them. They exist in various forms in water, mammals, birds, batrachians, fishes, and mol- lusks. They gain access to the system through food and water, and are capable of producing a diseased condition in man and domestic animals. Flukes infest sheep, and may be communicated to man from the flesh of these animals, espe- cially the liver and kidneys. Some authorities believe that they gain admission through bathing water. Vegetable Paeasites. Man and the lower animals are subject to attacks from vegetable parasites, often fungi of a very low type, which gene- rally destroy the hair follicles and epithelial scales for their own nutriment. There are three well-known varieties of fungus which produce ringworm and allied diseases, viz., Trichoiiihyton tonsurans, Microsporon fm'fitr and Achorion shonleinii. Baldness is produced by a fungus, too, but it has not been satisfactorily isolated ; and there are many other degenerations due to low vegetable formations in the tissues. Indeed, every disease is now reasonably believed to have its microbe, and even old age is supposed by some to be brought about by a special coccus or bacillus. Bacteria, cocci, spirilla, bacilli, and other microbes, which find their way into the blood and tissues of man and anunals, all belong to the vegetable kingdom. They observe the usual laws of Nature, and reproduce each after its kind. Thus cholera is caused by a distinct bacillus, bubonic plague by a cocco-bacillus, and tuberculosis by a microbe which is as different from the two former as the leeR is from grass 396 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES and the snowdrop. No two of these vegetable micro- organisms act aHke in the blood and tissues ; consequently the diseases produced by them vary very much in character and acuteness. Many of the microbes of disease have an independent existence in aii* or water, and some can subsist on food stuffs, both animal and vegetable. When they gain admission into the tissues and blood, they mostly take on marked activity, multiply rapidly, and reduce the vitality of their host, at the same time producing a rise of temperature by their action. They assimilate from any suitable medium in which they can thrive, and produce ptomaines or poisons in return. When the soil becomes exhausted, they form spores or seed, and lie dormant or die if they cannot obtain access to new fields or suitable resting-places. Many of these microbes escape from their host through the excretions, and live under the same conditions in which they existed before they entered ; here they rest until a new opportunity for activity is offered to them by another suitable host, and this goes on ad infinitum. A study of the habits of parasites which infest man and animals will readily convince any one of the importance of a pure water supply and wholesome food. Meat that has been well cooked can hardly contain any larvae capable of producing disease, as a very high temperature is fatal to both animal and vegetable life. Attention must, however, be given to the feed- ing of cattle from which milk is taken, and the flesh of animals which feed on garbage should be avoided, as it might readily be the means of communicating disease to man. FORESTS AND FLORA The eastern and some of tlie southern Parganas of Marwar, in the du'ection of the Aravalli Range, Jaswantpura, and Jalore, are well wooded with natural forest, and many of the ravines leading down into the plains from the hills produce timber of fair scantling. The hills and ravines of Sirohi are generally well wooded and some of them in the neighbourhood of Abu and Neemuch produce fine timber ; while in the north and east of the State it is mostly undergrown. Jaisalmir and the north and north-west of Marwar, as well as Mallani and a large sandy tract of the south-west of the country towards the Rann of Kutch, produce nothing worthy of the name of forest, although belts of Kliejra (Frosopis spicigcra) are common throughout the sandy plains, and some of the more fertile valleys in the hard desert are well stocked with these trees. Cultivated topes of Nim {Melia indica) are also met with at a great many of the villages in the less fertile parts of the country. The following are the principal indigenous and cultivated trees, shrubs, and grasses found on and adjacent to the Ara- vallis and highlands of Marwar and Sirohi, including Mount Abu : — 397 398 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES TKEES AND SHRUBS. No. Vernacular Name. Botanical Name. Natural Order. I Agia . . . Girardinia heterophylla. (Stinging nettle.) Urticaceaj. n Ajha . . . Orthosipbon tomentosus. (A com- mon herb.) Labiatse. 3 Ak . . . . Calotropis procera. (Common flower- ing shrub of the desert.) Asclepiadese. 4 Ak (big) . . C. gigantea. (Bush) Do. 5 Am. . . . Mangifera indica. (Tree) .... Anacardiacese. 6 Amaltds or Cassia fistula. (Tree with handsome Leguminosse. Karmala . yellow flowers.) 7 A m a r Bel (Deathless creeper). Amarti (ever- Cuscuta reflexa. (Leafless parasite) . Convolvulacese. 8 Celosia argentea. (A pink and white Amaranthacese. lasting). everlasting.) 9 Ambartiiri . iErides affine. (Orchid) Orchidaceee. lO Amrud . . Psidium pyriferum (Tree) .... Myrtaceaa. II Anar . . . Punica granatum. (Pomegranate bush.) Lythrariese. 12 Angir . . . Ficus palmata. (An edible fig) . . Urticaceae. 13 Angur . . . Vitis vinifera, (Vine-climber) . . Ampelidese. 14 Anjir . . . Ficus carica. (A small tree) . . . Urticacese. 15 Ankel or An- kol. Antera . . Alangium Lamarckii. (A small tree) Cornacese. 16 Capparis grandis. (A small tree) Capparidese. 17 A n w a 1 or Awal. Cassia auriculata. (Shrub) .... Leguminosse. 18 Aoula . . . Phyllanthus emblica. (A middle- sized tree.) Euphorbiacese. •19 Arand . . . Ricinus communis. (Castor-oil plant) Do. 20 Areta . . . Sapindus trifoliatus. (Tree) . . . Sapindacese. 21 Arjia . . . Acacia eburnia. (Tree) Leguminosse. ■22 Arrlua . . Adhatoda Beddomei. (Shrub) . . Acanthacese. 23 Aru . . . Prunus persica. (Tree) Rosaceae. 24 Arusa . . . Adhatoda Vasica. (Shrub) Acanthacese. 25 Arwalia . . Pueraria Stracheyii. (Creeper) . . Leguminosse. 26 Babul . . . Acacia arabica. (Tree) Do. 27 Bahera . . Terminalia bellerica. (A fine tree) . Combretacese. 28 Banokra . . Hibiscus vitrifolius Malvaceae. 29 Bar. . . . Ficus bengalensis. (The well-known Indian Banyan.) Urticacese. .3° Barkar Genus not determined. (Ginger i Zingiberaceoe. Khanda. plant.) ! FORESTS AND FLORA 399 Vernacular Name. Bama . . . Baus or Bans Bed ... Bharka Dodi Bharutia . . Bhendi . . Bhiri . . . Bhoi Rengni Bill, Bael, or Bilgir Biya . . . Bokna . , . Bor . . . Bhorli . . Cha . . . Chambeli or Ja. Champa . Charr . . Chir . . Ddntpara . Ddri . . Datura DhakorPalas Dhaman . Dhamani . Do. . Dhavi (Kan- tia). Dhaukra . . Dhaula bura Dholi musli . DudheH . . Enkra or Unt Kartalia. Eucalyptus . Botanical Name. Natural Order. (A medium-sized (The Bamboo) . (Weeping willow (A twining Cratgeva religiosa. tree.) Bambusa stricta. Salix babylonica. tree.) Marsdenia tenacissima. plant.) Triumfetta tomentosa. (A plant) Hibiscus tetraphyllus Urena lobata. (Herbaceous) . . . Solanum xanthocarpum. (A prickly plant.) ^gle Marmelos. (A tree) .... Pterocarpus Marsupium. (A tree with shining pinnate leaves.) Commelyna (species unfixed). (A plant with bright blue flowers.) Zizyphus Jujuba. (The bair tree) . Garuga pinnata. (Tree) Camellia Thea. (Shrub — Tea plant) Jasminum rottlerianum and J. gran- diflorum. (Jessamine.) Michelia champaca. (A large tree) . Pongamia glabra. (A moderate-sized tree.) Pinus longifolia. (A large tree with symmetrical branches.) Casearia tomentosa. (A small tree) . Woodfordia floribunda. (A large shrub.) Datura fastuosa. (Thorn apple) . . Butea frondosa. (A tree) . . . . Grewia pilosa and G. tilsefolia. (A small tree.) Sida humilis. (A trailing herb) Waltheria indica. (A herb) . . . Anogeissus pendula. (A small grega- rious tree.) Anogeissus latifolia. (A large tree) . Buddleia Madagascarensis. (A large shrub.) Sub-order Cypripedese (?). (Orchid.) Holarrhena antidysenterica. (A small tree.) Argemone mexicana. (A common bright yellow flower.) Eucalyptus Globulus. (A lofty tree.) Capparide£B. Graminese. Salicineae. Asclepiadea;. Tiliacea3. Malvacea?. Do. Solanacese. Rutaceae. LeguminosaB. Commelyiieee. Rhamnese. Burseracese. Ternstrcemiaceae. OleacesB. Magnoliacea3. Leguminosse. Coniferse. Samydacese. Lythraieae. Solanaceae. Leguminosaj. Tiliacese. Malvaceae. Sterculiaceae. Combretacese. Do. Loganiaceae. Orchidaceaj. Apocyneae. Papaveracese. Myrtaceae. 400 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 83 84 85 86 87 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 Fards . . . Gantia . . Gani . . . Gatbor . . Gengria . . Ghiyor (large) Ghiy or (little) Ghor-bel . . Goi. . . . Gold-mohur . Golra . Gonda . Gondi . Gor jliar Grevellia Gugal . (iiilar . Haldua Han-Rhiyo Harsinghar or Dhari. IlattoorSatto Haria . . Honeri Ikarr . . Do. . . Do. . . Jabardanti Jal . . . Jal Nim . Do. Jaman . Jhil . . . Jojaru or Ja- jaru. Kachndr . . Tamarix articulata. (A tree) . . . Barleria cristata. (A low plant) . . Coix lachryma. (Job's tears — grass.) Zizyphus xylopyra. (Wild bair shrub.) Crotolaria sericea. (Plant) . . . . Nymphea alba. (White waterlily) . Lymnanthemum cristatuni. (A small white aquatic flower.) Pueraria tuberosa. (A common creeper on Abu.) Trema orien talis. (An evergreen tree.) Poinciana regia. (A splendid orna- mental tree.) OdinaWodier. (Tree) .... Cordia Myxa. (A small tree) . . Ehretia obtusifolia. (A small tree) Loranthus longiflorus. (A parasite) Grevellia robusta. (Tree) . . . Balsamodendron mukul. (Tree) . Ficus glomerata. (A fig) . . . Adina cordifolia. (Tree) . . . Loranthus longiflorus. (A large hand- some parasite.) Nyctanthes arbor-tristis. (A small tree.) Jasminum Sambac. (A jasmine) . . Bidens pilosa Jasminum humile. (Yellow jasmine) ^schynomene indica. (A tallish herb.) Smithia (?). (A small herb) . . . Cassia minosoides. (An erect herb) . Striga orobanchioides. (A small leaf- less plant.) Hiptage madablota. (A twining shrub.) Polygonum glabrum. (Persicaria) . . Polygonum Eugenia Jambolana. (A handsome tree). Limnophila gratioloides plant.) Crotolaria trifoliastrum, yellow flowering plant. Bauhinia racemosa. (The "geranium" tree.) (A small (A little Tamariscinese. Acanthacese. Graminese. Rhamnese. Leguminosese. Nymphacese. Gentianacese. Leguminosae. Urticacese. Leguminosee. Anacardiacese. Boragineoe. Do. Loranthaceee. Proteacese. Burseracese. Urticaceee. Rubiacese. Loranthacese. Oleace^e. Oleacese. Compositfe. Oleacese. Leguminosse. Do. Do. Scrophularineae. Malpighiacepe. Polygonaceae. Do. Myrtacese. Scrophularineaj. Leguminosae. Do. FORESTS AND FLORA 401 No. Vernacular Name. 97 Kadam or Kib. 98 Kalia . . . 99 Kait . . . 100 Kama . . . lOI Kamboi . . 102 Kampela . . 103 Kaner . . . 104 Kantela . . 105 Kanti . . . 106 Kanthal . . 107 Do. (small shrub). 108 Kara . . . 109 Kar j a or Karoj. no Karji . . . III Kareli . . . 112 Karmalti . . 113 Karunda . . 114 Katkaro or Katekaro. 115 Katumbo . . 116 Keim , . . 117 Kemla . . . 118 Kerna . . . 119 Khajur . . 120 Khair . . . 121 Kala dhau . 122 Khdtarli . , 123 Khatubo . . 124 Kliaroti . . 125 Kharaiyo or Kulu. 126 Khirni . . 127 Khejra . . 128 Karakshia or Taramsi. 129 Kodala . . 130 Kolai . . . 131 Konr . . . 132 Kowes . . . Anthocephalus Cadamba. (A large tree.) Albizzia odoratissima. (A large tree) Feronia elephantum Solanum nigrum. (A weed) . . . Phyllauthns reticulatus. (Shrub) . Mallotusphilippinensis. (A small tree) Nerium odorum. (Oleander) . . . Berberis aristata. (Shrub) .... Flacourtia Ramontchi. (Shrub) . . Artocarpus integrifolia. (The Jack Tree.) Kanthal acanthus (?) Strobilanthus callosus. (A shrub) . Ulmus integrifolia. (The Indian Elm.) Pongamia Glabra. (A small tree) Lorenthus longiflorus Cassia Carissa Carandas. (A large shrub) . Vogelia indica Vitis vinifera. V. latifolia. V. carnosa. (See Angur.) Nauclea parvifolia. (A large tree) . Anthocephalus Cadamba. (A large tree.) Wrightia tinctoria, (Shrub) . . Phoenix sylvestris. (Palm tree) . Acacia Catechu. (A small acacia) Anogeissus acuminata. (Tree) Oxalis corniculata. (Flower) . . Verbascum celsioides. (" ilullein ") Plectranthus rugosus. (A small under shrub.) Sterculia urens. (A tree with white bark.) Mimusops indica. (A large ever- green tree.) Prosopis spicigera. (A thorny tree) . Cpesalpinia sepiaria. (A thorny pin- nate tree.) Sterculia villosa. (A fine tree) . . Dichrostachys cinerea. (A small acacia-like tree.) Hamiltonia suaveolens. (Shrub) . . Mucuna pruriens. (Creeper) . . . Natural Order. Rubiacese. Leguminosse. Rutacese. Solanacese. Euphorbiacese. Do. Apocynese. Berberidene. Bixineoe. Urticacese, Acanthacese. Do. Urticaceee. Leguminosae. Loranthacese. Leguminosae. Apocynea). PlumbaginccB. Ampelidese. Rubiacese. Do. Ajjocyneaj. Palmaj. Leguminosae. Combretaceaj. Geraniacete, Scrophularineae, Labiata;. Sterculiacese. Sapotaceae. Leguminosae. Do. Sterculiacese. Leguminosae. Rubiaceae. Leguminosae. 402 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES No. ^33 134 135 Vernacular Names. Kuja (Gulab) Kutri . . . Lilotri . . . 1 36 Maha nimbu 137 I Mai Kangni . 138 ! Malla Singhi or Mar era Phalli. Matliari or Matawal. Mendul . . 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 Botanical Name. Natural Order. Mitha nimbu Mohwa . Mujal , . Mulari Mungia . Narangi . Negar . . Nila . . Nim . . Nimbu Padia . . Palki . . Pililioneri Pipal . . Plialudra . 1 56 Do. 157 Pherwana 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 Do. Do. Do. Do. Pomaria . . Poptia . . . Do. Poptia Marua Ratanjot . . Rosa involucrata and R. moschata. (White dog roses.) Acacia concinna. (A thorny shrub) . Evolvulus alsinoides. (A small creeping plant.) Citrus decumana. (Tree) .... Celastrus paniculatus and C. stylosa. (Creeper.) Helicteres Isora. (A large shrub) Sterculia colorata. (Tree) Rosacese. Leguminosse. Convoh'ulacese. Rutacese. Celastrineae. Sterculiacese. Do. Randia dumetorum. shrub. ) Citrus lumia. (Tree) Bassia latifolia. (A large tree) Casearia tomentosa. (A small tree) Vigna vexillata. (A pea) . . . Phaseolus mungo. (A plant) . . Citrus aurantium. (Tree) . . . Vitex negundo. (A small tree) . Hemigraphis ebracteolata. (A small plant.) Melia indica. (A common tree) . . Citrus acida. (Tree or shrub) . . Hamiltonia suaveolens. (Shrub) . . Ficus cordifolia. (Wild fig) . . . Senecio saxatilis. (Flowering plant) . Ficus religiosa. (A large plant) . . Erythrina arborescens. (The "Coral" tree.) Erythrina lithosperma. (Tree) . . Ipomea muricata. (A lilac convol- vulus.) I. hederacea. (A purple convolvulus) I. Wightii. (A purplish-jiink convol- vulus.) I. pes-tigridis. (A pink convolvulus) I. obscura? (A yellow convolvulus, purple at base.) Cassia Tora. (A tall plant) .... Nicandra physaloides. (Flowering plant.) Physalis minima. (Herb) .... Atylosia sericea. (A small plant) Jatropha curcas. (A small tree) . . (A small i Rubiaceae (See Rutaceae. Sapotaceae. Samydaceae. Leguminosse. Do. Rutaceai. Verbenace?e. Acanthacese. Meliacese. Rutacese. Rubiacese. Konr.) Urticacese. Compositee. Urticaceae. Leguminosse. Do. Colvolvulacese. Do. Do. Do. Do. Leguminosae. Solanacese. Do. Leguminosse. Euphorbiacea% FORESTS AND FLORA 403 No. Vernacular Names. 167 Rengani . . 168 Rohira . . 169 Sagwan. . . 170 Sal ... . 171 Salaran . . 172 Salem Misri . 173 Sdler . . . 174 Sarw . . . 175 Sasarda . . 176 Sebla . . . 177 Seblia Kan- tal. 178 Seblia Kantal 179 Setut . . . 180 S e w a n or Hawan. 181 Shisham . . 182 Shole - ka - sa- per. 183 Sirgura . . 184 Siris . . . 185 Sirs - arro or UndaKanta 186 Sitaphal . . 187 Sitrawal . . 188 Tallo . . . 189 Tatta Kaoni . 190 Taowara . . 191 Taransi . . 192 Tebran . . 193 Tendu . . . 194 Umbia . . . 195 Umbro . . 196 Undphulla . 197 Unt Kantalia 198 Unda Kanta 199 Vangi or Deo- dri. 200 Vavan . . . 201 Vera . . . Botanical Name. Solanum indicum. (A prickly shrub) Tecoraa undulata. (A tree with bright flowers.) Tectona grandis. (A large tree) . . Sliorea robusta. (A lai'ge tree) . . Boswellia serrata. (A large tree) . . Ophrydete. (Orchid) Boswellia thurifera. (Tree) . . . Cupressus sempervirens. (A tall tree) Blepharis Boerhaavifolia. (A prickly herb.) Bombax malabaricum. (Cotton tii e) Barleria Prionitis. (A small shrubby plant.) Barleria cuspidata. (A prickly shrub) Morus nigra. (A middle-sized tree) . Gmelina arborea. (A handsome tree) Dalbergia latifolia. (A large gla- brous tree.) Millingtonia hortensis. (Tree) . . Moringa concanensis. (The horse- radish tree.) Albizzia lebbek. (Siris tree) . . . Achyranthus aspera. (Plant) . . . Anona squamosa. (Small tree) . . Plumbago Zeylanica. (Shrub) , . Cedrela Toona. (A tall tree) . . . Petalidum Barlerioides. (A shrubby plant.) Impatiens balsaminia. (A balsam jjlant). Csesalpinia sepiaria. (A large prickly climber.) Diospyros tomentosum. (Tree) . . Diospyros melanoxylon. (Tree) . . Saccopetalum tomentosum. (Around- fruited tree.) Ficus glomerata. (A fig.) (See Gular) Trichodesma indicum. (Plant) . . Argemone mexicana. (Flower) . . Achyranthes aspera. (Plant) . . . Lettsomia setosa. (Creeper) . . . Natural Order. Kydia calycina. (Tree) . . Salix tetrasperma. (Willow) Solanaceae. Bignoniacese. Verbenaceae. Dipterocarpese. Burseracese. Orchidacese. Burseracese. Coniferse. Acanthacese, Malvaceae. Acanthacese. Acanthacese. Urticacese. Verbenacese. Leguminosse. Bignoniacese. Moringese. Leguminosse. Amaranthacese. Anonaceae. Plumbaginese. Meliacese. Acanthacese. Geraniacese. Leguminosse. Ebenacese. Do. Anonaceae. Urticacese. Boragineoe. Papaveracese. Amaranthacese. Convolvulacese. Malvacese. Salicynese. 4-04 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES GRASSES OF THE HILLS AND FERTILE LANDS. No. Vernacular Name. Botanical Name. \ ^^^^l^^ I 2 3 4 Baru . Bhangta Clihenki . Dab or Kusha . Sorghum halepense Opluda aristola Paspalum kora Eragrostis cynosursides > q Dhaman Pennisetum cenchroides 8 6 7 Dob . Karar Cynodon dactylon . Iseilema laxum 1 8 Khas . Khas oderiferus 9 lO II Liimp Lanpla Munj . Aiistida hystrix Aristida depressa . Saccharum sara O 12 Seran . Ischsemum laxum . 13 Surwala Heteropogon contortus J The following list includes the most important of the indigenous trees and shrubs met with in the sandy and hard deserts of Marwar and Jaisalmir. However, many of those given in the list of the fertile regions are found on the borders of the desert, and cultivated within desert limits : — No. Vernacular Name. Botanical Name. Ak or Akra Aranja Armajia. Arni . . Babul . . Bajar bel . Bakda . . Bamburi . Ber, Bor, Borti. Calotropis procera. (The Mudar shrub.) or I Acacia leucophloea. (Tree) .... Clerodendron phlomoides. (A large shrub.) Acacia arabica. (Tree) Cocculus villosus Mollugo hirta. (A plant) .... Euphorbia dracunculoides. (A much- branched shrubby plant.) Zizyphus nummularia and Z. vul- garis. (Low thorny shrubs.) Natural Order. Asclepiadese. Leguminosse. Verbenacese, Leguminosae. Menispermacese. Ficoideee. Euphorbiaceae. Rhamnese. FORESTS AND FLORA 405 [o. Vernacular Name. Bhu bambli . Botanical Name. Natural Order. 9 Acacia Jacquemonti. (A small bushy shrub.) Indigofera vulgaris. (A shrubby plant.) Acrua javanica. (A shrubby white Leguminosse. o Bisuui . . Do. I Bui. . . . Amaranthacea3. woolly plant.) 2 Chirpotan . Withania somnifera. (A tall shrubby plant.) Solanacese. 3 Dabi . . . Cadaba indica. (A shrub with small oval leaves.) Capparidese. 4 Damasha . . Barleria acanthoides. (An erect prickly plant.) Acanthacese. 5 Dhau . . . Anogeissus acuminata. (A small tree.) Combretacese. 6 Gangeran Grewia populifolia.. (Shrub) . . . Tiliacese. 7 Goila . . . Indigofera paucifolia. (A small shrub with woody br;inches.) Leguminos?e. 8 Gondi . . . Cordia rothii. (A*^ shrub) .... Boraginese. 9 Hajeru . . Mimosa rubicaulis. (A large, strag- gling, prickly shrub.) Leguminosne. o Hingota . . Balanites roxburghii. (A small tree) Simarubeffi. I Irali . . . Tamarindus indica. (A large tree) . Leguminosse. 2 Jab .... Salvadora persica and S. oleoides. (Trees.) Salvadoraceae. J Jawasa . . Alhagi maurorum. (A small thorny shrub.) Leguminosoe. 4 Kacbri . . Cucumis trigonus Cucurbitaceae. 5 Kair . . . Capparis aphylla. (A scrubby bush) Capparidese. 6 Kankera . . Gymnosporia montana. (A large shrub. ) Celastrinete. 7 Kankeran Celastrus senegalensis. (A tall shrub) Do. 8 Kerala . . Momordica charantia. (A creeper) . Cucurbitacese. 9 Khejra . . Prosopis spicigera. (A tree sometimes large.) Leguminospe. o Khimp . . Orthanthera viminea and Leptadenia spartium. (Shrub.) Asclepiadese. I Korna . . . Wrightia tinctoria. (Tree) .... Apocynea;. 2 Kumtia . . Acacia rupestris. (A small tree) . . Leguminosa3. 3 Kunrat . . Dichrostachys cinerea. (A rigid thorny slirub.) Do. 4 Lana . . . Haloxylon salicornicum. (A small shrub.) Chenopodiaceoe. 5 Lanka . . . Eujihorbia tiracalli. (A small tree) . Eujihorbiaceae. 6 Morali . . . Lycium europceum. (A thorny shrub) Solanaceae. 7 Nakchinkua . Corchorus antichorus Tiliacese. 8 Nagphani Opuntia dilleni. (The prickly pear) Cactese. 9 i- llUl Nim . . . Melia indica. (The Nee)n tree) . . Meliacea3. 406 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES No. Vernacular Name. Botanical Name. Natural Order. 40 41 Phog . . . Pilwan . . Calligonum polygonoides. (An almost leafless shrub.) Cocculus lepeba. (A large woody Polygonacese. Menisjjermaceie. 42 Eohira . . creeper.) Tecoma undulata. (A moderate-sized tree.) Bignoniacese. 43 Kohwaii . . Bergia odorata. (A woodv under- Elatinere. 44 Sanesra . . shrub.) Poinciana elata. (Tree) Leguminosse. 45 46 Santra . . . Tastumba Santra Jaissalmiris. (Shrub) . . . Citrullus colocynthis. (A trailing plant.) Euphorbia royleana. (Shrub) . . . Euphorbia nivulia. (Shrub) . . . Capparidese. Cucurbitaceae. 47 48 Tlior . . . Thor(Clihoti) Euphorbiacese. Do. GRASSES OF THE DESERT. No. Vernacular Name. Botanical Name. Natural Order. I 2 3 4 5 Bhurat or Burnt. Murath or Makra. Mothea . . Tantia or Sawan. Dhaman . . Cenchrus catharticus Chloris roxburghiana Mothea tuberosa Eleusine flagellifera Pennisetum conchroides Gramineoe. Much attention has, during recent years, been given to arboriculture in Jodhpore, and to the preservation and improvement of forests in the AravalHs, Mount Abu, and some of the other hills of Marwar and Sirohi. A small forest reserve has also been marked out in Jaisalmir. Nim {Melia indica), Bakain {Melia azedarach), Siris {Albizzia lebbeTc), Am {Mangifera indica), Jtiman {Eugenia Jamholana), Shisham {Dalbergia latifolia.), Sagwan {Tcdona grandis), Mohwa FORESTS AND FLORA 407 (Bassia latifolia), Rohira {Tecoma undulata), and Manilla tamarind (Pithecolobium duke) have all been recently cultivated successfully in the sands at Jodhpore, where they grow rapidly, when watered durino- the hot months. Extensive belts of Khejra {Prosopis spicigera) spring up rapidly in the sandy valleys of the desert without any other assistance than pro- tection from camels, goats, and sheep. This tree should be fostered, as it is of the greatest service during years of scarcity, and if it were extensively protected, it might in time increase the rainfall throughout the dry zone, and settle the drifting sands, on which it has already had a good effect in the vicinity of Jodhpore. The trees, shrubs, and grasses of the Aravallis and Mount Abu, and the fertile lowlands and low hills of Marwar and Sirohi adjacent are too numerous to be particularised in a work of this kind ; so a description of only a few of the most important will be attempted, and the reader is referred to Miss Macadam's complete " Lists of Trees and Plants of Mount Abu, Marwar, and Jaisalmir " for further details. Am {Mangifera indica), the mango tree, is met with in the wild state on Mount Abu, where it is believed to have been introduced by pilgrims, who carried the fruit up and threw the stones about the rocks, Avhere they grew into trees. It is also cultivated at many villages in the plains below Abu, and the Aravalli Range. The Abu mango is small and has a strong flavour of turpentine, like the wild mango of Africa ; it is principally used for making Chatni preserve, or dried to form Amchore, an antiscorbutic of great repute, which is largely exported. Amaltas {Cassia fistula) is a moderate-sized tree, with beautiful racemes of yellow flowers, which come out in May and June, before its leaves. It looks like a laburnum in the distance ; it is found in the lower ranges of Abu and the Aravallis. Its wood is not valuable, but the long pods are 408 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES exported, and their pulp also much used as a medicine throughout the country. Areta (Sajnndus irifoliatus), a tree with a two-lobed sapo- naceous fruit which is used as soap by the villagers ; this tree is met with in the Abu hills and the Aravalli Range. Anwal or Awal (Cassia auriculata), a shrub with yellow pea-like flowers, common in Godwar, parts of Sirohi and Jaswantpura ; it covers large tracts and gives shelter to small game of all sorts. The bark is largely used for tanning, and exported for the same purpose ; it is also used in the distilla- tion of country liquor. Anwal is said to be of Meywar, and Ak of Marwar, the former being the flower of the fertile lands below the Aravallis, the latter the pride of the sandy desert. Aoula {Phyllanthus emhlica), a fair-sized tree "with feathery leaves and a yellow berry fruit, the pulp of which is made into jam when the seeds have been removed. The fruit is used medicinally, both in the fresh and dried state. Arrlua (Adhatoda Beddomei), a shrub with white flowers, met with in the lower spurs of Abu and the Aravallis. Its leaves are used as poultices, and a decoction of them is taken internally in lung afi'ections. The Ambartari {brides affine) is a pretty little orchid which grows on the mango and jaman trees on Mount Abu. It comes out in the rains in great profusion ; the flowers are offered at the temples, and the crushed tubes used as an application in skin diseases. A larger species of a somewhat similar orchid, is met with in the lower Sirohi hills ; its flowers are bluish-white. Amrud {Psidium fyriferum and pomiferum) : both the white and red guava are largely cultivated in these States, and the fruit is met with in many of the bazaars throughout the country, as it is highly prized by the people. Anar (Funica Granatum), the pomegranate tree, is cultivated FORESTS AND FLORA 409 for its fruit and flowers ; some of the fruit grown at Jodhpore is celebrated for fine quality and delicate flavour. The bark of this bush is used medicinally, and sliarhat is made from the fruit. Angir {Ficus 2?almafa), a wild edible fig, found on Mount Abu, and some other peaks of the Aravallis. Arand (Ricinus communis), the castor-oil plant, is cultivated in some places in Marwar and Sirohi, both for its shade and seeds, from which castor-oil is expressed for use in medicine and the arts. Aru {Primus persica), the peach tree, grows well on Mount Abu, and the fruit is of good quality when the tree is properly looked after and manured. Babul (Acacia arahica), a tree with straight, white thorns, mostly in pairs, having round yellow flowers which eventually produce small beans, is met with at at every village in the fertile country below Abu and the Aravallis, and at many of the wells and tanks in the western desert. The Babul is one of the most useful village trees ; the leaves, shoots, and pods provide fodder for the herds and flocks of the people, in the hot weather when pasture becomes exhausted ; the wood is used for domestic and agricultural purposes, and the baik for tanning and dyeing; the gum which exudes from the tree is exported and also used medicinally in various ways ; and the leaves are pounded up into a poultice, and applied in the treatment of ophthalmia, for which they are believed to be potent. Bahera (Terminalia hellerica), a fine tree of the Aravallis and Mount Abu ; its fruit is exported for dyeing and used medicinally. Bar or Banyan tree {Fictcs hengalensis) is met with in the east and south of Marwar, along the Aravallis, and it is common in the Sirohi State. The fruit of this tree attracts bears and green pigeons for the sportsman. It sometimes 410 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES covers large areas, and one tree will afford shade for a con- siderable camp. Bans or Bans {Bamhusa stricta), Bamboo, is abundant in the Aravallis, Abu, and the other hills in Eastern Marwar and Sirohi ; it is much used for domestic purposes, and decoctions of its leaves are used for coughs and lungf affections. Bili, Bael, or Bilgir tree {^gle Marmdos) is met with about Anadra, the base of Mount Abu, and some of the lower Aravallis ; a few trees are found also on Abu, The leaves are offered at temples, and the fruit is in general use in the treatment of dysentery and bowel affections, in which it is an excellent remedy, especially in the fresh state. The pulp of the fruit should be boiled and the gelatinous material strained and sweetened. It is not unpleasant as a jelly or sharbat, and it keeps well in the jelly form, retaining its curative properties. It is exported to Europe for medicinal purposes. Bed (Salix hdbylonica). — This Willow is cultivated on Mount Abu to a small extent, and one or two wild species are met with in some places near streams in these States. Anjir {Ficus carica), the fig-tree, grows at Abu and in some other favoured places in these States, and the Abu fruit is of good quality. Wild figs are plentiful and large, both in Abu and the Aravallis. Cha {Camellia Tliea). — There is one tea plant on Mount Abu, in the compound of the railway bungalow. It is now about twenty-five years old ; it is still well grown and fresh, and the leaves have the characteristic odour of tea ; it seeds regularly, but no new plants have sprung up around it. It is believed that the long period of dry weather Avould prevent the successful cultivation of tea for the market on Mount Abu. Chambeli or Ja (Jasminum rottlerianum and J. grandi- jiorum). — Both varieties of Jasmine grow Avild in the ravines FORESTS AND FLORA 411 of Abu and some other adjacent hills. The flowers of these varieties are offered at the temples, and the leaves are believed to be potent remedies for herpes of the lips and ulcers of the mouth and tongue. The Champa (Michelia chamjmca) is a large tree with highly-scented yellow flowers, wild, and often cultivated near temples on Mount Abu and in many other places throughout these States : the flowers are much used for garlands, and the wood is considered the best for the manufacture of string musical instruments. Chir (Pinus longifolia and Deodar ct). — A few of these trees have been imported from Europe and Simla and planted near the Residency, Mount Abu, where they have grown, but not to a very large size. The Dhak or Palas tree (Butca frondosa) is abundant in the lower ravines and valleys of the Aravallis, Abu, Jaswant- pura, Jalore, and other places in these States. Its beautiful bloom of red flowers lights up the country in March, and it looks well when its new leaves are out ; but at other seasons it is ugly and broken down in appearance. The seeds are given to animals as anthelmintic medicine, and the leaves are used for boils and swellings. The leaves are also used as j)lates for curries and other foods. Dhaman (Greivia -pilosa and G. tilicefolia). — Two varieties of this small tree are met with in the hills. The leaves are much in use for feeding cattle during the hot weather when fodder and grass are scarce ; milch cows do well on it. The fruit is eaten by the people, and the timber is valuable. Dhau (Anogeiss'us pendida) is the most common tree of the lower Aravallis and lower ridges of Abu ; it is also found in numbers on the top of the hills, but not so thickly studded together. A gum is collected from it which is used medicinally and also exported. The wood is largely used in agriculture and for domestic purposes. It has been tried for railway 412 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES sleepers ; but it is so hard and brittle tbat it quickly spoils the boring instruments, and it cracks too readily to last when perforated with the iron pins necessary to fix the rails. Eucalyptus {Extcalyptus Globulus) has been imported from Australia, and a few trees have been grown at Abu. It re- quires watering, during the hot season, for some years. The leaves and the oil expressed from them are used medicinally for colds, coughs, and other complaints. Ghor bel {Pueraria tuhcrosa) is a species of wild vetch, common on Mount Abu and some of the other high peaks of the Aravallis ; it shoots out after the May showers and pro- duces a pea-like blossom in July. The young shoots and leaves are excellent food for horses ; the oldest and most lean quickly gain in condition on it, and it is so abundant in albumen that they can work, when fed on it, in a way they could not do on any other green food with which I am acquainted. Gonda (Cordia Myxa) is a middle-sized tree, with a berry- like fruit which is eaten, and used in clarifying sugar, after it has been dried ; the leaves are used as a poultice in colic and other abdominal and chest affections. Grapes, strawberries, and Cape gooseberries are grown on Mount Abu, and in a few other places in these States. The mushrooms of Mount Abu are of excellent quality, and sometimes very abundant after the first showers of the mon- soon have penetrated into the soil and moistened it. They disappear again after the heavy rains have well set in. The Abu mushroom is the small species, which is easily disting- uished from the poisonous cryptogamic fungi by its smell, light salmon-pink colour underneath, and the readiness with which the rind peels off. Gular {Ficus glonierata), a common species of wild fig, is met with throughout these hills ; its fruit attracts bears for the sportsman, and it is supposed to be the sycamore of the Bible. Jal {Hiptage madablota), a twining shrub with bright leaves, FORESTS AND FLORA 413 collected in great quantities after the first showers of May, for feeding milch cows, which do well on them. Jaman {Eugenia Jamholana), a common tree with abundance of green foliage, met with in Abu near the lake, and in the damp ravines of the Aravallis. Its fruit makes fair jam, and it is eaten by the people. The wood is used for domestic purposes, and the shade is excellent in the hot weather. , Grevellia {Grevellia robusta) has been imported from Aus- tralia, and cultivated at Abu, and in a few other places in these States. It is a handsome tree, and grows well in the hills, if watered for a couple of years during the dry months. Kachnar {Bauhinia racemosa), the geranium tree, when in bloom, is one of the prettiest trees in Abu, and it is also found in some of the other hills. It blossoms in great luxuriance, in March and April ; both the flowers and pods are boiled and eaten by the people. Kara {Strobilanthus callosus), a shrub which covers Mount Abu with bloom once in seven or eight years, and which is found on some of the peaks of the Aravallis, but not in such profusion. This shrub has to accumulate much root-energy before it blooms ; consequently it does not flower every year. A few flowers are seen the year before the great bloom takes place, and a few shrubs are left to blossom the year after ; but most of them die down in the dry season after the great bloom. The people of the hill consider this occasional luxu- riance in flowers on Mount Abu a special omen from the saint of the hill, to indicate a season of prosperity, and as the shrub requires an abundant rainfall to bring it out, it is only seen in flower in years of plenty. Karunda {Carissa carandas) is a common green Abu bush, which produces a superior edible fruit at the beginning of the monsoon season : jam and jelly are sometimes made from this fruit, but they are not of first quality. The people are, how- 414 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES ever, very fond of Karundas, and they are exported to the plains below, in great quantities, for village consumption. Khajur (Phcenix sylmstris), the wild date-palm, is common on Abu, and met with in some other places in the neighbour- hood. The fruit is eaten by the people, although it is mostly skin and stone ; the leaves are used to make mats and brooms, and the timber for roofing houses. The Persian date-palm has been imported and planted in these States, but it has not thriven well, on account of the dryness of the country. The Arabs say, "for the date to flourish, it must have its head in the sun and its feet in the water " ; but the former condition only is possible in these States. Kharaiyo or Kulu (Stercidia urens), one of the finest trees in the Aravallis and Lower Abu, when its large palmate leaves come out after the rains. A gum is obtained from it. Kodala (Stercidia villosa), a fine tree of Abu and the Ara- vallis, from the bark fibre of which ropes are made. Kowes (Miicuna 2Jr')mens), Cowich or Cusso, a creeper, from the pods of which the medicinal Cusso is obtained : a powerful anthelmintic and irritant of the skin, which will cause death if taken in an overdose. Kuja or Jungli Gulab {Rosa involucrata and R. mo'ychata). Two varieties of white dog-rose are found on Abu and some of the other hills adjacent ; the fruit is used medicinally, and the flowers are beautiful and well scented. Mai Kangni {Celastrus 2)tt'>i''ic7datus and C. stylosa). Two varieties of this creeping shrub are met with in the hills. The young shoots and leaves are collected to feed cattle in Abu, when fodder is scarce ; the seeds are taken as a tonic with sugar and ghee, and they are believed to make children thrive. Maha nimbu {Citrus decumana), the pumalo tree, grows at Erinpura, in Sirohi State, and produces a well-flavoured fruit. Pumalo is believed to be tonic and anti-febric. FORESTS AND FLORA 415 Mohwa (Bassia latifolia), a fine, handsome tree found in many parts of Marwar and Sirohi, the flowers of which are eaten by the people and much used in the distillation of country liquor. The flowers fall at night, and bears are very fond of them, so they may often be seen in the early morning picking them up; they also climb the trees to obtain them. The timber of this tree is valuable, as well as the flowers. Narangi {Citrus aurantkwi), the orange tree, is cultivated in Marwar, Sirohi, and Jaisalmir, both for flowers and fruit, and in some places local oranges of excellent flavour are met with. Nimbu {Citrus acida), the lime tree, is largely cultivated, and the fruit used as an antiscorbutic where vegetables are scarce. Phaludra {Erythrina litJiosperma and E. arhorescens), the coral tree. It blossoms in great profusion in March before its leaves come out, when it is very pretty and striking. There are two varieties of this tree — one spiked, the other not. Pipal {Ficus religiosa) is cultivated throughout the desert at Mahadeo's temples and holy places, and it is met with at every village in the fertile lands of Marwar and Sirohi, It is wor- o shipped generally by Hindu Avomen throughout these States, and where the soil is too arid for it to thrive Khejra is substi- tuted. Barren females are particular devotees of this tree, and when it fails to bring them offspring they often try the worship of the Bar. Sagwan {Tectona grandis), the teak tree, cultivated to a very limited extent. It does not stand the frosts of Mount Abu, but grows in the plains below. It is, however, often attacked by white ants. Salaran {Bosioellia serrata) is a large, handsome tree, with pinnate leaves; it produces a scented gum, and is valuable as timber. Sebla {Bomhax malaharicum), the cotton tree, is met with 416 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES in Abu and the Aravallis ; it is a tall, handsome tree, with large leaves, which come out after the flowers in March. An infu- sion of the bark is used as a tonic. Setut {Moms nigra), the mulberry tree, is cultivated on Mount Abu, and produces abundant fruit ; it also thrives in gardens in other parts of these States. Shisham {Dalbergia latifolia) is cultivated at Jodhpore, and a few other places in these States ; it grows well in the sands, but requires watering for a few years. Sirgura {Moringa concanensis), the horse-radish, found in Abu and the Aravallis ; leaves doubly pinnate, flowers yellow, blossoms late in the season. Siris (Albizzia lehhek) is a common tree throughout the hills and fertile lands of Marwar and Sirohi. The outer wood is soft and of little value, while the inner wood is hard and black, and used for ornamental carving. An infusion of the bark is given to camels suff'ering from Sirra and other diseases. There are other varieties of Siris, wild and cultivated, in these States. Sitaphal (Anona squamosa), the custard apple tree, is cultivated in these States in some of the gardens, and the fruit is sometimes of good quality. T^bron (Diospf/ros tomentosum), a fairly common tree of the hills which produces ebony. Grasses of the Hills and Fertile Lands. Baru (Sorghum halepense) is a grass which is met with all over the cultivated lands and plateaus. It is a strong, coarse grass, good for cattle and horses either as pasture or hay. The seed is made into bread during years of scarcity, and the coarser stems are used as pens, Chhenki {Paspalum kora), a common coarse grass, good for pasture when young ; it is found in the lowlands. Dob {Cynodon dactylon), a fine grass, found in well- watered FORESTS AND FLORA 417 lands ; good for pasture and fodder, and keeps as hay for years. Kuslia or Dab (Uragrostis cynosiLvsides is found everywhere. Khas {Khas oderiferus), a SAveet-scented grass, found near tanks, the roots of which are used for making Khas " tattis," fans, and pankhas. Delicate scent is also made from it. Karar {Iseilema laxum), a heavy, coarse grass, which grows on good soil, is used as pasture, fodder, and thatch for huts. Lamp or Monj (Aristida hystrix), a hard grass, met with in many parts of the country. Cattle eat it when other grass is scarce, and it is used for ropes, cots, and matting. Seran (Ischcemicm laxum), called moya, is found in the hills and plateaus ; it is hard, but animals eat it, and it is used for ropes like Lamp. Surwala {Hcteropogon contortus) is found in both hills and plains. Though hard, horses and cattle eat it, both in the green and dry state. Trees and Shrubs of the Desert. The Ak or Akra (Calotropis procera) is the flowering shrub of the desert ; it is in bloom for many months of the year, and its leaves are always green in the hottest weather ; nor is it without its uses for roofing dwellings, making cattle enclosures, and for firewood. The cotton-like substance which surrounds its seeds in their loculi is used for pillows and quilts, and the acrid juice of its green shoots is in common use as a medicine. Arunja or Armajia (Acacia leucophlcea) and some other varieties of acacia are common throughout the hard desert. They are generally undergrown, but they sometimes produce timber for agricultural implements and firewood. Ber, Borti, or Bor {Zizyphus Jujuha, Z. nummularia, and Z. vulgaris) are met with throughout these States ; the first variety often cultivated as a fruit tree, the others wild, and 2 D 418 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES the most important fodder and fruit shrubs of the country. Z. vulgaris is cut close to the ground, when the fruit and leaves are in their prime, and allowed to dry in the sun, then thrashed with sticks, when the leaves and fruit fall off, and form the staple fodder, especially when grass is scarce. Camels work well on it as food ; cattle, horses, goats, and sheep can sub- sist on it when there is no grass, as it flourishes in years of diminished rainfall, thus often saving the animals from star- vation. Bhu Bambli {Acacia Jacquemonti) produces a wood in the hard desert which is much prized b}^ goldsmiths for beating out Qold-leaf, on account of its hardness and smoothness. Kankera {Gymnosporia montana), found in a dwarf form in the sandstone hills, is used inedicinally. Hajeru {Mimosa rulicaulis) is found in the desert, where it augments the camel food. There are several other stunted varieties of mimoseas in these States which serve the same purpose, and which hardly grow large enough to make firewood. Hingota {Balanites roxhitrghii) and Khimp {Orthanthera viminia) are stunted shrubs of the desert, which help the camel to subsist in times of need. The Imli or Tamarind tree {Tamarindus indica) is cultivated in the desert, in watered nooks, and found in abundance in the fertile lands of Marwar and Sirohi, adjacent to the Aravalli Range, where it grows to a very large size. The pods are much used in culinary, the seeds in medicine, and the timber for domestic purposes. It is grown in the gardens and adjacent to tanks in many parts of the desert. Jhal and Chhoti 3h.dl{Salvadora i^ersica and S. o/eoic?cs) flourish throughout the sandy desert and extend into the stony tracts, wheie they may be seen almost denuded of their usually fine foliage, struggling to survive. The wood of these trees is of inferior quality, and greatly used for burning. Camels feed FORESTS AND FLORA 419 on the leaves and shoots, especially in the salt tracts, where they are abundant, and their fruit is eaten by the people. Kankera {Gymnosporia montana) is met with in a stunted condition in the stony desert ; its leaves are used medicinally, and its wood made into rosary beads. Kair (Capparis aphylla), a very valuable tree in the desert, as it provides much food for camels and goats, and a timber which is greatly used in roofing houses and for agricultural purposes. The crimson flower of the Kair gives a brilliant appearance to parts of the sandy waste in March and April, but it is not otherwise handsome. The fruit is eaten by the people. The Khejra {Prosoins spicigera) is the most important tree of the desert. It grows from seed in the natural way, without planting or watering, and its roots sink so deeply into the sand and fissures of the rocks, that it withstands season after season of unusual drought, and it can blossom and produce its peas under the most adverse conditions of climate and season, when other plants and trees seem to wither away or stand still in a stock-like condition, without any signs of life. The Khejra is nearly everything to the inhabitants of the desert. Its leaves and shoots provide them with vegetables. They eat its peas as fruit, and give its branches and leaves to their camels, goats, and cattle, when all other pasture is dried up and useless. Its shade protects them from the noonday sun. Its wood is used for roofing their houses and made into carts, saddles, and agricultural implements, and what is useless for other purposes is used as firewood. The fresh bark is, in years of famine, stripped off and ground up with grain, to give the meagre meal a substantial bulk, and thereby to ward oft' the pangs of hunger for a longer period. This tree is well worthy of being held sacred by the Bishnois and other desert tribes. The Kumtia (Acacia rupestris) is a useful tree, and grows both in the sandy and stony deserts, without any protection. 420 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES It produces much gum, and makes the best heads for polo sticks, as the wood is light and tough. Lana {Haloxylon salicornicum), found in Jaisalmir and in a few places on the Marwar border in that direction, is a small shrub with a greenish-white flower and a small round seed, which provides much food for camels in the hard desert, and on Avhich some of the people can subsist during times of scarcity. They make bread from the seeds, almost equal to bajra bread, and the young shoots are also cooked and eaten as vegetables. This shrub has so much root energy, and pene- trates so deeply into the sands, that it can bloom and seed even in years of the greatest drought. The Nim (Melia indica) is the tree that repays cultivation best in these States. It is always green, and can be pruned to feed camels on occasions of necessity. Its shade is excellent, as the leaves come out afresh at the beginning of the hot weather. The fruit is eaten, and the timber is of fine quality. It, however, requires watermg in the arid regions for a few years at first, and it cannot throw out thorns, as the Khejra does, for self-protection ; consequently, it requires to be fenced in for a time, till it grows beyond the reach of goats and camels. The " Nim " grows well on the sands which are saturated with brackish water, and it is the most common village tree along the banks of the Luni River. It is also cultivated at many of the village wells throughout the desert, Rohira {Tecoma undulata) grows well in many parts of both the sandy and stony deserts, and flowers in March and April, lighting up the sands with its variegated flowers, and adding greatly to the beauty of some of the villages. Its wood is used for domestic purposes. Phog {Colligomim ijolygonoides) is the desert shrub on which camels have to subsist during the greater part of the year. Its seed and young shoots are eaten by the people in 3'ears of scarcity. FORESTS AND FLORA 421 Thor (Uuphorhia royleana and E. nivulia) are met with in many parts of the desert, where they are both wild and planted as fences. The juice of these shrubs is used in medi- cine by the people both as an internal and external remedy. Grasses of the Desert. Bhurat or Burat (Cenchrus catharticus) is the most important grass of the desert, as it has much root energy, sprouts early with very little rain, and its seed makes fair bread when ground. It is brought out by a few early showers which produce no crops, and it is often abundant in years of scarcity, when the poorer people subsist on it, and when it saves the herds and flocks from being driven away from the country in search of pasture. The seed of this grass is enclosed in a barbed capsule which is difficult to remove, and which adheres to the skin and clothes, producing great irritation. So difficult is the capsule to remove fi'om the seed that a hard-working man can only produce sufficient bread for four souls from this grass in a day, even when it is very plentiful ; however, the whole family turn out to work at it, and in this way save themselves from starvation. Horses accustomed to the grass thrive well on it, but animals unaccustomed to it have great difficulty in masticating the barbed spines, and Waler horses will often starve rather than eat it. Murath or Maki'a (Chloris roxburghiana) is the next in importance to bhurat of the desert grasses. It is good for fodder and pasture, and its seed is collected and eaten by the people in years of scarcity. Mothea (Mothea tiiberosa) is a grass with an edible root, which provides much food for the people. Tantia or Sawan grass {Eleusina iiagellifera) is general throughout the desert, and its seed is sometimes collected to supplement the food of man. It is a grass which is common 422 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES throughout the desert, but is not relished, by horses or cattle, so it is left over till other grasses have become scarce. It affords good cover for quail. Dhaiiian {Pennisetum conchroides) is abundant in the sandy desert and fertile plateaus. It is considered the best food for milch cows, and horses also thrive on it. FERNS AND FLOWERS Twenty-nine different varieties of ferns have been found on Mount Abu by Watling. However, on account of the long dry season which follows the rains, and the winter frosts, most of them die down annually, and only begin to sprout again when the monsoon is approaching. A complete collection can only be made during the damp season, when they flourish luxuri- antly. The following are some of the best known ferns of the Aravallis and Mount Abu : — Bleclmuin orientate, Davallia inil- chra, Pteris quadriaurita, Asplenium trapeziforme, Pliyma- todes lejjidotum, Adiantuvi caudatum, Actiniopteris dichotoraa, Cheilanthes tenuifolia, Gheilanthes farinosa, CheilantJtes ara- vallensis, Cyathea spinulosa, Athyriiim jimbriaturti, Adiantum hispiduluTn, Aspjleniurti varians, NepJtrodiuon molle, and a variety of Poly podium quercifolium. The dryness of the climate and the distance of water from the surface render horticulture backward, as a necessity, in most parts of these States. A few hardy perennial creepers, flowering shrubs, some pots and beds of annuals, make up the flower-gardens, except in Mount Abu, where a good show of cultivated flowers is not difficult to produce at any season. Wild flowers are also abundant in the hills here, especially during the monsoon season, and many of the trees blossom luxuriantly. Violets, pansies, geraniums, dahlias, and sweet pea ; asters, balsams, marigolds, and nasturtiums ; mignonette, zinnias, dianthus, helianthus, periwinkles, flox and stock ; heho- trope, lilies, irides, roses, fuschias, and hibiscus of varied hues, bloom profusely in the Abu gardens, without much 424 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES trouble to the gardener. There is hardly a flowering plant or shrub, except the most delicate, that will not grow here with proper care, and a little protection during the short periods of summer heat and winter frost. Most of the flowering creepers flourish on Mount Abu, and many of them thrive in the gardens below, when they are watered and cared for. The following creepers are common on Abu, viz., Passiflora cosmlia, passion flower, three varieties, mauve, red, and yellow ; Gelsemium, yel- low jasmine; Bignonia venusta ; Hi'ptage madahlota ; Bugain- villea sx)ectatilis ; Banisteria laurifolia ; Runborgia grandi- flora ; Antigonum leptopits ; Sandwich Island creeper ; Tecoma jasniinoides ; Ipomea purpura, common purple creeper ; Wis- taria linensis, found wild, and two varieties of honeysuckle; Lonicera periclymenum, English woodbine, and Lonicera sem- pervirens, American woodbine. Datura stramoniurn, a well-known Solanacese, grows wild on Abu and the Aravallis, and is cultivated below for its flowers, as well as its seeds and leaves, which are used medicinally in asthmatic and other spasmodic affections. The seeds of this plant are also used criminally as a poison for both man and animals, and the seeds and leaves are smoked with tobacco. Caladiums and Crotons can be cultivated at Abu ; but the long dry season is severe on them, and they require protection during the frost. Poinsettia, bright Acalypha, and other shrubs with brilliant foliage, grow well in Abu, and, with a little skill and labour, a combination of the beauties both of the greenhouse and the garden can soon be obtained out of doors on this hill. Garden-flowers grow wild on Abu, and wild flowers spring up everywhere in the rains. Some are very lovely, and there is much variety of shape and display of colours among them. The Abu orchid is very abundant and beautiful when it blossoms on the mango and other trees in the monsoon season. There is another orchid with a larger flower, of a pale blue and FERNS AND FLOWERS 425 white colour, met with in the Lower Aravallis, towards Kotra. Three varieties of orchis, or ground orchid, are found on Abu, and also many varieties of flowering scrofula, boraginous and labiate plants, most of which bloom in the damp season. There are two varieties of wild dog-rose indigenous in this hill, and roses grow in great profusion wherever cuttings are put in, making excellent hedges and magnificent clumps, which become covered with bloom in early spring, and again in autumn. There are two varieties of oleander and two of jasmine (both wild on the hill) which have escaped from gardens or been carried up by pilgrims, like the mangoes, now wild. The geranium, dhak, dudeli, kerna, cassia, corral, and cotton trees blossom with great profusion, and the strobilanthus covers the hill with one blaze of bloom once in seven or eight years, after the monsoon. There are many other trees which add materially to the great natural beauty of Abu and the Aravallis by their beautiful flowers and foliage. VEGETABLES The kitchen -gardener is beset with the same difficulties here which have been mentioned in connection with flori- culture, viz., the dryness of the soil and light rainfall. At Abu, Sirohi, Erinpura, and Jodhpore, English vegetables are obtain- able during the cold months in abundance, and a very limited supply can be procured at other seasons of the year. Potatoes are grown for the market during the rains on Mount Abu, and during the cold weather in a few other places. They are gene- rally of fair quality, although not equal to the Himalayan tuber. Lettuces, turnips, carrots, cauliflowers, parsnips, cabbages, to- matoes, cucumbers, celery, spinage, two species of artichoke, peas and beans of several sorts, can be cultivated throughout the cold weather wherever there is fresh water, as the soil is generally suitable, and the climate of the plains sufficiently cool between October and April. Fresh vegetables might be obtained throughout the year under skilled gardening in the hills. Many of the country vegetables are useful in the kitchen, as they flourish in the plains when English plants wither away on account of the heat. Leeks, onions, and two varieties of radish are in common use, and they grow even when the water is brackish. Brinjols, bintaks or bengans, bhindis, vegetable marrow, sweet potatoes, yams, pumpkins, karelas, kunkoras, ramas, methi, chundlia, palka, and tindsi are the principal vegetables of the people, and they are all wholesome and fairly palatable. Excellent mushrooms are found on Mount Abu and some of the other hills. FRUIT The fruit-trees have been already given under iheir verna- cular and botanical names. Much of the fruit used is imported. Melons, mangoes, plantains, oranges, limes, pumaloes, and leechies are cultivated, and also imported into the capitals and many of the large towns. Pomegranates are grown in gardens in the plains wherever water can be obtained, and this fruit is highly prized throughout these States. Plums {Zizyphus Jujuha) are the most common fruit in the bazaars. Grapes and peaches grow on Mount Abu, and ripen in time if the vines and trees be properly attended to and manured. Strawberries can be groAvn on Abu, and some varieties of vine do well at Sirohi, Erinpura, and other places in the plains. The wild mango and karunda of Abu are in general use, and are sent to all villages near the hill. Water-melons are cultivated throughout the desert. They grow to an enormous size in many places, and are of very fine flavour; one is often sufficient to refresh both the desert traveller and his horse. Many of the people of the desert have to substitute wild leaves and pods for vegetables, and the plum of the common " bor" bush is their principal fruit. The fruit of the wild caper and of the " nim " are also eaten. A proper supply of vegetables or fruit is essential to health, and when both can be obtained they should be taken advantage of, to keep the blood in a pure state and lessen the liability to disease. The want of fresh vegetables and fruit in the daily meals leads to degeneration of the blood and tissues, and stunted growth in children. Besides, indigestion, scurvy, liver, and 427 428 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES bowel diseases are often brought on by a diet meagre in these essential constituents. Prisoners suffer much from insufficient fresh vegetables, and I have often seen sepoys in regiments in impaired health from neglect of this necessary ingredient of their rations. Many of the people in the desert suffer from scurvy in bad years, when they have to subsist on old grain, with little milk, and few of the fresh leaves which spring up in seasons of abundant rain, to supply the want of fresh vegetables. Kitchen-gardening should receive every possible encourage- ment, both as a useful art and a pleasant pastime, which admits of fresh air and exercise being taken, while energy is being turned to profitable account, and the brain of the head-worker rested. THE VILLAGE AND VILLAGER The village here is anything — other than the capital of the State : it is the literal translation of the word gaon which is applied to rural centres of considerable population. Many of these villages would be called towns in most places and cities in America. Villages are not laid out here in squares and straight lines of houses with wide streets between. They are generally clusters of houses with a big fence of hor thorns around them, from which the leaves have been thrashed for camel fodder. The streets are mostly narrow and crooked, ending in a central square with shops, which is the bazaar, or in the courtyard of some house. There is usually a main street passing through the village ; but if the traveller deviate from this, he may have difficulty in extricating himself from the network of narrow passages which make up the secondary streets of the village. The best houses are in the centre of the village, or on an elevation at the top of the town. The inferior houses form the outer circle, or they are lower down, and tail off in a straggling formation. The superior houses are solidly built of stone and lime, or bricks, and with stone or tiled roofs. The smaller houses, or huts, are of mud, or mud-plaster on wicker- work, with thatched roofs, often shaped like bee-hives. All houses have enclosures for domestic animals ; these are walled in with arched doorways at all the great houses, and merely fences of thorns in front of the inferior dwellings. Every village has its menial quarter for aboriginal Bhils sweepers, and others not entitled to reside within the great enclosure, and these outcasts protect themselves by a secondary 429 430 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES fence. Besides house enclosures, there are strongly fenced pens for camels, cattle, sheep and goats not wanted at the houses. The little village has merely a few central houses for Rajputs, Banias, and Brahmins, and a number of huts around them, with the usual thorn fence outside. The big village is a walled city, with arched gateways, loop- holes, battlements, and turrets for defence. The gates are strong and spiked to prevent battering with elephants. A broad street, with fine houses on either side, and intersected by numerous secondary streets, leads up to the owner's resi- dence, which is strongly fortified, and is in many instances a veritable castle. The modest Baron talks of this as "My Village " or " My Gaon," in contradistinction to the city or shahr, the capital of his chief. There are mounted guns here, but the sentry sits, instead of pacing up and down his beat in the usual military fashion. He is nevertheless watchful, and the gates are regularly barred at night against invaders. Without the walls, as at the ordinary village, there are huts for sweepers and other low castes, and the usual enclosures for stock. The temple, too, is often located in a grove of trees beyond village limits ; but there are other temples within all great villages, for the convenience of the pious and the protection of the place. Here the bells ring morning and eveniug, and worship is regularly attended to by the Brahmins in charge. Women can be seen carrying up the offerings of their houses set apart for the temple and the priests thereof. The villagers are a religious people, and they give freely to their temples and the Brahmins. Villages are of many sorts and sizes, and in some instances they are merely the head-quarters of numerous hamlets, in which case most of the agricultural population reside on their fields, in huts called dhanis, where they keep their cattle and belongings for convenience of pasture, and to be near Temple. To face page 430. THE VILLAGE AND VILLAGER 431 their work. The land-owner, dealers, artisans, and others reside in the village, and the whole colony acknowledge them- selves of it, under one village name. These colonies are common in the less fertile tracts of Marwar. The Thakar-Sahib, or landlord, or Rajput, occupies the principal house at the top of the village, which generally overloolvs all the other dwellings, and is fortified. Big houses have more than one enclosure for horses, milk cows, fightinsr rams, an elephant or two, and dogs for the chase. The Rajput loves his horse, and treats him as one of the family. So the basements of big houses and even palaces are built for stables. The horses are within the enclosures, all around their master, and often, even in the innermost circle, set apart for the ladies of the Zenana. When the Rajput's wife questioned her husband's wisdom in feeding his horses on clariiied butter (ghee), and pointed out that the antelope, subsisting on green food, could far surpass them in speed and endurance, he replied, "Grudge not the ghee; the horses will be useful in the battlefield where swords clash." Banias, Brahmins, and other villagers are also attached to their animals, and keep their horses and cows in the front enclosures or even in the verandas of their houses. Nor does the camel-man outcaste his animals; so the camel is allowed to rest close to where his master sleeps. The Rabaris, or herdsmen and shepherds, cannot take their large herds and flocks into their houses ; so they make their beds in the enclosures, and sleep there to be near their stock, where they are fed by their wives and children. Every village has at least one well or tank, where brightly dressed women can be seen, morning and eveningf, streamino- to and fro, with metal and earthen water-vessels on their heads, and Avhere hundreds of cattle, camels, sheep, and goats await an opportunity to drink. Where the water-supply is good, the village is generally 432 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES large and populous. But hills and positions of strategical advantage have, in early and troublous times, determined the sites of some of the fine fortified towns here, whereas, during later years of peace and prosperity, a fertile soil has been the making of many of the most flourishing agricultural villages. Rich villages improve their tanks and wells, store up a grain and fodder reserve against famine, protect and plant trees, set apart lands for hay and grazing during the hot months, and even do a little to improve sanitation. Such villages have much esprit and common interest ; whereas poor villages are wholly occupied in providing for immediate wants, and they are often found deserted in bad years, the population being semi-nomadic. The village has changed little during centuries, and the villager has hardly moved out of his old groove, although he has greatly benefited by long years of peace. Indeed, as the Irishman in the bog said of himself, so the villager is no upstart; he is where his father left him. Even now, with the Mayo College and other educational advantages for the upper classes, there will not be a rapid change in village Hfe, as the customs are congenial to the people, and suitable to their surroundings. The Thakar, or head of the village, is esteemed by all, regardless of his short-comings, if he live up to the traditions of his ancestors, borrow money, pay interest, keep up state, live and let live. He is " to the manor born," and he has all the privileges of a feudal lord. He can sit down with his retainers on occasions, without detriment to his position. He can be severe and exacting, and it is not resented, if only occasional. He is the privileged of all the village: his skill is extolled when he rides, fences, and shoots well, and the first place in the chase, as in everything else, is reserved for him without competition. His failings are excused; he is ■^ ^ THE VILLAGE AND VILLAGER 433 flattered, petted, and enticed to the bottle and the naucli. The village would be very dull without these, its old institutions of dissipation; and it is not the fault of the Mayo College if some of the gilded youth of this part of the country, to whom a thorough training has been given in that excellent institution, have returned to their ancestral halls, and pursued pleasure after the manner of their fathers, rather than turned out exemplary squires. Employment is wanted, and the village would not approve of the Thakar taking over the control of his estate, and working like an office drudge: "he can pay a man for drudgery of that sort." There are now no boundary feuds with his neighbours, no intertribal wars, and, under the Pax Britannica, his chief's calls on him and his retainers for service have, of necessity, become few. So time drags heavily on the unoccupied of the village. The Thakar appears to advantage when he heads the pro- cession on the occasion of a grand festival like the Dassera. Mounted on his prancing and caparisoned steed, with "the curved mane and a flowing tail " common to well-bred Marwari horses, and closely followed by all his mounted retainers and the entire village, he leads forth, admired by all. His saddle is a work of art in variegated silk and embroidery, bespangled with gold and jewels. His sword is his father's, golden-hilted, velvet-cased, and "girded on" with a tinted samber-leather belt and ornamental buckle. On his turban and neck are displayed many heirlooms in gold and diamonds. The bright puggaris of the village men, mounted on adorned horses and camels, and the brilliant dresses of the women and children seated in country carts drawn by ornamented bullocks, make a magnificent spectacle. Charans or poets chant and women sing the praises of the Thakar and his ancestors. There are horns, pipes, cymbals, drums, and other instruments of music to add to the grandeur of the occasion ; and the whole pageant pleases the people, who, at the conclusion of the ceremonies, 2 E 434 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES return to their own houses well satisfied with their ancient customs and the chief of their village. The Thakar is generous and hospitable. When at home he distributes opium to all callers, and wine to his Rajput friends and others able to appreciate the beverage. He is not fond of going abroad; he lives with his retainers and people, who thoroughly appreciate him, and he does not enjoy mixing with the outside world, where he loses in status, and receives less attention than he is accustomed to. He is essentially polite on all occasions, and punctilious in ceremony : he will return calls in the most formal manner, attended by the largest possible retinue, as he delights in formality and following, and carries himself through functions with great dignity and composure. The Kamdar, or agent, is the principal official, and generalh' a Bania, who turns his tenure of office to profitable account and makes money. His harvest-time is during a minority, with the head dowager-lady of the family nominally in authority. Before the Thakar can speak, his female relations and domestics begin to negotiate for his marriage, and his principal wife must, if possible, be from a house greater or equal to his own. This is an important point in the eyes of the village, and to accomplish it is the only circumstance that could be allowed to stand in the way of an early marriage. No respectable man's son could be allowed to remain a bachelor beyond ten or fifteen years of age ; the village would not tolerate it, and they despise the bachelor. The villagers expect their Thakar to have many wives, and he can bestow favour on other Rajputs by marrying some of their daughters when they are in excess of requirements, and cannot be disposed of to others with advantage to their families. "I put favour on him," said the great man; "I married his female relations, and he should be deeply grateful to me for that concession." Rajputs do not see much of their mothers-in-law, nor indeed THE VILLAGE xVND VILLAGER 435 of their fathers-in-law. It is not the custom for the son-in-law to visit much with his fathers-in-law, especially when they are of lower rank than himself. " I know him very well," said the Rajput; "I married a couple of his daughters, and went to his village for the ceremony when I was a boy, but I forget his name just now. He had a lot of girls, poor man ! but he is of very good family, and they had to be married off for him." The daughters and female relations of all well-regulated houses must be married early regardless of expense. An elderly spinster would be a positive disgrace to the village, and a maiden aunt would be too anomalous, and could only be accounted for by a curse on the house, or by some domestic skeleton of a grave and lasting character. The birth of a daughter is considered a family calamity, which has to be passed over in silence and borne with fortitude. " Don't be down-hearted," said the State Council to their friend, whom they met to condole with on the birth of a daughter ; " such misfortunes are in the hands of Providence, and man is helpless against them." The " father of a daughter" (Beti-ka-Bap) is a contemptuous epithet, and such a person is the despised of the village if he be poor, and the pitied if he be a great man. " Why do you call him the father of a daughter ? " said the great man. " Because he is a Beti-ka-Bap, and good for nothing too." " I also am only the father of ■daughters." " But your honour is great. You must be ex- cused. The misfortune can't be helped. You can do as you please." In such a state of society, it will readily be understood that the unfortunate official whose duty it is to register births has a difficult task before him, and it is not strange that vital statistics are still far from accurate here. Indeed, the Thakar and the whole village resent such prying into their domestic occurrences, and they cannot understand the idle curiosity of a Government which expects them to report female births, 436 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES that only bring the derision of passers-by on themselves and their village. There is no difficulty about a son. All the villagers appear much elated on the occasion of a male birth, except the father, who, although highly pleased, does not think it manly to show his delight, as it would be "like boast- ing in mortal things." " Let me see the baby," said the Rajput trooper to a European lady's " ayah." " Ah ! what a pity it wasn't a boy. We would all have had great rejoicings, and a grand treat too." All pure-bred Rajputs are privileged in the village. They are kinsmen, and called brothers of the Thakar-Sahib, and have traditions, no matter what their means or occupation. They are expected to marry into clans equal to their own : the escutcheon of the noble race must not be stained with inferior blood. Half-castes are despised and drop below in the village. From a fiscal point of view, the Banias, or dealers, are the most important class, and there are many of them in every large village, where they control the money market, export, import, and bank. They have a monopoly of trade and usury, possess much of the wealth of the country, and hold many of their fellow-villagers almost as bondsmen, on account of advances made in cash or seeds. The Bania possesses the business capacity of the hard-headed Scotchman, and he is as unrelenting and greedy as a Jew in all business transactions. The local sayings regarding him are, that "he resorts to sleight of hand when using his scales, to give light weight " ; " his debts are deceptive as a scarecrow," and " his cunning in capturing his victim equal to that of the deer-trapper." " He overvalues and exaggerates the weight of what he gives, and he undervalues and under-estimates the weight of what he receives, to the extent of 25 per cent, of the whole." " Thus he carries on cheating, aided by his parsimonious wife; and is no less a robber than the Baori, the notorious village thief." Garden, House, anei Temple, Jaisalmir ^7*:^** ^■^T Dewan's Carriage, Jaisalmir. To face page 436. THE VILLAGE AND VILLAGER 437 The Bania is not infrequently hardly dealt with in return, and I have had to restore his nose, which had been cut off by his debtor, when he demanded his own with interest. More- over, notwithstanding his austerities in matters of business, even with his fellow-villagers, he is a most useful member of the community, and has many good qualities which should not be forgotten. He is the most enterprising of India's sons, and the mainstay of trade and commerce in the East. He quits his home in the desert at an early age, often penniless, but determined to make money, and he generally succeeds. He is steady in his habits, diligent, prudent, and reliable in business transactions with other business men. Consequently he is trusted, and has a good status in com- mercial circles. Although he will, at times, speculate to the extent of gambling in his haste to become rich, his caution is generally sufficient to avert ruin; and even when he loses heavily, he mostly manages to rally again, his thrift and tenacity of purpose are such marked features in his character. When the Bania has made his fortune and revisits his village, he is known as the Sethji, and he then begins to work for a good name. He often keeps up considerable state, feeds Brahmins largely, gives to the poor, feeds the village dogs, builds a temple, sinks a well, and establishes drinking stations for thirsty travellers and rests for weary carriers on the highroads. He also spends much on wedding and funeral feasts, and becomes more lenient with his debtors in the village. The security offered to the money-lender is not infrequently risky. However, the Bania advances both money and seed to his fellow-villagers in bad years, when they could not obtain succour from outside, thereby often saving them from starva- tion ; and although he expects ample returns for his mvest- ments, he does not always get them. He is undoubtedly a benefactor to the careless villager, who takes little thought 438 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES for the future, and makes little or no provision against bad seasons. The Marwari Bania mostly keeps up his home in the desert, and he does much for the country. He returns to marry, adopt, and recruit his health, shattered by town life. Most of his visits are marked by some act of liberality. Much of the money made in trade throughout India by these thrifty people is sent into the desert, and thus this arid part of India is made to flourish by their enterprise and energy. When the young Bania marries, he often goes out into the world in quest of a fortune, leaving his bride behind till he can arrange to take her with him. This class has kept free from the pardah system of the Mahomedans, and on that account they have been relieved of the encumbrance of polygamy, which has so tied down the Rajputs. The men generally remarry only after the first wife's death, and widow-remarriage is strictly forbidden. Banias' wives carry the water required in the house, attend to all domestic duties, and assist their husbands in their busi- ness. Their children are educated up to a certain standard, and they show a wonderful aptitude for figures and accounts as soon as they can articulate, talent for business being hereditary with them. The whole village has interest in the crops and stock, and any one may cultivate, from the high Rajput to the outcaste aboriginal. Jats, Su'vis, Gujars, and Bishnois are, however, the best cultivators, and they devote themselves to agriculture. They give from a fifth to a half of the produce to their Thakar for the use of the land, and pay him other dues besides. They are honest, hard-working Hindus of good physique, who can live happily on little, so long as they are not worried by thieves or famines. Their wives and children take their food to the fields and assist them with their work. The cultivator asks but " a hut that does not leak, a good onunj cot, plenty of bajra bread," •«^ THE VILLAGE AND VILLAGER 439 milk, and curd. His wife's wants are also few, viz., "to be married in her father's village," " have her husband's field in the west," so that the sun may be on her back while going in the morning and returning in the evening, in order to save her complexion ; and " the village tank convenient," so that she may not have to go far with the bullocks from the plough, to give them a drink. There are artisans in all villages of importance, viz. : khatis or carpenters, and lobars or blacksmiths, to make and mend the carts and ploughs ; mochis and chamars (shoemakers and tanners), kumars or potters, to make earthen vessels for domestic purposes and buckets for the Persian wheels which lift the water from the deep wells ; darzis or tailors are met with, but they are not much patronised by the ordinary people, who make their own clothes during their leisure when the harvest is saved. Rangrez or dyers are always in request for weddings, fairs, and festivals, when bright dresses are worn by the women, and coloured puggaris by the men. Weaving is done in most villages by the lower castes of Hindus, generally Bhambis, and the spinning is done by almost all classes of women. Malis or gardeners grow leeks and onions, and, where water is abundant, other vegetables for the village market ; but they generally stick to the large centres. Vegetable gardens are much neglected in most villages, to the detriment of health, and on this account land scurvy is not an infrequent disease. Sonars or goldsmiths are not wanting, except in small places, as the people are fond of ornaments, both real and imitation. There are rabaris and gawalas or herdsmen in all villages, and they take charge of the village herds and flocks, as a joint business, for which they receive a small remuneration from each house. Servants are mostly half-caste and hereditary ; but retainers are generally of pure birth. Servants exercise much authority in the domestic circle, and are more like helps than menials. The male domestic loves intrigue, ease, and plenty, with liquor and 440 WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES tobacco thrown in, and he could beg as much work as would satisfy him if his other wants were well supplied. The saying is that " the female attendant in her bloom expects admira- tion, and occasionally wine, but always absolute authority in the kitchen." She becomes satisfied with tobacco and snuff, and is more given to work as she advances in years and fades in appearance. Dhobis (washermen) and Bhishtis (water-carriers) are only found in the great houses. The ordinary people do their own washing and water-drawing. The menial or coolie classes of the village are mostly Nais or barbers, Bhambis, aboriginal Bhils, and sweepers. There are Grasias, Minas, and Bhils in considerable numbers in many of the villages near the Aravallis, and a few in other parts. Most of them now cultivate, but they would prefer to work at dacoity and rob Banias' wives en route to weddings with their best jewellery on. Kolis, Dheds, Bhambis, Chamars, Sansis, Baoris, Bagris, and sweepers are found about most important villages. They are considered menials, and reside outside the village enclosure. There are about seven per cent, of Mahomedans in Marwar villages, and a few of them own land. Many of them work in iron and cultivate. A considerable number are Sepoys and domestic servants. There are very few Mahomedans in Sirohi (only about three per cent, of the population), and they are mostly Bohras (Mahomedan dealers) and Sepoys. In Jaisal- mir about one-fourth of the entire population is Mahomedan. They are cultivators and Sepoys. The butchers in all states are Mahomedans. Coolies who manufacture salt are called "Kharwals," and there are many of them settled in the salt tracts. Dholis are the professional musicians of these estates and they are beggars as well. They are residents of large villages; but they wander about, and are employed for wed- dings and other ceremonies. Some Mahomedans also adopt Nomadic Aborigines. To face page 440. THE VILLAGE AND VILLAGER 441 the profession of music, and perform on important occasions in the village, for money payments. The Brahmin is, by right, the head of the church, and the highest caste among the people. His proper charge is the temple and the idols, and his occupation begging. But he has multiplied to such an extent that his sons take office as officials, serve in the ranks of the army, in the office and shop, and they even cultivate and tend cattle in the village. They also trade, and often show business capacity and power of amassing wealth hardly second . to the Marwari Bania. Thousands of Brahmins in these estates live by begging, and save money from the pro- ceeds, with which they ornament their wives and daughters, and even become usurers. It is said that some Brahmins will beg at the house where they have put out money at interest, and " shame is not put on them." The Srimalis are the greatest beggars, and it does not demean them in the eyes of their neighbours to beg when they possess considerable wealth, or even when their wives and daughters have much jewellery and tine clothes. Many of the Pushkarna Brahmins here are officials, and they now live less by begging than by other employment. Brahmins are all privileged. They could not be hanged for murder till quite recently, and I have only known one instance in which execution was actually carried out. They are fed by the great on all big occasions, such as marriages, male births, and funeral feasts ; and some of them eat inordinately at such times. However, if they die from excess, honour is done to the host. To feed Brahmins is the duty of all pious Hindus, and it atones for many sins. When a Hindu crosses the sea, he becomes temporarily an out-caste thereby; but he can be re- stored to his brethren by liberally feeding Brahmins. To injure a Brahmin entails more than ordinary punishment, and his curse is dreaded, even by noble houses. It may blight the marriage prospects of the ladies of the family, or bring disease upon the people. 442 WESTERN RAJPUT AN A STATES The birth of the first-born son is an occasion which demands the feeding of many Brahmins, and they take presents away when the proud parent is in a position to provide them. It is therefore natural that they should think poorly of " fathers of daughters," as the birth of a daughter admits of no feastings, and she is of no use in this way until her marriage. Brahmins are often fairly educated, even in remote villages. They sometimes study and apply astronomy and medicine, and they indulge in evil prophecy against those who depart from their dictates. They attribute failure of rain, famine, and pestilence, and even local calamities to the evildoings of the people, and the neglect of the proper observances laid down by the church. When in charge of temples, they officiate at marriages, attend funerals, select names for the children, act as astrologers and medical men, give forecasts of the seasons and times, and they get grants from the village for such offices. They are husbands of one wife, and they provide for their poor relations if these cannot be otherwise fed and clothed ; but they do not give charity to other castes. Charans or poets, who make odes and songs for the village magnate, live greatly on charity, free grants of land, and dues. They attend weddings and funeral feasts, and indulge in lam- poons when dissatisfied with their treatment. They, like the Brahmins, have also to be appeased by feasts and gifts, and they add to the many taxes on the landed aristocracy of the country. Education is still far behind in the village. Some of the Rajput boys get a rudimentary education from a Brahmin tutor at their own homes. Others are sent to school at the capital, where they read up to a higher standard, and a few of the wealthy families give their sons the advantage of a Mayo College training. From the Mayo College they are generally turned out with a good knowledge of English, and they are always proficient in outdoor games. The village Rajput boy Monuments of Border Fight between \'illagers. ii''li!'S'''2'r'i3^E^ Monimients or Chattris. To face page 442. THE VILLAGE AND VILLAGER 443 is invariably very much smartened and improved by residence in that well-ordered institution, and he acquires regular habits, which should be of advantage to him during his whole lifetime. There is mostly a village school for Brahmins and Banias, where Hindi, arithmetic, and writing are taught, and these castes take some pains about the education of their boys. Some of the Mahomedans have their sons taught Urdu and Persian to enable them to read the Koran ; however, many of them are careless in regard to education. The other classes in the village generally show a great want of appreciation of education, unless in occasional instances, and female education is greatly neglected everywhere. The learned professions are not well represented in the village. Any one supposing himself to be in possession of an occult remedy practises medicine, and the temple Brahmin generally combines the treatment of disease by charms or in- cantations with his divine calling. There are bleeders, rubbers, herbalists, and sometimes an hereditary hakim or baid in most of the large villages. The barber, blacksmith, carpenter, or other handy man can set fractures after a fashion; but the treatment is often fatal to the limb. There are now fortunately dispensaries at nearly all the district head-quarters, where gratuitous medical aid can be obtained from qualified practi- tioners, and where proper appliances for setting fractures are kept in readiness. The people are beginning to seek relief regularly at these institutions. Sanitation is backward in the village, although a certain amount of cleaning is done by the sweepers, who reside in the out-caste quarter, and receive the refuse food and clothes and at times some money payments for their services. Villagers are careless about the common water-supply, and they allow the wells and tanks to be contaminated unnecessarily. They think little of the ventilation of their houses ; however, as they spend much of their time in the open air, sleep on the house- M4> WESTERN RAJPUTANA STATES tops, in open verandas, and in tile fields, they are mostly healthy. But when an epidemic unluckily reaches the village, it claims many victims. Law is placed in the hands of the Thakar, but the exercise of it is generally left to his kamdar or manager ; however, there is an appeal to the state courts. Advocates are mostly villagers with natural loquacity, Avho take up the cases of their less for- ward neighbours for a consideration, and eventually gain a local reputation and a large practice if they have success. Qualified lawyers are still unknown to the villagers here; nevertheless, litigation is sometimes pursued to the last appeal, and the Queen-Empress is even petitioned when the Viceroy and other representatives fail to satisfy the importunaite Htigant. The people of these States are most persistent petitioners when they have an imaginary or real grievance, and many men of doubtful repute earn a good livelihood by petition-writing, and urging them on to the law courts. Even relations will often carry on litigation with each other till the family property has been wasted in law expenses, and the minor official is often accused by the villager. During the absence from home of two brothers their house was burned, probably accidentally, and considerable jewellery and property lost to the owners, who blamed the local officials for first plundering the house and then burning it, to divert suspicion from the burglars. Dissatisfied with the findings of the various courts in the case, the plaintiffs petitioned every authority up to the Viceroy, and finally sailed for England in the hope of having their wrongs redressed b}^ the Queen-Empress. At that time the permanent political officer was on leave, and they calculated on his assisting them to approach her Majesty. On landing in London, they in- quired for him of many, and asked to be directed to their Agent-sahib ; but were much astonished and disappointed to find a man of such high standing in their own country un- known in the world's capital, cither by his name or office. So THE VILLAGE AND VILLAGER 445 they returned disheartened to their own homes, determined to bear the wrongs and losses they had sustained rather than remain in a benighted city hke London ! They said to their friends : Great London is a " Bari Andher Nagrmen bilkul achhi nahin Agent sahibre waste keyannen puchhio pin unanen koinahin janen." London they considered a most dark and backward city, and not at all a good place. Fancy ! they asked many people lor the Agent-sahib, and nobody knew him, nor could any one direct them to him ! Village life is extremely simple ; the occupations of the people are mostly outdoor and very healthy. Every member of the community falls into his place naturally, and there is not the same struggle for position and money which exists in large centres. Consequently, wear and tear of the system are at the minimum, and the average life is long. Besides, the villagers are more virtuous than their fellows in the crowded cities ; their diet is simpler, their habits more regular, and they are remote from most epidemics, except smallpox, which is now being greatly subdued by vaccination. Only a few indulge in alcohol, so, if famine can be averted, and their water-supply somewhat improved to prevent cholera outbreaks, these people of the desert will have considerably more than the usual period of longevity, and they will steadily increase in numbers. BOOKS OF REFERENCE The following works have been referred to : — " Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan." Tod. " Rajputana Gazetteer." Gazetteers of INIarwar, Mallani, and Jaisalmir. Rajputana Administration Reports. "Gazetteer of the East India Company," &c. Thornton. "Hind Raj asthan. " Mehta. "Itihas Rajasthan (Hindi)." Ram Natli. Marwar Administration Reports. Famine Reports. " Guide to Jodhpore." *' A Brief Account of Jodhpore." Sukhdeo Prashdd. Murray's "Birds of India." Jerdon's " Birds of India." Jerdon's "Mammals of India." Butler's "Birds." Bombay. Day's "Fishes." India. "Wood's "Insects." "Forests Flora." Brandis. Miss Macadam's "Trees and Plants of Abu, Jodhpore, and Jaisalmir. " *' Indian Ferns." Baynes. 446 GLOSSARY Achalgarh, temple. Achleshtvar, temple. AJodhya, city. Baids, Hindoo physicians, Bajra, species of millet. Bcdmer, town. Balsamand, lake or tank. Bazaar, market. Bhambi, coolie caste or menial caste. Bhati, Rajpoot clan. Bhurtpore, state and its capital. Bund, dam. Chhattri, monument. Ghohan, Rajpoot clan. CJionda. Daroga, superintendent. Dassera, Hindoo festival. Deesa, cantonment. Deioan, prime minister. Dholjjore, state and its capital. Dwarka, city to which pilgrims resort. Gaddi, throne. Gail mukh, a natural spring with temple, where pilgrims bathe. The water flows through a marble fountain in the shape of a cow's head. GJiara, earthen vessel Ghee, clarified butter. Grasia, aboriginal tribe. Gujerat. Guru Sikhar, highest peak of Mount Abu. Hindu, native of India following the Hindoo religien. Ishivara, temple. JJialla, clan of Rajpoots. Jodhpore, city and state of Mar war. Joivar, millet, species of. Kanavj, ancient city. Kanode, Khuni, Klmrram, Kutch, Kerari, town. Kharif, crop. Kharins, fertile valleys. Khichi, Rajpoot clan. Kotah, city, Krishna, Hindoo deity. Mahomedans, sect Mallani, district. Marothe, town. Mogul, ex-Emperor of India. towns. 447 448 WESTERN RAJPUT ANA STATES Mussalmans, sect. dans. See Mahome- Nadole, town. NdkM, Abu lake. Neeimicfi, cantonment. Noclma. Palanpur, town. Parihar. Parsi, sect. Pawar. Pohkaran, town. Poona, town and cantonment. Pramar, tribe of Rajpoots. Prithvi Raj, chief. Punjab. Eahi, crop. iJawre of Kutcli, delta of River Suni. Rinn or salt marsh. Rutlam, city and state. Sannyasis. Sardars, nobles, officers. Satlaj, river. Scindia, chief of Gwalior. Shishodia, clan of Rajpoots. Shri Krishna, deified hero. Sindh, province. Solanl-hi, tribe of Rajpoots, Srimali, caste of Brahmins. Suhadar, officer, Surajwansh, Sun race. Tanot, town and district. Tchsildar, civil district officer. ThaJiar, baron or landholder under the chief, Ulicar, state and city. Umarlcote, town. Ummed Singh, chief. INDEX Abbott Sagar, 122 Abu Sanitarium, 371 Agriculture in Jaisalmir, 28 in Marwar, 8 in Sirohi, 18 Amputations, 245 Anaemia and Debility, 225 Animals, Domestic, 189 Ant-eater, Scaly, 173 Antelope, 165 Arachnida, 392 Arboriculture, 406 Arteries, Operations on, 242 Artisans, Village, 439 Ass, 190 B. Badger, 171 Bali, Description of, 295 Balmer, Description of, 293 Balsamand, 104 Bania, the Village, 436 Baoris and JhAlras (Large Wells) in Jodhpore, 121 Bats, Varieties of, 173 Bear, Black, 170 Bees, 386 Bekra (Four-Horned Antelope), 166 Bliatis of Jaisalmir, 69 Bhatki, Description of, 295 Big G-ame, 168 Bilara, Description of, 291 Birds, Wild, 352 Birth-Rate of Jaisalmir, 204 of Jodhpore, 202 of Sirohi, 204 Biscobra, 174 Bittern, 179 Black Buck, 165 Boar, Wild, 163 Bones and Joints, Operations on, 244 Brahmins, Village, 440 Breast, Operations on, 244 British Institutions in Marwar State, 298 Buffaloes, 191 Bustards, 177, 182 Butterflies, 391 C. Camels, 192 Capital of Jaisalmir, 87 of Jodhpore, 75 of Sirohi, 86 Cataract, Operations for, 241 Cat, Domestic, 193 Cats, Wild, 170 Cattle, 190 i Chiefs of Jaisalmir, 69 I of Marwar, 42 449 2 F 450 INDEX Chiefs of Sirohi, 6i Chigoe ("Jigger"), 383 Chikara (Indian Gazelle), 165 Chirianathji, the Ascetic who brought drought on Marwar, 99 Chital, 166 Cholera, 213 Circulatory Diseases, 228 Climate of Abu, 32 of Jaisalmir, 25 of Marwar, 10 of Sirohi, 14 and Europeans, 197 Cobras, 174 Cochineal Insect, 385 College, Mayo, Ajmere, 433 Crane, Varieties of, 183 Crocodiles, 174 Crops and Soils (see Agriculture and Parganas) Crustacea, 188 Currencies and Mints, 1 1 1 D. Dead, Disposal of, 154 Debility and Anaemia, 225 Desuri, Description of, 297 Dewan Salem Singh of Jaisalmir, 71 Diarrhoea, 229 Didwana, Description of, 2S6 Digestive Organs, Operations on, 242 System, Diseases of, 229 Diptera, 385 Diseases, 207 ■ General, 227 Medical, 210 Surgical, 240 Dispensaries and Hospitals, Jodh- pore, 260 in Jaisalmir, 265 in Sirohi, 264 Dispensary Towns, 283 Dog, Domestic, 193 Wild, 170 Drainage, 124 Droughts and Floods in Sirohi, 15 Duck, 179 Winter Visitants, 180 Dysentery, 218 Dyspepsia, 230 E. Ear Diseases, 227 Earthquakes in Abu, 35 Elephant, 193 Epidemics, 251 in Abu, 36 Events of Bairi Sal's Reign, 72 of Jaswant Singh's Reign, 54 of Kesri Singh's Reign, 66 Exports and Imports, Marwar, 9 and Imports, Sirohi, 18 Eyeball, Operations on, 241 Eye Diseases, 227 R Fairs, Principal, in Abu, 38 ■ in Jaisalmir, 140 I in Marwar, 137 in Sirohi, 139 Famines, History of, 143 Feathered Game, 177 Ferns and Flowers, 423 Filaria medinensis, 394 sanguinis hominis, 394 Fishes, 185 INDEX 451 Flies, 385 Floods and Droughts in Sirohi, 15 Flora and Forests, 397 Florican, 183 Flowers and Ferns, 423 Flukes, Liver, 395 Food, Cooking of, &c., 199 Food and Markets, 156 Food-grains, Prices of, 160 Forests and Flora, 397 Fort of Jaisalmir, 89 of Jodhpore, 80 Fox, 170 Frogs, 174 Fruit, 427 Fuller's Earth, 5 G. Game, 163 Big, 168 Cock, 195 Feathered, 177 Gazelle, Indian, 165 Geese, 179 Genealogy of Jaisalmir Rulers, 73 of Marwar Rulers, 60 of Sirohi Rulers, 68 General Diseases, 227 Geology of Marwar, 3 Goats, 192 Goitre, 230 Grains, Food, Prices of, 160 Grant, J. W., Captain, I.M.S., 238 Grasses, Fertile Lands, List of, 404 Fertile Lands, Description of, 416 Desert, List of, 406 Desert, Description of, 421 Grey Partridge, 195 Guinea-Worm, 394, 225 Gusainji, 10 1 H. Hare, Indian, 167 Head and Face, Operations on, 242 Health, Preservation of, 196 Hedgehog, 167 Helminthology, 393 Hemiptera, 384 Hernia, 243 Hewson Hospital, Jodhpore, 260 Hill Diarrhoea, 239 Home, Mr., 8, 82, 104, 105, 291 Horse, 189 Hospitals and Dispensaries, Jodh- pore, 260 Hyeena, 170 Hymenoptera, 386 Imperial Service Troops, 109 Imports and Exports, Marwar, 10 Sirohi, 18 Industries in Marwar, 9 Influenza, 218 Injuries, Local and General, 247 Insanes in Jaisalmir, 309 in Jodhpore, 307 in Sirohi, 308 Insects, 373 Itch Mite, 384 Jackal, 170 Jails in Jaisalmir, 305 in Jodhpore, 301 in Sirohi, 304 452 INDEX Jaisalmir, General Character of the Country and the Soil, 26 General Description of, 2 1 History of, 69 Maharawal of, 72 Jalore, Description of, 289 Jasole, Description of, 284 Jaswant College, 57, 59 Hospital for Women, 262 Jaswant Singh I., Maharaja, 46 Singh II., Maharaja, 52 Jaswantpura, Description of, 292 Jodhpore City, Description of, 75 Joints and Bones, Operations on, 244 Jungle Fowl, 178 K. Kailana, 103 Kamdar or Thakar's Agent, 434 Kanauj, 42 Kraits, 174 Lac Insect, 388 Lakes in Abu, 31 in Jaisalmir, 27 in Marwar, 3 in Sirohi, 1 7 Law, Village, 444 Leopard Hunting, 170 Leprosy, 226 Lighting, 125 Lion, 168 Lithotomy and Litliolapaxy, 243 Liver, Diseases of, 230 Lizards, 174 Loch, St., Colonel, 54 Locusts, 375 Lung Diseases, 228 Luni River, 3 Lymphatic System, Diseases of, 230 Lynx, 170 M. Maharaja of Jodhpore, 54, 59 Malaria, Prevention of, 221 Malarial Fevers, 218 Mallinathji, loi Mandore, Ancient Capital of the Rathores, 100 Markets and Food in Jaisalmir, 159 in Jodhpore, 156 in Sirohi, 158 Marwar, History of, 42 General Description of, i Mayo College, Ajmere, 108, 433 Meat, Cooking of, 199 Medical Aid, 254 Aspects of Jaisalmir, 27 Aspects of Marwar, 1 1 Aspects of Sirohi, 15 Diseases, 210 Institutions in Abu, 39 Practitioners, Native, 254 Remedies, Native, 256 Merta, Description of, 287 Meteorology, 310 Microbes and Disease, 395 Military Station, Abu, 36 Milk, Boiling of, and Precautions, 190, 191 INIinerals in Jaisalmir, 24 in Marwar, 4 in Sirohi, 17 Mints and Currencies, 1 1 1 Mission Hospital, Jodhpore, 263 Monkeys, 194 Month, Health of each, 248 INDEX 453 Morar, Dan Viavi Raj, 6 Mortality and Sickness of each Month, 248 Moths, 392 Mount Abu, 30 Multani Mitti, 5 Mungoos, 170 Mycetoma, 245 N. Nagore, Description of, 285 Nawa, Description of, 291 Nervous Diseases, 227 Neuroptera, 387 Nilgai, 166 0. Obstetric Operations, 244 Omens, 91 Otter, 171 Pali, Description of, 283 Plague, 230 Panther, 169 Parasites, Vegetable, 395 Parganas of States, 130 Partridge, 177 Peacock, 194 Phalodi, Description of, 294 Physical Aspects of Marwar, 3 Pigeon, Blue Rock, 194 Plague, 230 Plovers, 184 Pohkaran, Description of, 288 Poisoning, 246 Population of Jaisalmir, 28 of Marwar, 5 of Sirohi, 18 Porcupine, 167 Poultry, 194 Pratap Singh, Sir, G.C.S.I., 53, 54, 55 Proverbs, Marwari, 96 Public Instruction in Jaisalmir, 116 in Marwar, 114 in Sirohi, 115 Python, 175 Q. Quail, 183 Grey, 195 R. Railway, Jodhpore-Bikanir, 126 Rainfall of Abu, 32 of Jaisalmir, 25 of Marwar, 10 of Sirohi, 15 Rathores of Marwar, History of, 42 Rats, Varieties of, 173 Recreation, 107 Abu, 38 Religions, 91 Remedies, Native Medical, 256 Residents, List of, W.R.S., 74 Residency Surgeons, List of, W.R.S., 265 Respiratory Organs, Operations on, 242 System, Diseases of, 228 Rheumatic Affections, 225 Rivers in Jaisalmir, 27 in Marwar, 3 in Sirohi, 16 Roads, Abu, 38 Jaisalmir, 128 Marwar, 126 Sirohi, 128 454 INDEX Round Worms, 393 Rulers of Jaisalmir, 69 of Mar war, 42 of Sirohi, 61 S. Salt, Manufacture of, 4 Samber, 166 Sambhar Lake, 3 Sand-Grouse, 177 Imperial, 182 Sands, 40 Sanitation in Abu, 35 in Jodhpore, 277 in Sirohi and Jaisalmir, 282 Sardarsingh, Maharaja, 53, 59 Scorpions, 176 Scurvy, 224 Sheep, 192 Sheoganj, Description of, 299 Shergarh, Description of, 297 Shrubs and Trees, Fertile Lands, List of, 397 Desert, List of, 404 Siaji, 42 Sickness and Mortality of each month, 248 Sights worth Seeing, 98 Sir Pratap Singh, G.C.S.L, 53, 54, 55 Impressions of England, 58 Sirohi, General Description of, 13 History of, 61 Maharao of^ 65 Skin Affections, 247 Operations on, 246 Slaughter-Houses, 129 Smallpox, 210 Snakes, 174 Snake-bite, Treatment of, 175 Snipe, 181 Soils of Jaisalmir, 24 Sojat, Description of, 296 Spiders, 392 Spleen, Diseases of, 230 Squirrel, 173 States, Divisions into Parganas, 130 Suhdeo Persad Pundit, R.B., 380 Sumer Singh, Maharaj Kunwar, Birth of, 59 Superstitions, 91 Surgical Diseases, 240 Sursagar, 104 Swine, 193 T. Tanks in Abu, 31 in Jaisalmir, 122 in Jodhpore, 118 in Sirohi, 122 Tape- Worms, 393 Teal, 181 Tebas, 4 Tehsils of Sirohi, 133 Temples and Shrines, Abu, 37 in Jodhpore, 98 Termites, 387 Thakar-Sahib, 431 Thread- worms, 393 Tiger, 168 Tramways, 127 Trees and Shrubs, Fertile Lands, List of, 398 Description of, 406 Desert, List of, 404 Desert, Description of, 417 Trematoda, 395 INDEX 455 Trichina spiralis, 394 Tubercular Diseases, 226 Tumours, 241 U. Urinary Organs, Operations on, 243 V. Vaccination in Jaisalmir, 273 in Marwar, 266 in Sirohi, 271 General Remarks on, 275 Vegetable Parasites, 395 Vegetables, 426 Venereal Diseases, 224 Village and Villager, Description of, 429 Vipers, 174 W. Water, Analysis of Balsamand, 119 Purity of, 396 Scarcity of, in Jaisalmir, 23 Water-Supjily of Abu, 35 ■ of Jaisalmir, 122 of Jodhpore, 117 of Sirohi, 122 Wells in Jaisalmir, 123 in Jodhpore, 120 in Sirohi, 122 White Ants, 387 Wolf, 170 Worms, 225 Intestinal, 393 Wounds by Wild Animals, 171 Care of, 172 THE END Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson 6^ Co. Edinburgh 6= London UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY Los Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below. ,.-FEBi;31983 REC'D LO-URL 13 41584 3 1158 00850 3509 UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY EACH AA 001 135 648 2