I PC-NRLF sO a LIBRARY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA. Class 1 THE POLITICAL CLASS BOOK; INTENDED TO INSTRUCT THE HIGHER CLASSES IN SCHOOLS IN" THE ORIGIN, NATURE, AND USE OF POLITICAL POWER. " Government is instituted for the common good ; for the protection, safety, prot perity, and happiness of the people j and not for the profit, honor, or private interest of any one man, family, or class of men." Mass. Bill of Rights. " Tgnorantia Icgum neminem excusat ; omncs enim prasumuntur eas nosse, quibua omnes consentiunt." BY WILLIAM SULLIVAN, COUNSELLOR AT LAW. "WITH AN APPENDIX UPON STUDIES FOR PRACTICAL MEN; WITH NOTICES OF BOOKS SUITED TO THEIR USE. BY GEORGE B. EMERSON. WITH AMENDMENTS AND ADDITIOlf*. BOSTON : CHARLES J. HENDEE, AND G. W. PA^LMER AND COMPANY 1838. DISTRICT OP MASSACHUSETTS, to wit, District Clerk's Office. BB IT REMEMBERED, That on the seventh day of January, A. D. 1831, and in the fifty- fifth year of the Independence of the United States of America, WILLIAM SULLIVAX and GEORGE B. EMERSON, of the said district, have deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof they claim as authors and proprietors, in the words following, to wit : " The Political Class Book ; intended to instruct the Higher Classes in Schools in the Origin, Nature, and Use of Political Power. ' Government is instituted for the common good ; for the protection, safety, prosperity, and happiness of the people ; and not for the profit, honor, or private interest of any one man.' Mass. Bill of Rights. * Ignorantia legum neminem excusat ; omnes enim praesumuntur eas nosse, quibus om- nes consentiunt.' By William SulHvan, Counsellor at Law.. With an Appendix pon Studies for Practical Men ; with Notices of Books suited to their Use. By George B. Emerson. New Edition, with Amendments and Additions." In conformity to the act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned :" and also to an act, entitled, " An Act supplementary to an act, entitled, ' An Act for the encouragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to tho authors and proprietors of such copies during the times therein mentioned ;' and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching histori- cal and other prints." JNO. W. DAVIS, Clerk of the District of Massachusetts. INTRODUCTION TO THE FIRST EDITION, THE people of the United States have undertaken to preserve and transmit civil and religious liberty, and the blessings of life, by the administration of just and equal laws, made in conformity to written constitutions, voluntari- ly adopted. There must be, somewhere, an authority competent to judge whether such laws are so administered. This au- thority resided in those who instituted our governments. It passed to their successors. It resides, always, in those who compose the political community. This community has not only the exclusive right to judge whether power, established for its benefit, is constitutionally exercised, but also the absolute right to amend, and even to abolish, an existing system, and substitute any other. Such sovereign power implies knowledge of the subjects to which it is to be applied ; and, as there is no distinction in the political rights of the members of the community, every citizen, who has attained to the age of twenty-one years, is entitled to all the rights of citizenship, and is held iv INTRODUCTION. to the performance of all its duties. He must, therefore, be presumed to know what these rights and duties are. Every citizen of a state is also a citizen of the United States. Being entitled to all the rights of national citizen- ship, and held to the performance of all its duties, he must be presumed to know what these are. Among these are included the duty, and consequently the competency, of judging whether those who undertake to administer the National Government execute their trust with ability and faithfulness. It is not perceived that provision has been made, in the usual course of education, to qualify those who are approaching manhood, to discharge, with advantage to themselves, and with justice to their fellow-citizens, the political duties which they must assume. If the young acquire any knowledge of this nature, it must be by in- ference and accident, and not because it is systematically imparted. This small volume, of very humble pretensions, is de- signed to do something towards supplying what is supposed to be a want, in the present course of education. It treats, briefly, several subjects, which are commonly supposed to be above the intellectual capacity of the young. This difficulty has been met, it is hoped, by the elementary mode of treatment. The book is divided into chapters and short sections, as is usual in school books ; and ques- tions are appended, intended to intimate the subject com- prised in each section. INTRODUCTION. v If this book should be deemed worthy of being made a class book, it is supposed that it may be most profitably used, by requiring of a pupil to give, in his own words, the meaning of sections. This is the same intellectual exercise, which is required in the business of life, in whatsoever department of industry one may find his lot to have been cast. A book comprising many subjects, and yet small enough to be a school book for general use, could not contain practical and historical illustrations. Intelligent teachers can easily supply these, from their own resources. They can do this in a mode not too much in use, that is, by an interchange of thoughts between themselves and their pupils; and, by such means, lead to a useful exercise of the powers of the mind. To the young it may seem, that time moves heavily. But it will soon remove many of their predecessors, and , advance themselves to the rank of citizens. Almost un- conscious of the change that is in process, they will sudden- ly find themselves called upon to take their part in affairs, which involve the most important interests of a great and increasing people. It is yet a problem, whether united representative re- publics will continue to diffuse their blessings through a prosperous and grateful community. The solution may depend, in no small degree, on the veneration which the young carry into manhood, for the institutions of their fa- thers ; and not less on their ability to distinguish between v; INTRODUCTION. die unprincipled contrivances of politicians, and the manly- actions of statesmen. At the request of the writer, a gentleman well quali- fied to render such service to the community, has furnish- ed instructions for a course of reading on the arts, sciences, and history. This course is introduced by explanatory remarks, which will be found highly instructive, not only to those who are seeking the advantages of an education, but to those who are engaged in the active scenes of busi- ness. The part of the volume alluded to, is contained in an Appendix. W. S. Boston Mass., August 1, 1830. ADVERTISEMENT TO THE NEW EDITION. THE first edition having been more favorably received than was even hoped for, and very soon disposed of, the publishers applied to the authors to revise the book for a new edition. In doing this, all the suggestions which have been made by way of improvement, have been attended to. For some of them, a due sense of obligation is enter- tained. Many corrections have been made. Additions have also been made ; and among them a new chapter, as a substitute for the concluding one of the former edition. In this (chapter XXX), an attempt is made to show the nature and use of physical, moral, and intellectual power ; and also the principles on which manners are formed, and what their proper utility is, in social intercourse. In page 151 will be found a note, on the constitutional law of debtor and creditor ; and, next following this, a note on crimes, showing the distinction between national and state jurisdiction. A copious Index is prefixed to this volume. To the Appendix has been added a chapter on moral philosophy, in which the three branches, into which this subject is usually divided, are explained. viii ADVERTISEMENT. This edition is designed for schools, in all the states in the Union ; and to make it fit for this purpose, the con- stitution of each state has been described. The analysis of the constitution of Massachusetts, and of that of the United States, will enable instructors in each state (with the aid of the description above mentioned) to explain how powers are derived and exercised, in their respective states. It is impracticable to be more particular; it is believed, that the course adopted will be found sufficiently so. It is improbable, that either of the authors will have leisure, or inducement, to make any further alterations. So far as they may be permitted to judge, the volume will be found to contain all that is necessary to the object in view ; and as it is, and such as it is, it must find its own way as it can. If it should attain to the honor, for which it was framed and designed, and should prove to be useful to those who are to be citizens ; and if it should enable them to understand the institutions of their own country (the value of which is made the more striking by recent, and probable events, in other countries) ; the purpose of the authors will have been accomplished, and their labors most acceptably rewarded. W. S. G. B. E. Boston, Mass., January 1, 1831. INDEX TO THE POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. Sections. Acquired qualities, 412 Actions, 113 Administrator, 132 Admiralty, courts of, 283 Adults, 319 Age, when attained, 325 Alabama, State of ; 162 Aliens, naturalization of, 198 Ambassadors, 258 America, discovery of, 168 Apocrypha, 373 Apprenticeship, ............... 326 Aristocracy, defined, 28 Arkansas Territory, 164 Army, 244 Arrest on complaint, 102 Arson, p. 155 Assessors, defined, 77 ,mistakesof, 77 Attorney, 113 Attorney General of U. States, . 223 Bail, meaning' of, 99 Ballot, meaning of, 70 Bankrupt and uisolv. laws, p. 151 Bankruptcy, 199 Banks, different kinds of, . . 304, 31 1 Belligerents, defined. 276 Bible, 369 Bills of exchange, 313 Blasphemy, p. 155 Blockade, 280 Body politic, 38 Boston, city of, 49 Burglary, p. 155 Cabinet, of president of U. S., 227-9 Calvin, John, 382 Capital trial, 121-9 Catholic church, 379 Caucus, 43 1 Section*. Census, what, aad why taken,. . .190 Chancery suit, 120 Charter, defined, 49 Christian religion ; sects, . 374-87 Church and state, union of, . . 377-81 of England, 384 Citizens, duty of, .............. 41 Civil suits, 113 Claims against states, and U. S., 167 Classification of persons, ....... 345 Coin, and coining, 197 Coliseum, (note to) 269 Colonies, 171 Columbia, District of, 164 Columbus, discovery by, 168 Commerce, regulation of, 204 Common law. 65 Commonwealth, 31 Complaint, criminal. 102 Confederation, articles of, 173 Congress of U. S., 186 powers ajud duties of, 186-205 -, session of, 213-214 Connecticut, State of, , . . . . 143 Conscience, defined, 400 Constable, (note to) 44 Constitution, defined, 34 , of U.S. formed, . 174-5 , different con- structions of, 178-9 -, difficulties ia forming, ,... 177 , true me? ning of, 178 -, and Stales, 180-4 , maladminis- tration of, 185 Constitutional prohibitions, p. 151 Consti tutions of states . ( S se the names of states.) , cellared, 167 . INDEX TO THE Sections. Consuls, 266 Contempt, (manners) 407 Contraband, 280 Contracts, defined, 294-300 ' made by minors,... 320-1 , marriage, 340-1 , remedies on, 303 Convention, defined, 55 Copy-rights, 201 Coroner, .^ 94 Corporation, denned, 38 Counsel, duty of, 125 Counties, 45 County offices, and buildings, ... 94 County treasurer, 95 Court, defined, (note to) 53 ,Supreme,U.S 238 ., its power over state courts, in constitu- tional questions, 239 , S. J. of Mass., 91-92 1 - , powers and duties of, 115-121 , Common Pleas, 103 , probate, 130 Courts of admiralty, ?"" of law, martial, p. 156 Crimes, p. 154 , minors punishable for, . . 322 Criminal jurisdiction, .... p. 154 Currency, defined, 21 Custom-house, 208 Debt, public, 202 Decisions of Supreme Court of U.S., p. 151 Deed, defined, 292 Delaware, State of, 149 Democracy, defined, 32 Department, home, 231 Departments, heads of, 220 , duties of, 221 Despotism, defined, 27 Diplomacy, defined, 225 Discounting, 306 Dissenters ; religious, 386 Doctors, medical, 362 Dress, proper use of, 397 Duties, revenue, 208 Education, defined, 393 of females, 343 , proper time for, 414 , uses of, 334 Electors in Massachusetts, 47 of president U. S., . 216-18 vice president, .. 216-18 Elot ence, 67 Emp. oyments, choice of, 356 Section*. Employments, mechanical, . . . 358-9 , mercantile, 359 professional, 360 English church, '. 384 Entry at custom-house, 208 Envoy, 261 Episcopalians, 377 Escheat, defined, 337 Estate, alienation of, 292 ,real, 290 Estates, settlement of. 131-5 , 337-9 Exchange, bills of, 313 Execution, writ of, 114 Executive of Massachusetts, .... 78 , how elected, 79 U.S., 215 Executor, 132 Exequatur (consular), 26G Expenditures of U. S., 210 Faculties of the mind, 6 , defined, 400-11 Farmers, '. 355-7 Fashion, meaning of, 402 Father and children, 329 Federal, meaning of, ..(note to] 172 Felony, p. 154 Female education, defects, 343 Fire, insurance against, 316 Freeholders, 290 General Court, * 53 Georgia, State of, . 154 Gold and silver coin, 197 Governments, different forms of, 27-36 , feudal, 29 of U. S., excel- lenceof, 36 Governor's constitutional title, . 78-80 duty to legislature, . . 66 Governor, lieutenant, < , power and duty of, 81-86 Greek church, 379 Habeas corpus, writ of, 244 Homicide, p. 154 Honorable, title of, 58 House of Representatives of U. States, 187-9 organ- ization of, 59 Husband and wife, 326-8 Illinois, State of, 161 Imagination, 6 Impeachment, 137, 212 Indiana, State of, 158 Indians, right of soil, 168-< Infancy, 318 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 3 Sections. Inheritance, 337-42 Insolvency, meaning of, 133 Insolvent judgments of Supreme Court U. S p. 151 laws, p. 151 Insurance companies, 315 -, fire, life, mutual, 317 Intellect, meaning of, 400 , powers of, denned, . 411-13 Intestate, 339 Jerusalem and Jews, 371 Judges, removal of, 136-7 Judgment and judging, defined, . 6 Judicial power of U. S., .... 232-40 .(See Note on Crimes, p. 156. ) Judiciary of U. S., 233, 240 Jurisdiction, defined, 283 Jury for trials, 106-10 , grand, 106-110 Justice, administration of, .... 89-91 , in dif- ferent states, 167 , civil and criminal, 89 Justices of peace, 96-101 Kentucky, State of, 155 tl Knowledge is power," 415 Knowledge, sources of, 5 Labor, division of, 20 Ladies, education of, 343 Larceny, p. 155 Law, derined, 53 , d.tterent kinds of, 254 , inferences from, 285-8 making power, limited, ... 62 of nations, 250 Laws, bankrupt and insolvent, p. 151 , how made, 60 . origin and need of, 24-5 , unconstitutional, void, ... 63 Lawsuit 113 Lawyers, 363 Louisiana. State of, 159 Luther, Martin, 380 Mails, 203 Maine, State of, 139 Male adults, rights and duties, . . 327 Manifest, custom-house, 208 Manifesto, in war, 283 Manners, denned, 401 , how formed, 406 Manufacturing, 349-50 Marriage, rights by, 328 settlements, 340 Maryland, State of, 150 Sections. Massachusetts constitution, 39 government, .... 37 representatives, . 56 election of, 54 senators, ....... 54 , State of, 141 town meetings, . . 43 mode of calling, 44 Mayor, defined, 52 McMillan vs. McNeill, case of, p. 153 Measures and weights, 205 Mechanic employments, 347-8 Memory, defined, 6 Men, governed by natural law, . 14 must live in society, .... 15-16 Merchants, 351-2 Message, executive, 66, 219 Metals, 22 Michigan Territory, 164 Miles, square. (See names of states.) Military, defence, 241 Militia, 245-6 , as to nation and state, 246-8 , different opinions on, . . . 249 Minister, diplomatic, 263 of Gospel, 361 Minors, ::: 318 abilities and disabilities, 321-4 enlisted in army, 244 may make a will ; 323 punishable for crimes, . . . 322 Mississippi, State of, 160 Missouri, State of, 163 Territory, 164 Monarchy, mixed, 30 Money, universal measure, 22 Moral sense. 400 Municipal, defined, 51 Murder, p. 154. Nations, law of ; 250 Natives, how dispossessed, . . . 168-9 Naturalization, 198 Navy, 244 Negative, in law-making, 61 Neutrals, 276 , rights and duties of, ... 281 New Hampshire, State of, 140 New Jersey, State of, 147 New Testament, 374 New York, State of, 145 constitutional powers, 146 North Carolina, State of, 152 Notaries public, 314 Notes, promissory. 312 Oath, meaning of, 392 INDEX TO THE Sections. Officers, town, 68 Ogden vs. Saunders, case of, p. 153 Ohio, State of, 157 Old Testament, 369 Oligarchy, 28 Pardon, power of, 81 Parent and child, 329 Parishes, 395-7 Passions,' 6 Patents, 200 Pennsylvania, State of, 148 Perjury, p. 155 Persons, how classed, 345 distinguished,.. 318-19 Physical, defined, 400 Physicians, 362 Piracy, p. 156 Plenipotentiary, 262 Politeness, 405-6 Political safety, 415 Polls, meaning of, 57 72-4 Pope, origin of, 378 Post-office, 203-19 President of U.S., 216-19 Privateers, 274-5 Prize, 275 Probate Court, 130 appeals, 134 Professions, learned, 353-4 Promissory notes, 312 Property, personal, 289-93 ,real, 289-93 Protestant religion, 385 Protests, 314 Puritans, 384 Quorum, 96 , defined, (note to) 218 Reason, or light of nature, 1,4 , reasoning, defined, .... 6 Recognizance, 99 " Reformation'" of religion, 380 Registry of deeds, 94 Religion, 366-88 Religious societies, 395 Repealing of laws, 63 Representation, basis of U. S., 188-9 Republic, defined, 31-35 Revenue of U. S., 206 Reversion, defined, 339 Revolution, defined, 40 Robbery. p. 155 Rulers, duty of, 41 Sabbath, duty concerning, .... 293-4 Seamen pressed hi war, 282 Secretary of commonwealth, ...87-8 Secretary of state of U. S., .. . . 224 Senate, how formed, 59 ofU.S 193-5 Sentence, admiralty court, .... 283 Sheriffs, 94 Shire towns, 94 Slander, evil of, 409 Slavery, where existing, 164 Smuggling, revenue, 209 Society, advancement of, 23 , origin of, 19 , principle of, 17 , well regulated, 26 South Carolina, State o*", 153 Sovereignty, defined, 173 , where residing, .... 43 Speech, power of, 7 Square miles. (Seenamesof states.) State constitutions compared,. . . 167 governments, 138 insolvent laws, .... p. 161 . Statute, defined, 61 Stocks , public debt, 202 Sturges vs. Crowningshield, case of, p. 152 Suffrage, universal, 165 Tariff, revenue, 208 Taxes, assessment of, 72-7 , collection of, 72- 1 ? Tennessee, State of, 156 Testate and intestate, 339 Time, how computed, .......... 370 Titles, none by the constitution of U.S., 219 Town meetings, 43 voting, 69 Towns, powers of, 71 Trader, 351 Treasurer, state, 87-8 Treaties, 264 Trial, capital, 121-9 , civil, 113-14 , criminal, 106-12 Tyranny, defined, 27 Tyrants, great and small, 407 Universal suffrage, 165 Verdict, defined, 126 Vermont, State of, 142 Virginia, State of. 151 Voting in Massachusetts, 47-48 , viva voce, 150 Wages, nature of, 345 War, kinds of, 269-76 ,lawof ; 267 Washington's opinion, 175 Weights and measures, 205 Widow, guardian, 342 APPENDIX. Widow, provision for, 338 Wife and husband, 330-7 . debts by, 330 , will made by, 341 Will by minor, 323 Wills, making of, 135 Writ of habeas corpus, 244 Writs, what, and how issued, ... 113 "Year of our Lord," 370 6 INDEX APPENDIX . losophy . Accounts, importance of, 3 Adams's Lectures on Natural Phi- .'New England, 25 Agriculture, 2 Aikin's Elizabeth and James I., . . 25 Algebra 13 Allen's Mechanics, 12 America, 26 American Institute's Lectures, ... 15 Berthollet on Dyeing, Bible, Bigelow's Technology, Biography. Bonny castle's Algebra, Brunton's Mechanic's Text Book, Builder's Pocket Manual, Cambridge Mechanics and Phys- ics, Carpenter, Carpentry, Charity, Cheever's Studies in Poetry, Chemistry, books on, useful to farmers^ ; mechanics, . . . Civil Engineering, Classification of the arts, Colburn's Algebra, Conscience, Conversations on Botany and Vegetable Physiology, Page. Conversations on Chemistry, 4 Natural Philoso- phy, 24 Davy's Agricultural Chemistry. . . 4 Day's Algebra, 13 Duties to God, 20 others, 18 ourselves, 16 Dyer and dyeing, 6 Economy of time, a duty, 16 Emerson's Mechanics, 11 Euclid's Geometry, 13 Europe, 26 Exercise of the faculties, 17 Ferguson's Lectures, 11 Flint's Geography, 25 Valley of the Mississippi, . 25 Forest Trees, 3 Frai'.kliu's Life, 24 Geography, 26 Geometry, 8 Goldsmitn's Histories, 25 Greek language, 14 Gregory : s Mathematics for Prac- tical Men, 12 Guide in Reading, 26 Hale's Carpentry, 12 Geography, 26 Hall's Lectures on School-keeping, 15 Henry's Chemistry, 17 INDEX TO THE APPENDIX. History, importance of, and books on, 25 Howard's Life, 24 Instruction, ...............<>.... 13 Irving's Columbus, ... * 25 Joyce's Scientific Dialogues, Lacroix's Algebra Lathi language, 14 Legendre s Geometry, 13 Library of Entertaining Knowl- edge, 23 2 Useful Knowledge, 10-13 Light, effects of, 7 Mackintosh's England, 26 Malte-Brun's Geography, 26 Marshall's Washington, 25 Mason, art of the, 9 Mason on Self Knowledge, 24 Massachusetts, Histories of, 25 Master and apprentice, 20 Mechanics, uses of, 9 .books on, 12 Moral Philosophy, 16 Natural History, 23 Philosophy, 11 Newman's Rhetoric, 26 New Testament, 14-21 Painter, 6 Paley's Moral Philosophy, 21 Natural Theology, 24 Parent and child, 20 Parkhurst's Moral Philosophy, ... 15 Perkins's Historical Sketches of the United States, 26 Personal duties, 16 Plutarch's Lives, 24 Poetry, 26 Politeness,.... Pursuits in life. Reading, uses of, 23 Religious duties, 20 Robertson's America. 25 Charles V., 25 Sciences, 15 Scientific Class Book, 11 Scott's Napoleon, 25 Tales, 26 Sganzin's Civil Engineering. .... 12 Smellie's Philosophy of Natural History, 23 Social duties, 18 Sullivan's Maine, 25 Tanner, 5 Temperance, 16 Thomson's Chemistry, 11 Trumbull's Connecticut, 25 Truth, 18 Tudors Letters, and Life of James Otis, 25 Turner's Chemistry, 10 Tytler's History, 25 Ure's Chemical Dictionary, 11 Useful Arts and Trades, 4 Walker's Geometry, 12 Washington's Life, 24 Watts on the Mind, 24 Webster's Chemistry, 10 Wesley's Life, 24 Whelpley's Compend, 25 White's Life, 24 Willard's Republic, 25 Williams's Vermont, 25 Wood's Algebra, 13 Worcester's History, 25 THE POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. CHAPTER I. On the Laws which govern Men in Society 1. REASON, or the mere light of nature, does not make known to us with certainty either our origin or destiny. We know that we did not form ourselves, either as to mind or body ; nor call ourselves into being : nor do we know when life will end, though we know it must end. We see that there are families, and that there are many relations arising out of family ties ; that many families, dwelling in a neigh- borhood, make a society, or community ; that many commu- nities of families make a nation ; and that a nation occupies a part of the surface of the earth, as its own. 2. We know that the earth is fitted to be our dwelling- place ; that all things necessary to human life, and comfort, and pleasure, except heat, light and air, come in some way, with or without man's labor, from the earth, or its waters. We know that the earth performs its journey around the sun once in every year ; that from this motion the variety of sea- sons is derived ; that it turns on its own axis once in every twenty-four hours, having always advancing day over one half its surface, and retiring night over the other. We see that, with the coming of the seasons, the same changes recur ; that in winter the earth is bound with frost ; that in spring the vegetable kingdom lives again ; that , summer pro- duces its fruits, and its harvests ; that autumn withers and destroys ; and that winter comes again with frost and snow. We see that these changes are connected with animal life, in that part of the globe which we inhabit. The spring, summer and autumn are the periods of labor to provide for the passing from the old to the new year. These recurring 8 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. changes impose the necessity of being industrious, and of providing for wants which are sure to come. From these re- lations, rightly understood and observed, the good order of society arises. We see that the sun is the source of light and heat ; and that, though it is at a great distance from the earth, the changing of the seasons depends on its influence. When our side of the globe is turned from the sun, and the absence of its light permits other luminaries to be seen, the vast space above us appears to abound with bright orbs ; and, knowing as we do the magnitude of some of them, and the distance of some of them from us, and from each other, the mind is filled with veneration and awe at the gran- deur and magnificence of the universe. The question that naturally rises in the mind is, How came this universe into being ? 3. This can be answered, by the light of reason, no other- wise than by feeling a solemn conviction, that there is some GREAT FIRST CAUSE, who created and ordered all that we perceive ; that the same Cause continues to govern accord- ing to HIS own laws ; and that HE is everywhere present, to preserve the beautiful order which reigns throughout. His power is shown not less in the delicate forms of vegetable and animal life, which the naked human eye cannot see, than in man himself, in the earth, the sun, and the number- less worlds which exist in the firmament. Mere reason infers, that to this Almighty Lawgiver adoration and obedi- ence are due from all created beings whom he has blessed with the power of raising their thoughts to him. But mere reason does not disclose the answer to the anxious inquiry, What is the destiny of man 1 Is that being, who is made capable of thinking of another and superior existence, shut out from it ? Does he end here, and remain forever ignorant of all that his humble senses and poor thoughts cannot dis- close to him ? 4. The hope of future life is natural to the human mind ; but we know, from the writings of eminent men, who lived before the time of the Christian revelation, that unassisted reason cannot assure us of existence beyond the present be- ing. Wherever belief in future life, not derived from Chris- tianity, has been entertained, such life was supposed to con- sist of earthly good unmixed with earthly evils, or of earthly evils unrelieved by any good.* The doubts and perplexities, * Pope's Essay, Epis. I. line 99, &c. POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 9 which hung over Human hope, were at length dispelled by the revelation of Christianity. From this source we are assured, not only that there are laws for human life, but also what they are ; that they extend beyond this transitory scene ; that welfare here, and future condition, depend on knowing what these laws are, and in rendering obedience to them. CHAPTER II The Sources of Knowledge. 5. WHAT the human mind is, is not known, nor to be known. Whether there be, or be not, innate (or inborn) ideas in the mind, is a point on which philosophers are not agreed. The knowledge of outward objects is conveyed to the mind through the senses. The eye (or vision, from the Latin video, to see) makes known the color, shape, size and distance of objects. The sense of feeling makes known soft- ness, hardness, smoothness, form, &c. ; that of Duelling makes known the fitness or unfitness of substances for our use ; that of tasting renders like services. The ear is given to assure us of danger or security ; both the eye and the ear, to maintain our connexion with persons and objects ; and all the senses to be sources of pleasure and of pain. By the frequent use of the senses, they become more and more acute. In many mechanical employments, as in painting and sculpture, the eye attains to surprising exactness. Among musicians, the sense of hearing acquires a wonderful accuracy in distinguishing sound from sound, and one sound from all others, when very many come to the ear at the same time. The sense of feeling makes known to the skilful the qualities of many objects, which cannot be discerned by others. The like remarks apply to the other senses. The perfection of the senses depends on original formation, and on the use which is made of them in education, and in business or pleasure. 6. When the senses have conveyed to the mind a knowl- edge of things without us, we have the power of retaining that knowledge, and can recall the impressions made, and think of them, and seem to see the outward objects before us. We separate and combine anew the images in our minds, which can be made to exist in reality ; as, for e> z*m- 10 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. pie, a house, ship, a picture, mechanical machinery. In like manner, poems, sermons and bookef die formed out of ideas gained through the senses, and out of innate ideas (if there be such) which are reformed and arranged by think- ing. The thoughts of one mind come to other minds by speech, writing or printing. From our experience of what the mind can do with the impressions and ideas (that is, with what it perceives to exist in itself), we suppose it to have certain powers and faculties. Reason is said to be that power whereby the mind comprehends truths, which are necessary and universal in their application ; as that the vio- lation of the laws of our nature is wrong ; or that two things, each of which is equal to a third, must be equal to one an- other. Reasoning is that faculty whereby we deduce un- known from known or given truths. Judgment is that faculty whereby the mind can compare the relation of its ideas to each other. Judging is the process by which the mind comes to a conclusion from such comparison. Mem- ory is that faculty by which the mind recalls what it has formerly perceived, felt or thought. That faculty by which \ve are determined to do, or not to do, is called the will ; that by which we range through created or fanciful being, we call the imagination. Passions are strong excitements of the mind relatively to external objects. Though we speak thus familiarly of the mind, we know nothing of it but from its operations. Its connexion with the earthly matter of which we are formed, is above human comprehension. 7. Other animals besides men have the power of making themselves well understood by sounds ; but speech, with the uses which can be made of it, is that exalted faculty, which places man far above all other animals. Speech is connect- ed with the mind of man, and mind connects him with his Creator. 8. The power of preserving thoughts by writing or print- ing, is another beneficent gift to man only. By these means we may know what others think and do in remote countries, and what has been done and thought in the past ages of the world. Thus the treasures of the human mind descend through successive generations, although the minds in which they were formed, and the frames which these minds inhab- ited, may have long ceased from the earth. 9. Another source of knowledge, and on which many of the most important acts of our lives depend, is this : We know, that, under certain circumstances, a certain consequence has POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 17 usually followed. We do not know that it certainly will fol- low ; but the expectation is so strong, that we act upon it as a certainty. 10. We cannot know that placing a youth in the way to receive an education, and knowledge of some art or science will enable him to live, and thrive, and become useful to him- self and others. But as such efforts have been usually suc- cessful to some extent, every parent endeavors to give his children the opportunity of making the experiment. 11. We observe that persons are, by nature, different in external form, and in the qualities of the senses, and in the power of using what the senses send into the mind. We know that both bodily and intellectual power depends much on habit and discipline. We see some children, who are ap- parently well gifted by nature, who have not the opportunity, or who neglect to use it, of improving their senses and their minds. We see others, who are, by nature, less fortunate, who use opportunities with great diligence, and who become superior to the former. 12. There is, probably, as much of difference among chil- dien in natural disposition, or temper, as in the senses and qualities of the mind. Education is intended, among other things, to strengthen good dispositions, and to correct erro- neous or defective ones. The effect of education on the nat- ural qualities of individuals cannot be clearly denned. There must have been many persons, whose propensities were nat- urally wrong, who have been saved from disgrace by disci- pline, and thereby made good members of society. So, also, there must have been thousands, who were naturally well disposed, and adapted to be worthy in themselves, and an honor to society, but who have been tenants of prisons, and some of whom have left the world as condemned criminals. What an appeal is this, to those who have the ordering of so- cial welfare, to provide, and apply, the means of moral in- struction ! 13. Supposing these views of our nature to be substantially right, the object of the following chapters is, to point out to the youths, who are in the course of education, their relation to each other, to society, and to their country ; and to show, in a plain and simple way, the excellence and value, beyond all price, of the political condition in which they exist. The further purpose is, to give some information of the social sys- tem, of which they are to become active members, and on which their own happiness, in common with that of all around 12 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. them, absolutely depends. The plan is, first, to sketch the principles on which society is formed ; secondly, to show the fitness of the state government to accomplish the intended object of it , thirdly, to do the like as to the national govern- ment ; fourthly, to notice some subjects which concern those who are approaching manhood, and those who have risen to be citizens. CHAPTER III. Men considered individually and socially. 14. WE see that men are so formed, that each one must have a care for his own safety and subsistence ; that each one has wants, and is forced to find out means to satisfy them. This is a common rule to all the human race, however dif- ferent may be the nature of their wants, and means of satis- fying them. But as men are necessarily to live in a social state, other laws arise. Certainly the Creator has given to men the power of knowing the laws intended for their gov- ernment. He has left them free to act according to what is seen to be right, and to have the benefit of obedience ; or to act against what is right, and to suffer the consequences. No observing mind can doubt, that the vegetable kingdom is preserved, that the myriads of animated existence are con- tinued (ever changing individually, though ever the same in species), not only from year to year, but through successive ages, by immutable laws. How, then, can it be doubted, that there are laws for moral and intellectual being : or that ig- norance of these laws, and disobedience to them, when known, degrade man below the rank which he is permitted to hold ! 15. Our first duty, then, is, to use the gift of reason in learning the laws which are prescribed to us. 16. The first fact that presents itself to our notice is, that men cannot live each one by himself, but must live together, or in society ; that the wants of each individual must be such as may be gratified consistently with the like rights in others, since, by the law of nature, all men are equal in this respect. 17. The fundamental principle of society is this that the wants and rights of each member shall be regulated by the POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 13 rights and wants of every other. Writers have entertained different opinions as to the way in which men formed society in the beginning. 18. It is not easy to see how men could agree beforehand, that there should be society ; but it is very clear, supposing society to exist, that it might gradually improve, from the very nature of man ; and that customs, rules and laws would come. 19. We can imagine some families dwelling near each other. At first, they might get food from the natural prod- ucts of the earth, and from the animals of the forest, and of the shores, and the streams. The food, so obtained, might be divided among them as a common stock, obtained by joint exertions. Their habitations might be made by joint labor. Their defence against enemies, and their warring against them, must have depended on the union of their strength. Some of the wants common to all might be sup- plied by joint efforts. Some rules, however simple, would necessarily exist. There would be a sense of right and wrong. The question what is right, implies the existence of a rule. This rule was found, probably, in the will of the chief, who may have become such because he led in war When certain questions have been settled in a certain way, a rule arises. A rule, long followed, becomes a law of the strongest authority. Supposing such a collection of persons to be capable of improvement, they would supply wants, as numbers and means increased, by exchange or barter. 20. It would soon be found, that there must be a division of labor, because each one might, by devoting his time to one occupation, produce more than if his time and attention were given to many different employments. Thus, if the same man were a baker, a blacksmith, and a housewright, he must have means of carrying on all these trades. As his attention and time would be divided on three objects, he would be less skilful in each, than if confined to one. His cost must be proportioned to his number of callings, but his gains would not be. Thus each one, led, by necessity or inclination, to pursue some particular employment, would become skilful in it, and would be able to produce more than he needed for his own use, and would have something to dispose of. For a while, a small community might go on, by exchanging one article for another, to supply the wants of each member. But as numbers, and improvements, and wants, increased, the exchanges would become more and more difficult. The 2 14 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. person who had on hand the product of his labor, and who needed that of another, might find the latter supplied with, or in no want of the article which he had to part with. The difficulties arising in making or measuring the value of the necessary exchanges, introduced a common measure under the name of money. The word money is found in many dif- ferent languages, and nearly the same in all, and is derived from the word mint (now used to signify the place of coin- ing) ; and both are supposed to be derived from mine, the place whence the precious ores come. Another supposition is, that the word money is derived from mene, numbered. (Daniel v. 25.) 21. It is a provision of the Creator, that gold, silver and copper should be found in such quantities and in such places, and that they should be obtained with such labor, and be of such value, as to make just what is vvanted for the conveni- ence of mankind, as the common measure in exchange. These metals pass, or are current (whence currency), in the world under the authority of a known stamp, without weigh- ing. Thus money becomes the common measure of all things ; not only of products of labor, and of all sorts of prop- erty, but of services, of whatever description. The teacher of religion, the physician, the instructer of youth, and all that class of persons who can do something which the members of a community want to have done, are paid in money, with which they can supply their own wants. 22. The value which is thus given to the precious metals is derived from the common consent of mankind, and from their peculiar qualities and scarcity, and from their fitness to be made the measure of all things valuable. A household article made of gold is not of any greater value, for mere use, than one made of clay, or of inferior metal, unless for the reason that it is less liable to be destroyed in the use. It is within common experience, that iron, and especially when formed into steel, is much more useful than gold, or silver, or copper can be. The world have consented, universally, to regard gold and silver as the measure of all property. In every country, the value of every earthly thing that can be bought or sold, and of every service that can be rendered, is known by compar- ing it with a sum of money. To have money, therefore, is to have the command of property, and of all things which are not more valuable than money as one's integrity, one's self- respect. POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 15 23. As numbers, and wealth, and wants increase, the la- bors of the members of a community become more and more narrowed down to exclusive pursuits. The village grows into a town ; the town becomes a city. The inhabitants of a great city are engaged in many separate occupations, each one adhering to his own calling, and, in general, trying to get money, wherewith to supply wants, whatever they may be. An extensive and varied society, embracing farming lands manufacturing and commercial communities, villages, towns, and cities, and wherein a great amount of property is con- tinually passing from one to another, cannot go on pros- perously, and with equal justice to all its members, without established laws. But such laws, however just and righteous in themselves, are unavailing unless there be a faithful ad- ministration of them. CHAPTER IV. On the Means by which the Order of Society is preserved. 24. To show the necessity of having laws, let us suppose that the inhabitants of a great city are suddenly freed from all moral and political restraint ; that each one may take and use what he can, and do every act, as to persons and prop- erty, which selfishness and evil passions may suggest. Every citizen must immediately arm himself; families and neigh- borhoods must unite for mutual preservation. War must arise between different combinations. There would be rules for attack and defence, and for governing each association, not only as to its enemies, but as to its own members. Some one would assume the command from necessity, and would govern by consent, and then by authority, then by force, and then by tyranny. Or we may suppose that such a chief, with some associates, would exercise such power ; or that the members of such a community would meet, and agree that some things should be, and some things should not be done ; that some agents should act for the whole ; that disobedience of the rules agreed upon should be judged of and punished. '2~>. From such elements all governments must have origi- nated. Thus government of some sort springs out of soci- ety, and society cannot exist without it. It is the only secu- rity against foreign foes, and against the wrongs which the 16 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. members of a society may do against each other, and the only agency by which justice can be administered. It is plain that government must be good or bad, according to the laws which exist in it, and the fidelity with which they are applied. The great family of mankind, scattered, as it is, over the face of the earth, shows all the varieties into which human society can be cast. 26. Well regulated society means the security of person and property, and the natural enjoyment of rational life ; that is, that each individual may lawfully acquire, possess and use all things which are necessary, convenient and agreeable to him, excluding possession and use by all other persons, unless with his consent. Society is said to be the best which human condition permits, in proportion as each member of it is free to use his faculties, in obtaining the means of happiness, with- out disturbing others, who are using their faculties to the like end ; and when each member is protected by fixed, equal and just laws, faithfully and impartially administered. The forms of government which have prevailed in the world, have been little adapted to these purposes. Generally, the mass of the community have been subjected to one or a few., The most common forms of government among nations have been the following : 27. JFYrsf, the dominion of one man over all his nation, maintaining his power by having part of his subjects armed, to keep the rest in awe, or by having a force of hirelings. This power has been aided by long continued habit, by igno- rance of the people that there could be any better condition for them ; and sometimes religious fear and superstition have greatly aided the purposes of the ruler. This is called des- potism, or tyranny. (Despot and tyrant are words derived from the Greek language, the former meaning master, the latter king. Neither of them was originally used in an odious sense.) The governments of the eastern nations have always been of this cast ; those of Russia, Prussia, Austria and Spain, are not much removed from it, though private property is, practically, as secure in these as in other states in Europe. The sovereign has no guide but his own will. Whatever the forms may be, persons and property are at his absolute disposal, if he chooses to have it so. 28. A similar power has been sometimes exercised by a few persons combined together, and producing nearly the same result to the subjected. When tyranny is in the hands of a few, it is called an oligarchy ; from the Greek, signifying POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 17 the government of a few. The word aristocracy, from the same language, signifying the government of the best, is sometimes used in an odious sense. In both these kinds of rule, the power has been acquired originally by military usurpation, and continued in right of succession by birth ; or, on the fall of one usurper, new ones have arisen, but always with the same ill fortune to the people. 29. Another form of government has been known less fre- quently among men, consisting of the dominion of one man, holding his rank by right of birth, but with a limitation to his power resting in a class of men noble by birth, and some of whom have been rich in lands and dependants, and who could present a strong barrier to the exercise of absolute au- thority. Such was the state of things in England, and on the continent of Europe, in what are called the middle ages ; and when the land was divided among great chieftains, and the people were considered as vassals, or slaves, and sold with the land. 30. Another form of government has been that which is commonly called a mixed monarchy, in which there is a king, nobles, and some acknowledged rights in the great body of the people, or some privileged part of them. Of this description is the present government of England and that of France. 31. A fifth form of government is a republic., derived from res, a thing, and publicus, public, common, or belonging to the people. Commonwealth has the same meaning as repub- lic. Such is the government of the several states in our Union, and of the American nation. 32. Some of the Greek governments were properly demoo racics ; derived from demos, people, and kratos, government, which means ruling by act of the people. There may be such governments, where the whole community is comprised in a very small space, as a city and it? neighborhood, and where a v ll the people can meet in one assembly, and make, judge of, and execute the laws. There cannot be such a govern- ment here, unless it be in those things which the people of a single town can manage. Our governments are properly representative republics ; that is, the people are ruled by those whom they choose to represent them. No thoroughly organ- ized system of representation of all the people ever existed before. One who desires to have our country ruled by de- mocracy, and one who desires to have it ruled by a monar- chy, may be said to be equally at variance with our forms of government. 18 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 33. In the four first mentioned descriptions, the rulers and the ruled are strongly distinguished from each other. The rulers speak of the government, and treat it as their own, of right. The kings of England use expressions like these " my ar- mies," " my navy/ 3 " my people," " my courts of justice," as though the great mass of the people were not interested or concerned, otherwise than to render obedience. But in a commonwealth, government is carried on for the common benefit of all the people, and they are the fountain of sove- reignty. 34. In limited or mixed monarchies, there is usually a con- stitution or charter. Constitution is formed from the Latin words con, with, and statuo, to resolve, fix or establish, and means an agreement between a whole community and each one of its members. It may contain any provisions which the contracting parties see fit to adopt. It is to be ex- pounded only by its own words, and the usage which grows up under it. The constitution of England is frequently re- ferred to, but it is not written. It is founded in solemn con- cessions, wrested from successive princes by their subjects, and on acts of parliament, and on immemorial usage. In republics, the usual basis of government is a constitu- tion or written code of principles, agreed upon and adopted by those over whom it is to be administered. It defines the power which may be exercised, and the mode in which rulers shall come into power, and in which they shall cease to exer- cise it. 35. In republican governments, the distinguishing quali- ties of a constitution are, that it provides for the manner in which laws shall be made ; what laws may be made ; and by whom and in what manner they shall be administered. In some instances, a constitution declares the rights which the citizens living under it shall have, and also that certain pow- ers shall not be exercised ovej- them. In other constitutions, such declarations are omitted, and the rights of citizens are to be inferred from what is provided for. The constitution of Massachusetts contains a formal bill of rights ; that of the United States does not, in form, but it declares that certain powers shall not be exercised ; or so limits and defines the mode of exercising the powers given as to come to much the same thing as such a declaration. It may be doubtful which is the best mode. No enumeration of rights can be perfect ; nor is any declaration effectual, unless the constitution and laws provide for their secure enjoyment. POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 19 36. It may be safely asserted, that the wisdom of man has never invented any forms of government more wisely adapted to the promotion of the common welfare and happiness, than those of the United States ; and that no union of states, although there have been many in other countries, in past times, was ever so wisely designed, or so successful in ac- complishing its purpose, as that under which we have hith- erto had the good fortune to live. CHAPTER V. The Government of the State of Massachusetts. 37. IN the constitution of this state, its purpose is declared to be, to secure to each member of the community, safety, tranquillity, natural rights, and the blessings of life. The means of doing this are expressed to be, by making the whole community of people " a body politic," by voluntary associa- tion or " social compact" or agreement, whereby each one covenants with the whole, and the whole with each one, that the whole people shall be governed by certain laws, for the common good. 38. A body politic is a corporation ; which means, a dumber of persons acting under one name. This word is derived 1'rom the Latin word corpus, which means body. Although there cannot be a corporation without natural per- sons, yet the same persons are not necessary to it. Corpo- rations continue, however often the persons in them may change. A corporation may be likened to a bee-hive. If one has a bee-hive for several years, he would call it by that name, and obtain from it his honey every year ; but the bees would be changed more or less every month ; and at the end of two or three years, there would be an entire change of every inhabitant of the hive. But it would still be known by the name of the bee-hive, and annually yield the fruit of in- dustry. The state of Massachusetts is a corporation ; so is every bank, turnpike, and every collection of persons, who act under a common name, in virtue of a public law. No new corporation can exist but by a law of the state. What a cor- poration is, or can do, depends on the enabling powers which the law creating it gives. The evidence that the people of Massachusetts agreed to be a corporation, is the constitution 20 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. which they adopted. The powers which they intended to have exercised are expressed in that instrument. The origi- nal is kept in the office of the secretary of state. Copies of it are printed, and are found in every town ; and a copy is always contained in the statute books published by au- thority. 39. It is remarkable, as our constitution was made in the midst of the war for independence (1780), and when it was at least uncertain what the end of that war would be, that it should have been made with so much coolness and wisdom. An experience of forty years, and during great changes, and many important events, has proved that it was originally nearly perfect. A faithful and patient examination by a con- vention, delegated by the people, was made in 1820. It was found to have been fully adequate to the beneficial purposes for which it was framed. Some slight amendments were then proposed and adopted by the people, which will be men- tioned hereafter. 40. It should not be overlooked, that, although this coun- try was under the kingly government of Great Britain, from its earliest settlement to the commencement of the revolution, which secured independence by a separation from the parent country, the habits of the people were always essentially re- publican. Our ancestors, at an early period, formed their communities into towns and counties, and the same divisions were continued when our republic was established. Revo- lution means a change in the government of a country. It may happen in any sort of government. For example, the French put their king to death in 1793, and called their country a republic. But a revolution may happen, also, by the change of one king for another, as in England in 1688 ; and by usurpation, as in Sweden in 1772 ; and again in France, by expelling the reigning family, reforming the sys- tem of government, and choosing a king (July 1830). 41. When the time came for making a constitution, there was nothing to change in the opinions and habits of the peo- ple, and little more to do than to transfer the sovereignty from the king to the people, and solemnly to declare the prin- ciples on which government should be founded, and clearly to define the manner in which these principles should have effect. 42. As it is the duty and the interest of those who rule in our republic to promote the common good, so the duty of each citizen is, to be respectful to the rulers, and obedient to the POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 21 laws. As each one relies on the government for security and protection, so each one is bound to render his personal ser- vice, and to contribute his portion to the common expense of maintaining the state. If it may not be asserted, that no government but such as is founded on the principle of equal rights and rational liberty to all, is consistent with the laws of the Creator, it may be said, that no form of government seems to be so much so. 43. As the real foundation of government among us is the people, it is first to be considered in what manner the people exercise their powers of sovereignty. All the people cannot act in one assembly, nor each one in his own name. Hence there must be many places of meeting, and some name common, to many. The acts of the people must be made known in some agreed manner. The people exercise their political rights by the general name of inhabitants of towns. All the political acts which they may do collectively must be done in town meetings. The people may assemble in such meetings, in an orderly and peaceable manner, to consult upon the common good, to instruct their representatives, and to petition the legislature for the redress of wrongs, or to remonstrate against grievances. The people have reserved to themselves the right to assemble when and how they please, in an orderly and peaceable manner, otherwise than in town meetings, to consult on the common good. The acts of such meetings have no legal force. Among such meetings may be classed lyceums, assemblies to hear lec- tures ; caucuses, held by electors to confer together, and agree on candidates for office. The word caucus was first used in Boston, about the beginning of the revolutionary times. Its origin is not ascertained ; it has now a well known meaning, and is in common use throughout the United States. The inhabitants of each town are declared to be a body poli- tic and corporate. Their acts, as such body, are known by the record of their proceedings, duly certified by proper officers. 44. When a town meeting is necessary, the law requires that the selectmen shall issue a warrant, setting forth that a meeting is to be held, and for what purpose. The inhabi- tants who are qualified to attend and act, are to be duly no- tified thereof by the constable,* or such other person as the selectmen shall appoint to notify them. * The first use of this word was (comes stabuli) count of the stables, or mas- ter of horse of an emperor. Afterwards it meant the highest military office, 22 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 45. The next corporate bodies known in the constitution are counties, which are divisions made for the purpose of administering justice within them. Counties are composed of one or more towns. 46. All the counties together make the next and last de- nomination of the political system, viz. ' the state.' 47. The law-making and the executive power arises from the votes of inhabitants of towns, and is thus provided for: The constitution expresses (in the 3d article of amend- ment adopted in 1820), that every " male citizen of twenty- one years of age and upwards, excepting paupers and persons under guardianship, who shall have resided within the common- wealth one year, and within the town or district within which he shall claim a right to vote, six calendar months, next pre- ceding any election for governor, lieutenant-governor, sena- tors or representatives, and who shall have paid, by himself, his parents, master or guardian, any state or county tax, which shall, within two years next preceding such election, have been assessed upon him, in any town or district of this commonwealth ; and also every citizen who shall by law be exempted from taxation, and who shall in all other respects be qualified as abovementioned, shall have a right to vote in such election of governor, lieutenant-governor, senators and representatives ; and no other person shall be entitled to vote in such elections." 48. Before this amendment, there was some distinction between those citizens who might vote in affairs of the town only, and those who might vote on those affairs and for state officers ; but now that distinction is abolished in effect. The assessors are required by law to make a list, annually, of voters, and to publish it. They are also required to meet, on some day previous to an election, to receive evidence of qual- ifications to vote, and to add names to the list. A list is carried to the place of election, and no one is allowed to vote, whose name is not found thereon. Persons who vote, knowing themselves not to be qualified, are subject to a fine. 49. The city of Boston does the same acts, in relation to all state affairs, which towns do ; that is, it takes its share in all elections of state officers and rulers, and pays its part of and then the highest civil office, under a sovereign. Constable means the lowest executive officer, as used in the United States. His duties arise in part by common law, and in part by statute law. POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 23 taxes, &c. But its interior government is exercised in a dif- ferent manner, and by officers of different names from those known in towns. This is so, from the law or act incorpo- rating the city. This act is sometimes called the charter, which means nothing more than the law written on paper, cliarta being a Latin word, meaning paper. The citizens of Boston, instead of assembling in town meeting, assemble in wards or divisions of the city. Instead of voting in the pres- ence of selectmen, they vote in the presence of ward officers. Instead of having selectmen, they have four representatives from each ward, and a board of aldermen, and a mayor. Thus they have a city legislature of two branches, each hav- ing a negative on the other. The mayor is the executive officer. The city is a little republic. 50. Justice is administered by officers different from those in other places, though the same laws are adminis- tered, with the addition of such as are made by the city leg- islature. 51. There is a court of civil causes of twenty dollars, and less, peculiar to the city ; a court of criminal jurisdiction for small offences, called the Police Court ; and a court of criminal trials o.all offences between a justice's court and the Supreme Court. This is called the Municipal Court, and it punishes all offences which are not punished with death. The word municipal is derived from a Latin word, which meant taking a gift, and was applied to taking the gift or privileges of citizenship, in a city ; and then was used to mean things pertaining to a city ; and, as applied to this court, means the City Court, if it has any meaning. The word mu- nicipal is also used to signify some matter pertaining to the interior affairs of a nation, in contradistinction to matters which pertain to international law. The judge of this court in Boston has no civil jurisdiction. He is appointed and holds his office like other judges, and is paid, half his salary by the city, and half by the state. 52. The office of mayor is a very responsible one. It is his duty to see that the laws of the city are executed, that the public peace and tranquillity are preserved. He has also a legislative character, as the presiding officer in the board of aldermen. He is, necessarily, aided by subordinate offi- cers in the exercise of executive power. Mayor is said to be derived from an old English word, meyr, and that from miret, and means to keep, or guard. 24 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. CHAPTER VI. On the Authority by which the State Laws are made. 53. A LAW is a command to do, or not to do, or a permis- sion to do, some act. It must be made in relation to those who are bound to obey, and must be made by competent au- thority. There must be tribunals to judge of breaches of the law, and power to execute judgments. To show in a strong light the difference between absolute despotism and a govern- ment of constitutional laws, The sultan of the Turks wants money : he orders certain rich men to be put to death, and their money put into his treasury. The state of Massachu- setts wants money. It cannot have such want for any pur- pose not provided for in the constitution. It cannot supply this want from the money of the people, otherwise than by a oublic law, openly and deliberately made ; and whereby each citizen will be held to pay his just proportion. This law-making power is vested in a " GENERAL COURT,"* or legislature. This latter word is derived from two Latin words, which signify law, and bearing or enacting. Experi- ence has proved that the power of making laws may be safely trusted to the concurrence of two independent branches, sub- ject to the qualified opinion of the executive chief. This principle is common to all the American constitutions. The General Court is composed of two branches, viz. the Senate and House of Representatives. 54. The number of senators is forty, who are chosen in districts composed of several towns, and which districts are established by law, from time to time. The number of senators which each district may send, de- pends upon the amount which the inhabitants dwelling within that district are liable to pay, as their proportion of the whole state tax. But no district can have more than six senators, whatever tax it pays. Senators are chosen in town meet- ings, in each district, on the first Monday in April. The town- * The word court is (as many of our words are) from the language of the Saxoi;s ; a people who had conquered and settled in a part of England about the year 500. It meant a square in the castle of the chief lord, where his people met. With us, it means also the legislative assembly. Here, and (wryvvlierc in the United States, it means the tribunals of justice. The judges (and the judge, when only one sits) are called "the court." It means also the assembly in a court-house, in common speech. The word court is supposed, by some writers, to come from the Latin word curia. The English of this word is court. POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 25 clerk records the names of all persons voted for, and the number of votes for each. The selectmen and town-clerk send a copy of that record, certified by them, to the office of the secretary of state, seventeen days before the last Wednes- day of May, to be laid before the governor and council, who examine those returns. The secretary is ordered to notify those persons who appear to be chosen senators, to attend the General Court, on the last Wednesday in May. If it hap- pens that there is not a choice in one or more districts, the choice is made by a convention of senators and representa- tives, from the two candidates who have the highest number of votes. 55. A convention (derived from two Latin words, signify- ing to come together) is a meeting of the Senate and House of Representatives, in the hall of the latter, at which the pres- ident of the Senate presides. The two branches constitute one body, in such case, as to the act to be done in conven- tion. The speaker of the House acts only, then, as one of the convention. Such conventions are held in consequence of a proposal made by one branch to the other, by sending one of its members with a message. 56. Representatives are chosen in May, ten days before the last Wednesday. They are chosen from among the in- habitants in each town, and represent the towns in which they respectively live. They are chosen by the inhabitants in town meeting, and are certified to have been voted for as in the case of senators ; and they carry those certificates with them to the General Court. 57. As the constitution now is, each town is entitled to send a certain number of representatives, in proportion to its number of ratable polls* making an assembly of more than five hundred persons. This provision is thought to make too numerous and expensive a House. Propositions are before the people to amend the constitution in this respect. It will be observed that the Senate is founded on representation of property ; the House, on representation of numbers in towns. 58. Senators are called honorable. The constitution does not confer this title. The usage may, perhaps, be derived from the fact, that the Senate may be resolved into the high- est judicial tribunal for the trial of impeachments ; more probably, it is a remnant of colonial usage. The king's coun- cil were a branch of the colonial legislature. Its members * For the meaning of these words, see numbers 72, 73, 74. 3 526 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. had the title of honorable. It would not have been matter of regret, if it had met the fate of some other usages of that time. 59. The senators assemble in their chamber, and the rep- resentatives in their chamber, on the last Wednesday in May ; and the governor of the commonwealth goes into each cham- ber, where he administers to the members the oath required by the constitution. The Senate chooses a president and clerk. The House chooses a speaker and clerk. The gov- ernor is notified who these officers are, and each branch is notified, respectively, of the officers of the other, so that each may know that papers, sent to them from the other, are sent by the proper persons. The governor and council sit, by themselves, in a chamber. This chamber is not open to spectators. Those of the Senate and House are always open to spectators during the session. 60. When a law is to be made, the subject is usually com- mitted to a committee, who report a bill, or a written paper called a bill, containing the proposed law. If in the Senate, the bill is read and debated. If approved of (this is done by a vote), it is ordered to be read again, at some future time, and it is read. If again approved of by a majority, it is passed, and sent to the House of Representatives, where it is read three different times, and debated, if members see fit ; and if approved of on the three different readings, it is passed. If there be not a majority, in both branches, in favor of the bill, on each reading, it does not pass. Bills originate in like mariner in the House of Representatives. All money bills originate in the House ; that is, laws for the raising or pay- ing of money. All bills are read and passed upon in the same manner, whether they come from the Senate, or are to be sent to the Senate, to be acted upon. Bills are acted upon in the Senate in like manner, whether they originate in the Senate or come from the House. 61. As both branches must concur to make a law, each branch can prevent the passing of a bill, approved by the other. When both branches agree, the bill is copied on parchment, signed by the president of the Senate and speaker of the House, and sent to the governor. If he approve of it, and sign it, it becomes a law ; and the parchment, so signed, i? kept in the secretary's office, and a copy of it is certified by him, and printed ; and it appears in the statute book. The word statute means an act of the legislature, and is de- rived from statuo, to resolve or establish. The word law , POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 27 (from the Latin) means the thing chosen, or marked out, as a rule or guide ; and comprehends all rules made by author- ity. A statute is a law, though a law may not be a statute. If the governor disapprove of the proposed law, he returns the bill to the legislature, with his reasons. It is again con- sidered by the legislature, and if two thirds of each branch concur, it is a law, though not signed by the governor. It rarely happens that the governor rejects a bill ; still more rare, that the legislature pass the law after the governor does reject it. The power given to him is hardly capable of mis- use ; and if misused, still the legislature have a remedy in the concurrence of two thirds. 62. The power of the legislature to make laws is limited only by the provisions of the constitutions of the state and of the United States. Every subject which, in their opinion, is connected with the public welfare, is a proper subject for their attention. But they have no power to make any law affecting any particular citizen by name, individually, against his will ; except only, that each branch may, by order, im- prison any person for contemptuous behavior in their pres- ence. Whenever any legislative measure is proposed, which may affect particular persons, and not all persons, it is an in- variable practice to notify it to the interested party, that he may appear, and remonstrate, or be heard before a com- mittee. 63. As it is in the power of the legislature to make any law within the constitutional limits, so it is in their power to repeal any existing law, unless some personal or corporate right was conferred by it ; in which case they cannot repeal, unless the power to do so was reserved in the original act. It sometimes happens that a law passes, which is plainly and clearly against the constitution. In such case, if the law is questioned, and comes before the Supreme Judicial Court to be judged of, and is found, by that court, to be irreconcilable to the constitution, they declare it to be void. This power is known only in the American constitutions. It is exercised with great care, and only in clear cases. 64. Besides the laws so made, the people had, before the revolution, the benefit of the common law of England. That benefit the people retained in their new constitution, by pro- viding that all laws adopted, used and approved in the colo- ny, should continue in force until altered or repealed by the legislature. 65. The common law was brought over by our ancestors. 28 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. In England, it is grounded on the general customs of the realm. It is founded in reason, and is said by English au- thorities to be the perfection of reason, acquired by long study, observation and experience, refined by learned men in successive ages. It is the common birthright for the defence of one's goods, lands and revenues ; and of one's wife, chil- dren, liberty, fame and life. Our own statute law provides, for example, that murder shall be punished with death ; but it does not define what murder is. For this definition we re- sort to the common law. We find this in the books of au- thority. These contain the description of the crime ; and when a trial is had, these books are re many advantages, which they now bold in th. ir po>s; s- sion, in the fr.ivsts that cover their i. Forest trees, liko every thing < l-e, arc improved by caro ; the i'ul tives maybe removed, and th.- IMIMV valuable ones favored. In some cases, foreign trees might, with advantage, bo introduced ; in many, the health and growih of the native kinds be improved. To do tlvse things successfully would require a par- ticular sMidy of rhe charact' rand babiisof the trees to bo cultivated. In th:' last place, it n:;iy IK- s, n called to superintend mechanical operations on his farm, and to judge of improvements in ploughs and other implements, ho should not be ignorant of mechanics, 14* 4 APPENDIX. Books. The following books may he recommended to him : Conversations on Chemistry, and Davy's Agricultural Chemistry , Conversations on Vegetable Physiology and the Elements of Bot- any ; the Treatise on Mechanics, contained in the Library of Use- ful Knowledge. The New England Farmer, published weekly at Boston, contains a great deal of valuable information, suited to the wants and capacities of farmers. Thacher's Orchardist is a Treatise on Fruit-Trees suited to New England. Conversations on Chemistry is the title of a book written for the instruction of beginners in this science. It is a veiy clear, sensible, well arranged book. It has the great advantage of being written in such a style, that every part of it is intelligible to a per- son who has never read anything upon the subject. It gives an in- teresting account of earths, metals, and all other substances with which we have anything to do ; explains the manner in which plants grow, and the substances of which they are composed, and the manner in which air acts upon them, and upon animals. It is a small volume, and costs about $1,00. Davy's Agricultural Chemistry was written by the most distin- guished of the English chemists, for the express purpose of ren- dering the subject interesting and useful to the cultivators of the soil. This end is very perfectly attained. It gives more informa- tion upon the nature of soils, and the suitableness of particular soils to particular vegetables, than perhaps any other book. It supposes a person to have some knowledge of chemistry, and is therefore to be read after the Conversations. The price of this valuable work is about $1,75. A book with the title " Conversations on Vegetable Physiology, comprehending the Elenients of Botany, with their Application to Agriculture," is by the author of Conversations on Chemistry, and is equally well written. It treats of the roots, stems, leaves, flowers, fruit, seed, and other parts of plants ; of the action of air, heat, light and moisture upon plants ; of the modes of planting, grafting, watering, and otherwise treating plants ; of the nature of soils, and the cultivation of grasses and trees. In order to understand it, a person should know something of chemistry. It will be found a very useful book to a fanner. Price, $1,00. The Treatise on Mechanics, above referred to, is contained in numbers 6, 7, 8 and 11 of the Library of Useful Knowledge, which was intended for, and is admirably well suited to, all classes of men who have not great leisure for study. CHAPTER III. Useful Arts and Trades. NEXT to the pursuits of agriculture, may be considered what are called the useful or mechanic arts and trades. These havo principally for their object to convert the productions of the earth USEFUL ARTS. 5 and sea, of vegetabl 3, animal or mineral nature, into forms or fabrics suited to the wants, comforts or luxuries of men. Classification. The arts may be divided into three classes : 1. those employed in changing the qualities of substances, and im- parting new ones ; 2. those by which the form only is changed, but the properties remain unaltered ; and 3. those which furnish the instruments and means by which all the arts of the other two classes are carried on. The leather-dresser changes soft and perishing skin into tough and durable leather. The metallurgist converts the ores of iron, copper or lead, into the metals themselves. The dyer changes the property of color. The arts of these persons belong to the first class. The glove-maker and the shoe-maker give to leather, without changing its nature, forms suitable for use. The boat-builder shapes boards and planks of wood, by the aid of iron, tar, hemp and paint, into boats of various kinds. These belong to the second class. The artists who supply the former with needles and awls, and the latter with planes, augers, chisels, adzes, and other tools, be- long to the third class. First Class. Every one, who would produce a permanent change in any substance, ought to study to understand, as far as he can, the nature of the substance he acts upon, and of the change he would effect. With this knowledge only can he be reasonably sure that he is employing the most direct and effi- cient means of reaching his end. This can be made clear only by examples. It is the object of the tanner to change the hide of an animal into leather. This, he knows, may be done in several ways, in a short or long time, and by the" use of several different sub- stances. It is desirable to do this in the shortest and cheapest way ; while the leather shall, at the same time, be, in the greatest degree possible, strong, pliable, tough, impervious to water, and uninfluenced by air. Now, in order that lie may improve any one of the processes, through which the hide has to pass, he ought, as far as he can, to understand the nature of each of them. He ought to understand the qualities of skin itself, what it is com- posed of, and to what circumstances it owes its qualities. He must understand what effect lime has upon it, and whether some other substance could not produce the same effect more easily, or a better effect. To this end, he must study the nature of lime, and of those sul)stances which resemble lime. Then he must under- stand the effect which the tannin, which is contained in oak bark, has upon the hide ; what the substance called tannin is, and wheth- er it does not exist in greater quantities or better qualities in other barks or woods, or in some substances which are not bark nor wood. He ought also to understand what effect immersion in water, or exposure to air, or the action of heat, or of light, has upon the leather, during these processes. These are only a few of the circumstances and influences he should understand ; and 6 APPENDIX. he can know little about either of them, but by an acquaintance with chemistry, which records whatsoever has been found out by men's observation and experience, upon these and a thousand similar subjects. It is idle to say that an apprentice could learn all this from a master, and that a master is better than a book, True, he will learn much of these things from a skilful master, and probably many tilings which he would not find in books. But it should be remembered that books on chemistry contain the mature re- sults of the experience of very many masters, and those, too, men who exceedingly well understood their trade. Would you not think it a very useful volume, which contained all the conclusions which a sensible tanner had come to, after many experiments and much observation, during a long life ? Now, a volume of chemis- try would contain similar conclusions of many such persons. Suppose experiments had been made to find out which produced the best effects upon skins, the tannin contained in the bark of oak, chestnut, willow, sumach or elm, and how those effects dif- fered from each other. Would not a book containing an account of these experiments be very useful to a tanner ? Such a book would be a volume of chemistry, and the man who made the experiments would be a chemist, whatever he might call him- self. The painter may be taken as another example. The use of paint is twofold to defend the substance to which it is applied from the action of the air, and to contribute to its agreeable ap- pearance. Of these the first is the most important. To effect this, paint should itself act favorably upon the surface to which it is applied, and should resist the action of moisture and air to as great a degree, and for as great a length of time, as possible. A painter ought, therefore, as far as practicable, to understand the nature of woods and other substances to be painted, of all the substances which enter into the composition of his paints, and of air and water ; and how each of these acts upon the rest. If he do not understand the nature of wood, he may ignorantly apply kinds of paint, which will not unite with it, or with the sap or gums contained in it. In this case, the paint will soon peel offj and leave the surface exposed to the air. This sometimes is seen to take place. If he be ignorant of the nature of his paints, he may mix together articles which will not form a permanent union, or which will destroy each other's color. From ignorance of the composition and nature of air, he may expose to its action a substance which it rapidly corrodes. All knowledge of this kind belongs to the province of chemistiy. Another instance of the importance of scientific knowledge to practical men may be found in the case of the dyer. The object of dyeing is to produce a permanent change in the color of the article dyed. The excellence of a dye applied, for instance, to a woollen cloth, should consist in imparting the required shade of color, so as not to injure the texture of the cloth, and so as to be acted upon as little as possible by the air and light, USEFUL ARTS. f or, if acted upon by the light, to have its tint and brilliancy rather improved than injured by it. To effect all these different ends, a dyer must be acquainted with the chemical nature of wool, and the alterations made in its nature by the processes of manu- facture : he must understand the nature and origin of the mineral, vegetable, and animal substances, used in dyeing ; and he must understand the chemical action of air and light upon colored sub- stances exposed to their influence. What constitutes a great diffi- culty in dyeing, is the fact that nearly all the mineral substances which enter into the composition of dyes, are of a corroding nature, and, unless counteracted by other principles, gradually tend to destroy the texture of the cloth or other article to which they are applied. This corrosiveness seems necessaiy, that the color may sink deeply into the cloth, and be thus permanent ; but its destructive influence must be in a great degree corrected, or the firmness of the fabric will be destroyed. Effects of lAgM. Another great difficulty arises from the fact that the sun's fight, among the numerous and surprising effects which it produces upon the visible creation, has that of gradually softening away many colors, so as to deprive them of their origi- nal brilliancy. This is the difficulty. It may undoubtedly be converted, by the dyer who has deeply studied the influence of sun-light upon different coloring substances, into a source of great beauty. By slightly over-coloring, perhaps, the effect of the sun shall be exerted in mellowing down the too gaudy tints into a softness and richness more agreeable to the taste than any original brightness. We know this is done in the masterpieces of painting, and cannot, therefore, doubt, that it might be done in dyeing. Something more might probably be done. We often see pieces of old glass, and fragments of anthracite coal, resplendent with all the colors of the rainbow. These have been produced, or brought out, by the action of light, moisture, air, or some similar cause, upon their surface. Whenever we can understand the nature of this action, we shall be able to hope to imitate it. And it can only be understood by means of chemistry. This study, then, is indispensable to every one engaged in the art of dyeing. The properties of light form the subject of a branch of natural phi- losophy called optics. It must now be obvious, that persons engaged in the arts of the first class, must all be acquainted with chemistry, and some of them with parts of natural philosophy. Second Class. The arts of the second class, those which change the form, but not the properties, of bodies and fabrics, must de- pend, mainly, for their excellence upon the manual skill and dex- terity of those who exercise them. Still a useful preparation may be made for the pursuit, by such studies as point out the nature of the materials which are used in them. This may be rendered evident by considering a few examples. To take that of the house-carpenter. His object is to build a house of the best materials, and hi the best and most eco- 8 APPENDIX. nomical manner. In order to choose his materials, he must be acquainted with the good and bad qualities of the different kinds of wood, and know 011 what circumstances their durability de- pends. In order to use his materials economically, he must know what form and dimensions to give the posts, beams and other parts of the frame of a house. In regard to each one of these parts, there are a certain form and a certain size, which are better than any other. A beam may become weak by being too large, as well as by being too small, and a builder who does not know what the true medium of size is, will be liable to waste his mate- rials, and weaken his work, while he is intending to strengthen it. Now, the principles upon which he may judge are contained in the science of mechanics. Of this, therefore, the builder must not be ignorant. The proper shape and arrangement of apart- ments, the size of doors and windows, the mode of connecting the parts of the frame, are all contained in books upon carpentry. The best books upon this subject suppose an acquaintance with mechanics, and both carpentry and mechanics depend on geom- etry. A builder should therefore lay a foundation for skill by the study of geometry, and add to it the study of the other two branches so essential to his profession. It is proper, in this place, that a few words should be said upon geometry, as this study is not only the basis of the art of the house-builder, but of all those arts which in any way use the principles of mechanics ; and indeed it is the ground-work of nearly all the practical arts which do not depend upon chem- istry. Geometry signifies the measure of the earth. But the science includes the measure of all things which have length, breadth, or thickness. Land, timber, stone and earth are all measured by the principles of geometry. The art of navigation, or sailing upon the ocean, has been brought to perfection by these principles ; and by means of them the magnitude and distance of the heavenly bodies have been ascertained. The construction and use of ma- chines cannot be thoroughly understood without some knowl- edge of geometry. A wall or bridge cannot be well built, nor a wharf or pier, to resist the pressure or thrust of earth or water, laid, without a practical use of truths in mechanics, which depend upon geometrical principles. The knowledge of geometry, there- fore, while it is of use to all persons, is of the greatest importance to the mechanic. To return to the instance of the house-builder. In order to judge of wood, and the properties of the numerous kinds, he ought to know at what season of the year different trees should be felled, and how they should be seasoned. This knowledge may be, and actually is, acquired from intercourse with practical men. And there is no doubt that the best part of eveiy practical man's information must be acquired in this way. But it is often the lot of a young man not to find the most intelligent men to learn from ; and there are, moreover, many things which are more ac- curately stated in books than they can be by any man whatever; USEFUL ARTS. 9 and a book of science contains what has been found out by the united wisdom of a great many men. The house-builder should be a judge of bricks, and of the mode in which they should be laid, that he may superintend the masons whom he employs. The mason should have knowledge of his materials and their use. No two things differ more than good and bad mortar. The one becomes harder and harder by time, and will make the walls built with it last for centuries. The other moulders away, lets in air and water, and allows the bricks and stones, which should have been united by it, to fall apart in a few years. To be able to choose the former, and avoid the latter, a mason must be acquainted with the nature of mortar, and, to that end, with that part of chemistry which treats of it. He ought also to be able to secure a house against the evil of a smoky chimney. This may always be done ; and if masons had the information they ought to have, it always would be done. But to do it, a mason must be acquainted with the principles on which the motion of smoke and air depends. These are treated of in books on natural philosophy. After these instances, it will not be thought necessary to prove farther, that every workman ought, if he can, to become acquaint- ed with the nature of the materials he works upon. Third Class. In the arts of the third class, of which it is the object to furnish the means and instruments for the exercise of all the rest, there is particular need of the knowledge of mechan- ics, as many of them are the most complex, and require the most ingenuity of any of the useful arts. Mechanics comes from a Greek word, which signifies contri- vance, or machine. It comprehends whatever belongs to motion, and the forces and means which produce motion. All instru- ments are made and act upon mechanical principles, and it is to these that we are to look for any improvements which we may hope will take place, in the means of acting upon the powers of nature. Indeed, the powers of nature themselves, acting in the vast spaces of the universe, and forming one of the grandest sub- jects of our investigations, are subject, under God's providence, to the same laws that we observe acting on the surface of the earth, and rightly call the laws or principles of mechanics. Wherever a great force is to be used, as in the drawing out and cutting up great bars of iron, the stamping of coin, the draw- ing upon shore, and launching again into the sea, a large ship, the pumping out of water, or the lifting of coal or ore from mines, the means must be found, and managed, by the application of mechanical principles. The construction of eveiy machine, large or small, depends upon the same principles. He who has the most extensive knowledge of mechanics, and the most perfect control of its resources, will, therefore, be most able to construct, modify and use the machines, and other contrivances, necessary in the arts. Books. It remains to give some account of a few useful books, wliich may be recommended to those engaged in the arts. As 10 APPENDIX. a general introduction, especially for persons who have some education, no hook has lately appeared which can be more high- ly recommended than Bigelow's Elements of Technology. This volume gives some account of the general principles of many of the most important of the arts. It is better adapted to persons interested in all, than to those who are particularly devoted to one. JBut it contains a great deal, which cannot easily be found else- where ; and whatever it contains, may be entirely depended on. Some of the chapters must be interesting to all persons ; par- ticularly those upon heating, ventilating and lighting houses. The following are some of the subjects of the chapters: of the mate- rials used in the arts, their form and strength ; of writing, print- ing, painting, engraving, building, machinery, forces, spinning and weaving, clockwork, coloring, making glass and stone ware, and the preservation of organic substances. At the end of each chapter is a list of the best works which have been written on the subject of that chapter ; and this is the most useful thing in the volume. By the help of this list, an excellent library might be collected. This is an octavo volume of over 500 pages, with many plates. Price about $3,00. Another treatise, of a general nature, is found in the introducto- ry number of the Library of Useful Knowledge, published at London. Its title is, " The Objects, Advantages and Pleasures of Science." Its price, as that of each of the other numbers of this useful publication, is from twelve to fifteen cents. Here also may be mentioned the first eight numbers of the same work ; the eleventh, the twelfth and nineteenth. All these, though unequal, are excellent. Chemistry. In addition to those works which have already been mentioned, the following may be noticed as useful : Fyfe's Elements of Chemistry, prepared by Dr. Webster, a small volume of about 400 pages, (cost, $1,25,) is well suited to beginners, as it was originally intended for the use of pupils of Mechanics' In- stitutions. It is written in a clear, simple style. In the Appendix is a list of the most important subjects in chemistry, with referen- ces to fifty works upon chemistry and natural philosophy, in which these subjects are treated more at length. An edition has lately been made by Dr. Bache, of the Franklin Institute, of the Elements of Chemistry of Prof. Turner of the London University. The American edition is in one volume, of nearly 600 pages of fine print, and it costs not more than $2,00. It is a full treatise, and, considering the size and contents, is a cheap volume. From its recent publication, it contains some dis- coveries in chemistiy, which will not be found in other books tliat have been mentioned. Dr. Webster's Chemistiy is a compilation from the best authors, intended particularly for the use of students attending lectures, but not ill adapted to any learners in the science, who wish to obtain more than a superficial knowledge of it. It is in one 8vo. volume of over 600 pages, with several plates, and may be bought for $3,00. BOOKS. 11 A very complete treatise on dyeing will be found in a work of two volumes, 8vo. price $4,25, written originally in French by Berthollet, and translated into English by Dr. Ure. The author of this work was considered as understanding this subject as well, perhaps, as any person who has ever written upon it ; and some processes, first recommended by him, have made great changes in the art. To those who want a book of reference in chemistry, the Chemical Dictionary of Dr. Ure may be recommended. It is in one 8vo. volume of 800 pages, or in two smaller volumes. It is of excellent authority, and gives a pretty full an' 1 , satisfactory account of the many subjects contained in it. The price is $4,00. Those who wish for the fullest account of all the parts of chemistry, with references to all the original authorities, will find it in Thomson's System of Chemistry, in four or five large vol- umes, 8vo. Henry's Chemistry, in two or three volumes,*8vo. of about 400 pages each, lias long had a very good reputation. Price, $5,50. Natural Philosophy. As a mere introduction to this study, Joyce's Scientific Dialogues may be of use. It is a little work in three volumes, at about $1,50. With an able instructor to explain and enlarge upon it, it is a useful book. The best part of this may be found in the Scientific Class Book, which is exceedingly well fitted to be used in schools, where much time cannot be given to studies of this kind. Adams's Lectures upon Natural Philosophy are a popular work, somewhat diffuse, but generally clear. They are contained in four volumes, with well executed plates. The American edition may be obtained for $9,00. A much better book, for practical men, is Brewster's edition of Ferguson's Lectures. The lectures themselves are the work of a man ignorant of geometry, and are therefore full of inaccuracies. These are corrected by Dr. Brews- ter, who, in an additional volume, has given, a great deal of infor- mation, highly useful to men occupied in the aits. The work is in two volumes, 8vo. It is, however, difficult to be found. T\\e life of Ferguson, which is contained in the first volume, is exceed- ingly interesting, from the difficulties he had to struggle with, and which he overcame. Those treatises are generally free from mathematical language, and may be understood with the most common knowledge of mathematics. If any one wishes to understand the subject thor- oughly, and read the best books upon it, lie must previously learn geometry and algebra. With the knowledge of them, he may read the foMowing works : Emerson's Mechanics, which is a very full and valuable treatise, in one quarto volume, price about $5,00. The Cambridge Course of Physics. The Mechan- ics of this course is the most complete treatise which has been published, separately, in this country. Parts of it require a knowledge of the higher branches of mathematics, but most of it is intelligible to a person who understands geometry and algebra. There are four volumes, one upon mechanics, one on physics, 15 12 APPENDIX. one on optics, one on astronomy. They may be had separately for about three dollars each volume. Dr. Gregory's Mathematics for practical men is a single volume of 400 pages, with several plates, and may be had for $4,00. This was written expressly for beginners in civil engineer- ing, and for other mechanics and artists. It contains the most important parts of arithmetic, algebra, the truths of geometry, and its applications, mensuration, mechanics, &c. The principles are usually laid down, but not demonstrated. Brunton's Mechanics' Text-Book is a little work, which may be useful, although it has the same defect as the preceding, of not explaining the truths, rules, and tables which are laid down. It is intended for " engineers, mill-wrights, machine-makers, found- ers, smiths, &c." It contains " Practical Rules and Tables con- nected with the Steam-Engine, Water- Wheel, Force-Pump, and Mechanics in general." It may be bought for 50 cents. The Builder's Pocket Manual, a small 12mo. volume of 300 pages, price 75 cents, contains rules and instructions in the arts of carpentry, joinery, masonry, and bricklaying, with several en- gravings. These last three works are unlike the others that have been recommended, in containing principles only, without the explanations. They are not well suited to beginners. A better book is Allen's Mechanics. It contains nothing upon arithmetic, and little upon geometry or algebra. This cannot be considered a defect, as these may be learnt elsewhere to better purpose. But it goes more fully into those branches which are of immediate importance to mechanics and manufacturers, for whose use it is intended. It contains many valuable tables, and much other useful information. By one who has acquired the rudiments of natural philosophy, it will be easily understood. Price, about $3,00. Carpentry. An excellent book upon the subject of carpentry was published in 1827, prepared by B. Hale, then principal of Gardiner Lyceum. This is the best introduction to be found, to the art of the carpenter. It treats of the strength of timber, and of the construction of floors, roofs, and the other parts of a building. It requires no mathematics but arithmetic, and every carpenter will find it of the greatest use. It costs $1,12. Civil Engineering. This teaches the art of building walls, roads, bridges and other extensive works. Some considerable in- formation upon materials, modes of laying out and constructing roads, of building bridges, of digging and securing canals, form- ing locks, building sea-walls, and protecting harbors, may be found in a work called Sganzin's Civil Engineering, which was published at Boston in 1827. It costs $1,33. Geometry. For simplicity, clearness and easiness of compre- hension, no full treatise on the subject is superior to Walker's Elements of Geometry. Where the object is to get an acquaint- ance with the science for immediate use, it is unequalled, as it is short, but strict, and nothing essential is omitted. The author, who has been longer and more deservedly famous INSTRUCTION. 13 for teaching geometry well, than any other author ever was for teaching any science, is Euclid ; and Euclid's Elements are, at this day, among the best books on geometry to be found. His editors are numberless : one of the best is Simpson. Legendlre's Geometry, as used at Cambridge, is the most per- fect work upon the subject of the elements of geometry that has, for many years, been written. It goes farther into the subject than Euclid, containing the best of the modern sugges- tions, all admirably clear and well arranged. There are many other books upon geometry. These seem to be best suited to the purpose now in view. Algebra. Colburn's Introduction to Algebra is upon the same principle, and almost equally successful, as his books upon arithmetic. The learner has the satisfaction of overcoming the difficulties of the science himself, by a process into which he is gradually led, so that they almost cease to appear to be diffi- culties. Day's Algebra is easy and useful. If the learner wishes to use algebra in assisting him to read English authors on natural philosophy, he may learn some English treatise, as that in the Library of Useful Knowledge, Wood's Algebra, or Bonnycastle's, which are among the easiest. If he wishes to have the means of reading French authors upon the same subject, he may study Lacroix's Algebra. CHAPTER IV. Instruction. OF the learned professions, it is intended to remark only on that of instructors of the young ; for these may be considered as belonging to that class. The reason why they have not been so considered, is probably that they have not generally embraced the business of teaching as a distinct profession. Men devoted to other pursuits, have taken up the duty of instruction as a tem- porary employment. It begins to be viewed with different feelings ; and it is not uncommon, now, to find young men resolving to devote them- selves to it, as a permanent profession. Such will do well to consider how great a work they are taking upon themselves, and how much is to be done in preparation. They are not only to use the language of one who seems to have felt for school- masters, as if he had himself been one to spend their time "in controlling petulance, exciting indifference to action, striving to enlighten stupidity, and laboring to soften obstinacy ;" they are to quicken the tender germ of intellect when it begins to spring up towards the light of truth ; to tend and train the powers as 14 APPENDIX. they successively unfold themselves ; to fill the mind with good knowledge ; to watch growing habits ; to form the child to be happy and useful, and able to contribute to the happiness of others ; in short, to form him for the service of society and of God, and to exert influences, which, in their remote results, will be as lasting as the immortal mind itself. Such should be the exalted purpose of the instructer, and he should continually aim at it, though with the conviction that he shall never be able to attain to it perfectly. Let no one lightly enter upon so high an office ; but if he enter, let him give to it his heart and his strength. I am speaking particularly of those who embrace instruction as a profession for life ; but what is said will apply, in some measure, to those also who take it up for a limited time. An instructer should store his own mind with the knowledge of the works of nature. The child opens his eyes upon the beautiful creation, and every object moves his affections, and excites his wonder. An instructer should be ready to answer the numberless questions which will be put to him ; and let him do it reverently. Let him remember that God teaches us by his works ; and if a voice speak not to him from these works, he wants the first qualification for his office. Whatever sciences qualify to communicate this instruction natural history, nat- ural philosophy, physiology, anatomy, botany, chemistry let him store his mind with their treasures. The medium by which this and all knowledge is communi- cated from one to another, is language. An instructer should aim to be a master of his own native tongue ; and, in order to that, he should study those languages on which it is built. Let him begin with Latin, the great mother of nearly all the culti- vated tongues of western Europe. If he begins early enough, and late is better than not at all, he will be able to learn this to some degree of perfectness. With the knowledge of this, he will find the French, Italian, and other kindred dialects, of com- paratively easy acquisition. It would be well if he could add thereto Greek ; and still better if he could add German. But, with a competent knowledge of Latin and Greek, he will find few English words, of whose right meaning he need be doubt- ful, or which he cannot trace to their root, except those words which are said to come to us from the Saxon and Celtic. If there be, besides our native tongue, one which, more than others, deserves peculiar attention from the future schoolmas- ter, it is the Greek. All technical terms in all the sciences, and in nearly all modern languages, are derived from Greek, and it is just these words, and the notions which they express, which an instructer ought to know ; for he must almost necessarily make use of the elements of all the sciences. The New Testa- ment, which, even as a model of the art of teaching, the instruc- ter should value above every other volume, was originally written in Greek. The Greeks, too, are the first teachers, and INSTRUCTION. 15 among the most successful, of very much that we teach. The root of European improvement was with the Greek. The exact sciences are those which may most successfully be used as discipline to the powers ; as instruments, therefore, the instructor should be familiar with arithmetic, geometry and al- gebra. It is necessary only to name them ; whoever under- stands them will see at once what use they are of to himself, and how he can make them useful to others. If he can add to these a knowledge of the higher branches of mathematics, he will never have occasion to regret the acquisition. And it is an important consideration, that the best books upon the physical sciences, which have for some time appeared in England, France, and the rest of Europe, suppose a knowledge of these branches, and cannot be fully read without them. The accomplished instructer, as indeed every other person who desires to be at all distinguished for his attainments, must be largely read in history and geography. The best literature of his native language should be familiar to him. By this alone can he become practically a master of the use of it. Let it not be said, that too high a standard is set for the ac- quisitions of the schoolmaster. He who undertakes to teach, as his profession for life, ought to be able to teach whatever his pupils may need, or desire to learn, except those branches that are obviously within the province of mechanical art. Attainment will never be high, if the standard be not high ; and if those of any profession should aim to be learned, it is those who devote themselves to the profession of instruction. Whether too high, however, or not, instructors will never be respected as a profes- sion, until they attain to something near it ; since individuals in other professions often go far beyond the limits which liave been here laid down. Not much has yet been published in this country, calculated to assist the instructer in the modes of teaching, or the personal qualifications for the office. A beginning has been made, in the excellent Lectures on School-keeping by S. R. Hall. This book should be in the hands of every teacher. The Introduc- tory Discourse and Lectures delivered before the American In- stitute of Instruction will be found very interesting and useful. All these have been produced in a manner which cannot fail to advance the science of education. They contain the fruits of the experience of distinguished teachers. Bacon, Locke, Mil- ton, and some other eminent foreigners, have written upon the subject, and it is to be hoped that their best works of this kind will soon be republished in this country. Some valuable re- marks upon the motives by which children should be led to study, will be found in the chapter upon emulation, in Park- hurst's Moral Philosophy. Other parts of the volume will also be found useful to the instructer. 15* 16 APPENDIX. CHAPTER V. Moral Philosophy. WHATEVER relates to our conduct or motives, as being right or wrong, belongs to morality ; and the science which teaches us our duty, and the reasons of it, is called moral philosophy. We have duties to ourselves, to our fellow men, and to God. Upon a knowledge of our duties to ourselves, will depend our happiness ; upon a knowledge of our duties to our fellow men, will depend our usefulness to them ; and upon a knowledge of our duty to God, will depend our usefulness and happiness here and hereafter. Personal Duties. We have duties to ourselves, which are in- dependent of our relation to others. As we grow up to maturity, the formation of our habits, the cultivation of our powers, and everything else which has reference to our happiness, are ne- cessarily committed to our own charge. We must make our- selves, after a certain period, whatever of good and excellent we may become ; we have, therefore, the greatest interest in practising what will have a tendency to make us happy, and in avoiding what will make us unhappy. As far as happiness springs from ourselves, it will depend upon the right cultivation and improvement of our various fac- ulties. In the first place, we must take care of the bodily fac- ulties ; for it is only with a healthy body that we can enjoy the numberless pleasures that are presented us by our sight, our hearing, and our other senses. It is only with a healthy body that we can enjoy, in any considerable degree, even the simple pleasure of eating. Beautiful objects, pleasing sounds, agreea- ble odors, are continually presented to us ; but, unless we are in health, they can give us no pleasure. One of our first duties to ourselves, then, if we are in earnest in our pursuit of happi- ness, is the preservation of the health of the body. This de- pends on temperance. All excess impairs the organs of the frame. Temperance consists in avoiding excess, not only in drinking, but in eating, sleeping, exercise of mind or body, or the neglect of exercise. Excess, by disordering the body, brings on disease, and shortens life. The man of temperate habits not only enjoys his food and drink, his sleep and exercise, much more than the intemperate man, but he enjoys them much longer. If our enjoyment, therefore, depended only on the body, and terminated in this life, it would be our duty to be temperate. But we have mind, as well as body ; and our best and most permanent enjoyments are those which belong to the mind. The world is full of fountains of happiness, if we will learn to drink from them. The pure and healthy mind is full of happy thoughts, and all the objects of creation are continually suggest- MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 17 ing them. Now, intemperance in eating or drinking renders this nice sense of happiness dull and obtuse. It quells the high spirits, blunts the quick perception of beauty and excellence, stupifies reason, and at last almost destroys it. The intellectual man, therefore, even if he dwelt in solitude, in an unvisited island, would sin against the happiness of the mind, if he were intemperate. How much more binding is the duty of temper- ance, en him who is to employ his faculties, not only for him- self, but for others, and that for an indefined future ! All our faculties, before they are nourished by education, are but as germs ; weak and uncertain principles, which are to receive their strength, compass and character, from cultivation. For this process of cultivation we have a limited time, a few years at farthest. It becomes us to use it frugally. He who wastes his time, throws away an opportunity, which may never return, of preparing himself for happiness. Economy in the use of time, is, therefore, an essential duty. Time is a great good given to all, and to all equally, wherein to prepare for all future good. The man who depends on his daily labor for sup- port, whose industry constitutes his sole wealth, must take time to bring it to a useful end ; and the man who has the powers of Newton or of Solomon, can accomplish nothing without time. He who takes from me an hour of time, deprives me of all the good which I could gain in that hour ; and, if I waste it myself, I do myself an equally irreparable injury. But health of body and mind is chiefly valuable because it puts us in a condition to perfect our higher powers ; and time owes its great value to its being the means within which we accomplish this. If temperance and economy of time are du- ties, one still higher and more binding, is the duty of improving nil our faculties, and thus rendering ourselves susceptible of higher degrees and higher kinds of happiness. The memory is a treasure-house of truths, which we gather from observa- tion, reflection, experience and study. These truths are essen- tial to our welfare and advancement. Whatever contributes to the perfecting of the powers which we employ in gaining truth, is therefore a part of duty. These powers, namely, the facul- ty of attention, of discrimination, conception, judgment, im- agination, and others, arc improved by exercise. It becomes, then, a duty to exercise these powers upon their proper ob- jects. The faculty by which we judge of right and wrong in con- duct, is called conscience. All agree that this faculty is suscep- tible of cultivation, that all have a conscience, that in some it is active and enlightened, in others, torpid and uninformed. This power is our great internal guide in duty. The habits and character we form, will depend more on the care we take to enlighten our conscience, and the faithfulness with which we follow its dictates, than upon everything else. Now, we are immortal ; we are to form our character, and the habits of our 18 APPENDIX. mind, for eternity. How momentous, then, the duty of enlight- ening our conscience, and obeying it ! This is the last and greatest of personal duties. The empire of the conscience extends to every action which has reference to right and wrong. If we have a good conscience, and always listen to its dictates, we shall, as far as ourselves are concerned, always do right. This truth was recognized by one of the sages of ancient times, who bequeathed, as a parting legacy to his friends, the advice "Reverence thyself." Fear not men, and refer not to their opinions in regard to your own duty ; but fear yourself, and never violate what are your own convictions of right. These are some of the personal duties. Social Duties. In the next place, we have duties to our fellow men, or social duties. We find ourselves existing in such connexion with those about us, that we depend, in a thousand ways, upon them, and are able, in an equal degree, to contribute to their good. The dependence is mutual. The benefits we receive from others are such, that life would be hardly worth having, without them. It is the duty, then, of each individual in society to contribute his proportion towards that common good, from which the happiness of each one, and of the whole, is derived. It would be impossible, in a few pages, to give an intelligible account of all the duties which are incumbent upon a man as a member of society. Nothing more will be attempted, than to mention a few of the more important ones. At the foundation of all duties, and of all virtue, both person- al and social, is the love of truth. The value to ourselves of the love of truth, is inestimable. Without it, we cannot search into and discover our own character ; and, whilst we remain ignorant of ourselves, we are not prepared to make any prog- ress in perfecting the best part, that is, the immortal part, of our nature. The importance of regarding the truth merely as a social duty, arises from the fact, that the business of society could not go on, unless we could depend upon the promises of others. Each individual would have to do every thing for himself, if he could not trust to the expressed or implied promise which every one makes, when he undertakes to act for another. Universal disregard of truth would, therefore, make men lower than sav- ages. Every departure from truth does something to destroy the confidence which is essential to the well-being of society, and, therefore, has a tendency to disorder and destroy society. A principle which is so important to individual and to public happiness, ought to be deeply seated ; and the love of truth should be inculcated upon children, and should be cherished by all who are judges of their own conduct, with earlier and more constant and sedulous care, than any other principle. The first departure from truth, is the first step to vice and ruin. As long as a child or a man is a lover of the truth, there is hope of him. MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 19 He who disregards the truth, or is indifferent to it, is already without principle. Truth concerns ourselves and our fellow men. The way in which we violate truth to ourselves is, by breaking our resolu- tions. We should, therefore, be exceedingly averse to making resolutions, or binding ourselves by vows ; and it seems to be against these that the command in the Gospel Swear not at all is directed. The personal consequences of departing from truth, in our conversation with others, are, the loss of the con- fidence and esteem of others, and all the particular evils which all the falsehoods we are guilty of produce. The liar is despis- ed by others, even by other liars, and by himself. In the Scrip- tures of the New Testament, a deeper detestation is expressed of lying, than of any other vice or crime whatever. The love of truth in words, is connected with a love of truth in nature and in the sciences. When the moral taste is corrupted, the power of perceiving, comprehending and enjoying the truth, in all which comes under the examination of the mind, is essen- tially diminished. The great foundation of our duties to each other is charity. The word is here employed in the comprehensive sense in which it is used in the New Testament. This leads us to love our neighbor as ourself, and is thus the source, not only of jus- tice, but of kindness, benevolence, generosity, and all the noblest of the virtues. It teaches us to love our neighbor for his sake, and not for our own, and thus excludes selfishness, and other unworthy motives. It leads us to judge of our neighbor as we would wish to be judged ourselves, and condemns censorious- ness, distrust, and the imputation of mean and evil motives. In this enlarged sense, charity influences the manners, looks and words, as well as the actions. An unkind look, or a harsh word, as really offends against the charity of the Gospel, as an unjust action ; and rude manners are as inconsistent with the delicacy of feeling for others, which is the essence of charity, as a blow, or a fraudulent bargain. Politeness has sometimes been considered as having no ref- erence to morality ; and it has even been supposed that incivil- ity and rudeness were not inconsistent with the Christian char- acter. To perceive how unjust this supposition is, both to Christianity and to politeness, it is only necessary to consider what politeness really is. True politeness, then, not only seems to respect the feelings of others, but actually does respect them; it leads a man, not to pretend to make a sacrifice of his own ease or convenience to gratify another, but to make the sacri- fice, and to take a pleasure in it. If this be a correct account of politeness, how does it differ, so far as it goes, from the kind- ness which belongs to charity ? Gracefulness of manners, and refinement of language, which are gained by long associating with well-bred and intelligent people, are not essential to po- liteness, but only an agreeable dress which it often appears in. 20 APPENDIX. These two, the love of truth and charity, we conceive to be the most important and comprehensive of those principles, upon which a willingness to perform our duties must depend. The several social duties arise from the several relations in which we stand towards others. The simplest of these rela- tions is that of parent and child. The duties of the parent, which spring from this relation, are those of supporting and educating his child. By the first of these, he is bound to pro- vide for him suitable food, clothes and maintenance ; by the second, he is bound to set him a good example, to form him to virtuous habits, to defend him from the corrupting influence of others, and to give him a suitable preparation for a respectable and honest situation in life. The answer to the question why the parent is bound to do these things more than any other individual, is, shortly, this : It is of infinite importance to the child, that some one should do them for him, and of vast consequence to society that they should be done for every child ; and the natural and intimate relation between the parent and the child distinguishes the parent, in a manner not to be mistaken, as the one individual, upon whom the duty rests. If the parent shall not do it, who shall ? And if it be not done, the child is ruined, and a great injury done to society. The duties of the child are, respect and obedience, because, without these, the duties of the parent cannot be performed with effect, and, in case of need, maintenance. Another class of duties arises from the relation between mas- ter and servant. Of this important relation, which comprehends the condition of apprentices, of domestics, of laborers, of sailors, and many others, in reference to the person or persons to whom their services are due, it will be sufficient to give a single in- stance. In the case of the apprentice, who is put, at an early age, to learn some art or business, under a competent person, the duty of a parent is, by the nature of the case, transferred to the master. He is, therefore, bound to take the same charge of his apprentice, in reference to his education and character, as if it were his own child, in that situation ; and he is clothed with the same authority in regard to him. A consideration of the mutual duties of parent and child will, therefore, answer the question, What are the reciprocal duties of a master and his apprentice, when the apprentice is a minor ? The institution of government gives rise to many duties, which it is unnecessary to dwell upon in this place, as they may be learned from the preceding volume. Religious Duties. The highest of our duties are our duties to God. To him we owe love, worship and obedience. The ex- planation and enforcement of these duties, which are called re- ligious duties, properly belong to the ministers of religion. The consideration of our immortality, and our relation to our Creator, ought, however, never to be long absent from the MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 21 thoughts of any one. Without them, our condition here, our trials, our sufferings, our capacities, our hopes, are a perplexing and unsolved mystery. An unfailing guide for our motives, and a rule of conduct in all respects, enjoyment of the present life, and preparation for the life to come, are found in the Gospel of Jesus Christ, con- tained in the Scriptures of the New Testament. But in our in- tercourse with men, many questions arise, in which considera- tions of a temporary nature, not particularly spoken of in the Scriptures, are necessary to our adopting a right line of conduct. For the solving of these questions, books have been written upon moral philosophy ; not to lay down new principles of conduct, but to show the application of the principles already acknowledged, to the circumstances and events which occur, and to give rea- sons for our being guided by these principles. The Scriptures, for example, give us the commandment, " Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbor," but do not explain what it is to bear false witness, and give us no reason for the command but that such is the will of God. The writer on moral philosophy defines the offence, and gives such reasons for avoiding its commission, as show that obedience to this commandment is favorable to our own happiness, and that of others ; thus showing that God wills the happiness of men. The Scriptures command us to "do justly," but do not define justice, nor show the application of the rule to the various cir- cumstances of our intercourse with other men. This the writer on moral philosophy does. He explains the nature of justice, and shows the evil consequences which proceed from an in- fringement of the rule in our promises, bargains and other transactions. The book of moral philosophy in no degree su- persedes the Scriptures, nor substitutes any other principles than those contained in them. It only elucidates those princi- ples, shows their application to our conduct, sets forth their reasonableness, and gives us additional inducements to be guided by them. The writer on moral philosophy addresses us as rea- sonable creatures, desirous of our own good and the good of others, and endeavoring to elevate ourselves, and to act wor- thily the part assigned us in life. The Scriptures do more; they speak to us with authority, as a voice from heaven ; they speak to the heart ; they speak to us as immortal beings, ac- countable, for every action, word and thought, to our Creator. Paley 1 s Moral Philosophy. The only work upon moral phi- losophy, which has extensive circulation, and which is level to the comprehension of common readers, is the Moral Philosophy of Dr. Paley. This work, like all others of the same author, is remarkable for its clearness, and the apposite and natural man- ner in which it illustrates principles. But it cannot be recom- mended without a warning to the reader to beware of being misled by the principle, upon which, as a foundation, the system of Dr. Paley is built. This is the principle of expediency. Dr. 22 APPENDIX. Paley says, "Whatever is expedient, is right." But, then, if "must be expedient on the whole, at the long run, in all its ef- fects, collateral and remote, as well as in those which are im- mediate and direct."* Now, this is undoubtedly true, to a being capable of estimating all effects, direct and indirect, collateral and remote, through all time, and upon all beings, and to such a one alone. No person can safely act upon this principle, in questions of right and wrong, but one who can take into view the boundless future. Now, it need not be proved that none but God has this perfect foreknowledge ; no one else can, there- fore, safely act upon the principle of expediency. With this exception, and one or two others, the morality of Dr. Paley is the morality of the Gospel ; and he constantly en- forces his principles by quotations from thence, and has been guided throughout by light borrowed from the Gospel. The substance of this chapter may be summed up in a few words : 1. The first of physical blessings is health of the body. This depends on temperance and exercise. " Keep your head cool by temperance, and your feet warm by exercise," was the rich lesson of a life devoted to the practice of the healing art. Health and activity of mind are the greatest good of an intel- lectual being, and the best possession of a moral being is a good conscience. Hence the most important personal duties are, temperance, faithful cultivation of the faculties, and self-respect, or reverence for the dictates of conscience. 2. For a large part of our present life, we must associate with our brethren of the human race, receive good from them, in numberless ways, and be dependent on them for much of our happiness. We are bound to pay back this debt, and add what we can to the great sum of good and happiness, by rendering ourselves, according to our powers, agreeable and useful. To these ends, truth and charity are most of all essential truth, which is always safe, brave and generous, while falsehood is uncertain, cowardly and mean and charity, which is the soul of whatever is disinterested and benevolent, in deed, or word, or outward show. We must, therefore, be true to all, and at all times ; and let our charity embrace all upon whom the light of the sun is shed, that we may be perfect in our social duties. 3. We must spend the whole of our existence, and that with- out end, in the presence of God. We ought, therefore, to study to secure his favor. This can only be done by obeying his commandments, the first of which conveys a principle estab- lishing the most momentous and comprehensive of human duties. * Pale/s Moral Philosophy, Book II., Chapter VIII. HEADING FOR LEISURE HOURS. 23 CHAPTER VI. Reading for Leisure Hours. YOUNG men, in this country, so often begin their studies un- der great disadvantages, and without any well qualified person to direct them to the most important objects and the most use- ful authors, that it is thought a few suggestions, as to the em- ployment of their leisure time, will not be useless. The hours spent in school will, probably, be faithfully occupied with well chosen studies. But even when this is done, the long morn- ings of summer, and the evenings in winter, rainy days in vaca- tion, and the heavy time between the preparation of a plan of amusement and the execution, offer many a golden hour of leisure, which may be freely given to reading, and which, thus employed, will " sweeten liberty" whenever it comes. The intention of the few observations which I shall make, and which the narrow limits of an appendix will oblige me to make very brief, is to point out sources of information, by means of which the young will be enabled, 1. To avail themselves of the advantages by which they are surrounded in early youth, particularly in the country ; 2. tc lay a foundation for future reading, and to understand bettei what they shall read ; 3. to form the habit of, and obtain mate- rials for, thought and reflection ; 4. to derive the greatest ad- vantage from the opportunities which are offered in the higher seminaries of education and in the world. One of the most delightful and useful means of relaxation from severe study, which can be afforded to a thoughtful person at any age, is found in natural history. This directs the atten- tion to numberless curious objects in the vegetable creation, and in the appearance and habits of animals. The opportuni- ties for observing them arc more frequent, and the means often more accessible, in youth, than afterwards. Smellie's Philoso- phy of Natural History has the effect of opening the eyes of the young to the wonders of the world in which they live, and of showing how many opportunities of receiving instruction and improvement are continually offered them, even in situations the least promising. Very interesting works upon natural his- tory will be found in the Library of Entertaining Knowledge, a work which, on other subjects as well as this, fully deserves the title which has been given it. The operations of nature, on a large scale, are carried on in conformity with the laws of chemistry ; and a knowledge of this science renders a great many operations, which are constantly going on, unheeded, before us, intelligible, and, consequently, most intt'rosting and delightful. Such, for instance, are the processes of freezing, combustion and breathing. Before we understand them, they are apt to excite no attention, but to be 1(3 24 APPENDIX. viewed as matters of course ; when once understood, they im- mediately strike us with their beauty, and always after are viewed with interest. In passing through a thick forest, one is sometimes inclined to think, that the best means are not used for conveying moisture to the roots of trees, as we frequently see earth just at the foot of a tree dry, while every thing is moist at a little distance. The extended branches, while they afford a place of refuge from the storm, to man and the larger animals, seem to turn off to a distance the genial drops which are descending upon them for their nourishment. The truth is, the moisture is admitted to the ground just at the distance at which it is wanted ; and this is one instance among thousands, that the provisions of nature are, in reality, wisest, where they seem to be most defective. There is not time, in this place, to add examples ; those mentioned are such as are most likely to occur to a person who has read the Conversations on Chemis- try, and on Botany, which have been before and are again rec- ommended. We may also add Conversations on Natural Phi- losophy, which, although superficial, are very clear and satis- factory, as far as they go. But of all the wonderful parts of the Creator's works, none is more so than the human body. This is treated of, with ad- mirable clearness and success, in a work in which, from its title, a young reader would be least likely to look for it Palcy's Natural Theology. From the world without, a young person of inquisitive iniud will be often tempted to turn inwards his thoughts, to that which is within his own mind. And, in tracing and cultivating his various faculties, he will receive aid from a little work, called Wotts on the Mind, or from Mason on Self-Know ledge. However beautiful and interesting the world around us is, the most beautiful and interesting object in it is man. We are men, and whatever concerns our brethren of the human family is interesting to us. To a young person, what relates to indi- viduals is more attractive than the history of nations; biogra- phy, therefore, or the lives of eminent men, is one of the most entertaining, as well as one of the most useful, kinds of reading. Our own country offers two lives for the instruction of the race. The Life of Washington and of Franklin should be fa- miliar to every American, from his earliest years. Among the ancients, there is no life like Washington's. But among them are glorious names, which will excite the young to great purposes and lofty deeds. Many of these have been handed down to us by Plutarch, whose "Lives" should, at some period, be read by every person, and are to none more acceptable than to the. young. The Life of Howard is of a higher kind than any of these ; so is Southey's Life of John Wesley. The Life of Henry K. White is the life of a poet and a Christian. Irving's Life of Columbus is written by an Amer- ican, for Americans. Parts of it have all the interest of romance. READING FOR LEISURE HOURS. 25 History is a study of great and permanent interest. "Not to know what was before you were, is to be always a child." It cannot be begun too soon. It can never be exhausted. The beginning of human history, as the foundation of man's hopes, is found in the Bible. Every thorough course of history begins with this sacred volume. The history of our own country, as it is most important, so is it most interesting to us. Robertson's America is the first book to be read upon our history ; but it is only in writings which were published after his death, that Dr. Robertson enters upon the history of that portion of the continent which we call our own country. Adams's New England is short, but faithful. Willard's Republic of America recommends itself by the excellent apparatus of maps, by which it is accom- panied. Marshall's Life of Washington is a large work, but well worth reading through, and of the highest authority. The fir.st part, upon the early history of America, has been published separately. The histories of particular states are numerous, and some of them excellent. Belknnp's History of New Hampshire deserves a high place. Williams's Vermont, and Sullivan's Maine, are interesting to others as well as the citizens of those states. Hutchinson, Minot and Bradford are the historians of Massa- chusetts. Trumbull is that of Connecticut. Tudor's Letters on the Eastern States will make known much which is desira- ble to be noticed. His Life of James Otis is one of the best lives that have been written in America. The "Foresters" may be read for the amusement of a leisure hour, and serve to fix in the memory some of the events of history. Flint's Travels and Residence in the Valley of the Mississippi contains much valuable information in regard to that country. His Geography is larger, and still more valuable. History receives an additional charm, when it is made to turn on the fortunes of an individual. Such is the case with Rob- ertson's Charles V.; Aikin's Memoirs of Elizabeth, and of James I. ; Scott's Napoleon ; Belknap's Biography. It would be going too far, to lay down a course of history for every foreign and ancient nation. English history, as most connected with American, is of tho first interest ; Grecian and Roman, respectively, show the genius, and the extent of power, of those two nations. Ty tier's History, or Worcester's, will point out what portions of the history of the world are most deserving of study, and to what points the reader's attention should be directed. The same end will be accomplished by Whelpley's Compend of History ; and one of these, or a sim- ilar work, should be repeatedly read, to give a correct idea of the order of the great events of history. The history of Greece, Rome and England may be read in the volumes of Goldsmith. That of England by Sir James Mackintosh is now in a course of publication, and, to judge from what has already appeared, 26 APPENDIX. is more valuable than any other short history of that country Young readers will be attracted by Scott's Tales of a Grand- father. The present state of Europe may be learned from a work called "Europe," and much concerning America from one called "America, by a citizen of the United States." Perkins's Historical Sketches of the United States contain a full and clear history of events from 1815 to 1830. A knowledge of geography is essential to the right understanding of history. Malte-Brun's Geography is a large work, contain- ing a vast deal of information upon all the countries of the world. Male's Geography has the advantage of being very re- cent, illustrated by sixty maps, very correct, and cheap. There are many other excellent treatises on geography, too well known to need to be mentioned. Towards accomplishing that most important but difficult ob- ject, the writing of themes, much valuable assistance will be found in Newman's Rhetoric. All the books which have been recommended will afford materials, and to these you may add the Adventurer, the Spectator, the Rambler, tho Sketch Book, and, in short, any book which presents ripe and pleasant thoughts, agreeably expressed. Any one who wishes for a selection of beautiful passages in poetry, from the best poets in the language, is referred to Cheever's Studies in Poetry. Young readers are apt to be more pleased with Scott's Poems than with airj other ; and if they begin with the Lady of the Lake, and have any natural taste for poetry, they may easily become lovers of poetry. There maybe some among our readers, so young as not to have heard that Shakspeare's plays and Milton's poems are among the best of all poetry. Whatever has been written in this way by Gold- smith, Gray, Wordsworth, Bryant, may be safely read, and will form a true taste. As much may be said for the following writers in prose Scott, Johnson, Addison, Burke, Edgeworth, H. More, Frank- lin and, indeed, of many others. Most of Miss Edgeworth's writings, beginning with the Parent's Assistant, are particularly suited, and particularly delightful, to tiie young. Voyages and travels, and books on geography, are a never- failing source of the best and most rational amusement. In re- gard to what is safe and what is dangerous reading, no better rule can be given than that which the excellent mother of John Wesley gave, to enable him to judge of the lawfulness or un- lawfulness of pleasure : "Whatever weakens your reason, im- pairs the tenderness of your conscience, obscures your sense of God, or takes off the relish of spiritual things in short, what- ever increases the strength and authority of your body over your mind that thing is sin to you, however innocent it may be in itself." QUESTIONS ON THE POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. Sections WHAT knowledge does reason, or the light of nature, impart? 1. 2. What inference does reason draw, as to the Author of crea- tion ? 3. From what authority arc mankind made to know, certainly, what reason cannot teach ? 4. In what manner do we get knowledge ? 5. How does the mind act on impressions made through the senses ? . . . . 6. What are the powers of the mind ? 6. What is that faculty which distinguishes man from all other animals ? 7. 13y what means are thoughts preserved and transmitted ? 8. Are there any cases, in which men act under the expectation of consequences which are uncertain ? 9. 10. Are there differences in the qualities of individuals ; and what are the effects of cultivation, or neglect ? 11. 12. What is intended to be taught by this volume ? 13. Has the Creator enabled mankind to learn the laws which govern their individual and social being ? 14. What is the duty implied in the gift of reason ? 15. What does reason teach as to social duty ? 16. What is the foundation of society ? 17. How do rules of action and customs arise ? 18. What was the first social state of mankind ? 19. How did the division of labor arise ; and what is the common measure of the products of labor ? 20. Whence docs money come, and how used ? 21 Whence comes the value of metals, used as money ? 22. What occasions subdivision of labor, and increase of popula- tion and of wealth ? 23. Whence comes the necessity of laws to govern society ? 24. What is one consequence of society, and what is the best con- dition of society ? 25. 26 What have been the most usual forms of government ; and what is despotism and tyranny ? 26. 27. What is oligarchy, and how arising ? 28. What was the usual form of government in the middle ages ? . 29. What is a mixed monarchy, and where existing ? , 30. What is a commonwealth ? - , 31 16* 28 QUESTIONS ON THE Sections. What is democracy ; and what are our governments ? 32. What is the difference between other governments and our o vvn ? 33. What, and how derived, is the English constitution ; and what is meant by constitutions in republics ? 34. What do our constitutions provide for ? 35. What is the excellence of our constitutions ? 36. What was intended by the constitution of Massachusetts ? . . 37. What is a corporation ; and how does the word apply to the state of Massachusetts ? 38. Under what circumstances was our constitution framed, and when was it revised ? 39. What is a revolution ? 40. What change was effected by the revolution in Massachu- setts ? 41. What are the mutual relations of rulers and citizens ? 42. Where does sovereignty reside ; and in what manner does this power act ; and what is a town, politically ? 43. How is a town-meeting warned and held ? 44. What are the next corporate divisions to towns ? 45. What do the counties together constitute ? 46. In what manner does the law-making and executive power arise ? 47. Is there any distinction among those who may vote in town and in state affairs ? 48. How is the city of Boston organized, relatively to towns ?. . . 49. How is justice administered in this city ? 50. What, is the Municipal Court in Boston ? 51. What is the office and duty of mayor ? 52. What is the General Court ? 53. What are senators, and how chosen ? 54. What is a convention, and for what purpose held ? 55. What are representatives, and how chosen ? 56. Is the number of representatives too many ? 57. What title have senators ? 58. How is the legislature organized ? 59. How are legislative acts passed ? 60. What is done by the governor when an act has passed the legislature ? 61. What is meant by a law, and what by a statute f 61. What is the limit to the law-making power ? 62. How is a law repealed, or annulled, if wrong ? 63. What laws were kept in force on the adoption of the consti- tution ? 64. What is the common law ? 65. What is the governor's duty, as to the legislature ? 66. In what way can citizens distinguish themselves in legisla- ture assemblies ? 67. Where, and in what manner, are town officers chosen ? 68. How are town-meetings conducted ? 69. How is voting for officers conducted ? 70. What are the powers of towns ? 71. By what authority are taxes assessed ? 72. What is taxable ? 73 How is the ratio of taxation settled ? , , 74 POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 29 Sections. How is it known what tax a town is to pay ? 75 On what authority are state and county taxes called for ? .... 75. How are taxes collected ? 76. What is the consequence of erroneous taxation ? 77. What is the meaning of assessor ? 77. What constitutes the executive branch ? 78. How are the governor and lieutenant-governor chosen, and how is the governor styled ? 79. How is the lieutenant-governor styled, and how are the coun- cil chosen P 80. What are the governor's power and duty ? 81. 82. What is the duty of the lieutenant-governor ? 83. What relation has the executive to the University ? 84. What officers belong.to the governor's military rank ? 85. How is the treasurer of the state chosen, and what are his du- ties ? 86. How is the secretary of the commonwealth chosen, and what are his duties ? 87. Who, of the above-mentioned officers, are always on duty, and who of them are not ? 88. What is tke nature of the judiciary department ? 89. How are citizens affected by the exercise of power in this de- partment ? 90. In what light did the framers of the constitution regard the judiciary ? 91. What courts are there in Massachusetts ? 92. How many counties are there in the state ? 93. What are counties and shire towns j and what are the officers, powers and duties of counties ? 94. What is a county treasurer ? 95. What is the lowest judicial power ? 96. What are the powers of justices of the peace ? 97. What is meant by a recognizance ? 98. What is meant by bail ? 99. What civil actions can justices try ? 100, Whence arise the powers of justices ? 104. In what manner can justices cause offenders to be arrested ? . 102. How are Courts of Common Pleas held, and what powers has this court ? 103. What appeal lies from judgment in this court ? 104. What is the manner of trials in this court ? 105. How are grand juries selected ? 106. What is their oath of office ? 107. How are they instructed in their duties ? 108. What is a grand jury's duty ; and what is an indictment?. . . . 109. How is a criminal tried in the Common Pleas ? 110. What is the duty of a jury, if the guilt is doubtful ; and if the accused is found guilty, what is the duty of the judge ? .... Ill, Is there sufficient protection of the innocent when accused ?. . 112. How are civil causes tried, by jury, in the Common Pleas ? . . . 113. What is an attorney ? 113. How are questions of law disposed of in this court, and what is the execution of a Judgment ? 114. What is the Supreme Judicial Court ? 115. How do causes come before this court ? 116. 30 QUESTIONS ON THE Sections. What is the law term of this court, and what are reported cases ? 117. What puriisnments are lawful in this state ? 118. What is the character of this court ? 119. What powers has it, besides those mentioned ? 120. What is a capital trial, and how is the prisoner brought before the court ? 121. What is an arraignment of a prisoner ? 122. What is the course of proceedings on the day of trial ? 123 What is the duty of the attorney and the solicitor general in such trial? 124. What is the duty of counsel in such trial ? 125. How are the jury instructed in their duty, and what are they to do ? 126. What is the manner of returning a verdict for, or against, the prisoner ? 127. What is the manner of condemning to death ; and by what authority is the sentence executed ? 128. What is the condition of a condemned prisoner ? 129. What, is a Probate Court, and its power ? 130. How is a will proved ? 131. What is granting administration ? 132. What is insolvency ? 133. What is the course of proceedings in this court, and what ap- peal lies from its decrees ? 134. Who are affected by probate decrees ? 135. What provision is there for removing judicial officers ? 136. In what department is the power of impeachment vested, and how is an impeachment tried ? 137 How do the constitutions of other states differ from each other ? 138 What is the constitution of the state of Maine ? 139. What is the constitution of the state of New Hampshire ? . . . . 140. What is the constitution of the state of Massachusetts, in things not before noticed ? 141. What is the constitution of the state of Vermont ? 142 What is the constitution of the state of Connecticut ? 143. What is the government of Rhode Island ? 144. What is the constitution of New York ? 145. What are peculiar provisions of this ? 146. What is the constitution of New Jersey ? 147. Pennsylvania ? 148. . Delaware ? 149. Maryland ? 150. Virginia ? 151. North Carolina ? 152. South Carolina ? 153. Georgia ? 154. Kentucky ? 155. Tennessee ? 156. Ohio ? 157. Indiana ? 158 Louisiana ? 159. Mississippi ? 160. Illinois ? 161. POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 31 Sections. What is the constitution of Alabama ? 162. . Missouri ? 163. In what parts of the United States does slavery exist, and in what parts not ? 164. What is meant by voting, and universal suffrage ? 105. What inference may be drawn from comparing the constitu- tions of states ? 166. What is said as to settlement of claims against states, and the United States ? 167. When was America first known to Europeans, and on what principle did they first assert a right to the soil ? 168. What was the second ground, on which the right was as- serted ? 169. What has been, in fact, done as to the Indians ? 170. What is a colony, and when were the American colonies set- tled ? .. 171. What attempts were made to unite the colonies ? 172. What was the first general union of the colonies ? 173. What were the articles of confederation ? 173. What is meant by a congress ? 173. What is meant by sovereignty ? 173. What is the meaning and application of federal f (note to) 173. What occasioned the forming of the federal constitution ? . . . . 173. When, and by whom, was the Convention held, for framing the Federal Constitution ? 174. What was General Washington's opinion on the necessity of forming such constitution ; and why ought the union of the states to be preserved ? 175. Can it be expected that dissatisfaction will not arise ; but is this a reason for disunion ? 176. What three things should be taken into view in estimating the value of the constitution ? 177. In what different lights has the constitution been viewed ? . . . 178. What is now held to be its true construction ? 179. How are acts, done by the state authority, viewed, in relation to the national government ? 180. What was the state of things when the constitution was adopted ? 181. By whom was the national constitution adopted ? 182. What is the general nature of the constitution ? 183. What do the state and national constitutions, respectively, provide for ? 184. What is to be done, if the national government errs, or if the state authority opposes it ? 185. What is the legislative power of the United States ? 186. How many representatives may there be ? 187. How are representatives apportioned in slave-holding states ?. 188. What is the right of representation in slave-holding, and in non-slave-holding, states ? 189. What is a census, and why taken ? 190. What is the number, usually intended to form the House ?. . . 191. How are representatives chosen ? 192. How is the Senate composed and chosen ? 193. What are the powers of the Senate ? 194. Who presides in the Senate ? 195. 32 QUESTIONS ON THE Sections. On what subjects can Congress make laws ? 196. What is the power of Congress in relation to the moneyed currency ? 197 What are powers of Congress as to naturalization ? 198. bankruptcies ? 199. . patents ? 200. copy-rights ? 201. public debt? 202. post-office ? 203. regulation of commerce ?. 204. weights and measures ? . . 205. In what manner does Congress raise money ? 206. What money is commonly sufficient to defray the expenses of the United States ? 207. How is money raised from the importation of merchandise ?. . 208. What is smuggling, and how punished ? 209. Into what place is the money, raised for the United States, paid? 210. How is the money, so raised, paid out, for public uses ? 211. Has the House of Representatives power to impeach ? 212. How long may Congress sit ?. 213. What is the common opinion as to the length of session ?..... 214. What is the executive power of the United States ? 215. By whom are electors chosen ? 216- What are the different modes of choosing electors ? 217. How do electors choose president and vice-president ? , 218. What are the president's compensation, powers and duties ?. . 219. Have civil officers any titles ? . 219. What are the executive departments ? 220. What power has the president over these ? 221. What are the duties of these departments ? 222. What is the duty of the attorney general ? 223. What is the duty of the secretary of state ? 224. What is diplomacy ? 225. How are the United States' officers paid ? 226. Has the president a council ? 227. What was General Washington's practice ? 228. Who constitute the cabinet ? 229. Where is the vice-p-esident's place ? 230. What is said of a home department ? 231. How are judicial districts formed, and what is the power of the District Courts ? 232. How are circuits formed, and by whom are Circuit Courts held? . 233. What are the powers of Circuit Courts ? 234. What is the power of this court, in criminal cases ? 235. Where are the proceedings of this court revised ? 236. Has it exclusive power, or concurrent with state courts ? .... 237. How is the Supreme Court of the United States composed ? . . 238. What power has this court over state courts ? , 239 How are causes conducted in the Supreme Court of the United States? 240. What is the relative state of nations ? 241. What is war ? 242. Whence arises the necessity of having an armed force ? 243. POLITICAL CLASS BOOK. 83 Sections. What is the armed force of the United States ? 244. If a minor enlists in the army, how can he be discharged ? . . . 244. What is meant by habeas corpus ? - 244. How is the militia force arranged, under the constitution of the United States ? 245. What power is given to the United States as to the militia ? . . 246. What power is reserved to the states ? 247. How is the power of the states exercised, as to the militia ? . . . 248. What different opinions are entertained as to the militia ? . . . . 249. Why has it been supposed that the law of nations cannot be made intelligible to every one ? 250. What do natural and revealed law require ? 251. What similarity is there between natural law, among individ- uals, and the* law of nations ? 252. In what manner have autiicrs treated of the law of nations ?. . 253. How is the law of nations divided T. , 254. What is stated as to matters of opinion ? 255. What is customary law of nations ? 256. Whence arising ? 257. What is meant by ambassador ? 258. What are his duties and privileges ? 259. 260. What is an envoy ? 261. What is a plenipotentiary ? 262, What diplomatic officers are sent by the United States ? 263. How are diplomatic officers classed ? 263. How are treaties made ? 264. 265. What are consuls ? 266. By what part of the law of nations are the community, in gen- eral, most affected ? 267. What are wars, offensive and defensive ? 268. What was the character