i/lccession 1 O'-voGH Class. — (g77? K^ t:^ w INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE MIDDLE AND NEW INDO-IRANIAN LANGUAGES INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE Middle and New Indo-Iranian Languages BY LOUIS H. GRAY, A.M. SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN THE FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY THE COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS The Macmillan Company, Agents 66 Fifth Avenue 1902 PRINTED AT OXFORD ENGLAND BY HORACE HART, M.A. PRINTER TO THE UNIVERSITY c>' TO MY FATHER AND TO THE MEiMORY OF MY MOTHER INTRODUCTION The united evidence of comparative linguistics, ethnography, and religion has established the doctrine of Indo-Iranian unity on a firm foundation, thereby affording a cardinal doctrine for the comparative study of Sanskrit, Avestan, and Old Persian. The work of Wackernagel and of Bartholomae, based upon this principle, has given the older dialects of the Indo-Iranian their due. But, on the other hand, the phonology of the Middle and New periods of this group has not thus far received the attention which it deserves, and it is in an attempt to supply the deficiency that this volume has been written. It aims to prove that the later Indo- Iranian dialects are still closely akin, and have had in many instances analogous developments, which are legitimate evolutions of processes acknowledged in the oldest Indo-Germanic languages of India and Iran. A priori we should expect dialects derived from a common source to pursue similar courses of phonological development, as far as their surroundings, changing in course of time, permit. To deny this seems tantamount to attacking the entire principle of phonetic law on which comparative linguistics must rest. To affirm it is to give new strength to scientific research. The Middle and New Indo-Iranian languages show many developments in phonology which may be paralleled with entire justice. To such similarities I have sought to call attention, and I hope that the material which has been gathered may be of service to other linguistic students, and prove that the underlying principle of the book has its justification. A paper of mine, entitled Certain parallel Developments in Pcdi viii INTRODUCTION and New Persian Thonoloijy, read before the American Oriental Society at Cambridge, Mass., in April, 1899 {JAOS., xx, 229-243), outlined the method which I have followed in this book. I advanced my views on the comparison of the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects before the Society in the following words : ' It is a well-known fact in linguistics that languages which are entirely without influence one on the other often show a striking similarity in their development. The Indo-Iranian group is especially instructive in this regard, for its time-limit extends from the period of Indo-Iranian imity to the present day, while its geographical area stretches from the Siiiihalese in the south to the MazandaranI in the north, and from the Kurdish in the west to the Bangall in the east. Between the Indian and the Iranian divisions of the Aryan dialects a development may be traced which is frequently closely parallel. . . . Such a study, which it is my hope and intention to make, might be of service in the study of dialectic developments in general, and although confined to the Indo-Iranian dialects, it might by its implications be not altogether without bearing on the interests of the great body of the Indo- Germanic phonology.' The result of the investigations which I there proposed to make has been, at least to me, a signal confirmation of my belief. Mine is not the first attempt to parallel the phonological evolu- tion of the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. The first Orientalist who, so far as I know, drew attention to the connexion between the two great modern dialect-groups was Eeland. He wrote in his study Be Unguis insularum orientalium ('Disserta- tiones miscellaneae,' iii. 86, Traj. ad Ehenum, 1708), 'Nonnullae voces [linguae singalaeae] cum Persicis conveniunt, uti Asivajaa, equus, u^l Asp, Mahasa, arcanum, jl^ Ras, NH Chaldaeis, arcanum. BancUnjai, ligo, j^. Band, Deivijan, Deus, Pers. j>i Div, Genius.' (Cf. also Benfey, Gesch. der SpracMvissensch., 241.) A very similar suggestion was made exactly a century later, when ' en 1808 John Leyden fait du zend im dialecte pracrit, parallele au pali, le pali etant identique au magadhi des grammairiens et le zend a leur INTRODUCTION ix sauraseni. En 1819, Erskine fait du zend un dialectc Sanscrit importe de I'lnde en Perse par le fondateur dc Magisme, mais n'ayant jamais ete parle par les indigenes de Perse ' (Darmesteter, Le ZA., i. p. xxi, cf. SHE., iv. 2, p. xxiii). In 1873 Trunipp in his Grammar of the Fqsto or Language of the Afghans compared with the Iranian and North-Indian Idioms revived the view that the later Indo-Iranian dialects were closely connected linguistically, even though his work was vitiated by liis false theory that Afyan is ' an old independent language, forming the first transition from the Indo-Arian to the Iranian family, and therefore partaking of the characteristics of both ' (p. xii. Cf. the approving remarks of Hoernle, Comp. Gramm., xxxiv-xxxv, as contrasted with Darmesteter, Chants popidaires des Afghans, p. lix). Finally, in 1898, Horn, Grundr. der iran. PhiloL, i. b. 35 Anm., compared the Iranian change of r to e in Skt. vrksa ' tree,' Av. vardsa : Phi. vesaTi, New Pers. hesah with the Prakritic geha ' house ' beside grha (see below, § 78). The same scholar also alludes to the mutations common to both dialect-groups of initial y to j, of inter- vocalic k to g, or its syncope, of the epenthesis of -arg- to -er-, and of the apparent substitution of y for intervocalic d and g (see below, §§ 331, 116, 128, 8, 256, 143). Geiger, ibid., 208, notes that the occasional interchange of I and n in Afyan may be paralleled in Indian (see below, § 281). Against the view held by Geiger and Horn, Hiibschmann has expressed himself emphatically {IF. An2., X. 23), but his objection seems to me scarcely valid. The Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects wliich I have con- sidered may be classified as follows : a. Indian. 1. Middle Indian or Prakrit. Tliis group embraces Maharastrl, the Prakrit Kar e^ox^i', with Jaina Maharastrl, Magadhi and Ardhamagadhi (also called Arsa and Jaina Praki'it), and Sam'asenI, the principal Prakrit of the drama. These form the literary dialects called hJicisd by Markandeya, wliile the lower Prakrits used in literature, Sakarl, Candrdi, Sabarl, and others form Markandeya's vibhasa class. The other Middle Indian groups are Apabhraihsa and Paisaci. Apabhramsa denotes the Middle X INTRODUCTION Indian vernaculars as distinguished from tlio Prakrits or literary dialects of the period. PaisiicT together with Culikapaisaci seems to have comprised the dialects of the north and west of India (Pischel, Gramm. der PraJcrit-Spr., ^§ 1-30, of. also Hoernle, Calcutta Ecv., Ixxi. 311-332 ; Grierson, ibid., ci. 258-274). A somewhat peculiar position is held by the so-called Gcitha dialect of the Lalita-vistara, and by the Prakrit of the inscriptions (Pischel's 'Lenadialekt'). The Gatha dialect is an artificial compo- sition of Prakrit bases with Sanskrit mflections (Macdonell, Hist. of Skt. Lit., 25-26), while the Lena dialect, a popular Middle Indian lingua franca, shows many Sanskritisms in its Prakrit (or Apa- bhrariisa) structure (Pischel, § 7). As Ardhamagadhi and Jaina Maharastri became the sacred dialects of Jainism, so Pali was the language of the southern Buddhist Church. From what district of India Pali came is very uncertain. Geiger, Lit. und Spr. der Singh., 90-91, very plausibly supposes that the country comprised by modern Gujarat was its home (for other views see E. Miiller, Fali Gramm., viii-ix). The Middle Indian languages are not descendants of Sanskrit, but of the Vedic dialect and its neigh- bours. Buried for a time by the literary supremacy of Sanskrit, they emerged when the religious movements of Buddha and Maha- vlra and the development of the drama gave them opportunity, and they then proved themselves worthy of cultivation in literature, both sacred and profane (Pischel, §§ 13-15). 2. New Indian. The New Indian dialects arc derived from the Apabhi-aihsas or folk-dialects of the Prakrits. Any attempt to trace rigidly Modern Indian dialects to specific Middle Indian predecessors is difficult with the sources now under our control. Pischel, § 5, derives GujaratI, or Marwari, from Saurasenl-Apa- Ijliraihsa, Manlthl from Maharilstri-Apabhramsa, while Bihilrl and Western Bangfill seem to come from Magadhi-Apabhramsa through the Lat, or Pillar, dialect. The Indian basis of Simhalcse and Maladive is derived from a dialect closely akin to Pali (Geiger, Lit. und Spr. der Singh., 86-93). Hoernle, Comp. Gramm., xxiv- XXV, and Ccdcuita Hev., Ixxi, 311-332, Bcamcs, Com}). Gramm., i. INTRODUCTION xi 6-7, 33-34, and Grierson, Seven Grammars . . . of the Bilidri Language, pt. i, Calcutta, 1883, 3-7, should also be consulted. I have discussed the New Indian dialects in the following order: Assamese, Naipilll, Kasmlrl, Uriya, Bangtill, Biharl, Hindi, Pan- jiibl, Sindhi, Gujarntl, Marathi, Simhalese and its older form Ehi, Maladive, and Gypsy. There are numerous sub-dialects in all of them. The most comprehensive classification of these languages is in Grierson's Linguistic Survey of India, First, Bough List, Calcutta, 1898. Here, for instance, sixty-four sub-dialects of Gujarat! are given with their districts and the number of persons speaking them ; Bangall has sixteen varieties of vernacular, and Western Hindi fifty-two. For further information sec Cust, Modern Languages of the East Indies, London, 1878, 35-64, 158-161 ; Beanies, Comp. Gramm., i, 96-107 ; Geiger, Lit. imd Spr. der Singh., 88-89. Language maps of India should also be consulted, such as those given in Hoernle's Comp. Gramm., and his edition of the Frdhrta- Laksana, Calcutta, 1880 ; Beames's Outlines of Indian Philology, London, 1868 ; Grierson's Seveti Gramm. of Bihdri, i ; Cust's 3Iod. Lang, of the East Ind. ; Constable's Hand Atlas of India, Westminster, 1893, plate 10, and others. b. Iranian. 1. Middle Iranian. The sole surviving representa- tive of Middle Iranian is Middle Persian, or Pahlavl, which is closely related to Old Persian (Salemann, Grimdr. der iran. Bhilul., i. 225-226). 2. New Iranian. New Iranian dialects are exceedingly numerous. They are divided as follows : New Persian and the dialects of the Pamir, Caspian, and Central districts, Afyan, BalucI, Kurdish, and Ossetish. The Pamir dialects include Waxi, Siynl, Sariqoll, EosanI, Tajiki, SanglicI, Minjani or MungI, Yidyah, and Yaynobi (Geiger, Grundr. der iran. Phil., i. b. 290-291). Caspian dialects are SamnanI, MazandaranI, Lahljani, Gllaki, TalisI, and Tat (Geiger, 346-348). The Central dialects embrace GabrI, SirazI, BahbahanI, Sivendi, Yazdl, Zafrahl, Kasahi, Vonisuni, Kuhrudi, Nayini, Natanzl, and KaSanl (Geiger, 381-383). The Afyan xii INTRODUCTION dialects are the Northern and Southern, which do not differ materially from each other (Gcigcr, 203 ; Darmcstcter, Chants pop., p. iv). BalucI, the most primitive of all the Now Iranian dialects, has two divisions, Northern and Southern (or Makrani), which diverge considerably. The greater portion of BalucI literature is in the Northern vernacular, but the Makrani is the more primitive speech. North BalucI is divided into Layarl in the North and MarrI in the South, while Southern BalucI comprises Eastern and Western sub-dialects (Geiger, 232). The chief divisions of Kurdish are Lurl, Kirmansahl, GuranI, MukrI, and Zaza (Socin, Grundr. der iran. Fhilol, i. b. 249-252, cf. Justi, Kurd. Gramm., pp. xix-xxvii). The sub-groups of the Ossetish are Tagaurish or Irish, Ironish, in the (North-) East, Digorish or Dugorish, in the (North-) West, and Tualish in the South. Tagaurish, of which Tuahsh is merely a sub-dialect, is by far the most important Osse- tish vernacular (Hiibschmann, Etymol. und Lautl. der oss. Spr., 11-12). The admirable summary of New Iranian by Geiger, Grundr. der iran. Philol., i. b. 417-423, and his language chart, ibid., 421,' should bo consulted in this connexion. Kecent biblio- graphy on INIiddle and New Indo-Iranian may be gathered from Scherman's Orientalische Bihliographie, and older literature is collected by Pott, Techmer's Zeitschrift, ii. 109-115, 209-213, 230-234, 241-248. I have intentionally refrained throughout my work from foot- notes and references to my sources, which would have unduly increased the size of the book. I have endeavoured, however, to work through the principal literature on my subject, and to be as complete as possible. For the Prakrit I had to rely mainly on Hemacandra (ed. Pischel, Halle, 1877-1880), Vararuci (cd. CowelP, London, 1868), and the Prakrta-laksana (ed. Hoernle, Calcutta, 1880). Lassen's Institutiones linguae pracriticae, Bonn, 1837 ; Hoerne, Calcutta Rev., Ixxi. 311-332, and Bhandarkar, JBASBo., xvii. 1-48, also furnished hints. Pischel's Grammatih der Frdlrit- Sj^rachen, Stnissburg, 1900, did not appear until after my manu- script was in the printer's hands. I have used it, nevertheless, INTRODUCTION xiii in correcting my proof, although somotimes, for t}'pographical reasons, errors in the Prakrit, arising from too close adherence on my part to the native grammarians, could be checked only by a reference to Pischel (e. g. §§ 25, 57, 121, 184, etc.). For Ardha- magadhl I relied mainly on E. Miiller's Beitriige zur Gratmnatik des Jainaprdkrit, Berlin, 1876 ; for Maharastrl on Jacobi's Ausge- wahltc ErziiJilungcn, Leipzig, 1886, and for the ' Gatha dialect ' on E. MuUer, KB., viii. 257-292, and Lcfmann, ZBMG., xxix. 212- 234. The material on the Lena dialect is drawn from Senart's Inscriptions de Piyadasi, Paris, 1881-1886. I used for Pali the grammars of E. INIuller (London, 1884), Frankfurter (London, 1883), Minayeff (tr. Guyard, Paris, 1874) ; Kuhn's Beitrage sur PaU-Grammatik, Berlin, 1876, and articles by Mitra, JBASBe., xxiii. 604-614, and Bhandarkar, JRASBo., xvi. 275-313, For the New Indian I had, of course, the excellent, though somewhat antiquated, Comparative Grammar of the Modern Aryan Languages of India, by Beames, London, 1872-1879 ; Hoernle's Comparative Grammar of the Gaitdian Languages, London, 1880, and articles by Grierson, ZBMG., xlix. 393-421, 1. 1-42 ; Calcutta Rev., ci. 258-274, and Bhandarkar, JBASBo., xvi. 314-345, xvii. 99-182. Among my sources for individual New Indian dialects I may mention particularly Grierson's Seven Grammars of the Bialects and Sub-dialects of the Bihdri Language, Part I, Calcutta, 1883, and his papers on Kasmlrl phonology, JBASBe., Ixv. 280-305, Ixvi. 180-184 ; Kellogg, Grammar of the Hindi Language, Allahabad, 1876 ; Trumpp, Grammar of the Sindhi Language, London, 1872 (cf. ZDMG., xv. 690-752) ; and the articles on Simhalese by Kuhn, Sit£:b. M. Ac. der Wiss., Philos.-philol. CI, 1879, 399-434 (tr. D. Fergusson, lA., xiii. 53-65); E. Muller, lA., xi. 198-220, and Geiger, Ahh. M. Ac. der Wiss., I. CI, xxi. 177-273. The latter scholar's Literatur und Sprache der Singha- lesen, Strassburg, 1901, and Mdldivische Studicn, Sitsh. M. Ac. der Wiss., Philos.-philol. CI, 1900, 641-684, ZB3IG., Iv. 371-387, came in time to correct the final proof. My source for Gypsy phonology, a group of dialects to which I have referred but rarely, xiv INTRODUCTION is tho study l)y Mikloslch in the Denkschriften der W. Ac. dcr Wiss., FJtil.-liist. CL, xxx. The Iranian material is far less scattered. For Pahlavl I relied mainly on the Manuel de Pehlevi of de Harlez, Paris, 1880 ; Spiegel's Grammatik der Hiizvdresch-Siirache, Vienna, 1856 ; the edition of the Frahang-I Oim and the Sassanian Frahang (' Old Zand-Pahlavi ' and ' Old Pahlavi-Pazand ' glossaries) by Hoshangji and Haug, Bombay and London, 1867-1870 (see the excellent new edition by Eeichelt, WZKM., xiv. 177-213, xv. 117-156), and the edition of The Book of Arda Viraf by Haug and West, Bombay and London, 1872-1874. Salemann's Blitteljjersisch in the Geiger-Kuhn Grund- riss came after the final proofs were read. This Grundriss der iranischen Philolof/ie, edited by Geiger and Kuhn, Strassburg, 1895 to date, has been my main source for New Persian, the Pamir, Central, and Caspian dialects, Afyan, BalucI, and Kurdish. It has been supplemented for New Persian material by Horn's Neupersisclie Etijmolofjie, Strassbm-g, 1893, and Hiibsehmann's Persische Studlen, Strassburg, 1895 ; for Afyan, by Trumpp's Grammar of the Pqsto, London, 1873, Darmesteter, Chants popu- laires des Afghans, Paris, 1888-1890, and Geiger, Ahh. M. Ac. der Wiss., I. CI., xx. 169-222 ; for Baluci, by Geiger, ibid., xix. 107-153, 399-464, Sitsh. M. Ac. der Wiss., Philos.-philol. CI, 1889, 65-92 ; for Kurdish, Ijy Justi's Kurdische Grammatik, St. Peters- burg, 1880, and Fr. Miiller's study on the Zaza dialect, Sifzh. W. Ac. der Wiss., Phil.-hist. CI, xlviii. 227-245. The Ossetish material is drawn from Hiibsehmann's Eiymolocjie und Lautlehre der ossetiscJien Spraclie, Strassburg, 1887. I also consulted numerous other works and articles for minor points or without results. I follow Brugmunn's Grundriss for the Indian transcription and the Geiger-Kuhn Grundriss for the Iranian, with a few additions and modifications, which follow. Indian : m instead of ^ , 5 instead of s, and s for s, also r, rh, I for cerebral r, rh, and I (1). In Middle and New Indian I write e, before single consonants, but c, before consonant-groups ; for Sindhi I add, according to the system of Trumpp and the Royal Asiatic Society, g, j, d, b, ' uttered INTRODUCTION XV with a certain stress in prolonging and somewhat strengthening the contact of the closed organ, as if one tried to double the sound at the beginning of a word ' (Trumpp, Grammar ^ 13) ; for Simha- lese, a, d have been added according to Geiger's usage, although I here transcribe his m, n by m. Iranian : I transpose the functions of c and c, and of J and J, to harmonize with the Indian system, so that c, J denote palatals, and c, J afifricatae ; for Afyan a I write «, in BalucI i instead of ?", in North BalucT A/*, c\ th, ph instead of Ji\ c\ t\ p', and in Ossetish a, i, c, ch, j, c, ch, j instead of Hiibschmann's a, i, t§, tM, dz, ts, ths, ds. Socin's Kurdish tran- scription is conformed to the regular Iranian system and compared throughout with Justi. Numerous parallels between the phonological phenomena here noted and sound-changes in other Indo-Germanic dialects will at once be perceived. Thus the syncope of g discussed in § 147 may be compared with the same process in Attic iytov : Boeotian Icav ; Attic oXiyos: Tarentine oAio?; haim Igiivium, Umbrian Ikuvinus beside later liouinur (cf. also § 143) ; Latin regem ; Old French reij Modern French roi (cf. Haag, Vergleichung des PraJcrit mit den romanisclien Sprachen, Berlin, 1869 ; Brandreth, JBAS., NS. xi. 287-316, xii. 335-364). Limitations of space prevented me from referring to such parallel phenomena in dialects outside the Indo-Iranian. For the same reason I abstained from any extensive explanations by physiological phonetics of the sound-changes which I have recorded, and from all discussion of inflection or syntax. Errors of detail, explanation, and example will undoubtedly be found in my Phonology, and I shall be grateful for all corrections and additions. If, however, my cardinal theorem holds good, I shall feel that the work has been not in vain. I trust that the book may serve, besides its main purpose, as a contribution towards comparative lexicography of the Middle and New Indo-Iranian languages, and with this object in view I have cited examples from as large a number of dialects as possible. Throughout my work I have sought to present facts rather than theories. My general conclusions in each chapter are summarized at its beginning (see xvi INTRODUCTION §§ 1, 113, 460), and every paragraph is introduced by the results of my study of the material contained in it. The deductions gained from the entire book may be summarized thus : the phono- logical tendencies discernible as early as in the Old Indian and Iranian period have developed steadily, each on its own line, in the Middle and New dialects, and through regular divergency, no less than through simi- larity of evolution, the tie of Indo-Iranian unity is potent still. To Professor Hopkins of Yale my thanks are due for his courtesy in lending me from his private library certain works of importance which would otherwise have been inaccessible. I am indebted to the excellent reader of the Oxford University Press, who has contributed in no small degree by his care to the accuracy of the book. Especially do I wish to express my gratitude to my friend and teacher, Professor A. V. Williams Jackson, who has grudged neither time nor toil in his generous assistance. My student-life with him for guru at Columbia University, where this book was written, will ever be a happy memory. Well said the Sanskrit poet : eham apy dksaram yas tu gtiruh sisyc nivedayct prthivydm ndsti tad dravyam yad datva so 'nrni hhavct. LOUIS H. GRAY. XVI 1 ABBREVIATIONS = North. = Naipali. = Natanzl. = Nayini. = nomen proprium, = Old High German. = Ossetish. — Pai^aci. = Panjabl. = Pazand. = Persian. = Pahlavl. = Prakrit. = Rosam. = Sakari. = Samnani. = Sanglici. = Sariqoli. = Sauraseni. = Siyni. = Singhalese. = SirazT. = Sivendi. = Sanskrit. = Spanish. = Tagaurish. = Talish. = Uriya. = Vonisunl. = West. = Yaynobi. = Younger Avesta. = Yidgl. = Zafrahl. * = hypothetical forms. > = becomes. < = derived from. The titles of Magazines are abbreviated according to the system of the Orientalischc Bihliographie. b Afy. = Afyan. N. Apab. == Apabhram.sa. Naip. Ardhamag. = Ardhamagadhi. Nat. Ass. = Assamese. Nay. Av. = Avesta. nom. prop. Avant. = AvantT. 0. H. Germ. Bahb. = Bahbahanl. Oss. Bal. = Baluci. Pais. Bang. = Bangali. Panj. Bui- = Bulgarian. Paz. Dig. = Digorish. Pers. E. = East. Phi. Eng. = English. Prak. Gab. = Gabrl. Ros. GAv. = Ga^a-Avesta. ^ak. Gil. = Gilaki. Samn. Gk. = Greek. Sangl. Guj. = Gujarat!. Sarq. ^yp- = Gypsy. ^aur. Ind. = Indian. Siyn. Kaf. = Kafiri. Siriih. Kas. = Kasanl. §Ir. Kasm. = Kasmlri. Siv. Kuhr. = Kuhrudi. Skt. Kurd. = Kurdish. Span. Lat. = Latin. Tag. lexicog. = lexicographical. Tal. Lith. = Lithuanian. Ur. Mag. = Magadhi. Von. Mahar. = Maharastri. W. Mar. = Marathi. Yayn. Maz. = Mazandaranl. YAv. Med. = Median. Yidg. Minj. = Minjanl. Zaf. Mult. = Multani. LIFE I, Louis Herbeet Gr.vy, was born April 10, 1875, at Newark, New Jersey, the only child of Thomas Jefferson and his wife, Anna Elizabeth {nee Earl). My father is still living, but my mother died in September, 1899. My early education was received at home and at the Newark Academy, from which I graduated in 1892. Entering Princeton College the same year, I received the degree of A.B. in 1896, and remained there a year longer as Fellow in Classics, devoting special attention to Sanskrit and Avestan, in addition to Classical and Germanic linguistics. Feeling my interest drawn entirely to Oriental languages, I entered Columbia University in 1897, where I have remained three years. I was twice appointed Fellow in Indo-Iranian and I have pursued courses in Sanskrit, Pali, Avestan, Old Persian, Pahlavi, New Persian, Armenian, Arabic, and Syriac. In 1898 I received from Columbia the degree of A.M. I am a member of the American and German Oriental Societies, and of the Twelfth International Congress of Orientalists. I have published ' The Metres of Bhartrihari,' JAOS., XX. 157-159 ; ' Certain Parallel Developments in Pali and New Persian Phonology,' ibid., 229-243 ; ' Indo-Iranian Studies, i.,' A J Ph., xxi. 1-22 ; ' Contributions to Avestan Syntax, the Con- ditional Sentence,' Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci., xii. 549-588 ; ' Zur indogermanischen Syntax von *ndman,' IF., xi. 307-313 ; ' The Indo-Iranian Deity Apam Napat,' Arch./. Beligionsw., iii. 18-51 ; and ' Classical Passages mentioning Zoroaster's Name,' which forms the fifth Appendix of Jackson's Zoroaster, pp. 226-273 (New York, 1899). I am also one of the regular contributors to the OrienfaliscJie Bihliographie. Of my teachers my special thanks are due to Professors E. Y. Robbins and J. P. Hoskins, of Princeton, and at Columbia to Professor R. J. H. Gottheil, and Mr. Yohannan, and most of all to Professor A. V. Williams Jackson. INDO-IEANIAN PHONOLOGY VOWELS § 1. The vowels of the Indo-Iranian period have remained in general unchanged in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. But beside the many instances of preservation of an original vowel, there are numerous examples of changes either in quantity or in quality, or in both. The most striking mutations will be found in the cases of original a and r. The reasons why these two vowels are especially liable to change are not far to seek. Indo-Iranian a = Indo-Germanic a, e, o, a is the most simple of all the vowels. It represents, moreover, the so-called ' natural vowel,' the basis of all articulate sounds, which lies midway between a and 6 (Sievers, Phonetik*, § 209). It is thus self-evident that the Indo-Iranian a is particularly liable to change. The changes in question are ordinarily due to the influence of surrounding consonants. Labials often colour a to u^ and sibilants colour a to i. From such a change of a to m, i, a fui-ther development to o, e, or to m, I may take place. Turning to r, it is well known that of all the Indo-Germanic languages only the Old Indian and the Avesta have preserved Indo-Germanic r imchanged (Old Indian keeping also Indo-Ger- manic f, V). Even the Old Indian has lost Indo-Germanic ?, w, n, and the Avesta has lost these sounds with Indo-Germanic f , I in addition. In the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects we find a continuation of the process already begun in the older period by which the sonant liquids and nasals lost their original values, and became coloured by the surromidmg consonants. Thus Old Indian B 2 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY r, Avesta orj, became ar, a, ra, ir, i, ri, and the like in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. The changes of the other vowels from their values in the Indo- Iranian period are not without analogy to the changes of a and r, although they are more sporadic. Labials frequently colour i to m as sibilants colour n to i. The change of i, u to a seems to be due to a weakening of the old value of ?, u to 9. The long vowels are subject to changes which are, generally speaking, analogous to those of the corresponding short vowels. Before two or more consonants all vowels, including also the Old Indian diphthongs, are to be considered short in the Middle and New Indian dialects. On the other hand, the simplification of a consonant-group is normally attended, in both the Indian and the Iranian dialects of the Middle and New periods, by the length- ening of a preceding short vowel. The following paragraphs will contain more precise statements upon these several points in their proper places. a = a. ^ 2. Indo-Iranian a is in general retained unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. hharati 'bears,' Prak. hhara'i, Pali hharati. Skt. pakva ' ripe,' Apab. Prak. pakJca, pikka, Pali paJcka, Ass. paka, Naip. pak, Kasm. papi, Ur. pakka, Bang, jjaku, E. Hindi pahal, Hindi, Panj. pakka, Sindhi pako, Guj. Vpak, Vpik * ripen,' Mar. j;^A;, pika, Gyp. pakO. b. Iranian. Av. laraiti 'bears,' Old Pers. harati, Phi. harat, New Pers. harad, Gab. hartmun, Kas. harfan, Maz. havardan, Gil. hardan. Av. aspa 'horse,' Old Pers. asa, Phi., New Pers. asp, Waxi yas, Minj. yas{a)p, Afy. aspa (fem.), Bal. {h)aps, Kurd. hasp, Dig. Oss. afsa. a>i. § 3. This change is not infrequent, either in the Indian or in the Iranian dialects. As has been noted in § 1, the change of VOWELS 3 a to i is due in many cases to the influence of a neighbouring sibilant. a. Indian. In the Indian dialects a is changed to i more commonly in the West than in the East, so that the Sindhl shows the greatest number of examples of this phenomenon. Tlie fondness of the Middle Indian dialects for the change was, on the whole, greater than that which is now shown by the New Indian. Skt. pakva 'ripe,' Apab. Prak. paJcJca, pikJca, Guj. \^paJc, Vpik, 'Ksir.piJc,pikd, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. ardgdra 'coal,' Prak., Jaina Prak. imgdla, Guj. inigdr, imguJ, Mar. imgdl, imgol. Skt. yafhd ' how,' yatra ' where,' Apab. Prak. jidhd, jetfhu, jattu, Pali yaUhd, yatra, Sindhl jifi. Skt. dyutaJcara ' gambler,' Sak. and Mag. 'Prak.judiala. Skt. tamasa ' darkness,' Prak. tama, Pali timisa. Skt. pahjara ' cage,' Mag. Prak. pamjalaa, Pali panjara, Vr. pithjira, Hindi 2) Ini jar, Sindhi^^mir. Skt. ksamd, 'patience,' Prak., Pali khamd ^ -patience,' chamd 'earth,' Hindi chimd, cJiamd, Panj. JcJiimd, Sindhi hhimd, Guj. khamd. Skt. varkara ' goat,' Ur., Bang., Hindi hakard, Panj. bakkard, Sindhl hakiro, Guj. hakaro, Mar. hokar. Gyp. hakro. Skt. *prathara ' first,' Hindi pahald, pahil, Panj. paliil, Guj. pehelo, Sindhi paharyom, pahir{y)6)'n. Skt. prahara ' watch,' Prak. pahara, Panj. pahir, other New Ind. dialects ^a/iar. b. Iranian. Av. dtars ' fire,' Phi. dtas, New Pers. {d)tas, dtis, §iy. yac, Sarq. yuc, Gab. tas, Minj. yfir, N. Bal. dc, Kurd, agir, dr, er, Zaza ddir. Av. ydkard ' liver,' Phi. jakar, yakar. New Pers. jigar, Bal. jagar, N. Bal. jayar, Km-d. jark. Dig. Oss. igar. Av. sata 'hundred,' New Pers. sad, ASy. sal, sil, Kurd. sad, Oss. sada. Av. pairi ' around,' Old Pers, pariy. Phi., New Pers. par, Bal. pir (cf. Simh. piri). Av. jaini ' woman,' Phi., New Pers. san, Siy. yin, Sarq. yin, zin, Minj. singa. Gab. jaw, Kuhr. zan, jin, Zaf. iaw, Afy. jinai, jilnal, Bal. j«w, Km'd. zan, zin, Zaza Jaw. Av. anya ' other,' Old Pers. aniya, Paz. 7iaw, archaic New Pers. hdn, Oss. iwwa. B 2 i INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a > II. § 4. The change of a to u in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects is a very frequent one. It has been noted in § 1 that a labial often colours an original a to u. a. Indian. As the change of a to i is more common in the western Indian dialects than in the eastern (see § 3, a), so the change of a to w is more frequent in the eastern dialects of India than in the western, and as a becomes i in Sindhi, Gujarat! and Marathi, so a becomes u most often of all in Uriya and Bangall. Skt. prathama * first/ Prak. pafJmma, x^udJmma, pucjhmna, padhama, Pali pathama. Skt. prtlmMva 'peculiarity,' Jaina Prak. puhutta. Skt. manusa ' man,' Prak. (inscriptions of Dhauli) munisa, manusa. Skt. pancavimsati '■ twenty-five,' Pali pannuvlsati. Skt. harhatiTia ' cuciimber,' Ur. Idml'un, Bang. MmJcur, Hindi JcaJcari. Skt. miidgara ' club,' Prak., Pali mofjgara, Ur. mOgarci, Bang, mugiir, Hindi miigara, mogara, Sindhi muhiro, Guj., Mar. mogar. Skt. aidguliha ' finger,' Apab. Prak. amgulki, PciVi aniguliJca, Naip. aiimlo, Bihari a^'nguri, Hindi umgali, anigull, Panj. umgidl. Skt., Pali dlianu 'bow,' Sinili. dunu. Skt. manurama ' delightful,' Simh. "^manurama-ka > manumaraha ' grandson,' New Simh. mumdjura. Skt. samudra ' sea,' Prak. samudda, samudra, Pali satnudda, Siriih. ^hamiida > ^mahuda > muhtida. h. Iranian. Av. vand ' tree,' Plil. van, New Pers. htm, Kas, bana, Afy. vana, Bal. gvan, Dig. Oss. bun. Tag. bin. Phi. x^atai ' God,' New Pers. xuddi, Siy., Sarq. qtidd, Kurd, xade, xude. Av. savaite ' goes,' Old Pers. asiyavam, New Pers. savad, Afy. sval, Bal. suta, N. Bal. mbd, su6d, Kurd, clan, Oss. caiin. Av. caOtvdro ' four,' Phi. cahdr, Paz. cihdr. New Pers. cahdr, Wax! cabur, cahiir, oiy. cavor, cavar, Sarq. cavur, cavor, Sangl. safor, Afy. calor, Kurd. (Sihna) cavar, Dig. Oss. cuphxyhar, Tag. ciphijhar. Av. pasu '■ cattle,' Wax! pus, Afy. psa, Bal. pas, N. Bal. phas, Kurd, pas, Dig. Oss. fas, Tag. ^^6-. Av. Vx^'an ' call,' Phi. VOWELS 5> x^antand, New Pers. x''amlan, WaxI l-andam, Siy. kmdam, Sarq, mndam, Bal. vdnag, N. Bal. vdnay, Kurd, x^dndin, xundin, Oss, iCM»«d Av. tarsna '■ thirst,' Phi, if«^», tisnak{th), New Pers. ^il, Siy. fama{g~i), Sarq. ^rtr(i), Gab. tasna, Yidg. trusna, Afy. toi«i, Bal. tiinnag, tilnag. a > a. § 5. Tlie change of « to a in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects is due in the great majority of instances to compensatory lengthening, as noted in § 1. Sporadic cases of inorganic length- ening of an original a are not infrequent. a. Indian. In the New Indian dialects Bangali prefers the long vowel by compensatory lengthening before a simplified consonant-group, while Panjabi and Sindhi show short vowels, the Panjabi having a repeated consonant and the Sindhi a single one. Hindi stands midway between the two extremes in this regard. Tlie Braj dialect of Hindi is especially fond of changing a to a, and it is followed here by its sister dialects, the Mar- warl, Maiwarl, and Kanauji. In Marathi the root-vowel of the infinitive is frequently lengthened. Skt. sanirddhi 'prosperity,' Prak. sdmiddhi, Pilli samiddhi. Skt. sarsapa *■ mustard,' Jaina Prak. sdsava, Pali sdsapa. Skt. sparsana 'touch,' Frak. phdsa, Pali ^^/^a^^a. Skt. pradaJcsina ' pertaining to the right hand,' Gatha prddaksina. Skt. pahva ' ripe,' Naip. ^^a/j. Bang. pdM, E. Hindi pdkal, etc. (see § 2). Skt. vatsa ' calf,' Prak., Pali vaccha, Ass. hdcni (pron. hdsrn), Kasm. VUG, Ur. hdclmri, Bang, vdcchd, hdccd, E. Hindi hack, Hindi hacharu, hachard, Panj. haccd, Sindhi hdco, Guj. haccu, Mar. bacrem, vdsrum. Skt. Jchafvd 'bedstead,' Prak. khattd, Ur. khafa, Bang. khdt{ald), Hindi khtit, Panj. khattj Sindhi kJiaf, Guj., Mar. khdt. Skt., Pali kacchapa ' tortoise,' Ur. kachima, Bang. kdcJiiwa, Hindi, Panj. kachtJd, Sindlil kacluim. Skt. caJana 'course,' Ur. cdlibd, Braj cdlandum, Hindi caland, Mar. cdlanem. Skt. satya * true,' Prak., Pali sacca, Ur,, Bang, sara, Braj same, Hindi sac, Panj. sacc, Sindhi saco, Guj., Mar. sac. Skt. nagna ' naked,' (5 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Prak., Pali nagga, Ur. namgald, Bang, nemtd, Hindi nanigd, E. Panj. nahigd, W. Panj. ndtdgd, SindhT nmhgo, Guj. ndgimi, Mar. iimiigd, naggd. b. Iranian. Skt. nahha ' finger-nail,' Phi., New Pers, ndxun, Afy. >2?7/t, Bal. ndkun, ndhun, Kurd, nainuk. Skt. parut 'last year,' New Pers. ^;ar, WaxI ^Jan7, Sarq. parvus, Afy. paros, Bal. ^arl, N. Bal. phdri, Dig. Oss. y«)*a, Tag. faron. Av. Iiazmjru 'thousand,' Phi., New Pers. Jiamr, WaxI hazur, Sarq. hazor, Afy. ^ar, Kurd. Jiazdr. Av. ^(^i^ra ' dark,' Phi., New Pers. tar, Minj. tardvi, Afy. for, Dig. Oss. thalinga, Tag. thaling. Av. va/m ' snow,' Phi. va/>", New Pers. irt)/, Gab., Kas., Maz., Gil. varf, Afy. vdvra. Av. mardta ' man,' Old Pers. niartiya, Phi. «iar/. New Pers. mard, Gab. mdrd, Siv. ««;yZ, Bal. ?>«ar, Kurd, wiir, mer. Phi. Zo^^ ' lip,' New Pers. lab, WaxI, Sang, lav, Gab. lav. Av. sarota ' cold,' Plil. sarf, New Pers. sa>T7, WaxI siir{i), Gab. 5a>"f, Afy. 5ar, Bal. sard, N. Bal. 5arf/i, Kurd, sdr, Tag. Oss. saZc?. Av. asjici * horse,' Old Pers. asa, Bal. {h)a2)s, etc. (see § 2). Av. pascat ' afterward,' Old Pers, j>a5a. Phi. pasi^in). New Pers. ^;a5, Kulir. pas, pas, Kas. jjac, Bal. pas, Kurd, pasva, past, Dig. Oss. fastaga. Tag. fastag. Skt. svasrii ' mother-in-law,' New Pers. xusru, xusii, WaxI, Siy. xas, Kas. xasrtl, Afy. x'^dsa, Bal. vasso, vassi, vasse, Kurd, .^;os^, xassu, xasru. a > I. § 6. This change is a very rare one. b. Iranian. Av. jalnl ' woman,' Sarq. yin, zin, etc. (see § 3). a > u. § 7. This change is closely akin to the one described in the preceding paragraph. a. Indian. Skt. vafsa ' calf,' Kasm. vile, etc. (see § 5). b. Iranian. Av. jaint * woman,' Afy. jinal, jiinal, etc. (see § 3). Av. tarsna ' thirst,' Bal. tunnag, timag, etc. (see § 4). Av. maibyqna ' middle,' Phi., New Pers. mlydn. Wax! malting. VOWELS Siy. mabana, Sarq. nieb, Sangl. mlda, Afy. mla, Dig. Oss, medag, Tag. mtdag. New Pers, namak ' salt,' Siy. Sir. mmik. a > c. § 8. This change is of comparatively rare occurrence. It is due very frequently to the palatalizing influence of a neighbouring y. a. Indian. In the Middle and New Indian dialects e is long only before single consonants : before a consonant-group it is to be considered short. Of the New Indian dialects Panjabi and GujaratI show the greatest number of examples of the change of a to e. The intermediate step of the change from a to e is shown by the change of a to ci in Simhalese, or by the Mariithi di developed from Indian a (the reverse of the Panjabi change of Old Indian ai to a). Skt. ascarya ' wonderful,' Prak. acchera, accharia, acchaara, accharijja, Pali accharia, acchera, Hindi, Panj., Sindhi acaraj. Skt. sayya 'bed,' Prak. sejja, Pali seyyci, Hindi sej, Mar. scj. Skt. trayddasa ' thirteen,' Prak. teraha, Pali tedasa, terasa, telasa, Kasm. triivdh, Ur., Bang, teraha, Bihari, Hindi teraJi, W. Hindi Ura, Panj. teram, Sindhi teraham, Guj. ter, Mar. ferd, Siihh. teles. Skt. phalgu 'empty,' Fali pheggu. Skt. sandhi 'burglar's mine,' Prak., Pali sandhi, Ass, sindhi, Kasm. san, Ur., Bang. sindh, E. Hindi scmh, Hindi senidh, Panj. sannh, Sindhi semdlii. Mult, sandh. Skt. laharl 'wave,' Hindi lahar, Panj. lahir, Guj. leher. Skt. hadhira ' deaf,' Prak. hahira, Hindi, Panj. hahird, Guj. lieher, Simh. hihira. Skt, Icapdta ' door,' Pali kavdta, Ur., Bang, kahdta, Bihar. kevdr{d), Hmdl, Panj., Mar. kavdd. Skt. asti 'eight,' Prak., Pali attha, Kasm., Ur., Bihari, Hmdl dth, Panj. atth, Sindhi afh, Guj., Mar. dth, Siihh. dta. Skt. madhya ' middle,' Prak., Pali majjha. Ass. mdj, Kasm. mamz, Ur. majhi. Bang, mdjh, Hindi majhi, nidnijh, mamh, Panj, manijh, majjh, Sindhi mamjhi. Mar, mdjh, Simh, mdda, inscriptions mdnda. Skt,, Prak. jawa 'person,' Simh. dcna, dana. Skt. vaidgana 'egg-plant,' Ur. bdigu. Bang, begun, Hindi 8 JXDO-IRAXIAN PHONOLOGY hdimgan, Panj. hdiham, Mar. hdimgan. Skt. saptacaivarimsat 'forty-seven/ K^m. satatajih, Ur. satcdlisa, Bang, satcalls, Bihar., Hindi sdimtdlis, Panj. samtdll, Sindhl satetallh, Guj. sudtdlls^ Mar. sattecdlis. b. Iranian. The change of Indo-Iranian a to e is very rare in the Iranian dialects, excepting in the Kurdish. In the Zaza dialect of the Kurdish the Iranian a is often pronounced di. Sanin, du verbal prefix, Maz. da, Gil. da, du, di, Afy, da, Kurd, de, da, Oss. fi-. Av. \/Jcards ^ drag,' Phi. Jca^itano, Afy. ksal, Bal. hasag, N. Bal. khasay, Kurd, kehdn, Jcisdn. Old Pers. martiya 'man,' Kurd, mir, mer, etc. (see § 5). Av. xsva$ti ' sixt}'-,' New Pers. sast, sast, Afy. §2^efa, Kurd. §aM. Av. tarsti ' flight,' Afy. testa. Av. x^atdhar ' sister,' Phi., New Pers. x^'dhar. WaxI xi-ui, Sarq. yax\ Sangl. ix^va, Minj. yaxh-a, Afy. xor, Bal. gvaJmr, Kurd, xoh, xuha, TaOzbl vai, Oss. xora. Av. asfa ' eight,' Phi. (}i)ast. New Pers. haH, WaxI hdO, hat, Siy. vast, Sarq. vo^^, Eos. hast, Sangl. hat, Minj. a^/ja, Yayn. uxs, Afy. ato, Zaza haist, Oss. as^/i. a > y. § 9. This change, like the preceding one, is not of frequent occurrence either in the Indian or in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. It is well known that the common pronunciation of an original a approaches 6 in Assamese, Uriya, and Bangall. The change of a to o is most common in Uriya and Bangall, and in Simhalese it often occurs near I developed from a cerebral or dental. Skt. hadura 'jujube tree,' Prak, t^um, Pali hadara, Ur. hara (pron. hard). Bang, hair, Hindi, Panj. hair, her, Sindlil heru, heri, Guj., Mar. hdr. Skt. sammarsa ' confusion,' Pali satmmsa. Skt. varkara 'goat,' Mar. hokar, etc. (see § 3). Skt. smasru * moustache,' Prak. mdsu, massii, mamsii, Pali massu. Ass. tmc, Ur., Bang., Bihar, mdmch, Hindi much, Panj. mucch, Sindhi much, Guj. much. Skt. caksu ' eye,' Prak., Pali cakkim. Bang. cokh, cdukh. Skt. cahcu 'beak,' Bang. cOmtha, Hindi, Mar. VOWELS 9 come. Skt. ekddasa ' eleven,' Prak. car alia, Pali cJcddasa, Kasm. Mh, Ur., Bang, egdra, E. Hindi cgydrah, Hindi igdrah, gydrah, Panj. gidram, Sindhi ihdrahmh, ydraham, Guj. agidr, Mar. aJcard. Skt. pH]i{})vJ ' earth,' Prak. pmlhavi, puha{v)t, Pali J9a#/iav«, pathavi. Old Hindi j;m/ ail. § 10. This change is excessively rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. eaksu 'eye,' Bang, colih, edukh, etc. (see preceding §, a). b. Iranian. Av. pacata ' cooked,' Phi. puoctano, New Pers. puxtan, WaxI poeam, Gab. paxtmun, Kas. paten, Maz. paxta, Afy. p)dxavid, Bal. paeag, N. Bal. pJiasay, Kurd, pdtin, Zaza paujana, Oss. Jicun. Aphaeresis of a. § 11. Tlie loss of an initial a in the Middle and New Indo- Iranian dialects is not imcommon. a. Indian. Aphaeresis of a in the Indian dialects is especially frequent when the initial vowel is unaccented and is followed by an accented syllable. Skt. alaidkdra 'adornment,' Prak. alandcdra, alarkJcia, Pali lamkdra, Elu lakara. Skt. adJias 'below,' Prak. Jieftha, Pali hetthd, Ur., Bang, hetha, Sindhi hethe, Guj. liethe. Mar. liet. Skt. avatrdna 'rescue,' Ur. haedibd. Bang, hdcdn, Hindi haedmnd, Mar. vacdvinem. Skt. aranya 'forest,' Mahar. Prak. raytna, Saur. Prak. aranna, Pali arahha, Old Hindi ramj, Hindi ran, 10 IXDO-TRAXTAN PHONOLOGY Sindhi rihy rinn, Guj., Mar. ran, Simh. rana. Skt. amdftja 'minister,' Prak., Pali amacca, Simh. mttti. Skt., Pali atasl ' linseed,' Kasm. alls, Ur. test, Bang, tist, Hindi tls% alsi. Skt. asoka 'sort of tree,' Prak. asoa, Pali asoka, Simh. ho. Skt. annraga ' love,' Prak. anuraa^ Simh. wwra. Skt. ayafa ' ditch,' Siihli. vala. b. Iranian. In New Persian it is a law that initial a before a single consonant is dropped. Av. angusta 'finger,' Phi. angust, New Pers. angust, WaxI ijangl, Siy. anga^t, Sarq. ungaxt, Sangl. ingit, Minj. angar, Si v. gus, Von. unguss, Maz. anguSj Afy. (jr^lto, Oss. angursth, cf. also New Pers. angustar ' ring,' Km-d. gustir. Av. asdnga ' stone,' Old Pers. adqgaina, Phi., New Pers. 5a?i«a, Bal. dsmdn, N, Bal. azmdn. Sijncope of a. § 12. The syncope of internal a is foimd occasionally both in the Indian imd in the Iranian chalects. a. Indian. Syncope of Indo-Iranian a is quite rare in the New Indian dialects, and it is rarer still in the Middle Indian period. Entire syncope of an original a is often preceded by the weakening of a to the so-called 'neutral vowel' d, in case a is unaccented but is preceded or followed by an accented syllable. Skt. pugaphala ' areca-nut,' Prak. popphala < *pugphala, Guj, p6p>hal, Mar. pophal. Skt. jdgaraf I 'watches,' Frak. jdgga'i, Pali jaggati, \Jr. jdgand, Bang.jdgitc, Sinclhijdganu, Guj. jdgarum, Mar. jdganeni. Skt. durhala 'weak,' Prak,, Pali duhhala. Bang, duhld, Biharl duhara, dilbar, Hindi duhld, Sindhi duhiro, rahalo, Guj. VOWELS 11 dnbal{a), Mar. dnhal. Skt. cCimara 'fly-whisk,' Prak., Pali camara, Bang, camrd, Hindi cdmhrl, Mar. cdmar, cdiiri, Anglo-Ind. chowry. b. Iranian. Syncope of Indo-Iranian a is more common in the Iranian than in the Indian dialects. Av. yasatanqni * of the angels,' Phi. yaztdn, yd^ddn, New Pers. yazddn 'God.' Av. paOana 'broad,' Phi. palm{di), Afy. 2)ldn, Bal. patan, Kurd, j>a*^, Oss. fdthan. Av. axsaena ' blue,' Pill., New Pers, ocas'in, Afy. sm but fern, ma, Kurd. {ha)s'm, Oss. axsinag. Av. ndmah ' homage,' Plil. namdc, Paz. namdl, New Pers. namdz, Afy. nmunj, Bal. nanids, navds, Kurd. nimi{z)j namm, nameL Av. vtsalti ' twenty,' Plil. vist, New Pers. Ijistj Kas. v'lstdj vts{sd), Afy. vtst, Bal. ^J6f. Apocope of a. § 13. The apocope of Indo-Iranian a is a very frequent phe- nomenon in the New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. The Middle Indian dialects retain the final a un- changed. In the New Indian the final a of the Old and Middle Indian dialects is cbopped unless it bears the accent. If final a is accented it is lengthened in Hindi. In Ur. and Bang, on the other hand final a is often pronounced. Skt. mudgara ' club,' Prak., Pali moggam, Ur. mogard, Bang. mugura, Hindi nmgard, mogard, Sindhi muhird, Guj., Mar. mdgar. Skt. satya ' true,' Prak., Pali sacca, Ur., Bang, sacd, Braj sdmc, Hindi sac, Panj. sacc, Smdlil saco, Guj., Mar. sac. Skt. trayodasa ' tliirteen,' Prak. teraha, Pali tcdasa, terasa, telasa, Kasm. truvdh, Ur., Bang. teraJia, Biharl, Hindi terah, W. Hindi terd, Panj. terdm, Sindhi teraJiam, Guj. tcr, Mar. terd, Simli. teles. b. Iranian. The Middle Iranian dialects, milike the Middle Indian, do not retain original final a. The New Iranian dialects follow the Middle Iranian in this regard, but the Digaurian Ossetish often retains the final a unchanged. Av. dardya 'long,' Old Pers. darga, Phi. darg, Af/. Idrya, Kurd., Oss. darg. Old Pers. tigra ' sharp,' Phi. tcj, Paz. ^ei, 12 lynornAxiAN phoxology New Pers. trs, WaxI tis, Sarq. ta'iz, Kurd, tlz{l). Av. sar,ila 'year,' Phi., New Pers. sid, Dig. Oss. sanJa, Tag. .sa^xZ. Av. dasa * ten,' Phi. dahum ' tenth,' New Pers. f/a/i ' ten,' WaxI has, las, oiy. bis, Us, Sarq. 8a5, Sangl., Yayn. das, Afy. Zas, Oss. das. Prothesis of a. § 14. Prothesis of a is not found in the Middle period either of the Indian or of the Iranian dialects. In New Indian the collo- quial Hindi prefixes a to words beginning \\ath a consonant-group whose first member is s. In the New Persian prothesis is one of the most common phenomena, since in that language no word may begin with a consonant-group. Prothesis of a is also quite common in Balucl. a. Indian. Skt. sndna ' bath,' colloquial Hindi asnan. Skt. stlidna 'place,' colloquial Hindi asthan. Skt. stri 'woman,' colloquial Hindi astn or istrl (see below, § 36). Tliis prothesis is also found in foreign loan-words, such as Eng. school, colloquial Hindi ashid, isJall. b. Iranian. Av. hrvat 'brow,' Phi. hrfi, New Pers. ahru, Wax! varao, Siy. truy, Sarq. varao, Sangl, vurij, Gab. hurd, Afy, vruja, Bal. Imrvdn, hirvdn, Kurd, hunl, hurl, Dig. Oss. arfuk, Tag. arfig. Av. stard ' star,' Phi. sfdraJc, New Pers. sitarah, Afy. storai, Bal, astdr, istdr, Kurd, isfirJc, Oss, stall. Av,, Old Pers, hrdtar ' brother,' Phi. hrdtar, New Pers. birddar, WaxI vrilt, Siy, vrod, virdd, Sarq, vrod, Afy. vwr, Bal. hrdi, Kurd, hard, Dig. Oss. arvdda, Tag. arvdd. d = a. § 15, Indo-Iranian d is generally retained unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects of all periods, a. Indian. Skt. dhurayatl ' holds,' Pali dhdrcti. Skt. vi/dghra ' tiger,' Prak. vagyha, Pali vyagyha, Hindi hdgh, Smdlii vaghu. b. Iranian. A v. vdiU ' canal,' WaxI vdh, Siy. veh, Sarq. mS, VOWELS 13 Av. paha ' foot,' Phi. pdi, New Pers. pai, WaxI pub, §iy. pab, Sangl. pud, Gil. po, Tat pa, Bal. ^a(?, N. Bal. phab, phaz. Av. ^afw 'place,' Old Pers. gaOu, Phi. r/«.v, New Pers. giXh, Afy. ya?a2. Av. ahmdlia 'ours,' Old Pers. amdxam 'of us,' New Pers., Kurd, md, Oss. max. a > a. § 16. The shortening of an original a is the most frequent change of all those to which this sound is subject, whether in the Indian or in the Iranian dialects. It is well known that the doubling of an original single consonant or the retention of an original consonant-group causes a preceding long vowel to become short in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. Beside the regular shortening of original a mider the conditions just described there are numerous instances of sporadic shortening of original d. a. Indian. Skt. vydghra ' tiger,' Prak. vaggJia, Pah vyagglia, Hindi hdgh, Sindlii vdgli. Skt. mdrgasira 'November-Decem- ber,' Apab. Prak. maggasiru, Pali mdgasira, maggasira. Skt. upasthdpitva 'having estabhshed,' Gatha upasfhapitva. Skt. devdlaya ' temple,' Ur. deula, Bang., Hindi deval, Panj. devdld, Sindlil devali, Guj. deval, Mar. deval, deul. Skt. mdrga ' road,' Apab. Prak. maggu, Pali magga, Hindi mag, mdmgd, Sindhi mdgu, other New Ind. dialects mag. Skt. mahdrgha 'costly,' Pali mahaggJia, Ass. mahamga, Naip. mahamgo, E. Hindi, Hindi mahamgd, Panj. mahimgd, Sindhi maJianigo, Guj. morhgJmm, Mar. mahdg. Skt. Jchddati ' eats,' Prak. khd^, Pah hhddati, Naip. Jcha'ihdm, Kasm. khyun, Ur. Jchdnd, Bang. Tchdite, Sindhi Jchainu, Guj. Jchdvum, Mar. Jclidnem, Siihh. hanavd. Gyp. cJia. Skt. hhdgineya ' sister's son,' Mahar. Prak. hhdginejja, Pali bhdgineyya, Simh. bdhdnd, hdnd. Skt. grdma ' village,' Prak., Pali gdma, Ur., Bang, gam, Hindi gdmv, Sindhi gdmu, gd{m)u, Guj. gdm. Mar. gdmv, Simh. garni. Gyp. gav. b. Iranian. Av. JcahrJcdsa 'vulture,' Phi. J^ahrl'ds, Jcargds, New Pers. Jcargas. Av. ydna 'path,' New Pers. ydti, Afy. yiin. 14 JXDO-IRAXIAN PHONOLOGY Skt. lujx'isa ' fox/ Phi. rd2)as, ivhds, New Pers. ruhdh, Sarq. rape, Ks&. rilvds, Tal. rvos, N. Bal. ropJiasl; Kurd, rfivi, Dig. Oss. rohas, Tag. ritbas. Skt. a?>/td ' glory ' + tdjja ' heat,' New Pers. aftdh ' sun,' Siy., Sarq. aftav, Kurd, dtaf, So axtdv, ataf\ adav, Bohtan tdv. Av. spdha ' army,' Phi. s;;a//. New Pers. sipdh, Dig. Oss. afsdd, Tag. afsad. Phi., New Pers. arcZ ' meal,' Casp. dialects or, Nay. ar, Afy. ora. d > %. § 17. The change of a to I occm*s very rarely. b. Iranian. Skt. lojJdsa ' fox,' Kurd, ruvi, etc. (see preceding §). Phi., New Pers. darmdn ' medicine,' Siy., Sarq. darmin. Old Pers. amdnaya 'remained,' Phi., Paz., New Pers. mdndan, Kurd, minim * I remain.' a > u. § 18. The change of a to m is excessively rare in the Middle and New Indian dialects. In the New Persian and its dialects as well as in numerous sporadic instances in the other Iranian dialects d is changed to u before 7n and n, as e is changed to « under the same circumstances (see § 89). a. Indian. Skt. karpdsa *■ cotton,' Ur. Icapd, Bang. Jcdpds, Hindi Jcapds, Panj. hapah, Sindhi Tcapdh, Guj., Mar. kdpus, Simli. Jcajm. Skt. sdsnd ' paunch,' Prak. sunJiu. b. Iranian. Av. mnu * knee,' Phi. mniik, New Pers. zdnu, Wax! zdn, Sarq. zun, Sangl. song, Judaeo-Pers. zunl, mm, Afy. zangum, Bal. zdn, Kurd. zdna. Av. rdna ' thigh,' Phi., New Pers. ran, Siy. run, Afy. vrun. Phi. ydjnaJc, jdmak ' robe,' New Pers. jdmah, Nay. yiimu, Kurd. yuma. Av. cadwdrd 'four,' Phi., New Pers. calidr, WaxI cahur, Siy. cavor, cavar, Sarq. caviir, cavor, Sangl. safur, Minj. caflr, Yidg. clr, Afy. calOr, Kurd. (Sihna) cavdr, Dig. Oss. cuplqihar, Tag. ciphphar. Av. tdrdsaiti ' fears,' Old Pers. tarsatly, Phi. tarsUano, New Pers. tarsdn ' cowardly,' Bal. trusag, N. Bal. iursay, Kurd. tarsmiaJc, Oss. tharsun. VOWELS 15 d > e. § 19. The change of a to e is one of excessive rarity both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. In Assamese and colloquial Bangali the change of a to c is not infrequent. Skt. mdtra ' measure,' Prak. metfa, Pali matfa. Skt. sthdpayati *■ estabhshes,' Mar. thevanem. Skt. dm * hope,' Mahar. Prak. dsd, Ass. esd, dsd. Skt. rdtrt ' night,' Prak. ratti., rai, Pah ratti, Ur., Bang., Bihar. rdi{i), Hindi rdt, Panj, rati, rdt, Sindhl rati, Guj., Mar, rdt, Simh. rd, ray a. Skt., Pali dloha ' appearance,' Siihh. eliya, alu. b. Iranian. New Pers. tcv ' strength,' beside tdv. Phi. vamr 'market-place,' New Pers. hdzdr, Gab. ■yyar, Kas. hosor, vojor, Kurd, hd^er, Eng. loan-word bazaar. a > 0. § 20. Tlie change of a to o seems not to be found in the Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects, on the other hand, it is not infrequent. The change is especially frequent in MazandaranT and Tahsh, and in Afyan a regularly becomes o, excepting before nasals, where the change is to u (cf. § 18 above). It is also to be noted that in New Persian itself the pronmiciation of a often tends to approach the value of o. b. Iranian. Av. vdta ' wind,' Phi. vdf. New Pers. lad. Gab. vdd, Siv. vdi, Zaf. vo, Kas. vol, Von., Kulir., Nay. vud, Nat. vdd, Maz. vd. Tat vdr. My. vo, Bal. gvdt, N. Bal. gvd9, gvds, Kurd. ha, vdi. Tag. Oss. vdd. New Pers. (dialectic) mdng ' moon,' Gab. mam, Maz. mung, Gil. 7ndm, Tal. mdng. Tat mang, Kurd. mdng. Av. ap ' water,' Phi. dp, Paz. «/(;, New Pers. dh, dv, Waxi yapali, yuph, Minj. yaoya, Yidg. ?/ory, Yayn. ap. Gab. o, Siv. an, av, Yazdl vo, Kas. dv. Nay. ao, Nat. ««, Samn. 6, Maz. o(m), Gil., Tal., Tat dv. My. oba, Bal. dp, N. Bal. a/, Kurd. dv. Av, nqman ' name/ Old Pers, ndman, Phi., New Pers. warn, Wax! 16 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY nung, Maz. nion, Gil. 7idm, Afy. niim, Bal, nam, Dig. Oss. wow, Tag. nom. Aphaeresis of a. § 21. Tlie aphaeresis of a is not uncommon in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. atars 'fire,' New Pers. dtas, tas, cttis, Siy. yac, Sarq. yuc, Gab. tas, Minj. yilr, etc. (see § 3). Av. dyapta ' reward,' Phi. [ajydftan, New Pers. ydftati, Dig. Oss. ydfun, Tag. 2/a^w. Apocope of d. § 22. The apocope of original a is similar to the apocope of the corresponding short vowel (see § 13, a). a. Indian. Skt., Prak., Pali clidud 'shadow,' Hindi chdm{v), chdmh, chdoni, Panj. chcim, clidiini, Sindhi chdm{v), Guj. chdmy. Skt. nldrd ' sleep,' Prak., Pali niddd, Hindi, Panj. nlmd, Sindhi nimr, Guj. nimdd, Mar. nid. Skt. durvd ' grass,' Pali dubbd, Ur., Bang, duha, Hindi dub. Anaptyxis of a. § 23. The anaptyxis of d is an excessively rare phenomenon. b. Iranian. Av. mat-patifrasa ' with recompense,' Phi. pat- fras, Paz. pddafrdh, New Pers. pdddfraU, pddafrah. 1 = 1. § 24. Indo-Iranian i is generally retained unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Skt. iva ' as,' Prak. via, Pali iva. Skt. vidyut ' lightning,' Prak., Pali vijju, Ur. hijuU, Bang., Hindi, Panj. hijali, Sindhi vijum, Guj. vijidl, Mar. hijali, vlj. b. Iranian. Av., Old Pers. ^wtor ' father,' Phi. ji?/Y(ar), New Pers. pidar, Kas. pal, Siy., Sarq. pid. Av. cit 'what,' Old Pers. ciy, Paz., New Pers. cih, Afy. ca, Kurd, ci, ca, ce. Dig. Oss. ci, ci, Tag. ci. Av. i.^tya ' brick,' Plil., New Pers. xist, Bal. isf, It. VOWELS 17 ^ > a. § 25. The change of i to a is quite common both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. In Indian the phenomenon occurs most frequently in Panjabi, Sindhl, and above all in Gujarat!. See now Pischel, Granim. der Prdh'it-S2)rachen, § 115. a. Indian. Skt. haridrd 'tmrmeric,' Prak. haladda, haladdi, Pali haliddd, also Kasm. Udir^ lidar, Ur, haldi, Bang. Jialuda, Biharl, Hindi haldl, Panj. haldhi, Guj. halad, Mar. Tialaddd. Skt. iti ' thus,' Prak. tti, ia, Pali iti. Skt. sithila ' loose,' Prak. sadhila, siclhila, Pali sithila, sathila, Ass. dhil, Naip. dhtlo, Ur. dhtla, Bang, dhtla, dhala, Biharl dhlld, E. Hindi dhal, Hindi dhild, Panj. dhUd, (Ihiro, Sindhl dharo, dhiro, dhilo, Guj. dJulum, Mar. sadhal, dhild. Skt., Pali kathina ' difficult,' Ur., Bang., Hindi kathin, Panj. kathan, Sindhl katanu, Guj. kafhan, Mar. kadhin. Skt. garhhim ' pregnant,' Prak. gahhhim, Pali gah- hhim, Bang, gdhhina (vulg. gabna), Hindi gdhhin, Panj. garahhan, Sindhl gdbhim, Guj., Mar. gdhhan. Skt. divasa 'day,' Prak. divaha, diaha, Saur. divasa, Pali divasa, Mar. divasa, Old Simh. divasa, Simh. davasa. b. Iranian. Av. ^ijj/o ' of winter,' Phi., New Pers. ^aw, Tal. zumistdn, WaxI ^awi, Siy. ^/w?//, Sarq. samdn, Afy. ^imai, Kurd. zavistdn, Dig. Oss. ^umag. Tag. zimag. Av. 5j?is ' louse,' Phi. spis, 5;pi(s, New Pers. supus, usjnis, sjnis, WaxI sis, Sarq. S2)al, Afy. spaza, Kurd, sipi, Oss. 5?5^/i. Av. 7i«>t'a 'tongue,' Phi. (h)uzvdn, suvdn, New Pers. zabdn, zidjdn, Gab. izvun, WaxI zik, Siy. ^ay, Sarq. ziv, Afy. ii&a, Bal. zimdn, Kurd, azmdn, ziimdn, Oss. avzag. i > d. § 26. The change of i to a occurs very rarely. a. Indian. Skt. ilisu 'sugar-cane,' Prak., Pali nccliii, Ur. dkhu, ukha, ikha, Bang, dku, Hindi ikh, likh, Guj., Mar. us, Simh. ithgii, uk. 18 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY i > u. § 27. The change of i to m is found both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. The change of i to u is particularly frequent in unaccented syllables in Uriya and Bangali. Skt. rdjila 'lizard,' Pali rajula. Skt. isu 'arrow/ Jaina Prak., PilLi iisiL Skt., Pali lindu * drop,' Ur., Bang, hindi, Hindi, Panj. htmd, hind, Sindlii hiuhd, huniro, himrt, Guj. htmd, viiidit, Mar. hindl, bund, Simh. poda. Skt. gdirika ' red chalk,' Ur. geru, Hindi geru, Guj. gcru, Mar. geru. Skt. tintidl ' tama- rind,' Ass. temteli, Naip. titri, Ur. tcmtidj, temttdi, Bang. te{m)tul. Skt. iksii 'sugar-cane,' Simh. imgu, ulc, etc. (see preceding §). b. Iranian- The change of i to u is especially common in the Digaimsh dialect of the Ossetish. New Pers. muzah ' eyelash,' beside misali. Gab. mujang, Ka§. maja, mnja, maza, Bal. micdc, N. Bal. misds, Kurd. mizdnJc, miki. Av. spis ' louse/ Phi. spi^, spus, New Pers. supu§, uspus, spus, etc. (see § 25). Av. zimo ' of winter,' Tal. zumistdn, Dig. Oss. zumag, etc. (see § 25). Av. hizva ' tongue,' Plil. {li)uzvdn, zuvdn, New Pers. zahdn, zuhdn, etc. (see § 25). i > z. § 28. The lengthening of i to t is due in the majority of cases to compensatory lengthening, as in the case of a developed from a (see § 5). The phenomenon occurs both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt, simlia ' lion,' Prak. stha, Gatha simlia, Kasm. suh, Bihrirl, E. Hindi simgh, simh, simjli, Panj. simgh, other New Indian dialects sithh. Skt. jihvd 'tongue,' Prak. jlhd, jihhhd, Pali jihvd. Ass. jihd, Naip. jibro, Kasm. zeo, Sindlii jlbh, Simh, diva, Maladive dU, other New Indian dialects jlbh. Skt. dupasivi, nom. prop., Pali upaslva. Skt. vimmti 'twenty,' Prak. msaX, Pali visam, vlsati, Kasm, viih, Bang, blsa, Hindi bis, Panj, bih, Sindhi vlh, Guj., Mar, vis. Skt, bhaginl 'sister,' VOWELS 19 Prak. haJiim, Pali hhaginl, Ur. hhauni, hhaimi, Bang, hham, Hindi haJtin, Panj. hhd'm, haithJi, Sindlil hlienu, Guj. hehen, Mar. hahin. b. Iranian. Av. Imcidra ' beautiful,' Phi. JmciJir, New Pers. liu^ir, Jiujlr, xujir. Av. vicinoit 'gathered/ Phi. ctfano, New Pers. cuJan, Bal. cinag, N. Bal. chinay, Kurd, cinin. Skt. Jcapihjala 'partridge,' Bal. kapmjar, N. Bal. Jchavinjar. Av. is^ya ' brick,' Phi., New Pers. xisf, Bal. ?^^, f^. Old Pers. cisciy ' something,' New Pers. cl^, Kurd, tist i > u. § 29. The change of i to u is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. ilxm 'sugar-cane,' Ur. cikhu, iMia, tilcha, Hindi thh, tikh, Guj,, Mar. us, etc. (see § 26). i > e. § 30. The change of i to e, e is not infrequent in the Indian dialects, but it is exceedingly rare in the Iranian dialects, where a few cases of the compensatory lengthening of i to e are found. In the Indian dialects the change appears most frequently before double consonants in Middle Indian (consequently the e in such cases is short). Of the New Indian dialects the Gujarat! presents the greatest number of examples of this change, which is, on the whole, more common in the West of India than in the East. a. Indian. Skt. nidrd 'sleep,' Prak. neddd, niddd. Skt. Jcirdfa ' hypocrite,' Pali JceratiJca, kerdtiya. Skt. dvibhdga ' two- fold,' Pali dvehhdga. Skt. tintidl ' tamarind,' Ass. tethteli, Ur. temfull, temhdi, Bang. te{th)tid, etc. (see § 27). Skt, sindtira ' vermilion,' Prak. sendiira, Pali sindilra, Ass, senditr, sindur, Bang, sindur, Bihari senur, Hindi scmdur, Sindhi sindhuru, Guj. sindur, Mar. semdur. b. Iranian. Old Pers, ciy 'what,' Kurd, ce, m, ca, etc. (see § 24). New Pers. gisniz ' coriander,' Bal. genic. C 2 20 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY ApJiaeresis of i. § 31. Aphaeresis of original i is very rare in the Indian dialects. The Tagaurish dialect of the Ossetish presents several instances of the aphaeresis of i which has become initial after the loss of original initial consonants, a. Indian. Skt. iddnmi ' now,' Prak., Pali ddni{m). [b. Iranian. Av. vJsaiti 'twenty/ Phi. visf, New Pers. hist, Kas. vJstd, vJs{sd), Waxi vlst, Sarq. vist, Bal. gist, Dig. Oss. insai, Tag. ssaj. Av, histaiti ' stands/ Dig. Oss. isthun, Tag. sthi7i.] Syncope of i. § 32. The syncope of i is excessively rare. Possibly the loss of a final i in a word which is made the first member of a compound may be considered here. b. Iranian. Av. sairi-gaona 'having a golden colour/ New Pers. saryun, Afy. saryun. Apocope of i. § 33. Apocope of i is common both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. drsH ' sight/ Prak., Pali ditthi, Hindi dUhi, dlth, dith, Panj. ditth, Sindlil diti, Mar. d'lth. Skt. vyakti ' person,' Hindi WmL b. Iranian. Av, haca ' from ' + aSairi 'beneath,' Paz, azer, New Pers. zcr, Afy. lar, Kurd, z'lr, Tag. Oss. dala. Proihesis of i. § 34. Prothetic i is excessively rare in the Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects, on the other hand, it is quite common, especially before initial consonant-groups whose first component is a sibilant. a. Indian, Skt. strl ' woman,' Prak,, Pali itthi, thl, Gatha istri, colloquial Hindi istrl, astrl, Sindhi istn, Elu itiri, Simh, istri. VOWELS 21 b. Iranian. Av, spaefa '■ white/ Plil. spet, New Pers. siped, ispi'd, Zaf. soho, Kas, ashed, Kuhr. ashe, Sarq. spaid, Yidg. sp'i, Afy. spin, spem, Kurd, ispi, spi. Skt. srgdla 'jackal,' Phi., New Pers. saydl, Siy., Sarq. isJccd, Afy. caydl. Av. gaosa '■ ear,' Phi., New Pers. gos, Wax! yiis, yis, Afy. yvay, Bal. gos, Kurd. giih, Dig. Oss, yos, Tag. g'«i5, but Dig. iyosim 'to hear,' Tag. qusin. Skt. rt^a^ra ' limb,' Dig. Oss. ion, Tag. o«. [Hiibschmann considers the i in these cases to be original in the Oss., but he thinks that the Tag. dialect has lost the i, rather than that the Dig. shows a prothetic i.] I = t. § 35. Indo-Iranian % is generally preserved without change both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. In Assamese no character for % exists, i being written instead. Tlie Old Hindi often writes iy for i (Skt. jiva 'life,' Old Yiinda jiyava). The New Persian, as is well known, has confused in many words the majhul (' unknown [to the Arabs] ' = Persian somids) vowels e, o with the malrfif ('known [to the Arabs] ' = Arabic sounds) vowels I, u. The Judaeo-Persian and the Baluci, like the Indian pronunciation of New Persian, maintain clearly the original distinction between the majlml and the ma ]ruf vowels. a. Indian. Skt. jivita 'life,' Prak. jivla, Pali jlvifa. Skt. dJrgha ' long,' Prak. di}ia{ra), diggha, Pah dtglia, Sindlil drigho. b. Iranian. Skt. kstra ' milk,' Phi., New Pers. sir, Sir., Siy. sirln, Minj. xslr, Kurd, sir, Oss. axsir. Av. vtra ' understand- ing,' Phi. vir{a]c), New Pers. vlr, Gab. vJr, Bal. gJr, Kurd. Mr. % > a. § 36. The change of « to a is an excessively rare one. a. Indian. Skt. hhlsma ' terrible,' Pali hhasma, hhisma. Skt. pariksd 'test,' Bang, parahha, paraJchd'i, Hindi parahhdnd, paraTzhdiyd, Panj. paraJcJiavmh, paraJchandr, Sindhi pdrakhia, parJcJianu, Mar. parakhanem, pdrakJii. 22 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY I > i. § 37. The shortening of I is naturally the most common change to which I is subject. It occurs, however, with comparative infrequency in the Iranian dialects. For the principal conditions under which the change occure see above under § 25. a. Indian. Skt. tll'sna 'sharp,' Prak. tinha, tikJcha, Pali tmha, tUillia, tikliina, New Indian dialects ttJcJi, except Panj., Sindhi, Guj. tikh. Skt. Isvam ' lord,' Prak, tsara, Pali issara, Hindi, Panj. fs«r. Skt. alika '■ false,' Prak. alia, Pali alika. Skt. dvitlya 'second,' Prak dnia., Ur. diisra, Old Hindi diijci, Hindi diisara, Panj. du{j)d, Sindhi hljo, hid, Guj. hJjo, Mar. diisard. Skt. ga{m)hhira 'deep,' Prak. gahira, Pali ga{m)hh'ira, Ur. gahira, Hindi gahira, gahard, Sindhi gdhird. Skt. hila 'pin,' Pali Jc{h)lla, Ur. kild, Hindi Jcilld, Panj. kill, Sindhi kill, Mar. killd. Skt. klta 'worm,'Ur., Bang., Hindi, Panj. kldd, Sindhi kido, Guj. kldo. Mar. kidd, kid. Skt. sJrsa 'head,' Prak. sissa, sJsa, Pali slsa, Hindi, Panj. sJs, Sindlil sisi, Guj, sis, Mar. sJ{m)s, Simh. iha, isa, his, sis. Skt. klrti 'fame,' Prak., Pilli kitti Siihh. kit b. Iranian. Old P ers. jivdhy 'thou shalt live,' Phi. zivandak 'living,' New Pers. zindak. Skt. ksira ' milk,' Sir., §iy. sirin, Oss. axsir, etc. (see § 35). Skt. hlja 'seed,' Bal. hij. New Pers. kohl 'mountainous,' Kurd. kOvi. I > u. § 38. The change of I to u is excessively rare in the Indo- Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. jira ' cummin-seed, ' Simh. duru. Skt. jpm- vdsin ' sojourner,' Prak. pavdsu. b. Iranian. Av. nfizda 'reward,' Phi. muzd, Paz, wio^c?, New Pers. muzd, midd, Kurd., Oss. mizd. VOWELS 23 I > a. § 39. The change of l to a is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. tirasclna 'going sideways,' Pali tiracchana ' animal. ' I > e. § 40. The change from ^ to e is not very common in the Middle Indian dialects, while in the New Indian and in the Iranian dialects it is still more rare. a. Indian. Skt. JcJclrsa ' what kind ? ' Prak. Jicrisa, Apab. Prak. Jcelu, Sindlil Jceharo, heru. Skt. nlda ' nest, ' Prak. nedda, mda, Pali niddha, nila. Skt, grliltva 'having taken,' Pali gahetvd. Skt. hnda 'sport,' Pfili khela, Hindi kJielna, Gyp. VTvhel 'to dance,' Skt, hhima 'fearful,' Sirhh. hem. b. Iranian. Phi. ^j/r ' old, ' New Pers. jjZr, Judaeo-Pers. ^er, Bal. plruJc, N. Bal. pMruh I > 0. § 41. The change of ^ to o is very rare in the Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian, Skt. tlrtha ' landing-place,' Prak. tittha, tuha, Pali tittha, Sindhi tlrtJiu, Siihh. tofa. b. Iranian. New Pers. sinjir ' chain,' Waxi zanzlr, Siy, einsir, Sarq, zanzair, Bal. zamzil, Kurd, zanjor, zanjir. Apocope of I. § 42. The apocope of final l occurs in several New Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. garbhinl 'pregnant,' Hindi gdbhin, Panj. garahhan, Guj., Mar, gahhan, etc. (see § 25), u = u. § 43, Indo-Iranian u is in general retained unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. 24 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. chupati ' touches,' Prak, chupa'i, Pali chiqjati, Ur., Bang, chnm, Old Hindi c^mA, Hindi chii, Panj. c/m/i, Sindhi c//? a. § 44. The change of « to a is not uncommon in the Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects, on the other hand, it is com- paratively rare. a. Indian. Skt, pimar ' again,' Prak. pumi, pana (Shahbaz- garhi inscriptions). Pah pana. Skt, splmrati ' flashes,' Ptlli pharati. Skt, suruidga ' mine,' Pali suramga, Ur. sudamga, BDiarl, Hindi suranig, Sindhi sirimgh, Mar. suramg. Skt. karhura ' variegated,' Hindi kahard, kdhar, Panj, kahrd, Sindhi kuhiro, Guj, kdhar, Mar. kaJtard. Skt, durhala ' weak,' Prak,, Pali duhhala, Bang, diihld, Biharl duhard, duhar, Hindi diihld, Panj. dubhal, Smdhi duhiru, dahalo, Guj, duhal{d), Mar. duhal. b, Iranian, Av. yuvan 'youth,' Plil. ynvdn, New F ers. javdn, van, Maz. javdn, Afy., Bal. javdn. Skt. mukha ' face,' Afy. maa;. Av. ?ts^ra ' camel,' Phi. u§tr. New Pers. «ei?^?<»", Waxi ustilr. Sly. star, Bal. hustar, Kurd, hastir. Av. fZw/na 'tail,' Phi., New Pers. dum{h), Sarq. biim{hd), Afy. Zaw?, Bal. dim, Kurd, diiv, dunk, Dig. Oss. dumag, Tag, dimag. u > i. § 45, The change of u to i is not common either in the Indian or in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian, Skt. purusa ' man/ Prak. purisa, paiirisa, Pali VOWELS 25 purisa, cf. also Simh. pirimiyd^ Maladive JirimiJia, etc. (see § 43). Skt. kufumha 'family,' Pali Jmtimha. Skt. undura, undara 'rat,' Pali iindura, E. New Ind. dialects indilr, Mar. undir. Skt. valuJca 'sand,' Pali vdlukd, Ass., Ur., Bang, bctli, Hindi hdlu, Sindhi van, Guj. Idlu, Mar. vdluyd. Skt. 5^zt^i ' praise,' Prak. fJmi, Pali thnti, Simh. tiyu, tivu, tiiti. b. Iranian. Av. puQra ' son,' Old Pers. ptid^'a, Phi. piis{ar), New Pers. ^/Mr, pusar, pisar, Gab. ^wr, KaS. ^wr, pilr, Samn. plr, WaxI j)dfr, Siy. piic, Sarq. j;oc, Kurd. 2)isir, Dig. Oss. furtJi, Tag, ^r^/i. Av. ^W5aw ' they evacuated,' Plil. tuJi'ik '■ empty,' New Pers. UM, Gab. toJii, Judaeo-Pers. tuha, Bal. tusag, N. Bal. thusay. Av. Jima 'foundation,' Phi., New Pers. hun, Waxi hon, Siy. hon, Sarq. ?>mw, Bal. hund, Kurd, hin, hiin, Dig. Oss. hin, Tag. &iiz. Skt. stuti ' praise,' Dig. Oss. stud, Tag. s^id «t > a. § 46. Tlie change of «* to a is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. Widnuniati 'jugglery,' Mar. hhdndmatl. u > I. § 47. Tlie change of u to l is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. suxra ' red,' Old Pers. Buxra-, Plil. suxr, New Pers. siirx, Sir, sirali, Siv. 5fr, Yazdl surJcuh, Kuhr., Ka§. silr, WaxI soJcr, Siy. 5^ra/i, Afy. 5Mr, Bal. suhr, Kurd. 5or, Dig. Oss, surx, Tag, ^ira. Av. duma ' tail,' Bal. c?I>«, etc. (see § 44). zi > il. § 48. The lengthening of u in the Middle and New Indo- Iranian dialects is due in the majority of cases to compensation (cf. also §§ 5, 28). a. Indian. Skt. ufsava ' feast,' Prak. usava, Pali ussava. Skt. hula ' family,' Prak., Pali hula, Ur. hula, Sindhi hum, hidu, Guj. hul, Mar. hill, ^^i^^- Skt. musala 'pestle,' Prak. naisala, Pali musala, Bang, musal, Hindi musal. Skt. pura 'town,' Prak., Pali pura, Bihar, pur. Skt. samudra 'sea,' Prak. sa- 26 IN DO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY miidda, Pali samudda, muhudda, Simh, 7nuhiY?, Kurd, par, pir{d), purd. Ay. piidra 'son,' New Pers. pur, pusar, pisar, Gab. pur, Ka§. j?rtr, pur, etc. (see § 45). Av. suxra ' red,' Afy. sili', etc. (see preceding §). Kurd. tiirh 'turnip,' MukrI tiir. u > c. § 49. Tlie change of u to e is excessively rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. p{}i)upphusa 'lung,' Prak. phupplmsa, Pali pliapphdsa, Ur. pliamsopliamsa, phdmphdmi, Bang, phtmpara, phompasd, Hindi ph'phard, phPpJiard, Sindhi pliiphiru, Mar. plwpJs. b. Iranian. Av. savaite 'goes,' Old Pers. asiyavam, New Pers. kid, Waxi cauam, Siy. mfcam, Sarq. zavsam, Afy. sval, Bal. sut{u), N. Bal. suhd, suOa, Kurd, clan, Zaza se, Oss. aum. u > 0. § 50. The change of u to o is very rare in the Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects the confusion between the majJifd and the maWuf vowels must be borne in mind. Somewhat akin to the change of u to o is the change of ti to o in Waxi and to il m Sari- qoli, while the other New Persian dialects usually retain original u unchanged. a. Indian. Skt. muJctd ' pearl,' Prak. mottd, Pali muttd, Ur. moti, Bang. 7nuti, matt, Hindi, Panj., Sindhi, Guj., Mar. moti. Skt. idfdchala 'mortar,' Prak. Dhala, oWiala, n{l)ahala, Ur. tdchall, Mar. tdchal Skt. idled 'torch,' Prak. iikkd, Pilli okkd. Skt. ku.^tha ' leprosy,' Ass. kitth, Naip. kor, Ur. kodha, Bang. koth, E. Hindi, Hindi, Guj. kodh (cf. Skt. ku^thin ' leper,' Hindi kdri\ Mar. kd(l. Skt., Prdi kudddla 'hoe,' Ur. kord. Bang. ^-ofZa?, Sindlii kOrarl, Guj. koddro, Simh. udalu, uddlla. Skt. pustaka VOWELS 27 ' book/ Prak. pofthaa, Ptili j^otihaha, New Ind. dialects pOtha, potJil, Simh. 2^ota. b. Iranian. Av. ttsl ' understanding,' Phi. {h)ds, New Pers. hd§, Ms. Av. usah 'dawn,' Plil., New Pers. Jws. Av. pu6ra ' son,' Kas. pib% pilr^ Wax! potr, Sarq. poc, etc. (see § 45). Av. suxra ' red,' Kiilir., Kas. sur, WaxI soJcr, etc. (see § 47). Skt. yuga 'yoke,' New Pers. juy, Kuhr. yu, Siy. yuy, Sarq. «/wy, Kurd. jiik. Apliaeresis of u. § 51. The loss of initial ti is not uncommon in the New Indian dialects, although it occurs but rarely in the Middle Indian. In the Iranian dialects aphaeresis of u seems to have been preceded in the Middle Iranian by a change oi u to a (Old Pers. upariy ' above,' Plil. apm% Paz. aivar^ New Pers. {a)bar. Skt. upasthana ' assistance,' Phi. apastdn). a. Indian. Skt. udaJca, daka ' water,' Jaina Prak. daga^ Pali daka, oM, Simh. daga, daya, diya. Skt. upavisati 'sits down,' Pali upavisati, Ass. halic, Naip. hase, Kasm. Vhili, Ur., Bang. hase, E. Hindi, Hindi ha'ise, Sindhi hilie, Mar. Mise, vase. Skt., Pali udumhara 'fig-tree,' Ur. dumun, Bang, dumtir. Skt. upadliyaya 'teacher,' Prak. uajjJiaa, Pali iipajjhdya, Bihar! pddhd, Hindi Ojhd. b. Iranian. Av. upairi ' above,' Old Pers. upariy, Phi. apar, Paz. aivar, New Pers, {a)har, Waxi, Sarq. va?\ Afy. pre-, Bal. par, gvar, N. Bal. jy^tar, Kurd. &ar. Dig. Oss. vol. Tag. oZ. Av. ustra ' camel,' Phi. ^^str, New Pers. t(s^i(r, s?(^«fr, WaxI ilstiir, Siy. ^^wr, Bal. Jiustar, ustir. Syncope of u. § 52. Syncope of w is comparatively rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. duhitar 'daughter,' Prak. dhu{d)d, dM{d)d, Pali dhitd, Ur. jhia, Bang. jM, Hindi, Panj. dhi{yd), Sindhi dhiu, dhiy, Guj. dln{yd). b. Iranian. Av. daitjhurpaiti 'lord of the land,' New Pers. 28 JNDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY dihxan ' village-chief ' (cf. Armenian loan-word delipet from Av, daubhu-paiti). Axwcopc of u. § 53. The loss of final u occurs very frequently in the New Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt., Prak. taru ' tree/ Bihar! tar[u). Skt. hahu 'arm,' Apab. Mha., Pali haliu^ Ur., Bang, halm, Hindi, Panj. hamh, Sindhi hamh, Guj. hamhi, Mar. hamhi, haM, hahu. Prothesis of u. § 54. The prothesis of ti is very frequent in the Iranian dialects before initial consonant-groups. The phenomenon is not fomid in the Indian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. stiina '■ column/ Phi. siun, New Pers. sutun, ustun, My. stan, Kurd, {ijstun. Skt. stimra '■ firm,' New Pers. siturg, snturg, Yidg. ^{stilr, Afy. star, BaL istiir, Kurd, tisfilr, Dig. Oss. sthur, Tag. sfhir. Av. starj ' star/ Sangl. usturak, etc. (see § 14). Av. 5jji5 * louse,' New Pers. sujms, tisjnis, sjnis, etc. (see § 25). Epenthesis of u. § 55. The epenthesis of u is very rare. The Kasmlrl shows many cases of an inserted u after i in ?<-stems. a. Indian. Skt. nlla ' blue,' Kasm. nyula. Skt. drsfha ' seen,' Kasm. dyufhu. U — u. § 56. Indo-Iranian u is in general retained unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt., Prak. hhumi 'earth,' Pali hhiinii, hhiimmi, Ur. hJiuma, Bang, hhilm, Hindi, Panj. hhilm, hhulm, hhim, Sindhi hhl{i)h), Guj. hhu{y), hhoy, Mar. hkmj, Simh. hima. b. Iranian. Av. hilmi ' earth,' Phi., New Pers. hiim. Av., Old Pers. dura ' far,' Plil., New Pers. di'ir, Gab. dJr, Maz. dlr, Gil. dur, Wax! Ur, Siy., Sarq. bar, Yidg. luro, Af/. Itrl, Kurd. dur. VOWELS 29 u > a. § 57. The change of ti to a is not frequent either in the Indian or in the Iranian dialects, excepting in the Afyan, when u often becomes a before nasals or r. a. Indian. Skt. duhiila 'silken robe,' Prak. dudlla, duiila, Jaina Prak. dugtdla, Pali dulifda. Skt. hhrumnkha ' eyebrow,' Jaina Prak. hJiatnuha, Pali hhanmha (cf. also Pali hJiamu ' eye- brow'), Gyp. phov. [See now Pischel, Gr. d. Prdk.-Spr., §§ 206, 261.] b. Iranian. Skt. stliura ' large,' New Pers. siturg, suturg, Yidg. tishlr, Afy. star, Bal. istur, Kurd, ustilr, Dig. Oss. sthur, Tag. sthir. Skt. nmiam ' now,' Av. nuram, Phi., New Pers. nun, oiy. nur, Sarq. wwr, Afy. nan, Bal. wtlw. M > i. § 58. The change of t^ to i is very rare in the Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. miilga 'price,' Ur. tnilla, Guj., Mar. mol, Siihh. mila. Skt. silrya ' sun,' Prak. sujja, suria, Pali suriija, Hindi, Panj. suraj, Sindhi surju, suriju, Guj. suraj, silr, Sirhli. {h)iriL b. Iranian. Skt. mus ' mouse,' New Pers. mus, Gab. musk, Samn. mm, Afy. maya(Z;), Bal. w^^s/^, N. Bal. mmk, Kurd. mis{i)Jc, Dig. Oss. mista. Tag. wisf. w > w. § 59. The shortening of m to m is the most frequent change to which u is subject in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. It occurs especially before double consonants or consonant-groups (cf. §§ 16, 37). In Assamese u is always written u. a. Indian. Skt. mulija 'price,' Prak. mulla, molla, Kasin. mol (but middi ' radically '), Ur. miila, Bang., Hindi mol, Panj. tnull, Sindhi midhu. Mar. mol. Skt. turya ' musical instrument,* Prak. tiira, Jaina Prak. tudiya, Pali turiya, Ur, tun. Bang. turum, Hindi tun, turaJil, Panj. turam, Sindlil, Guj. tun. Skt. 30 JNDO-IRANJAN PHONOLOGY scdfika ' root of the water-lily/ Pali saluka. Skt. ciirna ' dust,' Prak., Pali cinpia, Kasm. cun, Ur. curd, Bang, cur, Hindi cura, Panj, cur, Sindhi curd, Guj. curd. Mar. cur, also Ur., Bang, cund, Hindi cund, Panj. cund, cum, Sindlil cunu, Guj. cuno, Mar. cund. Skt. lupa ' well,' Naip. Z;2(m, Kasm. Jcliuli, Ur., Bang, fcilia, Bihari, Hindi, Panj. Jcfi{>h)dm, Sindhi kJitihu, Guj., Mar. Icuvo. Skt. dhtlma 'smoke,' Prak., Pilli dhuma. Ass. dlmhd, Naip. dhudm, Kasm. duh, Ur. dhfohd, Bang, dhuydm, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. dhii{m)dm, Sindlii dhumhdni, Guj., Mar. dlmm, Simh. f?««>«, G}^). //m<7^a * goat,' PhL huj, New Pers. &?<5', huj, WaxI hue, hiic, Siy., Sarq. va^, Sangl. vu;s, Minj. vu^a. Av. (7M5a * excrement,' Phi., New Pers. guh, ELaS. gus, Wax! gU, g% §iy. yaQ, Yayn. yf(f{ah), Afy. y^ d. § 60. The change of u to d is an excessively rare one. a. Indian. Skt. masuraka ' pillow,' Pali masdraka. u > l. § 61. Tlie change of ii to I is very rare in the Indian dialects, but in the Iranian dialects it is not uncommon. a. Indian. Skt. hahurilpa ' juggler,' Mar. hhurapi, h{h)drJp. b. Iranian. Av., Old Pers. dura 'far,' Gab. d'lr, Maz. dJr, Waxi blr, Afy. llri, liri, etc. (see § 56). Skt. dhuma ' smoke,' Phi. duf. New Pers. dud, WaxI bit, Siy. bud, Sarq. biif. My. lu, Bal. diit, d'd, N. Bal. dlO, Kurd. du. New Pers. hudand ' they were,' Tat h'lrund. Kurd, harlk ' pocket ' beside haruk. VOWELS 31 ti > e. § 62. Tlio change of il to c is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. nUpura ' anklet,' Prak. neura, neura, niura, Pali mlpura, Ur. nvpiira, nfq)ura, Sindlil nurd, Guj., Mar. nepur. Skt. pHrva '■ former,' Prak. puvva, Saur. Prak. purava, New Ind. dialects purha, except Hindi purab, Sindhi purbti, Simh. pera. b. Iranian. Av. sUka '■ needle,' Phi. siican, Paz. suzan, sozan, New Pers. sozan, Gab. sajan, Kas., Zaf. sozo, Waxi sic, Sarq, 5«c, Bal. sucin, slcin, N. Bal. sisij*, slsan, sisin, sesln, Kurd. silmi. ■il > 0. § 63. Tliis change, like the one preceding, is a very rare one. a. Indian. Skt. ilrja ' strength,' Pali oja. Skt. tambula 'betel,' Prak. tanibola, Pali tamhtlla, Ur. tamhola, Guj. tamhitl, Mar. tamhul, cf. also Bang, tanibuli ' betel-seller,' Hindi tdmholl, Panj. tamholi, Guj. taniboll, Mar, tdinboU. ii > yah. § 64. The interchange of u and f/fl^^ occurs only finally. It is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. New Pers. mlu 'leech,' Siy., Sarq. mlyah, Afy. zavara, Bal. zardy, Kurd. zalu{g), zulul, sun. u > va. § 65. The change of u to va seems to occur only initially. It is extremely uncommon. a. Indian. Skt. unavimsati 'nineteen,' Prak. ilnavisa'i, 'Ka.sm. kunavuh, Ur. undisa, Bang, unis, Biharl Ona'is, vana'is, Hindi wiis, Panj. unnlh. § 66. Indo-Iranian r, which is represented by r in Old Indian, by drd in Avestan, and by ar in Old Persian, has been changed in 32 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects to a, f, w, o, or into r (sometimes 1} preceded or followed by a, i, u. The quality of the vowel in the various developments here considered is generally determined by the character of the consonants which stand near the original r. Thus the usual change of r is to a(r), ra, but labials often colour the vowel to u{r), and sibilants colour it to i{r). In the Indian Gfitha dialect r is regularly retained unchanged, and in Apabhramsa Pralcrit r often remains. a. Indian. Skt. sulcrta ' well done,' Apab. Prak. suJirdu, snhi{d)u. Skt. trna ' grass,' Apab. Prak. trnu, tanu, tinu, Bang, tinakd, tilaJcd, Hindi tinaJcd, Panj. tin, Sindhi till, Mar. tan, Simh. tana. r > ar. § 67. Tlie change of r to ar is quite rare in the Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects, on the contrary, it is quite frequent. a. Indian. Skt, grha ' house ' (also geha), Prak. geha, Apab. Prak. gharu, Pali ghara, gaha, geha, Kasm. gahar, gar, Old Hindi geha, New Ind. dialects ghar, excepting Mar. geh, Simh. ge, geya. Gyp. hher, hyel. b. Iranian. Av. apdrandyu * boy,' Phi. apurndyah. New Pers. harnd, hurnd. Av. Jcoroma 'worm,' Phi. Jcarm, New Pers. Jcirm, Sarq. carm, Kurd, harm, Jcurum, Dig. Oss. Ichalmitha, Tag. khalm. Av. arasa 'bear,' PhL, New Pers. xirs, Maz. as, Siy. yurs, Sarq. ym'x, Yidg. yars, Afy. yai, Kurd, virc, hirs, hire, ZsLza xec, Oss, ars. Av. zjrocaya ' heart,' Phi., New Pers. dil, Maz. zilah, Gil. z'd, Siy. zrdh, zrdy, Sarq. zdrd, Sangl. uzray, Minj. zU, Afy. zra, Bal. sirde, Kurd, zar, Oss. zarda. Av. sarota ' cold,' Phi. sart. New Pers. sard. Gab. sart, WaxI sUriJ), Afy. sor, Bal. sard, N. Bal. 5dr^A, Kurd, sdr, Oss. saZd r > a. § 68, The change of r to « is very common in the Middle and New Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects, on the other hand, it is extremely rare. VOWELS 33 a. Indican. Skt. vrddha ' large,' Prak. vaddha, viddha, viiddha, Pali vaddha, viddha, huddha, viiddha, Ass. bar, Naip. hard, Kasm. hor, hod, Ur., Bang, hada, E. Hindi hard, hard, haddd, Hindi hadd, Panj. vaddd, W. Panj. haddd, Sindhl vado, Guj. vado, Gyp. haro, but Skt. vrddha ' old,' Ur. hurhd, hildi, Bang. 6«(f7a, Hindi huddha, hfidhd, Panj. hiidhd, Sindhl hiidho, hudho, Guj. hurhd. Skt. vrsabha ' bull,' Prak. vasaha, Saur. Prak. vusaha, Pali vasahha. Skt. (/r/^a 'house,' Pali ^a^a, ghara, geha, etc. (see preceding §). Skt, mrttiJcd ' earth,' Prak. mattid, Pali maftiJcd, Naip. mdmto, Kasm. w^ic, Ur., Bang. w^a^T, Hindi, Panj. maftJ, miftJ, mdfJ, Sindhl w^.^^, Guj. ?natfl, mittl, mdti, Mar. w?a^*. Skt. mrta 'dead,' Prak. maa, nma, Mag. Prak. made, Ur. mala, Hindi mud, Panj. muia, Sindhi muo, Guj. miivmh, Mar. meUm, Simh. wm?a. Gyp. W2M?o. b. Iranian. Skt. prdahu ' leopard,' New Pers. pilang, palang, Afy. prdng. r > ra. § 69. The change of r to ra is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. vrlcsa 'tree,' Prak. vracha {inscriptions of Girnar), ridikha, riccha, riJcJcha, Pali rukhha, Ur. rilkha, Hindi hrich, Mar. rUkh, Simh. ruh, rih. Gyp. ruh [According to Pischel § 320 Prak. rukkha (and its New Ind. derivatives) is derived from Skt. ruJcsa, not vrksa.] r > ir. § 70. This change, like the one discussed in the preceding section, occurs very rarely. a. Indian. Skt. ff^;/; 'brahmanical priest,' Pali mft;y a. Skt. vrsa ' Taurus ' (in the Zodiac), Pali vusa, Sindhi virJchu. b. Iranian. Av. Jcdrdma 'worm,' New Pers. Jcirm, etc. (see §67). r > i. § 71. The change of r to i occurs with great frequency both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. 34 IXDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. Jcrta • done,' Prak. (Shahbfizgarhi inscrip- tions), Jcita, Mag. Prak. Jaidc, Mahar. Prak. Icaya, Pais. Prak. kafa, Ardhamag., Avant., Sak. Prak. JcaJa, Apab. Prak. Jcidu, Pali kata, kaia, Biharl kail, kail, kayal, Old Hindi kiiya, Sindhi kid. Skt. kr^Mvia ' wretched,' Apab. Prak. kivanu. Skt. mrga 'deer,' Pali niiga, maga (cf. Skt. mrdatdka 'having a deer-sign, moon,' Prak, miarhka). Skt. rsi ' sage,' Prak. isi, 7'isi, Pali isi, Simh. rusi, Gyp. rasdy. Skt. grdlira 'vidture,' 6aur. Prak. giddha, Pali giddha, gijjha, gaddha. Bang, gidh, BiharT gJdh, gidlivd, Hindi giddh, gidh, Panj. giddh, Sindhl gijh, Guj., Mar. gidharli, gid{li). Skt. ghrta ' melted butter,' Prak. gliaya, Pali ghata, Ur. ghia, Bang. gJii, Hindi, Panj. gJu, ghin, Sindhl gihu, Guj., Mar. ghi, Gyp. khil, Anglo-Ind. ghee. Skt. srtdga 'horn,' Prak. simga, samga, Pali simga, Ur. simgd. Bang. 6'i)»(jf, Hindi sm^, Panj. simg, Sindhl sifdu, Guj., Mar. simg. Gyp. s?«^. Skt. hrdaya ' heart,' Prak. Jiia{y)a, Pais. Prak. liitaaka, Pali Jiadaya, Ass., Ur., Biharl Aia, Hindi /w'ya, Panj. hiydm, liidum, Sindhl Jiimdmu, Mar. liiyyd, Jiiyem, Gyp. (y)iZo. Skt. prsijia 'back,' ^vs^. pattjii, piWii, pidthi, Jaina Prak., PaU ^?ff/«', Ur. ^;I//ta, pithi, Bang., Hindi pith, Panj. i?i^^^, puttli, Sindhl putht, Guj. ^^f^, ^M.#^, Mar. pdth, putlid, Simh. i^ifa. Gyp. piisto. Skt. ^r5wa 'thirst,' Prak. tanhd, Pali ianlid, tinlid, tasind, Hindi tirakkhd, tinakhd, Panj. ^i/ia, Sindhl fill, lihd'i. Mar. tahdn. b. Iranian, Av. tarsna ' thirst,' Phi. ^is«. New Pers. tis, Waxi tax{i), Siyn. ^a^wa, Sarq. tufi^), Yidg. trusna, Afy. toiai, Bal. tunnag, tiinag, N. Bal. fAz ri. § 72. The change of r to ri occurs only initially, and only in semitatsamas or tatsamas in the New Indian dialects. Tlie phe- nomenon is not infrequent in Hindi and Panjabi ; Sindhi and VOWELS 35 Gujarati show fewer examples of it, and it is very uncommon in Uriya, Bangall, and Marathl. a. Indian. Skt. rddha ' prosperity,' Prak. riddJii, iddhi, Pali iddlii. Skt. rlcsa 'bear,' Prak. riJcJcJia, rkcJia, Pali ilcka, accha, is{s)a, Ur. (rare) richa, Biharl rich, rlM, Hindi rich, Panj. ricch, Sindhi richu, Giij. rich, Mar. rts. Skt. grhastha ' householder,' Hindi grihastha, Panj. g{a)risaU, Sindhi grihastu, Guj. grastha. r > ur. § 73. The change of r to ur is frequent only in Pahlavi and New Persian. Elsewhere it is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. Tjdrdsa 'high,' Phi., New Pers. hurz, Kurd. harz, Oss. harzond. Av. pgrdna ' full,' Phi., New Pers. jpur. A v. pdrDsahi 'thou askest,' Old Pers, patiparsahy. Phi. pursl- tano, New Pers. purstdan, WaxI, Sarq. porsam, Afy. pust, Kurd, pirsin, Dig. Oss. farsun, Tag. farsin. Av. mdrdya ' bird,' Phi. nmry, murv, New Pers. mury, Maz. vnary, Afy. marya, Kurd. mrisJc, Oss. mary. f > u. § 74. The change of r to w is very common both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. As has been noted in § 66, r becomes u especially in the vicinity of labials. a. Indian. Skt. prthivl 'earth,' Prak. piidhcm, piihuvl, pu- havi, Pali patJiavl, pathavJ, pidhuvi, puthavl. Old 'RmdH puhumi. Skt. mrnala 'lotus-fibre,' Prak. mundia, Pali mulala. Skt. rtu ' season,' Prak. u{d)'ii, riu, Pali idu, Sindhi ruti, Guj. rid{u). Mar. ridfi. Skt. vrsH ' rain,' Prak. mdihl, vittM, Pali vutthi. Skt. vrddha ' old,' Ur. hurhd, hfuU, Bang, hudd, Hindi htidcJJid, htidhd, Panj. hiidlid, Sindhi hudho, Imdho, Guj. hurho (cf. § 68). b. Iranian. Av. parsti ' back,' Phi., New Pers. prist, Waxi part, Maz. past, N. Bal. phut, Kurd, pnst, Zaza past. Av. kdrdnaoiti ' makes,' Paz. liunom. New Pers. Imnad, Gil. huclan, Jcardan, Waxi caram, Siy. kinam, Sarq. kanam, Bal. kanag, N. Bal. khanay, Kurd, kirin. Dig. Oss. kJianun, Tag. khanin (cf. D 2 36 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY also Skt. akrnavam ' I did,' Old Pers. aJcunavam ; Skt. akrnot * did/ Old Pers. ahunaus, as well as Av. Jcjrota ' done,' Bal. hit, N. Bal. hhuea). Av. vordhha ' kidney,' Phi. gurtak, New Pers. giirdah, Waxi i'a?A;, Bal. gidtiy. Av. fratjrdsaiti ' fears,' Phi. farsifano, My. tarliedal, Bal. triisag, tursay, N. Bal. thursay, Kurd, tirsin, Dig. Oss. tharsun, Tag. tharsin. [Somewhat similar to r > m is r > 6 before sibilants in Waxi, e. g. Av. Jcarsfa * ploughed,' Waxi Z;o5^.] r > ru. § 75. The change of r to rit occurs but rarely, and like the change of r to ri (cf. § 72) it is found only initially. a. Indian. Skt. vrJcsa ' tree,' Prak. niJckJia, rlJckha, ricclia, vracha, Pali rukJcha, Ur. riiJcha, Mar. riikh, Siiiih. r^tZ/•, riZ;, Gyp. ruk, etc. (see § 69). r > a. § 76. The change of r to a is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. j)rstha 'back,' Mar. path, imtha, etc. (see § 71). Skt. lirsi ' agriculture,' Pali Jcasi, Ur. cdsa, tiisa, Bang. cds. r > t. § 77. The change of r to i is found very rarely. a. Indian. Skt. prstha ' back,' Ur. pitha, irltlii, Bang., Hindi pith, etc. (see § 71). b. Iranian. Av. parsti ' back,' Kurd, plst, pist, etc. (see § 74). r > e. § 78. The change of r to I is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. grha ' house ' beside geha, Prak. geha, Pali geha, ghara, gaha, Old Hindi geha, Mar. geh, Simh. ge, geya, Gyp. hher, Jcyel, etc. (see § 67). b. Iranian. Av. var.ysa ' forest,' Phi. vesaJc, New Pers. hesah, Kas. visa, Maz., Tal. vise, Kurd. visa. r > 0. § 79. The change of r to o, like the other developments of VOWELS 37 Indo-Iranian r considered in the sections immediately preceding, occurs but seldom. a. Indian. Skt. mrsd '■ falsely,' Prak. mosa, musa, Pali musa (in like manner Skt. mrsavadin ' lying/ Prak. mosavda, musdvda, Pali musdvddin). r > al. § 80. In the Indian dialects r becomes al apparently only in the Magadlil Prakrit. The Iranian dialects show a few examples of a development of al from an original r. ■ a. Indian. Skt. Jcrtvd 'having done,' Prak. Jcarid, Mag. Prak. Jialid, Bihari Z:a(r)i, Hindi kar{i). Skt. dhrta 'held,' Prak. dharia, Mag. Prak. dJialide, Bihari dha'il, dhdil, dhaijal (in this word the Mag. I has been elided, wliile the Mag. d has become I as in all Bihari perfect participles). b. Iranian. Av. vdrdhka ' kidney,' Waxi vaTk, etc. (see § 74). Av. vardTia 'leaf,' Phi. varg, New Pers. l>arg, Gab. varah, Ka§. valg, Maz. varaJc, Gil. valg, valk, Judaeo-Pers., Kurd. valg. r > r. § 81. The change of r to r seems to occur only after t and before vowels, and it is apparently confined to the Sindhi. a. Indian. Skt. jdmdtrha ' son-in-law,' Prak. jdjudiia, Sindhi Jdtro. Skt. mdfrJca 'maternal micle,' Prak. mdila, Sindhi mdtre. § 82. Numerous examples may be cited where Indo-Iranian r develops into different vowels in the same word in the same period and dialect. a. Indian. Skt. trna ' grass,' Apab. Prak. trmi, tami, timi, etc. (see § 66). Skt. grim ' house,' Pali ghara, gaha, geha, etc. (see § 67). Skt. mrtWid ' earth,' Hindi, Panj., Guj. tnattl, mdti, mitti, etc. (see § 68). Skt. vrnta ' stem of a flower,' Prak. vinta, venta, vonta, Pali vanta. Skt. rsi ' sage,' Prak. isi, risi, etc. (see § 71). Skt. 2)rstJia ' back,' Prak. paffhi, 2nttjd, pidjki, Panj. pitth, putth, Guj. pith, puth, Mar. pdth, pidjia, etc. (see § 71). 38 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Skt. trsnd ' tliirst,' Pali ilnha, tanhct, tasind, etc. (see § 71). Skt mrsd * falsely,' Prak. mosd, nmsd, musd, etc. (see § 79). b. Iranian. Av. apdrdndyii 'boy,' New Pers. harnd, hirnd, etc. (see § 67). Av. hdrdma ' worm,' Kurd, harm, Jcurum, etc. (see § 67). Skt. ])rdahu ' leopard,' New Pers. inlang, imlang, etc. (see § 68). Av. hdrdnaoiti '■ makes,' Gil. Jcudan, Jcardan, etc. (see § 74). The great variety of changes undergone by Indo-Iranian r in the various Indo-Iranian dialects is obvious. Thus the r of Skt. mrttiJca ' earth ' > a, i, a ; the r of Skt. grha ' house ' > a, e; of Skt. vrddlia ' large ' > a, w, o ; of Skt. prdha ' back ' > a, i, u, a, I ; of Skt. mrsd ' falsely ' > ««, m, o. In hke manner the r of Av. pdrdsahi ' thou askest ' > a, i, u, 6 ; and of Av. i)arsti ' back ' > a, i, M, i § 83. Indo-Iranian f, arising from Indo-Germanic f, Z, stands in Indian in ablaut with ^r, wr (before consonants), ir, iir (before vowels), ari, rd (Wackernagel, AUind. Gramm., i. 22-30; Hirt, Indogerm. Ahlaut, 48-49, 54-55, 60, 70-71, 76 sqq.). In Iranian the Indo-Iranian f is represented by ar (Bartholomae, Grundr. der iran. Philol., i. 25). The Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects liave in general retained without change the old representations of Indo-Iranian f. a.-b. Indo-Iranian. Skt. tirtlia ' across,' Prak. tittha, fuha, Pali tittha ; Wax! tiirt Skt. urmi ' wave ' ; Av. vardmi, Sarq. varm, Bal. gvarm. Skt. dirglia ' long,' Prak, diraha, dlha, diggha, PaU dlgJia, Sindhi drigho ; Av. dardya, Old Pers. darga, New Pers. dirdz, Afy. Idrya, Bal. drdj, N. Bal. drdz, Kurd. dirU, Zaza (?ar^, Oss. rZary. § 84. Indo-Germanic I is lost entirely in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects, and it disappeared from the Iranian dialects VOWELS 39 in the pre-Iranian period. In Old Indian I is very rare. The developments of I in Middle Indian were analogous to those of r. a. Indian. Skt. klpfa ' done/ Prak, kilitta, Pali happifa. e = e. § 85. Indo-Iranian e is in general retained unchanged in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. In the Middle and New Indian dialects e is long only before vowels and single consonants. Before consonant- groups it is to be regarded as short. In Assamese e is invariably short. Skt. deva ' god,' Prak. dm, Pali deva, Kasm. day, Ur., Bang. de, Hindi deo, deu, Panj., Sindhi deu. Gyp. devel, del Skt. prema 'love,' Prak. pemma, Pali pema, New Indian dialects 2){r)em. b. Iranian. The confusion in New Persian of the majJiul e with the malrilf I has been noted above, § 35. Tlie Caspian dialects also show this confusion, while the Judaeo-Persian, in common with several other Eastern Persian dialects, preserves carefully the distinction between e and f, Av. daeva ' demon,' Phi, New Pers. dev, Waxi liv, Siy. hiv, Sarq. hev. Av. haca '■ from ' + ahairi ' beneath,' Phi. a^er, Paz. azer, New Pers. zir, Siv. si, Zaf. ^er, other Central dialects jir, Samm. jer, Tal. jiar, Judaeo-Pers. zer, Kurd. zlr. Av. vaeti * willow,' Phi. vet. New Pers. hed, Pamir dialects vid. Gab. vid. Siv. VI, Zaf., Kas. ve. Von. vid, Kuhr. vet, Nat. vJd, Afy. vala, N. Bal. ged, Kurd, vi, bi{h). e > a. § 86. The change of c to a is not frequent. In Western Bangali, however, several instances of a are foimd where the Eastern Bangali keeps the original e unchanged (e. g. Skt. eJca ' one,' E. Bang. eJia, W. Bang. «/t). a. Indian. Skt. mleccha ' barbarian,' Prak. milicclm, Pali milalcklm. Skt. ekddasa ' eleven,' Prak. earalia, Pali eJcadasa, 40 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY eJcarasa, Kasm. Tcah, Ur., Bang, egara, Bihari egyarah, Hindi igarali, gijdrah, Panj. gidrdm, Sindhi iJcdraJiani, yaraham, Guj. agidr, Mar. alcard. b. Iranian. Av. vaeti ' willow,' Afy. vala, etc. (see pre- ceding §). Av. aesma 'fuel,' Phi. {h)emm, Paz., New Pers. hemtn, Gab. i^w^a, Kas., Kulir. {li)cmm, Kui'd. Iiazang. e > i. § 87. The change of e to i is found both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. In the Indian dialects the change occurs more frequently in the West than in the East. Among the Iranian dialects the Ossetish regularly develops i from e before n. a. Indian. Skt. vedand 'pain,' Prak. viand, veand, Pali vcdand. Skt. devara ' brother-in-law,' Prak. diara, devara, Pah devara, Ur. deyura, Bang., Hindi, Panj. devar, dcyar, Sindhi deru, Guj. deur, der, Mar. devar, deyar. Skt. eJcddasa 'eleven,* Hindi igdrah, gydrah, Sindhi ilMraham, ydraham, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. j)rativesalia 'neighbouring,' Vali ])ativissaha. b. Iranian. Av. daeza 'garden,' Old Pers. TrapdJSettro?, Phi. diz, New Pers. diz, dis, dtz. Phi. mehmdn ' guest,' New Pers. melimdn, mihmdn, Afy. melma, Kurd, mevdn. Old Pers. naiha 'good,' Phi. nev{ah), New Pers. ?ie]c{d), niJco. Av. axsama 'green,' Phi., New Pers. xasln, Siy. soin, Sarq. xoin, Yidg, axsln, Afy. xm, §m, Kurd. {ha)sTn, Oss. axsinag. Skt. jphena ' foam,' Dig. Oss. finkha, Tag. JinJch. e > a. § 88. The change of e to a is excessively rare, a. Indian. Skt. Jceyura ' bracelet,' Pali hdyura. e > I. § 89. The change of e to « is rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects, excepting in Pazand and New Persian, where e becomes I regularly before a nasaL a. Indian. Skt. tnegha 'cloud,' Prak. meha, Pais. Prak. VOWELS 41 meJcha, Pali mcglia, Hindi mimli, memli, Panj. miniJi, nuham, Siiidhi mlmlm. b. Iranian. Av. vaena 'nose,' Phi. venlk, hemic, Paz. vin% New Pers. blm, Samn. vlni, Maz. vem, Tal. vim, Kurd, heriy hivil, E. Kurd, haval. Av. axsaena 'blue,' Phi, New Pers. xasm, Yidg. axsln, Afy. icew, ^m^, Kurd. {Jta)stn, etc. (see § 87). Av. daeman 'glance,' Phi. andemanJcar, Paz. andmiam, New Pers. dmi, Sir., Zaf., Kas. dffw, Kuhr. dim, dum, Afy. Zew?a, Bal. dem, N. Bal. de{m)v, Kurd. c?ew?. Av. spaeta ' white,' Phi. 5/;e^, New Pers. si]aed, sa2)ed, isped, Zaf. 5o65, Kas. ashed, Kuhr. ashe, Sarq. spaid [ai of secondary development, cf. New Pers. der 'long,' Sarq. loan-word dair), Yidg. sjn, Kurd. sipt. Av. accTa 'ice,' Paz. yah. New Pers. ^a^', WaxI, Siy. yax, Yidg. ^^.r, Yayn. tx, Dig. Oss. ?/a^', Tag. ix. Av. /^ae^w ' bridge,' Dig. Oss. xed. Tag. xul e > 0. § 90. The change of e to o is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. vestana ' crown,' Pali vetJiana, Simh. votunu, New Siriili. otimna. e > ai. § 91. Tlie change of e to a i is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. x^aeda ' sweat,' Phi. x^ai, New Pers. x^ai, WaxI xil, Sarq. xaib, Afy. ^ZJ^'aZe, Bal. ZtetZ, N. Bal. Mb, Kurd. a;M, xoi, xoJi, Oss. it^ad § 92. The change oi e to y is very rare and it occurs only initially. (Tliis y is probably really prothetic.) a. Sanskrit eJca ' one,' Prak. eJcka, Pali eka, Kasm. akh, Ur., Bang, eka, W. Bang, ak, Biharl yak, ek. Old Hindi ik{k), Hindi ek, Panj. ik, Sindhi hikii, {Ji)ekii, hikldo, hekido, Guj. ek, dik, Mar. ek, yek. Gyp. yck, yekh. b. Iranian. Av. aeva ' one,' Old Pers. aiva. Phi. ev{ak), Paz., New Pers. ya/;, Von. yav, iki, Kuhr. ?/, *, ik, WaxI «(t;), Siy. «/««', 42 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY yi, yu, yii, Sarq. iv, I, Sangl. vak, Minj. yao, Afy. yav, Bal. eyok, Kurd, ^yt^, Dig. Oss. i/ait, Tag. «/m. Av. acxa ' ice,' Paz. ?/a^, New Pers., WaxT, Siy. ?/aa;, Yidg. yux, Dig. Oss. 2/^-^, etc. (see § 89). Aphacresis of e. § 93. The loss of initial e occurs with extreme rarity. a. Indian. Skt, eranda ' castor-oil tree,' Hindi remdl. Ajyocope of e. § 94. Final e is lost in the New Indian dialects in the majority of instances. a. Indian. Skt. talc 'beneath,' Ur. tal{f^, Hindi tale, Guj., Mar. tal, tal. Skt. sardge ' with,' Ur. samge, Hindi, Panj. samn, Sindhi sani, Guj. samn, Mar. samgmi. The multiform changes to which a final e is subject in the New Indian dialects may be well illustrated from the modern repre- sentatives of Old Indian *pasce for the Sanskrit pascat ' after.' Skt. *pasce ' after,' Apab. Prak. pacchai, Ur. pache, pachu, Bang, piche, pacche, Hindi pachc, piclie, pachu, Panj. piche, pichom, Sindhi poe, puqm, Guj. pache, pacht, pacho. at = at. § 95. Indo-Iranian di has been lost in the Indo-Iranian dia- lects. The few cases in the Iranian dialects in which ai is appar- ently retained show in reality a change of ai to ay (cf. § 108). b. Iranian. A v. rdi ' radiance,' New Pers. ray. [New Pers. ray is, however, to be compared rather with Av. gen. sg. *m?/o.] di > ai. § 96. The change of di to ai occurs very rarely. a. Indian. Skt. sdinya 'soldier,' Prak. sainna, senna, Pali seniya. VOWELS 43 di > t, § 97. The change of di to I is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. dhairya 'firmness,' Prak. dlnra, dhijja, Ur., Sindhi, Guj., Mar. dhir. di > e. § 98. The change of rti to e is the normal one to which di is subject in the Middle and New Indian dialects, where it is found very frequently. a. Indian. Skt. sdila 'hill,' Prak., Pali sela. Skt. Tcdivarta 'fisherman,' Prak., Pali Jcevaffa, Hindi Jcevat. Skt. toila 'oil,' Prak., Pali telJa, New Ind. dialects tel. Skt. gdirika 'red chalk/ Pali gcriJca, Ur. gfru, Hindi genJ, Guj. geru, Mar. gerii. 0=0. § 99. Indo-Iranian o is in general preserved unchanged in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. In Assamese o, although it is retained in the script, is pronounced u. The New Persian presents the same confusion of the majhid o and the ma]ruf u which has already been observed in the case of e and t (see §§ 35, 85). The Judaeo-Persian, like the majority of the East Iranian dialects, observes carefully the distinction between o and tl (cf. § 85). a. Indian. Skt. hlwjana 'food,' Prak. hlwana, Pali hJiojana. Skt. yoJctra 'yoke,' Pali yotta, Ur., Bang., Hindi, Panj. jot, Sindhi joto, Guj. jotar, Mar. jot. b. Iranian. Av. raocah ' day,' Old Pers. raticaJi, Plil. roc. New Pers. ros, Gab. riij, Caspian dialects nl, excepting Kas. rU, Tal. ro^, riU, WaxI rmij, Afy. rvaj, Bal. 7vc, N. Bal. ros, Kurd. n«i, >-o(i). Av. gaosa ' ear,' Old Pers. gausa, Phi., New Pers. gos, Sir., Bahb. giis, Nay. gus, WaxI yiis, yis, Siyn. yii^, Sarq. ymd {au of secondary development), Yidg. ytl, Afy. yvaiy, Bal. gos, Kurd, gilh, Dig. Oss. yos, Tag. qus. Av. baoibi ' perfume,' Phi. bodf boi, New Pers. bd{i), Wax! vul, Sarq. bao, Yayn. «;w(?, 44 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Bal. hocl^ N. Bal. hub, hoz, Oss. hud. Av. raola ' face/ Phi. rod, New Pers. ro(i), Judaeo-Pers. rdi. > au. § 100. The change of o to ati is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. saoJcjntavant 'sulphurous,' Paz, saivagand. New Pers. saugand. 6 > a. § 101. The change of o to a is not common either in the Indian or in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. godhnma ' wheat/ Apab. Prak. gohumu, Pali godhfwta. Ass. glicmliu, Naip. gahum, Ur. gahama, gama. Bang. gom, gam, Biharl golmm, Hindi gd{m)hum, gehum, gheuni, Panj. gJicuni, Sindhi gehum, Guj. gliafm, Gyp. giv. b. Iranian. Av. saocayahl ' shalt burn/ Phi. soxtano, socinl- tano. New Pers. soxtan. Gab. sajan, Maz., Gil. Vsiij, Sarq. sau;s, Afy. semi, sejal, Bal. sucag, N. Bal. 5wmy (intrans.), Bal. socag, N. Bal. so,?ay (trans.), Kurd, satin, Dig. Oss. 5oj2/», Tag. siljin. Av, sraoni 'loin,' Plil. sarilJc, sarin, New Pers. saron, surin, WaxI sunj, Sly. saun, Sarq. xaim, Bal. sarcn. New Pers. j^;o-? 'parts about the nose,' Gab. puz, Sangl. fuzih, Minj. fosJca, Afy. ^o^-a, paza, Bal, jpo(w)^, N, Bal, phoniz, Kurd, ^m^, ^o^. Dig. Oss. jinje, Tag. y?w5r. > i, § 102. The change of o to i is excessively rare. b, Iranian, Av, gaosa ' ear,' WaxI yis, yils, etc, (see § 99). > II. § 103, Tlie change of 6 to u is common both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. As in all cases of shortening, the phe- nomenon here discussed occurs especially before double consonants or consonant-groups, a, Indian, The change of o to u in the New Indian dialects occurs more frequently in the West than in the East, although VOWELS 45 the Bangall often has u where the other New Indian dialects show 0. Skt. rocati 'shines,' Prak. rucca'i^ Mag. Prak. loadi, Pali ruccati, rocati. Skt. jyotsna '■ moon-lit night,' Prak. jomM, Pali jm'nJid. Skt. djas * strength,' Jrdna Prak. uya, Pali dja. Skt. lotyam '■ in a small water-pot,' E. New Ind, dialects lofiyct, W. New Ind. dialects lutiyd. Skt., Pali lohaJcdra 'blacksmith,' Sindhi luharu. Here too may be considered the Kasmiri o, il arising from o through the umlaut of a following 7, e. g. Kasm. hror ' tom-cat,' fern. Iror (written brctru) ; Skt. vrddha ' large,' Kasm. hodd (written hadu), fem. had (written hadu), etc. (see § 68). b. Iranian. Av. Jcaofa ' hill,' Old Pers. Jcaufa, Phi. kof, New Pers. JcOh, kuh, Kuhr. Tcilfun, mountain Jewish Jciif, Afy. kvah, Bal. kopak, N. Bal. khofay, Kurd. kuvi. Av. maoiri ' ant,' Phi., New Pers. mor, Gab. monk, Kas., Von. morctma, Yidg. muryohj Dig. Oss. muljug, Tag. maljig. Av. gaosa ' ear,' Sir., Bahb. gus, etc. (see § 99). New Pers. gosah 'corner,' Kurd. giU, gusa, Bohtani kusi. > t. § 104. The change of o to * is rather infrequent. b. Iranian. Some of the New Iranian dialects preserve the transition-grade ii. Phi. mo{d), mm ' hair,' New Pers. md% Gab. mid, Siv., Bahb., Nay., Maz. mi, Gil., Tal. mii, other Caspian dialects mU, Bal. mud, mid, N. Bal. mid. New Pers. tolah 'puppy,' Siv. tilu. > il. § 105. In Pazand and New Persian Indo-Iranian o becomes il regularly before m or n (compare the analogous change in these dialects of e to ? before nasals, § 89). In Afyan o becomes tc before n, but it remains unchanged before m. Elsewhere the change is sporadic only. b. Iranian. Av. gaona 'colour,' Phi. giln{ak), New Pers. 46 JXDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY gun{ah), Afy. yiina. Av. haonia ' Homa-plant,' Phi. hum, Paz., New Pers, him, Afy. oma. Av. saocaydhi ' slialt burn/ Maz., Gil. Vsiij, Tag. Oss. stJjin, etc. (see § 101). Av. raocah ' day,' Gab. rwj, Tal. roz, ruz, Kurd, rilz, Td{z), etc. (see § 99). Av. draoya ' lie,' Old Pers. dratiga, Phi. drog, droy, New Pers. diiroy, dardy, Maz. cZarzT, dw% Tal. (Z«Z, Sarq. (Z«r<7, Afy. daroy, Bal. d{a)rOg, N. Bal. tZroy. Av. raoyna ' oil,' Phi. roJcan, royan, New Pers. rdyan, Kurd. rt7«. > e. § 106. The change of o to e is found with some frequency. a. Indian. Skt., Pali rohita ' kind of fish,' Ass. ro, E. Hindi rcliu, Hindi rolm, Panj. rehu, Simh. rehe, re. Skt. godhuma 'wheat,' Ass. ghcmlm, Hindi gehum, gJieum, go{m)Jimh, Panj. gJmm, Sindhl gehum, etc. (see § 101). Skt. cora 'thief,' Prak., Pali com, New Ind. dialects cor, excepting Kasm. cfir, Simh. hera, hora, Gyp. cor. > va. § 107. The change of o to va occurs regularly in Afyan, except- ing before m, where o is retained, and before n, where o becomes U (see § 105). b. Iranian. Av. gaosa ' ear,' Afy. yvaiy, etc. (see § 99). Av. raocah ' day,' Afy. rvaj, etc. (see § 99). an = du. § 108. The Indo-Iranian du has been lost in the Indo-Iranian dialects. The few cases in which du has apparently been retained in the Iranian dialects show in reality a change of du to dv (cf. § 95). b. Iranian. Skt. ndu 'ship,' Av. tidvaya 'navigable,' Old Pers. ndviyd 'fleet' (?), Phi. ndvJcaJc, ndvtdh, New Pers. ndv. [The New Pers. ndv is, however, to be compared rather with the Av. gen. sg. ^ndvo.\ VOWELS 47 0,21 > ail. § 109. The change of au to au is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. pCiura 'citizen,' Prak. paiira, Pali pora. Skt. gdnrava 'respect,' Prak. gaiirava, Saur. Prak. gorava. Skt. mdiili 'garland,' Prak. maiill, Pali nioli. au > u. § 110. The change of au to u is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. JcauJcseyaka ' sword,' Prak. hiikhheaa. Skt. dduvarika ' porter,' Prak. duvvaria, Pali dovarika. Skt. cdurya ' theft,' Prak. cdria, Naip. corl, Ur. cori, Bang, curl, Hindi, Mar. corl. Skt. dutsukya 'zeal,' Prak. usukka, Pali ussukka. du > u. § 111. The change of du to u is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. sdurya 'heroism,' Prak. soria, Sindhi surilial. du > 0. § 112. The change of du to o is the normal one to wliich Indo- Iranian du is subject in the Middle and New Indian dialects. It may also be noted that du in Assamese script is always pro- nounced 0. a. Indian. Skt. kdumudi 'moonlight,' Prak. komiii, Pali koniudi, Gyp. comut 'moon.' Skt. yduvana 'youth,' Vrhk. jovvana, Pali yohhana, Sindhi jobhanu. Skt. dupamya 'analogy,' Pali opamma. Skt. gdura ' pale,' Pali gora, New Ind. dialects gord. Skt. jJmidika ' pouch,' Ur., ^ang. jhfdl, jJmli, jholi, Hindi jholi, Guj., Mar. jhop. SINGLE CONSONANTS § 113. The Indo-Iranian consonants remain for the most part unchanged in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. The law of spirantization which sharply distinguishes the Iranian from the Indian dialects is still operative, and all phenomena to be discussed in the following chapter must be considered with tliis fact in mind. The principal changes undergone by the Indo- Iranian single consonants are in general easily explicable. Com- mon both to the Indian and to the Iranian dialects, although more frequent in the latter, is the change of an original voiced consonant to a voiceless, or the reverse. Aspiration and deaspiration, the loss of a consonant and the subsequent insertion oi y or v in its place to avoid a resultant hiatus, are the most striking changes noted in the Indian dialects. The changes presented by the Iranian dialects in the single consonants are far more sporadic and less regular than those which are found in the Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects a voiceless intervocalic consonant regularly becomes voiced. In general it may be said that the Indian dialects have preserved the original Indo-Iranian vowels more faitlifully than the Iranian dialects have, but that, on the other hand, the Iranian consonants have suffered less change than the Indian. In the following paragraplis will be found in some detail the principal changes undergone by the Indo-Iranian consonants in the various Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. k = k § 114. Indo-Iranian k is in general preserved unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. SINGLE CONSONANTS 49 a. Indian. Skt. Jcathmjati Hells,' Prak. Jcahaz, Jcahei, Pali Jmtheti, Ur,, Bang., Hindi, Panj., Sindhi kaJi, Guj. Jceh, Simh. hiynnava. Skt. cha '■ one,' Prak. elika, Pali clca, Kasm. akh, Ur., Bang, eka, W. Bang, ah, Biharl tjak, ek, Old Hindi ik{k), Hindi ek, Panj. ik, Sindhi Jiiku, {h)cku, hikido, hekido, Guj. ek, aik, Mar. (y)ck, Gyp. yek, yckli. b. Iranian. Av. kaofa ' hill,' Old Pers. kaufa, Phi. kof(ak\ New Pers. koh, Kuhr. kufmij Tat yv?(^ Afy. ^va&, Bal. X'o/^a^ N. Bal. khofayj Kurd. ^u«7i. Av. kdrdnaoiti 'makes,' Old Pers. kunavahy, Phi. karfanu, New Pers. kardan, WaxI caram, Siyn. kinam, Sarq. kanam, Bal. kanag, N. Bal. khanay, Kurd, ^iriw Dig. Oss. khanun, Tag. kJianin. k > kh, X. § 115. In the Indian dialects the aspirization of an original k is only sporadic, but the Middle and New Iranian dialects regularly change k into the spirant x internally between vowels. In North BalucI k becomes kli regularly initially, and the change occurs uniformly both initially and finally m Ossetish. a. Indian. Skt. kuh^a ' hump-backed,' Prak., Pali kJiujja, Ur. kilja, Bang. kti{ni)ja, kuhjd, Hindi kiiJjja, kuhhd, kiihrd, Panj. kubhd, kuhd, Sindhi kuho, Guj. kiibaro, Mar. kuhadd, kJiuh. Skt. kdsa 'cough,' Maliar. Prak. khdsa, Pah kdsa, Hindi, Panj., Sindhi khdmst, khdmsnd. Skt. ktij^cf' ' well,' Prak. ku{v)a, Pali kiijia, Kasm. kJiuh, Ur., Bang, kiid, Hindi kudm, Panj. klmhd, Sindhi kJmJm, Guj., Mar. kiivo. Skt. krodaka ' lap,' Hindi kor, Guj. kJiolo. Skt. sukumdra 'youth,' Prak. sumdla, sukumdla, Pali sukhumdla, sukumdra. b. Iranian. Av. kafa 'foam,' Phi., New Pers. kaf, WaxI xt{f, Sarq. xaf, Bal. kap, Kurd, kaf, Dig. Oss. xaf{a), Tag. xaf. Av. kahrkdsa ' vulture,' Plil. kaJirkds, kargas, New Pers. kargas, Bal. kargas, N. Bal. khargaz, Oss. kJiarkh. Av. aJimdkdm 'of us,' Old Pers. amdxam, New Pers. iwa, Kas. {]i)omd, hdnui, Oss. max GAv. xsmdka 'yours,' YAv. ymmdka, Paz., New Pers. swma, Bal. lam, Dig. Oss. smax, Tag. sumax. Av. niydka £ 50 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY ' grandfather,' Old Pers. apanycika, Phi. mjah, New Pers. niyd,, Afy. n'ika, Bal. iiahu, N. Bal. naxo^ fern. nahh. k >g. § 116. The change of Z: to ^ is not frequent, excepting in the Iranian dialects internally between vowels. a. Indian. Skt., Pali JcJra ' parrot,' Simh. gird, giravd, kira. Skt. marakata ' emerald,' Prak. maragaya. Skt. sakala ' whole,' Mahar. Prak. sayala, Pali sakala, Bang, sagun, Bihari sagar, Hindi sagun, sagrd, Panj. sagrd, Sindhi sagunu, Guj. saglo, Mar. sagla, Simh. siyalii. Skt. kdka ' crow,' Prak. kda. Bang., Hindi, Panj. kdg, Sindhi kdmgu. Mar. kdg. b. Iranian. Av. ka * who ? ' New Pers. kill, WaxI kui, koi, §iyn. kai, Sarq. co?, Bal. kc, N. Bal. Z;/iai, Tur Kurd, go. Dig. Oss. Z:A(X, Tag. cl, KamuntI khi. Av. ydkard ' liver,' Phi. jakar, yakar, New Pers. j/^ar, Bal. jagar, N. Bal. jayar, Km:d. JarZ;, Oss. i^ar. Av. sukuruna 'porcupine,' Plil. sukur, New Pers. sugur{nah). Gab. sixwr, Afy. s/^yw, skun, Bal. sikiin, N. Bal. A; > Z;/. § 117. The palatalization of k to k'l is found in Iranian. b. Iranian. Av. kaofa 'hill,' Kurd, kiuh, etc. (see § 114). Av. Z:ate 'house' Kas., Kulir. kiyah, Nat. Av'a/i, Yidg. ktjc, etc. (see following §). k > c, c. § 118. Tlie change of k to c is very rare in the Indian dialects, but in the Iranian dialects c or c is not infrequently developed from an original k. a. Indian. Skt. kirdta 'name of a degraded tribe,' Prak. cila{d)a (Ijut kirdya 'monkey'). Skt. kunda 'turner/ Pali cunda. Skt. krsi 'agriculture,' Pali kasi, Ur. cdsa, tdsa, Bang. cds. Skt. gdsfJiika 'belonging to a village,' Sindhi gofhcco. [Here may be noted the Kasmlrl change of k to c in the forma- tion of the feminine, e. g. Kasm. hatuk ' drake,' hdtuc ' duck. 'J SINGLE CONSONANTS 51 b. Iranian. Av. Jcata ' house,' Phi. JcafaJc, New Pers. kad{ah), Zaf. kl, Kas. Jckjah, Von. he, Kuhr. Myah, Nat. Z;ia/i, Wax! Jcat, Siyn. c7(7, Sarq. c^y7, Minj. Jcai, Yidg. Jcyc. Av. Z;arate 'knife,' Phi. Mrf, New Pers. Jainl, N. Afy. cara/^, Bal. Mrc{a), N. Bal. hliarca, Kurd. ^!r(cZ), Oss. Z;7«an?. New Pers. Tiaih ' flea,' Kurd. Z;ec, kac. Av. Z-a ' who ? ' Sarq. coi, Tag. Oss. ct, etc. (see § 116). Av. sfika 'needle,' Phi. sncan, Paz. stlmn, sozan, New Pers. sosan, Gab. so/aw, Zaf., Kas.. sozo, Wax! sic, Sarq. sic, Bal. sucin, stem, N. Bal. sism, Maw, s7sm, st'sm, Kurd, suzin. k >t. § 119. The change of /t to f is very rare. In many of its occurrences it is due to dissimilation. a. Indian. Skt. krsi 'agriculture,' Ur. tasa, casa, etc. (see preceding §). Skt, kakkula 'bdellium,' Pali takkola, Simh. takul. k > p. § 120. Tlie change of k to p is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. jalukikd ' leech,' Pali jalnptikd, jaliika (due in this example to dissimilation). k > 111. § 121. The change of k to hh occurs with extreme rarity. a. Indian. Skt. s'lkara ' spray,' Prak. si{h)ara, slbhara, Pali sikara. [See now Pischel, § 206,] k > y. § 122. The change of Z; to y is only apparent. The k is actu- ally lost through the transition-grade g, and y is then inserted to prevent the hiatus caused by the loss of the k. The phe- nomenon is far less frequent in the Iranian than in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. ndrikcla ' cocoanut,' Naip. narival. Bang. ndrel, Bihari ndriyar, Hindi ndriyal, Panj. narclu, tmUru, Sindhi ndrelu, nd'iru, Guj. ndriyal, Mar. 7idral. Skt. dkdra E 2 52 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY 'figure,' Prak. agdra, Mahar. ayara, aJcara, Pali ahara. Skt. Tiohila 'cuckoo,' Prak. hoila, Ur. Jcdyila, Hindi, Panj., Sindlii JmU, Guj. Jcdyal, Mar. hokll, Siihh. Jcovulla, Anglo-Ind. Jco'il. Skt. {u)dalia ' water,' Jaina Prak. daga, Pali dalici, oJca, Siiiih. daga, duya, diya. Skt. caJcOra ' sort of bird,' Elu siyuru, Siiiih. siyuru, sivrii. b. Iranian. Phi. matikan ' mare,' New Pers. mddigan, Bal. mddydn, N. Bal. mdbin, mdzin. 7c > V. § 123. The change of Jc to v, like that of 7c to ?/, is only apparent. The 7v is actually lost through the transition -grade g, and v is then inserted to prevent the hiatus caused by the loss of the 7c. a. Indian. Skt. suTca 'parrot,' Pali suTca, suva. Skt. naTcida ' mongoose,' Pali naTcula, Ur,, Bang. 7iml, Hindi neval, Panj. neul, Sindhi noru, Guj. noliyu. Skt. 7cd7cila ' cuckoo,' Simh. 7covulld, etc. (see preceding §). b. Iranian. Skt. viTcdsate ' appears,' Phi. gidcds ' witness,' Paz. guvdJi, guvdi, New Pers. guvd{Ji). Skt. vi7iardtl 'trans- poses,' Phi. guTcanfcmo, Paz. guJidrdb, New Pers. guvdrad. Av. sp«w 'dog,' Med. o-TraKa, Phi. saTc, sag, New Pers. sag, Gab. sa6a, sava, Kas. ashd, aspd, Samn. asha, Tal. sij^d, Afy. s^jai, Kurd. safe. 7c > s. § 124. The change of Z; to ^ is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. siiTca 'needle,' N. Bal. sisin, sisan, slsin, sesln, etc. (see § 118). 7c > 7i. § 125. The change of 7c to 7i is rare in the Indian and especially rare in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. s])}iati7ca 'crystal,' Prak. p7iali7ia, pJialiya, j)7ia- dia, Pah X)7iali7ca. Skt. sri7cn 'beauty,' Mahar. Prak. sirlhd. Skt. niJcasa 'touchstone,' Prak. niliasa, Jrdna Prak. niliasa, nig7iasa, SINGLE CONSONANTS 53 Pali niliasa. Skt. srjanalicira 'creator/ Sindhl sirjanahdru. Skt. dkdsa ' sky,' Prak. dyCisa, Pali dJcdsa, Simh. ahasa, dsa. b. Iranian. Av, span ' dog,' Med. o-Trdxa, Kurd, sail, etc. (see § 123). h > s, z. § 126. Tlie change of Z; to z, z occurs with extreme rarity in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. sulia ' needle,' Paz. suzan, sozan, New Pers. sozan, Zaf., Kas. sozo, Kurd. siJzin, etc. (see § 118). ApTiaeresis of h. § 127. The loss of an initial Ti is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt., Pali huddala ' hoe,' Ur. hord, Bang, kddal, Sindhi Jcurarl, Guj. Jcoddro, Siriih. udalu, uddlla. Syncope of h § 128. Tlie loss of an internal h is not infrequent in the Indian dialects, although it is noteworthy that the phenomenon occurs more often in the Middle than in the New period. a. Indian. Skt. avakdsa ' opportunity,' Prak. odsa, avaydsa, Pali dkdsa, avakdsa. Skt. nakula 'mongoose,' Ur., Bang., Panj. netd, Sindlil noru, Guj. ndliyu, etc. (see § 123). Skt. ndrikela 'cocoanut,' Bang, ndrel, Panj. narelu, naleru, Sindhi ndrelu, nd'iru. Mar. ndral, etc. (see § 122). Skt. kokila ' cuckoo,' Prak. koila, Hindi, Panj., Sindhi koil, etc. (see § 122). Skt. carmakdra 'leather- worker,' PaH cam7nakdra,Vr.camdra,'Bsing. cdmdr, Hindi, Panj. camdr, Sindlil camdru, Guj. camdr, Mar. cdmhdr. Apocope of k. § 129. The loss of a final k is very common in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Old Pers. hqdaka ' servant,' Phi. handak, New Pers. tandah. Phi. cdrak ' means,' Paz. cdra. New Pers. cdrah, Afy. cdra, cara. Av. span ' dog,' Med. Z;. § 132. In the Indian dialects the deaspirization of an original kh is very rare, but in the later Iranian dialects the phenomenon is somewhat more frequent. a. Indian. Skt. khalu ' indeed,' Prak. (inscriptions of Kapur di Giri) kii, ht. Prak. khu, Pali kho, khalu. Skt. khd 'spring,' Pali kd, kJtd, Gyp. chev. SINGLE CONSONANTS 55 b. Iranian. Av. xara ' donkey,' Kurd. k{i)ar, etc. (see pro- ceding §). Av. naxa 'nail,' Bal. nahim, nahun, etc. (see preceding §). kh > gh, y. § 133. The change of Jch to gh, y, is found occasionally in the Indian dialects, but in the Iranian dialects it is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. rcJiha 'line,' Prak. reha, Pali rcMia, Hindi, Panj. rchh, Siudhi reghl, Guj. rvg, rekh, Mar. rcgh. Skt. srmkhala 'chain,' Prak. samkala, samkhala, sifUkJiald, Prdi samkhala, Kasm. hdmhala, Ur. samkala, samkara, Bang, sikal, sikal, Panj., Sindhi samghar, Guj. sdmkal, Mar. sd{m)kal. b. Iranian. Skt. sdkhd ' twig,' Phi. sdk, New Pers. sax, sdy. kh > c. § 134. The change of kh to c is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. xdra ' donkey,' Sarq. car, sar, etc. (see § 131). kh > s. § 135. This change, like the preceding one, is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. xara 'donkey,' Sarq. sar, car, etc. (see § 131). kh > h § 136. The change of kh to h is found both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects, although it occurs less frequently in the latter group of languages. a. Indian. Skt. sakhi 'friend,' Prak. sahi, Pali sakhi, Sindhi sahl. Skt. mukha 'face,' Prak. muha, Pali mukha, Biharl mn{m)h, Hindi mumh, Panj. miimhu, muJtwh, Sindhi mumhtmi, mukhu, Sirhh. muva. Gyp. mtvy. b. Iranian. Av, xara 'donkey,' Siyn. har, etc. (see § 131). Av. naxa ' nail,' Bal. ndkun, ndhun, etc. (see § 131). kh > y. § 137. The change of kh to y, like that of k to y (see § 122), is only apparent. 56 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. likhati 'writes/ Simh. liyanava, etc. (see §131). kh > V. § 138. Tlie change of Jch to v, which is, like that of ^ to ?; (see § 123), only apparent, occurs very rarely. a. Indian. Skt. mukha ' face,' Simh. mwm, etc. (see § 136). Prothesis of kh. § 139. Prothetic kh is found quite frequently in the Iranian dialects prefixed to words which originally began with vowels. b. Iranian. Av. aSsma ' wrath,' Phi. ccesm, New Pers. xism. Av. ard§a ' bear,' Phi., New Pers. xirs, Maz. d§, Siyn. yurs, Sarq. yiirx, Yidg. yars, Afy. ya^, Kurd, virc, hire, Mrs, Zaza xec, Oss. ars. Gk. o)6v 'egg,' Phi. xayak, New Pers. xayah. Gab. vuc, Afy. Im, Bal. haik,, Kurd. ha]ik, hi, hck, Oss. aikh{a). Skt. ama ' raw,' New Pers. xam, Wax! yilng, Afy. om, um, Bal. hamag, N. Bal. Jiamay, Kurd. a:aw. § 140. Indo-Iranian <; is in general retained unchanged in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects, except for the Iranian law of spirantization wliich develops y from g, unless the g is either initial or is preceded by a nasal or a sibilant. a. Indian. Skt. gardahJia ' donkey,' Prak. gaddaha, gaddaha, Pali gadrahha, Ass. gddh, Naip. gaddha, Ur. gadhd, Bang, gddhd, Biharl, Hindi gadhd, Panj. gadlm, gaddo, Sindhi garahu, Guj. gadhedo, Mar. gddhav. Skt. yugala 'pair,' Apab. Prak. jtcalu, Pali yugala, Ur. jugala. Bang., Hindi, Panj., Guj. jtigal, Mar. juld, Jul, juval. b. Iranian. Av. garama ' warm,' Old Pers. garmapada, Phi., New Pers. garm, Siyn. garm, Sarq. (jritrm, ziXrm, Afy. ydrma, Bal., Kurd, ^arm, Dig. Oss. yarm. Tag. gar;w. Av. gdu ' cow,' Phi., New Pers. go, gav, Zaf., Ka§., Von. go, Kuhr. ^6i&, WaxI yau, yil, Siyn. ^at;, Sarq. ^ao, SangL, Minj. yao, Yayn. gova, Afy. yvd, Bal. gdk, N. Bal. ^rtia;, Kurd, gd, Dig. Oss. yo^, Tag. qug. Skt. &/io//a 'joint,' Bal. hog, N. Bal. &tiy. SINGLE CONSONANTS 57 9 > 7^' § 141. Tlie change of the voiced g to the voiceless k is not frequent in the Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects it is still more rare, excepting in the Tagaurish Ossetish, which has q initially for Indo-Iranian g (Digaurish y). a. Indian. Skt. nagara 'city,' Prak. naara, Mahar. Prak. nayara, Pais. Prak. naJcara, New Ind. dialects nair, ner, Siriih. nuvara, niyari. Skt. maga ' Magian,' Prak. (inscriptions of Kapur di Giri) maka. Skt. chagala 'goat/ Pali cJiakala. Skt. ajagara 'boa-constrictor,' Pah ajaJcara, ajagara. Skt. garuda ' mytliical bird,' Prak. garuda, ganda, galuda, Pali ganda, Elu gurulu, Simh. Jcundla. Skt. ga{m)hhtra ' deep,' Prak. gaJiira, Pah ga{m)hMra, Ur. gahira, Hindi gahird, gaJiara, Sindhi gahiro, Simh. gdmhuru, humhuru. b. Iranian. Av. gardma 'warm,' Tag. Oss. qarm, etc. (see preceding §). Av. gaosa ' ear,' Old Pers. gausa, Phi., New Pers. gos, Sir., Bahb. gus, Nay. gus, WaxI yils, yis, Siyn. yuz, Sarq. yatd, Yidg. yii, Afy. yvaiy, Eal. (/os, Kurd, guh, Dig. Oss. y05, Tag. qils. 9 > 9k y- § 142. The aspirization of Indo-Iranian g is rare and only sporadic in the Indian dialects, but in the Iranian dialects g becomes y regularly, excepting initially or after a nasal or a sibi- lant. In the Pamir dialects, in Afyan, and in Digaurish Ossetish Indo-Iranian g becomes y also initially. a. Indian. Skt. grha, gelia ' house,' Prak. gelm, Apab. Prak. gJiarii, Pali ghara, gaJia, geha, Kasm. gaJiar, gar, Old Hindi gelta, New Ind. dialects ghar, excepting Mar. geh, Simh. ge, geya, Gyp. Jcher, Jcyel. Skt. godhuma ' wheat,' Apab. Prak. goJiumu, Pali godhuma, Ass. gJiemhu, Naip. galulni, Ur. ga{ha)ma, Bang. goni, gam, Biharl golium, Hindi gd{m)hum, gcJmni, ghcum, Panj. ghBuni, Sindhi gchum, Guj. ghamh, Gyp. giv, b. Iranian. Skt. yuga 'yoke,' New Pers. juy, Siyn. ?/My, Sarq. ijily, Kurd, juh Av. gaosa ' ear,' WaxI yiis, yis, Siyn. 58 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY yuz, Sarq. yaiil, Yidg. ytl, My. yvaiy, Dig. Oss. yos, etc. (see preceding §). Av. gala 'thief,' Afy. yal. Av. mdrdya 'bird/ Phi. mury^ miirv, New Pers. tniiry, Msz. »»ary, Afy. marya, Kurd, mrisk, Oss. wzary. Plil., Paz., New Pers. waw 'bread,' Saf. mi, Nay. wat<, Minj. nayan, Cent. Dial, wm)^, Bal. nagan, N. Bal. nayan. 9>y- § 143. The change oi g to y is only apparent. The ^ is in reality lost, and y is then inserted to prevent the resulting hiatus (cf. §§ 122, 137). a. Indian. Skt. jagat 'world,' Mahar. Prak. jaya, Sindhi jagu, jagatu. Skt. nagara ' city,' Maliar. Prak. nayara, Simh. niyari, nuvara, etc. (see § 141). Skt. naga ' snake,' Prak., Pali naga, Simh. nayd, na. b. Iranian. Av. miri-gaona 'having a golden colour,' Plil. mfingun, New Pers. sargiln, Afy. zaryun. g >v. § 144. The change oi g to v in the Indian dialects is only an apparent one, the v being really inserted to prevent the hiatus arising from the loss of the original g (cf. §§ 123, 138). In the Iranian dialects, on the contrary, the change of ^ to v is a real one. Tlie phenomenon does not occur frequently. a. Indian. Skt. nagara 'city,' Simh. nuvara, niyari, etc. (see § 141). b. Iranian. Old Pers. magu ' Magian, ' Phi. inagil, magupat, mavpat, New Pers. muy, moy, mobad. Av. moroya 'bird,' Plil. mury, murv, etc. (see § 142). New Pers. xargus ' hare ' (lit. 'donkey- eared,' Av. ^xara-gaosa), Kurd, karvas. g > z. § 145. The change oi g to z is excessively rare, although it is sometimes fomid initially in sporadic words m Siynl and Sariqoll. SINGLE CONSONANTS 59 b. Iranian. Av. gaii 'cow,' Siyn. mv, Sarq. ;zao, etc. (see § 140). Av. gardma 'warm,' Sarq. ziirm, gitrm, etc. (see § 140). g > h. § 146. The change of g to h is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. bhdgincya 'sister's son,' Pali hlmg'mejja, Simh. hdJicina, hdna. Syncope of g. § 147. Tlie loss of an internal g is found both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects, although the New Indian does not suffer syncope of g as frequently as do the Middle Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. hlidgadheya ' share, ' Prak. hJtdadcha, Mahar. Prak. hhdya, Pali hlidga. Skt. srgdla 'jackal,' Prak. sidla, Pali sigdla, Ur. sidla, scdla, Bang, sidl, Simh. likald. Skt. dgata 'arrived,' Mag. Prak. dade. Skt. dvlguna 'two-fold,' Prak. dmma, Pali diguna, Hindi, Panj. dund, Sindhl diind, Mar. diin. Skt. hhaginl 'sister,' Prak. hahim, hJia'im, Pali bhagim, Ur. hhdum, hhatlm, Bang, ha'in, Hindi hahin, Panj. hhdin, hdimJi, Sindhl hJiemi, Guj. hehcn, Mar. hahm, hhdin. Skt. yugala 'pair,' Apab. Prak. jitalu, Mar. jid_d, jill, jural, etc. (see § 140). b. Iranian. Av. draoya 'lie,' Old Pers. drauga, Phi. drag, droy, New Pers. durdy, Maz. daril, Tal. dil, Sarq. diiru, Afy. dardy, Bal. d{a)rug, N. Bal. droy, Kurd, dardv, darau. Av. ci 'what? '+gaona 'kind,' Plil. cigun{lh), New Pers. cigilnah, cun. gh = gh. § 148. Indo-Iranian gli is in general retained unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. gliaia 'jar,' Prak. gliada, Hindi ghadd, other New Ind. dialects gliadi. Gyp. khoro. b. Iranian. Av. tnaeya ' cloud, ' Phi., New Pers. mey, Dig. Oss. meya, Tag. mly. 60 JNDO-IEjINIAN niOXOLOGY (jll > Jc. § 149. The change of gli to k occurs very rarely as a final in the Iranian dialects, b. Iranian. Av. asdmaoya 'destrojdng righteousness,' Phi. ahramuJc. Av. cZaya ' conflagration, ' Phi. day, New Pers. day, Bal. dag, N. Bal. day, Kurd. daJc. gli > Tell. § 150. Tlie change of gJi to kh occurs regularly in Paisaci Prakrit. a. Indian. Skt. megha 'cloud,' Prak. mcha, Pais. Prak. mckha, Pali megha, Hindi meniJi, mmih, Panj. mimli, nilhaih, Sindhi mlnihu. gJi > g. § 151. The deaspirization of gh is very rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects, excepting in Kasmlri. a. Indian. Skt. glwtaka 'horse,' Prak, ghodaa, Pali gliotaka. New Ind. dialects glwra, but Kasm. guf; Gyp. garo. Skt. vigliafate 'perishes,' Pali vighatcti, Ur., Bang, higada, Hindi, Panj. bigad, Sindhi hlgid, Guj. hagad, Mar. highad. b. Iranian. New Pers. yidyid ^chatter,' Kurd, gdlagdl, galgal. gh > h. § 152. The change of gh to 7ms not uncommon in the Indian dialects, but in the Iranian dialects it is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. ?«///<«' light, ' Prak,, Pali lahii, Siihh. lahu, luhu. Skt. araghatta ' well- wheel, ' Hindi, Panj. {a)mhaf, Sindhi ariajtu, Guj. rcmf. Mar. rahaf. Skt. oncgha 'cloud,' Prak. m&ha, Hindi mcmh, minih, Panj. minih, mlham, Sindhi immhu, etc. (see § 150). b. Iranian. Av. *haya-stdna 'abode of God,' Old Pers. TO Bayia-Tavov opo c. § 156. The change of the palatal c to the afErieative c is very rare in the Indian dialects, excepting in Kasmlrl, Kafirl, and East Bangall. In early tadbhavas, desajas, and before non-palatal 62 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY vowels the MarfitliT pronounces c as c, and j as J, but before the palatal vowels I, c, in tatsamas and late tadbhavas the old sounds of c and j are retained. Tlie Iranian dialects show few instances of a change of c to c, excepting in the Persian dialects and in Afyan. a. Indian. Skt. catvari ' four, ' Kasm. cijr, etc. (see pre- ceding §). Kaf. mac 'man,' Sindhi mdcu. b. Iranian. Av. cadwdro 'four,' Plil., New Pers. caJiar, WaxI cahur, cahiir, Siyn. cavor, cavar, Sarq. cavur, cavor, Sangl. safor, Minj. caftr, Yidg. ctr, Afy. calor, Bal. car, N. Bal. cydr, Kurd. (Sihna) cavdr, Dig. Oss. cuphpharj Tag. cij)li])liar. Av. casman ' eye, ' Siyn. cem, Sarq. cam, Dig. Oss. casta, Tag. casth, etc. (see preceding §), Av. pacaiti 'cooks,' Phi. Jiazct, New Pers. pazad, Gab. ]}axa, Kas. imtan, Maz. imxta, Waxi xmcam, Aly. paxavul, Bal. pacag, N. Bal. phasay, Kurd, ^a^iw, Bazazid pdthin, Dig. Oss. _^em, Tag. ^cm. c > c/i. § 157. The change of c to cA is found initially in North Balucl. b. Iranian. Av. casman ' eye, ' N. Bal. cJiam, etc. (see § 155). c >j. § 158. The change of the tenuis c to the media ^' is excessively rare in the Indian dialects. It is, on the other hand, common between vowels in the Persian dialects, where the New Persian shows J3 (see § 167). a. Indian. Skt. acald 'earth,' Prak. (inscriptions of Dhauli) ajala, Mahar. Prak. ayala. Skt. snic 'ladle,' Pali suja. Skt. maca ' glass,' Mar. (vulg.) maj. b. Iranian. Av. frasaocaydhi 'burnest,' Phi. sdccm, Paz. sozet. New Pers. sozam. Gab. sajan, Maz., Gil. Vsilj, Sarq. sauz, Afy. sfjal, svajavul, sczal, Bal. sucag, N. Bal. susay. Dig. 0b8. sojun, Tag. sujin. Av. Imca + ahairi '■ irom beneath, ' Phi. azcr, Paz. azer, New Pers. ziir, Sir. si, Zaf. zcr, other Central SINGLE CONSONANTS 63 dialects jir, Samn. jer, Tal. jiar, Jiidaeo-Pers. £:er, Kurd, ^Ir, Tag. Oss. dala. Av. vaocat 'spoke,' Plil. vdc{ah) 'voice,' New Pers. vai, &«;', Gab. vivaji, Zaf. rai, Kas. voj, Von. Z^oji^, Kuhr. havojl, Nay. wmj. § 159. Tlie change of c to j is excessively rare. Cases of it are found in Afyan and Ossetish. b. Iranian. Av. frasaocai/aJii 'biirnest,' Afy. sPjal, svaj- avul, scmJ, Dig. Oss. sojim, Tag. siljin, etc. (see preceding §). Av. raocah ' day, ' Old Pers. raucah, Phi. rOc{ih), New Pers. roz, Gab. ruj, Siv. rdsci, Caspian dialects rU, but Tal. rO^, ruz, Afy. n*«;, Bal. roc, N. Bal. ra^, Kurd, ruz, ro{z). c > ill. § 160. The change of c to tli, like all other changes in wliich the cerebrals are concerned, is confined to the Indian dialects. It is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. cahcii 'beak,' Ur. tliant, thotht, Bang, thomf, comt, Hindi tliOmth, come, Guj. came, Mar. come. c > f. § 161. Tlie change of c to ^ occiu-s very rarely. a. Indian. Skt. cihitsa 'cure,' Jaina Prak. tegiccJia, Pali tiJciccha. b. Iranian. Av. pacalti ' cooks, ' Ka§. patan, Kurd, pdtin, etc. (see § 156). Old Pers. cisciy 'anything,' New Pers. elz, Kurd. tist. c > ill, 6. § 162. The change of c to tJi, 6, is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. cahcu 'beak,' Ur. tliant, thomi, etc. (see §160). b. Iranian. Av. ^^^aca^^i 'cooks,' Bayazid Kuid. pdtJun, etc. (see § 156). 6i INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY C> d. § 163. The change of c to d occurs with extreme rarity except- ing in Simhjilese. a. Indian. Skt. dcarija ' teacher, ' Mahar. Prak. aijariya, Pali dcariya, Siriih. ddura, Maladive eduru. Skt. mucanti 'they release,' Prak. mucat, Mahar. Prak. muyai, Pali muhcati, Simh. imtdanavd. c>y. § 164. The change oi c to y is only an apparent one, y being inserted to prevent the hiatus arising from the syncope of c (cf. §§ 122, 137, 143). a. Indian. Skt. dccirya ' teacher, ' Mahar. Prak, dyariya, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. mucanti Hhey release,' Mahar. Prak. muyaz, etc. (see preceding §). c > s. § 165. In Assamese and West Hindi c is always pronounced s. Tlie Siihhalese often changes c to s, which may further develop into h. Of the Iranian dialects the Afyan shows the development of s from c most frequently. a. Indian. Skt. cakra 'wheel,' Prak., Pali caMa, Ass. cdk (pron. sdJc), Ur. caJc, E. Hindi cdh, W. Hindi cakJci (pron. saJckl), Panj. cakk, Sindhi caku, Gruj., Mar. cdk, Simh. sak, hak. Skt. pacati 'cooks,' Pali i)acati, New Ind. dialects Vpac, Simh. 'pdsavanavd. b. Iranian. Av. cidra 'appearance,' Afy. slra, cira (see § 155). c > s. § 166. The change of c to s occurs very rarely in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. haca 'from,' Old Pers, hacd, Phi. aj. New Pers. az, z{i), WaxI, Sarq. z, My. j, Bal. ac, as, Kurd, az, z{a). Phi. ndcuk 'tender,' New Pers. ndzuk, Kulir. nasfar. Phi. {h)cc ' ever,' Paz. hec{t), New Pers. {h)ec, hes, KaS. ec. Av. raocah SINGLE CONSONANTS 65 ' day,' Siv. rosa, N. Bal. ros, etc. (see § 159). Phi. cop ' wood,' New Pers. coh, Sir. ciTy, Wax! soX^^, Sarq. xaih, Kurd, co, Amarlu sw. c > z. § 167. The change of c to ^ is made regularly in New Persian between vowels, after r, and finally. b. Iranian. Av. tacaiti ' runs,' Phi. tacetj tcizet, New Pers. tdmd, WaxI tocani, Sarq. tajam, Afy. tasal, Bal. tacag, N. Bal. tJiasay, Dig. Oss. tJiajin. Av, raucah ' day,' New Pers. ro^, etc. (see § 159). Av. sacaiti 'follows,' Phi. saxtano, New Pers. sdsad, Kas. hasoj, Judaeo-Pers. scisad. c > z. § 168. The change of c to i, which is closely akin to that dis- cussed in the preceding paragraph, is found occasionally in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. huciOra ' beautiful,' Phi. huciJir, New Pers. Jmjlr, XKJlr, Imzir. Av. raucah ' day,' Tal. roz^ riiz, Kurd, ruz, roz, ro, etc. (see § 159). Old Pers. KaniOr] ' measure for wheat/ Phi. Jcapic, New Pers. haziz, Tcaviz. c > Jh § 169. The change of c to h is made, as already noted in § 165, through the transition-grade s. It is not of common occurrence. a. Indian. Skt. caJcm 'wheel,' Simh. haJc, sak, etc. (see § 165). Skt. cora ' thief,' Prak., Pali cura, New Ind. dialects and Gyp. cor, Simh. Jiora, hera. c > cK § 170. The change of c to ci is found occasionally in the North Balucl. b. Iranian. Av. caOwdro ^ four,' N. Bal. cycir, etc. (see § 156). Syncope of c. § 171. The loss of Indo-Iranian c occurs not infrequently in the r 66 INDO-IRANIAN niONOLOGY Indo-Iranian dialects. It is more common in the Middle tlian in the New Indian period. In the Iranian dialects, where the syncope is found least often, c is lost only in the vicinity of long vowels. a. Indian. Skt. vaeana 'voice,' Prak. vaana, vacana, Pali vacana, Sindhi vacanii. Skt. sucl ' needle,' Prak. sifi, Pali sucl^ Ur., Bang, sucl, Hindi, Panj., Sindlil suij Guj. soy, Mar. sui, Gyp. SUV. b. Iranian. Av. raocali ' day,' Caspian dialects ru, Kurd, ro, roz, ruz, etc. (see § 159). cli =. cli. § 172. It is only in the Indian dialects that ch occurs. Here, however, it is in general preserved unchanged. a. Indian. Skt. Vchap ' go ' (?), Ur. tipihci, Bang, chapite, cdpite ' to conceal,' tcpitc, Hindi cJidpand, cdmpand ' to print, to squeeze,' topana, fopand, thapand, tlpand 'to bury,' Sindhi clwpanu, cdpanu ' to shampoo,' fapudann, tliapanu, Mar. chdpcu- neni, cdpatanBm, tdp, tliapahd, Anglo-Indian {firsf)chop, shampoo. ch > c. § 173. The deaspirization of ch is a very rare phenomenon. a. Indian. Skt. \/chap 'go' (?), Bang, cdpiti', cluipite, Hindi cdmpand, cMpand, Sindhi cdpanu, clmpanu, Mar. cdpatanem, chdpancm, etc. (see preceding §). ch > t. § 174. The change of ch to t is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. Vclmp ' go ' (?), Ur. tipibd, Bang, tepite, Hindi tlpatid, thapand, topand, topand, Sindhi tapudanu, tha- panu. Mar. tdp, thapami, etc. (see § 172). ch > th. § 176. The change of ch to th is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. Vchap ' go ' (?), Hindi thapand, tlpand, to- SINGLE CONSONANTS 67 pana, topand, Sindhi thapanu, tapudanu, Mar. thapaJid, tap, etc. (see § 172). ch > t. § 176. The change of ch to t is very rare. a. Indian. Skt, Vcliap 'go,' Hindi tdpanci, topand, tlpand, thapand, etc. (see § 172). ch > s. § 177. Many New Indian dialects, especially Assamese, Ban- gali, and Marathi, as well as the others in sporadic instances, pronounce or write 5 instead of ch. a. Indian, Skt. prchati ' asks,' Prak, puccJia'i, Pali pucchati, Ur. piichand, pacdra, Bang, puchite, Hindi puchand, Panj. pticch, Sindhi puchanu, Guj. puchavum, May. pusanem. With this change of ch to s may perhaps be compared the cases where Iranian s = Indian ch, e.g. Skt. chdyd ' shadow,' Prak. chflyd, chad '■ beauty,' Pali chdyd 'shadow,' Ur. chdhina, Hindi chdm{v), chdihh, chdum, Panj. cd{u)m, Sindhi chdm{v), Guj. cdmy : Av. asaya. Phi. sdyalc, New Pers. sdyah, Bal. sdig, N. Bal. sdi, Kurd. st. J = J- § 178. Indo-Iranian j is in general preserved unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. jaiogha ' leg,' Prak., Pali janigha, Naip. jdiQ, Bang, jdmgi, E. Hindi, Hindi jdmgh, Fanj. jamgh, Sindhi jajogh, Janigh, Guj., Mar. jamghd, jdmgh, Gyp. cang. Skt. hhrdtrjdyd * brother's wife,' Ur., Bang, hhdiija, Hindi Widij, hhdvaj, IhdiAJl, hhojdi, Sindhi Ihojdt, Mar. Ihdvajdt. Skt. hhrdtrja ' nephew,' Hindi, Panj., Guj. hhatljd. b. Iranian. Av. jaini * woman,' Phi., New Pers. mn, Gab. jan, yan{uJc), Siv. zin, Zaf. iaw, Kas., Kulir. jan, jin, yan, kin, Nay. yanah, Samn. zanilco, Siyn. yin, Sarq. yin, Hn, Minj. zinga, Afy. ^iwrn, jiwm, ja^, Bal. jan, Kurd, iiw, Zaza jan. Av. jam^i 'kills,' Old Pers. ajanam, Phi. ^awc^#, New Pers. F a 68 IXDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY sanad, Zaf. hazint, Kas. jidan, Kuhr. jindamiin, Siyn. zltmm, Sarq. zanam, Afy. zanam, Bal. janag, Kurd, zanin. Old Pers. haji ' tribute,' New Pers. haj^ hdz, bciz. Phi. barejan ' oven/ New Pers. barejan, Bal. brijag, brejag. J > 'A y- ^ 179. Tlie change of J to gli, y, is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. jaini ' woman/ Siyn. yin^ Sarq. yiw, zin, etc. (see preceding §). j > c. § 180. Tlie change of the media j to the tenuis c is regular in PaisacI Prakrit according to the well-known iiile of tliis dialect that all mediae or mediae aspiratae become tenues or tenues aspira- tae. Elsewhere the change is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. rdjan ' king/ Prak. rdci, Mahar. Prak. rdyd, Pais. Prak. rdcd, Pali rojd, New Ind. dialects rail, rdv, except Simh. rada, Maladive radimg, Gyp. rag. Skt. vrajati '■ wanders/ Prak. vacca'i, Pali vajati. Skt. hambdja ' Cambodia/ Prak. (inscriptions of Dhauli) kaniboca. j > j^'- § 181. The aspirization of an original j is a phenomenon of rare occurrence, a. Indian. Skt., YsiYx jawjala 'wild,' Old Hindi j«?jfyar. New Ind. dialects jatiujali, except Ass. jamjJial, Sindhi jhamgali. Skt., Prak., Pali jana ' person,' Bang. (Malda) jhan, Gyp. jeno. j > d. § 182. Tlie change of j to d is not uncommon in the Middle Indian dialects, and it is the regular change to which an original j is subject in Siihhalese. a. Indian. Skt. j//wa 'tongue,' PrUk. jihd, jlbbhd, Palijivhd, Ass. jibd, Naip. jibro, Kasm. zed, New Ind. dialects jlbh (Sindhi jibli), Simh. diva, Maladive da. Gyp. cib. Skt. jugupsati SINGLE CONSONANTS 69 ' despises,' Prak. du{g)ucchai, du{g)nmcliai, jhuna'i, juuccJiai, Pali jif/uccJiati. Skt. tPjas 'glory,' Prak. teu, Mahar. Prak. tei/a, Pclli tcja, Siiiih. teda. j >y- § 183. The change of j to y is in the Indian dialects only an apparent one, y being really inserted to prevent the liiatus arising from the loss of an intervocalic j (cf. §§ 122, 137, 143, 164). In the Iranian dialects an actual change of j to y is found, but it is very uncommon, a. Indian. Skt. rdjan ' king,' Mahar. Prak. rayd, etc. (see § 180). Skt. samaja ' herd,' Prak. (inscriptions of Kapur di Giri) samaya. Skt. gaja ' elephant,' Prak. gaya, gaa, Pali gaja. b. Iranian. Av. jaini 'woman,' Gab. yan{uk), jan, Kas., Kuhr. yan, jan, jin, zan, Nay. yanali, etc. (see § 178). j > V. § 184. Tlie change of j to v, like that of j to y in the Indian dialects, is only apparent, v being actually inserted to prevent the hiatus arising from the loss of an intervocalic j (cf. §§ 123, 138, 144). The phenomenon is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. rdjdnah 'of a king,' Prak. rddno, Sak. Prak. lavano (cf. also § 180). [See now Pischel, §§ 399-400.] j > z, § 185. In the Iranian dialects the change of j to z is very fre- quent. In the Indian dialects, however, it is only in the North East, particularly in Assamese, Kasmirl, vulgar Bangall (Eajbamsl and Eastern), and Bihari, that j is pronounced z. a. Indian. Skt. jihvd ' tongue,' Kasm. zeo, etc. (see § 182). Skt., Prak., Pali jala ' water,' Ass., Kasm., vulgar Bang., Bihari jaX (pron. za\ Sindhi jaru. b. Iranian, Av, jvaifl ' lives,' Old Pers. jJvdhy, Phi. zlvas- tano, New Pers. zJstan, Kas. vazandO, jiga, Afy. zvand[un), 70 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Kurd, zin, ^iin. Av. jaini ' woman,' Phi., New Pers. zan, etc, (see § 178). Kurd, vejdr ' tliis time,' Bohtani vesdr. Av. jafra ' deep,' Phi. ^i(far, ^afr, New Pers. zarf, Judaeo-Pers. zdrf, Afy. eavar, 'Bal.juM, N. Bal.jaM, Kurd, ior, Zazajor. j > z. § 186. The change of ^' to i, which is closely akin to the one discussed in the preceding paragraph, is very common in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. ^aini 'woman,' Siv. iiw, Zaf. ia«, Kas., Kuhr. iaw, jan^ jin, yan, Samn. zanikO, Sarq. zin, yln, Minj. zinga, Kurd, iiw, etc. (see § 178). Av. Jvai^i 'lives,' Afy. zvand{un), Kurd, ziin, zin, etc. (see preceding §). Av. jafra ' deep,' New Pers. zarf, Afy. zavar, Kurd, ior, etc. (see preced- ing §). Av. drdjah ' length,' Phi., Bal. drdj, N. Bal. (?mi, Kurd, dirlz. Syncope of j. § 187. Tlie loss of an original intervocaHc j is found occasion- ally in the Middle and New Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. rdjan 'king,' Prak. rdd, New Ind. dialects rail, rdv, etc. (see § 180). Skt. vyajana 'fan,' Prak. viana, Hindi hcnd. Skt., Pali ajagara ' boa-constrictor,' Mar. «n jh = jh. § 188. Original jh is excessively rare in the Indian dialects, and it is lacking altogether in the Iranian languages. In the majority of instances in the Indian dialects original jh is pre- served unchanged. a. Indian. Skt. jliampa ' leap,' Mar. jhemp. J1^ >J' § 189. The deaspirization otjh is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. jhalla 'name of a degraded caste,' Jaina Prak. jalla. SINGLE CONSONANTS 71 jh > z. § 190. In Assamese an original jli is written ^', which is pro- nounced z (cf. § 185). Similarly the resultant ^h of the Kasmii-i is pronounced z. a. Indian. Ass. ^dl ' pungency ' (pron. za\ Bang, jhaluyd, Hindi jhdl. t = t. § 191. All cases in which cerebral letters are concerned are confined to the Indian dialects. Indian t is preserved unchanged in the great majority of instances. a. Indian. Skt. trutati ' comes apart/ Prak. tuitat, todai, Ur. todand, Bang, toddtte, Sindhi todatm, Guj. tutavum, todavum, Mar. tutanem, todanem. Skt. kapdta ' door,' Prak. ka2)dta, Ur., Bang. Tiobdia, Hindi, Panj., Mar. kavdd. Skt. V'c{h)tit '■ to cut off,' New Ind. dialects ^/chut, but also Hindi cMr, Mar. sut, sod. t > d. § 192. The change of the tenuis t to the media d is the most frequent one to which Indian t is subject In the East New Indian dialects d often interchanges with r and this r itself may further develop into r. No distinction is here made between d and r. a. Indian. Skt. atavl ' forest,' Apab. Prak. adai, Pali atam. Skt. hhata 'soldier,' Prak. bhada, Apab. Wiadu, Pali hhaia. Skt. gliata 'jar,' Prak. gJiada, Pali ghata, Hindi ghadd, other New Ind. dialects ghadi. Skt. hlta ' worm,' Prak. Mda, Pali TiUa, Ur., Bang., Hindi Mdd, Sindhi hidoy Guj. hido, Mar. kid^ kidd, Gyp. kirl. Skt., Pali katdJia 'pan,' Ur. karm, kahrdt, kadhei, Bang. kad{di), Hindi, Panj., Sindhi kaddhl, Guj. kadhd, kadJial, Siihli. kuldva. t > dJi. § 193. The rare change of t to dh seems to occur more often in the Middle than in the New Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. safd ' mane,' Prak. sddhd. Skt. sakatikd 72 INDO-IIiANIAN niONOLOGY 'cart,' Pnik. saf/adhrl, Haur. Prak. saadin, Pali sakata. Ski liditahha *namo of a demon,' Prak. hedhava. Skt. aksapata * arena,' E. Hindi akhdrh, Hindi akhdra, Mar. ahhddd. t >t. § 194. Tlie decerebralization of Indian / to ^ occurs very rarely. a. Indian. Skt. kufumhaJca 'house-holder,' Pais. Prak. kufmnbaka, kutumhaka, Pali kutumhaka, kutimhaka. t >p. § 195. The change of ^ to 2? is excessively rare, a. Indian. Skt. karoti ' pot,' Pali kalopi. t > r. § 198. The change of ^ to r (cf. § 192) is not frequent. a. Indian. Skt. katdha ' pan,' Ur. karai, kahrdt, kadJiei, etc. (see § 192). Skt. ceta ' servant,' Panj. cerd, ccld, etc. (see following §). f > I. § 197. The change of ^ to Z is not uncommon in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. spliatika ' crystal,' Prak. pJtalika, plmdilm, phadia, Pali phalika. Skt. karkataka 'crab,' Jaina Prak. kak- kada, Pali kakkataka, Siiiih. kakiduvd, kakuhivd, Skt. katdha ^ pan,' Simh. kuldva, etc. (see § 192). Skt. ccta ' servant,' Prak. ceda, Pali cetaka, Ur., Bang, a'ld, Hindi celd, cedd, Panj. celd, card, Sindhi, Guj. cclo, Mar. ccld. t > I § 198. Tlie change of t to I occurs especially in Simhalese, ■where I and / are used indiscriminately, although the Maladive distinguishes sharply between I and /. a. Indian. Skt. kuta 'peak,' Prak. kuda, Pali kufa, Simh. kulu. Skt. sphotati ' bursts forth,' Prak. phutfa'i, phtidat, Pali SINGLE CONSONANTS 73 phutati, Hindi phut, Panj. phutt, other New Ind. dialects phuf, except Simh. polanava. th = fh. § 199. The retention of th without change is very rare in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. matha ' college,' Prak. madha, Mar. (dimin.) niadhi, other New Ind. dialects math. th > t § 200. The deaspirization of th is very rare in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. htthan ' axe,' Prak. hidhdra, Pali Jcuthart, Ur. Jcutdrl, kuhrari, Jcufadt, Bang, hurhul, Jcurhadi, Bihari, Hindi ktdharl, Jcuhddd, Panj. Jcuhddd, Jcumlhdrd, kulhddd, Sindhi, Guj. Jctihdro, Mar. hurhdi, Jcurhdr. th > d. § 201. The change of th to d is found occasionally in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. pitha 'pedestal,' Prak. pidha, pedha, Pali pltha, Bang, pimdd, Hindi, Panj. pJdM, Sindhi pedahi, Guj. X)edhi, Mar. pat. Skt. paijiana 'reading,' Ur. padhihd, Bang. piadhite, Hindi, Panj. padhand, Sindhi padahanu, Guj. pad- havutk, Mar. padhanem. th > dh. § 202. The change of th to dh is the most common one of aU those to which Indian th is subject. It is especially characteristic of the Western dialects. a. Indian. Skt. pitha ' pedestal,' Prak. pidha, pedha, Hindi, Panj. pldhd, Guj. pedhi, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. Jmthdri 'axe,' Prak. Jcudhnra, Bang, hurhid, Jcurhfldi, etc. (see § 200). Skt. pathati ' reads,' Prak. padhai, Pali pathati, Ass. V parh, Bang, par, New Ind. dialects padh, parh, E. New Ind. dialects also parh. 74 IXDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY th > rh, rli. § 203. The change of th to rh, rh, is especially characteristic of the Eastern dialects, wliile the Western dialects, as noted in the preceding paragrapli, tend to the change of th to dh. a. Indian. Skt. kuthari 'axe,' Bang. JcurMd, JcurJuidi, etc. (see § 200). Skt. imthati ' reads,' New Ind. dialects parh, padh, E. New Ind. dialects also j;«rA, etc. (see preceding §). th > II § 204. The change of th to II is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. atdkotha, ai9kol{l)a ' name of a tree,' Prak. amholla, Pali amJcola, Guj., Mar. amkol. th > Ih. § 205. The change of th to Ih is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. kuthari 'axe,' Bihari, Hindi kulhdrJ, kuhada, Panj. kidhadd, kumlhdrd, kuliddd, etc. (see § 200). Skt. kuthara ' sugar-mill,' Mag. Prak. kudhale, Bihari kolhii. th > h. § 206. The change of th to h is one of extreme rarity in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. kiifhdri 'axe,' Bihari, Hindi kiihadd, kul- harJ, Panj. kiihddd, kulhddd, kumlhdrd, Sindhi, Guj. kuhdrO, etc. (see § 200). th > hr. § 207. The change of fh to hr is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. kuthdri ' axe,' Ur. kuhrdri, kutddl, kutdrt, etc. (see § 200). d = d. § 208. Indian d is in general retained unchanged in the Middle and New Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. pJdana ' pressure,' Prak. j)t. § 209. The change of d to t occurs regularly in the PaisacI Prakrit. a. Indian. Skt. vadisa, hadisa 'fish-hook,' Prak. hadisa, halisa, Pais. Prak. vatisa, Pali halisa, Hindi balia. d>d. § 210. The decerebralization of Indian d occurs very rarely in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. '/daj) ' to collect,' Ur. dahiba, Bang, dahana, Hindi dabana, dabav, dabel, Panj. dabband, Sindhi dabanu, Guj. dabavmh, Mar. dabancm. d > r, r. § 211. The change of d to r, r, is particularly characteristic of the East New Indian dialects. Such an r developed from an original d may often become r, and indeed in Hindi r and r are interchangeable. In the West New Indian dialects, however, d is generally retained unchanged, and it seldom becomes r, r (cf. §§ 202, 203). a. Indian. Skt. pidana ' pressure,' Sindhi pirmm, indanu, etc. (see § 208). Skt. udiipa ' boat,' Pali idumim, Simh. oni(va\ Maladive odi. d>l § 212. Tlie change of d to I is one of the most frequent of all those to which Indian d is subject. a. Indian. Skt. dacllma, dalima, Prak. dalima, Pali ddlinia, Hindi darim, Sindhi darhum. Skt. hrldati ' plays,' Prak. hilai^ Apab. Prak. Mladi, Pah Jiilati. Skt. sudasa ' sixteen,' Prak. solaha, Jaina Prak. solasa, Pali solasa, soraJia, Kasm. surah, Ur. sohala, Bang, sola, Biharl sorah, Hindi solah, Panj. sdlam, Sindhi sOraham, Guj, sol, Mar. sola. d > l § 213. The change of d to ?, which is closely akin to the change discussed in the preceding paragraph, occurs quite frequently in the Indian dialects. 76 IXDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. pldana ' pressure,' Mar. pllanem, etc. (see § 208). Skt. udH])a 'boat,' Pali tdumpa, etc. (see § 211). Skt. Jcrodaka ' lap,' Apab. Prak. kolau, Guj. hold. Skt. sodasa ' six- teen,' Prak. solaha, Jaina Prak. sohisa, Pali solasa, Panj. soUim, Guj. sol, Mar. sola, etc. (see preceding §). dli > 2'/'. § 214. The change of dh to rh is quite common in the New Indian dialects, especially in the Eastern languages (cf. §§ 202, 203, 211). a. Indian. Skt. mudlia 'fool,' New Ind. dialects (except Bang., Mar.) tnfirlm. dh > r. § 215. The change of dh to r occurs very rarely. a. Indian. Skt. mudhatva ' folly,' Prak. mudJiattana, Hindi muraJcJiapan, Panj. milraldiapuna. dh > I, Ih. § 216. The change of dh to I, Ih, is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. udvodha ' bridegroom,' Bang, didln, duldl, Hindi didha. Skt. ududhd ' bride,' Hindi dulhin, Guj. dulahi. dh > /, IJi. § 217. The change of dh to I, IJi, is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. drdha ' firm,' Prak. dadJia, Pali dalha, Simh. dala. n > n. § 218. Tlie change of n to n is not frequent in the Indian dialects, excepting in the PaisficT Prakrit, where it occurs regulai'ly. a. Indian. Skt. gimaganayuhta ' equipped with a host of virtues,' Pais. Prak. gunaganajtitta. Skt. hmhmana ' Brahman,' Prak. (inscriptions of Kapur di Giri) h{r)amana, lit. Prak. ham- hana, Mahar. Prak. hamhhana, Pali hr^diniana. n > I, l. § 219. Tlie change of n to I, I, is excessively rare in the Indian dialects. SINGLE CONSONANTS 77 a. Indian. Skt. vdnija 'merchant,' Prak. vani{j)a, Sirhh. velamda, venamda. t = t § 220. Indo-Iranian t remains in general unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects, excepting for the Iranian spirantization of ^ to ^ before consonants. a. Indian. Skt., Prak., Pali timda ' snout,' Biharl thomth, thor, Hindi, Panj. iojud, Guj. dund, Mar. tonida^ kmd, hind, ddi'nd. Skt. jyoti ' light,' Pali juti, Hindi jot{i), Panj. jotand, Sindhi jot{i), Guj. jot Skt. rfu *■ season,' Prak. udu (Saur. and Miig.), uu, rill, Pali iitu, Sindhi ruti, Guj. rnt{n). Mar. ridu. b. Iranian. Old Pers. rautah ' river,' Plil. rot. New Pers. rod, Bal. rot, Kurd. ro. Av. tanii ' body,' Phi., New Pers. tan, WaxI tan, §iyn. tana, Afy. tan, Oss. thanag. Av. tarsna ' thirst,' Phi. tisn, New Pers. tis, Gab. tasna, Wax! toa:(7), Siyn, tasna, Sarq. f/f>^7), Yidg. trusna, Afy. #aiai, Bal. tunnag, tilnag, N. Bal. ^/i««^, Kurd. ^7, ^aw7. Av. paitidita 'seen,' Plil. dlto, New Pers. d'ldah, Bal. cZlto, Kurd. dit. t > i. § 221. The vocalization of Indo-Iranian t is very rare. The stages in this development were probably t to d, to 8, to i. h. Iranian. Av. Joata ' house,' Phi. kaiaJc, New Pers. Jcadah, Zaf. Z;7, Kas. hiyali, Von. ^^e, Kuhr. hiyah, Nat. ^/a/», WaxI ^af, Siyn. eld, Sarq. c^"(Z, Minj. hai, Yidg. A;?/^, Yayn. y^af. Av., Old Pers. hrdtar 'brother,' Phi. brdfar, hrdt. New Pers. hirddar, Kas. hardi, hard, Gil. brdr, WaxI vriit, Siyn. ■yiratZ, Sarq. vrod, Sangl. vurd, Yidg. vrai, Yayn. virdt, Afy. vror, Bal. h'dt, N. Bal. 6ra5, hrdO, Kurd, hard, virdd, Dig. Oss. arvdda, Tag. arvdd. Av. visaiti ' twenty,' Phi. v7s^. New Pers. &75^, WaxI v7s^, Sarq. vist, Bal. ^7s^, Dig. Oss. insai, Tag. sso;'. ^ >9- § 222. The change oi t to g is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. dtars ' fire,' Phi. atas, New Pers. (a)^«l, atis, 78 JNDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Gab. ta&, §iyn. yac, Sarq. yuc, N. Bal. ac, Kurd, cujir, ar, er, Zaza adir. t > c. § 223. Tlie change of ^ to c is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. tisthati 'stands,' Pnlk. ciitjiadi, citfha'i, that (cf. also cithitii ' let him stand,' inscriptions of Dhauli), Pfili titthati, thdti, Ur. cida, time, Hindi, Panj. the, Sindhi thic, Guj. tlmy, Mar. tMnem. [Here we may perhaps note the change of ^ to c in Kasmlrl under the influence of a following i in the formation of the femi- nine, e.g., Kasm. mot 'foolish,' fern. 7nuc <* motl.] t > t. § 224. Tlie cerebralization of Indo-Iranian t occurs quite frequently in the Indian dialects. It is especially common in Sindhi. a. Indian. Skt., Pali tilaka 'sectarial mark,' Ur., Bang. tika, Hindi tlka, Panj. t'lkka, Sindhi t'lhd, Guj. tilu, filT, tilj), Mar. tika, tiU. Skt. prati ' toward,' Prak. pati, padi, Pali pafi. Skt. tamra 'copper,' Prak. tamba, tamhira, Ass. tam, Kasm. tram, Ur., Bang, tdma, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. tamha, tamCi, Sindhi tamo, Guj. tamhii, trmibum, Mar. tdnibcm, Siriih. iamhara. t > th. § 225. The change of t to tJt is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. tunda ' snout,' Bihari thumth, thor, etc. (see § 220). Skt. vrtti ' business,' Prak. vatti, Sindhi vathi. t >d. § 226. Tlie change of t to d is not infrequent in the Indian dialects, being much more common than the change of t to t. a. Indian. Skt. patati ' falls,' Prak. padai, Pali patati, Ur. padikd, Bang, padand, Hindi parand, Sindhi imvanu, Guj. padavum. Mar. padaneih, paranem, Gyp.V/>er. Skt. patdhd ' banner,' Prak. padaya, Jaina Prak. paddgd, Pali patakd. Skt. taJcsan ' carpenter,' Sindhi dakhanu. SINGLE CONSONANTS 79 t > th, 6. § 227. Tlie change of t to tJi, 6, is rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects, apart from the change of ^ to ^ according to the Iranian law of spirantization and excepting th developed from t in North BalucI and Ossetish. a. Indian. Skt. trpyati ' rejoices/ Prak. thippm. Skt. (ipata ' path,' Pali dpdtlia. b. Iranian. Av. tapayeiti 'warms,' Phi. tdftano, New Pers. tdhad, Gab. to, Kas. tovun, WaxI davam, Siyn. tabam, Sarq. davam, Afy. taha, Bal. tap, N. Bal. thap, tJiaf, Kurd, tdv, Dig. Oss. thaft, Tag. thavin. Av. tdrdsaiti 'fears,' Plil. tmsitam, New Pers. tarsulan, Afy. tarJicdal, Bal. tursay, trusag, N. Bal. tlmrsay, Kurd, tirsin, Dig. Oss. tharsmi. Tag. tharsin. Av., Old Pers. data ' law,' Phi. ddt. New Pers. ddd, Bal. fZa^a, N. Bal. ddda, ddsd. Av. hrdtar ' brother,' N. Bal. hrdQ, hrds, etc. (see § 221). t> d. § 228. Tlie change of the tenuis t to the media d is very common both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. tatah ' thence,' Mahar. Prak. tatto, Saur. Prak. tado, Apab. Prak. daii, Pali tato. Skt. tdvat 'so long,' Saur. Prak. ddva, PaU tdva. Skt. (/«te 'gone,' Saur., Mag. Prak. gads, Pais. Prak. gata, Apab. Prak. gadii, Pali gata, Siriih. y. § 229. The change oi t to y in the Indo-Iranian dialects is only an apparent one, y being actually inserted to prevent the hiatus caused by the loss of an interv^ocalic t (see §§ 122, 137, 143, 16-4, 183). a. Indian. Skt. itara ' other,' Prak. iara, Mahar. Prak, iyara. Skt. kdtara * coward,' Apab. Prak. Jcdyaru, E. Hindi, Hindi, Guj. Jcayar, Mar. Jcdmrd. b. Iranian. Av. matar 'mother,' Phi. mdt{ar), New Pers. mddar, Gab., Siv. mdya, Kas. mdi, moya, Von. DiOa, Maz. mar, mur, Gil. mdar, mur, Tal. tnii. Tat mdi, Siyn. mad, Minj. mdyd. Av., Old Pers. ^i^ar ' father,' Phi. pii[ar). New Pers, pidar, Gab. j?ar, Ka§. 2;'a?, '^acif. pi,])ayi, ^lyn. pad, Saxq. pit, Aiy. pldr, Bal. pit, N. Bal. ^7i»5, _^/ii^, Dig. Oss, fida, Tag. /c?. t > r. § 230. The change of ^ to r (in the Indian dialects through the transition-grades d, d, r) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt, saptati ' seventy,' Prak,, Pali sattari, Naip. sattari, Kasm. satat, Ur. sattori, Bang., Biharl, Hindi, Panj. sattar, Sindhi satari, Guj. siter. Mar. sattar. b, Iranian. Av. vdta ' wind,' Tat vdr, etc. (see § 228). t > I § 231. The change of ^ to Z is very rare in the Indo-Iranian dialects, excepting in Afyan, where t regularly becomes I, unless the t is protected by a voiceless consonant. a. Indian. Skt. krta ' done/ Ardhamag., Avant., Sakarl Prak. Jcala, Biharl Jcail, Mil, Jcayal (similarly in all j^crf. part, in Biharl), etc. (see § 228). b. Iranian. Av. j^itar ' father,' Afy. pldr, etc. (see § 229). Av. vaCti ' willow,' Afy. vala, etc. (see § 228). SINGLE CONSONANTS 81 t > V. § 232. The change of ^ to v is only apparent, v being actually inserted to prevent the liiatus arising from the loss of an inter- vocalic t (cf. §§ 123, 138, 144, 184). The phenomenon is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. afapa ' sunshine,' Pali attipa, Siihh. av{u)va. Skt. mcitar '■ mother,' Prak. mm, Pali matar, Hindi ma{;i), mail, Panj. mail, maiXm, mdmu, ma{i), Sindhi rnciu, Elu mava, Simh. mav{u), md. t > s. § 233. The change of f to s is excessively rare, excepting in Simhalese and North Balucl. a. Indian. Skt. tuccha ' empty,' Prak. c{h)i(ccha, Pali tucclia, Sirhh. sis, his. b. Iranian. Av. delta 4aw,' N". Bal. ddsd, ddda, etc. (see § 227). Av. hratar ' brother,' N. Bal. hras, hraO, etc. (see § 221). f > li. § 234. The change of t to li is very rare, excepting in Simha- lese, where the h is a further development of the 5 arising from an original t (see preceding §). a. Indian. Skt. tucclia ' empty,' Prak. c{h)uccJia, Pali tuccha, Siihh. his, sis. Syncope of t. § 235. The loss of Indo-Iranian t is quite frequent both in the Middle and in the New periods of the Indo-Iranian languages. The syncope occurs more often in the Middle than in the New Inchan dialects, and more commonly in the Iranian than in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. cafurtha ' fourth,' Prak. cauWia, caUttha, cottha, Ur. cdudlia, Bang, cdudd, Hindi, Panj. cduthd, Sindhi, Guj. cotho, Mar. cdmhthd. Skt. sata 'himdred,' Prak. saa, say a, Pais. Prak. sata, Pali sata, Kasm. hath, Ur. sae^ Bang. a 82 IXDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY saya, Biharl sau, Hindi, Panj. sai, sdu, Sindhi sdu, Guj, so, Mar, sem, samhhar. Skt. 2)ifar * father,' Prak. 2>i((, Pali ];)itar^ Hindi 2iiu, Panj. inn, Sindhi })iu, Sirhh. piya. Skt. matar ' mother,' Prak. 7)idd, Hindi nid{i), nidil, Panj. Oiidii, mdilm, mdmu, /wa(^), Sindhi mail, Simh. wia, mav{u\ etc. (see § 232). b. Iranian. Av. mdfar 'mother,' Ka§. 7ndi, moi/a, Von. moa, Maz. mdr, mur, Gil. mdar^ mor, Till, mil, Tat mOi^ etc. (see § 229). Skt. jata ' swift,' Phi. ^ilf, New Pers. ^ud, Maz. ^7, Tal., Tat jsil, Bal. zut, ^U, N. Bal. ^W, Kurd. zii. Av. vdta ' wind,' Siv. vdi, Zaf. i;o, Kas. voi, Maz. I'rt, Afy. vu, Kurd, hd, vdi, etc. (see § 228). E])enthesis of t. § 236. Epenthetic t is an extremely rare phenomenon. b. Iranian. Av. asm 'tear,' Plil., New Pers. ars, Kas. asl, Maz. rtsr, Afy. Osciy Bal. «Zs, Kurd. {li)istir, asr. th = tk § 237. Indo-Iranian th is in general preserved unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt, Pali mathana ' churning,' Bang, matliana, mdthd, Hindi mathand, maliand, mafhd, Sindhi niat/ianu, Guj. mathavum, mapiU, Mar. ma{)H)tlianc)h, mdtlian. Skt. yutlia ' herd,' Mahar. Prak. julia, Pali yutlia^ Hindi jcdh, jathd, Panj. ji'ih, Guj. jathd, Mar. jafhancm. b. Iranian. Av. luiOana ' broad,' Plil. ])ahan, New Pers. pahn, Kas. j;ew, xmhan, pan, Afy. j>Za», Bal. patan, Kurd. ^a«, Oss. fathan. Av. ^/w^a ' excrement,' Phi., New Pers. guh, Kas. gus, WaxI gii, gi, Siyn. yad, Yayn. yilt{ah), Afy. yul, N. Bal. .97^, Kurd. /7i7. Ay. fradanjayeiti ' harnesses,' New Pers. tanj'idan, BaL tajBnag, Dig. Oss. ithinjim. Tag. thinjin. th > th. ^ 238. The cerebralization of ludo-Iranian th occurs rarely in the Indian dialects. SINGLE CONSONANTS 83 a. Indian. Skt. pratliama 'first,' Priik. })adhania, Pali pntliama, Ass. ponar, Naip. paliilo, Bihari paliil, pahtl^ Hindi, Panj. jyalnld, Sinclhl jjaJianjom, piMr{y)om., paJierya, Guj. pvJicld, pehalum, Max. pahild, ^iixih.. palamii. th > dh. § 239. Tlie change of th to dh is more frequent in the Indian dialects than the simple cerebralization of an original th. a. Indian. Skt. sithila ' slack/ Prak. sidhila, Pali sithila, safhila, Ur. dhil'l, Bang, dhtld, Hindi dJnJd, Panj. dhilla, Sindhi dJiilo, dhiro, Guj. dhUmh, Mar. dhild. Skt. mcfhi 'post,' Prak. nicdhi, Mar. mcdhl, medhd. th > t. § 240. The deaspirization of Indo-Iranian tli is excessively rare, except in Balucl. a. Indian. Skt., Prak., Pali Tiathd ' tale,' Bang. (Burdwan) hatd. b. Iranian. Av. fraOanjayeiti ' harnesses,' New Pers. tanjl- dan, Bal. tajenag, etc. (see § 237). Av. maeOana ' abode,' Phi., New Pers. mehcm, Bal. metag. th > dh. § 241. The change of th to dh is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. atha 'thus,' Saur., Pais. Prak. adha, Pali atha. Skt. tathd ' so,' §aur. Prak. tadhd, Pah tathd. Skt. vyatliayafi 'trembles,' Pali vedhati. th > y. § 242. The insertion of y to prevent the hiatus caused by the loss of an original intervocalic tit is exceedingly rare (cf. §§ 122, 137, 143, 164, 183, 229). a. Indian. Skt. ra/7ia ' cart,' Apab. Prak. raJni, Prdi ratha, Simh. riya. G 2 8i INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY th > I. § 243. The change of th to I is excessively rare, excepting in Afyan. b. Iranian. Av. paOana ' broad,' Afy. plan, etc. (see § 237). Av. guda ' excrement/ Af/. yiil, etc. (see § 237). th > I § 244. The change of th to Z is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. ;prathama 'first,' Simh. palamu, etc. (see § 238). § 245. The change of th to h is by far the most frequent one of all the changes to which Indo-Iranian th is subject. a. Indian. Skt. athavd ' or,' Prak. aJiavd, Apab. ahava'i, inscriptions of Girnar, Dhauli, and Khalsi aho, Pali athavd. Skt. ratha 'cart,' Apab. Prak. rahu, etc. (see § 242). Skt. hathana 'speech,' Prak. kahana, Pali Jcathana, Ur. Jcahihd, Bang. Jcahite, Hindi hahand, Panj. kahind, Sindhi hahanu, Guj. Jcehavum. Skt. prathama 'first,' Naip. ijahilo, Biharl pahil, pahelj Hindi, Panj. pahild, Sindhi paharyom, inhir{y)om, jia- herya, Guj. pehclo, pehalum, Mar. pahild, etc. (see § 238). Skt. gdthd 'song,' Prak. gdhd, Prdi gdthd, Old Hindi gdhd, Sindhi gdi. Skt. prth{i)vi ' earth,' Prak. puhav't, pulnm, pudhavl, Pali pathavi, puthavl, puthum, pathavi, Old Hindi puhumi. b. Iranian. Av. maeOana 'abode,' Phi., New Pers. mchan, etc. (see § 240). Av. padana ' broad,' Phi. pahan, New Pers. pahn, Kus. pahan, pan, pen, etc. (see § 237). Av. guda ' excre- ment,' Pill., New Pers. guh, etc. (see § 237). Av. gaeOanqm ' of creatures,' Phi., New Pers. gchdn. d = d. \ 246. Indo-Iranian d is in general preserved unchanged in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. da^a 'ten,' Prak. dasa, Saur. Prak. daha, SINGLE CONSONANTS 85 Pali dasa, Kasm. dahn, Ur., Bang., BiharT, Hindi das, Panj. das, dah, Sinclhl dah, Guj. das, Mar. daJid. Skt. dasati ' bites,' Pali dasati, Ur. daihhihd, dams, Bang, dams, ddms{a), Hindi dams{aJc), damik, Sindhi danigami, Mar. dams, ddmcancm, dam- hliancm, dasanem. Skt. yadi 4f/ Prak. jai, Jaina Prak. jati, Faliyadi, Hindi j ad, jc, jo, Panj., Sindhi je. b. Iranian. Av. dacman 'face,' Plil. andemankar, Paz. andi- mdni. New Pers. dim, Sir., Zaf., Ka§. dim, Kuhr. ^im, dum, Afy. Ze;;^rt. Av. dantan 'tooth,' Phi., New Pers. danddn, WaxI dundiih, Siyn., Sarq. Mnddn, Minj. Zcmc?, Bal. dantan, N. Bal. datMn, dhantlidn, Kurd, diddn, Oss. dandag. Av. j;a8a ' foot,' Phi. jpa?, New Pers. j^a{i), WaxI ^zt5, Siyn. j?a5, Sarq. ;pah, Sangl. xjud, Minj. palali, Yidg. 'pidluli, Yayn, ^? i. § 247. The vocalization of Indo-Iranian d through the transi- tion-grade 8 is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. paha ' foot/ Phi. pal, New Pers. pd{i), Zaza pal, etc. (see preceding §). fZ > lih, X. \ 248. The change of d to lili, oc, is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Iran, ^ni + Vdnl) 'to liide,' New Pers. nilmftan, Km-d. nixiftin (very doubtful). d> g. § 249. The change of d to g is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. dadrfighna ' good for leprosy,' Pali gaddii- Jiana (the change of d to g in this word is due to dissimilation from the second d and assimilation to the following gJi). d > jh. § 250. The change of d to jh occurs with extreme rarity, a. Indian. Skt. duhitar ' daughter/ Prak. dlvi(ij)d, 6aur. Prak. 86 IXDO-IRAXIAN PHONOLOGY dhuda, dhtdd, Prili dhlfd, dhitam, Ass. ji, Ur. jhia, Bang, jht, Hindi, Panj. dlii{ya\ Sindhl dhlii, dhiy, Guj. dhi(]ijd). d > d. § 251. The cerebralization of Indo-Iranian d is found quite frequently in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. daliati 'burns,' Prak. daha'i, Pali dahati, Hindi ddh, dah, Sindhi dah. Skt. ^hrdaka 'hearty,' Mag. Prak. liaddkha. Skt. diita ' messenger,' Jaina Prak. duya, Pali dilta. Skt. dasati ' bites,' Bang. dcms{d), dams, Hindi daniiJc, dams{aJc), Sindhi damgami, Mar. ddihcanem, dasancm, damJcha- nem, dams, etc. (see § 246). Skt. pravada 'narrative,' Pali 2)avdda, Hindi, Sindhi pavdr, Guj. pavdd, Mar. pavddd. Skt. dold 'swing,' Prak. dold, Pali dold, Biharl dor, dor, Hindi dol{d), doll, dol{d), doliJc, Panj., Sindhi doU, Guj. doa, dolavum. Mar. dold, doll, dola, doli, Anglo-Ind. doolij. d>t § 252. The change of the voiced d to the voiceless t is regular in the Paisilcl Prakrit, but elsewhere it is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. durgd ' name of ParvatI,' Pais. Prak. tiikkd. Skt. pradesa ' district,' Pais. Prak. patesa, Pali padcsa. Skt. yadi ' if,' Jaina Prak. jati, etc. (see § 246). d > th. § 253. The change of d to th occurs very rarely in Ossetish. b. Iranian. Av. dabaiti 'gives,' Plil. ddtano. New Pers. dddan, Samn. dam, Maz. hadia, Gil. fandi, Tal. diah, WaxI rahnn, Siyn. hiam, Sarq. ham, Afy. lal, Bal. dcag, N. Bal. dcay, Kurd, dan, Dig. Oss. dadthun. Tag. daththin. Av. daroya ' long,' Old Pers. darga, Afy. Idrya, Kurd., Oss. darg, but Oss. ihanius 'hare' (lit. 'long-car,' cf. New Pers. dardsgos 'hare, donkey '). d > dh, h. § 254. The aspirization of an original d is found both in the SINGLE CONSONANTS 87 Indian and in the Iranian dialects apart from the regular change in Iranian of d tor 8 before consonants. a. Indian. Skt. duhitar ' daughter/ Prak. dln[y)a, Saur. Prak. dhuda, dMdd, Pali dhtta, dhitara, Hindi, Panj. dhi{ya\ Sindlil dhiu, dhiy, Guj. dhl{yd), etc. (see § 250). Skt. drnihita 'firm,' Jaina Prak. dhaniya. b. Iranian. Av. dasa 'ten,' Phi. daJiuni, New Pers. dah, WaxI bas, las, Siyn. his, lis, Sarq. bcs, Sangl. das, Yidg. his, Yayn. das, Afy. las, Kurd, dav, Zaza das, Oss. das{am). Av. dahaiti 'gives,' WaxI raodn, Siyn. hiam, Sarq. ham, etc. (see preceding §). Av. paha 'foot,' WaxI piih, Siyn. pah, Sarq. j^;a8, N. Bal. phdd, phdz, etc. (see § 246). Av. x^aeha ' sweat,' Phi. x^'ede, x^at, New Pers. x^^ai, WaxI ;ri?, Sarq. xaih, Afy. ic'^ctZc, Bal. hed, N. Bal. 7ic8, Kurd, xil, xoli, xoi, Oss. xac?. d > n. § 255. Tlie change of d to n is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. navadasa 'nineteen,' Plil. navdcdaJmm, New Pers. nuvdzdahum, Afy. niinas, nidas. Dig. Oss. naudas, Tag. § 256. The change of fZ to ^ is only apparent, the y being really inserted to prevent the hiatus caused by the loss of an original intervocalic d (cf. §§ 122, 137, 143, 164, 183, 229, 242). Tlie phenomenon is much more infrequent in the Iranian than in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. Jchddita ' eaten,' Prak. hliaia, Mahar. Prak. Jchalya, Pali khayita, Panj, lihddhd, Guj. kJiddJw, Mar. Widlld. Skt. Jirdaya 'heart,' Prak. Jiiaya, liiaa, Pali hadaya. Ass., Ur., Biharl Jiia, Hindi hiyd, Panj. hiydm, Jiiamh, Sindhi Mmimiu, Mar. Jiiyyd, liiyem. Gyp. {y)ild. Skt. ddvsa ' order,' Pali ddesa. Old Biharl dycsu, dcsu, dyasu, aisu. Skt. pada 'foot,' Prak. paa, Mahar. Prak. pada, Hindi pd{m)v, Panj. pd{m)v, pdmh, Simh. pay a, piya. b. Iranian. Skt. Jchddati 'eats,' New Pers. xdyad, Kurd. 88 jyDO-IBAXIAN FIIONOLOGY xdin. Phi. xadfi{li) ' saliva,' New Pers. xayu^ xadii. New Pcrs. hdddm ' almond,' Siyn., Sarq. vcujdm, Kurd. hCiliw, haw. d > r. § 257. The change of d to r is not a frequent one. a. Indian. Skt. tddrsa ' such,' Prak. tdrisa, Pais. Prak. tdtisa, Pali tddisa. Skt. ttddrsa '■ such,' Mahar. Prak. cydrlsa, edrisa, Pali cr/sa, edisa. Skt. gadgada ' stammering,' Prak. gaggara. Skt. cJcadasa ' eleven,' Prak. edraha, Pali ekarasa, cicadasa, Kasm. Z:a/<-, Ur., Bang, egdra, Biharl eggdrah, Hindi igdraJi, ggdrah, Panj. gidrdm, Sindhi iJcdraJtam, ydraliamy Guj. o^iar, Mar. akard. d>l § 258. The change of d to I is quite frequent in the Indian dialects, but it is very rare indeed in the Iranian dialects, excepting in the Afyan. a. Indian. Skt. hadamba ' sort of tree,' Prak. Jcalamha. Skt. iwadlpta '■ kindled,' Prak. pal'wa, palitta, Mahar. Prak. pallviya, Jaina Prak. palitta^ Biharl pallt Skt. doJiada, dohala ' longing of a pregnant woman,' Prak. dohala, dohala, dohada, Pali dohala. b. Iranian. Av. dasa 'ten,' Wax! las, bas, Siyn. lis, bis, Yidg. lus, Afy. las, etc. (see § 254). Av. ^;a8a 'foot,' Minj. palah, Yidg. pidluh, Afy. pal, etc. (see § 246). Phi. x^atdi *God,' New Pers. xuddi, Siyn., Sarq. qudd, Kurd, xade, xude, Mukri xola. Av. frazgabaiti ' hastens forth,' Afy. zyoli. d > I. § 259. nic change of d to I is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. dohada, dohala 'longing of a pregnant woman,' Prak. dohala, dohada, dohala, Pali dohala. d > V. § 260. The change of d to v is only apparent, v being actually inserted to prevent the hiatus caused by the loss of an original SINGLE CONSONANTS 89 intervocalic d (cf. §§ 123, 138, 144, 184, 232). The phenomenon is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. hadali 'phxntain,' Prak. karall, Jcmjall, hell, Pali Jcadcdi, Ur., Bang., Hindi, Panj. Jcaycdd, Mid, Sindhi Ticiyald, Jcela, dimin. Jcevido, Guj. Jcti, Jeer, Mar. Jcel, Siihh. Jcehel, hesel. d > h. § 261. Tlie change of d to li is very rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. hadcdl ' plantain,' Suhh. Jcclicl, liesel {s by false analogy), etc. (see preceding §). Skt. pddiha 'quarter,' Ur. iKihl, Bang, jifl?, Hindi jx«, Anglo-Ind. ^;?e. b. Iranian. New Pers. hdddm ' almond,' Kurd, hdhlv, hmv, etc. (see § 256). Syncope of d. § 262. Tlie syncope of Indo-Iranian d is less frequent in the Iranian than in the Indian dialects. In Iranian the loss of d occurs especially in the Persian dialects and in Kurdish. a. Indian. Skt. 7iadi 'river,' Prak. nat, Pali nadl, New Ind. dialects nadl, W. Bang, also ladt. Skt. kadaU ' plantain,' Prak. keli, hayall, Tiarali, Ur., Bang., Hindi, Panj. lield, hayald, Sindhi held, k ay aid, Guj. kel, kcr, Mar. kcl, etc. (see § 260). Skt. khddana ' meal,' Prak. klidana, Pali khddana, Ur. khd'ihd, Bang, khd'ite, Hindi kJidna, Panj. khdnd, Sindlil kJiainu, Guj. klidvum. Mar. klidnem. Skt. sarad ' autumn,' Prak. saraa, Mahar. Prak. saraya, Pali sarada, Sindhi saraii. b. Iranian. New Pers. naddram ' I have not,' Maz. ndrmaJi, Gil. naramah, but hadam ' I give.' Skt. padika ' traveller,' Phi. Xjaik, New Pers. paig (cf. Mahar. Prak. loan-word from New Pers. pdikka). Epenthesis of d. § 263. The epenthesis of d is very rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. 90 IX DO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian, Skt. pahcadasa ' fifteen/ Prak. pannaraha, Pali pahcadasa, Kasm. pandnli, Ur. pandhar, Bang, pomra, Bihar! pandarah, Hindi pamdrah, Panj. pamdardm, Sindhi pamdra- ham, pamdhrdm, Guj. pamdar, Mar. pamdhara. b. Iranian. Av. ddna 'grain/ Plil. dCmal', New Pers. ddnah, Sarq. ddna, Kurd. daudaJc, ddnaJcJ. dh = dh. § 264. Indo-Iranian dh is in general retained unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. dhuvala 'white/ Prak., Pali dhavala, Ur., Bang, dhald, Hindi dhdidd, Sindhi dhdumro, Guj. dholum, Mar. dhavd, dhaval. Skt. dJuivaJca 'washerman,' Ur., Bang, dhohd, dhOpd, Hindi dhohd. Skt. Jcsudhd ' hunger,' Maliar. Prak. Jchuhd, Prdi Jchudd, Hindi khiidhd, Panj. IJmddhid. b. Iranian. Av. haoihi ' perfume,' Plil. hod, hoi, New Pers. hoi, Gab. hud, WaxI vid, Sarq. hdo, Bal. hud, N. Bal. hoh, hos, Oss. hud. dh > d. § 265. Tlie change of dh to d is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. dhrsta ' bold,' Prak. dhiffha, dhaffha, Naip. dhiu'nto, Hindi, Panj. dJutJt, Sindhi difhu. dh > dh. § 266. The cerebralization of Indo-Iranian dh is not found very frequently in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. dhrsta ' bold,' Prak. dhittha, dhattha, Hindi, Panj. dJuth, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. VdJiakk 'destroy,' Prak. diiaJiJcai, Ur. dhaJcand, dhdmhand, Bang, dhdhite, Hindi dhakJcd, Panj. dhalcM, Sindhi dhalanu, dhihO, Guj. dhdmJcavum, Mai-. dhdmkanem. dh > t § 267. The change of dh to t is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. dhdrayati ' holds,' Prak. dharat, Pali dhdreti, Siitih. terenavd, daranava, Gyp. Vther, SINGLE CONSONANTS 91 dh > d. § 268. The deaspirization of Indo-Iranian dh is the most frequent change to which it is subject both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. dharma '■ virtue/ Prak., Pali dhamma, Kasm. daram, Elu daham, Simh. dam. Skt. dhattura 'thorn-apple,' Kasm. daftur, Ur. dhutitrd, dhudura, Bang., Hindi, Panj. dha- ttird, Sindhi dhdtitrd, Guj, dJiatilro, Mar. dhatilrd. Skt. ksudhd ' hunger,' Pali JcJmdd, etc. (see § 264). Skt. inadhu ' mead,' Mahar. Prak. maJiit, Pali madlni, Hindi mad, iiiadJm, Sindhi maduj Mar. madhu, Gyp. inol. b. Iranian. Skt. dhamati 'blows,' Phi., New Pers. dam, Dig. Oss. dimmn, Tag. dimin. Av. haoiH ' perfume,' Phi. hud, 1)01, Gab. Md, Bal. tud, Oss. hud, etc. (see § 264). dh > hh. § 269. The change of dh to hJt. is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. samninmdhati 'impedes,' Pali sannirmh- hh at I, sann irum liati. dh > If. § 270. The change of dh to p is only apparent, y being really introduced to prevent the liiatus arising from the loss of an inter- vocahc dh (cf. §§ 122, 137, 143, 183, 229, 242, 256). The phe- nomenon is not common. a. Indian. Skt. madhura ' sweet,' Mahar. Prak. mahura, Pali madhura, Simh. miyuru. b. Iranian. Skt. vadhu ' bride,' New Pers. hayo, Judaeo- Pers. hayOg, Kurd, hi'di. Av. mabu 'wine/ Phi., New Pers. mai^ Oss. mud. dh > I. § 271. The change of dh to I is quite rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. grhagodhiJcd ' lizard,' Pali gharagoliJcd. b. Iranian. Av. haoihi 'perfume/ WaxI vid, etc. (see § 264). 92 ly DO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY (Ih > V. § 272. The change of cVi to v is only apparent, v being actually inserted to prevent the hiatus arising from the loss of dh (cf. §§ 123, 138, 144, 184, 232, 260). a. Indian. Skt. tidadhara ' balance-holding,' Simh. tulavaru. dh > h. § 273. The change of dh to h is quite frequent in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. ausadhi ' drug,' Prak. osaha, osadha, Pali osadhi. Skt. sadhu 'good,' Prak. sahu, Pali sddhii, Biharl sdh, Sindhi sdii. Skt. hadhira ' deaf,' Prak. hahira, Pali hadhim, Ur. hahird, Bang, haherd, Hindi haJiird, Sindhi hOru, hodo, Guj. hchcro, Mar. haJiird, Suhh. hihiri. Skt. godhiima '■ wheat,' Apab. Prak. gohumu, Pali godhiima, Ass. ghcmhu, Naip. gdhum, Ur. gahama, gama, Bang, gam, gam, Biharl gdhum, Hindi go{m)hum, gehum, gheiim, Panj. gliciim, Sindhi gchim, Guj. ghaiim, Gyp. giv. Skt. vadhu ' bride,' Prak. vahu, Pali vadhti, Ur. hahu, Bang, hail, Hindi ha{h)r(, Panj. lohil, Sindlil vahiJ, huhu, Guj. vahu, Mar. vaJiil. Syncope of dh. § 274. Tlie loss of dh occurs only rarely in the Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. godhiima ' wheat,' Ur. gama, gahama. Bang. gom, gam, Hindi gheum, gehum, gO{m)hum, Panj. ghcum, Guj. ghailm, Gyp. gw, etc. (see preceding §). b. Iranian. Av. vibti, vibava ' widow,' Phi. vcvaJc, New Pers. hcvah, KaS. via, vTga, hlva, Kurd, hi. Tag. Oss. idaj. Av. hnca * from ' + alairi ' beneath,' Phi. a^tJr, Paz. azcr. New Pers. ^'cr, Siv. SI, Zaf. icr, other Central dialects jir, Samn. jer, Trd. jiar, Judaeo-Pers. zcr, Kurd, z'lr, Tag. Oss. dala. n = n. § 275. Indo-Iranian n is in general retained unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects, although in Middle Indian an original ii is usually cerebralized to n. SINGLE CONSONANTS 93 a. Indian. Skt. nmnan 'name,' Prak., Pali naman, New Ind. dialects nam{v), Gyp. anew, nav. Skt. namayati 'bows,' Prak. namci, Pali nnmcti, Ur. numa'i, Bang, nam, miya, Hindi na{v), Panj. nivd, Sindhi nar'nvd. Skt. sndna ' bath,' Apab. Prak. nlidnu, Pali sindna, ndhdna, Hindi nhdnd, Panj. nhdund, Guj. nahdn, Mar. nalidn, ndhancm. b. Iranian. Av. nqnian 'name,' Old Pers. ndman. Phi., New Pers. ndm, WaxI nwig, Afy. num, Bal. :?2a;;?. Dig. Oss. non, Tag. wowi. Av. nairya 'virile,' Phi. nerok, Paz., New Pers. mro, Siyn. >^^r, Sarq. niar, Sangl. naraJc, Yidg. war. Av. nava ' new,' Phi. navaJc, nok, Paz. wy. New Pers. nu, nav, Siyn. wait, Sarq. nuj, Afy. waw, navai, Bal. wc5^', N. Bal. wo^, Kurd. nu, Dig. Oss. navag. Tag. wvor/. Av. ^V«'«i ' woman,' Plil., New Pers. zan. Gab. Jaw, yan{Uk), Siv. iiw, Zaf. iaw, Kas., Kuhr.jaw, Jiw, 2/«w, iaw. Nay. yanah, Samn. zanilio, Siyn. yin, Sarq. y^}^, iiw, Minj. zinga, Afy. jinat, junai, jal, Bal. Jaw, Kurd, iiw, Zaza Jan. n > n. § 276. Tlie change of n to « is confined to the Sindhi, which alone preserves fd, n, pronounced tdg and ni respectively (see §154). a. Indian. Skt. stana ' female breast,' Pnik., Pali thanttj Ur., Bang, thana, Hindi than, Panj. than, Sindhi thah/t, thanu, Guj. thdn, Mar. thand. Skt. mdnand ' respect,' Hindi manna, Sindhi mahanu. n > n. § 277. The cerebralization of n is very frequent in the Middle Indian dialects. Vararuci, ii. 42, goes so far as to postulate a change of n to n throughout the Prakrits [no nah sarvatra, cf Pischel on Hemacandra, i. 229, Gramm. der Fralirit-Sprachen, § 224). In the New Indian dialects the change is less common. a. Indian. Skt. nadl 'river,' Prak. nai, Pali nadl. New Ind. dialects nadl, W. Bang, also ladi. Skt. vacana ' speech,' Prak, vacana, Mahar. Prak. vayana, Pali vacana. Skt. Jchanet ' should 94 IXDO-IPANIAN PHONOLOGY dig,' Gatha Jchanet Skt. dhcnn ' cow/ Prak. dhenu, Pali dhemi, Sindhi dJiPnu, 01 > b. § 278. Tlie change of n to h is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Skt. nagna ' naked,' Av. mayna, Oss. haynag. n > m. § 279. Tlie change of n to 7u occurs occasionally finally in Iranian. b. Iranian. Av.j)aUiddna ' penom,' Fhi. j)adf2m, Paz.^;a««;», 2M}idm, New Pers. pancim. Phi. han 'roof/ New Pers. Tjcin, ham, Siv. Jjcin, Kas. &m(w), &oa^, Tat sarbu, Afy. &aw?, Kurd. 6rtw. Av. dfrlna ' blessing/ Phi. a/rln * praise/ nafnn ' curse/ New Pers. nafrln, Kurd, nafrlm. n > r. § 280. The change of n to r is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. nairahjana nom. prop., Pali ncrahjara. Skt. stJuma 'place,' Prak. tJulna, thnna, Apab. Prak. thdmi, thdu, Pali thdna, Naip. tham, Ur. thdnd, thdnd, Bang, than, tliand, Bihari t]idu{m), tJid{}U)v, Hindi thdnd, thaiind, Panj. thdnd, thdnd, Sindhi thdnn, iluuin, Giij. than, than. Mar. thdr, than, Simh. tuna, tana. n > I. § 281. Tlie change of n to I is not uncommon in the Indian dialects, and in Siriihaleso the change is regular. In the Iranian dialects, on the contrary, the development is very rare, a. Indian. Skt. anas ' fault,' Pali ela, ela. Skt. nimha ' sort of tree,' Prak. limha, Pfili nimha, Bihari 7iwi, Hindi llm, mm, Sindhi limu, Guj. limhadO, Mar, limh. Skt. navanlfa ' butter,' Pali navanita, nunita, Bang, nam, Hindi ndnl, Mar, lOnl. Skt., Prak., Pali nila ' blue,' Kasm. mjul. Bang., Bihari lU, nil, Guj. III. Skt. vana 'forest,' Prak. vana, Prdi vana, Simh. val, Mala- dive vali. Skt., Prak., Prdi nava ' new,' Simh. la, Gyp. nevo. b. Iranian. Av. jaini ' woman/ Afy. jal, jinal, junai, etc. SINGLE CONSONANTS 95 (see § 275). Skt. navaJca 'youth,' New Pers. navaJi, Kurd. Iau{Jc), lav, Id. n > I § 282. The change of 7i to I is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. cnas 'faidt/ Pali ela, ela. Skt. vana 'forest,' Maladive vail, etc. (see preceding §). n > V. § 283. Tlie change of n to v is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. vacua 'nose/ Plil. vcnJJc, henJlc, Paz. vmi, New Pers. htm, Samn. vTm, Maz. vem, Tal. vim, E. Kurd, haval, Kurd, hivil, hen. Syncope of n. § 284. Tlie loss of Indo-Iranian n is rather uncommon. In the Iranian dialects the apocope of n is found occasionally after ong vowels. a. Indian. Skt. sthana 'place,' Apab. Prak. thdii, ilmnu, Biharl iliau[m), tha{m)v, etc. (see § 280). b. Iranian. Plil. varan ' rain/ New Pers. hdrdn, Zaf. vnro, Kas. vOrun, Nay. vdrmi, Kurd. Mrin, Dig. Oss. vdrim, Tag. varin. Plil., Paz., New Pers. nan ' bread,' Zaf. nil, Nay. tiou, Central dialects ntin, Bal. nagan, N. Bal. nayan. New Pers. idhistdn 'summer,' Siv. tavisd. New Pers. sd 'manner/ sdn. Phi., New Pers. imsin ' hinder,' Kurd. pasl. ProtJiesis of n. § 285. The prothesis of n is an excessively rare phenomenon. b. Iranian. Phi. dimnah 'mirror,' New Pers. dlnah, Bal. cidenh, [lijddcJc, N. Bal. dclen, dzlna, Kurd, nainal'. Dig. Oss. aidana. Epenthesis of n. § 286. The epenthesis of n is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. hazawa ' thousand,' Phi., New Pers. hazdr, Afy. zar, TiOZQ. lianzdr. 96 IXDO-IRAXIAN PHONOLOGY p=p. ^ 287. Indo-Iranian j) is in general retained unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt.|;asca^ 'afterward/ Prak., Pali ^acc^a, Ass. pice, pace, Kasm. pat{h), Ur. pache, pachu, Bang, pacha, Hindi ptacM, plche, pachu, pJchu, Panj. piche, pichom, Sindhi pOe, puam, Guj. xjochc, pach'i, pacha, Simh. ^;as(«). Skt. palcva '■ ripe,' Apab. Prak. paJcJca, pilika, Pali pakka, Ass. jJakd, Naip. 2)dk, Kasm. ^wj?, Ur. pakka. Bang, pctka, E. Hindi pdkal, Hindi, Panj. pakkd, Sindhi paho, Guj. Vpak, pik. Mar. p'lli, pikd. Skt. Vchap ' go ' (?), Ur. tipihd, Bang, chdpite, cdpite, tepite, Hindi chcqjand, campand, topand, topand, tlpand, thapand, Sindhi chdpanu, cdpanu, tapudanu, thapanu. Mar. chdpanem, cdxmtor nem, idp, thapakd, Anglo-Ind, [first) chop, shampoo. Skt., Pfdi japana ' muttering,' Hindi ja{m)pand, Mar. jdpanem. b. Iranian. Av. pasca ' afterward,' Old Pers. pasd{va). Phi., New Pers. pas, Ka§. pac, pas, Bal. pas, Kurd, pdsl, pdsva, Dig. Oss. fastdga, Tag. fiistag. Av. paha '• foot,' Phi. pal. New Pers. pd{i), Waxlj;w8, ^\yn. pah, Sarq, j?a5, Sangl. pud, Mmj. palah, Yidg. pidluh, Yayn. puda, Aiy. pal, Bal. pad, N. Bal. phdh, phdz, Zaza pai. Av. ap ' water,' Phi. dp, Paz. ««(;, New Pers. dh, dv, Gab. o, Siv. av, an, Yazdl vo, Ka§. ov. Nay. ao, Nat. r/?<, Samn. o, Maz. o(y), Gil., Trd., Tat ov, WaxI yn^^A-, yapali, Yidg. ?/oyy, Yayn. oj;, Afy. oba, Bal. aj;, N. Bal. df, Kurd. av. p > k. § 288. Tlie change oi p to k is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. pipllika 'ant,' Pali kipillika, pipllika (by dissimilation). p >ph,f. § 289. In the Middle and New Indian dialects the aspirization of an original p> is usually caused by a following aspirate or sibi- lant. In the Iranian dialects^ becomes /(apart from the regular laws of aspiration in Iranian) in Ossetish, and between vowels, or SINGLE CONSONANTS 97 finally after vowels in North BalQcI, although this dialect shows 2)h initially before vowels and r. a. Indian. Skt, imriglia ' bar,' Prak. phaliJia. Skt. parusa ' rough,' Pali pliarusa. Skt. parihhadra ' sort of tree,' Prak. pMlihadda, Pali plialihhadda. Skt. puspa '■ flower,' Prak., Pali pujipha, Biharl phup{lb\ Old Hindi puliupa, Hindi |>/wj>, Guj., Mar. phul. Skt. xxisa ' noose,' Mahar. Prak., Pali pasa, Naip. phamsoj paso, Ur. phas^ Bang., E. Hindi, Hindi phams, Panj. phdhd, Sindihl phdsl, phahi, Guj., Mar. ^Aams. b. Iranian. Av. pacaiti 'cooks,' Phi. pazH, New Pers. pamd, Gab. paxa, Ka§. patan, Maz. paxta, Wax! pocam, Afy. paxavul, Bal. pacag, N. Bal. phasay, Kurd, pdtin, Bayazid pdthin, Dig. Oss. Jicun, Tag. /cm. Av. pardna 'feather,' Phi., New Pers. parr, Afy. j?«r, Bal. pan, Kurd, far, pal, par, Zaza frin ' to fly.' Skt. ta2)as ' heat,' New Pers. tcth, Gab. #o, Ka§. tav, Afy. ^a&a, Bal. tap, N. Bal. thaph, thaf, thap, Kurd. ;fa(v), Tag. Oss. tliaf. Av., Old Pers. ocsapan ' night,' Phi. sap, Iat7a^, New Pers. sah, Samn. so, Maz. su, Tal. sav. Tat siJ, Siyn. sa&, Sarq. a;a6, Minj. xsava, Afy. Ipa, Bal. sap, N. Bal. sa/ Kurd. saVj Oss. axsav. p > h. § 290. Tlie change of the tenuis p to the media h is more common in the Iranian than in the Indian dialects, where jf) normally becomes v. a. Indian. Skt. Ii2n 'tablet,' Prak. (inscriptions of Delhi) lihi, Pali lipi. Skt. ndpita ' barber,' Prak. nhdvia, ndvia, Sakara Prak. ncihida. Skt. hapdta 'door,' Prak. apdta, Ur., Bang. Jiahdda, Hindi, Panj., Mar. lavdd. Skt. api 'also,' Prak. 2n, avi, Pali {a)2)i, Sindhi bi. Skt. sthdpayati ' establishes,' Prak. thdvei, Pali thd2)eti, Ur. thuihd, Bang, thaite, Hindi, Panj. tliapand, Guj. tlidptavim. Mar. thCqiancm, Simh. tabanavd. Skt. parasvant 'rhinoceros,' Pali balasata. b. Iranian. Skt. kapota ' dove,' Phi. kap6t[ar). New Pers. Jcabutar, Waxi A'i&i^, Sarq. cabaud, Yidg. ^-wvw, Afy. lautar, H 98 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY lavntar, Bal. lapot, Jcqfar, Kurd. JcavoJc. Av, xscqmn ' night,' New Pors., §iyn, sah, Sarq. xr/&, etc. (see preceding §). Av. uj) * water/ New Pers. ah, dv, Afy. oba, etc. (see § 287). Skt. lojMsa 'fox,' Phi. »"0j?cl5, r(>&«7S, New Pers. robdli, Gab. nZvos, Sarq. roj^c, Bal. rophasJc, Kurd, rwfi, Dig. Oss. rohas, Tag. ^; > m. § 291. The change of jj to m is very rare outside the Middle Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. nipa ' Kadamba tree/ Prak. ?iima, nwa, Pali m2)a. Skt. djnda ' chaplet/ Prak. dmela, dveda. Skt. punah 'again,' Prak. (inscriptions of Delhi), mina, (inscriptions of Shahbazgarhi) ])ana, lit. Prak. puna, Pali pana, Biliarl jjJuHj p{h)un. Skt. svapant 'sleeping,' Pali sumanta, but SKjKiti 'sleeps.' Skt., Pali liacchapa 'tortoise/ Bang. kacJiim, Hindi, Panj. IcacJmd, Sindhi I'amcJm. Skt. sapddil:a 'one and one fourth,' Prak. savaia, Ur. saiiydi, Bang, saiii/d, Hindi savd, W. Hindi sa77id, Panj. savd{id), Sindhi savdt, Guj savd, Mar. sawd. p>y. § 292. The change of p to y, which is, as in all similar phe- nomena, only apparent (cf. §§ 122, 137, 143, 183, 229, 242, 256, 270), is very rare. a. Indian. Ski, Pali j;i/?a5a 'thirst/ Hindi ^/2/a5,^;ia5,^;?/«5. p > V. § 293. Tlic change of ^? to v is the most frequent one of all those to which Indo-Iranian 2^ is subject, both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. It is closely akin to the changes of j; to b and ofhiov noted in §§ 290, 308. a. Indian. Skt, /iy/;^^^ ' skull/ Prfik., Pilli Zv/mla. Bktpdpa ' evil,' Prak. 2)dva, Pali 2^"2M, 'Kasm. 2)d2)h, Siihh. 2Hivii, other New Ind. dialects pap. Skt. upadhydya ' teacher/ Prak. %wajjhaa. SINGLE CONSONANTS 99 ujjJiaa, Pali upajjlidya, Biharl jmdha, Sindhi vctjhd. Skt. Jcapaia 'door/ Hindi, Panj., Mar. Jcavad, etc. (see § 290). b. Iranian. Av. upairi '■ above,' Old Pers. upariy^ Phi. o/par^ Paz. awar, New Pers. {a)bar, WaxI, Sarq. var, Afy. xwe, Bal. par^ N. Bal. pliar^ gvar, Kurd, har, Oss. vala. Phi. la}) 'lip/ Paz. law, New Pers. Za&, Gab. lav, Bahb. lati, Zaf. l6, Ka§. Zav, Von. Zo2, Nay. Ihjil, WaxT, Sangl. lav, Bal. hq^, Kurd. Ziv. Av. ap ' water,' New Pers. av, ah, Siv. av, au, Kas. ov, Maz. ov, o, Gil., Tal., Tat ov, Yidg. ^JOVy, Kurd, ov, etc. (see § 287). Av. xsapan *■ night,' Phi. savaJi, sap, Tal. sav. Minj ccsava, Kurd, sav, Oss. axsav, etc. (see § 289). Skt. lopasa '■ fox,' Gab. ruvds, Kurd. rUvi, etc. (see § 290). Skt. Mpihjala * partridge,' Bal. /. apmjar, N. Bal. JiJiatvinjar. Syncope of p. § 294. The loss of Indo-Iranian p) through the transition-grades h and v (cf. §§ 290, 293, 309, 376) is not uncommon in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. dryaputra ^father-in-law's son,' Prak. ajjautta. Skt. Mpa 'well,' Naip. Jciivd, Kasm. UmJi, Ur., Bang. 7cm, Biharl, Hindi, Panj. 'kii{m)dm, Sindhi JiJtilJm, Guj., Mar. ktwO. Skt. lapittha 'wood-apple tree,' Ur. Jmifa, Hindi liathahcl (with metathesis). b. Iranian. Av. cip ' water,' Gab. o, Nay. do, Samn. o, Maz. 6, ov, etc. (see § 287). Skt. tapas ' heat,' Gab. to, Kurd, td, tdv, etc. (see § 289). ph — pJi. § 295. Indo-Iranian pli is in general preserved unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt., Prdi j>/i«wa 'snake's hood,* Ur., Bang., Hindi phand, Sindhi phani, Guj. phand. Mar. j)liand. b. Iranian. Av. Icafa 'foam,' Phi., New Pers. leaf, Waxi xnf, Sarq. xaf, Bal. l:ap, Kurd, Imf, Dig. Oss. xafa, Tag. xaf. Av. safa ' hoof,' Afy. sva, Oss. safthag. H 2 100 INDO-IRANIAy PHONOLOGY ph > p. § 296. The deaspirization of Indo-Iranian ph is excessively rare in the Indo-Iranian dialects, excepting in BalucT, where inter- vocalic ph regularly becomes p, which North BalucI has developed to/ a. Indian. Skt. phadmga ' flying insect,' Pali paiatoga. Skt. phalgu 'herb,' Pali *phalgava > paggava. b. Iranian. Av. kaofa ' mountain,' Old Pers. Jcaufa, Phi. Txdf{ak\ New Pers. hdh, Kuhr. kiifun, Tat hif, Aly. kvah, Bal. hopagy N. Bal. hlfay, Kurd. hulh. Av. kafa ' foam/ Bal. kap, etc. (see preceding §). ph > h. § 297. The change oi ph to h is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. kaofa ' mountain,' Afy. kvah, etc. (see pre- ceding §). ph > hh. § 298. Tlie change oi ph to bh is found not infrequently in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. npha 'burring sound,' Prak. rebha. Skt. saphala 'fruitful,' Prak. sahhala^ Apab. Prak. sahalu, Pali saphala. Skt. saphari 'carp,' Prak. sahhari, sahari, Pali sa- phari, Hindi saharl, Panj. saiil. ph > V. § 299. The change of ^7i to v is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. kaofa ' mountain,' Km-d. kiah, but kovl ' wild,' etc. (see § 296). Av. safa ' hoof,' Afy. sva, etc. (see § 295). 2)h > h. § 300. The cliangc of 2)h to h is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. saphari 'carp,' Prak. sahari, sahhari, Hindi saharl, etc. (see § 298). b. Iranian. Av. kaofa ' mountain,' New Pers. kOh, etc. (see § 296j. SINGLE CONSONANTS 101 Syncope of ph. § 301. Tlie loss of Intlo-Iranian ^;/i is a very rare phenomenon. a. Indian. Skt. saphari ' carp,' Panj. saill, etc. (see § 298). Epentliesis of pJi, f. § 302. The epenthesis oi ph,f is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. tasa ' axe/ New Pers. tas, Kurd, tafsciu. b = h. § 303. Indo-Iranian h is in general retained unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. hadhnati ' binds,' Prak. hamdJiai, Pali ham- dJiati, Hindi hamdh, Panj. bannh, Sindhi hdmdh. Skt. hiidhyate ^ knows,' Prak. hujjJiai, Pali bujjhati, Kasm. samjhaadi, bujhiha, Ur., Bang, hujhana, Hindi hiijhana, Panj. hujjhand, Sindhi htjhanu, Guj. bujavum, Mar. bujh. Skt. sabara 'barbarian,' Prak. sabara, samara. b. Iranian. Av. baxsaiti ' divides,' Plil. baxtano, Paz., New Pers. baxsJdan, Afy. basal, baxal, Bal. baJisar/, N. Bal. basMy, Kurd, baxsin. Av. bdrds ' high,' Phi., New Pers. burs, Kurd. bars, Oss. barsond. b > p. § 304. The change of the & to j? is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. bcidha ' firm,' Prak. (inscriptions of Klialsi and Dhaidi) padha, Mahar. Prak. bddha. Skt. balvaja ' reed,' Pali pabbaja. b > bh. § 305. The aspirization of Indo-Iranian b is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. brhaspati nom. prop., Prak. bhaaphadi. b > m. § 306. The change of b to m is extremely rare (cf. Skt. brilhi ' speak ! ' Av. mruiU). a. Indian. Skt, sabara 'barbarian,' Prilk. samara, sabara. Skt. Jcabandha ' belly, cloud,' Prak. kamamdha, Tiayaindlia. 102 IXDO-IRAXIAX PHONOLOGY h >y. § 307. TIiG change of h to //, which is only an apparent one (cf. §,^ 122, 137, 143, 183, 229, 242, 256, 270, 292), is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. I'ahandha 'belly, cloud,' Prak. hayamdha, kamamdha. h > V. § 308. The change of & to v is very common, both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. The Prakrits have so far con- fused 6 and v that Vararuci writes v for h throughout. Tlie New Indian dialects use v almost to the exclusion of h in the East, Hindi reverses this, writing every v as &, Panjabi uses h and v indifferently, while the Western dialects preserve the original distinction between the two more carefully. a. Indian. Skt. hdspa 'vapor,' Prak. Mlia 'tear,' happlia ' smoke,' oaiu'. Prak. happa, Pali happa, Kasm. hdha, Ur., Bang. hapha, hhdplia, E. Hindi, Hindi hd{m]ph, Panj. Ijhdph, Sindhi haph, Guj. hu{m)ph, Mar. vdpli. Skt. handhyd ' barren woman,' Prak., Pali vamjjhd, Bang. hdmjJid, Sindhi vdmjh, Marvarl hamjhadl, Guj. vnrnjham, Mar. vtlnijh. b. Iranian. Av. bu2a ' goat,' Phi. huj, New Pers. ht(z, WaxI hue, hiic, Siyn., Sarq. va;s, Sangl. vuz, Minj. voza, Yidg. vim, Afy. viis, Kurd, hizln. Old Pers. naiha ' beautiful,' Phi. ncval; nev, New Pers. nev, mh. Syncope of h. § 309. The syncope of an intervocalic h is very rare in the Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt, pibati ' drinks,' Prak. piai, Pali pihati, Siihh. honavd, caus. povanavd. b. Iranian. Old Pers, naiha 'beautiful,' Plil. ncvaJc, nev, New Pers. nek, nev. Epenthesis of h. § 310. The epenthesis of 6 is quite rare. It seems to occur mostly in the vicinity of m. b. Iranian. Av. staxra ' stiff,' Plil. stahnhaktar, stahmaktar, SINGLE CONSONANTS 103 New Pers. sifam. Av. duma ' tail,' Phi., New Pers. dum, dumb, Sarq. bum, hiimbd, Afy. lam, Kurd, duv, dunk. Dig. Oss. dumag, Tag. dimag. Skt. roman ' hair of the body,' New Pers. rum, rumali, rumhah. hh = Wi. § 311. In the Indian dialects Indo-Iranian hh is in general retained unchanged. The Iranian dialects, on the other hand, change hh to h, which, however, in the younger Avesta became iv, excepting when h was preceded by a written nasal or sibilant, or when h was initial. a. Indian. Skt. pratibhati 'glory,' Prak. padibhati. Skt., Prak., Pali hhumi 'earth,' Ur. bhiima, hhurim. Bang, bhtim, Hindi hhtm, bhiiim, bhfirim, Panj. bhmi, bhiim, hhurim, bhorim, Sindhi hhu{im), Guj. bhu{ij), hhoy, Mar. bhuy, Gyp. phuv. bh > Jch, X. § 312. The change of bh to Tih, x, is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Skt. ahha ' glory ' + tapa ' heat,' New Pers. aftab 'sun,' Siyn., Sarq. aftau, Kurd, ataf, So axtav, ataf, adav, BoxtanI tdv. bh >ph,f. § 313. The change of bh to ph, f, is found occasionally in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. aiwirocayeiti ' kindles,' Phi. afroxtano, New Pers. afroxtan. Skt. abhi + sdna 'whetstone,' Phi. afsdn, New Pers. afsdn, avsdn, fasdn, Waxi, Sarq. pasdn. Skt. urnavdhhi ' spinning-wheel,' New Pers. hdftan, Gab. vaftmiln, Waxi viifam, Sarq. vdfam, Afy. odal, udal, Bal. gvapag, N. Bal. gvafay, Oss. vafin. hh > h. § 314. The deaspirization of Indo-Iranian hh is by no means common. a. Indian. Skt. bhaginl 'sister,' Prak. bha'im, bahim, Pali bhagim, ICasm. hyah, Ur. hlidum, hhoAim, Bang, bain, Hindi 104 JXDO-inAXIAX nrONOLOGY hahin, Panj. hhdhi, hdinli, Sindlil hMnu, Guj, hchen, Mar. iahln, Gyp. 2^J(fn. hh > m, § 315. The change of hh to m is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. dmiduhhi ' drum/ Pali dindima. b. Iranian. Skt. hliar^gd 'bhang, hemp,' Av. hanJia, Phi., New Pers. mang, bang. Skt. ndhhi ' navel,' Av. nafah, Phi. nafiaJc), Afy. nu, num, Bal. napag, ndfag, N. Bal. nafay, Kurd. ?>/i > mh. § 316. The change of hh to m/i is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. hhanati ' speaks,' Prak. hhana'i, Pali hhanati, Mar. mhananemi. hh > V. § 317. The change of hh to v is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Skt. nahhas ' cloud,' Yidg. nuvuh. hh > h. § 318. The change of hh to h is the most common of all the changes to which Indo-Iranian hh is subject in the Indian dialects, but hh does not become h in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. hhCinda ' pot,' Pali hhanda, Ur., Bang, hdmdi, Bihari hdriid, hhdmd, Hindi, Panj. hdnuil, Sindhi hanidl, Guj. hdthdl, Mar. Iwbmll, Skt. lahhati * takes,' Prak. laha'i, Pali lahhati, Ur. ne, Bang, lad, Old Hindi laha, Hindi le, Panj. lahi, Jdi, Sindhi lah, Guj. Id, Mar. ne. Skt. hhavati * becomes,' Prak. huvai, hhavai, Pais. Prak. &Ao^i, Saur. hddi, huvadi, havadi, hhodi, hhuvadi, hhavadi, Pali hoti, hhavati, Ur. hoihd, hchd. Bang. /jcii^5, Hindi hand, Panj. /itiwa, Sindhi huanu, Guj. liOvum, Mar. § 319. Indo-Iranian m is in general retained michanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. madluja ' middle,' Prak., Pali majjha, Ass. SINGLE CONSONANTS 105 maj, Kasm. mams,Vr. majhi, 'Ba,ng.mdjli,l{indimajJii, mamjhdla, Panj. mamjh, majjh, Sindhi mamjim, Mar. mdjh, Siihh. mti{ni)da. Skt. mrta 'dead,' Prak. maa, nma, Mag. Prak. made, Ur. mala, Hindi mud, Panj. miiid, Sindhi mno, Guj. muvnm, Mar. melem, Simh. mala. Skt. Jcsamd 'patience/ Prak. JcJiamd ' patience,' cliamd ' earth,' Pali hhamd, Hindi chiind, Panj., Sindhi JcJiimd, Guj. hhamd, Mar. lihamanem. Skt. grama ' village,' Prak., Pali gdma, Ur., Bang, ^aw, Hindi (jfamw, Sindhi gdmu, gdil, Guj. ^a?w. Mar. ^a*wv. b. Iranian. Av. maihyana ' middle,' Phi., New Pers. miydn Waxi malting, Siyn. mahdna, Sarq. mahdn, Afy, ■^»a?^J, Dig Oss. medag, Tag. mudag. Av. mdrdta 'dead,' Phi. ^i^ar^ 'mortal. New Pers. mard, Bal. ?uar, Kurd, wr/n Av. ^iwio ' of winter, Phi., New Pers. zani, WaxI sam, Siyn. zimj, zinj, Sarq, zamdn Afy. zimai, Dig. Oss. Bumag, Tag. zimag. Av. nqman ' name. Old Pers. ndman, Phi., New Pers. waw, Maz. w^7;>^, Gil. worn. WaxI www//, Afy. ww>w, Bal. nam. Dig. Oss. wow, plur. namtJdha Tag. 7^ow. Phi. ydmaJc, jdmaJc ' robe,' New Pers. jdmah, So Kurd. yuma. m > n. § 320. The change of 7n to ?* is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. nqman 'name,' Dig. Oss. non, but plur. namththa, etc, (see preceding §), on > tdg. § 321, The change of m to i9g occurs but seldom. b. Iranian. Av. nqman ' name,' WaxI nung, etc. (see § 319). Skt. dma ' raw,' New Pers. xdm, WaxI yilng, Afy. om, um, Bal. Jidmag, N. Bal. Jidmay, Kurd. ccdv. m > J)li,f. § 322. The change of m to ph, f, is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Skt. daman ' bond,' New Pers. dam, Afy. lum, Kurd. daf. 106 INDOIRANIAN PHONOLOGY m > &. § 323. The change of m to h is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. maliisa 'buffalo,' Pali mahimsa, Kasm. mums, Ur. bhayesa, Bang. Wiaims, Bihari mhais, dJidinis, maliis, hahis, Hindi bJidims, mlidims, Panj. majh, Sindhl mathjJi, mdmJii, Guj. hhcms, hhdims, bhdimh, Mar. Widinis, mhdis. Skt., Pali manorama ' delightful,' Old Siiiih. manumaraka ' grandson ' < ^manurama-ka, Simh. munuburu {m >hhy dissimilation), m > V. § 324. In the New Indian dialects the change of m to v is a very frequent one. It is more rare in the Middle Indian, while only a few instances are quotable from the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. manmatha ' love,' Prak. vammaha, Saur. Prak. mammadha. Skt. abhimanyu nom. prop., Prak. aJiivannu, aJiinidnnu. Skt. ydniala ' pair,' Jaina Prak. ydvara, Pali yamala. Skt. mtmdnis 'investigating,' Pali vJvdnis. Skt. dmalaka 'myro- balan,' Prak. dmalaa, Pali dmalaka, Ur. dmald. Bang, dold, didd, Hindi, Panj. dmvald, Sindhl dmviro, Mar. dmvald. Skt. syd- mala 'swarthy,' Pali sdmala, E. Hindi sdmvar, Hindi sdmvald, W. Hindi sdmvrau, Panj. sdnivald, Sindhl sdmvalu, sdmviru, Mar. sdmvald. Skt. gosvdniika 'monk,' Bihari gdsdmt. Mar. gosdvi, other New Ind. dialects gosdtm, Anglo-Ind. gosain. b. Iranian. Av. daenian ' face,' Phi. andemdnkar, Paz. andt- mdni, New Pers. dim, Siv., Zaf., Kas. dim, Kuhr. dim, dim, Afy. lema, Bal. dem, N. Bal. d^v, dCv, Kurd. dem. Av. pairi ' aroimd ' + vazaiti ' flies,' New Pers. parmdz ' flight ' beside parvdz. New Pers. xmrvdnah 'butterfly' beside parmdnah. Av. fidmah 'homage,' Phi. namdc, Paz., New Pers. namdz, Afy. nmunj, Bal. navds, namds, Kurd, nwez, nvez, nmez. Av. naema 'half,' Phi. nem{ak), Paz., New Pers. mm, Afy. mmaij Bal. nemag, Kurd. nw. m > s. § 325. The change of m to s is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. hhramara 'bee,' Prak. hhasala, hhasara, SINGLE CONSONANTS 107 hhasana, hhamara, Apab. Prak. hhasahn, Jaina Prak. Wiasara, Pali hhamara, Ur. hliamara, Bang, hhamara, Biharl hhaumrd, Hindi hhamvar, hhdmiir, Panj. hhamiir, Sindhi hhmmiru, Mar. hhomr. [So Hemacandra falsely (see Pischel, § 251).] m > m. § 326. The change of m to m is not infrequent in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt., Prak,, Pali naman ' name/ Hindi ndmv, Panj, ndilm, Sindhi nammh, Mar, ndv, Gyp, anfw, nav. Skt., Prak, hhunii ' earth/ Pali hhilmi, hhimimi, Ur, hhtmia, hhuim, Bang. hhtim, Hindi hhum, hJiutm, hhimi, Panj. bhilm, hhiilm, hhoim, hhiim, Sindhi hhiiim, hhil, Guj. hhii, hhuy, hhOij, Mar, hhfty, Sirhh. hima. Skt,, Prak., Pali roman 'hair of the body,' Bang, romd, Biharl rodm, rovam, Hindi, Panj., rdrnhj Sindhi Im'n. Skt. gosvdmika ' monk,' New Ind. dialects gosdmi, etc. (see § 324). Skt., Prak., Pali dhuma ' smoke,' Ass. dhothd, Naip. dhtidm, Kasm. duh, Bang, dhwydm, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. dhumdm, dhiidm, Smdhi dimihdm, Guj., Mar. dhum, Siihh. dimi. m > mv. § 327. The change of m to niv is found occasionally in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. ndman 'name/ Hindi ndmv, etc. (see pre- ceding §). Skt. Jcumdra 'prince,' Prak. Jcumara, Mag. Prak. Jcumdle, Pali hmndraha, Biharl Jcmhar, huar, kuvar, Hindi kum- var, Panj. kamvar, Mar. kumvar. Syncope of m. § 328. The loss of Indo-Iranian m is very frequent in the New Indian dialects, although in Middle Indian m is lost only when final. In the Iranian dialects the phenomenon is found but rarely. a. Indian. Skt. katham 'how,' Prak. kaJia, kaham. Skt. iddnlm 'now/ Prak. ddni, ddnim, Shahbazgarhi inscriptions 108 lyno-iRANiAN phonology hidalohika temporal.' Skt.,Pali nemi ' circumference,' Ur. 9? m, Bang, nco, E. Hindi, Hindi nev, Panj. nium, Guj, nev. Skt. ccimara ' ox-tail fan/ Prak. camara, Pali camara, Ur. camara, Bang, cdumr, camara, Hindi cciurl, cdmhrl, Panj. cdur, Sindhi cdiiru, Guj. cduri, Mar. ca«h. § 332. The change oi y to h is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. 2>uy(i^ pus,' Pali jpuhha. Skt. jardyu' uterus,' Tsih jaldhu, Simh. dalabu. y > hh. § 333. Tlie change of y to hh is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. sarayu name of a river, Pali sarabhu. y >r. § 334. The change of ^ to r is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. srdmaneya 'novice,' Pali sdmanera. Skt. sndyn ' sinew,' Jaina Prak. nhdru, Pali nahdru, Sirhh. naharmja. y >l § 335. The change oi y tol is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. yasti ' staff,' Prak. lattlii, 6aur. Prak. jatthi, Pali latthi, Ur., Bang. Idthl, Hindi ldt{i), IdtM, Panj. lafthi, Sindhi Idthl, Guj. Idt, Idth, Mar. latth. Skt. dyotayati ' illuminates/ Pali SINGLE CONSONANTS 111 jotaJati, jotayati^joteti. Bihar! dilotarsu ' one hundred and two ' beside diyotarsu (on the analogy of tilOtarsu, calOtarsti, etc.). y > ^• § 336. The change oi if to v occurs very seldom. a. Indian. Skt. mrgaya ^hunt,' Pali migava. Skt. trayas- trimsat ' thirty-three/ Jaina Prak., Pali tavattisa, Kasm. tyaya- traJi, Biharl taimtis, cf. archaic Siihh. tavaJc. Skt. ayudha ' weapon,' Prak. diiJia, Pais. Prak. ayudha, Pali ayudha, avudha, Simh. avi{ya). y >h. § 337. The change of y to It is an exceedingly rare one. a. Indian. Skt. chdya ' shadow,' Prak. chahd ' shadow,' chdyd ' beauty,' Pali chdyd, Ur. chdhma, Hindi chdmh, chdni{v), chdom, Panj. ca(?7)m, Sindhi chdm{v), Guj. cmhy. Skt. ranah- jaya '■ victorious,' Pali rananijaha. Skt. svayamjpati ' epithet of Brahma,' Pali sahampati. Apocope of y. § 338. The loss of an original initial y is found, although but seldom, in the Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. yuJcd ' louse,' Pali uM, Hindi jtim, Gyp. juv. b. Iranian. Skt. yusmdJcam 'of you,' GAv. xsmaka, YAv. yusnidhdm, Paz., New Pers. sumd, Bal. savci. Dig. Oss. smax, Tag. sumax. Syncope of y. § 339. The loss of an original y is not a very frequent phe- nomenon. a. Indian. Skt. Jcisalaya 'sprout,' Prak. Jcisala, hisalaya. Skt. hrdaya 'heart,' Prak. hiaa, hiaya, Pais. Prak. hitaaJca, Ass., Ur., Bang, hia, Panj. hiduni, hiydm, etc. (see § 330). Skt. vdyu ' wind,' Prak. vdu, Pali vdyu, Ur. Ida, Bang., Hindi hd'i, hdo, Panj. vdu, Sindhi hd^, vdii, Guj. m{;i), Mar. vdv. Skt. devor 112 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY lay a ' temple/ Ur. deul, Bang,, Hindi deval^ Panj, devdla, Sindhi devali, Guj. dcval, Mar. dcval, deul. Prothesis of y. § 340. Prothetic y is occasionally found both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. eva ' indeed/ Prak. yeva, Saur. Prak. jewa, Pali eva, yeva, heva. Skt. dvirbhutvd ' having become manifest/ Jaina Prak. ydvihottd. b. Iranian. Av. dtars ' fire/ Phi. dtas, New Pers. {d)tas, dtis, Gab. tas, Siyn. ydc, Sarq. yuc, Minj. yur, N. Bal. dc. Av. asj^a ' horse/ Phi., New Pers. asp, WaxI yas, Minj., Yidg. 2/«52?, Afy. as, Bal. {h)a2)s, Kurd. Aas^, Dig. Oss. a^a, Tag. ?/a/5. Av. ahmi ' I am,' Old Pers. amiy, New Pers. am, Afy. 2/«»^ «wi, Kurd. im. aya > d. § 341. The loss of Indo-Iranian y in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects, which has been noted in § 339, gives rise to various contractions. Similar contractions often occur in conse- quence of the syncope of Indo-Iranian consonants. The contrac- tion of aya to d is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. ahhyayana 'rehabilitation/ Pah ahhhdna. Skt., Pali udaya ' rise,' Simh. udd. b. Iranian. Old Pers. ddrayavaus nom. prop., Phi. ddriav, New Pers. ddrd{h), ddrdv. aya > e. § 342. The contraction of aya to e is the normal one in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. It is carried out in all causatives in the Middle Indian. a. Indian. Skt. dhdrayati ' holds,' Prak. dhdrei, Pali dhdreti. Skt. Jcathayati * tolls,' 6aur. Prak. kadhedi, hahedl, Piili katheti. Skt. nayati * leads,' Prak. nei, Saur. Prak. nedi. Pais. Prak neti, Pali nayati, neti, Gatha upaneti. Skt. hsaya ' destruction,' Mag. Prak., Pali khaya, Hindi, Panj. chai, Guj. Jche, Mar. Jchat. Skt., SINGLE CONSONANTS 113 Prak., Pali hhaya 'fear,' Ur. hhe, Hindi, Panj. hhdi^ Sindhi hhai, Ihau, Mar. hhc. Skt. nayana 'eye,' Prak. naana, Pali nayana, Hindi, Panj. nain^ Sindhi nenu, Guj. nenam, nemn. Skt. maya 'mother,' Siihh. maeniyam. Skt. sayanasana 'bed-room,' Pali sayanasana, Siiiih. senasim. b. Iranian. Av. paourva ' former ' + a^/ara 'day,' Phi,, New Pers. parer, K!a§. pare, Bal. paren, pairerl ' last year,' N. Bal. phairi. Av. zaycitl ' is born,' Pamir dialects 2%d. ayu > 6. § 343. The contraction of ayu to 6 is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. mayura ' peacock,' Prak., Pali mora, Kasm., Ur. mor, Sindhi moru, Guj., Mar. mor. ayo > e, ai. § 344. The contraction of ayo to c, di, is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. trayodasa 'thirteen,' Prak. tcraha, tedasa (inscriptions of Klialsi), trciidasa {inscrij)tions of Girnar), Pali terasa, Kasm. truvdh, Ur. tera, Bang, tero, Hindi terali, Panj. terdm, Sindlil terahdni, Guj. ter, Mar. tcrd. iya > t § 345. Tlie contraction of iya to I is a rare one. a. Indian. Skt. hiyant ' how much ? ' Pali hittaha < *Jciyat- taJca. b. Iranian. Skt, priya ' beloved,' Av. frya, New Pers. fn. dya > d. § 346. The contraction of dya to d seems to be the most usual one to which dya is subject, a, Indian. Skt. vdihdyasa ' aerial,' Jaina Prak., Pali vehdsa. Skt, iipatthdyaTca ' servant,' Pali upatthdTta. Skt, Mldyasa ' iron,' Pali Jcdldsa, Jcdldyasa. b, Iranian. Old Pers. xsdyadiya 'king,' Phi., New Pers. sdJi. I 114 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY aya > e § 347. The contraction of dya to e is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. joalayati ' flees/ Mahar. Prak. paldyai, Pali paleti. aya > at. § 348. The contraction of dya to a'i is found in Ossetish. b. Iranian. Av. frasndyanta 'they washed,' Dig. Oss. axsmm, Tag. axsnin 'w^sh/ Tag. na'in 'bathe.' Skt. rdyati 'bellows,' Oss. ram. r = r. § 349. Indo-Iranian r is in general preserved unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. rehlid 'streak,' Prak. rclid, Pali reJchd, Hindi, Panj. rcJiJi, Sindlil i'egJii, Guj. reg, Mar. re{g)h. Skt. rdjan ' king,' Prak. rdd, Mag. Prak. lad, Mahar. Prak. rdyd, Pais. Prak. raja, Culikapais. Prak. rdcd, Pali rdjan, Hindi rdu, rdv, Simh. racla. Skt. Jcarpiira ' camphor,' Mahar. Prak., Pali kappura, Hindi, Panj., Sindlil, Guj. Tiapur, Mar. hdpur. Skt. svasura ' father-in- law,' Pali sasura, Ur., Bang., Hindi sasur, Panj. sahurd, saw- hurd, Sindlil sahurd, Guj., Mar. sdsard, Maladive Imrs. b. Iranian. Av. raoyna ' oil,' Plil. rokan, royan. New Pers. rOyan, Kas. ruyan, ro, WaxI ruyiin, ruyii, Sarq. ravan, Sangl. roy, Minj. rayan, Kurd. riin. Av., Old Pers. rdsta 'right,' Phi., New Pers. rdst, Oss. rast, rastli. Av. raocah ' day,' Old Pers. raucah. Phi. roc{th). New Pers. ru^. Gab. rilj, Caspian dialects ru, but Kas. rU, Tal. roz, ruz, Afy. rvaj, Bal. roc, N. Bal. ro5, Kurd, ruz, ro{z). Av. stora 'star,' Phi. stdrah. New Pers. sitdrah, Waxi s^ar, Siyn. iJtorJ, Sarq. xturj, Sangl. usturak, Minj. astdri, Afy. storai, Kurd, istirk, Zaza asfar, Oss. 5toZ^. Av. x"araiti ' eats,' Old Pers. ixapn-xopa, Phi. x^'arfano. New Pers. xurdan, Kas. xurtan, Siyn. xaram, Sarq. xoram, Sangl. x^aram, Minj. xaram, Afy. x^'aral, Bal. varag, N. Bal. varay, Kurd. A'wriw, x^drin, Dig. Oss. xvarun. Tag. xarin. SINGLE CONSONANTS ^^^^ 115 r >j. § 350. The change of r to j is excessively rare. a. Indian. Ski, Pali purana 'fulfilment,' Hindi pujna, SindliT piijanu. r > dJi. § 351. Tlie change of r to (Ih is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. arahdJia ' beginning,' Prak. aclJiatta, draddha, Miihar. Prak., Pali draddha. [See now Pischel, § 223.] r > d. § 352. The change of r to c? is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. purandara ' epithet of Indra,' Pali piirin- dada, purinda (by assimilation or false analogy). r > n. § 353. Tlie change of r to n is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Old Pers. ddraydmiy ' I hold,' Plil., New Pers. ddram, WaxI vaburam, Sarq. horam, Lad. ddnam. Phi., New Pers. mar ' serpent,' Afy. mangarai. r > I. § 354. The change of r to Z is by far the most common of all the changes to which Indo-Iranian r is subject, both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. In Magadhi Prakrit r becomes I everpvhere. Similarly in the Prakrit of the inscriptions of Dhauli, Jaugada, Khalsi, Bhabra, Sahasaram, and Bairat r becomes I throughout, but in the inscriptions of Eupnath r occurs twice. a. Indian. Skt. ratm 'night,' Prak. raftt, rdJ, Mag. Prak. latti, Pali ratti, Ur., Bang. rdt{i), Hindi rat, Panj. rat, Sindhi rdti, Guj., Mar. rat. Skt. carana 'foot,' Prak. calana, Saur. Prak. also carana, Apab, Prak. calanu, Pais. Prak. calana, Pclli carana. Skt. Jidridra 'yellow,' Prak., Pali hdlidda. Skt. pariglia ' iron bar,' Pali paliglia. Skt. rejju ' string,' Ass. It'ju, E. Hindi lejuri. Skt. catvdrimsat 'forty,' Prak. cattdlUa, I 2 116 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY cdalisa, Pali caftaMsa, cattansa, Kasra. catajih, Ur. cdlisa, Bang. callisa, Bihari calls, Hindi calls, Panj. call, Sindhi cdl'ih, Guj., Mar. ccilis, Simh. hataljha, sataljha. b. Iranian. Av. raecayat ' poured,' Phi. rextano, Paz, rezed, New Pers. rextan. Gab. rctmim. Von. r5f«w, WaxI varicam, Sarq. varaizam, Bal. n'ca^f, N. Bal. rllay, Kurd, ref/w, Dig. Oss. lejun, Tag. Zejiw. Av. vdrayna ' raven,' Phi. valay, varay, vdraJc. Av. (s^a) tauruno 'puppy,' Phi. taruk, tiiriiJc, toruk, torah. New Pers. tolah, torah. Gab. torah, Kas. ^ora, fiira, tura, Bal. ^yZa(/, N. Bal. tJiolay, Kurd. tura. New Pers. silrax 'hole,' Judaeo- Pers. suldx, Afy. sural. Av. maolri 'ant,' Phi., New Pers. ?)ior, Gab. mortk, Von. mdrcuna. Dig. Oss. muljug. Tag. maljig. Av., Phi., New Pers. war ' man,' Sangl. narah, Afy., Bal., Kurd. war. Dig. Oss. waZa, Tag. nal. r > I. § 355. The change of r to | is not a very frequent one. It is, of course, confined to the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. aiogdra ' coal,' Pnlk. imgdld, Pali amgdra, Guj. inigdro, amgdro, Mar. imgdl{d), imgul, G}^. angdr. Skt. catvdrimsat ' forty,' Pali cattdlisa, cattansa, Panj. caZj, Simh. hataliJia, satallha, etc. (see preceding §). Skt, Jcsdra 'ashes,' Prak. chdra, Pali hlidra, chdrlka, New Ind, dialects khdr, but Sindhi clidru, Simh. {h)alu, Maladive hulu. Syncope of r. § 356. The loss of an original r is infrequent both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. param, pare ' beyond,' Mag. Prak. pale, Apab. Prak, pall, Bihari pdi. Skt, durosdrlta ' duly and unduly restored,' Pali dosarlta. b. Iranian, Paz., New Pers, a<7ar ' if, ' Siv, ay. New Pers. kar ' make ! ' Gab. kar, Central dialects ka, Ka§. kl. Nay. nika. New Pers. har 'bear!' Zaf. bar. Kas. &a, Von. bar, Kuhr., Kurd. SINGLE CONSONANTS 117 la. Av. mcifar ' mother,' Phi. maf{ar), New Pers. mddar, Gab. mciye, Kas. ma% moi/a, Maz. w«(7r, milr^ Gil. mar, wiaar, Tal. mti, Siyn. ma^Z, Minj. mayd, Afy. w?or, Bal. wia^, N. Bal. md6^ mas, Kurd. maTi, Dig. Oss. mada. Tag. wwld EpentJiesis of r. § 357. Epenthetic r occurs in the Indo-Iranian dialects very rarely. a. Indian. Skt. lioti 'ten millions,' Mag. Prak. hodi., Biharl Tiaror, Jiaror, Hindi kror, Anglo-Ind. crore. Skt. vydsa nom. prop., Apab. Prak. vrdsu. Skt. Jjltasya ' commentary,' Prak. Wirdsa. b. Iranian. Av. tasat ' shaped,' archaic New Pers. idsltan, Afy. tarxaj. Av, haxta 'fate,' Phi., New Pers. haxt, Afy. harxa, hraxa. Av. aH dahdka nom. prop.. Phi. aie dahdJc, New Pers. azdahd ' dragon,' Kurd. aMarJia, azdalia. 1= I § 358. Indo-Iranian Z is in general preserved unchanged in the Indian dialects. In Old Iranian Indo-Iranian I was entirely lost, excepting in the foreign proper names haldita and duhdia in the Old Persian inscriptions. In the Middle and New Iranian I reappears, sometimes representing Indo-Iranian I, and sometimes Indo-Iranian r. a. Indian. Skt. lagna ' attached,' Prak., Pali lagga, Hindi laga, lag, Panj. lag, other New Ind. dialects lag. Skt. limjpati ' smears,' Prak. limpai, Pali limpati, Ur. lip, Bang, lep, Hindi lip, Up, Panj. lipjp, limb, limm, Sindhi liml>, Guj. lip. Mar. Up. Skt. dmalaJM ' myrobalan,' Prak. dmalaa, Pali dmaUika, Ur. dmala. Bang. aoZa, aiiZa, Hindi dmvald, Panj. awte, Sindhi dmviro. Mar. amvald. Skt. ca?a/i 'wanders,' Prak. m?a?, Pali calati, Ur., Bang. caZ, Hindi mZ, Marw. car, Panj. caZ?, Smdhi cal, Guj,, Mar. mZ, cal. Skt., Pali xnppala 'sort of tree,' Bang, pippal, Biharl, E. Hindi pipar, Panj, pippal, Sindhi pipiru, Guj, j)?j>«Z, Mar. pimpal. 118 IN DO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY b. Iranian. Phi. lap 'lip,' New Pers. lab, Kas. lav, Tat Zov, Wax! lav, lajc, Sangl. lav, Bal. lay^, Kurd, liv (cf. Lat. labium, Anglo-Saxon lippa). Phi. lisfano 'lick,' New Pers. listan, 7iB.t, Kas. hales, Wax! lixam (cf. Skt. lehmi, rehmi ' I lick/ Gk. Aeixw, Lith. le^iii, O. H. Germ, leckon). Av. garah 'throat,' Phi. gariih, New Pers. 5r<«??7, f/rt?2T, Sangl. yar, Afy. yara, Kui-d. (/ar«t (cf. Skt. gala, Lat. (/M?a, 0. H. Germ. hela). l>d. § 359. The change of I to d is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. x)aldsa 'green,' Sak. Prak. pacjasa. Skt. laldta, rardfa ' forehead,' Prak. niddla, Pali laldta, naldta (cf. lexicog. Skt. nitala). Skt. ^dZa 'palmyra-palm,' Pali ^a7a, Ur. ^a|. Bang, ^a/, other New Ind. dialects tad, tar. I > n. § 360. The change of I to n is quite frequent in the Indian dialects. In Uriya and Bangall initial I is almost always pro- nounced n. a. Indian. Skt. Icmgala ' plough, ' Prak. namgala, I am gala, Pali namgala, Biharl Idmgal, Mar. ndmgar, Simh. nagula, nagala. Skt. laldta, rardta 'forehead,' Prak. niddla, Pali naldta, lalrita. Skt. lavana ' salt,' Prak., Pali lona, Kasm., Ur., Bang, nun, Ion, Biharl Ion, non, Hindi non, nun, liln, Panj. niin, Sindhi liinii, Guj. lun. Mar. land. Gyp. Ion. Skt. lunt{]i)d 'robbery,' Ur. nutl, Hindi hit, Anglo-Ind. loot. Skt. dehall ' threshold,' Pali dehani. Skt. jamMla ' rose-apple tree,' Biliari jdmun. I > r. § 361. The change of Z to r is the most frequent of all the changes to which Indo-Iranian I is subject. In Old Iranian, as already noted in § 358, original I has become r throughout. a. Indian. Skt. yamala ' pair,' Jfiina Prak. ydvara, Pali ya- mala. Skt. dlambana ' support,' Pali drammana. Skt. pippala ' sort of tree,' E. Hindi j^W^^f, Sindlil pipiru, etc. (see § 358). SINGLE CONSONANTS 119 Skt. sydmala 'swarthy,' Pali sdmala, E. Hindi sdmvar, Hindi sdmvald, W. Hindi sdnivrail, Panj. sdmvald, Sindhi sdmviru, sdmvalu, Mar. sdmvald. b. Iranian. Skt jihdla 'plough,' New Pers. stipdr, Sarq. sjmr, Afy. spdra. Skt. lopdsa 'fox,' Phi. ropas, lopas, New Pers. rdhdh, Gab. nwds, Sarq. rey^c, Bal. rophasl', Kurd. r^Tv^, Dig. Oss. rohas, Tag. riibas. Skt. Z/A-.sa ' nit,' New Pers. risk, Afy. rica, Dig. Oss. lislia^ Tag. Z/5Z;. ? > I § 362. The change of Z to Z occurs frequently in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt., Prak. hdla ' black,' Pali Tidla, Ur. liold^ Bang., Hindi hdld, Panj. hdld, Sindhi hard, Guj. /i«to, Mar. lidld, Simh., Maladive Tcdlu. Skt. sthala 'place,' Ur., Panj. thai, Sindhi tharu, Guj., Mar. thai Skt. talati 'totters,' Ur. tal, Bang., Hindi tal, Panj. tal, Sindhi til, tar, Guj., Mar, tal. Syncope of I. § 363. The syncope of an original I is an excessively rare phenomenon. a. Indian. Skt. JcinculaJca ' earth-worm,' Mag. Prak. Jcim- culae, Biharl kemcuvd, hemcvd. Skt. halivarda 'bull,' Prak. ha'illa, Pali halivadda. Skt. Jchalu ' indeed,' Prak. (k)l:hu, Shahbazgarhi inscriptions hlio, Im, Pali hho. V = V. § 364. Indo-Iranian v remains in general unchanged both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. varfiJcd ' wick,' Prak. vattid, Pali vatfiM, Ur. hati, Bang, hdti, Hindi, Panj. latti, Sindhi vati, Guj. hati, Mar. batti. Skt. vrscika ' scorpion,' Prak. vimchia, vimcliua, vimciia, vihcua, Pali vicchika, Ur. hic1iu{d), Bang. hicM, Hindi hicliud, Panj. biccJm, Sindlil hicJmni, vimchfi, Guj. vmichu, vichu. Mar. vimcu. Skt. pavana ' wind,' Prak. pailna, Pali pavana, Kasm. 120 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY pdvan, Ur., ^a,ng. pahan, other New Indian dialects pavan, also Hindi pailn, Panj. pai'm, Guj. ^ow. Skt. navati ' ninety/ Prak. naiiim, Fali navuti, Kasm. namath, Ur. naba, Bang, nahhm, Biharl nahhe, Hindi, Panj. navve, Sindhi nave, Guj. nevum, Mar. navvad. b. Iranian. Av. vardcafdhvant 'glorious,' Phi. varc, varj, New Pers. varj. Av. ?;a^a ' wind,' Phi. wj. New Pers. had, Gab. vafZ, Siv. vdi, Zaf. «7o, Kas. V(ji, Von., Kuhr., Nay. vOd, Nat. vad, Maz. t7a. Tat wr, Afy. vo, Bal. ^fvaf, N. Bal. gvaO, gras, Kurd, mi, ha. Tag. Oss. ■yr7d Av. vafra ' snow,' Phi. wa/r. New Pers. harf, Gab., Kas., Maz., Gil. varf, Tal. va, Judaeo-Pers. vaJir, Sangl. varf, Minj. varfa, Afy. va?;r«, Kurd. «;a/r, Zaza vaura. Av. nava 'new,' Phi. navah, nok, Paz., New Pers. no, Gab. W027a, Kas., Siyn. nav, Sarq. ?«w;, Afy. naval, Bal. woZ;, N. Bal. nox, Kurd, wm, Dig. Oss. navag, Tag. j^ijo^;. Av. (?aez;a ' demon,' Phi., New Pers. dev, WaxI liv, Siyn. gfv, Sarq. hev. v > u. § 365. The vocalization or samprasarana of original t; to m is a rare phenomenon. a. Indian. Skt. pavana 'wind,' Prak. pauna, Hindi pailn, pavan, Panj. pailn, pavan, etc. (see preceding §). Skt., Prak., Pali deva ' god,' New Ind. dialects dcv, also Ur,, Bang, de, Hindi deo, deii, Panj., Sindhi dm, Gyp. devel, del. b. Iranian. Av. vaenaiti 'sees,' Old Pers. vaindhy, Phi. venat. New Pers. hlnad, WaxI, Siyn. vlnam, Sarq. vainam, Afy. vinam, Dig. Oss. vimm. Tag. tmin. Av. yava 'barley,' Phi. yav, jav. New Pers. jav, Siv. ?/m, Zaf. yah, Kas. ya, Kulir. yah, Siyn. 2/«vaj, Sarq, yaugj, Yayn, ?/«?/, Bal, jo, Jav, N. Bal., Kurd, jau, MukrI yo, Oss. yau. Av. avlvanta 'bevomited,' archaic New Pers. vdmitan, Dig. Oss. vomun, Tag. ■Mm^?^. V > h. § 366. The change of v to ^' is excessively rare. b. Iranian, Av. varoha 'plant,' Phi. vartd, gul, New Pers. gid ' rose,' Samn. vdla, Kurd, hulilh. SINGLE CONSONANTS 121 V > g. § 367. The change of v to g occurs regularly before ti in Pazand and New Persian. b. Iranian. Av. v'ltardta ' crossed,' Old Pers. viyatarmjama, Phi, vitdtiano, New Pers. guhastan, Gab. vaddrta, Von. haidor- nan, Kuhr. haudarnadan, Kurd. huJiurtin, hahartin. Av. vdhrha ' wolf/ Phi., New Pers. gurg, Kas. var{g), Maz, vz(r(/, Yidg. vury, Yayn. aitraJc, Afy. lug, Bal. gvarJc, gurJc, N. Bal. gurkh, Kurd, var^, Dig. Oss. l>eray, Tag. ?>7ray. Av. vardtata ' surroimding,' Phi. vastauo, gastano, New Pers. gdsfan, Gab. vdstmun, Sarq. yirsam, Kurd, gariydn. Av. VBrdzijeiti ' does,' Phi. i'ar^ ' agri- culture,' New Pers. Jar^, Judaeo-Pers. var^, Kurd, gurdn. Av. vlsaiti ' twenty,' PhL t/75^, New Pers. 6i5f, Kas. vlstd, vis{sd), Waxi vlst, Sarq. vist, Bal. Mid. Pers. *t?w > Paz., New Pers. gu, and that Old Pers. *vr > Mid. Pers. *vur > Paz., New Pers. gur. V > gh, y. § 368. Tlie change of v to gh, y, is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. vardtata 'surrounding,' Sarq. yirsam, etc. (see preceding §). V > gv. § 369. Tlie change of v to gv is regular initially before «-vowels in Balucl. b. Iranian. Av. vdta ' wind,' Bal. gvdt, N. Bal. gvdd, gvds, etc. (see § 364). Av. vdhrka ' wolf,' Bal. gvarh, gurh, etc. (see § 367). Old Pers. vasiy ' much,' Phi. vas. New Pers. has, Kas. vas, Bal. gvas. V > n. § 370. The change of v to n is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. navanavati 'ninety-nine,' Bihar! nindndbe (assimilation). V >ph,f. § 371. The change of v to ph, f, is extremely rare. 122 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY b. Iranian. Av., Old Pers. ava ' this/ Paz. o, New Pers. av, 6, Kurd, a/, ava, dv. V > b. § 372. The change of v to & is extremely common both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects (cf. the converse change of h to V, § 308). a. Indian. Skt. suvrsti ' abimdance of rain,' Pali siihhufthi. Skt. vaspa 'tear, vapor/ Prak. hap2)(Ji)a 'smoke/ hdha Hear/ Saur. Prak., Pali happa, Ass. hhdp, Kasm. hdha, Ur., Bang. hhdp, E. Hindi hd{m)pli, Hindi hd{m)ph, hhdph, Panj. Mdph, Sindhi hdph, Guj. hd(;m)pJi, Mar. vdph. Skt. vesta ' enclosure,' Pali vetJiaka, Ass. her, Naip. hdr, Kasm. vdr, vdd, Ur. hedhd, ■ hJiedd, Bang, hedd, Hindi, Panj. hedhd, Sindhi vadeho, Mult. verhd, Mar. vedhd. Skt. puravdsin ' citizen,' Biharl purahdsJ. Skt. vrddha ' large,' Prak. vaddha, vlddJia, viiddha, Pali hudcjha, vaddha, viddha, viiddha, Ass. bar, Naip. &aro, Kasm. bor, bod, Ur., Bang. &a^a, E. Hindi hard, hard, baddd, Hindi badd, Panj. vaddd, W. Panj. baddd, Sindhi vado, Guj. vado, Gyp. &aro. Skt., Prak., Pali virala 'thin,' Simh. burul. b. Iranian. Av. vaeti ' willow,' Phi. vet, New Pers. bed. Gab. Vic?, Kas. vicZ, vet, Afy. vaZa, N. Bal. geO, Kurd, hi, vl. Av. visaiti ' twenty,' New Pers. btst, etc. (see § 367). Av. vdfa 'wind,' New Pers. bad, Kurd, bd, vai, etc. (see § 364). Av. vdra 'rain,' Phi. vdrdn, New Pers. bdrdn. Gab. bavdra, Kas. vorun, Maz. vdris, Waxi vilr, Sarq. varaij, varasa, Afy. varyaj, varyaz, Kurd. bdn{n), Luri, Zaza varan. Dig. Oss. vdrun. Tag. varin. Av. vawa ' tree,' Phi. vaw, New Pers. 621;?, Afy. vana, Bal. ^vaw, (/oi«. Dig. Oss. bun. Tag. Zj/w. Av. husravah 'having fair fame,' Phi. husrob. New Pers. xusrav. v > hh. § 373. The change of v to bh is quite common in the Indian dialects, being the sound considered in the preceding paragraph further influenced by a neighbouring sibilant, aspirate or h. SINGLE CONSONANTS 123 a. Indian. Skt. vaspa ' tear, vapor,' Ass. hJici^), Ur., Bang., l)hap, Hindi hhaph, hn{')U)ph, Panj. hhdph^ etc. (see preceding §). Skt. vesta ' enclosure,' Ur. hhcdci, hedha, etc. (see preceding §). V > m. § 374. The change of v to m is not common in the Indian dialects, while in the Iranian dialects it is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. ydvat 'how long,' tcwat 'so long,' Apab. Prak. jama, jdiini, jdmahim, tdfua, tailm, tdniahim, Pali ydva, tava. Skt. vdisravana nom. prop., Jaina Prak. vesaniana. Skt. vijnaptika * request,' Bang, minati, E. Hindi mintl, Hindi minnat, hintl, Panj. mmnat, Sindhi minti. Skt. nava ' nine,' Prak. nava, Pali nava, Kasm. ndu{m), Ur. naa, Bang, nay, Bihari, Hindi ndu, Panj. ndum, naum, Sindhi namvam, Guj., Mar. nav, Simh. nama, nava. b. Iranian. Av. pairi ' around' + Vvard^ 'do/ New Pers. parvdz 'plough,' Bux. parmdz. Skt. vartiJcd 'partridge,' Phi. vartah, New Pers. vardij, WaxI vole, Afy. maraz, nvaras, Bal. gvarddg, Kurd, vard't. V >y. § 375. The apparent change of v to y is not common either in the Indian or in the Iranian dialects (cf. the following §). a. Indian. Skt. pravartati ' proceeds,' Prak. payatfat. Skt. diva ' by day,' Jaina Prak. diyd. Skt. ddva ' forest,' Pali ddya. Skt. devara 'brother-in-law,' Prak. dcara, diara, devara, Ur. deyara, deyura. Bang, deyar, Hindi, Panj. devar, Sindhi deru, Guj. der, deur, Mar. devar, dtr. b. Iranian. Phi. jufano 'gnaw,' New Pers. jdvidan, Afy. zOyal, zoval, Bal. jdyag, N. Bal. jdy, Kurd. ju{i)n. Syncope of v. 376. Syncope of v is not common in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. jlva 'life,' Frak.jia, Pali jfva. Skt. divasa 124 JNDO-IBANIAN PHONOLOGY 'day,' Prak. divalm, dialia, Jaina Prak., Pali divasa, Sindhi dlthhu, Mar. divas, Simh. davas, divas. Skt. trayovimsati ' twenty-three/ Prak. tevisa, Pali tevisa{ti), Biharl teis, and similarly the other New Ind. dialects, excepting Sindhi irevili, Guj. trcvJs, Mar. tcvis. Skt. uxmvista 'seated,' Prak. idjavitfha, uva'iUlia, Pali upaviWia, Hindi, Panj. hdith^ Guj. has, Mar. hetlio. b. Iranian. Av. gav 'cow,' Phi., New Pers. gav, go, Z&t., Ka§., Von. go, Kuhr. goh, WaxI yau, yii, Siyn. gdv, Sarq. iao, Sangl., Minj. yao, Yayn. gova, Afy. yvd, Bal. ^oZ;, N. Bal. gox, Kurd, ga, Dig. Oss. yog. Tag. g%. Av. yava ' barley, ' Siv. yu, Kas. ?/a, Bal. Jo, jav, MukrI yd, etc. (see § 365). Av. vtsaiti ' twenty,' Dig. Oss. insai, Tag. ssaj, etc. (see § 367). Av. haevars 'ten thousand,' Phi., New Pers. Mvar, Dig. Oss. heura, her a, Tag. Z<^ra. Proihesis of v. § 377. Prothetic v occurs occasionally both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. ucyate ' is said,' Prak. vucca'i, Saur., Mag. Prak. vuccadi, Pali vuccati. Skt. ukta ' said,' Prak. (inscriptions of Girnar) vuta. Skt. iisita ' inhabited ' beside vasita, Pali vuttha, vusita. b. Iranian. Av. azdm ' I,' Old Pers. adam, Tal. az, WaxI, §iyn. VU3, Sarq. vaz, Yidg. zuh, Afy. sa, Kurd., Oss. az. Av. asta ' eight,' Phi. {h)a§t, New Pers, 7ial#, WaxI 7ja5, Siyn. vast, Sarq. vox^, Eos. hast, Sangl. Jidf, Minj. a^^-a, Yayn. uis, Afy. a to, Oss. asth. Gk. woy ' egg, ' Lat. ovum, Phi. xayah. New Pers. xdyah, Gab. «;j^^, Afy. /^a, Bal. /iaiA;, Kurd. JiaHh, hi, hek, Oss. aiZ;^(a). Epenthesis of v. § 378. Epenthetic v is of rare occurrence. a. Indian. Skt. chdya 'shadow,' Prak. chdhd, chdyd, Pali chdyd, Ur. chdhina, Hindi clidmv, chdmQi), chdom, Panj. cd{u)m, Sindhi chdmv, chdm, Guj. cdmy. SINGLE CONSONANTS 125 ava > a. § 379. The loss of Indo-Iranian v, which has been noted in § 376, gives rise to various contractions in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. The contraction of ava to a occurs very rarely. a. Indian. Skt. prahliavami ' am able,' Prak. pahhava'i, Pali pahhavami, Gaih^ prabhdmi. Skt. sanibliavanti 'are able,' Prak. samhhavat, Pali sambhavati, Gatha samhhdnti. b. Iranian. Av. srava^eiti ^ chants,' Fhl. srdyat, New Pers. srdyacl, WaxI siravam, Sarq. nasravam. Av. havdt 'may be,' New Pers. bad. ava > u. § 380. The contraction of ava to u occurs both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. lavana 'salt,' Prak., Pali lona, Kasm., Ur. Bang, nun, Ion, Biharl Ion, non, Hindi niln, liin, non, Panj. nun, Sindhi lumi, Guj. lun. Mar. lotid. Gyp. Ion. Skt. avajhd 'contempt,' Pali unnd. b. Iranian. Skt. avastJiifa ' firm,' New Pers. usfdm, ostdm. ava > e. § 381. The contraction of ava to e is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. avalanibati 'hangs down,' Elu elabanavd, Simh. ellanavd, elvdn, olamhu. b. Iranian. Av. navani 'nine,' Old Pers. navama, Paz., New Pers. niih, Kas. muJido, Tat niif, WaxI, Siyn. nao, Sarq. nav, Sangl., Minj. nao, Yayn. nau, Kurd. 7it'h. ava > 0. § 382. The contraction of ava to o is the normal one to which ava is subject both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. lavana ' salt,' Prak., Pali lOna, Kasm., Ur., Bang. Ion, nun, Biharl non, Ion, Hindi non, lun, nun, Panj. nun, 126 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Sindhi lilmi, Guj. hin, Mar. land. Skt. hhavati ' becomes,' Prak. hoi, Saur, Prak. {h)]iudl, {h)Jmvadl, {h)Jiavadi, Mag. Prak. {h)Jiava'i, Jiuva'i, Apab. Prak. liodi, Pais. Prak. hhoti, Pali hhavati, huti, Gatha hhoti, New Ind. dialects ho, excepting Ur. he, Sindhi hua, Skt. samavasrsta ' assembled/ Jaina Prak. samosadha, Pali samosata. Skt. a^jara ' lower/ Pali ora. Skt, avavdda * coun- sel/ Pali ovdda, Siihh. ova. Skt. avasydya * hoar-frost/ Bang. 05, Hindi, Panj., Guj. os. b. Iranian. Skt. pravatd ' downwards,' Phi. frof, New Pers. furod, Sarq. jprod Av. nava 'new,' Phi. noh, navah, Paz., New Pers. no, Bal. noli, N. BaL «iox, Tag. Oss. nvog, etc. (see § 364). Av. avaha ' there,' Old Pers. avadd, Bal. odd, N. Bal. o8a. Tag. Oss. vad. Av. navaiti ' ninety,' Phi. navat, New Pers. navad, Afy. ware, Kurd, wo^, wwd a»a > aw. § 383. The contraction of ava to au is quite rare. a. Indian. Skt. dhavala ' white,' Apab. Prak. dhavalu, Ur., Bang. dJiald, Hindi dhdiild, Sindhi dhdumro, Guj. dholum. Mar. dhavd, dJiaval. Skt. avatdra 'descent,' Pali otdra, avatdra, Sindhi dutdru, avatdr. b. Iranian. Av. yava 'barley,' Sarq. yaugj, Yayn. yau, N. Bal., Kurd, jau, Oss. yau, etc. (see § 365). Av. sydva 'black,' Phi. siydJc, siydh, New Pers. siydh, Waxi sH, Sangl. soi, Oss. sau. am > e. § 384. The contraction of avi to e is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. hhavisye ' I shall be,' Gatha hhesye. Skt. sthavira ' monk,' Prak. thcra, (inscriptions of Girnar) thdira, Pali tMra, Mar. ther(add). avi > di. § 385. Tlie contraction of avi to di is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. sthavira ' monk,' Prak. thdira (inscriptions of Girnar), thera, etc. (see preceding §). SINGLE CONSONANTS 127 ava > 0. § 386. Tlie contraction of ava to o is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. zavarj ' might,' Plil. gor{tJi), New Pers. zor. civaij > e, ai. § 387. The contraction of iivay to e, ai, is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. A v. lidvaya 'royal,' Phi. he, Jcai, Paz., New Pers. kai. dvi > a. § 388. The contraction of dvi to d is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. dvishrta ' manifest,' Phi. dskdrdJc, New Pers. dsJcdr{d), dsJcdrah, Afy. xhdra. ivd > 0. § 389. The contraction of ivd to o is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. ^Jwiiy^sm 'neighbour,' New Indian dialects parosJ, padosl, ])arosi. ive > 0. § 390. Tlie contraction of ive to d is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. praiivesayati ' distributes,' Biharl parosdi. wa > I. § 391. The contraction of Iva to I is quite frequent in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. jvaiti ' lives,' Old Pers. jtvdhy, Phi. zTvas- iano, New Pers. zlstan, Kurd, z'ln, ziin. Phi. (Z?j?Imr ' scribe,' dipir{i]i), New Pers. dihir. cva > I. § 392. The contraction of cva to I is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. devara 'brother-in-law,' Mar. d'lr, devar, etc. (see § 375). b. Iranian. New Pers. devdnali ' bedevilled,' Kurd. din. 128 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY uva > a. § 393. Tlie contraction of uva to a is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. yvan ' youth,' Phi. yuvan, New Pers. juvan- mard, Kurd, janmardi. uva > il, 0. § 394. The contraction of uva to u, o, is the normal one to wliich uva is subject. b. Iranian. Iran. *vadhuvahd 'bride/ New Pers. hayo{g), Kurd. hiJJc. Av. drvatdt * health,' Phi. drut, Paz. durud, New Pers. durod. s = s. § 395. Indian s is retained but seldom in the Indian dialects. In the Middle Indian dialects the Magadhi, Ardhamagadhi, Avan- tika, and Sakarl alone preserve s. Of the New Indian dialects GujaratI and Marat hi often retain s, although great confusion in the use of s and s prevails. Hindi and Sindhi indeed write s, but pronounce the s as s, while in Bangall s is pronounced s. a. Indian. Skt. sata ' hundred,' Prak. sa{y)a, Pais. Prak. sate, Mag. Prak. sada^ Pali sata, Ass. 5a, Kasm. hat, Ur. sae, Bang, saya, Hindi, Panj. sdi, sdu, Sindhi sail, Guj. so, Mar. sem, sambhar, Guj. sel. Skt. sirsa 'head,' Prak. sisa, sissa, Pali Sisa, Hindi, Panj. sis, Sindlii sisi, Guj. sis. Mar. si{m)s, Elu hisa, Simh. isa, iha. Skt. asiti ' eighty,' Prak. asli, Pali aslti, Ass. sit, Kasm. sitli, Ur. asl. Bang, dsi, Biharl, Hindi, Panj. assl, Sindhi asi, Guj. emsi, Mar. emsl. Skt. dislya 'native,' Pali desnja, Ur., Bang. desi{ya), Hindi, Panj. dcsi, Sindlii desl, dehdi, Guj., Mar. dcsi. s > ch. § 396. The change of s to ch occurs quite frequently in the Middle and New Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. sdvaJca ' young animal,' Prak. chdvaa, Pali chdpa, Ur. ch{u)d. Bang. chd{m), Hindi chdkadd, Panj. chuhadd, chohard, Sindhi choJcado, Guj. chdvo, choJcaru, Mar. chdvadd, Gyp. SINGLE CONSONANTS 129 chavd. Skt. salcrt ' once,' Prdi chaJcam. Skt. scsa 'end,' Prak., Prdi sesa, Guj. chevaf. chcdo, chello. Skt. sana 'hemp,' Ur, chana, Bang, cliana. s > d. § 397. The change of s to (^ is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. saka 'pot-herb,' Pali daka, saka, Kasm. hak (cf. Skt. ddkinl ' sort of female demon ' beside sakin'i). s >y. § 398. The change oi s to y is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. dvddasanavdrsa 'twelfth year,' Prak. (inscrip- tions of Kapur di Giri) barayavasa, (Dhauli, Jaugada) duvddasa- vdsa, (Girnar) dvddasavasa, (IClialsi) duvddasdvasa. s > V. § 399. The change of s to v is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. parasu ' axe,' Mahar. Prak. parasu, Simh. porava, Maladive furO. [Really syncope of s (cf. § 402).] s > s. § 400. Tlie change of i to s is the regular one to which Indian s is subject in the Middle and New Indian dialects with the excep- tion of the dialects already noted in § 395. a. Indian. Skt. sohliati 'is beautiful,' Prak. sohat, Pais. Prak. sobhati, Pali sobhhati. Skt. susrusd ' obedience,' Prak. (inscriptions of Shahbazgarhi and Kapur di Giri) susrusd, Pah sussusd. Skt. sata 'hundred,' Prak. sa{i/)a, Pais. Prak., Pali ^ata, Ass. sa, Hindi, Panj. sdi, sdu, Sindhi sdu, etc. (see § 395). Skt. asJti ' eighty,' Prak. asu, Pali asUi, Biharl, Hindi, Panj. assi, Sindhi asl, Guj. ohsJ, etc. (see § 395). Skt. slid ' stone,' Prak, sild, Mag. Prak. sild, Pali slid, Ur. sila, Bang, sil, Hindi sil, Panj. sil, Sindhi sir, Mar. sil. s > h. § 401. The change of s to h is quite common in the Middle and New Indian dialects. E 130 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. dasa 'ten,' Prak. daha, dasa, Pali dasa, Kasm. dah, Ur., Bang, das, das, Hindi das, Panj. (^a/i, (?a5, Sindhi dali, Guj. cZa5, Mar. (7a/^a, Siiiih. daJiaya, dasa, Gyp. cZes. Skt. svasura 'father-in-law/ Pali sasura, Ur., Bang., Hindi sastir, Panj. sahurd, sduhara, Sindhi salmru, Guj., Mar. sdsara, Maladive Jmrs, Gyp. sastro, sasro. Skt. jpaiw ' cattle,' Hindi (Doab, Oude) poke. Skt. Jccsarl ' lion,' Prak., Pali Jcesarl, Biharl TceJian, hcsan, Hindi keJiari, Panj. I'char, Sindlil JceharJ, Guj. Jcl'sarl. Skt. ^;asa ' noose,' Prak., Pali ^Msa, Hindi ^Ja5, phams, Panj. j;«/i, Sindhi ^^/ta/ii, phdsi, Guj. ^;c75. Skt. sirsa ' head,' Elu 7«'5a, etc. (see § 395). Apocope and syncope of s. § 402. Tlie loss of an initial or internal Indian s occurs fre- quently in the Simhalese. a. Indian. Skt. s'lrsa ' head,' Simh. isa, ilia, etc. (see § 395). Skt. snoga ' horn,' Prak., Pali simja, Hindi slmg. Mar. simg, Elu samgu, amgu, Siihh. amga, si{m)gu, sumgu. Skt. slsira ' cold,' Prak., Pali sisira, Simh. ill, lidl. Skt. lasuna ' onion,' Pali lasuna, Simh. lilnu. s = s. § 403. Tlie retention of Indian s is found only in Kasmiri, Uriya, and Bangall. a. Indian. Skt. sodasa ' sixteen,' Prak. solaha, Pali solasa, sorasa, Kasm. surah. Ur. sohala, Bang, sola, Biharl surah, Hindi solah, Panj. soldm, Sindhi sdrahani, Guj. sol, Mar. sold, Simh. solosa. Skt. musa 'mouse,' Ur. milsd, Bang., Hindi, Panj. musa. Gyp. muso. s > Jch. § 404. In Hindi and Panjabi, as well as in other New Indian dialects in sporadic instances, Indian s is pronounced kh, even if s be retained in script. a. Indian. Skt. hhdsd ' vernacular,' Prak., Prdi hhdsd, Naip. SINGLE CONSONANTS 131 hhas, hhal'Jid, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. hhakha. Skt. manusa ' man,' Prak., Pali manusa, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. mamikli, Sindhi mdmdchu, Gyp. manus. In the tadbhava forms of these semitatsamas we find, as we should expect, hMsd, munus, etc. s > ch. § 405. The change of 5 to ch is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. sas ' six,' Prak,, Pali cha, Kasni. sail, slh, Ur. chaa, Bang, cliaya, Biharl cha, Hindi clia, die, Panj. che, Sindlil cha[h), Guj. cha, Mar. sah{d). Old Simh. caJca, Sirhh. haya, saya, Gyp. so{v). Skt. satpada ' bee,' Prak, chappaa, Jaina Prak. chappaya. § >y' § 406. The apparent change oi s to y is extremely rare. a, Indian. Skt. kansa ' dry cow-dung,' Prak., Pali Jcarisa, Simh. hiriya (cf. § 422). s > s. § 407. The change of s to 5 occurs only in Middle Indian, where it is due to learned influence. a. Indian. Skt. anvesanfi ' they seek,' Mag. Prak. annesanti. Skt. dlahhisyanfi 'they will be immolated,' Prak, (inscriptions of Kapur di Giri) arahhisaniti (cf, the parallel passages drahhi- sanire Girnar, dldhhdyisamti Dhauli, dlahhiyisamti Jaugada, dldhhiyisamti Khalsi). s > s. § 408. The change of 5 to 5 is the normal one to which Indian s is subject in the Middle and New Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. sodasa ' sixteen,' Prak. solaha, Pali sOlasa, sorasa, Ur. sohala, Biharl sorah, Hindi solah, Panj. sdldm, Sindhi suraham, Guj. sul. Mar. soUi, Sirhh, solosa, etc. (see § 403). Skt. sandha ' eunuch,' Prak. sandlia. Ass. sdmr. Bang, safnr, E. Hindi, Hindi sdmr, Panj. sdmdh, Sindhi sdnu, Mult, sdmh, sandhd, Guj., Mar. sdnid. Skt. vrsahha 'bull,' Pruk. vasaha, K 2 132 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY usalia, Pali vascibha. Skt. ])nrusa 'man/ Priik., Pali inirisa, 'Ba.ng. punis, Hindi jMris, seraitatsama jj?(rMX7i. s > h. § 409. Tlie change of 5 to h is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. eJcasasti 'sixty-one,' Jaina Prak. cgahatthi, cgasatthi, egayatthi, egavaWii, egatfJd, Kasm. eJcahdifh, Panj. iJcaJiat, Sindhi ehaliathi. Skt. visa 'poison,' Prak., Pali visa, Panj. hill, his, Sindhi vihu. s = s. § 410. Indo-Iranian 5 is in general preserved unchanged in the Middle and New Indian dialects, while in the Iranian dialects Indo-Iranian 5 normally becomes h. Iranian s, arising from Indo- Germanic J: (Old Indian s, see also §§ 395-402), remains unchanged in most cases in the Middle and New Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. sajjfan 'seven,' Prak., Pali satta, Kasm. sath, Ur., Bang. sOta (pron. satu), Biharl, Hindi sat, Panj. satt, Sindhi sat, Guj., Mar. sat. Skt. simha 'lion,' Prak. siha, Mahar. Prak. simgha, simha, Pali sllia, Hindi, Panj, simgh, Sindhi simgho, simlm, other New Ind. dialects simli. Skt. Jcarpasa 'cotton,' Prak., Pali ha])pasa, Ur. Tcapci, Bang, hapds, Hindi Jcapds, Panj., Sindhi Jcapah, Guj., Mar, Tidpils. Skt., Pali atasl ' linseed,' Ur. test, Bang, tisl, E. Hindi ttsi. b. Iranian. Av. sarali 'head,' Phi., New Pers. sar, WaxI, Sangl., Minj. sar, Afy., Bal., Kurd., Oss. sar. Av. sarjta 'cold,' Phi. sarf, New Pers. sard, Gab. sart, WaxI siir{t), Sarq. j)cii- sorani, Afy. sor, Bal. sard, N. Bal. sdrth, Kurd, sdr, Tag. Oss. said. Av, kasu 'small,' Plil, kas, Paz. kah, New Pers. Jcih, Gab. Tcasiik, Zaf., Ka§. has, Von. Tcassar, Nay. kas, Afy. kasr, Bal. kas{s)dn, Oss. khasthar. Av. dasa 'ten,' Phi. dahum, New Pers. dah, WaxI has, las, oiyn. Ms, lis, Sarq. bcs, Sangl. das, Yidg. lus, Yayn. das, Afy. las, Kurd, dav, Zaza das, Oss. das{am). Av. paesa 'leprosy,' Old Pers. -niadyas, Phi. pcsak, New Pers. j;e5. Gab. j)Is/i, Afy.^e5(ai), Kurd. pis{aj). SINGLE CONSONANTS 133 s > cli. § 411. The change of s to cli is a very rare one. a. Indian. Skt. sudhd ' ambrosia,' Prak. chuM, Pali sudlid. Skt. sird ' vein,' Prak. c/ura, sird, Pali sird. Skt. sidradlidra ' carpenter,' Ur., Bang. cJmtdr (pron. sutdr). Skt. sihcati 'sprinkles,' Prak. simca'i, Pali sihcati, Bihari cMmcdi, slmcdi, Mar. simcanem. s > j{Ji). § 412. The change of s to j{h) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. haiiisa 'goose,' Prak., Pali hamsa, Hindi hams, Sindhi liamj{Ji)ii, Sirhh. has. s > t § 413. Tlie change of s to ^ is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. sax^'drj 'word,' Phi. saxun. New Pers. suxiin, Siv. tuxtm, Kas. suxan. Gr. Kopos ' satiety,' New Pers. ser, Kurd, ter (Justi, Kurd. Gramm. 64, compares also the Av. uTT. Xey. ddfairi, Yt. x, 14). s > th, 6. § 414. The change of s to th, 6, occurs frequently only in Old Persian. to. Iranian. Av. suxra 'red,' Old Pers. Quxra, Phi. suxr, New Pers. surx, WaxI sdkr, Afy. stir, Bal. suhr, sohr, Kurd, sor^ Dig. Oss. surx, Tag. sirx. Gr. Kopos 'satiety,' Av. ddtairi, etc. (? see preceding §). s > d. § 415. The change of s to d is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. salmsra 'thousand,' Prak., Pali sahassa, Kasm. sds, Bihari sahasar, Sindhi sahasu, Simh. dahasia, das, ddJia (d for 5 by false analogy with Simh. dahaya ' ten,' Skt dasan, etc.). 134 INDO'IRANIAN PHONOLOGY S > V. § 416. The change of s to ?; is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. dasa ' ten/ Kurd, dav, etc. (see § 410). s > s. § 417. The change of s to 5 is very rare. In East Hindi 5 is often written for s, although s is retained in pronunciation. This lax writing is very frequent in GujaratI and in Marathi most of all (cf. §§ 395, 400). The change of s to s is regular in Magadhi, Ardliamagadhi, and Sakari Prakrit, and the Avantika Prakrit also shows numerous examples of this development. a. Indian. Skt. vilasa ' coquetry,' Mag. Prak. vilase, Mahar. Prak., Pali vilasa. Skt. sabhika 'keeper of a gambling-house,' Mag. Prak. sahia. Skt. anusasana ' instruction,' Prak. (inscrip- tions of Kapur di Giri) anusasana, Mahar. Prak. anusasana, Pali anusasana. s > s. § 418. The change of s to 5, apart from the regular develop- ment in Old Indian of s from s after f, u, r, e, o, is extremely rare. a. Indian. Prak. (inscriptions of Kapur di Giri) uyanasi 'in a garden,' beside uyanasi (inscriptions of Dhauli, Jaugada, Khalsi). Skt. hhavisyasi 'thou wilt be,' Gatha hliesyasi. s > §. § 419. The change of Iranian s to s is not frequent. b. Iranian. Skt. sana ' whetstone,' New Pers. san, afsdn, dialectic sdn, WaxI, Sarq. j)asdn. Av. suha 'needle,' Plil. sucan, Paz. suzan, sozan, New Pers. sozan, Gab. sajan, Zaf sozo, Wax! sic, Sarq. sic, Bal. si'icin, sicln, N. Bal. stsin, sisan, sisin, Kurd, suzin, suzin. Skt. sakrt ' excrement,' Afy. yo-sdJc, yd- §oe, N. Bal. sayan. Av. susi ' lung,' Phi. sus, New Pers. sus. Gab. sus, Afy. sayai. SINGLE CONSONANTS 135 S > 2. § 420. Tlie change of 5 to ^ is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. siiirya 'breakfast,' Plil. siir^ New Pers. surnai * trumpet,' Tat zurnai. Av. pasu ' cattle,' Paz. pali, Tat pas, WaxI j)w5, pos, Sarq. jp(i)a5, Afy. psa, Bal. pas, N. Bal. phas, Kurd, pas, Dig. Oss. fuss. Tag. _^55. Av. x^asnra ' father- in-law,' New Pers. xusur, WaxI xurs, Afy. 5xr h. § 421. Tlie change of Indian 5 to h, wliich is very similar to the Iranian li developed from Indo-Germanic 5, where the Old Indian retains s, occurs quite frequently in the Indian dialects. The change is regular in South-Eastern Bangali (e. g. Bang, salial 'all,' S.-E. Bang, hahal), and it occurs very frequently in Panjabl, Sindhi, and Simhalese. Iranian 5 becomes h only internally in Middle and New Persian. a. Indian. Skt. divasa 'day,' Prak. divaJia, diaha, Saur., Jaina Prak., Pali divasa, Mar, divas, Siihh. davaha, davasa. Gyp. dives. Skt. ehasaptati 'seventy-one,' Kasm. aJcasatath, Ur. eJcastori, Bang, ekdttar, Biharl cJcahatfar, Hindi iJcahattar, Panj. ihhattar, Sindhi cJcahatari, Guj. ikoter, Mar. eJcaliattar, cf. Jaina Prak. hattari 'seventy,' Simh. hdttdva, scittdva. Skt. karpdsa 'cotton,' Panj., Sindhi Jcapah, etc. (see § 410). Skt. sarpa ' serpent,' Prak., Pali sappa, Ur., Bang, sdpa, Hindi samp, Panj. sapp, Sindhi sapu, Guj., Mar. sap, Simh. hapu, sapu, sap{d). b. Iranian. Av. kasu ' small,' Paz. kah. New Pers. kih, etc. (see § 410). Av. dasa ' ten,' Phi. dalmni. New Pers. dali, etc. (see § 410). Av. pasu ' cattle,' Paz. pah, etc. (see preceding §). Aphaeresis and syncope of s. § 422. The loss of initial or internal s is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. sldati 'sits,' Prak. siai, sadai, Pali sidati, Simh. imd'inavd, himdinavd. Skt. x)rasdda 'favour,' Mahar. Prak pasdya, Pali pasdda, Simh. pdya. 136 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY b. Iranian. Av. x^'asura '■ father-in-law,' Kurd, xaiir^ xasfir, xazlr, etc. (see § 420). s = s. § 423. Iranian s remains in general unchanged in the Middle and New Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. savaiti 'goes,' Old Pers. asiyavam, New Pers. Sudan, Bahb. sud, Waxi cauam, Siyn. sdvum, Sarq. som, Afy. sval, Bal. suta, N. Bal. suM, su6a, Kurd, clan, cim, Oss. caun. Av. gaosa ' ear,' Old Pers. gausa, Plil., New Pers. gos, Sir., Bahb. gus, Nay. gus, Waxi yiis, yis, Siyn., yiiz, Sarq. yaul, Yidg. yii, Afy. yvaz, Bal. gos, Kurd, guh. Dig. Oss. yos. Tag. qus. Av. raesah ' wound,' Phi., New Pers. res, Afy. r«s. s > c, c. § 424. The change of s to c, c, is found occasionally in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. savaiti 'goes,' Waxi cauam, Kurd, cian, cun, Oss. caim, etc. (see preceding §). s > j. § 425. The change of s to j is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. taesaza 'physician,' Phi. hejask, hijasJc, hesazdk. New Pers. hijish, hizWc. s > I. § 426. The change of s to Z is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. gao§a 'ear,' Sarq. yaid, etc. (see § 423). Av. spis ' louse,' Phi. S2)is, sjnis. New Pers. su])us, uspus, supus, Waxi sis, Sarq. spal, Afy. sjpaza, Kurd, sipi, aspe, Oss. sisth. s > s. § 427. The change of ^ to 5 is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. savaiti ' goes,' Bahb. stid, Siyn. scivum, Sarq. som, etc. (see § 423). Av. susi ' lung,' Phi. sus. New Pers. sus, Gab. sus, Afy. sayai. New Pers. sMr ' salt,' Siv. sur, Bal. surag, N. Bal. wray, so/*. Av. gao^a ' ear,' Dig. Oss. yos. Tag. gws. SINGLE CONSONANTS 137 s > ^. § 428. The change of s to ^ occurs very seldom. b, Iranian. Plil. selmm 'belly,' New Pers. slJcam, iskani, Kurd, sil: Av. xsvas '■ six,' Phi. sas{uni), New Pers. sas, Waxi sab, sal, Siyn. xaiis, Afy. spa^, Oss. axsaz. s > L § 429. The change of 5 to i is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. gao§a 'ear,' Siyn. yiiz, Afy. yva£, etc. (see § 423). Av. ardsa ' bear,' Phi., New Pers. xirs, Maz. as, Siyn. yfirs, Sarq. yiirx, Yidg. yars, Afy. yaz, Kurd, hirs, hire, virc, Oss. ars. Av. Jcusaitl ' kills/ Phi. kustano. New Pers. kustan, Kurd. § > h. § 430. Tlie change of s to h is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Phi. res{ah) 'beard,' New Pers. ns{ah), Citrall rixi^, rikis, WaxI rSyis, Minj. yarza, Afy. zira, Kurd, reli, ri, Dig. Oss. rexe, Tag. rixt. Apocope of s. § 431. The loss of final s occurs occasionally in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. gaosa ' ear,' Yidg. yil, etc. (see § 423). Av. spis ' louse,' Kurd, sipi, aspe, etc. (see § 426). z = z. § 432. Iranian z remains in general unchanged in the Middle and New Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. zanu ' knee,' Phi. zdnilk, New Pers. zdnu, WaxI zdn, Sarc^. ziin, Sangl. zong, Afy. zangun, cangiin, Bal. zdn, Kurd, zdna, aznoli. Av. zordbaya 'heart,' Phi., New Pers. (Ill, Maz. zilah, Gil. zil, Siyn. zrdb, zrdy, Sarq. zdrd, Sangl. uzrdy, Minj. ztl, Afy. zra, Bal. zirdP, Kurd, zar, Oss. zarda. Av. maezdnti 'they make water,' Phi. mezlfano, New Pers. tnczl- 138 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY dari, Afy. mltal, Bal. mlsay, mezay, Kurd, mlztin, mtstin, Dig. Oss. mczun, Tag. tmzin. New Pers. i)d3 ' part about the nose,' Gab. imZj Sangl. fuzih, Minj. foska, Afy. poza, paza^ Bal. pd{n)z, N. Bal. phonz, Kurd. j?o^, jpw^, Dig. Oss. y^wja, Tag. fing. z>j. § 433. Tlie change of z to j is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. zanva ' chm,' New Pers. zanax, Siyn. zmgu, Sarq. zangdn, Afy. Jawa, ^awa. Afy. Joe ' son ' beside zoe (from -/^aw ' to be born '). z > s. § 434. The change of ^ to s is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. ddrdza ' bond/ New Pers. dm-z, Oss. daras ' garment.' z, z > s. § 435. The change of z, z to s is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. New Pers. Jcdzah ' hunter's hut,' beside hdzali^ lid sail. z > L § 436. The change of ^ to i is found occasionally. b. Iranian. Av. zimo 'of winter,' Plil., New Pers. zam^ WaxI zam, Siyn. zimj, zinj, Sarq. zamdn, Afy. zwiai, zimal, jimai, Dig. Oss. zuniag, Tag. zimag. z > h. § 437. Tlie change of ^ to h is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. hdzu ' arm,' Plil. hdzlli, hdzah, New Pers. hdzu, Gab. hdJ, Ka§. hu'i, hoM, hohU, Siv. hdl, Xor. hdJm, Judaeo- Pers. hdhtil. Syncope of z. § 438. Tlie loss of internal z occurs very rarely in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. hdzu '■ arm,' Gab. hdl, Kas. hu'i, hoM, holm, Siv. hdl, etc. (see preceding §). SINGLE CONSONANTS 139 § 439. Iranian i is in general retained unchanged in the Middle and New Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. duzali ' hell,' Phi. dosax, Paz. dozax, New Pers. dozax, Afy. dozax, domx, doyas, Bal. dozak, dose, N. Bal. domx, doze, Kurd, diize. Av. duzaka '■ leech,' Phi. zuzak, New Pers. zidali, Gab. jujih. z > y. § 440. The change of i to y is excessively rare. b. Iranian, Av. duzali ' hell,' Afy. doyas, dozax, dozax, etc. (see preceding §). z >j. § 441. The change of z to j is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. duzaka ' leech,' Gab. jujik, etc. (see § 439). z > s. § 442. The change of i to s is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. diizah ' hell,' Plil. dosax, etc. (see § 439 — properly speaking, no change of i to s occurs here, since Pahlavi possesses no sign for z, and employs the character for s instead). z > z. § 443. The change of i to ^ is the most common one of all those changes to which Iranian z is subject in the Middle and New Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. duzah ' hell,' New Pers. dozax, Afy. dozax, dozax, doyas, Bal. dozak, doze, N. Bal. dozax, doze, etc. (see § 439). h = k § 444. Indian h is in general preserved imchanged in the Middle and New Indian dialects, and Iranian h (corresponding to Indian s) is, in like mamier, retained in most cases in the Middle and New Iranian dialects. 140 JNDO-IEAXIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian, Skt. hasfa ' hand/ Priik., Pali haftha, Ass. lmt[h\ KLasm. ath, Ur. liat(li)a, Bang, licit, Biharl, Hindi Imth, Panj. liatth, Sindhi Jmthu, Guj. JicitJi, Mar. hat, Simh. afa. Skt. hrdaya 'heart,' Prak. hia{y)a, Pah hadaya, Ass., Ur., Biharl 7 Jc. § 445. The change of /i to Zc is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. hintdla 'kind of palm,' Pali kintdla, Simh. Jcitul, hitul. h > Jih, X. § 446. The change of h to lili, x, is not infrequent in the Iranian dialects, where it occurs more usually initially than internally or finally. b. Iranian. Av. huSka ' dry,' Old Pers. usha, Phi. xusk{lh), New Pers. xusJc, Siv. fusJi, Kas. husJuidan, uskudan, WaxI vasJc, Yidg. il^k, Afy. vuc, Bal. husk, Kurd. vu§uk, Oss. xusk. Av. hu 'pig,' Phi., New Pers. xiik, WaxI a;%, Sarq. xaug, Afy. a;%, Bal. /iiA', N. Bal. 7^^a:;, Kurd, rcw, Oss. xui. Av. 7iac^M 'bridge,' Sarq. yaiO, Yayn. ifZ;, Dig. Oss. xed. Tag. ;rld Av. du^ah 'hell,' Phi. dosax, Paz. dozax. New Pers. dozax, Afy. dozax, dornx, doyas, Bal. cZo^aA;, tZo-s'e, N. Bal. dozax, doze^ Kurd. cZwie. SINGLE CONSONANTS 141 h > C. § 447. The change of h to c is excessively rare. b. Iranian. New Pers. Jianicu 'as/ Siv. camcah (assimila- tion). h >ph,f. § 448. The change of h to 2)\ f, is very rare, and it seems to occur only initially. b. Iranian. Av. husJca ' dry,' Siv. fusJc, etc. (see § 446). h > hh. § 449. The change of Ji to l)h is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. vdiJiara nom. prop., Jaina Prak., Pali vebhara. h > V. § 450. The change of h to v is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. lia])ta ' seven,' WaxI vuvd, {h)uh, Jiiib, Siyn. vuvd, etc. (see § 444). Av. Jiuska ' dry,' WaxI vasJc, Afy. vuc, Kurd. vusuJc, etc. (see § 446). h > 7j, i. § 451. The vocahzation of h to y, i, occurs but seldom. b. Iranian. Av., Old Pers. tnah ' month,' Phi., New Pers. mdJb, WaxI miii, Siyn. tnast, Sarq. mds, Minj. yoniya, Afy. 7nai, Dig. Oss. may a, Tag. mai h > s. § 452. The change of h to s is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. sndihika ' oily,' Pali snesika (but Pali s[i)neha 'love,' Skt. sncJia). h > s. § 453. The change of h to s is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. tidmaJi ' homage,' Phi. namdc, Paz. nanid^, New Pers. namdz, Afy. nmunj, Bal, namds, navds, Kurd. nimU, nimi. 1J:2 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY h > 2, z. § 454. Tlie change of h to z^ z, is extremely rare, b. Iranian. Av. ndmah 'homage,' Paz. namaz, New Pers. namdz, Kurd, nimiz, nimJ, etc. (see preceding §). Apliaeresis of h. § 455. Tlie loss of initial h is excessively rare in the Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects, on the other hand, the phe- nomenon is not infrequent. a. Indian. Skt. hasta ' hand,' Kasm. ath, Simh. ata, etc. (see § 444). b. Iranian. Av. hanjamana ' assembly,' Plil. anjaman, lian- jaman, New Pers. anjuman. Av. hapta ' seven,' WaxI ub, hub, huh, vilvd, Sarq. iivcl, Minj. eb, Yayn. ay, Afy. ova, ava, Dig. Oss. aft. Tag. aft, avd, etc. (see § 444). Av. huska ' dry,' Old Pers. uska, Kas. ushidan, huskudan, Yidg. iisk, etc. (see § 446). Av. haca * from,' Old Pers. haca, Phi. aj, New Pers. az, z{i), Afy. j; Bal. ac, as, Kurd, az, z{a). Syncoim of h. § 456. The loss of internal h is very rare in the Indian dialects, although it is more frequent in the New than in the Middle period. The phenomenon occurs more often in the Iranian than in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. ihaloka ' tliis world,' Prak. (Shahbazgarhi inscriptions) ialoka. Skt. hrhaspati nom. prop., Prak. haJiap- phal, hhayapphal, hihapxjhai, huliapplial, huhappal, hahassai, hahappai, hhaassai, hhuajjphal, buhaspadl, Ur. biphdi 'Thursday,* Bihari biphdi, bihaphdi. Skt. gehini 'woman,' Prak. glmrinl, Simh. gdni, girini. Skt. vrihi ' rice,' Pali vihi, Simh. v'l. b. Iranian. Av. vohuni 'blood,' Phi., New Pers. xiin, Siv. fin, Waxi vuxan, Siyn. vixin, Sarq. vaxln, Sangl. vain, Aiy. vine, Kurd. xm. Phi. dahisn 'gift,' New Pers., Gab. ddsn. Old Pers. Oura-vahara ' May,' Kas. vor, bohor, etc. (see § 444). SINGLE CONSONANTS 143 Apocope of li. § 457. Tlie loss of final h occurs but rarely. b. Iranian. Av. ndniah 'homage,' Kurd, nimi, nimiS, etc. (see § 453). ProtJiesis of 7i. § 458. Prothetic h is not uncommon in the Middle Indian and in the Iranian dialects. In the New Indian dialects it occurs but rarely. a. Indian. Skt. idanim ' now/ Prak. (Shahbazgarhi inscrip- tions) hidalOkika, lit. Prak. ddni{7h). Skt. cdrsa 'of that kind,' Prak. crisa, (inscriptions of Khalsi) liedisa. Skt. atra 'there,' Prak. (inscriptions of Khalsi) lieta, Bang, hotha, otha. Skt. osilia 'Hp,' Prak., Pah ottlia, Ur. otha, Bang. Jio{m)th, Hindi otUth, Panj. JiomfJi, Guj. hot, oth, Mar. omth. b. Iranian. Av. aedrapaiti 'fire-priest,' Plil. inscriptions ehrpat, lit. Phi. herpat, crpat, New Pers. htrhud. Av. aosah ' death,' Phi., New Pers. Ms. Av. aspa ' horse,' Old Pers. as{p)a, Phi., New Pers. asj), Tat as, WaxI 7jas, Minj. yasap, Afy. as, Bal. haps, aps, Kurd, hasp, Dig. Oss. afsa, Tag. yafs. Epenthesis of h. § 459. Epenthetic h is extremely rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. mdna ' measure,' Ur. mahana, Hindi man, Mar. man. b. Iranian. Av. jya 'bow-string,' Paz. jlTc, New Pers. zih, Kas. yah, Sa, A£y. sal, N. Bal. jiy, Kurd. hh. CONSONANT-GEOUPS § 460. In the sections dealing with vowels and single conso- nants, similarity of development, both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects, has been the rule rather than the exception. In the following paragraphs differences will be found more often than resemblances. Comparatively few consonant-groups have de- veloped in the same way in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. The Indian languages have continued the tendency already observ- able in the Middle Indian. The component sounds of consonant- groups are assimilated, and the resulting repeated consonant is either retained, or one of the letters is dropped with compensatory lengthening of a preceding short vowel. In the Iranian languages, on the other hand, a consonant-group is in the majority of instances softened as a whole, and this secondary consonant-group may be retained without further change in the New Iranian dialects. As a result of these developments with principles which are radically different, consonant-groups in Iranian are less easy to systematize than those in the Indian languages. For the Indian dialects the classification of Beames, Com])arative G^'amniar, i. 281- 282 (cf. 359-360), into the ' strong, weak, and mixed nexus ' is admirable. But since in the Iranian dialects the consonant-group is softened and retained instead of being simplified, such secondary consonant-groups are subject to many tertiary developments. Moreover, it will be seen in many instances noted in the following paragraphs that the component consonants of a consonant-group, in the Middle and New Iranian dialects, may each be modified accord- ing to the changes to which they are liable as single consonants. The essential difference in the treatment of consonant-groups in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects renders the discussion in CONSONANT-GROUPS 145 the present chapter less satisfactory in results, in some respects, than has been the case with the consideration of the vowels and single consonants. On the other hand, it will not be without interest to note how two closely-related members of the same language-group agree in general in certain parts of their phono- logy, but at the same time are radically different in other portions of it. Notwithstanding this, the divergent developments of the Middle and New Indo-Iranian languages are no less instructive than their coincident changes, and a survey of disagreement as well as of agreement is absolutely necessary if a correct knowledge of the entire subject under discussion is to be gained. 7d > k{Jc). § 461. The assimilation of Jet to ]c{k) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. utJcantJia 'anxiety,' Prak. ukJcanthd, Pali ukJcanthati ' regrets.' Skt. muMa ' released,' Prak. mukka, Pali mukka, mutta. b. Iranian. Skt. sakta ' able,' Phi., New Pers. saxt^ Yidg. sukt, Bal. sak. M >gd, yd. § 462. The softening of the consonant-group kt to gd, yd, is not common. b. Iranian. Skt. nakta 'night,' WaxI nayd. Skt. takta . 'swift,' Oss. thayd. ktz > yZ, Zy. § 463. The assimilation of kts to y^, ^y, is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. suxta 'bm-ned' + ^arawya 'gold,' Dig. Oss. suysarina, Tag. sizyarin. kt > t{t). § 464. The assimilation of kt to t{t) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. hhakta 'boiled rice,' Prak., Pali hJiatta, Kasm. lata, Ur., Bang., E. Hindi, W. Hindi dMt, Panj. hhatt, L 146 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Sindhi hhatu, Guj., Mar. hhdt Skt, miikta '■ pearl,' Prak,, Pali muff a, Ur. inoti, Bang, mofi, mati, mdnldiha^ muJcta, Hindi, Panj., Sindhi, Guj. niotl. Skt. ralcta 'red,' Prak., Pali ratta, Ur., Bang. raJcta, Hindi rat, Sindlil raid, Guj. rdtu, Siihh. rat. b. Iranian. Plil. puxtano ' to cook,' New Pers. puxtan, Kas. j)atun, 2)dtan, WaxI ])6cam, Afy. paxavulj Bal. iMcag, N. Bal. phasay, Kurd, pdtin, Dig. Oss. ficun, Tag. ficin. Phi. soxtano ' to burn,' New Pers. soxtan, Mag. sm^, Gil. swf, suxt, Tal. 5i7f, Afy. 5e^a7, sejal, svajavid, Bal. sucag, N. Bal. susay, Kurd, so^iw, Bohtani suhtin, Dig. Oss. sojun, Tag. 5oJi>2^. Z;^ > p7 Jit. § 466. The assimilation of Jet to Jit is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Skt. paJcta 'cooked,' New Pers. p>uxtaJi, WaxI post, Siyn. past, Sarq. jiaxt, Bal. paJda, N. Bal. paJita, Dig. Oss. funx(tli). Tag. fixtJi. Phi. soxtano ' to bm-n,' Bohtani suhtin, etc. (see § 4C4). A;^/- > ?^^, Ix. § 467. The assimilation of Jdr to ?Z:^, Za:, is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Old Pers. hdxtri nom. prop., Phi. Ijaxr, New Pers. halx. Jctr > Jir. § 468. The assimilation of Jctr to Jir is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. haxbra 'portion,' Phi., New Pers. haJir, harx. JctJi > {t)tJi. § 469. The assimilation of JdJi to {i)tJi is not common. a. Indian. Skt. siJdJia 'beeswax,' Prak., PaU sittJia, Hindi sltJi, sltJi, Panj. setJi, set, Mar. sit. Skt. saJctJii 'thigh,' Pali sattJii. CONSONANT-GROUPS 147 Jen > nn. § 470. The assimilation of kn to nn is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject. a. Indian. Skt. sdhnoti ' is able,' Prak. saJiJca'i, Pali sahJcati, sakTioti, sakhundti, Hindi sakj Sindhl sagh, Guj., Mar. sak. km > m{m). § 471. The assimilation of km to on^m) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject. a. Indian. Skt, riikmavatl ' sort of metre,' Pali rummavati. b. Iranian. Av. ^staxma ' firm ' (cf. Av. sfaxra), Phi. sitah- mak, New Pers. sitam ' violence.' Av. taoxman ' seed,' Old Pers. tmima, Phi. toxm, New Pers. tuxm, Gab. turn, Nay. tum, Wax! taym, Siyn. tUyni, Sarq. toym, Yidg. tilyum, Afy. tOma, Bal. tilm, torn. km > gm, ym. § 472. Tlie softening of the consonant-group km to gm, ym, is not frequent. b. Iranian. Av. taoxman ' seed,' WaxI taym, Siyn. tuym, Sarq. toym, Yidg. tiiyimi, etc. (see preceding §). § 473. The assimilation of km to p{p) is excessively rare, a. Indian. Skt. rukminl ' Laksmi,' Prak. rupirbn. ky > k{k). § 474. The assimilation of ky to k{k) occurs occasionally. a. Indian. Skt. canakya nom. prop., Prak. cdnakka. Skt. autsukya 'zeal,' Pali ussukka. Skt. trdilokya 'the three worlds,' Prak. tellokka, telokka. kr > k{k). § 475. The assimilation of kr to k{k) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indian dialects. L 2 148 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. cakra ' wheel,' Priik., Pali cakJca, Ass. cdk, Ur. caka, Bang. caM, E. Hindi, Hindi cdk, Panj. caJch, Sindhi caku, Guj., Mar. caJc, Simh. sale, hah Skt. djhacakra ' mystic circle of the body,' Simh. inscriptions anasak, anasat kr > r{r). § 476. The assimilation of kr to r{r) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. suxra * red,' Phi. suxr, New Pers. surx, Siv. sir, Kas., Kuhr. sUr, WaxI sokr, Siyn., Sarq. slrah, Yidg. surkuJi, Afy. silr, Bal. siihr, sohr, Kurd. sOr, Dig. Oss. surx, Tag. sirx. kr > hr. § 477. Tlie assimilation of kr to Jir is not common. b. Iranian. Av. caxra ' wheel,' New Pers. carx, cahrah, Kas. cora, clr, Oss. calx. Av. suxra ' red,' Bal. suhr, sohr, etc, (see preceding §). kl > l{l). § 478. The assimilation of kl to l{l) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. klisfa ' sick,' Prak., Pali kiliWia, Simh. leda. kv > k{k). § 479. The assimilation of kv to k{k) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Bkt. j^akva 'ripe,' Prak. ^^kka, pikka, Palipakka, Ass. pakd, Naip. pdk, Kasm. papi, Ur. pakka, Bang, pdka, E. Hindi ^?rt7ta?, Hindi, Panj. ^;aZ:Z;a, Sindhi ^aZ^o, Guj. Vpik,pak ' to ripen,' Mar. ptk, pika, Gyp. pako. ks > k{k). § 480. The assimilation of ks to k{k) is excessively rare in the Iranian dialects as well as in the Indian dialects, excepting Bangali, Gujarati, and Marathl. a. Indian. Skt. huhhuksd ' hunger,' Pali hubhukkhati, Hindi CONSONANT- GROUFS 149 IMlJi, Sindhi hnl-hd, Mar. Wml', Gyp. Ijohh. Skt. Icsira ' milk,' Prak. Jvh'ira, cMra, Pali kJnra, Kaf. ^?f, New Ind, dialects khtr, Simh. Jiiri, Jcira, Maladive kiru. b. Iranian. Av. ma.rsi 'fly,' Phi., New Pers. magas, Siv., Judaeo-Pers. magaz^ WaxI mahs, Minj. miiya, Afy. mac, Bal. walasA; magisJc, N. Bal. mahislc, Kurd. ^ni^. Ics > Wi. § 481. The assimilation of liS to Ichh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects, on the contrary, it is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. maksila ' fly,' Prak. macchid, Pali maMhiJia, Kasm. Qiiach (pron. mas), Ur. md{m)chl (vulgar pron. md{m)st), Bang, mdclii, E. Hindi md{m)chi, Hindi malcl-lil, md{m)lxhi, Panj. mahkJiij Sindhi makhi, Guj. makhi, Mar. maJdu, mdsl, Gyp. maliln. Skt. daksina ' southern,' Prak. dakkJiina, ddliina, Pali dakkhina, Kasm. daclian, Ur. ddhind, ddlidna, Bang, dain, E. Hindi dachin, Hindi dakliin, ddhind, Panj. dakkhan, Sindhi dakhino, Mar. ddkMn. Skt. 2^ctksa ' wing,' Prak., Pali pakkha, Kasm. pakh{a), E. Bang. ^>d/w, Bang, pdkln, Biharl pamkh ' wing,' pdlilm ' beside,' paihclil ' bird,' Hindi pakhl, pdmchi, Panj. pdmchi, Sindhi pamgu, Guj. pdmchi, Mar. pdJcJi, pdmcht, Simh. pak, pasa, Gyp. phak. b. Iranian. Av. xsap{an) 'night,' New Pers. mh, Kas. sav, Siyn, sa&, Sarq. xah, Minj. a:sava, ocasava, Yidg. xsuvuh, Yayn. xisap, Afy. spa, Bal. saj), Kurd, sav, Oss. axsav. ks > Z;A.s, xs. § 482. The assimilation of ks to /^/w, ^5, is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. xsap{an) ' night,' Oss. axsav, etc. (see pre- ceding §). ^•? > 9{9)- § 483. The assimilation of ks to g{g) is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. maxsi ' fly,' Phi., New Pers, magas, Siv., Judaeo-Pers. magaz, Bal. magisk, makask, etc. (see § 480). 150 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY hs > c{c). § 484. Tlie assimilation of hs to c{c) is excessively rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. ksudra ' small,' Prak. Jihiidda, Pali Jchudda, Ur. Jchiidata, Bang. Ihiida, Old Simh. cudi, Simh. Jciida, Icudu. b. Iranian. Av. ^j.saj)acara 'bat,' Bal. sapcar, Makranl caiKol (assimilation). liS > {c)ch. § 485. The assimilation of Zs to {c)ch is not infrequent in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. rJcsa ' bear,' Prak. riccha, rilJcha, Pali accha, ikka, is{s)a, Ur. riclia, Biharl rich, nJJi, Hindi rich, Panj. ricch, Sindhi richu, Guj. rich, Mar. ris. Skt. mahsila 'fly,' Prak. macchia, Kasm. mach (pron. mas), Ur. ma{m)chl (vulgar pron. md{ni)si). Bang, niacin, E. Hindi ma{ni)chl, etc. (see § 481). Skt. Tisetra ' field,' Prak. chetta, Pali Jchetta, Kasm. Jch'it. Skt. Isa- triya ' warrior,' Prak. hhattia, Pali Ichatiiya, Ur. chetri, Biliarl, Hindi, Panj. chatrl, khatri, hhetri, Sindhi khitn, Mar. Txsatri. ^ > J: ij)jh. § 486. The assimilation of Is to j, {j)jh, is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. Isina ' wasted,' Prak. jhma, ]chma, china, Pali khma, khinna, Ass. jm ' decay,' Hindi jhm, cchin, Sindhi jhino, Gyp. khino. Skt. ksiyate 'wastes away,' Prak. jhijja'i, Mar. jVi?;'. Skt. ksamd ' earth,' Hindi jhcimd ' vitrified brick.' Z-.S > s{s). § 487. Tlie assimilation of ks to 5(s) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. iksu ' sugar-cane,' Prak., Pali ucchu, Ur. dkhu, Bang, dku, E. Hindi iikh, W. Hindi ikli, Mar. ^75. Skt. f/sa ' bear,' Mar. rts, etc. (see § 485). Skt. maksika 'fly,' Kasm. mach (pron. *hos), Ur. md{m)chi (vulgar pron. md{m)si), etc. (see § 481). Skt. imksa ' wmg,' Siihh. j)asa, imk, etc. (see § 481). CONSONANT-GROUPS 151 Skt. hsana ' instant,' Prak. I'hana, chana ' feast,' New Ind. dialects A7iaw, excepting Hindi khanj chan, chin, Siiiih. sdnaj san{d)a, inscriptions scindd. hs > s{s). § 488. The assimilation of Is to s{s) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian languages. b. Iranian. Old Pers. xsdijadiya ' king,' Paz., New Pers. sdh. Av. xsira 'milk,' Phi., New Pers. sir, Minj. xslr, Dig. Oss. axsir. Tag. axsir. Av. xsap{an) ' night,' New Pers. sah, Kas. sav, Siyn. sab, Afy. sjia, Bal. sap, Kurd, sav, etc. (see § 481). /.•.9 > h{h). § 489. The assimilation of Jcs to h{h) is very rare. a. Indian, Skt. sdihsa ' novice,' Jaina Prak. seha, Pali seh- Jiha, seJiha. Skt. palisa ' wing,' E. Bang, pdhl, Bihari pdhim ' beside,' pamchl ' bird,' pamlh ' wing,' etc. (see § 481). Skt. daksina ' southern,' Prak. ddliina, dakkhina, Ur. ddJund, ddhdna, Hindi ddhind, dakhin, etc. (see § 481). ks > 2{z). § 490. The assimilation of ks to ^[z) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. ksiro, ' milk,' Kaf. zu, etc. (see § 480). Aphaeresis of ks. § 491. The loss of initial /i-.9 is a very rare phenomenon. a. Indian. Skt. ksdra ' potash,' Prak. chdra, Pali khdra, cJidrika, New Ind. dialects khdr, excepting Sindhi chdru, Simh. alu, halii, Maladive hulu. ksn > n, n. § 492. The assimilation of ksn to n, n, is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. raoxsna ' shining,' Plil., New Pers. rosan, Siyn. rosnaga, Sangl. rosnai, Afy. run, Bal. rosam, Kurd, ron, run, ruhndi, rund{hji. 152 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Jcsn > sn. § 493. The assimilation of Ixsn to sn is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. raoxsna 'shining,' Siyn. rosnaga, Sangl. rd§nai, etc. (see preceding §). Jcsn > Jin. § 494. The assimilation of km to 7m is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. raoxsna ' sliining,' Kurd, ruhndi, runa{h)i, ran, riin, etc. (see § 492). gdh > t{t). § 495. The assimilation of gdh to t{t) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. diigdlia ' milk,' Prak., Pali duddha, Naip. dilf, Kasm. dod, Ur. dudha, Bang, dudh, dud{ii), Biharl, Hindi diidli, Panj. diidd, Sindhi dudhi, Guj., Mar. diidh, Gyp. thud. h. Iranian. Skt. dogdhum * to milk,' Phi. doxtano, New Pers. doxtan, WaxI hognam, Sarq. haumm, Afy. Ivasal, Bal. dosay, Kurd, dotin, Bayazid dothin, Dig. Oss. docun, Tag. diwin. gdh > d{d). § 496. Tlie assimilation of gdh to d{d) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. dugdha ' milk,' Kasm. dod, Bang. dud{u), dudh, Panj. dudd, Gyp. thud, etc. (see preceding §). gdh > ddh. § 497. The assimilation of gdh to ddh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. dugdha 'milk,' Prak., Pali duddha, Ur. dudha, Bang, dudh, dud{u), Bihari, Hindi dudh, Sindhi dddhi, Guj., Mar. diJdh, etc. (see § 495). Skt. mugdha 'fool,' Prak., Pali muddha. gn > g{g), y. § 498. The assimilation of gn to g(g), y, is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects, but it is excessively rare in the Iranian dialects. CONSONANT- GEO UPS 153 a. Indian. Skt. agni 'fire,' Prak. aggi, aggini, gini, Ur. wia, Bang, dgim, Hindi ag, Panj. agg, Sindhi agl, Guj., Mar. dg, Siihh. gini, Gyp. ?/«(/. Skt. nagna ' naked,' Prak., Pali nagga, Ur. namgaldj Bang, nethtd, Bihari namg, Hindi, Panj. namgd, Sindhi iiamgo, Guj. ndgum, Mar. naggd, nanigd, Gyp. nango (cf. also Kasra. ncmrdv ' to strip '). Skt. ?«//»« ' attached,' Prak., Pali ?a(/5fa, Hindi lagd, lag, Panj. ?a^, other New Ind. dialects lag. b. Iranian. Av. raoyiia 'oil,' Phi. royan, rd7can,PsiZ. raogan, New Pers. royan, Kas. ruyan, ro, WaxI ruyiln, ruyn, Sarq. ra2(72, Sangl. 7-dy, Kurd. riin. gn > n{n). § 499. The assimilation oi gn to n{n) is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. raoyna 'oil,' Sarq. raun, Kurd, rmi, etc. (see preceding §). Syncope and apocope of gn. § 500. The loss of internal or final gn occurs with the utmost rarity. b. Iranian. Av. raoyna ' oil,' Kas. ro, ruyan, etc. (see § 498). gm > m{m). § 501. The assimilation of gm to m{in) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. yiigma 'pair,' Prak. jumma, jugga. Skt. tignia ' sharp,' Prak. thmna, tigga. b. Iranian. GAv. dgdmat 'assembled,' YAv. frdymaf, Old Pers. hagmatd. Phi. matano, New Pers. dniudan. gy > 9{(J)' § 502. The assimilation of gy to g{g) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. yogya ' suitable,' Prak. jogga. Pah yogga, 154 INDO-IBANIAN PHONOLOGY New Ind. dialects Jo^/. Skt. lagyati (Nirukta, iv. 10) ' is attached,' Prak. lagga'i, Pali laggati, Kasm. Vlag, Hindi lag, Panj. lagg, Sindhi lag, other New Ind. dialects lag. gr > gig)- § 503. Tlie assimilation of gr to g{g) is the regular one to which tliis consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. agra 'front/ Prak., Pali agga, Ass. age, Naip. aghi, Ur. dgn, Bang., E. Hindi, Hindi age, Panj. aggu, Sindhi aggo, Gyp. agor, angle. Skt. vgagra 'crooked/ Prak. vagga. ghr > {g)gh. § 504. The assimilation of ghr to {g)gh is the regular one to wliich this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. slghra ' swift,' Prak. siggha, Pali sigha, Bang. (BurdwanI) siggir, Gyp. sigo. Skt. vydglira ' tiger,' Prak. vagglia, Pali vyaggha, Hindi hcigh, Sindhi vdglm, Mar. vdgh, Simh. vag. ghr > r{r). § 505. The assimilation of ghr to r{r) is sometimes found. b. Iranian. Av. tiyri 'arrow,' Old Pers. tiyra, Plil., New Pers., Bal. tlr, N. Bal. thlr, Kurd, tlriili). idk > fjg. § 506. The softening of tdh to 7dg occurs not infrequently in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. pargatoJia 'bed,' Prak. pallamka, Saur. Prak. paliamka, Pali pallwidka, pariyatdka. Ass. pdletog, Naip. 2)alafdg, Ur. palamh, ^ang. pdldmg, pCdamh, ^\\\M\ palamg,pCilahl, Hindi palamg, Panj. palamgh, Sindhi palatjgu, Guj., Mar. palamg, Anglo-Ind. palanqidn. Skt. JcatgJcana 'bracelet,' Prak, Pali Jcanikana, Ass. haiogan, Jcajghan, Kasm. hankdin, kaiogum, Ur., Bang, kdmgan, E. Hindi kamgan, kamkan, kdmkan, Hindi kanigan, kamlcan, Panj. kamgan, Sindlil kaioganu, Guj., Mar. kamgan. CONSONANT-GROUPS 155 tj]d > mt. § 507. The assimilation of nlct to mt occ-urs occasionally (cf. § 404). a. Indian. Skt. paioJcti ' row/ Prak., Pali pcmti, Bilnlrl pamti. Tokli > k{h). § 508. The assimilation of tdhh to 7c{h) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. snakhala ' fetter/ Pali samkhala, Ass. siJcali, Naip. siJcri,Vr. siJcuU, Bang. siJcal, sihil, E. Hindi si{yh)- Aar, siJx{Ji)ar, Hindi silar, siJial, siJcJiar, Panj. sam()hm\ Sindhi songliard, Guj. scinighal, Mar. sa{i'n)lilial^ siJcrl. wMi > iQgh, mgJi. § 509. Tlie softening of tdJJi to togh, mg\ is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. srtdliliala 'fetter/ Panj. sanigJiar, Sindhi saiDgharo, Guj. samghal, etc. (see preceding §). '^^9 > gig)- § 510. The assimilation of idg to g{g) occurs but rarely in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. Idtdgala 'plough/ Prak. lamgala, namgala, Pali ncoUgala, Bang, nmiigal, Biharl Imigal, Mar. ndnigar, Simh. nagula, nagala. Skt, laugi'da ' tail/ Prak, lamgula, Siriih, ncfgal, nakufa. b. Iranian, Av, angusta 'toe/ Phi, angust^ New Pers. august, Siv, gus, Kas, unguss, angus{t), Maz, angiis, WaxI yangl, Siyn. angast, Sarq, iiigaxt, Sangl. ingit, Minj. angar, Afy, ^i<^«, Tag. Oss. angursth. f9g > idgh. § 511. The aspirization of w// to »9^/i is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. jcmgala 'desert/ Ass. jaioglial, Sin^i jhmggti <*jcnjgJni, other New Ind. dialects jamgal, Old Hindi also jamgar, Anglo-Ind. jungle. 156 INDO-IRAXIAN mONOLOGY cell > sc{h). § 512. The dissimilation of cch to sc{h) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. gaccha ' go ! ' Mag. Prak. gasca. Skt. prcchati ' asks,' Mag. Prak. puscadi. Skt. ucchista * remnant, Sak. Prak. uschitta, Pali ucchittha. cy > c{c). § 513. The assimilation of cy to c{c) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. acyuta 'firm,' Prak. acciida, Pali accutu. Skt. cyavate ' goes,' Prak. cavcvi, Pali cavati, Ur. cuihd, Bang. cuan, Hindi ciina, Panj. cond, Sindhi cuhanu, Mar. cdvanem. Skt. ucyate 'is said,' Mag. Prak. vuccadi, Saur. Prak. viiccai, Pali vuccati. cv > c{c), v{c). § 514. Tlie assimilation of cv to c{c), c{c), is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. cvant ' how many ? ' Phi., New Pers. cand, Waxi cum^ cun, Sarq. cund, Afy. com{b)ra, Bal. cimt § 515. The assimilation of JM to g{g) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. yajha ' sacrifice,' Prak. janna, Saur. Prilk. jahja, Pali yahna, Ur., Bang, jdga, Old Hindi jajana, jaja, jaggajagya, Hindi ja^, Fanj. jagg, Sindhi jagii, Mar. jdg. j>i > mj- § 516. The New Indian dialects, with the exception of Sindhi, GujaratI, and Marathi, regularly pronounce jh as gy, although Uriya and Bangali retain jh in script. In GujaratI jh is pro- nounced jh or dn, and in Marathi jh is pronounced dny. Sindhi usually assimilates jh to jj. a. Indian. Skt. jhdna ' knowledge,' Prak. jd7ta, nana, Pais. Prak. hdna, Pali jdna, Ur., Bang, jhdna (pron. gi-dno), Hindi, CONSONANT-GROUPS 157 Panj. gyan, Sindhi Jawz*, Guj., Mar. jan. Skt, djha 'command,' Prak, ana, Pali ahhd, Hindi agyHj Panj. ayia, Sindhi dyya^ Guj. dgnyd. J^ >jU)- § 517. Tlie assimilation oi jh to j{j) is not uncommon in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. jndna 'knowledge,' Prak. jdna, ndna, Pali jdna, Sindlil jdnu, Guj., Mar. jdn, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. sarvajha 'omniscient,' Prak. savvajja, savmnnu, Saur. Prak. savvaPija, Mahar. Prak. savvanmi, Pais. Prak. sdvvanna. jib > n{h). § 518. The assimilation otju to n{h) is very rare, a. Indian. Skt. sarvajna ' omniscient,' Pais. Prak. savvahna, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. vijndna ' knowledge,' Prak. vinndnd, Pali vinndna. jh > n{n). § 519. The assimilation oijn to n{n) is found quite frequently. a. Indian. Skt. vljhdna 'knowledge, Prak. vinn/kna, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. rdjm ' queen,' Naip., Hindi rani, other New Ind. dialects rdnt. Skt. djndcahra ' mystic circle of the body,' Simh. inscriptions anasaJc, anasat. jh > n{n). § 520. The assimilation otjh to w(w) occurs but seldom. a. Indian. Skt. sarvajha ' omniscient,' Mahar. Prak. sav- vanmi, etc. (see § 517). Skt. jndti 'kinsman,' Pali hdti, Simh. nH. jy > JU)- § 521. The assimilation of jy to j{j) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indo- Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. rdjya ' kingdom,' Pali rajja. b. Iranian. Phi. jut and ' to gnaw,' New Pers. jdvldan, Gab. 158 TNDO-IRANTAN PHONOLOGY jovddnuln, Afy. zovul, zonal, Bal. jayag, N. Bal, jay, Kurd. jUn (cf. Old Bulg. zlvati, Old High Germ. Idmvan). jy > U)j^i- § 522. The assimilation of j?/ to {j)jh is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. adhljya 'having the bow-string taut/ Pali adejjha, but Skt. jyd ' bow-string,' Pali j{i)yd. jy > 4^), ^{^)- § 523. The assimilation of jy to z{z), or ^(i), is not infrequent in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Phi. jfdano ' to gnaw,' Afy. zovid, zoyal, etc. (see § 521). Av. jya ' bow-string,' Paz. jJk, New Pers. sih, Kas. sail, ka, Afy. zai, N. Bal. jfy, Kurd. zih. jv > JU)- § 524. The assimilation oijv to j{j) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. jvdld * flame/ Prak., Pali jdld, Ur. jvalihd, Hindi hdland, Psinj. jaland, hdland, Sindhi jalanu, hdranu, Guj. jalavum, Mar. jalanem, Simh. dala. jv > {j)jh. § 525. The assimilation oijv to {j)jh is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. jvalati 'flames,' Apab. Prak. jaJa'i, Prili jalati, Ur. jhalaJcand, Sindhi jhaRami, Guj. jhalalavum, Mar. jhalaJcanem. jv > d{d). § 526. The assimilation oi jv to d{d) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. jmZa ' flame,' Simh. dala, etc. (see §§ 524, 182). jv > h{h). § 527. Tlie assimilation oijv to h{h) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. jvdld 'flame,' Hindi hdland, Panj. hdland, jaland, Sindhi hdranu, jalanu, etc. (see § 524). Skt. jvara 'fever,' Prak., Pali jara, Sindhi har. CONSONANT- GBOVPS 159 iic > tog. § 528. The assimilation of nc to i9g is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. tancista * most narrow,' Phi., New Pers. tang^ Waxi tang, Sarq. tong, Afy. tangayl, Bal. tank, N. Bal. thanax, thanalJi, Kurd. tank. nc > c{c). § 529. Tlie assimilation of he to c(c) occurs very seldom. a. Indian. Skt. j)ahcasata 'fifty,' Prak. pannasa, Pali jpahhdsa, pannasa, Kasm. pahcah, Ur. pacdsa, Bang, pamcasa, Bihari, Hindi pacds, Panj., Sindhi pamjdh, Guj. pacds, Mar. pannds, Simh. panalia. he > j{j). § 530. Tlie assimilation of he to j{j) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt., Pali kimcikd ^ key,' Naip. kumjt, Kasm. 7cuh0, Ur. kuji, kumci, kumjM, Bang, ktljt, kump, Hindi, Panj., Sindhi kuthji, Guj. kumet, Mar. kumji. he > hj. § 531. Tlie softening of he to hj is found both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. kuhcild 'key,' Naip. kimjl, Bang. ku{m)jJ, Hindi, Panj., Sindhi, Mar. kumji, etc. (see preceding §). b. Iranian. Av. panea 'five,' Plil. j9awc. New Pers. panj, Kas. hanc. Wax! pdn.s, Siyii., Sarq. pin:^, Sangl. pan^, Minj. pane, Afy. pinja, Oss. fonj, fonj, Kurd, panj, penj. he > h{h). § 532. Tlie assimilation of he to h{h) occurs but seldom. a. Indian. Skt. pahcdsata 'fifty,' Prdi pahhdsa, pannasa, etc. (see § 529). he > n{n). § 533. The assimilation of he to n{n) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. pahcdsata ' fifty,' Prak. panndsa, Pali pan- nasa, pahhdsa, etc. (see § 529). 160 IK DO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY nc > n{n). § 534. The assimilation of nc to n{n) is very rare. a. Indian. Sktpahcdsata ^Mty,' Mar.pannas,Simh.panaha, etc. (see § 529). nc > s{s). § 535. The assimilation of nc to s{s) is extremely rare (cf. § 165). a. Indian. Skt. Mhcana 'gold/ Prak. kahcana, Pali Jcah- cana, Simh. l-asun. Skt, ^^awca 'five/ Prak., Pali jjawca, Kasm. pane, Ur., Bang., Bihari, Hindi ^jawc, Panj., Sindhi immj, Guj., Mar. panic, Simh. p)asa, jyaJia, Gyp. pane. nc > li[h). § 536. The assimilation of he to h{h) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. panca 'five/ Simh. palia, pasa, etc. (see preceding § and cf. § 169). hj > md. § 537. The assimilation of hj to md is excessively rare, except- ing in Siriihalese (see § 182). a. Indian. Skt. ahjana ' collyriima,' Prak. ahjana, Pali ahjana, Simh. aihduna. 49 > gig)- § 538. The assimilation of dg to g{g) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. hJiadga 'sword/ Prak., Pali Magga, Ur. Tihamda, Bang. hJiarag, Hindi kharag, JcJidmd, Sindhi kliano, Guj. hhdrum, Mar. khamd. dg > d{d). § 539. The assimilation of dg to d{d) is comparatively rare. a. Indian. Skt. kJiadga ' sword,' Ur. khamdd, Hindi khdmd, kharag, Guj. klidrimi, etc. (see preceding §). dg > n{n). § 540. Tlie assimilation of dg to n{n) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. khadga 'sword,' Sindhi khano, etc. (see § 538). CONSONANT-GROUPS IGl Vt > tit)- § 541. Tlie assimilation of nt to t{t) is found occasionally. a. Indian. Skt. hayitaka 'thorn/ Prak. kantaa, Pali Jcan- t{h)aJca, Ass. Mmtl, Naip. kamra, Kasm. kond, kund, Ur. kania, kamta, Bang, kdfa, kamta, Hindi kdrhfa, Panj., Sindhi kariida, Guj. kdnito, Mar. kdtd, kdmfd, Gyp. kanro, kando. nt > did). § 542. Tlie assimilation of nt to d{d) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. kantaka ' thorn,' Naip. kdfhrd, Panj., Sindhi kdmdd, etc. (see preceding §). nt > nd. § 543. The softening of nt to tid occurs quite rarely. a. Indian. Skt. kantaka 'thorn,' Kasm. kond, kund, Gyp. kando, kanro, etc. (see § 541). nth' > nt. § 544. The deaspirization of ntJi is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. suntJii ' ginger,' Kasm. sont, Ur., Bang. suntha, Hindi somtji, Panj. simdh, somdh, Sindhi smidhi, Guj. sunth. nth > ndJi. § 545. The softening of nth to ndh is the most usual change of all those to which this consonant-group is subject. a. Indian. Skt. sunthi 'ginger,' Panj. sundh, somdh, Sindhi snndhi, etc. (see preceding §). nd > d{d). § 546. Tlie assimilation of nd to d{d) is not uncommon in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. khandaka 'fragment,' Kasm. khadak, Ur. khandd, E. Hindi, Hindi khdmr, Panj. khdmdd, Sindlil khano, Guj. khddimi. Mar. khandd, khdmdd. Skt. dundidjJia ' sort of lizard,' Pali dedduhJia. 162 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY nd > nd. § 547. The decerebralization of nd is not a frequent phe- nomenon. a. Indian. Skt. randa ' window,' Ass., Naip. rdmri, Ur., Bang., E. Hindi, Hindi rdmr, Panj. rand, Sindhi ran, Guj., Mar. rdmd. nd > n{n). § 548. The assimilation of nd to n{n) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. IhaiidaJca 'fragment,' Sindhi Jchano, etc. (see § 546). Skt. randd ' window,' Sindhi ran, etc. (see pre- ceding §). Skt., Pali gandal:a 'rhinoceros,' BLharl ganm, gandd, gdmdd. ndh > d{d). § 549. The assimilation of ndh to d{d) is not common. a. Indian. Skt. sandha ' eunuch,' Prak. sandha, Ass. sdmr, Bang, sdtkr, E. Hindi, Hindi sdmr, Panj. sdmdh, Sindhi sdnu, Multanl sdmh, sandhd, Guj., Mar. sdmd. ndh > n{n). § 550. The assimilation of ndh to n{n) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. sandha 'eunuch,' Sindhi sdnu, etc. (see preceding §). ndh > mr. § 551. The assimilation of ndh to mr is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. sandha ' eunuch,' Ass. sdmr, etc. (see § 549). ndh > mil. § 552. The assimilation of ndh to mh is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. sandha ' eunuch,' Multanl sdmh, sandhd, etc. (see § 549). ny > nj. § 553. Tlie assimilation of mj to hj is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. hrahmanya ' Brahmanical,' Saur. Prak. vamhahja. CONSONANT-GROUPS 163 7iy > n{h). § 554. The assimilation of ny to n{n) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. pimya ' pure,' Prak. punna, Pali puhha, punna, Sindhi 2^um. Skt. aranya 'desert,' Prak. ranna, Pali arahha, Hindi raw, Sindhi rah, rinu, Guj., Mar. ran. ny > n{n). § 555. Tlie assimilation of ny to n(n) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. punya '■ pure,' Prak. punna, Pali pwma, puhha, etc. (see preceding §). ny > n{n). § 556. The assimilation of ny to n{n) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. aranya ' desert,' Hindi ran, Sindhi rimi, rah, Guj., Mar. rein, etc. (see § 554). Skt. Jiiranya 'gold,' Prak. (inscriptions of Khalsi and Kapur di Giri) liilamna, Pali hirahha. nv > n{n). § 557. The assimilation of nv to n{n) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. hanva nom. prop., Prak. hanna. Skt. Jcinva 'yeast,' Pali Jcinna, Sindhi Jiinu. nv > n{n). § 558. Tlie assimilation of nv to n{n) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. Mnva ' yeast,' Sindhi Idnu, etc. (see pre- ceding §). tt > t(f). § 559. The cerebralization of tt to t{t) is in the great majority of cases due to the presence of a preceding r, r. a, Indian. Skt. vrtta 'happened,' Prak. vatta, Pali vatta, vatta. Skt. mrttilai 'clay,' Prak. maitid, Pali mattihd, Ur., Bang, mail, Hindi, Panj. mitti, mattz, Sindhi mitl, Guj. mdti, Mar. mdtl. Skt. pattana ' town,' Prak. pattana, Pali patiana. M 2 164 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY tp >iAp). § 560. Tlie assimilation of tp to p[ii) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. iifpadyante 'they arise/ Prak. lippajjamte, Pali tippajjanti, of. Sindhi upanu, Guj. upan{f/)o. tm > t{f). § 561. Tlie assimilation of tm to t{t) is very rare. a. Indian, Skt. dtman ' self/ Prak. attd, appd, (inscriptions of Girnar) dptd, Pali attd, dtmnd, Ass. dpu, Naip. d2)hu, Kasni. j)dn, Ur., Bang. d2){e)j dpana, dpani, Hindi, Panj. dp{an), Sindhi pan, Guj. d}), Mar. dp{an). tm > pt. § 562. Tlie assimilation of tm to pt is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. dtman ' self/ Prak. (inscriptions of Girnar) dptd, lit. Prak. attd, appd, etc. (see preceding § and cf. Pischel, Gramm. d. Prdk.-Spr., § 277). tm >p{p>). § 563. The assimilation of tm to j9(j;) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. dtman 'self/ Prak. a2)pd, attd, (inscriptions of Girnar) dptd, Ass. djm, Kasm. 2)(ili, Ur., Bang. dp{e), dpana, dpani, Hindi, Panj, dp{an), Sindhi pan, Guj. dp. Mar. dp{an), etc. (see § 561). ty > c{c). § 564. The assimilation of ty to c{c) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. satya 'true,' Prak., Pali sacca, Ass. samcd, (pron. homsd), Ur. sacd. Bang, sdmcd, sacd, E. Hindi same, Hindi same, sa{m)e, Panj. sacc, Sindhi sacu, Guj., Mar. sdcum, Simh. sasa, Gyp. caco. Skt. Jiatyd ' murder,' Sindhi Jiacd. CONSONANT- GROUPS 1 65 fy > t{f). § 565. Tlie assimilation of ii/ to t{t)j while less frequent than the assimilation of fy to c{c), is, nevertheless, not uncommon in the Indian dialects. a. Indian, Skt. iiifya 'constant,' Priik., Pali nicca, Bihar! nit{t), Sindhi nitu, Siriih. nisadl,nisddl. Skt. aniatya 'minister,' Prak,, Pali amacca, Siihh. ameta, ametiya. Skt. atyunnata '■ very high,' Jaina Priik. accunaya. fy > Sis). § 566. The assimilation of fy to s{s) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. nifya 'constant,' Siiih. nisacli, nisddl, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. safya ' true,' Simh. sasa, etc. (see § 564). fr > c{c). § 567. The assimilation of fr to c{c) is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. imdra ' son,' Old Pers. pud^'a, Phi. 2)Hs{a)% jniJtr, New Pers. pus{ar), pur, Gab. pur, Kas. piir, piir, Samn. plr, WaxI pofr, Siyn. puc, Sarq. poc, Minj. pur, Yayn. pulali, N. Bal. pJmsay, Dig. Oss. furfh, Tag. Jirfh, Kurd, pisir. fr > tit). § 568. Tlie assimilation of fr to f{f) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. jMfra 'son,' Prak. 2)uf fa, Saur. Fvak. pud{(l)a, Pali pidfa, Ur. pua, Hindi pid, Sindlil pidru, Lar. X)nitu, Mar. ^tt^Z, Simh. pit, put fr > fr. § 569. The assimilation of fr to fr occurs only in Sindhi. a. Indian. Skt. frinl 'three,' Prak. fimii, Pali tlni, Kasm. frih, Ur. fini, Bang, fina, Biharl f'lni, Hindi tin, Panj. tinm, Sindhi fre, Guj. tan. Mar. tin, Gyp. frin. Skt. sutra ' tlii'ead,' Prak., Pali suffa, New Ind. dialects sid, excepting Sindhi sufru, Lar. sidtu, Simh. swfa. 166 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY tr > {t)th. § 570. The assimilation of tr to {f)ili is very rare. a. Indian. Skt, ])ratliama])utra ' first-born son,' E. Hindi, Hindi 2^ahilamtJid, Panj. jiahildtlid., ^mdihl palirdtho, pahrdtii. tr > d[d). § 571. The assimilation of tr to d{d) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. putra 'son,' Saur. Prak. piul{d)a^ etc. (see § 568). tr > t{t). § 572. The assimilation of tr to t{{) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. ratri ' night,' Prak. ratti, rai, Pali ratti, Kasm., Ur., Bang., Bihari, Hindi rat, Panj. ratt, rat, Sindhi rati, Guj., Mar. rat, Simh. rmja, rd. Gyp. rat, Span. Gyp. {a)raci. Skt. hsctra ' field,' Prak. cJietta, Pali hhetta, Ur., Bang. Tiheta, Hindi Idiet, hhedd, Panj. hhet, Sindhi Jchetu, Guj. kJicd, Mar. set, Sirhh. Jceta. Skt. trimandala ' Buddhist's robe,' Pali tlmandala. Old Siihh. dunmnandul. New Simh. tiiuniadidla. Skt. putra ' son,' Prak., Pali putta, Hindi put. Mar. putl,, Simh, pit, pid, etc. (see § 568). tr > dr. § 573. The assimilation of tr to dr is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. 6ri ' three,' Paz. se. New Pers. sih. Tat se, WaxI triii, Siyn. arrai, Sarq. Jiaroi, Sangl. trdi, Minj. §arai, Yayn. dara'i, Afy. dre, Kurd. se. tr > plir, fr. § 574. The assimilation of tr to phr, fr, is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. draetaona nom. prop.. Phi. fretiln, Paz. frcdun. New Pers. faredim. tr > r{r). § 575. Tlie assimilation of tr to r{r) is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. puOra ' son,' New Pers. pur, pus{ar). Gab. CONSONANT-GROUPS 167 piir, Kas. pilr^ pilr, Samn. pJr, Minj, pilr, etc. (see § 567). Av. ciOra ' bright,' Plil. citre, New Pers. cihr, Afy. cer, Kurd. cdra. tr > 1(1). § 576. The assimilation of tr to l{l} is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. pudra ' son,' Yayn. pulah, etc. (see § 567). Old Pers. Mt^paSdrij?, Mi^ptoarrjs, nom. prop.. Phi. initrdaf, New Pers. milad. tr > s{s). § 577. The assimilation of tr to s(5) is quite common in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. xmOra ' son,' Phi. pHs{m% pulir, New Pers. pus{ar)^ pur, N. Bal. pJiusay, Kurd, pisir, etc. (see § 567). Av. 6ri ' tlu-ee,' Paz. se, New Pers. sih, Tat 5e, Kurd, se, etc. (see § 573). Av. padra ' protection,' Phi., New Pers. j^cis. tr > s{s). § 578. The assimilation of tr to s{s) is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. 6ri ' three,' Minj. sarai, etc. (see § 573). tr > hr. § 579. The assimilation of tr to hr is common in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. puOra ' son,' Phi. pulir, pus{ar\ etc. (see § 567). Av. ciQra ' bright,' New Pers. cihr, etc. (see § 575). Av. dri ' three,' Sarq. haroi, etc. (see § 573), Syncope of tr. § 580. The loss of the consonant-group tr internally is a very rare phenomenon. a. Indian. Skt. ratri 'night,' Prak. rai, rafti, Simh. rS, raya, etc. (see §572). Skt. mitra 'friend,' Prak. mia, mitta^ Pali mitta, Sindhi mid. 168 IXDO-JRANIAN PHONOLOGY tv > i{t). § 581. The assimilation of tv to i{t} is the regular one under- gone by this consonant-group in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects, a. Indian. Skt. tvarita 'quick,' Prak. turia, Pali tnrita, Hindi, Panj. turanit, Sindhi turtu, Guj. turat, Mar. tunlt. Skt. catvarah ' fom-,' Prak. cattdra, cailra, Pali catu, Kasm. cor, Ur., Bang., Bihari cdri, Hindi, Panj. car, Sindhi cari, Guj., Mar. car, Old SirhL siv{ii). New Simh. Jiatara, satara, Mr, Gyp. star. b. Iranian. Av. turn < * tvdm ' thou,' Paz. to, New Pers. tu, Afy. ta, Kurd, tu, Dig. Oss. dii, Tag. di. tv > d{d). § 582. The assimilation of tv to d{d) is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. tilm 'thou,' Dig. Oss. du, Tag. di, etc. (see preceding §). tv > 2^{P)- § 583. The assimilation of tv to p{2i) is not uncommon in the Indian dialects, especially in the case of the Old Indian suffix -tva, which generally becomes -jmn, -}Kmu, -jjund, etc., in the New Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects an assimilation of tv to p[p) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. V}'ddhatva 'old age,' Bang, hudhdpana, hudhdpd, Hindi hudhdjMn, Panj, hudlmpd, Sindhi hudliapanu, Guj. hucVhdpo. b. Iranian. Av, caOwdro 'four,' Phi. calmr, Paz. cilidr. New Pers. cahdr, WaxI cdbur, cahur, Siyn. cavor, cavdr, Sarq. cavur, cavor, Sangl. safor, Minj, cafir, Yidg. cir, Yayn. tfo, Afy. calor. Dig. Oss. ciqypar, cnpltphar. Tag. cippar, ciplipliar. tv >ph,f. § 584. The assimilation of tv to ph,f, is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av, caOwdro ' four,' Sangl. safor, Minj. caflr, Yayn. tfo. Dig. Oss. ciqipar, cuphpliar, Tag. cippar, ciphphar, etc. (see preceding §). CONSONANT- GEO UPS 1 09 tv > h{h). § 5S5. The assimilation of tv to hih) is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. cadtvdro ' four,' WaxI cabur, cahilr, etc. (see § 583). tv > l{l). § 586. Tlie assimilation of tv to l{l) is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. caQivaro 'four,' Afy. color, etc. (see § 583). tv > v{v). § 587. The assimilation of tv to v{v) is found occasionally both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. catvarali 'four,' Old Simh. siv{u\ etc. (see § 581). b. Iranian. Av. caSwdro ' four,' Siyn. mvor, cavdr, Sarq. cavur, cavor, etc. (see § 583). tv > sp. § 588. The assimilation of tv to sp is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. Qivdsa ' firmament,' Plil. spdsar. tv > h{h). § 589. The assimilation of tv to li{li) is quite frequent in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. caOivdro ' four,' Phi. calidr, Paz. cihdr^ New Pers. cahdr, etc. (see § 583). Av. frapidtva ' flourishing,' Phi. frapili, farpih, New Pers. farbili. Syncope of tv. § 590. The loss of the consonant-group tv internally is a very rare phenomenon. b. Iranian. Av. cad ward ' four,' Yidg. clr, etc. (see § 583). ts > c{c). § 591. The assimilation of ts to c{c) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. Inbhatsa 'loathsome,' Pali htbhacca. Skt. 170 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY vatsa ' calf/ Prak,, Pali raccha, Ass. hacrit (pron. hasru), Kasm, vac, Bang. haccM, vaccM, E. Hindi hdcJin, W. Hindi hacd, Panj. haccd, Sindhi baco, Guj. hacco, Mar. hacreni, vdsrilm. b. Iranian. Skt. vatsa ' calf,' Phi. vacak, hacak, Wax! vush, Sarq. visJc, Bal. ^vac, Kurd. vacaM, Dig. Oss. vass. ^5 > {c)ch. § 592. The assimilation of ts to {c)cJi is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. vatsara ' year,' Prak., Pali vacchara. Skt. vatsa ' calf,' Prak., Pali vaccha, Bang. vaccM, laccha, E. Hindi hdchd, etc. (see preceding §). ts > s{s). § 593. The assimilation of ts to s{s) is very rare. b. Iranian. Skt. vatsa ' calf,' WaxI viisk, Sarq. visl; etc. (see § 591). ts > s{s). § 594. The assimilation of ts to s{s) is found both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. utsuJca ' anxious,' Prak. iissna, Mahar. Prak. zissuya, Jaina Prak. ussuJca. Skt. vyutsarga 'eructation,' Prak. viussagga. Skt. utsada ' desire,' Pali ussada. b. Iranian. Skt. vatsa * calf,' Dig. Oss. vass, etc. (see § 591). tsy > {c)c. § 595. The assimilation of tsy to {c)c is found freqilfently in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. matsya 'fisli,' Apab. Prak. macchu, Pali maccha, Ass. mac (pron. mas), Ur., Bang., Hindi mach (vulgar pron. in Bang, maso), Panj. macch, Sindlil macJiu, Mar. tndsd, Siihh. mas, Gyp. Diaco. tsy > {c)ch. § 596. Tlie assimilation of tsy to {c)ch is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. CONSONANT-GROUPS 171 a. Indian, Skt. matsya 'fish/ Apab. Prak. macclin, Pali inaccha^ Ur,, Bang., Hindi mach (^nilgar pron. in Bang, waso), Panj. macch, Sindhi machu, etc. (see preceding §). ^5^ > s{s). § 597. Tlie assimilation of tsy to s(5) occurs quite frequently in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. matsya ' fish,' Ass. mac (pron. mas), Bang, vulgar pron. mctsu, Mar. masa, Simh. mas, etc. (see § 595). th?/ > {c)ch. § 598. Tlie assimilation of thy to {c)cli is the regidar one to which tliis consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. patliya ' welfare,' Prak. paccha. Skt. mitJiya 'false,' Prak. micchci, Avant. Prak. onittha, Pali micchd, Ass. mica, Ur. mich, Bang., Old Hindi micJia, Sindhi mathyam, Siihli. misa. thy > s{s). § 599. The assimilation of tJiy to s{s) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. mithya 'false,' Simh. misa, etc. (see pre- ceding §). dg > gig)' § 600. The assimilation of dg to g{g) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects, but it is extremely rare in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. mudga ' kidney-bean,' Prak., Pali mugga, Ur. muga, Bang, mug, E. Hindi, Hindi mumg, Panj. 7m g{g), § 601. The assimilation of dgh to g{g) is quite rare. 172 IXDO-IRAXIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. udghatayati ' opens,' Prak. iiggdi, nggJmda'i, Pali nggJuitcti, Ur. ngand, Sindhi iigann, Guj. iigavmh, Mar. ■agavineni. dgJi > {g)gk ^ 602. The assimilation of dgh to {g)gh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. udglicdaijatl 'opens,' Prak. ugglidda'i, Pali uggJidfeti, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. tidghOsa 'proclamation,' Pali ugghusa. ddh > {f)th. § 603. The assimilation of ddh to {f)fJi, is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. suddha ' pure,' Pi'ak., Pali suddlia, Hindi sudhj Sindhi sufJiO. ddh > {dyih. § 604. The cerebralization of ddJt is caused in the great majority of instances by the presence of r, r. a. Indian. Skt. sraddhd ' offering to the dead,' Prak. saddhd, saddhd, Pali saddhd. Skt. vnldhi ' gro\vth,' Prak, vuddhi, Pah vitddhi, vuddhi. dm > iH{m). § 605. Tlie assimilation of dm to )}i{))i) is excessively rare. b. Iranian. New Pers. nisem, niseman 'resting-place' < ^nistdinan. dm > mn. § 606. The assimilation of dm to mn is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. hhinadmi ' I s^Dlit,' Gatha hhinanmi. § 607. The assimilation of dg to j{j) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. vidyid 'lightning,' Prak., Pali vijju, Ur. hijidl, Bang., Hindi, Panj. hijali, Sindhi vi^um, Guj. vijuU, Mar. h'tjali, vlj. Skt. adga ' to-day,' Prak., Pali ajja, Ass. dji, Kaem. CONSONANT-GROUPS 173 aj, a3, Ur., Bang, aj, Old Hindi aju, E. Hindi, Hindi tij, Panj. ajj, Sindhi ajii, Guj., Mar. aj, Siiiili. ada. Skt. cZ^/w^i 'light,' Prak, jui, Pali /w^i. dy > d{d). § 608. The atsimilation of dij to d{d) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. adija 'to-day,' Simh. ada, etc. (see pre- ceding §). Skt. vdidija ' physician,' Prilk., Pali vejja, Simh. dr > j{j). § 609. The assimilation of dr to j{j) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. nidrd ' sleep,' Prak., Pali niddd, Hindi, Panj. nlmd, Sindhi nimd, Mar. nlj, n'ld, Gyp. lindr. dr > d{d). § 610. The assimilation of dr to d{d) is quite rare. a. Indian. Skt. hsudra ' small,' Prak. hhudda, Pali Ichudda, Ur. hhudatu, Bang. JcJiudd, Old Sirhh. czt^i, Simh. knda, hudu. Skt. dadru ' ring- worm,' Pali daddu, Hindi dad, Sindhi darhu, dadhu, Guj. dddar, Mar. ddd, dddad. dr > {d)dh. § 611. Tlie assimilation of dr to {d)dh is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. dadru 'ring-worm,' Sindhi darhu, etc. (see preceding §). dr > d{d). § 612. The assimilation of dr to d{d) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. nidrd ' sleep,' Prak., Pali niddd, Hindi, Panj. mmd, Mar. md, ntj, etc. (see § 609). Skt. mudrd ' seal,' Prak., Pali muddd. Skt. drdJcsa 'grape,' Kasm. dach, Hindi, Panj. ddkh, Sindhi ddJch, Gyp. drakh. dr > l{l). § 613. The assimilation of dr to l{l) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. hhadra ' good,' Prak. lliadda, Pali bhadra, 174 JXDO-IRANJAN PHONOLOGY hhadda, Ass. hhdl, Ur. hhala, Bang, hhdla, Hindi, Panj. hludd, Sindhi, Guj. hhalO^ Mar. hliald. Skt. cliidra 4iole/ Mahar. Prak., Pali chidda, Biharl died, Simh. hila. dr > sr. § 614. The assimilation of dr to sr is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. xsudra ' seed,' Phi. susar, Gab. sosr. dr > Jir. § 615. The assimilation of dr to lir is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. hahra ' portion/ Phi., New Pers. hahr. dv > d{d). § 616. The assimilation of dv to d{d) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indo- Jranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. sddvala 'grassy,' Pali saddala. Skt. dvara ' door,' Prak. dfra, dndra, ddra, hdra, Pali dvdra, Ur. dara, Sindhi ddrii, ddrl, Guj. bar, Mar. ddr, Simh. dera, dora. Skt. dvi 'two,' Prak. duve, Pali dvi, Kasm. ^ah, Ur., Bang, did, Hindi, Panj. do, Sindhi ha, Guj. he. Mar. don. Skt. dvlpa, 'island,' Prak. diva, Prdi dijM, Simh. diva. b. Iranian. Av. dvar 'door,' Old Pers. duvard, Phi., New Pers. dar. Gab., Kas. har, Samn. harl, Wax! hdr, Siyn. dive{r), Sarq. div'ir, Minj. lahra, Afy. var, Kurd, har, Oss. dvar. dv > h{h). § 617. The assimilation of dv to b{h) is frequent both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. dvara ' door,' Prak. hdra, ddra, dudra, dera, Guj. hdr, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. dvddasan 'twelve,' Prak. hdraha, Pali hdrasa, dvddasa, Kasm. hdh, Ur. hdra, Bang, hard, Biharl, Hindi hdrah, Panj. hdrdm, Sindhi harahani, Guj. hdr. Mar. hard. CONSONANT-GROUPS 175 b. Iranian. Av. dvar ' door,' Gab., Ka§. har, Samn. hart, WaxI bar, Kurd, bar, etc. (see § 616). Skt. dvesas 'enmity,' Av. fbaesah, Plil. bcs. dv > v{v). § 618. The assimilation of dv to v{v) is comparatively rare both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. udvestati ' surrounds,' Prak. uvvella'L [See now Pischel, Gramm. d. PraJc.-Spr., § 107,] b. Iranian. Av. dvar '■ door,' Afy. var, etc. (see § 616). § 619. The assimilation of dhy to {j)jh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. madliya ' middle,' Prak., Pali majjha, Ass. mdj (pron. maz), Kasm. mamz, Ur. majhi, Bang, ntdjh, Burh- vanl madde, Biharl madJd, Old Hindi maddlie, Hindi majhi, mdrnjh, mdmh, mdmjliold, Panj. mamjh, majjh, Sindhi manijhu. Mar. mdjh, Elu madii, Simh. mdda, inscriptions mdmda. Gyp. maskare. Skt. upadhydya 'teacher,' Prak. u{v)ajjhda, ojjJida, Pali upajjhdya, Biharl pddhd, Hindi ojhd, Sindhi viijho. Skt. budhyati ' understands,' Prak. bujjha'i, Pali hujjhati, Kasm. bojl (pron. bo^i), Ur. bujJiibd, Bang, biijhan, Hindi bujhand, Panj. biijjhand, Sindhi bujhanu, Guj. bujavum. Mar. bujh. Skt. dJiydna ' meditation,' Prak., Pali jhdna, Hindi samajjhdnd. b. Iranian. Skt. dhydna ' meditation,' Phi., New Pers. jdn. dhy > d{d). § 620. The assimilation of dhy to d{d) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. madhya ' middle,' BurhvanI 7naddc, Elu madii, Simh. md{m)da, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. vidhyati ' pierces,' Pali vijjhati, Simh. vidinavd. b. Iranian. Av. mailya 'middle,' Phi., New Pers. miydn, 176 IXDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Wfixl mailing, Siyn. mahdna, Sarq. mch, Sangl. m'lda, Afy. mid, Dig. Oss. mcdag, Tag. mJday. dhj > {d)dh. § 621. The assimilation of dJii/ to (fZ)f?/i is extremely rare, a. Indian. Skt. mad/nja ' middle/ Bihari madid, Old Hindi maddhe, etc. (see § 619). b. Iranian. Av. maibya ' middle,' Siyn. mahdna, Sarq. ))ieb, etc. (see preceding §). dhj > y{y). § 622. Tlie assimilation of dhy to y{y) is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. inaidya ' middle,' Phi,, New Pers. miydn, etc. (see § 620). fZA?/ > l{l). § 623. The assimilation of dhy to Z(Z) is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. maihya ' middle,' WaxI mailing, Afy. mid, etc. (see § 620). dhy > s{2). § 624. The assimilation of dhy to z{3) occurs with the utmost rarity. a. Indian. Skt. madhya ' middle,' Ass. mdz (written mdj), ELasm. tnamz, etc. (see § 619). Skt. hadhyati ' understands,' Kasm. hozl (written hojl), etc. (see § 619). dhy > h{h). § 625. The assimilation of dJty to //(//) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. madhya ' middle,' Hindi mdmh, mdmjh{dld), mdmjh, majhi, etc. (see § 619). dhr > {j)jk § 626. The assimilation of dhr to {j)jh is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. grdhra ' vulture,' Prak. giddha, Pali gijjha, gaddha, giddha, Bang, gidh, Hindi gidh, giddh, Panj. giddh, Sindhi gijhu, Guj. g~id{h). Mar. gidli, gid, gidhad. CONSONANT-GROUPS 177 dhr > did). § 627. The assimilation of dhr to d{d) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. grdhra 'vulture,' Guj. gtd, g'idh, Mar. gld, gtdh, gidhad, etc. (see preceding §). dhr > {d)dh. § 628. The assimilation of dhr to {d)dh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. dhruva 'firm/ Jaina Prak. dhiiva. Skt. grdhra 'vulture,' Prak. giddha, Pali gaddha, giddha, gijjha, Bang, gidh, Hindi g'ldh, giddh, Panj. giddh, Guj. gidh, gld, Mar. gtdh, gidhad, gid, etc. (see § 626). dhv > {j)jh. § 629. The assimilation of dhv to {j)jh is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. dhvaja ' flag,' Prak. jhaya, dhaya, Hindi, Panj. dhaja, Guj. dhajo, Simh. dada. Skt. madhvalu 'yam,' Pali majjharu. dhv > d{d). § 630. The assimilation of dhv to d{d) Is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. dhvaja 'flag,' Simh. dada, etc. (see pre- ceding §). dhv > {d)dh. § 631. The assimilation of dhv to {d)dh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. dhvaja ' flag,' Prak. dhaya, jhaya, Hindi, Panj. dhaja, Guj. dhajo, etc. (see § 629). Skt. adhvan ' road,' Prak., Pali addha. nt > t{t). § 632. The assimilation of nt to t{t) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. -ant term, of pres. part, act., Prak. -anta, Apab. Prak. -antu, Saur. Prak. -ando, Ass. -omte, Naip. -ada, Kasm. -an, Ur. -ant, Bang, -it, E. Hindi -at. Old Hindi -ant, N 178 JNDO-IRANIAN TIIONOLOGY Hindi -ata, Panj. -a{n)da, Sindhi -ando, Multani -andd, -enda, Guj. -ato, Mar. -atd, -at, -it. nt > {f)fk. § 633. Tlie assimilation of nt to {t)th is not of frequent occur- rence. a. Indian. Av. dantan 'tooth,' Phi., New Pers. danddn, WaxI dilnduJc, Siyn., Sarq. handdn, Minj. land, Bal. dantan, N. Bal, datJidn, danthdn, Kurd, didun, Tag. Oss. da)idag. Av. hjrdsant 'high,' New Pers. hidand, Dig. Oss. harzantldlia (plural), Tag. harmththa. ' nt > d{d). § 634. Tlie assimilation of nt to d{d) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. -ant term, of pres. part, act., Naip. -ddci, Panj. -add, -andd, etc. (see § 632). b. Iranian. Av. dantan ' tooth,' Kurd, dlddn, etc. (see pre- ceding §). nt > nd. § 635. The softening of nt to nd is very common both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. -ant term, of pres. part, act., Saur. Prak. -andd, Panj. -andd, -add, Sindhi -andd, Multani -andd, -endd, etc. (see § 632). b. Iranian. Av. dantan 'tooth,' Phi., New Pers. danddn, WaxI dunduli, Siyn., Sarq. handdn, Minj. land, Tag. Oss. dandag, etc. (see § 633). Av. jvant ' living,' Phi. zlvandalc, New Pers. zindali, Kas. janda, Afy. ivand. nt > n{n). § 636. The assimilation of nt to w(w) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. -ant term, of pres. part, act., Kasm. -an, etc. (see § 632). b. Iranian. Av. gainti ' stench,' Phi., New Pers. gand, Afy. ganda{l), Kurd, gannalc ' castor-oil plant.' CONSONANT- GEO UPS 1 79 7ifr > nfr. § 637. The assimilation of nfr to nfr is confined to the Sindlil (c£§569). a. Indian. Skt. mantra ' incantation/ Sindhi maniru, mandru. ntr > ndr. § 638. The assimilation of nfr to ndr also is confined to the Sindhi. a. Indian. Skt. mantra 'incantation/ Sindhi mandril, manfru. nfr > r(r). § 639. The assimilation of ntr to r{r) is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. fqOra ' dark/ Phi., New Pers. tar, Minj. taravi, Afy. tor, Dig. Oss. thalinga, Tag. thaling. ntr > 1(1). § 640. Tlie assimilation of ntr to l[l) is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. tqBra ' dark/ Dig. Oss. thalinga, Tag. thaling, etc. (see preceding §). nth > tit). § 641. The assimilation of nth to t{t) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. granfhi 'knot/ Prak., Ptili ganthi, Sindlii gamdhi, ghumdi. Mar. ganifh, Simh. gdtaya. nth > mth. § 642. Tlie cerebrahzation of nth is of very miusual occurrence. a. Indian. Skt. granfhi ' knot/ Prak., Pali ganthi, Mar. gamth, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. grantha 'book,' Pali ganfha, Ur. gantha. Bang, gdmt, gdmth, Hindi gdmfh, Panj. gamdh, gandh, Sindhi gamdh, Guj., Mar. gdmth, Simh. gata. nth > mdh. § 643. The assimilation of nth to mdh is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. grantha ' book,' Panj. gamdh, gandh, Sindhi gamdh, etc. (see preceding §). 1 80 INDO-IRANIAN FHONOLOG Y nth > t{f). § 644. The assimilation of nth to t{t) is exceedingly rare, a. Indian. Skt. grantha ' book,' Simh. gata, etc. (see § 642). nth > d{d). § 645. The assimilation of nth to d{d) is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. pantaii ' way/ Phi., New Pers. pand, Siyn. puTid, Sarq. pand, Sangl. pandah, Yidg. paduh, Dig. Oss. /and. nth > nd. § 646. The assimilation of nth to nd is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. pantan ^ way,' Phi., New 'Pers. pand, Siyn. pund, Sarq. pand, Sangl. pandah, Dig, Oss. fand, etc. (see preceding §). nth > ndh. ^ 647. The softening of nth to 7idh occurs very seldom. a. Indian. Skt. pantha 'way,' Prak. pamtha, Pali pantha, Kasm. paimth, pdmth, panth, Siihh. pandltu. ndr > ndr. § 648. The cerebralization of ndr to ndr is confined to the SindhT. a. Indian. Skt. candra 'moon,' Prak. canda, camda, Pali eanda, New Ind. dialects cdmd, also Kasm. candar, E. Hindi can, Hindi, Panj. camd, Sindhi camdu, candrii, Simh. sanda, handa, Maladive ha{n)du. Gyp. con. ndr > nd. § 649. The assimilation of ndr to nd is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. candra 'moon,' Prak. canda, camda, Pali rjinda. New Ind. dialects cdmd, also Hindi, Panj. camd, Simh. sanda, handa, Maladive ha{n)du, etc. (see preceding §). CONSONANT-GROUPS 181 ndr > n{n). § 650. The assimilation of ndr to n{n) is extremely rare, a. Indian. Skt. candra ' moon/ E. Hindi can, Gyp. con, etc. (see § 648). ndh > t{t). § 651. The assimilation of ndh to t{t) is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. handdmi * I bind,' Phi. hasfano. New Pers. hmidam, Maz. van{n)am, Gil. davaddam, Waxi vandam, Siyn., Sarq. vindam, Bal. handag, Kurd, handiin, Dig. Oss, hattim, Tag, § 652. Tlie assimilation of ndh to (i^)^7i is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. handdmi 'I bind/ Tag. Oss. haththin, etc. (see preceding ^). ndh > d{d). § 653. The assimilation of ndh to d{d) is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. handdmi ' I bind/ Gil. davaddam, etc. (see § 651). >Z(?7i > nd. § 654. The deaspirization of ndh is not a frequent phenomenon. a. Indian. Skt. sicandha ' shoulder/ Prak., Pali hhandlia, Ass. Jcdmd, kdmdh, Ur., Bang. Jcdnidh, Biharl Tidmdhd, kJidmdd, Hindi Tidmdhd, Panj. handhd, Jcamih, Sindlil Jcandhu, Guj. JcJidmdo, Mar. Jchdrndd, Siriih. Tcanda. ndh > n{n). § 655. The assimilation of ndh to n{n) is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. handdmi ' I bind/ Maz. van{n)am, etc. (see § 651). ndh > {n)nh. § 656. The assimilation of ndh to {n)nh is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. sandhi 'friendship, burglar's mine,' Prak., Pali sandhi. Ass. sindhi, Kasm. san, Ur., Bang, simdh, E. Hindi senhi, semdh, Hindi semdh, Panj. sannh, Sindhi semdhi, Multanl 182 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY sandh. Skt. sJcandha 'shoulder,' Panj. Jcannh, Jcandhd, etc. (see § 654). Skt., Pali andliahara 'darkness,' Hindi amdhera, athdhfydra, Panj. annherd. ndhy > mj{j). § 657. The assimilation of ndhy to mj{j) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. sandliyd ' twilight, ' Prak. samjhd, Pali sahjhdj Ur. sdmjh, Bang, sdnij, sdtiijh, Biharl, Hindi sdmjh, Panj. samjh, Sindhi scimjhl, samjhfl, Guj. sdwj, Mar. sdmj, sdmjh. ndhy > m{j)jh. § 658. The assimilation of ndhy to m{j)jh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects, a. Indian. Skt. sandhyd 'twilight,' Prak. samjhd, Pali safijhd, Ur. sdmjh, Bang, sdmjh, sdmj, Biharl, Hindi sdmjh, Panj. samjh, Sindhi samjhd, samjhl, Mar. sdmjh, sdmj, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. handhya ' barren,' Pali vahjha. Ass. hdmji, Ur. hdmjha. Bang, hdmjhd, E. Hindi, Hindi Idmjh, Panj. hahjh, Guj., Mar. vdmjh. nm > mm. § 659. The assimilation of nm to mm is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. janman ' birth/ Prak., Pali jamma. Skt. unmdrga 'underground watercourse,' Maliar. Prak., Pali um- magga. b. Iranian. Av. saena mdrdya 'eagle-bird,' Phi. senmurv, New Pers. slmiiry. ny > nj. § 660. The assimilation of ny to nj is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. kanyd 'girl,' Mag. Prak. hahhahd. Pais. Prak. kahjd, JcahhaM, Pali haSuid, Panj. Jcanid, Sindlil Jcahd. ny > n{H). § 661. The assimilation of ny to h{Pi) is extremely rare. CONSONANT-GROUPS 183 a. Indian. Skt. Tianya 'girl,' Mag. Prak. kamiaJca, Pais. Prak. JcahhaJcct, Jcahja, Pali Jcahnd, Sindhl Jcaha, etc. (see pre- ceding §). Skt. ani/a ' other,' Prak. ahha, anna, Pali aSuia, Old Hindi ani, Siihh. aml:{ali), amkek. nif > n{n). § 662. The assimilation of ny to n{n) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. sunya ' empty,' Mahar. Prak. sunna, sunna, Pali sunna., Ass. sima, Kasm. chonoi, E. Hindi, Hindi sun{d), Panj. si()in{a), Sindlil suhd, Guj. sun, siimn, Mar. sund. ny > 7i{n). § 663. Tlie assimilation of ny to n{n) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. manydmi ' I think,' Jaina Prak. manndmi (cf. Skt. manye, Prak. manne, Pali mahhe). Skt. sunya 'empty,' Mahar. Prak. sunna, sunna, Ass. sund, Kasm. chonoi, E. Hindi, Hindi su)i[d), Panj. sunn{d), Guj. sun, sui'nn. Mar. sund, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. «???/a 'other,' Prak. anna, anna. Old Hindi ani, etc. (see § 661). b. Iranian. Av. nydha 'grandfather,' Old Pers. apanydka, Phi. nydJc, New Pers. niyd, Afy. ?i7/l'a, Bal. tidhu, N. Bal. waxo. Av. anya 'other,' Old Pers. aniya, Paz. lian, Oss. iwwa. nv > n{n). § 664. The assimilation of nv to n{n) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. auvesana 'inquiry,' Mahar. Prak. annesana. pt > d(d). § 665. Tlie assimilation of ^^ to d{ t{t). § 666. Tlie assimilation of pt to t{t) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indo- Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. sa])tan 'seven,' Prak., Pali satta, Kasm. sath, Ur., Bang., Hindi sdt^ Panj. satt, Sindhi sat, Gruj., Mar. saty Siihli. sata, Jiafa. Skt. siqyta 'asleep/ Prak., Pali stitta, Sindhi siitO. h. Iranian. Av. Vx'ap 'to sleep,' Plil. x^aftano, New Pers. xuftan, Gab. xiiftmiJn, Zaf. voft, Kas. xut, Von. xuff, Kuhr. xuf, Nay. havoftand, Maz. xut, WaxI riixjMtn, Siyn. sovsam, Sarq. xufsam, Bal. vaj^sag, N. Bal. vafsay, Dig. Oss. xussun, Tag. xussin. Phi. haftano 'to fall,' Gab. haftmim, Kas. darkatan, darkaftan, Maz. dakafan, GiL hakaffan, Bal. kapag, Kurd. A;a^i«. pt > d[d). § 667. The assimilation of ^^ to d{d) is very rare. b. Iranian. Skt. supta ' asleep,' New Pers. xtiftah, Aiy. uda. Skt. tapta ' warm, ' New Pers. taft, Afy. tod, S. Oss. thafth. pt > {d)dh. § 668. The assimilation of ^;^ to {d)dh is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. hapta 'seven,' Phi., New Pers. haft, WaxI huh, {h)uh, Siyn. vuvd, Sarq. ilvd, Sangl. Jioft, Minj. ub, Yidg. avdiih, Yayn. av, Afy. ova, ava, Oss. avd, Dig. also aft. pt > pht, ft. § 669. The spirantization oi pt toft occurs not infrequently in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. hapta ' seven,' Phi., New Pers. liaft, Sangl. hoft, Dig. Oss. aft, avd, etc. (see preceding §), pt >phth,fth. § 670. The double spirantization of ^^ to phth,fth, is very rare. b. Iranian. Skt. ta2)ta 'warm,' S. Oss. thajth, etc. (see § 667). CONSONANT-GBOUPS 185 2)f > h{h). § 671. Tlie assimilation of j^^ to l{h) is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. hcq^ta 'seven,' WaxI Jiiih, {h)uh, etc. (see § 668). 2)t > r{r). § 672. Tlie assimilation of 2^^ to r{r) is excessively rare (cf. § 230). a. Indian. Skt. saptasasti 'sixty-seven,' Biharl sarasathi, sarasatJi, satasathi, Hindi sarsafJi, saisafh, etc. (see § 665). 2)t > r{v). § 673. The assimilation of j>^ to v{v) is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. hai)ta ' seven,' Yayn, m\ Afy. ova, ava, etc. (see § 668). pt > V(l § 674. The softening of the consonant-group pt to vd is not very common. b. Iranian. Av. Jicqyfa ' seven,' Siyn. vtwd, Sarq. iivd, Yidg. avditJi, Oss. avd, etc. (see § 668). jm > pp. § 675. The assimilation oipn io pp is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. svapna 'sleep,' Pali soppa, siipina. Skt. prapnoti 'obtains,' Vva^. pailnai, pavai, Pali pappoti, papunati^ Ur. pa, Bang, pad, Old Hindi pail, Hindi pa{v), Panj. pail, Sindhi pa, Guj. pdm, Mar. pav, Simh. paminenava. ]?n > /(/). § 676. The assimilation of pn to /(/) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. tajnu ' heat/ New Pers. taf. pn > m{m). § 677. The assimilation of jpw to m{m) is very rare (cf. § 291). a. Indian. Skt. prapnoti ' obtains,' Simh. paminenava, etc. (see § 675). 186 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY pny > m{m). § 678. Tlie assimilation oi pny to m{m) is exceedingly rare, b. Iranian. Av. xsafnya ' supper, ' Phi., New Pers. sdni. ini > lip)' § 679. Tlie assimilation of py to p{])) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Ski. kiqjyafi 'is angry,' Prak. Tcuppai, Pali kup- pati, Biharl kopai. Skt. tapyate ' is warmed, ' Pali tappati. pr >p{p). § 680. The assimilation of ^;r to 2il>) is the regular one to which this consonant- group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. j;m^i ' toward,' Prak. ^;af/i, Pali jyati, paU, New Ind, dialects pad{i). Skt. apriya ' offensive,' Prak. appia, 'Paih apphja. Skt. prasthcqjaim 'sending,' Ur. j;a#7««?6a. Bang. pdfhdn, Hindi patlidnd, Sindhi paihamiy Guj. pdtjiavum, Mai-. pdtavimm. pr > r(r). § 681. The assimilation of j)r to r{r) is the regular one to wliich this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av., Old Pers. /ra 'forward,' Phi. /ra,/ar. New I* ers. far, fir, Pamir dialects ra, Kurd, hal, hil. Phi. froxtano 'to sell,' New Vevs. fiiroxian, Zaf. ?>axros ' sell !' Von. bar us, Kuhr. haxrus, Samn. narusum, Maz. ru§, rut, N. Bal. savaskay, suskay. Av. frqs 'forward,' Phi. frdc, Paz. frd<;, fi'az. New Pers. ^m^, Oss. razai. pr > Jil. § 682. Tlie assimilation of j;r to hi is very rare (cf. § 354). b. Iranian. Av. jafra ' deep, ' Phi. zufixr, zafar, New Pers. zarf, Judaeo-Pers. zbrf, Afy. zavar, Bal. ^ulil, Kurd, ior, Zaza jor. CONSONANT-GROUPS 187 lis > s[s). § 683. The assimilation oi X)s to s{s) is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. fsardma 'shame,' Phi., New Pers. sarm, Dig. Oss. afsarmi, Tag. afsarm. Av. "^'fsu-imna 'shepherd,' Phi. s{u)pan, New Pers. siibdn, Waxi spiin, si'qnin, Bal. slpanh, N. Bal. savdnJch, safdnhh. ])s > {c)ch. § 684. The assimilation of ps to {c)clh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. apsard 'nymph,' Prak., Pali acchard, Old Hindi acchan, apclmr, Sindhi apchard. Skt. jugupsati 'de- spises,' Prak. du{g)uccha'i, dit{g)umchai, Pali jigucchati. ps > hz. § 685. The softening oi ps to hs is very rare. b. Iranian. Lit. vapsd 'wasp,' Old High Germ, wafsa, Bal. gvahz, gvamz. ps > mz. § 686. Tlie assimilation oips to mz is extremely rare (cf. § 291). b. Iranian. Lit. vapsd 'wasp,' Bal. gvamz, gvahz, etc. (see preceding §). ps > vs. § 687. The assimilation of J95 to vs is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Phi. afsdr 'headstall,' New Pers. afsdr, Siyn., Sarq. avsdr. ps > s{s). § 688. The assimilation of j>5 to 5(5) is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. x^'afsata ' sleep ye ! ' Plil. x'"afs~itan6, New Pers. xuspJdan, Siyn. sorsam, Sarq. xufsam, Bal. vapsag, N. Bal. vafsay, Dig. Oss. xussun^ Tag. xussin. pstr > sir. § 689. The assimilation oi pstr to str is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. xrafstra 'noxious beast,' Phi. xrafstr, New Pers. (Parsi) xardsfar, archaic xrafstar. 188 IXDO-IRAXIAN rilONOLGGY fs >2>S. § 690. The hardening of Iranian /5 to ps occurs very seldom. b. Iranian. Av. x^afsata ' sleep ye ! ' Bal. vapsag, etc. (see § 688). ¥ > Jij)- § 691. The assimilation of hj to j{j) is found but rarely. a. Indian. Skt. huhja 'hump-backed,' Prak., Pali khujja, Kasm. Jcohh, Ur. Jcuja, Bang. ku{m)jd, Tiiibja, Hindi huhjd, kuhhd, kuhrd (rare), Panj, kuhhd, 7mhd, Sindhi Jcuho, Guj. Jcuhard, Mar. Mmh, hubadd. Ij > Id. § 692. The assimilation of bj to M is very rare (cf. § 182). a. Indian. Skt. Jciihja 'hump-backed,' Hindi huhrd (rare), hubbd, Jcubjd, etc. (see preceding §). ij > m- § 693. Tlie assimilation of bj to b{b) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. huhja 'hump-backed,' Kasm. Icobh, Hindi kubbd, Jcubjd, Jcubrd, Panj. hubbd, hubd, Sindhi hubo, Mar. Jchub, hubadd, etc. (see § 691). bd > d{d). § 694. Tlie assimilation of bd to d{d) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. sabda ' word,' Prak., Pali sadda, Old Hindi sad. bdh > [d)dh. § 695. The assimilation of bdh to {d)dli is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. labdha ' received,' Prak., Pali laddha, Sindhi ladho. br > b{b). § 696. The assimilation of br to b{b) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. CONSONANT- GRO UPS 189 a. Indian. Skt. hralimana ' Brahman,' Prak. hamhJiana, in- scriptions of Kapur di Giri hamana, Jaina Prak. mdhana, Pali hrdhmana, Biharl haman, hdmhan, bdmahan, Sindhi hamhlianu, Simh. hamha. hhy > {b)hk § 697. The assimilation of hJiy to {h)hh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. abhyantara 'internal,' Prak., Pali abhlian- tara, Ur., Bang, bhitari, Biharl, Hindi bhitar, Guj. bhitar, Mar, bhitari. Skt. labhyate 'is taken,' Prak. labbJia'i, Pali labbhati, Old Hindi labbli, Sindhi labJi. bhr > b{b). § 698. The assimilation of bhr to b{b) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. bhramara 'bee,' Prak., Pali bhamara, Ur. bhamara, Bang, bhamar, Hindi, Panj. blicmvar, bhdumr, Sindhi bhdiimrUj Mar. bhomr, Simh. bambara. bhr > {h)bh. § 699. The assimilation of bhr to {b)bh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. bhratar ' brother,' Prak. bhdd, Pali bhdtd, New Ind. dialects bhdJ, also Panj. bhrdii, Sindhi bhdii, Mar. bhdu, Gyp. phral. Skt. bhramara ' bee,' Prak., Pali bhamara, Ur. bhamara, Bang, bhamar, Hindi, Panj. bhamvar, bhdumr, Sindhi bhdumrii, Mar. hhomr, etc. (see preceding «^). bhr > vr. § 700. Tlie assimilation of bhr to vr is very common in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av., Old Pers. brdtar 'brother,' Phi. bhdt{ar), New Pers. birddar, Kas. bard, bardi, Gil. brdr, Wax! vruf, Siyn. virdd, Sarq. vrOd, Sangl. vurd, Yidg. vrai, Yayn. virdf, Afy. vrOr, 190 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Bal. hrdt, N. Bal. hrds, hrd9, Kurd, hard. Dig. Oss. arudda, Tag. arvdd. Av. atvra 'cloud,' Plil., New Pers, abr^ Gab., Kas. avr. Judaeo-Pers. ahr, Afy. varyaj, Bal. Aarr, Kurd. {h)avr, hdur, Oss. an*. mw > mm. § 701. The assimilation of mn to turn is very rare. b. Iranian. Av., Old Pers. Jcamna ' small,' Phi., New Pers. kam. mp > p{p). § 702. Tlie assimilation of mp to^(^) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. parampara ' reciprocal,' Pali parampara, Simh. parapura. Skt. campaka ' sort of tree,' Apab. Prak. camptayu, Pali campaJia^ Simh. sapu. mp > mh § 703. The softening of m2) to mh is quite a frequent phe- nomenon. a. Indian. Skt. hampati 'trembles,' Prak. Jcampa'i, Pali Icampati, Ass. hamp, Kasm. lcam{p\ Ur. kanip, Bang. Tcdmp^ Hindi hamp, Panj. kamh, Sindhi kanih, Guj., Mar. hdmp. b. Iranian. Av. Jiqmpdfrditi (intens.) 'fills,' Phi., New Pers. mnbdUan (written anhdstan). mh > h{h). § 704. The assimilation of mh to h{h) Is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. Tcamhala ' blanket, ' Prak., Pali Jcamhala, Ur. Ttamala, Bang, kamhal, kamli, E. Hindi kammar, Hindi kammal, kathhal, Panj. kammal, kamhal, Sindhi kamari, Guj. kdhalj), Jcdnial, kamali, Mar. kdmhala. mh > ?»(m). § 705. The assimilation of mh to m{)n) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indo -Iranian dialects. CONSONANT-a ROUPS 191 a. Indian. Skt. aJamhana ' support,' Pali arammana. Skt. jamhuJca ' roso-apple,' Ass. ^awiw, Bang, jam, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. jf7imu)i, Sindhi janiun, Guj. jdmhti, Mar. jamb. Skt. Jcam- hala ' blanket, ' Ur. Jcamala, E. Hindi Jcammar, Hindi hammal, Jcamhal, Panj. Jiammal, Tianihal, Sindlil hamari, Guj. hamal, Jcamall, Mhalo, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. nimha ' sort of tree,' Prak. llmha, Prdi nimha, Bihari nim, Hindi llm, nlm, Sindhi limu, Guj. Ihhhado, Mar. limh. b. Iranian. Plil. silcumb ' stomach,' New Pers. siJciim, Kurd. sik. New Pers. hamhaz ' comrade/ Kurd, hamcs, xamlz. mhh > m{m). § 708. Tlie assimilation of mJ)h to m{ni) is very rare, a. Indian. Skt. JciimhJtakdra 'potter,' Prak. kiimbhadm, Tiimibhdra, Pali Jcumhhahdra, Ass. kumdr, Naip. humdmlye, Ur. Jcumhdra, Jcuhmdra, Bang, kumdr, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. kumhdr, Sindlil kumhliaru, Guj., Mar. kimihlidr. mhh > mh. § 707. The assimilation of mWi to mh is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. kumhJiakdra ' potter,' Ur, kumhdra, kiih- mdra, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. kumhdr, etc. (see preceding §), mhh > hm. § 708. The assimilation of mhJi to hm is excessively rare. a. Indian, Skt. kumhhakdra 'potter,' Ur. kuhmdra, kumhdra, etc. (see § 706). mr > mhr > mh. § 709, Insertion of h in the group mr and subsequent assimila- tion to mh is found in the Indian dialects. a. Indian, Skt, fc?>i>-a 'copper,' Prak, tamha, tamhira, Pali tamha. Ass. tdm, Kasm, tram, Ur. idmd, tdmhd. Bang, tdmd, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. tdmd, tdmhd, Sindlil tdmd, Guj. tdmhum. Mar. tdmhem, Simh. tamhara. Skt. dmra ' mango,' Prak., Pali 192 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY aniba, Ur., Bang., Hindi am, athb, Panj. amah, Sindhi anibu, Larl dmo, dmil, Guj. amhu, Mar. amhd, Simh. aniba. mr > 7nhr > m{7n). § 710. Insertion of b in the group mr and subsequent assimila- tion to in{m) is found in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. tdmra ' copper/ Ass. tdin, Kasm. tram, Ur. tdmd, tdmhd, Bang, tdmd, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. tdmd, tdmbd, Sindhi tamo, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. dmra 'mango,' Ur., Bang. d7n, amb, Lari dmo, dmu, etc. (see preceding §). mv > m{m). § 711. The assimilation of mv to m{m) is very rare. b. Iranian. New Pers. hamvdrah 'ever' beside hamdrah. mil > mgh. § 712. The assimilation of yhh to 7hgh is found occasionally in the Middle and New Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. simha 'Hon,' Prak. sJJia, Mahar. Prak. simgha, siha, Pali slha, Gatha simlia, Kasm. suh, Biliarl, E. Hindi simgh, smgh, sunk, Panj. simgh, other New Ind. dialects simh (pron. and often written sintgh). rh > lc(k). § 713. The assimilation of rh to h{]c) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects, but it is very rare in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. «rZ;a 'sun,' Prak., Piili ahka. Skt JcarJcara ' gravel,' Ass., Naip. JcdmJcar, Bang. Icamkar. Skt. karkafa 'crab,' Pali kakkafaka, Ur., Bang. Jcdmkard, E. Hindi kckard, kekard, Hindi kdmkard, Sindhi kdmkaro. Skt. karkatikd 'cucumber,' Ur., Bang. kd{m)kudl, Hindi, F an j.ka{k)ka(lJ, Sindhi kakkli, Guj., Mar. kdkadl. Skt, sarkara ' sugar,' Pali sakkara, sakkhara, New Ind. dialects sakkar, except Mar. sdkJiar. b. Iranian. New Pers. sirkah ' vinegar ' beside sikah. CONSONANT-GROUPS 193 rk > {Jc)kh. § 714. The assimilation of rJc to {Jc)JcJi is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. sarJcara ' sugar,' Pali sakkhara, sakkara, Mar. sdkhar, etc. (see preceding §). rk > t{t). § 715. The change of rk to t{t) is extremely rare (cf. § 119 ?). a. Indian. Skt. kurkura ' dog ' besides kukkura, Pali kiikkura, Bang, kutta, kiikkur, Biharl kutta, kuk{k)ar, Hindi kiitta, kukka, Sindhi kuto, Guj. kutro^ Mar. kutra. rk > tr. § 716. The change of rk to tr is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. kurkura^ kukkura 'dog,' Guj. kidro, Mar. Jcutrct, etc. (see preceding §). rg > gig)- § 717. The assimilation of rg to gig) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. varga 'row,' Prak., Pali vagga. Skt. marga- yati 'seeks,' Prak. magga'i, Pali nmggatl, maggeti, Ass. mag, Kasm. mamg, Ur, mag, Bang., E. Hindi, Hindi niamg, Panj. mamg, Sindhi man, Guj., Mar. tndg, Gyp. mang. w^ > ig)g^i' § 718. The assimilation of rgr to {g)gh is found but seldom. a. Indian. Skt. nirgrantha 'ascetic,' Prak. (inscriptions of Delhi) nighanita. rgh > g{g). § 719. The assimilation of rgh to g{g) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. maliargha ' costly, ' Pali mahaggha, Ass. mahamga, magar, E. Hindi, Hindi mahamga, Panj. mahimga, Sindhi mahamgo, Guj. momglmm, Mar. maJiag, Maladive agu. o 194 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY ^9^ > {9)9^^- § 720. The assimilation of 7'gh to {g)gh is the regular one to which tliis consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. nirglirna 'pitiless,' Prak. nigghina. Skt. argha ' sacrifice,' Pali agglia. Skt. dirgha ' long,' Prak. diggha, ■ diJia, Pali dtgha, Sindhi drigho. rgJi > h{Ji). § 721. The assimilation of rgh to Ji{Ji) is extremely rare (cf. § 152). a. Indian. Skt. dlrglia 'long,' Prak. diha^ diggha, etc. (see preceding §). rj > M- § 722. The assimilation of rj to j{j) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects, a, Indian. Skt. pa7y7fa ' must-elephant, ' Prak. gajjida, Pali gajjita. Skt. garjana 'thunder,' Pali gajjana, Hindi gdjana, Panj. gajjana, Sindhi gajanu, Guj. gajavuy'n, Mar. gajanem. rj > rz. § 723. The change of rj to rz is very rare (cf. § 185). b. Iranian. Av. arajah ' value, ' Plil. arj, Paz. arzan, New Pers. arz, Ka^. azii, ajiija, ajiyo, Af/. yarz. rj > z{z). § 724. The assimilation of rj to i(i) is extremely rare (cf. § 186). b. Iranian. Av. ardjah 'value,' Kas. azu, ajiya, ajiyo, etc. (see preceding §). rjh > {j)jh. § 725. The assimilation of rjh to {j\jh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. nirjhara ' cascade,' Prak., Pali nijjhara. rn > n{n). § 726. The assimilation of rn to n{n) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. CONSONANT-GROUPS 195 a. Indian. Skt. suvarna ' gold,' Prak. suimina, Pali sonna, svanna^ Kasm. son, Ur. siind, sOna, Bang. sOna, Hindi, Panj. sonct, Sindhi sd{}h)iiu, Guj. sOnu, Mar. saimam, sOmm, Gyp. somnaMy. rn > n{n). § 727. The assimilation of rn to %(w) is very frequent in the New Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. Jcarna ' ear,' Pali Tcanna, Ur., Bang., BiharT, Hindi Mn, Panj. Jcann, Sindhi Jcanu, Guj., Mar. Jean, Gyp. ^"aii. Skt. tamraiKirna 'copper-leaf, Ceylon,' Prak. (inscriptions of Girnar, Kliillsi, and Kapur di Giri) tanibapa{m)ni, Pali tamha- j^anni (Gr. Tairpo^avri). Skt. suvarna 'gold,' Kasm. son, Ur. suna, Sana, Hindi, Panj. sona, Sindhi sd{m)nu, Guj. sunu, Mar. saunam, soneni, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. iirna ' wool,' Pali Mwwa, Hindi un, Panj. www, Sindhi, Guj. un. rn > r(r). § 728. Tlie assimilation of rn to r{r) is not infrequent in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. curna 'powder,' Prak., Pali cunna, Kasm. cun, Ur. curd. Bang, cur, Hindi curd, Panj. cur, Sindhi curd, Guj. euro. Mar. ciir, but also with the signification 'lime,' Ur., Bang, cund, Hindi, Panj. cund, Sindhi, Guj. ciino, cilno, Mar. cund, cund. Skt. purna ' full,' Pali jiunna, Ur., Bang., Hindi, Panj. ]gurd, Sindhi puro, Guj. puro. Mar. purd, rt > rtJi. § 729. The aspirization of rt to rtJt, is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. sarofa 'cold,' Phi. sart, New Pers. sard, Waxi siir{i), Afy. sOr, Bal. sarcZ, N. Bal. sarth, Kurd. 5ar, Tag. Oss. said. rt > t{f). § 730. Tlie assimilation of rt to i{t) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. nartalu 'dancing-girl,' Prak. naijai, Pali % 196 INDO- IRANIAN PHONOLOGY nattahi, New Ind. dialects natl. Skt. varfaTca 'quail,' Pali vaffaJcd, Ur., Bang., Hindi, Panj. vater, Sindhi hater o, Simh, vatuva. rt > d{(l}. § 731. The assimilation of rt to d{d) is extremely rare (cf. § 226), a. Indian. Skt. garta 'ditch,' Prak. gadda, Ur. gadiha, Bang. gad, Hindi gad, gada, Panj. gaddand, Sindhi garanu, Guj. gdravum, Mar. garancm. rt > t{t). § 732. The assimilation of rt to t{t) is very common in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. muhurta ' instant,' Prak., Pali muhutta. Skt. dvarta 'whirlpool,' Pali avatta, dvatta, Skt. vartiJcd 'wick,' Prak. vattid, Pali vattikd, Ur. hati, Bang, hdtl, Hindi, Panj. batfj, Sindhi rati, Guj. hati, Mar. hatti. Skt. kartarl ' scissors,' Prak. Tiattarl, Ur. katurd, Bang. Jcataran, Hindi, Panj. katarani, Sindhi katari, Mar. kdfar. rt > d{d). § 733. The assimilation of rt to d{d) is extremely rare (cf. § 228). b. Iranian. Av. kardta ' knife,' Phi. kdrf, New Pers. kdrd, Siyn. ced, Kurd, klrd, Mr, Oss. khard. rt > rd. § 734. The softening of rt to rd is not infrequent in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. karjfa ' knife,' New Pers. kdrd, Kurd, klrd, klr, Oss. khard, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. vartakd ' quail,' Plil. varfak. New Pers. vardlj, WaxI vole, Afy. nvaraz, Bal. gvarddg, Kurd, vardl. H > r{r). § 735. Tlio assimilation of rt to r[r) is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. sardta 'cold,' WaxI siiril), Kurd, sdr, etc. CONSONANT- GBOUPS 197 (see § 729). Av. harota 'knife,' Kurd, lilr, JcJrd, etc. (see § 733). rt > l{l). § 736. Tlie assimilation of rt to 1{I) is extremely rare (of. §85^). b. Iranian. Av. porjtii ' bridge,' Phi. ])ulir, imlil, New Pers. pu\ Gil. purd, Kurd, pel, par, pird, purd. rt > Id. § 737. The softening of rt to Id is exceedingly rare. b. Iranian. Av. sardta ' cold,' Tag. Oss. said, etc. (see § 729). rt > hi. § 738. The change of rt to hi is foimd occasionally (cf. §§ 227, 742). b. Iranian. Av. pordtu 'bridge,' Phi. puhl, puhr, etc. (see § 786). rth > f{t). § 739. Tlie assimilation of rth to t{t) is excessively rare. a. Indian, Skt. artha ' object,' Prak. attha, attha (cf. inscrip- tions of Kapur di Giri anafJia), Pali at fa, attha, attha. Skt. caturtha 'foiu'th,' Prak. cottha, Pali catuttha, Ur. cautha. Bang. cciutd, Hindi, Panj. cautha, Sindhi, Guj. cotho. Mar. cdmhtha. rth > {t)th. § 740. Tlie assimilation of rth to {t)fh is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. artha 'object,' Prak. attha, attha (Kapur di Giri) anatha, Pali attha, attha, aft a. Skt. caturtha ' fourth,' Prak. cauttha, cottha, Saur. Prak. caduttha, Ur. cautha, etc. (see preceding §). rth > {t)th. § 741. The assimilation of rth to {t}th is the normal one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. caturtha ' fourth,' Prak. cottha, Pah catuttha, 198 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Hindi, Panj. cdutJid, Sindhi, Guj. cOthO, Mar. cdmhtha, etc. (see § 739). rth > 111 § 742. The change of rth to hi occurs with extreme rarity in the Iranian dialects (cf. §§ 354, 245, 956). b. Iranian. Old Pars, imrthava nom. prop., Plil., New Pers. paJilav. Skt. sarnartha ' suitable,' New Pers. liamal. rd > § 743. The assimilation of rd to d{d) is quite frequent in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. clianlati 'rejects,* Prak. chaddati, Pali chad- deti, Ass. car (pron. sdr), Kasm. char, car, Ur., Bang, char, Old Hindi chamd, E. Hindi, Hindi chamr, Panj. chadd, Sindhi chad, Mar. sdmr. Skt. gardabha ' donkey,' Prak. gaddaha, gaddaha, Pali gadrahha, but gaddabhanda. Ass. gadli, Naip. gadciha, Ur. gadha, Bang, gadha, E. Hindi, Hindi gadhu, Panj. gadha, gaddd, Sindhi gaddhu, Guj. gadhcro, Mar. gadhav, Gyp. Jchel, hher, (k)fer. rd > {d)dh. § 744. The assimilation of rd to {d)dh is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. gardabha ' donkey,' Mar. gadhav, etc. (see preceding §). nZ > d{d). § 745. The assimilation of rd to f?((Z) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. caturdasa 'fourteen,' Prak. caiiddaha, Pali catiiddasa, coddasa, cuddasa, Kasm. coddh, Ur. cduda, Bang. cnudda, Biharl, Hindi cdndah, Panj. cdnddm, Sindhi codahani, Guj. caud. Mar. cduda. Skt. gardabha ' donkey,' Prak. gad- daha, gaddaha, Naip. gaddha, Panj. gaddd, gadhd, etc. (see § 743). rd > {d)dh. § 746. Tlie assimilation of rd to {d)dh is not frequent. CONSONANT- GROUPS 199 a. Indian. Skt. gardabha 'donkey,' Ass. gddh, Ur. gadha, Bang, gcidhaj E. Hindi, Hindi gadha, Panj. gadhd, gadda, Guj. gadhero, etc. (see § 743). rd > r{r). § 747. Tlie assimilation of rd to r{r) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. hapardikd ' small shell,' Prak. Jcavadda, E. Hindi, Hindi Jcdiirl, kauri, Anglo-Ind. cowry. rd > l{l). § 748. The assimilation of rd to l{l) is exceedingly rare in the Indian dialects. In the Iranian dialects, on the contrary, it is not infrequent (cf. §§ 354, 258). a. Indian. Skt. halivarda ' bull,' Prak. hmlla. b. Iranian. Av. sardha ' year,' Phi., New Pers. sal, Dig. Oss. sarda, Tag. sard. rdh > § 749. The assimilation of rdh to d{d) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. vardhate ' grows,' Prak. vaddlia'i, Pali vad- dJiafi, Ass. hdrh, Kasm. had, Ur. harh, Bang, had, E. Hindi, Hindi hdclh, W. Hindi harh, Panj., Sindlil, Guj. vadh, Mar. bddh. Skt. sdrdha ' plus one-half,' Prak. saddha, saddha, Kasm. sddil, Ur. sdrhe, Bang, sdre, E. Hindi, Hindi sdrhe, Panj. sddhe, Sindhi sddhd, Guj. sddd. Mar. sdde, Siihh. ada. rdh > § 750. The assimilation of rdh to {dyjh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. vardhate 'grows,' Prak. vaddha'i, Pali vad- dhati, Ass. hdrh, Ur. harh, E. Hindi, Hindi hddh, W. Hindi harli, Mar. hddh, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. vardhaJci ' carpenter,' Ur., Bang., E. Hindi, Hindi harhdi, Panj. haddJfi, Sindhi, Guj. vddho. Mar. varhai. Skt. sardha ' plus one-half,' Prak. saddha. 200 INDO-TKAXIAN PHONOLOGY soddha, Ur., E. Hindi, Hindi sarlie, Panj. sadhc, Sindlii sadha^ etc. (see preceding §). rdh > {d)dh. § 751. Tlie assimilation of 7'dh to {d)dh is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. vardhate ' grows,' Panj., Sindhi, Guj. vadh, etc. (see § 749). rdhv > {d)dh. § 752. Tlie assimilation of rdhv to {d)dh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. urdJiva ' high,' Prak., Pali uddha, ubhha, Sindhi uhJio, Guj. iihlnm, Mar. t(hha. rdJiv > {h)hJi. § 753. The assimilation of rdhv to {b)bh is frequent in the Indian dialects {rdhv > ddhv > ddhh > dhh > hhh). a. Indian. Skt. iirdhva ' high,' Prak., Pali ubhha, uddha, Sindhi ubho, Guj. ubhum, Mar. id)ha. rn > n{n). § 754. The assimilation of rn to n(n) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in Afyjin, which has borrowed the cerebral row from the Indian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. hardna ^deaf,' New Pers. l-ar[r), Laym. I'anna, Sarq. ciinn, Afy. Jiun, hun, Oss. Imrmatha. Ay. parona 'leaf,' Phi., New Pers. j>ar(r), Gab., Waxi par, Aiy. pdna, Bal. pan, Kurd, par, TiBza^ pal. rn > n{n). § 755. The assimilation of rn to n[n) is not infrequent in tlie Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. Jcarona ' deaf,' Laym. Jcanna, Sarq. ciinn, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. urna 'wool,' Siyn. vun, von, Sarq. von. Av. pardna * full,' Phi., New Pers. pur, Yayn. pun. A v. pardna ' leaf,' Bal. j;a«, etc. (see preceding §). CONSONANT- GEO UPS 201 rn > tir). § 756. The assimilation of rn to r{r) is very common in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. darona 'gullet,' New Pers. darraJi, Wax! hor, Sarq, bar. Av. parjua ' leaf,' Phi., New Pers. ]mr{r\ Gab., Wax!, Kurd. j)m% etc. (see § 754). Av. x^'ardnah ' glory,' Old Pers. vida]farnaJi, Phi. farn[hag, New Pers. far{r). rn > HI). § 757. The assimilation of rn to l{l) is very rare (cf. §§ 354, 281). b. Iranian, Av. X)ardna ' leaf,' Zaza pa\ etc. (see § 754). rp > p{p). § 758. Tlie assimilation of rp to p{p) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. sarpa '■ serpent,' Prak., Pali sappa, Ur., Bang. s^q), Hindi samj), Panj. saj)p, Sindhi sapu, Guj., Mar. scq^, Siihh. sa2ni, sop{a), liaxm, ^J9- sap. Skt. Jcarpilra ' camphor,' Prak., Pah happiira, New Ind. dialects Jccqnlr, except Mar. hlpilr. rh > h{h). § 759. Tlie assimilation of rh to h{h) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. arhuda 'ten million raised to the eighth power,' Pali ahhuda. Skt. durbala ' weak,' Prak., Pali duhhala, Bang, duhla, Biharl duharct, duhar, Hindi duUa, Panj. duhlal, Sindhi diihird, dahalu, Guj., Mar. dahal. rhh > {h)hh. § 760. Tlie assimilation of rhh to {h)hh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dial a. Indian. Skt. garhha ' uterus,' Prak., Pali gahhha, Hindi garabh, gahh, Panj. gabbh, gahh, garahh, Sindhi gabhu, garahhu, Guj., Mar. gahh, cf. also Gyp. khahnl ' pregnant.' 202 INDO-IBANIAN PHONOLOGY rni > 7n[m). § 761. The assimilation of rm to m{m) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. carman ' skin/ Prilk., Pfili camma, New Ind. dialects cam, excepting Panj. camm, Sindhi camu, Siihh. sama, hama. Skt. Jcarman ' deed,' Prak., Pali Jcamma, New Ind. dialects Mm, excepting Panj. kamm, Sindhi Tcamu, Simh. kama. rm > r{r). § 762. The assimilation of rm to r{r) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. caroman ' skin,' Phi. carmin. New Pers. carm, Afy. carman, Tag. Oss. car, carm. Av. garama ' warm,' Old Pers. garma-, New Pers., Siyn. ga/rm, Sarq. giirm, Siirm, Afy. yarma, Bal. garni, Dig. Oss. yar, yarm. Tag. qarm. ry > M- § 763. The assimilation of ry to j{j) is very rare (cf. § 331). a. Indian. Skt. kdrya 'business,' Prak. hajja, Mag. Prak. kayye, Saur. Prak. kera, Pali kayya, kariya, kayira, Hindi, Panj. kaj, kdraj, Sindhi kdrju, Guj. kaj, kdraj. Mar. kdj. ry > r{r). § 764. Tlie assimilation of ry to r{r) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indo- Iranian dialects, a. Indian. Skt. ftlrya ' trumpet,' Prak. tilra, Pali ttlriya, Ur. turi. Bang, turum, Hindi tiiri, tilralu, Panj. tiiram, Sindhi, Guj. turi. Skt. surya '■ sun,' Prak, sujja, suria, Pali suriya, Hindi, Panj. siiraj, Sindhi surju, stJriju, Guj. stir, suraj, Simh. {h)iric. b. Iranian. Av. cirya 'brave,' Phi., New Pers. ch: Av. airy a ' noble,' Oss. ir. ry > rj. § 765. The change of ry to rj is not unknown to the Indian dialects (cf. § 331). CONSONANT-GROUPS 203 a. Indian. Skt. Mrija ' business/ Sindhi hdrju (cf. also Hindi, Panj., Guj. Tcdraj, Mj), etc. (see § 763). Skt. silrya 'sun,' Sindlil siirju, surijii (cf. also Hindi, Panj. stlraj, Guj. suraj, sur), etc. (see preceding §). ry >l{l). § 766. The assimilation of rij to 1{J) occurs quite frequently in the Indian dialects (cf. § 354). a. Indian. Skt. parymjha ' bed,' Prak. pallamha^ Ardhamag. Prak. 2>(iliamJca, Pali pallamha, New Ind. imlamg, Anglo-Ind. palmiqiiin. Skt. paryana ' saddle,' Prak. palldna, Ur. paldna, Bang, pcilmi, Hindi paldn^ Panj. paldn^ Sindhi paldnu, Guj. paldn{o\ Mar. ptddn. rv > 2j{p). § 767. The hardening of rv to 2J{p) is very rare (cf. § 372), a. Indian. Skt. carvayati ' chews,' Pali cappeti, Ur. cohd^ Bang., Hindi cdh, Panj. cabh^ Sindhi ca\ Guj,, Mar. ccw, Sirhh. sapanavd, hapancwd. rv > h{h). § 768. The assimilation of rv to h{h) is not very frequent (cf, § 372), a, Indian. Skt. carvayati ' chews,' Ur. coha, Bang,, Hindi cab, Panj. cahh, Sindhi cah, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. piarvata ' mountain,' Pali imlibaia, Simh. pava. Skt. sarva ' all,' Prak, savva, Pali sabha, Ass, sah, Ur. s«&?f, Bang. 5a&, E, Hindi, Hindi sah, sahJi, Panj. sahh, sarah, Sindlil sabliu, Gyp. savoro. rv > {h)hh. § 769. The assimilation of rv to {h)hh is extremely rare (cf. § 373). a. Indian, Skt, sarva ' all,' Hindi, E. Hindi sahh, sah, Panj. sahh, sarah, Sindhi sahhu, etc. (see preceding §). rv > rhh. § 770. The change of rv to rhh is exceedingly rare (cf . § 373). a. Indian. Skt. parvan 'festival,' Pali jyahha, Ur., Bang., Hindi, Panj. ^ara&, Sm^l pirhhu, Guj,, M.o.v. parv. 204 JXDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY rv > r{r). § 771. The assimilation of rv to r{r) is excessively rare. b. Iranian. Av. hmirva 'all,' Old Pers. Iiariwa, Phi., New Pars. har. rv > v{v). § 772. The assimilation of rv to v{v) is not common either in the Indian or in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. sarva 'all,' Prak. savva, etc. (see § 768). Skt. parvata ' mountain,' Simh. pava, etc. (see § 768). b. Iranian. New Pers. ydrvar ' friend ' besides yavar. rs > ms. § 773. The change of rs to ms is very rare in Indian. a. Indian. Skt. darsana ' sight,' Prak. damsana, Ass. dar- Sana (pron. darhana), Sindhi darsanu. rs > s{s). § 774. The assimilation of rs to s{s) is quite common in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. sparsana ' touch,' Prak. phasa, Pali pliassa, Hindi, Panj. phathsam, Sindhi phasami, Guj. phasavum, Mar. phasanem. rsv > s{s). § 775. The assimilation of rsv to s{s) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. parsva ' side,' Prak. pdsa, Hindi xkis^ Panj. pdSj pah, Sindhi, Guj. pdse, Mar. palas, pdsim, Gyp. pas. rsv > h{h). § 776. The assimilation of rsv to li{h) is exceedingly rare (cf. § 401). a. Indian. Skt. parsva ' side,' Panj. pah, pas, etc. (see pre- ceding §), CONSONANT-GROUPS 205 rs > {(l)dh. § 777. Tlie assimilation of rs to {(J)dh is very rare (cf. § 351). a. Indian. Skt. karsana ' dragging,' Ur. hirhiha, Bang, h/r- han, Hindi Mrhiici, Panj. Jcarrhana, Sindlil harhanu, Guj. JcaJm- ravum, Mar. Mrhamm. rs > r{r). § 778. The assimilation of rs to r{r) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. mdrgasirsa '■ November-December,' Apab. Prak. maggasini, Ur. mag{h)usira, magnsara, Panj. maghar, Sindhi mani-gklru. rs > rs. § 779. The change of rs to rs is found occasionally in the Iranian dialects (cf. § 428). b. Iranian. Av. hardsa ' mane,' Plil., New Pers. hits, Afy. vraz, Bal. biisl; Dig. Oss. harm, Tag. hars. rs > s{s). § 780. Tlie assimilation of rs to s{s) is very rare (cf. § 407). a. Indian. Skt. sirsa 'head,' Prak. sissa, sisa, Pah s7sn, Hindi, Panj. sis, Sindhi sist, Guj. sis, Mar. si{>'n)s, Simh. sis, his, isa, ilia. rs, rs > s{s), s{s). § 781. The assimilation of rs, rs to s{s), s{s} is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. varsa ' year,' Prak. (inscriptions of Kapur di Giri) vasa, varsa, Ht. Prak. vasa, Pali vassa, Gj]). hers, hres. b. Iranian. Av. harosa ' mane,' Phi., New Pers. hus, Bal. husk, etc. (see § 779). Av. karsaijdn 'they may drag,' Phi. kasltano. New Pers. kasldan, Afy. ksal, Bal. kasag, N. Bal. khasay, Kurd, kisdn. rs > s{s). § 782. The assimilation of rs to s{s) occurs frequently in the Indian dialects (cf. § 408). 206 IXDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. s'trsa * head,' Prak. sissa, slsa, li sTsa, Hindi, Panj. sis, Sindhi sisl, Mar. si{m)s, Simh. sis, his, isa, ilia, etc. (see § 780). rs > h{h). § 783. The assimilation of rs to h(h) is excessively rare (cf. § 409); a. Indian. Skt. Mrsapana ' a certain coin,' Prak. kahavana, Pali kahapana, Ur. JcdJidna, Bang, hdlum, Hindi kahdn, Skt. slrsa 'head,' Simh. ilia, isa, sis, his, etc. (see § 780). Skt. varsati ' rains,' Pali vassati, Simh. vahimi, Maladive vehem. rsn > Jch, x. § 784. The assimilation of rsn to lili, x, is very rare (cf. § 922). b. Iranian. Av. tarsna 'thirst,' Phi. fisn. New Pers. Us, Waxi taxit), Siyn. tcisna, Sarq. tur{t), Yidg. trusna, Afy. toisai, Bal. tunnag, tUnag, N. Bal. thuni, Km*d. ti, tarn. rsn > n{n). § 785. The assimilation of rsn to n{n) is quite rare. b. Iranian. Av. tarsna ' thirst,' Bal. tunnag, tunag, N. Bal. thuni, Kurd, tanl, tl, etc. (see preceding §). rsn > r{r). § 786. The assimilation of rsn to r{r) is exceedingly rare, b. Iranian. Av. tarsna ' thirst,' Sarq. tur^i), etc. (see § 784). rsn > rs. § 787. The assimilation of rsn to rs is excessively rare (cf. § 427). b. Iranian. Av. varsni ' virile,' Phi. gusan. New Pers. gusn. Tag. Oss. tirs, S. Oss. vtirs. rsn > rz. § 788. Tlie assimilation of rsn to rz is most rare (cf. § 925). b. Iranian. Av. varsni 'virile,' S. Oss. vurz, etc. (see pre- ceding §). CONSONANT- GEO UPS 207 rsn > s{s}. § 789. Tlie assimilation of rsn to s{s) is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. tarma 'thirst/ New Pers. Us, etc. (see § 784). rsn > sn. § 790. The reduction of rsn to sn is quite common. b. Iranian. Av. tarsna 'thirst/ Phi. tisn, Siyn. td§na, Yidg. trnsna, etc. (see § 784). Av. varsni ' virile/ Phi. gusan, New Pers. gusn, etc. (see § 787). rsn > i(i). § 791. Tlie assimilation of rsn to i(i) is extremely rare (cf. § 429). b. Iranian. Av. tarsna ' thirst/ Afy. tazai, etc. (see § 784). rsv > sv. § 792. The assimilation of rsv to sv is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. karsvar ' clime/ Phi., New Pers. kisvar. rs > 111. § 793. Tlie transposition of rs to Id is very rare (cf, §§ 354, 421). b. Iranian. Av. pardsu ' side,' Phi. pahluJc, New Pers. ;pahlu. rz > l{l). § 794. The assimilation of rs to l{l) is extr mely rare (cf. § 354). b. Iranian. Av. hardsis 'pillow,' Plil. hdlisn, New Pers. hdlis, Gab. hdlist, Kas. hoUsm, holisf. rh > r{r). § 795. The assimilation of rh to r{r) is exceedingly rare, a. Indian. Skt. garJia ' abuse,' Biharl gdri, gall. rh > l{l). § 796. The assimilation of rh to l{l) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. garha ' abuse,' Bihari gdli, gdri. 208 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Ik > k{k). § 797. The assimilation of Ik to k{k) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. ulkd 'meteor,' Prak., Pali ukka, Hindi Mkd, Sindhi luk. Skt. valkala 'bark/ Prak., Pali vakkala, Sindhi lakaru. ^ > gig)' § 798. Tlie assimilation of Ig to gig) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. valgd ' rein,' New Ind. dialects hag. Skt. valguli ' bat,' Pali vaggull. lp>p{p). § 799. Tlie assimilation of Ij) to j)(jo) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. kalpa 'time,' Pali kappa. Skt. kalpate ' conducts himself,' Mahar. Prak. kappae, Pali kappati, Simh, kapa?iavd. Im > mh. § 800. The assimilation of Im to mb is very rare (cf. §§ 323, 360). a. Indian. Skt. sdlmali ' silk-cotton tree,' Jaina Prak. sain- hila, Pali sinibalt, Ur. simila, Simula, Bang, simul, Hindi semal, simhal, Panj. simahal, simmal, Mar. sdmvar. Im > 7n{m). § 801. The assimilation of Im to m{m) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. sdlmali 'silk-cotton tree,' Ur. simila, Simula, Bang, simul, Hindi semal, simhal, Panj. simmal, simahal, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. jdlma ' reckless,' Pali jamma. Im > mv. § 802. The change of Im to mv is extremely rare in Indian (cf, §§324,360). a. Indian. Skt. sdlmali ' silk-cotton tree,' Mar. sdmvar, etc. (see § 800). CONSONANT- GRO UPS 209 § 803. The assimilation of ly to l{l) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. kali/a ' dawn,' Prak., Pali kalla, Ass., Ur., Bang, kali, E. Hindi, Hindi kal, kdlh, Panj. kail, kallh, Sindhi kdlh, Guj., Mar. kdl. ly > {l}lh. § 804. Tlie assimilation of ly to {l)lh is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. kalya ^ dawn,' E. Hindi, Hindi kdlh, kal, Panj. kallh, kail, Sindlil kalh, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. mulya ' price,' Prak. fmdla, molla, Kasm. mol, Ur. mula, Bang., Hindi mol, Panj. mull, Sindlil mulhu, Mar. mol. Iv > h{h). § 805. Tlie assimilation of Iv to h{h) is extremely rare (cf. § 372). a. Indian. Skt. halvaja ' reed,' Ptlli x^ahhaja. Iv > l{l). § 806. The assimilation of Iv to 1{I) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. Mlva 'wood-apple,' Pali hilla, hella. New Ind. dialects hcl. Skt. khalvdta 'bald,' Prak. khallula, Pali khalldta. vy > l){b). § 807. The assimilation of vy to h{b) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects (cf. § 372). In Bangali vy is regularly pronounced h. a. Indian. Skt. sivyati 'sews,' Pali sihhati. Skt. vyat'ita • passed,' Ur. hitibd, Hindi bitnd, Panj. hitUand, Guj. vafavum. Skt. vyamsana 'division,' Hindi hdchnd, Panj. bamchuand, Sindhi virchanu. Skt. vydghra ' tiger,' Prak. vaggha, Pali vyag- gha, Hindi bdgh, Sindhi vdghu, Mar. vdgh, Simli, vag. P 210 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY vy > v{v). § 808. The assimilation of vy to v{v) occurs very frequently in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. vyat'ita ' passed,' Guj. vafavum, etc. (see pre- ceding §). Skt. vydghra 'tiger,' Prak. vaggha, Sindhi vaghu, Mar. vagh, Simh. vag, etc. (see preceding §). vr > v{v). § 809. The assimilation of vr to v{v) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian, Skt. urvasi nom. prop., Prak. uvvasi. Skt. vrlhi ' rice,' Prak., Pali Villi, Simh. vl. sc > c(c). § 810. The assimilation of sc to c{c) is not very common. a. Indian. Skt. dscarya 'wonderful,' Prak. acchcra, Pali accMra, acchariya, Hindi, Panj, acaraj, Sindhi acaraj, acarat. Skt. pasciXt 'behind,' Prak., Pali pacclid, Aqb. pice, pace (pron. pise, pdsi'), Kasm. pat{h), Ur. pacJie, Bang, pdchd, picM (pron. pdsd,pise), Hindi pdche, pdchu,picJm, Vsca^. piche, piclmh, Sindhi poe, pudm, Guj. paclie, pacM, pdcho, Simh. 2)cis{u). sc > {c)ch. § 811. The assimilation of sc to {c)ch is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. vrsciha 'scorpion,' Prak. vimcua, vicchua, vimchua, Pali vicchika, Nrdp. hicchu, Kasm. htc, hUch, Ur., Bang, hiclid, E. Hindi hiccu, Hindi hichud, Panj. viccliu, Sindhi vichilm, Guj. vicJm, vimchu, Mar. vihcii, vimclmm. Skt. pascdt 'behind,' Prak., Pali pacchd, Ur. pache, Bang, pdchd, piche, Hindi pdclva,pdchu, plchu, Panj. piche, pichom, Guj. pachr,pachl, pdcho, etc. (see preceding §). sc > s{s). § 812. The assimilation of sc to s{s) is very rare (cf. § 400). CONSONANT-GROUPS 211 a. Indian. Skt. pascat *■ behind/ Ass. pise, pase (written piche, pdcJie), Bang. j>«5«, pise (written pacha, piche), Simli. pas{u), etc. (see § 810). Syncope of so. § 813. The loss of internal sc is excessively rare. a. Indian, Skt, pascat ' behind,' Sindhi pde, puam, etc. (see § 810). Skt. trayascatvarhnsat ' forty-three,' Prak. teallsa, Kasm. teyatfijih, Bihari tamtalis, Hindi tcalis, tetCilisa, tcihhtcllis, Sindhi tefdllh. sm > m{m), § 814. The assimilation of sm to m{m) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. smasru 'beard,' Prak. mdsu, massu, mamsu, Pali massu, Ass. moc, Bang, modi, Bihari momcli, miimcli, Hindi miichcm, Panj, mucch, Sindhi much, Guj. much. Skt. smasdna 'cemetery,' Prak. masdna, Mag, Prak. masdna, Jaina Prak. siydna, susdna, Pali siisdna, Ur. masdna, Bang, masdn, Hindi masdn, Panj. masdn, Sindhi masdnu, Guj. masdn, Mar. masan. sm > s[s). § 815. The assimilation of sm to s{s) is comparatively rare (cf. § 400). a. Indian. Skt. smasdna 'cemetery/ Jaina Prak. siydna, susdna, Pali susdna, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. ras at i 'ray,' Prak, rassi, Pali rasmi, ramsi, Ass. raci (pron. rasi), Kasm. ras, Ur., Bang, rasi, E. Hindi, Hindi, Panj. rassd, rassl, Sindhi ras'i, Mar. rassl. sr > mj. § 816. The change of sr to mj is very rare (cf. § 350 ?). a. Indian. Skt. asru ' tear,' Prak. amsu, Pali assu, Kasm.^ dus, asil, Naip. dmsu, Ur. omjhu, dmsu, Bihari, Hindi dmsu, Panj. ahjhu, Sindhi hanj, Guj. dmju, Mar, amsu, dsu. sr > mjh. § 817. The change of 6'>' to mjh is excessively rare, P 3 212 IN DO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. aiV^t 'tear,' Ur. omjhu, amsi'i, Panj. ahjhu, etc. (see preceding §). sr > s{^). § 818. The assimilation of sr to s{s} is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. sravana 'hearing,' Ur. suniha, Bang, sunan, Hindi simna, Panj. sunana, Sindhi smianu. Skt. svasril ' mother-in-law,' Pali sassu, Ur. sasa, Bang, sets, Hindi sds, Panj. sassu, Sindhi sasu, Guj. sdmsfi, Mar. 5«srt. ir > s{s). § 819. The assimilation of sr to 6{.s) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects (cf. § 400). a. Indian. Skt. smasru ' beard,' Pmk. nidsii, massu, mamsu, Pali massu, Ass. tnuc, Bang. rnOclt, Bihari momch, nmmch, Hindi omlchem, Panj. mucch, Sindhi much, Guj. much. Skt. asru ' tear,' Prak. amsii, Pali assii, Naip. amsil, Ur. dmsu, oihjhii, Bihari, Hindi dmsu, Mar. amsu, dsu, etc. (see § 816). Skt. svasrfi ' mother-in-law,' Pali sassu, Bang, sds, Hindi sds, Panj. sassH, Sindhi sasu, Guj. sdmsil. Mar. sasiT, etc. (see pre- ceding §). Skt. sravana ' hearing,' Hindi siinnd, Panj. sunana, Sindhi sunanu, etc. (see preceding §). sZ > s{s). § 820. The assimilation of si to s(s) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects (cf. § 400). a. Indian. Skt. slesma ' slmie,' Prak. simhha, Pali silesuma, sPthha, Siihh. scm{a). sv > s{s). § 821. The assimilation of sv to s{s) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects (cf. § 400). a. Indian. Skt. asva ' horse,' Prak. assa, dsa, Pali assa, Sirhh, as. Skt. Isvara ' lord,' Prak. Isara, Pali issara, Hindi, Panj. isar, cf. also \i\nd\\\ paramesuru. Skt. svasru 'mother-in- law,' Pali sassu, Ur. sdsa, Bang, ids, Hindi sds, Panj. sassil, CONSONANT-GROUFS 21o Sindlii sasH, Guj. Sflmsil, Mar. scisil. Skt. ^vasa ' breath,' Prak., Pali sdsa, Sindhi sCihu. .d- > lil-). § 822. Tlie assimilation of .s7.' to l{Jc) is not frequent. a. Indian. Skt. dusl'jfa 'evil/ Prak. diiJckada, {inscriiptionfi of Girnar) dnJcata, Pali dnJckafa, dukJcafa. Skt. susha 'dry,' Prak. sukht, sul'l'ha, Pali sulckha, Ass. sulcana (pron. liukana), Kasm. holxh, Ur., Bang, sidcd^ Hindi silkhd, Panj. sukJihd, sukka, Sindhi suko, Gnj. sulcho, Mar. 52 {k)kh. § 823. The assimilation of sk to {k)kh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. suska ' dry,' Prak. sukkJia, sukka, Pali suk- kha, Kasm. Jiukh, Hindi silkhd, Panj. sukkhd, siikkd, Guj. sukho, Mar. sukhd, stikd, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. puskara ' pool,' Prak., Pali jjokkhara, Ur. pokhari, Bang, imkur, Hindi, Mar. pokliar. ?t > tit)' § 824. The assimilation of sf to f{t) is quite rare. a. Indian. Skt. nirsfa ' polished,' Prdi maiia, matfJia. Skt. sasti 'sixty,' Prak. saWil, Kasm. sdifh, sefh, Ur. sdtJiie, Bang. sdetha, Biharl sdfjii, Hindi sdth, Panj. saWi, Sindhi sathi, Guj., Mar. sdth, Sirhh. sdta. St > {f)f]i. § 825. The assimilation of .5^ to {f)fli is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. yasti 'staff,' Prak. latthi, Saur. Frak. jatthi, Pali latthi, Ur., Bang. Idtht, Hindi IdfM, ldt{i), Panj. latthi, Sindhi Jathl, Guj. lath, Idf, Mar. latih. Skt. astdu 'eight,' Prak., 214 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Pall affJio, Kasm. ath, Ur, dfha, Bang, dfa, Biharl, Hindi dfh, Panj. attli, Sindhl afJi, Guj., Mar. dfh. Skt, sasfi 'sixty,' Prak. satthi, Kasm. sdith, seth, Ur. sdthie, Bang, sdetha, Biharl sdthi^ Hind! sdth, Panj. satth, Sindhl safhi, Guj., Mar. sdth. st > § 826. The assimilation of st to d{d) is very rare (cf. § 192). a. Indian. Skt. vestaka ' enclosure,' Pali vefhaJca, Ass. her, Naip. bar, Kasm. vdd, vdr, Ur. hherd, herhd, Bang, herd, Hindi, Panj. herhd, Multani verhd, Sindhl vadeho, verhd. Mar. vcdlm. Skt. lestu ' clod,' Mahar. Prak. letthuya, Pali leddu. <^ 827. The assimilation of st to {d)d1i is extremely rare (cf. § 193). st > {d)dh a. Indian. Skt. vestaJca ' enclosure,' Ur. hcrhd, hherd, Hindi, Panj. herhd, Multani verhd, Sindhl verhd, vadeho. Mar. vedhd, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. rust a 'angry,' Bang., Hindi, Panj. rudh. ?tr > {{)t. § 828. The assimilation of str to {t)t is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. tistra * camel.' Prak. iifta, Kasm. {v)il)hth, Biharl i({ni)t, Sindlii uthu. sir > {t)th. § 829. Tlie assimilation of str to {t)fh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. rnaJtdr/jstra ' great kingdom,' Pali maJidrat- (ha, Sindlii inardthl, Guj. niaretho. str > § 830. The assimilation of str to d{d) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. damsira ' tusk,' Prak. dddhd, Pali ddthd, Ur. dddhij), Bang, ddrij), Hindi dddh{J), Panj. ddhadij), Sindhl ddth, (Iddah, Guj. dddhl, ddhdr, Mar. dddh, Siihh. dala. CONSONANT-GROUPS 215 sir > {d)(lh. § 831. Tlie assimilation of str to {d)dh is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. damstra 'tusk,' Prak. dcidhct, Ur., Hindi dddh{i), Guj. dadhi, ddhdr, Mar. dddh, etc. (see preceding §). str > 1{I). § 832. The assimilation of str to 1{T) is excessively rare (cf. § 213). a. Indian. Skt. damstra ' tusk/ Siihh. data, etc. (see § 830). str > h{h). § 833. The assimilation of str to h{h) is exceedingly rare (cf. § 206 ?). a. Indian. Skt. damstra ' tusk/ Panj. ddhad{l), Guj. ddhdr, dddhi, etc. (see § 830). sth > t{t). § 834. The assimilation of sth to t{t) is very uncommon. a. Indian. Skt. kostha 'granary/ Pali kottha, New Ind. dialects kott, kotth. sth > {t)th. § 835. The assimilation of sth to {t)th is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. prstha 'back/ Apab. Prak. patthi, pitthij putthi, Pali pitfha, Ass., Vv. xnthi. Bang. 2nthi, pit, Hindi pith, Fa.n]. pitth, putth, Sindhi puthi, G\x]. puih, pith,!^^^. path. Gyp. pusto. Skt. gusthl ' assembly,' Prak. gotthl, Pali gottha, Sindhi gothu, Mar. gotthl. Skt. ostha ' lip,' Mahar. Prak. ottha, uttha, Pali ottha, Kasm. vuth, Ur. otha, Biharl ho{ni)th, Hindi omth, Panj. homth, Guj. o(/i, Aof, Mar. urnfh. Gyp. VHsf. 5//i > § 836. The assimilation of sth to d{d) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. kustha 'leprosy,' Ur. kudha, Bang, kudi, Sindhi korhu, Guj., Mar. kor, korh, kohor. sth > {d)dh. § 837. The assimilation of sth to {d)dh is extremely rare. 216 INDO-IBANIAN PHONOLOGY a, Indian. Skt, histha ' leprosy,' Ur, Jcudha, Sindhi Tcorhu, Guj., Mar. Jcorh, hor, kohur, etc, (see preceding §). sn >n{n). § 838. The assimilation of m to >)(«) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. usna ' hot/ Mahar. Prak., Pali unha (but Pali sltunndka ' heat and cold ' besides sitimhaka), Sindhi uh, Guj. unhuni, Mar. unha, Simh. (Jijitnu. sn > n{n). § 839. The assimilation of sn to n{n) occurs but seldom. a. Indian. Skt. usna 'hot,' Simh. {h)imu, etc. (see pre- ceding §). sn > nil. § 840. The change of .sii^ to nh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle Indian dialects, but it is very rare in the Middle Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. usna 'hot/ Mahar. Prak. unlia, etc. (see § 838). Skt. hrsna nom. prop., Prak., Pali Jcanha, Hindi, Panj. Mnh, Jcanhdi, Sindhi kdnu, Guj. kdnho, Mar, kanhohd. sn > n{n). § 841. The assimilation of 5^ to 7i{n) occurs frequently (cf. § 218). a. Indian. Skt. sita ' cold ' + usna ' hot,' Pali sttumiaka, sltunhaka, Mar. tlnha, etc. (cf. § 838). Skt. krsna nom. prop., Sindhi kctnu, etc. (see preceding §). sn > nh. ^ 842. Tlie change of sn to nh is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. usna 'hot,' Guj. unhum, etc. (see § 838). Skt. hrsna nom. prop., Hindi, Panj. kdnh, kanhdi, Guj. kanho, Mar. kanhohd, etc. (see § 840). sn > h{h). § 843. Tlio assimilation of m to h{h) is extremely rare (cf. § 409). CONSONANT-GROUPS 217 a. Indian. Skt. trma ' thirst,' Prak. tanJia, Pali finJid, tasinci, Panj. tiha, Sindhi tih, Mar. tahan. sp >p{p). § 844. Tlie assimilation of s}) to j>(^;) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. Mspa 'tear, smoke,' Prak. 'balm 'tear,' hapjiha ' smoke,' Saur. Prak., Pali hajjpa, Ass. hJicip, Kasm. haha, Ur., Bang. hJu(p), E. Hindi hd{m)ph, Hindi hlidj), hd{m)pJi, Panj. hhcipJi, Sindhi hd2)h, Guj. hd{)h)ph, Mar. vdp)h. Skt. puspa '■ flower,' Prak., Pali pupplia., Kasm. pos, Biliarl phup, philph, Old Hindi puhtip, Hindi phup, Guj., Mar. jj/«7Z. Skt. nisputra ' sonless,' Sindhi nipiitro. sp > {p)ph. § 845. The assimilation of sp to [p)pli is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. hdspa ' tear, smoke,' Prak. happlia ' smoke,' })dha ' tear,' E. Hindi hd{m)ph, Hmdl 'bd{m)p}i, hJidj), Panj. hhdpli, Sindhi hdph, Guj. hd{'>h)ph, Mar. iKph, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. puspa 'flower,' Prak., Pali puppJia, Bihari plulpli, pliilp, etc. (see preceding §). sp > Jl{Jl). § 846. The assimilation of sp) to Ji{Ji) is very rare (cf. §§ 421, 300). a. Indian. Skt. bdspa ' tear, smoke,' Prak. hdha ' tear,' hap- pha ' smoke/ Kasm. hdha, etc. (see § 844). srn > {h)bh. § 847. The assimilation of sm to {h)hh is excessively rare (cf. § 323). a. Indian. Skt. usman ' hot season,' Prak. nmJid, Old Hindi lihh, Mar. nmlial. Skt. grisma 'hot season,' ^vi\k. gimha, Apab, Prak, (jimllia, Pali gimha, Old Hindi (jarlsam, Mar. ghhhh,g'ini. sm > m{m). § 848. The assimilation of sm to m{m) is very rare. 218 IXDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. grisma ' hot season,' Mar. gim^ gimhli, etc. (see preceding §). sm > mil. § 849. The change of sm to mh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects (cf. § 409). a. Indian. Skt. grisma 'hot season,' Prak., Pali gimha, etc. (see § 847). Skt. usman ' hot season,' Prak. umhd, Mar. umJial, etc. (see § 847). S1J > {Jc)7cJi. § 850. The change of sy to {J{)lh is very rare (cf. § 404). a. Indian. Skt. sisya ' pupil,' Prak. sTsa, Pali sissa, Sindhi siJchu. stj > ss. § 851. Tlie assimilation of sy to 55 is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt, imsya^ pdnsya ' December- January,' Prak. 2)usa, Ur. jmsa, Bang. j;aw5, Hindi j^us, Panj. poh, Sindhi j^olm. sy > s{s). § 852. Tlie assimilation of sy to 5(5) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. susyati 'dries,' Prak. susaij Pali sussati. Skt. pusya, pdusya ' December- January,' Frsik.])usa, Hindi jms, etc. (see preceding §). sy > h{h). § 853. The change of sy to h{h) is very rare (cf. § 409). a. Indian. Skt. hhavisydmi ' I shall be,' Prak. hohami, ho- himi, hossdmi, Pali hhavissdmi. Skt. pusya, pdusija 'December- January,' Panj. ^>o/i, Sindhi ^oAm, etc. (see § 851). sk > h^Jc). § 854. The assimilation of sh to h{k) is very frequent in the Indian dialects. CONSONANT- GEO UPS 219 a. Indian, Skt. taslaira 'tliief,' Prak., Pali tallarn. Skt. sJcandha ' shoulder,' Prak. lihand{h)a, Pali lihandlia, Ur., Bang., Hindi IdmdJid, Panj. Jcannh, Jimhdhd, Sindhi, Guj. TiCimdho, Mar. TxhCmdd, Ehi kamda, Maladive Jwdii. sk > {l)7ch. § 855. The assimilation of sJc to {Ji)lh is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. skandha 'shoulder,' Prak. lhand(li)a, Pali kJiandlia, Mar. hhdmdd, etc. (see preceding §). SG > c{c). § 856. The assimilation of sc to c{c) is found occasionally in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. pascat ' afterward,' Old Pers. pasd^ Phi., New Pers. pas, Kas. pac, Kuhr. pas, pas, Bal. j,a^, ILuvdi. pdsi, Dig. Oss, fastdga, Tag. fastag. sc > s{s). § 857. The assimilation of sc to s{s) is not uncommon in the Iranian dialects (cf. §§ 419, 166). b. Iranian. Av. pascat ' afterward,' Kuhr. pas, pas, Bal. pas, Kurd, pdsi, etc. (see preceding §). sc > sJc. § 858. The change of sc to sJi is very rare (cf. § 419). b. Iranian. Av. scindayeiti ' breaks,' Phi. sJcastano, New Pers. sihisfan, Oss, sadhtin, satthin. sc > s{s). § 859. The assimilation of sc to s{s) is not infrequent in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. pascat 'afterward,' Old Pers. pasd. Phi., New Pers. pas, Kuhr. pas, pas, etc. (see § 856), Av. scindayeiti ' breaks,' Oss. sadhtin, satthin, etc. (see preceding §). 220 IXDO-IRAXIAN PHONOLOGY St > {Jc)lJi. § 860. Tlie change of 5^ to {Jc)Jch is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. stamhha 'post/ Prak. Jchamhha, tJiamhha, Pali fhambha, Ur. Jc]ianihh{d), Jihmh{ha), Bang, Jihamhd, Hindi, Panj. thamh, Sindhi tharnhJiif, Guj. JcJidmh, khamhh, tJiamh, Mar. Jihdnih, Siriih. fcit'nha. [See now Pischel, § 306.] sf > tit). § 861. Tlie assimilation of st to tit) is excessively rare (cf. § 224). a. Indian. Skt. stamhha ' post/ Simh. fa>J<6«, etc. (see pre- ceding §). 5^ > fit). § 862. The assimilation of st to tit) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. stdimja '■ thief/ Jaina Prak. teniya. Skt. hyastana 'yesterday's/ Pali Ifiyattana. Skt. hasta 'hand/ Prak., Pali hattha, Ass. lifit, hath, Kasm. ath (but hast ' ele- phant '), Ur,, Bang, hdta, Biharl, Hindi hath, Panj. hatth, Sindhi hathu, Guj. hdth, Mar. hat, Simh. ata, Gyp. vast. b. Iranian. Lat. sttirnns ' starling,' Old High German stdra, New Pers. tar. st > it)th. § 863. The assimilation of st to it)th is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. pustalia ' book,' Prak. potthaa, Pali pothaka, Kasm. jiiith, Ur. pothd, Sindhi, Guj., Mar, pothi, Simh. })ota. Skt, hasta 'hand,' Prfik., Pali hattha, Ass, hdth, hat, Kasm, ath, Bihari, Hindi hdth, Panj, hatth, Sindhi hathu, Guj, hdth, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. p'astara ' stone,' Prak., Pali patthara, Ur. pathara, ^ang. pdthar, Hindi, Fan^- patthar, Sindhi patham, Guj., Mar. patthar. Skt. stana ' female breast,' Pali thaiia, Ur., Bang, thana, Hindi than, Panj. than, Sindlil thanu, Guj. than, Mar. thand, Simh, tana. st > sis). § 864, The assimilation of 5/ to sis) is very rare. I "f V, consonant-groups''^''^"'''^ 221 b. Iranian. Av., Old Pers. rdsta ' right,' Phi. mst, New Pcrs. ras, vast, Oss. rasf, rasth. sty > th, th. § 865. The assimilation of sfif to th, th, is excessively rare, a. Indian. Skt. stydna '■ idleness/ Prak., Pali thina, thina. sth > {k)Mi. § 866. The change of sth to {J:)l-h is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. sthdnu 'firm, Siva,' Prak. Jchdmi, Jchannit, 'firm,' thdnu ' Siva.' [See now Pischel, § 309.] sth > tit). § 867. Tlie assimilation of sth to t{t) is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. asthi 'bone,' Prak., Prdi atthi, Ur., Bang. hdda, Hindi had, haddJ, Panj. haddl, Guj., Mar. had, Simh. dfa. sth > {tyh. § 868. Tlie assimilation of sth to {t)fh is very rare (cf. § 238). a. Indian. Skt. sthdna 'place,' Prak. thdna, thdna, Pali thdna, Naip. thcmi, Ur. thand, thdna. Bang, thand, thdn, Hindi thannd, thdna, Panj. than, thdna, Sindhi thdnu, thdnii, Guj. than, than. Mar. than, thdr, Simh. tana, tana. Gyp. tlian. sth > d{d). § 869. The assimilation of sth to did) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. astJii ' bone,' Ur., Bang. ]idda, Hindi hdd, haddl, Panj. haddi, Guj., Mar. had, etc. (see § 867). sth > t{t). § 870. Tlie assimilation of sth to t{t) is exceedingly rare (cf. § 240). a. Indian. Skt. sthira 'firm,' Prak., Pali thira, Ur. tJilra, Hindi thir, Simh. tara. Skt. sthalt 'kettle,' Pali thdVi, Ur., Panj. thdU, Guj. thdlO, Mar. thdld, Suhh. tali, Maladive tell. 222 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Stll > {t)th. § 871. Tlie assimilation of sih to {t)fJi, is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects and in North Balucl. a. Indian. Skt. sthana '■ place,' Prak, thana, thdna, Naip. tham, Ur. thdnd, tJiand, Bang, than, thand, Hindi thdnd, thannd, Panj. thdnd, fhmind, than, Sindhi tlidnu, fhdnu, Guj. than, tMn, Mar. thdr, than, Gyp. than, etc, (see § 868). Skt, sthira 'firm,' Prak,, Pali fhira, Ur, thira, etc, (see preceding §). b. Iranian. Av,, Old Pers, -stdna ' standing,' Phi,, New Pers. -stan, N. Bal. than, Kurd, sun. sth > st. § 872, The deaspirization of sth to st is very rare (cf, § 240), a. Indian, Skt, grhastha ' householder,' Pali gahaiiha, Bihar! girhast, Hindi grihast, Panj. g{a)risati, Sindhi grihastu, Guj, grastha (semi-tatsama), sth > s{s). § 873. The assimilation of sth to s{§) is extremely rare (cf, § 419), b. Iranian, Av., Old Pers. -stdna * standing,' Kurd, sun, etc. (see § 871). sn > nh. § 874, Tlie change of sn to nh is very rare (cf, §§ 421, 277), a, Indian, Skt. sndna 'bathing,' Apab, Prak. nhdnu, Pali fiahdna, sindna, Hindi nhdnd, Panj. nhdiXnd, Guj, nahdn, Mar. nahdn, ndhanem, sn > 7i{n). § 875. The assimilation of sn to n{n) occurs both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. It is more frequent in the latter group. a, Indian. Skt, sneha 'love,' Prak. Qieha, sineha, Apab. Prak, nC'hn, Prdi s{i)neha, Bihar! m'h, Sindhi mmhu, saneho. b. Iranian, Av, snaoha ' cloud,' Bal. nod, N. Bal, noh. Skt. snusar ' daughter-in-law,' Afy. nzor, Bal. nasdr, Oss. n{v)ostha. Av. snavarj 'bow-string,' Dig, Oss. navr, Tag. nvar. CONSONANT-GROUPS 223 sn > nh. § 876. The change of sn to nh is not infrequent in the Indian dialects (cf. § 421). a. Indian. Skt. snana ' bathing/ Hindi nhana, Panj. nJiaund, etc. (see § 874). sp >P{P)- § 877. The assimilation of sp to p{p) is very rare (cf. § 293). a. Indian. Skt. vanaspati 'tree,' Prak. vanassai, vanapphai, Pali vanappati. Skt. sparsa ' touch,' Prak. pliarisa, Pali phassa, Ass. ^/pas, Bang, sparsa (pron. porso), Hindi, Panj. paras, Guj. paras, Mar. paras. b. Iranian. Av. spdTdza ' spleen,' Phi. spars, New Pers. supurs, Ka§. asiml, aspol, Tat siipul, Kurd. piHk. sp > {p)ph. § 878. The assimilation of sp to (i))i?A is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian languages. a. Indian. Skt. sparsa ' touch,' Prak. pharisa, Pali pJiassa, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. spandana ' throb,' Prak. pliamdana, Pali pliandana, Hindi pliamdana, Panj. phamdand. Mar. pJidm- danem. sp > s{s). § 879. Tlie assimilation of S2) to 5(5) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. In the Indian dialects, on the other hand, it is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. vanaspati 'tree,' Prak. vanassa'i, vanapphai, etc. (see § 877). Skt. hrhaspatl nom, prop., Prak. hihassai, hhaassai, 'baliapx)ai, hhaapphai. b. Iranian. Av. span 'dog,' Old Pers, (Median) 0-770x0, Phi, sali, sag, New Pers, sag, Gab. sahd, savd, Kas. ashd, aspd, Samn. asha, Tal. sip>d, Afy. spai, Kurd. salt. Av. aspa ' horse,' Old Pers. asa, aspa. Phi., New Pers. asp, Tat as. Wax! yas, Minj, yas{a)p, Afy. as, Bal. {}i)aps, Kurd, hasp. Dig. Oss, afsa, Tag, 224 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY yafs. Skt. asvafam ' mule,' Plil., New Pers. astar, Bal. istal, N. Bal. hastal, Kurd, istlr, histir. sp > spJi, sf. § 880. The aspirization of sp to sph^ sf, is not common. b. Iranian. Av. gaospdnta 'holy kine,' Phi. gospand, New Pers. gosfand, gospand. Av. spacta 'white,' Plil. spet, New Pers. safed, siped, isped, Zaf. siihO, Kas. ashe, Kulir. ashed, Afy, spin, Kurd. {i)sxn. sp > sb. § 881. The softening of sp to sb is not uncommon in the Iranian dialects (cf. § 290). b. Iranian. Av. 52?aefa 'white,' Zaf. siXbB, Kas. a5?>e, Kuhr. asbrxl, etc. (see preceding §). Av. span ' dog,' Gab. saha, sava, Kas. asba, aspd, Samn. asba, etc. (see § 879). spli > {Jc)Jch. § 882. The assimilation of sph to {h)7ch is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. SjyhotaJia ^ ho\\,' Prak. khodaa, Faili jihdf a, Ur., Bang., Hindi, Panj. phfjda, Sindhi phurdi. [So the Prakrit grammarians, falsely. See now Pischel, § 311.] sph > {p)ph. § 883. The assimilation of sx)h to {p)ph is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. spliuia ' thrilled,' Prak. plwda, Pali pihida. Skt. sphotaka 'boil,' VslYi plwia, Ur., Bang., Hindi, Vany phoda, Sindhi plmnll. sm > mil. § 884. The change of sm to mil is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Middle Indian dialects (cf. § 421). a. Indian. Skt. asmi ' am,' Prak. amhi, Pali amhi, asmi. Skt. vismaya ' wonder,' Prak. vimhaa, Pali vimhaya, Smdhi visdl. CONSONANT-GROUrS 225 sm > s{s). § 885, Tlie assimilation of sm to s{s) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. vismaya 'wonder,' Sindhi visal, etc. (see preceding §). Skt. smrti ' memory/ Hindi, Panj. surat, Sindhi surti. Skt. smarati 'remembers,' Prak. sarai, stimarat, Pali sarati, smnarati. sm > sh. § 886. The change of sm to sh is excessively rare (cf. § 323). b. Iranian. Av., Old Pers. asman 'heaven,' Phi., New Pers. dsman, Gab. ashan, Bal. asmdn, N. Bal. azman. sm > 2[2). § 887. The assimilation of sm to ^(^) is very rare (cf. §§ 825, 420). b. Iranian. Av. aesma ' fuel,' Plil. {h)('mm, Paz., New Pers. hezam, Gab. izma, Kas., Kuhr. {Ji)emm, Kurd, hazang. sm > zm. § 888. The softening of sm to zm is rare (cf. § 420). b. Iranian. Av. aesma 'fuel,' Gab. izma^ etc. (see pre- ceding ^). sm > zm. § 889. The change of sm to zm is very rare. b. Iranian. Av, asman 'heaven,' N, Bal, azmdn, etc. (see § 886), sy > U)jh. § 890. The change of sjf to {j}jh is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. hdmsya, hamsa ' bell-metal,' Prak. Jcathsia, Pali Jcamsa, Ur., Bang., Hindi hdmsn^ Pimj. kdnisi, Sindlil kanijho, Guj. kdmsum, Mar. Tidmsefh (cf. also Prak. tujjha ' of thee ' < Old Ind. Husya). sy > s[s). § 891. The assimilation of sy to s{s) is found both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. Q 226 JNDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY a. Indian. Skt. syala ' brother-in-law,' Pali scda, Bang, sal, Hindi sal, Panj, sala, Sindlii said, Guj. salo, said, Mar. sdla, Gyp. said. b. Iranian. Av. S]/ava 'black,' Plil. siyak, siydh. New Pers. siyah, Waxi su, Sangl. soi, Oss. sau. sy > s{s). § 892. The assimilation of sy to s{s) is very rare (cf. § 419). b. Iranian. Av. sydva ' black,' Wax! su, Sangl. soi, etc. (see preceding §). sr > [Jcjkh. § 893. The change of sr to {Jc)k]k is extremely rare (cf. § 404 ?). b. Iranian. Av. sraoni ' thigh,' Phi. saruk, sarin, New Pers. siinin, surm, W«xl hmj, Siyn. sdun, Sarq. xdtm, Bal, sarcn. sr > Is. § 894. The metathesis of sr to Is is rare (cf. § 354). b. Iranian. Av. asm 'tear,' Plil., New Pers. ars, Ka§. asl, Maz. asr, Afy. osd, Bal. als, Kurd. {h)istir, asr. sr > s{s). § 895. The assimilation of sr to s{s) is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. saliasra 'thousand,' Prak., Pali sahassa, Kasm. sds, Bihari saliasar, Sindlil saliasu. Skt. srOtas ' river,' Prak. sotta, Pali sota, Simh. so, soya, {h)oya. b. Iranian. Skt. svasru 'mother-in-law,' New Pers. xusil, xusru, Kal. xasru, Aiy. x'^'dsa, Bal. vasso, vassJ, vasse, Kurd. xosi, xassu, xasru. sr > sl. § 896. The change of sr to sl is very rare (cf. § 854). b. Iranian. Av. asru 'tear,' Kas. asl, etc. (see § 894). sr > s{s). § 897. The assimilation of sr to s{s) is rare (cf. § 419). CONSONANT- GnOU PS 227 b. Iranian. Av. asm 'tear,' Afy. Dsa, etc. (see § 894). Skt. svasnt 'niotlier-in-law,' New Pers. xus{r)ii, Afy. x^sa, etc. (see § 895). sr > h{h). § 898. The assimilation of sr to h{h) is rare (cf. § 421). a. Indian. Skt. srotas ' river/ Siriih. hoija, oya, so, soya, etc. (see § 895). ApJiaeresis of sr. § 899. The loss of initial sr occurs very seldom. a. Indian. Skt. srotas 'river,' Simh. oya, hoy a, so, soya, etc. (see § 895). sv > Iranian x^, hv > Jc{h). § 900. The assimilation of sv to h{Jc), through Iranian x^, hv, is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. x>'afsata ' sleep ! ' Phi. x^aftayio. New Pers. xuspulan,^Slv. fatan, Tal. asp, Wax! xofsam, Siyn, sorsani, Sarq. xufsam, Zaza Jcnana. • sv > Iranian x^', hv > {Jc)7ch, x. § 901. Tlie assimilation of sv to %lih, x, through Iranian rr", hv, is tile regular one to wliich this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects (cf. § 404 ?). b. Iranian. Av. hvard ' sun,' Phi. xur, x^ar, New Pers. xur, Siyn. xer, Sarq. xar, Yidg. xtlr, Afy. 7^mar, nvar. Dig. Oss. xor, Tag. xur. Av. x^araiti ' eats,' Phi. x^artano. New Pers. xurdan. Gab. xartin, Siv. for dan, Zaf. hiixort, Kas. xdrdamun. Von. xurtan, Kuhr. xCirdan, Nay. uxur ' eat ! ' Tal. hahardcn, Siyn. xaram, Sarq. xoram, Sangl. x^aram, Minj. rz;ar, Yidg. xurah, Afy. icoraZ, Bal. vara^r, N. Bal. varay, Kurd, xurin. Dig. Oss. xvarun. Tag. xarin. Av. sax^dro 'word/ Phi., New Pers. snxun, Siv. tuxun, Kas. suxan. sv > Iranian x^, hv > wm, wt'. § 902. The change of sv to *mw, »iy, through Iranian .^'^j /w, is very rare (cf. §§ 904, 329 ?). Q 2, 228 IN DO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY b, Iranian. Av. livard ' sun,' Afy. nmar, nvar, etc. (see pre- ceding §). sv > Iranian x^, hv > {p)ph, f. § 903. The change of sv to (iJ)i>^, / through Iranian .r", liv, is exceedingly rare (cf. §§ 904, 371 ?). b. Iranian. Av. x"araiti 'eats,' Siv. fordan, etc. (see § 901). Av. x^afsata ' sleep ! ' Siv. fatan, etc. (see § 900). sv > Iranian x'\ Jiv > v{v). § 904. The assimilation of sv to v{v), through Iranian x^, hv, is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Phi. x^'as, xus ' good,' Paz. x'as, New Pers. xus, xos, Ka§. jiis, xus, Siyn. xdis, Sarq. xex, Bal. vas, Kurd, xos, Zaza vas. Av. x^araiti ' eats,' Bal. varag, N. Bal. varay, etc, (see § 901). sv > s{s). § 905. The assimilation of sv to s(s) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. svamin ' lord, ' Prak. sdmi, Pali sdmi, suvdml, Ur., Bang, salm, Hindi, Panj. sdtm, Sindhi sdmtm, Simh. hami, himi. Skt. hhasvara 'brilhant,' Pali hhassara. Skt. svaJca ' own,' Hindi saga, Panj. saggd, Sindhi sdgo, Guj. sagimi, Mar. saga. Skt. svdtdga 'mimicry,' Hindi, Panj. sdmg, Sindhi sdihgu, Guj., Mar. somg. sv > h{h), and sv > Iranian x^', Jiv > h{h). § 906. The assimilation of sv to Ji{Ji) is very rare (cf. § 421). a. Indian. Skt. svdmin 'lord,' Simh. hami, himi, etc. (see preceding §). b. Iranian. Av, .x"araiti 'eats,' Tal. haharden, etc. (see § 901). Av. x"aeda ' sweat,' Phi. x^'al, xmle. New Pers. x^ai, Wax! xil, Sarq. xaib, Afy. x^ale, Bal. hed, N. Bal. hed, Kurd, xu, xoi, xoh, Oss. xad. CONSONAyT-GROVPS 229 Aphaeresis of sv > Iranian x'\ hv. § 907. The loss of initial sv through Iranian x'\ hv, is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av, x'^afsata ' sleep ! ' Tal. asp, etc. (see § 900). sk > c{c). § 908. The assimilation of sh to c{c) is rare (cf. §§ 424, 118). b. Iranian. Av. huska 'dry,' Old Pers. iiska, Phi., New Pers. xiisk, Kas. ush, Wrtxl vasT:, Afy. vuc, Bal. husay, Oss. XKsJc, xus. sh > s{s). § 909. The assimilation of sh to s{s) is extremely rare (cf. § 427). b. Iranian. Av. huska ' dry,' Oss. xus, xusJc, etc. (see pre- ceding §). sk > sk. § 910. The change of sk to sk is excessively rare (cf. § 427). b. Iranian. Av. huska ' dry,' WaxI vask, Oss. xusk, xus, etc. (see § 908). sk > s(s). § 911. The assimilation of sk to s{s) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. New 'Pers. pi(sk 'cat,' Gil, ^J7ca, yVaxipis, Siyn. pas, Afy. piso, Bal. piusl, pisl, Kurd, pisik. sk > sc. § 912. The change of ^7; to sc is very rare (cf. § 118). b. Iranian. New Pers. pusk ' sheep-droppings,' Wax! 2)()sk Siyn. pasc, Afy. paca. st > khf, xt. § 913. The change of st to kht, xt, is rare (cf. § 404 ?). b. Iranian. A v. angusta 'finger,' Phi. august. New Pers. august, Siv. gus. Von, unguss, Maz, angus, Waxi yangl, Siyn. angast, Sarq. ingaxt, Sangl. ingit, Minj. angar, Afy. gufa, Oss angursth. 230 IXDOIRANIAN PIIOXOLOGY st > Jchs, xs. § 914. The change of st to hhs^ xs, is very rare. b. Iranian. Av. asta * eight,' Plil. {h)asf, New Pers. hast, WaxI had, hat, Siyn. vast, Sarq. voxt, Eos. hast, Sangl. Mt, Minj. asJca, Yayn, uxs, Afy. ata, Oss. asth. st > t{t). § 915. Tlie assimilation of st to ^(i^) is quite common in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. asfa 'eight,' Wax! hat, ha9, Sangl. hat, Afy. ata, etc. (see preceding §). Av. aw^jtlto 'finger,' Sangl. higif, Afy. guta, etc. (see § 913). st > {t)th. § 916. The assimilation of st to {t)th is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. asta ' eight,' Wax! hd9, hat, etc. (see § 914). st > l{l). § 917. The assimilation of st to l{l) is exceedingly rare (cf. § 426). b. Iranian. Av. angusta ' finger,' Wax! yangl, etc. (see § 913). st > s{s). § 918. The assimilation of st to s{s) is quite common in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. angusta ' finger,' Siv. gus, Von. ungiiss, Maz. angus, etc. (see § 913). st > sh. § 919. The change of st to sh is very rare (cf. § 222 ?). b. Iranian. Av. asta ' eight,' Minj. asTca, etc. (see § 914). sty > st. § 920. The assimilation of sty to H is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. CONSONANT-GROUPS 231 b. Iranian. Av, istya ' brick,' Phi, New Per8. xist, Bal. ist^ It sn > Mn, xn. § 921. The change of m to hhn, xn, is very rare (cf. § 404 ?). b. Iranian. Av. pdsna ' heel,' Phi. pdsnal; New Pers. pds- nahj W«xl pasnnJi, Sarq. puxna, Afy. pimda, Bal. pimzig, pimz, N. Bal. plil2, phtd, Kurd, jjawl. sn > d{d), nd. § 922. The change of sn to d[d), nd, is extremely rare. b. Iranian. Av. pdsna 'heel,' Afy. punda, N. Bal. phid, pMz, etc. (see preceding §). sn > n[n). b. Iranian. Av. pdsna ' heel,' Kurd. pdn% etc. (see § 921). 4.^, mz. § 924. The assimilation of sn to z[3\ mz, is rare (cf, § 428). b. Iranian. Av. pdsna 'heel,' Bal. piimsig, pims, N. Bal. phiz, pMd, etc. (see § 921). sm > m{m). § 925. Tlie assimilation of s)n to 7n{m) is very common. b. Iranian. Av. casman 'eye,' Plil., New Pers. casm, Gab. cam, Si v., Zaf. cas, Ktls., Von. cam, Kuhr., Samn. cas, Maz. cas, Gil. cis, Waxi cozni, Siyn. cem, Sarq. cam, Sangl. sam, Minj. cam, Yidg. cum, Bal. cam, N. Bal. cham, Kurd, cdv, Zaza cim. Dig. Oss. caste, Tag. casth. sm > v{v). § 926. The assimilation of sm to v{v) is rare (cf. § 324). b. Iranian. Av. casman ' eye,' Kurd, cdv, etc. (see pre- ceding §). 232 INDO-IRANIAN PIIONOLOGY sm > sm. § 927. The change of sm to sm is very rare (cf. § 427). b. Iranian, Av. yusmdlidm ' of you/ Paz., New Pers. suma, Bal. §ava, Dig. Oss. smax, Tag. sumax. sm > s{s}. § 928. Tlie assimilation of sm to s(s) is very common. b. Iranian. Av. casman ' eye,' Siv., Zaf., Kuhr., Samn. cas, Gil. c/s, etc. (see § 925). sm > zm. § 929. The softening of sm to zm occurs but seldom (cf. § 429), b. Iranian. Av. casman ' eye,' WaxI cozm, etc, (see § 925). sy > c{c\ c{c). § 930. The assimilation of sy to c{c), c{c), is very rare (cf. § 424). b. Iranian, Av, savaite 'goes,' Old Pers, asiyavam, New Pers, Sudan, WaxI cauam, Siyn. vizafcam, Sarq, vazavsam, Afy, sval, Bal, swfo, N, BaL suhd, su6a, Kurd, clan, Oss. caun. sy > s{s). § 931. The assimilation of sy to s{s) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. savaite 'goes,' Old Pers, asiyavam. New Pers, Sudan, Afy, sval, Bal, suta, N, Bal, su^d, suda, etc, (see pre- ceding §). Av. saiti ' peace,' Old Pers. siydti, Phi. sdf{th). New Pers. sad, Oss, ancad. sy > z{z). 932. The softening of sy to z{z) is very rare (cf. § 429). b. Iranian. Av, savaite 'goes,' Old Pers. asiyavam, Siyn. vizafcam, Sarq. vazavsam, etc. (see § 930). zg > zg. § 933. The change of zg to ^g \s extremely rare (cf. § 436). CONSONANT-GROWS 233 b. Iranian. Av. mazga * marrow,' Phi. mazg. New Pers. mayz^ Sarq. muzg, Afy. mayza., Bal. niazg, Oss. mays. zd > z{z). § 934. The assimilation of zd to z{z) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. nazda 'near,' Phi. nazdlk, New Pers. naz- d{lh), Sarq. nizd, Afy. nizde, nizde, Bal. nazlJc, N. Bal. nazi{.>), Kurd, nizilk, ncz'Jc. zr > dr. § 935. Tlie change of zr to dr is very common in the Iranian dialects. b. Iranian. Av. zrayah ' sea,' Old Pers. drayah, Phi. draydk, zre, New Pers. dari/d, zardh, zirih, Tat dairuh, Bal. zira. zv > zm. § 936. The change of zv to zm is very rare (cf. § 374). b. Iranian. Av. hizva 'tongue,' Plil. {Ji)uzvdn, zuvan, New Pers. zahdn, zuhdn, Gab. izvun, Wax! ziJc, Siyn. zav, Sarq. ziv, Afy. ziha, Bal. zimdn, Kurd, azmdn, Oss. aivzag. zh > zh. § 937. The change of zb to zh is extremely rare (cf. § 436). b. Iranian. Av. hizva 'tongue,' Afy. ziha, etc. (see pre- ceding §). zd > z{z). § 938. The assimilation of zd to z{z) is the regular one to which this consonant-group is subject in the Iranian dialects (cf. § 443). b. Iranian. Av. duzdah ' wretched,' Phi., Paz. duzd ' thief,' New Pei-s. duzd, Gab. duz, Tal. diz, Bal. duz. zd > zd. § 939. The change of zd to zd is quite common in the Iranian dialects (cf. § 443). 234 INDO-IRAKIAN PHONOLOGY b. Iranian. Av. duzdah 'wretched,' New Pers. cluzd, etc. (see preceding §). Av. wwi(?a 'reward,' Phi. muzd^ Paz. mozd, New Pers. muzd, muM, Kurd., Oss. mizd. hn > nh. § 940. The metathesis of lin to nh is very rare (cf. § 277). a. Indian. Skt. vahni ' fire,' Prak. vanhi, Sindhl hdhi. hn > w(w). § 941. The assimilation of hn to n{n) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. ciJina 'mark,' Prak. cinha, cindha, Naip. cimnu^ Ur., Bang, cinha, Biharl cm, cinaha, Hindi cihtia, Panj. cihan, Sindhl cihanu, Guj., Mar. ciniha. hn > ndh. § 942. The change of hn to ndh is excessively rare. a. Indian. Skt. cihna ' mark,' Prak. cindha, cinha, etc. (see preceding §). hn > h{h). § 943. The assimilation of hn to h{h) is exceedingly rare, a. Indian. Skt. vahtii ' fire,' Sindhl hahi, etc. (see § 940). hm > m{7n). § 944. The assimilation of hm to m{7n) is very rare. a. Indian. Skt. hrahmana ' Brahman,' Prak. hamhana, (in- scriptions of Kapur di Giri) hamana, Jaina Prak. mdhana, Pali hrahmana, Biharl haman, hamhan, hdmahan, Sindhi hdmhhanu, Simh. hamha. hm > mh. \ 945. The change of hm to mh is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. hrahmana ' Brahman,' Simh. hamha, etc. (see preceding §). CONSONANT-GROUPS 235 hn > mhh. § 946. The change of hni to }nhh is rare (cf. § 449), a. Indian. Skt. hrdhmana ' Brahman,' Sindhi hdmhhanu, etc. (see § 944). % >M- § 947. The assimilation of hy to j{j) is very rare (cf. § 331). a. Indian. Skt. gultya 'hidden,' Prak. gujjha, Panj. gujjhd, Sindhi gujJio, Guj. guj, Mar. gtij. ^>y > [JWi- § 948. The assimilation of hy to {j)jh is quite common in the Indian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. nahyati ' binds,' Prak. najjhai. Skt. guhya 'hidden,' Prak. gtijjJia, Panj. gujjhd, Sindhi gtijhd, etc. (see preceding §). hv > {h)hh. § 949. The assimilation of Jiv to {b)bh is not infrequent in the Indian dialects (cf. § 373). a. Indian. Skt. jiJivd ' tongue,' Prak, jibhlid, jlhd, Pali jivhd, Ass. jibd, Naip. jihru, Kasm. zeo, other New Ind. dialects jtbh, excepting Sindhi jihh, Simh. diva, Maladive du, Gyp. cih. Skt. gahvara ' cavern,' Pali gahhhara. Skt. vihvala ' agitated,' Prak. vchhhala, viliala, Hindi bihahal, Panj. hiJml. hv > v{v). § 950. Tlie assimilation of hv to v{v) is very rare. a, Indian, Skt, jihvd 'tongue,' Siriih, diva, etc, (see pre- ceding §), hv > h{h). § 951. The assimilation of hv to h{h) is extremely rare. a. Indian. Skt. jilivd ' tongue,' Prak. jihd, jihhhd, etc. (see § 949). Skt. vihvala ' agitated,' Prak. vihala, vchhhala, Hindi hihahal, Panj. hihul. 236 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Syncope of hv. § 952. The loss of internal hv is exceedingly rare. a. Indian. Skt. jihva 'tongue,' Kasm. seo, Maladive dfw, etc. (see § 949). Anusvdra and Anunasiha. § 953. In the Middle Indian dialects the anusvara, a purely nasal sound, has been almost entirely lost, and has vanished altogether in the New Indian dialects. On the other hand the anunasika, or nasalization of a vowel sound, became more and more frequent during the Middle and New Indian periods, until it now completely supersedes the anusvara. Anunasika may stand before h or 5, and is interchangeable with the class-nasal in all vargas in the New Indian dialects. Final anusvara becomes anunasika in the transition from Middle to New Indian, and such an anunasika is retained unchanged after long vowels in Panjabi, Sindhi, Gujarat!, and Marathl, although they elide it after a short vowel. In the other New Indian dialects final anmiasika is lost under all circum- stances. Avestan q possesses a certain resemblance to Indian anunasika. a. Indian, Skt. simJia 'Hon,' Prak,, Pali silia, Hindi, Panj. simgJi, Sindhi simglio, simhu, other New Ind. dialects simh (pron. sinigh). Skt., Prak, hamsa ' goose,' E. Hindi lidnis, hans. Skt. spoJchala ' fetter,' Pali samhhala, Ass. sikali, Naip. sikri, Ur. sikuli, Bang, sikal, sikal, E. Hindi shnkar, slkar, sik{k)ar, Hindi Slkar, sikhar, sikal, Panj. samghar, Sindhi sawgliaro, Guj. sanighal. Mar. sdmkJial, sdkhal, sikrl. Skt. kuhcikd 'key,' Kasm. kimz, Ur. kumci, kumjlii, kuji, Bang, kilmji, kujl, Hindi, Panj. kumji, Sindhi kimji, Guj. kiwic'i, Mar. kimijt. Skt. sancjha ' eunuch,' Prak. sandlia, Ass. sdmr. Bang, sdmr, E. Hindi, Hindi sdmr, Panj. sdmdh, Sindhi sdnu, Mult. sdmJt, sandhd, Guj., Mar. sdnuj. Skt. skandJia 'shoulder,' Prak., Pali khandha, Ass. kdmd{h), Ur., Bang, kdmdh, Biharl kdmdhd, kJidmdd, Hindi kdmdhd, Panj. kandhd, kannli, Sindhi kandhu, Guj. khdmdo, Mar. kkdiMd, Simh, kanda. Skt. kampati 'trembles,' Prak. CONSONANT-GROUPS 237 kampa'i, lamjja'i, Pali kampati, Ass. kanip, Kasm. kmn{])), Hindi kamp, Panj. kamh, Sindhi kanih, Guj., Mar. kdmp. Skt. idanim 'now,' Prak. danim, dani. Skt. dadhi 'curds/ Prak. dahini, E. Hindi, Hindi dahl, Panj. daluih, Sindhi daJnm, Guj., Mar. dah'im. Visarga. § 954. The Old Indian visarga is entirely lost in the Middle and New Indian dialects. In the few instances in wliich h appears in script in New Indian it is employed under learned influence, and is not pronounced. a. Indian. Skt. duhkJia ' misery,' Hindi duhkh (pron. dukJi), dukh. Skt. antahkarana ' heart,' Hindi antahkaran (pron. ant{a)karan). Skt. nihsmsa 'sigh,' Hindi nihsvas (pron. nisvas), nisvas. Metathesis. § 955. Metathesis occurs very frequently in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects, especially when one of the consonants involved is a liquid or a sibilant. Although transposition of indi- vidual consonants is the more usual case, instances of the meta- thesis of entire syllables are not lacking. a. Indian. Skt. hrada ' sea,' Jaina Prak. draha, Ardhamag. Prak. daJia. Skt. aldna 'elephant's tie-post,' Prak. dndla. Skt. lagJmka ' light,' Prak. halua, lahua, Pali lahuka, Ur., Bang. halkd, E. Hindi haluk, Hindi halakd, Sindhi Jialko, Guj. hala- kum, Mar. halakd. Skt. sakafa ' stupid,' Pali kasata. Skt. gardahha 'donkey,' Prak. gaddalia, gaddaha, Pali gadrahha, Ass. gddh, Naip. gaddJta, Ur. gadhd, Bang, gddhd, Biharl, Hindi gadhd, Panj. gadhd, gaddo, Sindhi garahu, Guj. gadhedo, Mar. gadhav. Skt. ksCpana ' toss,' Prak. khepa, Ur. phhhgihd, ])a- kaibd, Hindi, Panj. phemknd, Sindhi phakanu, Guj. phemknd, Mar. phemknem. Skt. vrudati ' sinks,' Prak. hudda'i, Ur., Bang. hud, Hindi hud, Sindhi hud, Guj., Mar. hud beside Ur., Bang. duhnd, Panj. clubhand, Sindhi duhanu, Guj., Mar. duhanu. 238 INDO-IRANIAN FIiO.\OLOGY Skt. paridhiyate ' is clothed,' Apab. Prak. parilia'i, Kasm. jmTv, Ur. pahar, Bang., E. Hiudl, Hindi ])alm\ Guj. per, cf. also Mar. peran, peJiran ' shirt.' Skt. hidala ' cat,' Apab. Prak. vidlu, Naip. hirdlu, E. Hindi, Hindi hilar, Guj. hilddi. Skt. stimudra 'sea,' Prak. samudda, samudra, Pali sanmdda, Siihh. ^haniuda > ^mahuda > mulmda. Skt. nupura 'anklet,' Prak. neura, nhira, Pali nupura, Ur. nepura, niipura, Sindhi nurd, Guj., Mar. nepur, Simh. nuriiva. Skt. sayana ' bed,' Prak. sayana, Pilli sayana, sena, Simh. yaliana. An instance of vowel-metathesis seems to be found in Skt. picunianda ' nimba-tree,' Pali pucimanda. b. Iranian. Av. suxra ' red,' Old Pers. Ouxra-, Plil. suxr, New Pers. &nrx, Sir, sirah, Siv. sir, Yazdl surkuh, Kuhr., Kas. siir, WaxI sohr, Siy. sIraA, Afy. sur, Bal. 5w/ir, Kurd. 5or, Dig. Oss. surx, Tag. sir^. Av. vafra ' snow,' New Pers. harf, Gab., Kas., Maz., Gil., Sarq. varf, Minj. varfaJi, Yidg. varfiih, Yayn. vot/ir, Afy. vdvra, Kurd. hajr. Av. tarsna ' thirst,' Phi. ^i^/*. New Pers. ti§, Waxi to:r(i), Siyn. tasna, Sarq. ^Mr(*), Yidg. trusna, ASy. tazai, Bal. tunnag, tunag, N. Bal. ^^M«f, Kurd. ^«, tarn. Old Pers. Mxtri nom. prop., Plil. &a.ir, &a.i7. New Pers. halx. Av. asrw ' tear,' Plil., New Pers. ars, Kas. asl, Maz. a^r, Afy. osa, Bal. aZs, Kurd, asr, {h)istir. Av. larana 'boundary,' Phi. Jcandr, New Pers. lardn, Jcandr, Oss. kliaron. Av. masga ' marrow,' Phi. wia-s^^, New Pers. *j?ay^, Sarq. ??;Mf r/, Afy. mdym, Bal. ?«ai^, Oss. ?j?ay^. Av. vttasti ' span,' Phi. vitast, New Pers. hidast, gidast, Afy. vZw^, «;Z^s^, Zm^. Skt. Zi/.-5a ' nit,' New Pers. rihk, Afy. rica. Dig. Oss. ?«sZ;a, Tag. lisle. Av. /sm ' cattle,' Afy. spa, spun. Av. srva ' horn,' Phi. srilh, sruv, New Pers. saru{)i), suru, Bal. srmihe, surmn, Kurd, savr ' stag.' Av. pudra ' son,' Old Pers. puO'a, Phi. pus{ar), puhr, New Pers. ^;2is(ar), pilr, • Gab. 2?Mr, Ka§. p^ur, pur, Samn. pir, W«xl p)oif, Siyn, ^?2ic, Sarq. 7)oc, Minj. jj?7r, Yayn. pulali, N. Bal. pliusay. Dig. Oss. fiirih. Tag. /r^A, Av. aw^ra ' cloud,' Oss, arw;. CONSONANT-GROUrS 239 Assimilation of syllables. § 956. The assimilation of syllables is found occasionally both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. ndirahjana nom. prop., Pali ncranjara. Skt. navamivati 'ninety-nine,' Kasm. nanuinianiafh, Bang, nivd- nawa% Bihari, Hindi nindnave, niyditavc, Panj. nadlndvc, Sindhi nadhdnave, vadhdnave, navdnave. b. Iranian. Av. navadasa '■ nineteen,' Phi. navdcdaJmm, New Pers. nuvdzdali, Afy. niinas, m'das, Dig. Oss. naudas, Tag. nudas. Skt. naJclia 'finger-nail,' Plil., New Pers. ndxun, Afy. nilJc, Bal. ndhm, ndJiun, N. Bal. ndxtcn, Kurd, nainuh. Phi. dtmnak (read ddvinah ?) ' mirror,' New Pers. dyinaJi, Bal. ddm{h), Dig. Oss. aidana. Dissimilation of syllables. § 957. Dissimilation of syllables is found occasionally, although the phenomenon is comparatively rare. a. Indian. Skt. JcaJcJcOla ' bdellium,' Pali taJcJcola, Simli. tahd. Skt. jaliikiJcd 'leech,' Pali jaliqnJca, jaluJca. Skt. dadrUgJma ' remedy for leprosy,' Pali gadduhana. Skt. pipUiJca ' ant,' Pah Jcipillika, piptliJca. Loss of syllables. § 958. The loss of entire syllables is found quite frequently both in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. astamayana ' sunset,' Prak. atthamana. Skt. avata ' ditch,' Prak. ada, Siriih. vaja. Skt. durgddcvl ' wife of 6iva,' Prak. diiggdvl. Skt. devaJcida ' temple,' Prak. deula, devaula, devakida, Ur. deula, Bang., Hindi deval, Panj. devdld, Sindhi devilt, Guj. deval, Mar. deul. Skt, dvddasa 'twelve,' Prak. vdraha, Pali dvddasa, bdrasa, Kasm. bdh, Ur. bdra, Bang. vdro, Biharl, Hindi bdrah, W. Hindi bard, Panj. bdrdm, Sindhi hdraJiam, Guj. bar, Mar. bdrd. Skt. sithila ' slack,' Prak. sidhila, sadhila, Mag. Prak. dhilla, Pali sithila, satjiila, Ass. 240 INDO-IBANIAN PHONOLOGY dhil, Naip. dhllo, Ur. dhUct, Bang, dhil, Biharl dJilla, E. Hindi dhal, Hindi dJiJla, Panj. dhilla, Sindhi dhild, dhiro, dharo, Guj. dhllum, Mar. dliild, dhil, sadhal. Skt. vimsati 'twenty,' Prak. vlsai, Pali vlsati, visa, Kasm. vuli, Bang, vis, Biharl, Hindi his, Panj., Sindlil vih, Guj., Mar. vis. Skt, anuru])a ' parable,' Prak. auuruva, Pali anuriipa, Siriih. nuru. b. Iranian. Av. iiaitiddna * mouth-veil,' Pahl, padam, New Fers,. panom, panani. Av, Orisata 'thirty,' Phi, sih, Paz., New Pers, si, Afy. ders. Av, antard ' witliin,' Old Pers. <2iar. Phi. andar, New Pers, cZar, andar. Old Pers. ^duvitlyam haram 'for the second time,' Phi, datlgar, Paz. dadlgar, New Pers, cZi^ar, dadlgar, N, Bal. ^/w(/i), Kurd. cZ^^ar, tZi^ra, Av. 7«>m ' tongue,' Old Pers, {h)imva, Phi, {h)usviin, zuvcm, zavdn. New Pers. mhan, zuhan, Gab, i^ww, Wax! ^iZ;, Siyn, ^at;, Sarq, ^it;, Afy. ziba, Km-d, azman, Tag. Oss. awsag. Av. angusta ' finger,' Phi. august. New Pers. angnst, Siv. ^i(5, Von. unguss, Maz. angus. Wax! yangl, Siyn. angast, Sarq. ingaxt, Sangl. i>i^i#, Minj, angar, Afy. guta, Oss. angursth. Contraction. § 959. Contraction of vowels frequently results from the syncope of an intervocalic consonant in the Middle and New ludo- Iranian dialects. In the latter group there was no objection to hiatus, although y or, more rarely, v was occasionally inserted to prevent the contact of two vowels (see §§ 122, 123, 137, 138, 143, 144, 164, 183, 184, 229, 232, 242, 256, 260, 270, 272, 292, 307, and consult §§ 341-348, 379-394), Hiatus in the New Indian dialects is not as frequent as in Middle Indian. The Middle and New Iranian dialects afford comparatively few examples of vowel- contraction. The principal contractions in the New Indian dialects are as follows : ai-d>a; a + i>di\ a + u>du; t + t>l; i + a>e; u + u>u; CONSONANT- GROUPS 241 u + a>d, but a + i, d + u, u + a, u + 1, and e or + long vowel ordi- narily remain in hiatus. a. Indian. Skt. mrwaMm 'leather-worker, ' Pali camma^ara, Ur. camara, Bang, camar, Hindi, Panj. camar, Sindhi camaru, Guj. camar, Mar. cdnihar. Ski. Wiagini ' sinter,' Frsk. hahint, bha'im, Pfvli hhaghu, Ur. hhaiim, hhaiini, Bang, ha'in, Hindi hahin, Panj. &Miw, haimh, Sindhi hJienu, Guj. &(J/ir"w, Mar. hahin, hJidin. Skt. caturtha 'fourth,' Prak. cailttha, caiUtha, cottha, Ur. cdudha, Bang, catda, Hindi, Panj. cdidha, Sindhi, Guj. cotJw, Mar. caumtha. Skt. vyajana 'fan,' Prak. v«Vqm, Hindi 6ewa. Skt. rajahda ' palace,' Prak. raw7a, rdaida, laiila, Pali rdjaJcula, Bihari raiir, Hindi rdul Skt. ndpita ' barber,' Prak. nJidvia, ndvia, ^ak. Prak. 'nabida, Bihari, Mar. waw, other New Indian dialects ndl. Skt. nikaia 'near,' Mag. Prak. niada, Pali nihata, Bihari niyar, ner. Skt. (^v^'^Mwa 'twofold,' Prak. duuna, Pali diguna, Hindi, Panj. dund, Sindlii dund, Mar. dtin. Skt. sngandlia ' fragrant,' Prak. suamdha, Pali sugandlia, Hindi, Panj. sdimuVid. Skt., Pali rodana ' lament,' Bang, rci/fe, Hindi rowa, Panj, ro«a, Sindhi ruanu, Guj. rdvum. Skt. koJcila 'cuckoo,' Prak., Pali A'o^'Za, Ur. Mijila, Hindi, Panj., Sindhi Mil, Guj. Myal, Mar. /;oA^7?, Angio-Ind. Mil. Skt. godhi'ma * wheat,' Apab. Prak. goJimiu, Pali godhuma. Ass. ghcmJm, Naip. gahum, Ur. gaJiama, guma, Bang, ^ow, ^a;i?, Bihari gohum, Hindi go{m)Jnm, gemJium, gheum, Panj. gJieum, Sindhi gelium, Guj. gJiaum, Gyp. (/iv. b. Iranian. Phi. dahim 'gift,' New Pers., Gab. (fesw. Old Pers. «ai6a ' beautiful,' Phi. wev, nevaJc{ih), New Pers. weA-. Av. /?aca ' from' + ahairi 'beneath,' Phi. a^er, Paz. azer, New Pers. ^er, Siv. SI, Zaf. ier, other Central dialects j^r, Samn.jer,Tal, jiar, Judaeo- Pers, zer, Kurd, zlv. Tag, Oss, tZaZa. Av, vihu, vihava ' widow,' Phi, vevah. New Pers, fteva^, Kas, vigd, vie, Kurd. 67, Tag. Oss. iday. Av. raoyna ' oil,' Plil. rdyan, roJcan, New Pers. royan, Kas, rwyaw, ro, Waxi ruyiin, ruyn, Sarq, ravan, Sangl. roy, Minj. royaw, Kurd. ron. Av. ^ddtahara 'judge' (cf. the Aramaean loan-word **J-?P1> Dan, iii, 2), Phi. ddfvar, ddthar, ddvar, New Pers. ddvar. 242 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Epenthesis of vowels. § 960. The insertion of vowels in a consonant-group to obviate a succession of consonants is extremely frequent both, in the Indian and in the Iranian dialects. The phenomenon occurs somewhat more often in the latter system of dialects on account of their ten- dency toward assimilation rather than retention of consonant- groups (see § 460). In the Middle and New Indian dialects the vowel most commonly inserted to break up a consonant-group is a. Epenthetic i, which is comparatively rare, is found chiefly in Panjabi and Sindhl, while epenthetic u seems to be hardly foimd except in the eastern dialects (cf. §§3, 4). The three vowels o, i, and u are all used in the Middle and New Iranian dialects. Of these a is generally preferred, but if the consonant-group contains a sibilant, i is regularly inserted, while u is employed when the group includes a labial sound. The usage is, however, very capricious, and it seems scarcely possible to lay down exact rules. The epenthesis of long vowels occurs with extreme rarity in the Middle and New Iranian dialects. a. Indian. Skt. hhadga 'sword,' Prak., Pali Jchagga, Ur. Ichamdd, Bang. Jcharag, Hindi kharag, Mag, Jchdmd, sagg, Sindhi hhano, Guj. kharum, Mar. khamd, kliadga. Skt. dadru * ring- worm,' Pali daddu, Hindi dad, Sindhl dadh{r)u, Guj. dddar, Mar. dadad, dad. Skt. siJrga ' sun,' Prak, sujja, stiria, Pali suriya, Hindi, Panj. suraj, Sindhl suHju, surjti, Guj. suraj, sur, Simh, (h)iru. Skt. sndna 'bath,' Apab. Prak. nhdmi. Pais. Prak. sanana, Pali nahdna, sindna, Bihari nahdn, Hindi nhdnd, Panj. nhdund, Guj., Mar. nahdn. Skt. slcsma ' slime,' Prak. simhha, Pali silrsuma, semha, Simh. sem{a). Skt. agni 'fire,' Prak aggi, Pali {ag)gini, aggi, Ur. nia, Bang, dgun, Hindi dg, Panj. agg, Sindhl agi, Guj., Mar. dg, SimK gini, Gyp. yag. Skt. sldghd ' praise,' Prak. saWid, Pali sildghd, Bihari, Hindi, Panj., Sindhl sarahnd. Skt. ratna ' jewel,' Prak. rayana, Saur. Prak. radana, Pali, Gatha ratana, Hindi ratan, Sindhl ratanu, ratnu, Simh. ruvan. Skt. mldyati ' withers,' Prak. milai, Pali mildyati. CONSONANT-OROVPS 243 Hindi milnct, Sindhi milanu. Skt. Mesa 'trouble,' Hindi JcaUs, klcs, Panj. l-aJes, Sindhi Jcilesu, Mar, hiles, JcilOs. Skt, strl * woman,' Prak., Pali ittht, thl, Gatha istrl, Ur. tin, vulgar Ur. tila, colloquial Hindi istrl, astri, Panj. tiraya, Sindhi tiriya, istrt, EIu itiri, Siiiih, istri. Skt. smarana * recollection,' Apab. Prak. sumaramt, Biharl sumiran, sumaran. b, Iranian, Av, raoyna ' oil,' Phi. rokan, royan, Paz. raogan, New Pers. royan, Ka§. ruyan, ro. Wax! ruyiin, riiyn, Sarq. raww, Sangl. roy, Kurd. mw. Av. span ' dog,' Med. o-TraKa, PhL saJc, sag, New Pers. 5a^, Gab. sala, sava, Kas. as&a, as^M, Sanm. asJa, Tal. si^a. My. spai, Kurd, sa/j, Av, raoxsna ' shining,' Phi,, New Pers, roHn, Siyn. rosnaga, Sangl. rosnai, My. run, Bal. rosam, Kurd, row, r?m, ruhnai, rmid(h)i. Av. 5pa8a ' army,' Phi. 52mA, New Pers. 5?jpa/?, Dig. Oss. afsdd, Tag. a/satZ, cf, Anglo- Ind, sepoij. GAv, xsmdJca 'yours,' YAv, yuhnaka, Paz., New Pers. ^umd, Bal. som, Dig. Oss. smax, Tag. sumax. Av. taoxman ' seed,' Old Pers. fawma. Phi. foa:w, New Pers. tux)n, Gab. ^wm, Nay. ^wm, WaxI taym, §iyn. fwym, Sarq. toy^n, Yidg. tuyum, My. foma, Bal. ^wm, ^o>w. Av. sraoni ' loin,' Phi. sarm, sarwfc, New Pers. surUn, surtn, Wax! sunj, Siyn. laww, Sarq. a^aww, Bal. saren. Av. xraosoit 'should scream,' Plil. xros 'cock,' New Pers. xuros, Gab. urus, Bal. Tturus, Tiros, Kurd. Z;oro6'. Av. erayo ' three,' Paz. se. New Pers. sili, Tat 56, WaxI trui, Siyn. arroi, Sarq. Jiaroi, Sangl. ^rai, Minj. ^arai, Yayn. Oarai, My. dre, Kurd. se. Av. Jrvaj ' brow,' Phi. hru. New Pers. a&rM, Gab. hurd, Wax! vamo, Siyn. vruy, Sarq. rarao, Sangl. vwrij, Afy. vruja, Bal. hurvdn, birvdn, Kurd. 6wrw, &^fr^, Dig. Oss. arfuJc, Tag. ar/i^. Av. draoya 'lie,' Old Pers. drauga, Phi. (?ro5r, 6?roy, New Pers. daroy, duroy, Maz. (?arM, (?Mrw, Tal. du, Sarq. (Zwrw, Afy. daroy, Bal. cZaro^r, tZro^r, N. BaL droy. Av. mdrddyu ' death,' Oss. malath. Av. mat-paitifrasa ' with re- sponse,' Phi. pdtfrds, Paz. pddafrdh, New Pers, pdddfarah, pddafarah. B 2 244 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY Final Syllables. § 961. During the transition from the Old Indo-Iranian dialects to the New, original final syllables have been almost completely lost. Final single consonants of the Old Indo-Iranian dialects have thus disappeared for the most part, and the same fate has met the old short final vowels, while long final vowels have either been shortened or else lost altogether. Complete discussion of these problems, however, belongs rather to inflection than to phonology, but numerous examples of reduction and loss in the Middle and Now Indo-Iranian dialects of final syllables existing in the Old Indo-Iranian languages may be gathered from almost every page of this work. Sandhi. § 962. The elaborate system of sandhi found in Sanskrit, and the less artificial conditions observable both in Avestan and Old Persian, ceased to exist in the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects, although certain traces are still found in Middle Indian (Pischel, Gramm. d. Pra/c.-Spr., §§ 156-175, 353, Childers, JBAS., N.S. xi. (1879), 99-121, MuUer, Pali-arannn., 59-64, Frankfurter, Handh. of Pali, 21-25) and possibly in the Pamir dialects of the New Iranian (Geiger, Grimdr. der iran. Philol., i. b, 307-308). In the New Indian dialects, however, as in the Middle and New Iranian dialects (excepting the Pamir group) sandhi is concerned entirely with word-composition. It does not, therefore, strictly form part of a discussion of the comparative phonology of the Middle and New Indo-Iranian dialects. I. SUBJECT-INDEX (Numbers refer to §§.) AnaptjTsis of a 23, u 55. Anunasika 953. Anusvara 953. Aphaeresis of a 11, a 21, i 31, U5l,e93,k 127, 5 422, h 455, ks 491, sr 899, sy 907. Apocope of a 13, a 22, i 33, I 42, M 53, e 94, A- 129, ?/ 338, s 402, s 431, h 457, ^w 500. Assimilation of syllables 956. Consonants, single 113-459. Consonants, single : k 114-130, kh, X 131-139, g 140-147, gh, y 148-153, 79 154, C 155-171, ch 172-177, j 178-187, jh 188-190, h 154, t 191-198, th 199-207, d 208-213, dh 214-217, n 218- 219, t 220-236, th, 6 237-245, d 246-263, dh, 8 264-274, n 275- 286, p 287-294, J)h, f 295-302, I 303-310, Ih, iv 311-318, m 319-329, y 330-348, r 349-357, I 358-363, V 364-394, s 395-402, S 403-409, 5 410-422, S 423-431, ^ 432-438, i 439-443, h 444- 459. Consonant-groups 460-952. Consonant-groups, single, begin- ning with k 461-494, g 495-503, gh, y 504-505, tj 506-511, c 512- 514, j 515-527, w 528-537, rf 538- 540, 71 541-558, t 559-597* th, 9 598-599, d 600-618, dh, 8 619- 631, n 632-664, p 665-689, ph,f 690, b 691-696, bh, tv 697-700, m 701-712, r 713-796, I 797-806, V 807-809, s 810-821, 5 822-853, S 854-907, s 908-932, 933-937, i 938-939, h 940-952. Contraction 959. Dissimilation of syllables 957. Epenthesis of vowels 960, k 130, t 236, d 263, n 286, / 302, h 310, m 329, m 329, r 357, v 378, h 459. Final syllables 961. Loss of syllables 958. Metathesis 955. Prothesis of a 14, i 34, u 54, kh 139, n 285, y 340, v 377, h 458. Sandhi 962. Syncope of a 12, i 32, u 52, k 128, g 147, gh 153, C 171, j 187, t 235, d 262, dh 274, n 284, p 294, ph 301, h 309, m 328, y 339, r 356, Z 363, V 376, S 402, s 422, S 438, /i 456, ^M 500, tr 580, fv 590, sc 813, /iw 952. Visarga 954. Vowels 1-112. Vowels, single : a 2-14, a 15-23, i 24-34, « 35-42, M 43-55, u 56- 65, r 66-82, f 83, Z 84, e 85- 94, ai 95-98, 99-107, au 108- 112. II. REVERSE-INDEX (Numbers refer to §§.) a = a 2, < a IG, i 25, i 36, u 44, it 57, r 68, e 86, o 101. ar < r 67. ai < r 80. a < a 5, — a 15, < i 26, I 39, M 46, ti 60, y 76, e 88, aya 341, a«/a 346, ava 379, avi 388, «ei'a 393. i < a 3, a 17, = i 2i, < I 37, w 45, u 58, r 71, e 87, o 102, ^ 221, Zi 882, sr 893, sv 901. X < kU5,d 248, 6/i 312, h 446. ic(^) < 5V 901. xt < sk 913. xn < sn 921. ics < ks 482, s/t 914. ^f < Z: 116, = g 140, < gh 151, # 222, ^ 249, V 367. (/(^) < ks 483, ^w 498, ^?/ 502, gr 503, >a.7 510, jh 515, dg 538, (^ 600, d(jh 601, r^f 717," r^/i 719, Ig 798. <5f?/^ < j 181, = jh 188, < d 250, S412. (i)i^ < ^ 486, J«/ 522, jv 525, dhy 619, ^Ar 626, dJiv 629, rj/i 725, S^ 890, hy 948. w < w 276. {h)h < jh 518, wc 532, ny 554, wy 661, 5W 838. hj < he 531, ny 553, wi/ 660. < < c/t 174, = t 191, < ,^/i 200, (I 209, ^ 224. (^)^ < nt 541, ^^ 559, tr 568, W^/i 641, * 'rt 730, r^/i 739, s.^ 824, str 828, 5f^ 834, si^861, stii 867. ^r < tr 569. isfe < C 160, c/i 175, = th 199, < t 225, ^/i 238. (<),^/i < tr 570, (Z(Z/t 603, rth 740, .9.^ 825, .9fr 829, sth 835, sf?/ 865, sik 868." c? < ^ 192, th 201, = fZ 208, < t 226, ^^ 663, nv 664, m 727, rn 755, r5w 785, 5?* 841, sn 875, iiij 923, hn 941. WC? < WfZ 547, nt 635, w^/i 646, ndr 649, >?(Z/t 654, sn 922. ndli < nth 647, hi 942. {w)>2/i < nrZ/^ 656. nm < dm 606, sv 902. My < 51; 902. nh < sn 842, sn 876. ^ < ^'l20, t 195, =i? 287, < 2)h 296, & 304. jf>(i)) < km 473, fp 560, tm 563, i^y 583, j^u 675, py 679, j;r 680, mp 702, >;^v 758, ry 767, Ip 799, .9^^ 844, sp 877. i?^ < ^>Ji 562. ps < fs 690. ph < p 289, = ph 295. (i>)^^A < .9^> 845, sp 878, 5p/i 883, sv 903. ' / < j; 289, hh 313, m 322, ?? 371, h 448. /(/) < fv 584, j>n 676, 5y 903. ft < Jet 465, 2Jt 669. /if/i < i?^ 670. //• < ^r 574. b < n 278, ^; 290, j)/i 297, = b 303, < bh 314, w 323, ly 332, v 372. 6(6) < jv 527, ^v 585, ^V 617, pt 671, 6j 693, 6r 096, bhr 698, w6 704, rb 759, ry 768, Zi; 805, vy 807. 6c? < bj 692. 6^ < ii5 685. bh < k 121, dh 269, ^?/i 298, 6 305, = bh 311, < y 333, v 373, h 449. (6)6/i < 6% 697, bhr 699, r^/w 753, rbh 700, yy 709, .sm 847, hv 949. m < w 279, p 291, 6 306, 6A 315, = m 319, < V 374. *A^(>») < /i)H 471, gm 501, fZm 605, nm 659, ^>w 677, ^m/ 678, mn 701, m6 705, mbh 706, Wir 710, mv 711, rm 761, Z>m 801, sm 814, .9»i 848, iim 925, hm 944. jh6 < mp 703, *^?r 709, Zwi 800, hm 945. ^>i6/i < hm 946. mv < Wi 327. mh < bh 310, mbh 707, 5m 849, sm 884. m^ < ps 086. y < 592, k 122, M 137, g 143, C 104, j 183, t 229, ^A 242, d 256, t?/i 270, i^ 292, b 307, = ?/ 330, < v 375, 5 398, 5 406, /i 451. ?/(^) < dhy 622. ?/a/i < u 64. r < r 81, ^ 196, d 211, ^/j 215, 1 230, d 257, W 280, 'y 334,'= r 349, < I 361. y(r) < Jcr 476, ^r/i/* 505, ^r 575, ntr 639, ^j^ 672, pr 681, m 728, r^ 735, rd 747, r« 756, rm 762, /t/ 764, ru 771, rs 778, rsH 786, rh 795. ra < r 69. ri < r 72. ru < r 75. **i < ^V 765. r//i < rt 729. n^ < r^ 734. rbh < rv 770. rs < rsn 787. rs < rj 723, rs 779, rsn 788. r/i < //i 203. r < d'2U. rh < th 203, dh 214. I < t'l97, th' 204, d 212, dh 216, w 219, t 231, ^/i 243, c^ 258, dh 271, w 281, y 335, r 354, = I 358, < 5 426. l{l) < kl 478, ^»- 576, tv 586, 879, sni 885, s^ 891, sr 895, sv 905, sZ; 909, U 918. sA; < sA; 910. st < sth 872. str < pstr 689. sp < tv 588. s/ < S/J 880. sh < sp 881, sm 88G. stii < sm 927. sr < dr 614. s? < sr 896. s < A; 124, c 166, S 419, = s 423, < ^ 435, i 435, 442, /i 453. s(s) < /tS 488, ^r 578, ts 592, ps 683, rs 781, rsn 789, sc 857, sth 873, s^ 892, sr 897, sk 911, sm 928, s?/ 931. sk < sc 858, st 919. sc < s/*; 912. st < sty 920. sn < ksn 493, rs>i 790. sv < rsv 792. Z< k 126, C 167, j 185, jh 190, S 420, S 428, = ^ 432, < i 443, A 454. z{0) < ks 490, i?/ 523, dhy 624, swi 887, sk 924, ^(Z 934, i(? 938. Zy < kts 463. sd < M 939. ^>w < sm 888, .S'v 936. z w 929. h < k 125, A7^ 136, g 146, ^f/i 152, C 169, ^A 206, ^ 234, th 245, (^ 26L dh 273, i?/i 300, &/i 318, y 337^ s 401, S 409, S 421, S 430, z 437, = /i444. h{h) < ks 489, wc 536, tv 589, (Z//?/ 625, rgh 721, rsi? 776, rs 783, str 833, sw 843, sp 846, s^ 853, sr 898, sv 906, /iW 943, /«v" 951. ht < kt 466. hn < ksn 494. /mt < mhh 708. /ir < ktr 468, At 477, /r 579, dr 615. /tr < th 207. 250 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY hi < pr 682, rt 738, rth 742, rs 793. m < m 326. mgh < nl-li 509. mj{j)< ndhy 657, sr 816. m{j)jh < ndhy 658, ^r 817. mtk < nth 642. w?^/i < 7ifh 643. »«(/ < nj 537. »wr < WfZA 551. mv < Im 802. nis < rs 773. m^ < sn 924. w/i < ndh 552, m^fe 712. III. WORD-INDEX (Numbers refer to §§.) a. akrnavam 74. akrnot 74. aJcsapaia 193. agni 498, 960. agra, 503. atdkotha 204. ank6l{l)a 204. av9^a 34. aiQgara 3, 355. angulika 4. am/a 158. acyuta 513. ajagara 187. ahjana 537. afa^;^ 192. a^'as^ 11, 410. atyimnata 565. a^ra 458. rt^Aa 241. atJiava 245. ac?«/a 607, 608. adhas 11. adhijya 522. adhvan 631. onuraga 11. anurupa 958. anusdsana 417. antahkarana 954. andhakara 656. any a 661, 663. anvesana 664. anvesanti 407. A. Sanskrit. ajpi 290. apriya 680. apsard 684. abhimanyu 324. *ahhisdna 313. ahhyantara 697. abhyayana 341. amdtya 11, 565. araghatia 152. aranya 11, 554, 556. ar/ra 713. ar^f/ia 720. «r^/ia 739, 740. arhuda 759. alawkdra 11. aM^a 37. avakdsa 128. avajhd 380. ava,^a 11, 958. avatdra 383. avatrdna 11. avara 382. avalambati 381. avavdda 382. avasyaya 382. avasthita 380. aii^i 395, 400. as oka 11. asm 816, 817, 819. ast^a 821. asvatara 879. a5,^i 8. a5,^a«< 825. astamanaya 958. as^/ii 867, 869. asmi 884. a. aA;ara 122. dkdsa 125. a//ate 147. dcdrya 163, 164. ajwa 516. djnacakra 475, 519. a^aj9a 232. dtman 561, 562, 563. ddesa 256. apato 227. dpida 291. ^dbhdtdpa 16, 312. aw^a 139. dmalaka 324, 358. amra 709, 710. dyudha 336. drabdha 351. dryapidra 294. dlabhisyanti 407. dlambana 361, 705. dldna 955. atoA;a 19. dvarta 732. dvirbhutvd 340. dviskrta 388. asa 19. dscarya 8, 810, i^5M 26, 27, 29, 487. i^ora 229. 252 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY iti 25. idanim 31, 328, 458, 953. iva 24. isu 27. ihaldJca 456. Isvara 37, 821. u. ukta 377. ucchisia 512. ucyate Zll. udupa 211, 213. wto 228. utkantha 461. utpadyante 560. utsada 594. utsava 48. utsulca 594. udaha 5J, 122. udumhara 51. ududlia 216. udghdiayati 601, 602. udghosa 602. udvestati 618. udvodha 216. undara 45. undura 45. unmarga 659. upaithayaha 346. upadhydya 51, 293, 619." upavisati 51. npavisfa 376. upasthdna 51. upasthdpitvd 16. urvasl 809. ulukhala 50. M?A;a 50, 797. w.si^a 377. MS.^ra 828. wi-na838,839, 840, 841, '842. usman 847, 849. unavimsati 65. wry'a 63. «/•«« 727, 755. urnavdhhi 313. urdhva 752, 753. wrmi 83. f A-sa 72, 485, 487. Wm 74, 220. f feiy" 70. rddhd 72. V.si 71, 82. eZ:a 86, 92, 114. ehasasti 409. chasaptati 421. ckddasa 9, 86, 87, 257. etddrsa 257. . ecZfsa 458. ewas 281, 282. eranda 93. eva 340. oyas 103. (>5,^/ia 458, 835. dutsuJcya 110. dupamya 112. dupasivi 28. dusadhi 273. hamsa 890. JcaMola 119, 957. kaidlcaria 506. IcaccJiapa 5, 291. katdha 192, 196, 19< kathina 25. kanfaka 541, 542, 543. kanva 557. kathana 245. katJtam 328. kathayati 114, 342. Aa^Aa 240. kadamha 258. /.•ac?a^^ 260, 261, 262. kanyd 660, 661. kapardikd 747. kapdta 8, 191, 290, 293. kapdla 293. kapihjala 28, 293. kapittha 294. kapdta 290. kahandha 306, 307. kampati 703, 953. kambala 704, 705. kamhoja 180. kansa 406. kardti 195. karkata 713. karkaiaha 197. karkatiku 4, 713. karkara 713. karna 727. kartari 732. karpdsa 18, 410, 421. karpura 349, 758. karhura 44. karman 761. karsana 777. AaZ^a 799. kalpate 799. A-a/ya 803, 804. kdmsya 890. A;aA;« 116. kdhcana 535. kdtara 229. /:ar?ya 763, 765. kdrsdpana 783. /.ato 362. kdldijasa 346. /lasa 115. in. WORD-INDEX. A. SANSKRIT 253 kinculdka 363. kinva 557, 558. kii/ant 345. kirdta 118. Jcisalaya 339. ktta 37, 192. liulrsa 40. A;wa 116. A;ir^i 37. klla 37. kuncika 530, 531, 953. kuUmiba 45. kutunibaka 194. kuthara 205. kutharl 200, 202, 203, 205, 206, 207. kuddala 50, 127. kunda 118. kupyati 679. A-I<6ja 115, 691, 692, 693. kiimara 327. kumhhaMra 706, 707, 708. kurkura 715, 716. /«?e^ 277. kJiara 131. A;/ia??-t 132, .363. khalvdfa 806. ^"/^« 132. khddati 16, 131, 256. kliddana 262. khddita 256. 5'- gaccha 512. ^aj(Z 183. gandaka 548. (/afa 228. gadgada 257. ga{m)hhlra 37, 141. gariida 141. garjana 722. gar jit a 722. ^arte 731. gardabha 140, 743, 744, 745, 746, 955. garbha 760. garhhinl 25, 42. .(jfar/*a 795, 796. .(/rtto 358. gahvara 949. /ya^Aa 245. gunaganayukta 218. guhya 947, 948. grdhra 71, 626, 627, ' 628. .r/r/ia p. ix, 67, 68, 78, * 82 (6is), 142. grhagddhikd 271. grhastJia 72, 872. grhltvd 40. ^e/ia p. ix, 67, 78, 142. gehini 456. gdirika 27, 98. godhuma 101, 106, 142, 273, 274, 959. gosthika 118. (/().si^A* 835. gosvdmika 324, 326. gdura 112= gdurava 109. grantha 642, 643, 644. granthi 641, 642. grdma 16, 319. grlsma 847, 848, 849. (//ia.^a 148, 192. ^fAfZJa 71. ghotaka 151. cahora 122. caytra 165, 169, 475. caA-5M 9, 10. mwcM 9, 160, 162. caturtha 235, 739, 740, 741, 959. caturdasa 745. 254 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY catvdri 155, 156, 581, 587. catvdrhhsat 354, 355. candra 648, 649, 650. campaTia 702. carana 354. carmaMra 128, 959. carman 761. corvaijati 767, 768. calati 358. calana 5. canahja 474. cdmara 12, 328. cihitsd 161. ci/ma 941, 942. V'cM.^ 191. cwma 59, 728. Ct"to 196, 197. C(>m 106, 169. cdurya 110. cyavate 513. charjala 141. A/c/iai? 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 287. chardati 743. chdija 22, 177,329,337, 378. chidra 613. Vc/iwi 191. cJiupati 43. ja^ra^ 143. jatogala 181, 511. jaiogJui 178. ^'awa 8, 181. janman 659. japana 287. jamhuha 705. jamhula 360. jardyu 332. ^'a^a 185. jalukikd 120, 957. jdgarati 12. jdmdtrka 81. jdlma 801. j«7tm 28, 182, 185, 949, 950, 951, 952. ^■^ra 38. j7va 35, 376. jlv^^ft 35. jugiipsati 182, 684. j'w^a 235. ^wa^i 520. jhdna 516, 517. jfya 522. i.?/o^i 220. jydtsnd 103. Jvara 527. jvalati 525. jwZft 524, 526, 527. jhampa 188. jhalla 189. jJidulika 112.. te?a#i 362. -/c^op 210. ddkini 397. faZ:to 462. taksan 226. tete)^ 228. tof/^a 241. %9as 289, 294. to^^a G67, 670. tapyate 679. tamasa 3. ^arw 53. te?e 94. taskara 854. tddrsa 257. tdmhida 03. ^amm 224, 709, 710. tdmraparna 727. ^a?a 359. ^am^ 228, 374. tintidl 27, 30. tirascina 39. tilaka 224. tistlmti 223. tlksna 37. ^7r^/ia 41, 83. ^«2a^a 143. ndpita 290, 959. ndhhi 315. ndman 275, 326, 327. ndmayati 275. ndrikela 122, 128. nihsvdsa 954. nikata 959. nikasa 125. wi^f/a 565, 566. wicZm 22, 30, 609, 612. niniha 281, 705. nirgrantlm 718. nirghrna 720. nirjhara 725. niskarsana 822. nispufra 844. »^^cc 155. wl^a 40. mj9a 291. WiZa 55, 281. nunam 57, 59. nupura 62, 955. wemi 328. ndirahjana 280, 956. waM 108. pakta 466. ^aAm 2, 3, 5, 287, 479. i9a^"5a 481, 487, 489. pa'K)kti 507. pacati 165. panca 535, 536, pahcadasa 263. pancavimsati 4. pahcdsata 529,532,533, 534. panjara 3. pathati 202, 203. pathana 201. patati 226. patdkd 226. pattana 559. pathya 598. ^a^a 256. padika 262. pantha 647. param 356. parampara 702. 256 INDO-IRAKIAX PHONOLOGY parasH 399. parasvant 290. parigha 289. paridhlyate 955. pariksa 36. parnt 5. parnsa 289. i^arc 356. paryaiglta 506, 766. paryana 766. parvata 768, 772. parvan 770. palaijati 347. palasa 359. pavana 364, 365. ^avw 401. pascat 287, 810, 811. 812, 813. *pasce 94. pddika 261. i?a/^a 293. parihhadra 289. parsva 775, 776. 2?am 289, 401. picumanda 955. i?itor 235. pipasa 292. piplliha 288, 957. pippala 358, 361. pihati 309. ^e.^//a 201, 202. pidana 208, 211, 213. i)M«//a 554, 555. i>M^m 568, 571, 572. punar 44, 291. pupphnsa 49. ^wra 48. purandara 352. puravasin 372. purusa 43, 45, 408. puskara 823. JOM.s^^a 289, 844, 845. i)w.s?/a 851, 852, 853. pustaka 50, 863. pugaphala 12. _?)%« 332. pur ana 350. puma 728. pilrva 62. pr{c)chati 177, 512. prthaktva 4. prth{i)vi 9, 74, 245. prdaku 68, 82, 329. i;/-5^/ri?/a 345. prema 85. phmlmga 296. phana 295. j/haigu 8, 296. ;>Art/« 361. pimpphusa 49. phena 87. hadisa 209. badura 9. hadhira 8, 273. hadhnati 303. handhja 308, 658. halivarda 363, 748. halvaja 304, 805. hahurupa 61. &af?/^a 304. &a.s/ja 308, 844, 845, 846. &a/«f 53. hidala 955. &mt?w 27. &?7m 806. &7;'a 37. hihhatsa 591. hudhyaU 303, 619, 624. btihhnksa 480. hrhaspati 305, 456, 879. hrahmanya 553. hrahmana 218, 696, 944, 945, 946. hhakta 464. hhagim 28, 147, 314, 959. hJumga 315. J/ia/« 192. hhanatl 316. hhadra 613. &Aa?/a 342. bharati 2. bhavati 318, 382. bliavisyanU 853. bhavisyasl 418. bhavisye 384. bhasvara 905. bhdgadheya 147. bhaghieya 16, 146. blidnda 318. III. WORD-INDEX. A. SANSKRIT 257 hliammatl 46. hhdsa 404. hJidsi/a 357. hhlnadnn 606. hlnma 40. hhlsma 36. ?>/i^i)?i 56, 311, 326. hhoga 140. hhojana 99. hhramara 325, 698, 699. hhratar 699. hitmfrja 178. hhrdfrjdi/d 178. hJirumul'ha 57. 7HaZ:5/;^a481,485,487. »?(7^« 141. mafha 199. mcitsya 595, 596, 597. mathana 237. madgu 600. madlm 268. madhura 270. madhya 8, 319, 619, 620, 621, 624, 625. madhvdlu 629. manorama 4, 323. mantra 637, 638. manmatlm 324. manydmi 663. may lira 343. maralMta 116. masuralia 60. mahdrdstra 829. mahdnjha 16, 444, 719. maJiisa 323, 329. waca 158. »)2ator 232, 235. mdtrka 81. mdtra 19. w/a?*a 459. mdnand 276. mdnusa 4, 404. mdrga 16. mdrgayatl 717. mdrgasira 16. mdrgasln^a 778. mitra 580. mitliyd 598, 599. nujiidms 324. miiMa 461. muktd 50, 464. ^;«y/j/i(* 44, 131, 136, 138. mugdha 497. mucanti 163. mudga 600. mudgara 4, 13, 600. mudrd 43, 612. mnsala 48. >;«?^5^i. 48. midmrta 732. mudha 214. mudhutva 215. mtilya 58, 59, 804. ;»«s 58. l«^75a 403. i^f^a 71. mrgaya 336. mrgdfaJca 71. mrndla 74. WiWa 68, 319. m'rttiJcd 68, 82 (&is), '559. mr,sd{vddin) 79, 82 '(&/s). 7nrsfa 824. r)«'e^/ia 89, 150, 152. mdidi 109. mldyati 960. mleccha 86. ?/a 331. ?/a/«a 515. yat praJjlirti 329. ya^M 3, 3*31. ?/«(?/ 246, 252. S yantragrha 331. yabhati 330. yamala 324, 361. ?/a.sf^ 335, 825. ^/tlnct 331. 7/(tra^ 374. yy?t//(X 50, 142. yugala 140, 147. yugma 501. yusmdlMm 338. y^tM 338. yiTf//«a 298. re/i»ii 358. rcim^i 103. rodana 959. ro»?a« 310, 326. rohita 106. 258 IN DO- IRAN I AN PHONOLOGY I lagna 358, 498. lagyate 502. laghu 152. laghnTxa 955. lafDgula 510. lajja 329. labdha 695. lahhati 318. lahhyate 697. ZaZafa 359, 360. Zayawa 360, 380, 382. lasuna 402. lahan 8. latogaJa 360, 510. ZiA;5a 361, 955. ZiMa^^ 131, 137. Z?2?^ 290. limpati 358. limt{h)d 360. Ze.s^^t 826. ZeAmi 358. IdUjam 103. Zoik.sa 16, 17, 290, 293, 361. loha 444. lohakdra 103. vangana 8. vacana 171, 277. vadisa 209. va^sa 5,7,591 (&i5),592, 593, 594. vatsara 592. mfZ/w7 59, 270, 273. Wiwa 281, 282. vanaspati 877, 879. varJcara 3, 9. tYtr'a 488. xsiidra 614. xsmdka 115, 338, 960. icsra^ 428. xsvasti 8. .(/• f^aSa 142. III. WORD-INDEX. B. IRANIAN 261 gainti 636. garah 358. garsma 140, 141, 145, 762. gau, gav 140, 145, 37G. gdtu 15. gjrdpfa 71. O.P. gqdumava 328. giWa 59, 237, 243, 245. gaedanqm 245. gaona 105. gaospdnta 880. (/aola 34, 99, 102, 103, 107, 141, 142, 423, 426, 427, 429, 431. C. caxra 155, 477. caOtvaro 4, 18,156,170, 583, 584, 585, 586, 587, 589, 590. cardman 762. casnian 155, 156, 157, 925, 926, 928, 929. ^ci-gaona 147. ci^m 155,165,575,579. clt 24. dry a 764. O.P. ciy 30. O.P. ciscly 28, 161. c«;aw^ 514. jaini 3, 6, 7, 178, 179, 183, 185, 186, 275, 281. jainti 178. jafm 185, 186, 682. O.P. j'lvahy 37. jya 459, 523. ji'wi^i 185, 186, 391. jvant 635. tacaiti 167. ^anw 220. tancista 528. f«/w2* 676. tmiruna 354. tor^^^ 8. tarsna 4, 7, 71, 220, 784, 785, 786, 789, 790, 791, 955. tava 228. tasa 302. #a««^ 357. tapayeifi 227. tdrdsaiti 18, 227. fa^m 5, 639, 640. O.P. tigra 13. ^/^ri 505. ^i<5aw 45. turn 581, 582. taoxman 471, 472, 960. datairi 413, 414. O.P. dura-vdhara4:44. Owdsa 588. ^ra?/o 960. ^r? 573, 577, 578, 579. drisata 958. draetaona 574. ^«ya 149. damhu-paiti 52. dahaiti 253, 254. dantan 246, 633, 634, 635. dardya 13, 83, 253. dardna 756. (?am 13, 254, 258, 410, 416, 421. fZafa 227, 233. ^ddtahara 959. f?awa 263. O.P. damyavaus 341. O.P. ddraydmiy 353. ddrdsa 434. O.P. dubala 358. duyhar 43. fZ/<;»a 44, 47, 310. O.P. "'^duvitiyam kd- ram 958. dtizaJca 439, 441. d^«z?/aA;a 115, 663. pacata 10. pacditl 156, 161, 162, 289. paitiddna 279, 958. 262 INDO-IBANIAN PHONOLOGY paitidlta 220. padana 12, 237, 243, 245. paha 15, 246, 247, 254, 258, 287. panca 9, 531. jyanfan 645, 646. pardna 289, 754, 755, 756, 757. jjardsu 793. 2)airi 3. '^pairi + s/vardz 374. "^pairi-vazaiti 324. O.P. parthava 742. 2?ars^i 74, 77, 82. pasii 4, 420, 421. pasca 287. pascat 5, 856, 857, 859. padra 577. i?aswa 921, 922, 923, 924. pdrdtu 48, 736, 738. pdTdna 73, 755. pdrdsahi 73, 82. ^)i#ar 24, 229, 231. ^««em 45, 48, 50, 567, 575, 576, 577, 579, 955. XMesa 410. *paourva-ayar9 342. / fra 681. fmtdrdsaiti 74. fraOanjayeiti 237,240. frapiOwa 589. frasaocmjahi 158, 159. frasnayanta 348. frazgahaiti 258. fraynmt 501. /r(/s 68r. /r/ya 345. fsardma 683. ys«« 955. "^fsu-pdna 683, 6. &a,r#a 357. haxbra 468. haxsaiti 303. O.P. BayiVraz/oi' 152. hardha 315. &a6ra 615. handdmi 651,652, 653, 655. haraiti 2. hardsa 779, 781. hardzis 794. &awi 379. O.F^ haxtri 467, 955. O.P. &aj/ 178. &a^M 437, 438. feara^(a) 73, 303. hdrdzant 633. O.P. hqdaha 129. ftm^a 45. &27»?i 56. Z>M^a 59, 308, baevard 376. haesaza 425. &aoi8i 99,264,268,271. &mtor 14,221, 227,228, 233, 700. &ryaj 14, 960. O.P. »>mf5f«e 144. maxsi 480, 483. mayna 278. ma6M 9, 270. tmibija 620, 621, 622, 623. maihyqna 7, 319. mat-patifirasa 23, 960. mardta 5. mazga 933, 955. Wi«ter 229, 235, 356. wM 958. /^^^^;a 25, 27, 936, 937. huciSra 28, 168. hmravah 372. /iMsZ;a 43, 446, 448, 450, 455, 908, 909, 910. /m 446. Jiaetu 89, 446. hacna 444. liaoma 105. /twra 901, 902. x^aidhar 8. */x^'an 4. >/:r"ap 666. x^'asura 420, 422. x^'afsata 688, 690, 900, 903, 907. xmmiti 349, 901, 903, 904, 906. x^ardnah 756. aj^aeSa 91, 254, 906. C. Greek. Ko'pos 413, 414. j Aet'xco 358. cuoV 139, 377. I D. Latin. ] gula 358. j lahium 358. i 0V2(m 377, j sturmis 862. ve5/;a 329. I E. Old High [ German. Mia 358. 264 INDO-IRANIAN PHONOLOGY himvan 521. leckon 358. stdra 862. tvafsa 685. F. Anglo-Saxon. lippa 358. Or. Old Bulgarian. zlvati 521. n. Lithuanian. Uzlu 358. Wj;sd 329, 685, 686. COERIGENDA § 2, 1. 10, § 5, 1. 45, § 458, 1. 12-13, § 879, 1. 10 omit Old Pers. as{p)a. § 4, 1. 12 for manusa read manusa. § 4, 1. 14 for Jcarlatila read liarkaUlca. § 4, 1. 24 for vanCi read rawa, § 5, 1. 46 for pascat read pascat. § 16, 1. 12 for npasthdjniva read upastliapitviX. § 68, 1. 18, § 82, 1. 15 for pi-dahi read pnlaku. § 71, 1. 8 for mixlcMdlia read mrdarjhi. § 79, 1, 5 for mrmvad'm read mrsavddin. § 82, 1. 20 for ?i/?f^iA-a read ?>?r^/M. >^^\ e « >^ ft ).- § 87, 1. 14 for ' green ' read ' blue.' § 91, 1. 2 for x'^aeda read x'^aeha. maeniyam. 1. 21 for niiidTid read nydTia. 1. 3 for re/.7^a read reJcJtd. 1. 5, § 168, 1, 5 for raucah read raocali. 1. 5 for rdjanah read rdjdnah. heading, 1. 1 for hr read Ar. 1. 19 for va2)sa read vapsd. 1, 2, § 378, 1. 2 for chdya read clidyd. 1. 7 for devalaya read devdlaya. 1. 11-12 omit Skt. ?;?«?/« 'mother,' Siihh, 1. 5, § 373, 1. 4 for va.s;/>a read vdspa. 1. 12, § 734, 1. 4 for vartiM read vartakd. 1. 10, § 401, 1. 12 for strsa, sirsa read slrm. 1. 6 for ' once ' read ' excrement.' 1, 3, § 424, 1. 3, § 427, 1. 2 for savaiti read savaite. 1. 4 for iddnim read iddnini. 1. 5 for j^a read ^'ya. 1. 6 for mulda read mnldd. 1. 3 for tdoxmdn read taoxman. 1. 4 for Jcslyate read lislyate. 1. 5 for dogdJmm read dogdhimi. 1. 1 /or assimilation rm^/ change. 1. 5 for drdliRa read drdh^d. 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