THE NEW CALENDAR OF GREAT MEN
 
 THE NEW CALENDAR 
 
 OF 
 
 GREAT ME^ 
 
 X 
 
 BIOGRAPHIES 
 
 OF THE 558 WORTHIES OF 
 
 ALL AGES AND NATIONS IN THE 
 
 POSITIVIST CALENDAR OF 
 
 AUGUSTE COMTE 
 
 EDITED I)Y 
 
 FREDERIC HARRISON 
 
 LONDON 
 MACMILLAN AND CO. 
 
 AND NEW YORK 
 
 1892 
 
 All Iliithtsrmrved
 
 Printed by T. and A. CoNSTAEr.E, Printers to Her Majesty, 
 at the Edinburgh University Press.
 
 PREFACE 
 
 This book, which has been many years in preparation, was projected 
 in 1883 by the Newton Hall Committee, to illustrate the general theorj^ 
 of historical development put forth in various works by Auguste Comte. 
 His entire scheme of Sociology is based on a sense of the unity of human 
 evolution. And with a view, he has told us, to impress visually on the 
 public mind, a general conception of the Past, and to revive the sense of 
 continuity in the- ages, he published in April 1849, a sheet which he 
 described as the Positivist Calendar, " or concrete view of the preparatory 
 period of man's history." It was avowedly provisional, intended only for 
 the Nineteenth Century, and for Western Europe. Therein he arranged 
 a series of typical names, illustrious in all departments of thought and 
 power, beginning with Moses and ending with the poets and thinkers of 
 the first generation of the present century. The greatest names were 
 associated with the months ; 52 other great names wdth the weeks ; and 
 one worthy was given to each day of the year, less important types being- 
 in many cases substituted for those in Leap Year. There are in all 558 
 names of eminent men and women in this Calendar, distributed into four 
 classes of greater or less importance ; they range over all ages, races, and 
 countries ; and they embrace Religion, Poetry, Philosophy, War, States- 
 manship, Industry, and Science. 
 
 The present volume is a collection of condensed biographies of all the 
 558 persons thus selected as types of the general advancement of civilisa- 
 tion. Each biographical notice varies in fulness according to the impor- 
 tance of each name. The main object has been to give an estimate of the 
 effective work of each, and his contribution to civilisation — the facts of 
 the life being stated sufficiently to explain the place he occupies in the 
 sum of human progress. The space of a single volume does not admit 
 of exhaustive treatment of biographical or literary details ; and this book 
 does not enter into competition with works on biography of a voluminous 
 and miscellaneous kind. The aim has been to consult the best, and, if 
 possible, the contemporary authorities for each life, and to summarise the 
 results without discussion. 
 
 The plan of the book differs essentially, it is believed, from that 
 of any biographical work. It is not a dictionary. The names are not 
 given in alphabetical order, but in historical sequence ; and the various 
 biographies form a connected series of studies. Each month or section 
 treats a separate subject, such as Poetry, Philosophy, or Policy, for 
 which one author for the most part has been responsible. And each 
 week or sub-section treats a subordinate liranch of the subject to whicli
 
 vi PREFACE 
 
 its week is devoted. Within each month and week the order of names 
 is chronological — at least for all names of the same rank. Thus the most 
 eminent men are grouped in order of time within that branch of human 
 progress to which their lives were dedicated. Consequently, each separate 
 section of this book may be read in a continuous series as a distinct 
 chapter dealing with a special subject. And each section, or month, is 
 preceded by its proper introduction. The aim of the work is to offer 
 a biographical Manual of the general course of civilisation. 
 
 In another respect, also, the work differs from the plan of any Biogra- 
 phical Dictionary. The names are not selected with regard to common 
 fame, or the space they occupy in literary discussion. Thejoll of worthies 
 — many of them, it is true, with alnindant shortcomings and failings — 
 consists of those only who are thought to have promoted the progress of 
 mankind. Thus names of famous men like those of Alcibiades, Pompey, 
 Philip II., and Napoleon will not be found ; nor are all those incltided about 
 whom many volumes have been written. The names are chosen not as 
 being those of Saints or Heroes ; but as men to be remembered for effective 
 work in the development of human society — as society existed in Western 
 Europe aljout the beginning of this present century. 
 
 Nor does the book pretend to supply the reader with any such body 
 <jf miscellaneous information as is to be found in an Enq/dopcedia. Its 
 limits and its scope alike exclude this. The Calendar itself was regarded 
 by its author as a work of art, carefully balanced and contrasted in its 
 parts, and designed to convey a vivid impression of the synthetic or organic 
 character of ISIan's general progress. For this reason it takes note only 
 of work of a constructive and creative kind ; and the inost eminent 
 destructives, revolutionists, and Protestants are not, as such, included, 
 however useful for their time their solvent action may have been. The 
 Calendar is that part of the work of Comte which has met with the 
 greatest amount of assent ; and it has been found useful and suggestive 
 by very many Avho reject all other parts of Comte's system. They adopt 
 the description of it given })j ]\Ir. Mill, who says : " No kind of human 
 eminence, really useful, is omitted, except that which is merely negative 
 and destructive." 
 
 The authors of this jVIanual have taken the list of 558 names so 
 selected by "Cointe without any attempt to modify it. They are quite 
 aware that strong reasons can be urged for the insertion or omission of 
 jiiany names in the list ; and it would be grossly absurd to imagine 
 that any possible list of names could be incapable of serious amendment. 
 But the Positivist Calendar is a very careful and balanced whole, con- 
 structed with immense care to mark the relative importance of different 
 movements, races, and ages. It occupied many years of thought and 
 discussion, and was continually submitted to very competent minds in 
 the course of preparation. We are not aware of any other or competing 
 classification of eminent names in all ages and in all branches of human 
 activity ; and the present Avriters entirely disclaim any competence to 
 revise or modify the list as a wliole. It would be easy to suggest a score 
 of names tliat might be left out or added ; but if the process of revision 
 were once Ijegun, it is difficult to see where it would end, or how any two 
 minds coulil agree in classifying 500 or 6(X) names.
 
 PREFACE vii 
 
 The omission from the list of all eminence of a revolutionary and 
 solvent kind removes many sources of difference. And as to at least 500 
 names in the whole list competent authorities would probably agree. 
 As to the remainder, considerable difference of opinion might be found. 
 But perhaps the various critics would differ as much from one another as 
 from Comte. It is not possible here to notice or explain the grounds 
 upon which he included or omitted any name ; but some of the more 
 striking cases which may occur to the reader will be treated in their 
 proper place, and in the introductory chapters to each month. 
 
 It will be_pbserved that the Calendar does not include any con- 
 temporary names J and it ends entirely with the first generation of the 
 prq^nt century. With very trifling exceptions (the chief T)eing the 
 invention of the electric telegraph), nothing is included later than the 
 year 1830, the date of the first publication of the Philosophic Positive ; 
 nor, with still fewer exceptions, is any one included who was born in the 
 present century. This Manual does not, therefore, treat of any contem- 
 poraries, however eminent ; nor does it reach down to the lives of Fara- 
 day, Darwin, Helmholtz, Virchow, Thomson, Dumas, Pasteur, Hugo, and . 
 Tennyson. The list itself was conceived about 1845, and finally published 
 in 1849 ; and, in many things, it is evident that we know more, and 
 judge otherwise, than was possible in Paris forty or fifty years ago. 
 But as the great body of the work treats of men in distant times, almost 
 all of whom lived before the 19th century, this is a matter of minor 
 importance, applying mainly to a few names in poetry and art. 
 
 It must be borne in mind that the attempt to arrange illustrious 
 names within the mechanical uniformities of months and weeks imposes 
 certain limits and modifies the selection. The device has advantages and 
 inconveniences of its own. And, if it restricts the field at places, and 
 involves some anomalies, it tends, like the exigencies of metre and 
 rhyme in poetry, to give unity, conciseness, and proportion. A list of 
 eminent persons drawn up without any artificial limits would be far 
 easier to frame ; but it would be very difficult to kee}! it from diffuseness, 
 and impossible to give it symmetry. The first object of Comte was to 
 give a concrete picture of human evolution : and, so far as is known, it is 
 the only attempt of the kind. But it is not a class-list of rival candidates 
 for fame. It is in no sense exclusive ; it is provisional ; and it is in 
 every sense relative — framed with a view, not to personal merit, but to 
 historical results. 
 
 Little need be said here as to the form of the Calendar itself, which 
 will be understood by reference to the Table below. The anomalies 
 and confusion of our actual Calendar, which is an amalgamation of 
 Egyptian, Jewish, Roman, and Papal institutions, are due partly to the 
 impossibility of dividing the year exactly by weeks, partly to the caprice 
 of the rulers by whom it has been arranged and revised. {See Sosigenes, 
 p. 147.) The device, suggested it is said l)y M. Littre, of dividing the 
 year into 52 weeks + an extra dies non, and then of dividing the year 
 into 13 months of 4 weeks each, enabled Comte to frame a perfectly 
 symmetrical Calendar. The last day of the year was to l)e an extra day 
 of Festival, devoted to the memory of All the Dead ; and in Leap Year 
 a >eeond extra day was added, similarly consecrated to Good Women.
 
 viii PREFACE 
 
 Thus, not only the year, but each month would regularly begin with a 
 new week. Anniversaries and periodical occasions fixed for special days 
 of the week would always fall on the same days of the month ; and 
 anniversaries and periodical occasions fixed for certain days of any month 
 would always fall on the same day of the week. Every calendar month 
 would mean exactly 4 weeks ; the half-year Avould always be 26 weeks. 
 There never would be 5 Mondays in any month ; New Year's Day 
 or Midsummer Day would always fall on the same week-day ; and Leap 
 Year would not disturb the Calendar, except by adding one extra day at 
 the end of the year. 
 
 The present work has been delayed, first, by the professional duties 
 of several of those who had hoped to have taken part in it, and then by 
 the lamented death of Mv. J. Cotter Morison, who had undertaken the 
 Mediaeval History and FreHch literature. Almost the whole of this 
 book forms the substance of lectures given j)ublicly within the last ten 
 years at Newton Hall, to which all the contributors from time to time 
 have afforded their assistance. 
 
 It is particularly noted that the references to books at the end of each 
 article are not given as the authorities on which the writers have relied, 
 but solely to suggest to the general reader of English such books as he 
 may find at hand in a fairly good library. Every effort has been made 
 to draw the articles themselves from original sources, and, in the case of 
 writers, from their own works. The references given at the foot, in very 
 many cases added subsequently by a diff"erent hand, have been restricted 
 to well-known works of easy access, and for the most part in English, 
 so as not to burden the general reader with bibliographical details and 
 with references to works which he cannot easily jirocure, or could not 
 read for himself. Biographical dictionaries, encyclopaedias, and dic- 
 tionaries of reference, English or foreign, are not specially noticed 
 except to refer to particular articles by name. The works of Comte are 
 referred to thus : — PhilosojMe Positive, in French {Phil. Pas.), by 
 volume and le^on. Positive Polity, in the English translation, 1875- 
 1877, 4 vols., by volume and page {Pos. Pol.). 
 
 FREDERIC HARRISON, 
 Newtox Hall, 
 ,?<? Descartes (Hume) 103. 
 4 November ISDl. 
 
 KKKATA. 
 
 p. ISO, 1. "12, fur pn-jiarin,!; rrail [iroposing. 
 
 P. 312, !. 11 from foot, lefun Cardinal Beiubo iniicrt the father of. 
 
 P. 344, 1. 2, for Doz<; rend D<izy. 
 
 P. 419, 1. 15, for Aiii^ers real Aiitueri.. 
 
 P. 421, 1. \,f.r Arts de rm,! Arts el.
 
 TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 1. 
 
 THEOCRATIC CIVILISATION, . 
 
 
 
 PAGE 
 1 
 
 11. 
 
 ANCIENT POETRY, 
 
 
 
 39 
 
 111. 
 
 ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY, 
 
 
 
 77 
 
 IV. 
 
 ANCIENT SCIENCE, 
 
 
 
 120 
 
 y. 
 
 MILITARY CIVILISATION, 
 
 
 
 162 
 
 VI. 
 
 CATHOLICISM, .... 
 
 
 
 203 
 
 VII. 
 
 FEUDAL CIVILISATION, 
 
 
 
 252 
 
 Vlll. 
 
 MODERN EPIC POETRY, 
 
 
 
 308 
 
 IX. 
 
 MODERN INDUSTRY, . 
 
 
 
 367 
 
 X. 
 
 MODERN DRAMA, 
 
 
 
 422 
 
 XI. 
 
 MODERN PHILOSOPHY, 
 
 
 
 480 
 
 XII. 
 
 MODERN STATESMANSHIP, . 
 
 
 
 538 
 
 XIII. 
 
 MODERN SCIENCE, 
 
 
 
 583
 
 LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 
 
 'E. Spencer Beesly, M.A. Oxon., Professor of History, 
 ^ Univ. Coll. Lond., . . . . . E. S. B. 
 
 J. H. Bridges, M.B. Oxon., formerly Fellow of Oriel Coll., J. H. B. 
 
 T. Fitz-Patrick, M.A., M.D. Univ. Dublin, 
 
 J. Carey Hall, H.M. Consular Service, . , 
 
 X Frederic Harrison, M.A. Oxon., formerly Fellow of 
 ^ Wadham Coll., .... 
 
 Mrs. Frederic Harrison, ..... 
 
 C. Gaskell Higginson, M. A., University of London, 
 
 J. Kaines, Sc.D., . 
 
 Godfrey Lushingtox, C.B. , M.A. Oxon., formerly Fel- 
 low of All Souls' Coll., . 
 
 Vernon Lushington, Q.C, M.A, Trin. Coll. Cam., 
 
 G. P. Macdonell, M.A., University of Aberdeen, 
 
 Lady Macparren, ...... 
 
 . Francis S. Marvin, M.A. Oxon., a Senior Scholar of St, 
 •^ John's Coll., ...... 
 
 Alfred Senier, Phil. Dr. Univ. Berlin, . . . 
 
 S. H. Swinny, M.A. St. .John's Coll. Cam., 
 
 T. 
 
 F. 
 
 P. 
 
 J. 
 
 C. 
 
 H. 
 
 F. 
 
 H. 
 
 
 E. 
 
 B. 
 
 H. 
 
 C. 
 
 G. 
 
 H. 
 
 J. 
 
 K. 
 
 
 G. 
 
 L. 
 
 
 V. 
 
 . L. 
 
 
 G. 
 
 P. 
 
 M. 
 
 N. 
 
 ^\ 
 
 • 
 
 F. 
 
 S. 
 
 M. 
 
 A. 
 
 s. 
 
 
 S. 
 
 H. 
 
 S.
 
 INDEX OF BIOGEAPHIES 
 
 Abdal-rahman hi., 
 
 Abraham, 
 
 yEmilius Paullus, 
 
 -Eschylus, 
 
 ^Esop, 
 
 Aetius, 
 
 Alarcon, . 
 
 Albategniiis, . 
 
 Albertus Magnus, 
 
 Albuquerque, . 
 ^..^'Alexander, 
 
 Alexander Severus, 
 
 Alexander iii., 
 
 Alfieri, 
 
 Alfonso X., 
 
 Alfred, . 
 
 Ambrose, St., 
 
 Amontons, 
 
 Anacreon, 
 ^ Anaxagoras, 
 
 Anaximander, 
 
 Anaximenes, 
 
 Anselm, St., 
 
 Antisthenes, 
 
 Antoninus, 
 
 Anthony, St., 
 
 Apelles, . 
 
 Apollonius of Perga, 
 
 Aiwllonius of Tyana, 
 
 Aquinas, St. Tliomas, 
 
 Aratus, 
 ^^rehimedes, 
 ^^rchitects of the Middle 
 
 Archytas, 
 
 Ariosto, . 
 
 Aristaeus, . 
 
 Aristarchus, 
 
 .Aristides, 
 
 Aristippus, 
 
 Aristophanes, . 
 
 Aristotle, . 
 -^ Ark Wright, 
 
 Arrian, 
 
 >Vthanasius, St., 
 , Augustin, St., . 
 
 Ages 
 
 PAGE 
 30 
 
 29 
 
 188- 
 
 51 
 
 61 
 200 
 451 
 149 
 48(5 
 277 
 181 
 199 
 289 
 446 
 303 
 268 
 213 
 387 
 
 47 
 
 88 
 
 86 
 
 87 
 234 
 103 
 19() 
 230 
 
 57 
 139 
 
 97 
 496 
 142 
 123 
 230 
 
 96 
 325 
 134 
 144 
 170 
 103 
 
 65 
 
 80 
 393 
 107 
 211 
 216 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Augustus, 192 
 
 Aurelius, Marcus, .... 196 
 
 Austin, St., 231 
 
 Averrhoes, 130 
 
 Avicenna, 130 
 
 Bacon, Lord, 509 
 
 , Bacon, Roger, 487 
 
 ^^arneveldt, 554 
 
 Barthez, 032 
 
 Basil, St., 221 
 
 Bathilda, St., 296 
 
 Bayard, 279 
 
 Beatrice, . . . ... 236 
 
 Becket, St. Thomas, . . .289 
 
 Beethoven 472 
 
 Bell, Sir Charles, . . . . ()29 
 
 Bellini, 475 
 
 Belus, 12 
 
 Benedict, St., 228 
 
 Benezet, St., . . . . . 237 
 
 Bergmann, 618 
 
 Bernard, St., 237 
 
 Bernoulli, Daniel, .... 612 
 
 Bernoulli, James, .... 595 
 
 Bernoulli, John, .... .')96 
 
 Berosus, 144 
 
 Bertliollet, 623 
 
 Berzelius, 624 
 
 Bichat, 586 
 
 Black, 403 
 
 Blainville, 639 
 
 Blanche of Castile, . . . .301 
 
 Jioccaccio, 317 
 
 Boerhaave, 031 
 
 Bolivar, 576 
 
 Bonald, 533 
 
 Bonaventura, St 489 
 
 Boniface, St., 230 
 
 Borda 417 
 
 Borromeo, St. Charles, . . . 242 
 
 Borromeo, Frederick, . . . 243 
 
 Bossuet ■ . 249 
 
 Bouguer, 416 
 
 Bourdaloue 246
 
 XIV 
 
 INDEX OF BIOGKAPHIES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bourgelat 414 
 
 Boyle, 401 
 
 Bradley, 597 
 
 Brahe, Tyclio, 589 ^ 
 
 Briggs, S80' 
 
 Broussais, 040 
 
 Bruno, Giordano, .... 502 
 
 Bruno, St., 233 
 
 Brutus, Junius, .... 183 
 
 ^ Buddha, 18 
 
 Buffon, 520 
 
 Bunyan, 355 ' 
 
 Burns, 323 
 
 Byron, 360 
 
 Cabanis, 508 
 
 Cadmus, 7 
 
 Csesar, 164 
 
 --^ Calderon, 438 
 
 Camillus, 184 
 
 Camoens, 342 
 
 Campanella 494 
 
 Campomanes, 567 
 
 Carnot, 418 
 
 Castro, Guillen de, . . . 431 
 
 Catharine of Siena, St., . . 244 
 
 Cavendish 622"'' 
 
 jCellini, Benvenuto, . . . 386 
 
 Celsus, 127 
 
 Cervantes, 320 
 
 Chardin, Sir J., .... 373 
 
 Charlemagne, 254 
 
 ■^^^harlesMartel, . . . 270 
 
 Charles v., 54S 
 
 *^ Chateaubriand, .... 344 
 
 Chaucer, 318 
 
 Chrysostom, St., . . . . 220 
 
 _, -Cicero, 104 
 
 Cid, The, 271 
 
 J^imon 171 
 
 Cincinnatu.s, 185 
 
 Clairaut, COS 
 
 Clement of Alexandria, St., . . 114 
 
 Clotilda, St., 29o 
 
 Cojur, Jacques, .... 374 
 
 Colbert, 504 
 
 .Columbus, 384 
 
 Columella, 154 
 
 Comines, Philippe de, . . . 545 
 
 Condorcet, 530 
 
 Confucius, 27 
 
 Constautine, 218 
 
 Rente 31,5 
 
 Cook, Captain, . . . 332 
 
 Cooper, J. F., . . . . . 347 
 
 Copernicus, 
 
 Corneille, 
 
 Corvinus, Matthias, 
 -Cosmo de' Medici, 
 
 Coulomb, 
 ^Cromwell, 
 
 Ctesibius, 
 
 Cujas, 
 
 Cusa, Cardinal, 
 
 Cyprian, St., . 
 
 Cyrus, 
 
 D'Ague.sseau, . 
 D'Alembert, . 
 Dalton, 
 
 Damiani, Peter, 
 ,Dante, 
 D'Aranda, 
 Dare, Jeanne, . 
 David, 
 
 Davy, Sir H., . 
 Defoe, 
 Delanibre, 
 Democritus, . 
 Demosthenes, - 
 -Descartes, 
 De Sales, St. Frangois, 
 De Witt, . 
 Diderot, . 
 Diophantus, . 
 Dollond, . 
 Dominic, St., . 
 Donizetti, 
 Druids, The, . 
 Duelos, . 
 Duhamel (du Monceau), 
 Dunoyer, . 
 
 Edgeworth, Maria, 
 
 Eligius, St. 
 
 Elizabeth of Hungary, St. 
 
 Empedocles, . 
 
 Ennius, . 
 
 Epaminondas, 
 
 Epee, Abbe de 1' 
 
 Epictetus, 
 
 Erasistratns, . 
 
 Erasmus, 
 
 Eratosthenes, . 
 
 Euclid, . 
 
 Eudoxus, 
 
 Euler, 
 
 Euripides, 
 
 Fabhiciu.s, 
 Feneloii, .
 
 INDEX OF BIOGRAPHIES 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Ferdinand in., St., .... 302 
 
 Ferguson, Adam, .... 531 
 Fermat, .... .607" 
 
 Fichte, 529 
 
 Fielding, 460 
 
 Fleiiry, C, 246 
 
 Fo-Hi 20 
 
 Fontenelle, 514 
 
 Fourier, Joseph 614 
 
 Fox, George 248 
 
 Francia, 577 
 
 /Francis of Assisi, St., . . .291 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, . . . 570 
 
 V^rederick ii., 542 
 
 Freret, 517 
 
 Froissart, 339 
 
 Frontinus, 157 
 
 Fulton, 405 
 
 Galen, 128 
 
 ^alileo, 600 
 
 Gall, 641 
 
 tiama, Vasco da 376 
 
 "Genevieve, St 223 
 
 Geoffroy, 623 
 
 Gerbert, 284 
 
 Germain, Sophie, .... 535 
 
 Gessner, 360 
 
 .Gibbon, 525 
 
 Gluck, 469 
 
 Godfrey de Bouillon, . . .280 
 
 ^Gothe, 434 
 
 Goldsmith, 324 
 
 _^Gracchi, The, 190 
 
 Graham, George 392 
 
 ^^Gregory the Great, St., . . . 223 
 
 jSresham, 375 
 
 ■^^Gretry, 468 
 
 Grotius 512 
 
 Guevara, 432 
 
 Guglielmini, 411 
 
 Guicciardini, 547 
 
 ■"■^^Gustavus Adolphus, . . . 555 
 
 *^><5utenberg, 371 
 
 Gnyton-Morveau, .... 622 
 
 Hadrian, 194 
 
 ^ Haller, 636 
 
 Halley 592 
 
 /'Hampden, 571 
 
 Handel, 470 
 
 Hannibal, .... 187 
 
 ^ Haroun-al-Raschid, ... 35 
 
 Harriott, 605 
 
 Harrison 389 
 
 Harvey, .627 
 
 Hegel, 533 
 
 Heloise, 235 
 
 Henry iv., 550 
 
 y Henry the Fowler, . . . 262 
 
 ■^ Henry, St., 263 
 
 Heraclitus, 87 
 
 Hercules, . . . . . 8 
 
 Herder, 516 
 
 Heron 135 
 
 Herodotus, 90 
 
 Herophilus, 126 
 
 Hesiod, ... ,45 
 
 Hildebrand, 225 
 
 Hipparchus, 150 
 
 Hippocrates, 130 
 
 Hobbes, 499 
 
 Holbein 332 
 
 Homer, 41 
 
 Horace, 69 
 
 Hume, 535 
 
 Huyghens, 593 
 
 ICTINUS, 55 
 
 , Innocent iii., 293 
 
 Irenteus, St., 113 
 
 Isabella of Castile, . . .547 
 
 Isaiah, 33 
 
 Isidore, St 232 
 
 Jacquard, 394 
 
 James, St., 209 
 
 Jefferson, 574 
 
 Jerome, St., 212 
 
 Joachim, 491 
 
 John of Austria, Don, . . . 265 
 
 John the Baptist, St., ... 34 
 
 John the Evangelist, St., . . 112 
 John of Salisburj-, . . . .487 
 
 Joinville, 340 
 
 Joseph, 30 
 
 Jouffroy, 405 
 
 Jussieu, Bernard de, . . . 636 
 
 Justin, St., 112 
 
 Juvenal, 64 
 
 Kamehameha, .... 26 
 
 Kant, 528 
 
 Kempis, Thomas a, . . . 352 
 
 Kepler, 590 
 
 Klopstock, 359 
 
 Kosciusko, 574 
 
 Lacaii.le, 
 Lafayette, Mme. dc, 
 
 380 
 355
 
 INDEX OF BIOGRAPHIES 
 
 La Fontaine, 
 
 Lagrange, 
 
 Lamarek, 
 
 Lambert, John, 
 
 Lambert, Mnie. tie, 
 ><Lanfranc, 
 
 Lao-tse, . 
 
 La Valette, 
 
 Lavoisier, 
 
 Leibnitz, . 
 ^Leo the Great, St. 
 ^Leo IV., . 
 
 Leijuidas, 
 
 Leroy, Georges, 
 
 Leroy, Pierre, 
 
 Le Sage, . 
 
 Leasing, . 
 
 Lesueur, . 
 
 Leucippus, 
 
 L'Hopital, 
 
 Linnaeus, . 
 _^ Locke, 
 
 Longus, . 
 
 Louis of Granada, 
 
 Louis, St., 
 
 Louis XI., 
 
 Louis XIV., 
 
 L'Ouverture, Toussaint, 
 ^Loyola, Ignatius, 
 ^Lucan, 
 
 Lucian, 
 ^- Lucretius, 
 -^.Luke, St., 
 ''' Lully, . 
 
 Lully, Raymond, 
 
 Lycurgus, 
 
 Lysippus, 
 
 Madison, 
 Ma'cenas, 
 Magellan, 
 - iMahoinet, 
 Maistre, J. do 
 Malebranclie, 
 Manco-Cai>ac, 
 Manzoni, . 
 Marcian, . 
 Maria de Molin 
 Marina, . 
 Mariottc, . 
 Marias, 
 Matilda of T 
 Maui)ertuis, 
 Mazarin, . 
 Menander, 
 
 P.\GE 
 
 322 
 613 
 638 
 r."0 
 505 
 233 
 21 
 265 
 626 
 522 
 282 
 
 169 
 
 509 
 
 391 ■^' 
 
 457 
 
 433 
 
 333 
 
 90 
 554 
 633 
 503 
 
 50 
 354 
 304 
 552 
 564 
 577 
 241 
 
 72 
 
 65 
 
 68 
 209 
 470 
 489 
 
 10 
 
 56 
 
 575 
 193 
 378 
 
 37 
 432 
 504 
 
 25 
 347 
 223 
 545 
 276 
 400 
 188 
 
 Meucius, . 
 
 Menu, 
 
 Mercoeur, Elisa, 
 
 Metastasio, P., 
 
 Michael Angelo, 
 
 Miltiades, 
 
 Milton, . 
 
 Moliere, . 
 
 Monge, . 
 
 Monica, St., . 
 
 Montague, Lady Mary, 
 
 Jklontaigne, M. de, 
 
 Montalvan, 
 
 Montesquieu, . 
 
 Montgolfier, . 
 
 More, Sir Thomas, 
 
 Moreto, . 
 
 Morgagni, 
 
 Moses, 
 
 Motteville, Mine, de, 
 
 Mozart, . 
 
 Murillo, . 
 
 Napier, . 
 Xasir-ed-Bin, 
 Nearchus, 
 Xerva, 
 
 Newton, . 
 Numa, 
 
 Ok EX, 
 Origen, 
 Orpheus, . 
 Ossiaii, . 
 .X>tho llie Great, 
 Otway, . 
 Ovid, 
 Oxenstiern, 
 
 Palestrina, . 
 Palissy, Bernard de 
 Papin, 
 Papinian, 
 Pappus, . 
 Pascal, 
 Paul, St., 
 Pelayo, . 
 Penii, W., 
 Pergolese, 
 ..Pericles, . 
 Peter the Hermit, 
 Petrarch, 
 Pliii'drus, 
 Phidias, . 
 Philip, .
 
 INDEX OF BIOGRAPHIES 
 
 y 
 
 Pliilo of Alexandria, 
 
 Philolaus, 
 ,Piiiloi)oeiiien 
 ^hocion, . 
 
 Pi 1 pay, . 
 
 Pindar, 
 
 Plato 
 
 Plautns, . 
 
 Pliny the Elder, 
 
 Pliny tlie Younger 
 Plutarch, . 
 
 Poinsot, . 
 
 Polo, Marco, 
 
 Polybius, 
 
 Ponibal, . 
 
 Poussin, . 
 
 Praxiteles, 
 
 Priestley, 
 
 Prometheus, 
 
 Ptolemy, 
 
 Ptolemy i., 
 
 Pulcheria, St., 
 
 Pythagoras, 
 
 Pytheas, . 
 
 ^Rabelais, 
 Racine, . 
 Jlaleigh, . 
 Ramus, . 
 
 ^^apliael, . 
 ReguluH, 
 liembrandt, 
 Richard Coeur 
 Richardson, 
 iticlielieu, 
 Riquet, . 
 Ritter, 
 Robertson, 
 Rijmer, 
 Rojas, 
 
 Roland, Mnic. 
 Romulus, 
 Rossini, . 
 Rubens, . 
 Ruyter, . 
 
 Sacchin'i, 
 Saladiii, . 
 Samuel, . 
 Sapiiho, . 
 Saussure, 
 Sauveur, . 
 Scheele, . 
 Schiller, . 
 Scipio, 
 
 leL 
 
 TAGE 
 
 
 
 
 111 
 97 
 
 ISO ' 
 
 Scopas, ... 
 ^cott, Walter, . 
 Senuraniis, 
 
 
 
 173 
 
 Sesostris, 
 
 
 
 01 
 
 Sevigne, Mme. de, . 
 
 
 
 47 
 117 
 
 6-2 ' 
 
 Shakespeare, . 
 ...Shelley, . 
 Sidney, Algernon, . 
 
 
 
 159 
 
 Sixtus v., 
 
 
 
 lOo 
 158 ' 
 
 _^mith, Adam, 
 Sobieski, . 
 
 
 
 609 
 372 
 
 .xSoerates, . 
 Solomon, . 
 
 
 
 181 
 
 ^ Solon, 
 
 
 
 566 
 
 ,_,Soi)ho('les, 
 
 
 
 333 
 
 Sosigcnes, 
 
 
 
 55 
 619 
 7 
 14!?- 
 
 Spanish Romancers, 
 Spenser, . 
 _^pinoza, . 
 Staal, Mme. d(^, 
 
 
 
 179 
 
 Stael, Mme. de. 
 
 
 
 222 
 
 Stahl, 
 
 
 
 98 
 
 Stephen of Hungary, St. 
 
 
 
 142 
 
 Sterne, 
 Stevin, 
 
 
 
 318 
 
 Strabo, 
 
 
 
 441 
 278 
 491 
 
 Suger, 
 Sully, 
 Swift, 
 
 
 
 336 
 186 
 332 
 273 
 
 Tacitus, . 
 Tailored, . 
 Tasman, . 
 
 
 
 462 
 567 
 
 Tasso, 
 Teniers, . 
 
 
 
 412 
 625 
 524 
 59S _, 
 
 Terence, . 
 Teresa, St., 
 TertuUian, 
 Thales, 
 
 
 
 431 ' 
 
 Themistocles, . 
 
 
 
 453 
 
 11 
 
 473 
 
 Theocrats of Japan, 
 Theocrats of Thibet, 
 Theocritus, 
 
 
 
 335^ 
 557 
 
 Theodoric, 
 Tlieodosius, 
 Tlieodosius of Rithyiiia, 
 
 
 
 408 
 
 Tlieophrastus, 
 
 
 
 31 
 
 Tlieseus, . 
 Thilni-irr, 
 
 
 
 4(1 
 415 - 
 
 .Thurydides, . 
 Tibullus, 
 
 
 
 000 
 
 019 
 
 Tircsias, 
 Tirso, 
 
 
 
 447 
 191 
 
 Titian, 
 '^ Titus, . . . . 
 

 
 INDEX OF biographip:s 
 
 ^^^ 
 
 
 
 
 
 VkCt, 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Torricelli, ... . . :«'9 
 
 Vitruvius, .... 
 
 . 155 
 
 Trajan, . 
 
 
 
 
 . i!01 
 
 Volta, 
 
 599 
 
 Troubaildiiis, The, 
 
 
 
 
 . liKi 
 
 Voltaire 
 
 443 
 
 ^Tur-<^t, . 
 
 
 
 
 .■.Cii ' 
 
 Vondel, 
 
 440 
 
 Tyrtii'us. . 
 
 
 
 
 45 
 
 W.\i.i.is, 
 
 606 
 
 Ul-PIAN, . 
 
 
 
 
 lliS _ 
 
 -- ■Waljiole, 
 
 563 
 
 Ulysst'S, . 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 ^AVasliiujiton, .... 
 Watt, 
 
 572 
 408 
 
 V.\ri(;n()X. 
 
 
 
 
 .'•.il4 
 
 Wcljer 
 
 476 
 
 VaiT(j, 
 
 
 
 
 153 
 
 Wlieatstone, .... 
 
 3S8 
 
 Vaubali, . 
 
 
 
 
 419 I^ViUiani tl.e Sileiil. 
 
 558 
 
 Yaiicaiisoii, 
 
 
 
 
 •Mb ^ 
 
 William iii 
 
 557 
 
 VauveiiarKUcs. 
 
 
 
 
 r,0.) 
 
 Winckeliuann, 
 
 518 
 
 Vega, Loiie ilc 
 
 
 
 
 429 
 
 Worcester, .... 
 
 403 
 
 Velazquez, 
 
 
 
 
 'iSi 
 
 
 
 Veronese, Paul, 
 
 
 
 
 3;U 
 
 X.wiER, St. Francis. 
 
 240 
 
 Ve.sjui.sian, 
 
 
 
 
 VXi 
 
 Xeuocratcs, .... 
 
 110 
 
 Vicd, 
 
 \m\ d'Azyr, . 
 
 Vieta, 
 
 Villiers, . 
 
 
 
 
 ilo 
 604 * 
 
 Xenophanes, .... 
 Xenoplion, . . . 
 Xinienes, .... 
 
 94 
 172 
 500 
 
 Vincent Ue Paul, .SI 
 
 
 
 
 lM.j 
 
 Zex.), 
 
 104 
 
 Vinci, Leonardo da, 
 
 
 .■'.27 
 
 /euxi.s 
 
 54 
 
 Vir«il, . 
 
 
 
 
 To 
 
 Zoroaster, . . . . . 
 
 16
 
 CALENDAR
 
 5 tref (mont^ 
 MOSES 
 
 TllKOCRATIC CIVILISATION 
 
 HOMER 
 
 ANCIFNT POETRY 
 
 ARISTOTLE 
 
 ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY 
 
 foul 
 arc: 
 
 1 Prometheus 
 
 2 Hercules. . . 
 :i i Orpheus. . 
 
 4 i Ulysses. 
 
 5 Lycurcus. 
 (i Romulus. 
 7 NUMA. 
 
 .Cadimis Hesiod. 
 
 , . Theseus Tj'rtaeus 
 
 . Tiresiaa Anacreon. 
 I I'indar. 
 ! Sophocles. . . 
 Theocritus. . 
 /ESCHYLUS. 
 
 Sappho 
 
 . Eitripides 
 Longm 
 
 Anaximander. 
 
 Anaximenes. 
 
 Heraclitus. 
 
 .VuaxaRordS. 
 
 Democritus. . 
 
 Herodotus. 
 
 THALES. 
 
 ' Theophrastu 
 Herophilus. 
 
 1 Erasistratus. 
 Celsus. 
 .Leitcippiis Galen. 
 
 Avicenna 
 
 i HIPPOCKA 
 
 Belus Utinimmis 
 
 8es<istris. 
 Menu. 
 Cyrus. 
 Zoroaster. 
 
 The Druids Osslun 
 
 BUDDHA. 
 
 1.5 Fo-Hi. 
 Ifi LaoTse. 
 
 17 I Menciiis. 
 
 18 I TheTlieociatsol"Tliil)et. 
 
 19 I The Theocratsof JaiKiii. 
 
 Scopas. 
 
 Zeuxis. 
 
 letinus. 
 
 Praxiteles. 
 
 Lysippus. 
 
 Apelles. 
 
 PHIDIAS. 
 
 Solon. 
 
 Xenophanes. 
 Empedocles. 
 Thucydides. 
 
 Archytas I'luhlans 
 
 Aiiollonius of Tyaua. 
 PYTHAGORAS. 
 
 Euclid. 
 -Vristaeus. 
 Tlieodosius c j 
 
 Hero 
 
 Pappus. I 
 
 Diophautus. i 
 APOLLOXI 1 
 
 .■Esop 
 
 Plautus. 
 
 Tereuce 
 
 PhiBdrus, 
 
 .TuvcuhI. 
 
 .„ , Jlaneo-Capac '..famthatiitUa i Luciaii. .,.,.,, 
 
 21 ! COXFUCIUS. ; ARIST(n'Il.V.\E>S 
 
 _.^ — - - - j 
 
 Ahraham Joseph ' Kuuius. 
 
 . Pilpai/ Aristippus. i Eudoxus. . 
 
 Antistheues. P.vtheus. . . . . 
 
 e)Ut>ider \ Zeuo. , Aristiirchus. 
 
 Cicero PUiii/ tlte ydnuger Eratostheue 
 
 Epictetus Arrian , Ptolemy. 
 
 Tacitus 1 Albategmus 
 
 SOCRATES. '• HlPPARCf 
 
 Samuel. 
 
 Lucretius 
 
 24 Solomon Iinrid i Horac 
 
 2.) . Isaiah. ' Tihullus. 
 
 26 St. .Tohn tlif Daptist. ; Ovid. 
 
 27 Haroun-al-Kaschid. Abdcirahnirm Lucan. 
 •JS .MAHO.MET. [lU. VIR(aL. 
 
 Xenocrates. I Varro. 
 
 Philo of Alexandria. ' Columelli. 
 
 St. John the Evangelist. , Vitruvius. 
 
 St. Justin at. li-eiutm i Strabo. 
 
 St. Clement of Alexandria. | Frontinu>. 
 
 Oriften Tertullian Plutaruli. 
 
 PLATO. iPLIXYTir 
 
 DANTE 
 
 -MciUKRN v.vic 1'oi:ti:v 
 
 (Utnt^ (mont^ 
 GUTENBERG 
 
 MODEKN INDUSIRY 
 
 Zenti, Qtlont^ 
 
 SHAKESPEARE 
 
 THK MODi:ilN DF.AMA 
 
 (Bfe| 
 
 Dlt 
 
 .C'hdun 
 
 The Troubadours. 
 
 ISoocaccic) 
 
 Ralwlais 
 
 Cervantes. 
 
 La Fontaine Runvt LacaiUe 
 
 De Foe fioldmnith Cook. 
 
 ARIOSTO. 
 
 3lari-o Pf.lo. . 
 
 JacQues CiL-ur. 
 
 Sii-ift Vasco da (ianm 
 
 Napier 
 
 ..dhdrdin 
 .'ri-eshnm 
 .Mayelhm 
 
 Jiripps 
 
 .JMariibre 
 ■ ■ Tasnuin 
 
 COLUMBUS. 
 
 I.*onardo da Vinci Titinn 
 
 Michael Angelo I'aiil \'t 
 
 12 
 
 I ;« 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini. 
 .\inont<>n9 
 
 10 \ Holbein Hembi-andt ] Harrison 
 
 Poussiu Ltsi 
 
 Velazquez Murilli/ 
 
 l:i ' Teniers Rubens Conto 
 
 14 RAPHAEL. 
 
 .JtnnfiUe 
 ■ -Spemer 
 
 Froissart 
 
 Camoens 
 
 The Spanish Rommicers. 
 Chateaubriand. 
 
 Walter Scott 
 
 Manzoni. 
 
 Petrarch. \and HnniKin 
 
 Thomas a Kcmpis.y,o"Mo/';/-«?w('7a 
 Mmc. dc Lafayette. . ..Vm«. (/•', Stail 
 
 Kenelnn St. FrfincU < if Hales 
 
 K lopstock liessne.r 
 
 Byron.. . Klisa Merctiir ami tiheUey 
 MILTON 
 
 DoUond. 
 Arkwright. 
 
 VAUCANSON. 
 
 Stevin. . 
 
 Mariotte. 
 
 Papin. . . 
 
 Black. 
 
 Joiiffrov. 
 
 Daltoi,. . 
 
 WATT. 
 
 Lope de Vega ^^nntaJvan .VUwrtus M i 
 
 Jloreto GniUemdt, Castro , Roger Bacci 
 
 Rojas Guevara St. Bonave f 
 
 . . ^^'hl'/ltstfme 
 .I'ieii-i' J^,rc;/ 
 
 Graham 
 
 Jacquard 
 
 Otway. 
 Lessing. 
 Gothe. 
 CALDERON. 
 
 Tirso. 
 Vondel. 
 Racine. 
 Voltaire. 
 
 Metiistasio 
 
 .Schiller. 
 CORNEILLE. 
 
 Ramus. 
 Montaigne ( 
 Carapanell; I 
 ST. THOjf 
 
 Hobbes. . . t 
 Pascal. ...\ 
 Locke. ... I 
 Vauvenarg I , 
 Diderot. .1 
 Cabanis. i > 
 LORD B^i 
 
 . T>irrU>m 
 
 h'liide 
 
 ■ Worce-'iter 
 
 ....Fidton 
 . . Thilurier 
 
 ' ( 
 
 Alarcon. : Grotius. ..i 
 
 Mme. de Motteville. Mme. Kuland Fontenell ( 
 
 Mme. de Sevigne. Ladij M. Montagu Vico i 
 
 Lesaae Sterne Fr<5ret. . . , 1 
 
 Mme. de Sbial Miss Edgeimrth Jlontesqu i 
 
 Fielding RUhardson Butfon. ... 
 
 MOLIERE. LEIBNIZ ■ 
 
 Bcniard dc Palissy. 
 
 Gugliclraini Ri-piet 
 
 Duhamel (du Mouccau k Jix'tryKlat 
 
 Saussure Hougufr 
 
 ( 'oulomb Bord'i 
 
 ( 'arnot Vauban 
 
 MONTGOLFIER. 
 
 Pergolesi. 
 Sacchiui. . . 
 
 (Jluck 
 
 Beethoven. 
 Rossini. .. 
 Bellini. . . . 
 MOZART. 
 
 ...I'altstrina Robcrtsoi ; 
 
 Gretri/ .AdamiSn. 
 
 LuUn Kant. ... 
 
 Handel Condorce i 
 
 Weber ■ .Joseph de i 
 
 Donizetti Hegel. .. : 
 
 HU'ME.
 
 MEDES 
 
 SCIENXE 
 
 Arattia 
 
 .. . .ytui'cktrs 
 
 Berosiui 
 
 Hosigeties 
 
 . Xasir-Eddin 
 
 C^SAR 
 
 MILITARY CIVILISATION 
 
 lliltiades. 
 
 Leouidas. 
 
 Aristides. 
 
 Cimon. 
 
 Xenophoii. 
 
 £l'J'^',11'„^ Uliuminuiuius 
 
 THEJIISTUULKS. 
 
 ST. PAUL 
 
 CATHOLICISM 
 
 Pericles. 
 
 Philip. 
 
 Demostlieucs. 
 
 Ptolemy I. 
 
 Philoptemen. 
 
 Polybius. 
 
 ALEXANDER. 
 
 Junius Brutus. 
 
 Camillus 
 
 Fabricius 
 
 Hannibal. 
 ^Einiliua PaulIuH 
 Slarius 
 
 . Citicinmitiis 
 lieyahis 
 
 SflPIo. 
 
 -Augustus. .. 
 VL's|)asiuii. . . , 
 
 Hadrian. 
 
 .Antoninus. . 
 
 Papinian 
 
 Alexander .Se\ erus 
 TRAJAN. 
 
 St. Luke 
 
 St. Cyprian. 
 St. Athanasius. 
 St. Jerome. 
 St. Ambrose. 
 St. Monica. 
 ST. .VUGUSTIN. 
 
 Constantine. 
 Theodosius. 
 
 St. Chrysostom 
 
 St. I'ulcheria 
 
 St. Genevieve of Paris. 
 St. Gregory the Great. 
 HILDEBRANJJ. 
 
 ■ St. James 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE 
 
 FEUDAL CIVILISATION 
 
 St. Benedict 
 
 St. Boniface 
 
 •St. Isidore uf .Seville 
 
 Lanf ranc 
 
 Heloise. 
 
 St. Aiitouii 
 .S(. Austin 
 .St. Bruno 
 St. Ansehn 
 Beatrice 
 
 Architects of Mid. .\ges. St. Bennet 
 ST. BERNARD. [the Uas 
 
 Theodoric the Great. 
 
 Pelayo. 
 
 Otho the Great. . . Henry the h'owlcr 
 
 St. Henri'. 
 
 X'l'iers La Valette 
 
 Don Jolin of Austria. John HobiesH 
 ALFRED. 
 
 Charles Martel. 
 
 Thecid 
 
 Richard I 
 
 Jeanne Dare. . . 
 Albuquerque. . . 
 Bayard. 
 GODFREY. 
 
 St. Leo the Great. 
 
 Gerbert 
 
 Peter the Hermit. 
 
 Suger 
 
 Alexander III 
 
 St. Francis of .Assisi. 
 INNOCENT III. 
 
 — Tuncred 
 
 — Saladin 
 Marina 
 
 . W. Raleigh 
 
 UoIV. 
 
 Peter Itamianl 
 
 St. Eligiug 
 
 .St. T.Becket 
 .St, JJominic 
 
 M'umia.'i ( St. Francis Xavier. Irjnatius hi.iola 
 
 Titus I St. Ch. Borromeo. Fredk. Borrumeo 
 
 ; ; ■ - yerva St. Theresa. . . St. Catharine of Siena 
 
 Marcus A urehus St.A'incent de Paul. VAbbede VEpie 
 . . Ulpian I Bourdaloue Claude hleuri/ 
 
 .Aiitiii 
 
 AV. Penn... 
 BOSSUET. 
 
 (t. Fox 
 
 St. Clotilde. 
 
 >^t.JiiMnlda,.St.MuthildanfTusainij 
 St.Stephenot Hungary. J/ottia« Cor- 
 St. Elizabeth of Hungary. [vinus 
 Blanche of Castile. 
 
 St. Ferdinand III Alfonso X. 
 
 ST. LOUIS. 
 
 (nXont^ 
 UTES 
 
 FREDERICK II. 
 
 -MODERX STATKSMAN.su IP 
 
 BICHAT 
 
 JIODKRN SCIENCE 
 
 itin of Salisbury ' Maria de .Alolina. 
 
 Ha i/nwnd Lullij <'osnio de' Medici the Elder. 
 
 -Joachim Philippe de Comines. Gaicciurdini 
 
 irdinal of Cusa Isabella of Castile. 
 
 Erammia Charles V Sixtus V 
 
 r Thomas More Henri I\^ 
 
 INAS. LOUIS XL 
 
 , ...Spinoza Coligny VHopital 
 
 wrdano Bruno Barneveldt. 
 
 . . Malebranche tJustavus Adolplms. 
 
 <ie. de Lambert , De AVitt. 
 
 Duclos Ruyter. 
 
 Georges Leroii , AVilliam Tlf. 
 
 AVILLIAM THE SILE.NT. 
 
 ' opemicus 
 
 Kepler 
 
 Huygheus 
 
 James Bernoulli. 
 
 Bradley 
 
 Volta 
 
 GALILEO. 
 
 — Tycho Brake , 
 
 /{alley 
 
 Varignon { 
 
 ..John Bernoulli . 
 
 Ronier 
 
 Sauveur 
 
 J 'eta Harriott 
 
 }\a"'s Fermat 
 
 Clairaut Poinsot 
 
 J'"ler Monge 
 
 D Alembcvt Ikiniel Bernoulli 
 
 Lagrani:e Joseph Fourier 
 
 NEAVTUN. 
 
 Ciijas ' 
 
 ..Maupertuis 
 
 Herder 
 
 }y inckelmann 
 .B'Aguesseau 
 Oken 
 
 Ximenes. 
 
 Sullv 
 
 <'olbert 
 
 AValiK)le 
 
 D'Aranda. ... 
 
 Turgot 
 
 RICHELIEU. 
 
 — Oxenstiurn 
 ...J^ouinXlV. 
 
 Mazarin 
 
 I'onibal 
 
 ■ Campomaiies 
 
 Bergmann 
 
 Priestley 
 
 Cavendisli. 
 •iuyton Morveau. 
 Bcrthollet. 
 
 Berzelius 
 
 LAA'OISIEK. 
 
 . . . Scheele \ 
 Davy ' 
 
 .. ^ i 
 . ■ (reoffroy 
 
 — Ritter 
 
 Gilibmi ; 
 
 hnnoiier 
 
 Fichte 
 
 — Ferguson 
 
 Bonald 
 
 ihie Germain 
 
 Algernon Sidney TMmbert- Ilarvev 
 
 ( ' ■•"iH'"', Hnmpden \ Bocrbaavc 
 
 A\ ashingbin Kosciusko Liniiajus. . 
 
 .leffcrson Madison , Haller. . . 
 
 Bohvar 'Jousauint L'Ouverture i Lamarck . 
 
 rrancia. Brou'is-M.j 
 
 CROMAVELL. GALU 
 
 . . . Charl^.^ BM 
 ■ Stahl, Barthez 
 \iard de Juasieii 
 — Vicq-d'Azyr 
 
 JUainriUe 
 
 Morgagni
 
 THE NEW CALENDAK OF GREAT MEN 
 
 THEOCRATIC CIVILISATION 
 
 A^ 
 
 T the time when Greek civilisation began, the beliefs and habits pre- 
 vailing on the Mediterranean coasts, no less than throughout Asia, 
 may be spoken of as Theocratic. Those tendencies to attribute will and 
 passion to inanimate things closely touching man's life, which we embody 
 under the word Fetichism, had not indeed passed away. But they 
 were overlaid by new beliefs which, by their power of binding men 
 together, have exercised a potent influence on the life of nations. 
 Fetichism was succeeded, though not uprooted, by Theism. 
 
 The powers inherent in sun or moon, in a tree, a mountain, a chieftain's 
 tomb, or a sorcerer's charm, were transferred to invisible beings endowed 
 with human feelings, who ruled supreme over certain classes of things 
 or events, but were conceived of as sejiarate from them. The forms 
 taken by such beliefs varied infinitely with the environment and the apti- 
 tudes of different communities. All that deeply touched men's fears and 
 sympathies came under divine guidance. Thus, in Greek mythology, 
 there was a god of the earth, of the ocean, of the world, of the dead : of 
 war, of metal-working, of music : and every well-known river, hill, and 
 forest was haunted by its own deities. Sometimes, as in India, 
 terrible diseases, as small-pox, were connected with a special god or 
 goddess. In the graver mythology of Rome, a god was associated with 
 each human institution. In the primitive nations of Palestine, a god 
 reigned supreme over each tribe, identified with its existence, and 
 limited to its boundary. 
 
 The social system built up on Theism is called Theocracy. It is the 
 stage from which we may date civilisation properly so called ; that is to 
 say, the existence of large communities obeying a common law. In the 
 early life of Asiatic as of European nations, we find it in full force ; the 
 systematised astrolatry of China presenting in some respects an excep- 
 tion. In America, it has been fully described by the chroniclers who 
 accompanied the Spanish conquerors. In Asia, it has held its ground 
 persistently. In Western Europe it has gradually tended, by the series 
 of transitions illustrated in this Calendar, towards the final state of 
 Sociocracy, in which beliefs and institutions are moulded by the 
 dominant conception of Humanity. 
 
 Conspicuous among the divine influences that moulded man's life were 
 the powers clothed in human shape which gave him law and government, 
 
 A
 
 2 THEOCRATIC CIVILISATION 
 
 At first the king or hero is himself a god. Later generations are content 
 to think of him as descended from a divine stock ; in one shape or other 
 the divinity of kingship has survived to recent centuries. In organised 
 theocracies we find the monarch surrounded by a priestly caste, who, 
 while recognising his divine origin, were themselves more specially con- 
 cerned with interpreting the will of the gods. Ultimately the kingly 
 and priestly powers become rivals, and the strife between them has been 
 one of the most potent factors in historical change. But many centuries 
 may pass before such rivalry issues in rupture ; and meanwhile the 
 priesthood controls the routine of life, extending the practice of caste to 
 all industrial occupations ; prescribing the details of religious cult, and 
 studying the order of extei-nal nature, especially the revolutions of the 
 heavenly bodies, so far as these appear to atfect the course of human 
 destiny. 
 
 From which of the great theocracies should a type be chosen to re- 
 present this phase of social evolution 'i Had the founders of Indian, 
 Assyrian, or Egyptian civilisation been known to us, the choice would 
 have lain between one of these. But tlie names of these men are lost, 
 though their work remained. The reputed founder of Judaic theocracy, 
 while recalling to us the Egyptian civilisation from which he issued, has 
 left his deeds and words recorded in the Hebrew Bible. We have thus 
 been made familiar from childhood Avith the conception of an organised 
 priesthood ottering siicrifice, prescribing ceremonial, and controlling the 
 detail of human conduct. The Jewish theocracy of the six centuries 
 preceding the Christian era stands out in startling contrast with the 
 contemporary movements of Greek and Eoman history. On these it 
 exercised a special intluence which modified for many centuries the course 
 of Western civilisation. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. iii. ch. 8.
 
 MOSES 
 
 MOSES, 14tli century b.c. (?) 
 
 The story of Moses is told in the second of the books attributed to 
 him, which recounts the Exodus, or Out-going, of Israel from Egypt. 
 For many generations the Hebrew tribe had bean settled in the north- 
 east of that country, till their increase roused the jealousy of the govern- 
 ment. A massacre of their infants was ordered. Withdrawn from this 
 fate by a sister who placed him in an ark of bulrushes by the river's 
 brink, the infont ]Moses was found by one of the king's daughters, who 
 brought him up as her son, and taught him all the learning of the 
 Egyptians. When grown to manhood, his heart was stirred at the 
 oppression of his tribesmen, who were employed at forced labour in 
 building treasure-cities for the king. After slaying an Egyptian whom 
 he saw ill-treating a Hebrew, he took refuge with a priest of Midian, 
 whose daughter he married. Here the visions came to him which ended 
 in his banding his countrymen for escape from their oppressors into the 
 desert. 
 
 Their flight was preceded and accompanied by many miraculous 
 proofs of divine favour. From the mountains of Sinai the ten command- 
 ments were proclaimed by Jehovah amidst flame and thunder ; and the 
 service of the tabernacle, with all its elaborate details of ritual and 
 ceremonial, was revealed to Moses, and punctually practised. On 
 reaching the promised land of Canaan, the tribe was panic-struck at the 
 tidings of the fornudable foes who aM'aited them ; and in punishment for 
 their mistrust they were doomed to lead a wandering life in the desert for 
 forty years, till the generation that left Egypt had passed away. At the 
 end of this time Moses was an hundred and twenty years old : his eye 
 was not dim, nor his natural force abated. He now delivered his last 
 message of warning and farewell to his people ; and then passed away 
 from them unto the mountain of Nebo, to the top of Pisgah, that is over 
 against Jericho. Here Jehovah showed him the whole range of the 
 promised land, which he himself was not to enter ; and here he died, but 
 no man knew the place of his sepulchre. There arose no prophet since in 
 Israel like unto Moses, whom the Lord knew face to face, in all the signs 
 and wonders which the Lord sent him to do in the land of Egypt to 
 Pharaoh, and to all his servants, and to all his land, and in all the great 
 terror which Closes wrought in the sight of all Israel. 
 
 So ends the chronicle. Among modern interpretations of it one has 
 been that a member of the Egyptian priesthood headed a rebel tribe, 
 welded it into a powerful nation, preached a monotheistic doctrine drawn 
 from Egyptian sources, and selected from Egyptian law and ritual such 
 ordinances as he thought suitable to the condition of his people. Con- 
 firmation of such a story from the Egyptian side is not wholly wanting. 
 Josephus has preserved a fragment of Manetho, written in the tliird 
 century b.c, telling of certain lepers and unclean persons who, under 
 the guidance of a priest from Heliopolis, threw off" the yoke of the 
 Pharaoh. The name of this priest was Osarsiph ; he is said to have laid
 
 4 MOSES [Theocratic 
 
 down laws opposed to Egyptian customs, to have allied himself with the 
 enemies of Egypt, and to have been known afterwards by the name of 
 Moses. The Pharaoh here spoken of would probably be Menephta, 
 son of Ramesis ii., who reigned about 1320 B.C. 
 
 It has been believed by some that the law thus given by the priestly 
 deliverer to the outcast tribe was in the main identical with the 
 elaborate system of rites and ceremonies presented in the books of 
 Exodus and Leviticus. But recent interpretations of Egyptian and 
 Assyrian records, and careful scrutiny of the Jewish chronicles themselves, 
 have shown this belief to be untenable. From the Booh of the Dead, 
 buried in Egyptian tombs, we learn that the most prominent among the 
 doctrines taught by the Egyptian priesthood was the life of the soul 
 after death : a doctrine conspicuously absent from the teaching of Moses. 
 Search, on the other hand, into the earliest inscriptions of Assyria shows 
 such similarity in their legends with those preserved to us in the book 
 of Genesis, that we can hardly eiT in tracing the Hebrew tribe to the 
 valley of the Euphrates. Finally, the Old Testament itself, when im- 
 partially examined, shows that the growth of Jewish religion took place 
 otherwise than the Jews themselves were afterwards taught to believe ; 
 and justifies the keen foresight of the great Spinoza who, two centuries 
 ago, declared his belief that the books attributed to Moses were written 
 after the exile of the Jews to Babylon. A brief sketch of Jewish history 
 as recast by scientific research is here subjoined. 
 
 In the records of the Hebrew tribe after the invasion of Canaan, pre- 
 served in the book of Judges, no trace is to be found of the elaborate 
 system of priestly government said to have been organised by Moses 
 during the forty years of pilgrimage in the deserts of Arabia. There 
 was no central shrine corresponding to the tabernacle. Nor do we find 
 any trace of so .spiritual a worship and so pure a rule of life as that 
 which the book of JJctiteronomy attributes to Moses as his last legacy to 
 his countrymen. For all that appears in the book of Judges, Moses 
 might never have existed. The religion of the tribe seems at this time 
 to have been very similar to that of the other tribes around them. As 
 the tribe of Moab had their god Chemosh, and the tribe of Amnion their 
 god Molech, so the Hebrew tribe had their god Jahveh, worshipped 
 imder the semblance of a bull or calf, not in any central shrine, but in 
 Dan, Shiloh, Bethel, Gibeon, and other places. The story of Micah 
 (Judges, ch. xvii.) gives a vivid picture of the religious condition of the 
 tribe in those times. At a later period we find Solomon, notwithstand- 
 ing the highly spiritual language attributed to him at the dedication of 
 the temple, building shrines at Jerusalem to Chemosh and Molech, 
 which remained undisturbed till the religious reform of Hezekiah in the 
 eighth century. Jeroboam worshipped Jahveh, under the semblance of 
 a bull, in Dan and Bethel. The adoration of the Assherah, analogous to 
 the phallic worship, was widely diffused, as was the star worship of 
 Egypt and Phamicia. 
 
 Not till the close of the ninth century do we find unmistakable proof 
 of the transformation of the rude tribal cult into a religion appealing to 
 the heart and conscience of men, in which Jahveh became the imper- 
 sonation of that conscience, the god of righteousness. The change began
 
 Civilisation] MOSES 6 
 
 amongst individual members of the associations of bards and soothsayers 
 known to us as schools, or guilds, of prophets. Precisely to date it is 
 impossible ; for the utterances of these men were not committed to 
 wi'iting till the time of Amos, Hosea, Micah, and the first Isaiah. We 
 find them filled with fiery protests against the ceremonial and the sacri- 
 fices ofiered to the tribal god, and with assurances that Jahveh cared only 
 for justice and mercy. Frequent reference is made to the ancient 
 traditions of the tribe, their deliverance from Egyptian bondage and 
 settlement in Canaan : and these ti'aditions were now set down in 
 writing coloured by the new spirit of the time. In the reign of 
 Hezekiah, the first attempt was made to organise the purer worship : 
 an attempt renewed and finally consummated under Josiah. The book 
 of the law produced under this king by Hilkiah contained probably the 
 substance of what we now know as Deuteronomy. The elaborate cere- 
 monial described in Exodus and Leviticus was worked out during the 
 Exile, and during the century that followed the restoration to Palestine ; 
 the prophet Ezekiel, and subsequently Ezra, taking a chief part in these 
 memorable constructions. 
 
 From the time of Ezra to the final siege of Jerusalem, the Judaic 
 theocracy was fully established. It was supported by the Persian 
 monarchy : it was nobly maintained by the Maccabees against the poly- 
 theistic onslaughts of Antiochus Epiphanes ; a struggle to which many of 
 the Psalms have reference. The amalgamation of spiritual and temporal 
 power was complete : the High Priest was in every respect a king : and 
 even when Rome had established the dynasty of the Herods, the power 
 of the priestly hierarchy was but slightly fettered. The temple Avorship 
 and the detailed organisation of life set forth in the Pentateuch were 
 now in full force. With what enthusiasm they were accepted, the 
 Fsalms, attributed to David, but mostly written at this time, suffice to 
 tell. 
 
 Thus, much that has been hitherto attributed to Moses is in reality 
 the creation of a later time. But the story of the deliverance of his 
 tribe under his guidance from Egyptian bondage, handed down by tradi- 
 tion from the fourteenth century till it could be committed to writing in 
 the ninth, is too distinct and unvarying to admit of denial. Though he 
 did not build up the fabric of Jewish theocracy, it is probable that he 
 conveyed to his countrymen, in the Ten Words or otherwise, the rudi- 
 ments of the moral law, upheld in his time with perfect clearness by the 
 Egyptian priesthood. In the evolution therefore of the Hebrew nation, 
 destined to wield such potent influence over the history of humanity, 
 Moses stands out as the principal founder. 
 
 It remains to indicate the general principle on which the names in this 
 month have been arranged. 
 
 The first week is given to the incomplete Theocracies of Greece and 
 Rome, arrested by the ascendancy of the temporal over the priestly 
 power. The principal type is the priest-king of Rome, Numa. 
 ^'' The second week represents Polytheistic Theocracy — Chaldean, Persian, 
 Assyrian, Indian, and Celtic. Buddha presides over the week, owing to
 
 6 MOSES [Theocratic 
 
 his wider influences : though not in all ways the most characteristic type, 
 since Buddhism was a revolt against Brahmanic theocracy. 
 
 The third week is appropriated to Astrolatric Theocracy, of which 
 China, represented by Confucius, is the most complete example. The 
 religions of Tibet, Japan, Mexico, and Oceania are classed under this 
 head. 
 
 The fourth week is devoted to Theocratic Monotheism : to that of 
 Judea principally, but also including Mohammedanism, which directly 
 sprang from it. Mohammed is here the principal type. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Kuenen : Religion of Israel, vol. i. Article MosES, FMcyd. Brit., 9tli ed. 
 Pos. Pol. iii. 202-205, iv. 608.
 
 Civilisation] PROMETHEUS : CADMUS 
 
 PROMETHEUS. 
 
 All the names in the first week of the Calendar stand for very- 
 legendary persons. About Prometheus and Hercules there is less 
 ground for any historical statement than about any of the others. Their 
 names probably only represent certain attributes assigned to them in 
 popular lore. They take us back, however, to the theocratic stage in 
 Greek civilisation, before the intellectual development of Greece began, 
 and when superhuman powers were attributed to human leaders. 
 
 Prometheus, according to the Greek legend, belonged to the race of 
 Titans, demigods opposed to the hierarchy of superior deities. The 
 characteristic feature of the story of Prometheus was, that his opposition 
 to Zeus was prompted by benevolence and compassion for mankind. 
 He taught them many of the arts of life, and in particular the use of 
 fire, which, in despite of Zeus, he stole from Olympus in a fennel-stalk. 
 As a punishment for this offence, he was chained by Zeus upon a rocky 
 mountain — Caucasus, it was thought to be — and tortured daily by a 
 vulture. He was released after many years of suffering l)y Hercules, 
 another demigod of Social Progi-ess. The story is the subject of the 
 greatest cbania of .^schylus, who describes the sufferings and constancy 
 of the hero in his time of punishment. Shelley treats the imbinding of 
 Prometheus as the triumph of Humanity, and the advent of an ideal 
 State. 
 
 We must regard Prometheus as a type of those men at the threshold 
 of Greek civilisation who, breaking away from the primitive theocratic 
 regi')ne, led the way to the freedom of thought, independence, andactiA'ity 
 which characterise the later Greeks. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Hesiod : Theogoivj. ^schjius : Prometheus. Grote : History of Greece, 
 ch. iii. Pos. Pol. iii. 208. 
 
 CADMUS. 
 
 Cadjius is a hero of culture with more human, and fewer super- 
 natural features than either Prometheus or Hercules. He was claimed 
 as tutelary hero by the town of Thebes, but was suj^posed to have 
 been a Phienician by origin. Certain legendary tales were related of 
 him ; but the definite fact connected with his name is that lie was the 
 means of introducing to Greece the Phoenician characters from which 
 the Greek alphabet was derived. The alphabet (i.f. symbols which con- 
 ventionally represent to the eye the sound heard in human speech) is 
 traced back to the hieratic writing of the Egyptian priests, itself a 
 development of the hierofjlyphic system. The Plia;nicians modified the 
 hieratic alphabet, and canied it over Eiu'ope. It was the indispensable 
 condition of progress, and the basis of Western civilisation. His name 
 itself suggests a Pelasgian or primitive Greek rather than Pha-nician
 
 8 CADMUS : HERCULES : THESEUS [Theocratic 
 
 origin : but others have connected it with Canaan, i.e. Phoenician. 
 However this may be, and whether the legend points to any one 
 historical person or not, we may consider Cadmus as representing the 
 influence exercised by Phoenician civilisation on the childhood of Greece, 
 not only as a literary force, but as a stimulus to art, industry, and 
 maritime enterprise. He is treated as the inventor of the arts of mining, 
 working in metals, and the worship of Dionysus, that is, the use of wine. 
 Although some authorities regard Cadmus as a native Pelasgic hero, the 
 better opinion is that he represents the influence of the Phoenicians on 
 Greek civilisation, through Crete and the southern islands. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Ciirtius : History of Greece, bk. i. ch. iii. Grote : History of Crreece, 
 vol. i. ch. xiv. Sayce : Ancient Empires of the East (ch. iii., "The 
 Phoenicians "). For the Alphabet and its history, refer to Fr. Lenor- 
 mant : The Phoenician Alphabet. 
 
 HERCULES. 
 
 Hercules is the Latinised form of the name of the national hero of the 
 Greeks : Herakles. He was supposed to have connections both with 
 the Dorians, the Athenians, and the Thebans ; but all agreed . in assign- 
 ing him a divine origin, as son of Zeus. Like Prometheus, he is repre- 
 sented as opposed to some at least of the superior deities : to Hera 
 (Juno) and ApoUo. Like Prometheus, too, all his labours and suffer- 
 ings were undergone in the service of man. The famous " twelve 
 labours of Hercules " are all connected in different ways with the pro- 
 gress of civilisation. In one aspect, as connected with the voyage of the 
 Argonauts, he appears as a pioneer of Greek maritime enterprise. It 
 seems clear that Herakles is a Greek form of the Tyrian sun-god, 
 Melkarth ; and that the worship of Herakles at Corinth and elsewhere, 
 the Pillars of Herakles, and perhaps the numerous Heracleias, ports on 
 the sea-coast, represent traces of Phoenician enterprise and navigation. 
 In connection with athletic contests, he was one of the founders of 
 that form of union among the Greeks which did much to preserve their 
 national coherence. In many of his exploits he figures as the benefactor 
 of agriculture ; reclaiming marshy ground, and exterminating noxious 
 animals. And as the god of strength, and taking part in the first siege 
 of Troy, he l:)ecame the national champion in war as well as in peace. 
 How nuich of the legend belongs to a fetichistic sun-myth, how much to 
 any historical person, it is impossible to decide. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Grotc : History of Greece, vol. i. ch. iv. Curtiu.s : History of Greece, 
 l)k. i. ch. ii. Sayce; xincient Empires of the East (ch. iii., "The 
 PlKcnicians "). 
 
 THESEUS. 
 
 Theseus is the hero of Athens, as Cadmus of Thebes. While 
 descended on his fathers side from the oldest Athenian heroes, ^Egeus 
 and Erechtheus, he was supposed on his mother's side to have introduced
 
 Civilisation] THESEUS : ORPHEUS : TIRESIAS 9 
 
 a foreign element into the city from Troezen, in the Peloponnesus. This 
 story may imply some admixture of the two tribes. In Theseus, as in 
 Cadinus, we can clearly distinguish the mythical from the historical 
 element. On the one hand, he is described as a knight-errant and 
 slayer of monsters in the manner of Hercules ; on the other, he is 
 credited with the historical operation of creating the city of Athens out 
 of the small disconnected villages which stood round its site (the 
 avvoiKKT^JLos). It is as the reputed author of this important change, and 
 as founder of the Isthmian Games, that he owed the position he held in 
 the minds of the Athenians. But Mr. Grote is undoubtedly right in 
 treating the attempt to give historical meaning to the myths of Theseus 
 as a late and arbitrary invention. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Grote : History of Greece, vol. i. ch. xi. Plutarch : Life of Theseus, 
 
 ORPHEUS. 
 
 The story of Orpheus seems to be compounded from two persons, or 
 two types. As a Thracian singer, with miraculous powers of charming 
 even inanimate nature with his song, he represents the earliest school of 
 Greek minstrels, which is supposed to have arisen in Thrace. In this 
 connection, his name was used in ancient times as the chief of the pre- 
 Homeric poet-singers and from time to time various bodies of poetry 
 were put forth bearing the name of Orpheus. Those extant in his time 
 Aristotle condemned as forgeries by a later hand, and many similar 
 forgeries were perpetrated in later times. Only a few isolated verses 
 survive which can be attributed to the primitive age to which Orpheus 
 was supposed to belong. The story of Eurydice, the wife of Orpheus, 
 was the most popular part of the legend, and appears as poetry in many 
 times and places. 
 
 The other Orpheus is the supposed founder of certain religious rites, 
 or " mysteries," connected with the worship of Dionysus. The nature 
 and origin of these mysteries are very obscure, and the subject of 
 many learned disquisitions ; but of their connection with Orpheus, the 
 primitive poet, nothing is known. The way of life followed by those 
 who were initiated into the Orphic mysteries seems to have resembled 
 that of the later Pythagoreans, and was distinguished by a simplicity 
 and abstinence which bordered on asceticism. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Grote: History of Greece, ch. i. Miiller : Literature of Ancient Greece. 
 
 TIRESIAS. 
 
 Tkiresias is the great type of another important class in primitive 
 Greece — the inspired soothsayers. He was closely bound up witli the 
 legendary history of Thebes, and enjoyed the distinction — exceptional 
 among Greek heroes — of a miraculously long life : he was said to have 
 lived through eight generations of ordinary men. Throughout his life 
 he gave advice, and made predictions with regard to the public events
 
 10 TIRESIAS : ULYSSES : LYCURGUS [Theocratic 
 
 which were passing in his native city. One instance of this intervention 
 is immortalised by Sophocles in (Edipus the King, where he warns the 
 fated Qlldipus of his past crimes and coming punishment. In the 
 Odyssey, Homer distinguishes Tiresias as the only spirit in the lower 
 world who was allowed to retain his intelligence after death. Tiresias 
 belonged to the same class of counsellors, forming a spiritual power to 
 the temporal rulers, as did the prophets in the Hebrew monarchv. 
 
 [F. S. M.] 
 
 ULYSSES. 
 
 Ulysses is the Latinised form of Odusseus, the hero of the second 
 great Homeric poem. His character is entirely created by the poet and 
 has a double interest for us ; personally as a type of Greek character, 
 socially as a type both of the early tribal chieftain and of the maritime 
 pioneer. 
 
 As a type of the Greek character we notice his unwillingness to go to 
 the war at Ti-oy in the first instance : he does not share the delight in 
 fighting which marks the other leaders of the Trojan War, who present 
 a more primitive type. He delights in speech, argument, and cunning. 
 He has a strong attachment to his home at Ithaca and to all its associa- 
 tions. He longs to see his wife again, and to live and rule in peace. 
 
 As tribal chieftain we see him enjoying absolute and undisputed 
 authority in a small domain ; deriving his power originally from birth, 
 but to a great extent also from personal sixperiority. But the more 
 characteristic and, to the Greek mind, the more fascinating side of the 
 story was that which described the maritime adventures of Odysseus. 
 These take us back to the time when the Greeks first penetrated to the 
 Black Sea on the East, and the Pillars of Hercules on the West. The 
 wanderings which Odysseus unAvillingly goes through on his return from 
 Troy represent, in the disguise of table, the journeys undertaken by 
 Greek sailors for adventure and for trade, when Greece began to compete 
 with Phoenicia for the supremacy of the sea. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Homer: Odyssey. Grote : Illstory vf Ureece, vol. ii. cli. xx. 
 
 LYCURGUS. 
 
 Of all tlie types selected by Comte to represent the theocratic stage 
 in the development of Greek and Roman civilisation, Lycurgus has most 
 claim to be considered a historical person. The traditional account of 
 him, according to which he created the constitution and institutions of 
 Sparta and imjjosed them upon the people, cannot be accepted ; but 
 there is no ground for doubting that he effected great changes in the 
 Spartan State and derived his authority from the Delphic oracle, with 
 which the Dorians had a close connection. What his measures were 
 we cannot determine ; ])Ut we may conclude that they were concerned 
 with the strengthening of tliose features in the Spartan constitution 
 which were most characteristic and most durable. These were — (1) A
 
 Civilisation] LYCURGUS : ROMULUS : NUMA 11 
 
 combination of the different forms of government according to which the 
 kings, the senate, and the assembly of the Spartans and the ephors who 
 represented them, divided the government among them. (2) The 
 subjection of the serfs and the non-Spartan members of the community 
 — the PeridK'i. These were a constant menace to the State, and 
 Lycurgus seems to have secured their subjection and the dominance of 
 the military class by some measures of land reform. (3) The strict 
 military training to which both male and female Spartans were sub- 
 jected, and to which Sparta owed its temporary strength. 
 
 Lycurgus was " the founder of a warlike brotherhood rather than the 
 lawgiver of a political community." He is probably to be referred to 
 the 9th century B.C. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Plutarch : Life of Lymirgus. Grote : History of Greece, vol. ii. cli. vi. 
 Curtius : History of Greece, bk. ii. ch. i. 
 
 EOMULUS. 
 
 Romulus belongs to the purely legendary and eponymous order of 
 heroes. Like the Greek Hercules, he was supposed to have been of 
 divine birth ; Mars, his reputed fathei*, indicates the conquering spirit 
 which the Romans felt to be the genius of their race. His name, like 
 that of his brother Remus, was coined from that of the city which he 
 was said to have founded, of which he was the tutelary deity. 
 
 To his early occupation as a shepherd, we see the primitive state of 
 the Roman tribe before their special development began. In the story 
 of his wars with the Sabines and their final settlement in Rome, we may 
 see some trace of an early amalgamation of the two tribes. And his 
 association as king with Tatius, the Sabine, is a precedent for the double 
 consulship of the republic. 
 
 Romulus was worshipped at Rome as another form of Mars, under the 
 name of Quirinus ; and his name is important only as a recognition by 
 the Roman people of the true nature and destiny of their state. 
 
 [F. S. M.] 
 
 For tlie mythical story of Romulus, refer to Plutarch : Life of Romulus ; 
 and to Livy : bk. i. 3-16. For tlie origin of Rome, refer to Mommseu : 
 History of Home, bk. i. ch. iv. 
 
 NUMA. 
 
 NuMA is the most important name in the week of Greek and Ronum 
 heroic founders ; not because of his personal greatness or his more 
 historical character, but because he is the most perfect instance of the 
 way in which all the institutions of the State, both civil and religious, 
 were referred to a divine origin. Personally, he is jwobably entirely 
 fabulous : even his name is supposed to have been coined as a short 
 epitome of his functions. 
 
 In his supposed origin, as a Sabine, we see a trace of the same tribal 
 amalganuition which appears in the legend of Romulus. His name was
 
 12 NUMA : BELUS [Theocratic 
 
 connected with most of the institutions of Kome ; but more especially 
 with the social and religious organisation. To him, as to Lycurgus, is 
 referred the settlement of the land : which was understood to be a 
 fundamental fact in nearly all historical legend. Connected with the 
 same question, is his institution of the worship of Terminus, the god 
 of landmarks and boundaries, and of the still more important social 
 deity Fides, the goddess of good faith. To him the institution and 
 arrangements of the Calendar was assigned, which remained unMltcn'cd 
 till the reformation of Julius C;esar. In the religious sphere all the 
 sacred functions and functionaries were derived from Numa's institu- 
 tion. The Pontifices, the Vestal priestesses, and the Flamens of the 
 various deities, were all due to him. 
 
 But the most significant feature in the story is that all his laws were 
 said to have been inspired by a divine suggestion. Numa, we are told, 
 held constant converse with a nymph, Egeria ; and from her promptings 
 his institutions and laws took their rise. The story is much more bald 
 than the legends of the Greeks, and ofiers us no imaginative and poetic 
 beauties ; but it presents the primitive theory of society and govern- 
 ment with Roman simplicity and directness of thought, [F. S, M.] 
 
 For the mythical accounts of Numa, refer to Plutarch : Life of Numct, 
 Livy : bk. i. 18-21 ; Niebiihr : History of Rome, vol. i. For the 
 religion of Rome, refer to Mommsen : History of Rome, bk. i. ch. 
 
 BELUS. 
 
 The natural irrigation of the Euphrates valley rendered the transi- 
 tion easy from the nomad to the sedentary state. Then, favoured by the 
 vast plains and the recurrence of the rising of the waters at the same 
 seasons, there arose throughout Chaldea a system of star-worship, or 
 Astrolatry, a stage between Fetichism and Polytheism. But soon the 
 inaccessibility and regularity of the stars, which removed them from the 
 control of ordinary men, led to the formation of a priesthood ; and this, 
 in its turn, brought the observation of the heavens to great perfection. 
 
 Babylon was one of the earliest centres of trade and civilisation. The 
 increase and control of irrigation gave scope to her engineers, while her 
 wealth fostered all the decorative arts. Employments were as a rule 
 hereditary, the family being the only school for teaching the mystery of 
 each handicraft, but there was no system of caste. We owe to Babylon 
 the institution of the week, and the division of the circle into degrees, 
 minutes, and seconds, in accordance with the Babylonian system of 
 notation — the former having come down to us through the Jews, and the 
 latter through the Pha'nicians. Bel was one of the twelve Lords of 
 the Sky, to each of whom Avas dedicated a sign of the zodiac, and a 
 month of the year ; but by the name Bel, " Lord," the others were also 
 invoked. {Cf. Phoenician Baal.) [S. H. S.] 
 
 Herodotus, bk. i. 178-183. Duncker : Hist, of AntiqvAty, lik. ii. A. H. 
 Sayce : Ancient Emjjires of the East, ch. ii. Comte (on Astrolatry): 
 I'ol. Pos. iii. 94-97.
 
 Civilisation] SEMIEAMIS : SESOSTRIS 13 
 
 SEMIRAMIS. 
 
 Astrolatry might become military under favourable circumstances 
 (Pos. Pol. iv. 127). A Semitic people, closely allied to the Babylonians, 
 settled high up the Tigris, and became inured to battle by centuries of 
 conflict with the neighbouring mountain tribes. The warlike habits 
 thus formed enabled the Assyrians ultimately to overcome Babylon and 
 extend their empire from Egypt to Bactria. They thus took the first 
 steps towards the union of Western Asia, afterwards perfected by Cyrus, 
 and destined to so great an influence on European civilisation. But the 
 Assyi'ians showed no skill in consolidating their empire : sometimes 
 they removed great numbers of the conquered to distant parts, as 
 happened to the Israelites ; more often, after using their victories with 
 great cruelty, they would leave the government in the hands of the 
 native princes, so that, harassed by continual revolts, their dominion was 
 little more than an occasional raid for the collection of tribute. Their 
 power declined with unusual rapidity, and passed to their revolted sub- 
 jects, the Medes and Babylonians. 
 
 In all other respects Assyrian civilisation was the same as Babylonian, 
 though possibly, to judge by the remains of Nineveh, superior in art. 
 The Queen Semiramis is entirely mythical, but significant as a type, 
 being renowned both in war and peace, as conqueror and engineer. The 
 original of the name is Shammuramat, meaning Dove, and is a per- 
 sonification of the goddess of war and that of beauty. She was believed 
 to have been the wife of Ninus, the divine founder of the Assyrian 
 Theocracy, and was herself the deified promoter of his work in war and 
 peace. [S. H. s.] 
 
 Duncker : Hist, of Antiquity, lik. iii. A. H. Sayce : Ancient Empires of 
 the East, ch. ii. 
 
 SESOSTRIS, 
 
 The system of government known as Theocracy is one in which the 
 whole life of man is regulated by the commands of the gods, as expounded 
 by a hereditary priesthood ; and in which the duties thus sanctioned are 
 enforced by law, and rendered habitual by the hereditary descent of all 
 functions. In such a government spiritual and temporal authorities rest 
 on the same basis. Religion, morality, and law are not distinguished. 
 The priests expound the law ; the king enforces it : the priests sit in 
 the courts of justice ; the king holds his power as the minister and 
 vicegerent of the gods. Mr. ]\Iill therefore is entirely mistaken in 
 assuming {Auguste Comte and Positivism, p. 109) that Comte would 
 limit Theocracy to a society in which the ruler is a member of the 
 priestly caste, strictly so called. As the Calendar shows, he includes 
 under the Theocrats the kings of Greece and Rome, Persia and Egypt, 
 Mahomet and the khalifs. A theocracy, as here understood, means a 
 society in which the social organisation, temporal and spiritual, rests 
 upon a common basis of divine sanction, the hereditary transmission of 
 all functions being more or less completely developed. To Theocracy 
 we owe the first organisation of industry, and the first accumulations of 
 knowledge ; but the task of regulating society gave a practical turn to
 
 14 SESOSTKIS [Theocratic 
 
 the knowledge of the priests, making them " know in order to improve " 
 {Pos. Pol iv. 11). Essentially conservative, the sj'stem was well suited 
 to consecrate a life of labour, and foster the rude beginnings of industrial 
 skill. Alone of theological systems it comprised the whole circle of 
 human life, and therefore had Theologism been destined to endure, it 
 would have been in tliis form {Pos. Pol. ii. 17). Its first germs may be 
 seen in the priesthoods of Astrolatry (Belus), and its extreme type in 
 India (Menu) ; but the Theocracy which has had the greatest eflect on 
 Western civilisation is that of Egypt. 
 
 The narrow ^•alley of the Nile, fertilised by the overflow of the river, 
 and easily defensible, was perhaps the earliest seat of settled life and 
 industry. Here many tliousand years ago there arose a rich and endur- 
 ing Theocratic civilisation. Like all the greatest Theocracies, it was 
 Polytheistic, but with strong traces of primitive Fetichism (see Intro- 
 duction, above), the worship of ancestors, of animals, and of the heavens, 
 though Astrolatry had not the same permanence as it had on the great 
 plains of Babylon. The caste system was less rigid than in India — 
 intermarriage and adoption from one caste to another Avere not entirely 
 prohibited ; but the inscriptions tell us of the same office remaining in 
 one family for twenty-three generations. The strong feeling of con- 
 tinuity found expression in enduring monuments, and led to a belief in 
 immortality ; and the liturgy of the dead, placed with each corpse, and 
 the splendid tombs erected by the kings, have preserved for us the life 
 and thought of the Egyptians. 
 
 The old monarchy had its seat first at Memphis, then at Thebes. It 
 was overthrown by nomads of the desert, and for some five centuries 
 Egypt was ruled by the Shepherd Kings, who were expelled about 
 1650 B.C. Of the more warlike dynasties which followed, the greatest 
 was the house of Kamesis. Sethos i. conquered Nubia, and fought 
 against the princes of the Euphrates ; and his son Eamesis ii. (d. about 
 1322) left his image on the rocks of Pha'nicia. Their deeds, greatly 
 exaggerated, have furnished the Sesostris of the Greeks. They 
 both left many great works as memorials : Sethos built the great hall at 
 Karnac, the most sj^lendid monument of Egyptian art ; Eamesis enlarged 
 the temple at Luxor, and set up the obelisks, one of which is now in 
 Paris. Menephta, the son of Eamesis, was the Pharaoh of the Hebrew 
 Exodus (eh. iv.-xiv.). As in all Theocracies, the power of the king 
 was absolute ; he was the representative of the gods, and in Egypt was 
 himself worshipped as a god. The power of the priests was exerted by 
 the force of the traditions which they expounded, a force which weighed 
 as heavily on the king as on the poorest subject. It was a sign of the 
 decay of the Theocracy when, for a short time after the flvll of the house 
 of Eamesis, the High Priests of Thebes made tliemselves rulers in the 
 land. Hidden under the common designation of the priestly colleges, 
 the very names of the great priests have passed away, and a great king 
 stands as the type of the Egyptian Theocracy. [S. H. S.] 
 
 Duncker : JJist. of Antirpillit, lik. i. Herodotus, bk. ii. translation by 
 G. llawlinson, vol. ii., and app. viii. by Sir J. G. Wilkinson. A. H. 
 Sayce : Ancieid Jvnptres- of the East, cli. i. For Theocracy, see Pos. 
 Pol. iii. 170-210.
 
 Civilisation] MENU 15 
 
 MENU. 
 
 The Aryans, after they had conquered the valley of the Indus, were 
 still a military people. But when they had spread to the rich valley 
 of the Ganges, and the period of conquest was at an end, everything 
 favoured the rise of a Theocracy, which here reached its most perfect 
 type — resting on the acknowledged supremacy of the priests, and a rigid 
 system of caste without intermarriage or adoption. The whole people 
 was divided into four great castes, ultimately subdivided : the Brah- 
 mans, or priests ; the Kshatryas, or warriors, of whom the King was 
 always one ; the Vaicyas, farmers, traders, craftsmen ; and the Sudras, 
 or labourers. No one could pass into a caste higher than that of his 
 birth. Intermarriage was strictly forbidden ; those who transgressed 
 the rule lost their own caste, and their children became members of 
 impure castes to which disreputable functions were assigned. Among 
 the functions of the Brahmans were teaching, sacrificing, giving a con- 
 secration to family festivals, and reciting the sacred poems to the men of 
 their villages ; they also held many posts of civil administration. Besides 
 adherence to the duties and customs of his caste, which became more 
 onerous the higher it was, each had his duties to his ancestors and his 
 family. He could even be expelled from his caste by the displeasure of 
 his kinsmen. 
 
 The Aryans were already Polytheists when they descended from the 
 mountains into India, and had passed from Fetichism to Polytheism, 
 with no period of systematic Astrolatry between : hence their unbridled 
 imagination, and little power of scientific observation, despite their skill 
 in reasoning. Settled on the Ganges, the priests, to consecrate the 
 system of castes and their own precedence, made Brahma the chief god. 
 From him the world had emanated, and they themselves the first of men, 
 the earliest emanations being the purest. A Brahman, if pure, could 
 return to Brahma after death, l^ut all others had to go through a series 
 of transformations, determined by their conduct, until their purification 
 was complete. The changes of life and religion are well seen in compar- 
 ing the sacred books of India. The Vedas, composed on the Indus, show 
 strong traces of Fetichism. In the gi'eat epic, the Jilahabharata, which 
 deals with the wars among the princes after the conquests on the Ganges, 
 the military spirit still prevails. But in the Books of the Law we find 
 the regulations of a society essentially peaceful, consei'vative, and Theo- 
 cratic. The first and chief of these books is attributed by its authors to 
 Menu, the primeval and divine ancestor of their race ; but under that 
 name we may honour rather the great Brahmans who drew up the Books 
 of the Law, and organised the enduring civilisation of India. 
 
 [S. H. S.] 
 
 Lattitte : Orands Types deV IlumaniU : Manou. Diincker : Hist, of Anti- 
 quity, bk. V. For the Code of Menu, see Mamiiii£i: Andent and, 
 Mediaval India, cli. xv.
 
 16 CYEUS : ZOROASTER [Theocratic 
 
 CYRUS, b. 599 B.C., d. 529 B.C. 
 
 In the mountain valleys of south-western Iran dwelt the hardy and 
 warlike tribes of the Persians. Among them the priesthood had less 
 power than among the Medes ; in fact, Persian Theocracy was " more 
 impaired than any other by the final preiDonderance of warriors over 
 priests" (Pos. Pol. iii. 231). But however great was this preponderance, 
 under Polytheism " the Theocratic peoples never became really military " 
 (Pos. Pol. iii. 206). The nations of the West, among whom the warriors 
 attained suijremacy before the rise of Theocratic habits, were always far 
 superior in war, as was shown by the victories of the Greeks over the 
 vast armies of Darius and Xerxes. 
 
 The power of Persia began withAchemenes, chief of one of the seven 
 Persian tribes, who induced the other six to acknowledge his leadership ; 
 and, as a dependent ally, assisted the Medes in the final overthrow of 
 Assyria. His grandson Cyrus revolted from the Medes, and conquered 
 their country (558). Attacked by Croesus, king of Lydia, he defeated 
 him, took Sardis (549), and made himself master of the Greek cities in 
 Asia. Finally, he conquered Babylon (5.38), as well as Phoenicia and the 
 rest of Syria, which had fallen to the Babylonians on the overthrow of 
 Assyria. Unlike that of the Assyrians, his empire was well organised 
 and durable. Order was kept by Persian garrisons, while national and 
 religious customs were respected. The subject provinces fixed their own 
 subsidies : the Persians, as the conquering race, remained untaxed. The 
 conquered princes were treated with great clemency, but were removed 
 from their old dominions to distant parts of the empire. By thus bring- 
 ing all the nations from the Mediterranean to the Indus under one rule, 
 Cyrus prepared the way for the conflict between East and West, with its 
 gi'eat Cjuickening of the life of Greece, for the conquests of Alexander 
 and of Rome, and for the rise of Christianity. He also helped this by 
 allowing the Jews to return to Jerusalem and begin rebuilding the 
 Temple. To the Greeks, Cyrus was a type of the wise and humane 
 monarch, the true father of his people. Plato compares him to Lycurgus. 
 and Cicero calls him the most just, wise, and amiable of rulers. 
 
 [S. H. S.] 
 
 Duncker: Jlist. of Antiquity, bk. viii. Herodotus: bk. i., passim; bk. iii. 
 89 ; and translation by G. Rawlinson, vol. i. app. viii. Heeren : 
 Manual of Ancient History, bk. ii. A. H. Saj'ce : Ancient Em2nres of 
 the East, ch. v. 
 
 ZOROASTER. 
 
 Sprung from the same stock, the primitive religion of the Aryans of 
 Eastern Iran was similar to that of the Aryans ofthe Indus ; but both 
 underwent great changes. On the Ganges there grew up the perfect 
 type of Theocracy (see " Menu," above). In Iran, a country of mountain, 
 desert, and fertile valley, of striking contrasts, and of fierce struggles 
 with a sterile environment, there arose the conception of two opposing 
 principles in Nature, the good and the evil, the pure and the impure, 
 Oromasdes and Arimanes, the god of life and the god of death. Every
 
 Civilisation] ZOROASTER : THE DRUIDS 17 
 
 good action helped the one, every evil action the other : the soul of 
 every man, the soil of every field, were scenes of never-ending battle. 
 Those who touched what was impure gave Arimanes the more power 
 over them. In the Avesta, the Zoroastrian Bible, of which out of 
 twenty-one books but one and some fragments remain, a minute system 
 of purification is given, and long lists of things, pure and impure. The 
 old gods remained as the children of Oromasdes, with legions of spirits, 
 good and evil. The still older Fetichism survived in the reverence ])aid 
 to fire, which was accounted especially pure. 
 
 This reformation is attributed to Zoroaster [the name is said to bo 
 Aryan : Zarathrustra = Golden Star], but its date is uncertain. He is 
 thought to have lived in Bactria, whence his doctrines spread to Media 
 and Persia. The caste system was never fully established in Iran, 
 though there was a hereditary priesthood, the Magi of the Medes. The 
 religion of Zoroaster, through the Manichasan heresy, had great influence 
 on Christianity. It endured in Persia till the Mohammedan conquest, 
 and is still professed by the Parsees of India. [S. H. S.] 
 
 Duncker : Hist, of Antiqicity, bk. vii. Herodotus, l)k. i., translated by G. 
 Rawlinson, app. v. A. H. Sayce: Ancient Empires of the East, ch. v. 
 
 THE DRUIDS. 
 
 In the West there were no great valleys like those of the Nile 
 and the Euphrates to tempt men to a life of settled industry. Civili- 
 sation arose much later, and took a military rather than a Theocratic 
 form. In Greece and Rome, the priests early became subordinate 
 to the warriors, but in Gaul, at the time of Ctesar's campaigns, the 
 priesthood still maintained its su])remacy, though no other characteristic 
 of Theocracy was present. According to C;t3sar, the Druids were both 
 sacrificers and judges, enforcing their decrees by excommunication and 
 outlawry. Human sacrifices, mostly criminals or captives in war, Avere 
 offered at their altars. Once a year a great meeting was held, to which 
 men came from all parts to be judged. The Druids were exempted from 
 taxes and military service. They were presided over by a chief, whose 
 election often led to fierce contests : nor did they constitute a caste, 
 numbers of youths being sent to them to be trained and instructed in 
 their mysteries ; for, though acquainted with the use of letters, they pre- 
 ferred to commit their learning to memory. But it is possible that in 
 the time of Caesar the institution was already decaying ; and the military 
 life around, which required in the wai'rior chiefs men strong, brave, ready 
 of resource, and of full age, was unfavourable to the hereditary principle. 
 According to Tacitus, Tiberius, suppressed the Druids in (Taul because 
 of tlieir human sacrifices, forbidding the exercise of their religion, and 
 destroying their sacred groves ; yet they were found in the time of 
 Vespasian prophesying the dissolution of the enqnre. They were still 
 stronger in Britain. When the Romans attacked the Isle of ISIona 
 (Anglesey), their chief seat, the Druids were seen encouraging the defen- 
 ders, and pouring forth imprecations with hands uplifted to heaven. The 
 
 B
 
 18 THE DRUIDS : OSSIAN : BUDDHA [Theocratic 
 
 Druids, as the upholders, in however rude a way, of religion, justice, and 
 civil order, took the first step in fitting the Celtic nations for their great 
 future ; for the Celts, disciplined by Rome, and strengthened by union 
 with Saxons, Franks, and Northmen, were destined to be among the 
 foremost leaders of Humanity. [S. H. S.] 
 
 Csesar : Gallic War, vi. 13-16. Tacitus: History, iv. 54; Annals, xiv. 30. 
 Martin : Histoire de France, bk ii. 
 
 OSSIAN. 
 
 After the decline of the Druids, some of their functions fell to the 
 Bards, whose songs inspired the patriotism of their countrymen by 
 recalling the glories of the past. On the Western Coast of Scotland, 
 there lingered the tradition of one in particular — OssiAX, the son of 
 Fingal — a prince famous for his valour, who, having outlived his old 
 companions, and the son on whom his hopes rested, in his blind and 
 lonely age, sung of the prowess of his race. Humanity has grown strong, 
 not by the cultivation of one dominant type alone, but by all the nations 
 of the earth l)ringing their various contributions to the common heritage 
 of mankind ; and those are well worthy of remembrance who keep alive 
 the courage and endurance of the struggling and oppressed. [S. H. S.] 
 
 For such residuum of fact as may underlie the so-called Ossianic poems, 
 see the discussion under Celtic Literature, Encycl. Brit. v. 311, 
 9th ed. 
 
 BUDDHA. 
 
 BuDDiiA, son of the raja of the Sakya clan, Siddhartha Gautama, 
 was born at Kapilavastu (near Oudh), about B.C. 480. The dates of his birth 
 and death are given by Sir M. Monier-Williams as 500 B.C. and 420 B.C. The 
 old date of his death, 543 B.C., is now given up by all recent authorities. 
 At nineteen he married a neighbouring princess, his cousin, who ten 
 years later bore liim a son. This event, so far from binding him closer to 
 the world, clinched his long-wavering purpose of becoming an ascetic ; 
 for he had early felt that life is vanity and full of suft'ering, and he 
 yearned to deliver men from the illusions and misery that encompassed 
 them. Full of this intense sympathy and high resolve, he secretly stole 
 away, renouncing rank, wealth, and family joys, and betook himself to 
 the pursuit of philosophy and religion. In the seclusion of the jungle 
 near Buddha Gaya, for six years he studied under two learned Brahmans 
 the tenets of Hindu ontology and ethics, practising the severe penances 
 by which devotees were believed to acquire supei'huinan wisdom and 
 powers. Then, convinced of the futility of such exercises, and still keenly 
 sensible of the fleeting unreality of all existence, he was seized with a 
 temptation to return to his home and worldly afi'airs. Throughout a 
 whole day he remained under a Bo tree {jicns, religiosa), wrestling with 
 despair and doubt ; but at last the light of hope and certainty broke in 
 upon him, as he perceived that in self-conquest and universal loving-
 
 Civilisation] BUDDHA 19 
 
 kindness lay the true path of salvation from suffering. That instant he 
 consciously became Buddha, i.e. enlightened. 
 
 Then, in his thirty-sixth year, he began at Benares publicly to teach 
 his doctrine. Regardless of caste, he preached to high and low alike, 
 enrolling his best disciples into a monastic order, or society of mendi- 
 cants, distinct from the larger body of lay adherents or householders. 
 For forty-four years he travelled unweariedly throughout the region of 
 the Mid- Ganges valley, dependent for his subsistence on alms, exhorting, 
 instructing, and counselling aU who cared to listen. He died peacefully 
 at Kusinagara, eighty miles east of his birth-place, about B.C. 400, in his 
 eighty-fii'st year. 
 
 His disciples, well trained and organised, zealously continued his 
 work. The doctrine and rules of discipline were settled in general 
 councils ; the first, held soon after his death ; the second, about a 
 century later ; the third and most important, about B.C. 250, in the 
 reign of Asoka. This monarch, the Constantine of Buddhism, sent out 
 missionaries in all directions. His own son, Mahinda, carried the new 
 teaching into Ceylon, where, after having been for ten generations 
 handed down orally, it was for the first time committed to writing in 
 the three great collections known as the Pitakas, containing, respectively, 
 the rules of discipline of the order, moral discourses for the laity, and 
 philosoj)hical disquisitions. From Ceylon, Burma was converted in the 
 fifth century, and Siam nearly two centuries later. These are the 
 countries where the Southern or purer form of Buddhism prevails. But 
 its most extensive conquests were made towards the north. By the be- 
 ginning of the Christian era, it had become the religion of the north- 
 westerly parts of India ; and under the patronage of Kanishka, king of 
 Kashmir, it spread into Afghanistan, Tartary, the Panjab, Sindh, 
 Guzarat, and Rajputana. It was adopted in China in a.d. 62, by one of 
 the Han emperors, and rapidly spread throughout that populous realm. 
 Under the next great dynasty, the Tang (618-905), the ISiitras and com- 
 mentaries were translated into Chinese. From China, the religion 
 passed to Korea at the close of the fourth century, and from Korea over 
 to Japan in the middle of the sixth. 
 
 In China it was never al^le to supersede the ancient astrolatry, though, 
 since the thirteenth century, it has i^rofoundly stimulated and influenced 
 philosophical speculation. And it still combines with the Confucianism 
 and Tao-ism of those populations. In Japan it soon absorbed, and has 
 now practically superseded, the indigenous Fetichism. The most abnor- 
 mal form of northern Buddhism Avas developed in Til)et. Introduced in 
 the seventh century, it was there soon mixed up with the native devil- 
 worship and belief in magic. Perversion of doctrine kept pace with the 
 change of the order into a regular priesthood, whose rich endowments 
 and compact organisation made them formidable rivals of the govern- 
 ment ; until, in 1419, the Dalai Lama, the incarnate representative of 
 deity, became sole temporal sovereign as well as head of the Church. 
 
 In India itself Buddhism declined steadily after the sixth century. 
 In the twelfth, the Mohammedan invasions swept away what remnants of 
 it, in Kashmir and Orissa, victorious Brahmanism had spared. 
 
 In its origin and purpose, the Buddha's reform was only a new develop-
 
 20 BUDDHA : FO-HI [Theocratic 
 
 ment of Hinduism. Brahmans were among his first and chief disciples. 
 Caste Avas not interfered with outside the limits of the order ; and 
 most of his basic ideas were taken from preceding systems of philosophy. 
 Hence Buddhism is essentially metaphysical, not theological. It ignores 
 a Creator, and denies the existence of the soul as a separate entity ; its 
 highest aim is not immortality, but the complete extinction of conscious 
 existence (Nirvana). Yet it is the religion which, modified and com- 
 bined with other systems, has perhaps found most acceptance amongst 
 men. Hundreds of millions of Orientals find in it not only intellectual 
 light, but spiritual sustenance and lofty moral guidance. It springs 
 from a higher stratum of thought than the sky-worship of the Chinese, 
 the Polytheism of Greece and Rome, or the Monotheism of Moses and 
 Mohammed. 
 
 It holds within it, however, the seeds of its own decay, in its absolute 
 stand-point, its pessimistic bias, its metaphysical notion of merit or 
 Karma, as the germinal cause of moral re-births, and, above all, in 
 omitting from its purview the social organism, and its consequent inability 
 to direct aright the active powers of man. Yet its services to humanity 
 have been immense. It has been for centuries to Eastern Asia all that 
 Christianity has been to Western Europe, elevating woman, extinguish- 
 ing slavery, softening manners, fostering art, and pointing out its noble 
 path of the religious life to all who hungered after righteousness. 
 
 [J. C. H.] 
 
 Buinonf : Introductioii d Vhistoire dii Bouddhlsme Indien, 1844, and Le 
 Lotus de la honne loi, 1852. Schlasrintweit : Buddhism in Tibet, 1863. 
 Rhys Davids : Hibhert Lectures, 1881 ; Buddhism, 1886 ; and other 
 works and papers. Monier-Williams : Buddhism, 1888. Laffitte : Les 
 Grands Types de V Hummnite, 1875. 
 
 FO-HI. Prehistoric Period. 
 
 Fo-hi is the "Western form of the name of Fuii-he : the supposed 
 author of the social and political system and first ruler of China. His 
 date belongs to some indefinite period anterior to the historical epochs, 
 which are usually thought to begin about the middle of the twenty-fourth 
 century b.c. As the origin of Englisli institutions is mythically referred 
 to Alfred, of the Eoman to Numa, of the Spartan to Lycurgus, and of 
 the Jewish to Moses, so the Chinese historians referred Chinese institu- 
 tions to Fo-hi. 
 
 He is said to have belonged to the centi'al pro^ iine of Honan, to have 
 reigned 115 years, and liis tomb is still shown at Chin-Choo. To him is 
 attril)uted tlie institution of marriage, the sejiaration of the jjcople into 
 classes and tribes, the division of time and of seasons, the calendar, the 
 use of iron, of salt, of regular buildings, and the practice of fishing and 
 hunting. His successor, Chen-Xoung, the supposed second king, is said 
 to have invented the plough, and to be the author of regular agriculture. 
 This may represent the passage of Chinese civilisation from a nomad to 
 a sedentary condition. Fo-hi, though long anterior to the invention of 
 writing, is said to have invented the use of a circular diajiram called
 
 Civilisation] FO-HI : LAO-TSE : MENCIUS 21 
 
 Pa K<ma, in which certain ideas could be indicated graphically. Here 
 he represents the unknown founders of the oldest of all existing forms of 
 civilisation. [F. H.] 
 
 P. Laffitte : General Vieio of Chinese Civilisation, 1860, transl. by J. Carey 
 Hall, 1887. 
 
 LAO-TSE, b. 604 B.C. 
 
 Lao-tsze was born, b.c. 604, in a small village of what is now the 
 department of Kwy-te-foo, in the province of Honan. The district then 
 formed part of the kingdom of Chou. The site of his birth-place is still 
 pointed out, and a temple is built there in his honour. Of the details 
 of his life very little is known. He was for mtiny years one of the 
 keepers of the archives at the king's court. Ultimately he gave up this 
 post, and lived in complete retirement. We are told that he received on 
 one occasion a visit from Confucius, who was much his junior, and that 
 he reproached him for troubling himself too much with the bustle and 
 worry of the world. The time and place of his death are not knowTi. 
 But he left behind him the result of his meditations in a treatise entitled 
 The Booh of the Way, which has ever since been regarded as one of the 
 Chinese Classics. 
 
 He is often spoken of as the founder of one of the three religions of 
 China — that which bears the name of his book — Tao-ism ; and a plentiful 
 growth of legend and ceremonial has gathered round his name. But he 
 himsell' made no claims of this kind. His book, which has been carefully 
 edited and translated by Stanislas Julien, is a series of thoughts dwelling, 
 in varied and emphatic language, on self-effacement and abnegation as 
 the sole way of life. By freedom from desire, we reach the goal. By 
 having nothing, we obtain all things. Heaven and earth are not for 
 themselves ; therefore they endure. The wise man takes the lowest 
 place, has no self-interest to serve ; therefore he overcomes. He is like 
 water that sinks to the lowest level, and gives way to everything, and 
 thus carries all before it. The sage makes himself all things to all men ; 
 he treats evil and good alike ; his vengeance for injury is kindness. 
 
 The word "Quietism" sums up the teaching of Lao-tse. When 
 Buddhism penetrated into China many years afterwards, we find his 
 followers making common cause with the followers of Buddha against 
 the more practical teaching of Confucius. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Lao-Teh- King, translated by Stanislas Julien, 1842. And see Article Lao- 
 tsze, by Dr. Legge, in Enajd. Brit., 9th edit., vol. xv. 
 
 MENCIUS, b. 371 B.C., d. 288 B.C. 
 
 INIencius, the Latinised form of ]\Iaxg-tsze, was born in the state of 
 Tsow, within what is now the province of Shantung, about 371 n.c. 
 Like Confucius, he owed nuich to the training and influence of an 
 admirable mother, some of whose sayings have been recorded. Wlien 
 she found her sou hesitating as to a necessary change of residence out of
 
 22 MENCIUS : THEOCEATS OF THIBET [Theocratic 
 
 consideration for her old age, she remarked : "It does not belong to a 
 woman to determine anything of herself ; she is subject to the rule of 
 the three obediences. When young she obeys her parents ; when 
 married her husband ; when a widow her son. You are in ripe age, 
 I am old. Do as your sense of right guides you. I wiU act by the rule 
 which belongs to me." 
 
 Of the life of Mencius but few details are recorded. We know only 
 that, in the century that had passed since the death of Confucius, his 
 disciples had multiplied so as to become a power in the land, fulfilling in 
 many ways the functions of a priesthood ; counselling, restraining, main- 
 taining ancient tradition and ceremonial. Mencius was foremost among 
 these. We hear of him at the courts of many of the feudal States, over 
 which the Chow dynasty still retained its nominal sway, maintaining 
 his position as an independent counsellor, and expounding with remark- 
 able boldness the Chinese theory of government. "The people," he 
 asserted, " are the most important element in the State ; next to them 
 are the spirits of the land and the grain ; the ruler weighs lightest in 
 the scale." 
 
 Very striking are his comments on the early history of China, in which 
 succession to empire was regulated not so much by birth as by the will 
 of Heaven. Heaven declared its will by no audible voice, but by human 
 actions and by great events. "Yao proposed Shun to Heaven, and 
 Heaven accepted him. He ordered him to perform the rites of sacrifice ; 
 and his sacrifices were well pleasing to the powers. He made him the 
 chief minister of State, and State affairs were well-ordered : all were at 
 peace and satisfied. Thus Heaven gave him the empire, and the people 
 also gave it. When Yao died, the great vassals came, not to the son of 
 Yao, but to Shun. Those who had law-suits went to Shun. The poets 
 sang not the deeds of the son of Yao, but of Shun. Therefore said I 
 that this was the work of Heaven. For it was said of old. The Heaven 
 sees, but sees through the eyes of my people ; it hears, but hears through 
 the ears of my people." 
 
 Even tyrannicide might be on occasion lawful. The prince of Thsi 
 asked Mencius, " Is it true that Cheou-sin (the last king of the second 
 dynasty) was put to death by Wou-wang 1" " So it is recorded," replied 
 Mencius. " Has then a minister the right to dethrone or slay a prince V 
 " He," replied Mencius, " who commits an outrage on humanity is a 
 bandit ; he who defies justice is a tyrant. Such men we look on as 
 reprobate and outcast. It was a reprobate outcast called Cheou-sin, and 
 no prince, that Wou-wang slew." It is said that lineal descendants of 
 Mencius still live in his native province. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pauthier: Litres sacres de la Chine. See also "England and C'liina," in 
 International Policy, 2d ed., pp. 272-4. 
 
 THE THEOCRATS OF THIBET. 
 
 Lamaism, which is a system partly religious, partly political, is a 
 modified outgrowth of Buddhism, prevalent in Thibet and Mongolia. 
 It stands in the same relation to primitive Buddhism as the Catholicism 
 of the twelfth century stood to primitive Christianity. Buddhism
 
 Civilisation] THEOCRATS OF THIBET 23 
 
 originally rejected all kind of ecclesiastical organisation ; but, ultimately, 
 one was developed which still subsists in Ceylon, Burma, and Siam. 
 In Thibet (or Tibet, as Orientalists now write it), the indigenous religion, 
 called Bon, was a rude form of Fetichism and Animism. In 632 a.d., 
 about the time of Mohammed's death, a certain Srong Tsan Gampo, king 
 of Thibet, introduced Buddhism from India as a civilising religion. He 
 became the Alfred of Thibet, the national ideal of a ty|Dical king. He 
 spent a long reign in the building of reservoirs, bridges, canals, the 
 promotion of agriculture and manufactures, the establishment of colleges 
 and schools, and the inculcation of virtue. 
 
 Buddhism, however, in a simple form did not thrive in Thibet ; and, 
 about a century later, another king sent to India for religious teachers ; 
 and ultimately a new theocracy, on a Buddhist basis, was established — 
 the most flourishing period of which was from the middle of the eleventh 
 to the middle of the fourteenth century. When Jengkiz Khan conquered 
 Thibet, early in the thirteenth century, Lamaism entered the great 
 Mongol empire, and by Kubla Khan (Khubilai, 1259-1294), it was 
 formally established. Lamaism became a strict theocracy, when Kubla 
 gave the Lamistic prelates the practical sovereignty over the country, 
 much as Charles the Great established the Papacy. From the thirteenth 
 century onwards, Lamaism developed as an Eastern analogue of Catholi- 
 cism, having its Popes, hierarchy, monasteries, religious orders, ceremonials, 
 the celibacy of its priests, confession, fasting, worship of saints, and 
 external acts of devotion. It difiered, however, in that Lamaism (or 
 Lamism, as Sir M. Monier-Williams writes it) exercised an almost un- 
 qualified temporal sovereignty such as the Papacy never possessed 
 except at certain times and over very limited districts. 
 
 The Hindu idea of Avatar took the form, in Thibet, of an incarnation 
 of the Buddha in a succession of living persons, by a spiritual descent into 
 their bodies, not by re-birth and their natural birth and growth ; much 
 as Apis, in the Egyptian system, descended into living brutes. The 
 two highest incarnations of Buddha are first, the Dalai Lama, that is, the 
 " Ocean Lama," at Lhassa, the metropolitan city, and the Tashi Lama, at 
 Tashi Lunpo, the second metropolis. They are children, constantly re- 
 selected, who are maintained in a condition of monastic seclusion and 
 imperial pomp, treated with religious veneration, but wholly powerless, 
 and, it is said, destined to early and secret death. In their names, and 
 under the ultimate control of the Emperor of China, the abbots of the 
 great monasteries exercise the whole temporal and spiritual sovereignty. 
 
 The monastic system has been developed in Thibet on a vast scale ; it 
 has a magnificence, and is endowed with a power, of which Europe hardly 
 presents any example. The elaborate ceremonial, the strange ritualism, 
 the royal endowments, and the undisputed authority of the hierarchy in 
 Thibet, have been described in many modern travels. Although the 
 history and creed of the system are still somewhat obscure, it is un- 
 doubtedly the most complete scheme of a theocracy, almost pure in type, 
 whilst debased in substance, which is still extant in the world. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 Sir M. Monier-Williams: Bpjhlhism, ch. xi.-xv. Article Tibet: EnciJcJ. 
 Brit., vol. xxiii., 9th ed.
 
 24 THEOCRATS OF JAPAN [Theocratic 
 
 THE THEOCRATS OF JAPAN. 
 
 Under this name are recorded the founders of one of the oldest and 
 most remarkable ty2)es of Oriental civilisation, that established in the 
 Japanese islands many centuries before our era, of which, within the 
 last thirty years, we have witnessed the rapid and complete transforma- 
 tion. Down to the time, about 1860, when Japan began to adopt much 
 of Western civilisation, the islands had for nearly twenty -five centuries 
 possessed a theocratic system, which, though not so ancient as that of the 
 Chinese, and partly adopted from China, and though not so rigid as that 
 of Thibet, was a well-marked type of theocratic rule, the whole temporal 
 and s])iritual power being vested in a single person, himself endowed 
 with a divine ancestry and attributes. 
 
 This collective authority in Japan centres in the Mikado, who is 
 regarded as the heaven-born descendant of Zin-nui, the real or mythical 
 founder of Japanese civilisation, in the seventh century b.c. There are 
 still in Japan three co-ordinate religions, easily combining with each 
 other, and not very definitely distinguished — Sintoism, Confucianism, 
 and Buddhism. They have aftected Japan in the historical order here 
 stated ; but all of them have undergone great modifications and decay ; 
 none of them now seems to insj^ire either definite convictions or positive 
 enthusiasm ; and Sintoism, in a fiuid form, seems to be now the more 
 really infiuential belief, as it is certainly the oldest. 
 
 Sintoism is evidently a modification of a primitive Fetichism, or 
 worship of N.iture, in the form principally of Astrolatry, but also with 
 definitely polytheistic characters. It never crystallised into the massive 
 and organic type of Fetichism that was established in China. And it 
 was always ready to accept modification from theological or metaphysical 
 systems. Under this Sintoo religion, tlie origins of Japanese govern- 
 ment, centring in a deified Mikado, were traced back to Zin-mu in the 
 seventh century b.c, who was regarded as an incarnation of the Sun- 
 deity. His lineal descendants all the Mikados are supposed to be. 
 
 Japan was evidently conquered by Chinese sovereigns in the immediate 
 centuries b.c. ; and Confucianism was then introduced, modifying and 
 mingling with Sintoism. In the sixth century a.d.. Buddhism was 
 introduced into Japan ; and, for many centuries, it became the dominant 
 religion, thougli much modified l>y, and also modifying, the aboriginal 
 Jintoism. All three religions alike contributed to consolidate the tem- 
 poral and spiritual authority of the Mikado. The old clan-system of 
 Sapan developed an elaborate feudalism curiously like to that of Europe 
 in the fourteentli century. And the Sintoo priests elaborated a cere- 
 monial form of theocracy, which is a rather inorganic and inferior mode 
 of the Chinese Fetichist ritual. Its shrines were simple wooden buildings, 
 evidently of a type iirising out of Sun-worship, and arranged for fowls to 
 announce the first rising of the orb of day. It had an elaborate system 
 of festivals, holidays, ceremonials, worship, and pilgrimages to the 
 tombs of venerated and deified persons. It had no images, but a highly- 
 developed type of hero-worship and worship of dead ancestors. 
 
 As religions, both Sintoism and Buddhism have long been decaying, 
 and have now lost all social and moi'al etticacv. But the centre or basis
 
 Civilisation] THEOCRATS OF JAPAN : MANCO-CAPAC 25 
 
 of both creeds, the autocracy of the Mikado, has given for many cen- 
 turies, and still continues, amidst the revolution of Japan, to give 
 striking proofs of its vitality. The break-up of the feudalism, and the 
 indifference to the old religions which we now witness, make it difficult 
 to realise the original theocracy of Japan, as it existed before the impact 
 of Western civilisation. The most valuable record of it that we possess is 
 to be found in the travels of the German Kaempfer in the seventeenth 
 century (1690). [F. H.] 
 
 Kaempfer : History of Japan, Engl, traiisl., 1727, bk. ii. cap. 1, 2, 3, bk. iii. 
 cap. 3. Sir C. Cookson : in International Policy, in the first edition 
 only (1866), essay on Ja^ian. 
 
 MANCO-CAPAC. 
 
 Maxco-capac is the supposed founder of the aboriginal civilisation 
 found by the Spaniards under Pizarro on the conquest in 1527. As the 
 civil and spiritual system of old China was referred to Fo-hi, that of 
 Japan to Zin-mu, so was that of old Peru referred to Manco-capac, who 
 is perhaps less remote and mythical than either. According to the 
 native tradition, about four or five centuries before the Spanish conquest, 
 two divine beings appeared in the region of Lake Titicaca, in the 
 southern table-land of Peru. They Avere known as Manco-Capac, and 
 his sister and wife, Mama Ocello. They were themselves children of the 
 Sun, the great parent of mankind, who had sent them on earth to found 
 civil society, and to teach the arts of civilised life. They advanced 
 along the highlands until they founded the city of Cuzco, in a high valley, 
 at the head of one of the tributaries of the Amazon. Manco-Capac 
 taught men the art of agriculture, the use of canals and irrigation, and 
 the art of building ; whilst Mama Ocello taught her own sex the art of 
 weaving and spinning, and of household economy. 
 
 Their successors, the sacred Incas, who were at once absolute sovereigns 
 and supreme pontitt's, maintained a fixed and peaceful community in 
 happiness and industry, until the arrival of the conquerors. The son of 
 one of these, Garcilasso de la Vega, himself on the mother's side of the 
 race of the Incas, has described the society they found and destroyed. It 
 was undoubtedly a very ancient, highly developed, and almost perfect 
 type of pure theocracy — the whole material and spiritual authority being 
 vested in a royal race of divine character and origin, believed to be the 
 descendant and vicegerent on earth of the Sun-god. Inca signifies 
 king ; Capac, great ; and Mama, mother. The theocracy of the Incas 
 must be compared with the Egyptian, in its vast extent and antiquity, 
 its highly artificial system, the profound peace it secured, and in its re- 
 markable development of industrial skill and art. 
 
 The civil organisation of the empire extended, it is thought, over 
 500,000 square miles, and gives proof of innnense power and perman- 
 ence. They could construct magnificent public roads ; one, from Quito to 
 Cuzco, being 1300 miles in length. They were sufficiently advanced in 
 engineering to move and place enormous blocks and monoliths ; their 
 temples and puljlic buildings were on a vast scale, and their arts exhibited
 
 26 MANCO-CAPAC : TAMEHAMEHA [Theocratic 
 
 both skill and wealth. The social organisation was complex and rigid, 
 on the system of Egyptian castes. The masses were in servitude, care- 
 fully distributed in tithings and hundreds ; the privileged classes of the 
 royal race were ordered in a species of feudal hierarchy, with gradations 
 of wealth and power ; but they were held in strict subordination to the 
 deified sovereign and pontiff, the reigning Inca. The religious system 
 was an elaborate and beautifully organised Astrolatry, the principal deity 
 being the sun, who occupied the same place as " Heaven " in the Chinese 
 Fetichism ; then came the moon, the evening star, thunder, and the rain- 
 bow, the earth, air, mountains, and rivers. All of them had temples ; 
 the principal temple of the sun at Cuzco being a mass of gold, and 
 magnificently ornamented. The Peruvian religion accepted a future state 
 and the resurrection of the body, and had some metaphysical elements 
 of an assumed Supreme Being and Creator ; but as a whole, the religion 
 must be regarded as a highly developed Astrolatry. The sacrifices were 
 of grain, fruits, and animals ; human sacrifices being strictly suppressed. 
 The social system was strictly communistic, no private property being 
 recognised, and the whole scheme of life was rigidly ordered. One of 
 its peculiarities was a State system of rewards as well as punishments. 
 
 It forms one of the most perfect types of the all-pervading despotism 
 of a permanent theocracy of which we have full and authentic history. 
 It has been described in detail by W. H. Prescott, from the contemporary 
 accounts of Spanish historians, mainly that of Garcilasso, himself proud 
 of being an Inca. All historians agree that this vast and elaborate 
 despotism was suited to the genius of the native population, that it 
 secured them profound peace, and received their unbounded devotion. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 Prescott : Conquest of Peru, bk. i. 
 
 TAMEHAMEHA. 
 
 The Hawaian, or Sandwich Islands, named from Hawaii, formerly 
 called Owhyhee, the largest of the group, cover 6677 square miles. They 
 form a cluster of eight inhabited islands in the Northern Pacific Ocean, 
 lying in N. lat. 20°, about half way between North America and Asia. 
 They were discovered by Captain Cook in 1778, and are described in his 
 Third Voyage, bks. iii. and vi. He found the natives, who call them- 
 selves Kanaka, and belong to the same family of nations as the New 
 Zealanders, with a state of civilisation relatively more advanced than 
 that of other islanders, and with a complex civil and religious organisa- 
 tion. They were divided into three orders, the temporal poM'er of the 
 superior chiefs being absolute. Their religion was a stereotyped form of 
 animal and nature worship, with elaborate ceremonials in honour of the 
 dead, and the practices of human sacrifices. After the discovery by 
 Captain Cook, who was killed at Hawaii, the islands were frequently 
 visited by traders from Europe and from America, and some intercourse 
 with civilised nations began. 
 
 Kamehameha was the chief of Hawaii, in succession to the chief in 
 power at the date of Cook's death. In 1 792 he obtained a sailing vessel.
 
 Civilisation] TAMEHAMEHA : CONFUCIUS 27 
 
 and ten years later he had collected a fleet of twenty small ships. He 
 encouraged the settlement of traders and missionaries, and placed his 
 kingdom under the protection of England. He extended his rule over 
 the other islands, and laboured with great ability and success to intro- 
 duce Western civilisation, commerce, and modern institutions. He 
 died at a great age in 1819, and has been succeeded by a series of 
 sovereigns of his race and name. Hawaii is now a regularly civilised 
 community, with a constitution on the European type, a population of 
 about 80,0(30, half of whom only are of native race, a revenue of three 
 million dollars, and a trade of twelve million dollars. Kamehameha is 
 an interesting example, in recent times, of the autocratic ruler who 
 raises up a rude Fetichist people into a civilised community, though it 
 must be feared that the ungovernable commercialism of the West will 
 have ere long supplanted the aboriginal society and race. [F. H.] 
 
 Cook : Third Voyage. Statesman's Year Book : Havxdi. ' Manley Hopkins : 
 History of Hawaii. 
 
 CONFUCIUS, b. 551 B.C., d. 478 B.C. 
 
 Confucius, the Latin form given by Jesuit missionaries to Kung Fu 
 TsEW, was born near the town of Yen-chow, in what is now the province 
 of Shan-tung. His father, Shuh Leang Heih, died when Confucius was 
 three years old. He had been an official of some rank and a soldier of 
 distinguished courage. It was long remembered that, at the siege of 
 Peih Yang in 562, having forced his way through the gate with a few 
 followers who were being overwhelmed by numbers, he held the port- 
 cullis up by sheer strength till they made their escape good. At the 
 age of seventy he married his second wife, Ching-Tsae, the mother of 
 Confucius. To her wise counsels the son owed much ; and at her death 
 he honoured her with three years of mourning, first preparing a burial 
 mound with revival of all ancient rites, under which his father's re- 
 mains were also entombed. He was now twenty-three years old ; but 
 he had married four years previously, and his public life had long since 
 begun. At the age of nineteen he had held the office of superintendent 
 of the corn-market, subsequently that of public lands. At twenty-two, 
 we hear of him first as a teacher. What he taught is uncertain ; but 
 attention and intelligence were firmly exacted from his pupils. " When," 
 he said, " I have presented one side of a subject to a pupil, and he cannot 
 from it learn the other three, I do not repeat my lesson." We may 
 believe that the months of seclusion following his mother's death were 
 spent in preparation for his life's work. 
 
 China, in the time of Confucius, occupied less than a sixth of its 
 present area. Its inhabitants had established themselves in the valley of 
 the northern river in districts partly corresponding to the present pro- 
 vinces of Honan, Shensi, and Shantung. Of the great southern river as 
 yet nothing was known. For two thousand years some settled social 
 State had existed here, interrupted occasionally by long periods of decay 
 and anarchy. One of these periods was now prevailing. The dynasty of 
 Chow, established near Honan five centuries before the birth of Confucius, 
 had long been enfeebled, and the kingdom was parcelled out among
 
 28 CONFUCIUS [Theocratic 
 
 contending feudatories. But with political movements Confucius had little 
 or nothing to do. His purpose was to effect a moral change by reviving 
 all that was worth preserving in the ancient traditions of the nation ; 
 to rekindle the sense of duty to man, and of reverence for the higher 
 powers that controlled man's life. A large part of his work consisted in 
 gathering these traditions together, and in jjutting them into the shape 
 in which they now stand. He said of himself always that "he was 
 a transmitter and not a maker, believing in and loving the ancients." 
 
 Unlike the course of intellectual growth in other peoples, the 
 primitive Fetichism of China had never passed into Polytheism. Super- 
 natural agencies did not assume, as in Greece, India, and elsewhere, a 
 human shape, but remained in intimate union Avith the visible objects 
 whicli they pervaded. There were spirits of the hiUs and rivers, of the 
 winds and forests, of the earth and the sky. But of these unseen 
 forces no visible images were ever formed. The universal institution of 
 ancestral worship was more deeply rooted, and was carried further than 
 by any other people. And over all other powers was the vast control- 
 ling influence of the revolving Heaven, supreme object of reverence. It 
 was the puqjose of Confucius to mould these institutions and beliefs to 
 an ethical purpose ; to show how, in the course of two thousand years of 
 national history, reverent obedience to moral law and faithful perform- 
 ance of due rites had been followed by the favour of these unseen powers 
 of Heaven and Earth ; disobedience and transgression by signs of their 
 wrath, and, these being neglected, by decay and downfall. How ftir in 
 all this he was the mere transcril)er of primaeval wisdom, how far 
 he read into the ancient records which he compiled and arranged the 
 highest inspirations of his soul, cannot certainly be known. Enough 
 that, but for him, the Bible of the Chinese would have been un- 
 written. 
 
 Hardly second in importance to his chronicles of the kings, was his 
 collection of sacred poems. Many of these are of great beauty, telling 
 of ancestral sacrifice — of simple village feasts in which thanks were 
 offered to the spirits of the earth who made the young corn grow, and 
 ripened the harvest ; — of the struggles of a young ruler to follow the 
 thorny path of duty. Simple words like these are to l^e found in them : 
 
 " With reverence I will go Nor notices men's way : 
 
 Where duty's patli is plain : There in the starlit sky 
 
 Heaven will I clearly know: It round about us moves : 
 
 Its favour to retain Inspecting all we do, 
 
 Is hard. Let nie not say, Antl daily disapproves 
 
 Heaven is remote on high What is not just and true." 
 
 Much of the life of Confucius was spent as a thinker, historian, 
 teacher, moralist, passing from one of the small feudal States to another, 
 and forming a school of disciples, penetrated like himself with the desire 
 to revive and perpetuate a higher ethical standard. But he was no 
 recluse : and was ready to put jjrinciple in jjractice when occasion 
 offered. In the five years, 000-496 B.C., he held office as chief magistrate 
 of the town of Ch\uig-foo, in the dukedom of Loo. Under his adminis- 
 tration stringent ordinances were made as to sexual relations, as to 
 public and private expenditure, and as to burial rites. It is said that.
 
 Civilisation] CONFUCIUS : ABRAHAM 29 
 
 before taking office, he insisted on the execution of the unjust minister 
 who had preceded him. It is at least certain that a marvellous reforma- 
 tion of justice and public order took place under his rule. Envy and 
 court intrigue drove him from power, and the next thirteen years were 
 spent in homeless wandering from one State to another, often in much 
 tribulation and with a deep sense of failure and unattained ideal. In 
 483 B.C., he was recalled by his prince, and under his protection the last 
 five years of his life were spent in completing his task of arranging 
 ancient records. He died in 478. The worship of his memory began 
 forthwith, and has remained to the present day as the chief binding and 
 directing influence of Chinese polity. 
 
 The direct teaching of Confucius is to be found in the four treatises 
 compiled by his immediate disciples. From these we gather how real 
 and potent was the synthesis founded on the belief in spiritual agencies 
 hidden in the world and encompassing man's life. " Vast and deep," he 
 said, " are the subtle powers of Heaven and Earth ; they are one with the 
 substance of things and cannot be separated. There are oceans of subtle 
 intelligence above and about us on every side." In the work entitled 
 The Great Study, the object is defined as being " to develop the luminous 
 principle of Reason which we have received from Heaven ; to renew men ; 
 to set perfection before us as the great purpose of life. The princes of 
 old strove to govern their kingdoms well ; with this aim they endeavoured 
 to order their families rightly : and in order to do this, they sought first 
 to reform themselves, to render their souls upright, and their puri^oses 
 sincere. From the highest to the humblest, duty is the same for all : 
 self-reformation, self-im]3rovement." " ^Vlen who have reached sovereign 
 perfection can teach others how to obey the law of Heaven : can under- 
 stand the natures of all living things, and lead them to fulfil the law of 
 their being. Thus they form as it were a third power between the 
 Heaven and Earth." Going into detail, he lays down five heads of 
 mutual obligation between men : nine rules for their wise government ; 
 all springing from one great principle, the law of Heaven, of Perfection. 
 In plainer language, his principal disciple summed up the doctrine of the 
 Master thus : " Have an upright heart : love thy neighbour as thyself," 
 or again : " There is one word which is in itself enough as the guide of 
 life : What we would should not be done to us, let us not do to others." 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Laffitte : LuChiiie. Pautliier : L ic res sacres de la Chine. Legge : Chiiiese 
 Classics, vol. i., 1S69. International Policy, 2nd ed., "China." 
 
 ABRAHAM. Reputed date, 20th century B.C. 
 
 Tlie story of ABiiAiiAii, as told in the book of Ge7ic.<i<, is briefiy as 
 follows. The son of Torah, the last of a long line of patriarchal chiefs, 
 who had lived since the deluge in the lands ])etween the Euphrates and 
 the Tigris, he came with his father from the city of Ur of the Chaldees to 
 Haran. Thence, guided by the voice of Grod, he passed with his flocks 
 and herds into the land of Canaan, in which it was foretold to liim that 
 his posterity should dwell. He set up shrines in Sichem, Bethel, Hebron, 
 and elsewhere ; was in friendly relations with tlie king of Egypt ; and
 
 30 ABRAHAM : JOSEPH [Theocratic 
 
 maintained his power as a patriarchal chief among the many nomad 
 tribes that held the regions between the valley of the Euphrates and the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 He was in constant intercourse with Jehovah, who in visions of the 
 night, by voices, and by mysterious messenoers revealed to him the 
 coming greatness of his race. At the call of Jehovah he showed himself 
 ready to sacrifice his son Isaac. " He believed in the Lord," says the 
 chronicler, "and it was counted to him for righteousness" : words of 
 which momentous use was made afterwards by St. Paul. Abraham is 
 said to have died at the age of 175 years, and to have been buried at 
 Hebron, in the cave of the field of Machpelah, where his tomb is still 
 shown. From his wife Sarah came Isaac and the Hebrew tribe : from 
 Hagar came Ishmael and the Arabian branch of the Semite family : from 
 a third wife, Keturah, sprang other tribes. 
 
 It has been pointed out by scholars, that the name of Abraham indi- 
 cates " progenitor of tribes " ; and that he must be looked on rather as 
 an ejionymous hero than as an historical personage. Obviously the 
 stories of Genesis must be submitted to the same test as we apply to the 
 early legends of Greece, Rome, or Britain. It would seem that at some 
 time, between the 8th and 6th centuries b.c, when alphabetic writing 
 came into gradual use, the early legends of this tribe, which we now know 
 to be, many of them, of Assyrian or Acadian origin, were put together 
 by the prophets of Judea. It was part of the purpose of the writers of 
 the Pentateuch, consciously or unconsciously pursued, to intertwine with 
 these early traditions the ethical conceptions of their own time, and thus 
 to speak with the voice of the past. It would therefore be fruitless to 
 inquire how far the facts recorded of Abraham are historical." Historical 
 or legendary, he stands out for us as one of the noblest of theocratic 
 types ; a governor of men in primitive pastoral times who held spu-itual 
 as well as temjioral ix)\\er over them : who was their priest no less than 
 their king. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Knenen : Religion of Israel, vol. i. Pos. Pol. iv. 128. 
 
 JOSEPH. Reputed date, 17tli century B.C. 
 
 Of the tale of Joseph, told in the last thirteen chapters of the book of 
 Genesis., with tlie touches of nature that make the world kin throudi the 
 furthest ages, it is not needful to say much here. The son of Jacob, sold 
 by "his brethren to slave merchants, is brought to Egypt, and there 
 through good and evil report rises, alike through his spiritual insight as a 
 dream-interi:)reter and as ii practical statesman, to the highest offices of 
 State. For "Pharaoh said unto his servants. Can Ave find such a one as 
 this is, a man in whom the spirit of God is ? And Pharaoh said unto 
 Joseph, Foi-asmuch as God hath showed thee all this, there is none so dis- 
 creet and wise as thou art : thou shalt be over my house, and according 
 unto thy word shall all my people be ruled. . . . And he made hhu ruler 
 over all the land of Egypt."" 
 
 It is said of him that he married a daughter of the priest of On, from 
 whom were born two .sons that gave their name to the tribes of Manasseh 
 and Ephraim. He buried his father, embalmed in Egyptian wise, in
 
 Civilisation] JOSEPH : SAMUEL 31 
 
 Abraham's tomb at Machpelah. He himself was buried in Egypt, where 
 his descendants continued to multiply till the time of Moses. It is not 
 needful to criticise this ancient Hebrew tale, which holds an abiding 
 place among the legends of the world. Whatever its historic truth, the 
 story of Joseph, apart from its dramatic beauty, serves to commemorate, 
 though indirectly and imperfectly, the ancient theocracy of Egypt. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 SAMUEL, 12th century B.C. 
 
 Samuel was the son of Elkanah, of the tribe of Ephraim. His mother 
 Hannah, being long childless, had prayed for a son at her yearly pilgrim- 
 age to the tribal god at Shiloh, and the birth of Samuel followed. The 
 child was dedicated to the service of the shrine then administered by the 
 priest Eli and his sons. The worship was barbaric and disorderly, and 
 in accordance with the system on which, three centuries later, the history 
 of the nation was written, it is described as degenerate from a former 
 state of purity. What traces may have survived of higher moral tradi- 
 tions from Assyrian or Egy^jtian sources, marking out Israel from Moab, 
 Ammon, and other surrounding tribes, must remain uncertain. In any 
 case, through the long period corresponding to the book of Judges, we 
 hnd a list of rulers, Gideon, Samson, Jephthah, and others, who arose 
 from time to time as the champions of the tribe, continuing the traditions 
 of the great deliverer who had saved it in far-off times from Egyptian 
 bondage. Of these men it is said that they judged Israel. They led 
 the tribe in battle : they were filled with the spirit of the tribal god : 
 they presided over the rude worship at his shrines. In the earlier part 
 of his life, Samuel was one of these. He delivered his tribe from the 
 Philistines, who had seized their sacred fetich, the symbol of national 
 unity. Then, when peace was restored, he judged Israel, passing in turn 
 from one to another of the shrines of the god (1 Sa)a. viii. 16). His 
 priestly power was hereditary : his sons succeeded him. But long before 
 his death, the struggle, almost inevitable in theocracy, between jwiestly 
 and military rule, had come to a head. A king who should lead them to 
 battle was called for ; and Samuel was content to consecrate his ofhce : 
 reserving to himself the power, should it seem fit, of superseding Saul by 
 David. 
 
 Samuel was more than a priest-king : he was also a seer or pro23het. 
 We hear in his time, and henceforth, of companies of men who, under the 
 influence of music, were stirred to mystical exaltation, and uttered 
 sayings which were listened to as divine (1 Sam. x. 5.) Among these 
 were some who severed themselves from the rest, led lonely ascetic lives, 
 and spoke with oracular voice in times of national danger. Such a man 
 was Elijah the Tishbite : and it would seem that after the struggle 
 which led to the establishment of hereditary monarchy, Sanuiel led a life 
 of this kind in the village of Ramah, where he died. We may thus think 
 of him as one of the earliest movers in the mighty moral change whicli, 
 through a long series of successors in times to come, was to transform the 
 tribal god of an obscure province into a God of righteousness. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Kueneu : Relujluio of Israel, vol. i.
 
 32 SOLOMON : DAVID [Theocratic 
 
 SOLOMON, 11th century B.C. 
 
 Solomon was the son of David by Bathsheba, the wife whom he had 
 treacherously seized from Uriah. At David's death, Bathsheba as his 
 principal queen retained sufficient influence to secure her son's succes- 
 sion, though not till after a fierce struggle, hardly avoidable in poly- 
 gamous monarchies, with the son of another wife, and the slaughter of his 
 following. Solomon confirmed and extended the conquests of his fiither, 
 and raised the Hebrew monarchy to its highest level. On the south he 
 was in friendly alliance with the Pharaoh of Egypt, whose daughter 
 became his principal wife. Northward his kingdom reached the king- 
 dom of Tyre. He levied tribute on the surrounding tribes with whom 
 Israel had so long striven (1 Kings ix. 20). Ships were built on the 
 Red Sea, that traded to the east and south and brought in stores of 
 gold, jewels, and ivory. With Egypt also there was thriving trade. It 
 seemed for a time as though the Hebrew monarchy was to become one of 
 the great powers of the Mediterranean. 
 
 Solomon built a shrine to the tribal god, which, though not comparable 
 in size and splendour to those of Assyria and Egypt, was yet magnificent 
 by contrast with the rude earthworks where Israel had hitherto been 
 content to worship. Seven years was this temple in building. At its 
 dedication Solomon, as king-priest, presided. A long prayer is said to 
 have been delivered by him in a spirit of pure Theistic devotion, full of 
 reference to the future destiny of Israel and to the time when all nations 
 of the world should bow before Israel's god (1 Kings viii. 47, etc.) 
 This i^rayer is of far later date, when the worship of Jahveh had under- 
 gone deep spiritual change. It is enough to note that sculpture of 
 animals and plants, so stringently forbidden by Judaic monotheism, 
 abounded in the temple of Solomon ; and that hard by the shrine of 
 Jahveh were erected shrines of Chemosh, Mulech, and Ashtoroth, gods 
 of rival or subject tribes. 
 
 Solomon was regarded by his nation as the wisest of men as well as 
 the most powerful of kings. How far the well-known love-song, or the 
 compilation of national provei'bs that bears his name, is attributable to 
 his time or to a later century, this is not the place to inquire. Solomon 
 remains to us as one of the most familiar types of the theocratic king ; 
 the wise ruler, the organiser of national worship. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Kuenen : Belif/i"/i nf Ztifcel, vol. i. Pos. Pol. iv. 128. 
 
 DAVID, 11th century B.C. 
 
 David was the youngest son of Jesse of Bethlehem, marked out from 
 his brethren in early youtli Ijy Samuel, the prophet-judge of Israel, as 
 one on Avhom the Spirit of Jahveh had fallen. Endowed with the gifts 
 of music and song, he was brought into King Saul's presence to soothe his 
 iits of morliid anger or sadness ; became his armour-bearer, defied and 
 overthrew the champion of the Philistines, married the king's daughter, 
 and at last became his rival. ]\Iany years of his life were passed in
 
 Civilisation] DAVID : ISAIAH 33 
 
 forced or ■willing exile, in wild warlike adventure among the Philistines 
 and as the chieftain of freebooters and malcontents in the cave of AduUam 
 or the stronghold of Engedi. 
 
 When Saul perished in battle, David after a long struggle was accepted 
 as king of Israel. His capture of the Jebusite citadel on Mount Zion 
 gave to his nation the fixed centre that was to become one of the sacred 
 cities of the world. Here, it is recorded, he reigned thu'ty-three 
 years. Being henceforth the centre of the tribes, it became of necessity 
 the principal shrine of their god. An altar was built there : the ark, 
 with its sacred contents, whatever these might be, was placed there. 
 But of organised Levitical ritual, as set forth in the books attributed to 
 Moses, there was yet no trace. David was the cherished hero of the 
 Hebrew race ; the founder of the nation's military power, the national 
 bard also, sharing to the full his countrymen's fierce passions, strong 
 affections, and moods of mystic exaltation. It may be added, however, 
 that most of the religious songs that bear his name belong to a time far 
 later, when the influence of the prophets had slowly established a moral 
 discipline, contrasting utterly with the wild and lawless passions that 
 swayed the house of David. [j. H. B.] 
 
 ISAIAH, abt. 770-700 B.C. and 600-530 B.C. 
 
 The writings which bear the name of Isaiah are the work of at least 
 two writers, one of whom, the son of Amoz, lived in the kingdom of 
 JucfaR during the greater part of the eighth century b.c. ; another, who 
 more than a hundred and fifty years later, towards the close of the exile, 
 sang of the downfell of the Assyrian monarchy and of the glowing hopes 
 of Hebrew restoration. 
 
 From the beginning of the eighth century, we have the first entirely 
 authentic records of the remarkable series of men who protested against 
 the rude fetichistic cult of the tribal god, spoke slightingly of burnt 
 offerings and feast days as contrasted with acts of justice and mercy, and 
 thus drew a sharp line of separation between themselves and surround- 
 ing tribes. In this outburst of intense ethical fervour no voice was more 
 potent than that of Isaiah, the son of Amoz. Of the details of his life 
 we know only that he lived in Judah from the reign of Azariah 
 to that of Hezekiah. We hear of him as going for three years half- 
 clad and barefoot {Isaiah, ch. xx.) and his life throughout was pro- 
 bably that of an ascetic : but of one who gazed with intense interest 
 at the course of public events. The two mighty monarchies of Assyria 
 and Egypt, by which Israel was threatened on either side, Avere in 
 deadly rivalry. Isaiah had a vision of his nation as the link of union 
 between them {Isaiah, ch. xix. 24). But this vision was rudely dis- 
 pelled. The two divisions of the nation were in constant conflict. In 
 720 B.C. Shalmaneser of Assyria destroyed the northern kingdom ; the 
 ten clans composing it were carried into exile, and disappear from 
 history. A few years later a similar onslaught was made on Jerusalem. 
 Isaiah inspired King Hezekiah to firm resistance ; and the invaders were 
 destroyed by pestilence. Isaiah's influence was now at its height. 
 Hezekiah, at his instigation, suppressed the worship of all other gods 
 
 C
 
 34 ISAIAH : ST, JOHN THE BAPTIST [Theocratic 
 
 than that of Israel, and abolished all shrines of Israel's god but that of 
 Jerusalem. The reform was followed by a long reaction under Manasseh, 
 and by a new and complete reform under Josiah. Then came the 
 destruction of Jerusalem (600 B.C.) and the long captivity in Babylon. 
 
 At its close, when Cyrus of Persia was restoring the exiles, the great 
 poet arose by whom the later chapters of the book known to us as 
 Isaiah were written. By this time the religious transformation of Israel 
 had been accomplished. Jahveh had become far more than a tribal god. 
 He was the God of righteousness destined in some unknown future to 
 sway the world. In theglowiflg_fervour and pathos of the second 
 Isaiah, Hebrew poetry reached its highest level. His ioucMng allusTon 
 to H servant of Jahveh (whether, as some think, Jeremiah or an ideal 
 portrait), who was despised and rejected of men, and suffered for his 
 nation's sin, was applied by the Catholic Church to the person of its 
 Founder, and remains for ever true of the Martyrs of Humanity. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Kueuen : Religion of Israel, vol. ii. 
 
 ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST, d. abt. a.d. 30. 
 
 JoHX THE Baptist was among the last of the long line of prophets 
 who during a thousand years had from time to time arisen in Israel. 
 Through their efforts the transformation from tribal Fetichism to Mono- 
 theism had been gradually brought about, and the Jewish Theocracy 
 firmly established. For the vehement protest and indignant scorn of 
 the earlier prophets there was henceforth no place ; religious fervour 
 found an issue in the contemplative poems known to us as the Psalms, 
 prompt, however, to burst into combative zeal when the successors of 
 Alexander sought to impose the worship of Hellenic gods. The time 
 came at length when the crust of traditions and hypocrisy rendered the 
 routine of Jewish ordinances intolerably oppressive. Into such a time 
 the prophet John was born. We hear of him as an eremite, clothed in 
 camel's hair, with a leathern girdle round his loins, living on the wild 
 produce of the desert lands east of Jordan. From the villages of the 
 Jordan valley, and even from Jerusalem, crowds flocked to his fervid 
 preaching. They were baptized, they confessed their sins, and were 
 exhorted to repent and to lead a new life. 
 
 John was looked upon as a successor of the ancient prophets, Isaiah 
 and Elijah. He became a power in the land, holding his own in high 
 places, and fearlessly condemning Herod the king for adulterous inter- 
 course with his brother Philip's wife. This led to his imprisonment and 
 death. 
 
 John did no miracles. Like St. Paul in after years, he looked on his 
 work as wholly subordinate to that of another, who yet, for the very 
 reason of his claims, not merely to miraculous powers, but to divinity 
 itself, is not named here among the prophets of Israel. [J. H. B.]
 
 Civilisation] HAEOUN-AL-EASCHID 35 
 
 HAROUN-AL-RASCHID {Har4n-al-Eashid); b. 762 A.D., d. 808. 
 
 Harun (Aaron, the Just), the most celebrated of the Arabian khalifs, 
 fifth of the Abbassid dynasty, which descended from Abbas, the uncle 
 of the Prophet, was the second son of Mehdi, the third khalif of his 
 family, and the terror of Constantinople, then under the Empress Irene. 
 Harun began his career of arms against the empire as a youth. In 786, 
 at the age of 24, he mounted the throne of his father and brother, and 
 placed power in the hands of the illustrious family of the Barmecides, 
 making Yahya ben Khalid his grand vizier. He vigorously organised the 
 defence of his kingdom on the side of the empire, and on the east he 
 extended its frontier to Cabul and across the Oxus. But in the year 
 803, the khalif, in a fit of jealousy or passion, extirpated with relentless 
 cruelty the family of Barmecide, whom all the Arabians praise for ability 
 and generosity. In the same year Harun commenced a series of cam- 
 paigns against the emperor at Constantinople, and he overran Asia 
 Minor at the head of 300,000 men, inflicting a long succession of 
 humiliations on Nicephorus. Turning his arms against Khorassan, he 
 was seized with iUness, and died a.d. 808, aged 47, after a reign of 
 23 years. 
 
 Harun was famous as a soldier, as the most magnificent of khalifs, 
 and as a devoted son of Islam. Nine times he made the pilgrimage to 
 Mecca ; eight times he invaded the empire ; and he carried to its highest 
 point the fame and splendour of the court of Baghdad. Mansur, the 
 grandfather of Harun, had surrounded himself with learned men, poets, 
 artists, and philosophers, who preserved the learning of Greece, and kept 
 alive the writings of Aristotle, Ptolemy, and Euclid. Harun reaped the 
 glory of this patronage of letters. Although not himself the best or the 
 greatest of his race, the Arabian histories are full of tales of his magnifi- 
 cence, generosity, culture, and public spirit. He was a great builder, 
 and a patron of art, poetry, and science ; and this, combined with the 
 fame of those who adorned his reign, has made him the hero of The 
 Arabian Nights. His injustice to the noble Barmecides, to whom he 
 owed so much, has not extinguished his character for chivalrous 
 magnanimity and courtesy. The West was delighted by a splendid 
 embassy which he sent, in 801, to Charles the Great, on his assumption 
 of the imperial dignity, ofl"ering a tent, a clock, an elephant, and the 
 keys of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 
 Harun was the most widely known of the earlier successors of the 
 Prophet — his empire stretching from Egypt to the Indus ; his rule 
 being equally famous in arms, in art, in learning, and in splendour. 
 With Abdalrahman of Spain, he is singled out alone of the khalifs to 
 represent the ]\Iusulman Empire of the East, by reason of the reaction on 
 the West of the Arabian culture which flourished in their reigns, and of 
 the interest they aroused in the minds of the Catholic Middle Age. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 Gibbon : Decline and Fall, cli. Hi. Pos. Pol. iii. 404.
 
 36 ABDAL-RAHMAN III. [Theocratic 
 
 ABDAL-RAHMAN III., b. 891 A.D., d. 961. 
 
 Abdal-rahman III. was the eighth sovereign of the Omayyad 
 dynasty, which founded a royal house in Southern Spain (822-1031), 
 after the overthrow of the Oniayyads in Asia by the Abbassids. Abdal- 
 rahman, in 912, succeeded his grandfather, Abdallah, at the age of 21, 
 as sovereign of Cordova ; and at once gave proof of his jxjwers in peace 
 and in war. He was pressed by the Fatiniite Musulmans on the south, 
 and by the Christians on the north ; but in a long series of successful 
 wars he established his undisputed rule over the south of Spain. Except 
 Leon and Catalonia, all Spain bowed to Abdal-rahman, who assumed 
 the title of Khalif After nearly 30 years of unbroken success, he met 
 with reverses, and was again hard pressed by the indomitable armies of 
 Leon, and in a domestic conspiracy he had been compelled to order the 
 execution of his own son. AVith unremitting efforts and heroic spirit he 
 maintained his kingdom in full power and splendour, and died, in 961, 
 at the age of 70, after a reign of 49 years. 
 
 Abdal-rahman was undoubtedly the greatest of the Omayyad rulers 
 of Spain, and his long reign was a period of Avonderful brilliancy and 
 success. He secured for Andalusia a great epoch of order and pro- 
 sperity : agriculture, industry, commerce, arts, and sciences flourished. 
 He had a superb navy, and a large and disciplined army. He developed 
 commerce in the [Mediterranean so gi-eatly that the port duties fonned 
 the principal part of his revenue. His capital Cordova had 500,000 
 inhabitants, 3,000 mosques, and 113,000 houses. He was himself a great 
 builder of cities ; and at the height of his power he is said to have 
 amassed in his treasury no less than 20 millions of gold pieces. The 
 ambassadors of the Roman Emperor from Constantinople were struck 
 with the profusion of art, wealth, and power which the khalif displayed, 
 and Christian princes acknowledged his gi'eat qualities and services to 
 civilisation. 
 
 That which is his gi-eat distinction, and the gi'ound of the place that 
 he holds in the week of jNIahomet, is the energy with which he promoted 
 science, literature, art, and industry. The Charlemagne of Cordova, with 
 inexhaustible activity, himself mastered each branch of science personally, 
 and devoted himself with peculiar interest to the physical knowledge of 
 the heavens. He founded the first school of medicine in Spain, which 
 was long the centre of the medical knowledge of the Middle Ages. INIuch 
 of the learning, the arts, and the mechanical knowledge of the ancient 
 world was preserved in the Arab University of Cordova [see Averrhoes, 
 under Ancient /S'cicftce] ; and its great protector, Abdal-rahman iii., was 
 not only at the head of the civilisation of the world during the tenth 
 century, but he and the culture he typifies exerted a powerful reaction 
 on the whole progress of Western thought. [F. H.] 
 
 Dozy: Musulmans in Sjxiin, bk. iii. Gibbon: Decline and Fall, ch, Iii. 
 Fos. Fol. iii. 404.
 
 CiviLiSATioir] MAHOMET 37 
 
 MAHOMET, b. 570 A.D., d. 632. 
 
 Mohammad, called in Western languages Mahomet, was the son of 
 Abdallah, the son of Abd al Mottalib, of the tribe of the Koreish, which 
 for two centuries had been dominant in Mecca. No centi'al govern- 
 ment had been set up through the vast Arabian Peninsula. Various 
 tribes, partly nomad, partly sedentary, held sway through ill-defined 
 districts ; a certain unity was maintained by language, by community of 
 custom, by mercantile and religious pilgrimages. There were many 
 local shrines in which stone-worship and. star-worship were practised, 
 and here and there divine powers were represented in human shape. 
 None was so sacred as that of Mecca, where three goddesses were wor- 
 shipped, the central object of adoration being a black stone built into the 
 eastern angle of the temple wall. This shrine, to which yearly pilgrim- 
 ages were made from all parts of Arabia, was hallowed by traditions of 
 Hebrew origin. Abraham was regarded as its founder : and here Hagar 
 took refuge with Ishmael when driven forth. Jews were settled in many 
 of the towns, and had told the story of their nation ; and Christianity had 
 been heard of also, not merely in its degraded Syrian type, but through 
 anchorites who led ascetic lives here and there in desert places. 
 
 Mahomet's fiither died before the child was born : and his mother 
 Amina while he was yet a child. Abu Talib, his father's brother, took 
 charge of him and set him to tend his flocks. He was already marked 
 from his fellows by abstinence from coarse pleasures, and by unstained 
 loyalty ; Al Amin, the faithful, was his name. When 25, he became 
 the travelling agent for Khadija, a rich widow. Though fifteen years 
 older than himself, she became his wife. Her unfailing trust supported 
 him through the fierce inward struggles that went on before his mission 
 was declared, and she was the first of his disciples. Many years passed 
 before there was any open breach with the customs of his tribe. When 
 the temple at Mecca, after destruction by a flood, was rebuilt and it was 
 necessary to replace the sacred stone, Mahomet was chosen for the task, 
 which he performed with characteristic insight into character so that 
 each division of the tribe might share the honour. He was now thirty- 
 five years old, of lithe figui-e, broad-chested, broad-browed, with restless 
 fiery eyes. It was noticed that he withdrew himself often to a lonely 
 cave outside the city, and remained there for hours and days wrapt in 
 intense thought. The Avork of his life was here revealed to him in 
 flashes of prophecy scorching as the bolts of heaven, whitening the hair 
 and for the time paralysing the strength. The tribes around him were to 
 be lifted above their lawless life of pillage, infanticide, and lust by 
 unveiling the presence of an all-powerful God who judged the earth, and 
 who sent Mahomet, the last of a long line of prophets, to bring all nations 
 to Islam, the perfect surrender of the will to God. 
 
 Khadija was his first convert. Zaid, his faithful servant and adopted 
 son, with his wife Baraka, who had once been Mahomet's nurse ; Ali his 
 young cousin, also adopted as a son ; Bilal, the Abyssinian slave ; Abu 
 Bakr, a rich merchant, Mahomet's dearest friend and first successor,— 
 these formed the first group of disciples, which in the course of three 
 years had increased to about forty souls. Mahomet now occupied a
 
 38 MAHOMET [Theocracy 
 
 house opposite the Kaaba, and preached openly to the city, denouncing 
 the worship of false gods. Persecution began. His uncle, urged by the 
 Koreish, strove to silence him. " If they brought me," said Mahomet, 
 " the sun to my right hand and the moon to my left, to force me from 
 my work, I would not leave it till the Lord had made my cause good, or 
 tUl I perished ! " And his uncle, who still clung to the old faith, replied, 
 " Depart in peace ; for I will not in any wise give thee up." Then Hamza, 
 another uncle, joined him, and at last Omar, hitherto the fiercest of perse- 
 cutors. Yet success was slow till, in the great pilgrimage of 620, a few 
 citizens of Medina declared acceptance of his faith, and swore allegiance. 
 The words of their covenant are significant. " We will worship none 
 but the one God ; we will not steal, neither will we commit adultery, nor 
 kill our children. We will not slander in any wise ; neither will we 
 disobey the Projjhet in anything that is right." The faith spread rapidly 
 in Medina ; a city far nearer than Mecca to the scene of the great 
 struggle now proceeding between the Persian and Roman empires. The 
 time had come when the new faith was to prepare for intervention in 
 those world-events. The first step was to add political to religious force 
 by uniting the Arabian tribes round Medina as the centre of government, 
 whUe retaining Mecca as the sacred city, the centre of faith, the point 
 towards which every pious Musulman should look while engaged in 
 prayer. The Ilejira (flight to Medina), June 622, is rightly reckoned as 
 the Mohammedan Era. 
 
 The remaining years of Mahomet's life were spent in organising his 
 politico-religious power throughout Arabia. His whole theocratic 
 system, temporal as well as spiritual, is embodied in the Koran, which 
 remains the standard of faith, and the basis of Mohammedan law. A 
 long series of fierce struggles with Jewish and idolatrous tribes remained 
 before the work was fully done. In January 630, he entered Mecca at 
 the head of a vast and irresistible army. The sanctity of the ancient 
 shrine was maintained, but all traces of idolatrous ritual were swept 
 away. In March his farewell pilgrimage was made, and his last charge 
 spoken to the vast multitude : " Your lives and property are sacred and 
 inviolable among you. Treat your women well, for they are in your 
 hands, and iye have taken them on the security of God. See that ye 
 feed your slaves with such food as ye eat, and clothe them with the stuft" 
 ye wear. Know that every Moslem is the brother of every other. All 
 of you are equal. Ye are one brotherhood. I have fulfilled my mission. 
 I have left amongst you a plain command, the book of God, and 
 manifest ordinances, the which if ye hold fast ye shall never go astray." 
 A visit was paid to his mother's tomb, over which he wept bitterly 
 because the Lord did not permit him to pray for her salvation. Then 
 he returned to Medina, where two years afterwards he died and was 
 buried, June 632. Abu Bakr, his friend, succeeded to the spiritual and 
 political headship. Pour years before his death, Mahomet had issued his 
 appeal to Heraclius of Constantinople, to Chosroes of Persia, and to the 
 rulers of Egypt and Abyssinia, warning them to accept the true faith. 
 "Within ten years from Mahomet's death, that faith had prevailed through 
 Syria, Persia, Egypt. Before the century had closed, it had spread through 
 Northern Africa, and was threatening Western Europe. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Life of Mahomet: Sprenger's and Muir's. Pot;. Pol. iii. 897, iv. 440-442.
 
 ANCIENT POETEY 
 
 A FTER the Theocracies which first organisedithe elements of civilisation 
 "^ comes AxciEN'T Poetry, which embodied the genus of progressive 
 evolution. The social and moral influence of Poetry in the ancient world 
 was greater than it has been since, or perhaps ever can be again. At the 
 epoch of the first emancipation of mankind from the immovable order of 
 the Theocracies, an emancipation which naturally began in the coasts and 
 islands of Asia Minor and Greece, there appeared a succession of poets who 
 transfigured the religion, the morality, the patriotism, and the art of the 
 races struggling into a new and free life. They had no other teaching, no 
 writings, no organised priesthood, no intellectual or artistic guides, but 
 the poets. As elsewhere, poetry in Greece came long before prose. The 
 supreme poet appeared. He systematised their theology ; gave them 
 ideals of heroism ; glorified their lives, and filled their imagination with 
 types of valour, beauty, and wisdom. 
 
 Thus the great ej)ics became to the Greek race, itself scattered widely 
 over the islands and peninsulas of the Eastern Mediterranean, their 
 sacred volumes, their literature, their school, their creed, and their 
 national poetry — at a critical moment of human evolution. The problem 
 was this : Human progress — science, art, thought, policy, and free society 
 could not develop in the heart of the great primitive theocracies ; and 
 yet they could not develop without the aid of the arts and the knowledge 
 which, in long centuries, the theocracies had accumulated. Phoenician 
 and Syrian traders carried these arts of life to the shores of the ^gean 
 Sea, where the Asiatic despots could hardly reach them. This beginning 
 of progress can be traced from about lOUO b.c. to 500 b.c, when the 
 open conflict began. About the middle of that period a gi-eat genius 
 formed the type of epic which we know as the Homeric poems, and 
 gave the key-note of all Western art. The conquests of Alexander 
 carried these over the face of Asia, and the Roman Empire idtimately 
 incorporated them, being the natural type of poetry as conceived by the 
 ancients. 
 
 At the opening of the contest with the Persian Theocracy, the second 
 great genius of Greece, the greatest recorded genius in pure tragedy, 
 invented the Drama, which he designed to be a school of national and 
 religious inspiration. Thence followed the tragic and comic poets, all 
 peculiar to Athens, who are allied to the lyrists, and who all have 
 abundant lyrical elements. The comedians, lyrists, and artists of 
 antiquity, with all their manifold excesses, licence, and failings, did, in 
 their higher manifestations, add imperishable elements to the growth of 
 human civilisation. In its nobler moods, the poetry and the art of 
 antiquity formed a permanent exi)ression of the deep-seated love of the 
 beautiful in Nature, in Man, and in human life and manners, in all their 
 aspects, grave or gay. 
 
 The first week of the month is devoted to the lvri:<ts and trau'cilians
 
 40 ANCIENT POETRY 
 
 of Greece, and includes the late name of the Byzantine, Longus, distant at 
 least 1300 years from Homer. Such was the extraordinary period over 
 which Greek literature was prolonged. 
 
 The second week contains the sculptors, architects, and painters of 
 Greece, in their various schools and epochs. 
 
 The third week contains the comedians and satirists of Greece and 
 Rome, classed together ; for here the work of Rome is able to be com- 
 pared with that of Greece, which could not be in the arts of form or of 
 tragedy. The Fabulists are included, as continuing the comedy of human 
 manners. 
 
 The fourth week is given to the poets of Rome, epic and lyric, covering 
 a period of not more than two centuries and a half ; but, by the spiritual 
 and prophetic vision of a Reign of Peace which inspires the poems: of 
 Virgil, continuing its influence throughout the Middle Ages, until it was 
 embodied anew by Dante. [F. H.]
 
 HOMEK 41 
 
 HOMER, 9th century B.c. 
 
 Homer will always remain the greatest and most typical name not 
 only in ancient poetry, but in ancient art as a whole. Whatever con- 
 clusions modern scholars have arrived at concerning the origin of the 
 Homeric poems, they would all agi'ee in placing the name of Homer 
 where Comte has placed it ; and the reasons of their choice Avould be 
 in substance the same as his : — 
 
 (i) Homer is the gTeatest representative of primitive pre-literary 
 poetry. 
 
 (ii) The Iliad and the Odyssey are the types of epic poetry ; and con- 
 tain, in detail, so me of the noblest and purest poe try in the world. 
 
 (iii) Homer is a most important source of \n6wledge'as"t0"ffie life and 
 thought of primitive Greece. 
 
 (iv) Homer is the principal factor in the intellectual development of 
 Greece, the type and model of Greek art and character. 
 
 (i) When we consider Homer as the representative of primitive poetry, 
 we must hold some theory as to the nature of the personality hidden 
 behind the poems which bear his name. Those poems, which have been 
 known to the world for more than two thousand years as " Homer" may 
 most probably be dated about 800 b.c. The literature and the poetry of 
 that age were supplied in the Greek world, surrounding the iEgean Sea, 
 by a class of wandering minstrels who sang or recited from place to place 
 the stories of bygone days. To which j)art of this Greek world we owe 
 the birth of the Homeric poems, we cannot say. Some of the minstrels, no 
 doubt, were poets of creative power : others adapted or repeated their lays. 
 One of the favourite legends among the bards related to a great siege of 
 the city of Troy, or Ilium, in North- West Asia Minor, by a combined 
 force of Greeks from every tribe. The motive of the war was well fitted 
 to commend the story to the hospitable halls of the Greek chiefs : it was 
 revenge for the rape of a Greek chieftain's wife by a foreign guest — 
 Helen, the wife of Menelaus, by Paris of Troy. After many adventures 
 and prolonged delay the invaders took the city and burnt it. 
 
 One incident in this story, which was sung in innumerable lays, was 
 seized on by an imagination stronger than the rest, and was made the 
 central thought and connecting link of a longer lay. It told of the wrath 
 of Ai;hllles,"the chifffhGro orthe Greeks,' ■st^O, wronged by Agamemnon""" 
 anotheTTeader, withdrew for some time from the fight : it described the 
 suflerings of the Greeks in the absence of the hero : and how at length 
 he was induced, by indignation and grief at the loss of a fallen fiiend, to 
 return to their hel]7, and to stem the tide of defeat. This story was the 
 primitive Iliad, and forms the greater part of the present poem. The 
 unity of the motive and the greatness of the poetry made the lay a 
 favourite with the bards ; but, as they recited it, they were tempted by 
 local interests and by amljition to add fresh episodes celebrating other 
 Greek chiefs besides Achilles and other tribes. In these additions, how- 
 ever, they maintained the sjjirit and the style of the greater bard, and
 
 42 HOMER [Ancient 
 
 very likely in some cases adapted other short poems of his own. We 
 may thus speak of the Iliad as the work of Homer — if Homer were the 
 great bard's name — in much the same sense in which we speak of the 
 Parthenon marbles as the work of Phidias, though we cannot suppose 
 that they were all executed by his own hand. 
 
 The other great jxtem which we attribute to the same name embodies 
 another fragment of the legend of Troy. It relates the adventures of 
 Odysseus — the hero of counsel among the Greeks at Troy, as Achilles was 
 the hero of war — on his journey home from Troy to Ithaca : it describes 
 the troubles suffered in his absence by his wife, Penelope, and his son, 
 Telemachus, at the hands of a crowd of greedy and importunate suitors ; 
 the fortitude and constancy with which they resisted the attacks and the 
 final triumph of the hero on his return, who appears at last as great in 
 action as in counsel. That this poem, the Odyssey, is the fruit of the 
 same genius which planned the Iliad there is no evidence. The dififerences 
 in general tone and in detail are many and striking ; and they led even a 
 school of Greek critics to attribute^ the two^poejji,! Jo different_poets. 
 If we are led to the same conclusion, we need not marvel that IFe youth- 
 ful vigour of a poetic race, and the favouring conditions of an age of 
 minstrelsy, produced at least two poets of surpassing merit. But we 
 must note a similarity of language and subject sufficient to show that the 
 poet of the original Iliad exercised a powerful influence over later as weU 
 as contemporary poets. His unique greatness lies in this, that he com- 
 bined the strong human sympathy, the life-like action, and the picturesque 
 language of early poetry, in their most perfect form, with the conception 
 of a unity of structure and a progressive interest which belongs naturally 
 to a later and literary age. 
 
 (ii) When we come to consider the Iliad and the Odyssey as a poetic 
 whole, and to estimate their importance in the evolution, first, of the 
 Greeks, and then of Humanity in the sum, the question of the origin of the 
 poems, and even of the ijersonality of the poet, becomes comparatively 
 insignificant. Both the poems, and especially the Iliad, were accepted 
 from the fii'st as the type of epic, the highest order of poetry. It is 
 from Homer that Aristotle draws his canons of epic poetry. An epic 
 poem must constituteti imited whole. Tliis unity in tlie Iliad is what 
 we"TCC0gnise as the trait of the great original poet — that trait which 
 impressed itself most on his contemporaries and reappears even more 
 strongly marked in the later Odyssey. An epic poem, too, must 
 develop a jDrogressive interest. This interest we feel in the course of 
 that prinntive Iliad, Tree from inconsistent digressions, where reverses 
 press harder and harder upon the Greeks until the death of Patroclus 
 touches Achilles' personal feelings and brings him back to the Grecian 
 host. And in the final catastrophe of the Odyssey we feel that progres- 
 sive interest even more strongly developed as the recognition of the hero 
 and the overthrow of his enemies are slowly and steadily prepared. The 
 third mark of the epic which Aristotle demands— dignity of language and 
 manner — belongs to Homer in an unapproachable^cTegfeeT^and gives 
 a jjeciiliar charm and force to almost every line of the two poems. 
 
 Besides these qualities, which belong to the Iliad and Odyssey as a 
 whole, the details in every part are marked by certain unique and consis-
 
 Poetry] HOMER 43 
 
 tent features. We are presented with a picture of every type of human 
 character and every phase of human life possible in an early military 
 society. All these are drawn not with a subtle psychological analysis, 
 but in clear characteristic strokes, marking out types true to all time. 
 And,^ though typical, none of Homer's characters are ideal, but purely 
 human. " We' iGave bravery typified in many' forms — conimanding in 
 Agamemnon ; generous in Menelaus ; high-spirited in" Achilles. In 
 Nestor we have the counsellor, wise with years ; in Odysseus, the man of 
 cunnmg"word and scheme ; Andromache is the tender wife, fearful of her 
 husband's danger ; Hector, the loving husband — loving honour more ; 
 Penelope, the matron and constant wife, faithful against time and 
 importunity ; Achilles, the devoted friend, tortured even at night by the 
 loss of his companion. And in their subordinate spheres are warriors, 
 minstrels, children, slaves, clearly and truly drawn to life. 
 
 Looking at the language of Homer, apart from the subject-matter, we 
 are struck most by its simplicity, the directness of the diction, the 
 movement of the verse. "TTearlyj^every illustration appeals not to thought 
 and"meniory, but to eye and ear, and is expressed in language as vivid as 
 the picture. And when the words describe not action, but feelings, they 
 are fuU of reality, and go straight to the heart. " Wife 1 " says Hector, | 
 as he takes farewell, " verily, all that is in my mind. But I should be j 
 shamed indeed before the Trojans and their long-robed wives were I, like j 
 a coward, to avoid the battle" {II. vi. 441). 
 
 (iii) In using Homer as an authority for the thought and life of 
 primitive Greece, we must remember that he is a poet. The main features 
 of the society he describes will be drawn from the facts around him ; the 
 details will be largely imaginative, and in the region of pure imagination 
 — the supernatural sphere in Homer — the poet wiU make long advances 
 beyond the habitual thoughts of his hearers. 
 
 To the society of Homer the patriarch has become the priest and 
 king of his tribe — the leader in battle and in council — the source "and 
 dispenser of justice. Such are the chiefs in the Iliad. In time of peace 
 the chieftain lives in his ancestral house, and superintends his herds and 
 lands. Such a position Odysseus holds in Ithaca, and Alcinous in 
 Phocoea. Art and commerce in Homer are almost entirely of foreign 
 origin, due to Phoenician merchants. Literature is unknown. 
 
 The morality of Homer is indicated l^y the types of character which 
 are held up to admiration — the brave warrior, the clever counsellor, the 
 liberal host, the faithful friend, The constant wife ; and by those which ! 
 are held up to reprobation — the coward, the spiteful detractor, the greedy | 
 and arrogant man. No general principles are appealed to ; but the loyal • 
 observance of particular ties, and esiDecially those of a relative or a 
 friend, is recognised as a duty. Women — as heads of households — enjoy 
 a high degree of freedom and respect. 
 
 But it is in his theology that Homer most perfectly sums uji the 
 thought of the age, which he puts into the shape which most powerfully 
 influenced the thought of posterity. We see the older fetichistic deities 
 — earth, sun, sea, night, superseded by the later and perfectly liuman 
 types — Zeus, Here, Apollo, Aphrodite, and Poseidon — in which the 
 Greeks figured the Deity. To these deities. Homer gives the distinc-
 
 44 HOMER [Ancient 
 
 tive character and the position and function in the Pantheon which they 
 retain throughout the Greek system. The gods become men and women 
 of stronger passions and larger powers, but differing from men and women 
 only in degree. And although these supernatural beings take part in the 
 action of Homeric story, and interfere with the course of natural events, 
 their action and interference are so defined and limited, that the story pre- 
 serves its natural interest, and the men and women gain rather than lose 
 by the presence of the superhuman. 
 
 (iv) The supreme greatness of the Homeric poems is learnt in the 
 history of the Greeks and in the analysis of Greek thought. In the 
 first place. Homer was the one common possession of all the Greeks. 
 Their actual life was broken up by innumerable feuds and jealousies ; 
 in Homer, more than in any historical event — more even than in Marathon 
 and Salamis — they had a meeting-ground in the record of a united and 
 disinterested action. It is _the charter_of Greek unity. It is, too, with 
 Hesiod's poem, the Bible oF the Greeks. TFwas studied by every Greek — 
 known by heart, we are told, by many. The expositor of Greek theology 
 appealed to Homer. The sceptic attacked the belief of Homer as the 
 representative of the popular creed. The teacher of morality quoted his 
 texts from Homer ; and those who, like Plato, wished to purify and 
 elevate the national morals, found in Homer the traditional standard 
 which they condemned. Homer is a key to the Greek view of life and 
 of the world. The human i(T5atbf religion and morality which we find 
 in' him dominates their whole conception. The gods are gi'eater men, 
 perfect in those personal qualities which were prized as virtues — strength, 
 beauty, and wisdom. As the old men in Troy adored the beauty of 
 Helen in spite of the trouBIes'she had brought upon them, so the Greeks 
 found in beauty of every kind the seal of perfection, and connected 
 ugliness with imperfection and \'ice, as Homer united them in Thersites. 
 The ideal of art, connected intimately from the first with religion, is to 
 make the perfect human form as an honour and an offering to the gods. 
 Not only in its general aim and spirit, but in every department and 
 every detail of Greek art — and thence of Eoman art — we find the 
 influence of Homer. In sculpture and painting, the types of the gods 
 were the types which Homer had created — the Zeus of Phidias was the 
 Zeus of Homer. In the drama, tragedians found their subjects in the 
 Homeric tale ; the plays of iEschylus -were " morsels from the feast of 
 Homer," while the spirit of Greek tragedy breathes already in many 
 Homeric scenes : — the parting of Hector, the house of Priam after 
 Hector's death, the ransoming of Hector's body. As the type of epic 
 poetry. Homer gives inspiration, subject, and many details to Virgil ; 
 and through Virgil we trace the influence of Homer in the modern epic. 
 
 [F. S. M.] 
 
 On Homeric Question, Wolf : Prolerjomena, 1795 ; Grote : History of Greece, 
 vols. ii. and iii. ; Mahaffy : History of Greek ZiTerature','~\6L'T.,''7^e 
 Poets, and Social Life in Greece. On Cliaracteristics of Homeric Poetry, 
 Laflitte : Les" Grands Types de I'Humanite, vol. ii. ; jNI. Arnold, ou 
 Translatinci Homer. Ou Homer as historical authority, Eveljli Abb"c)tt': 
 History of Greece, vol. i. ; Jebb : Huuier ; Fos. Pol. iii. 2'^'-l'iS.
 
 Poetry] HESIOD : TYRT^US 45 
 
 HESIOD, 8th Century B.c. (?) 
 
 Hesiod was the bard to whom Greek tradition attributed all 
 ancient poetry of what is called the Boeotian School. These writings 
 contain long genealogies and catalogues of mythical heroes or heroines, 
 their adventures and their races ; lists of " proverbs," like the Proverbs 
 of Solomon, but referring mostly to agriculture ; a minute knowledge of 
 everything Boeotian ; and a greater interest in the arts of peace than in 
 the Homeric themes of war and heroism. In one of these didactic 
 poems — the Works and Days — the poet gives us his biography, which 
 passed in later Greece as the biography of " Hesiod." 
 
 His father came from the colony of Cume, in Asia Minor, to Ascra, 
 in Bceotia, to better himself as a farmer. The form, which should have 
 come to the poet, was obtained, through the decision of unjust and 
 corrupt judges, by his brother Perses, to whom, in the poem, he addresses 
 many rebukes and lamentations. But the greater part of the poem 
 consists of advice for profitable husbandry and agTiculture, interspersed 
 with happy touches of natural description, and full of a simple charm. 
 The moral teaching is simple, personal, and intensely practical. The 
 theology which appears incidentally, in rustic superstitions, in the 
 WorJcs and Days is developed fully in the Theogony, which systematises 
 into a regular Pantheon all the popular deities of the time. It was the 
 influence exercised by this work over the imagination of his countrymen 
 which gained Hesiod the reputation of having, with Homer, " created 
 the religion of the Greeks." [F. S. M.] 
 
 Mahaffy : Hislorij of Greek Literature, i. 96. Symonds, Studies of the Greek 
 Poets, YL.\Qi. „^ 
 
 TYRT^US. Flourished aht. 680 B.c. 
 
 Tyrt.^us was so renowned for his war-songs that Horace does not fear 
 to join him with Homer as one who "by his songs roused men's hearts to 
 war." We have no certain facts aboixt his origin or his life ; but Greek 
 tradition is consistent in making his birth-place Aphidnce, one of the 
 demes, or wards, of Athens ; and he is said to have lived at the time of 
 the Messenian revolt against the Spartans. The distress and discontent 
 at the ravages of the Messenians became so great in Sparta, we are told, 
 that they decided to consult the oracle at Delphi for their relief The 
 oracle bade them seek a leader from Athens ; and, when they did so, 
 they received Tyrta;us, whom the latest stories describe as a lame school- 
 master, unfit for the labours of war, but able to supply, what the Spartans 
 most needed, the stimuli of poetry and music. Inspired by his songs, 
 they again took the field, and to him they attributed their final victory. 
 
 Tyrta;us is thus, in a twofold manner, an instance of the influence of 
 the spiritual power on practical life : he was sent to the Spartans by the 
 common religious authority of the Greeks, and he inspired and sustained
 
 46 TYRT^US : SAPPHO [Ancient 
 
 a warlike activity in which he could not himself take part. The few 
 stirring fragments of his poems which remain justify the esteem in which 
 he was held by the Greeks, and are a valuable example of the power of 
 poetry as a direct incentive to brave actions and noble character. 
 
 [F. S. HL] 
 
 Symoiids : Studies of the Greek Poets, i. 72. MahaflFy : History of Greek 
 Literature, i. 162. Berglik : Poet. Lyr. Gr. 
 
 SAPPHO, 7th Century B.c. 
 
 Sappho, who called herself in her ^olic dialect Psappha, one of the 
 greatest of the Greek lyrists, was a Lesbian, who flourished in the 
 latter half of the 7th century B.C., being at the zenith of her fame about 
 610 B.C. Of her life almost nothing certain is known ; from the mass of 
 legend and of scurrilous anecdote which gathered round her name nothing 
 trustworthy can be extracted. She belonged to, and was the chief glory 
 of, the ^olian race in Asia Minor, a people who carried to their highest 
 point the Hellenic love of beauty, their sympathy with all animate and 
 inanimate nature, and their passionate emotions of love and joy. Sappho 
 appears to have been the centre of a luxurious society in Lesbos, devoted 
 to art, poetry, and all forms of culture ; and she collected around her a 
 sisterhood of girl friends and pupils, with whom she formed a school of 
 poetry and art. She was believed by the ancients to have been small in 
 person, dark, with bright eyes, and of vivid passions ; but all that is 
 personal of her, her loves and her jealousies, has been completely overlaid 
 with late and worthless legend. 
 
 All antiquity combined to praise her genius as matchless and perfect. 
 She was called simply " the Poetess " — just as " the Poet " meant Homer. 
 No defect was ever suggested as entering into her art. She was named 
 " the Tenth Muse " ; and from Herodotus, Plato, and Plutarch, down to 
 the extinction of Paganism, the ancient world spoke of her with rapture. 
 She is the only woman of antiquity in the Calendar ; and, beyond 
 question, is the greatest genius who has ever appeared amongst women. 
 Unhappily, the fanaticism of the 'Christians, stirred up by the bad name 
 which the ribaldry of the comedians had imputed to her memory, has 
 robbed us of almost the whole of these exquisite poems, the delight of 
 the ancients during ten centuries. Two short poems, and about 150 
 scattered and broken lines, alone survive to give us an idea of their 
 beauty. But these are enough to show us that she reached the highest 
 range of lyric art. There is about every extant phrase of Sappho a 
 peculiar stamp of exquisite and unique loveliness. It is no exaggeration 
 when Mr. Symonds says : " Of all the poets of the world, Sappho is the 
 one whose every word has a seal of absolute perfection and inimitable 
 grace." It may be that her range was restrained to the praise of beauty 
 and the expression of passion. But within that range, Sappho has never 
 been surpassed — we may almost say, has never been equalled — by any 
 poet in ancient or in modern times. Professor G. G. Murray writes : 
 " She is a love-poet of a peculiar kind. She is the type of those natures 
 to whom Love is no God of Joy, but a God of Terror. There is no
 
 Pobtrt] SAPPHO : ANACREON : PINDAR 47 
 
 thought of lightness or recreation, nothing frivolous, hardly anything 
 cheerful, in her extant poems. Love, with her, is a consuming passion 
 which burns all life away, and leaves the lover sick, miserable, and half- 
 mad. Her poems have the solemnity and passion of Dante's Vita Nuova ; 
 though not the same spiritual mysticism." Her inimitable phrases, in 
 the wonderful language of her country, have proved the attraction and 
 the despair of poets from Catullus to Swinburne. [F. H.] 
 
 H. T. Wharton : Sappho : Text, life, prose, and all known verse translations. 
 Mahaffy: Ilistoi-y of Greek Literature, 2(1 ed., 1887. Symonds : 
 Studies of the Greek Poets, 1st series. --- ■ 
 
 ANACREON, b. 563 B.C., d. 478 B.C. 
 
 Anacreon was an Ionian Greek, born at Teos, a seaport in Ionic 
 Asia Minor. Living at a time when the Greeks in Asia were under 
 attack from the East, he was twice compelled to change his abode and 
 settle finally in the court of Polycrates, the brilliant " tyrant " of Samos. 
 After his death, he found a new patron in Hipparchus, the tyrant of 
 Athens. He is the typical Ionian poet— the poet of ease, enjoyment, and 
 grace ; of love, too, but of love that is the exact opposite to the love of 
 Sappho. Living in idleness and comfort, he sang of love and wine as 
 a systematic voluptuary, who feared nothing but the approach of old 
 age. His nearest parallel in ancient literature is Horace ; but Anacreon 
 has none of the quiet wisdom of Horace, or his genial sympathy with all 
 phases of human life. He wrote, however, the gayest and most winning 
 of Greek verses, and impressed himself so strongly upon later writers, 
 that a number of poems in his own graceful manner were composed in 
 the fourth century B.C., which long passed current as Anacreon's work. 
 
 [F. S. M.] 
 
 Mahaft'y : History of Greek Lit. i. 196. ^y\\\mAs;,_^Studie_s^ofJheG7xek Poets, 
 i. 146. For genuine and spurious fragnieiits, see Befglik, Poet. Lyrici. 
 
 PINDAR, b. 522 B.C., d. 443 B.C. 
 
 Pindar was born b.c. 522, at Cynoscephalse, near Thebes, of a family 
 of flute-players, and showed his poetic powers at an early age. As a 
 Theban, he was opposed to the patriotic Greeks in the great struggle 
 with Persia, and as a professional poet, writing for all Greeks alike, he 
 stood all his life aloof from the politics and the cities. His poems were 
 all of a lyric character, and were written to be sung by choruses moving 
 to the rhythmic measure of the verse. They comprised Hymns to the 
 Gods, Pceans, Threni or Lamentations for the Dead, and Hymns to the 
 Victors in the Games. Excepting fragments, the last alone survive. 
 
 His claim to our remembrance and study rests on many grounds. He 
 was the most famous and popular lyric poet of his day, and is the only 
 Greek lyric poet of whose works any considerable portion remains. He 
 possessed an extraordinary wealth of language and of imagery, which 
 often renders his poems complicated and difficult to understand. He
 
 / 
 
 48 PINDAR : SOPHOCLES [Ancient 
 
 illustrates the glories of the victors by allusions to the exploits and tradi- 
 tions of their ancestors and their cities in every age, so that his works 
 are a mine of reference to the mythologist and chronicler of ancient 
 Greece. Plutarch alone has ninety quotations from Pindar. But the 
 extant poems are, perhaps, most interesting from the picture they give 
 us of the place of importance which the athletic contests at Olympia, 
 Nemea, and the Isthmus held in the minds of the Greeks. Victory here 
 conferred an honour with which no other distinction could compare. 
 
 [F. S. M.] 
 
 Symonds : Studies of the Greek Poets, i. 165, etc. Mahaffy : Ristonj of Greek 
 — Xxt. \. 211, etc. Pos. PoZ, ■iii."236. 
 
 SOPHOCLES, b. 495 B.C., d. 406 b.c. 
 
 The long life of the second great dramatist of Athens extends over 
 the whole period of her glory, and ends just before her great coUapse. 
 He saw the Persian wars and the Peloponnesian wars, the whole career 
 of Themistocles, Cimon, Pericles, and Nicias, the rise and perfection of 
 all the arts of poetry and form, and all the great Athenians between 
 Aristides and Plato. 
 
 Sophocles, the son of Sophilus, was born at Colonus, a village about 
 one mile from Athens, in 495, five years before Marathon, and fifteen 
 before Salamis. He died just before the disastrous close of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian war. He was by a generation younger than -iSlschylus, and 
 somewhat older than Euripides. His father, a substantial man of 
 business, gave him the best education. His beauty, grace, skill, and 
 charm, made him, as a youth, the mirror of his time ; and at the celebra- 
 tion of the victory of Salamis, he was chosen, then aged 15, to lead the 
 choir with his lyre. At the age of 27, he defeated iEschylus for the tragic 
 prize in a memorable contest. From thenceforth till his death, more than 
 60 years later, he continued to produce, it is said, 113 dramas, gaining 
 the first prize 20 times. At the age of 55, he was, with Pericles, one 
 of the generals in command at Samos ; and at the age of 82 he was 
 (probably) one of ten commissioners who finally superseded the demo- 
 cracy. But his military and political career were honorary, and we 
 have no record of his ever being more than a popular and honourable 
 citizen. He died in his 9()th year, just before the catastrophe of his 
 country, having long been the model of the Attic culture and perfection 
 at its highest mark. He is famed for being the type of " sweetness and 
 light," as conceived in the golden age of Athens, the man of " sweet 
 temper," of consummate grace, and of imiform balance of mind. 
 
 Sophocles marks the passage from the drama as a religious institution 
 to the drama as a work of pure art. He made the great step in advance 
 of adding a third speaker to the second of ^Eschylus ; and this was, 
 evidently, essential to the full development of the dramatic ideal. The 
 plot, and the elaborate evolution of character and situation in his plays, 
 are artistically a great advance upon the simple conceptions of iEschylus ; 
 and, in discarding the trUogy, he was able to make each drama a highly 
 complex and refined study of character in action. Hence, by his con- 
 temporaries at Athens, and, perhaps, by the ancients, Sophocles was
 
 Poetry] SOPHOCLES : EURIPIDES 49 
 
 regarded as the perfection of the tragic poet. The (Edipus King was 
 taken by Aristotle as the type of true tragedy. And Professor Jebb 
 caUs it " in one sense, the masterpiece of Attic tragedy." As a work of 
 consummate art, it is perhaps the most perfect tragedy extant. In the 
 same way, all the seven plays of Sophocles which survive are examples of 
 supreme skill in painting character, and in the combination of tragic 
 situations. But the poet is no longer, as in the Trilogy, hero, prophet, 
 and preacher ; he is simply the faultless artist. 
 
 Of the consuiumate beauty of Sophocles as a poet, of his unerring 
 feeling for truth and symmetry, of his nobility and dignity of manner, 
 of his exquisite mastery of himself and all his resources, ancients and 
 moderns are eloquent. In form, he has never been surpassed by ancient 
 or by modern poet. It has been well said that the beauty of form in him, 
 as with Eaphael and Mozart, seems to conceal the strength and fire 
 within. But withal, the strength and the fire have not the sublime 
 inspiration and the moral grandeur of ^schylus. [F. H.] 
 
 Professor Jebb : Sophocles, annotated and translated into Emjlislb Prose. 
 Professor L. Campbell: Sophocles in English verse. Syinonds: Greek 
 Poets, ii. 214. Mahaffy: History of Greek Literature, i. Ti^' 
 
 EURIPIDES, b. 480 B.C., d. 406 B.C. 
 
 Euripides was born at the island of Salamis, whither his parents had 
 fled for refuge at the time of the Persian invasion. He died in 406, in 
 the same year as his senior Sophocles, just before the close of the 
 Peloponnesian war. He lived the life of a student and studied philoso- 
 phy, as a youth, under Anaxagoras ; and, in later life, with Socrates. He 
 is the latest of the Greek tragedians, both the most Attic and the most 
 modern. He is saturated with the new sceptical spirit which was 
 beginning to question old faiths, old traditions, and old customs (see 
 Pos. Pol. iii. 239). 
 
 His intellectual activity, his subtle speculations, his wide democratic 
 sympathies, give a special interest to his writings, while they detract 
 from their artistic value. He abandoned the principle of the older 
 tragedians, that all the interest and action should be concentrated in one 
 character and theme, as in the Prometheus, Agamemnon, or (Edipus ; 
 and in many other resj^ects he seems to break away from the canons of 
 Greek tragic art. He is carried away by political feeling against Sparta 
 or Argos ; and he digresses into philosophical discussions. But the 
 tenderness and pathos of his best work, the overmastering passion in 
 which the rules of art are lost, the deep sympathy with every down- 
 trodden or injured thing, give him a title to Aristotle's description — 
 " the most tragic of the poets." He became the master of modern French 
 and Italian dramatists. 
 
 He is said to have been deserted by his Avife, with whom he was 
 deeply in love. This, perhaps, explains the contrast between his frequent 
 invective against women on the one hand, and, on the other, the marvel- 
 lous beauty and strength of his female characters. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Mahafl'y: History of <! reek Litcrotiir^', i. 321. Aristopliaue.^ : The Froys, 
 Mitchell, and Frere, TransloXurns. 
 D
 
 60 THEOCRITUS : LONGUS [Ancient 
 
 THEOCRITUS, fl. abt. 270-250 B.C. 
 
 Theocritus was born either at Kos, or Syracuse. Most of his life 
 was spent at Alexandria, in the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus, and in 
 Sicily, from whence he takes the scene and language of his poems. His 
 extant works consist almost entirely of idylls ; " little pictures " of 
 pastoral life thrown into dramatic form. It was an ancient custom for 
 Sicilian shejDherds to engage in contests in alternate songs or verses — 
 sometimes of satire, mostly of love. This was the material which 
 Theocritus, keeping and adopting the old hexameter metre, clothed in a 
 literary form for the citizens of Alexandria, wearied of town life, and 
 eager for the breath and beauty of the country. 
 
 Pre\'ious Greek poets, with the exception of Hesiod, had been inter- 
 ested chiefly in action and character ; the beauties of Nature appear 
 but seldom in their poems. Theocritus completely changed this point of 
 view, and made the rustic framework the chief attraction in his pictures. 
 The characters who present the drama of the poems are occasionally only 
 the poet himself and his friends in thin disguise. They discourse of 
 their rival aftections, and playfully attack one another in satirical banter. 
 The influence of Theocritus on later poets, especially on Virgil in his 
 Eclogues, was very great. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Maliaffy : History of Greek Literature, i. 411. C. S. Calverley : Trayisl^d 
 into English Verse. Andrew Lang : TranslaJMlnlo Ungtish Prose. 
 
 LONGUS, 5th century A.D. 
 
 Of LoNGUS himself we know nothing except that he was a Byzantian, 
 and lived at the beginning of the 5th century a.d. He was one of the 
 earlier members of the school of Greek prose romancers which flourished 
 in the third and following centuries, and revived the pastoral idyll of 
 Theocritus in a new form, which was to be definitely established more 
 than a thousand years later in the gi'eat school of modern novelists. The 
 romance of Longus is called Daphnis and Chloc, a pastoral tale of the 
 passion and sufferings of two lovers, who, like Paul and Virginia, their 
 modern counterparts, grow up from childhood together. The other 
 great name in the Byzantian school is Heliodorus, a Cliristian bishop in 
 the third century, who wrote a story called JEthiopica, and gave up 
 his bishopric rather than his art. The yEthiojnca is a story of adventure ; 
 but the interest of JJajohnis and Chloe lies in pure aft'ection and 
 simplicity of character. The romance of Daphnis and Chloc forms one 
 of the landmarks of literature. It is almost the last product of classical 
 Greek, and is about twelve centuries later than Homer. It is an utterly 
 pagan work of fiction, written in the cajjital, a century after the official 
 establishment of Christianity. And it is among the earliest .specimens 
 of what in modern times is known as the romance of sentiment. 
 
 [F. S. M.] 
 
 Translated into French liy Aniyot (16tli century) ; improved and modernised 
 by P. L. Courier. Bolm's Classical Library : Ureck Ronuinccs.
 
 Poetry] ^SCHYLUS 61 
 
 ^SOHYLUS, b. 525 B.C., d. 456 B.C. 
 
 The greatest of the Greek dramatists is also fortunately by far the 
 most historic personage and the most vivid personality amongst aU the 
 poets "6f Greece. We know with sufficient precision the main facts of 
 his life : hut we know his inmost spirit, his temper, and his aspirations 
 as clearly as we know those of Dante and of Milton. We recognise in 
 him a genius of a profoundly religious depth, a character of Homeric 
 power and heroism ; a passionate opponent of the old theocratic tyranny, 
 which sought to crush out the free life of the Greek republics, and a 
 zealous defender of the civil and religious institutions of his country. 
 
 ^SCHYLUS, the son of Euphorion, of a noble family, was born at 
 Eleusis, in Attica, in 525. Eleusis is a town twelve miles from Athens, 
 fronting the bay of Salamis, and the rich Thriasian plain. It was one of 
 the original denies of Attica, second in importance to Athens, and was 
 the seat of the famous Eleusinian mysteries, and the worship of Demeter, 
 which persisted throughout the whole period of Polytheism. Both the 
 town and the worship were probably of Oriental foundation, imported by 
 the Phcjenicians, and the name of the town may be connected with the 
 Hebrew Eleph {i.e. the ox — the name of a city of Benjamin standing in a 
 pasture). Euphorion, the father of the poet, is said to have been officially 
 connected with the worship of the great goddess of Nature, and the poet 
 himself is believed to have been from childhood familiarised with what 
 was perhaps the most spiritual of all the Grecian cults. 
 
 There is a tale that, as a boy, Dionysus, the god in whose honour the 
 drama was instituted, appeared to him in a dream, and bade him apply 
 himself to tragedy. But it was not until the age of 25 that he made his 
 first appearance in the dramatic contest. In the year 490, at the age of 
 35, he fought against the Persians at Marathon : and, with his two 
 brothers, he so much distinguished himself by his heroism that a paint- 
 ing of their deeds was publicly decreed at Athens. He fought also with 
 honour at Artemisium, Salamis, and Platoea : and it is, with the heroism 
 of Cervantes at Lepanto, one of the rare occasions -on which one of the 
 great poets of the world took part in one of the decisive campaigns of 
 history. 
 
 ^schylus was nearly 40 before he gained his first tragic victory. In 
 484, he won the prize with the trilogy of which the Persians formed part 
 From thenceforward he gained a succession of thirteen victories. But 
 in 468 he was defeated by his younger and more graceful rival, Sophocles ; 
 and in mortification, or perhaps in his repugnance toward the rising tide 
 of democracy, the poet left Athens, and withdrcAV to the court of Hicro, 
 king of Syracuse. He was now 57 ; he felt the growing popularity of 
 Sophocles, as Corneille felt that of Eacine ; he was in open opposition to 
 the political career to which the Athenian people were committed ; and 
 he was under imputations of impiety, Avhich then or later took the form 
 of a judicial prosecution. 
 
 JEschylus returned to Athens in later years, and his great Orestean 
 trilogy was produced in 458, when the poet was 67. In the Furies, he 
 shows himself an ardent opponent of the dominant democratic party ; and, 
 apparently on political grounds, he again Avithdrew to Sicily, where he
 
 52 ^SCHYLUS [Ancient 
 
 died at Gela, in b.c. 456, aged 69. His epitaph, said to have been written 
 or directed by himself, ran thus : "^schylus, son of Euphorion, an 
 Athenian, lies beneath this stone. He died at fertile Gela. Marathon 
 can tell oif his tried manhood, and the Persian who there felt his mettle." 
 Not a word about Poetry. 
 
 -^schylus produced, it is said, 78 plays, of which but 7 remain, the 
 Orestean trilogy of the Agamemnon, the Libation-bearers, and the Furies, 
 being the sole extant ti'ilogy, or series of three grouped dramas. It is 
 permitted to hold the loss of these 71 tragedies to be the greatest which 
 ancient literature has sustained. The fame of ^schylus, although at 
 Athens it was placed second to that of Sophocles, as at Paris that of 
 Corneille was dinuned by the fame of Racine, and for the same reasons, 
 lasted long after his death. His plays were often represented by his 
 sons and others — an honour extremely rare and almost unique. He was 
 rightly called the " Father of Tragedy." For, in adding a second actor 
 to the original single actor, who recited a narrative to the chorus, 
 j^schylus made true tragedy possible ; and when, in imitation of 
 Sophocles, he placed a third actor on the stage simultaneously with the 
 chorus, the dramatic machinery as conceived in Greece was complete. 
 He thus reduced the chorus from the principal to a subsidiaiy part ; and 
 in fact converted the performance from a lyric to a truly dramatic display. 
 He also jjrovided scenery, stage decoration, heroic costume, cothurnus or 
 buskin, and the mask ; he also organised and himself trained the dances, 
 symmetrical evolutions of the chorus in the orchestra, or circle below the 
 stage. Thus, this mighty genius may be said to have conceived full- 
 grown, and to have created in its completeness, one of the grandest forms 
 of human art. 
 
 The style and conceptions of .^schylus were in every way those of 
 his character and life. He was uniformly heroic, earnest, profound, and 
 martial. He called his dramas " scraps from the rich banquet of Homer." 
 He carried to a fault sublimity of diction, originality of phrase, and 
 tremendous intensity of dramatic situation. Cicero calls him a Pytha- 
 gorean : meaning thereby his deep and pure spiritual earnestness, 
 ^schylus was a stern and passionate supporter of the old aristocratic 
 and conservative party, of the old ceremonies, and the ancient institutions 
 of the city of Solon. He is a stout upholder of reverence for the gods, 
 the pervading poAver of religion, the sanctity of oaths, the duties of 
 hospitality, and the inviolal.ility of marriage. Intensely military, his 
 dramas abound in terms of war ; and in the Persians his patriotic 
 enthusiasm rings forth like a trumpet. He is saturated with tlie idea of 
 the revolt of the free connnonwealths against the theocratic despotism of 
 Asia. In the Prometheus he idealises the Eevolt of Man from the pres- 
 sure of the priestly caste, and the martyrdom of those who led the way 
 to his emancipation. But, if the Prometheus be the first poem of iEschy- 
 lus, the Agamemnon nmst be counted as his first tragedy — perhaps, as 
 pure tragedy, the finest ever produced, in massive intensity, in unity of 
 impression, and in statuesque sublimity of form. 
 
 It may l^e doubted if Dante or Shakespeare has surpassed yEschylus 
 or even eciualled him, in tlie art of bringing before us ideal beings so 
 imposing, so awful, and so vivid ; or, in so completely transporting us
 
 Poetry] ^SCHYLUS : SCOPAS 53 
 
 into a woi"ld of a weird imagery, real and yet superhuman. The 
 occasional monotony of his stately manner, the harshness of his compound 
 epithets, and the not infrequent tendency to extravagance and even bom- 
 bast, are slight defects among such grand qualities. Aristophanes painted 
 the poet to the life, and did ample justice both to his unequalled great- 
 ness as a poet, and to his noble aim as a patriot and a teacher. For, as 
 Comte has truly said, ^schylus was the great spiritual power of his age, 
 the poetic voice of Greece in the one sublime epoch of her whole history, 
 Aristophanes, in his inimitable comedy, the Frogs, has brought out the 
 heroic temper of the man, the proud and stately self-will, the fiery 
 imagination, the burning faith in high and pure ideals, the avalanche of 
 great thoughts, even the torrent of superabundant imagery which the poet 
 threw into his work. 
 
 ^schylus was more than poet. His inner purpose Avas that of 
 Isaiah and: Ezekiel, of Dante and of Milton : the presentment of the great 
 problem of human life, the sense of an overruling Providence, the moral 
 greatness and force of the just man, the ruin and shame ultimately in 
 store for the unjust, the inevitable retribution that awaits crime, the 
 inheritance of evil, the grandeur of virtue, courage, purity and good faith. 
 It was Aristotle's definition of Tragedy that it " purified the soul by pity 
 and terror." Its duty was to rouse the spirit from all that is sordid, torpid, 
 and mean, by touching the sympathies to the quick, by calling out the 
 dormant feeling of interest in our fellow-men, pain at their suff'erings, and 
 enthusiasm for their heroism ; by rousing the self-contented nature, 
 fattened with good things, to a consciousness of the tremendous issues for 
 good or evil with which human life is surrounded. In this task no 
 Hebrew prophet, no mediaeval preacher, has ever surpassed ^schylus. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 SymoDcls : Greek Poets, 2iid series. Mahaflfy : llistm'y of Greek Literature ; 
 ■■■ Social Life in Greece. F. A. Paley : Tncgedies ; edited ivith commentary. 
 E. D. A. Morshead : House of A treus ; translation of Oresteia. Miss 
 Swan wick : Translation in verse. Pt>5. Po^., iii. 238-9. 
 
 SCOPAS, fl. abt. 400-350 B.C. 
 
 ScopAS, a native of Paros, one of the Cyclades group, then subject to 
 Athens, belonged to a family of artists in that island. AVith his great 
 rival Praxiteles, he is the chief of the later Attic school of sculptors, 
 being nearly a century later than Phidias, the master of the earlier Attic 
 school. He was an architect as well as a sculptor, and the earliest cer- 
 tain notice of him is, that he built the great temple of Athena' at Tegea, 
 about 359 B.C. We also hear of him at work on the temple of Artemis 
 at Ephesus, and the Mausoleum at Halicarnassus. About 377 B.C., 
 Scopas took up his residence at Athens, where he Avorked for some 20 or 
 30 years as a sculptor in marble. 
 
 His subjects were of the most varied kind, largely occu]3ied Avith the 
 more romantic sides of the mythology, or Avith the subordinate deities, 
 and Avere marked, almost Avithout exception, by great animation, iuA^en- 
 tion, pathos, and passion. He loved to mould Mcenads, Bacchanals, combats
 
 54 SCOPAS : ZEUXIS [Ancient 
 
 of Amazons, Love, Desire and Passion, in their most poetic forms, Nereids 
 and sea-monsters. No extant works can with certainty be ascribed to 
 his hand. But some Maenads, Nereids, and Tritons are supposed to be 
 copies from his works. There is good ground to believe the reliefs from 
 the Mausoleum, of which some are in the British Museum, representing 
 combats of Greeks and Amazons, were from his designs ; and the better 
 opinion seems to be that the grand group of Niobe and her daughters, 
 copies of which exist at Florence, was the conception of Scopas rather 
 than of Praxiteles. 
 
 As a sculptor, Scopas is remarkable for the boldness, passion, and 
 fertility of his creative genius. In rapidity of movement, ingenuity of 
 composition, and intensity of feeling, he is without a rival. He is the 
 most lyrical of all the sculptors, and the one whose range is the widest, 
 from frenzied rapture to the most tender and dreamy grace. He is 
 marked off from his mighty predecessor, Phidias, as wanting his sublime 
 dignity and Olympian repose. He is marked off from his great rival 
 Praxiteles, as having a deeper and wider inspiration than that of 
 sensuous beauty. [F. H.] 
 
 For References, see Phidias. 
 
 ZEUXIS, fl. abt. 430-400 B.C. 
 
 The date, the birth-place, and the events in the life of Zeuxis were 
 entirely doubtful even in Roman times. It is probable that he was born, 
 about 455 B.C., in the Heracleia, situated on the Black Sea ; that he 
 studied painting at Ephesus, as he is said to have belonged to the 
 Ionian school of painting, which was of a realistic type, tending to 
 sensual charm. He probably removed to Athens soon after the begin- 
 ning of the Peloponnesian war, about 425 B.C., where he studied under 
 Apollodorus, the great master of chiaroscuro. At this date the great 
 works of Phidias were complete, and Athens was at the zenith of her 
 artistic splendour. For Archelaus, king of Macedonia, Zeuxis painted 
 (about 410 B.C.) a series of mural paintings in the royal palace of Pella. 
 He subsequently took up his residence in Magna Grtecia, in Italy, and 
 executed for the people of Croton his famous masterpiece of Helen ; for 
 which, the story runs, he selected as his models the five most beautiful 
 virgins of the city. He also painted in Sicily, where many of his works 
 were found in Roman times. His works, which were mostly on panel, 
 were scattered, by plunder or sale, over the ancient world, and, though 
 some seem to have been extant in the age of Cicero and Pliny, it is 
 doubtful if any survived in the second century of the Christian era. 
 
 By common consent Zeuxis was, with Parrhasius, his younger rival, 
 the most eminent master of ancient painting. Although he worked at 
 Athens when the glory of the Parthenon was at its height, his art had 
 much more kinship with that of Praxiteles than that of Phidias. He is 
 specially celebrated for the marvellous power with which he imitated all 
 natural objects, and for the extreme delicacy of his treatment. Like 
 Praxiteles, he Avas famed for the grace with which he painted the female 
 form, which he endowed with every charm except elevation of character.
 
 Poetrt] ZEUXIS : ICTINUS : PRAXITELES 55 
 
 He also exhibited great dramatic power, and loved to represent scenes of 
 action, pathos, and emotion. His Infant Hercules, his Alcmena, and his 
 Female Centaur, were famous amongst his works, with many subjects, we 
 are told, of a new and strange character. The anecdotes attached to his 
 name were perhaps chiefly the mere invention of rhetoricians and epi- 
 grammatists. His influence over ancient art was widespread and lasting, 
 and the voice of antiquity concurs in representing him as the first to 
 carry the art of painting to the full limit of its resources. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 Winkelmann : Ancient Art, iii. bk. vi. Smith: Dictionary of Antiq^dties : 
 Pictura. 
 
 ICTINUS, fl. abt. 450-430 b.c. 
 
 Of IcTiNUS we know almost nothing, except that he was the architect 
 of the Parthenon, and of an almost equally celebrated temple of Apollo, 
 near Bassse in Arcadia. He must have been the contemporary of 
 Pericles, Phidias, and Sophocles. His great work, the Parthenon, was 
 erected between 448-438 b.c, under the administration of Pericles, on 
 the site of the temple of Athene Parthenos, or the Virgin, destroyed by 
 Xerxes in the Persian war. It was by universal consent the most perfect 
 example of a Greek temple. Down to 1687 it remained almost entire. 
 In that year the centre was destroyed by an explosion in the siege by 
 the Venetians, during their war with the Turks. 
 
 The temple stood on the highest point of the Acropolis, clear of the 
 walls, Propylaea, and the other temples. It was 101 feet in breadth, by 
 228 in length, being 66 feet to the top of the pediment ; it was sur- 
 rounded by 46 columns, each 34 feet high, and was externally throughout 
 of the Doric order. The pediments at the eastern and western ends were 
 fiUed with 50 colossal figures ; the 92 metopes, between the triglyphs 
 above the architrave of the external columns, and the frieze, 523 feet 
 long, running round the internal walls under the portico, Avere all filled 
 with sculptures under the direction of Phidias. When complete, it was 
 the great art-centre and art-school of the ancient world ; and, even in its 
 ruin, we can recognise it as a faultless embodiment of the highest concep- 
 tions of Greek architecture. [F. H.] 
 
 Smith: Dictionary of Geography : Athens. Michaelis : Parthenon. Pen- 
 rose : Principles of Atlienian Architecture. And see under Phidias. 
 
 PRAXITELES, fl. abt. 380-340 B.C. 
 
 Praxiteles, probably an Athenian of a family of artists, is usually 
 regarded, both by ancient and modern critics, as the chief name of the 
 later Attic school, of which he and Scopas were the rival heads. He is 
 rather younger than Scopas, who was his master, and quite a century 
 later than Phidias. He lived and worked mainly at Athens ; Init his 
 works were scattered in prodigious numbers over the whole Greek world. 
 His principal subjects are the younger and more beautiful of the deities,
 
 56 PRAXITELES : LYSIPPUS [Anciext 
 
 especially Apollo, Artemis, Dionysus, and Aphrodite. With one excep- 
 tion, the Hermes of Olympia, we have nothing that can be certainly 
 attributed to his hand. But many of the ancients attributed to him the 
 Niobe group. And there is little doubt that we have copies of his work 
 in the exquisite Apollo Sauroctonos, the Ajwllino, the Satyr or Faun of 
 the Capitol, the Silemis and Fauns at Rome and Florence. 
 
 The most famous work of Praxiteles, the Venus of Cnidos, was one 
 of the gxeat wonders of the ancient world, and created an entirely new 
 epoch in art. Its general idea is preserved to us, partly by the Venus of 
 the Capitol, of Munich, of the Tribune, and partly by coins. It was the 
 subject of many epigrams, anecdotes, and descriptions ; it became the 
 object of pilgrimages to the island ; and King Nicomedes is said to have 
 offered the Cnidians to purchase it at the price of their whole national 
 debt. It was allowed to be the most surpassing representation of the 
 female form. It was said to have been studied from Phryne, the 
 famous hetaira, whom Praxiteles passionately loved. Though some attri- 
 buted the innovation to Scopas, the Aphrodite of Cnidos is the first 
 presentation of a goddess in complete nudity of which we have certain 
 and exact particulars. The extraordinary beauty of the statue, of the 
 finest Parian marble, and the new scope that it aftbrded to art, may be 
 said to have revolutionised art, and to have opened the way to make the 
 later Greek sculpture largely consist of representations of the nude form 
 of woman. 
 
 Praxiteles is charged with having debased the art of later Greece by 
 confining it to the sensual image of physical beauty. It is true that his 
 ideal is always the perfection of youthful beauty, carried in the case of 
 the Apollos and the Fauns to a somewhat unmanly sweetness and grace. 
 But there is no reason to suppose that in his Cnidian Aphrodite there was 
 anything but ideal purity and exquisite refinement. And in the Hermes, 
 recently discovered at Olympia, and with great confidence attributed to 
 the very hand of Praxiteles, we have one of the noblest types of manly 
 beauty which time has spared us from the past. [F. H.] 
 
 For Eeferaiices, see Phidias. 
 
 LYSIPPUS, fl. abt. 360-320 B.C. 
 
 Lysippus of Sicyon, in the Peloponnese, was a contemporary of 
 Alexander the Great, who made him his court sculptor, decreeing that 
 no one should paint his portrait but Apelles, and no one should make his 
 statue but Lysippus. He was a self-taught workman in bronze ; who, 
 by his energy, industry, and original genius became the most famous 
 statuary in Ijronze of the ancient world. Like all the Peloponnesian 
 school, Lysippus did not aim at ideal beauty, or grace of expression, but 
 excelled in force, realism, and striking personality. His works were all 
 in bronze, and are said to have amounted to 1,500 in number. They 
 represented Alexander and his generals in various characters, Hercules 
 in many aspects, and celebrated athletes of the most naturalistic type. 
 
 Lysippus was the sculptor not of Athene, like Phidias, nor of 
 Aphrodite, like Praxiteles, but pre-eminently of soldiers and athletes.
 
 Poetry] LYSIPPUS : APELLES 57 
 
 Two of his works at Tarentum were colossal, the Zeus, 60 feet in height, 
 and the Hercules, afterwards removed [to Eome. Of the consummate 
 truth and life of his athletes we have an extant specimen in the beautiful 
 work in the Vatican, an athlete using the strigil, clearly a fine marble 
 copy of the fomous bronze which Agrippa placed in his baths. Of his 
 power in portraits, the busts imitated from his Alexander give us an 
 adeqviate conception. It is a;melancholy thought that, like almost all 
 the bronze work of antiquity, every fragment of the genuine products of 
 Lysippus has entirely disappeared from the world. [F. H.] 
 
 For References, see Phidias. 
 
 APELLES, fl. abt. 340-305 b.c. 
 
 Apelles, who was the contemporary of Alexander the Great, and 
 his favourite, nearly a hundred years later than Zeuxis, was the most 
 popular of all the painters of antiquity. He was a native, probably of 
 Colophon in Asia Minor ; and he seems, like Zeuxis, to have studied 
 first at Ephesus, and to have belonged to the Ionian school of painting. 
 He aftei'wards passed into Greece proper, where he studied composition 
 in a more scientific school. The greater part of his life was passed in 
 the service and at the court of Philip of Macedon, and then of Alexander. 
 For them he painted an immense number of pictures, and also their 
 portraits, Alexander allowing no one else to paint him. He probably 
 accompanied Alexander into Asia. Whilst painting the portrait of 
 Campaspe, Alexander's fevourite concubine, Apelles fell in love with her ; 
 and, according to the story, the king surrendered her to the painter. She 
 is said to have been his model for the Vcntis Pdsing from the Sea — his 
 most celebrated picture. After the death of Alexander, 323 B.C., Apelles 
 seems to have travelled over Western Asia, and ultimately reached 
 Egypt, where he was honourably received by Ptolemy. 
 
 Apelles was especially ftimed for his skill as a portrait painter. He 
 painted an immense number of portraits of Alexander, and of his 
 generals. He is also celebrated for the immense industry and perfection 
 with which he elaborated the technical part of his work, and for the 
 colouring. He is said to have invented a process of glazing which gave 
 tone and mellowness to his works. They were mainly on panel, easel 
 pictures of single figures, small groups, with great care given to all the 
 accessories. His most famous work, the Venus Pdsing from the Sea, 
 represented the goddess wringing her hair, the drops of water forming a 
 transparent veil round her form. It was afterwards placed by Augustus 
 in the temple dedicated to Julius Ca?sar at Eome. In his mastery over 
 portrait-painting, in the harmony of his colouring, in his skill in the 
 nude, and in his prevailing characteristic of grace and charm Avith per- 
 fection of technical execution, he may be well called the Titian of the 
 ancient world. [F. H.] 
 
 Smith: Dictionary of Antiquities : Pictvra.
 
 58 PHIDIAS [Ancient 
 
 / 
 
 PHIDIAS, fl. abt. 460-432 B.c. 
 
 Pheidias, by common consent the ^eatest..sculptor of antiquity, 
 was an Athenian, the son of Charmides, of a family of artisS, and 
 exactly a contemporary of Pericles and of Sophocles. The date of his 
 birth is unknown, but it was sometime before the battle of Marathon, 
 490 B.C. His death nearly coincided with the outbreak of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, in 431. His boyhood and youth were passed in the midst of 
 the great struggle with the Persians and during the splendid career of 
 Cimon in founding an Athenian empire. Beginning life as a painter, 
 he studied the art of sculpture under Ageladas, a teacher of the Argive 
 school, and was employed on the immense series of works undertaken by 
 Cimon to rebuild and adorn Athens after its destruction by Xerxes. 
 
 He first comes into notice as a sculptor about 470 b.c, a little 
 before the time when Pericles rose into prominence as a statesman. It 
 was probably about 460 B.C. that his reputation was fully established by 
 the colossal Athene Promachos, a statue of bronze which rose to a 
 height of 70 feet from the top of the Acropolis. In 444 B.C. Pericles 
 became the sole administrator at Athens, and so continued until his 
 death, 429 B.C. " In name," says Thucydides, " it was a democracy, but 
 in reality a government by the first man." An intimate alliance was 
 formed between the greatest statesman and the greatest artist of Athens. 
 Phidias became the close friend of Pericles, and was appointed director- 
 in-chief of all the public works. The chief of these was the Parthenon, 
 erected between 448-438 (see IcTixus). On the immense series of sculp- 
 tures with which it was filled, and especially on the statue of Athene, 
 the chief glory of Athens, Phidias was employed for some ten years, in 
 the full maturity of his genius. The enormous number of the figures in 
 the Parthenon, probably exceeding 500, of which 50 are colossal, and the 
 size and complexity of the Athene, which was of gold, ivory, wood, and 
 precious stones, standing 40 feet in height, make it impossible that these 
 vast works could have been executed within ten years by the hand of a 
 single artist. But Phidias is universally spoken of as the designer and 
 presiding genius of the entire decoration ; and, although some of the 
 metopes are probably of an earlier school, the colossal groups of the 
 pediments and the whole of the frieze have the stamp of one master mind. 
 
 The enemies of Pericles, not venturing on a direct attack, sought to 
 ruin him through his beloved Aspasia, and his friend Phidias. The 
 great sculptor was accused of peculation in having appropriated part of 
 the gold intrusted to him for the statue of Athene in the Parthenon. 
 He was able to prove that he had used the full quantity (44 talents 
 weight of gold) ; for the plates on the statue had been made movable. 
 He was subsec[uently charged with impiety, for having introduced his 
 own portrait and that of Pericles into the statue of the goddess. There 
 is some evidence that this was a feet. Recent research detects in a late 
 and rude copy of the shield of Athene the j^ortrait of Phidias himself, in 
 a head unquestionably taken from life, and wholly unlike any possible 
 ideal type. He is " a bald-lieaded old man," as descrilied by Plutarch, 
 apparently of about 60, witli an unsymmetrical head of the Socratic 
 cast. This may represent a traditional portrait of the sculptor.
 
 Poetry] PHIDIAS 59 
 
 Under or in fear of condemnation, he fled from Athens. He was 
 received with great honour by the Eleans, and seems to have transferred 
 to Elis his school and his pupils. He worked at Elis apparently from 
 437-433 B.C. on the great temple of Zeus at Olympia, where he made 
 the gold and ivory colossal statue of Zeus, the wonder of antiquity, and an 
 even greater and more imposing work than the Athene of the Parthenon. 
 He seems to have died in 432 B.C., in prison, on the second charge of 
 impiet^y7'^^ough by some accounts he was condemned and executed by 
 the people of Elis. 
 
 The principal works of Phidias, besides the sculptures of the Par- 
 thenon, were the three colossal figures : the bronze Athene Promachos of 
 the Acropolis, the outline of which is preserved to us on coins, and the 
 two chryselephantine statues, that of Athene inside the Parthenon, and 
 that of Zeus at Olympia. Of the former we have the general outline in 
 existing statuettes, and of the latter we have indications on coins, and 
 busts supposed to be imitated. Of the effect of this extraordinary form 
 of art, which Phidias is said to have invented, one which could arise only 
 out of an almost idolatrous mythology, we can have but a vague con- 
 ception. In these chryselephantine statues the figure was made of a 
 framework of hard wood, cypress or ebony. On this were superimposed 
 plates of ivory and gold — the whole of the uncovered parts of the figures 
 being of ivory, and the robes of gold ; precious stones, chasing, and 
 various metals being also employed. The Olympian Zeus was regarded 
 as one of the wonders of the world ; it survived for some seven or eight 
 centuries, well into the Christian period ; and it was uniformly spoken 
 of with enthusiasm by the ancients who saw it. However much so 
 complex and artificial a mass differs from our conception of plastic art, 
 we cannot doubt the unerring genius of Phidias, and the unanimous 
 verdict of antiquity ; and we are forced to believe that these stupendous 
 figures were the most imposing and beautiful ever produced by man. 
 
 The other principal works of Phidias were the statues of the Par- 
 thenon, of which the ruined fragments, known as the Elgin Marbles, in 
 the British Museum, present us with a basis of conception. Although 
 we are unable to say that any single work is from the hand of the 
 sculptor himself, it has never been doubted that the colossal figures of 
 the two pediments, and the fragments of the frieze, spring directly from 
 the brain of the master. The world is agreed that they exhibit every 
 quality of the sculptor's art in absolute perfection. Technical execution, 
 sublimity of conception, beauty, truth, dignity, fitness, unerring judg- 
 ment, fertility of invention, and mastery of composition are all displayed 
 in equal power, and in the highest conceivable perfection. If there be 
 one quality which impresses the beholder first as Avell as last, it is ideal 
 beauty and grandeur. Phidias is said to have declared that he drew his 
 ideal of the gods from the description of Homer. And it is in the 
 Homeric quality of serene majesty and simple beauty that his art excels. 
 
 His work is as free as that of Homer himself from any taint of 
 exaggeration, aft'ectation, false emphasis, or sensuousness. It is always 
 at once sublime and perfect. It was a saying of the ancients that " the 
 hand of Phidias alone of men could make the image of the gods." With 
 this power of ideal majesty, he combined a full technical mastery over
 
 60 PHIDIAS [Ancient 
 
 every form of plastic art. He himself claimed no other superiority 
 except that of "accuracy of work." We are told that his skill was 
 equally surpassing in representing the grasshopper and the bee as the 
 gods of Olympus. He was a consummate master in marble, bronze, 
 ivory, gold, or ebony ; in sculpture, in relief, in engraving, in chasing, 
 in enamelling ; in colossal statues, and in the most delicate ornamenta- 
 tion of a moulding or a fringe. He had working under him, we are 
 told, architects, sculptors, masons, bronze-founders, goldsmiths, ivory 
 carvers, chasers, enauiellers, and dyers. His genius was able to bring 
 the work of all into perfect harmony. 
 
 His influence over all subsequent art was almost equal to that of 
 Homer in poetry. Whilst all subsequent masters and schools had the 
 defects of their qualities, the ancient and the modem worlds have never 
 suggested a shortcoming in Phidias, or a single quality in which he was 
 weak. Consummate judgment and unerring taste control the most 
 sublime and lovely visions of beauty. It is significant that, whilst his 
 representations of the nude surpass in knowledge and technical mastery 
 any others known, we have no single extant example in which he 
 presented the female form, even partially undraped. His Venus on the 
 frieze, like all his other goddesses, is completely draped. Nor must it be 
 forgotten that we have no single statue by Phidias, in the true sense of 
 the word. The Elgin Marbles are all, without exception, architectural 
 decorations. Even the so-called Theseus and the River God, sublime as 
 they are, are the ornaments of a group placed in a pediment, 50 feet 
 above the spectator ; and, consequently, like the figures in the metopes 
 or the frieze, they are entirely subordinated to the conditions of the 
 architect. 
 
 Nor are we able to judge whether the great artist was equal to 
 present human expression and emotion with the same power that he 
 has presented the human form. No single head has survived to us 
 uninjured of any of the larger figures that we can certainly ascribe to 
 Phidias. But in the extant busts of Jupiter we may recognise faint 
 copies of the majesty which he could give to the King of the Gods. We 
 cannot assume that even Michael Angelo or Eaphael surpassed Phidias 
 in power of expression ; and they assuredly did not surpass him in 
 invention, in knowledge, or in sublime and serene beauty. There is 
 every reason to believe that Phidias was the most perfect and complete 
 genius who ever appeared in the arts of form : the one artist in whom 
 we find nothing wanting, and of whom we know no failure. [F. H.] 
 
 Smith: Biograph. Dictionary : Phidias', and Dictionary of Antiquities: 
 Statxuiria Ars. Plutarch : Life of Pericles. Lubke ; History of 
 Sculpture. Dr. C. Waldstein : !^ rf of Pheidias, 1885, pp. 54-86; and 
 see under ICTINUS. Murray: History of Greek 8adpture,\o\,\\. Pos. 
 Pol. ii. 235, 240. Laffitte : Grands Types, vol. ii. lect. 11.
 
 Poetry] .-ESOP : PILPAY 61 
 
 -ffiSOP, possibly the 6tli century b.c. '/ 
 
 j^op is the reputed author of a collection of moral fables, which, in 
 various fomis, has had a wide vogue and great influence in Europe. 
 Abo ut the m an we know absolutely nothing. The fables were shown by 
 Bfehtley to "be probably of Tndian or "Persian origin. The form of 
 imagination which gives speech and other human characteristics to the 
 lower animals is common and congenial to the early stages of thought, 
 but it appears very rarely in Greek literature. We have an instance in 
 both Hesiod and ^schylus, and in one or two other early Greek poets, 
 but not elsewhere. In placing ^sop at the head of the series of writers 
 of whom Aristophanes is chief, we may recognise the fact that in this 
 " beast epic " is the earliest form of that humorous description of the 
 faults of human life which, in its fully developed shape, we call " comedy " 
 (see Pos. Pol. iii. 234). The Fables of ^sop were versified in later 
 years by Phsedrus in Latin, and by Babrius in Greek. But it was 
 another writer, now almost forgotten, who kept these fiibles alive during 
 the Middle Ages, enjoying for many centuries a celebrity second only to 
 Virgil — the half-barbarous elegiac fabulist, Avianus. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Mahaffy : History of Greek Literature, i. 93, etc. 
 
 PILPAY. 
 
 The name of Pilpay or Bidpai is entirely unknown to the Hindoos. 
 The Fables and Proverbs which pass under his name consist mainly of 
 the Pantcha Santra, or Five Sections, and the Hitoimdcsa^ or Friendly 
 Instructor, which were translated into Persian in the fifth century a.d. 
 They were afterwards translated into Arabic ; and in 1709 the Persian 
 version was translated into French under the title of Lea Conseils et les 
 Maximcs de Pilpay, which appear in English as The Instructive and 
 Entertaining Fables of Pilpay. The name of Pilpay appears to have 
 been first attributed to the collection in Persia, the reputed Hindoo 
 author being Vishnu-Sarma. 
 
 These fables are the earliest collection in the world, and greatly 
 surpass in humour and in variety of matter and of lesson the Fabler of 
 jFlsof. There is at the same time similarity enough between the two 
 collections to make us believe in a common source. The Sanskrit fables 
 are supposed to be told by their author for the education of the children 
 of a certain rajah, and form a wonderfully interconnected series. The 
 animals introduced relate other stories to one anothei', and deliver many 
 proverbs and practical moral precepts, which form a much more impor- 
 tant part of this collection of fal)les than of any other. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Charles Wilkhis : English Translntions of the Sanskrit Fables, 17S7. Selec- 
 tion in Henry ^lorley's " Universal Library." Trams. R. Aslat. Soc. 
 i. Too.
 
 62 PLAUTUS : TERENCE [Ancient 
 
 PLAUTUS {Tihis Maccms Plauhis), abt. 254-184 B.C. 
 
 Plautus was born in Umbria about the middle of the third century 
 B.C. He is said by some to have been a slave and afterwards a stage- 
 carpenter. But these may be stories invented to account for his know- 
 ledge of slave character and his connection, though a man of humble 
 origin, with the theatre. He produced his first play in 224 B.C., and 
 wrote without a rival tUl his death forty years later. Twenty of his 
 plays remain. 
 
 Like his successors, Ciecilius and Terence, he was largely indebted to 
 Menander and the later comedians of Athens, though he is probably 
 more original than either of them. This method of borrowing in some 
 points resembles that of Shakespeare himself. Characters with Greek 
 names, and nominally living in Greek cities, act as Eomans, and refer to 
 Roman customs as familiar things and to the Greeks as foreigners. For 
 this reason the plays of Plautus are much more valuable than those 
 of Terence as pictures of Roman life. In one play, the Pmnnlus, or 
 Young Carthaginian, written at the time of the second Punic War, we 
 have a unique picture of the Roman enemies drawn by the popular 
 Roman poet ; and it is very fairly and generously drawn. Plautus, like 
 Terence, draws only on the recognised types of the later Athenian 
 comedy — the stern or indulgent father, the spendthrift son, the clever 
 and faithful slave, and the shameless parasite — who were all classified 
 and fitted with a characteristic mask. Considering these limits, the 
 genius of Plautus for developing amusing situations and lively dialogue 
 is very great and has been appreciated — in adaptations and imitations — 
 by Shakespeare, Moliere, Fielding, and many other dramatists. 
 
 [F. S. M.] 
 
 Sellar : Roman Poets of the RepuUic, ch. vi. p. 152. 
 
 TERENCE {Publius Terentius Afer), b. 192 B.C., d. 158 B.C. 
 
 Terence was born in Africa, and in his youth was.brought to Rome as 
 a slave. The name of his family is unknown, but when he was set free he 
 took that of Terentius, from his master Terentius Lucanus. He began 
 to wTite in the year 166 B.C., and continued witli increasing success till 
 his death. 
 
 Owing to the loss of the writings of Menander, the later, or new 
 comedy of the Greeks is known to us only by the plays of Plautus and 
 Terence ; and superior as Plautus was in brightness and originality, the 
 dignity of Terence's style, and the purity of his Latin, so strange in an 
 African slave, have made him for the moderns the chief representative of 
 the ancient comedy of private life. Hence his enormous influence in 
 literature ; for Cervantes, Shakespeare, and Moliere have all been 
 indebted to him. Such plays as Les Fourberies de Scapin breathe the 
 very spirit of the ancient comedy. 
 
 Terence took the plots of his six plays from the Greek, and nuich of 
 his work is merely translation, so that it is difficult to tell how far its 
 merits are his own or Menander's ; but one of his most successful 
 characters, the insolent i^inrasite, Phormio, who is yet ever ready, faithful, 
 and undaunted in the service of his friends, comes in a play taken from
 
 Poetry] TERENCE : MENANDER 63 
 
 a very inferior dramatist. His plots and characters are drawn from a 
 narrow and somewhat conventional field. The troubles of young men in 
 love, and their efforts to outwit their elders, with the aid of clever slaves 
 and parasites, form the general groundwork ; and a favourite way out of 
 the difficulties is the discovery that the girl in question has been lost or 
 stolen in childhood, and is really of a most respectable family. The slaves 
 of Terence are a wonderful study to those who reflect on the story of his 
 life. They are always on the side of youth and pleasure, full of 
 impudence and resource, often with a fidelity to theu' chosen part, 
 unshaken even by the sound of the whip and the chains which we hear 
 behind all. The comedy of the ancients did not allow of characters 
 showing the extremes of heroism or baseness, but in Terence all are 
 marked by some redeeming qualities. The suspicious fathers and dis- 
 solute sons, crafty slaves and overbearing masters, braggarts, parasites, 
 and courtesans have all some share of kindly human feeling and good 
 fellowship. The words of Terence so often quoted may stand as the 
 very essence of his moral teaching : " Homo sum, humani nihil a me 
 alienum jnito " — " I am a man ; and think there is nothing human but 
 claims my sympathies." [S. H. S.] 
 
 Simcox : History of Latin Literature, i. 53. Sellar : Roman Poets of the 
 Hepublic, ch. vii. p. 201. 
 
 MENANDER, b. 342 B.C., d. 291 B.C. 
 
 Mexaxder is the gTeatest name in the Athenian comedy of private 
 life, which grew up with the decline of the power and public life of 
 Athens. He was an Athenian of the age of Demetrius and the 
 successors of Alexander, the son of a general who was a friend of 
 Demosthenes. He was the contemporary, friend, and follower of 
 Theophrastus and Epicurus, and his comedies are marked by the 
 insight into character of the one, and the love of ease, suavity, and 
 grace inculcated by the other. Though he wrote more than 100 plays, 
 only 8 were crowned ; but the verdict of later times placed him above 
 all his rivals. He was drowned while swimming in the harbour of 
 Pinvus, and was buried near the tomb of Euripides. 
 
 Though none of his plays remain in their entirety, several hundred 
 lines or short passages are preserved, -wliich justify his high reputation. 
 And the imaginary letters of ^Nlenander, written by Alciphron, illustrate 
 the lights and shades of his character Avith strange delicacy and genius. 
 But he is now known chiefly by the plays of Plautus and Terence, some 
 of which were little more than translations of his own. Through them 
 he has exercised a profound influence on the literature of modern Eurojie. 
 By the general judgment he was in every way superior to his Latin 
 followers, Terence being spoken of as especially inferior to him in 
 brightness and wit. Caesar calls Terence a mutilated Menander {dviiii- 
 diatus, a half-and-half Menander). [F. S. M.] 
 
 Maliaffy : History nf Greek Literature, i. 471, etc. Synionds : Studies of 
 the Greek Puets, ii. 332. Macaulay compares Meiiander to Addison, 
 whom he resendiles in quiet wit, gentleness, and knowledge of the world. 
 But Menander added to tlii.s an undercurrent of enthusiasm lor Athens 
 and Attic culture.
 
 64 PH.EDRUS : JUVENAL [AifciENX 
 
 PH^DRUS, 1st Century a.d. 
 
 Ph^drus was of Thracian or Macedonian origin, and was probably- 
 brought as a captive to Rome in the time of Julius Ca3sar. He is said 
 to have been a slave of the Emperor Augustus, but rose to freedom and 
 fame as a writer of metrical fables. He lived through the reign of 
 Tiberius, to whom he refers in his poems. Sejanus, the powerful 
 minister of Tiberius, was his bitter and persistent enemy. His poems 
 are mainly versions of iEsopian fables, with a few original and con- 
 temporary stories. He presented to the Roman world that form of 
 imaginative literature which ^sop had made familiar to the Greeks. 
 His importance was greatest in the middle ages ; when the fables of 
 Romulus and other collections were current, based originally on his. 
 The name of Phaidrus, however, was unknown ; and the authentic fables 
 were not discovered till the 16th century. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Simcox: History of Lai in Literature, i. 374. 
 
 JUVENAL, end of the 1st Century a.d. 
 
 All the events of Juvenal's life, including the date of his birth and 
 death, are quite uncertain. All we know of him is that he wrote 
 towards the end of the first century a.d. ; was sent against his will to 
 Egypt, and lived for some time at Aquinum in Latium. He Avas the 
 most powerful of the Roman satirists, and poured his invective on the 
 social vices of the early Empire. Underlying all his satire is a strong 
 dislike of the imperial system, and a regret for the loss of the manners 
 and constitution of Republican Rome, when Roman citizens formed a 
 proud and narrow corporation, with simple tastes and warlike habits. 
 He does not, therefore, appreciate the beneficent aspect of the Roman 
 Empire, but dwells on the evils and abuses introduced by foreign 
 customs and by a state of peace without industrial pursuits. He 
 satirises the crowd of clever and unscrupulous Greeks who were able 
 and ready to do anything for pay. He describes the monstrous growth 
 of luxury of all kinds, the worship of money and matei'ial goods, the 
 degradation of ancient families, and the arrogance and display of wealthy 
 upstarts. He deplores the spread of novel and degrading superstitions, 
 especially among women. Above all, he dwells on the dissolution of old 
 social ties, the cliange in the character of women, the corruption of the 
 young, the decay of the family. In his later satires Juvenal combines, 
 with his vivid and often personal invective, many passages of great 
 beauty describing the ideal life of virtue and simple manners. Several 
 of the satires have been translated by Dryden, and two of them are 
 imitated by Dr. Johnson in his London and The Vanity of Ihnnan 
 Wishes. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Simcox : History <f Latin Literature, ii. 11-3. W. GilTord : Translated 
 into Hnglish Verse.
 
 Poetry] LUCIAN : ARISTOPHANES 65 
 
 LUOIAN, b. 120 A.D., d. 200 A.D. (?) 
 
 LuciAN was born a.d. 120, at Samosata, on the Euphrates. His 
 father, a poor man, intended him to become a stone-mason, and carver 
 of the images of Hermes, which were common at the street corners. He 
 tells us how he disliked this work, and how he managed to get a literaiy 
 education in spite of it. He composed orations, p ractised as an advocate, 
 and gave lectures on public speaking till his 40th year] He then settled 
 down at Athens, and devoted himself to the study of philosophy and 
 literary work. A large number of his works remain ; they consist of 
 satires on the Greek theology, on the philosophers, and on society 
 generally. 
 
 When we compare Lucian with the two satirists — Juvenal ana 
 Aristophanes — between whom he stands in the calendar, we are struck 
 by his more modern spirit. He is always humorous and never bitter, 
 and he has the modern love for an imaginary world. He draws the 
 characters of the old mythology, and relates their legends with the 
 complacent humour of one who is completely emancipated from the old 
 beliefs, and who yet retains an affection for them. In his stories of 
 imaginary adventure, his easy diction and the wealth of his fancy 
 remind us of the most literary of modern novelists. In his social satires 
 he is sometimes directly indebted to Juvenal, but, unlike him, he never 
 is personal in his attacks. He takes a strong interest in all sides of 
 human life ; but shows the favourite bent of his mind by a constant 
 recurrence to philosophers and theological questions. In the Dialogues 
 of the Dead, where the wit and liveliness of his dialogue and his vivid 
 drawing of character are seen at their best, we find many deep and true 
 thoughts on the nature of death, the vanity of personal pride and wealth, 
 the terrors of an evil conscience, and the reward of a good life in the 
 permanence of its results and in the memory of men. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Collins : Ancient Classics Series : Lucian. C. S. Jerram : Luciani Vera. 
 "'TTisloria (Clarendon Press Series) ; Introduction. 
 
 ARISTOPHANES, b. 444 B.C., d. 380 B.C. (?) 
 
 Of the great comic poet of antiquity, thougli he has left us a vivid 
 picture of his own personality, of Avhat he loved, and what he despised, 
 we know almost nothing with any certainty. He flourished about half 
 a century after the great epoch of Athenian glory, and lias given us 
 immortal sketches of the Republic as it hastened to its speedy decline. 
 Of his life we know little more tlian this. — 
 
 ARiSTOPiiAyES, the son of Philippus, was probably an Athenian, 
 born about 444 b.c. He was a lover of pleasure and of society, and is 
 introduced as one of the brilliant revellers in Plato's Banquet. He won 
 a prize with his first comedy, in 427 b.c, soon after the ojjening of the 
 Peloponnesian war, when he was still a lad under age. He continued to 
 exhibit comedies over a period of 40 years ; it is said that he produced 
 54, of which 11 only survive. He left three sons, all comic poets : and 
 
 E 
 
 /
 
 66 ARISTOPHANES [Ancient 
 
 he died about 380 b.c, when Athens had lost all political importance, 
 and all her great men except Plato and his followers. 
 
 Aristophanes was the unrivalled master of the Old Comedy, i.e. direct 
 political, personal, and social satire ; and in that sphere, he claimed a 
 licence of caricature, buffoonery, and burlesque unequalled in the history 
 of lampoon, ancient or modern. It was a time of intense activity and 
 fierce strufrgle in the world of ideas as well as of politics. The poet, a 
 passionate believer in the old heroes and the ancient institutions and 
 manners of Athens, attacked in a series of satires the demagogues, the 
 war poUticians, the dandies, the quacks, the pettifoggers, the innovators 
 in philosophy, politics, manners, and poetry. He is an intense and 
 unscrupulous partisan, an incorrigible mocker of gods and men, and a 
 bold assertor of the " good cause," and the " old times." He exhibits, 
 with all his party acrimony and his extravagant ribaldry, a sound political 
 sense, a conscientious conservatism, and a courageous love for what is just 
 and true. In the downward race of a fickle democracy, he could be 
 hardly anything but reactionary : and in an age hurrying into the arti- 
 ficial sophistry and the rhetorical trifling which so soon absorbed Athenian 
 intellect, he makes blind onslaughts on social reformers like Socrates, and 
 masters of tenderness like Euripides. Cleon the demagogue, Euripides 
 the sentimentalist, and Socrates the type of the critical sophist, are the 
 constant objects of his ridicule. In all these attacks there is much that 
 is blind, not a little that is unfair. But to an earnest conservative like 
 the poet, Cleon embodied the foUies and conceit of democracy ; Euripides, 
 the taste for morbid rhetoric in poetry ; and Socrates, the Rousseauism 
 of antiquity, which subjected every established belief to a metaphysical 
 criticism. 
 
 Democracy, metaphysics, and romanticism are the constant objects of 
 his satire. But Aristophanes seems in his plays to have deliberately con- 
 stituted himself moral censor of his time : — at once the Boileau, the Swift, 
 the Dr. Johnson, the Carlyle, in the decline and fall of Athens. In the 
 lost Banquetters, his first play, he pleads for the old and manly education 
 of youth. In the lost Babylonians he attacks the system of appointing 
 to offices by lot. Three plays, the Acharnians, the Peace, and the Lysis- 
 trata, are devoted to pleading for peace, during the horrors of the Pelopon- 
 nesian war. In the Knights, he gives his immortal parody of the dema- 
 gogic arts of Cleon. As no one dared to represent the powerful orator, 
 Aristophanes smeared his face with wine-lees, and boldly performed the 
 part of Cleon himself In the Clouds, Socrates is attacked as the arch- 
 sophist, who corrupts youth by the new-fangled system developed in his 
 Notion-shop. The Wasps is an attack on the j^artisan corruption of the 
 law-courts. In the Birds, perhaps the best of all Aristophanes' comedies, 
 if not the best of all extant burlesques, where the Birds resolve in council 
 to build a new city in the sky, to be called Clond-cuckoo-toivn, the poet 
 was satirising the extravagant schemes of imperial aggrandisement which 
 led to the ruin of Athens. In the Frogs, he brings /Eschylus and 
 Euripides into rival contest, and covers the latter with his ridicule and 
 scorn. In the Plutus ( Wealth), and the Women in Conncil, he takes up 
 tlie questions of new social j^anaceas, the equalisation of wealth, and the 
 political equality of Avomen. Never did poet treat satu-e more seriously
 
 Poetry] ARISTOPHANES : ENNIUS 67 
 
 and more systematically, as a weapon to combat folly and vice, and to 
 teach justice and moral truth. Aristophanes is not always right ; but he 
 always has a moral purpose. 
 
 That, as poet and satirist, he showed every quality in perfection, the 
 ancients and the modems are agreed. His inexhaustible wit, his fantas- 
 tic imagination, his rollicking humour, his exquisite visions of fairy -land, 
 have never been equalled but by Shakespeare : they two only of poets 
 have raised burlesque into the truly sublime. There are, moreover, in the 
 choruses of these comedies, passages of lyric beauty and power which 
 Pindar might envy ; and in mastery of the Attic tongue, Sophocles and 
 Plato alone can vie with Aristophanes. Unfortunately nearly all his 
 plays are polluted with a coarseness and obscene ribaldry which have no 
 parallel in ancient or modern literature. But these crapulous and priapic 
 indecencies of his belong not so much to the man as to, the age ; and 
 indeed they are part of the ancient rites of the god of revelry, from which 
 comedy sprang. The nakedness and filthiness of these primitive sur- 
 vivals of nature-worship are rather disgusting than immoral. And 
 Aristophanes, at least, converted a display of obsolete ribaldry to a lofty 
 moral and social end. 
 
 His comedies combined all that, in modern times, is aimed at by 
 political journalism, pictorial caricatures, poetical satires, comic opera and 
 pantomime. If we take Aristophanes in all his elements, we should have 
 to look for parallels to Swift's pamphlets and Travels of Gulliver, the 
 caricatures of H. B. and Punch, the lyrics of Shelley and Victor Hugo, 
 the fairy world of A Midsummer Night's Dream and the Tempest, the 
 invective of Junius, the irony of Courier, the humour of Carlyle ; all 
 represented with the nmsical accompaniment and the scenic resources of 
 a modern theatre. Fortunately some conception of this amazing medley 
 can be gathered from the excellent translations of Hookham Frere, T. 
 Mitchell, and B. B. Eogers. The extinction of political activity and 
 freedom in Athens was fatal to the direct satii'e of the Old Comedy. It 
 passed by an easy transition into the New Comedy or Comedy of Manners, 
 of which Menander is the type, and which is the true parent of our 
 modern comedy. [F. H.] 
 
 Mahaffy : History of Greek Literature, i. 421. Symonds : Greek Poets, 1st 
 series, i. 245. Laffitte : Grands Types, ii. lect. 11, "" - ■ • 
 
 ENNIUS, b. 239 B.C., d. 169 B.c. 
 
 Roman poetry, an import from Greece, cultivated for two centuries by 
 provincials and never acclimatised at Rome till the Empire, traced its 
 origin back to Ennius, born at Rudi;i' in Calabria. His Oscan blood, 
 combined with a Greek education received at Tarentum, and cemented 
 by Roman citizenship conferred in 184 B.C., rendered him a fit founder of 
 so composite a thing as the poetry of Social Polytheism. By a strange 
 freak of fate, he was brought to Rome in 204 B.C., by the elder Cato, who 
 met him as a centurion in the Sardinian army — the " senii-Gr;x>cus " by 
 the great type of aristocratic nationalism. He gained a plain livelihood
 
 68 ENNIUS : LUCRETIUS [Ancient 
 
 on the Aventine by teaching Greek and writing poetry of various kinds. 
 In his later years his friendship was sought after by many of the leading 
 men of the day, including Scipio Africanus, and M. Fulvius Nobilior, 
 with whom he served on the ^tolian expedition. Six hundred dislo- 
 cated lines survive of works which covered the whole field of poetry. 
 Comedies from Menander, tragedies from Euripides, satires of native 
 growth were crowned in his old age by the epic of his country's history 
 from the earliest times to the end of the First Punic War, on which his 
 contemporaries and posterity have agreed to rest his fame. By the 
 desire of his patron Scipio Africanus, his remains were deposited in the 
 sepulchre of the Scipios, and his bust was allowed a place in the effigies 
 of the great house. The works of Ennius existed entire so late as the 
 13th century. He himself wrote his epitaph, foretelling his immortal 
 fame, as one whose words would be repeated from mouth to mouth for 
 ever. 
 
 Living in the second aristocratic stage of Eoman history, Ennius 
 embodied the fuU fruits of Rome's native development, with the germ of 
 the new culture in its crudest form. Divining the right road for his 
 country's poetry, he discarded the native metres of Nsevius and Larus 
 Andronicus, and presented with much spirit the Greek hexameter and 
 iambic. It was for his successors to soften the harshness of his diction 
 and polish the verse of Virgil. 
 
 In matter as in form, Ennius was the first to strike the keynote of 
 Roman civilisation — progress by incorporation. The Roman People is 
 the hero of his epic ; its scattered episodes of legend and history are 
 welded by one destiny of universal rule and culture. Like Homer's 
 greater and truer epic, it arose in the young manhood of its country ; 
 unlike it, it looked on the future and not on the past. Enthusiasm for 
 this future enforced itself by order, perseverance, and deep antiquarian 
 research. Foreshadowing the virtual but premature sociocracy to come, 
 it extinguished in the poet's mind the dim fetiches of ancient Rome, and, 
 in spite of Pythagorean transmigration, and a few other traces of old 
 beliefs, became the moving religion of his life. 
 
 The later poets carried forward the work of Ennius on concentric, 
 though more or less diverging lines. He may be regarded as a rudimen- 
 tary Virgil. [F. S.M.] 
 
 Sellar: Roman /'oets of the Republic, ch.. iv. ■p. 62. Mommseu : History of 
 Rome, bk. iii. ch. xiv. 
 
 LUCRETIUS {Titus Lucretius Cams), b. 99 B.C., d. 55 B.C. (?) 
 
 The long silence from the death of Ennius to the birth of Lucretius 
 was broken by no great jjoetic voice. Slowly and quietly the principles 
 which took form in the An7iales permeated the leading classes at Rome 
 till the genius of Lucretius awoke to a new intellectual world. Of his 
 personal history the main facts are doubtful and the details quite unknown. 
 From his name he is argued to have come of an old Roman family ; from 
 his poem to have felt true friendship for the unworthy Menimius, and to 
 have lived the life of a recluse.
 
 Poetry] LUCRETIUS : HORACE 69 
 
 Around him raged the revolution of the third aristocratic stage : Greek 
 culture had done its work, and the world was ready for an emperor. By 
 the best minds the old religious forms were cherished only for literary 
 and artistic adornment ; the real political power was the price of arms ; 
 the social bonds of class to class were loosed, and the spiritual govern- 
 ment of the seething State was committed to a crude literature of which 
 the chief virtue was its frank unoriginality. 
 
 The one work of Lucretius is a philosophical poem in hexameters, 
 which, in development of form, lies half-way between Ennius and Virgil. 
 His matter may and must be divided between the philosopher and 
 the poet. Lucretius, like the old Greek philosophers in his verification 
 of a system, is unlike them in the beauty of his digressions from which 
 his name of poet is as sure as that of Aristophanes from his lyric out- 
 bursts. His philosophy, like that of Democritus and Epicurus, from 
 whom he drew, was brilliant but precocious. Dogmatising on insufficient 
 data and spurious analogies, he ground down the universe to a chance 
 medley of atoms and void. Like modem materialists, he suppressed the 
 subjective aspect which the monotheistic synthesis had not yet emphasised. 
 In morality he enriched the poor formulas of Epicurus with something of 
 the national fervour of Ennius. 
 
 As a poet, Lucretius had less civic enthusiasm than Ennius, but he 
 carried further into the study of Nature the spirit of Roman energy and 
 Roman law. He loved Nature with a stauncher devotion than any other 
 Roman poet, but starved his strong imagination of her on the husks of a 
 mechanical theory. In 'the force and vividness of his language, he is 
 almost Homeric ; in the strength of the human sympathy which inspired 
 his search for natural truth and his attack on superstition, he almost 
 reached the ideal of a poet's spirit. 
 
 The philosophy of Lucretius created no school, but, in enforcing the 
 hollowness of current beliefs, paved the way for the new synthesis of 
 Christianity. His poetry, in spirit and in letter, was drawn upon, but 
 never acknowledged, by later writers. [F. S. M.] 
 
 H. A. J. Munro : Lucretius ; Introduction, Notes, and Translation, 1886, 
 Sellar : Roman Poets of the Republic, ch. xi.-xiv. pp. 274-398. Momm- 
 sen : History of Rome, bk. v. cli. xii. " 
 
 HORACE {Q. Horatius Flaccm), b. 65 B.C., d. 8 B.C. 
 
 Sprung from a simple freedman of Venusia, and educated at Rome 
 and Athens, Horace built on the piety and tastes of a peasant the culture 
 of a man of the world. From 44 b.c. to 42 b.c, he served the dying 
 Republic as a military tribune in the army of Brutus and Cassius ; and, 
 after Philippi, returned to Rome and took to writing lampoons. But 
 gradually he succumbed to events, and accejited the Empire as expedient, 
 which was, to our fuller knowledge, necessary. He bought a clerkship 
 at the Quaestor's, and worked his way into friendship and reputation by 
 the writing of his satires. At last he was put on the high road to 
 wealth and honour by Virgil and Varius, who introduced him to the 
 intimacy of Ma;cenas. In the quiet comfort of his Sabine farm — the gift
 
 70 HOEACE : TIBULLUS [Ancient 
 
 of Maecenas — his genius ripened into the Odes and Epistles ; he "was, in 
 his latter days, recognised and honoured by the friendship of Augustus 
 himself. 
 
 His remains comprise satires and satiric epistles in hexameters, and 
 lyrics in many Greek metres. In his lyric poetry, where form is para- 
 mount, Horace brought form to such perfection that, as with the hexa- 
 meter of Virgil, further development was decay. The Greek forms, 
 shorn of their Greek airiness and flexibility, reappear with Latin dignity 
 and depth of sound. The metre of satire is subordinate : Horace's 
 hexameter is loose and ragged ; sacrificing dignity and pregnancy to ease 
 and volubility, it is scarcely an advance on the hexameter of Lucretius. 
 
 Turning to Horace from Ennius and Lucretius, we are most struck 
 by his lack of the Roman ring of the earlier poetry. Having smothered 
 his republican zeal with a hollow enthusiasm for the triumphant Empire, 
 his purely Roman work was reduced to opening the doors of the Pantheon 
 to the cults and philosophies of all the world. He emphasised the 
 eclecticism which was the groundwork of the imperial sociocracy. But 
 this very lack of national flavour rendered him the polished poet of 
 expediency for all ages. He culled precepts from every creed to guide 
 the cultured man, whose lot was to witness without enthusiasm times of 
 political and social upheaval. Nature, society, literature, could make a 
 narrow, uninspired life pleasant and harmless if united to simplicity and 
 geniality of tastes. Smooth and shallow, too, is Horace's poetry of love. 
 Subdued to his code of harmless selfishness, his love was hardly more 
 moral, though less impassioned, than the love of his elegiac contemporaries. 
 But like the rest of his faculties, it lacked the fire of a devotion, welding 
 the fragments of morality into religion. As a satirist, he stood between 
 Lucilius and Juvenal ; as a lyrist, his unapproachable excellence led to his 
 being imitated in modern languages more than in Latin. [F. S. M.] 
 
 Sir Theodore Martin :' Works of Horace ; Life aiid Translation, 2 vols. G. 
 Simcox : History of Latin Literature, i. 276. 
 
 TIBULLUS (Albius Tibullus), b. 54 B.C., d. 18 B.C. 
 
 Born at Pedum in an equestrian family, Tibullus, unlike Horace, 
 cherished through life his rural tastes and superstition. He found a 
 Maecenas in M. Valerius Messalla, whom he followed on some of his 
 military expeditions. But most of his life was spent in cheerful but 
 refined retirement. Four books of elegies, and one or two stray poems, 
 remain with his name ; but only the first two books are authenticated. 
 
 His life, Avhich falls within the life of Horace, was lived under the 
 same social and political conditions, but his nobler birth, which deprived 
 him of one of the strongest incentives to literary exertion, and his own 
 character, combined to make his poetry very diflerent. 
 
 In form, Tibullus is the most original of Latin elegiac poets. 
 Propertius, Catullus, and the rest of his brother poets, imitated or 
 translated Callimachus, Philetas, and other Alexandrians. Tibullus 
 took his metre from the older Greek sources, and Romanised it. His 
 verses, without the nervous strength of more developed elegies, have an
 
 Poetry] TIBULLUS : OVID 71 
 
 unfinished sweetness of their own. The elegies of Ovid — the zenith of 
 the form — was reached by progression on the lines TibuUus had laid 
 down. It is a form apt to express with grace, in a language like Latin, 
 of neat turn and careful balance, thoughts of pithy and disjointed 
 shape. 
 
 TibuUus, alone in his day, stood aloof from the Empire ; but it was 
 from carelessness rather than conviction. His position, united to his 
 talent, gave him independence enough to survey with calm melancholy 
 the change of freedom to unity. His song was not of empire, but of 
 love. Lares and Messalla. Unlike Horace, TibuUus sang a living Delia, 
 but, unlike his elegiac brothers, he served her with a fidgety pride, and 
 not a passionate though short-lived devotion. His peasant piety was 
 interwoven with his love of Nature. He did not live by faith, nor did 
 he, like the Alexandrians and their followers, explore the details of 
 mythology to darken his meaning with erudition. But his superstitions 
 were a part of Nature itself, and he clung to them with the same loving 
 association and artistic sense. He thus enforced by a new attitude of 
 mind the lesson of the literature of the day, and "admitted the decay 
 of religion by subjecting it to poetic treatment." He honoured Messalla 
 with more real esteem than MjEcenas and later patrons of literature have 
 ever received ; but he was an amateur. He despised fame. Like 
 Landor, he may be summed up as the poet of culture and leisure. 
 
 Besides his great position in the history of Latin elegiac poetry, he 
 was specially endeared to later literature by the untimely end of his 
 gentle talents. He is celebrated in one of the sweetest elegies of Ovid. 
 
 [F. S. M.] 
 
 Simcox: History of Latin Literature, i. 316. 
 
 OVID (P. Ovidius Naso), b. 42 B.C., d. 17 A.D. 
 
 Ovid was born at Sulmo in Central Italy, a centre of disaff'ection in 
 the Social War. He lived a loose literary life at Rome till his 52nd 
 year, when a rescript from Augustus banished him to Tomi in Pontus, 
 where he died after eight years of lonely wretchedness. The immorality of 
 much of his writing, and the suspicion of an intrigue with Julia, probably 
 pointed him out to Augustus as a fit instance of his censorship of morals. 
 The most prolific of Latin poets, he has left us three long series of 
 amatory poems, a poem on the " Reasons and Seasons " of Roman cere- 
 monial, two series of lamentations from Pontus — all in elegiacs — and 
 one poetical romance in hexameters, longer than any of the other poems. 
 
 The few years which separate Ovid from Tibullus mark a clear 
 advance in the social and political conditions. The Empire and its sur- 
 roundings were firmly established and no one " moved a wing or opened 
 a mouth." The poetry of Ovid refiects this social rest. 
 
 Its form contains the germ of post-Augustan decay. The pride of 
 perfect diction began to chafe at the trammels of meaning. This is 
 more obvious in the hexameters, for we are bound to read them side by 
 side with Virgil, where diction and meaning are perfectly adjusted. 
 But an elegiac couplet demands a certain sacrifice of matter to form.
 
 72 OVID : LUCAN [Ancient 
 
 and in bringing it to the highest perfection known, Ovid undoubtedly 
 proved himself one of the subtlest masters of language the world has 
 ever seen. 
 
 He carried the same ingenuity into the development of his ideas. 
 His poetry, except when he is in trouble, never springs from the heart ; 
 it is a clever, pointed, unexpected contrivance of the head. No great 
 public or private devotion had ever seized on his affections and powers, 
 and restrained their selfish but not ungenerous bent. Some of his 
 love-writing is true, and what is immoral we must forgive, partly for its 
 satiric turn, partly because it is nearly forgotten. The peculiar force of 
 his mind, which found a partial outlet in the reconstruction of antiquarian 
 details in the Fasti, was most fully and worthily employed in the 
 Metamorphoses. This book, with the exception, perhaps, of Lucian, is 
 the only forecast in classic times of the modern novel, a growing force of 
 which we can probably only underrate the value. 
 
 Ovid was the beginning of the end of Koman poetry. His manner 
 supplied the scanty graces and initiated the pervading weakness of later 
 writers. His presence in the works of all poets of the decline, united to 
 his own attractive grace, ensured him a wider circle of readers and 
 admirers in the Middle Ages than any other ancient poet enjoyed. 
 
 [F. S. M.] 
 
 Sinicox : History of Latin Literature, i. 325. Merivale : Romans under 
 the Empire, iv. ch. xli. 
 
 LUOAN (M. Annmis Lucanus), b. 39 A.D., d. 65 A.D, 
 
 Grandson of the elder Seneca, Lucan was born at Corduba in Spain. 
 He gained an introduction to Nero from his uncle by his youthful fame 
 as a declaimer. His life at Rome was moulded by two forces — the com- 
 placent luxury of the court, and the Stoic truthfulness of Comutus, the 
 tutor of Persius. His trial came when Nero cast him out of his friend- 
 ship through jealousy, it is said, of his greater name as an orator. He 
 wrote the Pharsalia, in which violent attacks on Nero and the Empire 
 are interspersed amid the cant of compliment universal at the time. 
 Then he joined Piso's conspiracy, and, on discovery, opened his veins. 
 His poem is a historical epic in hexameters, describing the closing scene 
 of the Republic. 
 
 In Lucan, external conditions seem lost in personal circumstances. 
 Yet the reaction of his soul could not efface the deep effects of imperial 
 union, and a court steeped in luxury and pride. 
 
 Virgil was his model of form : but his verses are weighted with the 
 studied point and much of the prose of oratory. The epic of a 
 vanquished hero and a lost cause is a wholesome corrective to the pride 
 and ingratitude of an age of absolute temporal power. But when Lucan 
 recalls the glory of Ponipey and the aristocratic Republic, the value of 
 his estimate is marred by the lack of a sense of social growth. To him 
 the imperial present was a malformation of history ; and the future, 
 with its ijromise of a new life, dimly foreseen by Virgil a hundred years 
 before, a deepening, hopeless darkness. His social pessimism was
 
 Poetry] LUCAN : VIRGIL 73 
 
 buttressed by a strong intellectual grasp of the logic of the current 
 scepticism which he preached with a vehemence unknown to Lucretius 
 or any other ancient doubter. Yet his imagination was so vivid and 
 minute that it led him into sensational realism. While his life was 
 oozing from the opened veins, he recuted dramatically passages from his 
 poem to friends around. And in the same spirit he wrote. Working 
 on a great character or a striking event, he elaborated an effect by bold 
 drawing and heightened tints. 
 
 The influence of Lucan on later writing lay mainly in phrase and 
 style. His spirit was abortive, because it was out of joint with the 
 times. The epic poet needs an age of undeveloped vigour to fulfil his 
 powers, and most men of epic power who have had the ill lot of being 
 born to a world satisfied with its own completeness, have turned their 
 mind to other work or died inglorious. But Lucan strove by strong 
 imagination and deep passion to force the growth of epic poetry in an 
 age which had saturated even his own mind with its pride of luxury. 
 
 [F. S. M.] 
 
 Simcox : History of Latin Literature, ii. 34. 
 
 VIRGIL (P. Vergilius Maro), b. 70 B.C., d. 19 B.C. 
 
 The greatest of the Roman poets was born at Andes, a village near 
 Mantua, in the first consulate of Pompeius and Crassus, 70 B.C. He was 
 about thirty years younger than Julius Csesar and Lucretius ; a little 
 older than Augustus, Maecenas, and Horace. It is thought that his 
 name was written Vergilius, the first syllable suggesting a Galliq 
 descent, and that he was not by birth a Roman citizen. His father, a 
 well-to-do farmer of the Cisalpine province, gave his son the best educa- 
 tion, at Cremona, Milan, and then at Rome. With delicate health and 
 of nervous temperament, the young student shrank from arms and from 
 oratory ; and, almost from boyhood, devoted himself to a life of medita- 
 tive retirement ; haunted with dreams of a great poem on the early 
 history of Rome, and meanwhile occupied with minor poems on rural 
 subjects. After the battle of Philippi, the poet, then aged 29, was 
 dispossessed of his paternal farm and nearly killed by a soldier of the 
 victorious party. Augustus, his patron and friend, compensated him ; 
 and gave him estates and gifts which ultimately amounted to a large 
 fortune. For a short time he lived at Rome, but soon withdrew to 
 Naples ; where, and at a villa in the Campanian country, he passed the 
 rest of his life. During a tour in Greece with Augustus, he took a fever 
 and died at sea off Brundisium, having not quite comjjleted his 51st 
 year. He was buried at Posilipo, near Naples, where a monument 
 traditionally said to be his, is still shown ; and from his own time it has 
 been a place of religious pilgrimage and superstitious reverence. 
 
 No life recorded offers a more complete dedication to one great pur- 
 pose, or a more serene and unbroken concentration of powers on the 
 poetic office. The poet was tall, dark, and somewhat rustic in air ; 
 modest, shy, retiring in disposition, and somewhat proud ; a confirmed 
 invalid, and never married. His life and his verse were pure and
 
 74 VIEGIL [Ancient 
 
 refined, full of a deep religious melancholy ; he lived apart from all the 
 storms and distractions around him, both public and private. Candor, 
 fides, pietas — i.e. simplicity, honour, conscientiousness — are the phrases 
 by which his warm friend describes the poet. 
 
 He was one of the most learned and most serious of all poets ; like 
 Dante, Milton, and Eacine, profoundly saturated with the best culture 
 of his age ; living in personal relations with the great statesmen of his 
 epoch, but meditating on the world of action from a distant and poetic 
 retirement. Happily, his life was free from the cares and disappoint- 
 ments which weighed on the three poets whom he most resembles. Of 
 aU poets, Virgil was perhaps the most intensely conscientious and 
 laborious. He said " that he produced verses as a bear does her cubs," 
 by licking them into shape. In 24 years of incessant labour, he wrote less 
 than 13,000 verses. He spent 7 years on the 2288 lines of the Georgics, 
 and 11 years on the JEneid, which consists of only 9892 lines, and 
 which was unfinished at his death. He gave a characteristic proof of his 
 passion for perfection, when he directed his friends to destroy the manu- 
 script to which his final touches were still wanting. Fortunately, at 
 the order of Augustus, they disobeyed the poet, and saved to the world 
 the great Eoman masterpiece. 
 
 Eoman poetry is less spontaneous, less imaginative, and more artificial 
 than that of Greece ; but, from the social point of view, its higher level 
 has a finer moral power ; it has a nobler personality beneath its voices, 
 and is more fully inspired with a national mission. In all this, Virgil 
 stands pre-eminent, as the great national poet who idealised his country 
 in a critical moment of its development. Hence, even in his owti life- 
 time, he was at once recognised as the national poet of Eome ; and since 
 then he has always remained the supreme poet of the Latin race. In 
 the Middle Ages Virgil exerted the same spell, and even in church 
 hymns was addressed as poetamm inaxime. The reverential devotion 
 of Dante to Virgil led him to personify the poet of Italy as earthly 
 wisdom : " my master and my author," as he is invoked in the Divine 
 Comedy. And all through the Medieval and Eenaissance epochs, and 
 down to the rise of the revolutionary and romantic outburst of the last 
 century, Virgil reigned supreme. We can now see how vastly inferior 
 he is, in native purity and in sublime imagination to Homer and 
 ^schylus ; but we can also see better than ever how completely he 
 embodied the dignity and social greatness of Eome, as it passed from a 
 turbulent republic into a world-wide dictatorship. 
 
 Virgil was born under the EejHiblic, before the Italians across the Po 
 had received the Eoman citizenship. He was 22 when the battle of 
 Pharsalia made Julius dictator of the civilised world ; and he was 39 
 when the battle of Actium made his friend Augustus supreme ruler. 
 The poet, deeply sympathising with the new hopes for an era of peace 
 and order, saw in the imperial dictatorship an epoch of prosperity and 
 stability ; and in the unification of the Eoman provinces the jn-ospect of 
 a greater Eome to be. His whole career was inspired by a mission to 
 idealise this future of peaceful development, with Eome as the pro- 
 tector and leader of the world. His Pastorals and his Georgics are the 
 poems of peace and rural industry. But the j^Eneid is the central work
 
 Poetry] VIRGIL 75 
 
 of his life. In youth he had meditated on a poem in the Homeric 
 manner, such as the Alexandrine versifiers had so often produced, which 
 was to celebrate the early history of Italy and Rome. A larger experi- 
 ence taught hira to lay aside the literary idea of an epic, confined to 
 heroic adventures in mythical times. On the other hand, his poetic 
 imagination recoiled from the attempt to idealise actual history and 
 recent times, as Ennius had done. 
 
 The j^neid is the combination of both conceptions. The form of his 
 epic is found in the Homeric world of the ideal heroes : but its inner 
 spirit is a continuous appeal to the sense of national dignity and to the 
 patriotic hopes of his countrymen. Thus the poem is surrounded with 
 all the halo of the Homeric legend ; and, though being in form a con- 
 tinuation of the Iliad and the Odyssey, in substance it is " the epic of 
 the national fortunes " ; alive with patriotic memories and hopes in every 
 part ; rousing the Roman race to a sense of greater glories to come and a 
 new mission to fulfil. The centre of this new epoch was the dictatorship 
 vested in the house of Julius, which the poem is designed to glorify, and 
 almost to deify. 
 
 But Virgil was no court flatterer. He was a patriot, and an 
 enthusiast, who profoundly believed in a social and political revolution, 
 under which the transition from the ancient world to the modern was 
 ultimately efi'ected. Not in the ways anticipated by the poet ; who, 
 like most of the greater Romans of the early Empire, from Julius to 
 Marcus Aurelius, believed in a moral, social, and religious regeneration 
 of the world without the revolution embodied in Christianity and 
 Mosaism. It was an error ; but it was a noble mistake. And the idea 
 of this moral, material, social, and religious revivification of the ancient 
 society under a beneficent emperor, was never put in a finer and more 
 religious spirit than it was in the JEneid, under its peaceful, beneficent, 
 pious hero, ^neas. Indeed, the whole epic is a poetic analogue! of 
 Augustine's City of God, a pagan idealisation of the city of the deified 
 emperor. And it is this idea of a religious regeneration of mankind to 
 be worked out under the leadership of Rome, as prefigured in his early 
 poem, the Follio, or 4th Eclogue, which gave Virgil his vast influence 
 all through the Catholic period. 
 
 This vision of a peaceful reorganisation of the world, and the intense 
 social and religious earnestness of Virgil, separate the JEneid from all 
 the literary epics, ancient or modern, and place it alongside of the 
 Divine Comedy and the Paradise Lost. His ideal of the destiny and 
 mission of Rome is inferior to the ideal of Dante and Milton, — the 
 destiny and mission of Humanity. But it is less vague and less super- 
 human : more real, more definite, and more true to fact. The Augustan 
 age is often compared to that of Louis xiv. ; but it was far larger and 
 with a grander future before it. Virgil combines Corneille and Racine, 
 and surpasses both. He displays the heroic types, the moral elevation, 
 the massive dignity of Corneille, together with the religious spirit, the 
 learning, the pathos, the consummate mastery over language of Racine. 
 But his theme is far less artificial, remote, and liternry than that of any 
 of the French or the Italian tragic and epic poets, save Dante alone. 
 He was not presenting a historical picture, or dealing with an imaginary
 
 76 VIRGIL [Ancient Poetry 
 
 world : he believed in the reality of the mythology which he used as his 
 machinery ; and his main object was to present to his own countrymen 
 the past, the future, and the dignity of their common country. In this 
 conception of human progress, unity, and life, he makes a step towards 
 the ideal poet of Humanity. 
 
 It is not necessary here to enlarge on the consummate mastery over 
 language possessed by Virgil, the majestic roll of his matchless hexameter, 
 the symmetry and perfection of his poetic form, on his immense learning 
 and philosophic spirit, on the deeply practical and moral force of his 
 appeals to duty and heroism, on his spiritual presentment of human life 
 and death, on his refined picture of the great and just ruler of men, on 
 his consummate gift of tenderness, and the intense pathos with which he 
 has painted heroic women, or on the style which makes him the best 
 known of the ancients by virtue of his massive and monumental embodi- 
 ment of noble thought. Inferior as he is in spontaneous imagination to 
 the greatest poets of Greece — to Dante and Ariosto, to Shakespeare and 
 Milton — he will always remain, by virtue of his unique historical position, 
 one of the greatest poets of the world. [F. H.] 
 
 Sellar: Roman Poets of the Augustan Age. ' Conington : Translations oj 
 Virgil in Verse, and Prose ; Introduction and Notes. F. Myers : 
 Essays, A ncienf and Modern ; Virgil.
 
 ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 A RT, Philosophy, Science : these are the gifts of Greece to the world. 
 "^ In the long passage upward, from the despotic rule of Theocracy to 
 the free service of Humanity, she taught the lessons of joy in the beauty 
 of life, and of search for truth apart from gain or profit. 
 
 From the first of these lessons we pass now to the second. It was a 
 new thing in the world that, here and there in the Greek cities of the 
 Levant, or of the South Italian coast, men should arise who spent their 
 lives in trying to explain man and the world ; to find, that is to say, 
 some general facts or principles on which all that we see in the world 
 around us could be shown to depend, without reference to the arbitrary 
 will of an unseen Deity. The motions of the sun, moon, and planets, 
 the internal structure of animals, the flight of birds, the facts of storms 
 and earthquakes had been examined and recorded for thousands of years. 
 But the object of noting these things had been to gain insight into the 
 wiU of the gods, which they were supposed to indicate. Other facts of 
 nature were studied just so far as they threw light on the practical arts 
 of life : agriculture, weaving, dyeing, metal-working. 
 
 But now, from the seventh to the fifth century before the Christian 
 era, arose men like Thales, Anaximander, Heraclitus, Democritus, who 
 devoted their lives to the task of making the universe intelligible to 
 man. Apart from all thoughts of religious belief on the one hand, or on 
 the other of practical utility, they sought to arrive at some underlying 
 principles to which the infinite variety of sights, sounds, and feelings 
 that surround and make up man's life could be reduced. The result of 
 the work of these men, [and of their colleagues and disciples, was the 
 introduction of two new forces into the life and development of Humanity 
 — Science and Philosophy. 
 
 By Science is meant the discovery of a general fact common to a 
 great number of special facts : such as to'^enable us to foresee and measure 
 things which we cannot directly handle. For instance, the number of 
 triangles of difi'erent shapes that can be formed is infinite. Amidst these 
 dift'erences, Thales found one fact common to all ; namely, that the three 
 angles were in every case equal to two right angles. We are thus enabled 
 to measure the sum of the angles of any triangle, or, if we know the sum 
 of two of them, to predict the precise magnitude of the third, without 
 direct measurement of the special case. Similarly, the biologist, examin- 
 ing the teeth and limbs of a new quadruped, is able to predict many facts 
 as to its digestive organs and its moral nature ; because he is in posses- 
 sion of a scientific law, that is, of a fixed general relation, connecting 
 these facts together. 
 
 Philosophy, on the other hand, implies the attempt to find a principle, 
 or series of principles, which may make man's place in the world intel- 
 ligible to him. In accordance with Comte's law of the three stages 
 through which our conceptions pass, these general principles will be first 
 
 77
 
 78 ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY 
 
 theological, secondly metaphysical, and finally positive. That is to say, 
 they will first exjjlain the universe by the WiU of a Being, or Beings, 
 with passions and faculties akin to those of Man, but transcending them 
 in power ; secondly, by the artifice of some abstract entity, like Nature ; 
 and, lastly, the attempt to reach any absolute explanation of the universe 
 wUl be abandoned, and Philosophy will consist in the orderly arrange- 
 ment of scientific laws, in accordance with their closer or more distant 
 bearing on the life of Humanity. 
 
 Comte's second law of evolution explains that our speculations pass 
 through the first and second of these stages into the third, with varying 
 rapidities, according as they relate to simpler and more general facts, or 
 to those that are more special and complex. The branches of inquiry in 
 which the thinkers of Greece reached the positive stage, related, with one 
 important exception, to the simplest and most universal of all phenomena, 
 those of number and sj^ace. In dealing with facts of a slightly higher 
 degree of complication, those of motion, for instance, they were dominated 
 by such metaphysical conceptions as that circular motion was j^erfect and 
 eternal. With the facts relating to the composition of matter, to life, and 
 to human conduct, the influence of similar metaphysical beliefs was even 
 greater. The one remarkable exception is Aristotle, whose precocious 
 genius introduced positive methods of research into these higher studies. 
 Consequently his philosophy, though in the main still metaphysical, 
 made advances in the direction of Positivism unapproached by any 
 thinker of antiquity, and by few of modern times. 
 
 The history of Greek thought falls broadly into two periods. In the 
 first, from Thales to Aristotle, positive science and metaphysical philo- 
 sophy were, in the main, prosecuted by the same inquirers. In the 
 second period, lasting till the suppression of the Hellenic movement 
 by the Christian Church, Philosophy and Science parted company. 
 Positive thinkers, from Archimedes to Hipparchus, devoted themselves 
 to the special subjects of Geometry and Astronomy, in which alone the 
 discovery of precise scientific laws was at that time possible. Philosophy, 
 meanwhile, deprived of the bracing influence which positive thought 
 exercised, even on subjects which it could not master, became intel- 
 lectually more feeble and verbose ; and the later stages of it would have 
 deserved no record but that they served the social purpose of under- 
 mining polytheistic belief, and of preparing the doctrine on which the 
 Catholic Church was ultimately to be founded. 
 
 The one really new thing given by Greece to the world is abstract 
 science ; that is to say, the isolation of a special class of phenomena as 
 seen in various objects, and the discovery in these of fixed relations. 
 Concrete science, founded on ol)servations of objects, without any at- 
 tempt to consider the distinct classes of facts, or phenomena, that each 
 object presents, had of course existed from the earliest days of human 
 society. Much positive knowledge of winds, tides, plants, and animals 
 is possessed by savages. The philosophers and priests of China isnd 
 Egypt had ol)served the apparent motions of the sun and planets, and 
 the regular recurrence of eclipses. Geometiy, Herodotus tells us, is of 
 Egyptian origin ; it was the art, as the name indicates, of remeasuring 
 fields after the annual inundation of the Nile. But, between practical
 
 ANCIENT PHILOSOPHY 79 
 
 mensuration and what we understand by Geometry, there is an all- 
 important difference. To measure a given surface with accuracy sufficient 
 for practical purposes is one thing ; to abstract the line from the surface, 
 and find out the fixed relations between lines bounding every kind of 
 surface, is quite another. And it is this that was done by the long line 
 of Greek scientific thinkers from Thales to Hipparchus. It was the first 
 approach to the scientific conception of the universal order, which is, at 
 the present time, working so fundamental a change in human society. 
 
 Some glimpse of its social import was visible at the outset. In the 
 best period of Greek thought, lofty views as to the conduct of life were 
 combined with scientific speculation. "Study Geometry before you 
 enter here," was the inscription over the school of Plato. Still more 
 fully was the bearing of science upon human conduct recognised by 
 Pythagoras, whose noble, but premature, attempt to organise life on the 
 basis of scientific law failed only because the range of science was limited 
 as yet to the facts of space and number. It was left for Aristotle to 
 introduce the conception of scientific order into the more complicated 
 facts of life and society. 
 
 The names given in each week of the month of Aristotle are arranged 
 on the following plan : — 
 
 The first week represents the dawn of Greek thought, in which 
 attempts were made to explain the universe by some one physical 
 principle ; the positive science of geometry meanwhile slowly disengag- 
 ing itself. Of this stage, Thales is the principal representative. 
 
 The second week illustrates the premature, but momentous, efi'ort to 
 use science as the basis for the organisation of human life, instituted by 
 Pythagoras. 
 
 The third week presents the ethical side of Greek thought. This was 
 the side most attractive to Roman thinkers, three of whom are here 
 included. The principal type is Socrates. 
 
 The final week is devoted to the school which, under the teaching of 
 Plato, prepared the way, consciously or unconsciously, for the Christian 
 Church. [J. H. B.]
 
 80 AKISTOTLE [Ancient 
 
 ARISTOTLE, b. 384 B.C., d. 322 b.c. 
 
 Aristoteles, son of Nicomachus, physician at the court of Macedon, 
 was born 384 B.C., in Stageira, on the coast of Thrace. At the age of 
 eighteen, or, "by another account, at the age of thirty, and after much 
 experience of practical life, he came to Athens, and entered the school of 
 Plato. After Plato's death, in 347, he lived at Atarneus, then ruled by 
 Hermeias, whose niece, Pythias, he married. After the death of Her- 
 meias, he lived for some years at the court of Philip of Macedon, where 
 he was charged with the education of Alexander till the death of PhUip. 
 in 336. He was much occupied during this period with civic duties of 
 great importance in his native city of Stageira. When the Persian war 
 began, Aristotle went again to Athens, this time not as a pupil but as a 
 master, and established his school in the gymnasium attached to the 
 temple of Lycean Apollo. At the death of Alexander, twelve years 
 afterwards, a charge of impiety was brought against him by the chief- 
 priest of Demeter, He retired from Athens, and died the next year at 
 Chalcis, at the probable age of sixty-two years. His will is preserved to 
 us in the V)iographies of Diogenes Laertius ; it shows affectionate thought 
 for each member of his family, and grateful remembrance of those who 
 had died before him. His household servants are not forgotten ; they 
 are to be set free from bondage. 
 
 It has been often said that Aristotle's gi'eatness was not recognised till 
 the Middle Ages. And this is true ; but it does not go far enough. 
 The Greek world, now politically degenerated, looked on Plato, and men 
 far weaker than Plato, as his sui)eriors. By a strange accident, his 
 principal works, intrusted to his disciple Theophrastus. disappeared from 
 view for two centuries, till brought to Rome liy Sylla, and edited by 
 Andronicus. In the turmoil of barbarian invasion, and during the 
 building up of the Catholic Church, his name was forgotten, except 
 by a few obscure writers in Constantinople, till the great Mohammedan 
 schools arose in Baghdad and Cordova. Averrhoes, mentioned by Dante 
 {Inferno, iv.) as the great Aristotelian commentator, and the Jew, 
 Maimonides, were his principal introducers to the Western world. 
 From the twelfth to the fourteenth century his metaphysical system 
 became, in the hands of the Schoolmen, the basis of Catholic theology : 
 so that his fame, thus bound up with beliefs and institutions doomed to 
 decay, became at last an obstacle to intellectual progress. 
 
 The growth of positive science during the last three centuries has 
 brought new insight into his power. But not even yet, except by the 
 school of Au.^'uste Comte, has this been fully recognised. Two words 
 suffice to define it : Reality and Comprehensiveness. More truly than any 
 thinker before him, or for twenty centuries to follow, did he measure the 
 sphere within which thought is possible ; more fully than any other did he 
 embrace the content of that sphere. Comprehensive thinkers there have 
 been in abundance, from Aquinas to Kant, but they have been deficient 
 in reality ; scientific thinkers have abounded, from Archimedes to Faraday,
 
 Philosophy] AEISTOTLE 81 
 
 but absorbed in one or more special subjects. Between Aristotle and the 
 author of the Philosophie Positive, no one in the same degree has combined 
 both attributes. That he had quitted the metaphysical stage of thought 
 for the positive stage would be too much to say. We find in his writings 
 the most striking illustrations of Entities taking the place as yet un- 
 occupied by Laws. Wholly to dispense with metaphysical and even 
 with theological conceptions, at that period of human evolution, would 
 have involved the absence of any principle of cohesion by which his 
 studies of man and the universe could be knit together. It would have 
 been like building the arch without scaffolding. But the metaphysical 
 system of Aristotle Avas of such a kind as to prepare the way for the 
 positive spirit in every department. And in many fields of thought he 
 was not merely the first to introduce positive method, but attained results 
 by it to which thinkers of our own time have recurred, and will yet 
 recur, with profit. 
 
 Let us now attempt to justify this high praise, so far as limited space 
 will allow. Of Aristotle's treatises many have been lost ; and those 
 which remain are not arranged in definite sequence. The simplest course, 
 therefore, is to follow the order practised by Auguste Comte ; begin- 
 ning with First Philosophy, and taking special subjects in the order of 
 diminishing generality, from Cosmology to Ethic. 
 
 The First Philosophy of Comte is an attempt to group together those 
 positive laws which hold good of every branch of thought. With Aris- 
 totle it was the attempt to reach a principle of absolute certainty, by 
 discussing the problem of Being, which had already dissipated, and was 
 yet to dissipate, the energies of so many thinkers. But the metaphysical 
 and logical constructions of Aristotle, of very great temjjorary interest, 
 but of small permanent value, cannot be described here. The conception 
 of language and human reason as products of sociological growth was 
 reserved for our own century. Aristotle was as far from it as any of his 
 successors. 
 
 Theology, with Aristotle, was reduced to its barest elements. He 
 appears to have believed in a Divine Being or principle, of a nature akin 
 to what he looked on as the highest faculty, that of abstract speculation, 
 and to have regarded this Being as the prime source of motion, itself 
 being unmoved. Such theology offered no hindrance to intellectual 
 progress, yet was compatible with the superstructure which Aquinas 
 and Dante built upon it in after times. The active powers which, under 
 the supreme mind, animated the world as ministers of this passive Deity, 
 were Nature and Fortune ; the first, as Comte remarked, corresponding to 
 known laws, the second to unknown. Nature, the metaphysical abstrac- 
 tion which has played so potent a part in modern thought, means, like 
 the Greek equivalent, Physis, the tendency to grow or unfold in this or 
 that way. The newer word. Evolution, is not seldom used in a sense 
 equally vague. 
 
 We come now to Aristotle's scientific achievements ; which, how- 
 ever, were less striking in the inorganic than in the organic Avorld. In 
 Mathematics, he makes it clear that he had grasped the discoveries of his 
 time, and had apprehended, with greater clearness than Plato, the 
 fimdamental distinction between Greek geometry and the empirical 
 
 F
 
 82 ARISTOTLE [Ancient 
 
 mensuration that had gone before it ; namely, the abstraction of point, 
 line, and surface, and the detection, in those abstracted phenomena, of 
 equation or law. Thales's equation of the angles of a triangle with two 
 right angles is frequently referred to as a type of scientific certainty. 
 
 The Physics of Aristotle, destined to serve as the framework of men's 
 thoughts on the material universe for eighteen centuries, was little more 
 than a presentation in a systematic form of previous views, rendered 
 coherent by conceptions of his own ; partly positive, partly metaphysical. 
 His astronomy is made familiar to us in the Paradise of Dante. The 
 spherical earth was the centre of things ; round it were a series of 
 concentric transparent spheres, each holding its proper planet, and 
 revolving with its own motion ; outside these was the sphere of the 
 fixed stars, revolving, and causing all within them to revolve, in twenty- 
 four hours ; beyond this, the motionless region whence motive force 
 issued. 
 
 In Physics it may be said that Aristotle saw the importance of 
 discovering the laws of motion. His own crude attempts to solve the 
 problem rested either on such purely metaphysical conceptions as that 
 of the inherent perfection of circular motion, or on the definite but 
 untrue hypothesis that the velocities of falling bodies varied as the 
 distance traversed. This last was at least a useful starting-point for 
 the more fruitful efi"orts of Kepler and Galileo. 
 
 In Chemistry, Aristotle let fall some germs of valuable truth. For 
 liim. Earth, Air, Fire, Water, were compounds of yet more elementary 
 substances with Heat and Cold. From these compounds of the first 
 degree were formed others of a higher degree of complexity, of which 
 the tissues of organic life consisted. 
 
 Not till we reach the science of Biology do we find his full powers of 
 generalising and co-ordinating, based on minute and accurate observation 
 of fiict. A fourth part of his writings is occupied with the study of 
 living bodies. Many of his conclusions have required the knowledge of 
 the present century for their just appreciation. 
 
 He grasped and applied the comparative method with extreme 
 breadth and vigour. He anticipated Lamarck's division of the animal 
 kingdom into Vertebrate and Invertebrate. In each sub-kingdom he 
 defined the principal groups not less clearly. In Vertebrates he dis- 
 tinguished Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, Fishes. Of Mammals he defined 
 most of the leading groups, arranging them by the character of their 
 locomotive organs and of their dentition ; the connection of dentition 
 with the digestive apparatus being clearly apprehended. The mamma- 
 lian characters of the Whale tribe were perfectly well known to him. 
 Among Invertebrates, his minute study of Cephalopods is specially note- 
 worthy. Seven at least of the species described by him are recognised 
 by modern naturalists. 
 
 In Embryology, Aristotle had observed the first appearance of the 
 heart in the development of the chick. Of Histology he may be regarded 
 as the founder. His history of animals begins with the explicit distinc- 
 tion between the tissues of which animal structure is built up, and the 
 organs compounded from those tissues : a distinction unappreciated till 
 Bichat made it the foundation of his Anatomie Qenerale.
 
 Philosophy] ARISTOTLE 83 
 
 Generally, Aristotle saw clearly that, as we pass upward through the 
 scale of life, completer unity went side by side with fuller complexity, 
 in contrast with the vegetative repetition of parts seen in the lower 
 Invertebrates (Cf. de Juvenhde, 2 ; de Respir. 17. 4 ; de Paii. iv. 5, 6 ; 
 de Generatione, iii. 2, and ii. 4 and 5). Finally, in the Abstract theory 
 of life, his superiority to later biologists is no less conspicuous. His 
 distinction (de A7iima, ii. 2, 3) between the two kinds of life — the vegetal 
 life common to the whole organic world, and the sensi-motor life dis- 
 tinctive of the animal kingdom — is another of Aristotle's conceptions 
 which Bichat was the first to appreciate and develop. The bilateral 
 symmetry of the organs of animal life had not escaped him {de Partibus, 
 iii. 2). He saw, too, with extreme clearness that the higher and more 
 special life had no existence apart from the lower and more general, from 
 which it was differentiated. "Without the process of nutrition," he 
 says, " there can be no sensation." 
 
 This great serial principle, afterwards so fully expanded by Comte, 
 was applied by Aristotle to those higher vital functions, the study of . 
 which is commonly called Psychology ; and is fully illustrated in his 
 marvellous analysis of the process of KecoUection, resting on the laws of 
 association, which has left little for subsequent thinkers to supplement 
 {de Memoria, ii. 451-2). Only in the highest intellectual function, that 
 of Reason or J^oiis, does he take refuge in metaphysical abstractions. 
 And this was inevitable ; since Reason, as exhibited in man, is the pro- 
 duct of the collective human race in successive generations ; and the 
 conception of Humanity was not yet attainable. 
 
 We come then to the Sociology of Aristotle ; contained partly, though 
 not exclusively, in his treatise on Politics. He had made a careful study 
 of all the constitutions, Greek or barbarian, known in his time. Frag- 
 ments only of this work survive, to which his description of the Athenian 
 State has recently been added. Guided by this inductive procedure, 
 Aristotle was led to a sound general conception of the social organism, 
 as the form of life towards which human beings naturally tended. He 
 saw with clearness, unapproached by any thinker intermediate between 
 himself and Comte, the two characters of such an organism : (1) division 
 of functions ; (2) their convergence, carried to the limits consistent with 
 the due measure of independence. To unify too much, he said, was 
 fatal to the conception of a community. 
 
 He worked in Social Static, of which he is the true founder, not in 
 Social Dynamic. Of the laws of social progress by which Industry 
 would one day be substituted for war, and free labour for slavery, he had 
 no knowledge. His horizon was almost entirely limited to the Hellenic 
 world. 
 
 In Social Static, dealing with the permanent conditions of Social 
 Order, Aristotle was confronted by the Utopia of Plato, in which those 
 conditions had been subverted. Aristotle's defence of private property, 
 and of the family, is a masterpiece of good sense guided by scientific 
 method. His leading principle, that the State was built up, not of 
 identical, but of unlike elements with different functions, and that 
 the suppression of individuality was incompatible with social life, led 
 him to see that Plato's Utopia was a mischievous aberration. That
 
 84 ARISTOTLE [Ancient 
 
 he should have classed slaves amongst private property was unavoidable, 
 unless he could have risen to the conception of social evolution, for 
 which the experience available in his time was inadeqiiate. Centuries 
 were to pass before the transition from slavery to serfage could begin. 
 
 On Language, another department of Social Static, Aristotle had 
 much to say, guided always by the method of Filiation ; that is, by study 
 of the work of previous inquirers. Language, like Capital, is a social 
 product. But in Aristotle's time it was, as for many it still remains, a 
 chosen haunt of the metaphysical spirit. Here, again, Aristotle was at 
 issue with Plato, who contended that universal or general terms, as man, 
 dog, horse, corresponded to unseen entities, called by him Ideas, of 
 which any one man, dog, or horse was but a poor and transitory copy. 
 To this delusion, destined to long survival in Christian controversy, 
 Aristotle gave no countenance. Real existence, he maintained, could be 
 asserted only of this or that particular object ; abstract terms were 
 simply human artifices (Metaphysica, i. 9, xi. 4, 5). 
 
 From the Sociology of Aristotle we pass to his Ethic. The subject- 
 matter of this final science was rightly conceived by him as the conduct 
 of the individual moulded by the Social State. Apart from a social 
 environment there could be, he clearly saw, no moral life. His scheme 
 of Politic is thus an appendage to his Ethic, intended to examine and 
 describe such an environment. For moral exhortation or discussion 
 would be, he says, thrown away on men unprepared by the discipline of 
 life to give reason precedence over passion {Ethic, x. 9. 7). 
 
 The end of ethical inquiry, he points out, is practical rather than 
 speculative. Our object here is not to acquire knowledge, but to be- 
 come better men. Whatever general principles we may reach, we 
 come at last, like physicians or navigators, to cases that have to be 
 judged individually. 
 
 He begins by explaining that all men, consciously or otherwise, have 
 an aim in each action ; the special aim being subordinate to one still 
 larger, and so on. The ultimate aim, consciously or unconsciously 
 pursued, is happiness. Wherein consists true happiness ? It consists in 
 a life of noble activity. For perfect happiness the outward conditions 
 must be favourable. Still, whatever misery may come, " the blest one 
 (makarios) can never become wretched, for he can never do hateful or 
 worthless things." 
 
 What is to be our canon of right action ? Aristotle wisely declines 
 to lay down such a canon. We become just and righteous, he says, not 
 by listening to ethical discourses, but by doing just and righteous things. 
 And these things are those that just and righteous men do. Subject to 
 this warning against over-trust in theory, he defines Virtue as the state in 
 which we use our free choice to avoid excess on the one hand, or defect 
 on the other ; as defined by right reason and the practice of wise men. 
 A large part of his Ethical treatise is occupied with illustrations of this 
 in detail. Courage, temperance, liberality, magnanimity, mildness of 
 temper, geniality, truthfulness, graciousness, are analysed and contrasted 
 with the vicious states of exaggeration or defect between which they 
 stand. The discussion of justice, temperance, and friendship is carried 
 out with special care. His manner of contrasting the false friendships of
 
 Philosophy] ARISTOTLE 85 
 
 pleasure and interest with the perfect friendship following from inter- 
 course of noble natures, wishing good for one another in that they are 
 themselves good and pure, is but one of many signs that the heart of 
 this great thinker was worthy of his intellect. Not less striking are his 
 remarks 'on self-love ; which, in its highest form, meant love for what 
 was best in self ; readiness to throw life away, if need were, at the 
 call of duty ; to do one great and noble deed rather than many small 
 ones ; to choose noble life for a year above many years of mediocrity. 
 
 He ends, as he began, with renewed insistence on the need of moral 
 discipline begun in early life. The whole environment must be such as 
 to predispose to the love of good and hatred of evil {Ethics, x. 9). 
 
 Summing up the result of Aristotle's life, we may say that his teaching 
 prepared the way for the Mediteval Church by strong enforcement of the 
 need for such moral discipline as that Chureh established ; and also by a 
 coherent scheme of Nature more compatible with a single ruler of the 
 Universe than with a multitude of discordant divinities. But its effects 
 reached further into the future. The founder of Biology and of Social 
 Statics prepared the way for the co-ordination of Science round the 
 central conception of Humanity. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. V. lect. 83. Pos. Pol. ii. 234 ; iii. 255-262, and 361-3. The 
 Ethics and Politics of Aristotle are in the Positivist Library. See also 
 Grote's Aristotle; Lafhtte's Grands Types ; Dr. Ogle's carefully anno- 
 tated translation of the Parts of Animals ; and the Essays appended to 
 Dr. Congreve's and Mr. W. Newman's editions of the Politics. Ethics, 
 tr. by Williams, 1869. Politics, tr. by Jowett, 1885.
 
 86 ANAXIMANDER [Ancient 
 
 ANAXIMANDER, 6tli Century B.C., d. abt. 520 B.C. 
 
 The name of Thales marks the period when the Greek mind, break- 
 ing away from theology, laid the foundations of science by seeking a 
 natural explanation for the world and its phenomena. The work which 
 he began was continued by a succession of thinkers, of whom Axaxi- 
 MANDER, also a native of Miletus, stands next in time. In the old age 
 of Thales, Anaximander may have come under his personal influence ; 
 he must certainly have been filled by his example with the new spirit of 
 inquiry. But Thales's solution of the problem of the universe could not 
 satisfy him. Recognising that the world is the scene of change — on the 
 one hand of growth, and on the other of dissolution — he was impelled to 
 believe that matter exists in some simple state whence all things proceed, 
 to which they return ; but with a wise hesitation he forbore to speak in 
 precise terms of this original state. He felt that neither water, nor air, 
 nor fire, nor any other known thing, could be the principle of the uni- 
 verse. These are limited and complex, and they exist but for a time and 
 perish ; the principle must be infinite, formless, and eternal. Nor is it 
 enough for us to conceive matter in its simplest form. Matter has 
 qualities such as Heat and Cold, Moisture and Dryness, which seemed 
 to him to be incapable of analysis, and to be therefore Primary. Matter 
 again is dead, and without an original Energy it cannot change or de- 
 velop. Lastly, in view of the profound diff'erences of things, he felt he 
 had no warrant for following Thales in reducing them all to one element. 
 By Anaximander, therefore, the original substance was conceived as the 
 sum of the elements of difterent things, existing in a formless mass, 
 possessing the primary qualities, and acted on by a latent force. As 
 these elements combine and separate from the mass, individual things 
 are formed. But the separation is only for a time. In language which 
 reminds us how close was the alliance in his day between philosophy and 
 poetry, Anaximander says : " From this do all things come into being, 
 and in this, as is meet, are they again dissolved, for each in turn pays to 
 the other the penalty of injustice." 
 
 The influence of the previous age is still present. The principle of 
 the universe, infinite and formless, recalls the Oceanus of Homer and the 
 Chaos of Hesiod ; but to Anaximander it is less a subject of fixed belief 
 than a statement of the limit which existing knowledge placed upon 
 speculation. Science, he felt, must seek to reduce one by one the 
 number of different elements, and must not begin by assuming that they 
 are all forms of one and the same piinciple. Anaximander is said by 
 Diogenes to have invented the gnomon, and by Pliny to have discovered 
 the obHquity of the ecliptic ; statements which, at least, indicate that he 
 occupied himself with science as weU as with jshilosophy. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Grote : Plato, i. ch. i. Lewes : Hist, of Philos. i. cli . i. and ii.
 
 Philosophy] ANAXIMENES : HERACLITUS 87 
 
 ANAXIMENES, second half of the 6th Century b.c. 
 
 At a time when there appeared no sign of decay in the old behefs 
 save the attempt of the Orphic poets to systematise them, Miletus pro- 
 duced in ANAXIMENES yet another great thinker who followed in the 
 steps of Thales. The independent spirit of Miletus, and the direct 
 influence of Thales, may explain the fact that 'for a long time the new 
 philosophy was thus associated with a single city. Afterwards it became 
 needful to flee westward from theocratic influences, and take refuge in 
 the colonies of the South Italian and Sicilian coasts. In some respects 
 Anaximenes stands nearer in thought to Thales than to his immediate 
 predecessor, Anaximander. He saw less difficulty in believing that all 
 things have a common element, and therefore that they are transmutable, 
 than in assuming a number of elements of which our senses can tell us 
 nothing. The theory of universal transmutability did indeed transcend 
 experience, yet experience pointed in that direction. Anaximenes held 
 that the common element is Air, a substance more simple and more 
 pervading than Water. Not only is it essential to life — it seems to be 
 life itself. For did not yl^vxr], the soul, mean breath ? And what is 
 true of man appeared to Anaximenes true of the whole universe, which 
 he conceived as a living organism. "Just as we," he said, "are de- 
 pendent on the soul, which is air, so is the whole universe pervaded by 
 breath and air." What, then, could experience tell of the developing 
 force ? Air, as he said, is never at rest, and as it fills all space it must 
 by motion be here condensed, and there rarefied. Clouds, therefore, and 
 water, the sun, the moon, and the earth are but forms of air in various 
 stages of condensation. Still resting upon known facts, he made one 
 step more towards simplicity of origin by including within his theory 
 those qualities of things which Anaximander accepted as primary. 
 Moist and dry express degrees of condensation, while heat is caused by 
 rapidity of motion, the fire of the sun being thus due to its swift move- 
 ment through the heavens. 
 
 The ancient mythology was still alive when Anaximenes held these 
 views ; yet are they among the most striking anticipations of the results 
 of modern science. It may be added that Anaximenes, like Anaximander, 
 devoted much attention to Astronomy. [G. P. M.] 
 
 For references, see Anaximander. 
 
 HERACLITUS, first half of the 5th Century B.C. 
 
 Heracleitus, known as the "weeping philosopher" or the misanthrope, 
 was born at Ephesus about the time of the outbreak of the Ionic revolt. 
 The Ephesians kept strangely aloof from their fellow-Ionians in the brief 
 struggle against the Persian power ; and to the fact of this inability to 
 join together for a common cause we may well attribute some of the 
 contempt which Heraclitus felt for the popular voice and pojjular 
 government, which made him withdraw from active life, and tinged his 
 whole philosophy. The highest office in the city is said to have been
 
 88 HERACLITUS : ANAXAGOEAS [Ancient 
 
 his by hereditary right, but he refused to hold it. The bitterness of his 
 feeling was so deepened by the banishment of his friend Hermodorus, 
 that he withdrew himself from the society of men, and lived in the 
 mountains alone. He sought to free himself from a world which seemed 
 to him wholly selfish and full of vanities. 
 
 His philosophy earned for him the name of "the obscure." He 
 conceived the principle of the Universe as a fiery ether, which not 
 merely is the substance of all things but is the Universal Intelligence. 
 From this, in strife, does everything proceed. There is no rest in 
 Nature, only perpetual change ; the generation of one thing means the 
 destruction of another ; and all things come into being to be merged 
 again in the fire spirit. Of this spirit the mind of each man is but a 
 detached and infinitely small part, and therefore liable to err. It is not 
 by much learning that we can attain to true reason, but by bringing 
 ourselves into accord with the universal mind ; for all that is purely 
 individual in us must be false. 
 
 There is here in germ the philosophy of Zeno the Stoic and of Marcus 
 Aurelius. But the ideal of Heraclitus is rather that of Plato, who con- 
 sidered that the highest effort of the soul, distracted by the world, was 
 to see dimly something of that Universal Truth with which it will 
 become one when released from the prison-house of the body. In 
 various forms the same ideal appears in modern philosophy, notably in 
 the systems of Fichte and Hegel. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Lewes : Uist. Phil. i. ch. iii. Grote : Plato, i. ch. i. 
 
 ANAXAGORAS, b. abt. 500 B.C., d. abt. 428 B.C. 
 
 Anaxagoras was born of a family of high position in Clazomenae, in 
 Ionia. Early in life he repaired to Athens, the most splendid j^eriod in 
 whose history was then beginning. Through the nobility and gravity of 
 his character, and his growing fame as a teacher, he gathered round him 
 a band of friends and pupils ; among them, Pericles, whose friendship he 
 retained throughout his life, and over whom he exercised the strongest 
 influence. He taught Pericles, says Plutarch, to apply reason to 
 Nature ; and, freeing him from a terrifying and arid superstition, gave 
 him a religion of peace and good hope. But Anaxagoras had the 
 common fate of teachers of new truths. His science was falsely re- 
 presented as an attack upon religion. He was accused of blasjihemy, 
 and was saved from death only by the exertions of Pericles ; but he 
 was banished from Athens. He retired to Lampsacus, where he died, 
 honoured by its citizens. " Let the day of my death be a holiday for 
 your children," was his answer to the request of how they might pay 
 him honour. And so late as the second century B.C., Plutarch tells us, 
 was the annual holiday still kept. 
 
 Anaxagoras, like Anaximander, understanding creation to be merely 
 arrangement, held that the differences of things cannot be explained 
 except by the existence of dift'erent elements. From all time these 
 elements have existed, but uncombined and in chaos, the like mingled
 
 Philosophy] ANAXAGORAS : DEMOCRITUS 89 
 
 with the unlike. Then Mind appeared, he said, and reduced them to 
 order. Like elements were joined to like, and thus the world was 
 formed. What, then, is this forming Mind? To Anaxagoras it was 
 not a Supreme Being outside the universe ; it was itself an element and 
 material ; but, as Aristotle described it, immixed with other elements, 
 and more subtle, more pure than they. If Mind regulates the universe, 
 then is there a principle of order which science may strive to compre- 
 hend. We may regard Anaxagoras as having been the first to feel the 
 importance of this truth, and to see that it led to the rejection of Fate 
 and Chance ; for these, he taught, are only the names we give to un- 
 discovered Cause. 
 
 To him also belongs the signal merit of recognising, as Aristotle did 
 more explicitly, that knowledge comes to us through sensation. And he 
 established the distinction, developed in modern philosophy between 
 Objective and Subjective Reality, between things in themselves and 
 things as they appear to us. To the latter, he held, is our knowledge 
 limited. [G. P. M.J 
 
 Grote : Plato, i. ch. i. Plutarch : Pericles. Lewes : Hist. Phil. i. cli. iii. 
 
 DEMOCRITUS, b. abt. 460 B.C., d. abt. 370 B.C. 
 
 Democritus, known as " the laughing philosopher," was born at 
 Abdera, in Thrace, a few years after the birth of Socrates. He stands 
 conspicuous among the men, not rare in early Greece, whom neither the 
 possession of wealth nor the promise of power could lead away from the 
 pursuit of Truth : men who rejaresent the real spiritual life of their time. 
 Impelled by the desire for a wider knowledge than the isolation of a Greek 
 city could offer, Democritus passed many years in travel, having inter- 
 course, as he tells us, with the most learned and the wisest men wherever 
 he went. Their influence may, perhaps, be traced in his astronomy, which, 
 in the close observation of Nature that it reveals, places him beyond his 
 predecessors. The names of his lost writings, wherein he treated of almost 
 every form of knowledge, suggest a mind which in its all-embracing width 
 was like the greater mind of Aristotle. But none of his other specula- 
 tions has had the fame, or has the importance, which belongs to his 
 development of the theory of Atoms. 
 
 Matter is divisible into parts, and such part again into smaller parts. 
 How far can this process be carried ] Not to an infinite extent ; for that 
 is inconceivable. Our reason, which not less than our senses did Demo- 
 critus hold to be a source of knowledge, requires us to believe that it has 
 a limit. Ultimately, therefore, we reach particles of matter which are 
 simple and indivisible. These particles, or atoms, must, as Democritus 
 imagined, difier from one another in size and form. They must be in 
 constant motion, for we have no ground for supposing that motion is not 
 as old as matter itself ; whence it follows that there must be space to move 
 in, space unfilled by atoms. The unresting atoms combine, yet they never 
 actually come into contact. They are separated from one another by 
 intervals of space, whose varying nunuteness we express by saying that
 
 90 DEMOCRITUS : LEUCIPPUS : HERODOTUS [Ancient 
 
 one thing is more dense than another. As there is no contact, so even in 
 their combined form does the motion of the atoms never cease. Thus 
 Democritus explained the universe and its changes. 
 
 The theory was revived a century later by Epicurus, from whom 
 Lucretius received it and gave it poetic form. Its importance is to be 
 measured from the fact that it is in substance the hypothesis of Leibnitz 
 and of the principal physicists of our own century. Stripped of the con- 
 crete forms which they received from the fancy of Democritus, atoms 
 have become necessary symbols of thought. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Grote, Lewes : v.hi su]i. 
 
 LEUCIPPUS, b. probably some years before Democritus. 
 
 Leucippus is known to us only by the light which the fame of Demo- 
 critus has thrown upon him. No separate record of him has come down 
 save that he was taught by Zeno of Elea, the follower of Xenophanes and 
 Parmenides, and that he first expounded the theory which Democritus 
 afterwards developed. The aim, indeed, of that theory was to remove 
 the distinction which the Eleatic school drew between the Absolute, or 
 the only real existence, as it seemed to them, and the world of change 
 around us. [G. P. M.] 
 
 / 
 
 HERODOTUS, b. 484 B.C., d. att. 400 B.C. 
 
 The services which Thales rendered to Science, Herodotus rendered 
 to history. Before him there is no trace even of a chronicle of events 
 other than that of the epic j)oet3, between whom and the philosophic 
 Thucydides he forms the only link. 
 
 The experience of his life peculiarly fitted him for his task. Bom at 
 Halicamassus in Caria, four years before the battle of Salamis, when the 
 city was governed by alien and despotic rulers, he betook himself early 
 in life to travel, aware that a civic career was closed to him. He visited 
 almost every city of Greece ; he became familiar with every part of the 
 coast of Asia Minor ; he made a long stay in Egypt ; and he reached even 
 the distant Scythia. He returned to Halicamassus to witness, probably 
 to assist in, the revolt which freed the city from the Persians and made 
 it a member of the Athenian union ; but for some reason, having become 
 unpopular, he turned to Athens, where he dwelt for many years. Yet he 
 still lacked the rights of citizenship, which a Greek esteemed essential to 
 the dignity of a man. So he joined the colony which had set out in 
 445 B.C. to found Thurii in Italy. There, it is supposed, he wrote his 
 history and spent the rest of his life. 
 
 Herodotus proposed to relate the causes and the course of the war 
 between the Greeks and the barbarians. He wrote with the recollection 
 of the glorious close of the struggle still fresh in men's minds, in that 
 brief period when a feeling of security filled all Greece. The war itself, 
 however, is only the goal to which he moves. As each nation appears on 
 the scene, the current of his story stops, that he may pour out his full
 
 Philosophy] HEKODOTUS : THALES 91 
 
 knowledge concerning it : not merely chronicling the vicissitudes of its 
 dynasties, but with a true instinct dwelling in curious detail on its 
 religion, superstitions, and habits. Since his day the story has never failed 
 to fascinate, told as it is in a style universally recognised as a model of 
 simplicity and grace. 
 
 He rodo tus had the first great quality of a historian — a desire to 
 separate "vvhat is true from what is false or uncertain. Tellihg of the 
 maTvels of foreign lands, he speaks with care and withlittle exaggeration ; 
 and his testimony, in spite of repeated attacks, has been emphatically 
 confinned by modern research. Yet in its higher sense, as something 
 more than a chronicle, history is only beginning to separate itself from 
 fable. It could not advance so rapidly as science, for it could not so 
 rapidly free itself from theology. It deals with facts which seemed too 
 subtle and intricate to be explained in any other way than by divine 
 intervention. But its progress is assured when this intervention is 
 regarded no longer as erratic and wayward, but, as it seemed to Herodotus, 
 regular and itself subject to law. To him, as to -^schylus, all experience 
 declared, in the life of nations as in the life of individuals, the presence of 
 a power dispensing rigorous justice. Thus there was dimly recognised 
 a continuity in the events of history. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Grote : Hist. Greece^ y. 7-10. Rawlinson : Tr. of Herodotus, 4 vols.; 
 ~¥ov Life and History," see vol. i. ch, i. ii. iii. 
 
 THALES, b. 640 B.C., d. 550 B.C. 
 
 Thales is commemorated as the initiator of abstract thought, scien- 
 tific and philosophic. In his time, and through his teaching, there first 
 began the use of a true scientific method. For it may be said that he 
 first employed abstract reasoning in investigation, and first taught that 
 natural phenomena must have natural causes. 
 
 He was born of a noble family of ]\Iiletus, the greatest of the twelve 
 Ionian cities. Honours and wealth were within his reach, but he sacri- 
 ficed them that he might give himself to a life of contemplation. Yet 
 he became no mere recluse. So high stood his reputation for practical 
 sagacity, the fruit of a life of over ninety years, that he was accounted 
 the greatest of the Seven Wise Men, his pithy sayings were treasured up, 
 and it was still remembered in Herodotus' time how he had perceived 
 that the only hope of maintaining the independence of the lonians lay 
 in a real federation of their cities. 
 
 Hitherto the search for knowledge had gone little beyond the imme- 
 diate needs of life. The natural desire for some explanation of the universe 
 had been satisfied by mythology, and men had rested content in the belief 
 that the lightning, the eclipse, and the storm were the manifestations of 
 the gods. A new era opened in the history of thought when Thales, 
 finding his experience in conflict with the old poetic fictions, faced the pro- 
 blem once more. He saw that no one called in a deity to explain the 
 simple facts of every-day life, where the natural causes are obvious. He 
 saw, too, that as one's knowledge grows, natural causes come to light
 
 92 THALES [Ancient 
 
 which were before unseen. Might there not, then, be some natural cause 
 for all phenomena whatsoever '? Thus he was led to speculate on the origin 
 and growth of the universe. His experience told him that matter may 
 assume different forms ; and he reasoned, as we may suppose, that when 
 a new thing is formed it cannot contain any substance which did not 
 exist before. The polytheistic dogma of Metamorphoses had already made 
 him familiar with a wider view of the same conception ; so that he allowed 
 himself to pass from the seen to the unseen, and to feel that beneath the 
 diversity of the world there is in all things some common substance or 
 principle from which ])y natural means they develop. Such a substance 
 he saw in water or moisture, a thing essential to life, and, as it seemed to 
 him, absolutely simple in character. From the first there was latent in it 
 a power of change and development whereby it transforms itself into all 
 the variety of the universe. 
 
 But these general or philosophic speculations, dealing with problems 
 far beyond his competence to solve, could lead to no definite result, 
 and are of interest chiefly as indicating a new epoch in the history of 
 human thought. Of more permanent value were his researches in posi- 
 tive science. The search for an original principle exi3lanatory of the 
 universe went side by side with the process of analysis, the resolution of 
 complex wholes into their simplest elements, the abstraction of these last, 
 and the discovery in them of uniform law. Thales is said to have taught 
 geometry to the priests of Thebes. Others have maintained that he 
 learnt it from them. We know now that Egyptian geometry was limited 
 to special figures and A'olumes. To Thales and his followers is due the 
 geometry of the lines which bound them ; a conception which gave an 
 impulse to science comparable to that which the introduction of alphabetic 
 characters gave to intellectual efforts generally. The two discoveries 
 associated with his name are (1) that the sum of the angles of a triangle 
 are equal to two right angles : and (2) that the sides of similar triangles 
 are proportional ; to which may be added the conception of geometrical 
 loci. 
 
 The first result of the new geometry was the reconstitution of 
 Astronomy ; which though still dependent on graphic methods, advanced 
 from mechanical representation of the heavenly bodies to diagrams. 
 Lastly, the dogma of Metamorphoses became in Thales's hands a real pre- 
 paration for the theory of atoms ; in this direction the line from him to 
 Democritus is unbroken. As special sciences developed, the belief in the 
 unity of Nature was gradually abandoned ; yet was still retained in the 
 modified form of Aristotle's theory of the four elements. But the fame 
 of Thales will rest mainly on his mathematical discoveries. He founded 
 the geometry of lines : his two problems laid the foundation of algebra 
 by instituting resiiectively an equation and a proportion : and he thus 
 introduced the first type of a natural law, i.e. the exj^ression of a fixed 
 dependence between varying quantities ; the disentanglement of constancy 
 in the midst of change. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Comte : I'/ul. Pos. vol. v. lect. 52. Pos. Pol. 248-251. LaOitte : 
 Grands Tyjjes de VHumanite, ii. 280 et seq. Alhiian : Greek Geo- 
 rnetry from Thales to Euclid. Lewes : Hist, of Phil. ; from Thales to 
 Comte, i. ch. i.
 
 Philosophy] SOLON X 93 
 
 / 
 
 SOLON, b. 640 B.C., d. 559 B.C. 
 
 Solon was born at Athens of an ancient and noble family. "When 
 youn^Tle travelfed as a'liierchant through many parts of Greece and 
 Asia Minor. He early became known as a keen and deep observer of 
 character and conduct, and as a man capable of wise counsel. With 
 Thales, Bias, and others, he was classed among the Seven Wise Men of 
 his time. His thoughts were expressed in poems : the fragments which 
 survive show him rather as a practical moralist than as a speculative 
 thinker. In any case, it is on his civic work that his fame principally rests. 
 
 In the struggle of^^LtEens" against Megara for the posses.sron"of 
 Salamis, he took a leading part. Still more important was his inter- 
 vention in the fierce quarrels then raging between rich and poor. Large 
 numbers of citizens were working as slaves, and had even been sold to 
 neighbouring states for debts that they could not otherwise discharge. 
 Civil war was imminent. In 594 b.c. Solon was chosen one of the archons 
 for the year, and was invited to propose a settlement of these difficulties. 
 His friends urged him to become the dictator or despot of the city. But 
 this he steadily refused. With complete freedom from personal ambition, 
 he set himself to the difficult work of making a practical settlement. 
 He annihilated all contracts in which the debtor had pledged his person 
 or his children. He abolished many of the land mortgages ; he brought 
 back from distant cities many of the debtors who had been sold as 
 slaves. He restored many poor people to the privilege of citizenship 
 which they had forfeited. 
 
 All this involved confiscation. The money for the redemption of 
 slaves was obtained by debasing the coinage so that four parts of silver 
 were used when five had been used before. But it was seen that Solon 
 gained nothing himself — indeed, that he hacl become a poorer man. 
 Perfect trust was felt in his devotion to the public good, and the best 
 proof of his wisdom is that the wiping out of debt, once done, ncA^er 
 needed repetition, and that the law between debtor and creditor remained 
 less barbarous in Athens than in other States of antiquity. 
 
 Solon made other changes in the constitution which prepared the 
 way for the gradual admission of freemen into a share of government 
 an(I"~bf judicature. He' was, however, no democrat; much power was 
 sfill reserved by his laws to property and rank. " I stood," he says in 
 one of his poems, " with the strong shield cast over both parties, so as not 
 to allow an unjust triumph to either." 
 
 Many other of Solon's laws were wise and humane. He encouraged 
 trade and industr}'. He made prudent regulations for the transmission 
 of wealth by will. He j^unished slanderous insults either of the living 
 or the dead. He relaxed the extreme severity of previous laws against 
 theft and crimes of violence. One of his laws became specially famous ; 
 in times of political dissension he made it compulsory for each citizen to 
 form ancT express his judgment. 
 
 He lived to the age of eighty. The last year of his life was dis- 
 tinguished by his noble resistance to the usurping tyranny of Pisistratus. 
 His life presents one of the noblest types recorded in history of a thinker 
 whoTiever ceased to be a citizen. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Grote : Hist, of Greece, iii. 121-215. Plutarch : Solon,
 
 94 XENOPHANES : EMPEDOCLES [Ancient 
 
 XENOPHANES, b. abt. 580 B.C., d. abt. 500 B.C. 
 
 Xenophanes was a contemporary of Pythagoras ; and, like him, an 
 emigrant from Ionia to Italy. He was born at Colophon, near Ephesus, 
 and ultimately settled at the Phocsean colony of Elea, on the gulf of 
 Poseidonia, near Psestum. His thoughts were uttered in poetry, of 
 which only a few fragments have come down to us. So far as we can 
 judge, they were an indignant protest against the polytheistic principle 
 of fashioning gods in the likeness of men, and an attempt to lead men to 
 a purer form of worship. Men, he said, 
 
 "foolishly think that Gods are born like as men are, 
 And have too a dress like their own, and their voice, and their figure ; 
 But if oxen and lions had hands like ours, and fingers, 
 Then would horses like unto horses, and oxen to oxen. 
 Paint and fashion their own god-forms, and give to them bodies 
 Of like shape to their own, as tliey themselves too are fashioned." 
 
 " There is but one God," he said, 
 
 " the greatest of gods and of mortals ; 
 Neither in body, nor yet in thought, is he like unto mankind." 
 
 Aristotle says of him that he was the first who regarded the universe 
 as one great whole ; " looking up into the vault of heaven, he declared 
 that the One was God." He was profoundly convinced of man's 
 incapacity for absolute knowledge. " No man," he said, " knows clearly 
 about the gods or the universe : even if he speak what is true, he him- 
 self does not know it to be true : all is matter of opinion." The varied 
 views of man as to the facts of the world round him were relative to his 
 own faculties, not an expression of absolute knowledge. The principal 
 disciple of Xenophanes was Parmenides, who expressed the contrast 
 between absolute unknowable existence and the study of shifting multi- 
 form phenomena with even stronger emphasis and fuUer detail. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 Grote : Plato, i. 16-19. Lewes : Hist, of Philosophy, i. ch. 3. 
 
 EMPEDOCLES, b. abt. 500 B.C., d. abt. 430 B.C. 
 
 Empedocles was born at Agrigentum in Sicily. He came of an old 
 family, and inherited much wealth, a large part of which was spent in 
 bestowing dowries on the poor maidens of the city. He took the popular 
 side in politics, and gained such influence that he was ofi'ered the 
 dictatorship of the republic. This he refused ; preferring the spiritual 
 influence following from his wide knowledge, his utterance of mystical 
 and oracular sayings, and his free-handed liberality. Like Pythagoras 
 and Plato, he is said to have spent much time in Eastern travel. Few 
 details of his life are known to us with certainty ; the story of his 
 suicide in the crater of Mount Etna is but one of many fables reported 
 of him. 
 
 His philosophical principles were embodied in a poem, of which a 
 few fragments have survived. The distinctive principle is the Evolution 
 of the world from the lour elements of Fire, Air, Water, and Earth ;
 
 Philosophy] EMPEDOCLES : THUCYDIDES 95 
 
 while the reverse process of Dissolution was going on simultaneously 
 under the varying struggle between the opposing forces of attraction and 
 repulsion, metaphorically spoken of as Love and Hate. This principle, 
 far more nearly approaching the truth than the vague attempts of the 
 earlier Ionian school, he applied in detailed explanation both of the 
 Kosmos and of living organisms. He says — 
 
 " Fools who think aught can begin to be which formerly was not. 
 Or that aught which is can wholly decay and perish ; 
 This too is truth I now unfold ; no natural birth-time 
 Is there of mortal things, nor is death's destruction final ; 
 Nothing is there but a mingling, and then separation of the mingled ; 
 These being called a birth and a death by ignorant mortals." 
 
 From Pythagoras, or perhaps from independent converse with 
 Egyptian or Eastern thinkers, Empedocles adopted the doctrine of 
 Metempsychosis. The sufferings of this and other lives were in expia- 
 tion of previous sins. Only by gradual mounting upward through the 
 scale of existence could the society of the gods be regained. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Grote : Plato, i. ch. 1. Lewes : Hist. Phil. i. ch. 3. Lucretius, i. 727. 
 Fragments by Sturz and Karsten. 
 
 THUCYDIDES, b. 471 B.C., d. abt. 400 B.C. 
 
 Thucydides, son of Olorus, was a native of the townshiij of Alimus 
 in AtTIl'a. ■■"Tllrough his mother, Hegesipyle, he was connected with 
 Miltiades. When a boy, he is said to have heard the history of 
 Herodotus recited at the Olympic Games, and to have been moved to 
 tears. He studied philosophy under Anaxagoras. 
 
 He was forty years old when the great war broke out between Athens 
 and Sparta. In the eighth year of this war he was in command of an 
 Athenian fleet, which failed to save one of the most important posses- 
 sions of Athens, Amphipolis, a city on the Strymon, from the Spartan 
 general Brasidas. For this failure he was brought to trial and banished. 
 He did not return from exile till twenty years afterwards, in 403. The 
 exact time and place of his death are uncertain. To his exile we owe 
 the immortal history of the Peloponnesian war. "" "' 
 
 ' While purporting to be an accurate record of events as they passed 
 before him year by year, thisjiistory gives proof of the highest philo- 
 sophic power, that of analysing ancTestimatrng the social phenomena of 
 his time. He was convinced, he tells us, of the critical nature of the 
 struggle between the two great powers of Hellas. Human nature was 
 the same always ; and a careful statement of facts, froni wKIch all legend 
 should be rigorously excluded, Avould make his work less attractive for 
 present readers, but more precious to posterity. 
 
 Masterly portrai ture of great social facts, with minute accuracy of 
 detail — such is the cTiaFacIer oTliis"work. Tlie contrast between Sparta 
 and "^Lthens — the first, a premature and abortive Eome, absorbed in one- 
 sided military training ; the second, a free State, in which every function 
 of civic life, war, commerce, philosophy, art, had free play — is strongly 
 drawn. Their mental culture did not make the Athenians less brave in 
 danger, or more spiritless in defeat. " Their lives they spent for their
 
 96 THUCYDIDES : ARCHYTAS [Ancient 
 
 country as though not their own ; their counsels they cherished as the 
 dearest possession, to use them for her ' sgrVice '' (Thiic. I." 70). There 
 w6te no privileged castes among them : " ATI take their share of public 
 burdens, all are free to give their judgment as to public welfare ; we 
 are free from intolerance," Thucydides records Pericles as saying ; " we 
 persecute no one for following his own pursuits. Our life is humanised 
 by public festivals and private refinement. "We cultivate beauty without 
 luxury, and wisdom without weakness." Not less striking is his picture 
 of the" plague at Athens, and of the lawlessness and demoralisation that 
 followed it (ii. 47-53). Most impressive of all is his description of the 
 I foctious strife between the oligarchical and democratical parties at 
 ' Corcyra, which he gives as a type of what went on everywhere through 
 
 (the cities of Greece, and which was feted to continue till their 
 independence was suppressed first by Macedon, afterwards by Rome. 
 (The same passions, the same intertwining of private with public hatreds, 
 as those which raged between Guelph and Ghibelline in the Italian 
 republics, or in Paris during the Reign of Terror and the reaction which 
 followed, are depicted by Thucydides with inimitable truth and power. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 Thucydides : translated by Jowett, 1881, 2 vols. Grote : Hist. Greece, vi. 
 "passim. Pos. Pol. iii. 262. — — . 
 
 ARCHYTAS, b. 428 B.C., d. 347 B.C. 
 
 Archytas of Tarentum, the last and greatest of the scientific thinkers 
 belonging to the Pythagorean school, was contemporary with Plato, and 
 is said to have been one of his teachers when he visited Italy. In any 
 case lie was a firm friend of Plato, and saved his life when it was 
 endangered by the younger Dionysius. The respect felt for him by his 
 fellow-citizens appears from the fact that he was chosen seven times as 
 their general, with powers over the confederation of the cities of jNIagna 
 Grtecia. Many stories are told of his kindness to children and humanity 
 to slaves. 
 
 Aristotle wrote a treatise, which has not come down to us, on the 
 philosophy of Archytas. Such fragments of his philosophy as survive 
 are too slight, and their authenticity is too uncertain, to enable us to esti- 
 mate their value. But recent researches have brought into prominence 
 the importance of Archytas as a mathematical discoverer. His solution 
 of what was known as the Problem of Delos — the insertion between 
 two given quantities of two mean proportionals — which is given in 
 full in Professor Allman's work, proves great original power and the 
 posses-^ion of a large stock of geometrical knowledge. We see that 
 " he was familiar with the generation of cylinders and cones, and had 
 also clear ideas on the interpenetration of surfaces ; he had, moreover, a 
 clear conception of geometrical loci, and of theii" application to the 
 determination of a point l>y means of their intersection " (Allman, p. 115). 
 It is to be added, that Archytas was the teacher of Eudoxus of Cnidus, 
 the most important name in mathematics between Pythagoras and 
 Archimedes. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Allman : Greek Geometrij from Thalcs to Euclid.
 
 Philosophy] PHILOLAUS : APOLLONIUS 97 
 
 PHILOLAUS, contemp. of Plato. 
 
 Philolaus, a native of Crotona, was a distinguished disciple of the 
 Pythagorean school. Cicero describes him as the teacher of Archytas. 
 He is said to have been the first to put the principles and traditions of 
 the school into writing. Plato, Avhen he came to the court of Dionysius 
 in Sicily, is reported to have bought his works for the sum of forty minse 
 (£160). Towards the close of his life Philolaus was suspected of aiming 
 at political usurpation. We have no facts to prove or disprove this. 
 
 Of Philolaus, as of Archytas, it has to be said that the fragmentary 
 quotations from his writings, scattered through the works of later 
 writers, are not sufficient to tell us more than that he occupied himself 
 in developing the theory of numbers and the laws of geometry, as the 
 basis for explaining man's life and position in the universe ; devoting 
 special attention to the five regular solids, each of which was supposed 
 to correspond to one of the elemental substances of which the universe 
 was composed. [J. H. B.] 
 
 See Boeckli : edition of Fragments of Philolaus : also Chaignet's I'ljthagore. 
 
 APOLLONIUS OF TYANA, b. abt. A.D. 1, d. abt. 80 a.d. 
 
 Apollonius was born at Tyana, in Cappadocia. He studied gram- 
 mar and rhetoric in Tarsus, where we may think of him as sometimes 
 meeting the young Jew Saul, also a student in the same city. Apol- 
 lonius found Tarsus too luxurious and distracting for study, and retired 
 to -iEgfe, in Cilicia, where he studied medicine and philosophy in the 
 temple of ^sculapius. There he met Euxenus, a Pythagorean, who 
 filled him with enthusiam for the great master, so that he adopted the 
 Pythagorean discipline and mode of life. He abstained from animal 
 food or clothing, slept on the gi-ound, and observed the rule of five 
 years' silence. 
 
 He then began a course of travel in the East, far more accessible since 
 Alexander's conquest than to earlier philosojAers. At Nineveh he met 
 Damis, who became his faithful friend and fellow-traveller, and who left 
 records of his adventures. They travelled together in Egyj)t, Africa, Italy, 
 and Spain. But the western coast of Asia Minor, and more particularly 
 the city of Ephesus, would seem to have been their headquarters. In this 
 and in neighbouring cities, he seems to have exercised great social and 
 moral influence ; repressing luxury and excitement, and calming troubled 
 minds by the fascinations of a dignified presence and exalted nature. 
 
 That he was credited with miraculous powers is true, but not to be 
 charged against him. Those who read his biography by Philostratus 
 will not carry away the impression of an imi^ostor or charlatan, but of a 
 man sincerely devoted to his fellow-men. He was keenly interested in 
 the maintenance of Eoman government under wise rulers. When in 
 E,<i:ypt he became acquainted with Vespasian, and afterwards Avith his 
 son Titus. He was urged to join in conspiracies against the Empire, 
 but firmly refused. It was not, he said, self-government, but it was far 
 
 G
 
 / 
 
 98 APOLLONIUS : PYTHAGORAS [Ancient 
 
 better than aristocracy or oligarchy (Philost. v. 34-42). "As one man 
 excelling in virtue may change democracy so as to make it seem dictator- 
 ship, so the government of one, doing and providing all for the common 
 good, is, in the true sense, a republic." 
 
 When Domitian succeeded Titus, and began to listen to spies and 
 informers, Apollonius expressed his disapproval in very strong language, 
 which was not long in reaching the ear of the tyrant. He anticipated 
 prosecution by voluntarily going to Rome, just as Domitian had 
 driven all philosophers away from Rome. He was thrown into prison, 
 from which he was soon summoned to a private interview with the 
 Emperor, followed by a public trial. The dignified and respectful firm- 
 ness with which he maintained the claims of philosophy, and refuted 
 the jualignant calumnies of his accuser, disarmed Domitian's suspicious 
 temper, and he was acquitted. He left Italy for Greece. There he was 
 received at Olympia with much enthusiasm, and soon after returned to 
 Ephesus, where he appears to have been in friendly relations with Nerva, 
 shortly destined to succeed Domitian. The place and time of his death 
 are uncertain, but a shrine was erected to his honour in his native city, 
 which long remained an object of reverence. 
 
 In his biography by Philostratus there is no sign of any rivalry with 
 the life of Christ, or of any Christian saint. For centuries he was reviled 
 as an impostor. Justice has at last been done to him as an honourable 
 type of the men who, since Pythagoras, and yet more since the establish- 
 ment of the Empire, aimed at the renovation of the Western world 
 through agencies less intense and fervid, but also less subversive and 
 more human, than those employed by the early Christian Church. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Philostratus : Life, translated by Berwick, 1809. Baur : Apollonius und 
 Christ us. Pos. Pol. iii. 28-3. 
 
 PYTHAGORAS, b. abt. 580 B.C., d. abt. 500 B.C. 
 
 To understand the life of Pythagoras, it is needful to consider what 
 the problems were which he set himself to solve. 
 
 The poems of Homer show us the Hellenic race widely scattered over 
 the coasts and islands of Greece and Asia Minor, leading an active life 
 of war and commerce, fond of athletic exercises, keenly alive to poetry, 
 music, and decorative art. They had received the inheritance of the old 
 theocracies ; the rules of right and wrong were closely knit up with the 
 worship of the gods. Priests still bore sway, and could dictate to 
 kings ; who yet were impatient of their influence, as the opening lines of 
 the Iliad suffice to prove. In the centuries that followed, the priestly 
 functions became more and more dependent on the regal. Religious 
 beliefs were maintained, and, as an insjiiring influence in art and poetry, 
 were still potent. But their restraining influence on political and social 
 life was deeply undermined. The kings, in getting the better of the 
 priests, lost the religious basis of their own ascendency : the aristocracies 
 which followed soon gave way to turbulent and unstable democracies.
 
 Philosophy] PYTHAGOEAS 99 
 
 These had little but the name in common with the democracies of 
 modern Europe : since the Demos was simply an assemblage of trades- 
 men maintained by the labour of slaves. The brilliant but very fleeting 
 moment, during which the townsfolk of Athens Were capable of admiring 
 the poetry of ^schylus and Sophocles, must not blind us to the fact that 
 the democracies of the Greek world were almost uniformly sterile of 
 good result. Their venality and turbulence alienated the best minds from 
 civic action, and diverted them into channels fruitful for the after life 
 of humanity, but with fatal loss to their country's immediate service. 
 
 To this withdrawal of the great thinkers of Greece from the civic life 
 around them there were some exceptions : and the principal exception 
 is Pythagoras, who deliberately set himself to reform it. Great obscurity 
 hangs over the details of his life. That he was born in Samos ; that he 
 came into contact with Thales, that by the master's advice he visited 
 Egypt, where he stayed many years, learnt the language, and became 
 imbued with the thought and traditions of the priesthood ; that he pro- 
 bably extended his travels to Assyria ; that on his return to Samos, 
 finding it subject to the despotism of Poly crates, and noting the rapid 
 growth of Persian dominion in Ionia, he established himself in Crotona, 
 a flourishing Greek city on the South Italian coast, — is all that can 
 be said with approach to certainty of his youth and early manhood. 
 Possibly his choice of Crotona was due to its celebrity for the gymnastic 
 exercises and the arts of Hygiene. Be this as it may, here it was that 
 he founded his brotherhood ; a society of which the members were care- 
 fully chosen by himself on grounds of moral and intellectual superiority, 
 and whose purpose it was to efi'ect a reformation of public and private 
 life. 
 
 Admission to the order was obtained through a long and systematic 
 course of training ; and it would seem that there were at least two stages 
 of membership before complete initiation was reached. To each class 
 women as well as men were admitted. Early in the course came a long 
 period of silence, in which the neophyte conformed his life to the rules 
 of physical and moral training laid down for him, without presuming to 
 teach others except by his example. It is probable that a large propor- 
 tion of the members advanced no further than this stage. 
 
 Pythagoras left no writings. Our knowledge of his teaching and his 
 institutions depends on the tradition of his disciples ; and, as in the case 
 of the early documents of Christianity, the date of those ancient writers 
 who speak of him must be carefully noted. Among the earliest of these 
 writings are the Golden Words, a sort of religious catechism in verse. 
 Among its precepts are the following : 
 
 " Honour the deathless gods, as the law ordains ; reverence an oath ; 
 reverence great heroes, and do them the rites that are due ; honour thy 
 parents and kinsfolk ; make the best men thy friends. Be gentle in thy 
 speech, serviceable in deed. Be not angered with thy friend for a slight 
 offence ; bear with him while thou canst ; the bond will give thee power. 
 Learn to be the master of these four things : greed, sloth, lust, and 
 anger. Do no vile thing either alone, or with others ; and, above aU 
 things, keep reverent watch over thyself"
 
 100 PYTHAGORAS [Ancient 
 
 " Learn how to save and how to spend. What sorrow may come in 
 the lot that the gods send thee, bear it patiently ; healing it if thou 
 canst, and taking thought that the lot of good men cannot be wholly 
 grievous." 
 
 " Of bodily health thou shouldest take sufficient care ; in meat, food, 
 and exercise observing such measure as will not harm thee. Suffer not 
 sleep to fall on thy wearied eyelids before thou hast thrice considered 
 each deed of the day : When did I transgress 1 what have I done 1 
 what duty have I left undone ? and if thou hast played the coward, 
 repent ; if otherwise, be glad." 
 
 " These things if thou observe, thou wilt reach the track of divine 
 virtue. Ay, by him who gave to our soul the fourfold gift, fountain of 
 ever-living Nature, this is so. Thus wilt thou come to know the order 
 of the deathless gods and of men. Thou shalt see, so far as it is per- 
 mitted thee, law uniform throughout, so that thou mayest neither hope 
 things hopeless, nor yet be blind to what will come. Thou shalt see 
 thus the woes of men are of their own choice ; they wnll not look or 
 listen to the good that lies near them ; few are they who know the road 
 of deliverance. A doom is on their reason, warj)ing it ; like rolling 
 stones they are borne hither and thither in endless misery. For grievous 
 strife is born within them and follows them through life, and they know 
 it not. This it is we should not tempt to come near us, but keep far 
 away." 
 
 IVIany other wise and deej) sayings of Pythagoras have survived. 
 That the slavery of passion was harder than that of despots ; that man 
 came nearest to God when he was truthful ; that it was better to throw 
 a stone at random than scatter an idle tale ; that the highest refinement 
 was to put up patiently with vulgarity ; that when a man's country went 
 wrong he should behave to her as to his mother in like case ; — these may 
 serve as samples of the rest. Enough has been said to indicate the 
 general purpose and scope of his work ; it was a purification of moral 
 life, helped by intellectual discipline, and aiming at social renovation. 
 By the intellectual discipline it was distinguished from all previous 
 attempts at reformation, Judaic or Oriental. The abstract sciences of 
 number and of sj^aco, as distinguished from tlie arts of counting and 
 measuring visil)le quantities, were dawning upon the Avorld. It gave the 
 first conception of a uniform order of Nature (pvaiv ivep'i jravros o^ol-qv)^ 
 which, if carefully studied, would show to men the full scope of their 
 destiny, while guarding them from unlicensed hope. It would bring 
 resignation ; would dii-ect energy into its lawful channels ; and thus 
 help the attainment of self-mastery, and of that inward jieace in which 
 alone true freedom is to be foimd. On space-relations, reduced to laws 
 of number, he saw that the whole fabric of Nature rested. His doctrine, 
 that numbers were the formative principle of things, rested on a strong, 
 though doubtless confused, perception of the universality of law. 
 Imperfectly he perceived that, in a given group of phenomena, the 
 variations of each were connected with the variations of the rest in ways 
 which, when perfectly known, could be expressed in number.
 
 Philosophy] PYTHAGORAS 101 
 
 Meanwhile, as a social institution, number was, he considered, of 
 very great importance. The first three numbers, corresponding to 
 Synthesis, Combination, and Progression, play, as Comte has shown 
 {Synthese Subjective, ch. i. 108 et seqq.), a far more potent part in mental 
 processes than is commonly supposed. In the Pythagorean school, the 
 ])oint, the line, the surface, and the solid corresponded respectively to the 
 tii'st four numbers ; the addition of these produced the tetractys (quater- 
 nion or decade) which was of great importance in their system. Pytha- 
 goras is commonly credited with the discovery of the law of the square 
 of the hypothenuse, with the construction of five regular solids, with the 
 dependence of musical tones on the length of vibrating strings, with the 
 law of reflection of light, and with other physical and geometrical truths. 
 These, important as they might be, were with him wholly secondary to 
 his governing purpose, which was to use science as a regulating principle 
 for the discipline of life. This purpose remained unfulfilled ; but the 
 school of mathematics developed, on his impulse, by his followers, led to 
 results the importance of which it is impossible to exaggerate. 
 
 He was a man of commanding presence, winning speech, and prompt 
 insight into character. His influence was maintained, so far as we can 
 judge, for twenty or thirty years. It is said that, as in Florence when 
 Savonarola taught there, a great moral reformation was efi"ected in Crotona 
 on his arrival ; that two thousand persons were converted at his first 
 preaching ; that incontinence and luxury were repressed ; that women 
 threw away their ornaments and dressed in simple attire. It rests on 
 better evidence that the Supreme Council of the city sought his advice, 
 and invited him to the presidency, which he declined to accept. His wife 
 and daughter are said to have taken precedence of other women in 
 religious processions. These and other stories may be exaggerated ; but 
 it is certain that his influence and that of his brotherhood was wide and 
 deep. Branches were established in Sybaris, Metapontum, and other 
 cities of the South Italian and Sicilian coasts. 
 
 Whether, like the Jesuits, they gave just ofi"ence by unwise inter- 
 ference in political contests, we shall never know ; though it is certain 
 that such interference was systematically discouraged by the Master. 
 That offence was given is but too certain. The influence of the brother- 
 hood was in fiivour of political stability, and against democratic change. 
 It provoked at last a violent reaction, ending in the burning of their 
 meeting-house, the massacre of many members of the order, and the 
 dispersion of the rest. Whether Pythagoras perished with his disciples, 
 or died a few years afterwards at Metapontum, is uncertain. As a 
 political force the l^rotherhood ceased to exist ; but as a religious sect 
 and a philosophical school they held together for two centuries. Even 
 then the memory of them survived ; individual thinkers, like Apollonius 
 of Tyana, carried on their tradition ; and the revival of the school in the 
 third and fourth centuries of the Christian era is a fact of moment in the 
 controversies of that time. 
 
 Pythagoras's scheme of renovation was doomed to failure because his 
 intellectual basis, though real, was insufficient. He was right in his 
 instinct that the scientific study of the order of Nature, so far as man is 
 affected by it, must be the basis of human action. He Avas right in
 
 102 PYTHAGORAS [Ancient 
 
 regarding the new sciences of Geometry and Number as the foundations 
 on which that order rested. All the facts of life, physical, biological, 
 social, are, in principle, capable of precise measurement, were only our 
 observing and reasoning powers sufficient, first, to put the facts into 
 equation, and, secondly, to solve the equation when formed. But only a 
 deity could so geometrise. By the human race no adequate conception 
 of the order of Nature could be reached otherwise than through slow 
 ascent of the scale of sciences, beginning with the geometry of Thales 
 and Pythagoras, and completed, at least in outline, by the Sociology 
 and Ethic of the present century. 
 
 With wonderful prescience, Pythagoras had grasped the principle that 
 a spiritual power should stand apart from practical government, and 
 limit itself to wise counsel. The Catholic Church of the Middle Ages 
 applied this principle afterwards on a larger scale, though without full 
 recognition of its scope. As demonstrated scientifically by Comte, it 
 stands now as one of the corner-stones of Social Statics. But the principle 
 was wholly alien to the ancient world ; and the niisconception of it by 
 the disciples of Pythagoras was the immediate cause of their destruction. 
 They were drawn into fatal collision with the State ; and would have 
 been so even had the State been less intolerant and jealous than the 
 democracy of Crotona. 
 
 Thus he failed ; but his failure left great results. For, in the first 
 place, it established an ideal of moral and social reform based on philoso- 
 phical truth which survived the Middle Ages, inspired the Humanists of 
 the Eenaissance, and counted for much in the religious renovation insti- 
 tuted by Auguste Comte. How the ideas of Pythagoras worked upon 
 Plato, and, through him and his Alexandrine successors, prepared the 
 way for the Catholic Church, we shall see afterwards. (Plato, infra.) 
 
 In the second place, the extreme value attached by Pythagoras to 
 mathematical science as the basis of the order of Nature led to a con- 
 centration of energy upon geometrical research, which, by preparing the 
 way for Archimedes and Hipparchus and their modern successors, became 
 a force of the greatest moment in the after history of mankind. The 
 special discoveries of Pythagoras himself have been, perhaps, exaggerated. 
 The weU-known equation of the square of the hypothenuse (Euc. Eh. i. 47), 
 empirically discovered by the old theocracies, had been included in yet 
 more important discoveries of Thales. But of the manual of geometry 
 compiled by Euclid, it is now recognised that a large part was elaborated 
 between the sixth and the fourth century b.c. by the followers of 
 Pythagoras. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Tos. Pol. iii. 281-3. Grote : Hist. Greece, iv. ch. xxxvii. Grote : Plato, \. 
 ch. i. Allinaii : Or&kGeoitietfy'fromTJiales to Euclid, ch. ii.
 
 Philosophy] AEISTIPPUS : ANTISTHENES 103 
 
 ARISTIPPUS, fl. abt. 400 B.C. 
 
 Aristippus was a rich citLzen of Cyrene, who came to Athens for the 
 sake of the teaching of Socrates. He was a man of easy, inactive temper, 
 though keenly alive to the pleasures of mental culture. Xenophon tells 
 us that Socrates tried to rouse his ambition and energy by telling him 
 the fable of the choice of Hercules, to whom the two paths of life, that 
 of effort and that of pleasure, were pointed out in youth by two visionary 
 forms representing Virtue and Vice. But the ideal of Aristippus lay 
 neither in the direction of strenuous ambition nor of sensual pleasure, 
 but in that of a man who, while enjoying, each in their degree, the 
 pleasures life could bring, should place the higher above the lower and 
 should be the slave of none. Some of the sayings recorded of him are 
 characteristic. Asked of what use was philosophy : " To be able," he 
 said, "to live as we do though all laws should be abolished." "It is 
 better to beg than to be ignorant ; to want money is a less evil than 
 to want humanity." An advocate whom he had engaged to defend him 
 in a law court asked him of what use had Socrates Ijeen to him : "I owe 
 it to him," he replied, "that the things you said in my behalf were 
 true." 
 
 He instructed his daughter Arete in his principles, which she handed 
 to her son, also called Aristippus. The school of thought founded by 
 him, and sometimes called the Cyrenaic, is best represented by Epicurus, 
 whose name it commonly bears. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Diogenes Laertius, ii. 8. Grote : Plato, iii. 530-61. 
 
 ANTISTHENES, b. 440 B.C., d. 370 B.C. 
 
 AxTisTHENES, an Athenian, was one of the most constant associates 
 of Socrates. He was attracted to him not by the pleasure of intellectual 
 discussion, but by his self-denying and ascetic life. Socrates had said that 
 the gods had no wants, and that those who had fewest came nearest to 
 the gods. This was the guiding maxim of the life of Antisthenes. He 
 professed disdain for philosophic speculation or scientific study, and 
 taught that a true philosophic career consisted in an ascetic life, led with 
 entire indifference to enjoyment, wealth, or power. He engaged in 
 controversy with Plato, whose lofty speculations on a world of ideal 
 existence he despised ; and whose stateliness of life was wholly foreign 
 from his own ideals. He and his pupil Diogenes were the founders of 
 the Cynic, or ascetic, school of philosophy. From them, shortly after- 
 wards, sprang Zeno, the founder of the Stoic school, equally severe in 
 doctrine, but not so regardless of the decencies of life. 
 
 The contempt for science shown by Antisthenes and his followers 
 marks the severance between Greek science and Greek philosophy. 
 Henceforth science was pursued by specialists ; and philosophy tended 
 to degenerate into wordy and windy rhetoric. The Cynics are called by 
 Grote "a mendicant order in philosoj^hy." [J. H. B.] 
 
 Grote : Plato, iii. 505-530. Lewes : II 1st. Phil. i. Epoch 5. Pos. Pol. iii. 
 289.
 
 104 ZENO : CICERO [Ancient 
 
 ZENO, abt. 340-260 B.C. 
 
 Zenon, founder of the Stoic school, was born at Citium, in Cyprus. 
 His father was a merchant, and he followed this pursuit for some years, 
 till, after a shipwreck in which he lost his cargo, he landed at Piraeus. 
 There, in a bookseller's shop, he read Xenophon's Memoirs of Socrates ; 
 and, on asking where such men were now to be found, the shopman 
 pointed out Crates, the Cynic, who was passing by. Under him and 
 Stilpo of Megara he studied for some years, but finally opened his own 
 school of philosophy at Athens, in the Stoa, or Porch, decorated with the 
 frescoes of Polygnotus. Hence the disciples of the school were called 
 Stoics. 
 
 In Athens he lived much respected for the rest of his life, which was 
 prolonged to old age. A flattering letter from Antigonus of Macedon 
 has been preserved, inviting him to his court ; as also Zeno's reply that 
 he was himself too old, but would send two of his best disciples. 
 
 His philosophy, as developed by himself and his successors, claimed 
 to present a complete scheme of thought, logical, physical, and ethicaL 
 It was a protest against scepticism in opinion, and self-indulgence in 
 action. But the severance of philosophy from science, which Socrates 
 had initiated, and which had now become complete, deprives his system 
 of intellectual value. Of his Ethic, the principal doctrine was " to live 
 according to Nature." This, he said, implies living virtuously, for 
 Nature leads to Virtue. The Stoic system commended itself to the 
 Eoman character ; and its transportation to Italy gave it a coherence and 
 reality which it had not before possessed. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Lewes : Hisf. Phil. i. Epocli 8. Pos. Pol. iii. 289. 
 
 OIOERO {Marctis Tidlius), b. 106 B.C., d. 43 B.c, 
 
 Marcus Tullius Cicero was born at Arpinum, in Central Italy,, 
 where his family occupied a leading position. He was well educated in 
 Greek literature, and was specially trained for the legal profession. At 
 the age of seventeen he served for a few months as a soldier in the 
 Marsic war ; but oratory and Greek philosophy were his principal pur- 
 suits. He soon became prominent in the law-courts ; and, when thirty 
 years old, held the office of qutestor in Sicily ; his duty being to supervise 
 the corn supply of Rome. HereTE"was that he discovered the tomb of 
 Archimedes. Three years afterwards we find him conducting his cele- 
 brated prosecution of Verres, the unjust and corrupt governor of that 
 province. 
 
 At fortj", he became prattor, B.C. 66, and two years afterwards, consul. 
 He now joined the aristocratic parTy^ which he had previously opposed. 
 He crushed the democratical conspiracy of Catiline with vigour, and 
 even' with cruelty ; for he had the principal consj^irators executed without 
 trial ; an act which led to his own banishment. Cicero cannot be called 
 a great or wise politician. That he should have opposed the democratic 
 dictatorship of Ca'sar was pardonable ; not so, that he should have
 
 u 
 
 Philosophy] CICERO : PLINY THE YOUNGER 105 
 
 accepted favours from Caesar, and yet have displayed indecent joy at 
 his assassination. Hi s veheme nt attacks on Anton y, whom he soon saw 
 to be as ambitious as Caesar without Cesar's capacity or virtues, led to 
 his own death at the close of the following year. 
 
 Cicero's true fame rests on his philosophical writings. He was one 
 of th'6"--priTOipaTelianneTs through whrcH 'GrfeeE~tITought and culture 
 diflttsed" itself m the Roman world. His philosophy shows the enlarge- 
 fflsntruf view that followed from the establishment of the Roman State. 
 Two conceptions became much clearer than they had been to the Greeks ; 
 duty to country, duty to man as man. Rome, which had stimulated 
 patriotism, first developed the consciousness of Hu manity T "^The fellow- 
 sl!^'t)f the human race," " the citizenship of the world," are phrases very 
 prominent in his writings {de Of. i. 16, 17 ; de Leg. i. 22). Notable, 
 too, is the influence of the " Roman Peace " in his glorifications of human 
 industry, "by which a new nature had been brought into the natural 
 world " {de Nat. Deorum,, ii. 60). 
 
 His religion was that of a Theist, emancipated from legend and 
 superstition. He believed, though without bigotry, in the immortality 
 of the soul. His ethical system was practical and high-toned ; as the 
 third part of his work on Duties will show. He there discusses the 
 question, whether a man, in dealing with another, may conceal important 
 facts, as, if bringing corn to a famine-struck town, the fact that other 
 corn-ships are on their way. He decides in favour of openness. What 
 it is for the interests of others to know, you should not wish them to be 
 ignorant of. 
 
 A collection of the best thoughts of Cicero, not yet made, is proposed 
 by Comte for the Posit ivist Library. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Dean Merivale : Ramans under the Enmire, vols. i. and ii., chs. xxi., xxii. ; 
 "atStt in General Histo-ry of Rome. Works of Cicero : Offices and Philos., 
 translated in Bohn's Library. *- 
 
 PLINY THE YOUNGER {G. Pliaius GceciUus), 
 
 b, A.D. 61, d. abt. a.d. 116. / 
 
 C. Plinius, the nephew of the philosophic naturalist of that name, 
 was born at Como. He was educated at Rome in law and Greek philo- 
 sophy : and in his twenty-first year went as military tribune to Syria, 
 where he studied under the Stoic philosopher Euphrates. After two 
 years he returned to Rome, where he attained the rank of Senator, and 
 held several offices of State. He \vas an intimate friend of the historian 
 Tacitus, who intrusted him with the correction of bis works. These two 
 men were spoken of as the duumvirate of literature. In his forty -second 
 year he was appointed by Trajan proconsul of Bithynia. Much of the 
 correspondence between the great emperor and himself has been preserved : 
 amongst it are some letters relating to the sect of Christians, of whom 
 Pliny speaks as having become so numerous in his province that many 
 of the temples had been deserted. In reply to questions as to how he is 
 
 /
 
 106 PLINY THE YOUNGER : EPICTETUS [Ancient 
 
 to act, Trajan directs him not to institute inquisitorial search, nor to 
 encourage informers, but only to punish those who openly repudiate the 
 authority of the State in matters of ritual. 
 
 With the exception of a speech in praise of Trajan, we have nothing 
 left of Pliny but his letters to the emperor, to Tacitus, to his wife, and to 
 intimate friends. "We see from these that he was a generous, tender- 
 hearted, and highly cultivated man. Like the stiU larger correspondence 
 of Cicero, these letters are of great value, because they enable us to live 
 in familiar intercourse with these men and their friends who, sociologi- 
 cally speaking, are our true ancestors. In tone, temper, and standard of 
 life the Roman citizen imbued with Greek culture is far nearer to us 
 than the Hebrew of Palestine, or than the tribes of the German forests. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pliny's Letters have been edited and annotated, and often translated. Dean 
 ' Merivale : Roiiuins under the Empire, vol. vii. ch. Ixiv., Ixv. 
 
 EPICTETUS, b. abt. 40 A.D., d. abt. 120 A.D. 
 
 Epictetus, a native of Hierapolis in Phrygia, lived for a great part of 
 his life as a slave in Rome, his master being Epaphroditus, the freedman 
 of Nero, and officer of his guard, who aided the emperor in his suicide. 
 How different ancient slavery was from what we now know by that name 
 is shown by the fact that Epaphroditus, a man of loose character, allowed 
 the young Epictetus to attend the lectures of an eminent Stoic, Musonius 
 Rufus. Wealthy citizens took a pride in having well-educated slaves 
 about them. Ultimately Epictetus gained his freedom and taught in 
 Rome till Domitian, 89 a.d., banished all philosophers from the city. He 
 retired to Nicopolis in Epirus, where he opened a school and taught for 
 the rest of his life. We owe the collection of his thoughts to his pupU, 
 Arrian. 
 
 Epictetus was a Stoic, but of the Roman school. Zeno's principle — 
 to live conformably to Nature — was too vague. But the solid social order 
 which the Roman Commonwealth and Empire had established gave those 
 words a new meaning. Above and beyond the narrow patriotism of the 
 Greek State, or even of Greek culture, Roman conquest and law had 
 enabled men to see that there was a citizenship of the world ; and 
 that this was a part of the order of Nature to which men should conform, 
 if they were to be truly free. This thought is very prominent in the teach- 
 ing of Epictetus (see i. 9). " Take," he said, "the organs of the body. 
 Looked at separately, it might be said, that the nature of the foot was to 
 be clean ; Ijut looked at as a bodily organ it has to tread on mud and 
 thorns, and sometimes to be cut off for the sake of the body. So with man. 
 Considered as detached from men, it is according to his nature to live to 
 old age, and in wealth and health. But as a member of a social whole, 
 for the sake of that whole he has to expose himself to sickness, toil, danger, 
 and premature death" (ii. f)). 
 
 His theology was simple, noble, free from dogma. There was a 
 guardian, a god, within us. " When you have shut the doors and made
 
 Philosophy] EPICTETUS : AERIAN : TACITUS 107 
 
 darkness within, remember that you are not alone, for God is within : 
 and to this God you should swear allegiance as the soldier to Caesar. 
 What oath ? Never to be disobedient, never to complain, never to find 
 fault with anything that He has given, never unwillingly to do or to suffer 
 what is necessary" (i. 15 ; see also ii. 8). "You carry God within your- 
 self, and do you not see that you pollute him by impure thoughts and 
 foul deeds ? Thus only can men be free ; for without self-mastery and 
 resignation to the supreme will, the highest and the lowest of men are 
 alike " (iv. 1). [J. H. B.] 
 
 Epictetiis has been well translated by Long ; Bolin's Librarj'. 
 
 ARRIAN, b. abt. 80 A.D., d. abt. 160 A.D. 
 
 Arrian was a native of Nicomedia in Bithynia, In his youth he 
 studied "under Epictetus, who had then been banished from Rome, and 
 was teaching at Nicopolis. Epictetus wrote nothing ; it is to Arrian that 
 we owe the record of his conversations, and his manual of conduct. 
 Arrian set himself to be to Epictetus what Xenophon had l^een to 
 Socrates. Under Hadrian, Arrian acquired Eoman citizenship, took the 
 name of Flavins, and became governor of Cappadocia. He was a 
 voluminous writer. The principal work which has come down to us is 
 his history of Alexander's campaign in Asia, which he compiled from 
 contemporary memoirs written by Ptolemy and Aristobulus, who served 
 under Alexander. He has also left works on sporting ; and on the 
 geography of India, of the Red Sea, and the Euxiae. [J. H. B.] 
 
 TACITUS (a Cornelius), b. abt. 56 A.D., d. abt. 120 A.D. / 
 
 Gains Cornelius Tacitus spent his early manhood in the public 
 service. Vespasian, who died 79, gave him a financial post in Northern 
 Gaul. Under Titus he was quaestor, under Domitian, pra,'tor. During 
 the short reign of Nerva, who died 98, he held the consulship. He 
 married the daughter of Julius Agricola, governor of Britain under 
 Domitian. Tacitus wrote a biography testifying to his deep respect for 
 his father-in-law. The marriage avouM seem to have been a hajjpy one. 
 He A^as an intimate friend of the younger Pliny, as Pliny's letters show. 
 
 In his later life, Tacitus wrote the historjj^ of Rome from the death of 
 AuOTstus to tliiit of Domitian (Annals andlTistories a.d. 14 — a.d. 96). 
 But only a portion of his works has come down to us. Besides his 
 biography of Agricola, he wrote a description of the German tribes, 
 contrasting their hardy virtues, purit}'' of life, and respect for women 
 with the corruijtion and feebleness in the Roman world of his time. Of 
 Christianity he judged superficially and harshly. Mystical expectation 
 of a future life seemed to him not the way to make good citizens in 
 this. 
 
 As Thucydides analysed societies and social crises, so Tacitus pene- 
 trated to and revealed the springs of individual character. He is placed
 
 108 TACITUS : SOCRATES [Ancient 
 
 therefore in the week which commemorates ethical rather than political 
 philosophy. His portraits are drawn with the fewest possible lines, but 
 unmistakably. Take this of Galba for instance : — 
 
 " His character was moderate, free from vice, yet not virtuous. Not 
 careless of fame, yet no braggart ; not covetous ; sparing of his own 
 wealth, niggardly of the State's. Friends and dependants, if good, he left 
 uncriticised ; if evil, he was culpably blind. But his birth and the con- 
 fusion of the times shielded him, so that apathy passed for wisdom. 
 In youth he gained a soldier's reputation in Germany ; as proconsul he 
 ruled Africa with moderation, and afterwards North Spain not less well. 
 In private life seeming too great for privacy, and universally considered 
 competent for supreme power had he never held it." ""' [j. H. B.] 
 
 Tacitus : Works (in Pos. Libr. ), translated by Church and Brodribb. Merivale : 
 Romans under the Empire,'\u. ch. Ixiv. Pos. Pol. 335, 347. •»-' ' 
 
 / SOCRATES, b. 469 B.C., d. 399 B.C. 
 
 ' Socrates was the son of Sophroniscus, an Athenian sculptor of 
 eminence. His parents were poor : his mother, Phoenarete, practised as 
 a midwife. He fought as an infantry soldier in many of the campaigns 
 of the Peloponnesian wars, and distinguished himself by resolute courage, 
 coolness in danger, and astonishing endurance of cold, heat, and hunger. 
 Contemporary writers and sculptors have given us vivid impressions of 
 his strong, thickset frame, and his plain, almost uncouth features. But 
 when he spoke, men said, it was as though one of the old statues of 
 Silenus had opened, and an image of some beautiful god had revealed 
 itself within. 
 
 He followed his father's profession for some years, and a draped 
 group of the Graces executed by him was preserved in the Acropolis for 
 many centuries. But the greater part of his life was spent in philoso- 
 phical conversation with his fellow- citizens, held at street corners, in the 
 markets, the gymnastic grounds, and in all places of public resort. " His 
 whole day was usually spent in this public manner. He talked with any 
 one, young or old, rich or poor, who sought to address him, and in the 
 hearing of all who chose to stand by ; not only he neither asked nor 
 received any rewards, but he made no distinction of persons, never 
 withheld his conversation from any one, and talked upon the same 
 general topics to all " (Grote, viii. 554). These conversations were on 
 every subject affecting human life — justice, courage, temperance, and all 
 the duties and relations of a citizen. His reputation grew, and people 
 came from distant Grecian cities to hear him talk. In the story of his 
 own life, which he told at the close of it, he says that one of his friends, 
 Chserephon, put the question to the Oracle at Delphi, Whether any other 
 man was wiser than Socrates ? The answer given was tliat there was 
 none wiser. Not being conscious of the possession of wisdom, Socrates 
 was perplexed, till at last, after testing the supposed knowledge of many 
 distinguished men, he interpreted the reply of the oracle as meaning that 
 whereas other men thought they knew, he was one of the few conscious
 
 Philosophy] SOCRATES 109 
 
 of their own ignorance. From this time he gave himself up more 
 sedulously to the work of convincing men by cross-examination as to the 
 vagueness of their knowledge on those things which it was most im- 
 portant for them to know, the things relating not to each man's special 
 trade or profession, but to that which was common to aU — the conduct 
 of life. 
 
 Beginning with familiar conversation on any matter of passing 
 interest, he led his companion to an attempt at defining the subject 
 which he wished him to examine, as justice, courage, or temperance ; he 
 then asked questions to test his answer, and so brought him to see that 
 his definition was imperfect, including some things that had nothing to 
 do with the matter, excluding others that were essential ; a second and 
 third attempt was then made, to be followed up in the like way. 
 Aristotle remarks that Socrates was the first thinker who paid attention 
 to accurate definitions. The process stimulated thought in many ways ; 
 and by his friend and disciple, Plato, it was applied to every subject of 
 intellectual research. But Socrates discouraged speculation upon all 
 subjects that had not a direct and practical bearing upon man's action 
 and duty. 
 
 He believed himself to be under the guidance of an inner voice, 
 which habitually restrained him from this or that course of action in 
 which he would otherwise have engaged. It forbade him, for instance, 
 to enter into the ordinary contests of political life. Again, when he was 
 put upon his trial, the voice dissuaded him from preparing any elaborate 
 defence. He spoke of this habitually in familiar conversation ; and it 
 lent colour afterwards to the accusations of his enemies that he was 
 making innovations in the established religion. He was, nevertheless, 
 scrupulously careful in conforming to all recognised rites and ceremonies, 
 and in exhorting men to reverence the gods. He appears to have held no 
 public office till his sixty-third year. In that year he took his place as 
 one of the fifty senators taken by lot from the tribe Antiochis. It so 
 happened that the senators of this tribe had the task of presiding over 
 the popular assembly on a very important occasion. Certain generals, 
 who had gained a great naval victory over the Spartans at Arginusa', 
 were accused of having neglected to rescue the drowning soldiers on 
 their own side. Great popular excitement arose ; a proposition was made 
 to the assembly to set aside the regular formalities prescribing that each 
 accused person should be separately tried before sworn jurors, and to 
 leave it to a vote of the people there assembled whether these generals 
 should be condemned to death. It was for the presiding senators to put 
 this question to the vote ; Socrates, undeterred by threats of sharing 
 their fate, stood alone in refusing to be a party to the illegality, and the 
 vote was carried under his solenm protest. Not less courageous was his 
 conduct when the oligarchy known as the Thirty Tyrants had established 
 themselves in Athens. 
 
 A life spent in convincing his fellow-citizens of the fallacies underlying 
 their most cherished prejudices, and of the hoUowness of many established 
 reputations, could not fail to have made dangerous enemies. He had 
 taken no part in popular politics, and some of those who most courted 
 his society — for he turned no one away — had been unjn'incipled men, like
 
 no SOCRATES : XENOCRATES [Ancient 
 
 Critias and Alcibiades, who had done the State much harm. It was 
 probably from a mixture of personal and political resentment that an 
 indictment was brought against him by Meletus and two others, in these 
 terms : " Socrates is guilty of crime ; first, for not worshipping the gods 
 whom the city worships, but introducing new divinities of his own ; 
 secondly, for corrupting the youth. The penalty due is death." 
 
 The trial Avas conducted by a body of sworn jurors, 557 in number. 
 The defence made by^Socrates has been preserved by Plato. He tells 
 the story of his life from the beginning ; explains his mission of leading 
 all who came in contact with him to examine their own lives and prin- 
 ciples of action. If the court acquits him, he will have no desire but to 
 begin the same life again. To cease it would be to incur the guilt of 
 irreligion : disobedience to the mandate of the gods. " As for the penalty 
 of death, no man," he said, " knows what it is, yet men fear it as though 
 they knew it to be the greatest of all evils. This is how men show their 
 ignorance, pretending to know what they do not know. For my part, 
 knowing nothing of Hades, I pretend to no such knowledge ; but I do 
 know well that disobedience to a better person than myself, whether 
 God or man, is an evil and a shame ; and I will not embrace certain evil, 
 in order to escape from one Avhich, for aught I know, may be a good." 
 
 He was pronounced guilty by a majority of six votes. It was the 
 custom that a second vote should be taken as to the penalty to be in- 
 flicted. And the accused person had the right of proposing some minor 
 penalty as an alternative. When Socrates was asked to do this, he 
 said : " I have no private fortune, though, perhaps, my friends, if I 
 appealed to them, could help me. But if I am asked what my life and 
 conduct deserve, I rejDly that maintenance at the public expense, as a 
 benefactor to the State, is the right recompence for one who has given up 
 his own fortune, and embraced voluntary poverty, for the sake of the 
 improvement of his fellow-citizens." As might be expected, the penalty 
 of death was decreed, and was carried out a few weeks afterwards, in the 
 way customary at Athens, by poison. 
 
 The life of Socrates is known to us from the writings of his two 
 discijjles, the soldier Xenophon and the philosopher Plato. Of the two, 
 Xenophon is the more accurate. Plato puts his own thoughts into the 
 mouth of Socrates, working them out by his master's method of question 
 and answer. Xenophon's memoir is a simple statement of what he 
 remembers Socrates to have said. Both authors have been translated 
 into English. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. iii. 288 ; and Phil. Pos. v. 186, lect. 53. Gvote : HisL of Greece, 
 viii. ch. 68. Grote': Plato, i. ch. 7; iii. cli. 38, 39. ^enopKon: Memoirs, 
 by Greenwood, 1823 ; and translated by Fielding, 1788. See Plato. 
 
 XENOCRATES, b. abt. 396 B.C., d. abt. 314 B.C. 
 
 Xenocrates of Chalcedon attached himself to Plato, whom he 
 accompanied in his journey to Dionysius, in Sicily. The gi'eater part of 
 his life was spent in the Academy, over which he presided after the 
 death of Plato's pupil, Speusippus, for twenty-five years — B.C. 339-314.
 
 Philosophy] XENOCRATES : PHILO 111 
 
 He was noted for gravity of demeanour, for temperance, veracity, and 
 integrity, and is frequently praised and cited by Cicero. When sent as 
 a member of the Athenian embassy to Philip of Macedon, he stood alone 
 in inflexible refusal to receive bribe or favour ; and he maintained the 
 same character in his embassy to Antipater. He was a voluminous 
 writer, but nothing except the catalogue of his works has come down to 
 us. He died at the age of 82. His position in philosophy is that of an 
 imme diate successor to Plato, who developed the Platonic system, espe- 
 cially in its tendency to T\rIdnotheism as the basis of a purer and stronger 
 moral life. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Diog. Laert. iv. Cicero: de Off. i. 30, " severissimum pliilosophorum " ; 
 Academ. i. 9. Grote : Hist, of Greece, xii. 435. 
 
 PHILO, b. abt. 20 B.C., d. abt. 60 A.D. 
 
 Philon was an Alexandrian Jew, probably a Pharisee, and connected 
 with a priestly family. Of his life little is known but that he was sent 
 as chief of a deputation from the Jews of Alexandria to the Emperor 
 Caligula, to defend themselves against Apion, who had accused them of 
 refusing to pay due honours to Caisar. Beyond the fact that he paid a 
 second visit to Rome in the time of Claudius, nothing further is known 
 of his life. 
 
 But his works are of great interest. They show that there was a 
 large and important school of thinkers in Alexandria, who made it their 
 business to reconcile Judaism with Greek philosophy, especially with the 
 philosophy of Plato. They did this by the unlimited use of allegory in 
 their interpretation of the Scriptures. Thus Philo, commenting on the 
 text {Gen. ii. 1), "The heavens and the earth were finished, and all the 
 host of them," explains that the heavens meant Reason, and the earth 
 Sensation. As for the world being created in six days, this could not be 
 literal, since time had no existence till creation was accomplished. But 
 six was a perfect number, and seven was stUl more perfect. The whole 
 Biblical history is interpreted in like manner. The four rivers of Para- 
 dise are the four Virtues. Adam is, again. Reason ; Eve, Sense and 
 Passion ; and so on. 
 
 But the most important of tlie conceptions of this school is their 
 theory of the Logos ; translated usually in the Christian Scriptures as 
 the Word, but having the double meaning of Word and Reason, as in 
 the similar instance of the Italian ragionare. Next to the Supreme God, 
 in Philo's philosophy, came the Reason, Thought, or Word. Of this he 
 speaks as the first-begotten Son of God ; as the Creator and Governor of 
 the world ; as the second God ; as God's High Priest, as existing from 
 all eternity. In other places he speaks of the Logos as the Idea of Ideas, 
 from which issued first the Platonic world of invisible forms, and ulti- 
 mately the visible universe. The momentous influence of this school of 
 thought on Christian theology is oln-ious. [J. H. B] 
 
 Philo: Works trcmslatcd, iwola. ; Bolni's Tlieolog. Libr. Neander : Church 
 Hist, i., Introduction ; Bolm's Standard Lib. Kueneu : lidigion of 
 Is'rael, iii. cli. ii, ; transl., p. 193-200. Lewes : Hist. Phil. i. Epoch 9.
 
 112 ST. JOHN THE EVANGELIST : ST. JUSTIN [Anciekt 
 
 ST. JOHN THE EVANGELIST, first half of 2nd Century a.d. 
 
 By this title is here indicated the author of the Fourth Gospel, which, 
 more than any part of the New Testament, except St. Paul's authentic 
 epistles, has moulded the faith of Christendom. The belief commonly 
 accepted has been that this Gospel was written by John, the son of 
 Zebedee, who is also regarded as the author of the Book of Revelation. 
 Against this view modern criticism has alleged reasons which seem 
 decisive. First, the Greek style of the Apocalypse differs so widely 
 from that of the Gospel, that the two books could hardly have been 
 written by the same hand. Secondly, the contents are even more 
 divergent. The Apocalypse is the most Jewish, the Gospel the least, 
 of all the New Testament writings. 
 
 The Apocalypse would seem to have been written in the year 68, 
 l)efore the death of Galba, and when there was a wide-spread belief 
 that Nero would reappear (ch. xvii. 10, 11). Jerusalem was still un- 
 besieged ; and the belief in the Jews as the central nation of the world, 
 round whom the rest would rally, is ardently expressed throughout the 
 book. In the Gospel, on the contrary, every trace of Judaism is lost. 
 The struggle between the Judaic Christians of Jerusalem and the uni- 
 versalism of St. Paul seenis as a thing long past. Neither in Jerusalem 
 nor in jVIount Gerizim is there any privilege of worship. Of the 
 numerous differences in fact between this Gospel and the other three, 
 many indicate the same universalising tendency : not least, the remark- 
 able difference as to whether Jesus kept, or did not keep, the Passover 
 on the night before his crucifixion. According to the Fourth Gospel, 
 in which the crucifixion is placed a day earlier than in the other narra- 
 tives, he did not ; for Jesus was himself the fulfilment of that of which 
 the Passover was a symbol. 
 
 Finally, there is no sufficient evidence that this Gospel was recog- 
 nised in the Christian Church till the middle or close of the second 
 century. It bears evidence of being written by a Christian of Alex- 
 andria, deeply penetrated with the Christian spirit as understood by 
 Paul and his disciples, but to whom also the philosophy of Plato and 
 Philo was familiar. The first sentence of the book might have been 
 written by Philo himself. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Those desirous of entering into the controversy as to this book may consult 
 the worlvs of Baur ami Renan, who controvert — of Lightfoot and West- 
 cott, who advocate —the traditional view. 
 
 ST. JUSTIN, d. between 150 and 166 a.d. 
 
 Justin was a native of Flavia Neajjolis, a Greek town built on the 
 site of the old Sichem in Samaria. He describes, in one of his dialogues, 
 his studies of various schools of philosophy, and his final adoption of 
 IMatonism. An old man, whom he met one day upon the sea-shore, 
 urged him to study the Christian Scriptures. The steadfast courage 
 with which the Christians withstood persecution had already predisposed
 
 Philosophy] ST. JUSTIN : ST. IREN^US 113 
 
 him in their favour. He accepted their doctrine, and devoted the rest 
 of his life to propagating it, first in Egypt and Asia, subsequently in 
 Eome ; still retaining the garb of a philosopher, and endeavouring to 
 support the new doctrine on philosophic grounds. His writings, some 
 of which are in the form of Pleas, or Apologies, addressed to the Roman 
 Emperor, are full of references to Plato and his predecessors. He had 
 been strongly attracted, he says, by Plato's conceptions of incorporeal 
 existences, or Ideas, and by the scheme of mental discipline that would 
 render man capable of apprehending these. In Plato he found, obscurely 
 stated or hinted, not merely the truths as to the creation of the world by 
 God, but also the mysteries of the Cross and of the Trinity ; for Plato 
 and his master Socrates had drawn their knowledge of these things from 
 the Mosaic Scriptures. They thus had a share in the Divine Logos, the 
 Word, or Reason, of God. Their teaching was not alien to that of 
 Christ. (See Apologies, i. and ii.) Justin was commonly called the 
 "Martyr," and the "Philosopher." He is the first of the Apologists 
 whose wTitings have reached us. He was beheaded in Rome ; imder 
 what circumstances, and whether in the reign of Antoninus Pius or of 
 Marcus Aurelius, is uncertain. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Justin Martyr: Works, translated and edited by Dr. Pnsey, 1861. Neander: 
 Church Hist., transl., ii. 412-426. Fleury: Eccles. Hist. i. bk. iii. 
 
 ST. IREN^US, b. abt. 110 A.D., d. abt. 190 a.d. 
 
 Of the early life of Iren^us little is known. He was a native of 
 Asia Minor ; and in his youth was brought into intimate contact with 
 Polycarp, who collected and transmitted to him many sayings of St. 
 John and the other disciples of Christ. In the year 177 a.d. he suc- 
 ceeded Pothinus as Bishop of Lyons. 
 
 His great work is a treatise against the heresies of his time. He was 
 well placed for this task. He was a Greek, thoroughly versed in the 
 philosophical controversies of his time. And he held high office in the 
 Western Church, of which Rome was regarded with increasing unani- 
 mity as the centre ; a Church which aimed at building up a social 
 system that should govern the souls of men, rather than aim at the vain 
 attempt to satisfy intellectual curiosity by a metaphysical structure. It 
 needed a wise, practical, and forbearing spirit to distinguish the Catholic 
 doctrine — formed of inscrutable mysteries which surrounded its teachers 
 with a halo of reverence, and therefore helped them forward in their 
 work — from the incoherent novelties that the speculators of Alexandria 
 were pouring out in mischievous profusion from the inexhaustible store 
 of Plato's metaphysics. 
 
 Irena;us did his work well, and thus contributed to the formation of 
 the orthodox Catholic doctrine ; a doctrine whereof the whole value con- 
 sisted in forming a basis on which the practical work of tlie Church 
 could proceed. It is said that Irensuus suff'ered martyrdom ; but there 
 is no sufficient evidence of this. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Irenffius: Works, transl.; 5 books against Heresies, transl. by Rev. J. Keble, 
 1872. Fleury: Eccles. Hist. i. bk. iv. 17. Neander: Church Hist., 
 transl., ii. 4:54-440, 
 
 H
 
 114 ST. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA [Ancient 
 
 ST. CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA, b. abt. 150 A.D., d. 220 a.d. 
 
 Titus Flavins Clemexs, a native of Athens, passed the earlier part of 
 his life as a student and teacher of Greek philosophy. By some he was 
 called a Stoic, by others a Platonist. He himself says that he had many 
 teachers, both in Greece, in South Italy, and in Syria {Strom, i. 1) ; and 
 finally had found one in Alexandria who satisfied him more fully than 
 the rest. This was Pantaenus, formerly of the Stoic school, but con- 
 verted to Christianity, and at that time head of the Christian school 
 in Alexandria. Clement became a Christian, and ultimately succeeded 
 Panttenus. He had many celebrated pupils, amongst them Origen. He 
 was driven from Alexandria in the time of Severus, but seems to have 
 returned, and to have died there. 
 
 Clement's conversion did not divert him from philosophical studies. 
 On the contrary, he made it his object to prove that Greek philosophy, 
 as taught by the great masters, and above all by Plato, was the best 
 preparation for Christian doctrine. Philosophy was given to the Greeks, 
 as the Law was given to the Jews, and, though superseded by the 
 Gospel, the study of it remained none the less important {Strom, vi. 1 7, 
 i. 9, 17). Clement, nevertheless, spends much effort in pro%dng that the 
 Greeks were not the original source of wisdom that was commonly sup- 
 posed. He quotes with approval the remark of the Egyptian priest in 
 Plato: "Greeks, Greeks, you are always children!" Cadmus brought 
 them the alphabet from Phoenicia. From Phoenicia, too, according to 
 some authorities, came Thales. Pythagoras was, perhaps, of Etruscan 
 origin. Antisthenes was a Phrygian ; Orpheus, a Thracian ; Anacharsis, 
 a Scythian ; and in any case the oldest of these philosophers was far less 
 ancient than Moses. He came long before the Trojan war, before the 
 sailing of the Argo, before Bacchus, Hercules, or Prometheus. It is 
 clear, he thinks, that Plato borrowed much from the legislation of 
 Moses ; so much so, that Numanius, a Pythagorean philosopher, asked, 
 " What is Plato but Moses talking Attic Greek 1" Plato {Strom, ii. 22) 
 places the highest happiness in striving with submissive humility to 
 become like to God. What is this but the Christian doctrine ? Simi- 
 larly, Clement insists on the connection between the Platonic Idea and 
 the Christian Logos. 
 
 The principal work of Clement, his Stromata (Tapestry or Patch- 
 work), is filled with quotations from Greek poets or philosophers, many 
 of them otherwise unknown to us, which appeared to him likely to lead 
 men imbued with Hellenic culture to the Christian system. The teach- 
 ing and discipline of the Church are presented by him with quiet modera- 
 tion, contrasting strongly with the fierce fervour of his contemporary, 
 TertuUian. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Clement : Works, transl., 1867. Fleury : Kccles. Hist. iv. 36-42. Neander : 
 fl}iv,rch Hi fit., transl., ii. 453.
 
 Phimsophy] ORIGEN 115 
 
 ORIGEN, b. 184 A.D.. d. 253 A.D. 
 
 Origenes Adamantius was a native of Alexandria. He was brought 
 up with great care by his father, Leonid es, who was a Christian, and 
 instructed in Greek literature and philosophy, as well as in the doctrines 
 of the Church. Clement at that time presided over the Christian school, 
 and Origen was his pupil. His father perished in an outbreak against 
 the Christians, which occurred at the beginning of the century ; and the 
 family were reduced to great poverty. 
 
 Clement retreating at this time from Alexandria, Origen, now in his 
 19th year, took his place as master of the Christian school ; his lectures 
 were numerously attended. This alone is a proof that the persecution 
 which still continued was not general or extremely severe ; indeed, 
 Origen, speaking of this and other outbreaks, expressly says that the 
 number of those who suffered was not great. He himself, though fre- 
 quently visiting the Christian ^jrisoners, was not singled out for attack. 
 Nor can this be attributed to weakness : for he practised extreme 
 austei'ities, even to the point of literal observance of the advice to prac- 
 tise self-mutilation for the Gospel's sake. 
 
 AYith the exception of a short journey to Eome, he remained at 
 Alexandria till his forty-fifth year, teaching sacred and profane science 
 and literature, and studying Hebrew, with a view of producing a critical 
 edition of the Scriptures. Owing to dissensions with Demetrius, the 
 bishop of Alexandria, he left that city for Palestine, and finally settled 
 at Ctesarea, where, notwithstanding the protests of Demetrius, he was 
 ordained a priest by the Bishop of Jerusalem. Here he pursued his 
 studies, and gathered round him many illustrious disciples. Gregory 
 Thaumaturge, one of them, has described the course of scientific and 
 philosophic teaching which he went through before studying Christian 
 theology. Origen had friendly interviews with Mammoea, the mother of 
 Alexander Severus, and with the Emperor Philip and his wife Severa. 
 Under Decius he was imprisoned, but was ultimately released. He is 
 said to have died at Tyre in 253 a.d. 
 
 His principal works are his Commentaries on Scri2)tiire, his Principles 
 of Christian Doctrine^ and his refutation of an attack on Christianity by 
 Celsus, an Epicurean philosopher. The Principles, known to us mainly 
 by a Latin translation, which avowedly left out some heterodox passages, 
 are deeply penetrated with Platonism. The habit of taking words for 
 things made it easy to pass from the Wisdom or Spirit of God to belief 
 in the Persons of the Trinity. Eternity of punishment, implying the 
 ultimate triumph of evil, Origen could not accept. Sin brought its own 
 punishment ; and purgation through a long course of suffering would 
 be the final issue. Not merely sinful men but fallen angels would 
 ultimately regain the state of purity and blessedness. " For God governs 
 souls not with reference to the fifty years of the present life, but with 
 reference to an illimitable age" (bk. iii. ch. 1). 
 
 Notable also is Origen's protest against literal interpretations of the 
 Bible. It is not needful, he says, to suppose that the world was literally 
 created in six days, or that Jesus was actually taken by the Devil to the
 
 116 OKIGEN : TERTULLIAN [Ancient 
 
 summit of a mountain, and the kingdoms of the world shown to him. 
 These things are to be interpreted spiritually (bk. iv. ch. 2). 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Origen : Writinas, transl., 1869. Fleury : Ecdes. Hist. ii. bk. v. Neander : 
 Ch. Hist, transl. iii. 488-500. 
 
 TERTULLIAN, b. abt. 150 A.D., d. abt. 230 a.d. 
 
 Q. Septimius Florens Tertullianus was the son of a centui'ion 
 stationed at Carthage. He received a good literary education, and 
 practised for some years as an advocate. Being converted to Christianity, 
 he was ordained a priest. He wrote numerous works on the rites and 
 discipline of the Church, and in defence of Christianity. Of these the 
 most important is his Plea for Christians against Heathens, written 
 198 A.D. In this he refutes the slanderous attacks made against 
 Christian morals, analogous to the calumnious charges made frequently 
 in recent times against Jews ; and he appeals to Koman law and justice 
 for the same fair-j^lay that was shown to other accused persons. We 
 learn from this work how widely Christianity was diffused throughout 
 the Roman Empire at the end of the second century. Shortly after- 
 wards he joined the sect of the Montanists, a sect of fanatic ascetics who 
 denounced all profane learning, condemned military service, regarded 
 second marriages as adultery, denied the power of the Church to give 
 absolution for sins committed after baptism, and generally applied 
 Christian doctrines in ways utterly at variance with the wise moderating 
 spirit of the Roman Church. The precise time at which he joined this 
 sect appears doubtful. Many of his works, Avhich are strongly marked 
 with the Montanist {i.e. Puritanical) tendency, are vigorous denunciations 
 of heresy, and in support of Church discipline ; as e.g. his treatises de 
 Prescriptione Hereticorv.m, and that against Praxeas in defence of the 
 Trinity. He appears finally to have separated from the Montanists, and 
 to have formed a sect apart, remnants of which were found by Augustine 
 in the African Church more than a century afterwards. 
 
 Tertullian's writings, Avhich contrast strongly with those of the 
 Alexandrian school, illustrate the practical aspect of the Church as an 
 organisation of life. They are full of wide and varied learning ; but 
 intellectual processes are rigorouslj^ subordinated to the tradition of the 
 Church and to the edification of Christian life. 
 
 Of the death of TertuUian nothing is known ; but he lived to an 
 advanced age. [J. H. B.] 
 
 TertuUian : Writinrjs, transl., Edinb, 1869. Fleury : Ecdcs. Hist. i. bk. iv. 
 37-40. Neander : Ch, Hist., transl., ii. 346-442.
 
 Philosophy] PLATO 117 
 
 PLATO, b. 427 B.C., d, 347 B.C. 
 
 The philosopher known as Plato was born in the island of j^Egina, 
 in May 427 B.C., of an ancient and noble family. His father was Ariston, 
 his mother Perictione : he himself was called Aristocles : the name 
 Plato, indicating perhaps his robust frame, or breadth of brow, was 
 added afterwards. 
 
 His friendship with Socrates began when he was twenty years old, 
 and remained unbroken till the death of Socrates in 399. Taking the 
 aristocratic side in politics, and being connected with some of the men 
 who established an oligarchy in 403, he formed hopes of wise govern- 
 ment which were speedily dissipated. With the noble resistance of 
 Socrates to the tyranny of the Thirty Tyrants he cordially sympathised. 
 After the restoration of democracy, and the martyrdom of Socrates, 
 Plato retired to Megara, and lived for some time with Eucleides, a 
 philosopher of that city. He subsequently travelled, like Pythagoras, in 
 Egypt, and also associated with the Pythagorean schools still flourishing 
 in Tarentum, Locri, and other cities of South Italy and Sicily. In Sicily 
 he made acquaintance with Dion, over whom he gained strong influence. 
 At Dion's invitation he visited the elder Dionysius at Syracuse ; his 
 free speech offended this tyrant, who caused him to be sold as a slave on 
 his voyage homeward to ^gina. He was speedily ransomed and con- 
 veyed to Athens, where in 386 b.c. he opened a school of philosophy in 
 a garden near the shrine of the hero Hekademus, situated about a mile 
 from the north gate of the city. This was the first of several schools of 
 philosophical teaching founded in Athens, which continued in activity 
 for eight centuries, until finally suppressed by the Emperor Justinian in 
 529 A.D. 
 
 Plato had for his pupils many of the celebrities of the century : the 
 orators Demosthenes and Hyperides ; the philosophers Speusippus, 
 Xenocrates, and Aristotle ; the great geometer and astronomer Eudoxus. 
 His life of teaching, continued till his death in 347, was varied only by 
 two journeys to Syracuse ; the first, in 367, undertaken at the instance 
 of Dion, with the vain hope of inducing the second Dionysius to model 
 his government on philosophical principles ; and the second, five years 
 afterwards, to procure the restoration of Dion, whom Dionysius had 
 banished. In 359, Dion succeeded, partly with help attbrded by Plato's 
 pupils, in making himself master of Syracuse, but was shortly after- 
 wards assassinated. The failure of his hopes to witness a government 
 founded on philosojihy threw a gloom over Plato's last years. He 
 appears to have been profovmdly respected by the Hellenic world. The 
 rival school which his pupil Aristotle opened, in the temple of the 
 Lycean Apollo, does not appear to have disturbed the personal friendship 
 of these two great thinkers. 
 
 Plato's works are written in the form of dialogue, the principal 
 speaker being, in almost every case, Socrates. The practice of Socrates 
 to lead jieople of every class into familiar talk, and to encourage them to 
 sift their own thoughts and beliefs on the conduct of life, made him a 
 dramatis 'persona into whose mouth opinions and arguments on every 
 possible subject could be placed tentatively, without committing the
 
 118 PLATO [Ancient 
 
 author to any positive conclusion. It is therefore often very difficult, 
 and not seldom impossible, to state with certainty what Plato thought ; 
 and much of what he wrote may be spoken of as dreams in dialogue, 
 rather than philosophical expositions. The works that give the fullest 
 account of his philosoj^hical and social system are the Bepxiblic, the 
 Timceus, and the Laivs. Of these a brief notice is now given. 
 
 The Bepublic, starting from the attempt to prove that righteousness 
 is preferable to unrighteousness, whatever pains and calamities may go 
 with the first, or pleasure with the second, depicts an ideal polity, in 
 which the governing class, corresponding to the reasoning faculty in 
 man, is trained and educated for the work in the most perfect way. For 
 this class the institutions of private property and the family are to be 
 suppressed. The children are to be children of the State. Both sexes 
 are to receive the same gymnastic and intellectual training. In the 
 education of their intellect the great object is to set them free from the 
 tyranny of Sense and prepare them for the perception of Ideas. This 
 word meant with Plato something widely ditterent from the conception 
 with which Locke and Hume have made us familiar. 
 
 Every general term, as horse, man, table, denoting a group of objects, 
 had in Plato's philosophy a real existence corresponding to it, of which 
 any particular horse, man, or table was but an imperfect transitory copy. 
 Men when uneducated were like dwellers in a cave chained with their 
 backs to its mouth. A fire behind them threw shadows of passing 
 objects on the ground before them ; and these shadows they take for the 
 realities of things. A prisoner, set free from the cave and taken to the 
 daylight would be dazzled and blinded, and it would be long before he 
 got to know about real objects, and about the sun which gave them 
 light, and brought the changes of the seasons, and growth and life in the 
 world. If such a man went down again into the cave he would be again 
 blinded ; none of his fellow-prisoners would believe his visions, and he 
 would be less able than they to discourse eloquently about shadows. 
 Such is the contrast between the trained mind of the philosopher cog- 
 nisant of ideas and the untrained mind of the multitude. Nevertheless 
 the great object of all wise polity is that philosophers should be kings. 
 
 The ideas of Plato recall the numbers of Pythagoras, but wander 
 much further from positive philosophy than they. Numbers bear some 
 relation to laws of Nature. Plato's Ideas confound an institution of 
 humanity — the words in which the accumulating reason of mankind 
 transmits its collective tradition — with the things of which they were the 
 signs. But Plato's conception lent itself readily to the requirements 
 of the Catholic creed, in which the Word or Reason was upheld as the 
 most sacred and eternal of Beings. 
 
 In the Timmus a description is given of the genesis of the universe 
 and of the human body. Plato here introduces his conception of the 
 Demiurgus, or constructive workman, who, by impressing the eternal 
 Forms or Ideas upon pre-existent formless matter, produced the second 
 order of gods, the stars and planets, by whom afterwards man with his 
 mixed nature, compounded of earthly and divine, was created. It was 
 this treatise that convinced the Alexandrine Jews and Christians that 
 Plato had borrowed his leading conceptions from Moses.
 
 Philosophy] PLATO 119 
 
 In the Laws, Plato portrays a Commonwealth, not purely ideal as in 
 the Befniblic, but such as might be actually realised in the Grecian 
 world. He supposes it to be a colony founded in the island of Crete, 
 and composed of settlers representing all varieties of the Hellenic race. 
 He enters into minute detaUs of legislation and of education ; from which 
 we gather that his guiding principle was to secure stability even at the 
 risk of obscurantism and tyranny. No great public reform, he says, 
 can be accomplished without large interference with public and private 
 life. Private property is to be allowed, but is to be fenced in with 
 restrictions that few socialist schemes have exceeded. The number of 
 landholders is to be rigidly fixed : marriage is to be compulsory, the 
 number of children strictly limited ; and one son only is to succeed to 
 the landed property of the father. But, above all, everything connected 
 with education and religion is to be sedulously guarded from change. 
 As in Egypt, so in Greece, all songs, dances, and festive ceremonies must 
 first receive the approval of official censors, who are to be men above 
 the age of fifty, and when so approved must never afterwards be changed. 
 AU the existing dramatic literature of Greece must be freely and syste- 
 matically expurgated. Much reading of any kind is to be discouraged. 
 Arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy are to be taught, not for their 
 practical utility, but to inspu'e true thoughts as to the universe and the 
 great divinities, the sun, moon, and planets. The belief that the planets 
 moved irregularly should be regarded as blasphemous. BodUy exercises, 
 under the same stringent regulations, are to be systematically encouraged 
 in both sexes, and their efficacy in restraining sexual impulse is strongly 
 insisted on. In his criminal legislation, heresy — that is, erroneous beliefs 
 about the gods— occupies a very prominent place. Even when the life 
 has been morally blameless, the punishment is five years' imprisonment ; 
 persistence in unbelief being punishable with death. Heresy, combined 
 with vicious conduct, sorcery or charlatanry, is punishable as the worst of 
 crimes. It is certain that the legislation here proposed by Plato would 
 have condemned Socrates many tunes over. 
 
 The influence of Plato's thoughts has been great and prolonged ; but 
 it is largely due to the dramatic skill and poetic style in which they 
 were delivered. To the building up of human life on the basis of science 
 they contributed nothing. But they inspired ardour for social regenera- 
 tion ; and when transplanted into the soil of Alexandria they formed 
 one of the channels through which Jewish and Christian thought j^ene- 
 trated into the Western world. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. vol. V. lect. 53; Pos. Pol. iii. 247, 289. Plato: Dialogues, 
 tranbl. by Jowett, 5 vols., 1871. Grote: Plato, 3 vols.' 1865. Lewes: 
 HisL Phil. i. Epoch 6.
 
 ANCIENT SCIENCE. 
 
 npHE abstract sciences, in contrast with the mass of concrete knowledge 
 -^ from which they gradually arose, have been developed, in accordance 
 with Comte's law of Classification, in the order of the increasing com- 
 plexity of the phenomena with which they deal. By the Greeks, as by 
 other nations, experiences were registered of all facts that touched their 
 life nearly. They took account of human passion, of political conflict, of 
 the structure and diseases of the human body, of all facts in the world 
 round them that seemed to bear on agriculture, navigation, and the other 
 arts of life. But their peculiar intellectual distinction is to have entered, 
 where none had gone before them, into the domain of abstract science. 
 Others had measured fields, and calculated, though imperfectly, the stone 
 needed for building a temple. It was left for Thales, and those who 
 followed him, to abstract from these concrete objects the lines and angles 
 which defined them, and to arrive at the laws — that is to say, the general 
 facts — of space and number. 
 
 Beyond these simplest laws and their application to the heavenly 
 l)odies they could not go. The laws of motion, of heat, of light, of sound, 
 of chemical combination, of vital action, of political growth, of moral 
 conduct, were left for later centuries to discover. And though in some 
 of these departments wonderful anticipations had flashed before the 
 mighty genius of Aristotle, yet they were but imperfect glimpses of the 
 truth, needing the apparatus of a metaphysical system to render them 
 coherent. 
 
 Of all sciences, mathematics is that which most emphatically asserts 
 the superiority of Humanity to Man. It presents a gradual and con- 
 tinuous growth in which great men have done great things, on the 
 condition of beginning by complete submission to the community of 
 great discoverers who had gone before them. They cai'ried on their 
 work, not with the purpose of destroying what other men had done, but 
 in order to build on their foundations ; so that the vast structure of 
 mathematical science, as Ave now have it, is as continuous and complete 
 as some ancient cathedral, the work of centuries. The plans of the 
 cathedral of Cologne were drawn centuries ago, and part of the structure 
 reared. Then for long generations it was left untouched, until in our 
 own time the work has been resumed and completed. So it was that, 
 after the Greeks liad laboured for eight centuries at mathematical science, 
 their work was laid aside in Europe for a thousand years, while bar- 
 barian invasions and the building up of the Christian Church absorbed 
 the thoughts of men. Then, when the Church began to lose its political 
 influence, the Arabs, who had kept alive and enriched the tradition of 
 fireek science, handed it over to the Western nations for yet further 
 enlargement. 
 
 120
 
 ANCIENT SCIENCE 121 
 
 It is common to present Newton to popular audiences as the man 
 who discovered the laws of the solar system. Little is said of the de- 
 pendence of his discovery on the principles of motion due to Galileo, and 
 on the three laws of Kepler. Gravitation, a conception familiar to his 
 time, would have remained a barren conjecture but for the mathematical 
 calculus which made it possible to write the Frincipia. But the calculus 
 of Leibnitz and of Newton rested on the algebraic researches of Wallis, 
 Fermat, and others ; these again following from the geometry of Des- 
 cartes, published half a century before Newton's great work. Descartes, 
 perhaps the most original of all great mathematicians, began his work 
 with the discussion of a problem in geometrical analysis which Pappus 
 of Alexandria, thirteen hundred years before, had proposed, but had 
 not been able entirely to solve. In the same way the astronomy of 
 Copernicus and Kepler is directly continuous with that of Ptolemy and 
 Hipparchus. 
 
 The earlier mathematicians of Greece were also philosophers. Thales, 
 the founder of abstract geometry, occupied himself with speculations as 
 to the constitution of the universe and with principles of human conduct. 
 With Pythagoras and his followers, the association of geometry with 
 philosophy was far more intimate. For them numbers were the prin- 
 ciples of all things. They studied the five regular solids with the hope 
 that light would be thrown on the ultimate constitution of matter. In 
 framing their scheme for the organisation of human life they were ani- 
 mated by the hope of reducing it to the same harmony that they saw to 
 govern the motions of the heavens. They did not foresee how long a 
 course of centuries was needed before their dream could be realised. 
 Patient research, proceeding slowly from the simpler to the more complex 
 facts of the world and of life, must be carried on from generation to 
 generation before the existence of natural law in social and moral pheno- 
 mena could be detected. And meantime students of science must be 
 sustained by ardour for truth, apart from application of it to purposes of 
 immediate utility. 
 
 The Utopia of Pythagoras was shattered, and his conmiunity dis- 
 persed. But the intellectual impulse that had been stirred by his moral 
 and social fervour remained in full activity. In direct connection with 
 the school of geometry which he founded stands a long series of successors. 
 Philolaus and Archytas were his philosophical disciples. Archytas taught 
 geometry to Eudoxus, from whom Archimedes received the method of 
 Exhaustions. Eudoxus taught ^lena'chmus, the discoverer of conic 
 sections, the direct predecessor, therefore, of ApoUonius of Perga. 
 
 By this time not merely had >Science detached itself from Philosophy, 
 but the sciences of geometry and astronomy were studied separately ; 
 Eudoxus being, as Comte remarks {Pos. Pol. iii. 265), the last who culti- 
 vated both. The establishment under the Ptolemies of the university 
 of Alexandria gave facilities for such special researches ; and lienceforth 
 for six centuries the sciences of geometry and astronomy, together with 
 the art of medicine and such biological studies as were directly connected 
 with it, were prosecuted each by their own followers. The fierce contro- 
 versies attending the development of Catholic doctrine were not fuvour- 
 aljle to scientific research ; and in the third and fourth centuries a.d.
 
 122 ANCIENT SCIENCE 
 
 the names of Pappus and Diophantus stand out in solitary greatness 
 above a low level of mediocrity. Then foUow the Vandal invasion of 
 the fifth century, the suppression of the schools of Athens in the sixth, 
 and in the seventh the destructive fervour of the Mohammedan conquest 
 of Egypt. Toward the close of the eighth century the Caliphs of Bagdad 
 rekindle the extinguished torch of science, and four centuries later hand 
 it on to the West. 
 
 The names in the weeks belonging to the month of Ai'chimedes are 
 distributed as follows : — 
 
 The first week is devoted to the students of Medicine, and of such 
 preliminary biological science as branched out from it. Hippocrates 
 presides, and the names of the principal anatomists of Alexandria and of 
 Arabian writers on medicine are included. 
 
 In the second week the history of Mathematics is represented from 
 Euclid to Diophantus. ApoUonius of Perga is the principal name. 
 
 The third week records the astronomers of Greece and Arabia from 
 the time when Astronomy, ceasing to be a mere record of observations, 
 became a scientific doctrine capable of precise forecast of future events. 
 The post of honour is assigned to Hipparchus. 
 
 In the fourth week are commemorated the names of men, principally 
 Roman, who, without achieving scientific discoveries, applied science to 
 the arts of life, and compiled materials for future thinkers. The elder 
 Pliny is the principal type of such men, among whom are included 
 writers on agriculture, architecture, and geograi^hy. [J. H. B.]
 
 Ancient Science] ARCHIMEDES 123 
 
 ARCHIMEDES, b. 287 B.C.. d. 212 b.c. 
 
 / 
 
 A rchimedes was a native of Syracuse, one of the greatest cities of 
 the West Grecian worldT His letters to T)ositheus of Alexandria show 
 him to have been in constant communication with the students of 
 geometry in that city. Plutarch, in his life of Marcellus, speaks of his 
 intimate friendship with King~H n"ef6 of Syracuse, who "induced him to 
 apply his mechanical princmles to the construction of military engines ; 
 though the time thus withdrawn from his theoretical researches was 
 most unwillingly given. 
 
 During the second Punic War Hiero had been in close alliance with 
 Rome. But after his death, Hijapocrates, an ambitious general, enlisted 
 the city on the side of Carthage, and ah expedition was sent, under the 
 command of ^rarc^UltS, to "Besiege it by sea and land. The fleet, equipped 
 with the ust[aT~eiigrhes of war, especially the sambuca, a vast scaling- 
 ladder erected on a platform fixed on the decks of two ships lashed 
 together broadside, found themselves in face of a strange foe. Balistfe 
 of surpassing power suddenly rose above the battlements, and hurled vast 
 masses of stone or lead against the approaching ships, then were as 
 suddenly withdrawn. When the ships reached the walls, huge beams 
 were let fall, end downward, on the decks ; or iron hooks, attached to a 
 chain, grappling the prows, lifted the ships endwise from the water, then 
 let them go and sank them. On the land side the besiegers were met in 
 the same way. These engines were the work of Archimedes. To pro- 
 secute the siege actively was impossible. The city was reduced by 
 famine, and at last stormed. Archimedes, meanwhile, having done as 
 a citizen all that in him lay, had returned to his diagrams ; and he was 
 still bending over the sand '6n which these were traced when a soldier 
 slew him. ]Marcellus erected a monument to his memory, which was 
 discovered more than a hundred years afterwards by Cicero. It bore 
 the image of a cylinder circumscribing a sphere, with a verse indicating, 
 what Archimedes had held to be his greatest achievement, the measure- 
 ment and mutual proportion of these two bodies. Dramatic, surely, was 
 the contrast offered by the siege of Syracuse between the scientific 
 inteltect' of Greece and the disciplined force of Rome ; and not less 
 remarkable is the admiration of the conqueror for the conquered, which, 
 in a few generations, would weld the Greco-Roman world into one. 
 
 Geometry, when Archimedes began his career, had made more 
 progress than is shown by the thirteen books of Euclid's Elements. 
 For a century at least thinkers had been exercised by the Delian 
 i:)roblem, suggested by an oracular connnand to build a new altar in 
 Apollo's shrine at Delos similar in shape to the old altar, but double 
 the size. The duplication of the cube was not possible by Euclid's 
 Elements. Involving as it did the finding of two mean proportionals 
 between two given magnitudes, it led to the study of various curved 
 lines resulting from mechanical movements more complicated than 
 those of the compasses. Euclid himself investigated Conic Sections.
 
 124 ARCHIMEDES [Ancient 
 
 Dinostratus discovered the quadratrix resulting from the intersection of a 
 rotating line with another moving parallel to itself. An immense field 
 of research was thus opened. Archimedes made an elaborate study of 
 the spiral formed by a straight line rotating with uniform velocity 
 round one of its extremities, while, at the same time, a point in the line 
 moved forward from the fixed point with similar velocity. This curve, 
 usually handled by the transcendental calculus of modern mathematics, 
 was attacked by Archimedes with extraordinary skill and success. 
 Tangents were drawn to any point in the curve, and its quadrature was 
 found. 
 
 Great thinkers, while heedless of immediate utility, have always been 
 guided by a secret purpose of increasing man's power to control his 
 destiny : they have served Humanity, though not always their own 
 generation. In dealing with curved figures, Archimedes fixed always on 
 the most importtint and difficult of the many problems connected with 
 them — their comparison with spaces bounded by straight lines — in other 
 words, their quadrature. Of aU curved lines and surfaces, none could 
 be so important as the circle and the sphere ; not because of the imaginary 
 perfection attributed to them by Plato, but because the heavenly bodies 
 moved in circles, and the eartli's figure was apparently a sphere fixed 
 within the vaster sphere of the heavens. To measure the area of a 
 circle, the surface, and the solid content^ of a sphere, were obviously 
 problems of vast moment. 
 
 Inserting a polygon in a circle, it was clear that the polygon was the 
 sum of the triangles of which the side was the base, and the perpendicular 
 from the centre the altitude. Increasing the number of sides indefinitely, 
 the sum of the sides became equivalent to the circumference of the circle. 
 Thus the area of the circle was equal to that of a triangle of which the 
 circumference was the base and the radius the altitude. 
 
 The next steji was to compare the radius, or the diameter, with the 
 circumference. Artificers had always known the proportion to be less 
 than one to three ; and, since Pythagoras, it had been suspected to 
 belong to the class of incommensurable quantities. Describing round a 
 circle a succession of equilateral figures, of six, twenty-four, forty-eight, 
 and, finally, of ninety-six sides, he found by an extremely laborious 
 calculation that the circumference was three times the diameter plus a 
 quantity which was less than a seventh but more than ten seventy- 
 one*''". The calculation has been pursued to a hundred decimal figures, 
 but remains, now as then, a striking instance of the cases in which our 
 highest efforts approximate to the truth without reaching it. 
 
 There remained the problem of measuring the surface of the sphere. 
 If a polygon, described round a circle, were made to rotate round the 
 diameter, the resulting solid would consist of a series of truncated cones. 
 There was no difficulty about measuring the surface of any one of these. 
 It was equal to the rectangle of which one side was that of the truncated 
 cone, and the other the length of the circle drawn midway between the 
 greater and lesser base and parallel to them. When the sides of the 
 polygon were numerous, ultimately merging into a circle, it became 
 impossible to find the sum of these infinitely small areas. But by a 
 happy transformation, substituting for the cone-side its projection on
 
 Science] ARCHIMEDES 125 
 
 the diameter of the solid, the integration was eflfected. The surface of 
 the sphere was found equal to the length of the great circle multiplied 
 by its diameter : in other words, to four great circles. 
 
 The next problem was to effect the cubature of the sphere ; i.e. to 
 determine its solid content. By regarding it as an assemblage of 
 pyramids with their summits at the centre and bases at the surface, the 
 sum of these bases, when very numerous, became equivalent to the sphere. 
 The content of the sphere was therefore the area of four great circles 
 multiplied by one-third of the radius ; in other words, of one great 
 circle multiplied by two-thirds of the diameter. And as the cylinder of 
 equal height and diameter was equal to the great circle multiplied by 
 the diameter, it followed that the sphere was eqiial to two-thirds of the 
 circumscribing cylinder. Henceforward the simple measurement of the 
 diameter of one of the heavenly bodies would suffice to estimate its 
 cubical content. 
 
 Archimedes did not confine himself to geometry. He enlarged the 
 Greek numeration-scale, and showed its capacity for expressing the 
 number of grains of sand that would fill a sphere of radius equal to the 
 distance between the earth and the fixed stars. Of far more importance 
 were his investigations in Statics. He proved mathematically that the 
 weights attached to the unequal arms of a lever were in equilibrium when 
 either weight was inversely proportional to the length of the arm. He 
 followed up this truth by a long series of investigations into the centre 
 of gravity of different geometrical forms. 
 
 The incident which is said to have directed his attention to the 
 measurement of the density or specific gravity of bodies is well known. 
 A body immersed in water will displace an amount of water equal to 
 its bulk. A crown made of gold alloyed with silver will therefore 
 displace more water than if made of pure gold. Starting from this 
 point he composed his remarkable treatise upon floating bodies, the 
 first attempt made to estimate the pressure exercised l3y the elements of 
 a fluid. Lagrange (in his Mccanique Analytique, part i. § 6) speaks 
 of it as " one of the most striking monuments of the genius of Archi- 
 medes, containing a theory of the stability of floating bodies to which 
 little has been added in later times." 
 
 We have, then, in the work of this great thinker the whole field of 
 inquiry accessil)le to mathematical research opened up and cultivated : 
 the measurement of space, of number, and of force. He was perhaps 
 the most perfect type of scientific intellect that has appeared in the 
 wotT3^ Comte, in his mathematical treatise, always refers to him as 
 the Great Geometer. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Archimedes' Works, Oxford eilition, 1792. Laffitte : Grands Types, ii. 
 279-377. Comte : Synthese Subjective, cli. iii. ; J'liil. Pos. lect. l(i ; 
 Pos. Pol. iii. 267-69.
 
 126 THEOPHRASTUS : HEROPHILUS [Ancient 
 
 THEOPHRASTUS, b. abt. 370 B.C., d. abt. 285 B.C. 
 
 Theophrastus was born at Eresus in Lesbos. He was sent by his 
 father to Athens to study ; and he became the most zealous among the 
 pupils of Aristotle, who bequeathed him his library, and whom he 
 succeeded in the Lyceum. Like several other philosophers, he was 
 accused of impiety, but he made a successful defence against this charge. 
 His school was very numerously attended, and at his death, in advanced 
 age, it is said that nearly the whole population of Athens followed him 
 to the grave. 
 
 Theophrastus wrote on many branches of philosophy and natural 
 science, but only three works have come down to us : — (1) his 
 Characters, a series of entertaining but rather slight sketches of weak 
 or vicious tendencies ; (2) his Natural History of Plants ; (3) his 
 Conditions of Plant Life. The two last form the first scientific treatise 
 on Botany. They are written in the true Aristotelean spirit of close 
 observation of Nature, directed with the purpose of seizing the type-form 
 amidst individual variety. 
 
 He begins by studying the analogies between vegetable and animal 
 growth. But he is met at once by this difficulty : Have plants organs 
 such as may be detected in animals amidst all their diversities ? It is 
 difficult to assert this ; for on comparing, e.g., trees, grasses, and fungi, 
 no organs seem common to all. He defines, however, as the best solution 
 available, the root, the stalk, the branch, and the bud. For adequate 
 knowledge of the nutrition of plants men had to wait till the chemical 
 discoveries of the last century. Nevertheless Theophrastus noted that 
 the death of a tree followed the removal of a complete ring of bark, 
 which might have led him to an understanding of the cambium. Of the 
 sexual reproduction of plants he knew little more than the vague dis- 
 tinction, due to popular observation, of certain plants into male and 
 female, according as they bore or did not bear seed. Reproduction took 
 place either by seed, or by buds, or by spontaneous generation. In the 
 classification of plants he went no further than the distinction of plants, 
 shrubs, and trees ; remarking that under diff'erent conditions of the 
 environment these were not seldom convertible. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Theophrastus : Works, by Schneider, 1818. 
 
 HEROPHILUS, 3rd Century B.C. 
 
 Herophilus was born at Chalcedon in Bithynia. He established 
 himself in Alexandria under Ptolemy Soter, and devoted his life to 
 anatomical study. Like Erasistratus, he is said to have performed 
 operations on the living bodies of criminals. He gave much attention 
 to the anatomy of the brain and nervous system. One of the cerebral 
 sinuses still bears his name. That part of the fourth ventricle called 
 from its appearance Calamus scri'ptorius was also defined by him. He 
 was the first to distinguish the part of the intestine known as duodenum 
 from the rest of the canal. These and other points we gather from 
 references made by Celsus and Galen ; for none of his works have reached 
 us. [J. H. B.]
 
 Sciexce] ERASISTRATUS : CELSUS 127 
 
 ERASISTRATUS, 3rd Century B.c. 
 
 Erasistratus is thought to have been born at lulls in the island of 
 Ceos. Pliny speaks of him as a son of Aristotle's daughter Pythias ; but 
 of this there is no other evidence. It is probable that he studied under 
 Theophrastus. He lived for some time at the court of Seleucus Nicator, 
 where he gained much credit for relieving the king's son from a condition 
 of nervous depression by the discovery of his love for Stratonice. But 
 his real life's work was done in Alexandria, then in the full tide of intel- 
 lectual energy, under the patronage of Ptolemy Soter. There he devoted 
 himself to anatomical study, especially to the dissection of the human 
 body ; proceeding, it is said, in the case of criminals to vivisection, 
 although from this source no discovery has been claimed. He wrote 
 much on anatomy and on medicine ; but we know his works only by the 
 references to them in Celsus, Galen, and other writers. He appears 
 from these to have had correct views of the anatomical relations of the 
 heart and the great vessels connected with it. But he maintained the 
 mistaken view that the purpose of the arteries was to collect air from 
 the lungs and to distribute it through the body. Like Herophilus, his 
 contemporary, he gave much attention to the anatomy of the nervous 
 system, on the functions of which his views were far in advance of 
 Aristotle. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Sprengel : History of Medicine. Galen: Works. 
 
 CELSUS, 1st half of first Century A.D. 
 
 Of the life of Apuleius Cornelius Celsus nothing is certainly known. 
 He is said to have been a private secretary to Tiberius. He is perhaps 
 the Celsus to whom Horace refers in his epistle to Julius Floras as a 
 compiler of books. He wrote a work on agriculture, including veterinary 
 medicine, which is j^not extant. His work de lie Medica, which has 
 survived, is a systematic treatise on the medical and surgical art of his 
 time. It contains valuable observations on hygiene, especially on diet and 
 exercise ; on disease as modified by season, by climate, and by age ; and 
 on prognosis. We gather from it that in the treatment of chronic disease 
 more use was made of external methods, as of baths, massage, etc., than has 
 been common till lately in modern medicine. The tradition of Hippo- 
 crates — fine observation, guided by a sense of the unity of the organism — 
 is apparent through this part of the work. On the surgical side we see 
 the result of Alexandrian research. The description given of the bones, 
 muscles, and other organs, though too brief for the requirements of 
 modern surgery, and indeed less adequate than would have been given 
 by a pupil of Galen, are yet fairly adequate. Practical surgery had made 
 more progress at this time than is commonly supposed. Such operations, 
 for instance, as those for the extraction of stone, for couching of cataract, 
 and for trepanning, closely resembled those of modern surgery. The 
 treatise is written in pure Latin of the best period. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Celsus : de Re Medico.
 
 128 GALEN [Ancient 
 
 GALEN, b, 131 A.D., d. abt. 200 A.D. 
 
 Claudius Galexus was born at Pergamum, in Asia Minor, a.d. 131. 
 He received a careful training in the philosophy of Aristotle and Plato, 
 and in medical practice. At his father's death he studied for many years 
 at Alexandria, where he gained great reputation as an anatomist. At 
 the age of 34 he established himself as a physician in Rome. But the 
 great superiority of liis scientific knowledge brought on him the jealousy 
 of the Eoman physicians, and he was ultimately driven from the city. 
 The place and the precise date of his death are uncertain, but allusions 
 in his writings show that he must have lived at least till the end of the 
 second century a.d. 
 
 Galen represents the final outcome of the biological research of anti- 
 quity, instituted by Aristotle, and carried on at Alexandria with extra- 
 ordinary zeal and success under the first two Ptolemies. In after times, 
 when the great university had abandoned itself to metaphysical dis- 
 cussion, the systematic study of medicine, like geometry, had failed to 
 attract thinkers and observers of original power, and had been carried 
 on somewhat languidly. Galen revived it and enriched it with inde- 
 pendent researches of the greatest value, to which, during the twelve 
 centuries that followed, little addition was made. 
 
 A space of five hundred years separates Aristotle from Galen. The 
 principal results achieved in that period may be briefly indicated, though 
 it is not always possible to determine what is due to Galen from what he 
 owed to others. Aristotle, who discovered many of the fundamental 
 principles of life, and who described many of its forms and organs with 
 astonishing accuracy, was yet in almost complete ignorance of the tissues 
 on which the two fundamental facts of animal life — motion and sensation 
 — were dependent. Of the contractility of muscle, of the conductivity 
 of nerve, of the brain as a centre of force, he knew nothing. Flesh or 
 muscle, to him, was simply a complex of small blood-vessels, useful 
 mainly as a covering to retain animal heat. Nerves for him were mere 
 tendons ; and the brain was a reservoir of cold substance the function 
 of which was to control the temperature of the heart. (Ogle's transla- 
 tion of Aristotle's de Fartibus, pp. 172-7). 
 
 In Galen all these errors are corrected in a manner with which the 
 modern physiologist could find but little fault. He describes the pro- 
 perty of muscular tissue and the function of the principal muscles with 
 perfect clearness. Of nerve he remarks that it is now admitted by all 
 physicians that without it there can be neither motion nor sensation. 
 He explains that section of a nerve is followed by paralysis and by loss 
 of feeling in the part to which it is distributed. But he was aware, also, 
 that the nerves originated nothing ; they were simply channels through 
 which sensation and motion were communicated from the brain and 
 spinal cord to the muscles and other organs of the body. The brain he 
 calls in some places an Arche, in others the centre of psychical force ; 
 the spinal cord was of the same nature. He describes with a near 
 approach to accuracy the nerves issuing from the brain and from the 
 cord ; and he states that if the cord be cut through or injured in any 
 part all the parts suj^plied with nerves coming from below the point of
 
 Science] GALEN 129 
 
 section or injury are deprived of motion and of feeling. From all this 
 it is apparent that the biological conditions of animal motion were clearly 
 grasped by Galen. What was wanting to him was the knowledge of 
 mechanical principles not attained till the seventeenth century. Galen 
 put this question {Treatise, on Spasm) : The limbs of animals have weight, 
 and like other heavy bodies tend to foil to the earth ; how is it that they 
 can move in every direction ? Some force, he replied, came to the 
 muscles from the brain through the nerve, and acted " as a vehicle or 
 wing of motion." Beyond this it was impossible to go, until Galileo, 
 Newton, and others had founded the science of Rational Mechanic, and 
 the equality of Action and Reaction had been understood. Till then the 
 void must be supplied by such metaphysical abstractions as vital force 
 or animal sjiirits. 
 
 As to the blood and blood-vessels, Galen's views were of course 
 imperfect, yet they show an advance on previous knowledge. The 
 anatomical distinction between arteries and veins was known to him. 
 He describes the blood of the ai-teries as light and thin and modified by 
 the air breathed into the lungs : the blood of the veins being dark and 
 thick. He refutes in great detail the view of Erasistratus that the 
 arteries contained air, and that when an artery was wounded, aii* escaj^ed 
 in the first place : the blood that followed being absorbed from the 
 venous system. It has been lately shown that Aristotle came nearer to 
 the truth in this matter than his immediate successors. 
 
 Into Galen's descriptions of the other organs of the body it is not 
 possible here to enter. His scientific works, sunmiing up the labours of 
 the Alexandrian Schools with important additions of his own, represent 
 biological science as known to the ancient world. For more than a 
 thousand years no addition was made. At the Renaissance, the 
 anatomists of Italy brought their intellect to bear on this rich inherit- 
 ance of knowledge. They altered much ; but still greater was the part 
 which they had no need to alter. 
 
 Of Galen as a physician little need be said here. It is probable 
 that the anatomical researches of Alexandria, which did much for 
 Surgery, had not been of e([ual benefit to Medicine : perhaps, indeed, had 
 injured medical practice by diverting attention from the whole to the 
 parts. A mass of remedial agents, most of them futile, and derived it 
 may be from the Egyptian specialists of whom Herodotus makes 
 mention, had not added to the dignity or efficiency of the art. Galen's 
 principal service in this matter was to revert to the direct and simple 
 observations of Hippocrates, whose transcendent greatness he recognised, 
 and of whom he speaks with unvarying respect as the "servant of 
 Nature." The physician, he said, should be a philosopher in the twofold 
 sense of that word. He should have studied the order of the universe as 
 mathematical science has revealed it : and he should be master of his 
 own passions, prefering always the pursuit of truth to professional gain. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 There are many editions of Galen ; the most useful is Kiilins (Greek and 
 Latin, with good index). Of his works, note especially the following: 
 the Manual of Anatomi/, the Use of Parts, the Treatises on Muscular 
 Motion, on the Dissection of Nerves, and on Spasm and Tremor 
 I
 
 130 AVICENNA : AVEKRHOES : HIPPOCRATES [Ancient 
 
 AVICENNA, b. 980 a.d. 
 
 Ebn Sina, commonly called Avicenna, was born at Kharmatain, 
 near Bokhara, and was educated in that city. At the age of ten he is 
 said to have shown great knowledge of the Koran, and of Hindu 
 arithmetic. Under a scholar of note, Al-Natheli, he studied Logic, 
 Euclid, and Hipparchian astronomy as contained in the Almagest, 
 showing extraordinary zeal for study, and when his meditative powers 
 flagged, restoring their balance by jirayer. With mathematics and 
 philosophy he comVnned the study of medicine : and is said, in his 
 eighteenth year, to have cured the Sultan of Bokhara of a dangerous 
 disease. At his father's death Avicenna for a short time succeeded him 
 as Minister to the Sultan. But a change of dynasty occurring, he left 
 that post, and spent some years in travel. His great work, the Book of 
 the Canon in Medicine, was written in Jorjan. He held other official 
 posts, and ultimately settled in Ispahan, Avhere many of his works were 
 written. He died at Hamadan, but at what age is uncertain. His 
 works, philosophical, mathematical, and medical, are extremely 
 numerous. [J. H. B.] 
 
 AVERRHOES, b. 1149, d. abt. 1200 a.d. 
 
 Ebn Roshd, commonly known fis Averrhoes, was born at Cordova, 
 where his father held the office of mufti (chief magistrate) of Anda- 
 lusia. His father taught him ]\Iohammedan law ; under other tutors 
 he studied theology, philosophy, and medicine. He succeeded his 
 father as mufti of Andalusia, and afterwards held a similar post in 
 Mauritania ; but his theological speculations, in which he had attempted 
 to reconcile predestination with free will, involved him in a charge of 
 heresy, and after a public recantation he was dismissed. Ultimately 
 he retired to his native town, and was then reinstated in his former 
 office, which he held till his death, variously dated at 1198 or 1206. 
 
 Averrhoes was a voluminous writer. To Dante he was known as he 
 who wrote the Great Comment, Aristotle being the author commented : 
 though he also wrote on the liepublic of Plato. Of his medical works 
 the chief is the work called The Total (Kulliyat) a treatise in seven 
 books, dealing successively -with Anatomy, Health, Diseases, Symptoms, 
 Drugs and Foods, Regimen, Treatment of Disease. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Sprengel : History of Medicine. 
 
 HIPPOCRATES, b. about 470 B.C. 
 
 Little is known of the life of HirP()Ci{ATEs except that he was born 
 at Cos, one of the Sporad islands near the Carian coast, in the second 
 half of the fifth century is.c. ; that he belonged to a family which had 
 practised the medical art for many generations, as ])riests of the god 
 Asclepios ; that he travelled widely, and that he resided for some time 
 with Perdiccas, king of Macedonia. His grandfather bore the same
 
 Science] HIPPOCRATES 131 
 
 name, as also did several of his descendants ; and in this way, perhaps, 
 it has come about that many works were attributed to him which are 
 not of his composing. The few as to which the judgment of scholars is 
 unanimous are, however, sufficient to justify his fame. 
 
 In Greece, as elsewhere, Medicine had a religious origin. A caste of 
 priest-physicians, tracing their origin to a legendary hero or deity, 
 Asclepios, called in Latin u:Esculapius, was widely diflused through the 
 islands and mainland of Greece during the centuries between Homer 
 and ^schylus, and retained a measure of influence till the fall of Poly- 
 theism. The traveller Pausanias, writing in the time of the Antonines, 
 mentions many of the shrines of this deity ; one of them, that of 
 Epidauros in Argolis, he describes minutely. It was placed, facing 
 eastward, in a grove sheltered by hills, on which stood temples of 
 Apollo and Artemis. The statue of the god Asclepios was of colossal 
 size ; in one hand was a staff, the other rested on a serpent's head ; a 
 hound lay at his feet. On the walls and ceiling were pictures and reliefs 
 of Bellerophon slaying the Chimera, Perseus with Medusa's head, Cupid 
 holding the lyre, his arrows and bow cast aside. On a series of pillars 
 were engi'aved the names of those who had been cured of their diseases, 
 with a brief record of their treatment. For these temples of Asclepios 
 were the hospitals of Greece. Large porticos were attached to the shrine, 
 in which women were delivered and sick people were treated. The 
 sites were carefully chosen, so as to secure shelter from cold winds, 
 sunny aspect, pure air and water. In the treatment, nioral and physical 
 remedies went together. Simple potions, and that kind of action on the 
 skin and muscles which modern medicine is tardily reviving, were 
 combined with fasting and prayer. 
 
 Inheriting thus a large mass of theocratic experience, Hippocrates 
 brought to bear upon it the new positive spirit which, for more than a 
 century, had been permeating through the Grecian world — the spirit of 
 unprejudiced observation and of careful search for law and orderly 
 succession, as applied to the phenomena of disease. His denial of the 
 doctrine that any one disease was of specially divine origin is significant. 
 None, he said, was more or less divine than another. All were divine ; 
 all were subject to their own law of growth. 
 
 Before appreciating what he did, let us see clearly what it was 
 impossible for him to do. Modern medicine, though not a science, since 
 it deals with individuals, yet tends steadily to become a scientific art, 
 founded on the science of Biology, which is itself dependent on the 
 sciences of Chemistry and Physics. But for a physician in the fifth 
 century b.c, a rational explanation of such fiicts as the action of the 
 heart, the motions of limbs, respiration, digestion, and animal heat was 
 impossible. The dependence of living organisms on outside forces he 
 could not deny. But he knew not what these forces were, nor how they 
 worked. Vague notions of planetary influence, of heat and cold, of 
 dryness and moisture, supplied the void. Direct observation of the 
 facts of disease was, of course, open to him as to pliysicians of our own 
 time. But to observe without a theory, avowed or implicit, to connect 
 the ol)servations, is all but impossil)le ; and yet, if the accepted theory 
 be false, the observation will be warped. From this vicious circle it is
 
 132 HIPPOCEATES [Ancient 
 
 the glory of Hippocrates to have escaped, so far as escape was possible. 
 He carried out a long series of fine and accurate observations untinged, 
 or nearly so, by false theory, guided implicitly by two profoundly 
 positive conceptions, the Synergy, or co-operation, of the functions, and 
 the action of the environment on the organism. 
 
 The characteristic feature of his method was that all his observations 
 tended to Prognosis ; that is, to a forecast of the course which the 
 disease, left to itself, would follow. His treatise on Prognostic (and the 
 same may be said of many of his Aphorisms) forms a practical com- 
 mentary on Comte's motto, ^^ Savoir, 2)our 2)revoir, afin depourvoir" ("See 
 that you may foresee, and so provide "). This work is based on previous 
 records jDreserved in the temple of Cos, which are still extant, and thus 
 enable us to judge of what is due individually to Hippocrates. "He 
 will manage the cure best," he says, "who foresees what is to happen 
 from the present condition of the patient." " To such a physician," he 
 continues, " men will be willing to intrust themselves." And this was 
 fundamental ; for, as the first of his Aphorisms has it, " It is not enough 
 for the physician to do what is right himself ; he must make the patient, 
 the nurse, and all surrounding circumstances co-operate with him." 
 
 This is not the place for medical details. But his vivid picture of 
 the signs of approaching death in acute disease is known to many 
 through a passage of Lucretius. The sharp nose, the hollow eye, the 
 collapsed temples ; the ears cold, contracted, with everted lobe ; the skin 
 of the forehead rough, distended, parched ; the colour of the face green, 
 black, livid, or leaden, are described with unsurpassable accuracy. And 
 yet, here as always, he is careful to add that, for a sound judgment, not 
 these signs alone but the wliole series of antecedent facts, such as 
 previous starvation or the reverse, must be taken into account. His 
 whole work is a protest against specialism. He placed Prognosis above 
 Diagnosis, as practised at the neighbouring Asclepion of Cnidos. To us 
 the nomenclature of disease, the detection of the particular organ or 
 tissue involved, is far more important, and far more practicable, than in 
 the time of Hippocrates. But, even so, it remains of greater consequence 
 to keep in mind the essential unity of disease, to measure its intensity, 
 to take into account personal constitution and surrounding circumstances. 
 And this is what Hippocrates taught physicians to do. 
 
 On the physical environment Hippocrates has left us a masterj^iece — 
 his Treatise on Air, Water, and Places. It is a comprehensive study of 
 climate in the largest sense, containing a mass of wise and fine observa- 
 tions on air and prevalent winds ; on sunlight, water, soil ; on seasonal 
 changes and prevalent vegetation ; and, finally, on the constitutional 
 tendencies of various populations in Euroj^e and Asia, which, when once 
 formed by those influences, were perpetuated by heredity. 
 
 On the whole, then, it may be said that Hippocrates, by his large 
 conception of the facts of disease, not merely founded the art of Medi- 
 cine, now and henceforth set free from theocratic fetters, and destined 
 to play so important a part in Western civilisation, but also prepared 
 the way for the scientific study of Life, soon to be founded by Aristotle, 
 and continued by the great school of Alexandria. Implicitly, but 
 strongly, he grasped the two essential features of biological science, the
 
 Science] HIPPOCRATES : EUCLID 133 
 
 correlation of functions, and the adjustment of organism to environ- 
 ment. 
 
 It remains to note those of his works which the best critics agree to 
 be genuine. These are, the Aphorisms (with few exceptions) ; the 
 Prognostics ; the first and third books of the Ejndemics (a clinical 
 account of cases of disease occurring in Thasos, in relation to the pre- 
 vailing character of the season) ; Regimen in Acute Disease ; the treatise 
 on Air, Water, and Places ; and a work on Injuries of the Head. Finally, 
 the oath to be tendered to all members of medical guilds is believed by 
 most, though not by all, to be of his framing. It is certainly of the 
 time of Hippocrates ; and it embodies ethical traditions of Theocracy of 
 the greatest value. The candidate for admission swore by Apollo the 
 Physician, and Asklepios, to show filial respect to his teacher ; to share 
 his knowledge freely with his brothers of the guild ; within the house of 
 the patient to behave with stainless honour, and never to divulge a 
 secret. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Mention of Hippocrates is luade, Pos. Pol. i. 459, 465, 586, and ii. 364. The 
 Aphorisms, and the Treatise on A ir, Water, and Places, are in the 
 Positivist Library. The classic editions of Hippocrates are, in France, 
 tliat of Littre ; in English, that of Adams, published in 1849 for the 
 Sydenham Society. 
 
 EUCLID {Eucleides), abt. 300 B.c. 
 
 That Euclid taught mathematics in the school of Alexandria under 
 the first of the Ptolemies, is all that is known with certainty of his life. 
 Pappus speaks emphatically of his friendliness to other students of 
 mathematics, contrasting him in this respect, rightly or wrongly, with 
 ApoUonius. Euclid wrote on several mathematical subjects, notably on 
 the Data for determining the possibility of a problem, and on Conic 
 Sections ; but his work on elementary mathematics, which has had the 
 singular fortune, in this country at least, to identify a writer with the 
 science of which he treats, can alone be here considered. 
 
 Broadly speaking, this work consists of four divisions. The first, 
 which includes the first six books, treats of such plane figures as can be 
 described with rule and compass ; dealing, first with equal magnitudes, 
 subsequently witli magtiitudes that are unequal but similar. The second 
 book, establishing equations, and the 5th and Cth dealing with pro- 
 portions, may be regarded as containing the essential principles of 
 Algebra. The second part, including the 7th, 8th, and 9th books, is 
 a treatise on arithmetic. The third part, corresponding to the lOtli 
 book, discusses incommensurable magnitudes. The fourth division, 
 including the 11th, 12th, and 13tli books, discusses the geometry of 
 solids. The books called 15th and 16th are by a later writer, probably 
 Hypsicles. 
 
 Euclid was a compiler and ai'ranger, not a discoverer. Thales had 
 discovered the constancy in the angles of all triangles, and the ])ropor- 
 tionality of sides where the triangles were similar. The school of 
 Pythagoras studied the regular solids, and the relation of their bounding
 
 134 EUCLID : ARIST^US [Ancient 
 
 lines and surfaces. This led them to investigate proportion, and 
 especially the femous problem of the Golden Section (Euc. Eh. ii. 11) 
 leading to the discussion of incommensurable magnitudes, and of the 
 duplication of the cube ; this last involving the insertion of two mean pro- 
 portionals, a jMoblem whicli Euclid's Elements do not enable us to solve. 
 In these researches they evolved the analytical method, erroneously 
 attributed to Plato. Archytas, the last of the Pythagoreans, was the 
 tutor of Eudoxus, who is expressly stated by Archimedes to be the 
 discoverer of certain propositions on the similarity of solids (Euc. Ele. 
 xii. 7 and 10), which imply possession of the Method of Exhaustions 
 (Euc. Ele. X. 1). Euclid is spoken of by Proclus as the arranger of 
 many works of Eudoxus and the completer of many of Theaitetus. 
 These latter were on incommensurables, discussed by Euclid in his 10th 
 book — the one therefore in which he has the strongest claims to 
 originality. 
 
 Though the claims of Euclid as a discoverer are thus reduced to narrow 
 limits, his function as a systematic arranger of mathematical truths was 
 one of great importance. Doubtless exaggerated value, especially in 
 this country, has been attributed to it. The degeneracy of philosophic 
 speculations in his time led to circuitous demonstrations of much that 
 might have been more shortly stated ; and most mathematicians are 
 agreed that his arrangement admits of improvement. But as an 
 historical monument of the claims established by geometry in the fourth 
 century B.C. to be an instrument of education, the Elements of Euclid 
 will remain for ever memorable. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Comte : Pos. Pol. vol. iii. p. 266. Allraaii : Geometry from Thales to Euclid, 
 pp. 201-5. 
 
 ARISTJEUS (^Aristaios), 4th Century B.C. 
 
 Of the life of Arist^eus no details have been preserved. But, from 
 the notices of his work contained in Pappus, we find that he is one of 
 the predecessors, and proliably a senior contemporar}^, of Euclid. He 
 wrote on the five regular iSolids, and also on Conic Sections ; the latter 
 work being highly a])preciated by Euclid. His work on the first of these 
 subjects contained the theorem that when a dodecahedron and icosa- 
 hedron were enclosed in the same sphere, the same circle circumscribes 
 the pentagon of the former and the triangle of the latter. This we 
 learn from Hypsicles, avIio suj^plies the cliain of proofs ; from which we 
 find that the ])rincipal propositions of the 13th book of Euclid were 
 known to Arista^us : and indeed that this book was compiled in great 
 part from his work. Arista'us is specially mentioned by Pappus 
 amongst those who prosecuted the analytic method, by the aid of which 
 these discoveries were made ; the method first cultivated l)y the 
 Pythagoreans in their studies on the measurement of solids, and es]>ecially 
 on the duplication of the cube. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Alliiiau ; U.S. 194-205.
 
 Science] THEODOSIUS : HERON 135 
 
 THEODOSIUS of Bithynia, 100-50 B.C. 
 
 Of Theodosius himself nothing is known. One Theodosius of 
 Bithynia is cited as a mathematician by Vitruvius as the inventor of 
 a universal sun-dial. A Theodosius of Tripolis is cited by Pappus and 
 others, and was said to be later than the reign of Trajan, in the second 
 century a.d. Some authorities have attributed the extant works to the 
 latter. But perhaps the Theodosius of Bithynia was subsequently settled 
 at Tripolis, and is the same who is mentioned by Pappus. He has left 
 three works — on Spherical Geometry, on Habitations (a work on astro- 
 nomical geography), and on Days and Nights. 
 
 In the first are stated and proved several important propositions, as 
 that the section of a sphere by a plane is a circle ; that the plane touches 
 the sphere in one point only, the line from which to the centre is per- 
 pendicular to the plane ; that every circle passing through the centre is 
 a great circle ; that secondary circles parallel to a great circle, and at 
 equal distance, are equal to each other ; that great circles mutually 
 bisect ; that the distance of the pole of a great circle to any point of its 
 circumference is the side of the inscribed square. 
 
 The treatise on Habitations describes the different aspects of the 
 heavens visible at different parts of the earth's surface, according to their 
 latitude and longitude. 
 
 The third treatise, on Days and Nights, is an attempt to fix the pre- 
 cise variations of the day and night throughout the sun's annual path 
 through the heavens, and to determine the period within which these 
 variations will recur in the same way ; in other words, to fix the precise 
 relations of the day and the year. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Delaiiibre : Astrun. Ancicnne, vol. i. cli. 13. 
 
 HERON of Alexandria, 100 B.C. 
 
 Heron was a pupil of Ctesibius, with whom his name is constantly 
 associated. By some authorities the date of Heron and of Ctesibius is 
 referred to the century preceding ; and there is a very much later Heron 
 of Alexandria, who also wrote on geodesy. Heron is the autlior of a 
 collection of works bearing on the application of geometry to the arts 
 of life, and especially on practical mensuration. Geometry had origi- 
 nated, s(j Herodotus tells us, in the dithculties created by the inundations 
 of the Nile, when boundaries had to ])e resettled. Modern research has 
 gained from Egyi)tian records a mathematical treatise written by Ahmes, 
 between the seveiiteeuLh and twentieth centuries B.C. We find in it 
 many practical rules of mensuration ; but these are never demonstrated, 
 and are not always accurate. For instance, the area of an isosceles 
 triangle is taken as lialf the rectangle formed by the base and one of the 
 sides, which is only true when the angle at the vertex is right. Egyp- 
 tian geometry was strictly limited to the utilitarian purpose of measuring 
 boundaries, and of seeing that the direction of temple walls and the sides 
 of pyramids were true to the pole and to the points of the coiiq)aSj'^.
 
 136 HERON : CTESIBIUS [Ancient 
 
 In Heron's hands scientific geometry, which had arisen long ago from 
 the practical work of life, now reverted to its source. He gave the first 
 example of the systematic application of science to industry. In deter- 
 mining the angles necessary for the determination of the area of a field, 
 he used an instrument called the dioptra, the germ of the modern theodo- 
 lite, consisting of a ruler pivoting on a horizontal circle, and furnished 
 with sights. The horizontal was kept true by a water-level, the vertical 
 support by a plunamet ; indeed the instrument wanted little but the 
 telescope and the vernier to render it equal to modern appliances. It 
 was thus possible, with the scientific laws which had now become 
 familiar, to set out a line between two points neither of which could 
 be viewed from the other, and fix the distance from the observer of an 
 inaccessible point, or between any two such points ; and, generally, to 
 survey a tract of country, or to restore a boundary of which the plan 
 existed and one or two points were known. 
 
 Heron wrote other works on the raising of weights, on projection of 
 missiles, on the use of compressed air or steam as motive agents. No 
 immediate result followed from these ; but they illustrate the tendency 
 of his time to bring science into contact with industry. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. ill. 264. Cantor : Geschichte dcr Math. p^j. 56 aud 318-343. 
 
 CTESIBIUS, 120 B.C. 
 
 Ctesibius of Alexandria is mentioned l)y various writers as the 
 teacher of Heron. Pliny speaks of him as the inventor of pumps for 
 raising water, and as tlie author of studies on the expansive force of air 
 and steam. Vitruvius gives a description of some of his inventions. 
 Tlie 23ump was ahnost identical with the forcing-pump in modern iise. 
 Water was drawn through an entrance-valve into an exhausted cylinder, 
 and expelled from it through an exit-valve by the descent of a piston. 
 Vitruvius describes also a very complicated water-clock invented by 
 Ctesibius. The measurement of time was very imperfectly eflected by 
 the ancients, and was a great difficulty in their astronomical researches. 
 Time, as Ave know from the speeches of Demosthenes, was rudely 
 measured by the escape of water through a small opening in a vessel, 
 like that of sand througli an hour-glass. Obviously the escape was more 
 rapid at the beginning when the pressure was strongest. The water- 
 clock of Ctesil)ius nuist have avoided these defects if, as Vitruvius 
 asserts, it showed the hour, day, month, and sign of the sun. Presum- 
 ably the vessel of water was kept constantly full, so as to ensure equal 
 quantities being discharged in e([ual times. 
 
 Ctesibius is mentioned in this calendar, in conjunction with Heron, 
 as an example of the tendency, in the Museum of Alexandria, to ap])Iy 
 science to industry. [J. H. B.] '>i; 
 
 J'os, Pd. iii. 264.
 
 Science] PAPPUS 137 
 
 PAPPUS, abt. 380 a.d. 
 
 Pappus was a contemporary of Theon of Alexandria, and taught 
 mathematics in that city during the reign of Theodosius i. He wrote a 
 commentary on the Gi-eat Syntax is [Almagest] of Ptolemy, which has 
 not come down to us. He is known to us by the work entitled Synagoge 
 or Assemblage ; a collection in eight books of mathematical papers 
 having no very distinct connection, and consisting of commentaries on 
 the geometrical work of the previous six centuries, enriched by very 
 fruitful additions of his own. For the history of ancient mathematics 
 this work, of which the last six books and part of the second have been 
 preserved, is invaluable. Already in the third century B.C. the filiation 
 of discovery, so evident in this science, had been traced by Eudemus, a 
 pupil of Aristotle, parts of whose work have been preserved by Proclus. 
 Pappus supplies many details of ApoUonius and of later writers who 
 would otherwise have been unknown to us. Special studies on isolated 
 problems occupy the greater part of his attention. Various modes of 
 inserting two mean geometrical proportionals are discussed ; new methods 
 of inscribing the five regular solids in a sphere are put forward (book iii.). 
 There are special studies on various curves ; as the spirals of Archi- 
 medes, the quadratrix of Dinostratus, and the conchoid of Nicomedes. 
 Much attention is given to the work of Zenodorus on isoperimetry ; and 
 new problems on this subject are solved (book v.). In the 6th book the 
 earlier astronomers are spoken of. 
 
 The 7th book is the most important, historically speaking. We 
 find here the highest point reached by the geometrical analysis of 
 antiquity ; the starting-point of the mathematical revolution instituted 
 by Descartes. Pappus speaks of Euclid, Aristseus, and ApoUonius 
 as the chief cultivators of this department, and as having turned their 
 attention to what were called solid loci, i.e. to problems which could only 
 be solved by the use of one of the conic sections. One of these problems 
 was of this kind : Let three, four, or more lines be given in position ; 
 required the locus of the point from which the same number of lines 
 may he drawn to meet them one to each, at given angles, such that, 
 in the case of three lines, the rectangle of the two first lines may have a 
 fixed relation to the square of the third ; or, in the case of four lines, 
 that the rectangle of the first and second may have a fixed relation to 
 the rectangle of the third and fourth, and so on. Pappus was aware 
 that in the case of three, or of four, lines the locus of the point was a 
 conic section. But what the locus was when the lines wei'e more 
 numerous he declared himself unal)le to determine. This was the pro- 
 blem that Descartes undertook to solve. His success, and the momentous 
 consequences that followed from it, depended not merely on the use of 
 algebraic notation in geometrical problems, but on the broad conception 
 of equation and curve as two correlated aspects of the same problem, 
 and on the entire generality of tlie methods used in attacking sinud- 
 taneously Y^roblems wliich till then had been handled separately. " The 
 spirit of the geometry of antiquity,'' Comte remarks in his treatise of 
 Analytical Geometry (p. 7), "was essentially synthetic : that is to say, 
 the various conditions of each problem were studied for the most part in
 
 138 PAPPUS : DIOPHANTUS [Ancient 
 
 their entirety. It is true that what was called geometrical analysis had 
 been used in an accessory way ; and this may be regarded as a first 
 approach to the modern system ; although the absence of algebraic con- 
 ceptions, by which alone the separation of the various conditions of the 
 problem could ))e fixed and pursued to its final consequences, deprived 
 this procedure of its main value ; so that by the geometers of Greece it 
 was more preached than practised. The spirit of modern mathematics 
 since Descartes is to isolate the various conditions of a problem, and 
 thus arrive at a perfectly general solution for each. It is thus, in the 
 strictest meaning of the word, Analysis." [J. H. B.] 
 
 Descartes : Ueometrie, Livrc preiiiiei'. Cantor : O'eschischie tier Math. pji. 
 371-388. 
 
 DIOPHANTUS, 3rd or 4th Century a.d. 
 
 Not merely is nothing known of the life of Diophaxtus, except that 
 he lived in Alexandria, but his very century is doubtful. Theon, the 
 father of Hypatia, mentioned him, and Hypatia herself is said to have 
 written a commentary on his Avork. It appears not improbable that he 
 was a contemporary of Pappus, and that he lived in the second half of 
 the third century. Others place him in the fifth century. 
 
 The works known to have been written by him are the Arithmetics, 
 in thirteen books ; a work on Porisms, and another on Polygonal 
 Numhtvs. Of the thirteen books on Arithmetics, six only have come 
 down to us, unless indeed, which is not improbable, the other works 
 formed part of this treatise. The Porisms are not extant ; of the 
 Polygonal Numbers we have a fragment. The missing portions of the 
 Arithmetics are probably those intermediate between the first and the 
 remaining books. The works of Diophantus were much studied in the 
 Arabian schools ; they were translated by Abul Wafa in the 10th 
 century, and were probably known to the greatest of Arabian algebraists, 
 Mohammed Ebn Musa, in the previous century. How far their influ- 
 ence extended to India is matter for conjecture. In Western Europe 
 Diophantus was not known till the 15th century, and was not seriously 
 studied till the sixteenth. 
 
 The Arithmetics of Diophantus differ from any other mathematical 
 work of the Greeks, in presenting to us Algebra dissociated from 
 Geometry, and applied to the abstract study of Number. It is not, 
 however, so much a text-book on algebra as a collection of algebraic 
 prol)lems, arranged lu snme extent, though not entirely, in the order of 
 com])lcxity. The first Ijook premises a few definitions and explanations 
 of notation, and thus })resents a series of problems leading to deter- 
 minate equations of the first degree. The method for handling these is 
 given ; the solution of (piadratic equations is promised, and was pro- 
 Ijably given in one of the missing books ; it is presupposed in the 
 problems that follow. The greater part of tlie work as we now have it 
 is occupied with indeterminate analysis of the second degree. Only one 
 unknown rpiantity is used ; to luake a given function of this unknown 
 quantity "etpud to a stjuare," is the form in wliich the problem is pre-
 
 Science] DIOPHANTUS : APOLLONIUS 139 
 
 sented : corresponding to what in modern style would take the shape 
 Ax^ + Bx + G—y^. Extraordinary dexterity is shown in handling the 
 problems proposed. He is seen to be in possession of many results in 
 the theory of numbers, as that a square number could be divided into 
 two squares in any number of ways ; and generally of the properties of 
 numbers which are the sum of two squares. Of numbers regarded as 
 the sum of three, and even of four, squares he had evidently made 
 some, though doubtless an imperfect, study. 
 
 Diophantus uses an elaborate system of notation, including certain 
 symbols of operation. The unknown quantity was expressed by the 
 word dpidfios, Number, and by a sign commonly called Sigma, but per- 
 haps an abridgment of the first two letters ap. The second power of x 
 is written S" for SvVa/xty ; the third k" for Kv^oi, the fourth, fifth, and 
 sixth are 56", 6k» , and kk'" resijectively, answering to the words dvpapo- 
 dvpufiis, dvpafxoKv^os, kv^6kv$os. Absolute numbers are indicated by 
 the prefix fi°, for jiovadfs or units. Fractions are noted by placing the 
 denominator above the line to the right of the numerator. There is a 
 symbol for subtraction, and also for equality, taken from the initial 
 letters of the corresponding Greek words. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Heath : Diophantos of Alexandria, Cambridge, 1885. I'os. Pol. iii. 277. 
 
 APOLLONIUS, 250-200 B.C. 
 
 Apollonius of Perga, in Paniphylia, so called ivom the place of his 
 birth, was a younger contemporary of Archimedes, and probably 
 survived him about ten years. Of the details of his life little is known. 
 He studied mathematics at Alexandria under the successors of Euclid. 
 Much of his life was spent at Pergamum. His great work on Conic 
 Sections is dedicated to a certain Eudemus of that city. This work is in 
 eight books, of which, in the time of Descartes, the first four only were 
 known to be extant. Shortly afterwards the fifth, sixth, and seventh 
 books were discovered in their Arabic translation — an imjiortant discovery, 
 since they reveal mathematical i)owers which the students of the first 
 four had hardly suspected. Apollonius wrote many other works on mathe- 
 matical subjects, of which little more than the title has come down to us. 
 In one of these he endeavours, as Archimedes had done, to enlarge and 
 improve the Greek system of numeration. A fragment of another work, 
 on irrational quantities, has been recently discovered in Arabic and 
 edited : and it is possible that others may yet be restored from a similar 
 source. By contemporaries and successors he was spoken of as the 
 Great Mathematician. 
 
 The curves produced by a plane that cuts a cone had been examined 
 by several previous geometers. Allnian (pp. 153-163) has shown that 
 they were fii-st observed by Menachmus, a pupil of Eudoxus, who made 
 use of both the parabola and the liyperbola in solving the famous 
 problem of inserting Ijetween two given lines two mean proportionals — • 
 in other words, the problem of duplicating the cube. Euclid, the elder
 
 140 APOLLONIUS [Ancient 
 
 Aristaeus, and Archimedes devoted much attention to these curves ; the 
 quadrature of the parabola being one of the most remarkable achieve- 
 ments of Archimedes. 
 
 Apollonius was accused by some of founding his reputation on un- 
 acknowledged debts to these great predecessors. That he had studied 
 their works is obvious : not less so is it that he made the subject his 
 own by exhaustive handling, and by original development of it. The 
 names which the Conic Sections now bear are in all probability due to 
 him. Before his time each of the three curves was regarded as resulting 
 from a plane cutting the side of the cone at right angles ; and only right 
 cones, i.e. those in which the axis was perpendicular to the basis, were 
 considered. If the cone were such that the angle at the vertex was a 
 right angle, the section thus made was a parabola : if the vertical angle 
 were acute, the section was an ellipse ; if obtuse, an hyperbola. 
 Apollonius showed that all these curves could be produced in every 
 cone, whether right or oblique, by varying the inclination of the cutting 
 plane. His generalised treatment of those three curves, apparently so 
 diverse, was in itself a considerable step. The inevitable tendency of 
 Greek, as contrasted with modern, geometry, was to specialise the study 
 of each curve. In the work of Apollonius we have to recognise the first, 
 though but a slight, advance towards the great conception of Descartes, 
 who applied general methods to the treatment of all curves whatsoever. 
 The names given by Apollonius to these curves illustrate this general 
 treatment. "The rectangle applied to a certain straight line in the 
 section of the acute-angled cone is deficient {eWtLuei) by a square : in 
 the section of the obtuse-angled cone it is excessive (vnep^dX'KfL) by a 
 square : finally, in the section of the right-angled cone, the rectangle 
 applied {7rapa^akX6fj.€vov) is neither deficient nor excessive." (Pappus, 
 quoted by AUman, p. 196.) 
 
 " The fifth book," says Cantor in his recent History of Ancient and 
 Mediaeval Mathematics, " far surpasses the preceding. Apollonius rises 
 far above his time by his series of propositions on the longest] and 
 shortest lines that can be drawn from a given point to the circumference 
 of a conic section. He begins by remarking that previous mathe- 
 maticians had treated of the theory of shortest lines. But their mode of 
 handling it nuist have differed substantially from his ; their purpose 
 being limited to the determination of the limits {diorismus) within which 
 a given proljlem was possible. Apollonius generalised the problem of 
 maxima and minima : regarding it, as he expressly says, as one of those 
 things worthy to be considered on the gi"ound of their intrinsic 
 importance. The way in which he distinguishes special cases in this 
 department, and, by grouping them together, fixes the range of possible 
 cases — the marvellous, indeed almost unnatural, complexity of his 
 demonstrations, excite and deserve our wonder. In determining these 
 longest and shortest lines, Apollonius first treats the cases in which the 
 given point is situated on the axis of the curve. Then follow a series of 
 propositions relating to the modern conception of sub-normals. The 
 constancy of this line in the parabola is shown. Later on, the proof is 
 reached that the greatest and least lines previously spoken of are normals 
 to the curve ; thus the problem arises, to draw normals to a conic section
 
 Science] APOLLONIUS : EUDOXUS 141 
 
 from any point in its plane. He now discovers that the number of snch 
 normals depends partly on the curve, partly on the position of the point 
 chosen : further, that there are certain points from which only one can 
 be drawn. These points correspond to the centres of the osculating 
 circles, their series forming the curve known as the Evolute. Of the 
 points in question Apollonius was clearly aware, and probably had some 
 conception of the curve resulting from them." [J. H. B.] 
 
 Cantor : Gesch. der Math. pp. 294-5. Pos. Pol. vol. ill. pp. 266-270. 
 
 EUDOXUS, b. 407, d. 354 B.C. 
 
 EuDOxus studied geometry under Archytas the Pythagorean (see 
 under § " Ancient Philosophy "). When a young man he visited Athens, 
 and remained there two months with the view of hearing the lectures of 
 Plato and others : but he entered into no intimate relations with Plato. 
 Then he travelled in Egypt, and here composed his Odaeteris, a work on 
 the correspondence of solar and lunar revolutions. Ultimately he took 
 up his abode in Cyzicus, where he founded a school of geometry and 
 astronomy. At the height of his reputation he paid a second visit to 
 Athens, accompanied by many of his pupils. Here he probably may 
 have seen Aristotle, who, in the Ethics (x. 2), speaks in high terms of his 
 morar character. Thence he returned to his native city, Cnidus, in 
 Asia Minor, where he was received with every sign of respect. The 
 tower from which he made astronomical observations was pointed out to 
 travellers for many generations afterwards. 
 
 The titles of two of his astronomical works, the Mirror and the 
 Phenomena, have been preserved. Their substance has been preserved, 
 though not perhaps with great accuracy, in the poem of Aratus, a com- 
 mentary on which is the first work of Hipparchiis. In this work 
 Eudoxus endeavoured to frame a map of the stars, and of the times of 
 their rising and setting, with a view to determine the precise relation of 
 the sun's path in the heavens to the equator. To represent the apparent 
 motions of the sun and the planets, he devised a complicated system of 
 spheres moving simultaneously with unequal velocities. For this he has 
 been derided : but the method, developed and modified afterwards by 
 Apollonius, Hipparchus, and Ptolemy, is strictly scientific in princijile. 
 
 As a geometer, Eudoxus holds a very important place. Proclus tells 
 us, in speaking of Euclid, that he arranged nmch of Avhat Eudoxus had 
 discovered. Archimedes, in one of his letters, expressly states that 
 Eudoxus proved that the pyramid was the third part of the prism, and 
 the cone the third part of the cylinder, of the same base and altitude ; 
 and further, that these theorems were discovered by a method similar 
 to that which led to his own discovery of the (quadrature of the paraljola 
 — that is, by the Method of Exhaustions indicated in Euclid (x. 1), and 
 developed in the 12th book. There is good reason also to attribute to 
 Eudoxus the accurate doctrine of jn'oportions contained in the 5th defini- 
 tion of the 5th book, as contrasted with the 21st proposition of the 7th 
 book, which only applies to commensurable magnitudes. In dealing
 
 142 EUDOXUS : ARATUS : PYTHEAS [Ancient 
 
 with this subject he developed the analytical method : proving that 
 every solution greater or less than the one considered issued in contra- 
 diction. 
 
 The work of Eudoxus is mentioned by Comte as the point of definite 
 separation between philosophy and science. Indeed, after his time the 
 two sciences of mathematics and astronomy were usually pursued by 
 different thinkers. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. ill. 26o. Allman : Greek Geom. pp. 128-152. 
 
 ARATUS, about 270 B.C. 
 
 Aratus Avas born in Cilicia. He resided for some time at the court 
 of Antigonus of Macedonia, son of Demetrius Poliorcetes ; and here he 
 composed his principal work, an astronomical poem paraphrasing the 
 Phenomena of Eudoxus. 
 
 In this poem are described the i^rincipal features of the celestial 
 sphere : the axis terminated by the north and south poles ; perpendicular 
 to the axis, the great circle of the equator, and the two circles of the 
 trojjics. Inclined to the circle of the equator was that of the zodiac, 
 containing the twelve constellations through which the sun pursued his 
 annual course. Another circle equally dividing the heavens was the 
 ISIilky Way. The independent planetary moti(ms are spoken of, but no 
 attempt is made to define them. 7'he Plienomena of Aratus was care- 
 fully studied by Virgil, and was translated into Latin by Cicero. A 
 quotation from it occurs in the speech recorded to have been delivered 
 by St. Paul at Athens {Acts xvii. :28). [J. H. B.] 
 
 Delaiiil>re : Asfron. Avcienne, vol. i. cli. iv. 
 
 PYTHEAS, about 330 to 280 B.C. 
 
 Pytiieas was a native of Massilia (Marseille). He left an inqwrtant 
 work descriptive of his own travels in Western Eurojje, of whicli, however, 
 we know little but what is contained in the systematic work of Strabo. 
 He is also mentioned by Polybius and Pliny. 
 
 He greatly enlarged the knowledge of his time as to the Atlantic sea- 
 board, tracing with considerable accuracy the west coast-line of Spain, 
 and Gaul as far as the mouth of a river called by him the Tanais, but 
 which proljably was tlie Ell)e. From his descriptions of amber, it has 
 been supposed that he entered the Baltic ; but as amber was found in 
 large quantities through the Middle Ages on the Schleswig-Holstein coast, 
 the proof tliat the Baltic was known is insufficient. Of Britain he was 
 one of the earliest explorers. He exaggerated its size, giving its coast- 
 line as 40,000 stadia (4000 miles) : but he had a more accurate view of 
 its extension from soutli to north than .Straljo, who placed it lengthwise 
 along the English coast, and imagined Ireland to be north of it rather 
 than, as stated by Pytheas, to the west. Six days' voyage farther to the 
 north Pytheas places the island of Thule ; but this he does not assert 
 that he visited himself. 
 
 Strabo criticised Pytlicas severely : but in some inqxirtant points is
 
 Science] PYTHEAS : NEARCHUS 143 
 
 inlerior to him in accuracy : as, for instance, in denying the projecting 
 outline of the land of the Ostiniii (Brittany), which Pytheas had indicated. 
 Many other points testify to Pytheas having written from personal 
 observation. He describes the gradual disappearance of certain kinds of 
 grain as the traveller moves northwards ; the use of fermented liquors 
 made from corn and honey ; the thrashing of corn in barns instead of 
 open floors, as usual in drier and warmer climates. 
 
 But the place occupied by Pytheas in the week of Hipparchus is due 
 to his having led the way in the application of the new science of 
 Astronomy to the accurate determination of the earth's surface, which 
 we call Geography. By an observation of the sun's altitude at Massilia, 
 at noon of the summer solstice, he fixed the latitude of that place — i.e. 
 its distance from the equator — at very nearly the true amount. He 
 believed it to be the same as that of Byzantium, in which he erred by 
 more than two degTces ; but here, at least, was the first step taken to 
 accurate geography, the institution of a parallel of latitude. He observed 
 the increasing difference between day and night at the solstices as the 
 traveller went northwards ; and speaks of Thule as situate in a region 
 where the day in summer, or the night in winter, was of twenty-four 
 hours. He noted also the Atlantic tides, and saw, though he did not 
 accurately state, their dependence on the moon's phases. Pytheas, in 
 fine, opened the path into the field which Eratosthenes after him culti- 
 vated with such success. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Bunbnry : Ili-st. ofAiic. Gaiijrfiplnj, vol. i. cli. xv. pp. 5S9-600. 
 
 NEARCHUS, second half of Fourth Century B.C. 
 
 The famous admiral of Alexander was by birth a Cretan, settled at 
 Amphipolis. He was first a partisan, then friend and oflicer of the king, 
 and accompanied him m his Indian campaign. Nearchus was chosen 
 by Alexander to command the fleet which he despatched from the mouth 
 of the Indus to the Persian Gulf This memorable voyage, carried out 
 with great energy and skill by Nearchus, lasted from Septeml)er 325 
 until February 2, 324 B.C., Avhen he arrived at Susa, after traversing the 
 whole Persian Gulf and ascending the Tigris. After the death of Alex- 
 ander he attached himself to Antigonus and his son Demetrius, and the 
 last time that we hear of him is in 314 b.c. 
 
 Nearchus himself Avrote an account of his voyage, the Paraploiis, 
 which has been lost, but the substance of it is preserved in Arrian's 
 Indian History, of which the later chapters (18-43) are a full summary 
 of the original narrative. The courage, resource, and audacity displayed 
 by this early discoverer are fully illustrated in Arrian's narrative. Mr. 
 Grote justly describes the voyage as a "memorable nautical enterjnise 
 in Grecian antiquity" (vol. xii. p. 317). It seems to have been the 
 earliest voyage of discovery in the unknown seas of the far East, and 
 amongst savage races, of which any literary record was preserved ; and 
 its practical influence on scientific geograpliy was immense. [F. H.] 
 
 Arrian : IikIIhii lli^tdrn, ch. xviii.-xxiii. Buiiliury : Hid. of (J((i<j. vol. i. 
 ch. xiii. ])p. .525-541. Vincent : Cuiiimcrce and Naciiio.t'uin of the, 
 yl «c/c/ife (1807), i. ()8.
 
 144 ARISTARCHUS : BEROSUS [Ancient 
 
 ARISTARCHUS, 280 B.C. 
 
 Aristarchus of Samos was one of the principal astronomers of 
 Alexandria, in the generation before Archimedes and Apollonius. One 
 of his works, entitled Magnitudes and Distances, has come down to us. 
 In this work a most remarkable attempt was made to calculate the 
 distance of the earth from the sun in terms of the earth's distance from 
 the moon. Aristarchus observed that when the moon was in cjuadrature — 
 i.e. at the moment of half-moon — the observer was in the plane of the 
 circle separating the illumined from the dark portion of the surface. 
 He goes on to maintain that, at this moment, the angle made by lines 
 drawn from the sun and the moon to the earth was 87°. As the angle 
 at the moon of lines drawn from the earth and the sim was at this time 
 90°, it followed that the remaining angle of the triangle, the angle at the 
 sun, was 3°. The lunar distance being taken as known, the other sides 
 of the triangle could now be calculated. There was no trigonometry in 
 those days, and the solution of triangles was a cumbrous process ; but 
 Aristarchus arrived at the conclusion that the sun's distance from the 
 earth was greater than eighteen lunar distances and less than twenty. 
 
 The method followed was strictly scientific ; but, in the first place, 
 the difficulty of ascertaining the precise moment of the moon's quadrature 
 was too great for the observers of that time ; and a still more serious 
 error was made in estimating the angle made at this moment by the 
 position of the sun and moon as seen from the earth. Since the true 
 value of this angle is not 87°, but more than 89° 50', the result of the 
 calculation was of course wide of the mark. Nevertheless the attempt 
 was of the highest importance. 
 
 Aristarchus sustained the Pythagorean view of the earth's motion, 
 as we know from a letter of Archimedes to King Gelon, in which the 
 following passage occurs: — "You are aware that by most astronomers 
 the universe is looked upon as a sphere, of which the radius reaches from 
 the centre of the earth to the centre of the sun. This view was contested 
 by Aristarchus of Samos, who brought forward hypotheses from which 
 it would follow that the universe is many times as great as that which 
 is now supposed. He imagines the fixed stars and the sun to be motion- 
 less. He regards the s])here of the fixed stars to be of such magnitude 
 that the whole orbit of the earth compared with it is a mere point." 
 
 Thus Aristarchus anticipated the most serious objection made then 
 and long afterwards to the tlieory of the earth's annual revolution ; 
 namely, that the aspect of the heavens remained the same from every 
 ]mrt of the orbit : that there was no annual parallax. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pus. I'ttl. iii. 26. Deliuul.'re : Astrun. Ancicnne, i. pji. 75-80. 
 
 BEROSUS {Bor-Oseas), first half 3rd Century B.C. 
 
 Berosus, or the son of Osea, was a priest of Bel in Babylon, born in 
 the reign of Alexander the Great {i.e. before 323), who -wrote in Greek 
 tJie history of Babylon, aliout 260 n.c. The history of Berosus gave an 
 elaborate system of eaily and fabulous chronology ; and he seems to
 
 Science] BEROSUS : ERATOSTHENES 145 
 
 have had access to old Babylonian, Chaldean, and Jewish sources. 
 There are marked coincidences between his views and those of the 
 Hebrew Bible, especially as to the Flood. The work is lost ; but 
 fragments have been preserved by Josephus and the Christian Fathers, 
 who made much use of his compilation. It was apparently founded on 
 old cuneiform texts. 
 
 But the place here assigned to Berosus is due not so much to his 
 historical and chronological labours, of which little positive can be made, 
 as to his work on astronomy. He is mentioned as one of the earliest 
 astronomers by Vitruvius, Seneca, and Pliny. We are told that he 
 became entirely Hellenised, passed into Greece, where he opened a 
 school in the island of Cos, and had a statue erected to him at Athens, 
 in honour of his extraordinary astronomical predictions. Pliny tells us 
 that his works contained astronomical observations for 480 years, the 
 computation of which possibly began at Babylon in the time of 
 Nabonassar (747 e.g.). It is said that Alexander sent over to Aristotle 
 rough records of eclipses recorded at Babylon for 1903 years. 
 
 There were undoubtedly very ancient astronomical records of the 
 phenomena of the heavens kept regularly at Babylon, which, through 
 Berosus, Ptolemy and others, were of immense service to subsequent 
 astronomers (see Hallky, § "Modern Science"). Berosus, we are told, 
 maintained that the moon's rotation on her axis was of the same length 
 as her synodical revolution : it is, in foct, equal to her sidereal 
 revolution. Vitruvius also attributes to Berosus the invention of a 
 hemispherical dial — hemicydvum excavahiin ex quadrcdo — which may 
 mean an instrument for taking the sun's altitude at noon. The 
 Babylonians also had in use the gnomon for measuring solstices, and 
 the astronomical water-clock. 
 
 Fabulous stories gathered round the name of Berosus, who has been 
 placed in very fanciful epochs ; but there is no reason to suppose more 
 than one, the astronomer of the age of Alexander and his successors. 
 Little as we knoAv of him or of his works, Berosus serves to represent the 
 long series of Chaldean observers on whose continuous labours the early 
 growth of astronomy and of chronology was based. [F. H.] 
 
 Sayce : Ancient Kmp ires of the East, ch. ii. p. 101. Rawliiison: Herodotus, 
 i. pp. 411-450. Dolaiubre : Astrouomie Ancienne, i. 228. 
 
 ERATOSTHENES, b. 276, d. 196 B.C. 
 
 Eratosthenes was one of the most distinguished men produced by 
 the School of Alexandria. He is regarded by Delambre as the founder 
 of scientific astronomy, on the ground of his alleged institution, in one 
 of tlie observatories of Alexandria, of nrraillary spheres, with circles 
 representing the meridian, the ecjuator, and the winter and summer 
 solstice. 
 
 The principal achievement of Eratosthenes was his attempt to 
 determine by astronomical observation the dimensions of the planet. 
 His method was ])erfectly simple and accurate. Taking two points on 
 the earth's surface, lying on the same meridian, and of known distance 
 from each other, he proposed to observe at noon, in each place, the 
 
 K
 
 146 ERATOSTHENES [Ancient 
 
 distance of the sun from the zenith. Syene in Upper Egypt and 
 Alexandria were the two points selected. At Syene it was known that 
 at the summer solstice the sun shone into a deep well of that place ; 
 in other words, the distance from the zenith was zero. At Alexandria 
 on the same noon, the distance from the zenith was a fiftieth part of the 
 circumference (i.e. 7° 12'). Therefore the distance between Syene and 
 Alexandria, which was regarded by the Alexandrian surveyors as 5000 
 stadia, was one-fiftieth of the earth's circumference, presuming the earth 
 to be spherical. Syene and Alexandria are not, however, precisely on the 
 same meridian : nor do we know with the least precision the value of 
 the stadium employed. The importance of the calculation lies entirely 
 in the method adopted. 
 
 Eratosthenes made a more accurate observation of the distance 
 between the tropics, i.e. of the obliquity of the ecliptic, than any of his 
 predecessors. It is commonly said that he fixed it at 47° 42' 39". But 
 this is hardly accurate, and is very misleading. The ancients were 
 wholly without instruments enabling them to observe seconds, or even 
 minutes. The circles used at Alexandria were graduated to sixth parts 
 of a degree only. What Eratosthenes found was that the distance 
 between the tropics was to the whole circumference as ] 1 to 83. Bring- 
 ing this fraction to parts of 360, all that can be said is that Eratosthenes 
 observed the distance to be eitlier 47° 40' or 47° 50" : more probably the 
 former. The Greek instruments were far inferior in precision to those used 
 afterwards by Arabians and even Turks. Ulugh Begh, the grandson of 
 Tamerlane, by a gnomon 180 feet in height, determined the obliquity 
 more accurately. 
 
 Having thus used astronomy for the purpose of estimating the magni- 
 tude of the earth, Eratosthenes set himself to determine by the same 
 method the boundaries of its habitable surface ; to use his own words, to 
 correct the old geographical map. He conceived this habitable area as 
 extending from Cape St. Vincent eastwards through the jVIediterranean 
 and along the range of the Caucasus to the mouth of the Ganges for 
 78,000 stadia : about one-third of the earth's circumference. It would 
 be possil)le, he said, for a vessel starting from Spain westward along the 
 same parallel to reacla the Ganges. He constructed a meridian from 
 Alexandria northwards to Rhodes and Byzantium, and so onward to the 
 mouth of the Borysthenes : southwards up the Nile to Meroe, and the 
 land of the Sembritii' (Sennaar). His estimates of longitude were defec- 
 tive, owing to the want of any adequate means of measuring time. Thus 
 the Mediterranean is represented as 2G,500 stadia in length, an error of 
 between 600 and 700 miles, which, however, in the ma})s of the I7th cen- 
 tury still remains uncorrected. 
 
 Of the discoveries of Eratosthenes, as of those of Aristarchus, Conite 
 remarks that the dependence of climate, of seasons, of day and night, of 
 the division of time, upon conditions of latitude and longitude, gave a 
 shock to the absolute system, by showing that all these, like the direc- 
 tion of gravitating bodies, were relative notions without any arbitrary 
 tendency. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Delambre : Aslron. A/icicnne, vol. i. cli. 7. Bunlniry : Hist, of Anc. Oeoij. 
 vol. i. cli. xvi. pp. 615-666. Pos. I'ol. iii. 271.
 
 Science] SOSIGENES 147 
 
 SOSIGENES, fl. 46 B.C. 
 
 Of the author of the Reform of the Calendar, under Julius Caesar in 
 46 B.C., nothing whatever is known except that he was an astronomer of 
 Egypt. He was doubtless an Alexandrian Greek. When Julius resolved 
 on amending the Roman Calendar, wdiich was now 67 days in advance of 
 the true year, he called in the assistance of the astronomer Sosigenes. 
 Cassar was himself a student of astronomy, and had written a treatise 
 which long remained in use. Using his authority as Supreme Pontiff, 
 and as dictator of the Roman world, he accomplished the reform which is 
 still the calendar of the Christian nations. It was substantially the same 
 as that which had been introduced into Egypt by the Ptolemies nearly 
 two centuries before. 
 
 The year 46 B.C., Julius made to consist of 445 days : it was called the 
 year of confusion ; but it was more properly the last year of confusion. 
 ITie reformed year began, not on the 25th of March, but 1st January, 
 45 B.C. The new year was one of 365 days,Avith an additional day for every 
 fourth year, in February. The alternate months of the year (January, 
 March, May, July, September, November), were to consist of 31 days : 
 the intervening months were each to be of 30 days (February being 29, 
 except in leap-years). This synnnetrical arrangement was upset by the 
 vanity of Augustus in 27 B.C., when he gave his own name to the 8th 
 month, then added the day he took from the 9th, and otherwise varied 
 the length of the months into their joresent irregularity. 
 
 The Julian year of 365j days was too long by 11 minutes 12 seconds. 
 This must have been known to Civsar and to Sosigenes ; as more than 
 100 years before, it had been proved by Hipparchus, whose calcula- 
 tion was within 4 minutes of the truth. Hipparchus had calculated 
 that the error would amount to a day in 300 years ; but it seems that 
 the error is more than double and would amount to a day in 128 years. 
 Ctesar and his astronomer doubtless considered that the secular error 
 might be left to the future to correct. They could hardly anticipate that 
 it would be binding on Western Europe for 16 centuries, and on Eastern 
 Europe for nearly 20 centuries. Yet so it has proved. 
 
 The Julian Calendar, as deformed by Augustus, governed Christen- 
 dom until 1582, when Pope Gregory xiii., by the advice of Lilio and 
 other astronomers, struck out the ten days then in excess, and reformed 
 the Calendar of Julius by an order, that the last year of each century 
 should be leap-year only when it is exactly divisible by 400. Tliat is 
 to say, 3 leap-years are suppressed in every 4 centuries. The years 1700, 
 1800, 1900 are not leap-years ; 2000 will be. England accepted the 
 Gregorian Calendar in 1752 ; but Russia and the Greek rite retain still 
 the Julian Calendai-, in which the error now amounts to 12 days. In 
 the next centurv the error will have amounted to 13 davs, l)V counting 
 A.D. 1900 as leap-year. ^ ^ [F. H.] " 
 
 Laffitte : (Jmnds Tijjicn, i. 2d Let^'on. Merivale ; IlomKus under tin: Evq) ire , 
 vol. ii. ell. XX. Pliitarcli : (Joisor.
 
 148 PTOLEMY [Ancient 
 
 PTOLEMY (Ptohmaios), fl. 130-160 A.D. 
 
 Claudius Ptolem^us was a native of Egypt. The place of his birth is 
 uncertain. He lived in the neighbourhood of Alexandria, and carried on his 
 astronomical work there during the reigns of Hadrian and Antoninus Pius ; 
 his house being on the raised terrace of a temple of Serapis at Canobus, 
 where pillars were afterwards raised to commemorate his achievements. 
 
 His great work, called Mathematical iiyntaxis, best known by the 
 Arabic form of the Greek word for greatest us Al Magest, is a complete 
 treatise on astronomy as known to the ancients. It consists of thirteen 
 books, of which the first two treat of the earth as centre of the universe, 
 of the motion of the stellar spheres by which the daj', the year, and the 
 precession of the equinoxes is explained ; his table of chords is described 
 and applied ; astronomical time is defined, the dependence of climate 
 on latitude is shown. The third book deals with the theory of the sun ; 
 the fourth and fifth with that of the moon ; the sixth is given to eclipses ; 
 the seventh and eighth to the stars ; the last five books to the planets. 
 
 Ptolemy frequently mentions Hipparchus ; but it has been shown in 
 detail by Delambre and others that he has borrowed from him far more 
 than he has acknowledged. But what remains as his own is of much 
 importance. He discovered the second inequality of the moon's motion 
 called evection ; the first inc(|uality, due to the excentric position of the 
 eartli in the lunar orbit, and called, as in the case of the sun, the equation 
 of the centre, had been discovered by Hipparchus. Ptolemy found that 
 the equation of the centre was diminished when the moon was in con- 
 junction with or opposition to the sun, and was increased in quadrature, 
 i.e. when the angular distance between the moon and sun was 90°. The 
 amount of this inequality depended also on the combination of the places 
 of the lunar apsides with that of the conjunctions. Ptolemy's estimate 
 of this second irregularity, called by astronomers evection, was very 
 nearly accurate, and is a discovery of great value. 
 
 Ptolemy represented lunar as well as planetary motions by supposing 
 the body considered to move on the circumference of a small circle, the 
 centre of wliich was carried round the earth ; a mode of representing com- 
 plicated periodic motions first suggested by Apollonius. By varying the 
 size of the subsidiary cii'cle and the direction of motion, all these irregu- 
 larities became susceptible of geometrical treatment. The hypothesis was 
 strictly legitimate ; the more so that none butcircuhir arcs were amenable 
 to calculation. A further discovery of vital import to astronomy is due 
 to Ptolemy — that of the refraction of rays of light when passing from a 
 thinner to a denser medium. It is spoken of not in his astronomical 
 work, but in his Optic--', which therefore nnist have been written later. 
 Arranging at the extremities of one of the diameters of a circle and at 
 the centre three coloured spots, so that when the circle was half immersed 
 in water, they appeared to be in a straight line, he was able to determine 
 with precision the refraction for each angle of the incident ray. Apply- 
 ing this to astronomy he shows that refraction, greatest at the horizon, 
 and diminishing as the star approaches the zenith, disappears when the 
 ray is vertical. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Delamhre : Afitmn. Ancirnnc, vol. ii. I'os. Pol. iii. 275. For Ptolemy as 
 a geographer, see Bunbury : u.s. vol. ii.
 
 Science] ALBATEGNIUS : NASIR-ED-DIN 149 
 
 ALBATEGNIUS, 880 A.D. 
 
 In the ninth century begins the fertile period of Arabian science, 
 protected and encouraged by the Khalifs of Baghdad, especially by Al 
 Maniun, son of Harun-al-Raschid, who spent much time in forming a 
 collection of Greek works on science. Ptolemy's Syntaxis was trans- 
 lated in 817 by Isaac ben Honain, and Avas carefully studied by the 
 astronomers of Baghdad and Damascus. His observations were carefully 
 repeated, but without any marked advance of science till the time of 
 Mohammed ben Geber Albataxi ; so called from Batan, in Meso- 
 potamia, the place of his birth ; in Western style he is known as Alha- 
 iegnius. He was a Syrian prince ; able and willing to spend wealth 
 on costly observatories established at Aracte and also at Antioch. The 
 result of his labours is contained in a treatise on the science of the stars 
 and their motions. 
 
 In trigonometry, Albategnius introduced an important innovation — 
 the use of the semi-chord of the double arc for the chords employed by 
 Hipparchus and Ptolemy. This semichord was called in Arabic gih, i.e. 
 pleat or fold, translated into Latin as sinuf; ; such, at least, is the most 
 probable explanation of the word. The introduction of the sine simpli- 
 fied the labour of calculation. Of the other trigonometrical lines, the 
 tangent appears to have been known to him, but not used ; the cosine 
 and secant were of later invention. 
 
 In astronomy, Albategnius, repeating with greater accuracy and better 
 instruments the observations recorded l)y Ptolemy, determined the annual 
 amount of precession as 54", instead of 36" ; a very much nearer approxi- 
 mation to the true amount. He discovered also what in Ptolemy's time 
 was unknown — the annual motion of the solar apogee, which he fixed at 
 25". His determinations of the eccentricities of the solar or])it, of the 
 obliquity of the ecliptic, and of the length of the year, were superior in 
 accuracy to those of the Greeks. The year as fixed by him was two 
 minutes and a half too short, an error nuich smaller than that of Hip- 
 parchus, and which, when examined, appears to be due to an incorrect, 
 or even fictitious, observation of Ptolemy. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Delanibre : Astrnn. da Mtiijcn luji'. 
 
 NASIR-ED-DIN {Mohammed Ben Hvsfiein), b. 1201, d. 1274 A.D. 
 
 MoiiAMMKD, tlie son of Hussein, Al-Thussi (of Thous), from tlie place 
 of his birtli, was a Persian astronomer of the thirteenth century. He 
 was a favourite of Holagou Khan, grandson of Zingis, the great Mogul 
 who overran Persia, and destroyed the Al)basid dynasty in a.d. 1258 
 {Gibbon, ch. Ixiv.). The chief fixed his government at Maraglia, where 
 he collected men of science and l:)uilt an observatory, over which Nasir- 
 ed-Din presided until 1271. He there constructed hydraulic and 
 engineering machines and a variety of improved astronomical instru- 
 ments, described by Delambre, and collected a fine scientific liln-ary. 
 
 He also wrote on ];^hiloso])hy, coml^ining Aristotle with Plato, and
 
 150 NASIR-ED-DIN : HIPPARCHUS [Ancient 
 
 made a Persian translation of the Almagest of Ptolemy. And he trans- 
 lated into Arabic the Elements of Euclid. He compiled a body of Tables 
 of astronomical observations, taken over twelve years. They were 
 dedicated to the iMogiil Sultan, were known as the Ilkanic Tables, and 
 enjoyed a great reputation in the East, He also wrote on geography, 
 determining longitudes and latitudes. [F. H.] 
 
 Delambre: Astron. du Moyen &ge, 196-203. Montucla : Ilist. des Mathem. 
 vol. i. part ii. bk. 1. 
 
 HIPPARCHUS, abt. 150 B.C. 
 
 HiPPARCHUS was bom at Nicrea in Bithynia, and from his astro- 
 nomical observations it appears that he was living in the interval 
 160-125 B.C. His observations appear to have been almost entirely 
 taken from the island of Rhodes. Whatever communication he had 
 with Alexandria, there is no evidence that he resided there. 
 
 Of the numerous astronomical memoirs which he is recorded to have 
 written, the only one that is extant is his commentary on the poem of 
 Aratus, recording the observations of Eudoxus. Hipparchus was pro- 
 bably young when he wrote this work : it does not mention any of the 
 discoveries that have made him famous. Pliny, writing in the first 
 century a.d., speaks of him with enthusiasm, as a man whom it was 
 impossible to over-praise, and mentions specially his audacious enterprise 
 of constructing a map of the stars. Ptolemy, in the following century, 
 calls him a laborious searcher after truth, and makes continual references 
 to his results. But in the gi-eat historical work of Delambre, it was for 
 the first time shown in detail that Ptolemy had acknowledged but a 
 small instalment of his debt ; and that the immense reputation enjoyed 
 by him through the times of Arabian and mediaeval astronomy rested in 
 great part on tlie discoveries of Hipparchus. 
 
 These discoveries are numerous ; but the two most important of 
 them, the institution of Trigonometry and the establishment of the 
 precession of the equinoxes, are, as Comte has pointed out, intimately 
 connected with each other. He found, by comparing his own observa- 
 tions of the stars with those made 150 years previously by Aristillus 
 and Timocharis, that their positions as measured perpendicular to the 
 equator and parallel with a fixed point in it {i.e. their declinations and 
 right ascensions), showed notable variation of an apparently irregular 
 kind. The case altered, however, when the two positions of the star were 
 referred not to the equator, but to the ecliptic. Measured perpen- 
 dicularly to the ecliptic the position of the star — in other words, its 
 latitude — had not changed ; but the measurement parallel to the ecliptic, 
 that is to say its longitude, showed a variation amounting to a degree 
 and a half in the period examined. This remarkable phenomenon was 
 geometrically represented by supposing the intersections of the equator 
 with the ecliptic — in other words, the equinoctial points — to alter their 
 positions yearly in a direction opposite to that of the sun's path. They 
 were said to retrograde, so that the equinoxes occurred every year some-
 
 Science] . HIPPAECHUS 161 
 
 what earlier than would be the case if they remained stationary. The 
 conversion of declinations and right ascensions into latitudes and longi- 
 tudes shows that Hipparchus had the power of solving the spherical 
 triangle produced by the intersections of the equator and the ecliptic 
 with a meridian ; in a word, that he was acciuainted with the principles 
 of spherical trigonometry. 
 
 But for the further discoveries of Hipparchus on the solar and lunar 
 motions, plane, as well as spherical, trigonometry was needed. We know 
 from Ptolemy that he constructed in twelve books a table of chords. 
 Archimedes half a century before him had inserted in a circle a recti- 
 linear figure of 96 sides. But far more precision than this was needed 
 if angular magnitude was to be brought within the range of arithmetical 
 computation. Taking the radius of the circle as ecjuivalent to 60 units, 
 each unit further divisible into sixty, and so onwards on the sexagesimal 
 scale, he constructed a table showing the numerical value of all chords. 
 The mode of doing this is fully explained in the Almagest of Ptolemy ; 
 and it is probable that the method of Hipparchus was similar. It 
 rested on the theorem that, in every four-sided figure inscribed in a 
 circle, the rectangle formed by the diagonals is ec{ual to the two rect- 
 angles formed by the opposite sides. Here, then, was an equation 
 between six chords : and, by considering the cases in which some chords 
 were already known, it became possible to calculate the rest. Where 
 one of the diagonals was a diameter, and the other was a perpendicular 
 let fall upon it, tlie relation between the chord of the arc and the chord 
 of half the arc was not difficult to determine. Knowing already the 
 value of such chords as the diameter, corresponding to the arc of 180°, 
 of the side of the hexagon, which was the chord of 60°, of the chords of 
 72°, and 36°, the sides respectively of the pentagon and decagon, it now 
 became easy to proceed further by bisection. Ultimately the table in- 
 cluded all arcs from half a degree upwards, proceeding by intervals of 
 half a degree. For intermediate values, the tliirtieth part of the chord 
 was added for each minute, as a sufficient approximation. 
 
 Plane trigonometry was essential for the researches of Hijjparchus 
 into the solar and lunar motions. By previous astronomers it Avas 
 supposed that the sun's motion in the ecliptic was uniform. Hipparchus 
 observed that from the vernal equinox to the summer solstice 94i days 
 elapsed ; 92|- days from this solstice to the autunmal equinox — a corre- 
 spondingly shorter time, therefore, in the two periods between autumn 
 and spring. That this estimate of the period from vernal to autumnal 
 equinox was half a day too long is a secondary error due to imperfect 
 instruments. He represented this unequal velocity by supposing the 
 earth placed excentrically in the orbit described by the sun. He valued 
 the degree of this excentricity at one twentj'-fourth of the radius, a 
 slightly excessive estimate ; and calculated the longitudes of the position 
 at which the sun was nearest to or farthest from the earth {perigee and 
 apogee). The length of the year from vernal equinox to vernal equinox 
 he estimated, more accurately than before, at 5 hours 55 minutes and 12 
 seconds ; the true amount is about 6 minutes less. 
 
 The motion of the Moon oftered a more difficult problem. The 
 motion of this body is unequal both in latitude and longitude. The
 
 152 HIPPARCHUS [Ancient 
 
 points of slowest and quickest movement correspond to all parts of the 
 zodiac in succession. Theocratic astronomers had found that, in a 
 period of 223 intervals between one full moon and the next, eclipses 
 recurred in similar order. By careful observation of eclipses, the only 
 precise mode available for ascertaining the moon's position, and by 
 comparison with former observations, Hipparchus, aided always by his 
 calculus, defined the inclination of the moon's orbit to the ecliptic, the 
 amount of the moon's daily motion in the heavens, the motion of her 
 perigee, and also that of her nodes (intersection of her orbit with the 
 ecliptic). 
 
 The result of these investigations was that solar and lunar tables 
 could now be formed, defining with much precision the position of the 
 sun and moon in the heavens on any future day. Astronomy began to 
 approach the ideal goal of all scientific research, — prevision. 
 
 The Catalogue of Stars formed by Hipparchus, with the longitude and 
 latitude of each accurately defined, must not be passed over. He was 
 led to this by his early work on the poem of Aratus, in which the 
 position of the stars named is very loosely given. Ptolemy, centuries 
 afterwards, gave his own catalogue, purporting to be the result of 
 independent observations. Closely examined, it proves to be the 
 Catalogue of Hipparchus, with an addition to the longitude of each star 
 of Hipparchus's estimate for precession. This estimate is now known to 
 be too slight : and if Ptolemy had made genuine observations of his own 
 he would have discovered the error. 
 
 Hipparchus may be regarded as the founder of scientific astronomy. 
 The note of this science is the combination of precise observation with 
 that power of indirectly measuring magnitudes which constitutes the 
 science of mathematics. The records of theocratic astronomy could lead 
 at best to empirical laws, from which rude guesses at the future could be 
 made, frequently falsified by the event. The observations of Hipparchus 
 were made with instruments hardly superior to theirs, and falling short 
 a hundredfold of the precision of a modern observatory. But they 
 were made by a great intellect fortified by geometrical science. Hence 
 they reached the aim by which true science is distinguished from 
 historical or literary erudition, the power of accurately forecasting the 
 future. 
 
 It should not be forgotten that Hip])archus, continuing the work 
 begun by Pytheas and Eratosthenes, did much in the application of 
 Astronomy to Geography. He constructed parallels of latitude at 
 intervals of about four degrees through the extent of land known, or 
 conceived, as existing on the earth's surface, from the Arctic circle 
 southwards to within 12 degrees of the equator. He also attempted to 
 fix the meridian of the principal cities of the Mediterranean. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Comte: /Vs-. Pol. iii. .370-377, and A^itronomle I'njrululo', pp. ]27 and 306. 
 Delarubre : Axtriin. Ancicii'iic, vol. i. cljup. x. Hist, nf Astrunomy in 
 Library of Usei'ul Knowledge.
 
 Science] VAERO 153 
 
 VARRO {M. Terentms), b. 116, d. 28 B.C. 
 
 Varro, called by Cicero and by St. Augustine " the most learned of 
 the Romans^" was of an ancient Sabine clan, which had been of consular 
 ranEToFlwo centuries. He was ten years senior to Cicero, his intimate 
 friend, who sjaeaks of him always with affection and admiration. Varro 
 was brought up in the old Roman traditions of simple hardihood, and in 
 the best Greek and Latin learning of his age. He served the State on 
 land and sea, was Dro-quaestor to Pompeius in the wars against the 
 pirates and againstMithrldates ; joined the aristocratic party in the 
 civil" war, and was legate to Pompeius in Spain. On the defeat of 
 the" Senatorian party, Varro surrendered to Cajsar, who received him 
 graciously, and appointed him to superintend the formation of a great 
 public library. He never took part in public affairs again ; and, With- 
 drawing into literary seclusion, he succeeded in escaping the ^proscription in 
 which he had been inchuled, and died peacefully B.C. 28, in his 89th year. 
 Varro was the most vohiminous as well as the most learned of the 
 Romans,' for he had written, he tells us, 490 books ; but the full tale 
 seems to be 620 " books " in 74 works. Sf. Augustine, who cites and 
 praises him often, and whose own arguments as to the ancient theology 
 are largely founded on Varro {de Civit. £>ei, vi. vii.), tells us "that he 
 read so much, it was a marvel he had time to write, and Avrote more than 
 one can believe any one man could read " (vi. 2). His labours were of the 
 most varied kind, and his vast original research in all fields made his writ- 
 ings a complete Roman encyclopa'dia of practical, historical, philological, 
 and theological learning. His most important works, beside satires and 
 essays, are on agriculture, on the Latin language, and on historical 
 antic[uities. The three books on Agriculture are a thoroughly practical 
 and exhaustive account of farming, stock-breeding, and husbandry in all 
 its parts, most systematically compiled from personal observation and 
 knowledge. The work on Language, with all its inevital)le shortcomings, 
 was the most complete and scientific account which the Romans could 
 give of their own tongue. 
 
 But. the 41 books of Antiquities — human and divine — were the 
 main work of Varro. We know this almost entirely from St. Augustine, 
 who" uses it as a text-book of heathen divinity. The author begins with 
 the origin of man, and then treats of the original people of ancient Italy, 
 and finally gives an account of the origin, early history, and chronology 
 of Rome (of which he determined the foundation in the year b.c. 753), 
 and he discusses the political and social institutions of the city from tlie 
 earliest times. No scientific work of Roman times would have been to 
 us more truly invaluable. It lias entirely perished — there is reason to 
 fear by the fanaticism felt in tlie early ages of Christianity towards the 
 standard manual of heathen theology. In a rude and confused way, 
 Varro seems to have attempted three things which it was reserved for 
 the later ages of modern science to achieve — (1) the api^lication of 
 concrete science to practical industry, (2) the scientific study of the 
 history of language, (3) a sketch of liumau evolution from primitive ages 
 under the infiuence of religious belief. [F. H.] 
 
 Ht. Augustine: dc Civil. Dei, lib. vi. vii. Mommsen : Ilirit. of llnun', Ijk. v. 
 ■ ch. xii.
 
 154 COLUMELLA [Ancient 
 
 COLUMELLA {L. Jiinius Moderatiis), 1st Century. 
 
 Of the most famous and systematic of the Roman writers on 
 husbandry, we know nothing but what we gather from a few scattered 
 remarks in his -writings. He was a native of Gades (Cadiz), flourished 
 in the middle of the 1st century, devoted himself to the scientific study 
 of comparative husbandry, and to the practical work of a breeder, 
 horticulturist, and rural economist. He possessed considerable estates, 
 where he experimented on the crossing of stock, and the culture of crops 
 and fruits ; he travelled over Spain, Gaul, Italy, Greece, 'Asia Minor, 
 and Northern Africa ; and ultimately settled in Rome, where he wrote 
 his gi-eat work on Agriculture {de lie Eustica). He is the Arthur 
 Young of antiquity. 
 
 The subjects treated are — (1) the situation, plan of a farm, and the 
 internal economy of a rural establishment ; (2) the tillage of the soil, 
 ploughing, manures, sowing, seeds, grain, and grasses ; (3) the culture 
 of fruit trees, especially the vine and the olive ; (4) the breeding of 
 horses,«mules, and stock, with an essay on the veterinary art ; (5) of asses, 
 sheep, goats, swine, and dogs ; (6) poultry and fish ; (7) bee-keeping ; 
 (8) on gardening, a book written in evident imitation of Virgil {Geo. iv. 
 148), and composed accordingly in the same dactylic verse. This book, 
 though wanting in poetry, shows a beautiful sense of the delights of the 
 garden. (9) The duties of the bailifl", with a farmer's calendar of seasons 
 and astronomical indications. These appear to be copied from books 
 adapted to the latitude of Athens and Alexandria, rather than drawn 
 from personal observation and practical knowledge ; and the work 
 concludes with (10) receipts for making wine, i^ickles, and preserves. 
 A further book on Trees deals in detail Avith plantations of forest and fruit 
 trees. The whole is written with much elegance, in a pure style, with 
 an ardent love of country pursuits, and with a noble zeal to turn his 
 countrymen from luxury and frivolous idleness to rural industry and 
 the cultivation of their estates. It is a prose Georgic. 
 
 Varro and Columella represent the worthy aspirations of the higher 
 order of ancient Roman chiefs, to organise a rural industry on a sound 
 economic and scientific basis. No other race made any such attempt ; 
 and it is characteristic of the practical nature of the Roman mind, that 
 science amongst them took a concrete and industrial form. The attempt 
 failed, as, in a corrupt, military society based on systematic slavery, it 
 was certain to fail ; and it was premature in the absence of any real 
 physical, chemical, or botanical science. But the spontaneous and rudi- 
 mentary efl'orts of the contemporaries of Julius and Augustus, idealised 
 by Virgil, are most interesting, and their failure is pathetic. Scientific 
 agriculture died out in Europe, to be succeeded for 18 centuries Ijy Imr- 
 l)arous and empirical habits ; and it is only in the last 100 years that 
 the scientific guidance of the basis of all human industry has at length 
 been seriously achieved. [F. H.] 
 
 SchiieidtT : Scriptures llci Rusticci: 1794; English tr. 1745.
 
 Science] VITRUVIUS : STRABO 155 
 
 VITRUVIUS {M. Vitruvkis Pollio), 1st Century B.C. 
 
 Of the classical authority on Roman Architecture almost nothing is 
 known. His date has been placed under Augustus and under Titus, and 
 the latter supposition has caused him to be misplaced after Columella. 
 But the Emperor to whom he dedicated his treatise is clearly Augustus, 
 and he seems to have written it a little before the Christian era. He was 
 probably born about 76 b.c, a native of Latium, of respectable origin, 
 and received a sound education. He wrote on military engineering, and 
 was appointed by Augustus to a permanent office as surveyor of engines. 
 He did little in the practice of his profession as architect, in which 
 apparently he had little success. But he devoted the latter half of his 
 life to a sj-steraatic treatise de Architectura, in which he discussed, with 
 great precision and detail, both the theory and practice of the architect's 
 art. In it he cites and conmients on many Greek writers, and treats 
 his own work as a systematic compendium of previous knowledge. 
 
 He begins by discussing the education of the architect, the various 
 branches of science which are applied in the art, and the proper distri- 
 bution of a well-arranged city. He then discusses the proper materials 
 for building, and the methods of working them. He classifies buildings 
 according to the arrangement of the columns, and the various orders. He 
 describes in minute detail the proper proportions and plan of public and 
 of private buildings, the theory of ornamentation, and the materials in 
 use. He then treats of hydrostatics, of practical astronomy, and 
 mechanics. His science is very much inferior to his jwactical knowledge 
 of his own art. The work as a whole is the foundation of almost all we 
 know about ancient art, and has had immense popularity and a perma- 
 nent influence on the practice of architecture. It is characteristic of the 
 Roman genius for social organisation, that in spite of the immeasurable 
 suj^eriority of the Greeks over the Romans, both in artistic ingenuity 
 and in exact science, the development of Architecture to meet the 
 growing needs of civilisation came from Rome and not from Greece. 
 And it is to a Roman and not to a Greek that Ave owe all our real 
 knowledge of ancient buildings, and from Vitruvius has been derived the 
 whole of the constructive art which in modern Europe is known as Classi- 
 cal Architecture. Bramante, Michael Angelo, Palladio, and other founders 
 of Renaissance architecture were careful students of Vitruvius. [F. H,] 
 
 Sclnieider: VUmxius, 1807. Muriiii : Vitruvius, 1836 {witlo plates). J. 
 Gwilt : Translated into English (new ed. 1860), Encycl. Brit, xxiv., 
 article by Professor Middleton. 
 
 The greatest geographer of antiquity flourished during the whole rule 
 of Augustus (22 B.C. — 14 a.d.), and the early part of the rule of Tiberius, 
 and his work was not completed until 19 a.d. We know almost nothing 
 of his life. 
 
 Strabo was a native of Amasia, in Pontus probably a Greek by 
 
 / 
 
 I 
 
 STRABO, b. abt. 54 B.C., d. abt. 25 a.d. / 
 
 y
 
 156 STRABO [Ancient 
 
 birth, of a family on the mother's side, which held high office under the 
 royal house of Mithradates. He travelled young and had the best educa- 
 tion of his time, visited Greece in 29 B.C., and then spent some years in 
 Rome. In 24 B.C. he travelled in Egypt and went up the Nile. He 
 travelled in Greece, central Italy, the coast of Africa, and in Asia Minor. 
 But he soon afterwards withdrew to his native town in Pontus, which is 
 now Rumili, and there compiled, almost entirely from Greek sources, his 
 oreat work on Geography. It remained unknown for a century, and is 
 not mentioned by Pliny. It was not until the third century that the 
 ijnportance of his labours was duly recognised. 
 
 The " colossal work " of Strabo has been well described by Humboldt 
 (f'osHios, vol. ii. part 2), who says that, though Strabo did not possess 
 the accuracy of Hipparchus or the knowledge of Ptolemy, yet his work 
 " surpasses all the geographical writings of antiquity, both in grandeur of 
 plan and in the abundance and variety of its materials." Sir E. Bunlniry 
 says {History of Ancient Geography, ii. 330): "If we regard the science 
 of geography in all its branches, no other ancient writer can compare with 
 Strabo." The. 17 books of his geography were designed as a complete 
 geography of the halntable world, mathematical, physical, political, and 
 historical. It was not intended as a j^opular work, as a physical philo- 
 sophy, nor as a manual or gazetteer. It was designed for statesmen rather 
 than philosophers or men of science, and gives a general picture of the 
 physical, social, and historical conditions of each country. The descrip- 
 tive and historical side of his work is far better than the mathematical. 
 The purely geographical conceptions are based on those of Hipparchus 
 and Eratosthenes ; and in some points show an actual retrogression from 
 the knowledge of the great Alexandrines. There are some ingenious 
 physical hypotheses, amongst them that of other continents — an idea 
 adopted by Seneca in his Medea ; but Strabo added nothing from the 
 mathematical point of view proper. His conception of the habitable 
 world is very imperfect and faulty ; and, though he grossly overrates 
 many distances, he makes the world far too small. With him Ireland 
 is the most northerly point, the Red Sea is the most southerly, and the 
 mouths of the Ganges the eastern limit. This world is a vast island, 
 surrounded by ocean, of which the Caspian and the Persian Gulf formed 
 arms — i.e. with only about 100 degrees of longitude and about 50 
 degrees of latitude. 
 
 The physical desci'iption of countries, especially of those which he 
 had visited, was good, and the immense industry with which he collected 
 accounts of the political and ethnical conditions of countries is invaluable 
 to us. He is not very critical as to his sources, treating Homer as a para- 
 mount authority, distrusting Herodotus, and relying mainly on Greek 
 books rather tlian Roman travellers. But his accounts of the native 
 races of distant lands — of Asia Minor and Egypt, which lie knew well — 
 are of the utmost value to the historian. And with all its inevitable 
 imperfections, the Grogmphy of Strabo forms aHmdmark in the history 
 of science as the fii'st serious attempt to found a complete concrete 
 science of the planet on which man is placed. [F. H.] 
 
 Iluinboldt: Cosmos, vol. ii. part ii. § 4. Bunbury : Hist, of Anc. Ocogr. ii. 
 ch. xxi., x.x;ii. (see iija)) of tlie world ace. to Strabo, ii. 238).
 
 Science] FRONTINUS 157 
 
 FRONTINUS {Sextus Julius), d. abt. 106 A.D. 
 
 Of the origin and early history of the famous writer on Aqueducts, 
 Sextus Julius Frontixus, we know nothing. He was a soldier, governor, 
 and eminent official under the Flavian Csesars, and under Nerva and 
 Trajan. We first hear of him as Pmetor of the city under Vespasian, 
 A.D. 70 ; and four years later he was probably Consul. He distinguished 
 himself as Governor of Britain by his conquest of the Silures of Wales. 
 By Nerva he was appointed to the high office of Commissioner of the 
 Water Supply of Rome, 97 a.d., and also to the great dignity of Augur, 
 wherein he was succeeded by the younger Pliny. He died apparently 
 about 106 A.D. 
 
 Frontinus wrote four books of anecdotes on the art of war ; but his 
 principal work is in two books on the Aqueducts of Rome, written about 
 100 A.D. This is an elaborate and exact treatise on the Roman system 
 of aqueducts — a form of civic organisation which they carried to a very 
 high degree of perfection. Strabo, full as he is of Greek prejudices, 
 tells us that the aqueduct was a form of engineering which the Greeks 
 neglected, but which was introduced and carried to perfection by the 
 Romans ; and the younger Pliny declares that there Avas nothing more 
 wonderful in the world than the Claudian Aqueduct, completed under 
 the Emperor Claudius, in 50 a.d. The Greeks, with their moderate 
 cities, mountainous country, and simple municipal organisation, found 
 their water supply in wells and natural springs ; and even great cities, 
 such as Alexandria and Syracuse, were supplied by fountains or by canals 
 bringing water from neighbouring rivers. The aqueduct proper is a 
 canal, carried at a high level, and on a gently inclined plane, from a pure 
 supply at a great distance. This is a purely Roman invention, of great 
 antiquity, and of universal application throughout the Roman Empire. 
 It was once imagined that the Romans were ignorant of the art of carry- 
 ing water by pipes over varying levels. But it is certain that they knew 
 and used this expedient in its proper place. For the enormous volume 
 of water required for the Roman standard of sanitary needs, the aqueduct 
 was indispensable to bring over great distances what was practically a 
 flowing river. 
 
 when Frontinus wrote, a.d. 100, nine aqueducts carried to Rome a 
 supply equal to that of a river 30 feet broad by 6 deeji, flowing at the 
 rate of about 2 miles per hour. Ultimately Rome had fourteen aque- 
 ducts ; of which three still remain in use, giving the modern city an 
 abundant supply, and the ruins of many others form magnificent objects 
 in the Campagna. Tlie oldest of all was the Aqua Airpia, Ijuilt by the 
 famous Censor, Appius Claudius, b.c. 313, more than 400 years before 
 the time of Frontinus. Some of these aqueducts were 40 and even 60 
 miles in length, and were stupendous constructions. Frontinus says, 
 with just pride, that these vast works of public necessity far surpassed 
 the useless Pyramids of Egypt and the famous but vainglorious monii- 
 ments of Greece. Great pains were taken by the Romans with the pre- 
 servation of their aqueducts ; the chief controller was an oflicial of high 
 rank and proved administrative capacity. A body of 460 slaves were 
 employed as workmen on the constant task of repair.
 
 158 FRONTINUS : PLUTARCH [Ancient 
 
 It is a fact of profound significance that the Romans were the only 
 people of antiquity who carried to the highest point this indispensable 
 institution of civic life — the free supply of the purest spring water in 
 unlimited and inexhaustible quantity. And it is perhaps even more 
 sug"-estive that the same point of perfection, in one of the essential con- 
 ditions of civilisation, has never yet been reached by any modern people. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 Sniitli : Diet. Antiquities, 2iid ed. 1890; Aqxucductus. 
 
 /' PLUTARCH (Ploutarchos), b. 45-50, d. 110-120 A.D. 
 
 We know almost nothing of the life of the author of the most famous 
 of all Lives. He was a Greek of Chteroneia, in Boeotia ; and was a 
 youtliful student when Nero visited Delphi in 66 a.d. He had an 
 excellent education, and travelled, it is said, in Egypt, where he studied ; 
 and we know that he subsequently visited Italy, and spent some time at 
 Rome, teaching rather than learning. He never became deeply versed 
 in Latin literature, nor intimately acquainted with the Roman Empire 
 and its guiding spirits. Plutarch, essentially a Greek provincial man 
 of letters, withdi'ew to his native town, where he wrote voluminous 
 works, devoted himself to local affairs, to his priesthood of Apollo at 
 Delphi, and to the composition of his famous Parallel Lives. His work 
 on Apophthegms is dedicated to the Emperor Trajan, who died a.d. 
 117. We know no more. The greatest of all biographers did not write 
 
 his own life. ' " ' " 
 
 Although we know so little of the facts of Plutarch's life, we know 
 intimately the character of the man. He was a Avell-bred, well-trained, 
 well-read, genial, just, and honourable moralist of the old school : some- 
 what garrulous, sententious, and credulous : but overflowing with inter- 
 esting anecdote, a consummate master of lifelike portraiture, with a 
 deep foundation of pure, simple, and humane morality. He was an 
 enlightened and pious polytheist, verging on Monotheism of the Neo- 
 Platonic kind ; Avho, without much sympathy for modern Roman culture, 
 and without nauch knowledge of the Roman Empire at its highest 
 gTandeur, devoted himself to elaborate a spontaneous scheme of practical 
 ethics. His ethical writings, called in Latin Moralia, are amongst the 
 most valual)le pictures we possess of antique manners and thoughts. 
 But they are surpassed by the Parallel Lives, or studies of character of 
 illustrious (jreeks and Romans in pairs, from Theseus to his own age. 
 I There were in all some 50 Lives, of which 14 are lost, and unfortunately 
 I in that numl)er are those of Epaminondas, Scipio, and the early Ca-sars. 
 Plutarch was not a philosojAer, for he had no powers of original 
 thought and very little precision of reasoning ; nor was he a historian, 
 or at all interested in the evolution of civilisation as a whole. He was, 
 as he justly descriljes himself, a moralist, a student of character ; and 
 his Lives are pictures of human nature, not narratives of events. Like 
 Dr. Johnson, in a much later age, Plutarch always turns to the moral 
 and human side of every incident ; he was a great talker, a keen judge 
 of moral actions, and was himself the oracle of a highly cultured society, 
 living ai)art from the world of affairs towards the latter years of one
 
 Science] PLUTARCH : PLINY THE ELDER 159 
 
 declining epoch, and profoundly unconscious of the new epoch which 
 was to succeed it. It is significant that Plutarch, a professed student of 
 morality and religion, writing 100 years after Christ, seems never to 
 have heard of Christianity. 
 
 It is needless here to describe the Parallel Lives, which, in the 
 library, follow Herodotus and Thucydides. They have been the subject 
 of femous eulogies from the time of Montaigne and Henry iv. down to 
 that of Rousseau and Madame Roland — when the great moralist of 
 anti(^uitj had a very real part in forming the lone of ■ffi(r RevoTutionary 
 movement. The Lives ai3peared in a Latin version in 1470 at Rome ; m 
 Greek, at ^Florence, in 1517 ; in French, by Amyot, in 1559 ; in English, 
 by North, in 1579. The Litter was used by Shakespeare as his text- f' 
 book for Coriolanus, Julius Ccesar, and Antony and Cleopatra. It has^i 
 been said, and it is hardly an exaggeration, that if all other record of 
 antiquity Imt Plutarch's were lost, Ave could still conceive by his aid the 
 ^^neral spirit of those ages. And it has often been declared that if we j| 
 c5uld save but one book in the world, the most valuable to preserve || 
 would be this unique record of anti(j[uity as a whole. 
 
 Although modern pedantry has turned much of late from the slip- 
 shod Greek and the uncritical garrulity of the great anecdote-monger, it 
 may be said still that no known book, not l:)eing a work of devotion or • 
 of imagination, has ever exerted so great an influence in forming the I- 
 ideas of generations, or has ever been so well and universally read, 'n 
 Though not a work of history nor of philosophy, Plutarch's Lives still 
 remain for the general public the source of all prac tical knowle dge of_the 
 genius of antic^uity. His pictures Of human~nature unTIer nillitary 
 cMlisatrOir"aTe* as" immortal as those of Shakespeare and Scott under 
 mediaeval and modern manners. That Comte places Plutarch not beside 
 Cicero, the younger Pliny, and Epictetus, nor yet with Thucydides, 
 Herodotus, and Polybius, but beside Varro, Strabo, and the elder Pliny, 
 points to the fact that Plutarch collects, in a spontaneous manner, the 
 rudiments of an ethical science in a purely empirical way. [F. H.] 
 
 Phvtarcli : Lives, transl. by Stewart and Long, 1880 ; Morals^ transl. by C. 
 'Tang, T882 (Bohn's Stand. Lib.). Mahafiy : Greek WorTH under Roman 
 Suxiy, 1S90, ch. iii. -xix. 
 
 PLINY THE ELDER, b. 23, d. 79 A.D. 
 
 Caius Plixius Secundus was Ijorn of a wealthy provincial family, 
 either at Verona or at Conmm (Como), in 23 a.d. He had an excellcuf 
 education, came early to Rome, and was soon introduced to civil and 
 military office. He commanded a troop of cavalry in Germany, saw 
 service in Africa and in Gaul, was for some time governor in Sj^ain, and 
 at the time of his death was in command of a fleet at jVIisenuni. He 
 perished of suffocation in the eruption of Vesuvius, 79 a.d., drawn, by 
 insatiable curiosity, to the scene of the great convulsion. He was an 
 intimate friend of the Emperor Vesjjasian and his son Titus, to whom 
 the Natural History is dedicated. It was published 77 a.d., wlien its 
 author was 54.
 
 160 PLINY THE ELDER [Ancient 
 
 Although we know only a few facts in the life of Pliny, we know 
 the man intimately from the beautiful letters of his nephew, C. Plinius 
 Csecjlius,- They paint him as a man of esTinTatte~~chaTactef ,' of generous, 
 wise, and tranquil spirit, of febulous industry, and of indomitable 
 energy. He is one of the highest types of the supremely busy, culti- 
 vated, self-reliant, and many-sided natures who showed such splendid 
 material and intellectual civilisation in the early ages of the Roman 
 Empire. By its moral corruption and social rottenness Pliny was not 
 more disturbed than ^^•ere other leading men of his age. 
 
 Pliny's great Avork dSaturalis Mistoria, or Burv.ey of Nature, was a 
 general view of all that was known of the physical constitution of the 
 world, with all its contents, mineral, vegetable, animal, and human. He 
 himself calls it an Encydojxeclia ; a term he first made familiar ; and, 
 as he justly boasts, he was the first in Greece or Rome to undertake the 
 task. It was the result of almost sujierhuman energy ; for, notwith- 
 standing his active service on civil and military duty, and incessant 
 labours forensic and official, he published, at the age of 54, what has 
 been justly called an astounding monument of industry. He laboured, 
 as his nephew tells us, night and day, rose habitually at midnight, and 
 Avhether at the bath, at meals, or on a journey, he was incessantly 
 listening to books read to him, or dictating extracts and notes. He said 
 the Emperor claimed his days, but he could dispose of his nights. We 
 are assured that he collected 20,000 extracts from 2000 works. And 
 thus his Encyclojxedia, says Humboldt, surpasses, in the richness of its 
 contents, any other production of antiquity ; it is, as his nephew says, 
 nee mimiFi varium qn.am )p.<a Natura : '"as manifold as Nature her- 
 self" 
 
 It would be in vain to ask for success in an undertaking so manifestly 
 premature. Without any physical science but Mathematics, and that 
 far from complete, it was utterly impossiljle to construct even a pro- 
 visional synthesis of the physical world. Pliny was neither jAilosojiher, 
 nor acute thinker, nor even accurate observer. He was not even a 
 careful compiler, and he was entirely without critical judgment. But he 
 aimed at results less profotmd than those achieved by Aristotle or 
 Hipparchus. He attempted only a vast encyclopaedia of literary infor- 
 mation on the physical phenomena of the world. It was confined to 
 concrete knowledge, ijnd it did not purjiort to be original research. And 
 such was his industry, and such his enthusiasm to reach some co-ordi- 
 nation of man's practical knowledge of this world, that his work, though 
 not one of philosophy or discovery, was the most valuable contribution 
 to science Ijetween the great age of the Alexandrian I\Iuseum and the 
 dawn of modern science with Roger Bacon and Oopernicus. It served 
 as a provisional scheme of the correlations of physical Nature. 
 
 It is nccdk'ss to dilate on the shortcomings of Pliny as observer and 
 thinker. He has been severely criticised by Cuvier (Biogr. Univcrsdle) 
 and by Iluniboldt. His work has been compared to that of Buftbn and 
 also to that of Humboldt. But both of these were original observers, 
 and one at least was a great thinker. Pliny was essentially a compiler. 
 Still, tliere are two quaUtios in his work which give it a very high place. 
 The first is the vast mass of recorded observation and reflection which he
 
 Science] PLINY THE ELDER 161 
 
 has preserved from oblivion ; so that there are whole fields of science, 
 both abstract and concrete, the results of which are only known to us 
 through Pliny. The second great quality of his work is the definite con- 
 ception of the unity of Nature and the interdependence of the sciences. 
 This conception of his — vastly inferior as it is to the truly philosophic 
 synthesis of Aristotle, and though Pliny in his passion for miscellaneous 
 information seems often to stray from it himself — breaks out again 
 and again in striking thoughts, which seem to anticipate the spirit of 
 positive science. BuflFon, in his first discourse, has given us a fine 
 estimate of Pliny, who, he says, " not only knew all that could be known 
 in his age, but had that gift of looking at things on a grand scale which 
 doubles the power of science. He inspires the reader with a breadth of 
 view and a boldness of thought which is the root of philosophy." 
 
 In religious philosophy, Pliny was a scientific Pantheist ; indeed he 
 would now be called an Agnostic materialist. His work opens (bk. ii. 
 v5 1) with a passage of singular eloquence. "It is reasonable to hold 
 this World, and the environment around it, whereon all things exist, to 
 be the Deity : eternal, boundless, without beginning, and without end. 
 To speculate on what is beyond this World of ours is no business of 
 man, and is beyond the powers of the human mind. It is sacred, 
 eternal, immeasurable, complete in its totality, or rather is itself totality " 
 — and so forth, in a vein almost similar to Hegel. He then discusses, or 
 rather declines to speculate on, the nature of the Supreme Being, in the 
 language of modern Pantheism. 
 
 There is a fine sentence in his opening chapter on Man(bk. vii. § 1) 
 — which Humboldt has taken as the motto of his Cosmos — " We should 
 be constantly losing sight of the power and majesty of Nature if we 
 persist in studying it in detail without a conception of its unity." But 
 perhaps the finest thought in Pliny — an aphorism which may well stand 
 for the last word of Ancient Science — is the immortal phrase : " Deus 
 est mortali jtivare mortaleni; et hcec ad (eternam gloriam via. Hac 
 proceres iere Bomani " (" God means— Man giving succour to man : this 
 is the way that leads to glory everlasting. It has been trodden by the 
 chiefs of Rome "). The idea reminds us of Diderot and his fellow-Ency- 
 clopsedists, whom Pliny, in rudimentary and empirical form, often 
 suggests, although the encyclopgedia of Pliny, unlike that of Aristotle or 
 of Diderot, ignored the moral, social, and historical facts of humanity, 
 and took small account of scientific precision at all. It is supremely 
 interesting to see how near the great Romans of the early Empire came 
 to the conception of Humanity as the dominant ideal of human life, at 
 the very time when the appalling corruption of society around them was 
 preparing for the ruin of the entire material and intellectual fabric in 
 which they felt so much just pride. [F. H.] 
 
 Plinius : Naturalis Ilistoria, lib. xxxvii., ed. Sillig, 1851; French transL, 
 1829 ; Engl, transl., 1855. Humboldt : Cosmos, vol. ii. pt. ii. § 4. 
 Bunbury : Hist, of Anc. Geo., ii. xxiv. pp. 371-443. Pos. Pol. iii. 344, 
 347. Dean Merivale : Romans under the Empire, vol. vii. ch. xiv.
 
 T 
 
 MILITAEY CIVILISATIOK 
 
 HE Fifth Month commemorates the warriors and statesmen of Greece, 
 Eome, and Carthage, the three principal forms of Military Civilisa- 
 tion. All three possessed that civic life and political organisation which 
 distino-uished the West from the East, and which (as the contrast between 
 Carthao-e and Persia, between Magyar and Hindu, decisively proves) was 
 entirely unconnected with primitive racial peculiarities. Ancient Europe 
 was covered with innumerable petty States, all organised with a view to 
 war, and each driven, not so much by ambition as by a desire for 
 security, to scheme incessantly for the conquest of its neighbours. If this 
 turmoil was ever to cease, and industrial civilisation to arise, it was'abso-~ 
 lutely necessarj> that some one of these States should once for all conquer 
 and incorporate the rest. Such incorporation involved evils of its own, 
 and therefore could only continue till the greater evils which it was to 
 remedy had been overcome. The Roman Empire for the first time gave 
 an example of widespread and l6tig-continued Peace. It implanted in the 
 peoples of the West the sentiment of a certain' unity whiicK'liasrie"vef 
 since been lost. It communicated to all of them the Grteco-Eoman cul- 
 ture. It made a UniversarTJeligion possible. "When this threefold work 
 had been sufficiently accomplished the temporary politTcal unity came to 
 an end naturally and for ever. 
 
 Greece was inferior to her two rivals in the greater political and mili- 
 tary qualities, and fell behind them in the mighty competition for the 
 glorious office of incorporating the progressive nations. Civic institutions 
 she developed in great variety and intensity, but on a strictly limited 
 scale. Her military history is a long record of unsurpassed courage, dis- 
 cipline, and skill ; but, except in the instances to be mentioned presently, 
 it is marked by pettiness of aim and nullity of result. Nevertheless in a 
 survey of the continuous progress of Humanity, even in its political 
 aspect, she necessarily divides our attention with Rome, to the almost 
 entire exclusion of Carthage. Carthage was inferior to Rome alone in 
 capacity for conquest and incorporation, and was destined, as far as we 
 can see, to achieve that work if it had been possible for Hannibal to win 
 in the mighty duel. But it was not possible. The qualifications of Rome 
 were decisively superior, and from the nature of the struggle the Cartha- 
 ginian civilisation was clean wiped out, leaving behind it no appreciable 
 influence on the Western movement. Therefore its great statesmen and 
 warriors must needs have Ijeen omitted from the Calendar, even if their 
 memoiy had not almost entirely perished. 
 
 Greece, unlike Carthage, is, sociologically speaking, in the direct line 
 of ancestry of the modern West. Her jjolitical and military achievements 
 are not comparable to those of Rome. But there are two periods during 
 which they possess a capital and permanent importance ; those of the 
 repulse of Persia and the conquest of Persia, commemorated in the weeks 
 if;2
 
 MILITARY CIVILISATION 163 
 
 of Themistocles and Al exander . To the first we owe it that the intellec- 
 tual movement was not strangled at its birth by a degenerlTfe^theocracy. 
 To th'e second are due the spread of Greek culture over the Eastern por-' 
 tion of the ancient world, "and 'the subsequent severance of Christianity \ 
 into 'two distinct types— a severance which has continued down to our 
 own day to be a fact of the first magnitude in European politics. 
 
 The third and fourth weeks are allotted to the Aristocratic and 
 Imperial phases of Eoman civilisation ; the Regal or more Theocratic 
 phase having been represented under the month Moses. The Revolu- 
 tionary period, notwithstanding its brilliant personages, in such striking 
 contrast with the mediocrity of the Aristocratic phase, naturally furnishes 
 no types to the Calendar except Marius and the Gracchi, who stood on 
 its threshold and were far from being pure destructives. [E. S. B.]
 
 164 C^SAR [Military 
 
 CJESAR (Caiits Julius Ccesar), b. 100 (102?), d. 44 B.C. 
 
 Rome solved the great political problem of the ancient world in the 
 best practicable if not in the best conceivable way. To C^sar it fell to 
 tput the croAvning stroke to that work. The several States of modern 
 Europe have all contributed, though in diflf'erent degrees, to political pro- 
 fTess ; and therefore no one of them has the unicjue importance and 
 glory that belongs to Rome. For the same reason, no modern statesman 
 stands on a level with Ceesar. He remains in Shakespeare's phrase " the 
 foremost man of all this world." It was the high fortune of Rome tlia^ 
 in the principal crisis of her historj', she possessed a citizen so splendidly 
 endowed in intellect, character, and heart. Free to an extraordinary 
 degree from the prejudices belonging to his age and country, with pierc- 
 ing and far-sweeping vision he saw as from some superior height the 
 political situation of his own time in its relation to the past and the 
 future of the ancient world. If Rome had till then carried out the work 
 of conquest with considerable method and upon the whole with steadi- 
 ness, she had very inadequately satisfied the need for incorporation. Her 
 oligarchical constitution, admirably adapted for the first task, could not 
 easily reconcile itself to the second. In its best days, and while Carthage 
 and Macedon were still formidable, the Senate had from time to time 
 prudently though grudgingly extended the privilege of citizenship to 
 some of the subject Italian States. But the great mass of Italians had 
 only extorted it by rebellion during the boyhood of Caesar, and outside 
 Italy the conquered nations were still on the footing of subject allies, 
 trampled upon and fleeced for the benefit of Rome, or rather of the Roman 
 nobles and capitalists. If the great dominion was to be maintained in 
 some tolerable degree of well-being for all its members, or even main- 
 tained at all, it was absolutely necessary that the so-called Republican 
 constitution, always oppressive for the provinces and now shamefully 
 corrupt, should be replaced by personal government. For a complete 
 incorporation of the subject-peoples was not to be expected from the 
 suffrages of a dominant people, to even the poorest of whom it would 
 mean the cessation of highly-prized privileges and immunities. The 
 provinces would Irom the earliest moment of their subjection have wel- 
 comed such a change. The time was more than ripe for it when the 
 Roman world lay at the feet of Sulla. Sulla had all the ability, self- 
 reliance, prestige, and opportunity that were needed. But his moral 
 nature was below the task. He had neither the insight nor the sym- 
 pathy nor the noble ambition of Cnesar, and he preferred to re-establish 
 the senatorial oligarchy. 
 
 TThen Sulla crushed the Marian party Caesar had just arrived at 
 manhood. Though of an old patrician house he had yet a family con- 
 nection with the democratic party, Marius having married his aunt. 
 He himself had married a daughter of the democratic leader Cinna, and 
 for refusing to divorce her he was proscribed by Sulla, but managed to 
 keep in hiding till the stoi-m was past. After the death of the great
 
 Civilisation] C^SAR 165 
 
 reactionist (b.c. 78), he seized every opportunity of reviving the spirit 
 of the popular party ; as, for instance, by publicly honouring the memory 
 of Marius, bringing to justice nmrderers of the proscription, and courage- 
 ously raising his single voice in the Senate against the illegal execution 
 of Catiline's partisans (b.c. 63). Clearly seeing the necessity for personal 
 government, at a time when his own services and distinctions were not 
 such as to entitle him to aspire to it, Csesar did his best to secure it for 
 Pompey, then far the foremost man in Rome, by strenuously supporting 
 measures which virtually placed the empire at his absolute disposal tor 
 an indefinite period. A fairly good soldier, but a most vain, unreliable, 
 and incompetent statesman, Pompey after live years let these powers slip 
 through his hands. 
 
 Ciesar was by this time thirty-eight (b.c. 62). He had steadily risen 
 in influence and official rank ; and it was, no doubt, now that he deter- 
 mined to take the great task into his own hands. He was the recognised 
 chief of the popular party, which aimed at concentrating Republican 
 government in the hands of a single person as the only means of bridling 
 the oligarchy. But this was not to be accomplished merely by popular 
 votes, as many a democratic leader had found to his cost. Caesar needed 
 an army and a military reputation, and with rare patience he set himself 
 to acquire both. By a coalition with Pompey — now obliged to treat 
 him as an equal — he obtained the Consulship (b.c. 59), which on its expira- 
 tion entitled him to a great military command. 
 
 Roman generals had of late preferred to extend their conquests east- 
 ward, and to win comparatively easy and lucrative triumphs in Asia, 
 over peoples who had possessed for long ages a type of civilisation suited 
 to them, and who therefore could never thoroughly assimilate Western 
 manners and institutions. All this time Gaul, lying at the gates of Italy, 
 was neglected (only the district between the Ceveunes and the Alps 
 having been reduced), because the people were more warlike and less 
 booty was to be gained. Yet till that conquest should be eft'ected Rome's 
 work of civilising the world was standing still ; nay, it was always 
 menaced by northern invasions. This field of action, then, Coesar marked 
 out for himself, in which he could prepare the means for assuming power 
 at home, and at the same time render the highest service to his country 
 and humanity. His ardent spirit, his incredible energy in all circum- 
 stances of his life, astonished his contemporaries. Time pressed, for he 
 was no longer young. Wliile he was absent from Rome, what revolu- 
 tions might not mar his plans 1 Yet ten continuous years did he devote 
 to this great task, which, if he liad achieved nothing else, would make 
 his name one of the greatest in history. In those ten years he conquered 
 Gaul from the Pyi-enees to the Rhine and the British Channel ; conquered 
 her so thoroughly, and treated her so sensibly, that when ftuTtrcrce 
 struggle \v^'~over~ she 'frankly and even proudly accepted lier new 
 position. The culture, the institutions, even the language of the victors, 
 were eagerly adopted. The grandsons of the men who had fought so 
 gallantly against Ciesar won full citizenshij), took their seats in the 
 Senate, and commanded Roman armies. 
 
 These ten years decided the future of the West, and therefore of 
 Humanity. It is not merely the central position and natural advantages
 
 166 C^SAR [Military 
 
 I of France, nor yet the admirable qualities of her people, which have 
 I made her throughout mediseval and modern history the foremost of 
 (European States. It is even more the result of her rapid and thorough 
 acceptance of Roman civilisation. This made her the heir of Rome. 
 This enabled her long afterwards to Romanise Germany and England in 
 some degree, and as it were at second-hand, by the arms of Charlemagne 
 and William. 
 
 It had been arranged between Caesar and Pompey that, during the 
 absence of the former in Gaul, the latter should act with the popular 
 party, and keep the nobility in the condition of impotence to which it 
 had been reduced in the consulship of Caesar. Partly from jealousy of 
 Caesar, partly from sheer incapacity, Pompey after much vacillation and 
 duplicity finally allied himself with the nobles, thinking with their aid 
 to crush his rival and thereafter to be su^jreme. The nobles, for their 
 part, thought they would know how to deal with Pompey if once Caisar 
 Avas out of the way. In the negotiations which preceded the civil war, 
 Cajsar showed a moderation and fairness in striking contrast with the 
 unscrupulous and headstrong violence of the nobles, who had not even 
 formal legality on their side. But when he was finally summoned to 
 hand over his province and army to a nominee of the Senate on pain of 
 being declared a public enemy, and when the tribunes who had vetoed 
 the resolution of the Senate were obliged to fly for their lives to his 
 camp, he suddenly crossed the river Rubicon, the boundary of his 
 province, and marched on Rome (b.c. 49). 
 
 He had but one legion with him ; the bulk of his army was far away 
 in its Gallic cantonments. The forces of Pompey were overwhelmingly 
 superior in numbers. But the rapid and daring advance of Ctesar pre- 
 vented their concentration. He came, not merely the adored general of 
 a veteran army, but the long-tried and consistent leader of the liberal 
 party, who had never swerved from his principles, never betrayed his 
 friends, never flinched from danger. Fascinated by his success and 
 encouraged by his clemency, towns everywhere opened their gates and 
 Pompeian levies joined him, swelling his army at every stage as he 
 swept down Italy. 
 
 Pompey, for his part, was not sorry to have a pretext for moving east- 
 ward towards the scene of his early triumphs, where his military prestige 
 and his personal influence would cause all the client States to rally round 
 him, and the sulky and suspicious nobles would find themselves over- 
 shadowed. So he crossed the Adriatic, leaving the large veteran army 
 in Spain, which was under his orders, to take care of itself. Thither 
 Caesar proceeded as soon as he had secured Italy, bent on making sure 
 of the West before doing anything else. When the Spanish legions were 
 beaten, he lost no time in following Pompey, who had found the respite 
 all too short for drilling his large but raw force of Romans, and organis- 
 ing the masses of Asiatics whom he had summoned to his standard. In 
 the campaign that ensued the conqueror of the East fully maintained his 
 old military reputation ; but at length, driven by the clamour of the 
 nobles to risk a pitched battle, he suffered a crushing defeat on the field 
 of Pharsalia (b.c. 48). Flying to Egypt, still an independent kingdom, 
 he was assassinated by order of the government.
 
 Civilisation] C^SAR 167 
 
 The beaten party rallied again, first in Africa, then in Spain ; and 
 of the three years and nine months of life that remained to C^sar, much 
 the greater portion was spent at the head of his army. He, therefore, 
 had not time to give any complete organisation to his new government. 
 But his intentions are clearly discernible in outline. Supreme power, 
 legislative as well as executive, was to be vested in a single ruler, govern- 
 ing not by divine right but as the representative of the community and 
 in its interest. This was indeed an ideal by no means novel to Romans. 
 Scipio had brooded over it. C. Gracchus had for a moment realised it. 
 The oldest institutions and traditions told of it. It was the power of 
 the ancient kings theoretically continued to, and in grave emergencies 
 actually exercised by, the magistrates of the Repullic during its best 
 days. It had been increasingly overshadowed by the Senate. That 
 body was now to be reduced to its original consultative office. The 
 functions of the executive had been gradually divided among several 
 magistrates. They were now to be re-concentrated. Above all, annual 
 election — the cherished institution of all oligarchies, open or disguised — 
 was to be replaced by life-tenure, with power to name a successor. The 
 subjects of Rome were to be admitted to citizenship, wherever and when- 
 ever fit for it ; and there is reason to believe that Csesar intended to 
 move much faster in this direction than his successor did. Rome itself, 
 from the mistress of the Empire, was to become its capital and most 
 dignified municipality. All old parties — Cesar's own included — were to 
 consider themselves at an end. " To the victors the spoils I " was a cry 
 rebuked from the first. For the vanquished of Pharsalia there was not 
 only amnesty but admission to the highest grades of the public service, 
 if they would bury their old grudge and recognise the government. 
 Pauperism among the lower class and insolvency among the upper — 
 idcers not admitting of a radical cure — were treated with judicious pal- 
 liatives. Taxation was reduced ; expenditure was increased ; and yet the 
 balance in the treasury at Caesar's death was tenfold what it had ever 
 been before — a proof of the frightful waste and corruption from which 
 the Roman world was rescued bj" the overthrow of the oligarchy. 
 
 Of the administrative work of Caesar it is impossible here to give any 
 adequate idea. A reform of the Calendar, which served the AVest till 
 1582 and serves Russia still ; a recasting of the whole provincial admini- 
 stration ; a codification of Roman law ; a census of tlie empire ; a uni- 
 form gold coinage ; a public library ; a metropolitan police ; building 
 regulations ; sanitary regulations ; an alteration of the course of the 
 Tiber, which would have drained the marshes — all these grand projects, 
 and more, some carried to completion, some only sketched out, teemed 
 from the creative brain of the great organiser in the brief moments he 
 could spare from military cares in these last months of his life — a devour- 
 ing activity, an all-embracing capacity such as perhaps never shone forth 
 in man before or since. AVhat Roman incorporation meant for the 
 ancient world was at last revealed. The war havoc of seven centuries 
 had found its justification. 
 
 In the midst of this glorious ami beneficent career, at the age of 55 
 ! 57 ^J^esar, Svliose frank and fearless spirit disdained suspicion or pre- 
 catition, was assassinated by a knot of rancorous, perfidious aristocrats.
 
 168 C^SAR [Military 
 
 whom he had pardoned and promoted. Theu- purblind spite Avas power- 
 less to avert the inevitable advent of monocracy. What they did effectu- 
 ally extinguish for more than a century was the possibility of amnesty, 
 I conciliation, and mutual confidence. Careless as usual of historical truth, 
 I the great English poet has glorified the murderers of Cajsar. Dante, 
 ' never forgetting the moral responsibility of art, has reserved the lowest 
 i circle of hell for Brutus, Cassius, and Judas Iscariot. 
 
 It imports little to the greatness of such a one as Caisar to add that 
 in an age of oratory he stood in the first rank of orators ; that his his- 
 torical writings are an unrivalled model of vigour, lucidity, and elegance ; 
 that he had carried his scientific culture to a point very unusual among 
 his countrymen ; and that his personal prowess and feats of endurance 
 were the admiration of veteran soldiers. Women loved him, and he 
 loved them. His standard of morality in this respect could not be ours. 
 It was that of his time. Enjoying life thoroughly, he was temperate 
 in all things. To no man has it been given to approach more nearly 
 to the perfection of human nature — complete, evenly balanced, and self- 
 controlled. There is an admirable bust of him liTthe British Museum. 
 
 [E, S. B.] 
 
 Coesar : Commentaries. Suetonius and Plutarch : Cccsar. Cicero: in nuni- 
 ' berless places. Mommseu : Hist, of Rome, vol. iv. MeHvale : Fall of 
 Roman Reintblic, sluU History of the Romans under the Empire, vols. i. 
 andii. Pos. VW. iii. 327-329.
 
 Civilisation] MILTIADES : LEONIDAS 169 
 
 MILTIADES, b. abt. 540, d. 489 B.C. 
 
 The name of Miltiades records the first great victory of the West 
 over the East ; and represents the vanguard of the military civilisation 
 which first checked and. finally absorbed the theocracies of Central Asia. 
 
 Miltiades, a noble Athenian, of the race of the Homeric heroes, had 
 joined, as governor of a Greek colony in Thrace, in the Scythian expedi- 
 tion of Darius ; and his conspiracy to induce the Greek feudatories to 
 destroy the bridge over the Danube showed how dangerous to the Great 
 King Greece had become. When Darius resolved to crush the rising 
 power of Athens, it was her fortune to find amongst her citizens a chief 
 who, with long experience as a ruler, had seen war on a great scale, and 
 knew the weakness and strength of Asia. Miltiades, retreating to Athens 
 before the storm, was named general in the first great struggle, and 
 became, next to Themistocles himself, the soul of the audacious defiance 
 with which Athens braved the mighty Empire of Persia. To his per- 
 sonal ascendancy and consummate strategy were due the plan of the 
 campaign, the victory of Marathon, and the repulse of the invaders from 
 Attica (B.C. 490). Failing next year in the new expedition which he 
 had promoted, he was impeached and condemned ; and, dying of his 
 wound in prison, he points'the moral of the instability of popular favour, 
 a difficulty which weighted all the great men of republican Greece. 
 
 The battle of jNIarathon, though second in importance to Salamis, 
 profountlly impressed the imagination of Greece and of all antiquity. It 
 is probable that about 10,000 fully armed Athenians took part in it, and 
 about 50,000 Persians. I3ut the battle tested the highest qualities both 
 of commander and soldiers. There, as Demosthenes and Thucydides 
 say, the Athenians "bore the first brunt of the danger," and were "the 
 first to face the look of the terrible Mede." This victory first inspired 
 them with a sense of their own destiny. Aristides, Themistocles, and 
 the poet .i^jlschylus had important parts in it. The 192 citizens who fell 
 were by special decree buried on the field, and the monumental mound 
 raised over them may still be seen. Seven centuries afterwards they 
 were worshipped as heroes on the spot ; the day was still kept as a 
 festival in Attica ; and men heard at night the battle-field resound with 
 the din of arms. [F. H.] 
 
 Herodotus: vol. vi. cli. cii. liawUnsun's Trans, iii. 480 (Notes and Api). ). 
 Plutarch: Aristides and Cimon. As to the "sublime day" of Mara- 
 thon, and "the admirable leadership " of Miltiades, see Phil. Pos. v. 
 250, 251. Pus. Pol. iii. 230-232. 
 
 LEONIDAS, d. 480 B.C. 
 
 Sparta was the most purely military state of antiquity. All public 
 and eveiT private life was organised and disciplined to the sole end of 
 war. Family duties and affections were abnost obliterated by the ex- 
 aggerated preponderance of the State. All citizens fit for war lived
 
 170 LEONID AS : ARISTIDES [Military 
 
 peniianenlly in barracks, and fed at a common mess, the austere simpli- 
 city of which has become proverbial. There was daily and laborious 
 drill even for the middle-aged men. No full citizen ever demeaned 
 himself to industry of any kind. This he left to his serfs called Helots. 
 In an a^e and environment all astir with revolutionary growth, Sparta 
 was the representative of steady, unchan^ang conservatism. Her govern- 
 
 i merit, although virtually an oligarchy, still remained in form a monarchy 
 of the old Homeric type. Art, science, and philosophy found no more 
 encouragement than they did in early Rome. In fact, as far as regards 
 I mere militarism, the Spartans were more Roman than the Romans. 
 ' But of conquest and incorporation they proved as incapable as any other 
 Greek State. Hence Comte calls them " Remains avortes." 
 
 At the time of the Persian invasions the other Greek States looked 
 to Sparta to lead the resistance, a duty which she discharged in such 
 a dilatory, unintelligent, and selfish fashion, that the chief honour and 
 advantage of the victory remained with democratic Athens. She was, too 
 late for Marathon. She had little to do with Salamis. At PTatpea she 
 bore her share and no more. It is characteristic that the one episode of the 
 struggle Avhich was peculiarly her own, and where she won imperishable 
 *,' glory, was a defeat. The enormous host of Xerxes met with no opposi- 
 I tion till it reached the narrow pass of Thermopyke. There it found its 
 ' Avay blocked by the confederate Greeks conunanded by Lj^qnidas, King 
 of Sparta. For two days the assaults of the Persians were hurled back 
 with heavy slaughter by the better-disciplined and better-armed Greeks ; 
 but on the third the betrayal of a path over the mountains exposed the 
 defenders to be taken in the I'ear. Finding that he was about to be 
 surrounded, Leonidas dismissed all his army, except his own contingent 
 of three hundred Spartans, whose national discipline required them to 
 die at their post. However briefly this story be told, it would be wrong 
 not to record that the Thespian contingent remained with them and 
 sliared their fate. When the last battle began the devoted band charged 
 into the thick of the enemy inflicting prodigious slaughter. Leonidas 
 fell, and round his l)ody the combat long raged. There two brothers of 
 Xerxes fell fighting gallantly. While their arms lasted the Greeks kept 
 their swarming enemies at bay. At last, their spears being broken, they 
 retired to a liillock and sat down round the body of their king, exposed 
 to a shower of missiles. There they perished to a man, defending them- 
 selves to the last against all who apjiroached, with daggers, hands, and 
 teeth. Six centuries later the names of the three hundred could still 
 , be read on a column at Sparta. A monument on the field bore the 
 ! simple inscription : " Stranger, tell the Lacediemonians that we lie here 
 ,i in obedience to their orders." [E. S. B.] 
 
 Ilcroilotus: vii. pp. 204-224. Grote : lliit. o/' (>' recce, vol. v. cli. xl. Curtius : 
 JUt^t. of GfKCc, bk. iii, ch.-i: Pm. Pol. iii. 232. 
 
 ARISTIDES, d. abt. 468 B.C. 
 
 Though democratic tendencies steadily grew at Athens, she was at 
 no time without her conservative party. At the time of the Persian war 
 it was still strong, and its leader was Aristides, surnamed " The Just."
 
 Civilisation] ARISTIDES : CIMON 171 
 
 He was one of the ten generals at Marathon, and set the example of 
 giving up Kis lum 6F c6niinand'f(r3intia3es7" His energetic opposition 
 to the innovating policy of Themistocles, and particularly to his develop- 
 ment of the navy — which increased the importance of the pooler citizens 
 — ^^TSd'to his ostracism seven years after Marathon. It is said that an , 
 illiterate ci^zen, not knowing him, asked him to write the name of \ ^ 
 Aristides for him on his voting tablet. "Has Aristides ever injured | A^ 
 you ? " " No, nor do I even know him ; but it vexes me to hear him • / 
 called ' the Just.' " Aristides without further reply wrote his name. 
 When Xerxes was marching on Athens Themistocles carried a decree of 
 amnesty for all exiles, and especially for his great opponent. Returning 
 on the eve of rfalamis, Aristides, at great risk, made his way through the 
 Persian fleet, and it was he who brought the news to the assembled 
 admirals that they were surrounded. He distinguished himself highly 
 in the battle. Next year he commanded the Athenian contingent at 
 the crowning victory of Plata:a. The contrast between his character 
 arrd'that of the haughty and corrupt Spartan admiral, Pausanias, deter- 
 mined the maritime States to make Athens their leader in the war which 
 they continued to wage against Persia, and he was unanimously appointed 
 to fix the contributions to the common fund. It speaks highly for his 
 patriotism and good sense, that he frankh^ accepted all the democratic 
 changes that had been cari-ied by Themistocles, and even developed them 
 further. D\'iiig in honest poverty, he was buried at the public expense, 
 and such was'tne respect of the Athenians for his probity — a rare virtue 
 among Greek politicians — that his descendants long continued to receive 
 pensions from the State. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos : Aristides. Grote ; Hislury of Greece, cli. 
 xxxvi., xxxix., and xlv. 
 
 CIMON, d. 449 B.C. 
 
 CiMONj_son^of ^Nliltiades the victor of Marathon, served as a young 
 man m~the war against Xerxes, and in after life commanded in most of 
 those expeditions which weakened Persia and prevented her from resum- 
 ing the aggressive against Greece. An aristocrat by birth, and opulent, 
 he became the head of the conservative party at Athens, and strove to 
 direct the warlike energy of his countrymen against Persia rather than 
 against the Laced;emonians, with whom, as the champions of oligarchy 
 and old-fashioned w-ays, he had a natural sympathy. Greece was now 
 virtually divided between the Lacedaemonian and Athenian confederacies ; 
 but though there was much jealousy and suspicion, open war did not 
 'ureak out till twenty-two years after the expulsion of the Persians. This 
 was largely due to the influence of Cimon. AVhen the Helots revolted, 
 the democratic party, headed by the great Pericles, urged that the oppor- 
 tunity should be seized for attacking Sparta. Cimon, on the contrary, ( 
 appealed to his countrymen "not to see Greece lamed and Athens draw- I 
 ing witliout her yoke-fellow.'' This generous sentiment prevailed, and 
 Cimon was sent with an army to the assistance of Sparta. The suspicious f 
 Lacedeemonians, however, soon rudely sent it back (n.c. 461). This insult | 
 led to the exile of Cimon as a partisan of Sparta and eventually to war. I
 
 172 CIMON : XENOPHON [Military 
 
 But five years later, when the irritation had cooled down, it was recognised 
 that he was a thoroughly honest and patriotic man, and he was recalled. 
 Towards the close of his life he had the satisfaction of negotiating a peace 
 with Sparta, and commanding a new expedition against Persia. While 
 engaged in this he died of disease. Though an aristocrat and wealthy 
 he was generally poijular, being aflable and munificent both by disposi- 
 tion and from policy. For in Athens, where political and social equality 
 Avas carried further than in any other country ancient or modern, the 
 possessors of wealth found it advisable to use it in a public-spirited way. 
 
 [E. S. B.] 
 
 Phitarch and Cornelius Nepos : Cimon. Grote : Hist, of Greece, ch. xliv. 
 xlv. " — *-■-■ 
 
 XENOPHON, b. abt. 444, d. abt. 354 B.C. 
 
 Xenophon was a pupil and friend of Socrates, who saved his life at 
 the font of Delium, "by carrying him on "Ills ' bacik from'tHe^fieldr more 
 than a mile. His account of the life and teaching of his revered master 
 is the most valuable and trustworthy that we possess {Memorabilia). 
 He was the editor and continuator of Thucydides ; and his miscellaneous 
 Avritings, of Avhich many remain to us, throw great light on the history 
 and manners of his time. They show that he was not a man of first-rate 
 intellectual or even literary power ; but their style is simple and pleas- 
 ing, and they leave a very favourable impression of his character. We 
 are concerned with him here not as a writer but as a man of action. 
 Three years after the taking of Athens by the Lacedsemonians, Cyrus 
 the Younger, a prince of remarkable capacity, who had formed the" 
 design of employing Greek soldiers and functionaries, and to some extent 
 Greek methods, in the government of Asia, marched up from his satrapy 
 on the sea-coast to dethrone his brother Artaxerxes, taking with him 
 10,000 Greek adventurers, amon^ them Xenophon. When Cyrus fell 
 at' the battle of Cunaxa,_hear Babylon, Xenophon had a principal share 
 in conducting the famous Retreat of the Ten Thousand through regions 
 never before traversed by Greeks to the coast of the Euxine (b.c. 400). 
 His narrative of this wonderful march first revealed to Greece the inter- 
 nal rottenness of the Persian Empire, and led to other attacks iipon it, 
 culminating seventy years later in the decisive expedition of Alexander. 
 Xenophon was a conservative and a disciplinarian. The democratic 
 constitution of Athens was distasteful to him, and he probably could 
 not forgive his fellow-citizens for the execution of Socrates (b.c. 399). 
 Spartan institutions and manners he warmly admired ; and having taken 
 service under Agesilaus for a new expedition to Asia, he fought under 
 him on his homeward march against his own countrymen at Coroneia 
 (b.c. 394). For this they naturally passed a decree of exile against him, 
 and the rest of his life was passed in Peloponnesus. How such conduct 
 would have been judged by Eomans we see by the legend of Coriolanus. 
 But it was common in Greece, and was generally actuated by motives 
 much less respectable than those of Xenophon. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Xenophon: Anabatsis of Cijrua. Diogenes Laertius : ii.^5, 6. Grote: Hist. 
 of Greece, cb. Ixix.-lxxi. .- - - •
 
 Civilisation] PHOCION : EPAMINONDAS 173 
 
 PHOCION, b. 402, d. 317 B.C. 
 
 Born twenty years before Philip, Piiociox outlived Alexander six 
 years. He was forty-five times elected genefar~witSi(5ut once ofiering 
 himself as a candidate. A brave and successful soldier, he was the 
 constant advocate of peace. He was pei'haps the only^ Athenian states- 
 man of his time who was believed by his contemporaries to be 
 incorruptible. To have clean hands was indeed rare at Athens. But 
 with Phocion it "Vfas^uT'oiie manifestation of the pure morality and 
 deep sense of duty which marked the whole of his long career. Although 
 he bitterly opposed the expeditions advocated by Demosthenes, that 
 statesman more than once procured his appointment to command them, 
 knowing that he would do his best, and that his uprightness and 
 humanity won the respect of enemies as well as allies. 
 
 His opposition to the anti-Macedonian policy of Demosthenes is 
 severely blamed by the admirers of Greek democracy. It is not, 
 however, suggested by any author, ancient or modern, that he took 
 this line from want of patriotism or in a jealous factious spirit. He 
 had made up his mind that there was not in Athens the political virtue, 
 steadfastness, or capacity for self-sacrifice that were indispensable if 
 such a conflict was to be waged, I do not say with success, but even 
 with dignity. The mere prospect of defeat would certainly not have 
 daunted him. If his countrymen had been Romans, he would have 
 encouraged them to die in the last ditch. Old age only deepened his 
 conviction of the unfitness of the Greeks for independence, afld in view 
 of the" wonderful development of Macedon he saw that they would do 
 well to accept the position of vassal States under her suzerainty. He 
 therefore entirely disapproved of the hopeless rebellion into which 
 Athens and some other States rushed on the death of Alexander. 
 Nevertheless he fought and won his last battle at the age of eighty. 
 Five years later the antt-Macedonian party having again obtained a 
 momentary preponderance, the popular assembly, without any forms of 
 law and without allowing him to speak in his own defence, voted his 
 death. His last message to his son was an injunction to bear no ill- 
 will against the Athenians. As an orator, Phocion was the most 
 formidable rival of Demosthenes, though his speeches were brief, 
 unadorned, and marked by contempt of his audience. Many of his 
 characteristic sayings are recorded. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Plutarch and Cornelius Nepos: Phocion. Grote : History of Greece, ch. 
 Ixxxviii.-xci., xcv., xcvi. Curtius : History of Greece, bk. vii. ch. iv. 
 
 EPAMINONDAS, b. abt. 418, d. 362 B.C. 
 
 The capture of Athens (b.c. 404), which ended the long Peloponnesian 
 war, left Sparta without a rival in Greece. Her domineering and 
 treacherous conduct soon produced disaft'ection even among her old 
 allies. At Thebes, the chief city of Bosotia, the famous pair of friends, 
 EPAMiyoNDAS and Pelopidas, by a sudden rising, overthrew the philo- 
 Spartan oligarchy (b.c. 379). Hitherto Thebes had not been a State
 
 174 EPAMINONDAS : THEMISTOCLES [Military 
 
 of the first magnitude, nor had her past history been very creditable. 
 The Boeotians were sneered at as a dull and somewhat brutal race, 
 excelling in nothing but athletics. 
 
 All this was changed under the influence of Epaminondas, in whom 
 political and military abilities of the highest order were combined with 
 a" singularly noble and beautiful character. It had been his fortune as 
 a youth to fall under Pythagorean teaching, the only Greek philosophy 
 which, by virtue of the traming which it gave to the heart and character 
 as'wcU as the intellect, deserved to be called a religion. Throughout 
 life he was conspicuous not only for all the qualities and accomplish- 
 ments which often adorned his countrymen, but for the very non-Greek 
 virtues of steadfastness, abnegation, humility, chastity, and absence of 
 jealousy or rancour. His was a most) perfect moral and intellectual 
 nature cultivated to the highest pitch, and placed by good fortune in 
 circumstances which thoroughly tested and displayed it. His impulse 
 and example produced nothing less than a moral and sj^iritual renovation 
 among his fellow-citizens, especially the younger of them, and at once 
 changed the whole face of affairs in Greece. 
 
 At the battle of Leuctra (b.c. 371), the new military drill introduced 
 by Epaminondas, and his masterly tactics, inflicted upon Sparta the 
 first great defeat she had suff'ered in her history. Thebes now became 
 1, the leading State in Greece. It was the aim of Epaminondas to unite 
 the Greek States under the leadership of Thebes in one confederacy in 
 which the independence of each should be respected instead of being 
 crushed as under the Spartan and Athenian supremacies. It was a 
 project impracticable, as we know, but not to be called chimerical. 
 After a splendid career of seventeen years Epaminondas fell at the 
 battle of Mantinea in the moment of victory over the combined armies 
 of Sparta and Athens. Thebes did not maintain her commanding 
 position after his death. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Cornelius Nepos : Eioaminondas and Pelopidas. Plutaich : Pelopidas. 
 Xenophon : Hellenica, vii. Diodonis : xv. Grote T Ilistory of Greece, 
 ch. Ixvi.-lxviii. Cnrtius : History of Greece, bk. vi. ch. i., ii. 
 
 THEMISTOCLES, b. abt. 514, d. abt. 449 B.C. 
 
 Of the eight Greek worthies in the first week of Ctesar six are Athe- 
 nians, one a Spartan, and one a Theban. None of them except Epaminondas 
 appears to have dreamt of unifying Greece,^ Devotion to the interest of 
 their own States so absorbed them as to exclude all thought of a wider 
 incorporation. From this point of view they rank below the humblest 
 heroes of Eome. But they represent — six of them at least--the resist- 
 ance to Persia, "which by its indisputable necessity, its decisive success. 
 
 1 Judfjed by their work, Epaminondas and Phocion would seem to belong 
 rather to the next week as companions, the one of Pericles, the other of Polybius. 
 Rut after much consideration, I have come to the conclusion that Comte placed 
 them in the Calendar simply as remarkable types of the virtuous rnau mixing 
 in politics.
 
 Civilisation] THEMISTOCLES 175 
 
 and its thorough dignity, claims our gratitude no less than our admira- 
 tion" {Pos. Pol. iii. 230). The Persian Empire is to be classed among 
 the Theocracies, because its institutions were based on divine right instead 
 of on the public will, its chiefs were obeyed on account of their birth 
 instead of being chosen for merit, and thought was in bondage to an 
 unprogressive religious belief But it was a "degenerate theocracy," 
 because it had not the industrial and pacific tendencies which normally 
 characterise that phase of civilisation. Asia Minor and Egypt had been 
 rapidly overrun by the highlanders of Persis, who became in effect a 
 dominant military caste, trampling on the submissive populations and 
 dragging their unwarlike levies to carry out further conquests. 
 
 The incoherent, ill-organised empire thus suddenly created was now 
 extending itself to Europe, when its progress was stayed by the resist- 
 ance of Greece. It was the clash, not indeed of two races — for the 
 Persian also was an Aryan, a~were''iii¥iiyT5f"hi§' ni6tIey"Hok---^biit" of 
 t\^' civilisations and religions. They could hot settle down peaceably 
 side' by side. The Orientals felt instinctively that only by subjugating 
 Gtreece could they escape the dissolving revolutionary influence which 
 her proximity had already begun to exert upon Asia. If they had been 
 successful — as they very nearly were — the intellectual movement which 
 Greece alone was then competent to cany forward must have been , 
 seriously impaired if not arrested. It was therefore no accident that .' 
 the conflict was provoked and mainly sustained, not by the warriors of b 
 conservative Sparta, but by the cultured democracy of Athens. If the | 
 excessive subdivision of States and the consequent pettiness of Greek 
 politics excluded statesmanship of the highest order, these very condi- 
 tions were, on the other hand, favourable to intellectual progress, divert- 
 ing as they did the choicest minds from a public career, and enabling 
 thinkers who became obnoxious in one city to retire to another without 
 quitting Greece. From this point of view, even the narrowest form of 
 Greek i)atriotism may be considered to have been not without advantage 
 to Humanity. 
 
 TiiEiiisTocLES, who had distinguished himself at Marathon, became 
 the leading statesman of Athens after the death of Miltiades. He saw 
 ctearty not only that the struggle with Persia would bST^ewed, but that 
 it would be decided by superiority at sea rather than on land. Hitherto 
 Athens had depended oiT her infantry. Themistocles toot advantage of 
 the ten years' respite between Marathon and Salamis to transform her 
 into a maritime power. His p olicv was hotly opposed by Aristides, the f 
 leader of the conservatives; wEo""G^elieved, and rightly, that with mari- j 
 time development old-fashioned principles and institutions would be 
 weakened. 
 
 When Xerxes came the new fleet was the salvation of Greece, j 
 Themistocles commanded it. Although Athens furnished ten times as j 
 many ships as Sparta, with a magnanimity rare among Greeks, he cheer- 
 fully submitted to serve under the Spartan admiral. The Persian fleet was 
 vastly more numerous, and it was with great difficulty that he prevailed 
 on the confederates to nuike a stand off' Artcmisium (b.c. 480). In two 
 battles fought there, indecisive but encouraging for the Greeks, Themi- 
 stocles and his squadron especially distinguished themselves. When
 
 176 THEMISTOCLES : PERICLES [Military 
 
 Xerxes forced Thermopylae and passed into Attica, the Athenians, by the 
 advice of their great leader, left Athens to be burned ; and, having 
 transported their non-combatants to Peloponnesus, made their " wooden 
 walls " their city for the time. The combined fleet was now in the bay 
 of Salamis. 
 
 In the famous council the night before the great battle, Themistocles 
 urged that if they retreated further, as the Peloponnesians selfishly pro- 
 posed, the contingents would disperse to their homes and Greece would 
 be lost. As he earnestly pressed this view, an exasperated opponent 
 lifted his stick. " Strikej..but_ hear .5^6," was the calm reply. Appeals 
 to honour, generosity7"and common sense, proving alike fruitless, the 
 Athenian resorted to the audacious expedient of secretly sending a 
 message to Xerxes that the allies were about to fly and that he would do 
 well to intercept them. When dawn broke, they found themselves 
 I hemmed in. There, by " sea-born Salamis," wa^fought.and-WOa the most 
 / memorable of all battles, ancTeiit or modern (b.c. 480). The overwhelming 
 Persian land-force remained in Greece till the next year, when it was 
 destroyed at Platsea. But Xerxes fled home, scared by another message 
 of simulated friendliness from Themistocles, pretending that the Greek 
 fleet was about to break down the bridge over the Hellespont. When 
 I the commanders met to adjudge the prizes for skill at Salamis, like true 
 ; Greeks each voted the first prize to himself, but a large majority of votes 
 I for the second prize were cast for Themistocles. - 
 
 The Athenians came out of the war covered with glory. But their 
 city being a ruin they were defenceless, and Spartan jealousy would fain 
 have hindered them from rebuilding their walls. Through this crisis too 
 they were piloted by Themistocles with infinite skiU and daring. Athens 
 was re-fortified, and, what was still more important, the harbour Pirseus 
 \ also. 
 
 After these splendid services, it is sad to tell that Themistocles was 
 exUed ; sadder to feel no confidence that he did not deserve it. Accused 
 subsequently of treasonable correspondence with Persia, hunted from one 
 Greek city to another, he at length took refuge with Artaxerxes, and now 
 at all events promised to assist him in subjugating Greece. Many an 
 eminent Greek career is stained with an infamy of this sort. Themi- 
 j stocles was saved from consummating it by death. The good that he did 
 I lives after him ; the evil was interred with his bones. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Herodotus : vii. viii. Tliucydides : i. 89-9-3, 135-138. Plutarch and Cor- 
 nelius Nepos : Themistocles. Grote : History of Greece, ch.xxxyi.-xliy. 
 Pus. Pol. 230, 238. -- — ...,..-.-- 
 
 PERICLES, b. abt. 495, d. 429 B.C. 
 
 Pericles was the leading statesman of Athens for some forty years, 
 during which period she reached her highest point of power and splen- 
 dour. He finally swept away the last traces of aristocratic institutions 
 which had been disappearing one by one since the reforms of Solon. It 
 was Pericles who raised Athens to be an Empire-state. The maritime 
 allies, who had elected her to be their leader in the war against Persia,
 
 Civilisation] PERICLES : PHILIP 177 
 
 were gradually reduced to the position of subjects. Their military service 
 was commuted for money payments, which came to be treated as tribute. 
 Pericles maintained that they had no claim to inquire what was done 
 with it, as long as they were efficiently protected from the Persians. 
 Much of it, therefore, was spent in the adornment of Athens with those 
 splendid works of art of which some of the finest remains are now treasured 
 in the British jVIuseum, and on the religious festivals which, with their 
 poetic and spectixcular accompaniments, rejoiced the hearts and cultivated 
 the taste of poor and rich alike. But the Athenian of the age of Pericles 
 was no idle lounger. He did not sit at home at ease and leave the fight- 
 ing to be done by mercenaries as he did lAter on. As soldier or oarsman 
 "h e acco u.nted it holiday work to do duty in the service of his city ; he 
 use d up h is bocl\- for her as though it had been the body of another." 
 
 Pericles was an able general, but^most distinguished as an orator. In- 
 deed, it was with him that oratory became a political force of the first magni- 
 tude at AtReiis. ""TrnhTs^as in many other respects, the Periclean system 
 contained the' seeds of mischief, nobly as it worked in the hands of its 
 creator. " Powerful from the dignity of his character as well as from 
 his wisdom, and known to be incorruptible, he restrained the people with 
 a free hand, and was their real leader instead of being led by them. For, 
 not being a seeker of favour from unworthy sources, he did not speak with 
 any view to present favour, but had sufficient sense of dignity to contra- 
 dict the people on occasion, even braving their displeasure ; so that in 
 name it was a democracy, but in reality a government by the most eminent 
 citizen. After his death the leading statesmen were more on a level, 
 and in their competition for pre-eminence took to courting the people, 
 sacrificing to that object even important state-interests " (Thuc ii. 65). 
 
 Early in his career Pericles procured a decree inviting Till the States 
 of Greece to hold a congress for the puq^ose of establishing a federate 
 union. He was the first Greek who cherished this aspiration. It met 
 with no encouragement ; but Pericles, no doubt, hoped that an extension 
 of the Athenian Empire would realise the same end in a different way. 
 He entered on the Peloponnesian Ava r, which w as to end twenty-five 
 years'afterhiscTeathm the ruin of Athens, with cTieerftfrc6nMence~The 
 fut lt^rttl OKUiOf rtiTertliose who fell m the first combats, attributed to him 
 bj^Tliucydides, gives a striking and noble picture of Athenian civilisation 
 at its best. His death in the tliu-d year of the war was an irreparable loss 
 to Athens and to Greece. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Tliucj-dtdes : i. and ii. Plutarch : Pericles. Diodorus : xii. Grote : History 
 reecc, ch. xh-.-xlTTT^iu'tius : History of Greece, bk.lii'. iv. 
 
 PHILIP, b. 382, d. 336 B.C. 
 
 The growth of Macedon presents some resemblance to that of Rome. 
 Starting from very small beginnings, she slowly but steadily subjugates 
 lier neighbours of kindred blood during a period of some 350 years. 
 She has to struggle with the Illyrians, as Rome with the Gauls. Her 
 long antagonism to Athens (which began immediately after the Persian 
 invasion) is not unlike the rivalry between Rome and Carthage. On the 
 
 M
 
 178 PHILIP : DEMOSTHENES [Militaky 
 
 one side there is a continent^, power fairly homogeneous in its elements, 
 on the other an ill-cementeoT maritime empire ; while for steadiness of 
 policy the Macedonian dynasty is not unworthy to be compared with the 
 Roman oligarchy. The royal family was allowed to be of Greek 
 blood, and its princes were admitted to contend at the Olympic games. 
 This status was of the highest value to them, and they made the most 
 of it. They admired Greek civilisation, and laboured to introduce it 
 among their subjects. Euripides, Zeuxis, and many other poets and 
 artists were welcomed at their court. 
 
 Philip ii. had been educated at Thebes in the brilliant days of 
 Epaminondas, and was as accbmplished a Greek as Demosthenes him- 
 self. As a soldier he was among the greatest and most creative known 
 to history. The Macedonians had always been warriors ; but Philip 
 made that mighty military machine, the Macedonian army, which under 
 its founder subdued Illyrians, Thracians, and Greeks, and under his son 
 conquered the East. A master of strategy and tactics, his only fault in 
 war was his reckless exposure of his person. For imperial aims and 
 achievements he belongs to the order of the Alexanders, the CsesarSj and 
 the Charlemagnes, Toeing indeed the first man of that type w'ho arose in 
 the West. To State, no less than to army, he gave a new organisation, 
 one which maintained a healthy cohesion down to the last struggle with 
 Rome two centuries later. He proposed to himself to bring Macedonia 
 completely within the Greek state-system ; and then, placing himself at 
 the head of this, to concentrate its energies on the old Greek idea of 
 attack on Persia. In carrying out this aim he studiously moved in the 
 paths marked out by Greek history. The only type of union known or 
 possible was the federative. He was careful, tlierefore, to avoid the 
 appearance of conquest, and to figure as the instrument of the Amphic- 
 tyonic Council, the venerable Diet recently resuscitated by Epaminondas, 
 which sat at Delphi, the religious centre of Greece. By the battle of 
 Chaeronea, B.C. 338, in which lie defeated the combined Athenians and 
 Thebans, his projects were at length realised] Proceeding to Corinth, "Ke 
 convoked a congress which was attended by all the Greek States except 
 Sparta, who stood aloof in sulky insignificance. Tliere war was declared 
 against Persia, and Philip was elected generalissimo of the federal army. 
 But while preparing for the invasion, his career was cut short by an 
 assassin in the 47th year of his age. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Diodorus : xvi. Demosthenes, ^schine.s, Isocrates : Orations. Plutarcli : 
 Demosthenes, Pliocion, Alexander. Grote ; Hist, of Greece, cliTTxxxvi.- 
 xc. Ourtius : Hist, of Greece, bk. vii. 
 
 DEMOSTHENES, b. 385, d. 322 B.C. 
 
 As an orator Demosthenes stands alone, unapproached l)y any rival 
 ancient or modern. The majesty and beauty of his diction are not 
 hidden from us even by a dead language, while his dialectical skill, his 
 persuasiveness, his invective, and, above all, the lofty ethical character 
 of his appeals, lose nothing by translation. But it is as an Athenian 
 statesman that we have to judge him here. Like Hannibal and many
 
 CiviLisATiox] DEMOSTHENES : PTOLEMY I. 179 
 
 another admirable champion of conquered- causes, he devoted splendid 
 talents and a grand character to resisting a destiny which, as we can now 
 see, it would have been wise to accept. Himself animated by a generous 
 Pan-hellenic patriotism, he could not endure to learn the bitter lesson 
 that the vices and defects of Greek politics were incurable, and that, 
 though !1ae advantages of Macedonian leadership might be marred and 
 nullified by irreconcilable hostility, the thing itself, in better or worse 
 form, could not be escaped. Accordingly, from the moment when Philip 
 began to interfere in Greece he fo und a vigilant and unwearied opponent 
 in Demosthenes. The Athenians' of lTiar"c^~though coveting'"6nTprf e 
 frS"miicL as ever, were not as ready for personal sacrifice as in the time 
 of Pericles. Their armies were oftener composed of mercenaries than of 
 citizens, and the funds which should have equipped fleets were lavished 
 on the religious festivals and artistic displays so dear to that cultivated 
 populace. Demosthenes, at much risk not only of unpojjularity but of 
 punishment, strove, and not without some success, to reform these abuses 
 and to inspire his countrymen with the ardour and energy of other days. 
 But the reforms and the martial revival came too late. In another 
 direction he laboured to compose the fatal feuds between the leading 
 Greek States, and to transform their inveterate jealousies into a noble 
 emulation for the defence of their common independence, threatened by 
 Macedon. The crowning triumpU of the patriot orator was when he 
 confronted the ambassadors of Philip at Thebes, and by his glorious 
 eloquence prevailed on the old enemies of his city to forget their grudge 
 and join with Athens in striking a last blow for the liberties of Greece. 
 Side by side stood the citizen soldiers of Athens and Thebes on the 
 fatal field of Chseronea, and together they went down before the trained 
 battalions of JTJTOclon, the genius of Philip, and the fiery valour of the 
 youthful Alexander. The " sacred band " of Thebes, the old companions 
 of Epaminondas, died to a man, and 1000 Athenians lay beside them. 
 But Demosthenes, who had himself served in the ranks on that terrible 
 day, could proudly aver that he would never repent of the resolve which 
 had saved the honour of his beloved city though all else Avere lost. 
 
 Sixteen years afterwards, on the death of Alexander, Demosthenes 
 again endeavoured to rouse the Greeks against Macedon. But the 
 insurrection was soon suppressed, and the orator took poison that he 
 might not fall into the hands of the victors. He was 63 when he died. 
 His " Philippics " and his noble oration On the Croivn, which contains Jf 
 the defence of his career, have often been translated. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Demosthenes: Orations. Phitarch : Demosthenes. Grote : Ilisl. of Greece, 
 'cTf. lxxX\ii.-xci. xcv. Ctirtins : ITist. of Greece, blcT^nu 
 
 PTOLEMY I., b. abt. 367-357, d. 283 B.C. 
 
 Of all the generals Avho surrounded Alexander, none distinguished 
 himself more highly or was more trusted by his master than Ptolemy, 
 the son of Lagus. In the division of Alexander's empire he secured 
 Egypt, wliich he governed for thirty-eight years with great prudence and 
 an enlightened care for the material interests of the country. His chief 
 
 f/
 
 180 PTOLEMY : PHILOPCEMEN [Military 
 
 title to fame, however, is his foundation of the celebrated " Museum " of 
 Alexandria, a sort of University, which he intended mainly for the 
 promotion and diffusion of science, though it was soon overrun by mere 
 literary men and metaphysicians. Among the men of science who were 
 more or less connected with it may be mentioned Herophilus, Erasi- 
 stratus, Galen, Euclid, Hero, Ctesibius, Pappus, ApoUonius, Aristarchus, 
 Eratosthenes, Sosigenes (?), Ptolemy, Hipparchus, all of them in the 
 Calendar. Ptolemy wrote a valuable history of the campaigns of 
 Alexander. He resigned the throne two years before his death, in order 
 to ensure the succession of his youngest son Ptolemy ii. (Philadelphus), 
 whom he believed the fittest to take his place. Philadelphus worthily 
 protected and developed the Museum. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Diodorus : xvii.-xx. Tliirlwall : Hist, of Greece, eli. Ivi-lx. Pos. Pol. iii. 
 264-5. 
 
 / PHILOPCEMEN, b. 252, d. 183 B.C. 
 
 After the death of Alexander the Great, the Macedonian kings, 
 although retaining many strong places in Greece, and exercising a pre- 
 ponderant influence there, were unable to establish a state of things 
 corresponding to the " Eoman Peace." The Greek States continued to 
 fight with each other, and sometimes with Macedon. In Peloponnesus 
 arose the Achaean League, a federation of the smaller States, exhibiting 
 somewhat more of organisation and cohesion than had been attained in 
 previous attempts of the same kind. Its general policy was to co-operate 
 with the Macedonian kings and obtain their support against the Spartans 
 and ^tolians. Its most distinguished leader was the Arcadian Philo- 
 r(EMf:x, a brave and talented general and an honest patriot, who has 
 ' been called " the last of the Greeks." " His "aim was to persuade or com- 
 pel as many Stales as possible to join the Acha-an League, so that it 
 might become really as well as nominally independent of Macedon. But 
 , the wearisome permutations and combinations of Greek politics were 
 1 now to be brought to an end by the a])pearance of the Romans on the 
 jl scene. Reluctantly the Achiieans joined them against Philip v. of 
 Macedon. After the defeat of Philip at Cynoscephake, b.c. 197, the 
 Romans, who had a genuine and even exaggerated respect for the culture 
 and ancient renown of Greece, were willing to leave the various States 
 j in independence if they would remain qxiiet. But the Achaans cherished 
 j the illusion that their League might go on enlarging itself. The other 
 States, when threatened with absorption, of course appealed to Rome, 
 and her constant interferences to settle their disputes could not but end 
 i in the complete subjugation of Greece. In an attempt to reduce the 
 i Messenians, who had seceded from the League, Philopoemen was taken 
 I prisoner, and put to death in his 70th year. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Plutarch : I'h ilnpcrmrn. Polybius : bk, x.-xxiv. Thirhvall : Hist, nf Graxe, 
 ch. Ixii.-lxv.
 
 Civilisation] POLYBIUS : ALEXANDER 181 
 
 POLYBIUS, b. abt. 204, d. abt. 122 B.C. 
 
 Lycortas, an Arcadian, the father of Polybius, became General of 
 the Achaean League on the death of Philopcemen, at whose obsequies 
 Polybius carried the funeral urn. The young man was early intrusted 
 with high military and diplomatic functions. The condition of Greece 
 had now become more frightful than at any period of her past history. 
 Relieved by Rome from the pressure of Macedon, she was torn by in- 
 cessant petty wars which had degenerated into mere brigandage. In 
 fact, she was rapidly relapsing into barbarism. In the final struggle 
 between Rome and Macedon, Polybius wisely advised the League to 
 side with Rome. Nevertheless, after the decisive battle of Pydna (see 
 life of ^milius PauUus), when the Senate determined to transport all the 
 leading men of Greece to Italy, Polybius was among them. Here he 
 became an honoured inmate of the house of PauUus, and a warm friend 
 of his son, the worthy Scipio ^milianus. Filled with respect and admira- 
 tion for the qualities and career of Rome, and judging them with a large 
 philosophic insight not at that time to be found among the Romans 
 themselves, he conceived the design of writing his great historical work 
 on the rise, growth, and causes of the Roman supremacy. The fragments 
 of this which have been preserved are among the most valuable relics of 
 antiquity. " Lender Theocracy history was merely biographical. In the 
 freer atmosphere of Greece it improved by assuming a collective char- 
 acter. On the other hand, it lost by becoming a simple narrative, without 
 any social purpose, and therefore less fraught with moral significance 
 than the biography which it superseded. Roman thinkers, trained in 
 the arena of public life, gave it, once for all, a decided if empirical 
 tendency to grasp the true filiation of events afi'ecting humanity. The 
 connecting link between the two methods is furnished by the great 
 Polybius. He was the last organ of Greek sociology ; but his qualities 
 were developed under the ascendancy of Rome, with which he nobly 
 identified himself, and from which he acquired the universality which 
 is his distinguishing feature " (Pos. Pol. iii. 335). Returning to Greece, 
 after seventeen years of exile, Polybius strove to prevent his countrymen 
 from rushing into their last mad struggle with Rome ; and after their 
 final subjugation his influence at Rome was used to alleviate the terms 
 imposed upon them. The settlement and organisation of the new pro- 
 vince was indeed largely intrusted to him, and in carrying it out he 
 earned the warm gratitude of his countrymen. [E. S. B.] 
 
 M<any statements about himself scattered throngli his History. Thirlwall : 
 Hist, of Greece, ch. Ixvi. Ihue : Hist, of Rome, bk. v. ch. iii. iv. 
 
 ALEXANDER, b. 356, d. 323 B.C. 
 
 Before the Macedonian era Greece, so far from doing anything 
 towards incorporating the ancient world, had utterly failed in the 
 necessary preliminary of unifying herself Nay, she had become more 
 and more incapable of it ; for if it had ever been possible it was at the 
 moment of the repulse of Xerxes. After Epaminondas, every Greek
 
 182 ALEXANDER [Military 
 
 community was stale and used up. Yet never was Greece more military. 
 Only, instead of serving as citizen soldiers, the warlike spirits were 
 mercenaries roaming over Greece and Asia, and ready to fight for 
 any one who would pay them. It was time that the task of incorpora- 
 tion should be taken up from without. 
 
 The Macedonians were of the same stock as the Greeks. Their 
 lancfuacre probably did not differ from Greek more than French does 
 from Italian. Their manners and institutions were simply those of the 
 Homeric age. In short, they were just backward Greeks. Yet in the 
 eyes of their vaifi and arrogant kinsmen they were foreigners speaking 
 an outlandish jargon, and therefore to be classed with Persians and 
 Thracians, as outside the pale of civilisation. But they only needed 
 access to the sea, from which they had been at first cut off by a coast- 
 fringe of Greek settlements, to make a rapid rise in civilisation ; and 
 they had two qualifications for empire which no Greek State possessed — 
 incontestable superiority in strength' and stalale political institutions. 
 If the Greeks could have purged themselves of their paltry conceit and 
 dropped their petty conception of nationality, they might have settled 
 down into a confederacy under the leadership of Macedon, and so 
 perhaps have escaped the more alien domination of Eome. 
 
 The week of Alexander includes Philip, his great precursor, and 
 Ptolemy, his principal successor ; Greeks who aimed at confederation, 
 such as Pericles and Demosthenes, and Greeks who wisely acquiesced in 
 incorporation from without, such as Philopamen and Polybius. 
 
 The biographies of Philip and Demosthenes describe the rise of the 
 Macedonian power. Alexander iii. was educated by Aristotle, whom 
 Philip invited to his court for that purposed! Siicceedihg "His father at 
 the age of 20, he spent the first year of his reign in consolidating his 
 power in Europe. In 334 he crossed into Asia, whence he was never to 
 return. His army of 35,000 men was, for training, scientific organisa- 
 tion, variety of equipment and adaptation, incomparably superior to 
 anything the world had yet seen ; and the military genius of its leader 
 has perhaps only been paralleled by Hannibal and Bonaparte. The 
 remaining eleven years of his short life were spent in almost continuous 
 marching and campaigning. Traversing Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and 
 Palestine, he entered Egypt ; thence back into Mesopotamia, and so 
 by Babylon and Susa to Persepolis in Farsistan. Then turning north to 
 Ecbatana (Hamadan), and skirting the southern shore of the Caspian, he 
 passed out of the modern kingdom of Persia by way of Meschid, and, 
 crossing the Paropamisus, descended by Herat to Candahar. Thence by 
 way of Calnil, Balkh, and Samarcand he penetrated to the Jaxartes (Syr- 
 Daria) in the Khanate of Khokand, the northernmost point of his 
 conquests. Returning to Cabul, he sent a division down the Khyber 
 Pass, himself marching through Kaffiristan to the Indus. Crossing that 
 river near Attock, he pushed through the Punjaub to the Sutlej, with 
 the intention of conquering India. But his soldiers refused to follow 
 him further, so, unwillingly retracing his steps, he passed down the Indus 
 to its mouth and thence through Beluchistan and Persia to Babylon. 
 : There he died, at the age of 32, from a fever brought on by excessive 
 drinkintr, fr. which, like his father, he was addicted.
 
 Civilisation] ALEXANDER : BRUTUS 183 
 
 The stupendous achievements of Alexander, their far-reaching political 
 importance — affecting the world as they did for many centuries after his 
 death — and their yet more important result, t he wide diffusio n of Greek 
 art, science, and philosophy, make it impossible to deny him "the title of 
 ""^eatT^ which the common consent of mankind has added to his 
 name^'or to give him any lower position in the Calendar than Comte 
 has assigned him. Yet it must be confessed that in his character and 
 career there is too much that reminds us of Bonaparte. There is the 
 same o verween ing egotism, the same insatiate thirst for what the 
 Corsican''called""glory," the same appetite for adulation, the same brutal 
 contempt for other human beings whether friends or foes. There are 
 atSb the frenzied outbursts of passion which Bonaparte only simulated. 
 And as alffliese vices were growing upon him with appalling rapidity, it 
 was well for him and for others that his career closed so early. But 
 Alexander is lifted from the level of Bonaparte by the fact that his 
 principal work, the overthrow of Persia, was indispensable for the due 
 development of ancient civilisation. Anterior Asia, at all events, 
 became more orless Hellenised ; and the danger in after ages from the 
 Arsacids, from Timur and from Zenghis, must make us hesitate to 
 condemn his attempt to bridle the barbarous Turanians of Central Asia. 
 But his invasion of India, like the march to Moscow, was prompted by 
 a diseased craving for universal dominion and a vulgar desire to 
 dazzle mankind. 
 
 He was contemplating, and would doubtless have effected, the 
 conquest of Carthage and of Italy, where Rome had just entered on the 
 Samnite War. This would have been an unmixed evil. His vast 
 empire was carved up by his generals into several kingdoms, the chief 
 of which, Macedon, Syria, and Egypt, remained under Macedonian 
 dynasties till their subjugation by Rome. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Airian : Anabasis of Alexander. Quintus Curthis : History of Alexander. 
 Plutarch: Alexander. Grote : History of Greece, vol. xii. cli. xci.-xcv. 
 
 BRUTUS {Lxicius Junius Brutus), d. abt. 509 B.C. 
 
 There is no reason to doubt that such a person as Brutus may have 
 existed, and have played a leading part in the expulsion of the Tarquins, 
 which undoubtedly took place about B.C. 510. But his stor}'- is evi- 
 dently legendary, and we have no means of sifting from it any facts it 
 may contain. None the less properly may we treat him as a type of 
 early Roman manners— a type all the more perfect because delineated 
 by an unconscious poetry. Like many another legendary hero, he is at 
 once the idealised reflection of the life and conduct prevailing in early 
 Rome and the model after which they were shaped. The early Romans, 
 like all the peoples of the military West, consisted of but two castes : 
 the nobles, combining priestly and military functions (Patricians), and 
 the non-noble Freemen (Plebeians), who also are fighting men. There 
 is a king, more or less controlled by a Senate of Patricians ; while in the 
 Assembly of the whole people the Plebeians have a recognised place, 
 though their attitude is usually passive and acquiescent. The theocratic
 
 184 BRUTUS : CAMILLUS [Military 
 
 principles of Birth and Divine Right, though stunted, are still at this 
 stage preponderant. But warlike manners tend to undermine these 
 principles, and to substitute for them the qualification of Capacity and 
 the institution of Election. The first step in this direction is when 
 Royalty is superseded (actually, as at Rome and Athens, or virtually, as 
 at Sparta) by an Oligarchy of the Noble caste. According to the story, 
 Kincr Tarquin the Proud made himself odious to both Patricians and 
 Plebeians by his tyranny. At last, an outrage committed by his sou 
 Sextus on the noble matron Lucretia, followed by her suicide, produced 
 an outburst headed by Brutus, a Patrician, who swore to avenge her 
 death. The Tarquins were expelled, and Brutus was elected Consul. 
 Having detected his sons in a conspiracy for restoring the royal family, 
 he sentenced them to death, and himself looked on while they were 
 scourged and beheaded before his tribunal : his countenance, says Livy, 
 betraying the anguish of the father, though he inflexibly discharged the 
 oifice of the magistrate. In a battle shortly afterwards, Brutus met a 
 son of Tarquin in single combat, and both were slain. In this famous 
 legend the two leading obligations of Roman morality, duty to family 
 and duty to country, are exhibited in conflict, and the subordination of 
 the former to the latter is firmly marked. The greatest of Roman poets, 
 though, as usual, striking a note of modern feeling, looks at the deed of 
 Brutus with the eyes of a Roman. St. Augustin, as might be expected, 
 has no sympathy with the heathen patriot. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Livy : 1. 59, 60 ; ii. 1-7. Plutarch : Puhlicola. Virgil : jEneid, vi. 817. St. 
 Augustin : de Civ. Dei, iii. 16. Cicero : de Rep. ii. 25. Arnold : 
 Hist, of Rome, vol. i. eh. vii. "^ - ' ' 
 
 CAMILLUS {Marmis Furius Camillus), b. abt. 445, d. 365 B.C. 
 
 The tendency of military manners to supersede the principles of 
 Birth and Divine Right by those of Merit and Election could not stop 
 short at the abolition of Royalty in favour of Aristocracy. The Plebeians, 
 being a part of the armed host, did not remain contented with the mere 
 suffrage. They claimed eligibility to office, and Rome was long torn 
 by an agitation for the abolition of Patrician privileges. Nevertheless, 
 the legends proudly tell how, in the face of danger from Avithout, both 
 castes generally suspended their quarrels, and vied with one another in 
 a generous devotion to their common country. The Patricians to some 
 extent justified their monopoly of office by the skill, courage, and tenacity 
 which the Senate exhibited, no less in its policy towards neighbouring 
 states than in its resistance to Plebeian demands. The final victory of 
 the Plebeians in b.c. 367, Mhen one consulship Avas secured to them by 
 the Licinian Law, was at once a consecpience of the progress of military 
 manners and a cause of the widely extended warlike activity which 
 immediately followed. Camillus, who lived during the latter period of 
 the straggle between the orders, is one of the most characteristic types 
 of the aristocracy. His conquest of Veil after a ten years' siege marks 
 decisively the decline of the Etruscan power, which at one time had 
 threatened to crush the Latin-speaking peoples. By this and other
 
 Civilisation] CAMILLUS : CINCINNATUS 185 
 
 achievements he attained a moi'e commanding position than any Eoman 
 before him. But, as he was a resolute champion of Patrician privileges, 
 now tottering to their fall, he was driven into exile, praying, it is said, 
 that his ungrateful country might soon need his services. The next 
 year (b.c. 390) a roving band of Gauls defeated the Romans at the battle 
 of the Allia, burnt Rome, and besieged the Capitol. But when the 
 beleaguered fortress Avas at the last extremity, Camillas appeared at the 
 head of an army of Eoman fugitives and other Latins, and in a great 
 battle cut the Gauls to pieces. This part of the story is not entitled to 
 credit. But that the Gauls disappeared as suddenly as they had come, 
 and that Rome rose from her ashes with her power unimpaired, is 
 evident. Whatever was the real share of Camillus in these events, he 
 was ever afterwards celebrated as "the second founder of Rome." The 
 Plebeians, according to the legend, hendtidijy^their tribunes, proposed a 
 migration from the ruins of Rome to the vacant city of Veil. But 
 Camillus and the Patricians resisted so shameful and impious a desertion 
 of the consecrated spot, and their healthy and fiir-sighted conservatism 
 at length prevailed. During tlie remaining years of his life C^amillus 
 enjoyed unprecedented influence, which he increased by many other 
 military achievements. As the trusted leader of the Patricians, he 
 long and obstinately opposed the bill of Licinius. But when further 
 resistance seemed likely to result in civil war, he wisely and patriotically 
 prevailed on his order to accept a compromise Avhich only veiled their 
 complete surrender. The last act of Camillus thus connects his name 
 with a decisive moment in the history of Rome. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Livy : v. vi. Phitarch s.. Camillus. Arnold : Hist, of Rome, ch. xviii. 
 XIX. xxiv.-xxv'T 
 
 CINCINNATUS {Lncius Quindius (Hncinnatns), b. abt. 519, 
 d. after 439 B.C. 
 
 The life of Cincinnatus covers the first half of the period between the 
 abolition of R?5yaTEy~aii(T' the Licinian Law, as that of Camillus covers 
 the latter half. He was appointed Dictator b.c. 458, when news had 
 suddenly come that the Consul and his army were surrounded and in 
 danger of destruction. The deputation sent by the Senate to fetch the/; 
 old general found him ploughing on his estate of four acres. Within' ' 
 sixteen days he beat the enemy and laid down the dictatorship, which he 
 might have held for six months. The legend illustrates several charac- , 
 teristics of the Patrician ascendancy. All Patricians are essentially equal j 
 whether they are rich or poor. Extraordinary emergencies make it neces- 
 sary occasionally to select leaders for their merit, but even then only 
 within the Patrician order and for a short time, which a Patrician well 
 trained in oligarchic principles will make shorter if he can. The contempt 
 of uTilitary antiquity for manual labour is at Rome subject to one excep- 
 tion : to till one's own land with one's own hands is no dishonour (Cicero, 
 (k Sen. 10). Cincinnatus was an obstinate defender of Patrician privilege, 
 and at the age of 80 was again appointed Dictator in order to shed the 
 blood of the popular leader Spurius ]\I;(lius. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Livy, iii. 26, iv. 13. Arnold : IJisinrii of Huriii', ch. vi. wii.
 
 186 FABRICIUS : REGULUS [Military 
 
 FABRICIUS {Caius Fahricius lAiscimis), beginning of 3rd 
 Century b.c. 
 
 The political equalisation of the Patrician and Plebeian castes was soon 
 followed by an immense increase of military activity. At the Licinian 
 legislation (b.c. 367), the Roman territory, though it had been steadily 
 growing for at least four centuries, had a coast-line of only 60 miles, 
 and did not extend inland across the Apennines. In another 100 
 years Rome was mistress of Italy, and the first military power of the 
 world. The so-called Republic was still practically governed by an oli- 
 garchy, but an oligarchy recruited from the richest plebeian families 
 equally trained in the old Roman system, and inheriting the old sena- 
 torial traditions. Fabricius is a good type of this renovated governing 
 class. As a general he distinguished himself (b.c. 285-275) in the sub- 
 jugation of South Italy and the war with Pyrrhus. But he is more 
 famous for his poverty and stern integrity. That he should have refused 
 the invitation of Pyrrhus to become his most trusted officer and coun- 
 sellor was a matter of course, and would have been so at any period 
 of Roman history. Both the invitation and its rejection are eminently 
 characteristic of the difference between Greek and Roman notions of 
 patriotism. But in refusing the king's gold Fabricius showed a delicacy 
 to which most Roman generals of the next century were strangers. As 
 little were they disposed to imitate the chivalrous feeling which led him 
 and his colleague ^milius to denounce to Pyrrhus the olfer of his physi- 
 cian to poison the great enemy of Rome. As Censor, he expelled from 
 the Senate Rufinus, the ablest general of the day, for possessing ten pounds 
 weight of silver plate. At his death his daughters were portioned by the 
 Senate, and he received the singular honour of burial within the city 
 precincts. ' [E. S. B.] 
 
 Plutarcli : Pyrrlius. V.il. Max. : iv. 3, 6. Livy : Epit. xiii. xiv. Arnold : 
 HlMory of Home, ch. xxxvi.-xxxviii. 
 
 REGULUS {Marcus Atilius Regulns) d. abt. 250 B.C. 
 
 la the ninth year of the first Punic War (B.C. 256), Regulus, then Con- 
 sul for the second time, after a great naval victory landed in Africa, and 
 at first carried all before him, reducing Carthage to the brink of ruin. 
 But next year he was defeated and taken prisoner. Five years later he 
 was allowed to accompany a Carthaginian embassy to Rome in order to 
 obtain peace or an exchange of prisoners, giving his word to return if 
 the proposal were rejected. The Senate wavered. But Regulus exhorted 
 them to pursue the war to the bitter end. As for an exchange of prisoners, 
 Romans who had allowed themselves to be disarmed and bound were not 
 worth recovering, and the precedent would be dangerous. Well did he 
 know what tortures awaited him at Carthage. But none the less firmly 
 (lid he turn his back on Rome, keeping his eyes fixed on the ground, 
 putting aside the hands of friends and the embrace of wife and children 
 us u dishonoured man, no longer a citi/.en of Rome but a slave of Carthage.
 
 Civilisation] KEGULUS : HANNIBAL 187 
 
 On his return, says the story, which in this particular at least is pro- 
 bably untrue (see Ihne, ii. 80 ; Mommsen, ii. 46), he was put to death 
 with horrible tortures. True or not, we cannot doubt the powerful effect 
 of this famous story as an example of devoted patriotism and strict 
 honour. . [E. S. B.] 
 
 Cicero : de Off. iii. 26. Val. Max. : 1. 1, ix. 2. Liyy : Epit. xviii. 
 ArnoHT History o£_Romej^ch. xl. The noble Ode of Horace, iii. 5, 
 shduTcT "be reacT 
 
 HANNIBAL, b. 247, d. 183-181 B.C. 
 
 If the ancient world was to be incorporated, it was necessary that one 
 State should conquer all the rest. As soon, therefore, as the growing 
 Empires of Rome and Carthage came into contact an internecine conflict 
 was inevitable. Hamilcar, whose grand character and brilliant military 
 qualities had not saved his country from defeat in the first Punic War, 
 formed the plan of creating a Carthaginian Empire in Spain, from which 
 Rome might be again attacked. He took with him his son Hannibal, i 
 then nine years old, whom he had already bound by an oath never to be 
 a friend with the Romans. Hamilcar carried out the first part of his 
 plan with consummate skill ; and when, 17 years afterwards, his son suc- 
 ceeded to the command in Spain everything was ready for the decisive 
 struggle. 
 
 In 218 B.C., Hannibal executed his wonderful march over the Pyre- 
 nees and Alps into Italy, and commenced the long career of victory which 
 ranks him among the^reatest generals of all time, if indeed he be not 
 t he great est" frTThe nrsf three years he smote Home iii three terrible 
 battles at tbe Trebia, Trasimenus, and Cannte. But, contrary to his 
 expectations, the Italians for the most part remained faithful to Rome. 
 In the eighth year he pushed up to the very walls of Rome, hurling his 
 javelin into the city in defiance. In the twelfth year, his gallant brother 
 Hasdrubal, who had marched from Spain to reinforce him, was defeated 
 and 'slam"i\t the great battle of the Metaurus, celebrated in a fine ode of 
 Horace (iv. 4) as having at last fre'ed Rome from the terror of " the fell 
 African." But for four years longer, though too weak for offensive opera- 
 tions, Hannibal remained in South Italy, no Roman general venturing to 
 disturb him ; and it was not till he was summoned to defend Carthage 
 itself that he quitted Italy (203 B.C.), where during 16 years, though 
 meeting with occasional checks, he had never suffered a defeat. He was 
 now 45, and had not seen his native land since he had sailed with his 
 father to Spain I T he decis ive victory of Scipio at Zama (202 b.c.) 
 detracts nothing fronr the niiTltafy reputation of the great Carthaginian. 
 Carthage was in ett'ect beaten already. Her last hope of success had 
 vanished at the Metaurus. 
 
 With clear judgment and undiscouraged patriotism, Hanniljal now 
 insisted on the necessity of accepting the Roman terms, however hard, and 
 with his own hands pulled down from the platform a passionate orator 
 who called for further resistance. Though Carthage had to accept the 
 position of a dependent State, Hannibal patiently worked at reforming
 
 188 HANNIBAL : PAULLUS : MARIUS [Military 
 
 her constitution and repairing her losses, in order to be ready for any 
 opportunity that might arise. Chased from his country by the jealousy 
 of Rome, he fled to her new enemy Antiochus of Syria, and urged him 
 to employ his resources in enabling Carthage to renew the struggle. The 
 advice was not accepted ; and, on the defeat of the king, Hannibal was 
 hunted by the Roman envoys from one kingdom to another, till at length, 
 despairing of escape, he terminated his life by poison in Bithynia. 
 
 The career of this great citizen and warrior is to be regarded not as a 
 Ijrotest against the incorporating work undertaken by Rome, but as an 
 attempt to secure the direction of that work for Carthage. It was 
 unfortunate, though inevitable, that their respective qualifications for the 
 task could only be tested by a struggle which annihilated one civilisation 
 and seriously injured the other. Three statues of Hannibal were stand- 
 ing in Rome in the time of Pliny. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Livy : xxi.-xxxix. Cornelius Nepos : Hannibal. Polybius : iii. vii. viii. 
 ix. xiv. XV. Appian : vii. Plutarch : Marcelliis, Fahius. Arnold ; 
 Hist, of Rome, ch. xlii.-xlvii. Mommsen : Hist, of Rome, bk. iTl. 
 
 PAULLUS [Lucius ^milius Paulhat Macedonicus), 
 b. 230, d. 160 B.C. 
 
 After the subjugation of Carthage, Macedonia was the only military 
 State of importance left to face Rome. The incompetence of the Roman 
 generals delayed her fall. For when danger from without had ceased, 
 the oligarchical system was not likely to bring the best men to the front. 
 At last men turned to Paullus, son of the Consul who "flung away his 
 noble life when Carthage triumphed " on the day of Cannae, and brother- 
 in-law of the great Scipio. He was an aristocrat of a type then becoming 
 rare, proud oi^ his ancient lineage, disdaining popular arts, a good soldier, 
 a strict disciplinarian, and unsoiled by the bribes and plunder in which 
 most Roman generals were beginning to indulge and by means of which 
 they bought their way to office. Elected Consul for 168 B.C., he speedily 
 finished the Macedonian war by the decisive victorv of Pydna. 
 
 [E. S. B.] 
 
 Livy: xl. 2.5-28, xliv. 17, xlv. 41. Phitaroh : ^mUias Paullus. Ihne : 
 , Hist. (,f Homo, Ilk. V. ch. iii. 
 
 r MARIUS [Caius Marian), b. 157, d. 86 B.C. 
 
 After Pydna tlie senatorial government rapidly deteriorated. The 
 magistracies, legally open to all, were practically monopolised by a ring of 
 rapacious nobles, who used their plunder to get offices and their offices to 
 get j^lunder. The gradual extension of citizenship to the Italians was 
 suspended. l)oniinion grew, but not real strength. ^Military disasters 
 and disgraces thickened. Generals were corrupt and incompetent, 
 soldiers undisciplined and demoralised. Marius, who was to mend 
 some at least of these evils, was a native of the Volscian district of 
 Arpinum, which had received Roman citizenship only 31 years before
 
 Civilisation] MARIUS 189 
 
 his birth. His youth was passed in rustic work. At 23 he was 
 serving in Spain under Scipio ^milianus, who formed the highest 
 opinion of his military qualities. He was a man of the old-fashioned 
 Italian type — honest, fruga^l, laborious, narrow, rugged to coarseness, 
 loudly contemptuous not only of luxury but of refinement and culture, 
 impatient of aristocratic insolence, proud of being a self-made man. 
 These traits were strengthened by his uphill struggle till middle age. 
 Though he distinguished himself as a soldier at every opportunity, his 
 rise was slow, young nobles passing over his head. We do not hear of 
 him as supporting the revolution of the Gracchi. Perhaps he was on 
 military service. But four years after the fall of C. Gracchus we find 
 him as Tribune preparing reforms. The reactionary terror was still fresh, 
 and the nobles thought to intimidate him. But Marius, calling his 
 beadle into the senate-house, told him to carry one of the Consuls 
 to prison, and the Senate gave way. He was then 38. He did not 
 obtain the consulship till he was 50, and then only after a stormy 
 candidature, during which he belaboured the nobles with coarse but 
 well -deserved vituperation. His immediate task was to finish the jfl 
 tedious war with the Numidian Jugurtha. The right man was at last p 
 in the right place. A hardy innTlVdl'm, he trampled on the antiquated 
 rule of enlisting only citizens who had some property. Owing to the 
 land-grabbing of the nobles, Rome now swarmed with a landless pro- 
 letariate, and from these Marius took his recruits. Thus did he lay the jj 
 foundation of the New Roman Army, the finest the world has seen, | j 
 which saved ancie'nt' civilisation for another five hundred years — the army 
 of Caesar and Tiberius, of Trajan and Aurelian. It was not too soon. 
 The barbarian cloud, always overhanging the northern horizon, was about 
 to burst, and the decaying Republic was in no condition to abide the 
 storm. Five great Roman armies had been cut to pieces beyond the Alps 
 by the Cimbri and Teutoni. Fortunately these migrating hordes pressed 
 on into Spain before turning back upon Italy, Avhich thus obtained a 
 respite of three years. Marius, returning triumphant from Africa, was 
 elected Consul five years in succession. While awaiting the barbarians, 
 he completely transformed the Roman military system, changing its 
 organisation, equipment, tactics, drill, and even its arms. When the 
 shock at last came he was ready for it. The Teutoni were annihilated 
 at Aqufe Sextia:' in 102 b.c, and the Cimbri near Verona in 101. The 
 career of Marius during the sixteen remaining years of his life was 
 eventful, but not glorious. The unprecedented continuity of his consul- 
 ships had been a virtual eftacemeut of the Senate. But as a politician, 
 though restless and aspiring, he had neither genius nor decision, and so 
 missed his unequalled opportunity of burying the senatorial government, 
 enfranchising the Italians, and anticipating the work of Ca'sar. The 
 nobility found their champion in Sulla, an extraordinary man, the master 
 of ilarius at every point. CliTTsetl by the mob from Rome, Sulla 
 promptly returned at the head of an army, and Marius had to fly for his 
 life. When his rival had gone to Asia to fight Alitl^iridates, the old 
 general came back, his violent temper soured by failure, and at the head 
 of the democratic l)arty wreaked a sanguinary vengeance on his enemies. 
 In the midst of these terrible scenes he was carried ofi' by disease in
 
 y' 
 
 190 MARIUS : THE GRACCHI [Militaet 
 
 the 71st year of his age — "happiest of Romans," says the ancient poet, 
 "happiest of mankind, had his glorious soul but taken flight at that 
 supreme moment when he stepped down from the triumphal chariot 
 after his Teutonic victory." [E. S. B.] 
 
 Sallust : Jugurtha. Plutarch : Marias. Appian : Civil Wars, i. Mommsen : 
 JIis(. of Rome, bk". iv. Ihne : Hist, of Eonie, "blcTVii. ch. vii. xviii. Pos. 
 Pol. iii. 326. 
 
 THE GRACCHI. 
 
 Tiberius Hempronius Gracchus, b. 169, d. 133 B.C. 
 Caius Sempronius Gracchus, b. 160, d. 121 B.C. 
 
 The grasping Roman nobles not only bought out the peasant pro- 
 prietors, but monopolised the public domain, nominally as tenants-at-will 
 of the State, but practically as if it was their freehold. The earlier 
 agrarian laws directed against this wrong were a dead letter. Tillage in 
 many parts was disappearing. Italy threatened to become a vast grazing 
 ground tenanted by slave herdsmen. To Tiberius Gracchus this 
 seemed to be the sole root of the political deCay which became every 
 year more visible after the last of Rome's rivals had succumbed at 
 Pydna. A grandson of the great Scipio, chivaU-ous, sympathetic, and 
 ardent, he got himself elected Tribune, and, by rousing the popular enthu- 
 siasm, carried a new agrarian law compelling his fellow-nobles to disgorge 
 the greater part of the public domain which they occupied, and dividing 
 it in inalienable heritable leaseholds among the landless proletaries. 
 Thus began the Roman Revolution (133 B.C.), which was only closed 
 ])y the Empire. The Senate bent for the moment to the storm, but 
 before the year was out got up a street riot and lynched the young 
 reformer. 
 
 Nine years later stood forward his younger brother Caius, equally 
 enthusiastic, but a far abler man and of sterner mould. He had made 
 up his mind that the first step to any reform was to strike straight at 
 the Senate. Getting himself elected Tribune for two successive years, 
 he carried in the popular Assembly a connected series of statesmanlike 
 measures, which crippled the oligarchy and made Caius for the time 
 virtual Emperor in everything but the power of the sword. There, how 
 ever, was the weak spot. The moment came when popular support 
 cooled. The heir of Scipio, the forerunner of Cajsar, he called on the 
 Roman Democracy to extend citizenship to the Italians. But the 
 Democracy had not yet been educated to that point. Caius, failing to 
 secure a third re-election, had no armed force to fall back on, and fell 
 a victim, like his Itrother, to reactionary violence. The memory of this 
 noble pair, vilified by Cicero and other oligarchical writers, shines bright 
 to after ages. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Phitarcli : Gracchi. Apjiiau : Cicll W'ccrs, i. 9. Iluie ; Hist, if Ronic, bk. vii. 
 ch. ii.-vi. Monmiseii : Ilist. of Rome, bk. iv. cli. ii.-iii. Long: Decline 
 of Roman Republic, di. .x.-xix.
 
 Civilisation] SCIPIO 191 
 
 SOIPIO_ {Fybhlius Cornelius Scipio Africanus the^lder), I 
 
 b. abt. 234, d. abt. 183 "bc. ' ^ 
 
 In the fii-st year of the second Punic War, SciPio, then a lad of 
 sixteen, saved the Hfe of his wounded father, the Consul, at the combat 
 of' the Ticinus. Two years later he fought at Cannas. The favour of 
 the people made him ^dile, when he wanted five years of the legal age, 
 in defiance of the Senate. " If all the citizens wish to make me iEdile," 
 he said, " I am old enough." In the seventh year of the war he was 
 sent to Spain to succeed his father and uncle, who had been defeated 
 and slain by Hannibal's brothers. After four years of fighting, the 
 Carthaginians were completely cleared out of Spain. Scipio's success 
 was due not more to his military ability than to the large-minded 
 humanity and fi'eedom from narrow national prejudice which dis- 
 tinguishes him from most other Romans of the Aristocratic period. 
 The Spaniards adored him, and wished to make him their king. 
 
 When he returned to Rome in 206, the Senate refused him a triumph ; 
 but the people elected him Consul with extraordinary enthusiasm, though 
 he was still only eight-and-twenty, an age at which, according to oli- 
 garchical notions, it was hardly time to think of standing for even the 
 lowest offices of State. Hannibal was still in South Italy, but Scipio, 
 with his usual serene self-confidence, announced that he meant to finish 
 the long war in Africa, and let it be understood that if forbidden by 
 the Senate he would appeal to the Assembly of the people. The Senate 
 thought it prudent to shun the conflict, but voted such small supplies 
 of men and money that Scipio was obliged to invite volunteers and free 
 contributions. Both poured in from the Italian allies. Thus early had 
 Rome's subjects begun to look for some great imperial man who would 
 repay their loyal support by the gift of citizenship so grudgingly with- 
 held by the oligarchy. 
 
 Even after the crowning victory of Zama, the Senate wished to super- 
 sede the hero, but the people A^oted that none but Scipio should conclude 
 the peace and bring home the army. Though he deprived Carthage of 
 all power for offence, he was too large-minded and generous to destroy 
 the noble city, as the younger Scipio did half a century later at the 
 bidding of the Senate. Similarly we find him protesting later on against 
 the meanness which hunted the great Hannibal from his country. 
 
 When Scipio returned home with a glory which had never been 
 approached by any other Roman, the people, we are told, wished to 
 make him Dictator for life. But though he may have felt that only Ijy 
 such a concentration of power could Rome's high destiny l)e fulfilled, 
 and that he himself was worthy of it, he recognised that the time was 
 not yet ripe. He bore himself through life as superior to his contem- 
 poraries ; but he did not try to shake the government or to create for 
 himself a party. Fourteen years after Zama, nominally as lieutenant of 
 his brother, he won tlie great battle of Magnesia against King Antiochus. 
 When about 50 yeai's old, we find him harassed by an impeachment, 
 not, it is said, promoted by the Senate, but certainly stirred up by Cato, 
 a bigoted partisan of senatorial government of the older type, who 
 looked on the exceptional dignity and prestige of Scipio as a standing
 
 192 SCIPIO : AUGUSTUS [Military 
 
 \ insult to the constitution. The memorable scene, in which the hero bade 
 the people rise from the Assembly convoked to try him, and led them in 
 pi'ocession to the Capitol to thank the gods for his services to the State, 
 shows that his ascendancy over them was still unbounded. But, not 
 choosing to expose his dignity to such collisions, he retired next day to 
 his country seat at Liternum, where he spent the two or three remaining 
 years of his life. If Scipio was not the most characteristic type of the 
 Roman Aristocracy, to which he belonged by birth, he was beyond 
 ([uestion its noblest product in its best days. He Jeft a daughter, who 
 was the mother of the Gracchi. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Livy : xxii.-xxxviii. Polybius : x.-xxiv. Ihue : Hist, of Rome, Lk. iv. 
 eh. viii., bk. vi. cli. ^;vi. "** ' "^ 
 
 AUGUSTUS {at first Caius Odavius, aftenvards (Jaius Julius (Jcesar 
 Octaviaiiits Augustus), b. 63 B.C., d. 14 A.D. 
 
 Ctesar kept his sister's grandson, Octavius, much in his company 
 during the last years of his life, carefully superintended his training, 
 and in his will adojoted him. Though barely 20 when his uncle was 
 murdered, the young man steered his course with consummate skill as 
 Avell as courage. By acting at first with the Senate against Antony, 
 he compelled that bold and able soldier, who thought to step into the 
 Dictator's shoes, to treat with him on equal terms. Then, joining in the 
 Triumvirate with Antony and Lepidus, he reduced the Senate to impot- 
 ence, and crushed its champions, Brutus and Cassius, at the battle of 
 Philippi. Lepidus was soon thrust aside, and for five years the Roman 
 world was divided, Octavianus governing the West and Antony the East. 
 By the great sea-fight of Actium (31 b.c), the former became at length 
 sole ruler. ^ -^.- — 
 
 Augustus is reckoned as the first " Emperor," though, either fearing 
 the fate of Caisar or from deficiency of creative genius, he did not for- 
 mally establish a monarchical constitution. He preferred to govern by 
 virtue of the consular, proconsular, censorial, tribunitian, and pontifical 
 powers, which he gradually accumulated in his own person by means of 
 popular votes ; but magistrates with the old names continued to be 
 elected and to exercise some shadow of their old functions. The Senate, 
 which as Censor he had carefully purged, he treated with the greatest 
 res])ect, affecting to be guided by its advice. He accepted the name 
 " August," but his manner of life was that of an ordinary citizen with 
 none of the outward signs of royalty. His concentrated powers he 
 accepted from the Asseuibly five times for periods of ten years, always 
 keeping up the fiction tliat it was a temporary expedient, and that he 
 was anxious for the republican constitution to resume its ordinary work- 
 ing. But the mass of the people had got the government they had long 
 ilesired. The more sensible and patriotic of the upper classes deprecated 
 any attempt to disturb it. Tlie provincials welcomed it with an inex- 
 pressible sense of relief from the miseries of oligarchic oppression. Only 
 a certain number of the nobility kept up a rancorous hatred of the new 
 rule, and, while openly fawning on their master, brooded over schemes
 
 Civilisation] AUGUSTUS : M^CENAS : VESPASIAN 193 
 
 of mutiny and assassination. But 10,000 Praetorians sufficed to guaran- 
 tee order in Italy. All the rest of the army was posted on the frontiers 
 to keep out the barbarians. 
 
 In cleaving his way to power Augustus had shrunk from no perfidy 
 or cruelty. A dissembler he always remained ; but when once firmly 
 seated he behaved with moderation and even generosity to his enemies. 
 His long reign was one of incessant labour and careful attention to the 
 welfare of his subjects. His motives and impulses may not have been 
 of the highest ; but he was one who could not help liking to play his 
 part creditably — a quality in rulers which, if not quite the same thing as 
 a conscientious devotion to duty, is, for the ruled, practically its equiva- 
 lent. How much Rome and Humanity lost by the removal of Csesar 
 before he liad organised the Empire can never be calculated ; but it 
 was a remarkable piece of good fortune that the great Dictator should 
 have left an heir who stands so high among statesmen for strength and 
 sagacity. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Suetonius: Augustus. Dion Cassius : xlv.-lvi. Merivale : History 
 "—Romans u-'Mer the Empire, TorsTlir.Tvr" ~ 
 
 M^CENAS (Vaius Cilnius Mcecenas), b. bet. 73 and 63, d. 8 B.C. 
 
 An early friend of Augustus, M.^^cenas became his trusted minister, 
 and, though never aspiring to the senatorial rank or any of the regular 
 magistracies, several times acted as his vicegerent when the Emperor was 
 absent from Italy. In the last years of his life their friendship cooled. 
 M.Tcenas was a generous and discriminating patron of men of letters. 
 
 [E. S. B.] 
 
 Dion Cassius: xlviii.-lv. Suetonius: Augustus. Horace: Sat. i. vi. ix., 
 and many other places. Merivale : History of the Romans under the 
 Empire, ch. xxvii. xxx. xxxv.' xxxvi. ' ' "~ 
 
 VESPASIAN (T/Vk.s Flavins Sahinu.^ Vespasianus), b. 9, d. 79 A.D. 
 
 The death of Nero, the last Emperor of the blood of Augustus, in 68 
 A.D., led to a short but bloody struggle for the throne between aspirants 
 favoured by different armies. Galba ( 6th Emperor) perished in Januaiy 
 09 ; Otho (Tth JEmpe ror) in April ; V^iteTTlus (8th Emperor) in December. 
 VESP^C^imf gnrnmp eror), the final victor, was now GO years old, and 
 luid risen to the highesT posts by long and distinguished military service 
 in all parts of the world. He Avas not a man of dazzling genius. But 
 he was finn, honest, and patriotic ; humane, though capable of severity 
 when necessary ; and penetrated with a strong sense of duty. Though 
 liis life had been passed in camps, he devoted his reign principally to 
 restoring the finances of the Empire. The cruelties of Nero were per- 
 haps hardly heard of outside the small class who suftered from them : 
 but his prodigality and exaction had caused wiilesproad distress and 
 
 N
 
 194 VESPASIAN : TITUS : H ADRIAN [Military 
 
 crippled the Government. Upon this had followed the waste and destruc- 
 tion of the civil war. In ancient and mediaeval times, when manufacture 
 and commerce were so little developed, the limits of bearable taxation 
 were soon reached. The economic problem was therefore the most press- 
 inw ; and, regardless of men's sneers at his avarice and parsimony, Ves- 
 pasian set himself to grapple with it. But no useful expenditure was 
 spared ; and there was assuredly nothing mean in the conceptions of the 
 Emperor who has left the Colosseum as his abiding monument. 
 
 The taint of patrician pride and contempt for the masses had been 
 transmitted in the blue blood of the Caligulas and Neros. Vespasian 
 was of humble birth and was not ashamed of it. He laughed at those 
 who would have invented a pedigi-ee for him, and loved to visit the 
 farm-house where he had been born. Detesting ostentation and luxury, 
 he dispensed with the state which previous Emperors had kept up. He 
 stood at the beginning of a new age, marked by an improved tone of 
 feeling private as well as public, greater sobriety and decorum, gentler 
 manners, and a broad philanthropy. The example of Vespasian did not 
 a little to promote it. On his death-bed he continued to transact 
 business. When the end approached he made his attendants raise him 
 to his feet. " An Emperor," he said, " should die standing." 
 
 - — ^ [E. S. B.] 
 
 Suetonius: Vespasian. Tacitus: Histories, ii.-iv. Dion Cassius : Ixvi. 
 Merivale : History of the Romans under the f'/mpire, cli. Ivii.-lx. 
 
 TITUS {Tifvji Flavins Sahinus Vespaxianns), b. 40, d. 81 A.D. 
 
 From almost the beginning of his reign, Vespasian associated his 
 son with himself as joint-Emperor. Titus (10th Emperor) was a good 
 soldier, his principal achievement beingTlie capture of Jerusalem (70 A.D.). 
 On his accession to sole power he solemnly declared that he would shed 
 the blood of no man, and his clemency has become proverbial. The 
 Romans called him " The Delight of the Human Race." After a shoi't 
 reign of two years he died at the age of 40. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Suetonius: Titus. Tacitus: Histories, i. -v. Diun Cassius: Ixvi. Meri- 
 vale : Histuni iif tiie liomans under the Kiapire, eh. lix.-l\. ' 
 
 HADRIAN [ruUlm yEHm Ha(Jrianv><), b. 76, d. 138 A.D. 
 
 Hadrian (14th Emperor) was a Spaniard and a cousin and ward 
 of Trajan, under whom he served with distinguished valour and ability 
 in the Dacian and Parthian wars, living also in closest intimacy witli 
 him. His remarkable administrative talents were proved in his 
 government of Pannonia. When illness compelled Trajan to quit the 
 army of the East, he left Hadrian in command. That jfie had marked 
 him out for his successor is certain, though Dion Cassius professes to 
 know that death overtook him before the act was formally completed.
 
 Civilisation] HADKIAN : NERVA 195 
 
 However, a letter of adoption was produced, and no one questioned 
 its validity. Hadrian was then 41, and he reigned 21 years. Though 
 a soldier, he was averse to conquest. He withdrew from Parthia, 
 and is said to have regretted the subjugation of Dacia, therein showing ■ 
 less judgment than Trajan. " During his reign scarcely a skirmish f 
 broke the profound peace on the frontier. Such peace suited his '' 
 genius. He was gifted with an eminent capacity for organisation and 
 administration. His immense industry mastered all details, his vast 
 memory retained them. On foot and bareheaded he might be seen 
 traversing every province of his empire, seeing with his own eyes its 
 state and wants, and with a liberal hand supplying those wants. The 
 finances in good order, the soldiers cared for yet held in strictest 
 discipline, the administrative and civil service of the Empire arranged, 
 the cities in every province enlarged and beautified and provided with 
 governments, mild regulations with regard to slaves : such are the 
 features of the Emperor Hadrian's oovernment " (Congreve). He had his 
 sensualities and weaknesses, though neither were allowed to interfere , 
 with business. Like Richelieu, he dabbled in art and literature, and i 
 valued himself on his fourth-rate performances more than became a \ 
 gi-eat man of action. Though aspiring to the character of clemency which 
 had come to be the glory of Emperors, he seems to have been too ready 
 on occasion to shed the blood of those whom he thought dangerous, 
 especially during the long and distressing illness from which he died. 
 But the Roman world was never better governed than by Hadrian. A 
 few months ~t>efoTe" "his" death he adopted Antoninus — an admirable 
 choice. We know his handsome face from many busts. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Dion Cassius : Ixix. Merivale : History of the Romans under the Empire, 
 ch. Ixvi. 
 
 NERVA {Marcus Cocceius Nerva), b. 32, d. 98 A.D. 
 
 On the assassination of Domitian (96 a.d.), the Senate, evidently 
 prepared for that event, without a moment's delay took upon itself 
 to nominate Nerva (12th Emperor) as his successor, and no opposition 
 was made in any quai^-. ' Xerva was a respectable and well-meaning- 
 old man, but not a soldier or likely to make a strong ruler : defects 
 which perhaps recommended him to the Senate as much as his virtues. 
 His adoption of the great Trajan in preference to any of his own relatives 
 inaugurated the second period of the Empire, during which that best of 
 all modes of transmitting power was commonly employed, and with the 
 happiest results. By this noble and important act he has merited a 
 place in the Calendar. He died after a reign of sixteen months. 
 
 [E. S. B.] 
 
 Dion Cassias : Ixviii. Merivalf : Iliituri/ of t)ie Romans under the Empire, 
 i.-h. Ixiii. "*"'
 
 196 ANTONINUS : MAECUS AURELIUS [Military 
 
 ANTONINUS ( Titus Aurelius FulvusBoioniusArrivs Antonin us, after- 
 wards Titus Mlius Hadrianus Ant oninus Pius ), b. 86, d. 161 A.D. 
 
 The paternal ancestors of An toxinus (15th Empero r) were Trans- 
 alpine Gauls, but the family had"Teen domiciled in Italy for at least two 
 previous generations. He was not a soldier, but had won great 
 reputation by his government of Asia ; and when Hadrian adopted him 
 the choice gave universal satisfaction. His reign of twenty-two years 
 ^vas — except for an insurrection in North Britain — a period of profound 
 tranquillity, good order, and general happiness. Hence it is not marked 
 by any striking incidents. Unlike his two predecessors, he resided 
 constantly at Rome — probably the excellent organisation perfected by 
 Hadrian made this possible — superintending everything from that 
 central position and busying himself with law reforms and measures for 
 promoting commerce, education, and public health. "Throughout the 
 meagre notices of his career which alone remain to us, we discover no 
 trace of a selfish thought or passion, none of carelessness or precipitation, 
 none of pride or even of pardonable vanity. Every step, every act, seems 
 to have been weighed by a good heart carefully directed to a definite 
 end " (Merivale). The private conduct of many admirable Emperors falls 
 short of the modern standard of morality. But the life of Antoninus 
 was as virtuous as it was cheerful and laborious. His virtue was that of 
 the naturally good man ; for he did not discipline himself, as so many 
 did then, according to the theories and rules of a particular philosophical 
 sect. The striking and beautiful portrait of his character drawn by his 
 adopted son is well known. That adoption had been prescribed in 
 advance by Hadrian. No arrangement could have been more admirable, 
 and the credit of its success must be shared by all three Emperors. 
 
 [E. S. B.] 
 
 Dion Cassius : Ixx. M. Aurelius : Meditations, i. 16. Merivale : History 
 of the Roinans undeTlhe Empire, cli. Ixvii. 
 
 MARCUS AURELIUS {Marms Annins Vervs, afterwards 
 Marcus Aurelius Antoninus), b, 121, d. 180 A.D. 
 
 Marcus Aurf.lius (16th Emperor) was of a Spanish family which 
 had been domiciled in Italy for three generations. No historical person- 
 age has been regarded with more interest and admiration. In him the 
 self-sufficient austerity of the Stoic discipline, bent to a social purpose 
 by the Roman spirit, was seen at its best. From early boyhood he was 
 remarkable for his virtuous disposition and his devotion to study. As 
 adopted son of Antoninus he revered his example, and clung to him with 
 sincere affection. As his colleague he dutifully assisted him in the 
 administration, retiring to his beloved studies when the labours of 
 the day were over. 
 
 Almost immediately after the death of Antoninus he found himself 
 involved in the troubles which beset his whole reign. The Golden Age of 
 thf Empire was di'awing to its close. A formidable in\asion of the
 
 Civilisation] MARCUS AURELIUS : PAPINIAN 197 
 
 Parthians was gloriously repelled by his able general, Avidius Cassius. 
 But the returning troops brought Avith them a tei'rible pestilence Avhich 
 spread over the Roman world, destroying, it is said, half the population. 
 Probably the Empire never recovered ft-om the effects of this depletion. 
 The army was crippled and disorganised, and its losses could only be 
 repaired by the enlistment of slaves. The revenue, too, naturally suffered. 
 The northern barbarians, kept at l:)ay by the legions since the time of 
 Marius, had at last got their opportunity, and, swarming across the 
 Danube, reached the entrance of Italy, llie sludent-Emperor detested 
 war, and had no military experience. He was no longer young, and his 
 health, naturally weak, was l)roken by nightly toil. But he obeyed the 
 call of duty, and the remaining thirteen years of his life were mostly 
 passed at the head of the army of the Danube, in constant conflict with 
 the enemy. The wisdom of the "forward policy" of the great Trajan 
 Avas now conclusively proved ; and when the barbarians were at length 
 hurled back, even the pacific Aurelius was planning the creation of a 
 large province beyond the Upper Danube. But at this moment (175 a.d.) 
 his trusted lieutenant in the East, Avidius Cassius, on a, false report of 
 the Emperor's death, assumed the purple, and when better informed, 
 despairing of forgiveness, persisted in revolt. Wearily and mournfully 
 — we have his speech to his army — Aurelius turned to meet his rebel. 
 Before he got to Asia, Cassius had been slain by his own officers. The 
 Emperor lamented his death, and treated his supjjorters with unexampled 
 clemency. But on the Danube the great o])portunity Avas lost. The 
 barbarians Avere again on the Avar-path. After tAvo more years of fierce 
 fighting, and just Avhen the final subjugation of the enemy Avas in sight, 
 the Avorn-out Emperor sank and died. 
 
 Aurelius committed one great fault — the fault of CroniAvell. He did 
 not adopt a successor, but allowed the Empire to pass to his uuAvorthy 
 son Commodus — the first Emperor Avho Avas "born in the purple." The 
 immortal Meditations, the communings of this sorely tried servant of 
 men Avith his oAvn soul, committed to Avriting "amidst the toils and 
 terrors of the ]\Iarcomannic Avar, in the camp or the military station, on 
 the banks of the Danube or the sloi^es of the Carpathians," find a place 
 in the Positivist Library. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Dion Cassius, Ixxi. ]\leri\'ale : Hislor)/ of tlie Romans under t/ie Kinpire, 
 ch. Ixviii. I'os. Pol. in. 333. 
 
 PAPINIAN {u'I'Jniiliu-i Fapiniannx), b. abt. middle of 2nd Century, 
 
 d. 212 A.D. 
 
 The greatest of the Roman jurists, Papixiax, Avas probably, like 
 Ulpian, a Syrian by birth, and Avas said to be related to Julia Doinna of 
 Emesa, the second Avife of the Emperor Septimius Severus. He seems to 
 luvve been early connected Avith Severus, Avhom he succeeded in the 
 office of Counsel to the Treasury during the reign of .Marcus Aurelius. 
 On the accession of Severus, 102 a.d., Papinian Avas promoted to im- 
 portant offices of State. He was Master of Petitions, or Chancellor, and 
 then Captain of the Guard — in efiect, Governor of the city of Rome, Avith
 
 198 PAPINIAN : ULPIAN [Military 
 
 supieme civil and criminal jurisdiction. Severus came to Britain (in 208) 
 to subdue Caledonia, and apparently Papinian accompanied him, and 
 was present at the deatli of the Emperor at York (212 a.d.). Severus 
 on his death commended his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, to the care of 
 Papinian. But the infamous Caracalla, on coming to the throne dis- 
 missed Papinian, soon murdered his brother Geta in presence of their 
 mother, and shortly afterwards murdered Papinian. It is said that the 
 cause was the refusal of the great lawyer to defend the murder of Geta 
 before the Senate. " It is easier to commit parricide than to defend it," 
 said the intrepid judge. The story of these crimes is finely told by 
 Gibbon (ch. vi.). Papinian's son, a quaestor, was also murdered. As he 
 had held high office for more than 30 years, he must have been much 
 beyond middle life at his death. 
 
 By universal consent, Papinian was the gi-eatest of the Roman jurists. 
 He is spoken of by the ancients in vehement superlatives ; and by 
 Cujacius, who himself has a place in the Calendar beside Grotius, 
 Papinian is called " the greatest lawyer that ever has been, or will be : 
 amongst jurists what Homer is amongst poets." By the famous " Law of 
 (,'itations," where the legal authorities were equally divided, the opinion 
 of Papinian was to prevail. The moderns are equally clear as to his 
 great superiority. His reputation is based not simply on his leai-ning 
 and acuteness, but on his eminent political services, his stainless character, 
 his courage, his magnanimity of spirit, and his uniform tendency to 
 uphold the highest moral standard. It is in the decisions of Papinian, 
 especially, that we see how Eoman law ultimately developed a truly 
 spiritual power. His style is very close, concise, sometimes obscure, and 
 less Roman in form than that of other great jurists. There are in the 
 Digest 600 extracts from Papinian — not, however, a fourth part of those 
 from Ulpian, and hardly one-twelfth of the whole. But they are all 
 stamped with the same breadth of judgment and moral dignity. 
 
 [F-H.] 
 
 ULPIAN {Domitius Ulpianiis), d. 228 A.D. 
 
 Ulpiax, the second authority amongst the Roman jurists, was of a 
 
 Tyrian family, and, like his friend, colleague, and predecessor Papinian, 
 
 was probably of Syrian birth, and possibly a professor at Beyrout. 
 
 These two great jurists were, therefore, fellow-countrymen with the 
 
 founders of Christianity. Ulpian was assessor in his office with Papinian 
 
 imder Septiiuius, and subsequently held offices under Caracalla and 
 
 [ Elagabalus. He was appointed Governor of the City under Alexander 
 
 j Severus (222), and he filled under that Emperor the same place that 
 
 [ Papinian had occupied towards Septimius Severus, nearly 20 years 
 
 earlier. He acted as wise counsellor and guide to the noble young 
 
 Emperor who follows him in the Calendar, the last of the great Antonine 
 
 succession. And like his predecessor Papinian he was murdered, b}' 
 
 the mutincnis Praetorian Guard, whom his civil reforms had irritated. 
 
 The Digest contains 2464 extracts from Ulpian, which occupy one-third 
 
 of the entire work. His style is easy and pure, but rather more diffuse
 
 Civilisation] ULPIAN : ALEXANDER SEVERUS 199 
 
 than that of Papinian and the earlier jurists. His vast knowledge, good 
 sense, and immense industry place him amongst the first of the jurists. 
 The Digest, as to one-half, consists of extracts from Ulpian and his 
 colleajrue Paulus. 
 
 Papinian and Ulpian alone represent that grand .succession of jurists 
 which, in the ancient world, took the place of the spiritual power, just 
 as Grotius and Cujacius alone represent the modern jurists in the week 
 of Leibnitz. The long series of the scientific lawyers of Rome lasted at 
 least six centuries : from the age of Cicero to that of Tribonian (60 b.c. 
 to 560 A.D.). Its most brilliant epoch was from the beginning of the 
 2nd century to the first half of the .3rd century — from the age of 
 Hadrian to the death of Altxander Severus (235 a.d.) — the great period 
 almost closing with the puijils and successors of Papinian, until the age 
 of Justinian, three centuries later. From the death of Pliny and Tacitus, 
 early in the second century, the whole literary force of the ancient world 
 passed into the development of law. And law also absorbed and assimi- 
 lated the spirit of the Stoic morality, which alone sujjplied the place of a 
 spiritual education until the Christian time. The Roman law has formed 
 the basis of almost every system of civilised ^Ifrisprudence both in the 
 iltediajval and the modern world, except that of the English common 
 lifw, which it indirectly aff'ected. It is still the essential substance and 
 the typical standard of law as a s}^eiii'. " Arid all ages and races have 
 joTrie J in celebrating its wisdom, its syuimeEry,~Its'unrvei'saT power, and 
 its moral elevation. " [^- ^.J 
 
 Roby : Jiitroduction to Difjeat, Gibbon : cli. xliv. Sandars' Institutes. 
 
 ALEXANDER SEVERUS (Alexicmus Bassiamis, aftcnoards Marcvs 
 Anreliiis Alexander Seven's), b. 205, d. 235 A.D. 
 
 From the accession of Commodus the Empire was on the downward 
 path. But the gallant stand of M. Aurelius had checked the barbarian 
 rush while the etfects of the pestilence were still fresh ; and there was 
 order within and security from without under the strong rule of Septiuiius 
 S everiis (193-211 .v.d.). During the first half of the 3rd century the 
 c'Eiet' element of danger seemed to lie in the pretensions of the army, 
 which had been taught by Severus to consider itself the source of 
 sovereignty. All previous Emperors had laboured to make it feel its 
 subordination to the civil power. 
 
 On the assassination of the efi'eminate Elagabalus (222 a.d.), his 
 cousin, Alexander Se\'e_uus (24th Emperor), then only 16, was 
 raised to "the throne" by the Pra'torian Guards. He was a Syrian by 
 biilh, ;md grand-nephew of the wife of Septimius Severus. His mother, 
 ^lamnuea, governed at first in his name, and always continued to have 
 great infiuence over him. Alexander was intelligent, virtuous, and 
 devoted. In conjunction with the great lawyer Ulpian he laboured at 
 reforms of all kinds in hnv, administration, and public morals. Pure by
 
 200 ALEXANDER SEVERUS : AETIUS [Military 
 
 temperament, and of religious disposition, he was attracted by Chi-istianity, 
 then rising into importance, and was desirous that Jesus should be wor- 
 shipped Avith other gods. But a Roman Emperor needed to be made of 
 sterner stuff. He was unable to prevent the Pnctorians from nuirdering 
 Ulpian in his presence. A war against the Persians, which he conducted 
 in person, and not without success, did not increase his hold over the 
 soldiery ; and though he managed to quell a mutiny at Antioch, he fell a 
 victim not long afterwards to a military conspiracy, while preparing to 
 take the field against the barbarians on the Rhine. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Dion Cassius, viii. Gibbon, cli. vi. vii. Pos. Pol. ill. 335. 
 
 AETIUS, b. towards end of 4th Century, d. 454 a.d. 
 
 Towards the end of the 4th century, the Huns, a Mongol race, 
 pressed upon the Teutonic peoples, and it was this pressure which drove 
 them in such numbers to seek refuge within the Empire. The Teutons 
 respected Roman civilisation, and eagerly embraced it. T heTbliing W^i -e 
 nomads and pure destroyers. In the middle '6f' the 5th ' century- their 
 king~Attila', "the scourge of God," was encamped in Hungary, from 
 whichTlC'^erran Germany, and made incursions into the Empire. In 
 451, when Valentinian iii. was Western and Marci an Eastern Emperor, 
 he invaded Gaul at flie head of a host of Hunslvnd tributary Germans. 
 
 Aetius was the son of a Scythian (Polish ?) general in the Imperial 
 service. His mother was an Italian lady of high rank. He himself, 
 during his chequered career, had resided for some time in the camp of 
 Attila. He had risen by his military ability, his personal prowess, and 
 also by intrigue, treachery, and rebellion. After killing his rival Boni- 
 facius in single combat, in 432, he became minister and general of Valen- 
 tinian III., and from that time tiiniis death, in 454, be was the piTIar of 
 the tottering Empire. The Teutonic bands — Goths, Burgundians, Franks, 
 and others — established in Gaul were regarded, and regarded themselves, 
 as irregular troops in the service of the Emperors. They had come in 
 not as invaders, but by permission of the Emperors mIio needed such 
 soldiers. They were commanded by their own chiefs or kings ; but 
 these were, and considered themselves, officers of the Emi)eror, and they 
 could always l)e depended upon to resist invaders from bej'ond the Rhine. 
 It was at the head of a force composed mainly of such elements that 
 Aetius advanced to meet Attila. 80 great was the terror ins])ired by 
 th^TIlins, that all liis exhortations had hardly prevailed on the Visi- 
 Gothic King Theodoric to march up his men from South Gaul. Attila 
 raised the siege of Orleans at his approach, and fell back on ( 'halons-sur- 
 Marne, followed by Aetius. There was fouglit the great battle which 
 decided the question whether the Empire was to dissolve into its com- 
 ])onent nationalities by spontaneous disintegration, or to be broken up 
 by foreign invaders. It was not a struggle between rival races. The 
 two armies consisted of much the same elements, for Aetius too had 
 Huns in his service. It was the old struggle lietween the ilwellers 
 within the Empire and the dwellers Avitliont — a nilTerence in compari- 
 son with which all characteristics of race, language, or religion were
 
 Civilisation] AETIUS : TRAJAN 201 
 
 insignificant. The battle raged all day -vvith tremendous slaughter. I^e 
 Goth Theodoric fell by., the hand of a Goth in the service of Attila. 
 Night separated the combatants while victory sCiH' remained doubtful. 
 But as the Huns continued their retreat into Germany, " the last of the 
 Roinans^nRiid gained his object. Four years hiter Valentinian murdered 
 hinrwltlrhis own hand. -— .— -»^«-r |-jg g g-j 
 
 Gibbon : cli. xxxiii.-xxxv. I'o8. Pol. iii. 392. 
 
 TRAJAN (3Tarcus Ulpius Trajanus), h. 52, d. 117 A.D. 
 
 With the Empire the ancient world entered on its best and happiest 
 period. This was the consummation which alone could justify so much 
 bloodshed, so many conquests and extinctions of national independence. 
 The first and immediate gain was the " Roman Peace," reigning eventu- 
 ally from the Clyde to the Euphrates — a blessing never enjoyed before 
 or since. The second was, that it became possible for a universal religion 
 to arise in place of the national religions of antiquity. The third was 
 a certain assimilation of the nations of the West, and the establishment 
 of the Latin language as a medium of communication and culture — ad- 
 vantages which remained when the jwlitical union came to an end. This 
 threefold result belongs to the first four centuries of the Christian era ; 
 for when we date from the birth of Christ we are really dating from the 
 first Emperor. If the rule of the Emperors is the crown and consum- 
 mation of ancient civilisation, the 8.") years of Nerva and his four 
 successors show that rule at its best. Accordingly all these Emperors 
 find a place in the Calendar. 
 
 Trajan (13th Emperor), the greatest of them, was a native of Spain, 
 for Ifaly was no longer the mistress of the Empii'e, but only its central 
 province. He was in his 4oth year and commanding the .army of the 
 Lower Rhine when, by the death of Nerva, he became sole Emperor. 
 He was not a creative genius like Alexander or Caisar. But he was a 
 born ruler of men, equally great as a soldier and administrator, with a 
 high ideal of duty, firmly relying on himself and knowing how to make 
 use of others. In short, he had all the qualities most valuable in a 
 statesman when nothing new is wanted but only that the existing system 
 shall be made the best of. Like Vespasian, he held that economy was 
 the first condition of good government. To nn]5fess""thi"s on others, he 
 effused 'the daily cost of his journey to Rome, on his accession, to Ije 
 l^racarded in every town through which he passed. Tlie populace of the 
 capita^ crowded the streets and house-tops to await his entry. They saw 
 no gorgeous procession, no chariots, not so much as a horse ; but only a 
 tall, powerful man, with a remarkably upright figure, and head preniii- 
 turely blanched, on foot, accompanied Vjy his wife and some private 
 friends who had gone out to meet him. When we remember what this 
 man was — that as master of the civilised world he was exalted to an 
 immeasurable distance above all his subjects ; that for dignity, power, 
 and ability to do good or mischief his position was incomparably superior 
 to that of the greatest modern sovereigns — we can hardly avoid draw- 
 ing some comparisons Ijetween the simplicity Avhich seemed right to the
 
 202 TRAJAN [Military Civilisation 
 
 one and the display of pomp and luxury which are indispensable to the 
 others. 
 
 Trajan's whole reign was in harmony with this opening scene. Of 
 his twelve predecessors, seven, if not eight, had perished by murder or 
 suicide. But Trajan habitually walked about Rome unattended, like any 
 private citizen. Without any new taxation he found money for many 
 grand public works and two great wars. He had very enlightened 
 notions as to free trade — such, in fact, as we hardly find again before 
 Turgot. By rescinding the laws which prohibited the corn-growing 
 countries from exporting elsewhere than to Italy, he so stimulated their 
 production that corn was cheapened in Italy itself. From his correspon- 
 dence with Pliny, the Governor of Bithynia, we get some idea of his 
 wonderful industry and minute acquaintance with the details of admini- 
 stration everywhere. Pliny wants to regulate everything on the Italian 
 pattern. Trajan gently checks his zeal. "Let the people alone," he 
 says ; " do not interfere with their customary rights of self-government. 
 See that no new local taxes are imposed, and that there is no vvas;te_Dr 
 jobTiery ; but otherwise let them manage for themselves." This indeed 
 was the general si^irit of provincial government under the Empire. 
 
 But it is as a conqueror that Trajan is most famous. Under him the 
 Empire attained its greatest extent. Every northern nation incorporated 
 by Rome became a new element of strength, being so much force trans- 
 ferred from the side of barbarism to that of civilisation — a result which 
 does not accompany British conquests in Asia. The Dacians (Roumania 
 and Transylvania) had long been troublesome neighbours. In six years 
 of war on a great scale Trajan subdued them. So thoroughly were they 
 Romanised, that their descendants still speak a Latin language. In 
 three more years of war the formidable Parthian monarchy was over- 
 thrown, and the Roman arms were seen for the first and last time on 
 the Persian Gulf. In his march back through Mesoijotamia, Trajan was 
 wounded as, at the age of 65, he headed the assault on an Arab fortress. 
 Quitting the army, he bent his steps homewards, but died on the way of 
 a complication of disorders. His last service to his country was to 
 nominate Hadrian as his successor. The customary form of acclamation 
 at the accession of a new Emperor came to be : " Mayst thou be more 
 fortunate than Augustus and better than Trajan ! " Dante tells how 
 his release from Hell was granted to the earnest prayers of Pope Gregory 
 the Great. " [E S. B.] " 
 
 Dion Cassias : Ixviii. Pliny : Panegyric a/nd Kindles, x. By far the best 
 account, in small compass, of the Imperial period is Dr. Congreve's 
 lloiiian Eiiqjire of tJie West.
 
 CATHOLICISM. 
 
 A S the story of the rise and growth of the Christian Church is coni- 
 '^ monly told, it appears, and is intended to appear, miraculous. 
 A few fishermen gather round a teacher by the lake of Galilee. The 
 teacher dies, rises again to life, ascends to Heaven, and is adored as 
 God. His disciples and those who accept their teaching form a society, 
 the extension of whose influence throughout the Avorld is the central 
 fact in the history of man. 
 
 Our task is to look at this narrative from a human point of view : 
 to translate miracle into evolution ; to regard the establishment of the 
 Christian Church, not as the sudden unexplained apparition of a new 
 force, but rather as a link in a long chain of events. For us it ceases 
 to be the central point towards which all that went before and all that 
 follows is to converge ; we look upon it as a further stage of preparation 
 for the final reign of Humanity. 
 
 The result of Hellenic thought and of Roman conquest was the 
 establishment of that progressive civilisation which we distinguish as 
 European or Western from the more stable and conservative societies 
 of the Eastern World. But the result had been achieved at a great 
 sacrifice. To bring about the universal peace which prevailed through 
 the shores of the Mediterranean at the time of Augustus, the indepen- 
 dent life, institutions, and faiths of nations had been crushed. The 
 intellectual movement carried on by Hellenic thinkers had been for 
 centuries dissolving the ancient faith still more surely. Pythagoras 
 and his followers had foreseen the process of decay, and had vainly 
 striven to arrest it. Later thinkers had resigned themselves to the 
 dissolving forces : some content to waste themselves in fruitless dis- 
 cussion ; others absorbed in researches — general like those of Aristotle, 
 special like those of Archimedes — which were to prepare the way for 
 positive reconstruction in a distant future. 
 
 Thus of the three elements of human life, moral, intellectual, practical, 
 the last two had been stimulated to extreme and one-sided development 
 at the expense of the first. Focussed in the two cities of Alexandria 
 and Rome, Greek thought and Roman statesmanship were dominant in 
 the Mediterranean. But at what cost '( Local institutions had Ijeen 
 everywhere crushed into imperial uniformity. The national gods 
 destroyed one another by mutual contact. There was wise and peace- 
 ful official administration : there was a, high standard of esthetic and 
 scientific culture. But moral life, the life of conscience and duty, was 
 deeply tainted. 
 
 It remained, then, that the renewal of this inner life should liccome 
 for a time the object of efforts as concentrated and as exclusive as under 
 Greece and Rome had been the life of intellect and of practical activity. 
 For a time the highest energies of Humanity were to be absorbed in the 
 
 203
 
 204 CATHOLICISM 
 
 culture and discipline of the Heart ; and to eftect this discipline was the 
 work of Catholicism. It could not be the final phase of history ; for 
 the problem of restoring Thought and Activity to their rightful though 
 subordinate place would still remain ; and for this the Catholic doctrine 
 was incompetent. The restoration of the final harmony was reserved 
 for Positivism. 
 
 The first condition of moral government was the acceptance of 
 jMonotheism. Intellectually it raised more difficulties than Polytheism : 
 since Omnipotence and Omniscience could never be reconciled with the 
 existence of evil. But it was far more favourable to spiritual discipline 
 than the creeds in which each impulse was stimulated by its own deity. 
 From the time of Socrates and Plato belief in one God had been widely 
 spreading. In Aristotle's hands, God was little more than an expression 
 for Universal Law. The imperial unity of Rome tended to the recog- 
 nition of similar unity in the court of Heaven. And these tendencies 
 were quickened by the contact of Alexandria with Jewish Monotheism ; 
 although Philo's commentary on the Hebrew Scriptures, forcing the 
 anthropomorphic God of the Jews into conformity with the spiritual 
 Deity of Plato, shows that in this respect Greek thought gave more than 
 it received. 
 
 The essential contribution of Judea to the Roman world was not 
 the monotheistic theory, but the fervid sense of right and wrong which 
 inspired the HebrcAv prophets. Yrom the 8th century b.c. onward, 
 a series of remarkable men arose in Palestine whose teaching was a 
 direct appeal to conscience apart from external law, institution, or ritual. 
 Breaking through the bonds of nationality or of theocratic observance, 
 they upheld a God to whom burnt-offerings and feast-days gave no 
 pleasure, who delighted only in righteousness and mercy, who abhorred 
 the oppressors of the poor and needy. The loss of national independence, 
 through the successive domination of Assyrian, Greek, and Roman, had 
 served but to concentrate more strongly the asj^irations of these men on 
 the spiritual empire which a divine deliverer would one day arise to 
 establish. 
 
 There was thus in the Gncco-Roinan world, together with much need 
 for moral regeneration, much prej^aration for it. Roman conquest and 
 Greek sjjeeulation had swept away many obstacles, and had broiight 
 together many materials for reconstruction. New Pythagorean associa- 
 tions were rising, stirred by traditions of their great founder to attempt 
 a reorganisation of life. Stoic schools proclaimed the worthlessness of 
 the goods of this world, upholding righteousness as the sole aim, and 
 maintaining the universal brotherhood of man. In the teaching of 
 Epicurus there was a spirit of gentle kindliness, best expressed in the 
 well-known maxim that to do good was hapjjier than to receive it. And 
 in aid of all these spiritual influences there was the unifying, organising 
 ])0wer of Roman government, obliterating barriers between nations and 
 ])romoting their intercnurso.
 
 CATHOLICISM 205 
 
 It remains to say a few words on the disposition of names in the 
 month dedicated to St. Paul. 
 
 The first week is given to the systematic consideration of Catholic 
 doctrine during the first four centuries. It should be taken in connection 
 with the week of Plato in the month of Aristotle, which illustrates the 
 part taken in this work by the philosophy of Alexandria. The presiding 
 personage is St. Augustin, round whom are grouped the principal 
 Fathers of the Church. 
 
 The second week, that of Hildebrand, records the political institution 
 of Catholicism, beginning with Constantine, continued by Theodosius 
 and the first Gregory, and culminating with the final establishment of 
 the Papal power under Gregory the Seventh. 
 
 The third week is devoted to the organisers of monastic life : the 
 great reservoir of moral force during the earlier part of the middle ages. 
 How efl'ectively the force thus stored up could be used is shown in the 
 life of St. Bernard, who presides over this week, and of St. Benedict, with 
 whom it opens. 
 
 The fourth week represents Catholicism in its decline. Absorbing- 
 no longer the governing energies of society, it yet retained the important 
 function of controlling and stimulating moral life in the social mass, 
 until the new and final faith should prevail. The presiding type is 
 Bossuet, the champion of Gallican independence, since the time for 
 subjection to papal supremacy was past. The founder of Jesuitism is 
 here subordinated to the noblest of his followers. Protestantism is 
 represented by the purest of its sects, whose social utility was kept 
 wholly free from worldly ambition. 
 
 It will be noted that in each week of this month one or more 
 illustrious women are commemorated. The devoted mother to whom 
 Augustin owed his conversion : the peasant girl who protected Paris : 
 the glowing tenderness of Helo'ise, held higher even than the inspirer of 
 Dante's vision : the sublime mystic of Spain : each in her own week 
 finds fitting place. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil Pos. vol. V. Ie90u 54. Pos. Pol. iii. 337-419.
 
 206 ST. PAUL [Catholicism 
 
 / 
 
 ST. PAUL, 64 A.D. 
 
 A Jew by birth and by religion, a recipient of Greek culture, and a 
 Roman citizen, Paul had founded his first hopes for the regeneration 
 of the world on the extension of Jewish Monotheism : purified perhaps 
 as we now see it in the teaching of Philo, but retaining every essential 
 feature. The rising sect of believers in the resun-ection of Jesus appeared 
 to him a mischievous perversion which he strove to crush. But there 
 came a day when this enthusiasm presented itself to him, after a fierce 
 internal conflict, as the channel throuirh which his highest hopes for 
 humanity Avere to be realised. With sublime abnegation he surrendered 
 himself to the movement, avowedly its servant, but in reality its leader. 
 Christianity, which but for him would have remained Judaic or Syrian, 
 assumed henceforth a wholly new character. It became the regenerating 
 force of the Roman Empire and of its northern invaders. 
 
 Rightly to judge of St. Paul's work, we must look at the books of the 
 New Testament by the light of recent scientific study, defining, so far as 
 may be, the date and the authenticity of each. Ranged in chronological 
 order, they fall into four groups : 
 
 1. The authentic epistles of St. Paul, especially those to the Galatians, 
 Cori'iithians, and Eovians, written at some date prior to Nero's persecu- 
 tion, 64 A.D., in which probably St. Paul perished. 
 
 2. The Apocahji^se, the date of which is fixed, by the evident reference 
 to contemporary history in chapter xvii., at 69 a.d. 
 
 3. The Synoptic Gospels of St. Matthew, St. Mark, and St. Luke, 
 together with the AcU of the Apostles^ written at some time between 
 the taking of Jerusalem and the end of the 1st century. 
 
 4. The Fourth Gospel, attributed to St. John, and the other epistles, 
 written not much before the middle of the 2nd century. 
 
 It is essential to remember that during St. Paul's lifetime the 
 Gospels did not exist. His letters contain but few details of the life of 
 .Jesus. Tlie Christ, as he constantly maintained, had been si:)ecially 
 revealed to him. The gospel which he preached was not "after man." 
 For, he says, " I neither received it of man, neither was I taught it, but 
 by the revelation of .Jesus Christ."" 
 
 The teaching of Paul, aiming at a universal religion, was tlius 
 fundamentally clitterent from that of the earlier disciples of Jesus, for 
 whom Cliristianity was merely a new otlshoot of .Judaism. From this 
 difterence a tierce struggle arose, the traces of which are visible in the 
 vivid and authentic narrative given by St. Paul himself in his letter to 
 the Galatian Church. The story of his conversion told there Ijy himself 
 ilitters widely from the account given in the Acts. We see in it that 
 from the first he regarded his mission not as Jewish, but as universal. 
 After his conversion a long interval of three years elapsed during which 
 he held entu-ely aloof from the body of disciples of Jesus in Palestine. 
 He then came to Jerusalem for a fortnight, and saw Peter and James ; 
 but with these exceptions the other Christian groupb in .Judea did not
 
 (\\tholicism] ST. PAUL 207 
 
 even know him by sight. He did not visit Jerusalem again for fourteen 
 years. 
 
 There is thus a long period of seventeen years during which St. Paul 
 worked alone ; and these are the decisive years in the history of 
 Christianity. All that distinguishes a world-religion from a national 
 sect had by that time been worked out. The crucified and risen 
 Redeemer was for all men, not for the Jewish tribe alone. Jew and 
 Gi'eek, Eoman and barbarian, all stood on the same footing. A new 
 society was founded, knit together by other ties than those of nationality, 
 aiming at purity and righteousness, and inspired by hopes of the speedy 
 coming of Christ. That hope remained unrealised : but the Catholic 
 Church was established. Henceforth there was a new power in the 
 world, modifying the political forces round it, governed by new principles 
 and aiming at new objects. A spiritual power, wholly independent of 
 the State, forming opinion and moulding character, but not claiming to 
 interfere with practical government, arose for the first time in the world's 
 history. The doctrine on which it rested was not such as to satisfy the 
 claims of science. But the importance of this new growth, politically 
 speaking, was immense. It corresponds to a permanent need of human 
 society. To satisfy it in ways consistent with scientific and industrial 
 progTess is the principal problem which Auguste Comte attempted 
 to solve. 
 
 What St. Paul founded was a Church. He established a community 
 wider than the Family or the Country, accepting and confii-ming the 
 closer and narrower ties, but uniting families and nations under the 
 common headship of Christ. The vague benevolence that would ignore 
 the claims of relationship has no place in his teaching. He dwells often 
 on the mutual duties of parents, children, and servants. For his own 
 nation he had a passionate affection. He held the law of Eome in 
 profound respect. His teaching was real, human, genial. His picture 
 of the loving, charitable temper, upheld by him as the highest spiritual 
 gift, is perhaps the noblest ideal ever presented to man. And with all 
 this he knew how to exercise stern spiritual authority when need was. 
 It is important to notice that, though Catholic dogma was to undergo 
 much further development in succeeding centuiies, the central institution 
 of Catholicism, the Eucharist, was brought by him into full prominence. 
 
 Thus the Christianity of Paul and that of the Jewish Christians at 
 Jerusalem had little in common but the name. The former was a uni- 
 versal religion, the latter a Hebrew sect. The epistle to the Galatiann 
 and the opening chapter of the A^jocah/psc, m which Pauline practice is 
 attacked under reference to Balaam, and the sect of the Xicolaitans, reveal 
 the full extent of the antagonism. The strife lasted long. It was recon- 
 ciled at last by the triumpli of St. Paul's principles and the complete 
 suppression of his personality. Each succeeding version of the life of 
 Jesus became less Jewish and more universalist. None of these bio- 
 graphies assumed their present shape till after the taking of Jerusalem 
 — forty years at least after the events which they narrate. That of *SY. 
 Matthtic, which is perhaps the earliest, speaks much of the intention ol 
 Jesus to fulfil the Jewisli law. But these intentions are omitted from the 
 (iospcl of *s7. Lii.lf, wliich is far less Jewish intone. The book of the
 
 208 ST. PAUL [Catholicism 
 
 Acts, by the same author, shows strong tendencies to reconcile opposing 
 parties, and to attribute to Peter, as in the story of Cornelius, the teach- 
 ing specially characteristic of Paul. Finally, towards the middle of the 
 2nd century, Pauline teaching, systematised by Alexandrine modes of 
 thought, assumed its decisive form in the Fourth Gospel, strangely attri- 
 buted to the fanatical author of the Apocalypse. Here the universality 
 of Christianity is fully enunciated, and its principal doctrines assume 
 their definite shape. 
 
 St. Paul's life of toil and peril through the coasts of Asia Minor and 
 the Greek peninsula was brought to a close in Rome : whither he had been 
 taken in consequence of his appeal to the imperial court against Jewish 
 fanaticism. Here he probably remained until, a.d. 64, he fell among 
 the victims to the savage cruelty of Nero, recorded by Tacitus. By 
 common consent, his name for nearly two centuries fell into the shade, 
 while his teaching and his work prevailed. When the time came for the 
 consolidation of Christian doctrine in the century of Ambrose, Athana- 
 sius, and Augustin, his exceptional position was more fully recognised. 
 But it was reserved for our own time to raise him to his right place as 
 the true founder of Catholicism. [J. H. B.]
 
 Catholicism] ST. LUKE : ST. JAIMES 209 
 
 [ST. LUKE, 1st Century A.D. 
 
 Luke is named in three of the Epistles which bear St. Paul's name, 
 and purport to have been written from Rome {Philemon 24 ; Colossians 
 iv. 14 ; 2 Timothy iv. 11). He is also thought to be referred to in 
 2 Corinthians viii. 18, 19, as " the brother chosen of the Churches to travel 
 with us." We may then consider Luke, " the beloved physician," to have 
 been the faithful companion and fellow-labourer of the founder of 
 Catholicism, especially durino- his mission in Rome. Nothing more of 
 Luke's life is known, but his " relics " were translated by Constantino 
 from Achaia to Constantinople. By tradition he was the author of the 
 Third Gospel and the Acts of the Apostles, The Third Gospel, by whom- 
 soever written, is Pauline (universal) in tendency (Baur's Church History, 
 i. 77) ; moreover, the maonification of the Virgin-Mother is a unique feature 
 which proved of high Catholic service. The Acts, a very imperfect per- 
 formance, seems designed to level up the claims of St. Peter to the catholi- 
 cising initiative which belongs to St. Paul : it could not have been the 
 work of Paul's devoted friend, familiar with the memorable personal his- 
 tory recorded by the Apostle himself in his letter to the Galatians. In 
 the pageant of the Church seen by Dante in the terrestrial Paradise, 
 St. Paul and St. Luke walk together {Piuyjatory, xxix. 133-141). 
 
 [V. L.] 
 
 ST. JAMES, 1st Century A.D. 
 
 According to Western tradition, the writer of the Epistle which 
 bears the name of St. Jcuncs was James the Apostle, the son of Alphasus, 
 " the Lord's brother," who is said to have become the first Bishop of Jeru- 
 salem, and to have suffered martyrdom by stoning. Probably, however, 
 the Epistle is of later date. 
 
 Recognising the Pauline doctrine of Justification by Faith, the Epistle 
 insists ixpon the practical counterpoise : "Faith, if it hath not works, is 
 dead." Exhortations to an empirical moi-ality were of themselves altogether 
 insufficient for the work of moral reorganisation, but St. Paul's doctrine of 
 Faith in Christ, the free gift of divine grace, which became the indis- 
 pensable dogma of the Church, being necessarily absolute, was very liable 
 to aVjuse, and constantly required checking both by priestly discretion and 
 l)opular good sense. Of such a corrective this Epistle was a useful and 
 gracious type. [V. L.J 
 
 Baur: CharcJi Jliston/, i. l-i8-130.
 
 210 ST. CYPRIAN THASCIUS [Catholicism 
 
 ST. CYPRIAN THASCIUS {Thascius Ccecilms Gyprianus), 
 b. abt. 200, d. 258 A.D. 
 
 Cyprian was a rich man in middle life, and a professor of rhetoric at 
 Carthage, when he was converted by an aged presbyter named Cajcilius : 
 almost immediately afterwards he was elected B ishop of Cartha ^fe (248). 
 His Christian career only extended to ten or tvvelve years. When the 
 Decian persecution broke out (250), Cyj^rian tied from Carthage, and for 
 a year and a half exhorted his suffering flock from a place of conceal- 
 ment : this conduct drew upon him the censure of the Roman clergy. 
 Upon the persecution abating, Cyprian returned to Carthage, and vigor- 
 ously administered his diocese and the African Church. 
 
 Among other conspicuous acts, when a terrible pestilence visited the 
 city he generously succoured the sufferers, Christian and heathen alike. 
 In 256 the persecution Avas again renewed by the Emperor Valerian, 
 and Cyprian was banished to Curubis, a place on the coast, 40 miles 
 ! from Carthage. When he was permitted or required to return, he was 
 ordered to sacrifice to the heathen deities : he refused, whereupon by the 
 proconsul's command he was beheaded in the presence of a great nnilti- 
 tude, in a field outside the city. Cyprian is thus famous as a martyr. 
 
 He was also a distinguished spiritual statesman. The African 
 Church throughout its short career took a foremost part in founding the 
 general order of the Western Church. Cyprian followed TertuUian, 
 whom he ever called his master, and was followed by the great 
 Augustin. As regards the controversies of his day, Cyprian pursued 
 a lenient but measured policy towards the " laj^si" — those, namely, who, 
 having renounced their faith under the pressure of persecution, penitently 
 desired to return to the fold : on the other hand, he steadily refused to 
 recognise baptism by heretics — a decision which provoked a sharp 
 conflict with Pope Stephen, and Avas finally overruled by the Church 
 under the teaching of Augustin. 
 
 1 Cyprian's most important service was a general one — the energetic 
 assertion of the episcopal authority, which was so essential to the inAvard 
 and outward power of the Church. In his view (as his strenuous part 
 in opposing the Novatian schism shows), each bishop, once duly chosen 
 and consecrated, had divine command over his flock — those who per- 
 sisted in refusing obedience to their bishop not even martyrdom could 
 purge : on the other hand, all bishops were co-ordinate ; Stephen was to 
 him no bishop of bishojjs, but bishop of Rome and "his brother." 
 
 Cyprian wrote a celebrated tract on " the Unity of the C!hurch " : 
 
 the conditions of spiritual imion are therein only vaguely stated, 
 
 submission to episcopal authority excepted ; l)ut the afl'ectionate quality 
 
 of Catholicism is finely marked (see his praise of the symbol of the 
 
 I Dove), and the necessity of imity is imperiously expressed : " He cannot 
 
 s have God for his Father who has not the Church for his Mother." 
 
 ' Cyiman's relics were o])tained from the Sultan by Charlemagne, brought 
 
 to France, and afterwards placed in the Abbey of Compiegne. [V. L.] 
 
 Pontius tlie Deacon : Life of Cyirrian. Fleury : Ecdcsiuntical History, 
 vol. ii. Ijks. vi. vii. Gibbon •.Decline and Fall, ch. xv. Gieseler : 
 Eccleaiastical Jlisiory, \o\,'i. '' " ""■ """
 
 Catholicism] ST. ATHANASIUS 211 
 
 ST. ATHANASIUS, b. 296, d. 373 A.D. 
 
 A thanasius , the greatest of the Greek Fathers, was a native of the 
 city 01 Alexandria, then the headquarters of speculative theology. 
 After some ascetic training under the Coptic anchorite St. Anthony 
 (whose life he afterwards wrote), he became secretary and archdeacon 
 to Alexander, the metropolitan Bishop ("Pope") of Alexandria. 
 Almost his earliest appearance in the Christian arena was at the 
 ( Ecumenical CoundL,.Q£_ ^ic,;iR;i ( 325V Though only an archdeacon, 
 Athanasius proved thej.eading spirit of the Council, and triumi^hantly 
 upheld against Arius and"Kis followers the unity, the consubstantiality 
 ('O/io-ova-ta), of the Father and the Son. This mysterious dogma was 
 then no learned fancy. Combined with the theory of Christ's perfect 
 manhood, it was an imaginative creation of Humanity, necessary to the 
 intimate efficacy of the Christian doctrine, as "instituting a complete jl 
 identity between the adorer and the adored " {Fos. Pol. iii. 384), of ' \ 
 which the Eucharist became the highest expression. 
 
 No less necessary was it to the power of t he Cath olic hierarchj^, 
 who thus "derived from no mere prophet, but came" iihJer a "divine 
 head " {Pos. Pol. ii. 94 ; iii. 343, 387). It led, as a, consequence, even 
 "to the establishment of the Papacy as the supreme European authority " 
 {Pos. PoZ. Tv. 541). Moreover, " a divine mediator pointed indistinctly 
 to the growing tendency of Humanity to find its highest providence 
 within Itself" {Pos. Polil 94). 
 
 In the year following the Council, Athanasius succeeded to the 
 Alexandrian See, then the most important in the Church. This post 
 he held, with many external interruptions, until his death, beloved by 
 his clergy and jieople to enthusiasm. His long heroic life was spent 
 as a vehement champion of the Catholic cause, during the critical time 
 when Catholicism was openly wrestling in East and West with Paganism, 
 but especially with the deadly Arian heresy. Jerome, speaking of this 
 time, and especially of the Council of Rimini (360), says " the whole 
 world groaned, marvelling to find itself Arian." 
 
 Athanasius suffered deposition by various Councils both in East 
 and West, and was several times expelled from his throne by Imperial 
 order — by Constantine upon his Arian relapse, by Constantius the Arian 
 jjersecutor, by Julian the Pagan, who termed him "the enemy of the 
 gods," and finally by the Arian Valens. He passed altogether 20 years 
 in exile or as a fugitive : of these, two (336-338) were spent at the 
 court of the orthodox Constans at Treves, three (343-346) in the Vatican 
 at Rome, and six in the deserts of the Thebais, where he was hunted 
 continually for his life, but protected by the devotion of tlie monks. 
 On the otlier hand, Athanasius had his great moments of triumpli, as 
 when he returned time after time from exile, and especially when he 
 confirmed Jovian in the Christian faith. He died in peace : his l)ody 
 was brought to Constantinople, and in the 15th century to Venice. 
 
 Discerning the right doctrinal path, whence his title "The Father 
 of Orthodoxy," and showing inflexible courage against all enemies — 
 ("Athajiasiyus ajgi^^ world" — Hooker's Ecclesiastical Polittj) — 
 
 Athanasius was in his tmie the director, almost the Dictivtor, of the
 
 212 ST. ATHANASIUS : ST. JEROME [Catholicism 
 
 Church. His biographer, Gregory Nazianzen, says that " he united in 
 himself the various attributes of all the heathen gods." We should 
 especially mark his appeal to the whole Church — to the East, and even 
 more to the West, by whose support he mainly triumphed. Greek 
 prelate as he was, he even directly furthered the ecclesiastical supre- 
 macy of Rome, as in the Council of Sardica (347), where the Roman See 
 was declared the future Court of Appeal to all bishops on trial. He 
 j also, upon his visit to Rome, introduced Monasticism into Western 
 Christendom. 
 
 The theological works and pastoral e]Distles of Athanasius form 
 three folio volumes. He was not the author of the " Athan asian Cree d," 
 which follows (but in Latin)~the terms of the "Council of Chalcedon 
 (4.51), and was probably of much later date ; but, as Gibbon says, 
 " his immortal name will never be separated from the Catholic doctrine 
 of the Trinity, to whose defence he consecrated every moment and 
 every faculty of his being." [V. L] 
 
 Fleury : Ecclesiastical History, vols. iii. ami iv. Kaye : Council of Nicuea. 
 G ibhon : Decline gjid Fal l, ch. xxi.-xxv. Hampden: Bampton 
 Lectures, Ject. iii. ""^ 
 
 ST. JEROME (Hiero)ujmus), b. abt. 346, d. 420 A.D. 
 
 EusEBius HiERONVMUs SopHRoxius, kuowu to US as Jerome , was 
 born of Christian parents at Stridon, a suburb of the great city of 
 Aquileia, which before his death was laid in ruin by the Goths. He 
 completed his youthful education (363-367) in Rome, then still splendid 
 and more than .-semi-Pagan : he also studied at Treves, the seat of Valen- 
 tinian's empire. The next six years were spent in ascetic retirement in 
 his own home at Stridon. 
 
 In 373, " tearing himself from his friends for the kingdom of heaven's 
 sake," Jerome went as a pilgrim to Antioch, and became a hermit in 
 the desert of Chalcis. He has recorded his penitential sufferings, his 
 ecstasies and dreams : he was not idle, however — he learnt Hebrew and 
 studied the sacred texts, also took part in several controversies. After 
 four years in this wilderness, Jerome returned to Antioch, where he 
 was ordained priest rather against his will — a monk, he said, he would 
 ever be : he never consecrated the Eucharist. 
 
 In 379 we find him at Constantinople, helping Gregory of Nazianzus 
 (Basil's friend) in his struggle with the Arians ; he outstayed the 
 triumphant Council of 381 (Gibbon, ch. xxvii.). From Constantinople, 
 Jerome went to Rome with his friend, Bishop Paulinus, to attend the 
 Western Council summoned by the Emperor Gratian (382). Marcella, 
 the leader of the ascetic party, received him into her palace on the 
 Palatine, and Pope Damasus appointed him secretary to the Council, 
 and also his own secretary. In Rome Jerome remained nearly four 
 years. Spiritual director of the ascetic party and especially devout 
 ladies, he was also their vehement patron, and the fierce, often coarse, 
 denouncer alike of Pagan ^iride and clerical corrujjtion. On the death of 
 his friend and patron Damasus, Jerome quitted Rome and jn-oceeded to 
 Palestine (385), At Antioch he was joined by his beloved disciples,
 
 Catholicism] ST. JEROME : ST. AMBROSE 2ia 
 
 Paula and her daughter Eustochium, noble and learned Roman ladies, 
 who brought with them a train of virgins. As venerating pilgrims they 
 visited the Holy Places at Jerusalem and the extraordinary monastic 
 communities of Egypt : they then returned to settle in Bethlehem. 
 Close to the great church which Helena, the mother of Constantine, had 
 built over " the Cave of the Nativity," Paula founded two monasteries 
 for virgins, one for men under Jerome's rule, and a guest-house for 
 pilgrims. Jerome had besides a cave for himself : this was his dwelling- 
 place during the remaining thirty-four years of his life. It was, he says, 
 " the paradise of his studies." 
 
 In this cave he composed his great works, and sent forth his fiery 
 criticisms against Pelagius and other adversaries. Once he was com- 
 pelled to fly with all the pious colony to the coast to avoid the threaten- 
 ing Huns ; once he had to defend them by force, and even retire a while 
 from a band of ferocious Pelagianising monks ; and in the year 410 his 
 studies were broken by care for unhappy fugitives from burning Rome. 
 In the main, however, his life was one of incessant literary activity for 
 the Church and afiectionate communion with Paula and Eustochium. 
 They both died before him : his letter on the death of Paula is a deeply 
 interesting record in several respects. Jerome himself died in 420 : his 
 tomb and their tomb, as well as his cave, are now shown adjoining the 
 crypt of the Nativity. 
 
 Jerome was a mighty figure in the imagination of the Middle Ages 
 as the great eremite, pilgrim, and dweller in holy shrines, who there. 
 translated the sacred Scriptures into the sacred and universal Latin 
 tongue. In many a picture we see him in the wilderness, beating his 
 breast with a stone to subdue the flesh ; the tame lion at his feet marks 
 his conflict and victory, his book betokens his scriptural lore, his car- 
 dinal's hat the posthumous honour of the Church. Among Jerome's works 
 the most valuable are his letters, commentaries, and lives of illustrious 
 saints : above all, his noble version of the Old and New Testaments, 
 called the VulgaTe, an extraordinary achievement. This version, super- 
 secting more ancient translations, served for centuries (and still serves) 
 the doctrine and devotion of the Latin Church, and was a precious 
 instrument of Catholic unity. [V. L.] 
 
 Fleury : Ecclesiastical Historji, vols. iv. and v. Tliierry : Life of Jerome. 
 Hampden : Bamidon Lectures, lect. 1. Dictionary of Christian Anti- 
 quaries : art. Vri.GATE. Mrs. Jiuneson : Sacred and Legcndurii Art, 
 vol. i. 
 
 ST. AMBROSE, b. abt. 340, d. 398 A.D. 
 
 Ambrose, second of the four eliief Latin Fathers, was son of the 
 Prefect of Gaul. He received a legal training in Rome, and, becoming a 
 distinguished advocate, was appointed (Jonsular Governor of the Milanese 
 province. In 375, while holding this command, he was suddenly, though 
 still unbaptized, called to be Bishop of Milan by acclamation. This 
 great office he filled through stormy times under various sovereigns — 
 Valentinian, Gratian, Valentinian the younger and his mother Justina, 
 Theodosius, and Honorius. 
 
 In the ('Onfessions of Augustiu, whom lie converted and Ijaptized
 
 214 ST. AMBROSE : ST. MONICA [Catholicism 
 
 (387), we have a picture of his ordinary episcopal life, fuU of affectionate 
 energy. He was indeed a pillar of Catholic orthodoxy and spiritual 
 authority ; he had perhaps in excess the credulous imagination without 
 which Christianity could never have been ; and although he condemned 
 persecution on one memorable occasion — that of the Priscillianists — he 
 was a great persecutor. He was also a fervent patron ofcelibacy, asceti- 
 cism, and the new monastic institutions ; he himielt had a "monastery 
 outside Milan, " full of good brothers." Jerome even says — though this 
 is an exaggeration — that he brought the whole of Italy to the true faith. 
 By the temporal princes Ambrose was extraordinarily honoured ; he was 
 even on several high emergencies employed by them as ambassador. To 
 them he was the Great Priest {'■'■ Ecce Sacerdos Magnus''') : one cause of 
 their trust being tliat, in the words of his contemporary biographer, 
 " fearing God, he never feared to speak the truth to kings." 
 
 Tor Gratian, wlio ld-v~ed and revered^ Eim as a lather, Ambrose wrote 
 a treatise on the Trinity, and another on the Holy Ghost ; he counselled 
 his orthodox legislation, and appeared before him (as afterwards before 
 Valentinian and Theodosius) as the Christian champion to uphold the 
 removal of the statue of Victory from the Roman Senate-house. To the 
 Arianising regent Justina, Ambrose refused to give up a single church ; 
 ordered by her to quit Milan, he boldly refused, and, supported by the 
 people, made good his refusal. Augustin relates how on this occasion 
 Ambrose, holding his cathedral like a besieged fortress with his flock for 
 garrison, Monica among them, introduced for their encouragement the 
 Eastern practice of singing hymns, which thus came to be established 
 ' in the Western Church. 
 
 Upon the murder of the young Valentinian by Arbogastes, Ambrose 
 had to retire for a while till the avenger Theodosius came. The highest 
 fame of Ambrose rests upon his relations with that great sovereign, 
 whose drastic legislation against Arian heresy and heathen worship he 
 prompted ; but whose wrong-doing he fearlessly rebuked, and who him- 
 .self said of him, "I have seen no bishop but Ambrose." The picture of 
 the Christian bishop repelling from his cathedral the lord of the whole 
 Roman world for a cruel act of government, and the repentant Emperor 
 submitting (390), was always an inspiring memory to the mediajval 
 priesthood. Ambrose was buried in the church at ^Nlilan which still bears 
 his name. In mediaeval art he figured continually as one of the Doctors 
 of the Church, bearing in his hand a triple thong. Besides many other 
 works, Ambrose was the author of Latin hynms, some of which survive 
 and are in constant use. [V. L.] 
 
 Paulinas the Deacon: Life of Amhrose (written liy order of St. Augustin). 
 Flenry : EccleHufiiU-ul History, vol. iv. Gihhou : Decline and Fail, 
 cli. xxvii. wviii. Mrs. .Jameson: Sacred a'nTt~f:f<iendanj Art, vol. i. 
 
 ST. MONICA, b. 332, d. 387 a.d. 
 
 Monica represents the feminine domestic piety which, spontaneously 
 leaguing itself to the priesthood, gave from the first profound help to 
 the Catholic cause (Acta xvi. 14, 15 ; Bomans xvi. 3, 4). She stands 
 happily here between Ambrose, whom "she loved as an angel of God,"
 
 Catholicism] ST. MONICA 215 
 
 and her illustrious son Augustin, whom she brought into the Catholic 
 fold, " bearing for him," as he says, " more mother-pangs in the spirit 
 than she had done in the body." 
 
 Her life and character are enshrined in Augustin's Confessions. Born 
 of a pious Catholic family near Carthage, and severely disciplined in 
 childhood, ]\Ionica married Patricius, a small burgess of Tagaste (Taj el t), 
 where she became mother of Augustin (354) and two other children. 
 The family was Latin, but Patricius was a Pagan and, though good- 
 natured, choleric and licentious. Monica by sweet forbearance kept the 
 family concord unbroken ; eventually she made the whole household 
 Catholic, including Patricius himself He died in 371. 
 
 Henceforth a widow, Monica gave herself wholly to her children 
 and pious duties. From scruples then common, she had not baptized 
 Augustin, but with a mother's heart she had planted in his soul religious 
 sympathies deeper than he knew. He was now studying rhetoric at 
 Carthage, and she strove with holy tenderness to keep him faithful and 
 pure. Augustin loved his mother, yet he tried her sorely : he lived 
 with a concubine ; he joined the Manichfean heresy. He records his 
 mother's tears and fervent prayers for him ; her visions also, especially 
 one " God-sent," Avhich gave her calm and lasting assurance, for it 
 announced to her, " Where thou art, there too shall he be." 
 
 Augustin had always been a student. In his 20th year he was 
 deeply moved to reflection by reading Cicero's Hortensius. He now 
 (376) became Professor of Rhetoric, teaching first in Tagaste and then 
 at Carthage. In 383, eluding his mother, he went to Rome, and thence 
 as official professor to Milan. Monica, undaunted, followed him across 
 the sea. At Milan she was soon a devoted member of Archbishop 
 Ambrose's flock, serving the altar morning and evening. In turn she 
 won Ambrose's admiration as a Christian mother. By this time Augustin 
 had abandoned Manicha^ism, but was halting dissatisfied in academic 
 scepticism ; meanwhile he was a friend and hearer of Ambrose, and had 
 become a catechumen in his church. At last both his intellectual and 
 moral difficulties were overcome, and he surrendered himself finally to 
 the spirit of St. Paul. 
 
 Monica's life-ettbrt Mas now fulfilled ; she had the triumph of seeing 
 her son baptized in Milan on Easter Day, 387. On this occasion, so 
 momentous to the future of Catholicism, was produced, according to 
 mediieval tradition, the noljle hymn, " Te Deum laudanms." As 
 Augustin came uj) out of the water, he and Ambrose, it was said, 
 uttered verse and verse antiphonally, "as the fervent grace of the Holy 
 Ghost wrought in their souls and informed their tongues." Deeply, also, 
 did the holy mother share in her son's spiritual raptures at this pei-iod. 
 He especially descriljes an ecstatic conversation which proved to be the 
 last. This was at Ostia, where his mother was about to embark with 
 him for Carthage. A few days later she was seized with fever, and 
 there died (387). She had longed to be buried by her husband's side 
 in Africa, but her last words to her sons were these : " Lay my body 
 where you will. This only I ask of you, think of me at the altar of God, 
 wlierever you may be." The lovely figure of Monica ministering to her 
 majestic son received due honour in mediaeval art. [V. L.] 
 
 Augii'^tiii : C'diifi'nHioiii:,
 
 216 ST. AUGUSTIN [Catholicism 
 
 ST. AUGUSTIN {Aiirelins Avgvstinus), b. 354, d. 430 A.D. 
 
 This week commemorates the rise of the Catholic Church, and 
 especially the formation of its doctrine. The founders of Catholicism 
 necessarily took the means for the end, and ascribed divine verity to 
 their creed, which however was always the weakest element of the system. 
 In the New Testament we see the dogma fluent : it was gradually most 
 skilfully shaped, often under the pressure of heretical attack, to fulfil 
 the intimate aim of Catholicism, t he developm ent and discipline of 
 the feelings under the direction of a universal and "Tndg[^T dg'llt 'pTie st- 
 hood M'ielding sacramental^ower. In accorcTarice with' CatKoIic iraclition, 
 AuGUSTix presides here. 
 
 The true inheritor of St. Paul, to whose authority he constantly appeals, 
 Augustin was the great confessor and standard-bearer of the faith when 
 the temporal Empire broke. He more than any other man made " Holy 
 Mother Church " supreme in the West, expounded the Catholic doctrine 
 as a whole, and delivered it formed and armed to the mediaeval time. 
 Catholic authority he systematically upheld, even to the point of persecu- 
 tion, and saying of himself : " I should not have believed the Gos])el truth 
 had not the authority of the C^'atholic Church constrained me " rTTuTTiis 
 overflowing sympathy with the innermost needs and desires both of the 
 individual soul and of Christian society made his works the armoury iu 
 after ages for Christian disputants of every kind. He writes as a Latin 
 rhetorician, yet with poignant touches of the familiar and affectionate 
 mediasval spirit. 
 
 The history of his life up to the year 387, and especially of his spiritual 
 debt to his mother Monica and to Ambrose, is narrated in the preceding 
 article. Eeturning to Africa in 388, Augustin went into monastic retreat 
 for three years ; in 391 he was ordained presbyter, and in 395 elected 
 Bishop of Hippo (now Bona), a town on the coast 150 miles west of 
 ( 'arthage. This provincial post he held 34 years : from it he watched 
 over all Christendom, and virtually directed the Church. His labours 
 for Catholic unity Avere of every kind : preaching, administering, attend- 
 ing councils, composing treatises, adjudicating private diff'erences, and 
 corresponding with ecclesiastical and temporal authorities. 
 
 He waged an arduous conflict against all enemies of the Church, 
 especially: — (1) the Manich cans, ^\ho " by arresting the concentration 
 of Polytheism at the stage of dualism — that is, of two divine principles, 
 good and evil — did more than any other heresy to retard the ijrogi'ess of 
 ( 'atholicism" {Pox. Pol. iii. 365). (2) The Donafixts, who claimed to reject 
 at their own discretion any ordained priest on the pretext of personal 
 unworthiness. These violent purists were irreconcilable to (^'atholic 
 order. Against them, as schismatics, Augustin used more than argument. 
 He demanded and accepted the forcible aid of the temporal power, justi- 
 fying himself by Christ's words. "Compel them to come in" (letter to 
 Count Boniface, Pp. -liO). The success of the experiment led liim to 
 declare the general value of coercion as an instrument in the cause of 
 orthodoxy. (3) The Prhujianx. These Avere premature Humanists, 
 who denied the descent of Adam's original sin, and asserted human virtue 
 almost independent of divine grace : they thus evacuated tlie whole
 
 Catholicism] ST. AUGUSTIN 217 
 
 scheme of redemption in Christ, and cut away the very ground of the 
 priesthood. This controversy, for his part in which Augustin was after- 
 wards colled " The Doctor of Grace," fully developed the Catholic theory 
 of human nature and man's salvation, and largely also that of the sacra- 
 ments. 
 
 Augustin died at Hippo in 430, in the third month of its siege by the 
 Arian Vandals, who afterwards took and destroyed the city. His name 
 has always received the highest honours of the Church. Dante gives him 
 one of the most exalted places in heaven {Paradise, xxxii. 35). In 
 mediaeval art, when the principal subject is the glory of Christ or the 
 coronation or assumption of the Virgin, the four Doctors of the Church, 
 Augustin chief, attend with their books as witnesses and interpreters. 
 His tomb, a noble monument of the 14th century, is at Pavia, whither 
 his remains had been removed from Sardinia in the 8th century by Luit- 
 prand, king of the Lombards. 
 
 The works of St. Augustin extend to many folio volumes. Those 
 chosen for the Positivist Library are : — (1) The Commentary on the 
 Sermon on the Mount, composed by Augustin while yet a presbyter (393). 
 (2) The Confessions, composed 400 a.d. This little book, still widely read, 
 is a retrospect of Augustin's pre-baptismal life, and especially of his own 
 mind and feelings, conceived as a continuous thanksgiving to God, the 
 author of all good. It thus strikes the true Catholic note, the supre- 
 macy of affection {Pos. Pol. iii. 355). Hence medi£eval painters, adopt- 
 ing his own words, " Thou didst pierce my heart with the arrow of thy 
 love" {Co7i.f. ix. 2), represented Augustin as carrying in his hand a heart 
 transfixed by an arrow. Intimately connected with this general topic, 
 and illustrating also one of the most essential services of Catholicism to 
 civilisation {Pos. Pol. iii. 369, 379), is an admirable record of his conquest 
 over sexual desire. (3) The City of God, composed 413-426 a.d. 
 
 The grandeur of the occasTon^oh. which this book was conceived, and of 
 its general subject, is unsurpassed in literature. In 410 Rome was taken 
 an?i-f»rked by the Goths under Alaric. The wail sent up from the 
 Empire included the indignant complaint of many that the public dis- 
 asters were due to the forsaking of the ancient gods. Thus the whole 
 issue between Polytheism and Catholic ]Monotheism was raised before a 
 world-wide audience, deeply interested and deeply excited. Augustin, 
 " outfiaming with zeal for God's house," stepped forth as the champion of 
 Catholicism, and produced this monumental work. 
 
 He takes for his main theme the contrast between the temporal empire 
 of Rome and " the most glorious City of God" — that is, the Church, "hero 
 militant, hereafter triumphant" {Plphesians ii. 19-22). He reviews the 
 secular and sacred history of man. Just the judgment could not be, for 
 to Augustin the Roman gods were demons. Yet he honoured Roman 
 virtues. And if Tlie City of God, disparaging human science and human 
 achievements, manifests to us now the ingratitude of the Church to the 
 past, and her intellectual, practical, and moral insufficiency towards the 
 full social prol^lem, yet figuratively it announced that problem ; and it 
 seemed to rally, as to a victory-giving standard, the distracted peoples of 
 the 5th century : it held up to their abhorrence the corruptions of the i 
 Pagan Polytheism that was passing away, it compelled their love and
 
 218 ST. AUGUSTIN : CONSTANTINE [Catholicism 
 
 admiration for the grace of the new faith, that was destined to blend 
 with the life of defensive Avarfare, and thus guide human Order and 
 Progress for several centuries (bk. xix. ch. xvii.). [V. L.] 
 
 Possidiiis : Life of Augustin. Fleury : Ecclesiastical History, vol. v. Gib- 
 bon : Decline and Fall, ch. xxi. xxxiii. Gieseler : Jicclesiastical HisttJff^ 
 \Vr. i. Hampden : Bampton Lectures. Guizot : Civilisation in France, 
 lect. V. Mrs. Jameson, u.s. 
 
 J CONSTANTINE (Flavius Valerius Aurelins Constantimis), 
 * b. 274, d. 337 a.d. 
 
 The father of Constantine was the Illyrian, Constantius Chlorus, who 
 under Diocletian's fourfold distribution of the Empire became sovereign 
 of Gaul, Spain, and Britain (capital Treves) : his mother was Helena, an 
 innkeeper's daughter. In 306 Chlorus died at York, naming Constantme^ 
 trho was then with himpas his successor ; this choice was ratified by the 
 army. Constantine was already a distinguished soldier. He soon con- 
 ducted vigorous campaigns against the barbarians (he gave the captive 
 Frankish chiefs to the wild beasts at Treves) ; but these wars, and even 
 the great ruinous civil wars which made him, first, master of the West 
 (31-^), and then sole ruler of the whole Empire (325), can only be simply 
 mentioned here, in order to mark his transforming measures of civil 
 and ecclesiastical policy, which were characteristic of the 4th century, 
 " the doubtful borderland linking or sepai'ating Antiquity and the Middle 
 Age." 
 
 As Catholicism, Humanity's predestined growth, was essentially in- 
 compatible with the Roman Empire, which was in deep decay, the 
 statesman's task was to pave the way for the one, and to protect and 
 smooth the decline of the other. To abolish the Prietorian soldiery, 
 and separate military from civil command, was to abate Rome's pride 
 and to guard against intestine war. Far more, the founding of Con- 
 stantinople (328) as the future seat of governmenr^^the New Rome— 
 ■\«-1iile a most wise measure for the safety of the Eastern provinces, was 
 a decisive abandonment of the past, a marked step towards the final 
 separation of the Roman dominion into East and West. Rome continued 
 to be the citadel of the ancient Paganism under tlie patronage of the 
 Roman aristocracy until their ruin by Alaric, when the field of the 
 West became open to the supremacy of the Church. Thus, in Dante's 
 regretful words, the Emperor, " that he might give place to the Shepherd 
 \i.e. the Pope],^made himself a Greek" {Paradise, xx. 57). 
 
 Similar in its ultimate results was Constantine's general policy 
 towards Christianity. At the commencement of the 4th century 
 Catholicism was a proscribed sect ; at its close it was the sole religion 
 in the Empire permitted by law. Such a force must have found issue, and 
 ( 'onstantine showed himself a statesman in recognising and adopting it. 
 lie never was a devout Christian : to the last he paid some official honour to 
 the heathen gods, and he was only baptized on his deathbed (by an Arian) ; 
 but he saw that the persecuting policy of his predecessors had failed, and 
 that the only safe course for his dominion holding together at all was to 
 iiicorjxirate into the Stuti' tliis resolute an<l organised ( 'hi'istian minority.
 
 Catholicism] CONSTANTINE : THEODOSIUS 219 
 
 Accordingly, in 311, he put forth with Galerius and Licinius a first 
 act of clemency ; and in 313 he issued with Licinius t he E dict of Milan, 
 an act of general toleration towards the Christian and aH otiHerreliglons, 
 restoring also to the Christians their temples. This policy was soon 
 extended to the whole Empire. Passive toleration, howevei", is not a 
 thing that can last. In his final conflict with . Licinius, Constantine 
 figured as the Christian champion against Paganism ; and after his victory 
 he proceeded, says Augustin, " to build a spiritual State, felloAV to the 
 Eoman Empire, as it were Rome's own daughter" (Oitij of God, v. 24). 
 He relieved the Church lands from the ordinary tribute and allowed 
 legacies to be left to Church purposes, released the clergy from municipal 
 offices, sanctioned their disciplinary and judicial powers, and built many 
 Christian churches. To obtain practical unity (for he thought even the 
 doctrine of the Trinity a trifling matter), Constantine summoned (besides 
 several synods) the CEcumeiiical Council of Nicsea (325), which produced 
 the Nicene Creed! Over this Council he (unhaptized) presided in person ; 
 at its conclusion he took strong measures against the condemned sects. 
 Later on he was induced to banish Athanasius as a seditious person. 
 
 The last days of ( 'onstantme wwe sullied by cruelty to his family. 
 He died at Nicomedia, and was buried in the Clhurch of the Ajwstles at 
 Constantinople : the figures of the Apostles were planted around his 
 tomb, while the Roman Senate gave him divine honours. His baptism 
 by Pope Sylvester and donation of the patrimony of St. Peter, which 
 were so long devoutlv believed, were the invention of a much later age. 
 
 LV. L.] 
 
 Fleury : Ecclesiastical lllsturji. Gieseler : Ecclesiastical History, vol. i. 
 Gibbon: Decline and Fall, eli. .\iv. xvi. xviii. x.x. xxi. Milman : Latin 
 Christian it If. ch. ii. Banr : Chcirh Jlistory, part v. 2. I'os. I'ol. ii. ;3:31. 
 iii. 390, iv, 826. 
 
 THEODOSIUS {Flacius) THE GREAT, b. 345, d. 395 A.D. 
 
 Theodosius the Great was the sou of Theodosius the Elder, an 
 illustrious general. He early won fame as a soldier ; but upon the 
 disgrace and execution of his father (37G), he retired into privacy near 
 Seville, his native province. When, however, the Eastern Emperor 
 Valens and two-thirds of the Roman army were destroyed by tlie Goths 
 at Hadrianople, Gratian, Emperor of the West, summoned Theodosius 
 as the fittest man to meet the public peril, and invested him witli the 
 Eastern Empire (379). 
 
 In four uainpaigns Theodosius skilfully concluded tlie war, l)ut was 
 obliged to allow the settlement of the Goths in the Roman dominion as 
 armed allies. In 387 he made war upon ]Maxinu\s, who, having murdered 
 Gratian, had afterwards usurped Italy ; defeated him ; and, entering 
 Rome in triumph, took in charge — he was the last to do so — the whole 
 Roman world (388)." After three years' liberal administration of Italy, 
 Theodosius returned to Constantinople, generously leaving the young 
 Valentinian on the throne of ]VIilan. But in 392 Yalentinian was 
 murdered by Pagan conspirators ; Theodosius thereupon again marclied 
 into Italy, and overthrew his heatlien adversaries at A(iiiil('ia ^39 T. A
 
 « 
 
 220 THEODOSIUS : ST. OHRYSOSTOM [Catholicism 
 
 few months afterwards he died at Milan. " The genius of Rome expired 
 with him "(Gibbon). 
 
 The predecessors of Theodosius, Valens and Constantius, had been 
 Arians ; Constantinople was the chief fortress of Arianism ; Arians held 
 the episcopal palace, the cathedral, and all the churches. But in the 
 first year of his reign Theodosius was baptized in the faith of the Trinity. 
 " Glowing from the font," he issued his celebrated decree, in which he 
 declared that all his subjects should be " Catholic Christians," branding 
 all dissidents as infamous heretics, and threatening secular penalties. 
 He proceeded to eject the Arian prelates and their congregations, seated 
 Gregory Nazianzen on the archiepiscopal throne, and summoned the 
 General Council of Constantinople (381). This Council finally established 
 the doctrine of the Trinity, re-enacting the Nicene Creed with added 
 particulars respecting the Holy Ghost, the general purpose of which was 
 " to perpetuate the relation effected during the temporary incarnation "' 
 {Pos. Pol. iii. 384. Hampden : Bampton Lectures, lect. iii.). Theo- 
 dosius altogether promulgated at least fifteen most severe decrees against 
 the ministers, the assemblies, and the persons of the heretics. 
 
 He was no less energetic against Paganism. All Pagan rites were pro- 
 hibited, even the worship of household gods. Sacrifices were declared high 
 treason, and throughout the Empire the heathen tem^iles were ordered to be 
 systematically destroyed, many of them splendid and beautiful examples 
 of Grecian architecture. Counselled and approved by the leaders of the 
 Church, this wholesale violence must be charged to the absolute spirit of 
 Monotheism, which condemned all its predecessors. But like the pangs 
 of the conquered nations that were involved in the establishment of the 
 Roman jjeace, it was inevitable, and also indispensable " to protect the 
 new faith from the danger of discussion, against which it was always 
 powerless" {Pos. Pol. iii. 391). Moreover, though Paganism was to be 
 extirpated as a religion, a measure {"dose fondainentale") of Poly- 
 theism was being i-eceived into Catholic worship in the invocation of 
 saints, prayers for the dead, and the adoration of shrines and relics. 
 
 The later ecclesiastical adviser of Theodosius was Ambrose ; to whom 
 also he rendered an extraordinary act of submission, accepting public 
 exclusion from the services of the Church for eight months, in penance 
 for the massacre which, by his command, had been inflicted on the 
 citizens of Thessalonica (390). Theodosius thus anticipated median^al 
 discipline. [V. L.] 
 
 Aiigustiii : Cih/ (if Gixl, V. 2'), I'O. Fleury : Kcchsutstlcal Ilistiuy. Gil.lioii : 
 Dcclinr and Full, cli. xxvi. xxvii. xxviii. I'on. I'al. iii. 391. Coii- 
 i,nvvi' : Riiiiiuii Empin- nf thr, UV,v/, lect. 3. 
 
 ST. OHRYSOSTOM, b. 347, d. 407 a.d. 
 
 John of Antioch, called after his death CiuiYSosToii, or "the Golden- 
 mouthed," from tlie sympathetic character of his elocjuence, was the son 
 (if the military commander in Syria. Losing his father in infancy, he 
 was brought up by liis mother, the pious Anthusa. He became a dis- 
 tinguished pupil of the celebrated Libanius, and commenced an advocate's
 
 Catholicism] ST. CHRYSOSTOM : ST. BASIL 221 
 
 career. This path, however, he soon quitted, to pursue the call of religion. 
 Having received baptism, he for several years practised ascetic life in 
 his mother's house, and in 374 entered a monastic community amid the 
 mountains near Antioch. In this coenobite discipline four years were 
 spent, and then two years in a solitary cave. In 381, Chrysostom was 
 ordained deacon in Antioch, and in 386 presbyter, serving always in 
 his native city, but earning wide renown as a preacher. Such was his 
 fame that in 398, by order of Eutropius, the minister of the Emperor 
 Arcadius, he was suddenly and secretly carried off" to Constantinople, to 
 be made Archbishop in the imperial capital. 
 
 Here he declared the priesthood to be in dignity above royalty ; and 
 protested to the Emperor against giving up a single church to the Arians. 
 Amid the court and people he stood forth conspicuous in word and 
 deed for orthodoxy and severity of life, as among the clergy for ecclesi- 
 astical discijoline. His unsparing rebukes of fashionable vices from the 
 pulpit brought upon him the enmity of the Empress Eudoxia. By her 
 and Theophilus, Archbishop of Alexandria, a conspiracy was organised ; 
 a packed synod deposed Chrysostom, and the feeble Arcadius condemned 
 him to perpetual exile (a.d. 403). 
 
 Two days after the sentence he was, indeed, gloriously recalled upon 
 the jDOiJular demand ; but on a fresh pretext he was banished to Cucusus, 
 a lonely place among the mountains of Taurus, whence, however, for 
 three years he continued with faithful zeal to administer his diocese by 
 letters. But his enemies unrelentingly pursued his ruin : an order was 
 now obtained that he should be marched under military guard to Pityus, 
 on the north-east shore of Pontus, "the last frontier of the Roman 
 world." Chrysostom expired on the way at Comana (a.d. 407). Thirty- 
 three years afterwards his remains were brought in pomp to Constanti- 
 nople, and deposited in the Church of the Apostles, in the presence of 
 the Emperor Theodosius ii. and his sister the pious Pulcheria, who, 
 kneeling before the coffin, prayed forgiveness for their guilty parents. 
 
 [V. L.] 
 
 Fleury : Ecdesiastlcal History. Gil)bon : Decline and Fall, clu xxxii. 
 Stephens ; Life of Chrijsosiom. Mrs. Jameson : Sacred and Legendary 
 Art, vol. i. 
 
 ST. BASIL (Basilius), b. 329, d. 379 A.D. 
 
 Basil, an eminent "Greek Father,"' was born at Ctesarea in Cappa- 
 docia, where his father was a wealthy advocate. Having studied 
 (351-355) at Constantinople with his friends Gregory of Nazianzus and 
 Julian, who was afterwards Jjinperor, he became a teacher of rhetoric in 
 his native city. Then, yielding to the saintly influence of his sister 
 Macrina, he renounced his profession, and went to Egypt and Syria to 
 study monastic life (357). The next year he himself sought a monastic 
 retreat in a beautiful ravine of the river Iris, in Pontus. Here he 
 remained at intervals for some years, and planted several coenobite 
 convents, giving them a written rule. These monks proved useful in
 
 222 ST. BASIL : ST. PULCHERIA. [Catholicism 
 
 spreading and defending the Catholic doctrine, then in special peril. 
 In 361 Julian became Emperor, and invited Basil to Constantinople. 
 
 Basil (who about this date was ordained priest) declined the invita- 
 tion on account of the Eniijeror's expressed antagonism to the Christian 
 faith. Two years afterwards Basil was called from his retreat by his 
 friend Gregory to withstand the Arianising policy of the new Emperor 
 Valens in Cgesarea ; and in 370, to the great joy of Athanasius and the 
 orthodox party, he was elected Bishop of Csesarea and Exarch of 
 Pontus — an immense jurisdiction, comprising eleven provinces and fifty 
 bishoprics. Gregory records how boldly and successfully Basil upheld 
 the independence of the Church against the Pnutor Modestus : " No one 
 has dared to speak thus to me before," said the Prajtor. " That," replied 
 Basil, " is because you never had to do with a Bishop." 
 
 Basil's episcopate was a continued wrestle with the Arian heresy : 
 liefore the victory was won he died, prematurely worn out, 379 a.d. 
 For his tract on The Holy Ghod, in which he maintained the triune 
 Deity, the Council of Chalcedon named him " the great Basil, the 
 minister of grace, who has explained the truth to the whole world." 
 After his death the Basilian Order spread rapidly through the East, and 
 extended also to the West. [V. L.] 
 
 Fleury : EcdeslaMiccd History. Gibbon : Dediiie and Fall, ch. xxv. xxvii. 
 Newman : Historical Essays, vol. ii. 
 
 ST. PULCHERIA, b. 399, d. 453 A.D. 
 
 PuLCHERiA — Empress, and patroness of the Church — was daughter 
 of the Emperor Arcadius. During the long and tranquil reign of her 
 feeble brother, Theodosius ii. (best known for the issue of the "Theo- 
 dosian Code "), Pulcheria, who was a woman of masculine genius and 
 accomplishments, virtually ruled the Eastern Empire. On his death she 
 chose Marcian, a distinguished general, as her official husband, and 
 reigned with him as co-empress. Pulcheria rendered eminent services 
 to the Church, which has rewarded her with canonisation. Vowed to 
 virginity, she followed an intense form of piety, built churches and 
 monasteries, and laboured to suppress Paganism and heresy. Above all, 
 she summoned (in Theodosius's name) and carried through, the Council 
 of Ephesus (431), which, condemning the Nestorian heresy, proclaimed 
 the Virgin "Mother of God" {QeoTOKos) ; and, in her own name and 
 that of Marcian, tlie Council of Chalcedon (451), which finally declared 
 (Jhrist to be perfect God and perfect man. These, with the preceding 
 Councils of Nictea and Constantinople, formed what St. Gregory called 
 " the four-square stone " of the Faith, to be venerated as the four books 
 of Holy Gospel. The Council of Ephesus was suggested by Pope 
 ('elestin i. ; that of Chalcedon was summoned at the request of Pope 
 Leo the Great, wliose legates presided at the Council, and, according to 
 his letter, formulated tlie decision. [V. L.J 
 
 Floury : Ecclesiastical History, bk. xxv. xxviii. Gibbon : iJcclinc ami 
 Fall, ch. xxxii. xlvii.
 
 Catholicism] MARCIAN : ST. GENEVIEVE 223 
 
 MARCIAN (Marcianns), b. abt. 391, d. 457 A.D. 
 
 Marcian was by birth a Thracian and by profession a soldier. He 
 was sixty years of age when, as stated in the preceding article, he became 
 the husband of Pulcheria and Emperor, and took part with her in 
 summoning the Council of Chalcedon (451). This is his chief title to 
 remembrance, but he was in other respects an excellent ruler. To 
 Attila's demand for tribute he gave the reply ; "I have iron for Attila, 
 but no 'gold." On Pulcheria's death Marcian became sole Emperor. 
 Altogether he reigned seven years. [V. L.] 
 
 ST. GENEVIEVE {Geuoveva\ b. 422, d. 512 A.D. 
 
 Genevieve was the chief patron saint of Paris. Her father was a 
 shepherd, and she was born in the village of Nanterre, at the foot of 
 Mont Valerien, which overlooks and protects the [city. In youth she 
 was consecrated to virginity by St. Germanus : she afterwards dwelt in 
 Paris. Among the legendary glories of the patriot saint were her inter- 
 cession with the Prankish king Chilperic for his captives, and her pious 
 influence with Clovis and Clotilda for the building of St. Denis and the 
 Church of St. Peter and St. Paul ; but the chief tradition told how, 
 when on the approach of the Huns the citizens of Paris were about to 
 abandon the city, Genevieve persuaded them to remain, herself setting 
 the examjile by praying many days in the Baptistery. Such tales mark 
 the first beginnings of Catholic chivalry. The name of Genevieve was 
 for centuries dear to the people of Paris, an imaginative incentive to 
 both heroism and pious tenderness. Thus the dying St. Louis com- 
 mended himself to her care. Clovis, Clotilda, and Genevieve were all 
 buried in the Church of St. Peter and St. Paul, which afterwards took 
 Genevieve's name and became a famous abbey. In the eighteenth 
 century another grand church was built, dedicated to Genevieve, whicli 
 in the Revolution was converted into the Pantheon and bore the 
 inscription, "^-hx grands homines la Patrie reconnaissante." [V. L.] 
 
 Butler : Lives of the Siiints (3rd January). Mrs. Jameson : Sacred and 
 Legendary Art, vol. ii. Pos. Pol. iii. 394. Si/nthise Subjective, p. xv. 
 
 ST. GREGORY THE GREAT, b. abt. 550, d. 604 a.d. / 
 
 The fourth of the chief Latin Fathers, Gregorv was the sou of a 
 noble and wealthy Roman senator. In early manhood he was made 
 Civil Governor of Rome ; but, renouncing worldly honours, he took the 
 cowl {"to) as a humble monk in the Benedictine monastery which he 
 had himself founded on the (Jcdian Hill. From monk he l)ecame abbot, 
 was made cardinal-deacon, and sent as the I'apal representative to the 
 court at Constantinople (578). Here he remained six years, and then 
 returned to Rome as secretary of the Papal Curia. On the death of 
 Pelagius (590) Gregory Avas elected Pope by acclamation. After reign- 
 ing thirteen years, lie died worn out by prolonged ill-health and incessant 
 lai)Ours. He was buried in St. Peter's at Rome. 
 
 The Church has canonised him, and posterity has called him "Great" 
 
 /
 
 224 ST. GREGORY THE GREAT [Catholicism 
 
 for his noble character and his illustrious services ; he was the Father of 
 the medieval Papacy. In his time the Greek and Latin Churches were 
 stni nominally one ; and the Greek Emperor was the nominal Lord of 
 Italy, represented by the Exarch at Ravenna. But the military power in 
 Italy was with the fierce Lombards, who were heathens or Arians. " In 
 this city," wrote Gregory, " we have been living for twenty-seven years 
 encompassed by the swords of the Longobards." War, disorder, pesti- 
 lence, famine, filled the land. The position was thus one of temble 
 difficulty, but it gave Gregory, as organ of the rising power, the oppor- 
 tunity for heroic and far-reaching efforts. Aniid,.the decay of all other 
 authorities, Gregory animated the defence of civilisation, and governed 
 the" ecclesiastical estates in" Italy with admirable wisdom — thus lajing 
 the foundation of the temporal power of the Holy See. 
 
 His special foes, the Lombards, he finally pacified by effecting the 
 conversion of their king through his wife Theodelinda. To the Greek 
 Emperor, as his official protector, Gregory was always deferential (per- 
 haps too much so to the blood-stained Phocas) ; but we hear the rising 
 voice of Papal authority when Gregory remonstrates against the imperial 
 edict forbidding soldiers to become monks, and when he protests against 
 the Patriarch of CJonstantinoj^le usurping the title of L^niversal Bishop. 
 That title Gregory disclaimed for himself, and chose the affectionate and 
 not less organic designation, " Servus servorum Dei." 
 
 With the Prankish princes IbeyonJ the Alpsj'who as Catholics were 
 his natural allies against the Lombards, and who were destined to be 
 sword and shield to the Papacy, Gregory cultivated a steady friendship. 
 In the Italian Church he Avas a true master. Towards the laity and 
 especially the poor he was most benevolent ; but with the clergy, high 
 and low, he, always a monk at heart, was an austere disciplinarian : he 
 even forbade them the use of heathen literature. 
 
 As a preacher, correspondent, and author he was unwearied ; among 
 his works was one on Pastoral Divinity, long venerated in the Church 
 (translated by Alfred) ; also Dialogues recording the lives and miracles of 
 Italian saints, dedicated to Theodelinda. Gregory systematically carried 
 forward the order and mystical beauty of Catholic ritual, wisely con- 
 secrating symbolism and saint-worship ; he also founded schools of 
 music and wrote hymns for the Church. One of his appellations was 
 " The Master of Ceremonies." But his most glorious achievement was 
 his extension of the Catholic Faith in the West. Besides converting the 
 Lombard King, he confirmed the new orthodoxy of the Visigoths in 
 Spain ; and, sending forth Augustin, he brought the remote English into 
 the Catholic folcl. On his toiiiB is' written : 
 
 Anglos ad Christum convertU meute benif/nd. 
 The English his kind heart to Clirist did -win. 
 
 His humane spirit is marked by the story (in the Lcfjemla Aureu) 
 I if his praying for the soul of the righteous Trajan, and gaining his 
 translation to Paradise (Dante : Purg. x. 72 ; Parad. xx. 43.) [V. L.] 
 
 Fleury : Ecdcsiaslical Jlistori/. Gilibon : Decline and Fall, ch. xlv. 
 Giiizot : Givilisation in Europr, lect'. ' 2 " and' "'S. ' IV|!tltnan : __Z«<t?t 
 Cftristianity, hk. iii. ch. vi. IMrs. Jameson •."Sucrcdund, Letjf ntTFiry'Tirl , 
 voTT 'Pbs. Pol. iii. 3'J6.
 
 Catholicism] HILDEBRAND 225 
 
 HILDEBRAND {Pope Gregory VII.), b. 1013, d. 1085. / 
 
 The names in this week illustrate the political history of Catholicism. 
 Like all human institutions, Catholicism must be judged by its mature 
 condition, and allowance made for the stages of growth and decline. 
 Spontaneously arising out of the Roman Empire, whose metrojoolis and 
 genius for rule it assumed after three centuries ;of submission and pre- 
 paration, Catholicism with its absolute creed and moralising mission 
 as pired to universal spiritual dominion both. in. space and time, but 
 only availed to form a Chtircli for tTie mediaeval feudal world. That 
 world, compounded like Catholicism of Roman and barbaric elements 
 strangely confused, was a dispersed multitude of local systems, each 
 organised in a loose customary order for defensive warfare ; in virtue 
 of which the prevailing temper, regarding intellectual pursuits as alien 
 and industry as servile, gave itself to the passion of war and individual 
 feeling, but characteristically around its points of order to generous 
 personal and local sympathies. Surroundingj^ overspreading, interfusing, 
 and c|ualifying all, the Church was to c'bns"EiIute"a"" general spiritual 
 society embraciiig all ranks, all peoples ; and its practical hope was to 
 moralise every relation of private and public'Tife " by "a principle' "of 
 affectionate duty {E'phesians iv. v. vi. ; Augixstin, de Morihus Ecclesicel 
 cfi. 30 — a most remarkable passage). 
 
 To make good this purpose a corporate priesthood was indispensable 
 — a priesthood independent everywhere of the temporal power, one in 
 doctrlSS'j'worship, organisation, and discipline, a sacred army obeying a 
 Supreme Head, the general director of mediaeval society : no otherwise 
 could the Church have obtained or kept spiritual authority over its 
 turbulent subjects. For though normally supported by the secular 
 feudal chieftains, without whose help it could not have existed, it was by 
 its very duty often brought into antagonism with them. By women and 
 the people it was for the most part beloved as their natural protector. 
 Its proudest name was " Holy Mother Church." With a concentrated 
 monotheist creed, the Priesthood could not help asserting very absolute 
 claims. Hence came the intense forms of spiritual command, in the 
 name of the omnipotent God and His judgment now and to come — forms 
 well suited to compel obedience from credulous minds ; but hence 
 also innumerable difficulties both with society and individual soids — 
 theocratic encroachments, intellectual and moral extravagances, con- 
 secration of violent or crooked means : — in short, the ever-recurring 
 difficulty of accommodating a very absolute doctrine to a world where 
 all is relative : and herein lay the task for the wisdom of the sacerdotal 
 class. 
 
 The habitual violences of the time, however, entailed a compromise of 
 the main principle of Catholic polity. The Church could not live upon 
 mere goodwill and the passing donations of the faithful. To hold his 
 own among the greater princes, the Pojoe became himself a temporal 
 sovefeim'i "ThtfS'-Tnuch was necessary, also some local ecclesiastical 
 endowments ; but the immense and always-increasing possessions of the 
 Church perpetually excited opposition without and bred corruj^tion 
 within.
 
 226 HILDEBRAND [Catholicism 
 
 Hildebrand's career lay in the first of the three centuries which 
 fulfilled the maturity of Catholicism. He found the field prepared by 
 
 I the labours of a thousand years. The doctrine and worship of the 
 Church were almost complete, awaiting their last perfections, the 
 paramount adoration of the Virgin and the glory of sacred art. The 
 ranks of the clerical order, including the monastic class, were fully 
 established and their normal functions prescribed. The West was 
 relieved from the interference of the Eastern Church and Court, and 
 from further northern invasions ; the feudal system was taking shape as 
 the common polity ; the Catholic faith prevailed Avithout rival every- 
 
 1 where, the Pagan shores of the Baltic and Moorish Spain excepted ; 
 and the Papacy was enthroned in the sacred city of the world, furnished 
 with potent though imaginary title-deeds, and endowed with an ample 
 patrimony under the nominal protection of a Holy Roman Emperor and 
 all Christian Princes : the Pope's divine commission was undoubted 
 though its limits were undefined. 
 
 But the actual work of both Church and State was full of dangers 
 and immense and scandalous disorders. Islam was still threatening to 
 overwhelm the West ; the European populations, and especially their 
 leaders, were everywhere addicted to violence : and crippling all purer 
 
 I influence were the perpetual twin abuses, both irrepressible by mere 
 local action — the moral laxity of the clergy and the usurpations of the 
 secular chiefs on the officers of the Church. Th e gre at need was a 
 dauntless spiritual commander to take and establish supreme control at 
 the very centre. 
 
 The celibacy of the clergy, which was almost indicated by St. Paul, 
 andwa*s soon adopted by the Fathers of the Church as consonant to their 
 absolute creed, was — notwithstanding its moral perils — a necessity for 
 the fulfilment of Cathobc amis. Linking them to their sacramental olfice, 
 it"~hallowed the clergy as a class aparf, devoted them to the Church, and 
 exalted their moral power in the^eneral imagination. No le^s a'gUaranfgfe 
 could have kept the ranks of the priesthood open to atipoT even' have 
 saved it from becoming an hereditary caste : no less renunciation could 
 have disciplined it within for its arduous conflict without, especially its 
 struggle against sexual licence, which was to be grappled with in the 
 confessional. But in the eleventh century many priests and even 
 bishops' were married, and very many had concubines. 
 
 Again, as the Church held everywhere vast estates, secular princes 
 claimed as of riglit to confirm the election of bishops and abbots, often 
 to appoint them, and even to invest them with the sacred emblems of 
 ecclesiastical consecration — the ring and the crozier. Scandalous 
 traffickings in holy offices — simony — had long abounded as a system. 
 The Pope himself was more of'TesS at the mercy of the Tuscan aristo- 
 cracy, and of the Emperor, whose predecessors had both appointed and 
 deposed Pojies, and who claimed to confirm every Papal election. 
 Against all this Hildelmmd was to fight. There was to be a War 
 of^ Investitiires : he Avas to defend the lil)erties of the ChurcR, an*d 
 prove her spiritual sword against an Emperor in arms. In mediaeval 
 imagination this Emperor was not merely a titular prince, but (little 
 as he deserved to be so considered) the special representative of the
 
 Catholicism] HILDEBEAND 227 
 
 majesty of the Roman Empire and universal temporal power (Dante : 
 De Monarchia). 
 
 HiLDEBRAND was the son of a carpenter at Soano, near Siena. As a 
 boy, he was trained in"T!i^~C(mVBfit'"of"St. Mary on the Aventine at 
 Rome, where his uncle was abbot ; when he reached manhood he 
 became a B enedi ctine monk at Cluny — austere among the austere. 
 In 1049 he a ccoiiipanTecT " to Rome the Pope-elect, Leo ix., and was 
 appointed abbot of the Monastery of St. Paul. 
 
 As Archdeacon of Rome and Chancellor, Hildebrand virtually 
 directed the conduct and succession of the Holy See through the reigns 
 of five Pontiffs, during the eventful years 1048-1073. His counsel pro- 
 bably moved Leo ix. to excommunicate the Greek Church (even in St. 
 Sophia itself), and to consecrate the Norman kingdom of Apulia. As 
 Legate of Victor ii. he held the Council in France Avhich deposed forty- 
 five bishops for simony. His name is attached to the Lateran Council 
 of Nicholas ii., which effected the niomentous change in the mode of 
 Papal election, getting rid of the turbulent popular element ; and 
 through him and Damiani the Lombard Church was reduced to 
 obedience. And in the name of Alexander ii. he upheld against the 
 German sovereign the liberty and purity of the Church, and the obliga- 
 tion of the marriage vow ; sent the conrpieror of England his consecrated 
 banner ; and required his archbishop to come to Rome for the 2Mllium. 
 
 On the death of the last-named Pope (1073), Hildebrand was elected 
 to succeed him, and took the name of Gregory vii. : he^souglit and 
 received.. confirmation from the youthful .^^mperof Henry iv. Without 
 delay he proceeded to issue edicts against the incontinency of the clergy 
 and against simony, writing circular letters to all bishops. These 
 decrees provoked much discontent and some disturbances. The Emperor 
 affected compliance, but did not comply. Hildebrand summoned him to 
 Rome. Tliereupon Henry called a Council and deposed Hildebrand. 
 In reply Hildebrand""summ6ned his Council and calling St. Peter, the 
 Mother of God, St. Paul, and all the saints to witness, in the name of 
 the Trinity he pronounced the Emperor deposed, and absolved his 
 subjects from tliSir allegiance (1075). He also urged the German 
 princes, who were already in rebellion against Henry, to elect a new 
 Emperor. This brought Henry to his ever-memorable act of humiliation 
 to the Papal See. Crossing the ATps witli"hrs Qiieen, he sought an 
 interview with Hildebrand, who was then a guest of his faithful pro- 
 tector Matilda, Countess of Tuscany, in her castle of Canossa in the 
 Apennines. Hildebrand refused to see luiTr' "Three days the Emperor 
 stood' in the snow at the castle gate, barefoot, in his penitential shirt and 
 fasting. On the fourth day (25th January 1077), at the intercession of / 
 Matilda, the Pope admitted him to his presence and absolved him, but } 
 on promise to appear l^efore a Council for judgment, and in the mean- > 
 while to lay aside kingly crown, title, and functions. 
 
 Henry broke all his promises ; and the war continued both in Germany f 
 and Italy. In 1081 Henry set up an anti-Pope, and marched into Italy ) 
 with an army. Three years in succession he besieged Rome : at last he / 
 took the city, and was crowned in the Basilica of the Lateran by his ^ 
 anti-Pope, who had been previously consecrated there. But Hildebrand i
 
 228 HILDEBRAND : ST. BENEDICT [Catholicism 
 
 remained in possession of the fortress of St. Angelo. Then Robert 
 GirtScaTd and his- Nor mails came "to tlie rescue ;ttey forced Henry to 
 retire, and entered Rome (burning and plundering a great part of it), 
 and thence they escorted Hildebrand to Salerno ; where, having once 
 more excommunicated Henry, t he heroic Pontifi' died, 24th May 1085 
 
 I His last words were : " I have loved righteousness and hated mTquity. 
 Therefore I die in exile." "He Was buried in Salerno Cathedral. His 
 canohtsation was not till 1723. 
 
 The conflict of Investitures continued to rage for nearly forty years 
 after HiMebrand's death. It was finally determined by a compromise 
 (Concordat of Worms, 1122) : investiture by ring and crozier was 
 reserved to the Papacy, but the beneficed prelate was required to swear 
 temporal allegiance upon the sceptre. The last Papal election also which 
 received Imperial confirmation was HildeBrandV own. "His name must 
 always be identified witb that great struggle, but his pontifical activity 
 extended to every country in Europe, and to every subject. Comte 
 says he co-orjdinated , the entir.e ,Sftcial constitution of Catholicism. He 
 even projected a united eflbrt of maraar^'CErTsrendbni'T.o' recover the 
 Holy Land, thus anticipating the momentous policy of European defence 
 which found issue after his death. 
 
 Thecore of Hildebrand's action was the aspiration, now renewed by 
 the Religion of Humanity, to subordinate politics to morals. His design, 
 frdimed "upon Catholic and feudal ideals, was to make in solemn form aU 
 princes, the Emperor included, spiritual vassals to the Pope, as represent- 
 ing St. Peter, their hands between his hands, with vows of true obedience 
 and liability to forfeiture by Apostolic decree. So exalted and imperial 
 a design, opportune and necessary as it was, could not be carried out far 
 enough, and happily could not be carried out entirely. But as with the 
 Christian dream for universality^ the partial success, the noble eS6Tt, 
 availed to promote the humanising career of Catholicism. It strengthened 
 the hand of every spiritual authority in Christendom, _ down to the 
 humblest parish priest, such as Chaucer describes in his PrologueTo"TKe 
 ,\ Canterbunj Tales.' The Papacy, and Avith it the Church, continued to 
 1 1 advance in plenary power and general utility, culminating in the grand 
 j 1 pontificate of Innocent in. [V. L.] 
 
 Fleury : Ecclesiastical History. Gibbon : Decline and Foil, ch. xlix. Mil- 
 man : Latin Christianity, voTT ni. bk. vii. Gieseler : EcclesiasCftlt^ 
 Iltston/, vol. iii. De MaisffgrXePajoe." 'Bowden : Life of Gregory VII. 
 Phil. Pos. le^on 54. Pos. Pol iii. 407. 
 
 ST. BENEDICT, b. 480, d. 543 a.d. 
 
 Monastic life, extravagant and disorderly in the East, gradually 
 submitted in the West to organisation and disciiiline, and became for 
 centuries an essential instrument of Catholic polity. Convents were 
 spiritual fortresses of the universal Christian realm, and their inmates, 
 recruited from all classes, claimed to be the especial soldiers of Christ.
 
 Catholicism] ST. BENEDICT 229 
 
 At their best, monasteries were indeed the venerated abodes of piety and 
 peace, industry and learning, hospitality and charity. To women and 
 the people they were especially attractive by their high appeal to the 
 imagination and their constitution in spiritual equality ; by the local 
 nobles and royalty they were in the main cordially supported ; while, 
 local jealousies excepted, to the Church authorities, and above all the 
 Papacy, they were intimately bound. 
 
 Their greatest utility was in the first period of the Middle Ages, 
 when they were not merely refuges from disorder and examples of 
 united voluntary labour, but also centres of missionary activitj^ They 
 converted the West. In the second period they served as the training 
 school of the secular clergy, especially upholding celibacy, the vital 
 condition of priestly efficiency. In the last, they produced in chosen 
 souls exquisite expression of meditative feeling, of which the Imitation 
 of Christ is the supreme type (compare Chaucer's Prioress : " And all 
 was conscience and tender heart "). At all times, however, and especially 
 after they became rich, monastic societies were infested with very great 
 abuses. Ultimately nothing could save them, since the imaginative 
 faith that had fed them, and the martial life they had been designed to 
 counterpoise, were irrevocably passing away. 
 
 Of all the orders the Benedictine was by far the most numerous, and 
 to St. Benedict belongs the honour of having introduced the Rule 
 {Regxila) into Western Christendom. "From the breast of Benedict," 
 wrote Pope Urban ii., "hath poured, as from a fountain of Paradise, 
 the religion of the ordered monastic life." The earliest authority for 
 the saint's life is the sketch given in the Dialogues of St. Gregory, 
 which abounds in miraculous incidents. Benedict was of noble 
 parentage, and was born at Nursia, in the duchy of Spoleto, in the 
 wild time of the fall of the Empire. His boyhood was spent in Rome ; 
 but while still quite a youth he became a hermit in a cavern at Subiaco, 
 in a ravine of the Anio, and won renown for his austerities. When 
 about thirty years of age he was chosen abbot of the neighbouring 
 convent of Vicovaro, and founded twelve small monastic communities 
 around him. He was driven away, however, by the misbehaviour of the 
 monks, and about 528, with his youthful disciples St. Maurus and St. 
 Placidus, took refuge at Monte Cassino in the Abruzzi. Here the 
 saint overthrew a temple and statue of Apollo, converted the heathen 
 population, and founded the monastery Avhich was destined to be the 
 most famous of all monasteries. Here also he was visited by the fierce 
 Totila ; and in the same year, it is said, in which Justinian published 
 his Code, he composed and promulgated his Rule., which rapidly spread 
 through the Western Church, and formed the general type of monastic 
 discipline. 
 
 The characteristic requirements of this admirable monument of 
 Catholic constructive genius wove : (1) perpetual vows, (2) absolute 
 obedience, (3) the practice of labour : "' Laziness," said Benedict, " is 
 the enemy of the soul." Its general tone was reasonable, and above all 
 affectionate, as the opening words intimate : " Hearken, my son, to the 
 precepts of the Master." Benedict died in 543, and was buried by the 
 side of his sister, St. Scholastica (a nun), under the high altar of Monte
 
 230 ST. BENEDICT : ST. ANTHONY [Catholicism 
 
 Cassino. The legends that like an aureole grew around his memory- 
 attest his gracious heart and correspond to his gentle name. [V. L.] 
 
 Dante : Paradiso, xxii. Fleury : Ecclesiastical History. Gieseler : 
 Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii. Guizot : Civilisation in France, 
 lect. xiv. XV. Newman: Historical Essays, vol. ii. Phil. Pes. 
 V. 347. Pas. Pol. iii. 396. Bevue Occidentale, xi, 115. Milman : 
 Latin Christianity, vol. i. bk. iii. Mrs. Jameson : Legends of the 
 Monastic Orders, ch. i. 
 
 ST. ANTHONY {Antonius), b. 251, d. 356 A.D. 
 
 Anthony, the proto-hermit of the East, was a native of Egypt, 
 who lived a long life of solitude in the Thebaid desert : he was a 
 friend and supporter of Athanasius. Monasticisni soon became an 
 immense institution in the East, especially in Egypt. Directly, it was 
 injurious to the progress of Christian society by reason of its extravagant 
 fanaticism and lawless violence ; but it served as a general protest, and 
 was the parent of Western monachism. Anthony's example made a 
 deep impression upon Athanasius — who introduced asceticism into 
 Rome, and who wrote his life — and upon the leaders of the Western 
 Church, Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustin ; and his name was never 
 forgotten. Throughout the middle ages he was revered as a saintly 
 pattern of the eremite and ascetic life, a renowned victor over carnal 
 temptation. [V. L.] 
 
 Athanasius: Life of Anthony. Angustin : Confessions, h'^. v\\\. Gibbon: 
 Decline and Fall, ch. xxxvii. Mrs. Jameson : Sacred and Legendary 
 Art, vol. ii. 
 
 ST. BONIFACE, b. 680, d. 755 a.d. 
 
 In the 8th century, before the coming of the Northmen, the Church 
 which St. Gregory had founded in England was comparatively at rest, 
 and in active correspondence with Rome. But for the Continent it was 
 a period of dire confusion, from the continued invasions of the Germanic 
 tribes, the Huns, and the Saracens. The rallying-points for future 
 European order were the Papacy and the Mayors of the Palace in the 
 Frankish and Catholic kingdom of Austrasia. These two powers were 
 to be allied and to mutually confirm each other ; and the special agents 
 to bring theui together were the Anglo-Saxon monks seeking by Papal 
 command help for their missionary labours among Pagan populations 
 across the Kliine. 
 
 Chief among such evangelist emissaries was Boniface. His original 
 name was Winfried : he was born at Crediton in Devonshire, and 
 became a Benedictine monk at Exeter and afterwards at Nutsell 
 (Netley T). His missionary work among German Pagans, Hessians, 
 Thuringians, etc., commenced in 715 and continued till his death. 
 Made bishop (and "Boniface") by Gregory ii. (723), he was by 
 Gregory iii. (73:^) ajipointed Bishop of Mentz, Metropolitan and Vicar 
 Apostolic : he founded the Church in South Germany, establishing 
 bishoprics and convents — amongst them Fulda. In 753 the brave old
 
 Catholicism] ST. BONIFACE : ST. AUSTIN 231 
 
 man obtained leave to resign his See and go once more among the 
 utter heathen. Two years later he found a martyr's death among the 
 Frisons. 
 
 In this remarkable missionary career we should especially notice : — 
 (1st) Its systematic subordination to the Papacy. On receiving his 
 bishopric, Boniface deposited " on the body of St. Peter " at Eome his 
 oath of fidelity to the Catholic faith and the Pope ; and to the same 
 sanctuary he sent a similar profession by the first Council he assembled 
 in Germany. " It was impossible," says Guizot, " more formally to 
 submit the new Church and the new Christian nations to Papal power." 
 (2nd) The diplomatic relations of Boniface witli the Frankish Court. 
 In 739 he solicited (unsuccessfully) of Charles Martel aid to the Pope 
 against the Lombards. In 751 he negotiated the decisive mission to 
 Rome, which resulted in the consecration of the Carlovingian dynasty, 
 and the institution of the Papacy as an international power. Some say 
 it was Boniface himself who crowned Pepin King of the Franks at 
 Soissons (752). [V. L.] 
 
 Fleiiry : Ecclesiastical History. Gieseler : Ecclesiastical Histm-y, vol. ii. 
 Guizot : Civilisation in France, lect. xix. Miliuan : Latin ChiHs- 
 tianity, vol. ii. bk. iv. Pas. Pol. iii. 402. 
 
 ST. AUSTIN {Augustinus), d. 605 A.D. 
 
 The mission of St. Augustin to England, then a remote and mainly 
 heathen island, was a very beautiful and characteristic deed of Catholi- 
 cism. Its author was Saint Gregory the Great. A few years before, 
 when a monk in Rome, he had been touched by the spectacle of some 
 fair English youths exposed for sale in the market-place {Angli quasi 
 Angeli), and the aftticting thought that they were Pagans. In the 
 sixth year of his Pontificate (596), though hard pressed by Lombards 
 and many other perils, he sent forth for the evangelisation of England 
 a party of forty Benedictine monks, appointing as their leader Augustin, 
 the prior of his own monastery, and recommending them to the Frankish 
 prelates and the Frankish princes to obtain for them safeguard and inter- 
 preters. Once Augustin turned back ; but ultimately, traversing Gaul, 
 he and his band, " the disciples of the l)lessed Gregory," as Bede calls 
 them, crossed the Channel and landed in the Isle of Thanet. 
 
 Ethelbert, the powerful heathen king of Kent, came to receive them : 
 they advanced in procession, chanting litanies and displaying a silver 
 cross and a l>anner-picture of the Saviour. Having heard the 
 interpreters, Ethelbert gave permission to the strangers to enter his 
 town of Canterbury and preach their gospel. To this he Avas moved 
 by his wife Bertha, who was a Christian, being the daughter of Caribert, 
 King of Paris, and a descendant of St. Clotilda ; she also allowed 
 Augustin to otticiate in her church of St. Martin. On Whitsunday, 597, 
 the King himself was baptized ; thousands of his subjects followed his 
 example. Augustin, in pursuance of his instructions, now crossed to 
 France, and was consecrated Archljishop of the English by the Pope's 
 Legate at Aries. Returning to Canterbury, he obtained from the King 
 the site for a church in the town (where the Cathedral now stands), and
 
 232 ST. AUSTIN : ST. ISIDORE [Catholicism 
 
 founded a monastery outside the town, which he dedicated to St. Peter 
 and St. Paul, but which afterwards bore his own name. 
 
 The heart of Gregory was delighted with all these good tidings. He 
 wrote to Ethelbert and to Bertha ; he reinforced the mission, sending 
 also sacred vessels, vestments, relics, and many books. Augustin he 
 appointed Metropolitan, gave him the pallium, and designed an episco- 
 pate for the whole country. At the same time he furnished remarkable 
 instructions for dealing gently with the native idolatry. By Ethelbert's 
 continued help Augustin was now enabled to found the See of Rochester 
 and lay the foundation of St. Paul's Church in London. He also met 
 in grand synod on the Severn, under an oak (which long bore his name), 
 the leaders of the British Church ; but they utterly refused to obey him. 
 After seven years' evangelical labours and travels Augustin died. He 
 was buried beside the unfinished wall of his monastery in Canterbury. 
 In the twelfth century his bones were removed to the high altar of the 
 cathedral. After his death the Christian mission became involved in 
 sanguinary wars ; but the connection of England with the Roman Church 
 and civilisation was established. Before the end of the century the 
 English episcopate was organised by Archbishop Theodore. [V. L.] 
 
 Beda : Ecdesinstical History, vol. i. cli. xxiii.-xxxiii. . Green: The Making) 
 of England, ch.Y. Stanley: Canterbury Lectures. Pos.PoZ.iii.39t). 
 
 ST. ISIDORE (Isidoms Hispalensis), b. abt. 570, d. 636 A.D. 
 
 The momentous conversion of the Visigoth kingdom from Arianism 
 to the Catholic faith took political form in Isidore's youth. It was 
 announced in the Third Council of Toledo (589), which was convoked by 
 the youthful king Reccared, and presided over by the Pope's Legate, 
 Leander, Metropolitan Bishop of Seville. This Leander, who was a 
 learned Benedictine monk and a beloved friend of St. Gregory, and who 
 is sometimes called " The Apostle of Spain," was Isidore's eldest brother. 
 The family was of the highest rank, and most devoted to the Church. 
 Isidore received a strict training under Leander, and afterwards, it is 
 believed, became himself a Benedictine monk. On the death of his 
 brother (601), he succeeded to the See of Seville, and held it till his 
 death in 636. 
 
 He appears to have been a complete shepherd of the people. His 
 services in carrying forward the evangelising mission and develoj^jing 
 the organisation, discipline, and ritual of the Church, and esijecially the 
 regulation of monasteries, also in promoting learning and assisting secular 
 legislation, were profoundly honoured in after times. The Eighth Council 
 of Toledo, held fourteen years after his death, styled him " the excellent 
 Doctor, the most learned man, given to enlighten the latter ages, always 
 to be named with reverence." Dante places him in the sphere of the 
 sun, the abode of Wisdom {Paradiso, x. L31). Isidore's extant works 
 attest his extraordinary encyclopaedic knowledge. Besides theological 
 treatises, they embrace works on law, history, languages, and natural 
 philosophy. . [V. L.] 
 
 Montalembert : Monks of the West, bk. vi. Fleury : Ecclesiastif.al History. 
 Smith : Dictionary of Biography, vol. ii.
 
 Catholicism] ST. BRUNO : LANFRANC 233 
 
 ST. BRUNO, b. 1051, d. 1101. 
 
 Bruno was born of a high family at Cologne ; completed his educa- 
 tion for the Church at Paris and Rheims ; took orders, and was appointed 
 by the Archbishop of Rheims chancellor and director of studies in the 
 diocese. In 1080 the See|became vacant, and was oflFered to Bruno ; he 
 refused it, and sought retirement at Saisse Fontaine, near Langres. But 
 he longed for a more austere retreat — the most austere possible ; so, taking 
 with him six devout disciples, he sought St. Hugues, Bishop of Grenoble, 
 who guided them to a wild valley high up in the Alps, called La Char- 
 treuse. Here Bruno and his company built their cells and a church, and 
 established the monastery which became so famous (1084). In 1089 
 Pope Urban ii., who had formerly been his pupil, summoned Bruno to 
 Rome to help him. Bruno reluctantly obeyed. Eventually refusing all 
 preferment, he obtained permission to retire and found another monastery, 
 Delia Torre, in Calabria, where he died in 1101. He was canonised in 
 1514. "The age of Hildebrand was also that of the best attempt to 
 reform monasteries, made by St. Bruno" {Pos. Pol. iii. 408). The Car- 
 thusian Order followed the Benedictine rule, and continued to be the 
 most severe of all the religious orders (" Mark the Carthusians," wrote 
 A Kempis — Imit. i. 25). They especially practised the copying of books. 
 
 [V. L.] 
 
 Hurler : L'-E<jlise au inoyert, age, ii. 396. Mrs. Jameson : Legends of the 
 Monastic Orders. 
 
 LANFRANC, b. 1005, d. 1089. 
 
 A native of Pavia, LxVXFRANC came to Normandy as a learned scholar, 
 and opened a school in Avranches. In 1041 he took the Benedictine 
 habit in the monastery of Bee, under Herlwin, its warrior founder and 
 first abbot. He became prior, and established the renown of the convent 
 as a place of education (1045-1063). A mong h is disciples were Anselm 
 and Alexander, who was afterwards Pope."" " "—*— "^•"■''•"-- "■^-■^ 
 
 The reigning Duke of Normandy, William (soon to be conqueror of 
 England), being under Papal ban for his uncanonical marriage, employed 
 Lanfranc as his ambassador to Rome to obtain peace. Lanfranc suc- 
 ceeded, and on his return was advanced by William (1064) to be abbot 
 of the new Abbey of St. Stephen at Caen, tlie building of which was 
 part of the price of reconciliation. In 1070 William brought him to 
 England to be Archbishop of Canterbury. "Tn this position, the second 
 in flie realm, Avhere high qiTalities of statesmanship were required, Lan- 
 franc rendered most valuable service to William and to the Church. 
 " No one in that time excelled Lanfranc in authority and various know- 
 ledge" was the judgment of his contemporary Eadmer. He kept the 
 confidence of his im^^erious master without seriously ott'ending his spiritual 
 sovereign, Gregory vii. ; and, maintaining peace between them, in many 
 ways carried forward Hildebrand's reformation of ecclesiastical and 
 monastic disciplifre,''an^ confirmed the union of England with the Roman 
 Churchr Lahiranc lived into the reign of Rufus. He was buried in the 
 C;lThe'dral of Canterbury, which he had rebuilt. " —
 
 / 
 
 234 LANFRANC : ST. ANSELM [Catholicism 
 
 Whilst Prior of Bee, Lanfranc took active part in the Eucharistic 
 controversy raised by Berengarius, and composed a treatise, long famous 
 in the Church, in favour of Transubstantiation. This imaginative doc- 
 trine had been first formulated in the ninth century by Paschas. It was 
 finally sanctioned by Innocent iii. in the Fourth Lateran Council, "'iii 
 terms which demonstrate its^ Sttpfettie impbrtaiice in tTie Catholic system : 
 " One is the universal Church of the feithful, outside which no one can 
 in airvWlse be saved. In the which Jesus Christ himself is both Priest 
 and Sacrifice, whose body and blood are verily contained in the sacra- 
 ment of the altar under the species of bread and wine, tlie liread being 
 transubstantiated into^bodvandthe^ wine into blood bydhine pnwer, 
 so that to the perfectmg tlie mystery of unity we ourselvc< receive of 
 His that which He Himself received of ours. And this sacrament none 
 can accomplish {coiificere) save the priest, who has'lTeeh nghtly ordained 
 according to the keys of the Chiircli, whicli Jesus Christ Eumself granted 
 to the Apostles and their successors." (For the theory of the Eucharist, 
 see Hampden : Bampton Lectures, lect. viii. ; and for its power as an 
 instrument of devotion, Imitation of Christ, bk. iv. ; Phil. Fas. v. 383 ; 
 Pas. Pol. ii. 109.) [V. L.] 
 
 Chuichj^Lij^e of Anselm. Freeman : Korman Conquest, vols. iv. and v. 
 
 ST. ANSELM, b. 1033, d. 1109. 
 
 Anselm was born at Aosta, among the Italian Alps. His father 
 was a Lombard, and connected by marriage with the local Counts. A 
 devoted student, Anselm was attracted to the Benedictine monastery of 
 Bee in Normandy by the renown of its Prior Lanfranc. He became a 
 monk there (106*0), prior (1063), finally abbot^l678), and carried on 
 with a gentle rule the noble tradition of discij^line, learning, and educa- 
 tion which Lanfranc had established. In 1093 he was consecrated 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, and received his'Tiivestiture from the then 
 Kin^, William Rufus. A quarrel, however, soon ensued between them 
 on the great question of allegiance to the Papacy. Anselm gave the 
 King his benediction, took his pilgrim stafl' and scrip fi"om the altar, 
 and went into exile. He was absent three years (1097-1100) in Italy 
 and France, everywliere receiving saintly honours. On the accession of 
 Henry i. Anselm returned, but announced to the KingTils fesolutibn to 
 maintain the Roman decree against lay investiture. This entailed a 
 second exile. The dispute was eventually determined, as in the Imperial 
 case [Hildebrand], by a compromise favourable to the liberties of the 
 Church (1107). Anselm died in 1109, and Avas buried in Canterbury 
 Cathedral. He was canonised by Alexander vi. His fame still con- 
 tinues as a writer of genius, and he has been called the earliest of the 
 scholastic philosophers. He sought to demonstrate the mysteries of the 
 faith by rationalistic argument, especially by his great work on the 
 Atonement, C»r P ens Homo. Dante {Farad, xii.) places him in the 
 planet of Wisdom. [V. L.] 
 
 Eadmer (a monk of Canterlniry, Anseliii's disciiile and comi)auion) : Life of 
 Anselm. Church: Life of Anselm.
 
 Catholicism] HELOISE 235 
 
 HELOISE, b. abt. 1095, d. 1163. 
 
 H^LOisE was niece of a canon of Paris named Fulbert, and in youth 
 received instruction in the convent of Argenteuil. When Abelard, the 
 philosopher, came to Paris, Heloise, who had already shown a genius 
 for learning, became his pupil. He seduced her. Heloise fled to Brittany, 
 and gave birth to a son, whom she named Astrolabius. She now sub- 
 mitted to become Abelard's wife, but most reluctantly : she conceived 
 marriage was a disparagement to the inward bond of aflection ; — and 
 would it not also hinder his career '? By Abelard's desire the marriage 
 was to be kept secret, but Fulbert divulged it, wliereupon Heloise 
 vehemently denied she was Abelard's wife. Fulbert then planned bar- 
 barous revenge. He hired ruffians, who broke into Abelard's room at 
 night and deprived him of his manhood. The miserable man, jealous in 
 his misery — it is his own confession — ordered Heloise to take the veil. 
 Heloise proudly obeyed. She went to the altar (she says) with no nun's 
 thoughts : she was Abelard's alone. Abelard also became a monk. Years 
 passed : Heloise became prioress of the Abbey at Argenteuil, then 
 abbess of the Paraclete, a convent which Abelard had built in a wilder- 
 ness near Troyes and abandoned, and which he now gave to her and 
 her nuns. At length a letter fell into her hands written by Abelard, 
 now abbot of St. Gildas in Brittany : it was addressed to a friend, and 
 recounted the story of his woes, old and new. Then followed a corre- 
 spondence between Heloise and Abelard, which has made a deep impres- 
 sion on the imagination of the West. It is in Latin, and contains three 
 letters of Heloise. She demands of Abelard sj^iritual consolation, but, 
 recalling the past, exposes a vast love unsubdued by calamity, separa- 
 tion, and religious austerity. In 1142 Abelard died a penitent monk of 
 Cluny. Heloise obtained his body from the abbot, Peter the Venerable, 
 with a written absolution of all his sins, and buried him in the chapel 
 at Paraclete. Twenty-one years later she was laid in the same tomb, 
 which six centuries afterwards received the following admirable inscrip- 
 tion, composed by the Academy ;— "* Hie * Sub eodem marmore jacent 
 
 * Hujus Monasterii * Conditor Petrus Abelardus * Ft Abbatissa prima 
 Heloissa * Olim studio ingenio amore infaustis nuptiis * Ft pa.'nitentia 
 
 * Nunc a;terna quod sperauius felicitate * Conjuncti." This tomb (or 
 rather fragments of it, pieced together with altering additions) was 
 early in this century set up in the cemetery of Pere la Chaise in Paris : 
 it is constantly visited by lovers. Heloise was thrown away on " the 
 dangerous sophist " to whom she sacrificed herself, and the martyrdom of 
 her life shows the peril of transgressing fundamental social ordinances. 
 But she is conmiemorated here for her sublimely generous and constant 
 heart — an extreme type of the chivalrous tenderness which, though it 
 should be mated with Catholic purity, ranks above that precious quality 
 in rich and beautiful services to Humanity. [V. L.] 
 
 Morison : Life of St. Bernard (ed. 1868), 258-289. Pos. Pol. i. 207, iii. 408. 
 Revue Occidentale, Jan. 1880. Martin : Histoire de France, vol. iii. 
 bk. XX.
 
 236 BEATRICE [Catholicism 
 
 BEATRICE, b. 1266. d. 1290. 
 
 Beatrice was daughter of Folco Portinari, a Florentine nobleman, 
 married Simone dei Bardi, and died at the age of 24. Her name (" she 
 who blesses ") shines for ever as the beloved of Dante and the inspirer of 
 his great poem, in which she is so conspicuous a figure. The identity, 
 however, of the Beatrice there with the real Beatrice is only partial. 
 In the poem she is glorified in heaven ; and the facts of her earthly 
 life so recorded are very few — such as her beauty of body and mind, 
 Dante's boyish passion for her, by her returned with a sort of angelic 
 affection, lastly her death, and the life-long remembrance of her by 
 Dante (Purgatorio, xxx. xxxi.). Her marriage especially is not men- 
 tioned, nor his. The poetical Beatrice, then, though an intensely true 
 character, is yet far more an ideal one. Her office in the poem, and her 
 dominion over Dante's soul, are summarised in his farewell prayer to her 
 {Farad, xxxi. 79-93), and in the line much cherished by Comte, in 
 which Dante speaks of Beatrice as " She, who doth my mind imparadise" 
 {Parad. xxviii. 3). In this place Beatrice illustrates the power of woman, 
 first duly acknowledged in the Middle Ages, to purify man, and inspire 
 his poetic genius even to the most exalted religious heights — above all, 
 when her spirit has received the consecration of Death. [V. L.] 
 
 Dante : Vita Nuova, translated by Rossetti. Dante : Divina Coimnedia and 
 Prolegom., by Scartazzini, 4 vols., Leipzig, 1874-1890. 
 
 THE ARCHITECTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 The Middle Age, in Comte's view, ranges from the 5th to the 14th 
 century, but the corresponding Art, being slow to take form and slow 
 to part with it, naturally found later limits, beginning about 530, the 
 date of St. Sophia at Constantinojole, and extending to the date of the 
 commencement of St. Peter's at Rome (close of 15th century). This 
 
 (period has been well called the Building Age, for cathedrals, churches, 
 chapels, monasteries, castles, municipal edifices, palaces, and civic dweU- 
 ; ings, besides bridges, fountains, market-crosses, sepulchral monuments, 
 
 ietc, many of them of imposing or touching beauty, then multiplied in 
 the West. Even humble villages had often majestic churches. 
 
 This architecture owed much, technically, to all its predecessors, but 
 it was ins]3ired Ijy Catholic devotion, united to local and family afi'ection ; 
 
 I hence it worked freely on every scale and for most varied purposes, and 
 delivered an expression of human nature larger, hapjiier, and more 
 benign than any that had preceded. " Never has the power of archi- 
 tecture been displayed to greater effect thafi'in our magnificent cathedrals, 
 in which the spirit of the Middle Age has been idealised and preserved 
 
 (for posterity. They exhibit in a most striking manner the proi^erty 
 architecture possesses of bringing all the arts together into a common 
 i centre " {Fos. Pol. iii. 236 ; Phil. Pos. v. 465-467). 
 
 Over all the Arts, even Poetry and Music, and over the spirit of the 
 worshippers and beholders, mediaeval architecture exercised a noble 
 imaginative influence, both elevating and restraining, while it nurtured 
 a race of art-workmen as remarkable for admirable traditions as for
 
 Catholicism] AECHITECTS OF THE MIDDLE AGES 237 
 
 individual freedom and grace. The architects were entire artists : 
 especially were they sculptors and painters, as, for instance, Giotto, 
 Dante's contemporary, whoj designed the Campanile at FlorencTlind 
 painted the frescoes at AsstSt "^if,"ag t h'g^na'n iesor'comparatively few 
 architects have survived, there is here bestowed on them a general honour! 
 TKough their immediate patrons were ecclesiastical, civic, or feudal 
 magnates, they worked essentially for the public eye and the general 
 mind and heart ; and their works were seen and loved from age to age. 
 D ante's refe renceJQ thO-Eaptisterj at Florence, " my beautiful St. John " 
 {Infer, xix. IT; Farad, xxv. 8), is an example of such feeling at its 
 meridian. For an interesting example six centuries earlier, see Beda, 
 Life of Benedict Biscop. [V. L.] 
 
 ST. BENEZET, d. 1104. 
 
 A shepherd's son, Benezet was moved by the love of God and his 
 fellow-men to build a bridge over the rapid Rhone at Avignon. Having 
 " proved his mission by miracles," he obtained the help of the bishop for 
 his work. He died during its progress, and was buried on the bridge ; 
 a chapel was built over his tomb, and he became the patron saint of 
 Avignon. Benezet represents here the admirable civic architecture of 
 the Middle Ages, and its association with personal and general piety. 
 
 [V. L] 
 Butler : Lives of the Saints, 14tli April. 
 
 ST. BERNARD, b. 1091, d. 1153. ^ 
 
 The supreme glory of medifeval Catholicism was its priesthood. 
 Independent of the temporal power, and naturally assuming intellectual 
 leadership, they sought spiritually to direct society, to unite, inform, 
 impel, and restrain by various appeals to pious affection. This beautiful 
 office, belonging to all ranks of the clergy, was perhaps fulfilled with 
 purest energy by those who went forth to their spiritual warfare strength- 
 ened by monastic discipline. Seconding the holy cause, the affectionate 
 sex gratefully contributed sympathy both fervent and steady, and Art 
 freely gave its manifold service of beauty. Such is the general subject 
 presented in this week, over which presides " the incomparable St. 
 Bernard, in every respect the most perfect type of Catholicism in its 
 maturity." 
 
 ""Bernard's life lay in the first half of the twelfth, the greatest of the 
 Feudal centuries. His father was a vassal of the Duke of Burgundy, 
 near Dijon, a brave and good man. His mother, Alith, was most devout : 
 she offered all her seven children to the Lord from their birth. After 
 studying at the University of Paris, already a centre of mediaeval thought, 
 Bernard entered (1112) the newly founded, most severely disciplined con- 
 vent of Citeaux, then under the admirable rule of Stephen Harding. He 
 brought with him (such even then was his persuasive genius) his uncle and 
 several of his brothers, thirty persons in all. Two years later he (though 
 so young) was sent forth, the leader of twelve companions, to found, amid 
 immense hardships, a new Cistercian convent in a wild forest of the
 
 238 ST. BERNARD [Catholicism 
 
 Aube valley — Clairvaux — henceforth his home and the scene of his 
 most affectionate labours. 
 
 Abbot of _Clairvaux Bernard reinained till his death, rejecting all 
 preferment. Before all things he" w-as,'lii Tiis own "sTgHt and^iri that of 
 others, a devout monk. His monastery he moulded to his own character. 
 It became a model of pious order. At his death it contained 700 monks, 
 and had affiliated many convents in various countries. Bernard himself 
 founded 63. From Clairvaux's tranquil cloister, Bernard conducted 
 an immense correspondence — counselling, blessing, and reproving high 
 and low with extraordinary freedom. In 1128 he took a leading 
 part in the Council of Troyes in obtaining sanction for the order of 
 Knight-Templars — warrior-priests destined for service in the Holy Land. 
 IiT"! 13t)"'Bernard left his convent to uphold the unity of the Church, 
 which was being rent asunder by the strife of rival Popes. He pro- 
 nounced for Innocent ii., and gave seven years of devoted service to the 
 cause, including two journeys to Italy. 
 
 How he worked and triumphed and felt is thus described by his 
 contemporary biographer : — " When he was a chosen vessel, and an- 
 nounced the name of Christ before nations and kings ; when the princes 
 of this world bowed down to him, and the bishops of all lands awaited 
 his bidding ; when even the Holy See revered his advice, and made him 
 a sort of general Legate to the world ; when, greatest of all, his words 
 and actions were confirmed by miracles ; he was never puffed up, but 
 in all humility considered himself the minister, not the author, of mighty 
 Avorks ; and when every one thought him the greatest, in his own judg- 
 ment he was the least. Whatsoever he did, he ascribed to God." 
 
 In 11 40 1 Bernard, as champion of Catholic orthodoxy, encountered 
 Abelard. That celebrated master of dialectics and speculative divinity, 
 who was an old offender, had lately put forth his Introduction to Theology, 
 in which, among other things, he urged that "Faith was an opinion 
 only," and expounded the Trinity according to what he called human 
 reasons. Bernard denounced him with fervour ; to him " Faith was no 
 opinion, but certitude," and he abhorred the degradation of holy mysteries 
 to vulgar rationalism. In the presence of the Archbishop, the King, and 
 all the Council at Sens, Bernard commenced to open his charge, when 
 Abelard rose, " appealed to Rome," and left the assembly. The Council 
 pronounced his condemnation. Bernard and orthodoxy triumphed yet 
 further, for Abelard on his way to Rome stopped at Cluny, recanted his 
 errors, and became a humble monk. Comte speaks of the importance of 
 this " victory over a dangerous sophist." It was, indeed, important that 
 the general hold of Catholicism on faith and morals should be maintained 
 as long as possible, pending the slow preparation of the Religion of 
 Humanity. 
 
 In 1146 Bernard, by command of the Pope, ^^reached the Second 
 Crusade in France and Germany, winning kings and nobles, and even 
 the Emperor himself, and calling forth extraordinary devotion in all ranks, 
 wherever he went. Three years later, the total failure of the crusading 
 hosts, both French and German, filled his soul with grief ; but nothing 
 could dim his faith or abate his activity. Among his latest public acts 
 were his work On Cons ich: ration, addressed to Pope Eugenius in., in
 
 Catholicism] ST. BERNAED 239 
 
 which he unsparingly reproved the abuses of the Roman Court, and his 
 pacification of the nobles and citizens of Mayence by the magic of his 
 
 Eresence and personal appeal— a task which, spiritual knight-errant as 
 e was, he undertook at the entreaty of the Archbishop of Treves. His 
 noble protection of the Jews from Christian cruelty also i-equires special 
 honour. Bernard died in 1153 at Clairvaux. Twenty years afterwards 
 he was canonised by Alexander iii. 
 
 Throughout his career Bernard was especially d evoted to the servic e 
 of the Virgin, the truly human mediatress : guarding that character^ 
 he w'feeTy'resisted the proposed doctrine of her immaculate conception. 
 JMariolati'Y dates far Tiaek inTTiristtan annals — beyond'"even"IF6"'Co'uncil 
 of Ephesus in the oth century ; but it acquired systematic pre- 
 dominance in the imaginative life of the Crusades, when Catholic purity 
 united with the tenderness of chivalry. The added " Lady-Chapel " in 
 many churches of the 13th century records the glorification of this 
 worship throughout the West. That beautiful idealisation of the 
 Virgin-Mother, the chief poetic creation of Catliolicism, humanised both 
 worship and creed, and profoundly infiuenced the feelings and manners 
 of Western Christendom — 
 
 ' ' For in reverence of the hevenes Queene 
 We ought to worship alle women that beeue."— Chaucer. 
 
 It prefigured also Humanity and the final supremacy of aftection {Pos. Fol. 
 ii. 106, iii. 408, iv. 129). The Franciscans afterwards reinforced Mario- 
 latry, but it owed to no one name more than to Bernard. 
 
 Thus he spoke to his monks : " With all our inmost hearts, in all 
 our vows, let us venerate Mary, since such is the will of Him who 
 willed that we should have all through Mary. Of old you dreaded the 
 Father — at the mere hearing of His voice you trembled and hid from 
 His presence among the trees. He gave you a Mediator, Jesus. But 
 perhaps in Him too you dreaded the Divine Majesty, since although 
 He was made man yet He remained God. Would you not have 
 an Advocate also to Him ? Seek then IVIary. For m Her was piire 
 Huinanity, pure not merely from all stain, pure also by Her unique 
 nature. How can I doubt that She will be heard for Her reverence 
 sake ? A s the S on will hear the Mother, so the Father will hear the 
 Son. My children, this is the ladder for' sinners, this is rhy supreme 
 assurancej'thTs the total reason of mv ho^^e. To Her the angel said, 
 ' Thou hast found grace with God.' "D joy ! She will ever find grace, 
 and it is the sole grace we need." Among countless testimonies to this 
 service of Bernard is Dante's poem, which marks at the same time the 
 Saint's pre-eminent rank and his lovely character. In the final scene 
 Bernard appears to commit Dante to the care of the Virgin, and in 
 words of adoration, often cited by Comte as characterising Humanity, 
 prays her grace to purge the poet's eyes, that they may look on the 
 divine light {Farad, xxxi. xxxii.). In the Positivist Library is 
 Bernard's Love of God, chosen by Comte to mark the ideal aim both of 
 his life and of Mediteval Catholicism. [V. L.] 
 
 Fleiiry : Ecclesiastical History. M orison : Life of St. Bernard^ 2nd ed. 
 Kemie Occidentale, xi. 91. Milniah ; Lalm ChriMciMxftJ , vol. iii. hk. viii. 
 /'OS. Po^. iii. 408. •• ■■'«....-,.,,-,
 
 240 ST. FRANCIS XAVIER [Catholicism 
 
 ST. FRANCIS XAVIER, b. 1506, d. 1552. 
 
 The distribution of names in this week is mainly national. The 
 first names are those of the Apostles of the Jesuit reform, both Spaniards 
 of Spain's greatest century. Saint Francis was the youngest son of 
 the Lord of Xavier, in Navarre. He studied for some years in the 
 University of Paris, took his degree there, and was made Professor of 
 Aristotelean philosophy. In this position, and amid the first uprising 
 of the Protestant heresy, he became the disciple of Ignatius Loyola, and 
 was one of the ten who, on Assumption Day 1534, in the crypt of 
 Mont-]\Iartre, dedicated to the Virgin, vowed themselves to the succour 
 of the Papacy. 
 
 After rejoining his brethren in Italy, Xavier took priest's orders, 
 and ministered in Venice, Bologna, and Rome. He was then chosen by 
 Ignatius to go to India as a missionary under the special protection of 
 John III., King of Portugal. With the highest credentials from that 
 Prince and the Pope, including the appointment of Papal Legate, 
 Francis, who was now a brother of the Society of Jesus, sailed from 
 Lisbon with the Governor of the Indies, and in 1542 arrived at Goa, 
 the ecclesiastical and temporal capital of the Portuguese Empire in the 
 East. 
 
 The remaining ten years of Xavier's life were spent by him as a 
 missionary captain, encountering missionary labours, difficulties, and 
 dangers in Goa, on the coasts of Southern India, in Malacca and the 
 Spice Islands, and in Japan, where he remained two years (1549-1551). 
 Eager for the spiritual conquest of civilised peoples, Xavier in 1552 
 made for China : he planned to enter with a royal embassy, but was 
 prevented by the arbitrary action of the Portuguese Captain at Malacca ; 
 he then formed the perilous design of entering secretly with a single 
 companion, but a fever overtook him, and he died in the island of San 
 Chan, at the mouth of the Canton river. His remains were taken to 
 Malacca, and thence to Goa, where they were (1554) finally interred in 
 the Church of St. Paul. Miracles easily grew around the story of so 
 remote and romantic a career : some of these were recorded upon his 
 canonisation in 1622. 
 
 Xavier's attempt to convert the theocratic and Mohammedan popula- 
 tions to Catholic Monotheism, itself in deep decline, necessarily failed : 
 and the same religious decay frustrated his fervent efforts to reform the 
 rapacious and licentious European adventurers whom he found in the 
 East. But his work Avas not lost to Humanity as an Apostolic example. 
 His exalted and beautiful character is pictured in his remarkable letters 
 to his colleagues and subordinates, to " Father Ignatius," to the Society 
 at Rome, and the King of Portugal. They illustrate the systematic aim 
 and practice of the Jesuit undertaking. To recognise Catholic authority 
 and fulfil its hope of universal dominion — such was the aim : the means 
 were entire devotedness and perfect discipline of the Order, free 
 intercourse with all ranks and conditions, adaptation of modern intel- 
 lectual resources, deference to authority ; lastly, use of the secular arm. 
 
 [V. L.] 
 
 Coleridge : Life and Letlera of St. Francis Xavier.
 
 Catholicism] LOYOLA 241 
 
 LOYOLA (Ignatius), b. 1491, d. 1556. / 
 
 Ignatius Loyola, founder of the Society of Jesus, was born in 
 the castle of Loyola, and became a brilliant soldier and courtier at the 
 court of Ferdinand of Arragon. Lamed at the siege of Pampeluna, he 
 dedicated himself to the service of*Hie"^rffih. '^with all the forms of 
 chivalry, in the church of Monserrato (ISzSJ," ahcT niecTitated some 
 m'onflis in ascetic solitude in a cave at Manresa. The practical purpose 
 of his life now dawned upon his view : he was to be a soldier of the 
 Church, and make other soldiers : he afterwards attached extraordinary 
 importance to his experiences at this time, often saying, as a reason for 
 this or that rule in his constitutions, " I saw it thus at Manresa." 
 
 In 1523, Ignatius went as a poor pilgrim to Palestine. On his 
 return he composed his Spiritual Exercises, and proceeded to study, 
 first at Barcelona, then in the Universities of Alcala and Salamanca, 
 where his preaching drew down upon him the Inquisition ; finally, in 
 the University of Paris, which then contained more than ten thousand 
 students of various nationalities, and was fermenting with heresy. Here 
 he took his degree as Master of Arts. Here also he gathered the first 
 members of his future Society, Xavier and others, almost all of whom 
 attained eminence in the Order. "~^ 
 
 With him they took vows at Montmartre (1534) to make pilgrimage 
 to the Holy Land, and, failing that, to offer their lives to the service 
 of the Pope. By arrangement they met again at Venice ; and the pil- 
 grimage having become impossible through the outbreak of war, they 
 journeyed to Rome (Ignatius excepted), and obtained the favour of Pope 
 P aul I II. By his permission Ignatius and seven companions were ordained 
 priests (1537). They at once proved their evangelical zeal in several 
 Italian cities. In 1540, through Loyola's skilful negotiation, the same 
 Pope granted his bull, Eegimini militantis Ecdesice, incoroorating the 
 Society of Jesus under vows of poverty, celibacVj^and "obedience, with 
 a fourth vow to go anywhere at the Pope's bidding. 
 
 Ignatius was chosen the first General of the Order, with tenure for life 
 and absolute powers. He and his subjects made their profession in the 
 Church of St. Paul, 22nd April 1541. His own vow was as follows : — 
 " I hereby promise to the all-powerful God, and to the Pope his vicar 
 upon earth, in jjresence of the Blessed Virgin his Mother, and of the 
 Company, perpetual poverty, celibacy, and obedience, according to the 
 rule of life contained in the bull of the Society of our Lord Jesus, and 
 the constitutions already and hereafter to be published. I promise that 
 I will cause young persons to be instructed in the faith according to the 
 same bull and to the constitutions." 
 
 During the remaining fifteen years of his life Ignatius directed from 
 Rome the rapidly widening operations of the Society, with the utmost 
 devotion, the most exacting system, and extraordinary success. He died 
 at Rome ; his remains now lie in the Church of the Gesii. He was 
 canonised in 1622 by Gregory xv. 
 
 " This noble enthusiast," says Comte, " deserves, from the sociological 
 point of view, to be honoured as the true successor of the Church 
 reformers of the 13th centurv. He endeavoured to arrest the dissolution
 
 242 LOYOLA : BORROMEO [Catholicism 
 
 of religion, by re-constituting Catholicism on the basis of the worship 
 of the Virgin, the goddess of the West. His Order he instituted with 
 the design of once more uniting the functions of preaching and con- 
 fession, and separated it from the nominal chief of the Church, with the 
 view of better subordinating it to its real chief. He strove to get the 
 true priesthood everywhere transferred to his Jesuits, by procuring for 
 them the general direction of an education suited to the aspirations of 
 the time, and the superintendence of the foreign missions which the 
 universal expansion of the West seemed to demand." His plan, Comte 
 goes on to show, could not succeed, because the intellectual revolution 
 could not be stayed. " Under his successors the reactionary policy soon 
 rested on a vast hypocritical conspiracy." [V. L.] 
 
 Kanke : History of the Popes, i. , and Macaiilay's Essay thereon. Symonds : 
 -Th'e Cccthoitc MeOcttmi, ch: iv.^ Phil. Pos: v. 589-5^9^^ Pas. Pol. iii. 
 470-473. 
 
 BORROMEO (St. Charles), b. 1538, d. 1594. 
 
 St. Charles represents the better order of Catholic prelates that arose 
 to uphold the Church against the Protestant revolt : not leaders of 
 thought, but friendly to secondary learning ; not general leaders of 
 action, but priests devoted to the order of the Church, deeply conscious 
 of their own pastoral office, and overflowing with affectionate care for the 
 people. 
 
 Carlo Borromeo was son of the Count of Avona, and nephew of 
 Pope Pius IV. ; and was educated in Milan, Pavia, and the university 
 of Paris. Before he was 25, Borromeo was made by his uncle a cardinal. 
 Archbishop of Milan, and chief officer of the Roman Court. In politics 
 he was conservative and reactionary ; he supported the Jesuits, and on 
 the death of Pius iv. promoted the election of the austere Inquisitor, 
 Cardinal Ghislieri (Pius v.). In character he was always devout, and 
 humble, and became more and more self-denying. During his admini- 
 stration the Council of Trent was. skilfully brought to a close (1563), the 
 composition of the Tridentine Catechism commenced, various seminaries 
 founded, the Roman missal and breviary re-edited ; and, among other 
 good deeds, St. Charles was the patron of Palestrina, the great musician. 
 On the death of Pius iv. (1565), Borromeo, refusing further office at 
 court, removed from Rome to Milan, and during the remainder of his 
 life set a noble example of episcopal duty. He diligently visited even 
 the mountainous parts of his diocese, and re-established discipline amongst 
 the clergy and religious orders. This was no easy task, for the Governor 
 and nobles opposed him, and an organised attempt was even made to 
 murder him in his own chapel. He also restored churches, built con- 
 vents, installed the Jesuits in the Brera, promoted the splendour of 
 Catholic worship, gave away princely sums in charity ; and when his 
 people were stricken with the plague (1576) bravely went among them 
 and organised their succour. 
 
 Borromeo died in 1594, and was buried in the Cathedral of Milan, in 
 a shrine of silver and rock-crysttd, where his remains, still visible, are 
 ;i, centre of pilgrimage and of worship. He wixa canonised by Paul v. in
 
 Catholicism] BORROMEO : ST. TERESA 243 
 
 1610. His character may be read in these words of his own : " He who 
 desires to make any progress in the service of God must begin every day 
 of his life with new ardour, must keep himself in the presence of God as 
 much as possible, and must have no other end in all his actions but the 
 divine honour." St. Charles, it is recorded, loved the work of A Kempis. 
 He especially cherished the motto of his family — " Humilitas." [V. L.] 
 
 B smkej History of, the Popes, 1. 330, 361. 374. Phil. Pos. v. 597. Mrs. 
 J aniesou : Legends of Vie Monastic Orders. 
 
 BORROMEO (Frederic), b. 1564, d. 1631. 
 
 Frederic, cousin of St. Charles (see preceding article), was, like him, 
 a cardinal (1587), and Avas his successor in the See of Milan (1595). He 
 faithfully continued the energetic and affectionate administration of the 
 diocese, and was univerS&lly beloved ; among his later praises is that of 
 Manzoni in I Fromessi ISposi. He was remarkable, moreover, for his 
 generous patronage of both classical and Oriental learning. The Am- 
 brosian Library and many other institutions were founded by him in 
 Milan. He was buried in the Cathedral, near the monument of St. 
 Charles. [V. L.] 
 
 ST. TERESA {de Cepeda), b. 1515, d. 1582. 
 
 Teresa, the second patron-saint of Spain, was the daughter of noble 
 and pious parents, living at Avila, a city among the mountains of Old 
 Castile. From the first she showed a most imaginative disposition, 
 which she fed with the romances of chivalry ; tlius, when a child, she 
 one day set out with her little brother to seek martyrdom amongst the 
 Moors. At the age of fifteen Teresa was sent to the Augustinian Con- 
 vent of Our Lady of Grace in Avila. In 1533, against her father's will, 
 she took the veil in the Carmelite Convent of the Incarnation outside 
 the city. Here she remained many years, and developed an exalted 
 habit of mental prayer, in which slie saw ecstatic visions of the Divine 
 Love : these gradually established her saintly fame. 
 
 In 1562 Teresa obtained a Papal brief to found a convent in Avila, 
 with liberty to follow the original Carmelite statutes instead of the more 
 modern " Mitigated Eule." She herself became prioress, and instituted 
 a most austere discipline. Teresa now entered on a missionary career, 
 in which her graud spirit and practical genius manifested wonderful 
 energy. In all, she founded, in different cities of Spain, seventeen con- 
 vents of " dis-calced " or " barefoot " nuns ; also, not without most trying 
 conflicts which she bravely endured, fourteen houses of reformed Car- 
 melite friars. These rapidly nuiltiplied after her death. Teresa died 
 at Alva, and was buried there ; her remains were afterwards carried to 
 her St. Joseph's at Avila, but on the demand of the Duke of Alva were 
 restored by Papal order to their original resting-place. She was canonised 
 by Gregory xv. in 1622, in company with Xavier and Loyola. 
 
 The service of her festival justly praises Teresa's "heavenly doctrine.
 
 244 ST. TERESA : ST. CATHARINE [Catholicism 
 
 and the fire of her pious devotion." For Teresa the nun was a poetess 
 bom, whose theme was her own dedicated soul, making itself " a garden 
 for the delight of her Lord," and communing face to face with the Divine 
 Human Redeemer, " His most sacred Humanity." And in her case the 
 rich and tender mysticism was greatly related to a just intelligence and 
 a noble humane character, which also found due language. Chief of 
 all Teresa's writings is her Life, written by command of her spiritual 
 director. She there sets forth the idea of Prayer — itself God's gift — 
 making Christ visible in the soul. She portrays the stages of subjective 
 adoration — first the prayer of quiet, then the prayer of union, then the 
 irresistible rapture. Comte, writing of A Kempis and his beautiful 
 heart-wisdom, remarks the spiritual kinship of his work and Teresa's 
 glowing compositions, and points out their relation to later Catholicism, 
 to which they gave a powerful and most gracious aid. [V. L.] 
 
 Life of St. Teresa (anonymous ; Macmillan, 1865). Remis Occidentale, x. 80. 
 Mrs. Jameson : Leyends of the Monastic Orders. Pas. Pol. iii. 461. 
 
 ST. CATHAEINE (of Siena\ b. 1347, d. 1380. 
 
 Catharine was daughter of a dyer at Siena. In her 18th year 
 she joined the Dominican " Sisters of Penance," remaining, however, 
 under her jjarents' roof. Her name is famous in Catholic story for her 
 ascetic austerities, her miracles, and her visions, in one of which she 
 became the spouse of the Infant Christ, receiving from him a ring before 
 the Holy Mother, St. John the Evangelist, St. Paul, St. Dominic, and 
 King David. But Catharine's " seraphic love " led her also to wonder- 
 ful devotion to the sick and sinful ; and the bull of Pius ii. for her 
 canonisation (1461) records that "no one ever approached her without 
 coming wiser and better from her presence." Moreover, though she 
 learnt to read only in later life, Catharine had an extraordinary public 
 career, above all as a peace-maker. Such was her saintly renown, the 
 Florentine magistrates, in 1376, invited her from Siena, and sent her as 
 ambassadress to Pope Gregory xi. at Avignon, to sue for the removal of 
 his interdict OA^er the Republic. On this occasion she pressed home 
 another subject dear to her and Christendom. She had already sent 
 written entreaties to the Pope urging him to return to Rome. She now 
 renewed these entreaties with passionate eloquence. The Pope, it is 
 recorded, was deeply moved : he set out for Rome in the same year, and 
 entered the Holy City in January 1377, thus terminating "the Baby- 
 lonish Captivity." At the request of his successor, Urban vi. (1378), 
 Catharine settled at Rome, as a kind of saintly counsellor. There in 
 1380 she died, and was buried with immense veneration under the high 
 altar of the chief Dominican church, Sta. ]\Iaria sopra Minerva. Three 
 hundred and sixty-four of her letters remain and four devotional 
 " Dialogues." [V. L.] 
 
 Drane : Life of til. Co.thvrine. Jose])hine Butler : Life of St. Catharine. 
 Ilemans : Chrislianity and Sacred. Art, vol. ii. Contemporary Portrait 
 by Vauni at Siena. Sepulchral Eftijjy, by Mine da Fiesole (15th 
 century). Mrs. Jameson : Sacred and Legendary A rt.
 
 Catholicism] ST. VINCENT : ABB^: DE L'iEP^E 245 
 
 ST. VINCENT DE PAUL, b. 1576, d. 1660. 
 
 Vincent was born at Eanqnines, near the Pyrenees, in the present 
 department of the Landes, and as a boy tended his father's flock. 
 Choosing the Church as a calling, he became a student in a convent of 
 the Cordeliers at Acqs ; thence he proceeded to the University of 
 Toulouse, where he supported himself by teaching. Ordained priest in 
 1600, he continued at Tovdouse studying theology. In 1605, when 
 taking passage through the gulf of Lyons, he was captured by Barbary 
 pirates ; they carried him to Tunis, where he was sold and resold as a 
 slave. Eventually he owed his deliverance to the impression which his 
 Christian faith made upon one of his master's wives, and through her 
 upon his master, who was a renegade Christian. They escaped together 
 to France (1607). At Avignon the renegade was solenmly received 
 again into the Church, and the Pope's Vice-Legate, who had performed 
 the ceremony, took Vincent with him to Rome. From Rome Vincent 
 was sent back to France by the French ambassador, with a confidential 
 message to Henri iv. He arrived in Paris in 1609, and commenced the 
 long charitable career which has made his name famous and beloved. 
 Among his chief helpers were the Count de Joigny and his wife, in 
 whose family Vincent lived for some years as tutor to their sons ; he 
 was also aided and honoured by Richelieu, Francois de Sales, Louis xiv., 
 and many others. 
 
 Vincent's principal achievements were his devoted labours among 
 the galley-slaves, and his founding of many benevolent associations, 
 especially the Confreries de Charitc, the Congregation of the Missions, 
 the Sisters of Charity, and various hosjjitals in Paris. In these and 
 other enterprises of the like kind, Vincent showed not only a rare 
 warmth of love and pity, and the purest zeal for virtue, but a genius 
 for winning others to his ever-generous cause and bringing his work to 
 a successful issue. His care was both for the bodies and souls of men. 
 In Church politics he was a pure conservative. When the Queen Regent 
 appointed him President of her Council of Conscience, he warmly 
 espoused the cause of the Jesuits against the Jansenists. He died in 
 1660 in the House of St. Lazarus, and was buried in the church with 
 great honour. He is honoured as the founder of the Order of Lazarists. 
 He was canonised by Clement xii. in 1737. Comte points out that, 
 though St. Vincent's devoted goodness was inspired and directed by 
 Catholic piety, it was such as might at that time liave been prompted by 
 other creeds, or even by mere humane feeling. Authentic portraits of 
 his venerable and benevolent countenance have been frequently engraved. 
 
 [V. L.] 
 
 Biographie Universelle : Vmcentdel'OA'I. Phil. Pos. v. 597. Mrs. Jameson: 
 Legends of the Monastic Orders. 
 
 ABBf: DE L'i^PEE {Charles Michel), b. 1712, d. 1789. 
 
 The good man here commemorated as a type of Catholic philanthropy 
 in France in the 18th century was the son of the King's Architect at 
 Versailles. A pious Jausenist, he entered the Church, and was made by
 
 246 ABBE DE Vi>T±E : BOUKDALOUE [Catholicism 
 
 Bossuet canon in the Cathedral of Troyes. Religious compassion led 
 him to take up in Paris the cause of the deaf and dumb, then a much 
 neglected class of suflerers. To their systematic instruction he gave a 
 long life of intelligent and affectionate energy, and nearly all his means. 
 " I devote myself to the poor," he said. His first State-patronage he 
 owed to the Emperor Joseph and Marie Antoinette. A grateful pupil 
 wrote for inscription on his bust a French couplet to this elect : 
 
 " Twin blessed mai'vels wrought our INIaster dear : 
 Our hands he taught to speak, our eyes to hear." 
 
 The good Abbe's aim has been continued in every country in Europe, 
 but a labial system is now preferred. [V. L.] 
 
 Portrait engraved in Knight's Portrait Gallery. 
 
 BOURDALOUE {Louis), b. 1632, d. 1704. 
 
 BouRDALOUE, says Voltaire, " was the first model of good preachers 
 in Europe." Few particulars are recorded of his life. He was bom at 
 Bourges, where his father was a lawyer. In 1648 he entered the Jesuit 
 College in Paris, and eventually became one of the professed, but continued 
 studying and teaching twenty years before he made preaching his career. 
 The Court of Louis xiv. and all classes listened with rapt attention to 
 his sermons. Madame de Sevigne, under date 1680, writes: "Nous 
 entendimes apres dine le sermon de Bourdaloue, qui frappe toujours 
 comme un sourd, disant les verites a bride abattue, parlant a tort et a 
 travers centre I'adultere : sauve qui peut, il va toujours son chemin." 
 His modern critic Sainte-Beuve speaks of " sa grandeur, sa sobre beauts, 
 et sa moralite profonde." 
 
 Notwithstanding brilliant rivals, Bourdaloue kept his high place in 
 public admiration to the last, and not a little by his high character. 
 " His conduct," said a contemporary, " was the best answer to the Pro- 
 vincial Letters." Various eminent persons, amongst others Conde, 
 chose the great preacher to direct their consciences : but this office he 
 declined to render to Madame de Maintenon. After the revocation of 
 the Edict of Nantes Bourdaloue was sent to Languedoc to preach to the 
 "new converts." His last services were in hospitals and prisons. 
 
 [V. L.] 
 
 Life, prefixed to his Works. Sainte-Beuve : Causeries du Lundi, ix. 210. 
 Portraits by Churon and Jouvenet. 
 
 FLEURY {Glamle) b. 1640, d. 1723. 
 
 Fleury was the son of a distinguished advocate in Paris, and was 
 educated in the Jesuit College of Clermont. He practised at the bar for 
 nine years, and then entered the Church. His great learning and honour- 
 able character recomniended him to employment as tutor in the royal 
 family : in the case of tlio Due de Bourgogne, he was associated with 
 Fenelon. In 1696 he was elected to the Academv. In 1707 Louis xiv.
 
 Catholicism] FLEURY : PENN 247 
 
 gave him the Priory of Argenteuil, and on the king's death he was 
 appointed confessor to the young Louis xv. 
 
 Fleury was essentially a scholar. He was author of various legal and 
 ecclesiastical books, which have a respected place in French literature ; 
 but his masterpiece was his History of the Church (included in the Posi- 
 tivist Library). This vast work Fleury did not commence until his 67th 
 year : at his death he had brought it down to the opening of the Council 
 of Constance. It was put into the Index. Fleury was a friend of Bossuet, 
 and prepared the Latin version of his Exposition. [V. L.] 
 
 Voltaire {Siicle de Louis xiv.) says of Fleiiry — " his History of the Church 
 is the best that has been done, and the introductory Discourses are much 
 superior to the History. They are almost the work of a philosopher : 
 which the History is certainly not." 
 
 PENN {William), b. 1644, d. 1718. 
 
 Protestant theologians, such as Luther and Calvin, are not in this 
 Calendar, since the positive, and even the negative results of the Intel- 
 lectual Revolution in Protestant countries are best exhibited by syste- 
 matic thinkers like Bacon and Hobbes, and practical statesmen like 
 William the Silent and Cromwell. In decisive protest against the Past, 
 temporal or spiritual, none took a morel significant or purer part among 
 Protestants than the English Quakers or Society of Friends. Confiding 
 in the " inward light," which was to them both love and reason, they 
 proclaimed an universal Christian society, universal peace, universal 
 toleration of opinion, and fraternal duty to all. Among their heroes was 
 William Penn. 
 
 His life presented a strange yet intimate combination, he was both 
 Quaker and courtier : — a faithful, striving, and often suffering Quaker, 
 and at the same time an accomplished courtier and man of affairs, a 
 Fellow of the Royal Society, the influential friend of high personages at 
 home and abroad, the very confidant even of the Catholic James ii. He 
 was the eldest son of Sir William Penn, a most distinguished Admiral 
 under both Cromwell and Charles ii. Dismissed from Oxford University 
 for nonconformity, young Penn was sent to travel abroad : upon his 
 return he saw some military service in the fleet with his father, and in 
 the army in Ireland with the Duke of Ormond. But falling in again 
 with the Quaker preacher whom he had known in Oxford, he was " con- 
 verted." Eventually he became a bold speaker, writer, and missionary 
 (both in England and Germany) for the Quaker cause. Twice in his 
 early career he suff"ered long imprisonment for his faith : his trial in 1670 
 is famous in English constitutional history as establishing the immunity 
 of juries ; and during two reigns (Macuulay's calumny notwithstanding) 
 he nobly exerted his court influence for the succour of his much persecuted 
 brethren. 
 
 His singular position led him to his world-known achievement. To 
 many of his co-believers, English, Dutch, Swedes, and Germans, the New 
 World had offered an asylum. Hence Penn petitioned that in payment
 
 248 PENN : FOX [Catholicism 
 
 of a large debt due from the Crown to his father's estate, which he had 
 inherited, he should receive a concession of territory in America. The 
 grant was made (1681), and the land named by the king Pennsylvania 
 after the great Admiral. Penn drew up a democratic constitution, 
 planned the city of Philadelphia (" loving brotherhood "), and organised 
 a large emigration : in 1682 he visited the Colony as Proprietor and 
 Governor, and made his celebrated treaty of friendship with the Indians 
 (of which, however, no exact record remains). 
 
 His scheme — " the Holy Experiment " he called it — was generously 
 conceived and generously executed, especially as regards its religious 
 toleration, mild criminal code, and gentle policy towards the Indians and 
 negroes, though these last still remained slaves. The colony prospered 
 rapidly. Penn made a second visit there in 1699. His later years were 
 harassed with pecuniary and political troubles. He died in 1718, and 
 was buried at Jordans, Buckinghamshire. " [V. L] 
 
 Dixon : Life of William Penn. Bancroft : History of the United States, 
 
 cli. -\vi. Penn: Works. Fox: Journal. Thil. PoJ?." v. GSf.' Pos. 
 
 Pol. iv. 266. Portrait (as a yoTTllg' Wi!itf in armour), frequently engraved. 
 
 FOX (George), b. 1624, d. 1690. 
 
 George Fox, the Founder of the Quakers, was the son of " righteous 
 Christopher," a weaver in Drayton, Leicestershire, and spent his boyhood 
 in Nottingham, shoemaking and watching sheep. He reached manhood 
 amid the religious and social convulsions of the civil war. No extant 
 Church could satisfy his self-C[uestioning, resolute soul, and he commenced 
 preaching " the inward light " as the universal religion. Such a dogma 
 forms part of every faith — not least of Catholicism {Imitation of Christ, 
 bk. ii. ch. i.) : but, uncontrolled by prudent authoritj' and objective 
 truth, it is obviously capable of great extravagance, even the abjuring of 
 all civilisation. It led " the Quakers " to reject all system in spiritual 
 things and many precious social symbols and instruments, but in them 
 it was tempered with modern reason, industrial sympathies, and above all 
 wide aflection. Fox and his followers used their dogma not merely against 
 temporal and spiritual oppression, but to consecrate pacific manners, and 
 they religiously exacted pure and humane conduct in personal, civic, and 
 national life. Undaunted by persecution, including first and last five years 
 in prison. Fox continued throughout his life an itinerant and always 
 uncompromising preacher. Besides travelling all over England, he visited 
 Scotland and Ireland, Holland (twice), and crossed the Atlantic to the 
 West Indian and North American Plantations, where New Jersey, Penn- 
 sylvania and Delaware were to be Quaker States. He was kindly 
 regarded by Cromwell. He died in London, and was buried in Bunhill 
 Fields. Penn said of him : " Many sons have done virtuously in this day, 
 but, dear George, thou excellest them all I '"' The Quaker iaith, having 
 rendered eminent temporary service in England and America, has fully 
 shared in the general decline of theology. [V. L.] 
 
 See foregoing article I'exx. Carl vie : Crouucell.
 
 Catholicism] BOSSUET 249 
 
 BOSSUET {Jacques Bmigne), b. 1627, d. 1704. 
 
 In the five centuries betAveen Bernard and Bossuet, the mediaeval 
 system yielded to the modern transition. Innocent iii. and St. Louis, 
 exemplars of meridian Catholicism ; Louis xi., and Richelieu, temporal 
 Dictators ; Gutemberg and Columbus, pioneers of modern industry ; 
 Galileo and Keijler, architects of physical science, tell the tale in this 
 Calendar : lastly, Des Cartes, who produced an all undermining metaphysic, 
 and simultaneously essayed an objective synthesis, a universal system of 
 material law. In the 16th century the Catholic Church, which had been 
 for two centuries spontaneously decaying, broke asunder ; the northern 
 peoples became various Protestants, the Soixthern populations and the 
 central French nation continued the traditional faith, thereby saving much 
 of Catholic and chivalrous feeling from the general wreck : but every- 
 where the sceptical spirit found its way, and everywhere the secular 
 power reduced to subjection the spiritual. Demoralised by their loss of 
 independence, and increasingly conscious of the incompetence of their 
 supernatural doctrine to cope with modern elements, the Catholic Hier- 
 archy were often corrupt and oppressive ; but they possessed a venerable 
 worship, pastoral ofiice, and noble traditions : these still conferred moral 
 authority, and especially held the allegiance of women, who, standing 
 aloof from the intellectual movement, continued to treasure up habits of 
 moral order and affection for the future use of Humanity — an inestimable 
 service {Pos. Fol. iii. 434). 
 
 There remained then to the Chiu'ch, in the presence of immense 
 distracting forces, a conservative office, which, in the higher field yet 
 inaccessible to science, could even be progressive. It consisted, (1) in 
 continuing to aftirm against all adversaries religious unity and a 
 universal Church to be the true human aim ; (2) in presiding over 
 private morals and education, also in worthily seconding and dignifying 
 the impulse of the time towards philanthropic enterprise ; (3) in cariying 
 forward, under Catholic reserve, tlie intellectual study of social 
 phenomena and human nature. In all these ways, but especially the 
 first and last, Bossukt was the High Priest of his age. 
 
 He was born at Dijon, and as a boy attended the College of Jesuits 
 there. At fifteen he was sent to the College of Navarre in Paris, where 
 he laboriously completed his education in classical literature and theology 
 (" Bos suetus aratro '''). Ordained priest in 1652, after preparation in 
 Vincent de Paul's "retreat," Bossuet went to Metz, where he had 
 already been made canon, and where he became dean. Of the art of 
 preaching he grew to be an imposing master, and before long won the 
 King's trust and general distinction in Church and Court. He was 
 above all celebrated at this time for his State funeral orations. Ap- 
 pointed Bishop of Condom in 1G6!), Bossuet presently resigned the See 
 to fulfil his new duties at Court as preceptor to the Dauphin. On 
 concluding that service (described by him in a letter to the Pope), 
 he was made Bishop of Meaux (1681). 
 
 Bossuet's first work as bishop was to be spokesman of the Church 
 Assembly which Louis xiv. had convoked to support his vainglorious 
 quarrel with the Pope, respecting the lUrjah and the rights of the
 
 260 BOSSUET [Catholicism 
 
 Gallican Church. Bossuet preached the opening sermon on The Unity 
 of the Church. His also were the Four Articles, which, denounced by 
 the Pope, but made law by Louis xiv., mark an epoch in French and 
 Church history. Thereafter Bossuet lived in his diocese, fulfilling his 
 episcopal duties with exemplary zeal, and wielding an indefatigable pen. 
 In 1700 he led another Assembly in pronouncing against certain heresies. 
 He died in Paris in 1704, and was buried in Meaux Cathedral. 
 
 Bossuet's genius was, Comte says, " pontifical." He grandly guarded 
 the great highway of Catholic orthodoxy and Catholic order. But all 
 his work, even his greatest, suff'ered from obsequiousness to the office 
 and person of the national master. As Arnauld said of him : " II y a 
 neanmoins un verumtamen, dont j'apprehende de qu'il n'ait a rendre 
 compte a Dieu : c'est qu'il n'a pas le courage de rien representor au roi. 
 C'est le g^nie du temps, meme a I'egard de ceux qui ont de grandes 
 lumieres." Against proximate disturbers of the Church " the Eagle of 
 Meaux" was an eager antagonist. With the Protestants he was in 
 life-long controversy. For them he wrote (with much else) his con- 
 ciliatory Exposition of the Catholic Creed, 1671, and his searching 
 History of Protestant Diversities, 1688 (both in the Positivist Library), 
 and maintained in his later years a long correspondence with Leibnitz. 
 For the revocation of the Edict of Nantes Bossuet was not directly 
 responsible, but he more than approved it {Sermon on Le Tellier, 1686) ; 
 taking pains, however, that in his diocese the cruel decree should be 
 gently administered. He also contended — in some cases invoking help 
 of the secular arm — against Jesuits and Jansenists, against mystic 
 Quietists and their patron, the noble Fenelon, also against Simon and 
 the school of innovating criticism. 
 
 With the remoter, but more deadly adversaries of Catholicism, 
 Science and Metaphysic, Bossuet did not close. Mathematics he was 
 ignorant of, and in philosophy he was almost an avowed Cartesian (see 
 his Knowledge of God and Oneself, written for the Dauphin). Bossuet's 
 official career could not but mark the social degeneracy of the Church, 
 and on several occasions — as when he cursed Moliere — he appeared even 
 an opponent of modern light ; but he is here honoured as a conservative 
 statesman, and especially as the author of the following works in the 
 Positivist Library : Sacred Polity (1671), Discourse on Universal History 
 (1681), and Abridgment of the History of France (1670), all written for 
 the Dauphin. 
 
 Charged with the instruction of the royal heir, Bossuet's genius was 
 stimulated to produce these synthetic institutional treatises on Society, 
 and on History, which he calls " the guiding light of political wisdom." 
 The Sacred Polity draws from Scripture and experience fundamental 
 principles of social order, human and patriotic, applying them, however, 
 to consecrate and perpetuate the regime of Le Grand Monarque. The 
 Discours (Bossuet's "greatest work"), offers a conspectus of human history, 
 sacred and profane, down to the accession of Charleniagne. It does not 
 in terms declare a continuous progress, for it contrasts the immutable 
 divine order, displayed in the Jewish and Catholic Churches, with the 
 contingencies of human empires, Egyptian, Greek, Koman : yet all these 
 are characterised and linked together in an expanding series, thus
 
 Catholicism] BOSSUET 251 
 
 designed : " This view of universal history is to the histories of each 
 country and people what a general map is to special maps. . . . God, 
 who created and organised the universe, appointing for the establishing 
 of order that all parts of this grand whole shall be mutually connected, 
 hath also appointed that the course of human affairs should have its due 
 stages and proportions — I mean that men and nations have had qualities 
 commensurate to the height they were destined to attain ; and that 
 excepting certain extraordinary strokes where God would have his 
 hand appear alone, no great change has ever taken place without having 
 had its causes in the ages antecedent." Comte calls this "the last 
 capital inspiration of Catholicism," remarking that it was impossible to 
 the negative school, which could not appreciate Catholic progress. 
 Connecting with Cartesian science, Bossuet thus preluded the coming 
 Historical school, and even Condorcet and the Positive Synthesis. 
 
 [V.L] 
 
 De Bausset : Life of Bossuet. H. Martin : Histoire cle France, bk. v. ch. i. 
 Bridges : France under Richelieu and Colbert, lect. iv. Morley : Vol- 
 taire. Phil. Pos. iv. 280 ; v. 6, 350, 596, 653, 702 ; vi. 316. Pos. Pol. 
 i. 249; iii. 483.
 
 FEUDAL CIVILISATION. 
 
 rPHE characteristic of medioeval history is the double action throughout its 
 -*- entire course of two co-ordinate forces : — 1st, Catholic or religious ; 
 2nd, The Feudal or Chivalric movement. Hence the seventh month, 
 devoted to Feudal Civilisation, must always be taken with the sixth, 
 that of Catholicism ; they form a contemporaneous and binary power. 
 The essential functions attempted by mediaeval civilisation as a whole 
 may be thus grouped : — 
 
 (1) To purify and discipline the fiercer passions of man, especially 
 
 inhumanity, pride, and lust. 
 
 (2) As a means and a corollary of the former, to raise the position of 
 
 woman. 
 
 (3) To protect the weak, dignify gentleness, and raise the value of 
 
 human nature as such. 
 
 (4) To suppress the rule of universal war, and to transform war of 
 
 conquest into war for defence. 
 
 (5) To establish true local government, under the sanction of reciprocal 
 
 duty, in lieu of submission to a centralised empire. 
 
 (6) To suppress slavery, and to found the institution of free labour. 
 
 These six functions were undertaken by Catholicism and Feudalism, 
 working together in varying degrees. The first three were mainly the 
 task of the Church, though Chivalry played a very large part, especially 
 in regard to the position of women. The latter three tasks were 
 essentially the work of Feudal Civilisation, indirectly aided by Catholi- 
 cism, especially with regard to slavery. In a sense, the result was 
 practically achieved in the nine centuries which separate Theodosius from 
 the removal of the Papacy from Rome (roughly speaking between 400- 
 1300 A.D.). The result was achieved, it is true, most imperfectly : with 
 much confusion, cruelty, and folly ; but also with magnificent heroism and 
 self-devotion. If it were an ultimate failure, this was because success 
 was impossible with such limited knowledge and false ideas. But it was 
 the turning-point of history ; it was the cardinal Transition ; and it 
 produced some great things which have never been seen on earth before 
 or since. The bitter memories which its failures have left were due to 
 this : that it never recognised how entirely provisional its own part was. 
 
 The main tasks of Feudal Civilisation were to establish (1) defensive 
 war, (2) local organisation, (3) the type ot chivalry, honour, and free 
 labour. Under the Militarij Civilisation of antiquity all the Roman 
 names are those of concjuerors or imperial statesmen. Under the Feudal 
 Civilisation of the middle ages, all the names are those who fought to 
 defend, or who founded local institutions, or laboured towards national 
 organisation. Of such men, the purest and greatest type is obviously 
 our own Alfred. 
 
 Charlemagne himself is exceptional. He is a type of Imperialism 
 rather than of Feudalism ; and his wars can only be regarded as defensive
 
 FEUDAL CIVILISATION 253 
 
 when we look to their ulterior results. But his work ultimately tended 
 to found the civilisation of the middle ages byfmaking Feudalism and 
 national patriotism possible, and by making the Church an independent 
 and co-ordinate force. He is himself so imposing a personage, the scale 
 of his work was so vast, and its effect on the entire West has been so 
 permanent, that no other type of the mediaeval ruler could possibly be 
 chosen. It was he who gave to Western Em'ope practical security from 
 interminable invasion and definitive settlement into equal nations. His 
 impressive rule made the West feel its common life, with independent 
 local duties. His revival of imperial organisation easily transmuted 
 itself into a feudal hierarchy proper. And the relations he established 
 with the Church formed a rough working basis, during some five 
 centuries, for the precarious division of authority between spiritual and 
 temporal powers. 
 
 Excepting Theodoric, who is a grand but premature type of the 
 mediaeval chief, all the main names of this month come between Charles 
 Martel, 730, and the death of St. Louis, 1270 : a period of five centuries 
 and a half. A few represent the survival of the chivalrous qualities in 
 later ages or the influence of chivalric traditions on barbarous races of 
 East and West. But, with a few exceptions, due to personal qualities, 
 the whole series of names in this month belongs to the true period of 
 Feudal Civilisation. This begins with the defence and settlement of 
 Western Europe under its local chiefs, and ends with the manifest 
 disorganisation of Medi;uval society at the opening of the 14th century, 
 whereof Dante has given so striking a picture. 
 
 The binary character of Catholic Feudalism naturally produces a 
 considerable interchange of function. In the height of its activity many 
 Churchmen were rulers, just as many sovereigns were saints. As there 
 are in the month of Catholicism two Roman Emperors and other secular 
 names, so there are in that of Feudalism no less than twelve ecclesiastics 
 and thirteen saints. It would seem that the sixth month is dedicated to 
 the doctrine, morals, and manners of medi«val Catholicism ; the seventh 
 to its active effect upon life and social organisation. It is of much 
 significance that under Feudal Civilisation are ranged five Popes, the 
 founders of the Friars, and seven women. 
 
 In the first two weeks the types are all soldiers ; in the third tliey 
 are all Churchmen ; in the fourtii they are all sovereigns. The week of 
 Alfred represents the defence of Europe against invaders ; that of 
 Godfrey the Crusades and Chivalry, properly so called ; that of Innocent, 
 the influence of the Church on government ; that of St. Louis, the type 
 of the Christian king. [F. H.] 
 
 I'hil. Pus. V. 105011 54. I'dS. J'ol. iii. cli. vi. jip. 353-420.
 
 254 CHARLEMAGNE [Feudal 
 
 / 
 
 CHARLEMAGNE {Charles or Karl the Great) b. 742, d. 814 A.D. 
 
 Charles, the eldest son of Pepin the Short, and grandson of 
 Charles Martel, succeeded to the sovereignty over the Franks, jointly 
 with his brother Carloman in 768 {oitat. 26). On the death of Carloman, 
 771, he was recognised as sole king. He was hardly secure in the 
 Prankish kingdom when he began (772) the long wars to incorporate the 
 Saxons, which lasted for 32 years. 
 
 Under this name were included the non-Christian German tribes who 
 inhabited the country between the Rhine and the Elbe in the modern 
 Westphalia, Hanover, Brunswick, Oldenburg, Holstein, Mecklenburg, 
 and North Saxony. These tribes, more or less allied with the Norse- 
 men, remained attached to the old religion of Odin ; they maintained a 
 strictly tribal system in scattered centres of ill-defined extent : they were 
 still in the partly nomadic stage, and without any regular political 
 organisation. A race of hardy soldiers, in so backward and inorganic a 
 state, formed a standing menace to the settled Christian populations of 
 the Frankish dominion, very much as did the Teutonic and Gothic 
 tribes to the Roman Empire. The absence of central authority and of 
 town life made any efiective conquest of them very tedious, and even a 
 permanent peace impossible. The one means of their real incorporation 
 with Western Europe was their adoption of the civilisation and 
 religion of the Franks. The security of the Frankish dominions rested 
 on the incorporation of their barbarian kinsmen on their north-eastern 
 frontier. 
 
 It is highly characteristic of the genius of the young King of the 
 Franks that he at once recognised this, and from the first set himself to 
 a terrible task, where neither wealth nor glory could be won. Charles's 
 Saxon wars, the first and most continuous efibrt of his reign, like the 
 wars waged by every civilised conqueror against a race of brave and 
 stubborn nomads, were neither marked by great victories nor by very 
 definite campaigns. In the long course of them he tried every policy in 
 turn : severity, conciliation, exhortation, and negotiation. From time to 
 
 I time his measures are marked by dreadful bloodshed and destruction ; 
 and throughout, his warfare has nmch of the character and not a little of 
 the ferocity of a war of religion. In the spring of 772, Charles crossed 
 the Rhine at Worins and opened the campaign in Westphalia. He 
 destroyed, at Ehresbourg, the Irmensul, or palladium of the Saxons. 
 The war was prolonged in a succession of risings and desultory victories, 
 and was not finally completed until 804, having cost the Frank King 
 
 I no less than twenty armies. Time aft'ST'time the Saxons, compelled to 
 accept baptism and to submit to the king, broke out into rebellion and 
 renounced Christianity. Their national hero was Witikind. In the 
 campaign of 782 Charles massacred in cold blood 450(rSaxon prisoners ; 
 and by an order of 784 he made baptism compulsory under pain of 
 death. ■ ■~' ■ 
 
 Immediately on the close of his first Saxon campaign, Charles turned 
 his arms against Lombardy, 773. Crossing the Alps in two columns.
 
 Civilisation] CHARLEMAGNE 255 
 
 one by the Valais, and one through Savoy, in two brief and brilliant 
 campaigns, he completely subdued Northern Italy as far as the Neapoli- 
 tan duchy, and was acknowledged as King of Lombardy, 774. The 
 Pope, welcoming the Prankish Kirig as the deliverer of the Church from 
 the haied Lombard, received Ch;u-Hs'"ar*RoirrF,"Ea'SteT 774, conferred on 
 him""tbe titte of Patrician of Rome, "and entered into a close alliance. 
 Charles endowed the Papacy with immense possessions (the modern 
 StaCes^? the Church). This conquest of Northern Italy was the com- 
 mencement of the long depeiideiice~'Of Italy on the Empire. It was a 
 political conquest of the country, not a displacement or spoliation of the 
 native Lombards. Charles, in this decisive and characteristic conquest, 
 was but following the policy of Pepin and Charles Martel, and was 
 layi ng th e foundation of the Prankish King as the friend and protector 
 
 of die dfurchi. ■ ■• -^^„..^.„^^^.'- 
 
 " Charles's next expedition was into Spain, whither he was called by 
 the otter of an alliance with a Saracen Emir, who revolted from the 
 Khalif of Cordova (778). Though his campaign was without brilliant 
 results, he advanced to the Ebro and ett'ected a satisfactory peace. It 
 was on the return of his army through the valley of Roncevaux, near 
 Pampeluna, that the Gascons fell upon his rear -guard, and killed Roland 
 and many of his peers. The defeat, which attlicted tlie king more than it 
 weakened him, was the basis of the poetic legend known in the middle 
 ages as the Ballad of Roland. From 778 to 812 the Franks made six 
 other expe3itibns into Spain, the main result of which was tinally to 
 deliver France from any further fear of Saracen invasion, and to establish 
 as a bulwark two small border counties — the Marches of Gascony and of 
 Spain on the south of the Pyrenees. 
 
 Further conquests awaited the king on the east. The incessant 
 wars with the Saxons compelled Charles to follow the turbulent races 
 lying east and south of them. He crossed the Elbe (789), and advanced 
 to the Oder. There he established a tributary district extending to the 
 Eyder, the border of Denmark. Southwards he carried his arms into 
 Bohemia, Bavaria, and Hungary, as far as the Theiss ; and in a series of 
 campaigns subdued the main part of the modern Empire of Austria. 
 Thirty years of almost incessant war had vastly extended the kingdom 
 of "Pepm'T^ and had converted the Prankish dominion into an empire 
 that comprised the "ffiain part of Western Europe. Taking it in its 
 furthest reach, it extended from the Bay of Biscay to the river Theiss, 
 and thence to the Adriatic on the south, and the mouth of the Oder on 
 the Baltic. It reached from the iiiarclies soutli of the Pyrenees, Navarre, 
 and Barcelona, to Pomerania on the Baltic ; and from the Northern Sea 
 across all Italy, down to the duchy of Beiievento. It thus conqirised 
 the whole of France : Germany and Austria, except East Prussia, Eastern 
 Hungary, and Croatia : the north-east corner of Spain : and all Italy, 
 except the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 The~gfe;il' position of Charles now called for formal conseci'ation. ( 
 Acknowledged as the greatest ruler since the Roman Emperors, mani- i 
 festtyTtor-srrpcrior in power of the Greek Emperor at Byzantium, sup-^ 
 ported l)y the entire influence of the Church, lie resolved to revive in 
 Western Europe the conception of the Empire under Catholic forms. On
 
 256 CHARLEMAGNE [Feudal 
 
 Christmas Day 800, the king in great state attended mass in St. Peter's 
 atTTomej'^vhere Pope 'I]WTrr.-,'-ptaciHg''"tltt ■imperial crown on hisTiead, 
 thrice hailed him as "Angustits, crowned by God, great and pacific 
 Emperor of the Romans." Th^ Pppe, anointing his head with the saered 
 oil, prostrated himself at the feet of the Emperor, and the entire assehihly 
 
 (of 'ptiests, soldiers, and people ratified the act with their acclamations. 
 Thus began the revived Roman Empire of the " West, a nd with it the 
 fonmtibn of the common ine~or"Weste'rh' Europe.' The bar barian, or 
 ilrediaeval, world was formally linked on to tlie RomanT Th'6 X'httrch, 
 and the Papacy as its organ, became the spiritual guide of tKe^inpire, 
 ancTthe Prankish sovereign became the right hand of the Church. 
 I "Great as a warrior, Charles was even greater as administrator and 
 ! civil ruler. The whole Empire was divided into counties, the count 
 residing in each being charged Avith authority, civil, judicial, and military. 
 Under each count was a vicar, or as he was finally called a viscount, 
 who held three courts yearly, the more serious causes being reserved for 
 the count's court. The Imperial authority was specially exercised by the 
 missi dominici, or royal delegates, who heard appeals, reported to the 
 Emperor, and generally maintained the unity of the Empire. In spring 
 and autumn, two great assemblies were held for ratifying the legislation 
 proposed by the Emperor. These assemblies consisted entirely of the 
 principal officials, lay or clerical, and they usually sat in two distinct 
 Isodies, one spiritual, the other temporal. We still possess upwards of 
 1100 articles, in 65 capitularies, or codes, and some 40 other rescripts, 
 regulating to the minutest detail the whole political and economical 
 system of the Empire. 
 
 The Emperor largely endowed the Church, insisting on the payment 
 , of tithes in full ; he also founded numerous churches, schools, monasteries, 
 •! and bishoprics. He was passionately devoted to the revival of learning, 
 I of music, and the other arts, and gathered round him learned men from 
 every country, the chief of whom were the Saxon Alkwin (Alcuin ), the 
 Lombard Paul the Deacon, Peter of Pisa, and Clement of Ireland, and 
 above all his secretarv, Einhart, orEginhart, who has left us an admir- 
 able life ofTiis cliler WTtFthe aKnoF these men, the best intellects 
 of their age, inspired by the intense zeal of the Emperor for all forms of 
 culture, a real, but short, renascence of learning took place in the 
 Prankish kingdom. Architecture, music, grammar, the languages of 
 Greece and Rome, their literature and art, the art of illumination, even 
 science, received a new impulse. From this reign Ave find the_Church 
 an independent, vast, and co-ordinate"'authority in Europe. Systematic 
 ediTcation, eleemosynary institutions," regiilaf "laxalibn, and periodical 
 assizes begin to be a part of the ordinary civilisation of Europe. 
 
 The Emperor died on 28th January 8 14, in his 72nd year, after 
 a reign of 45 years, and his body Avas emljalmecT aritl'ensErined in the 
 Basilica he had built. His memory h as justly imjjressed the imagination 
 of the Western Avorld more than that of any other ruler since_ Ctesar ; 
 and it is an interesting and valuabTe sign of this fact, that in the pojDular 
 language of after ages, the style of " the Great " Avas mingled with his 
 name, and that through French romances he has been knoAvn in history 
 as Charlemagne. Rational philosophy respects and adopts the popular
 
 Civilisation] CHARLEMAGNE 257 
 
 instinct. He was truly, and not only by title, Emperor of the West. 
 His whole rejgn was a supreme effort to recast the world shattered by 
 suc cessive invasions of barljarian5<, and to found a regular empire. In 
 the f orrn in which he left it, it did not endurej but it oflfcetnally yirc^ 
 paredtlie^ ground for the system of tlie MiHHTe Aues, jind if fdinidcd 
 Europe as ah organic whole. 
 
 In one sense CIi;xrTemagne is the creator ol' ( 'atliolie Feudalism, in 
 that he made the Church a co-ordfnate authority, and in that he gave 
 Europe rest from incessant invasions, and founded a systematic locar 
 a diuimstra tion. In another sense, he checkecr'and postponed the in- 
 stitution 6T Feudalism, in so far as his system rested on a vast imperial 
 organisation, with direct centralisation in himself, and a unity akin to 
 that of the great Roman Emperors. He was recognised as the Emperor 
 of the West by the petty kings of Britain, by the Greek Emperor at 
 Byzantium, and by Haroun-al-Raschid, the Khalif of Baghdad.' 
 
 His faithful secretary, Eginhard, has left us a splendid picture of the 
 Emperor personally, which almost presents him as t he idea l hero of 
 medieval legend. H e was of great stature and noble Inien"; wTEh 
 immense strenglh, enefgy, and~acfivlty ; a powerful orator, with a clear 
 voice ; simple in his habits, temperate, and frugal ; afliible, courteous, 
 delighting in music, in conversation, and in books ; he was just, patient, 
 magnanimous, and full of enthusiasm for merit of all kinds ; profuse in 
 his generosity, warm in his friendships, incapable of jealousy, and .sin- 
 cerely pious. The one defect of his character, one that he snared with 
 nearly all the chieftains of his race, was lawlessness of sexual indulgence, 
 and even a cynical indifference to the marriage contract. Five wives, 
 of whom he repudiated two after a short cohabitation, numerous con- 
 cubines, and eighteen children are mentioned. And he was careless of 
 the profligacy of his daughters, whom he loved extravagantly, and kept 
 at his side unmarried. In nature, as in nearly all his great qualities, 
 he singularly resembled Julius Ca'sar, although what was supreme 
 culture in the Roman was the passion for supreme culture in the Frank. 
 
 Charlemagne was not only the great ruler and soldier of his age, but, 
 like Julius and Alfred, was hnnself the centre and inspiration of all 
 social and intellectual progress"! ""The Palace School was, like that of 
 Alfred, the university of his age, the germ and type of the medifeval 
 schools of later ages. In it grammar, rhetoric, jurisprudence, poetry, 
 astronomy, physics, and Bible history were systematically studied. The 
 Emperor himself studied astronomy, music, and physics ; he read Greek, 
 and was an enthusiastic promoter of architecture, engineering, and the 
 arts. He used by preference his mother-tongue, German, Latin being 
 only a written language. Ho^jnacle many efforts to learn to write, but 
 ne_yer succeeded. He was buried with great p'onip at Aachen (^4 {a;-7rt- 
 ChapeJXe) \n a sarcophagus which, it is believed, may stiTTTeseon there. 
 His toni'B^and his remains were long the object of veneration and mystical 
 legend. In 1000 the Emperor Otho iii. visited the tomb and opened the 
 vault, as did Frederick Bai'barossa again in IIGG, when Charlemagne was 
 duly canonised as a Confessor. 
 
 It has been pointed out {Pos. Pol. iii. 403) tliat Charlemagne was 
 personally almost the equal of Ca'sar, and occupied an even superior 
 
 li
 
 258 CHARLEMAGNE [Feudal 
 
 position. The enormous advantage given to a man of supreme genius, 
 who is placed by birth in a throne of undoubted legitimacy, enabled him 
 to dispense with the struggles which cost Caesar 40 years of life. Of 
 all the mighty chiefs who have formed the course of human civilisation, 
 Cterriernagne yields only to Julius in greatness, and in moral elevation 
 of "nature is surpassed by Alfred alone. Th e instin ct of mankind for 
 lOOO years has marked him out as the great hero of the modern world, 
 and has indelibly stamped hfs supremacy on his very name. [F. H.] 
 
 J. I. Mombert, D.D. : Clmiies tlve Great, London, 1888. A new history 
 from original sources, by an American scholar, with genealogies, tables, 
 chronology, map, and portrait.
 
 Civilisation] THEODORIC 259 
 
 THEODORIC, b. 454, d. 526 A.D. 
 
 The first week of the month Charlemagne is devoted to those soldiers 
 and statesmen who founded the earliest settled kingdoms in post-Roman 
 times, in Italy, Germany, Spain, and England, or who protected Europe 
 from non-Christian invaders. Theodoric created in Italy " the earliest, 
 and not the least noble form of the new society, which grew out of the 
 yet unfused elements of the Latin and Teutonic races" (Milman). 
 Dietrich, the son of Theudemir, was of the royal race of the Ostrogoths, 
 then settled in what is now Austria. Being sent in early age as a 
 hostage to Constantinople, he was there educated by the Emperor. 
 Returning to his own people, he succeeded to the throne of the Ostro- 
 goths at the age of twenty. He invaded Thrace in 488, and, threatening 
 Constantinople, compelled Zeno the Emperor to make peace. The 
 following year he set forth with his entire nation, crossed the Alps, and, 
 descending into Italy, fought three great battles against Odoacer, the 
 King of the Heruli there settled, and, after besieging Ravenna for three 
 years, he made a partition of his kingdom with Odoacer. Shortly 
 afterwards, Odoacer was murdered, though not necessarily by the order 
 of Theodoric ; and in 493 Theodoric began a reign of 33 years, during 
 which Italy reposed m "peace under his just, vigorous, and wise rule. 
 
 He fixed his residence at Ravenna, distributed one-third of the soil 
 of Italy to his own soldiers, and, by means of treaties with all the 
 Teutonic peoples north of the Alps, and a series of defensive wars, he 
 maintained his kingdom in security. The Ostrogothic kingdom was the 
 first of the States which grew up between the Roman Empire and the 
 Feudal monarchies. It was the direct purpose of Theodoric to fuse the 
 Roman and the Teuton7ancr'To' put an end to the era of continual dis- 
 placement. The two peoi^les still remained distinct in law, in habits, 
 and"' in social function ; the eminent Romans retaining many civil 
 functions, the Goths being the military protectors of Italy. Agriculture, 
 industry, art, and learning began to revive under the peace and security 
 which the kingdom provided. Theodoric appeared at Rome as a new 
 Emperor, but without assuming the title, or removing any of the officials. 
 Though himself an Arian, the King enforced strict toleration ; but he 
 enriched and pi'otected the Church. His whole conduct, with regard to 
 religious affairs, was a model of all that is the duty of the temporal 
 ruler who strictly respects the independent action of the spiritual 
 powers. Giving to these every due protection and support, he never 
 trenched on their office. It is singular that the earliest of tlie great 
 mediteval rulers, and he a heretic, should be in this matter a model to 
 Charlemagne and St. Louis. 
 
 The last years of Theodoric's life were clouded by the real or sup- 
 posed conspiracy, in face of Avhich the Gothic king is represented by 
 some historians as degenerating into a tyrant and a nmrderer. Believing 
 that the whole of the eminent Romans were leagued with the Byzantine 
 Emperor to overthrow the Gothic kingdom, Theodoric imprisoned and 
 put to death the Pope and the illustrious Bocthius. It is not proven
 
 260 THEODORIC : PELAYO : OTHO THE GREAT [Feudal 
 
 that Theodoric acted without provocation. If his memory could be 
 cleared from the blood of some of his enemies and rivals, the Gothic 
 king would stand out as one of the noblest and grandest chiefs who 
 founded the media;val system. He died at the age of 72, and was 
 buried at Ravenna, where his tomb, "perhaps the oldest work j)f 
 Christian art," still remains in solitary pathos, to record the memory^of 
 the last of the Roman, the first of the great Teutonic chiefs. This 
 imposing mausoleum is surmounted by a dome 36 feet in diameter, made 
 of a single stone, and weighing upwards of 200 tons. It has long been 
 desecrated and empty. [F. H.] 
 
 Gibbon : cli. xxxix. Hodgkin : Italy and her Invaders, vol. iii. ch. iii. and 
 "" vi.-xiii. ; also Life. Freeman : Historical Essays (3rd series) Ravenna. 
 
 PELAYO (Pelagius), d. 737 A.D. 
 
 Pelagius is an early and somewhat mythical predecessor of the Cid, 
 as a Christian hero who checked the Moorish invasion of Spain. He 
 was said to be the son of Favila, Duke of Cantabria, and a descendant 
 of the Gothic kings. The Moorish conquest had been practically com- 
 pleted by the battle of Guadalete in 711, and no Christians remained in 
 arms except in the mountains of the Biscayan province of the Asturias. 
 Hither Pelayo escaping, was chosen as chieftain, and organised a power- 
 ful band in the mountain fastnesses. In 719, on the river Sil, he defeated 
 the Moslems in a great battle, and, following up his successes, he formed 
 the kingdom of Leon, the nucleus of the subsequent realm of Spain. 
 The city of Leon, which he won from Munuza, formed the capital of a 
 province of Leon on the Douro ; and to this in a series of struggles he 
 added Zamora, Lugo, and Astorga. In spite of the constant efforts of 
 the Moors, he succeeded in maintaining a Christian kingdom in the 
 Asturias and Leon, established regular agriculture and built churches. 
 He died in 737, transmitting his throne to his son Favila, from whom 
 it passed to Alonzo, his son-in-law, called the Catholic, in 739. Pelayo, 
 though his deeds are clouded in scanty and somewhat legendary tales, 
 was the true founder of the great Christian nation which, after seven 
 centuries of struggle, finally delivered the Peninsula from the Moslems, 
 and ultimately grew into the kingdom of Spain. [F. H.] 
 
 Ascargorta : Jlist. of Spain, bk. iv. § 1. 
 
 I OTHO THE GREAT {Otto I. of Saxony), b. 912, d. 973 A.D. 
 
 ' Otho, the eldest son of Henry the Fowler (whom see), succeeded his 
 father, a.d. 936, as King of Germany, and at once sought to extend and 
 confirm the prerogative and ascendancy of the crown. He was then 
 
 Sjust 24 ; but in a series of successful wars and by skilful policy, in 15 
 years he made himself absolute master throughout Germany, defeating 
 in succession all internal rivals and all foreign enemies. And he forced 
 Louis of France and the Kings of Burgundy and Bohemia to recognise 
 his suzerainty.
 
 Civilisation] OTHO THE GEEAT 261 
 
 In 951, the victorious hero of Germany was summoned by Adelaida 
 (Adelheid), daughter of the King of Burgundy, and then widow of King 
 Lothair, to defend her against the cruel persecutions of Berengar, the 
 usurping King of Lombardy. Policy and chivalry combined to incline 
 the King to listen. Passing the Alps with an irresistible force, he 
 delivered the beautiful Queen — then but twenty years old — married her, 
 and was himself crowned at Pavia. Fresh insurrections broke out in 
 Germany against Otho ; and Germans and Italians with equal aversion 
 saw him claim an Italian crown. He restored Berengar as his vassal ; 
 and for the next four years he was absorbed in the defence of his power 
 in Germany. In 954 he crushed the Slavs of Bohemia, and in the next 
 year advanced with a great army to meet the invasion of the Hungarians. 
 In the memoi'able battle of the Lechfeld , near Augsburg, he overwhelmed 
 the Magyar host, 22 years after' his ftither's victory at Merseburg, and 
 finally saved Europe from the^iibiquitous and cruel eneniy which had 
 beeji its terror Tor 70 years." " 
 
 All Italy now called diit for the new Charlemagne. Pope John xii., 
 the grandson of the infamous Marozia, the worst of the whole line of 
 Pontifl's, sent ambassadors to call in the mighty King of Germany. 
 Otho again crossed the Alps with an overwhelming force, driving all 
 opposition before him, and was c row ned King of Italy at Pavia. Ad- 
 vancing to Rome he was solemnly anoinfecl Emperor by the Pope, 962 
 (adat. 50), and thus begins the Holy Roman Empire, 162 years after^ 
 Charlemagne bad revived the Empire of the West. Henceforth it was* 
 estfi\)lished in theory that a King of Germany, legally chosen and duly 
 crowned at Aachen, had a right to be crowned' Kiti'g of Italy, and was 
 de jure Einperor and could claim coronation at Rome. Tlie new Empire, 
 which" p'fofessed to be a revival of that of Cliarlemagne, extended over 
 Gefniany~afid"^brth Italy alone; it was far less ecclesiastical in its 
 spififyiTwas Tar less of"a real Empire ;inIl'"mo"re of a vague title. 
 
 T)t1i6 was Til every sense the absolute ruler of Germany and complete 
 master"^! the'Papacy. The Emperor had hardly withdrawn from Rome 
 wlien the perfidious John xii. organised conspiracies against him. Otho 
 returned to Rome, and, summoning a Council in the Church of St. Peter, 
 solemnly deposed the most infamous of all the successors of the Apostle. 
 For four years the" Eiiiperor was mainly occupied in Italy with the 
 interminable intrigues of the Italian princes, the insurrections of the 
 Roman people, and the treasons and ambition of a succession of Popes 
 (962-966). The following year he had his son Otho crowned Emi^eror, 
 and obtained for him the hand of Thcophano, daughter of the Byzantine 
 Emperor. The great Emperor at last returned to Germany to repress 
 new insurrections of the Slavs. In 973 lie held a Inilliant Diet, at which 
 he received the homage of the Kings of Bohemia and Poland. He died 
 soon afterwards, at the age of 61, in the height of his jjrosperity and 
 glory. 
 
 O tho, t he greatest of the early Emperors, was — lonrjo interndlo — a 
 second ChVirlemagnc in character, policy, an^r success. A great and 
 victorious soldier, he assured the peace of Germany from the Slavonians 
 on the north-eastern, and the Magyars on the south-eastern frontier. 
 He enlarged and fostered the cities, promoted civilisation, law, and
 
 262 OTHO THE GREAT : HENRY THE FOWLER [Feudal 
 
 learning, founded schools, maintained peace, and suppressed civil war 
 and insurrection with an unsparing hand. And it is his great merit to 
 have helped the Papacy to rise out of the degradation into which it sank 
 during the 10th century. [F. H.] 
 
 Gibbon : cli. xlix. Bryce : Holy Roman Empire. 
 
 f 
 
 HENRY THE FOWLER {Henry J., King of Germany), 
 b. 876, d. 936 A.D. 
 
 Upon the failure of the line of Charlemagne, and the manifest impo- 
 tence ofChTnte'th'e Siinple, Kingf of France, the German princes chose 
 as their king Conrad, Duke of Franconia, and on his death, Henry, Duke 
 of Saxony, was elected by the chiefs and accepted by the people (920). 
 Henry speedily overcame all opposition, and gradually formed the 
 nucleus of Germany as a kingdom. He established '^narcTies, or frontier 
 fiefs, oh the north, east, and south of Germany, and he regularly organised 
 the army. In 933 he entered on his great war with the Hungarians, 
 then the terror of Eastern Europe. He defeated them at the decisive 
 battle of Merseburg, where 36,000 of the enemy fell ; and, driving them 
 out of Ausfrtir,"Tre"constituted it as a march., and saved Germany for a 
 generation. He was about to descend on Italy, with a view to re-estab- 
 lish the Imperial dignity, when he died at the age of 60, in 936. He 
 had just assemljled the German princes, and induced them to choose his 
 eldest son Otho as his successor. 
 
 The Saxon dynasty continued for four generations, until the death of 
 St. Henry in 1024. Henry, named the Fowler from his passion for the 
 chase, was the real founder of the unity and civilisation of Germany^ the 
 Charles MarteTorthe kingdom of whlcli Otho the Great was the Charie"- 
 magne. He recovered for Germany Lorraine, foimded frontier fiefs on the 
 Eider, in ]\leissen and Brandenburg, reduced Bohemia to vassalage, 
 brought Austria back into the kingdom, and drove back the fierce Hun- 
 garians. His internal organisation of the kingdom was analogous to that 
 of Charlemagne. Like him he was a great soldier and a great statesman : 
 he made the chief dukes vassals of the king, associating with them counts 
 palatine to represent the royal supremacy. His defects also were those 
 of Charlemagne, personal licence and vehemence of passion. By his wife 
 Matilda, of the race of Witikind, the Saxon enemy of Charlemagne, he 
 united in his descendants the blood of Frank and Saxon. His daughter 
 Hedwig became the mother of Hugh Capet : and all the Emperors of the 
 Saxon, Franconian, SM-abian, and Lorraine lines traced their descent from 
 him. Henry himself was never Emperor, though at times so called by 
 the Germans. He is the real founder of the Kingdom of Germany, and 
 of the Imperial house of Saxony. "[P. H.] ' 
 
 Gibbon : cli. xlix. llallam : Middle Ages, vol. i. cli. iii.
 
 Civilisation] ST. HENRY 263 
 
 ST. HENRY {Henry IL or the Laws), b. 972, d. 1024 A.D. / 
 
 Henry ii., the last of the heroic Saxon house, was the grandson of 
 Henry, Duke of Bavaria, brother of Otho the Great,' and was great-grand- 
 son of Henry i. the Fowler (whom see). Otho ii., the son of Otho the 
 Great, died at the age of 28 ; and Otho iii., his son and successor, died 
 childless, at the age of 22. Thereon Henry, the eldest male of the race 
 of the Fowler, succeeded in securing the crown of Germany (1002). By 
 a series of energetic campaigns he subdued all his enemies, was crowned 
 first at Mayence, then at Aix-la-Chapelle, and married Cunegunda, 
 daughter of the Count of Luxembourg. 
 
 His first exploit was driving the Poles out of Bohemia, which they 
 had overrun, and aiding in establishing St. Stephen, his brother-in-law, 
 on the throne of Hungary. He was next summoned to Italy, where he 
 drove the usurper Ardouin out of Lombardy, and was crowned King of 
 Italy at Pavia. After further campaigns in Germany against the Poles, 
 he again descended the AIjds, recovered his authority in North Italy, and 
 was crowned Emperor at Rome by Benedict viii. (1014), with Cunegunda 
 as EntpressT"" '■■■"■"■"" ' ---■-.- ■-•-- .....■.-- 
 
 There, on the steps of St. Peter, he vowed fidelity to the Holy See. 
 He loaded the Church with gifts and endowments, and his return to 
 Germany was marked by presents to vaiious abbeys. At Verdun he ( 
 formally claimed to be admitted as a monk. But the abbot, having > 
 exacted from the Emperor a promise of absolute obedience, ordered him j 
 to return to the task of governing his Empire. Ten years more of iuces- ' 
 sant labour as a sovereign awaited him. The restless Poles again called 
 hhu back to defend Bohemia. Again he was on the point of entering the 
 Church as Canon of Strassburg, when the Pope summoned him to pro- 
 tect {Italy against the Greeks and Saracens. Returning to Germany, he 
 held several Councils to regulate the Church. He confii-med to the See 
 of St. Peter all the gifts and privileges of his predecessors. He died in > 
 1024, at the age of 52, asserting with his last breath his unbroken chastity | 
 and the virginity of the Empress Cunegunda, although he had previously ^ 
 submitted her virtue to the proof of ordeal by fire. 
 
 For this and his prodigal support of the Church, he was canonised in 
 the next century as well as the Empress. With Henry ii. closes the great 
 lin e of the Saxon dynasty, which had lasted lD4-yrar!5-(t)20-l 0247- "A.15 a 
 soldier ancTTi ruler Henry if. was hardly inferior to Henry the Fowler or 
 OthoT!ie"Great. As a supporter and obedient son of the Church he was 
 faf"iii6re lavish. In that he followed the policy of Charlemagne, although 
 the interval of 200 years had greatly altered the relations of temporal and 
 spiritual powers, and called for more discretion as well as energy in assert- 
 ing the independence of the sovereign. [F. H.] 
 
 For Kings of Germany, see History vf Germany, by J. Sinie, in Encyd. Brit. 
 9th ed. vol. x. Milman : Latin Christianity., vol. ii. bk. v. For St. 
 Henry and CiinegiuTTRF^rrs. Jameson : Legends of the Monastic Orders 
 vol. i., "Benedictines."
 
 264 VILLIERS [Feudal 
 
 VILLIERS {rinUppe de Villiers de Lisle-Adam) b. 1464, d. 1534. 
 
 ViLLiERS de Lisle- Adam, of an illustrious French family from the 
 " Isle of France," was grandson of the famous marshal of the same name, 
 and was born at Beauvais in 1464. Entering the Order of the Knights of 
 St. John, he filled a succession of offices and duties, showing the highest 
 qualities as a general, a governor, and a diplomatist. He had won a 
 brilliant victory over the Soldan of Egypt in 1510, and was Visitor of all 
 the priories of the Order in France. The island of Rhodes, off the south 
 coast of Asia Minor, the advanced post of the Order, had long stood out, 
 surrounded by the Ottoman Empire, as the easternmost bulwark of Chris- 
 tendom. The attack of Mahomet ii., in 1480, had been defeated by the 
 Grand Master d'Aubuisson ; but in 1521 Soliman the Magnificent, having 
 taken Belgrade, resolved to crush the fortress which had so long defied 
 the whole force of Islam. 
 
 Lisle- Adam was chosen Grand Master ; and, preparing for a desperate 
 defence, he called for help from the Pope and the princes of Christendom. 
 The siege which he sustained during the autumn of 1522 is one of the 
 most memorable in history. From the moment of his election the Grand 
 Master strained every nerve to meet the enemy. He had less than 1000 
 trained soldiers, of whom scarcely half were knights, and about 4000 
 armed townsmen, with a few thousand villagers and slaves. In June the 
 Turkish fleet appeared— in all 500 ships, with 100,000 fighting men and 
 50,000 labourers Avith the spade. Everything that skill, valour, and 
 desperation could suggest Avas done by the defenders. Month after month, 
 the assaults of the overwhelming force of Turks were driven back. Knights, 
 toAvnsmen, women, priests, and slaves laboured with undaunted energy 
 to repair every breach as fast as it was made. The Turks threw in 2000 
 explosive shells, then a new engine of war. Towards the end of August 
 Soliman in person led on the assault, whilst several bastions Avere bloAvn 
 up Ijy mines and the Avails Avere completely sapped. Fifteen assaults 
 Avere made in one month ; and still the Turks Avere driven back Avith 
 immense carnage. In two reneAved efforts, on the 24th of September and 
 29th of November, the Turks lost 15,000, and then 11,000 more. 
 
 But the city Avas a heap of ruins ; 60 mines existed beneath it ; the 
 garrison Avas reduced to 3000, of Avliom only 300 Avere knights ; ammuni- 
 tion and food had failed. No help came from Europe. The jealousies of 
 the kings, the intrigues of their riA^als, and the treachery of the Venetians 
 left the Knights to their fate. Soliman offered honourable terms on 
 cession of the Avails, and Lisle-Adam A\'as forced to accept them, 28th 
 December 1522. In this six months' siege the Knights had lost 700 ; the 
 Turks 80,000. The Grand Master Avas received Avith honour by Soliman 
 and alloAved to AvithdraAv to Rome Avith the renmant of his Knights. The 
 loss of this island, the key of Christendom, as it Avas thought, and the 
 heroism of the defence filled Europe Avith shame and sympathy. Pope 
 Adrian Aa. died soon after in great grief ; Francis, Charles v., and Henry Aaii. 
 deplored the event too late. 
 
 The Emperor settled tlie Knights at INIalta ; and there Lisle-Adam 
 died, in 1534, at the age of 70. On his grave Avas Avritten " Here lies 
 valour victorio\i,s over fortune." He is one of the noblest types of the
 
 Civilisation] VILLIERS : LA VALETTE : DON JOHN 265 
 
 Crusader, hardly inferior, though on a smaller field, to Godfrey. " Lisle- 
 Adam," says Professor Brewer, " combined the piety and asceticism of the 
 monk with the valour, self-devotion, and intrepidity of the knight-errant. 
 . . , Calm, cautious, and self-collected, he was never elated by success, never 
 depressed by the most formidable dangers or the apparent hopelessness of 
 his cause. . . . The grace, majesty, and sweetness which secured for him in 
 more peaceable times the love and veneration of beholders remained un- 
 tarnished and undiminished in all the trying events of this most daring 
 and desperate enterprise." [F. H.] 
 
 Robertson : History of Charles v., bk. ii. Brewer : Reign of Henry viii., 
 i. 580. Whitworth Porter : Bisiory of the Knights of Malta, 2nd ed. 1883. 
 
 LA VALETTE {Jean Parisot de La Vahttc), b. 1494, d. 1568. 
 
 The successful defence of the island of Malta by the Knights of St. 
 John, in 1565, was almost as famous as their defence of Rhodes, 43 
 years before. La Valktte, of an ancient family of Languedoc, joined 
 the Knights of Malta, and having filled all the offices with honours, 
 was chosen Grand Master in 1557, with renown alike as soldier, general, 
 ruler, or statesman. His command was marked by energy, justice, and 
 successful combats with the Ottoman forces on land and sea. In 1565, 
 Soliman the Magnificent, then at the close of his long and great career, 
 determined to capture Malta, the seat of his most determined enemy. 
 The Turkish fleet of 159 sail brought 30,000 janissaries, with an immense 
 number of ships carrying artillery and a siege-train. 
 
 La Valette, then aged 71, met the besiegers with every quality of 
 soldier and commander, maintaining the courage of his warriors, and 
 counter-mining the enemy's works. From the Pope and the kings of 
 Europe he received no effectual aid. After many weeks and the loss of 
 8000 men, the Turks succeeded in capturing the detached fort of St. Elmo ; 
 but they could do no more. Daily assaults were repulsed. After four 
 months' siege the Viceroy of Philip ii. arrived from Sicily with|reinforce- 
 ments of 8000 men. The Turks withdrew to their ships, and Avere finally 
 routed with inmiense slaughter — it is said amounting to 30,000 men. 
 Of the Knights 260, of the soldiers and townsmen 8000, had perished at 
 Rhodes. The defeat of the Turks in this memorable siege of four months 
 filled Europe with joy. The Pope offered to La Valette a cardinal's 
 hat, which he refused. The Grand Master set himself to restore the 
 shattered fortress and to build the new city which still is called Valetta. 
 His last years were embittered by the ingratitude of the Pope and 
 discord within the Order. He died at Malta, aged 74, and with him the 
 last glories of a knighthood which had saved the western Mediterranean 
 from the Moslem fleets. [F. H.] 
 
 W. Porter : History of the Kniyhts of Alalia. 
 
 DON JOHN {Prince Juan of Austria), b. 1547, d. 1578. 
 
 Dox John, natural son of the Emperor Charles v. and of Parbara 
 lilomberg, a woman of huml)le origin and coarse nature, Avas born at 
 Ratisbon in 1547, and not in 1545. His original name was Jerome, and
 
 266 DON JOHN [Feudal 
 
 he is so called in a codicil to the Emperor's wiU. He was brought up 
 secretly with great care, and acknowledged by Philip ii. as his half- 
 brother at the age of 12. He was educated along with his nephews, the 
 Crown-Prince, Don Carlos, and Alexander Farnese, Prince of Parma, 
 his friend, comrade, and successor. Don Juan early distinguished him- 
 self by his grace, chivalry, and success in all martial acconnjlishments. 
 In his 23rd year he gained reputation by his campaign against the 
 insurrection of the Moors, on their cruel expulsion from Granada. In 
 1571, the advance of the Turks in the Mediterranean and their capture of 
 Cyprus, decided the Pope, the King of Spain, and the Italian republics, 
 to make a combined effort to check them. Don John was appointed 
 High-Admiral of the Holy League ; and in October 1571, with an allied 
 fleet furnished by the Pope, Philip ii., Venice, and Genoa, he met the 
 entire Turkish host off Lepanto, on the north coast of the Gulf of 
 Corinth, nearly opposite to Patras. 
 
 Don John commanded 336 ships, having 80,000 men. The Turks 
 brought about 300 ships equally equipped. The heroic young chief, then 
 24, as appears on the medal, disposed his forces with great skill ; and, pass- 
 ing through the fleet, inspired the troops and commanders with his own 
 romantic ardour. From noon till sunset on Sunday, 7th October, the 
 battle raged with dreadful carnage. It was a fight of soldiers on board 
 ship rather than of seamen. Miguel Cervantes served on board as 
 a soldier. The hostile vessels were laid side by side, and were attiicked 
 by boarding. Don Juan and his nephew, Alexander of Parma, fought 
 in the melee like crusaders, and each killed the captain opposed to him. 
 The Turks lost all their ships but 29 ; 30,000 men ; and the sacred 
 standard of the Prophet. 
 
 For the time their power was annihilated ; and even Constantinople 
 trembled. But incurable dissensions and jealousies among the Christian 
 Powers paralysed their action ; and within a few years the Turks had 
 restored their fleet and resixmed the offensive in the West. " You have 
 shaved our l)eard," cried a Pasha, "but, in taking Cy2)rus, we have cut 
 off an arm ! " Historians have differed violently as to the importance of 
 the victory of Lepanto (see Pos. Pol. iii. 477). The material blow it 
 gave to the Ottoman power was not permanent, but its moral eflect was 
 decisive ; for the Turkish fleet never again seriously menaced Europe 
 in the Mediterranean west of Greece. The victory restored the self- 
 confidence of all Christendom, so rudely shaken Ijy the triumphant 
 career of Soliman i. (1520-1566). As Eanke truly remarks {History of 
 the Ottoman Empire), "the day of Lepanto broke down the Ottoman 
 supremacy." It proved that in romantic courage and in fighting power 
 the Cross was more than a match for the Crescent, and that the startling 
 successes of the Turks had been won l)y overwhelming numbers, ^'national 
 unity, and desperate recklessness of life. 
 
 Don John at once became the hero of Christendom, and everywhere 
 tlie people shouted : " There Avas a man sent from God whose name 
 was John." The popular instinct was sound. The halo thrown round 
 the new crusader destroyed the fascination which had surrounded the 
 Ottoman name for a century and a half. And the thrill of triumph 
 which passed through Europe may be compared to the terror inspired by
 
 Civilisation] DON JOHN : JOHN SOBIESKI 267 
 
 the fall of Constantinople in 1453. We need not accept the verdict of 
 his contemporaries that Don John was a consummate general or a great 
 genius. As Motley well says, whilst Don John achieved glory by 
 victories with which the world rang, his gi-eat antagonist William the 
 Silent was founding the liberty of his country through a series of defeats. 
 Don John was neither statesman nor patriot ; but the last of the crusaders 
 and a hero of romance : his favourite motto was '■^Macula carens." 
 
 Filled with visions of glory, he meditated, first, the founding a 
 Christian kingdom in Tunis, which he conquered, and then a marriage 
 with Mary Stuart and the deliverance of Scotland from the heretics. 
 Both projects failed through the secret jealousy of Philip ii., who sent 
 him as Governor of the Netherlands to confront William of Orange. 
 There, though his brilliancy, his charm, and his valour won many 
 successes, he was no match for his mighty opponent, and could not cope 
 with the intrigues of the malignant tyrant whom he served. After two 
 years of fruitless efforts (1576-1578) he died, at the age of 31, broken- 
 hearted by the perfidies of his brother, either of fever, or of poison 
 contrived by Philip. His heart lies at Namur, his body in the Escurial 
 beside his father, the Emperor. [F. H.] 
 
 Sir W. Stirling-Maxwell: Den John of A^cstria. Motley: Dutch licpublic, 
 part V. Finlay : Greece, vol. v. 
 
 JOHN SOBIESKI {John III., King of Poland), b. 1624, d. 1696. 
 
 John SoiiiESKi, of an illustrious Polish family, the son of James 
 Sobieski, an eminent soldier and statesman, was born in Galicia, 1624 ; 
 was carefully educated, travelled over Europe, and served in the body- 
 guard of Louis XIV., where he formed a life-long friendship with Conde. 
 Poland, his native country, under its turbulent aristocracy and its 
 foreign enemies, had almost ceased to exist as a kingdom, and was main- 
 tained only liy splendid but desultory efforts. Prom his 24th year to 
 his 50th year, Sobieski was engaged in a series of vietorious campaigns, 
 in which the broken remnants of the Poles made head against enormous 
 odds of Cossacks, Russians, Swedes, and Turks. In 1674 the Diet of 
 Poland met to choose a king. After a month of intrigues by the 17 
 candidates to the throne, by a sudden patriotic impulse Sobieski, who 
 had proposed Conde, was himself chosen. 
 
 He reigned 22 years, nearly the wliole of Avhich was occupied in 
 desperate campaigns to secure the existence of Poland and in fruitless 
 efforts to protect her from anarchy and civil war. It required all the 
 energy of the new king to drive the Turks from his country. For a. few 
 years he obtained peace, troubled by intrigues and plots amongst his 
 nobles at home, and even in his own family. A new invasion of Turks 
 threatened Vienna. The heroic king, now 51 years old, and unwieldy 
 from disease, put himself at the head of 25,000 Poles, and, being joined 
 by an army from other parts of the Empire, descended to rescue the 
 capital. It was closely invested by 200,000 Turks ; the Emperor and 
 many of its citizens had tied. On the 12th September 1683, Sobieski 
 suddenly fell on the Ottoman host, annihilated it with enormous loss, 
 and entered Vienna in triumph.
 
 268 JOHN SOBIESKI : ALFRED [Feudal 
 
 All Europe was filled with admiration and thanksgiving, and for a 
 century the anniversary was celebrated at Vienna. This splendid 
 victory ranks with the most important of the efforts to protect Chris- 
 tendom from the Musulman invader. It was decisive ; and marks the 
 term of the widest area ever reached in Europe by the Crescent. Since 
 that day Islam has never menaced Western Europe in force. Sobieski 
 reigned 13 years more, his last years being embittered by the incessant 
 cabals of his countrymen and the intrigues of his French wife. His 
 address to the Diet (1688) is a pathetic forecast of the ruin of his 
 country. " I have won battles," he cried, " but I am powerless to save 
 her." He was indeed neither great statesman nor born ruler : but a 
 hero of the purest type ; undaunted, imconquerable, generous, self- 
 denying, and of the adventurous spirit of the knight-errant. With him 
 Poland ceases as a real kingdom. He died on Corpus Christi Day, 1696, 
 the anniversary both of his birth and of his election, aged 72. His 
 body now lies in Cracow : his memory lives in the undying hopes of his 
 countrymen. [F. H.] 
 
 Coxe : House of Austria, ch. Ixvi. Leonard Clioflzko : Poland Illustrated ; 
 and article Sobieski in Biog. Generate, vol. xiiv. 
 
 ALFRED, b. 849, d. 901 a.d. 
 
 Alfred is taken by Comte {Fos. Pol. iii. 403) as the purest type of 
 the early chiefs who effected the incorporation of the nomad Polytheists 
 of the East and North of Europe into the European system. And he 
 naturally presides over the first week devoted to Feudal Civilisation, the 
 Aveek which includes the defenders of Christendom against infidel 
 invaders. 
 
 Alfred was born at Wantage in Berkshire in 849, the fourth and 
 youngest son of Ethelwulf, by Osburga of the race of Cerdic. He was 
 thus the grandson of Egbert, who had been recognised as over-lord of 
 England. As a child he was twice taken to Rome ; and in 853 he was 
 anointed as titular King by Pope Leo iv. His youth was a time of 
 calamity to the Saxons. In a few years the work of Egbert had been 
 undone ; all primacj- of Wessex had been destroyed ; and the North- 
 men, now known as Danes, were destroying and conquering on all sides 
 of England. Tliey speedily established themselves over Northumbria, 
 Mercia, and East Anglia ; and penetrating into Berkshire, they 
 compelled the men of Wessex to fight for their very existence. The 
 character of the Scandinavian invasion had now changed. In place of 
 piratical descents, the Danes came in organised armies, seeking to 
 conquer and settle in new lands. Alfred's three elder brothers reigned 
 together but 12 years ; and in 871, Alfred, at the age of 22, became 
 King of Wessex. 
 
 For seven years the young king fought desperately with the heathen 
 invaders, at times reduced to the utmost extremity in the southern 
 corner of Wessex ; Imt at last he overcame them in a great victory at 
 l^thandun, on the Wiitsliire Downs. By the Peace of Wedmore (878), 
 Guthrum, the Danish leader, accepted bai^tism, and a respite was
 
 Civilisation] ALFRED 269 
 
 secured for Wessex. Although Alfred had stiU to wage desperate wars, 
 for more than 20 years he effectually defended the integrity of his 
 West Saxon kingdom. 
 
 Splendid as was the valour by which the young King had saved his 
 people and his religion from the savage invader, his career as a civil 
 ruler was even more memorable and important. He saw, as Charlemagne 
 saw, that the sole guarantee for the incorporation of the Northmen with 
 European civilisation was their conversion to Christianity ; and satisfied 
 with this beginning of civilised life, he left the Danes in possession of 
 the rest of England, and set himself to secure and organise Wessex. 
 The whole kingdom was divided into military districts, each bound to 
 supply its warriors to defend the country. He then began to create a 
 navy ; and he is thus the founder of the English maritime power. 
 Having secured the kingdom within and without, Alfred applied himself 
 to the strict enforcement of justice, and to the formation of a sort of 
 common law. 
 
 But the most distinguishing feature in Alfred's career was his zeal 
 for learning— a zeal which quite equalled that of Charlemagne, whilst he 
 far surpassed him personally in literary accomplishments. At the age 
 of 12, we are told, the Saxon prince learned to read, and through life 
 carried a book in his bosom for daily study. He delighted in the old 
 Saxon poems, which he caused to be collected and recited. He founded 
 schools, gathered round him learned men from all countries, founded 
 abbeys, and strove to efiect the education of his people. But he was not 
 merely a promoter of learning ; he was himself a scholar and a teacher. 
 He translated and adapted four most important works in Latin — the 
 Compilation of Orosius, the one accessible book of universal history, 
 the History of Bede, the Consolation of Boethius, and the Pastoral of 
 Pope Gregory. Alfred is thus at once the creator of English literature, 
 as he is the founder of England as a nation — of its law, its govern- 
 ment, its navy, and its national consciousness. 
 
 The reorganisation of Wessex was so effectual that after the Peace of 
 Wedmore it was in no danger ; although in 886, and again in 893, 
 Alfred fought desperate wars with the Danes, wherein he gained 
 complete victory both by sea and land. During his whole reign he 
 exhibited an intense and many-sided activity ; for he practically put 
 himself at the head of the whole active life of his people — military, civil, 
 judicial, industrial, artistic, intellectual, and religious. He sent a ship 
 on a voyage of discovery to the North Sea, and despatched missions to 
 Jerusalem and to Rome. He made Winchester what Charlemagne 
 made Aix : the centre of intelligence, art, and culture for these northern 
 islands. He brought the learned Ciimbald from St. Omer, encouraged 
 foreign traders, and introduced continental artificers and artists. After 
 a l)usy reign of 30 years, he died in 901, in his 52nd year, and was 
 l)iUMed in the Old Minster of Winchester ; thence his body was removed 
 to the New JNIlnster, and afterwards to Hyde Abbey, long since 
 destroyed. No man now can point to the burylng-place of the noblest 
 of Englishmen. It may be hoped that on the thousandth anniversary 
 of his death, which occurs In 1901, his countrymen will do fit honour 
 to his memory.
 
 270 ALFRED : CHARLES MARTEL [Feddal 
 
 Alfred was in every sense the copy or reflection of Charlemagne, 
 reproducing his work exactly on a far smaller scale, but in even more 
 perfect forms. The connection between them was real and close. 
 Egbert, Alfred's grandfather and predecessor, spent two years at the 
 court of Charles. Alfred was brought up in part by his step-mother, 
 Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, grandson of Charlemagne. He 
 was thus essentially Europeanised, with all the knowledge, culture, and 
 traditions of the great Frank courts. The field of his wars and his 
 government was indeed small. But his conduct in peace as in war 
 displays the true eye of genius and the heroism of the born creator of 
 nations. "So long as I have lived," wrote Alfred himself, "I have 
 striven to live worthily, in hopes to leave to the men that come after a 
 remembrance of me in good works." 
 
 He is perhaps the only man of action recorded in history of whom no 
 defect of character and no crime is known. All the anecdotes represent 
 him as a perfect hero, of dauntless courage, of romantic magnanimity, of 
 intense piety, and entire simplicity ; with exquisite geniality, grace, and 
 unfading sweetness. He almost equals Caesar, Charlemagne, and 
 Frederick in genius for war and for organisation, and far surpasses 
 them all in purity and moral beauty. In foresight, tenacity, and 
 practical sagacity, he is the peer of Richelieu, Cromwell, and William 
 the Silent, whilst he stands alone in saintly simplicity, serenity, and 
 perfection of every moral grace and charm. He was a saint, without 
 superstition, imbecility, or fanaticism ; a sagacious ruler who never 
 sacrificed a principle ; an enthusiastic student who never ceased to be a 
 king. The popular traditions which for ages have attributed to Alfred 
 so many English institutions are without adequate evidence. But they 
 bear testimony to what is a solid fact, that England as a nation, as a 
 maritime people, with representative institutions, with a paramount 
 system of common law, with a strong central government in the interest 
 of the people, with great educational institutions, with a national 
 literature and history, dates from the impulse given by the hero King 
 of Wessex. [F. H.] 
 
 Memorials of King Alfred, with six Early Chronicles and Alfred's Poems, 
 ed. by Dr. Giles, 1863. Pauli : Life of Alfred. Freeman: Norman 
 Conquest, vol. i. and Old English History. Green : History of the 
 English People, vol. i. eh. iii. ■»==— - — -— ^ ■■" -■ ' 
 
 CHARLES MARTEL {Karl the Hammer), b. abt. 685, d. 741 A.D. 
 
 The week devoted to Chivalry, or warlike heroism inspired by 
 religion, is presided over by Godfrey, the most eminent leader of the 
 Crusades ; it opens with Charles Martel, one of the first of the 
 soldiers whose valour saved the civilisation and religion of a race against 
 invasion. 
 
 Charles was the son_of_ Pepin of Heristjil, the founder of the 
 Carlovingian dynasty, by1i second' and unlawful wife. On the death of 
 Pepin in 714, he was excluded from the succession and imprisoned by 
 Pepin's lawful wife in the interest of her own grandchild. Escaping, 
 and putting himseli' at the head of the Franks of Austrasia, he succeeded.
 
 Civilisation] CHAKLES MAETEL : THE CID 271 
 
 in a series of campaigns lasting many years, in reorganising the Frankish 
 kingdom, and in obtaining for himself recognition as its chief. Of | 
 herculean size, of stern and fierce nature, the chief of the Franks passed 
 his life in war, compelling Aquitaine, Franconia, Swabia, Bavaria, and 
 Saxony to submit to the rule of the Franks. 
 
 The great glory of his life was his defeat of the Arabs of Spain. The 
 MusuliMH5"'h!id: been masters of the Peninsula since 711 ; two years 
 later they poured into Gaul, and established themselves on the shores of 
 the Mediterranean. Within 20 years they had overrun the country 
 as far as the Loire. All through the summer of the year 732 Charles 
 was busy gathering his hosts to his standard from the Northern Sea and 
 the Black Forest to the British Channel and the Bay of Biscay. He met 
 the Arab army in the plateau near P oitier s (October 732). The fate of 
 Europe and of Christendom, it was believed, and not without reason, 
 hung on the issue. For seven days the two armies stood facing each 
 other, engaging in partial skirmishes. At daybreak on the eighth day, 
 the masses of the Arab cavalry were hurled against the serried lines of 
 the Franks with cries of Allah Ahhar. All day the battle raged. Sun- 
 set put an end to the carnage, and in the night the remnants of the Arab 
 host withdrew. Enormous booty remained with the victors. Charles 
 completed his victory by establishing the Frankish rule over the whole 
 of Gaul. He was about to pass into Italy on the invitation of Pope 
 Gregory in., when death overtook him (October 741), and he was buried 
 at Saint-Denis. . 
 
 Charles Martel was in all things the prototype of his mighty gi-and- i 
 son, 'Charlemagne. Almost his equal as a soldier and organiser of' 
 victory, he is utterly without the respect for intellect and religion which 
 marked the nobler Charles. The necessities of his kingdom, rather than 
 rapacity, led him to seize much property of the Church, for which the 
 transalpine ecclesiastics bitterly denounced him, a condemnation which 
 was even repeated by Dante. His glory is to have saved Europe from 
 Islani, to have s temmed the torrent of invasion Both on north and on 
 sOutli^ from MusiiTmah and Heathen, and to have prepared the founda- 
 tions of the great Frank Empire. [F. H.] 
 
 Martin: Histoire de France, ii. 175-217. Mombert: Charles the Great, 
 ch. i. 
 
 THE CID {Rodrigo Diaz da Bivar), b. 1045, d. 1099. 
 
 The week of Chivalry and national heroism contains types taken 
 from the history of all Western Europe — Italian, French, English, 
 German, S^janish, Portuguese. The Cid as the national hero of Spain is 
 the obvious representative of that country. His place, too, is obviously 
 next to Charles Martel, as ])eing the most eminent soldier who cheeked 
 the progress of the Musulmans in Spain. 
 
 Rodrigo Diaz de Bivar, the son of Diego de Bivar, a nobleman high 
 in favour with Ferdinand i., King of Castile, became the hei'o of his 
 countrymen in their long struggles with the Moors. His life has been 
 surrounded by legend, so that few facts in his career are certain, and his
 
 272 THE cm : TANCRED [Civilisation 
 
 character itself is variously presented to us according to the age of the 
 poet or romancer. He is usually called M mio Cid, or My Lord (Seid) — 
 and Campeador, or Champion. The most authentic account of him that 
 we possess is in the poem of the Cid, of 3741 lines, written probably 
 within a century of his death. It represents him as a fierce, adventurous, 
 and not very scrupulous soldier ; who is equally a source of jealousy to 
 his sovereign and of terror to the Moslem. The poem knows but little 
 of the romantic and gi-aceful incidents which occur in the ballads, or of 
 the tragic story which forms the plot of Corneille's Cid. The Cid, 
 enamoured of Ximena, the daughter of Don Gomez, is called upon by his 
 father to avenge by single combat an insult inflicted on him by Don 
 Gomez. In the duel the hero kills the father of his beloved. She calls 
 on King Ferdinand to punish the slayer of her father, but by the King's 
 intervention is ultimately induced to marry him. 
 
 The Cid is represented in the romances as the type of fidelity to his wife 
 and of domestic affection. His free and unsuspicious nature constantly 
 exposes him to the attacks of jealous rivals. At last the King Alphonso, 
 who owed his throne to the Cid, is led to seize all his goods, dispossess 
 him of his castles, and banish him the kingdom. The banished hero 
 raises an army and fights the Moors. At the news of Alphonso's 
 distress, who was hard pressed by the Sultan of Morocco, the Cid 
 returns to his help. His whole life was passed in battle with the 
 Moslems, and his last exploit was the capture of Valencia. He was 
 buried at Burgos, and his tomb, still shown, became a place of pilgrimage. 
 His charger Babieca was buried in a garden near, and his two swords, 
 Colada and Tizo7ia, are still preserved. [F. H.] 
 
 Ticknor : J/ist. Spanish Literature, vol. i. cli. i. ii. vii. Poeme du Cid: 
 hy Damas Hinard (Fr. tr. ), Paris 1858; and in English by Hookliani 
 Frere and J. Ormsby. Southey : The Cid, Chronicle and Ballads. 
 
 TANCRED, d. 1112. 
 
 Tancred was the son of the Marquis Odo, surnamed the Good, and 
 of Emma, sister of Robert Guiscard, the Norman conqueror of Apulia 
 and Calabria. In the First Crusade, 1096, he followed his cousin 
 Bohemond, Prince of Tarentum, son of Guiscard. By his father's side 
 Tancred was an Italian, of the race of Montferrat of Piedmont. He was 
 always regarded as the preux chevalier of the First Crusade, the most 
 heroic in the campaign, and the most loyal and devoted of the chiefs, 
 with the generosity and honour of the perfect knight. He is specially 
 remembered for his chivalrous courtesy, and he was the nearest approach 
 to the ideal champion of Tasso. Whilst remaining throughout the war 
 second in; rank to the ruling princes who lirought armies of their own, 
 and without the authority or wisdom of Godfrey, Tancred has left the 
 fairest and most brilliant memory in the First Crusade. Tancred was 
 the last to do homage to the Eastern Em])eror, the most resolute in the 
 terrible siege of Antioch, the first with Godfrey to mount the walls of 
 Jerusalem. Tancred remained with Godfrey in his kingdom of Jeru- 
 salem ; and on his death (1100), he followed his cousin Bohemond to his
 
 Civilisation] TANCRED : EICHARD CCEUR DE LION 273 
 
 principality of Antioch, which he ruled as regent for nearly nine years. 
 He died 1112, of a wound, in the prime of manhood, leaving an un- 
 tarnished name for chivalry — " the bravest of the brave." [F. H.] 
 
 J. F. Michaud : Ilistoire des Croisades, vol. i. Sir G. Cox : The Cmsades, 
 1877. Tasso : Gerus, Lib, vi. 
 
 RICHARD CCEUR DE LION, b. 1157, d. 1199. 
 
 The place given to Richard i. in the Calendar in the week of 
 Godfrey and between Saladin, the Cid, and Tancred, shows that he is 
 recorded solely as a type of the knight, and not as ruler or statesman. 
 It is not with the King that we are concerned, but merely with the 
 Crusader. Richard i. was the second son of Henry ii. and Eleanor of 
 Aquitaine, born 1157, and succeeded in 1189, at the age of 32, 
 to the vast kingdom of his father reaching from the Tweed to the 
 Pyrenees. He had already taken the cross, and he at once resolved to 
 march to the Holy Land. Jerusalem had been retaken by the Saracens, 
 and its last king had been captured by Saladin in the battle of Tiberias. 
 Europe made a great effort in the Third Crusade — a combined 
 expedition of the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, Philip Augustus, King 
 of France, and Richard i. of England. Richard raised vast sums Ijy the 
 sale and pledge of the crown property, and in 1190 he set out to Sicily. 
 There he quarrelled with Philip, and delayed some months. On his 
 voyage he took Cyprus, and gave it to Guy de Lusignan. The following 
 year they reached Palestine, where, after desperate fighting they took 
 Acre. Here a fresh quarrel arose with Philip, who returned. Richard 
 still continued the cam2:)aign, defeated Saladin in a great battle at 
 Cfesarea ; but, ftiiling to take Jerusalem, and being deserted by most of 
 his allies, he set sail for Europe, was captured and held to ransom in 
 Austria. He returned to England after four years' absence, and was 
 again crowned. The latter years of his reign, almost the whole of which 
 was passed out of England, were occupied in a war with Philip Augustus 
 for the possession of Normandy. Richard was killed in 1199, whilst 
 attacking the castle of Chains in the Limousin. 
 
 Richard's place in the Calendar is entirely due to his world-wide and 
 immortal fame as the type of Crusader, and chivalrous soldier ; and it is 
 an example of the relative sjiirit which animates this roll of heroes that 
 it retains the name of one who was in many respects so evil a man and 
 so bad a ruler. In spite of ferocity, injustice, greed, and self-will, he is 
 still held in honour for the romantic courage Avith which he flung aside 
 all considerations of prudence and policy to stem the advance of the 
 Saracens, for his unrivalled heroism in the field, and the courtly gene- 
 rosity which he often showed to noble enemies. With all his crimes as 
 a ruler and his vices as a man, the name of Richard Cojur-de-Lion lives 
 in the memory of the East as well as the West as the first soldier of 
 his age and the type of the splendid knight. [F. H.] 
 
 Chronirlesi of the Crnsaxles; Richard of Devizes ; Geoffrey dc Vinnavf, in 
 Bohu's Stand. Lib. Scott ; Thj'. Tallsmcm.
 
 274 SALADIN : JEANNE DAEC [Feudal 
 
 SALADIN (Salah-ed-Deen), b. 1137, d. 1193. 
 
 Saladin stands next to Kichard i. and Tancred, since we are bound 
 to honour the chivalry and patriotism of the Musuhnan defenders of the 
 Holy Land equally with that of the Crusaders. The general interests 
 of civilisation required that the Saracens should be arrested in their 
 invasion of Europe ; and the cause of Christianity was, on the whole, 
 superior to that of Islam. But in all qualities of the soldier and patriot, 
 the tSaracen was the equal of the Crusader ; and Saladin was the peer 
 of Tancred himself, ancl in most personal qualities the superior of Cceur- 
 de-Lion. 
 
 Saladin was a chief of a Turcoman tribe, who served Noureddin, the 
 Sultan of Aleppo ; and, in 1171, he suppressed the heretic Khalifate in 
 Egypt, and, succeeding to the power of Noureddin, he made himself 
 master of Egypt and Syria. Then, crushing the last remnants of the 
 Latin kingdom in the battle of Tiberias, he reconquered Jerusalem and 
 the whole of Palestine and Antioch, 1187. During the Third Crusade 
 he defended Jerusalem against the united power of the Western kings, 
 and forced them to retreat under a truce, 1192. He died in the follow- 
 ing year, at the age of 55, when his empire shortly fell to pieces. In 
 generosity, humanity, and good faith, in sagacity as a statesman, and in 
 skill as a general, Saladin surpasses his noblest Christian rivals. And 
 if he fell short of the personal heroism of Richard, he was quite his peer 
 in chivalry and vastly his superior as a ruler. [F. H.] 
 
 See under Richard I., above. 
 
 JEANNE DARO {Maid of Orleans), b. 1412, d. 1431. 
 
 The wonderful girl who recalled France to life from the lowest abyss 
 of her sufferings in the fifteenth century, was the daughter of Jacques 
 Dare and Isabeau Roniee, poor peasants, of a family of serfs established 
 at Doniremi, on the left bank of the Meuse, some miles from Vaucouleurs, 
 Ijetween Champagne and Lorraine. She was born there, 6th January 
 1412 ; and legend has surrounded her early life Avith presage of a saintly 
 career. The frightful war Avhich had dismembered and desolated France 
 since the fatal day of Agincourt, 1415, was at its acme ; France was torn 
 in fragments by factions and treason ; the feeble voluptuary, Charles 
 VII., was only nominally King of the south and centre, and had with- 
 drawn l;ehind the Loire in despair ; Orleans, besieged by the English 
 under the Regent, Duke of Bedford, alone held the invaders at bay. The 
 girl Jeanne had been brought up in the midst of the horrors of war and 
 the misery of the people ; and had long seen visions and heard voices 
 from heaven, summoning her to save France. 
 
 At length, early in the year 1429 — she was then in her 18th year— 
 slie broke away from her parents, assumed man's clothes and armour, 
 and, persuading a few gentlemen and a crowd of the toAvns-people of Vau- 
 couleurs to believe in her mission, set forth to the King at Chinon. 
 There her sublime confidence, her simple purity, and instinctive sagacity 
 won admiration in a delxiuched and cynical court. She was sent forth
 
 Civilisation] JEANNE DARC 275 
 
 at the head of a force of cavalry, threw herself into Orleans, and within 
 two weeks routed and drove oft* the English anuies. Town after town 
 was recovered, and the invaders defeated in a series of encounters. 
 Within two months Rheims was recovered, and the King crowned in the 
 ancient cathedral. This secured the throne to the native King as against 
 the claims of the infant Henry vi. of England, roused patriotic enthusiasm 
 throughout the divided nation, and created a profound belief in the 
 supernatural mission of the Maid. From Rheims she urged on the 
 recovery of France and of the capital. Before Paris she was wounded 
 and repulsed (September 1429) ; the King listened to the counsels of 
 jealousy, treason, and despair ; withdrew again behind the Loire, and 
 disbanded his army. 
 
 The short military career of the Maid was practically over ; her 
 martyrdom remained. In spite of her entreaties and exhortations, the 
 unwarlike King and his counsellors wasted her genius and her ardour in 
 trivial and hopeless expeditions. After a series of petty exploits she was 
 taken prisoner by the Burgundians, at Compiegne, on the Oise, May 
 1430 ; was sold for 10,000 pieces of gold to the English, who looked on 
 her as equivalent to an entire army. The plan of the invaders was to 
 destroy the glory and degrade the reputation of the national heroine. 
 In this they were seconded by the infamous fanaticism of the jurists, 
 theologians, and ecclesiastics of France, who made themselves the tools 
 of the tyrants of their country, and were directed by Cauchon, Bishop 
 of Beauvais. For five months the inspired girl held her own with 
 martyr-like nobility of soul against the venomous artifices of the priests, 
 the ferocity of the English soldiers, and the infernal malice of her captors, 
 who exhausted their skill in plots to crush her by physical, moral, and 
 spiritual tortures, and to dishonour her in person and in character before 
 they consigned her to a horrid death. 
 
 History and martyrology present no nobler picture than that of the 
 saintlike girl who confronted, alone, the apathy of those she had saved, 
 the cruel abandonment of her own nation, the savage arts of churchmen, 
 and the brutality of soldiery and populace. After a long-drawn sacri- 
 fice, she was solemnly condemned as a heretic and apostate, and burned 
 alive in the old market-place of Rouen, May 30, 1431, with every cir- 
 cumstance of brutal ferocity. 
 
 The heroine of France, the greatest martyr of the people recorded in 
 history, died in her 20th year, after a public career of two years. The 
 Church, which was the instrument of her martyrdom, still hesitates 
 to canonise her ; and France has only recognised, after the disasters of 
 the last 20 years, that the Maid was the greatest of her popular heroes. 
 It seems as if her worship were about to supersede that of the Virgin 
 herself for all Republican Fi-ance. It would be a complete misreading 
 of history to regard Jeanne Dare as a mere enthusiast and visionary. 
 As two eminent French histoi'ians have shown, it was natural that the 
 restoration of France from despair amidst the efl'ete corruption of Mon- 
 archy, Church, and Feudal aristocracy should come from the depths of 
 the people, and should be personified in a woman. All that was sublime 
 in the Catholic religion, all that was heroic in the French race, and all 
 that was self-devoted in woman was incarnate in Jeanne Dare. Her
 
 276 JEANNE DAEC : MARINA [Feudal 
 
 passionate patriotism was equalled by her womanly piety, her courage by 
 her faith, and her inborn rectitude of nature by her genius for affairs. 
 In all great things, civil and military, her judgment was the true one ; 
 and her vision of the possibilities was that of vmfailing genius. Her 
 consummate skill in war was attested by the greatest soldiers of her time. 
 And as strategy was in its infancy, and the conditions required only 
 daring and self-confidence, no miracle is needed to explain her success. 
 Her marvellous story and her boundless ascendancy over the minds of 
 men are natural effects of a heroic nature working in a situation of 
 intense passion and excitement. Her genius is all her own. Her fault- 
 less bearing under persecution and treachery place her beside the greatest 
 martyrs of the world's history. [F. H.] 
 
 H. Martin : History of France, bk. xxxv. xxxvi. (reprinted separately). 
 Michelet : History of France, bk. x. H. Wallon : Jeanne D'Arc, edit, 
 illustre, Paris, 1876. Revue Occidentale, 1887, 89, 90. J. Cotter 
 Morison : Joan of Arc ; a Lecture. Quicherat : Proces, etc. 
 
 MARINA, b. abt. 1505, d. abt. 1530. 
 
 The story of this young Mexican Princess is one of the most singular 
 in history, as is her place in the Calendar. She was the interpreter, 
 friend, and mistress of Fernando Cortes, and greatly assisted him in his 
 conquest of Mexico, and in disposing the native population to Christi- 
 anity and submission. She was the daughter of an Indian chief in the 
 southern province of Mexico. On her father's death she had been sold 
 as a slave by her barbarous mother, to make way for her half-brother. 
 On the first arrival of Cortes, in his Mexican expedition, she was pre- 
 sented to the chief as one of 20 young slaves. One of the main neces- 
 sities of the invader was some method of communication, as no Spaniard 
 knew the Mexican language. Marina, as the Mexican slave was named 
 in baptism, was found to be capable of acting as interpreter. She was 
 " beautiful as a goddess," we are told ; " handsome, clever, and eager to 
 be useful." She was also a woman of extraordinary courage, sagacity, 
 and generosity. Cortes attached her to himself as interpreter, trusted 
 her with his most important negotiations, loved her as his mistress, and 
 had by her a son. She was true and faithful to him in his extraordinary 
 career, and of immense service in carrying out his designs. Indeed, Mr. 
 Helps says, " without her aid his conquest of Mexico would never have 
 been accomplished." 
 
 Next to that of Cortes himself, her influence was of the greatest 
 imjwrtance in maintaining peace between the two races. The Spanish 
 conquerors treated her with the utmost honour ; and the native Indians 
 regarded her as their good genius. Their name for Cortes himself was 
 Malintzin, or the lord of Marina (ilfa/inc/te). She -was long venerated 
 by the natives as a semi-divine patroness, and the tradition of the good 
 Indian Princess still lingers in the country round the capital. Her 
 place in the Calendar beside Jeanne Dare marks her as the type of the 
 woman who, rising from the lowliest place in the midst of a conquered 
 race, devoted her genius and her sympathy to alleviate the oppression 
 of a foreign invader. What Joan did by heroism, Marina sought to do
 
 Civilisation] MARINA : ALBUQUERQUE 277 
 
 by love and sagacity. It is noteworthy that Cortes, like Pizarro and 
 other conquerors, round whose names gather such memories of blood and 
 horror, has no place in the Calendar. The Christianisation of an Indian 
 race is represented only by the name of a captive woman, the concubine 
 of their conqueror. [F. H.] 
 
 Prescott : Conquest of Mexico, bk. vii. ch. iii. Helps: Life of Cmtes. 
 
 ALBUQUERQUE {Affomo Alboquerque), b. 1453, d. 1515. 
 
 The great seaman and captain who formed the short-lived Portuguese 
 Empire in the Indies belonged to one of the most illustrious families of 
 Portugal, descended from an illegitimate branch of the royal house. 
 He was born in 1453 near Lisbon, educated at the court of Alphonso v., 
 and afterwards attached to the household of John ii. After a long 
 career of arms in Africa, and of public service in Europe, he made his 
 first voyage to India in 1503 {cetat. 50). Three years later he took part 
 in the great expedition of Tristan da Cunha to the coast of Africa, and 
 thence to India. 
 
 Albuquerque, receiving a separate command, took Ormuz, a central 
 port at the entrance to the Persian Gulf. He was forced to withdraw, 
 and retired to Socotra, an island off the extreme eastern point of Africa. 
 Having obtained reinforcements in 1508, he set sail for the Malabar 
 coast, on the west of Hindostan, where he was invested with the office 
 of commander-in-chief ; and there, in seven years of incessant warfore 
 and policy, he built up the Portuguese Empire in India — establishing its 
 centre at Goa, one of the few territories which Portugal still retains in 
 the East. He then planted the Portuguese power at Malacca, in the 
 Malay Peninsula, and ultimately retook Ormuz, in the Persian Gulf. 
 He had hardly done so, when he was superseded by orders from Lisbon ; 
 and, falling sick, he died of vexation and exhaustion in his 63rd year, 
 1515. He was buried at Goa, and ultimately his bones were transported 
 to Portugal. His last words were : " I have won the hatred of men for 
 the sake of the King ; I am disgraced by the King for the sake of men ! 
 Miserable old man, it is time to die ! " 
 
 Albuquerque was undoubtedly one of the great conquering heroes 
 and rulers of his wonderful epoch, which brought into view the unity of 
 the East and the West, and completed the sense of common life on the 
 planet. But he is not placed in the Calendar with Columbus and Vasco 
 da Gama as one of the great discoverers. He was a chivalrous soldier 
 and a consunmiate administrator, with the eye of genius for imperial 
 ])Ositions and commercial development. He was ambitious, self-willed, 
 unscrupulous, and remorseless in achieving his ends, and gave but too 
 many grounds for the jealousy of the home government to suspect his 
 designs. 
 
 His real title to honour is his character for justice as a rulei', and as 
 one who could win the confidence of the natives whom he conquered 
 and governed. It is said that both Musulmans and Hindus on the 
 Malabar Coast made pilgrimages to his tomb to implore ])rotection 
 against the tyranny of his successors. The guiding spirit of the
 
 278 ALBUQUERQUE : EALEIGH [Feudal 
 
 Portuguese, as was that of other European Powers in that age, was first 
 to found Christianity in Africa and in the East, and, secondly, to secure 
 to themselves the exclusive control of the commerce. In both they 
 showed a fanatical and unscrupulous narrowness of view. Albuquerque, 
 whilst one of the greatest of the men who carried out this policy, was 
 somewhat superior to his orders and to his age ; and as a real hero and 
 man of genius he instinctively felt the necessity for justice and wisdom 
 to found any permanent empire. [F. H.] 
 
 /RALEIGH {Sir Walter Ralegh), b. 1552, d. 1618. 
 Raleigh, one of the most ejotjuordmary Jypgs jdL tlijB_j£JCga^^ of 
 the Renascence, the contemporary of Shakespeare, was at once soTdier, 
 seamah, discoverer, general, statesman, courtier, or'afoi^lpoet^.iuid his- 
 torian. He was born in Devonshire, 1552, of an honourable and famous 
 race on both sides, passed some time lit Oxford {(dat. 16), and in the 
 following year began his career of arms as a volunteer in aid of the 
 Huguenots in France, where he served five years under Coligny and 
 Henry of Navarre. He then served under William of Orange in the 
 Netherlands. In 1579 {cpAat. 27) he first took part in an expedition to 
 America under his half-brother. Sir Humphrey Gilbert. 
 
 Winning the favour, and possibly the affection, of the Queen, Eliza- 
 beth, who loaded him with honours and wealth, Raleigh obtained, in 
 1584, a patent authorising him to plant and colonise any territories 
 which he might discover in North America not being in the possession 
 of any Christian Power. For_fi.ye yeaxa he fiiid£avoured,._by„a smes of 
 expeditions, to colonise th.e_4).resent_Virginia. This proved at last 
 beyond his resources, and he maHe over'TTis patent to a company of 
 merchants. There was but Httjejjnnifidiate^sult f rom this^ expedition, 
 except the introduction of a new variety of tobacco ancT tKe potato, 
 both of which are attributed to Raleigh. 
 
 It is to his daring and romantic attempts to colonise America that 
 Raleigh owes his place in the Calendar, and not to his incessant wars, 
 intrigues, adventures, and literary undertakings. He jvas the implacable 
 enemy of Spain, and took part with honour in the repulse of the Armada 
 in 1588, and in many expeditions and wars against Spain, Bolli in the 
 Old World and the New. In 1595 he made his first voyage to the 
 West Indies and to Guiana, of which he "published an extravagant 
 account. On the death of Elizabeth he Avas thrown into jirison on a 
 charge of treason, and lay in the Tower for 13 years. Here he occupied 
 himself with his History of the World, and a variety of scientific and 
 literary pursuits. In 1G17 he was released to make his second expedi- 
 tion to Guiana, which proved a total failure. On his return he was 
 cruelly sacrificed by James to the hatred of Spain, and executed in 
 Palace Yard on the old sentence (1618), in his 66th year. He is buried 
 in St. Margaret's Church, Westminster. 
 
 Raleigh was a man of extraordinary genius, audacity, capacities, 
 and attainments — unscrupulous, ambitious, and rapacious. But his 
 originality, his courage, and chivalrous bearing have endeared him to 
 after ages almost as much as to his own. He was the friend of the
 
 Civilisation] KALEIGH : BAYARD 279 
 
 poet Spenser, and must have been known to Shakespeare. Hi g per- 
 manent title to honour will be that of those who first connected the 
 Old an(r"the New World, bringing to the disco vgrf'Of Unknown races 
 and Tregions something of the chivalrous self-reliance which animated 
 the Crusades. [F. H.] 
 
 BAYARD {F'ieire du Terrail), b. 1476, d. 1524. 
 
 Pierre du Terrail was born of a noble family of soldiers at their 
 ancestral castle of Bayart (not Bayard), near Grenoble, in 1476, All 
 his paternal ancestors were killed in battle, one at Agincourt, and one 
 at Poitiers. He was early devoted to arms, and at the age of 13 
 was made page to the Duke of Savoy. Thence he passed to the service 
 of Charles viii., and at the age of 18 was already regarded as one of 
 the most perfect knights of his time. He accompanied Charles in his 
 campaign in Italy, and distinguished himself at the battle of Fornovo. 
 He served under Louis xii. in the campaign of the Milanese, and 
 defended the bridge of Garigliano alone, against a body of Spaniards. 
 In the subsequent wars he decided the victory of Agnadello. He was 
 severely wounded at Brescia ; and the protection he gave to the lady 
 and her daughters who nursed him in his illness is famous as a i-are 
 instance of generosity. He fought bravely and was taken prisoner at 
 the battle of the Spurs, and subsequently was liberated with great 
 honour by Henry viii. 
 
 On the accession of Francis i.. Bayard served in the Italian cam- 
 paign, and greatly distinguished himself at the victory of Marignano. 
 Francis regarded Bayard as the chief agent in the victory, and had huiiself 
 formally knighted by the hero on the field. In 1522 Bayard delayed the 
 advance of Charles v. by the defence of Mezicres. In 1524 he served 
 in Italy, against the Imperialists under the traitor Constable de Bourbon, 
 and at the battle of the Sesia he received his death-wound from a 
 cannon-shot, at the age of 48. As he lay under a tree with his face to 
 the enemy, having ordered all his own people to escape l)y retreat, the 
 whole of the Imperialist chiefs crowded to see the renowned soldier. 
 The Constable of Bourbon came with the rest to express his pity. 
 " My Lord," said Bayard, " I thank you ; I do not pity myself. I die 
 like an honest man. I die serving my king. You are the man to be 
 pitied, who are bearing arms against your prince, your country, and 
 your oath." He then betook himself to prayer, and died with invoca- 
 tions to Christ on his lips. 
 
 Bayard was for 30 years the mirror of chivalry, and was regarded 
 throughout Europe as the type of the perfect knight. Though he never 
 held separate command, his irresistible prowess and his genius for 
 tactics decided many a battle. Francis i. declared that he was worth 
 more than a hundred cai)tains, and it was said that he was himself an 
 army. They gave him for device, " Vires agminis unns hahet,'^ and for 
 a title, "The knight witliout fear and without reproach." His historians 
 declare that he was Ijorn with all tlie virtues, and without any vice. He 
 was pious, generous, unselfish, modest, temperate, pure, and magnanimous.
 
 280 BAYARD : GODFREY DE BOUILLON [Feudal 
 
 His courage and prowess in arms were those of a knight of romance ; 
 his generosity was princely ; and his courtesy unfailing. Bayard is 
 the last representative of the mediasval chivalry in its double char- 
 acter of Catholic and Feudal, as he is, perhaps, the latest example of a 
 warrior who won battles by personal feats of skill and courage. Fire- 
 arms were fatal to heroism of this type ; and Bayard, who died of a 
 gunshot wound, always denounced the use of that arm. He is the last 
 example of the chivalry which had lasted some five centuries. [F. H.] 
 
 Life, hy the Loyal Servitor ; often translated. 
 
 GODFREY DE BOUILLON, b. 1058 (?), d. 1100. 
 
 Godfrey was a younger son of the Count of Boulogne ; by his 
 niother, a descendant of Charlemagne, he was Lord of Lon-aine, taking 
 his name from Bouillon in the Ardennes, and he was subsequently 
 created Duke of Lorraine by the Emperor Henry iv. for his services in 
 the field. When the First Crusade was resolved on at the Council of 
 Clermont, 1095, Godfrey, who brought with him his two brothers, 
 Eustace, Count of Boulogne, and Baldwin, ultimately his own successor, 
 was marked out by his character and position as the leader of the host. 
 He was already illustrious as a soldier on both sides of the Rhine ; he 
 was equally versed in the French and the Teutonic languages ; and 
 round his banner was gathered, it is said, an army made up of French, 
 German, Lorraine, and Brabant elements to the extent of 80,000 foot 
 and 10,000 horse. 
 
 This host set out in August, 1096, from the Meuse and the Moselle, 
 through Germany, Hungary, and Bulgaria to Constantinople, the common 
 rendezvous of the various armies. The body commanded by Godfrey 
 advanced with prudence, and without fighting, every step showing the 
 wisdom and the ascendancy over men of their great leader. His march 
 Avas marked neither by the atrocities nor the disasters of the earlier 
 expeditions. With gi-eat skill, self-control, and generosity, he won a 
 free passage across Hungary ; compelled the Greek Emperor, Alexius, to 
 release Hugh of Vermandois, a chief whom he had taken prisoner. By 
 the alternate use of diplomacy and arms he induced the Emperor to act 
 as his ally, and even to adopt him as his son. Godfrey resisted the 
 importunities of Bohemond and other chiefs who urged him to divert the 
 arms of the Crusaders to overthrow the Byzantine Empire, and he per- 
 suaded the leaders to do homage to the Emperor, and to engage to restore 
 to him all lost possessions of the Empire that they might retake. It was 
 not until the spring of 1097 that the Crusaders reached Asia, and thence- 
 forward they marched as one army to Jerusalem. 
 
 When they mustered on the plains of Bithynia, they are said to 
 have numbered 100,000 men on horses, armed with helmet and coat- 
 of-mail, and certainly they were attended l)y many times tliat number 
 on foot, beside priests, monks, women, and children. After taking 
 Nic(ea, and winning a desperate battle in Phrygia, they passed through 
 incredible privations and difficulties down to the siege of Antioch. After 
 eight months of wild warfare, and every extremity of famine, pestilence.
 
 Civilisation] GODFREY DE BOUILLON 281 
 
 and confusion, Antioch was finally taken ; but when at length, in 
 the spring of 1099, the Crusaders set forth to Jerusalem, they num- 
 bered but 40,000, of which only 1500 horse and 20,000 foot were 
 said to be fit for service. During the two years that had passed since- 
 the Crusaders left the shores of the Bosporus, their march had been 
 one story of desperate and incessant warfare, famine, and want of every 
 kind ; disease, the extremities of heat and cold, quarrels, disorder, im- 
 providence, debauchery and fanaticism. In these trials Godfrey and 
 Tancred stood out conspicuous for unshaken devotion and resolution. 
 And Godfrey towered above all by his fortitude, his wisdom, his patience, 
 and his personal ascendancy. 
 
 The siege of Jerusalem, where the garrison was more numerous 
 than the assailants, and where every receptacle of water had been care- 
 fully destroyed, lasted for 30 days — days of intense suff'ering to the 
 Crusaders. At last, after two days of furious battle, the Holy City was 
 stormed, and Godfrey at one gate and Tancred at another were the first 
 to enter it. Its capture was marked by indiscriminate carnage. The 
 horses trod up to their knees in torrents of blood ; the Jews were burnt 
 alive in their synagogues ; and promiscuous rajjine was the reward of the 
 survivors of three years of incredible suff'ering and struggle. After 460 
 years of subjection to the Moslem, the Holy City was freed ; and in a 
 solemn act of devotion Godfrey and his followers entered the Church of 
 the Holy Sepulchre ; and all,1 bareheaded and barefooted, in robes of 
 white linen, with tears and groans and every manifestation of ecstasy, 
 knelt and off'ered praises to the Divine mercy. A further massacre of 
 captives in cold blood followed— young and old, women and children, 
 men and boys, were mingled in one bloody heap. The streets were 
 then washed and the city purified. 
 
 By the voice of all Godfrey was chosen King of Jerusalem ; but he 
 refused any title save that of Baron and Defender of the Holy Sepulchre. 
 He gained another great victory over the Khalif of Egypt, and died 
 within a year of his election, July 1100. His short reign sufficed to 
 show him as a wise, moderate, and just ruler, and to compile the famous 
 A ssize of Jerusalem, a complete code of Feudal Law, which continued in 
 some form to be the law of the Eastern Latins for three centuries. The 
 whole history of Godfrey presents him to us as the noblest type of his 
 age : magnanimous, wise, provident, laborious, and just ; of heroic courage 
 and intense religious earnestness. Had he directed the Crusade with 
 comi^lete authority, it might have had a far different issue. He fully 
 shared the sanguinary fanaticism and the superstitious folly of his time. 
 To slaughter infidels wholesale was to him, as to them, an act of piety ; 
 to undertake the most impossible of tasks in absolute faith of Divine 
 help was the only part worthy of a soldier of Christ. But so far as his 
 absolute religion and the passions of his age admitted, the character of 
 Godfrey is as pure and self-sacrificing as that of Alfred or St. Louis. 
 
 As a ruler, legislator, and creative statesman, Godfrey belongs to the 
 rare order of men of which his mighty ancestor Charlemagne was chief 
 — whom he so much resembles, and to whom he is so often compared — 
 although his opportunities were far inferior to those of the Emperor of 
 the West, and the scale on which he laboured in his short 42 years of
 
 282 GODFREY DE BOUILLON : LEO THE GREAT [Feudal 
 
 life was so much smaller. Indeed the constitution of the Latin kingdom 
 of Jerusalem, which endured for less than a century, was an admirable 
 type of the Feudal State, and the Assize of Jerusalem has been justly 
 called the Corpus Juris of Feudalism, " a precious monument of Feudal 
 jurisprudence." It is one of the earliest specimens of a media.'val civil 
 code, was much cited and imitated in Europe, and retained its authority for 
 centuries. Godfrey has been called the Agamemnon and the Achilles of the 
 First Crusade ; and indeed no character in history has ever afforded so rich 
 a subject for idealisation. He is the real hero of Tasso's poem and the 
 grand lines in Gertis. Lib. bk. iii., are literal history as much as poetry : 
 
 " Veramente e cestui nato all' iiiipero. 
 Si del regnar, del commandar sa I'arti : 
 E lion minor che duce e cavaliero." [F. H.] 
 
 Fleury : Eccles. Hist., 6tli discourse, vol. xviii. Gibbon : cli. Iviii. Guizot : 
 Civilis. in Europe, lect. 8. Micliaud : Hist, des Croisades, vol. i. 
 Martin : Hist, de France, vol. iii. bk. xviii. 
 
 / 
 
 / ST. LEO THE GREAT, b, 390, d. 461 A.D. 
 
 The third week of the month devoted to Feudal Civilisation con- 
 tains the names of five Popes between the fifth and the thirteenth 
 centuries, who represent the influence of the central See in organising 
 Western Christendom rather than the spiritual development of the 
 
 I Catholic fiiith. Of these the first is Leo the Great, the chief founder 
 of the religious supremacy of the See of Rome. 
 
 Leo was a Roman, of Tuscan family, born in Rome about 390. As a 
 young man he was employed in missions to distant Churches by the 
 Bishops of Rome and he was early brought into relations with St. Augus- 
 tine and Cyril of Alexandria. His middle life was passed in a series of 
 embassies of the highest importance. During one of these duties — a 
 mission into Gaul to reconcile Aetius with Albinus — Leo was chosen 
 Pope by acclamation and the general voice of clergy, senate, and people 
 (440), he being then about 50. He at once entei'ed on his office with the 
 spirit of an ancient Dictator of the Republic. He introduced a practice 
 almost unknown to his predecessors — that of preaching from his own 
 pulpit ; and his powerful sermons are the first from the Roman Pontiff's 
 that have survived. They are simple, severe, short, and nervous, like 
 the speeches of Ciesar from the rostrum, and are entirely occupied with 
 the faith and life of the true Christian. 
 
 Leo is the great enemy of heresy, especially of the heresy of the 
 Manichfoans ; the trenchant censor of Pagan morality and woiidliness. 
 His vehement campaign against the heresy and tlie crimes of Manicha'- 
 isni was followed by a further onslaught on the Pelagians, the Pris- 
 cillians, and finally the heresy of Eutyches of Constantinople. In a long 
 life of polemical activity Leo procured the assent of the Western Church 
 to a large body of doctrine since recognised as orthodox. In 452, Attila, 
 recovering from his defeat at Chalons by Aetius, descended with his 
 Huns upon Italy. Tlie peninsula and its capital was at his mercy. Leo 
 went forth at the head of an embassy to appease the terriljle contpieror. 
 By his dignity, earnestness, and elofj^uence, he induced the barbarian to
 
 Civilisation] ST. LEO THE GREAT : LEO IV. 283 
 
 withdraw 'beyond the Danube on payment of a tribute. Three years 
 later the Vandal Genseric, invading Italy from Africa, took and sacked 
 Eome (455). Leo again went forth as a mediator, but could obttiin 
 nothing but some mitigation of the conqueror's licence. The remaining 
 years of Leo's pontificate were passed in efforts to mitigate the ruin 
 caused by the Vandals, in strengthening the moral authority of the 
 Church, and in. restoring and rebuilding the churches dedicated to the 
 great Apostles. T he ruin of R ome as a capital by the sack of Genseric 
 (455), and the manifest collapse of the Empire, were the foundation of 
 Rome as the spiritual centre of the West. 
 
 Tleo,' a Roman of the Romans, the Cato or Scipio of the Church, made 
 Rome"tK5*Centre of a new Spiritual Empire rising out of the ruins of The 
 old Material Empire, of which St. Augustine had foreseen the advent. 
 His ' pontificate is the first great epoch in the history of Latin Christi- 
 anity, when Rome definitively acceded to a general primacy over "the 
 Churches of the West. During his tenure of the See, Leo is the only 
 great name in the Empire, and concentrates on himself and on his office 
 the interest of the West. He first fixed Rome in its rigid and strenuous 
 orthodoxy : he first made Rome the spiritual capital of the Latin races 
 
 and of Western Europe. [F. H.] * 
 
 Fleury : Ecdes. Hist. vol. vi. Milmau : Latin Christianity, vol. i. bk. ii. / 
 
 LEO IV. (Poi;e/ro»i 847-855 A.D.). ■/ 
 
 Leo, a Roman, who had held ecclesiastical office under preceding 
 pontiff's, was suddenly called to the Papacy on the death of Sergius ii., 
 by the urgent danger impending over Italy and Rome. The weak son 
 of Charles the Great was not long dead ; and the Saracens were masters 
 of Sicily and a large part of the Mediterranean. In 847 they were 
 threatening Rome ; and Leo iv. was summarily chosen to direct the 
 defence of the city. This he did with great energy and signal success : 
 he summoned the maritime population of Naples and Gaeta to defend 
 Ostia, the Roman port ; raised an army, and fortified the Church of 
 St. Peter. Not content with turning the sacred edifice into a fortress, 
 he determined to protect it by a new fortified quarter. The Emperor 
 Lothair, far from resenting his hasty election as Pope before receiving 
 the imperial sanction, assisted the project. And in four years the work 
 was completed. A new walled suburb was created on the right bank of 
 the Tiber, practically outside the classical city of Rome, on what had 
 been the Vatican Hill. On the 27th June 852, Leo formally consecrated 
 it by his own name, and gave the suburb the name of t he L eonine city. 
 Within its walls lay the Church and relics of the Apostle, the'palace of 
 the Pope and his suite, a body-guard and a faithful body of townsmen, 
 securely entrenched on the opposite side of the Tiber. It was in fact a 
 temporal sovereignty in miniature, and it long sufficed as a safe asylum 
 to guarantee the independence of the Pope. Leo's papacy of ciglit years 
 was mainly engrossed with the formation of his new city, with restoring 
 the churches and adorning the city of Rome. He is thus the complement 
 of Leo I. and the forerunner of Hildebrand. [F. H.] 
 
 Milnian : Latin Christianity, bk. v.
 
 284 , GERBERT [Feudal 
 
 / 
 
 GEEBERT {Pope Silvester II.\ d. 1003. 
 
 Gerbert, the foremost Churchman of his age and one of the greatest 
 of the Popes, was born about 940, at Avrillac, in Auvergne, of obscure 
 origin and humble parentage. He was early received into the Cluniac 
 monastery there, and became its most distinguished scholar. Borel, 
 Count of Barcelona, carried him to Spain, where his insatiable thirst for 
 knowledge urged him to pursue the scientific, and especially the 
 mathematical, knowledge of the Arab schools. He is said to have 
 visited Seville and Cordova, then great centres of Mohammedan learning, 
 and to have been the first Christian priest to master the arithmetic, 
 geometry, and astronomy which the Arabs had inherited from the 
 Greeks. Count Borel took the young monk to Rome, where he was 
 recognised as a prodigy of knowledge by Pope John xii., and recom- 
 mended to the Emperor, Otho the Great. Thence he became the friend 
 and secretary of Adalberon, Archbishop of Rheims, where he opened a 
 famous school, in which all that was then known was taught. It 
 comprised rhetoric, logic, as known to Aristotle and Cicero, music, 
 geometry, astronomy, and the Roman poets. 
 
 For ten years (978-988) Gerbert practically directed the Church in 
 central France, being the inspiring genius of the Archbishop of Rheims, 
 and the acknowledged head of Western learning. He was the teacher of 
 the successive German Emperors, Otho ii. and Otho iii., the friend and 
 supporter of Hugh Capet, and the teacher of his son, Robert i. It is 
 impossible here to follow in detail the active and stormy career of 
 Gerbert through the changing and violent movements of the 10th 
 century. He is alternately triumphant and defeated in the shifting 
 scenes of policy. In 991 Gerbert is elected Archbishop of Rheims, is 
 deposed by the Papal Legate in Council, 996 ; he takes refuge with the 
 
 J Emperor Otto iii., and is made Archbishop of Ravenna in 998. In the 
 following year he was chosen Pope, and took the significant name of 
 Silvester ii. (Silvester i. was the Pope who, in .325, called the Council 
 of Nice and presided over the Christian Church of Constantine.) 
 
 For four years (999-1003) Silvester directed the intricate policy of 
 the Church with consummate skill and energy. Much of his previous 
 action had been inspired with aims with a Galilean and anti-Papal 
 character. But once on the throne of St. Peter, Gerbert assumes the 
 mission of the Church to be the spiritual organisation of Europe. He is 
 the"Torerunner of Hildtbraud 'and Alexander in., and even in a far 
 minor degree of St. Bernard and Aquinas. In spite of the worldly 
 intrigues in which he was involved, his intense piety and personal 
 morality produced a deep effect on his age ; and, though he leaves on 
 ■ posterity no sense of originality as a thinker, he was the first Churchman 
 who impressed his age with a reverence for the science and philosophy of 
 the ancient world. His extraordinary attainments in a knowledge 
 absolutely closed to his contemporaries and his mechanical gifts, led to 
 the myth of his being a magician and to the tales of diabolic agency 
 to which medifcval legend attributed his power and his learning. 
 
 As with Albert the Great, and Roger Bacon in the 13th century, his 
 secular knowledge was regarded as a proof of the black art. His
 
 Civilisation] GESBERT : PETEH DAMIANI 285 
 
 extant writings show him as a man of extraordinary energy, versa- 
 tility, force of character and of mind. The scientific and philosophical 
 works attributed to him have been the subject of critical controversy 
 and great diversity of opinion. They have no value but a historical 
 one. Pope Silvester, who is the first French Pope, is the real author of 
 the consecration given by the Church to the dynasty of Hugh Capet 
 (987). It was he who constituted Hungary and Poland as Christian 
 kingdoms, and a century before Urban ii. he preached the necessity of a 
 Crusade. He appears in the Calendar by his personal name of Gerbert, 
 and not his official title of Silvester ii., to mark that his great work was 
 achieved, not as Pope, but as a French prelate, especially in his action in 
 consecrating the royal house of Hugh Capet. [F. H.] 
 
 Fleury : Eccles. Hist. vol. xii. Milman : Latin ChristianitA/ , bk. v, 
 Michelet : History of France, h\.T^'~'B'rfi:m.'t^Vi-.ifi'BTdgr. Univ. 
 
 PETER DAMIANI, b. 988, d. 1072. 
 
 The famous reformer of the Church in the 11th century was bom 
 at Ravenna in 988, of a poor and obscure family. He was educated by 
 a brother, Damiani, Archdeacon of Ravenna, whose name he added to 
 his own name of Peter. He was trained at Faenza and at Pamia, and 
 as a youth became distinguished as a student and teacher. But a 
 passion for asceticism took possession of the popular professor : his days 
 were spent in prayer, fasting, and penance, his nights in watching and 
 fierce striving to subdue the flesh. He retired to the hermitage of 
 Font-Avellana in Umbria, at the foot of the Apennines. He was 
 successively named abbot and cardinal (1057). 
 
 During the Papacy of Nicholas ii. and Alexander ii., Damiani was 
 the reforming spirit of the' Church — as the latter called him, the Eye of 
 the Holy See. His life was one long, violent, and fanatical eflbrt to 
 extirpate from the Church simony, worldliness, and sexual immorality. 
 Against the practice of the marriage or concubinage of the priesthood 
 Damiani in particular fulminates with a passionate and almost rabid 
 invective. His famous work Gomorrhams explains by its very title the 
 coarseness of his method. As ascetic and hot-gospeller Damiani was 
 the Stylites or Knox of his age. But in spite of the ascetic fanaticism of 
 his character, Damiani was one of the main authors of the reform of the 
 Church in the 11th century, and, with Hildebrand, the real founder 
 of the rule of celibacy for the secular priesthood. He is nuich more 
 than a monkish zealot. He was successful in a series of missions by 
 which the Popes restrained the abuses of the Church. And he was a 
 vigorous supporter of the unity and discipline of the Papacy. His 
 works remain, with all their frantic violence of language, monuments of 
 a sincere zeal for purity and riglit. So soon as he was permitted to 
 withdraw from pul)lic life, Damiani retired to his hennitage, and there, 
 continuing his ascetic rigours to the last, he died (1072) at the age of 
 84, at Faenza, where he is still the oly'ect of an annual commemoration. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 Milman : Latin Christianity, bk. vi.
 
 286 PETER THE HERMIT : SUGER [Eeudal 
 
 PETER THE HERMIT, fl. abt. 1094-1100. 
 
 Peter, who bore the name of the Hermit, was born at Amiens in 
 Picardy, of a knightly family, and was at first a soldier in the 
 service of the Counts of Boulogne. He soon abandoned wife and the 
 world, retired to a monastery, and thence into a hermitage. Roused to 
 make the pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre, he returned to Europe, 
 shocked by what he had seen and heard of the sufferings of the 
 Christians in Palestine. Pope Urban ii., to whom a vision had urged 
 Peter to appeal, warmly seconded his enthusiasm, and dismissed him to 
 preach a joint expedition to free the Holy Places. Peter was small and 
 mean in person, emaciated by his austerities, with a keen fine eye and 
 living genius within him, and a gift of ready and burning eloquence. 
 His life as a hermit and his strange experiences as a pilgrim had fired 
 his soul with enthusiasm and made him a prey to dreams and visions. 
 He traversed Italy, crossed the Alps, visited the princes of Gaul, and 
 went through France, riding on an ass, bareheaded and barefoot, clad 
 in a coarse garment, and bearing an immense crucifix, everywhere 
 received as an inspired prophet. He preached with fervour to in- 
 numerable crowds in the churches, streets, and highways, calling on 
 prince and people alike. 
 
 His passionate eloquence prepared for the enthusiasm which the 
 Pope met at the Council of Clermont (1095), where the First Crusade 
 was resolved on. The impatience of the people could not await the 
 regular formation of armies, and early in the spring of 1096 a motley 
 crowd of 40,000 of various nations, both, sexes, and all ages, compelled 
 Peter to lead them straight to the Holy Land. With inconceivable 
 fatuity or simplicity, Peter led them to Constantinople, pillaging, 
 slaying, and fighting by the way. The host reached Nic*a, where they 
 were exterminated in a frightful massacre, by the Turks. Peter survived 
 the slaughter, and attaching himself to the subsequent expedition led by 
 Godfrey of Bouillon, he took part in the whole course of the Crusade. 
 At the siege of Antioch the fiery enthusiasm of Peter gave way before 
 the pressure of famine, and he had begun to return homewards in 
 despair till Tancred forced him to remain. At the final taking of 
 Jerusalem (1099) the triumphant Crusaders fell at his feet, and off"ered up 
 their thanks to the original inspirer of their expedition. The relative 
 spirit of the Calendar admits the author of this wonderful effort, in spite 
 of the blind fanaticism and criminal folly which the Hermit had 
 displayed in practical conduct. [F. H.] 
 
 Gibbon : ch. Iviii. 
 
 SUGER, b. 1082, d. 1152. 
 
 The famous Regent of France and minister of Louis vii. (1137-1152) 
 was born in the neighbourhood of St. Omer, in Artois, about 1082, of an 
 obscure peasant family. At an early age he was educated in the Abbey 
 of St. Denis, near Paris, and at the age of 14 he became there the fellow- 
 student and companion of the Prince, afterwards Louis vi. or the Fat.
 
 Civilisation] SUGER 287 
 
 For twenty years Suger laboured in the interests of the abbey ; main- 
 taining or adding to its possessions by legal ingenuity or by his skill in 
 arms ; continually employed on missions by the Abbot Adam and by 
 his friend King Louis vi. In 1122 Suger, then aged 40, became Abbot 
 of St. Denis ; practically minister, and principal support of the monarchy. 
 
 His rule for thirty years within the abbey trebled its resources and 
 made it the great centre of civilisation, as well as the chief barony of the 
 Crown. He laboured to raise to their highest point the material and the 
 moral resources of the abbey and of the kingdom alike, strengthening 
 both together. He rebuilt the abbey church with extraordinary energy 
 and in great splendour. It was dedicated in 1140. The western fagade 
 and towers are the work of Suger, and are amongst the earliest examples 
 of the Romanesque style passing into the pointed Gothic (compare the 
 fagade of Notre-Dame at Paris, nearly 80 years later). 
 
 At the head of a great barony, and in efiect the chief minister of the 
 Crown, Suger at first indulged in somewhat secular state and worldly 
 freedom. But the exhortations of St. Bernard (see the fine letter, No. 
 Ixxviii., A.D. 1127) recalled him to his ecclesiastical function, and thence- 
 forward Suger established rigid discipline in his abbey, and practised 
 strict austerity in his personal life. The last of the many missions 
 intrusted by Louis vi. to his faithful minister was the marriage of his 
 son to the fatal Eleanor of Guyenne, which more than doubled the 
 possessions of the Crown. On their return Louis vi. was dead ; and the 
 Prince, then a wayward and restless youth of 18, became Louis vii. 
 (1137). Thenceforward Suger, till his own death fifteen years later, 
 was practically viceroy of France. 
 
 In 1146 St. Bernard preached the Second Crusade at Vezelay, and 
 in spite of the earnest remonstrances of Suger, who told the King that 
 his true duties lay in France, Louis plunged into the disastrous cam- 
 paign which ended in the fiital siege of Damascus. On the advice of 
 St. Bernard, and with the concurrence of the prelates and barons, Suger 
 was made Regent of the kingdom. For five years he proved himself one 
 of the greatest rulers whom France ever had. He maintained peace and 
 order everywhere, encouraged the rise of the towns, dispensed strict 
 justice, and restored material prosperity, employing the resources of 
 his abbey, whilst he sent large sums to the King in the Holy Land. 
 Before his time the centre of France had been a waste. He introduced 
 an agriculture and prosperity which were permanent, and repeopled the 
 decayed district. Having at last induced the King to return to France 
 (1149), he proposed to lead a fresh Crusade himself, when death cut short 
 his project at the age of 70 (1152). 
 
 Suger was the first and one of the best of the great series of states- 
 men by whom France was made a kingdom. His leading idea was the 
 creation of a central monarchy as a guarantee of peace and progress. 
 The great instrument of this was the development of the commv.ncs, and 
 by their aid the suppression of private war and feudal oppression. It is 
 under Louis vi. and the administration of Soger, says Guizot, that there 
 rises up the idea of a chief magistrate, charged with the maintenance of 
 peace, the protection of the weak, the enforcing of justice, and the central 
 depositary of the conunon interest against all local and personal ambition.
 
 288 SUGER : ST. ELIGIUS [Feudal 
 
 " The duty of kings," says Suger himself, " is by their strong arm and 
 their high prerogative to curb the insolence of the gi-eat who tear the State 
 to pieces by their constant wai"s and ruin churches." In this task Suger 
 himself often assisted the monarchy in arms at the head of the forces of 
 his abbey. " The glory of the Church of God," said he, " consists in the 
 union of the royalty and the priesthood." As a means to this end, the 
 policy of Suger and of the two kings whom he guided, was to grant 
 charters of freedom to the towns, and to emancipate the serfs. " Do not 
 abandon your flock," wrote Suger to Louis in the Holy Land, " to the 
 fury of the wolves." He has left a profound impression on the popular 
 gratitude of his country, of a kind similar to that of Sully and Henry iv. 
 Suger was a scholar, fond of the Latin poets, and an author. He has 
 given us a Life of Louis VI. and other works. He encouraged learning, 
 collected a library, and began the famous Chronicle of St. Denis. Though 
 far more the statesman than the priest, in spite of occasional differences, 
 he commanded the love and admiration of St. Bernard, who addressed 
 to him 12 of his extant epistles. The beautiful letter that the Abbot of 
 Clairvaux addressed to the Abbot of St. Denis, who was then thought 
 to be at the point of death {Epist. cclxvi.), is a striking memorial of the 
 men and of their age. " Man of God, tremble not in putting off the 
 earthly man which seeks to drag thee down . . . the glory of the Lord 
 awaiteth thee ! How much do I long, dearest, to see thee again, so that 
 the blessing of a dying saint may come on me ! . . . Whether I come, 
 or come not, remember that I have loved thee from the beginning, and 
 will not cease to love thee to the end." [F. H.] 
 
 Suger : Vie de Louis-le-G'ros (Guizot Coll.). Martin : Hist, de France, iii. 
 300-452. Milman : Latin Christianity, vol. iii. bk, viii. St. Bernard : 
 Exnstol. Guizot : Civilisation in France, lect. xii. 
 
 ST. ELIGIUS {Saint Eloi, St. Loo), b. 588, d. 659 A.D. 
 
 St. Eligius is an early prototype of Suger, the low-born churchman- 
 statesman. He was of humble parentage, probably of Gallo- Roman 
 origin, and was born near Limoges in 588. He was early bound appren- 
 tice to a goldsmith in Limoges. His talents in this art recommended 
 him to the King's goldsmith and head of the treasury in Paris. His 
 wonderful skill and probity filled the King Glotaire with admiration ; 
 and he became master of the mint and chief adviser to that king and 
 his successor, Dagobert. Under a succession of kings he became in effect 
 chief minister and envoy, using his influence with the crown to found 
 monasteries, hospitals, and convents. He still continued the practice of 
 his art, using it solely for sacred purposes, and constructed a number of 
 magnificent shrines for the relics of the chief saints of France. 
 
 In 639 he assembled a Council at Orleans for the repression of the 
 Monothelite heresy and simony ; and the next year, though still a lay- 
 man, he was chosen Bishop in place of St. Medard. From this time he 
 devoted himself to apostolic work, labouring as a Christian missionary 
 in Flanders and as far as the shores of the Baltic. He founded an im- 
 mense number of monasteries, and became one of the most popular saints
 
 Civilisation] ST. ELIGIUS : ALEXANDER III. 289 
 
 of France. He was distinguished for his humanity, simplicity, and 
 laborious life, and has left a lasting impression on the public memory as 
 the artisan-minister of the early monarchy. He is the patron saint of 
 the smiths of all kinds, and the legends and art are full of his miraculous 
 doings. It is as the precursor of the great Ministers of France that he 
 has his place beside Suger. Many coins remain with his name ; and 
 sundry homUies and letters : these, like his life, breathe gentleness, 
 charity, and piety. [F. H.] 
 
 St. Ouen : Life. Mrs. Jameson : Sacred and Legendary Art. 
 
 ALEXANDER III., Pope, 1159, d. 1179. 
 
 Alexander hi., the successor of Adrian iv. (Nicolas Breakspeare), 
 was for twenty years Pope dur ing the great contest between Rome and 
 the Emperor Fralerick_^ Jbar barossa! ATexandef, then known as Koland, 
 Chancellor of tHe' see and Cardinal of St. Mark's, had been one of the 
 ablest supporters and one of the most trusted legates of Adrian during 
 his bold policy of founding an independent Church. On the death of 
 Adrian (1159) the Chancellor Roland was elected Pope, whilst the imperial 
 faction set up Victor iv. as anti-Pope. Alexander iii. received the 
 adhesion of France, Spain, England, Southern Italy, and the more power- 
 ful of the Orders ; but he was forced to take refuge in France, where he 
 remained for three years under the protection of Louis vii. 
 
 During this time Alexander was most occupied by the cause of Becket, 
 whose claims were in substance the same as those of the Pope himself, 
 but whom it was most impolitic to support against the Pope's own 
 powerful ally, Henry of Anjou. The subtle and changing policy of 
 Alexander in this most difficult dilemma was carried out with consum- 
 mate skill, much want of sincerity, but essential loyalty to his principles. 
 The Emperor caused the election of a succession of anti-Popes ; but 
 after a lifelong contest, Barbarossa felt himself humbled. The Pope ( 
 rallied to his cause the whole of Italy and nearly all Europe, and at I 
 length, 18 years after his election as Pope, Alexander iii. received "at ) 
 Venice the formal reconciliation and virtual submission of the Emperor * 
 — an issue effected by the Doge and Senate of Venice. Two years later 
 Alexander iii. died (1179) after a reign of 20 years, one of the most 
 memorable in the history of the Papacy. It was Alexander iii. who 
 canonised St. Bernard as well as St. Thomas of Canterbury. With 
 Adrian iv. he is the immediate link between Hildebrand and Inno- 
 cent III. [F. H.] 
 
 Milman : Lathi Christianity , bk. viii. 
 
 BECKET (-SY. Thomas of Canterbury), b. 1118, d. 1170. 
 
 Thomas Becket was the son of Gilbert Becket, a native of Rouen, 
 by the daughter of a burgher of Caen ; and was born in London, 1118, 
 where his father was a merchant in good position. The young Thomas 
 was educated by the monks of Merton in Surrey, and by his extraordi- 
 nary abilities and ac([uirements was early recommended t(i Theol)ald, 
 
 T
 
 290 BECKET [Feudal 
 
 Archbishop of Canterbury. He was employed by hini in negotiations 
 of importance, and secured from the Pope the recognition of the Planta- 
 genet dynasty on the English throne. In 1155, at the age of 37, he was 
 made Chancellor, in which office during six years he bore himself as a 
 great statesman, a bold soldier, and with almost royal splendour. In 
 1162 Henry ii. forced Becket to become Archbishop. 
 
 As Primate Becket at once changed his whole life ; he became the most 
 austere and devout of Churchmen, a stern assertor of the liberties of the 
 Church ; he summarily resigned his office of Chancellor, and with it all 
 his habits as courtier and servant of the King. Within the next year 
 began the long strife between the King and the Archbishop, which was 
 ended only by the murder of the Primate. The centre of the contest 
 lay in the claim of the ecclesiastical power to a separate jurisdiction, and 
 to complete independence as a European and not a national spiritual 
 community. The claim of the temporal sovereignty was to enforce 
 complete judicial authority over every subject, lay or clerical, within the 
 realm, and to assert its right as supreme ruler within the kingdom. The 
 mutual independence of spiritual and temporal authority was a problem 
 far too complex and subtle to be solved in an age of personal autocracy 
 and of absolute creeds. Still less could it be solved by two men of such 
 fierce natures and aspiring genius as were Thomas Becket and Henry of 
 Anjou. 
 
 The Constitutions of Clarendon, the formulas in which the demands of 
 the King were embodied, contain little which has not been the law of 
 our land since the Reformation. Their adoption in the 12th century 
 would have been tantamount to the formal establishment of a national 
 and an Erastian Church, and the official dissolution of the Catholic 
 Church as an independent spiritual commimion. It is as the fearless 
 defender of a spiritual power, independent of, and able to modify the 
 temporal sovereignty, that Becket is recognised as the complement of 
 Alexander iii. in the civilising mission of the Church of the 12th century. 
 To feel his just claims on the reverence of posterity is not to praise the 
 fierce and haughty character of the man, his violent pretensions, and 
 worldly passions. The thrilling story of the great duel is a picture of 
 combat between two mighty and overweening natures, each of which 
 had a great cause to defend, whilst both disgraced it by outrageous 
 violence. 
 
 The tale is well told in the Short History of Mr. J. R. Green ; and it 
 cannot be set forth in these limits. For six out of the eight years of 
 his primacy, Becket lived in France as an exile, under the protection of 
 Louis VII. of France and Pope Alexander iii., and from thence he carried 
 on a not unequal contest with the great King. After a formal but hoUow 
 reconciliation, effected by Louis and his bishops, Becket returned to 
 England, and to his own cathedral. He landed on the Kentish coast on 
 1st December 1170: on the 29th December he was brutally murdered 
 at the altar of Canterbury by four knights of the King's household. The 
 horror and the fury of all Christendom are amongst the most striking 
 facts of the Middle Ages. The King with consummate energy and skill 
 averted the storm from himself, after a tremendous and dramatic scene of 
 personal humiliation and penance.
 
 Civilisation] BEOKET : ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI 291 
 
 In the result, the King gained most of his points ; and his successors 
 on the throne of England established a more or less national and media- 
 tised church, even before the Eeformation. Becket secured the enthu- 
 siastic devotion of the people ; his great defiance indirectly advanced the 
 cause of Catholic independence over Europe ; and his martyrdom became 
 one of the landmarks of the Middle Ages. Three years after the murder, 
 he was canonised by Alexander iii., and became at once the most popular 
 of English saints : his tomb was one of the most famous pilgrimages in 
 Europe, and his name in England is still the most common of all Christian 
 names. [F. H.] 
 
 Dr. Giles : Seven Contemporary Lives of Becket. Milman : Latin Christi- 
 anity, bk. viii. J. K. Green : Short History of England. Mrs. J. R. 
 Greeu : Henry II. 
 
 ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI, b. 1182, d. 1226. 
 
 It was during the crisis of Catholicism, in the first generation of the 
 13th century, in the papacy of Innocent in., that there arose in difterent 
 countries at the same time two extraordinary men, who set themselves 
 to combat the two great dangers of the Church. The scandalous luxury, 
 worldliness, and sensuality of the age, both clerical and lay, revolted the 
 pure soul of St. Francis of Assisi in Umbria. St. Dominic, a Castilian, 
 a few years his senior, seFTumself to combat the scepticism, the heresy, 
 the ignorance of his time. Both appealed to the people directly ; both 
 cast oft' every vestige of wealth, luxury, and pride ; both worked by 
 passionate enthusiasm as their instrument ; and both exhibited consum- 
 mate genius in the organisation of social institutions. St. Francis, the 
 younger of the two, but the first to act, endowed with a fervour of 
 mystic devotion, appealed to the heart. St. Dominic, the more powerful 
 mind, addressed the intellect. Between them, they revived the spirit of 
 Catholicism, and recast the religious tone of their age. 
 
 The father of the famous saint, Pietro Bernardone, of Assisi, in 
 Umbria, was a rich merchant, who, from his trade connection with 
 France, called his son by the then unusual name of Francis. At first 
 the youth was gay, splendid, sociable, and adventurous. But imprison- 
 ment, disease, and the imminent hand of death forced on him religious 
 musings and a profound desire to put on a new life. He cast ofi" all that 
 he possessed or could hope for, broke from his family, and at the age 
 of 25 (1206) vowed himself to poverty and to religion. He collected a 
 body of ecstatic devotees dedicated to strict mendicancy, assumed a garb 
 of coarse grey, and, bound by a cord for girdle, and with bare feet, net 
 forth to preach poverty, humility, and charity. In 1212, Innocent iii., 
 warned by a vision, established the new Order, which was called the 
 Frati Minori, or Humble Brothers, with a rule of absolute poverty, 
 austere self-denial, and a life of devotion to the Cross and to Love. The 
 passionate fervour, mystic tenderness, and martyr-like self-abandonment 
 of the new Order spread with irresistil^le contagion over Europe. The 
 followers were divided into various grades of both sexes : whole cities 
 enrolled themselves amongst its followers : they started on missions into
 
 292 ST. FRANCIS OF ASSISI : ST. DOMINIC [Feudal 
 
 Asia and Africa to convert the Moslems : within seven years they could 
 convene a chapter of 5000 brethren. 
 
 1st. Francis is the Saint of the People : the mystical apostle of the 
 Gospel of Love, of Suffering, and of Self-humiliation. On Mount Alvemo 
 he received the Stigmata, or marks of the Passion, on hands, feet, and 
 side. As there is strong historical evidence for the fact that St. Francis 
 actually bore those wounds in life, it is probable that they were self- 
 inflicted in an ecstasy of religious delirium. After a short but intens 
 career of passionate preaching and mystical self-torment, in which fana- 
 ticism disappears in a halo of sweetness and simplicity, St. Francis died 
 at Assisi, in 1226, at the age of 44. For a brief season the exquisite 
 pathos of his life and nature^^d the beauty of the religious virtues 
 which he taught, created a real revival of purity and zeal in the lowest 
 depths of the Catholic world. Christendom was filled with the Grey- 
 friars, and the Mendicant Order branched out into various rules, em- 
 braced in its ranks many saints, martyrs, sovereigns, and illustrious 
 men and women, and filled for some centuries the poetry and art of the 
 Middle Ages. Dante in his Paradiso, canto xi., puts into the mouth 
 
 ■| of St. Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican, a noble eulogy of St. Francis. 
 " They made love and wonder and sweet looks to be the occasion of holy 
 
 i thoughts." The Divine Foresight, the poet tells us, ordained for the 
 Church two princes to be her guides, one on each side. The one (St. 
 Francis) was all seraphic in ardour : the other (St. Dominic) was for 
 wisdom uiDon earth a splendour of cherubic light. [F. H.] 
 
 Fleury : Eccles. Hist. vol. xvi. ; and see 8th Discourse, vol. xx. Milmaii : 
 Latin Christianity, bk. ix. ch. x. Mrs. Jameson : Legends of the 
 Monastic Orders. Sir J. Stejihen : Ecclesiastical Biographies. Dante : 
 Paradiso, canto xi. 
 
 .,' ST. DOMINIC, b. 1170, d. 1221. 
 
 St. Dominic, the great rival and ally of St. Francis, who did for the 
 popular belief of the 13th century what St. Francis did for its popular 
 zeal, was of noble Spanish origin, and was born, 1170, at Calaroga, in 
 Castile. His father was Felix de Guzman, his mother Joanna d'Aza, 
 and his birth and early life have been enveloped in miraculous legend. 
 He studied theology at Valencia, and early assumed the habit of an 
 Augustinian canon ; and became attached to the person of the Bishop 
 of Osma. At the age of 32, he made a journey into Languedoc, where 
 he was deeply stirred by the progress of the Albigensian heresies. He 
 decided to devote his life to preaching. " Zeal," he said, " must be met 
 by zeal, humility by humility, false sanctity by real sanctity ; preaching 
 falsehood by preaching truth." Though he took no part in the crusade 
 against the Albigenses, he is said to have stimulated the zeal of the 
 orthodox. The Inquisition may have been founded through his teaching ; 
 but there is nO historical evidence that he personally directed it. 
 
 About 1212 Dominic received from Innocent in. at Rome permission 
 
 to enrol the Friar Preachers, who in the garb of Penitents, went about 
 
 preaching the orthodox faith. The Order of St. Dominic, which rose 
 
 , out of the Preachers, Avas formally confirmed by Honorius iii. in 1216.
 
 Civilisation] ST. DOMINIC : INNOCENT III. 293 
 
 In the following year Dominic quitted Languedoc, settled in Rome, and 
 devoted himself with passionate zeal to preaching, and to founding a 
 preaching Order coextensive with Christendom. Within a few years 
 Dominican convents rose in every Catholic land. Their founder, worn 
 out by incessant labour, was seized with fever and died at Bologna, 
 1221, in his 52nd year, where he was "buried in the magnificent shrine 
 sfiTTexfant there. He was canonised in 1233. His Order revived the 
 faith" of his age, and produced those pillars of the Catholic philosophy, 
 Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. They are especially the apostles 
 of sacred art ; and the black and white robes of the Blackfriars are 
 prominent in some of the noblest works of mediaeval art. St. Dominic 
 took the Virgin as his special patroness ; and the growth of the Order 
 did much to convert Catholicism in the MidcHe Ages into a worship of 
 the Virgin. 
 
 The popular belief that St. Dominic was the founder and promoter of 
 the Inquisition is perhaps based on the inevitable tendency of passionate 
 zeal for an absolute creed to degenera^"ihto persecution. St. Dominic 
 himself did all that a profound belief in the social need for a systematic 
 faith could do in such an age. Dante has put into the mouth of St. 
 Bonaventura, a Franciscan, a magnificent eulogy of Dominic {Paradiso, 
 canto xii.). He calls him — ■" II santo atleta Benigno ai suoi, cd ai 'nimici 
 crudo " — " the holy wrestler (for the truth), sweet to his own, but stern 
 to his foes." [F. H.] 
 
 Floury : Eccl. Hist. vol. xvi. Milman : Latin Christianity, bk. ix. ch. ix. 
 Mrs. Jameson : Legends of the Monastic Orders. Dante : Paradiso, 
 canto xii. 
 
 INNOCENT III. {Lothair dei Gonti), b. 1161, d. 1216. 
 
 / 
 
 The week of Innocent iii. represents th g influ ence of the Church, 
 at its best and highest point, over the social and political system of the 
 Middle Ages. It records not so much the organisation of Catholicism — 
 thaTT&~fepresented especially in the weeks of Hildebrand and Bossuet in 
 the preceding month of Catholicism — as t he influe nce of the organised 
 churchon the political and social system known as'TTitdalism. The 
 week opens witli St. Leo in the 5th century, who first made this in- 
 fluence a reality, and closes with Innocent iii., imder Avliom the Papacy 
 rose to its greatest height of rearpoweriand of Tnoral authority, and 
 witlT~wh6in that power began to wane. Of this brief, incomplete, and 
 exceedingly checkered career, Innocent iii. represents the most charac- 
 teristic phase. 
 
 Innocent was an Italian of the noble family of the Conti, by his 
 mother's side, of the senatorial house of Scotti. His relations were cardi- 
 nals and ecclesiastics of rank ; Pope Clement in. was his uncle. Born 
 in 1161, he was educated at Pavia, and at Bologna, and, having the highest 
 cKaracIer for learning and morality, he was created Cardinal at the 
 age of 28, and at once became one of the most faithful and trusted 
 counsellors of the See. In 1198, at the age of 37, Lothair, Cardinal 
 Conti, was unanimously chosen Pope ; and, in token of his pure character
 
 294 INNOCENT III. [Feudal 
 
 was hailed as Innocent iii. From the day of his election to the day 
 of his death, during 18 years, Innocent asserted the highest claims of his 
 office. In his inauguration serm5lr"ire bi-ukeibrth' :— " Y6 see what rrtan- 
 I neir of servant that is whom the Lord hath set over his people ; no other 
 than the vicegerent of Christ ; the successor of Peter. He stands in the 
 ' midst between God and man ; below God, above man ; less than God, 
 more than man. He judges aU, is judged by none, for it is written — ' I 
 will judge.'" And in his Decretals (ann. 1200), he says : — "Our power 
 is not from man but from God ; for no rational being can dispute that it 
 is part of our holy office to correct all Christian men whatever for any 
 kind of mortal sin, and if he should make light of our correction to 
 coerce him by the pains and penalties of the Church." 
 
 In this spirit, with wonderful courage, pertinacity, and, it must be 
 said, singleness of aim. Innocent sought for 18 years to control the Chris- 
 tian world. The first care of the new Pope was to re-establish the power 
 of the See in Rome and Italy. All considerations were put aside for the 
 sake of freeing the Papacy from any dangerous rival. The Empire was 
 now vacant by the death of Henry vi., and for ten years— Tl 98-1208— a 
 long and bloody struggle ensued between the rival Emperors, Philip and 
 Otho. Innocent claimed the right of ultimately deciding on the election 
 of the Emperor. He decided for Otho ; and much of the disorder and 
 bloodshed of the war was due to the obstinacy of the Pope. The govern- 
 ing principle of the Pope's action was to obtain an Emperor who could 
 only exist by Papal support. Passing from one claimant to another. 
 Innocent at length (1217) accepted as Emperor, Frederick ii., who proved 
 to be ultimately the most obstinate enemy of theTSeel 
 
 Philip Augustus, King of France, having repudiated his wife Ingeburga 
 (1194), married Agnes of Meran. One of the first of Innocent's acts as 
 Pope was to insist on the restoration of Ingeburga. He sent a Legate 
 to France, and laid the kingdom under an interdict ; and, after a bitter 
 struggle that convulsed the kingdom for three years, Philip took back Inge- 
 burga. A similar struggle took place with England. Beginning with 
 supporting John, Innocent engaged in a fierce conflict with him about the 
 appointment to the See of Canterbury. He annulled the king's nomi- 
 nation, and chose Stephen Langton, an eminent English Cardinal. An 
 interdict laid on the kingdom, and enforced with rigour, drove John to 
 submission, and after a struggle of eight years the King of England con- 
 sented to proclaim himself the vassal of the Pope. Although the Pope 
 henceforward supported John, his action as a whole, and especially his 
 choice of Stephen Langton as Archbishop, greatly contributed to the 
 concession of the Great Charter (1215). 
 
 Thus three great kingdoms — Germany, France, and England — had been 
 under Papal interdict, and the ascendancy of Innocent over their kings 
 had been effected by excommunication. And the same authority was 
 exerted, by the same means, over nearly all the smaller kingdoms of 
 Europe between the Baltic and the Atlantic. 
 
 But no care seemed to Innocent more urgent than the revival of the 
 Crusade for the Holy Land, in spite of the accumulated disasters, crimes, 
 and vices, which for more than a century had marked these wars. Innocent 
 addressed letter after letter to king, prince, and prelate. All Christendom
 
 Civilisation] INNOCENT III. : ST, CLOTILDA 295 
 
 was taxed for the new war. It resulted in the disgraceful Fourth Cru- 
 sade, the only result of which was the capture 6f COBStaiitiliOpre and the 
 estaBlishment of the Latin kingdom of the East (1203). But the most 
 signal example of Innocent's zeal was the terrible crusade against the 
 A lbigenses, t he reformers of the South of France. The result was a 
 frightful religious war, carried OH with" unrelentmg~cruelty for eight years 
 by Simon de Montfort. It was evident that the Catholic world was in 
 imminent danger of disruption through the premature and fanatical 
 reformers of Languedoc, the practical effect of their heresy amounting to 
 the repudiation of Church or priest altogether. The crusade waged by 
 Innocent arrested the schism. But the horrors of this ferocious war, and 
 the inhuman spirit of persecution which it aroused, leave a profound 
 stigma on the memory of the age and of its spiritual chief. More really 
 important, and far more spiritual, was t he estab lishment of the two great 
 militant Orders, that of the Dominicans and f "f anciscans, both of which 
 belong to the age of Innocent. Long doubtful, and even opposed to them, 
 the Pope eventually accepted both. Innocent died in 1216, at the age of 
 55 — the type of all that was noblest, "Strongest, and most arbitrary in 
 the absdlffte creed of Catholicism. The impressive story of his rule is 
 a record of a grand purpose, which contained within itself the germ of 
 corruption, and which even in the purest hands had become a splendid 
 fajlure,. [P. H.] 
 
 Fleury : Eccles. Hist. bk. Ixxvii. ; and 4th Discourse, vol. xvi. Milman : 
 Latin Christianity, bk. ix. De Maistre : Le Pape. Hallam : "'Middle 
 Ages, vol. i. clis. iii. and vii. ~ 
 
 SAINT CLOTILDA, b. 475, d. 545. 
 
 The week dedicated to the rulers Avho directly carried the spirit of 
 Catholicism into their respective governments, opens naturally with the 
 Queen, in the 5th century, who converted the Frank kingdom to orthodox 
 Christianity. She was the daughter of Chilperic, a petty King of Bur- 
 gundy, and was brought up at the court of her uncle Gondebaud. Clovis 
 the young king of the Franks, asked and obtained her hand (493), and was 
 persuaded to allow their children to be baptized. For some years Clovis 
 resisted all her importunities to accept Christianity himself, telling her 
 that her Clirist was neither a powerful warrior nor of royal birth. But 
 in 496, at a battle with the Alemanni, he made a vow to the God of 
 Clotilda in the stress of action ; and on gaining the victory he and his 
 warriors were baptized at Reims by St. Remi. 
 
 Clovis died in 511, and the latter life of his queen was darkened by 
 the savage contests of her three sons for the throne of their father. She 
 survived her husband 34 years, living chiefly at Tours in the practice 
 of good works, supporting her aHlictions with unshaken fortitude and 
 Christian resignation. She founded and endowed many abbeys, churches, 
 and religious houses, the most important of all being the Church of Sainte 
 Genevieve at Paris, which she induced Clovis to found. It is now called 
 the Pantheon : and is become a secular monument — after so singular 
 a history over 14 centuries. She herself, together with Clovis, and many
 
 296- ST. CLOTILDA : ST. BATHILDA [Feudal 
 
 of their descendants, were buried there, and her tomb was a place of pil- 
 grimage down to the Kevolution. She was canonised shortly after death. 
 St. Clotilda has always been the special representative of the Catholicism 
 of the rulers of France, and is in a peculiar sense the royal saint of Paris. 
 Her place in the Calendar is obviously due to the cardinal importance to 
 the covu-se of European history of the conversion of the Frankish kingdom 
 to Christianity. This was in fact the starting-point of the Catholic 
 Feudalism of the Middle Ages, and ultimately of the Empire as its basis 
 and symbol It was the conversion of Clovis, under the influence of his 
 saintly wife, which efi'ectually aided in establishing the kingdom of the 
 Franks, through the welcome everywhere extended to him by the Church. 
 And thus the foundation of the Frank monarchy is here represented by 
 Clotilda, and not by Clovis. [F. H.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. iii. 349. Milman : Latin Christianity, bk. iii. Martin : Histoire 
 de France, vol. i. 
 
 ST. BATHILDA, d. 680. 
 
 Bathilda, of Anglo-Saxon birth, was early made a slave and carried 
 off by a Danish Chief, then purchased by the INIayor of the Palace, who, 
 struck by her surpassing beauty, presented her to Clovis ii., King of the 
 Franks, and son of Dagobert. Clovis made her his wife. On his death 
 (656), leaving by his wife Bathildis three infant sons, she was appointed 
 regent in the name of her son Clotaire iii. She at once established her 
 authority and ruled with wisdom and justice. " Queen Bathildis was 
 the holiest and most devout of women ; her pious munificence knew no 
 bounds ; remembering her own bondage, she set apart vast sums for the re- 
 demption of captives " (Milman). Her beneficence is recorded in all the 
 great abbeys of those times. For some years Bathildis governed well with 
 the aid of Ebroin, Mayor of the Palace, and Leodegar (St. Leger), Bishop 
 of Autun. The rivalries between these two and their factions, and the 
 seditions which followed the death of Clotaire (670), compelled Bathildis 
 to withdraw from the strife. She retired to the great convent of Challes, 
 near Paris, which she had rebuilt, and which remained a royal abbey 
 until the Revolution. There she died (680), and there her remains are said 
 to lie. 
 
 The glory of St. Bathilda is, that on the throne she never forgot her 
 condition of slavery, and in the convent she never remembered that she 
 had been a queen. She used all her efibrts as ruler to suppress slavery 
 and to mitigate the lot of the serf She was singularly beautiful ; and 
 her mind and character corresponded to the grace of her person. Her 
 career belongs to the epoch when personal slavery was being rapidly 
 extinguished in the West under the combined influence of Teutonic man- 
 ners, the growing authority of women, and the teaching of the Church. 
 St. Bathilda, coniljining ull these influences in herself, is one of the noblest 
 types of the spiritual power which ultimately extinguished slavery. 
 
 [F- H.] 
 
 Milman : Latin Christianiti/, bk. iv. Martin : Histoire de France, vol. ii.
 
 Civilisation] ST. MATILDA 297 
 
 ST. MATILDA (Gotintess of Tuscany), b. 1046, d. 1115. 
 
 Matilda, known as the "Great Countess," was the daughter of 
 Boniface ii., Duke of Tuscany, and of Beatrice of Lorraine, and was 
 born in 1046. By the assassination of her father, and the death of his 
 ot'Ker children, she became in early childhood sole heiress to the enor- 
 mous possessions of the Dukes of Tuscany, the virtual sovereigns of 
 Italy, and wa"S"thus the greatest matrimonial prize in Europe. Godfrey 
 of Lorraine married her mother Beatrice, and betrothed Matilda, then 
 aged 8, to Godfrey, the son, called the Hunchback. This marriage 
 was treated by Matilda as a nuUity, nor did they live together as husband 
 and wife. On the death of Godfrey the father, Matilda and her mother 
 Beatrice became the ardent protectors of the Roman See, and the for- 
 midable rivals of the Empire. Hildebrand became To^e in 1074, and 
 for ten years carried on his desperate struggle with Henry iv. Through- 
 out this long duel between the temporal and the spiritual "powefs, 
 Matilda, as t'hrbuglr"life,"sf6bd forward as the armed supporter of the 
 Papacy. -— » --- 
 
 At the age of 30, she lost her mother and her nominal husband, and 
 thenceforth she ruled her vast dominions alone, and placed her formidable 
 military resources at the service of the Pope. Iri""1077 she gave an 
 asyltnn to HOdebrarid in her impregnable fortress of Canossa, La Appulia, 
 and there he forced the Emperor to sue for pardon as a penitent. A 
 few^5^ears later, Hemy recovered his strength, drove the Poj^e from 
 Eome, and Matilda into her mountain strongholds. Continuing, after 
 the death of Gregory, in her hostility to the Emperor on behalf of the 
 Holy See, Matilda, at the age of 43, on the advice of the Pope, married 
 Guelf, son of the Duke of Bavaria, the rival of the Emperor (1089) ; but 
 the marriage was soon repudiated by her husband, who separated from 
 her, and joined the cause of the Emperor. For 25 years yet, Matilda 
 alone continued to hold her own against the utmost resource^'of 
 the Empire, and established herself as virtual sovereign of Central Italy. 
 She maintained the independence of the Popes during the long reign of 
 Henry iv. ; and on the accession of his son, Henry v., in 1106, Matilda, 
 now a woman of 60, continued to confront him with policy, if not with 
 arms. The young Emperor treated her with filial deference, and con- 
 firmed her authority in Northern Italy. She still ruled with undiminished 
 energy until the age of 69, when she died, worn out by disease and the 
 incessant strain of war and diplomacy, in 1115. 
 
 In 1 102 she confirmed, at the desire of Pp£e Pascal ii., her gift of 
 all her estates of every kind to the Papal See. The deed (which in its 
 exfahf form is doubtful) conveys her fiefs and allodial possessions, in 
 free and immediate gift, including Tuscany, the central Italian duchies, 
 Umbria, and the " States of the Church." Controversy has raged from 
 that time to this as to the exact form of this gift, as to its date and 
 circumstances, as to its legal validity, and as to its practical eftect. As 
 a full transfer of the whole of her hereditary possessions, amounting to 
 a quarter of all Italy, such a gift could give no title in law, and it 
 certainly did not take actual effect. On the other hand, it certainly 
 formed the basis of the temporal power of the Popes as it existed down
 
 298 ST. MATILDA : ST. STEPHEN OF HUNGARY [Feudal 
 
 to our o wn day. The independence of the Head of Christendom from 
 teihporarrulers is a question too large to be here "debated. To secure it 
 in some form was a condition of the formation of a real spiritual power. 
 And of all the temporal sovereigns by whom it was secured, Matilda 
 was^TTfiiongst the chief. She is the Queen Elizabeth of Catholicism, 
 with the same courage and subtlety, the same skill in ruling a kingdom, 
 and the same determination to gain her end at all costs. She was a 
 woman of varied ability, speaking equally German, French, and Italian, 
 an earnest promoter of learning, of law, and theology, an intense and 
 faithful believer, and a staunch supporter of her friends. [F. H.] 
 
 Fleury : Eccles. Hist. bk. xii. Milman : Latin Christianity, bk. vii. De 
 Maistre : Le Pape. «^-<-^- 
 
 ST. STEPHEN OF HUNGARY, b. 969, d. 1038. 
 
 St. Stephen, the founder of the kingdom of Hungary and of its 
 Christian civilisation, was born at Gran, the ancient capital, about 969. 
 His father was Geyza, Duke of Hungary ; his mother was Sarolta, 
 daughter of the Duke of Transylvania, who, during a mission to Con- 
 stantinople, had embraced Christianity. The young Prince himself 
 received adult baptism from St. Adalbert, the missionary Bishoji of 
 Prague, and changed his native name of Vayik for that of Stephen. 
 In 997 Stephen succeeded his father as Duke ; and at once, inspired by 
 the faith of his wife Gisella, a sister of the Emperor Henry ii., by her 
 Bavarian attendants and the monks and missionaries already established 
 in the country, he set about the task of completing the conversion of 
 Hungary from Paganism to Christianity. This he effected by example, 
 exhortation, policy, and the sword. He divided the country into church 
 dioceses and districts, placing the metropolitan seat at Gran ; and he 
 covered it Avith castles and strong places to defend at once his own 
 authority and the new Church. 
 
 Stei:)hen decided to seek for both a special consecration from the 
 Head of Western Christendom. In the year 1000 he despatched to 
 Pope Sylvester ii. (Gerbert) at Rome a magnificent embassy, asking the 
 crown for Hungary and the confirmation of his new hierarchy. Sylvester 
 was deliglited by such devotion : granted to Stephen and his successors 
 the title of the " Apostolic King," the right to bear in iniblic the double 
 cross as a sign of independent ecclesiastical authority ; and he sent 
 the famous crown still venerated as the sacred symbol of Hungarian 
 sovereignty. This ancient tie between the Magyar ruler and the I^qjacy 
 subsists throughout Hungarian history. Hungary, placed between the 
 anti-Papal Empire in Germany and the non-Catholic races on their east, 
 seized on the moral support which Rome could give it ; whilst the 
 prophetic soul of Sylvester saw with visions of hope the free devotion of 
 the Apostolic Kingdom to the Holy See. Armed with its authority, 
 Stephen turned his arms eastwards, drove out his uncle, Duke of 
 Transylvania, who had raised the standard of the old faith, and effectively 
 established his power over the kingdom of Hungary as known in 
 mediaeval history.
 
 Civilisation] ST. STEPHEN OF HUNGARY 299 
 
 Then for 20 years Stephen had rest, and devoted his energies to the 
 organising of his country into a Christian kingdom. "The Christian 
 Church was the corner-stone of all social and political order in the days 
 of Stephen," says the Hungarian historian of his country. And then he 
 ordered the system of the national church with a completeness, a muni- 
 ficence, and a skill which were not surpassed in mediiseval Europe. At 
 the same time he settled the political and social order of the kingdom 
 in the spirit in which William of Normandy a generation later settled 
 England, and with care not to dismember the royal authority, as was 
 done by the feudatory system in Germany and in France. The death of 
 Stephen's brother-in-law, the Emperor Henry ii., exposed Hungary to 
 attack from Conrad ii., his successor in the Empire, 1030. But the 
 heroic resistance of the King and his people drove back the Emperor, and 
 compelled him to acknowledge their independence. Stephen's last years 
 were overshadowed by the death of his only son, by his own diseases, 
 and domestic dissensions about the succession. He died in 1038, after 
 a reign of 38 years, at the age of 69, and was canonised five centuries 
 later. His right hand and his crown are still preserved as relics and 
 symbols of Hungarian nationality. 
 
 He was truly the Alfred of Hungary, like our great king in courage, 
 energy, zealous religion, and pure morality. His noble words of advice 
 to his son remain ; and may be placed beside some of the best thoughts 
 of the Saxon. " The Church," it has been said, " has placed him amongst 
 the saints : history among the legislators." [F. H.] 
 
 Mrs. Jameson : Legends of the Monastic Orders. Milnian : Latin Chris- 
 tianity, vol. ii. bk. vi. Hungary, by Arminius Vambery. 
 
 MATTHIAS CORVINUS, b. 1443, d. 1490. 
 
 Matthias, the last great king of independent Hungary, was the 
 younger son of the national hero in the long war with tlie Turks, John 
 Hunyadi. He was born in 1443, and from childhood was trained by his 
 father to arms and command. On the death of the child king, 
 Ladislaus v., and the murder of liis own brothei' Ladislaus by a faction, 
 Matthias was chosen king, at the age of fifteen, 1458. The young King- 
 soon proved himself to be one of the most consunnnate soldiers and most 
 successful sovereigns in Europe. His personal prowess was that of a 
 knight-errant ; he would himself enter an enemy's camp alone, as a spy ; 
 and he trained the Hungarian army to a perfection which nothing m 
 Europe could surpass. His reign was one of incessant war with the Turks 
 and the Danubian chieftains on his eastern frontier, with the kings of 
 Poland and Bohemia on his north, and with the Emperor on the west. 
 His valour, skill, and discipline brought all his campaigns to a successful 
 issue. Ho drove the Sultan to sue for peace, overran the kingdoms 
 round Hungary on the north, twice sul)dued the Emperor, and finally 
 took Vienna, conquering the Austrian States (1486), which he held till 
 his death. 
 
 He established a guard of picked troops on the model of the Turkish 
 Janissaries, and was the first sovereign of Euro2)e to imitate the practice
 
 300 MATTHIAS CORVINUS : ST. ELIZABETH [Feudal 
 
 of Louis XI. of France, by creating a regular standing army. He was a 
 stem and indefatigable disciplinarian, and one of the creators of modern 
 systematic strategy. Nor was he less active and successful in the arts 
 of peace. He increased the wealth and resources of Hungary, with 
 which he eclipsed his contemporaries in splendour of state and in literary 
 and artistic culture. His embassies thronged and dazzled the courts of 
 Europe ; he married Beatrice, daughter of Ferdinand, King of Naples, 
 and established intimate relations between Hungary and Italy. He in- 
 vited learned men, artists, and copyists to his court ; established at Buda 
 one of the most famous libraries of the Renascence, numbering 30,000 
 volumes. After the fatal day of Mohacz (1541) and the sack of Buda, 
 the library was dispersed, and portions of it have lately been discovered 
 in the old Seraglio at Constantinople. He established the University of 
 Buda and an observatory, and introduced into Hungary the use of 
 printed books. He also published a code of laws known as the Great 
 Charter. After a reign of 22 years, Matthias died suddenly at Vienna 
 in 1490, aged 47, the ideal of the feudal chief of a warlike and romantic 
 age. He left no heir, and, after 500 years from Stephen, Hungary passes 
 out of history as a great and independent kingdom. 
 
 The feudal civilisation of Europe had practically come to an end 
 nearly two centuries before. Such men as Villiers, Don Juan, Albu- 
 querque, Ealeigh, Matthias, and Sobieski represent those who in later 
 ages prolonged the spirit of chivalry in defending Christendom from the 
 Moslem, or in bringing outlying and backward races within the in- 
 fluence of Western civilisation. [F. H.] 
 
 Hungary, by Arminius Vamliery. 
 
 ST. ELIZABETH OF HUNGARY, b. 1207, d. 1231. 
 
 St. Elizabeth, in the Catholic hagiology the type of womanly 
 charity, represents in the month of Charlemagne, the power of women to 
 ennoble the feudal chivalry. Although legend has surrounded her life 
 with miracle, the essential facts are historical, and her real character and 
 work are beyond doubt. 
 
 She was the daughter of Andrew ii., King of Hungary, was born in 
 1207, and at the age of four was betrothed to Louis, son of the Land- 
 grave of Tluiringia. She Avas brought up in the court of her future 
 husband ; and the Lives of the Saints are full of beautiful stories of her 
 infantine graces and girlish sanctity. At the age of fifteen she was 
 married to Louis, now of age and reigning Duke ; and completed the 
 ascendancy over him which she had exercised from their childhood. He 
 was in every way worthy of her : his chosen motto was : " Pie, caste, juste." 
 
 Their short married life of six years is represented as the type of 
 conjugal purity, unl)ounded charity, tender thankfulness for tlie welfare 
 of their people, and the spiritual ascendancy of a saintly woman. The 
 legends of her graces and virtues, of her beauty, sweetness, piety, 
 benevolence, self-denial, and aftection are amongst the most pathetic in 
 the whole Catholic hagiology, mingled as they are with morbid asceticism 
 and mystical extravagance.
 
 Civilisation] ST. ELIZABETH OF HUNGARY 301 
 
 When the Pope summoned Frederick ii. to a new crusade, Louis 
 followed the Emperor, and died of fever on his road, at Otranto, in 
 1227. The young widow, just 20, with her four children, was driven from 
 her castle of Wartburg, which three centuries later became the refuge of 
 Luther, wherein he completed his translation of the Bible. Elizabeth 
 declined the regency in the name of her infant son, withdrew to Marburg 
 with her daughters, and devoted herself wholly to a life of penance and 
 charity, under the direction of her confessor Conrad. After a few years 
 of self-imposed sufferings, she died at the age of 24, in 1231, it would 
 seem worn out by her zeal for good works and the cruel orders of her 
 spiritual tyrant. She died as a hermit, with the Franciscan cord round 
 her ; and her shrine in the St. Elizabeth Church of Marburg was long 
 one of the centres of German pilgrimage, till it was brutally violated by 
 her descendant Philip of Hesse, at the Reformation. 
 
 Elizabeth forms one of the most cherished figures in the art, the 
 legend, the poetry of Catholicism. And although much in the Legend 
 of St. Elizabeth is chUdish, and not a little is repulsive, the substance of 
 it remains as a perpetual type of the power exerted by the nobler women 
 of feudalism in fusing chivalry with the spirit of Christian charity, and 
 in raising the mediaeval chief to a sense of social obligation. [F. H.] 
 
 Count Montalembert : History of St. JElizabeth (18B8), translated by Ambrose 
 Lisle Phillips, 1839. Charles Kingsley : The Saint's Tragedy, Mrs. 
 Jameson : Legends of the Monastic Orders. 
 
 BLANCHE OF CASTILE, b. 1188, d. 1252. 
 
 Blanche of Castile was the sister of Alfonso ix.. King of 
 Castile, and the aunt of Ferdinand iii.. King of Castile and Arragon. 
 She was probably born in 1188, and at the age of fourteen was married 
 to Louis, afterwards Louis viii. of France, in the lifetime of his father 
 Philip Augustus. Louis viii. succeeded his father in 1223, but died after 
 a short and not important reign in 1226. Then Blanche became Regent 
 in the name of her son Louis ix., a boy of eleven, being herself in her 39th 
 year. For ten years she ruled France Avith consummate energy, prudence, 
 and success. Her rule is a real continuation of the policy of Philip 
 Augustus, and forms an integral part of the reign of Saint Louis himself. 
 Again, during the absence of the King on his first crusade, Blanche was 
 his Viceroy (1248-1252) ; and it was owing to her genius for command 
 and unflinching energy that the kingdom was spared many of the 
 disasters in which Louis' crusade would have involved it. 
 
 Blanche was thus, during fourteen years of critical importance in the 
 history of the monarchy, the true sovereign of France. " This woman," 
 says the historian Henri Martin, " the greatest who had borne the crown 
 since Brunehilda, was worthy to rule and defend the inheritance of 
 Philip Augustus : she had the same thirst and genius for rule, with a 
 like energy, courage, and perseverance. She had in truth all the manly 
 virtues without sacrificing anything of the grace and address of woman." 
 Blanche, who came of a race of great riders, and had lived for 26 years 
 in the court of Philip Augustus and of his son, showed every quality of a
 
 302 BLANCHE OF CASTILE [Feudal 
 
 consummate sovereign. She was untiring, politic, adroit, prudent, and wise. 
 WhUst resolved to maintain the independence and sovereign authority 
 of the monarchy, even against the encroachments of the Church, she was 
 a devout Catholic and a staunch friend of the spiritual authority of the 
 Pope. She retained to old age the proud and refined beauty of Spain, 
 and permitted it to count amongst her powers of influence. The tales 
 which attribute scandal to the poetic gallantry of Thibaud, Count of 
 Champagne, and to her politic friendship with the Papal Legate, are 
 doubtless party calumnies. 
 
 She brought up her son in the spirit of exalted piety and of avistere 
 morality which he showed through life. She acquired an unbounded 
 influence over the spirit of Saint Louis, and trained him in the wise 
 principles of State which he maintained as iKing. She saved France 
 from the consequences of a celibate sovereign by marrying Louis at the 
 
 I age of 20 to Margaret of Provence, a wife in all things worthy of him. 
 And almost the only act of Louis in direct conflict with her advice and 
 remonstrance was the disastrous crusade which he undertook in 1248. 
 On the death of her husband Louis viii., Blanche had secured the 
 crown of her son, and her own authority as Kegent with consummate 
 address. And after ten years of rule not unworthy of Philip Augustus 
 himself, she handed over the sovereignty to Saint Louis in as flourishing 
 a condition as she had herself received it. During the twelve years that 
 intervened before the departure of St. Louis for Egypt, she continued to 
 exercise a dominant influence over her son. And, although her strong 
 and imperious nature pressed hardly on the gentle soul of Louis, and 
 with cruel and perhaps jealous severity on his young and amiable wife, 
 it does not appear that his mother unduly or mischievously interfered in 
 matters of State. Her rule in France, both during the minority and 
 5 during the absence of the King, was peaceful, wise, and just ; and if 
 Blanche had little of the saintly simplicity and the exquisite unselfish- 
 ness of the most holy of the kings, she trained him in things spiritual as 
 well as things temporal, and she had the sagacity to avoid some of the 
 heroic blunders of her son. [F. H.] 
 
 Joinville : Life of St. Louis. Martin : Histoire de France, vol. iv. Mil- 
 man : Latin Christianity, bk. xi. i«w*.»~ 
 
 ST. FERDINAND {Ferdinand III.), b, abt. 1200, d. 1252. 
 
 St. Ferdinand of Castile was the son of Alfonso ix.. King of Leon, 
 and Berengaria, daughter of Alfonso ix.. King of Castile. After a union 
 of several years and the birth of four children, a decree of the Pope 
 separated Berengaria from her husband, whilst declaring the legitimacy 
 of her children. Berengaria retired with her children to her father, the 
 King of Castile. On the death of her brother, Henry i., she procured the 
 throne of Castile for her eldest son, Ferdinand (1217). After some years 
 of successful rule, the death of his father, Alfonso, placed Ferdinand on 
 the throne of Leon (1230). Thus he finally reunited the kingdoms of 
 Castile and Leon, which had been seimrated for more than 70 years ; 
 and by reviving the old Gothic monarchy in tlie heart of the peninsula 
 reaUy founded the kingdom of Spain.
 
 Civilisation] ST. FERDINAND : ALFONSO X. 303 
 
 Ferdinand, at once combining the force of the two kingdoms, sup- 
 pressed the civil war begun by the ambitious house of Lara, and then 
 burst into the Moorish province of Andalusia, and took its magnificent 
 capital, Cordova. In a series of campaigns spread over eighteen years 
 he followed up his victories, and finally (1248) reduced the splendid and 
 populous city of Seville, and brought the teeming valley of the Quadal- 
 quivir, it is said, with 12,000 villages and towns, under the sway of 
 Christendom. We are told that more than 400,000 Moors of all ages 
 and both sexes, with countless Jews, were driven over into Africa. 
 
 The Moors were thus, by the middle of the 13th century, driven 
 back into the kingdom of Grenada, in the mountains of the Sierra 
 Nevada, where for 250 years they still stood stubbornly at bay. Ferdi- 
 nand, like his first cousin, St. Louis of France, devoted his whole life to 
 establish the Christian faith by the sword, and made a vow never to 
 draw it in Christian conflict. This of course is quite consistent with his 
 zeal as a persecutor of all heretics and of the Albigensian refugees in 
 particular. He is represented in Spanish poetry by Calderon in an 
 Auto-Historial, and even in pictures, as bringing fagots with his own 
 hand to burn unbelievers. By his wife Beatrice of Swabia, sister of the 
 Emperor Frederick ii., he was the father of Alfonso x., King of Castile 
 and Leon. 
 
 Like St. Louis, he is famous for his vehement piety, his love for his 
 mother, and his incessant war on the infidel. Ford calls him " the best of 
 kings, the bravest of warriors." He founded the Cathedral of Burgos 
 and began to rebuild that of Toledo. A saying of his is recorded : " I fear 
 the curse of one poor old woman more than a whole army of Moors ! " 
 After his conquest of Andalusia he was meditating a crusade, when he 
 was overtaken by dropsy. He died in the garb of a penitent, on a bed 
 of ashes, a cord round his neck, his royal emblems laid aside, and a 
 crucifix in his hand, May 1252. He was canonised in 1668 ; and is 
 revered in Spain as their Saint Louis, the founder of the Christian 
 monarchy of Spain. [F. H.] 
 
 Ascargorta : History of Spain, ch. v. Hall am : Middle Ages, ch. iv. Mrs. 
 Jameson : Legends of the Monastic Orders. " ' ' ^ 
 
 ALFONSO X., b. 1226, d. 1284. 
 
 Alfonso, commonly called the Wise, was the eldest son of Ferdinand in., 
 whom he succeeded as Alfonso x.. King of Castile and Leon, in 1252. 
 He continued the victorious career of his father against the Moors of 
 Grenada, and crushed the insurrection of his own vassal barons. He 
 received with nmch warmth our Prince Edward, afterwards known as 
 King Edward l, made him knight, and gave him in marriage his daughter, 
 Eleanor. In 1266 he crowned his victories over the Moors of Grenada 
 by a very favourable alliance with the Emir. Through his father 
 Ferdinand, Alfonso was in the direct line of descent from Charles the 
 Great, and through his mother from Frederick Burbarossa and the 
 Swabian Emperors. This filled him with the foolish ambition of being 
 chosen to succeed to the Imperial throne, and for many years his life
 
 304 ALFONSO X. : ST. LOUIS [Feudal 
 
 was absorbed in efibrts to secure his election. With the election of 
 Rudolph of Hapsburg, in 1273, his claims were eflFectually crushed. 
 
 His latter years were clouded by domestic insurrections, and a league 
 of rebel vassals, headed by his own son Sancho. He died in 1282, aged 
 58. The importance of Alfonso in the 13th century lies entirely in his 
 zeal for science and literature, by which he has gained the name of Sabto, 
 which should be translated the Learned rather than the Wise, for in 
 practical wisdom Alfonso did not shine. He acquired his love of learn- 
 ing from the Arabs, with whom he held much intercourse, and eventually 
 made peace on friendly terms. He did not share the fanatical zeal of 
 his father ; but was wise enough to recognise the value of the superior 
 knowledge of the infidel. As was his famous uncle, Frederick ii., whom 
 he so much resembles in his character as in his life, Alfonso was charged 
 with laxity of faith, indulgence for the unbeliever, and a tendency 
 towards the black art. It is of him that the famous saying is recorded : 
 " Had he been consulted at the Creation, he could have suggested some 
 improveihents." 
 
 He founded the famous University of Salamanca, established the 
 national language, began the national history, and the fundamental code 
 of laws for the kingdom. His great gift to science was the Alfonsine 
 Tables, a series of astronomical calculations, the work of Arabian astro- 
 nomers whom he invited to his court, which were in use in Europe down 
 to the 16th century. His famous Code of the Siete Partidas, or seven 
 chapters, was a codification of the old Spanish Fucros, or customary law, 
 mingled with passages from the Corpus Juris. He commenced the 
 Chronicle of Spain — a national history from the earliest times down to 
 that of his father Ferdinand iii. This was a compilation, in fact, from 
 Arabian historians, and in a large measure was the work of Alfonso him- 
 self. He also wrote a Sacred History, a history of Jerusalem. And he 
 was a poet not without merit. "We still have his lyrical outpouring of 
 heart over the rebellion of his son Sancho. He was also addicted to 
 alchemy, in which art he advanced far enough to be a systematic debaser 
 of the royal mint. 
 
 He owes his place in the week of St. Louis, like INIatthias Corvinus, 
 to his success in promoting the intellectual rather than the political 
 civilisation of his country. He has many of the qualities of his uncle 
 Frederick ii., and some of those of his son-in-law, Edward i. of England. 
 Allowing for the differences between the 9th and the 13th centuries, 
 Ferdinand in. and his son, Alfonso, between them, supply for Spain 
 that which England found in her great King Alfred. [F. H.] 
 
 Ascargorta : History of Spain, cli. v. Hallam : Middle Ages, ch. iv. 
 
 ST. LOUIS, b. 1215, d. 1270. 
 
 The week of St. Louis is devoted to those rulers of the mediteval 
 monarchies who endeavoured to make their reign realise the Catholic 
 ideal of the Christian king. Of these, Louis ix.^^King of France, is the 
 true hero. All of those in the week were princes ; seven of them are 
 saints ; five of them are women ; and St. Louis himself had many of the
 
 Civilisation] ST. LOUIS 305 
 
 best qualities of woman. It is significant that, in the month devoted to 
 Feudal Civilisation, there is hardly a single type of the subordinate feudal 
 chief except the Cid, Tancred, and Godfrey. All the rest are sovereigns, 
 churchmen, or women. St. Louis is the best representative of the 13th 
 century with all its heroism, its devotion, its faith, and its passionate 
 and childlike extravagance. 
 
 "St. Louis was born in 1215, the son of Louis viii.. King of France, 
 and Blanche of Castile. PhilipAiigiistus, his grandfather, died in 1223, 
 and LTTtrts'Tirr. three years aHerwards ; and, in 1226, Louis ix. found 
 himself King of France at the age of 11. His mother Blanche, with 
 skin and courage as Kegent, secured his throne ; and then brought up 
 the'child with the sternest discipline of monastic piety. St. Louis was a 
 monk on the throne. His austere asceticism outdid that of the cloister : 
 his fasting, his continence, his penances, his devotions, and minute observ- * 
 ance of all ritual duties were the wonder and admiration of his age. 
 But his character had far higher vu-tues. He had none of the harshness 
 of the ecclesiastic ; he had all the courtesy of the most graceful knight. 
 He had" all the brightne§3"of a French prince with a peculiar gentleness 
 and sweetness of nature that were all his own. His sincerity, earnest- 
 ness, patience, industry, humanity, and humble heroism make him the 
 ideal of the Christian soldier and the Catholic king. He would wa^ 
 theTeeT of beggars, invite the poor to his own table, tend the sick in 
 the hospitals, he would even kiss a leper in the highway. He devoted 
 himself to the writings of the Fathers. He was strictly conscientious 
 in resisting all temptations to aggression, injustice, rapacity, or self- 
 aggrandisement. He was legislator as well as ruler ; and, Catholic saint 
 as he was, he was the founder of the temporal independence of the 
 Gallican Church, and never sank the king in the devotee except in his 
 two disastrous and useless crusades. 
 
 At the age of 20, Louis was married to Margaret, one of the four 
 daughters of the Count of Provence, a wife whose faithfulness, tenderness, 
 and nobility of nature were worthy of such a husband. At the age of 
 21, Louis entered on the conduct of affairs, still relying on the experience 
 and wisdom of his mother (1236). As king, Louis carried on the policy 
 of Philip Augustus in augmenting the power of the crown ; but no 
 ambition, intrigue, or injustice can be laid to his charge. He bore him- 
 self as a loyal and peaceful neutral in the struggles between the Empire 
 and the Papacy, refused all tempting offers of aggrandisement, the 
 throne of the Two Sicilies for his son and the imperial crown for his 
 brother ; and he directed liis whole efforts to prepare his own country 
 for that which \vas the dream of his life, the rescue from the infidel of 
 the Holy Land. 
 
 In spite of the reluctance of many of his barons, the entreaties of his ' 
 mother, and the counter policy of Innocent iv., Louis set forth to Egypt j 
 to conquer a base of operations for the recovery of the Holy Land (1248). I 
 His disasters, his defeats, his captivity, his martyr-like heroism, and his 
 chivalrous bearing have been recounted in one of the most precious 
 volumes of the Middle Ages, the fascinating narrative of Joinville, his 
 friend and comrade, one of the founders of French prose style. After 
 four years of suffering and disappointment, unbroken by gleams of 
 
 U
 
 306 ST. LOUIS [Feudal 
 
 anything bright but his own knightly and saintly nature, Louis returned 
 to his throne in 1252. There for 18 years he ruled France with wisdom, 
 I firmness, patience, justice, and mercy. Then he undertook his second 
 [crusade to Tunis, an expedition still more ill-judged, useless, and 
 [chimerical than his former descent on Egypt. Disease, even more than 
 the arms of the Moors, swept away the host. After seeing his son John 
 and his principal followers die of the plague, Louis himself was seized 
 with mortal sickness. He called his son Philip, his heir, to his side, gave 
 him a noble sermon on his duty to God and to his people ; then he 
 received the sacrament, and, lying on a bed of ashes, gave up his life, 
 1270, having lived 55 years and having reif^ned 44. 
 ■"Except in his disastrous crusades (and these were rather the Quixotic 
 adventures of the knight-errant than the religious extravagances of the 
 ' saint) St. Louis by no means forfeited the character of a real and wise ruler. 
 He is one of the few Christian kings who recognised that his religion 
 implied a practical policy of peace. Peace throughout the Christian 
 world was the ideal at which he ever laboured ; and peace within the 
 king's dominion was to him the first duty of a sovereign. He rigorously 
 suppressed private wars between vassals, and judicial duels in all their 
 forms. He was a stern judge of feudal oppression and military licence. 
 By his Pragmatic Sanction, 1269, he restrained the exactions of the Papal 
 emissaries and claimed for his own ecclesiastics the free use of their 
 admitted functions. He reformed the coinage, reorganised the police, 
 personally assisted at the seat of justice, and began to give some system 
 to the feudal law by the publication of a code of rules known as the 
 Establishnunts of Saint Louis. Eude and ill-arranged as are these 
 provisions, the weak always gain by the publication on authority of a 
 central written code. 
 
 Though no men could be more unlike in character, the royalty of 
 St. Louis had many of the civic features which marked that of h is grim 
 descendant and great successor, Louis xi. The great blots upSn his 
 reign are his two crusades, which, as' Joinville saw'so clearly, were ruinous 
 to the nation, and his own avowed preference for the monkish cowl in 
 place of the crown. But it is a fine remark of H. IMartin that we cannot 
 separate such a character, and judge him to be a great ruler except when 
 he made himself a Catholic devotee. His nature and his career are a 
 perfect i^iece ; his virtues as a king fiow from his piety as a saint. The 
 beautiful adclresfe^o""tiis successor which Joinville has preserved for us 
 gives the noblest ideal of the Christian king ; one worthy of Alfred him- 
 self, in which his pul^lic duty is the direct expression of personal religion. 
 The Quixotism which so cruelly maimed his life was the necessary result 
 of intense faith in a visionary creed working on a nature of absolute 
 I guilelessness and perfect chivalry. And the disasters of his crusades 
 ; lade out of sight in the glow which his heroic and saintly life shed over 
 '■ his age, his nation, and his dynasty. 
 
 Saint Louis was no Edward the Confessor or Henry in., no mere 
 crowned zealot, but a Christian king of the kin of Alfred and Godfrey. 
 His whole epoch is ennobled by the beautiful picture of the devout and 
 knightly prince as painted for us by his friend and counsellor Joinville, 
 Seneschal of Champagne. The portrait of Louis administering justice
 
 Civilisation] ST. LOUIS 307 
 
 under the oak at Vincennes or in his palace on the island of the cite at 
 Paris, of his taking the cross, of his acts as commander, of his sweetness, 
 patience, constancy, courage, simplicity, and charity, and "lastly of his 
 pathetic death-bed — wiU long live in the literature of his country. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 Johiville : Life of Saint Louis. H. Martin : History of France, vol. iv. 
 Milman: Latin Christianity, bk. xi.
 
 MODERN POETRY. 
 
 rPHE immense variety of Modern Life and the development of new 
 forms of imaginative art under industrial manners, naturally 
 conduce to a great extension of the field of poetry, when recent centuries 
 are compared with antiquity. And in consequence two months — one 
 devoted to Modern Epic and Romantic Poetry, the other to the Modern 
 Drama — are needed for the same field which the 34 poets of the month 
 of Homer occupy in the ancient world. Of modern poets, 49 are 
 included in the month of Dante, and 44 in that of Shakespeare. The 
 Calendar thus contains no less than 127 names in the field of creative 
 art, or not much less than one quarter of the whole. Such is the large 
 part which Comte assigned to the imagination in the evolution of 
 human society. 
 
 Under the general title of Poetry are included all forms of creative 
 art : whether Epic, Lyric, or Romantic poetry proper ; prose romances, 
 idylls, allegories, chronicles, or meditations ; even painting and sculpture : 
 — indeed every work of imagination in any medium. This is not at all 
 intended to disguise the essential diflference between Poetry proper and 
 Prose, even when prose is made a vehicle for pure fancy, as it is in 
 Don Quixote or Pilgrim's Progress. Poetry and prose remain distinct 
 forms of art, almost as completely as painting and sculpture. But there 
 is no common term which will cover the products of all types of 
 imaginative art. And thus, for want of a better word. Poetry, or the 
 Work of the Makers, has to serve as the name for all modes in which 
 the creative faculty of Man expresses imaginative thought. 
 
 In some respects the ancient world was more favourable to the 
 production of the highest poetry than the modern world. Society was, 
 and was universally lelt to be, both more homogeneous and harmonious 
 in its constitution, and also more stable and regular in its movement. 
 The infinite variety of social activity in the last five centuries of Europe, 
 and the incessant conflicts and permutations in social life, if they 
 stimulate mental originality, are not favourable to perfect art. Again, 
 in the ancient world, the poets were the recognised exponents of the 
 spiritual and religious ideas of their age ; there was no deep-seated 
 revolt against these ideas ; and no organised Church between the poets 
 and their audience. They had no orthodoxy to which men were bound 
 to conform : and no priesthood by whom their works must be judged. 
 
 Thus it comes about that Modern Poetry, even from its birth with 
 Dante, has had, almost in spite of its own instincts, a Revolutionary and 
 critical element, which inevitably weakens it in its grandest flights ; 
 nay, which sometimes is the direct insjiiration of its work. And from 
 the same social situation have arisen the imdtiplicity, the audacity, the 
 intense vitality and versatility of the creative genius in modern ages. 
 With Dante, it calls to judgment Popes, Emjjerors, and States : with 
 Rabelais, Cervantes, and Swift, it paints in profound caricature human 
 society as known to its contemporaries : with Scott, it glorifies the Past 
 308
 
 MODERN POETRY 309 
 
 at the expense of the Present : with Bjrron and Shelley, it honours the 
 Future at the expense of Past and Present alike : nay, it actually 
 idealises Revolt and Anarchy as higher manifestations of human 
 freedom. 
 
 All this is unfiivourable to pure Art, though it stimulates new modes 
 of creation and has won splendid triumphs for independent genius. 
 That Poetry, under conditions so difficult to Art, has produced such a 
 glorious roll of varied works, and has idealised every mode and corner 
 of modern life — is indeed one of the clearest marks of the innate powers 
 of Man. We see, then, in Modern Poetry, with all its inevitable failures, 
 the sure promise of an even more glorious epoch of genius, under a 
 system of society favourable at once to freedom, to peace, to harmony, 
 and to beauty. The creations of Dante and his fellow-poets were 
 produced for the most part in a world where none of these were abiding 
 spirits. 
 
 The weeks of this Eighth Month are arranged in the Calendar 
 without reference to national peculiarities or contemporary epochs. The 
 names of all European races stand side by side, reaching from the 
 12th to the 19th century. Only one-third of the 49 names are those of 
 men who have written in verse. 
 
 In the first week, under Ariosto, are grouped those who, in prose or 
 verse, have created ideal pictures of human nature in its various aspects, 
 formed the poetry of manners, and have told in its infinite moods the 
 legend of modern society. The great masters of character, whose subject 
 is Man, whose vehicle is not the drama, come in this group. 
 
 The second week, under Raphael, is given to the great workers in 
 the arts of form — painters, sculptors, architects — -chiefly to the painters 
 as dealing with the most elementary and widely diffused of all the visual 
 arts. Herein are commemorated not so much the most eminent of 
 artists as the chief representatives of the art of various nations, schools, 
 and modes of working. Modern a>stheticism would frame a somewhat 
 different roll, and may regret the absence of Giotto, Mantegna, Diirer, or 
 Correggio. But the list is not designed to be a classification in order of 
 merit : it is a set of representative and contrasted types. 
 
 The third week, under Tasso, is given to the poetry of Chivalry, the 
 idealisation of knightly virtues and the romance of adventure. 
 
 The fourth week, under Milton, belongs to the poetry of feeling : to 
 religious poetry in its widest sense, to the lyrics of the heart, to the 
 mystics, the pantheists ; the poets of the human soul in all its moods 
 and 'yearnings from that of A Kempis and Bunyan to that of Byron and 
 Shelley. [F. H.]
 
 310, DANTE [MoDERN 
 
 DANTE {Durante Alighieri), b. 1265, d. 1321. 
 
 Of the great poet of Italy, who opened the roll of modern literature, 
 little is known but what we can gather from his own writings. And 
 that little has been reduced by remorseless modern research to a very 
 few definite facts. The latest authorities roundly declare the biography 
 of the poet hitherto current to be mere romance, and bid us trust to 
 none but Villani and contemporary documents. And certainly no one 
 can now attempt to record it without duly weighing all that is 
 elaborately discussed by Scartazzini in his recent volume iv. {Pro- 
 legomeni Mia Divina Commedia, Leipzig, 1890). Happily the poet 
 himself, in his numerous works, all so intensely personal and passionate, 
 has given us ample insight into the inner man and the general conditions 
 of his life. At least we may know him if we may not know more. 
 The following facts contain almost all that is beyond suspicion or 
 controversy. 
 
 Dante was born in Florence, in or near to May 1265, of an honour- 
 able family of ancient descent, though not on the roil" of nobles. He 
 proudly traced his ancestry to Cacciaguida, a knight in the service of 
 the Emperor Conrad, born 1090, who died in arms against the Saracen 
 and passed from that martyrdom to Heaven {Paradiso, xv. 148). 
 Cacciaguida, by his wife "from the valley of the Po," had a son 
 Aldighiero, whose son was Bellincione, whose son, again, was Alighiero, 
 who was father of the poet, by Bella, his second wife. Of all of these 
 nothing more is known. There is no trace of a family of Alighieri at 
 Florence, and of the rank or condition of its members nothing has been 
 discovered, except that they were certainly Guelfs, and had twice 
 suffered exile. 
 
 Of the early education of the poet we know nothing beyond the 
 rhetorical statement of Boccaccio, that he was one of the most accom- 
 plished scholars of his age, and the poet's own assertion that his mind had 
 been profoundly impressed by constant intercourse with Brunetto Latini, 
 a man of great learning, and, in spite of his vices, of commanding charac- 
 ter and influence in the city. At the age of 24, Dante, then used to 
 anns, took part in]_the bloody battle of Campaldino, where the Ghibellines 
 were annihilated. And again in the same year he was present at the 
 capture of Caprona, a fortress held by the Pisans. We know from his 
 own words that he early wrote poetry, read Boethius and Cicero, loved 
 music, and occupied himself with drawing. Of his teachers, his journeys, 
 his supposed studies at the universities, no certain evidence exists. 
 
 Having reached 30, the legal age for active citizenship, Dante took 
 part in the official life of the Republic, in which we find him engaged for 
 some five or six years {(dat. 31-37). He was enrolled in the City Guild 
 of the Physicians and Apothecaries, one of the three Major Arts, such 
 enrolment being a necessary condition of public office. In 1299 he was 
 on an embassy to the commune of San Gemignano. From June to August 
 1300, he served as one of six elected Priors of the Republic. At this 
 time six Priors and ~ii Gonfuluniere fui'med the government : they were
 
 Poetry] DANTE 311 
 
 renewed every two months : and thus, the office of Prior was not one of 
 great honour or importance. In 1301, Dante was chosen to superintend 
 the enlargement of one of the city streets. And in the same year, he is 
 recorded as taking part in the deliberations of the Council. 
 
 The years 1300-1302 were a stormy and critical period for the Republic 
 and for the poet. Fresh civU war had broken out between the Blacks 
 and the Whites. Under cloak of mediation, B oniface vii i. sent to 
 Florence Cardinal Acquasparta, the very month wRen Dante was Prior, 
 the design of the Pope being to reduce the State to a dependency of the 
 Papacy. This plot Dante vehemently resisted, and he was apparently 
 regarded as a leader of the resistance. A furious struggle ensued between 
 the Black and the White factions, in which first one, then the other, was 
 driven from the city. In eifect, the Blacks acted with the Pa pal and 
 anti-Imperial parties. In JNovember 1301, Charles of Valois, m league 
 with tK"e"Pope,"enlered the city in force, obtained command of it, and 
 brought back the Black faction in triumph. Dante, who was now 
 identified with the White party, although he had "ceasecT to h6Td"office, 
 had aiteadyTefTtEe city, his later biographers say, on an embassy to the 
 Pope ; and he never en tered it again. In January 1302, he was con- 
 demned of peculation and'ot'Ker great crhnes, sentenced to pay a fine of 
 5000 florins, banished from Tuscany, and deprived of civil rights. Soon 
 after he was irfonounced contumacious, s entenced to be bu rned alive if 
 he ever returned, and all his goods were confiscated. This sentence of 
 outlawry was afterwards three times repeatecTT It casts a profound light 
 oVer'fEe whole Co/zi/ntdm, when we regard the exile of the poet, not as 
 an ignoble act of local faction, but as the result of his patriotic and deter- 
 mined resistance to the monstrous intrigues of Boni&ce viii. — lo principe 
 de' nuovi Farisei. 
 
 For three or four years Dante took part with his companions in exile 
 (for 600 of the White faction had been proscribed during the revolution 
 of 1301) in their fruitless campaigns and intrigues to return to their 
 city. And we know from his own burning words {Farad, xvii. 61-70), 
 that more bitter than all the pangs of exile was the society " of the evil 
 and senseless crew " with whom he had to act, " whose ingratitude, whose 
 impious, mad, and bestial courses drove him to make a party to himself 
 alone." Thenceforth, Dante forswore factioa.and political life. And the 
 remainder oPI^is days, for nearly twenty years, were spent wandering 
 frOmcity to city, and from one protector to another. 
 
 "■His first " refuge and hostelry " was the Court of Bartolommeo della 
 Scala, lord of Verona. Then we find him at Bologna, then at Padua, 
 where he was attached to the universities, then in other parts of Italy, 
 and ultimately in Paris, where he is thought to have lived in 1308-9. 
 In Paris, we are told, he studied theology, philosophy, and rhetoric, and 
 prepared to take a degree as Doctor in Theology. He was now ujiwards 
 of 40 ; and it is often asked what was he doing at these famous uni- 
 versities, where he could not have Ijeen Mi statu pupillari . His latest 
 biographers incline to the opinion that he combined teaching with study. 
 Of more extensive journeys and other occupations we have nothing but 
 liberal and vague assertions made long after his age. One object of his 
 residence at these seats of learning would obviously be access to books ;
 
 312 DANTE [Modern 
 
 and it is probable that the vast learning of the poet was mainly acquired 
 in this period of his exile ; for there is nothing to show that the first 35 
 years of his life were specially devoted to study as a profession. 
 
 For a brief space, the hopes of Dante were raised again by the elec- 
 tion as Emperor of Henry vii. of Luxembourg, and by the expedition 
 into Italy (1310-1313), destined, as the poet fondly trusted, to restore 
 peace to Italy. Dante, returning to Italy, presented himself to the 
 Emperor, busied himself warmly with the Imperial projects of a restored 
 Empire in Italy, and wrote the three passionate and haughty letters, 
 dictated in 1311 to the kings and princes of Italy, to the people of 
 Florence, to the Emperor, by humilis italus Dantes Alagerii florentinus 
 et exiil immeritus. The premature death of the chivalrous Emperor, 
 August 1313, put an end to these grand dreams for his country and 
 these burning hopes of restoration to his home. For eight years more 
 the poet was a broken-hearted wanderer — 
 
 " Tu proverai si come sa di sale 
 Lo pane altnii, e com' e duro calle 
 Lo scendere e il salir per 1' altrui scale." 
 
 Where these years were passed it is not quite certain, until the end. 
 We are told that he abode at Lucca, at the monastery of Fonte Avellana in 
 the Apennines, at Verona, and at Eavenna. On the death of Clement v. 
 (1314), Dante wrote an impassioned letter to the Cardinals, urging them 
 to choose as Pope an Italian (the Babylonish captivity had now endured 
 9 years). In 1315, it may be in reply, Dante was condemned by a new 
 sentence to bT^eEeaded : he and his sons this time. And in the follow- 
 ing year we are told that he might have been restored, if he had not 
 contemptuously refused the penance that was demanded. In 1316 or 
 1317, he seems to' Irate been harboured at Verona by Can Grande della 
 Scala, of whom he formed high hopes. But the last two or three years 
 of the poet's life were passed at Eavenna, under the protection of Guido 
 Novello da Polenta. There he lived with his two sons, now exiles 
 from Florence, and probably with his wife Gemma and his daughter 
 Beatrice. 
 
 In 1321, the poet was sent by the government of Eavenna to Venice 
 on an embassy, which was v^nsuccessful. On his return he died^ Septem- 
 ber 1321, at the age of 56. He was buried with great honour, "in the 
 garb of philosopher and poet," at the portal of Saint Peter's Church, in 
 the spot where his tomb is still shown. The grave was at once threatened 
 with desecration by the Papal party ; but in 1483 Cardinal Bembo raised 
 the tomb that we now see under much restoration. The remains were 
 at some time removed for concealment to an adjoining convent, and it is 
 thought have been recently discovered. The Florentines, who 20 years 
 after his death again denounced their great poeras'afe'Ber, an oulTaw, and 
 a thtefj have many times since in vain sought for his bones. These at 
 
 ' the 6th"centenary of his birth, 1865, were finally refused by the city of 
 Eavenna — which still remains the last " refuge and resting-place " of the 
 
 I greatest of Italians. 
 
 It was at the age of 9 that Dante first saw Beatrice Portinari, for 
 whom he conceived a boyish love which grew into the iiiystical "devotion
 
 Poetry] DANTE 313 
 
 that colours his whole poetry and life. There is nothing to suggest 
 that she returned his affection, or even showed him more than occasional 
 courtesy. She married at the age of 20, and died at the age of 24. The 
 story of his love, his despair, and the poetic transfiguration of his good 
 angel, is exquisitely told in the Neto Life. Some years, as it would seem, 
 after the death of Beatrice, Dante married Gemma Donati, of the race 
 of Corso Donati, the fierce chief of the Black faction. They had at least 
 two sons and two daughters, who grew to maturity. There is no good 
 reason to think the marriage imhappy. Gemma, with her children, did not 
 share the poet's exile until the sons too were banished, when the family 
 settled in Ravenna. There the daughter Beatrice became a nun. One of 
 the sons settled at Verona, and founded a family, which long endured. 
 
 The world has long agreed to place on a line above all others the 
 three supi'eMe poCtS 6f mTnkind'-^TTomer, Dante, Shak'espeajL-e."'Ancnhis 
 n(jrinerely'"By reason of their having in the highest measure'every gift of 
 the poet, but by virtue of the vast range of human interests which each 
 makes his field. Of the three, Dante is the weakest in simplicity, in 
 universal charm, in variety, in the'' spontaneous magic of word and sug- 
 gSSttocpMdcertamly in the glow of inexhaustible delight. In monu- 
 mental force, in stxstained imagination, in profound insight into ^aracter 
 aird'Hfg^'DimteF is' the peeT of all. In the sublime range of liis theme — 
 thS" 'SUnT-totJll of liumaiiity and nature, the past, the present, and the 
 future — in the profound synthesis of all knowledge, and the ideal co- 
 ordination of human society as a whole — here he stands supreme. And I 
 it is doubtless on this ground that Comte has called the Divine Comedy | 
 " the incomparable epic, which stiU forms the highest glory of human I 
 art." 
 
 This is no place to dilate on the supreme gifts of Dante as poet, or to 
 enter on the wide field of his numerous works. It is with the poet only 
 that we are here concerned, and with the Vision alone. Nay, since this 
 in itself is an inexhaustible field, we will confine our present notice to a 
 single point, the relation of the Divina Commedia to the evolution of 
 modern history. It is an accepted truism that this " Sacred Poem " sums 
 up the spirit, the knowlectge, "the religion of the Middle Age, whilst it 
 created the Italian language, inspired religious art, and founded modern 
 literature. Its influence is still growing, six centuries after the manhood 
 ofTKS'pbet, and it idealised all that man had felt, believed, and done in 
 at least as many centuries before his birth. The whole range of Catholic 
 Feudalism seems to defile before our eyes, and beyond it we see visions 
 of the heroes and poets of antiquity and the prophets and lawgivers of 
 the East. Dante, it is often said, knew all that could be known, in an 
 age when th'iT'lSltini teat Still possible for a single tltind. We need no 
 testimony to convince us of the vast range of his learning. " He was," as 
 Villani truly says, " perfect poet and philosopher, with the most exquisite 
 style that the language ever produced ." He seems to have absorbed all 
 philosophy, all theology, all science, all poetry, all art and all history, as i 
 these were then understood by the greatest intellects. And it was an r 
 age of great men : for during Dante's life there were living Eoger Bacon, \ 
 Albert the Great, Aquinas, Duns Scotus, Giotto, Petrarch, SiiiritEouis, i 
 Rudolph of Hapsburg, and EcTward t. " — -- — ' -
 
 314 DANTE [Modern 
 
 In form, in colour, perhaps in design, the Vision represents the 
 Catholic Feudalism which culminated in the Crusades. But Catholic 
 Feudalism in its essence had expired about the time of Dante's birth 
 with such men as Saint Louis and Simon de Montfort ; and when Dante 
 wrote a new era had begun. There is profound significance in this, 
 that Dante's place in the Polity is with the Western Revolution and not 
 with the age of the Crusades, the Friars, and Innocent iii. The Vision, 
 indeed, is saturated with the spirit of modern thought, of secular and 
 not clerical morality, of civic energy, and of the supremacy of science. 
 It is true that Dante could not foresee the results of later time, and the 
 mould of his imagination is_Catholi^in religion and Feudal in associa- 
 timrr B nt" 'no^e iormeF~oi Church and State more fiercely denounced 
 Popes and Uardmlils, was more zealous for the right of private judgment 
 of all things belonging to God or man, or more proudly true to republican 
 simplicity and civic right. Enough has been said of Dante as Catholic 
 mystic and as Imperialist liegeman. He was all this ; and there are 
 whole cantos which breathe the spirit of St. Bernard and of Godfrey of 
 Bouillon. But we are too apt to forget that the deeper and more potent 
 spirit of the Vision is the inquiring mind of Roger Bacon^ Aquinas, and 
 Montaigne ; that Dante cares for authority as little as l^Vancis Bacon' or 
 Hobbes ; that he is as redolent of the Renascence as Raphael or Shake- 
 speare ; that he is a gentleman, a soldier, a lover, and a citizen. As 
 Villani finely sSysT "F'oY his virtues, science, and worth he seems to us 
 so great a citizen, that it is befitting to give him perpetual remembrance." 
 
 Of the man himself, his own writings, the most pathetically personal 
 in all literature, give us a vivTd knowledge. He was born neither saint 
 nor ■mystic : he was a man of the world, of audacious brain, of varied 
 culture, with an exquisite taste for all forms of beauty and enjoyment. 
 If remorseless criticism finds no authority for the portrait of the man of 
 sorrows which is indelibly associated with our conceptions of the poet, 
 it is difficult to resist the impression that, in the recovered fresco of the 
 Bargello at Florence, we have the true features of the youth of such 
 exquisite sensibility and genius before pain had hardened them into the 
 stern mask that is familiar to us as the Poet of Hell. He suff'ered cruel 
 ' disappointments, and he fell into many errors. He seems deeply con- 
 scious of his own faults, of pride, passion, and ungentleness. He seems 
 unconscious how utterly unfit he was for the political and public career 
 to which he devoted the first half of his life ; and the famous State 
 letters of his mature years, with all their noble enthusiasm and passion, 
 are amazing instances of the philosopher who meddles with affairs. In 
 truth, the sieva indigiuitio, Avhich never ceases to lacerate his heart, not 
 
 I a little detracts from the poetic beauty of his work. History and tradi- 
 tion record the strange awe with which his contemporaries watched the 
 lonely man " Avho had seen hell " ; and we can Avell understand liow his 
 fellow-citizens, with Villani, found his learning somewhat too " arrogant, 
 super-subtle, and disdainful, and found him, as philosophers are apt to 
 be, rather ungracious in converse with the unlearned." 
 
 Truly he had his faults as well as his griefs. Yet indignation with 
 him seems ever ready to blossom into most intense tenderness, pride 
 towards men reaches forth into ideal humility in the sight of God, and
 
 Poetry] DANTE 315 
 
 that saturnine outside covered profound depths of love inexhaustible and 
 pure. Thus it comes to pass that, with all its obscurity, bitterness, and | 
 gloom, the Vision has become the centre of a literature more full than I 
 that which gathers round any other poem, and that it is hailed by| 
 Positivism as the foundation of the Bible that is to be. [F. H.] 
 
 For Life of Dante, G. Villain : C'hron. bk. ix. c. 134. P. Fraticelli : 
 1861. G. A. Scartazziui : Prolegmneni, etc. (vol. iv.), Leipzig, 1890. 
 Dean Church : Dante, an Essay. Comte : Testament, and Fos. Pol. iii. 
 4Wr=-'FtTrW!5RKS 0FDAiftfi,"G. A. Scartazzini : La Divina Cmnmedia, 
 4 vols., Leipzig, 1874-1890. P. Fraticelli: Comm. 1 vol. 12mo ; Op. 
 Minore, 3 vols. i2nio. J. A. Symonds : Renaissance i n Ita ly. — Trans- 
 lations, English Prose, John uariyle, AT.' X.'Biifler'i'ahd W. W. Venion. 
 — French Prose, Lameunais. — English Verse, Gary, Longfellow.
 
 316 TROUBADOURS [Modern 
 
 TROUBADOURS, from the end of the llth to the end of 
 the 13th Century. 
 
 Auguste Comte has remarked {Pos. Pol. iii. 373-4) on the fitness of 
 he Middle Age for poetry in all respects but one. Defensive war 
 supplied nobler themes than aggressive war ; the ethical tone had been 
 raised by chivalry and respect for womanhood. On the other hand, the 
 social state was too unsettled for permanent work ; language itself, the 
 index to so much else, was rapidly shifting. The Middle Age produced 
 the Nibelungen-Lied and the Chanson cle Roland. But the modes of 
 life portrayed in these two poems were, like their language, undergoing 
 rapid and often violent transformations. 
 
 The case was otherwise with that southern part of Gaul whose name 
 of Provence indicates its early reception of Roman civilisation, and which 
 stood somewhat aside from the central stream of barbaric invasion which 
 devastated Italy. Yielding to the Goths, the most sympathetic of the 
 northern invaders, it was saved from the Vandals and the Huns. In 
 that favoured climate a civilisation grew in which Roman culture was 
 more peacefully blended than elsewhere with the new life of the West. 
 It is not surprising, therefore, that the Provengal language should have 
 reached maturity earlier than any of the Romance languages, and that 
 Dante should have been tempted to use it in preference to the common 
 speech of Tuscany for his great poem. In Dante's time this language 
 possessed a vast poetical literature, written and oral, extending over at 
 least two centuries. Epic romance and love-songs were the principal 
 themes, though political satires {sirventes) were not wanting. The com- 
 posers passed under the name of troubadours (finders, inventors), corre- 
 sponding to the word trouveres applied to the minstrels of northern France. 
 They wielded great social influence ; were patronised by monarchs like 
 Richard i. of England and Alfonso ii. of Arragon, and their society was 
 courted by ladies of the highest rank, sometimes with tragic results. 
 
 Tavo of those poets are mentioned by Dante. The first was Arnaut 
 Daniel, whom he meets in Purgatory (canto xxvi.), and addresses as 
 " the best Avorkman of his mother-tongue, who surpassed all the rest in 
 songs of love and tales of romance." Arnaut replies in the Provengal 
 tongue. In his treatise on language, Dante says that he owes to him 
 the lyrical form of some of his poems. He composed epical romances, 
 one on the Rinaldo, of Carlovingian legend ; another on Lancelot, jjerhaps 
 the one which proved fatal to the lovers of Rimini. The second was 
 Bertram di Born, a fierce warrior of Gascony, who fomented dissension 
 betAveen Henry ii. of England and his eldest son, and is on that account 
 placed by Dante in the Inferno Avith Mahomet and other dividers of 
 men (canto xxAdii.). Others of note Avere Peire Vidal (1150-1210 a.d.), 
 Guillem de Cabestanh, of the same date, and Folquet, afterAv^ards Bishop 
 of Toulouse, and a fierce crusader against the Albigensian heretics. The 
 same causes AA^hich brought into Southern France a premature Renascence 
 brought also a premature religious revolt, suppressed by Innocent in.
 
 Poetey] troubadours : BOCCACCIO 317 
 
 with stern severity. There were good reasons for the Albigensian 
 crusade, stained though it was with needless cruelty. But it was fatal 
 to the growth of troubadour poetry. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Bartscli : Chrestomathie Provengale (Selections). F. Hueffer : The Trouba- 
 dours, 1878. 
 
 BOOCACOIO (Giovanni), b. 1313, d. 1375. 
 
 G iovanni Bo ccaccio was born in,J313 at Certaldo, near Florence. 
 His father was a iil5T6Kan^Ts'motIier of French origin. After studying 
 for a time in Florence under the grammarian Giovanni da Strada, he 
 went to Paris, apprenticed in a merchant's business, and remained there 
 for six years. The next eight years of his life were spent at Naples, 
 where he proposed to study law. It is said that the sight of Virgil's 
 tomb impelled him to literature. Here he saw and loved Mary, an illegi- 
 timate daughter of Robert, King of Naples, the heroine of his Fiammetta ; 
 here, too, began his lifelong friendship with Petrarch. Several of his 
 works were writteff"at Naples ;' amongst others liis Theseus, a poem 
 freely translated in the Knight's Tale of Chaucer. 
 
 On the death of his father, about 1350, he established himself in 
 Florence. It was about this time, probably, that he wrote the Decaraeron : 
 a collection of a hundred tales told to one another by a company of three 
 young men and seven ladies, who had taken refuge in a beautiful villa 
 from the plague which, in 1348, devastated Florence in its passage through 
 Europe. The description of this pestilence forms a strange background 
 for the luxurious grace and joyous licence of these tales, turning chiefly 
 on the comedy of human life, not without mixture of tragedy and pathos. 
 Many of them have found their way into our own literature through 
 Chaucer, Shakespeare, and Keats. Their fame is due less, perhaps, to 
 their intrinsic merit than to the highly-wrought beauty of the language, 
 which remained for many generations the standard of Italian prose ; 
 though, as some Italians have thought, it has exercised an efieminating in- 
 fluence on their literature. Boccaccio, in after life, regretted their pub- 
 lication, and before his death destroyed the manuscript ; copies, however, 
 had been taken by friends, through which they have come down to us. 
 
 It is certain that, by himself and his contemporaries, these tales and 
 his other writings in Italian were regarded as of far less importance than 
 his labours in the restoration of ancient literature. His work, De gcnea- 
 logia Deorum, is an elaborate treatise on ancient mythology. For the 
 purpose of studying Greek, then an unknown language, he invited to 
 Florence, Leontius Pilatus of Thessalonica, who lived with him for three 
 years, and who translated Homer into Latin. In 1373, Boccaccio was 
 invited by the Florentines to lecture on the Divina Commedia of Dante. 
 His life of the poet and his Commeutary on the first division of the poem 
 have been preserved for us. But shortly afterwards failing health 
 resulted in retirement to his native town, where he died December 21, 
 1375, a year after Petrarch, with whom he will be always associated as 
 one of the heralds of the Renascence. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Becamerone : ed. Ugo Foscolo, Pickering, 1825. J. A. Symonds: Renaissance 
 in Italy. Decameron, tr. in Henry Morley's "Universal Library," 1886.
 
 / 
 
 318 CHAUCER : RABELAIS [Modern 
 
 CHAUCER {Geoffrey), d. 1400. 
 
 Geoffrey Chaxjcer was born probably in^London about 1340. His 
 father and his grandfather belonged to the guild of vintners : of his early 
 education nothing is known. In 1357 he was a page in the household of 
 Lionel, Duke of Clarence, 3rd son of Edward iii. Two years afterwards 
 he joined the unsuccessful expedition into France, in the course of which 
 he was taken prisoner. In 1367 he appears in the records as valet of the 
 King's chamber. In 1372 he was sent on a special mission to Genoa to 
 arrange for a port at which Genoese merchandise should be brought into 
 the country. It is probable that on this occasion he saw Petrarch at 
 Padua : he may have seen Boccaccio, who was then preparing his lectures 
 on Dante. In 1374 he was made Controller of Customs, and occupied 
 for twelve years from this date the rooms above Aldgate. In 1386 he 
 was in Parliament as knight of the shire for Kent ; where he was a 
 strong supporter of John of Gaunt's party. With the accession of 
 Richard ii. he was for a time in disfavour, but in 1389 he was appointed 
 Clerk of the King's Works. During the latter part of his life he occupied 
 a house near Westminster Abbey on the site now filled by Henry vii.'s 
 Chapel. He died, October 25, 1400, and was buried in the south tran- 
 sept of the Abbey. 
 
 Chaucer's early poetry was written under French influences, his later 
 under Italian. He is known to have translated the Roman de la Bose, 
 though probably not that commonly attributed to him. From Boccaccio 
 he borrowed the Palamon and Arcite, the Troilus and Cressida, and the 
 Franklyn's, the Reeve's, and the Clerk's Tales, the last of these indirectly 
 through Petrarch. But his racy humour, and his loving sympathy with 
 the sights and sounds and fragrance of nature are all his oyra. The Pro- 
 logue to the Canterbury Tales will remain the most popular and most 
 solid basis of his fame. It was a happy stroke of genius to have seized 
 the occasion of the yearly pilgrimage to the shrine of Saint Thomas, the 
 champion of spiritual independence, for leaving us his lifelike portrai- 
 ture of each phase of social life in the England of the 14th century. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Chaucer : Ed. Morris and Skeat, Oxford Clarendon Pres.s. Chaucer 
 Society : Publications, 1868-1875. Life : A. W. Ward (" English Men 
 of Letters " series), 1884. 
 
 EABELAIS, d. 1553. 
 
 Francois Rabelais was born at Chinon in Touraine, it is said, in 
 1483^"oT"perhaps aborit 1490. His father was an innkeeper in easy cir- 
 cumstances. The boy was brought up in a Benedictine convent, and 
 ultimately entered the Franciscan monastery of Fontenay-le-Comte, where 
 he took priest's orders in 1511. His eager pursuit of knowledge, 
 especially of the Greek language, no less than his mocking spirit, drew 
 down on him the enmity of the friars, who passed on him a sentence of 
 perpetual imprisonment. Rescued by the vigorous intervention of 
 Tiraqueau, the lieutenant-general of the district, he obtained in 1524 
 permission from Pope Clement vii. to enter a Benedictine abbey. But
 
 Poetry] RABELAIS : SWIFT 319 
 
 this he speedily left. For some time he lived in the household of 
 Geoifroi d'Estissac, bishop of the diocese, in whose house he met many 
 distinguished men of letters, Marot, the brothers du Bellay, and pro- 
 bably also John Calvin. But persecutions waxing hot, he left this part 
 of France and betook himself in 1530 to Montpellier, then one of the tirst 
 schools of medicine in Europe. 
 
 Here he at once took part in public exposition of medical subjects, 
 especially of Greek writers on medicine, and was admitted to the degree 
 of bachelor within a month of his matriculation. Shortly afterwards he 
 was chosen to plead the privileges of his university in Paris before the 
 Chancellor. From Montpellier he proceeded to Lyons, Avhere he occupied 
 himself in editing and printing various works, especially those of Hippo- 
 crates and Galen, maintaining meantime active correspondence with men 
 of learning. Here the first conception of his Pantagruel occurred to him. 
 Starting with the motive, afterwards developed by Cervantes, of ridicul- 
 ing the inflated romances of so-called chivalry, he made his caricature the 
 vehicle for satire on the follies, pedantries, and bigotries of his time, 
 illumined by contrast with the new spirit now rekindling Europe, which 
 Rabelais was amongst the keenest to receive and propagate. The audacity \\ 
 of his onslaughts on the papal system {e.g. book iv. ch. 48-52), equalled k 
 that of Luther, and would have brought him to the stake but for the I* 
 intervention of Francis i. and other influential friends ; many of the 
 highest ecclesiastics in France being deeply touched by the reforming- 
 spirit. It was soon seen, moreover, that Calvin's reconstruction threatened 
 a new spiritual tyranny as severe and less social than the old ; so that 
 Rabelais, attacking both, was safe from either. 
 
 The book was published piecemeal at long intervals. The second part, 
 containing the beginning of Pantagruel, appeared in 1533. The first 
 part, Gargantua, in the year following. The third book was not puljlished 
 till 1546, the fourth five years later : the fifth was posthumous. In 1534 
 Rabelais took refuge from imminent persecutions in Rome, which he had 
 already visited, and where his friend Cardinal du Bellay was powerful, 
 and obtained for him letters of dispensation from Paul iii., for his breach 
 of monastic vows. In 1537 he took his doctor's degree at Montpellier, 
 and practised medicine in various parts of France. His last years were 
 spent as parish ])riest a t IVIeudon, not far from Paris, widely and deeply 
 respectea by the leacUng'siSirrts of liis time. He died in Paris, April 9, 
 1553, his wild humour not leaving him at the last. "My boots have 
 been greased for the lon^journey," alluding to the sacrament of extreme 
 unction; "I go to seek the gi'eat Perhaps" — are some of the sayings 
 traditionally'''ascribed"£6 hlihV " " " " [j. H. B.] 
 
 G. Saintsbury: French Literature, 1882, and iVrticle Rabelais, JCncycl. 
 Brit. 1886. Walter Besant : Rabelais, in " Foreign CTas§ics7'* IST^l ' 
 
 SWIFT {Jonathan), b. 1667, d. 1740. 
 
 Jonathan Swift was born in Hoey's ( *ourt, Dublin, November 30, 
 1667. His father, a cousin of the poet Dryden, who had held an oflice in 
 the King's Inns, died poor ; and the boy depended on an uncle for his
 
 320 SWIFT : CERVANTES [Modern 
 
 education. He was taught at a school in Kilkenny, and at 14 entered 
 Trinity College, Dublin, where four years afterwards he was refused his 
 degree on the ground of "dulness and insufficiency." He ultimately 
 obtained it, but was noted for insubordination throughout his university 
 career. In 1688 he came to England and obtained an introduction to 
 Sir W. Temple, with whom he lived for many years as secretary. The 
 relation was interrupted by a quarrel of some years' duration, but was 
 renewed and continued till Temple's death in 1698. During these years 
 Swift remade his education : he came into frequent contact with William 
 III. and other political personages : he wrote his celebrated defence of 
 Anglicanism known as the Tale of a Tub ; also the Battle of the Books, an 
 episode in the contest then going on in France between ancient and modem 
 literature, in which Swift sided with the ancients. Here, too, it was 
 that he met Esther Johnson (Stella), who exercised so strong an influence 
 over his life. 
 
 In 1704 Swift took orders, and at Temple's death became private 
 chaplain to Lord Berkeley, from whom he obtained the vicarage of Lara- 
 cor, in Meath. In matters spiritual he was a strenuous Anglican, but in 
 politics a Liberal. Nevertheless (1710-14) he lent the full weight of his 
 powers as a publicist to the government of Harley and Bolingbroke, and 
 wielded an extraordinary personal ascendency over both those Ministers. 
 Shortly before their fall. Swift obtained the Deanery of St. Patrick in 
 Dublin : and the rest of his life was spent in Ireland. In 1716 he 
 secretly married Stella, with whom he had maintained unbroken friend- 
 ship for many years. 
 
 Swift's remaining years, till the illness that paralysed his mental 
 powers, were honourably marked by his energetic protests against the 
 misgovernment of Ireland, and in particular against the suppression of 
 her manufactories in the interest of English traders, and all the inter- 
 ference with her currency to please a Court favourite. "Do ntjt the 
 corruptions and vilianies of men eat your flesh and exhaust your spirits'?" 
 was his cry to a friend. Justly he described himself in his self- written 
 epitaph as "an unswerving defender of freedom," looking forward to therest 
 of the tomb, " where fierce indignation should torture his heart no longer." 
 In 1726 appeared his greatest work of fiction, Gullivei^s Travels. His 
 political allusions have long grown obsolete. But the philosophical 
 analysis of the human standard by which human praise and blame are 
 measured, clothed in a garb of realistic detail and audacious humour, 
 insure its survival. Swift died in Dnl)lin, October 19, 1745, after a 
 long period of mental decay. He carried with him to the grave the 
 respectful sympathy of the Irish people, whose cause he had defended. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Leslie Stephen : Sivift, in " English Men of Letters," 1882. 
 
 CERVANTES {Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra), b. 1547, d. 1616. 
 
 Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra was born Oct. 9th, 1547, at Alcala 
 (le Henares, near Madrid, of an old Castilian family. He studied for 
 two years at the University of Salamanca, afterwards at ISIadrid. Here 
 he entered the household of Bishop (afterwards Cardinal) Acquaviva.
 
 Poetry] CEKVANTES 321 
 
 with whom he went to Rome. In 1569 he joined the expedition then 
 forming under Marc Antonio Colonna to resist Selim ii., who had 
 • seized Cyprus and was threatening the Mediterranean. In the great 
 sea-fight of Lepanto (1571) Cervantes distinguished himself and was 
 severely wounded. He continued in active service in Italy and elsewhere 
 till 1576, when the vessel in which he was returning to Spain was 
 captured by the Moors. For three years he remained a prisoner and 
 slave at Algiers, making numerous but fruitless attempts to escape, till 
 at last he was ransomed by his friends for .'^OO gold ducats. He rejoined 
 the navy, and served there till his marriage in 1584. From this time he 
 devoted himself to literature in Valladolid and Madrid. 
 
 His first attempts were dramatic. But the brilliant genius of Lope 
 de Vega was in the ascendant, and the sombre tragedies of Cervantes 
 were neglected. Being very poor, he sought and obtained the post of 
 assistant purveyor to the fieet. This brought him to Seville, where he 
 lived for many years, and wrote some of the Novelets Ejemplares, pub- 
 lished long afterwards. In 1 596 he was involved in difficulties connected 
 with the bankruptcy of a friend. Between 1598 and 1602 he appears 
 to have been in a debtor's prison in a small town of La Mancha. 
 Here, being then past middle life, he wrote the first part of Don Quixote, 
 published in 1605. It gained instant popularity : 4 editions were pub- 
 lished in that year ; but it brought little profit to the author. The 
 last 10 years of his life were spent at Madrid. Not till 1615 was the 
 second part of Don Quixote completed and published — an unusual in- 
 stance of prolonged vigour, for the end of this great work equals the 
 beginning. Cervantes died April 23, 1616 ; the same day of the same 
 year and month as Shakesjieare : though really ten days earlier, as the 
 English calendar was not reformed. He was buried in the Convent of 
 the Trinity, but without a monument. The convent, with its tombs, 
 was removed fourteen years afterwards, and no one knew where he 
 
 His great work is full of wisdom, apart from the delight which it has 
 given to many generations of old and young. A poet is not a moralist 
 clothing sermon in allegory. But if he is really great he will not fail, 
 while doing his proper work, to throw side-lights on difficult problems of 
 life and character. Thus it is that the two characters in this master- 
 piece illustrate the two types of mental disease. The balance between 
 the inward workings of the mind and outward impressions, which consti- 
 tutes mental health, is shown as distur])ed in two opposite ways. In 
 Don Quixote thought tyrannises over sensation ; in Sancho sensation 
 overwhelms thought. Thus two insane states, could they be combined, 
 would result in sanity. Each in his own way is swayed by the logic of 
 Feeling : the knight by eager desire for the restoration of the imagined 
 ideal of chivalry ; the squire by greed for gain and power. Each, 
 apart from his craze, has admirable (jualities : the one is an accomplished 
 gentleman, brave, well read, generous, and courteous ; the other is affec- 
 tionate and shrewd. Deep insight is shown in the effect of long inter- 
 course with the master on the dull wit of the man ; and in the means 
 taken by his friends to dissipate tlie knight's delusions. The varied 
 incidents of the story, full of local colour, are of interest as enduring as 
 
 X
 
 322 CERVANTES : LA FONTAINE [Modern 
 
 the Iliad. Cervantes announced his purpose to be ridicule of the old 
 books of chivalry. By these he meant not the simple and heroic ballads 
 of the Cid and of Roland, but the turgid, unreal prose romances of the 
 15th and 16th centuries, which bore no relation to human life and 
 deadened the feeling for noble art. He sought to revive the poetic spirit 
 by bringing it from cloudland to earth. The story of the Algerian 
 captive, inserted with consummate skill into his narrative, brings the 
 fantastic unrealities of the romances into admirable contrast with the 
 tragic struggles of actual life, which Cervantes knew so well. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Don Quixote, translated by J. Ornisby, 4 vols. 8vo, 1885. Pos. Pol. i. 575 ; 
 ii. 264 ; iii. 486. 
 
 LA FONTAINE (Jeaji),|b. 1621, d. 1695. 
 
 Jean La Fontaine was born 8th July 1621 at Chateau Thierry, in 
 Champagne, where his father was Commissioner of Forests. The son 
 showed no sign of remarkable intelligence until the age of 22, when he 
 was so stirred by the poetry of Malherbe that he began to write verses 
 himself: a taste which his father encouraged. He succeeded, as was 
 usual under the administrative system of those times, to his father's 
 office. He married, but the marriage was uncongenial, and, indeed, 
 throughout life La Fontaine appears to have shown himself somewhat 
 insensible of its practical obligations, private or public. Except to the 
 few who recognised his peculiar genius, he was content to appear dull 
 and unsocial. Fortunately from those few he received the material sup- 
 port which he needed. Among the first to apj^reciate him were the 
 Duchess de Bouillon, and Fouquet, the ambitious superintendent of 
 finance, whose career ended so disastrously. After Fouq net's exile. La 
 Fontaine lived for twenty years in the house of Mme. Sabliere, his time 
 there being entirely at his disposal. In 1684, at the death of Colbert, he 
 succeeded to his place in the Academy, being preferred to Boileau. On 
 the death of Mme. Sabliere, La Fontaine, who appears to have made no 
 attempt to earn a livelihood, was for a time in distress, till in 1693 M. 
 d'Hervart offered him shelter. He died 13th April 1695. 
 
 La Fontaine's place in the history of poetry is clearly defined. He 
 possessed in the highest degree the art of telling a familiar story 
 with simplicity and grace. His Tales, taken from Boccaccio and other 
 novelists of the later Middle Age, have the licence of their originals, and 
 are not fit for general reading. His Fahlei^ are the old stories of Pluedrus 
 and ^sop, told with a delightful charm entirely his own, which has 
 rendered them immortal. The language is of the purest and raciest kind, 
 untouched by the ornate classicalism of his time. It was said of him 
 by La Harpe : " La Fontaine invented nothing except his style : and the 
 secret of that died with him." [J. H. B.] 
 
 G. Saintsbnry : French Literature, 'i8^2 ; aiul Article, J'J/injl. Brit., 1S82. 
 Saiiite-Beiive : /'ir,iraifs rt Caxiscries.
 
 Poetrt] burns : DEFOE 323 
 
 BURNS (Eobert), b. 1759, d. 1796. 
 
 Robert, son of William Burns, a Scotch farmer, was born near the 
 town of Ayr, January 25, 1 759. His fiither, though very poor, gave him a 
 solid English education ; and the boy read eagerly all books he could 
 come at. But the life was hard, and at the age of 15 Burns was work- 
 ing as his father's head labourer. The father died in 1784, brought to 
 great straits through the failure of a lawsuit. Burns, with his brother 
 Gilbert, struggled on bravely, but with poor success. He was then in 
 the first glow of his passion for Jean Armour, whom he finally married, and 
 but for her j^arents' opposition would have married earlier. During the 
 next two years many of his best poems were written, as the Cottar's 
 Saturday j^ight, Holy Willie's Pra^jer, Address to the Deil, The Mouse, 
 The Daisy, and others. In 1786, having published some of these to 
 gain jjassage-money for the West Indies, an invitation to Edinburgh, then 
 containing the most brilliant intellectual society in Britain, made him 
 famous. He gained, however, nothing but the rather meagre appoint- 
 ment of exciseman, with which he settled in Dumfries. Like other 
 brave spirits of his time, he was accused of sympathy with the French 
 Revolution. It is the fact that in the spring of 1792, Britain being still 
 at peace with France, he sent to the Legislative Assembly two guns that 
 had passed into his hands from a captured smuggler. And two of his 
 noblest lyrics, Scots ivha hae, and A man's a man for a' that, written 
 1792-5, show that the fiery heat of the great crisis had reached him. 
 His poetry was the outcome of his nature. His scathing satire of Cal- 
 vinistic hypocrisy, the wild humour of Tarn o' Shanter, the burning 
 passion of his love-songs, will live as long as the language endures. 
 Burns died at Dumfries, 21st July 1796. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Principal Sliairp : Robert Burns, 1887. 
 
 DEFOE (Daniel), b. 1661, d. 1731. 
 
 Daniel Defoe, son of James Foe, a butcher of St Giles's, Cripplegate, 
 London, was born either 1660 or 1661. Both his parents were Dissenters : 
 he was educated at a Nonconformist school in Newington Green, where 
 he was taught, or at least acquired, a desultory knowledge of many lan- 
 guages. In politics he belonged of course to the Liberal side. In 1683 
 he joined [Monmouth's expedition. In 1688 we find him with William's 
 army as it advanced towards London. After two failures in business as 
 hosier, then as potter, in which, however, creditors were scrupulously 
 satisfied, he was a])pointed (1695) Accountant to the Commissioners for 
 Glass Duties, an office which was suppressed four years afterwards. Then 
 he began his permanent career as a public writer. 
 
 His True-born Englishman (17U()) was a defence of William in. 
 against nationalist prejudice. At the King's death, when the Higli 
 (Jhurch party revived, he published his ironical pamphlet, '' The Slmied 
 Way with Dissenters." For this he was sentenced to fine, imprisonment 
 in Newport, and three days of the pillory. But a large crowd of
 
 324 DEFOE : GOLDSMITH [Modern 
 
 admirers formed a bodyguard round the pillory, decorated it with flowers, 
 and drank his health. In prison he began his Weekly Review, a 
 political journal maintained for many years. His imprisonment was not 
 of long duration, and in 1706 he was sent to Scotland as a political agent 
 for the promotion of union. In 1712 he was again prosecuted and im- 
 prisoned for political pamphlets. About this time he began to write 
 Rohinson Crusoe, the first part of which appeared in 1719. Other works 
 of fiction followed in rapid succession, Captain SingJeton, History of the 
 Plague, Colonel Jack, Moll Flanders. The latter years of his life were 
 passed in comfort in a large house and garden at Stoke Newington. He 
 died 26th April 1730, in Kopemakers' Alley, Moorfields, and was buried 
 in Bunhill Fields. 
 
 The characteristic of Defoe is the close and minute observation of 
 human life, which makes it difficult for the reader of his fictions to re- 
 frain from thinking them records of actual events. From this strict 
 adherence to reality comes the most striking feature of his Crusoe. The 
 shipwrecked sailor, to all seeming " out of Humanity's reach," yet owes 
 everything to Humanity : his reasoning i^owers, his hopes and fears, his 
 industrial skill, the tools with which he works. No more vivid jjroof 
 could be given of the impossibility of separating Man from his Eace : a 
 proof the more cogent that it comes not from a jihilosoi^her with a 
 thesis to defend, but from an artist who sought simply to depict the 
 truth. [J. H. B.] 
 
 ._,. W. Minto : Daniel Defoe, 1887. 
 
 GOLDSMITH (Oliver), b. 1728, d. 1774. 
 
 Oliver Goldsmith, the son of a clergyman of the Irish Church, was 
 born at Pallas in the county of Longford, in 1728. He was educated at 
 Trinity College, Dublin, where he took his degree in 1749. He remained 
 there for two years longer studying anatomy and medicine, and passed 
 thence to Jldinburgh, which, however, difficulties incurred by generosity 
 to a fellow-student forced him to leave. The next year of his life was 
 passed in travel on the Continent, sometimes with a pupil, oftener alone on 
 foot, earning a livelihood by his flute. He reached England in exti-eme 
 poverty- in 1758, and for the rest of his life maintaiiied himself by his 
 pen. Though Avork was not lacking, his improvidence and reckless gene- 
 rosity frequently involved him in difficulties ; and it was on one of these 
 occasions that his friend Samuel Johnson, finding the ms. of the Vicar of 
 Wakcjidd, and recognising its worth, sold it to a publisher for ^'60. 
 The publication was delayed, however, till 176"), when the poem The 
 Traveller had made tlie authors name more famous. He wrote several 
 plays, one of wliicli, She Stoops to Conquer, produced in 1772, has main- 
 tained its poj)u]arity. In the brilliant society of which Dr. Johnson was 
 the centre, Goldsinitli lield a prominent place. He died 4th April 1774, 
 beloved by many ]ioor people whom in the midst of his own poverty he 
 had befriended. The Latin epitaph over his monument in AVestminster 
 Abbey is of Johnson's composition. It says that he worked in every
 
 Poetry] GOLDSMITH : ARIOSTO 325 
 
 department of literature, and excelled in all. This is exaggerated praise. 
 His fame will rest finally on the exquisite idyll of English rural life, 
 depicting that characteristic side of it which so deeply impressed Gothe ; 
 the example of refinement and simplicity of life set by the clergyman's 
 family to tlie remote and untaught population of country villages. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Jo hn For ster : Life of Goldsmith. William Black : Goldsmith in " English 
 "TrenorXetters.'^'tSTSr-***" 
 
 ARIOSTO (Lodovico), b. 1474, d. 1533. 
 
 Lodovico Ariosto was born September 8, 1474, at Reggio in Lom- 
 Ijardy, a fortified town belonging to the duchy of Ferrara, held by the 
 family of Este. His father Niccolo was governor of the fortress, and held 
 other important offices. His mother Daria Malaguzzi was of noble birth. 
 He received the education of a scholar, a lawyer, and a soldier. On the 
 death of his father he was left the eldest of ten children, mostly young 
 and unprovided for. The obligations thus created, always faithfully 
 discharged, explain his dependence on the unworthy patronage of 
 Cardinal Ippolito d'Este, brother of the Duke, who took him into his 
 service in 1503. 
 
 In 1506, amidst the distractions of a court life, involving service as a 
 soldier in the war with Venice, and two diplomatic missions to Rome, 
 he began his great poem : the first edition of which was published at 
 Ferrara in 1516. It contained passages of extravagant praise of his 
 patron and his family, for which, however, he received no thanks. In the 
 following year he left the Cardinal's service and entered that of the Duke, 
 his brother. In 1521-3, we find him Governor of Garfagnana, a rebellious 
 district in the Apennines ; an imcongenial exile vividly described in one 
 of his satires. On his return, he built for himself the small house still 
 standing at Ferrara, where the remainder of his life was sj^ent in the 
 revision and enlargement of his great poem, and in other literary work, 
 varied by occasional diplomatic missions. In 1532 the third and com- 
 plete edition of the Orlando appeared in 46 cantos. In the following 
 year June 6, Ariosto died at the age of 58. He had been secretly married 
 after a long attachment to Alessandra Benucci, who was not, however, the 
 mother of his two sons. His life was not free from error : but his char- 
 acter was transparent, genial, and noble, and free from any sordid or 
 inhuman taint. His Satires (poetical epistles to friends, containing much 
 biographical detail), are full of shrewdness and wisdom ; the letter to his 
 cousin Annibale Malaguzzi on his marriage is especially noteworthy. 
 His ideal of womanhood and of man's conduct to woman was a high 
 one. 
 
 Ariosto was in close relation, as tlie last canto of his poem shows, 
 with the principal members of tlie Inilliant society of men and women 
 who constitute the Italian Renascence. The barbaric sinijilicity of the 
 Middle Age had passed away, leaving its record in the t^oixj af lloland, 
 noblest of mediteval e])ics, clianted ])y the minstrel Taillefer Ijefore the 
 Korman warriors at Hastings. That poem was the greatest, but l)y no
 
 326 ARIOSTO [Modern 
 
 means the first, of the innumerable ballads that surrounded Charlemagne's 
 life and work with a halo of legend. The Chronicle of Turpin followed ; 
 adopted in 1092 by Pope Calixtus ii. as the orthodox edition of the 
 story. This, again, under the impulse of the Crusades, gave birth to a 
 vast literature of romance, in which the events of many centuries were 
 rolled together, and adorned with wild and extravagant fable. Among 
 those romances Boiardo's Orlando Innamorato was distinguished by 
 elaborate invention and technical skill. It told of a beautiful Eastern 
 princess, Angelica, who, coming westward in the midst of the struggle 
 between Saracen and Christian, brought jealousy and confusion into 
 either camp ; Roland, thej chief of Charlemagne's warriors, known to 
 Italians as Orlando, being one of her victims. 
 
 Ariosto took up Boiardo's unfinished tale. In his poem, Orlando, 
 infatuated by his love, deserts the Christian camp in pursuit of Angelica 
 at a time of imminent danger, and ultimately goes mad at hearing she 
 has married another. His reason is recovered by miraculous intervention, 
 and he strikes a final blow for the Christian cause. With this love-theme 
 Ariosto has intertwined a second and more prominent subject — the loves 
 of Roger and Bradamante, fabled progenitors of the house of Este. In 
 Roger, Ariosto has portrayed a hero endowed with every knightly virtue, 
 no saint or angel, yielding sometimes to the passions of a man, but of a 
 man perfectly true and loyal. Bradamante, the heroine, combines the 
 adventurous valour of a knight with the purity, tenderness, and passion- 
 ate ardour of a woman. The threads of destiny that brought them to- 
 gether for brief moments, again and again to be parted through long times 
 of trial and strain on their mutual trust ; the triumph of love over 
 difterence of creed — for the hero was Mussulman ; the rigorous subordina- 
 tion of love to the call of knightly duty, — these things are interwoven, 
 with marvellous art that seems artless, into the web of the poem. From 
 these two themes numberless others branch out, fantastic, tragic, or gay ; 
 in a few rare instances overstepping into licence. But these love-themes, 
 and all that follows from them, are subordinate to the central subject of 
 the poem — the defence of the Western world against Saracen invasion. 
 The danger was not wholly over when Ariosto wrote. Twenty years 
 before his birth Constantinople had been taken by the Turks ; and he 
 died half a century before Lep)anto. Carlovingian history, seen through 
 the perspective of the Crusades, was strangely transmuted in Ariosto's 
 story as inherited from his predecessors, but not in its essence falsified. 
 Instead of Charles Martel repelling the Saracens from Tours, we have the 
 legendary Charlemagne, an old man of priestly rather than kingly tyjie 
 besieged in Paris, regarded by Ariosto as the focus of the Western world. 
 Twice is Paris in imminent danger (cantos xiv.-xviii., and xxv.-xxxi.), 
 twice divinely rescued by confusion thrown into the hostile camp. The 
 foe is finally driven back to Aries, and the final victory decided by com- 
 bat between three chosen champions of either .side (cantos xxxviii.-xlix.). 
 Thus the great period of defensive war, with all the virtues of chivalry 
 and loyalty to which it gave birth, found its poet in Ariosto. Most note- 
 worthy is the ethical tone of his poem. The Church and the Catholic 
 creed are seldom mentioned, and with cold and distant respect : the 
 morality throughout is feudal, chivalrous, human. The Mussulman is a
 
 Poetry] ARIOSTO : LEONARDO DA VINCI 327 
 
 foe, but a generous foe, as capable of loyalty and courtesy as the Chris- 
 tian. Friendship between the two is noted as a virtue (canto i. st. 22) ; 
 and though Roger is at last baptized, Bradaniante's love for him is in no 
 way affected by his alien creed. Once, indeed, Ai'iosto speaks (canto 
 xxi. St. 1) of Holy Faith robed in a veil of spotless white. But to our 
 surprise we find that with theological dogma this faith has nothing to do. 
 It is the fiiith that binds noble spirits together in mutual trust ; the loyal 
 abiding by the pledged word that when once given, whether strengthened 
 by an oath or not, Avhether in solitude or before the face of men, is never 
 to be broken. 
 
 Of the beautiful style of Ariosto — flowing as if improvised, yet con- 
 trolled ])y a most fastidious ear — nothing useful can be said in this place. 
 He was one of the three poets whom Comte read with the greatest 
 pleasure : Homer and Dante being the others. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Pol. Pos. iii. 485 ; also Pos. Catech., 11th conversation. Ariosto has been 
 translated by Harrington, Hoole, and Rose. The best Italian edition is 
 that of Panizzi (Pickering, Loudon, 1834). J. A. Symonds : Renais- 
 sance in Italy, vol. v. 
 
 LEONARDO DA VINCI, b. 1452, d. 1519. 
 
 Leonardo was the natural son of Piei-o da Vixci, an advocate of 
 Florence, and was born at CastelTo ttarTi'nci', fi^arTlorence, in 1452. 
 He was legitimatised and educated by his father along with a later legiti- 
 
 mate lamdy.' As 'a cTiild he showed precocious genius in liiusic, mathe- 
 
 niaUcs", mechanics, and every form of art. He was placed in the study 
 of Andrea Verrocchio, who was sculptor, engraver, and painter. His 
 youth was passed in an extraordinary range of studies, and his endow- 
 ments border on the miraculous. With,. gr^at beauty and strength of 
 person, he united every accomplishment and learning of his age. He was 
 mathematTcian, engineer, architect, musician, poet, sculptor, painter, 
 anatomist, botanist, and physicist. 
 
 ""At the age of 25 Leonardo was already a man of mark, with commis- 
 sions from the government and from Lorenzo the Magnificent. The 
 whole range of Nature in its most fantastic as in its most obscure forms 
 became the subject of this universal genius. And we now know that 
 about the age of 30 he visited the East, Constantinople, Asia Minor, and 
 became engineer to the Sultan of Cairo. 
 
 It was as engineer, architect, mathematician, sculptor, artist, and general 
 director of artistic, scientific, and mechanical works that about 1484 Leo- 
 nardo was invited to Milan l)y Lodovico Sforza. There he Avorked on a 
 multiplicity of undertakings for 15 years. His great works of art were the 
 bronze statue of the Prince, never completed, and t he fresco of the Last 
 Suj^r (the Cmiarolo), now a ruin. On the occupation of Milan by the 
 ]*Vencli^Tnl"OT0,"L'e6nardo'retiirne(l to Florence, where he entered on his 
 famous rivalry with jNIicliacjl Angelo. After 12 years in Florence and the 
 neighbourhood lie went to iiomc in 1514, where Raphael was in the height 
 of his glory. Being slighted by the Pope (Leo x.) and oversliadowed by
 
 328 LEONARDO DA VINCI [Modern 
 
 the reputation of his younger rival, Leonardo returned with Francis i. to 
 France, in 1516, where he settled, dying near Amboise, on the Loire, in 
 1519, at the age of 67. 
 
 1 Leonardo, besides being one of the greatest of painters, was one of the 
 earliest, the most wonderful, and most versatile of all the great men of 
 the 15th century Revival. A large part of his life was devoted to the 
 applied sciences and to inventions in every department of human know- 
 ledge. Mr. Hallani declares him to be t he first name of the 15th century . 
 and to have anticipated many of the discoveries of modern science. He 
 has left works on mathematics, engineering, hydraulics, anatomy, botany, 
 and also an immense collection of sketches, studies, grotesques, and cari- 
 catures. His Treatise on Painting, which is included in the " Positivist 
 Library," has been translated into all European languages, and is the 
 foundation of all that has l)een written on the art. As a man, Leonardo 
 was intensely ambitious, haughty, capricious, dreamy, and restless. With 
 gigantic conceptions, unattainable ideals of perfection, and an insatiable 
 thirst after new achievements, Leonardo was continually correctmg~anS 
 
 Irgfflrtng^abandoning old work for new, until he made little complete, and 
 leaves a life which is a long catalogue of abortive undertakings, and three 
 or four works of supreme beauty and perfection. 
 
 It is a melancholy reflection that the greatest natural genius of his age 
 has left-nothing l)nt some wonderful theories and suggestions, and" that 
 of'this consummate master no work of art survives which does justice to 
 his powers and is in good preservation. Very few indeed of the" easel 
 pictures attributed to Leonardo are certainly known to be his own work ; 
 amongst these few are the Mona Lisa portrait in the Louvre, and at 
 least the heads and composition, if not the whole, of the Madonna in the 
 National Gallery. His greatest work — the Genacolo, 1498 — is a mere 
 ruin. But there is reason to hold that it was once the most complete 
 single composition ever produced, and it was undoubtedly the earliest. 
 Leonardo was, by more than 20 years, the senior of jNIichael Angelo and 
 Titian, and by more than 30 years the senior of Raphael and Correggio. 
 As Vasari truly says, he was the earliest great master of the Modern 
 manner. He was unquestionably the founder of the Italian process of 
 oil-painting ; and his infinite labour and continual experiments vastly 
 increased the technical resources of the art. He is also the first who 
 united sublime conceptions with perfect beauty .~ "This mighty genius, 
 ruined by ambition, pride, and egoism, has at least left to us the tradition 
 of consummate perfection as the ideal of the artist. [F. H.] 
 
 For Leonardo, refer to J. A. Symonds : Renaisscuice in Italy, vol. iii. IFrs. 
 Heaton : Life of Leonardo da Vinci, 1874. Prof. Sidney Colvin : 
 Encyd. Brit. vol. xiv. For LiVKS and Wouks of'^^WlPalTiters in this 
 sfection, refer to Crowe and CavalcaseJIe : History of Paintiny, 2 vols, 
 Kugler : Ilandbooki vf""'PKtKtt)'ilj ,"\y&iis. , 4 vols. Mrs. Jameson : 
 Memoirs of the Painters,, Legends of the Monastic Ord.ers, and other Art 
 works. Encycl. Brit. : Series of Articles by Prof. S. Colvin, ^liddleton, 
 Rossetti, 6t7r.~~Br!erTTves'"aii(l summaries are in Official CalaCogue to 
 JTaXtoiial Gallery, hy Sir Frederic Burton, 1S90, and also iu Handbook 
 to National Gallery, by Edward T. Cook, 1888,
 
 Poetry] TITIAN : MICHAEL ANGELO 329 
 
 TITIAN {Tiziano VeceUio), b. 1477, d. 1576. 
 
 Titian was born at Cadore, on the borders of Friuli, probably in the 
 year Tm7 of an ancient family. Attheage of nine he was taken to 
 Venice, and soon studied under Belli"nr He also kn6w in Venice, and 
 was influenced much by, Albert Diirer and Giorgione, his fellow-pupil. 
 On the death of the latter, in 1511, Titian, then 34, was recognised as 
 the chief of the Venetian painters. His whole life was passed in Venice, 
 or in his native Cadore and the mountainous country ai^ouhd, except for 
 some short journeys, late in life, to Rome and to Bologna. He was held 
 in the highest honour by the Emperor Charles v., who made him Count 
 of the Empire and Knight of the Golden Spur. Philip ii. of Spain 
 continued this patronage. Titian resisted the invitation of Henry iii. to 
 visit France. In his house in Venice he lived with great hospitality and 
 splendour, surrounded by men of eminence, poets, painters, and soldiers, 
 amongst others Ariosto, Sansovino, and Pietro Aretino. He lived 
 happily with his wife, till her death in 1530 (he was then 53) ; and then 
 with his sister Orsa, and his daughter Lavinia. He was of a noble, 
 generous, aflectionate, and joyous nature, though both luxurious and 
 improvident. He died of the plague in 1576, at the^age of 99, a lmost 
 literally brush in hand ; and was buried with greaTpomp, and by special 
 decreeTTh the Church of the Frari. T his c areer of 90 years was the longest 
 working life of any painter ; and perhapsj we may say, of any eminent 
 man~Tn history ; for Sophocles, whom Titian so much resembles, did not 
 begin his art at the age of nine, and he died at the age of 90. 
 
 As a painter, Titian is the acknowledged chief of the Venetian School ; 
 the greatest master of colour that the world has known ; and the 
 greatest painter of portraits. His special mark is the complete and 
 harmonious perfection of his method, his equal mastery of all the sides 
 of art, and of all subjects, whether in the realm of Nature or of Man. 
 There is a stately repose, a glowing nobility, and an unerring judgment 
 in his masterpieces. He is, of all painters, the one who has the fewest 
 defects of his c[ualities, and is the least open to criticism ; that one who, 
 as master of the brush, still stands supreme. Titian never wearies us, 
 never exaggerates, has no kind of mannerism, and never fails in dignity. 
 Wanting as he is in profound imagination and j^assion, his joyous 
 sympathy with all forms of beauty and of life, his splendid sense of 
 colour, his dignity and grace, make him equal to the most varied and the 
 noblest tasks, even in devotional art, for which indeed he had no real 
 inspiration. He may be well studied in the National Gallery. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 Crowe and Cavalccaselle : Life of Titian, 1877, and see inider Leonardo. 
 
 MICHAEL ANGELO (Mirhelangdo Buonarroti), b. 1475, d. 1564. 
 
 Michael Angelo, the son of Lodovico Buoxarroti Simoni, of an 
 honoural)le, if not noble, family of Florence, was born near Arezzo on Gth 
 March 1475 (not 1474). He was apprenticed at the age "ofthirfeen (in 
 1488) to the painter JJ. Ghirlandajo, but he showed a genius for sculpture, 
 
 /
 
 330 MICHAEL ANGELO [Modern 
 
 and works of his hand in both arts still exist, executed when he was quite 
 a lad. At the age of fourteen he attracted the attention of Lor enzo iJ ie 
 Magn ificent, and was admitted to study in the Academy of "Xncient Art 
 wHich Tiorenzo had founded in the Medici Palace. Here Michael Angelo 
 developed his genius as a sculptor, and it was here ((etat. 16) that his 
 rival, Torregiano, struck him with a mallet, crushing the nose on his 
 face, which disfigured him for life. During the whole of this period 
 Michael Angelo studied anatomy with passion, and practised the art of 
 sculpture. 
 
 His great contest with Leonardo in designs for the council chamber of 
 Florence belongs to the years 1504-6. In the latter year {aitat. 31) 
 Michael Angelo first came before the world as a great painter. His 
 Cartoon of the Pisan War, partly preserved to us by the engravings of 
 Marco Antonio, produced an immense sensation on aU who studied it, 
 jjarticularly on Raphael, and was styled by Cellini " the School of the 
 World." It was, however, not so much a picture as a sensational 
 academic study of limbs, and if regarded as an object of imitation its effect 
 could not have been other than disastrous. The same thing, so far as we 
 can judge, may be said of Leonardo's cartoon. 
 
 In 1506 {fetat. 31) Michael Angelo was summoned to Rome by 
 Pope Julius II., to undertake his vast mausoleum. On this enor- 
 mous work Michael Angelo was engaged for a large paiL'Of his life," 
 the only renult being the Moses ~nt-'Rom&'snd some unfinished statues. 
 In 1508 {cetat. 33) Julius compelled Michael Angelo to undertake 
 the fresco decoration of the Sistine Chapel, the ceiling of which is a 
 vault 150 feet in length by 50 in breadth. This gigantic work, executed 
 entirely by the master's own hand in about 4 or 5 years, is unquestion- 
 ably the most stupendous single achievement of modern art. Inscrutable, 
 terrible,*profoiihd, in parts of exquisite beauty, t his vast creation of a 
 single mighty genius has been for centuries the wonder of mankmd^ m 
 spTtSlJf the limitations imposed on the artist by the conditions, ' and of 
 his own over-strenuous mannerism. These frescoes are the work more 
 of a sculptor than of a painter, and are not merely works of art, but 
 poems which are worthy of Dante. 
 
 On the death of Julius ii. (1513) Michael Angelo returned to work as 
 a sculptor, and in 1524 {a^'tat. 49) he began the sublime M edici Cha pel at 
 Florence, which, with its six colossaTstatues, is entirely tlie work ,of,Jii_s 
 hand. These are the grandest works of modern sculpture. In 1527 he 
 was employed "as engineer in defending the Republic against the Medici 
 Princes. In 1534 {fdat. 59) Michael Angelo was summoned to complete 
 the frescoes of the Sistine Chapel with his Last Judgment. This enor- 
 mous work is rather the tour de force, of a consummate draftsman than a 
 picture, though it contains some of the most original conceptions of the 
 mighty master. It was exhil)ited in 1541 {adat. 66). These, with the 
 frescoes in the Pauline Chapel, are the last M-orks of painting that he 
 undertook. In 1547 {mtat. I'l) Michael Angelo was employed a s arch i- 
 tect of St Peter's at Rome, and continued till his deatlito" lalxTur on its 
 cohStruction. The cu]:)ola is entirely his work ; and, had his plan of a 
 Oreek {i.e. e(pulateral) cross been adhered to, the faults of the great 
 temple would have Ijeen avoided. He continued to labour till the last,
 
 Poetry] MICHAEL ANGELO : PAUL VERONESE 331 
 
 m aking can allegorical s ketch of an old man, with the words ancora im- 
 p ara ('^ still learning "},and"^eTafTtaYrig;"r.W^;iTrlii5 89th year. He' was 
 biiYIed livttirgli'eat" pomp in Santa Croce, at Florence. 
 
 Michael Angelo, the greatest genius in art of modern ages, was more 
 sc ulptor and archit ect tlian painter. As a man he was haughty, mfleS'- 
 ible, independent, ffiigliT, nigh-minded, generous, pure, and true. He 
 was eminent as a poet, and hi,^onnets would place him in the foremost 
 rank of the lyrical poets of his age. No painter has infused poetry into 
 his productions in so definite a way and of so high an order. He has 
 been well called the " Dante of art." He was never married, but his 
 love for Vittoria Colonna, Marchioness of Pescara, 1534-1547 {cetat. 59- 
 72), is one of the most famous of soul-unions in history, and has called 
 out from him some exquisite poetry. Endless are the anecdotes recorded 
 of the caustic wit, the proud reserve, and the pathetic earnestness of the 
 master's spirit. I n nobi lity of character, in sublimity of imagination, 
 and in stupendous achievements, Michael Angelo may rank with the 
 greatest sons of Humanity, and if he be placed in the calendar below 
 Raphael, it is inasmuch as he does not equally represent the art of paint- 
 ing, that his efi'ect on his immediate contemporaries was disastrous, and 
 his influence on after ages less widely extended, [F. H.] 
 
 See under Leonardo. 
 
 PAUL VERONESE {Paolo Cagliari), b.J528, d. 1588. 
 
 P aolo Cag liari, of Verona, was the son of Gabriele Cagliari, a stone- 
 carver, undeT'whom he first studied, and afterwards under his uncle, 
 Antonio Badile, a painter. After working in Verona, Mantua, and the 
 district, he proceeded to Venice {retat. 27), where he studied the works 
 of Titian and Tintoretto, aiicTsoon became one of the most popular of the 
 Venetian masters. He passed the rest of his life in Venice, surrounded 
 by pupils, and greatly esteemed by the magistrates and nol)les of the Re- 
 public, then in its utmost splendour. H e died at the age of 60, in 1588, 
 in the same year as Tintoretto, the year "of the Armada, the year which 
 clOV;fVl tlieerS'Cif the great Italian masters. As a man he was amialsle, 
 generous, liberal, and extremely pious, though his pictures are without a 
 trace of devotional feeling or even of conventional decorum. Veronese 
 is one of the greatest colourists even of the great Venetian School of 
 colour'. ' And by the richness of his imagination, his mastery of hand, 
 and the harmony and grace which he fiung over every scene he touched, 
 he is one of the most popular and delightful of painters — among painters 
 what Tasso is among jjoets. He is entir elv without de pth of feeling or 
 of thought, is often simply sensuous, naively incongruous, ' and extrava- 
 gantly InTfwrtWTS.'- He ttiay be compared to Rubens, exce))t tliat he is 
 n?Ver senStlttlT'coarse, or ungraceful. He has left us a multitude of vast 
 canvases crowded with splendid scenes, which in the midst of hixury 
 and pomp, display a noble sense of life and a generous sympathy with 
 every form of nature, animal, human, physical — all touched with inimit- 
 able truth and joyousncss. [F- H.]
 
 332 HOLBEIN : REMBRANDT [Modekk 
 
 HOLBEIN (Hans), b. 1497, d. 1543. 
 
 Hans HoLBEix, son of a painter of the same name, was born at Augs- 
 burg, and settled early in life at Basle on the Rhine, where are many of 
 his earlier works. In 1526, nearly 30 years of age, he came to England 
 with letters from Erasmus to Sir Thomas More. He returned to Basle, 
 1528-1532, but in the latter year he settled finally in England, where he 
 spent the last eleven years of his life. He painted here an immense 
 series of portraits, and for the last seven years of his life was court painter 
 to Henry viii., with whom he was in high favour. He died of the plague 
 in 1543. His portraits, which are mostly finished with the most exquisite 
 care and patience, are amongst the finest and most faithful known. His 
 Madonna, at Darmstadt (and also a copy at Dresden), a votive composi- 
 tion for the Meyer family, is one of the great religious pictures of the 
 world. He was also a prolific engraver on wood, the iJayice of Death 
 being one of the most popular and characteristic products of the Reforma- 
 tion. He was also a fresco-painter, a designer in metal-work and in 
 glass-painting, and like the great Italians, whose contemporary he was, 
 he occupied himself with almost every phase of artistic production. It is 
 now usually acknowledged that Albert Diirer, of Nuremberg, is the greatest 
 mind that Germany produced in art ; but the rarity of his works out of 
 Germany and the mystical originality of his genius necessarily limit his 
 general influence. In the same way Raphael, by virtue of his vast popu- 
 lar influence,' comes before Leonardo and Michael Angelo, men of even 
 greater mental power. [F. H.] 
 
 REMBRANDT {Remhrandt Hermanszoon van Bhyn), b. 1606, d. 1669. 
 
 Rembrandt was the sixth son of a well-to-do miller of Leyden, where 
 he was born in 1606 or 1607. He was; educated in the University of 
 Leyden, and received his first lessons in art there, and at Amsterdam and 
 Haarlem. A t the ag e of 22 he settled in Amsterdam, 1630, and began 
 an independent career asa painter, never leaving that city unlilliis deatTi, 
 39" years later. With his first wife, Saskia van Uilenberg, he received a 
 cTOhsiderable fortune, lived with her hajipily for eight years till her death 
 in 1642, and formed a fine and valuable collection of Italian jnctures, 
 engravings, marljles, armour, and works of art. He exhausted his for- 
 tune, which at one time was 40,000 florins, became Itankrupt in 1656, the 
 date of his second marriage, and passed the last thirteen years of his life 
 in distress, neglect, and severe woi*: — ^-iiedied in_16^69^at the age of 63, 
 anct'was buried at Amsterdam at the publicTexpenseT" Tnr~nie"lSrational 
 Gallery^ are two portraitFoflitmselir'at the age of 30 and of 60. 
 
 Rembrandt was t he ch ief of the Dutch School, and in certain qualities, 
 especially in chiaroscuro — tlie contrasts 'oFTigTrt and shade — MsjTp^'Kjual 
 in the range of art. His sombre, jrowerful, and dreamy spirit is expressed 
 iiTliTs" works, M-hich, though witliout s])iritual beauty, or elevation of 
 thought, are full of jiathos, mystery, sympatliy, and profound imagina- 
 i tion. His portraits, in reality and power, stand in the first rank and 
 have rarely been equalled. His engravings and etchings have no equal
 
 Poetry] REMBRANDT : POUSSIN : LESUEUR 333 
 
 in any schoo l. H is force and originality, his industry and technical 
 niastery, [)Iace him amongst tne greatest mlitersT"""~HTs"posrtron' in tEe 
 Calsndtll' is dire; 3Jerhaps, not to reiatirg Tfierit, but to the fact that 
 he represents the Dutch School, and that Holland is regarded by Comte 
 as an appendage to Germany represented by Holbein. [F. H.] 
 
 POUSSIN {Nicolas), b. 1594, d. 1665. 
 
 Nicolas PoussiN, the leading master of the French Historical School, 
 was born in Normandy of a noble family, 1594, and at the age of 18 
 went to Paris. Here he studied art, and imbibed a strong passion for the 
 antique. At length he Avas able to reach Rome in 1624, and devoted 
 himself eagerly to the study of ancient antiquities and of the great Italian 
 masters. Cardinal Barberini became his patron, and in 1640 he was 
 introduced by Richelieu to Louis xiii., who made him his painter-in- 
 ordinary, with a salary and rooms in the Tuileries. Three years later 
 he returned to Rome, where he continued to work until his death there 
 in 1665. He is buried in S. Lorenzo, and his house in the Pincian is 
 still shown. 
 
 Poussin was saturated with the forms and spirit of antiquity. He has 
 been called "the learned Poussin," "the Raphael of France." His 
 realisation of ancient life is intense and true, and his mental grasp of a 
 high order. He transmitted to the whole French School the classical and 
 Raphaelesque method of composition ; but it too often degenerates into 
 mere Academicism, and as a painter and especially as a colourist, he 
 cannot be named beside the great masters of Italy, Spain, or the 
 Netherlands. 
 
 The purpose of the Calendar is to commemorate those who guided dis- 
 tinct movements in civilisation, and thus the Historical School of France 
 is represented by Poussin and Lesueur, inferior as both are to so many 
 other masters. [F. H.] 
 
 LESUEUR (Eustache), b. 1616, d. 1655. 
 
 Eustache Lesueur was born in Paris in 1616, and studied under 
 Vouet. He devoted himself mainly to sacred subjects in the Raphael- 
 esque manner, and was greatly admired by his contemporaries in France. 
 His works are very seldom found out of his native country. He carried 
 on the traditions of the great Italian masters with commendable industry 
 and good taste. But he has no commanding gifts of his own, and as a 
 jminter he cannot rank amongst the masters who are immortal. He died 
 in 1655, at the age of 39. [F. H.] 
 
 VELAZQUEZ {Diego de Silca Vdazquez), b. 1599, d. 1660. 
 
 The greatest of Spanish painters was born in Seville, 1599, the son of 
 parents of good family : his father's family name being de Silva, his 
 mother's Velazquez. According to S])anish custom he bore both names, 
 and is known in the history of art liy liis mother's name, like Gutemberg.
 
 334 VELAZQUEZ : MUEILLO [Modern 
 
 Up to the age of 23 he worked at Seville, where he met Cervantes, but 
 in 1622 he went to Madrid, was introduced at court, and painted his 
 first portrait of Philip iv. in the following year. From this time till his 
 death, nearly forty years later, Velazquez was loaded with favours and 
 honours by the King, whose intimate friend and companion he became, 
 painting him, his family, and courtiers in countless attitudes. In 1630 
 he went to Italy, where he was received with continual honours ; and 
 there his portrait (of Pope Innocent x. was carried in triumphal proces- 
 sion. In his ^duties as Royal Quarter-Master he accompanied Philip iv. 
 in all his excursions and progresses. A fever caught in one of these, on 
 occasion of the marriage of Louis xiv., carried him off in 1660 at the age 
 of 61. The life of Velazquez, which was entirely passed in courts and 
 in an accumulation of dignities and favours, was honourable, pure, and 
 generous. He was dignified, courteous, and great-hearted, as is shown 
 by his zealously befriending the poor Murillo, who surpassed him in 
 popularity. He was buried with great pomp in Madrid, and lies beside 
 his wife, who died of a broken heart within seven days after him. 
 
 Velazquez is one of the greatest masters of colour, of chiaroscuro, and 
 of all the resources of the painter's art. He was alike successful in por- 
 traits, landscapes, animals, and historical scenes. As a portrait painter, 
 in truth of local colouring, in facile realisation of every fact in nature, he 
 has hardly any equal in any school or age. Though always noble, simple, 
 and powerful in his conceptions, he has left nothing ideal, ecstatic, or in 
 the slightest degree touched either by the bravura style of his friend and 
 contemporary Rubens, or by the grandiose school of Raphael and Michael 
 Angelo, which he studied in Italy. Velazquez remains one of the most 
 direct, true, and self-contained of painters, and is justly placed at the 
 head of the Spanish school. He was born in the same year as Oliver 
 Cromwell, and died two years later, [E. H.] 
 
 MURILLO (BarfhoJome Estchan), b. 1618, d. 1682. 
 
 Murillo was born of humble parents in Seville in 1618 ; and in his 
 early years painted conventional Madonnas for fairs and for the export 
 trade, receiving instruction from his uncle, Castillo, a painter. In 1640, 
 at the age of 22, he was taken to Madrid and presented to Velazquez, 
 then at the height of his fame. Velazquez introduced him at court, pro- 
 cured him commissions, and greatly assisted him. Murillo married a 
 lady of fortune, and became an influential personage ; on the death of 
 Velazquez in 1660, he was recognised as the first painter of Spain, and 
 founded the Spanish Academy. He lived an industrious, pious, and 
 happy life, and died in 1682, at the age of 64. from a fall from a scaflbld 
 in the Church of the Capucins at Cadiz. 
 
 Murillo is the last of the intensely devotional painters, a succession 
 which had continued from Fra Angelico for some three centuries. His 
 life was that of an ardent Catholic, and his works have the mystical and 
 passionate character of Spanish devotion. Tlie union in his mind of deep 
 synq)atliy with the poor, along with an ecstiitic devotional ardour, has 
 made him the most popular of painters with all Spaniards and with most
 
 Poetry] MUEILLO : TENIERS : RUBENS 335 
 
 Christians. His naive goodness and a somewhat sentimental sweetness 
 have given him, in spite of his want of true nobility and power, a singular 
 influence in different countries having various forms of belief. He is the 
 Fenelon of painting, and is interesting as being far the latest of the " old 
 masters," and far the latest of the devotional artists. His death occurred 
 only twelve years before the birth of Voltaire. [F, H.] 
 
 TENIEES (David Teniers, the younger), b. 1610, d. 1694.! 
 
 David Teniers, the son of a painter of the same name, was born at 
 Antwerp, where he studied under his fathei", a pupil of Rubens and the 
 creator of the school of rustic life. He |was personally a man of refine- 
 ment, the friend of courtiers and princes, and was honoured by the Arch- 
 duke Leopold- William, Queen Christina of Sweden, and Philip iv. of 
 Spain. His technical execution is, within its own limits, perfect, and 
 his mastery of his own resources unfailing. No painter has ever sur- 
 passed him in genre subjects, i.e. the faithful rendering of commonplace 
 incidents in everyday life. Of this branch of art Teniers is the chief, 
 and, indeed, the main founder. Such painting exactly answers to the 
 modern novel of ordinary existence. The subject is one of extreme 
 limitation, and Teniers' conception of it is essentially vulgar in its spirit. 
 The simple incidents which he chose are almost all of rough humour and 
 coarse enjoyment by uncouth boors. It was deliberate in choice, for 
 Teniers was himself refined in person and lived with splendid surround- 
 ings. Yet he invariably paints the rude horse-play of clowns and often 
 the sensual riots of intemperance. In spite of his tendency to coarseness 
 and the deliberate abandonment of all high ideals and traditional sancti- 
 ties, Comte chose Teniers to represent the Flemish School even above the 
 courtly and splendid Rubens, evidently regarding Teniers as having an 
 inexhaustible interest in the life of the people, and as the founder of a 
 school which saw pictorial life and colour even in the coarser strata of 
 human social existence. Teniers is the first artist who devoted a long 
 life of intense study to depict the people as they are. [F. H.] 
 
 RUBENS {FeUr Paul), b. 1577, d. 1640. 
 
 Peter Paul Rubens, the son of Dr. John Rubens, Secretary to Anne of 
 Saxony, wife of William the Silent, was born on the festival of St. Peter 
 and St. Paul, 29th June 1577, at Siegen, in Westphalia, where his father 
 was confined as a prisoner in consequence of his relations with the 
 Princess. At the age of 11, his mother took the boy to Antwerp, where 
 he began to stu3y" painting. In IGOO, at the age of 23, he travelled to 
 Italy, where he was employed on a mission by the Duke to the Court of 
 Spain. He spent some eight years in Italy ; and in 1608, at the age of 31, 
 he took up his residence in Antwerp, where he lived and died, in the 
 house which still stands in the street named after him. He was twice 
 married, at the age of 32 and r)3. His second wife was Helena Four- 
 ment, then a beautiful girl of sixteen, whose portnvit appears in so many 
 of his pictures.
 
 336 EUBENS : RAPHAEL [Modern 
 
 Besides being a painter, Rubens was persona grata at the courts of the 
 Archduke and Infanta, of Marie de Medici, of Philip iv., and our Charles 
 1. ; and he brought to conclusion the treaty of peace between the coun- 
 tries in 1629. He was frequently employed as ambassador. He was a 
 good scholar, master of many languages, amassed a large fortune, and 
 lived a princely life. He was honourable, courteous, gentle, affectionate, 
 and temperate. His industry was unbounded. No painter, except per- 
 haps Raphael, ever surpassed him in productiveness. He is said to have 
 left between 2000 and 3000 works, more than one in every week of his 
 working life. Most of these were produced, like Raphael's, by the aid of 
 a school of jiupils. 
 
 The distinctive character of Rubens as a painter is the immense range 
 of his powers. He is the Ariosto of Painting. He was alike successful 
 in religious subjects {The Descent from the Cross), in court scenes, in por- 
 , trait, and in landscape. He is one of the great colourists having an 
 inimitable mastery of hand, a rich imagination, and superb power of 
 grasp. Wanting wholly in delicacy and in depth of soul, Rubens is one 
 of the most individual of all painters, by virtue of the superb glow which 
 he delights to throw over every aspect of existence — human, animal, or 
 physical — so much that gi-eat authorities have spoken of him as the 
 greatest master of the technical resources of his art that ever lived. His 
 landscapes are amongst the earliest pure landscapes without figures 
 known. If Comte placed Rubens below Teniers, the reason must be 
 sought in this — that he thought the idealisation of • peasants' life more 
 important (and more original) than the idealisation of court life. 
 
 [E. H.] 
 
 RAPHAEL {Eaffaello Santi, or Sanzio), b. 1483, d. 1520. 
 
 Raffaello Saxti was the son of Giovanni Santi (in Latin Sanctius, 
 Italianised into Sanzio), a poet and painter of Urbino, in central Italy. 
 He was born there 6th April 1483, his mother's nanie being Magia 
 Ciarla ; and he died at Rome on his birthday, Good Friday, 1520, aged 
 exactly 37. His artistic career of which we have remaining pieces extends 
 over some twenty years (1500-1520), and during this period he executed 
 an enormous series of works, occupied himself with an amazing variety of 
 artistic labours, and exerted a paramount influence over all subsequent 
 art. This artistic career of twenty years is usually divided into three 
 periods, which correspond with his three styles, and the three schools in 
 which he successivelv lived. The first is that of Perugi a, down to 1504 ; 
 the second that of Florence, 1504-1508 ; the thirTTTTiat of Rome, 1508- 
 1520. The third of these'periods is much the longest, covering twelve 
 years ; it involves the greatest break in his artistic career, and is far 
 the richest both in productions and influence on mankind. Mr. Ruskin 
 dates the secularisation of Italian art from Raphael's visit to Rome in 
 1508. 
 
 Raphael was instructed in Urbino by his father in his early years, 
 and by Timoteo Viti ; but soon after the death of his father, was placed, 
 about his twelfth year, in the school of Piet ro Pe rugino in Perugia. 
 Here he adopted and carried to its highest lloTnt the~te"nder grace and
 
 Poetry] RAPHAEL 337 
 
 mystical devotion of that master, often surpassing him in beauty, 
 simplicity, and charm. Of this period, only a few Madonnas and some 
 other subjects remain, one of which, the Vision of a Knight, in the 
 National Gallery, is one of the earliest known Raphaels, probably 
 painted before 1500. The greatest and most famous picture of this 
 period is the S^wsalizio in Milan (The Marriage of the Virgin), signed 
 and dated 1504. 
 
 In 1504, Raphael, then 21, went to Florence, where the influence of 
 Michael Angelo, of Leonardo da Vinci, and other great Florentines, 
 exerted a most powerful effect on his mind. It was tlie moment of the , 
 famous contest in painting between Michael Angelo and Leonardo da | 
 Vinci. During this period of four years, his works remain almost entirely 
 devotional in subject and in treatment ; but are much more free in 
 execution and more spontaneous in conception. The most important 
 are : the Ansidci Madonna of the National Gallery, 1506, the 
 Madonna del Ch-anduca at Florence, 1504, the Carddlino and Belle 
 Jardiniere, 1507, the Entombment at Rome, and the Saint Catherine, 
 1507, in the National Gallery. The pictures of this period have some of 
 the highest qualities of the master in their perfection, and are wholly free 
 from the mannerisms, the pseudo-classicism, the academic facility, and 
 want of earnestness which many critics attribute to his Roman manner. 
 
 In 1508, Raphael, then 25, was invited to Rome by Pope Julius ii. 
 to superintend the decorations of the Vatican. Michael Angelo had 
 just shown his San Sistine frescoes. At Rome Raphael lived and 
 worked during the twelve years of life that remained to him, producing 
 an extraordinary number of works, and throwing his whole soul into a 
 great variety of artistic labours. He at once conquered for himself the 
 position of leading painter of his age, and the idtimate authority in all 
 questions of art ; and he was the friend and companion of all that was 
 most eminent and cultured in the Papal city. The susceptible and rich 
 genius of the painter rapidly assimilated the whole of the classical 
 enthusiasm, and the splendid many-sidedness of that brilliant society ; 
 and from that time Rapliael became one of the mighty spirits in the 
 humanistic movement of the Renascence. His mind entered into all the 
 learning of the age, and absorbed every jjhase of the Avorld of beauty and 
 intelligence with which it was crowded. Raphael became, at Rome, 
 essentially a hiunanist, to Avhom every aspect of human life, of past 
 history, and the whole world of ideas presented itself in an inexhaustible 
 series of beautiful forms. To the sincere believers in historic Christianity, 
 much in this growth of the painter is a falling from grace. It was 
 undoubtedly accompanied by nuich loss in intensity and simplicity. 
 But from a Positive view of human history, it is on the whole a true and 
 nol)]e development from traditional mysticism into a wide and free 
 humanity. The two views of Raphael's Roman manner have been 
 excellently expressed by Mr. Ruskin on the one hand, and by Mr. 
 Symonds on the other. And it is impossiljle to doubt that Ra[)liael still 
 retained the noblest conception of the ])Owers of religious art, when we 
 remendjer that amongst Ids later woiks are the Faid Freaching at Athens 
 and the Madonna di Sun Si.4o. 
 
 The works of tlie Roman period include TJic Chambers of the Vatican, 
 
 Y
 
 338 KAPHAEL [Modern 
 
 an impressive series of frescoes on a grand scale, on which all the painter's 
 resources of drawing, composition, learning, and science were lavished 
 (1508-1513) ; the Loggie of the Vatican, another series of arabesque 
 ornaments, with RwphaeVs Bible, a series of 52 frescoes of the Old and 
 New Testament ; and, lastly. The Cartoons for the Tapestries (1513-14). 
 These consist of eleven designs on paper in distemper, afterwards 
 executed in tapestry at Arras. Of these cartoons, seven are at South 
 Kensington JNIuseum. There were also an immense number of frescoes 
 of sacred and classical subjects at Rome, the y^pasimo {Christ bearing 
 his Cross) at Madrid, and the Transfiguration, his last work, 1520. 
 The painter died of a fever on 6th April 1520, Good Friday, having com- 
 pleted his 37th year, and was buried with great pomp in the Pantheon 
 at Rome, where his remains were found in 1833 in perfect preservation. 
 At Rome, Raphael had an immense studio of pupils ; often forty or,fifty 
 painters were engaged under him. Fcav of his larger works were com- 
 pleted without their assistance ; many were sim23ly from his designs. 
 The productions of his genius are incredible in number : some 120 
 Madonnas, about eighty ^Jortraits, nearly 200 other easel pictures, nearly 
 600 studies and drawings, besides upwards of 100 compositions for mural 
 paintings. Besides this, Raphael left works of sculpture of much grace, 
 gave designs for several buildings, was the master architect of St. Peter's 
 at Rome, and superintended the excavations of antiquities. Some of 
 his most elaborate designs exist only in the shape of drawings, or the 
 engravings of Marc Antonio. 
 
 His character was pure, gentle, generous, courteous, and modest. 
 He was beloved, it is said, not only by all men, but by the very brutes. 
 AHistFAocked to him from all parts of Europe ; princes and cardinals 
 sought his friendship ; Cardinal Bibbiena offered him his niece in 
 marriage, and the Pope seriously contemplated raising him to the Sacred 
 College. The influence of Leonardo and Michael Angelo, both men of 
 eA'en greater mental power, the profound corruption and neo-classical 
 mania of the Papal Court, had undoubtedly a weakening influence over 
 the plastic genius of Raphael. And the attempt to unite dramatic 
 passion and abstract ideas with absolute grace of form and symmetry of 
 composition, not seldom ended in unreality and mannerism. It was 
 certainly ruinous to all his imitators, and has laid the foundations of 
 many abortive schools. But the inexhaustible sense of beauty, the 
 amazing fertility of invention, the vast range and the consummate 
 mastery of his resources, make Raphael, by the common consent of the 
 trained and the untrained world, the prince of painters. His Madonnas 
 and his Cartoons are at once the most popular and the most nol;)le pro- 
 ducts of modern art. [F. H.] 
 
 Life, l)y Passavant, by Miiiitz, by Professor Middlelon in Encyd. Brit. ; 
 and see under Leonardo.
 
 Poetry] FEOISSART 339 
 
 FEOISSART (Jean), b. 1337, d. abt. 1410. 
 
 The week devoted to the romance of Chivalry opens with the courtly 
 chronicler of knights and dames of the 14th century, and is continued 
 down to the modern romances of Scott and Manzoni, who are remembered 
 by living men. 
 
 Jean Froissart, the son of a painter of armorial bearings, was born at 
 Valenciennes, then a Flemish town, in 1337. After a desultory youth, 
 given uj^ to verse-making, love-making, and pleasure, the young poet 
 started for England with reconnnendations from royal and noble persons 
 to Philippa of Hainault. The good queen of Edward iii. remained his 
 firm friend and protectress during the rest of her life. With her heljD, 
 and afterwards that of a long series of lordly patrons, Froissart started on 
 those indefatigable journeys over Western Europe, wherein he gathered 
 up his vast stores of information — ^^journeys which more or less occupied 
 fortj^ years of his life. The list of them woiild be tedious : suffice to say 
 that they embraced England, west, north, and south, — Scotland, to the 
 Highlands, — France, from Brittany to Avignon, from Calais to the 
 Pyrenees, — Avignon, then the seat of the Papacy, — Lombardy, Eome, 
 and many parts of Italy. In all of these, high recommendations and his 
 brilliant gifts opened to him the courts of sovereigns, princes, and nobles ; 
 so that he lived almost entirely as the companion of lords, knights, and 
 ladies. He knew Chaucer, aiid seems to have met Petrarch. His insati- 
 able curiosity, a wonderful memory, and consummate skill of address 
 enabled him to collect tales of chivalry from knight, squire, dame, and 
 damsel in every hall and at every pageant. 
 
 About the age of 36, under the patronage of Guy, Count of Blois and 
 Lord of Beaumont, near to which town the gay rhymester was now parish 
 priest, Froissart began to compose his famous chronicle of knightly deeds 
 in peace and war. He first re-wrote the chronicle of Jean Le Bel ; but 
 he soon commenced the chronicle of his own, which he continued for 
 some twenty-five years. The book opens with the death of Edward ii. 
 of England, and the coronation of Edward iii., 1327 ; and it ends with the 
 coronation of Henry iv., and the election of the Emperor, in 1400. Down 
 to the battle of Poitiers (1356), the tales which fill the first half of book i. 
 were necessarily related from tradition. But from this date (ch. 160, bk. i.) 
 Froissart, who was then nineteen, could rely on his own memory and the 
 statements of eye-witnesses. The latter half of book i. and the whole 
 of the other three Ijooks are strictly contemporary memoirs, the result 
 of personal knowledge or oral inquiry. In later life the courtly chaplain 
 of the Lord of Beaumont was appointed canon and treasurer of Chimay, 
 in Hainault ; and there he died in rijje old age about 1410. 
 
 Froissart was the most indef;\tigable of questioners, and had the art of 
 inaking every man or woman tell him whatever they had seen. War, 
 sieges, pageants, tournaments, and deeds of chivalry are to him the sole 
 end of existence ; and all men and women, of whatever nation or tongue, 
 interest him equally, provided they be noble, gallant, and of courtly life. 
 He is the earliest, the very prince, of what we now call war corresi)on- 
 dents or grajjhic reporters. But with all his passion for the pictures([ue,
 
 340 FROISSART : JOINVILLE Modern 
 
 and his worship of high rank, he is at bottom neither toady nor journalist. 
 The chivabons deeds of the well-born were to him both social religion 
 and high poetry. He has been called by Gray " the Herodotus of a 
 barbarous age," and by Hallam " the Livy of France." But he was 
 neither historian nor philosopher. He is not placed in this Calendar 
 beside Philippe de Comines and Guicciardini, nor with Montesquieu and 
 Gibbon, ' but with the romance poets of Chivalry. We ask from him 
 pictures of manners, not records of events, a stage crowded with pageants, 
 not profound judgment of character. In his exordium he describes his 
 aim : " That the honourable enterprises, noble adventures, and deeds of 
 arms, performed in the wars between England and France, may be pro- 
 perly related and held in perpetual remembrance — to the end that brave 
 men taking example from them may be encouraged in their well-doing, I 
 sit down to record a history deserving great praise." 
 
 Viewed as mere picturesque romance of manners, the chronicle of 
 Froissart is one of the most vivid and complete in all literature. It gives 
 us a consummate tableau of one side of the iNIediicval world ; but it is seen 
 only in its corruption and decay. When Ave compare Froissart with 
 JoinviUe, who wrote nearly a centiuy earlier, we see how completely in 
 that interval all but the traditions and prejudices of Catholic Feudalism 
 has died out. From St. Louis to Richard ii. is a profound descent. 
 But, as usual, the idealisation of a complex type of manners is seldom 
 possible until the mode of life is disaj^pearing as a living reality. Frois- 
 sart is sublimely unconscious of the rottenness and inhiuuanity of the 
 etiete social system he glorifies. He gives us only the glow of its late 
 autumn. And Scott, with singular art, has put this into the mouth of 
 Claverhouse — a hero after Froissart's own heart — " With what true 
 chivalrous feeling he confines his beautiful expressions of sorrow to the 
 death of the gallant and high-bred knight, of whom it was a pity to see 
 the fall, such was his loyalty to his king, pure faith to his religion, hardi- 
 hood towards his enemy, and fidelity to his lady-love I Ah, benedicite I 
 how he will mourn over the fall of such a pearl of knighthood, be it on 
 the side he happens to favour, or on the other. But, truly, for sweeping 
 from the face of the earth some few hundreds of villain churls, who are 
 born but to plough it, the high-born and inquisitive historian has mar- 
 vellous little sympathy." [F. H.] 
 
 The Chronicles of Froissart have been published in many forms, from very 
 (liti'erent but authentic nianuscri])ts ; by Buchon, etc., the edition of 
 Kervyn de Lettonhove, Brussels, being the most complete In English, 
 translated by T. Johnes. 2 vols., illustrated, 1844. 
 
 JOINVILLE {Jean, Sire de JomviUe), b. 1224, d. 1319. 
 
 The biographer of St. Louis, one truly worthy of such a hero, was born 
 in 1224, in his ancestral castle of Joinville on the Marne, in Champagne. 
 Jean de Joixvill?: belonged to one of the most illustrious families of 
 ( 'hampagne, of which he Avas hereditary Seneschal, being direct descen- 
 dant of Godfrey do Pjouillon, allied to the courts of Poitiers, Burgundy, 
 and Blois, through his mother, a cousin of the Emperor Frederick ii.
 
 Poetry] JOINVILLE 341 
 
 Joinville was brought up at the refined court of the Counts of Cham- 
 pagne, and as a youth was attached to the person of St. Louis, whose 
 majority dates from 1236, when Joinville was but twelve. He began his 
 military career at the earliest age, and in 1248, being still only twenty- 
 four, he left his young wife and infant son, heavily mortgaged his lands, 
 and set out with St. Louis in his disastrous crusade to Egypt. The six 
 years of voyages, battles, and captivity, his sufferings, wounds, maladies, 
 and terrible experiences, his hopes, fears, and prayers, are vividly told 
 in his Life of the royal saint. On his return (he was now thirty), he 
 vigorously set himself to restore the shattered fortunes of his paternal 
 fiefs. He still spent much time in the service of St. Louis ; but when 
 the King resolved on his second fatal Crusade, 1270, Joinville positively 
 resisted all entreaties to join him : alleging, as was most true, the per- 
 manent injury which the first crusade had inflicted on his own vassals 
 and tenants. 
 
 During the reigns of Philip iii. and Philip iv. {Le Bel) Joinville was 
 occasionally emjjloyed, but towards the last was constantly in opposition. 
 His immortal History of St. Louis was undertaken at the desire of Jeanne 
 of Navarre, mother of Louis x. (Le Hutin), 50 years after the events it 
 narrates, when the author was himself eighty years old. It was finished 
 in 1309, when the old warrior was no less than eighty-five, and presented 
 by him to King Louis x. The venerable crusader, in arms to the last, 
 lived to the age of 95, and died in 1319, as is perfectly ascertained, 
 being perhaps the most striking instance of long life in any soldier of 
 the Middle Ages, and one of the most singular examples of tardy literary 
 activity in all modern history. 
 
 Joinville is the second of the great French chroniclers, just a century 
 later than Villehardouin, and a century earlier than Froissart. Thougli 
 he has little of the glowing imagination of Froissart, or of the piercing- 
 judgment of De Comines, Joinville has left us a wonderful picture of 
 Catholic Feudalism in its last sublime hours. His portrait of the royal 
 saint takes us to the very heart of the Middle Ages in the supremo 
 moment of their evanescent glory. His memoirs, written almost exactly 
 in the same years as the great poem of Dante, but recording events long- 
 before Dante's birth, show at every step the collapse of Catholic Feu- 
 dalism as a permanent institution. Every page deepens the contrast 
 between the ecstatic unworldliness of the saintly king and the sane good 
 sense gf his devoted knight, between the passionate traditions of the 
 Crusades and the pi'actical inhumanities and follies they involved. His- 
 torical literature has no more deeply impressive scenes than those of the 
 King sitting in judgment under the oak of Vincennes, of his conversation 
 at court, the battles at Damietta, the voyages and storms at sea, and 
 above all the martyr's death of St. Louis at Tunis. In all his adventures 
 we see the Knight of Joinville simple, stalwart, chivalrous, naif, devoted, 
 and sane. [E. H.] 
 
 Vie de St. Louis, va\. de W;ull\', 1871. Tr. in Englisli, and aliridged 'ly James 
 Hutton.
 
 342 CAMOENS [Modern 
 
 CAMOENS {Luiz de Camocs), b. 1524, d. 1579. 
 
 The national poet of Portugal was born apparently at Lisbon, in 1524, 
 of a noble family, being by his mother's side related to Vasco da Gama, 
 the hero of his epic poem, who died in the year of the poet's birth. The 
 young Luiz de Camoexs was educated at Coimbra, and introduced at 
 court, where his poetry, his loves, and his audacity soon made him a man 
 of mark. Banished from court, and finding no settled vocation, the am- 
 bitious youth went abroad, served against the Moors in Africa, where he 
 lost his right eye, and, after a wild youth, sailed for the Indies at the 
 age of 29, bursting with ideas, and proudly indignant that his genius had 
 not been recognised. 
 
 For seventeen years the poet lived in India, serving in arms on sea and 
 land, in storms on the ocean, in war with the Moors, Arabs, and the native 
 tribes of the Asiatic coasts. After many vicissitudes and disappoint- 
 ments, Avherein his proud and generous nature was constantly displayed, 
 Camoens returned to Lisbon in 1570, bringing with him his poem Os 
 Lusiadas, the national ejDic of Lusitania. It was published in 1572 
 {cetat. 48), and at once was hailed as the greatest poem of its time. But 
 the poet himself was neglected. He died in 1580, at the age of 56, in 
 poverty and obscurity, just before the sixty years' domination of Portugal 
 by Spain. " I am happy," said the patriot poet, " in that I die in the 
 bosom of my country— nay, in that I am dying with her." 
 
 We need not accept the extravagant praises with which from that 
 day to this the Portuguese have covered their national poet. He fixed 
 their language, and he idealised their national glories. His Lusiadas is 
 rather earlier in date than the Jerusalem of Tasso, or the Fairij Queen of 
 Spenser : it is the earliest modern type of a regular epic on the model of 
 the jEiieid and the Pharsalia. It is moreover a truly national epic, de- 
 voted to the great achievement of the Portuguese, the discovery of the 
 Cape and Southern Africa l)y Vasco da Gama, and his settlement in India. 
 This was only seventy-four years before tlie publication of the poem ; and 
 the plan of an epic describing events so recent was necessarily fatal to 
 the epic ideal ; and the incongruity is made more striking by the mixture 
 of elaborate geographical details with a celestial machinery taken from 
 the gods of Olympus and the entire classical mythology. 
 
 We can accept the verdict of Camoens' countrymen for tlie grace of 
 his language and the consummate purity of his style. In plan, iiliagery, 
 and wealth of invention, the Lusiads is certainly inferior to the princi- 
 jjal epics of European literature. But it continues to hold therein an 
 honourable place by virtue of its heroic, martial, and patriotic spirit, the 
 vivid pictures of sea life and of maritime adventure ; and, in spite of 
 its incoherences, it must ever remain one of the national romances of 
 chivalry. [E. H.] 
 
 Hallam : Lit. vol. ii. M. Lenios : Revue Occidentale, vols. v. uiid vi., lSSO-1. 
 Translations by J. J. Aubertin, 1878, and by Mickle, 1771 (Bolm's 
 Standard Library). Sir R. Burton has recently published a literal 
 version iu archaic rhyme ; Quaritch, 2 vols., ISSO.
 
 Poetrt] SPENSER : SPANISH ROMANCERS 343 
 
 SPENSER (Edmund), b. 1552, d. 1599. 
 
 The roll of the modern poeiry of England opens with the romantic 
 poem which glorified the era of Elizabeth. The poet's short life of 47 
 years very nearly coincides with her reign. 
 
 Edmund Spexser was born in London, in 1522, of a decayed family, 
 probably allied to the noble house of Spencer. He was educated at Mer- 
 chant Taylors' School and at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. Returning to 
 London in early life, he became the friend of Sidney, was taken into the 
 household of Lord Leicester, Sidney's uncle, and published his first poem 
 about the age of 27. The next year he went to Ireland as secretary to 
 the Viceroy, Lord Grey, and passed there nearly all the rest of his life in 
 official duties. He obtained a grant of confiscated estates, and was one 
 of the Protestant English garrison who, amidst scenes of blood and 
 horror, valiantly strove to master the Catholic population of the island. 
 In the insurrection of Tyrone, Spenser's home was stormed and burnt : 
 he made his escape to England, died in distress (it is said of want), in 
 January 1599, a few months before the birth of Oliver Cromwell, and was 
 buried in Poets' Corner, near his beloved Chaucer. 
 
 The Fairy Queen was published in two series in 1590 and 1596, and 
 at once placed its author as the first of living poets. It is still usual to 
 rank it in English literature next after the Paradise Lost, though it can- 
 not be denied that in power, in design, in vitality, and in directness, 
 Spenser falls immeasurably short of his greatest successors. But he is 
 the earliest of our " modern " poets on a large scale, and his influence on 
 aU subsequent poetry has been profound. In exquisite harmony, in 
 wealth of fimcy, richness of local colour, purity of tone, and in glowing 
 enthusiasm for all that is lovely, chivalrous, and noble, Spenser may take 
 rank with Tasso, and is only surpassed in our language by Shakespeare. 
 Even prolixity, confusion of plan, obscurity, att'ectation, and often 
 languor, do not destroy the charm of this noble and exquisite creation, 
 with all its romantic dignity of aim and its visions of knightly and 
 womanly perfection. It has been well said by Thomas Campbell : — " He 
 threw the soul of harmony into our verse, and made it more warmly, 
 tenderly, and magnificently descriptive than it ever was before, or, with 
 a few excejjtions, than it has ever been since." [F. H.] 
 
 Works (Globe series), liy Morris and Hcales. Works, by Grosart. /.(/e,by 
 Dean Church, 1879. 
 
 SPANISH ROMANCERS, 12th to 15th centuries. 
 
 Under this name are included the popular ballads and romances of Old 
 Spain, which sang the deeds of the national champions. No peojjle of 
 Europe have ever surpassed the mediaeval Spaniards in rich and heroic 
 romances, which are almost certainly traced back to the 12th century, and 
 may have taken their actual form in the succeeding three centuries. They 
 were first collected i\ml puhJ isJud in 1510 under the title of ancient. 
 
 This is not the place to enter on the obscure and difiicult (question of
 
 344 SPANISH ROMANCERS : CHATEAUBRIAND [Modern 
 
 the literary history of these " romances," which has been treated by 
 Ticknor, Dozg, Depping, and Hubbard (Paris, 1876). It is sufficiently 
 clear that a rich and heroic ballad poetry existed in some form in Sjiain 
 from a time not remote from that of the champions it honours. In the 
 General Chronicle of the 13th century this is often referred to as the work 
 of Joglares. These minstrels were of a kind very different from the Pro- 
 vengal Troubadours, placed in the week of Ariosto above ; for war, 
 heroism, crimes, passion, and tragedy are their subject rather than love 
 and enjoyment. They form a real national epic cycle, not surpassed by 
 any other in modern literature. The principal Ijallads of various ages 
 cluster round the deeds of the Cid — the Arthur and Roland of Old Spain ; 
 and the finest of all is the Poem of the Cid (see under Cid, Feudal Civili- 
 sation, p. 272) — a long and true epic rather than ballad, and worthy to 
 take rank with the early epics of the world. For splendid pictures of 
 chivalry the Spanish romances have no superior, unless it be in our own 
 Arthurian cycle, as the chivalry of Spain, in its long contest with the 
 Moors, from the opening of the 11th to the closing of the 13th century, 
 had no superior in Europe. [F. H.] 
 
 Lockhart : SjMnish Ballads, — Soutliey : Chronicle of the Cid, — are pulilished 
 in one vohime. 
 
 CHATEAUBRIAND {Francois Auguste de), "b. 1768, d. 1848. 
 
 Chateaubriaxd, the B\Ton — perhaps we should say the Manzoni — of 
 modern France, was of a noble Breton fsimily, and Avas born at St. Malo, in 
 1 768, one year before Napoleon and three years before Scott. After a desul- 
 tory and dreamy youth, passed in all the romantic associations of his Breton 
 sea-coast, he entered the army, was received at court in the last days of 
 the Monarchy, witnessed the opening scenes of the Revolution at Paris, 
 and, disgusted by the outrages he saw, he journeyed to America. There 
 he was welcomed by Washington, travelled amongst the Red Indians, and 
 returned to France, after the Hight of the King, to join the "Emigrants" 
 on the Rhine. Wounded, sick, and penniless, the exile passed years of 
 extreme distress in England, where the death of his mother and sister 
 filled him with remorse and converted him to Christianity. 
 
 Here he Ijegan his Genie du Christ ianisme, which ajipeared in 1802, 
 when the author had already returned to France. Atala, published in 
 the year l^efore, had already given him reputation. The Genie created a 
 new literature, and raised the young writer to fame and influence. The 
 reaction had found its Rousseau — a Rousseau, it is true, with more 
 rhetoric than poetry, and more sentiment than passion, l)ut a romantic 
 enthusiast gifted with eloquence, pathos, ]iersonality, and convictions, a 
 rich imagination and a suj^erli disdain for the materialism and Jacol)inism 
 which were still burning out in France their last fires beneath the retro- 
 grade Empire. 
 
 Chateaubriand, tiow liaughtily conceiving himself a now force in the 
 world, formed the plan of his Martyrs, wherein the heroes of tlie ( 'hristian 
 faith were to be contrasted with the vices of I'olvtheisni. With all its
 
 Poetry] CHATEAUBEIAND : WALTER SCOTT 345 
 
 confusion of plan and historical anachronisms, the Martyrs had a power- 
 ful effect in reviving the hold of tlie proscriljed religion ; and it forms 
 the poetic side of the Catholic revival, of which De Maistre was the 
 philosopliic inspirer. It apjoeared in 1809, on the poeL's»retiirn from his 
 travels in Greece, Palestine, Asia Minor, Africa, and Spain. 
 
 Chateaubriand was employed in diplomacy both by Napoleon and 
 under the Restoration, and was Ambassador at Berlin and in London. 
 But his intractable character and his visionary ideas placed him almost 
 imiformly in opposition ; and his political career and Avritings have a 
 quite subordinate place. His last days were passed in the Rue de Sevres 
 in profound seclusion, and he died there at the age of 80, July 1848, 
 having lived to see the barricades of February and June in the second 
 Republic. He is buried at St. Malo, liis birthplace, in a romantic tomb 
 on the rocks swept by the billows of the Atlantic. 
 
 Chateaubriand occupies in France a peculiar position of his own as the 
 first to revive that passion for the chivalric and Catholic traditions of the 
 past which in England was so gloriously developed by Scott. The life of 
 Scott lies within that of Chateaubriand ; but the romances of Scott are 
 from twelve to twenty years later. If the Genius of ('Jmstianity is feeble 
 as philosophy, the Last of the Abencerrages is a beautiful little specimen of 
 true historical romance. The Martyrs, with all its faults of construction 
 and reality, is a powerful picture of religious heroism, and its faidts are 
 more conspicuous to-day than they were under the Empire of Napoleon 
 and to the English Protestant rather than to the French Catholic. Both 
 of these books are in the Positivist Library, beside Paid and Virginia 
 and the Frincess of Cleves. Chateaubriand, with all his egoisui and his 
 sciolism, played much the same part in French literature that is filled in 
 English literatare by Byron, Coleridge, and Sou they, and from afiir off 
 he even touches on the part of Scott. So that, historically, he nmst be 
 held to have drawn back the 19th century at its opening to the 
 inexhaustible fountains of chivalrous romance. [F. H.] 
 
 Memoires cVoutre Tomlic. Sainte-]?euve : Chatranhriirnd et sini gronpc, 
 Paris, 2 vols. 
 
 WALTER SCOTT {Srr Walter), b. 1771, d. 1832. 
 
 The great restorer of chivalrous romance in modern Europe came of it 
 martial Border clan, the chiefs of which have founded in Scotland more 
 than one noble liouse. Walter Scott was the ninth son of an Edinburgh 
 solicitor, and was born in tliat city, August 1771. After a somewhat 
 irregular educiition, the youtli, ah-oady brimful of poetry, ballads, 
 romances, and traditions of his Avarliku and loyal ancestors, was admitted 
 as an advocate at the age of 21. He studied law with the same energy 
 that he threw into all lie took up, early obtained some small legal 
 appointments, and ulthnately that of Clerk of Session— an oiiice which 
 he hlled with zeal and efhciency for twenty-five years. 
 
 It is clear that from early youth Scott's real Itent w.-is towards 
 narrative romance. But ids earlier ])ub!i(,-ation.t! were poems — Harder 
 MuiMrelsg (1802), Dni <f the Ln.^l Minslrd (1805), Marmion (1808), Lady
 
 346 WALTER SCOTT [Modern 
 
 of the Lake (1810) — which gave him a reputation only overshadowed by 
 that of Byron a few years later. It was, however, not until the age of 43 
 that the great romancer unveiled his true genius. 
 
 Waverley h»d been begun nine-years earlier ; but it appeared anonym- 
 ously in 1814 ; and from that date until Castle Dangerous, in 1831, Scott 
 continued, without much intermission, to pour forth the magnificent series 
 of historical romances, in number more than thirty, which are his true glorj^ 
 Along with these he continued to issue poems, dramas, biographies, essays, 
 critical editions of various kinds, and almost every form of literary pro- 
 duct. Fired with the profits which such portentous literary fertility gave 
 him, and with his judgment dazzled by the unparalleled popularity of his 
 
 i novels, Scott conceived the petty ambition of founding a territorial familj' 
 and creating a baronial estate. He bought Abbotsford in 1812, and pro- 
 ceeded to construct there a mesqiiiii imitation of antique mansion and 
 park. He entered into partnership with publishers and printers, and 
 engaged in many foolish speculations ; he was made a baronet by the 
 direct act of George iv. ; he kept open house and lived the life of a 
 [ county magnate. It is a sad and cruel story. Euin, humiliation, bank- 
 ruptcy, disease, and death followed in rapid series. For six years the poet 
 struggled heroically to meet his disasters ; out of £130,000 of debts he 
 paid off £40,000 in two years of intense labour. His maladies grew more 
 acute, his genius feebler, with every new eftbrt. He died at the age of 
 61, utterly worn out by gigantic labours ; and he was buried in the 
 romantic ruins of Dryburgh Abbey, beside his beloved Tweed, September 
 1832. 
 
 (It is one of the most melancholy thoughts in the history of our litera- 
 ture that this superb genius was prematurely sacrificed. For, with his 
 splendid constitution and amazing fertility, the world might have 
 possessed another series of romances from his brain not less inimitable 
 than what we have. The historical field is practically limitless ; and the 
 imagination of the great romancer had an inexhaustible range, such as 
 poets whose creations are less objective could not possibly maintain. The 
 errors of this noble nature were inwoven with his whole conception of 
 
 I life. But at bottom the soul of Walter Scott was true, generous, warm, 
 humane, and tender as any that ever spoke in innnortal tones to men. 
 Some of his happiest creations have not been surpassed in their own vein 
 by Shakespeare himself : some of his truest scenes have Homeric sim- 
 plicity and charm : his best tales have refashioned the historic judgment 
 of our age. The forniTnwlTich'fhe mighty improvisatore pours out his 
 sTory is too often flaccid, and at times it descends to conventional bom- 
 bast. Scott was no accurate historian, and hardly a learned antiquary ; 
 and it may be tliat no one of his novels is a complete masterpiece of the 
 best that he could do. Don Quixote, Tom Jones, even Man/.oni's T}te 
 Betrothed are all more finished works of literary craft ; but t he alory of 
 the Waverley cycle is the Shakesjpearian wealth of imagination, the his-^ 
 torTc""gTow which lights up, one after another, eight centuries of the i)ast, 
 the'^unerring instinct by which, in all its essentials, the spirit of Chivalry 
 . is revealed to a sordid age. 
 
 These inexhaustible prose epics paint in everlasting hues the best 
 types of iSIedia^val Chivalry and those late echoes of it which linger in
 
 Poetry] WALTER SCOTT : COOPER : MANZONI 347 
 
 the Northern hills. And Scott does this with a systematic completeness 
 and a passionate enthusiasm which have not been reached by the greatest 
 masters of the historical drama. The form and scheme of the prose 
 romance are in many ways better fitted to idealise the complex spirit of 
 a distant epoch than is the stage, whereon personal types must necessarily 
 dominate over social pictures. Scott has thus found a new mission for 
 creative art — an art whereof he has given us the tempting first-fruits, but 
 which is destined to almost unlimited development and to the noblest i 
 uses when inspired by the religion of the future. And it is in this anti- 
 cipation that Comte has called Scott the greatest poetical genius of this j 
 century, and ranks him as one of the twelve great poets since Homer. ' 
 [F.H.] 
 
 Lockliavt : Life of Scntt, 10 vols. Scott: Diaru and Journal, 1891. Pos. 
 Pol. iir.-527;1v:T38. PhU. Pos. vi. 367. 
 
 COOPER {James Fenimorc), b. 1789, d. 1851. 
 
 Fenimore Cooper, the son of one of the original settlers of the State 
 of New York, was born in New Jersey, 1789. As a youth he spent six 
 years in the navy, saw some service, and then, devoting himself to litera- 
 ture, retired to a newly settled part of the States. He resided three years 
 as Consul in France, and travelled over the greater part of Europe, met 
 Walter Scott, and ultimately returned to his cpiiet life in his native 
 settlement. His series of romances belong to the years 1821-50. 
 
 The great importance of his work lies in the stories of Indian life, of 
 which the Laat of the Mohicans (1826) is the chief. Cooper is the Walter 
 Scott of the Fetichist races of the Red type ; and his singular merit has 
 been to preserve in permanent imaginative form the social life of a primi- 
 tive race in the hunter stage of development. Without admitting the 
 literal faithfulness of much in his pictures, he must be recognised as 
 having been the first and chief of those Avho have idealised an almost for- 
 gotten epoch of civilisation. He has thus done in a poetic form for one 
 phase of Fetichist life what Captain Cook has done in a scientific form 
 for another phase. And since each generation removes from our planet 
 some of the last remnants of the primitive form of human society, the 
 insight and sympathy of Cooper, like that of Cook, will continue to gain 
 an increasing value by the course of time. This permanent service 
 to art will long preserve a writer who, except as a creator of vivid 
 romantic incidents, must occupy an infeiior place amongst the true mas- 
 ters of fiction. [F. H.] 
 
 MANZONI (J./c.s.sa7K/ro Francesco Tommaso Antonio),yi. 1785, d. 1873. 
 
 The founder of the romance of chivalry in modern Italy came of a 
 noble but impoverished family, settled at Lecco, on the lake of Como. 
 His mother was a daughter of Beccaria, the Benthani of Italy. Alessandro 
 Manzoxi was born at Milan in 1785 ; at the age of 20 he went to Paris, 
 and was admitted into tlie intimacy of " idealogues " and Voltairians.
 
 348 MANZONI [Modern 
 
 A happy marriage, at the age of 23, and the counsels of friends, decided 
 him to devote his energies to the defence of Catholic and moral aims. 
 His Hymns, Tragedies, and Essays are of minor importance, always ex- 
 cepting his magnificent Cinque Maggio, an ode on the Death of Napoleon, 
 1821, one of the most powerful lyrics in Italian, or indeed in modern 
 literature. 
 
 The whole interest, however, of Manzoni's life centres in I Promessi 
 Sposi, published, after long study and revision, in parts, 1825-27. It is 
 a historical romance, the scene of which is placed in the poet's native 
 country, round Como and in Milan, during the Spanish rule, about 1630. 
 It was at once received with acclamation both in Italy and throughout 
 Europe, and has ever since stood, almost without a rival, at the head of 
 the modern Italian prose romance. Scott, with generous enthusiasm, 
 declared it to be the finest novel ever written. With the exception of a 
 small supplement, La Colonna Infavie, Manzoni produced nothing in 
 the same vein, though he lived and wrote for more than forty years. His 
 domestic life was spotless : though clouded continually by bereavement ; 
 for he lived to bury his two wives and seven of his nine children. His 
 character was noble, generous, aftectionate, simple, and pure. He died 
 in 1873, at the age of 88. ]\Ianzoni is one of the two or three names of 
 living persons who Avere included in the Calendar (others are Wheatstone, 
 Rossini, Blainville). 
 
 It is too common in England to regard the Promessi Sjwsi as a mere 
 imitation of Scott. Undoubtedly it was subsequent to almost the whole of 
 the series of the Waverley romances, and was a development of the his- 
 torical idealisation in prose which C'hateaubriand commenced and Scott 
 so gloriously expanded. But the work of Manzoni has special qualities 
 of his own. The patient elalwration of the scheme, the artful contrasts 
 of light and shade, the consummate delicacy with which characters are 
 portrayed, and the exquisite beauty of the language are those of a poem 
 rather than a novel. And it is plain that Scott, in the abounding pleni- 
 tude of his creative fancy, never gave to any single story the dramatic 
 complexity and laborious care bestowed on The Betrothed. 
 
 The plan, too, was purposely conceived in a key different from Scott's. 
 Far less historical setting, less rapidity of incident, less of the epic and 
 more of the dramatic element, were sought by Manzoni. Certain English 
 readers haA^e found him tedious because, Avhilst they are looking for 
 thrilling situations, INIanzoni is unfolding to them delicate shades of 
 character. Xor does the English reader feel a ready sympathy Avith the 
 more spiritual duties of the Catholic priest, and especially his relation to 
 men and Avomen of the laljouring class. In intimate feeling for all this, 
 Manzoni stands Avithout a riA-al ; and he is as admirable in giving it ideal 
 form as is Scott Avith his coA^enanters, cavaliers, and Border yeomen. The 
 roll of antique romance Avould indeed be incoiii])]ete Avithout the figure of 
 Don Abbondio and his flock, the Friar, the Cardinal, and all the late l)lossom 
 of the Catholic Churcli — so incomprehensible to Northern Protestants. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. iii. 527. Plril. Pos. vi. .367. Saiiite-Beuve : Esscq/ on Faurivl, 
 in Portraits ('(raliiiiporains. The Betrothed : numerous English trans- 
 lations, and in Bolm's Nov. Libr.
 
 Poetry] TASSO 349 
 
 TASSO (Torquato), b. 1544, d. 1595. 
 
 The third, of the great poets of Italy holds the chief i^lace in the week 
 assigned to the romance of Chivalry. The splendour of his theme, his 
 permanent popularity in the South, and the affecting story of his life, 
 have given a somewhat undue importance to a poem which a judicious 
 English critic does not scruple to call the great epic, in the strict sense, of 
 modern times. 
 
 Torquato Tasso came of a baronial fomily settled, from the 13th cen- 
 tury, at Bergamo ; and he was lineally descended from the head of the 
 eldest branch. His father, Bernardo, was a poet of much distinction, a 
 soldier, a courtier, and a diplomatist. He was secretary to the Prince of 
 Salerno, afterwards served in several embassies and courts, and married 
 Porzia de' Eossi, of a noble fomily of Pistoia. The poet was born at 
 Sorrento, in a palace overlooking the bay of Naples, March 1544. 
 
 Torquato, a wonderfully precocious child, after a roving youth and 
 a desultory education as a lawyer at Padua and Bologna, settled into the 
 common career of a well-born lad of culture, that of professional courtier 
 and palace laureate. His Binahlo, which has much of the poet's graces, 
 was published at the age of 18, and at once attracted admiration. At the 
 age of 21 the young genius was introduced to the court of Ferrara, 
 where the Duke Alfonso and his two sisters, Lucrezia and Leonora 
 d'Este, welcomed the handsome, graceful, and chivalrous youth. For 
 some years he lived in affectionate intimacy with the beautiful princesses, 
 published his Aviinta, an exquisitely tender pastoral lyric, at the age 
 of 29, and finished his GerusaUmime Liberata at the age of 30, in 1574. 
 The Aminta became the foundation of the modern Italian opera. The 
 Jerusalem, though completed, was not published for six years. 
 
 About this time begins the tragedy of the poet's life. He became the 
 victim of a form of insanity varying in degree, and seldom overshadow- 
 ing mental activity and even self-consciousness, but sufficient to cause 
 intense suffering in the melancholy, sensitive, profoundly scrupulous, and 
 religious nature of the poet. He became morose, irritable, and engaged 
 in a series of literary and personal quarrels, gave way to delusions, and 
 became intolerable even to his best friends. We need not impute scandal 
 to his fair patrons or cruelty to the Duke, who was at last forced to put 
 the poet under control. He escaped, and wandered on foot to his sister 
 at Sorrento, where an affecting scene is recorded. Again and again he 
 returned to Ferrara, only to wander forth from one court to another, to be 
 discarded from all, and at last to return to Ferrara perhaps in a liopeless 
 passion for the youngest Princess. A more than usually violent outltreak 
 of temper caused the Duke to commit him to a lunatic asylum (1579), 
 where he remained for seven years. 
 
 There, after the first incarceration, he was treated with what for the 
 age was indulgence and good sense. He went abroad, lived freely, saw 
 friends, read and wrote as he pleased. In confinement he had the torture 
 of learning that his Jerusalem was being published by others in fragments 
 and without his corrections ; and this was soon followed l)y the un- 
 authorised publication of his odes, sonnets, and pieces which had long 
 circulated in manuscript. In 158G Tasso left the asylum for the court of
 
 350 TASSO [Modern 
 
 Mantua ; and for nine years more he passed — a restless, morbid, agonised 
 mendicant — from city to city, from palace to palace. Clement viii., 
 in 1594, invited him to Rome, to be croA\Tied with bays in the Capitol. 
 He came — but only to die. In a few months, worn out with disease 
 of mind and body, the poet died, aged just 51, April 1595. A magnifi- 
 cent mausoleum covers the bones of the miserable outcast, for whom 
 princes had contended, though their bounties could not minister to a 
 mind diseased. The poet was tall, handsome, very fair, having an ample 
 forehead, with large and brilliant eyes of sky-blue tone. 
 
 It is difficult for the Englishman of to-day to comprehend the pas- 
 sionate delight which for three centuries the Jerusalem has given to Italy, 
 a delight which is almost extinct now in Northern Europe. The exquisite 
 melody of its stanzas is too often lost to British ears, and even when 
 completely felt by us, these honeyed cadences are apt to pall on the mascu- 
 line taste. In more things than in music this is the age of Wagner, not 
 of Bellini. It is plain that in life, movement, mass, and the trumpet-note 
 of heroic enthusiasm, Tasso falls short of Ariosto, not to speak of the 
 great poets of the world. The Jerusalem is the least heroic of all the 
 famous epics — the least spontaneous, and the most sentimental. An epic 
 which has nothing of the martial fire or the primitive freshness of the 
 Iliad must undoubtedly fall into the secondary rank of immortal poems ; 
 but Tasso has qualities of his own — qualities of great value wherein he 
 has no superior. 
 
 In synmietry of imagination, in j^ellucid grace, and in exquisite tender- 
 ness, Tasso stands supreme. His subject — the First Crusade — the char- 
 acter of his chief hero, Godfrey — the general design of his epic — are all 
 admirable. Consummate art, in an artificial and exhausted epoch, could 
 go no further ; and if the courtly lover of princesses, in an age when 
 the Renascence in Italy was already in its early grave, was no Homer, nor 
 even Virgil, he produced all that was possible — the most perfect literary 
 epic that cultured art ever wrote in modern times. It is true that the 
 episodes greatly overpower the poem : not because they are dispropor- 
 tionate in scale or ill-combined with the whole, but because the court 
 poet of Ferrara could paint exquisite scenes of gracious chivalry and 
 romantic tenderness, but had seen no heroes in the fiesh nor heard the 
 crash of great battles and historic events. Nor was it possible for a very 
 pious Catholic to do justice to the Moslem, or to feel the heroic side of 
 the Saracen defence. In subtle melody, in faultless dignity and purity of 
 thought, word, sentiment, in a varied circle of generous chieftains, loving 
 natures, and angelic women, Tasso has not been surpassed by Spenser ; 
 whilst he has a far more lucid imagination and a more superb and magical 
 colour. In poetry, as in art, much is forgiven to those who have loved 
 much. AVe forget the luscious foreshortening of Con-eggio in the smiles 
 of his enchanting cherubs. And the romantic, pathetic, and purifying 
 sentiment inspired by all that is chivalrous in knight or saintly in woman 
 has never found a nobler poetry than in that of Tasso, albeit to our 
 Northern ears in notes that are far too rich with 
 
 Di sne dolcezze il lusiiighier Parnaso. 
 
 In judging a gi*eat work of art it is impossible to look at, it in the
 
 Poetry] TASSO : PETRARCH 351 
 
 abstract apart from its own history in the world. The Parthenon, the 
 Madonnas of Raphael, impress us, not only by their own beauty, but by 
 the passionate admiration which centuries have lavished on them. And 
 in our admiration for the Jerusalem of Tasso there mingles the memory 
 of the enthusiasm that Europe felt, during at least 200 years, for the 
 Ciorindas and Erminias, the Rinaldos and the Tancreds. I have myself 
 heard Venetian gondoliers, who fought for the Republic in 1849, chant 
 stanzas of their favourite bard as they swept down the Grand Canal. We 
 live in an age prone to fiercer and less gracious moods, to the mystery 
 of the subtle idea, to brazen clangors and the harmony of discord ; but 
 we have yet something to learn from Italv and her last great poet. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 J. A. Symouds : Renaissance in Italy, vols. v. vi., and KvHcXq, Encycl. Brit. 
 vol. xxiii. No translations of Tasso give tlie peculiar quality of this 
 jjoet — luxurious grace of form and tone. Fairfax (1600) lias vigour, but 
 is archaic and rude. Hoole (1763) is conventional and lax. There are 
 many recent — J. H. Wiffen(Bohn's Illust. Libr.), 1854, James, 1865, etc., 
 etc., but they are all like academic copies of Correggio's angels. 
 
 PETRARCH {Francesco di Farcnxo), b. 1304, d. 1374. 
 
 The founder of the Classical Revival, and one of the chief poets of 
 Italy, was a Florentine, born at Arezzo, 20th July 1304. His father, 
 Pietro di PaFeiTzo, culled Petracco, was notary in' the Rolls Court of 
 Florence, and was expelled from his native city as one of the White 
 faction by the same decree (January 1302) which exiled Dante. The 
 son was born at Arezzo during his father's exile ; he was brought up 
 at Florence and Pisa, and was removed at the age of nine to Avignon, 
 then a city under the rule of the King of Naples, and the seat of the 
 Papacy. From boyhood the lad devoted himself passionately to letters ; 
 he studied at Montpellier, and then at Bologna ; and he changed his name 
 to Petrarca. On his father's death, at the age of 22, he settled at 
 Avignon, and nominally proceeded to orders in the Church. 
 
 For some fourteen years the brilliant student was absorbed in Latin 
 letters and lyric poetry, living at Avignon, or in Vaucluse, a lovely and 
 secluded valley near it, making occasional journeys to Paris, Flanders, 
 the Rhine, and Rome. He was 23 when he first met Laura, the myste- 
 rious Beatrice of Petrarch's life, to whom his sonnets are addressed. It 
 is not certain who was the shadowy object of his love, except that she 
 was a married lady of spotless reputation, with whom the poet main- 
 tained a devoted friendship for twenty years until her death. At the 
 age of 35, net mezzo del cammin di sua vita, Petrarch was recognised as 
 t he first scholar and poet of his age, and was formally crowned ^yith 
 lau rel in t"[ie Caprtol ol Rome, April 1341. 
 
 "TTIienceforward the poet passed his life in courts, embassies, in the 
 most cultured societies of Italy, in incessant correspondence with the 
 learned men of all countries, or in rural retirement at Vaucluse, and 
 Arqua, on the Euganean Hills. He had a host of literary friends and 
 royal patrons ; he collated manuscripts ; collected gems, coins, and books, 
 and poured forth an extraordinary series of epistles, eclogues, epics,
 
 352 PETRAECH : THOMAS-A-KEMPIS [Modern 
 
 treatises, essays, speeches, and theological meditations — all in Latin. It 
 is singular that these — on which he most valued himself, and for which 
 he was most valued in his own age — were soon surpassed in the next 
 age, and are never read in our own. The exquisite lyrist survives only 
 in the passionate love poems of his youth, which he hardly counted as 
 amongst his literary products. He was found dead amongst his books, 
 July 1374, within two davs of coni|')"letirig'liis TOIK "yearT'-TTis' bones 
 lie'in a red marble sarcopm%irs7^v^iich, with "his liouse, may stiU be 
 seen in the sequestered village of Arqua, looking over the wooded plain 
 round Padua. 
 
 Petrarch was in many ways the first, and perhaps the best, of the 
 Humanists — the true inspirer of the CLlHtjical lie vl vat'; a nd m a seii se 
 the founder of a re;iTR; modern literature. Boccaccio, his pnpiii friend, 
 and successor, well carried on the torcli of ancient learning aiKT classical 
 grace. Though Petrarch is not a Latinist of theTaltbre of 'tlie''TSlli or 
 16(tlr centuries, he was in scholarship immensely in advance even of 
 Dante. Hi^ vasj; European intluence did more than niaT'onenjottlefTHen 
 to""fill Europe as a A\diole with the spirit of the Tvehasceiice.'^ ' 'As an 
 apostle of self-culture, he was hardly exceeded By Cfbethe,~aiKl he felt the 
 same universal passion for letters which men like Leonardo felt for 
 Nature. But Petrarch is no hero, nor even a gi'eat man in any sense. 
 In all situations he remains an incorrigible master of mere language ; he 
 had no little of the weakness, the sentimentality, and contradictions of 
 Rousseau ; much of the vainglory and arrogance of Byron ; and he 
 showed the way to his followers in the Renascence towards incur able 
 literary trifling with gxeat human interests. 
 
 But it is not as the pioneer of the Renascence that we are here treating 
 Petrarch. His place in tliis Calendar is that of the earligst of the purely 
 lyrical poets who have transfigured for us love, sympathy, religious mus- 
 ings on life, death, man's heart, and the beauty of the earth. In these 
 exquisite cadences of melancholy passion and in these dreams of love and 
 bereavement, colouring all Nature in the intensity of feeling, especially 
 in the second and grander part of the Canzoniere on the death of Laura, 
 we have a lyric perfection which is hardly surpassed by Lycidas and 
 Prometheus Unbound. In magical beauty of form, in consummate grace, 
 and in touching sensibility of soul, Petrarch's sonnets have no superior ; 
 and, except for l)rief flashes of Dante, they were the earliest in the roll of 
 modern poetry to reach that level. [F. H.] 
 
 J. A. Syiiiomls: Tlie Renaissance in Italy, vols. ii. iv. v., and also Life in 
 Eiicijcl. Brit. vol. xviii. I'os. I'ul. i., Dedication; and Testament, 
 passi'iii. 
 
 THOMAS-A-KEMPIS {Tlwmm Hammerlai), b. 1380, d. 1471. 
 
 The author of tlie Imifatio Christi was hmg a mysterious personage, 
 and is even yet but faintly known to us. Thomas Hakmmerlp:ix, or 
 Hemerken {i.e. " little Hammer "'), was born of humble parents at Kem- 
 pen, near Diisseldorf, in 1380. ^Vhen about 14 years of age he entered 
 as a scholar the house of " The Brothers of (Jommon Life " at Deventer.
 
 Poetry] THOMAS-A-KEMPIS 353 
 
 In 1408 he became a canon-regular of the'Order of St. Augustine in the 
 Brothers' Monastery of St. Agnes, near ZwoUe, where he was ordained 
 priest and spent the remainder of his long life. His principal occupations 
 were copying books, training the novices, preaching, also writing the lives 
 of the early Fathers and Brothers of the Common Life, and composing 
 books of devotion. He died at the great age of 91. 
 
 After much controversy it may be considered settled that this Thomas 
 was the author of the world-known book which from the heading of its 
 first chapter bears the title of The Imitation of Christ. A copy undoubt- 
 edly written by his own hand, dated 1441, is in the Royal Library at 
 Brussels, and now constitutes the original text. A facsimile has been 
 published (Elliot Stock, London, ed. Ruelen). The book was first printed 
 at Augsburg, 1486. The editions and translations exceed 2000. The 
 Latin text and the verse translation by Corneille are in the Positivist 
 Library. 
 
 Historically considered, The Imitation is to be regarded as a final 
 summary of the moral wisdom of Catholicism, naturally issuing from the 
 monastic class which more than others had escaped the classical tenden- 
 cies prevailing in the 15th century : it and similar works of the same 
 date " constitute the last product of Catholicism," and specially charac- 
 terise the second century of the Western Revolution. And it must 
 always be remembered that the Catholic Church, though smitten Avith 
 decline, and in a minor degree the other Christian Churches, all of whom 
 the Imitatio served, remained for three centuries in general charge of 
 morals. 
 
 Written by a monk, the book was composed primarily for the daily 
 discipline and edification of himself and other monks (i. 9, 20, 25, iii. 10) : 
 but by the simplicity of its aim, its serene and deep truthfulness and 
 beauty of feeling, it has availed for the like purpose to Catholics and 
 Christians generally, and is available for all men. It is, says Comte, 
 essentially an aesthetic work, a picture of man's moral nature. He 
 declared it to be for Positivists a sacred book, and so used it him- 
 self. " The conclusive test of experience induces me to recommend 
 above all the dally reading of the sublime, if incomplete, effort of 
 a-Kempis, and the incomparable epic of Dante. IMore than seven years 
 have passed since I have read each morning a chapter of the one, 
 each evening a canto of the other, never ceasing to find new beauties 
 previously unseen, never ceasing to reap new fruits, intellectual or 
 moral." 
 
 The Imitation makes no pretension to be an objective survey of human 
 life, but affirms the true principle of living. It continually presents 
 personal moral improvement as the first and constant aim for every indi- 
 vidual, and afl'ection as the fundamental bond of harmony within and 
 without, its office being both to insjiire and to moderate all thought, all 
 action. This (always replacing absolute Ijy relative expressions) corre- 
 sponds to the Positivist maxims — "The principle Love, the foundation 
 Order, tlie end Progress ; " '' Progress is always the development of 
 Order;" "Sulnnission is tlie basis of all improvement, moral, intel- 
 
 iectiuil, and even physica 
 
 [V. L.J
 
 354 THOMAS-A-KEMPIS : LOUIS OF GRANADA [Modern 
 
 The little book, called The Imitation of Christ, with which the name 
 of Thomas-a-Kempis is associated, comes to us as the supreme exjiression 
 of the devotional life, the poem of the Catholic ideal. No other book 
 has had so wide and varied an acceptance ; it has been adopted by Pro- 
 testants as well as by Catholics ; is read by agnostics and freethinkers ; 
 has been translated into every civilised tongue ; and still remains the 
 most beautiful book of devotions that we possess. " So small in compass 
 that it could be carried where no other book was borne," says Dean 
 Milman, " it contained the whole essence of the Mystic school." It told, 
 in simple picturesque words, the experience of the devout heart, the long 
 endeavour, the yearning for perfection — the consolation of the life out 
 of self. The book was written in Latin, but the language is superior to 
 the ordinary ecclesiastical Latin — it is purer in form, and singularly pure 
 in imagery ; it falls into short epigrammatic sentences of wonderful 
 energy and pathos ; sometimes it suggests to us the Proverbs, sometimes 
 the Psalms of David. 
 
 In The Imitation of Christ and St. Augustine's City of God, we have 
 two aspects of the Catholic life in strong contrast. The first is purely 
 personal ; it concerns the individual soul in its relation to the Deity, 
 and knows nothing of social aspiration, nor of the Church as an organisa- 
 tion. The City of God is the key-note of that vast spiritual hierarchy 
 which was the glory of Hildebrand. The Imitation has no place in it 
 for human love, for human knowledge, for the service of man ; the soul is 
 stripped bare of all these hindrances and temptations, to live the mystic 
 life. " Amem te •plus quam me, nee me nisi pro-pter te," says the teacher 
 in the beautiful book of the " Consolation." It may fairly be urged that 
 had The Imitation been more " humane " in a large sense — had it been 
 less personal, less narrow in conception, it nmst have lost in passion, 
 intensity, and tenderness ; but none the less, while cherishing this 
 beautiful inheritance of the piety of our forefathers, one must feel how 
 great is the need for a religion of social service. 
 
 Among translations of The Imitation, the famous translation in verse 
 by the French poet (/orneille should be mentioned, and the translation 
 in English prose, made under the auspices of the late Cardinal Newman. 
 
 [E. B. H.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. vi. 187. Pos. Pol. i. 177 ; iii. 371, 378, 460 ; iv. 352, 481 ; and 
 
 Testament, Catechism, 49, 282. Be Imit. (Jhristi, ed. Hirsche (Berlin, 
 1874), and Prolegomena. S. Kettlewell : Thoiiuis d Kem2ns, etc., 1882, 
 Authorship of Imit. t'hr. 1877. 
 
 LOUIS OF GRANADA, b. 1505, d, 1588. 
 
 Louis was Itorn at Granada, and Ijecame a Dominican monk at 
 Cordova : he was afterwards prior of a convent which he founded at 
 Badajos, but spent his later years at Lisbon, where also he died. Pro- 
 vincial of his Order, confessor to the Queen liegent, etc. 
 
 Louis was renowned as a preacher, yet more as a writer of hand- 
 books of mystical piety : and as such he figures here. Of these books 
 the most widely popular was The Sinners' Guiile (lobG). "Its general
 
 Poetrt] LOUIS OF GRANADA : BUNYAN 355 
 
 tone," writes the historian of Spanish literature, " was that of a moving 
 and harmonious eloquence : " doubtless also it was purely orthodox, 
 nevertheless the book was placed awhile on the Index ^xpurgatornis, 
 and the author harassed by the Inquisition. Later on Louis' works 
 were fervently praised by Pope Gregory xiii., St. Charles Borromeo, 
 and St. FranCj^ois de Sales. Many of them have been translated into 
 foreign languages, and "have continued to be printed and admired in 
 the original Spanish down to our own times." Louis also achieved 
 a fine Spanish version of the Imitatio Christi of a-Kempis. [V. L.] 
 
 BUNYAN (John), b. 1628, d. 1688. 
 
 / 
 
 John BuNYAX,the Puritan mystic, "the fiither of our English novelists," 
 was born at Elstow, a little village near Bedford, " in a very mean con- 
 dition," as he tell us. His father, however, " was careful to maintain 
 his famih%" sent his son to the Bedford grammar-school, and brought 
 him up to his own trade of tinker. Bunyan grew to manhood in the 
 very centre of the struggle for civil and religious liberty, but, although 
 he served as a soldier, we have no evidence on which side he fought ; 
 he apparently did not think the matter worth record. His whole soul 
 was engrossed by the great spiritual issues of life, and after some years 
 of painful religious conflict and indecision, we find him a member of the 
 Baptist community, preaching everywhere of sin and repentance, of 
 judgment and the wrath to come. His activity soon l)rought him under 
 the persecuting Acts of Charles ii.'s reign ; he was ordered to give up 
 his public teaching, and sutfered imprisonment for more than twelve 
 years rather than submit. It was during these years, and in gaol, that 
 he wrote The Filgrim's Progress, the allegory which has made his name 
 famous in all English-speaking countries. 
 
 The PiJgrini's Progress passed rapidly through many editions, was 
 eagerly read in America, in Holland, by the Huguenots in France ; 
 Catholic versions were made ; and it is commonly said that the book has 
 been translated into more languages than any other after the Bible and 
 Tlte Iiiiitation of Christ. The popular verdict is now generally accejDted ; 
 The Pilgrim's Progress is the poem of the Puritan ideal, just as The 
 Imitation is the poem of the Catholic ideal. 
 
 Bunyan wrote many other religious allegories, among which TJie 
 Holy War and the Life of Mr. Badman are })rominent. He died from 
 the ertects of cold, while on an errand of mercy, in 1G88. His tomb is 
 in the Bunhill Fields burying-ground in London. [E. B. H.] 
 
 MADAME DE LA FAYETTE {Comtesse de), b. 1634, d. 1693. 
 
 Madame de la Fayktte, the intimate and lifelong friend of Madame 
 de Sevigne, the friend and associate of tlie most eminent men of her day, 
 was born in Paris in 1034. Her maiden name was Marie Madeleine 
 Pioehe de la Vergne. Distinguished for her lieauty and grace, no less 
 than for her charm of manner and delicate wit, she soon became one of
 
 356 MME. DE LA FAYETTE : MME. DE STAEL [Moderx 
 
 the most brilliant leaders of the brilliant coterie of the Hotel RambouiUet. 
 In 1655 she married the Count de la Fayette, but was early left a widow, 
 and thenceforth she devoted herself to her warm friendships and her 
 literary work. She wrote several stories, of which the Princesse de Cleves 
 is the most important, and many letters to distinguished persons. 
 
 The Princesse de Cleves is in a single volume of small size ; the per- 
 sonages are some of them historic ; the scene is laid at the court of 
 Henri ii. Madame de la Fayette is herself the heroine ; her husband 
 is the Prince de Cleves. But it is essentially a study of character, firmly 
 and delicately drawn. It is the first attempt at the modern novel, in 
 which all should be true and finely studied from nature, as opposed to the 
 stories of adventure and the romances of the Middle Ages. La Fontaine 
 had doubtless given an impulse, but Le Sage's Gil Bias had not yet 
 appeared, and it was forty years before De Foe wrote in England. To 
 Madame de la Fayette, then, belongs the merit of having created a new 
 art, in which, it seems likely, as A. Comte pointed out, that women 
 will continue to excel. It should be noticed that the Princesse de 
 Cleves is no less remarkable for purity of feeling and delicacy of apprecia- 
 tion than it is for grace and purity of language. It has long been a 
 French classic, and has a place in the Positivist Library as the first 
 French character-novel. [E. B. H.] 
 
 MADAME DE STAEL (Anne Louise Germaine), b. 1766, d. 1817. 
 
 The daughter and only child of the financier Necker and of Susanne 
 Curchod, Gibbon's early love, was carefully educated by her mother, and 
 was soon introduced into Parisian society, where as a girl she was 
 remarkable for brilliancy, coquetry, and audacity. At the age of 20 she 
 married Baron de SxAEL-Holstein, Swedish Minister in Paris, and is 
 known by his name, though she treated him with indifference, and ulti- 
 mately was separated from him. As an ambassador's wife she held a 
 brilliant salon in Paris, until the Eevolution for a time drove her first to 
 Switzerland and then to England. Lender the Directory she returned to 
 Paris ; and, entering into a struggle with Napoleon, she was exiled in 
 1803. Then she traA'elled in Germany and Italy with Benjamin Constant 
 and other lovers, and died soon after the Eestoration in 1817, at the age 
 of 51. 
 
 Madame de Stael's personality, her energy, wit, literary skill, and 
 restless courage, made her one of the most striking figures of the Revolu- 
 tion and Empire. But it is solely as the authoress that we are concerned 
 with her here. She began to publish before she was 20 ; but her princi- 
 pal works are Delphiiie, a novel of sentiment, in 1802, in which her own 
 story is told, Corinne in 1807, and De VAllernagne in 1813. The imme- 
 diate eff'ect of all these was great. In Delj/hine a woman, for the first 
 time since the Revolution, reopened the romance of the heart which was 
 in vogue in the century preceding. Comte would daily recite the sentence 
 from Delphine, " There is nothing real in the world but love " {Pos. Pol. 
 iv. 44). Our thoughts and our acts, he said, can only give us happiness 
 through results : and results are not often in our own control. Feeling
 
 Poetry] MADAME DE STAEL : FENELON 357 
 
 is entirely within our power ; and it gives us a direct source of happiness, 
 which nothing outside can take away. 
 
 Corinne was a piece presenting an festhetic tour, mainly in Italy, a 
 French Childe Harold in prose. The book on Germany is a vigorous plea 
 for freedom, toleration, and respect for the institutions and ideas of a 
 neighbouring people. It is true that none of these books are much read 
 now. They were never original, nor are they written with true beauty. 
 But they have eloquence, not a little pathos, and at times deep feeling : 
 and as they precede the works of Scott, Byron, Shelley, and partly of 
 Chateaubriand, their historical imijortance is great in the development of 
 modern romanticism, of the romance of the heart, the delight in nature, 
 and in the art, antiquities, and history of Europe. [F. H.] 
 
 F£NEL0N {Francois de Salignac de la Mothe-Fenelon), 
 b. 1651, d. 1715. 
 
 One of the most interesting figures in French ecclesiastical history, 
 the famous rival of Bossuet, Francois de la Mothe-FEXELOX, was born at 
 the castle of the same name, in the province of Perigord. He came of 
 an ancient and noble family, which could already boast of many dis- 
 tinguished sons. As a child Fenelon was remarkable for a delicate and 
 sensitive nature, and gave early promise of special mental gifts. His 
 education may be said to have been singularly fortunate. His father 
 trained him in his early years, sent him to Cahors and afterwards to the 
 Jesuit College de Plessis, in Paris, where he found an admirable friend 
 and teacher. It is told of him that he preached his first sermon, like 
 Bossuet, at the age of 15, "with extraordinary success.'"' He did not, 
 liowever, formally enter the Church till he was twenty-four, when he 
 devoted himself to the service of the poor, and made the education of the 
 young a special study. It is from this early period that dates his treatise 
 Sxir V education des Jillcs. 
 
 After the Revocation of the Edict of Xantes, great eflbrts were made 
 by the Catholic Church at conciliation, and a mission to the Provinces 
 was set on foot. Fenelon's rare qualities of fervour and gentleness 
 marked him out as a fit leader of such an enterprise. He carried on the 
 work in a fine spirit of moderation, refused the military escort ofi'ored 
 him, and achieved a considerable measure of success. ■ The distinction he 
 won in his mission probably procured for him the notice of the King, who 
 in 1689 appointed liim as tutor to the young Duke of Burgundy, the heir 
 to the throne. Fenelon devoted himself witli ardour to the difficult task 
 assigned him. The young Prince was singularly wayward and ])assionate, 
 Fenelon in his enthusiasm aspired to make of him " a new St. Louis," " a 
 philosophic king." He was indeed singularly fitted for his post : " he 
 was a born teacher ; " he soon won the loyalty and afi'ection of his pupil, 
 who, however, did not live to realise the high hopes formed for him. It 
 was for him that Fenelon wrote the well-known fables, the Dialogues des 
 Morts, the Telemaque, and the Avmtures d'Aristonowi. In 1095 he was 
 made Archbishop of Cambrai.
 
 358 F^NELON : DE SALES [Modern 
 
 Jt IS not possible here to enter into the celebrated controversy be- 
 tween Bossuet and Fenelon in connection with Madame Guyon and the 
 Quietists. Bossuet thought the new mysticism dangerous to the Church ; 
 Fenelon, on the other hand, was touched by the fervour and the genuine 
 enthusiasm of the Quietists. His book L' Explication des Maximes des 
 Saints was practically a defence of Quietism. But the advocacy of the 
 Archbishop of Cambrai had emphasised the danger, the book fell under 
 the censure of Rome, and Bossuet, with the King's aid, procured for it 
 the condemnation of the Sorbonne. Fenelon was deprived of his post 
 of tutor to the royal children ; finally he made public submission, and 
 withdrew to his diocese of Cambrai, where he spent the remaining 
 years of his life, ministering to the poor, teaching and counselling, the 
 object of pilgrimage from all parts of France, beloved by Protestants 
 and Catholics alike. " In all things," says St. Simon, " he was a true 
 bishop." 
 
 Fenelon's principal works are the TeUmaque, already mentioned, and 
 his " Traite de Vexistcnce de Dieu." But he wrote many treatises on 
 x-eligious subjects, letters, and sermons. They are all remarkable for 
 grace of form, for elevation and beauty of thought. It will be noticed 
 that he takes his place under Modern Poetry with Thomas-a-Kempis, 
 Klopstock, and Milton, not under Catholirism with Bossuet. Fenelon 
 may be said to have impressed the world rather as poet of the Catholic 
 life than for anj' brilliant service to the Church, or any literary work of 
 the first order. " A tail thin man, with eyes from whence fire and talent 
 streamed like a torrent, and with an expression of face such as one could 
 never forget," with manners of exquisite charm and modesty, he fairly 
 captivated his contemporaries. He Avas moreover a scholar, a man of 
 unerring literary judgment, " et pour de I'esprit il en avait a faire peur." 
 He saw, what Bossuet had not seen, the abject condition of the French 
 ])easant ; he laboured, as man and priest, in the cause of the people. His 
 life was simple and harmonious, and in all that he said and did there 
 breathed a spirit of true and unaft'ected piety. His name is enshrined in 
 beautiful memories ; he was the latter-day poet of the contemplative life. 
 
 [E. B. H.] 
 
 DE SALES {St. Francoi,^, b. 1567, d. 1622. 
 
 Francis was a Savoyard of noble birtli, liorn in the ancestral castle 
 of Sales, near Annecy, in 1567. After having Ijeen educated in the 
 Jesuit College de Clermont, at Paris, and then in the University of 
 Padua, he renounced a temporal career, and entered the Church. He 
 soon became a famous preacher, and earned much honour by a courageous 
 mission to the Protestants of the Chablais (1594-96). In 1602 he was 
 consecrated Bishop of Geneva, and thenceforth devoted himself to his 
 Episcopal duties, taking as his model St. Charles Borromeo. He re- 
 fused promotion in the French Church, also a cardinal's hat. He died 
 in 1622 : his remains rest in the cathedral church of Annecy. He was 
 canonised by Pope Alexander vii. in 1665. 
 
 The prayer on his festival (29th January) suggests the sweet charity
 
 Poetry] DE SALES : KLOPSTOCK 359 
 
 of his disposition, and sj^eaks of his " having made himself all things to all 
 men." Bourdaloue, Bossnet, and many others have since spoken his 
 praises. In this Calendar St. Francis holds his place as the author of two 
 pious handbooks (composed in French), The Introduction to the Devout 
 Life (1608) and The Love of God (1616). In both the author declares 
 his desire to api^eal to those who live in the world, not recluses ; in the 
 first he addresses as a typical disciple, a Woman — in the second, a Man. 
 Both treatises characteristically concern private morals alone : the condi- 
 tions of civic and industrial life, and the trials of the modern intellect, 
 are in no wise dealt Avith. The general temper is mystical and above all 
 aliectionate : the Saint especially founds himself on such predecessors as 
 St. Catherine, St. Theresa, Louis of Granada, etc. It is most remarkable 
 how the governing principle of aifection, which is the most vivid bond of 
 communion between Catholicism and the piety of the Future, was (like 
 Palestrina's music) put forth with beautiful energy by Francis and other 
 champions of the elder faith during the heat of the religious conflict. 
 From this point of view also the Saint's large conception of prayer {Love 
 of God, books 6 and 7) is very interesting : it embraces " all acts of 
 contemplation." The reader should comjjare these books with the Posi- 
 tivist Catechism. [V. L.] 
 
 Life of St. Francis, by MarsoUier, jtrefixed to his collected work.s ; Paris, 
 1821. Camus : Spirit of St. Francis. 
 
 KLOPSTOCK {Friedrich Gottlieb), b. 1724, d. 1803. 
 
 The earliest of the founders of modern poetry in Germany, F. G. 
 Klopstock, was born in 1724, of an austere and respectable family at 
 Quedlinburg, in Saxony. He was thoroughly educated there, at Jena, 
 and at Leipsic ; where, in 1748, at the age of 24, he published the first three 
 cantos of his Messiah, a sacred epic, evidently inspired by iSIilton. It 
 was received with innnense enthusiasm, and the young poet found himself 
 famous. Two years later he went to Zurich, where he was invited by 
 Bodmer, the ruling critic and poet of the day, and was welcomed with 
 unbounded enthusiasm. He was loaded with honours and invitations, 
 and from this time forth he enjoyed the patronage of princes and nobles, 
 a title, and two pensions. His life was passed in literary society, in tlie 
 production of poetry, and in domestic happiness, tirst at Copenhagen, then 
 at Carlsruhe, and finally at Hamburg, where he died in 1803, in his 79th 
 year, in the midst of the great war, and having somewhat outlived his 
 popularity. 
 
 Klopstock's main work is The MessiaJi, pulilished in parts in 1748, 
 1755, 1773 — having incessantly occupied his mind from his 22nd to his 
 50th year. The first half of it was issued when the poet was only 31, 
 many years before the chief works of his contemporary Lessing ; and it 
 would have Ijeen a miracle if a youth had been able to create a fully de- 
 veloped national literature. German criticism has accepted the opinion 
 of Goethe, that Klopstock gave a powerful impulse to the rise of a 
 national literature, that his Messiah was greatly m advance of its time, 
 but that it has now been supplanted by nuich nobler work. The place
 
 360 KLOPSTOCK : GESSNER : BYRON [Modern 
 
 of Klopstock is no doubt rather historic than poetic. His influence 
 created a potent enthusiasm in the German-speaking world, which to-day 
 pronounces his Messiah to be su])lime, but has ceased to read it. His 
 pure and touching Lyrics are more read. The sacred epic, it is true, has 
 fine qualities : dignity of conception, force of language, nobility of senti- 
 ment, and an epic stateliness of devotional sublimity, sounding, it has 
 been said, like an organ in a cathedral. But when the first transports of 
 national admiration were exhausted, it Avas found, even in the poet's life- 
 time, to be somewhat monotonous and vague, and it is now felt to be 
 tedious. At the end of the 18th century, the Bible could no longer 
 supply the material of a great national poem. But, as a German enthu- 
 siast has well said, " The Messiah was the baptism of our literature." 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 GESSNER {Salomon), b. 1730, d. 1788. 
 
 The lyric poet of Switzerland, Salomon Gessxer, was born at Zurich, 
 in 1730, and there he passed nearly the whole of his life, and died in 
 1 788, at the age of 58. He was a ^^ainter by profession, his productions, 
 both on canvas and in verse, being the classical idylls in vogue in the 
 middle of the last century. His poems date from 1751 to 1762, and are 
 graceful but somewhat conventional idylls founded on Theocritus, 
 Daphnis and C'ldoe, and other pastorals. He had a great and wide popu- 
 larity in his own age, the age of Metastasio, Lancret, and Bernardin de 
 St. Pierre, amid the vogue of the sentimental pastoralism which has 
 often in history preceded great social convulsions. Gessner belongs 
 entirely to this order, and has no part in the revolutionary outburst to 
 which Ave now pass. [F. H.] 
 
 BYRON (George Gordon, sixth Lord ro)>\ b. 1788, d. 1824. 
 
 The last great name in the roll of Modern Poetry is that of the 
 daring spirit who, with Shelley and Goethe, put into immortal words 
 the consciousness of man's moral force as the arbiter of his OAvn destiny, 
 the lord at once and the interpreter of Nature. This new element of 
 lyric emotion is indeed reA'olutionary in its origin and in its sympathies ; 
 but, with ail its inherent defects, it points the way to a poetry of the 
 future more true than the vague yearnings of Pantheism, more inspiring 
 than any mere picture of the j^ast, and more manly than the musings of 
 the Quietists. 
 
 George Gordon Byron came of an ancient race who, in 1540, had 
 received from Henry viii. the rich Priory of Newstead Abbey, in Notting- 
 hamshire ; who traced descent from a long line of soldiers back to the 
 Conquest ; an^l in 1043 had obtained a peerage for services in the civil 
 Avar. During the 18th century the Byrons Avere distinguished as sea- 
 men, as spendthrifts, and debauchees. The poet Avas born in London, 
 January 1788 ; and at the age of ten succeeded to the peerage and a 
 ruined estate, on the death of his great-uncle, the fifth "Avicked Lord."
 
 PoETRr] BYRON 361 
 
 These limits do not permit us to repeat the familiar story of the life of 
 him who was certainly the most interesting personality of the 19th 
 century. It has been probed and discussed with bitter exaggeration and 
 wearisome minuteness. Suffice to say that it is the story, too familiar 
 to us in this series of great men, of splendid genius and a truly noble 
 nature, stained though not ruined by vice, egoism, and some paltry 
 desires. But a spirit capable of such intense and enduring love, of such 
 passion for great causes and high endeavours, of so much courage, 
 generosity, and sympathy, and a life flung with such stormy energy into 
 an ideal world of mighty and passionate beings — wipe out the memory 
 of the sensualities which scandalise many and the meanness and afiecta- 
 tion which have exercised so many over-busy pens. 
 
 It is a story of a childhood cruelly maltreated and neglected ; of a 
 boyhood wayward, desultory, passionate, and loving ; of a youth spent 
 in folly, vice, day-dreams, intense study alternating with masterful 
 extravagance ; of a manhood wrecked by fierce temptations, domestic 
 tragedies, an ill-assorted marriage, outrageous ill-usage, and a curious 
 combination of disastrous circumstances, but withal ennobled by gigantic 
 labour, much of beautiful aftection, true sympathies with all that was 
 great in the past or promising for the future, and a burning passion for 
 social progress. Byron's flrst poems were published at the age of 19 ; 
 his travels began at the age of 21 ; he left England for ever at the age of 
 28 ; the next eight years of his life were memorable for prodigious poetic 
 activity, and within them almost all his main work was done ; he died 
 during the war of Greek Independence at Missolonghi, April 1824, aged 
 36. His ashes lie with his ancestors in Hucknall-Torkard Church, near 
 Nottingham. 
 
 This is not the place to renew the long debate as to the poetry of 
 Byron, of which the highest qualities have hardly yet been understood, 
 and of which the glaring defects are now pedantically exaggerated. 
 Keats, Shelley, and Tennyson, their interpreters and their imitators, 
 have made our age exacting in the matter of musical cadence and subtle 
 mastery of phrase such as mark the highest level of poetry. And it is 
 but too plain that Byron does not even seek after the perfection of form 
 which we have in the Sonnets of Shakespeare, Lycidas, ot In Memoriam. 
 He never seems to have realised the art of poetry as a mysterious alembic 
 of uuxsical language ; but he poured out a torrent of impetuous thoughts 
 in verse with the same reckless profusion as did Scott in prose. And 
 both, we are now told, gave us rank common])lace, because they spoke in 
 hot haste, using the first phrase that rose to the lip. 
 
 But artists must be judged in the light of their own inspiration ; and 
 it is right to remember that Byron, in about ten years of activity, i)ro- 
 duced some 60,000 or 70,000 lines — more than the Iliad, the Odyssey, the 
 A'yneid, the Divine Comedy, and Paradise Lost all put together. And 
 in the single year 1821, he wrote upwards of 15,000 lines, or as many as 
 are in the Iliad. Quantity, of course, is in poetry a poor equivalent for 
 quality. But it shows that Byi'ou had his own methods, and elaborate 
 form was plainly not amongst them. He was a true improvisatore, l)()il- 
 ing over with ideas, aspirations, memories, and impressions, as to Man 
 and Nature, as to the Past and as to tlic Future, as to (he hopes of
 
 362 BYKON : SHELLEY [Modern 
 
 • nations and the dignity of manhood. He chose to pour these forth in 
 verse, without the care which all great verse demands ; so that it may be 
 said that he was a great poet who did not understand what poetry 
 implied. 
 
 It would be an error to make too much of Byron's weakness in form. 
 
 The invocations to Athens, to Eome, to the Sea, and some of the occasional 
 
 lyrics show that he held the magic lyre of the poet, though it was of 
 
 narrow compass and too often rang out a false note. Even at his best, 
 
 Byron can hardly write twenty lines without stumbling, and is at all 
 
 times perilously near the prose of rhetoric. But his conceptions are 
 
 neither prosaic, diluted, nor commonplace. And conceptions, not form, 
 
 are the bone and sinew of all high poetry. Take Byron's work as a whole, 
 
 and weigh its mass, its variety, its glow, its power of stirring nations 
 
 and of creating new modes of thought — its social, national, and popular 
 
 influence — its effective inspiration on men — and we must place him, as 
 
 did Scott and Goethe, amongst the great poetic forces of modern ages. 
 
 y^\ To judge Byron truly, we must look on him with European and not 
 
 y with insular eyesight. His power, his directness, his social enthusiasm, 
 
 fill the imagination of Europe, which is less troubled than we are to-day 
 
 about his metrical poverty and conventional phrase. To Italians he is 
 
 almost more an Italian than an English poet ; to Greeks he is the true 
 
 author and prophet of their patriotic sentiments ; and in France and in 
 
 Germany he is now more valued and studied than by his countrymen in 
 
 y / a generation, when subtle involution of idea and artful cadence of metre 
 
 n. / are the sole qualifications for the laurel crown. When this literary 
 
 ^^ purism is over, Byron will be seen as the poet of the revolutionary 
 
 .** movement which early in the 19th century awoke a new Renascence. 
 
 V He filled it with a sense of the inherent royalty of man and his mission 
 
 f^ to subdue the earth and to make it his final and beautiful home. The 
 
 i romances and stray verses of youth, the satires, and even Don Juan will 
 
 ;j be set aside. But the picture of Humanity in the Past and the visions 
 
 \ 4 j of Man's power in the Future, in the latter part of Childe Harold, in 
 
 r ■. |e Manfred, Cain, Heaven and, Hell, will remain as permanent appeals to 
 
 .C i 1 strengthen the heart and inspire respect for inherent ]\Ianhood. y / 
 
 SS" [F.H.]^ 
 
 \ Works a7ul Life, hy T. Moorit. John Nicol : I h/ron, in " Mcu_of Letters " 
 
 \ series, 1880. W. Minto : Life, in Ene^d." Jirit. y'oTT'Tv'. jnibrley : 
 
 MiscellcMies. •»--— 
 
 SHELLEY {Percy By^slte), b. 1792, d. 1822. 
 
 The eldest son of a rich commonplace baronet, Siiellky arose in his 
 youth a Revolutionary poet, and even prophesied a modern, purely human 
 piety. From University College, Oxford, he was expelled for circulating 
 a paniphlet entitled "The Necessity for Atheism" {Queen Mab and 
 notes) ; and was tliereupon cast out by his family. His Gretna -Green 
 marriage with Harriet Westbrooke (1811), their separation (1814), and 
 his flight Avith Mary AVollstonecraft Godwin can only be mentioned here ; 
 but we nuist add emphatically that Shelley's nature was in a high degree
 
 Poetry] SHELLEY : ELISA MERCCEUR 363 
 
 both generous and pure. Upon Harriet's sad death in 1817, Mary 
 became his wife (Dedication to Laon and Cythna). 
 
 In the same year (1817), at the instance of Mr. Westbrooke, Shelley 
 was by decree of Lord Chancellor Eldon declared unworthy to have the 
 charge of his own children. This event, and his suffering health, made 
 him resolve to quit England. Henceforth he and Mrs. Shelley lived a 
 wandering life in Italy, where he saw much of Byron. In 1822 he was 
 drowned in the bay of Spezzia by the foundering of his boat in a storm. 
 His remains, cast upon the beach, were solemnly burned by his friend 
 Trelawny in the presence of Byron and Leigh Hunt. The coffered ashes 
 were buried in the Protestant cemetery at Rome, not far from the grave 
 of Keats, in whose memory he had written Adonais. On the tombstone 
 was inscribed " Cor Cordium." 
 
 Shelley essentially represented the RevoUition of 1789. That he felt 
 to be the modern crisis of world-wide import: but rightly judging the 
 afflicting sequel (not least Napoleon's career), and looking back gratefully 
 upon the Art of the past, as the books he loved attest (Homer, ^schylus, 
 Plato, in a measure Dante and Boccaccio ; the Elizabethan dramatists, 
 Calderon and Milton), his genius was led to qualify the revolutionary 
 creed by new features of grace pointing to a wiser faith, although his own 
 necessarily remained incoherent and unsatisfied to the end {Adonais, 
 stanzas, 31-33). Rebellion against all authority, especially priest and 
 king ; martyrdom ; exulting hopes for the future deliverance and unity 
 of Man — of these he sang with flaming zeal : but with them he inter- 
 fused gentle compassion, tender appreciation of feminine companionship, 
 fetichistic worship of free Nature, and an impassioned feeling for tlie 
 ennobling office of art and Ijeauty in every form. All these, set forth 
 with characteristic splendour of rhythm, are to be found in his chief 
 work Prometheus Unbound (1820), a lyrical drama, where, however, the 
 design is marred by the deliverance coming from a l)lind demon named 
 Demogorgon. His Ode to Liberty is especially interesting as the dithy- 
 rambic utterance of a creed striving for a basis in the history of man. 
 But his most perfect work is in the minor poems : he was a master of 
 song. Comte inserted his name in the Calendar for his lines on Sulj- 
 jective Immortality {Laon and Cythna, canto ii. stanza 48), and the 
 prophecy of Humanity {Prometheus, act iv. lines 394-423). [V. L.] 
 
 Dowden : Life of Shelley. Trelawny: Last iJaijs of Shelley and Byron. 
 Comte: Letter to A. -J. Ellis, April 1857. 
 
 ELISA MERCCEUR, b. 1809, d. 1835. 
 
 This precocious and unhappy genius was born at Nantes, 1809. 
 Being fatherless and destitute she was educated by a lawyer of her 
 native town, and from childhood showed a passion for poetry and most 
 precocious gifts. Her poems were published when she was only seven- 
 teen ; and she was at once admitted into the Academy of Lyons, and 
 the next year into that of Nantes. She was kindly welcomed by 
 Chateaubriand, Lamartine, and many critics and poets, and received 
 wide popular applause. She was, however, forced to support herself by
 
 364 ELISA MERCCEUR : MILTON [Modern 
 
 journalism, and, falling a victim to phthisis, she died in 1835, at the 
 age of 26. Her tomb in Pere la Chaise is inscribed with some of 
 her verses : it has become a spot of pilgrimage to young Parisians ardent 
 of fame. Her precocious genius, sad life, and the pathetic melancholy 
 of her poetry surrounded her with an interest which has survived until 
 now. Comte found in her career a touching likeness to that of Clotilde 
 de Vaux, and applied to her the line — " La pierre du cercueil est ton 
 premier autel." The young poetess appeared to him to embody a 
 spiritual faith entirely devoid of theology, more complete than that of 
 Byron, more clear than that of Shelley. And he cited with admiration 
 the line, "L'oubli c'est le n^ant ; la gloire est I'autre vie'' ("To be for- 
 gotten is the true annihilation ; man's future life lies in being remembered 
 with honour").^ [P. B.] 
 
 I 
 
 MILTON {Jo\in\ b. 1608, d. 1674. 
 
 The life of the second great English poet almost exactly coincides 
 with the rise, development, and decline of the gi-and outburst of English 
 Puritanism, which followed the authorised version of the Bible in 1611. 
 
 John Milton was a descendant of a family of substantial yeomen 
 long settled in Oxfordshire. His father, John Milton, having been dis- 
 inherited as a Protestant, came to London and established himself as a 
 scrivener in Bread Street, Cheapside. There the poet was born, 9th Dec. 
 1608, ten years after the death of Spenser, and eight years l)efore the 
 death of Shakespeare. He receivecl a most careful education, being 
 from early boyhood an impetuous devourer of books. He was a scholar 
 of St. Paul's School at the age of 10, and entered at 16 as a pen- 
 sioner at Christ's College, Cambridge, wliere he remained seven years, 
 taking his degree of M.A. at the age of 24. At school and at college 
 he was distinguished by his passion for classical poetry, by indepen- 
 dence and reserve of spirit, a pure and simple life, and strong love for 
 one or two chosen friends. He left Cambridge in 1632, eight years 
 before the Long Parliament met, a master of Latin, Greek, French, 
 Italian, Hebrew, skilled in fencing and other exercises of a gentleman. 
 He then retired to his father's rural retreat at Horton, near Windsor, 
 resolved to devote his whole life to jwetry, and filled with the grand 
 jjrojects and ideals which he rehearses in the nolile second sonnet. It 
 was the peculiar fortune of Milton to find in his excellent father a man 
 of rare sense and much culture, a parent who was quite willing to aid 
 the aspirations of his son towards a life of self-training for high art. 
 For six years the poet remained in profound retirement, absorbed in 
 study, meditation, and poetry. 
 
 It has been well said by Mark Pattison : — "Milton's life is a drama 
 in three acts. The first discovers him in the calm and peaceful retire- 
 ment of Horton, of which L'AIIegi-o, II Penseroso, and Lycidax are the 
 expression. In the second act he is breathing the foul and heated 
 atmosphere of party passion and religious hate, generating the lurid fires 
 which glare in the l)attailous canticles of his prose pamphlets. The 
 1 Letter to A. J. Ellis, April 1857.
 
 Poetry] MILTON 365 
 
 three great poems, Paradise Lost, Paradise Regained, and Samson ^ 
 Agonistes, are the utterance of his final period of solitary and Promethean N 
 grandeur, when, blind, destitute, friendless, he testified of righteousness, 
 temperance, and judgment to come, alone before a fallen world." His ^ 
 six years at Horton were spent, as he tells us, in "turning over the , 
 Latin and Greek authors," in systematic study of poetry, history, / 
 Hebrew and modern languages, the cultivation of music, and in writing \ 
 the exquisite lyrics. These in Lycidas touch the highest point of lyrical / 
 perfection that the English language has ever reached, so that therein ) 
 the spiritual passion of Puritanism seems transposed into the melan- S 
 choly music of Petrarch. 
 
 At the age of thirty, in 1638, the poet set forth on a journey through 
 France and Italy to Rome. He was absent about sixteen months, and 
 visited Grotius, Manso, the patron of Tasso, Diodati, and Galileo ; and 
 was received with delight by the most cultured and learned societies 
 of France, Italy, and Geneva. He was called home in 1639 by the sad 
 prospect of imminent civil war. " I thought it base," he said, " whilst 
 my countrymen were fighting for liberty, that I should be travelling 
 abroad to improve my mind." For twenty years (1640-1660), from the 
 opening of the Long Parliament until the restoration of the monarchy, 
 the poet was absorbed in the advocate and then in the servant of the 
 Commonwealth. First, he dedicated his time to education and political 
 pamphleteering ; in 1649 he was made "Secretary for Foreign Tongues" 
 under the Commonwealth government, a post in which he laboured 
 regularly for ten years till the downfall of the Protectorate. He was 
 there in close relation with Cromwell and other leaders of the Kepublic ; 
 bxxt his services were 2">urely literary, and nothing is known of any closer 
 intercourse. 
 
 It is to the last fourteen years of his life (atat. 52-66), when the 
 republican poet, blind, deserted, ruined, and broken-hearted, had with- 
 drawn into austere retirement, that we owe the two great epics and 
 Samson. Since the age of 43, the insatiable student of books had been 
 totally without sight. He had buried his first wife, INIary Powell, an 
 uncongenial spouse, in 1652 ; his second wife, Katherine Woodcock, died 
 after a short term of married life in 1658 ; and the poet in 1663, then 
 55, Avith three little girls, married his third wife, Elizabeth ^linshuU, 
 a very worthy woman, who survived him. The last thirty years of 
 his life were passed in London, except for a visit, during the plague, to 
 Chalfont St. Giles, where the only house which he inhabited that remains 
 is still to be seen unaltered. Here partly, and in his residences in the 
 city, in Bunhill Fields, the later poems were composed. 
 
 Paradise Lost was published in 1667, but it had been completed some 
 years earlier ; it was seriously begun nearly ten years before, and it had 
 haunted the mind of the poet for at least thirty years. Paradise Ee- 
 gained and Samson Agonisies were published together in 1670, and were 
 completed in the five years preceding. The poet lived four years more ; 
 but he wrote no more verse. He died in 1674, at the age of nearly 
 66, and was buried in St. Giles, Cripplegate, revered by his intimates, 
 and even already famous, in the spot where his grave — long, alas I 
 desecrated — is still marked and often visited. With all his sorrow.
 
 366 MILTON [Modern Poetry 
 
 afflictions, and disappointments, both public and private, his life was one 
 of absolute dedication to his great purpose and high calling. 
 
 Both the Lyrics and the Paradise Lost were included by Comte in 
 the Positivist Library ; and, with reference to the revolutionary and 
 critical storm which gave it inspiration, he does not scruple to speak of 
 "the inimitable epic" as "the highest measure of Man's poetic powers." 
 The three chief lyrics have almost every quality of poetry in literal per- 
 fection. No other 500 lines in English soar to so lofty and faultless a 
 level, without a jarring note or a feeble phrase : so that they have be- 
 come part of the very thought and language of all cultured Englishmen. 
 The Faradise Lost has music and conceptions even more sustained and 
 enthralling, such as Shakespeare, Dante, and Homer alone can match. 
 It is evident, however, that the epic has not the incomparable perfection 
 of the lyrics. There are in it incongruities, vagueness, monotony, 
 limitations of human tj'pes, which are never felt in presence of the three 
 supreme masters, and seldom even in Virgil, Ariosto, Calderon, or 
 Goethe. It is plain that Puritanism and an abortive revolution forced 
 this consummate poet to turn away both from Past and Present, and to 
 search for the subject and scheme of his epic in his own meditations on 
 the Hebrew Bible. He treated this with extreme freedom, and not 
 without a disputatious dogmatism ; but even Milton could not shake 
 himself free from its ol)solete theology and its barren cosmogony. That 
 a great poet, under such conditions and in such an age, should have done 
 so much with the Hebrew Pentateuch as his inspiration is one of the 
 noblest triumphs of human genius. 
 
 At the same time, this great citizen and heroic soul, being forced 
 back upon his own heart for his ideal of Man in presence of Nature and 
 its Creator, produced from the depths of his pure and rich imagination 
 a marvellous picture of Humanity in all its naked essentials, before 
 History had loaded its memories, or civilisation had clothed its life 
 with conventions. The aim of IVIilton is thus analogous to that of 
 Dante ; and, in simple majesty and unity of scheme, for a time it seems 
 even superior ; until the rigid limits of Scripture and inevitable want 
 of varied human interest compel us to admit that the close of the 
 Paradise Lost is hardly equal to its sublime exordium and the earlier 
 acts in the great drama of Man's Creation, Fall, and Salvation. Yet 
 the originality, power, and eternal meaning of Milton's poem gain fresh 
 significance as civilisation advances ; and we see that since the work of 
 Dante there has been no such approach to the ideal epic of Humanity. 
 Like Dante, like Homer, Milton has given us a licitu/, and not a literary. 
 Epic. It is Dante amongst the moderns, and Virgil amongst the 
 ancients, whom, in sustained moral purpose and in religious conscious- 
 ness of being the inspired voice of his age, Milton most nearly resembles, 
 as also he resembles these in lifelong dedication to his task as prophet 
 of a social regeneration to be. It is the lasting glory of English Puri- 
 tanism that it could join in one work such a creative statesman as 
 Cromwell with so suj^ireme a poet as Milton. [F. H.] 
 
 Masson : Life of Milton and History of his Times, 6 vols. (1859-1880) ; also 
 in Eacyd. Brit. vol. xvi. Mark Fatlisoii : Miltun, "Men of Letters" 
 series, 1883. Pos. Vol. iii. 487T "- '" "" — ~~
 
 MODERN INDUSTEY. 
 
 /~\F the two forms of collective activity possible to our race, the conquest 
 ^-^ of Man and the conquest of Nature, the first was brought to syste- 
 matic completeness long before the second. In the primitive ages of the 
 world both processes went on simultaneously. The women of a primitive 
 tribe till the soil while the men are fighting. Where the tribes of a vast 
 plain or river valley were gathered together under a theocratic monarchy 
 it might have been expected that, as war became less continual, industry 
 would have tiiken its place as the systematic occupation of man. But to 
 this substitution there was an inseparable obstacle. Theocratic societies 
 were organised by priesthoods, interpreting the arbitrary will of inscrut- 
 able gods. Each of the arts of life was under the tutelage of a god, and, 
 under pain of his displeasure, was handed down from father to son un- 
 changed. 
 
 Under the system of hereditary caste there could be no innovation, 
 no free play for experiment — above all, no attempt to discover uniform 
 scientific laws, and apply them to the purpose of mastery over Nature. 
 Even in China, where an exceptional development of the patriarchal prin- 
 ciple on the basis of primitive fetichism had prevented the establishment 
 of Caste, collective industry and especially industrial innovations were 
 strongly discouraged. The feng-shui (local spirits of the earth) oppose the 
 opening of a new road as etfectually as a theocratic oracle. The spirit of 
 minute concrete observation characteristic of the Chinese led them to many 
 discoveries and inventions — as, for instance, the compass and j^rinting : 
 yet these, owing to the stage of social development then reached, failed 
 to arouse anything analogous to the collective industrial activity which 
 they inaugurated in the West. In China, as in India and in Egypt, 
 notwithstanding the cessation of war, industry has remained individual 
 and stationary. 
 
 In the transition from theocracy to sociocracy, begun by Greco-Roman 
 civilisation, the ascendancy of civil over priestly government removed the 
 theological obstacle to industrial development, after a struggle typified in 
 the iEschylean legend of Prometheus. The rise of Greeli science estalj- 
 lished the first condition of collective industry, the study of natural laws, 
 without the knowledge of which the mastery of Nature was impossible. 
 But the collective activity of Creek and Roman States was devoted not 
 to the conquest of Nature, but to the con(|uest of Man : industry was 
 left to slaves. 
 
 As a moral discipline, and as a stimulus to intellectual energy, orga- 
 nised war has exercised a powerful influence on man's education. On the 
 industrial arts themselves — metal-working, wheeled vehicles, the construc- 
 tion of military engines, and of the ap]_)aratus for maintaining or sustaining 
 a siege — its reaction was most fruitful. The Roman State, achieving the 
 conquest of the Western world, estal)lished, as Virgil puts it, the law of 
 
 307
 
 368 MODERN INDUSTRY 
 
 peace. It seemed that the forces called out by war could now be con- 
 centrated on the peaceful organisation of life ; and to this the first two 
 centuries of the Empire manifestly tended. The activity of the slave- 
 trade lessened ; slaves settled on the soil gradually began to acquire the 
 rights of serfs. War meantime became ennobled by the transformation 
 of its purpose from aggression to defence of the Roman State against 
 Gothic barbarians : continued by the Gothic and Teuton tribes who could 
 assimilate civilisation, against the Huns and others whose invasions were 
 wholly sterile and destructive. 
 
 Dividing the Middle Age, from the beginning of the 5th to the 
 close of the 13th century, into three periods, each of three centuries, 
 we see that in the first (400-700 a.d.), the transition from slavery 
 to serfage was accomplished : the mass of idle plebeians being cleared 
 out of the towns, and fixed in rural districts round the feudal chief. 
 In the second period (700-1000 a.d.) serfage disappears in cities and 
 boroughs ; the free industrial order first appears, though manufacturing 
 industry is still limited to what is needed for the supply of immediate 
 wants. In the third period (1000-1300 a.d.) industrial existence is 
 definitely recognised : charters are given to towns, trades are organised in 
 guilds ; the previous emancipation of serfs had facilitated accumulation of 
 capital. The class of employers now arises, the first condition of collective 
 as opposed to individual industry. As feudal chiefs showed no tendency 
 towards transformation into industrial captains, agriculture remained for 
 centuries behind other departments of industry. Commerce took the 
 lead. Between the Italian guilds of merchants and the Hanseatic league, 
 the cities of the Netherlands acted as intermediaries. As theological in- 
 fluence decayed, and scientific study extended, the utilisation of natural 
 forces by machinery came into prominence. The discovery of the compass 
 enlarged the limits of navigation and prepared the way for the work of 
 Columbus and Vasco da Gama ; the invention of gunpowder, shortening 
 military apprenticeship, dealt a fatal blow to feudalism. Finally, the 
 great invention, which completed the fundamental institution of writing 
 by accelerating the production of copies, secured the rapid and permanent 
 dissemination of thought through the world, and was itself a striking 
 example of the substitution of mechanical for human labour, destined to 
 play so revolutionary a part in the reconstitution of society. 
 
 In the early rise of the employing class, striking illustrations were 
 given of healthy relations between themselves and those who acted under 
 them. Jacques Cneur and the elder Cosmo de Medici stood out in the 
 14th century as splendid types of the industrial chief. It has been 
 abundantly shown by Hallam, Rogers, and others, that the condition of 
 the labourer from the 14th to the 16th century com]:)ared favourably with 
 his circumstances at the present time. And yet the last five centuries have 
 witnessed a grov.-th of commercial enter^wise, an a])plication of science to 
 industry, a mastery of natural forces, and a consequent multiplication of 
 wealth, which 500 years ago no one could have dreamed of. It suffices 
 to glance at the names mentioned in this month, and to recall the ojjening 
 of the New World for Western use, the application of machinery to 
 textile fabrics, and the control of heat as a means of mechanical motion, 
 to appreciate the enormous increase of man's productive power. The
 
 MODERN INDUSTRY 369 
 
 increase of population in Western Europe has undoubtedly been extremely- 
 rapid ; but it has in no way kept pace with the increase of wealth. Thus 
 the growth of Modern Industry offers an extraordinary paradox, which 
 those who accept it as an instalment of human progi'ess are bound to 
 explain. 
 
 The conditions of economic prooress, clearly indicated by Comte, are 
 two : first, that men should produce more than they consume ; secondly, 
 that the ]}rodiu't should be such as can be stored up for a greater time 
 than is needed for its reproduction. These conditions being observed, 
 Capital results : making it possible to concentrate energy on objects not 
 directly concerned with the preservation of life. That capital has in- 
 creased in recent centuries at a rate far exceeding that of any previous 
 period of man's history, no one can doubt. Had the increase been accom- 
 panied with any moral or intellectual process controlling its use and 
 distribution, the great problem of social life might by this time have been 
 solved. The mass of workmen might have been fully incorporated into 
 the structure of civilisation, admitted to its intellectual privileges, and 
 set free from mechanical labour to the degree compatible with the full 
 enjoyment of domestic life. 
 
 But as with other departments of human life, so here, the development 
 of human forces has preceded their control. The enormous increase of 
 productive power placed at man's disposal during the last 150 years by the 
 steam-engine, by textile machinery, and by the application of chemistry 
 to the arts, has not been accompanied by any controlling or organising 
 force. Consequently the increase of productive power, by condensing 
 vast populations in cities of sudden growth, without settled life or 
 certainty of constant em])loyment, has created new social problems, as 
 difficult as any with which human wisdom has ever been confronted. 
 
 The month of Gutenberg, as conceived by Comte, represents the full 
 range of power over Nature which man has obtained through abstract 
 science and practical energy ; and which will one day be used, with 
 organisation rivalling that of the Roman State in the work of military 
 conquest, for the action of Humanity on the planet which she inhabits. 
 The men commemorated are not those who exercised power through the 
 attainment of wealth, but those who taught us how to achieve dominion 
 over Nature. We find the names of navigators and travellers who 
 revealed the extent of our planet : of inventors Avho moulded matter into 
 the slave of man's bidding : of those who measured time more accurately, 
 or who lightened the labour of calculation : of students of light, heat, 
 electricity, chemical affinity, who a])i)lied these forces to human ])urposes : 
 of the pioneers of scientific agriculture : of men who would sul^due the 
 waters of the earth, nay, even its atmosphere, to the service of man. 
 
 Intellectual force taking ])recedence of all forms of material force, the 
 presidence of the month is given to the name identified with the inven- 
 tion which at once disseminates intellectual products and secures their 
 permanence — the invention of tlic ]irinting-prcss. 
 
 •1 A
 
 370 MODERN INDUSTRY 
 
 The groups allotted to the four weeks of the month are thus dis- 
 tributed : — 
 
 The first contains the names of the gi-eat travellers by land and sea 
 who enlarged man's knowledge of his planet : Columbus taking the first 
 place. The infiuence of commerce on political government is typified by 
 Jacques Cceur and Gresham : the application of abstract science to prac- 
 tical navigation by Napier and Briggs. 
 
 The second week represents the arrangement of matter in forms 
 suitable for human service by great inventors. Vaucanson presents 
 the highest degree of skill attained in the imitation of complex liA^ng 
 motions by dead matter. With him are associated the inventors of textile 
 machinery, of the chronometer and the telegraph. 
 
 In the third week the control by man of natural forces is indicated, 
 especially of the behaviour of gases under pressure and their expansion 
 by heat. With Watt, the principal inventor of the steam-engine, ai-e 
 associated not merely his forerunners, but also the men of science of 
 whose discoveries his invention is the practical application. Dalton, 
 whose discovery did so much for the application of chemistry to the 
 industrial arts, is also included. 
 
 The last week, over which Montgolfier presides, indicates industrial 
 discoveries likely to prove more fruitful in the future than in the past : 
 when the earth's atmosphere will no longer be inaccessible to man; when 
 her rivers will be brought to do his work ; when her plants and animals 
 will be systematically studied and modified ; and when the common arts 
 of life will be transformed bv a keener sense of artistic beauty. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos., le9ons 54, .55, 57. P<Ji>. Pol. vol. ii, cli. ii.
 
 Modern Industry] GUTENBERG 371 
 
 GUTENBERG, b. 1410, d. 1468. 
 
 Jo hn Gutenbe rg was born of noble^arents in Maintz. His father's 
 name was GanzlleTscET BufKe'toolclTie name of"his~maETier. In 1420 his 
 family were exiled by the democratic party in the town, and took refuge 
 in Strasburg. The boy showed a mechanical genius, and after some 
 years entered into partnership with Andrew Dritzehn in the business of 
 polishing stones and manufacturing mirrors. In 1438 he seems to have 
 been engaged Avith Dritzehn and the brothers Heilmann in block- 
 printing. 
 
 Printing from engraved wooden blocks had been in use for more than 
 half a centuiy, especially in Germany and the Low Countries. It was 
 employed in connection with pictorial engraving to explain such series 
 of pictures as the Dance of Death, Bihlia Fauperum, etc., but was 
 obviously inapplicable to works of considerable length. The expedient | 
 of making the types for each letter moveable may be comparecT'bollilPor j 
 iffgerrait^and for momentous result with the Phcrnician invention of the | 
 alphabet as contrasted with ideographic writing. To whom this expedient ' 
 is diielias been vehemently debated, and still remains imcertain. It is 
 said~that in 1445 a short Latin Grammar of ^^llius Donatus, and the 
 typecv.lum humance salvationis, Avere printed in Haarlem with moveable 
 types by Lourens Janszoon Coster, and that shortly afterwards a servant 
 of Coster sfoIe~tliese~£ypes"ahcT"took them to Maintz, where they came ( 
 into the possession of Gutenberg. This story has been the theme of end- j 
 less controversy, and the materials for its proof or disproof are insufficient. \ 
 It rests mainly on the authority of Junius, who Avrote a century after the / 
 supposed event. 
 
 Into this tangled dis^Dute no attempt will be made to enter here. For 
 industrial history the essential point is that, midway in the 15th century, 
 it was made possible, in the city of Maintz, to substitute for the slow and 
 fallible process of copying manuscripts, their reproduction, to any number 
 desired, through the impress of ink upon paper by moveable types. 
 These types Avere at first made of Avood. But this material not being 
 sufficiently durable, metal types Avere substituted. To cut, hoAvcA^er, 
 a sufficient number of letters, Avhether in Avood or in metal, for the 
 printing of even a single folio page, Avas a toilsome and expensive pro- 
 cedure. The solution at last reached Avas to execute a model of each 
 letter in hard metal, of Avhich a mould could be made. Fusible metal 
 poured into the mould could reproduce as many copies of the letter as 
 Avere Avished for : and thus perfect uniformity Avould result. 
 
 While carrying on this process Gutenberg Avas associated Avith John 
 Fust, a merchant of Maintz, Avho procured him the necessary funds, 
 amounting to 1600 Horins, and Avith Peter Schoefier, of Gernsheim, a man 
 skilled in metal-Avorking, to Avhoni the details, if not the conception, of 
 type-founding are probably due. In 1455 appeared the first result of 
 their combined labours, the Latin Bil;le. 
 
 The expense, as Avell as toil, had been very great. In the account 
 given of the matter by Abbot Trithemius, Avho heard it personally from
 
 II 
 
 f 
 
 372 GUTENBERG : MARCO POLO [Modern 
 
 Peter Schoetfer, 3000 florins had been spent before the first three leaves of 
 the book were struck off. Money disputes arose between Gutenberg and 
 Fust. Fust established his claim to the printing-plant, and with the help 
 of Schoeffer continued to use it, till the sack of Maintz, in 1462, by 
 Adolphus II. In 1463, through the help of a friend, Humery, a new 
 press appears to have been established for Gutenberg, who, however, died 
 a poor man five years afterwards, February, 1468. 
 
 Within sixteen years from the date of the first printed Bible, the art 
 of printing was practised in the principal cities of Germany and Italy. 
 Strasburg was the first, after Maintz, to adopt the process. In 1466 we 
 find it at Cologne, in the following year at Rome. By 1471 it was estab- 
 lished in Venice, Florence, Naples, Bologna, and Milan. England, still 
 involved in the wars of the Roses, was late in the race. The date of the 
 first English printed book is 1477. 
 
 The' effect of prTnliii'g'was to "establish the continuity of the Western 
 world with Greco-Roman traditions, and thus with the previous life of 
 Humanity, which the rise and progress of the Mediaeval Church had for 
 centuries disturbed. The expression, "humane letters" {litene hnmaniores), 
 represents accurately what took place. The thoughts of men to whom 
 man's life and man's world were the things best worth living for, and who 
 revered the Roman State as the best security for peaceful progress — men 
 like Cicero and Virgil, and with them all the poets, historians, and 
 thinkers of Greece and Rome — became henceforth familiar household 
 words. This at least was the case with a large and powerful section of 
 society. Those to whom Greek and Latin books still remained sealed were 
 at least made familiar in translations of the Bible with the sources of their 
 own religion : with Avhat momentous results the history of the next two 
 centuries was to show. To medueval theology the invention of printing 
 
 dealt as powerful a blow as the feudal system received from the invention 
 of gunpowder, rendering the costly armour of the privileged classes use- 
 less in battle. 
 
 Rightly, therefore, does this invention take ])recedence of other 
 I forms of ^Slodern Industry. In the long-run the world is governed by 
 1 ideas ; material force being needed only to maintain order till ideas 
 ■;. have taken hold of men and rendered them self-governing. The machine 
 I that disseminates thought is therefore the greatest of machines. Like all 
 I other forces, the power it wields has been and will be misused. But 
 ' it offers the means whereby the masses of citizens can participate 
 actively or passively in the acts of the State of which they are members. 
 i And its right use in the end predominates over the wrong. 
 ^ ^ [J. H.B.] 
 
 Enciicl. Brii.. &th edition, Article. Tvro(,]!.\i'UV. Ottlev : Enqidrij into 
 ''*VruiT)t-of-Artoff-'rmtinrf,-\m2.' 
 
 MARCO POLO, b. 1254, d. abt. 1329. 
 
 Marco Polo, the earliest and perhaps the greatest of travellers, came 
 of a noble trading family of Venice, where he was born in or about 1254. 
 About the time of his birth his father, Nicolo, and his uncle, Maffeo, had 
 gone on a business venture to the East, seeking to avail themselves of
 
 iNDrrsTRY] MAKCO POLO : CHAEDIN 373 
 
 the route by the Caspian and Black Seas, then held by the Tartars. They 
 visited the court of Kublai Khan, who in 1259 had succeeded Mangu as 
 " The lord of all the Tartars in the world," and whom they found willing 
 to open his vast dominions to European merchants. Bearing from the 
 Khan an urgent message to the Pope to send out missionaries, they 
 returned to Europe for a short time, and in 1269 they set out on a 
 second journey to the East, when Marco, then a boy of 15, accompanied 
 them. 
 
 Starting from Acre, they travelled by way of Bagdad to Ormuz ; 
 thence they struck landwards in a north-easterly direction, ascended the 
 Upper Oxus to the Pamir plateau, passed through Kashgar, Yarkand, 
 along Lake Lob, over the great Gobi desert, and so to Shangtu, a pleasure- 
 residence of Kublai Khan, to the north of Cambalu (Peking), which had 
 lately become the Tartar capital. For about seventeen years they remained 
 with the Khan, who showed them great respect. Marco acquired several 
 of the Tartar dialects, and became by his knowledge of native customs a 
 valuable agent for foreign missions. He was thus employed in Cochin 
 China, India, and elsewhere, and won great favour by his careful observa- 
 tion of the countries through which he travelled, the Khan considering as 
 foolish and ignorant other ambassadors who had nothing to report save 
 the special message intrusted to them. 
 
 In 1292 the Polos, who had meanwhile accumulated much wealth in 
 gold and jewels, were allowed to return. Sailing from Chinchen, they 
 passed by Sumatra through the Straits of Malacca to Ceylon, and thence 
 to Ormuz. They reached Venice in 1295. There Marco's wondrous 
 tales earned for him the name of ]\Iesser Millione. In a sea-fight be- 
 tween the Venetians and Genoese, in 1298, he was taken prisoner, and he 
 beguiled his captivity by recounting the story of his travels to a fellow- 
 prisoner, Rusticiano, of Pisa, whose work, originally dictated by Marco 
 and written in French, forms " The Book of Ser Marco Polo the Venetian, 
 concerning the kingdoms and marvels of the East.'' Released in 1299, 
 Marco Polo returned to Venice, where he was engaged in business until 
 his death, about the year 1329. His work has outlived a period of 
 scepticism. His wide information proved invaluable when Columbus 
 and others were preparing to seek new routes to India ; the geographers 
 of the 16th century drew largely from it ; and its general accuracy is no 
 longer questioned. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Sir H. Yule : trcanslation of Marco Polo's Kingdoms of the East. 
 
 CHARDIN {Sir John f'hnrdin), b. 1643, d. 1713. 
 
 Jean Chaudix, of a Huguenot family, born in Paris, 1643, was 
 brought up to his father's trade of jeweller. About the age of twenty 
 he went on a trading journey to tlie East, where he spent about three 
 years, chiefly in Persia. On his return he found that, as a Protestant, 
 he was shut out from advancement, and resolved to go back to the East, 
 where, as he says, "without being forced to change my I'eligidn I could 
 not fail to satisfy a moderate ambition ; for in these parts commerce is
 
 374 CHARDIN : JACQUES CCEUR [Modern 
 
 a profession so honourable that even the kings themselves openly adopt 
 it." Setting out in 1671 he reached Ispahan after an adventurous 
 journey of nearly two years, and remained in Persia for several years, 
 following the court of Solyman iii., visiting nearly every part of the 
 kingdom, and combining the pursuit of business with the study of the 
 language, history, and customs of the people. 
 
 He returned to Europe by the Cape of Good Hope, and settled in 
 London, where he immediately found favour. Ten days after his arrival 
 he was knighted by Charles ii. ; he was made court jeweller ; in the 
 following year he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society ; and in 
 1683 he was despatched to the Hague and Amsterdam as agent of the 
 English East India Company. In 1686 and 1711 he pulalished the 
 records of his travels in the East (included in the Positivist Library), 
 a work which has since been recognised as of the utmost value for the 
 accurate and complete account which it gives of the language, religion, 
 and manners of Persia. Montesquieu and Gibbon frequently cite it as 
 an authority, and Sir W. Jones refers to its author as " the great traveller 
 Chardin, whom every Orientalist must always mention with reverence." 
 Sir J. Mackintosh says : — " The faculty of seizing by a rapid and com- 
 prehensive glance the character of a country and people was possessed 
 in the highest degree by Chardin, and secures him an undisputed 
 supremacy for that department of literature." By his book, Persia 
 became the most early known of all the Eastern nations. Extracts from 
 it appear in most of the chief collections of travels, and a completed 
 edition was published in Paris in 1811 (10 vols, edited by Langles). 
 
 Chardin died near London in 1713, and a memorial tablet is erected 
 to him in Westminster Abbey, with the words, "iVomen sihi fecit eundo." 
 
 [J. K. & G. P. M.] 
 
 JACQUES CCEUR, b. abt. 1395, d. 1456. 
 
 A worthy type of the industrial patrician, says Comte {Pos. Pol. 
 iii. 462), was furnished by two eminent men of the 15th century, each 
 of whom showed by his conduct that pacific activity may go along with 
 the completest social devotion, and even with profound aptitude for 
 civic government. The one was Cosmo de Medici the elder, the other 
 Jacques Coeur. 
 
 Born at Bourges, the son of a fur merchant, Jacques Cceur sought 
 his fortune in the Levant trade, then commanded by the rival cities of 
 the Mediterranean ; and so astonishing was his success that his yearly 
 gains were spoken of as greater than those of all the other merchants put 
 together. Charles vii., " le bien servi," recognised his financial genius. 
 He was made Master of the Paris Mint in 1 436 ; a year later he became 
 Minister of Finance (argentier) ; and then for fifteen years he directed 
 French finance. During the English occupation the French coinage had 
 become debased and subject to frequent and sudden fluctuations, dis- 
 turbing the public administration as well as private business. Property 
 was not secure from violence. Taxation and ])ublic offices were being 
 fraudulently used as a means of enriching individuals rather than the
 
 Ixdustrt] JACQUES CCEUR : GRESHAM 375 
 
 State. Jacques Cceur, with a willing king, brought order out of chaos. 
 A chronicler, referring in wonder to the peaceful revolution, says, that a 
 man might now, without any risk, traverse the whole kingdom, his hands 
 fuU of gold. Jacques Coeur " restored the coinage," says Michelet, " dis- 
 covered in finance a thing hitherto unheard of, namely, justice, and held 
 that for kings, as for everybody else, the way to get rich is to pay 
 one's debts." 
 
 Honours were showered upon him. He was ennobled, was sent on 
 important embassies, and saw his son made Archbishop of Bourges. 
 Meanwhile his riches grew, so that he was able, out of his own purse, to 
 advance to the King for the English war a sum of which the value to-day 
 would be about a million sterling ; every needy courtier was his debtor ; 
 he had purchased vast domains ; he was building in his native town 
 a mansion, still remaining, whose splendour was the wonder of his time. 
 Suddenly he fell, at the height of his prosperity. In 1451 he was 
 arrested on a charge of poisoning Agnes Sorel, the King's mistress. The 
 charge was abandoned, but his prosecutors, envious of his fortune, 
 found others in its place — selling ai'ms to the infidels, giving up a 
 Christian slave who had taken refuge in one of his ships, and malad- 
 ministration of various kinds. After a semblance of trial, he received 
 sentence of inq^risonment with confiscation of his property. He escaped 
 to Rome in 1455, where he was warmly welcomed by Pope Nicholas v. 
 Joining an expedition against the Turks, lie died in 1456 in the island 
 of Chios. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Jacques Comr ef Charles vii. . hy Pierre Clement. 
 
 GRESHAM {Sir Thomas), b. 1519, d. 1579. 
 
 Like Jacques Co^ur, Sir Thomas Gresham combines the type of the 
 great merchant with that of the servant of the State. He came of an 
 old Norfolk trading family, which was already well known for its muni- 
 ficence and public services. His father. Sir Richard Gresham, who was 
 among the financial advisers of Henry viii., and became Lord Mayor in 
 1537, gaA^e him a University education before placing him in business. 
 After serving as an apprentice for eight years, whereby alone, as he says, 
 one might come by tlie experience and knowledge of all kind of mer- 
 chandise, he joined his father as a mercer in the Flemish trade, dealing 
 chiefly in woollen clothes. 
 
 In 1551 he was appointed the King's Merchant in the Low Countries, 
 an important office, in which he had to act as a sort of financial ambassa- 
 dor during the reigns of Edward vi., Mary, and Elizabeth. His duty 
 was to negotiate loans, to watch over the public credit abroad, and to 
 keep the King's Council informed of all matters of political interest ; and 
 while thus engaged lie was kept constantly moving between London and 
 Antwerp, then the commercial centre of Europe. It is recorded that 
 within two years lie made the journey no less than forty times. 
 
 When lie entered the jiublic service there was great financial eni- 
 Ijarrassment. Henry \iii.'s wars had compelled tlie raising of large
 
 376 GRESHAM : VASCO DA GAMA [Moderx 
 
 loans from foreign merchants, which from time to time had to be renewed 
 on ruinous tenns ; the expedient of debasing the coinage had been 
 resorted to, and the King's credit had fallen very low. Gresham urged 
 that the King's honour and profit alike required that some other ways 
 should be taken for the payment of his debts than to force men from 
 time to time to prolong them. By various devices he succeeded in 
 raising the rate of exchange and discharging the debts on favourable 
 terms. He pressed upon the Council the necessity of restoring the 
 coinage standard, for its debasement caused all the fine gold to be con- 
 veyed out of the realm ; and through his eflforts an improvement in the 
 coinage was begun in 1552 and completed in Elizabeth's reign. The 
 principle that bad money drives out good money of the same metal is 
 now known as the Gresham Law. 
 
 The Royal Exchange was founded by Gresham in 1566, the London 
 merchants having up to that time met without shelter in Lombard Street. 
 (In Burgons Life, ii. 344, are prints of the old building, which was de- 
 stroyed in the fire of London.) Another memorial of his public spirit 
 was the establishment of Gresham College. Under his will his house in 
 Bishopsgate Street Avas eventually handed over Avith an endowment 
 to the London Corporation and The Mercers' Company, for the residence 
 of teachers in divinity, astronomy, music, geometry, law, physic, and 
 rhetoric. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Dean Burgon : Life and Times of Sir T. Gresham, 2 vols., 1839. 
 
 VASCO DA GAMA, b. abt. 1469, d. 1524. 
 
 After the overthrow of the Mongol dynasty in Cliina, intercourse 
 between the East and West was seriously hindered. The ('hinese re- 
 sumed their habits of exclusiveness, while the rapid sj^read of Moham- 
 medanism held Christian adventurers in check. Thus came an urgent 
 need to find a sea-route to India ; in this enterprise Portugal led the way. 
 Under the direction of Prince Henry the Navigator numerous expeditions 
 were organised along the Avestern coast of Africa, gradually dispelling 
 the terrors Avhich surrounded that unknoAvn region. John ii. continued 
 the Avork ; and in 1487 BartholomeAv Diaz sailed as far as the Cape of 
 Good Hope. 
 
 Stimulated by Columbus's discovery, King Emanuel in 1 497 equipped 
 three vessels to make the passage to India, and chose as leader Vasco da 
 Gama, several generations of Avhose fomily liad Avith distinctioiT^eH'eS 
 L"htr""Kings of Portugal. Embarking near Lisbon in July, Da Gama 
 doubled the Cape on the following October or November. From the 
 King of Melinda (north of Zanzibar) he obtained pilots, and thence 
 crossed to Calicut, on the ]\Ialabar Coast, which he reached May 17th, 
 1498. Calicut Avas one of the chief stations for the overland trade ; and 
 the arriA^al of the Portuguese ships aAvakened zealous resentment in the 
 Moorish merchants already peacefully established there. But Da Gama, 
 in addition to an unconquerable will, possessed a Avhole armoury of 
 strategic resources. By threats, promises, and splendid gifts, he succeeded
 
 Industry] VASCO DA GAMA : MAGELLAN 377 
 
 in establishing a factory, and returned to Portugal to report the fulfilment 
 of his task. 
 
 He returned to India in 1502 to avenge a massacre gf settlers in the 
 new trading-station, and a third time in 1524 as Viceroy. During the 
 quarter of a century that had then elapsed since his landing at Calicut, 
 the Portuguese had pushed their way with astounding energy. Their 
 ships sailed from the Cape of Good Hope to the extreme of China (not 
 yet identified as the Cathay of Marco Polo), and a chain of forts and 
 factories guarded them from attack, this great extension, ultimately a 
 source of weakness, being carried out with unscrupulous cruelty. In 
 response to numerous complaints that reached him, Emanuel sent Da 
 Gama in 1524 to restore order. " During the short months of his rule," " 
 says Gaspar Correa, who gives a detailed account of his voyages, " he had - 
 very full inquiry made upon all officials, saying that he would learn by ; 
 what devices they had enriched themselves ; and he went on examining / 
 diligently into the evils, so that without any doubt he put India into a \ 
 very straight road for the good of the King's service, and for the good of \ 
 the people, and above all, very strict justice, which had been perverted." * 
 He died in India in 1524. 
 
 Vasco da Gama has been immortalised in the Lusiad of Camoens, 
 " the epic," as it has been described, " of the modern system of universal 
 commerce, founded on tlie discovery of the sea-way to India." That 
 discovery, and the ojiening up of the Western passage by Magellan, 
 revolutionised European trade, shifting its centres to Holland and 
 England, and leading to the decline of the Italian cities. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Stanley : Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama (Hakhiyt Society, 1869). Pas. 
 Pol. iii. 463. 
 
 MAGELLAN {Hernando de Magalhaes), b. abt. 1470, d. 1521. 
 
 ■ Fernan Magellan, a Portuguese of noble l)irth, was brought up in 
 the household of Queen Leonora, wife of John ii. He served for a time 
 imder Albuquerque, the greatest of the Portuguese Viceroys of India, and 
 is said to have l)een present at the ea])ture of Malacca in 1511. Failing 
 on his return home to meet with due recognition of his claims, he 
 migrated to Seville in 1517, exchanged King Emanuel's service for that 
 of Charles v., and thereby roused a feeling of resentment which long 
 survived him. 
 
 By the bull of 1493, issued after the return of Columbus, Pope Alex- 
 ander VI. had granted to Spain all lands lying west of a line (drawn 
 from pole to pole) 100 leagues — in 1494 altered to 370 leagues — west of 
 the Azores. Magellan declared to (Charles his belief that the Moluccas 
 fell within the Spanish limit, and, in spite of Portuguese intrigues, he 
 succeeded in obtaining the command of a fieet with instructions to pro- 
 ceed westward on a general voyage of discovery. Starting in August 
 1519, he sailed from the Canary Islands to Brazil, whence, coasting 
 southwards, he jiassed Rio de Janeiro, Kio de la Plata, and Port St. 
 Julian ; and then, through the straits which now l^ear his name, he 
 
 /
 
 378 MAGELLAN : NAPIER [Moderx 
 
 ventured out on the unknown expanse of the Pacific Ocean. He reached 
 the Philippine Islands in the spring of 1521. At Matau, one of that 
 group, on April 27, Magellan (" our mirror, light, comfort, and true 
 guide," as he is called by his biographer, Pigafetta, who accompanied the 
 expedition) was killed in a fight with the natives. The fleet, pursuing its 
 course, reached Borneo in July, and the Moluccas in November. One of 
 the two ships, to which it was by this time reduced, went back by the 
 Straits of Magellan ; the other proceeded round the Cape of Good Hope, 
 and arrived at San Lucas, September 6, 1522, the first ship to sail round 
 the world. 
 
 Magellan dispelled the prevailing belief that America was part of a 
 great continent stretching to the South Pole, though there remained a 
 doubt whether his straits might not be the only way to the Pacific. The 
 feat which his courage and knowledge of navigation made possible was 
 vainly attempted by other Spanish sailors after his death, but was not 
 again achieved till Drake's time, more than half a century later. 
 
 [G. P. M.] 
 
 First Journeii round the World, hy Magelliin (Hakhivt Society). 
 
 NAPIER {John), b. 1550, d. 1617. 
 
 John Napier, Baron of Merchiston, was born at Merchiston, near 
 Edinburgh, in 1550, his father, Archibald, being less than seventeen years 
 older. He entered the University of St. Andrews at eighteen, and left 
 it, without graduating, three years afterwards, to complete his studies 
 on the Continent. He was keenly interested in theology, in politics, and 
 in practical agriculture. His first publication was a commentary on 
 the Apocalypse. In 1588 he was chosen by the Presbytery of Edin- 
 burgh one of its Commissioners to the General Assembl3^ He carried 
 on the Merchiston system of tillage, begun by his father, in which 
 salt was used as manure, a system of which his son Archibald has left 
 a description. 
 
 ]Meantime Napier was following with keen interest the astronomical 
 discoveries of his time, and was impressed with the practical obstacles to 
 further progress presented by the labour of the long calculations which 
 they involved. He had devoted much attention to pure mathematics, 
 and his treatise on arithmetic and algebra, which still remains uni^ub- 
 lished, shows him to have been abreast, and in some ways in advance, of 
 the foremost algebraists of his time. But his l^est energies were given to 
 the construction of inethods for reducing the labour of computation. His 
 Rhahdologia, which cannot here be explained further than by saying that 
 it was a calculating machine of extremely simple construction, known as 
 Napier's Rods, or Bones, was his first efibrt in this direction ; though it 
 was not published till the year of his death. But the great work of his 
 life was the invention and construction of a logarithmic table. 
 
 It had long been known that addition of the numbers expressing the 
 powers of quantities corresponded to multiplication of the quantities when 
 raised respectively to these powers. The series, 2, 4, 8, IG, 32, 64, 128, 
 25G, 512, 1024, etc., represent tlie 1st, 2nil, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8tli, .9th,
 
 Industry] NAPIER 379 
 
 and 10th, etc., powers of 2. Adding together the indices of the 3rd and 
 the 5th powers we get the index of the 8th power. That is to say, 2^ + 2^ 
 = 2* ; the same result as would be obtained by multiplyingiS by 32. In 
 this example, 3, 5, and 8 are said to be the logarithms of 8, 32, and 256 
 to the base 2. What, however, would be the logarithm of any number, 
 such as 21, between 16 and 32 ? or of any number, such as 150, between 
 128 and 256? Evidently, in the first example, 3 and some fraction, and 
 in the second, 7 and some fraction. If, then, the logarithms of all num- 
 bers could be computed, to any base that might be agreed on, and arranged 
 in a table opposite to the series of natural numbers, the operations of 
 multiplication and division of the numbers might be performed by addi- 
 tion and subtraction of their logarithms. Further, multiplication of the 
 logarithms would correspond to involution, division to extraction of the 
 root, of the natural numbers. 
 
 The base for logarithms now agreed on is 10 ; and as 10° = 1, the 
 logarithm of 1 is called 0, that of 10 being 1. It is commonly said that 
 the base of Napier's system is 2'71828, etc., a mode of statement which 
 renders the filiation of discovery quite unintelligible. If Napier's two 
 works be searched, it wUl be found that the fixed (quantity taken for a 
 base is described in quite a dift'erent way. 
 
 He conceived two lines, along each of which a point moved. The first 
 point moved with uniform velocity, describing equal spaces in equal thnes, 
 the line being of infinite length. The other line was finite, and repre- 
 sented the radius of the quadrant ; the point, starting with the same 
 velocity as the other, moved with uniformly diminishing speed, cutting 
 the line, and in each successive period cutting the remainder of tlie 
 line, in a fixed proportion. Each of these diminishing remainders corre- 
 sponded to the sine of an angle in the passage from 90° to 0°. The sum of 
 equal spaces cut oft" on the endless line while radius had decreased to any 
 given sine, was the logarithm of that sine. 
 
 It would be impossible in the limits of this notice to describe fully 
 Napier's method of constructing his table. Taking the sine of 90°, or 
 radius, as ten millions, he subtracted from it one ten-millionth part, and 
 the same proportion from the remainder ; repeating the process till he 
 had got a very large array of numbers between 10,000,000 and 5,000,000 
 arranged in this diminishing geometrical proportion, true to several 
 places of figures, and neglecting the slight error that remained. The 
 logarithm of one of these being found, the logarithm of the next followed 
 in simple arithmetical proportion. 
 
 Taljles giving the numerical value of the sines for each nunute of the 
 quadrant had been formed more than a century before Napier's time, by 
 Purbach and Regiomontanus. With these, of course, the terms of Napier's 
 geometrical series would not precisely agree. But Napier describes very 
 simple methods of passing from the logarithm of any term in the latter to 
 that of the table sine most nearly approaching it ; so that ultimately 
 his table of logarithms was formed for the sine of each minute. 
 
 Napier's description of his table was pul)lished in J 614. The method 
 of construction was described in another work published two years after 
 his death by his son Robert. Tiic vahie of the invention was at once re- 
 cognised by the best mathematicians of England [see Briggs], and on the
 
 380 NAPIEE : BRIGGS : LACAILLE [Modern 
 
 Continent by Kepler. On its importance to practical astronomy, naviga- 
 tion, land-surveying, and all pursuits involving much calculation, there 
 is no need to enlarge ; it is in every sense a potent industrial engine. 
 
 Napier died on 4th April, 1617. He was buried in St. Cuthbert's 
 Churchyard, Edinburgh. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Napier's Construction of Logarithms , hitherto one of the rarest books in 
 Europe, has been recently translated by W. R. Macdonald (Blackwood, 
 1889). See also Button's History of Logarithms : and Memoir by Mark 
 Napier (1834). 
 
 BRIGGS {Bmrij), b. 1561, d. 1631. 
 
 Henry Briggs was born at Warley Wood, in the parish of Halifax, 
 in loGl. He entered St. John's College, Cambridge, of which he be- 
 came a Fellow, and was appointed Lecturer on Physics, on Linacre's 
 foundation. Afterwards he obtained the Greshani Professorship of 
 Geometry, which he held for twenty-three years. In 1616 he became 
 Savilian Professor of Anatomy at Oxford, and was attached to Merton 
 College, where he died on the 26th January 1631, and is buried in the 
 chapel of the college, beneath an engraved slab. 
 
 He wrote several mathematical and astronomical papers ; but in one 
 of his letters, dated March 1615, he speaks of himself as occupied with 
 the " noble invention of logarithms," produced in the previous year by 
 Napier. He took the trouble to visit Napier twice ; partly to express 
 his grateful admiration, and also to suggest an imj^ortant improvement in 
 the construction of the logarithmic table, consisting, practically, in the 
 adoption of 10 as the base to which they should be computed. It appears 
 clearly enough from Briggs' account of their interview, prefixed to his 
 Arithmetica Logarithmica, that Napier had already hit upon the same 
 thought, and that indeed he suggested to Briggs a more effective mode of 
 canying it out. On the second interview, in 1616, Briggs produced a 
 spe<;imen of the new mode of computation, published in 1617 under the 
 title of Logarithmorum Ghilias Prima. The remainder of his life would 
 seem to have been devoted to the execution of the work. His Arithme- 
 tica Logarithmica, published three years after his death, contains the 
 logarithms of 30,000 natural numbers to 14 places of figures, besides the 
 index. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Diet, of Xat. Biography. ]\Iark Napiei- : Mcinoirs of Naj^ier, 183-1. 
 
 LACAILLE {Nicholas L. (h) b. 1713, d. 1762. 
 
 Nicholas Louis be Lacaille was born at Roumigny, near Rheims, 
 in 1713. His father, who had been a soldier, studied mathematics, and 
 inspired his son with a taste for them. He was sent to Paris in 1729 to 
 pursue his studies, and subsequently entered at the College of Navarre, 
 preparatory to his becoming an ecclesiastic. But his passion for astrono- 
 mical studies 2)revented him from taking orders, and he obtained a post 
 under Jacques Cassini in the Royal 01)servatory. He was employed with 
 Cassini de Thury, in 1739, in verifying the meridian throughout Prance,
 
 Industry] LACAILLE : DELAMBRE 381 
 
 and appointed Professor of Mathematics in the College of Mazarin. Two 
 years later he became adjunct astronomer in the Academy of Sciences. 
 After completing a series of seven years' observations on the stars in the 
 observatory of Mazarin College, he wished to make a similar survey of 
 the southern hemisphere. To do this he went in 1750 to the Cape of 
 Good Hope for two years, during which time he determined the places of 
 about 10,000 stars never visible in our latitude, and added much else to 
 astronomical science. He ascertained some important facts relative to 
 the figure of the earth by the mensuration of a degree on the meridian 
 32° south of the equator, and fixed the situation of the isles of France 
 and Bourbon. He returned to France in 1754. 
 
 Delambre says that his observations will compare favourably in 
 accuracy with those of his most celebrated contemporaries who had more 
 perfect instruments. Again, he says : " H.iving reviewed and verified 
 with new means a great part of the labour of Lacaille ... I have felt at 
 every step with which I traced his progress increased admiration for the 
 savant who will ever be the honour of French astronomy." 
 
 Lacaille is the author of works on geometry, astronomy, inechanics, 
 and optics, a set of very correct solar tables, and other treatises. His 
 numerous papers are in the memoirs of the Academy of Sciences. 
 Lacaille " made the earth herself give final and conclusive testimony by 
 the foot-rule to a demonstration which had already been aflirmed over 
 and over by the heavenly bodies." By doing this he confirmed the 
 Newtonian theory of the earth's figure as an oblate spheroid. His death 
 in 1762 interrupted one of his greatest works — a General History of 
 Astronomy. [J. K.] 
 
 Delambre: Hist. d'Astron. 
 
 DELAMBRE {.Tean BajJtiste Joseph), b. 1749, d. 1822. 
 
 Jean Dklajibhk was born at Amiens, where he received his earliest 
 education from Delille, the poet, then teaching at the Gymnasium. Pupil 
 and preceptor became friends for life. Delambre sought to support him- 
 self, at the close of his academical career, by the exercise of his pen and 
 especially by translations made from the Latin, Greek, Italian, and Eng- 
 lish languages. The difficulty of his task was increased by weak eyes, 
 due to <in attack of small-pox in infimcy. It was not until his 35th year 
 that he commenced the study of astronomy, when he became the friend 
 and pupil of Lalando, whose writings he enriched with a commentary. 
 Eight years after the discovery of Uranus, in 1790, Delambre published the 
 tables of that planet, although in that period it had performed but a 
 small part of its 85 years' course. He also constructed tables of Jupiter 
 and S.iturn and the satellites of Ju]nter, which, with sevend other 
 treatises, procured him a reception into the National Institute. From 
 1792 till 1799 he was engaged with Mechain in measuring an arc of the 
 meridian from Barcelona to Dunkirk, the results of which he gave to the 
 world in his Base dn Systeme Metrique TJecimaJ, 1806-10. After being 
 inade a member of the Bureau des Longitudes, he was in ]H()-2 appointed 
 Tnspecteur General des Etudes, and in the following year lVr]ietual 
 Secretary of the Class of Mathcniiitical Sciences. His Hi4<inj of Aslnmonni
 
 382 DELAMBKE : COOK [Modern 
 
 is a work not merely of prodigious research but of philosophic insight. The 
 most important of his results was to restore to Hipparchus the honour 
 due for discoveries which had for centuries been attributed to Ptolemy. 
 
 Delambre distinguished himself as Perpetual Secretary of the Insti- 
 tute by the justice and elegance of his Moges. [J. K.] 
 
 COOK (Captain James), b. 1728, d. 1779. 
 
 James Cook, born at Marton, in Yorkshire, the son of an agi-icultural 
 labourer, received no advantages of early education ; his native talent 
 and indefatigable industry made him the most accomplished navigator of 
 his time. 
 
 Tired of being a shop apprentice, he ran away to sea at the age of four- 
 teen. After serving for some years on a merchant vessel and rising to be 
 mate, he volunteered for the Navy in 1 755, in order to escape the press- 
 gang, and took part in the French Canadian war, gaining distinction from 
 the accuracy of the charts of the St. Lawrence, which he was chosen to pre- 
 pare. They remained in use long afterwards. When peace was declared, 
 he spent several years in various surveying expeditions, until the great 
 opportunity of his life came, in 1769. He was appointed to the dual 
 leadershi]), as captain and scientific director, of an expedition to observe 
 from Otaheite the predicted transit of Venus. During this voyage, after 
 successfully fulfilling its main purpose, Cook spent six months in a careful 
 survey of the coast of New Zealand, which he proved to consist of two 
 islands, and then in tracing the Australian coast northwards. Passing 
 through Torres Straits, he completed the work of the Dutch explorers by 
 proving the separation of New Guinea from New Holland. 
 
 Cook's second voyage, which began in 1772, was made in quest of the 
 gi'eat southern continent, in whose existence every early traveller believed. 
 It was a hopeless mission, which, however, resulted in nothing less than 
 the circumnavigation of the globe near the Antarctic Circle. The voyage, 
 which occupied three years, is notable for the successful effort of Cook to 
 keep his crew free from scurvy. Out of more than 1 00 men he lost only 
 four, three by accident : an achievement that he regarded as his greatest. 
 In 1776 he set out on his third and last voyage, which, likewise futile in its 
 main purpose (the discovery of a north-western passage round the Ameri- 
 can continent), led to the exploration of the North Pacific. It cost the 
 great explorer his life. Misunderstandings with the natives of Hawaii 
 provoked a conflict, in which he was killed, February 14, 1779. We 
 have of Cook an excellent portrait by Dance. 
 
 Cook's Voyages, placed in the Positivist Library beside those of 
 Cliardin, form one of the most instructive and interesting of all the records 
 we possess of man's observations of the planet and its inhabitants — a 
 veritable monument of strenuous valour and sympathetic insight. The 
 extent of the coasts which he surveyed surpasses that traversed by any 
 other navigator. The eastern coast of New Holland, 2000 miles in 
 extent, was totally unknown till he traced it. He also circumnavigated 
 New Zealand, the eastern and southern parts of which were quite un- 
 known. New Caledonia and Norfolk Island were both discovered by 
 him, and the New Hebrides first assumed a definite shape in our maps.
 
 Industry] COOK : TASMAN 383 
 
 But his merit is not more conspicuous for the extent of his discoveries 
 than for the accuracy with -which his observations were made. His sur- 
 veys aflbrded the materials for scientific geography. He adopted in 
 practice every improvement suggested during the progi'ess of science, and 
 was never satisfied until the errors of his calculations were reduced to a 
 raininuim. 
 
 Cook, it has been well said, has written his name on the circumfer- 
 ence of the globe. Intrepid with reflection, his knowledge equalled his 
 daring, and his daring was equal to his prudence. But great as was his 
 genius, his humanity was as great. He preferred, he said, the renown 
 he had acquired by giving sailors the means of preserving their health, 
 to that which aU his discoveries had brought him. He received honour 
 and fame worthy of his deeds both at home and abroad. La Perouse, the 
 French navigator, Crozet, the historian of Marion's voyage, speak of 
 Cook's accuracy of observation as marvellous. '- It is an interesting fact 
 that during the war of 1779, at the instance of Turgot, orders were issued 
 to all commanders of French ships to treat Cajitain Cook and his 
 squadron on the high seas e^•erywhere as those of a neutral ally. 
 
 [J. K. & G. P. M.] 
 
 Cook : First Voyage, 3 vols. 4to, 177-3. Second Voi/age, 2 vols. 4to, 1777. 
 Third Voyage, 3 vols. 4lo, 1783. Pos. Pol. iv. 4a2. Walter Besant : 
 Co.ptaAn Cook, ISDO. Diet, if Xat. Bioyraphy. 
 
 TASMAN {Ahd Janssen), b. abt. 1600, d. after 1645. 
 
 The Dutch confess with some self-reproach that they know hardly 
 anything of the life of Abel Janssen Tasmax, their greatest explorer. He 
 was born at Horn in the beginning of the 17th century, and entered the 
 service of the Dutch East India Company, which had been founded in 
 1602. Step by step the Dutch, then rising to commercial supremacy, 
 were displacing the Spaniards and the Portuguese, and were seizing the 
 bulk of the trade with the East Indies ; and, in view of future colonisa- 
 tion, they were desirous of obtaining trustworthy knowledge of the Aus- 
 tralian continent, the coast of which had been already touched on several 
 occasions. In 1642 Tasman (who shortly before seems to have taken 
 part in a voyage to the Pacific) received from Van Diemen, the Governor- 
 General, the command of an expedition to survey the coast of Australia 
 and ascertain its extent. In the course of his voyage, which lasted a year, 
 he discovered Van Diemen's Land (now named Tasmania) and New Zea- 
 land, both of which he believed to form part of the continent. It was not 
 tiU the end of the 18th century that Van Diemen's Land was known to 
 to be an island. In 1643 Tasman was sent on another expedition, in 
 which, closely following the coast on the north and north-west, lie estal)- 
 lished the continuity of the continent as far as Dirk Hartog's Island. The 
 Dutch East India Conqiany, possessing a monopoly of trade wliich they 
 could not effectively use, and anxious to keep from rival nations the sur- 
 veys made for them, did not publish Tasman's reports, thougli extracts 
 from his journal of the first voyage afterwards appeared, and are to be 
 found in Pinkerton's and other collections of travels. [G. P. M.] 
 
 .Major : Early Voyages to Terra Austral i.-i (Hakluyt Society, 18o4).
 
 384 COLUMBUS [Modern 
 
 COLUMBUS {Christoforo Colombo), d. 1506. 
 
 Christopher Columbus, the son of a wool-carder, was born in the 
 Genoese ten-itory about the middle of the loth century. The exact date 
 of his birth is uncertain, as authorities vary from 1430 to 1455. The 
 year 1446 seems to be the most probable. Some doubtful mention is 
 made of his spending a short time at his father's trade and of his studying 
 at Pavia, but before he was fifteen he had gone to sea. " At a very tender 
 age," he wrote in 1501, "I took to navigation, and have continued it 
 ever since : an art which fills whosoever follows it with a desire to know 
 the secrets of the world ; and these forty years past have I been familiar 
 with every place to which men sail to-day." He knew the sea from the 
 Levant to Iceland, and may have taken part, as did his brother Bartho- 
 lomew, in some of the Portuguese expeditions along the AVest African 
 coast. At any rate, from the charts and journals of Palestrello, one of 
 Prince Henry's navigators, whose daughter he married, he would have 
 learned the progress and difficulties of the Portuguese movement south- 
 wards. It had been slow, and its end was uncertain. After half a cen- 
 tury's persistent endeavour the Gulf of Guinea had been reached ; what 
 might lie beyond was unknown. In this uncertainty Columbus formed 
 the bold idea of reaching India by sailing to the west over the open sea, 
 an enterprise for which the way had been prepared by the recent perfect- 
 ing of the astrolabe. 
 
 Ferdinand Columbus, writing his father's life, tells us how deliberately 
 the project was reasoned out. The sphericity of the earth made it certain 
 that India could be reached by moving westward ; the space between the 
 Cape Verde Islands and the eastern lands known to the ancient geogra- 
 phers (whose opinions Columbus carefully studied in the Tractatus dc 
 Imagine Mundi of the Cardinal Pierre d'Ailly) was estimated at the most 
 to be only one-third of the circuit of the globe, and the space actually to 
 be traversed would probably be far less, as the eastern limit of land had 
 never been reached ; many writers had indicated, some vaguely and some 
 with curious definiteness, the existence of a Avestern land ; and seamen's 
 tales were to the same effect. Columbus exhausted all that books and 
 men had to tell on the subject. He received much encouragement from 
 Toscanelli, of Florence, who wrote a letter approving of the project, and 
 sent a chart of the world, based largely on Marco Polo's travels, and 
 showing the eastern coasts of Europe within easy reach of Western 
 Europe. " The world is not so large as vulgar opinion makes it," says 
 Columbus in the account of his last voyage ; and this was the chief error 
 in his calculation. He estimated the surface of the globe at about a third 
 of its actual extent. 
 
 For many weary years Columbus had to carry his project from court 
 to court, labouring in vain to convince cosmographers tliat it was not 
 absurd, priests that it was not heretical, and jn-inces that it was worth the 
 expense. At length, in 1492, having failed in Portugal, and when after 
 seven years of application he was on the point of ({uitting Spain in despaii', 
 Queen Isabella was won over by his arguments of the glory which tlie 
 expedition would throw upon the sovereign who sent it out, of the ser- 
 vice wliich would bo done by promulgating the Christian faith among
 
 Industry] COLUMBUS 385 
 
 new nations (a consideration on which in his accounts of his voyages 
 Columbus dwells constantly and with evident sincerity), and of the great 
 riches to be found in the lands beyond the sea. 
 
 On August 3, 1492, a few months after the fall of Granada, Columbus 
 with three small ships set sail from Palos, in Andalusia, to seek the Indies. 
 It was a voyage of daily anxiety. His men, gradually losing confidence, 
 kept urging its abandonment, and several times were on the verge of 
 mutiny. In every new phenomenon, such as the variation of the needle, 
 was seen a sign of danger, and even the consistently favourable winds 
 excited a dread of not being able to return. On October 12 they reached 
 land among the Bahamas, and, remaining till the following January, dis- 
 covered many thickly -peopled islands, including Hayti and Cuba, whose 
 general name, the West Indies, is a record of Columbus's belief that he 
 had reached the Indian sea. From the extent of the coast of Cuba he 
 could not at first suppose it to be an island, and thought that he had 
 found the continental province of Cathay. Leaving a small colony at 
 Hayti, he returned to Spain, bearing with him proofs of the wealth of 
 the new world, and received from Ferdinand and Isabella the honours of 
 a conqiieror. In six months he set out again, this time with seventeen 
 ships and 1500 men. He was absent till the spring of 1496, exploring 
 Hayti and visiting Jamaica and other islands ; but, harassed by disputes 
 and jealousies among the new colonists, whose main thought was the 
 search for gold, he did not greatly extend his first discoveries. On his 
 third voyage (1498) he reached Trinidad, and first touched the American 
 continent near the mouth of the Orinoco, the volume of whose waters 
 convinced him that southwards lay a great unknown land. 
 
 The great navigator was led into curious si^eculations through observ- 
 ing on the voyage out a sudden change in the sky, stars, and water, 
 accompanied by a milder temperature and a marked variation in the 
 needle : reasoning on which things he concluded that the western half of 
 the world was like the pointed end of a pear, that his ships must have 
 been sailing upwards, and that on the summit lay the earthly jiaradise. 
 At Hayti he found the colony in a state of confusion. His enemies, 
 jealous of his honours and chafing under his discipline, were sending 
 home evil reports of his administration, and at length they succeeded in 
 persuading Ferdinand to despatch another governor to supersede him. 
 To his grievous wrong, as he complained, he was judged as a governor 
 who had been sent to a province under regular government instead of as 
 a captain sent to conquer a nation numerous. Avarlike, and unsettled, with 
 customs and religion different from their own. Columbus was sent home 
 in chains, but on his arrival the sight roused such indignation that he was 
 forthwith set free. As a memorial of the rewards for his services he kept 
 the chains ever afterwards lianging in his cabinet, and desired them to be 
 buried with him. Meanwhile Vasco da Gama had reached India round 
 the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1503 Cohnulius made his fourth and last 
 voyage in search of a passage which -would lead him to the same goal. 
 Discovering Martinique, he once more touched the American continent, 
 and sailed along the coast from Honduras to the Gulf of Darien, where 
 the state of his sliips forced hiiu to abandon the expedition. After a 
 succession of disasters and disappointments, he returned to Spain, broken 
 
 2U
 
 386 COLUMBUS : BENVENUTO CELLINI [Modern 
 
 in health, at the end of 1504, shortly before the death of his patron, Queen 
 Isabella. Ferdinand, with princely ingratitude, left the man who had 
 added a new world to his dominions to die in neglect and poverty at 
 VaUadolid, May 20, 1506. 
 
 The search for India had resulted in the discovery of America. Some 
 Europeans, indeed, in earlier times seem to have reached its northern 
 coasts, but theu" visits have only an isolated interest. Within about a 
 quarter of a century after Columbus landed in the Bahamas, Cortez had 
 entered Mexico, and Pizarro was engaged in the conquest of Peru ; and 
 the stream of emigration from Europe to America has been continuous 
 ever since. Great in its consequences, the enterprise of Columbus was 
 not less remarkable for the deliberation with which it was planned and 
 the courage with which it was carried out. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Life, by Ferdinand Columbus (Pinkerton, vol. xii. ). Major : Select Letters of 
 Columbus (Hakluyt Society), 1847. Washington Irving : Life and 
 Voyages of Columbus. Prescott : Hist, of Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 ^ Phil. Pas. vi. 119. Pos. Pol. iii. 463. 
 
 BENVENUTO CELLINI, b. 1500, d. 1569. 
 
 The week assigned to the chief inventors of mechanical improvements 
 in the practical arts opens Avith the name of the eccentric artist of the 
 Renascence, whose mechanical genius in all forms of metal work gave 
 a universal inrpulse to his craft. Cellini miglit have T)een ranked'wlth 
 Holbein and Rembrandt as artist, or with Boccaccio and Rabelais as a 
 recounter of anecdotes and poet of manners. But in' this Calendar he is 
 viewed as the artistic workman ; and in this character only he may be 
 properly considered here. 
 
 Benvenuto Cellini was the son of a respectable musician and musi- 
 cal artiiicer of Florence, and was born there. All Saints' Day, 1500. 
 He was educated as a musician, and for some time"''practised the art. 
 But his strong bent for design induced his father to apprentice the lad, at 
 fifteen, to a goldsmith. This was a usual mode of obtaining the mastery 
 of hand, which, in the great age of the Renascence, was applicable alike 
 to all the arts of form, and also to what are since called the mechanical 
 arts. Benvenuto soon became t he most cons ummate master_of_his_age 
 in all the modes of metal- workinifT-^m ffold, siTver, bronze, enamel, steel, 
 
 10V even in the baser metals. He made jewels, statues, plate, cu])s, 
 arhTdur, medals, coins, seals, and every kind of artistic ornament, large 
 or small ; and into all he threw an inexliaustible wealth of fancy, com- 
 i bined with exquisite refinement of hand and subtlety of artistic perfection. 
 At nineteen, Cellini set olt' to Rome, and thence began his wandering 
 life, full of adventure, romance, crime, frolic, and debauchery, under a 
 series of princely patrons, Clonent vii. and Paul iii. at Rome, Francis i.. 
 King of France, and Cosimo de' Medici, at Florence. For these princes, 
 Benvenuto executed an astonishing variety of works, colossal statues in 
 bronze, jewels, plate, medals, coins, marble figures, and bronze portraits. 
 At the same time he was employed in military engineering, in designs 
 for buildings, and even in the direction f)f artillery. In the famous
 
 Industry] BENVENUTO CELLINI : AMONTONS 387 
 
 siege of Rome, in which he took part, in 1527 , he pointed, the cannons 
 which killed the Constable de Bourbon, ancT which wounded the Prince 
 of Orange — at least if we are willing to believe his own story. According 
 to himself, his life was a romantic series of hair-breadth escapes, preter- 
 natural occurrences, artistic triumphs, wild intrigues, amours, duels, 
 brawls, and murders. At ^^he age of fi fty-eight he received ecclesiastical 
 orders ; but two years later he threwo'ST the priest, married, and 'died 
 at~sTxty-nine, leaving a legitimate family, and he was buried with public 
 honours in the Church of the Annunziata at Florence in 1569. 
 
 This is not tlfe'place'^tij" 'describe the fascinating ahcT^strange story 
 of his life which has been so often translated, and so much praised. 
 In the Positivist Library it holds a place in the section of History, 
 between the Civil Wars of Davila and the Memoirs of De Comines. 
 The Life of Benvenuto Cellini represents to us in vivid colours the 
 inffer'Ufe' bftlre artistic and constructive outburst of the Kenasceioce in 
 Itatjn Benvenuto is the Froissart of the artistic pageantry. Keing 
 uff^ly shameless, he paints to the life his own vainglorious, fierce, 
 quarrelsonf 67 "SSSslial, and indomitable nature, amidst the passionate love 
 of beauty, skill, and fancy, which was the only religion of the age. 
 
 As an artist, it is rather the inexhaustible energy of the craftsman, 
 and the impression of universal invention which he threw into the most 
 trivial subject, than great permanent achievements, which have pre- 
 served his fame. His Perseus, the colossal bronze still standing beneath 
 the Loggia at Florence, one of the typical triumphs of the Eenascence, 
 created'a burst of admiration in his age as an artistic and techrifcal 
 masterpiece. The history of the mechanical difficulties overcome in its 
 casting is one of the most vivid scenes of t he ser io-comic extravaganza 
 which Cellini calls his Life. If we regard tliis strange and many-sided 
 beiTIWTB one of the pioneers of Modern Industry, it is as the contriver 
 of infinite forms of ingenuity and grace, suggesting inexhaustible possi- 
 bilities of fancy to the true craftsman and the mechanical artist. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 Life of Ben. CclUni: transl. hy Koscoe (in Bohu's Stan. Libr. ). Life, l)y 
 J. A. Syraouds, 1891 ; and also lienaissance in Italy, vol. iii. ch. ix. 
 
 AMONTONS {Guillaume), b. 1663, d. 1705. 
 
 Guillaume Amoxtoss, the son of a Normandy lawyer, was born at 
 Paris. A childish illness left him with the infirmity of extreme deafness, 
 and for want of society he amused himself by studying geometry and 
 mechanics. He learnt designing and surveying, and was employed in 
 many public works. In 1687, when twenty-four years old, he ])resented 
 a hygrometer, upon a new construction, to the Academy of Sciences. 
 In 1695 he published a treatise entitled Observations on a new Hour- 
 glass, and Baroiniters, Thermonieters, and Hygrometers, which he dedi- 
 cated to the Academy of Sciences, into which, four years after, he was 
 admitted a member. His admission paper was one on Friction, in 
 which he propounded a new theory — to be found in the ^Feinnirs. He 
 invented a plan for carrying intelligence to a great distance, and quickly,
 
 388 AMONTONS : WHEATSTONE [Modern 
 
 by means of signals between persons so far removed from each other 
 that they could only be seen by means of telescopes. In this he impli- 
 citly invented the semaphoric telegraph. Biot, in 1811, stated that 
 " Amontons was the real inventor of the telegraphic art as it is practised 
 at the present day." 
 
 The ingenuity of Amontons was remarkable, so was his method in 
 experimentiilising. Several years of his life were spent by him in 
 improving the barometer — a most imperfect instrument in his time. 
 " He invented a barometer consisting of a slender conical tube of glass 
 containing a column of mercury, whose length varied as the variations 
 in the upward pressure of the atmosphere on the base of the column ; 
 the ojjen end of the tulte, which was the greatest, being below, and the 
 mercury being retained in the tube by a leathern bag. He also invented 
 one consisting of a tube bent so as to form three parallel columns, of 
 which the first and the third contained mercury, and the intermediate 
 one air only. Amontons contrived what he called a " Universal Thermo- 
 meter " : it was a tube of glass thirty inches long, containing mercury, 
 to which was adapted a scale of inches ; and, by comparing its in- 
 dications with those of a column of mercury in an ordinary Ijarometer, 
 he Avas able to determine the expansion due to temperature alone. He 
 also invented a species of hygrometer, consisting of a coloured fluid con- 
 tained in a glass tube, which terminated below in a leathern bag. The 
 contraction or expansion of this bag, in consequence of variations in the 
 humidity of the air, produced corresponding variations in the length of 
 the column of fluid." 
 
 He is obviously the inventor of the first form of telegraph — an in- 
 strument that has since had so wonderful an effect on industrial progress. 
 
 [J. K.] 
 
 Fontenelle : Eloge d' Amontons. 
 
 WHEATSTONE {Sir Charles), b. 1802, d. 1875. 
 
 Charles AVheatstone was born at Gloucester in 1802. His father 
 was a maker of musical instruments ; and for many years the son followed 
 the same occupation, in which he showed marked ability, devoting much 
 leisure to devising mechanism illustrating tlie laws of acoustics. But 
 it is the part he took in the invention of the electric telegraph that gives 
 him a place in this Calendar. 
 
 The discoveries of the 18th century in static electricity and of its 
 flow along conducting threads suggested the tliought of using it as a 
 means of signalling to a distance. Lomond, in 1787, caused pith-balls 
 at the end of an insulated wire to diverge wlien tlie wire was charged ; 
 Eeizer, in 1794, similarly rendered letters luminous. But these were 
 scientific toys, of no avail for ])ractice. 
 
 Volta's discoveries in dynamic electricity roused new hopes of doing 
 Avhat was wanted. In 1807, SOmmering of Munich, sending a Voltaic 
 current through a long wire, deconi]iosed water at the other end. By 
 arranging sufficient wires to represent the aljilialiet and the numerals,
 
 Industry] WHEATSTONE : HARRISON 389 
 
 letters could be thus transmitted in pairs, the larger hydrogen bubble 
 indicating the tii-st, the oxygen bubble the second. 
 
 Oersted's discovery, in 1819, that a galvanic current passing near and 
 parallel to a magnet causes it to deilect right or left according to the 
 direction of the current, together with Faraday's discoveries in magnetic 
 electricity, laid tlie foundation of practical telegraphy. Still it seemed 
 that a separate wire would be needed for each symbol, till Wheatstone's 
 invention showed that five would suffice. For this a patent was taken 
 in 1837. The current, sent down one wire and returning by another, 
 caused two needles to deflect, and the point at which they converged 
 indicated a letter of the alphabet. By an improvement made in the 
 following year, the five needles were reduced to two. By rendering 
 a bar of soft iron momentarily magnetic, a spring connected with 
 alarum clock-work was moved, thus conveying a warning signal to the 
 clerk at the distant station. In 1839, Wheatstone, in conjunction with 
 Cook, brought this telegraph into use on the Great Western Railway. 
 
 The year 1837 was fertile in telegraphic inventions. Steinheil of 
 IVIunich and Morse in America brought out registering telegraphs, in 
 which the needles left traces on a slip of moving paper. This has formed 
 the starting-point of many -.subsequent improvements ; none, however, 
 being more remarkable than Wheatstone's automatic transmitter, by 
 which words have been sent at the rate of 400 per minute. Very 
 important also, especially for submarine telegraphy, was the invention, 
 known as Wheatstone's Bridge, for measuring resistance in currents. 
 More recent inventions, especially those of duplex and quadruplex tele- 
 graphy, by the latter of which four messages can be sent simultaneously, 
 two from each end of the line, cannot be here described. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Penny Cydopcedia, 1st supplement, 1815, Article Teleguaph. Encycl. Brit. 
 9th ed. 1888, Telegraph. 
 
 HARRISON {John), b. 1693, d. 1776. 
 
 / 
 
 John Harrison was born at Foulby in the parish of Wragby, near 
 Pontefract, in 1693. His father was carpenter to Sir Bowland Winn, of 
 Nostell Priory, and was sufficiently intelligent to be intrusted with the 
 repair of clocks. Of literary education the boy Iiad little or none, and to 
 the end found great difficulty in describing his inventions clearly. But 
 Saunderson's lectures on natural philosophy, lent to him by a clergy- 
 man, Avere a strong stimulus to thouglit. He joined his father as a 
 practical surveyor, giving his leisure hours to clock-work. An eiglit-day 
 clock made by him at the age of eighteen may still be seen at the South 
 Kensington ]\luseum. 
 
 The precise measurement of time is tlie point in which our astronomi- 
 cal resources are most strikingly sujierior to tliose of the astronomers of 
 Alexandria. They had the clock of the sky ; they observed witli accuracy 
 the return of a star to the position it liad occupied twenty-four liours 
 before : but in sxibdividing this interval of time they were ])aiiifully at 
 fault. The flow of water through an aperture in the vessel was their 
 commonest expedient, liable to the defect tliat unless the water were
 
 390 HARRISON [Modern 
 
 maintained at the same level the pressure, and therefore the rapidity 
 of the flow, would vary. In the 13th century we find clocks moved 
 by weights acting on toothed wheels. These, like the water-clocks, 
 were useful for the common purposes of life, but their range of variation 
 was far too wide for scientific use. 
 
 Galileo took the first step to an accurate solution by discovering that 
 the swing of a pendulum of given length was invariable, so long as the 
 arcs were small. Huyghens rendered Galileo's conception more precise, 
 and applied it practically to the construction of clocks, in which the 
 motion of a pendulum henceforth controlled the uncertain action of the 
 wheels. But the pendulum was itself liable to two variations. Taken 
 to different jDarts of the earth's surface, its time of vibration varied with 
 the A'arying force of gravitation ; and further, it varied with every change 
 of length due to change of temperature. 
 
 Harrison in 1726 applied a remedy to the second of these defects. 
 He attached the bob of the pendulum to a series of parallel rods alter- 
 nately of steel and brass, metals which are differently affected by heat. 
 These rods were so arranged that the downward expansion of the steel 
 was neutralised by the upward expansion of the brass, and the centre of 
 gravity of the pendulum remained unchanged. An improved escape- 
 ment, and a plan for allowing the clock to be wound without stopping 
 its action, made this clock of 1726 yet more perfect. 
 
 For marine purposes, the pendulum clock was of course inapplicable. 
 It is uncertain by whom the vibrations of a spiral spring were substituted 
 as the regulating power. These were independent of changes in the 
 earth's gravity. On the other hand they, like the pendulum, w^ere modi- 
 fied by temperature. 
 
 A Avatch set in Greenwich Observatory, and indicating Greenwich 
 time precisely through a long voyage, when contrasted with the ship's 
 local time as shown by solar observation, Avould at once determine longi- 
 tude ; the only other means available being observations of thcj^moon ; 
 and lunar tables were in the 18th century far from accurate. This 
 induced Parliament in 1713 to ofter rewards of £10,000, £15,000, and 
 £20,000 to any one discovering a method of finding longitude at sea 
 within sixty, forty, or twenty miles. 
 
 In 1736, Harrison, working on the principle of his gridiron pendulum, 
 remedied the variations of the balance hy a self-compensating mechanism 
 worked by unequal expansion of difi'erent metals. Five hundred pounds 
 were awarded him. After successive trials, he produced in 1759 an 
 instrument which, in a voyage to Jamaica, from November 1761 to March 
 1762, determined the longitude within eighteen miles, and another ten 
 years afterwards, used by Cook in his voyage of 1765, which Avas accu- 
 rate to ten miles. The Board of Longitude sliowed great unwillingness 
 to award the promised sum, and without the personal intervention of 
 George iii. Harrison Avould probably not liave received it. Part of it 
 indeed remained unpaid at his death. Harrison died in London, 1770, at 
 the age of 83, and was buried in Hampstead churchyard, Avhere his tomb 
 was restored by the Clockmakers' Company in 1879. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Did. of Nat. Biofj. Coiute : Astronomie Poindulre , pt. ii. ch. i.
 
 Industry] LEROY : DOLLOND 391 
 
 LEROY {Pierre), b. 1717, d. 1785. ^ 
 
 Pierre, son of Julien Lerot, ;i watch and clockmaker, was born in 
 Paris, 1717. He was brought up to his father's business. A marine 
 watch that he had made — which went with great accuracy at sea — was 
 presented to the Academy of Sciences. He determined the isochronism 
 by spiral springs, invented a new escapement, and much improved 
 watches and clocks. Amongst his memoirs is Etrennes Chronomltriques 
 2)our Vannee (Paris, 1 2mo). Berthoud regretted that Pierre Leroy had 
 given the form of an almanac to this work, which is divided into 8 parts, 
 treating of the natural divisions of time ; the artificial divisions of the 
 calendar ; of chronology ; of the proper instruments to measure time, and 
 of their use ; of Avatches and pendulums ; of methods of regulating the 
 natural measure of time ; and, lastly, the progress of horology in the 16th 
 century. Another memoir Avas a succinct account of the labours of Har- 
 rison and others in determining longitudes at sea, and of the proofs 
 given in their writings. P. Leroy died at Vitry, near Paris, in 1785. 
 Harrison, Leroy, and Graham represent the gradual perfection of the 
 measurement of time, the essential basis of scientific navigation. 
 
 [J. K.] 
 
 DOLLOND (Jo//n), b. 1706, d. 1761. 
 
 John DoLLOXD, tlic son of a Huguenot silk-Aveaver, settled in Spital- 
 fields, was born there in 1706. His education Avas scanty : but he shoAved 
 an early leaning toAvards mathematical and physical science. Of this, 
 hoAvcA^er, no result came till, toAvards the end of his life, he associated 
 himself Avith his son Peter, Avho in 1752 started as an optician. He 
 is the founder of a family of opticians Avhich has flourished for more 
 than a century. 
 
 It Avas found ]jy the early makers of telescopes tliat the object seen 
 Avas surrounded by a rim of prismatic colours Avhicli confused its outline. 
 Newton explained that, Avhen a ray of Avhite light was refracted, the 
 colours composing it Avere dispersed, i.e. refracted iinequally. He re- 
 garded this defect as so inherent in refracting object-glasses that he left ofi" 
 constructing them, and turned his attention to reflecting telescopes, in 
 Avhich most practical opticians folloAved him. 
 
 Nevertheless, in spite of Newton's great authority to the contrary, 
 the hope Avas always retained that l)y combining media of difl'erent re- 
 fractive poAvers the dispersion of colour might be neutralised. Euler 
 proposed a combination of a holloAV lens filled Avith Avater Avith a solid lens 
 of glass. Chester Hall, of Essex, appears in 17.30 to have ett'ected some 
 such combination ; Init tliis Avas not knoAvn to Dollond, and indeed Avas 
 not made public till l^ollond's results appeared. 
 
 Dollond Avas stimulated to experiment on the matter by a memoir of 
 Klingenstierna, of SAveden. His experiments were brought to a- success- 
 ful issue, and are clearly descriljed by him in a paper read before the 
 Itoyal Society in 1758. After explaining the facts of refraction and 
 of divergence, he points out that if a ray of light be passed through tAvo
 
 392 DOLLOND : GRAHAM [Modern 
 
 prisms of the same substance so arranged that the refractions shall be 
 equal and in opposite senses, the emergent ray will be white light. But 
 will this be the case if the opposite refraction be in a different 
 medium ? Newton had maintained that it would. DoUond set himself 
 to try. 
 
 Placing a hollow glass prism, filled with water, with the base upwards, 
 he inserted in it a glass prism with base downwards. He arranged the 
 angle of the water prism so that the refraction of the two media should be 
 equal He found that the emergent ray, though parallel to the incident 
 ray, was not white, as by the theory it should be, but coloured. 
 
 Pursuing the experiment, he found that by increasing the refracting 
 angle of the water prism he obtained at last an uncoloured emergent ray, 
 this result being effected when the refracting angle of the water prism was 
 to that of the glass prism as 5 to 4. 
 
 On this principle Dollond began to construct object-glasses ; using 
 hollow spherical lenses filled with water. This, from various reasons, being 
 inconvenient, he began to examine the properties of different kinds of glass. 
 He found after repeated trials that crown glass and flint glass differed 
 widely in their dispersive power. By combining wedges of these 
 two materials so that their refractions were as 3 to 2 in opposite direc- 
 tions, he succeeded in entirely neutralising the dispersion. 
 
 There remained only the difficulty of constructing large masses of 
 glass of perfectly uniform quality, a problem solved in the early part of 
 the present century by Guinaud, of Neufchatel. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Diet, of Nat. Biog. Philosoph. Transactions for 1758, p. 733. 
 
 GRAHAM {George), b. 1675, d. 1751. 
 
 George Graham was born at Kirklington, Cumberland, in 1675. In 
 1688 he went to London and was apprenticed to Tompion, the eminent 
 watchmaker, whom he succeeded in business. Graham was his superior 
 in scientific attainments, and invented several astronomical instruments 
 which contributed greatly to the advancement of that science. The large 
 mural arch in the observatory of Greenwich was made for Dr. Halley 
 under Graham's inspection and divided by his hand. The sector by 
 which Dr. Halley first discovered two new motions of the fixed stars was 
 of his invention and manufacture. He comprised the whole planetary 
 system within the compass of a small cabinet, and from this model all the 
 modern orreries have been constructed. He furnished the instruments 
 for the members of the French Academy who were sent to the North to 
 measure a degree of the meridian. 
 
 But Graham's great contribution to inventive art was his mercurial 
 pendulum. The value of the pendulum as a regulator of clock-work was 
 seriously impaired l)y the variations of its length as temperature changed. 
 He arranged a mercurial vessel in connection with the steel rod of the pen- 
 dulum, so that the expansions of the rod were exactly compensated by the 
 rise of the mercury in the vessel. The vibrating length of the Avhole was
 
 Industry] GRAHAM : ARKWRIGHT 393 
 
 thus preserved constant. He suggested the use of two solid metals of 
 different expansive powers : but it was left for Harrison to realise this. 
 Graham's " dead-beat " escapement was also a considerable improvement 
 in chronometry. 
 
 Graham contributed several papers to the Royal Society, of which he 
 was a Fellow. He died in 1751 at the age of 76, and, though a Quaker, 
 he was buried in Westminster Abbey. His place in the Calendar, as the 
 colleague of DoUond, seems to point to the part which the perfection of 
 instruments of exact measurement has played in the development of 
 scientific discovery as well as of industrial progress. [J. K.] 
 
 Philos. Transactions, 112^-11^. Diet, of Kat. Biog. 
 
 ARKWRIGHT {Sir Richard), b. 1732, d. 1792. 
 
 Richard Arkwright was born of poor parents at Preston, in Lanca- 
 shire, the youngest of thirteen children. He was a^jprenticed as a barber, 
 and in 1760 we find him trading as a hair-merchant. Of the steps that 
 led him to devote his attention to spinning cotton yarn little is known. 
 Hargreaves' spinning-jenny, invented in 1767, had multij)lied the spindles 
 that a single workman could manage. But the yarn produced by it was 
 soft, and could only be used for weft in conjunction with linen warps. 
 The observation of iron drawn out through two pairs of rollers, the second 
 pair moving more quickly than the first, suggested to Arkwright that 
 cotton, when cleaned and carded, might be dealt with in the same Avay. 
 On this principle, and with the help of Kay, a watchmaker of Warring- 
 ton, he invented his celebrated spinning-frame. Warned by the fate of 
 Hargreaves, whose machinery had been broken by a Lancashire mob, he 
 set up his first mill in Nottingham in 1769. This was worked by horse- 
 power, and proved to be too costly. He Avas more successful with a 
 second, built at Cromford, in Derbyshire, and turned by water-power. 
 Other improvements followed ; and by 1775 his invention was practically 
 completed in the form in which we now have it. 
 
 It was from the employers of Lancashire, fully as much as from the 
 workmen, that the principal opposition came. They entered into a com- 
 bination not to buy his yarn. They strenuously resisted the reduction of 
 the tax on cotton cloth. They allowed one of his factories at Chorley to 
 be destroyed by a mob, in the presence of police and soldiers, withoTit 
 any attempt at interference. Lawsuit after lawsuit was brought against 
 Arkwright's patent-right ; and not till 1785 was it fully established. 
 
 In textile industry Arkwright is tlie greatest English name ; but a few 
 words may be said on the otJier leaders of the marvellous revolution 
 efi'ected in the 18th century in one of the most primitive forms of human 
 labour. Spinning by the distafi' and spindle is prehistoric. We cannot 
 tell when it was that parallel vegetable tibres were first formed into a con- 
 tinuous thread by twisting ; the drawing out of the thread and the twist 
 being efi'ected by a slender cylinder of wood, weighted with a central whorl 
 of stone, rotated by the fingers, and then allowed to fall. iS'ot merely does 
 this prunitive invention do, in its own slow way, all that can l)e done by
 
 394 ARKWEIGHT : JACQUARD [Modern 
 
 the machines of our own time, but it surpasses them in delicacy and 
 fineness. Linen yam for the finest lace is still spun by the spindle, and 
 surpasses the highest "counts" — that is, the slenderest threads — produced 
 by the most elaborate machine. The spindle used for the yarn of the 
 ethereal muslins of Dacca was hardly larger than a needle, kept steady by 
 a slight pellet of clay ; which yet being too heavy for the fine thread, 
 Avas supported by a socket of shell in which it revolved. 
 
 Leonardo da Vinci, regardful of the humblest forms of industry, is 
 believed to be the first to improve the spindle by adding a flyer. Towards 
 the end of the 17th century the spinning-wheel, turning two spindles, 
 and worked with a treadle motion, so that both hands were free, came 
 into common use. In 1770 Hargreaves, a poor man of Stanhill, near 
 Church, in Lancashire, invented the spinning-jenny, which drew and 
 twisted sixteen threads at once. Arkwright's invention followed; and 
 immediately after it Samuel Crompton, of Bolton, combined many of the 
 merits of Arkwright's and Hargreaves' machines in his " mule," capable 
 of spinning a fine thread of great strength. When the mule, at first 
 worked by hand, was made self-acting, half a century afterwards, spin- 
 ning machinery in all its essential principles was complete. [J. H. B.] 
 
 E. Baines : History of the Cotton Manufacture. Encycl. Brit. 9th ed. vol. 
 vi., Article Cottox. 
 
 JACQUARD {,Tosq)h Marie), b. 1752, d. 1834. 
 
 Joseph ISL^rie Jacquard was born at Lyons in 1752. He was of 
 humble origin, and earned his living as a straw-hat maker. His mechani- 
 cal genius remained undeveloped till middle life, when accidentally reading 
 in a translation from an English newspaj^er of a prize oflered for a 
 lace-making machine, he turned his attention to the subject, and at last 
 succeeded in constructing such a machine. It attracted the attention 
 of the local authorities, who spoke of it to Carnot, at that time Minister 
 for the Home Department. Jacquard was ordered to Paris. Carnot was 
 much impressed with his ability, and attached him to the Conservatoire 
 des Arts et Metiers. Here it became his duty to study systematically 
 the art of weaving, and especially the weaving of complicated patterns. 
 The threads of the warp which were to be lifted at each throw of 
 the shuttle had hitherto required a special assistant to the weaver. 
 For dispensing with such labour, Vaucanson in 1745 had put forward 
 a plan which but for the imperfect shuttle then used would have been 
 successful. Jacquard, carrying out the purpose of Vaucanson, arranged 
 perforated cards in connection with a revolving cylinder so that, if a wire 
 connected witli a particular warji-thread passed through the perforation, 
 it was taken up, and formed part of the pattern ; otherwise it was 
 detached. The precise arrangement of the perforations constituted the 
 pattern. 
 
 Like Arkwriglit, Jacquard sufiered persecution from masters as well 
 as from men. His machines were shattered by mobs and his life 
 threatened : and a formal condemnation of his jirocess was pronounced 
 by the Industrial Council of Lyons. Unreasoning protests these, which
 
 Industrt] JACQUAED : CONTE : VAUCANSON 395 
 
 it is easy to denounce ; but for which, had any governing wisdom pre- 
 sided over the birth of Modern Industry, an orderly procedure would 
 have been established, in which the interests of displaced labour, as each 
 improvement arose, would have been systematically considered. 
 
 Jacquard died at OuUins, near Lyons, where his statue now stands, 
 in receipt of a moderate royalty from his looms, in 1834, aged 82, 
 leaving an established reputation for simplicity, moderation, and patient 
 dignity. [j. h. B.] 
 
 Biographic O'enerak. Encycl. Brit. 9tli ed. vol. xxiv. : Weaving. 
 
 C0NT6 {Nicholas Jaqnes), b. 1755, d. 1803. 
 
 CosTE, the son of a gardener, was born in Normandy in ITof). He was 
 particularly distinguished for his ingenious mechanical contrivances. He 
 constructed a violin with a common pen-knife when twelve years of age, 
 and at eighteen executed voluntarily and gratuitously several pictures for 
 the hospital at Seez, where he had been brought up. Going to Paris, he 
 invented a hydraulic machine which was ajjproved of by the Academy of 
 Sciences ; and in 1793 he showed such skill as one of the committee for 
 making experiments in regard to the decomposition of water by iron, 
 instead of sulphuric acid, that he Avas subsequently appointed Director of 
 the Aerostatic School at Meudon. In 1798 he accompanied the French 
 expedition to Egypt, where his services as chemist and mechanician were 
 of the greatest value. Upon returning to France he was appointed to 
 superintend the great work on Egypt, and invented a graving machine, 
 which economised the time and trouble of the artist. He also introduced 
 into France the manufacture of crayons, for which he established a great 
 manutiictory which supplied the country with them. 
 
 Conte, who died 6th December 1803, was a Member of the Legion of 
 Honour, and was held in universal esteem for his eminent qualities. 
 
 [J. K.] 
 
 VAUCANSON {Jacques dc), b. 1709, d. 1782. 
 
 Jacques Vaucanson was born at Grenoble in 1709, of a middle 
 class family in very easy circumstances. His father was a glove mami- 
 facturer. His mechanical genius was early shown in the construction 
 of a clock, in which angels spread their wings and priests moved in pro- 
 cession. Shortly afterwards, on leaving Grenoble for Lyons, he formed 
 a model of a hydraulic machine for supplying water to the city. 
 
 In Paris, to which he soon proceeded, the thought struck him of 
 constructing an automaton in the shape of the flute-playing faun in the 
 Tuileries gardens. It was no ordinary puppet-show that he had in view. 
 The ideas of Descartes as to the automatic structure of the human body 
 were floating through the world. To embody them in visilile shape 
 seemed a worthy enterprise. With this end in view, Vaucanson began 
 by a systematic course of physical and anatomical study. He Ijccame
 
 396 VAUCANSON [Modern 
 
 thoroughly familiar with what was then known of acoustics, with the mode 
 in which the gamut in different octaves was produced in fiute-playing, 
 and with the muscular forces directing air with the necessary force into 
 the aperture of the instrument. He spent three years on this work ; 
 much thwarted by the opposition of his family, who reproached him with 
 the waste of time and money. A warrant for the Bastille was talked of. 
 But the statue was made at last. It executed twelve tunes, became a 
 nine-days' wonder in Paris, and attracted the notice of the Academy of 
 Sciences, to whom Vaucanson presented an elaborate memoir on the 
 principles and details of its construction. Seven levers moved the 
 fingers of the right and left hand ; four dealt with the lips, widening or 
 narrowing their aperture, and retracting or advancing them towards the 
 orifice ; a fifth moved the tongue. The reservoir of air in the chest was 
 fed from three sources, so as to be reinforced or weakened at pleasure. 
 The varied succession of sounds was carried out on a principle not unlike 
 that afterwards applied in his loom for weaving variegated patterns. 
 
 Vaucanson produced several other automata : a tambourine-player, 
 and a pair of ducks which picked up, swallowed, and triturated corn, ex- 
 creting the husk, were among them. He designed another for imitating 
 the circulation of the blood, but by this time his attention was drawn 
 to more practical purposes. It is to be noted that these ingenious 
 machines, by which his name has become celebrated, were all produced 
 before he was thirty. They showed the genius of the mechanist in, 
 perhaps, a higher degree than has ever been seen l^efore or since. But 
 the last forty years of his life were spent in a very different way. After 
 refusing an invitation from Frederick the Great, he was appointed by 
 Cardinal Fleury inspector of one of the greatest industries of France, 
 the silk manufticture. To its systematic improvement the rest of his 
 life was devoted. 
 
 Silk differs essentially from other fibres used in textile industry, in 
 that, whereas these others consist of short lengths which are formed into 
 a continuous thread by spinning, the filament of hardened gum pro- 
 ceeding from the body of the silk-worm is continuous through the 
 whole substance of the cocoon. The problem is to unite a sufficient 
 number of these filaments together to form a thread that shall be per- 
 fectly even, and yet strong enough to stand the strain of the loom. 
 Here, as with cotton or flax, the warp, called in the silk organzin, is 
 the matter of principal concern. The tram or woof, being subject to less 
 strain, gives less trouble ; but organzin results from a series of four or five 
 operations, each involving a new combination of threads to which a 
 l^recisely imiform twist is to be imparted. Thus the three principal 
 departments of tlie silk industry are the winding of silk from the cocoon, 
 the twisting of organzin, and the formation of a plain or variegated web. 
 Into all these processes Vaucanson introduced important innovations, 
 the purpose of wliich was to render them automatic, and to enable one 
 pair of hands to do the work of two or inore. These improvements are 
 described with extreme clearness in a series of memoirs presented to the 
 Academy between J 751 and 1776. It maybe noted that his loom for 
 weaving automatically varied patterns anticipated in principle that of 
 Jaci^uard.
 
 Industry] VAUCANSON : STEVIN 397 
 
 In the encomium pronounced on Vaucanson by Condorcet there are 
 some remarkable sentences on the nature of his genius, which are applic- 
 able to some of the other names in this week. 
 
 "A wrono- idea is iisually formed of what constitutes the true 
 mechanist. He is not a geometer who makes researches in the theory of 
 motion and the order of phenomena, and thus elicits new principles of 
 mechanics or discovers unknown laws of nature. Nor, again, is he the 
 mathematical physicist who combines calculation with olDservation and 
 experiment, and applies his knowledge to the construction of machines 
 or to industrial processes. 
 
 " The mechanist is he who either aj^plies a new motive power to 
 machines, or who enables them to carry on operations hitherto intrusted 
 to human intelligence, or who obtains from them more copious and 
 complete results. Genius in this department of science consists, in the 
 main, in conceiving and arranging in space the various mechanisms 
 which are to produce a given effect, by controlling, distributing, or 
 directing motive force. The mechanist is not necessarily an artist who 
 owes his talent or his success to practice. Consummate mechanism may 
 be invented without constructing or putting in motion a single machine ; 
 just as methods may be found for calculating the movements of a star 
 which the astronomer may never have seen. 
 
 "In most other departments of science we find well defined prin- 
 ciples ; there are numerous methods, any one of which the thinker can 
 pursue. If he raises a new question, he attacks it with the united forces 
 of those who have gone before him. Not so with mechanism. Its true 
 theory depends on the geometry of position, of the existence of which 
 Leibnitz was aware, but which as yet has made but scanty progress. 
 There is no elementary book containing its principles, or explaining its 
 history. Workshops and collections of machinery show what has been 
 done ; but to evolve results each must work for himself. To understand 
 a machine it must be guessed. This is why mechanical genius is so 
 rare, and is so easily misled : why it is hardly ever seen without the 
 audacious extravagances which accompany genius in the infancy of 
 every science." 
 
 Vaucanson died 21st November 1782, occu]ued to the last with in- 
 structions to the workmen who were executing his designs. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Condorcet: Elorje de Vaucansnn. Diderot : /iwci/cZoj^e^ZtV, Article A ndroide : 
 Journal des S(.ivants, vol. cxvii. lledde : Jitudes Seritech/iiquei- sitr 
 Vaucanson, Paris 187;". 
 
 STEVIN (Simon), b. 1548, d. 1620. 
 
 Simon Stevix was born at Bruges in 1548, and was often called 
 " Simon of Bruges." He began life as a merchant's clerk at Antweri) ; 
 and travelled mucli in Poland, Denmark, and other countries of northern 
 Europe. Few details of his early life are known. But his engineering 
 skill attracted the attention of Prince Maurice, Avho made liini super- 
 intendent of Dykes, and ultimately Quartermaster-General.
 
 398 STEVIN [Modern 
 
 Stevin distinguished himself in many branches of mathematics. He 
 was the first to employ decimals in arithmetic ; though he complicated 
 the notation by inserting in connection with place of decimals a symbol 
 indicating that place : a complication with which Napier seems to have 
 been the first to dispense. It is sometimes said that Stevin was the 
 first to used fractional indices as exponents of the roots of numbers, 
 but this is an exaggeration. The use of numerals as exponents of 
 powers of arithmetical or algebraical quantities was introduced after 
 Stevin's death by Descartes. 
 
 By far the most important work of Stevin is his Treatise on t^^tatic, 
 or as he otherwise calls it, in the French version, L'Art Fonderaire. 
 It is in six books, of which the first deals with the theory of equili- 
 brium of solids. Nothing had been done in this department of mathe- 
 matics since the time of Archimedes. He defines Static as a science 
 which treats of the ratios of the weights of bodies : weight being 
 described as the power or tendency of a body to fall to a given point. 
 
 The first part of the book deals with weight acting vertically. He 
 defines centres of gravity, and gives a new demonstration of Archi- 
 medes' law of the equilibrium of the two arms of a lever. In the 11th 
 and subsequent theorems he treats of weights acting obliquely : in other 
 words, of equilibrium on an inclined plane. 
 
 He supjjoses a triangle, the plane of which is perpendicular to the 
 horizon, and the base parallel to the horizon. Of the two inclined sides, 
 one is double the length of the other. (This triangle may be more con- 
 veniently regarded as the section of a prism.) Let a closed chain con- 
 taining fourteen equal and equidistant spheres be placed over the apex 
 of this triangle, so that four of the sjjheres shall rest on the longer side, 
 two on the shorter : the chain is of course conceived as perfectly fiexible, 
 and friction to be absent. The remaining part of the chain with eight 
 spheres hangs freely below the base of the triangle. Stevin's theorem 
 is that the four spheres on the longer side will balance the two on the 
 shorter. For, if not, then we must suppose that the four balls on one side, 
 plus the four adjacent to them, Avhich are suspended, will lift the two 
 on the other side, plus the suspended four adjacent to these. A new 
 position of the balls will thus be established, but it will be exactly similar 
 to the first. There will again be four balls on one side, two on the other, 
 and eight in suspension. Consequently if there is motion at all, it will 
 be perpetual motion. But this is absurd : therefore there is not motion, 
 but rest. The two balls on the short plane are in equilibrium with the 
 four on the long plane. 
 
 As in the Statics of solids, so in that of liquids, Stevin continued 
 and very remarkably developed the work of Archimedes. The fourth 
 book of the work here spoken of is on Hydrostatic. He first shows that 
 in a parallelopiped of water the pressure on any part of the base depends 
 on the area of that part multiplied l)y the height. Then imagining a 
 tube placed within this vessel twisted in any way, and varying to any 
 extent in cali])re throughout its lengtli, and filled with water, he shows 
 that here too the pressure of tlie water is the product of the height and 
 base. Again, let two vertical tubes, one of an inch and tlie other of a 
 foot in diameter of the same height, and with the lower ends Ijent and
 
 Industry] STEVIN : TOREICELLI 399 
 
 in communication -with each other, be filled with water, the slender 
 column of water in one tube wiU balance the heavier column in the 
 other. 
 
 Stevin died in 1620. The best edition of his works is that of Albert 
 Girard, in French, 1634. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. i. Pos. Pol, i. 
 
 TOREICELLI {Evangelista), b. 1608, d. 1647. 
 
 ToRRiCELLi was born at Faenza, Italy, 15th October 1608. After being 
 instructed in Latin and Greek by his uncle, a monk, he applied himself 
 assiduously to mathematics (which he studied without a master), and 
 wrote a treatise on Motion, which so much excited the admiration of 
 Galileo that he invited him to his house and made him his amanuensis 
 in October 1641. Galileo dying three months afterward, Torricelli was 
 about to return to Kome when the Grand Duke Ferdinand gave him 
 the title of the Ducal ^Mathematician and the pronuse of a professorship 
 in the University of Florence if he would remain there. He continued 
 to pursue with ardour his experiments and discoveries in mathematics, 
 physics, and astronomy, when he was cut off by an untimely death in 
 October 1647, at the age of thirty-nine years. 
 
 He published his treatise on Motion in 1644 — much augmented — 
 together with other mathematical and physical tracts in a " Collection 
 of his Geometrical Works," in all of which he showed himself an able 
 disciple of Galileo, whose doctrines he illustrates and enriches with new 
 discoveries. Torricelli is considered as the first to ascertain the gxavity 
 of the air by means of mercury in a glass-tube — whence resulted the 
 barometer. This invaluable instrument was long known as the " Torri- 
 cellian Tube." He was extremely expert in the fabrication of lenses for 
 telescopes, which instrument he greatly improved ; and he was the first 
 who made microscopes of great power with globules of glass formed by 
 the blow-pipe. He excelled in pure mathematics, and perfected the 
 method of indivisibles discovered by Cavalieri. His Lezioni Acca- 
 demiche were published in 1715. Comte wrote in the Phil. Positive 
 (vol. i. 501) of Torricelli thus :— " He proved the existence and measure- 
 ment of atmospheric pressure, by showing that this pressure sustained 
 different liquids at heights inversely proportioned to their densities. . . 
 
 " Most remarkable is tlie law discovered by Torricelli with regard to 
 the ecpiililnium of heavy liodies. It consists in this, that when any 
 system of heavy l)odies is in a situation of equilibrium, its centre of 
 gravity is necessarily placed at the lowest or highest possiljle jioint 
 in comparison witli all tlie positions it might take under any other 
 situation of the system." ( 'oiute explains that subsc(|iientlv Maiqter- 
 tuis, in liis Law of liest, gave a large generalisation to this tlicorciii of 
 Torricelli^s. ' ' ' iJ- K.l
 
 400 MARIOTTE [Modern 
 
 MARIOTTE (Edme), b. abt. 1630, d. 1684. 
 
 Edme Mariotte was born at Dijon, in what year is not quite certain. 
 He took orders, and was made prior of St. Martin, near Beaune ; but his 
 time was principally occupied with scientific pursuits : mainly with the 
 science of Physics, which Galileo, Torricelli, and others had recently 
 called into being. He was one of the earliest members of the Academy 
 of Sciences, formed in 1666. 
 
 His principal works are : — (1) A treatise on Percussion, in which he 
 contests the view maintained by Galileo that a body moving from rest 
 passes through infinite degrees of gradually increasing velocity before 
 attaining its maximum. Galileo's treatise on Percussion is a mere frag- 
 ment ; his special subject being uniformly accelerated motion. (2) An 
 essay on Vegetation, chiefly remarkable for the views held as to heat 
 and light. Fire, he says, is not a special element : it is the same sub- 
 stance as the body which is being consumed by the flame : only its 
 particles are in a state of violent agitation. (3) The work on which 
 his fame principally rests, the Nature of Air. Here he formulates, and 
 verifies experimentally, the law that " the condensation of air is in pro- 
 portion to the weight pressing upon it." 
 
 It is evident, he observes, that the lower strata of the atmosphere are 
 more condensed than the higher. The lowest has to bear the whole 
 weight of the atmosphere above, and is in equilibrium with it. A tube 
 of mercury of 28 to 30 inches, as Torricelli has shown, balances the 
 weight of a column of air of the full height of the atmosphere. Let us 
 then use this fact as a means of estimating the behaviour of air at 
 different degrees of pressure more accurately. 
 
 If a small quantity of air be admitted with the mercury into the 
 barometric tube, it will expand in the vacuum and will keep the mercury 
 at a lower level. Supposing, as the result of the experiment, the mercury 
 stand at 14 inches instead of 28, we shall then be sure that the mercury 
 is sustaining half the weight of the atmospheric column, and the dilated 
 air in the tube the remaining half. 
 
 Mariotte took a tube of 40 inches in length. He introduced into it 
 27o inches of mercury and 12| of air ; and plunged the open end of the 
 tube one inch deep into the mercurial basin. He found the mercury 
 stand at 14 inches : the air occupied the remaining 25 inches. The air, 
 expanded thus to twice its volume, was supporting half the weight of the 
 atmospheric column. In a second experiment he introduced 24 parts 
 of air above the mercury ; he then found the mercury descend to 7 
 inches. That is to say, the air had expanded from 24 to 32 inches — the 
 mercury sustaining one-fourth of the atmospheric column, the expanded 
 air three-fourtlis. 
 
 " I always found,"' he says, " that after the experiment the bulk of 
 the dilated air bore the same proportion to that of the air at the 
 beginning of the experiment as that of 28 inches of mercury to the 
 excess of 28 over the height of the mercurv resulting from the experi- 
 ment." Thus, in the case last cited, 32 : 24 :: 28 : 28- 7 = 21. The 
 temperature in these experiments was of course supposed constant. 
 
 Mariotte did not apply his law to other gases than atmospheric air
 
 Industry] MARIOTTE : BOYLE 401 
 
 It was found subsequently to be true of all gases : and was frequently- 
 spoken of as absolutely true of aU temperatures and pressures. Wiser 
 thinkers, Comte among them, had from time to time uttered cautions as 
 to such an inference, which have been fully justified by the result. At 
 • pressures approaching the degi-ee at which the gas liquefies, the law of 
 Mariotte or Boyle (for Boyle discovered it independently) ceases to hold 
 good. Mariotte wrote a work on the logic of scientific reasoning, of 
 which Condorcet speaks in high terms. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. iii. lect. 29. Pos. Pol. ii. 30. 
 
 BOYLE {Bohert\ b. 1627, d. 1691. 
 
 Robert Boyle, the seventh son of Richard, Earl of Cork, was born at 
 Lismore Castle in Munster, in 1627, the year after Bacon's death. He 
 was sent to Eton at the age of eight, and he showed there precocious 
 mental activity, reading Quintus Curtius and Amadis de Gaul with ecpial 
 eagerness, and imposing on himself, as a boy of ten, the study of algebra 
 as a mental discipline. Leaving Eton, he travelled on the Continent, 
 and was in Florence during the year of Galileo's death. In 1645 he was 
 in London attending the first meetings of the Philosoiihical, afterwards 
 the Royal, Society. In 1652-3 we find him in Dublin studying anatomy: 
 and in 1654 he settled in Oxford, and became the friend of Wilkins, 
 Wallis, Hook, and other celebrated physicists. Here, in 1659, he in- 
 vented his air-pumjj, a great improvement on that of Otto Guericke, 
 and began to study systematically the laws of atmospheric pressure. In 
 1660, he jniblished his physico-mechanical experiments touching the 
 Spring of the Air and its Eftects. His views were contested by Linus 
 and others : and his reply, published two years afterwards, contains the 
 demonstration of the celebrated law of atmospheric pressure. 
 
 Bending a long glass tube unequally so that the shorter limb should 
 be parallel to the longer, and closing the opening of the shorter limb, he 
 poured mercury into the bend of the tube, so that it stood at the same level 
 in either limb, and arranging that the air thus imprisoned in the shorter 
 end should not undergo any abnormal pressure. The space occupied by 
 this air would thus be easily measured. Then pouring into the longer 
 end of the tube a quantity of mercury equal to the weight of a colunm 
 of atmosphere, as tested by a barometer, say 29 inches, he found the 
 imprisoned air reduced to half its bulk. Repeated experiments showed 
 that the bulk of the compressed air varied inversely as the pressure. 
 
 Boyle then experimented on air at less than the ordinary pressure, 
 by plunging an open tube into a larger vessel filled with mercury ; then 
 closing the upper end of the tube and withdrawing it. As the air in 
 the upper part of the tube expanded, its capacity for resisting pressure 
 diminished. Expanded to twice its bulk, it supported half an atmo- 
 spheric colunm : at four times its l)ulk, a quarter-colunm, and so on. 
 
 Boyle did not limit himself to science. He was a brilliant linguist 
 and an ardent theologian : an eager, alert mind, stirring in every 
 direction. He was much admired by Continental thinkers : Boerhaave 
 says, " We owe to him the secrets of fire, air, water, animals, vegetables,^ 
 fossils, so that from his works mav l)c deduced the whole system of
 
 402 BOYLE : PAPIN [Modern 
 
 natural knowledge." He was the friend of Newton, Wallis, Locke, 
 Sydenham, and Burnet. He died December 30, 1691, and was buried 
 in St. Martin's in the Fields. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Did. of Nat. Biography. Tlie first complete edition of his worlds is that of 
 1774, in five folio volumes. 
 
 PAPIN {Denis), b. 1647, d. 1712. 
 
 Denis Papix, the son of a physician, was born at Blois, 1647, and was 
 himself brought up to the medical profession. But from the first he 
 turned his attention to mechanical inventions connected with the physical 
 discoveries of his time. His name is best known through an ingenious 
 contrivance for reducing bone and cartilage to a soft state, and thus ren- 
 dering them fit for food by the action of super-heated steam. This 
 invention was produced in England, where he was living, in 1681, and 
 where he helped Boyle in some of his experiments. As a Calvinist he was 
 unable, after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, to return to France. 
 He lived for some time at Marburg as a mathematical teacher. Thence 
 in 1696 he went to Cassel. He left Germany in 1707 for England, and he 
 ultimately died, in or about 1712, in obscurity. Some of his most im- 
 portant scientific papers are to be found in the Acts of the Leipsic 
 Academy ; and amongst them, in 1690, that which describes his plan 
 for developing mechanical power by the condensation of steam. 
 
 The memoir is entitled A New Way of Obtaining very great Moving 
 Powers at Small Cost. He had long seen that if a vacuum could be created 
 easily and effectively in a cylinder provided with a moveable piston, the 
 pressure of the atmosphere would lower the piston, which thus might be 
 used to depress one end of a balanced beam, and so elevate the other end 
 with any weight that might be attached to it. All depended on the 
 completeness of the vacuum. This he sought to produce first by the com- 
 bustion of gunpowder in the cylinder ; but he found that so much air 
 remained as to render the lifting power of the piston very slight. He 
 then thought of filling the cylinder with steam, afterwards to be condensed 
 by the application of cold. This plan succeeded in his model ; care 
 being taken to prevent air from entering the cylinder by covering the 
 upper surface of the piston with water, the piston descended rapidly and 
 raised the other end of the beam as desired. 
 
 Papin's machine was not in any sense of the word a steam-engine. 
 The mechanical force used was not the expansive force of steam, but 
 atmospheric pressure. But his principle Avas widely applied for more 
 than half a century. His model was worked out practically by New- 
 comen, and much improved by Brindley and Smeaton. Until Watt had 
 brought his own engine into use, the machine designed by Papin was 
 used for pumping water from mines, and also for lifting coal. Papin, in 
 the memoir here noticed, proposes to utilise his machine as a moving power 
 for ships. Three or four of his pistons were to act by cog-wheels on an 
 axle fitted with paddles {rcmi rotatiles). More than a century was to pass 
 before any efiect was to be given to this part of his project. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Lardner on The Htcara-Evgine. For the aliove <lescription of Papin's 
 machine reference lias been made to the Leipsic Acts.
 
 Industry] WOECESTER : BLACK 403 
 
 WORCESTER (MarqvAs of), b. abt. 1601, d. 1667. 
 
 Edward Somerset, 2nd Marquis of Worcester, and father of the first 
 Duke of Beaufort, belonged to the royalist family actively engaged in 
 the wars of the Commonwealth. For a long time he was an agent of 
 Charles ii. in France, and was captured and imprisoned in the Tower. 
 During his confinement the idea of utilising the expansive force of steam 
 occurred to him, and was embodied in his work entitled The Scantling 
 of One Hundred Inventions, published in 1663. 
 
 The purpose aimed at was to raise water from a lower level to a 
 higher ; the height being much greater than that to which the ordinary 
 suction pump would be applicable. The principle of the invention was 
 that steam, generated in a vessel placed above a furnace, was admitted to 
 the surface of the cistern containing the water which it was required to raise, 
 and forced the water upwards through a tube connecting this cistern with 
 that placed at the desired height. The steam was admitted alternately 
 into two cisterns, by a revolving cock or ^regulator ; so that, while the 
 steam was acting upon the water in one, the other could be filled with a 
 fresh supply of water. In this way the stream rising through the force- 
 pump was rendered continuous. 
 
 Worcester's invention was in the true sense a steam-engine. Steam 
 itself, and not the atmospheric pressure resulting from the condensation 
 of steam, was the motive power. The steam was generated in one vessel 
 and used in another, a condition indispensable to the working of steam as 
 a mechanical agent. 
 
 Worcester's Hundred Inventions contains many pregnant hints, and 
 many of them have proved fruitful. His work has been recently repub- 
 lished. [J. H. B.] 
 C&)htury of Inventions. Lardner on The Steam-engine. 
 
 BLACK {Dr. Joseph), b. 1728, d. 1799. 
 
 Joseph Black was born at Bordeaux, 1728, where his father, a 
 native of Belfast, but of Scotch origin, was engaged in the wine trade, 
 and was a friend of Montesquieu. Joseph, the son, was educated in 
 Glasgow, where he studied medicine under CuUen, and in 1754 took 
 the degree of Doctor of Medicine in Edinburgh. His inaugural thesis 
 on the efi'ect of gastric juice on magnesia shows that chemistry was 
 then engaging his attention. In 1756 he published his Experiments on 
 Magnesia, Qaicldiuie, and otlier Alkaline Substances. This memoir is 
 remarkable as the first instance of the application of the balance to 
 chemical analysis. He showed that the alkaline earths (carbonates of 
 lime and magnesia) did not gain in weight, but on the contrary lost, by 
 combustion ; what disappeared being a fixed air, which, when present, 
 neutralised the causticity of these alkalies. Black was appointed Pro- 
 fessor of Chemistry in Glasgow, and remained in that ofiice till iiis death. 
 
 About 1761 his attention was drawn to the relations of heat with 
 clianges in the molecular condition of matter. He observed that whereas 
 a given amount of heat would raise a pound of %vater through each de- 
 gree of temperature, yet that when water passed from the solitl condition
 
 404 BLACK [INIoDERN 
 
 to the liquid, or. from the liquid to the gaseous, the law no longer held 
 good. Heat entered into the substance without showing any result that 
 could be tested by the thermometer. It disappeared; to use Black's 
 expression, it became latent. Black's view was that there was a quasi- 
 chemical combination between the particles of the body and the subtle 
 fluid of heat. 
 
 Black determined to compare the time taken in raising one pound of 
 water one degree of Fahrenheit with the time required for melting one 
 pound of ice. The result of the experiment was that, in order to melt 
 the ice, as much heat was required as would have increased the temi:)era- 
 ture of the water by 140 degrees, a result nearly equivalent to that of 
 more recent observations. Fahrenheit had observed that water gradu- 
 ally reduced below freezing-point, and then suddenly congealed, gave 
 out heat. Black measured the heat so given out, and found it to 
 correspond with the heat rendered latent while the ice melted. 
 
 He then turned his attention to the phenomena of heat while water 
 was being converted into vapour. Here too he found that there was an 
 apparent disajDpearance of heat. Heat became latent, or, according to 
 his theory, there was a combination of heat-substance with the vapour- 
 particles. Certain broad facts were from the first obvious. Applying 
 heat to water, the temperature steadily rises, till the boiling-point is 
 reached ; after this further application of heat produces no elevation of 
 temperature. And yet it was matter of common observation that steam 
 had great scalding power ; and that when condensed in the worm of a 
 still it communicated a large amount of heat to the water in the worm- 
 tub. Thus, as with the case of ice changing into water, so here, heat 
 becomes latent while steam is forming, and is given out again while 
 steam condenses. 
 
 Black now endeavoured to reduce those phenomena to measurement. 
 He found, first, that to convert a pound of water into steam, five times 
 as much heat must be supplied as would have raised the water from 
 50° to 212° (Fahrenheit). That is to say, the process of ebullition 
 rendered 810 degrees (5 x 162) of heat latent. He found, secondly, that 
 a pound of steam passing along the worm of a still, raised 40 pounds of 
 water in the worm-tub 20 degrees : that is, the pound of steam con- 
 verted into water had given out 800 degrees of heat. The true quantity 
 is considerably larger ; but the essential principle was truly stated. 
 Black's theory of heat held its ground for three-quarters of a century. 
 Descartes' theory, regarding heat not as a suljstance but a mode of 
 motion, has recently taken its place : and the conversion of ice into 
 water, or of water into steam, is regarded as so much mechanical work 
 done upon the molecules of the substance. 
 
 Black was intimately associated with Watt, whose invention of the 
 condensing steam-engine owed much to the researches here described ; a 
 singular instance of prompt and fertile application of theory to practice. 
 
 Black was of simple, upright, unambitious character. He died 
 suddenly and painlessly on December 6, 1799. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Diet, of Nat. Biography . A more complete account of Black's discoveries, 
 which were not published in liis lifetime, will lie found in the biography 
 by Robison, prefixed to Black's Lectures on Chemistry.
 
 Industry] JOUFFROY : FULTON 405 
 
 JOUFFROY {Qaude, Marquis de), b. 1751, d. 1832. 
 
 The family of the Marquis de Jouffroy d' Albans came from Franche 
 Comte. In 1775, after seeing Chaillot's fire-pump, the young Jouflfroy 
 set himself to the problem of applying steam to navigation ; and in the 
 following year he produced a boat 40 feet in length which was pro- 
 pelled by an engine on the Doubs at Baumes-les-Dames. The machine 
 used was not a steam-engine, but a pump on Papin's principle, in which 
 atmospheric pressure forced down the piston when the steam in the cylinder 
 had been condensed. Another attempt was made in 1780 ; and a third, 
 yet more successful, on the Saone in 1783. In this case Jouft'roy em- 
 ployed paddles revolving on a shaft ; and it may fairly be regarded as 
 the first steam-boat. The outbreak of the Revolution a few years after- 
 Avards cut short Jouffroy's enterprise. He was one of the first to 
 emigrate ; and when he returned to France in 1815, he found that his 
 projects had been more successfully carried out by others. 
 
 Fulton, his rival, in his letter to Des Blancs admitted his priority. 
 He wrote : — "Is it the invention which is in question'? Neither M. 
 Des Blancs nor I invented the Pyroscaphe. If that glory belongs to any 
 one it lis to the author [Marquis de Jouffroy] of the experiments at 
 Lyons made in 1783 upon the River Saone." Such also is the judg- 
 ment of the English and American tribunals. 
 
 M. Parisol in the Biograjjhie Universelle quotes the report of the 
 Academy of Sciences making good Jouftroy's claim, and concludes :— 
 " This report, supported by numerous experiments, made in the presence 
 of the Commissioners of the Academy, is an act of tardy justice, but a 
 striking one, rendered to a man of genius in the person of his son, who 
 continues his father's labours and emulates his glory. Henceforth 
 neither the American nor the English will any longer contest with 
 France the priority of steam navigation, but it will always be indebted 
 to them for the improvements of that invention. France has the glory 
 of it ; let the profit be whose it will.'"' [J. K.] 
 
 FULTON (Bohert), b. 1765, d. 1815. 
 
 Robert Fultox, born in Lancaster, Pennsylvania, 1765, was first 
 intended for the trade of a jeweller, which he gave up to become a 
 painter under Sir B. West in England. Making the acquaintance of 
 an American named Rumsey, avIio was skilled in mechanics, Fulton 
 quitted ])ainting to become a civil engineer, distinguishing liimself by 
 the boldness and novelty of his projects. AVhilst here (in 179G) he pub- 
 lislied a treatise On the Iinproreiiicut of Inland Navujcdinn, in which 
 he proposed the use of inclined 2)lanes as a substitute for locks on navi- 
 gable canals. In France he advocated submarine navigation for the 
 purpose of blowing up ships of war. Tlie French Government rejecting 
 the proposal, he came to England to see if tlie project pertinaciously ])er- 
 sisted in for years would l)e ado])te(l liere, and made some e\i;eriments 
 under the patronnge of Earl Slanlio])e. He returned to AnuTica to 
 construct a bu;it to pass under water, called a Ciitaniiinm, n;iutiliis, or 
 torpedo. Amongst liis other pul^lished inventions was a mill for cutting
 
 406 FULTON : DALTON [Modern 
 
 and polishing marble and a machine for twisting ropes. Finally, he 
 devoted himself to the improvement of steam navigation, of which he 
 claimed the invention notwithstanding his letter {q.v., Jouffroy) as to 
 who was the real inventor. It is said that his death was hastened by the 
 vexation caused at his being denied the credit of the discovery and the 
 benefits he expected to derive from it. He died at New York, 24th 
 February 1815. [j. K.] 
 
 DALTON (John), b. 1766, d. 1844. 
 
 John Dalton was bom at Eaglesfield near Cockermouth, in 1766. 
 His father was a wooUen-weaver with a small freehold, and belonged to 
 the Society of Friends. Dalton as a boy worked on his father's land, but 
 showed from an early age a bent towards mathematics. From his 15th 
 to his 27th year he was an assistant at a school at Kendal, where he had 
 time and opportunity for scientific reading. In 1 793 he became Professor 
 of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at New College, Manchester. 
 In that city the rest of his life was passed. 
 
 Among the earliest of his papers, read before the Manchester Philo- 
 sophical Society, was one on Extraordinary Facts relative to Vision of 
 Colour : the first description given of colour-blindness, an afi'ection to 
 which Dalton was subject ; red appearing to him simply as a shadow. 
 Most of his papers were on the expansion of gases by heat, and on the 
 specific heat of various substances. 
 
 In 1804, Dalton communicated to Dr. Thomson his theory that 
 matter consisted of indivisible atoms, the atom of each elementary sub- 
 stance having its own weight. The theory rested on the observed fact 
 that elements entered into combination with each other in definite and 
 invariable proportions, or in simple multiples of those proportions. He 
 had remarked, in investigating olefiant gas and marsh gas that- if the 
 carbon were the same in both, the latter of these two gases had twice the 
 amount of hydrogen of the former. He saw, again, that carbonic acid 
 had twice as much oxygen as carbonic oxide. In the third edition of 
 Thomson's Chemistry, published in 1807, and more fully in his own New 
 System of Chemical Philosophy, of which the first part was published in 
 1808, Dalton jjut forward his theory with the facts supporting it. 
 
 The first two chapters of the Netu System deal entirely with the 
 physical properties of bodies, especially with their specific character in 
 relation to heat. The third chapter is entitled Chemical Synthesis. He 
 observes : " In all chemical investigations it has justly been considered an 
 important object to ascertain the relative weights of the simples which 
 constitute a compound. But unfortunately the inquiry has terminated 
 here : whereas from tlie relative weights in. the mass the relative weiglits 
 of the ultimate particles or atoms might have been inferred, from which 
 their number and weight in various other conijjounds would appear, in 
 order to assist and guide future investigations and to correct their 
 results." He proi)oses to show the advantage of ascertaining the relative 
 weights of the ultimate particles both of simple and compound bodies, 
 the number of simple elementary particles which constitute one com- 
 pound particle, and the number of less compound particles which enter 
 into the formation of one that is more compound.
 
 Industry] DALTON : THILOEIER 407 
 
 He arrived at the results that (1) water is a binary compound of 
 hydrogen and oxygen, and that the relative weights of the two elementary 
 atoms are as 1 to 7 nearly ; (2) that ammonia is a binary compound of 
 hydrogen and azote, and that the relative weights are as 1 to 5, nearly ; 
 
 (3) that nitrous gas is a binary compound of azote and oxygen, the atoms 
 of which weigh 5 and 7 respectively : that nitric acid is a binary or 
 ternary compound according to the source from which it is derived, and 
 consists of one atom of azote and two of oxygen, together weighing 19 ; 
 that nitrous oxide is a compound similar to nitric acid, and consists of one 
 atom of oxygen and two of azote, weighing 17 ; that nitrous acid is a 
 binary compound of nitric acid and nitrous gas, weighing 31 ; that oxy- 
 nitric acid is a binary compound of nitric acid and oxygen, weighing 26 ; 
 
 (4) that carbonic oxide is a binary compound consisting of one atom of 
 charcoal and one of oxygen, together weighing nearly 12 ; that carbonic 
 acid is a ternary compound, but sometimes binary, consisting of one atom 
 of charcoal and two of oxygen, weighing 19. In all these cases the weights 
 are expressed in atoms of hydrogen, the atomic weight of hydrogen being 
 taken as unity. 
 
 Dalton was not skilful in the detail of experiments, and, as will have 
 been remarked, most of his conclusions have been much modified by later 
 research. Neither was he very sympathetic with the work of his con- 
 temporaries ; he refused to the last to recognise the value of Gay-Lussac's 
 researches into atomic volume, made at the same time as his own. 
 
 In 1822, Dalton visited Paris, and received much honour from the 
 physicists and cheniists of France. A pension was given him hj Govern- 
 ment in 1833. In 1837 he was attacked by paralysis. He died from a 
 recurrent attack of this disease, 27th July 1844. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Diet, of National Bioqrapliy . Dalton : New Sijstem of Chemical Philosophy, 
 1808-10. PMl. Pos. vol. iii. le^ou 37. 
 
 THILOEIER, fl. 1820-1840. 
 
 Thilorier, the son of Jean Charles, a leading advocate and himself 
 an inventor, first succeeded, in 1834, in reducing a gas to a solid. Comte 
 has pointed out {Th'd. Po)i. ii. 536) tliat the solid and fluid states are not 
 absolute (jualities, but relative, and that the same substance would l)e a 
 gas, a liquid, or a solid, according to the conditions in which it was 
 placed. Faraday, in 1823, had li(|uefied carbonic acid in small (piantity ; 
 but in 1834 Thilorier invented a machine by which he reduced this gas 
 to a liquid, and subsequently to a solid in tlie form of snow. Thus were 
 finally established the identity of gases and vapours and the relativity 
 of tlie various states of matter. By the aid of carbonic acid snow 
 Thilorier solidified mercury. Faraday pronounced tliis to be "one of the 
 most beautiful results of modern times" {I'lnl. Tr. 1845, ]). 155). Comte 
 regarded this as a remarkal)le type of man's mastery over Nature. He was 
 also the inventor of other contrivances, especially a hydrostatic lamp. His 
 last contribution to the Academy of Sciences was on tlie dynamic force 
 due to the compression and dilatation of gases (1842). [S. H. S.] 
 
 Roscoe and ScliOTlc'iinner : Clicimstn/, vol. i. pt. ] , pp. 637-G42. Academic den 
 
 Sciences; (Joniptes Rcidus, LSlif), 1836, 1838, 1841, 1842. Annalcs de 
 
 Chimie, etc., loui. Ix., i)p. 427, 4:54.
 
 408 WATT [Modern 
 
 WATT (James), b. 1736, d. 1819. 
 
 The inventor of the steam-engine was descended from a family of 
 Aberdeenshire fanners, whose land had been confiscated dnring the civil 
 wars, and who settled in Greenock, on the Clyde. James Watt, the 
 father, was a merchant and magistrate of that town. There James Watt 
 was born, January 1736. As a boy he had feeble health, and carried on 
 his studies at home. At the age of nineteen he was apprenticed to 
 Morgan, a mathematical instrument maker in London; but after a year 
 bad health compelled his return to Scotland, and he opened a shop for 
 the sale of mathematical instruments in Glasgow. Here a model of one 
 of Newcomen's engines, used by the lecturer in natural philosophy, 
 was sent to him for repair. The defects of this engine forced themselves 
 upon his notice. 
 
 The motive power in Newcomen's machine (see Papix) was the 
 pressure of the atmosphere acting on the upper side of a piston beneath 
 which a vacuum had been produced by injecting cold water to condense 
 the steam with which the cylinder had been tilled. To fill the cylinder 
 with steam, the metal of which it was made must be kept hot, otherwise 
 the steam would be cooled and condensed. On the other hand, unless 
 the cylinder after being filled with steam was thoroughly cooled, conden- 
 sation would not take place. Further, Watt now learnt from Black, who 
 was at this time lecturing in Glasgow on Physics, the doctrine of latent 
 heat. Large quantities of heat were given out by steam in the act of 
 condensation. The result was that the vacuum beneath the piston was 
 extremely imperfect. Such as it was, it was attained by an enormous 
 waste of fuel. 
 
 The luminous idea now occurred to Watt to connect the cylinder 
 with a separate chamber, into which the steam could be admitted when 
 condensation was reqixired, and which could be kept cold by placing it 
 in a cistern of water, without abstracting any heat from the cylinder. 
 The problem of avoiding extravagant waste of fuel Avas now solved : a 
 brilliant series of inventions followed, by which the steam-engine, at first 
 a rude though eft'ective pump, became gradually adapted to the most 
 delicate industrial processes. 
 
 The first step was to use the expansive force of steam in addition to 
 atmospheric pressure in driving the piston downwards. Newcomen 
 following Papin, excluded air from the cylinder by covering the upper 
 surface of the cylinder with a layer of water. Watt [dispensed with this, 
 causing the piston to be packed with a composition of hemp and fat so as 
 to be steam-tight. The admission of steam to the upper surface of the 
 jiiston as a motive agent converted what had ])rcviously been an atmo- 
 spheric engine into a steam-engine. 
 
 As water accumulated in the condensing chamber, and became hot, 
 and was also mixed with air, it was necessary to pump it out and renew 
 it. The piston of this pump was lowered and raised, by connecting its 
 rod with the beam of the engine. 
 
 This was the condition of Watt's invention in 1765. His models were 
 worked out in full three years afterwards with the help of Eoebuck, 
 a proprietor of ironworks ; and subse([uently he entered into ])artnershi])
 
 Industry] WATT 409 
 
 with Matthew Boulton of Soho, near Birmingham, Boulton's factory- 
 was noted for the perfection of its metal work ; and the accurate adjust- 
 ment of piston and cylinder, and of the complicated system of valves 
 necessary for Watt's purposes, was thus rendered possible. ■ 
 
 The machine was still employed as a pump only : and surpassed that 
 of Newcomen simply in its economy of fuel. The force applied was 
 intermittent ; ceasing at the end of the down-stroke of the piston. It 
 was unavailable for purposes in which continuous force was required, as 
 in mill-work : and its direction was rectilinear, whereas in mill-work 
 rotation round the axis turning the machinery is needed. In 1782 Watt 
 remedied the &st of these defects by his double-acting piston, in which 
 steam was admitted below the piston, forcing it upwards, as well as above 
 for the down-stroke. This necessitated the further invention of parallel 
 motion. 
 
 When the piston was forced downwards, its rod could be connected 
 with the end of the working beam by a flexible chain. But in working 
 upwards, a chain was no longer applicable ; and as tlie end of the beam 
 moved in a circular arc, while the motion of the piston was rectilinear, 
 there was a difficulty in adjusting these motions. The solution was as 
 foUows. 
 
 If two rods move from fixed centres in small arcs, and an intermediate 
 rod be supposed hinged to their two extremities, the ends of the connect- 
 ing rod will of course describe the same arcs, but its middle point will 
 describe a straight line. In Watt's system the piston was attached to 
 this middle point : and thus its vertical motion was made compatible 
 with the circular motion of the beam. 
 
 The working end of the beam imparted rotary motion to the axle of 
 the machinery to be moved by a crank placed upon the axle, and con- 
 nected Avith the beam by a rod. Here again was a difficulty. When the 
 end of the crank was in a straight line with the driving rod, either above 
 or below the axle, the motive force lost its rotating power and simply 
 produced a strain on the axle. And in any case, the angle of the rod 
 varying continuously during each revolution, the effective force would 
 vary also. Watt met this difficulty by the fly-wheel ; a large heavy mass 
 nicely balanced on the axle, the momentum of which carried the crank 
 beyond the " dead points " and generally equalised its motion. 
 
 As a means of giving rotating motion to a system of machinery the 
 engine was now complete. Yet there remained the fact that from various 
 causes the motive power, or the resistance to be overcome, would frequently 
 vary. Unless absolute uniformity could be secured in the rate of evapora- 
 tion, the supply of steam would not be uniform. Again, if at any moment a 
 particular machine was brought to rest, or otliers previously at rest were 
 set in motion, the work to be done by the driving shaft would diniinish 
 or increase, and the equability of the general motion be disturbed. To 
 remedy this inconvenience, a valve called the tlirottle valve was placed 
 in the steam pipe, controlling the amount of steam that i)assed through 
 it. An extremely ingenious device, known as tlie Governor, attaclied to 
 the fiy-wheel, was made to control this valve automatically. Two balls 
 attached l)y jointed rods to a spindle round which they revolved, diverged 
 by centrifugal force whvn the wheel moved more ipiickly, and thus l)y a
 
 410 WATT : BERNARD PALISSY [Modern 
 
 system of levers partially closed the valve, diminislimg the steam-supply : 
 when speed was slackened, then gravitation brought them nearer together, 
 with the oiDposite result. 
 
 By the combination of these six distinct inventions — the condenser, 
 the employment of steam above and below the piston, parallel motion, 
 the crank, the fly-wheel, and the governor — -Watt's engine, beginning as 
 a mining-pump, became at last available for the most delicate as well as 
 the most laborious form of industry : spinning the finest thread as surely 
 as it forged a mass of iron. And to this must be added that Watt 
 endowed it with the power of registering the precise amount of work 
 done, not in every stroke merely, but in every part of the stroke. His 
 steam-indicator, an apparatus in which steam is admitted into a small 
 cylinder and presses against a spring attached to a pencil in contact with 
 a moving roll of paper, has been found of use in recent investigations of 
 heat as a motive power. 
 
 Watt died on August 19, 1819, at Heathfield, near Birmingham. So 
 perfect a combination of scientific and practical skill, concentrated by 
 strong character on a definite and useful purpose, has perhaps never been 
 seen before. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Dr. Diou. Lardner : The Steam Engine explained, etc. etc. 
 
 BERNARD PALISSY, b. 1510, d. 1589. 
 
 Bernard Palissy was born at La Chapelle Biron, in the province of 
 Perigord, in or about 1510. Having learned his father's trade of glass- 
 painting, he set out at the age of eighteen, and travelled for many years 
 over the greater part of France, visiting also the Netherlands and per- 
 haps Germany. Painting formed his chief means of livelihood, but his 
 knowledge of geometry, acquired at first in connection with his art 
 and afterwards pursued for its own sake, often served to procure him 
 employment in land-surveying. 
 
 About 1538 Palissy, being then married, settled at Saintes. A beauti- 
 ful enamelled cup of Italian or German workmanship, which was shown 
 to him, filled him with an eager desire to discover the secret of producing 
 enamel. Away from all guidance, hampered by family cares, and in the 
 face of paralysing discouragement, he toiled at the problem for sixteen 
 years, amidst poverty so dire, that on one occasion his furniture and the 
 very woodwork of his house were the only fuel for his furnace. Success 
 and fame followed. But his troubles were renewed in the form of religious 
 persecution, for he had adopted the Protestant faith, and was a danger- 
 ously outspoken man. In 1562 he was arrested and thrown into the 
 prison of Bordeaux. His genius was too valuable, however, to be wasted 
 in this way, and, being set free by special edict of the King, he settled in 
 Paris under the protection of Catherine de' Medici, and there he produced 
 his best-known works. 
 
 " Watchful of lizards, a warm friend to trees, a studious traveller in 
 stony places" (so Professor Morley describes him), Palissy drew his 
 inspiration from the face of his mother-earth. From childhood he had 
 been a close unwearying student of Nature. Working in relief somewhat
 
 Industry] BERNARD PALISSY : GUGLIELMINI 411 
 
 after the manner of his great predecessor Luca della Robbia, he fashioned 
 plates and dishes (known as his mstiques figulines) adorned with fishes, 
 serpents, frogs, shells, herbs, berries, and ferns, copied from the fossils 
 of the Paris basin so faithfully that their species can be exactly identified. 
 Even to the learned these petrifactions seemed mere freaks of nature. 
 " It was reserved for a potter without either Latin or Greek," said Fon- 
 tenelle, "to have the hardihood in the latter part of the 16th century to 
 declare in Paris and in the face of all the doctors, that the fossil shells 
 were real shells deposited by the sea once upon a time in the places 
 where they were found, and that animals had given to the figured 
 stones all their different figures, and boldly to defy the whole school of 
 Aristotle to attack his proofs." 
 
 Palissy's eminence as an artist has overshadowed his many other 
 claims to distinction. Art was indeed only one of the many interests 
 which filled his long and laborious life. He wrote and lectured on 
 natural history and physics, on gardening and agriculture ; on earth- 
 quakes and their causes ; on fortification, on water and water-supply ; 
 and medicinal springs. A great part of his writings is embodied in his 
 Discours admirablcs de la Nature, wherein, in the form of dialogues. 
 Theory, or the a priori method, is opposed to Practice, or the positive 
 method. 
 
 In Palissy's old age a fresh outbreak of religious fanaticism led to his 
 re-arrest. He was thrown into the Bastille, where he died just three 
 hundred years before its destruction. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Henry Morley : Palissy the Potter, 1852. 
 
 GUGLIELMINI {Domenico), b. 1655, d. 1710. 
 
 Domenico Guglielmixi was born in Bologna, of a middle-class 
 family in easy circumstances. He studied mathematics under Montanari 
 of Modena, and medicine under Malpighi. The appearance of a meteor, 
 followed by that of the comet of 1680-1, suggested his first work, a 
 treatise on comets, written on Cartesian principles. He became Professor 
 of Mathematics in the University of Bologna, and in 1 686 obtained the 
 appointment of Surveyor-General of Water-courses — an important post 
 in a city of the Lombard plain, so liable to destructive inundation. 
 Guglieluiini had received some years previously the degree of Doctor 
 of Medicine ; but his new post occupied henceforth all his attention and 
 scientific power. 
 
 In 1690-1 he produced his hydrostatic treatise, A New MetJiod of 
 Measuring the Flow of Water. He establishes the princii^Ie that water 
 issuing from a vessel through an opening in the side or bottom has a 
 velocity equal to the square root of the height of its upper surface.^ He 
 shows, in the case of a horizontal canal, that the luean velocity is r> that 
 of the lowest stratum, and that it will be found at -f, of the lieight, 
 measuring from ai^ove downwards. He then found by experiment that 
 water fiowing from a reservoir, or head, 1 foot in height, would traverse 
 216 feet 5 inches per minute ; and from this lie calculated a table of the 
 flow for every height up to 30 feet. On these principles he estimated
 
 412 GUGLIELMINI : RIQUET [Modern 
 
 that the Danube sent every minute into the Black Sea 42,000,000 cubic 
 feet of water. The book excited the attention of the Leipsic Academy, 
 and a controversy arose with Papin, in which Guglielmini was seen to 
 have the right on his side. 
 
 In Italy his fame spread. He was chosen one of the arbiters in water 
 disputes between Bologna and Ferrara, and was instructed by the cardi- 
 nals who governed that part of the States of the Church to draw up 
 plans for preventing inundations, which, however, were not executed. 
 Meantime the University established for his benefit, in 1694, a new 
 chair — that of Hydrometry. In 1697 he published the most important 
 of his works, that on the Natural History of Rivers ; a remarkable 
 monument of concrete science, resulting from the combination of mathe- 
 matical principle with practical observation. He explains how streams, 
 falling down their mountain sides, begin by following Galileo's law of 
 falling bodies : how, as they reach the plains, friction neutralises this 
 accelerating force, and their flow is thenceforth regulated by the height 
 of the head of water behind them. He takes account of the friction of 
 their banks and their beds ; and shows that in consequence of friction 
 it is not the lowest stratum of water that moves most rapidly, as in 
 theory should be the case, but the middle stratum. 
 
 Then he passes to the formation of river-beds. The river forms this 
 for itself by matters brought down from higher levels. When the fall is 
 considerable the bottom is scooped out by the current. When the faU 
 is such that the resistance of the bed is in equilibrium with the current, 
 the bed remains unchanged for years. Similarly the current eats away 
 the banks, until, the additional width diminishing the flow, equilibrium 
 is established. There is again a tendency towards narrowing the banks 
 by deposit of matters carried down from higher regions. All these 
 opposing forces have to be estimated when it is proposed to modify the 
 course of a stream. The special circumstances of tortuous streams, of 
 banks formed of material too weak to resist inundations, of the confluence 
 of streams, and many other points are considered. Guglielmini passes 
 finally to what he calls the Architectui'e of rivers ; i.e. the engineering 
 works which the circumstances described render necessary. 
 
 Guglielmini did not neglect chemistry and medicine, on which he 
 published several memoirs. He died in 1710. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Eloyes de Fontenelle, Art. Guglielmini. 
 
 RIQUET {Pierre Paid), b. 1604, d. 1680. 
 
 The Lunguedoc Canal, or Canal dn MiJi, planned and executed by 
 Pierre Paul Eiqukt, was the first, and is still the most remarkable, of 
 ship-canals, carried by means of locks through a hilly district. From 
 Bordeaux to Toulouse the Garonne formed a natural water-way ; and 
 projects of a through passage to the ^Mediterranean, which should save 
 the long voyage through the Straits of Gibraltar, had ])een fre(iuent since 
 the beginning of tlie 16th century. The fatal difticulty in the way had 
 always been to find at the highest point in the course a sutficient sujiply 
 of water.
 
 Industry] EIQUET : DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU 413 
 
 P. P. Riquet, Baron cle Bonrepos, belonged to an ancient and noble 
 Florentine family, of which that of Mirabeau was also a branch, settled 
 in Languedoc since the 13th century. He was born at Beziers in 1604. 
 Knowing the country thoroughly, he proposed to bring together several 
 streams flowing from the Montagne Noire, and lead their united waters 
 to a reservoir near Naurose, thus collecting a body of water which would 
 fill the canal on both sides of the slope throughout the whole year. In 
 1662 he submitted the plan to Colbert, who at once appreciated the 
 commercial importance of the undertaking. A commission to which 
 it was referred gave a favourable report; and after Eiquet had by 
 preliminary works proved the feasibility of his method of collecting the 
 water, the construction of the canal was authorised in 1666, and begun 
 by him in the following year. For fourteen years he devoted himself and 
 his whole fortune to the work, but did not live to see its end. About 
 a league still remained to be cut when he died in 1680, leaving its com- 
 pletion to his sons. Six months later the work was finished, and com- 
 numication opened from the Garonne to the Etang de Thun, and thence 
 to the port of Cette, which had been greatly improved by Eiquet. The 
 length of the canal, as originally constructed, was 140 miles, and its 
 greatest height at Naurose 610 feet. Administered in accordance with 
 rules drawn up by Eiquet, it remained a prosperous undertaking till 
 the introduction of railways, and is still in use. The navigation of the 
 Garonne being uncertain in dry seasons, the canal was extended in recent 
 times by means of a " canal lateral " to Bordeaux. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Histoire du Canal de Languedoc, par les descendants de P. I', Pdquet. 
 Harcourt : Rivers and Canals, p. 171. 
 
 DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU, b. 1700, d. 1782. 
 
 Henry Louis Duhamel du IVIonceau was born in Paris in 1700. His 
 family, of Dutch descent, settled in the Gatinais during the 15th 
 century. As a school-boy he was not distinguished, but school-days 
 over, he betook himself to the Jardin des Plantes, where he became the 
 friend of Bernard Jussieu and the naturalists, and devoted himself to the 
 study of natural history. A disease att'ecting saffron in his native pro- 
 vince attracted his attention ; he discovered the parasite that produced 
 it. His memoir on the subject obtained him admittance to the Academy. 
 From this time forward he devoted himself to the study of the facts of 
 vegetable growths, diverging occasionally to researches of much interest 
 on analogous facts in the growth of animal tissues, as in his memoirs on 
 the growth of bones, as indicated by madder-staining when animals had 
 been fed on that food. His observations extended to every department 
 of agriculture, the preservation of grain from mould and from insects, 
 the values of different manures, gi'afting, tlic introduction of new plants 
 such as rhubarb and potatoes, meteorology as affecting vegetation, and 
 other kindred subjects. 
 
 In lyns appeared his great work on forestry, endiodying the results 
 of previous papers, with many new observations. He treats here of the
 
 414 DUHAMEL DU MONCEAU : BOURGELAT [Modern 
 
 double movement of sap, of the formation of new wood, of the structure 
 of branches and roots, of the influence of air and soil on the growth of 
 the tree, and other similar topics. This mass of scientific facts was 
 collected with an essentially practical purpose. The value of each kind 
 of timber in different departments of the arts is carefully examined. The 
 management of fruit-trees and vines is included. 
 
 His unrivalled knowledge of timber induced the Government to 
 appoint him Inspector-General of the Navy ; and henceforth everything 
 relating to the materials of naval construction occupied his attention. 
 The mathematical aspects of the subject he left to others. He established 
 a special school of naval constructors. He improved the manufacture of 
 cables by reducing the amount of twist previously given to them. 
 Ventilation of ships was a matter in which he introduced great and 
 important improvements ; especially by utilising the stoves for cooking 
 as means for introducing currents of fresh air into every part of the 
 vessel. The hygiene of the sailors was improved also by close attention 
 to diet. 
 
 In many of these investigations Duhamel was much helped by his 
 brother, who resided on the ancestral estate at Denainvilliers, and superin- 
 tended model farms and plantations designed on Duhamel's plans. Here 
 foreign trees and plants were cultivated, plots of land were subjected to 
 various modes of experimental culture, new processes of preparing and 
 preserving products were put in practice. The brother appears to have 
 been a model landlord, a peacemaker and benefactor among his poorer 
 neighbours. 
 
 Duhamel died in Paris, 1782, after a short illness, at the advanced 
 age of 82. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Condorcet : Eloges, Article Duhamel. 
 
 BOURGELAT {Glaxuh\ b. 1712, d. 1779. 
 
 Claude Bourgelat, who was bom at Lyons in 1712, of a family 
 honourably distinguished in municipal and judiciary service, successfully 
 followed for some years the practice of the law ; but in consequence, it 
 is said, of having gained an unjust cause, he quitted the profession in 
 disgust and entered the army. An ardent lover of horses, he was placed 
 at the head of the riding-school at Lyons, whither the fame of his great 
 skill attracted pupils from all parts of Europe. 
 
 Veterinary science had many students before his day ; but finding 
 great ignorance prevailing, and crude and cruel methods in practice, he 
 set himself to the scientific study of the horse and other animals, so that 
 he might be able to teach others. Through his influence with Bertin, the 
 Controller-General of Finance, he procured the establishment at Lyons, 
 in 1761, of the first veterinary school. Its success was such that in 176(5 
 he founded another at Altfort, near Paris, which he directed till his 
 death, and which still remains one of the chief veterinary schools. The 
 great importance of the work which he had thus initiated was at once 
 recognised, and similar schools soon sprang up in other countries. Bour- 
 gelat wrote a great number of works on veterinary science ; the articles
 
 Industry] BOUEGELAT : SAUSSURE 415 
 
 in the Encyclopcedia were intrusted to him ; and he corresponded with 
 Voltaire, Buffon, and D'Alembert. "You have opened a new career," 
 wrote Voltaire ; " you have conferred a real benefit on mankind. Yours 
 is the true physical science." [G. P. M.] 
 
 SAUSSURE {H. Benedict de), b. 1740, d. 1799. 
 
 Horace Benedict de Saussure was born at Geneva in 1740. The 
 nephew and pupil of Charles Bonnet, he was trained from his earliest years 
 to varied and thorough scientific observation. At the age of twenty -two 
 he was appointed to the chair of philosophy in Geneva, which he continued 
 to hold for twenty-five years. As with his master, his earliest interest was 
 in botany ; but, living in sight of the wonders of the Alps, he came more 
 and more to turn his attention to the structure of the earth. In 1760 he 
 had reached the glacier of Chamouni, and thereafter he let no year pass 
 without a journey into the mountains. Writing in 1799 the preface to 
 his Voyages dans les Alpes, he says that he had then traversed the Alps 
 fourteen times by eight difi'erent routes, besides making journeys to Italy, 
 France, and England. Yet it was not till 1788 that Saussure, the first of 
 Alpine climbers, succeeded in reaching the summit of Mont Blanc ; the 
 Col du Geant he ascended in the same year, and Monte Eosa in the 
 following year. All these journeys, full of danger and involving hard- 
 ship and privation, were made by him, as he tells us, with the mineralo- 
 gist's hammer in his hand, and with no other aim than the study of 
 natural phenomena. He omitted no means of making his observations 
 of atmosphere, vegetation, rock, and glaciers exact and fruitful. His 
 ingenuity improved existing instruments, such as the hygrometer and the 
 anemometer ; and he invented others, the cyanometer and the diaphano- 
 meter, for comparing the degrees of transparency at different altitudes. 
 On each occasion he prepared systematic and detailed agenda of the 
 matters to be investigated, and "I imposed upon myself," he says, "the 
 stern rule of always taking on the spot notes of my observations, and as 
 far as possible of putting those notes into shape within the twenty-four 
 hours." Thus, on account not only of the wide field which his observa- 
 tions covered but of the faithful record which he kept, was his work of 
 inestimable value. 
 
 Summing up the results of his labours, Cuvier says that his investi- 
 gations into the humidity of the atmosphere for the first time placed 
 meteorology on a reasonable basis ; that though he gave little attention 
 to fossils, his study of the primary rocks raised geology, hitherto dis- 
 credited, to the dignity of a true science ; and that with all the great 
 mass of facts which he had collected he had the courage to resist the 
 temptation of constructing a system. AVith his health broken down by 
 the privations which he had undergone in his journeys, Saussure resigned 
 his professorship in 178G. He afterwarcJ" sat on the Council of Two 
 Hundred, and in the last year of his life wa., a member of the National 
 Assembly. He died in U9d. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Senebier: Memoire hiitorique sur la vie et les ecrits de Horace Inmcdict de 
 Saussure, Cuvier : Eloges liisturiques, vol. i.
 
 416 BOUGUEE [Modern 
 
 BOUGUER {Pierre), b. 1698, d. 1758. 
 
 Pierre Bouguer was born in 1698 at Croisic, in Lower Brittany, 
 where his father was Professor of Hydrography. As with most mathe- 
 maticians, his genius became manifest in early childhood, and when only 
 thirteen, so it is said, he triumphed over his teacher in a public contest 
 on a mathematical proposition. His biographers say, moreover, that at 
 fifteen, when his father died, he succeeded to the office of hydrographer 
 after a public examination of his qualifications. He quickly gained a 
 great reputation by a series of memoirs presented by him to the Academy 
 of Sciences, chiefly on astronomical subjects, including a work on the 
 gradation of light in passing through successive imperfectly transparent 
 substances. 
 
 The Academy of Sciences was then much occupied with the question 
 of the form of the earth. A survey which had then been recently com- 
 pleted appeared to lead to the unexpected result that the higher the 
 latitude the shorter the meridian. It was decided to determine the 
 matter by sending out two exjjeditions to measure degrees of the 
 nieridian, one near the equator, and the other in as high a latitude as 
 possible. Bouguer, along with La Condamine, Godin, and two Spanish 
 commissioners, was chosen to measure the equatorial degree, and set out 
 to Peru in 1735. The difficulties and dangers of the expedition were 
 such that nearly ten years elapsed before its purpose was accomplished 
 — by the measurement with remarkable care of an arc on the plain of 
 Quito. The northern expedition, under Maupertuis and others, pro- 
 ceeded to the head of the Gulf of Bothnia. A comparison of the two 
 results finally put an end to the doubts which the French survey had 
 raised. It may be noted that the measuring-rods for the base line of 
 Bouguer's expedition were compared daily with an iron toise, Avhich 
 was afterwards known as " the toise of Peru," and became the standard 
 of future measurement of Delambre and Mechain. (The most concise 
 account of the many difi'erent calculations of the degree from the 17th 
 century onwards is to be found in the Penny Cydopcedia article, — Trigono- 
 metrical Survey.) Besides carrying out the main object of the expedi- 
 tion, Bouguer made observations on the expansion and contraction of 
 metals by changes of temperature, on the amount of refraction at difterent 
 heights (he was the first, says Montucla, to devise practical rules for esti- 
 mating refraction), and on other subjects ; and in 1749 he published an 
 account of the expedition and of his observations {La Figure de la 
 Terre). Between him and La Condamine a fruitless controversy ensued 
 as to their respective contribution to the success of the expedition. 
 
 He died in 1768, leaving unfinished a new edition of his work on the 
 gradation of light, in Avhich he described an instrument, the heliomcter, 
 invented by him for measuring the apparent diameters of stars. 
 
 [G. P. M.] 
 
 Montferrier : Dictinnnaire Jes Scienccx MntJtenudiques. Montucla : Histoirc 
 des Mathemaiiqiies, vol. iv. Delambre : Histoirc de r Astronomic au 
 xviiime siicle.
 
 Industry] COULOMB : BOEDA 417 
 
 COULOMB (0. Augustin de), b. 1736, d. 1806. 
 
 Charles Augustin de Coulomb, born at Angouleme in IVSG, was 
 engaged during the first part of his life in military engineering. Some 
 years were spent by him in Martinique, and he served afterwards at 
 Rochefort, Aix, and Cherbourg. On the invitation of the Academy 
 of Sciences, while he was at Rochefort, he conducted an investigation 
 into the friction of machines and the rigidity of cordage, the results of 
 which were published in 1781 {La Theorie des Machines Simples). A 
 systematic experimental study of friction had not before been made, 
 and the work established Coulomb's scientific reputation. Thereafter, 
 honoured as well for his lofty character as for his genius, he rose steadily 
 in the public service till the outbreak of the Revolution, when he was 
 either removed from or resigned all the posts which he held. He was a 
 member of the commission appointed to work out the new system of 
 Aveights and measures ; but from this he was removed (along with Borda, 
 Lavoisier, Laplace, and others) by the Committee of Public Safety, 
 which considered that " it ought not to delegate its functions except to 
 men worthy of confidence by reason of their republican virtues and 
 their hatred of kings." Retiring to Blois, Coulomb devoted himself to 
 the education of his children and to science. In 1802 he was made 
 Inspector of Public Instruction. He died in 1806. 
 
 Of Coulomb's services to science the chief was his mathematical and 
 experimental investigation of the distribution of electricity and the 
 measurement of electric force. He invented the torsion balance, an 
 instrument for measuring the force of repulsion between two similarly 
 electrified bodies ; and by means of this instrument he established ex- 
 perimentally the law, known as Coulomb's law, that the force exerted 
 between two charges of electricity is directly proportional to their pro- 
 duct and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between 
 them. In recognition of his contributions to electrical science, the 
 electro-magnetic unit of (piantity has been called the " Coulomb." 
 
 [G. P. M.] 
 
 BORDA {Jean Charles), b. 1733, d. 1799. 
 
 Jean Charles Borda, born in 1733, at Dax in Gascony, showed at an 
 early age an irresistible bent for mathematics, and was only 23 years of 
 age when he gained admission to the Academy of Sciences by a memoir 
 on the movement of projectiles. After an interruption in his studies, 
 caused by the Seven Years' War, in which he took part, he entered the 
 military engineer service. The circumstance, however, of his being 
 stationed at a seaport finally determined him, in 1767, to follow a naval 
 career. The superiority of Frencli naval architecture was already such 
 that French ships, captured during the war, were being used as models 
 at Chatliam ; but consistent principles of construction had not yet been 
 established. Borda, who had become well known through several 
 memoirs on hydrostatics, set hhuself to apY)ly to shipbuilding the results 
 of exact science, and was the f(junder of the French schools of naval 
 architecture. In 1771 he accompanied an expedition sent out for the 
 
 2d
 
 418 BORDA : CARNOT [Modern 
 
 purpose of testing nautical instruments ; and a few years later he was 
 commissioned to make a survey of the Canary Islands. His active 
 service in the navy came to an end in 1782. Having been despatched 
 to convoy troops to Martinique, he was captured on his return by an 
 English squadron, and taken to England, where he was released on 
 parole. 
 
 Resuming his scientific work, he published in 1787 an account of 
 Tobias Mayer's reflecting circle, with such improvements as made it an 
 available instrument ; and when, in 1791, a new system of weights and 
 measures was decreed, of which the unit should be a ten-millionth part 
 of the quadrant of the meridian, his repeating circle, a further develop- 
 ment of Mayer's invention, was adopted as the instrument of survey. (See 
 Penny Cyclojxedia, articles Repeating Circle and Sextant.) Borda 
 himself was specially concerned with the experiments by which were 
 determined the length of the seconds iiendulum in the latitude of Paris, 
 the measurement of the arc of the meridian from Dunkirk to Barcelona 
 being undertaken by Delambre and Mechain ; but in the general labours 
 of the Commission of Survey he took a leading part. He died unmarried 
 in 1799. 
 
 Throughout a long and laborious life, Borda always worked with a 
 purpose. Rigorously precise in his methods, and t'uU of inventive 
 resource, he steadily devoted his great scientific genius to definite 
 practical ends. [G. P. M.] 
 
 Lacroix : Eloge Histcxrique de Jean Charles Borda. Montferrier : Diction- 
 naire des Sciences Mathematiques. Delambre : Histoire de V Astronomic 
 au xviiime siecle. 
 
 CARNOT {Lazare Nicolas), b. 1753, d. 1823. 
 
 Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Carnot was born in 1753, at Nolay in 
 Burgundy, one of eighteen children, the fether being a barrister. He 
 went to school at Autun, and at one time felt a wish to take orders, which 
 soon disa23peared. He went thence to Paris, where his mathematical 
 powers attracted the attention of D'Alembert ; entered the corjjs of 
 Engineers, and was a pupil of Monge at Mezieres. In 1783 Montgolfier's 
 balloon set him on studying the principles on which balloons should be 
 guided : and in the same year appeared his Essay on Machines, which 
 contains a striking theorem on loss of power. A dispute with his elders 
 on fortifications led, the year following, to a short imprisonment in the 
 Bastille. 
 
 When the Revolution came, lie addressed several memoirs to the 
 Assembly, especially one on financial reform, in which he showed how 
 bankruptcy could be prevented by the sale of church property. In 1791 
 he entered the constituent Assembly, and was placed on the Committees of 
 Foreign Afiairs, Education, and War. The dismissal of the Royal Guard 
 and increase of the National Guard were his doing. In 1792 he was 
 engaged in the defence of the east and north frontier. He voted fij-mly, 
 though resjjectfuUy, for the death of the King : " never did duty lie," he 
 said, "so heavy on his heart." In August 1793 he joined the Committee
 
 Industry] CARNOT : VAUBAN 419 
 
 of Public Safety : and now began his task of " organising victory " by 
 co-ordinating the fourteen armies of the Eepublic to a common purpose. 
 When need was, he could fight himself : as he showed in October of that 
 year, when he spurred Jourdan to victory at Wattignies. His promotion 
 of Hoche from the ranks to generalship showed his quick eye for talent, 
 as did his choice of Bonaj^arte for command of the Italian army two 
 years after. He was a member of the Directory : but a conspiracy in it 
 drove him from France, whither he returned after the 18th Brumaire, 
 and accepted the Ministry of War, but soon resigned it. He stood coldly 
 aloof from Bonaparte, without being hostile. 
 
 During the later years of the Empire he retired into private life. 
 His admirable Essay on Statics was written at this time : that on the 
 philosophy of the Differential Calcuhis was somewhat earlier. He 
 offered his services to Bonaparte when the allied armies entered France, 
 and was made Governor of Angers, which he held successfully. His 
 memoir to the King at his restoration showed his undaunted maintenance 
 of republican principles. He was Minister of the Interior during the 
 hundred days. After Waterloo he retreated to Germany and died at 
 Magdeburg, 2d August 1823, aged 70. His grandson was, in 1887, 
 elected President of the French Republic. 
 
 Carnot stands here as a noble type of the military engineei", whose 
 profession, from the Roman times downwards, has reacted beneficially on 
 the arts of peace. The mathematical precision needful for fortifications, 
 for militiiry surveying and road-making, has always rendered the 
 engineering soldier available for civil service. In the case of Carnot 
 the intellectual power was of the highest order, paralleled only by the 
 purity of his public zeal. [J. H. B.] 
 
 The two Essays above nientioned are in the Positivist Library. Phil. Pon. 
 lect. vi. 
 
 VAUBAN {Sehasfien Le Frestre (h^, b. 1633, d. 1707. 
 
 Seigneur de Vaubax was the son of Albin le Prestre, of an ancient 
 and noble family of Nivernois. He entered the army when young, 
 where his genius for fortification soon declai-ed itself, and was signally 
 manifested in various successive sieges. His merit and services procured 
 for him the highest military rank, as he was made Governor of Lille 
 citadel in 16G8 and Commissioner-General of Fortifications in 1678. He 
 took Luxembourg in 1684, and in 1688 was present at the siege and cap- 
 ture of Philipsbourg, Mannheim, and Frankendal — under the Dauphin. 
 He was a man of Jiigh and independent spirit, great humanity, and 
 entirely devoted to his country's good. He regarded his art as a means 
 of saving rather than of destroying lives ; and he preferred a slow and 
 regular advance in sieges to quicker operations attended with loss. The 
 art of fortifying, attacking, and defending he perfected. He fortified 
 above 300 ancient citadels, erected 33 new ones, and had the principal 
 manaoement and direction of 53 sieges and was present at 143 engage- 
 ments. 
 
 Various posts and honours were conferred upon him, and in 1703 he
 
 420 VAUBAN : MONTGOLFIER [Modern 
 
 received the baton of Marshal of France. This title, however, produced 
 the inconveniences which he had predicted from it ; his rank stood in 
 his way and rendered hmi useless. At the siege of Turin, which 
 proceeded unsatisfactorily, he ofiered to serve as a volunteer in the army 
 and conduct the works. Louis objected that such an employment was 
 beneath his dignity. "My dignity, Sire," he replied, "is to serve the 
 State." Vauban was not less estimable as a man and a citizen than 
 admirable as an engineer. No one could be more attached to truth, for 
 which his passion was almost imprudent, and which he introduced on 
 all occasions and defended with courage. ;■ 
 
 Amongst his works are his Mcs Oisivetes, which contains his ideas 
 and projects for developing the resources of France, and especially for 
 the improvement of her agriculture. His Dime RoyaU is a striking 
 proof of his zeal for the welfare of the mass of his countrymen. It is a 
 vigorous protest against the mode in which the land tax was assessed 
 and collected. [J. K.] 
 
 MONTGOLFIER {Joseph Michel), b. 1740, d. 1810. 
 
 The elder of two brothers, inventors of balloons, was born at Vidalon- 
 les- Annonay, in 1 740. As a boy he proved himself an intractable pupil, 
 and his self-will was most marked when it was proposed to teach him 
 theology. Arithmetic pleased him most, and he was able to solve some 
 of the higher problems of mathematics without special mathematical 
 training. When a young man he went to St. Etienne, engaged in 
 chemical experiments, produced some new pigments and salts, and 
 obtained a sale for them. From thence he went to Paris, but was called 
 home to assist his father, who was a paj^er manufacturer. Joined by his 
 brother (Jacques Etienne) he established two paper-mills at Voiron 
 and Beaujeu. It is stated that both brothers conceived the idea of 
 aerostation, and that in 1782 they began to pay joint attention to the 
 subject. To Joseph Michel the credit is assumed to belong, as he was 
 the prime mover in all the experiments made, and appears to be known 
 as such by his contemporaries. 
 
 The brothers made a bag of taffeta, heated the air it contained by 
 lighting a fire beneath an opening at the bottom, rendered the bag by 
 this means buoyant, and saw it ascend. Next a larger bag was tried, 
 and again a larger stUl. In 1783, in presence of the notabilities of 
 Annonay, a balloon was sent up made of linen and covered with paper ; 
 it was 35 feet high, 110 feet in circumference, and its weight 430 lbs. 
 After the air within it had been warmed, tlie balloon was liberated and 
 it ascended to a height of 1000 toises (6000 feet), and fell into a vineyard 
 half-a-mile distant. The brothers were invited to Paris by savan.'^, 
 where they made a balloon which went up from Versailles in the 
 presence of Louis xvi. and his Queen. Two or three caged animals 
 attached to the balloon came down safely. In October 1783 Pilatre de 
 Rozier and the Marquis d'Arlandes ascended in one of their balloons ; 
 and another ascent was made by Joseph ]Montgolfier and de Rozier in 
 a much larger balloon in January following. Joseph ]\Iontgolfier was 
 admitted into the Academy of Sciences, and was appointed by Bonaparte
 
 Indxtstrt] MONTGOLFIER 421 
 
 Administrator of the Conservatoire des Arts de Metiers and to a post 
 connected with Commerce in the Bureau of the Interior — or Home 
 Office. He largely helped to establish the Societe d' Encouragement 
 pour V Industrie Nationale in 1802. Besides aerostation, Montgolfier 
 improved and invented hydraulic rams, calorimeters, hydraulic presses, 
 and apparatus for distilling and desiccating. On these subjects he 
 published various pamphlets and memoirs. He died of apoplexy at 
 Balarne in 1810. 
 
 Montgolfier stands here as the pioneer in a realm of enterprise not 
 as yet traversed by man. When the problem of aerial navigation has 
 been solved, it will promote social changes not less important than those 
 that followed the printing-press, the steam-engine, and the power-loom ; 
 and by that time man, it may be hoped, will be better prepared to deal 
 with them. 
 
 The week generally represents systematic attempts to render the 
 resources of our planet, inorganic and organic, available for man. 
 Palissy, the ardent and original student of Nature, brought the products 
 of the earth into the service of industrial art : Guglielmini and Eiquet 
 turned its streams into instruments of navigation : Duhamel extended 
 man's control over field and forest ; Bourgelat protected from disease the 
 animals associated with his life and work ; Saussure opened the 
 mountain-world to our view ; Coulomb taught us to measure the earth's 
 electric and magnetic forces ; Carnot and Vauban, the great citizen 
 soldiers, stimulated the arts of construction by developing the mathe- 
 matical precision of defensive warfare. [J. K.]
 
 MODERN DEAMA. 
 
 T ITTLE need be said as to the month devoted to ISIodern Drama 
 in addition to what has been already said as to Modern Poetry 
 (p. 308). The term Drama is used as widely as that of Epic. It includes 
 ten writers of romances or painters of character and thirteen musicians. 
 Indeed, out of forty-four names in this series, but twenty are those of 
 dramatists proper. Nor is the line of demarcation between Epic and 
 Drama at all rigidly maintained. Eabelais, Cervantes, and Swift come 
 under the former : Lesage, Fielding, and Sterne under the latter. The 
 real distinction seems to be that under Epic are included all forms in 
 which the historical evolution of society has been idealised ; under 
 Drama come the various modes in which character has been analysed, 
 and types of manners are contrasted on the same stage. 
 
 It is obvious that in the Modern Drama our own Shakespeare nuist 
 be the great representative name. Under him are ranged the dramatists 
 of Spain, Italy, France, Germanv both North and South, and finally 
 Holland. 
 
 The first week comprises the dramatists, pure and simple, the great 
 followers of Shakespeare, from Lope de Vega to Gothe. Under this 
 class come the creators of imaginative drama, which presents to us an 
 ideal world peopled with beings of the fancy alone. And of all poets, 
 not even Shakespeare or Calderon has taken more empyrean ilights 
 than has the author of Faust. 
 
 The second week comprises the masters of the historical drama, who 
 paint types of society in the past rather than characters of pure ideal. 
 And thus Schiller is grouped with Corneille, as Gothe in another week 
 is grouped with Calderon. 
 
 The third week contains the great masters of comedy, the satirical 
 drama of manners. Out of twelve names but two are writers of 
 stage-plays, whilst of ancient poets there are under Homer four comic 
 dramatists. In the modern world the comedy of manners has largely 
 passed from the stage to the romance. 
 
 The alliance of music with the drama is enough to explain the group- 
 ing of the nmsicians with Shakespeare rather than with Dante. The great 
 masters are duly represented from Palestrina to Eossini ; though, like all 
 the rest of this Calendar, the roll of names is not continued beyond the 
 first generation of the present century. As the names of Palestrina, 
 Handel, and Beethoven show, the list is not strictly limited to the 
 masters of opera ; yet it is plain that the connection of this week with 
 the Drama rather than with Epic or Lyric poetry has influenced the 
 selection and arrangement of names. One might wish that space could 
 have been found under Milton's week for such men as Sebastian Bach, 
 Haydn, Schubert, and Mendelssohn. [F. H.]
 
 Modern Drama] SHAKESPEARE 423 
 
 SHAKESPEARE {William), b. 1564, d. 1616. 
 
 The greatest of modern dramatists and first of English poets, William 
 Shakespeare, was born at Stratford-on-Avon, where his baptism was 
 registered 26th April 1564. He died there, 23rd April 1616 (o.s.), aged 
 exactly 52. The few facts of his outward life which have come down 
 to us are mere fragments. Something, perhaps, there was of idyllic in 
 his early years, something of licence in his youth and first manhood, 
 something of worldly wisdom in his maturity ; how much, relatively to 
 other circumstances, we do not know. But it is certain that he was 
 beloved for his genial and gentle disposition. 
 
 His birthplace was also the home of his youth. His father, an 
 alderman of the town (therefore a professed member of the new State 
 Church), was by occupation a farmer, but in rank a gentleman, having 
 received in 1569 a grant of arms from the Heralds' College. His 
 mother, Mary Arden, came of an ancient and honourable family in the 
 county. In 1582 Shakespeare, then a youth of eighteen, married (under 
 questionable circumstances) Anne Hathaway, the daughter of a neigh- 
 bouring yeoman. Five years afterwards he sought his fortune on the 
 stage in London ; and in 1592 he is spoken of as a successful actor and 
 author. In the next year he prints his poem Venus and Adonis, and 
 dedicates it to the Earl of Southampton. At this period some at least of 
 his great Sonnets were composed : they seem autobiographical ; in any 
 case they disclose a painful story of lawless love. From this point, 
 domestic sorrows excepted, the fragmentary record tells us only of pro- 
 sperity and poetic energy. 
 
 The twenty years between 1590 and 1610 were his harvest-time ; in 
 the first decade came chiefly the histories and comedies, in the second 
 the tragedies : they, or some of them, were performed before the Court, 
 as well as elsewhere, Shakespeare being one of the King's players. 
 Hamlet (in its final form) was printed in 1604. Having long been a 
 partner in the Blackfriars Theatre, Shakespeare made money ; and in 1597 
 he bought a good house and land in his native Stratford. There he 
 established his home, and lived his last years as a liberal gentleman. 
 There also he died at the age of 52, and was buried in the parish church. 
 His will, dated shortly before his death, marks his desire to found a 
 family in Stratford ; it makes no reference to his works. In 1623 his 
 stage companions, Heminge and Condell, having affectionately collected all 
 his plays (mostly in manuscript), gave them to the world in tlie First 
 Folio. Prefixed was a half-length portrait engraved by Droeshout. This 
 engraving, and the bust in the church, which was already in its place, are 
 the most authentic likenesses of the poet. The full appreciation of his 
 extraordinary genius Avas not reached until the present century. 
 
 Shakespeare belongs to what Coiiite called " The IModern Transition." 
 In that general movement, whicli, issuing out of the decaying Catholic- 
 l*'eudal society, led confusedly towiirds total emancipation alike from
 
 424 SHAKESPEARE [Modern 
 
 Theology and War, what office was there for Art 1 The answer to this 
 question wUl be plainer if we first consider the career of Art in the 
 Middle Ages. In the Feudal world, where all ranks were rooted in the 
 soil, and the vassal was bound to do free service to his lord, and the lord 
 bound to protect his vassal, feudal warfare, home-life, and Catholic piety 
 divided the general affection. Bowing its proud passionate spirit to 
 Catholic consecration and discipline (the indispensable condition). Feu- 
 dalism could, in its maturity, create sacramental ceremonies, like the act 
 of Homage, solemn, affectionate, significant in every detail ; gracious 
 manners also (Chaucer's "very perfect gentle Knight"), and serious 
 beauty of costume. As a dream of perfection, harmoniously uniting 
 private to public life, an ideal chivalry arose, with its code of honour and 
 worship of Woman, to form the core of Modern Poetry. 
 
 In such ideals, as already indicated, the Catholic Church, and, above 
 all, her priesthood, bore a full part. Catholic v/orship filled the general 
 imagination, and drew manifold beauty into its service. Book poetry 
 was rare, but almost all art, and especially the arts of form which address 
 the eye, became confessedly religious, and found their chief place in 
 churches. There, but also freely in civic edifices and family dwellings, 
 the artist habitually chose the revered Catholic subjects, and strove to set 
 them forth with loyal and happy energy. His office, essentially a public 
 one, was to glorify with human beauty, and especially beauty of expres- 
 sion, the divine and saintly benefactors, to claim their continued protec- 
 tion, and to represent their adversaries, outward or inward, as vanquished 
 or struggling in vain, like the dragon with Michael's spear-point in his 
 mouth. Such art, therefore, however limited, was a priestly or parental 
 presence in daily life. The blood of contending citizens might flow in 
 the market-place, but the grey church, built by their fathers, with its 
 pleading figures of divine love, was looking down on them and reproving 
 them. As mediaeval cities still testify, architecture, sculpture, and 
 painting, all freely given to the public eye, then occupied a far more con- 
 stant and beloved place than in any modern experience. Eeligion was 
 the general patroness, and Art was the religious adorning of life. Yet it 
 is plain that such religion and such art could not even then qualify the 
 whole field of action, knowledge, or even feeling. Public amusement, 
 for instance (such as the theatre), which in genial polytheisms had gone 
 hand in hand with worship of the gods, — what was that to Christ, his 
 holy Mother, and the Saints ? Could they even tolerate it ? 
 
 At the beginning of the 14th century the system showed signs of 
 giving way. Then appeared the nisus of the modern mind — the begin- 
 ning of the long effort to pierce, as through a dead sheathing, the anti- 
 quated supernatural faith and martial framework, both henceforth 
 disqualified, and issue forth to explore the World and Man — to explore 
 and exploit them, as might seem, without any control. The movement, 
 therefore, Avas j^rofoundly revolutionary, but it was unconsciously im- 
 pelled towards a total reorganisation. Whilst the movement continued 
 merely spontaneous, its principal operation was thoroughly to sap the 
 ruling powers of Church and State in public life, and to kindle in learned 
 minds a sjoecial passion for rediscovered antiquity ; over popular imagina- 
 tion and, above all, popular and feminine morals, the old system had
 
 Drama] SHAKESPEAEE 425 
 
 much deeper hold. Accordingly during this phase the aesthetic result 
 was to enrich pious Catholic art with knowledge and perfect it in skill, as 
 we see pre-eminently in Italian sculpture and painting of the 14th and 
 15th centuries, and even in the adventurous poet Dante ; for he kept his 
 faith. 
 
 But the artistic mind, following the general impulse, gradually receded 
 from or secularised Catholic themes, and, eagerly seeking secular subjects, 
 treated them for their special attractions, often with surpassing skill, but 
 less and less with a moralised aim. Especially significant was the intro- 
 duction of the nude into painting. At last, when the arts of form were in 
 full-blown splendour, corrupt Catholicism broke violently asunder. The 
 systematic struggle evoked immense rebellious passion and patriotic 
 ardour, and no less profound meditations and questionings. In less than 
 a century we see in Shakespeare the change in art as decisively manifest 
 as in Bacon and Des Cartes the new departure in philosophy. Architec- 
 ture, sculpture, and painting, all secularised, were now in decline ; Shake- 
 speare was the shining chief of a band of poets — poets of the secular 
 drama, whose subject was Man. His compositions stand out in human 
 history as the first poetic work of the highest rank in which human 
 interest is obviously and avowedly paramount. They do not pretend to 
 be religious, and no religion claims or can claim them but the Religion of 
 Humanity. Even the very calling which this representative genius chose 
 for his own — the stage — was now solemnly banned alike by Catholic order 
 and by pious Puritanism. It was patronised, however, by the dictatorial 
 sovereign and a few nobles, and supported by the people on modern 
 terms — namely, that the dramatist should j^rovide them with entertain- 
 ment — such entertainment to be politically inoft'ensive (under penalties), 
 and each spectator to pay cash for his share of pleasure in the " play." 
 
 Thus was " Art made tongue-tied by authority " — Shakespeare's own 
 words {Sonnet 66) — and forced to beg its bread of spiritual inferiors. 
 Such conditions tried Shakespeare {Sonnet 111), but did not dismay him. 
 If he had to be silent upon some very great things, on others he was free, 
 and he might have his asides. If he had to please his Blackfriars 
 audience, that he could do with pleasure, and even reverence : could he 
 not give them of his best, compel their laughter and tears and wonder, and 
 set them all thinking — to their high delight and to his own, and — so time 
 has proved — to the high delight of an ever-welcoming posterity ? In 
 choosing to write for the stage, then a new profession, this central figure 
 of Modern Poetry Avas enabled to portray Human Nature in the most 
 living and varied forms that langtiage admits. Looking to the spiritual 
 range which his works manifest, we may say that he took the Human 
 Soul to be his province — the civilised Human Nature dear to every one, 
 which had liitherto been systematically stiulied only in the Confessional, 
 but was to be both web and woof of all art and all worship, without 
 rival and without disguise. 
 
 How he revelled and triumphed in liis new-gotten liberty, and wliat 
 glorious gifts he showed, it is not possi))le to follow here : a few further 
 observations only can be given for the i)urpose of cnii)liasising the relation 
 of his work to the general modern ])robleni. Shakespeare struck with new 
 might and grander meaning the common chord of Human Fraternity. This
 
 426 SHAKESPEARE [Modern 
 
 Fraternity was new in that it was now delivered from theology and 
 thereby nobly enlarged : it was to be as much ampler than Catholicism, 
 limited by its absolute creed, as Catholicism was ampler than antique 
 Patriotism ; and it was to sound clearer and clearer through all the 
 Future of Man. Shakespeare exhibited Human Solidarity in two-fold 
 form, the temporary negative or levelling spirit, which is now so familiar 
 to modern thought, and the eternal ever-growing spirit of organic 
 fraternity. The one rests on personal being and the universal fate of 
 imperfection, death, and dissolution — " In Adam all die " : the other, 
 fully accepting that fate, subordinates it (subjectively) to affections and 
 powers common to all but differing in degree, to their mutual ministry, 
 to family and social ordinances, and to the general inheritance of the 
 human past and future — " In Humanity all live." The levelling spirit 
 Shakespeare often expressed with extreme poetic energy, but associates 
 it with bodily weakness, mental disorder, and madness {Richard II., 
 Hamlet, Lear) ; in Cymbeline, Act iv. scene 2, we have this characteristic 
 jiassage : — ■ 
 
 Arviragus. Are we not brothers ? 
 
 Imogen. So man and man should be ; 
 
 But clay and clay differs in dignity, 
 Whose dust is both alike. I am very sick. 
 
 This levelling spirit, Shakespeare felt, had a work of destruction to 
 do : but no more terrible condemnation of revolutionary equality was ever 
 uttered than in the speech of the wise Ulysses, " Take but degree away " 
 {Troilus and Cressida, Act i. scene 3), which the poet has himself illus- 
 trated by the fell character of the Bastard in Lear. Organic Fraternity, on 
 the other hand, with its charm of benign truth, strength, and wisdom, is 
 felt everywhere in Shakespeare ; yet it was necessarily imperfect, both 
 because affection in politics was already so grievously impaired by the 
 revolution, and because the fraternal feeling had to win far larger grace 
 towards the people and the peoples — Shakespeare gives us the wit of 
 peasants, but not the dignity of their service or the depth of their affec- 
 tions — and again, because continuity, hitherto acknowledged only in the 
 Family, the State, and Christendom, had lovingly to enfold the whole 
 race, thus reconciling Order with Progress. 
 
 With this sublime secret of continuity Shakespeare was necessarily 
 less in touch than Catholic Dante, although to his high honour he was 
 among the first to choose dramatic subjects from plain secular history. 
 Together with his auditors he (always be it remembered), a hearty 
 patriot, was naturally in revolt against Catholicism, and against the whole 
 bygone priestly and military order, and even against imperial Rome. To 
 him therefore the Facial jurisdiction of the thirteenth century was a 
 hateful usurpation, and the murderer of Ca-sar was a hero. 
 
 Spontaneously, however, Shakespeare embraced all the past that was 
 really accessible to him. Happily for him and for us, he was born into a 
 society still rich with the outward and inward beauty created by centuries 
 of Catholic Feudalism — beauty so long established, so intimately diffused, 
 so vitaUy incorporated, as to seem self-existent, hiding from view its 
 origin. This lingering beauty Shakespeare saw and joyfully reproduced,
 
 Drama] SHAKESPEARE 427 
 
 though he was in small sympathy with any official Christianity which 
 he knew, or with the intriguing politicians around the Tudor throne. 
 Catholic organisation and Catholic doctrine he repudiated ; Catholic 
 habits and Catholic feelings — above all, the aflectionate and compas- 
 sionate spirit — he cherished in rich measure. So, though no lover of 
 war, and certainly a fervent lover of his country's inward peace, he 
 loved the spirit of chivalry. Many of his characters bear the Catholic 
 and chivalrous seal — not least, his female characters. 
 
 Similarly, though Shakespeare could not reach the conception of social 
 and moral science, he stretched out eager hands towards it. No poet has 
 shown such a love of generalising social and moral truths. Tliese com- 
 monly appear as findings of mere human experience — not of revelation. 
 Humanity, in fact, though imperfectly conceived, was the true object of 
 Shakespeare's faith and love. The free temper of his work, and many 
 particular passages, leave little doubt that he largely shared in the 
 theological scepticism then so common behind the stage. Assuredly 
 neither Catholic nor Puritan, he was perhaps not even at heart a Christian. 
 In this, as in other respects, he was a true modern ; his creed was unde- 
 termined. But he also bears interesting witness to the Deism, such as 
 for centuries after in its uncertain way haunted the minds of thinkers 
 and artists. This was then the emancipating belief, and a most con- 
 venient one ; for it'easily gave divine shelter and authority to any desired 
 conclusion whatever, negative or positive, from the promptings of appetite 
 to the supposed destinies of the human race. 
 
 During all the modern period the Western mind in' art must be 
 regarded as having less and less religious guidance for its energies. It 
 has had no faith. The old guidance was continually failing, while the 
 new, though often admirably felt, was not yet visible. Having to find 
 pleasant food for an unstable and increasingly revolutionary society, the 
 artist, according to his genius, might amuse, delight, instruct, or even 
 exalt, but the fii'st characteristic of every work was that it was apart 
 from religion — a special product. Art was thus degraded from its 
 religious rank, and \n\t among miscellaneous things. Hence it was often 
 trivial in subject and hasty in execution, often addressed to a limited 
 class, not seldom licentious — in a word irreligious. Such spots may 
 sometimes be seen in Shakespeare's sun ; nor is it strange, when we 
 remember his occasional purpose, and the base surroundings of his theatre. 
 How wonderful rather that he should have been so good and so pure I 
 This was due to his great and affectionate character, but also to his 
 neighbourhood to media-val order. His intellectual apprehension of 
 scepticism was extraordinary, but scepticism had not got possession of 
 his heart. Yet compared with those Catholic artists above described, 
 his heart is a sorrowful and anxious one : much more so that of his 
 successors. 
 
 On the other hand, ^Modern Art has been free, and roving in the rich, 
 unordered field of modern life and thought, it has here and there estab- 
 lished admiraljle settlements, and built some "towered cities." In 
 general result, the " intellectual interregnum," overproud of its material 
 science and its grasping industry, which have engrossed not vulgar 
 desires alone but beautiful talents, has been very adverse to art and
 
 428 SHAKESPEARE [Modern 
 
 artists. To architecture and the arts of form it has been ahnost ruinous ; 
 less unkind to poetry and prose romance, with their discursive powers 
 and protean instrument of language ; kindest of aU to music, which 
 echoes the modern heart and mind, but pronounces no dogma, and 
 demands no visible beauty. Viewed as a whole, Modern Art has been a 
 subsidiary preparation for the Religion of Humanity. It has helped 
 to discredit theology and war ; it has availed, though as yet very imper- 
 fectly, to glorify the history and hopes and the sovereign nature of Man. 
 
 [V. L.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. vi. 153-223. Pos. Pol. vol. i. ch. v. ; vol. iii. 442, 443, 484-488 ; 
 vnl. iv. 45-48, 84, 85. Synthase Subjective, p. 43.
 
 Drama] LOPE DE VEGA 429 
 
 LOPE DE VEGA, b. 1562, d. 1635. 
 
 Lope Felix de Vega Carpio, the true founder of the Spanish drama, 
 was by two years the senior of Shakespeare, being born in Madrid, 
 November 25, 1562. His father — a poor gentleman, himself a poet — died 
 during his son's infancy. The boy, a high-spirited adventurous lad, with 
 precocious fluency of speech, was brought up by an uncle, an Inquisitor, 
 who had him well instructed in literature and philosophy in the Imperial 
 College of Madrid, and afterwards at the University of Alcala. Eeturn- 
 ing to ]\Iadrid, Lope became secretary to the Duke of Alva, gi-andson of 
 the Flemish governor ; married, and set himself to literary work. A 
 quarrel resulted in his banishment to Valencia, where a rude theatre 
 existed. For this his first plays were written. In 1588 he enlisted as a 
 soldier in the Armada, serving on board the Saint-John, where his 
 brother, one of the lieutenants, died in his arms after a battle. It is 
 characteristic of Lope, that one of his longest poems, a continuation of 
 Ariosto's epic, was written during the storms and discomfitures of this 
 expedition. He was twice married : the first wife died after his return 
 from Valencia and before the Armada ; the second in 1604. He lived 
 afterwards with Dona Maria de Luxan, the mother of his favourite 
 daughter INIarcela. In 1609 he became a priest ; was made a familiar of 
 the Inquisition, and the chaplain of an imiDortant order of priests. But 
 his ecclesiastical duties in no way checked his career as a dramatist : for 
 more of his plays were wTitten after his priest's orders than before. No 
 such prolific genius is recorded in the history of art. Eighteen hundred 
 dramas and 400 OAitos are attributed to him ; most of these have dis- 
 appeared, and were probably not printed ; but what remains fills, 
 together with other poems, eighteen volumes. Montalvan tells that he 
 wrote five of his comedies in fifteen days. 
 
 His theory of Art, set forth in a treatise on dramatic composition, was, 
 avowedly, to please the public at all hazards. Nevertheless the result 
 of his work was to mould the national drama into the shape which it has 
 since retained ; that of three-act jjlays in eight-syllable trochaic metre, 
 with assonant rhymes running through a scene, interspersed with every 
 variety of rhymed lyrical measure. The interest depended on intricate 
 interweaving of incidents, and on extreme energy and swiftness of action, 
 rather than on deep analysis of character. But it mirrored the life of 
 the nation and the time : and that life, with all its stains, was without 
 sordid or vulgar taint : it flashed with colour and motion : it was 
 daring, dignified, passionate, and gay. 
 
 The three plays selected by Comte are the Dog in the Manger ; Rich 
 and Poor by turns, or Don John's Flmrers ; unA Love in a Madhouse. 
 The last of these runs as follows : Florian, who has fought with his prince 
 at Saragossa and left him for dead, flees from justice, and enters the 
 celebrated madhouse of Valencia as an assumed lunatic. Eripliila, a 
 young lady, who to avoid a hated marriage has run away to the same 
 city with her servant, is deserted V)y him, and left robbed and stripped at 
 the city gates. No one believing her story, she too is taken to the mad-
 
 430 LOPE DE VEGA : MONTALVAN [Modern 
 
 house. Her beauty fascinates Florian, who in turn, in sjiite of his mad 
 talk, captivates Phedra, a niece of one of the officers. Eriphila and 
 Florian fall deeply in love, though each thinks the other mad : they 
 frequently meet, and as often are torn apart. Meantime Phedra's love for 
 Florian comes so near to madness that, to soothe her, a pretended mar- 
 riage with Florian is arranged. This rouses Eriphila's jealousy ; and 
 hence arises a whirl of dramatic and exciting incident, in which love and 
 madness, real and feigned, run riot side by side. 
 
 Lope's activity in every branch of poetic literature, epic and satiric as 
 well as dramatic, continued till the close of his life in 1635. But his 
 last poems were tinged with religious melancholy, and he died in the 
 practice of the severest asceticism. His funeral was a great national 
 ceremony. It lasted nine days : bishops officiated, and the greatest 
 nobles of the land appeared as mourners. [J. H. B.] 
 
 For the Spanish dramas in this section, refer to Coleccion Selecta del Antique 
 TeoAro Espanol, by Jose Segundo Florez ; Paris, Garnier freres, 1854. 
 The plays were selected by Comte. There are twenty dramas by eleven 
 IDoets. Tickuor : History of SpoMish Literature, vol. xi. pp. 113-234. 
 
 MONTALVAN {Juan Fcrez de), h. 1602, d. 1638. 
 
 Juan Perez de Montalvax was born in Madrid in 1602. He was a 
 son of the King's bookseller : at the age of seventeen he began to write 
 for the stage : at eighteen he competed with many illustrious poets for 
 the poem to be recited in honour of St. Isidore the Ploughman, Madrid's 
 patron saint ; one of the j^rizes was allotted to him. Lope de Vega _ being 
 judge. With Lope he formed a close friendship, and was sj^oken of by 
 a contemporary as the first-born of his genius. Like him he took 
 priestly orders, and received an office in the Inquisition. Sixty of his 
 plays, including several autos, were published. He died of brain disease, 
 caused by over-work, at the age of 36. 
 
 One of his best-known plays, 27ie Lovers of Ternel, is founded on the 
 old story of a girl deceived by false tidings of her lover's death, who 
 marries another. On the day of marriage her true love returns, and she 
 dies with him. The story is redeemed from commonness by the stirring 
 incidents of the African wars of Charles v. Montalvan is represented in 
 Comte's collection by No Life like Honour : a play which achieved the 
 unrivalled distinction of being acted many times at once on the two 
 Madrid theatres. In this play, Don Carlos, the hero, has won his 
 mistress's love by risking his life to save hers. He is j^oor and is 
 thwarted by rich and powerful rivals, but at last is secretly nuirried to 
 her. One of his rivals finds access to her room by night, and is killed 
 in the duel that follows. A price is set on Carlos's head ; he flees to the 
 mountains, and exists there for months. His wife is loyal and true, but 
 her distress and poverty are known to him, and he fears the effect of 
 temptation and of slander. He resolves to give himself to the Governor, 
 claiming the reward which, at tlie cost of his own life, will set his wife 
 free from her hazardous position, and free their name from any taint of 
 suspicion. For there is no life like honour. The Governor treats his 
 courage as it deserves. [j. H. B.]
 
 Drama] MORETO : GUILLEN DE CASTRO : ROJAS 431 
 
 MORETO {Ag U.St In), d. 1669. 
 
 That Agustin Morkto began to write before 1637, that he left three 
 vohimes of dramas, besides others not collected into a volume, that in 
 1657 he retired to a religious house in Toledo, and that he died there in 
 1669, are all the facts known about this poet. That his dramas are 
 modelled on those of Lope de Vega is to say what might be said of 
 every Spanish dramatist : it is, however, specially true of Moreto, who 
 indeed in several instances took Lope's plots and recast them in a 
 better shape. His play Scorn for Scorn is an instance in point : it 
 still holds its place on the stage : while Lope's play, from which it was 
 imitated, is forgotten. In the portraiture of character Moreto was more 
 careful than his master, whose improvising genius gave itself no time for 
 subtle analysis. 
 
 The play selected from his works by Comte is The Brave Justiciary of 
 Castille. It is a vivid portraiture of Pedro iv., commonly known as the 
 Cruel. He is depicted, however, by the poet, in conformity with what is 
 probably the truer tradition of Spanish history, as a bold ruler, not 
 unstained with crime, but resolved to quell a lawless nobility and to 
 protect the weak against the strong. [J. H. B.] 
 
 GUILLEN DE CASTRO, b. 1567, d. 1631. 
 
 Guillen dk Castro was born in 1567 at Valencia, one of the 
 earliest centres of Spanish dramatic art. His family was noble, but 
 poor. Coming to Madrid to push his fortune, he was encouraged by the 
 patronage of Olivares ; held various civil and military posts ; and 
 distinguished himself among the brilliant school of writers for the stage 
 of whom Lope de Vega was the animating centre. Cervantes, in 1615, 
 speaks of him as one of the most popular of dramatic poets. But he was 
 a man of proud, independent, and intractable temper, and lived and died 
 in poverty. The expense of his funeral, in 1631, was defrayed by 
 charity. 
 
 Twenty-seven of the plays of Guillen have come down to us : the 
 best known being the two on S])ain's national hero, the Cid ; these, by 
 inspiring the still more famous drama of Corneille, mark an epoch in the 
 history of art. In Comte's collection this poet is represented l)y Mis- 
 matches of Valencia. [J. H. B.] 
 
 ROJAS {Francisco ile Eoja-y, 1st half of 17th Century. 
 
 Francisco dk Kojas was a contemporary of Calderon, and perhaps 
 survived him ; liut neither the date of his birth nor of his death is 
 known. That he was born in Toledo, and that in 1641 he was made a 
 knight of the Order of Santiago, are nearly all the facts recorded of him. 
 He published, in 1640-5, two volumes, containing twenty-four dramas, 
 and a few others were published separately. 
 
 The drama selected by Comte, and by common consent his master- 
 piece, is Garcia chJ Castanar, or Sonc helou: the hni>j. The tiu'.e
 
 432 ROJAS : GUEVARA : OTWAY [Modern 
 
 described is that of Alfonso xi. (1312-50), against whose father Garcia 
 Bermudo had rebelled. His son, the hero of the story, lives in retire- 
 ment at Castanar, near Toledo, with large possessions, leading the life of 
 a farmer and sportsman, and passionately devoted to a charming wife. 
 The King calling for aid in an attempt to regain the city of Algeciras 
 from the jNIoors, Garcia contributes such generous supplies that the 
 King, wishing to know of so patriotic a subject, visits him in disguise, 
 accompanied by a courtier, Mendo. Garcia has private notice of the 
 visit, and is told that the wearer of the red scarf will be the King. The 
 King, however, on the eve of the journey, had given the scarf to Mendo 
 as a patent of nobility. Garcia and his wife receive their guests with 
 profuse rustic hospitality. Mendo, thought by Garcia to be the King, 
 insults the wife, a perfectly true and loyal woman, at first by words, 
 listened to with courteous contempt, and then by a fruitless attempt to 
 enter his house in her husband's absence. Garcia's soul is torn between 
 loyalty and the passion of revenge. To touch the King's person is not to 
 be thought of : and still less to sit down silently under such insult. He 
 can see no issue but in his wife's death. She escapes, however, and 
 Garcia is finally summoned to the King's presence, where he finds his 
 mistake. His course is clear. He leaves the royal presence at once, 
 kills Mendo in the ante-chamber, and returns to tell what he has done. 
 For such wrong can be endured for a moment in None beloiv the King. 
 The vivid pictures of old-fashioned country life in Spain, of the 
 passionate, even romantic love between Garcia and his wife, and of the 
 stormy struggle between loyalty and revenge, mark this poem as one of 
 the masterpieces of the Spanish drama. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Ticknor : Sjxinis/i Literature, ii. pp. 379-81. 
 
 GUEVARA (Luis Veles de), b. 1570, d. 1644. 
 
 Luis Velez de Guevara was born in Andalusia in 1570. He lived 
 almost entirely in Madrid, where he became extremely popular as a 
 dramatist. Montalvan, writing in 1632, speaks of him as having already 
 written four hundred plays. 
 
 The play selected by Comte, Throned in Death, is a most melodious 
 and pathetic poem founded on the story of Inez de Castro, secretly 
 married to Pedro, son of Alfonso the Fourth, king of Portugal, and 
 murdered with the King's consent for reasons of State. The King dies of 
 remorse : and Pedro, now king, crowns and enthrones his dead Queen. 
 The loves of Pedro and Inez are told with exquisite grace and tender- 
 ness, and not without sparkling humour ; though the shadow of doom 
 lowers over them from the beginning to the end. [J. H. B.] 
 
 OTWAY (Thomas), b. 1651, d. 1685. 
 
 Thomas Otway, the rival of Dryden, was the son of Rev. Humphry 
 Otway, rector of Woolbeding ; and was born at Trotton in West Sussex, 
 in 1651. He was educated at Winchester College and at Christ Church, 
 Oxford, which he quitted without a degree at the age of eighteen. We
 
 Drama] OTWAY : LESSING 433 
 
 may adopt the words of Samuel Johnson, in his Lives of the Poets : 
 " Of Thomas Otway, one of the first names in the English drama, little 
 is known ; nor is there any part of that little which his biographer can 
 take pleasure in relating." After trying the stage as an actor, he pro- 
 duced his play of Alcibiades at the age of 24, and devoted himself to the 
 drama, becoming a favourite companion of dissolute wits, at a time when, 
 as Johnson says, "men of wit received no favours from the great but to 
 share their riots." He received some assistance from the Earl of Ply- 
 mouth, a natural son of Charles ii., from whom he obtained a cornetcy 
 in a regiment of cavalry. His short life was passed amidst squalid 
 poverty and cruel disappointments. He died at the age of 34, in an 
 obscure house on Tower-Hill, where he was said to be hiding from his 
 creditors — according to tradition, choked with the bread which charity 
 had given to satisfy his hunger. 
 
 His principal dramas are Venice Preserved (1682), and an earlier work, 
 the Orphan (1680). He owes the place which Comte has given him 
 between Eojas and Lessing to the singular pathos of some of his tender 
 scenes. Otway has now lost all credit, and would hardly be remembered 
 at all but for the extreme sterility and affectation of English drama 
 between the age of Shakespeare and that of Goldsmith. Dryden, so 
 greatly superior to Otway in poetic resource, and Congreve so superior 
 in wit, have neither of them pictures of such exquisite tenderness as a 
 few of Otway's best, such as in the characters of Monimia and Belvidera. 
 It has been said that " the love-scenes between Jaffier and Belvidera are 
 unparalleled by anything in our later drama." Taine thinks that he 
 belongs by force of imagination to the dramatists of the 16th century, 
 and he reminds us of Ford and Webster. Venice Preserved, however 
 tedious and overstrained to us now, kept the stage for 100 years. "It 
 is more frequently represented," says Hallam, " than any tragedy after 
 those of Shakespeare." "It is the work of a man not attentive to 
 decency, nor zealous for virtue ; but of one who conceived forcibly, and 
 drew originally, by consulting nature in his own breast " (Johnson). In 
 this he shows some of the quality of Metastasio and of Richardson, 
 enough to redeem from oblivion his pitiful life and much else of coarse 
 and stupid work. [F. H.] 
 
 Johnson : Lives of the Poets. Hallam: Literary History, vol. iv. cli. vi. 
 
 LESSING (Gotthold Ephraim), b. 1729, d. 1781. 
 
 Lessing was born 22nd January 1729, at Kamenz, in Saxony. His father 
 was a poor Lutheran pastor, and he himself was educated for the pulpit. 
 But whilst yet a student at Leipsic he exhibited, to his parents' abhorrence, 
 a passion for the stage, and at 20 plunged into a literary career which, to 
 the end of his life, was one long and distressing struggle against poverty. 
 As a critic of the drama, his great achievement was to deliver tlie stage 
 from the artificial French ideas tlien dominating the German mind. 
 Lessing stood forth as a "sacred athlete," who loved to do l)attle with 
 arrof^ant pedantocrats ; but what inspired him was a passion for freedom 
 
 2k
 
 434 LESSING : GOTHE [Modern 
 
 and truth, and his masculine logical intellect, disciplined by compre- 
 hensive study of literature, both ancient and modern, was content with 
 none but solid results, thoroughly reasoned out. Yet, with all his 
 learning, his appeal was to natural and human standards ; and, in like 
 manner, his personal habits of life were those of unrestrained social 
 intercourse with his fellow-countrymen, especially actors and soldiers. 
 
 In ridding his native literature of foreign domination he worked in 
 no spirit of narrow patriotism ; he invoked his countrymen not merely 
 as Germans but as men ; he was one of the first to reveal to them Shake- 
 speare. Still less is he to be charged with the sentimental excess of 
 the Sturm und Drang period, which seemed the first-fruits of spiritual 
 independence. None more than he, the author of the Laocoon, insisted 
 on rules of art ; he was really the forerunner of the great classical poets 
 of Germany. He disclaimed for himself the title of poet. His best 
 known plays are Minna von Barnholm (1765), Emilia Galeotti (1772), 
 and Nathan the Wise (1779). In this last drama, where the Mussulman, 
 Jew, and Christian appear together on the stage, he idealised the theory 
 which he also advocated in his works of controversial theology {Erziehung 
 de.s Menschen Geschlechts, 1780, etc.), and which lay very close to his 
 heart — the theory of religion without dogma, the successive creeds being 
 treated as of equally divine origin, but as local and temporary phases of 
 the education of mankind. Chimerical as is the conception of a religion 
 existing without dogma (jPos. Pol. i. 326), it sprang with Lessing from 
 a deep feeling towards the human race ; it was opportune for his genera- 
 tion ; and, in preaching it as critic and poet, Lessing did much to prepare 
 the West for the Religion of Humanity. [G. L.] 
 
 James Sime: Lessing, 2 vols., London, 1877; and also Life, in Encycl, 
 Brit. vol. xiv. 
 
 GOTHE {Johann Wolfgang), b. 1749, d. 1832. 
 
 Johann Wolfgang Gothe, the most philosophic of great poets since 
 Dante, was born in Frankfort-on-Maine, August 28, 1749. His father, 
 the son and grandson of craftsmen, achieved distinction in the uni- 
 versities, became a doctor of laws, travelled much, collected works of 
 art, and finally settled in his native city, where he held the rank of 
 Imperial Councillor — a man of strong character, and of solid though not 
 sympathetic intelligence. His mother, Catharine Textor, daughter of the 
 chief magistrate of the city, a woman of noble and wide sympathies 
 public and private, and her daughter Cornelia, will ever be associated 
 with the memory of the poet. The influences on his early life of civic 
 and religious festivals, of dramatic shows, of such books as fell in his way, 
 and of the com'se of public events, have been vividly described in his 
 poetical autobiography. Amongst them is to be noted the French 
 occupation of Frankfort (1759-62), opening out to him the world of 
 French thought and literature, and breaking the bonds of narrow German 
 nationalism against which he never ceased to strive. His friendship 
 with Fraulein Klettenburg, the IMoravian mystic, is also of importance
 
 Drama] GOTHE 435 
 
 as presenting Christianity to him in a form as distinct from the narrow 
 formalism of Luther or Calvin as from the bitter mockery of Voltaire. 
 
 He received a good home education from his father, who at sixteen 
 sent him to Leipsic in the hope that he would become a jurist. Thence, 
 after an interval of home-life, he went to the University of Strasburg, 
 where he met Herder, whose wide and philosophic culture stimulated 
 him strongly. It was at this time that he met Frederika Brion, daughter 
 of a Protestant pastor, whom he loved and who returned his love. This 
 attachment, as passionate on both sides as it was pure, lasted for eighteen 
 months. But finally he tore himself away from it, driven like Dante's 
 Ulysses by the still stronger passion for experience of life which an 
 early and obscure marriage would have narrowed. Of other ties formed 
 and broken during the years that followed, it is better to say little than 
 to seek with his extravagant adorers a special code of ethics for his 
 failings, or, on the other hand, to yield to the pharisaic spirit that 
 eagerly condemns the excess or even the existence of passions which it 
 has never felt. But that his art suffered by his inconstancy may be 
 well believed : Gothe, in his portraiture of women, has not rivalled the 
 greatest masters of poetry. 
 
 In 1775 he was invited by Karl August, the young Duke of Weimar, 
 to reside at his court. A strong friendship of a noble sort was formed 
 between these two men ; and under all the forms of respectful subordi- 
 nation, Gothe administered the affairs of the duchy for a long period of 
 years. Here he met Wieland ; Herder was shortly afterwards estab- 
 lished as chief court preacher ; and here, in 1 799, Schiller took up his 
 residence. Weimar became for some years the centre of German culture — 
 the most important, since the failure of the French Revolution, of any 
 that existed in Europe. 
 
 In the meantime Gothe's [spirit had been strongly stin-ed by his 
 passionate friendship for Fran von Stein (1776-1788;, by his residence 
 in Italy (1786-8), and by the outbreak of the French Revolution. He 
 accompanied the army of invasion (1792), and was present at Valmy, 
 which, as he told the discomfited officers on the evening after the battle, 
 was the beginning of a new era in history. But he saw with extreme 
 keenness the shallowness and inevitable failure of revolutionary theories. 
 He dreaded their introduction into Germany ; and he was inclined to 
 Napoleonic rule as the best compromise between the old world and the 
 new that the time admitted. For apostles of freedom he felt no sym- 
 pathy, he said ; self-will was the aim of each and all of them. Therefore 
 in 1794 he set himself, in connection with Schiller, to the work which 
 appeared to him the most important— the promotion of a higher standard 
 of life and thought by ideal art, especially by the drama, and by 
 synthetic conceptions of science. 
 
 He had already written many dramatic poems, the principal of them 
 being Goetz von Berlichinrjen (1771), Egmont (1787), and Tasso (1789). 
 Of Faust, already begun, nothing was yet finished. These pieces, to- 
 gether with Schillers and Lessing's plays, were now produced at Weimar 
 under Gothe's rigorous supervision. But not these alone ; for the plan 
 Avas to represent excellence of every kind and nationality. Many plays 
 of Voltaire, Racine, Shakespeare, and Calderon Avere also represented.
 
 436 GOTHE [Modern 
 
 During the whole of this period he continued to elaborate at intervals 
 two works which occupied him through the greater part of his life, 
 Wilhelm Meister and Faust. The first part of Wilhelm Meister, which 
 had been begun in 1777, was not finished till 1796, the year before the 
 completion of his beautiful idyll, Hermann and Dorothea. The second 
 part, the Yea^-s of Travel, was not finally completed till 1829. It was 
 the same with the greatest of his works, Faust. The conception had 
 been formed, and some scenes written, before he had left Strasburg in 
 1771. It was continued at intervals, but the first part of the poem was 
 not published till 1808. The second part was for the most part written 
 during the last seven years of his life, and the last touches were not 
 added till within a few months of his death. 
 
 In 1805 Schiller died. The intercourse between the two poets had 
 been most precious to both : as elevating to the character of Gothe as to 
 the art and intellect of SchiUer. In 1806, Giithe married Christiane 
 Vulpius, with whom he had been living since his return from Italy in 
 1 788. She was then a simple uncultivated girl. His afiection for her 
 was constant and loyal ; and when she died in 1816, no one doubted the 
 poignancy of his grief His daughter-in-law Ottilia presided over his 
 household for the remainder of his life. A beautiful picture of his old 
 age is preserved for us in the conversations recorded by his friend 
 Eckermann. He died peacefully on March 22, 1832, and was buried at 
 Weimar, by Schiller's side. 
 
 To depict Gothe's genius adequately is not to be thought of here. 
 He is spoken of by Comte (Pos. Pol. i. 249) as a signal instance of the 
 intrinsic kinship between philosophy and poetry. Early in his life two 
 of the greatest among modern thinkers, Spinoza and Diderot, had strongly 
 influenced him. He entered! eagerly into the new and growing science 
 of Life : and stands in the front rank of those explorers who have .shown 
 the forms of vegetal and animal life to proceed by gradual evolution 
 rather than abrupt creation. 
 
 Summed U23 in a word, the aim of his life was Culture in the widest 
 and deepest sense. To till the plot of ground allotted to us, to choose 
 the best wherever found, to reject the mean and vile ; such was the aim 
 for himself and the world. It may be called the implicit aim of all 
 great and good men. With Gothe it was explicitly and consciously 
 followed, athwart and in spite of blinding storms of passion, with com- 
 plete freedom from hampering prejudice of creed or nationality, and 
 with full recognition of the nec-essary shortconiings and limitations of 
 human life. Faust, the work of his life, is the summary of his experience. 
 A willing victim of limitless desire, he is led, through grievous feilure 
 and sorrow, by large experience of human destiny lit up by glimpses of 
 a nether and a higher world, to rest satisfied at the close of life with 
 a little useful work honestly done. The Margaret whom he betrayed 
 soars, like the heavenly powers with whose clioral song the poem begins, 
 in glorified penitence above and beyond him. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Gotlie's life has Ijoeu written hy G. H. Lewes (2iui eel., 1864). The best 
 and most accurate biop^aphy is that of Heinrich Duntzer, Leipsic, 1880 ; 
 tr. , London, 1883. Wilhelm Meister is translated liy Carlyle ; Fausf, 
 by Haywanl, Bayard Taylor, and ]\Iiss Swanwick.
 
 Drama] GOTHE 437 
 
 Gothe was a born poet. To feel, to realise what he felt by idealising 
 it, and then to express it in verse, this was the natural bent of the man, 
 and the actual history of his poems. This realistic foundation in personal 
 experience, while assuring to his poetry sincerity and human interest, 
 marks him ofl' from Schiller and the idealistic school. But what confers 
 on Gothe a royal rank amongst poets was the range and harmony of his 
 spiritual faculties. To a unique personality and a boundless force of self- 
 expansion he joined a marvellous sensibility to impressions from all 
 without him, from men and women, whether old or young ; from society, 
 solitude, and external Nature ; from books and from life ; from the 
 ancient world and the modern world ; from art, but also from philosophy 
 and physical science. His comic description of himself as Das Welt- 
 kind — the World's Child — was a true one. His audacity of youthful 
 passion was but the prelude to an all-embracing wisdom strenuously built 
 up by thought, self-culture, and self-control ; his judgment of his fellow- 
 men, whilst measured and j^enetrating, was eminently sympathetic. And 
 so it came about that even in early life his personal feelings were typical 
 feelings, and his poems representative poems. Thus his Gotz was the 
 first stirring of the blood of Europe towards our medi?eval ancestors, and 
 as such was felt by Sir Walter Scott : his Werthcr, in its origin but the 
 outpourings of Gothe's own love-disappointment, was at once accepted as 
 the voice of the heart-sick generation in which he lived. Most repre- 
 sentative of all is Faust. Whether as a secluded student eager to discover 
 the summtun honuvi in absolute knowledge, or as a man of flesh and 
 blood turning his back in disgust on this barren pursuit and plunging 
 into sensual pleasures in the vain hope of there finding life and happi- 
 ness, Faud is but a mystical impersonation of a transition age — an age 
 where science has sapped the ancient faith but is itself capable neither of 
 regulating nor of being regulated : where religion has become a universal 
 doubt having no practical relation to human affairs, the elementary laws 
 of social conduct are obscured, and the individual is abandoned to him- 
 self, his good and his bad instincts alike running riot. Of prose and 
 style Gcithe was a consummate master. In the fascinating melody of his 
 verse, in the exquisite fitness and lucid beauty of his expressions, in his 
 presentations so vividly realistic, yet so subtly suggestive of what is 
 mysterious and ideal, — everywhere we feel the magic hand of the poet. 
 The sunny pastoral of Hermann and Dorothea, and many of his ballads 
 and minor poems, are gems of art and most precious records of human 
 feeling. In the masterpiece of Faust the story of Gretchen, the ruined 
 maiden, is told anew in its simple beauty and with unsurpassable pathos. 
 
 From the creeds he stood aside, neither professing nor denouncing 
 any, equally removed from negativism and hypocrisy. For religion 
 he worshipped art and preached social wisdom. But his Art was a self- 
 culture earnestly addressing itself to important elements of human life 
 which theology proscribed and materialism viliijended. And so, thougli 
 not a religion, it served as a ti-ansition from tlie old to tlie new. It 
 announced that to which the faith of Humanity can alone give complete 
 significance — the identity of the Beautiful with the Good and the True. 
 Similar, too, was the tendency of his social wisdom. His grand maxim 
 " Gedenke zu Leben," which, as has been truly said, replaced the
 
 438 GOTHE : CALDERON [Modern 
 
 '■'■Memento Mori" of the theologians, might well serve as a Positivist 
 watchword. Positivist also in essence was his favourite theme of 
 victorious man, and the conditions of that victory — a frank acceptance 
 of the limitations of his lot, and a resolute striving after the highest 
 within reach. [G. L.] 
 
 CALDERON {Don Pedro de la Barca), b. 1600, d. 1681. 
 
 Calderon, the principal representative of the Spanish drama, was 
 born at Madrid in the last year of the 16th century, January 17, 1600 : 
 and died in that city, 25th May 1681, at the age of 81. His life thus 
 ran nearly parallel to Milton's. By bii-th he belonged to the Spanish 
 aristocracy. He received the usual education of his time, first at a 
 Jesuit school, then at the University of Salamanca. At the age of 19, 
 he returned to Madrid and gave himself to dramatic work. In 1625 he 
 entered the army, and silent ten years in Italy, where he wrote many 
 of his best plays, Life 's a Dreavi and The Physician of his oivn Honour 
 being among them. On the death of Lope de Vega in 1635, Philip iv., a 
 zealous and discriminating patron of art, recalled him to Spain, and made 
 him Court Poet. The next fifteen years were given to dramatic work, 
 interrupted once by a military campaign in Catalonia. In 1651 he took 
 priest's orders ; and ultimately he became the King's chaplain. From 
 this time he devoted himself almost exclusively to the composition of 
 the religious dramas called Autos Sacramentales, performed in the 
 principal cities of Spain at the festival of Corpus Christi, and repre- 
 senting the central mystery of the Catholic faith with all the resources 
 of allegory. Of his life few details have been preserved, nor was 
 it eventful. But all contemporaries agree in speaking of the dignity 
 and charm of his character. The house of Calderon, says his bio- 
 grapher, was the refuge for every one in distress : he never made an 
 enemy, nor said a bitter word of any one. 
 
 Calderon's death marks the close of the most brilliant period of the 
 Spanish drama, which had begun a hundred years before under Lope de 
 Vega, being thus synchronous with the best period of the English drama 
 as well as of the French. In fertility it far exceeded either. In great 
 names the Spanish stage need not fear comi^arison : for Shakespeare has 
 no second that can be compared to Calderon : and Calderon towers above 
 his peers less inaccessibly than Shakespeare. It cannot be said that 
 any Spanish poet entered into the modern spirit like Moliere ; nor did 
 any of them rival Corneille in kee^iing alive the majestic tradition of 
 Rome. The Spanish drama was a faithful retiex of the life of the 
 Spanish nation, which had retained the mediiuval tradition more per- 
 fectly than any other, less affected than Italy or France by the sceptical 
 spirit of the Renascence, and stirred by the Reformation to stronger 
 ardour for the ancient faith. A singular sense of dignity and of 
 brotherhood, inherited from the long struggle against their Moorish 
 conquerors, had knit all ranks together in a way unknown in France or 
 England. The discovery of America had roused the military and the 
 missionary spirit to new fervour.
 
 Drama] CALDEKON 439 
 
 All these impulses — chivalry, the sense of personal dignity common 
 to peasant and noble, and in the latter carried often to fantastic exaggera- 
 tion, genial gaiety, religious and patriotic enthusiasm — find expression 
 in the Spanish drama : the passion of love between man and woman 
 kindling the whole. Calderon, in whom all these features are strongly 
 marked, is distinguished from his colleagues by more varied and luxuri- 
 ant imagery, by deeper sympathy with passion, and above all by a 
 vein of philosophic mysticism, less common in Western than in Eastern 
 poetry. From the large number of his works which have come down 
 to us, 120 dramas and 72 autos of very unequal value, Comte has 
 selected seven which will represent the various aspects of his genius : 
 this, rather than the selection of his seven masterpieces, being the 
 object of the choice. The list comprises five dramas, viz.. Secret 
 Revenge for Secret Wrong, The Mayor of Zalamea, Lifers a Dream, 
 Not Always as Bad as it Seems, May Mornings ; and two autos, The 
 Merchant's Shi}} and The Vineyard of the Lord. Secret Revenge, the 
 story of an injured husband who kills his wife but conceals her guilt, 
 deals, like The Physician of His Own Dishonour, with a sublime form of 
 egoism strangely at variance with Christian doctrine, yet intimately con- 
 nected with the strength and delicacy of modern character. The fear of 
 man's opinion is not the noblest motive ; yet neither is it the meanest, 
 when the men feared are loyal comrades. The Mayor of Zalamea is a. 
 yeoman, on whom officers are billeted. On one of them, who has outraged 
 his daughter and refused to make such rei^aration as is possible, he 
 executes the supreme sentence of the law, making his cause good before 
 the General and before the King. This dx-ania bears invaluable testi- 
 mony to the sturdy dignity of character difl'used through all classes in 
 Spain. Life's a Dream shows the philosophic side of the poet's genius. 
 Sigismund, a Polish prince, predestined, astrologers said, to evil, and 
 therefore imprisoned from childhood, is taken in narcotic sleep from his 
 dungeon to a throne. Giving way to every brutish passion, he is re- 
 imprisoned, and regards the adventure as a dream. If such sleep comes 
 again, he will dream differently, he thinks. A popular tumult gives 
 him a second chance : he is again placed on the throne, and this time 
 struggles against the vices of the blood. Whether he wake or sleep he 
 knows not, but honour and honesty are best. And so he is trained to 
 self-mastery, not by slavish bondage, but by free choice : for to do good 
 is best, even if life be a dream. The theme occurs frequently with 
 Calderon, especially in his autos, one of which bears the same title. 
 May Mornings is a bright and charming love-idyll. In Not so Bad as 
 it Seems the hero has good reason for suspecting his betrothed, to whom, 
 nevertheless, he behaves with exquisite and chivah'ous delicacy, finding 
 out in the end that she is guiltless. Tliis is the play that contains tlie 
 energetic invective against those who would lower the standard of love, 
 quoted by Comte in the dedication of his Positive Polity. A brief 
 notice of the first of the two autos may be given. Sin, tlie pilot of a 
 black ship, Ijrings the World, the Flesh, and the Devil t(j an island 
 where Man lies asleep, with Desire awake beside him. Thither comes 
 the Merchant (Christ), attended by Love, to warn him of the danger. 
 Man rejects the warning. Senses and the fiiculties of Intellect are lent
 
 440 CALDERON : TIRSO : VONDEL [Modern 
 
 to him, Time witnessing his contract to return them when called for. 
 The World robs him of Memory, Fleshly Lust of Will, the Demon of 
 Reason. Time comes to claim the deposit. Man is bankrupt and 
 adjudged to prison. The Merchant reappears, offering his own im- 
 prisonment that Man may be redeemed, and bringing in his corn-ship 
 the mystic Bread of Life. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Some of Calderon's dramas have been translated or paraphrased by E. Fitz- 
 gerald : republished by Quaritch, London, 1888 ; several others, includ- 
 ing some autos, by Denis Macarthy. Parts of the Wonder -icorking 
 Magician, one of the most powerful, have been freely rendered by 
 Shelley. 
 
 TIRSO {Gahrid Tdlex), d. 1648. 
 
 Gabriel Tellez, commonly known under his assumed name of Tiuso 
 DE Molina, was an ecclesiastic. Of his life little is known except that 
 he was born in Madrid ; that he was educated at the University of 
 Alcalii ; that he entered the Church in 1613 ; and that he became Abbot 
 of the Monastery of Soria, where he died in 1648, according to some 
 statements at the age of 80 — to others of 60. Five volumes of his 
 dramas remain, all published during his clerical career ; besides many 
 plays that were issued separately. Many of them are by no means dis- 
 tinguished for moral rigour ; and some were suppressed by the Inquisi- 
 tion. One of them. The Deceiver of Seville, said to be founded on the 
 adventures of a member of the Tenorio family, has become world-famous. 
 Acted in Italian at Naples, it was brought thence to Paris, and in 
 Moliere's hands became known to the world as the Festin de Pierre — 
 the original of Moliere's, Mozart's and Byron's Don Juan. Others of his 
 comedies are still acted in Sjiain, and are extremely popular. 
 
 The play chosen by Comte for his collection is a serious historical 
 drama, called A Woman's Wisdom. It describes the adventures of 
 Queen Maria of Castille, left a young widow with an infant heir, and 
 beset by three fierce suitors — Henry, brother of Alfonso the Wise, John, 
 brother of Sancho the Brave, and Diego de Haro, lord of the Basque 
 provinces. The queen stands faithful to her lord and her son, and they 
 unite in rebellion against her. Two of them are loyal foes, one is a 
 traitor, who suborns a Jewish physician to poison the prince. The 
 poisoner is detected, and poisoned with his own jDotion. Twice the 
 rebels are subdued, and twice forgiven. Finally the boy himself is 
 plied with suspicions of his mother's truth, but through this peril also 
 she comes out victoriously. It is a fine theme boldly and nobly treated, 
 with impetuous action that never allows interest to flag. [J. H. B.] 
 
 VONDEL {Joost van den), b. 1587, d. 1679. 
 
 VoNDEL, the founder and chief of the national poetry of Holland, 
 was born in Cologne 1587, where his parents. Anabaptists of Antwerp, 
 bad taken refuge from the Spanish persecution. They soon returned to
 
 Drama] VONDEL : RACINE 441 
 
 their native country, and settled at Amsterdam, where they carried on 
 trade in hosiery. Vondel succeeded to the business, which was managed 
 by his wife till her death whilst he wrote poetry. His first tragedy, 
 Henry iv., appeared, when he was 23, in 1610. His tragedy of Fala- 
 medss, 1625, a patriotic defence of Barneveldt, was received with applause, 
 but involved him in a Stiite prosecution and fine. When long past 
 middle life, he was driven out of the Anabaptist community, in which 
 he had been brought up, and he then joined the Church of Rome. From 
 that time most of his poetical works are on sacred subjects. His life 
 closed in domestic trouble and misfortune ; but he ultimately received 
 a small municipal office, and was allowed to retire on a full pension. He 
 died at Amsterdam in 1679, at the age of 92 ; being only twenty-three 
 years younger than Shakespeare, and yet having outlived Milton, who 
 was his junior by twenty-one years. 
 
 Vondel is by common consent the father of Dutch poetry, and the 
 restorer of the national tongue. He is the author of thirty-two tragedies, 
 of a translation of the Fsahrii^, and of the classical poets, both of Greece 
 and Rome. His career as well as his poetry has some analogy with those 
 of Milton, whom he may be said to resemble in his life of domestic trouble 
 and difficulty, in his intense political and religious sympathies, in his 
 somewhat stormy career and unmerited persecutions, and in the deeply 
 biblical spirit of his later poetry. In his sacred and mystical lyrics he 
 has some distant analogy with Calderon. His most flunous work is 
 Lucifer, a. sacred drama, of which the subject is the Fall of the Rebel Angels : 
 which, both in plot and in spirit, has some real resemblance to the 
 Paradise Lost. As to the extent of this resemblance criticism has raged 
 from the time of jNIilton till now. Dutch critics have called Milton 
 a plagiarist ; and his English defenders have denied all resemblance. 
 Lucifer was published in 1654 — Vondel being then 67 and Milton 46. 
 Milton certainly read Dutch. Farad ise Lost, though conceived much 
 earlier, was not seriously begun till 1658, and it was published in 1667. 
 It is impossible now to doubt that Milton owed to Vondel not a little 
 of his general conception. In power, in lyrical beauty, and in dignity, the 
 great dramatist of Holland is well worthy to take his place amongst the 
 historical dramatists of France, Germany, Spain, and Italy. Lucifer has 
 been translated into French. [F. H.] 
 
 EACINE {Jean), h. 1639, d. 1699. 
 
 Jean Racixe was born at La Fertu Milon, a small town of the Valois, 
 not far from Soissons, 21st December 1639. For three generations tlie 
 Racines had all borne the name of Jean, and held the office of local 
 collectors of revenue. The poet's father and mother died in his infancy, 
 and he was brought up by his grandfather and grandmother, whose rela- 
 tions were closely connected with the Aljbey of Port-Royal. He was 
 educated at the College of Beauvais till the age of 16 ; he was afterwards 
 three years at Port-Royal, and then passed into the College of liarcourt, 
 at Paris. He subsequently passed some time in Languedoc, at the house 
 of his uncle, a canon, ostensibly studying tlieology with a view to orders ;
 
 442 RACIN:E [Modern 
 
 but at the age of 22 he returned to Paris, definitely resolved to pursue 
 the career of poet. The biographers relate his early zeal and success with 
 the classical poets. He wrote elegant Latin poems, and became saturated 
 with the Greek dramatists. Sophocles, Euripides, and Ariosto were his 
 favourite reading. With the exception of Milton and Gray, no modern 
 poet has been so completely trained in classical scholarship. 
 
 At the age of 20, his Ode on the marriage of Louis xiv. attracted the 
 attention of Colbert, who sent him a gift of 100 louis ; and a pension of 
 600 livres was subsequently granted to him for another ode which he 
 wrote at the age of 23. This brought to Racine the friendship of Boileau 
 and of Moliere, and some early tragedies were represented with moderate 
 success. Andromaque (1667) revealed to the world the young dramatist 
 (aged 27) in all his power. The King and the court took him into 
 favour ; and a strong party proclaimed his superiority to Corneille, then 
 more than thirty years ;his senior and in the decline of his powers. In 
 ten years (1667-77), Racine produced seven tragedies and one charming 
 comedy. All were received with almost extravagant applause, which 
 proclaimed him the first of the poets of his time. Phedre, the last of the 
 series (1677), is perhaps his chief masterpiece in pure tragedy. But the 
 sensitive and somewhat morbid spirit of the poet led to a great revulsion. 
 Indignant at the cabals of his rivals, the attacks of critics, filled with 
 religious doubts as to the sinfulness of the theatre, and possibly disap- 
 pointed in love, he resolved to withdraw for ever from the stage, in order 
 to devote himself to a religious life, and even to become a monk of Char- 
 treuse. His friends prevented him from leaving the world ; but the poet 
 adhered to his purpose. 
 
 At the age of 37 he left the stage for ever, and lived a life of strict 
 religious meditation. His was a character neither very generous, amiable, 
 nor exalted. His self-esteem was great : his temper querulous ; and a 
 life of ease and devotional retirement exactly suited his somewhat morbid 
 egoism. The confessor whom he consulted induced him to marry. By 
 Catherine de Romanet he had seven children, of whom four daughters 
 entered into convents, and Louis, his youngest son, became a poet of some 
 repute, and has left us an agreeable life of his father. Racine was soon 
 appointed historian to the King, and devoted most of the literary portion 
 of his later life to accumulate materials for a history of Louis xiv. The 
 twenty-two years which remained to him he gave to devotion, to religious 
 meditation, to the society of Boileau and a few friends, and to the careful 
 education of his children. He came rarely to court, avoided all his old 
 associations, and would not permit the theatre or his own pieces to be 
 mentioned before him. It is said that long after his death his wife asked 
 his son what was the diflerence between masculine and feminine rhymes. 
 The Edher and Athalie (1690-91), sacred dramas written solely for the 
 pupils of St. Cyr at the urgent entreaty of ^ladame de Maintenon, were 
 in no way a breach of the self-denying ordinance which the poet had 
 imposed on himself. These beautiful pieces are hardly dramas ; but 
 Racine felt compunction to see them treated as such. He wrote no more. 
 His criticism of the campaigns of the King in a private memoir submitted 
 to Madame de Maintenon, or some other remonstrance, led to his dis- 
 grace. He died, April 1699, in his 60th year, in all the peace given by a
 
 Drama] EACINE : VOLTAIKE 443 
 
 profoundly devotional spirit. He was buried at Port-Royal, whence his 
 remains have been removed to St. Etienne-du-Mont, where he still lies 
 beside Pascal. 
 
 Racine is almost the only instance of a great poet who in middle life 
 has renounced his art, as did the painter Fra Bartolomeo and the 
 musician Rossini. ^The world has perhaps not greatly lost ; for twelve 
 complete dramas of Racine exist, and, with all their polish and beauty, 
 their range is very limited and their effect somewhat monotonous. The 
 plays selected for the Positivist Library were : — Andromaque, Les 
 Flaideurs, Britannicus, Bajazet, fyhigenie, Phedre, Athalie. By common 
 consent Racine is the greatest known master of the French language, and 
 the exquisite grace of his verses has hardly been surpassed in the ancient 
 tongues even by Virgil or Sophocles. In mastery of the resources of the 
 drama, as understood in his age, in pathos and ideal grace, Racine has no 
 modern superior. Voltaire, and many French critics, following the court 
 of his time, Hallam and others in England, looked on him as superior to 
 Corneille. There can be no doubt that this judgment places literary skill 
 before grandeur of conception. We feel Corneille to be a great poet 
 sacrificed to a narrow theory of art : we feel Racine to be a consum- 
 mate artist who lived to show all of which that theory was capable. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 G. Saintsbury : French Literature ; and also Life in Encycl. Brit. vol. xx. 
 
 VOLTAIRE {Francois-Marie Arouet), b. 1694, d. 1778. 
 
 Voltaire (doubtless an anagram for A.R.O.V.E.T. L.I., i.e. Le Jeune) 
 was the literary name adopted at the age of 24 by the third son of 
 Frangois Arouet, a successful notary of Paris, of an ancient family from 
 Poitou. Voltaire was born near Paris in February 1694, and was 
 educated by the Jesuits at the aristocratic college of Louis-le-Grand, 
 where he was early distinguished by his audacity and his ability. In 
 the Calendar Voltaire is placed as a dramatic poet between Racine and 
 Metastasio. In the Library Comte has placed his Age of Louis XIV., as 
 well as a selection of his dramas. But in neither does he appear as 
 thinker or critic. The present notice will be confined to the dramatic 
 side only of his long life and prodigious literary career. 
 
 He entered early a brilliant and scandalous society of nobles, was 
 twice thrown into the Bastille, and was twice bastinadoed by victims of 
 his wit. At the age of 32 he came to England, where he passed tlu-ee 
 years, perhaps the most important of his life : those which give the key- 
 note to his career. The next twenty years of his life were mainly occupied 
 with poetry, and for the most part were passed in his frontier retreat at 
 Cirey, in the society of Madame de ("hatelet. After her death, in 1749, 
 he visited Frederick the Great at Berlin, where he lived three years. In 
 1755 he took up his residence on the Lake of Geneva. There lie lived a 
 life of inexhaustible literary activity till 1 778. Then he made a triumphal 
 return into Paris, which he had not seen for twenty-eiglit years. Three 
 months later he died there at the age of 84 (May 1778). His remains
 
 444 VOLTAIRE [Modern 
 
 were placed in the Pantheon in 1791, but were removed at the Restora- 
 tion. The hostility of Louis xv., of his mistresses, and the Jesuits had 
 compelled this most typical master of French literature to pass almost 
 the whole of his life abroad or in some obscure retreat ; and nearly all 
 his characteristic works were published in foreign countries. Comte has 
 done justice to his marvellous literary influence as a critical force (Fos. 
 Pol. iii. 496, 505, 508, 511). But the Calendar is designed entirely as 
 a synthetic and educational instrument, and systematicidly excludes all 
 merely destructive and revolutionary action. Thus Comte places Voltaire 
 amongst the permanent benefactors of mankind as a poet, not as a 
 philosopher. 
 
 Voltaire's poetic career belongs mainly to the first half of his long- 
 life. His CEclipiis (1718) was represented when he was 24 ; and Tancral, 
 the last drama of importance, in 1760. It must be admitted that 
 Voltaire is greatly inferior both to CorneiUe and Eacine as a poet. He 
 has neither massive power nor exquisite pathos. But he is a consummate 
 master of dramatic craft within the lines of the French tragic ideal, 
 which he did much to amplify and complete. He has unerring passion 
 and grace in his command of language ; and he is consistently serious, 
 thoughtful, and stately. To enter into the merits of the French stage 
 we must put aside ithe foolish British prejudice which measures all 
 dramatic poetry by its approach to or distance from Shakespeare. And 
 we must regard its rigorous concentration of action, its narrow limitations 
 to types rather than to individualities, its solemn and monotonous form, 
 as the conditions of art felt to be indispensable. The cultured minds of 
 the century revolted from anything that tended to sacrifice symmetry, 
 clearness, refinement of form, and external canons of measured tone. 
 
 Within these canons, and to satisfy these tastes, Voltaire did every- 
 thing in drama that is possible to one who was a consummate literary 
 artist, not a profound tragic poet. The passion which animated his 
 whole career to teach a manlier spirit and to spread the light of a 
 nobler thought^ burns through nearly all his poems, and makes them 
 sometimes rather vehicles of controversy than works of Art. Comte 
 indeed assures us that Voltaire deliberately sacrificed the leading place 
 which he might have obtained amongst the second-class poets, in order 
 to make his plays a means of carrying on the work of spiritual eman- 
 cipation {Pos. Pol. iii. 508). The nine plays selected for the Library 
 are : — Brutus, Zaire., Alzirc, 3Icrope, Scmiramu, Oreste, Rome Sauvce, 
 L'orphelin de la Chine, Tancrkle. Voltaire's dramas are not indeed 
 controversial pamphlets, as some critics pretend ; but the poet never 
 forgets that a retrograde religious oppression, and a cruel and enervated 
 autocracy, weighed down the efforts of his age. His dramas were 
 efforts to raise the moral and religious genius of his countrymen. 
 Nor were these efforts in vain : and they are not forgotten. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 J. Morley : Voltaire. Schlegel : Dramatic Literature. Eugene Asse, in 
 Jiingraphie Genirale, vol. xlvi.
 
 Drama] METASTASIO 445 
 
 METASTASIO {Pictro Antonio Domenico Bonaventura Trapassi), 
 b. 1698, d. 1782. 
 
 METASTASIO, the son of one Trapassi of Assisi, a Papal soldier, was born 
 at Rome, January 1698. At the age of ten, the child's wonderful talent 
 of improvising poetry so struck Vincent Gravina, the eminent scholar 
 and jurist, that he adopted the boy, gave him the name of Metastasio 
 {i.e. the Changed One, a playful Greek translation of the name Trapassi), 
 undertook his education, and ultimately left him his whole fortune. 
 At the age of 15, the young Metastasio wrote a drama on the Aristote- 
 lian model ; at the age of 20 he lost his patron ; but soon afterwards he 
 fell under the influence of the singer and actress, Maria Bulgarini. With 
 her aid he greatly improved the modern opera, his first piece Dido being 
 represented in 1724 {(dat. 36). In 1730 his fame caused the Emperor 
 Charles vi. to invite him to Vienna, with the title of Imperial Poet and 
 a salary of 3000 florins. There he lived for fifty-two years in the house of 
 his friend Martines, producing a series of dramas, operas, oratorios, and 
 cantatas, loaded with honours by the court and by the public, and in the 
 full tide of prosperity, wealth, and glory. He refused the offer of titles, 
 dignities, crosses, and the crown of poetry on the Capitol, and died at 
 the age of 84, after a life of unbroken success and j^eace. 
 
 Metastasio is nearly the contemporary of Voltaire, being by four years 
 his junior and dying at exactly the same age. He left some 29 dramas, eight 
 oratorios, and 100 other pieces, of which more than 40 editions appeared 
 in his own lifetime. Dr. Burney thus describes him at the age of 74 : — 
 " For that time of life he is the handsomest man I ever beheld. There 
 are painted on his countenance all the genius, goodness, propriety, 
 benevolence, and rectitude which constantly characterise his writings." 
 Metastasio was of most amiable and affectionate nature ; his whole career 
 showed the same sweetness and charm which are the great merits of his 
 poetry. He was musician as well as poet, played on the harpsichord, 
 sang, and composed. Some of his pieces have been set to music by 30 or 
 40 different composers, amongst whom are Porpora, Handel, Glnck, and 
 Mozart. The principal is the Clemency of TituA, the opera of which by 
 Mozart still keeps the stage. They are all classical in subject. IMeta- 
 stasio received unbounded and even extravagant applause in his own 
 country. Eousseau, in his Hcloise, calls him "the one poet of the heart : 
 the only genius who can charm us at once by poetical and musical 
 harmony." Voltaire compared him at his best to Corneille without his 
 declamation, and to Racine without his weakness ; and Schlegel calls 
 him the Racine of Italy. He possessed exquisite grace and melody of 
 style ; great dramatic skill, and singular tenderness of pathos. His 
 favourite poets were Horace, Ovid, Ariosto, and Guarini. Comte con- 
 stantly cites him, and regarded him as one of the creators of the opera as 
 well as a most beautiful spirit. His dramas are without individuality, 
 definite character, or tragic power. His grace too often becomes mono- 
 tonous, and his tenderness feeble. The place whicli he occupies in the 
 week of Corneille is doubtless due more to the im])ulselie gave to music 
 than to lis own dramatic power. [F. H.]
 
 446 ALFIERI [Modern 
 
 ALFIERI {Vittorio, Coimt), b. 1749, d. 1803. 
 
 Alfieri, of a noble Piedmontese family, was bom at Asti in 1749, 
 and educated at Turin. He learned but little Latin, and read no Italian 
 classic but Ariosto. At the age of 16 he found himself with a consider- 
 able fortune, and for many years he led a life of restlessness, and unsatis- 
 fied aims ; between 1765 and 1777, travelling much over Italy, France, 
 Holland, Germany, England, and Sweden. His early life was a search 
 after excitement, but not degraded or debauched, and was filled with the 
 vague Eousseauism and classical republicanism which then dominated 
 Europe. His first drama was produced at the age of 26, as a mere 
 mental exercise. At the age of 28 he became attached to the Countess of 
 Albany, the unhappy wife of the wretched Prince Charles Edward, the 
 Young Pretender. With her he formed an intimate union which lasted 
 through life, and to her he attributes all that was good or enduring in 
 himself. He championed her cause ; before long he lived with her ; and 
 perhaps after the Prince's death (in 1788) he became her lawful husband, 
 but she never assumed his name. 
 
 In the seven years 1777-1782, Alfieri produced fourteen dramas, some 
 of which are still Italian classics, and one or two of which still keep the 
 stage. He laboured seriously long after middle life to improve his edu- 
 cation, learned Latin, and at the age of 47 made himself master of Greek. 
 He died in 1803, aged 54, and is buried in Santa Croce in Florence, where 
 the Countess of Albany raised over his remains a sumptuous monument 
 by Canova. Alfieri offers not a few analogies with Byron, whom he pre- 
 ceded by forty years, in his restless, proud, and self-willed temper, in the 
 circumstances of his life, and in generous social aspiration. As a man, 
 Alfieri has far more dignity and simplicity of nature : as a poet he has 
 far less passion and splendour of imagination. Alfieri, who loved Plutarch 
 and the heroes of antiquity, would admit nothing worthy of tragedy but 
 the heroic, the terrible, and the imposing. He disdained the courtier- 
 like tenderness of Metastasio, and held that the task of tragedy was to 
 cleanse the soul by pity and terror. His dramas are uniformly noble and 
 stately in general conception : but they are devoid of individual character, 
 grace of form, or tragic movement : and, as Alfieri is not jEschylus, his 
 persistent appeal to the terrible and the sublime is often tedious. The 
 style is severe almost to dryness ; the plot simple almost to dulness ; 
 and the scene often bare to coldness. Antigone, Saul, Myn-ha, and 
 Eosmunda are still read and performed. 
 
 His own Life of Hiviself is a fair and striking study. Madame de 
 Stael thus characterises him : — " His tragedies have the monotony of 
 energy, as those of Metastasio have the monotony of sweetness. Such is 
 the profusion of magnanimity, such the exaggeration of crime in them, 
 that the true character of men is lost. He is a poet accidentally trans- 
 planted from antiquity to modern times." Alfieri, though perhaps as a 
 classical poet superior to Metastasio, has none of his tenderness and charm, 
 and had far less influence on his age. Augustus Schlegel has well said : — 
 " He aimed at being the Cato of the theatre ; but he forgot that, though 
 the tragic poet may be a Stoic, tragic poetry nmst never be stoical. We 
 praise his tragedies rather as the actions of the man than as the works of
 
 Drama] ALFIEEI : SCHILLER 447 
 
 the poet."' Although, like Byron, Alfieri was full of disdain for revolu- 
 tionary anarchy, he belongs essentially to the new era ; and his monu- 
 mental style and perfect character deeply impressed the generation which 
 succeeded him. More than any other poet, he has helped to raise Italian 
 literature out of the fatal tendency towards morbidezza which has more 
 or less afflicted it ever since the time of Boccaccio. [F. H.] 
 
 SCHILLER (Johann Chrhtoph Friedrich von), b. 1759, d. 1805. 
 
 ScniLLKR was born at IMarbach, 10th November 1759. Whilst at 
 the Duke of Wiirtemberg-'s Military Academy at Stuttgart, he wrote The 
 Bobbers (1781) ; a year afterwards it was performed on the stage with 
 the result that he, then a subaltern officer, was placed by the Duke in 
 arrest, and then received an order thenceforth to abstain from litera- 
 ture. Rather than comply Schiller fled by night across the border. This 
 Hegira committed him to u literary career as the only one open to him, 
 and, working with the general movement of the time, determined the 
 spirit and theme of his early productions — Freedom. For many years 
 he led the j^ainful life of a penniless exile, and but for generous bene- 
 factors (some of them strangers unknown to him in foreign lands), he 
 must have succumbed. From poetry he turned to prose for a livelihood, 
 and, fresh from his drama of Don Carlos (1787), he wrote his Revolt of the 
 Netherlands. This procured him a Chair of History with a nominal sti- 
 pend at the University of Jena, and there he composed his second historical 
 work. The Thirtij Years' War. In the interval (1790), he had married 
 Charlotte von Lengefeld, and four years hiter he entered on his friendship 
 with Gothe — the two events which helped to give him inward happiness 
 and to stimulate his spiritual activity in a period which otherwise, from 
 poverty and ill-health, was one of sore trial. At length his time came. 
 In 1799 he was established by the Duke of Weimar at his Court on a 
 modest pension. The closing years of his brief life he spent at Weimar 
 with no drawback but the constant one of shattered health, in a happy 
 home, amid public honour, side by side and hand in hand with Gothe ; 
 the two labouring incessantly by production, by criticism, by the conduct 
 of the court stage, and every practical endeavour to ennoble the drama 
 and elevate their country by art. Schiller's finest and most mature 
 works are his Wallenstein (1799), and his William Tell (1804) : and it 
 is the historical drama of Germany which he represents in the (calendar. 
 He also wrote many beautiful ballads and minor poems {Sony of the Bell, 
 To Joy, The WaR, etc.). He died at Weimar, May 1805, aged only 45. 
 
 Schiller was an idealist. Hence a tendency to unreality, to a certain 
 feverish exaltation both in language and sentiment, to impassioned 
 rhetoric as a substitute for poetry. But what gifts, wliat virtues were 
 his ! A nobility of soul, proof against poverty, dependence, ill-health, 
 success : an enthusiasm for his art, but ever with a view to the welfare 
 of mankind, an abiding sense of the " priest-like function " of the poet. 
 If indeed the poet's mission is to present pure and elevating ideals of 
 life, Schiller may take high rank. Freedom from oppression, temjioral 
 and spiritual ; freedom froni sloth, ignorance, and vice : love of the
 
 448 SCHILLER : COENEILLE [Modern 
 
 family, unity in the State, feeling for the race, benevolence in the 
 sovereign, loyalty in the statesman, the citizen, and the friend ; the courage 
 of the warrior, the blessings of peace and ordered life ; the self-sacrificing 
 aspirations of youth, of lovers, and all ingenuous souls ; the nobility of 
 woman — these are the themes which Schiller sang with glorious vehe- 
 mence : ancient ideas, intelligible, indeed familiar to all, but needing to 
 be revived for the depressed generation in which his lot was cast. 
 Schiller's dramas were a trumpet-call to what was best and noblest around 
 him : his verses stirred the spirit which, when the time came, was to 
 achieve the liberation of his country: and they have justly found a lasting 
 home in the German heart. [G. L.] 
 
 Life by Heinrich Diintzer, Leipsic, 1881 ; translated, London, 1883. Life by 
 T. Carlyle ; also by James Sime, 1882 ; and Encydopcedia Britannica, 
 vol. xxi. Wallenstein is translated by Coleridge, Tell by Sir T. Martin 
 (Bohn's Stand. Lib.). 
 
 COENEILLE {Pierre), b. 1606, d. 1684. 
 
 CoRNEiLLE, the creator of the French drama, named Pierre after his 
 father, a legal official of Normandy, was born at Rouen, in a house recently 
 to be seen Rue de la Pie, 6th June 1606. His long life was one of peace, 
 with no other incident than the production of his plays. He is contem- 
 porary with Milton : born two years earlier, and retiring about the epoch 
 of Milton's death. He was educated by the Jesuits, for whom he ever 
 afterwards felt respect and gratitude ; succeeded his father in his legal 
 post, and practised law " without liking and without success." At the 
 age of 23 he produced his first drama, a comedy which had some 
 success in Paris, and introduced him to the dramatic company of 
 Richelieu. It was followed by other pieces of no great value. But at 
 the age of 30, Corneille revealed his power as a great tragic poet in 
 Medea and The Cid (1636). The French classical drama had been 
 founded by the Cleopatra of Jodelle, 1552 ; but in The Cid Corneille 
 at once carried it to perfection. 
 
 In spite of the rancorous hostility of Cardinal Richelieu, who had 
 the folly to be jealous of the genius and off'ended by the independence of 
 his pensioner, The Cid at once roused the widest enthusiasm, and carried 
 the public voice with it against the servile criticism of the Academy. It 
 was translated into all European languages. In 1639 Corneille presented 
 the noble tragedy of Horatins, which with grand irony he dedicated to 
 the Cardinal. Cinna, Polyev.de, Pompee, Le Menteur, Rodogvne were 
 all produced within the next five years, and mark the highest point of 
 the poet's genius. These tragedies are full of a noble spirit, worked out 
 with consummate tragic power, and they exhibit the classical drama of 
 France at its best, with its sustained and stately images of heroism, of 
 pity, and of power. Corneille himself preferred Rodogvne ; but in spite 
 of a certain weakness, of which the critics have made the most, Polyeucte 
 is usually regarded as tlie most impressive work of the poet's genius. It 
 is i;nquestionably the grandest Christian drama extant. Le Menteur 
 (]f)42) is an admirable comedy, which still keeps the stage, and to
 
 Drama] CORNEILLE 449 
 
 which Moliere was himself indebted. It is earlier than Moli^re's I'Etourdi 
 by eleven years : and thus Corneille, whose Cid, before the birth of Racine, 
 had created French tragedy, by his Menteur created French comedy, 
 before Moliere came of age. 
 
 After Eodogune, Corneille for seven years produced a series of plays, 
 hardly inferior, down to Pertharite (1653, (efat. 47). Perth arite was 
 only performed twice, and was regarded by the public as a failure. The 
 proud and sensitive spirit of Corneille was deeply wounded by this 
 unmerited rebuff ; and he publicly announced his withdrawal from the 
 theatre. He retired and devoted himself to translating the Imitatio 
 Ohridi into verse. But six years after Pertharite he was induced by 
 Fouquet to take up the pen with (Edipus as his subject, and ten years after 
 it he produced the fine and successful drama of i<ertorius (1663). Then 
 again for twelve years more, the patriarch of the Irench stage con- 
 tinued to produce dramas : all having touches of his ancient fire, but with 
 visible marks of declining power. He was already 61 when Racine 
 achieved astonishing success with Andrornaque (1667), and from that 
 time Corneille suffered deeply from the tide of popularity which set 
 towards his young rival. The critics and the public were divided, but 
 unequally. Madame de Sevigne and Louis xiv., in great measure, 
 supported the claims of the elder poet. Conscious of his genius, his in- 
 dependent dignity, and his vast services to art, the veteran felt his last 
 years clouded in bitterness, and with a sense of ingratitude and desertion. 
 He produced Pulrhcrie and Surma, the last fruits of an old tree (1673, 
 1675), " both worthy of the old age of a great man," as Fontenelle declares. 
 Then he finally renounced the drama {a''af. 69). He lived yet nine 
 years more ; and died in yn-ofound peace and retirement, at tlie age of 
 78 in 1684. He was buried in the Church of St. Roch, at Paris, where 
 his tomb is still seen. 
 
 Fontenelle, his nephew, has written the Life of Corneille, a piece full 
 of interest and enthusiasm. He was fairly tall and of full habit, with a 
 simple and plain air, always careless of his person. His countenance 
 was pleasant, with marked features and eyes of fire ; his speech slow, 
 and his conversation poor. He gave attention to literature, history, 
 and politics, mainly as they bore on the theatre ; but he cared 
 little for any other knowledge. He spoke little. " To find the great 
 Corneille, men had to read his works.-' He was melancholy, and of low 
 spirits, brusque in manner, and at times, in appeai'ance, rough ; but witli 
 a fine nature at bottom — a good father, a good Imsband, tender and full 
 of friendliness. He was prone to love, but never to lil)ertinage, and 
 lived an exemjilary life with his wife, a daughter of General des Andelys, 
 by whom he had three sons, and their stock still survives. Corneille's 
 spirit, says his nephew, was haughty and independent ; witliout suj^jile- 
 ness or address of any kind. He never loved the court, and went there 
 only as a stranger. Business of any kind filled him with aversion and 
 fear. He wa< utterly incapable of affairs ; and, in sjiite of lii-^ gain<, he 
 remained poor. He had a (loej) con-;ciousness of his own powers. 
 Though overwhelmed with ])i'aises, he showed no vaniiv ; hut the 
 ])reference given to his inferiors woimdcil him to the soul. I-'fom first to 
 last he was profoundlv religious : ami was only sustained in his work as 
 
 2 F
 
 450 CORNEILLE [Modern 
 
 a dramatist by the consciousness that he had purified and ennobled the 
 stage, and had made it a school of virtue and high feeling. 
 
 Few poets have ever been so systematic ; so careful to review and 
 explain their methods. Like Wordsworth, he has left elaborate dis- 
 sertations on his own poetic theories, and on each of his plays. The three 
 discourses and the analyses {examens) of his dramas are of the utmost 
 value to understand his ideal. He carefully edited his plays, and even 
 critically reviewed them after publication. In all this he is the very 
 antithesis of Shakespeare, the least careful and self-conscious of all poets. 
 Corneille, who created the French classical drama, worked out the canons 
 of his art advisedly. The severe conventions were his free choice ; 
 for in his early career he had written pieces of almost pantomimic 
 extravagance. If he wore chains, he forged them for himself with the 
 utmost deliberation and forethought. He is continually reviewing and 
 criticising himself : " J'ai la plume feconde et la bouche sterile." After 
 Pertharite (1653), he writes " Solve senescentem," etc. etc., and again in 
 1776, "i'i les rides du front passent jusqii'a V esprit." 
 
 In the forty-six years of his poetical activity he produced thirty-three 
 dramas, with about 70,000 lines, besides several volumes of poetry and 
 translations. It is but too true that he justified the fear, ne p)eccet ad 
 extreriium. The current Theatre de Corneille contains only eight of his 
 dramas. His later plays are hardly remembered by name. As a man, 
 Corneille reminds us of Dante ; as a poet his affinity and his sympathies 
 are with Lucan. He was himself the proud and unbending hero whom 
 he loved to represent. The motto he chose Avas : " Et rnihi res, nan me 
 rebus submittere conor." 
 
 This is not the place to describe the classical drama of France, which 
 Corneille created, and which ruled without a rival for two centuries, 
 down to the time of V. Hugo. All art has its conventions and its canons. 
 And, though the conventions and the canons of the Cornelian drama are 
 wholly unlike those of Shakespeare, Calderon, and Gothe, they have 
 been expanded and praised by some of the greatest masters of the literary 
 art the modern world has known ; and for centuries they have satisfied and 
 held spell-bound the most highly-trained audiences in Europe. Hugo and 
 his school have, even in France, broken down the exclusive authority of the 
 drama of Corneille and Racine ; and Hamlet is now played in Paris with 
 all the resources of scenic and historical surroundings. But the greatest 
 living actors and the most critical modern public still hold by The Cid, 
 Horace, and Andromaque. The range, the contrasts, the fancy, the imagina- 
 tion, the movement, the individuality, the imagery of the Shakespearian 
 drama, seem to them too dearly bought in pure tragedy. They delibe- 
 rately prefer intense concentration of interest ; sustained and statuesque 
 definition of character ; a conventional stateliness of form ; and subtle 
 elaboration of an artificial rhythm. And they do not perceive what 
 to English and (xcrman ears is so obvious — that, where this high ideal 
 is not maintained, monotony succeeds to interest ; mere "types" take the 
 place of " characters " ; conventional forms become the pedantry of acade- 
 micians and chambcrlnins ; and elaboration too often runs to seed in a 
 sickly artifice of words. But even English and German ears can feel 
 the great successes of the classical dran)a at its highe«it : its nobility.
 
 Drama] CORNEILLE : ALARCON 451 
 
 dignity, heroism, and pathos : its monumental strokes of magnanimity 
 and terror ; the mass and keenness of its impressions on the audi- 
 ence. Still less needful is it here to enter on the secular comparison 
 between the merits of Corneille and Racine. His age, Voltaire, and 
 perhaps the majority of French critics, have preferred Racine — certainly 
 the greatest master of the French language, if he be not one of the 
 greatest masters of language in any tongue. It is plain that Racine had 
 the finer culture, the more exquisite taste, the deeper tenderness, and 
 the more subtle skill as an artist. And, if these qualities be the 
 supreme ideal of the classical drama, the author of Andromaque, Phklre, 
 and Athalie had no superior before or since. As Corneille continued to 
 compose over a period more than twice as long as Racine, and as he 
 wrote three times as many pieces, he fails far more often. But in all 
 the greater plays of Corneille we feel that we are in the presence of a 
 lofty and moving spirit, who fires us with his own sense of honour, 
 jjatriotism, devotion, and pity. His own people always speak of him as 
 " the great Corneille." As with ^schylus, we feel that the poet himself 
 is not a little of the hero and the prophet, speaking on the stage with its 
 own voice. He is not seldom tedious : but he is never mawkish, mean, 
 or sensuous. His method tends to declamation : and admits speeches of 
 50 or even 100 lines without break. But even his declamatory passages 
 breathe a manly and generous nature ; and at their highest, they rise 
 into a truly majestic music. His scenes of tenderness are sometimes 
 frigid ; and his stage management is often bald and awkward. But we 
 always feel that his plays are the work of a great man labouring with 
 intractable resources : not the work of an ingenious artist, whose literary 
 accomplishments are greater than his own soul. Corneille is thus, not 
 merely the creator and chief of the French drama, but one of the noblest 
 teachers and one of the finest types of the French race : worthy, by 
 himself as well as by his works, to rank as the head of the historical 
 dramatists of France, Italy, Germany, Holland, and Spain. [F. H.] 
 
 Life, liy Fontenelle. Schlegel : Dramntic Literature. Hallam : Literature 
 of I'Airope, vols. iii. and iv. G. Saintsbury : French Literature ; and 
 also Life in Encycl. Brit. vol. vi. Sainte-Beuve : C'auseries. Guizot : 
 Corneille and his Times, translated 1852. In his Positive Library, 
 Comte adds to the acknowledged masterpieces of Corneille, viz., Le Cid, 
 Horace, Cinna, Poljieucte, Pom-pee, Piodogune — the j)roducts of liis best 
 period — the following seven plays of his later time : — Heraclius. 
 Nicomkle, Pertharite, G'Jdipe, Sertorius, Othon, Pulcherie. These latter 
 we may suppose to be chosen for their line scenes, noble types, and 
 liistorical idealisation. As tragedies they are utterly inferior to 2'he 
 Old and Poli/eucte. 
 
 ALARCON {Etiiz de), d. 1639. 
 
 Ruiz fie Alarcox was born in the second half of tlie Iflth century, 
 in the province of Tasco in Mexico : and he held a civil post of 
 importance in that colony. In 1622 we find him in Madrid as a 
 dramatic author. He published twenty plays : but he never attained 
 the popularity of Montalvan, Guevara, or other contemporary writers.
 
 452 ALARCON : MADAME DE MOTTEVILLE [Modern 
 
 and the dedications and prefaces to his volumes indicate his resentment 
 of this comparative neglect. He died in 1639. 
 
 His Tmth Suspected^ one of the two dramas selected by Comte, takes 
 for the hero a man of many amiable qualities, but of incurable mendacity. 
 Escaping with astounding ingenuity from one falsehood to another, he is 
 driven at last to the precipice of truth-telling and shame. This play 
 gave rise to the Menteur of Corneille, who remarks in the preface to 
 this play, which he at first supposed to be written by Lope de Vega, 
 that he knows nothing of its kind, either in ancient or modern literature, 
 that can be compared with it for wit and for ingenuity of incident and 
 constructive skill. In the concluding analysis of his own play, written 
 subsequently, Corneille goes so far as to say that he would give his two 
 best pieces for the credit of having written this comedy of Alarcon. 
 
 A second play, selected by Comte, Walls have Ears, deals with a 
 parallel subject, the results of slander and mischief-making. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Ticknor : Hist, of Spanish Literature, vol. ii. pp. 296-9. 
 
 MADAME DE MOTTEVILLE (Francoise Bertaut), 
 b. 1621, d. 1689. 
 
 Francoise Bertaut, to whom we owe the graceful and sensible 
 memoirs of the French Court under Richelieu and Mazarin, was born 
 probably about 1621, in a family of good position both at court and in 
 the Church. Her father was Gentleman of the King's Chamber, whose 
 brother was Bishop Bertaut, a poet of some repute ; her mother, of a 
 noble house in Spain, was attached to the person of the Queen, Anne of 
 Austria, and acted as her private secretary. By her mother the young 
 Francjoise Bertaut was devoted [donnee] to the Queen even from child- 
 hood, 1628. But the Cardinal de Richelieu, always suspicious of a 
 Spanish entourage, insisted on the intelligent child being removed from 
 court. Her mother took her away into Normandy Udat. 10), where 
 she was brought up with the greatest care and had an excellent 
 education. In 1639, at the age of 18, she was married to M. Langlois de 
 Motteville, President of the Exchequer Chamber of Normandy, a man of 
 wealth and rank, then aged 80, who had already buried two wives. This 
 ill-assorted union Francoise accepted with good feeling and irreproachable 
 conduct. In two years she was left a widow. She resolved to maintain 
 her liberty and her single estate. Soon, on the death of Richelieu and 
 Louis XIII., Madame de Motteville returned to her place near the 
 person of Anne, now become Regent in the name of her son Louis xiv. 
 (1643). Her official position was that of Lady of the Chamber ; her real 
 part was that of confidential friend. She remained in the court of Anne 
 for twenty-three years, until the death of her mistress in 1666. Then 
 she retired from the world, and devoted her life to good works and the 
 completion of her memoirs. She had a place in the society of Madame 
 de Sevigne. After a life of exemplary goodness and discretion, she died 
 in 1 689, at the age of 68. 
 
 Her Memoirs were first published in 1723, in five volumes. They 
 recount the inner history of the French court from 1615 to 1666, giving
 
 Drama] MDE. DE MOTTBVILLE : MDE. ROLAND 453 
 
 in curious detail the career of Aune from the date of her marriage. 
 Anne of Austria, daughter of Philip in. of Spain and wife of Louis xiii., 
 is the centre of these reminiscences, which were begun simply as a 
 personal recreation, in order to record a true portrait of her beloved 
 mistress. For the period from 1615 down to 1643, to which four chapters 
 are given, the sources o( her information are her own mother and the 
 Queen. From 1643 to 1666, the events of which occupy the remainder, 
 the writer is an eye-witness, and her observation is of the highest value 
 as a secret history of the career of Mazarin. She was the ideal confidante 
 of a sovereign — discreet, reticent, cautious, observant, inquisitive, and 
 laborious ; with complete self-command and patience ; never-failing in 
 devotion to her mistress, or in honour and respect towards herself. She 
 is the most sensible and reasonable of women, the most judicious and 
 cool of observers. 
 
 As historian Madame de I^ilotteville is neither profound nor ambitious, 
 but she knew personally the principal actors in this history. She paints 
 what she sees ; and she repeats what she knows. And she does this 
 with such calm and measured good sense that Sainte-Beuve has compared 
 her to Philippe de Comines. She is not often brilliant, epigrammatic, 
 or satirical, never sacrifices truth to eftect as a story-teller, and never 
 sufiers her imagination or her wit to lead her into the region of romance. 
 She is sober, at times to tedium, and moral to the verge of commonplace. 
 But as the view of a calm, clear-sighted, true-hearted woman, placed for 
 a generation in the very centre of European politics, her judgment and 
 her insight are of high historical value. The Memoirs are included by 
 Oomte in the historical section of the Positivist Library. Here they are 
 placed under the month of the dramatists, with four other prose writers 
 of history, as Froissart and Joinville are placed in the month of Dante : 
 all are painters of contemporary manners and character. [F. H.] 
 
 Sainte-Beuve : Causeries de Lundi, vol. v. 
 
 MADAME ROLAND {Marie Jeanne Phlipon), b. 1754, d. 1793. 
 
 Madame Eoland, the most extraordinary woman who figures in 
 the French Ptevoiutioii, is placed in the month of Shakespeare as sub- 
 ordinate to Madame de Motteville, simply as a painter of manners and 
 character and not at all as a politician. As all the actors in the 
 Revolution are, for reasons stated, excluded from the scheme represented 
 in the Calendar, xMadame Roland will be treated here in accordance 
 with the plan of this work as an artist and not as a woman of action. 
 She was the second child of one Pierre Uratien Phlipon, an engraver of 
 Paris, a man of poor character and moderate abilities. Her mother. 
 Marguerite Bimont, was a woman of tender, saintly, and long-sutleriug 
 temper. The child exhibited evtraordinary intelligence and most pre- 
 cocious powers both of character and of mind. At eight she was absorbed 
 in Plutarch : soon she fell in with Tclciiiaque, Tasso, Voltaire, Rousseau, 
 and the Lives of the Saints. At the age of 11 she si)ent a year in a 
 convent, and thought of taking the veil At ] 7 slie was a woman of
 
 454 MADAME ROLAND : MADAME DE S^VIGN^ [Modern 
 
 wide reading, who abeady wrote letters singularly eloquent and 
 thoughtful. For nine years more, the proud, dreamy, passionate beauty 
 shut herself up with her books and her thoughts, refusing aU suitors, and 
 disdaining the world around her. At the age of 26, out of respect and 
 prudence rather than love, she married Roland de la Platiere, a man of 
 noble heart, great acquirements, and incorruptible integrity ; a demure, 
 reserved, laborious man of business, twenty years her senior. 
 
 The marriage was happy, passionate devotion on his side, unswerving 
 loyalty and duty on hers, even when she came to love the brilliant young 
 Barbaroux. For eleven years they lived quietly in the provinces : he 
 gradually becoming known as a masterly economist, she as a woman of 
 genius and aspiration. As the Revolutionary movement grew and 
 deepened, the strong nature and the Republican convictions of the two 
 Rolands bore them to the front of the battle. They finally settled in 
 Paris at the beginning of 1791. In the salon of Madame Roland was 
 formed the Girondin Party. Roland became deputy and Minister of the 
 Interior, March 1792. Thenceforward the history of the Rolands is 
 bound up with that of the Revolution, and it cannot be told in these 
 limits. With the fall of the Girondins the Rolands were condemned to 
 death. In May 1793, she was arrested by order of the Convention ; 
 passed five months in prison, where she wrote her fascinating Memoirs, 
 and was executed 9th November 1793. Her remains were llung unre- 
 corded into the cemetery of the Madeleine, where they still lie near 
 those of Marie Antoinette, Charlotte Corday, Danton, and so many 
 more. Roland took poison on hearing of her death. Thus perished, in 
 the bloom of her beauty and her genius, a woman of powerful and deeply 
 romantic nature, of brilliant intelligence, vast ambition, and passion for 
 intrigue. 
 
 It is not necessary here to discuss her influence on politics, the 
 defects of her character, or the wisdom of her acts. In consummate 
 painting of portraits, in vivid reproduction of scenes that she witnessed, 
 Madame Roland has no superior in modern literature. A strange 
 interest is imparted to her Memoirs by a genius that recalls Rousseau in 
 its frankness, its vehemence, its somewhat irregular heat, as it recounts 
 the wonderful adventures which befall the Parisian hourgeoise. In 
 judgment, in breadth, and in calmness of vision, she is plainly inferior 
 to Madame de Motteville. Her importance as a historian is far below 
 the charm of her literary art. [F. H.] 
 
 MADAME DE Si^VIGNJEI {Marie dc FMbutin-Chantal), 
 b. 1626, d. 1696. 
 
 The most graceful of all writers of letters, Marie de Rabutin, was 
 the only daughter of the Earon de Chantal, of a family of much dis- 
 tinction both in peace and war. She was born in Paris, Fe))ruary 1626. 
 Her father was kdled in the following year, tio-htini'' a<iainst the Enrfish 
 in the He de Rhe, and her mother died a few years later. From the age 
 of ten the girl was educated by the excellent Abbe de Coulanges, her
 
 Drama] MADAME DE S^VIGN^ 455 
 
 mother's brother, under whose paternal care she received the best edu- 
 cation of her time. The poets Menage and Chapelain were amongst her 
 teachers. She learned Latin, Italian, and Spanish, and she passed some 
 years in the court of Anne of Austria. At the age of 18 she married 
 the Marquis de Sevigne, a soldier of an ancient and wealthy family of 
 Bretagne — a spendthrift, a profligate, and a ruffian. It was said that 
 she loved him without any respect ; whilst he respected her without any 
 love. He was killed in a duel in 1651, leaving his young wife, then aged 
 twenty-five, with one son and a daughter. 
 
 The widow, still at the height of her youth and beauty, rich, brilliant, 
 and already famous, devoted her life to her two children ; and for forty- 
 five years she lived for them alone, and chiefly for her daughter. During 
 the infancy of her children she remained in complete retirement ; but 
 about 1654 she returned to society ; and from henceforth she lived in 
 the centre of all that was most distinguished in the French world. No 
 breath of scandal ever touched her conduct ; nor has the gossip of a 
 scandalous and satirical age brought a single charge of any kind against 
 her memory. She was courted in vain by Turenne, the Prince of Conti, 
 the Controller Fouquet, the poet Menage, her graceless cousin Bussy 
 Rabutin, writer of libellous memoirs and daring adventurer, together 
 with a score of other admirers. The beautiful widow rejected all with- 
 out making an enemy. " You are the only woman in France," wrote 
 the impudent Bussy, "who can compel a lover to be satisfied with 
 friendship." 
 
 Madame de SkvigxjS was a member of the literary coterie of the 
 Hotel Rambouillet, and was formally classed as a precieiise. She is 
 scarcely touched with the breath of its ati'ectation : her simple nature 
 and exquisite grace preserved her from the taint. In due course she 
 married her beloved daughter to the Count de Grignan, a nobleman of 
 Provence, a widower past middle age, but a man of high position, good 
 character, and much merit. His appointment as Governor of Provence 
 (1669) removed him and his family to Grignan (Drome), separated the 
 doting mother from her only daughter, and gave the world the most 
 famous and delightful of all private letters. For twenty-seven years 
 Madame de Sevigne continued to despatch lettei"s to her daughter almost 
 daily, whether she lived in Paris or in her country seat in Brittany. She 
 died at Grignan in 1696, at the age of 70, from an attack of smallpox, 
 happy in the thought that she did not survive her child. 
 
 Her letters, which fill fourteen volumes, are the most beautiful perhaps 
 in literature. They are real budgets of actual news for home reading, 
 exquisite in style, simple, delicate, lively, and ingenious. They are tlie 
 reflex of a pure, sensitive, observant, and acute mind, artlessly recording 
 from day to day all that passes in a most brilliant and rich society. As 
 a picture of contemporary life and manners tliey have no superior in 
 modern literature. Occasionally, it is obvious, the writer is conscious 
 that she possesses a style, and that her letters are becoming a part of 
 the literature of the age. No fault has ever been iiiii)uted to them, 
 except that they are too prone to treat painful events with tlie air of 
 badinage which has grown into sonietliing of a mannerism. N en- has 
 any defect been charged against the pure and just nature of the writer,
 
 456 MADAME DE SilVIGN^: : LADY MONTAGU [Modern 
 
 except that she is immoderately doting to her daughter, quite foolishly 
 exaggerates her qualities, and most preposterously overrates her im- 
 portance. To this venial extravagance we owe the most charming 
 correspondence that time has spared. On all but her own children and 
 their concerns, Madame de Sevigne has a judgment as sound as it is 
 genuine and natural. [F. H.] 
 
 LADY MONTAGU (Lady Mary Pierrepont), b. 1690, d. 1762. 
 
 Lady Mary Pierrepont was the eldest daughter of the first Duke of 
 Kingston by Lady Mary Fielding, daughter of the third Earl of Denbigh. 
 She was born at Thoresby, county of Nottingham, in 1690, being through 
 her mother second cousin of Henry Fielding. At the age of four she 
 lost her mother, when her father the Duke concentrated all his affection 
 on the child, gave her every advantage in education, and introduced her 
 as a wit and a "toast" to his own gay guests. The girl had a complete 
 classical and modern training, and read widely and at will. At the age 
 of 22, after a long and somewhat literary courtship, she married Edward 
 Wortley Montagu, a young man of good family, of excellent education, 
 and unexceptionable character. He was a cousin of Charles Halifax, 
 First Lord of the Treasury, became member of parliament, and then 
 entered the Ministry. 
 
 For some years Lady Mary Moxtagit was in the centre of the best 
 society of London. She there became intimate with Addison, Pope, 
 Congreve, and the wits of the time. In 1716, when the young wife 
 was of the age of 26, her husband was named ambassador at Constanti- 
 nople. There she resided for two years. On her return (adat. 28) she 
 settled at Twickenham, became the intimate friend of Pope, and made 
 herself the centre of a famous literary and elegant circle. She had 
 enemies, rivals, and victims ; but no suspicion has ever touched her 
 conduct. Her famous quarrel with Pope was, doubtless, caused by 
 the rebuff she administered to the then senile poet. In 1 739 (at at. 49) 
 she left England for her health, settled in Italy, or in Savoy, passing 
 her summers at Lovere, on the Lake of Iseo. She never saw her hus- 
 band again; and on his death (1761) she returned to England at the 
 instance of her daughter. Her own death followed in 1762, and she is 
 buried in Lichfield Cathedral. She is famous for having introduced 
 from the East the practice of inoculation, of which she became the 
 enthusiastic apostle. ' 
 
 Her place in this Calendar is due to her famous Lcttrrs, the most 
 elaborate in English literature. They were first puljlished surreptitiously 
 in 1763; but no complete collection existed until the present century. 
 Her great-grandson. Lord Wharneclitfe, publishci her entire works in 
 1836. Her letters are, beyond cpiestion, admirable pictures of men and 
 manners, and her description of Eastern life is of the highest value and 
 interest. A certain want of tenderness and an occasional coarseness 
 belonged to her age rather than to her nature ; but as a painter of 
 social life she has no English superior. [F. H.]
 
 Drama] LE SAGE : STERNE 457 
 
 LE SAGE {Alain Rene), b. 1668, d. 1747. 
 
 Le Sage was born at Sarzeau, near Vannes, in Brittany, in 1668, 
 the son of a notary of some substance. He lost both parents in child- 
 hood, and a wicked uncle squandered his small fortune. He was edu- 
 cated by the Jesuits at the College of Vannes, which he left at the age 
 of 18. He was called to the bar, but failed of success. Marrying the 
 pretty but dowerless daughter of a citizen of Paris at 26, he turned for 
 a livelihood to literature. Until nearly the age of forty Le Sage worked 
 on it) obscurity and want, pouring out a multitude of plays, stories, and 
 translations without novelty or merit. In the Abbe de Lyonne he found 
 a protector who turned his attention to Spanish literature. The Diable 
 Boitetix, which we call the Devil on Tico ISticks (1707), made a sensation. 
 It was suggested by the Spanish of Guevara (p. 432) ; but Le Sage 
 made it entirely original and French. Turcaret, an excellent comedy 
 of manners, followed shortly afterwards (1709), but was furiously opposed 
 by a clique. His great work, Gil Bias, appeared first in 1715, but was 
 not completed vmtil 1735 {ictat. 47-67). He continued to pour out an 
 immense number of plays, operettas, and stories which have no per- 
 manent value, and which failed to procure him a competence. In his 
 old age, poor, infirm, and deaf, he retired to Boulogne where his son 
 was canon. He retained his cheerful mind and a few friends, and died 
 in 1747 in his 80th year. 
 
 His gTeat work, Gil Bias, which is in the Positivist Library, is one 
 of the most brilliant pictures of life in modern literature. It is saturated 
 with Spanish romance, and in parts it is imitated from Quevedo, Cer- 
 vantes, Espinel, and others. The foolish suggestion that it was trans- 
 lated from a Spanish source is entirely obsolete. Gil Bias, with all its 
 strong Spanish colouring and its obvious Spanish source, is intensely 
 original and essentially French. Tlie critics of all nations combine in 
 praise of the instinctive genius for human character, the marvellous life 
 of the tale, and the natural ease with which the events seem to grow out 
 of the situation, and the persons develop their inner nature. Gil Bias 
 has indeed little of the dramatic skill with which Fielding, his pupil, 
 has brought to a denoument a series of plots ingeniously interwoven. 
 But the story is so admiraljly varied, and its issue is so natural and true 
 to life, that no weariness is felt. The growth of the character of Gil 
 Bias himself is perhaps the most skilful point in the entire work. In 
 variety, life, and truth, Le Sage ranks amongst the greatest masters of 
 the comedy of human nature. [F. H.] 
 
 Saiute-Beuve : Coimrtes di' Lnrtdl. 'G. Saintsbury : Fren'CH LrrKKAiCKK, 
 and LiFi:, in Jvn<ycl. l',rU. vol. xiv. 
 
 STERNE (LoMrtncc), b. 1713, d. 1768. 
 
 Prebendary of York Cathedral and country parson in Yorksliire, but 
 essentially a dramatic artist and wit, Stkkne took sudden rank as a 
 fashionable novelist by puldishing in 1759 the first two volumes of 
 Tristram Shandy. Other volumes followed ; and A Hcntiuicidal Jovrncy,
 
 458 STERNE : MADAME DE STAAL [Modern 
 
 immediately before his deatii : both works were left incomplete. Sterne 
 suffered much from lung-disease, but his vivacious spirit never languished. 
 Seeking health, he made various journeys in France, of which more ,mo 
 he tells. He died and was buried in London. (Portrait by Reynolds, 
 also by Carmontelle.) 
 
 Domestic or travelling scenes, studiously trivial for the most part, 
 a few eccentric, highly significant characters (his own included), drawn 
 to the life of 18th century manners; and with these, interwoven in a 
 familiar medley of observation, sentiment, and daring drollery — philoso- 
 phic " opinions " upon Human Nature — such is Sterne's work. " Yorick " 
 is the name he loved to give himself. He thus portrays several charac- 
 teristic features of the Intellectual Revolution : religious decay ; antique 
 duty surviving in obscure military worthies ; scientific curiosity ; sense, 
 feeling, and wit triumphing over metaphysic and theology ; a vague 
 Deism consecrating kindness, compassion, and testhetic impulse, but 
 rejecting rule and licensing sentimental and moral extravagances, 
 especially indecency. His best characters shine with delightful affection, 
 but he gives no fine type of womanhood. As joyous satirist, Sterne 
 owed most to Rabelais, Cervantes, and Moliere : he himself became to 
 G-ermany and France, as well as England, a leader of Prose Romance. 
 
 [V. L.] 
 Fitzgerald : Life of Sterne. 
 
 MADAME DE STAAL {Marguerite Jeanne Cordicr de Launay), 
 b. 1684, d. 1750. 
 
 The graceful writer known as Madame de Staal was the younger 
 daughter of an obscure painter named Cordier, who was driven into exile 
 and died in England. Her mother then resumed her maiden name of 
 de Launay, and devoted herself to the education of her two daughters. 
 They were brought up at the Abbey of St. Sauveur, at Evreux. There 
 Marguerite de Launay, the favourite of Madame de Grieu, received a 
 fine education, was named Prioress of Saint Louis at Rouen, and was 
 treated as a lady of distinction. She studied Descartes, Fontenelle, and 
 Malebranche, and carried on an active correspondence with many eminent 
 persons. At the age of 26 she was presented to the Duchess of La Ferte, 
 with whom her sister was in service, and she was treated ])y the Duchess 
 with a mixture of favour, ca2)rice, and tyranny, charmingly described by 
 her victim. 
 
 By the Duchess, Mademoiselle de Launay was introduced to the 
 Duchess de Maine, wife of a legitimated child of Louis xiv., having ultimate 
 rights to the succession. The Princess took her into her service as lady's 
 maid, and renewed the favour, caprice, and tyranny of the Duchess of 
 La Ferte. With her the young De Launay remained for 40 years. She 
 lost her position as brilliant woman of the literary and social world, and 
 was treated as the confidential servant of the Princess. Fontenelle 
 recognised and reported to the Princess the genius of her maid, who was 
 constantly employed both in the amusements and the ambition of her
 
 Drama] MADAME DE STAAL : MISS EDGEWORTH 459 
 
 mistress. Under the Regency, the conspiracy of the Duke and Duchess 
 of Mame against the Due d'Oiieans led to the arrest of the entire family 
 and their suite. Mademoiselle de Launay was thrown into the Bastille, 
 where she passed two years {cdat. 34-36). On her release the Princess 
 again claimed her, with promises of finding her a husband, and with the 
 oB'er of a post in her court. 
 
 '- i The helpless Mademoiselle de Launay served her imperious protectress 
 for fifteen years more. At last she accepted an officer of the Swiss Guard, 
 the Baron de Staal, an honest and elderly widower with two ill-tempered 
 daughters (1735, oitat. 51). " The baron," she tells us, " under promise 
 of promotion, consented to take a wife who had neither birth, nor fortune, 
 nor beaut}', nor youth." With her respectable husband she lived peace- 
 fully, to the last the creature of her exacting mistress. She died near 
 Paris, 1750, aged 66. Her Memoirs, published 1755, stand in the front 
 rank of the personal anecdotes of her time. She is the French Miss 
 Burney. Her simplicity, truthfulness, and vivid portraiture of manners 
 and character render her worthy of a place amongst the most subtle 
 artists who have described the great human comedy. [F, H.] 
 
 MISS EDGEWORTH {Maria\ b. 1767, d. 1849. 
 
 Maria Edgewortii was the eldest daughter of Richard Lovell Edge- 
 worth, of Edgeworthstown, co. Longford, Ireland. Her father, heir to a 
 considerable estate, was a man of vigour and originality of mind, the 
 actual inventor of many improvements in agriculture and industry, the 
 writer of several treatises on scientific and social questions. Miss Edge- 
 worth's gii'lliood was spent in England, at school, and with her family at 
 Lichfield, where a brilliant coterie gathered round Dr. Erasmus Darwin 
 and the eccentric philanthropist, Thomas Day. In 1782, Mr. Edgeworth 
 removed with his numerous family to Edgeworthstown, and there Miss 
 Edgeworth passed the most active years of her life in the care and educa- 
 tion of her brothers and sisters, in literary and practical work for her 
 father, and in close and sympatlietic intercourse with the tenants on the 
 estate. It was at Edgeworthstown that her most delightful stories were 
 written. She is best known in this country by her exquisite little 
 vignettes of peasant child-life. Such stories as Simple Susan, The Little 
 Basketmakers, The Hidden Treasure, are models of easy graceful writing 
 and poetic appreciation of pastoral life. Miss Edgeworth in these idylls 
 may be said to be the prose Morland of our literature. The novels are 
 now somewhat antiquated in style, though they are full of Inilliant char- 
 acter sketches. In Castle liackrent and The Absentee, we have pictures 
 of life upon the land, the relations of landlord and tenant, drawn by a 
 master of humour and pathos, a close and sympathetic ol)server of men 
 and things. Castle B'lckrent soon had a continental reputation, and was 
 translated into several languages. Sir Walter Scott, in his General Pre- 
 face, says of these Irish tales that "Miss Edgeworth may be truly said to 
 have done more towards completing the Union tlian i)erliai)s all the 
 legislative enactments by which it has Ijeen followed up ;" and again he 
 says of his own work : " I felt that something might be attempted for my
 
 460 MISS EDGEWORTH : FIELDING [Modern 
 
 own country of the same kind with that which Miss Edgeworth so 
 fortunately achieved for Ireland." Her principal works consist of Moral 
 Tales, Popular Tales, Parents^ Assistant, Tales of Fashionable Life, 
 Patronage, Belinda, Castle liackrent. The Absentee, and various essays. 
 Her place in the Calendar as an adjunct of Madame de Staal would seem 
 to be due to her admirable pictures of character and contemporary 
 manners. [E. B. H.] 
 
 FIELDING (Henry), b. 1707, d. 1754. 
 
 Henry Fielding, son of General Fielding, a soldier who served with 
 distinction under Marlborough, by Sarah, daughter of Sir Henry Gould, 
 one of the judges of the Queen's Bench, was born at Sharpham Park, in 
 Somersetshire, in 1707. He was of noble race, being great-grandson of 
 George, Earl of Desmond, second son of William, Earl of Denbigh, a 
 soldier of Charles i., who traced his descent from the Counts of Hapsburg. 
 Geoffrey of Hapsburg settled in England temp. Henry iii., assuming the 
 name of Fielding, from his father's fief of Rhinfilding, and from that 
 stock came the Earls of Denbigh. 
 
 Henry, the eldest son of (Tcneral Fielding, was educated by a neigh- 
 bouring clergyman, and then at Eton, where he was contemporary of the 
 elder Pitt and Fox. He passed a short time at the University of Leyden, 
 but returned to London about the age of- 20, and entered as a barrister at 
 the Temple. There he plunged into dissipation, and supported himself 
 by writing plays and literary hack-work. He said he had no choice 
 between becoming a hackney writer or a hackney coachman. For ten 
 years he wrote plays under the pressure of jooverty and in the pursuit of 
 pleasure. They have touches of wit ; but, except in such forces as Tom 
 Thumb, hardly a ti'ace of his maturer genius. 
 
 About 1 735 Fielding married Charlotte Cradock, of Salisbury, a lady 
 with a small fortune, whom he is thought to have descri])ed both as 
 Sophia and as Amelia. He loved her passionately ; and at her death, in 
 1743, his friends despaired of his retaining his reason. His first novel, 
 Joseph Andrews (1742), begun as a parody on Richardson's Pamela, soon 
 developed Fielding's genius for the modern romance. It contains some 
 of his finest characters, especially that of Parson Adams. The author 
 himself calls it " a comic ejnc-poem in prose." 
 
 His immortal story of Tom Jones appeared in 1749, when the author 
 was of the age of 42. In the year preceding Fielding had been appointed 
 magistrate at Bow Street. He was chosen cliairman of Quarter Sessions, 
 and devoted himself to his public duties with characteristic energy and 
 acuteness. In 17-j1 appeared Amelia. He was now liroken down by 
 disease, and the last years of his life were a gallant struggle against 
 sufi'ering, passed in the use of his inexhaustible ]jen, and in zealous work 
 in his oliice of magistrate. In July 1754 he sailed to Lisbon with his 
 second wife ; and there he died, Octolier, aged 47. He lies in the 
 English cemetery ]:)eneath a tomb still carefully jweserved. As Thackeray 
 tells us. Fielding was liimself the hero of his Ijooks : "His figure was tall 
 and stalwart ; his face handsome, manly, and noble-looking ; to the
 
 Drama] FIELDING 461 
 
 very last days of his life he retained a grandeur of air, and, although 
 worn down by disease, his aspect and presence imposed respect on the 
 people round him." 
 
 Manly, just, tender, and true-hearted, Henry Fielding had much in 
 him of the heroic ; with no faults except an extravagant generosity, and 
 a fatal rage for pleasure in every form. Even the coarseness which 
 occasionally defiles his pages is not, as Coleridge says, really corrupting. 
 " There is a cheerful, sunshiny, breezy spirit in them, strongly contrasted 
 with the close, hot, day-dreamy manner of Richardson." Critics, poets, 
 and thinkers have exhausted the language of praise in their estimate of I'om 
 Jones. " The prose Homer of human nature," said Byron. " The father 
 of the English novel," said Walter Scott. " As a picture of manners," 
 says Thackeray, " the novel of Toin Jones is indeed exquisite ; as a 
 work of construction quite a wonder ; the by-play of wisdom, the power 
 of observation ; the multiplied felicitous turns and thought ; the varied 
 character of the great comic epic, keep the reader in a perpetual ad- 
 miration and curiosity." As a French critic has well said, it is the out- 
 come of an entire lifetime, where the author has condensed years of 
 passion and of thought, and his final review of all that he has seen and 
 felt. Scott declares that these novels are the most exclusively English 
 of all the works of imagination to which English genius has given origin. 
 Fielding learnt much from Gil Bias, which preceded Tom Jones by fourteen 
 years ; but he is no more a copyist of French romance than was Le Sage 
 of Spanish. The splendid encomium of Gibbon has become a household 
 word in English literature : — " Our immortal Fielding was of the younger 
 branch of the Earls of Denbigh, who drew their origin from the Counts 
 
 of Hapsburgh The successors of Charles v. may disdain their 
 
 brethren in England, but the romance of Tom Jones, that exquisite 
 picture of human manners, will outlive the palace of the Escorial and 
 the imperial eagle of Austria." 
 
 One of the most striking and characteristic features of Fielding is the 
 genuine enthusiasm with which he paints a virtuous nature, and the 
 enthusiasm which he kindles in its virtues. And this is peculiarly true 
 of the beautiful character with which he has invested the women of his 
 fancy. His Soph la Western has been justly called " a miracle of loveliest 
 womanhood," and it is still unsurpassed in English prose fiction. In 
 this rare and supreme gift of idealising woman Fielding is indeed 
 superior to Scott, Byron, and Gothe, and is only surpassed by such 
 masters as Dante, Shakespeare, and Calderon. 
 
 Comte has pointed out {Pos. Pol. iii. p. 508) how, during tlie last 
 ])hase of the revolutionary movement of the West, Poetry took the form 
 of Romance, and developed "the epic idealisation of private life, both 
 ])ersonal and domestic." And he has placed font Jones in the Positivist 
 Library with Rohinson f'rvsoe, The Viear of Wah'fiehl. iind tlie master- 
 pieces "of Scott. Of this form of the "prose-epic" Fielding was tlie true 
 English father, as he was, undoubtedly, its first conscious creator. 
 
 [F.H.] 
 
 W^.rks and Bioqrrfphy, hy L. Sti'iilifii. 10 vols., 18S2. Lih\ l.y T. Laur- 
 ence. 1855." Lije, In- Austin Dobson, 1883. I'liackeray : Kiujlish 
 Humourists.
 
 462 RICHARDSON : MOLIIERE [Modern 
 
 EIOHARDSON (Samuel), b. 1689, d. 1761. 
 
 Samuel Richardson, the son of a tradesman in London, was born 
 in Derbyshire in 1689. He was intended for orders ; but, owing to his 
 ftither's losses, he was apprenticed to a printer in London at the age 
 of 17. As a boy, he was famous for his powers as a story-teller ; and 
 at the age of 13 he became the confidant and amanuensis of several 
 young women in their love affairs. His diligence, probity, and acumen 
 soon made him a successful man of business, when he established him- 
 self in Salisbury Court, Fleet Street. Speaker Onslow procured for him 
 the printing of the Commons Journals. He became Master of the 
 Stationers' Company and law-printer to the King. He amassed a fair 
 fortune, retired to Parson's Green, to a house of late occupied by the 
 painter, E. Burne-Jones. There he read his stories to circles of adoring 
 women. And there he died in 1761, aged 72. He is buried in the 
 church of St. Bride's, Fleet Street. 
 
 His first work, Pamela, was not published until 1740, when he was 
 51. It had an astonishing success, and Pope declared that it would do 
 more good than volumes of sermons. Eight years later he wrote 
 Clarissa Harloive, the most popular of all English romances on the 
 Continent until the time of Scott. Sir Charles Grandison appeared in 
 1753, when the author was 64. The demure, pious, aff'ectionate, and 
 somewhat narrow London printer has produced in Clarissa a master- 
 piece, which, in intensity of pathos and minute analysis of the human 
 heart, has never been surpassed. We forgive the unmanly absurdities 
 of Pamela and the tedious artificiality of Sir Charles Ch-andison, for the 
 sake of the subtlety and tragic beauty of Clarissa. Neither as man nor 
 as genius was the inspired printer the equal of the splendid creator of 
 Tom Jones ; but he deserves to stand beside him amongst the group 
 round Moliere, as one of the real masters of the human heart, one of 
 the most pathetic teachers of pity in the whole range of modern romance. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 MGLlilRE (Jean Baptiste Poquelin), b. 1622, d. 1673. 
 
 The date, the spot, of Moliere's birth and many circumstances of his 
 life rest upon imperfect authority, and almost every incident has been 
 debated as doubtful. In this short summary the more probable accounts 
 will be followed without discussion of details or reasons. He was born 
 in January 1622, more probably than in 1620, in or near the Eue St. 
 Honore at Paris, in the quarter of the Hallcs^ being the eldest of ten 
 children — of one .Jean Poquelin, a well-to-do u])hoIsterer, who ultimately 
 l)ecame an official in the royal household. The young Poquelin had a 
 regular education, entering at 15 the famous Jesuit College of Clermont, 
 where his fellow-pupils were the Prince of Conti and other well-known 
 men. He studied pliilosophy under the famous Gassendi, who is in 
 some sense a precursor of Locke. He admired much and conunenced a 
 translation of Lucretius, a fragment of which is found in his Misanthroj)e. 
 He then studied law, and, it is said, became an advocate.
 
 Drama] MOLIERE 463 
 
 We were told that he had been early imbued by his grandfather with 
 a passion for the stage : and it is certain that about 1645 (at the age of 
 23), he joined a company of actors of good repute known as the IJhistre 
 Theatre. And at this time he took the name of MoliJire, by which he 
 is henceforth known, a name already borne by more than one actor and 
 writer. To the acting company he devoted his whole energy and what 
 fortune he had ; and, not succeeding in Paris, they together set forth 
 in the provinces, where for twelve years (1646-1658), the life of Moliere 
 was passed in wanderings of which little record exists. In 1658, he 
 returned finally to Paris with a great provincial reputation, was received 
 with favour by the King, and here for the remaining fifteen years of his 
 life he laboured incessantly as player and dramatist. During the first 
 fourteen years of his di'amatic career he composed a great many pieces, 
 of which nothing important remains except VEtourdi (1653), and Le 
 Depit Amoureux (1654), pieces not at all unworthy of his name. His 
 first great success, and that which revealed his real genius to the public 
 of Paris, was Les Precieuses Ridicules (1656, Ktat. 37). Moliere himself 
 played Mascarille, the stock name of the impudent valet, who appears 
 so often, a name often applied to Moliere himself. 
 
 In this original and delightful piece, Moliere struck out his own 
 peculiar forte, the satiric comedy of modern manners. He deliberately 
 proceeds to analyse, paint, and judge a prevalent type of conduct, bring- 
 ing it before the judgment-seat of good sense and right feeling. This 
 noble task he followed out, with wonderful instinct and unwearied con- 
 sistency, for fourteen years, in a series of systematic pictures of life, until 
 he died almost in the act of representing Le Malade Imaginaire, in 1673. 
 He had now found his true vocation, and, according to a doubtful story, 
 he said that henceforth he had no need to go to Plautus, Terence, 
 and Menander for types of character : he had only to study the world 
 before him. He fell back not unfrequently, to please the groundlings, on 
 the farces in the Plautan and Italian manner ; he wrote ballets and 
 extravaganzas for the Court ; and he failed in " heroic comedy," a Spanish 
 romantic drama, Don Garcie. But these were mere interludes to 
 maintain the popularity of his company, in the midst of more serious 
 pieces. 
 
 All his great pieces in verse, from I'Erole des Femrnes, 1662, to Lea 
 Femmes Savantes, 1672, appeared in the ten years of his later life ((daf. 
 40-50). The latter play is usually regarded by his countrymen as the 
 highest perfection of polished art that he ever attained. The dates of 
 the other principal pieces are Don Juan (1665), MisanthrojK (1666), Tar- 
 tuffe (1667), DAi-are (1668), Bourgeois GentiUiomnie (1610), Fourberies de 
 Scajnn (1611), Le Malade Iiiuujinaire (1673). Altogether, during this 
 period of his Paris life (about fourteen years), we have nearly thirty 
 plays still extant, produced in the midst of incessant labour as actor, 
 manager, and court functionary, with intervals of acute domestic tn)ul)les, 
 and furious professional intrigues. 
 
 Such prodigious work, amounting to the production of about 4000 
 lines in each year, wore out the body, but did not subdue the spirit of 
 the poet. He liad long been troubled with a hacking cougli wliich 
 greatly afflicted him on the stage : in l(;67, and 1666, he liad (kingerous
 
 464 MOLIBRE [Modern 
 
 attacks of illness : he lived with great care on a fixed regime. Boileau 
 urged him on the ground of health to quit the stage, and devote himself 
 to his pen alone. Moliere declared that " the point of honour " retained 
 him to the theatre. "What point of honour," cried Boileau, "can 
 require you to disguise yourself as Sganerelle, and be beaten as Scajnn ?" 
 
 Moliere's jioint of honour was the welfare of his company, to whom 
 he knew himself so necessary. His enemies called him a "pretended 
 invalid." He rejoined with his last piece, Le Malade Imaginaire, his 
 final word to the pedants and to the world. At the fourth representation 
 his cough was incessant, and his chest acutely painful. His fellow-actors 
 implored him to withdraw. " How can I leave these poor people with- 
 out their day's salary ?" said the dying manager. In the Latin inter- 
 lude at the word Juro, Moliere was seized with a convulsive spitting of 
 blood, which he disguised in a forced laugh. The play was stopped : 
 he was carried home, and died that night in his house in the Rue Eiche- 
 lieu, February 1673, having lately completed his 51st year. 
 
 As he had died excommunicated and without the aid of a priest, the 
 Archbishop of Paris refused him Christian burial. But at the prayer of 
 the widow, who addressed herself to the King, he was carried to the 
 cemetery of St. Joseph, and ultimately to Pere-la Chaise — where his bones 
 are supposed to rest. Personally, we are told that Moliere was of fine 
 and graceful figure ; with a serious air, large mouth, thick lips, and heavy 
 nose, large and marked eyebrows, dark complexion — and with wonder- 
 ful expression as a comic actor. In society he spoke little ; he was 
 punctual in all his habits ; an indefatigable worker and a most rapid 
 composer ; genial, affectionate, placable, and generous. In all his public 
 relations his conduct was honourable and manly. His loyalty and devo- 
 tion to his professional comrades for a period of nearly thirty years were 
 interrupted only by his death. His friendship with Corneille, Racine, 
 and Boileau was, on his part at least, sincere and generous. 
 
 Louis XIV. remained his firm patron throughout, made his dramatic 
 company " The King's Troup," gave them a pension and a theatre, and 
 ultimately supported Moliere, in his long struggle against the priest 
 party, to obtain the representation of Tartnffe. Louis made Moliere his 
 valet-de-chambre and admitted him to his privacy : the anecdote that 
 the King, to give a lesson to his courtiers, once made the actor sit down 
 and partake of his bed-side supper, is not impossible ; and it is certain 
 that he stood godflither to Moliere's first child. The dauntless and 
 systematic warfl^re which the dramatist waged against all forms of 
 imposture, affectation, and presumption involved him in a series of 
 hostilities with the coteries and objects of his satire, and in these he 
 bore himself with unshaken courage, good-humour, and fairness. The 
 intrigues of his rivals and the jealousies of cliques, both literary and 
 aristocratic, made him the centre of a lifelong struggle. Again and again 
 the poet returns to the charge, with Aristophanic licence and Rabelaisian 
 directness, overwlielming the blue-stockings, the pedants, the fops, the 
 bullies, the hypocrites, the quacks, the fribbles, the boors, the sno]3S, and 
 the humbugs of the world of Paris and Versailles. 
 
 But the kindler of inextinguishable mirth was not himself a happy 
 man ; and he who gave such profound lessons to others did not order his
 
 Drama] MOLIERE 465 
 
 own life either wisely or decently. For sixteen years he was the avowed 
 lover of Madeleine Bejart, the principal actress of his troup, a woman 
 older than himself, of jealous and violent temijer. He gave her too much 
 ground for jealousy by intrigues with younger rivals, carried on in the 
 home they occupied in common. In 1662 appeared a somewhat mysteri- 
 ous girl, one Armande Bejart, called the sister, but possibly the daughter 
 of Madeleine. Moliere passionately loved the girl and married her, he 
 being 40, and she just 17 ; Madeleine and her rivals continuing in the 
 same company, and living under the same roof. The horrible suggestion 
 that Armande was his own child by Madeleine was formally made in a 
 series of shameless libels, and was even laid before the King. It was 
 never adequately disproved ; but there is little reason to doubt that 
 Moliere did not know Madeleine until after the conception of Armande. 
 The truth of their relationship will perhaps never be revealed. But, as 
 Moliere had lived in daily intimacy with the whole Bejart family 
 during the entire life of Armande, he could not be ignorant of the true 
 fiicts, whatever these might l)e. 
 
 Certain it is, that Moliere passionately loved his young wife : that 
 she, a charming actress, but a gay and frivolous creature, caused him 
 torments of jealousy, which she repaid with irritation, contempt, and 
 estrangement. The miserable husband lectured, implored, and railed in 
 vain ; parted from his giddy wife in wrath ; fell again under the con- 
 solations of a former mistress, and at last returned to his wife, by whom 
 he had two children. One daughter only survived him, and came to a 
 bad end, dying childless. The eleven years of Moliere's married life 
 were the years of his supreme genius, of his grandest triumphs, and of 
 his bitterest agonies and remorse. And it is a cruel reflection on the 
 weakness of human nature that a spirit, so brave, so just, so wise, so 
 generous, dwelling in a genius so profound, so tender, so manly, and 
 so truthful, should have been bowed down in private, amidst his public 
 triumphs, by the weakness of irregular passion, the sacrifice of domestic 
 honour, and even the loss of personal dignity. 
 
 In pure comedy, Moliere has no superior, or none but Aristophanes. 
 He is marked out, above all the masters of this art, by the wonderfully 
 systematic and profound study that he devoted to every type of folly, 
 affectation, hypocrisy, quackery, foppery, and grossness which beset his 
 age. In the sphere of contemporary manners, he is the zealous censor 
 morum, almost as much the moralist as he is the artist. No poet — not 
 Wordsworth, nor even Dante himself — ever worked more consciously with 
 a purpose, and as a moral teacher and judge of his contemporaries. But 
 the astonishing (quality of Moliere's genius is, that the purpose never 
 obtrudes itself, never overmasters the poet, or ends in tedium and 
 commonplace. On the contrary, some of Moliere's happiest lessons in 
 simplicity and manliness are wrought out in wild burlesques and riotous 
 outbursts of quite familiar farce. In this he has been approached 
 amongst the moderns only by Fielding. But in the exquisitely finished 
 verses of Les Femmes Savante.% the same spirit is at work in all the 
 conventional manners of polished society and modern social culture. 
 
 In his masterpiece Tartuffv, he has l)oldly grappled with one of the 
 deepest problems of modern civilisation, and the world-wide popularity 
 
 2 (!
 
 466 MOLIERE : PERGOLESE [Modern 
 
 of this great piece is a proof of his power in the most difficult sphere of 
 social ethics. The Misanthrope, if inferior as a play, is more subtle and 
 profound as a study. And it has earned the criticism that it is rather 
 tragic than comic in conception. There can be little doubt that Moliere 
 has painted in Alcede not a little of his own noble yearnings and pro- 
 found weariness, as of a free spirit born out of time into a most artificial 
 and degenerate society. It is objected, and with some truth, that Moliere 
 is hardly to be classed as a poet, inasmuch as his characters are too 
 typically intense to be individuals, because his portraiture is so sharply 
 cut, and his conceptions entirely without mystery and beauty. It is true 
 that not even in Psyche, or any of the lyric interludes has he ever shown 
 a trace of the fantastic imagery or exquisite music of Shakespeare, nor 
 again of the phantasmagoric fairyland of Aristophanes in his dithyrambic 
 hour. Nor does the dialogue of Moliere sparkle with wit and fancy as do 
 those of some English and some Greek comedies. Moliere is always the 
 Frenchman, and the Frenchman of the age of Louis xiv. He is always 
 so measured in his forms as to be something of the comic Racine ; his 
 wildest humour is courtly, as of some Rabelais of Versailles. His 
 buffoonery melts into graceful comedy ; his polished dialogue is easily 
 extended into practical fun. It is this peculiar gift which places him 
 alone. It is idle to discuss if he be a poet. He has created scores of 
 immortal types of human character. They are not oddities and indivi- 
 dualities, but classes of civilised men and women. And if he has never 
 broken into Pindaric heights of fancy, or given us scenes of pathos, 
 beauty, and mystery, he is one of the profoundest masters of human 
 nature, and one of the most original minds in creative art. [F. H.] 
 
 Sainte-Beuve : Causeries du Lundi. G. Saintsbury : French Literature. 
 Andrew Lang: Life in Encydopoedia Britannica, voL xvi. Works 
 translated by Van Laiin, 1875. 
 
 PERGOLESE {Giovanni Battista), b. 1710, d. 1736. 
 
 This precocious genius is said to have been born either at Pergola, 
 from whence he derived his name, or, according to others, at Jesi, in the 
 Roman States, in 1710, of obscure origin — the date and place of his 
 birth and his family name being all disputed. He was educated at the 
 Conservatory of Naples, where as a boy he showed extraordinary aptitude ; 
 ,and so early as 1731 produced his first opera. In the same year {(dat. 
 21) he produced his oj^eretta, Let Serva Fadrona, which served for more 
 than a century as the type of comic opera throughout Europe, and intro- 
 duced the practice of basing opera on real and modern as well as heroic 
 subjects. He produced a Ab'to6af Mater wliieh is still a favourite. It 
 was his last work. Worn out by disappointment, disease, and labour, 
 he died of consumption in 1736, at the age of 26. 
 
 He was hardly dead when he became tlie object of much posthumous 
 enthusiasm ; and throughout the 18th century his reputation seemed to 
 grow. He is still remembered for his ISerca Fadrona, which has been 
 represented in London at two different theatres within the last few years 
 —an almost unique example of a slight opera retaining its place for a.
 
 Drama] PERGOLESE : PALESTRINA 467 
 
 century and a half. It is quite simple, being limited to two voices and 
 a stringed orchestra. But it is a piece of delightful grace and freshness. 
 " The lire of genius breathes in every bar, and the whole work has the 
 character of a continuous inspiration." its historical importance is great ; 
 for it had the leading part in the foundation of the modern opera. His 
 Stabat Mater and some other sacred pieces of exquisite purity and tender- 
 ness are still heard. His early death, at an age younger than that of 
 any other man in the Calendar — younger, perhaps, than that of any 
 other artist of name— leaves his career, it has been said, little more than 
 a suggestion. _ The place given him in the Calendar is, doubtless, due 
 to the effect of his Serva Fadrona in the history of the opera, and to the 
 singular pathos and sweetness of his sacred compositions. [F. H.] 
 
 For the thirteen Musicians in this Week consult : — Sir G. Grove : Dictionary 
 of Music, 4 vols. 1879-1886. Sir George Macfarreu : Musical History, 
 18851 Articles in Encycl. Brit, by Sir G. Macfarren, Franz Huell'er, 
 W. S. Rockstro, and others. 
 
 PALESTRINA {Giovanni Pierluigi da), b. 1528 (?), d. 1594. 
 
 The first of the great Italian musicians was born of humble parents 
 at Palestrina, in the Campagna of Rome, of uncertain date, about 1524- 
 1529, and in the absence of any recognised family name, Pierluigi, as 
 he was familiarly called, bore the name of his place of origin. At a 
 very early age — probably about 1540 — he studied music at Rome, under 
 Goudimel, a Fleming. In 1551 Palkstrixa was appointed chapel- 
 master at the Vatican, and three years later published a volume of 
 masses, and he continued to hold offices in various churches at Rome. 
 
 In 1563 Pius iv., being resolved to reform the church music of his 
 time, which had degenerated into vulgar triviality, issued a commission 
 to eight cardinals to carry out the reformation. They directed Palestrina 
 to write a typical mass, to be the future standard in the sacred office. 
 I'uU of the importance of the occasion, Palestrina composed not one, but 
 three masses. All three were received with admiration ; but the third 
 was judged to be the perfect embodiment of sacred music, and was 
 adopted with unbounded enthusiasm. The Pope declared it to be such 
 melody as the author of the Apocalypse had heard from the sacred choir. 
 He created Palestrina composer to tlie Pontifical Choir — an office which 
 he held under seven pontitfs and until his own death. The mass was 
 named after Pope Marcellus ; and for two centuries it continued to be 
 the type of sacred music tliroughout Italy. For thirty years Palestrina 
 continued to compose. But in his ninety masses and other pieces he 
 never surpassed iiis masterpiece, the "Mass of Pope Marcellus." He 
 continued with unabated energy to compose to the last, and died in the 
 arms of his friend, St. Philip Neri, February 1594. 
 
 The "Mass (jf Po])e Marcellus" is one of the most definite landmarks 
 in the history of music, it created the Italian school of tlie MJLli, ITtli, 
 and 18th centuries, and is stUl reganksd as one of the most sublime 
 forms of churcli music that has ever l)een ])roducc(l. It coiiibined for 
 tlie first time scientific form with profound feeling and reverential tone.
 
 468 PALESTRINA : SACCHINI : GRETRY [Modern 
 
 If Palestrina be placed in a secondary class in the Calendar, it is pro- 
 bably due to this, that Comte regarded the opera as a form of art capable 
 of greater expansion than the mass, and Palestrina wrote before opera 
 had begun to exist. [F. H.] 
 
 E. H. Pember: Dictionary of Music, Art. Palestrina. W. G. Rockstro: 
 Dictionary of Music, Art. Schools. 
 
 SACCHINI {Antonio Maria Gaspare), b. 1734, d. 1786. 
 
 This graceful composer was born near Naples, of poor parents, in 
 1734. He was educated in the Conservatory there, and for twenty years 
 he visited many towns in Italy, Germany, and England as musical com- 
 poser, director of theatres, or of musical academies. About 1782 he 
 settled in Paris, where his European reputation had prepared for him 
 an enthusiastic reception. Joseph ii. recommended him to the Queen, 
 Marie Antoinette, who showed him much favour. The incessant 
 jealousies, intrigues, and hostility of his rivals pursued him in France, 
 as in Italy and England. Disappointment, anxiety, and his own intem- 
 perance brought him to an early grave, and he died at Paris, 1786, at 
 the age of 52. 
 
 Sacchini, though irregular and indolent in habits, left between forty 
 and fifty operas and a large body of sacred pieces, none of which are now 
 in vogue, though for fifty years his G^^dipus held the Parisian stage. It 
 is not easy to see on what grounds Sacchini holds a place in the Calendar 
 in line with Beethoven and Gluck. Modern taste has almost forgotten 
 him ; and our jDresent canons of judgment would assign him but a secon- 
 dary rank. In the history of the art he is not of great importance, as 
 he added nothing to the work of Gluck, and has done nothing in which 
 he has not been immeasurably surpassed by Mozart. Dr. Burney calls 
 him " graceful, elegant, and judicious ; " he was a consummate master 
 of the operatic art, and understood in perfection the conditions of writing 
 for a particular voice. His work is full of expression, and of true and 
 pure dramatic feeling. He is "graceful, elegant, judicious:" had he 
 power and originality of a higher order he might have left us something 
 more than an extinct reputation. [F. H.] 
 
 GRETRY {Andre Ernest Modeste), b. 1741, d. 1813. 
 
 This ingenious musician of the last century was born at Liege, of 
 poor parents, in 1741, and was educated at Paris and Rome ; but it is 
 said that he never was master of musical science, and his technical com- 
 position is rudimentary and thin. At length, by the advice of Voltaire, 
 who befriended him, he went to Paris, 1 768 ; and there for forty years he 
 worked, holding front rank, as a composer of comic opera and as musical 
 authority. He established his reputation in 1769 in Le tableau parlant, 
 which was genuine comedy, and he was one of the chief founders of the 
 " comic opera " of Prance, the essence of which is real comedy, musically 
 interpreted. Gretiiy has been called, somewhat extravagantly, the 
 " Moliere of Music ; '"' liut the phrase marks his characteristic as a strict
 
 Drama] GRETRY : GLUCK 469 
 
 follower of musical expression of all the lighter feelings. His Richard 
 Cceur de Lion, 1784, is usually regarded as his masterpiece. It contains 
 the air, " Richard, mon roi, I'univers t'abandonne," which obtained 
 historic importance when sung in the famous banquet of the Guards at 
 Versailles on the eve of the Revolution. Of the fifty operas which 
 Gr^try wrote between 1768 and 1803, none survive ; and he published 
 no orchestral pieces. His place in the history of music is marked by 
 his success in founding the " comic opera " of France, his strong sense 
 of true dramatic expression, and jjerhaps, above all, by his Memoires 
 stcr la Music, 1789-1797, in which he expounds his theory of dramatic 
 music. The book is in the Positivist Library. [F. H.] 
 
 GLUCK {Ghristoph TViUibald), b. 1714, d. 1787. 
 
 The great reformer of opera in France was a German, born 1714, in 
 Bavaria, of parents in the household of Prince Lobkowitz. He was 
 educated in Bohemia and Vienna ; and at the age of 22 he was taken to 
 Italy, where he wrote operas during nine years and obtained a European 
 reputation. In 1745, at the age of 31, he was invited to London as 
 composer to the opera. Here Handel pronounced his music detestable 
 and his ignorance complete. In truth his operas were a failure. Gluck 
 then set himself to reflect on the causes of his ill-success ; and after 
 hearing Rameau in Paris, he determined to recast his whole style of 
 dramatic composition. For many years he continued to study, producing 
 works of little importance, as a means of living. 
 
 His Orplicus and Eurydice, 1762, exhibited a new conception of 
 operatic music, and he continued to produce at Vienna a series of pieces 
 on the reformed stjde. In 1774, he arrived in Paris, where he received 
 the favour of Marie Antoinette, whom he had taught before her marriage. 
 In Paris he continued for five years, producing a series of operas which 
 entirely reformed the musical drama and laid the foundation of the 
 French national opera. His long contest with Piccinni, his rival, who 
 maintained the old Italian method, was one of the most violent, obstinate, 
 and memorable in the history of music. Tlie complete triumph of 
 Gluck is one of the epochs in the development of dramatic music, and 
 was an event of European importance in art, the full eftect of which is 
 not yet completely developed. 
 
 The essence of his reform consisted in this, that he discarded the old 
 system whereby airs were accumulated without reference to the dramatic 
 action, so that, as was said, the ])lay became a mere pi'etext for a concert. 
 The aim of Gluck was to make the music the tonic embodiment of the 
 drama, and to require it to conform consistently to true dramatic 
 expression. Gluck did for the tragic and higher drama of France tliat 
 which Gretry did and taught for the comic drama. He made the opera 
 a true musical drama, whereas the prevalent Italian scliool looked on 
 opera as a collection of airs strung together on a set of dialogues and 
 songs. Gluck was thus essentially a German, working on what have 
 since been recognised as German types — ty))es that have received in our 
 age so vast a development by the genius of Wagner. But as he found
 
 470 GLUCK : LULLY : HANDEL [Modern 
 
 little success either in Germany, England, or Italy, and as he really 
 founded the national opera of France, where all his triumphs were 
 achieved, he is usually classed with the French school of the 18th 
 century. From the new mode of opera, the style of Rossini, Donizetti, 
 and Bellini was a decided reaction, for they all returned more or less to 
 the old Italian plan of writing airs for favourite singers with little 
 attention to the dramatic situation. 
 
 Gluck takes up a middle place between the school which treats the 
 libretto (or drama) as a subordinate incident, the mere canvas on which 
 to paint a series of beautiful melodies executed by voices and orchestra, 
 and the modern school which treats the play as the substantial represen- 
 tation and the music as its illustration or translation into harmony. But 
 in the operas of Gluck the musical aim is ever dominant. He is 
 always a lover of ideal beauty ; he never admits what is harsh or dis- 
 cordant for the sake of dramatic expression ; and in his Orpheus he 
 has left the world one of the most lovely and pathetic airs ever conceived 
 by man. His Or^nlieiis, which is one continuous stream of pure and 
 superb delight, at least seems destined to a permanent popularity ; and, 
 unlike the school of Italian opera composers of this century, his reputa- 
 tion is rather increasing than diminishing. Gluck continued to compose 
 in Paris until 1779, when advancing years and a stroke of apoplexy 
 caused him to withdraw from active life. With fame and fortune 
 secure, he retired to Vienna and died there, 1787, at the age of 73. 
 
 [F. H.] 
 
 Dictionary of Music, Articles, Gluck — Opera — Schools of CoMrosixiON. 
 
 LULLY {Jean Baptiste), b. 1633, d. 1687. 
 
 LuLLY, the founder of the national opera in France, was born in 
 Florence, 1633 ; his Italian name being Giovanni Battista LuUi. As a 
 boy he was taken to Paris and engaged in the service, first of "La Grande 
 Mademoiselle," and then of the King, Louis xiv. Ambitious, un- 
 scrupulous, intriguing, and avaricious, Lully contrived to retain the 
 supreme fjivour of the King during the great epoch, and died of an 
 accident at the age of 54 (1687), wealthy, honoured, and uniformly 
 successful. He is one of the luminaries of the Court of Versailles under 
 the great King ; he composed the airs for several of Moliere's comedies, 
 and in the P.^yrhe he wrote music to the words of Moliere and Corneille. 
 His place in the history of music is as one of the principal creators of 
 opera in its early period. [F. H.] 
 
 HANDEL {Geonje Frederich Hmidd), b. 1685, d. 1759. 
 
 The great musician who made England his adopted country and 
 passed there the greater part of his long life, was born at Halle, in 
 Lower >Saxony, in ]G8."J, his family name being Handkl. His musical 
 genius asserted itself at the age of seven, and his father, a surgeon, was 
 compelled to give him a regular musical education. As a boy he was 
 regarded as a prodigy ; his first opera was produced before he was 20 ;
 
 Drama] HANDEL 471 
 
 and it contains the beautiful air afterwards known as "Lascia ch'io 
 pianga." At the age of 21 he went to Italy, where he passed three years, 
 and on his return he was made Chapehnaster to the Elector of Hanover 
 (George i.). He came to England, 1710, being then twenty-live, and 
 from that time he made this country his home. 
 
 Between 1720 and 1738 he was occupied mainly with the opera, of 
 which he undertook the direction, and for which he composed between 
 thirty and forty pieces. He embarked his fortune and consumed his ener- 
 gies in a series of ventures which caused him incessant anxiety, fatigue, 
 disajjpointment, and embarrassment. The miserable personal ambition 
 and vanity of his rivals beset him with continual opposition, which his 
 proud, irascible, and independent spirit was not well fitted to soften. 
 The aristocracy, whose favour he was too proud to solicit, supported his 
 rival, Buononcini, and for some time English society was divided into 
 violent partisans supporting the two comjoosers. Handel -in the end 
 triumphed, and carried Avith him the public ajjplause ; but his opera 
 house was a commercial failure ; he became bankrupt in 1737 ; and his 
 health failing, he soon after renounced his connection with the stage. 
 
 Happily he found his true vocation in Oratorio, to which he now 
 devoted himself at the age of 55, saying that " sacred music was best 
 fitted to a man descending in the vale of years." In 1740 he produced 
 Saul and Israel in Egypt., in 1742 Messiah, then twelve other oratorios, 
 ending with Jephthah, 1752. Shortly afterwards he became blind, 
 though he still continued to compose and even to perform in public. 
 But disease and exhaustion overtook him, as his fame became assured : 
 he died in his house in Bioolv Stieet (No. 25, still standing), and Avas 
 buried in Westminster Abbey, where a monument by Koubillac, in 
 Poets' Corner, is placed over his grave. 
 
 Handel was a man of strong', simple, independent character : generous, 
 sincere, indomitable, and vehement. He was never married, and led a 
 reserved, plain, and assiduous life. He produced some twenty oratorios, 
 about forty operas, and hundreds of cantatas, psulms, songs, and instru- 
 mental pieces. His industry was prodigious, and his rapidity of intense 
 concentration such, that many of his works are said to have been almost 
 improvised. His reputation and popularity are far greater in England 
 than in France or even in Germany. One noble field of musical art he 
 almost created by himself : certainly he stands in it supreme and with- 
 out a rival. His massive choral eti'ects were exactly suited to impress 
 a people saturated with Biblical ideas, and accustomed to ])ul)lic 
 demonstrations of national and patriotic enthusiasm. Handel is thus 
 in a singular degree the musicid expression of the England of Marl- 
 borough, Chatham, Defoe, and Wesley. No artist perhaps in any line 
 has more deeply touched the national fibre ; and none has ever more 
 completely vivified patriotic as])iration and religious fervour in masses 
 of people. The "Handel Festivals"' are constantly growing in 
 popularity. On these grounds his inlluence and glory are in a singular 
 degree national, which may account for tlie secondary place he occupies 
 in the Calendar. 
 
 Handel was unquestionaljly one of the greatest creative geniuses in 
 the history of art : his Messiali, of which he selected llic words trom the
 
 472 HANDEL : BEETHOVEN [Modern 
 
 Bible, proudly declining the officious assistance of a courtly bishop, is 
 itself, apart from the music, a drama grandly conceived, and worked 
 out with the feeling of a poet. The instrumental portions of his 
 oratorios, to modern ears somewhat thin and rudimentary, have been 
 filled in and completed by Mozart and other musicians ; and the other 
 instrumental jjieces of Handel, though some of them remain from their 
 intrinsic beauty, are slight and conventional in form. But Handel Avas 
 in no sense great only in majestic choral efi'ects. Many of his solos, 
 and a few of the songs from his operas, are still cherished as amongst 
 the most exquisite and pathetic melodies which art has given us. With 
 Bach, Gluck, and Mozart, Handel is certainly one of the great powers in 
 the evolution of modern music in the three centuries which separate the 
 birth of Pales trina from the death of Beethoven. [F. H.] 
 
 J. Marshall, in Dictionary of Music. Franz Huefl'er, in Encycl. Brit. vol. xi. 
 Sir' G. Macfarren. in Musical History. Life, by Victor Sclioelcher, 
 translated by W. G. Rockstro, 1857. 
 
 BEETHOVEN {Lmhdg van), b. 1770, d. 1827. 
 
 The mighty founder of the modern school of orchestral music came 
 of a Belgian family settled for two generations in Germany. His grand- 
 father and father were both musicians at Cologne. Ludwig van Beet- 
 hoven Avas born at Bonn, December 1770. He passed a youth of 
 poverty and hardship ; showed early signs of musical genius ; and at the 
 age of 15 received an appointment as court organist-assistant. A brother 
 of the Emperor Joseph sent the youth to Vienna, where, at the age of 17, 
 he had a few lessons from Mozart. At the age of 22, he was taken 
 under the protection of Count Waldstein, who sent him to Vienna. There 
 he lived and worked thirty-five years, and there he died in 1827, aged 57. 
 What is called his Opus 1 appeared in Vienna, 1795 {otat. 25). A few 
 years afterwards his deafness began, the result of an obscure disease which 
 embittered the composer's life and cut him off from mankind and the 
 enjoyment of his own art. The ]ieriod of his chief masterpieces is 1800- 
 1814, during which were produced Fidelio, his only opera, and the 
 principal symphonies, except the great Choral HympJiony which is later. 
 Franz Huett'er writes : " Beethoven's compositions, 138 in number, com- 
 prise all forms of vocal and instrumental music, from the sonata to the 
 symphony, from the simple song to the opera and oratorio. In each of 
 these forms he displays the depth of his feeling, the power of his genius ; 
 in some of them he reached a greatness never approached by his pre- 
 decessors or followers." 
 
 This great nuisician 'was the first to develop an element in instru- 
 mental nuisic which had been but foreshadowed by his predecessors — 
 that which may be called the personal or sulijective. Phrases of incon- 
 gruous character, sudden and unaccountable transition of expression, he 
 knew how to weld into a symmetrical whole that, while it mirrors the 
 workings of a strong and wayward fancy, always bears the stamp of 
 mastership. Numerous as are Beethoven's works, the phases of these 
 tone-pictures are as varied, for no two resemble each other. Among the
 
 Drama] BEETHOVEN : ROSSINI 473 
 
 host who have followed his introspective method, there are some illustri- 
 ous names, but for creative power and grandeur that of Beethoven remains 
 unique and unapproached. 
 
 His childhood and youth were a continued scene of toil ; he began 
 music in his fourth year under his father, a musician of irregular habits, 
 and began to compose and play in public when 1 1 years old. About this 
 period he was trusted to play the organ as deputy, and to accompany the 
 opera rehearsals ; meanwhile he was studying, besides clavier, viola, and 
 organ, Latin, French, and Italian. In the last of three trios, his pub- 
 lished Opus 1, his individuality is already clearly perceptible ; and the 
 growth of his mind and. mastery of resources may be traced almost from 
 work to work, especially in his symphonies, in his expansion of nmsical 
 form, his instrumentation and his peculiar power of conveying those 
 surgings of feeling and consciousness that are the undercurrents of human 
 life, and which the other arts can only delineate when they have passed 
 into action. 
 
 We are told that he never cared for childish games or companions, 
 yet in later years he showed a peculiar sense of drollery, and his ardent 
 and lifelong friendships are a conspicuous feature in his character. As 
 an executant we are told that he was a marvellous extemporist, a faculty 
 in singular contrast with the slow and gi'adual growth of his musical 
 thought. That his mind remained unbalanced was probably owing to 
 his irregular and partial training ; generous and impulsive to the verge 
 of aberration, he was also suspicious and resentful ; capable of a complete 
 surrender of self for those he loved, he was ready to renoimce his friend 
 for any trilling cause. The torment of growing deafness darkened Beet- 
 hoven's life for many years before his sense of hearing was extinguished, 
 and from this time a great change came over his musical thought. A 
 mysticism, as though he would express what cannot be uttered, acuteness 
 of sound that distresses the hearer, dift'useness, jarring, harshness in 
 harmony and part-writing often take the place, in his tormented spirit, 
 of the beauty and symmetry of former days. But if his latest works 
 bear traces of his mental isolation and the suffering it entailed, they also 
 are full of those noble features that have made the name of Beethoven 
 synonymous with what is most grand and beautiful in musical art. 
 
 [N. M.] 
 
 Life of BeetJwven, by Alexander Tliaycr, and by Seliindler, 1841 ; and see 
 Article, by Sir G. Grove, in Diet, af Music. 
 
 ROSSINI {Joachim Antonio), b. 1792, d. 1868. 
 
 Rossini was born, 1792, at Pesaro, on the Adriatic, of humble 
 parents. His father was town trumpeter and a local wag : his motlier 
 sang on the stage in the theatres of Homagna. The young Rossini had 
 but slight education ; sang in public as a lad ; and studied nmsic in the 
 Conservatory of Bologna. At tlio ag(! of U; he ]iroduced orchestral 
 pieces in public, and at 18 he gave liis first opera. From tliat time ho 
 composed a constant succession of operas wliich liad great success in 
 Italy ; but it was not until 1822 that his reputation ))ecame l^airopean.
 
 474 ROSSINI [Modern 
 
 In that year (he was now thirty) he married, went to Vienna, and brought 
 out Cinderella and Semiramis. His Barber of Seville, composed in 1816, 
 had not at hrst proved a success, but it soon became his most popular 
 piece. He next visited London and Paris, in both of which cities he 
 was received with great enthusiasm, and was overwlielmed with com- 
 missions. In 1824 he was established in Paris as musical director of 
 the Italian Theatre. In Paris Rossini worked for five years, the acknow- 
 ledged head of the musicians of the capital, and produced a succession 
 of operas marked with his peculiar facility, humour, and vivacity. In 
 1829 he brought out William Tell, his masterpiece. In it he had 
 deeply modified his style. The study of Beethoven had now led him 
 to a larger and more serious conception of dramatic harmony ; and he 
 plainly presents himself as the rival of Meyerbeer in the new taste for 
 massive orchestral combinations. 
 
 From the date of Tell Rossini lived nearly forty years, in full activity 
 of mind and possessed of wealth, influence, and reputation. But he 
 produced nothing further for the stage, and nothing of much importance 
 of any kind. His renunciation of his art at the age of 37 is one of the 
 most singular incidents in the whole history' of art ; and can be paralleled 
 only by the retirement of Racine at the age of 38, and that of Fra Barto- 
 lomeo della Porta, the Italian painter, at the age of 25. These were 
 caused by religious scruples. For the obstinate withdrawal of Rossini 
 there have been alleged as causes, — disappointment, jealousy, idleness, 
 vanity, pride, self-respect, and lastly a noble conviction that he had 
 fulfilled his best work, and could no longer produce anything of per- 
 manent value. His motives Avere doubtless of mixed kind, made up of 
 self-indulgence and self-respect. There is reason to think that he re- 
 cognised the thin and somewhat stagey character of his own earlier work, 
 and liad the good sense to feel that he was not destined to suqniss Tell 
 in powerful dramatic combinations. In any case he lived long after it 
 in a luxurious, cultured, and artistic world ; a wit, a " bon vivant" and 
 a munificent friend of music and of musicians. He died at Paris, which 
 had been his home for forty-four years, at the age of 76, in 1868. 
 
 The music of Rossini had been extravagantly admired in his own 
 age ; and is now as luijustly ridiculed in our own. With Mozart he 
 stands almost alone as having written delightful music that is, in a true 
 sense, witty or the expression of rollicking fun. In brilliancy and 
 vivacity, both for voice and for instruments, he has hardly any equal. 
 But his brilliancy has neither sulrtlety nor pathos ; and not seldom de- 
 generates into idle flourishes and sentimental languor. His Avonderful 
 brio and sparkling agility of movement have made him the favourite of 
 singers, both men and women, who seek for a means of displaying their 
 vocal resources. But to the adepts of the new school of dramatic ex- 
 pression, the musical pirouettes of the brilliant Italian are foolishness and 
 debasement. A more sober and just estimate has been expressed of him 
 by great masters of the art who themselves chose a dift'erent manner. 
 And, much as Rossini may be wanting in power, in feeling, and in serious 
 harmony, his vivacity, invention, and grace continue to delight the 
 lovers of opera in all parts of the world. His name is one of the two 
 or three of living persons who were included in the Calendar. [F. H.]
 
 Drama] BELLINI : DONIZETTI 475 
 
 BELLINI (Vincenzo), b. 1807 (?), d. 1835. 
 
 Vincenzo Bellini, the son of an organist of Catania, in Sicily, was 
 born 1807, or as some think in 1802, and taught first by his father and 
 then in the Conservatory of Naples, where he had as his fellow-students 
 Donizetti and ]Mercadante. As a youth he attracted the attention of 
 the manager of La Scala at ^Nlilan and of San Carlo at Naples. His 
 first opera, Bianca e Fernando, was produced in 1826, Avhen he was 19. 
 In the following year he brought out The Pirate at ^Nlilan. His first 
 great European success was La Sonnambula, produced in 1831, at the 
 age of 24, the masterpiece which still keejis the operatic stage, the 
 favourite of a succession of 2^'>'im<i donne. About a year later came 
 j^orina. In 1834, Bellini went to Paris, where he enjoyed the friendship 
 and support of Rossini ; and under his advice he produced / Puritani. 
 Shortly after its production he was attacked with dysentery, delirium 
 supervened, and he died September 1835, at the age of 28. He was buried 
 in Pere-la-Chaise ; but his remains have recently been removed to his 
 native place in Sicily. 
 
 Bellini produced little but operas, of which three are still continually 
 heard in all the theatres of the old and new world. They are marked by 
 singular sweetness of melody and purity of feeling ; but they are almost 
 entirely independent of any resources of harmony ; have little dramatic 
 power ; and rely wholly on pathetic airs, not on constructive skill or 
 force in representing passion. Their author is one of the most precocious 
 of musical geniuses, and during his lifetime enjoyed enthusiastic ad- 
 miration. The delight with which his works were received over Europe 
 was due in great measure to the fact that they were sung by some of 
 the most wonderful singers in modern times, amongst whom were Rubini, 
 Tamburini, iNIalibran, Pasta, Grisi, and Lablache. His place in the 
 Calendar is far from being that to which he is usually assigned in the 
 roll of modern musicians ; and it is doubtless due to the excessive value 
 placed by Comte on pure and simple melody and the operatic drama 
 as the expression of human emotion. [F. H.] 
 
 DONIZETTI (Gada,,,), b. 1798, d. 1848. 
 
 Gaetano Doxizetti, six years junior to Pvossini and nine years senior 
 to Bellini, was born at Bergamo, in North Italy in 1798. He was 
 educated at the Conservatory at Naples, and produced his first opera at 
 Vienna in 1818, at the age of 20. His chief successes were ])roduced 
 between the years 1830 and 1835,— -l/(»'t Bolena, VEli^ir d'Amore, 
 Lneia dl Lain nu-nnoor, ami Lurrci" li'iriiia. On subsequent visits to 
 Paris he composed La Fillr, du lo'jiiiinit (1840), and Duu Pa.-<i/)iah', 
 a delicious comic opera (18-13;. He coin]>oscil in all upwai'ds of sixty 
 operas, of which hardly any l)ut tlidse named aliove are now heard (m 
 the stage. "Worn out 'l)y incessant labours he fell into a cdndition <if 
 melancholy, and died of paralysis at Pjergamo in J 848, at the a-e of 50. 
 
 Donizetti, like Bellini, was a follower of the school of Kossini ; and, 
 if he had far less power than his master, avoided his besetting mannerisms.
 
 476 DONIZETTI : WEBER : MOZART [Modern 
 
 Like Bellini, his principal gift lay in pathetic melody, though he has 
 somewhat more of dramatic power, of verve, and comic originality. Like 
 Bellini and Rossini, he no longer commands the passionate enthusiasm 
 which surrounded him in his lifetime, an enthusiasm which was largely 
 due to the superb singers who presented his works, to display whose 
 voices he exactly adapted his airs. Nor would the judgment of modern 
 musicians place him as inferior to Bellini, unless it be in the single 
 quality of pathos. [F. H.] 
 
 WEBER {Carl Maria F. E. von\ b. 1786, d. 1826. 
 
 Carl Maria von Weber belonged to a German family, which' for 
 several generations had been noble. Catholic, militarj', and musical. He 
 was born at Eutin in Holstein in 1786, and received his first musical 
 education from his father, who had fought at Rosbach, 1756, and had 
 subsequently become director of various theatres in many German towns. 
 He led a desultory and wandering life as a youth ; but his musical 
 genius introduced him to Haydn and other eminent composers. In 1813, 
 at the age of 27, he settled at Prague, as director of the opera. In 1821 
 he produced his first great European success with Der Freischiitz ; and 
 from that day the young composer was recognised as a dramatic successor 
 of ISIozart and Beethoven. His next work, Eiiryanthe (1823), was less 
 immediately popular, but has since been recognised as his masterpiece. 
 He was now visibly suffering from the malady (phthisis) from which his 
 mother had died in youth ; and his constant exertions in directing ojjeras 
 in all parts of Germany increased the strain on his health. He agreed 
 to write an opera in English, to be produced by Charles Kemble in 
 London. Ohrron was the subject. In 1826 he journeyed to London, 
 where the new opera was produced with great success. But two months 
 later (4th June, 1826) he died, and was buried with much ceremony in 
 London. In 1844 his remains were removed to Dresden. 
 
 Weber, who had not completed his 40th year at liis death, left nine 
 operas, of which three are still performed, and a mass of compositions 
 for voice and insti'ument. His reputation, imlike that of the contem- 
 porary Italian masters, has not diminished with time, and does not rest 
 on operas directly written to meet the taste of the time and particular 
 voices which sang them on the stage. Weber was a man of engaging 
 character, much general culture, and many literary and artistic gifts ; 
 and much might have been hoped from his astonishing originality and 
 inventive genius, if poverty, a lingering disease, and early death had not 
 cut short his activity in the maturity of his powers. [F. H.] 
 
 MOZART {.lohann TVolfgang AvuuUvs), b. 1756, d. 1791. 
 
 Tlie most wonderful of all musical geniuses was born of a family of 
 musicians at Salzburg, in 1756 ; and died Ijefore completing his 36th 
 year, worn out with excitement and intense activity, having produced 
 an enormous mass of works, amongst which are masterpieces in every
 
 Drama] gMOZART 477 
 
 department of music, vocal and instrumental, and having efl'ected a 
 revolution in the history of his art. The most intense of all musical 
 geniuses was naturally the most precocious. 
 
 Johann Wolfgang Amadeus {Latin Theophilus, Germ. Gottlieb) 
 Mozart was the son of Leopold Mozart, a violinist of repute, in the 
 service of the Archbishojj of Salzburg. He was reared to music almost 
 from the cradle. At the age of three he began to jilay and even to com- 
 pose ; at five he took part in a public operatic performance ; and at the 
 age of six he was exhibited as an infant prodigy in the courts of Germany. 
 The child grew up intensely susceptible, delicate, and precociously acute. 
 From the age of seven to that of seventeen the young genius was engaged 
 in a long series of journeys over Europe, in the course of which, with 
 his father andrsister, he played in public and at court in the cities 
 of Germany, in Brussels, Paris, London (in which they stayed fifteen 
 months), Holland, Switzerland, Austria, and Italy. In all of them the 
 marvellous boy created the utmost enthusiasm, playing on three instru- 
 ments, composing elaborate pieces, and improvising, besides exhibiting 
 various feats of a somewhat dubious value. At the age of fifteen he 
 travelled in Italy, where he produced many pieces, and Avas overwhelmed 
 with applause and distinctions. These ten years of wandering in boy- 
 hood could not be but a terrible strain on a lad of intense susceptibility 
 and ardent genius ; but his musical education was by no means neglected. 
 His father, an ambitious and able man, of great capacity and energy, 
 omitted no opportunity to train the child, whom he recognised as the 
 greatest artistic genius of his age. And jierhaps to a spirit endowed 
 with the rapid and unerring intuition of ^Mozart, such a life of movement 
 and publicity served to fill the mind with everything that Europe could 
 then produce in music. 
 
 At the age of 20 (1776), the young Wolfgang had assimilated and 
 exhausted everything that music had then to teach ; and he certainly 
 had produced characteristic and lasting works in every department of 
 the art. In his 20tli year he returned to his native Salzburg, and worked 
 with energy and success at a great variety of subjects. For five years 
 more he occupied hhnself partly in foreign and German cities, ])oth 
 playing and composing, or in steady work in his own native town. In 
 1781, at the age of 25, he proceeded to Vienna, and there, with some 
 journeys to other cities and countries, the rest of his short life was 
 passed. In spite of enthusiastic admiration, Avarm friends, and royal 
 patrons, with his own incessant productiveness, IVIozart's life in the capital 
 was one long struggle Avith poverty, jealousies, and disappointment. 
 
 In 1781, in spite of his father's remonstrances, he married ("ontanzc 
 Weber, of the same family as that of the coniposer Carl Maria ; and, 
 though she was a well-intentioned and affectionate girl, she was without 
 the strength of nature or the economic habits needed to keep the thrift- 
 less genius from troubles and want. Tlieir married life, indeed, was 
 one of constant anxiety and confusion. The young coiu])oser gained a 
 scanty and irreguhir livelihood by teaching with slight siutcss, and per- 
 forming with applause, ])utwith constant intcrrui)tion to his own uriginal 
 work. He was continually engaged in ])ul)lic concerts, ojicias, and at 
 the palaces of the court and noljles ; but his profits were snudl and soon
 
 478 MOZART [Modern 
 
 exhausted, and he could obtain no fixed appointment. In spite of all 
 his efforts, and the aid of many warm friends, the greatest of musicians 
 was allowed to live from hand to mouth on the proceeds of occasional 
 lessons and chance concerts, as he himself wrote to a friend — "always 
 hovering between hope and anxiety." After incessant rebuffs and amidst 
 violent intrigues, he' produced the Nozze di Figaro in 1786 : he was then 
 thirty, and it marks the high-tide of his genius. It was received with 
 delight ; but brought the composer little but applause. In the following 
 year (1787) came his masterpiece, Don Giovanni. Both of these he 
 conducted in person : the success of the latter was at first doubtful in 
 Vienna ; but it brought him a yearly salary of J80. Journeys followed 
 to Dresden, Berlin, Leipsic, and Frankfort ; at all of which he gave 
 concerts which brought him nothing but fame. 
 
 In 1789 he reiurned to Vienna for the last time ; and was absorbed 
 in lessons, public concerts, and composition, amidst the utmost anxiety 
 from his wife's illness and his own precarious income. In 1791 he under- 
 took his last opera, the Zauberflote, or Magic Flute, and in the midst of 
 his labours he received the order from an unknown patron to compose a 
 lieqioiem in secret. The Clernenza di Tito, based on Metastasio's drama, 
 was performed with poor success, and in a week afterwards the Zauber- 
 flote, which was far from well received. Chagrin, overwork, and anxiety 
 were now telling on his body and mind. Fainting fits succeeded, and he 
 fell into despondency. He told his wife that he was writing the Requiem 
 for himself. And his presentiment was true. It was never finished. 
 On November 15, though visibly dying, he composed a cantata, and con- 
 ducted it himself; but he was forced to take to his bed, where he 
 laboured at his Requiem, consumed with fever and anxiety. On Decem- 
 ber 4th he had the score brought to his bedside, tried a passage, singing 
 the alto himself ; but his strength gave way : he burst into tears, and 
 put aside the score. But up to midnight he continued to give directions, 
 and was seen in delirium to be puffing his cheeks to imitate the action of 
 the drums. By one o'clock in the morning (it was December 5, 1791) he 
 was no more. Next day, with a pauper's funeral, without music and 
 with no friends around the coffin, Mozart was laid in the common grave 
 of St. Marx churchyard, at Vienna. Research has failed to identify the 
 exact spot, nor can his bones be found. So ended the greatest of 
 musicians, at the age of 35. 
 
 Mozart Avas very short, with a pleasant but somewhat feeble counten- 
 ance, beautiful hands and feet, hair and eyes ; but liis appearance was 
 far from impressive. He was aftectionate, generous, sociable, joyous, and 
 sympathetic ; but at the same time careless, weak, improvident, and not 
 uniformly abstemious. As a person he has little to recommend him 
 except a childlike simplicity and lovable nature ; but his genius is one 
 of the most distinct in human history. He lias been well compared to 
 Ratfaelle, inasmuch as they two of all artists, at least in the modern world, 
 liave lived in one unbroken life of beauty, and have clothed with in- 
 stinctive grace every side of their art and of life. It is the peculiar 
 gift of Mozart to have left to the world aljiding and superb works in 
 every one of the forms of music — song, sonata, concerto, symphony, mass, 
 and opera. In his instrumental pieces he greatly advanced the science.
 
 Drama] MOZART 479 
 
 and opened to it new fields. In song he is acknowledged as supreme. 
 No other master has left an equal number of exquisite airs of which the 
 world is never tired. In symphony and in mass he has been equalled or 
 surpassed only by Beethoven and Bach ; but in opera he is acknowledged 
 to have produced the perfect type. 
 
 In musical art the test of power to imjiress the imagination of num- 
 bers in various ages and races is decisive. The philosopher, the man of 
 science, the inventor, can produce his vast social efibrts, indirectly 
 through the medium of other uiinds. It is enough that Aristotle, 
 Kepler, Newton, Descartes, Gutenberg, are followed by competent minds 
 who can give to posterity the results of their work. Even in poetry, it 
 is enough that ^schylus and Dante have given to mankind eternal types 
 of tragedy and sacred poem, which the masses of men know only by 
 repute. But in music the business is to delight, to touch the soul, and 
 to elevate the spirit ; and its effects can be indirectly extended in a much 
 less degree. It is not the business of musical creation to astonish a 
 coterie or to delight virtuosi. When in art men talk of "learning," 
 "profundity." and "subjective consciousness," we know that they are 
 passing into the field of abstract science, not of concrete expression. 
 Music must rouse enthusiasm in races and throughout ages. Judged by 
 this test, the supremacy of iNIozart is plain. Those who would place 
 beside him or above him Bach, Handel, and Beethoven are still amongst 
 his passionate devotees. Whilst to the Latin-speaking races of the Old 
 and New World the other German masters are comparatively unknown, 
 Mozart is, to all who love pure melody, without a rival ; and, to those 
 who prefer elaborate liarmony, he is not second. [F. H.]
 
 MODERN PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 THE aim of Philosophy is to arrange man's thoughts about himself 
 and the world into a connected whole. The first condition of success 
 is that the method pursued shall be the same throughout ; and this con- 
 dition has been filled by the Positive synthesis alone. All other philo- 
 sophies have laboured under the fatal difficulty that while some classes 
 of facts were regarded as controlled by supernatural agencies, others 
 were subject to natural laws ; others again held an equivocal position. 
 In the details of his daily activity, man has been of necessity a Positivist 
 from the first. The regular succession of day and night, of the seasons, 
 of the growth of crops, the uniform quality of the metal, or stone, or 
 wood which he worked, even the moral uniformities of human character, 
 have been forced on him from the beginning. Thus it is that in all pre- 
 liminary philosophies, theological and positive conceptions have been 
 incoherently ^nixed. Positive science — that is to say, the extension to 
 abstract speculation of the common sense and observation always instinc- 
 tively applied in the arts of life — began with Greek geometry, and was 
 extended by the genius of Aristotle to other spheres. By tiae close of 
 the Greek period the conception of abstract natural law — that is to say, 
 of the existence of uniformities amidst phenomena that seemed to be 
 indefinitely variable — had deeply penetrated. 
 
 Scientific speculation had been arrested by the social necessities that 
 led to the establishment of the Catholic Church. Holding at first 
 entirely aloof from philosophical debate, the Church found it necessary 
 at last to strive for a firm intellectual foundation. She sought for this in 
 the philosophy of Aristotle, as applied and systematised by the schoolmen, 
 of whom Aquinas may be taken as the type. This was her culminating 
 point, and also the beginning of her decline. The schoolmen challenged 
 discussion, and discussion was fatal. The Bum ma of Aquinas is fraught 
 with the elements of its own destruction. 
 
 The intellectual movement of Europe from the 14th to the 18th 
 centuries had two distinct ctirrents ; destructive criticism of the old 
 Monotheistic synthesis on the one hand, collection of materials for the 
 Positive synthesis on the other. The two functions, though not always 
 performed by the same organs, were yet inseparable. Without some 
 dissolution of Catholic doctrine, scientific research was impossible. 
 Hence the necessity for the Eeformation, with all its partial and unsatisfy- 
 ing solutions. Protestant Holland gave Descartes a home : Galileo's 
 life, difficult in Italy, would have been cruslied in S2)ain. And, in its 
 turn, scientific research became the most powerful of solvents. Such men 
 as Kepler and Galileo, Descartes and Bacon, Avhile building up the new 
 synthesis, necessarily displaced the old. The metaphysical revolution 
 initiated by Descartes led ultimately to direct onslaughts on received 
 beliefs far more formidable than those of the Protestant reformers. 
 
 Of this twofold movement of upbuilding and destroying, Rent- 
 Descartes is the most complete representative. The critical philosophy
 
 MODERN PHILOSOPHY 481 
 
 and the positive philosophy each received from him their most potent 
 impulse. He initiated the great mathematical revolution that enabled 
 Newton to interpret the solar system ; in his views on light and heat he 
 anticipated modern physics ; he was the first to welcome Harvey's dis- 
 covery of the circulation. And on the other hand he was the first 
 pioneer in the path leading to the destructive process of the 18th 
 century, issuing at last in social upheaval. In the hands of Hobbes and 
 Spinoza the movement of demolition went on apace ; opponents helped 
 it forward equally with friends : for the Pantheism of Spinoza was less 
 dangerous than the Theodicy of Leibnitz. Locke frankly abandoned the 
 struggle for absolute knowledge. Hume and Diderot proved its impossi- 
 bility ; Kant completed the process. All these men were builders no 
 less than destroyers. Knowing Man to be Man's proper study, they 
 added to our knowledge of his nature. By construction no less than by 
 demolition they prepared the way for the advent of Humanity. 
 
 The month appropriated to Descartes is divided as follows : 
 
 The first week deals with the Scholastic Philosophy. This is the point 
 at which ancient and modern thought were brought into contact, by the 
 systematic attempt of Albertus Magnus, Aquinas, and others, to use the 
 logic of Aristotle in defence of the creeds, and to reconcile Faith with 
 scientific speculation. It was the last effort of the Church to assert her 
 intellectual supremacy in Europe. The early scepticism, unsupported by 
 scientific research, to which this mighty constructive effort gave rise, is 
 also represented in this week by such names as Ramus, Erasmus, and 
 Montaigne. 
 
 The second week represents the philosophical speculation of the 17th 
 and 18th centuries dealing with the individual nature of man, physical 
 and moral, for the most part in a preparatory and inductive way. Hobbes, 
 Locke, Vauvenargues, Diderot, and Cabanis are here commemorated. 
 Of those who thus bound Philosophy down to human service, the most 
 illustrious name is Bacon. 
 
 The third week, covering nearly the same period, is devoted to the 
 philosophical study of Man in his social relations. Lei])nitz is here the 
 presiding type. With him are associated the great writers on principles 
 of law, Grotius, Cujas, and Montesquieu ; writers on the philosophy of 
 history, as Vico, Freret, Herder ; Winckelmann, the historian of art, 
 and Buffon, who dealt with the relations of the human species to other 
 animal races. 
 
 The fourth week represents philosophy in its final stage of prepara- 
 tion, immediately antecedent to Positivism. Under the precedence of 
 Hume, who in discussion both of human nature and of social life, in- 
 dustrial and religious, approached very nearly to the Positive stage, we 
 have the philosophic historians, Robertson and Gibbon ; Condorcet, the 
 immediate predecessor of Comte in the Positive theory of history ; De 
 Maistre, to whom is due the first a])])reciation of the mediaval system from 
 a human stand-point ; finally the three principal representatives of modern 
 German speculation — whose views on historical philosojjhy were largely 
 concurrent with those of Comte — Kant, Fichte, and Hegel. [J. H. B.] 
 
 2h
 
 482 DESCARTES [Modern 
 
 DESCARTES (Bene), b. 1596, d. 1650. 
 
 Ren6 Descartes was born JVlarcli 31, 159^ at LaHaye, in Touraine, 
 ■when Bacon, Galileo, and Kepler were in early manhood. His father 
 was . an hereditary member of the provincial government in Brittany. 
 Like Diderot, d'Alerabert, and other audacious thinkers, he was taught 
 by the Jesuits. At the Hge of eight he was admitted to their college of La 
 Fleche ; and he remained there for eight years. With some members of 
 the Order, as also with the monk Mersenne, who had been his feUow- 
 student, he maintained intimate correspondence throughout his life. 
 
 In his celebrated Discourse on Method, Descartes explains that, while 
 highly valuing the literary culture thus received, he was impressed at 
 a very early age with its failure to afford him any basis for fixed convic- 
 tion. In philosophy every opinion could be defended and attacked with 
 equal probability. Scientific research was either tainted with magic or 
 vitiated by metaphysical subtlety ; mathematics, the most attractive 
 subject to his mind because the most certain, had not been used as the 
 basis of other studies. Therefore, his school course being over, he betook 
 himself to study in the great book of the world, where the judgments 
 of men would be guided not by fantastic pedantries, but by the sense of 
 responsibility for failure if the judgment were wrong. 
 
 After passing four years in Paris, he took service, in 1617, with 
 Prince Maurice of Nassau ; in 1619, the Thirty Years' War having now 
 begun, he enlisted with the Duke of Bavaria on the Imperial side, and 
 was present in the following year at the battle of Prague. He left the 
 army in 1621, but continued to travel incessantly in France, Switzerland, 
 and Italy till 1628. He settled at last in the city of Amsterdam, where he 
 enjoyed the advantages of civilisation, and the still greater advantage of 
 freedom from irritating controversy or persecuting assault, every one 
 around him being peacefully occupied with his own aff'airs. He paid an 
 occasional visit to Paris, and maintained a steady and copious correspon- 
 dence with friends interested in his philosophic work. In 1649 he 
 unfortunately gave way to the urgent solicitation of Queen Christina of 
 Sweden to visit her at Stockholm. But the Scandinavian winter was 
 too much for him, and he died of inflammation of the lungs, February 
 11, 1650. His body was taken to Paris, and after several removals was 
 ultimately interred in the church of St. Germain-des-Pres. 
 
 The two movements, constructive and destructive, which characterise 
 modern history are seen prominently contrasted in the work of Descartes. 
 His aim, indeed, was to produce a complete synthesis of truth, built up 
 on the simplest and clearest of all truths — those of mathematics. But 
 from this synthesis the facts of man's mental and moral life were priicti- 
 cally excluded, or rather were handled on a ditt'erent method, the analysis 
 of consciousness ; which in the hands of his successors, from Spinoza to 
 Hume, has been so potent a solvent of theological dogma. 
 
 Whatever beliefs may perish in the process of subjecting them to 
 rigid scrutiny, yet one thing, he said, remains. The existence of the
 
 Philosophy] DESCARTES 483 
 
 being who undergoes this process of doubting is a fact from which there 
 is no escape. Cogito, ergo sum. From this one firm truth Descartes 
 deduced, as no less certain, the existence of God. The inference is not 
 obvious. Spinoza could not adopt it ; Kant rigorously assailed it. It saved 
 the philosophy of Descartes from persecution, and left him free to work 
 in peace. Meanwhile the solvent action of his analysis went on rapidly. 
 But though the metaphysic of Descartes has been of late years better 
 known than his scientific construction, it occupied far less of his thought 
 and energy. His principal purpose was to explain the whole visible 
 world, including the physical structure of man, in accordance with fixed 
 laws derived from the simplest facts of form and motion. It was a 
 philosophy of evolution as opposed to creation. To soothe the theo- 
 logians, who in his time were pressing so hardly upon Galileo, Descartes 
 was content to say that the operation by which God maintains the world 
 is similar to that by which he created it ; so that, if it had pleased him, 
 instead of creating it instantaneously, to allow these laws of evolution 
 to operate, the result would have been what we now see. He began by 
 assuming space to be occupied by perfectly homogeneous and continuous 
 matter. He then supposed this solid substance to be divided into parcels 
 of various shape and size, each of them animated by motion in various 
 directions. These would observe the laws of motion as Descartes defines 
 them : — 1. Each would maintain its o^vn condition of rest or motion or 
 magnitude, until altered by contact with another. 2. In such contact 
 the gain or loss of motion to one body would be exactly compensated by 
 the loss or gain to another — the total quantity of motion in the world 
 remaining invariable. 3. Owing to constant contacts, motion would be 
 usually in curved lines, the moving body tending always to follow the 
 tangent to the curve. 
 
 The result after a period of time would be the difierentiation of 
 primitive matter into three kinds. The moving portions of matter, by 
 constant attrition, would be for the most part converted into spheroidal 
 molecules of various sizes. Some larger masses of irregular shape would 
 amalgamate into solid masses ; the finer particles rubbed oft' from the 
 molecules would insert themselves between them, vibrating with far more 
 rapid motion than they. This vibrating ethereal substance would collect 
 towards the centre of a vortex, and form a sun or star : round it would 
 revolve aerial matter, and plunged amidst this, at various distances, the 
 solid masses of the planets. How by' degrees yet further dirt'erentiation 
 took place in the substance of the earth and planets, by difi'erent velocities 
 and shapes of the component molecules, so that the various metals and 
 crystals arose, and finally plant life and animal life, cannot be told here, 
 but is described in the Frinclpia and in the Treatise oil Man. For 
 man, so far as the structure of his organs, including the organs of sensa- 
 tion, were concerned, was brought within the range of these mechanical 
 conceptions. Descartes was among the first to welcome Harvey's dis- 
 covery of the circulation, as the first great step towards the reduction of 
 vital phenomena to physical laws. 
 
 The achievement of so vast a task was obviously not ])ossil)le while 
 the science of Physics was in its infancy, and while the chemical basis of 
 Biology was still undiscovered. Descartes was aware of this. But he
 
 484 DESCAETES [Modern 
 
 looked forward to the combined labours of the future for its fulfilment ; 
 and the last chapter of his Discmirse contains his forecast of the Positive 
 philosophy of the future, resting not on scholastic subtleties, but on a 
 solid basis of mathematical and biological knowledge, and directed to 
 the practical service of man. What Descartes could not foresee was, that 
 by the time that Physics, Chemistry, and Biology had defined themselves 
 as distinct sciences, the impossibility of reducing them to a single law 
 would be far more evident than it was in his own time. He could not 
 foretell that the complexity of the problem was to increase far more 
 rapidly than man's powers of solving it. The ultimate synthesis of the 
 sciences was to depend not upon the deduction of them from a few 
 mathematical axioms, but on their orderly grouping in nearer or more 
 remote relations to the life of Man. Here lies the contrast between the 
 Objective synthesis of Descartes, attempting to explain the universe, and 
 the Subjective, or Human, synthesis instituted in the Positive Philosophy 
 of Comte. To regard all the more complex phenomena as deductions 
 from the simpler, to deduce all chemical facts from physical, all biologi- 
 cal facts from chemical, leads inevitably to the error of ignoring many 
 of the subtlest and most significant facts in each department — the error 
 generalised by Comte under the name of Materialism. 
 
 Nevertheless, Descartes' theory of Vortices served a most important 
 purpose. It diffused through the intellect of the West, as a less auda- 
 cious hypothesis could not have done, the sense of the subordination of all 
 phenomena to fixed laws. Not less distinctly than Bacon, did Descartes 
 recognise the systematisation of human life, the reign of Man, as the 
 final object of pursuit. And the Principia of Descartes stimulated far 
 more effectively than the Novum Organum the splendid mathematical 
 and physical researches of the 17th and 18th centuries. 
 
 The superiority of Descartes is shown in the important steps which 
 he took towards realising his own programme. His Geometry (published 
 1637) made an epoch in mathematical science. By showing that the 
 distances of each point in a plane curve from two fixed lines followed a 
 law which could be algebraically expressed by an equation involving two 
 unknown quantities, he opened a new world to geometry ; in which groups 
 of curves, hitherto separately studied, were subjected to a uniform alge- 
 braic process. And at the same time he gave precision to the idea of Law, 
 by connecting it with that of Equation. From this discovery followed, in 
 half a century, the transcendental calculus of Leibnitz and of Newton. 
 In Optics his researches were also fruitful, as his mathematical explana- 
 tions of the form of the rainbow, hitherto a half-miraculous marvel, may 
 suffice to illustrate. The analysis of white light into the prismatic 
 colours is due to Descartes, and not, as commonly stated, to Newton ; 
 and generally his views of Light, as a motion propagated through the 
 ether, are far more nearly akin than Newton's to those now received. 
 On many other subjects — as, for instance. Acoustics, where he did not 
 achieve success — he left the impress of vigorous handling. It must not 
 be forgotten that the audacity of his hypothesis had not the effect with 
 him of discouraging experiment. On the contrary, he remarks that ex- 
 periment became more necessary with each advance in knowledge. In 
 simpler subjects, deductions from a few principles might suffice ; but, as
 
 Philosophy] DESCARTES 485 
 
 nature became more complicated, ^experiment alone could .decide by 
 which of many possible modes she had arrived at a given result. 
 
 The positive synthesis of Descartes was an objective synthesis : an 
 attempt to deduce all the phenomena of the universe from a single 
 principle by mechanical process mathematically calculated. Though 
 destined to fail, the attempt was of vast importance, both as an incentive 
 to mathematical and physical speculation in the hundred years that 
 followed, and as a proof that a future synthesis must rest on a different 
 principle. Wholly abandoning the attempt to consider, much less to 
 explain, the Universe as a whole, the final synthesis avowedly takes 
 Man as the central point, grouping the facts of Nature in orderly 
 arrangement round him. In a word, while not ceasing to be scientific, 
 it is subjective, not objective. [J. H. B.] 
 
 The Discours de la Methode and the Geometrie of Descartes are in the 
 Positivist Library. Comte : Phil. Pos. vol. i. lect. 1, vol. vi. lect. 57 
 and ^05. Pol. iii. 482-3.
 
 486 ALBERTUS MAGNUS [Modern 
 
 ALBERTUS MAGNUS, b. 1193 (or 1205), d. 1280. 
 
 Albertus, whose surname Magnus was perhaps the translation of a 
 family name, was of the family of the Counts of BoUstadt, and was born 
 at Lauingen on the Danube. He studied at Passau, entered the Fran- 
 ciscan Order, and taught philosophy in various German cities ; finally 
 settling in Cologne, where Thomas Aquinas became his pupil. In 1245 
 he went to Paris, and there, after three years' residence, received his 
 doctor's degree. In 1254 he became Provincial of his Order ; and was 
 afterwards sent on a mission to Poland to suppress infanticide and other 
 barbarous customs. In 1260 Alexander iv. summoned him to Rome, 
 where he became Steward of the Palace, and took an active part in 
 theological controversy. He afterwards, at the Pope's urgent request, 
 accepted the See of Ratisbon, but resigned it after three years, and 
 retired to Cologne, where, excejst for a short absence at the Council of 
 Lyons in 1274, he remained till his death, 15th November 1280. 
 
 Albert may be regarded as the founder of that systematic study of 
 Aristotle, regarded as an encyclopedia of knowledge, which played so 
 vast a part in European thought from the thirteenth to the sixteenth 
 century. Translations of Aristotle's works from the Greek and Arabic 
 had been recently made by order of Frederick ii. On these Albert 
 wrote Commentaries which fill five folio volumes. In the metaphysics 
 he supplements the shortcomings of the Aristotelian Deity, little more 
 than a centre of motion, by the ethical attributes due to Catholic 
 theology. In the physical, biological, and sociological treatises, he follows 
 his author more closely, yet in no servile spirit. He applied his master's 
 scientific method to new researches ; and especially to those relating to 
 the composition of minerals, which he felt to be the missing link be- 
 tween the science of the stars and the science of man. The five books of 
 his treatise De Mineralibus are perhaps the first attempt to classify 
 inorganic substances with reference to chemical origin and distribution. 
 He divides them into the three classes of rocks, metals, and intermediate 
 substances, these last including salt, nitre, alum, arsenic, amber, and 
 some others. Aristotle's princij^le of the four elements being taken as 
 a starting-point, all are conceived as composed of one or more of these 
 in varying proportions : metals exhibiting a more complicated com- 
 position than rocks, and owing their special character to two substances, 
 sulphur and quicksilver. But the most striking feature of the treatise is 
 the careful observation of natural facts. He had travelled far and wide, 
 he tells us, to examine mining-works, with the view of seeing how each 
 of the metals was mixed with the rocks in which it was found.^ The 
 same zeal led him to devote time to the experiments of the alchemists, 
 from whose charlatanry he was kept free by his breadth of view and his 
 synthetical purpose. 
 
 Not less remarkable are his commentaries on Aristotle's biological 
 works. In his treatise on animal motion, he discusses whether the 
 ultimate principle of such motion is the brain or the heart. His con- 
 clusion that though the heart is the ultimate basis of life, yet that the
 
 Philosophy] JOHN OF SALISBUKY : EOGER BACON 487 
 
 vital spirit acts by the medium of the sensory organs — nerves, brain, and 
 muscles — is a remarkable approximation to the truth. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. V. lect. 54, vi. lect. 57 : also Pos. Pol. iii. 411. [There is no 
 good account of Albert in the histories. Direct reference to his works 
 has been made here.] 
 
 JOHN OF SALISBURY, b. abt. 1117, d. 1180. 
 
 JoHX OF Salisbury was born somewhere in the diocese of that 
 name. He came to Paris in 1137, and studied dialectic under Abelard, 
 Alberic of Rheims, and Robert de Melun, afterwards Bishop of Hereford. 
 He also mentions his teachers in grammar, in logic, and in theology. In 
 those studies twelve years were spent, during which he maintained 
 himself by teaching children of the nobility. He was then appointed 
 secretary to Theobald, Archbishop of Canterbury, and his correspondence 
 shows that he took an active part in the controversy as to the rival 
 popes, Alexander iii. and Victor iv. He is best known by two works : 
 (1) the Policraticus, dedicated in 1159 to Thomas Becket, a satire on 
 the follies and vices of the nobility, containing exceedingly bold doctrines 
 as to the supremacy of the Church over the State ; (2) the Metalogicus, 
 written about the same time. It throws much light on the educational 
 methods of the time, against the shallowness and pedantry of which 
 the writer protests. Formal logic, he says, was studied, but little else. 
 The only true art of demonstrations, geometry, was neglected, except in 
 the schools of Spain and Africa. John shows throughout his work a 
 strong presentiment of the outburst of thought which came in the 
 following century, when Aristotle's physical and biological works were 
 at last disclosed. In 1176 he was made Bishop of Chartres, where he 
 remained till his death, a.d, 1180. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Fleury : Ecdcs. History, bk. Ixx. Hampden: Scholastic Philosophy; also 
 the edition of his works and letters in five volumes, by J. A. Giles, 
 1848. 
 
 ROGER BACON, b. 1214, d. 1292. 
 
 Roger Bacox was boi*n of good family at Ilchester, in the county of 
 Dorset. After studying in Oxford he passed to Paris, where he took 
 the degree of doctor, and probably lived for many years. By the advice 
 of Grosstute, Bishop of Lincoln, one of the most learned men of his time, 
 he joined the Franciscan Order. He was already known as an eager 
 student in many new fields of knowledge. The obstacles placed in his 
 way have been perhaps exaggerated ; though it may be doul)ted whether 
 in Paris he was not seriously liindered from carrying on linguistic and 
 experimental research, and from teaching young men who came to him. 
 He may claim to be the first founder of a scliool of scientific investiga- 
 tion. This indeed was the source of his fame : for lie was debarred 
 from publishing ]jy the rules of his Order. His works would not have 
 been written but for the intervention of Pope Clement iv., who had 
 been formerly papal legate in England. Clement, in 1266, commanded
 
 488 ROGEE BACON [Modern 
 
 Bacon to send him copies of his writings. They existed as yet in 
 Bacon's brain only. But in the course of a year the Opris Majus was 
 compiled, and was soon followed by other works, of which, however, no 
 complete edition has been published. The after-details of Bacon's life 
 are uncertain. His physical studies exposed him to charges of sorcery and 
 heresy, for which he is said to have been imprisoned under the papacy 
 of Nicolas IV. He died in Oxford at the age of 78 (1292 or 1294), and 
 was buried in the monastery of his Order on the feast of St. Barnabas. 
 
 Bacon's great work was an attempt to renovate the European mind 
 by philology and science. He begins by indicating the four sources of 
 error : — authority, custom, popular prejudice, and self-conceit. He then 
 explains that while accepting the Scriptures and the Church's canons, 
 the Fathers and Doctors are not to be regarded as infallible or final. 
 The Church, he says, has hitherto neglected the scientific researches 
 begun by the Greeks, because in the struggle against Polytheism science 
 was confounded with magic. But the rise of Greek philosophy was as 
 surely a part of God's providence as the Mosaic Law or the Christian 
 Church. We profit by these ancient studies ; we should be fools indeed 
 not to carry them on further. 
 
 These thoughts occupy the first two books. The third advocates the 
 study of languages, especially Hebrew, Arabic, and Greek, without 
 which neither the Scriptures nor Aristotle could be understood. 
 Aristotle's writings are the foundation of our knowledge ; but the 
 Latin translations of them are so bad that more harm comes of them 
 than good. 
 
 The fourth book deals with Mathematics, which he calls the gateway 
 and the key to the other sciences, because in them alone we attain com- 
 plete certainty. They reveal our ignorance of the universe, showing 
 that, though the earth is the central point, the smallest of the fixed 
 stars is larger, though itself infinitely small compared with the space of 
 Heaven. Not less are they needed for the service of the Church, for 
 Biblical chronology, for. Church Music, above all for the reformation 
 of the Julian Calendar, which involves a yearly error of the 131st 
 part of a day. Finally this science is the foundation of astronomy, and 
 thus exhibits to us the stellar influences regulating climate, temperament, 
 and the predispositions of character. 
 
 The fifth book is a treatise on Light, and on the function of Vision. 
 Bacon studies the laws of reflection and refraction : partially solving 
 the problems of the rainbow, he deals with the propagation of visual 
 impressions through space, with the structure of the eye, including its 
 relations to the brain, and the distinction of sensations from perceptions. 
 In the sixth book he discusses experimental science, which he was the 
 first to conceive as a distinct field of work. Deductive reasoning, he 
 says, leaves doubt behind it which experiment only can remove. Bacon 
 clearly conceived the need of chemistry as a link between celestial 
 Physics and the study of Man. He had expended a large fortune for the 
 construction of apparatus for physical and chemical experiment, the 
 influence of which on man's conquest of Nature he foresaw as clearly as 
 his namesake of the 1 7th century. His work concludes with an ethical 
 treatise not yet published. But his continual insistence on the moral
 
 Philosophy] RAYMOND LULLY : ST. BONAVENTURA 489 
 
 factor in intellectual achievement is remarkable. The soul defiled by- 
 pride, envy, anger, or lust is, he repeats often, like a soiled mirror in 
 which no images will appear. 
 
 Such was the work of this extraordinary man. He stands first 
 among the initiators of modern scientific inquiry. But science for him 
 was not the mere pursuit of disconnected knowledge ; it was the means 
 of restoring the worn-out fabric of the Church by asserting its continuity 
 with Greek thought, and its capacity for mental progress. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. vi. 206, and Pos. Pol. iii. 411. The Opus Majus itself (first 
 printed 1733) is the only source from which Bacon can be rightly 
 appreciated. 
 
 RAYMOND LULLY, b. 1235, d. 1315. 
 
 Raymond Lully was born in Palma, Majorca, of a noble family 
 settled there after the conquest of the island by James of Arragon. He 
 was Steward of the Palace, and till the age of thirty lived the pleasure- 
 loving life of a courtier. A love rigorously suppressed by the virtue 
 of its object brought about a moral crisis. Inspired by a vision of the 
 crucified Christ, he resolved to devote his life to the defence of the 
 Catholic faith against the Musulman. He studied Arabic under a 
 Mohammedan slave, and at the same time occupied himself with a new 
 method for the demonstration of Christian doctrine, much celebrated 
 afterwards as the Lullian Art. This he expounded in Paris and in 
 Montpellier, and translated into Arabic. After endeavouring, without 
 success, to interest Nicolas iv. in his mission, and to induce him to open 
 schools for the study of Oriental languages, he sailed for Tunis, and 
 engaged in public discussion with Mohammedan doctors. His life was 
 threatened, but he was allowed to escape. He repeated the attempt at 
 Bugia a few years later, with the like result ; and yet again when an old 
 man of eighty, after a life spent in unflagging endeavour to develop his 
 logical process, and to stir the Christian world to a dialectical crusade 
 against the rival faith. On this last occasion he was stoned to death. 
 His body was taken back to Palraa, and buried in the cathedral. 
 
 The Art of Lully was an attempt to form an algorithm in which 
 symbols and geometric figures are used for ideas and for jirocesses of 
 reasoning. The attempt was repeated by Giordano Bruno, and subse- 
 quently by Leibnitz, who in his Ars Combinatoria makes frequent 
 reference to Lully. [J. H. B.] 
 
 SAINT BONAVENTURA, b. 1221, d. 1274. 
 
 John Fidenza, commonly known as B(jnaventura, was born at 
 Bagnarea, in Tuscany, in 122L During a dangerous illness in infancy 
 his mother entreated the prayers of St. Francis, promising that, if her 
 child recovered, he should join his Order. The happy issue is indicated 
 in the name then "iven to him. He entered the Order in 1242 ; l)ut he
 
 490 SAINT BONAVENTURA [Modern 
 
 had already studied in Paris under Alexander of Hales, and subse- 
 quently under La Rochelle, the Franciscan professor of theology in Paris. 
 In 1253 he succeeded to La Rochelle's office, in the same year, it is even 
 said on the same day, on which Thomas Aquinas assumed the Dominican 
 professorship. Both Orders were at this time violently attacked by 
 William de Saint- Amour, a professor of the Sorbonne, and by others of 
 the secular clergy. They were, however, defended by Alexander iv., 
 and Saint-Amour's polemical treatise on the Perils of the Latter Days 
 was condemned and publicly burnt at Anagni. In this matter the Pope 
 had consulted both Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventura. While defend- 
 ing the Orders, care was taken to moderate their excesses ; and the 
 mystical writings of John of Parma, exaggerating the doctrines of 
 Joachim, were also condemned. Bonaventura was made, in 1256, 
 General of his Order, and the moderation and sweetness of his character 
 did much to appease those controversies. In 1264 Clement iv. urged 
 him to accept the archbishopric of York, and was with great difficulty 
 induced to assent to his refusal. After the death of Clement in 1268 the 
 Papal See was vacant for nearly three years. In the negotiations which 
 led to the election in 1271 of Theobald, Archdeacon of Liege (Gregory x.), 
 Bonaventura took a leading part. In 1273 he was made Cardinal, and 
 in the following year was summoned, with Thomas Aquinas and other 
 doctors, to the Council of Lyons, in which an attempt was to be made 
 to effect the union of the Eastern and Western Churches. That the 
 attempt was for the time successful was largely owing to the conciliatory 
 wisdom of Bonaventura. A few days afterwards (July 15) he died. He 
 was buried at Lyons in the Church of his Order ; but his tomb was 
 destroyed during the religious wars of the sixteenth century. 
 
 Bonaventura, known among the Scholastic thinkers as "Doctor 
 Seraphicus," was the author of many mystical works, as the Dialogue 
 of God with the Soul, the Path of the Soid to God. His philosophical 
 system took what was then the common form of commentaries on the 
 Sentences of Peter Lombard, the standard theological treatise of the 
 twelfth century, expanded by the great thinkers of the thirteenth 
 century with the aid of Aristotelian philosophy. Bonaventura in some 
 respects was more Platonist than Aristotelian. Relying on the technical 
 distinction between potential and actual, he considered that universals 
 had a potential existence ; they became individual in act. Knowledge 
 came from sensuous experience ; but the capacity of so deriving it 
 depended on reflection, which obtains universals (ideas) by the contact 
 of the soul with God. The leading feature of his philosophy was that 
 Love was tlie Principle — the mode through which the soul rose to the 
 highest truth. Hence the superiority of Christian teaching to that of 
 the best Greek philosophers. For them Virtue was the mean between 
 two opposing vices ; the object of Virtue being finite. But Love has no 
 such limitations, its object being infinite. 
 
 In the twelfth canto of Dante's Paradiso the Franciscan Bonaventura 
 celebrates the greatness of St. Dominic, as Aquinas the Dominican 
 sets forth the greatness of St. Francis. [J. H. B.]
 
 Philosophy] JOACHIM : RAMUS 491 
 
 JOACHIM, b. between 1130-1145, d. 1202. 
 
 United with Bonaventura in the Fourth Sphere of Paradise, is the 
 " Calabrian abbot endowed with prophetic spirit." He was born near 
 Cosenza, in Calabria. Introduced to the court of Count Roger of Sicily, 
 he soon left it for an ascetic life. After a pilgrimage to Palestine he 
 entered the Cistercian Abbey of Curace, and ultimately founded a new 
 house at Fiore. The saintliness and simplicity of his life are vividly 
 depicted by his secretary Luke, afterwards Archbishop of Calabria. 
 His life was spent in Biblical commentary, especially on the relations 
 between the Old and New Testament, and in the Proj)hets and The 
 Revelation. Here he had full scope for the mystical and prophetical 
 vein for which Dante celebrates him, and which attracted the attention 
 of Richard i. on his passage to the Crusade. His commentaries were 
 approved by the Popes Lucius iii., L'rban iii., and Clement iii., but 
 in the Third Lateran Council doubt was thrown upon his orthodoxy. 
 And indeed some of his views were of startling originality. As in the 
 ancient dispensation the first person of the Trinity had been dominant, 
 to be succeeded afterwards by the second, so the time was now coming 
 when the third should prevail, and the truth dimly shadowed in the Old 
 and the New Testament should be revealed in fulness and without dis- 
 guise. The new era had already begun with St. Benedict, and would 
 culminate in the middle of the 13th century. It is a matter for surprise 
 that this startling conception of spiritual progress should have been re- 
 ceived so tolerantly ; but the two powerful orders of Dominicans and 
 Franciscans, whose renovating efforts he was thought to have foretold, 
 shielded his memory from blame. Joachim died 30th March 1202. He 
 was honoured locally as a saint, though not canonised. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Fleury : Hist. Eccles. livres Ixxxiv. and Ixxxv. 
 
 RAMUS, b. 1502 (or 1515), d. 1572. 
 
 Pierre Raniee, commonly known as Ramus, a shepherd's lad from 
 Picardy, escaped from home to Paris and found menial employment in 
 the College of Navarre, where he was enabled to study, making rapid 
 advance with little help. The study of Aristotle, which three centuries 
 before had Ijeen the sign and instrument of intellectual progress, had now 
 become an obstructive superstition. When Ramus presented himself for 
 his master's degree, he undertook what seemed the impious task of prov- 
 ing that Aristotle was not infallible. • The development of this tiiesis 
 was the principal work of his life. In 1543 he published liis principal 
 work. Institution's Dialectics. It was regarded as heretical, and the 
 University i^rosecuted Ramus before the Parliament of Paris. Francis i. 
 intervened in the dispute, with the result that the book was su])pressed, 
 and Ramus was prohibited from teaching against Aristotle under jwin of 
 corporal punishment. Being a distinguished mathematician, he occupied 
 his leisure in preparing an edition of Euclid. He continued to teach, in 
 spite of the opposition of the Sorbonne ; and in 1545 his disabilities 
 were removed by the Cardinal of Lorraine. In 1551 he was made
 
 492 RAMUS : CUSA : MONTAIGNE [Modern 
 
 Professor of Philosophy and Rhetoric in the College of France,'and during 
 the next fifteen years published various works on mathematical and 
 classical subjects. He was known to sympathise with the Reformation, 
 and during the civil wars he left Paris in 1568 for Germany, where he 
 was received with much honour. He taught mathematics at Heidelberg, 
 and there made a public profession of Protestantism. Shortly afterward 
 he returned to Paris, where he perished in the Massacre of Saint Bartho- 
 lomew, 1572. [J. H. B.] 
 
 OUSA {Cardinal), b. 1401, d. 1464. 
 
 Nicolas Chryftz, a fisherman's son, was born at the village of Cus on 
 the Moselle, near Treves, and hence derived his name of Cusa. The boy 
 attracted the attention of Count Manderschied, who had him educated at 
 the University of Deventer. He soon became celebrated for scientific 
 and philosophical attainment, and also for aptitude in the conduct of 
 affairs. At thirty he became Archdeacon of Liege, and in this capacity 
 took part in the Council of Basle. He defended there the rights of 
 Councils, but took the side of Eugenius iv., by whom he was sent in 1435 
 on a mission to Constantinople. After the conquest of that city by the 
 Turks, he was charged by Nicolas v. with the preparation of an appeal 
 for the union of Christendom. He was for some time Governor of Rome, 
 and was also much occupied with the trouble of Bohemia. He died at 
 Todi in Umbria, 1464. 
 
 Throughout his busy life he found time to enter with the keenest 
 energy into the intellectual movement of his time. He left many philo- 
 sophical and mathematical works, in one of which, De dodd ignorantid, 
 and also again in the Corollaria de Motu, he distinctly denies the doctrine 
 that the earth is stationary, and maintains the infinity of space. The 
 earth, he said, is not the centre of the universe. There is indeed no such 
 centre. The system of the world has its centre everywhere, its circum- 
 ference nowhere. The earth m6ves, and it moves in a circle, though not 
 describing the complete circumference. The importance of these some- 
 what vague anticipations of truth will appear the greater when we 
 remember that Copernicus was for some time his pupil. [J. H. B.] 
 
 / MONTAIGNE (Michel de), To. 1533, d. abt. 1592. 
 
 ■ Michel DE Montaigne, younger son of Pierre Eyquem, a squire of 
 
 Perigord,"waTT)ofn "T'eB'ruary 28, 1533 , in a village from which he took 
 
 his name. His father, a man of vigorous and eccentric character, took 
 
 much pains with his education. He had him held at the font by £oor 
 
 ; people, and brought up in one of his^peasant's cottages, to inure hl'm in 
 
 ;! hardy ways of living, and give him a fellow-feeling with the poor. He 
 
 ii \v5s taught Latin colloquially by a German tutor, and made early progress 
 
 with Greek ; was then sent to the College of Guienne at Bordeaux ; 
 
 and at the age of fourteen began the study of law. At twenty-one he 
 
 became a municipal councillor of Bordeaux. He pa.ssed some years at
 
 Philosophy] MONTAIGNE : ERASMUS 493 
 
 court under Henry iii. and Charles ix., and obtained from the latter the 
 Order of St. Michael. But the religious wars fiUed him with distaste 
 for public life, and in the year before the Massacre of St. Bartholomew 
 he retired to h is estates, resotTEd^To' spend' th"eT^gt 0f_hi5'iife in study. 
 Belweeu T57T arid 1580, he wrote his well-known essays. AfE'er a period 
 of travel in Italy, we find him again in Paris, engaged in attempts to 
 reconcile Henry of Navarre and the Duke of Guise. Here his tender 
 friendship began with Mademoiselle de Gournay, whom he regarded as 
 his adopted daughter, and to whom his widow intrusted the task of 
 publishing the first complete edition of his works ; here, too, he came 
 into contact with De Thou and Charron. The last three years of his 
 life were spent in retirement. He died 13th September 1 592. 
 
 Montaigne presents to us a state of mind completely "detached from 
 ecclesiastical dogma, but t oo vjo-oro us and well balanced to accept the 
 paTRid reforms of Luther and Calvin,, which he thought dearly purchased 
 by the long years of rancour and civil strife that followed them. H"e'saw 
 th a^ th e Catholic ceremonial stirred men's souls with emotions that raised 
 them t'oTiTglier things'; arid he would not throw away a certain good for 
 an nriaginary and very doubtful better. The scepticism of Montaigne 
 went far deeper than doubt of Church doctrines. It went almost as far 
 as the question asked half a century later by Descartes — W hat is t here that 
 i s certain 1 — only that Montaigne could not, like Descartes, rind an answer. 
 Science for him was as uncertain as Theology. Copernicus, he said, was 
 making a revolution in astronomy, Paracelsus in medicine. But was it 
 certain that these revolutions would not be themselves upset by future 
 inquirers ? 
 
 Yet it is not on account of his scepticism that Montaigne is placed 
 in this Calendar, where little honour is paid to merely negative or destruc- 
 tive work. His merit is that by simple observation of the facts of 
 human life, inspired' by honest and genial sympathy, he tried to build up 
 a Runiari " "morality, and to lead men into the path of justice, integrity, 
 ancT forbearance, without appeal to supernatural fears. He saw clearly 
 the'felativity of human knowledge. The senses, through which know- 
 le'dge entered, were too imperfect and too few to reveal to us more than 
 a fraction of the truth. Intellectual culture was but a small part of life. 
 T here seemed to him far more true philo.sophy in the life and conversa- 
 tio n of^th e peasaiit^Thari m that of most philosophers and teachers. The 
 first cares to know what is of practical use to him : the professor teaches 
 us to define Virtue, but not to follow it. [J. H. B.] 
 
 " Essays first published 1580-1588, translated into English by John Florio, 
 1603, and read by Shakespeare. Latest edition by C'onrliet and Roger, 
 4 vols. English translation by Cotton. Ed. : Hazlilt, 1877, 3 vols. 
 
 ERASMUS, b. 1467, d. 1536. 
 
 Er asmus was born Octoljer 28, 1467, at Rotterdam. He was the 
 ille^inmate son of Gerxit of Gouda, and during his father's lifetime was 
 weU'cared for and instructed at the school of Deventer, where he learned 
 Greek. At his lather's death his guardians proved dishonest, wasted his
 
 494 ERASMUS : CAMPANELLA [Modern 
 
 inheritance, and compelled him for a livelihood to enter a monastery. His 
 scholarship obtained for him the post of private secretary to the Bishop 
 of Cambrai, who in 1496 gave him the means of studying in Paris. 
 Here he maintained himself, though with much difficulty, by teaching. 
 During subsequent years he led a wandering life in many European 
 cities. To England, where he made the acquaintance of More, Colet, 
 Linacre, and other scholars, he was specially attracted. In 1506 he 
 visited Rome. Julius ii. dispensed him from his monastic vows ; and he 
 improved his knowledge of Greek in Venice and Bologna. In 1510 he 
 again visited England, hoping for preferment from Henry viii. He was 
 appointed Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity in Cambridge, and 
 re.'jided for some time in Queens' College. In 1514 he went to Flanders, 
 and became a Councillor of Charles v. In 1516 his great work, the first 
 edition of the New Testament in Greek, was published in Basle. There, 
 too, a few years afterwards, his Colloquies was published, a manual of Latin 
 conversation, full of witty onslaughts against the abuses of the Roman 
 Church — as also had been his Praise of Folly, written some years before 
 in England. Luther and the Reformers had great hope that he would join 
 their cause, and spoke of him at one time as " our glory and our hope." 
 But Erasmus frankly avowed that he had no bent towards martyrdom ; 
 and, further, he was not slow to see that the Reformation was misnamed. 
 "We hear cries of Gospel everywhere," he writes : "we should like to 
 see a little gospel morality." " The cities of Germany," he says again, 
 " are full of escaped monks, married priests, hungry and mendicant. 
 They neither teach nor learn. Discipline and piety fall to the ground." 
 He never threw off his adherence to the older faith. In 1535 Paul iii. 
 offered him a cardinalate. But the honour came too late, and in the 
 following year, July 12, he died at Basle. [J. H. B.] 
 
 CAMPANELLA {Thomas), b. 1568, d. 1639. 
 
 Thomas Campanella was born at Stillo in Calabria, 5th September 
 1568. He entered the Dominican Order at fourteen, and devoted him- 
 self to philosophical study. This soon took the form of revolt against 
 the Aristotelian philosophy ; a degenerated pedantry, bearing little 
 resemblance to what was known by that name in the days of Roger 
 Bacon and Aquinas ; but regarded by the hierarchy as the bulwark of 
 established opinions and institutions. In 1591 Campanella's insurgent 
 tendencies found vent in his Philosophia Sensibus Dtmoiutrata, published 
 at Naples, an attack on "those who ]ihilosophise by their own arbitrary 
 notions, not tnking sensible nature as their guide." This exposed him to 
 the suspicions wliich in a few years were to be fatal to Giordano Bruno. 
 He left Naples for Tuscany, where for some years he was protected by 
 the Grand Duke. But in 1599 he was accused of complicity in a plot 
 which, by the aid of the Turks, was to destroy the Spanish power in Italy. 
 Proof of this was never furnished ; though it is likely enough that he 
 looked with detestation on the Spanish Government as the stronghold of 
 oppression and obscurantism. He was imprisoned in Naples for twenty- 
 seven years ; for part of that time he was treated with extreme rigour, 
 and was frequently subjected to torture. After a time he must have had
 
 Philosophy] CAMPANELLA : SIR THOMAS MORE 495 
 
 more freedom, as most of his philosophical works were written in prison, 
 and published in Germany. In 1626, at the intercession of Pope 
 Urban viii., he was set free ; but, being still held under close observa- 
 tion, escaped in 1634 from Rome to Marseilles. The Duke de Noailles, 
 the French Ambassador at Rome, introduced him to Louis xiii. and 
 Richelieu, from whom he received a pension. He died 21st May 1639, 
 in the convent of the Jacobins in the Rue St. Honor^. 
 
 The philosophy of Campanella marks the transition from the medi- 
 seval philosophy, in which the doctrines of the Church were consolidated 
 and supported by the authority of Aristotle, to the new philosophy in- 
 augurated by Bacon and Descartes, in which meditation on the Divine 
 attributes was to give place to the scientific study of Nature and Man. 
 Campanella put forward a complete system {Philosophice Realis Epilo- 
 gistice), beginning with Phisiologia (which included Cosmology as well 
 as the study of life), and ending with three treatises on Ethics, Politics, 
 and Economics ; the second of these containing a picture of an ideal 
 State, called the City of the Sun. Of his physical speculations the most 
 prominent was his view that sensation was not peculiar to living matter, 
 but was shared in its degree by inorganic matter also. On this he wrote 
 a substantive work, De Sensu Be.rum, published 1620. His genius was 
 essentially of a synthetic and poetic cast, and gave him glimpses of great 
 truths not systematically investigated. Very striking, for instance, is 
 his perception of a principle somewhat new even in our time, that all our 
 senses are modifications of the sense of touch {De Sensu Rerum, ii. 12). 
 His defence of Galileo, published, like most of his other works during 
 imprisonment, indicates much courage. He did not venture to defend 
 the Copernican theory ; but he took the line that Moses and Jesus did 
 not occupy themselves with scientific statement ; maintaining thus a 
 clear field for the operations of reason. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Works, 1620-1640. The Civitas Solis and some others have been translated 
 into French and into English. Hallam : Literature of K%trope, vol. iii. 
 
 SIR THOMAS MORE, b. 1480, d. 1535. 
 
 Thomas More was born in Milk Street, London, his father being a 
 judge. He was educated at Oxford, where he became the friend of 
 Erasmus. He gained great distinction as a lawyer, and served in Par- 
 liament under Henry vii. and viii., the last of whom intrusted much 
 important business to him, and on the downiall of Wolsey, in 1529, made 
 him Chancellor. Refusing to co-operate in the King's revolt against 
 the Catholic Church, he resigned his office in 1532. In 1534 he was com- 
 mitted to tiie Tower ; and, persisting in his refusal to subscribe to the 
 King's ecclesiastical supremacy, was beheaded July 6, 1535. He was a 
 man of singular beauty and elevation of character. The memory of 
 his daughter Margaret can never be dissociated from his own. He lies 
 in the parish church of Chelsea ; his house, so long a centre of refined 
 hospitality, stood hard by. 
 
 His principal work is his Utopia, puljlished 151G : a ])icture of an 
 ideal State established in an i«sland of the Southern Seas. By coninumity 
 of property, idleness and luxury were repressed, the Avorking day
 
 496 SIR THOMAS MORE : ST. THOMAS AQUINAS [Modern 
 
 reduced to six hours, and time saved for mental culture and recreation. 
 Regulations for markets and hospitals secured the health of cities. War, 
 though not suppressed, was restrained ; slave-traffic forbidden. Family 
 life was the basis of public order. There was a Church as well as 
 a State, and a married priesthood. But the number of priests was 
 rigorously limited, and there was perfect toleration of religious differences. 
 Especially remarkable are his protests against the sanguinary punish- 
 ment of trifling crimes, then and long afterwards the disgrace of English 
 law ; and his view of National Education as the great preventive of crime. 
 More was a Platonist : but there is no servile imitation of Plato's 
 Repuhlic in this remarkable work ; which ranks, with the Civitas Solis 
 of Campanella, as one of the earliest and best examples in modern 
 literature of a branch of inventive art destined, in Comte's opinion, to 
 be more systematically cultivated in the future. "Utopias," he says 
 {Pos. Pol. i. 229) "are to the art of social life what geometrical and 
 mechanical types are to their respective arts. . . . Every great 
 political change has been ushered in, one or two centuries beforehand, 
 by some corresponding Utopia : the product of the aesthetic genius of 
 Humanity working under an imperfect sense of the circumstances and 
 requirements of the case." [J. H. B.] 
 
 Numerous translations and editions of Utopia ; the most recent by J. R. 
 Lumby, 1884. 
 
 ST. THOMAS AQUINAS, b. 1225, d. 1274. 
 
 Thomas, commonly called Aquinas from the small town in Campania 
 where he was born, came of an ancient and noble family. His childhood 
 was passed at the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino ; afterwards 
 he studied at the University of Naples, then recently established by the 
 Emperor Frederic. In 1243, against the wish of his family, he entered 
 the Dominican monastery of that city. On a journey to Rome he was 
 waylaid by his brothers, and kept for a year a prisoner in a castle belong- 
 ing to the family. Escaping thence, he was sent by the Order to Cologne, 
 where he began the systematic study of Philosophy and Theology under 
 Albertus Magnus. The taciturn student was smiled ;it as the "dumb 
 ox ; " but " the voice of that ox," said Albert, " will one day fill the 
 world." With Albert in 1245 he went to Paris. There in 1253 he began 
 to expound Peter Lombard's StiiUnces ; and a few y- ars afterwards he 
 received the degree of doctor. His fame spreading, Pope Clement iv. 
 offered him the Archbishopric of Naples, which he firmly refused ; having 
 already devoted himself to his systematic work on Theology. Of his 
 absorption in this work stories are told : as that, when dinmg at the 
 table of Saint Louis, he struck the board violently, with the exclamation, 
 "This is conclusive against the Manicha-ans 1" The King, no way 
 disconcerted, ordered his secretary to take the argument down. In 1273 
 Aquinas was summoned by Gregory x. to take part with other doctors 
 in the CouncQ of Lyons. On his way he was seized with sudden iUness, 
 and died on the 7th March 1274, at the Cistercian Abbey of Fossa Nova, 
 in Campania.
 
 Philosophy] ST. THOMAS AQUINAS 497 
 
 To appreciate the work of Aquinas and the Schoolmen, we must 
 realise the intellectual shock given to the Western mind by the spread of 
 the Mohammedan faith, and by the revival of Greek learning under Moham- 
 medan auspices. Monotheism, stript of the mysteries of the Catholic 
 faith, had spread over Eastern Europe and Spain, and, by absorbing and 
 propagating Greek thought, was asserting intellectual supremacy. The 
 solvent eifects of contact between East and West had already shown 
 themselves in the heresies with which Southern France teemed, and 
 which had roused the fervour of Dominic. Against this formidable 
 invasion the Schoolmen, headed by Aquinas, instituted a spiritual trusade. 
 Their purpose was to defend by Aristotelian logic such portions of the 
 Catholic creed as admitted of a demonstrative process. With regard to 
 the rest, they strove to show that, though beyond reason, it was not 
 inconsistent with reason, and that, taken as a whole, the creed was a solid 
 body of co-ordinate and coherent truth. 
 
 Of those defenders of the faith, Aquinas was far the first. In 1256 
 he published his treatise Contra GeiUilcs, in which Catholic principles 
 are defended against the new enemies without and within. Ten years 
 later this was expanded into his great work the Summa Theologim : 
 which remains to this day the most comprehensive and complete of all 
 expositions of the Catholic system. 
 
 The work has three divisions, broadly corresponding to the subjects 
 God, Man, the Church. The existence of God is demonstrated, on 
 Aristotelian principles, as the final source of motion, itself unmoved. 
 But how pass from the Aristotelian to the Christian God 1 To demon- 
 strate the Trinity was infinitely beyond human power. Nevertheless 
 even here Reason must not abdicate. In human nature rightly fathomed 
 was to be seen something that rendered the mysteries of the Faith not 
 indeed intelligible but conceivable. Those things, Aquinas explains, 
 that are said of God are to be interpreted by analogies drawn from the 
 highest of created things. Whoever understands, is aware that in the 
 act of understanding there issues somewhat from his mental power and 
 knowledge, which is the concept of the thing understood. This is the 
 Word — first unspoken, then spoken. So, too, in the operation of Will 
 there is within us something else that proceeds, a proceeding of love, 
 by which the loved object is said to dwell witliin the lover (i. 32, 
 
 But disquisitions on the nature ot Being and the existence of God, 
 though the foundation of the Catholic system, yet occupy but a small 
 portion of it. Even of this first division of the work, a large part is 
 occupied with the attempt to reconcile the accepted conclusions of ])hysical 
 science with the Mosaic account of the Creation ; and with the relations 
 of mind and matter, as illustrated in the contrast of human nature with 
 the bodiless intellects called angels— a discussion fertile in after conse- 
 quences. Under the guidanceof his master Albert, Thomas had thoroughly 
 assimilated the physical science of his time. He had begun his career by 
 voluminous commentaries on the physical and metaphysical works of 
 Aristotle. Enough was known of the solar system and of natural 
 history to render the acceptance of the Hebrew story of Creation very 
 difficult. Why was light creat.'d on the first day, and the stars on the 
 
 21
 
 498 ST. THOMAS AQUINAS [Modern 
 
 fourth ? Why was the Moon called one of the two great lights, being 
 smaller than any of the planets ? "Why were birds and reptiles said to 
 issue from the water, quadrupeds from the land ? These and countless 
 other objections are fully set forward. The task of reconciling Science 
 and Scripture, familiar to our own times, then begins ; the result being 
 that a far wider pathway was opened for scientific research than is com- 
 monly supposed. 
 
 The second and most important division of the work deals with the 
 moral government of man. It has two parts, the first discussing the 
 more general aspects of human conduct, the second the more special. 
 In the first the principal subjects considered are free-will ; human 
 passions ; virtue and vice ; sin, original, venial, and mortal ; law, 
 natural, Judaic, Christian ; and grace. In the second subdivision each 
 virtue is considered with its opposing vice ; first the theological virtues 
 of Faith, Hope, and Charity ; secondly the cardinal virtues, Prudence, 
 Justice, Fortitude, and Temperance. Throughout this part of the 
 work the Ethics of Aristotle are far more frequently quoted than the 
 Scriptures or the Fathers. It may be noted that in the discussion of 
 Justice, Aquinas was considered by the great Grotius to have laid a 
 sound foundation for the theory of International Law. 
 
 The third part deals with the Incarnation, the Sacraments, and the 
 state of the soul after death. Of this part the first ninety chapters only 
 are believed to be by Aquinas. It may be remarked that the doctrine 
 of Papal Infallibility, as the result of ultimate appeal in questions of 
 disputed doctrine, is systematically maintained. Aquinas could not con- 
 ceive of a society like the Church existing without government. 
 
 This brief sketch of the most comprehensive and philosophical 
 presentation of the Catholic system is of course utterly inadequate. 
 The minute and searching wisdom of the details, no less than the general 
 plan, constitutes its value. The work consists of 512 chapters ; 119 for 
 the first part, 114 and 189 for the two divisions of the second, 99 for the 
 third. Each chapter is divided into several distinct propositions : the 
 opposing arguments being in each case fully stated before the conclusion 
 reached is justified. 
 
 Comte, in appreciating the strength and weakness of the Catholic 
 system, remarks, with reference to the Scholastic Philosophy, on the 
 superiority of the mediaeval university to the Greek school, in that 
 natural and moral philosophy were no longer separated, as was the case 
 in Alexandria, but were embraced under one system, held together by 
 the metaphysical abstraction of Nature and by the central dogma of 
 theology. It was inevitable that the Scholastic philosophy, though 
 emanating from theology, should become soon its rival. The prepon- 
 derance of Aristotle tended more and more to detach the minds of 
 thinkers from theological control. [J. H. B.] 
 
 No adequate appreciation of Aquinas can be gained from any of the various 
 abridgments of his works, which, giving sim])ly catalogues of his 
 conclusions, fail to indicate his method, and the large field opened for 
 free inquiry. Comte: Phil. Pos. vol. v. lect. 55, and vol. vi. lect. 56. 
 Pos. Pol. vol. iii. p. 411. See also Hampden's Lectures on Scholastic 
 Philosophy.
 
 Philosophy] HOBBES /' 499 
 
 / 
 
 HOBBES (Thomas), b. 1588, d. 1679. f' 
 
 Thomas HoBBES was born at Westport, near Malmesbury, in Wilt- 
 shire, 5th April '1588. His father was u cterffytimTr. The boy showed 
 zeal for study, a iiH^t fifteen was sent to Magdalen Hall, Oxford, where 
 his contempt for the unreality of the logic of the schools found full vent. 
 In 1608 he travelled with the son of William Cavendish of Hardwick, 
 with whose family he retained intimate connection through life. On 
 his return he had frequent interviews with Bacon. In 1618 he published 
 his translation of Thucydides. He was again on the Continent in 1629 ; 
 and for the third time in 1634-7. On this occasion he saw Galileo, and 
 was in close contact with Mersenne and other Cartesians in Paris. His 
 scheme of Philosophy — covering the three subjects of Body, Man, Society, 
 — was now definitely formed. He was in France for the fourth time 
 during the whole period of the civTT war in England. His treatise De 
 Oil^"was published 1645, and his most important work, the Leviathan, 
 where his theory of man and society is fully developed, in I^5T. TVTuch 
 offencS " ■vptis given to the "clergy by this book, and by his controversy 
 with Bishop Bramhall on Free- Will. In 1666 licence to print was 
 refused him by Parliament, and after this date his books were printed 
 in Amsterdam. Behemoth, his account of the civil wars, was published 
 after his death. His' later controversies with Wallis on mathematics 
 were a regrettable waste of intellectual energy. Hobbes died at 
 Hardwick Hall, 4th December 1679 {(et. 91) and was buried in the 
 church of Hault-Hucknell. 
 
 Hobbes is regarded by Comte as the principal exponent in the 
 17th century of the negative philosophy which it was the work 
 of the eighteenth to propagate and apply. In this respect Spinoza is 
 associated with him. The principles of this philosophy once teStitttted, 
 their dissemination by such men as Rousseau, Holbach, or Helvetius 
 was a comparatively easy task. But the men from whom they sprang 
 were philosophers of the highest rank, surveying the whole field of life. 
 
 The principal characteristics of this philosophy were (1) mentally, 
 the institution of metaphysical entities, especially Nature for (iod ; 
 (2) ethically, the doctrine of self-interest as the foundation of social and 
 moral life ; (3) politically, the complete subordination of spiritual to 
 temporal power. 
 
 "All these principles, so popular in the 18th century, were systematic- 
 ally worked out by Hobbes. But associated with them were positive 
 truths of the highest value. 
 
 (1.) Philosophy, as he conceived it, was limited to the study of 
 phenomena, inferring efiects from observed causes, or causes from 
 observed eff'ects, and systematically excluding theology or transcen- 
 dentalism of every kind. 
 
 (2.) The purpose of Pliilosophy was social. His maxim, Thcoremata 
 propter problemata, id est propter artem constrnendi, may recall (Jomte's 
 Induire pour deduire, ajin de construire. The distinction of Western 
 Europe from Oriental and savage countries was traceable to the philo- 
 sophic principles deeply rooted in the former. The hope for the
 
 500 HOBBES : SPINOZA [Modern 
 
 cessation of social anarchy lay in the formation of fixed principles of 
 conduct {De Corpore, ch. i.) 
 
 (3.) His scheme of Philosophy included (a) First principles ; (6) 
 Geometry and Physics ; (c) Man biologically regarded ; (d) Man as a 
 social being. We have here the germ of the true classification of the 
 sciences, proceeding from the simpler to the more complex. 
 
 (4.) In Psychology, the higher portion of Biology, Hobbes reached 
 important truths as to sensation ; the action of the outer world, through 
 a medium, on the organs of sense, provoking a reaction in these organs. 
 He thus avoided the fallacy of supposing any resemblance between the 
 object and the sensation produced by it {Leviathan, ch. i.). His re- 
 marks on the association of ideas are also of great value [Leviathan, 
 ch. iii.). 
 
 (5.) In Social Statics Hobbes made the jjrincipal step taken since 
 Aristotle, by his demonstration that government, whatever its form, 
 necessarily rested on force. His views on this point are developed at 
 great length in the De Cive and in the Leviathan. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. vol. v. lect. 55 ; and Pos. Pol. vol. ii. p. 246 ; iii. p. 483. 
 
 ^^^^^^ SPINOZA, b. 1632 , d. 1677. 
 
 Baruch, afterwards called Benedictus de Spinoza, the descendant 
 of JewsTh-iTBn from Portugal by"the InquisiflbSpwas born in Amster- 
 dam on November 24th, 1^32. He received a rabbinical education ; 
 but his revolt against Hebrew theology caused his excommunication 
 from the synagogue at an early age. He gained a poor livelihood as 
 an optician, devoted himself to philosophy, and was in correspondence 
 with Leibnitz, Huyghens, Robert Boyle, and other leading intellects of 
 his time. He was much influenced by Descartes, from whom, however, 
 he profoundly diverged. He was offered a chair of Philosophy by 
 the Elector Palatine, and a pension by Louis xiv. ; but he preferred 
 
 (independence. From John de Witt only would he accept a small 
 allowance. His life was simple and without stain. He died at the 
 j Hague, of consumption, in his 45th year, 22nd February 1677. 
 
 Spinoza is classed by "ClSffite ' with Hobbes as one of tfie fountain- 
 heads of the negative movement carried on by Voltaire and the^JJcyclo- 
 psedists in the 1 8th century. The work most directly operative in 
 this direction was his politico-theological treatise, containing a systematic 
 criticism of Bible history from the scientific standpoint, and treating 
 miraculous records as illusions due to primitive stages of belief. 
 . Philology, historical method, and comparative mythology were all 
 I brought to bear on his subject. The treatise concludes with a noble 
 |i advocacy of Toleration. 
 
 The philosophical system of Spinoza is contained in his Ethic. Its 
 basis is pure Pantheism, systematically expoimded. The two modes of 
 Being, Extension and Thought, are regarded as the attributes of an 
 infinite underlying Force, to which Spinoza gave the name of God. 
 Attention has been concentrated, however, too exclusively on this
 
 Philosophy] SPINOZA : PASCAL 501 
 
 metaphysical basis, to the neglect of the far more valuable super- 
 structure. The two final chapters of this great work, on Man's slavery 
 and freedcmi, jcontain principles of conduct' 'S0*"t^ttr6 and lofty, and yet 
 s o"^Un ial''a"nd Tiuman, as to entitle Spinoza to be ranked among the 
 founder's of Positive Ethic. The blessedness of meeting hatred with 
 love is rigorously demonstrated on"pTTT6ly hitman grounds. ^tSceticism 
 anf^'tnarbid sorrow for the woes of the world are strongly deprecated. 
 To' do good cheerfully (beyie agere et loitari) is the rule laid down. Tlie 
 highest life consists in loving resignation to the supreme order, 'fhe 
 impot e n e &'of man over his own passions is slavery. From hate good 
 can never issue; in love of the highest, love that looks for no return, 
 lie's the only freedom". [j. H. B.] 
 
 Spinoza : Ethic, translated into English, 1883. Lewes : Hist, of Philosophy. 
 Phil. Pos. vol. V. lect. 55. 
 
 PASCAL {Blaise), b. 1623, d. 1662. 
 
 Blaise Pascal was the son of Stephen Pascal, President of the Court 
 of Aidg^ta"±rtvergne ;""he -wasbornin Clermont, 19th June 1623. His 
 father was a good scholar and mathematician, and took much pains 
 with the boy's education, confining it, however, to the study of language, 
 and refusing to teach him mathematics, for which he showed an early 
 inclination. Madame Perier, his elder sister, has told the story of the 
 boy being found one day by his fiither making charcoal figures on the 
 floor, which he called rounds and strokes, not knowing their usual names, 
 but tracing their proportions. It appeared that he was inquiring into 
 the question dealt with in the thirty-second proposition of Euclid's first 
 book : the equality of the three angles of a triangle to two right angles. 
 The story is remarkable enough without the air of miracle with which it 
 is sometimes surrounded, as though he had reasoned out all the previous 
 propositions without help. It does not even appear certain that he had 
 solved this one. No further bar was opposed to his mathematical 
 training. By this time his father had removed to Paris, and was in 
 contact with Roberval and other men of scientific eminence. At the age 
 of sixteen, the boy had written a treatise on Conic Sections which at- 
 tracted the notice of Descartes. He was nineteen when he invented his 
 calculating machine, of which he had more than fifty models executed 
 before its completion ; the purpose of it being to assist his father in the 
 calculations involved in official work connected with the government of 
 Normandy. For the next five years he gave himself energetically to 
 scientific research. In 1047, being then twenty-four years old, he 
 published a sketch of his experiments on the Vacuum ; the full account 
 of which did not appear till after his death. He describes the vacuum ])ro- 
 duced by Torricelli in 1643 in a tube filled with mercury. He adds the 
 account of his own experiment with a tube 40 feet long, in which a similar 
 vacuum was produced ; the pressure of the air supporting a cohunn of 
 water, of which the length was to that of the colunm of mercury in the 
 inverse proportion of their specific gravities. In the following year ho 
 made, through his brother-in-law, the crucial experiment of comparing
 
 502 PASCAL : GIORDANO BRUNO [Modern 
 
 mercurial barometers at the summit and at the foot of the Puy-de-Dome ; 
 experiments verified by others of his own on the tower of Saint Jacques. 
 His treatise on the equilibrium of fluids, published in 1663, shows a clear 
 understanding of hydraulic pressure. 
 
 In 1654 his health, which for some years had been failing, received a 
 shock from a carriage accident ; and this led to a moral crisis, diverting 
 him from science and philosophy to ascetic pietism, interrupted only by 
 his controversy with the Jesuits (1656), embodied in the Provincial 
 Letters, and by his challenge to mathematicians as to the cycloid in 1658. 
 He had long projected a philosophical work on man and his destiny. 
 Of this isolated fragments alone were written, and are known to us as his 
 Thoughts. Coloured as these are by morbid and egotistic mysticism, 
 they reveal a mind capable, under healthier conditions, of very great 
 results. To the most remarkable of them Comte has drawn attention. 
 " The whole series of human generations during the course of ages should 
 be regarded as one man, ever living and ever learning." He cites also 
 with special approval his remarks on the inevitable imperfection of social 
 classification, and on the inherent weakness of the arguments drawn 
 from natural theology. [J. H. B.] 
 
 The Thoughts of Pascal are in the Positivist Library. Phil. Pos. vol. v. 
 leet. 54 and 55. Pos. Pol. vol. iv. 27. 
 
 GIORDANO BRUNO, b. 1550 (about), d. 1600. 
 
 This brilliant enthusiast was born at Nola, near Naples. Little is 
 known of his early life. He became a Dominican to gain time and oppor- 
 tunity for study. But he soon broke loose from the Aristotelian and 
 Thomist traditions of his Order, and ranged himself with men like Cam- 
 panella, who were reviving the study of Platonism, and, through Platonism, 
 found the way to the yet older Pantheism of the early Greek thinkers. 
 
 About 1580 he left Italy for Geneva. Calvin had been dead sixteen 
 years ; but Beza inherited his position and spirit, and was imprisoning 
 such heretics as Henry Stephanus, and banishing anti-Aristotelians like 
 Ramus and Arminius. Bruno sped thence to Lyons, and afterwards to 
 Toulouse. He found little sympathy in either place : learning flourished, 
 but free thought was denounced. France was in the throes of her 
 religious wars. 
 
 At last he reached Paris, where he was protected by Henry iii., and 
 by Filesac, the Rector of the L'niversity. He remained there for a year, 
 teaching the Lullian system. Then he went to London, where he wrote 
 his Spaccio della bestia triovfcmte, an allegorical attack on Ptolemaic 
 astronomy, and, through this, at scholastic dogmatism. It was dedicated 
 to Sir Philip Sidney, for whom he felt unbounded reverence. While in 
 England he held a controversial discussion at Oxford against Aristotle, 
 and in favour of Copernicus ; and shortly afterwards another in Paris, to 
 which he returned in 1586. Thence he went successively to the univer- 
 sities of Marburg, Wittenberg, Frankfort, and Prague, delivering his 
 enthusiastic utterances on the new birth of science and the downfall of 
 Aristotelian superstition. At last he ventured into Italy. He remained
 
 Philosophy] GIORDANO BRUNO : LOCKE 503 
 
 for some years unmolested ; but he was ultimately arrested at Venice by 
 the Inquisition, and in 1598 was transferred to Rome. Refusing to 
 recant his philosophical and scientific heresies, he was burnt in the 
 Campo di Fiore. 17th February 1600. 
 
 Bruno was truly — what he called himself in his letter to the Univer- 
 sity of Oxford, — donnitantium animanL7)i excubitor, the awakener of 
 those that sleep. He revelled in the new life of thought resulting 
 from the discovery that the universe was no machine of concentric 
 spheres with the earth for centre, but an infinite space, sown with 
 innumerable stars. An informing soul pervaded it, moulding every 
 part to the degree of life of which it was capable. This is the central 
 thought of his two chief Italian works, Causa, jyrincipio, ed vno and 
 L'infinito universo e Mondi, and of his great Latin poem, written in 
 Lucretian style, De Immenso et innumerahilihus. This last contains a 
 glowing eulogy of Copernicus, and describes the inspiring influence of 
 his book on Bruno's early years. How incompatible such doctrines 
 were with the discipline of the Church is obvious. Bruno was chief 
 among the forerunners of the great intellectual revolution to be eff'ected 
 in the 17th century by Descartes and Spinoza. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Bruno's works, wliicli had become very rare, have been recently republished : 
 the Italian in Gottingen, the Latin in Italy. With the latter are in- 
 cluded some never before printed. 
 
 LOCKE {John), b. 1632, d. 1704. 
 
 Few thinkers have been more widely read than Locke. He was born 
 August 29, 1632, at Wrington, in Somersetshire. His father had served 
 under the Parliament in the wars of the Commonwealth. He was edu- 
 cated first at Westminster, then at Oxford, where he studied medicine, 
 attracting the attention of the great physician Sydenham. His acute 
 diagnosis of a disease from which Lord Shaftesbury was suflering gained 
 him the friendship of that nobleman. Weak health, and the displeasure 
 of the Government at his liberal opinions, kept him away from England 
 tiU after the Revolution of 1688. He resided partly in the south of 
 France, but principally in Holland, working for many years at his Essay 
 concerning Human Understandinq, published in 1690. On his return 
 to England he gained the friendship of Newton, with whom he main- 
 tained a long correspondence. Besides his principal work, his Essay on 
 Toleration, written while in Holland, his treatises on Government and on 
 Education are to be noted. 
 
 The Essay concerning Human Understanding consists of four books. 
 The first is"a refutation of the view that ide'as are innate in the mind. 
 Locke shows that if this were so, there would be propo^^itions in which 
 all agree. Some such had been brought forward by tlie su])porters of 
 the theory, as that " It was impossible for the same thing to be and not 
 to be at the same time." But an examination of the minds of children 
 and savages shows that such propositions have no existence for them, 
 their very terms not being intelligible. The second book contains his 
 analysis of ideas. All are derived from experience ; some are derived 
 from sensation ; otliers from the reflection of the mind on its operations.
 
 504 LOCKE : MALEBRANCHE [Modern 
 
 Distinguishing them into simple and complex, he reduces the first to 
 a few simple categories, as extension, solidity, mobility, derived by the 
 senses from body ; perceptivity, the power of perception ; motivity, the 
 power of moving, derived by reflection from our minds ; and existence, 
 duration, number, springing from both sources. 
 
 The third book deals with language, and contains vigorous refuta- 
 tions of the metaphysical doctrine of essences, which he shows to be 
 simply artificial abstractions, made for human convenience. 
 
 The fourth book deals with knowledge and demonstration. Perhaps 
 the most noticeable point in it is his disregard of the scholastic syllogism, 
 which he shows to be not the process actually followed by those who 
 make a sound use of their reasoning faculties. " Tell a country gentle- 
 woman that the wind is south-west, and the weather lowering and like 
 to rain, and she will easily understand it is not safe for her to go abroad 
 thin clad in such a day after a fever. She clearly sees the probable 
 connection of all these, viz., south-west wind and clouds, rain, wetting, 
 taking cold, relapse, and danger of death, without tying them together 
 in those artificial and cumbersome fetters of several syllogisms that clog 
 and hinder the mind, which proceeds from one part to another quicker 
 and clearer without them." This direct resort to observation of Nature 
 and reality is characteristic of Locke's method throughout his treatise. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Lewes : Hist, of Philosophy, ii. Mill : Logic, bk. 1. ch. vi. 
 
 MALEBRANCHE {Nicolas), b. 1638, d. 1715. 
 
 Nicolas Malebraxche was born in Paris in 1638. He led the life 
 of a student, and was occupied with the study of language and of 
 biblical literature till the reading of Descartes' treatise on Man turned 
 him to philosophy. He spent ten years in the study of Descartes, of 
 whom he was regarded as the principal disciple. His treatise on the 
 Search for Truth, in six books, was the result of his labours. One of 
 the problems discussed by Malebranche in this work is the mode of 
 action of mind upon matter. The essence of matter being extension, 
 of mind thought, how were things so distinct brought into connection ? 
 It had been suggested that effluent particles passed from bodies through 
 the organs of sense to the mind. But such particles, having extension, 
 would impede each other in their passage ; and, moreover, would convey 
 no intimation of the distance of objects. Nor can it be said that the 
 mind produces its own ideas of outward objects ; nor, again, that these 
 ideas were created with us. The solution of Malebranche is that we see 
 all things in God ; God being the region of all spirit, as space is the 
 region of body. To God all objects are eternally present ; the contact 
 of spirit with God is thus the mode by whicli spirit perceives matter. 
 
 The last of the six books, containing his method of investigation, is 
 the most interesting and useful. It is founded on the Cartesian philo- 
 sophy, insisting first on the rule of clearness of conception ; secondly, of 
 arrangement of problems in the order of their increasing complexity. 
 The importance of mathematics as a propa'deutic is urged with great 
 force. [j. H. B.]
 
 Philosophy] VAUVENAEGUES : LAMBERT 505 
 
 VAUVENARGUES {Marquis de), b. 1715, d. 1747. 
 
 Luc de Clapiers, Marquis de Vauvenargues, was born at Aix, in 
 Provence, entered the army at 18, and served in Italy and Germany for 
 nine years. Failing health obliged him to retire, and he passed the few 
 remaining years of his life in study. Voltaire, whose acquaintance he 
 made at this time, spoke of his character and powers with the warmest 
 admiration. He died in 1747, at the early age of 32. 
 
 The short philosophical career of Vauvenargues was devoted to the 
 study of man's moral nature, and its results are contained in a series of 
 more or less isolated thoughts, which were to serve as materials for a 
 systematic work never completed. Their distinctive feature is the para- 
 mount importance of emotion in the formation not merely of character 
 but of thought. The subordination of the Intellect to the Heart, one of 
 the corner-stones of Comte's ethical system, is clearly indicated in the 
 celebrated maxim of Vauvenargues, Toutes Ics grandes pensces viennent 
 du cceur. A few quotations will best show the character of these 
 thoughts : — 
 
 " The mind is the eye of the soul, not its strength. That lies in 
 the heart — that is, in the passions. The most enlightened 
 reason gives neither action nor will. Does good sight give the 
 power of walking 1 Must there not be feet, and the will and 
 the power to move them ? " 
 " Reason and feeling advise and help each other in turn. Whoever 
 consults one only and rejects the other, throws away half the 
 help given for conduct. From our passions come the best 
 features of our intellect." 
 " If men had not loved glory, they would not have had either mind 
 enough or virtue enough to deserve it. Man's passions have 
 taught him reason." 
 We must accustom ourselves, Vauvenargues thought, to a mixture 
 of good and bad in human nature, and be contented if the selfish element 
 can, by wise government, be made to serve social good. If men are 
 always to be hindered from doing themselves harm, they run the risk of 
 slavery, which is the worst harm of all. Great abuses are part of the 
 order of man's nature, and cannot be wholly eradicated. 
 
 " We have no right to reduce to misery those whom we cannot raise | 
 to virtue. We cannot be just if we are not humane." [J. H. B.] i 
 
 Of the Maxims of Vauvenargues there are many editions. For Comte's 
 apprt'-iation of him see Fositice Polity, vol. i., Ded. xxxvj. XLI,, and 
 vol. iii. 50-1. The Maxims linds a place in the Positivisl Library. 
 
 LAMBERT {Madame dt), b. 1647, d. 1733. 
 
 Anne Thurcse de Marguenat de Courcelles, afterwards Mar((uise de 
 Lamhert, was born in Paris in 1047. Her father was Ktienne de 
 Marguenat, Master in the Exchequer. She married the Marquis de 
 Lambert, a high military official under Louis xiv., who left her a widow 
 with two children in 168G. Her salon in Paris was iiuich frecjuented by
 
 506 LAMBERT : DIDEROT [Modern 
 
 Fontenelle and other celebrities, and was one of the few from which play 
 was excluded. She died, July 12, 1733, in her 86th year, much respected 
 and loved. 
 
 Her two best known works, A Mother's Counsel to a Son, and To a 
 Daughter, which have a place in the Positivist Library, are full of delicate 
 observations of human nature, and of womanly wisdom based almost 
 exclusively on human affections and relations. The established cult is 
 briefly mentioned, and respect for it inculcated ; but it holds a secondary 
 place. The social virtues, the arts of pleasing without servility, forget- 
 fulness of self, the prominence to be given to the qualities of others, the 
 interest to be felt in what interests them, are beautifully depicted. " A 
 courteous person never finds the time to speak of self" Yet the counsels 
 she gave her son were neither eS'eminate nor overstrained. On manli- 
 ness of character, on self-respect and dignity, on honourable zeal for 
 distinction, she set high value ; but the most vigorous and active life 
 should have time for solitary thought ; and chivalrous respect for women, 
 humanity towards the suffering, and magnanimous forgetfulness of in- 
 juries should permeate the whole. [J. H. B.] 
 
 DIDEROT (Denis), b. 1713, d. 1784. 
 
 Denis Diderot was born at Langres, in Champagne, in October 1713, 
 where his father and his forefathers had been established as working 
 cutlers for two centuries. He was brought up for a time by the Jesuits, 
 like so many other eminent Frenchmen, and for a time wished to be a 
 priest. He soon found his way, however, to Paris, where his true 
 vocation at once revealed itself. Plunging into the world of letters, and 
 living by them as best he could, he became the leader of the band of 
 thinkers and writers that occupied themselves in the work of social 
 destruction and renovation, with a zeal unparalleled in the history of 
 humanity. Of the army of critics and destroyers, Voltaire was the 
 acknowledged leader. But Diderot's genius was essentially constructive, 
 though the time for permanent construction had not come. With happy 
 instinct he hit upon the expedient of an Encyclopaedia, in which men of 
 different capacities and temperaments, practical as well as theoretical, 
 could take part, and which could disseminate positive knowledge of every 
 kind, while sweeping theological obstructions aside. D'Alembert was 
 associated with him in the first years of the enterprise, to which he wrote 
 the Introduction. jMontesquieu, Voltaire, Butfon, Rousseau, Marmontel, 
 Quesnai, d'Holbach, Des Brosses, Haller, Turgot, Condorcet, were among 
 the contributors. The first volume was published in 1751. Suppressed 
 for a time after the second volume, the publication was continued, amidst 
 the execration of the clergy, till 1759, when D'Alembert's article on 
 Geneva brought a second decree of suppression. D'Alembert left the 
 enterprise, and Diderot superintended it alone till the close. 
 
 No single work of Diderot represents adequately his synthetic and 
 sympathetic genius. Comte speaks of him as the most encyclopajdic 
 mind since Aristotle. He selected four of his works for the synthetic 
 division of his Positive Library : the Letter on the Blind, Letter on the
 
 Philosophy] DIDEROT : DUCLOS 507 
 
 Deaf, Thoughts on the Interpretation of Nature, and The Theory of 
 Beauty. The first two present a brilliant and subtle analysis of the way 
 in which man's physical organisation, especially the organisation of his 
 senses, has moulded his social and moral being. The Interpretation of 
 Nature marks the transition between the objective synthesis instituted 
 by Descartes to the subjective synthesis of Positivism. Instructed him- 
 self in the high mathematical analysis of his time, he yet saw clearly that 
 the future progress of man's intellect would not consist in a series of 
 algebraical deductions, but in direct recurrence to the facts of the world 
 and of human life. It was a bold prophecy for the contemporary of 
 Euler, D'Alembert, and Lagrange that in a hundred years there would 
 not be three geometers of similar rank left in Europe ; that intellectual 
 energies would have taken another channel. Within two generations the 
 chemistry of Lavoisier, the biology of Bichat and the sociology of Comte 
 were to justify the prevision. 
 
 His Theory of the Beautifid, founded with keen insight on the idea 
 of the relation of parts to a whole, illustrates the poetic side of his 
 genius, which was indeed as open to every aspect of art as his heart was 
 responsive to every influence of love and friendship. His abortive 
 marriage, and irregular but faithful attachment to Mademoiselle de 
 Voland, are facts of which a just judge, deciding by the standard of life 
 then prevalent, will be slow to use harsh words. Perhaps no man of 
 genius has been so richly endowed with generous sympathies, or so free 
 from envious or self-seeking taint. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. iii. 498-504 and 513-16. 
 
 DUCLOS (Charles), b. 1704, d. 1772. 
 
 Charles Pinot Duclos was born at Dinant, in Brittany. He went 
 when young to Paris, entered the field of literature, and wrote several 
 novels which were much read at the time. In 1747 he became a member 
 of the Academy, and in 1755 he was appointed secretary. Five years 
 previously Louis xv. had appointed him Historiographer, in succession 
 to Voltaire, who had gone to Berlin. Among his contemporaries lie 
 was celebrated for independence of character, sincerity, and brilliant wit. 
 " Of all men whom I know," said D'Alembert, " Duclos is the one who 
 has the greatest amount of wit in a given time." Of his various works 
 the Considerations sur les Mwars, which has a place in the Positivist 
 Library, is the most important. It is full of those sound and just 
 observations of character which form the material of Positive Ethic. 
 Repudiating as radically vicious the theory of the corruption of human 
 nature, he remarks that, in order to discern and to correct men's errors, 
 it is needful first to love humanity, so as to be just without liarshness 
 and indulgent without weakness. One of his most striking contrasts is 
 that between the social man and the good-natured num ; the one a true 
 citizen, the other caring only to please, and indifferent to duty : Vhoinme 
 aimable est souvent I'homvie'le moins dicjne d'etre aivil Nor less striking 
 is his definition of virtue : an effort over self in the interest of others. 
 
 [J. H. B.]
 
 508 CABANIS [Modern 
 
 CABANIS {Pierre), b. 1757, d. 1808. 
 
 The father of Pierre Jean Georges Cabanis was a cultivator of 
 Cosnac, near Brives, in the south of France, much esteemed by Turgot. 
 The son, ardent and impatient of provincial teachers, was let go to Paris at 
 fourteen. At sixteen he became private secretary to a Polish noble, and 
 in 1773 was witness to the first partition of Poland. Returning to Paris, 
 he studied medicine under Dubreuil for six years. He made at this 
 time the acquaintance of the widow of Helvetius, whom he regarded as 
 his second mother. At her house he came into contact with the great 
 pioneers of the Revolution — Diderot, d'Holbach, d'Alembert, Franklin, 
 Jefferson, Condorcet. Of the last he was an intimate friend, and 
 ultimately married Madame Condorcet's sister. He was Mirabeau's 
 physician, and filled afterwards important posts under the Convention. 
 He died in 1808 at Meudon, to which he had retired from Paris the 
 year before. His character was upright and noble. His last years were 
 spent in acts of kindness to those who needed his aid or medical skiU. 
 
 His great work, published 1802, is a series of memoirs on the con- 
 nection between the Moral and Physical Nature of Man. Satisfactory 
 treatment of such a subject presupposes a grasp of the two distinct 
 sciences of Biology and Sociology ; the first of which had hardly arisen, 
 the latter was still below the horizon. Nevertheless, to Cabanis belongs 
 the honour of first conceiving this great problem of transcendental 
 biology, though he, like Gall, was unable to* take due account of its 
 sociological factor. 
 
 Sound views, he says, had been taken by Hippocrates and Aristotle, 
 and subsequently by English thinkers from Bacon to Locke, of the 
 dependence of our ideas on sensation. These men, if not all physicians, 
 had a practical knowledge of medicine. But Condillac and others, 
 devoid of this knowledge, had exaggerated Locke's view, and made sen- 
 sation account for the whole mental and moral structure of man. 
 
 But this notion of man, as a statue endowed with sensation, will carry 
 us, said Cabanis, but a very little way. An impression made on an 
 organ of sense aff'ects the whole organism or many parts of it at once ; 
 and the resulting reaction differs in each case. This was recognised by 
 the physicians of antiquity, who classed men under four temperaments- 
 sanguine, bilious, melancholic, or phlegmatic. Our completer knowledge 
 should enable us to analyse these vague conceptions, and assign the 
 organs or systems of organs — vascular, nervous, muscular, etc. — which 
 preponderate in each case. Regarding the brain as the organ that trans- 
 forms impressions into thoughts and impulses, as the digestive organs 
 transform food into vital tissue, we have to examine the action exerted 
 on it by other organs and by external conditions. 
 
 Cabanis proceeds to examine successively, with much detail, the influ- 
 ence on ideas and desires of age, of sex. of physical temperament, and 
 of climate. Finally, he deals directly with the functions of sensation, 
 desire, and will, and indicates their reactions on organic life. The 
 vagueness of this part of his work — full as it is throughout of luminous 
 suggestions — proves the importance of the step taken shortly afterwards 
 by Gall, in hypothetically connecting moral and intellectual functions
 
 Philosophy] CABANIS : LEROY : BACON 509 
 
 with distinct organs. Cabanis, on the other hand, taking account of the 
 whole organism, and not of the brain only, supplements some of Gall's 
 deficiencies. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Cabanis : Rapports du physique et du moved, de I'homme, 1802, is in the 
 fourth section of the Positivist Library. Pkil. Pas. vol. iv. lect. 49. 
 Pos. Pol. i. 541-3, ii. 356, iii. 529. 
 
 LEROY (Georges), b. 1723, d. 1789. 
 
 Charles Georges Leroy was son of the ranger of the royal parJis of 
 Versailles and Marly, and succeeded his father in that post. A pro- 
 fessional sportsman, and a thorough master of forestry and the other 
 industrial arts connected with his work, he gave his leisure to literature 
 and philosophy ; became intimate with the illustrious thinkers of his 
 time, gathered round d'Holbach and his family at Grandval, and contri- 
 buted several articles to the Encyclopcedia. His principal work is his 
 series oi Letters on Animals, published at intervals in various journals, 
 between 1762 and 1781, and finally collected into a volume dedicated to 
 the Countess Angiviller, one of the most cultivated women of the time. 
 These letters contain the first explicit essay of Comparative Psychology. 
 They exhibit the moral and mental nature of animals as difi'ering in 
 degree only, and not in essence, from that of man. Availing himself of 
 his experience as a sportsman and naturalist, Leroy selects a few well- 
 known animals — the wolf, the fox, and the stag — and portrays with vivid 
 accuracy their daily life, the workings of their mental faculties and of 
 their passions ; the close observation of facts, the adaptation of means 
 to ends, and the skill gained by experience, resulting from the difficulty 
 of obtaining sustenance, and from the dangerous proximity of man. 
 The account of the fox, in particular, of the combination of wit and 
 courage shown in procuring food for his ofi'spring, might make some of 
 his hunters hesitate. 
 
 Leroy was one of the first explorers on the patla trod afterwards 
 with such success by Gall. To determine the problem which of our 
 emotions and propensities are innate in our structure, and which are the 
 result of the cerebral complications of the social state in which man has 
 lived for many thousand years, no better criterion can be devised than 
 careful observation of the higher vertebrates — not merely of those like 
 the dog, who are brought into close intimacy with him — but of those 
 who still live their elementary tribal life in such independence as man's 
 proximity allows. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Leroy: Letters nn Animals, are in tlie fourth section of the Positivist 
 Library. Pos. Pol. i. 544, iii. 504. 
 
 LORD BACON {Francis, Lord Chancellor), b. 1561, d. 1626. 
 
 Francis Bacox, second son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Kee]>er of 
 the GTreaf^Setil for twenty years under Queen Elizabeth, was born in 
 London, at York House, in the Strand, 22nd January 15G1. A boy of
 
 510 BACON [Modern 
 
 lively and precocious wit, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, in his 
 13th year, and, before he was 16, had formed strong convictions of the 
 sterility of Aristotelian philosophy as then taught in universities. On 
 leaving Cambridge, he entered Gray's Inn as a student of law ; and 
 shortly after travelled in France, making careful political observations, 
 embodied in his work on the iitate of Europe, written in his 20th year. 
 Returning to London, he was called to the bar in 1582, and gained con- 
 siderable practice, being appointed in 1589 counsel extraordinary to the 
 Queen. In 159.1 ^he was elected member for Middksex. His further 
 advance in Elizabeth's reigh'was slow, perhaps owing to his friendship 
 for Essex, and to the disfavour of the Cecils, who spoke of him as a 
 speculator. Under James i. his prospects improved. In 1607 he was 
 made Solicitor-General, in 1613 Attorney-General, in 1617 Lord Keeper 
 of the Great Seal, and in the following year Lord Chancellor. 
 
 Throughout all these years he was pursuing, so far as public life 
 permitted, the^project of hisj'outh — the renovation of philosophy on the 
 basis of modern science. The Novum Organum was not published till 
 1620 ; but thirteen years previously the Cogitata et Visa, the first draft 
 of his great work, had been given to the world ; and this had been pre- 
 pared by the still earlier works, Filum, LabyrintJii, and Partus Temporis 
 Maximus. 
 
 On the lamentable deviations of Bacon's later life, caused by embar- 
 rassments in which pride and pomp involved him, and from which he 
 sought dishonourable means of escape, it is not needful to dwell at length 
 here. He was stript of his offices, heavily fined, banished from the court, 
 and for a short time imprisoned in the Tower. He continued to devote 
 himself to scientific pursuits for the remainder of his life, which was 
 shortened by an accidental explosion in his laboratory. He died in 
 Lord Arundel's house at Highgate, on the 9th of April 1626. 
 
 Bacon is associated by Comte with Descartes and Galileo, as one of 
 the three founders of the Positive Philosophy. The conflict between 
 Science and Metaphysics had been already begun by the astronomical 
 discoveries of the 16th century. The next step was to show that scien- 
 tific observations of Nature led to a constructive doctrine applicable 
 to the conduct of human life, and contrasting, in the richness of its 
 results, with the sterility of metaphysics. The Novum Organum begins 
 by eliminating four sources of error, called by Bacon Idol s : — (1.) The 
 errors due to the inherent weakness of man's understanding, its in- 
 capacity for resisting sensuous impressions or impulses of passion ; 
 its "readiness to suppose far more simplicity in surrounding nature than 
 really exists ; its want of patience and sobriety. These thmgs he called 
 Idols of the Tribe. (2.) The errors originating in the peculiar consti- 
 tution and temper of each individual. These he called Idols of the Den. 
 (3.) The errors springing from inaccurate use of language — the Idols of 
 the MSfTcet. (4.) The errors brought about by the prejudice of philosophic 
 systems : the Idols of the Theatre. 
 
 The second part of the Organum deals with the Interpretation of 
 Nature. The object is to detect what Bacon calls Forms, corresponding 
 very nearly to what we know as Laws of Nature, i.e. uniform actions 
 exliibited in widely difterent objects. " A nature being given," he says
 
 Philosophy] BACON 511 
 
 "we must first present to the understanding all the known instances 
 which agree in the same nature, though the subject-matter be consider- 
 ably diversified." These must be contrasted with instances which do 
 not admit of the given nature. Most important of all are what he 
 terms Prerogative Instances, of which he defines twenty-seven classes. 
 Amongst them may be noted, Solitary instances, those showing the 
 same quality in bodies otherwise difi'erent, or some difi'erence in bodies 
 otherwise identical ; Migratory instances, the gradual transition from a 
 given state to its opposite ; Singular instances, objects apparently 
 exceptional, and standing alone in Nature ; instances of Foiver, i.e. the 
 study of the principles underlying man's practical arts ; instances of the 
 Boad, the study of the gradual and continuous motions of Nature, as in 
 the germination and growth of seeds, the incubation of eggs ; finally, 
 instances of the Cross, otherwise called decisive, or judicial — the 
 metaphor being borrowed from the crosses erected where two roads 
 meet : when two explanations of a fact are equally possible, find a 
 fact that can only be explained by one of them. 
 
 This will illustrate sufficiently the method of the Organum. It has 
 to be admitted that, great as the stimulus thus given to organised 
 observation and experiment undoubtedly was, in Bacon's own hands 
 the method was not productive of a single discovery. In one most 
 important respect it was seriously defective. He laid it down as the 
 only true path to discovery, that investigation should proceed from the 
 lowest, i.e. the most special principles, to those of a more general kind, 
 and thence upwards to the highest generalisations ; and he explicitly 
 condemned the plan of rising from lower principles to higher, and thence 
 descending deductively, to principles of an intermediate kind {Novum 
 Organum, i. 104). In other words, his plan for investigating Nature 
 ignored the deductive method. This error is traceable to his ignorance 
 of mathematics, which in the hands of his contemporaries, Galileo, 
 Vieta, and Harriott, was effecting such important results, and was 
 preparing the way for the momentous discoveries of Descartes, Leibnitz, 
 and Newton. In part also, the sterility of Bacon in Induction must be 
 attributed to his want of single-mindedness in the pursuit of Truth. 
 His philosophical career was clogged by his political and social ambition, 
 and in this respect contrasts strongly with the strenuous and con- 
 centrated devotion presented by the life of Descartes. 
 
 It must not be forgotten, however, that in one important respect 
 Descartes is surpassed by Bacon. Descartes applied the Positive method 
 to the physical sciences, and even to biology, far more completely than 
 Bacon ; but he left to metaphysics all that related to the social and moral 
 life of man. This, on the contrary. Bacon expressly included in his pro- 
 gramme. " Some may raise the question," he says, " whether Natural 
 Philosophy alone is to be perfected according to our method, or the other 
 sciences also, such as Logic, Ethic, Politic. We certainly intend to com- 
 prehend them all ; and as common logic, which regulates matters by 
 syllogisms, is applied not only to natural but also to every other science, 
 so our Inductive Method likewise comprehends them all. For we form 
 a History and Tallies of Invention for anger, fear, shame, and the like, 
 and also for examples in civil life, and the mental operations of memory,
 
 512 BACON : GROTIUS [Modern 
 
 composition, judgment and the rest, as well as for heat and cold, light, 
 
 vegetation, and the like." (JSovum Organum, i. 127.) Though this part 
 
 t of his programme, like so much else, remained unaccomplished, yet his 
 
 1 Essays, published early in his career (1596), had shown his subtle insight 
 
 V into character and his grasp of human life in all its phases. Bacon's 
 
 words were not without influence on the, long line of British thinkers, 
 
 from Hobbes to Hume, who applied inductive methods to the study of 
 
 human nature. [j. H. B.] 
 
 The Novum Organum is in the Positivist Library. Phil. Pos. vol. vi. lect. 
 56. Pos. Pol. iii. 483. Lewes : Hist, of Philosophy, voL ii. 
 
 GROTIUS {Huig van Groot), b. 1583, d. 1645. 
 
 Hugo Grotius was born at Delft, 10th April 1583. His father, 
 John van Groot, was burgomaster of that city, and also curator of the 
 University of Leyden, where Hugo was educated, one of his tutors 
 being Joseph Scaliger. In 1598 he accompanied the Dutch embassy to 
 Paris, and there made the friendship of De Thou. In 1607 he was 
 made Advocate-general for the Treasury of Holland and Zealand ; and 
 in 1613 he became Pensionary of Rotterdam. His friendship with 
 Barneveldt led to his imprisonment in 1619. After two years his wife 
 contrived his escape, and he took refuge in France. Here in 1623 he 
 wrote his great work on international law. After a fruitless attempt 
 to re-establish himself in Holland, he accepted, in 1634, the post of 
 ambassador to Queen Christina of Sweden at the French court. In 
 1645 he went for a short time to Stockholm ; finding the climate un- 
 suitable, he sailed thence for Liibeck ; but was forced by a violent storm 
 to land near Dantzic, in a state of great prostration, and died a few days 
 afterwards on the 28th August at Rostock. His body was taken to 
 Delft, where a monument has been erected in his honour. 
 
 Grotius wrote many historical works, on the history of his own 
 country, on the origin of American tribes, on the Goths, Lombards, and 
 Vandals. He was an accomplished poet and a learned theologian. 
 During his imprisonment he wrote in Dutch verse, afterwards translated 
 into Latin, his treatise on the truth of Christianity. It was a plea for 
 Tolerance, dwelling on the doctrines in which Catholics and the various 
 sects of Protestants agreed, and passing lightly over the rest. 
 
 But his great work is his treatise iJn Jure Belli et Facis, the Law of 
 War and of Peace, the first great attempt to lay down principles of 
 international law. This work was written in 1625. But a preliminary 
 work, De Jure Prcedai, the Law of Prizes, had been written l)y him 
 twenty years previously, though, till lately, it remained impublished. 
 The endeavour of Grotius, as Hallam states it, was " the ascertainment 
 of laws binding on independent communities in their mutual relations, 
 whether of war or peace." The motive for the work, as stated l)y himself, 
 was " the licence of fighting which he saw in the whole Christian world, 
 at which even barbarians might blush ; wars begun on trifling precepts 
 or none at all, and carried on without reverence for any divine or human 
 law, as if that one declaration of war let loose every crime." There
 
 Philosophy] GROTIUS : CUJAS 513 
 
 "were nevertheless certain restraining influences, some derived from the 
 constitution of human nature, in which there was implanted a social 
 instinct, an innate propensity towards good ; others again were enshrined 
 in the immemorial and universal usage of nations. Of these last the 
 respect for ambassadors or for a flag of truce, the condemnation of such 
 acts in war as the poisoning of an enemy's wells, or the violation of 
 women, are examples. To these may be added duties which the noblest 
 warriors will observe, as clemency to a subject foe ; respect for the 
 private property of an invaded country, and other limitations partially, 
 though not universally, admitted. The purpose which (irotius had in 
 view led him into wide digressions for the establishment of general 
 principles of jurisprudence, connected with the rights of property and 
 dominion, contracts, government, and the like questions. 
 
 Hobbes during this century was engaged in maintaining the funda- 
 mental principle on which temporal government rests : in showing, that 
 is, that in the last resort it must depend on physical force. But 
 temporal government is modified by spiritual forces. And the instincts 
 and usages adduced by Grotius in restraint of the evils of war belong to 
 the sphere of spiritual government, which is not less necessary than the 
 temporal to the maintenance of the social State. [J. H. B.] 
 
 De Jure Belli et Pads, translated by Dr. Whewell, 3 vols., 1853. Wheaton: 
 Hist, of International Law. Sir H. Maine : International Law. 
 
 CUJAS {Jacques Cujmis), b. 1520, d. 1590. 
 
 Jacques Cujas, often known by the Latinised form Cujacius, was 
 born in Toulouse, where his father followed the trade of a tanner. He 
 showed early zeal for classical pursuits, and finally devoted all his 
 energies to the study of law. In 1549 he began to lecture publicly on 
 the Institutes of Justinian ; and with such distinction that the leading men 
 of the province sent theii sons to study under him. Failing to obtain 
 the professorship of Roman Law in his native city, he accepted in 1555 
 that of Bourges, on the invitation of Margaret of Valois. In 1566 he 
 removed to Valence, where he stayed for nine years ; his lectures there 
 being attended by eminent men from every part of Europe, amongst 
 them by Joseph Scaliger and the historian de Thou. In 1575 he 
 returned to Bourges, and, with the exception of a year in Paris, remained 
 there until his death, October 4, 1590. 
 
 The characteristic of Cujas was extreme lucidity of teaching and 
 recurrence to original sources of information. His wide scholarship and 
 archaeological research placed him far above other teachers of his time. 
 With modern litigation he concerned himself but little. His real claim 
 is to have been the philosophic historian and expounder of the Roman 
 system of jurisprudence ; and his is the greatest name in the long 
 struggle of the Civil Law with the Feudal Law. [J. H. B.] 
 
 2K
 
 514 FONTENELLE : MAUPEETUIS [Modern 
 
 FONTENELLE, b. 1657, d. 1757. 
 
 Bernard le Bovier de Fontenelle was born at Eouen, 11th February 
 1657. His mother was Corneille's sister ; his father a barrister of some 
 distinction. Brought up at the Jesuit College in his native city, he 
 showed as a boy great literary ability. Nominally a student of law, he 
 was absorbed in the acquisition of every kind of knowledge. In 1691, 
 after four refusals, he was admitted to the A.cademy of Sciences, of 
 which he was appointed Secretary in 1699, retaining his post for forty- 
 two years. He died in Paris within a few weeks of completing his 
 hundredth year, remarking in his last moments that he had no pain ; 
 but felt a certain difficulty in continuing to live. His unbroken health 
 throughout life contrasted remarkably with the extreme delicacy of his 
 childhood. His temper was singularly placid and even ; he was genial 
 and bright, but it is said of him that he never laughed or wept. 
 
 Comte describes Fontenelle as a genuine philosopher who never 
 claimed the title. In the beginning of the eighteenth century, when the 
 movement of intellectual emancipation, no longer limited to a few 
 thinkers, was diffusing itself through the public mind, he occupies a 
 considerable place. One of the controversies of the period turned upon 
 the alleged inferiority of modern literature as compared with that of 
 antiquity. Against Boileau and others who supported this thesis, 
 Fontenelle, with Perrault, contended strongly. From the purely aesthetic 
 standpoint the issue might be doubtful ; but Fontenelle enlarged the 
 controversy by dwelling on the wider insight given by scientific dis- 
 covery, and by thus enforcing the conception, then almost new to the 
 world, of human progress. 
 
 The work by which Fontenelle is best known, and which, together 
 with his Notices of Men of Science, has a place in the Positivist Library, 
 is his Plurality of Worlds ; a series of dialogues on popular astronomy 
 based on the Cartesian philosophy, the charm and grace of which would 
 redeem what is transient in their scientific basis. But apart from 
 this, the work has historic value as the best monument of a theory 
 which played so great a part in the development of modern thought. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 MAUPEETUIS, b. 1698, d. 1759. 
 
 Pierre Louis Mareau de Maupertuis was born at St. Malo, 17th 
 July 1698. He became a soldier ; but, after reaching the rank of 
 captain of dragoons, he left the army and gave himself to mathematical 
 study. In 1723 he was admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences. 
 One of the most prominent subjects of discussion at that time was the 
 figure of the earth, believed, but not yet proved, to be a sphere flattened 
 at the poles. For the purpose of verifying this hypothesis it was 
 important to take the direct measurement of a degree in different parts 
 of the earth's surface. Maupertuis was associated with Clairaut and 
 Celsius in conducting this measurement in Arctic regions. The valley 
 of the river Tornea, at the northern end of the Baltic Gulf, was chosen 
 for this purpose ; and it was found that a degree of the meridian in the
 
 Philosophy] MAUPEKTUIS : VICO 515 
 
 latitude of 66° exceeded that in the latitude of Paris by 512 toises (about 
 two-thirds of a mile) ; a result helping to establish the conjecture that 
 the earth was an oblate spheroid. 
 
 Maupertuis was a strenuous advocate of the Newtonian, as against 
 the Cartesian, view of the solar system. In 1745 he was invited by 
 Frederick the Great to accept the Presidency of the Academy of Berlin. 
 He lived in that city for many years ; but the latter part of his resi- 
 dence there was embittered by controversy, and he finally retired to 
 Basle, where he died, 27th June 1759, in the house of one of John 
 Bernoulli's sons. 
 
 The controversy in which he was engaged related to what was called 
 by him the Principle of Least Action, which he stated thus : — The 
 quantity of action necessary to produce a change in the motion of bodies 
 is always a minimum. His other works on Moral Philosophy, on the 
 Progress of Science, and on the Origin of Language, showed that his 
 mind ranged beyond the specialities of mathematics ; and he thus finds 
 a place among philosophers rather than among men of science. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 VICO, b. 1668, d. 1744. 
 
 Giovanni Battista Vice was the son of a bookseller of Naples. He 
 was brought up in a Jesuit college, but allowed free play in his own 
 reading. He studied philosophy, language, jurisprudence ; the last to 
 such purpose that at the age of sixteen he defended an action brought 
 against his father. The Bishop of Ischia engaged him as a private tutor 
 to his nephew ; but after a short time he returned to Naples, where, in 
 1697, he became Professor of Rhetoric. His great work, the i^cienza 
 N^tova, was published in 1725. In 1735 he became historiographer to 
 the King of Naples. Vico died 20th January 1744. 
 
 Vico's New Science was nothing less than the application of Baconian 
 principles to the j^henomena of human society. He grasped with extra- 
 ordinary vigour the conception that, amidst all the diversities of customs, 
 language, and events of difi'erent nations, there were underlying uni- 
 formities ; and that by disengaging these it was possible to form an 
 ideal eternal history, representing the laws of evolution of the human 
 race. To find these general laws guiding the destiny of nations was the 
 object of his work. He saw clearly that in the early state of nations 
 development was unconscious. The play of natural passions brought 
 about consequences of which no one was aware. Many centuries must 
 pass before philosophy could appear on tlie scene. The ])rinciples of 
 growth must be sought in language, in fundamental institutions, in early 
 poetry. Vico found a mental language common to all nations. There 
 was a universal tendency amongst men ignorant of the natural causes of 
 things to attribute to them the passions of their own nature : as in 
 saying that the Magnet loves Iron. " The sublimest work of poetry,' 
 he says again, "is to give sense and feeling to inanimate things. This 
 children do : and in the childhood of the world men were all poets in 
 this way." It was impossible to describe more clearly the primitive 
 fetichism with which man's thoughts on Nature began. On this basis
 
 516 VICO : HERDER [Modern 
 
 Vico's theory of historical evolution proceeded. " Uniform ideas," he 
 says, "arising among nations widely separated in space and time, and 
 cut off from all contact with each other, must have some common 
 ground-work of truth." Among all nations and tribes we find the three 
 institutions of Religion, Marriage, Burial. He illustrates this with 
 copious reference to ancient literature and modern travel. In the 
 ancient laws of Rome, and in the poems of Homer, he found a treasure of 
 what he called Poetical Wisdom ; that is, of Thought working in the 
 manner natural to primitive civilisations, by symbols and images in- 
 spired by emotion and passion, rather than by signs and abstractions. 
 Of abstractions, nations in their early life are incapable. But they gave 
 life and personality to their ideals, so that each quality was identified 
 with a god or hero. Vico's conclusion is that every civilisation passes 
 through three stages : the age of gods, the age of heroes, and the age of 
 men. The rude discipline of the first, controlling men's bestial passions 
 by terror, formed the family. In the heroic age, represented in Homer 
 and in the early annals of Rome, powerful and oppressive aristocracies 
 were formed. In the final stage the aristocracies passed into popular 
 commonwealths, themselves ending in imperial monarchies, and destined 
 ultimately to decay. For the progress conceived by Vico was from 
 birth to maturity and so to decay and death, followed by new birth. It 
 was movement in a cycle, not a steady advance of the human race to a 
 more perfect state. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Vico: Principi) di Scienza Nuova, 3 vols., Milan, 1816 ; tr. in French by 
 Michelet, 1840. 
 
 HERDER, b. 1744, d. 1803. 
 
 John Gottfried von Herder was born at Morungen in East Prussia. 
 His father was a village schoolmaster. He studied medicine at Konigs- 
 berg, and subsequently theology and philosophy. In 1764 he became 
 assistant and also preacher at the cathedral school at Riga ; but, wishing 
 to see the world, he accepted the post of travelling companion to the 
 Prince of Holstein-Oldenburg. At Strasburg he was brought into 
 intimate contact with Gothe. In 1775 he obtained the theological 
 professorship at Gottingen, and, under the patronage of the Duke of 
 Saxe-Weimar, pursued his philosophical studies. 
 
 His great work, the Philosophy of the History of Humanity, was 
 published in 1784. It is divided into twenty books. Beginning with a 
 brief review of man's position in relation to the earth, and to the animal 
 and vegetable kingdoms, he attempts to show, by a review of the various 
 forms of civilisation, a gradual tendency towards the peaceful develop- 
 ment of the faculties specially distinctive of Humanity. Herder had a 
 strong though confused conception of progress. He saw that the play of 
 passions led, under the influences of the social state, to the growth of 
 institutions favourable to higher life. He saw too that the ages were 
 linked to one another, and that each received the inheritance of the fore- 
 going. But his scientific training had not been such as to lead him to 
 seek for the precise laws of development, and his Protestantism led him 
 to misunderstand the inediteval period as completely as Condorcet and 
 Voltaire. [J. H. B.]
 
 Philosophy] FRl^RET 517 
 
 FRflRET (Nicolas), b. 1688, d. 1749. 
 
 Nicolas, son of Charles Antoine Fri^ret, Solicitor-General of the 
 Parliament of Paris, was born in that city 15th February 1688. He 
 showed a precocious disposition for study of all sorts, but especially for 
 that of history : and, though urged by his father to adopt the bar as 
 his profession, he obtained leave at last to devote himself to historical 
 research. At the age of 19 he had written several memoirs on the 
 religion of the Greeks : and in 1714 he was admitted to the Academy 
 of Inscriptions. His first paper, a very temperate and carefully reasoned 
 disquisition on the origin of the Franks, and their establishment in Gaul, 
 conflicted with received opinions, by maintaining that their settlement 
 was effected far earlier than had been commonly supposed. It is a 
 singular proof of the arbitrary government then prevailing that this 
 harmless act of independence led to his temporary imprisonment in the 
 Bastille. Henceforth he avoided modern history, and devoted himself 
 to the study of antiquity ; his special field being the critical study of 
 ancient mythology, geography, and chronology. 
 
 Freret may be regarded as the principal founder of the critical 
 school — in other words, of the scientific method of reasoning in historical 
 research. Many essential principles, the credit of which has been often 
 given to German writers of the present century, will be found pro- 
 minently and strenuously maintained by Freret. In his memoir on 
 early French history, he states his method clearly and simply. " I begin," 
 he said, "by collecting all notices of ancient histoi'ians on the subject. 
 I then sift from this evidence all such as is contemporary, and give it 
 preference to the rest. From contemporary writers I select those who 
 were on the spot, and who were from any cause likely to be the best 
 informed. The results so obtained, I piece together in the best way I 
 can, and so construct what seems the most probable narrative of the 
 events." These principles he restated more systematically in his General 
 Observations on Ancient History. " The method likeliest to lead us to 
 the truth in any subject whatever, is that which begins by collecting 
 certain knowledge upon special points, and which aims at general prin- 
 ciples only so far as they may seem to follow from the particulars thus 
 reduced to certainty : the method which distinguishes not merely between 
 what is absolutely true or false, but between the various degrees of pro- 
 bability which approach either of these limits ; and which, further, is 
 not satisfied with discriminating between the various shades of certainty 
 in the abstract, but which distinguishes the difi"erent degrees of certainty 
 that are attainable in each field of research : for almost all have their 
 own special processes of reasoning." 
 
 Freret lived the peaceful and laborious life of a pure student, and 
 died in Paris, 8th March 1749. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Freret left at liis death an iniiiiense quantity of unpuMished works and 
 of uncollected memoirs, and many of the pieces passing under his name 
 are saiil to be by others. His works were jiublished in a very imperfect 
 and unauthentic collection in 1790-99, in 20 vols. His History is in 
 vols, i.-vi.
 
 518 WINCKELMANN : MONTESQUIEU [Modern 
 
 WINCKELMANN {Johann Joachim), b. 1717, d. 1768. 
 
 John WINCKELMANN, bom at Stendal, a small town in Brandenburg, 
 9th December 1717, was the son of a shoemaker. His father, intending 
 him for the Church, gave him a good classical education. It was noticed 
 afterwards that the boy from early years had shown extreme interest in 
 antiquities. At sixteen he went to Berlin, at twenty-one to HaUe, where 
 he maintained himself for some time as a private tutor. At last he 
 obtained the post of librarian to the Count of Biinau at Notheniz, near 
 Dresden. Here he devoted himself to the study of ancient art, his 
 knowledge of which brought him under the notice of Archinto, the 
 Papal Nuncio at the Saxon court. Archinto promised him a post in the 
 Vatican Museum on the condition of his becoming a Catholic, to which 
 he willingly acceded. In 1755 he went to Eome, and was well received 
 there by Cardinals Passionei and Albani. He became Albani's librarian, 
 and in 1763 was made President of Antiquities in the Vatican ; refusing 
 meanwhile flattering offers from Frederick the Great and other sovereigns. 
 In 1764 his great work, on the History of Art among Ancient Nations, 
 appeared. In 1768 he left Italy for Germany, but on passing the Alps 
 was seized with an insurmountable desire to return. On passing south- 
 ward through Trieste, he was assassinated by a travelling companion, 
 who thought to steal the precious works of art with which he travelled. 
 This was on the 8th of June 1768. 
 
 The characteristic of Winckelmann's work is the mass of careful 
 observations collected by delicate and sensitive skill, fired with en- 
 thusiasm, on which his theory of art depends. A general solution of 
 the problem of the Beautiful he could not give : but he carefully analysed 
 beautiful things ; and, moreover, he insisted on the inseparable connection 
 of art in all its stages with the social state in which the artist lived and 
 moved. His view ranged over every ancient nation which has left 
 artistic products ; but Greek art, from its earliest beginnings to its 
 ultimate decline in the later Empire, is the central subject of his work. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Wmckelmarm's History of Ancient Art is included in the historical section 
 of the Positivist Library. In German, 8 vols., Dresden, 1808-20. In 
 French, 3 vols. 4to, 1794-1803. In English, by Lodge, 2 vols., 1881. 
 
 MONTESQUIEU {Charles de Secondat), b. 1689, d. 1755. 
 
 Charles de Secondat, Baron de la Brede et de Montesquieu, was 
 born on 18th January 1689 at the Chateau de la Brede, near Bordeaux. 
 His family had been ennobled by Henry iv., and held an hereditary post 
 in the Parliament of Bordeaux, to which Montesquieu succeeded in 1714. 
 He had early devoted himself to the study of law, giving his leisure time 
 to physical science and historical research. In 1721 the publication of 
 the Lettres Persanes, a criticism of Western life by an imaginary Oriental, 
 brought him fame, though regarded by the authorities as too free-think- 
 ing. He now sold his hereditary post, and devoted himself to literature. 
 In 1734 appeared his work on the Causes of the Greatness and Decline of
 
 Philosophy] MONTESQUIEU : D'AGUESSEAU 519 
 
 the Romans ; and during the fourteen years following he was engaged on 
 his great work, the Spirit of Laios. Montesquieu died in February 1755. 
 
 The largeness crf Illy uuuuupLion of law appears in the opening chapter, 
 in which the connection between natural law and human law is distinctly 
 stated. "Laws," he begins, "are the necessary relations following from 
 the nature of things." More explicitly he states afterwards : " Between 
 two bodies in movement, the relations of mass and velocity determine 
 the increase or diminution of movement ; throughout every variation 
 there is uniformity and constancy. Similar relations are to be found in 
 human affairs. Before the beginning of positive law, there are natural 
 relations of justice to be sought." 
 
 To find these fixed conditions was Montesquieu's object. Some were 
 dependent on the form of government ; others on the play of passions to 
 which each form, republican, aristocratic, monarchic, or despotic, was 
 specially favourable. His work is divided into thirty-one books. The 
 first eight deal with the various forms of government, the principles of 
 action in each, and the mode in which each underwent corruption and 
 decay. In a republic he considered that virtue was the principle of 
 stabilit\' ; TiTalTfoharchy, honour ; in a despotism, fear. The nintn and 
 tenth Dooks discuss war, defensive and offensive. In the eleventh, 
 twelfth, and thirteenth books, the conditions of political liberty are 
 explained, and their connection with taxation. In the four following 
 books, Montesquieu passes to the subject of climate as afi'ecting national 
 character, and tin its bearing on the institution of slavery. Fertility or 
 sterility of soil as afi'ecting civilisation is the subject of the eighteenth 
 book. The nineteenth deals with the bearing of national character on 
 law. The twentieth, twenty-first, and twenty-second discuss the rela- 
 tions of law and commerce. In the twenty-third, population is con- 
 sidered ; in the three following books, religion ; in the twenty-seventh, 
 inheritance. The work concludes with an historical review of the 
 growth of French legislation from its feudal origin. 
 
 The observations of fact contained in this comprehensive sociological 
 treatise are numerous and carefully made. The conception of a social 
 organism held together by interdependent forces, and dependent on 
 external conditions, was more systematically put forward than in any 
 work which had appeared since the Folitics of Aristotle. Montesquieu's 
 conception of biological science was too imperfect, and the possibility of 
 arriving at definite laws of social progress was, as yet, too remote to give 
 his work more than transitory value ; but he is to be regarded as one 
 of the principal forerunners of the science of sociology. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. lect. 47, where Monte.sqiiieu'.s work is carefully ajipreciated. 
 Esprit ties Lois, ed. Labenlaze, 1875. Spirit of Lmus, tr. into Eiiglisli, 
 1793. 
 
 D'AGUESSEAU, b. 1668, d. 1751. 
 
 Henri Franc'ois D'Aguesskau was born 27th November IGGS, at 
 Limoges, where his father was Intcndant-General. Tlie father was a man 
 of noble elevation of character, and refused to co-operate in the persecuting 
 policy of Louis xiv. with regard to the Protestants. Ho gave his son
 
 520 D'AGUESSEAU : BUFFON [Modern 
 
 a large and liberal education. The young D'Aguesseau, after studying 
 the philosophy of law with Domat, became in 1690 Avocat-General, 
 and subsequently, in 1710, Procureur-General. In this capacity he 
 distinguished himself by his refusal to allow the Papal BuU Unigenitus 
 to be registered by the Parliament of Paris, thus preventing its provisions, 
 which suppressed the liberties of the Gallican Church, from becoming 
 law. In 1717 the Regent made him Chancellor, an office to which, after 
 periods of retirement, he was twice reappointed, in 1720 and 1727. 
 He effected many administrative reforms in the management of public 
 hospitals, and in civil and criminal procedure. D'Aguesseau died 
 5th February 1751, universally respected as a man of wide and varied 
 knowledge, and of spotless purity of character. Voltaire described him 
 as the most learned magistrate that France had ever possessed. 
 
 The discourses called Mercurials, delivered annually in his capacity 
 of Advocate-General, form a series of philosophic essays, specially directed 
 to the various aspects of a magistrate's career, but in reality applicable 
 to the life of every good citizen. Professional zeal. Public Censorship, 
 Self-respect, Simplicity of life. Judicial submission to Law, Firmness, 
 Economy of time. Attention, Prejudice, Discipline, Patriotism, — these 
 are some of the subjects discussed in these remarkable addresses. Not 
 less noteworthy is his exposition, drawn up for the benefit of his son, of 
 the course of studies in Religion, Jurisprudence, History, and Literature, 
 desirable for the education of a magistrate. [J. H. B.] 
 
 BUFFON {Comte de\ b. 1707, d. 1788. 
 
 George Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, was born at Montbard, in 
 Burgundy, l7th September 1707. His father was a councillor in the 
 Parliament of that province, and gave his son a legal training. But 
 Buffon's bent was towards mathematical and physical science ; and, 
 after a short period of travel in England and elsewhere, he devoted him- 
 self to systematic study, beginning with the translation of certain works 
 on agriculture, and also of Newton's treatise on Fluxions. In 1739 he 
 succeeded Dufay as Superintendent of the Jardin des Plantes, instituted 
 just a hundred years before by Guy de la Brosses. The rest of his life, 
 nearly half a century, was spent in the construction of his great work on 
 Natural History, in which Daubenton, Lacepede, and other naturalists 
 were associated with him. Much of his time was spent on his estates in 
 Burgundy, where his wealth was well and liberally administered, and 
 his life organised with extreme regularity. The audacity of his specula- 
 tions aroused hostile comment, which he uniformly disarmed by professing 
 submission to the theological faculty, without, however, interrupting his 
 own course of thought. Wishing to lead an untroubled life, he took no 
 part in the Encydopcedia, and was not always on friendly terms with its 
 authors. Buffon died in Paris, April 15, 1788. 
 
 The work of Buffon was no mere compilation of descriptive details. 
 His purpose was to conceive of the Earth as a whole, from its first origin 
 as a mass of heated matter thrown out from the sun, gradually developing 
 inorganic and organic forms, and ultimately becoming the home of man.
 
 Philosophy] BUFFON : OKEN '521 
 
 who controlled and modified the other animal and vegetable races, sub- 
 ordinating them to his service. Doubtless this vast programme was not 
 fuUy executed. Not merely was the life of one man insufficient for it, 
 but scientific knowledge in the middle of the 18th century was too 
 imperfect for the construction of the true theory of life. Chemical 
 science hardly existed ; biology was therefore impossible ; and BufFon 
 held too much aloof from the political and philosophical movement of his 
 time to conceive of Man's social future as clearly as others of his con- 
 temporaries. It is, however, the more wonderful that this accurate and 
 conscientious observer of details should have risen to so lofty and com- 
 prehensive a conception of his subject. His pictures of the animals 
 specially associated with man — the horse, the ox, the ass, the sheep, the 
 dog — are permanent masterpieces, inspired with the synthetic and sympa- 
 thetic spirit of a philosophic artist. Nothing, for instance, can be more 
 forcible than the few sentences in which he points out the influence of the 
 dog on man's dominion. " How," he asks, " without the dog, could man 
 have reduced other animals to subjection, or exterminated the destructive 
 races ? To secure his safety and maintain his power, he had to begin 
 by securing a party amongst the animals, by conciliating with kindness 
 those who were capable of attachment and obedience. The education of 
 the dog was man's first art. Gifted with greater swiftness, strength, and 
 even courage than man, and far exceeding him in keenness of sense, the 
 dog when he became man's friend endowed him with new senses and 
 faculties. The instruments we invent to enlarge the range of our senses 
 are far less perfect and less useful than such a ready-made instrument as 
 this oflered to us by Nature." 
 
 BufFon's discussion of the subject of species is a striking instance of 
 philosophic boldness and caution. Defining species as the succession of 
 similar individuals who can reproduce their kind, and remarking that 
 within the period of human record species appeared to be permanent, he 
 yet fully conceived the possibility, and, indeed, probability, of trans- 
 formation in pre-human periods. Such transformation was, indeed, 
 involved in his conception of the evolution of the earth. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. vol. vi. lect. 56 ; and Pos. Pol. i. 500, and iii. 507. LafRtte : Revue 
 Occidentale, vol. xix. pp. 32-109. 
 
 OKEN, b. 1779, d. 1847. 
 
 Lorenz Oken was born August 2, 1779, at Ofienberg. He studied 
 medicine at Gottingen ; and in 1807 became Professor of Medicine in the 
 University of Jena ; he subsequently removed to Ziirich, where he held 
 the post of Professor of Natural History till his death. The salient 
 feature of Oken's work was his subordination of scientific detail to the 
 influence of philosophy. Schelling was the philosopher to whom he 
 professed allegiance, a confused and dreamy thinker, whose system, never- 
 theless, inspired Oken with synthetic suggestions of a valuable kind. 
 The principal subject of his meditations was the variety in forms of life, 
 in which he strove to find a unifying principle. His first work, published 
 in 1802, on animal classification, founded on a theory of the Senses, is
 
 522 OKEN : LEIBNITZ [Modern 
 
 pervaded by this tendency. In 1806, his observation of skuUs sug- 
 gested to him the same thought that occurred to Gothe, that the skull 
 was a development of the vertebral column ; the starting-point of the 
 study of homologies which was prosecuted afterwards with such fruitful 
 results by Geoffrey St.-Hilaire. His scheme of natural philosophy, in 
 which the phenomena of Nature are regarded as embodiments of ideal 
 principles, was fully developed in a work published in 1809 ; translated 
 into English by the Ray Society with the title of Elements of Physio- 
 Philosophy. Oken died at Zurich in August 1847. [J. H. B.] 
 
 LEIBNITZ, b. 1646, d. 1716. 
 
 Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz was bom at Leipsic, 21st June 1646. 
 His father, a jurist and Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University 
 of that city, died early, leaving him to the care of a wise mother, who 
 allowed him great freedom in study. The boy profited by his father's 
 library, entered the University at fifteen, and two years afterwards 
 produced his first philosophical thesis. He devoted himself to juris- 
 prudence, and before he came of age had published two important papers 
 on the philosophy of law. After the death of his mother in 1664 he 
 studied at the University of Altdorf, near Nuremberg. Here he became 
 a member of the Rosicrucian Society, and gained much chemical 
 knowledge. The friendship of Baron von Boineburg, in the service of 
 the Archbishop of Mainz, introduced him to the most cultivated society 
 in Germany, and gave him clear insight into the political state of Europe, 
 then slowly recovering from religious strife, and threatened by the 
 ambitious schemes of Louis xiv. A paper urging France to develop an 
 Oriental policy, which would distract her attention from Western States, 
 led to the mission of Leibnitz to Paris in 1672. Here he came into contact 
 with many followers of Descartes ; Arnauld, Malebranche, and, above aU, 
 Huyghens. Now for the first time he became associated with that critical 
 period of mathematical research which, dating from the Geometry of 
 Descartes, was to culminate, four years later, in his own discovery of the 
 Transcendental Calculus. In the following year public business brought 
 him for a few weeks to London, where he made the acquaintance of the 
 remarkable group of men who had founded the Royal Society. The 
 respective claims of Newton and of Leibnitz to the discovery of the 
 Calculus became afterwards matter for acrimonious debate ; but a 
 letter of Leibnitz to Newton in 1677 shows the Difi'erential Calculus 
 fully formed : the first draft of the letter exhibiting also the symbol of 
 Integration. It was first fully described in the Acta Eruditorum of 
 Leipsic, 1684. It is clear from the correspondence that Newton had 
 been for some time in possession of the method of Fluxions leading to 
 similar results. But Newton had concealed his method in an anagram 
 which, when interpreted, yields no proof that his notation, on which the 
 value of the method depended, was fixed till a much later date. It is 
 in any case certain that the Diflerentials of Leibnitz proved, in the course 
 of the two following generations, far more fertile in discovery than the 
 Fluxions of Newton. In the fitness of the notation lay the chief value
 
 Philosophy] LEIBNITZ 523 
 
 of the discovery. That curves might be regarded as polygons with an 
 infinite number of sides was a conception as old as Archimedes : and 
 since Descartes a series of brilliant mathematicians had begun to handle 
 infinitesimal quantities algebraically. The problem was so to handle 
 them as to avoid complicating the equation with an unmanageable mass 
 of irrational quantities ; and this the DiflFerential Calculus efi"ected : a 
 result due to a mind of philosophic breadth, for whom mathematics were 
 subordinate to wider inquiries into the vast consequences involved in 
 the summation of minute forces. To Leibnitz is also due the first 
 accurate conception of Energy, as measured by the performance of Work. 
 Force, under the title Quantity of Movement, had been regarded as Mass 
 multiplied into Velocity. Leibnitz showed that of two equal masses the 
 first if moving with double the velocity of the second would overcome 
 four times the resistance — in other words, that Energy, the power of 
 doing work, varied as the square of the velocity. 
 
 In 1676 Leibnitz became librarian and privy councillor to Duke 
 John Frederic of Hanover ; and in this city the rest of his life was 
 spent. Part of his duty was to compile the annals of the house of 
 Brunswick ; and with this object he collected materials from the 
 principal cities of Germany and Italy, of such value for the study of 
 the Middle Ages as to entitle him to be regarded as one of the founders 
 of the critical school of historical research. He was also much occupied 
 with projects for the establishment in Berlin, Dresden, Vienna, and 
 St. Petersburg, of learned societies similar to those already existing in 
 Paris and London. In the intervals of this public work he was 
 continuously developing the special features of his philosophy. 
 
 Locke's doctrine that our ideas were due to external impressions was 
 unacceptable to Leibnitz. Nothing in the Intellect, said the Schoolmen 
 and Aristotle, that was not first in the Sense : except, replied Leibnitz, 
 the Intellect itself. External influences do but bring into activity what 
 is already there. It was the problem of the mutual action of Organism 
 and Environment, which was afterwards studied by Kant far more 
 systematically. 
 
 The principal problem before him was to establish the existence of 
 law in every department of thought in such a way as might be reconciled 
 with the spontaneity of the Individual. Dividing the facts around us 
 into those of life and of non-living matter, and convinced that matter 
 was not set in motion by mind, he conceived the first to result from 
 centres of action created from the beginning of time, which he called 
 Monads, no one of which was precisely similar to another, capable of 
 varying degrees of perception from the plant to Man, capable also of 
 continuous growth. The mental phenomena of these were so arranged 
 as by a pre-established harmony to proceed concurrently with the laws 
 of motion as exhibited in matter, just as two clocks with independent 
 machinery might be so framed as to work together. Each monad was 
 acted on and reacted on the rest : from the accurate inspection of each, 
 the future of the universe might be foretold ; for, as he constantly 
 repeated, the Present is pregnant with the Future. 
 
 Leibnitz spent much thought in reconciling the belief in an omnipotent 
 and benevolent Creator with the existence of moral evil. Ilis solution
 
 524 LEIBNITZ : ROBERTSON [Modern 
 
 was that evil was permitted for the sake of greater good. Good, he 
 conceived, immensely preponderated over evil ; and Liuch of it, but for 
 evil, could never have come to light. A world free from evil might 
 have been created ; yet the good in that world might have been of so 
 much lower sort as to stand, on the whole, lower than , that in which we 
 live. It might have been arranged that the crime of Tarquin should not 
 have been permitted ; but in that case the Roman Republic, with its 
 vast influence for good, would not have arisen. God then foresees and 
 permits evil : but we must believe that he has created out of all possible 
 combinations that world which on the whole was best. The solvent 
 influence on European thought of this strange line of reasoning was very 
 great. But nothing could be further from Leibnitz's purpose than 
 destructive change. The religious strife which had agitated Europe for 
 a century and a half was hateful to him as a barren waste of energy. 
 Not the least remarkable of his many labours was the attempted recon- 
 cilement of the Lutheran with the Roman and also with the Anglican 
 Church. On this subject he carried on a long and very interesting 
 correspondence with Bossuet. As provisional shelters for the mass of 
 mankind all these forms of religion were, he considered, of priceless 
 value. He had no wish to see their utility destroyed by needless 
 antagonism. 
 
 Leibnitz died in Hanover, 17th November 1716, at the age of 70. 
 "We see in him a mind of the highest philosophic power to whom nothing 
 human was foreign. His range of subjects was greater than that of any 
 thinker since Aristotle ; including as it did theology in its broadest 
 relations, every branch of philosophy and science, history, jurisprudence, 
 philology. His energies were spent not solely in abstruse researches for 
 the few and for the future : they were given in part also to his own 
 generation, aiming at the diminution of its suiferings and dangers. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Leibnitz's Worhi, published at Geneva in 1768, in six volumes. Pos. Pol, 
 i. 393 ; iii. 482-3 ; iv. 27, 181. 
 
 ROBERTSON {Dr. William), b. 1721, d. 1793. 
 
 "William Robertson, son of a Presbyterian -minister, was born in 
 Edinburgh. The son adopted his father's profession, and became a 
 leading man in the General Assembly of the Scotch Church. In 1759 
 he published his History of Scotland during the lieign of Mary and 
 James VI., a work of much historical research. In 1762 he was made 
 Principal of Edinburgh University, and in 1 764 was appointed Historio- 
 grapher to the King for Scotland. His greatest work, the History of 
 Charles V., preceded by a Vieio of the Progress of Society in Europe 
 from the subversion of the Roman Eminre to the beginning of the 
 sixteenth century, appeared in 1769. Robertson also wrote a History of 
 America, published in 1777. He died in Edinburgh, June 1793. 
 
 Robertson's claim to admission amongst philosophic thinkers rests 
 upon his powers of generalisation. He was not content with bare 
 narration of the facts of history. Amidst the mass of special detail he
 
 Philosophy] KOBERTSON : GIBBON 525 
 
 sought for the general facts, in other words for the laws, regulating and 
 informing the whole. In speaking, for instance, of the establishment of 
 the feudal system in Europe, he remarks that " though the barbarous 
 nations which framed it settled in their new territories at different times, 
 came from different countries, spoke various languages, and were under 
 the command of separate leaders, the feudal policy and laws were 
 established with little variation in every kingdom of Europe." This 
 amazing uniformity is not, he continues, to be attributed to racial 
 distinctions. " It may be ascribed to the similar state of society and 
 manners to which they were accustomed in their native countries, and 
 to the similar situation in which they found themselves on taking 
 possession of their new domains." 
 
 In analysing the rapid progress of society from the 11th to the 
 16th centuries, he traces the influence due to each of various causes. 
 (1.) The Crusades, which familiarised Western Europe with the more 
 polished culture of the Eastern Empire and of Asia, which promoted 
 the consolidation of feudal baronies into kingdoms, prevented internal 
 strife during the absence of warriors on a sacred mission, and stimulated 
 the commercial energies of the Italian republics. (2.) The growth of 
 municipalities, and the grant of charters of incorporation. (3.) The 
 growth of the Tiers Etat, or burgher class, as a political force. (4.) The 
 enfranchisement of serfs. (5.) The improvement in the administration 
 of justice resulting from the abolition of private war and of trial by 
 judicial combat, and from the appeal from baronial to feudal courts. 
 (6.) The prevalence of the canon law, far more favourable to individual 
 rights than the feudal. (7.) The subsequent prevalence of the Roman 
 law. (8.) The spirit and the institutions of Chivalry. (9.) The progress 
 of Science, due to its culture by Arabs when Western Europe had 
 neglected it. (10.) The revival of Commerce. [J. H. B.] 
 
 GIBBON {Edward), b. 1737, d. 1794. 
 
 Edward Gibbon' was born at Putney, 27th April 1737. His parents 
 were in easy circumstances ; his father sitting for some years in 
 Parliament as an opponent of Walpole. The boy inherited a sickly 
 consi;itut2onj^ an d owed much to the care of his mother's sister, Catherine 
 Porter. He was for Ti time at "Westmihster School, subsequently at 
 Magdalen College, Oxford. Excused by health from the ordinary 
 routine of study, which indeed in the Oxford of that time was care- 
 lessly enforced, he devoted himself to history. In his extensive course 
 of reading he fell upon Bossuet's controversial writings, which converted 
 him to the Roman Catholic faith. This cut sliort his university career ; 
 and he was^plae'etTarLausanne under a Calvinist minister, Pavilliard, 
 under whose influence he speedily relapsed jnto_Protestantisni. He 
 lived five years at Lausanne, carrylng^out an extensive course of 
 historical reading. Here occurred liis brief period of love for Mademoi- 
 selle Curchod, daughter of a Swiss pastor, who afterwards became 
 Madame Necker. In 1758 he returned to England, and lived in 
 retirement for some years in his father's house. A. captaincy of militia
 
 526 GIBBON : ADAM SMITH [Modern 
 
 gave him experience which he maintained was useful to his historical 
 pursuits. In 1763-4 he travelled. In Paris he was brought into 
 contact with the Encyclopaedists. In Rome he first conceived the 
 project of his great History. But this was not begun tiU 1770, when 
 his father's death left him his own master. The first volume was 
 published in 1776 ; the work was finished in 1787 at"L?lLiyiillue, whitfier 
 hffTiad retreated four "years "before! He had 'held a seat in Parliament, 
 and an office in the Board of Trade ; but he had fouM LhyyySccupations 
 obstructive to the work of his life. In 1793 Gibbon returned to 
 England, and in the following year, January 14th, he died. 
 
 Gibbon, in his Decline and Fall of the Jioman Empire, proposed " to 
 connect the ancient and modern history of the world." He has divided 
 it into three periods : — (1) from Trajan to the fall of the Western 
 Empire ; (2) from Justinian to the revival of that Empire under 
 Charlemagne ; (3) from Charlemagne to the capture of Constantinople 
 by the Turks. 
 
 It would be idle to attempt in two sentences any estimate of the 
 splendid literary power, the comprehensive and accurate learning, the 
 wit and irony, the stately eloquence of this great work. His review of 
 Roman jurisprudence has been praised by lawyers. Of his account of 
 the Christian Church, the late Cardinal Newman has said that, in spite 
 of its Voltairian sneers, no Church history so adequate has been written ; 
 for Gibbon has treated Catholicism not as a body of doctrines, but as a 
 social force. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. iii. 351. The Decline and Fall is included in the 3rd section of the 
 Positivist Library. 
 
 ADAM SMITH, b. 1723, d. 1790. 
 
 Adam Smith was born at Kirkcaldy in Scotland, 5th June 1723. His 
 father died before his birth. His mother, to whom he was devotedly 
 attached, lived with him for nearly sixty years. He was educated at the 
 grammar school of his town, then at Glasgow, finally at Balliol College, 
 Oxford ; his favourite studies being mathematics and natural philosophy. 
 In 1751 he became Professor of Logic, and in the following year Professor 
 of Moral Philosophy, in the University of Glasgow. About this time he 
 formed an intimate friendship with Hume, whose Essays had just been 
 published. In 1759 appeared his Theory of Moral Sentiments ; a work 
 in which Hume's influence is unmistakable. In 1764-6 he travelled in 
 France, and came into contact with much of the French intellect of that 
 remarkable time, especially with Quesnai, Turgot, UAlembert, and 
 Helvetius. His mind was thus strongly directed to economic subjects. 
 The next ten years were employed in his Enquiry into the Wealth of 
 Nations, which was published in 1776. The last part of his life was 
 spent in Edinburgh. His work on the History of Astronomy, forming 
 part of the Positivist Library — a fragment of a work never executed, on 
 the history of science — was not published till after his death. Smith 
 died July 1790. 
 
 The Enquiry into the Wealth of Nations has little in common with
 
 Philosophy] ADAM SMITH : DUNOYER 527 
 
 the numberless treatises on the so-called science of Political Economy 
 which succeeded it. It makes no pretensions to lay down unmodifiable 
 laws of social action, or to deduce from arbitrary definitions of Value, 
 Utility, Productive Labour, etc-, a complete theory of industrial pheno- 
 mena. Smith, knowing well what Science really was, was perfectly 
 aware that he was not founding a new science. What he did was to 
 throw light on certain important aspects of social philosophy, by a series 
 of essays dealing with the division of labour, the formation of capital, 
 the function of money, of banks, etc., having specially in view the 
 mistakes made by statesmen in their statutory interference with the 
 course of industry. Far from maintaining that the laws of economic 
 action were unchangeable fatalities, a large part of the work is occupied 
 with the description of their modification by customs and institutions, 
 by combinations of employers and workmen, by statutes, and above aU 
 by theories of industrial action. In much of his work he had been 
 anticipated by the French economists, who, with Quesnai at their head, 
 were protesting against the eiTors of Colbert's commercial policy, based 
 on the theory that money being the most valuable form of wealth, a 
 nation's exports ought to exceed her imports. Quesnai had rightly 
 shown that the produce of the soil was the most important foi'in of 
 wealth, but fell into the mistake of denying the value of manufacturing 
 industry. Hume in his economic essays had laid down the truth briefly 
 and clearly ; and much of Adam Smith's Enquiry is an expansion of 
 Hume. Most remarkable throughout what Comte describes as this 
 " immortal work," is the systematic use of the historical method, a sure 
 safeguard against the dangers of attributing absolute value to any 
 special policy, or of attempting to separate the economic from the moral 
 and political aspects of the social organism. Sympathy Avith popular 
 wellbeing pervades the work. The inequality of the law which permitted 
 combinations of masters, while repressing those of men, is exj^osed. It 
 is explained that high wages are less injurious to trade than high rates 
 of profit. Smith insists, too, on the hardship of the laws of settlement ; 
 on the need of popular education ; and on the importance of carrying 
 out industrial changes with due regard to the mass of people previously 
 emjiloyed on the older system. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. vol. iv. lect. 47 ; and Pos. Pol. iv. 632. 
 
 DUNOYER, b. 1786, d. 1862. 
 
 Charles Barthelemi Duxoyer was born at Carennac, department of 
 Lot, 1786*. In conjunction with Charles Comte, he edited (1820-5) the 
 remarkable journal known as The Censor, to which Auguste Comte 
 contributed some important papers. In 1832 he became a member of 
 the Institute. In 1833-7 he was Prefect of the Department of the 
 Sorame. His principal work on Freedom of Labour appeared in three 
 volumes in 1845 : part of it had been published twenty years earlier. 
 He died in 1862. 
 
 Dunoyer was an economist, a systematic opponent of Communism,
 
 528 DUNOYER : KANT [Modern 
 
 an advocate of unfettered individual action. But he is distinguished 
 from the mass of economic writers of his time by his clear apprehension 
 that the industrial side of human affairs could not be separated from the 
 general course of civilisation. " Political Economy," he said, " has for its 
 province the whole order of things which results from the exercise and 
 development of the social forces." This was in fact to make the term 
 synonymous with Sociology. Industry, as he conceived it, fell into two 
 great divisions : one dealing with the World, the other with Man. 
 The latter was concerned with {a) the amelioration of our physical 
 nature, {b) the culture of imagination and sentiments ; (c) the education 
 of intelligence, (d) the improvement of moral habits — in other words, 
 with the four functions of physician, artist, schoolmaster, and priest. 
 The two divisions of Industry correspond thus, as Comte remarks, with 
 that of temporal and spiritual power. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Comte has cited this writer frequently : — Phil. Pos. v. lect. 55 ; Pos, Pol. i. 
 127, ii. 261 and 332, ill. 51, iv. 407 and 639. 
 
 KANT, b. 1724, d. 1804. 
 
 Immanuel Kant was born at Konigsberg, 22nd AprU 1724. His 
 family was of Scotch origin. He studied mathematics and physics at 
 his native university, and published several memoirs on these subjects. 
 In one of these he predicted the existence of the planet Uranus, subse- 
 quently discovered by Herschel. In 1770 he was appointed Professor of 
 Logic and Metaphysic. In 1781, after twelve years of preparation, 
 appeared his great work, the Critique of Pure -Heason, an event of first- 
 rate importance in the history of Philosophy. The second edition, with 
 some substantial alterations, appeared six years after. In the interval 
 was published the remarkable essay on the Conception of Universal 
 History, as tending to World- Citizenship. Later, in 1788, Kant sought, 
 by his Critique of Practical Reason, to modify the negative results of 
 his greater work. He never left Konigsberg, where he lived with 
 extreme simplicity and regularity, universally respected. In politics, 
 and especially in the French Revolution, he took the keenest interest. 
 He died in his 80th year on the 17th of February 1804. 
 
 Kant fully accepted Hume's conclusions as to the relativity of 
 knowledge. He agreed that our perceptions of the outer world were 
 reducible to mental impressions and ideas. Underneath these impres- 
 sions and ideas, Hume maintained there was no fact that could be 
 stated with certainty. Kant, however, sought to analyse and explain 
 the fact of knowledge. What is the structure of the human mind 
 that makes knowledge possible ? Distinguishing in human judgments 
 those that added to knowledge (synthetic) from those that were merely 
 explanatory (analytic), he inquired whether synthetic judgments in- 
 dependent of experience (a priori) were possible. He decided that 
 the conclusions of geometry fell under this head, being evolved from 
 what he called " pure intuitions " of Time and Space not dependent 
 on sensation. Time and Space had no objective existence, but were 
 simply modes or forms of our mental structure. To the Positive 
 philosopher this reasoning is inconclusive. The truths of geometry, like
 
 Philosophy] KANT : FICHTE 529 
 
 those of other sciences, are reached originally by induction ; and they 
 owe their character of necessity and obligation to their simplicity and 
 freedom from the complicating influence of other phenomena. 
 
 No attempt can be made here to describe Kant's philosophical 
 system. The important principle resulting from it is the conception of 
 knowledge as resulting from the interaction of two factors — one supplied 
 by the outer world, the other by the structure of the human mind. 
 Thus Kant's fundamental principle is a special instance of the essential 
 fact, first indicated by Comte, and subsequently illustrated with such 
 fulness by Spencer, which constitutes Life of every kind : the action 
 and reaction, tending towards adjustment, between organism and en- 
 vironment. 
 
 Of unconditioned existence, of "things in themselves," Kant held 
 that we could have no knowledge whatever. Every attempt to prove or 
 disprove the existence of a Supreme Being he assailed with unsparing 
 logic. Yet his strong ethical sense led him, in his Critique of Practical 
 Beaso7i, to maintain instinctive belief in God and immortality as the foun- 
 dation of virtuous conduct ; and this cannot surprise us in the absence of 
 the human synthesis, the establishment of which he could not live to see. 
 
 His work on Universal History must take its place, with the similar 
 works of Turgot and Condorcet, among the preparations for the Sociology 
 of Comte. It opens with the broad statement that the actions of men, 
 like all other natural phenomena, take place in accordance with general 
 laws. Kant goes on to explain with extreme precision that the play of 
 man's passions, private and social, tends towards an ultimate state, not 
 consciously perceived by any one generation, in which the self-seeking 
 propensities of individuals, and the ambitious tendencies of nations sub- 
 ordinate themselves without self-extinction, to a state of social harmony. 
 For arrival at this final state, egoism no less than altruism is necessary. 
 The struggle to improve personal wellbeing has stirred man's energies to 
 the creation of new ideals which, once arisen, have knit men together by 
 free-wiU, and have thus diminished the need of compulsory union. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. i. pp. 356-9. The Critique of Pure Peason has been translated by 
 Meiklejolin and by Max Miiller : the Essay on Universal History by 
 De Quincey. 
 
 FICHTE, b. 1762, d. 1814. 
 
 Johann Gottlieb Fichte was born at Rammenau, in Upper Lusatia, 
 on May 19, 1762. As a child he showed much intellectual and moral 
 promise. A friend of the chief proprietor of the village, Baron von 
 Mittitz, was struck by him, and charged himself with his education. 
 After a period of private tutorship, he gave lessons in pliilosophy in 
 Leipsic. Here he first read Kant's writings, which deeply impressed him. 
 He ultimately obtained an introduction to Kant, who gave nuich 
 encouragement to his work on a Critique of every possible Eevelation. 
 This, when anonymously published, was at first attributed to Kant ; when 
 the author was known, it led to his olitaining in 1793 the Chair of Philo- 
 sophy at Jena. Accused, absurdly enough, of Atheism, he resigned this 
 
 2l
 
 530 FICHTE : CONDOECET [Modern 
 
 post for another at Erlangen, from which he passed ultimately to Berlin. 
 He entered eagerly into the struggle of the German youth against 
 Napoleon ; in 1813 he became a volunteer, and in 1814, 28th of January, 
 died of fever contracted in attendance on his wife, who had herself been 
 worn out in nursing sick and wounded soldiers. 
 
 His metaphysical system was a claim to discover the principle by 
 which transcendental knowledge could be grasped. If the Will were 
 rightly directed towards the Good, the Understanding would of itself 
 apprehend the True. The precise nature of the imposing metaphysical 
 structure which Fichte erected on this basis cannot be discussed here. 
 His affinity to Positivism rests on the subordination de Vesjmt ate coeur : 
 and on his anticipation, confused though it was, of the Logic of Feeling 
 as inseparable from the Logic of Images and the Logic of Signs. " Be 
 noble," he said, " and then shalt thou see such truth as is needful for thee." 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 CONDORCET {Marquis de), b. 1743, d. 1794. 
 
 Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, Marquis de CoyDORCET, was 
 born in Picardy, 1743. He distinguished himself as a mathematician, 
 and became a member, and ultimately the secretary, of the Academy of 
 Sciences. His biographical notices of Academicians, especially those of 
 Voltaire and Turgot, have considerable value. He refused in 1777 to 
 pronounce a panegyric on the Due de la Vrilliere ; and on Turgot's faU 
 he resigned the post which he held under Government. He was elected 
 in 1791 a member of the Convention, and joined the Girondin jjarty. At 
 their fall he was proscribed, and lived for some months in hiding. On 
 27th March 1794 he was arrested at Bourg-la-Reine, and escaped the 
 scaffold by poison. 
 
 It was during his proscription that he wrote his immortal work on 
 the Progress of the Human Mind ; by which Comte's intellect was so 
 powerfully stimulated that he always spoke of Condorcet as his spiritual 
 father. 
 
 The most valuable part of this work is the introduction, which indicates 
 the method followed ; and the final conclusion, which presents a picture 
 of the Future founded on the scientific study of the Past. He begins by 
 clearly distinguishing between the study of the individual and that of 
 societies ; the latter off'ering first the phenomena of reaction between 
 individuals, and secondly those of the succession of generations. Most 
 noteworthy also is his procedure of abstracting from the concrete descrip- 
 tions of travellers and of historians the broad facts common to each parti- 
 cular case. We must choose and combine, he said, these general facts 
 from the history of difi'erent peoples, so as to construct the hypothetical 
 case of a single nation continually progressive from the beginning of time. 
 He divides the life of such a nation into nine periods. Passing from the 
 tribe living by the chase to the nomad peoples, and thence to the seden- 
 tary stage of tillage, in which finally alphabetic writing is discovered, he 
 reaches Greek civihsation, saved from destruction by the battle of Salamis. 
 He describes the rise of Greek philosophy and art, the beginning of the 
 Positive sciences of mathematics, biology, and ethic : Eoman conquest,
 
 Philosophy] CONDORCET : FERGUSON 531 
 
 and its precious legacy of jurisprudence ; the rise of Christianity from the 
 decay of Rome : the obscurantism which followed : the culture of positive 
 Science by the Arabs : the renascence of Science in Europe with the 
 Crusades ; the discovery of the compass, and the invention of printing : 
 and the stinuilus to free thought given by the Reformation. The title of 
 his Ninth Period is remarkable as showing his firm grasp of the correla- 
 tion of social and intellectual changes : " From Descartes to the formation 
 of the French Republic." He concludes with an impressive picture of 
 the " Future of the Human Mind," and of the social renovation which 
 will follow from it. 
 
 Comte, while dwelling on his debt to Condorcet, is not sparing of 
 criticism. The defect which goes far to vitiate his whole treatment of 
 the subject is that much of the work consists in declamations against 
 the tyranny of government and the oppressive results of priestcraft and 
 superstition : so that the progress ultimately attained in the 18th cen- 
 tury would seem to be the issue of a series of retrogressions. It presents 
 in fact the anomaly of an effect without a cause. Greece is well appre- 
 ciated by Condorcet : of the work of Rome he had an incomplete concep- 
 tion ; of the jNIiddle Age a complete misunderstanding. He admits, 
 indeed, that the civilisation of antiquity rested on slavery, which Chris- 
 tianity led the way in suppressing. But, absorbed in horror at the 
 intellectual stagnation that accompanied the rise of the Christian Church, 
 he was wholly blind to the beneficial influence of a moral government of 
 men modifying the tyranny of physical force, and tending to purify the 
 inward principle of human action by controlling selfish passion and 
 stimulating reverence and love. Thus it was that the historical philo- 
 sophy of Condorcet needed to be supplemented by the thinkers of the 
 counter-revolution, De Maistre and Bonald, before Comte could evolve 
 the wider philosophy in which the two opposing views are reconciled. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. iii. pp. 510, 527, and 570-76. The Progress of the Humayi Mind, 
 and the admirable tract on Elementary Arithmetic, also written during 
 his proscription, are in the Positivist Library. The latter has been 
 translated by Dr. Kaines. 
 
 FERGUSON {Adam), 1). 1724, d. 1816. 
 
 Adam Ferguson, born in 1724, was the son of a jmrish minister in 
 Perthshire. He served as chaplain in a Highland regiment till 1757, when 
 he retired to Edinburgh, where he became Professor, first of Natural 
 Philosophy, subsequently of Moral Philosophy. He published in 1767 
 an essay on the History of Civil Society ; and in 1763 his great work on 
 the Progress and Termination of the Roman Republic : the first syste- 
 matic study of the development of the internal constitution and external 
 policy of Rome. Ferguson was on intimate terms with the group of 
 remarkable men tliat made Edinburgh illustrious in the last century- 
 Hume, Robertson, Adam Smith, Dugald Stewart, and Playfair. He died 
 in his 92nd year, at St. Andrews, 1816. 
 
 Comte noticed with approval Ferguson's striking observations on the 
 conquest of one nation by another. No fundamental change in the
 
 532 FERGUSON : DE MAISTRE [Modern 
 
 structure of the conquered nation was effected thereby : all that was done 
 was to modify, for better or for worse, certain tendencies that already 
 existed {Phil. Pos. iv. lect. 54, and Pos. Pol. ii. 370). Comte notes 
 also Ferguson's distinction between the merely social and the political 
 animals : the latter combining individual effort for the attainment of a 
 common purpose {Phil. Pos. iv. lect. 55). Ferguson's history is re- 
 markable for the critical and scientific spirit in which early Roman 
 legend is discussed : anticipating in this respect by nearly half a century 
 the work of Niebuhr. [J. H. B.] 
 
 DE MAISTRE, b. 1754, d. 1821. 
 
 Joseph Marie de Maistre was born at Chambery, 1st April 1754. 
 His father was President of the Senate of Savoy, and was a man of 
 vigorous character, deeply respected. His son, the eldest of ten children, 
 passed through the various grades of magistracy, and became a Senator 
 whUe his father was President. His affectionate veneration for both his 
 parents was noted. While a student at Turin, he read no books without 
 their consent. In politics he was suspected of liberalism ; but when the 
 French republicans invaded Savoy, in 1793, he showed high spirit in 
 resisting their requisitions. After holding a high official post in Sardinia, 
 he was sent in 1802 as Minister Extraordinary to St. Petersburg, where 
 he lived for fifteen years, and where most of his works were written. 
 After the fall of Napoleon he was suspected by the Russian Government, 
 wrongly enough, of proselytism, and he left the country for Turin, where 
 his great treatise on The Pope was published in 1817. He died in that 
 city, February 26, 1821. 
 
 His letters and memoirs during the Revohition and the Empire are 
 full of keen insight and wise observation. Though a strict Conservative 
 in every sense, the blind fury of the reactionists was always repulsive to 
 him. He wished France to be restrained but not crushed. The partition 
 of France, for which many of them were eager, would be, he said, one of 
 the greatest calamities that could afilict humanity. In politics, as in 
 physics, there is only one sound method, he remarked : the method of 
 experiment. This led him to foretell with certainty the fall of Napoleon, 
 a conviction in which he never wavered. 
 
 His political philosophy is embodied in his work on The Pope. It 
 produced a profound impression on the mind of Comte, who says of it 
 that it supplied what was wanting in the historical philosophy of Con- 
 dorcet : it enabled him to appreciate the Middle Age, which to Condor- 
 cet's mind was mere barbaric darkness ; and it gave him insight into the 
 permanent conditions of political order {Phil. Pos. vol. iv. lect. 54). 
 He remarks also on the Positivity of de Maistre's method : his defence 
 of the Papal power, for instance, being based almost entirely on human 
 considerations. 
 
 The treatise is in four books. The first deals with the Pope in rela- 
 tion to the Catholic Church, and discusses the question of Infallibility, 
 which he describes as a necessary condition of government. There must 
 be a final decision somewhere, from which there is no appeal. This final 
 decision rested with the Pope, and not with the Councils. The second
 
 Philosophy] DE MAISTRE : BONALD : HEGEL 533 
 
 book treats of the Pope's relation to the Temporal Power, in modifying 
 the harshness of sovereignty, in upholding public morality and the 
 sanctity of marriage. A striking reference is made to the bull of Alex- 
 ander VI., settling the colonial dissensions of Spain and Portugal. In the 
 third book the influence of the Papacy on general civilisation is noted : 
 and the fourth discusses its relation to schismatic Churches. De Maistre's 
 remarks on Sovereignty as an attribute inseparable from every govern- 
 ment of whatever form are very striking, and their influence is seen in 
 Comte's examination of the theory of government in the second volume 
 of his Positive Politij. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. vol. iii. p. 527. The treatise on Tlie Pope is in the Positivist 
 Library. 
 
 BONALD {Vicomte de), b. 1754, d. 1840. 
 
 Louis Gabriel Ambrose, Vicomte de Boxald, was born at Millau, in 
 the department of Aveyron, 2nd October 1754. He came of an old 
 family which had zealously resisted Protestantism in the previous cen- 
 tury. He was brought up, and remained all his life, a strict Catholic. 
 After studying in Paris, and serving a short time in the army, he became 
 mayor of his town, and in 1790 President of the newly-formed depart- 
 ment of Aveyron, but resigned his post when the laws for Church Reform 
 were passed. As the Revolution went on, he became its firm oi^ponent, 
 joined the emigration, and settled at Heidelberg and afterwards at Switzer- 
 land. Here he wrote his first work, on the Theory of Political and 
 Religions Authority Demonstrated by Reason and by History, which con- 
 tains all his leading principles. It was a systematic and extremely 
 efi"ective onslaught on the Social Contract of Rousseau. The stand-point 
 is that of a Catholic thinker and statesman ; but the method and many 
 of the conclusions are of permanent scientific value. Man, he says, does 
 not constitute society any more than he gives weight to matter. Society 
 constitutes itself by laws which man may disturb, but cannot alter. 
 What are all sciences, he asks, compared with the science of society 1 
 Bonald returned to France at the fall of the Directory, and became 
 absorbed, in connection Avith Chateaubriand, Lamennais, and others, in 
 consolidating the reaction of opinion against the negativism of Revolu- 
 tionary thinkers. At the Restoration he took an active part in politics. 
 At the Revolution of July he retired to the small remnant of his ancestral 
 estate which had not been confiscated. There he died, 23rd Xoveniber 
 1840. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. iii. 517. 
 
 HEGEL, b. 1770, d. 1831. 
 
 George Frederic William IIkgp:l was born at Stuttgart, 27th August 
 1770. He received a classical education, completed at Tiil/mgen, where 
 he was a fellow-student of Schelling. The certificate received there 
 described him as specially deficient in ])hilosophii,'al {wwcr. All his 
 enthusiasm was at tluit time given to the study of ancient history. After 
 supporting himself for a while Ijy private fiutibn, he settled in Jena, where 
 he published an attack on Newtonian astronomy. Here he came into
 
 534 HEGEL [Modern 
 
 contact with Gothe, who recognised his power. His first philosophical 
 work, The Phenomenology of Spirit, was completed in 1806, on the eve 
 of the celebrated victory of Napoleon over the Prussians. In 1816 he 
 became Professor of Philosophy at Heidelberg, and two years subsequently 
 at Berlin, where he gathered round him a school of eminent disciples. 
 He died in that city of cholera, on the 24th of November 1831. 
 
 No account can be given here of the vast ontological fabric on which 
 most students of Hegel would rest his reputation. He himself was wont 
 to say that but one of his disciples understood his system, and he not 
 rightly. His prliicipallhlerpretef in England (Stirling) throws extreme 
 douht on the correctness of his German intei'preters. It is not on account 
 of these obscure constructions that he finds a place in the Calendar. 
 But with Hegel, as with other minds of native power, the Positive spirit 
 asserts and disengages itself in spite of metaphysical trammels. For the 
 Positive student the most important result is that Philosophy is not re- 
 garded as an isolated pursuit, to be followed independently of the whole 
 structure of the world and human life. The world and man being 
 regarded as partial embodiments of universal Reason, it followed that 
 they were alike subject to Law. 
 
 In his Philosophy of History, an exoteric work which those who find 
 his Logic and Metaphysic inaccessible may study with good hope of 
 profit, the unity of history and the filiation of succeeding generations is 
 clearly and^sfrohgly grasped. When he tells us that Pieason is the Sub- 
 stance and the Infinite Energy of the universe, we may decline to follow 
 him into such fathomless waters ; but when he presents his philosophy 
 as a development of the view of Anaxagoras that No{;s (Mind) governs 
 the world, and further explains that in this he refers to no inscrutable 
 providence, but to the informing Idea, or, as Positive Philosophy would 
 say, the Abstract Law, visible through the complications of history, we 
 feel that we have reached firmer ground. We remember the maxim 
 announced in the first chapter of Comte's great work, that Ideas govern 
 the world : and that, amidst the complications of concrete facts, a Law is 
 to be found to which the facts tend, however obscurely, to conform. 
 
 The object, Hegel goes on to explain, of the Philosophy of History is 
 to present the series of human events as the embodiments of the' inforin- 
 ing Idea. Slowly and step by step progress becomes more rational : 
 conformity of fact to idea more complete. The path of progress is 
 through the play of human passions : without passions nothing great is 
 accomplished. " The passions of men are gratified : they develop them- 
 selves and their aims in accordance with their natural tendencies, and 
 build up the edifice of Human Society ; thus fortifying a position for 
 Right and Order against themselves." The ultimate j^erfection of the 
 State is when the consciousness of freedom* is j'crfect : when the private 
 interest of citizens coincides with that of the State. The affinity of these 
 thoughts with those of Comte, amidst the needless obscurity of the lan- 
 guage in which they are often enwrai^ped, is obvious : and it appears 
 no less in Hegel's definition of world-historical men, as those Avho act 
 instinctively as the agent of some change for which the time is ripe. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 Hegel's Philosopliy of History, translated iu Bolm's Stand. Library.
 
 Philosophy] SOPHIE GEEMAIN : HUME 535 
 
 SOPHIE GEEMAIN, b. 1776, d. 1831. 
 
 Sophie Germain was born in Paris in 1776. Her father was a mem- 
 ber of the Constituent Assembly. At an early age the accidental opening 
 of Montucla's History of Mathematics inspired her with a keen desire of 
 studying this science, and, in spite of much discouragement from her 
 family, she mastered the principles of the Infinitesimal Calculus by the 
 help of such books as she could procure. She entered into correspon- 
 dence with Lagrange, and with Gauss, who were much impressed, not with 
 her attainment only, but with her originality. When Chladni showed 
 his experiments of the figures produced by sand on vibrating plates, she 
 undertook the formidable task of forming the equations of these vibra- 
 tions, in which, with some help from Lagrange and subsequently from 
 Fourier, she succeeded. But her genius was encyclopaedic, not special. 
 Her range of study in art and science was extremely wide : as her very 
 remarkable work, which she did not live to complete, on the State of the 
 Sciences and the Arts at different Epochs, is enough to show. The leading 
 thought of this work, of which Comte speaks in high praise, is that the 
 method followed by the original thinker whether in art or in science is 
 substantially the same— a thought worked out with extreme vividness, 
 and drawn from her own experience. 
 
 She died June 26, 1831, not more admired for the brilliancy of her 
 conversation. and wide attainment than loved for her sweetness of disposi- 
 tion and total absence of self-complacency. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. i. 577. 
 
 HUME, b. 1711, d. 1776. 
 
 David Hume was born in Edinburgh on 26th April 1711. His 
 family was of noble origin, but poor. Hume was intended for the law, 
 but from an early date gave all his energies to historical and philoso- 
 phical study. At the age of 23 he went to France, living, however, not 
 in the capital, but in Champagne and Anjou. Here he spent three years 
 in the composition of his Treatise of Humaii jyature, which was pub- 
 lished in 1739 after his return to Britain. It contains the principles of 
 his philosophy in a more elaborate and systematic form than his Essays, 
 published in Edinburgh at various intervals between 1742 and 1752. 
 The Treatise attracted no attention : the Es^aijs after a few years 
 became matter for angry controversy, into which, however, Hume per- 
 sistently refused to enter. 
 
 After a short interval passed as attache to a military embassy at 
 Vienna and Turin, Hume returned to Scotland in 1749. In 1752 he 
 completed his Essays, by what he judged his best work, the Enquiry 
 in>o the Principles of Morals. The next nine years were occupied 
 with his History of England. In 1763 he became Secretary to the Em- 
 bassy in"f*aris, and was there for three years, in close intercourse with 
 Diderot, d'Holbach, Helvetius, and the other Encyclopaidists. The 
 last years of his life were spent in Scotland. His autobiography, written 
 with masterly clearness and simplicity a few months before his death, 
 and the letter of Adam Smith describing his last hours, testify to his
 
 536 HUME [Modern 
 
 calm, genial, and sympathetic nature, not wanting in courage and resig- 
 nation. The date of his death was 25th August 1776. 
 
 Hume is to be regarded as one of the principal founders of the Posi- 
 tive Philosophy. Descartes had carried the Positive spirit into the pre- 
 liminary sciences, and had shown their bearing upon social life : but with 
 intellectual and moral phenomena he had dealt for the most part by 
 metaphysical methods. Hume was the first to see clearly that the great 
 starting-point of Cartesian metaphysics, the fact of self-consciousness, was 
 not more amenable to demonstration than was our belief in the existence 
 of an outer world. That we possessed both these beliefs was certain, in 
 common probably with the higher animals ; but to prove their validity, 
 or to discuss the nature of their objects, was not possible for man. 
 
 Limiting himself therefore to phenomena, Hume went on to explain 
 that the materials of our knowledge are of two kinds ; vivid impressions 
 and faint impressions. To a series of vivid impressions of form, colour, 
 weight, texture, etc., constantly found in conjunction, we attach by an 
 instinctive belief the notion of external body. Of these vivid impressions 
 there are faint echoes or repetitions. These, to distinguish them from 
 the vivid impressions, Hume, following Locke, called Ideas. 
 
 If the idea of an apple results from the vivid impression of an apple, 
 does not the first prove the existence of the second, since every effect 
 must have a cause ? Here we come to the most salient point of Hume's 
 philosophy, the elimination of the conception of Cause, as nothing but 
 a mental figment. " The idea of cause and effect," he says, " is derived 
 from experience, which, presenting us with certain objects constantly 
 conjoined with each other in a certain order, produces such a habit of 
 surveying them in that relation, that we cannot without a sensible 
 violence, survey them in any other." Two vivid impressions being con- 
 stantly seen in sequence, the belief arises in our minds, not merely that 
 one will be followed by the other, but that the first possesses power to 
 produce the second. A billiard ball in motion strikes another, and there 
 ensues the motion of the second ball. This, said Hume, is all that we 
 can assert with philosophical certainty. To maintain the existence of a 
 power in the first ball to produce the motion of the second, is to go wholly 
 outside the limits of our knowledge. 
 
 It has been objected to this view, that night always follows day, yet 
 that day is not regarded as the cause of night. But here we have a 
 cycle, not a succession. Day follows night as weU as precedes it. Placing 
 an opaque body in the line of the sun's rays, we mark that a shadow 
 results ; and we say that the body is the cause of the shadow. This 
 assertion of a cause, of a power to produce, is called by Hume a mental 
 fiction, or habit, from which, however, we cannot escape. Hume extends 
 this view to impressions arising from an internal source. A man deter- 
 mines to raise his arm. The volition is followed by the contraction of 
 certain muscles. To introduce a mysterious agency called will, or force, 
 as explanatory of the sequence of the contraction on the volition, does 
 not help us forward in the least. A similar train of reasoning led to his 
 remarkable analysis of the fact of Belief, as a " Vivid idea related to or 
 associated with a present impression." " The efi'ect of belief Ls to raise 
 up a simple idea to an equality with an impression."
 
 Philosophy] HUME 537 
 
 Having thus laid the foundation of the Positive method, and demon- 
 strated the futility of metaphysical discussion, Hume^ passed, in his 
 Essays, to other subjects. Amongst them are a series of very valuable 
 studies on commercial and industrial relations, in which Adam Smith's 
 principal conclusions are, at least implicitly, contained. 
 
 His Ethic, contained in his Enquiry concerning the Principles of 
 Morals, rightly regarded by himself as his most important work, is a 
 striking example of the aijplication of the Positive method to the highest 
 order of phenomena. Avoiding all speculation as to the origin of evil, 
 or as to the existence of a special faculty for the discernment of right 
 and wrong, he asked two plain questions, susceptible of a definite answer : 
 first, What are the actions and motives which men in all ages and 
 countries praise or condemn : secondly. Can we see how this praise and 
 condemnation arose ? The first was a question of Ethical static to be 
 solved by induction from facts ; the second of ethical dynamic, demanding 
 a law of filiation or evolution. 
 
 With admirable clearness and directness of illustration, he shows that 
 Virtue, or personal merit, consists in the possession of mental qualities 
 useful or agreeable to the person himself or to others. Not that men's 
 approbation of these qualities rests upon an elaborate calculation of per- 
 sonal interest. It is instinctive and immediate, and operates where no 
 such interest is involved. Gradually, as the social state widens from the 
 family to the tribe, and from the tribe to a large political community, the 
 qualities tending to the good of that community are more keenly recog- 
 nised. The instinct of benevolence, of a fellow-feeling with others, is 
 innate in human nature. Crushed at first by coarser animal passions, it 
 gradually asserts itself, because, unlike the other instincts, it arouses no 
 antagonism, and can be indulged by all simultaneously. This instinct 
 therefore is the principal source of morality. The identity of Hume's 
 ethical principle with that of Comte is obvious ; though it needed 
 Comte's theory of histoiy to explain the long course of social discipline 
 by which the conception of humanity, at first so feeble, is at last tending 
 to become dominant. 
 
 We have finally to note Hume's remarkable study on the Natural 
 History of Religion : in which though Fetichism is not clearly distin- 
 guished from Polytheism, yet the origin of Fetichism— that is to say, the 
 tendency to explain phenomena by the attribution to them of human 
 passions — is clearly indicated. "There is an universal tendency," he 
 says, " amongst mankind to conceive all beings like themselves, and to 
 transfer to every object those qualities with which they are familiarly 
 acquainted, and of which they are intimately conscious. We find human 
 faces in the moon, armies in the clouds ; and by a natural propensity, if 
 not corrected by experience and reflection, we ascribe malice and goodwill 
 to everything that hurts or pleases us." 
 
 In the Preface to the Positivist Catechism, Comte speaks of Hume as 
 his principal philosophical predecessor. He speaks of his theory of 
 Causation {Phil. Pas. vol. vi. lect. 5G), as the only step of first-rate 
 importance towards establishing the relative character of true philosophy 
 since the triumph of the Nominalists over the Eealists. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Hume's Essai/s arc included in tlie Positivist Library, 4th pt. I'os. Pol. 
 vol. iii. pjj. 5Qo-b.
 
 MODEEN STATESMANSHIP. 
 
 DURING the Modern Period we discern two movements going on 
 side by side ; one destructive, the other constructive. The de- 
 structive movement is at first a continuation and development of the 
 conflicts that had begun even during tlie Middle Age between the 
 various elements of the Feudal-Catholic system. The victory of the 
 Temporal power over the Spiritual, already in prospect at the end of 
 the thirteenth century, was everywhere consummated by the end of the 
 fourteenth. The Popes, degraded by the Avignon "captivity " (1305- 
 1376), and afterwards still further weakened by the Great Schism (1378- 
 1417), lose the international presidency of the West, and devote them- 
 selves to increasing their territories in Italy. The one Catholic Church 
 is virtually split up into several National Churches, the clergy of which 
 find that they have exchanged the distant and occasional oppression of 
 the Popes for the close and constant control of their own sovereigns. 
 The organisation of the Church having been thus crippled, it was not 
 long before its doctrine was attacked by the free-thinking spirit. This 
 at first took the shape of Protestantism. With some of the populations 
 which had not been directly incorporated by Ancient Rome (English, 
 Dutch, Scandinavian, and North German), Protestantism became the 
 national religion. In others of these (South Germany, Poland, Hungary), 
 and in the whole of Latin Europe, Catholicism remained officially estab- 
 lished. But in Catholic and Protestant countries alike (Spain excepted) 
 the negative or sceptical spirit continued to grow and to attack one insti- 
 tution and doctrine after another, without having any positive truth to 
 substitute for what was discredited. The first Reformers, while discard- 
 ing the authoi'ity of the Church, thought to anchor themselves on the 
 Bible ; but the new position was much more vulnerable and untenable 
 than the old one. Those who perceived its defects retreated upon Deism 
 or " Natural Religion," which was the secret or avowed creed of the lead- 
 ing thinkers of the eighteenth century. But even the bare belief in a 
 God was already held doubtingly or rejected. Beyond this jjoint nega- 
 tivism could not go. If it was not more widely spread, it was because 
 the mass of the population was as yet grossly ignorant and many even 
 of the more educated shrank from probing doctrines which they felt 
 were a support to social order. 
 
 During the Middle Age the chief characteristic of the Temporal 
 Power was its infinite dispersion. It was Local Government or Home 
 Rule carried to the furthest point. Even the nominal rights and functions 
 of the central or national power were small, and, in practice, they were 
 much smaller. By the end of the thirteenth century there were many 
 signs that this dispersive system was about to be superseded by govern- 
 ment on a large scale and of a more highly organised kind. During the 
 fourteenth and fifteenth centuries this change was going on. The Tem- 
 poral Power became stronger in proportion as it ceased to be divided
 
 MODERN STATESMANSHIP 539 
 
 against itself by the conflict between its central and local forms. It 
 was further strengthened by its victory over the Spiritual Power. For 
 the first time since the fall of the Roman Empire the State became again 
 supreme, all other powers bending to it. But in the Temporal, as in 
 the Spiritual order, dissolving influences were at work. The great 
 change from ]\Iilitary to Industrial civilisation, which is not yet com- 
 pletely accomplished, was in progress, though it was not discerned then 
 as it is now. The Industrial movement had begun during the Middle 
 Age by the conversion of slaves into serfs, and of serfs into free labourers, 
 " the greatest Temporal Revolution," says Conite, " ever experienced by 
 mankind." It continued to be revolutionary ; for, as the political govern- 
 ments retained their old military character, the influence of industry — 
 which is essentially pacific — could not but undermine them. Again, 
 the dissolving tendency of speculation was not confined to religious 
 belief ; it also weakened the basis of government. The doctrine of the 
 Right of Private Judgment gave birth to its two complementary doctrines 
 — the Sovereignty of the People and Social Equality. 
 
 Alongside of this destructive movement in the fields of religion and 
 politics, which tended to pure anarchy and eventually produced the 
 explosion of the French Revolution, tliere was going on a constructive 
 movement, destined, at a time not yet reached, to reorganise society on 
 a firm basis. This constructive movement, or rather the preparation 
 for construction, consisted in the growth of Positive Science ; but, until 
 the extension of scientific methods to Politics and Morals in the present 
 century by Comte, the simpler and more general sciences were pursued 
 separately, and could not be co-ordinated with each other. Moreover, 
 by a fatality which could not be helped, the progress of this constructive 
 movement was much slower than that of the destructive. If the former 
 could have outstripped or even kept pace with the latter, the explosion 
 might have been averted, and the West might have passed without any 
 crisis into its final normal state, in which Thought will be not Theological 
 or Metaphysical, but Positive ; and Activity not Military, but Industrial. 
 But as this was impossible, Europe during the last six centuries has been 
 gradually approaching anarchy, and during the last three generations 
 at an accelerated speed. On the other hand, we have the reassuring fact 
 that since the early part of the present century, when Politics and Morals 
 were at last constituted as sciences, the constructive movement has also 
 been proceeding with a rapidity before unknown. We may hope, there- 
 fore, that it will overtake and arrest the destructive movement before 
 the latter has produced any irretrievable disaster. 
 
 In the meantime, while progress was being worked out by this two- 
 fold process — (1) the destruction of the old theological beliefs and military 
 organisation, and (2) the preparation of the Positive synthesis and the 
 industrial regiitie — order was maintained by the various State Govern- 
 ments. They were the only element of the Feudal Catholic system left 
 standing at the end of the fifteenth century. The struggle between the 
 central and local authorities having come to an end, and the Church 
 having been subjugated, the State Government was no longer checked 
 by any rival power. It had become what Comte calls a " Dictature." 
 The diflerent forms which it took in France and England will l)e described
 
 540 MODERN STATESMANSHIP 
 
 in the lives of Louis xi. and Cromwell. But, whatever its form, it 
 retained the traces of its military origin. It did not aspire, and it was 
 not fit, to direct the industrial movement, though the wiser dictators 
 did something to encourage it. The Dictature, therefore, could only 
 exist as a temporary stop-gap till the new Temporal Power of the future 
 should be ready to take its place. In the meantime, its provisional 
 office was to maintain national order and allow free play to intellectual 
 and industrial progress. 
 
 The twelfth month commemorates some of the most representative 
 types of this modern statesmanship, with its limited aims, its study of 
 material prosperity, its subordination of Church and Aristocracy to the 
 State, its tendency to tolerate all forms of speculation. The principal 
 type is naturally to be sought in the eighteenth century, by which time 
 the Dictatures had everywhere completed the subjugation of the opposing 
 forces, and were most powerful for good or for evil. Frederick the 
 Great, therefore, gives his name to the month of " Modern Statesman- 
 ship." 
 
 In the list of subordinate types two significant omissions will be 
 noticed. All attempts at dictatorial concentration in Germany before 
 the eighteenth century were failures, owing to her second-hand and 
 imperfect Romanisation, to her frontier position (involving exposure to 
 barbarian invasions and the prolongation of militarism), to the imperial 
 title, with its train of illusions and disasters, and lastly to religious 
 bigotry. Hence the belated German dictature, only born on the eve 
 of the revolutionary crisis, is represented in the month of "Modern 
 Statesmanship " by Frederick alone. England, again, is not represented 
 till we arrive at the week of Cromwell, because her dictature always 
 tended to the exceptional aristocratic type, and this was not fuUy 
 realised till the fall of the Stuarts. 
 
 The worthies of the first week are all Italian, Spanish, or French 
 statesmen of the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries. They 
 helped to establish in their respective countries the normal or monarchical 
 type of dictature, combining in itself the political forces which had pre- 
 viously been dispersed, and adding thereto whatever of quasi-spiritual 
 power could be detached from the Papacy. At their head stands Louis 
 XI., the chief founder of the dictature in the central nation. Sixtus v., 
 of course, figures here as a statesman ; and Charles v. as representing 
 Spain. 
 
 The seven worthies of the second week lie between the middle of the 
 sixteenth and the end of the seventeenth centuries — the period of the 
 religious wars. They are all Protestants except L'Hopital, who was no 
 doubt at heart a Protestant ; none of them, however, bigoted Protestants, 
 but distinguished advocates of toleration, who looked at creeds from the 
 political point of view. Five of the seven are Dutchmen, and this week 
 of Religious Liberty is named after its foremost champion, WUliam the 
 Silent. 
 
 The twelve statesmen of the third week are spread over the sixteenth, 
 seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. They are organisers, admini- 
 strators, financiers ; they enforce order, foster industry, and develop 
 national resources. If some of them were also concerned with war, they
 
 MODERN STATESMANSHIP 541 
 
 are not placed here on that ground. The very militarism of the dicta- 
 torial governments led them to encourage industry as a means of raising 
 the revenue which the increased expense of war required (Phil. Pos. vi. 
 118-128 ; Pos. Pol. iii. 488). Richelieu gives his name to the week of 
 Great Ministers. 
 
 The fourth week is devoted to statesmen of the seventeenth and 
 eighteenth centuries who played a part in revolutions : driven to this 
 course by the circumstances in which they were placed, but none of 
 them men of the revolutionary temper. Several of them, under other 
 circumstances, would evidently have shown themselves strong conserva- 
 tives. The head of this week is Cromwell. None of the men of the 
 French Revolution are admitted ; not even Danton, though Comte 
 expresses the highest admiration of him. [E. S. B.]
 
 542 FREDERICK II. [Modern 
 
 FREDERICK II. {of Prussia), b. 1712, d. 1786. 
 
 The Peace of Westphalia (1648) left Germany divided among some 
 three hundred rulers, with different titles, loosely united under the 
 Emperor, but all virtually independent sovereigns in their own terri- 
 tories. Thus finally ceased the long series of attempts by the Emperors 
 to establish the dictature for Germany as a whole. But its rise in the 
 separate German States became possible. Most of these petty rulers 
 aped as well as they could the dissolute splendours of Versailles and 
 treated their subjects like cattle. The sentiment of German nationalism 
 now so strong had little or no existence then even as an aspiration. 
 
 Frederick at his accession (1740) found himself, next to the Emperor, 
 the most important German sovereign : not so much by the number of 
 his subjects — for they were only two millions and a half — as by the pos- 
 session of an excellent army of 80,000 men. This had been created by 
 his father Frederick- William i., a good drill-sergeant and careful manager, 
 but a dull, obstinate man, with a violent temper. He forced Frederick 
 against the grain to go through a strict training in military administra- 
 tive and economic details very valuable for a working king. But the 
 tyrannical attempt, carried out with disgusting harshness and cruelty, to 
 crush out all that was original in the bright young man, his enthusiasm 
 for free thought, his refined tastes, Eis "love of literature and music, his 
 admiration of the French philosoj^hers, and to mould his fine mind and 
 character to the coarse and narrow paternal type, could not but injure 
 him. It accustomed him to conceal his feelings and to wear a mask of 
 hardness and cynicism. He himself in later life dropped what was pro- 
 bably a true remark, that he suffered more than other men because he 
 had more feeling than others. 
 
 Coming to the throne at the age of 28, Frederick had already formed 
 his plan of life. He would keep what was best in his father's ways 
 of government but follow a nobler ideal. The sense of duty was firmly 
 implanted in him. " My great care," he said to his officials, " will be 
 to further the country's wellbeing, and to make every one of my sub- 
 jects contented and happy. My wUl is not that you strive to enrich 
 me by vexation of my subjects, but rather that you aim steadily as well 
 towards the advantage of the country as my particular interest ; for I 
 make no distinction between these two objects. If it ever chance that 
 my particular interest and the general good of my countries should seem 
 to conflict, let the latter always be preferred." Many reforms were 
 immediately introduced and many more projected. Judicial torture, 
 then universal on the Continent, was abolished. Religious toleration was 
 proclaimed ; " every one is to be allowed to get to heaven in his own way." 
 Freedom of the press was allowed ; not by law but — what is more valuable 
 — in practice. In his enthusiasm for light and culture he was bent on 
 getting Voltaire and other eminent writers or thinkers aroTmd him. " A 
 man that seeks truth and loves it must be reckoned precious in every 
 human society." AU this was very original, and turned the eyes of all
 
 Statesmanship] FREDERICK II. 543 
 
 Europe upon him. If he had not become involved in war, it is difficult 
 to imagine what an approach to an ideal government might have been 
 made under a ruler so nobly gifted in mind and character. 
 
 But on the death of the Emperor, Charles vi!, the temptation to 
 snatch Silesi a from his' daughter Maria Theresa was too strong. This 
 cost FreTrerTck three_great wars (1740-42, 1744-45, 1756-62). The last 
 of these was the famous Seven Years' War, in which he was assailed by- 
 France, Austria, and Russia'together. The unparalleled odds make this 
 the most extraordinary of all wars. As a general, though he committed 
 faults of audacity and obstinacy, Frederick ranks among the three or 
 four greatest in history, and, if his small means be considered, was more 
 wonderful than any of them. But his military qualities are his least 
 title" to fame, and nothing more shall be said of them here. 
 
 No man hated war more. He admits, with his usual frankness, that 
 what tempted him to seize Silesia was " an army lying ready for action, 
 funds, supplies all found, and perhaps the desire of making oneself a 
 name." But his first experience of such glory cured him for ever of the 
 taste for it. What he had once taken, indeed — and t;iken with the 
 good-will of most Silesians — he stuck to with unconquerable tenacity, 
 resolute to perish rather than yield an inch. But he all along thirsted 
 intensely for peace ; and as he did not abate his claims in adversity, so 
 neither did he enlarge them in victory. When he was at peace — which, 
 be it noted, was more than thirty-six years out of the forty-six of his 
 reign — he was incessantly occupied with administering his kingdom in 
 the most enlightened, economical, and beneficent way. Closely supervis- 
 ing every branch of the public service, he kept every one up to his work. 
 The minuteness with which he inspected everything is almost incredible. 
 His own expenses were cut down to a minimum. He lived generally 
 not in his palaces, but in his cottage of Sans Souci, and so completely 
 without parade that we hear of a strolling tourist looking through a door 
 and seeing the King asleep. His subjects regarded him with reverent 
 aS"ection. As he grew old and prematurely feeble from the hardships of 
 his campaigns, though going through his work with stoical endurance to 
 the last, we read that tears came into the eyes of many when he rode 
 through the streets at the thought that he could not last long. 
 
 Shall we not say that this was a true republican government 1 For 
 what is the republican ideal .^ Not this or that system of sufi'rage, or 
 any peculiar mode of electing your magistrate ; but that the government, 
 however chosen, should practically be the organ of the nation and direct 
 all its forces to the common welfare. There was here no Parliament. 
 No ; nor did any one dream of it. They only contrasted their position 
 with that of other European States, equally without parliaments, where 
 the people were treated as merely existing to provide for the pleasure 
 and vices of their rulers. That glimpse of good government which 
 Frederick afibrded, that spectacle of a great man working like a galley- 
 slave for the welfare of his fellow-citizens, was not the least among the 
 impulses that led to the French Revolution. 
 
 Frederick's anxiety to preserve the European peace led him to keep 
 up an active and careful diplomacy. " If I were King of France, I would 
 not allow a shot to be fired in Europe." He knew better than to preach
 
 544 FREDERICK 11. [Modern 
 
 or practise non-intervention. In his old age he had to take the field 
 against the Emperor, Joseph ii., whose ambition was troubling Germany. 
 But he managed, without a pitched battle, to secure the maintenance of 
 the status quo. If he joined in and even suggested the first — and least 
 considerable — partition of Poland, it was not for the sake of enlarging 
 his own dominions, but in order to prevent an otherwise inevitable 
 war between Russia and Austria. The little bit of Poland called West 
 i Prussia, which he took as his share, is not to be confounded with the 
 much larger slice, Posen, taken by his successor at the second partition 
 (1795). West Prussia cut his dominions in two. Poles had conquered 
 it from Germans three centuries before (1466), but it was still full of 
 German colonies. The inhabitants benefited enormously by the transfer. 
 The partition is not to be justified. Frederick should have weighed 
 the evil consequences of the precedent. Bat as to his own share, the 
 extenuating circumstances were considerable. 
 
 Comte extols Frederick as "a practical genius, who, in political 
 capacity came nearest to Csesar and Charlemagne ; a dictator who 
 furnishes the best model of modern statesmanship ; who, in accordance 
 with the ideal of Hobbes, reconciled power and liberty" {Pos. Pol. iii. 
 498). Frederick recognised the diff"erence between the spiritual and 
 temporal powers as few politicians, radical or reactionary, do now. He 
 kept to his own sphere. With no belief in God or a future life, he is 
 a precious and shining example of what purely human motives can 
 efi'ect, when they are not weighted and warped by the rival claims of an 
 imaginary object of love and adoration. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Carlyle : Life of Frederick the Great.
 
 Statesmanship] MARIA DE MOLINA 545 
 
 MARIA DE MOLINA, d. 1321. 
 
 Sancho iv., King of Castile, at his death (1295) appointed his widow 
 Maria de Molina regent for his son Ferdinand iv., then nine years old. 
 In the midst of the greatest difficulties she acted with remarkable pru- 
 dence and courage, and, notwithstanding the concerted attempts of the 
 neighbouring sovereigns, the princes of the blood, and the turbulent nobles 
 to dismember the kingdom, she succeeded in preserving it for her son till 
 he came of age. After his premature death (1312) she was appointed 
 guardian of his infant son, Alfonso xi., and continued in that capacity to 
 give proof of her eminent qualities till her death. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Lafuente : Historia General de Espama, vol. vi. 
 
 COSMO DE" MEDICI, b. 1389, d. 1464. 
 
 Italy in the 14th and 15th centuries presents a very different spectacle 
 from Europe north of the Alps. There was an extraordinary precocity 
 — intellectual, political, social, and industrial. In the north and centre 
 were numerous cities Avhich, though once nominally subject to the 
 German Emperor, had been practically, except at rare intervals, inde- 
 pendent States since the 10th century. Both internally and in their 
 mutual relations they would, but for the absence of slavery, bear a strik- 
 ing resemblance to Ancient Greece. Sometimes they were aristocratic 
 or democratic commonwealths ; at other times they fell under the sway 
 of despots. They were constantly torn by factions ; and their wars with 
 one another, latterly waged by means of mercenaries, were incessant. 
 Yet they were busy hives of commerce and manufacture, and in their 
 rural districts agriculture was carried to high perfection. 
 
 Of all these cities " admirable Florence " {Phil. Pos. vi. 53), though 
 not always the most powerful, was the most distinguished, not only for 
 her immortal assthetic productions and the general culture of her people, 
 but for her public spirit, her love of free institutions, and her generous 
 efforts to support them in other cities. She reminds us of Athens in her 
 beSnlays, and Cosimo dei Medici hears no small resemblance to Pericles. 
 His great wealtlTT'cIerlved from banking and commerce, was largely 
 devoted to public purposes and to relieving the wants of his j^oorer 
 fellow-citizens. Although he was once banished, and narrowly escaped 
 capital punishment, he was for the greater ])art of his life the virtual 
 ruler of Florence. The constitution was highly democratic ; but this 
 did not prevent Cosmo or his friends from being generally in office. 
 Prudence was his chief characteristic, and he showed it both in his suc- 
 cessful administration, and in the moderation and absence of ostentation 
 which marked his life. He is famous as a munificent and enlightened 
 patron of literature and art ; but he is placed in the (Jalendar as " having 
 furnished even thus early ;i worthy type of the industrial piitriciat ; show- 
 ing by his conduct tliat pacific activity might go along with the completest 
 
 2 M
 
 546 COSMO DE' MEDICI : PHILIPPE DE COMINES [Modern 
 
 social devotion, and even with profound aptitude for civil government." 
 {Pos: Pol. iii. 462.) His fellow-citizens decreed him the title of 
 " Father of his Country," and inscribed it on his tomb. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Roscoe : Life of Lo renzo de' Medici , ch. i. Macaulax.I.jESfiai',$'W.,Mflc/w- 
 '^^velli. Sismondi": Mistoire aes Uejaubliqties Ttdliennes, vols. ix. and x. 
 
 PHILIPPE DE COMINES, b. 1445, d. 1509. 
 
 CoMiNES was a noble of the district of Ypres, in West Flanders, and 
 therefore a subject of Charles the Bold. He entered the service of 
 Charles at the age of 19, and was with him at Montlhery (see Louis xi.) 
 At the interview of Peronne (1468), he rendered Louis xi. great service 
 by his secret advice. Four years later he quitted the service of Charles 
 for that of the French king, who, when he had found an able and trust- 
 worthy man, never rested till he had gained him. Comines, for his part, 
 could have neither regard nor respect for a hot-headed, violent glory- 
 hunter like Charles. He at once became and remained to the last the 
 most trusted agent of Louis, who employed him chiefly in diplomacy. 
 In the next reign, having opposed the Regent, he was for some time 
 imprisoned in an iron cage, and mulcted of a fourth of his property. 
 Some years later recourse was again had to his great ability and experi- 
 ence, and he accompanied Charles viii. on his Italian expedition, fighting 
 by his side at Fornovo (1495). He complains, however, that his 
 advice was often neglected. After his return from Italy he wrote his 
 famous Memoirs, one of those books that will never cease to be read. 
 Its remarkable literary merit is the least part of its value. It is the 
 work of a practical statesman, thoroughly acquainted with the men and 
 the facts of his time, and judging them thoughtfully and dispassionately. 
 To modern readers its tone must appear cynical. We must remember 
 that Comines was a man of his time, and it was the time of Louis xi., 
 Ferdinand of Arragon, Henry vii., and Machiavelli, when the complete 
 divorce between morality and politics made hypocrisy unmeaning. There 
 is nothing sentimental or enthusiastic about Comines. Prudence and 
 firmness are to him synonymous with virtue. Passion, weakness, and 
 folly move him to pity or disgust. He approves of justice, good faith, 
 and moderation rather as conducing to good and successful government 
 than for their own sake. The interest of the State legitimates every 
 means. He believes that God rewards and punishes, but religion is no 
 spring of action with him. His motives and aims are strictly human. 
 Louis XL, whose character and actions he judges with perfect impar- 
 tiality and much discrimination, came nearer to his ideal of a wise and 
 good ruler than any one else he had known, and he regarded him with 
 a respect and admiration almost approaching to all'ection. As lie appears 
 to have been the only person who had any warm feeling for that great 
 king, we obtain some measure of his own superiority. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Comines : Memoires, in .3nl pt. of Positivist Library.
 
 Statesmanship] GUICCIAKDINI : ISABELLA OF CASTILE 547 
 
 GUICCI ARDINI {Francesco), b. 1482, d. 154 0. 
 
 In the first half of the 16th century, Italy became the battle-field 
 of French, Spaniards, and Germans, and the pugnacious but unwarlike 
 city-states lost their independence. F lorence, w hich had expelled the 
 unworthy and unpatriotic descendants oT Cosmo'de' Medici TnT^^i,' was 
 corrrpolloil liy a Spanish army to receive their yoke again in 1512. Two 
 o f Che fam ily became Popes— Leo x. and Clement vii. Guicciardini, a 
 Florentine lawyer, wTio before the restoration of the Medici had rendered 
 his country valuable service as a diplomatist, was employed by these 
 Popes, and showed high ability and inflexible firmness, both as a general, 
 and its governor of the Romagna. After the death of Clement viLj in 1534, 
 he left the Papal service and occupied himselt with tTre"polTucs oFWs 
 native city, as a supporter of the Medici. When the contemptible Duke 
 Alexander de' Medici was assassinated (1537), Guicciardini had a chief 
 share in preventing the re-establishment of the Commonwealth, and in 
 promoting the succession of C osmo de' Medici (afterwards Grand Duke 
 of Tuscany), under whom FlorenceTmiiiry 'Tost the last vestige of her 
 liberties, though she attained an extraordinary degree of material pro- 
 sperity. "Guicciardini's History of Italy, from 1494 to 1532, once much 
 admired, is now consulted rather than read. Montaigne, while highly 
 praising its veracity, remarks that it uniformly ignores virtue, religion, 
 and conscience as springs of human action. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Gingutine : Histoire Litteraire d'ltcdie, vol. viii. 
 
 ISABELLA OF CASTILE, b. 1451, d. 1504. 
 
 The marriage of Ferdinand, King of Aragon, with Isabella, Queen 
 of Castile and Leon, followed by the conquest of Granada and Navarre, 
 amounted virtually to the unification of Spain, which at once became a 
 leading power in Europe. Though Ferdinand bore the title of King 
 of Castile during his wife's life, and all acts were done in the name 
 of " the Sovereigns," the supreme power, in substance as well as form, 
 was reserved to Isabella, and was up to her death exercised by her 
 according to her own independent wdl. Foreign policy she left to 
 Ferdinand. In fact, it concerned Aragon more than Castile. Isabella 
 possessed great political capacity, masculine energy, heroic courage, 
 inflexible firmness, unwearied industry. Tliese qualities were at tlie 
 service of a most noble heart. In the statesmen of that time we are 
 satisfied if we find enlightened patriotism, and that is the note of all 
 the worthies in this week. But against Isabella it cannot be charged, 
 as it may against the rest, that she ever sacrificed morality, as then 
 understood by the best men, to policy. The ])road principles of right, the 
 sentiments of benevolence, pity, and generosity were always present tf) 
 her. She combined in an extraordinary degree the tenderness and deb- 
 cacy of a woman with the strong character of a man. She was eighteen 
 when she married Ferdinand, and she became Queen of Castile on the 
 death of her l>rother five vears later (1474). Castile had long been in a
 
 548 ISABELLA OF CASTILE : CHARLES V. [Modern 
 
 state of anarchy. Isabella's ideas of government, like those of all great 
 rulers in the 14th and 15th centuries, consisted in reducing the power of 
 the nobles, strengthening the royal authority, giving purity, vigour, and 
 uniformity to the administration of justice, extending the realm to its 
 natural boundaries, promoting material prosperity, and resisting Papal 
 interference. Granada, the last of the Moorish kingdoms in the Penin- 
 sula, was conquered ; an efficient police put an end to brigandage ; the 
 laws were codified ; castles were dismantled. To all these matters 
 Isabella attended in person. All her journeys were made on horseback, 
 even during pregnancy. In the Moorish wars she sometimes appeared 
 in armour at the head of her troops. It will ever be one of her chief 
 titles to glory that she furnished Columbus with the means for his 
 great enterprise when no one else would listen to him. Ferdinand, her 
 husband, was one of the ablest statesmen of his time, subtle of brain, 
 prompt and undaunted in execution, and a gallant soldier. 
 
 My father, King of Spain, was reckoned one 
 
 The wisest prince that there had reigned by many 
 
 A year hefore. Shakespeare, Henry VIII. ii. 4. 
 
 The unbroken harmony of such a pair during thirty-five years of inarried 
 life, under such peculiar circumstances, is remarkable ; and the more so as 
 Ferdinand was not always a faithful husband. But Isabella's affection 
 bore that pain in patience ; and her laiiguage about him in her will, 
 written three days before her death, is all love and admiration. When 
 that magnanimous spirit and thoroughly honest mind is no longer with 
 him, he becomes a distinctly poorer figure — not less successful, but less 
 to be respected. Isabella has been compared to Elizabeth of England. 
 But, to say nothing of her superiority as a wife and a mother, there is 
 no single Cjuality in which she did not outshine Elizabeth. The one 
 crime of her reign is her treatment of Jews, Mahometans, and heretics. 
 The blame for that must fall on her religious guides. [E. S. B.] 
 
 / 
 
 Prescott : Ferdinand and Isabella. 
 
 CHARLES v., b. 1500, d. 1558. 
 
 From his father Philip (son of the Emperor Maximilian i. and Mary 
 
 of Burgundy), Charles inherited the Hapsburg dominions, Franche 
 
 Comte, and the Netherlands ; in the right of his mother Juana 
 
 (daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella) he ruled Spain, Naples, Sicily, 
 
 Sardinia, and the Spanish conquests in the New World. In 1519 he 
 
 iwas elected Emperor on the death of his grandfather Maximilian. No 
 
 .such aggregation of territories, nor anything a])proaching to it, had been 
 
 iseen in Europe since Charlemagne ; and it must be remembered that the 
 
 ■ European state-system in the l(Jth century embraced a far smaller area 
 
 than it does now, Russia proper and the Turkish dominions being 
 
 ] politically outside of it. Charles was a man of great ability, both as a 
 
 ' statesman and a general, cautious in council, resolute in action, and an 
 
 J excellent judge of men. He was occupied throughout his reign with 
 
 wars, many of which he conducted in person. The defence of the West
 
 Statesmanship] CHARLES V. : SIXTUS V. r549 
 
 against the Turks, then most formidable both by land and sea, devolved . 
 upon him, and he discharged this duty well. But his military efforts | 
 were chiefly directed towards making himself master of Europe. The I 
 Spanish soldiers were then the best, and no country furnished such 
 revenues as the Netherlands. But the power of Charles was not so 
 overwhelming as might be supposed from the extent of his dominions. 
 France also was warlike and rich ; and her compactness, central position, 
 and dictatorial organisation enabled her to maintain successfully the 
 balance of power, a principle then first recognised as the only available 
 guarantee for the liberties of Europe. Though Francis i. fought many 
 battles in Italy, and his son Henry ii. wrested the French-speaking 
 districts of jVIetz, Toul, and Verdun from the German Empire, the wars 
 of those kings against Charles were essentially defensive and legitimate. • 
 {Phil. Pos. V. 626.) To the Lutheran movement Charles was hostile, ! 
 both as being generally subversive and as tending to make the princes 1 
 and cities of the Empire more independent of its head. Unity of religion ' 
 appeared to him — as to every one else at that time— indispensable. 
 What the doctrines should be was in his eyes of minor importance. 
 Accordingly he procured the convocation of the Council of Trent (1545- 
 1 563), in the hope that some compromise coulcF be" effectecr""Between" tlie 
 Pope and the Lutherans. When the latter refused to take part in it, 
 and, under the name of the SclinialkaIdic__League, stood on their 
 defence, he crushed them at tEeTjattle of Miihlberg (1547). But this 
 assertion of the Imperial authority al£U'med''e'veir 'tTie"TTalholic Princes, 
 and they joined Maiirice of Saxony in compelling Charles to accept the 
 Treatv of Passau ancFtlie "Reli;;iou3 Peace" of Aujisburcr (1555), which 
 ga ve to ea ch prince the right to determine the religion Tn his own 
 d ominion s" T3isheartened by this collapse of his policy and by his fiiilure 
 to recapCiire Metz from the French, Ch arle s soon afterwards resigned the 
 Enipire and Hapsburg hereditary States "to "his brother Ferdinand, and 
 the rest of his dominions to his son Philip ii. (1555-6), and retired to 
 the monastery of Yuste in Spain, where he died two years later. In 
 that country and the Netherlands his eflbrts 'to establish a strong 
 centralised government had been more successful. Though he was 
 undoubtedly a sincere and even Ijigoted Catholic, he was no less resolute 
 than Henry viii. of England in subordinating TTie"'Church to the 
 Stater Hff even made war upon Pope Clement vii., and held him in 
 ciipTTvity ; and, while he was burning Protestants in Spain and the 
 Netherlands, he provided chaplains of their own religion for his 
 Protestant trooj^s. Charles is not a very admirable specimen of modern 
 statesmanship ; but he was far too important to be omitted from a list of 
 its most characteristic types. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Robertson: Charles V. Eanke : German History in the Time of the 
 Reformation (translated by Mrs. Austin as far as 1534). 
 
 /" 
 
 SIXTUS V. {Felice Perdti), b. 1521, d. 1590. ^ 
 
 Sixxrs v. had been a shepherd boy. He was elected Pope in 1585. 
 The TTEtT-known story of his feigned decrepitude docs not bear examina- 
 tion. He found the Papal territory overrun with brigands, Pome itself
 
 550 SIXTHS V. : HENRY IV. [Modern 
 
 (filled with audacious outlaws, the treasury empty, the taxes unpaid. He 
 re-established order by merciless executions for small crimes as well as 
 great. " While I live," said he, " every criminal must die." Heads on 
 poles were to be seen everywhere. Before nine months had passed the 
 f J banditti were exterminated. Partly by frugality — the expense of his 
 f ; own table was limited to three shillings a day — partly by less wise and 
 i' less justifiable means, he soon amassed a large treasure, which he hoarded 
 for extraordinary emergencies of his government or of the Church. He 
 is most remembered now for his magnificent public works, th e Acq ua 
 Felice, which stdl supplies Rome with water, the cupola of St. Peter's, and 
 the Lateran Palace. But he altered or destroyed many of the antiquities 
 which the Renascence had lovingly preserved. Though zealous for the 
 I extirpation of heresy, it was with regret that he found himself counte- 
 j nancing Catholic rebels against Protestant sovereigns. He could not but 
 ' support the League and Philip ii. of Spain against Henry of Navarre ; 
 but he felt that the League was aiming at anarchy, and that Philip was 
 menacing the Balance of Power in Europe. Henry, with his usual 
 penetration and freedom from prejudice, perfectly comprehended the 
 ' ^ perplexity of Sixtus, and upon hearing of his sudden death exclaimed, 
 " Here is a trick of Spanish policy ; I have lost a Pope who was my all." 
 
 [E. S. B.] 
 Ranke : History of the Popes, bk. iv. and vi. 
 
 / 
 
 HENRY I'^., b. 1553, d. 1610. 
 
 Navarre south of the Pyrenees was annexed to Castile in 1513. 
 Hexry, at the age of 19, became King of the small remnant north of the 
 Pyrenees by the death of his mother, Queen Jeanne, ten weeks before the 
 I massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). He was then at Paris, and only 
 I avoided the fate of the other Huguenot leaders by aWuring his religion. 
 In 1576 he escaped to the south of France, where, in addition to liis 
 little kingdom, he had large domains, and again changed his religion. 
 The Huguenot nobles formed a brilliant cavalry, and at their head 
 Henry performed many gallant exploits. But the large majority of the 
 nation was Catholic, and the " Politiques," or party of toleration (see 
 
 Il'Hopital) were overborne. Henry, therefore, was hard pressed. In 
 1558 Henry in., finding himself a mere puppet in the hands of the 
 Catholic" Xeague, assassinated its leader, the Due de Guise, and called 
 the King of Navarre to his assistance. But the next year he was himself 
 assassinated by the monk Clement. By his death the house of Valois 
 I became extinct, and the legitimate heir*To~fhe throne was Henry of 
 ; Navarre',"^ho, by his father, Antony of Bourbon, was twelfth in descent 
 from Louis ix. But the League, backed by Pliilip ii. of Spain, refused 
 to recognise the heretic king, and a long uphill struggle was before him. 
 He at first retreated into Normandy to await help from Elizabeth of 
 England, and there won the victory of Arqiies against far superior 
 numbers (1589). Next year the Leaguers, agam'with an overwhelming 
 force, including cavalry sent by Philip ii., gave him battle at Ivry. 
 After skilfully drawing up his army (which consisted chieflyof 
 " political " Catholics) Henry addressed his comrades in a stirring speech,
 
 Statesmanship] HENRY IV. 551 
 
 ending with the famous words, " If you lose sight of your colours press 
 after my white phime ; you will 'ar#aj?slincr"it 6ti' th§""foad to honour 
 anc TTic tofyJ" and his desperate charge in fact decided' the day. Then 
 his voice' was again heard, " S pare all Frencliiiien, but down with the 
 fo reigners ! " This glorious victory enaBlecT him to licsiege Tarisj "fTie 
 strongnoid of the League. But when the city was starving he let 
 provisions pass in. " We must not turn Paris into a cemetery ; I do not 
 wish to reign over the *^ea3"— and this while Philip's great general, 
 Alerrmtler of Parma, was marching in from the Netherlands (where he 
 was fighting the revolted Dutch) to raise the siege. Convinced at last 
 that the national unity would never be restored by a Huguenot king, he 
 once more became a Catholic. " Paris," he said, " is well worth a mass " 
 (15^3)^ Two~years later the last Leaguers submitted, "ah3 In 1598 f 
 Philip II., then sinking into his grave, sullenly consented to the peace of I 
 Vervins. I n the same year the memorable Edict of Nantes assured to | 
 the Protestants not only rreedom of religion, but in many places even of 
 put)lic worship, with equal eligibility to all offices of State. Leaguers 
 anffTTugiienots alike had been headed by great nobles, who saw in 
 religious discord an opportunity for undoing the work of Louis xi. - 
 Even democracy had raised its head in Paris. Henry was perhaps the I 
 least vindictive and most humane ruler that ever sat on a throne. He ' 
 had conquered his enemies as much by his mercy and generosity as by 
 the swrrrd. But magnates who now thwarted the revival of a strong 
 centrar government, and conspired with foreigners against the national 
 unity, were vigorously put down. The Protestant Due de Bouillon was 
 forced to humble himself ; and the execution of the Catholic Due de 
 Biron was a lesson that surprised as much as it daunted the aristocracy. 
 The great financial and economic improvements will be touched on in the 
 life of Sully. "French industry," says Michelet, "dates from this 
 reign." But it is in his large views of European policy that Henry is 
 greatest. Although his " Great Design " first appeared in the posthumous 
 and less reliable part of Sully's Memo ires, there is no reason to doubt that 
 some such ideal was in the King's mind. Europe was to be a federal 
 " Republic," composed of some fifteen independent States, some of them 
 monarchies, others commonwealths, with a permanent council of com- 
 missioners from all the States, and an elective Emperor as President. 
 Russia and Turkey were to be excluded as not really European. Religion 
 was to be ordered to suit the circumstances of each State. The first 
 step towards this " admirable Utopia of peace " {Fos. Pol. iv. 204) was to 
 clip the wings of the house of Austria, which, though divided, still 
 overshadowed Europe with the dread of a universal monarchy. Henry 
 had formed a league Avith the Protestant Princes of Germany for this 
 purpose, and was just about to take the command of his army, when the j 
 knife of Ravaillac prematurely cut short his great career. The crime | 
 was evidenl^"conimitted in the interest of Spain and the Jesuits, i 
 though it was never brought home to the instigators. Henry's country- 
 men did not generally recognise his great value till they had lost 1 
 him ; but the memory of few kings has been so honoured ami cherished I 
 by posterity. [E- S. B.J \ 
 
 Sully : M&moires. Poir.soii : Jiv'jue de Henri I V.
 
 / 
 
 552 / LOUIS XI. [Modern 
 
 LOUIS XI., b. 1423, d. 1483. 
 
 During the Middle Age there was a constant struggle in the West 
 between the two elements of the Temporal Power — the central, or national, 
 and the local, or that of the great vassals. G radually the local govern- 
 ments all merged in large aggregates, in each of which a single national 
 government gathered to itself all military, civilj and judicial functions. 
 This movement was already in progress before the end' of the 13th 
 century. By the end of the 15th the struggle was substantially de- 
 cided, though it did not come completely to an end till the latter part of 
 the 17th century. 
 
 In France, as in most countries, the agent in this organising and 
 nationalising movement was the Crown. Almost every monarch did 
 something towards enforcing recognition of the royal authority in all 
 parts of that country which by geographical conditions, as well as by its 
 history, was fitted for political unity. But, either because they did not 
 see their way to undertaking the direct government of so large an area, 
 or because they were themselves under the dominion of feudal ideas, 
 they did not always avail themselves of their frequent opportunities for 
 extinguishing the local governments of the fiefs which fell into their 
 hands. The Valois kings granted many of them as appanages to their 
 younger sons, and so created a new set of great vassals, who revived the 
 struggle for feudal independence. Tlie most dangerous of these, the 
 .Duke of Burgundy, oi3enly aided the English invaders. This prince, 
 I besides his French fiefs, possessed the yet more important territories now 
 I known as Belgium and the Netherlands. Charles vii., the father of 
 Louis xi., having expelled the English, established a permanent force 
 of 9000 cavalry — the first standing army in modern times. 
 
 During the life of his father, Louis was not a dutiful subject. His 
 masterful spirit could brook no superior. He even conspired with the 
 rebel vassals. But as King (1461-1483) he pursued the policy of his 
 greatest predecessoTs with undaunted courage, patient perseverance, and 
 political genius of the highest order. At first he was too much in a 
 hurry. He tried to clip the wings of all his vassals at once. He irritated 
 the industrial classes by severe taxation. He drove into exile or rebellion 
 his father's ablest generals and councillors. This bi'ought upon him the 
 so-called " League of Public Welfare," headed by Charles the Bold, heir 
 of Burgundy, which aimed at a virtual dismemberment of France. Per- 
 severing as Louis was, he had none of the weak obstinacy which cannot 
 distinguish between means and ends. Finding himself overmatched, 
 though he had cut his way through the host of rebels at Montlhery, he 
 
 (conceded to them everything they demanded. By the treaty of (Jouilans 
 (1463) he might seem tbliave Hiihg up ^le game in despaTFahd to have 
 signed the ruin of France. But his High Court of Justice (Parlement), 
 l)y refusing to register the treaty, gave him an excuse for evading its 
 jjerformance, arid by negoti ating w ith the princes separately he broke up 
 
 I their coalition. The peaceful and industrious classes stood Ijy him^and 
 he studiously cared for their interests, mixing familiarly with tlie citizens 
 of Paris, dining at their houses, standing godfather to tlieir children 
 putting aside all state and ceremony, and even dressing in humble attire
 
 Statesmanship] LOUIS XL 553 
 
 The precautions of his residence at Plessis belong only to the last months 
 of his life, when he was old and paralytic. Never ashamed to own a 
 mistake and to retrace false steps, he won back the most valuable of his 
 father's servants, whom he had at first driven away. His designs against 
 feudalism were not for a moment suspended. But instead of attacking 
 aU his vassals at once he took them in detail :' while one was being 
 criMied, others were humoured till their turn came. 
 
 As a young man he had shown warlike tastes and brilliant personal 
 valour ; but a s King he a l ways preferred negot iation and policy. It 
 was a too daring conhdence in lis mastery of these weapoiis~wliich led 
 him to risk hi s famou s visit to Charles the Bold at Peronne (1468),,so 
 vividly painted by ^cott ' in Quentin Durwarcl, who, however, omits to 
 mention the written safe-conduct, which Charles basely violated. At 
 such critical moments Louis's nerve became steadiest and his intellect 
 most acute. The concessions extorted from him at Peronne seemed to 
 undo the work of years ; but when once he was free he found means to 
 remedy all the mischief that had been done. " Never," says his Minister 
 Comines, " was there a man so sagacious in adversity ; when he drew 
 bac kbit wa s to make a longer spring." In another war witK Burgundy, 
 Ed^rd fv. of England landed with a large army (1475). To warlike 
 nobles it seemed very base that Louis bought oft" the invaders instead 
 of rushing upon another Crecy or Agincourt ; but he thoroughly despised , 
 such criticism. He had an army, and a good one ; but if a round sum 
 of money would eff'ect his purpose more cheaply, surely, and speedily, j 
 why should he expose his subjects to the horrors and losses of war ? I 
 Two years later Charles fell at Nancy fighting against the Swiss, who 
 were in' the pay of Louis. It was the deathblow of Feudalism. Louis 
 proiiiptly seized the duchy of Burgundy and some other territories "of 
 thg^eceased Duke. Altogether, during his reign, he brought eleven 
 provinces under the direct government of the Crown — Brittany being 
 th e oniygr eat fief which at his death remained independent. He had 
 thus assured the unity of France and her preponderance in Europe. 
 
 "Hardly less important services to his country were his establishment 
 of order and good administration, his financial and judicial reforms, his 
 encouragement of industry and commerce: " Hg 'gfiectectT^ays Lavallee, 
 " atfempred, or projected all the innovations of modern France." Diplo- 
 macy, the modern makeshift for the international office of the mediajval 
 Papacy, dates from him. Historians have dwelt on his cruelty, perfidy, 
 and superstition. Turbulent nobles like St. Pol and Armagnac were 
 brought to the block ; treacherous Mihislers like Cardiiial la Balue were 
 kept for"'years in iron cages ; vulgar criminals swung from gibbets on 
 every high road. But this severity towards ruffians of high and low 
 degree, who had preyed on the country for the best part of the century, 
 wrought peace and prosperity for the law-abiding and industrious. In 
 the decay of Feudal manners and Catholic discipline the sentiment of 
 honour had almost vanished from i^ublic life. But, judged relatively to 
 his times, Louis is not to be branded as perfidious. He did not scruple 
 to break treaties contrary to the interests of his country, wiiich had 
 been extorted from him by force ; but he was more straiglitfoi'ward tlian 
 his principal contemporaries. Twice when he could have got rid of
 
 554 LOUIS XI. : L'HOPITAL : BARNEVELDT [Modern 
 
 Charles the Bold by acts of treachery, which in those days no one would 
 have blamed, he chose the honourable course. To reproach a man of 
 the 15th century with superstition, because he thought there might be 
 some efficacy in images and relics, is an abuse of language. If he clung 
 to life it was because he felt that so much of his projected work remained 
 unfinished. He met death with remarkable fortitude, his thoughts and 
 eflforts being to the last moment occupied with the affairs not of his soul 
 but of his country. His Minister and intimate friend, Comines, hap left 
 a faithful and judicious account of his life. Two great poets have dealt 
 unfairly with him : Scott could not forgive the foe of Feudalism ; Hugo 
 was blinded by democratic prejudices. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Comines : Memoires. Scott : Qioentin Durwokti- Victor Hugo : Notre 
 ' DaiM dZ fans. «^*- - ■ _ 
 
 L'HOPITAL {Michel de), b. 1504, d. 1573. 
 
 Born of a middle-class family, l'Hopital rose to the dignity of 
 Chancellor of France under Francis ii. (1560). He was one of the 
 earliest and most eminent of the " Politiques " — Catholics who during 
 the religious wars treated the interests of the Church as subordinate to 
 those of their country. They resisted the Spanish influence, and strove 
 for toleration, national unity, and a strong government. Numerically 
 weak at first, and detested by the fanatics, they gradually rallied to their 
 party all that was good and sensible in France, and their policy at length 
 triumphed with the conversion of Henry iv. and the publication of the 
 Edict of Nantes. L'Hopital died a few months after the Bartholomew 
 Massacre, which seemed to be a deathblow to his hopes. He was a man 
 of lofty character and unshaken firmness — a thoroughly great citizen. 
 Though for political reasons he remained a Catholic, he was Protestant 
 or sceptical at heart. Comte has therefore placed him in the week of 
 Protestant statesmen. [R S. B.] 
 
 Villeniain : Vie de I'Hdpital, in his Etudes d'Histoire Moderne. Martin : 
 Uistoire de France, vol. ix. p. 43. 
 
 f BARNEVELDT {John van Olden- Bar neveldt), b. 1547, d. 1619. 
 
 I If William the Silent laid the foundation of Dutch independence, the 
 ' glory of completing it belongs mainly to Barxkveldt, Advocate-General 
 and Grand Pensionary, or salaried chief magistrate, of Holland. In the 
 early part of the Avar he did his duty bravely as a soldier. His political 
 and diplomatic talents were of the highest order, and for thirty-four years 
 from the murder of William (1584-1618) his influence with the States- 
 General made him virtually ruler of the L^nited Provinces. He per- 
 suaded them to appoTriT'TIie second' son'of the Liberator, INIaurice of 
 Nassau, then a youth of 17, Stadtholder, a step which was justified by 
 the great military capacity which the latter soon displayed. Barneveldt 
 negotiated the twelve years' truce with Spain, which virtually terminated 
 the War of Independence (1609). To Maurice, as a successful general
 
 Statesmanship] BARNEVELDT 555 
 
 who was aiming at sovereignty, this peace was distasteful. Barneveldt 
 was a republican ; and he also sided with the Arminians, the party of 
 
 vinists, and eventually procured that his virtuous and patriotic opponent j 
 should be condemned and beheaded, at the age of 77, 6n the ridiculous I 
 charge of favouring Spain and troubling the Church of God. i 
 
 [E. S. B.] ' 
 
 Motley : History of the United N'etherlands, completed by liis Life and 
 '^^'^^^j^oTin ofBafrieveldl. 
 
 GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS, b. 1594, d. 1632. 
 
 / 
 
 The decisive struggle between Catholic and Protestant in Germany, 
 which had been postponed by the murder of Henry iv. (1610), broke out 
 at last in 1618 as the " Thirty Years' War." After twelve years of 
 fighting, the Catholic reaction was triumphant, and the Emperor Ferdi- 
 nand II. seemed to be more master of Germany than even Charles v. had 
 been after Miihlberg. Sweden had hitherto played no great part in 
 Europe, but the successful wars of Gustavus against Russia, Poland, and 
 Denmark had drawn attention to iiis remarkable military genius. Not 
 without a thirst for glory, and tasting the joy of battle like an ancient 
 Viking, the Swedish monarch was yet more moved by a noble indigna- 
 tion at the horrible treatment of his German co-religionists by the army 
 of brigands under the command of the famous Wallenste in. Encouraged 
 by Richelieu, who promised him a subsidy, the^^^TXISSjof the North " 
 landed in Pomerania with 15,000 men in the summer of 1630. The 
 Pr^tSstaht princes of North Germany were so cowed that he had to coerce 
 theiSrinto co-operating with him, and it was not till the next year that 
 he was'able seriously to attack Ferdinand, who, yielding to the jealousy 
 of the Catholic princes, had imprtVdently dismissed Wallenstein. In 
 September 1631 the great victory of Leipsic (or Breitenfeld) over the 
 renowned Tilly made the Swedish hero hiasler "of North Germany. 
 Pressing on^Towards the Rhine, he beat Tilly again at Wurzlaurg, and the 
 Spanish veterans at Opj)enheim. Gustavus had abandoned the old 
 Spanish methods of war, hitherto supposed to be perfection. There was 
 no going into winter quarters ; defensive armour was discarded ; cavalry 
 were taught to charge home in masses, infantry to change formation 
 with rapidity. Oflicers from all countries crowded to the Swedish camp 
 as to a new school of arms. In April 1632 Gustavus invaded Bavaria, 
 and at the passage of the Lech Tilly was defeated again and slain. 
 Ferdinand, now trembling for Vienna, recalled Wallenstein, and the 
 plundering ruffians from all quarters soon rallied to his standard. The 
 war-tide rolled north again, and on November 16 was fought the memor- i 
 able battle of Liitzen. Wallenstein there suffered his first defeat ; but j 
 Gustavus, charging as was his wont at the head of his Swedes, was ^\ 
 killed. 
 
 The Thirty Years' War was not yet half over (see Oxenstikrn), but
 
 r 
 
 Vim^j/^ GUSTAVtrS ADOLPHUS : DE WiTT [Modern 
 
 that fourteen months from Leipsic to Liitzen was the turning-point. 
 Ausfrian sovereignty over Germany never again had a chaiicc ofrealTsa- 
 tion. The great deliverer was mourned not only in Saxon and Pomer- 
 anian homes, from which he had chased the robbers, ravi.shers, and cut- 
 tKroats of orthodoxy, Jmt far away over the sea, where Puritan squires 
 arid yeomen, chafing under the yoke of Laud and Strafford, had eagerly 
 1 1 walched his victories. " Well," said Mr. Greatheart, " let them that are 
 j I most afraid keep close to me." The story of Gustavus was surely present 
 to Bunyan's mind when he drew the figiu-e of his champion, so cheery, 
 helpful, and tender, who " loved one greatly that he found to be a man 
 of his hands," but devoted his prowess to the protection of the weak and 
 the punishment of the cruel. Gustavus will always remain the typical 
 hero. In the knight-errant we alinost'forget the clear-headed statesman. 
 Of grand presence, towering stature, and mighty right arm, few horses 
 could carry his weight. On his dead body were counted nine open 
 wounds and thirteen old scars'! ' [E. S. B.] 
 
 Chapman, Stevens : Histories of Gustavus Adolphus. Schiller : Thirty 
 Years' War. 
 
 I DE WITT {John de Witt), b. 1632, d. 1672. 
 
 The constitution of the Seven United Provinces was republican, but 
 not democratic ; the States-General consisting of deputies from the seven 
 provincial assemblies, which again were composed of deputies from the 
 oligarchical municipalities of the towns. These city oligarchies had an 
 honourable record. Their fathers and grandfathers had been the back- 
 bone of the struggle against Spain, and they themselves had the virtues, 
 if also some of the faults, of oligarchy. They were patriotic, cultivated, 
 I enlightened, and in matters of religion tolerant. With them is associ- 
 j ated all that makes the peculiar glory of the Dutch republic in its best 
 j days. They had reverenced and loyally supported William the Silent ; 
 but they were deeply jealous of his able and ambitious descendants, who 
 as Stadtholders wielded a quasi-regal and virtually hereditary power. 
 Barneyeldt had headed this party earlier in the century. John de ^Vitt 
 was its leader a generation later. The lower orders, ignorant, largely 
 leavened by immigrants, and swayed by the most bigoted and intolerant 
 Calvinistic preachers, supported the House of Orange. In 1650 William 
 II., grandson of William the Silent, and Stadtholder of Holland, died, 
 I and during the minority of his posthumous son, afterwards William iii. 
 I of England, the Stadtholderate was at first left in abeyance and then 
 I abolished. De Witt, as Grand Pensionary, administered the government 
 with prudence, courage, and patriotism. He wisely desired alliance with 
 France ; but in the higher interest of the Balance of Power he formed, 
 along with England and Sweden the Triple Alliance, which imposed upon 
 Loiiis XIV. the momentary check of the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle (1068). 
 Louis could not forgive this. Moreover, he hated Holland as the asylum 
 of free thought. In 1672, liaving bought Charles ii. of England, he poured 
 his armies into the Low C'ountries. The Orangeists seized the oppor- 
 tunity of demanding that tlie young William should be made Stadtholder,
 
 Statesmanship] DE WITT : EUYTER : WILLIAM IIL 557 
 
 and John de Witt and his noble brother Cornelius, falsely accused of 
 betraying their country to France, were torn to pieces by the mob. 
 William did not directly instigate this execrable act ; but he connived 
 at it and rewarded the perpetrators (see William iiLT^cftris xiv.). 
 
 ■ [E. S. B.] 
 
 Pontalis : John de Witt ; translated by Stephenson. 
 
 EUYTER {Michael Adrianszoon De Buyter), b. 1607, d. 1676. 
 
 As long as the peace and freedom of Europe have no better guarantee 
 than the rude and empirical one of the Balance of Power, it is important 
 that the strength of one or more of the great States should be maritime 
 rather than military. England has often abused her maritime strength ; 
 but without it what would have become of the Balance of Power in 1588, 
 1690, and 1805 ? Ruyter was the most famous of the great seamen who 
 enabled the United Provinces, notwithstanding their insignificant terri- 
 tory, to render a similar service to Europe in the 17th century. His 
 father, Adrian Michielszoon, a Flushing workman, had carried oft" his wife 
 on horseback. This procured her the nickname of "de ruyter," or "the 
 rider," which stuck to her son. Beginning life as a common sailor, he 
 was made Admiral-in-Chief almost against his will ; forj_thoiigh__ the 
 br avest o f the brave, he hated fighting, and was happiest as captain of a 
 merchant ship. In 1667, England having forced an unjust war on the 
 Dutch, he sailed up the Thames, burned Chatham dockyard, and blockaded 
 London for several weeks. He bore a glorious part in the heroic defence 
 of his country against the combined French and English attack in 1672. 
 Obnoxious to the Orangeists as a friend of the illustrious brothers De 
 Witt, he was sent to the Mediterranean, where he was killed in a battle 
 with the French in 1676. He was a man of grand and simple character. 
 
 [E. S. B.] 
 
 De Liefde : Great Dutch Admirals. 
 
 WILLIAM III. ( William of Nassau, Prince of Orange), 
 b. 1650, d. 1702. 
 
 The one object steadily pursued by William throughout his life 
 was to reduce the immense military prepondei-ance of France and to 
 humble the overbearing ambition of Louis xiv., by which the indepen- 
 dence of the other Western States was endangered. When the French 
 army poured into the United Provinces in 1672, he was made Stadt- 
 holder at the age of 21 (see De Witt). His stern resolution and heroic 
 courage nerved his countrymen to the most desperate resistance. The 
 dykes were opened, as in the time of his great-grandfather, William 
 the Silent, and the coimtry was laid under water. Pi-eparations were 
 even made for emigration en ^j^a.ssc to the Dutch colonies in the Eastern 
 Archipelago. At length Spain and Germany came to the rescue, and 
 by the Peace of Nimeguen (1678) the Dutch emerged from tlie struggle 
 with safety and honour. 
 
 h
 
 558 WILLIAM III. : WILLIAM THE SILENT [Modern 
 
 In 1688 the anti-Protestant policy of James ii. of England produced 
 a momentary coalition between the Whig nobles and the Anglican clergy ; 
 and William, who had married James's daughter, landed in England, by 
 invitation, with a small army, and was placed on his father-in-law's 
 throne. He valued this elevation chiefly as enabling him to enlist 
 England in the alliance which he had been laboriously building up 
 against France. In nine years of war Louis lost no battle of importance ; 
 but the tide was evidently turning, and by the Peace of Eyswick (1697) 
 he gave up all the conquests he had made since the Peace of Nimeguen 
 and recognised AVilliam as King of England. Three years later (1700), 
 when the intrigues of Louis had obtained the crown of Spain for liis 
 grandson, the Balance of Power was again in danger. " II nhj a plus 
 de Fyrenees," said Louis ; and William began skilfully and patiently to 
 re-knit the threads of the Grand Alliance. Death, at the untimely age 
 of 51, overtook him just as the War of the Spanish Succession was 
 about to open ; but his great design was carried out by the military 
 genius of Marlborough, and the Balance of Power was secured by the 
 Treaty of Utrecht (1713). 
 
 Perhaps no statesman of modern times has placed himself so 
 completely at the Occidental point of view as AVilliam. Though he 
 loved the practice of the military art for its own sake, and is said to 
 have been never thoroughly cheerful and happy except on the battle-field, 
 he cannot b5"Charged with having engaged in any war for personal or 
 even purely national objects. His military talents were considerable ; 
 and if the BojTie was the only pitched battle he ever won, he never 
 suffered any crushing defeat, even from such famous captains as Turenne, 
 Conde, and Luxemburg. Though of puny frame and all through his 
 life an invalid, he spent whole days on horseback, and delighted to lead 
 his soldiers where the fire was hottest. Indifference to danger of every 
 kind was indeed one of his chief characteristics. Cold and ungracious 
 in his demeanour, he obtained the love of few but the res^^ect of all. 
 Like his great ancestOT,"he set his face against religious persecution, and 
 he may be considered as the chamj)ion of Toleration no less than of the 
 Balance of Power. '"' [E. S. B.] 
 
 Macaulav : History of Encjland from the Accession of James II. Traill: 
 
 "" "William the Third. 
 
 WILLIAM THE SILENT {William of Nassau, Prince of Orange), 
 b. 1533, d. 1584. 
 
 Of the vast empire ruled by Philip ii. of Spain the Low Countries 
 were the richest and most thickly peopled portion. Protestantism early 
 found converts there, especially in the northern provinces. To stamp 
 out heresy there and everywhere was the grand aim of the arch- 
 reactionist — dearer to him even than the extinction of political freedom. 
 The forty-two years of his reign were devoted to this accursed design. 
 Three great historical figures stood in his path, and saved the West from 
 so great a calamity — Henry iv. of France, Elizabetli of England, and 
 William of Orange.
 
 Statesmanship] WILLIAM THE SILENT 559 
 
 The Emperor Charles v., an excellent judge of men, placed William 
 in command of armies, and made him his trusted counsellor, before he 
 was 21. He was a man of profound discernment, penetrating the 
 designs of others as if by magic, singularly calm and cool in thought 
 as well as in action, and of a courage and patience that no trials could 
 shake, no dangers appal. When Philip and Henry ii. of France had 
 made a secret compact, at Cateau Cambresis, for the extirpation of 
 heresy (1559), the latter mentioned it casually to William, whom he 
 supposed to be in Philip's confidence. William listened in silence 
 without betraying any surprise, and thus acquired his surname of 
 " the Silent " ; though, so far from being a taciturn man, he was an 
 eloquent orator and a most agreeable talker. Though a Catholic, he 
 from the first, as a member of the Council, opposed the persecuting 
 policy of Philip. He was willing that noisy, aggressive Protestants 
 should be punished, but he objected to the Inquisition which pryed into 
 quietly held beliefs. 
 
 When Philip sent the monster Alva to crush the liberties of the 
 Netherlands and extirpate heresy (1567), William retired to his German 
 county of Nassau-Dillenburg, professed himself a Lutheran, and raised a 
 German army against Alva. His first campaigns were unsuccessful, and 
 a plan of operations concerted with Coligny and the French Huguenots 
 was frustrated by the Massacre of St. Bartholomew (1572). But just 
 when these large schemes came to an end the seafaring people of Holland 
 and Zealand began the insurrection which was destined to have such 
 immortal results. William put himself at the head of it. The dykes 
 were cut and the country flooded. Europe looked on with amazement 
 year after year at the stubborn resistance of that little half-drowned 
 tract of country, not bigger than Yorkshire, where Utrecht and Leiden 
 and Haarlem, names sacred for ever in the annals of patriotic endurance, 
 were standing at bay against the unrivalled soldiers of Spain commanded 
 by the greatest generals of the century. Gradually the insurrection 
 spread to other provinces. But the great difficulty was to get Catholics 
 and Protestants to pull together. In Holland bigoted Calvinism was 
 in the ascendant ; and William found it advisable to quit the Lutheran 
 communion and publicly join the Calvinist Church. His strong intellect 
 was occupied with human interests ; and, though a believer in divine 
 providence, he doubtless held the distinctive dogmas of Catholic, 
 Lutheran, and Calvinist equally cheap. Even in Holland he insisted 
 on toleration for the Catholics, though not for their public worship. The 
 war had lasted sixteen years, and was still at its height when the career 
 of William was cut short by the bullet of Balthazar Gerard, an assassin 
 despatched by Philip. Twenty-five years longer had the struggle to 
 continue before Dutch independence was secured (see Bakjseveldt). 
 
 Comte awards to William the praise of having "admirably conducted 
 the most honouraljle and least stormy of the modern conflicts between 
 the revolutionary spirit and the policy of repression." His name is for 
 ever associated with the assertion of National Independence and Freedom 
 of Conscience, principles which, though purely negative, and tliercfore 
 incapable of aftbrding any foundation for the reorganisation of society, 
 were yet indispensable as clearing the way for it and sheltering the
 
 560 WILLIAM THE SILENT : XIMENES [Modern 
 
 growth of constructive speculation. Accordingly the Dutch Eepublic 
 has the glorious distinction of having been, during its first century, the 
 chosen asylum of exiled patriots and advanced thinkers. 
 
 Yet though it was the destiny of William of Orange to preside over 
 the first of the long series of revolutionary uprisings which have agitated 
 the West in modern times, he was not by nature a revolutionist, and 
 his policy was always as conservative as circumstances permitted. 
 With the wise relativity which marks the true statesman, even in 
 revolutionary tempests, he contented himself with providing for each 
 need as it arose. Avoiding any appeal to metaphysical dogmas, he took 
 his stand on law, precedent, and custom, skilfully availing himself of all 
 existing institutions that could be adapted to new purposes, instead of 
 sweeping them away in the name of a vain symmetry. At the same 
 time he was no slave to legality, but knew how to create precedents 
 when the time needed innovation. 
 
 Few personages who have played a great part in politics have left 
 so pure and unstained a record. His fearlessness, his constancy, his 
 unselfish devotion, his gentleness and forbearance will remain a model 
 for all time to those who are called to the arduous task of directing a 
 revolution. His only fault, if it is to be called a fault, was his deficiency 
 in personal ambition and self-assertion. And even this, while dis- 
 advantageous to his country, adds to the beauty of his private character. 
 By his premature and ever to be lamented death the possibility of 
 thoroughly completing the great task he had undertaken was destroyed. 
 What misfortunes to his countrymen and to Europe would have been 
 averted had a longer life been granted to the one man who was capable 
 of creating a United Netherlands of seventeen provinces instead of seven I 
 History affords no more striking illustration of the important part played 
 by great men in determining the extent and completeness of political 
 movements. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Motley : Fuse of the Dutch Republic. ^ fj ^ ,^^ vr<//v^ (r'/\ 
 
 XIMENES (Francisco Ximenez de Cisneros), b. 1436, d. 1517. 
 
 At the age of 56, Ximenes, then a Franciscan friar, was called by 
 Isabella of Castile to be her confessor (1492), and soon became her most 
 trusted counsellor and Archbishop of Toledo. After the deaths of 
 Isabella (1504) and her son-in-law Philip (1506), he prevailed on the 
 Castilians to readmit Ferdinand of Aragon as Eegent. Ferdinand pro- 
 cured for him the dignity of Cardinal, and when dying (1516) nomi- 
 nated him Regent of Spain, the heir to the throne, Charles (afterwards 
 Emperor), being in the Netherlands. Ximenes was now 80 years old, 
 but he governed S]iain for nineteen months M-ith astonishing energy, 
 systematically extending the royal authority and repressing the powerful 
 nol)ility. Grants from the Crown domain were resumed, pensions can- 
 celled, and a burgess liiilitia organised to supersede the feudal levies. 
 Great nobles who resisted were vigorously ])ut down. At the same 
 time the finances were reformed and educational institutions created on
 
 Statesmanship] XIMENES : SULLY : OXENSTIERN 561 
 
 a grand scale. Charles on his arrival (1517) showed no gratitude for 
 these splendid services, but dismissed Ximenes to his diocese, where in 
 a few weeks he died. " His character," says Prescott, " was of the stern 
 and lofty cast which seems to rise above the ordinary wants and weak- 
 nesses of humanity. His genius — of the severe order, like Dante's or 
 Michael Angelo's in the regions of fancy — impresses us with ideas of 
 power that excite admiration akin to terror." Cardinal and Primate 
 of Spain, he never ceased to practise all the austerities of the cloister, 
 sleeping on the ground and always wearing under his robes the coarse 
 Franciscan frock, which he mended with his own hands. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Prescott : History of Reign of Fcrdimmd and Isabella. 
 
 SULLY {Maximilicn de Bcthune, Baron dc Eosny and D\ic de Sully), 
 b. 1560, d. 1641. 
 
 Maxirailien de Bethune, Baron de Rosny, lietter known by his later 
 title of Sully, while yet a lad entered the service of Henry of Navarre, 
 and fought valorously in all the actions of the civil war, getting himself 
 covered with wounds. He advised Henry to become a Catholic, but 
 would not take the same stej) himself, even to become Constal)le of 
 France. With dog-like fidelity to his master, he was haughty, rough, 
 and self-confident in his dealings Avith every one else, and rather valued 
 himself on being generally disliked. Henry set him over the finances. 
 An indefatigable worker and born organiser, he was the very man to 
 cleanse that Augean stable. Peculators high and low were forced to dis- 
 gorge, vested interests were traujpled on, and rigorous audits established. 
 "There was something about him of the great revolutionists," says 
 Michelet. But Sully was more than a great Finance Minister. He 
 laboured to develop tillage and pasturage, — "the two breasts," he said, 
 "that nourish France,'"^aind' he was sufficiently enlightened to legalise 
 the "deportation of corn. Against manufacture and trade he had the 
 prejudices of a noble and a soldier. But here he was overruled by the 
 larger views of his master, who established or promoted many industries, 
 especially the production and manufacture of silk. " French industry," 
 says Michelet, " dates from this reign." On the death of Henry, Sully 
 was driven from the Ministry of Finance. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Sully: CEconomies Roijales; Petitot, 2n(l series, i.-viii. Memoires (a 
 modernised and much altered version of the (A'conomies Royales, written 
 Ijy the Ahhe de I'Ecluse in 1745). f 
 
 OXENSTIERN {Axel, Count Oxcnstierna), b. 1583, d. 1654. 
 
 was employed in '• 
 by his 
 in the 
 
 closest friendsliip and confidence. After the death of (iustavus (1632) 
 Oxenstiern governed Sweden during the minority of his daughter Chris- 
 tina, and took his place as head of the Protestant Leauge. The Emperor ^ 
 
 2 N
 
 562 OXENSTIERN : MAZARIN [Modern 
 
 seemed to be again getting the upper hand in "the long struggle of the 
 Thirty Years' War until Richelieu intervened more directly (1635). 
 The two great Ministers oi J^'rance and Sweden, equally matched as 
 negotiators, combined their policies. The Swedes, led by Bernard of 
 Weimar, Baner, and Torstenson, and the French imder Conde and 
 Turenne, in many hard-fought campaigns, at length broke the Austrian 
 power; and the Treaty of Westphalia (1648) brought the religious wars 
 to a close. Oxenstiern had taten great pains with the political educa- 
 tton of Christina ; but that clever and eccentric Queen, on assuming the 
 management of affairs, did not always follow his advice, especially in her 
 refusal to marry, her abdication, and her nomination of Charles x. as her 
 successor, under whom, however, Oxenstiern continued to be Minister 
 till his death. In civil government Oxenstiern was a laborious admini- 
 strator, enlightened in his economic views, and of irreproachable integrity. 
 He Avas a zealous promoter of education. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Sc hiller : Thirt2i Years' jr«r. Arckenholtz : Memoires pour servir d I'his- 
 toire ^e Cliri'stine, ReTue de Suide. 
 
 MAZARIN {Giulio Mazarini), b. 1602, d. 1661. 
 
 Mazarin was of Sicilian parentage, and till his 37th year was in 
 the diplomatic service of the Pope. His great ability and the supple- 
 ness of his character recommended him to Richelieu, who invited him 
 to France, got him made a Cardinal (1640), enipTo'yed him in the highest 
 affairs, and on his death-bed advised Louis xiii. to make him Minister. 
 Five months later the King died (1643). His widow, Anne of Austria, 
 as Regent for her son, Louis xiv., tlien only five j^ears old, reposed un- 
 bounded confidence in Mazarin, and he was the real ruler of France till 
 his death, eighteen years later. He was a very handsome man ; and his 
 relations with Anne were so intimate, that some have supposed that 
 they were secretly married. Whether he was ever ordained a priest is 
 doubtful. 
 
 Mazarin continued the foreign policy of Richelieu. During the last 
 five years of the Thirty Years' War the Congi-ess of Westphalia was 
 sitting. The representatives of Christendom met in deliberation for 
 the first time since the great ecclesiastical councils of the 15th century. 
 Diplomacy was henceforth to exercise, as best it might, the function of 
 international arbitration that liad once belonged to the Church. Mazarin's 
 consummate diplomatic skill was seconded by the victories of Conde and 
 Turenne. The treaties finally agreed upon were hTs work. They ratified 
 the profound changes produced by the religious wars of a hundred 
 years, and were nothing less than a sort of new constitution for Europe. 
 The Austrian and Spanisli Hapsburgs, the champions of intolerance, 
 were humbled, the conversion of the titular Empire into a real world- 
 sovereignty aimed at by so many Emperors was abandoned, the indejien- 
 dence of the Protestant States of the North was assured, the principle of 
 a Balance of Power was recognised, and France acquired the territorial 
 com])actness and possibility of internal consolidation which a himdred 
 and fifty years later enabled her to make her great Revolution in spite
 
 Statesmanship] MAZARIN : WALPOLE 563 
 
 of the banded despots of Europe. Such were the net results of this 
 famous Congress, and, if broadly considered, they must be pronounced 
 not more desirable for France than for Europe as a whole (Peace of 
 Westphalia, 1648). 
 
 Spain alone remained in arms against France. To this partial pro- 
 longatioiT of the struggle she had bieen encouraged by the contemptible 
 rebellion in France called the Fronde (1648-1652). The Parliament of 
 Paris, not a legislative assembly but a corporation of middle-class magi- 
 strates, imitating the example lately set by the English Long Parliament, 
 aspired to control the crown, and was supported by the populace of 
 Paris. Many of the great nobles, with far different aims, joined in the 
 rebellion. Mazarin, odious both as a monarchist and as a foreigner, was 
 twice obliged to go into exile for short intervals. But the middle-class 
 leaders, finding that rebelUon tended as usual not to constitutional 
 government but to aristocratic anarchy, Spanish interference, and national 
 disintegration, at length made their peace with the Regent ; and Mazarin 
 formally resumed the power which he had never ceased to wield even 
 in his absence. The Spanish armies were expelled, a close alliance was 
 formed with Cromwell, who sent 6000 of his Ironsides to serve under 
 TurSnrie, and Spain was at last compelled to sign the Treaty of the 
 Pyrenees (1659)— the crowning diplomatic triumph of Mazarin, who 
 did Trot long survive it. His internal administration had been wasteful 
 and corrupt, and he had accumulated a private fortune of five millions 
 sterling. But he left Europe at peace and France strong ; though not 
 with a strength dangerous to the liberties of her neighbours. The aims 
 of Richelieu and Mazarin were strictly bounded and attainable, and had 
 nothing in common with the arrogant pretensions of Louis xiv. or the 
 wild~ambition of Bonaparte. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Bridges : France tender Richelieu and Colbert. 
 
 WALPOLE {Sir Robert Wcdpole, aftenvards Earl of Orford), 
 b. 1676, d. 1746. 
 
 Walpole is the chief representative of the Whig party, which placed 
 and kept the Hanoverian family on the English throne — in other words, 
 of the aristocratic dictature. Except for an interval of about three years 
 (1717-1720), he was in office from the accession of George i. till the 
 fifteenth year of George ii. (1714-1742), and during the last twenty years 
 of that period was really the sole ruler of the country. An able and 
 enlightened Minister for finance and commerce, he was bent on avoiding 
 war. Therein is his merit. He freely bribed members of Parliament, 
 but not more than other Ministers before and after him. He also reduced 
 to a system the practice of using all patronage, great and small, for party 
 purposes. It must be remembered in his excuse, that government by 
 Parliament was still a crude experiment. The great need and the great 
 difficulty was to secure some stability. Bribery was then, as party spirit 
 is still, an indispensable condition of the Parliamentary regime. Walpole 
 could only work with tlie means at his disposal. The cynical maxim,
 
 564 WALPOLE ; COLBERT : LOUIS XIV. [Modern 
 
 that " every man has his price," has been generally, but wrongly, attri- 
 buted to him. His own hands were fairly clean. He was at last driven 
 from office by a factious coalition of ambitious rivals and a popular 
 outcry for an unwise war. [E. S. B.] 
 
 John Morley : Walpole. 
 
 COLBERT {Jean Baptiste Colbert), b. 1619, d. 1683. 
 
 It is worthy of remark that the able government of France during 
 the first twenty-nine years of the reign of Louis xiv. (1643-1672), was 
 really due to the principle of adoption, Mazarin having on his death-bed 
 recommended Colbert to his master, just as Kichelieu had recommended 
 Mazarin. " Reform of judicial abuses, codification of the law, estab- 
 lishment of an efficient police, a just system of taxation, freedom to in- 
 ternal commerce, encouragement to manufacturers and to agriculture, 
 development of the canal system, formation of new colonies, creation of 
 the French navy — such was the programme of the last statesman worthy 
 of the name, if we except the two short years of Turgot, who was to 
 administer the government of France till the Revolution." Colbert has 
 been blamed by economists for his artificial creation and minute regulation 
 of manufactures, to which he is accused of sacrificing agriculture by pro- 
 hibiting the exportation of corn. But the fact remains that he found 
 his country almost destitute of manufactures, and left her possessed of 
 many which have enormously added to her resources and wellbeing. 
 Looking at his measures as a whole, and relatively to the then situation 
 of France, they will be found to be enlightened and liberal. In the 
 finances the work of Sully had to be done over again. The root-evil of 
 French taxation was the exemption of the clergy and nobility from the 
 faille or property tax. This privilege Colbert, like Sully and Richelieu, 
 longed, but had not the power, to abolish. But he largely diminished 
 the taille, and filled up the deficiency by indirect taxes which all classes 
 paid. Under his wise government France made extraordinary progress, 
 until Louis xiv. began to subordinate all the interests of the State to 
 projects of war and conquest. Colbert's remonstrances were roughly 
 silenced. He was told to find the money wanted, or to make room for 
 some one who would. L'nwilling to desert the service of his country, 
 but with despair in his heart, he spent the last years of his life in invent- 
 ing new taxes, while the prosperity he had created was perishing 
 before his eyes ; and he went down to his grave amid the curses of the 
 sufifering population of whose impoverishment he seemed to be the author. 
 
 [E. S. B.] 
 
 \\ Voltaire : Siecle Lmcis de XI V. Pierre Clement : Histoire de Colbert. Bridges; 
 * France under Richelieu and Colbert. 
 
 LOUIS XIV., b. 1638, d. 1715. 
 
 Comte has placed Louis xiv. in the Calendar solely for the first 
 period of his reign, when he industriously co-operated with Colbert
 
 Statesmanship] LOUIS XIV. : D'ARANDA 565 
 
 {Pos. Pol. iii. 488, 493). The close of that period maybe fixed by the 
 invasion of Holland (1672). Thenceforward, giving full vent to his 
 domineering disposition, he threw himself into a more and more retro- 
 grade policy at home and abroad, "and Fecame, what the house of Austria 
 had" been in the days of his fiither and grandfather, the cruel persecutor 
 of Protestantism and the oppressor of neighbouring peoples. To save 
 intellectual freedom and restore the balance of power needed an "Eixro- 
 pean coalition, of which the hero was "William iii. As for the French 
 monarchy, till then on the whole progressive, it had now entered on the 
 downward course which led to the Revolution. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Voltaire : Siicle de Louis XI V. ' '' > 
 
 D'ARANDA {Pedro Pablo Abaraca y Bolea, Conch de Aranda), 
 b. 1718, d. 1799. 
 
 The French Revolution was preceded in almost every country of 
 Europe by attempts on the part of statesmen, who had imbibed the 
 doctrines of the French Encyclopaedists, to carry out sweeping reforms 
 by dictatorial authority — in France, Turgot (1774-6) and others ; in 
 England, Pitt (1784-9) ; in Spain, Charles iii. (1759-88) ; in Portugal, 
 Pombal (1750-77) ; in Austria, Joseph ii. (1780-90) ; in Prussia, Frederick 
 the Great (1740-86) ; in Denmark, Struensee (1770-72) ; in Tuscany, 
 Leopold (1765-90). One may even add Pope Clement xiv. (1769-75), 
 who suppressed the Jesuits. It would undoubtedly have been well if 
 progressive reforms could have been gradually carried out everywhere 
 by the dictatures, so as to forestall democratic revolution. But most of 
 these reformers proceeded in exactly the same absolute and metaphysical 
 spirit as the French Revolutionists, taking little or no account of historical 
 antecedents, circumstances, or prejudices, and believing that new ideas 
 and manners could be created at once by new institutions. Of all these 
 reforming dictators, none was more zealous than Charles iii. of Spain. 
 One of his ablest Ministers was the Count D'Araxda, an intimate friend 
 of Voltaire and D'Alembert. His tenure of office (1765-1773) was 
 marked by an immense number of reforms, financial, judicial, and mili- 
 tary, and measures for promoting industry, commerce, and education. 
 The overweening power of the Church was curtailed. The Jesuits were 
 expelled (1767), and some check was put, for a time, on the searching 
 despotism of the Inquisition. But these reforms, especially the latter, 
 were unpopular. Charles said to Aranda that " the Spaniards were 
 like children, who cry when they are washed." But finding himself 
 unable to maintain his Minister in office, he sent him as ambassador to 
 Paris (1773), where he negotiated the alliance with the revolted colonies 
 of North America, whicli contributed to the successful issue of their 
 rebellion against England (see Franklix). On the death of Charles iii. 
 all his reforms came to nothing. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Coxe, Illstorij of the Jiourbon Kimjs of Spaiji, vol. iv. Lafuente : Hlstoria 
 (Jfneral de K-ipana, vols. x.x. .\.\i.
 
 566 POMBAL : TURGOT [Modern 
 
 FOMBAL (Sebastiao Joze de Carvalho, Marquez de Fombal), 
 b. 1699, d. 1782. 
 
 PoMBAL was Minister of Joseph i. of Portugal during the whole of 
 his reign (1750-1777). He crushed the mutinous nobility with unrelent- 
 ing severity, curtailed the power of the Inquisition, and expelled the 
 Jesuits (1759) — an example followed not long after by all the Catholic 
 countries. The army was reorganised, the treasury filled, the public ser- 
 vice purified, agriculture, commerce, and manufacture fostered, and 
 scientific studies introduced into the University of Coimbra. The death 
 of the King was immediately followed by the fall of Pombal. 
 
 [E. S. B.] 
 
 John Smith : Memoirs of Pombal. 
 
 TURGOT {Anne Robert Jacques Tnrgot), b. 1727, d. 1781. 
 
 Apart from his political greatness, Turgot will always be remem- 
 bered as one of the foremost of the illustrious band of thinkers and 
 writers who are the glory of the 18th century. His knowledge was 
 encyclopasdic, but it was in political and economic science that he most 
 shone. At the age of 23, in a discourse at the Sorbonne (1750), two 
 years after the publication of Montesquieu's Spirit of Laivs, he showed 
 himself already far in advance of that epoch-making book. He even dis- 
 tinctly enunciated the " Law of the Three Stages," rediscovered by Conite 
 seventy-two years later. But he cannot have realised its true importance, 
 for he did not recur to it ; nor indeed without Comte's complementary 
 " Law of the classification of human conceptions " could any use be made 
 of it. About the same time he refused the ecclesiastical career for which 
 he had been destined, and entered the magistrature, because he would 
 not " wear a mask on his face all his life." Sincerity indeed was one of 
 his chief characteristics. His political career began at the age of 34, 
 when he was api)ointed Intendant of the " Generality " of Limoges, one 
 of the poorest and most backward districts of France (1761). There, 
 during thirteen years, he carried out, so far as the wretched government 
 gave him a free hand, the economic and administrative theories which he 
 had before pondered and advocated. It would be impossible here to 
 give any idea of the enlightened energy, the minute diligence, the noble 
 philanthropy whicli he brought to bear on the population committed 
 to him, or of the wonderful results he achieved even under the 
 bestial despotism of Louis xv. Three times he refused promotion to 
 more desirable Generalities, because he preferred to watch over the work 
 he had begun at Limoges. 
 
 The accession of Louis xvi. (1774) seemed at first to offer a fairer 
 prospect for France. Turgot was called to the ^Ministry. Never did a 
 country have such a chance. Never perhaps has a Minister combined in 
 so high a degree theoretic knowledge, practical experience, a splendid 
 intellect, a strong character, a beautiful moral nature, deep devotion to 
 the public good, and, last but not least, prestige. The eyes of all Europe
 
 Statesmanship] TUEGOT : CAMPOMANES : RICHELIEU 567 
 
 were upon him. The King was absolute, and promised him a free hand. 
 Louis XVI. was not vicious, and he wished, in a lazy sort of way, the 
 happiness of his people. That is the best that can be said of him. 
 Turgot's plan of reform had long been ready. It was comprehensive and 
 thorough. It embraced all that was valuable in the measures afterwards 
 carried out by the Constituent Assembly, but with an important difier- 
 ence. Turgot's National Assembly was to be not legislative, but only 
 consultative ; in other words, the government was to remain dictatorial. 
 Turgot again would have avoided the most disastrous error of the Con- 
 stituent Assembly — its attempt to reorganise and control the Church. 
 He desired to disestablish the Church altogether and leave religion free. 
 Although he had fully thought out his vast plan, he did not propose to 
 enact it at one stroke, but to carry it out, like his reforms at Limoges, 
 bit by bit. The most pressing need was to avert bankruptcy by cutting 
 down wasteful expenditure, equalising taxation, and abolishing mis- 
 chievous restrictions on industry. But Louis xvi., whose reforming zeal 
 was'faint and short-lived, yielded to the clamours of the privileged classes, 
 headed by the Queen, and after twenty-one months Turgot was dismissed 
 (1776), and with him vanished the last chance of averting a violent 
 Revolution. He died five years later, at the age of fifty-four. 
 
 [E. S. B.] 
 
 Turgot : Works, with Memoir Ly Dupont de Nemours. Condorcet : Vie de 
 Turgot. John Morley : Critical Miscellanies, vol. ii. 
 
 CAMPOMANES {Pedro Rodriguez., Conde de Cartipomanes), 
 b. 1723, d. 1802. 
 
 CAMPOMANES was a Minister of Charles iii. of Spain and a friend of 
 D'Aranda, whom he succeeded in the functions (though not in the title) 
 of President of the Council of Castile. Robertson says of his works on 
 police, taxation, agriculture, manufactures, and trade : " There are not 
 many authors, even in the nations most eminent for commercial know- 
 ledge, who have carried on their inquiries with a more thorough know- 
 ledge of those various subjects, and a more perfect freedom from vulgar 
 and national prejudices, or who have united more happily the calm re- 
 searches of philosophy with the ardent zeal of a public-spirited citizen " 
 {Hist, of America, bk. viii. n. xxx.). [E. S. B.] 
 
 Lafuente : Historia General de Espana, vols. xx. xxi. Coxe : History of 
 
 the Bourhon Kings of ,Spain, iv. 416. ,■• 
 
 / 
 
 RICHELIEU {Arrnand Jean Du PJessis, Cardinal, Dae de Eiehelim), jf 
 b. 1585, d. 1642. 
 
 The murder of Henry iv. (1010) not only postponed tlie relief of 
 Europe from the preponderance of the House of Austria, l»ut gave the 
 great nol)les of France another opportunity for rebelling against the 
 royal authority during the minority of Louis xiii., and fastening upon 
 their country like so many birds of i)rey. At last the King, Avhen 2^3
 
 568 EICHELIEU [Modern 
 
 years old, took as his Minister the Cardinal de Richelieu, Bishop of 
 LuQon, then in his 38th year (1624), who had already been Secretary of 
 State during the regency of the Queen-mother, but had been involved in 
 the fall of her favourite Concini. Sully, the old servant of Henry iv., 
 exclaimed that "the King had been, as it were, inspired by God in 
 calling the Bishop of Lugon to the Ministry." From that time till his 
 death Richelieu was the real rule r of France. The King was a chronic 
 invalid of humble ability, weak in~cirafacf6r, gloomy and suspicious ; but 
 he was not wasteful, dissolute, or greedy of military glory, and he under- 
 stood clearly enough both the policy incumbent upon a King of France 
 and his own incapacity for carrying it out. Hence, though he always 
 disliked Richelieu, and was more than once on the point of surrendering 
 I him to his enemies, the crisis always ended in his supporting the great 
 I Minister, who had no other aim than to promote the interest of France 
 • and of the King as the representative of France. 
 
 In his eighteen years of power Richelieu co nipleted the destruction 
 of the politi cal power of^the_great nobles. He crushed their plots and 
 punished the^otters without mercy. Every noble governor of a pro- 
 vince found a middle-class " Intendant " placed at his side, who ousted 
 him from all real authority. Feudal castles were demolished ; duels, the 
 last survival of the feudal right of private war, were forbidden ; and the 
 great nobles were astounded when two of their number, who had inso- 
 lently defied the edict by fighting openly in the Place Royale, were tried 
 and beheaded. In this war against privilege Richelieu was in truth a 
 precursor of the Revolution. Everything gained for the crown was 
 really so much gained for the nation ; though the nation did not reap the 
 full benefit while the crown was worn by the retrograde kings Avho suc- 
 ceeded Louis XIII. In pursuing his gi-eat ends, Richelieu could not 
 develop parliamentary institutions or even local self-government. Even 
 in England that system meant aristocratic rule till the present century. 
 In France, as all experience showed, it would have worked for aristocratic 
 anarchy, and would have been fiital even to national unity. There the 
 dictature could only be of the monarchical tj^pe until the time should be 
 ripe for the republic. Richelieu had been a deputy in tlie States-General 
 of 1614. That assembly was not convoked again till "1V89.' Equally 
 unadvisable was it to tolerate any encroachment by the judicial corpora- 
 tion called the Parliament of Paris, for its members too, in their own 
 way, were partisans of jirivilege and enemies of equality. The Revolu- 
 tion, when it came, seemed to its contemporaries to lie a complete undoing 
 of everything that existed. But judicious investigators are now showing 
 how largely its work had been already accomplished by the absolute 
 monarchy. 
 
 The first five years of Richelieu's Ministry were principally occupied 
 
 witli subduing tlie Huguenots, who, not content with the extraordinary 
 
 privileges guaranteed them ])y the Edict of Nantes, aimed at founding a 
 
 separate State in the south, after tlie example of the Dutch. Huguenot 
 
 fanaticism was exploited l)y the great nobles of the party, who invoked 
 
 , the assistance not only of England and the German Protestants, l)ut even 
 
 j of Spain. With the fall of their stronghold, Rochelle, this danger at last 
 
 [ came to an end. Henceforth the Huguenots were not a turbulent faction.
 
 Statesmanship] KICHELIEU : SIDNEY 569 
 
 but simply a nonconformist sect. Their religious liberties were still 
 guaranteed, and Richelieu could boast that no Huguenot's advancement 
 in the public service was ever prejudiced by his creed. 
 
 In the meantime the Thirty Years' War, the last grand strugde be- 
 tween Catholic and ProiEeslant,'was raging in Germaiij^ BuT"religr6us 
 feeling' was now more than ever subordinated to political interests. The 
 Austrian and Spanish Hapsburgs menaced the balance of power no less 
 than religious freedom ; and they found themselves opposed not only by 
 the Protestant States, but by the Cardinal JVIinister of Catholic France, 
 and by Urban viii. himself, who was more of a statesman than a Pope. 
 
 R ichelieu encouraged and subsidised Gustavus Adolphus ; and when 
 the hero had fallen at Lutzen (1632), and the Protestants had been 
 defeated at Nordlingen (1634),"he entered into still closer relations with 
 the Swedish statesman Oxenstiern^anSThTervened actively in the struggle. 
 He'dM~'ndt live to see its conclusion. But that great landmark in 
 Modern History, the Treaty of Westphalia (1648j7wRic;1i~put an end to 
 thg'p-epbnderance of the Hapsburgs, secured the Protestants of North 
 Germany, and established the principle of the Balance of Power in 
 Europe, must be regarded as his achievement. 
 
 Richelieu, like Louis xi., has always had the ill word of aristocrats 
 for beating down privilege and of democrats for establishing the mon- 
 archical dictature. He was not a man to make himself loved. He has 
 been reproached for cruelty. But he might have beheaded many more 
 rebels and traitors without being unjust. What caused the outcry was 
 his praiseworthy habit of picking out the highest-born criminals for 
 punishment. When the jwiest asked him on his deathbed whether he ' 
 forgave his enemies, "I have had none," said he, "but the enemies of 
 the~Slate?'' The comment of Pope Urban viii. on his career marks the 
 ch'asm'^at now separated the theological and the human conceptions of 
 public duty : "If there is a God, he will have to smart for what he has 
 done ; but if there is no God, he was certainly an excellent man." Pope 
 an'd" Cardmal, in fact, were in much the same case. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Bridges : France under Richelieu and Colbert. 
 
 SIDNEY {Algernon), b. 1622, d. 1683. 
 
 Sidney and his elder brother. Viscount Lisle, were zealous adherents 
 of the Parliament during the civil war. They were nominated members 
 of the court for trying the King, but did not sit. Algernon was in favour 
 of deposition. During the Protectorate he remained in retirement, and 
 after the Restoration lived in exile for seventeen years. His father, the 
 Earl of Leicester, obtained his pardon from Charles ii. in 1077. On his 
 return he threw himself with vehemence into the movement headed by 
 the Earl of Shaftesbury and Lord Russell, which seemed likely at one 
 time to bring aljout a renewal of the rebellion. But Cliarles ii. ])layed 
 his difficult g"ime with consummate skill, and got the lietter of the Whigs. 
 Russell and Sidney were tried fen' high treason, and l)eheaded. The 
 evidence was insufficient, and the trials were grossly unfair ; but there 
 is no douljt that tliey had been engaged in a conspiracy for insurrection.
 
 570 SIDNEY : LAMBERT : FRANKLIN [Modern 
 
 j " Sidney," says Bumet, " was a man of most extraordinary courage ; a 
 
 I steady man, even to obstinacy ; sincere, but of a rough and boisterous 
 
 I temper that could not bear contradiction. He was stiff to all republican 
 
 principles. He had studied the history of government in all its branches 
 
 beyond any man I ever knew. He met death with an unconcernedness 
 
 that became one who had set up Marcus Brutus for his pattern." It is 
 
 to be regretted that he accepted money from Louis xiv. ; but no one 
 
 pretends that his political action was swayed by it. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Ewald : Life and Times of Sidney. 
 
 / 
 
 LAMBERT {Jolm\ b. abt. 1620, d. 1692. 
 
 Cromwell valued Lambert as an officer, and entrusted him with 
 important duties in most of his campaigns. Lambert was popular with 
 the army, and had the chief hand in making Cromwell Protector. After 
 this he was looked on as the second personage in the State, and as likely 
 to be Cromwell's successor. This expectation led him to thwart the 
 Protector's desire to be made king, and, Cromwell resenting his double- 
 faced behaviour, dismissed him from ail his offices. After Cromwell's 
 death the old discord between the Parliamentary and the military re- 
 publicans broke out afresh. The latter attempted, in a blundering and 
 passionate way, to repeat the policy of Cromwell ; but their incompetence 
 and ambitious rivalries deprived them of the respect even of their own 
 soldiers. Lambert was the most prominent and active of them, and 
 his defeat of the premature royalist rising in Cheshire was the last 
 blow struck for the Commonwealth. At the Restoration, though not 
 a regicide, he was specially excepted from the amnesty, because he was 
 considered an influential and dangerous man. He saved his life by the 
 unworthy apologies he made at his trial, and was banished to Guernsey, 
 where he died thirty years later — a Catholic. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Godwin : History of the Commonwealth. Ludlow : Memoirs. Guizot : 
 History of Richard Cromwell and the BestoTlifWfi.' ' 
 
 FRANKLIN {Benjamin), b. 1706, d. 1790. 
 
 Born at Boston of poor parents, Franklin began life as a working 
 printer. At 23 he set up in business for himself at Philadelphia, and 
 prospered. An entirely self-taught man, he gradually gave himself an 
 excellent and varied education, and in middle life (1752) made his " im- 
 mortal discovery " {Fhil. Pos. ii. G77) of the identity of lightning and 
 electricity. But though he is most famous as a scientist, it is as a 
 patriot and statesman that he figures in the Calendar. " American 
 independence irrevocably initiated the steady movement towards the 
 decomposition of the great States. One might even go further back, to 
 the Dutch revolution, were it not that the political significance of that 
 event is modified by its religious character. But when we see the 
 separation for ever of two populations united by language, Ity faith, and 
 even by a kinship that was still fresh, no one can mistake the real source 
 of the political disruption. Political association, if it is to be free and
 
 Statesmanship] FKANKLIN : HAMPDEN 571 
 
 lasting, must consist of a certaia number of towns, with their respective 
 country districts, voluntarily grouped together around a city which has 
 risen to the rank of a capital. The separation of the North and South 
 American colonies from the mother-countries afforded the earliest verifi- 
 cation of this law. The new nationalities so formed are themselves of 
 excessive size, and must eventually be subdivided ; and all statesmen 
 should even now foresee the spread of the same process to the European 
 States. France, above all, should prepare to accept it with dignity and 
 not vain repining " {Pos. Pol. iv. 403). 
 
 No man did more for the establishment of American independence 
 than Franklin. From 1757 to 1762, and again from 1764 to 1775, he 
 resided in England as agent for the colonies of Pennsylvania, Massa- 
 chusetts, Maryland, and Georgia. His reputation as a man of science 
 was at this time enormous. The learned bodies of this and other countries 
 had heaped distinctions upon him, and he was no less admired for his 
 character than his attainments. But when it fell to him as the official 
 representative of his countrymen to argue and protest against the tyran- 
 nical claim of the mother-country to tax her colonies — a duty which 
 he performed with rare ability and temper — he was assailed by the 
 coercionists with the coarsest abuse as a malefactor to be shunned by 
 all honest men. In March 1775 he left England hastily to avoid arrest, 
 and on landing in America he found the fighting already begun. He at 
 once became a leading member of the insurrectionary government. In 
 1776 he was sent on a mission to France, where he was received with 
 extraordinary enthusiasm both as a savant and as a patriot. His meet- 
 ing with Voltaire at the Academy of Sciences, where the two illustrious 
 old men publicly embraced each other, is really a great historic scene : 
 and every one knows the epigram of Turgot — 
 
 Eripuit ccelo fulmen, sceptrumque tyrannis : 
 
 He wrested from heaven its thunderbolt and from tyrants their sceptre. 
 
 But it was not till 1778 that he induced the French Government to 
 form the alliance with the revolted colonies which eventually compelled 
 England to concede their independence. After his return to America, 
 in 1785, he continued to take an active i)art in public affairs as long as 
 his health permitted. His last public act was to address a memorial to 
 Congress against slavery. On his death his countrymen went into 
 mourning for two montlis, and the French National Assembly for three 
 days. The genius of Franklin was eminently practical. In his scientific 
 researches, as in his political conduct, he was tilways actuated by a desire 
 to promote the wellbeing of his fellow-men. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Franklin : Autobiography. 
 
 HAMPDEN {.Tolin\ b. 1594, d. 1643. J 
 
 Hampden is the most conspicuous figure in the constitutional resist- 
 ance to Charles i. before the civil war. He possessed a large estate, and 
 his family had been esta])lished at Hampden, in Buckinghamshire, since 
 the time of Edward the Confessor. He maintained a l)rotherly intimacy
 
 572 HAMPDEN : WASHINGTON [Modern 
 
 and close political co -operation w i th Sjr John Eli ot, tiU the death of that 
 n oble p atriot in the xower. He was nimself imprisoned in 1626 for 
 rlgfusirig~Tcr tend "money lo the'Klngr' In 1635 he refused to pay the 
 iUegal tax of ship-money, and undertook the expense of fighting that 
 famous case before the twelve judges. It was decided against him in 
 1638, and on the broad ground that the King's right of taxation could 
 not be limited by Parliament. Charles did not intend to convoke Parlia- 
 ment again. No means, therefore, of resistance seemed to remain except 
 insurrection. But with the disappearance of the old feudal nobility the 
 machinery for insurrection was gone ; and the labouring class, already 
 landless, was indifferent, except such as were discontented on religious 
 grounds. Wha t ruined the plan of Charles was the Scotch rebellion 
 (1639). Scotland was~mofe"than a century behind England. Her 
 nO^'es could still furnish the nucleus of an insurrectionary force, and 
 they allied themselves with the religious fanaticism of the lower class. 
 Charles now wanted, not the passive submission of the English aristo- 
 cracy, but its active assistance ; and this he could only hope to get in 
 a Parliamentary way. 
 
 When the Long Parliament met (1640) "the eyes of all men," says 
 Clarendon, "were fixed vipon Hampden as their pairio} pater and the 
 pilot that must steer the vessel through the tempests and rocks which 
 threatened it. A nd I am persuaded hisjgqwer and interest at that time 
 was greater to do good, or hurt, thaii any man's in the kingdom." To 
 hiinbelongs the chief credit for the admirable skill with which the 
 Parliamentary struggle against the King was carried on. His influence 
 was due no less to his high character than to his sagacity ; while his 
 self-command and high-bred courtesy won the respect even of his oppo- 
 nents. When the crisis' came he was of those who appealed to the 
 sword without hesitation, and himself, at the age of 48, became a soldier 
 (1642). In this new career he at once gave proof of remarkable energy 
 and capacity. But before the war had lasted twelve months he received 
 his death-wound at the combat of ChalojOTe. He was the first cousin 
 and (according to Clarendon) the " bosom friend " of Cromwell, who was 
 five years his junior. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Lord Nugent: Memorials of Hainjiden. Macaulay's E.ssay thereon. 
 
 WASHINGTON {George), b. 1732, d. 1799. 
 
 Washingtox was a large landed proprietor in Virginia, where his 
 great-grandfather, an English gentleman of old family, had settled in 
 1657. He had no education beyond the elements of mathematics. He 
 served with distinguished valour as colonel of militia in the war against 
 the French, which began in America in 1754. When the War of Inde- 
 pendence broke out (1775) he was appointed General-in-Chief by the 
 Congress. A lietter chTiice could not have been made. Washington was 
 not a great military genius ; indeed, he was generally Ijeat^ in battle. 
 But he was a good officer, an organiser and discii^linarian by nature, not 
 afraid of responsibility, and of heroic firmness. Seldom has any general
 
 Statesmanship] WASHINGTON 673 
 
 had so difficult a task. His soldiers at first enlisted for a few months, 
 andTnade'no scriiplFof leaving him when their time expired, so that his 
 army consisted of a perpetual succession of raw recruits and sometimes 
 dwindled to almost nothing. He was often without ammunition or 
 supplies of any kind ; for the colonists, who had begun the war princi- 
 pally to escape from taxation and interference with their trade, showed 
 for the most part little disposition to make any sacrifices for the purpose 
 of carrying it on. On the other hand, the British troops were slow in 
 their movements, and were led by very mediocre generals. Washington 
 after a time obtained full powers from Congress, and gradually built up 
 a regular army of soldiers, enlisted for the duration of the war. What 
 decided the war, however, was the co-operation of France, obtained by 
 Franklin in 1778. England, attacked vigorously by France, Spain, and 
 Holland, and menaced by the Armed Neutrality of the northern powers, 
 lost for a time her command of the sea ; and of the 16,000 men who 
 forced Cornwallis to capitulate at Yorktown, 7000 were French, to say 
 nothing of a French fleet which blockaded the river (1781). 
 
 Washington had rendered glorious services to his coimtry. But his 
 world-wide and immortal fame rests, and justly rests, on his conduct after 
 the war was over. The officers, who were discontented with Congress, 
 and"had learned to revere and love their general, proposed to make him 
 king. Monarchy would have been as unsuitable to the United States in 
 1783 as it was desirable for England in 1657 ; and Washington, in whose 
 pure soul lurked no taint of selfish ambition, repellfid^the proposal with 
 unaffected abhorrence, and prevailed on his' veterans to submit quietly 
 to disbandment. This being accomplished, he resigned his comma'nd, for 
 which'he had refused all pay, accepting only his expenses out of pocket, 
 and resumed his life as a country gentleman. In 1787 he was unani- 
 mously elected President of the Convention for drawing up the Con- 
 stitution, and next year, Avith equal unanimity, first President of the 
 United States. As he had formerly created an army, so now he had to 
 create a government." — His calm good sense, his habit of cmnmand, and 
 the pcrfe'cTcOnfidence felt by all in his rectitude of purpose, carried him 
 successfully through this arduous task. Much against his will, he was 
 compelled in 1793 to accept re-election for another term of four years, 
 during which he managed, though with great difficulty, to maintain 
 neutrality in the war raging between France and England. In 1797 his 
 countrymen, with a steadiness most honourable to them, desired to elect 
 him a third time. But he firndy refused, deeming the precedent to be a 
 bad one, and retired into private life. He lived two years longer, sur- 
 rounded by the love and veneration of tlie nation he had made, and 
 to which his memory has been a precious and ennobling inheritance. By 
 his will he directed his slaves to be emancipated after the death of his 
 widow. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Lord ^falion, ami Lecky : Ili.sfnries of Emjlmvh Ludlow : War nf A meriran 
 " Lidejjendencf. -Pwke: ('rifical Period in Amcrivnn lllMcry. Tlicre 
 are many Lives of~Washiiic,'tOTi. That of TTVTiii; is pcrluijis tliu best 
 known. Gnizot's Introduction to the T;ife by Sjjavks lias been pulilisheil 
 separately in New York, with the title "Character and Inllucnce ol' 
 Washington in the Revolution."
 
 574 KOSCIUSKO : JEFFERSON [Modern 
 
 KOSCIUSKO {Thaddeus\ b. 1746, d. 1817. 
 
 Poland lost nearly a third of her territory by the First Partition 
 (1772). Nineteen years later a patriotic Diet carried reforms which 
 would have removed the worst evils of her anarchical constitution (1791). 
 But this did not suit Catherine ii. of Kussia, and she invaded Poland 
 (1792). The Poles made a brilliant resistance, which might even have 
 been successful but for the treachery of their king, Stanislaus Poniatowski. 
 Prussia eventually combined with Russia to effect the Second Partition, 
 by which Poland lost more than half her remaining territory. The hero 
 of the war was General Kosciusko, who had fought in America under 
 Washington. In 1794 an insurrection broke out, and Kosciusko was 
 made General-in-Chief. For eight months the Poles performed pro- 
 digies of valour, but were at length crushed by the combined Russian 
 and Prussian armies. By the Third Partition (1795) Poland disappeared 
 from the list of nations. Kosciusko, desperately wounded, was thrown 
 into a Russian prison, where he remained till liberated by Paul i. (1796). 
 After this he lived in France. Divining the treachery of Napoleon, he 
 declined to call on his countrymen to join him against Russia ; which, 
 however, did not prevent that brigand from forging a proclamation to 
 the Poles in their hero's name (1806). At the Congress of Vienna 
 (1814-15), Alexander i. flattered Kosciusko with hojies of a resuscitation 
 of Poland ; but after Waterloo, the Czar had no longer need to pay court 
 to the patriot. Kosciusko retired broken-hearted to Switzerland, and 
 remained there till his death. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Alison : History of Europe from 1789 to 1815, ch. xvii. Von Sybel : His- 
 tory of French Iievolutio7i, bk. vi. ix. x. 
 
 JEFFERSON (Thovias), b. 1743, d. 1826. 
 
 A man of high culture, an able lawyer, and a member of the Virginia 
 Assembly, Jefferson took' a leading part in deciding the colonies to 
 resist the mother-country. He was chosen to draft the Declaration of 
 Independence. The second sentence in that famous manifesto rang 
 through Europe. It was the earliest appearance in practical politics of 
 the theories of Rousseau. " We hold these truths to be self-evident ; 
 that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator 
 with certain inalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and 
 the pursuit of happiness ; that to secure, these rights, governments are 
 instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of 
 the governed ; that whenever any form of government becomes destruc- 
 tive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or abolish it, and 
 to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, 
 and organising its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most 
 likely to effect their safety and happiness." The rest of the Declaration 
 was an enumeration of the unconstitutional acts of George in., more in 
 the style of the English "Bill of Rights" of 1689 {Phil. Pos. v. 670).
 
 Statesmanship] JEFFEESON : MADISON 575 
 
 X 
 
 Jeflferson was an ardent admirer of France. " Every man," he said, " has 
 two countries — his own and France." He succeeded Franklin as Ameri- 
 can Minister at Versailles (1785), and witnessed with enthusiasm the 
 opening scenes of the Eevolution. On his return (1789), Washington 
 made him his Minister for Foreign Affairs. He was the leader of the 
 anti-federalist party, afterwards called "Democrats," who opposed the 
 centralising, authoritative, and aristocratic tendencies of the Federalists, 
 afterwards called "Whigs," who were headed by Adams, the Vice- 
 President, and Hamilton, the Minister of Finance. Washington himself 
 inclined to the latter party, though such was his grand impartiality as to 
 persons that both Jefferson and Hamilton threatened to resign if he did 
 not accept the Presidency for a second term. But Jefferson's eager and 
 not always scrupulous partisanship at length caused a breach between 
 him and Washington which was never healed. On the retirement of the 
 latter, Adams beat Jefferson in the contest for the Presidency (1797). 
 But in 1801, and again in 1805, Jefferson was elected, and the Democratic 
 party maintained its ascendency till the election of Abraham Lincoln. 
 In the epitaph which Jefferson composed for himself he records that he 
 drafted the Declaration of Independence and the bill for establishing 
 religious freedom in Virginia, and that he was the Father of the Uni- 
 versity of Virginia, but makes no mention of his double Presidency — 
 a last testimony to his democratic principles. He might have added 
 that he had proposed the emancipation of slaves in Virginia ; therein 
 more consistent than the Democrats who came after him. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Randolph and Tucker : Lives ofJcffersun. 
 
 MADISON {James), b. 1751, d. 1836. 
 
 Madison was a Virginian, and during the War of Independence was 
 a prominent member of the Convention of his own State and of the Con- 
 gi-ess. He warmly supported the Inll which Jefferson had proposed for 
 establishing religious freedom in Virginia, and had the honour of carry- 
 ing it, after a long struggle, while its author was in France. After the 
 war he had a chief share in bringing about the Convention which created 
 the Constitution of the United iStates. But as a member of the Demo- 
 cratic party he was always on the watch to limit the authority of the 
 Federal Government over the separate States, and his writings on this 
 subject not only hatl immense weight at the time, but are recognised still 
 as possessing a permanent value. He was Secretary of State under his 
 friend Jefferson, and succeeded him in the Presidency, which he held 
 with credit for two terms (1801J-17). He was a man of blameless life 
 and moderate disposition ; and though he steadily opposed the authorita- 
 tive policy of Washington, his private friendshij) with that illustrious man 
 was never impaired. [E. S. B.] 
 
 Rives : Life of Madison.
 
 576 BOLIVAR [Modern 
 
 BOLIVAR (Simon), b. 1783, d. 1830. 
 
 The revolt of the Spanish colonies, like that in North America (see 
 Franklin), was founded on the need of independence for free develop- 
 ment and sound administration. But by their whole history the nations 
 of South America were unfitted for parliamentary government. Bolivar 
 had the chief share in expelling the Spaniards and founding a republican 
 dictatorship. The first revolt was rendered possible by the French inva- 
 sion of Spain (1808), but the great earthquake of Caraccas, looked upon 
 as God's vengeance on the disloyal, brought about a reaction fatal to the 
 Republican cause. Bolivar, fearing that Miranda, the Republican leader, 
 would call in the English, betrayed and left him to die in a Spanish 
 prison, and amid general execration escaped from Venezuela to New 
 Granada, which still maintained a precarious independence. The next 
 year (1813) he unexpectedly crossed the Andes with a few hundred men, 
 gained a victory, and, marching on with ever-swelling numbers, entered 
 Caraccas in triumph, and was acclaimed "the Liberator." But the 
 Republicans were again ruined, partly by their own misgovernment, 
 partly by the cessation of war in Eurojje. Bolivar took refuge in the 
 negro republic of Hayti (see Toussaint). There he received help which 
 enabled him to return, and, after many vicissitudes, free his country. 
 This he never forgot : though a noble and a large slave-owner, he imme- 
 diately on landing proclaimed the freedom of the blacks, thereby alienat- 
 ing the rich and ruining his private fortune ; nor did he scruple to annul 
 certain Acts of Congress intended to delay emancipation. Invited into 
 Peru, he drove out the Spaniards, and became the defender of the Indians, 
 hitherto oppressed by all. What better eulogy could be passed on him 
 than that he was everywhere the protector of the oppressed ? 
 
 Bolivar was a bad general and a worse administrator — not himself 
 corrupt, yet caring little for the corruption of his favourites ; but he had 
 great insight in policy, and unexampled callousness to defeat ; often over- 
 thrown, he always reappeared — an indispensable man by the admission 
 even of his enemies. He saw the need of a stable central government : in 
 his Peruvian Constitution, with a democratic legislature, he intrusted the 
 executive to a dictator for life, who was to name his successor (Comte's 
 Sociocratic Heredity). Like Danton he insisted on all constitutional 
 questions being 2Dostponed till the end of the war. He rightly desired 
 that all the colonies should unite against Spain : he erred in thinking 
 that this defensive alliance could become a permanent imion. When at 
 length he saw his error, and agreed to the separation of Venezuela from 
 Colombia, it was too late to recover his popularity. For the sixth time 
 he resigned, and for once his resignation was accepted. He died soon 
 after at Carthagena, on his way into exile. [S. H. S.]
 
 Statesmanship] TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTUEE : FEANCIA 577 
 
 TOUSSAINT L'OUVERTURE, b. 1746, d. 1803. 
 
 The revolt of the negroes of Hayti, leading to its separation from 
 France as a Negro Republic, was an event of capital importance both in 
 the abolition of slavery and in the victory of colonial independence. 
 Amid the excitement caused by the Revolution, and the disputes of 
 whites and niulattoes, the blacks unexpectedly rose (1791), and only 
 wanted a leader to become masters of the colony. A month later 
 ToussAiNT, a pure negro and a slave from his birth, now 45 years old, 
 after putting his master's family in safety, joined the insurrection. By 
 his advice the negroes entered the service of Spain, which held the 
 eastern half of the island. He soon showed his military talents. His 
 repeated victories, making an opening everywhere, gained him his sur- 
 name. A fervent Catholic, he gloried in fighting for his king, but the 
 decree of the Convention emancipating the slaves worked an unexpected 
 change. He joined the republic, and soon made it supreme in Hayti. 
 Refusing the crown offered him by the English, saving the French 
 governor from the mulattoes, and protecting all races alike, he became 
 the real ruler of the country. His civil administration was in no way 
 inferior to his conduct in war. Those who had been slaves were sunk in 
 idleness : he commanded all to work. Vigilant, energetic, incorruptible, 
 merciful to his enemies and severe to his friends when required by the 
 public good, and entirely free from the prejudice of race, he alone was 
 able to govern the colony. After seven years' informal dictatorship, to 
 give his authority a surer foundation he sent home the draft of a constitu- 
 tion which provided for the freedom and equality of all races, he himself 
 being created governor for life, with power to name his successor. But 
 before it reached Europe, the peace enabled Bonaparte to send a great 
 armament against Hayti. Toussaint counselled submission ; but when 
 war broke out he threw in his lot with his fellows. Overpowered, he 
 was nominally set free, but soon afterwards entrapped and carried to 
 France. He died in eighteen months, from the hardships of his imprison- 
 ment in the Jura. Six months later France abandoned Hayti for ever. 
 
 [S. H. S.] 
 
 Pierre Laffitte : Toussaint V Ouverture. 
 
 FRANCIA {.Tod Gasimr), b. 1757, d. 1840. 
 
 Fraxcia, like Bolivar, represented lioth the leading ])rinciples of 
 South American statesmanship— local independence and republican dic- 
 tatorship ; but the first of these principles he carried further, bemg 
 opposed not only to Spanish rule, but to the formation of large States 
 by the revolted colonies. Essentially conservative and constructive, he 
 supported the Spanish authority in Paraguay until he could efliect its 
 overthrow peacefullv. On the failure of the parliamentary government 
 then established, he was elected Dictator for three years (1«I4), and 
 never let the Parliament meet again. While ready in case of Siwnish 
 
 2o
 
 578 FRANCIA : CROMWELL [Modern 
 
 invasion to co-operate with other States, he steadily opposed the attempts 
 of the people of Buenos Ayres to force Paraguay into a union. In 1819 
 a plot was made, chiefly by the rich, to assassinate Francia and admit the 
 enemy. It was discovered, and forty persons were executed — Francia's 
 so-called Reign of Terror. Henceforth his authority was undisputed. 
 Ruling in the old colony of the Jesuits, and not himself a Christian, he 
 alone of the South American leaders dared oppose the clergy. He taught 
 the Paraguayans to sow twice a year, and thus reap two harvests. All 
 trades were regulated by the government, and foreign commerce entirely 
 controlled — a socialism suited to the country's history, yet little success- 
 ful. From fear of the anarchy of the neighbouring States, foreigners 
 were forbidden to enter ; if they did, they were not suffered to depart. 
 Francia died universally regretted. He was scrupulously honest, 
 inflexible in purpose, merciless even to his own family in his devotion 
 to the commonwealth. On becoming Dictator, he commenced his 
 reforms by reforming his own life. [S. H. S.] 
 
 Carlyle : "Dr. Francia," in Miscellaneous Essays. 
 
 it* 
 
 .t* 
 
 CROMWELL (Oliver), b. 1599, d. 1658. 
 
 Comte has pointed out that the Dictature, which concentrated in 
 itself the various political forces dispersed under Feudalism, always 
 tended in England to the aristocratic rather than to the monarchical 
 or normal type. The Conqueror and his successors took care that there 
 should be no very great vassals, and that their fiefs should be dispersed. 
 They availed themselves of some Saxon institutions to keep their barons 
 in check. They made all Englishmen swear allegiance directly to the 
 king, instead of to their immediate lord only as in France. Hence the 
 political side of Feudalism was never fully developed in England. But 
 the comjjarative weakness of the barons individually drove them to act 
 together in a parliamentary way, and to seekjthe,support of the Commons 
 in their attempts to limit the royal authority. Again, the nobility never 
 formed a caste, or, at all events, a close caste, in England. In the eye 
 of the law no one was a noble who was not a peer ; and those sons of a 
 peer who did not succeed to his title were commoners. The landed 
 gentry of England would in France have ranked as nobles. Till the 
 reign of Henry vi. the power of the Crown was gradually reduced by 
 the encroachments of Parliament — in other words, of the aristocracy, 
 titled and untitled ; for the burgess members were of much less weight. 
 The Wars of the Hoses, and the immense confiscations which followed, 
 destroyed the old military baronage, thereby depriving Parliament of 
 the insurrectionary force which had always lain at its back ; and from 
 Edward iv. to Henry viii. it seemed as if the Dictature was to be of 
 tlie monarchical type liere as elsewhere. But the nobles and gentry of 
 the Tudor times, still weaker individually than the corresponding claims 
 under the Plantagenets, were all the more driven to rely on ^^arliamen- 
 tary action. Even during the reign of Elizabeth there were signs that.
 
 Statesmanship] CROMWELL 579 
 
 reinforced by the rapidly rising commercial class and stimulated by 
 religious zeal^ they would try to check the monarchical dictature. 
 
 The resistance to Charles i. was headed by the nobility and gentry 
 up to the execution of Strafford, who, in imitation of Richelieu, had 
 aimed at exalting the crown and depressing the aristocracy. After the 
 death of Strafford many of the aristocracy, thinking that they had now 
 secured a substantially aristocratic government, declined to proceed any 
 further in an anti-royalist direction, and rallied round the King. But 
 the party who drew the sword against him was also essentially an aristo- 
 cratic party. Of a hundred and nineteen peers who were summoned to 
 the Long Parliament not more than sixty joined the King in the civil 
 war, while about thirty held with the Parliament. The House of Com- 
 mons fairly represented the gentry, and more than two-thirds of its 
 members remained at Westminster. The nation, in truth, was divided 
 on religious rather than on social lines. Of the lower orders, those who 
 were not religious partisans were neutral, or followed the social superiors 
 with whom they happened to have relations. As the war went on, the 
 resistance to the King no doubt assumed more of a democratic character ; 
 but the leaders all along were, almost without exception, of the rank 
 that would have been called noble on the Continent. The Republicans 
 were a small minority, and most of them confined democratic rights to 
 " the saints." But they held the sword, and so for a time were masters. 
 When this premature burst of democracy — if such it may be called — had 
 been extinguished' by the Restoration, the struggle at once recommenced 
 on the ola pre-rebellion lines. In 1688 the crown finally succumbed, 
 and the aristocratic dictature, to which England had always tended, was 
 not again disturbed tiU 1832. 
 
 Oliver Cromwell belonged by birth and fortune to the landed 
 gentry. He sat in the third and fourth Parliaments of Charles i., but 
 did not distinguish himself till he entered the Long Parliament, at the 
 age of 41, though he was known in his own neighbourhood as a zealous 
 Puritan. As early as November 1641 we find him proposing that Par- 
 liament should pass an " ordinance " for assembling train-bands. This 
 was the first time that an "ordinance" (that is, a parliamentary edict 
 without the royal assent) was proposed, or that any allusion was made 
 to the advisability of preparing for war. But Cromwell did not become 
 a conspicuous figure till the fighting began, when he soon attracted 
 attention by his energy and success. Though he thus began soldiering 
 late in life, he brought to it all the qualities of a great captain — prudence, 
 resource, penetration, organising ability, skill, strategical as well as 
 tactical, and undaunted courage. 
 
 In seeking the key to Cromwell's policy, we must never forget that 
 he cared for religious freedom even more than for political freedom. 
 Henbe his chief object was to checkmate the Presbyterians, whose ideal 
 was a limited monarchy — that is, an aristocratic dictature — with the 
 Established Church remodelled on the Presbyterian pattern, and no 
 other religion tolerated. Cromwell, personally, was for a limited mon- 
 archy, because he always saw clearly that England naturally gravitated 
 to that form of government. But he had no sentimental reverence for 
 the monarch — " he would fire his pistol at the King as soon as at another
 
 580 CROMWELL [Modern 
 
 if he met him in battle ; " and if religious freedom could be secured in 
 no other way, he was prepared for a Commonwealth. This was the 
 feeling of many other Independents, though some were ardent Eepub- 
 licans. The Presbyterians, on the other hand, were as averse to religious 
 freedom as to Episcopacy, and they were prepared, after the war, to 
 reinstate the King, on terms which they had formerly thought dangerous 
 to political liberty, if he would concede their ecclesiastical claims. Like 
 Cromwell, in fact, they were ready to sacrifice something of their political 
 ideal in order to realise their religious ideal. They were strongest in 
 Parliament and in the country ; but Cromwell could rely on the 
 army, which he had carefully weeded of Presbyterians and filled with 
 " Independents " — men, that is, of several religious sects, who agreed in 
 abhorring ecclesiastical despotism of any kind. 
 
 After the defeat of the King, both parties ofi"ered to reinstate him ; 
 the Presbyterians bargaining for the establishment of their ecclesiastical 
 system ; Cromwell willing that the Established Church should be Epis- 
 copal, if complete toleration were guaranteed. Charles 'blindly thought 
 he could play off one against the other, and so recover his old authority, 
 when, as he wrote to the Queen, " he shoulii..,^iiL03y how to fit them all 
 with a hempen cord." In pursuance of this design he stirred up the 
 secoiid civil waf'and Scotch invasion (May — August 1648). Where- 
 upon Cromwell, after crushing the rebels and Scotch, purged the House 
 of Commons of the Presbyterian royalists, cut oft' the Kmw's head, and 
 I frankly -adopted the Commonwealth (Ja;nuary 16495. It is diflBcult for 
 j us in the 19th century to measure the splendid audacity of such a step 
 
 in the 17th. •^"- - 
 
 The handful of Independents who constituted the House of Commons 
 after Pride's Purge — the "Rump" — governed England for over four 
 years, supported only by the army. Their rule was deeply resented by 
 the large majority of the nation, Presbyterians as well as Cavaliers. 
 They evidently intended to perpetuate their own personal power without 
 any appeal even to their own party in the country, which the most 
 favourable computation put at not more than two-sevenths of the nation. 
 Cromwell held that an irresponsible and absolute assembly, sitting all 
 the year round and exercising not only legislative but executive and, in 
 political matters, even judicial functions, was a despotism which could 
 not and ought not to be permanent. He says himself : " The nation 
 loathed their sitting. I knew it ; and, so far as I could discern, when 
 they were dissolved, there was not so much as the barking of a dog, 
 
 or any general and visible rejoining at it Poor men, under this 
 
 arbitrary power, were driven like flocks of sheep by forty in a morning, 
 to the confiscation of goods and estates." He was no more willing than 
 the Rump to appeal to the nation. But he claimed, as a step towards 
 a more normal regime, that a new Parliament should be elected by all 
 citizens who had supported the good cause ; others to be excluded from 
 the poll for the present. The Rump, on the other hand, when driven 
 to prepare for a new Parliament, proposed that no voters should be 
 excluded from the poll, but that the members of the Rump should 
 retain their seats without re-election, and should have the power of 
 invalidating other elections where they saw fit. It was their attempt
 
 Statesmanship] CROMWELL 581 
 
 to hurry this bill through in one sitting, and in breach of a pledge given 
 to the Committee of Officers the day before, which led Cromwell to 
 dissolve the Long Parliament. 
 
 The stroke was a thoroughly popular one. The army, by whose 
 authority Cromwell acted, was responsible for the existing state of 
 affairs. It was composed of the elite of the nation, and its right to act 
 for the nation was quite as legitimate as that of the Rump. There is 
 not the least reason to suppose that Cromwell desired at this time to 
 make himself ruler. He and the officers devolved all power on an 
 assembly of 140 Puritan Notables, not elected but selected — a thoroughly 
 Positivist expedient. If a political assembly is to be judged as a whole 
 by the private worth of its individual members, this "Little Parliament" 
 was probab ly the worthiest assembly that has ever sat IrTEnglahdr"* Its 
 aimsjindeed", were too htgli and excellent for the times ; and after five 
 months of unpfactical discussioilitrbEttaffie discouraged and resigned its 
 powers. The officers then drew up a constitution which amounted to 
 a narrowly limited monarchy, with Cromwell as monarch under the title 
 of Protector — the old English term for Regent ; and from this' time 
 (December 1653) till his death he was the real ruler of England. 
 
 It would be impossible here to narrate the Protector's various 
 attempts to obtain a parliamentary sanction for his power thus 
 irregularly acquired. At last in 1657, after about 100 out of 460 
 members had been excluded, the remainder drew up a scheme of 
 government, which was practically a restoration of the old constitution, 
 with a King and two Houses of Parliament, but with stricter limitations ■ 
 on the royal authority than exist — in law — now. The title of King, 
 CromweU declined in deference to the unconcealed jealousy of the 
 Republican officers. But he was convinced, and rightly, that the nation 
 would never settle down quietly until the title as well as the power was 
 restored. It may be regarded as certain that if he had lived a little 
 longer this would have been effected, and that great numbers of Royalists 
 would have thenceforward given him a more or less hearty support. 
 Such a government would have been a return to the aristocratic 
 dictature ; for it was essential in Cromwell's eyes to restore the House 
 of Lords, the abolition of which, as Comte justly remarks, was really a 
 more revolutionary step than the abolition of the monarchy {Phil. Pos. i 
 V. 669). But death overtook him prematurely in the sixtieth year of his \ 
 life and the sixth of his Protectorate, before he had^ exercised the right \ 
 conferred on him by the constitution of nominating his successor. | 
 
 After the Restoration political and religious rancours did their worst , 
 with Cromwell's memory. Royalists and democrats combined to blacken f 
 it. He was long paradoxically portrayed as a cold-blooded hypocrite, ? 
 a frantic enthusiast, an ambitious egoist, a vulgar buflbon. He now i 
 shines forth in the judgment of the civilised world not only asTTie ^ 
 greatest ruler England has had, but as a man of sincere piety, sober f 
 intellect, and thorough rectitude of purpose. The characteristic which | 
 most struck his contemporaries was his extraordinary self-reliance, which 
 no dangers, military or political, couWfor a moment daunt or disturb. 
 HtS bitter enemy Clarendon admits that "he was not a man of blood." 
 He was indeed most merciful and generous to his foes, though never to
 
 582 CROMWELL [Modeen Statesmanship 
 
 the extent of weakness. His foreign policy was to be friendly with 
 France, which was well ; and to conquer a maritime and colonial empire 
 for England at the expense of Spain — which was not so well. But here 
 his judgment was warped by his narrow theological creed, as it was also 
 in his treatment of the Irish Catholics. This, however, is the part of his 
 conduct of which his countrymen have always been proudest. Even 
 Clarendon remarks with a certain exultation that "his greatness at home 
 was but a shadow of the glory he had abroad." "" '[E.'S. B.] 
 
 * Carlyle : Letters and Speeches of Cromwell. Frederic Harrison : Oliver 
 CromwelL '"'''' ^'•'-■- ■-■•■■- '- .^=.-*-,-, .,^-^,..^--,.,..-„^™v 
 
 
 > -.U 
 
 I 
 
 7r)/y, ' i.,J^.r 
 
 V <:' ■ 

 
 MODERN SCIENCE. 
 
 fT^HE choice of a biologist, as the chief representative of modern 
 science, instead of one of the great masters in Geometry or 
 Astronomy, has been matter for surprise. But there is a question 
 prior to the choice of any special name : namely, which of the sciences 
 has done most in modern times to prepare the way for the Positive 
 treatment of social and moral facts 1 Great assuredly have been the 
 services of Astronomy in this respect ; nevertheless it may be shown 
 that those of Biology have been even more direct and efficient. 
 
 How deep and lar-reaching were the consequences following from the 
 discovery of the Earth's motion, the Catholic Church was not slow to 
 feel. The special dogmas of Christianity became less easy to accept 
 when the earth was no longer regarded as the centre round which the 
 nine crystalline heavens revolved daily. Earth lost its absolute value. 
 It was henceforth difficult to regard it as the central scene of God's work. 
 As an appendage to one out of countless myriads of stars, it was of 
 small account in the Universe : it was important only as the home of 
 Man. In other words its absolute or theological position was transposed 
 into one that was purely and simply human. This was indeed a mighty 
 change. 
 
 Yet though this revolution was reserved for modern times, most of 
 its scientific conditions had in truth been fulfilled by the geometers of 
 Greece. From a letter of Archimedes to Gelo, king of Syracuse, we 
 know that the hypothesis of Copernicus had been distinctly propounded 
 by Aristarchus of Samos. Hipparchus the founder of Trigonometry, 
 and the discoverer of the precession of the equinoxes, had nearly all the 
 knowledge of Copernicus, and far greater intellectual power. When, 
 owing to social necessities elsewhere described, Greek science was 
 arrested, it was on the threshold of the great geometrical and astrono- 
 mical discoveries of the Renascence. 
 
 For Biology, on the other hand, the preparatory steps taken by the 
 Greeks were far fewer and less complete. Aristotle indeed had 
 instituted the comparative observation of living bodies ; and he had 
 laid down certain large and far-reaching principles of vital action, the 
 significance of which has remained unappreciated till our own time. 
 Nevertheless at the threshold of exact biological research stands the 
 science of Chemistry. And Chemistry cannot be said to have passed 
 from the metaphysical to the positive stage till Lavoisier and Cavendish 
 had analysed air and water, and had explained the facts of oxidation 
 and combustion. 
 
 In common, then, with Physics and Chemistry, and in contrast with 
 Mathematics and Astronomy, Biology is a modern science. It remains 
 to show that among modern sciences its intellectual, social, and moral 
 reactions have been more important than the rest. 
 
 It is obvious in the first place that scientific knowledge of a living 
 organism must precede that of a complex of organisms. In other words.
 
 584 MODERN SCIENCE 
 
 as Chemistry is the preamble to Biology, so is Biology the preamble to 
 Sociology, and therefore to that final and comprehensive study of Man 
 which regards him as the resultant of the social state. The observations 
 hitherto made by philosophers and historians, so far as they contain 
 positive truth and are not merely metaphysical abstractions, are truths of 
 function, disconnected from the corresponding organ. They fail, there- 
 fore, in definiteness and precision. This failure is specially conspicuous 
 in thinkers of such remarkable positivity as Hume and Kant. The specu- 
 lations of Gall, crude and premature as many of them are, illustrate the 
 stimulating efiect of attributing such functions as benevolent impulse or 
 destructive passion to a definite portion of brain tissue, even though the 
 adjustment of function to organ remains as yet utterly provisional and 
 uncertain. 
 
 It is needless to refer to such questions as those of pauperism, popu- 
 lation, hygiene, race, climate, as examples of the close relation of Biology 
 to sociological research. There is a logical motive for the special pro- 
 minence given to Biology of even greater moment. It is the science 
 which conclusively dissipates the ambitious and futile Utopia of reducing 
 the phenomena of the universe to a single mathematical law ; and which 
 thus leads us on to Humanity as the only possible centre to which man's 
 speculative eff'orts can converge. 
 
 The cycle of changes in organic matter from reproduction to death, 
 the perpetual composition and decomposition of substance taken in from 
 and given out to the environment, the continual adjustment of internal 
 spontaneity to external forces which Comte indicates as the essential fact 
 of life : all these constitute a new order of things to which nothing 
 analogous is to be seen in the inorganic world. Every action of a living 
 thing involves, doubtless, a series of physical and chemical changes : but 
 as bricklaying is not architecture, so these physical and chemical facts 
 are not life. In studying the facts of sensation, and all that follows from 
 them, every instrument of physical research must be employed ; but 
 wholly different methods are also needed. 
 
 And thus it is that the study of life leads us to the conviction of 
 the impossibility of a Cosmic or Objective Synthesis, in which all the 
 facts within our ken are conceived of as resulting from a single law. We 
 find from it that the only possible Synthesis is that in which each order 
 of phenomena is studied inductively upon its own merits. Due regard is 
 paid to the obvious dependence of the more special and complicated order 
 upon the more general and simple ; but the dream of Monism is finally 
 and for ever abandoned. Of such a Synthesis the only possible centre is 
 Man. 
 
 The weeks of the month of Bichat are thus arranged : — 
 The first week treats of the foundation of Physic, including mechanic, 
 astronomy, acoustic, electricity. It includes the founders of modern 
 astronomy — Copernicus, Kepler, and Tycho : Huyghens, who after 
 Galileo is the principal founder of celestial mechanic : Bradley, who 
 estimated the velocity of light : Volta, the discoverer of current elec- 
 tricity. Galileo presides over this week.
 
 MODERN SCIENCE 585 
 
 The second week deals chiefly with the completion of celestial 
 mechanic by the transcendental calculus. We have the preparation for 
 this calculus made by Vieta, Fermat, and Wallis : the application of it 
 to physical problems by Clairaut, Euler, D'Alembert, Fourier : its assi- 
 milation to the ordinary calculus by Lagrange. Newton, whose mathe- 
 matical genius transformed the vague hypothesis of planetary gravitation 
 into scientific certainty, takes the chief place here. Descartes and 
 Leibnitz, whose mathematical initiative equalled Newton's, are spoken 
 of elsewhere. 
 
 The third week tells of the chemists of the 18th and early 19th 
 century. Lavoisier, who by his systematic and precise explanations of 
 oxidation and combustion, and by his overthrow of the phlogistic hypo- 
 thesis, first co-ordinated chemical facts into a Positive science, holds here 
 the first place. 
 
 In the fourth week. Biology, from Harvey onwards, is represented. 
 "We have Boerhaave and Stahl, the chiefs respectively of the mechanical 
 and the spiritualist school : Linnseus and Bernard de Jussieu represent- 
 ing the chief problems of classification : Lamarck and Blainville, who 
 enlarged the sphere of the comparative method : Broussais, who incor- 
 porated pathology with physiology. Gall presides over the week, as 
 the first investigator of the great biological problem which forms the 
 transition to Sociology. [J. H. B.]
 
 586 BICHAT [Modern 
 
 BICHAT, b. 1771, d. 1802. 
 
 Francois Xavier Bichat was born November 14, 1771, at Thoirette, 
 in the department of Ain. His father was a physician, and sent him to 
 study medicine at Lyons,, though the boy's bent was towards mathe- 
 matics. In 1 793 he went to Paris, and studied surgery under the great 
 master of the art, Desault, who recognised his genius, and adopted him as 
 his son ; a service which Bichat well repaid by collecting and editing his 
 master's works, on Desault's death two years afterwards. Bichat then 
 opened a school of anatomy, and carried on, with energy perhaps un- 
 paralleled in the history of science, the series of anatomical investigations 
 and experiments on which his discoveries were founded. His zeal 
 undermined his health ; and an accidental fall from the steps of the 
 Hotel Dieu brought on the illness from which he died, on the 22nd July 
 1802, in his 31st year. His premature death was regarded by Comte as 
 one of the most tragic events in ^the history of Humanity ; and, in 
 speaking of it in his public lectures, he was unable to suppress his 
 emotion. 
 
 Bichat's two great works are the Anatomie Generale, published in 1801, 
 and the Becherches Physiologiqties sur la Vie et la Mort, published in 
 1800. Both works find a place in the Positivist Library. In the preface 
 to the first, Bichat briefly distinguishes his position, on the one hand 
 from the Materialist school represented by Boerhaave, who would treat 
 Biology as a mere corollary of Physics, and on the other from the Meta- 
 physical and Spiritualist school, who explained Life by imaginary entities, 
 such as Soul, Arche, Vital Principle, and the like. Between these Bichat 
 defined with masterly precision the Positive standpoint. Here no 
 attempt is made to explain Life, as in Positive Physics no attempt is 
 made to explain Gravitation ; the object of the student is to observe and 
 to co-ordinate the facts of Life, and to connect these facts as precisely 
 as possible with the structures in which they take place, and with the 
 environment surrounding them. 
 
 But the connection of structure with function remained inexplicable 
 so long as the observer was content to begin and end with the complicated 
 assemblage of structures called an organ. In looking at the hand, the 
 foot, the heart, the lungs, we see organic material moulded into various 
 shapes for distinct purposes. And while one class of observers devoted 
 themselves to the mechanical action of these organs, another class 
 launched out into vague and nebulous sjaeculation as to the vital principle 
 informing the whole. Bichat threw an entirely new light upon the dis- 
 cussion by concentrating attention upon the tissues, or webs, of which 
 every organ was composed, and each of which was common to all or to 
 most organs. Aristotle, as Bichat knew, had led the way to this field of 
 study by his luminous distinction between homogeneous and hetero- 
 geneous structures. (Aristotle, de Fart. ii. 1, 5.) But the far-reaching 
 import of this distinction remained unperceived till the time of Bichat. 
 
 Distinguishing in each organ the component tissues, connective, car- 
 tilaginous, osseous, muscular, nervous, etc., and demonstrating the exist- 
 ence of these tissues throughout the body, Bichat Avas able to conceive of
 
 Science] BICHAT 587 
 
 vitality no longer as a mere mechanical process, nor again as the result of 
 a mysterious entity, but simply as the property, of tissue, and varying in 
 character with each tissue considered. From this moment the study of 
 Life became a Positive Science. As the physicist studies the behaviour 
 of electric or gravitating bodies without attempting to explain the ulti- 
 mate nature of gravitation or electricity, so the biologist could study the 
 properties of each vital tissue without losing himself in speculation upon 
 the ultimate nature of Life. 
 
 The first-fruits of this fertile principle were speedily gathered. It 
 led the way to the second great conception of Bichat — also hinted by 
 Aristotle, and left undeveloped by subsequent thinkers — the distinction 
 in every animal organism of the life of " relation " — that is to say, of the 
 functions of sensation and motion, which bring it into contact with dis- 
 tant objects in the environment — from the vegetal or nutritive life 
 common to animals and plants. Co-ordinated with this profound dis- 
 tinction were his luminous observations on the symmetry of animal 
 organs and the intermittence of animal functions, as contrasted with the 
 asymmetry and continuity of vegetal organs and functions. 
 
 His definition of Life is remarkable, though it contains an error. In 
 his great work entitled. Physiological Considerations on Life and Death, 
 the opening proposition is as follows : Life is the sum of the functions by 
 which Death is resisted. He goes on to explain that all the surroundings 
 of living bodies tend to destroy them, missing the point that Life involves 
 co-operation with the environment rather than antagonism. Neverthe- 
 less what follows shows an insight into the great principle of corre- 
 spondence of organism with environment afterwards developed by Comte. 
 The nature of Life is unknown ; it can only be appreciated by its 
 phenomena. The most general fact of Life is the continuous action and 
 reaction of external forces and the living organism, the proportionate 
 degree of each varying with age. His researches of Death were inspired 
 by the same wide grasp, the same freedom from metaphysical and literary 
 vagueness. He conceived of Death as beginning with a failure either of 
 the heart, the lungs, or the brain. Considering in turn the cases in 
 which each of these is the first to give way, he examines, with extra- 
 ordinary breadth and fulness the influence of this failure on the other 
 two, and on the whole bodily structure. 
 
 There are many departments of biology into which Bichat, within 
 the few years allotted to him, could not enter. He left wholly untouched 
 the vast field of natural history, cultivated with such admirable zeal by 
 his contemporary Lamarck. It is the more remarkable that, confining 
 his attention to human structure, he should have grasped so firmly the 
 general conception of Life as distinct from what was special to man's 
 organisation ; and that he should have been so deeply penetrated with 
 the spirit of the comparative method. It was the comparative study of 
 organs, and the contrast of their condition in health and disease, that 
 led him to the discovery of their common membranes. The comparative 
 study of structure at various ages, also of the difl'erent forms of death, 
 led him in the same way to important results. 
 
 Another field from which the brevity of his life excluded him was 
 that in which Cabanis, Leroy, and Gall did such good work, the study
 
 588 BICHAT : COPERNICUS [Modern 
 
 of the mental and moral functions of animals. It is calamitous that 
 Bichat had no time to follow and to correct Gall in his researches on the 
 functions of the brain. Much waste of effort, due to Gall's rashness and 
 the exaggerated opposition which it aroused, would have been spared, 
 had this been possible. On the whole, however, a careful study of his 
 two great works, and of the deep and potent impulse imparted by them 
 to biological research, wdl lead to the conviction of the intrinsic 
 superiority of Bichat to the great biologists of his time, and indeed to 
 all thinkers upon this subject since the time of Aristotle. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. ill., lectures 40, 41, 43, 44. Pos. Pol. i. p. 524 ; iii. p. 528. See 
 ante, p. 586, par. 2. 
 
 COPERNICUS, b. 1473, d. 1543. 
 
 Nicolas Copernik was the son of poor parents, perhaps serfs, and was 
 born in Thorn, a Polish town ceded in 1311 to the Teutonic Order, but 
 resumed by Poland in 1466. One of his uncles, who afterwards be- 
 friended him, was Bishop of Warmia, and attached to the cathedral of 
 Frauenburg, near the mouth of the Vistula. Copernicus was educated 
 at home, and afterwards graduated Doctor of Medicine at Cracow 
 University. For some years (about 1500 a.d.) he made astronomical 
 observations, and taught mathematics at Bologna and Rome. Soon, 
 however, he returned home as canon of a church in Frauenburg, and 
 spent the rest of his life in church duty, medical work amongst the poor, 
 and astronomical research. His astronomical instruments were poor, 
 and he regretted his inability to take better observations. He was 
 struck with the complexity of the so-called Ptolemaic system, and found 
 in ancient authors abundant suppositions tending to simplify the theory 
 of the heavenly bodies. One of these he took and used with success. 
 {See Aristarchus.) His book De Bevolutionibus Orbmvi Ccelestium 
 begins with a remarkable epistle to the Pope, Paul iii., in which he 
 refuses to argue of the truth of his theories, which he says he puts forth 
 merely as leading to results of calculation which agree with observations. 
 The phrase " Copernican System " suggests that our debts to Copernicus 
 are greater than in truth they are. For it was not till Kepler, Galileo, 
 Newton, and Bradley (to say nothing of others) had lent their aid, that 
 the system could be said to be finally established. Without denying 
 Copernicus's claim to be a great mathematician, a truth-seeker singularly 
 free from contemporary trammels, and a successful discoverer, it is 
 important to understand clearly that his view of the solar system 
 remained at his death a brilliant conjecture merely, against which very 
 strong objections could be urged. He was not free from the meta- 
 physical illusions of his age ; maintaining, for instance, that the sphere is 
 the most perfect figure, as a ground for inferring the sphericity of the 
 universe ; and he accounts for the rectilinear fall of a stone, and the 
 supposed circular motion of the planets, by the statement that wholes 
 move with circular motion, and parts separated from wholes in rectilinear 
 motion. Also, owing to his acceptance of the circle instead of the 
 ellipse as the path of planetary orbits, the alleged simplicity of the
 
 Science] COPERNICUS : TYCHO BRAHl^ 589 
 
 system as presented by him proves, on close examination, to be much 
 exaggerated. Copernicus was not a mere speculator : he was a diligent 
 and conscientious observer of the heavens, though working with very 
 imperfect instruments. The periodic inequalities of planetary motions 
 were as obvious to him as they had been to Ptolemy. Therefore, on the 
 assumption of circular motions, he was compelled to resort, though not to 
 the same extent as the older astronomers, to the devices of epicycles and 
 eccentrics ; the eccentricity of the sun varying in the case of each planet. 
 r.While admitting all this, it remains none the less true that three 
 fundamental facts of astronomy, (1) the apparent diurnal rotation of the 
 sky, (2) the apparent stations and retrogradation of the planets, (3) the 
 
 E recession of the equinoxes, became far more easy to conceive on his 
 ypothesis than on the accepted view. Taking the last point only, it 
 was needful, on the Ptolemaic system, to suppose not merely that the 
 sky revolved round the earth in 24 hours, but that it was endowed with 
 an additional motion of an opposite kind, taking place in 250 centuries. 
 For Copernicus it was only needful to conceive the earth's axis as 
 slightly varying its direction, describing a cone in the course of the 
 period in question, and thus pointing every year to a slightly different 
 part of the sky. 
 
 The shock to received ideas — not in astronomy only, but in man's 
 view of his place in Nature — that would follow from the general acceptance 
 of his views was foreseen by him, and he was evidently anxious to 
 avert it. It was with great reluctance that he consented to the publica- 
 tion of his book, which he had kept in manuscript for many years. He 
 avowedly regarded his view as a conjecture merely ; destined, like other 
 hypotheses, to assist astronomical research. So iOng as the new doctrine 
 was confined to the learned, the Church did not care to interfere with it. 
 More than seventy years passed before the work of Copernicus was placed 
 upon the Index. [J. H. B. & C. G. H.] 
 
 Penny Cydopwdia, Copernicus. Comte : Astronomic Populaire, part iii. 
 ch, V. and vi. 
 
 TYCHO BRAH^, b. 1546, d. 1601. 
 
 Half-way between Copernicus and Kepler, comes the great observer 
 who more truly than his predecessor may be called the founder of 
 modern astronomy. For astronomy does not consist in theories of the 
 solar system, true or false : it is the science which, by induction from 
 accurate observations, enables us to predict the position of the heavenly 
 bodies at any given future time. Towards this result Tycho Brahe made 
 further advance than any previous astronomer since the time of Hip- 
 parchus. 
 
 He was born at Knudsthorp, in Denmark, of an aristocratic family, 
 who discouraged all intellectual pursuits. By the help of an uncle he 
 was sent to the University of Copenhagen, where he began, as a boy of 
 14, to study the angular distances of stars with no better instruments than 
 a pair of compasses. Afterwards he went to Leipsic, nominally to study 
 jurisprudence, but really devoting himself to astronomy, and especially
 
 590 TYCHO BRAHlfe : KEPLER [Modern 
 
 to the construction of improved instruments. In 1576 Frederick it. of 
 Denmark offered him the island of Huene as a site for an observatory, 
 erected at great expense, with the title of Oranienberg, and furnished 
 with instruments far superior to any that had yet been made. Here he 
 observed the stars and planets for twenty years. At the end of that 
 time, Frederick ii. being long dead, a quarrel arose with the government, 
 Tycho's establishment was broken up, and he left the country. He 
 found a new patron in the Emperor Rudolf, and in 1598 settled near 
 Prague. His connection with Kepler is spoken of elsewhere. Tycho 
 died 24th October 1601. 
 
 He rejected the Copemican hypothesis, and not without reason. If 
 the earth moved round the sun there would be a slight difference, he 
 thought, in the apparent position of each star at opposite points of the 
 orbit (annual parallax) : but none such was discernible till the 19th 
 century. Therefore the whole orbit of the earth — 185,000,000 miles in 
 diameter — must be a point without magnitude in comparison with the 
 distance of the nearest star. This seemed inconceivable to Tycho, and 
 the more so that to the naked eye (the telescope being still undiscovered) 
 the stars themselves seemed to have a visible diameter ; so that it followed, 
 if Copernicus were right, that the stars were of larger circumference than 
 the whole orbit of the earth. 
 
 For the Copernican hypothesis he substituted one equally useful for 
 astronomical purposes, according to which the earth is represented as 
 fixed, while the other planets move in circles round the sun, which re- 
 volves annually in the ecliptic : the heavens being carried round the 
 earth in twenty-four hours. His pupil, Longomontanus, so far modified 
 this as to accept the diurnal rotation of the earth, while maintaining the 
 annual revolution of the sun around it. 
 
 Of Tycho's observations, the basis on which Kepler began to build, 
 no adequate account can be given here. He renewed the work of Hip- 
 parchus in defining the precise position of a large number of stars ; he 
 discovered new laws of variation of the moon's motions ; he was the 
 first to throw light on the path of comets, which, as he said, would pass 
 through and through the crystal spheres, if such existed ; and he had 
 far more accurate views of the corrections to be made for parallax and 
 refraction than any previous astronomer. [C. G. H. & J. H. B.] 
 
 Delambre : Astron. Moderne. 
 
 KEPLER {John), b. 1571, d. 1630. 
 
 The audacious and untiring genius who revealed the laws of planetary 
 motion was born at AVeil in Wiirtemberg, 21st December 1571, a seven- 
 month child of sickly constitution. His parents, poor gentlefolk, had 
 made an unhappy marriage, and the family life was never free from 
 trouble. Kepler was educated at the monastic school of ISIaulbronn 
 and afterwards at Tubingen, where he took the degree of Master in 1591. 
 
 In 1593 he was appointed astronomical lecturer at Gratz in Styria, 
 having as yet paid no special attention to astronomy. Like other 
 young men of his time, he accepted the hypothesis of Copernicus with
 
 Science] KEPLER 591 
 
 enthusiasm. Henceforth his life was devoted to the investigation of 
 the laws that bound together the different elements of the solar system, 
 now regarded as holding its own place in the world entirely independent 
 of the fixed stars around it. In his strong conviction that such laws 
 existed, Kepler at the outset of his career stood alone. To find them he 
 built up, with every resource of a most powerful imagination, hypothesis 
 after hypothesis — all of them daring, many extravagant ; but all without 
 exception controlled by observation of the facts, amidst which his induc- 
 tive genius at last reached the controlling uniformities. 
 
 About three years after his appointment at Gratz, he published his 
 Mysterinm Cosmographicum, containing the first of these conjectures, 
 inspired by a conception which recalls the early Pythagorean view, that 
 the orbits of the planets corresponded to circles inscribed or circumscribed 
 round one of the five regular solids. He was saved from further extra- 
 vagance of this kind by his connection with Tycho Braht5 in 1599. This 
 greatest of observers was now in Bohemia, preparing astronomical tables 
 under the patronage of the Emperor Rudolf. He recognised Kepler's 
 genius, and procured his official appointment as his assistant. The 
 connection lasted less than two years, for Tycho died in October 1601. 
 Kepler's debt to him is incalculable. He inherited his vast store of 
 facts, and his habits of accurate and patient observation, without impair- 
 ing the creative energy of his own master-spirit. 
 
 Continuing Tycho's work, Kepler devoted himself to the planet Mars, 
 of which the variations in velocity and in solar distance were unusually 
 great. Amidst all these variations, Kepler found at last the constancy 
 he sought. Taking the two extreme positions of Mars when nearest to 
 and farthest from the sun, he saw the angular velocity to be always 
 inversely proportional to the square of the pknet's distance. Extending 
 this to other positions of I\Iars, and then to other planets, he reached his 
 fii'st law, commonly stated thus : The line drawn from the sun to the 
 planet {radms vector) traces out on the plane of the orbit equal areas in 
 equal times. 
 
 The second of his laws, that the planets move in ellipses, the sun 
 occupying one of the foci, was not reached without examining various 
 oval curves superficially resembling the ellipse, but not satisfying the 
 condition that the sum of the distances of the moving point from two 
 fixed points should be constant. The difficulty however here, as Comte 
 remarks, was philosophic rather than scientific. It cost a struggle finally 
 to abandon the cherished principle of circular motion. 
 
 These two laws were announced in 1609, in his work entitled New 
 Astronomy. It was not till ten years later that he discovered his third 
 law, as to the relation between the mean distances of the planets froni 
 the sun, and their times of revolution, or periods. Kepler had long 
 known that the period increased with the distance. But what precisely 
 was the law of this increase 1 After laborious trial he found it to be 
 that the squares of the periodic times are proportional to the cubes of 
 the mean distances. Taking the mean solar distance and the period of 
 the Earth as unity, if, in any other case considered, the distance be 4 or 
 9 times greater, the time of revolution will be 8 or 27 times longer. 
 Knowing one of these quantities, the other can be foreseen ; and the long
 
 592 KEPLER : HALLEY [Modern 
 
 period of Uranus was, in fact, thus predicted by Herschell. It remained 
 for Newton to deduce this iaductive law mathematically from the laws 
 of motion. 
 
 Kepler had a strong, though very vague, conception of planetary 
 gravitation. "Gravity," he says, in the introduction to the work on 
 Mars, " is a mutual tendency of similar bodies to unite. Heavy bodies 
 do not tend to the centre of the world, but to that of the spherical body 
 of which they are a part. If the earth was not spherical, bodies would 
 not faU vertically to its surface. If the earth and the moon were not 
 kept at their respective distances, they would fall one on the other ; 
 supposing them of the same density, the moon would pass through ^f 
 of the distance, the earth through the remaining part." He attributed 
 the tides also to their true cause— the action of the moon on successive 
 points of the ocean as the earth rotated. 
 
 Between these floating conjectures and the solid ground of the 
 Principia there was a wide gulf which only the Calculus of Liebnitz 
 or Newton could bridge over. But they show the soundness of Kepler's 
 scientific instinct. In the same work is to be found the earUest indica- 
 tion of the First Law of Motion : that a body unaflected by external force 
 remains at rest or in uniform rectilinear motion. 
 
 It is too often forgotten that, while pursuing his purely scientific 
 researches, Kepler was incessantly labouring at the practical business 
 of his life, bequeathed to him by Tycho — the construction of astronomi- 
 cal tables. These, bearing the name of the Emperor Rudolf, appeared 
 at last in 1627, with a long historical title-page, indicating the part 
 which Tycho, Frederic ii. of Denmark, three successive Emperors of 
 Germany, and finally Kepler himself, had taken in their construction. 
 "Without the invention of logarithms, which Kepler eagerly adopted 
 from Napier, these tables could hardly have been constructed ; and 
 they figure side by side with Kepler's ellipse and Galileo's telescope, in 
 the allegorical frontispiece. 
 
 Kepler died of fever on the 15th November 1630, and was buried 
 in the cemetery of St. Peter at Ratisbon, where a monument was erected 
 in his honour in 1808. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Comte : Astronomie Fojoulaire, pt. iii. ch. vi. Delambre : Astronomic 
 Moderne. 
 
 HALLEY {Edmund), b. 1656, d. 1742. 
 
 Halley, the son of a rich soap-boiler of Shoreditch, was born in 
 Haggerston, November 8, 1656. He was distinguished in classics and 
 mathematics at St. Paul's School, from which he went to Queen's College, 
 Oxford, taking a 24-foot telescope with him. But he left Oxford without 
 a degree in 1676, and sailed for St. Helena, to study the southern stars. 
 There, on November 7, 1677, he observed a transit of Mercury across 
 the sun's disk, which first suggested his celebrated method of finding the 
 solar distance. He returned from southern latitudes with the precise 
 determination of 360 stars, and with important observations on the 
 retardation of the pendulum as the equator was approached. 
 
 He now devoted himself to the theory of the moon's motions — a subject
 
 Science] HALLEY : HUYGHENS 593 
 
 of urgent interest to navigators. He proposed to study the moon's course 
 through what the Chaldeans called a 8a7-os [see Berosus], a period of 223 
 lunations (18 years and 10 to 11 days), at the close of which she resumes 
 her former position with regard to the earth and sun. How far Chal- 
 dean observations were of use to him may be doubted. The problem 
 of explaining planetary motions by gravity occurred to him, as also to 
 Wren and Hooke. But between this vague possibility, and the mathe- 
 matical demonstration that Kepler's third law followed from the concep- 
 tion of gravity as a force acting inversely as the square of the distance, 
 there was a great gulf. In August 1684, visiting Cambi-idge, he found 
 that Newton had solved the problem, though in no haste to publish 
 the solution. To Halley's earnest solicitations the composition of the 
 Principia is due. 
 
 In 1698, in a ship supplied by William iii., he made fresh explora- 
 tions of southern latitudes, proceeding as far as 52°. In 1703 he became 
 Savilian Professor at Oxford ; translated some unknown works of Apol- 
 lonius from the Arabic, which he learnt for this purpose, and produced 
 the classical edition of the Conies of this great geometer. His intellectual 
 energy was inexhaustible. Eighty-four papers were contributed by him 
 to the Royal Society : vital statistics, magnetic variations, improved 
 diving apparatus being some of the subjects treated. In astronomy, 
 his principal achievements were his studies of twenty-four cometary 
 orbits, from the similarity of three of Avhich he predicted the recurrence 
 in 1759 and 1835 of the comet of 1682 ; his discovery of the long 
 inequality of Jupiter and Saturn ; and his method for determining the 
 solar distance by the transit of Venus. 
 
 Halley died 17th January 1742. He is buried in the churchyard of 
 Lee, near Greenwich. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Did. of Nat. Biog. Comte : Astron. Populaire, pt. iii. ch. x. 
 
 HUYGHENS {Christian), b. 1629, d. 1695. 
 
 HuYGHEXs, whose father and brother held high diplomatic appoint- 
 ments, was born at The Hague, and educated at Leyden University. He 
 lived mainly in Holland, but visited England and Denmark, and spent 
 fifteen years in Paris, whither Colbert had invited him (1666-81). He was 
 even to the end of his life singularly accessible to new ideas, appreci- 
 ating warmly the Principia of Newton, which was not published till 
 Huyghens was 58. He was the first great expounder of the undulatory 
 theory of light, as opposed to Newton's corpuscular theory ; and he 
 checked it successfully, as Newton could not check the corpuscular 
 theory, by the phenomena of simple and double refraction. He im- 
 proved the telescope, and discovered Saturn's ring and one of his satellites. 
 But it is not so much for these matters that Comte placed him in the 
 Calendar as for his contributions to dynamical science, in which he con- 
 tinued the work so admirably begun by Galileo. " Galileo," says Comte, 
 " with the subsequent help of Huyghens, laid the foundation of rational 
 mechanics. Then upon this two-fold basis" (of celestial geometry 
 and rational mechanics) " Newton constructed his svstem of celestial 
 
 2p
 
 594 HUYGHENS : VAEIGNON [Modern 
 
 mechanics." The Horologium Oscillatorium of Huyghens, published in 
 1673, is spoken of by Comte as "perhaps the most admirable example 
 of special research that the whole history of the human mind thus far 
 presents." It must be regarded as the most direct preparation for the 
 Frincipia of Newton, which appeared thirteen years afterwards. 
 
 His discussion of the motion of a pendulum is the first mathematical 
 investigation of the motion of a system of interdependent points as con- 
 trasted with the motion of a particle : based on the axiom that the centre 
 of gravity of such a system could not rise higher than the point from 
 which it fell. He showed that the swings of a pendulum moving in 
 a circular arc were not, as Galileo had thought, strictly isochronous, 
 especially when the arc was wide. If the swings were to be in equal 
 times the extremity of the pendulum must move not in a circle but in the 
 evolute of a circle, that is, in a cycloid. The theory of evolutes, of im- 
 mense importance in the history of geometry, is of Huyghens' creation. 
 If a string be stretched on any curve, and, one end being fixed, be un- 
 wound from the other, a curve will be described by the moving point 
 depending on the nature of the original curve, and called its evolute. In 
 the case of the cycloid, Huyghens showed that the evolute was a cycloid 
 also. Of equal and perhaps greater importance was his investigation of 
 centrifugal force : that is, of the composition of forces in circular motion. 
 He went so far as to show that centrifugal force varied directly as the 
 radius, and inversely as the square of the time of revolution. Here 
 we are brought to the threshold, but not beyond the threshold, of the 
 Principia. [C. G. H. & J. H. B.] 
 
 Fhil. Pos. vol. i. lect. 18. Astronomic Popidaire, p. 401. Pos. Pol. iii. 481 
 (where, however, the reference to Huyghens and Galileo is erroneously 
 translated in the English version). 
 
 VAEIGNON {Pierre), b. 1654, d. 1722. 
 
 From Fontenelle's Eloge of Varignon we learn that he was the son 
 of an architect of Caen, destined for the Church. His strong :bent for 
 mathematics, stimulated by the Geometry of Descartes, urged him to 
 Paris, where, by the help of his friend, the Abbe Charles de St. Pierre, he 
 established himself; and in 1687, the year of Newton's Principia, pub- 
 lished his Projet d'une Nouvelle Mccanique. This attracted much atten- 
 tion : and Varignon was appointed, in the following year. Professor of 
 Mathematics at the College Mazarin, a post wliich he held till his death, 
 December 22, 1722, though for the last seventeen years his health had 
 been such as to make original work impossible. It was not till three 
 years afterwards that his larger work, an expansion of the Projet, was 
 published, under the title Nouvelle Mecanique. A manuscript note of De 
 Morgan in my copy of this work sums up its value characteristically : 
 " This work was born long after its own death, and three years after its 
 author's. The Projet, in 1687, enabled all the world to act upon it : so 
 that, when the finished work was published, it had long been superseded. 
 The great feature of this work, as of the Projet, is the prominence given
 
 Science] VARIGNON : JAMES BERNOULLI 595 
 
 to the composition of forces. Varignon and Newton were forcing this 
 commodity into the market at the same time and independently." 
 
 A short passage from Lagrange's Mecanique Analytique may supple- 
 ment this view. He remarks (Part i. § 1) : " The theory of com- 
 pounded motions may be found in the writings of Descartes, Roberval, 
 Mersenne, Wallis, etc. ; but till the year 1687, the date of the Princijna 
 of Newton and the Projet de la No^ivelle Mecanique of Varignon, no one 
 had thought of substituting the consideration of forces for that of the 
 motions they were capable of producing, and of determining the force 
 resultant from two given forces, in the same way that they determined 
 the motion compounded of two given rectilinear and uniform motions." 
 Lagrange goes on to explain how the principle of the composition of 
 forces led at once to the conditions of equilibrium between three forces 
 acting on a point, which had only been obtained from the laws of equi- 
 librium of the lever by a long series of deductions. He dwells with 
 admiration, however, on an important theorem contained in the larger 
 work of Varignon (§ i. lemma xvi.), which establishes a direct connec- 
 tion between these two principles. [j. H. B.] 
 
 See works referred to ; also Phil, Pos, lect. xvi. 
 
 JAMES BERNOULLI, b. 1654, d. 1705. 
 
 The Bernoulli family, a striking example of hereditary talent, which 
 in the course of a century produced eight distinguished mathematicians, 
 was of Flemish origin. Driven from Antwerp in 1583 by the religious 
 wars, they sought refuge first in Frankfort, finally in Basle. The son of 
 a pastor, born 27th December 1654, James Bernoulli was intended for 
 his father's profession, but was allowed to follow his strong bent for 
 mathematics. His first work was his Method of Teaching Mathematics to 
 the Blind, suggested by his experience with a blind girl of Geneva. Travel 
 in France, England, and Holland brought him into contact with many 
 leading geometers. Returning to Basle in 1682, he became Professor of 
 Mathematics there. Two of his treatises are of this date : one on 
 Gometary Motion ; a second on the Gravity of the Ether, in which he 
 tried to show that all apparent instances of attractive force were in reality 
 to be explained by pressure. As atmospheric pressure accounted for such 
 facts as respiration or suction, so gravitation, cohesion, magnetic and elec- 
 tric force, were to be explained by the pressure of the ether. Four years 
 afterwards the publication of the Principia was to adjourn such specula- 
 tions indefinitely. Meantime, in 1684 appeared at Leipsic the Differ- 
 ential Calculus of Leibnitz, followed very shortly by the Integral Calculus. 
 James Bernoulli at once saw its extraordinary value as an instrument of 
 research : and did more for its development than Leibnitz himself, who 
 was absorbed in many other subjects. The next half generation was a 
 fruitful period of discovery. Curves that the geometry of Archimedes, 
 of Descartes, or even of Wallis, had found intractable yielded up their 
 secrets : new curves were discovered, and the vision dawned on men of 
 following all the intricate forces of Nature by mathematical process. It
 
 596 JAMES BERNOULLI : JOHN BERNOULLI [Modern 
 
 must be remembered that during this period Newton's Fluxional Calculus, 
 though long discovered, remained still undivulged. Among James Ber- 
 noulli's achievements may be mentioned the solution of the problem of 
 the isochronous curve, that down which a body falls with uniform velo- 
 city ; the discovery of the catenary curve, i.e. that which is described by 
 a chain suspended from its two extremities, and which Bernoulli saw to 
 be, also that of the section of a sail filled with wind ; the elastic curve, the 
 loxodromic and logarithmic spirals, etc. Greater than these special pro- 
 blems was that proposed and ultimately solved by him of Isoperimetry : 
 Given curved lines of diflferent species but identical length, which will 
 enclose the maximum area, which wiU form the largest surface of revolu- 
 tion, the solid with the largest content, etc. Into the painful dispute 
 with his younger brother John, in which the discussion of this problem 
 involved him, it is not needful to enter. The importance of the subject 
 lay, as James Bernoulli explains in his papers treating of it, not merely 
 in the special results obtained, but far more in the fact that it brought 
 out the full scope of the Transcendental Calculus ; since difi'erentials of 
 the third order were needful for its solution. It was the starting-point 
 of the discovery with which Lagrange began his great career, the Cal- 
 culus of Variations. 
 
 James Bernoulli died in Basle, 16th August 1705, after an illness 
 apparently due to mental strain. Comte remarks {Astron. Populaire, 
 p. 404) that in the absence of Newton, it is to him probably that the dis- 
 covery of the Mechanic of the Solar System would have fallen (see also 
 Synthese Subjective, p. 565). [J. H. B.] 
 
 His papers on Isoperimetry were published in the Leipsic Acts of 1700 and 
 1701. See Montucla, part i. liv. 1. 
 
 JOHN BERNOULLI, b. 1667, d. 1741. 
 
 Together with his elder brother James, John Bernoulli did much 
 for the establishment of the Infinitesimal Calculus. He travelled in France 
 in 1690, and made the acquaintance of de I'Hopital and others. About the 
 same time he began to quit medicine for mathematics. On the death of 
 his brother James, in 1705, he succeeded to the Basle professorship of 
 Mathematics, in which he spent the rest of his life. Comte mentions 
 him twice : once as the inventor of the method of " integration by parts," 
 by which means useful transformations can often be made. The other 
 reference is to the fertile problem proposed by him in 1695, called the 
 " Brakistochron," demanding the curve on which a material point will 
 fall from one given point to another in the least possible time. Leibnitz, 
 Newton, James Bernoulli, and de I'Hopital sent solutions ; and here 
 began the unfortunate controversy between the two brothers, both so 
 competent that no fit umpire could be obtained. (See the article on 
 James Bernoulli.) John Bernoulli was the first to express in explicit 
 form the principle of Virtual Velocities. John Bernoulli was father 
 of Daniel, of whom more will be said. [C. G. H.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. vol. i. lect. 7, 8.
 
 Science] BRADLEY 597 
 
 BRADLEY {James), b. 1693, d. 1762. ' 
 
 The final and decisive proof of the earth's movement was given "by 
 this great astronomer, whose career strikingly illustrates the inductive, as 
 distinct from the geometrical, aspect of his science. He was bom at 
 Sherborne, in Gloucestershire, of an old north-country family, and was 
 educated at Northleach Grammar School, and subsequently at Balliol 
 College, Oxford. But his real master was his maternal uncle, James 
 Pound, rector of Wanstead, Essex, an excellent astronomical observer, to 
 whom he betook himself immediately after taking his degree. In the 
 observatory at Wanstead the best work of his life was done. 
 
 In the century that had passed between the close of Kepler's career 
 and the beginning of Bradley's, much progress, almost a revolution, had 
 been made in the art of astronomical observation. By the use of the tele- 
 scope, not for penetrating distances, but for accurately defining direction, 
 by the invention of the clock, the vernier, and the micrometer, and by 
 the more perfect graduation of instruments, it had become as possible for 
 Bradley to distinguish an angle of one second as it had been for Tycbo to 
 distinguish one of half a minute, or for Hipparchus a tenth of a degree. 
 Bradley was perhaps the first to use clockwork so that bis instrument 
 moved with diurnal rotation. With these appliances he made, between 
 1716 and 1721, numerous observations for the determination of solar 
 parallax, and others defining the period in which the irregularities in the 
 eclipses of Jupiter's satellites recurred. 
 
 In 1721 he became Savilian Professor of Geometry, though still 
 residing at Wanstead. In 1725 he was engaged with Molyneux at Kew 
 in examining Hook's statement that the star y Draconis had a certain 
 parallax — i.e. that, viewed from opposite points of the earth's orbit, its 
 apparent position varied, giving thus hopes of determining its distance. 
 The two observers found no parallax ; but they noted day by day 
 deviations from the calculated position of the star, describing round 
 that position a nearly circular path in the course of the year, the 
 diameter of this circle being 39". It was sought to explain these facts 
 by some peculiar conformation of the earth's atmosphere ; but the 
 explanation failed. 
 
 Bradley renewed the inquiry at Wanstead with better instruments. 
 He found similar deviations in all fixed stars, the path of error being 
 always completed in the year, though varying in form with the declina- 
 tion of the star. Noticing one day, when boating, that the wind, as 
 indicated by the vane at the mast-head, seemed to shift when the tack 
 was changed, the thought occurred to him that the apparent annual 
 shifting of the direction in which the stars were seen was due to the 
 compounding of the earth's motion with the motion of light (Romer). 
 While light travels down the tube of the telescope, the instrument itself 
 has been carried forward one ten-thousandth of its own length. After 
 a long series of laborious observations the conjecture was verified. The 
 earth's movement was now finally demonstrated : for no explanation of 
 this aberration of light is possible on any other hypothesis. 
 
 Continuing his Wanstead observations, Bradley perceived that the 
 annual amount of precession of the equinoxes, regarded as 50", was not
 
 598 BEADLEY : EOMER [Modern 
 
 strictly uniform, varying by excess and by defect. The cause of these 
 variations was suspected by him as far back as 1732 ; but he continued 
 patiently to record them for twenty years, and found them to be re- 
 current in a period corresponding to that of the moon's nodes, 18i years 
 nearly. Newton had shown that precession was explained by the 
 action of the sun and moon on the equatorial bulging of the earth. 
 Bradley suggested that the variations in the plane of the moon's orbit 
 to that of the plane of the equator might account for his new law, 
 known as Nutation ; and this the great geometers who followed him 
 have shown to be the fact. 
 
 Bradley was made Astronomer-Royal in 1742. He died 13th July 
 1762, at Chalford in Gloucestershire, and was buried in Minchinhampton. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Comte : Astron. Populaire, pt. ili. ch. vii. Diet, of Nat. Biog. Bradley's 
 two great discoveries are recorded in Philos. Trans. 1729, p. 637, and 
 1748, p. 1. His astronomical observations, published 1798-1815, fill 
 1000 folio pages. 
 
 EOMER {Olaxis), b. 1644, d. 1702. 
 
 RoMER was educated in the University of Copenhagen, where he 
 studied astronomy. In 1671 Picard, the French astronomer, engaged 
 him to visit Paris, where he taught the Dauphin mathematics. Besides 
 taking part in a survey of France, he worked at the Paris Royal 
 Observatory, and took many observations of Jupiter. Astronomy was 
 sufficiently advanced for fairly accurate prediction of the immersions 
 and emersions of Jupiter's moons. So, when Jupiter and the Earth 
 were on the same side of the Sun, Romer predicted the immersions and 
 emersions of Jupiter's moons as they would occur when the Earth and 
 Jupiter were on opjyosiie sides of the Sun. In fact, however, he found 
 that those events took place some sixteen minutes after the predicted 
 time. And when, the Earth and Jupiter being on opposite sides of the 
 Sun, Romer predicted the immersions and emersions of Jupiter's moons 
 as they would occur when Jupiter and the Earth were on the same side 
 of the Sun, he found that those immersions and emersions occurred some 
 sixteen minutes before the predicted time. After repeated confirmations 
 for the elimination of error, Romer concluded, in 1675, that the 
 difference must arise from light taking sixteen minutes to traverse 
 the diameter of the Earth's orbit. Rorner's celestial observation has 
 been confirmed by Foucault's terrestrial experiment. One objection 
 brought against Romer was that similar errors had not been detected in 
 predictions of the movements of other heavenly bodies ; such errors 
 have, however, been since detected. After ten years' residence in 
 France, Romer returned to Copenhagen, where he was made Professor of 
 Astronomy. He was afterwards made Chancellor of the Exchequer, and 
 eventually Burgomaster of Copenhagen. He made some improvements 
 in the manipulation of telescopes ; but his fame rests on his computation 
 of the velocity of light. [C. G. H.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. vol. ii. lect. 22. Delanibre : Ifist. de I' Astronomic Modernc.
 
 Science] VOLTA 599 
 
 VOLTA (Alessandro), b. 1745, d. 1826. 
 
 VoLTA was born of noble family at Come, where also he was 
 educated. In his youth he composed poetry in Italian and Latin ; but 
 he soon turned his mind to science, and especially to the phenomena of 
 electricity. In 1774 he was made Professor of Natural Philosophy in 
 the University of Pavia, and in the next few years he travelled in 
 England, France, HoUand, Germany, and Switzerland. He married in 
 1794, and had three children; resigned his Professorship in 1804, and 
 died at Como in 1826. He was much patronised by Napoleon. 
 
 Before Volta's time electricity as produced by friction had been 
 much studied, especially by Franklin. Volta carried on these researches, 
 and was indeed the first to subject the tension of statical electricity to 
 precise measurement by an ingenious balance, a fact too often forgotten. 
 The discovery which has made him illustrious is, however, his method 
 for producing currents of continuous electricity, by what is known as 
 the Voltaic Pile. What immediately led to this was the initiative of 
 Galvani, which otherwise bade fair to be fruitless. In 1780 Galvani, 
 whom the names Galvanic and Galvanism unduly honour, found that a 
 dead frog's leg could be convulsed by touching the lumbar nerve with 
 one metal, the crural muscles with another, and joining the metals. 
 Hence he concluded that the electricity was simply an animal product. 
 But Volta dissipated this hypothesis by showing that the metals, when 
 aloof from animal matter, could generate similar force, the main point 
 being, not the presence of the animal body, but the contact of dissimilar 
 metals under the influence of chemical action. In 1800 Volta con- 
 structed his "Pile," consisting of disks of copper, zinc, and cloth moistened 
 with saline or acidulated water. This long upright series of disks is 
 arranged in the order : copper, zinc, cloth, etc., beginning at the 
 bottom with copper and ending at the top with zinc. A current of 
 positive electricity will pass through the pile from top to bottom, and 
 then upwards along a copper wire connecting the lowest copper disk 
 with the highest zinc disk. Volta fell into the error of supposing that 
 the electric current so produced was due to the contact of dissimilar 
 metals ; whereas, both in his own experiment and in Galvani's, chemical 
 action of the fluids and metals involved, greater in the case of one of the 
 two metals than of the other, is the condition determining the current. 
 But Volta's eminent merit is that he followed a truly positive method 
 in a case where metaphysical conceptions predominated ; Avhence he not 
 only saw that Current Electricity belonged to the inorganic world, 
 but also founded Electrical Dynamics by inventing an apparatus for 
 producing electricity, which has caused the science to develop itself and 
 Chemistry with astonishing speed and sureness. [C. G. H.] 
 
 Descliauel : Natural Philosophy, pt. iii. etc.
 
 600 SAUVEUE : GALILEO [Modern 
 
 SAUVEUR {Joseph), b. 1653, d. 1716. 
 
 The founder of Acoustic science, son of a notary in La Fl^clie, was 
 dumb till his seventh year, and never spoke very plainly. He showed 
 great mechanical aptitude while at the Jesuits' school of his native town, 
 and even before. In 1670 he went to Paris, and one of his uncles gave 
 him an allowance on condition of his studying for the Church. When 
 he abandoned theology his allowance ceased, and he lived by teaching 
 mathematics. He soon taught many pupils of high social rank. 
 Between 1680 and 1690 he began the study of fortification, and was 
 at last appointed examiner of the engineers, and allowed a pension till 
 death. In 1686 he was made Professor of Mathematics at the Royal 
 College of Paris ; and worked for the last twenty years of his life in 
 improving the mathematical theory of sound, discovering by theory and 
 experiment the velocity of the vibration of musical strings under various 
 circumstances of magnitude and tension. His ear being very defective, 
 he relied on the words of assistants very largely. His papers on 
 acoustics are contained in various volumes of the Academy between 
 the years 1700 and 1713. He may be regarded as the true founder of 
 this branch of Physics, pursued afterwards in the 18th century by 
 David Bernoulli, Euler, D'Alembert, and Chladni, and in the 19th by 
 Sophie Germain, and Helmholtz. Sauveur's experiments in this 
 department have proved more fertile than his calculations ; and the 
 same perhaps may be said of others. [C. G. H.] 
 
 PhiJ. Pos. vol. ii. lect. 32. 
 
 GALILEO, b. 1564, d. 1642, 
 
 The founder of Physics was born in Pisa, February 15, three days 
 before Michael Angelo's death, and 8te!l"'in thie year of Newton's birth. 
 His father, distinguished in the theory and practice of music, was a poor 
 descendant of the ancient and illustrious Florentine family of Bonajuti, 
 who, in the 14th century, had changed their name for that of Galileo. 
 The boy showed early signs of ardent and versatile genius. He con- 
 structed mechanical toys for his school-fellows ; he threw himself eagerly 
 into Greek and Latin study ; he inherited his father's skill in music ; 
 and he showed remarkable aptitude for painting, to which two genera- 
 tions earlier his life would probably have been devoted. Ariosto and 
 Dante remained his favourite poets throughout life. In his eighteenth 
 year he was sent to the University of Pisa, where he attended the 
 lectures of the great Cesalpind,"~5rfe of Harvey's forerunners. Visitors to 
 the cathedral are shown the bronze lamp which he saw swinging, and 
 of which he noticed that the swings, whether through a large or small 
 arc, took place in equal, or nearly equal, times. Of mathematics he 
 knew nothing as yet, for his flither, wishing to concentrate him on 
 medicine, had dissuaded him from learning them. Yet he turned his 
 discovery to account by constructing a pendulum of proper length for 
 measuring the speed and regularity of the pulse : the first instrument
 
 Science] GALILEO 601 
 
 perhaps ever made for precise observation of phenomena in a living 
 organftin: Qnite'at the end of his life, hia tliQUgB^ts turned again to the 
 pendulum as the best mode of measuring time with the exactness < 
 required in astronomy. 
 
 GaliTeo was not slow to find where his proper work lay. Viviani, 
 his disciple and biographer, tells us that underneath aU his studies of 
 nature, life, and art, he felt, even before he knew, that there lay the 
 scientific foundation of the whole — the laws of Geometry. From Ricci, 
 a friend of his father, who taught fliathematrcs at Ine Grand-Ducal 
 court, he received, at the age of 22, his first lesson in Euglid. From 
 E u_clid he soon passed to Archimedes, and fastened upon that part of 
 his work in which the greate'sTof^ometers stood alone, the marvellous 
 researches on the lever, and on floating bodies. We note here, as in 
 the case of Descartes and Pappus (see Pappus), one of the bridges 
 between ancient and modern, science. Galileo's fir^t~w6rk was l;he 
 construction of a balance for solving in a simpler way Archimedes' 
 problem of the crown of gold alloyed with silver. This drew the 
 attention of the Marquis Guidubaldo of Pesaro, a name well known in 
 mathematical history, who urged him to write, in 1588, his treatise on 
 The Centre of Gravity in Solids, and who procured the next yeai^^his 
 election as Mathematical Professor in Pisa. Here began his first series 
 of re^arches on motion, controlled by experiments on falling bodies 
 carried on from the Leaning Tower. Here, too, was his first crusade 
 against the decrepit philosophy of his time, in which Aristotle's 
 conjectures had been petrified into a creed, while of the open mind 
 and patient observation of the great master not a trace was left. 
 
 After two years Pisa was too hot to hold him. But in 1592, through 
 the persistent help of Guidubaldo, he became Professor of Mathematics 
 at Padua ; and there, under the shelteT~5f'th6 Venetian Republic, he 
 spent the following eighteen years, and did most of his constructive work. 
 His lecture-hall had an audience of two thousand, including strangers 
 from every part of Europe. His latest discoveries, and his suggestions 
 for original researches, were poured out to all comers ungrudgingly. The 
 range of subjects was wide. Besides the laws of equilibrium and motion, 
 he dwelt on the importance of measuring all natural forces, great or small, 
 abstruse or familiar, so as to bring them within the range of geometry, 
 and thus adapt them to the service of man. No one before him had 
 sought to measure heat with precision. His own thermometer, though 
 very imperfect, was the starting-point of others. It was his disciple 
 Torricelli who first measured the weight of the atmosphere. 
 
 In astronomy it was well known that he took the Copernican side. 
 He held, with Bruno, that the universe was infinite, not finite ; and that 
 the stars and planets were made of the same substance as the world we 
 live in. The use he made of the telescope — invented in Holland in 1608, 
 but greatly improved by himself irt the following year — showed facts 
 that made this view for more probable. The Dutch invention was for 
 terrestrial purposes only. Galileo, not neglecting these — for he won the 
 favour of the Venetian Senate by showing the distance at which an 
 enemy's fleet could be descried — turned his own more powerful instru- 
 ment to the sky. He speedily discovered Jupiter's four moons, the
 
 602 GALILEO [Modern 
 
 irregular surface of our own satellite, the phases of Venus, certain bodies 
 which he could not clearly define surrounding Saturn, and the solar 
 spots. The first of these has been weU described as a miniature Coper- 
 nican system : all of them showed the solar system to be far more com- 
 plicated than men thought. His resolution of Qthe Milky Way into 
 separate stars gave another proof that our sun with its planets was but 
 an atom in a boundless universe. 
 
 The Venetian Senate at once raised Galileo's salary. But as the 
 Grand Duke offered him equal advantages in Florence, patriotism turned 
 the scale. He left Padua for Florence in 1610, and. from that time till 
 his death he never knew peace. In the war between Science and Theo- 
 logy-ire "was eager for the fight; he had powerful friends, and felt sure 
 of victory. In 1611 he visited Eome, ajad freely advocated the new 
 conception of the imiverse. Systematic clerical opposition now began. 
 A letter from Galileo to Castelli, in which he took the dangerous course 
 of trying to harmonise Science and Scripture, was laid before the Inquisi- 
 tion. Early in 1616 the propositions of the sun's fixity and the earth's 
 dittmal motion were formally condemned ; the work of Copernicus, 
 published seventy years before, was placed on the Index ; and a j)romise 
 was extorted from Galileo not to defend his theory. He remSmed"s3ent 
 for seVen years. In 1623, when his friend INIafieo Barbarini became 
 Pop6~tJrban viii., he strove to get those edicts reversed. In this he 
 failed, yet still persisted in writing his celebrated Dialogues on the Two 
 Systems. This work with much difficulty he obtained leave to print in 
 1632, on the condition of inserting reservations dictated, it is thought, 
 by Urban himself, which disfigure the preface and the first section of 
 the work. But the dramatic form gave free play to the irony of which 
 Galileo was a master. Simplicius, the personage who advocates obscur- 
 antism, was said, truly or not, to be Urban himself. The book spread 
 swiftly through Europe from south to north. It was 'iTesolved that 
 ' Gallic?) should b>e crushed. He was suinmoned to Kome ; and on the 
 22nd'lJuue 1633 he was forced to read and sign a formal abjuration of 
 his belief in the Copernican doctrine. Tortured physically he was not ; 
 , though had he refused, certain death or impr!l5nment awaited him ; and 
 i his principal work was still unprinted. He was allowed to live in 
 J retirement near Florence, all gatherings of friends being strictly_for- 
 bidden. His house was the Villa Martellini, at Arcetri, near the Con- 
 verrtr-of St. Matthew, where his daughter. Sister Maria Celeste, was a 
 nun. It is sad to know that this daughter, whose touching letters are 
 preserved, and whose loving care had been his mainstay for years, should 
 have died soon after his return from Kome, worn out by anxiety. 
 
 But his strenuous activity survived. His greatest book, the Dia- 
 lognes on the Two Sciences of Mechanics and Motion, summing up his 
 work at Pisa and Padua, was completed at this time, and published in 
 1638 in Holland. He carried on a long correspondence with the Dutch 
 Government as to adopting observations of Jupiter's satellites for deter- 
 mination of longitudes. His last astronomical work was to discover the 
 moon's libration. Then sight failed him. Yet he still worked on, dic- 
 tating to Viviani and' TorricelH important papers, amongst them one on 
 the illumination of the moon by earth light, and attempts to adapt the
 
 Sciekce] GALILEO 603 
 
 pendulum to measurement of time. He was still full of schemes for 
 new inquiries when he was struck down by fever. He died on the 8th 
 of January 1642, in his 78th year. •*" ' 
 
 GaliTeo did not demons£rate the earth's motion. What he did was 
 to found the science of Dynamic, which, in the hands of Newton nearly 
 a hundred years later', led to that demonstration. The scientific study 
 of motion, contrasted with that of equilibrium, involves the new element 
 of Time. Galileo defined uniform velocity as that in which the spaces 
 traversed were proportional to the times of transit. Kepler had shown 
 that a body acting under a single impulse and unhindered, will move 
 for ever in a straight line. But how was it with a body acted on by a 
 continuous force, as that of a body falling from rest under the influence 
 of gravity ? That the velocity increased as the fall went on was obvious ; 
 but what was the law of the increase ? His discovery of this law, as 
 Comte has said, is the crowning-point of his f^tne.' " 
 
 Galileo teUs us that he put to hiniserf as the simplest hypothesis that 
 equal increments of velocity took place in equal times. As time is 
 infinitely divisible, these increments are infinitely small and numerous, 
 and the problem was to sum them. It was a problem of integration, 
 though so simple as not to need a special calculus. Galileo shows by 
 a simple geometric process that, in motion uniformly accelerated, the 
 time occupied is equal to that spent by a body moving uniformly with 
 velocity equal to half that attained by the accelerated body at the end 
 of the period ; that the spaces traversed are as the squares of the time ; 
 and as a corollary from this, that the spaces in each successive interval 
 are to one another as the series of the odd numbers. In a further section 
 of the work Galileo shows, with extreme fulness, that a body, like a 
 projectile, acted on simultaneously by an impulse and by the continuous 
 force of gravity, will move in a parabola^ The Second Law of Motion — 
 that which Comte calls the law of coexistence of movements — was clearly 
 known to him. 
 
 Original as his discoveries in Dynamic were, those in Static were 
 hardly less important ; and Lagrange, in the first section of the Mecanique 
 Analytique, fully appreciated their importance. His work on the Utility 
 of Mechanical Science and the Instruments it employs, written, it is 
 thought, in 1593, though published much later, contains on its first page 
 the distinct germ of the principle of Virtual Velocities, as solving the 
 apparent paradox, that the small weight at the long arm of the lever 
 could balance a large one. The velocity with which the two arms 
 tended to move was inversely proportionate to the weights ; and the 
 case was tlierefore as though a man having to carry to a certain distance 
 a load beyond his strength, took many journeys and conveyed a portion 
 of it in each. The element of time comes in. 
 
 Galileo tested his law of falling bodies partly by direct observation, 
 partly by comparing the spaces traversed in given times upon inclined 
 2:)lanes of the same altitude. The velocity, identical at the end of the 
 fall, admitted, in the earlier parts, of more easy measurement than when 
 the fall was vertical. It may be said generally that the note of his whole 
 work is mathematical research controlling, and controlled by, observation 
 of Nature. For abstract mathematics he had little taste. " Philosophy,"
 
 604 GALILEO : VIETA [Modern 
 
 he says in his Saggiatore, " is written in the great book c f jl Jie U niverse 
 which lies always open. Buf^e must first understana me language 
 and the character in which it is written. That language is mathematics. 
 Its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures, witlhiout 
 which we cannot, huma;fily speaking, understand the words, and wander 
 aimlessly through a dark labyrinth." [j. H. B.] 
 
 Galileo : Dialogues on Mechanics and on Motion. Private Life of Galileo 
 Macmillan, 1870. Phil. Pos. lect. 1, 15, and 29. Pos. Pol. lii. 479. 
 
 VIETA {Francois), b. 1540, d. 1603. 
 
 FranQois Viette, commonly known as Vieta, was born in 1540 at 
 Fontenai-le-Comte, near La Rochelle. The recorded events of his life 
 are chiefly that he held the post of Master of Bequests under Henry iii. 
 and Henry iv. ; and that he took an active but not very successful part 
 in the reformation of the Calendar under the Papacy of Gregory xiii. 
 His spare time was concentrated with extreme zeal on Algebra, in the 
 history of which he fiUs a most important place. He died in Paris in 
 1603. 
 
 Algebra, as known to the Greeks, and embodied in the work of 
 Diophantus (see page 138 above), had been cultivated and developed by 
 the Arabs in the great school of Baghdad. The treatise of Mahommed 
 ben Musa, composed under the Khalifate of Al Mamoun (813-33 a.d.), 
 in which the solution of quadratic equations, in geometrical forms analo- 
 gous to those of Euclid's second book, is clearly given, was brought in the 
 12th century into Italy by Leonard Fibonacci. Little progress was made 
 till the 16th century, when Cardan, Tartaglia, and Ferrari devoted them- 
 selves with nearly complete success to the solution of equations of the 
 third degree. But the work of these men was essentially special. Vieta, 
 taking up algebra where they left it, enlarged its scope, improved, or 
 rather, it would be true to say, constructed its notation, and thus formed 
 what Comte calls the Calculus of Relations into a distinct branch of 
 science. 
 
 His works, of which the principal are the Isagoge in Artem Analyti- 
 C7im, the Logistice Speciosa, and the Zetetica, were separately printed and 
 distributed privately in his own lifetime, and were published by Schooten 
 in 1646 in a collected form. The volume forms a comprehensive treatise 
 on algebra. The syuibols employed are not entirely identical with those 
 now in use, and are much more cumbrous. His signs for addition, sub- 
 traction, and division are identical with ours, except that, in expressing the 
 difference between two quantities of which one was unknown, he used the 
 symbol that is now employed, since Recorde, to express equality. For 
 multiplication he used the Latin prepositions in or sub. The powers of a 
 quantity Avere expressed by terms of geometric origin. The first power 
 being called latus (a side, or line), the second was called quadratum, the 
 third cubus ; for higher powers the expressions quadrato-quadratum, 
 quadrato-cubus, cubo-cubus, and so on, were used. But the simplifica- 
 tions used since his time do not touch the fact that Vieta was the first
 
 Science] VIETA : HARRIOTT 605 
 
 by whom algebra was definitely conceived as the Calculus of Relations : 
 as a science in which all quantities, known or unknown, were expressed 
 by symbols, and in which symbols of quantity were defrnitely distinguished 
 from symbols of operation. By the side of this achievement the special 
 discoveries of Vieta, of which a long list may be made, are of secondary 
 importance. 
 
 Amongst these, however, should be recorded, as De Morgan in his 
 admirable memoir on Vieta observes, "Vieta's application of his new 
 algebra to the extension of trigonometry, in which he first discovered 
 the important relation of multiple angles, and his extension of the 
 ancient rules for the division and extraction of the square and cube roots 
 to the exegetic process for the solution of all equations." De Morgan goes 
 on to remark, " If a Persian or Hindu, instructed in the modern 
 European algebra, were to ask, ' Who of aU individual men made the 
 step which most distinctly marks the separation of the science which you 
 now return to us from that which we delivered to you by the hands of 
 Mahommed ben Musa 1 ' the answer must be — Vieta." [J. H. B.] 
 
 For Vieta's works see above. De Morgan : Article, Vieta, Penny Cyclopcedia. 
 
 HARRIOTT {Thomas), b. 1560, d. 1621. 
 
 An important link in mathematical history between Vieta and 
 Descartes is supplied by Harriott. He was born at Oxford, in St. 
 Mary's Parish, in 1560, and entered St. Mary's Hall. After taking his 
 degree he became mathematical tutor to Sir Walter Raleigh, and through 
 his influence went with Sir R. Granville, in 1585, to survey the new 
 territory of Virginia. His report, published in the third volume of 
 Hakluyfs Voyages (1600), contains important suggestions as to the 
 development of the industry and trade of that colony. 
 
 On his return Raleigh introduced him to the Earl of Northumberland, 
 a munificent patron of science, who gave him a pension of ^300, with 
 residence at Sion House ; and who during his own imprisonment, in 1606, 
 frequently received Harriott and other mathematical friends. At Sion 
 House Harriott pursued his scientific studies till his death, in 1621, of 
 cancer. He was buried in St. Christopher's Church in London. 
 
 Harriott was an energetic and sedulous astronomical observer. He 
 kept up correspondence with Kepler ; he eagerly availed himself of the 
 invention of the telescope : and on 17th October 1610 he began a series 
 of observations on " the new-found planets about Jupiter." It has 
 sometimes been said that he discovered them before Galileo : but for 
 this there is no evidence. A large collection of his astronomical observa- 
 tions is preserved in the British Museum, together with memoirs on 
 other scientific subjects. These are still unpublished. 
 
 The work on which his place in this Calendar depends, Artis Analy- 
 tics Praxis, was not published till after his death, in 1631, six years 
 before the publication of Descartes' Geometry. In view of the exagger- 
 ated claims put forward on Harriott's behalf by Wallis and others, it is 
 well to refer to the very striking preface to this work, in which Harriott 
 states his aim to be simply that of reproducing the work of Vieta with
 
 606 HAKRIOTT : WALLIS [Modern 
 
 an improved notation. Improved notation in algebra is a very im- 
 portant thing, and Harriott's improvements were great. The powers of 
 quantities, instead of being described, as by Vieta, as latus, quadratum, 
 cubus, quadrato-quadratum, and so on, were now represented very 
 nearly as in modern algebra, by the juxtaposition of letters, aa, xxx, 
 etc. The further step of usiijg a number to represent the exponent, 
 as a^, x^, was introduced shortly afterwards by Descartes. In Harriott's 
 work an -algebraic equation assumes its modern form, the terms being 
 collected on the left side and equated with zero. Recorde had already 
 proposed, many years before, the symbol of equality, and Harriott 
 adopted it, adding the symbols for excess or defect. To him also is due 
 the discovery that an equation has as many roots as there are units in 
 its highest power. [J. H. B.] 
 
 See Harriott's work referred to above ; also, Diet, of Nat. Biog. 
 
 WALLIS {John), b. 1616, d. 1703. 
 
 John Wallis was born at Ashford, in Kent, November 13, 1616. 
 He displayed no special talent as a child, and had but just begun the 
 study of arithmetic when he entered Emanuel College, Cambridge, in 
 1632. There he studied anatomy, and is said to have been one of the 
 first to accept Harvey's discovery of the Circulation. He took orders ; 
 in the civU war he sided with the Parliament ; in 1643 the sequestered 
 living of St. Gabriel, Fenchurch Street, was given to him : and in the 
 following year he was appointed one of the secretaries of the Assembly 
 of Divines at Westminster. It was not till his 31st year that he 
 applied himself seriously to mathematics. In 1649 he was made Savilian 
 Professor of Geometry at Oxford; and shortly afterwards he began the 
 series of researches which mark him as one of the pioneers of transcen- 
 dental analysis. Though a Parliamentarian, he favoured the Restoration ; 
 and therefore when this took place he retained his professorship. He 
 was one of the founders of the Royal Society. He died in his 88th year, 
 October 28, 1703. 
 
 His most important work is the Arithmetica Infinitorum, published 
 in 1655. In this he starts from the method of Cavalier i, who in 1635 
 had presented the method of Exhaustions, used by Archimedes and other 
 ancient geometers, in a new form. Cavalieri regarded lines as made up 
 of innumerable points, or rather of very short lines ; a surface as com- 
 posed of innumerable lines, or rather of extremely narrow parallelo- 
 grams ; a solid of innumerable planes, or rather of solids of extremely 
 small depth. That these elementary parts were more easily conceived of 
 than the wholes to which they belonged was certain ; but the difficulty 
 lay in their summation — or, to use the language of Leibnitz and his 
 colleagues, in their integration. The progress effected by Wallis con- 
 sisted in the application to this problem of the algebraic calculus. By 
 summation of the series first of the natural numbers, then of their squares, 
 their cubes, and their higher powers successively, he performed the in- 
 tcLTation now represented as /x'" d ; the remarkable point being that he 
 extended the use of the symbol m to fractional and to negative quantities.
 
 Science] WALLIS : FEEMAT 607 
 
 He arrived in the same manner at- many other results which are really 
 applications of the integral calculus in everything but form : as e.g., 
 the rectification of the parabola, which he showed to be dependent on 
 the quadration of the hyperbola. Newton's discovery of the Binomial 
 Theorem is directly consequent on WaUis's investigations of the quadra- 
 ture of curves. 
 
 It is particularly to be noted that, in the opening sentences of this 
 great work, as well as in many other places, WaUis boldly afl&rms the 
 expediency of the inductive method in mathematical research ; a forecast 
 of Comte's remarkable saying that Geometry was a science of observa- 
 tion ; a truth which it would have been well that Kant had recognised. 
 " Wallis," says De Morgan, " was eminently distinguished by his power 
 of comparison and generalisation ; and he had a large portion of the 
 faith in the results of algebra which has led to its complete modern 
 establishment, in which hardly any of that sort of faith is wanted. He 
 was thus enabled to avail himself of the ideas which the ordinary 
 processes of arithmetic and algebra had offered for centuries without 
 results." [J. H. B.] 
 
 De Morgan : Article on Wallis in Penny Cydoj>cedia. 
 
 PERMAT {Pierre de), b. 1595, d. 1665. 
 
 Pierre de Fermat was born at Toulouse in 1595. He studied law, 
 became a counsellor of the Parliament of his province, and died at the 
 age of 70. He seldom left his province, where he had the reputation of 
 an upright magistrate, and of a learned and capable lawyer. 
 
 The mathematical problems with which he occupied himself were 
 principally the theory of numbers, and the treatment and generalisation 
 of geometrical questions by the algebraic calculus, to which Descartes' 
 Geometry had given so powerful a stimulus. In particular, he studied 
 (1) the method of determining the maxima and minima of curves- — that 
 is, the points at which the ordinates undergo a change from increase 
 to decrease, or the reverse ; and (2) the problem of drawing tangents 
 to the curve at any point. The two problems are closely allied, and 
 their solution brought Fermat very near the discovery of the Differential 
 Calculus, of which indeed Lagrange regards him as the first inventor. 
 This, however, is an exaggeration : to suggest the principle of that cal- 
 culus was one thing, to construct it was quite another, which needed a 
 stronger man than Fermat. 
 
 His principle was as follows : — When a function of a variable (fx), 
 represented by the ordinate of a curve, has reached a inaximum or a 
 minirmim, its increment in a position infinitely near is zero. Making, 
 therefore, an infinitely small addition, e, to the abscissa, we obtain a new 
 function of x which we may equate with the original function. The terms 
 in which e is a factor may now be suppressed, since e is an infinitely 
 small quantity. We thus obtain a special value of x, corresponding to 
 the point at which fx is a maxiimim or a minimum. On this Montucla 
 observes, with justice: "This extremely ingenious rule is similar, barring 
 the notatian, to that taught by tlie Ditterential Calculus. The superiority
 
 608 FERMAT : CLAIRAUT [Modern 
 
 of the latter lies in its speedier method, and in the complete avoidance of 
 the irrational quantities from which Fermat's equations could not always 
 be disentangled " (Montucla, part iv. livr. 2, p. 11 1). This conception 
 of Fermat, and also his analytical treatment of tangents, are clearly 
 explained in Comte's Oeorrdtrie Analytique — a work specially intended 
 to show the full range of Cartesian geometry up to the point where it 
 was superseded by Leibnitz and Newton. 
 
 Fermat edited and commented on Diophantus, adding important 
 researches of his own on the theory of numbers. A new and complete 
 edition of his works is now in course of publication. [J. H. B.] 
 
 CLAIRAUT {Alexis aaud£), b. 1713, d. 1765. 
 
 Clairaut was born in Paris, May 7, 1713. His father was a 
 mathematical teacher. The son's precocity was proved by his publica- 
 tion of an original treatise on Curves of Double CurvaUire at the age 
 of 18 ; it had been completed, however, two years earlier, and was 
 begun in his 14th year. In 1731 he was admitted into the Academy of 
 Sciences. He entered into intimate relations with Maupertuis, whom 
 he accompanied to Lapland in 1735, for the purpose of measuring a 
 degree of the meridian. Clairaut had already begun a series of researches 
 on the figure of the earth, resulting in the publication in 1743 of his 
 celebrated treatise on this subject. In this he showed that, regarding 
 the Earth as an elliptic spheroid, the variation of gravity upon the 
 surface was independent of the law of density of the interior strata, 
 and might be deduced from a knowledge of the external form. Of no 
 less importance were his various memoirs on The Theory of the Moon 
 (1643-1652), raising the important problem of three gravitating bodies, 
 and supplying defects in Newton's mode of applying his law to lunar 
 motions. He was the first who applied Newton's theory to the perturba- 
 tion of cometary motions by attractions of the planets ; foretelling in 
 1757, by very elaborate applications of mathematical analysis, the action 
 of Jupiter on Halley's Comet. These and other researches of a similar 
 kind justify the title which Comte gives to him (Synth. Subj. pp. 567 and 
 653) of being the principal constructor of Celestial Mechanics. 
 
 From the nature of the case, it is impossible that any account of 
 Clairaut's work that can be given here should ofter the slightest approach 
 to adequacy. Those who imagine that Newton found out all that was 
 worth knowing about the solar system, or, again, that researches like 
 Clairaut's are made by looking through a telescope or using a surveyor's 
 instrument, can only be undeceived by going themselves through some 
 of the preliminary stages of the long and arduous course of deductive 
 reasoning which they involved. 
 
 But the briefest notice of Clairaut should include a mention of the 
 two masterpieces of lucid exposition in which this great geometer lias 
 made the elementary principles of algebra and geometry accessible to 
 the humblest intelligence. It is noteworthy that in each case he 
 begins by introducing the student in the most vivid and impressive 
 way to the central problem with which the science deals — in algebra, to
 
 Science] CLAIRAUT : POINSOT : EULER 609 
 
 the formation of equations ; in geometry, to the indirect measurement 
 of space. Both subjects are presented in the way in which we may 
 presume them to have occurred to the earliest investigators, and are 
 thus endued with the charm that accompanies the most abstract scientific 
 teaching when shown to have its root in the History of Humanity. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 Clairaut's A lgeb7'a and Geometry are in the Positivist Library. The latter 
 has been translated by Dr. Kaines (1881). 
 
 POINSOT {Louis), b. 1777, d. 1859. 
 
 PoiNSOT was born in Paris, 3rd January 1777. He entered the 
 Polytechnic School in 1794. In 1804 he was made Professor of 
 Mathematics at the Lyceum ; in 1809 he became Professor of Applied 
 Mathematics at the Polytechnic School ; and in 1816, examiner at the 
 same institution. In 1813 he succeeded Lagrange as secretary to the 
 Academy. He was one of those who recognised Comte's genius, and 
 formed part of the small but illustrious audience before whom the Course 
 of Positive Philosophy was delivered in 1826. 
 
 Poinsot's ijrincipal contribution to Rational Mechanics is his theory 
 of Couples. Starting from the fact that two forces in the same plane, 
 equal in magnitude, opposite in direction, and not applied in the same 
 line, cannot be equilibrated by any single third force, he called such pairs 
 of forces Couples ; the moment or leverage of the couple being the pro- 
 duct of one of the forces into the length of the perpendicular arm joining 
 it to the other. Poinsot shows in his Elements of Static (1) how the 
 couple can be transferred to any parallel plane, or to any position in the 
 same plane, without change of result ; (2) how couples in different planes 
 can be reduced to a single resultant couple. The extreme simplicity and 
 clearness thus introduced into the study of the equilibrium of a rigid 
 system are obvious to every reader of his Elements of Static. Applied 
 to the study of Rotation, Comte observes that the theory of Couples is 
 capable of rendering it as clear and as elementary as that of Motion of 
 Translation {Phil. Pos. vol. i. lect. xvi.). [J. H. B.] 
 
 The Static of Poinsot, with all his Memoirs 07i Mechanic, are in the second 
 division of the Positivist Library. See Articles on Rotation and on 
 Theory of Couples in Penny Cyclop. 
 
 EULER {Leonard), b. 1707, d. 1783. 
 
 The most fertile of great geometers, as Comte, in his Synthase Sub- 
 jective, habitually calls him, was born at Basle, 15th April 1707. His 
 father was a Swiss pastor, himself a mathematician, and a pupil of James 
 Bernoulli. Leonard Euler was taught l)y John Bernoulli, and was a 
 friend of his son Daniel. On the invitation of Catharine i. of Russia, he 
 was invited to St. Petersburg, where, in 1727, he succeeded Daniel 
 Bernoulli as Professor of Mathematics. Here he devoted himself to the 
 development and improvement of the Integral Calculus ; here, too, he 
 published (1736) his Treatise on Mechanics, of which Lagrange, in his 
 A'leca/iiique Analytique (vol. i. p. 227), speaks as the first great work 
 in which analysis was applied to the science of Motion. He observes, 
 
 2q
 
 610 EULER : MONGE [Modern 
 
 however, that this work is founded, like those that preceded it, on the 
 consideration of tangential and normal forces ; but that a simpler way 
 of expressing the effect of accelerating forces on the movement of bodies, 
 in which the motion of a body and the forces producing it are referred 
 to fixed directions in space, was introduced six years afterwards in Mac- 
 laurin's Treatise on Fluxions, and has since been generally adopted. 
 
 In 1741 he went, at the invitation of Frederick, to Berlin, where he 
 remained for twenty-five years, prosecuting inquiries into every branch 
 of the higher mathematics, and also supplying the great ruler with much 
 valuable information connected with the mint, with navigable canals, 
 and other practical subjects. Here, at the invitation of the Princess 
 of Anhalt-Dessau, he wrote, under the title of Letters to a German 
 Princess, a popular exposition of mechanical and physical science. In 
 1766, the Empress Catharine ii. persuaded him to return to St. Peters- 
 burg, where he passed the remainder of his life. His great work. Insti- 
 tutions of the Integral Calculus, was published there in 1768, in three 
 quarto volumes. Euler died peacefully, 17th September 1783. 
 
 To appreciate the quality of Euler's work would require mathematical 
 developments for which there is no space in this work. He extended the 
 theory of series : he created the calculus of circular functions : he added 
 much to indeterminate analysis, and to the theory of numbers. Of the 
 diff'erential and the integral calculus, on both of which he wrote elaborate 
 treatises, he left no branch unimproved, and he did much to develop 
 their application to physical researches, especially to the dynamics of 
 fluids and to acoustics. His theory of rotation is considered by Comte 
 his masterpiece, " on account of its admirable correlation of the abstract 
 with the concrete " {Synthesc Subjective). The copiousness of his work 
 is extraordinary. Of forty-six volumes of scientific papers published by 
 the Academy of St. Petersburg between 1741 and 1783, Euler wrote at 
 least half; and he left a hundred papers unpublished. Of the justice of 
 the title which Comte applies to him there can be little question. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 MONGE {Qaspard), b. 1746, d. 1818. 
 
 Gaspard Monge was born at Beaune in 1746. He was the son of an 
 innkeeper in prosperous circumstances. He was educated at the College 
 of Lyons, where we hear of him at the age of 16 as already occupied in 
 teaching. He became a mathematical teacher at the College of Engineers 
 at Mezieres ; and here it was that he developed his method of construct- 
 ing geometrically plans of fortification. In 1780 he received an appoint- 
 ment in Paris as teacher of hydrodynamics. His geometrical method 
 was first published from the shorthand notes taken of his lectures in the 
 Normal School (1794-5) ; the work was enlarged in subsequent editions. 
 He took an active part in organising the naval and military administra- 
 tion of the revolutionary wars, and in the establishment of the Normal 
 and Polytechnic Schools. He accompanied Bonaparte to Egypt, and 
 the scientific results of that expedition are largely due to him. At the 
 Restoration he was expelled from the Institute. He died July 28, 1818.
 
 SciEifCE] MONGE : D'ALEMBERT 611 
 
 His descriptive geometry, a branch of mathematics almost wholly due to 
 him, has been explained as " a systematic presentation of the methods 
 by which a ground-plan and an elevation are made to give the form and 
 dimensions of a building." From the projections of a point, a line, or 
 series of lines, on two planes at right angles to each other, the point, line, 
 or series of lines can be constructed. Such is the elementary problem of 
 Monge's Geometrie Descriptive — a masterpiece of lucid exposition. " De- 
 scriptive Geometry," he says, "has two objects: first, it supplies the 
 means of representing on a sheet of paper in two dimensions bodies of 
 three dimensions : provided alw^ays that these bodies can be rigorously 
 defined. Secondly, it gives the power of recognising the forms of bodies 
 by the precise descriptions given of them, and of deducing all the truths 
 resulting from their form and their respective position." The preface to 
 the work, bearing date 7th year of the Republic, is a patriotic exposition 
 of the need of technical education as an agency of national indeisen- 
 dence. 
 
 Comte speaks of the work of Monge {Phil. Pos. lect. ii.) as the most 
 striking illustration of the utility of an intermediate class intervening be- 
 tween students of abstract science and men engaged in practical industry. 
 The engineering class has developed largely in recent times : correspond- 
 ing classes are needed in other departments of thought. 
 
 Monge was a mathematician of the first rank. His remarkable 
 attempt to apply principles of classification to geometric surfaces is fully 
 appreciated in Comte's Geometrie Analytique (pp. 485, et seq). 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 D'ALEMBERT {Jean le Bond), b. 1717, d. 1783. 
 
 D'Alembert, the illegitimate son of an artillery officer, was found 
 by the police lying in a public market near the church of St. Jean-le- 
 Rond, in Paris, and taken to the wife of a poor glazier, who brought 
 him up, giving him the name of the church near which he was found. 
 To his mother, Madame de Tencin, who subsequently claimed him, he 
 replied, " You are my stepmother only : my real mother is the glazier's 
 wife." With this poor woman he lived forty years, a small allowance 
 being made him by his father. He was educated at the College des Quatre 
 Nations by Jansenist professors, who discovered, what they afterwards 
 vainly attempted to check, his mathematical genius ; and who hoped 
 to divert him, like Pascal, into mystical speculations. After directing 
 his attention for a short time to the professions of law and medicine, he 
 bent his whole energies on mathematical research. At the age of 24 he 
 was admitted (1741) into the Academy of Sciences ; and from this time 
 began a brilliant career of discovery which lasted for twenty-five years, 
 varied only by his co-operation with Diderot in the celebrated Encydo- 
 pedie, for which he wrote the Introductory Discourse and many literary 
 articles. After the appearance of the second volume, the publication was 
 arrested for a time by the Government, and DAlembert retired from the 
 management. 
 
 His treatise on Dynamic, founded on the celebrated principle which
 
 612 D'ALEMBERT : DANIEL BERNOULLI [Modern 
 
 bears his name, appeared in 1741. It was a generalisation of a question 
 which had much occupied Huyghens and the brothers Bernoulli. The 
 passage from the mechanics of a particle to the mechanics of a mass, or 
 system of particles, each animated with its own tendency to move, and 
 each acting on, and reacted on by, the rest, had been studied by these 
 men in the case of the compound pendulum. Newton had shown that in 
 the case of a sphere, its action on a neighbouring mass might be regarded 
 as though it were concentrated in its centre of gravity. D'Alembert 
 handled the problem in its entirety, and made an epoch in science. His 
 principle is thus stated by Lagrange : " If the bodies, or particles, of a 
 rigid system receive impressed motions which, owing to their mutual 
 action, they are obliged to change, it is clear that these motions may 
 be regarded as compounded of those which the bodies will actually 
 follow, and of other motions which are destroyed. These last must be 
 such that bodies animated by these solely would remain in equilibrium " 
 (Mecanique Analytique, vol. i. p. 239). Comte, in commenting upon this 
 principle, remarks that its germ is contained in Newton's principle of 
 the equality between action and reaction (Phil. Pos. vol. i. lect. 17). 
 
 D'Alembert received in 1752 a pension of 1200 francs from Frederick 
 the Great, with whom he maintained a long correspondence, and who was 
 anxious that he should settle in Berlin. He visited that city in 1763, 
 but declined to stay. He refused also a proposal made by Catharine of 
 Russia to educate her son, the salary offered being ^4000 per annum. 
 The latter years of his life were embittered by his unfortunate attachment 
 to Mademoiselle de I'Espinasse, whose love for him was neither so strong 
 nor so enduring as his own. He died on October 29, 1783. 
 
 [J. H, B.] 
 
 BERNOULLI {Daniel), b. 1700, d. 1782. 
 
 Daniel Bernoulli, the second son of John Bernoulli, was born at 
 Groningen, February 9, 1700. He studied medicine for some years, but 
 mathematics was from the first his favourite pursuit. At the age of 24 
 he was offered, but he refused, the Presidency of the Academy of Sciences 
 at Genoa. In 1725 he went, invited by the Empress Catherine, to St. 
 Petersburg, where he lived eight years. In 1733 he returned to Basle, 
 where he filled the chair both of Medicine and of Natural Philosophy. 
 He lived at Basle, profoundly respected by his fellow- citizens, till his 
 death, March 17, 1782. 
 
 His father and his uncle, James Bernoulli, had devoted themselves to 
 the perfecting of the Infinitesimal Calculus as an instrument of research. 
 Daniel, the contemporary of Euler, Clairaut, and D'Alembert, was 
 mainly occupied with its application to Physics. His Hydrodynamiqtte, 
 published 1738, was the first systematic application of the higher analysis 
 to the motions of fluids, based upon his development of the principle of 
 the conservation of vis viva in a system. In 1740 he shared with Euler 
 and Maclaurin the prize offered by the Academy of Sciences for the best 
 memoir on Tides, in which the equilibrium of particles of water between 
 the gravitation to the Earth's centre, and the disturbing forces of the Sun
 
 Science] DANIEL BERNOULLI : LAGEANGE 613 
 
 and Moon is analytically expressed. Finally, his theory of oscillation 
 must be mentioned. A system under the influence of any disturbing 
 cause tends to oscillate round its position of stability. The oscillations 
 due to different causes co-exist as though each kind took place separately. 
 The application of this principle to the wave-theory in different branches 
 of physics has been of the greatest importance. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. vol. i. lect. 18 ; vol. ii. lect. 25. 
 
 LAGRANGE {Joseph Louis de), b. 1736, d. 1813. 
 
 Lagrange was born at Turin, 25th January 1736, where his father 
 held the office of treasurer of war. His earliest studies were literary 
 rather than scientific. From the classics he passed to the study of 
 ancient geometry ; but he was speedily attracted by the marvellous 
 results issuing every year from the Infinitesimal Calculus. At the age 
 of 19 he became Professor of Mathematics at the Military College of 
 Turin ; most of his pupils being older than himself. Corresponding, in 
 1755, with Euler at Berlin, as to problems of isoperimetry, he communi- 
 cated to him the germs of his Calculus of Variations, the import of which 
 Euler at once perceived. The employment of this instrument of research 
 in various problems, especially in the higher branches of physical 
 astronomy, occupied the greater part of his career. One of his most 
 important results, commonly called the frincijjle of least action, derived 
 from the application of his calculus to Huyghens' principle of con- 
 servation of vis viva, is this : In any system of bodies acting mutually 
 in any manner whatever, the sum of the products of the masses by 
 the integrals of the velocities multiplied by the elements of the spaces 
 traversed is always either a maximum or a minimum {Mec. Analyt., 
 vol. i. p. 246). 
 
 When Euler left Berlin for St. Petersburg, Frederick the Great, 
 after a fruitless invitation to D'Alembert, induced Lagrange to accept 
 the post of Professor of Physical and Mathematical Science in that city. 
 He remained there for twenty years. At Frederick's death, in 1787, he 
 accepted the invitation of the French government to settle in Paris, 
 where the remainder of his life was spent. He died on the 10th April 
 1813, and was buried in the Pantht'on. 
 
 His Mecaniqtie Analytique is a reduction of all the problems of 
 Rational Mechanics to the principle of Virtual Velocities, the germ 
 of which is due to Galileo, and which was first explicitly stated by 
 John Bernoulli in 1717. Lagrange's statement of it is as follows {Mec. 
 Analyt. vol. i. p. 22) : — "If any system of any number of bodies or 
 points, acted on each by any number of forces, is in equilibrium, and if 
 to this system be given any small motion by which each point passes 
 through an infinitely small sjiace expressing its virtual velocity, the sum 
 of the forces, each multiplied by the space which tlie point where it is 
 applied traverses in the direction of this force, is always equal to zero : 
 the small spaces traversed in the direction of the forces being counted 
 positive, those in the reverse direction, negative." 
 
 His Theorie des Fondions Anahjtiques was an attempt to bring the
 
 614 LAGRANGE : FOURIER [Modern 
 
 Infinitesimal Calculus into conformity with ordinary algebra. He shows 
 that when the variable of a function receives an increment, and the 
 function is then developed in a series according to the ascending 
 powers of this increment, the coefficient of the second term of the 
 series corresponds to what, in the Difierential Calculus, is expressed as 
 
 -^, that of the third to -,-^- and so on. He called these coefficients 
 dx dx^ 
 
 derived functions. The primitive functions being fx, the derived functions 
 were noted as fx, f"x, and so on. This method of regarding the Infini- 
 tesimal Calculus has the advantage of abolishing the distinction between 
 transcendental and ordinary analysis. Nevertheless, as an instrument 
 of research, it has not proved equal to the calculus discovered by 
 Leibnitz. It is by this last that all the great advances made by the 
 French and Swiss mathematicians of the 18th century were due : and in 
 his own researches Lagrange used the method and notation of Leibnitz 
 in preference to his own. 
 
 Lagrange is denoted in the SyntMse Subjective as the most philosophic 
 of pure geometers. It is specially characteristic of his genius that 
 he invariably treats the leading conceptions of his subject from the 
 historical standpoint. (See Mecaniq^be Analytiq^ie, vol. i. 9-22, and 
 221-245.) [J. H. B.] 
 
 Synthese Subjective, pp. 420, 438, and 625-6. Phil. Pos. vol. i. lect. 6, 8, 
 and 16. Pos. Pol. iii. 499 ; iv. 350. The Theorie des Fonctions 
 Ancdytiques is in the second section of the Positivist Library, 
 
 FOURIER {Jean BaiM&te Joseph), b. 1768, d. 1830. 
 
 Fourier was born at Auxerre, 21st March 1768. His father was 
 a tailor. He was educated at the Military School under the Bene- 
 dictines, and between 1789 and 1794 taught mathematics there. He 
 took an active part in the Revolution, and was more than once in peril 
 of his life. From 1794 to 1798 he was a teacher at the Polytechnic 
 School. He went with the French expedition to Egypt, where, in 
 addition to his scientific work, he held important administrative posts. 
 He did much to inspire the Champollions with their zeal for Egyjitian 
 research. On his return he became Prefect for the Department of the 
 Isere till 1815. At the Restoration he came to Paris, and succeeded 
 Delambre as secretary of the Academy, and Laplace as President of the 
 Council of the Polytechnic School. He died in Paris, May 1830. 
 
 His Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur was published in 1822. It is 
 an investigation of the mathematical laws of the proj^agation of heat 
 through solids. The analytical problems involved were, as Comte 
 observes in his remarkable chapter on the subject, fundamentally the 
 same as those that arise in researches on the motion of fluids. In one 
 case as in the other, functions of four independent variables are employed, 
 the equations involving partial difi"erences of the second order, and being 
 otherwise of vei'y similar composition. Comte predicted that when
 
 Science] FOURIER : NEWTON 615 
 
 the doctrine of Fourier was better known and appreciated much use of 
 it would be made in analytical researches in other branches of Physics. 
 These remarks were made in 1835 ; they have been verified by sub- 
 sequent experience. The concluding passage of the chapter in question 
 (vol. ii. lect. 31), pointing out the tardy justice done to this great 
 thinker, is amongst the most eloquent in the Philosophie Positive. 
 Fourier was one of the two distinguished men to whom that work 
 was dedicated. He had followed Comte's first course of lectures on the 
 subject in 1826. 
 
 Fourier wrote another important work, Anahjse des Equations In- 
 detei-miTiees, which was published after his death. [J. H. B.] 
 
 A translation by Freeman of Fourier's work on Heat has recently been 
 published by the Cambridge University Press. 
 
 NEWTON {Sir Isaac), b. 1642, d. 1727. 
 
 Kepler established the Geometry of the solar system ; Newton its 
 Mechanics. He was born December 25th, 1642, at Woolsthorpe, near 
 Grantham in Lincolnshire, where his fomily had held a small landed 
 property for many generations. As a boy, at the Grantham Grammar 
 School, he was slow in book-learning, and much absorbed in mechanical 
 contrivances. At 17 he entered Trinity College, Cambridge. Here he 
 devoted himself eagerly to mathematical study, meditating principally 
 on the Geometry of Descartes, published in 1637, and on the Arithmetica 
 Infinitorum of Wallis, published 1655. In 1667 he was elected Fellow 
 of his college, and two years afterwards succeeded Barrow as Professor 
 of Mathematics. From this chair his lectures on Optics were given. 
 In 1672 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society. In 1686 his 
 great treatise on Natural Philosophy, the Frincipia, was completed, 
 and the next year published. In 1687 he was one of the delegates chosen 
 to defend his University against the encroachments of James ii. ; and 
 in the following year he represented it in Parliament. In 1695 he was 
 made "Warden, and in 1690 Master, of the Mint. In 1703 he became 
 President of the Royal Society, and was re-elected every year till his 
 death, which took place on the 28th of February 1727. He was buried 
 in AVest minster Abbey. 
 
 The splendour of Newton's discoveries has led many writers, 
 especially in England, to isolate his work from what had been done 
 before him, and was being done in his own time by others. But the 
 History of Science is a fundamental part of the History of Humanity, and 
 the life of no man, however great, should be treated thus. And further, 
 to Newton, as to others, the canon must be applied that publication is 
 the proper test of priority. 
 
 Kei)ler"s three laws, that the planets moving round the sun described 
 e(|ual areas in equal times, that their orbits were elliptical, the sun being 
 iu one of the foci, and that the squares of their times of revolution were 
 as the cubes of their mean distances, Avere discovered a generation before 
 Newton's birth. But they remained unreduced to any law of force.
 
 616 NEWTON [Modern 
 
 Kepler had indeed shown that the force must proceed from the sun, 
 and had put forward the mistaken conjecture that it varied inversely as 
 the distance. As already stated, Kepler was strongly convinced of the 
 identity between terrestrial weight and planetary attraction, and made 
 an estimate, on this erroneous basis, of the mutual fall of the earth and 
 moon, supposing no other force intervened. Ismael BouUiaud, in his 
 Astronomia Philolaica, published 1645, suggested that gravitation acted 
 not inversely as the distance, but inversely as the square of the distance. 
 But these views rested on vague analogies between gravitation and the 
 radiation of light from a focus ; and till they could be mathematically 
 tested they received, and deserved, but slight attention. 
 
 The law of falling bodies had been accurately given by Galileo. But 
 no attempt had been made to connect it with the laws of planetary 
 motion. In 1665, Newton, being then at Woolsthorpe, thought of investi- 
 gating the space through which the moon in a given time was deflected 
 from the tangent to her path — in other words, fell towards the earth. 
 He found that in one minute the moon fell thirteen feet. Taking the 
 best estimate available to him of the earth's magnitude, from which 
 the moon's parallax, and thence her distance, were to be estimated, he 
 found that, on the supposition that gravitation acted inversely as the 
 square of the distance, the fall of the moon in one minute should be not 
 thirteen, but fifteen feet. He therefore quietly put the hypothesis aside ; 
 a striking example of scientific forbearance, which it would be well if some 
 of the constructors of evolutionary hypotheses in our time could imitate. 
 Seven years afterwards Picard's more exact measurement of the earth's 
 magnitude reached him from Paris. Newton at once resumed his 
 calculations, causing them, for greater certainty, to be completed by a 
 disinterested observer. The correcter statement of facts was found to 
 tally with his hypothesis of gravitation. 
 
 It is often supposed that the j)roblem of explaining the planetary 
 motions was now solved. In reality, the difficult part of the work — that 
 which tests Newton's intellectual greatness — had still to be done. The 
 problem before him was to show how Kepler's Third Law, that the 
 squares of the periods of planets varied as the cubes of their mean 
 distances from the sun, followed mathematically from the supjDosition of 
 an attractive force, acting inversely as the square of the distance, situate 
 in the focus of an ellipse. Further, this force had to be regarded not 
 as acting upon a particle, but on a planet ; i.e. a. system of particles. 
 No vague hypothesis could be useful here : no application of such 
 mathematics as were then known could suffice. 
 
 In 1673 appeared the great work of Huyghens on the Pendulum and 
 on Centrifugal Force. This contributed in two ways to the solution. 
 Huyghens' laws of centrifugal force gave the measure of the force which 
 retained the planets in their orbits, supposing the orbits circular. And 
 further, in his discussion of the Pendulum, Huyghens had attacked the 
 problem of a system of particles rigidly connected, and each animated 
 with its own tendencies to motion. Newton acknowledged his debt to 
 Huyghens ; but in passing from circular to elliptic motion, and above 
 all for his demonstration that the attractive force exercised by the 
 molecules of a sphere might be regarded as condensed in its centre,
 
 Science] NEWTON 617 
 
 ordinary geometry, even after its algebraic expansion by Descartes and 
 his mathematical successors, was insufficient. 
 
 Foremost among these successors stood Newton. And it was at this 
 time — that is to say about 1666— that he constructed the Transcendental 
 Calculus, by the aid of which his great treatise was written ; though, for 
 reasons Avhich seem to us now quite inadequate, he presented his demon- 
 strations in the language of ordinary geometry. On the claims for priority 
 to the invention of this calculus a bitter controversy arose between the 
 friends of Leibnitz and of Newton. It is admitted now that Newton 
 made his discovery prior to and independently of Leibnitz. But no 
 description of Newton's Fluxions was published till 1693. The letters of 
 Leibnitz show that he had invented his Differential and Integral Calculus 
 in 1675 ; and a full account of it was published in the Ada Eruditonivi 
 at Leipsic, 1684. It must be further admitted that the differentials and 
 integrals of Leibnitz proved more fertile in the subseqiient development 
 of mathematics than the fluxions and fluents of Newton. 
 
 But it fell to the lot of Newton to combine the discovery of the 
 calculus with what was by far the most important of its applications. 
 And hence it is that the Principia, notwithstanding the archaic form 
 into which he thought fit to transpose his discoveries, will by many be 
 looked upon as the greatest, by all as one of the two or three great 
 masterpieces, of scientific intellect. In unity of purpose, though not in 
 native power, it surpasses the work of Archimedes ; in the importance 
 of its application, though not in philosophic breadth, the Mecanique of 
 Lagrange. There was only one solar system, as Lagrange himself 
 observed, for man's intellect to master. 
 
 Newton's mathematical and experimental researches on light and 
 colour, which began with his installation as Professor of Mathematics, 
 were first communicated to the Royal Society in 1672, and were finally 
 published in a complete form in 1704. The experimental part of his 
 work, to which the analysis of white light into component colours of 
 different refrangibility~a subject opened by Descartes— is but the prelude, 
 remains of indestructible value. His theory of light, as the emission of 
 small particles with great velocity in direct lines, has been superseded 
 by the theory of propagated vibrations of the ether, originating with 
 Descartes and Huyghens, and afterwards more fully elaborated by 
 Euler and Young. Comte {Phil. Pos. vol. ii. lect. 33) has thrown 
 doubt on the exclusive value of either hypothesis as an instrument of 
 discovery. It is at least possible that the second, now all but univer- 
 sally accepted, may undergo modification. 
 
 Finally, it must not be forgotten that to Newton we owe the 
 establishment of the Third Law of Motion, the equality of action and 
 reaction : a law stated Tjy him in that large and comprehensive way 
 which enables us to include among the reactions tlie conversion of 
 sensible into insensible motion ; so that it illumines and corrects nmch 
 modern speculation upon work and energy. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Newton's Life lias been written, thougli with some pavtiulity, liy Sir D. 
 
 Brewster. See Ball's Hist, of Mafhernaiics (1888). The tiliation of 
 
 Ne.wton's discoveries is lully treated in J'hiL J'<is. vol. ii. lect. 24. 
 
 See also Astron. Poiialo.ire, part iv. cli. ii. ; and Lallitte, l'hUot>o_[iliie 
 
 Premiere, lect. 13.
 
 618 BERGMANN [Modern 
 
 BERGMANN (Torbem), b. 1735, d. 1784. 
 
 Intended for the profession of law or divinity, Bergmann became a 
 student at Upsala in 1752. There, coming under the influence of the 
 great Linnaeus, then at the height of his power, Bergmann was drawn 
 into the study of the natural sciences. Biology claimed his attention at 
 first, and he was soon held in high esteem by Linnaeus, not only as a 
 student but as a discoverer. He graduated in 1758, and became a 
 teacher of natural philosophy in the university, and then a sort of 
 associate Professor of Mathematics and Physics. In 1767 he was 
 appointed to the Professorship of Chemistry, which position he held 
 during the remainder of his life. Bergmann did much to raise the 
 position of chemistry as a science, and thus to maintain throughout 
 Europe the great reputation which the fame of Linnaeus had acquired 
 for the Upsala University. 
 
 The position of Bergmann in the history of chemistry is not due so 
 much to his actual discoveries of fact, important as many of these are, 
 but rather to his strictly scientific manner of dealing with facts already 
 known. He recognised the importance to science of limiting the use of 
 hypothesis, which he saw to be a means of research only, and never an 
 end. His scientific memoirs number more than a hundred, and deal 
 with questions all along the line of chemical advance. He was the first 
 to perform chemical analysis systematically, and laid the foundations of 
 that art. He added much to the chemistry of the important subject of 
 iron and steel, he was the first to draw attention to the science of 
 crystallography, and he may be said to have founded mineralogy. But 
 these and the other important results embodied in his memoirs must 
 give way to his great work on Elective Attractions, which was originally 
 published in 1775, and in a revised form was included in the collected 
 edition of his works which appeared in 1783. Dr. Beddoes translated it 
 into English in 1785. Geofi'roy, long before, had pointed out the 
 significance to chemistry of a study of attraction, but the subject had 
 been forgotten ; still, in some sense, Bergmann's work is but an 
 amplification of that of Geofi'roy. The radical fact of chemistry, that 
 chemical attraction is definite and elective, and can be expressed by 
 numbers, was clearly seen and strongly maintained by Bergmann. Upon 
 this basis he arranged some sixty tables of substances, in which each in 
 turn heads a vertical list, the others following in the order of their 
 attraction for the one at the top. By means of these tables he was able 
 in a manner to jiredict chemical reactions. This luminous doctrine was 
 received with much favour by chemists, until, with the growth of facts, 
 the science became too complex for prediction in the simple manner which 
 he had adojjted. Indeed BerthoUet was able to maintain successfully that 
 chemical combination was indefinite, and depended not at all upon original 
 or fixed attraction, but altogether upon other and variable causes. But 
 further discoveries came, and the fixed and elective character of chemical 
 attraction, as foreseen by Bergmann, was at last universally admitted ; 
 though owing to the immensely increased complexity of the science, it 
 was found impracticable to construct tables of attraction. [A. S.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. iii. lect. 35, 36. Pos. Pol. i. 441. Thomson, Hist, of t'lieni. ii. 
 27-r>3. Kopp : Ocschichte der C'hemie, i. 245-255.
 
 Science] SCHEELE : PKIESTLEY 619 
 
 SCHEELE {Karl Wilhelm), b. 1742, d. 1786. 
 
 The whole life of Soheele was given to chemical study and research, 
 and such was his skill that, for the number and value of his discoveries, 
 he stands almost unrivalled in the history of chemistry. During his 
 pharmaceutical apprenticeship he acquired a knowledge of chemistry from 
 the works of Neumann and other German writers of the Stahlian period. 
 After this was completed, he became a pharmacist's assistant in various 
 Swedish towns. At Upsala he met Bergmann's assistant, Gahn, who, 
 observing his extraordinary knowledge and ability, brought about an 
 interview between him and Bergmann. Then commenced a friendship 
 which lasted throughout their lives, with advantage to both. Scheele 
 soon after left Upsala for Koping, where he combined the duties of a 
 pharmacist with the pursuit of chemical research until his death in 1786, 
 two years after that of Bergmann. 
 
 Although Scheele, unlike Bergmann, was not distinguished as a 
 thinker, he possessed a genius for resolving the most obscure chemical 
 reactions, and his fertility of discovery was quite unparalleled. In- 
 dependently of Priestley, he discovered oxygen gas, which he called 
 " empyreal air," and he was the first to analyse the atmosphere into its 
 two constituents, " empyreal air " (oxygen) and " foul air " (nitrogen). 
 He first obtained chlorine gas, and among his numerous other discoveries 
 are : — oxalic, tartaric, citric, lactic, and arsenic acids ; and their salts ; 
 baryta and the salts of barium ; uric acid, and the composition of prussic 
 acid and Prussian blue. [A. S.] 
 
 Thomson : Hist, of C'hem. ii. 54-74. Kopp, Gcschichte der Chemie, 1. 255- 
 264. 
 
 PRIESTLEY (Joseph), b. 1733, d. 1804. 
 
 The discoverer of oxygen, Priestley, was born near Leeds, in York- 
 shire, in 1733. Thus he was about two years younger than Cavendish, 
 two years older than Bergmann, and some nine years older than Scheele, 
 the last two of whom he outlived. Losing his mother early, he was 
 brought up by an aunt, and was educated with a view to the dissenting 
 ministry. The energetic and fearless manner with which he was wont 
 to maintain what he believed to be truth, and his decided taste for con- 
 troversy, began in his school days. These were the qualities which after- 
 wards made his life so eventful. After leaving school, he officiated at 
 various places as a dissenting minister, where his opinions were nearly 
 always deemed heterodox, and he wiis generally unpopular. He was also 
 a school teacher, and for a time held a nominal appointment'as librarian 
 to Lord Shelburne, with whom he travelled on the Continent. It was 
 at this time that he met Lavoisier and the French chemists, and that he 
 announced to them his discovery of oxygen, a fact which in their hands 
 revolutionised chemistry. Afterwards he again occupied a pulpit, and 
 this time in Birmingham ; but on account of his radical views in politics 
 and religion — for he was a republican and an ardent opponent of the
 
 620 PEIESTLEY [Modern 
 
 Established Church — and also largely owing to the general alarm which 
 the crisis of the Revolution in Paris had spread throughout Europe, he 
 was subjected to an ignoble persecution. Riots took place in 1791, and 
 his house and library were burned, with all his manuscripts. For per- 
 sonal safety he was obliged to fly in disguise to London. Priestley had 
 propounded metaphysical and theological views with much ability, which 
 were not well received at the time ; but it seems that his great unpopu- 
 larity was due almost entirely to his political writings. He espoused the 
 cause of the French Revolutionists ; and in addition to his democratic 
 treatises on government, he wrote the " Letters " to Mr. Burke, which led 
 to his being denounced by that statesman in the House of Commons. 
 The French republicans added to the growing hatred by making him a 
 citizen of France and a member of the Assembly. The feeling followed 
 him to London, and even to America, where he took up his abode at 
 Northumberland, Pennsylvania, in 1795. At Northumberland he lived 
 in retirement until his death in 1804. 
 
 As a metaphysician and theologian Priestley takes a high rank, and 
 he made some advances in electricity and optics ; but his place in the 
 Positivist Calendar is due almost entirely to his brilliant discoveries in 
 the chemistry of gases. Cavendish, in his celebrated memoir on Factitious 
 Airs, had laid the foundation of Pneumatic Chemistry. The apparatus 
 for this was much improved by Priestley, and, thus aided, he achieved 
 some of the greatest results in the annals of science. He invented the 
 pneumatic trough, which has ever since been employed in the manipula- 
 tion of gases ; and, with the aid of this and his other apparatus, in 1774, 
 he discovered oxygen gas, or, as he called it, " dephlogisticated air." He 
 was endeavouring to prepare air from red oxide of mercury by means of 
 a burning-glass, when he obtained some possessing new and unexpected 
 properties. This new air he thought, for several reasons, to be common 
 air deprived of its " phlogiston," and he called it therefore " dephlogisti- 
 cated air." It was afterwards independently discovered by Scheele, and 
 was named " oxygen " by Lavoisier. Besides oxygen, Priestley discovered 
 "nitrous air" (nitric oxide) ; "dephlogisticated nitrous air" (nitrous 
 oxide); the solubility of "fixed air" (carbonic acid gas) in water; 
 "alkaline air" (ammonia gas), and its behaviour when the electric dis- 
 charge is passed through it ; " marine acid air" (hydrochloric acid gas) ; 
 carbonic oxide gas — which, however, he did not distinguish from " inflam- 
 mable air" (hydrogen) ; and many others. To the last he was a zealous, 
 and, it must be admitted, able advocate of " phlogiston." He was a 
 brilliant but not a careful worker : he did not use the balance, and his 
 knowledge of chemistry was limited almost entirely to gases. His own 
 interpretation of his results was often materially imperfect, and he was 
 therefore the more easily persuaded in his opinion that the theory of 
 phlogiston explained the facts of chemistry at least as well as the new 
 theory advanced by Lavoisier. [A. S.] 
 
 Fhil. Pos. iii. lect. 39. Thomson : Hist, of Chem. ii. 1-25. Kopp : 
 Geschichte der Ckeniie, i. 236-244. Autobiography in collected works, 
 edited by Rutt (1817). Thorpe : Brit. Assoc. licport, 1890, p. 761.
 
 Science] DAVY 621 
 
 DAVY (Sir Humphry), b. 1778, d. 1829. 
 
 Humphry Davy was a native of Penzance. He was apprenticed to 
 an apothecary, and during his apprenticeship rapidly acquired skill as a 
 chemist. This soon became known, and when Beddoes established in 
 Bristol an institution for testing the physiological action of the airs which 
 had been recently discovered by Priestley and others, Davy was chosen 
 to undertake their preparation. Beddoes, then a physician in practice, 
 had been Professor of Chemistry at Oxford, and it was by him that the 
 works of Bergmann, Scheele, and others, were translated into English. 
 It was in these experiments for Beddoes that Davy discovered the remark- 
 able physiological action, when inhaled, of nitrous oxide or "laughing 
 gas." He published the result of his work in 1800, and the year 
 following became Professor of Chemistry at the Eoyal Institution in 
 London, then recently founded by Count Eumford. He held this 
 appointment for a number of years, and afterwards resided chiefly on the 
 Continent, where he died at Geneva in 1829. In 1811 he was knighted, 
 and soon after he was made a baronet. He was President of the Royal 
 Society from 1821 until just before his death. 
 
 Besides his work upon nitrous oxide gas and the invention of the 
 Safety Lamp Avhich bears his name, he made discoveries of far greater 
 importance to chemical science. Voltaic electricity had become known 
 by the work of Galvani, Volta, Nicholson, and Carlisle ; the two last 
 showed that by its means water and salts could be decomposed. Now 
 Davy, in view of these facts, thought that chemical combination might 
 be explained as due to the attraction of oppositely electrified substances. 
 A similar electro-chemical theory was held by Berzelius. Davy believed, 
 therefore, that if the poles of a sufficiently powerful battery were 
 brought to bear upon any chemical compound it might be separated. 
 With this view he experimented upon potash and soda, and the so-called 
 alkaline earths, with the magnificent result of discovering the elementary 
 metals, potassium, sodium, magnesium, calcium, strontium, and barium. 
 To these great discoveries is to be added another equally important. 
 BerthoUet maintained that chlorine gas, which had been discovered by 
 Scheele, was a compound of muriatic (hydrochloric) acid and oxygen. 
 Gay-Lussac and Thenard had in vain tried to get oxygen out of it, but 
 it was Davy who first proved conclusively that chlorine is an element, 
 and muriatic acid a compound of chlorine and hydrogen. This dis- 
 covery was the overthrow of Lavoisier's doctrine that oxygen was the 
 only acid-producer, for here was an acid containing only hydrogen and 
 chlorine. Davy's conclusions were contested by Berzelius, but the dis- 
 coveries of iodine and hydriodic acid and bromine and hydrobromic acid 
 supported Davy's view, and the elementary nature of chlorine was finally 
 established. [A. S.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. iii. lect. 38. Thomson : Hid. of Chan. ii. 256-270. Kopp : 
 Geschichte der Chemie, i. 375-383. Life, by Paris (1831), and by J. Davy 
 (1839).
 
 622 CAVENDISH : MORVEAU [Modern 
 
 CAVENDISH (Henry), To. 1731, d. 1810. 
 
 The Hon. Henry Cavendish was' the son of Lord Charles Cavendish, 
 and grandson to the second Duke of Devonshire. He was a man of 
 retiring and eccentric habits, and lived in seclusion in a house near 
 Clapham Common, only occasionally visiting his London residence or 
 coming to town to attend the weekly dinners of the Royal Society or the 
 Sunday evening gatherings at the house of Sir Joseph Banks. Upon 
 the death of his father. Cavendish inherited a large fortune which was 
 subsequently augmented, but his mode of life was not thereby in the 
 least affected. He studied at Cambridge, and excelled in mathematics. 
 He lived to complete his 78th year, and died at Clapham on February 
 11, 1810. 
 
 Cavendish was a skilful experimentalist, and all his work bears the 
 impress of great care, originality, and thoroughness. His scientific'con- 
 tributions, mostly chemical, are contained in eighteen memoirs, all pub- 
 lished in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. Each of 
 these is important. He points out in his celebrated paper on Factitious 
 Airs, published in 1766, that there are two kinds — " inflammable air " 
 (hydrogen) and "fixed air" (carbonic acid gas). Van Helmont had some 
 knowledge of the former, but Cavendish must be regarded as its true dis- 
 coverer ; " fixed air " was discovered by Black, and its properties were 
 further studied by Cavendish. In this paper Cavendish describes the 
 first attempt to collect gases and to determine their relative weights, and 
 thus began the pneumatic chemistry afterwards so successfully prose- 
 cuted by Priestley. Having discovered " inflammable air " (hydrogen), 
 Cavendish next found that when it is burned in common air, or in the 
 " dephlogisticated air" (oxygen) of Priestley, water is formed, thus proving 
 qualitatively the composition of water. This important discovery was 
 recognised about the same time by Watt, the engineer ; and, as soon as 
 it became known in France, the investigation was repeated by Lavoisier 
 and Laplace, and the exact proportion of each constituent was deter- 
 mined. Besides these two great discoveries of Cavendish may be men- 
 tioned his proof of the constancy of composition of the atmosphere, his 
 explanation of the solution of limestone in natural waters by means of 
 fixed air, and his determination of the composition of nitric acid. [A. S.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. iii. lect. 38 ; Pos. Pol. iii. 441. Kopp : Geschichte der Chemie, i. 
 230-236. Life, by Wilson (1851). 
 
 MORVEAU {Louis Bernard Guyton de), b. 1737, d. 1816. 
 
 De MoRVEAU was educated for law at the University of Dijon, in 
 which his father was a professor. He afterwards studied and practised 
 in Paris. He showed a decided taste for literature, and after his return 
 to Dijon as Avocat-General in the local parliament, he was led to the 
 study of chemistry, in which he soon excelled. In 1791 he became a 
 member of the National Assembly, and devoted himself to politics until 
 1797, when he gave himself up wholly to the prosecution of science, as a 
 writer and teacher of chemistry. He was made a Baron of the Empire, 
 and died, having nearly completed his 80th year, in 1816.
 
 Science] MOEVEAU : GEOFFROY : BERTHOLLET 623 
 
 It was not as an experimentalist or as a discoverer that De Morveau 
 chiefly excelled ; but as a clear thinker and writer he did much, especially 
 in the Encydopklie Methodique, to diffuse a correct knowledge of the 
 rapidly advancing science. It was in this work that he became sen- 
 sible of the importance of a completely new system of nomenclature for 
 chemistry, and thus it was that ultimately he persuaded Lavoisier, and 
 afterwards Berth ollet and Fourcroy, to join him in presenting the new 
 system in 1787, which, being at once accepted throughout the world, did so 
 much to render firm and lasting the great work of Lavoisier. [A. S.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. iii. lect. 35 ; Pos. Pol. 1. 433, 453. Thomson : Hist, of Chem. ii. 
 174-189. Kopp : Geschichte derChemie, i. 817-325. Life and Writings, 
 by Granville (1817). 
 
 GrEOFFROY {EtUnne Francois), b. 1672, d. 1731. 
 
 Geoffroy inherited from his fiither, an apothecary, a taste for natural 
 science. He studied at Paris and Montpellier, and came to England as 
 physician to the French ambassador. In 1709 he became Professor of 
 Medicine in the Royal College in Paris, and afterwards Dean of the 
 Faculty, in which position he did much by his personal influence to miti- 
 gate the severity of the strife then raging between Parisian physicians 
 and surgeons. He commenced to lecture on chemistry in 1707, and con- 
 tinued to do so throughout his life. He was a member of the Academy, 
 and a Fellow of the Royal Society of London. 
 
 Geoffroy was the first to construct Tables of Attraction, in which 
 substances are arranged in columns, each having successively less attrac- 
 tion for the one mentioned first. This was undoubtedly a very great 
 advance, and led directly to the important work of Bergmann. [A. S.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. i. 44. Thomson : Hist, of Chem. ii. 242-244. Kopp : G'eschichte 
 der Chcmie, i. 213-216. 
 
 BERTHOLLET {ClmuU Louis), b. 1748, d. 1822. 
 
 Berthollet, after gi-aduating at Turin, became physician to the 
 Duke of Orleans, in which capacity he was first known as a chemical 
 discoverer. In 1781 he was admitted to the Academy, and in 1785 
 became a convert to the new chemistry of Lavoisier. He held a number 
 of State appointments of a scientific character, and when France Avas 
 besieged by the European powers he indicated how the saltpetre neces- 
 sary for the production of gunpowder, which had always been supplied 
 mainly from without, could be obtained at home from the soil and by 
 artificial methods. Thus at a critical moment he started the saltpetre 
 industry of France. Together with Monge, he did a similar service with 
 regard to steel. In 1796 he made the friendship of Napoleon, whom 
 he accompanied to Egyj^t, and who was l)y Berthollet's arrangement 
 surrounded in that expedition l)y so many men of science. He was 
 afterwards made a peer of France. 
 
 Berthollet takes a high position among chemical experimentalists and 
 thinkers; still it was his fate to construct two hypotheses, the demolition 
 of which added much to the progress of the science. He was led by a 
 study of chlorine to regard that gas as a compound of oxygen and
 
 624 BERTHOLLET : BERZELIUS [Modern 
 
 muriatic acid, and called it oxidised muriatic acid. This led to similar 
 notions respecting chlorine compounds, all of which were changed when 
 Davy showed the elementary nature of this substance. It is to be 
 observed, however, that, while showing that BerthoUet was wrong as to 
 the constitution of chlorine, Davy at the same time, by his analysis of 
 muriatic acid, proved that acids need not contain oxygen, and thus estab- 
 lished a contention which BerthoUet had always held against Lavoisier. 
 Again, in his great work on Chemical Statics, BerthoUet took up the 
 radical question of chemical attraction, which had been overlooked by 
 Lavoisier, and maintained against Bergmann that chemical attraction 
 was not fixed and elective, but that it depended upon variable causes. 
 One of these, solubility of the products of the reaction, he formulated as 
 a law. At first the effect of this work was to throw general discredit on 
 Bergmann, but facts gradually became known at the hands of Wenzel 
 and Kichter in Germany, and Dalton in England, which enabled Proust 
 to prove that, in his view of chemical attraction, Bergmann was right, 
 though the enlarged science did not admit of the practicability of tables 
 of attraction. But besides his part in these two celebrated controversies, 
 two important achievements of BerthoUet must be mentioned. Follow- 
 ing out an experiment of Priestley, he determined the exact composition 
 of ammonia gas ; and, though Scheele had noted the bleaching action 
 of chlorine, it was BerthoUet who directed the English bleachers to the 
 fact, and thus indirectly founded the immense bleaching industry of this 
 country. [A. S.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. iii. lect. 35. Pos. Pol. i. 441, etc. ; iii. 499 ; iv. 484, 593. 
 Thomson : Hist, of Chem. ii. 141-165. Kopp : Geschichte tier Chemie, 
 i. 329-338. 
 
 BERZELIUS {Jons Jahob\ b. 1779, d. 1848. 
 
 Twenty years after the death of Bergmann, Berzelius graduated at 
 Upsala in medicine. His attention had already been given to chemistry, 
 and about this time he published some chemical researches which won for 
 him the Chair of Medicine and Pharmacy in the Medical College at Stock- 
 holm. There he established the laboratory which became so famous, and 
 in which he continued to work during the remainder of his life. Honours 
 flowed in to him from all countries, and in his own he was made a Baron. 
 
 Berzelius came to chemistry about the same time as Davy, Avhom he 
 outlived. The work of Lavoisier was then established. Skilled in the 
 analytical methods of Bergmann and Klaproth, and with a full know- 
 ledge of the Lavoisierian chemistry and the work of Wenzel and Richter, 
 Berzelius for some fifty years occupied a leading position among chemists : 
 for he it was who, receiving from time to time the discoveries of Davy, 
 Dalton, Gay-Lussac, and others, and applying them in so masterly a 
 manner, built the great structure of modern inorganic chemistry, and led 
 to the organic chemistry of Liebig and Dumas. His influence, too, lived 
 again in such pupils as Mitscherlich, of Berlin, who discovered the law 
 of isomorphism ; L. Gmelin, of Heidelberg, author of the celebrated 
 treatise on chemistry ; Rose, of Berlin, the analytical chemist ; and 
 Wohler, of Gottingen, who made the first organic synthesis. Berzelius
 
 Sciexce] BEEZELIUS : RITTER 625 
 
 carried the art of analytical chemistry to a very high degree of perfection, 
 and, making innumerable accurate analyses, he added many new sub- 
 stances to those previously known. He believed, with Davy, that chemical 
 attraction was due to the electrical conditions of the combining elements ; 
 but his most lasting work was commenced when, impressed by the fixed 
 character of chemical attraction as shown by I3ergmann, Wenzel, and 
 Richter, he began to apply his unparalleled analytical skill to the deter- 
 mination of combining weights. He adopted and applied the great laws 
 which, held together by the atomic theory of Dalton, came to him from 
 year to year. In his controversy with BerthoUet, Proust had shown 
 that when an element combines with another in more than one propor- 
 tion, the other proportions are not a gradual increase upon the first, but 
 that the increase takes place by sudden increments. This fact, which lies 
 at the root of the science of chemistry and distinguishes it from physics, 
 was worked out by Dalton, and constitutes his "law of multiple propor- 
 tions." It was this which led Dalton in (1802-8) to seek an explanation 
 in the hypothesis of atoms, each having a definite weight. Then in 1808 
 came Gay-Lussac's similar laws relating to combination by gaseous volume, 
 and in 1811, Avogadro's hypothesis. In 1819 the law of the relation of 
 specific heat to combining weights was announced by Dulong and Petit, 
 and finally in the same year Mitscherlich discovered the law of isomor- 
 phism. The full meaning of these discoveries did not appear till later, 
 still it redounds not a little to the credit of Berzelius that he should have 
 successfully applied so much of them to his numerous determinations of 
 what in the language of Dalton's hypothesis became atomic weights. Nor 
 can we forget the important part which the great Swedish chemist took 
 in the controversies which accompanied the rise of modern organic 
 chemistry in the hands of Liebig, Wcihler, and Dumas. [A. S.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. iii. lect. 36, 37. Kopp : GeschicMe der Chemie, i. 390-404. 
 
 RITTER {Johann Wilhelm), b. 1776, d. 1810. 
 
 RiTTER was intended for a mechanical occupation ; but, attracted by 
 the discoveries of Galvani, he devoted himself to a study of galvanism, 
 and in face of great practical difficulties attained to a high rank among 
 electricians. He lived at first near Jena, and afterwards at Munich, 
 where he was a Professor in the Academy. 
 
 He puljlished several works on electrical subjects, and made some im- 
 portant observations respecting the constitution of salts ; but his greatest 
 discovery related to the actinic action of sunlight. WoUaston made the 
 same observation independently just afterwards. That sunlight has the 
 property of blackening salts of silver had already been noticed by Scheele. 
 Ritter found that the solar spectrum possesses chemical activity towards 
 and extending beyond the violet end, forming an invisible actinic sjjectrum. 
 This was the counterpart of Herschel's discovery of heating rays extend- 
 ing beyond the red end. It led in the hands of WoUaston, Wedgwood, 
 Daguerre, and others, to the modern art of photography, and more 
 recently to an important branch of spectrum analysis. [A. S.] 
 
 Pos. Pol. i. 43i. Gilbert's ^-rtKf'ic«, vii. 527; xii. 40L'. Young: Phil. Trans. 
 1804, 15. Biogra2Jhie Universelle, xxxvi. 01. 
 2li
 
 626 LAVOISIER [Modern 
 
 LAVOISIER {Antoine Laurent), b. 1743, d. 1794. 
 
 Lavoisier was born of affluent parents, and received a good education. 
 At the age of 21 he won a prize offered by the French Government for 
 improvements in street lighting. Four years afterwards he became a 
 member of the Academy. The discoveries of Black and Cavendish led 
 him to choose chemistry from among the sciences which had hitherto 
 divided his attention, and his life was afterwards devoted to the pro- 
 secution of that science. He, however, took an interest in politics, and 
 held scientific positions under the Government, and it was on this account 
 that he became a sacrifice to the Revolution, being beheaded, in the midst 
 of his work, with his genius at its brightest, on May 8th, 1794, when 
 only 51 years of age. 
 
 Chemistry, as Lavoisier found it, was encumbered by the great 
 hypothesis of phlogiston. It was by overthrowing this, and putting in 
 its place a new explanation of combustion, that he organised modern 
 chemistry. Let us see how this hypothesis of phlogiston came about. 
 
 The awakening in favour of inductive science, which gave rise to the 
 physical discoveries of Galileo and the philosophy of Bacon, led, in the 
 seventeenth century, to the first attempts to raise chemistry to the rank 
 of a science. Before this time, for a thousand years, the alchemists had 
 sought in vain for a method of converting the baser metals into gold and 
 silver. But this search, commenced by the Arabians, and introduced by 
 them into Europe, and which produced such men as Geber, Raymond 
 Lully, Roger Bacon, and Basil Valentine, gave to the world indirectly 
 an immense number of facts, the organisation of which afterwards made 
 chemistry. Then there came a transition period, in which chemistry 
 was identified with medicine, such as it was under Paracelsus and 
 the celebrated Van Helmont, who, at the beginning of the 17th cen- 
 tury, roughly anticipated much of the pneumatic chemistry of Black, 
 Cavendish, and Priestley. But it was not until 1661, when Boyle 
 published his Sceptical Chemist, that the science began. In this remark- 
 able work he subjects to a rigid criticism the Aristotelian princi])les of 
 earth, fire, air, and water, and the alchemical principles of salt, sulphur, 
 and mercury, and shows that as ultimate chemical elements they are 
 entirely inadequate. He, at the same time, indicates indirectly what a 
 chemical element should be. This put the science on a firm, independent 
 basis, distinct from art of any kind and from biology. It led afterwards 
 to its final separation from physics. About this time the German phy- 
 sician and chemist Becher formulated the hypothesis of phlogiston, 
 which was afterwards applied and maintained by his great fellow-country- 
 man Stahl. According to Becher and Stahl, when, for example, iron is 
 converted into rust it loses something — phlogiston. If, by means of 
 some substance, such as charcoal, rich in phlogiston, the phlogiston be 
 again added to the rust, it becomes ]Alogisticated rust, or metallic iron. 
 A metal was a compound of its earth or calyx (oxide) with phlogiston, 
 and calcination or combustion (oxidation) Avas tlie evolution of phlogiston. 
 Tliis hypothesis served the j^^irpose of linking the facts of chemistry 
 together, and it was largely of its ruins, when it had fallen, that the 
 genius of Lavoisier founded modern chemistry.
 
 Science] LAVOISIER : HARVEY 627 
 
 Lavoisier was a skilful experimentalist, an untiring worker, and, 
 above all, a scientific thinker of the highest order. Now, he was much 
 impressed by the fact which Boyle had observed, that during the calcina- 
 tion of tin there was an increase in weight. He verified this in a long 
 series of accurately conducted experiments, in which he made use largely 
 of the balance. These showed him in all cases that during calcination 
 or combustion there was an increase in weight, and a corresponding 
 decrease in the superincumbent air. This fact was, of course, fatal to 
 the phlogistic hypothesis. The difficulties to be got over were, however, 
 still many, and they were ably handled by the defenders of the prevailing- 
 hypothesis. But the discovery of oxygen by Priestley, the analysis of 
 atmospheric air by Scheele, and the determination of the composition of 
 water by Cavendish, Watt, and himself, enabled Lavoisier to explain 
 calcination and combustion as simple oxidation, and successfully to 
 attack the hypothesis of phlogiston. Then it was that BerthoUet (in 
 1785) became a convert to the new doctrine, and was followed by 
 Fourcroy and De Morveau. In Great Britain, CaA-endish and Priestley 
 never gave up phlogiston, but Black accepted the view of Lavoisier, 
 and taught it in his lectures. Bergmann and Scheele, in Sw^eden, died 
 too early ; but Klaproth and the Berlin Academicians, after having 
 repeated Lavoisier's experiments, gave up the hypothesis of Becher and 
 Stahl. De Morveau then proclaimed the new nomenclature, and 
 Lavoisierian chemistry was definitely established. LTpon this basis, 
 Davy and Berzelius, and, more recently, Liebig and Dumas, have 
 built the structure of modern chemistry. 
 
 Lavoisier did much important work of other kinds, detailed in his 
 Treatise on Chemistry and elsewhere. He burnt organic substances in 
 oxygen, and from the quality and quantity of the products calculated 
 the composition of the substance burned, thus la;ying the foundation of 
 ultimate organic analysis as worked out by Liebig ; and, in conjunction 
 with Laplace, he invented a " calorimeter," by means of which they 
 made the first accurate determinations of specific heat. But his funda- 
 mental achievement is to have prepared the way for the scientific study 
 of life, by the establishment of the true theory of combustion as a process 
 of oxidation. The function of respiration, and the production of animal 
 heat, now became for the first time intelligible. [A. S.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. iii. 189, 190, etc. ; Pos. Pol. i. 441, 453, iii. 506, iv. 484. Thoiii- 
 sou : Bist. of Chem. ii. 75-141. Kopp : Geschichte der Chemie,\. 299- 
 317. Qhtvres, Paris, 1864-68. 
 
 HARVEY {WllUam), b. 1578, d. 1657. 
 
 William Harvey was l)orn at Folkestone on the 1st of April 1578, 
 of a mercantile family of good repute in the city of London. His 
 mother's epitaph may still be read in the parish church. He was sent 
 to the grammar scliool at Canterbury, and afterwards, in his 16th year, 
 to Caius College, Camljridge, where he took his degree in 1597. In the 
 following year he went to Padua to study medicine, and remained there 
 four years. The Italian schools of medicine were at that time very far 
 in advance of those of northern Europe. In Bologna, Padua, and Pisa,
 
 628 HARVEY [Modern 
 
 the study of human anatomy was prosecuted with extraordinary zeal. 
 Much has been said, and rightly, of Harvey's debt to his distinguished 
 teacher, Fabricius of Acquapendente, to whom is due the discovery of 
 valves in the veins, favouring the flow of blood in a special direction. 
 But it must not be forgotten that a greater than Fabricius was in Padua 
 while Harvey was there. Galileo's lectures on motion and mechanical 
 force were revolutionising thought on all physical questions ; and on so 
 keen an intellect as Harvey's we may be sure they were not lost. 
 
 In 1604 he became a member, and three years afterwards a fellow, 
 of the College of Physicians, and established himself in London, number- 
 ing Bacon among his patients. In 1615 he was appointed lecturer on 
 anatomy and surgery at the College of Physicians. Here his views on 
 the circulation of the blood were first put forward ; though they were 
 not published till 1628. He was one of the court physicians under 
 James i. and Charles i. Charles took great interest in his discoveries 
 and pursuits, and allowed him to prosecute his researches on embryology 
 among the deer at Hampton. He followed the King through the civil 
 war till the surrender of Oxford in 1646, having been in the previous 
 year made, for a short space. Warden of Merton College. After this he 
 lived with one or other of his brothers in the neighbourhood of London. 
 In 1651 his great work on Generation was published. A statue was 
 erected in his honour by the College of Physicians, five years before his 
 death ; and an annual lecture is stiU given there in his honour. He 
 died on the 3rd June 1657. He is buried in Hemel-Hempstead, in 
 Essex. 
 
 Blind partisanship has striven to minimise Harvey's debt to those 
 who prepared the way for him. But it is disingenuous not to acknow- 
 ledge that certain very close approximations to his discovery had been 
 made in the latter half of the 16th century. Michael Servetus, in his 
 Restitutio Christianismi (1553), had truly described the circulation of 
 the blood from the right side of the heart, through the lungs, to the 
 left side. He knew the change of the colour of the blood from dark to 
 bright red that took place in the lungs ; he knew also that in the act of 
 expiration the blood was purified from " fuliginous vapours." Realdus 
 Columbus in 1559, and after him Cesalpino of Arezzo, Galileo's first 
 teacher, by careful study of the valves of the heart, had shown that the 
 course of the pulmonary circulation must be as Servetus had stated. 
 Cesalpino went so far as to conjecture that by the great artery (aorta) 
 and its branches bright blood passed to all parts of the body ; and that 
 in the veins the passage was not from the main trunk to branches, but 
 from branches to trunk. 
 
 But, in the first place, these views, especially as regarded the systemic, 
 or general, circulation, were conjectural only, and were complicated with 
 erroneous views as to the relations of the heart and liver. Secondly, 
 what is far more important, neither these great anatomists, nor any one 
 else, had any conception of the muscular contraction of the heart as the 
 mechanical force that impelled the blood. They were still under the 
 full dominion of metaphysical fancies as to motion being naturally in 
 circles ; and as to the eff'ervescing spirits which caused the heart, in its 
 diastole, to swell and so attract the blood ; whereas, in systole, the heart
 
 Science] HARVEY : BELL 629 
 
 collapsed, when the body drew from it a supply of nutriment. Harvey 
 showed for the first time that the periods of activity and rest were 
 exactly the reverse of what had been thought ; that the energy of each 
 chamber of the heart was exerted in contraction. Combining the re- 
 searches of his predecessors, and availing himself of the discovery of 
 Fabricius as to the valves of the veins, he showed the precise manner in 
 which the machine worked. It was the first introduction into biology of 
 the laws of mechanical science. 
 
 The second of Harvey's works, that on Generation, containing, like 
 the first, a mass of original and carefully classified observations on human 
 beings and animals, was less fertile in immediate discovery. But it con- 
 tinued, with alternate strivings of the positive and metaphysical spirit, 
 the researches of Aristotle, and it fills a most important place in the 
 history of Embryology. His striking generalisation, Ornne vivum ex ovo, 
 though not true absolutely, shows most prescient insight into the process 
 of organic evolution. 
 
 Comte, remarking that Harvey's discovery of the Circulation was 
 nearly synchronous with Galileo's Law of Falling Bodies, contrasts the 
 immediate results. Galileo's work led at once to a vast train of physical 
 discovery. No such immediate results followed the discovery of Harvey. 
 The time for a scientific and comprehensive grasp of the phenomena of 
 life had not yet come. [J. H. B.] 
 
 Dr. R. Willis : Life of Harvey, prefixed to his works (Sydenham Society, 
 1847). 
 
 BELL {Sir Cliarhs), b. 1774, d. 1842. 
 
 A native of Edinburgh, Bell, a member of an old Episcopalian 
 family, lived in that city till he was 30 years of age ; removed thence 
 to London ; and ten years later was elected surgeon to the Middlesex 
 Hospital. We have it in his own handwriting, in Pettigrew's Medical 
 Portrait Gallery, stating that he was educated at the High School of 
 Edinburgh : " Nonsense I I received no education but from my mother, 
 neither reading, writing, ciphering, nor anything else. My education 
 was the example set me by niy brothers. There has been in my day 
 a good deal said about education ; but they appear to me to put out 
 of sight example, Avhich is all in all. There was, in all the members of 
 the family, a reliance on self, a true independence, and by imitation I 
 obtained it" {Bell's Letters [1870], p. 10). His natural character was 
 one of rare refinement, simplicity, and beauty ; he possessed artistic 
 abilities of a high order : he made one of the most important, difficult, 
 and interesting of physiological discoveries ; and he was treated by his 
 contemporaries with scanty justice. Very great advances in our know- 
 ledge of the nervous system have taken place since his day, but they may 
 all he said to have liad their starting-point in his successful attempt to 
 elucidate that complex mechanism. The 2)roblem which had confronted 
 and battled all previous investigators may be thus briefiy stated in terms 
 as old us Galen : Why sensation should remain entire in a limb, when
 
 630 BELL [Modern 
 
 all voluntary power over its muscles is lost? or why muscular power 
 should remain when feeling is gone ? We now know that nerves are 
 not, as they were formerly supposed to be, mere homogeneous channels 
 capable of conducting indiscriminately initial impulses from the brain, 
 but that each nerve consists of two sets of fibres, each endowed with 
 distinct and separate properties. One of these sets is termed afferent 
 or sensory, the other efferent or motor — the former alone conveying 
 sensation, the latter alone capable of exciting motion. In the nerve 
 trunk itself these fibres are inextricably interwoven and indistinguish- 
 able ; but at their origin in the spinal cord they are perfectly distinct, 
 and arise from separate portions of that structure. In this consisted 
 Bell's great discovery. He showed both by reasoning and experiment 
 that the bundles of nerves which arise from the anterior part of the cord 
 are endowed with motor properties only ; while those which originate 
 in its posterior portion are alone capable of conveying sensations. He 
 was led to this highly philosophical analysis by a consideration of the 
 cranial nerves, some of which contain only one class of fibres to the 
 exclusion of the other. He also observed that the nerves of special 
 sense arose from diff'erent tracts of the brain, and he thence inferred 
 that the two attributes of the body at large — sensation and motion — 
 were dependent on a nervous supply which had its origin in diff'erent 
 parts of the spinal axis. [T. F.-P.] 
 
 Bell's researches began with an essay privately printed in 1811, which 
 places his originality beyond doubt. They were completed in 1826, and 
 were united into a treatise in 1830. His papers in the Philosophical 
 Transactions, especially that of July 12, 1821, illustrated with the 
 artistic skill of which he was a master, may be read with much profit, 
 as illustrating his use of the comparative method in disentangling the 
 otherwise inextricable complications presented by the nervous system 
 of the higher vertebrates. " I feel a hesitation," he said, in his Memoir 
 of 1826, "when I reason upon any other ground than the facts of 
 Anatomy. Experiments are more apt to be misinterpreted." P'rom 
 experiment, however, he did not abstain ; though he distinctly admitted 
 ethical restraint upon its use, even at the cost of retarding scientific 
 discovery. " I should be writing," he tells his brother, 1st July 1822, 
 " a third paper on the nerves ; but I cannot proceed without making 
 some experiments, which are so unpleasant to make that I defer them. 
 You may think me silly, but I cannot perfectly convince myself that I 
 am authorised either in nature or religion to do these cruelties." Of the 
 value of his discovery he was clearly and not unduly conscious. " I 
 know," he writes to his brother in November 1821, "that this will here- 
 after put me beside Harvey." By the side of Harvey, Comte has placed 
 him. 
 
 Bell died at Hallow Park, near Worcester, on the 28th April 1842. 
 
 [J. H. B.]
 
 Science] BOERHAAVE 631 
 
 BOERHAAVE (Hermann), b. 1668, d. 1738. 
 
 Hermann Boerh^vave was born at Voorhout, near Leyden, Decem- 
 ber 3, 1668. Destined for the clerical profession of his father, he was 
 sent to the University of Leyden, where, after maintaining himself for 
 some time by mathematical teaching, he devoted himself to the study 
 of medicine, in the theory and practice of which he achieved extraordi- 
 nary distinction. In 1709 he was elected Professor of Botany and 
 Medicine ; in 1714, Professor of Practical Medicine ; being chosen in the 
 same year Rector of the University. In 1718 he obtained the Professor- 
 ship of Chemistry ; and on this body of knowledge — for science at that 
 time it could not be called — he wrote an important treatise. His prin- 
 cipal work is his Institutes of Medicine, a systematic attempt to place 
 medical art on a scientific basis. He begins with a comprehensive review 
 of the history of medicine from Hippocrates to his own time. Doing 
 justice to the direct observation of Hippoci'ates and to the anatomical 
 knowledge of Galen, increased in modern times by Vesalius and others, 
 he points out how completely at sea men were when, from the study of 
 structure, they passed to the study of function, until the great discovery 
 of Harvey came, " to found physic on the new and more certain basis 
 on which it at present rests" (§ 18). Boerhaave lived in the great 
 period of mathematical discovery, when men were beginning to estimate 
 mechanical forces accurately. Chemistry had not emerged, and therefore 
 Biology still less, from the metaphysical stage to the positive. Of the 
 two fundamental facts — respiration and combustion — no scientific ex- 
 planation was yet possible. It was, therefore, inevitable that Boerhaave, 
 eagerly availing himself of such positive science as came within his ken, 
 should have stretched it too far in its application to the facts of life. 
 The human body is, he says, an engine, all whose offices depend on the 
 circulation of the blood. The heat of the body is caused and maintained 
 by the friction of particles in this rapid movement. 
 
 But the wisdom of Boerhaave is conspicuous in passing from theory 
 to practice. Hold hard to fs^cts, he said : remember that the physician 
 must apply physical discoveries to animal structures with reserve : that 
 what is true of incompressible fluids in rigid tubes does not necessarily 
 hold of viscid animal fluids in flexible and elastic vessels. While con- 
 vinced that medicine must rest on science, he knew how imperfect the 
 science of his time was. Most striking in this respect are his remarks 
 (§ 203) on the importance of understanding the function of respira- 
 tion, which remained, he said, still unexplained. His theory of Disease 
 was, of course, in no way sounder than that of his conteni])oraries. Every 
 disease, he maintains (^ 871), is a distinct })]iysical and created entity or 
 being, so as to be distinguishable, like a plant or animal, from all others. 
 Nevertheless he had a clear vision, though one not to be realised in his 
 lifetime, of the biological science on which medicine shouM rest. It is 
 significant that somewhat more than half of his great treatise on medicine 
 should relate to the study of normal structure and function. [J. H. B.] 
 
 See InstUiUes cf Medicine, Engl, traiisl. (1742), six vnhiiiies : see also his 
 Aphorisms, translated into every Europeau language.
 
 632 STAHL : BARTHEZ [Moderk 
 
 STAHL {George Ernest), b. 1660, d. 1734, 
 
 Tlie founder of the Spiritualist, oi* (this word being of late perverted) 
 the Animistic school in Medicine, and in Chemistry the author of the 
 Phlogistic hypothesis, Stahl, was born at Anspach, 21st October 1660. 
 He became in 1687 court physician of the Duke of Saxe- Weimar ; in 
 1624 he gained the Professorship of Medicine at the University of Halle ; 
 in 1716 he was appointed physician to the King of Prussia. He died in 
 Berlin, May 14, 1734. 
 
 The mechanical and physical discoveries of the 17th century led 
 inevitably to a crude and premature application of them to the facts of 
 living organisms. And what could not be explained by Physics could, 
 so thought another school, be accounted for by Chemistry, which towards 
 the close of this century began to assert its claims as a distinct science. 
 Against both these schools Stahl vigorously protested. The first, whom 
 he called iatro-mathematicians, sought to explain vital phenomena by 
 conjectures as to the shape of atoms, the curvature of blood-vessels, and 
 the mechanical force exerted by the heart. The second, the Chimiatric 
 school, accounted for everything by ferments and solutions of salts. Of 
 chemistry Stahl had a good right to speak. He was a master in that 
 science, and put forward, in 1698, the celebrated theory of phlogiston, 
 which held its ground more than half a century. 
 
 Yet so convinced was he of the fatal error of Specialism in dealing 
 with man's organisation, that in his Theoria Medica (1707) he proposed, 
 to banish Chemistry and Anatomy from Medicine. Hippocrates had 
 shown himself a better physician than any of Stahl's contemi^oraries, 
 without being either a chemist or an anatomist. Stahl's own conception 
 of an Arch^ or Vital Principle pervading the organism, relaxing this part, 
 bracing that, and thus regulating the supply of blood or the secretions 
 in the healthy state, or disturbing them when disordered, seems to us 
 nebulous in the extreme ; but it saved the essential principle of unity 
 which underlay the medicine of Hippocrates. When the nervous system 
 should be known in its entirety, that principle was to find a positive 
 basis ; and meanwhile so urgent is the practical need for synthetic views, 
 in Medicine as in Ethic, that a metaphysical synthesis is better than 
 none at all. " [J. H. B.] 
 
 Bronssais : Ex'inien des Doctrines Medimles, vol. ii. cli. 19. 
 
 BARTHEZ {Paul Joseph), b. 1734, d. 1806. 
 
 Stahl's protest against the premature application of inorganic science 
 to the facts of human nature was continued through the 18th century by 
 Barthez, Avho was l)orn in the year of Stahl's death, at Montpellier. 
 His father was chief engineer for the province of Languedoc. Bartliez 
 graduated in medicine at Montpellier in 1753. After a short residence 
 in Pnris, and a period of service as army surgeon, he obtained, in 1 7."39, 
 the Professorship of Medicine at Montpellier, whicli he held till 1780. 
 His appointment as court physician then took him to Paris, where he
 
 Science] BARTHEZ : LINN^US 633 
 
 remained till the Revolution. Then he lived in retirement, but not idly, 
 in Carcassonne, till his death, 15th October 1806. 
 
 His Nouveaux Elements de la Science de V Homme was first published 
 in 1778. The enlarged second edition of 1806, containing his replies to 
 critics, is far the more valuable, and was reprinted in 1858. 
 
 Like Stahl, Barthez defended the unity of the organism by asserting a 
 Vital Principle ; nor is it easy to see how, in the absence of sound and 
 complete knowledge of a central nervous system, the defence could be 
 conducted otherwise. But Barthez, living three-quarters of a century 
 after Stahl, had assimilated the philosophy of Hume, and was acquainted 
 with the chemistry of Lavoisier. Still Lavoisier's theory of combustion, 
 true as we know it to be, failed to satisfy him as an explanation of animal 
 heat. It failed to explain how in an atmosphere 30° below zero (F.), or, 
 again, in an air-bath rising above the boiling-point of water, the tempera- 
 ture of the blood remained the same. Barthez had recourse to his Vital 
 Principle, which regulated molecular change. His abstraction, scorned 
 by physicists for more than half-a-century, was not so far from the truth 
 as was thought. Modern research on the nervous system shows em- 
 phatically that after attributing full weight to the slow oxidation {i.e. 
 combustion) of food as the principal source of animal heat, there still 
 remains the need for a central nervous system to regulate that heat by 
 stimulating glands and muscles, by contracting or relaxing vessels, or 
 even by direct promotion of local nutritive change. (See, e.g., Terrier, 
 Functions of the Brain, 2nd edition, 1886, p. 86.) 
 
 The most interesting and important part of Barthez' treatise is his 
 discussion of organic Sympathies. He distinguished these from Sjinergies, 
 the normal co-operation of a collection of organs for a given result. He 
 included in them such facts as those to which Darwin has since called 
 attention under the title. Correlations of growth — e.g., those shown by 
 many animals at puberty ; and also many othei's well known to observers 
 of disease. 
 
 Thus Barthez indicates a distinct approach to that true philosophy of 
 science which, while recognising the dependence of the more complex 
 and special phenomena on the more simple and general, yet maintains 
 the special inductions of the more comjilex science as an independent 
 field of inquiry. Comte's enlarged use of the word Materialism, indicat- 
 ing all undue encroachment of the lower and more general sciences upon 
 the higher and more special, is strikingly enforced by this work of Barthez. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 The Nouveaux Elements are ia the 2n(l Division of the Positivist Librarj-. 
 In the 4tli Division is a posthumous work, Theoric dii Beau, which, liow- 
 ever, is rare. 
 
 LINN^US {Chrirles von Linne), b. 1707, d. 1778. 
 
 The following remarks are applicable not merely to Lixx.Krs, but to 
 other names in this week, sp;'cially connected with Classification. 
 
 It was a cardinal doctrine with Comte that each science Ijrought its 
 special eontril)ution to the sum of man's logical resources, which then 
 became availalile for other purposes. As Astronomy develo])s the art of
 
 634 LINN^US [Modern 
 
 direct observations leading to verifiable hypothesis : as Physical researches 
 stimulate the logic of Experiment : so in Biology the logic of Comparison 
 and Classification is specially developed. Biology may be regarded not 
 merely as a field of Nature interesting for its own sake, but also as an 
 advance in human history, by which man's reasoning powers are 
 strengthened, while at the same time light is thrown upon his nature. 
 From this latter standpoint the efforts of the men who strove to classify 
 the organic world first by arranging like species into groups, and then by 
 arranging such groups, so far as the case admitted, in the order of 
 increasing or diminishing complexity to man upwards or from man down- 
 wards, have great and permanent value, apart altogether from their bear- 
 ing on theories of organic evolution. To regard them, with many 
 naturalists of this generation, simply as blind gropings towards a con- 
 jectural Phylogeny, is to render them scanty justice. In examining the 
 relation of a given organ to its function in man, the principal method of 
 research is to range the forms of this organ serially as they are found in 
 the descending scale, regarding the simpler terms as steps in the ladder 
 by which to rise to the more complex. As a picture of Nature, the value 
 of the organic scale may be contested ; but it is one of the most potent 
 tools for investigating Nature — forged in Biology, and afterwards avail- 
 able in every other science. 
 
 Linnteus, born May 3rd, 1 707, at Rashult in the province of Smaland, 
 Sweden, was the son of a poor village pastor, an enthusiastic florist, 
 whose hives and flower-beds were not seldom disturbed by the wild bees 
 and plants brought into them by his son. The boy, refusing a clerical 
 life, was apprenticed to a shoemaker. But Rothman, rector of the school 
 to which he had been sent, saw his genius, and supplied him with 
 Tournefort's treatise on Botany. He was sent to the University of Lund 
 on a pittance of eight pounds a year, and thence to Stockholm, passing 
 through miserable straits of poverty ; mending his own shoes with 
 the bark of trees ; but following his work of observing plants and 
 insects with unflagging zeal. Celsius, a Professor of Divinity and ardent 
 naturalist, at last recognised his power, provided him with board and 
 lodging, and his time of suffering was over. 
 
 In 1731 he was charged with an expedition to Lapland, returning 
 with a mass of observations on its natural history and its inhabi- 
 tants. Of these the botanical alone were published by himself : the 
 rest posthumously. In 1735 he visited Holland. In Leyden he came 
 into contact with Boerhaave, then at the height of his reputation, who 
 obtained for him the charge of the botanical gardens and collections of 
 Cliflbrt, a man of great wealth living near Haarlem. Here Linniuus 
 published the first draft of his Sysfema Naturd: (1735) ; his Funda- 
 iihcnta Botanica (1736) ; and in the following year, the Genera Flant- 
 arum, the Clashes Flantarum, and the Critica Botanica. He made at 
 this time a short tour in England, where he was rather coldly received 
 by Sir Hans Sloane. In Paris he was more cordially welcomed by the 
 brothers Anthony and Bernard de Jussieu. 
 
 In 1741 he was appointed Professor of Physic and Anatomy at 
 Upsal. He continued to lecture on Materia Medica and on every 
 branch of Natural History, till 1774, when a stroke of apoplexy disabled
 
 SciENCH LINN^US 635 
 
 him. He died a month after Haller, with whom he had held animated 
 controversy, 10th January 1778, and was buried with great honour in 
 the cathedral of Upsal. 
 
 Linnaius is commonly thought of as the constructor of the artificial 
 system of classifying plants which bears his name, and is unfavourably 
 contrasted with the constructors of the Natural system. This estimate 
 of his work is entirely inadequate. His Systema Nahtne, first published 
 in 1735, and republished by him in successive editions till 1770, was a 
 comprehensive survey of the " three kingdoms of Nature, systematically 
 arranged in classes, orders, genera, and species." In the formation of 
 natural groups, very much had been done by Aristotle, and his work 
 was carried on in the 15th and 16th centuries by Aldi'ovandus, Conrad, 
 Gesner, and others ; but the merit of first arranging these groups in 
 orderly succession belongs to Linnaius. 
 
 Owing to the greater complexity of functions and organs in the 
 animal kingdom, this process, especially the latter part of it, was far 
 more possible with animals than with plants. Linnfeus, in 1735, 
 distinguished six sub-kingdoms : 1. Quadrupeds, afterwards called by 
 him Mammalia ; 2. Birds ; 3. Amphibia, in which Reptiles were in- 
 cluded ; 4. Fishes ; 5. Insects ; 6. Worms. Each Avas subdivided into 
 orders. Mammals, e.g., were arranged in the following orders : a. An- 
 thropomorpha or Primates, including the genera Man, Ape, Sloth. 
 b. Ferse or Carnivora. c. Glires or Rodents, d. Jumenta, including 
 Horse, Hippopotamus, Elephant, and Pig. e. Pecora or Ruminants. 
 In subsequent editions the scheme was somewhat modified : but it 
 was not substantially altered till, at the close of the century, the in- 
 vertebrate terms of the series received vast development under Lamarck. 
 Linnseus made an attempt to illustrate the diminishing complexity of 
 his descending series as shown in the structure of the heart and the 
 respiratory system : an attempt renewed afterwards in a far more 
 effective way by Vicq d'Azyr and John Hunter. 
 
 In the vegetal kingdom, where the differentiation of organs is less 
 conspicuous, Linnajus found the formation of natural groups, and 
 especially an attempt at serial arrangement, to be impracticable. He 
 constructed, therefore, the well-known provisional system which bears 
 his name, based on a single character, the sexuality of plants : a 
 character recognised vaguely by some previous botanists, as by Burk- 
 hard in 1702, and more explicitly by Vaillant (d. 1722), to whom Lin- 
 naeus freely owned his obligations. As a mode of orderly arrangement 
 and simple nomenclature, the value of this artificial system to ]}otanists 
 has been incalculable. But Linn;cus most emphatically maintained the 
 necessity for a Natural system based on no single character, but on the 
 acrgreofate of real afhnities, though lie was not able himself to construct 
 it ° ' [J. H. B.] 
 
 Lifehy Stoever, translated by Joscpli Tra]ip (Loudon, 1704).
 
 636 JUSSIEU : HALLER [Modern 
 
 JUSSIEU {Bernard de), b. 1699, d. 1777. 
 
 The subject of this notice was a native of Lyons, and belonged to 
 a well-known family, of which several members were distinguished 
 botanists. When only 1 7 years of age Bernard de Jussieu accompanied 
 his elder brother, Antoine, on a tour for the purpose of studying the 
 plants of the Pyrenees, of Spain, and of Portugal ; and, on the conclusion 
 of their journey, he explored the Lyonnais and western slope of the 
 Alps with a similar object. In 1722 he succeeded Vaillant in the 
 charge of the King's Garden at Paris, where his intelligence and zeal 
 rapidly effected great improvements. He arranged and catalogued, 
 according to a natural system, the plants in the Royal Garden of 
 Trianon ; and this was the starting-point of the better-known work of 
 his nephew. He also wrote a short essay on Sea-Polyps — previously 
 taken for marine plants — of which he made known the animal nature. 
 
 Bernard de Jussieu united intellectual powers of a high order with 
 singular modesty and absence of self-assertion. When told of some 
 one who had appropriated, without acknowledgment, one of his original 
 discoveries, he simply replied, " What does it matter, so long as the 
 thing itself be known 1 " And Condorcet said of him : " The conspicuous 
 feature of his character is a striking contrast of zeal for the progress of 
 science and of indifference for the honour of having contributed to it." 
 In consequence of this disposition, he has left few writings ; but his 
 letters show that the chief place in his thoughts was occupied with the 
 idea of a Natural method of classification, which he declared to be " the 
 hope and aspiration of every botanist." His work was continued by 
 his nephew, Antoine Laurent de Jussieu (1748-1836), whose great 
 Genera Plantarum, begun in 1788, was the first systematic exposition 
 of the Natural system of classifying plants, based not merely on the 
 formation of natural groups, but on the subordination of characters. It 
 must not be forgotten that one of the most important features of that 
 system, the division of flowering plants into monocotyledonous and 
 dicotyledonous, was indicated by Ray in the previous century. But Ray 
 had not aj)preciated its full importance : and in his system it was made 
 subordinate to the very unimportant distinction between plants and 
 trees. [T. F.-P.] 
 
 HALLER {AlbrecU von), b. 1708, d. 1777. 
 
 Haller was born at Berne, October 16, 1708. His father was an 
 advocate of distinction, and intended his son for a clergyman ; but as he 
 showed an early indication for science, he was sent to Tubingen to study 
 anatomy and medicine. Thence, in 1725, he went to Leyden, where 
 Boerhaave was lecturing on medicine, and Alhinus on anatomy and 
 surgery. He studied subsequently in London, Oxford, and Paris ; re- 
 turned to Switzerland, to read mathematics with John Bernoulli at Basle ; 
 and in 173.5 began to practise his profession at Berne. But in the follow- 
 ing year George ii. offered him the Professorship of Medicine, Surgery, 
 Anatomy, and Botany at Gottingen, and this appointment he held for
 
 Science] HALLER : VICQ D'AZYR 637 
 
 eighteen years. In 1753 weak health compelled him to retire to Berne, 
 where he continued a life of unremitting study, combined with duties of 
 active citizenship, till his death, in October 1777. 
 
 Haller's published writings, consisting of some 200 works, embrace 
 many forms of literature and contributions to many sciences. In Botany 
 alone his labours were immense. He originated a system of classification 
 which rivalled that of Linnseus ; he collected materials for a complete Flora 
 of Switzerland, and in many toilsome and perilous ascents he made exten- 
 sive studies of Alpine vegetation. On Embryology, on the movements 
 of the heart, on respiration, and on the formation of the bones, he has 
 left many valuable observations. His principal discovery, that of nervous 
 and muscular irritability, holds an acknowledged place among established 
 physiological principles. Emancipating himself from the two prevailing 
 theories of vital phenomena, the one mechanical, the other metaphysical 
 and spiritualist, he sought to distinguish the phenomena peculiar to 
 living substances. These he defined as sensibility seated in nervous 
 tissue ; irritability, in muscular fibre. He examined the variations in 
 the intensity of irritability in different parts of the muscular system : 
 predicting the existence, not then directly ascertained, of muscular fibres 
 in the arteries. In the heart, diaphragm, and intestines the irritability 
 was greatest ; in the voluntary muscles least : hence the continued action 
 of the former during sleep. Grouping then the facts of life round these 
 two principles, he prepared the way for the conception of Biology as a 
 science distinct from Physics and Chemistry ; dependent upon them, but 
 with definite laws of its own. Among the predecessors of Bichat, Haller 
 holds a most important place. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Phil. Pos. iii. lect. 40 ; Pos. Pol. i. p. 458, and iii. p. 507. 
 
 VICQ D'AZYR {Felix), b. 1748, d. 1794. 
 
 ViCQ d'Azyh was born at the little town of Valognes, not far from 
 Cherbourg, in Normandy. Intended for the Church, but abandoning 
 that career for speculative life, he went in 1765 to Paris, and threw 
 himself into the tide of intellectual activity then at its height in that 
 city ; adopting as his own special study the subjects of human and 
 comparative anatomy and natural history. To these he made so many 
 and such important contributions, that he was chosen, when only 30 
 years of age, to succeed Buffon at the French Academy ; and the dis- 
 course which it was his duty to pronounce on his illustrious predecessor 
 ranks as a model in that style of composition. His special researches 
 on the cervical nerves in man, and on the structure of the eye, the 
 ear, and vocal ajjparatus in birds and some other verte])rates, are of 
 considerable value. But his most important work is the Dixcovr.^ siir 
 V Anatomie, prefixed to an extensive treatise on Anatomy and Physiology, 
 representing in coloured plates the various organs of man and animals, 
 of which the first volume, a large folio, the only one completed, appeared 
 in 1786. In this very striking dissertation, "the methods of biological 
 research are stated in a masterly and comprehensive way. The value of 
 experiment on living bodies is not denied, but the inherent difficulties
 
 638 VICQ D'AZYE : LAMARCK [Modern 
 
 involved in it, owing to the abnormal disturbances which it creates, are 
 emphatically stated ; and the superiority of the comparative method as 
 an instrument of research is insisted on. The object of this treatise was 
 to examine homologous organs and functions throughout the descending 
 scale of animal life. His scheme included nine distinct functions : — 
 digestion, nutrition, circulation, respiration, secretion, ossification, gene- 
 ration, irritability, sensibility. 
 
 His career was cut short, like that of Lavoisier and Condorcet, by the 
 Eevolution. For philosophical breadth his work deserves comparison 
 with that of John Hunter, whose continental fame was unfortunately so 
 long retarded. [T. F.-P.] 
 
 (Euvres de Vicq d'Azyr, par Jacq. L. Moreau (de la Sartlie), Paris, 1805. 
 
 LAMARCK (Jean Baptiste Pierre Antoine), b. 1744, d. 1829. 
 
 Lamarck, the founder of Invertebrate Zoology, was born of a noble 
 family at Bazentin, in Picardy, August 1, 1744. He was educated by 
 the Jesuits at Amiens ; but at the age of 17 entered the army, and served 
 against the English and Dutch. Afterwards he studied medicine in 
 Paris ; but he soon concentrated his attention on botanical science, 
 forming a system of classification, intermediate between that of Jussieu 
 and Linnaeus, which was presented to the Academy of Sciences and 
 attracted the attention of Buffon. During the Eevolution he super- 
 intended the Eoyal Gardens as Daubenton's assistant. On the institution 
 of the Museum, in 1793, he was made Professor of Zoology with Geoffroy 
 Saint-Hilaire and Lacepede ; the department allotted to him being the 
 classes of lower animals, known to us now as Invertebrates, but then 
 represented merely by the two last orders of Linnaeus — insects and 
 worms. Lamarck recast the whole classification of Linnaeus. Reviving 
 the masterly conception of Aristotle, he saw that the animal kingdom 
 was divisible into two provinces — Vertebrate and Invertebrate : the 
 former comprehending the first four classes of Linnaeus, the latter being 
 in very many of its departments unexplored. Lamarck distinguished 
 ten classes in this sub-kingdom, ranging them in the following order : — 
 MoUusca, Cirrhipeda, Annelida, Crustacea, Arachnida, Insecta, Vermes, 
 Eadiata, Polyps, Infusoria. This, though falling short in many ways of 
 the results of modern research, implied an immense advance on previous 
 knowledge. His Systhne des Aiiimaux sans Vertebres was published in 
 1801 ; the larger work on the same subject between 1815 and 1822. 
 
 It was in 1809 that he published a work of even greater and more 
 permanent interest, Philosophie Zoologique, which, however, attracted 
 but little attention, till Comte appreciated its importance in the third 
 volume of his Philosophie Positive. Lamarck in this work, after reciting 
 tlie principal outlines of his classification, maintains that species are not 
 absolutely constant, but in long periods are mutable ; and, further, he 
 sets forth causes accounting for their transformation. It is admitted, 
 he says, by all naturalists that in many departments of zoology and 
 botany the difficulty of distinguishing between difi'erences which are
 
 Science] LAMARCK : BLAINVILLE 639 
 
 specific and those which are mere variations, such as a breeder can 
 produce, is extreme. The difficulty increases with every addition to 
 our knowledge. Lines of demarcation hitherto deemed impassable are 
 continually being effaced. If our knowledge were still greater, the 
 transitions between each species and those adjacent to it in the same 
 genus would be imperceptible. 
 
 Was there, then, any known force that could be regarded as operative 
 in the gradual transformation of species 1 Lamarck found one in the 
 accepted principle, that organs are enlarged by exercise and atrophied 
 by disease, and in the belief that such a change in either direction would 
 be inherited. Suppose, then, that a change in the environment brought 
 about a change in the animal's wants — as, e.g., by changing dry land 
 into marsh, or by the growth of trees with higher and more inaccessible 
 foliage, etc. — the new wants, involving for their satisfaction new muscular 
 adjustments, would promote change in certain parts and diminish it in 
 others. The accunuilation of small changes would, in the course of teons, 
 issue in forms so distinct as to constitute new species, genera, or even 
 orders. Lamarck admitted that the animals depicted on Egyptian monu- 
 ments have remained specifically unchanged. But 3000 or 4000 years 
 was but a brief moment in the history of Life upon the Earth. 
 
 Another hypothesis as to the transformation of species is now cur- 
 rent ; and Lamarck's principle of the inheritance of changes due to use 
 or disuse has been called in question. These points cannot be discussed 
 here. Yet it may be conjectured that when the science of Human 
 Nature has made more progress, and the small space in the long record 
 of organic evolution which relates to jNIan's destiny is seen to be more 
 important than the rest, the question of the Origin of Species, though 
 still debated, will be somewhat less prominent than now. Meanwhile 
 the discussion, as Comte, who disagreed with Lamarck's hypothesis, 
 always maintained, has done much for the study of what is almost the 
 greatest of biological problems : man's power to modify organisms by 
 variations of their environment. 
 
 In December 1829 Lamarck died, poor and almost forgotten by the 
 scientific world, at the age of 86. He had been long blind, and his only 
 comfort lay in his daughter, who for many years had been his devoted 
 assistant. [J. H. B.] 
 
 The Zoolngie Plulosiqildque is in the 2nd Division of tlie Positivist Library. 
 Pliil. Pus. iii. lect. 42 and 43 ; and P<is. Pol. i. 530, iii. 5-28. 
 
 BLAINVILLE {ILnHMark TJaa-oUvj ck), b. 1778, d. 1850. 
 
 Blaixville was born at Arques, in Normandy, of a noble family, 
 September 12, 1778. Destined originally for the army, he entered the 
 lilcole de Genie in Paris. At the age of 27, Cuvier's lectures turned his 
 attention to comparative anatomy. He ))ecame a doctor of medicine, 
 worked under Cuvier, and Avas a]>i)ointed, in 1812, Professor of /uology 
 and Physiology at the Faculty of Sciences. In 18I(; he visited England, 
 and studied for some time in Hunters Museum. In 1830 he succeeded
 
 640 BLAINVILLE : BROUSSAIS [Modern 
 
 Lamarck as Professor of the Natural History of MoUusca and Radiata ; 
 and two years afterwards he was appointed to Cuvier's chair of Com- 
 parative Anatomy. 
 
 His Osteographie, dealing with extinct and actual vertebrates, and 
 his Manuel de Malacologie, are those of his works best known to natural- 
 ists. But that which distinguishes him from other biologists, the 
 philosophic depth of his views of Life, is best shown in his Principes 
 (VAnatomie Comparee, of which the first and only completed volume was 
 published in 1822. In the Introduction to this work will be found the 
 definition of Life which Comte {Phil. Pos. lect. 40) considered the most 
 adequate yet given — the double movement of composition and decom- 
 position proceeding simultaneously throughout the organism ; nor is the 
 fundamental conception of environment absent, although not stated with 
 the same explicitness as by Comte himself, who included in it " not 
 merely the fluid in which the organism moved, but the sum total of all 
 external circumstances of whatever kind that acted on it." Blainville's 
 comprehensive survey, in this Introduction, of the distinctions between 
 organic and inorganic bodies is of great and permanent value. 
 
 Blainville died suddenly, 1st May 1850. He was a friend of Comte, 
 who attended his lectures, and who dedicated the PJiilosophie Positive 
 to him and to Fourier. [J. H. B.] 
 
 The last work here spoken of is in the 2nd Division of the Positivist Library. 
 
 BROUSSAIS {Francois Joseph Victor), b. 1772, d. 1838. 
 
 Broussais was born at St. Malo, 17th December 1772. His father 
 was a physician in that town, and brought up his son, after a classical 
 course at the college of Dinan, to his own profession. Young Broussais 
 entered the navy as surgeon, and served there for some years. In 1800 
 he came to Paris, followed Bichat's courses, and became a doctor of 
 medicine ; his inaugural thesis on fever indicating already the form of 
 his characteristic doctrine — that disease was a modified function of a 
 definite organ. In 1804 he joined the medical service of the army, and 
 served through the greater part of the wars that followed. Notwith- 
 standing his absorbing duties, he found time for one of his principal 
 works, the History of Chronic Inflammations, published in 1808. After 
 the war he was appointed Professor of Medicine at the military hospital 
 of Val-de-Grace. He joined the Academy of Medicine, founded in 1823, 
 and became Professor of Pathology and Therapeutics in the Faculty 
 of Medicine in 1831. Here he Avorked energetically till within a few 
 days of his death, following on an apoplectic seizure, 17th November 
 1838. In his later years Broussais adopted the views of Gail as to the 
 localisation of emotions and tendencies in sjaecial parts of the brain. 
 In 1826 he was amongst those who listened to Comte's first course of 
 Positive Philosophy. 
 
 The two leading ideas of Broussais were the conception of disease as 
 a simple modification by excess or defect of a normal function ; and the 
 connection of this altered function with a definite organ or tissue. In 
 both of these the influence of Bichat is obvious ; and to the disciple no
 
 SciEycE] BROUSSAIS : MORGAGNI : GALL G41 
 
 less than to the master the emancipation of medicine during the present 
 century from the disastrous dominion of metaphysical entities is in great 
 part due. The conclusion to which the method led was not always 
 borne out by experience. Thus his celebrated hypothesis, that continued 
 fever was an inflammation of the intestinal mucous membrane, has been 
 found partially true in the case of one kind of fever only. But the 
 method itself was sure to lead to the truth sooner or later. It supplied 
 its own means of proof or disproof in each case. It was possible to 
 observe and to think about disease scientifically when the facts of 
 disease were regarded us facts of biology, as modificatioiis of a normal 
 function, refen-ed, like other functions, to a distinct tissue or organ. In 
 therapeutics the same method held good. The problem was to find the 
 agent modifying the tissue or organ by restraint or by stimulus of its 
 action. ' [J. H. B.] 
 
 See Comte's review of Broussais' Irritation e.t Ja Folie (1S2S). Pos. Pol. 
 vol. iv. 645-53. Also, Phil. Pos. iii. lect. 40, and Po*. Pol. ii. 359. 
 Three works of Broussais, Propositions on Medicine, Histori/ of Chronic 
 Jnflammatlo'iis, and Irritation and Madness, are in the Positivist 
 Liliravy : tlie first two in tlie 2n(l Division, the tliird in the 4th. 
 
 MORGAGNI {aiovanni Baffi^fo), b. 1682, d. 1771. 
 
 MoRGAGXi, the principal institutor of Morbitl Anatomy, Avas born at 
 Forli in 1682. He studied medicine at Bologna, and in 1715 became 
 I'rofessor of Anatomy in the L^niversity of Padua. His great work, the 
 result of his life's labour, Anatomical lipsearelies into the Seats and 
 (.hiises of Diseafte, was not ptiblished till his 80th year, in 1761. He 
 died ten years afterwards in the enjoyment of a European reputation. 
 The importance of his great work lay, first, in that tlie study of disease 
 was raised by it from the metaj^hysical discussion of intangible abstrac- 
 tions to the positive investigation of definite organs ; and secondly, in 
 that the observation of the diseased organ elicited the fact that not the 
 whole organ, but only certain of its component tissues, were att'ected in 
 each case. Morgagni therefore prepared the way for tlie great biological 
 renovation effected l)y Bichat, the analysis of organs into their com- 
 ponent tissues. Pinel's researches into the diseases of mucous mem- 
 branes, founded on the method which Morgagni had so vigorously 
 initiated, save, as is known, the immediate stinuilus to Bichat's work. 
 
 [J. H. B.] 
 
 Phi7. Pos. vol. iii. \rrt. 41. 
 
 GALL {Franx Jus,ph\ b. 1757, d. 1828. 
 
 The founder of (Jerebral Physiology was born at Tiefenln'unn, in Baden, 
 Mil the .9th March 17") 7. His father, a ijhysician, sent him to Vienna to 
 study medicine under Stoll and Van Swieten ; and there tJ.M.L remained 
 for many years. His attention had been called, when a boy at school, to 
 physiognomic difl'erences among liis school-fellows, and especially to the 
 connection of prominent eveballs with a i;ift for languatre. Hence lieiian 
 
 2s
 
 642 GALL [Modern 
 
 a long train of observations, pursued for many years in silence, till, in 
 1796, he announced his results in a course of private lectures. The first 
 published notice of them was two years later. His views roused attention, 
 and in 1802 the Austrian Government, regarding them as subversive of 
 orthodoxy, forbade their further publication. In the following years he 
 lectured through the principal cities of Germany ; and in 1807 he found 
 a permanent home in Paris. There (in 1810) his great anatomical work, 
 in five folio volumes, on the Anatomy and Physiology of the A'ervous 
 lSyf;ti'm and the Brain, was published. His systematic treatise, in six 
 volumes, on the Functions of the Brain, appeared in 1825. In 1819 he 
 was naturalised as a French citizen. In 1821 he endeavoured, with the 
 help of Geoff'roy St.-Hilaire, to enter the Academy of Sciences, but was 
 rejected. Gall died at Montrouge, near Paris, 22nd August 1828. His 
 tomb is in Pere-la-Chaise. 
 
 A remarkable feature of Gall's career is the persistence with which he 
 carried on a single class of researches from youth to age. Throughout his 
 life he set himself to investigate the innate functions constituting the 
 moral and mental life of man and of the higher animals, and the correlation 
 of those functions with corresj^onding organs. The value of his work 
 does not depend on the crude hypothesis as to the localisation of cerebral 
 functions with which his name is too exclusively associated. Two distinct 
 results of his work are to be noted. First, there is the mass of observa- 
 tions on the psychical nature of man and other animals ; and, above all, 
 the demonstration that certain moral and intellectual propensities are 
 innate in them, and are not the result of sensuous impressions. Secondly, 
 there is his conception of the brain as a collection of organs having those 
 propensities for their functions. Anxious as Gall was to give vividness 
 and precision to his views by pointing to the external form of the skull 
 as evidence of the conformation of the brain, and of the general mould of 
 character, it is evident to careful readers of his work that these observa- 
 tions were not the main foundation of it, though, in the fervour of the 
 controversy, which lasted his whole life long, he was often led into rash 
 and untenable statements. 
 
 But in his principal work he insists emphatically (see Fondions du 
 Cerveau, vol. iii. pp. 142-5), that he "owes nearly all his anatomical dis- 
 coveries to his physiological and pathological conceptions;" that "the 
 knowledge of parts and of their form, direction, consistence, or colour, 
 never leads to the knowledge of their functions ;" that "the knowledge 
 of functions has nearly always preceded that of organs." The title of this 
 work. Functions of the Brain, is significant. The word Phrenology was 
 never used by him ; it was coined afterwards by his disciples ; most of 
 whom, (Jomte observes, "as is too often the case, resembled him in 
 nothing l)ut his errors." On the whole, it may be said that too nuich 
 prominence has been given to Gall's attem])ts ^^recisely to localise the 
 portions of brain-substance allotted to each function. The value of this 
 premature eftbrt lay in the vividness and precision which it gave to the 
 llicory of innate propensities. To eft'ect great changes in belief, and stir 
 the mental apathy of the mass even of cultivated minds, such bold hypo- 
 theses have, as Comte observes, often to be hazarded (Pos. Pol. i. p. 129). 
 
 His analysis of psychical functions rested, in the main, (m the
 
 Science] GALL 643 
 
 comparison of man with the higher vertebrates ; a field in which Georges 
 Leroy had already done good service. In the case of certain elementary 
 functions, as the sexual and maternal instincts, the propensities to destroy 
 or to construct, the love of praise and of power, the feelings of friendship, 
 veneration, and pity, Gall's analysis was carried on with singular vigour 
 and acuteness, and supported by a mass of valuable observations. 
 
 In the intellectual region he failed utterly ; and it is important to 
 understand why he failed. The criterion on which he relied in attempt- 
 ing to analyse man's nature was the o])servation of animals. Of man's 
 social evolution he took no account. That the higher animals carry on 
 reasoning processes, Leroy had shown abundantly ; and Gall added many 
 valuable observations of his own to the same effect. Nevertheless the 
 degree in which human reason rises above that of animals is enormous ; 
 and it results from the social state in M'hich man alone of the higher 
 vertebrates has lived for a long course of millenniums. An adec^uate 
 comprehension of human reason involves the analysis of language, in 
 which it has been gradually stored up, and the examination of the logical 
 processes by which the creative intellects of mankind have done their 
 work. 
 
 Comte regarded Gall's work as of the highest importance, while keenly 
 alive to its shortcomings. He set extreme value on his demonstration, 
 that in the psychical nature of man intellectual processes did not play 
 the overweening part commonly assigned to them : that the motor force 
 of moral impulses, selfish or unselfish, was far greater. He adopted very 
 largely Gall's view of the self-regarding instincts — pointing out, however, 
 that Gall had omitted the most fundamental of all, that of self-preserva- 
 tion or nutrition. His distinction of the three altruistic instincts of 
 Attachment, Veneration, and Benevolence, he accepted almost entirely. 
 That altruism should thus be clearly conceived as innate (see Hume) 
 was, he considered, a scientific discovery not less momentoixs in its final 
 results than that of Copernicus. 
 
 The principal defects of Gall's work are (1) the unnecessary multi- 
 plication of his supposed cerebral organs, and in many cases their confused 
 arrangement ; (2) his irrational conception of intellectual functions, 
 already noticed ; (3) the entire omission of the correlation of the brain 
 with the other organs of the body. Had Gall allowed himself to profit 
 by the studies of his great contemporary, Cabanis, he would have avoided 
 this last fundamental error [see Cabaxis]. However mistaken the view of 
 the older physicians, that the passions were seated in tlie heart, liver, 
 and other organs, it was an equally grave mistake to ignore the continuous 
 action and reaction of these organs with the l)rain, which has to be taken 
 into account in every arrangement, medical or moral, for the wise control 
 and modification of human nature. 
 
 These defects Comte sought to remedy in the entire recast of Gall's 
 system, put forward fjy him in the first volume of his Positive Folity. 
 C'omte's scheme is avowedly subjective : that is, it rests on the study of 
 functions, without any attempt at anatomical verification, which he thought 
 might remain for an indefinite period impracticable. This is not the place 
 for a full description of it. A single (piotation will indicate his general 
 way of regarding the problem :— " At an early periml of my ])liilosopliical
 
 644 GALL 
 
 meditations I had a profound sense both of the importance and the imper- 
 fection of Gall's work in science, as of Condorcet's in history. For thirty 
 years I have never ceased to labour at the recasting of both. . . . When 
 I had laid the foundations of Sociology, I saw that Gall, with all his genius, 
 could not construct the true physiology of the brain for want of knowing 
 the laws of social development, which alone could sujjply the proper 
 starting-point and aim." 
 
 Gall was no shallow sciolist. He was a fervid renovator, and was as 
 one-sided as such men often are. But, taken at the lowest estimate, he 
 gave an impulse to the study of the structure and functions of the brain 
 that is acknowledged by those who utterly reject his conclusions. The 
 estimate here taken is far higher than this. Through a cloud of errors 
 there emerges the great truth that, embodied in the physical structure 
 of man, lie innate propensities to good ; overborne often by still stronger 
 propensities to evil, yet capable of asserting their supremacy under 
 conditions of wise training and government. The great problem of 
 human nature which has exercised wise rulers from the beginning of 
 history, appears again, stripped of theologic husks, in a scientific shape ; 
 the problem of reducing the functions of the brain to harmonious action 
 by the gradual ascendancy of social OA^er self-regarding impulse. Of the 
 historical conditions for the solution of the problem Gall knew nothing ; 
 but among the biologists who prepared the way for its solution he holds 
 the highest place. [j. H. B.] 
 
 Pus. Pul. i. pp. 541-594. Gall's Fifiictions of the Brain is in tlie 4tli section 
 of the Positivist Library. 
 
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